Fenaroli's Handbook of Flavor Ingredients

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FENAROLI’S HANDBOOK OF

Flavor Ingredients SIXTH EDITION

FENAROLI’S HANDBOOK OF

Flavor Ingredients SIXTH EDITION

GEORGE A. BURDOCK, PH.D.

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-9077-2 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Burdock, George A. Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients. -- 6th ed. / George A. Burdock. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-9077-2 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Flavoring essences--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Fenaroli, Giovanni, Prof. Dr. II. Title. III. Title: Handbook of flavor ingredients. IV. Title: Flavor ingredients. [DNLM: 1. Flavoring Agents--standards--Handbooks. 2. Odors--Handbooks. WA 39 B951f 2010] TP418.B86 2010 664’.5--dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

2009035960

Dedicated to Ioana — helpmate, best friend, and loving wife

Contents Preface.....................................................................................................................................................................................................ix Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................................................................................xi The Author............................................................................................................................................................................................ xiii Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................................xv Glossary............................................................................................................................................................................................... xvii Sources and Information..................................................................................................................................................................... xxiii Alphabetical Listing...............................................................................................................................................................................1 CAS Index...........................................................................................................................................................................................2037 FEMA Index.......................................................................................................................................................................................2043 Subject Index......................................................................................................................................................................................2049

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Preface Since publication of the first edition of Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients in 1971, Fenaroli’s has remained the standard reference for flavor ingredients throughout the world. Each subsequent edition has listed more substances, including those conferred food additive status, substances generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by qualified scientists (including the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association [FEMA] Expert Panel) and those substances having undergone GRAS Notification with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The fourth and fifth editions added 300+ entries and represented a total reorganization and updating of the text, consistent with new data and regulations. This edition is likewise expanded with over 200 new entries, including many botanicals and other natural substances. The addition of botanicals is a response to an expanded readership with an interest in dietary supplements, in which a number of flavoring botanicals serve a dual role.

It has been too often assumed that the GRAS substance may be used in any food, at any level for any purpose. As a result, the uses of some GRAS food ingredients have proliferated to the point where the GRAS status was brought into serious question. (Federal Register 39:34194-34195, 1974.)

There are, of course, exceptions to all of the preceding, but each must be evaluated according to its own merits; and for these judgments, the opinion of experts in toxicology and regulations should be sought. Frequently asked questions regarding the meaning of “safe,” “common knowledge,” “notified substance,” etc., are addressed in 62 Fed. Reg. 18937 (April 17, 1997) or log on to http:// www.burdockgroup.com.

Safety-in-Use GRAS, Dietary Supplements
and Other Terms of Art, Science and Regulation The reader is cautioned that GRAS status and approval for use as a dietary supplement* should not be confused, for they are not the same and not even related.† Both the statutory and regulatory language is very clear in making the distinction between these two entities. Even the standard for determining safety of GRAS versus dietary supplements is different.‡ For the same reasons, dietary supplements are often not GRAS (nor are food additives, for that matter) and cannot be added to food for the purpose of providing a dietary supplement.§ Please be aware that a GRAS designation is not sufficient for lawful use as a dietary supplement and vice versa. Ingredients not used before in dietary supplements must undergo the New Dietary Ingredient Notification (NDIN) process with FDA (Web site; www.fda.gov [search NDIN]). If you need help in preparing an NDIN or a GRAS determination, go to www.burdockgroup.com or contact us at 407-802-1400. The reader should also note that a substance is GRAS for no other purpose (e.g., a flavor ingredient) and at no other amount (i.e., level of use) than for which it was approved. The position of the FDA was reasserted with the following statement:

Most, but not all, of the ingredients cited in this book are either foods or products thereof that are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) or have food additive status. Also, as noted above, there are exceptions to every rule and this is no less true in determinations of safety. Therefore, while there is an obligation on the original approving party to ensure safety-in-use at the time of approval, there is no assurance that all scientific data continue to support the original determination of safety. For example, safrole, coumarin and cinnamyl anthranilate, all once commonly used and presumed safe, are now prohibited from addition to food by FDA (21 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) §189) as a result of adverse data coming to light. Likewise, FEMA has withdrawn GRAS status for nine substances, including alknet root extract (FEMA No. 2016), 2-methyl-5-vinylpyrazine (FEMA No. 3211), musk ambrette (FEMA No. 2758) and o-vinylanisole (FEMA No. 3248). These substances are no longer considered safe and cannot be added to food. The bottom line is that the user of the substance is responsible for ensuring its safe use. Therefore, the reader is urged to make a determination of safety based on contemporaneous data, not simply historical information that may be outdated.

More appropriately, this means lack of objection by FDA for use as a dietary supplement ingredient. † For a definition of GRAS, see the definition of “food additive” in Section 201(s) of the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act as Amended. For a definition of a dietary supplement, see Section 201(ff) of the Act. ‡ The reader is referred to a discussion of this distinction (Burdock, 2000, Dietary supplements and lessons to be learned from GRAS, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 31:68-76). Copies are also available upon request at www.burdockgroup.com. § A “nutrient supplement” may be added to food, but this is also distinct from a dietary supplement. See 21 CFR §170.3(o)(20) for a definition. *

ix

Acknowledgments The editor would like to thank the following for their tireless efforts in gathering and organizing material for this edition. They are (in alphabetical order): Christine Crincoli, Kerry Drewski, Will Hancock, Arlene Morales, Amy Mozingo, Anna Marie Neri, Aneet Panesar, and John Rochowicz. Thanks also to all those who provided help and information for this edition, including Dr. Charles Manley and Dr. Tim Adams, both of FEMA and to those who provided information for the previous editions.

Thanks also to those who have made suggestions for improvements since the last edition. In contemplation of the next edition, I encourage those with suggestions for corrections, revisions or additions to contact me at the following address: George A. Burdock, Ph.D., D.A.B.T. Burdock Group 801 N. Orange Ave. – Suite 710 Orlando, FL 32801 www.burdockgroup.com

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The Author George A. Burdock, Ph.D., is president of the safety and regulatory consulting firm, Burdock Group, headquartered in Orlando, Florida. Dr.  Burdock is an internationally recognized authority on the safety of food ingredients, personal care products and dietary supplements. He has more than 25 years of experience dealing with regulatory issues related to product safety and risk assessment. He has over 50 publications in scientific journals and has published two books, the previous three editions of Fenaroli’s Handbook of Flavor Ingredients and the Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives. He is coauthor of the chapter “Food Toxicology” in the current and two previous editions of Casarett and Doull’s textbook Toxicology. He is also author of the chapter “Flavor Regulation” in the second edition

of Nutritional Toxicology in the Target Organ Toxicology Series. His experience includes Director of Scientific Affairs for the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association and Manager of Product Safety for the Shulton Division of American Cyanamid. He is also experienced in laboratory studies, having been a study director and section manager at Hazleton Laboratories (now Covance). Dr. Burdock is a Diplomate of the American Board of Toxicology and Fellow of the American College of Nutrition; and is a member of the American Chemical Society, the International Society for Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, the Society of Toxicology, the American College of Toxicology and the Institute of Food Technologists.

xiii

Introduction

Definition of a Flavor As might be expected, the definition of a flavor will vary according to the source. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines flavoring agents and adjuvants as “substances added to impart or help impart a taste or aroma in food” (21 CFR §170.3(o) (12)). The FDA identifies flavor enhancers as “substances added to supplement, enhance, or modify the original taste and/or aroma of a food, without imparting a characteristic taste or aroma of its own”* (21 CFR §170.3(o)(11)). To forestall the next question, what constitutes a natural flavor, is described in 21 CFR §101.22(a)(3) as follows: The term natural flavor or natural flavoring means the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose significant function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional. Natural flavors include the natural essence or extractives obtained from plants listed in §§182.10, 182.20, 182.40, and 182.50 and part 184 of this chapter, and the substances listed in §172.510 of this chapter.

This distinction between artificial and natural serves as a basis for labeling and because of market pressures, the term natural is preferred for the label over any description that might include the word artificial. Also, the term artificial is separate and distinct from the term imitation (See 21 CFR §101.3). The term nature identical once used widely to designate a substance, although present in nature, may also be produced synthetically. For example, natural benzaldehyde is produced from the pits of peaches, but this process has a rather low yield and produces waste material (cyanide) for which disposal is costly. On the other hand, production of benzaldehyde from chemical feedstock is much more economical and is putatively the same as that produced from nature; therefore, it is nature identical. The use of this term is an artifact of regulation because at one time the approval process in some European countries was much easier for those substances with a natural counterpart. The term nature identical was never embraced by the FDA and has largely been superseded by the term chemically defined substance. The nature identical designation is still used by the International Organisation of Flavour Industries (IOFI). The European Community (EC) Directive 88/388† addresses “flavouring,” “flavouring substance” and even “flavouring preparation,” which designates a flavoring resulting from a process, such as enzymatically developed flavors in cheese. In all, the directive extends over several pages and includes definitions, specifications and provisions for further action on items, including limits on production methods and nonflavor ingredients in flavors (including preservatives, solvents and processing aids).

This broad definition also embraces thermally processed flavors and smoke flavors and flavors such as “natural vanillin,” which requires naturally occurring precursors, such as ferulic acid to enzymatic/fermentive processes to make vanillin, that are by this definition, natural. Artificial flavors are as described in 21 CFR §101.22 (a)(1):





The term artificial flavor or artificial flavoring means any substance, the function of which is to impart flavor, which is not derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof. Artificial flavor includes the substances listed in §§172.515(b) and 182.60 of this chapter except where these are derived from natural sources.

*

Flavor enhancers include such substances as monosodium glutamate (MSG) or inositol with no specific taste of their own, but an ability to enhance other flavor ingredients. Also, substances commonly used as flavors or sweeteners (such as cinnamon or aspartame), but used at concentrations below their own threshold of perception, may also enhance the flavor of other ingredients.





†

1. This Directive shall apply to ‘flavourings’ used or intended for use in or on foodstuffs to impart odour and or taste, and to source materials used for the production of flavorings. 2. For the purposes of this Directive: a. ‘flavouring’ means flavouring substances, flavouring preparations, process flavourings, smoke flavourings or mixtures thereof; b. ‘flavouring substance’ means a defined chemical substance with flavouring properties which is obtained: i. by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solvent extraction) or enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable or animal origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by traditional food-preparation processes (including drying, torrefaction and fermentation)

A directive sets out minimum standards and when adopted by the member states may be made more stringent. A regulation is directly applicable to the member states without any need to transpose into national law.

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Introduction ii. by chemical synthesis or isolated by chemical processes and which is chemically identical to a substance naturally present in material of vegetable or animal origin as described in (i) iii. by chemical synthesis but which is not chemically identical to a substance naturally present in material of vegetable or animal origin as described in (i) c. ‘flavouring preparation’ means a product, other than the substances defined in (b) (i), whether concentrated or not, with flavouring properties, which is obtained by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solvent extraction) or by enzymatic extraction) or by enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable or animal origin, either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by traditional food-preparation processes (including drying torrefaction and fermentation); d. ‘process flavouring’ means a product which is obtained according to good manufacturing practices by heating to a temperature not exceeding 180oC for a period not exceeding 15 minutes a mixture of ingredients, not necessarily themselves having flavouring properties, of which at least one contains nitrogen (amino) and another is a reducing sugar; e. ‘smoke flavouring’ means a smoke extract used in traditional foodstuffs smoking processes. 3. Flavourings may contain foodstuffs as well as other substances as described [elsewhere]

This directive is binding on member states, except if a member state determines that the regulation or regulated substance may constitute a danger to the health of the citizens or environment of the member state, it may suspend or restrict the use of that chemical within the borders of the member state. The Council of Europe (CoE) uses a fairly broad definition of flavor:

Interestingly, the Joint (WHO/FAO) Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (JECFA) has no definition of what constitutes a flavor—artificial or natural. Nonregulatory organizations have slightly different views of the term flavor. The International Organization of Flavour Industries indicates a flavor as a “concentrated preparation, with or without solvents or carriers, used to impart flavor, with the exception of only salty, sweet, or acid tastes. It is not intended to be consumed as such.” This definition brings up an interesting point not addressed by regulations: that is, a flavor is not intended to be consumed in and by itself; it is always incorporated in a delivery system (at the very least as a flavor in mineral water or as a sweetened flavor poured over shaved ice). The Society of Flavor Chemists describes a flavor to be “a substance that may be a single chemical entity or a blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin whose primary purpose is to provide all or part of the particular effect to any food or other product taken into the mouth.” As descriptive as various organizations or regulatory agencies might be in their definitions, none is so comprehensive as the following: Flavor is the sum of those characteristics of any material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell, and also the general pain and tactile receptors in the mouth, as received and interpreted by the brain.*

This definition reminds us that flavor can be an experience as well as a sensation. Consider the pain, bite and heat associated with capsicum (red pepper), piperine (black pepper) and allylisothiocyanate (horseradish) as part of the “total experience” of eating food. This experience also forms associations needed for future discriminations, both negative and positive. For example, it is possible to make banana-flavored potato chips, but the crunchy texture would be incongruous with the taste. Conversely, we have long enjoyed pineapple-flavored hard candy, which in reality tastes nothing like the fruit, but has long been accepted as how a pineapple candy should taste.

A flavouring substance is a chemically-defined compound which has flavouring properties. It is obtained either by isolation from a natural source or by synthesis. Flavouring properties are those which are predominantly odour-producing and which may also affect the taste.

*

Hall, R.L. (1968). Food flavors: benefits and problems. Food Technol. 22:1388.

Glossary Absolute:  A material extracted from a plant that represents a concentrated form of that material and is extremely similar to the starting material in taste and odor. Usually, this term refers to the alcoholic extract of a “concrete” (see below). Absolutes are not used widely for compounding flavors. Acidulant:  An agent that serves several purposes in modern food processing, in addition to its major role of rendering foods more palatable and stimulating to the consumer. In flavoring agents, acidulants may intensify certain tastes, blend unrelated taste characteristics or mask undesirable aftertastes. Acidulants affect only flavor, not aroma; therefore, while citric acid may be an acidulant, acetic acid is not. ADI (acceptable daily intake):  An estimate of the amount of a substance in food or drinking water expressed on a body-weight basis that can be ingested daily over a lifetime without appreciable risk (assuming the average adult body weight to be 60 kg). The ADI is given in milligrams per kilogram body weight (mg/kg). ADI “not limited”:  A term that is no longer used by JECFA and has been supplanted with “ADI not specified.” ADI “not specified”:  A term used by JECFA for a food ingredient of very low toxicity that, on the basis of the information supplied to JECFA, at historical levels of use and current levels of use conforming to good manufacturing practices, does not constitute a concern for safety. Antioxidant:  An additive to retard oxidation; usually a sterically hindered phenol (see also, Auto-oxidation). Aroma:  The odor or fragrance of a flavor. Aromatic (chemical) or aroma chemical:  Any chemical that has aroma or flavor properties; not to be confused with the chemist’s definition of a compound containing a benzene ring structure. Artificial:  Similar to imitation. It is possible to have a flavor that contains all natural ingredients, but it must be called artificial because it has no counterpart in nature. See also the regulatory definition (21 CFR §101.3). Artificial flavor:  Any substance, the function of which is to impart flavor to a food that is not native to that substance. See also the regulatory definition (21 CFR §101.22). Auto-oxidation:  A series of spontaneous and degradative reactions that take place in essential oils when they are exposed to air, light, heat or metallic ions. Balsam:  Although most often associated with Peru Balsam, any plant (most often, a tree) exudate, soluble in most organic solvents and alcohol, but insoluble in water. Baumé (Bé):  A scale of specific gravities used in graduated hydrometers. The scale is used to express the sugar concentration of a syrup or other liquid. Most commercial corn syrups are customarily sold on a Baumé (Bé) basis, which is a measure of the dry substance content

and specific gravity. Baumé determination, however, has been largely superseded by direct determination of refractive index. High fructose corn syrups are sold on a dry substance basis without reference to Baumé. Blender:  A material that when added to a substance appears to bring various flavor characteristics together. A blender may or may not introduce a flavor of its own. For example, vanilla can act as a blender. Bottom note:  The characteristic left when top and middle notes disappear; the residue when a flavoring evaporates. Brix:  A measure of soluble solids (sugars) obtained from the refractive index of a solution. Bulking:  Mixing of one or more lots of the same flavorful material to produce a uniform product. The entire crop of an essential oil may be bulked to assure uniformity. Carrier:  The diluent or solvent for a flavor. It may be liquid or solid; for example, gum acacia is the carrier for spraydried flavors, whereas alcohol and propylene glycol are the carriers for many liquid-based flavors. CAS No.:  Chemical Abstracts Service number. CDER:  Center for Drug Evaluation and Review—FDA branch responsible for approval of drugs and excipients. CFR:  Code of Federal Regulations; the official document describing regulations promulgated by the FDA. Citrus flavors:  Flavors made from the oils and juices of the citrus fruits (e.g., orange, lemon, lime, tangerine, grapefruit, mandarin and bergamot); also, synthetic ingredients used to simulate these flavors. Clouding agent:  A flavoring adjunct used to create a translucent or opaque appearance in citrus drinks. CoE:  Council of Europe. CoE chemically defined categories:  Chemically defined flavoring substances that are divided into Category A: flavoring substances which may be used as foodstuffs (referred to as List 1 substances in previous designations) and Category B: flavoring substances for which further information is required before the Committee of Experts is able to offer a firm opinion on their safetyin-use (referred to as List 2 in previous designations). Category B substances may be used provisionally in foodstuffs. In general, Category A substances are those for which sufficient data were available, although a JECFA ADI may not have been established for all chemicals within the category. Where there is no ADI, the Committee of Experts has proposed practical upper levels to be used for beverages foods and/or other food items. Category B contains substances for which the toxicological data were insufficient for a dispositive opinion on safety-in-use. However, extant data allowed for provisional acceptance, provided that usage levels do not exceed levels designated, and pending the submission of additional data, an ultimate opinion will be rendered. xvii

xviii CoE natural flavouring categories:  Category 1—Plants, animals and other organisms, and parts of these or products thereof, normally consumed as food items, herbs or spices in Europe for which it is considered that there should be no restrictions on use. Category 2—Plants, animals and other organisms, and parts of these or products thereof, and preparations derived therefrom, not normally consumed as food items, herbs or spices in Europe, but on the basis of information available, including consumption data, are not considered to constitute a risk to the consumer. Category 3—Plants, etc., normally consumed in Europe, which contain defined “active principles” or “other chemical components” requiring limits on use levels. Category 4— Plants, etc., not normally consumed in Europe, which contain defined “active principles” or “other chemical components” requiring limits on use levels. Category 5—Plants, etc., for which additional toxicological and/ or chemical information is required. These could be temporarily acceptable provided limits for which the “active principles” or “other chemical components” were not exceeded. Category 6—Plants, etc., which are considered unfit for human consumption in any amount. Cold pressing:  A process for expressing citrus essential oils by pressure without the use of heat; a process for pressing or squeezing out the oil from the rind of the fruit. Comminution:  The process of grinding or breaking into small fragments. Compounds:  Not to be confused with the chemist’s definition (i.e., two elements chemically combined), but a flavoring mixture (flavor) composed of two or more substances. These substances can be natural or synthetic, a chemical or an essential oil, an extract or an oleoresin or combinations. Unlike chemical compounds, which are of known fixed compositions, flavor compounds are usually proprietary mixtures. Normally, they are finished flavorings that can be added directly to a product so that no additional flavorings are needed. Concentrated fruit juices:  A fruit juice from which the water has been partially removed by some form of evaporation, such as distillation. The juice is usually concentrated to the strength of five to six times the single-fold juice. The essences are usually added back to the concentrate before use. Concentrated or folded citrus oils:  Essential oils, such as lemon oil, in which part of the terpene fraction has been removed either by distillation or solvent extraction. The process produces essential oils of greater strength and character, with greater alcohol solubility. They also usually show better stability to oxidation. Concrete:  A semisolid mixture containing the essential oil and fatty, waxy materials obtained after extracting the plant tissue, especially flowers, with various solvents. Consumption (annual):  From the Priority-based Assessment of Food Additives (PAFA) database, originating from the NAS survey of 1987 (NAS, 1989) and assuming only 60% of poundage was reported.

Glossary Consumption (individual):  A per capita estimate of intake (Maximum Survey-Derived Daily Intake or MSDI) based on “disappearance data” from periodic surveys conducted by the National Academy of Sciences under contract to the FDA (NRC, 1989). The last survey was conducted in 1987 and was based on a voluntary reporting by manufacturers of the volume of ingredients produced during the survey year. The assumption is that there is a finite amount of substance available and it is ingested regardless of source at the retail level. The method is easy to use because it divides the total yearly poundage by the population in the survey year and the number of days per year. Some considerations are necessary in the use of the survey data because (1) not all producers participate, it is generally held that the amount reported is a fraction of the actual volume; and (2) not all persons eat all foods each day in each category in which the substance may be found and, conversely, some consumers may seek out the substance; therefore, distribution of consumption may be uneven. In order to compensate for these variables, the FDA assumes (1) only 60% of the actual value was reported and (2) only 10% of the U.S. population (243.9 million in 1987) consumes 100% of the calculated amount (Clydesdale, 1997). Again, the assumption is made for a 60 kg individual. Council of Europe (CoE):*  A body of 41 European states, among which have signed the Partial Agreement in the Social and Public Health Field. A Committee of Experts has been appointed by the signers to review the safety of substances added to food. The substances reviewed by CoE are designated as “chemically defined” and “natural flavouring” substances; there are subsets of each designation. Decoction:  A solution made by boiling the material to be extracted with a solvent, usually followed by filtration, for example, the preparation of tea. Distillate:  A clear, flavorful liquid produced from fruits, herbs, roots, etc., by distillation; also the condensed product separated by distillation. Distillation:  The separation of a more volatile part of a substance from those less volatile by vaporizing and subsequent condensation. Two types are generally used: steam and fractional distillation. Distilled oil:  The oil separated from a botanical material by distillation methods. Dry solubles:  Natural spice oils and/or oleoresins extended on a soluble, dry, edible carrier. EAFUS No.:  Everything added to food in the United States (EAFUS) assigned number. EEC:  European Economic Community = European Union. EFSA:  European Food Safety Authority. EINECS:  European Inventory of New and Existing Chemicals. ELINCS:  European List of Notified Chemical Substances. *

For definitions of the Council of Europe designations (categories) and an explanation of the principles used, the reader is urged to contact the Council of Europe at www.coe.int/soc-sp.

Glossary Emulsion:  A system containing two immiscible liquids in which one is dispersed as very small droplets or globules throughout the other. For example, an emulsion may be water-in-oil or oil-in-water. Encapsulation:  A process by which a particle is coated with a partially impermeable layer to retard evaporation and/or chemical reaction. Basically, the material to be protected is wrapped in a wall of impervious material that serves to lock in or entrap the volatile substances. Enhancer:  An ingredient that is added to supplement, enhance or modify the original taste and/or aroma of a food without imparting a characteristic taste or aroma of its own. (Examples include maltol, ethyl maltol and monosodium glutamate.) EOA:  Essential Oil Association. Essence:  Concentrated fragrance or flavorant. In some countries, essence is used to designate volatile oils, but in the United States, this term is commonly applied to alcoholic solutions of volatile oils. Essential oil:  An oily substance obtained from plant material through various methods. The essential oil normally has the characteristic taste and odor of the plant from which it was derived. An essential oil is still called a volatile oil as differentiated from a fixed oil. The hydraulically pressed sesame seed yields a fixed oil (sesame oil) that has low odor and is not volatile. The anise seed, upon distillation, yields odorous and volatile oil—oil of anise. Essential oils may have received their name because at one time they were thought to be essential to the life processes of the plant or were the essence of the plant. EU:  European Union. Excipient:  Any ingredient in a mixture of substances that is not present as an active ingredient and may include solvents, preservatives, stabilizers, etc. In drugs, this would include any tablet or capsule ingredients as well. In drugs, the only active ingredients are those present for a specific pharmacologic effect. No excipient may exert a pharmacologic effect and remain an excipient. Expression:  A process using pressure to obtain an essential oil, usually out of the rind of citrus fruits without the use of heat. Extended flavor:  Dispersion of a flavor on a dry carrier. The flavor may be liquid (flavors, spice oils or oleoresins) or solid (vanillin or heliotropine) and can be natural or artificial. The dry carrier is usually an anhydrous material, such as dextrose. These flavors are also referred to as plated flavors (see also Dry solubles). Extract:  A solution obtained by passing alcohol, or an alcohol– water mixture, through a substance. An example would be vanilla extract. Extracts found on the grocer’s shelf, such as orange, almond, lemon, etc., are essential oils dissolved in an alcohol–water mixture. FEMA:  Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association—one of several groups conferring GRAS status. FFPA:  Free from Prussic Acid—used to describe HCN-free bitter almond oil. Fixative:  Usually applied to perfume, but in flavoring acts to reduce the overall volatility of the flavoring.

xix Fixed oil:  Generally refers to a nonvolatile oil obtained by hydraulic pressing or solvent extraction, with little or no odor (e.g., sesame oil). FL No.:  Flavis number, number attributed to each flavoring substance. Fold:  Indicates the degree of concentration of an extract or oil. For example, a fourfold oil indicates a concentration of 8 to 2 kg. Food:  “Food includes human food, substances migrating to food and from food contact articles, pet food, and animal feed” (see 21 CFR §170.3). Food additive:  Indicates any substance approved for addition to food by the FDA on the basis of a food additive petition. Food additives are but one category of the all-inclusive designation, food ingredients. Other categories of food ingredients include, but are not limited to, GRAS substances, prior-sanctioned substances and color additives (both certified and noncertified). Although each category is distinct under FDA regulations, some substances are members of more than a single category. For example, a substance can be both a food additive and a GRAS substance at the same time. Food standard:  A method or process and/or list of ingredients that may be used in a food that the FDA has defined through regulation, such as mayonnaise, macaroni, farina, French dressing or milk chocolate. Food standards were developed, in part, to thwart unscrupulous manufacturers from marketing products that did not conform to the usual and common understanding of the nature of a particular product. GRAS:  The acronym for Generally Recognized As Safe, indicating any substance (and its intended use) that has been granted GRAS status by experts (either in or outside the FDA). (See 21 CFR §170.30.) GRAS affirmed:  A substance whose GRAS status has been designated by one party and is affirmed GRAS by the FDA (21 CFR §184.1). The FDA GRAS Affirmation Program played a large role initially in incorporating food ingredients into the CFR (21 CRF §182), but GRAS affirmation has fallen into disuse, having been supplanted by the GRAS Notification Program. GRAS notification:  The proposed regulation 21 CFR §176 (Federal Register (1997), 62(74):18937-18964) that provides for a notification system to the FDA for any substance found to be GRAS. The notification system is voluntary. HOC (herbs of commerce):  21 CFR §101.4(h)—part of the labeling regulation requires—“The common or usual name of ingredients of dietary supplements that are botanicals (including fungi and algae) shall be consistent with the names standardized in Herbs of Commerce, 1992 edition, which is incorporated by reference in accordance with 5 U.S.C. 552(a) and 1 CFR part 51.” This designation in Fenaroli’s indicates this substance is recognized in Herbs of Commerce. Imitation:  A flavor containing all or some portion of nonnatural materials. For example, unless an orange flavoring is made entirely from orange, it is imitation. Specific pro-

xx visions for the use of the word imitation are described in 21 CFR §101.3. Inactive ingredient:  An excipient—any ingredient in a mixture of substances that is not present as an active ingredient and may include solvents, preservatives, stabilizers, etc. In drugs, this would include any tablet or capsule ingredients as well. In drugs, the only active ingredients are those present for a specific pharmacologic effect. No excipient may exert a pharmacologic effect and remain an excipient. Indirect food additive:  A substance that is not directly added to food, but whose use in the proximity of food may allow for migration of the substance into food (e.g., a component of a food wrapper). Infusion:  Prepared by refluxing a solvent over raw materials (usually alcohol), often using heat over a prolonged period of time. This is an archaic methodology that is no longer employed. IOFI:  International Organisation of Flavour Industries. Isolate:  A chemical or fraction obtained from a natural substance. For example, citral can be isolated from lemon oil or lemongrass. JECFA:  Joint (WHO/FAO) Expert Committee on Food Additives. LGMP (limited by good manufacturing practice):  A food ingredient whose use in food is self-limiting for technological, organoleptic or other reasons. Many flavor ingredients are self-limiting and over-use would make food impalatable. Maceration:  To steep or soak in a solvent for the purpose of extraction. Maillard reaction:  Flavor production by nonenzymatic browning of food; proceeds mainly from reactions of reducing sugars with amines, peptides and proteins. Masking agent:  An ingredient capable of covering or at least making more acceptable an unpleasant odor or taste in a food or pharmaceutical. Menstrum:  The medium in which a substances is dissolved—a solvent. Middle note or main note:  The substance of a flavor; the main characteristic. mmHg (millimeters mercury):  All melting and boiling points are at standard atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg) unless stated otherwise. Modifier:  An ingredient that influences, but does not change materially the flavor and odor characteristics of a flavor. MRL (maximum residue limit):  A term used by JECFA to indicate the maximum concentration of residue resulting from the use of a veterinary drug that is acceptable in or on a food. MTDI (maximum tolerable daily intake):  See PMTDI. NAS (National Academy of Sciences):  In this context, the NAS number that is the identification number provided by NAS for the purposes of the surveys for food ingredients. Nature identical:  A naturally occurring substance produced by synthetic means. Note:  A distinct flavor or odor characteristic. For example, many raspberry flavors have a seedy note.

Glossary Oleoresin:  A resinous–viscous product obtained when a substance is extracted with a nonaqueous solvent. The solvent is later removed. Spices, as a class, form most of the oleoresins the flavorist encounters; an example would be pepper oleoresin. PADI (possible average daily intake):  The FEMA PADI (possible average daily intake) that is similar to the TAMDI concept, using maximum use level values, but only mean consumption values (based on the Market Research Corporation of America’s mean frequency of eating and USDA mean portion size of 34 general food categories). Therefore, the FEMA PADI (in milligrams/person/day) is the mean consumption of foods containing the maximum amount. The conservatism of the PADI method assumes that the maximum amount of substance is added to the entire food category, not just the substance within that category. For example, the consumption of a substance added only to marshmallow cream cookies (a relatively rarely eaten food) would account for very little consumption, but the FEMA assumption is that the substance is added to all baked goods, not just the small portion of baked goods represented by an exotic cookie. PMTDI (provisional maximum tolerable daily intake):  A term used by JECFA to indicate the endpoint used for contaminants with no cumulative properties. Its value represents permissible human exposure as a result of the natural occurrence of the substance in food and in drinking water. ppm:  parts per million. Prior-sanctioned food ingredient:  A substance approved for the addition to food by the FDA or USDA prior to September 6, 1958, and whose approval remains in place. FDA prior-sanctioned substances include several food-packaging materials and as single or multiple food contact materials. The USDA prior-sanctioned substances are sodium and potassium nitrate and nitrite for use in meat and poultry products. PTWI (provisional tolerable weekly intake):  The endpoint used for food contaminants, such as heavy metals with cumulative properties. The value of the PTWI represents permissible human weekly exposure to those contaminants unavoidably associated with the consumption of otherwise wholesome foods. Reported uses:  As given in the text of this book, those amounts (both usual and maximum) in specific categories of food. Unless otherwise noted, the reported uses in this book are those designated by the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association (FEMA) from the list of 34 food categories adopted by FEMA. The FDA recognizes 43 general categories of food (21 CFR §170.3(n)) as originally established in Exhibit 33B of the report of the National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council, “A Comprehensive Survey of Industry on the Use of Food Chemicals Generally Recognized as Safe” (September 1972). Secondary food additive:  Usually designating a substance used in the manufacture of food and, although it may be present in the final product, having no functionality

Glossary in the final food. Examples include enzymes for processing cheese, solvents, lubricants or release agents (a release agent allows a piece of candy to exit the mold without damage). Single-fold oil:  The oil as it is produced from the plant (distillation or expression) without concentration. Solid extract:  A water-soluble concentrated extractant resulting from the extraction of plant matter using water-compatible solvents. If the concentrated product is oil-soluble, it would be an oleoresin. Fluid extracts are water or alcohol reconstitutions of solid extracts. Specialty:  Usually similar to a compound, only not finished. A specialty, although not complete, carries the major part of the flavor load, so that only a few other substances are needed to complete the flavoring. Synthetic:  Produced by chemical means, but not to be confused with the term artificial. TAMDI (theoretical added maximum daily intake):  Calculated on the basis of upper use levels and the estimated daily intakes of foods. For example, the more recent FEMA GRAS lists indicate two levels of use, the “average usual” and “average maximum.” The TAMDI would be determined using the “average maximum” level times the estimated daily intake of the food to which the substance is added. The estimated daily would presumably

xxi be maximized as well, using the 90th or 95th percentile consumption. Terpeneless oil:  Removal of some terpenes to provide stability because they contribute to the instability of an essential oil. However, removal of all terpenes may severely undermine the flavor. There is no standard of what constitutes a “terpeneless oil.” Tincture:  An alcoholic extract of a botanical material without further processing. Although originally an apothecary’s term, in the flavor industry, it refers to an alcoholic extract of a botanical in which the aroma is preserved. Top note:  The first note normally perceived when a flavor is smelled or tasted. Usually a top note is relatively volatile and suggests identity. Type or class:  The flavorist’s tendency to group similar flavors together, for example, red flavors (flavorings): strawberry, cherry, raspberry; citrus flavors: lemon, orange, lime, grapefruit, bergamot; brown flavors: coffee, malt, caramel; spice flavors: cassia, clove, nutmeg. Classes can also be made by volatility, chemical function or end use. WONF (with other natural flavors):  Essentially, this indicates the addition of juices in addition to those indicated as the characterizing flavor as identified on the label of the container. Please consult 21 CFR §102 for labeling regulations of this type of product.

Sources and Information It was not possible in all cases to obtain details regarding specifications, approved uses, etc., so otherwise available information was used. In all cases, where critical information was not available, a good faith effort was made to obtain information from the public domain with the assumption that these data represent the articles in commerce. Sources of information include, but are not limited to, the following: Anonymous (1996). Inactive Ingredient Guide. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Office of Management. Division of Drug Information Resources, Rockville, MD. Anonymous (1999). Volatile Compounds in Food. Bolens Aroma Chemical Information Service, The Netherlands. Anonymous (2000). Natural Sources of Flavourings. Report No. 1. Council of Europe, Strasbourg, Cedeic, France. Anonymous (2000). Chemically-Defined Flavouring Substances. Council of Europe, Strasbourg. Anonymous (2000). Code of Federal Regulations. Title 21 FDA. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Arctander, S. (1960). Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin. Arctander Publisher, Elizabeth, NJ. Arctander, S. (1994). Perfume and Flavor Chemicals (Aroma Chemicals). Allured Publishing, Carol Stream, IL. Ashurst, P.R. (ed.) (1999). Food Flavorings. (3rd ed.). Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, MD. Bauer, K. et al. (1997). Common Fragrance and Flavor Materials. (3rd ed.). Wiley-VCH, New York. Budvari, S. et al. (eds.) (2000). Merck Index. (12th ed.). Chapman & Hall/CRCnetBase, Boca Raton, FL. Burdock, G.A. (1997). Encyclopedia of Food and Color Additives. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Burdock, G.A. (2000). Dietary supplements and lessons to be learned from GRAS. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 31:68–76. Burdock, G.A., Wagner, B.M., Smith, R.L., Munro, I.C., and Newberne, P.M. (1990). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 15. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 44(2):78, 80, 82, 84, 86. Burnham, T. (ed.) (1999). Facts and Comparisons. The Review of Natural Products. Facts and Comparisons, Wolters Kluwer Company, St. Louis, MO. Clydesdale, F. (1997). Food Additives: Toxicology, Regulation and Properties. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. CoE (2000). Chemically-Defined Flavouring Substances. Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg Cedex, France. CoE (2000). Natural Sources of Flavourings, Report No. 1. Council of Europe Publishing, Strasbourg Cedex, France. Committee on Food Chemical Codex (1996). Food Chemicals Codex. National Academy of Sciences. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. DeRovira, D.A. (1999). The Dictionary of Flavors. Food & Nutrition Press, Trumbull, CT.

Fazzalari, F.A. (ed.) (1978). Compilation of Odor and Taste Threshold Values Data. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia. FCC (2003). In Food Chemicals Codex, 5th Edition. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. Foster, S. (ed.) (1992). Herbs of Commerce (1992). American Herbal Products Association, Austin, TX. Hall, R.L. and Oser, B.L. (1965). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 3. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 19(2, Part 2):151–197. Hall, R.L. and Oser, B.L. (1970). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 4. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 24(5):25–34. JECFA (2007) Summary of Evaluations Performed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA 1956–2007) (First through Sixty-eighth Meetings). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization. http://jecfa.ilsi.org/search.cfm JECFA (2008). Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives “Specifications for Flavourings.” http://www.fao. org/ag/agn/jecfa-flav/search.html Lucas, C.D. et al. (1999). Flavor and Extract Manufacturers’ Association of the United States 1995 Poundage and Technical Effects Update Survey, Washington, D.C. McGuffin, M. et al. (eds.) (2000). Herbs of Commerce. American Herbal Products Association, Silver Spring, MD. Mosciano, G. (1991). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 21(4):51–55; (5):49–54; (6):49–52. Mosciano, G. (2008). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 33(8):66–67; (9):74–75; (10):66–67; (11):58–59; (12):58–59. Mosciano, G. et al. (1989). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 14(6):47–55. Mosciano, G. et al. (1990). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 15(1):19–22; (2):69– 73;(3):51–54; (4):59–61; (5):47–49; (6):35–38. Mosciano, G. et al. (1991). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 16(1):31–33; (2):49–54; (3):79–81; (4):45–47; (5):71–73; (6):43–46. Mosciano, G. et al. (1992). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 17(1):41–44; (2):33–35; (3):57–59; (4):33–36; (5):127–129; (6):41–43. Mosciano, G. et al. (1993). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 18 (1):43–45; (2):38–41; (3):53–55; (4):51–53; (5):39–41; (6):33–35. Mosciano, G. et al. (1994). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 19(1):27–29; (2):55–57; (3):51–53; (4):45–47; (5):79–81; (6):53–55. Mosciano, G. et al. (1995). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 20(1):31–33; (2):37–40; (3):63–65; (4):23–26; (5):89–92; (6):49–51. Mosciano, G. et al. (1996). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 21(1):33–35;(2):47–49; (3):51–54.

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xxiv Mosciano, G. et al. (2000). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 25(5):72–78; (6):26–31. Mosciano, G. et al. (2001). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 26(1):52–53; (2):40–43. Mosciano, G. et al. (2002). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 27(5):72–73. Mosciano, G. et al. (2004). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 29(8):65–69. Mosciano, G. et al. (2005). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 30(2):80–82; (4):53–56; (5):48–51; (6):38–39; (7):56–59; (8):40–44. Mosciano, G. et al. (2006). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 31(1):52–53; (3):46–49; (4):36–39; (5):48–51; (6):54–58; (7):36–39; (8):44–48. Mosciano, G. et al. (2002). Organoleptic characteristics of flavor materials. Perfumer and Flavorist 33(10):66–67; (11):58–59; (12):58–59. National Library of Medicine (NLM) (2008) ChemIDplus® – a chemical dictionary and structure database. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Bethesta, MD. http://chem.sis.nlm.nih. gov/chemidplus/chemidheavy.jsp. Newberne, P., Smith, R.L., Doull, J., Goodman, G.I., Munro, I.C., Portoghese, P.S., Wagner, B.M., Weil, C.S., Woods, L.A., Adams, T.B., Hallagan, J.B. and Ford, R.A. (1998). GRAS Flavoring Substances 18. Food Technol. 52(9):65–66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 79-92. Newberne, P., Smith, R.L., Doull, J., Goodman, G.I., Munro, I.C., Portoghese, P.S., Wagner, B.M., Weil, C.S., Woods, L.A., Adams, T.B., Hallagan, J.B. and Ford, R.A. (1999). Correction to GRAS Flavoring Substances 18. Food Technol. 53(3):104. Newberne, P., Smith, R.L., Doull, J., Feron, V.J., Goodman, G.I., Munro, I.C., Portoghese, P.S., Waddell, W.J., Wagner, B.M., Weil, C.S., , Adams, T.B., and Hallagan, J.B. (2000). GRAS Flavoring Substances 19. Food Technol. 54(6):66, 68–69, 70, 72–74, 76-84. Newberne, P. et al. (1999). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 18. GRAS substances. Food Technology 52(9):65–92. Newberne, P. et al. (2000). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 19. GRAS substances. Food Technology 54(6):66–84. O’Neil, M. et al. (2006). The Merck Index. An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Merck & Co., Inc., Whitehouse Station, NJ. Oser, B.L. and Ford, R.A. (1973a). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 6. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 27(1):64–67. Oser, B.L. and Ford, R.A. (1973b). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 7. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 27(11):56–57. Oser, B.L. and Ford, R.A. (1974). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 8. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 28(9):76–80.

Sources and Information Oser, B.L. and Ford, R.A. (1975). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 9. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 29(8):70–72. Oser, B.L. and Ford, R.A. (1977). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 10. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 31(1):65–74. Oser, B.L. and Ford, R.A. (1978). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 11. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 32(2):60–70. Oser, B.L. and Ford, R.A. (1979). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 12. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 33(7):65–73. Oser, B.L. and Hall, R.L. (1972). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 5. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 26(5):35–42. Oser, B.L., Ford, R.A. and Bernard, B.K. (1984). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 13. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 38(10):66–89. Oser, B.L., Well, C.L. and Woods, L.A. (1985). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the Food Additives Amendment. 14. GRAS substances. Food Technol. 39(11):108–117. Smith, R.L. and Ford, R.A. (1993). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 16. GRAS substances. Food Technology 47(6):104–117. Smith, R.L., Cohen, S.M., Doull, J., Feron, V.J., Goodman, J.I., Marnett, I.J., Portoghese, P.S., Waddell, W.J., Wagner, B.M., and Adams, T.B. (2003). GRAS Flavoring Substances 21. Food Technol. 57(5):46–48, 50, 52–54, 56–59. Smith, R.L., Cohen, S.M., Doull, J., Feron, V.J., Goodman, J.I., Marnett, I.J., Portoghese, P.S., Waddell, W.J., Wagner, B.M., and Adams, T.B. (2005). GRAS Flavoring Substances 22. Food Technol. 59(8):24–28, 31–32, 34, 36–62. Smith, R.L., Doull, J., Feron, V.J., Goodman, G.I., Munro, I.C., Newberne, P., Portoghese, P.S., Waddell, W.J., Wagner, B.M., Adams, T.B., and McGowen, M.M.. (2001). GRAS Flavoring Substances 20. Food Technol. 55(12):34–36, 38, 40, 42, 44–55. Smith, R.L. et al. (1996). Recent progress in the consideration of flavoring ingredients under the food additives amendment. 17. GRAS substances. Food Technology 50(10):72–78, 80–81. Tainter, D.R. and Grenis, A.T. (1993). Spices and Seasonings. VCH Publishers, New York. The Good Scents Company (2008). http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/allprof.html VanGemert, L.J. (ed.) (1999). Compilations of Odour Threshold Values in Air and Water. TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute. Boelens Aroma Chemical Information Service, The Netherlands. VCF (2000). TNO Nutrition and Food Research, Boelens Aroma Chemical Information Service (BACIS), The Netherlands. Waddell, W.J., Cohen, S.M., Feron, V.J., Goodman, J.I., Marnett, L.J., Portoghese, P.S., Rietjens, I.M. C.M., Smith, R.I., Adams, T.B., Lucas Gavin, C., McGowen, M.M., and Williams, M.C. (2007). GRAS Flavoring Substances 23. Food Technol. 61(8):22–24, 26–28, 30–49.

Disclaimer A diligent effort was made to obtain accurate information and to proof that information prior to publication; however, the author and publisher make or offer no warranties as to the representations provided herein.

A ACACIA GUM Botanical name: Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Botanical family: Leguminosae Other names: Acacia [JAN]; Acacia senegal gum; Arabic gum; gum Arabic; Acacia delbata gum; Acacia solution; Acacia syrup; Australian gum; Gum Arabic; Indian gum; Wattle gum CAS No.: CoE No.:

9000‑01‑05 n/a

FL No.: n/a EINECS No.: 232‑519‑5

FEMA No.: JECFA No.:

2001 n/a

NAS No.: E No.:

2001 414

Description: Arabic or acacia gum is the dried exudate obtained from the stems and branches of Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. or of related species of Acacia. Injured trees exude gum Arabic; heat, poor nutrition and drought stimulate its production. Most of the gum Arabic production is from wild trees, but some from privately owned and cultivated gardens are tapped and collected on a systematic basis. The gum called Hashab geneina (garden gum) is the cleanest and lightest grade and is most preferred for the U.S. market. The wild gum (called Hashab wady) is collected on a part-time basis in the dry season, from October to May or June, by natives whose main occupation is usually farming. After gathering, it is taken to central collecting stations where it is auctioned under government supervision, graded by hand and dried before exporting to gum suppliers in all parts of the world. Then it is resorted, ground, processed and graded to various specifications. Clear, white (sun-bleached) spheroidal tears, up to 32 mm in diameter, also occur as flakes. Chemically, gum Arabic is a neutral or slightly acid salt of a complex polysaccharide containing calcium, magnesium and potassium cations. Its most distinguishing property among the natural gums is its extreme solubility in water. Solutions of over 50% concentration may be prepared. Gum Arabic is best described as “heteropolymolecular,” that is, a polymer system having either a variation in monomer (galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, glucuronic acid and 4-O-methylgucuronic acid) composition and/or variation in the mode of linking and branching of the monomer units, in addition to a distribution in molecular weight. Major uses of gum Arabic in foods are as a fixative for flavors, a foam stabilizer in beverages, an adhesive for icings and toppings, and an emulsifier and stabilizer in confectionary and ice cream. It is also widely used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, paper, textile, paint, ink and lithography industries. Consumption: Annual: 12,000,000.00 lb

Individual: 10.1694 mg/kg/day

Regulatory Status: CoE: n/a FDA: 21 CFR 169.179, 172.780, 184.1330, 582.7330; 27 CFR 24.246; 240.1051 FDA (other): Listed in Inactive Ingredient Guide (CDER, 1996); HOC (1992) JECFA: ADI: Not specified (1989) Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 2.47 mg

IOFI: Natural

Specifications: (FCC, 1996) Appearance

White or yellowish white spheroidal tears

Heavy metals (as Pb) Not more than 0.002%

Arsenic (as As)

Not more than 3 mg/kg

Identification

Ash (acid-insoluble) Ash (total)

Not more than 0.5% Not more than 4%

Insoluble matter Solubility

To 10 mL of a cold 1-in-50 solution of acacia, add 0.2 mL diluted lead subacetate TS; a flocculent, or curdy, white precipitate is formed immediately Not more than 1% 1 g Dissolves in 2 mL water

1

ACETAL

2 Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994) Food Category Alcoholic beverages Baked goods Breakfast cereals Chewing gum Condiments, relishes Confection, frosting Fats, oils Frozen dairy Fruit juice Fruit ices Gelatins, puddings Hard candy

Usual 0.59 0.78 0.07 27.83 0.09 12.72 4.34 0.24 0.36 5.00 0.61 276.50

Max. 1.53 3.84 0.18 28.04 0.11 14.86 12.61 0.32 0.56 9.99 5.28 284.70

Food Category Imitation dairy Instant coffee, tea Meat products Milk products Nonalcoholic beverages Nut products Other grains Snack foods Soft candy Soups Sugar substitutes

Usual 9.56 0.13 0.99 0.04 0.36 6.38 10.00 5.72 269.20 0.04 10.00

Max. 12.50 0.80 3.37 0.04 0.66 7.28 10.00 28.57 452.10 0.04 10.00

Aroma threshold values: n/a Taste threshold values: Absolute; taste characteristics at 15 ppm: spicy sweet, fruity and honey with a woody, herbal nuance.

ACETAL Synonyms: Acetaldehyde diethyl acetal; Acetaldehyde ethyl acetal; Acetol; Diethylacetal; Dithane, 1,1-diethoxy-; Ethylidene diethyl ether; Ethylidenediethyl ether; 1,1-Diethoxyethane CAS No.: CoE No.:

105‑57‑7 35

FL No.: 06.001 EINECS No.: 203‑310‑6

FEMA No.: JECFA No.:

2002 941

NAS No.:

2002

Description: Acetal has a refreshing, pleasant, fruity-green odor. Consumption: Annual: 1000.00 lb

Individual: 0.0008474 mg/kg/day

Regulatory Status: CoE: Approved. Bev.: 23 ppm; Food: 20 ppm FDA: 21 CFR 172.515 FDA (other): n/a JECFA: ADI: Acceptable. No safety concern at current levels of intake when used as a flavoring agent (2001). Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 11.580 mg

IOFI: Nature Identical

Empirical Formula/MW:

C6H14O2/118.18

Specifications: (JECFA, 2008) Acid value (max)

1.0

Refractive index

Appearance

Volatile colorless liquid

Solubility

Assay (min) Boiling point

95% C6H14O2 102°C

Specific gravity

1.378–1.386 (20°C) Soluble in alcohol (1 mL in 1 mL 95% ethanol) propylene glycol and vegetable oils; slightly soluble in water 0.822–0.831 (25°C)

ACETALDEHYDE

3

Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994) Food Category Alcoholic beverages Baked goods Chewing gum Fats, oils Frozen dairy

Usual 5.00 65.20 154.70 1.80 35.66

Max. 13.33 89.70 154.70 2.50 72.70

Food Category Gelatins, puddings Hard candy Nonalcoholic beverages Soft candy

Usual 36.39 4.20 5.41 32.69

Max. 66.78 4.20 10.55 55.93

Synthesis: From ethyl alcohol and acetaldehyde in the presence of anhydrous calcium chloride or small amounts of mineral acids (HCl). Aroma threshold values: Detection: 4 to 42 ppb Taste threshold values: n/a Natural occurrence: Present in some liquors (e.g., sake, whiskey and cognac); also detected and quantitatively assessed in rums. Found in apple juice, orange juice, orange peel oil, bitter orange juice, strawberry fruit, raw radish, Chinese quince fruit, Chinese quince flesh, udo (Aralia cordata Thunb.).

ACETALDEHYDE Synonyms: Ethanal; Acetic aldehyde; Acetylaldehyde; Ethyl aldehyde CAS No.: CoE No.:

75‑07‑0 89

FL No.: 05.001 EINECS No.: 200‑836‑8

FEMA No.: JECFA No.:

2003 80

NAS No.:

2003

Description: Acetaldehyde is a colorless, flammable liquid with a characteristic pungent, penetrating, ethereal odor. As a flavor ingredient/enhancer, as, for example, in orange juice, acetaldehyde helps create naturalness, fruitiness and juiciness. Consumption: Annual: 186666.6 lb

Individual: 0.1581 mg/kg/day

Regulatory Status: CoE: Approved. Bev.: 23 ppm; Food: 20 ppm FDA: 21 CFR 182.60, 582.60; 27 CFR 19.460, 21 et seq. FDA (other): n/a JECFA: ADI: Acceptable. No safety concern at current levels of intake when used as a flavoring agent (1997). Trade association guidelines: FEMA PADI: 35.261 mg

IOFI: Nature Identical

Empirical Formula/MW: C2H4O/44.05 Specifications: (FCC, 1996) Acid value (max)

5.0

Appearance

Colorless, liquid

Assay (min)

99%

Boiling point Residue on evaporation Solubility

21°C 0.0006% Miscible in water, alcohol and organic solvents

ACETALDEHYDE, BUTYL PHENETHYL ACETAL

4 Reported uses (ppm): (FEMA, 1994) Food Category Alcoholic beverages Baked goods Cheese Chewing gum Condiment, relish Confection, frosting Fats, oils Frozen dairy Fruit ices Gelatin, pudding Gravies

Usual 470.00 30.00 0.0005 0.78 0.50 83.00 0.10 94.00 50.00 8.10 0.61

Max. 470.00 280.00 600.00 9.20 5.00 2000.00 4.00 150.00 100.00 100.00 53.00

Food Category Hard candy Imitation dairy Jams, jellies Meat products Milk products Nonalcoholic beverages Reconstituted vegetables Snack foods Soft candy Sweet sauce

Usual 9.29 0.20 23.00 1.67 76.00 38.00 0.0085 0.25 3.00 13.00

Max. 21.49 0.70 50.00 5.53 76.00 190.00 0.02 10.00 1000.00 230.00

Synthesis: The method of synthesis is dependent on the price of feedstock and may be produced by a number of methods: (1) by oxidation of ethyl alcohol with potassium dichromate or manganese dioxide in the presence of sulfuric acid; (2) by addition of water to acetylene; (3) by formation during the natural alcoholic fermentation process. Recovery is effected by suitable fractionation, subsequent preparation of the acetaldehyde ammonia and final treatment of the addition compound with diluted sulfuric acid. Aroma threshold values: Detection: 0.7 to 200 ppb; Recognition: 27 to 380 ppb Taste threshold values: n/a Natural occurrence: Reported found in oak and tobacco leaves; in the fruital aromas of pear, apple, raspberry, strawberry and pineapple; in the distillation waters of Monarda punctata, orris, cumin, chenopodium; in the essential oils of Litsea cubeba, Magnolia grandiflora, Artemisia brevifolia, rosemary, balm, clary sage, Mentha arvensis, daffodil, bitter orange, camphor, angelica, fennel, mustard, Scotch blended whiskey, Japanese whiskey, rose wine, blackberry brandy and rum.

ACETALDEHYDE, BUTYL PHENETHYL ACETAL Synonyms: Benzene, (2-(1-butoxyethoxy)ethyl)-; 2-Butoxy-2-phenylethoxy-ethane Acetal R; Pepital; 1-Phenethoxy-1-propoxyethane; Propyl phenethyl acetal; 2-(1-Butoxyethoxy)ethyl benzene; Benzene, 2-(1-butoxyethoxy)ethyl-; 2-(1-Butoxyethoxy) ethyl benzene CAS No.: CoE No.:

64577‑91‑9 10007

FL No.: 06.036 EINECS No.: 264‑948‑9

FEMA No.: JECFA No.:

3125 1001

NAS No.:

3125

Description: A liquid with a green leafy aroma and a green paper taste. Consumption: Annual: