Glimpses of Sanskrit literature

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GLIMPSES OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE

GLIMPSES OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE

LdilcJ by

A. N. D. Haksar

INDIAN COUNCIL FOR CULTURAL RELATIONS NEW DELHI &

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C o p y r i g h t © 1995 ICCR (Indian Council for C u l t u r a l Relations) N e w Delhi

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Foreword Tine Indian Council for Cultural Relations has great pleasure in presenting this volume on Sanskrit Literature. Sanskrit has an unbroken literary tradition of at least three thousand years stretching into present times. As the lingua franca of India's cultural growth and the principal vehicle of its thought for much of this period, it has a unique position in national identity- Its study occupies a prominent place, both in traditional learning and in current scholarship on various aspects of Indic civilization. But the fruit of this knowledge has, to a considerable extent, tended to stay within the domain of the scholar and the specialist. It is widely known that Sanskrit has a vast ancient literature. What it comprises, apart from the famous sacred and philosophical works, is not equally well known. The intention in bringing out the present volume is to provide for the modern lay reader, both in India and abroad, an informative survey of Sanskrit literature which is attuned to general interest and, at the same time, inspired by scholarship of the first rank. Included as a special feature is a select anthology of translated excerpts from well-known Sanskrit classics, which will give readers a flavour of the language's genius and its rich literary heritage. The objective of the Council's publication programme is to project India's cultural image through the print medium. The programme includes six periodical journals in Hindi, English, Spanish, French and Arabic, and over 200 titles already published in different languages. These publications also represent a wealth of knowledge and scholarship on diverse aspects of Indian culture, which gives them a lasting value. Translations from Sanskrit classics like Shakuntala and Vikrarih Urvashi figured among the Council's earliest publications. But a comprehensive compilation giving a broad perspective of this magnificent literature for general readership remained a long felt

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Foreword

need. The Council is grateful to the distinguished Indian and foreign scholars who have contributed to this volume. The task of assembling them, as also of devising the format of contents and editing the whole volume w a s entrusted to former Indian Ambassador A.N.D. Haksar, a student and translator of Sanskrit classics in the old tradition of scholar-diplomats. We thank him for agreeing to be the guest editor of this special issue on Sanskrit Literature, which the Council is very pleased to place before the public. Their comments, will, as always, be most welcome.

New Delhi October 29,

Meera Shankar 1995

Director General Indian Council for Cultural Relations

Acknowledgements The Editor and the Publisher express their gratitude to the following for the copyright material in this volume. Penguin Books Ltd., London, UK for granting copyright permission for verses 8,14,15,70,75,125,131,135,144,153,182,235, (pp. 55,56, 71, 72, 85, 86, 87, 90, 92, 117, 131, 137—total of 76 lines), 257 from Poems from the Sanskrit translated by John Brough (Penguin Classics, 1968) copyright (©) John Brough 1968. The excerpts from 'MeghadootanV ofKalidasa from Loom of Time are reproduced courtesy the publishers (Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd.) and the translator. The excerpts from Bilhana's poems from The Hermit & the Love Thief'are reproduced courtesy the publishers (Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd.) and the translator. 'Kama's Burden' from The Shuttered Thigh mid other Plays ofBhasa is reproduced courtesy thepublishers (Penguin India Pvt. Ltd.) and the translator. Y.K. Publishers, Agra, for granting copyright permission lor extracts from The Indian Poetie Traditon (©fl983 V.N. Mishra, L. Natham, S.H. Vatsyayan, all rights reserved. National Book Trust, Tndia, New Delhi for granting copyright permission for extracts from the Talcs from the Panehatantra by A.N.D. Haksar, ISBN 81-237-0021-0. Publishers o( Sanskrit Poetry from Vidyakara 's 'Lreasury, translated by Daniel Ingalls, Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Copyright (©) 1965, 1968 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College, for granting permission to reprint extracts. Mrs. Nayantara Sahgal, Dehra Dun, for granting copyright permission for extracts from Ritusamhara ofKalidasa translated by R.S. Pandit, published in 1947 by the National Information & Publications Ltd. of Bombay.

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R a m a k r i s h n a Math, M a d r a s for granting c o p y r i g h t p e r m i s s i o n for e x c e r p t s from the verse p a r t of C h a p t e r 1 from the b o o k BJiagwat Gita (The Song of God) translated by S w a m i P r a b h a v a n a n d a a n d C h r i s t o p h e r Tsherwood. Columbia University P r e s s , N e w York, for granting copyright p e r m i s s i o n for r e p r o d u c i n g a song from Gita Govinda of J a y a d e v a from Love Song of the Dark Lord t r a n s l a t e d by B a r b a r a Stoller Miller. Copyright (©) 1977. Reprinted with p e r m i s s i o n of the publisher. * The other selections in this book are taken from the following s o u r c e s no longer in copyright: K a l i d a s a ' s Shakuntala by M. Monier Williams is from Hindu Literature ( N e w York, P.F. Collier & Son, 1900); and extracts from Bhagvadgita or Song Celestial a r e by Edwin Arnold in Sacred Writing Vo\. 2, The Harvard Classic ( N e w York, P.F. Collier & Son, 1910.)

Contents Foreword

v

Acknowledgements

vii

Introduction

xi

1. Evolution of Sanskrit Literature: A Reappraisal N. P. Urim

1

2. The Adikdvya and the Legacy of Rsi Valmiki R. P. Goldman

11

3. Poetry of the Mahdbliarata Satya Pal Narang

30

4. Sanskrit Linguistics and Mathematics in Ancient India Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat

39

5. Bhasa and Kalidasa: The Inseparable Divergence Shriniwas Rath

51

6. Prakrt Poetry: Hala's Sattasai Herman Tieken

61

7. Classical Sanskrit Prose Literature Saroja Bhatc

72

8. Public Poetry in Sanskrit Sheldon Pollock

85

9. The Major Dramatists Rajendra Mishra 10. The Development of Aesthetics and Literary Criticism in India Anthony K. Warder

108 124

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Contents 11.

Anthologies, Gnomic V e r s e s a n d A p h o r i s m s Sukumari Bhattacharji

136

12. Give a n d Take: Sanskrit Poetry in Context Friedhelm Hardy

147

13. The Contribution of K a s h m i r to S a n s k r i t Literature Ved Kumari Ghai

161

14.

173

S o m e Peripheral Literature: Lexicography a n d Medicine Satya Vrat Shastri

15. C o n t e m p o r a r y S a n s k r i t Writing Radha Vallabh Tripathi

180

16.

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Sanskrit Studies Abroad Arvind Sharma

17. A T r e a s u r y of Translations

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Appendices A p p e n d i x 1: S o m e Sanskrit Educational Institutions in India.

247

A p p e n d i x 2: S o m e Indian P u b l i s h e r s of Sanskrit Books. Contributors

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Index

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253

Introduction Sanskrit has a long history as a language of thought, learning and culture in India and beyond. Though a part of its literature may have been lost over the course of time, some has been recovered in the last century, and a huge corpus covering a vast variety of topics is available. Most of it is the subject of traditional study or modern research, but only a part of it usually comes before the public eye. In thepresent popular perception of Sanskrit as a major component of India's cultural heritage, it is as the language of religion and philosophy that it is best known. One of the important effects of this perception has been to dccmphasize the other dimensions of the literary wealth of Sanskrit as a whole. The effort here is topresent Sanskrit literaturepurely as literature: as poetry, drama and prose, as inspirational and creative, narrative, descriptive, gnomic and aphoristic expression of literary value. Examples of this, often of surpassing excellence, are also found in scriptural texts, as willbe seen reflected in some of the contributions and a section of the translations included in this compilation. But the focus here, in the main, is on secular cla ssical literature as compared to sacred or philosophical works. The latter have been researched and translated extensively. Some, like the Bliagavadgita, and the principal Upmmhads and Vedic hymns, are already widely known. But classical literature, to quote the late Harvard Sanskritist Daniel lngalls, "has remained to the English reader, like the Sleeping Beauty of the fairy tale, hidden behind a hedge of thorns." This collection seeks to provide a small opening in that hedge of mostly recondite study of a cloistered knowledge. Given the formidable range of Sanskrit literature, the attempt here is to provide a broad perspective of it through an initial overview, followed by a series of closer looks at specific facets. The former also touches on the Vedicperiod;thelatter include the epics, later poetry, drama and prose; the aphoristic literature of the

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Introduction

anthologies; epigraphic literature; and examples of technical works. Also considered are the development of Sanskrit aesthetics and literary criticism; and the interaction between Sanskrit and other poetry. The spread of Sanskrit literary activity is further exemplified by an area study of its quantum in a single region. The perspective is brought up to the present with a review of contemporary writings and studies abroad. It is our good fortune that the format outlined above has been illuminated by contributions from eminent academic specialists. Dr. N.P. Unni appraises the sweep of Sanskrit literature as a whole in an introductory survey. Professor R.P. Goldman looks anew at the seminal legacy o( the Rilmaymm of Valmiki, while some poetic aspects of the MnhribluTratn are analyzed by Professor S.P. Narang. Dr. R.P. Mishra describes and quotes from the principal Sanskrit dramatists and their works, while Dr. S. Rath focusses on two towering figures among them, Kalidasa and Bhasa. Dr. F. 1 lardy comments, with interesting examples, on the mutual influence of Sanskrit and other poetic forms, and Dr. H. Tieken recalls the beau ties of Ha la's Prakrit verses. A neglected but important a spect, the poetry of Sanskrit inscriptions found in and outside India, is illustrated with translations by Professor S. Pollock. Ur. Sukumari Bhattacharji makes a critical review of gnomic and epigrammatic verse anthologies which are a characteristic of Sanskrit literature, while Professor Saroja Bhate does the same for works in prose, includingalso her translation of a sample from Bana. Professor A.K. Warder traces the evolution of the aesthetic criteria and the literary theories on which Indians judged their own literature. Many ol these theories originated in Kashmir, and Dr. Ved Kumari Ghai studies the overall contribution to Sanskrit literature from that part of the county. Illustrative examples of technical literature, ranging from linguistics and mathematics to lexicography and medicine, are provided by Dr. P.S. Filliozat and Professor S.V. Shastri, also touching upon some scientific a spect s of the Vedic corpus. Professor R.V. Tripathi surveys contemporary Sanskrit writings, pointing to the continued currency of this ancient but far from dead language. Finally, Di\ A. Sharma raises pertinent issues while describing the sizeable extent of ongoing Sanskrit studies outside India. Also deserving mention in this context are the studies taking place in some countries with historic cultural links with India, like Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Thailand.

Introduction

xiii

Individually, these e s s a y s will give the r e a d e r s o m e revealing g l i m p s e s of significant a s p e c t s of Sanskrit literature; together, they p r e s e n t a p a n o r a m i c view pointed out by expert g u i d e s . It is s u p p l e m e n t e d with a select anthology o( English translations of e x c e r p t s from Sanskrit c l a s s i c s to enable the literature to s p e a k for itself. This indeed is the m o s t effective w a y of m a k i n g it better known, and a larger anthology w o u l d h a v e been compiled but for p h y s i c a l limitations. Differences of linguistic construction and literary convention c o m p o u n d the difficulties ot translating from Sanskrit into English,but the s a m p l e s included here should disprove, at least in p a r t , the contention of earlier s c h o l a r s like Keith that Sanskrit poetry is essentially untranslatable. It m u s t h o w e v e r be a c k n o w l e d g e d that good literary translations into English a r e not e a s y to c o m e by, and m o r e need to be e n c o u r a g e d to m a k e it p o s s i b l e for Sanskrit literature to reach a bigger a u d i e n c e . There is an u n a v o i d a b l e overlap b e t w e e n s o m e contributions, gi\-en the impossibility of complete c o m p a r t m e n t a ligation in dealing with our subject. The o b s e r v a n t r e a d e r will also note divergences, of opinion a s well a s fact. The former are i n e s c a p a b l e in the format h e r e a d o p t e d ; t h e latter, specially in r e s p e c t o l d a t i n g a n d ascription, are not u n c o m m o n in any h i s t o r i o g r a p h y w h e r e there is a paucity of conclusive evidence, a s in the c a s e of Sanskrit. The v i e w s e x p r e s s e d in their contributions are naturally those of the individual a u t h o r s , and not necessarily s h a r e d by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations or the present editor. S o m e indeed m a y be questioned by other s c h o l a r s . In editing no a t t e m p t h a s been m a d e t o h a r m o n i z e chronology or attribution, transliteration, or the u s a g e of N a g a r i or R o m a n scripts for Sanskrit quotations. The question of selection a l w a y s p o s e s p r o b l e m s in any work such a s this. Exclusions are regrettable, but inevitable, given the m a s s of material needing notice and the limits of s p a c e . This h a s aiiectcd the choice ol subjects to be covered in the e s s a y s , a s well a s the e x c e r p t s to be included in the translations. The r e a s o n s for concentration on p u r e literature a s such ha veal ready been explained; for w h a t h a s got left out, the r e a d e r ' s sufferance alone can be solicited. 1 I opefully, this "lion's view", to u s e the Sanskrit expression for a brief look behind a s one m o v e s forward, will attract r e a d e r s to venture further into the verdant g r o v e s of Sanskrit literature in s e a r c h of other delectable fare.

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Introduction

It remains for the editor to record his deep gratitude to the sixteen distinguished scholars of Sanskrit and Indie studies who have kindly contributed to this volume. The ten Indian contributors hail from far corners of the land, ranging from Kerala to Kashmir, and Maharashtra to West Bengal;,one teaches in distant Canada. The six foreign contributors arc from North America and West Europe: if scholarship from other regions is not represented, it is mainly because of the language of this publication. I would crave the indulgence of all these academicians for any editing or printing lapses which may still persist in their contributions despite corrections, as also for any omissionsby oversight in thebiographical notes. I thank Shri Niranjan Desai, the then Director General of the Indian Council for Cultural Relations, for inviting me to edit this work and for giving the initial ideas regarding its outline; and his successor, Shri Shiv Shankar Mukherjee, for his consistent coopera tion while the project wa s in progress. His sucessor in turn, Shrimati Meera Shankar, is to be thanked for the final publication. Appreciation is due to Dr. Vidya Niwas Misra for his suggestions about the format, and to Dr. G. Panda, Deputy Educational Adviser (Sanskrit), Department of Education, for providing particulars of possible contributors as well as the details now contained in the appendix. The latter are for those readers who may wish to know about Indian institutions connected with Sanskrit studies and publications. I am also grateful to Shri Amit Dasgupta, Deputy Director General, Shri Ashok Srinivasan, Senior Programme Director, Shri O.P. Madan, Programme Director and, in particular, to Shri Padam Talwar, Programme Officer and Shrimati Nishi Malhotra, all from the Council's New Delhi office, for their ready assistance at different times in furthering the preparation of this publication. Special thanks are due to the publishers represented by Shri V.S. Johri of New Age International (P) Limited. I am indebted to Shri Madhav K. Dar for his general comments. Above all I am grateful to my wife Shrimati Priti Haksar for her unfailing support and understanding in this as in all my endeavours. A. N. D. Haksar

Evolution of Sanskrit Literature: A Reappraisal N. P. Unni

Sanskrit has been the language of India's religion, philosophy and culture, a source of inspiration for her intellectual and aesthetic achievements and a great instrument for establishing unity throughout the land. The history of Sanskrit literature generally falls into two main periods, namely, the Vedic and the Classical. The former perhaps begins as early as 1500 BC and extends at the latest about 200 BC. The Classical period concurrent with the final stages of Vedic literature, strictly speaking, closes with the turn of the millenium. But owing to the continued literary use of Sanskrit this period may be regarded as coming down to the present day. The Vedic Period The term Veda is applied to a group of literature that forms the earliest records of Indian civilization or, to put it safely, the Vedas are the earliest literary records since tradition asserts that these are eternal. These texts are classified mainly into four groups: the Rk, the Yajus, the Soman and the Atharvan, each of them ha ving different recensions called sakhds. The Rgveda consists of 10 mandalas 1028 suktas and 10552 mantras (or 8 astakas, 64 adhyayas, 2024 vargas and 10552 mantras). In the Yajurveda there are 40 adhyayas and 1975 mantras while the Sdmaveda contains 27adhyayas and 1875 mantras.

2

N. P. Unni

The Atharvavcda h a s 20 kandas, 731 silktas a n d 5977 mantras. The w h o l e literature is available only in portions and h e n c e it is difficult to get a c o m p r e h e n s i v e picture. These four Ved a s h a v e their own Brahmanas which are explanatory portions. H e r e again all the m a t e r i a l s a r c not available. S o m e of t h o s e available are called Aitareya, Kausltaki, Taittirlya, Satapatha, Tandya and Gopatlia. There are further portions of the Brahmanas known a s Aranyakas, or forest treatises, w h i c h deal with certain disciplines to b e o b s e r v e d ; and the Upanisads form the third and final p a r t of the Brahmanas. T h o u g h all the V e d a s d o not h a v e an Aranyaka; there are Upanisads a t t a c h e d to all the V e d a s . Veddhgas or auxiliary texts n e c e s s a r y for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the V e d a s a r e r e g a r d e d a s six; viz., Siksa (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual m a n u a l s ) , Vydkarana ( g r a m m a r ) , Nirukta (etymology) Chandas (metres) and Jyolisa (astronomy). Kalpa dealing with rituals is of three kinds a s Srauta Sutras (Vedic manuals), Grhya Sutras (domestic m a n u a l s ) and Dharma Sutras (legal m a n u a l s ) . V a r i o u s other texts h a v e c o m e d o w n to u s a s V e d a s like the Gdndharvaveda (science of music), DJianurveda (science of archery) and Ayurveda (science of life or medicine). Agarna sdstras or texts dealing with the w o r s h i p of deities and idols in t e m p l e s a r e also r e g a r d e d a s b a s e d on the V e d a s . Then there a r e c o m m e n t a r i e s on the a b o v e texts all of which a re included in the generic term of Vedic literature. Anviksikl or Mimarhsa (critical investigation of t h e p u r p o r t of the V e d a s ) is another b r a n c h closely related to it. Ancient Science All the sciences and a r t s of India trace their origin to the V e d a s , particularly the Atharvavcda which gives u s an insight into the scientific k n o w l e d g e of the period. The necessity of laying out the sacrificial altar in a c c o r d a n c e with m e a s u r e m e n t s given in the instructions s u g g e s t s a s i m p l e s y s t e m of geometry. M a t h e m a t i c s and a s t r o n o m y w e r e in a highly d e v e l o p e d s t a g e and the Indian m a t h e m a t i c i a n h a d a clear conception of the a b s t r a c t n u m b e r a s distinguished from numerical quantity or spatial extension. With the aid of a simple numerical notation India d e v i s e d a r u d i m e n t a r y algebra. The v a l u e of sunya or zero w a s a fundamental contribution m a d e by India even before A r y a b h a t t a ( A D 4 4 9 ) and this k n o w l e d g e w a s later acquired by A r a b s and R o m a n s t h r o u g h their t r a d e contacts. A s a l r e a d y noted Ayurveda and a s t r o n o m y , including

Evolution of Sanskrit Literature: A Reappraisal astrology, formpartofthe auxiliaries of the Vedas. Surgery was not unknown as over 125 surgical instruments arcmentionedby Susruta. The Vedas are indeed the foundation of all Sanskrit literature— general and technical—that developed later. The Classical Period The second period came to be called Sanskrit, the 'refined' as against Prakrt, which was the 'unrefined' dialect. From the second century onwards, probably Sanskrit was a spoken language in the whole of Aryavarta between the Himalayas and the Vindhya range. Dramas show that even those who did not speak Sanskrit understood it. From the sixth century onwards Sanskrit also prevails in inscriptions and by the time of the Muslim incursion it was perhaps ti'ic only written language of India. As regards the form, the classicalperiod contrasts with the Vedic period. While prose was employed in the Yajurveda and Brdhmanas and developed to a certain degree, it appears less in classical Sanskrit. For, nearly every branch of the literature, excepting perhaps grammar and philosophy, is composed in verse, literary prose being found only in fables, fairy-tales, romances and partially in the dramas. The general contents of classical literature embrace a variety of secular subjects. The period touches perfection in many branches of literature: in the epics, in Puranas, in court epics or Mahukavyas, in prose romances, in dramas, in fairy-tales and fables and finally in commentaries. Epics and Purdnas Sanskrit epic poetry falls into two main classes, Itilulsa or legend which comprises old stories, and Kdvya or artificial epic. While the Mahdbhdrata is the chief and oldest representative of the former group, the Ramayana represents the latter division. Both these great epics are composed in the sloka metre which prevails in the classical period. The Mahdbhdrata in its present form consists of over 100,000 s'lokas and is perhaps the longest poem in literary history. Consisting of eighteen books called parvans, with a nineteenth, the Harivamsa forming a supplement, the work is a conglomerate of epic and didactic matter. The number of verses in each parvan varies. All the eighteen books excepting the eighth and the last three arc divided

3

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N. P. Unni

into subordinate parvans which are divided into several chapters. The epic kernel of the Maliablmrata describes the eighteen days war between the Kauravas and the Panda vas ending in the destruction of the former. After some more years the victors go to the Himalayas leaving Pariksita, the grandson of Arjuna, to rule over Hastinapura. Within this narrative framework there are numerous legends of gods and kings and sages, accounts of cosmogony and thcogony, and disquisitions on philosophy, religion and ethics. The BhagavadgUd, the philosophical poem consisting of eighteen cantos, is included in it. The Harivamsa, containing 16,000 verses and divided into three sections, narrates the family history of Krsna. The sage Vyasa, the son of Parasara, is the compiler of the Mahdbhdrata as is mentioned in the work itself. The exact date of the compilation remains anybody's guess. The Rdmdyana in its present form consists of about 24,000 verses and is divided into seven books called kdndas. Composed by the sage Valmlki, the work shows excellence in plan and execution. It describes in detail Rama's exile, the abduction of his wife Sita by Ravana, his efforts to find and regain her and his final victory over Ravana. The second part or Uttarakdnda describes the banishment of Sita, whom Valmiki takes to his hermitage where she delivers Kusa and Lava, whom the sage himself brings up. The story ends with Rama's meeting with his sons, his wife having been swallowed by the mother earth. The Purdnas constitute an important branch of classical literature and are often designated as the fifth Veda. The name Parana signifies 'old traditional story'. Composed chiefly in the si oka metre with occasional passages in prose, they deal with a vast range of subjects. They are eighteen in number and are said to have been composed by the ancient sage Vyasa. They often aim at exalting one of the three gods of the I Iindu Trinity. Thus the eighteen Purdnas are classified according to the deity who is exalted. Brahma, Brahmdnda, Brahmavaivarta, Mdrkandcya, Bluwisya and Vdmana Purdnas are related to Brahma, the creator. Another group, namely, Visnu, Bhdgavata, Ndrudlya, Garuda, Padma and Vardlia are Vaisnava Purdnas. The Purdnas that glorify Siva are Siva, Linga, Skanda, Agni, Matsya and Kilrma. Besides these there are eighteen Upapuranas. The Purdrias do not belong to one particular period. While some of them are very ancient, others are more recent.

Evolution of Sanskrit Literature: A Reappraisal

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Kavya Literature It is not e a s y to trace the beginnings of kavyas in Sanskrit literature. They m u s t certainly belong to a m u c h earlier period. For w e h a v e the i m p o r t a n t literary e v i d e n c e of t h e references in Patanjali's Mahabhasya w h i c h s h o w that kavyas flourished in h i s day. A s v a g h o s a ' s Buddhacarila and Saundarananda are t w o earlier kavyas. H e w a s a c o n t e m p o r a r y of King Kaniska of the first century AD and himself a Buddhist. The t w o m o s t important kavyas a r e Raghuvamsa a n d Kumar asambhava by K a l i d a s a , w h o probably lived in the beginning of the fifth century AD. Raghuvamsa, the line of Raghu, d e s c r i b e s in nineteen cantos, the story of R a m a together with his forefathers and s u c c e s s o r s . Beginning with Dilipa, the story e n d s with the d e a t h of Agnivarna. Kumdrasambhava consists of seventeen cantos. Beginning with the c o u r t s h i p of Siva and P a r v a t i the story e n d s with an account of t h e destruction of the d e m o n T a r a k a by K u m a r a , the son of the couple. Bhattikdvya, ascribed also to Bhartrhari, is a w o r k consisting of twenty-two cantos which d e s c r i b e the story of R a m a illustrating the forms of Sanskrit g r a m m a r . The Kirdtdrjuniya of Bharavi, w h o is mentioned in an inscription of AD 634, along with K a l i d a s a , is a kavya a b o u n d i n g in richness of meaning. In eighteen c a n t o s it d e s c r i b e s the battle b e t w e e n Arjuna and Siva d i s g u i s e d a s a Kirata. Sisupalavadha of M a g n a is a kavya of extraordinary merit. It is famous for its three qualities: similes, r i c h n e s s of meaning and simplicity of diction. In twenty c a n t o s the w o r k d e s c r i b e s the killing of S i s u p a l a , the King of Cedi, b y Krsna. Naisadhiyacarita of Sri H a r s a , in twenty-two cantos, d e a l s with the story of N a l a , the King of N i s a d h a , and D a m a y a n t i , the d a u g h t e r of King Bhima. The e p i s o d e is taken from t h e Mahablmrata and t h e a u t h o r belongs to the twelfth century. Among the h i s t o r i c a l / M t r y a s K a l h a n a ' s R ^ Navasahasdnkacarita of P a d m a g u p t a also d e s e r v e s mention. Prose Romance The a b u n d a n t u s e of lengthy c o m p o u n d s , vivid descriptions of n a t u r e , a n d long strings of similes and m e t a p h o r s often teeming w i t h p u n s are s o m e of the m o s t important characteristics of classical p r o s e . The narrative portions a r e almost m e a g r e . The high s t a n d a r d s p r e s c r i b e d for p r o s e writing r e n d e r it difficult and only men of the calibre of Bana a n d Dandin could lay h a n d s on it. There a r e t w o

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t y p e s of r o m a n c e s , the Akhyayika a n d the Kathd, t h e t h e m e of the former t y p e being historical w h i l e the latter is p u r e l y i m a g i n a r y . S u b a n d h u ' s Vdsavadattd is an interesting b u t fictitious story. In style it c o m e s u p to the p r e s c r i b e d s t a n d a r d . Bana' s Harsacarita a n d Kadambari are t w o i m p o r t a n t w o r k s c o m p o s e d in o r n a t e p r o s e . The former is an e x a m p l e of Akhyayika while t h e latter is a m o d e l for Kathd. Harsacarita in eight c h a p t e r s d e s c r i b e s the story of King H a r s a partially. The first three c h a p t e r s contain a short b i o g r a p h y of thcpoct. Kadambari is an i m a g i n a r y story c o m p r e h e n d i n g several generations. Dasakunidracarita by D a n d i n is a story of c o m m o n life and reflects a cross-section of a c o r r u p t society. The w o r k r e v e a l s the ability of the a u t h o r in writing beautiful p r o s e . O w i n g to the higher s t a n d a r d p r e s c r i b e d for p r o s e , w o r k s in this b r a n c h of literature a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y less in n u m b e r . There is, h o w e v e r , a species of writing called Campil w h e r e p r o s e and poetry are mingled together. Bharata Campu and Rdmayana Campu are excellent treatises in this field. Lyrics Generally lyrics in Sanskrit a r e short p o e m s . The merit of every lyric p o e m consists in its description of d y n a m i c feeling e x p r e s s e d in simple, direct and i m p a s s i o n e d l a n g u a g e w h i c h could thrill and c a p t i v a t e the h e a r t s of the r e a d e r s . K a l i d a s a ' s Meghaduta or 4 The cloud m e s s e n g e r ' is a lyric g e m w h i c h won the admiration of critics a s a m o s t wonderful love p o e m in any l a n g u a g e . It c o n s i s t s of 115 s t a n z a s c o m p o s e d in the manddkrdntd m e t r e and is divided into t w o p a r t s . The t h e m e is a love m e s s a g e sent by a yaksa, an exile living at Ramagiri, t h r o u g h a cloud to h i s wife dwelling far a w a y in Alaka. The w o r k formed a m o d e l a n d m a n y a similar w o r k w a s p r o d u c e d in this field. K a l i d a s a ' s Rtusamhdra of 144 s t a n z a s divided into six sections a n d c o m p o s e d in v a r i o u s m e t r e s gives a vivid a n d highly poetical description of the six s e a s o n s . The Caurapancdsikd of Bilhana is a p o e m in fifty s t a n z a s describing the p o e t ' s experience of the joys of love. Another short lyric is the Gliatakarparakdvya in twenty-two s t a n z a s . The Spigdrasataka of Bhartrhari d e a l s with the erotic sentiment and r e v e a l s t h e d e e p insight of the poet in the a r t s of love. H o w e v e r the m o s t i m p o r t a n t w o r k w h i c h d e a l s with t h e erotic sentiment is Amarusataka of A m a r u , w h e r e the author exhibits his skill in depicting lovers in all their m o o d s . Gitagovinda b y J a y a d e v a of Bengal is a

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notable w o r k in this field in that it d e a l s with divine love and indirectly hints at the relation of the s u p r e m e deity to the h u m a n soul. Dramas The s a g e B h a r a t a is the mythical inventor of nataka (drama). The chief characteristics of this d r a m a t i c form are: (i) Vira or Srrigara should b e the p r e d o m i n a n t sentiment, the o t h e r s being s u b o r d i n a t e to it. The last act should contain the sentiment of w o n d e r , (ii) The hero should be one of the four t y p e s : Dhlrodatta, Dluroddhata, Dhlralalita and Dhlrasanta. (Hi) The plot m u s t b e either f a m o u s or imaginary, preference being given to the former, (iv) There should be five to ten acts in a play. Besides nataka there are several other forms of d r a m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s s u c h a s Prakarana, Bfulna, PraJiasana, and others. T h e e a r l i e s t forms of d r a m a t i c l i t e r a t u r e m a y be found in the Rgvedic d i a l o g u e s such a s t h o s e of S a r a m a and Panis, Yama and Yami, P u r u r a v a s a n d Urvasi. But the earliest references to acted d r a m a s is found in the Mahdbhdsya w h e r e K a r h s a v a d h a and Balibandha are mentioned. Bhasa is an earlier d r a m a t i s t mentioned by Kalidasa. Thirteen p l a y s a r e ascribed to h i m the chief of which are Svapnavasavadatta, Urubhariga, Madhyauuwyaxjoga and others. M a n y s c h o l a r s question his a u t h o r s h i p of the d r a m a s . Kalidasa is p e r h a p s the g r e a t e s t Sanskrit dramatist. T lis Vikraniorvash/a isa play in fiveactsdescribing the love of king P u r u r a v a s and U r v a s i , a celestial n y m p h . Mtllavikagnimitra in five a c t s d e s c r i b e s the love b e t w e e n King Agnimitra and M a l a v i k a , a princess. Abhijnanasakunlalam is the g r e a t e s t of h i s d r a m a s both in length and in merit. In seven a c t s the d r a m a d e s c r i b e s the love of King D u s y a n t a for S a k u n t a l a , the d a u g h t e r of M e n a k a . Mrcchakatika of S u d r a k a in ten a c t s is distinct from other p l a y s in its d r a m a t i c qual ities of vigour of life and action a n d its h u m o u r . The heroine of the p l a y is a courtesan. S r i H a r s a is t h e a u t h o r of three d r a m a s . They a r e Ratnavali, describing the love of U d a y a n a and S a g a r i k a , Naganamia, a play with a Buddhistic c o l o u r i n g , a n d Priyadarsikd. A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d r a m a t i s t is Bhavabhuti with three d r a m a s to his credit. His Malallmadliava is a prakarana in ten acts, and h i s Ma)idvlracarita d e r i v e s its plot from the Ramayana and, consists of seven acts. Uttarardmacarita is p e r h a p s the g r e a t e s t of his p l a y s . The description of the love of R a m a for Sita, purified by sorrow, is p e r h a p s unique in Indian d r a m a .

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Visakhadatta'sMudrdrdksasa is another unique play since it contains political intrigues. The hero is Candragupta, the founder of the Maurya dynasty. Bhattanarayana's Venisarhhara is a drama of considerable merit based on the Mahabhdrata. Among other dramatists Rajasekhara deserves mention. Four of his plays: Viddhasdlabhanjikd, Karpuramanjari, Balardmdyana and Bdlabhdrata have survived. Among allegorical plays Prabodhacandrodaya of Krishna Misra in six acts is important. Abstract notions such as religion, reason, and knowledge are personified as characters in thisplay. There arehundreds of dramas with varyingmerit produced in Sanskrit down to modern times. Fables and Fairy Tales Fairy tales and fables in classical Sanskrit literature are noteworthy for their didactical value. Ethical reflections and philosophical proverbs are the characteristics of the fables. It is often difficult to follow the main thread of the narrative for there are numerous stories inserted within the framework of the main story. Pancatantra of Visnusarman is perhaps the greatest didactical fable and it has been translated into almost every major language in the world. Probably the work was written for instructing some prince in moral values. Through these stories various human vices are exposed. Hitopadesa is an old fable of doubtful authorship. It contains instructions in domestic and foreign policies. Nitisdra is a similar work dealing with the principles of polity. Among various collections of fairy talcs Vetdlapancavimsati of Jambhaladatta,wherca goblin narrates twenty-five quizzical stories to King Vikramaditya, is interesting. Simhdsanadvdtrimsikd is a collection of thirty-two stories narrated to the king by images on the throne. Another collection is Sukasaptati, where a parrot narrates seventy stories to a separated wife in order to dissuade her from running after other men. The greatest of them all is Kathdsaritsdgara by Somadeva consisting of 124 tarangas divided into eighteen chapters. The work is based on Gunadhya's Brhat-Kathd supposed to have been written in the Paisaci language. Brhat-Kathd itself is not available and is known only through references by Bana and Dandin. Another important workbased on it is the Brhat-Kathdmanjari of Ksemendra. Commentaries on various books form a good division of Sanskri t literature. The greatest commentator w a s perhaps Mallinatha, a

Evolution of Sanskrit Literature: A Reappraisal

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Brahmana scholar who, besides writing other works, has commented on all the five Mahakavyas. The growth of this branch of literature is evident from the fact that the Kumarasambhava has more than twenty-two commentaries, while there are sixty-three on the Meghaduta and forty on the Raghuvarhsa. This branch continues to flourish down to the present day. Modern Period

It was the so-called discovery of Sanskrit in India that marked the dawn of linguistic study in a scientific manner. The formulation of the Indo-European family of languages w a s made possible by this revelation. Before the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta, Sir William Jones declared in 1786 : The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of wonderful structure, more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin and more exquisitely refined than either; yet bearing toboth of them a stronger affinity in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed that no philologcr could examine them at all without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which perhaps no longer exists. There is similar reason, though not quite forcible, for supposing that both Gothic and Celtic, though blended with a different idiom, had the same origin with Sanskrit and the old Persian might be added to the same family. Sanskrithad anlndo-Europcanbackground and a close connection with the Central Asian region. The language gained an extra-Indian vogue through religion, philosophy, art and civilization spread over Central Asia, China, Cambodia, Siam and the Indonesian Archipelago. It brought a script and literature to South-East Asia where numerous Sanskrit inscriptions are found. In fact the foundations of Greater India were laid in this language. The role of Sanskrit in spreading Buddhism is known through translations into local languages, the originals of which seem to have been lost in India. The role of Sanskrit as a symbol of national unity and the bond of an international friendship which comprehends Europe and most regions of Asia is significant. It rejuvenated with its infinite resources

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local languages and cultures; absorbed local excellence and evolved a constructive and harmonious synthesis. It is a matter of gratification that Sanskrit still continues to be u sed a s a med ium of communication and literary expression through Indian audio-visual electronic media on a dailybasisby means likenewsbulletins. In fact Sanskrit can still serve national interests of emotional and territorial integration which are relevant today more than ever.

The Adikavya Rsi Valmiki

and the Legacy of

R. P. Goldman

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