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arth
i
e
and the
e
FOURTH EDITION
GRAHAM
R.THOMPSON,
University of Montana JONATHAN TURK, PHD
THOIVISON
*
BROOKS/COLE
Australia· Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore Spain • United Kingdom • United States
PHD
THOIVISON
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BROOKS/COLE
Earth
Science
and the Environment,
fourth
edition
Graham R. Thompson and ]onathan Turk
Executive
Editor: Peter Adams
Terri Wright
Photo Researcher:
Carol Benedict Editorial Assistant: Anna Jarzab Technology Project Manager: Samuel Subity Marketing Manager: Kelley McAllister Marketing Communications Manager: Nathaniel Bergson-Michelson Content Project Manager: Belinda Krohrner Creative Director: Rob Hugel Art Director: Vernon Boes Print Buyer: Becky Cross Permissions Editor: Roberta Broyer Production Service: Pre-Press Company, Inc. Text Designer: Terri Wright Art Editor: Lisa Torri
Getty Images Inset globe - NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, The SeaWiFS Project and ORBIMAGE, Scientific Visualization Studio, Landsat-7 Project, and USGS ERGS Data Center: Atmosphere - NOAA Biosphere - Royalty-Free/Corbis Hydrosphere - © Royalty-free Image Source Limited/Jupiter Images Geosphere - VEER Christopber Talbot Frank/Getty Images Title Page Image: © Steue Bloom Images/NASA/Alamy Cover Printer: Transcontinental Beauceville Compositor: Pre-Press Company, Inc. Printer:
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About the Authors
Gray Thompson is
J on
Professor of Geology at
professional
The University
writer, and adventurer.
of
Introductory
and later that year J on
Geology,
Mineralogy, Summer Field
co-authored
Mapping, and graduate
ronmental
published more than 20 research papers in international
has continued
journals, mostly co-authored
ing 23 environmental
with his students. He is also guide with first ascents,
unspoiled
the first enviscience college
in the country. In the 32 years since then, Jon his career as a science writer by publishand geoscience texts. jori's love of
environments
and his fascination for the wild
many with J on Turk, of peaks and routes in the Rocky
places on this planet have also led to a distinguished
Mountains,
reer as an adventurer.
Alaska, the Yukon, Baffin Island, the Alps,
the Karakoram,
He
received his Ph.D in 1971,
textbook
and professional
geoscience
Montana, where he teaches
courses in Clay Mineralogy and Shale Petrology. He has
a mountaineer
Turk is a chemist,
and the Himalayas. He has authorcd
many articles published in international
Alaska, crossed the western Gobi of Mongolia, unsup-
zines and journals, and has been the subject of other arti-
ported, on a mountain
cles in these publications.
Lamo-she
this text were taken by Thompson
He has kayaked around Cape
Horn as well as the 3,000 miles between Japan and
climbing maga-
Many of the photographs
ca-
in
and Turk on their
climbing trips and expeditions over the past fifteen years.
bike, and was the first to ascend
Peak (6,070 meters) in the eastern Himalayas
with co-author
Gray Thompson.
He has written nu-
merous magazine articles about his expeditions as adventure/travel
as well
books, including In the Wake of the
]omon: Stone Age Mariners and a Voyage Across the Pacific (McGraw Hill 2005).
v
Contents Overview 1
UNIT
1
I: 1
5
Minerals 20 Rocks 44 Geologic Time: A Story in the Rocks Geologic Resources 96
I
127
4
6 7 8 9
3
1
EARTH 2 3
UNIT
Earth Systems
The Active Earth: Plate Tectonics 128 Earthquakes and the Earth's Structure 154 Volcanoes and Plutons 180 Mountains 208
SURfACE 10
73
231
Weathering, Soil, and Erosion
232
11 Fresh Water: Streams, Lakes, Ground Water, and Wetlands
12 13 14
UN
UNIT
Water Resources 295 Glaciers and Ice Ages 326 Deserts and Wind 353
E
5
S
373
15 Ocean Basins 374 16 Oceans and Coastlines
398
THE ATMOSPHERE
429
17 18 19 20
21
The Atmosphere 430 Energy Balance in the Atmosphere 451 Moisture, Clouds, and Weather 470 Climate 507 Climate Change 528
Motions in the Heavens 558 Planets and Their Moons 581 Stars, Space, and Galaxies 607 Glossary G.1 Appendix A.1 Index 1.1
vi
262
Contents 1
Ea
1
1
1.1
Flowers Bloom on Earth,Venus
Boils, and Mars Freezes
1.2
The Earth's Four Spheres
1.3 1.4 1.5
Earth Systems
Time and Rates of Change in Earth Science
1.6
Humans and Earth Systems
Threshold ~
UNIT
s
2
4
8
and Feedback
Effects
9
12
13 and Law
FOCUS ON:
5
EARl Mi
Is
2.1
What
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7
The Chemical
Is a Mineral?
23
Composition
of Minerals
Crystals: The Crystalline Nature Physical Properties of Minerals
Mineral Classes and the Rock-Forming Commercially
Important
Harmful and Dangerous ~
Minerals
24
of Minerals 28
25
Minerals
33
Rocks and Minerals
FOCUS ON:
3I 36
and Chemical Bonds
26
3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
Rocks and the Rock Cycle Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Metamorphic ~
47
Rocks Rocks
51 61
FOCUS ON: of Bowen's
52
4 4.1 4.2 4.3
45
in Earth Rocks, Earth History, and Mass Extinctions Geologic Time
74
77
Relative Geologic Time
79
vii
4.4 4.5 4.6
Unconformities Absolute
and Correlation
Geologic Time
The Geologic ~
Column
81
84
and Time Scale
FOCUS ON: Carbon-] 4 Dating
89 88
Geol 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10
Mineral Resources
97
Ore and Ore Deposits Mineral Reserves Mines and Mining Energy Resources:
97
105 105 Coal, Petroleum,
and Natural
Energy Resources:
Tar Sands and Oil Shale
Energy Resources:
Renewable
Energy Resources:
Nuclear
Conservation
Energy
Gas
I I1
I 12
Fuels and Reactors
as an Alternitive
Energy for the Twenty-First
I 15
Energy Resource
Century
FOCUS ON: The! 872
I 17
I 19 law
103
6.1
Alfred Wegener and the Origin of an Idea: The Continental Hypothesis 129
6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9
The Earth's Layers The Sea-Floor The Theory
131
Spreading
Hypothesis
of Plate Tectonics
135
137
The Anatomy of a Tectonic Plate 143 Why Plates Move: The Earth As a Heat Engine Supercontinents
143
145
Isostasy: Vertical Movement How Plate Movements
of the Lithosphere
Affect Earth Systems
145 145
s 1
viii
106
7.1
Anatomy
7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5
Earthquake
of an Earthquake
Earthquakes
Waves
155
157
and Tectonic
Plate Boundaries
Earthquake
Prediction
Earthquake
Damage and Hazard Mitigation
161
166 167
Drift
7.6 7.7
8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9
9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6
UNIT
3
Studying the Earth's Interior 172 The Earth's Magnetism 174
180
Volcanoes and Plutons
Magma 181 Basalt and Granite 184 Partial Melting and the Origin of Continents 186 Magma Behavior 187 Plutons 189 Volcanoes 192 Volcanic Explosions: Ash-Flow Tuffs and Calderas 196 Risk Assessment: Predicting Volcanic Eruptions 200 Volcanic Eruptions and Global Climate 202
Mountains
208
Folds and Faults: Geologic Structures 209 Mountains and Mountain Ranges 216 Island Arcs 217 The Andes: Subduction at a Continental Margin The Himalayas: A Collision between Continents Mountains and Earth Systems 225
SURFACE PROCESSES
218 221
231
10 Weathering, Soil, and Erosion 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9
Weathering and Erosion 233 Mechanical Weathering 234 Chemical Weathering 236 Soil 239 Erosion 247 Landslides 247 Types of Landslides 25 I Three Historic Landslides 255 Predicting and Avoiding Landslides
232
257
~
FOCUS ON: Representative Chemical Weathering 238
Reactions in
~
FOCUS ON: Soil Erosion and Agriculture
~
FOCUS ON: The Hubbard Brook Experimental
242 Forest
248
ix
11 fresh Water: St arns, Lakes, Ground Water, and Wetl nds 262 1 1.1
I 1.2 I 1.3
I lA I 1.5 I 1.6 I 1.7 I 1.8
I 1.9
The Water Cycle 263 Streams 264 Stream Erosion and Mountains: How Landscapes Evolve Stream Deposition 271 Floods 272 Lakes 276 Ground Water 278 Hot Springs, Geysers, and Geothermal Energy 285 Wetlands 287
12 Water Reso rces 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9
12.10
295
Water Supply and Demand 296 Dams and Diversion 298 The GreatAmerican Desert 307 Water and International Politics 31 I Water Pollution 3 I I How Sewage, Detergents, and Fertilizers Pollute Waterways Toxic Pollutants, Risk Assessment, and Cost-Benefit Analysis Ground Water Pollution 315 Nuclear Waste Disposal-Yucca Mountain 318 The Clean Water Act-A Modern Perspective 320
13 Glaciers and Ice Ages 13.1 13.2 13.3 1304 13.5 13.6 13.7
14.2
14.3
x
26
Formation of Glaciers 327 Glacial Movement 328 Glacial Erosion 332 Glacial Deposits 336 The Pleistocene Ice Age 341 Snowball Earth: The Greatest Ice Age in Earth History The Earth's Disappearing Glaciers 347
14 Deserts 14.1
269
nd Wind
Why Do Deserts Exist? 354 Water and Deserts 357 Two American Deserts 361
53
345
313 3/4
14.4
14.5
UNIT
4
Wind 362 Desertification
THE OCEANS
368
373
15 Ocean Basins 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6
374
The Origin of Oceans 375 The Earth's Oceans 377 Studying the Sea Floor 378 Features of the Sea Floor 379 Sediment and Rocks of the Sea Floor Continental Margins 390
388
16 Oceans and Coastlines 16.1 16.2 16.3
16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9
16.10 16.1 1
UNIT
5
398
Geography of the Oceans 400 Sea Water 400 Tides 402 Sea Waves 404 Storm Surge 405 Ocean Currents 405 The Sea Coast 410 Emergent and Submergent Coastlines 412 Beaches 416 Life in the Sea 420 Global Warming and Sea-Level Rise 423
THE ATMOSPHERE
429
17 The Atmosphere: Evolution and Composition 430 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4
17.5 17.6 17.7
Earth's Early Atmospheres 432 Life, Iron, and the Evolution of the Modern Atmosphere The Modern Atmosphere 437 Atmospheric Pressure 437 Atmospheric Temperature 438 Air Pollution 439 Depletion ofthe Ozone Layer 445
433
xi
18 Energy Balance in the Atmosphere 451 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.S
Incoming Solar Radiation 452 The Radiation Balance 455 Energy Storage and Transfer-The Driving Mechanisms for Weather and Climate 456 Temperature Changes with Latitude and Season 459 Temperature Changes with Geography 463 ~
FOCUS ON: Latitude
and Longitude
459
19 Moisture, Clouds, and Weather 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.S 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12
Moisture in Air 471 Cooling and Condensation 472 RisingAir and Precipitation 474 Types of Clouds 477 Fog 480 Pressure and Wind 481 Fronts and Frontal Weather 484 How Earth's Surface Features Affect Weather Thunderstorms 491 Tornadoes and Tropical Cyclones 493 Hurricane Katrina 496 El Nifio 499 ~
FOCUS ON: Inversion Layers and Air Pollution
20 Climate 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.S
507
Major Factors That Control Earth's Climate Global Winds and Climate 510 Ocean Currents and Climate 5 I3 Climate Zones of the Earth 5 I3 Urban Climates 523
21 Climate Change 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6
490
508
528
Climate Change in Earth's History 530 Measuring Climate Change 533 Astronomical Causes of Climate Change 535 Water and Climate 536 The Natural Carbon Cycle and Climate 537 Tectonics and Climate Change 539
476
470
21.7 21.8 21.9
usrr 6
Greenhouse Effect: The Carbon Cycle and Global Warming 541 Feedback and Threshold Mechanisms in Climate Change 547 The Kyoto Treaty on Greenhouse Warming 550
AS"TRONOMY
557
22 Motions in the Heavens 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5
The Motions of the Heavenly Bodies 559 Aristotle and the Earth-Centered Universe 559 The Renaissance and the Heliocentric Solar System The Motions of the Earth and the Moon 567 Modern Astronomy 573
~ ~