Quest for the African Dinosaurs: Ancient Roots of the Modern World

Citation preview

Copyright ©

1993 by L o u i s L.

Jacobs

A l l rights r e s e r v e d u n d e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d P a n - A m e r i c a n C o p y r i g h t C o n v e n t i o n s . P u b l i s h e d i n the U n i t e d States b y V i l l a r d B o o k s , a division o f R a n d o m H o u s e , Inc., N e w Y o r k , Limited,

and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n C a n a d a b y

Random House of Canada

Toronto.

V I L L A R D B O O K S i s a r e g i s t e r e d t r a d e m a r k o f R a n d o m H o u s e , Inc. Library

of Congress

Jacobs,

Louis L.

Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

Q u e s t f o r the A f r i c a n d i n o s a u r s / b y L o u i s L . Jacobs. p.

Includes bibliographical ISBN

references.

0-679-41270-0

1. D i n o s a u r s QE862.D5J28

Africa. 1993

2. D i n o s a u r s 567.9'l'096

Research dc20

M a n u f a c t u r e d i n the U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 First

1st e d .

cm.

edition

2

Africa.

I. T i t l e .

92-15080

TO AND

MY

FAMILY,

FUTURE,

IN-LAW DISTANT, SISTERS

AND

GREAT OUT,

FATHER (NO

NEPHEWS,

AND

COUSINS,

BONNIE,

PRESENT,

AND

CLOSE AND

AUNTS, AND

GRAND, AND

MOTHER,

BROTHERS),

AND

DEDICATION

PAST,

NIECES UNCLES,

WITH

SPECIAL

AND

MELISSA

TO

MATTHEW,

T h i s t h i n g w e call e x i s t e n c e ; i s i t n o t a s o m e t h i n g w h i c h has its r o o t s far d o w n b e l o w i n t h e d a r k , and its branches s t r e t c h i n g o u t i n t o t h e i m m e n s i t y a b o v e , w h i c h w e a m o n g t h e b r a n c h e s c a n n o t see? — O l i v e S c h r e i n e r (nom de plume, The

Ralph I r o n ) ,

1883

Story of an African

Farm

PREFACE

THIS support

BOOK is a b o u t fossils and a b o u t A f r i c a . T h a n k s t o the g e n e r o u s o f the

National

Geographic

Society,

most

of it

is

based

on

my

e x p e r i e n c e s and f i e l d w o r k e x c a v a t i n g fossils o n the A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . But i t i s a b o u t m o r e than b o n e s d u g f r o m the Earth. I t i s also a b o u t the p e o p l e o f A f r i c a and h o w t h e i r l e g a c i e s h a v e shaped t h e i r l i v e s . A n d i t i s a b o u t h o w such a thing as an e x p e d i t i o n to find t h e a n c i e n t b o n e s of the past can be p u t to use n o w t o h e l p b u i l d t h e f u t u r e . T h e fossils i n this b o o k are t h o s e o f dinosaurs and t h e animals that l i v e d w i t h t h e m — w e i r d c r o c o d i l e s , s t r a n g e m a m m a l s , and m o r e familiar beasts, such as f r o g s and t u r t l e s . It is the w h o l e suite, t h e o n c e l i v i n g c o m m u n i t y , that i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t , b u t dinosaurs catch t h e i m a g i n a t i o n f i r s t . D i n o s a u r s and A f r i c a are t w o subjects that h a v e a s t r a n g e , i f n o t sinister, a p p e a l . D i n o s a u r s are scary giants; A f r i c a i s the D a r k C o n t i n e n t . T h o s e p e r c e p t i o n s o f dinosaurs and

o f A f r i c a are

partly m y t h ,

partly

true;

n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e appeal

they

e n g e n d e r s e e m s t o b e e n d u r i n g f o r e a c h . T h e y are b o t h e x c i t i n g , t r u e e n o u g h . But the v i e w o f A f r i c a a s the D a r k U n k n o w n i s a n o l d idea i n d e e d . A f r i c a i s n o l o n g e r a s i t w a s i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H o w c o u l d i t be? W h i l e s o m e things n e v e r s e e m t o c h a n g e , i n r e a l i t y a l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g d o e s . I n A f r i c a a s e l s e w h e r e i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o a p p r e c i a t e the past, and t o e n j o y t h e p r e s e n t , and

PREFACE

it is necessary to b u i l d f o r t h e f u t u r e . D o e s d i g g i n g f o r fossils in A f r i c a fit that bill? Y o u b e t i t d o e s . In W e s t e r n e y e s A f r i c a is p e r c e i v e d as a land f o r a d v e n t u r e r s and e x p l o r e r s . I t s e e m s that e v e r y o u t l a n d e r w h o has e v e r g o n e t o A f r i c a assumes that h e o r she has f o u n d s o m e t h i n g .

Each has

" d i s c o v e r e d " s o m e part o f the

c o n t i n e n t . But w h i l e A f r i c a is u n d e n i a b l y d i v e r s e and d i f f e r e n t , it has n e v e r b e e n a lost c o n t i n e n t — o n l y u n f a m i l i a r ,

underappreciated,

misunderstood,

o r f o r g o t t e n . E v e r y o u t l a n d e r w h o has e v e r g o n e t o A f r i c a has taken a part o f i t a w a y and

left s o m e t h i n g b e h i n d .

T h e results have

not always been

g o o d , n o r h a v e t h e y a l w a y s b e e n b a d , b u t t h e y h a v e all g o n e i n t o the m i x that m a k e s u p A f r i c a n s o c i e t y . I w a n t t o p u t i n s o m e t h i n g g o o d . I w a n t t o use m y w o r k o n the b o n e s o f A f r i c a t o b u i l d the capabilities o f o n e small p l a c e , r i g h t i n t h e h e a r t o f A f r i c a , s o that the p e o p l e can d o o n t h e i r o w n w h a t I d o w i t h t h e m n o w . I w a n t t o d r i v e m y s e l f e x t i n c t , a t least i n t e r m s of the

paleontological

development

of the

tiny

country

of Malawi.

This

b o o k tells h o w I a m d o i n g it. But i s i t a g o o d t h i n g f o r A f r i c a t o f o c u s the talents o f a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of e d u c a t e d p e o p l e on the study of fossils? Is that n o t f r i v o l o u s ? Is it necessary that a p o o r A f r i c a n n a t i o n d e v o t e r e s o u r c e s to such a t h i n g as fossils? T h a t is f o r A f r i c a n s t o d e c i d e . A t least w e k n o w that fossils are g o o d , i n a v e r y w a r m sense, n o m a t t e r w h e r e t h e y a r e f o u n d , e v e n A f r i c a . Just ask a k i d . B e s i d e s , i t can b e n o m o r e f r i v o l o u s and n o m o r e unnecessary than i n d e v e l o p e d countries,

where

very

respectable

profits

are

made

from

the

sale

of

dinosaurian a c c o u t e r m e n t s and m a n y a n e a g e r m i n d has o p e n e d t o the w o n d e r s o f s c i e n c e after b e i n g t a p p e d b y the e x c i t e m e n t o f t h e L o s t W o r l d o f the past. M o r e o v e r , b y w a y o f e x a m p l e , p a l e o n t o l o g y has c e r t a i n l y b e e n g o o d f o r the A f r i c a n n a t i o n o f K e n y a , j u d g i n g f r o m the lasting v a l u e o f the L e a k e y s ' w o r k b u i l t t h e r e using the fossils o f o u r c o l l e c t i v e h u m a n a n c e s t r y . T h e f i r s t c h a p t e r o f this b o o k d e f i n e s t h e scientific issues i n v o l v e d i n m y A f r i c a n w o r k and discusses h o w I g o t t o A f r i c a i n the f i r s t p l a c e . provides

the background

of evolution

and g e o l o g y necessary

for a

I t also fuller

a p p r e c i a t i o n o f w h y this p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l w o r k i n A f r i c a i s w o r t h d o i n g . T h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r i s d e v o t e d t o t h e m a j o r e a r t h l y f e a t u r e o f this part o f A f r i c a — a giant

lake.

The

lake

influences

e v e r y t h i n g and

everyone

in

the

country,

i n c l u d i n g its e a r l y E u r o p e a n e x p l o r e r s , w h o m a r v e l e d a t i t e v e n a s r e s i d e n t citizens and v i s i t o r s do t o d a y . But the lake is also a g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e , and u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w i t f o r m e d i s essential t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h y the fossils are

PREFACE

t h e r e a t all. T h i s t h e m e i s c o n t i n u e d b y d e t a i l i n g h o w t o f i n d a fossil a n d , o n c e found, h o w to get it out of the g r o u n d . T h e third chapter presents the country o f M a l a w i i n m o r e d e t a i l and narrates the d a y - t o - d a y a c t i v i t i e s o f a fossilh u n t i n g e x p e d i t i o n i n A f r i c a . T h e h u m a n s e t t i n g and its h i s t o r y a r e w o v e n i n t o the

fieldwork,

and that t h r e a d is c a r r i e d t h r o u g h in l a t e r c h a p t e r s . D r a f t s of

C h a p t e r 3 ( a n d parts o f s e v e r a l o t h e r c h a p t e r s ) w e r e w r i t t e n i n the f i e l d . I h o p e this i m p a r t s a n i m m e d i a c y , a spirit o f real t i m e and e x c i t e m e n t , t o m y descriptions

of fieldwork.

T h e n e x t f o u r c h a p t e r s are d e v o t e d t o specific g r o u p s o f fossils and t h e i r significance.

Chapter 4 e x a m i n e s the sauropod dinosaurs, w h i l e Chapter 5

c o v e r s the o t h e r dinosaurs and t h e i r r o l e s i n the M e s o z o i c w o r l d . C h a p t e r 6 discusses the v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g c r o c o d i l e s f r o m M a l a w i and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o t h o s e d i s c o v e r e d i n South A m e r i c a . C h a p t e r 7 i s d e v o t e d t o t h e search f o r early m a m m a l s . C h a p t e r 8 c o v e r s s o m e familiar b u t r a t h e r p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d animals and o u t l i n e s s o m e e n i g m a t i c p a t t e r n s i n l i v i n g s p e c i e s that t r a c e t h e i r roots to m o r e ancient times. T h e ninth c h a p t e r , w h i c h deals w i t h r u m o r s o f l i v i n g dinosaurs i n A f r i c a , is a bit of a s i d e l i n e , b u t a necessary o n e . A f r i c a and its r e m o t e n e s s is o f t e n m i s u n d e r s t o o d i n the W e s t . S c i e n c e i s also o f t e n m i s u n d e r s t o o d . T h e s e t w o p h e n o m e n a manifest themselves i n s o m e strange w a y s . O n e particularly o d d w a y i s t h e search f o r l i v i n g dinosaurs i n t h e s w a m p s o f t h e C o n g o . T h e r e a r e reasons t o l o o k a t A f r i c a a s a c o n t i n e n t e v e r c h a n g i n g t h r o u g h g e o l o g i c time,

w h i c h i t is, r a t h e r than a s a stagnant r e f u g i u m w h e r e l i f e , that o f

dinosaurs o r p e o p l e , n e v e r c h a n g e s . S c i e n c e n e v e r e n d s . Each e x p e r i m e n t a t t e m p t e d , each analysis p e r f o r m e d , each fossil m e a s u r e d o n l y leads t o m o r e q u e s t i o n s , m o r e e x p e r i m e n t s , m o r e analyses,

and m o r e m e a s u r e m e n t s .

Science never stops,

but my w o r k in

A f r i c a i s e n t e r i n g a n e w p h a s e , and that p r o v i d e s a c o n v e n i e n t m i l e p o s t f r o m which to reflect. T h e final chapter, an a f t e r w o r d , is designed to m e l d my f e e l i n g s f o r the c o u n t r y w i t h the scientific results o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n s , and t o p r e s e n t s o m e aspirations f o r the f u t u r e . M y M a l a w i a n c o l l e a g u e s a r e w e l l o n their w a y t o w a r d managing their o w n p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l resources in a p r o f e s sional, w o r l d - c l a s s w a y w i t h o u t n e e d i n g t h e e x p e r t i s e o f o u t l a n d e r s . T h e y a r e b e c o m i n g t h e e x p e r t s o n t h e i r o w n d i n o s a u r s . T h a t i s the w a y i t s h o u l d b e , and this phase o f m y A f r i c a n w o r k m u s t h a p p i l y y i e l d t o m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e strategies that A f r i c a n p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s w i l l w r i t e a b o u t i n t h e f u t u r e . N o n e o f the w o r k r e p o r t e d i n this b o o k c o u l d h a v e b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d

PREFACE

w i t h o u t t h e g o o d w i l l and c o m p a n i o n s h i p o f c o l l e a g u e s i n t h e f i e l d . I have l i s t e d t h e m e m b e r s o f the v a r i o u s A f r i c a n d i n o s a u r e x p e d i t i o n s a t the e n d , b u t I also w i s h t o e x p r e s s m y a p p r e c i a t i o n t o all t h e c o l l e a g u e s o f m a n y nations on other e x p e d i t i o n s in w h i c h I have b e e n a party on three continents. A m o n g these a r e t h e p e o p l e w h o h a v e had t h e g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e o n m y c a r e e r t h r o u g h t h e i r a c t i o n s d u r i n g m y t r a i n i n g and f o r m a t i v e y e a r s , e s p e c i a l l y E v e r e t t H . Lindsay,

Robert F.

Butler,

G e o r g e Gaylord Simpson,

Edwin H.

Colbert,

N o y e M . J o h n s o n , D a v i d P i l b e a m , and m y f e l l o w g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , all o f w h o m h a v e left o n m e a n i n d e l i b l e s t a m p . A n d n o w I a p p r e c i a t e the g r a d u a t e students w h o t e a c h m e t o d a y . I t i s w i t h a g r e a t deal o f fun that I a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m all. Further,

I m u s t a c k n o w l e d g e the f r i e n d s h i p and c o r d i a l c o o p e r a t i o n o f

G a d i M g o m e z u l u , n o w S e c r e t a r y f o r E d u c a t i o n and C u l t u r e , b u t p r e v i o u s l y the Principal C o n s e r v a t o r of Antiquities in M a l a w i . W h e n he m o v e d o n , he was replaced by Yusuf Juwayeyi.

W i t h o u t these t w o f i n e g e n t l e m e n t h e r e

w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o M a l a w i P r o j e c t . I m u s t also thank Z e f e K a u f u l u , n o w a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i , i n this r e g a r d . I n C a m e r o o n I had the e x c e p t i o n a l g o o d f o r t u n e t o b e associated w i t h Joseph V i c t o r H e l l . I a m also g r a t e f u l , f o r various reasons,

to W.

J.

Anderson,

Carolyn B r o w n , Michel Brunet, L.

N e t t a Blanchard,

James E .

Sprague d e C a m p , E d w i n H .

Brooks, Colbert,

W i l l i a m R . D o w n s , M a x F i n e , L a w r e n c e J . F l y n n , Brian M . F o y , Elizabeth Gomani,

John

Goodge,

Robert T.

Gregory,

Vicki

Hansen,

Harvey

Herr,

Paula H e r r , R o d n e y L . H o n e y c u t t , N i c h o l a s H o t t o n I I I , B o n n i e F . Jacobs, R i c h a r d E . L e a k e y , D a v i d James M a x w e l l ( a l s o k n o w n a s V i l l a g e H e a d m a n M a k o n g a n y a ) , A . L e e M c A l e s t e r , Phillip A . M u r r y , M o r r i s Mwafulira, O l i v e r M w e n i f u m b o , K e n t N e w m a n , David Pilbeam, Louis H . T a y l o r , Mary T a y l o r , Alisa J .

W i n k l e r , and D a l e A .

information about Tendaguru.

Winkler.

G e r h a r d M a i e r p r o v i d e d valuable

I am pleased to m e n t i o n the National G e o -

graphic Society, National Science Foundation, Margolis Foundation, Carl B. & F l o r e n c e E.

K i n g F o u n d a t i o n , Institute f o r the Study o f Earth and M a n ,

Johnson & Johnson O r t h o p a e d i c s , C a l t e x P e t r o l e u m C o r p o r a t i o n , and C a l t e x O i l M a l a w i L i m i t e d f o r s u p p o r t i n g this A f r i c a n f i e l d w o r k . T h r e e g e n t l e m e n a t C a l t e x , Brian F o y , S t e v e C a r s o n , and J . B . R . A l l e n , d e s e r v e special thanks f o r facilitating w o r k i n M a l a w i . T h e H u n t i n g f i e l d C o r p o r a t i o n , t h r o u g h the g o o d offices o f O w e n H e n d e r s o n and H . Russell M o r r i s o n , p r o v i d e d f o r the training

of a

Aquarium

Malawian

technician

a l l o w e d access t o

their

in

my

Dallas

extraordinarily

laboratories.

The

Dallas

interesting collection

of

PREFACE

s p e c i e s . M y l i t e r a r y a g e n t , John A . W a r e , m y e d i t o r , D o u g l a s S t u m p f , and the staff at V i l l a r d B o o k s , h a v e b e e n e x c e e d i n g l y skillful and s u p p o r t i v e in b r i n g i n g this b o o k t o f r u i t i o n . T h e illustrations w e r e c h e e r f u l l y , p l e a s a n t l y , enthusiastically, and realistically r e n d e r e d b y M a r y A n n Z a p a l a c .

My wife,

B o n n i e , r e a d and c o m m e n t e d u p o n s e v e r a l d r a f t s , e v e n a p p e a r i n g t o e n j o y t h e p r o c e s s . W h i l e i t m u s t h a v e b e e n hard o n h e r , i t w a s e n c o u r a g i n g t o m e , and I thank h e r f o r it. M y s o n , M a t t h e w , and m y d a u g h t e r , M e l i s s a , w e r e g r e a t helps, especially on the c o m p u t e r . Finally I w i s h t o o f f e r m y p r o f o u n d thanks t o A f r i c a , and i n p a r t i c u l a r t o the p e o p l e and the g o v e r n m e n t s o f M a l a w i , C a m e r o o n , and K e n y a . ZIKOMO!

CONTENTS

Preface List

ix

of Illustrations

xvii

1

T H E

F O R G O T T E N

D I N O S A U R S

O F

A F R I C A

3

2

T A H I T I

W I T H O U T

S A L T

3 6

3

J O U R N A L S

F R O M

T H E

G R O U N D

6 1

T I T A N

L I Z A R D S

119

4

T H E

R O A M I N G

5

A F R I C A N

D I N O S A U R S ,

B E F O R E

A N D

A F T E R

146

xri

6 T H E

C R O C O D I L E

O F

C A R N I V A L

7 F O R

O N E

T O O T H

194

8

O T H E R

N E I G H B O R S

219

9

A

L I V I N G

D I N O S A U R ?

243

10

T H E

Expedition

G O O D

Members

Suggestions Jor Index

O F

305

Further

D I N O S A U R S

285 Reading

291

266

111

L I S T

O F

I L L U S T R A T I O N S

FIGURE 1 (P. 5 ) . Location map of Africa. FIGURE 2 (p. 12). Spinosaurus. FIGURE 3 (P. 1 3 ) . Ouranosaurus. FIGURE 4 (P. 16). African life 145 million years ago. FIGURE S (P. 2 1 ) . David Livingstone and Charles Darwin. FIGURE 6 (p. 2 9 ) . How to date fossils. FIGURE 7 (P. 3 1 ) . Plate tectonics and continental drift. FIGURE 8 (P. 3 3 ) . Magnetic stripes aligned symmetrically along spreading centers such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. FIGURE 9 (p. 3 4 ) . Approximate geographic arrangements of the continents from 200 million years ago to the present. FIGURE 10 (p. 3 7 ) . Location map of Malawi. FIGURE 11 (P. 3 9 ) . Kungu mist, a horde of lakeflies. FIGURE 12 (p. 4 2 ) . Cichlids and a catfish in Lake Malawi. FIGURE 13 (P. 4 4 ) . A contemporary African lungfish. FIGURE 14 (p. 4 6 ) . Formation of the Great Rift Valley. FIGURE 15 (p. 5 5 ) . How to collect a fossil. FIGURE 16 (p. 6 7 ) . A baobab tree. FIGURE 17 (p. 6 9 ) . A Gule Wamkulu of the Nyau society. FIGURE 18 (p. 7 7 ) . A coffle of slaves. FIGURE 19 (P. 8 0 ) . The original Livingstonia Mission and the Ilala. FIGURE 20 (p. 8 1 ) . The Ngoni leader M'Mbelwa. FIGURE 21 (P. 8 6 ) . Malawi sausages—boiled, salted, and dried mice—for sale. FIGURE 22 (P. 9 8 ) . An ingenious spirit lamp. FIGURE 23 (p. 106). Birds of the African bush. FIGURE 24 (p. 108). A woman walking along the road. FIGURE 25 (P. 122). The paleontological Plimsoll line. FIGURE 26 (p. 124). Cantilevered-versus-erect posture in the necks of sauropod dinosaurs. FIGURE 27 (P. 126). The head shape, tooth shape, and family relationships of sauropod dinosaurs. FIGURE 28 (P. 128). Weight distribution in a horse and in a sauropod dinosaur. FIGURE 29 (p. 135). Ball-and-socket tail vertebrae of the titanosaurid sauropod Malawisaurus.

xvii

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

xviii

F I G U R E 30 ( P . 142). A family group of Malawi-saurus in a gallery forest. F I G U R E 31 ( P . 148). Relationships of lizard-hipped dinosaurs. F I G U R E 32 ( P . 149). Relationships of bird-hipped dinosaurs. FIGURE

33

(p.

166).

Archaeopteryx.

F I G U R E 34 ( P . 185). The Malawi crocodile. F I G U R E 35 ( P . 191). A view of the Cretaceous lake at Araripe, Brazil. F I G U R E 36 ( P . 195). Location map of Africa with Cameroon stippled. F I G U R E 37 (p. 2 0 8 ) . A sampling of modern mammals. F I G U R E 38 (p. 2 2 3 ) . A hagfish beginning to feed on a fish carcass. F I G U R E 39 (p. 2 3 2 ) . Green sea turtle. F I G U R E 40 (p. 2 4 1 ) . South American giant anteater. F I G U R E 41 (p. 2 4 8 ) . Giant forest hog. FIGURE

42

(P.

252).

The coelacanth Latimeria chalumnae.

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS OF

AFRICA

"I

BEG T O D R A W y o u r a t t e n t i o n t o A f r i c a . " T h o s e a r e the w o r d s o f

the m i s s i o n a r y D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e .

He was trying to focus the eyes of the

nineteenth-century w o r l d o n the interior o f the D a r k Continent. H e w a n t e d t o d e v e l o p the e c o n o m i c p o t e n t i a l o f its d o w n t r o d d e n slaving g r o u n d s a s a m e a n s o f saving it. O n e o f t h o s e w h o f o l l o w e d L i v i n g s t o n e i n his m i s s i o n w a s H e n r y D r u m m o n d , a n influential Scottish t h e o l o g i a n and scientist. I n 1 8 8 3 , t e n years after Livingstone died,

D r u m m o n d c o n d u c t e d a brief natural-history survey in

British C e n t r a l A f r i c a t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t species o f plants and animals inhabi t e d the r e g i o n , w h i c h m i g h t b e o f e c o n o m i c s i g n i f i c a n c e , and h o w suitable t h e area m i g h t b e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l and m i n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , D r u m m o n d , w h i l e e x c e e d i n g l y pleasant t o b e a r o u n d , w a s more

infatuated

w i t h the

idea o f b e i n g a f a m o u s

African

naturalist

than

e n d o w e d w i t h the attributes t o b e o n e . H i s e f f o r t s i n A f r i c a c a m e t o v e r y l i t t l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r this s t o r y that D r u m m o n d d i s c o v e r e d f o s s i l s — t h e f i r s t f r o m this p a r t o f w h a t u s e d t o b e L i v i n g s t o n e ' s l a n d s c a p e . N o o t h e r s w e r e f o u n d until the n e x t c e n t u r y , w h e n a British p l a n t e r s t u m b l e d across s o m e scraps o f p e t r i f i e d b o n e s and r e p o r t e d t h e m t o c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i ties. T h e y turned out to be dinosaurs.

LOUIS

In

1930,

five

JACOBS,

d e c a d e s after D r u m m o n d f i r s t f o u n d fossils,

PH.D.

the British

M u s e u m ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) sent a n e x p e d i t i o n t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e p o r t s o f dinosaurs. England.

It,

too,

found s o m e .

They

w e r e d u g u p and s h i p p e d back t o

Since t h e n t h o s e o l d d i n o s a u r b o n e s f r o m A f r i c a h a v e b e e n l y i n g

c o m a t o s e , v i r t u a l l y i g n o r e d , d o i n g n o t h i n g but haunting the b a s e m e n t o f the n a t u r a l - h i s t o r y m u s e u m o n C r o m w e l l R o a d , L o n d o n . F o r o v e r f i f t y years n o s e r i o u s d i n o s a u r h u n t e r r e t u r n e d t o f i n d m o r e b o n e s , o r t o m a k e sense o f the r o c k s that e n t o m b t h e m . T h e dinosaurs f r o m the W a r m H e a r t o f A f r i c a , the c o u n t r y n o w c a l l e d M a l a w i , w e r e f o r all practical p u r p o s e s f o r g o t t e n . I f y o u w a n t t o k n o w a b o u t d i n o s a u r s , m o r e specifically A f r i c a n dinosaurs, I s u p p o s e y o u c o u l d start i n the b a s e m e n t o f the British M u s e u m . O r , i n a v e r y b r o a d s o r t o f w a y , y o u c o u l d take the a d v i c e o f the k o l o k o l o b i r d :

" G o to

the banks o f t h e g r e a t g r a y - g r e e n , g r e a s y L i m p o p o R i v e r , all set a b o u t w i t h f e v e r - t r e e s , and f i n d o u t . " I f y o u a r e c u r i o u s a b o u t A f r i c a n fossils, g o t h e r e . T h e r e a r e m o r e b o n e s i n t h e g r o u n d . T h e A f r i c a n dinosaurs i n the British M u s e u m m a y b e m o l d e r i n g i n a state o f s e c l u s i o n , b u t i n t h e t i n y c o u n t r y o f Malawi

(Figure

1)

m o r e b o n e s a r e starting t o e m e r g e

f r o m the badlands

v i s i t e d s o l o n g a g o b y the British e x p e d i t i o n . T h e r e are t h r e e reasons w h y the fossil b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i are significant: First is t h e i r a g e ,

s e c o n d is t h e i r l o c a t i o n ,

and t h i r d is the species t h e y

r e p r e s e n t . A t a b o u t 100 m i l l i o n years o l d , t h e b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i r e p r e s e n t animals

l i v i n g a t the

very time

the

modern

world,

as we k n o w it,

was

b e g i n n i n g t o t a k e o n its o w n d e f i n i t i o n , e v e n a s the dinosaurs r e m a i n e d i n apogee.

T h e i r p l a c e i s significant b e c a u s e a t that t i m e t h e c o n t i n e n t s and

oceans of the w o r l d w e r e rearranging themselves dramatically.

Africa was

o n c e a part o f a g i g a n t i c s o u t h e r n s u p e r c o n t i n e n t . T h e o n c e - l i v i n g species that i n h a b i t e d i t , and t h e i r fossil b o n e s , a r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m animals that w e r e a t o n e t i m e p a r t o f a w i d e s p r e a d c o m m u n i t y l i v i n g o n the h u g e landmass. But A f r i c a w a s b r e a k i n g a w a y . M e m b e r s o f the g l o b a l animal c o m m u n i t y e v o l v e d t h e i r separate w a y s after A f r i c a , South A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a , India, and A n t a r c tica b e c a m e s e p a r a t e . M a l a w i i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t because the b o n e s that a r e e m e r g i n g t h e r e are abundant and w e l l p r e s e r v e d , and i t i s the o n l y p l a c e w h e r e s o m e u n i q u e s p e c i e s can b e f o u n d . T h a t b r i n g s u s t o the t h i r d reason w h y t h e b o n e s i n M a l a w i are significant: T h e y r e p r e s e n t a w i n d o w i n t o the past, a v i e w o f a n a n c i e n t c o m m u n i t y , that has n o t b e e n s e e n e l s e w h e r e . T h e R e p u b l i c o f M a l a w i i n s o u t h e a s t e r n A f r i c a i s a bit l a r g e r than L o u i s i ana, b u t n e a r l y a q u a r t e r of its area is w a t e r . A l a k e , L a k e M a l a w i , d o m i n a t e s the c o u n t r y . I t i s 3 6 0 m i l e s l o n g . T h e w h o l e c o u n t r y i s n o t all that m u c h

THE

FORGOTTEN

FIGURE

1:

DINOSAURS

Location map of Africa.

David Livingstone,

is stippled.

OF

Malawi,

AFRICA

a part of the Interior explored by

The major lakes of Africa are shown in black.

string of lakes in eastern Africa owe their existence to the Great Rift

The

Valley.

l o n g e r . A t its w i d e s t , the shores are 5 0 m i l e s a p a r t , a t its n a r r o w e s t , 1 1 . T h e total

area

Hampshire,

of Lake

Malawi

b u t n o t all

Mozambiquan territory.

is

almost

of it belongs

equal to

to

that

Malawi;

o f the

state

part of the

of N e w

lake

is

in

I t i s the w o r l d ' s t h i r d d e e p e s t l a k e , b e h i n d L a k e

T a n g a n y i k a , w h i c h lies just t o the n o r t h , and L a k e Baikal i n A s i a , w h i c h i s the

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D

d e e p e s t . L a k e M a l a w i i s 2 , 3 0 0 f e e t d e e p , n e a r l y half a m i l e , w i t h the surface at an e l e v a t i o n of 1,550 f e e t a b o v e sea l e v e l , and its d e e p e s t p o i n t at 7 5 0 f e e t b e l o w sea l e v e l . T h e L a k e i s fresh and b l u e , f i l l e d b y y e a r l y rains. I t drains t o the s o u t h , via t h e Shire R i v e r t o the Z a m b e z i . T h e Z a m b e z i f l o w s i n t o the Indian O c e a n south of C h i n d e in M o z a m b i q u e . M a l a w i is a beautiful s e t t i n g , and i t has b o n e s — l o t s o f t h e m .

AFRICA

HAS

BEEN f o r e v e r t h e m o s t i n t r o v e r t e d o f i n h a b i t e d c o n t i n e n t s .

T h e r e is no w a y a r o u n d the c l i c h e . It has a m y s t i q u e , a l e g a c y of e x o t i c t r i b e s , w i l d a n i m a l s , diseases, the u n k n o w n . F o r c e n t u r i e s the A r a b s , British, F r e n c h , G e r m a n s , and P o r t u g u e s e w e r e h e l d a t bay b y the f e v e r s o f D a r k e s t A f r i c a . Still the slavers and e x p l o r e r s , t r a d e r s and p l a n t e r s , and the m e n l i k e L i v i n g s t o n e — w h i t e s w i t h a m i s s i o n o f G o d — i n v a d e d the c o n t i n e n t . T h e y c a m e , and t h e y t o o k , and s o m e o f t h e m b e l i e v e d t h e y s a v e d .

But A f r i c a , t h o u g h

changed, was n o t assimilated. A c e n t u r y has passed. A f r i c a , its p e o p l e , and its animals are e x o t i c to this d a y . I t r e m a i n s u n k n o w n t o u s i n t h e W e s t . T h e m y s t i q u e r e m a i n s . But the m y s t i q u e e v o l v e s . T h e r e are still snakes, and s c o r p i o n s , and malaria. T h e r e i s m o r e w i l d g a m e than a n y w h e r e e l s e o n Earth. But a n e w set o f p r o b l e m s has taken o v e r t h e c o n t i n e n t . Starvation r e p l a c e s s l a v e r y . T h e r e a l i t y o f A I D S surpasses t h e d r e a d o f o t h e r diseases. T h e s p e c t e r o f e x t i n c t i o n supplants the e x c i t e m e n t o f d i s c o v e r y . O n safari, strings o f p o r t e r s h a v e lost t h e i r j o b s t o L a n d C r u i s e r s . A n d n o w w e s h o o t w i t h c a m e r a s . But the m y s t i q u e r e m a i n s . T h e mystique of Africa attracted m e , yet h o w I g o t there was as much an a c c i d e n t , an u n p r e d i c t a b l e set of c i r c u m s t a n c e s , as it w a s anything e l s e . F o r the kinds o f things I w a n t e d t o d o , g e t t i n g t o A f r i c a has n e v e r b e e n particularly easy. A s i t e n d e d u p , i n 1981 I w e n t t o w o r k f o r R i c h a r d L e a k e y a s head o f t h e D i v i s i o n o f P a l a e o n t o l o g y a t the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m s o f K e n y a . T h e L e a k e y f a m i l y and K e n y a , f i r m l y set i n the C r a d l e o f H u m a n k i n d , are f a m o u s f o r t h e i r d i s c o v e r i e s o f the r e m a i n s o f o u r early ancestors a t O l d u v a i G o r g e , L a k e T u r k a n a , and o t h e r places i n East A f r i c a . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e i s a s u p e r b c o l l e c t i o n o f o l d b o n e s f r o m the R i f t V a l l e y and L a k e V i c t o r i a s t o r e d i n the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m i n N a i r o b i , w h e r e R i c h a r d w a s d i r e c t o r . I t w a s m y responsibility

- r a v great fun—

to oversee them.

I g o t t h e j o b in N a i r o b i because I w a s in the r i g h t p l a c e at the r i g h t t i m e . T h e small m u s e u m i n A r i z o n a w h e r e I had b e e n w o r k i n g f o r the t h r e e years

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA

since g e t t i n g m y P h . D . w a s laying o f f r e s e a r c h e r s , and I w a s o n e m a r k e d t o go.

I

figured

I

would

be

out

o f the

bone

business

altogether

and

into

s o m e t h i n g e l s e , m a y b e selling s h o e s . It r e a l l y d i d n o t m a t t e r w h a t I d i d if I was n o t d o i n g fossils. I r a t i o n a l i z e d that the

fieldwork

I had d o n e p r e v i o u s l y

i n the w e s t e r n U n i t e d States, M e x i c o , and Pakistan d u r i n g t h e t i m e that I w a s lucky e n o u g h t o b e a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t had b e e n its o w n r e w a r d . C i r c u m s t a n c e s w e r e just m o v i n g m e o n . M y o n g o i n g f i e l d w o r k a t the t i m e w a s i n Pakistan. I had b e e n g o i n g t h e r e f o r the past six years as p a r t of a l a r g e r p r o j e c t t r y i n g to u n r a v e l the A s i a n chapter of human e v o l u t i o n ,

that o f t h e last e i g h t e e n m i l l i o n y e a r s ,

from

fossils f o u n d i n t h e s o u t h e r n f o o t h i l l s o f t h e H i m a l a y a s . T h e r e a r e similarities i n the fossil r e c o r d b e t w e e n Asia and A f r i c a i n d i c a t i n g that t h e r e w a s i n the past a certain a m o u n t o f m i g r a t i o n i n v o l v i n g a n u m b e r o f kinds o f a n i m a l s , i n c l u d i n g p r i m a t e s , s o m e o f w h i c h are c l o s e l y associated w i t h h u m a n ancestry.

T h e r e are m a n y kinds o f fossils f o u n d i n Pakistan,

and m y particular

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w a s t o f i n d , c o l l e c t , and i n t e r p r e t t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y p a t t e r n s o f all the t i n y m a m m a l s , such as m i c e , the o n e s so small that t h e y had b e e n overlooked before.

Because t h e y can b e f o u n d i n m u c h g r e a t e r a b u n d a n c e

than h o m i n o i d p r i m a t e s w h e n s e a r c h e d f o r w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n i q u e s , the small m a m m a l s p r o v i d e useful m o d e l s f o r e v o l u t i o n i n s o u t h e r n A s i a g e n e r a l l y , and t h e y r e f l e c t c l o s e ties t o A f r i c a . I had at least o n e m o r e t r i p to Pakistan left w h i l e I still had a j o b .

It

o c c u r r e d t o m e that, since I w a s g o i n g t o b e o u t o f t h e business a n y w a y , I should have a final fling and do w h a t I had l o n g w a n t e d to d o . I should h a v e m y last p l a n e t i c k e t h o m e f r o m K a r a c h i w r i t t e n t h r o u g h A f r i c a b e c a u s e , I t h o u g h t , I w o u l d n e v e r g e t a n o t h e r c h a n c e t o see it. As

circumstances

would

have

it,

a t this

same

time

p a l e o n t o l o g y just h a p p e n e d t o b e m o v i n g o n a s w e l l . Leakey was in L o n d o n . project. position.

L e a k e y ' s head

of

Unbeknownst to m e ,

S o w a s D a v i d P i l b e a m , the l e a d e r o f t h e Pakistan

L e a k e y m e n t i o n e d that h e n e e d e d a r e p l a c e m e n t t o f i l l the vacant David

gave

my

name.

Meanwhile,

while

they

were

talking

in

L o n d o n , I w a s i n t h e f i e l d i n Pakistan talking a b o u t A f r i c a w i t h A n d r e w H i l l , one o f Leakey's e m p l o y e e s f r o m the m u s e u m i n N a i r o b i . A n d r e w w o u l d n o t b e i n N a i r o b i w h e n I w e n t t h r o u g h , b u t h e g a v e m e the k e y s t o his flat and a l e t t e r o f i n t r o d u c t i o n t o take t o R i c h a r d . I m e t L e a k e y f o r the first t i m e on that t r i p .

It w a s in his office at t h e

m u s e u m . I t h o u g h t it w a s just an o p p o r t u n i t y to m e e t h i m as a c o l l e a g u e . But

LOUIS

it was a j o b i n t e r v i e w .

There I was,

JACOBS,

PH.D.

i n f o r m a l , u n t u c k e d , r o l l e d u p , and

b e t h o n g e d . Because 1 d i d n o t k n o w o f t h e w o r d s b e t w e e n D a v i d , A n d r e w , and R i c h a r d , I w a s i g n o r a n t , u n a w a r e , and a n y t h i n g b u t n e r v o u s . T h a t m u s t h a v e b e e n w h a t d i d it. " I a m l o o k i n g t o h i r e s o m e o n e , " said L e a k e y .

T H E NEXT N O V E M B E R B o n n i e and I g o t m a r r i e d . She w a s still i n g r a d u a t e s c h o o l a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a , s t u d y i n g fossil p o l l e n and w h a t i t tells a b o u t a n c i e n t plants and e n v i r o n m e n t s . A m o n t h after w e g o t m a r r i e d , I left f o r A f r i c a w h i l e B o n n i e stayed b e h i n d t o w o r k o n h e r r e s e a r c h . I n A p r i l , after her P h . D . dissertation t o o k shape, Bonnie j o i n e d m e i n N a i r o b i . O u r African e x p e r i e n c e had b e g u n , and i t w a s e x c i t i n g f o r u s b o t h . B o n n i e set u p a p o l l e n l a b o r a t o r y and I w o r k e d w i t h b o n e s . A n d I n e v e r had t o g e t o u t o f the fossil business. M a n y o f m y duties i n K e n y a ran a u t o m a t i c a l l y . T h e staff w a s w e l l t r a i n e d and q u i t e pleasant. A l l the c u r a t o r s k n e w t h e i r f u n c t i o n s l o n g b e f o r e I a r r i v e d . A l f r e d a , M a r y , E m m a , A l i c e , and t h e o t h e r s n e e d e d l i t t l e s u p e r v i s i o n . T h e y l o o k e d after the c o l l e c t i o n s and I h e l p e d l o o k a f t e r f o r e i g n r e s e a r c h e r s .

I

c o n d u c t e d t r a i n i n g classes that h e l p e d t h e staff i n t h e i r w o r k and h e l p e d m e t o l e a r n A f r i c a n fossils. O n e o f m y g r e a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s — a n d p l e a s u r e s — i n L e a k e y ' s a b s e n c e w a s t o s h o w visitors t h r o u g h the c a t h e d r a l l i k e vault h o l d i n g t h e s a c r e d f o s s i l i z e d r e m a i n s o f h u m a n a n c e s t o r s . S o m e t i m e s the visitors w e r e d i g n i t a r i e s , such a s the f o r m e r s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l o f the U n i t e d N a t i o n s f r o m V e n e z u e l a , Javier P e r e z d e Akihito,

Cuellar,

o r the

C r o w n Prince,

now Emperor

o f Japan.

T h e v i e w i n g o f the p r i m a t e fossils, t h o s e m o s t majestic relics o f h u m a n e v o l u t i o n , each o n e d e l i c a t e l y c u s h i o n e d i n a c u s t o m - m a d e p r o t e c t i v e b o x , i s a s o l e m n c e r e m o n y i n d e e d . O n e b y o n e the b o x e s are r e m o v e d f r o m steel c a b i n e t s and p l a c e d on p a d d e d t a b l e s . T h e n s l o w l y , a t o p is l i f t e d , a s p e c i m e n i s b a t h e d i n soft light.

D u r i n g that f i r s t m o m e n t e v e r y o n e i n the v a u l t ,

e v e r y o n e w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , i s struck w i t h t h e s a m e a w e s o m e e m o t i o n . I t i s a b l o w that r e v e r b e r a t e s t h r o u g h the r e a c h e s o f h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s , like t h u n d e r b u t m o r e pleasant, d e a f e n i n g y e t stirring d e e p i n t o t h e soul. T o b e i n the p r e s e n c e o f such t r e m e n d o u s fossil

r e m i n d e r s o f o u r c o m m o n and

distant past i s a m o v i n g e x p e r i e n c e l i k e n o o t h e r , n o t r e l i g i o u s but inspiring all the m o r e . F r o m that v a n t a g e p o i n t , w i t h the vast e v o l u t i o n a r y distances

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA

o u r species has t r a v e l e d c l e a r l y in v i e w , t a n g i b l e and c r e d i b l e , it is but a s h o r t step t o the f u t u r e . N o o t h e r set o f fossils s o f o r c e f u l l y e m p h a s i z e s the n o t i o n that the w o r l d o f t o m o r r o w w i l l b e shaped b y the a c t i o n s o f t h o s e l i v i n g t o d a y because n o o t h e r set o f fossils d e m o n s t r a t e s s o frankly that w e o u r s e l v e s are the e a r t h l y p r o d u c t o f the lives o f distant and e q u a l l y e a r t h l y a n t e c e d e n t s .

O N SAFARI I N T O t h e A f r i c a n bush I s a w vast h e r d s o f a n t e l o p e , f a m i l i e s o f elephants,

and p r i d e s o f l i o n s .

C r o c o d i l e s basked o n the

w a r m banks o f

w a t e r c o u r s e s . I t r a v e l e d t h r o u g h d e e p r e d soil o n dusty r o a d s that h u n g l i k e native necklaces around

Mount Kenya,

s t r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r small

vegetable

p l o t s and s t e e p , hillside m a i z e shambas, d a n g l i n g f r o m t h e b y w a y s like b a n g l e s in

the

cool

K i k u y u highlands.

m o l e h i l l o f the g o d s ,

The

magnificent

volcano

and the s p l e n d i d scar that i s the

Kilimanjaro,

the

Great Rift Valley

testified t o the g e o l o g i c a l t e n s i o n c o n c e a l e d b e n e a t h t h e A f r i c a n l a n d s c a p e , c r e a t i n g i n places the c o n d i t i o n s just r i g h t f o r fossils. E v e n a t o u r h o m e , i n v i e w o f t h e N g o n g H i l l s , giraffe b r o w s e d b e l o w o u r h o u s e o u t s i d e t h e N a i r o b i suburb o f K a r e n . D u i k e r s ate t h e b e s t c a b b a g e s f r o m o u r g a r d e n . E a g l e o w l s r o o s t e d i n the t r e e s and g r u n t e d l i k e pigs i n t h e n i g h t .

Y e t while I was

s u r r o u n d e d b y this v i b r a n t w i l d l i f e and s u p e r b s c e n e r y , i n m y w o r k a t the m u s e u m I w a s i m m e r s e d i n l i f e ' s h i s t o r y — t h e r e m a i n s , e x c a v a t e d f r o m the Earth, of beasts and humans that e x i s t e d in past m i l l e n n i a . I d u g fossils m y s e l f f r o m the m u s t y m u d s t o n e o f the T u g e n H i l l s . D i r t f r o m the r o c k y g r a v e s o f ancient animals g r o u n d u n d e r m y f i n g e r n a i l s . A f r i c a is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p i e c e of t h e p u z z l e that is the fossil r e c o r d , and my

time

in

Nairobi

complemented

what

f i e l d w o r k i n b o t h N o r t h A m e r i c a and A s i a .

I

had

already

observed

in

my

I e n j o y e d b e i n g i n the A f r i c a n

s e t t i n g , l e a r n i n g w h a t A f r i c a had t o say a b o u t h o w life c h a n g e d f r o m the b o n e s o f t h e past t o the flesh and b l o o d o f t o d a y . M o s t o f m y r e s e a r c h e x p e r i e n c e w a s w i t h m a m m a l s — t h o s e animals that, w h i l e l i v i n g , h a v e fur, p r o d u c e m i l k , and s h o w p a r e n t a l care o f t h e i r y o u n g . In fact, as I m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , I w a s a specialist on rats d u e to my d o c t o r a l research o n fossil r o d e n t t e e t h f r o m Pakistan. I t s e e m s o d d t o say i t n o w , s o m u c h o u t o f c o n t e x t , but that i s w h a t I g o t m y P h . D . f o r — f o s s i l rats, m i l l i o n s o f years o l d . I t m a y s e e m o d d a l s o , b u t t h e y a r e v e r y , v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . T h e i r fossils speak o f t h e i r o w n special e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e o f t e n abundant a s fossils, t h e y can s e r v e t o r e s o l v e g e o l o g i c t i m e . T h e y can

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D

e v e n t e l l u s a b o u t e v o l u t i o n a r y p h e n o m e n a that m i g h t also affect o t h e r kinds o f a n i m a l s , a n a l o g o u s t o t h e w a y l a b o r a t o r y m i c e are used i n m e d i c a l e x p e r i ments as m o d e l s for humans. T h e r e a r e p l e n t y o f fossil m a m m a l s i n A f r i c a , and s t u d y i n g fossil rats w o u l d h a v e b e e n the l o g i c a l w a y f o r m e t o p r o c e e d .

A n d i n fact I h a v e k e p t a n

i n t e r e s t in t h e m . But I w a s i n t e r e s t e d in o t h e r things and o t h e r animals as w e l l . I w a n t e d a n o t h e r r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t . O n e that w a s n e w t o m e and o u t o f t h e o r d i n a r y . T h a t i s a b i g o r d e r i n A f r i c a , w h e r e all p r o j e c t s a r e , b y nature o f t h e i r v e n u e , o u t o f t h e o r d i n a r y . I w a n t e d s o m e t h i n g that w o u l d m a k e a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e w o r l d o f fossils. A t t h e t i m e , t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e d i n o s a u r b o n e k n o w n f r o m all o f K e n y a , and i t w a s f r o m a n e x t r e m e l y r e m o t e area w e s t o f L a k e T u r k a n a . I c o u l d see i t e v e r y day b e c a u s e i t w a s o n display a t the M u s e u m i n N a i r o b i . I t had b e e n f o u n d years e a r l i e r , but n o p a l e o n t o l o g i s t since had b e e n back t o t h e s p o t . I w a s n o t , a t that t i m e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n d i n o s a u r s . T h e y w e r e f o r k i d s , and m u c h t o o p o p u l a r f o r a n e g g h e a d scientist like m e . B e s i d e s , d i d w e n o t a l r e a d y k n o w e v e r y t h i n g w o r t h k n o w i n g a b o u t dinosaurs? W h a t I w a s i n t e r ested in was w h a t might be found w i t h t h e m . T h e r e could be early m a m m a l s in t h e s a m e strata. I k n e w that unless A f r i c a w a s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r e s t o f the w o r l d d u r i n g the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , the r o c k s that the K e n y a n d i n o s a u r b o n e had c o m e f r o m c o u l d b e n o y o u n g e r than 6 6 m i l l i o n years o l d . T h a t w a s w h e n dinosaurs w e n t e x t i n c t , l o n g b e f o r e any o f t h e fossil m a m m a l s k n o w n f r o m K e n y a had l i v e d . If dinosaur bones w e r e p r e s e r v e d in those ancient sediments, other bones c o u l d b e a s w e l l . I f I c o u l d f i n d m a m m a l s , any m a m m a l s , f r o m that p a r t o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s i n A f r i c a , I w o u l d m a k e a significant scientific c o n t r i b u t i o n t o w a r d k n o w i n g h o w t h e kinds o f animals w e see t o d a y e v o l v e d . Such a f i n d w o u l d b e v e r y , v e r y i m p o r t a n t . T h e fossils w o u l d b e t i n y . T h e y w o u l d b e s t r a n g e . T h e y w o u l d b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m a n y t h i n g k n o w n t o d a y , b u t just h o w t h e y w o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t I c o u l d n o t say b e c a u s e n o o n e had e v e r s e e n t h e m b e f o r e . M o s t l i k e l y o n l y t h e i r t e e t h , t h e h a r d e s t , m o s t d u r a b l e parts o f t h e b o d y , w o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d . T h e y w o u l d b e m i n u t e . Each s p e c i m e n w o u l d n e s t l e snugly on t h e head of a p i n . But I k n e w I c o u l d find t h e m ; I w o u l d use the s a m e t e c h n i q u e s I had used p r e v i o u s l y to find s i n g l e , i s o l a t e d rat t e e t h in much younger rocks. I a p p r o a c h e d L e a k e y f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o search f o r m a m m a l s i n the dinosaur b e d s w e s t o f L a k e T u r k a n a . I t w a s n o t f o r t h c o m i n g . H e said n o . T h e reasons w e r e l e g i t i m a t e , but I was shattered. W h a t was I to do? I was convinced of

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA //

the scientific i m p o r t a n c e o f f i n d i n g e a r l y m a m m a l s i n A f r i c a , y e t I c o u l d n o t g o t o the s p o t I had p i c k e d t o search. I e x a m i n e d m a p s o f K e n y a t o f i n d suitable r o c k s s o m e w h e r e e l s e . T h e r e w e r e s o m e d o w n b y t h e c o a s t , a b i t o l d , b u t still i n t e r e s t i n g , a b o u t f o r t y m i l e s inland f r o m the o l d A r a b p o r t c i t y o f M o m b a s a . B o n n i e s e a r c h e d w i t h m e . N o luck. D i s a p p o i n t e d but n o t d e f e a t e d , i t w a s n o t i n t h e cards f o r m e t o f i n d early m a m m a l s i n K e n y a . I r e t r e a t e d f r o m the K e n y a coast. Still I c o u l d n o t g i v e u p . I r e a d a b o u t o t h e r A f r i c a n d i n o s a u r s , t r y i n g t o l o c a t e a n o t h e r p l a c e t o g o i n search o f e a r l y m a m m a l s . A f r i c a n dinosaurs h a v e n o t b e e n f o u n d in all that m a n y p l a c e s . Fish-eating Spinosaurus ( F i g u r e 2) and a f e w o t h e r s w e r e k n o w n f r o m E g y p t . T h e y had b e e n c o l l e c t e d b y G e r m a n s and s h i p p e d o f f t o E u r o p e , b u t m o s t o f t h e i r b o n e s w e r e d e s t r o y e d i n W o r l d W a r I I w h e n Stuttgart w a s b o m b e d b y A l l i e d f o r c e s . T h e F r e n c h had a f e w localities i n r e m o t e N o r t h A f r i c a . T h e star d i n o s a u r l o c a l i t y i n f r a n c o p h o n e (French-speaking) W e s t Africa is Gadoufaoua in N i g e r . At Gadoufaoua beautiful b o n e s o f t h e t w o - l e g g e d , s a i l - b a c k e d , h e r b i v o r o u s Ouranosaurus ( F i g u r e 3 ) w e r e f o u n d , a l o n g w i t h bits and p i e c e s and s k e l e t o n s o f f i s h , t u r t l e s , c r o c o d i l e s , and o t h e r d i n o s a u r s .

T h e F r e n c h w e r e r u m o r e d t o b e searching f o r

mammals there. O f the a g e I w a s i n t e r e s t e d i n , o n e l e g b o n e w a s k n o w n f r o m M o z a m b i q u e , a f e w scraps w e r e r e p o r t e d f r o m Z a m b i a , and a f e w m o r e f r o m Z i m b a b w e . A small handful

of localities w e r e

containing only

the

scattered around

f r a g m e n t a r y parts

of single

southern Africa,

skeletons.

Together

each they

added up to a m e a g e r r e c o r d . W h a t I n e e d e d was a locality rich in b o n e so that tiny m a m m a l s m i g h t h a v e a g r e a t e r c h a n c e o f b e i n g e n t o m b e d i n the s e d i m e n t s a l o n g w i t h any dinosaur parts.

E v e n w i t h all these- r e p o r t s , and

d e s p i t e a l o n g h i s t o r y o f e x p e d i t i o n s , t h e r e w a s n o d e n y i n g that A f r i c a w a s v e r y n e a r l y a f o r g o t t e n land f o r dinosaurs and the animals that l i v e d w i t h t h e m . I d e c i d e d that the b e s t p l a c e f o r m e t o g o f o r w h a t I w a n t e d t o d o w a s T e n d a g u r u in southern Tanzania. T h e grandest c o l l e c t i o n of dinosaur b o n e s e v e r t o c o m e o u t o f A f r i c a i s f r o m t h e r e . I t i s hard t o i m a g i n e a site r i c h e r i n dinosaurs. I t ranks a s o n e o f t h e t r u l y g r e a t d i n o s a u r l o c a l i t i e s o f the w o r l d . T e n d a g u r u ! Its n a m e c o n j u r e s u p the A f r i c a n m y s t i q u e . E v e r y t h i n g a b o u t T e n d a g u r u and its l o n g h i s t o r y m a d e m e w a n t t o g o t h e r e . T h e r e w a s e v e n a t r a d i t i o n l i n k i n g i t t o the m u s e u m i n N a i r o b i .

Louis Leakey,

Richard's

father, s e r v e d o n the f i r s t British e x p e d i t i o n t o T e n d a g u r u i n 1 9 2 4 w h e n this part o f T a n z a n i a w a s c a l l e d T a n g a n y i k a . Fate t o o k L o u i s L e a k e y t o T e n d a g u r u . W h i l e a s t u d e n t a t C a m b r i d g e , h e

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

12

FIGURE lungflsh.

2:

SPINOSAURUS,

a

carnivorous

shipped them to Europe, Stuttgart during

World

Africa,

eating

a

large

projections from

the

who

where they were destroyed in the Allied bombing of

War II.

SPINOSAURUS has a long,

suggests it might have eaten fish, long

dinosaur from

Bones of this beast were found in Egypt by German expeditions,

narrow snout,

which

and a saillike hump on its back supported by

vertebrae.

Like

other

of SPINOSAURUS would show three pointed toes.

carnivorous

dinosaurs,

the footprints

THE

FIGURE

FORGOTTEN

3:

DINOSAURS

OURANOSAURUS,

an

first discovered by the French the

OF

AFRICA

herbivorous dinosaur from Africa.

in

West Africa.

Although

vertebrae supporting a saillike hump similar to

SPINOSAURUS,

the two are not closely related.

grouped with

the duck-billed dinosaurs.

formidably

clawed

than

those

was

has long projections off

that seen

in

meat-eating

OURANOSAURUS is a plant-eater

Its footprints

of carnivorous

it

This dinosaur

would show blunter toes,

less

dinosaurs.

w a s k i c k e d i n the h e a d , t w i c e , i n a r u g b y m a t c h . T h i s caused his c r a n i u m t o ache w h e n e v e r h e c o n c e n t r a t e d . Studies w e r e o u t ; h e w a s f o r c e d t o take a y e a r ' s l e a v e . B e i n g b o r n i n K e n y a o f m i s s i o n a r y p a r e n t s , and b e i n g fluent i n Kiswahili,

a language used w i d e l y across East A f r i c a ,

he had the A f r i c a n

e x p e r i e n c e the e x p e d i t i o n n e e d e d and the t i m e o f f f r o m his studies t o a l l o w h i m t o take part i n the w o r k o f e x c a v a t i n g dinosaurs i n t h e c o n t i n e n t that w a s his h o m e .

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

14 E v e n b e f o r e L o u i s L e a k e y , T e n d a g u r u had a n illustrious history i n the annals o f p a l e o n t o l o g y . B o n e s w e r e f i r s t d i s c o v e r e d t h e r e b y a G e r m a n m i n i n g e n g i n e e r in Ostafrika.

By

1907,

in w h a t w a s t h e n c a l l e d

G e r m a n East A f r i c a ,

Deutsch-

1909 there was an e x p e d i t i o n under w a y , w e l l financed, for

G e r m a n h o n o r , t h r o u g h the d o g g e d d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the d i r e c t o r o f B e r l i n ' s n a t u r a l - h i s t o r y m u s e u m . E x c a v a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d f o r f i v e years until January 1 9 1 3 . A t the h e i g h t o f f i e l d w o r k n e a r l y f i v e h u n d r e d l a b o r e r s w e r e e m p l o y e d , all o f w h o m , and m a n y o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s , had t o b e p r o v i d e d w i t h f o o d and water.

I m a g i n e the logistics o f s u p p l y i n g a small t o w n f u l o f e x c a v a t o r s i n

t r o p i c a l A f r i c a e i g h t y years a g o . A f r i c a n c r e w s w o r k e d i n t h e pits u n d e r t h e w a t c h f u l e y e s o f t h e i r w h i t e s u p e r v i s o r s , scratching h u g e b o n e s f r o m t h e Earth. Each fossil w a s encased i n plaster o r c o v e r e d w i t h r e d m u d t o p r o t e c t i t f r o m d a m a g e .

T h e n i t was

c u s h i o n e d i n d r y grass and c r a t e d i n c y l i n d e r s o f b a m b o o slats and r o u n d c r o s s - s e c t i o n s o f l o g s . M o r e than 2 5 0 t o n s , w e l l o v e r f i v e thousand m a n - l o a d s o f fossils, each c a r r i e d o n a n aching s h o u l d e r o r t e e t e r i n g a t o p a t h r o b b i n g h e a d , w e r e t r a n s p o r t e d o v e r f i f t y m i l e s f r o m T e n d a g u r u t o the Indian O c e a n a t L i n d i t o b e s h i p p e d t o E u r o p e . I m a g i n e t h e e n d l e s s lines o f p o r t e r s snaking t h e i r w a y f o r days t o w a r d the c o a s t . T h i s w a s t h e A f r i c a o f t h e m o v i e s . N e v e r b e f o r e has t h e r e b e e n a d i n o s a u r e x p e d i t i o n of such m a g n i t u d e . It is difficult t o c o n c e i v e o f t h e r e e v e r b e i n g o n e l i k e i t again. In

1 9 1 4 , a t the h e i g h t o f the G e r m a n T e n d a g u r u e x p e d i t i o n s , the First

W o r l d W a r spread t o A f r i c a f r o m E u r o p e . Africa of the m o v i e s , Hepburn

in

because

The African

Queen.

our only But the

F o r m o s t o f u s this i s also the

familiarity

with

war was real.

it is

The

B o g a r t and

c o m m a n d e r of

G e r m a n f o r c e s i n East A f r i c a w a s Paul v o n L e t t o w - V o r b e c k , w h o s e n a m e s a k e is t h e T e n d a g u r u d i n o s a u r Dryosaurus lettowvorbecki.

Lake Malawi

in A u g u s t

1 9 1 4 w a s t h e v e n u e o f t h e f i r s t British naval v i c t o r y o f the w a r . T h e British s t e a m s h i p Guendolen fired u p o n a G e r m a n g u n b o a t , the Hermann von Wissman, w h i l e i t w a s b e a c h e d f o r r e p a i r s . T h e G e r m a n c a p t a i n , w h o k n e w the British captain as a f r i e n d , r o w e d o u t to the Guendolen to find o u t w h a t w a s h a p p e n ing.

He was placed under arrest.

G e r m a n y l o s t the

w a r and its A f r i c a n c o l o n i e s .

The

Cameroons were

d i v i d e d b e t w e e n Britain and F r a n c e . N a m i b i a b e c a m e a S o u t h A f r i c a n p r o t e c torate.

Deutsch-Ostafrika b e c a m e T a n g a n y i k a T e r r i t o r y in British East A f r i c a .

T h u s t h e stage w a s set f o r t h e British M u s e u m t o e n t e r T e n d a g u r u , w h i c h i t d i d a d e c a d e l a t e r . A n d , w i t h t h e British e n t r y i n t o T e n d a g u r u , the L e a k e y f a m i l y , b e c a u s e o f L o u i s ' s a c h i n g h e a d , e n t e r e d i n t o the w o r l d o f dinosaurs.

THE

FORGOTTEN

The

leader

DINOSAURS

o f the

first

British

OF

AFRICA

Tendaguru

expedition

was

a

Canadian

dinosaur h u n t e r n a m e d W . E . C u t l e r . H e had n e v e r b e e n t o A f r i c a b e f o r e , and that is w h y L o u i s L e a k e y , w i t h his k n o w l e d g e of A f r i c a as a n a t i v e - b o r n K e n y a n , w a s s o v a l u a b l e t o the e x p e d i t i o n . L e a k e y p r o c e e d e d b e f o r e C u t l e r f r o m L o n d o n t o L i n d i o n the A f r i c a n c o a s t , t h e n , w i t h fifteen p o r t e r s , h e set off u p - c o u n t r y t o T e n d a g u r u . Eight w e e k s l a t e r , i n June 1 9 2 4 , L e a k e y g u i d e d C u t l e r t o the c a m p h e had b u i l t . T h e t w o wazungu, hundred laborers,

whites, hired about a

s o m e f r o m a s far a w a y a s N y a s a l a n d ,

now Malawi.

In

O c t o b e r L e a k e y left f o r E n g l a n d w h i l e C u t l e r r e m a i n e d . N i n e m o n t h s later C u t l e r w a s d e a d o f malaria. C u t l e r w a s r e p l a c e d b y F . W . H . M i g e o d . H e had A f r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e f r o m his civil s e r v i c e b a c k g r o u n d , b u t h e w a s n o t a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t . I n 1 9 3 0 M i g e o d and a n assistant,

Rex

e x p l o r a t o r y side t r i p

Parrington,

a y o u n g C a m b r i d g e student,

made

an

f r o m Tendaguru to Nyasaland to d e t e r m i n e if bones

r e p o r t e d f r o m the n o r t h w e s t e r n s h o r e o f L a k e N y a s a ,

Livingstone's lake,

w e r e like t h o s e o f T e n d a g u r u . T h e y c r o s s e d t h e lake o n t h e Guendolen,

the

same ship that s i x t e e n years e a r l i e r had s c o r e d the W o r l d W a r I naval v i c t o r y against the G e r m a n s . M i g e o d n o t o n l y f o u n d d i n o s a u r s , h e also f o u n d o t h e r kinds o f b o n e s i n r o c k s o l d e r and y o u n g e r than t h e d i n o s a u r b e d s . A f t e r t w o months he returned to T e n d a g u r u . abandoned

Tendaguru

and

East

I n January

African

1931

dinosaurs.

the British M u s e u m No

one

has

seriously

w o r k e d there since. T h e British e f f o r t w a s n o w h e r e n e a r l y s o w e l l financed a s the G e r m a n e x p e d i t i o n s . C o n s e q u e n t l y the t w o w e r e o f d i f f e r e n t scales, and t h e i r results w e r e o f d i f f e r e n t m a g n i t u d e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e l d u p against any digs e x c e p t those o f the G e r m a n s a t T e n d a g u r u , the British e x p e d i t i o n s w e r e e x c e p t i o n a l . B o t h the G e r m a n s and t h e British o p e n e d q u a r r i e s i n t h e hilly c o u n t r y s i d e f o r a t w o - m i l e s t r e t c h f r o m n o r t h t o s o u t h , and a l m o s t the s a m e distance f r o m east t o w e s t . sediments

A l l t h r o u g h the area d i n o s a u r b o n e s lay e n t o m b e d i n r i v e r

145 m i l l i o n years o l d .

T h e dinosaurs o f T e n d a g u r u a r e n o t s o

different f r o m t h o s e o f t h e s a m e a g e i n U t a h , o r W y o m i n g , o r C o l o r a d o . L i k e their N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e c o u s i n s ,

the b o n e s b e l o n g e d t o m e n a c i n g car-

n i v o r e s , giant h e r b i v o r e s , l i g h t - b o n e d c o e l u r o s a u r s , and o t h e r e x t i n c t m e m b e r s o f t h e dinosaur c o m m u n i t y ( F i g u r e 4 ) . North American

Stegosaurus,

w i t h its r o w s o f t r i a n g u l a r plates r u n n i n g

d o w n its back t o t h e s p i k e d e n d o f its tail, has its T e n d a g u r u c o u n t e r p a r t i n Kentrosaurus, w i t h an e q u a l l y s m a l l , l o n g h e a d , b u t w i t h spikes r e p l a c i n g plates h i g h e r u p a l o n g the r u m p . T h e s e animals f e d o n v e g e t a t i o n l o w t o the g r o u n d .

FIGURE 4: African life famous fossil beds at

145 million years ago. Tendaguru,

Tanzania.

bays of the ancient East African coast.

This scene is a reconstruction of the

Dinosaurs lived along the shores and

Here ALLOSAURUS, a carnivore, spies a group

of the giraffe-necked sauropod BRiCHiosAURUS.

The plated stegosaur KENTROSAURUS

and the lightly built carnivore ELAPHROSAURUS are in DRYOSAURUS is in the far left.

Plant-eating

The trees are related to living monkey puzzles.

also cycads related to sego palms, pines.

the lower left.

horsetails,

There are

and low-growing conifers—relatives of

Notably missing are theflowering plants or angiosperms.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

A l s o l o w t o the g r o u n d w a s the s m a l l , p r i m i t i v e h e r b i v o r e Dryosaurus, scamp e r i n g i n g o a t l i k e f l o c k s , c o m m o n t o b o t h sides o f the e q u a t o r . Dicraeosaurus, w i t h its l o n g , sinuous n e c k , m i r r o r e d Diplodocus, and s o , t o o , b u t t o a lesser degree,

d i d Janenschia.

B i g Barosaurus l i v e d o n b o t h c o n t i n e n t s .

These w e r e

h u g e , f o u r - f o o t e d beasts. A s g i g a n t i c h e r b i v o r e s , t h e y w o r r i e d t h e t r e e s f o r f o d d e r to fill their bellies.

F e r o c i o u s AUosaurus,

w i t h d a g g e r s f o r t e e t h that

w e r e half a f o o t l o n g , p r e y e d o n w h i c h e v e r v i c t i m failed t o p a r r y its thrust. A t T e n d a g u r u Brachiosaurus t o w e r e d o v e r t h e m all, its spectacular f o r t y - f o o t h e i g h t e m b a r r a s s i n g its n e i g h b o r s . I t s t o o d o n all fours w i t h its f o r e l i m b s l o n g e r than t h e h i n d . T h a t raised its c h e s t , g i v i n g i t w h a t s o m e o f u s m i g h t call a p r o u d s t a t u r e . A t t h e s u m m i t o f its v e r t i c a l , g i r a f f e l i k e n e c k b a l a n c e d its g r o t e s q u e l y small h e a d , a b o u t t h e size o f a n o t - s o - l a r g e b e a c h b a l l . T h e f o r e h e a d w a s high and d o m e d , w i t h nostrils a t t h e a p e x . T h e p r o g n a t h o u s j a w s e x t e n d e d f o r w a r d i n t o a n a b s u r d , t o o t h y d u c k ' s b i l l . T h e c r o w n s o f t h e t e e t h w e r e h a r d l y the size o f t e a s p o o n s . T e n l a r g e b u l l e l e p h a n t s , o r a f a m i l y h e r d o f f e m a l e s and y o u n g , w o u l d b a r e l y e q u a l the w e i g h t o f o n e o f these giants. T h i s beast c o u l d w e i g h m o r e than f i f t y t o n s , p e r h a p s a s m u c h a s e i g h t y . H o w c o u l d this animal maintain its b u l k f e e d i n g , as it had to d o , t h r o u g h such a small head? T h e b o n e s a t T e n d a g u r u are s o c o m m o n , and t h e l o o k o f t h e dinosaurs s o f a m i l i a r , at least in a g e n e r a l s o r t of w a y , that it is a m u s i n g , if n o t i n f o r m a t i v e , to s p e c u l a t e a b o u t t h e i r l i v e s . I m a g i n e Brachiosaurus,

its h u g e size m a k i n g it

a p p e a r t o m o v e a s i f i n s l o w m o t i o n , h e a d e r e c t o n a thin o b e l i s k o f a n e c k , the b o d y resting on legs like the c o l u m n s of an animate t e m p l e .

I t stops

w a l k i n g and dips its h e a d slightly t o p l u c k sprigs and n e e d l e s f r o m t h e t o p o f a c o n i f e r . T h e d e e p g r e e n f o l i a g e r i d e s a p e r i s t a l t i c w a v e d o w n its f i r e - h o s e e s o p h a g u s . T h e b o l u s halts a t t h e g i z z a r d t o b e g r o u n d b y m i l l s t o n e s c a l l e d g a s t r o l i t h s b e f o r e sliding o n t o b e c o m e e n g u l f e d i n the r o i l i n g , h o t mass o f c o m p o s t f e r m e n t i n g in the cavernous gut.

E n e r g y f o r the g r e a t b o d y p i g -

gybacked on billions of c o m m e n s a l m i c r o b e s .

Brachiosaurus i s a l w a y s w a r m .

T h e f e r m e n t i n g c o m p o s t i n its b e l l y and t h e thickness o f insulating f l e s h assure a

high

temperature.

Hot

blood

from

deep

in

the

coelomic

cavity flows

t h r o u g h p u m p i n g a r t e r i e s , t h i c k a s r o p e s , t h e n passes t h r o u g h capillaries and v e i n s that c a r r y t h e heat t o the b o d y ' s d r y surface. T h i s d i n o s a u r likes the c o o l i n g f e e l o f rain w a s h i n g t h e dust f r o m its r o u g h skin. I t likes the c o o l taste of w a t e r .

I m a g i n e Brachiosaurus a l i v e !

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA 19

THEY

NO

trosaurus,

LONGER breathe,

Dryosaurus,

but five skeletons f r o m T e n d a g u r u — K e n -

Dicraeosaurus,

Elaphrosaurus,

and t h e n o b l e Brachiosaurus—

can b e seen t o d a y a t the M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e o n p u b l i c display i n w h a t w a s f o r m e r l y East B e r l i n . T h e y w e r e all o n c e a l i v e and m e m b e r s o f the s a m e community.

W h a t else c o u l d h a v e b e e n l i v i n g w i t h t h e m ? W i t h s o m a n y

dinosaur b o n e s , t h e r e had t o b e small animals a s w e l l . A n d i n fact t h e r e w e r e . The

Germans

collected

a n u m b e r o f animals

besides

dinosaurs

including

sharks, f i s h , c r o c o d i l e s , flying p t e r o s a u r s , and o n e s m a l l , b r o k e n f r a g m e n t o f a j a w w i t h the b o n e missing o n o n e side and all t h e t e e t h g o n e . But that w a s e n o u g h t o s h o w i t w a s a m a m m a l . T e n d a g u r u had just w h a t I w a s l o o k i n g f o r in a n e w project. I could go into T e n d a g u r u w i t h my techniques, I thought, virtually assured o f f i n d i n g w h a t I w a n t e d . I d i d n o t n e e d h u g e e x p e d i t i o n s . A l l I n e e d e d w a s a f e w t o n s o f g o o d , fossiliferous d i r t . I c o u l d e x t r a c t t i n y m a m m a l t e e t h f r o m that. T h e dinosaurs w e r e all k n o w n a n y w a y , right? W h a t I w o u l d f i n d w o u l d b e n e w . I t d i d n o t o c c u r t o m e a t the t i m e , e v e n t h o u g h I w a s w o r k i n g i n a m u s e u m , h o w i m p o r t a n t the dinosaurs o u g h t t o b e i n e d u c a t i n g the g e n e r a l p u b l i c a b o u t the life o f the past and a b o u t this w o r k i n particular. N o r d i d I r e a l i z e a t t h e t i m e t h e t r u l y e x c i t i n g scientific q u e s t i o n s that dinosaurs p o s e d . I s h o u l d h a v e , b u t I d i d n o t . I w a s t o o i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e t h o u g h t o f tiny m a m m a l s . Living in K e n y a as I d i d , the logistics of w o r k i n g at T e n d a g u r u w o u l d be m a n a g e a b l e . E v e n t h o u g h the b o r d e r w i t h T a n z a n i a w a s officially c l o s e d , i f I g o t c l e a r a n c e t o w o r k a t T e n d a g u r u , p e r m i s s i o n t o cross t h e b o r d e r w o u l d f o l l o w . A f t e r all, had n o t B o n n i e and I b e e n a l l o w e d t o cross t h e b o r d e r and visit M a r y L e a k e y a t O l d u v a i G o r g e ? I w o u l d d r i v e d o w n t o T e n d a g u r u f r o m N a i r o b i , taking e v e r y t h i n g I n e e d e d — f o o d , c o l l e c t i n g e q u i p m e n t , a d r u m o f d i e s e l — b e c a u s e n o t h i n g w a s available o n the o p e n m a r k e t i n T a n z a n i a a t that t i m e . I l o o k e d f o r w a r d anxiously to driving the length of the country. I was ready t o g o . B y this t i m e I had s o m e f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h h o w A f r i c a n b u r e a u c r a c i e s w o r k . T h e y are d i f f e r e n t f r o m A m e r i c a n b u r e a u c r a c i e s , b u t n o t necessarily w o r s e . B o t h can b e e q u a l l y frustrating.

I set a b o u t the s l o w p r o c e s s o f o b t a i n i n g

permission f r o m Tanzanian authorities. M y f i r s t overtures w e r e encouragingly received. " A n excellent p r o j e c t , " I was told.

" P l e a s e c o n t a c t t h e n e x t administra-

tor. T h i s c o n t i n u e d f o r s o m e t i m e . I w a s l u l l e d i n t o a n u n w a r r a n t e d sense o f

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

20 i m p e n d i n g success. I s h o u l d h a v e k n o w n b e t t e r . T h e d o o r s l a m m e d shut w h e n I w a s t o l d that it w a s a g r e a t p r o j e c t , and s o m e o n e else w a s d o i n g it. N o o n e else has.

W H A T NEXT? TWO t i m e s n o w , i n K e n y a and i n T a n z a n i a , I had b e e n unable t o g e t w h e r e I w a n t e d t o g o . T w o strikes. S h o u l d I just hang i t up? T h e r e w a s n o w a y I c o u l d d o that n o m a t t e r h o w d i s c o u r a g e d I w a s . A n d t h e n , w o u l d n ' t y o u k n o w it, just a t that t i m e , a s fate w o u l d h a v e it, a B e r k e l e y s t u d e n t , a n A f r i c a n s t u d y i n g i n C a l i f o r n i a , w a s visiting t h e M u s e u m i n N a i r o b i in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h his d o c t o r a l r e s e a r c h .

I t h o u g h t he w a s T a n z a n i a n .

I

e x p l a i n e d the situation t o h i m , searching f o r s o m e lead i n his responses that m i g h t g i v e a c l u e a s t o h o w I c o u l d s u r m o u n t t h e obstacles b e t w e e n m e and t h e fossils. Z e f e l o o k e d a t m e q u i z z i c a l l y a s I s p o k e t o h i m o f T a n z a n i a . " I a m f r o m M a l a w i , " h e said.

" C o m e t h e r e . W e h a v e dinosaur b e d s . "

T H E ROCKS ZEFE w a s t a l k i n g a b o u t , the s a m e o n e s M i g e o d and P a r r i n g t o n had v i s i t e d a l o n g L i v i n g s t o n e ' s lake i n 1 9 3 0 , t h e s a m e o n e s that had y i e l d e d s p e c i m e n s t o t h e British M u s e u m , s o u n d e d a l m o s t t o o g o o d . T r u e , t h e y did n o t h a v e t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f T e n d a g u r u f o r vast quantities o f b o n e , but o n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e area w a s m o r e r e m o t e . I t had b e e n v i s i t e d b u t n e v e r seriously w o r k e d b y a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t . Y o u n g e r than the D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e r o c k s o f t h e r i g h t a g e t o c o n t a i n Australopithecus, h u m a n k i n d ' s a n c e s t o r . Z e f e w a s d o i n g his P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n o n t h e m , and h e had f o u n d m a n y b o n e s w e a t h e r i n g o u t already.

Still y o u n g e r , t h e r e w a s i n t e r e s t i n g a r c h a e o l o g y , cultural r e m a i n s

f r o m t h e A f r i c a n S t o n e A g e . Still o l d e r than the D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e r o c k s w i t h fossils o f animals that w e r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d sort o f e v o l u t i o n a r i l y " h a l f w a y " b e t w e e n r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s b e c a u s e , a l t h o u g h t h e y are o n the mammalian l i m b of the evolutionary t r e e , they have a p r i m i t i v e , reptilian l o o k to them. A l l o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t a g e d r o c k s w i t h t h e i r w e a l t h o f fossils w e r e f o u n d i n the s a m e area o f n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . S u r e l y a n e x p e d i t i o n t o such a p l a c e w o u l d pay off. If I d i d n o t g e t e x a c t l y w h a t I w a n t e d in t h e D i n o s a u r B e d s , I w o u l d just m o v e i n t o y o u n g e r r o c k s . I f that d i d n o t w o r k , I w o u l d g o o l d e r . T h e state o f k n o w l e d g e o f A f r i c a n p a l e o n t o l o g y b e i n g w h a t i t w a s , I w a s sure t o find s o m e t h i n g significant. It w a s a n o - l o s e situation.

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA 21

Y e s , M a l a w i w a s the p l a c e t o g o . Z e f e had a j o b w a i t i n g f o r h i m a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s i n t h e capital, Ph.D.

We g o t along w e l l .

Lilongwe,

w h e n h e f i n i s h e d his

He was probably as happy to have a colleague

i n t e r e s t e d i n c o m i n g t o w o r k i n M a l a w i a s I w a s i n g o i n g t h e r e . I w o u l d study the b o n e s , Z e f e w o u l d study t h e r o c k s t h e y c a m e f r o m . T o g e t h e r w e w o u l d u n r a v e l the g e o l o g i c a l history o f M a l a w i , and p u t its fossils i n t o t h e w h o ' s w h o o f ancient l i f e . A l l that r e m a i n e d w a s t o d o i t . Z e f e and I d e c i d e d that w e w o u l d w a i t f o r his i m m i n e n t g r a d u a t i o n f r o m Berkeley. T h e n , with P h . D . in hand, he w o u l d return to M a l a w i . I w o u l d s u b m i t a p r o p o s a l t o t h e N a t i o n a l G e o g r a p h i c S o c i e t y f o r funds t o s u p p o r t o u r work.

I f w e g o t f u n d e d , w e w o u l d b e off.

I t w a s t w o years b e f o r e t h e plan w a s p u t i n t o a c t i o n .

MY

COMMITMENT

T O i n v e s t i g a t i n g the fossils o f M a l a w i s t e m s f r o m a d e e p

and c o n s i d e r e d c a l c u l a t i o n that t h e y w o u l d p r o v i d e a n i m p o r t a n t c h a p t e r i n the history o f l i f e . Serious study o f t h e h i s t o r y o f life g o e s back a l o n g , l o n g w a y , but a g o o d p l a c e t o start l o o k i n g a t i t i s w i t h C h a r l e s D a r w i n ( F i g u r e 5 ) . David Livingstone was a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f D a r w i n ' s w h o s e masterful w o r k p r o v i d e d a f o u n d a t i o n f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g e v o l u t i o n and f o r m a k i n g sense o u t o f fossils. L i v i n g s t o n e f i r s t v i s i t e d t h e shores o f L a k e M a l a w i i n 1 8 5 9 , the s a m e year D a r w i n published

The Origin of Species.

It w a s an e x c i t i n g t i m e in t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f g r e a t ideas.

FIGURE

5:

David Livingstone,

the Interior of Africa to the natural

selection

as

the

whose explorations and opposition Western

world,

mechanism for

and Charles Darwin,

evolution.

to slavery opened who elucidated

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

22 L i v i n g s t o n e w a s t r a i n e d i n t h e o l o g y and m e d i c i n e , b u t h e had a b r o a d interest

in

natural

history

fostered

by

his

studies

with

the

great

British

a n a t o m i s t Sir R i c h a r d O w e n . I t w a s Sir R i c h a r d O w e n w h o c o i n e d the t e r m dinosaur, an e v e n t that o c c u r r e d just a f t e r L i v i n g s t o n e first d e p a r t e d f o r A f r i c a . Livingstone

admired

Owen,

and

the

admiration

was

reciprocated

b y the

t e a c h e r . Y e a r s after b e i n g a p u p i l , L i v i n g s t o n e b r o u g h t t o O w e n , all the w a y f r o m A f r i c a , a n i n t e r e s t i n g b u t h e a v y s p e c i m e n . I t w a s a n e l e p h a n t tusk w i t h a s t r a n g e spiral c u r v e . Sir R i c h a r d w a s v e r y influential i n b u i l d i n g the British M u s e u m . H e w a s a n a c c o m p l i s h e d and r e c o g n i z e d scientist. D a r w i n r e p e a t e d l y cites his w o r k s and

o p i n i o n s in

the

Origin

of Species.

Moreover Darwin

f o r m e r s t u d e n t by n a m e in C h a p t e r 1

r e f e r s to

Owen's

of t h e Origin, stating in his discussion

o f b i o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n u n d e r d o m e s t i c a t i o n , i n a passage o n the w i d e s p r e a d use o f s e l e c t i v e b r e e d i n g o f l i v e s t o c k ,

" L i v i n g s t o n e shows h o w much g o o d

d o m e s t i c b r e e d s [ o f animals] are v a l u e d b y the n e g r o e s o f the i n t e r i o r o f A f r i c a w h o h a v e n o t associated w i t h E u r o p e a n s . " Still, l o n g b e f o r e D a r w i n p u b l i s h e d the Origin of Species, L i v i n g s t o n e , in his own way,

c o n c l u d e d that

science

and

religion w e r e not opposed.

Both,

t h o u g h t L i v i n g s t o n e , w e r e m u t u a l l y necessary and helpful r e v e l a t i o n s o f the D i v i n e . H e r e m a i n e d , h o w e v e r , like O w e n , unsympathetic t o D a r w i n ' s v i e w s on

evolution.

His conclusion

was reached

not so

much by

the

study o f

D a r w i n ' s w o r k — t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e h e e v e r s t u d i e d i t — b u t r a t h e r because n o t h i n g i n his t r a v e l s s u g g e s t e d t o h i m that humans d e s c e n d e d f r o m a p e l i k e a n c e s t o r s . T h a t v i e w i s h e l d b y s o m e e v e n n o w , but w i t h m u c h less justificat i o n than i n L i v i n g s t o n e ' s d a y . E v o l u t i o n p r o v i d e s a f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h w e can v i e w the i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f l i f e , o f all the m y r i a d d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s that h a v e e v e r e x i s t e d . T h e Earth t h r o u g h t i m e p r o v i d e s the s e t t i n g i n w h i c h e v o l u t i o n takes p l a c e . T h e w o r l d a s w e k n o w i t t o d a y results f r o m a vast a m a l g a m o f i n t e r t w i n e d physical and b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s a c t i n g f o r e v e r u n d e r the a m b i e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e t i m e s . T h e f u t u r e , i n its t u r n , w i l l b e m o l d e d b y t h e s e s a m e i m m a n e n t p r o c e s s e s . T h e r e i s a n u n b r o k e n c o n t i n u i t y i n Earth h i s t o r y . H o w e v e r , i n the f i n a l m e a s u r e , the Earth and life a r e c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g . N o t i m e i s e x a c t l y t h e s a m e a s any o t h e r , and n o p l a c e i s e v e r e x a c t l y t h e s a m e t w i c e . L i f e c h a n g e s t h r o u g h the m i l l e n n i a . N o s p e c i e s has r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f life o n Earth. M o s t s p e c i e s , t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y , a r e d i f f e r e n t and distinct in successive e p o c h s of Earth h i s t o r y .

T h a t is an

e m p i r i c a l fact. E v e n s o , a l t h o u g h a p p a r e n t l y g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b e t w e e n ,

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA

say, jellyfish and w h i p p o o r w i l l s , o r b e t w e e n k e l p and r h o d o d e n d r o n s , each distinct species i s r e l a t e d t o all o t h e r s .

O f this D a r w i n said,

" I t is a truly

w o n d e r f u l f a c t — t h e w o n d e r o f w h i c h w e a r e apt t o o v e r l o o k f r o m f a m i l i a r i t y — t h a t all animals and plants t h r o u g h o u t all t i m e and space s h o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r . " T h e r e i s c o n t i n u i t y i n the s p e c t r u m o f l i f e . A l l s p e c i e s , w h e t h e r e x t i n c t o r still l i v i n g , are r e l a t e d , i n g r e a t e r o r lesser d e g r e e , i n m u c h the s a m e w a y a s w e a s individuals are r e l a t e d t h r o u g h f a m i l y g e n e a l o g y t o g r e a t - g r a n d p a r e n t s o r s e c o n d cousins t w i c e

removed.

The

change

o f life t h r o u g h t i m e ,

this

historical p a r a d e o f r e l a t e d s p e c i e s , i s e v o l u t i o n . T h e b i g d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e and a g e n e a l o g i c a l t r e e i s that the branches o f a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e , u n l i k e f a m i l y h i s t o r i e s , c a n n o t j o i n and m e r g e t h e w a y f a m i l i e s c a n , w i t h t h e m a r r i a g e o f a S m i t h t o a J o n e s , f o r instance. C o n t e m p o r a r y species c a n n o t i n t e r b r e e d . N e i t h e r can t i m e s e q u e n tial s p e c i e s , but the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of an ancestral s p e c i e s to a d e s c e n d a n t species is a p r o c e s s that takes p l a c e t h r o u g h t i m e . A n c e s t r a l s p e c i e s e v o l v e into descendant species, or they go extinct. T h e c o n t i n u i t y o f life i s o b v i o u s and l o g i c a l w h e n r e a d i n t h e fossil r e c o r d , o r e v e n w h e n v i e w e d i n the i m m e n s e array o f l i v i n g s p e c i e s . M o r e o v e r , i t has a d e q u a t e t e s t i m o n y i n the f u n d a m e n t a l m o l e c u l e s o f l i f e , p e r h a p s m o s t p r o m i n e n t l y i n D N A , the substance that carries the g e n e t i c c o d e f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . T h e c o m p l e x m o l e c u l e s o f life are s u r p r i s i n g l y u n i f o r m i n t h e i r basic structural plans t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a n o p l y o f s p e c i e s a l i v e t o d a y ,

even

t h o u g h i n less f u n d a m e n t a l details t h e m o l e c u l e s o f d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s differ slightly.

M o l e c u l e s such a s D N A and p r o t e i n s a r e t h e basic f u n c t i o n a l and

structural c o m p o n e n t s o f c e l l s . N o life exists w i t h o u t t h e m . I n practical t e r m s it is this s i m i l a r i t y , this basic u n i f o r m i t y in b o t h c o m p o s i t i o n and f u n c t i o n at the m o l e c u l a r l e v e l , i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e d i v e r s i t y o f s p e c i e s , that a l l o w s , f o r e x a m p l e , the use o f l a b o r a t o r y rats a s substitutes f o r humans i n e x p e r i m e n t a l m e d i c i n e . I t i s the basis f o r the b i o t e c h n o l o g y r e v o l u t i o n , a l l o w i n g f o r the g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g o f i m p r o v e d a g r i c u l t u r a l s t o c k s , o r the mass p r o d u c t i o n of medicines as by-products of m o d i f i e d bacteria. T h e s e advances d e r i v e f r o m the r e c o g n i t i o n o f the basic c o n t i n u i t y , the r e l a t e d n e s s , o f l i f e , the fact that species have c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . A s species o f o r g a n i s m s h a v e c h a n g e d t h r o u g h the m i l l e n n i a , s o has t h e level o f biotic sophistication, for w a n t o f b e t t e r w o r d s , changed. T h e simpler basic divisions o f l i f e , such a s s i n g l e - c e l l e d p r o t o z o a n s f o r i n s t a n c e , h a v e b e e n a r o u n d l o n g e r than m o r e c o m p l e x , m u l t i c e l l u l a r o r g a n i s m s w i t h d i f f e r e n t i -

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

24 a t e d tissues and o r g a n s y s t e m s .

T h i s is n o t an i n e x o r a b l e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l

progression f r o m single-celled bacterium in primordial o o z e to lofty, godlike h u m a n s in t h e G a r d e n of E d e n . It is a g e n e r a l i t y . B e s i d e s , t h e r e are still lots and l o t s o f d i f f e r e n t kinds o f b a c t e r i a a r o u n d . A n d yeasts. A n d algae.

And

s p o n g e s . A n d all kinds o f s i m p l e o r g a n i s m s . A f e w kinds o f s i m p l e o r g a n i s m s , such a s s o m e parasites, a r e s i m p l e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e d e g e n e r a t e . A l l these s p e c i e s h a v e a r o l e i n the c o m m u n i t y o f l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n g e n e r a l , t h e m o r e s i m p l e a c r e a t u r e is, if it has parts that w i l l f o s s i l i z e , the f a r t h e r b a c k i n t i m e fossils r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f its l e v e l o f sophistication can b e f o u n d . T h o s e s i m p l e o r g a n i s m s that are still a r o u n d — t h e b a c t e r i a , yeast, and o t h e r p r i m i t i v e c r e a t u r e s — b e l o n g t o species that e v o l v e d a l o n g lineages that h a v e n o t b r a n c h e d a s significantly, o r s o g r e a t l y , f r o m the ancestral s t o c k . T h u s , s i n g l e - c e l l e d b a c t e r i a , as a g r o u p , n o t any p a r t i c u l a r l i v i n g s p e c i e s , h a v e b e e n o n Earth m u c h l o n g e r than m u l t i c e l l u l a r s p o n g e s . T h e s e have b e e n a r o u n d l o n g e r than f i s h e s , and t h e y l o n g e r than r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s , and a m o n g m a m m a l s , h u m a n s a r e late on t h e s c e n e .

In this sense t h e r e is a

p r o g r e s s i o n , b u t o n l y v e r y g e n e r a l l y . T h i s i s n o t t o say that f i s h and r e p t i l e s and i n v e r t e b r a t e s are n o t s o p h i s t i c a t e d . T h e y o b v i o u s l y a r e , h a v i n g e v o l v e d along their o w n evolutionary pathways. T h e y live as m e m b e r s of complicated e c o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s that h a v e c h a n g e d w i t h t i m e . C o m p a r e , f o r instance, t h e d i n o s a u r - d o m i n a t e d landscapes o f t h e M e s o z o i c w i t h t h e m a m m a l - d o m i nated communities of today.

T o fully u n d e r s t a n d t h e o r i g i n o f the m o d e r n

w o r l d , t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s p e c i e s i n v o l v e d , and the e v o l u t i o n o f the c o m m u nities t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g m u s t b e b r o u g h t t o l i g h t . A n d o r d e r i n g species in the d i m e n s i o n of t i m e is necessary for b o t h . C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e D N A o r c e r t a i n p r o t e i n s a m o n g l i v i n g s p e c i e s can lead t o c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g the a n t i q u i t y of s p e c i e s just as t h e study of fossils can lead t o such c o n c l u s i o n s . A l l s p e c i e s h a v e D N A w i t h essentially t h e s a m e a r c h i t e c t u r e , b u t m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s p e c i e s h a v e m o r e similar D N A ; less c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s p e c i e s h a v e i n c r e a s i n g l y m o r e , a l b e i t m i n o r , d i f f e r e n c e s . T h e basic structure

o f the

differences occur.

m o l e c u l e s is constant,

but r e l a t i v e l y

small

submolecular

A m o n g s p e c i e s , t h e s e add u p m o r e and m o r e w i t h the

i n c r e a s i n g distance o f r e l a t i o n s h i p and r e m o t e n e s s o f c o m m o n a n c e s t r y . T h e total d i f f e r e n c e i n the D N A o f t w o species i s g e n e r a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e that t h e i r e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e s h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e and distinct.

That

m e a n s that fossils o r m o l e c u l e s can s o m e t i m e s b e used t o test and v e r i f y c o n c l u s i o n s based o n o n e o r t h e o t h e r . A n d that i s p a r t o f t h e r e a s o n w h y r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s o f plant and insect D N A f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e d i n fossils are s o

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA

25 e x c i t i n g . T h e y have the p o t e n t i a l t o m e l d m o l e c u l a r e v o l u t i o n and p a l e o n t o l o g y i n a w a y n e v e r b e f o r e p o s s i b l e . I t i s s c i e n c e w i t h t h e e x c i t e m e n t , and t h e r e f o r e the a p p e a l , of f i c t i o n , s e e m i n g l y a m o v e t o w a r d r e a l - l i f e Jurassic Park. E v o l u t i o n is the basic fact of life f o r all s p e c i e s .

L i v i n g things c h a n g e

t h r o u g h t h e m i l l e n n i a , b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y necessary f o r life t o b e g e t l i f e , l i v i n g things i n t h e i r m o s t basic m e c h a n i s m s r e m a i n s i m i l a r . T h e m o r e things c h a n g e , t h e m o r e things stay the s a m e .

A T THE 1859,

TIME D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e f i r s t r e a c h e d t h e s h o r e s o f L a k e M a l a w i i n Charles

Darwin

was

presenting

the

world

with

a

mechanism

for

e v o l u t i o n . T h a t w a s w e l l o v e r o n e h u n d r e d years a g o . W e h a v e l e a r n e d m u c h since t h e n that D a r w i n d i d n o t k n o w — f o r instance that t h e g e n e t i c c o d e o f a c e l l , passed o n each t i m e the c e l l d i v i d e s , i s c a r r i e d b y D N A . N e v e r t h e l e s s D a r w i n m a d e lasting and s u r p r i s i n g l y r e s i l i e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the study o f evolution.

H i s g e n i u s w a s r e c o g n i z e d b y his c o u n t r y m e n ;

t e n years after

Livingstone died, D a r w i n , t o o , was buried in W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y . Darwin's mechanism

for evolution

i s natural

selection,

a wonderfully

e l e g a n t c o n c e p t . M o r e r e p r o d u c t i v e c e l l s , s p e r m and e g g , a r e p r o d u c e d i n any species than w i l l e v e r successfully p r o d u c e p r o g e n y . A d d t o that t h e fact that each individual o f a s p e c i e s i s d i f f e r e n t . D a r w i n k n e w that, and h e k n e w f r o m d o m e s t i c a t e d animals that c e r t a i n traits b r e e d t r u e . N o t k n o w i n g a b o u t D N A , o r the g e n e t i c c o d e , D a r w i n ' s t h e o r y had a w e a k n e s s that i s o v e r c o m e t o s o m e d e g r e e b y m o d e r n genetics. W e k n o w much m o r e n o w about the nature o f g e n e t i c v a r i a t i o n , h o w i t i s m a i n t a i n e d , and h o w i t i s passed f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . I f i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o k n o w a b o u t e v o l u t i o n , i t i s necessary t o k n o w about genetics. T h e n e x t p r e m i s e o f natural s e l e c t i o n i s that r e s o u r c e s f o r e a c h s p e c i e s a r e l i m i t e d . F o o d , o r suitable habitat, o r m a t e s — t h e r e w i l l n e v e r b e e n o u g h o f s o m e t h i n g t o g o a r o u n d . S o s o m e i n d i v i d u a l s and s o m e s e x cells a r e b e t t e r able t o c o p e w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t b y v i r t u e o f the n a t u r e o f t h e i r v a r i a t i o n . T h o s e that can r e p r o d u c e m o r e than o t h e r s w i l l b e naturally s e l e c t e d f o r b y the e n v i r o n m e n t .

I n that sense r e p r o d u c t i v e success, l e a v i n g m o r e o f y o u r

o w n g e n e s , i s a m e a s u r e o f e v o l u t i o n a r y success. T h e l o g i c o f natural s e l e c t i o n i s s i m p l e and easy t o u n d e r s t a n d . I t d o e s h a v e a significant r o l e i n e v o l u t i o n . But c l e a r l y t h e r e has t o b e m u c h m o r e that w e d o n o t y e t u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t t h e f e e d b a c k f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t o the g e n e t i c c o d e and a b o u t the c o n t r o l o f e m b r y o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , f o r

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

26 instance.

A n d a b o v e all,

a b o u t the g e n e t i c c o d e itself.

T h a t i s w h e r e the

study o f l i f e ' s m o l e c u l e s and t h e i r r o l e i n e v o l u t i o n i s l e a d i n g t o d a y . process

of evolution,

w h e n it is

more

fully

understood,

will

The

encompass

g e n e r a l i t i e s o f f a r - r a n g i n g significance t o h o w life w o r k s because i t w i l l b e a synthesis o f results f r o m g e n e t i c s , m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y , e m b r y o l o g y , e c o l o g y , and all o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f t h e life s c i e n c e s . T h a t i s t r u l y e l e g a n t . F o r any l i v i n g s p e c i e s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , w e can a l r e a d y l e a r n m u c h o f its e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y w r i t t e n a t t h e m o l e c u l a r l e v e l i n its D N A and p r o t e i n s . But that i s o n l y p a r t o f t h e p i c t u r e o f l i f e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t o n Earth. T h e s e things can n e v e r t e l l u s t h e w h o l e s t o r y a b o u t the w o n d e r f u l v a r i e t y o f l i f e , c o m p l e t e l y v a n i s h e d , lost t o o u r e y e s t h r o u g h e x t i n c t i o n . O n l y fossils can t e l l u s a b o u t t h e t r e m e n d o u s n u m b e r s o f o n c e - l i v i n g b i o l o g i c a l success s t o r i e s , n o w g o n e . O n l y fossils can t e l l u s the p a t h w a y s that e v o l u t i o n d i d t a k e , i n a d d i t i o n t o w h e r e t h e y e n d e d u p . A n d i t i s o n l y t h r o u g h t h e fossil r e c o r d that w e can o b s e r v e , e m p i r i c a l l y , the results o f t h e a d m i x t u r e o f Earth and life p r o c e s s e s . I f w e are w i s e e n o u g h t o r e a d t h e r e c o r d , i t can h e l p us, a s a species, predict the global o u t c o m e of o u r environmental actions, for better o r w o r s e , t h r o u g h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w fossil o r g a n i s m s r e s p o n d e d t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l changes i m p o s e d u p o n t h e m b y the Earth i n t i m e s l o n g past.

UNDERSTANDING

EVOLUTIONARY

history requires understanding g e o -

l o g i c t i m e b e c a u s e e v o l u t i o n is, b y d e f i n i t i o n , c h a n g e t h r o u g h t i m e . S o w e h a v e t o h a v e a w a y t o m e a s u r e g e o l o g i c t i m e . H o w d o w e d o it? H o w d o w e k n o w h o w o l d a fossil is? H o w can w e tell? O l d b o n e s , o r shells, o r p e t r i f i e d w o o d — a n y f o s s i l s — a r e usually f o u n d i n s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s f o r m e d f r o m d e p o s i t s o f m u d , sand, o r l i m e a t t h e b o t t o m o f lakes and r i v e r s , b e a c h e s and seas. A n i m a l o r p l a n t r e m a i n s g e t caught u p i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e s s , m o r e o r less a s g e o l o g i c a l p a r t i c l e s t h e m s e l v e s . S o m e r o c k s , such a s chalk, o r c o a l , a r e m a d e u p a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y o f fossils. As a part of a sedimentary system, g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e past.

the

fossils w e

find

t e l l u s a b o u t the

But t h e y a r e also c o m p o n e n t s o f a o n c e -

l i v i n g c o m m u n i t y and as such t h e y t e l l us of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t and e c o l o g y in which they w e r e a part before

t h e y e n t e r e d the g e o l o g i c a l r e a l m .

These

e x t r e m e s — c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e , c o n d i t i o n s o f f o s s i l i z a t i o n — g r a d e o n e i n t o the o t h e r , and each tells u s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e o t h e r . T h e a g e o f a b e d o f r o c k , f o r m e d f r o m the h a r d e n i n g o f t h e s e d i m e n t s , r e p r e s e n t s t h e t i m e the fossils

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA 21

w e r e e n t o m b e d a n d , in a g e o l o g i c a l sense, is taken in m o s t instances as the t i m e w h e n the fossilized o r g a n i s m l i v e d . A n y b e d o f s e d i m e n t m u s t b e y o u n g e r than the surface o n w h i c h i t i s d e p o s i t e d . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s o b v i o u s that i n a s e q u e n c e o f s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s , the o l d e s t b e d i s o n t h e b o t t o m , the y o u n g e s t a t the t o p , and the a g e d e c r e a s e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y f r o m the f o r m e r t o t h e l a t t e r . T h i s c o n c e p t o f s u p e r p o s i t i o n ( F i g u r e 6 ) i s t h e s i m p l e basis f o r b e i n g a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e the r e l a t i v e a g e o f fossils. T h o s e a t the b o t t o m are o l d e r than t h o s e a t t h e t o p . T h a t i s also the f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e u n d e r l y i n g the e m p i r i c a l s t a t e m e n t that life changes through t i m e .

D i f f e r e n t fossils o c c u r i n l o w e r and h i g h e r b e d s ;

in other

w o r d s , o l d e r and y o u n g e r r o c k s . T h a t i s t h e c o n c e p t o f f a u n a l — o r f l o r a l — succession. D i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f o r g a n i s m s s u c c e e d each o t h e r i n stacked layers o f r o c k , and t h r o u g h t i m e . But i t i s n o t e n o u g h t o k n o w t h e r e l a t i v e a g e o f a fossil. W e r e a l l y w a n t t o k n o w h o w o l d , i n n u m b e r s o f y e a r s , a p a r t i c u l a r fossil is. T h e k e y t o t e l l i n g that kind o f g e o l o g i c t i m e i s t h r o u g h t h e natural r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n r o c k s . A f t e r r o c k s such a s basalt crystallize f r o m m o l t e n lava, r a d i o a c t i v e p o t a s s i u m o r other elements w i l l decay, through radioactivity, into another kind of matter. By k n o w i n g h o w rapidly a particular kind of radioactive e l e m e n t decays, the age o f the c o o l e d r o c k can b e c a l c u l a t e d . T h e idea i s s i m p l e . But i t o n l y w o r k s o n the right kinds o f r o c k s , and t h e n o n l y i f t h e y d o n o t g e t a d v e r s e l y affected b y o t h e r Earth p r o c e s s e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y the a p p r o p r i a t e r o c k s f o r d a t i n g are n o t g e n e r a l l y t h e o n e s that c o n t a i n fossils.

T h e technique

of radiocarbon

dating can actually d a t e fossils, b u t n o t v e r y o l d o n e s , and it is useless f o r things as o l d as d i n o s a u r s . It is easy to i m a g i n e a v o l c a n o such as M o u n t Saint H e l e n s s p e w i n g ash, o r lava o o z i n g d o w n a hillside t o the sea, a s h a p p e n s i n H a w a i i . P a r t i c l e s o f ash o r f l o w s o f lava b e c o m e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e s e q u e n c e o f s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k being f o r m e d .

R a d i o a c t i v e e l e m e n t s i n t h e v o l c a n i c r o c k s can b e assayed,

p r o v i d i n g a m i n i m u m a g e f o r all t h e r o c k l a y e r s , and t h e i r c o n t a i n e d fossils, b e l o w the d a t e d r o c k and a m a x i m u m a g e f o r all t h e r o c k s and fossils a b o v e the d a t e d r o c k . In a s e q u e n c e w i t h a l o t of fossils t h r o u g h o u t , and m a n y lavas o r v o l c a n i c ashes i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h t h e s e d i m e n t a r y l a y e r s , t h e d a t i n g can b e c o m e very accurate, g e o l o g i c a l l y speaking. T h e r e i s a n o t h e r w a y t o f i g u r e o u t the ages o f r o c k s . I t i s based o n t h e b e h a v i o r o f the

Earth's

magnetic

field.

Paleomagnetism

depends first on

k n o w i n g r e l a t i v e ages d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a s e q u e n c e o f fossils and t h e i r s u p e r -

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

28 p o s i t i o n , and o n r a d i o m e t r i c a g e c a l c u l a t i o n s . I t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s v e r y useful b e c a u s e i t a l l o w s e x t r e m e , l o n g - d i s t a n c e p r e c i s i o n i n i d e n t i f y i n g r o c k s that are o f i d e n t i c a l a g e b u t that c a n n o t t h e m s e l v e s b e r a d i o m e t r i c a l l y d a t e d . H e r e i s h o w i t w o r k s . T h e Earth has a m a g n e t i c f i e l d , a s w e all k n o w b e c a u s e a c o m p a s s n e e d l e aligns i t s e l f w i t h m a g n e t i c n o r t h . Because c o m p a s s n e e d l e s a l w a y s p o i n t n o r t h , w e are a b l e t o t e l l d i r e c t i o n s , e v e n i n the d a r k , and t h e r e f o r e w e d o n o t g e t l o s t . T h a t i s w e l l and g o o d f o r t h e p r e s e n t , but it just so h a p p e n s that at v a r i o u s t i m e s in the past the c o m p a s s n e e d l e d i d n o t p o i n t t o the n o r t h .

It p o i n t e d south,

180 d e g r e e s o p p o s i t e f r o m w h a t i t

s h o u l d . W h a t i s m o r e , these p e r i o d s o f r e v e r s a l a p p e a r t o have taken p l a c e at

random

intervals,

at

unpredictable

times

in

the

past.

Sometimes

c o m p a s s p o i n t e d south f o r a f e w h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d y e a r s , millions.

The

lengths o f t i m e

varied.

the

sometimes for

W e k n o w this because m a n y r o c k s

c o n t a i n m i n e r a l s that a c t e d a s t i n y c o m p a s s n e e d l e s w h i l e the r o c k s w e r e f o r m i n g . T h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d i s r e c o r d e d i n the s e q u e n c e o f r o c k s a t t h e E a r t h ' s surface. T h u s , i f y o u w e r e t o l o o k a t t h e h i s t o r y o f the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d and the d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e n o r t h e n d o f t h e c o m p a s s n e e d l e w o u l d p o i n t , a s if r e c o r d e d on a continuous tape, reversed

polarity intervals,

none

y o u w o u l d see a series o f n o r m a l and o f t h e m b e i n g e x a c t l y the

same

length,

b e c a u s e n o n e o f t h e m lasted t h e s a m e l e n g t h o f t i m e ( s e e F i g u r e 6 ) . Because o f the

variation

in

lengths

of intervals

of normals,

then

reversals,

then

n o r m a l s , t h e t a p e w o u l d p r e s e n t a k i n d o f c o d e , r a t h e r like a digital r e c o r d i n g . Just as the p a t t e r n of s i m p l e o n - o f f d i g i t s can r e c o r d a s y m p h o n y on a laser disk,

if a stratigraphic s e c t i o n is l o n g e n o u g h to e n c o m p a s s a n u m b e r of

p o l a r i t y r e v e r s a l s , and i f the r o c k s p r e s e r v e t h e n o r m a l - r e v e r s e d " d i g i t a l " signal

of the

Earth's magnetic

field

layer by layer,

the

magnetic pattern

p r e s e r v e d i n the r o c k s w i l l b e u n i q u e t o the t i m e i n t e r v a l i n w h i c h the r o c k s w e r e f o r m e d , the w a y a f i n g e r p r i n t p a t t e r n i s u n i q u e t o a p e r s o n . T h e p a t t e r n can be as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of that t i m e i n t e r v a l as a s y m p h o n y is of a c o m p o s e r . A n d just a s a r e c o r d e d s y m p h o n y can b e l i s t e n e d t o and a p p r e c i a t e d m o s t a n y w h e r e , a n y w h e r e r o c k s e x h i b i t a characteristic p a t t e r n o f p o l a r i t y c h a n g e s , y o u can b e sure t h e y are o f the a g e d e f i n e d b y that m a g n e t i c p a t t e r n . course,

t h e r e are

any n u m b e r

o f things

that m a k e

the

real

world

Of

more

c o m p l i c a t e d than t h e o r y , b u t i n g e n e r a l , that i s h o w p a l e o m a g n e t i s m w o r k s f o r t e l l i n g g e o l o g i c a l t i m e . I f a specific p o l a r i t y p a t t e r n can b e m a t c h e d u p f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e , t h e r o c k s r e c o r d i n g the p a t t e r n s are o f the same a g e . S o a r e t h e fossils t h e y m i g h t c o n t a i n .

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA 29

FIGURE 6: How to date fossils. by the patterns of lava,

On the left is a sequence of layered rocks as shown

ash, shale,

sandstone,

and limestone.

oldest at the bottom and progressively younger toward the top.

The rock layers are Fossils that occur

lower in a sequence of layered rock are older than those that occur higher in the sequence.

Volcanic rocks like basalt and ash can be dated using radioactive decay

of their constituent

minerals.

They set

older and younger limits on

the absolute

age, in numbers of years, of a fossil that occurs above, below, or between dated rocks.

The Earth's magnetic signal preserved in a sequence of rock is used to

compile a reversal pattern that can be matched with other rocks of the same age anywhere in the world that the pattern might be recognized.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

30 S o , w e can t e l l t i m e w i t h fossils and w i t h p a l e o m a g n e t i s m . But n e i t h e r t e c h n i q u e p r o v i d e s a n a g e i n n u m b e r s o f y e a r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i f any absolute date

happens

to

become

available

to

a

succession

o f strata

through

the

r a d i o m e t r i c d a t i n g o f a v o l c a n i c r o c k , that d a t e b e c o m e s a p p l i c a b l e w h e r e v e r t h e p r e c i s e m a g n e t i c i n t e r v a l , o r c o r r e l a t e d fossil i n t e r v a l , can b e i d e n t i f i e d , a n y w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d . O n t h e b o t t o m o f t h e o c e a n , o r the t o p o f a m o u n t a i n . A n u m e r i c a l d a t e is d e t e r m i n e d in o n l y o n e p l a c e , b u t t h r o u g h fossils and p a l e o m a g n e t i s m , i t can b e a p p l i e d all o v e r t h e p l a c e . T h i s i s a n e x t r e m e l y p o w e r f u l u n i o n o f m e t h o d s , far b e y o n d s i m p l e floral and faunal succession, in the resolution of g e o l o g i c t i m e . T h r o u g h these t e c h n i q u e s w e can c o m p a r e w h a t i s o c c u r r i n g a t a g i v e n t i m e all o v e r t h e E a r t h , f r o m r e g i o n t o r e g i o n . W e can l o o k i n e x c r u c i a t i n g d e t a i l at rates of e v o l u t i o n a r v c h a n g e as t h e y are p r e s e r v e d in the r o c k r e c o r d b e c a u s e t h e c h a n g e s can b e c a l i b r a t e d w i t h a b s o l u t e d a t e s . T h i s r e f i n e d v i e w of g e o l o g i c time is not simply relevant to evolution. It is relevant to understanding all o f t h e E a r t h ' s p r o c e s s e s that b e n e f i t f r o m the d i m e n s i o n o f t i m e . T h a t i n c l u d e s the f o r m a t i o n o f m a n y e c o n o m i c o r e d e p o s i t s , a n d , because fossils r e f l e c t e n v i r o n m e n t , t o m e c h a n i s m s o f c l i m a t e c h a n g e , such a s the g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t . T h u s t h e w o r k o f p a l e o n t o l o g y has b r o a d i m p l i c a t i o n s . Just a s e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y has c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l aspects o f b i o l o g y and m e d i c i n e , s o , t o o , d o e s p a l e o n t o l o g y m e r g e w i t h e c o n o m i c and e n v i r o n m e n tal g e o l o g y and w i t h c l i m a t o l o g y . I n t h e s i m p l e s t t e r m s , t h e b i o s p h e r e o f life and l i t h o s p h e r e o f r o c k s are n o t i n d e p e n d e n t . T h e y a r e o n e . T h e y a r e c o m p o n e n t s o f a p e r p e t u a l tapestry o f incomprehensible

grandeur,

the

weft

of stone

and

warp

of life,

woven

c o n t i n u o u s l y o n the l o o m o f t i m e .

ONE

DOES

N O T n e e d t o g o t o A f r i c a t o study e v o l u t i o n o r g e o l o g i c t i m e .

T h a t can b e d o n e a n y w h e r e .

But t o a p p l y t h e c o n c e p t s o f e v o l u t i o n and

g e o l o g i c t i m e o n a g l o b a l scale,

A f r i c a d o e s h a v e t o b e b r o u g h t i n t o the

p i c t u r e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f c h a n g e t h r o u g h the m i l l e n n i a that m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d : c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t , t h e d a n c e o f the g r e a t Earth. I t i s w e l l a c c e p t e d a m o n g g e o l o g i s t s n o w a d a y s that t h e E a r t h ' s surface, the e n t i r e o u t e r shell o f the g l o b e , i s d i v i d e d i n t o r i g i d plates that m o v e r e l a t i v e t o each o t h e r . T h a t i s t h e c o n c e p t o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ( F i g u r e 7 ) . T h e c o n t i n e n t s float o n t h e p l a t e s , b e c a u s e t h e y are m a d e o f l i g h t e r r o c k s , and are c a r r i e d a l o n g p a s s i v e l y a s t h e plates m o v e , d r i f t i n g a s i t w e r e across the p l a n e t .

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA 31

FIGURE

7: Plate tectonics and continental drift.

visualized than

with South America,

under tension may form rift

Africa,

Nowhere can this he better

and the ocean in between.

valleys and eventually tear apart.

ocean will be born where the landmasses separate.

Continents

If that happens,

an

That is what happened 100

million years ago as Africa and South America split.

Oceans grow larger as molten

rock rises from inside the Earth to form new ocean floor at spreading centers such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (bottom). an ocean basin, grows wider. often ft

Thus,

what begins as a rift valley may end up

with the continents drifting away from each other as the ocean

That is why the outlines of the continents on either side of the ocean

together like pieces of a puzzle.

On

the

western margin

of South America

(left) one plate dips deeply under another and is consumed in a subduction zone. Volcanic mountains such

as the Andes are formed along

the edge of the continent

as a result of the subduction process and the heat it generates.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

32 T h e m o t i o n o f plates can g o i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . Plates m a y d i v e r g e a t spreading centers,

such a s the M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e d e e p u n d e r the o c e a n .

C o n t i n e n t s m o v e a w a y f r o m each o t h e r a s plates d i v e r g e .

Plates m a y c o n -

v e r g e , o r m o v e t o w a r d each o t h e r , o n e d i p p i n g b e n e a t h a n o t h e r i n a subduct i o n z o n e . T h i s causes the floating c o n t i n e n t s t o m o v e t o w a r d each o t h e r , e v e n c o l l i d e , f o r m i n g m o u n t a i n s such as the H i m a l a y a s . Plates also slide past o n e a n o t h e r , as is h a p p e n i n g n o w w i t h the San A n d r e a s Fault, a v e r y o b v i o u s b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t w o plates r i g h t i n o u r o w n b a c k y a r d — o r f r o n t y a r d , a s t h e case m a y b e . T h a t i s o n e r e a s o n w h y C a l i f o r n i a has s o m a n y e a r t h q u a k e s . S o m e d a y , m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s h e n c e , L o s A n g e l e s m a y lie w e s t o f San F r a n c i s c o . If, t h r o u g h c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t , the c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f the E a r t h ' s c o n t i n e n t s i s c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g , t h e n t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f o c e a n s , w h i c h separate the c o n t i n e n t s , m u s t be c h a n g i n g t o o . In fact, f o r an Earth that is 4 . 5 b i l l i o n years o l d , it is a b s o l u t e l y startling that t h e o l d e s t r o c k s in the o c e a n f l o o r t o d a y are a m e r e 2 0 8 m i l l i o n years o l d . A n d o n l y a f e w are that o l d . M o s t are y o u n g e r . S o m e are m u c h y o u n g e r . W h y are

S o m e are f o r m i n g r i g h t n o w .

o c e a n s s o y o u n g w h e n the

Earth i s s o

o l d ? Because

a t the

m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s m o l t e n lava rises f r o m d e e p i n the earth and c o o l s t o f o r m hard r o c k . N e w o c e a n f l o o r i s c o n t i n u a l l y b e i n g f o r m e d . A s n e w sea f l o o r i s f o r m e d , i t pushes the c o n t i n e n t s farther a w a y f r o m the s p r e a d i n g c e n t e r . A t c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s s u b d u c t i n g slabs o f the E a r t h ' s crust pull the plates w i t h t h e i r floating landmasses d o w n a l o n g b e h i n d t h e m . I t i s a s i f the c o n t i nents are on c o n v e y o r belts. I t s o h a p p e n s that the m o v e m e n t o f c o n t i n e n t s can b e t r a c e d back i n t i m e using t h e m a g n e t i c signal p r e s e r v e d i n t h e r o c k s o f the o c e a n f l o o r . A s n e w r o c k i s a d d e d t o the E a r t h ' s crust a t m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s , m a g n e t i c m i n e r a l s align themselves

w i t h the

direction

o f the

Earth's

magnetic

field.

As

we

have

already s e e n , changes in the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c Held can be used f o r d e c i p h e r i n g g e o l o g i c t i m e . I n the sea f l o o r m a g n e t i c h i s t o r y i s r e f l e c t i n g the m a g n e t i c f i e l d a s n e w r o c k i s f o r m e d and e x t r u d e d o u t t o b e c o m e part o f the sea f l o o r itself ( F i g u r e 8 ) . T h e farther f r o m the r i d g e i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n , the o l d e r the r o c k . I f n e w r o c k i s c o n t i n u a l l y a d d e d t o the sea f l o o r a t m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s , the sea s u r r o u n d i n g the M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e m u s t h a v e b e e n s m a l l e r a t any g i v e n t i m e i n the past. A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a m u s t have b e e n c l o s e r t o g e t h e r . It f o l l o w s that the past p o s i t i o n of the c o n t i n e n t s at a g i v e n p o i n t in g e o l o g i c t i m e can b e easily r e c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e o r e t i c a l l y a n y w a y , b y i d e n t i f y i n g specificp o r t i o n s i n the f i n g e r p r i n t p a t t e r n o f the p a l e o m a g n e t i c r e c o r d o f the o c e a n floor. It is like r u n n i n g a t a p e in r e v e r s e .

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA

33

FIGURE

8:

Magnetic stripes aligned symmetrically along spreading centers such

the Mid-Atlantic centers.

Ridge

demonstrate

the same

time,

the time of their formation. preserve they

will

new ocean

fioor

Compare the magnetic reversal pattern seen

the vertical pattern in Figure 6. formed at

that

the

record

exhibit

of the

virtually

is formed at

as

spreading

here aligned horizontally

with

The patterns are the same because the rocks,

acquired

the

signature

of the

If rocks are of the same age, Earth's identical

magnetic field

at

magnetic patterns

the

Earth's and time

wherever

magnetic field at

if

they clearly

of their formation, they

are formed,

whether it be in the sea floor or on the continents.

Because the m a g n e t i c f i e l d affects t h e w h o l e w o r l d , the s a m e signal a t any g i v e n p o i n t i n t i m e , past o r p r e s e n t , w i l l b e r e c o r d e d i n s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s piling up on continents, or in sea-floor rocks c o o l i n g along a m i d - o c e a n r i d g e . S o i f the s a m e m a g n e t i c f i n g e r p r i n t can b e i d e n t i f i e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n land and sea, w e should b e able t o d e t e r m i n e w h e r e a c o n t i n e n t w a s a t t h e p r e c i s e t i m e that a particular suite of fossils w a s l i v i n g on land. T h a t is t r u l y a m a z i n g . I f all the o c e a n s a r e y o u n g , g e o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , and i f w e can t r a c e t h e m o v e m e n t o f c o n t i n e n t s b a c k w a r d i n t i m e , w e w i l l d i s c o v e r that a t o n e t i m e all the landmasses w e r e a s s e m b l e d , p u z z l e l i k e , i n t o a s u p e r - s u p e r c o n t i n e n t , Pangaea. I t had itself b e e n a s s e m b l e d f r o m c o m p o n e n t c o n t i n e n t a l parts i n m u c h e a r l i e r t i m e s . I n its u l t i m a t e b r e a k u p t o f o r m the c o n t i n e n t s a s w e k n o w t h e m n o w ( F i g u r e 9 ) , Pangaea f i r s t b e g a n t o split i n t o a m a j o r b u t c o m p l i c a t e d s u p e r c o n t i n e n t in the n o r t h ,

Laurasia,

and i n t o a s e c o n d s u p e r c o n t i n e n t ,

called G o n d w a n a , i n the s o u t h . T h e s e g r e a t landmasses w e r e s e p a r a t e d i n t h e east by an o c e a n , a r e m n a n t of w h i c h is f a m i l i a r to us as t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea. A s t i m e p r o g r e s s e d , the A t l a n t i c b e g a n t o f o r m , a t f i r s t d i v i d i n g e a s t e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a f r o m n o r t h w e s t e r n A f r i c a . A t this stage t h e r e w a s n o s o u t h e r n A t l a n t i c because A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a w e r e still j o i n e d i n G o n d w a n a . A f r i c a b e c a m e p r o g r e s s i v e l y i s o l a t e d f r o m the rest o f G o n d w a n a , f i r s t o n its eastern m a r g i n , t h e n d o w n t o t h e s o u t h , t h e n u p t h e w e s t s i d e . I t w a s a s if a gigantic zipper around Africa b e c a m e unfastened.

The

South A t l a n t i c

O c e a n f o r m e d a s South A m e r i c a s e p a r a t e d f r o m A f r i c a ' s w e s t coast.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

34

FIGURE

9:

Approximate geographic

million years ago joined split

into into

the

to

the present

(Africa

super-supercontinent

Gondwana,

comprising

arrangements

is stippled).

of Pangaea

the modern

another large landmass called Laurasia. beginning have

to split from

achieved

and oceans

their

through

and the life on it. and

South

South America,

of the

By

continents from

All of the continents

200

million years

southern

ago.

were Pangaea

continents plus India,

100 million years ago Africa

and since

then

and

was

the continents and oceans

modern

distributions.

The geographic

arrangement

time

a fundamental

element

evolution

is

200

of the

of continents

of the

Earth

It explains why we should expect similarities between African

American

dinosaurs

(and

other animals) prior

to

100

million years ago.

T h e last d e t a c h m e n t o f A f r i c a f r o m r e m n a n t s o f G o n d w a n a o c c u r r e d 1 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o . A t that t i m e w h a t i s n o w Brazil i n S o u t h A m e r i c a slid a w a y f r o m W e s t A f r i c a . I m a g i n e , i f y o u can, standing o n t h e b e a c h i n the G u l f o f G u i n e a o n t h e A f r i c a n c o a s t , w a t c h i n g S o u t h A m e r i c a sailing across the o c e a n , the captain o f its o w n t e c t o n i c p l a t e , s p e e d i n g a w a y f r o m y o u a t the same rate a t w h i c h y o u r f i n g e r n a i l s g r o w ! A t that t i m e , o n e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n years a g o , in

what

may

seem

a

slow,

inexorable

process,

the

Atlantic

Ocean

was

c o m p l e t e d f r o m south t o n o r t h . A f r i c a and its animals b e c a m e isolated f r o m all o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s . W h a t happens w h e n

continents b e c o m e

isolated f r o m

each o t h e r ? A l l

c o n t i n e n t s h a v e t h e i r o w n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c plants and a n i m a l s . W h e n w e think o f A u s t r a l i a , w e think o f k a n g a r o o s , and w e think o f the d u c k - b i l l e d p l a t y p u s , its scientific n a m e ,

Ornithorhynchus anatinus,

m a d e i n t o a c h i l d r e n ' s s o n g by

M r . R o g e r s . F o r South A m e r i c a , w e m i g h t think o f o p o s s u m s , and sloths, and a r m a d i l l o s . A f r i c a has vast h e r d s o f a n t e l o p e and z e b r a o n t h e plains, and l i o n s , and aardvarks. W h y s h o u l d t h e r e b e characteristic animals o n d i f f e r e n t c o n t i nents?

THE

FORGOTTEN

DINOSAURS

OF

AFRICA 35

W h e n a c o n t i n e n t b e c o m e s i s o l a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , its inhabitants l o s e the o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n t e r a c t i n any w a y w i t h the m e m b e r s o f t h e i r o w n s p e c i e s o n o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s f r o m w h i c h t h e y h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e d , unless m i x i n g o c c u r s later f o r s o m e r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r . F r o m that p o i n t o n w a r d i n t i m e e v o l u t i o n p e r f o r m s i n a separate t h e a t e r ,

distinct f r o m w h a t m a y h a p p e n o n o t h e r

c o n t i n e n t s , y e t d e p e n d e n t f o r its r a w t a l e n t o n the l e g a c y o f p r e v i o u s d i s t r i b u tions o f species across the g l o b e .

T h e current geographical distribution of

a n t e l o p e s has l i t t l e t o d o w i t h c o n t i n e n t a l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s because a n t e l o p e s , a s c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z a b l e a n t e l o p e s , a r e e v o l u t i o n a r i l y m u c h y o u n g e r than the p l a t e - t e c t o n i c e v e n t s o f the M e s o z o i c . W h e r e a n t e l o p e s l i v e today is a reflection of m o r e r e c e n t influences. T h e platypus, h o w e v e r , is a d i f f e r e n t s t o r y . Its r o o t s , and its g e o g r a p h y , m a y v e r y w e l l e x t e n d i n t o t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s . Its f o r e b e a r s w e r e a r o u n d i n Australia w h e n the c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f a n t e l o p e s and h u m a n s w a s l i t t l e m o r e than a furry g r u b b e r o f w o r m s and b u g s . B y 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , w h e n A f r i c a b e c a m e i s o l a t e d , f l o w e r i n g plants w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o d e v e l o p i n t o the m y r i a d s p e c i e s that n o w a b o u n d . Because o f that i t w a s a t i m e o f t r a n s i t i o n , f r o m the earth t o n e s o f p r e v i o u s e p o c h s t o a fragrant w o r l d splashed w i t h c o l o r — c o l o r p r o v i d e d b y f l o w e r s . F l o w e r s h a v e a p u r p o s e . T h e y attract insects that i n a d v e r t e n t l y p o l l i n a t e the f l o w e r s and t h e r e b y facilitate sexual r e p r o d u c t i o n . H o w c l e v e r ! A n d the insects g e t a m e a l . T h e b e a u t y of f l o w e r s is p a r t of a m a j o r shift in strategy f o r plant e v o l u t i o n , b u t i t c o u l d n o t h a v e w o r k e d unless insects c o u l d see c o l o r s . T h e y c o u l d , and t h e y s p e c i a t e d , i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r d i v e r s i t y and t h e i r n u m b e r s , a l o n g w i t h the f l o w e r s . T h e n e w d i v e r s i t y and a b u n d a n c e o f f l o w e r i n g plants and insects p r o v i d e d a n e x p a n d e d l a r d e r f o r p l a n t - e a t i n g h e r b i v o r e s , insect e a t e r s , and p r e d a t o r s that ate t h e m b o t h .

A m o n g these w e r e animals that w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y b e c o m e

familiar t o u s i n the m o d e r n w o r l d . T h e r e w e r e f r o g s and lizards and m a m m a l s . Each o f these m a j o r g r o u p s o f v e r t e b r a t e s had b e e n a r o u n d m u c h l o n g e r , b u t n o w t h e y w e r e m a k i n g e v o l u t i o n a r y leaps that w o u l d suit t h e m i n the m o d e r n w o r l d . T h e y still r e m a i n e d s o m e w h a t m i n o r characters i n the c o m m u n i t y o f s p e c i e s , v i e w i n g t h e f l o w e r s f r o m t h e s h a d o w s o f the dinosaurs. But i m p o r t a n t changes w e r e u n d e r w a y . T h e r e w a s a b l o s s o m i n g o f life b e g i n n i n g o n e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n years a g o , taking p l a c e o n f r a g m e n t i n g c o n t i n e n t s and l e a d i n g t o the richness o f t h e natural w o r l d that w e see t o d a y .

Africa,

c o n t i n e n t s , had its o w n special r o l e i n this g r e a t p l a y o f l i f e .

like all the o t h e r

TAHITI WITHOUT SALT

A

F R I C A HAS BEEN s h a p e d a n d m o l d e d f o r e o n s b y t h e g l o b a l p r o c e s s e s

of p l a t e t e c t o n i c s and c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t . O n e result is that it has a string of g r e a t lakes r u n n i n g across t h e eastern side o f t h e c o n t i n e n t . L a k e M a l a w i i s tin' s o u t h e r n m o s t oi the string ( F i g u r e 1 0 ) . It is the third largest and s e c o n d d e e p e s t . I n A f r i c a , o n l y V i c t o r i a and T a n g a n y i k a surpass L a k e M a l a w i i n area. O n l y T a n g a n y i k a i s d e e p e r . R a n k e d a m o n g t h e o t h e r lakes o f t h e w o r l d , i t i s t h e t h i r t e e n t h l a r g e s t , b u t i t i s the t h i r d d e e p e s t . L a k e M a l a w i , m o r e than any o t h e r single f e a t u r e , is t h e e s s e n c e of t h e c o u n t r y . It is p e r v a s i v e . It is overpowering.

T h r o u g h i t , t h e p r o c e s s e s o f t h e Earth and the l i v e s o f the

p e o p l e b e c o m e i n t e r t w i n e d i n a single f o c u s , a c o m m o n p e r c e p t i o n . Lake

Malawi

is blue,

lined

w i t h b o u l d e r s and

sand

beaches.

Vertical

m o u n t a i n s w i t h n e a r - p e r p e n d i c u l a r r o c k w a l l s p l u m m e t i n t o the l a k e , alternating w i t h stretches o f l o w , s o m e t i m e s marshy shore. T o w a r d the north e n d , the highlands f o r m t h e e a s t e r n b a n k . T h e r e t h e y are t h e s p l e n d i d L i v i n g s t o n e Mountains of Tanzania,

d r o p p i n g precipitously f r o m their height of nearly

1 0 , 0 0 0 f e e t h e a d l o n g i n t o the d e p t h s . T h e n t h e h e i g h t s a r e lost t o the eastern s h o r e , and highlands are o n t h e w e s t . T h e feet of the mountains are s u b m e r g e d in the depths. It is t h e r e , w h e r e r a m p a r t s b e g i n t o rise f r o m t h e d e e p , that t h e lake h i d e s its d e e p e s t h o l e s .

TAHITI

FIGURE

WITHOUT

SALT

10: Location map of Malawi.

shore of the lake.

Our camp is at Ngara in the north,

The Dinosaur Beds are near Aiwakasyunguti.

on the

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

>s S e e m i n g l y sheer cliffs m a y c l i m b m o r e than a m i l e f r o m the lake b e d , w i t h n e a r l y half o f t h e i r h e i g h t h i d d e n b e l o w the surface. G r a d u a l l y , a w a y f r o m the s t e e p banks, t h e lake b e c o m e s m o r e s h a l l o w , p r o g r e s s i n g f r o m the d e p t h s t o w a r d the o p p o s i t e , l o w - l y i n g s h o r e . P a l m t r e e s d o t the lake m a r g i n . T h e v i s i o n i s that o f a Pacific i s l a n d — b l u e w a t e r , g r e e n m o u n t a i n s , sand, p a l m s . But i t is, o f c o u r s e , v e r y d i f f e r e n t . F o r o n e t h i n g , L a k e M a l a w i is fresh. F o r a n o t h e r , this lake is an island of w a t e r i n a sea o f land. T h e o c e a n s h a v e n e v e r i n the h i s t o r y o f the A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t transgressed far e n o u g h inland t o i n u n d a t e M a l a w i . T h a t can b e said o f f e w countries. N o b o d y o f w a t e r the size o f L a k e M a l a w i i s m o n o l i t h i c . I t c h a n g e s ; i t i s dynamic.

Seasonal changes c o m e w i t h the rains, n o t w i t h t h e e x t r e m e s o f

t e m p e r a t u r e that c h a r a c t e r i z e the

seasons o f N o r t h A m e r i c a and

Europe.

W h e n skies a r e c l o u d y , the lake i s g r a y and s o m b e r . W h e n the sun shines, t h e w a t e r i s l i g h t , h a p p y . W i t h t h e c l o u d s and t h e c h a n g i n g l i g h t , the d e p t h s t a k e o n v a r y i n g hues o f b l u e , p u r p l e , and g r e e n , w i t h glints and sparkles, a s i f the lake w e r e a g i a n t g e m s t o n e . W a v e s r o l l o n the s h o r e . S o m e t i m e s t h e y are s l o w , p e r i o d i c , m e s m e r i z i n g . S o m e t i m e s t h e y are t h u n d e r . T h e w a t e r i s pleasant f o r b a t h i n g . T h e w i n d feels crisp o f f the l a k e . D r o p l e t s o f c l e a n , fresh w a t e r evaporating in the b r e e z e induce prickles of ephemeral e x c i t e m e n t . There

i s n o g r e a t e r v i s i o n than

the

lake

seen

f r o m the h e i g h t o f the

m o u n t a i n s . F r o m this v a n t a g e the distant shores o f T a n z a n i a o r M o z a m b i q u e f r a m e the v i b r a n t - b l u e w a t e r i n the p a s t e l - p u r p l e tints o f the far a w a y . B e l o w , t h e hills s t r e t c h g r e e n and v e r d a n t t o w a r d the d e p t h s . I n t h e right phase o f t h e m o o n , c l o u d s , l i k e s m o k e , rise f r o m t h e surface o f the lake ( F i g u r e 1 1 ) . L i v i n g s t o n e c a l l e d this kungu.

H o w e v e r , these c l o u d s a r e n o t the v a p o r s o f

w a t e r ; r a t h e r , t h e y are the hatching o f m i l l i o n s o f lakeflies, all taking t o w i n g i n u n i s o n . T h e y are a p a r t o f the s c e n e . I t adds t o t h e v i s i o n . A ship is o c c a s i o n a l l y s e e n p l y i n g the lake n o r t h w a r d f r o m M o n k e y Bay on its w a y t o C h i l u m b a and back t h r o u g h o t h e r p o r t s . T h e l e g a c y o f ships o n L a k e M a l a w i is a pleasant d i s t r a c t i o n . Ships h a v e a h i s t o r y in M a l a w i that g o e s back t o L i v i n g s t o n e ' s d a y . L i v i n g s t o n e ' s f i r s t E u r o p e a n b o a t w a s a s t e a m launch, the

Ma-Roben,

Livingstone.

the

mother

of R o b e r t ,

named

in

African

fashion

for

Mrs.

H e used i t o n t h e Z a m b e z i and Shire r i v e r s .

T h e f i r s t steamship o n t h e lake w a s t h e llala, n a m e d f o r the p l a c e w h e r e L i v i n g s t o n e d i e d . I t w a s b r o u g h t t o A f r i c a b y the L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n . Built i n L o n d o n and d i s m a n t l e d , the p i e c e s w e r e n u m b e r e d and s h i p p e d t o the D a r k

TAHITI

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39

FIGURE

11: Kungu mist,

a horde of lakeflies rising from

For scale notice the size of the canoes. collect

the tiny fiesfor the kitchen

if

the lake after hatching.

Moistened winnowing baskets are used to

the swarm

drifts over a lakeside

village.

C o n t i n e n t , w h e r e i t w a s r e a s s e m b l e d and l a u n c h e d o n the lake i n 1 8 7 5 . I n 1882 the A f r i c a n Lakes C o m p a n y t o o k i t o v e r . S u b s e q u e n t l y i t w a s s o l d and t r a n s f e r r e d o u t o f the l a k e . I n 1922 t h e o r i g i n a l llala, after n e a r l y f i f t y y e a r s ' s e r v i c e , w a s w o r k i n g a t the m o u t h o f the Z a m b e z i . I t sank s o o n a f t e r w a r d . T h e llala 11 p l o w s the lake t o d a y . It is d i e s e l - p o w e r e d . T h e r e w e r e m a n y o t h e r ships o n the lake b e t w e e n the t w o Ilalas. I h a v e already s p o k e n o f the illustrious s e r v i c e t o t h e British w a r e f f o r t , and later t o p a l e o n t o l o g y , of t h e g u n s h i p Guendolen.

T h e Dove w a s a s i d e - p a d d l e s t e a m e r

that p a t r o l l e d the u p p e r Shire R i v e r i n 1 8 9 3 , later m a k i n g runs o n the l a k e . Its n i c k n a m e w a s Chikapa,

a Y a o w o r d referring to the circular m o t i o n of

dancing buttocks. H o w appropriate.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

40 T h e r e w a s also t h e Chauncy Maples, b r o u g h t by the U n i v e r s i t i e s M i s s i o n to C e n t r a l A f r i c a and l a u n c h e d o n t h e lake i n 1 9 0 1 . I t w a s n a m e d f o r a m a r t y r t o the l a k e , Bishop C h a u n c y M a p l e s . M a p l e s w e n t t o L o n d o n i n 1895 t o b e c o n s e c r a t e d b i s h o p o f L i k o m a , a n island i n the lake n e a r the coast o f M o z a m bique.

T h e n e w b i s h o p w a s a n x i o u s t o r e t u r n t o his b i s h o p r i c .

A f t e r his

c o n s e c r a t i o n he rushed back to his s e e , b o a r d i n g the Sheniff n e a r sunset f o r the f i n a l sail across the lake t o L i k o m a , i n spite o f t h e lateness o f the h o u r and t h e c r e w ' s w a r n i n g s o f a n i m p e n d i n g g a l e . T h e b o a t c a p s i z e d i n the ensuing s t o r m . T h e b i s h o p c l u n g f o r a w h i l e t o a f l o a t i n g b o x , like a cat o n f l o t s a m . H e w a s t o l d that land w a s n e a r b y ; h e c o u l d s w i m t o safety. But h e refused t o r e m o v e his h e a v y b l a c k cassock. " S a v e y o u r s e l v e s , " h e i s said t o h a v e c r i e d .

" Y o u must not die for m e .

I am a miserable sinner. My hour to die is c o m e . " I t c e r t a i n l y had. T h e lake k e p t his b o d y f o r t w o w e e k s until i t w a s w a s h e d u p o n t o t h e s h o r e , r e c o g n i z a b l e o n l y b y t h e b l a c k cassock.

THE

FISH

O F L a k e M a l a w i a r e r e m a r k a b l e f o r t h e i r c o l o r and a b u n d a n c e .

T h e y abound in t r e m e n d o u s variety. M a n y , perhaps m o s t , have not even been n a m e d . O n e e s t i m a t e suggests that t h e r e are b e t w e e n f i v e h u n d r e d and o n e thousand distinct s p e c i e s i n the l a k e . A l m o s t all o f t h e s e are e n d e m i c , k n o w n f r o m n o w h e r e e l s e , n o t e v e n f r o m the s t r e a m s f l o w i n g i n t o the l a k e . M o s t , b u t n o t all, o f this spectacular v a r i e t y o f f i n n y d i v e r s i t y i s a c c o u n t e d f o r b y c i c h l i d s , t r o p i c a l f i s h m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f A f r i c a but also c o m m o n i n South America.

T h e A f r i c a n g r e a t lakes are each h o m e t o separate e v o l u t i o n a r y

radiations o f cichlids w i t h d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s e v o l v i n g t o f i l l similar e c o l o g i c a l niches,

sharing similar w a y s o f l i f e , b u t i n d i f f e r e n t b o d i e s o f w a t e r .

This

separate e v o l u t i o n in areas i s o l a t e d f r o m each o t h e r is on a s m a l l e r scale b u t c o n c e p t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l t o the e v o l u t i o n a r y i s o l a t i o n o n d i f f e r e n t c o n t i n e n t s caused b y c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t . S o m e o f the l i t t l e f i s h o f L a k e M a l a w i a r e the t i n y s w i m m i n g j e w e l s c a l l e d mbuna that are p r i z e d by f r e s h w a t e r - t r o p i c a l - f i s h enthusiasts. In days n o t l o n g past, m a n y mbuna o f m a n y d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s w e r e e x p o r t e d t o the aquaria o f A m e r i c a each y e a r . N o w t h e y a r e raised o n special c i c h l i d farms i n F l o r i d a . Mbuna are e x t r e m e l y v a r i e d , s o m e q u i t e c o l o r f u l , g o l d o r b l u e , s o m e s t r i p e d . O t h e r s are d r a b , and n o t o f m u c h i n t e r e s t t o h o b b y i s t s . P e o p l e have b e e n k n o w n t o p o i s o n the w a t e r s a r o u n d a r o c k y island l a c k i n g the c o l o r f u l mbuna

TAHITI

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SALT 41

l o c a l l y i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a v a c a n c y f o r m o r e d e s i r a b l e s p e c i e s that c o u l d t h e n b e transplanted t o t h e w a t e r s i n p l a c e o f l e s s - c o l o r f u l natural r e s i d e n t s . T h e r e i s o n l y o n e p l a c e i n M a l a w i w h e r e tourists are a b u n d a n t . T h a t i s a t C a p e M a c l e a r , a t the s o u t h e r n e n d o f t h e l a k e , w h e r e t h e o r i g i n a l L i v i n g s t o n i a Mission

was

established,

and

where

Lake

Malawi

National

Park

is

now

l o c a t e d . I t i s b e a u t i f u l . Its m a j o r a t t r a c t i o n s a r e t h e g r a n d e u r o f the c o u n t r y s i d e , the c r y s t a l - c l e a r w a t e r , and t h e s n o r k e l i n g a r o u n d the r o c k s and b o u l d e r s . I t i s like v i e w i n g t h e f i s h o f a c o r a l r e e f i n fresh w a t e r . A l t h o u g h tourists f r e q u e n t the national p a r k , mbuna inhabit m o s t o f t h e l a k e , e s p e c i a l l y i n r o c k y areas. T h e r e a r e m a n y places o t h e r than the p a r k that are e q u a l l y suited f o r snorkeling. N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , f i s h c o m p r i s e a significant c o m p o n e n t o f t h e M a l a w i a n d i e t . M u c h o f the p r o t e i n c o n s u m e d i n M a l a w i i s i n the f o r m o f f i s h . O v e r f o r t y thousand t o n s o f i t c o m e s f r o m the lake e v e r y y e a r . A p p a r e n t l y t h e m o s t d e s i r e d fish f o r the table is chambo, a c i c h l i d panfish, similar to a b r e a m . But t h e r e are m a n y o t h e r kinds ( F i g u r e 1 2 ) . T h e r e a r e lake t r o u t that are n o t t r o u t at all b u t , like t r o u t , are s w i f t - s w i m m i n g p r e d a t o r s . T h e r e is a species that, like a s a l m o n , s w i m s up s t r e a m s to lay e g g s . A n d t h e r e are kampango,

the

giants o f the l a k e , w e i g h i n g u p t o a r o u n d o n e h u n d r e d p o u n d s . T h e s e a r e catfish, but o f a d i f f e r e n t f a m i l y f r o m t h o s e w e h a v e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . M u c h of the fish that is caught in M a l a w i is d r i e d in t h e sun on r o w after r o w o f hand-fashioned s t r a w o r r e e d m a t s s u p p o r t e d o f f the g r o u n d b y s p i n d l y sticks. O t h e r f i s h a r e p r e s e r v e d b y s m o k i n g . T h a t i s the b e s t w a y t o e n j o y kampango. Fishing is d o n e t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y of t e c h n i q u e s , but the use of small hand nets accounts f o r m o s t n o n c o m m e r c i a l , subsistence f i s h i n g . S o m e o f m y m o s t pleasant i m a g e s o f M a l a w i are o f f i s h e r m e n i n t h e i r c a n o e s . F i s h e r m e n on a c a l m lake is a g o o d i m a g e . T h e simple canoes of Lake M a l a w i impress me as they have many b e f o r e m y t i m e . T h e y are d u g o u t s , t w e n t y f e e t l o n g o r s o , b u t n o t o f the usual dugout design. W h o k n o w s h o w long they have been in use, but E. D. Y o u n g p r o v i d e d the f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m i n

1877:

I have n e v e r seen e l s e w h e r e , n o r do I k n o w that any p r e v i o u s travellers have n o t i c e d the singular build of these craft. T h e y are of c o u r s e , as in all these cases, m a d e by felling trees and h o l l o w i n g t h e m o u t by axe and fire. But the Nyassa canoes have this peculiarity about t h e m , that the g u n w a l e s are i n v e r t e d , so that the paddlers have o n l y a n a r r o w slit d o w n the c e n t r e

LOUIS

FIGURE or are

12:

dried—are a favorite

Cichlids and a catfish a

major

with

source

many

(bottom) in

of protein

tropical-fish

in

Lake Malawi.

Malawi.

Colorful

JACOBS,

Fish—-fresh, Lake

Malawi

PH.D.

smoked, cichlids

hobbyists.

of the canoe in w h i c h to sit. If a p i e c e of bark is stripped off a t r e e f r o m its w h o l e c i r c u m f e r e n c e , and d r i e d as in the sun, it w i l l p r o b a b l y assume the shape of w h i c h I speak; the t w o edges w i l l curl in along the c e n t r e . Built in this w a y they are e x c e e d i n g l y buoyant and tolerably s e a w o r t h y , a v e r y m a r k e d e x c e p t i o n to the ordinary run of r i v e r canoes, w h i c h are b r o u g h t to a standstill if there is o n l y a g o o d r i p p l e on the surface; for they have no m o r e life in t h e m in a sea-way than a g a r d e n r o l l e r , and go d o w n like stones as s o o n as they ship any w a t e r . T h e paddler uses a paddle about six feet l o n g , and either stands or sits.

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D o w n the w a y f r o m m y c a m p a t N g a r a , f i s h e r m e n r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g f r o m the d a y ' s w o r k w r e s t l e t h e i r d u g o u t s o n t o t h e b e a c h . T h e hulls a r e l a d e n w i t h the c a t c h , bushels o f t i n y , s l e n d e r , s i l v e r y f i s h , n o t m o r e than a n inch l o n g , strained f r o m t h e w a t e r s o f t h e lake t h r o u g h f i n e m e s h nets. W o m e n o f the v i l l a g e , and c h i l d r e n sent b y t h e i r m o t h e r s , c r o w d a r o u n d the b o a t s , each c l u t c h i n g a p o t t o b e f i l l e d w i t h t h e f i s h . T h e s e b u l l e t s o f p r o t e i n w i l l b e b o i l e d i n t o the e v e n i n g ' s m e a l o r d r i e d , t h e n s o l d i n upland m a r k e t s . O n e e v e n i n g w e w e r e o n o u r w a y back f r o m K a r o n g a t o L i l o n g w e .

We

s t o p p e d a t N k h a t a Bay t o c a m p , p u l l i n g i n t o the c a m p s i t e w e l l after d a r k . T h e d e e p e s t p o i n t i n L a k e M a l a w i lies a c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d f e e t o f f s h o r e f r o m t h e beach w h e r e w e u n r o l l e d o u r s l e e p i n g b a g s . T h e m o u n t a i n s r o s e a c o u p l e o f thousand f e e t a b o v e us. T h e r e w a s a b s o l u t e l y n o m o o n . T h e w a t e r and the season w e r e j u x t a p o s e d b y i n e x o r a b l e p r o b a b i l i t y , l i k e the a l i g n m e n t o f the sun, the e a r t h , and t h e m o o n i n a n e c l i p s e , i n t o the p e r f e c t n i g h t f o r f i s h i n g . W e c o u l d hear the e x c l a m a t i o n s o f the f i s h e r m e n t h r o u g h the darkness. T h e y w e r e a small c o m m e r c i a l c o n c e r n w i t h a l o n g n e t and a l o t o f p e o p l e t o pull i t in. Hissing p r e s s u r e l a m p s w e r e p o s i t i o n e d t o attract f i s h b y false m o o n l i g h t . T h e n e t w a s l o a d e d i n t o c a n o e s and f e r r i e d o u t t o the d e e p e s t part o f the l a k e , w h e r e i t w a s d r o p p e d .

T h e n the m e n o n s h o r e p u l l e d r o p e s

attached t o e i t h e r e n d o f the n e t , hauling i t t h r o u g h the w a t e r and c a p t u r i n g the w e a l t h o f f i s h that had e m e r g e d f r o m the d e p t h s t o f e e d . T h e r e w a s o n l y o n e p r o b l e m : T h e r o p e s b r o k e . T h e y w e r e r o t t e n and c o u l d n o t b e a r t h e strain. T h e n e t b e g a n t o s i n k — i n this case, t o the d e e p e s t part o f the t h i r d d e e p e s t lake i n t h e w o r l d . S o m e o n e had t o g o after i t . A small fleet o f c a n o e s s h i p p e d t h e m e n i n t o t h e n i g h t .

O v e r the side t h e y w e n t ,

s w i m m i n g b l i n d l y t h r o u g h the c h i l l y black w a t e r , d o w n a s far a s t h e y c o u l d g o , f o r as l o n g as t h e y c o u l d c o n t a i n t h e i r b u r s t i n g lungs, searching f o r the s l o w l y d r i f t i n g n e t , h o p i n g t o s w i m i n t o it. T h e y f o u n d it. But i t t o o k t i m e . T h e catch w a s lost. N e v e r m i n d . T h i n g s h a p p e n . T h e f i s h e r m e n w e r e fatalistic. T h e i n e x o r a b l e f l o w o f t i m e and p r o b a b i l i t y w o u l d b r i n g o t h e r nights f o r f i s h i n g .

WITH

ALL

ITS d i v e r s i t y o f f i s h s p e c i e s , t h e r e i s o n e kind o f f i s h , lungfish

( F i g u r e 1 3 ) , that is c o n s p i c u o u s by its absence f r o m this A f r i c a n l a k e . T h a t in itself is a significant s t a t e m e n t a b o u t L a k e M a l a w i . Lungfish inhabit m o s t o f sub-Saharan A f r i c a , f r o m S e n e g a l i n the w e s t t o M o m b a s a i n the east, t h e n

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

44 south o v e r the C o n g o Basin, b e y o n d the Z a m b e z i , t o the g r e a t g r a y - g r e e n , g r e a s y L i m p o p o R i v e r . T h e y are P a l e o z o i c r e l i c t s , t r a c i n g t h e i r g e n e a l o g y a s lungfish back i n t i m e f o r h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s o f years ( w h i c h i s w h y Spinosaurus can b e e a t i n g a lungfish i n F i g u r e 2 ) . A l l o f t h e m are n o w g o n e f r o m the n o r t h e r n c o n t i n e n t s , b u t t h e y persist i n S o u t h A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a , and o f c o u r s e A f r i c a , all t h r e e o f w h i c h w e r e a t o n e t i m e p a r t o f G o n d w a n a , the southern

supercontinent.

Lungfish inhabit a v a r i e t y o f w a t e r y e n v i r o n m e n t s , b u t t h e y s e e m m o s t t o f a v o r s w a m p s o r t e m p o r a r y m a r s h e s f l o o d e d b y seasonal rains. T h e s e p l u m p , e e l l i k e d e n i z e n s are o b l i g e d t o surface p e r i o d i c a l l y , t h r u s t i n g t h e i r f i s h y snouts o u t o f the w a t e r t o g u l p o x y g e n - r i c h air. A l t h o u g h t h e y are m o s t c e r t a i n l y f i s h , i f t h e y a r e h e l d u n d e r w a t e r , t h e y w i l l d r o w n . T h e i r gills c a n n o t e x t r a c t e n o u g h o x y g e n f r o m the w a t e r t h e y l i v e i n . I f t h e i r habitat d r i e s u p , t h e y s i m p l y b u r r o w i n t o t h e m u d , s e c r e t e a c o p i o u s s u p p l y o f m u c u s , and f o r m a c o c o o n i n w h i c h t o s l e e p a w a y t h e d r y season.

FIGURE

13: A

contemporary African

lungfish.

These animals have changed little in

hundreds of millions of years. SPINOSAURUS is eating one in Figure 2. Lake Malawi is the only major East African Rift

Valley lake where they no longer exist,

even

though they are found as fossils in sediments deposited in the lake as recently as a few

million years

ago.

TAHITI

WITHOUT

SALT 4]

T h e y also inhabit lakes, all the g r e a t lakes o f A f r i c a e x c e p t o n e — L a k e M a l a w i . T h e r e are n o p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s o f lungfish b e i n g caught i n the l a k e . N o r d o t h e y surface a m o n g the p i l e s o f fresh, s m o k e d , o r d r i e d f i s h i n any of the m a r k e t s I h a v e v i s i t e d in M a l a w i . In o t h e r places lungfish are e a t e n . E v e n the n a t i v e m a r k e t s o f N a i r o b i , n o w h e r e n e a r a g r e a t l a k e , a r e s t o c k e d w i t h lungfish f r o m L a k e V i c t o r i a . But it has n o t a l w a y s b e e n the case that lungfish w e r e absent f r o m L a k e M a l a w i . I n r o c k s f o r m e d f r o m the m u d d e p o s i t e d o n l y a f e w m i l l i o n years a g o b y w a t e r s o f the lake s o o n after i t w a s f o r m e d , m y t e a m f o u n d fossil lungfish. C l e a r l y , as s h o w n by the d e m i s e of the lungfish, t h e lake has c h a n g e d . It is a m o n o l i t h n e i t h e r o n the scale o f g e o l o g i c a l t i m e n o r o n the scale o f a h u m a n l i f e t i m e . Lungfish i n o t h e r lakes a r e k n o w n t o v e n t u r e a w a y f r o m s h o r e , but g e n e r a l l y t h e y s e e m t o p r e f e r p a p y r u s s w a m p s a l o n g lake m a r g i n s t o the offshore d e p t h s . W a s L a k e M a l a w i b o u n d e d b y m o r e s w a m p s i n the past? I s the b o t t o m n o w t o o f i r m , t o o f r e e o f o r g a n i c debris? A r e the p r e s e n t w a t e r s t o o clean and d e e p f o r lungfish? M a y b e t h e y a r e . O n e t h i n g i s s u r e . T h e lake has n o t r e m a i n e d static since it w a s f o r m e d . It has p r o b a b l y g o t t e n d e e p e r , and that i s d u e t o a n e v o l v i n g g e o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g . N o t o n l y that, but a s w e are a b o u t t o s e e , the g e o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g has facilitated the f o r m a t i o n o f fossils. Many of Africa's most famous l a k e s — T u r k a n a , Naivasha, Victoria, T a n ganyika,

Malawi—owe

their

existence

to

the

geologic

structure

o f East

A f r i c a . L i k e a scar s t r e t c h i n g f r o m the R e d Sea i n the n o r t h t o M o z a m b i q u e in the south is the G r e a t R i f t V a l l e y .

T h i s gash across A f r i c a is t a n g i b l e

e v i d e n c e o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s and c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t : i t i s the r u p t u r e o f the Earth a s the c o n t i n e n t i s r i p p e d apart ( F i g u r e 1 4 ) . T o the n o r t h i t has o p e n e d t o the sea. I n d e e d , i t i s the v e r y r e a s o n w h y the R e d Sea e x i s t s . T h e w o u n d , w i t h t i m e , m a y w e l l f l o o d p r o g r e s s i v e l y t o the s o u t h . O n e day sea w a t e r m i g h t f i l l a g u l f that is n o w the R i f t V a l l e y . In East A f r i c a , a l o n g the R i f t , the p r o c e s s e s that tear the c o n t i n e n t s apart and send t h e m o n t h e i r w a y across the g l o b e are e v i d e n t . T h e highlands that flank the R i f t , the g r e a t R u w e n z o r i M o u n t a i n s — t h e M o u n t a i n s o f the M o o n o f the e a r l y e x p l o r e r s — K i l i m a n j a r o , M o u n t K e n y a , and the A b e r d a r e s are v o l c a n i c masses r e f l e c t i n g t h e u p w e l l i n g o f heat and lava.

T h e Rift Valley

f o r m e d a l o n g w i t h b i g v o l c a n o e s a s the E a r t h ' s surface w a s s t r e t c h e d , c r e a t i n g spectacular

relief.

T h e c l i m a t e a t the b o t t o m o f the R i f t V a l l e y i s h o t and d r y . T h e f l a n k s a r e c o o l e r and m o r e pleasant. T h e heights s u r r o u n d i n g the R i f t V a l l e y a r e m u c h

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

46

FIGURE

14:

Formation of the

Great

Rift

continent causing blocks to drop down has many such faults (bottom). rifting.

Hillsides

and

downstream

Tensional forces pull on

along faults (top).

The

Volcanoes are often formed in

mountains formed from

weathered and eroded.

sediments

Valley.

rifting

and

Great

the

Rift

Valley

areas of active

volcanic

activity

are

The sediments derived from them are carried downslope and

where they are deposited.

Animals and plants entombed in the

become fossils.

c o o l e r still. M o u n t K e n y a , m o r e p r o p e r l y k n o w n a s K i r i n y a g a , r e a c h i n g t o a n a l t i t u d e o f 1 7 , 0 5 8 f e e t , i s c a p p e d w i t h s n o w , y e t i t i s o n the e q u a t o r . Each e n v i r o n m e n t — m o u n t a i n , v a l l e y , p l a i n , d e s e r t , and e v e r y t h i n g i n b e t w e e n — i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y its o w n c l i m a t i c r e g i m e , its o w n g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s , and its o w n suite o f plants and a n i m a l s . Sand and soil p a r t i c l e s and r o c k f r a g m e n t s and dust a r e c a r r i e d d o w n h i l l f r o m the flanks and highlands b y g r a v i t y , w i n d s , and w a t e r . Finally t h e y c o m e t o r e s t , d e p o s i t e d i n the b e d s o f the s t r e a m s , r i v e r s , and lakes o f the R i f t V a l l e y . Diatoms, uncounted

single-celled

numbers

in

plants

Rift

with

Valley

bodies

lakes,

of ornate

where

they

silica, share

flourish

their

in

watery

e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h s p e c i e s u p o n s p e c i e s o f f i s h . A s the d i a t o m s d i e , t h e i r beautiful silica b o d i c e s b e c o m e s e d i m e n t , f o r m i n g a l m o s t p u r e r o c k — d i a t o m i t e , used f o r m a k i n g t o o t h p a s t e — i n the c l e a n w a t e r s n e a r the c e n t e r o f a

TAHITI

WITHOUT

SALT 47

l a k e . C l o s e r t o t h e s h o r e , a l o n g s t r e a m s and d e l t a s , d i a t o m s m i x w i t h d e t r i t u s c a r r i e d d o w n f r o m the highlands.

P o l l e n f r o m f l o w e r i n g plants and s p o r e s

f r o m fungi s p r i n k l e the surface o f t h e w a t e r and j o i n i n the b o t t o m s e d i m e n t s as t h e y b u i l d up l a y e r by l a y e r . S e d i m e n t s such a s t h e s e — r i v e r silt and lake m u d — b l a n k e t b o n e s and b o d i e s o f d e a d f i s h , h i p p o s , c r o c o d i l e s , p e r h a p s t u r t l e s , w h a t e v e r animals d i e in the w a t e r . W a t e r lilies and s h o r e grasses a r e b u r i e d . So are snails and c l a m s , a r t h r o p o d s and crustaceans. A n i m a l s that d o n o t l i v e i n w a t e r , b u t d i e n e a r a lake o r s t r e a m , m a y b e w a s h e d i n b y rains. O c c a s i o n a l f l o o d s cause w a t e r l e v e l s t o r i s e , b l a n k e t i n g s e d i m e n t s o v e r t h e soil o f t h e f l o o d p l a i n , c o v e r i n g w h a t e v e r carcasses and scraps m a y r e m a i n o n t h e surface after t h e v u l t u r e s and hyaenas have had a t t h e m . T h e ash o f a distant v o l c a n o m a y rain d o w n t o c o v e r and p r e s e r v e a p i c t u r e of the l a n d ' s surface. A f t e r an animal d i e s , if it is to b e c o m e a fossil, it m u s t be b u r i e d b e f o r e the e l e m e n t s d e s t r o y t h e carcass c o m p l e t e l y .

Flesh m a y r o t and p u t r e f y .

S i n e w s m a y d r y and shrink, t w i s t i n g the n e c k o v e r the back i n a d e a t h p o s e . I t m a y b e s c a v e n g e d and e a t e n , o r the flesh m a y b e b u r i e d a l o n g w i t h t h e b o n e s t o d e c o m p o s e l a t e r . Burial i s d o n e b y s e d i m e n t s ; t h e r e f o r e , fossils a r e f o r m e d i n areas w h e r e r i v e r s o r lakes o r o c e a n s d r o p t h e i r s e d i m e n t l o a d s , just a s w a s discussed a b o v e .

A f t e r burial, minerals carried by percolating

g r o u n d w a t e r are d e p o s i t e d i n v u g s w i t h i n the b o n e s t r u c t u r e , o r t h e y m a y actually r e p l a c e b o n e salts, l i t e r a l l y t u r n i n g the b o n e t o s t o n e . M i l l e n n i a l a t e r , w i t h m o v e m e n t s o f the Earth and changes i n c l i m a t e that t r a n s f o r m d e p o s i tional settings t o t h o s e o f e r o s i o n , the fossil i s e x h u m e d — r e s u r r e c t e d . E v e r y thing a b o u t the fossil, its p r e s e r v a t i o n , a n a t o m y , the e n t o m b i n g s e d i m e n t s , what

is

buried

with i t — e v e r y t h i n g reveals

s o m e t h i n g a b o u t the

ancient

world. T h e s e p r o c e s s e s a r e s o m e o f the w a y s fossils f o r m . Each c o n t e x t l e a v e s its indelible mark. turned

to

stone

Past e n v i r o n m e n t s and e c o l o g y are r e f l e c t e d i n s e d i m e n t s with

time,

in

fossil

organisms

that

show

through

their

a n a t o m y t h e i r habits i n l i f e , and f r o m the b e h a v i o r a l r e l i c s , l i k e t h e m a r k s o f s c a v e n g i n g c a r n i v o r e s , that r e m a i n o n fossil b o n e . T h e c o n s t i t u e n t c h e m i c a l s o f b o n e s and shells and soil m a y r e f l e c t t h e ancient c l i m a t e o f a r e g i o n , o r the d i e t o f a n a n i m a l , o r the p h o t o s y n t h e t i c p a t h w a y o f a p l a n t . W e can r e a d t h e past f r o m the r e c o r d o f the r o c k s . T h e signals c h a n g e f r o m r o c k l a y e r t o r o c k layer t h r o u g h t i m e , r e v e a l i n g w i t h sensitivity the h i s t o r y o f life and the h i s t o r y of life's e n v i r o n m e n t . That is p a l e o e c o l o g y .

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D

48 T h e fossilization p r o c e s s i s o c c u r r i n g t o d a y i n t h e R i f t V a l l e y . I t o c c u r r e d i n the past. W e can see t h e results o f p r o c e s s e s o p e r a t i n g i n the past i n the f a m o u s fossil f i e l d s o f K o o b i F o r a , east o f L a k e T u r k a n a , K e n y a , rich i n t h e fossil r e m a i n s of t h e h u m a n a n c e s t o r s Australopithecus and Homo,

and m a n y ,

m a n y o t h e r kinds o f fossils. W e can see a similar situation a l o n g the n o r t h w e s t e r n s h o r e s o f L a k e M a l a w i , w h e r e a n a u s t r a l o p i t h e c i n e has r e c e n t l y b e e n found.

T h e r e a r e also fossil snails,

pigs,

elephants,

monkeys,

crocodiles,

t u r t l e s , h i p p o s , r h i n o s , and f i s h — l o t s o f f i s h — i n r o c k s r a n g i n g back t o a b o u t f i v e m i l l i o n years a g o . A l l t h e s e fossils w e r e f o r m e d i n the e a r l y stages o f L a k e M a l a w i . A l l a r e m u c h , m u c h y o u n g e r than d i n o s a u r s . S o L a k e M a l a w i i s m u c h y o u n g e r than dinosaurs t o o . T h e D i n o s a u r B e d s l i e c h e e k - b y - j o w l w i t h the a n c i e n t d e p o s i t s o f L a k e Malawi,

b u t that i s n o t b e c a u s e ancestral

Lake

Malawi

e x i s t e d w i t h the

d i n o s a u r s . T h e D i n o s a u r Beds a r e m u c h o l d e r , b y a b o u t 100 m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h e y w e r e d e p o s i t e d b y c l e a n , s w i f t - f l o w i n g streams and r i v e r s that b o u n c e d sand and fresh r o c k e r o d e d f r o m adjacent hills a l o n g t h e i r channels. T h e r e w e r e small p o n d s o c c a s i o n a l l y , b u t n o e v i d e n c e o f a g r e a t l a k e . Soils o n the river floodplains w e r e thin, or stripped away by rampaging torrents. G l o b s o f c a l i c h e , l i m e s t o n e l e f t f r o m w a t e r e v a p o r a t i n g o u t o f the g r o u n d , are f o u n d i n the r e m n a n t s o f a n c i e n t soils, s h o w i n g that t h e c l i m a t e w a s h o t . D u r i n g the days o f t h e dinosaurs t h e w e a t h e r w a s seasonal, b u t m o r e arid than n o w . T h e r o c k s o f t h e D i n o s a u r B e d s r e p r e s e n t a v e r y lost w o r l d c o m p a r e d w i t h the m o d e r n w o r l d c u r r e n t l y e x i s t i n g a l o n g s i d e the l a k e . I n M a l a w i t h e s t r u c t u r e and g e o m e t r y o f the R i f t i s c o n t r o l l e d b y o l d e r features o f t h e g e o l o g y o n w h i c h t h e n e w e r R i f t i s s u p e r i m p o s e d . S o m e o f the o l d e r features g o b a c k a b i l l i o n years t o w h e n A f r i c a w a s f i r s t a s s e m b l e d and u l t i m a t e l y c o n j o i n e d w i t h the rest o f the w o r l d ' s landmasses i n t o the supers u p e r c o n t i n e n t o f P a n g a e a . A s the c o n t i n e n t s a s w e k n o w t h e m n o w b e g a n to

take

shape,

the

seams

of the

original

constructions b e c a m e

zones

of

w e a k n e s s . T h e s e w e r e e x p l o i t e d b y the restless Earth a s A f r i c a u n z i p p e d f r o m t h e rest o f the c o n t i n e n t s b e g i n n i n g o v e r 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h a t i s o l a t i o n of A f r i c a f r o m o t h e r landmasses also b e g a n as a rift v a l l e y , just a s w e see h a p p e n i n g t o d a y . T h e initial s e p a r a t i o n o n the east side o f A f r i c a started a b o u t 150 m i l l i o n years a g o . A b i t l a t e r , b u t p r i o r t o 1 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o , M a d a g a s c a r w a s r i f t i n g a w a y f r o m t h e east c o a s t . T h e r i f t i n g p r o c e s s that s e p a r a t e d M a d a g a s c a r l e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f f a u l t - b o u n d e d basins a l o n g the o l d e r c o n t i n e n t a l s e a m s , just i n t h e area w h e r e t h e m o d e r n R i f t V a l l e y i s n o w .

TAHITI

WITHOUT

SALT

I t i s these o l d basins, associated w i t h the split o f M a d a g a s c a r f r o m East A f r i c a , that w e r e f i l l e d w i t h t h e r i v e r s e d i m e n t s e n t o m b i n g t h e dinosaurs that l i v e d in northern M a l a w i so long a g o . T h a t is w h y the Dinosaur Beds w i t h their suite o f fossils a r e f o u n d i n the c u r r e n t R i f t V a l l e y . I t i s also w h y t h e y are found next to the much y o u n g e r deposits of Lake M a l a w i , which p r e s e r v e the n e a r l y m o d e r n fossilized r e m a i n s o f lungfish, h i p p o s , e l e p h a n t s , and p i g s . O n the o t h e r side o f A f r i c a d u r i n g this s a m e a n c i e n t t i m e , t h e S o u t h A t l a n t i c o p e n e d . F a u l t e d basins f o r m e d i n w h a t i s n o w C a m e r o o n , N i g e r , and N i g e r i a . T h e s a m e h a p p e n e d i n B r a z i l , and a t t h e s a m e t i m e , b e c a u s e t h e t w o areas w e r e o n e . R i v e r s and lakes f i l l e d the basins w i t h s e d i m e n t s , and i n s o d o i n g p r e s e r v e d fossils. T h e w h o l e b r o a d r e g i o n w a s a r i d , b u t w i t h a c o m p l e x o f lakes f e d b y r i v e r s d r a i n i n g i n t e r n a l l y t o t h e b i g basins.

Finally, at

100

m i l l i o n years a g o , Brazil cruised a w a y , b y c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t , i n t o the sunset. T h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n b e c a m e c o m p l e t e f r o m south t o n o r t h . A n y r i v e r d r a i n ages that m a y h a v e l i n k e d the t w o areas p r i o r t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n w e r e f o r e v e r s e v e r e d . T h e D i n o s a u r B e d s i n M a l a w i a r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f life and e c o l o g y i n the v e r y heart o f A f r i c a a t o n e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o , t h e v e r y t i m e A f r i c a w a s b e c o m i n g i s o l a t e d f r o m the rest o f the w o r l d . H o w c e r t a i n a m I a b o u t the a g e o f the fossils i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s o f n o r t h e r n M a l a w i ? N o t c e r t a i n a t all. C l e a r l y t h e y b e l o n g t o the M e s o z o i c , the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e dinosaurs t e l l us that. But t h e c o n f i d e n c e I h a v e in e s t i m a t i n g t h e i r p r e c i s e a g e i s n o t g r e a t . A l l I can say t o s u p p o r t m y c o n t e n t i o n s f r o m w i t h i n M a l a w i i s based o n fossils. T h e r e a r e n o t y e t any r e l e v a n t dates o r p a l e o m a g n e t i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n s f r o m w i t h i n the c o u n t r y . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c fossils f r o m the classic d i n o s a u r e x c a v a t i o n s at T e n d a g u r u are l a c k i n g , s u g g e s t i n g a d i f f e r e n t , p r o b a b l y y o u n g e r a g e f o r M a l a w i . S o m e o f t h e fossils k n o w n f r o m M a l a w i , b u t n o t k n o w n f r o m T e n d a g u r u , r e s e m b l e t h o s e f r o m C a m e r o o n and N i g e r i n W e s t A f r i c a , and f r o m Brazil i n South A m e r i c a . I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o s p e c u l a t e that these fossils are o f s i m i l a r , i f n o t e x a c t l y the s a m e , a g e . M o r e o v e r , the fossil r e c o r d o f o c e a n l i f e , w h i c h i s m u c h b e t t e r than that o f l a n d - d w e l l i n g a n i m a l s , plus t h e p a l e o m a g n e t i c r e c o r d f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n f l o o r , d e m o n s t r a t e that t h e n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n a r m s o f t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n d i d n o t c o n j o i n until a b o u t 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . I f t h e b o n e s o f B r a z i l , N i g e r , C a m e r o o n , and M a l a w i w e r e b u r i e d w h i l e the t w o c o n t i n e n t s w e r e still c o n n e c t e d , h o w e v e r f e e b l y , the c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e A t l a n t i c w o u l d s e e m t o put a l i m i t o n h o w y o u n g t h e b o n e s can b e — 1 0 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s . F o r the sake o f discussion, that i s t h e n u m b e r I w i l l use. T h e D i n o s a u r B e d s o f M a l a w i

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

50

are n o t l i k e l y t o b e y o u n g e r — u n l e s s t h e r e a r e m o r e surprises i n s t o r e . O n e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n years a g o i s s m a c k i n the m i d d l e o f the last p e r i o d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T e c h n i c a l l y i t i s late i n the Early C r e t a c e o u s .

E V E N T O D A Y T H E g e o l o g y o f the R i f t V a l l e y and the c l i m a t e o f East A f r i c a a r e n o t u n i f o r m f r o m n o r t h t o s o u t h , and that i n i t s e l f affects the fossilization p r o c e s s and t h e d i s c o v e r y o f fossils. T h e b i g d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n searching f o r fossils i n M a l a w i and a t L e a k e y ' s K o o b i F o r a f a r t h e r n o r t h a r e t w o .

First,

M a l a w i r e c e i v e s m o r e rainfall than n o r t h e r n K e n y a , s o m o r e plants g r o w , s o it is h a r d e r to see the g r o u n d . C o n s e q u e n t l y it is h a r d e r to see fossils that m i g h t s u r v i v e the r i g o r s o f soil f o r m a t i o n i n such a n e n v i r o n m e n t . S e c o n d , and p r o b a b l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y i n this p a r t i c u l a r c o m p a r i s o n , the g e o m e t r y o f the R i f t V a l l e y i s d i f f e r e n t i n t h e t w o areas. A t K o o b i F o r a , t o the n o r t h , i t i s b r o a d and o p e n ; i n M a l a w i , t o t h e s o u t h , i t i s n a r r o w , w i t h s t e e p w a l l s a l t e r n a t i n g f r o m east t o w e s t o n e i t h e r side o f t h e l a k e . T h e r e m a y b e lakes in b o t h areas, b u t the g e o l o g y is n o t e x a c t l y the s a m e , and that m a k e s a difference. T h e geological setting of a r e g i o n is important for finding, as w e l l as f o r m i n g and p r e s e r v i n g fossils. T h u s , t o f i n d fossils, t h e r o c k s i n w h i c h t h e y a r e p r e s e r v e d m u s t b e v i s i b l e . M a n y areas o f the Earth a r e , h a p p i l y , c o v e r e d w i t h d e e p soil and plants that, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , o b s c u r e t h e u n d e r l y i n g p a r e n t r o c k and d e s t r o y fossils. I t i s o f t e n difficult t o tell f r o m a m a p just w h a t the e x p o s u r e s o f r o c k w i l l b e like half a w o r l d a w a y . M y h e a r t n o s e - d i v e d t h e f i r s t t i m e I d r o v e t o the D i n o s a u r Beds in M a l a w i . I passed t h r o u g h a banana g r o v e so e x t e n s i v e and so d e n s e , I a l m o s t g a v e u p h o p e that t h e r e w o u l d b e any r o c k s a t all o p e n t o search. T h a n k g o o d n e s s that b e y o n d t h e r i v e r b e n d t h e bananas e n d e d and the r o c k s began. Scientific e x p e d i t i o n s t o f i n d fossils, collecting

trips.

They

must

be

pursued

or anything else, in

the

context

are n o t s i m p l y o f the

questions

a d d r e s s e d , t h e p r o b l e m s t o b e s o l v e d , t h e h y p o t h e s e s t e s t e d , and the m o d e l s f o r m u l a t e d . P a l e o n t o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i s n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m r e s e a r c h i n any o t h e r scientific d i s c i p l i n e in this r e g a r d . T h a t , in fact, is w h a t m a k e s p a l e o n t o l o g y a s c i e n c e . T h e M a l a w i P r o j e c t i s f r a m e d i n t e r m s o f the e m e r g e n c e o f the m o d e r n w o r l d — g e o g r a p h i c a l l y b y t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f c o n t i n e n t s and b i o l o g i c a l l y b y t h e e v o l u t i o n o f n e w g r o u p s o f v e r t e b r a t e s that w e r e later t o e m e r g e f r o m t h e s h a d o w s o f t h e dinosaurs t o d o m i n a t e the landscape.

TAHITI

WITHOUT

Fossil c o l l e c t i n g and

SALT

fieldwork,

especially foreign

fieldwork,

is fun if all

g o e s w e l l . But i t i s c o m p l i c a t e d . L o g i s t i c s m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d . H o w d o y o u g e t t o w h e r e y o u w a n t t o g o ? H o w d o y o u supply a c a m p o n c e y o u are t h e r e ? T h e feasibility o f the plan must b e d e t e r m i n e d . I n M a l a w i I w a s f o r t u n a t e . M y c o u n t e r p a r t s a t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s a r e v e r y f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e logistics o f f i e l d w o r k i n t h e i r c o u n t r y . T h e y had a l r e a d y set a p r e c e d e n t f o r i t t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n f i e l d studies. O f c o u r s e , i n

fieldwork

a s i n any o t h e r

aspect o f s c i e n c e , e v e r y t h i n g h i n g e s o n g e t t i n g a d e q u a t e f u n d i n g . T h a t step i s n e v e r easy, b u t o n c e a c c o m p l i s h e d , the w o r k can g e t u n d e r w a y . T h e r e a r e t w o essential i n g r e d i e n t s t o a successful p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l e x p e d i t i o n : fossils and p e o p l e . T h e fossils are c o n t r o l l e d b y the r o c k s . T h e p e o p l e have t o f i n d the fossils. T o d o t h e i r b e s t , t h e y m u s t w a n t t o b e i n the f i e l d . E v e n u n d e r t o u g h c o n d i t i o n s , a g o o d f i e l d c r e w f i n d s s o m e t h i n g pleasant t o m a k e the hardships b e a r a b l e .

Still, n o t e v e r y o n e w h o w a n t s t o b e i s a d e -

q u a t e l y suited f o r f i e l d w o r k . I t takes a c e r t a i n k i n d o f t e m p e r a m e n t . T h e w o r k is d i r t y . It is h o t . T h e r e are b u g s . O b v i o u s l y a p r i m e c o n c e r n i s that r e a s o n a b l e p r e c a u t i o n s b e t a k e n f o r health and safety. F o o d m u s t n o t b e s k i m p e d o n , d i v e r s i t y s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d , and individual p r e f e r e n c e s should b e a c c o m m o d a t e d s o far a s p o s s i b l e . C o o k the f o o d w e l l and k e e p t h e dishes c l e a n .

An adequate supply of b e e r is

w e l c o m e . P e o p l e d o n o t t r a v e l h a l f w a y a r o u n d the w o r l d just t o suffer; t h e y w o r k better w h e n they d o not. A t t a c k s f r o m w i l d animals a r e n o t a g r e a t s o u r c e o f w o r r y i n A f r i c a these days, a l t h o u g h the t h r e a t i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y g o n e : C r o c o d i l e s c l a i m a f e w l i v e s e v e r y y e a r . H o w e v e r , t h e r e are o t h e r , m o r e l i k e l y natural hazards that m u s t be respected in

fieldwork—such

a s snakes. W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h o s e sorts o f

d a n g e r s , i t i s best t o f o l l o w the a d v i c e o f John M o i r , o n e o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f the A f r i c a n Lakes C o m p a n y : " F e a r d y s e n t r y [sic] and dissensions e v e n m o r e . " M o i r w a s speaking o f t h e t h r e a t o f slave r a i d e r s , b u t his are sage w o r d s f o r k e e p i n g the hazards o f f i e l d w o r k i n p e r s p e c t i v e a s w e l l . T h e c r e w m u s t g e t a l o n g and t h e y m u s t stay h e a l t h y .

M a l a r i a is a real p r o b l e m .

Tick-borne

diseases are w o r r i s o m e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , staying healthy i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y w i t h i n o u r c o n t r o l . O n e m o r n i n g in c a m p L o u T a y l o r , a f r i e n d since g r a d u a t e s c h o o l and a g r e a t person to be in the field w i t h , came to my tent. It was 6:00 A.M. He spoke i n a c a l m v o i c e . " B o s s , I think I ' v e g o t a p p e n d i c i t i s . " T h a t i s n o t h o w I l i k e to wake up.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

>2 L o u had b e e n sitting b y t h e lake since 4 : 3 0 , c h e w i n g t e n aspirin t o kill the p a i n . T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g that c o u l d b e d o n e until t h e day s t a r t e d , s o h e d i d not wake anyone. Off we

went down

the

M-l

highway

o n the

twenty-mile

trip

t o the

r e g i o n a l hospital a t K a r o n g a . L o u w a s h u r t i n g and w e w e r e all c o n c e r n e d a t t h e p r o s p e c t o f his h a v i n g t o u n d e r g o s u r g e r y .

T h e drive heightened our

a n x i e t y . O n the w a y t h e r o a d w a s o b s t r u c t e d b y a n o v e r l o a d e d p i c k u p that lay u p s i d e d o w n , like a f l i p p e d t u r t l e , o n its l o a d . W e s k i r t e d a r o u n d it. T h e r e was nothing we could do there. W h e n w e a r r i v e d a t t h e hospital L o u w a s g i v e n a P a n a d o l and taken t o a r o o m w h e r e h e lay o n the e x a m i n a t i o n t a b l e . A s p i d e r that s e e m e d t o have a s p r e a d of a b o u t e i g h t inches e m e r g e d f r o m a c r e v i c e near his head and c l i m b e d u p t h e w a l l . M o s q u i t o e s b u z z e d i n t h e c o r n e r s o f the r o o m . A used scalpel b l a d e c r u s t e d w i t h b l o o d lay a b a n d o n e d o n the d e s k . A t this stage n o o n e w a s e n c o u r a g e d . T h e hospital a t K a r o n g a i s n o t bad b y a m b i e n t standards, but at the

time

o f this

event the prevalence

of A I D S

in

A f r i c a and the

u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n h e r e n t i n the b l o o d supply w e r e a d d e d risks that w o u l d b e a v o i d e d i f L o u c o u l d just hang o n until h e g o t back t o the States. T w o technicians c a m e in. T h e y t o o k L o u ' s h i s t o r y and m a d e a p r e l i m i n a r y examination. Both w e r e very professional. T h e y k n e w what they w e r e doing. I t w a s n o w 7 : 0 0 . D o w n t h e hall t h e y w e n t t o call the d o c t o r , w h o w a s still a t his h o m e . I o v e r h e a r d t h e m saying that t h e y w e r e r u l i n g o u t a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h i c h g a v e m e i m m e d i a t e r e l i e f , b u t t h e n I w o n d e r e d w h a t t h e p r o b l e m really was. T h e d o c t o r a r r i v e d a t 7 : 3 0 . H e w a s D u t c h . H e t o o k a c l o s e l o o k a t the p a t i e n t , o r d e r e d a f e w tests, and d i a g n o s e d k i d n e y s t o n e s . I t w a s n o t a p p e n d i citis o r a n y t h i n g life t h r e a t e n i n g that w o u l d r e q u i r e a n i m m e d i a t e o p e r a t i o n . T h e c o l o r diffused back i n t o L o u ' s f a c e . T h e d o c t o r r e c o m m e n d e d that h e r e t u r n to the U . S . as s o o n as p o s s i b l e , a s u g g e s t i o n that m a d e all kinds of s e n s e . O n e d o e s n o t d o o n e ' s best d i g g i n g fossils w h i l e suffering e x c r u c i a t i n g pain and pissing b l o o d . He caught a p l a n e the n e x t d a y , his field season cut s h o r t , but o n l y b y a c o u p l e o f d a y s . H e w a s o k a y , w h i c h w a s the o n l y thing that really m a t t e r e d , and he had d o n e a fine j o b tor the

project.

I t i s n o t a l w a y s easy t o j u d g e b e f o r e h a n d w h o i s suited f o r f o r e i g n fieldw o r k and w h o i s n o t . S u p e r t o u g h h o m b r e s a r e n o t necessarily r i g h t f o r the f i e l d . M a y b e i t has s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h the i n f l e x i b i l i t y o f b e i n g m a c h o . I t depends on the individual, not on g e n d e r , w h o will be c o m p e t e n t , tolerant, and less p r o n e t o c u l t u r e s h o c k , w h i c h a r e the r e q u i r e d a t t r i b u t e s .

TAHITI

WITHOUT

SALT

O f course, o n e does not have t o d o f i e l d w o r k t o b e a g o o d paleontologist, and s o m e v e r y g o o d b o n e p e o p l e g e t o f f t o a s l o w start i n t h e f i e l d . M i g e o d w r o t e o f the y o u n g C a m b r i d g e s t u d e n t , R e x P a r r i n g t o n , w h o a c c o m p a n i e d h i m f r o m T e n d a g u r u t o N y a s a l a n d i n 1 9 3 0 : " I a m afraid that M r . P a r r i n g t o n i s n o t g i f t e d w i t h all t h e qualifications n e c e s s a r y f o r a n A f r i c a n e x p e d i t i o n r e q u i r i n g constant p e r s o n a l e x e r t i o n . T h e r e has b e e n f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the season a f i n e f i e l d f o r r e s e a r c h w h i c h m a n y m e n w o u l d h a v e w e l c o m e d . " A p p a r e n t l y M i g e o d t h o u g h t s o m e o n e else m i g h t h a v e b e e n b e t t e r suited f o r the j o b . I confess I h a v e felt the s a m e as M i g e o d on an o c c a s i o n or t w o . I o n c e t o o k s o m e o n e t o A f r i c a w h o , u n b e k n o w n s t t o m e , had e c c e n t r i c d i e t a r y p r e f e r e n c e s . T h e r e w a s little available i n r e m o t e A f r i c a that h e w a s i n c l i n e d t o e a t . I l e a r n e d f r o m h i m , a fully adult i n d i v i d u a l , b u t t o o l a t e , that his staple f o o d w a s P o p - T a r t s , a n i t e m u n i v e r s a l l y absent f r o m M a l a w i m e n u s . H e had n o a l l e r g i e s , but he had n e v e r in his life e a t e n a h a r d - b o i l e d e g g . T h a t is all r i g h t ; I p r e s u m e d h e just did n o t l i k e t h e s m e l l o f t h e m o r s o m e t h i n g . W h e n i t c a m e d o w n t o l i t t l e else t o e a t , h e d e c i d e d t o t r y o n e , but h e had t o b e taught h o w t h e p e e l i n g and eating are d o n e . A l l r i g h t , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g r e a l l y shameful i n that. A n d o n c e h e had t r i e d o n e , t h e y b e c a m e his f a v o r i t e f o o d .

He o r d e r e d them at a fine

restaurant i n Paris o n the w a y h o m e . O f c o u r s e , that i s all r i g h t t o o . T h e k n o w l e d g e o f h o w t o eat a h a r d - b o i l e d e g g i s n o t a r e q u i r e m e n t f o r success in p a l e o n t o l o g y , b u t it is t e l l i n g w i t h r e s p e c t to suitability f o r t h e field, especially i f the f i e l d i s i n a r e m o t e f o r e i g n c o u n t r y . T r o u b l e d o e s h a p p e n . T h e s e trips are n o t q u i t e v a c a t i o n s . I t c o u l d b e p e r s o n a l l y d a n g e r o u s t o g o i n t o the bush i f o n e i s n o t m e n t a l l y e q u i p p e d f o r i t . T h a t can m a k e i t d a n g e r o u s , o r a t least u n c o m f o r t a b l e ,

for your companions.

Each p e r s o n m u s t h a v e

c o n f i d e n c e i n the abilities o f o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e t e a m .

I t can b e v e r y

difficult t o j u d g e b e f o r e h a n d h o w s o m e o n e w i l l w o r k o u t . S o far a s R e x P a r r i n g t o n , M i g e o d ' s p r o b l e m i n the f i e l d , i s c o n c e r n e d , i n later years h e l e d successful e x p e d i t i o n s t o A f r i c a . H e b e c a m e a distinguished p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , o n e o f t h e t o p scholars i n his f i e l d , and a F e l l o w o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y . Y o u just n e v e r k n o w .

PROSPECTING,

the search f o r fossils,

m u s t take p l a c e i n areas o f a c t i v e

e r o s i o n , such a s g u l l i e s and b a d l a n d s , o r e v e n m a n - m a d e e x p o s u r e s o f r o c k , such a s r o a d cuts o r m i n e s . O n c e e x p o s e d o n the surface b y e r o s i o n , a fossil is often quickly destroyed. This seems strange. A f t e r lying protectively man-

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

S4 t i e d w i t h i n t h e e a r t h f o r m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s , a fossil e x p o s e d o n the surface can b e p i t i f u l l y f r a g i l e and easily l o s t . Fossils c o m e and g o o n the surface o f the g r o u n d t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s e s o f e r o s i o n and w e a t h e r i n g . I n t r o p i c a l A f r i c a i t d o e s n o t take l o n g f o r fossils t o b e d e s t r o y e d . T o m e , w o r r y i n g a b o u t fossils l o s t t o n a t u r e i s s o r t o f l i k e t h e s o u n d o f a t r e e falling i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s : I f t h e r e are n o e y e s p r e s e n t t o f i n d a b o n e , i t m i g h t a s w e l l n o t e x i s t . T h e r e s i l i e n c y o f a fossil d e p e n d s t o s o m e e x t e n t o n w h a t i t is, a s w e l l a s o n t h e e r o s i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s that e x p o s e d it. U s u a l l y , b u t w i t h m a n y e x c e p t i o n s , o n l y t h e hard parts o f animals f o s s i l i z e — s h e l l s , f o r e x a m p l e , o r i n v e r t e b r a t e s , b o n e s and t e e t h . T o o t h e n a m e l i s the h a r d e s t part o f a s k e l e t o n , s o t e e t h a r e m o r e r e a d i l y p r e s e r v e d and less p r o n e t o d e s t r u c t i o n e v e n than b o n e . B o t h b o n e s and t e e t h are p r e s e r v e d i n M a l a w i . T h e r e i s n o substitute f o r s h o e l e a t h e r i n searching the g r e a t o u t d o o r s f o r fossils. W a l k i n g and l o o k i n g . A n d p a t i e n c e . T h a t i s h o w i t i s d o n e . I t i s q u i t e pleasant m o s t o f t h e t i m e , e x c e p t that fossils s e e m i n g l y h a v e the nasty habit o f c o m i n g i n t o v i e w o n l y w h e n the w e a t h e r i s m i s e r a b l e . Fossil b o n e retains a t e x t u r e and a luster d i s t i n c t l y u n r o c k l i k e , b u t d e f i n i t e l y b o n e l i k e . T h o s e , and shape, a r e w h a t catch t h e p r o s p e c t o r ' s e y e . A f r a g m e n t o f fossil b o n e , but n o t m o d e r n b o n e , w i l l stick t o t h e t o n g u e . I t i s a test o f t e n a p p l i e d w h e n the f i r s t scrap i s f o u n d . S o m e t i m e s , i f y o u are l u c k y , t h e fossil w i l l b e w e l l e n o u g h p r e s e r v e d that i t can s i m p l y b e p i c k e d u p after c a r e f u l l y n o t i n g the details o f its o c c u r r e n c e . O t h e r t i m e s i t i s m u c h m o r e w o r k . No digging is e v e r d o n e w i t h o u t a reason.

B o n e m u s t b e seen o n the

surface o f the g r o u n d t o justify a g r e a t e r e f f o r t . Bits and p i e c e s o f fossils, like s t o n e s and balls, r o l l d o w n h i l l . A s t h e y w e a t h e r o u t o f the r o c k , g r a v i t y m o v e s t h e m d o w n s l o p e . W h e n a p i e c e o f b o n e i s f o u n d , t h e n e x t step i s t o t r a c e its path up the s l o p e . Is t h e r e m o r e in t h e g r o u n d ? H o p e f u l l y , as in M a l a w i , the a n s w e r i s y e s . T h e n t h e e x c a v a t i o n starts. T a k i n g fossil b o n e s o u t o f the g r o u n d i s r e a l l y r a t h e r s i m p l e i n p r i n c i p l e ( F i g u r e 1 5 ) . First, using a w l s and f i n e n e e d l e s , the b o n e i s u n c o v e r e d bit b y b i t until its o u t l i n e i s d e t e r m i n e d . T h i s i s o f t e n e n o u g h o f a c l u e t o d e t e r m i n e its i d e n t i t y . G l u e is a p p l i e d all o v e r to h a r d e n the s p e c i m e n . I use p o l y v i n y l a c e t a t e ( s u p p l i e d b y m y b r o t h e r - i n - l a w ) d i s s o l v e d i n a c e t o n e o r nail polish r e m o v e r and thin e n o u g h t o p e n e t r a t e t h e b o n e . A f t e r i t d r i e s , a t r e n c h i s cut a r o u n d the fossil,

slightly u n d e r c u t t i n g the b o n e ,

so that it stands on a

p e d e s t a l . O n c e a b o n e is on its p e d e s t a l , it is c o v e r e d w i t h p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l tissue. T h i s invaluable supply is r e a d i l y accessible in l a v a t o r i e s , in t w o - p l y

TAHITI

FIGURE

WITHOUT

15: How to collect a fossil.

enclosing earth (top), the

SALT

bone,

resting

ifyou prefer—which

A fossil bone is painstakingly cleared of its

then impregnated with hardener.

on

a

pillar of rock,

cushions

the fossil

is covered in

and

prevents

After the hardener dries, paper—"paleontological

plaster from

sticking

to

tissue" it.

The bone is then covered with plaster-soaked bandages. After the plaster sets, the fossil is flipped over, the field.

capped with plaster bandages,

labeled,

and then removed from

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

56 r o l l s of f o u r - i n c h squares that t e a r easily a l o n g p e r f o r a t i o n s . It is also called t o i l e t p a p e r . C o l o r o r floral p a t t e r n d o e s n o t m a t t e r , n o r d o e s i t m a t t e r i f the b r a n d is s c e n t e d or u n s c e n t e d . O n c e the p a p e r is a p p l i e d , the fossil is r e a d y for jacketing. Because fossils are usually c r a c k e d and b r o k e n , y o u t r e a t t h e m like w h a t t h e y a r e — b r o k e n b o n e s . J a c k e t i n g is the p r o c e s s by w h i c h a fossil is e n c a s e d i n p l a s t e r b a n d a g e s t o p r o t e c t i t , just a s i f y o u r a r m w e r e b r o k e n and the d o c t o r p u t it in a cast. In fact, f o r h a n d - s i z e d fossils I use m e d i c a l bandages o f g a u z e and q u i c k - s e t t i n g p l a s t e r o f P a r i s , g e n e r o u s l y s u p p l i e d t o the M a l a w i P r o j e c t by J o h n s o n & Johnson O r t h o p a e d i c s . If a s p e c i m e n is t o o large f o r m e d i c a l b a n d a g e s , strips o f b u r l a p cut f r o m gunnysacks o r l o o s e l y w o v e n c l o t h a r e u s e d . T h e s e strips a r e f i r s t i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h p l a s t e r , t h e n a p p l i e d t o the fossil. T h e j a c k e t p r e v e n t s t h e b r o k e n e d g e s o f b o n e s f r o m r u b b i n g against e a c h o t h e r s o that t h e y can b e g l u e d t i g h t l y t o g e t h e r a l o n g clean b r e a k s . T h e tissue cushions t h e fossil and p r e v e n t s the plaster f r o m sticking t o it. P l a s t e r - i m p r e g n a t e d b a n d a g e s a r e a p p l i e d o v e r the tissue i n m u l t i p l e layers to g i v e the jacket strength.

T h e undercutting of the pedestal provides

p u r c h a s e f o r the j a c k e t so that it d o e s n o t pull off. A f t e r the plaster has set, the

block

underside.

is

fully

undercut

and

flipped

over

onto

its

top,

exposing

the

T h e p a p e r i n g and p l a s t e r i n g i s t h e n r e p e a t e d o n the b o t t o m .

Braces o f w o o d o r t r e e b r a n c h e s are i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the j a c k e t i n g i f the s p e c i m e n i s l a r g e o r a w k w a r d . T h e f i n a l p r o d u c t i s a fully p r o t e c t e d fossil, s w a d d l e d in g l e a m i n g - w h i t e plaster.

T h i s b o n e and b a n d a g e

"biscuit"

is

r e a d y f o r t r a n s p o r t t o the lab. Substitutes f o r plaster can b e f o u n d i n d i r e n e c e s s i t y . A t T e n d a g u r u the Germans

o f t e n had t o use

m u d and

straw.

In

1 9 8 7 the

Malawi

Project

r e s o r t e d t o using c l o t h s o a k e d i n t h i c k , w h i t e w o o d g l u e t o j a c k e t dinosaur b o n e s and a v e r y l a r g e , b u t g e o l o g i c a l l y m u c h y o u n g e r , r h i n o c e r o s skull. If o n l y a single b o n e is f o u n d , the j a c k e t i n g p r o c e s s is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e n o u g h . I f t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b o n e s , y o u have a q u a r r y o n y o u r hands. T h e n the fun r e a l l y starts. A q u a r r y is a b i g h o l e in the g r o u n d , b i g e n o u g h t o a l l o w f o r t h e r e m o v a l o f all the b o n e s y o u f i n d . T h e m o r e b o n e s t h e r e a r e , t h e l a r g e r i t is, and v e r y o f t e n t h e h a r d e r i t i s t o w o r k . T h e s t r a t u m c o n t a i n i n g the b o n e s i s d i s c o v e r e d o n t h e surface, but the b o n e s f o u n d s u b s e q u e n t l y are e n t o m b e d in sediments p r o t e c t e d by o v e r l y i n g rock. T h e sterile rock above t h e q u a r r y i s the o v e r b u r d e n . I t has t o b e r e m o v e d w i t h p i c k s , s h o v e l s , p o w e r t o o l s , o r s o m e t i m e s e v e n b a c k h o e s , i n o r d e r t o c o m e d o w n o n t o p o f the

TAHITI

WITHOUT

SALT 57

fossils and t o e x c a v a t e t h e m p r o p e r l y . T h e e f f o r t t o r e m o v e o v e r b u r d e n can b e c o n s i d e r a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y i f the p a y l o a d d i v e s i n t o t h e side o f a hill. T h a t i s w h a t h a p p e n e d i n M a l a w i . I f t h e hill i s s t e e p , the difficulties can b e p r o h i b i t i v e . T h a t has n o t h a p p e n e d i n M a l a w i y e t . K n o c k o n w o o d . . . A f t e r the o v e r b u r d e n i s r e m o v e d , e x c a v a t i o n b e g i n s o n each i n d i v i d u a l b o n e just as if it w e r e an i s o l a t e d find. If t h e b o n e s a r e small e n o u g h , s e v e r a l m i g h t be t a k e n o u t in a single m a n a g e a b l e j a c k e t . E x c a v a t i o n is a c o m p l i c a t e d task i f the b o n e s are abundant and j a c k - s t r a w e d o n e o n t o p o f t h e o t h e r . T h a t is often h o w it is in M a l a w i . Bones are m a p p e d as they b e c o m e e x p o s e d to p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o the spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f each t o the o t h e r s and t o s e d i m e n t a r y f e a t u r e s . T h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e b o n e s are m o r e o f t e n j u m b l e d t o g e t h e r than laid o u t as w h o l e s k e l e t o n s a r t i c u l a t e d as in l i f e . T h a t d o e s h a p p e n , b u t the usual situation i s that m i x e d - u p b o n e s m u s t b e s o r t e d o u t . M a p s h e l p d o that b e c a u s e t h e y h i g h l i g h t associations o f p a r t i c u l a r b o n e s that are n o t o b v i o u s i n t h e f i e l d . T h e j u m b l i n g that m i x e s b o n e s o c c u r s f o r a r e a s o n . M a p p i n g also h e l p s t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o p u z z l e o u t w h a t the cause might be. Q u a r r y w o r k i s fun, b u t i t can g e t o l d , d i g g i n g day after day i n the s a m e h o l e , s o m e t i m e s o n t h e s a m e b o n e , w i t h a w l s and n e e d l e s and w h i s k b r o o m s and brushes. Sitting f o r h o u r s o n t h e d a m p , m u s t y e a r t h causes a n i r r i t a t i n g itchy b u t t . T h e w o r k i s t e d i o u s . T e d i u m leads t o b o r e d o m . D i s t r a c t i o n c r e e p s in. Flies are stalked w i t h n e e d l e p o i n t s .

U n w a r r a n t e d attention is paid to

individual sand g r a i n s , n o t e n o u g h t o o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d e t a i l s . B y t h e n i t i s t i m e f o r a day off. B e t t e r that than d a m a g e fossils or l e t t e m p e r s flare. M o s t t r y i n g i n t h e q u a r r y are a g g r e s s i v e , b i t i n g insects a d a p t e d t o d r i n k i n g f r o m the c o r n e r s o f a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t ' s e y e s and f r o m s w e a t - l i n e d creases o f skin, such a s b e h i n d t h e k n e e s o r i n t h e a r m p i t s . T h e y l i k e t o c r a w l i n t o ears and b u z z . E v e r y t i m e the b l a c k flies g e t b a d i n M a l a w i , I think b a c k t o 1 9 7 9 , h u r r i e d l y and

not very

enthusiastically,

to

when

I

led

my first National

G e o g r a p h i c d i g i n the P a i n t e d D e s e r t o f A r i z o n a . W e w e r e d i g g i n g i n r o c k s f o r m e d a t the t i m e w h e n all the c o n t i n e n t s w e r e c o a l e s c e d i n t o P a n g a e a and w h e n s o m e o f the e a r l i e s t - k n o w n dinosaurs r o a m e d the E a r t h .

T h e fossils

w e r e g o o d , b u t g e t t i n g t h e m o u t had its a g g r a v a t i o n s . G n a t l i k e b i t i n g flies w e r e p e r s i s t e n t and painful. Insect r e p e l l e n t w a s t h e i r a m b r o s i a . T h e w h o l e c r e w had w e l t s and a l l e r g i c r e a c t i o n s . s l e e v e s and p a n t l e g s .

R u b b e r bands w e r e used t o c l o s e

C o l l a r b u t t o n s w e r e f a s t e n e d d e s p i t e the s w e l t e r i n g

heat. Still the flies z e r o e d i n o n t h e t i g h t lines w h e r e c l o t h e s m e t skin. W e

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

>8 w e r e d r i v e n t o t h e e d g e . E x t r e m e actions w e r e i n o r d e r . Finally w e r e s o r t e d t o fashioning makeshift s m u d g e p o t s .

T h e idea t o use t h e m w a s m y w i f e

B o n n i e ' s , b r o u g h t f r o m h e r w o r k i n M e x i c o . O u r s m u d g e p o t s w e r e piles o f d r y , s m o l d e r i n g c o w d u n g , c o l l e c t e d e a r l y i n t h e m o r n i n g b e f o r e the flies came

o u t and p l a c e d

i n each c o r n e r o f e v e r y

three-meter-square

o f the

e x c a v a t i o n . T h e s m o k e p r o v i d e d s o m e r e l i e f f r o m the i n s e c t s — b u t i t subjected us to dung-lung! A k i n d of g o o d - n a t u r e d , f r i e n d l y , d e g e n e r a t e c a m a r a d e r i e d e v e l o p s in a q u a r r y , c a t a l y z e d b y f a m i l i a r i t y and c l o s e q u a r t e r s . T h e r e i s a n o t h e r w i s e unusual candidness c h a r a c t e r i z e d by bad s o n g s , bad j o k e s , bad farts, and a g e n e r a l discussion o f b o d i l y f u n c t i o n s and d y s f u n c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y a s c o n c e r n s the digestive system.

I d o n o t k n o w w h y that is, b u t i t a l w a y s s e e m s t o

h a p p e n . A f t e r a f i e l d season i n the q u a r r y , f r i e n d s i n v a r i a b l y g o a w a y w i t h a pleasant f e e l i n g o f c l o s e n e s s , a s o r t o f s e c r e t s o c i e t y o f c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e . It a l w a y s h a p p e n s that w a y . A t t h e e n d o f a d i g t h e j a c k e t s are t r a n s p o r t e d back t o the lab. T h i s i s n o easy j o b i f the f i e l d season has b e e n successful. W e h a v e t o h i r e a special l o r r y i n M a l a w i t o take the b o n e s f r o m the f i e l d t o the facilities w e established a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s a t t h e o t h e r e n d o f t h e c o u n t r y . O n c e i n the l a b o r a t o r y , t h e p l a s t e r i s r e m o v e d and t h e fossil painstakingly r e s u r r e c t e d . Each b o n e i s h a r d e n e d . C l i n g i n g m a t r i x i s r e m o v e d . B r o k e n e d g e s are separ a t e d , c l e a n e d , and f i x e d t i g h t l y t o g e t h e r . N i c k s and cracks are f i l l e d w i t h p l a s t e r . M i s s i n g parts m a y b e f a b r i c a t e d . S u p p o r t s m a y b e a p p l i e d , and the fossil, i f n e c e s s a r y , i s c r a d l e d i n a f o r m - f i t t e d b e d t o p r e v e n t i t f r o m c o l l a p s i n g u n d e r its o w n w e i g h t .

O n l y t h e n i s the s p e c i m e n r e a d y f o r s t u d y , h a v i n g

u n d e r g o n e a p r o c e s s that m a y h a v e t a k e n y e a r s since its first d i s c o v e r y . If the s p e c i m e n i s f o r display, e v e n m o r e w o r k i s n e c e s s a r y . I t w i l l b e s o m e t i m e b e f o r e t h e b u l k o f the M a l a w i s p e c i m e n s a r e r e a d y f o r s t u d y , and e v e n l o n g e r b e f o r e t h e y a r e available f o r p u b l i c v i e w i n g . A n d the w h o l e p r o c e s s , f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o e n d , costs m o n e y . S e a r c h i n g f o r t i n y f o s s i l s — s u c h a s i s o l a t e d rat t e e t h o r e a r l y m a m m a l s — i s a little different.

T h e prospecting is about the same.

Walk,

walk,

walk,

scanning t h e g r o u n d f o r b o n e w e a t h e r i n g o u t . W h e n a l i k e l y s p o t i s f o u n d , i t i s s c r u t i n i z e d f o r t i n y flecks o f b o n e , s o m e t i m e s f r a g m e n t s o f o n c e - l a r g e r b o n e s , b u t all the b e t t e r i f t h e y b e parts o f v e r y small b o n e s o f v e r y small a n i m a l s . I t i s n o t necessary t o see m u c h small b o n e , just e n o u g h t o k n o w i t i s t h e r e . T h e n g u n n y s a c k a f t e r g u n n y s a c k i s f i l l e d w i t h the fossiliferous m a t r i x .

TAHITI

WITHOUT

SALT

S9 T h i s b u l k s a m p l e i s t h o r o u g h l y d r i e d , s o a k e d i n k e r o s e n e , and finally s i e v e d i n w a t e r t h r o u g h b o x e s w i t h sides and b o t t o m s o f f i n e - m e s h s c r e e n . W h e n the

kerosene-soaked

s e d i m e n t i n t h e b o x e s i s first p l a c e d i n w a t e r ,

the

k e r o s e n e rushes o u t o f it, o i l b e i n g l i g h t e r than w a t e r , and w a t e r rushes i n . T h i s causes t h e s e d i m e n t t o d i s a g g r e g a t e . T h e r e s i d u e o f this s c r e e n - w a s h i n g p r o c e s s l e a v e s p a r t i c l e s i n the size r a n g e o f sand and g r a v e l , just the size o f small m a m m a l t e e t h , c a p t u r e d b y t h e s c r e e n s . T h e silt and clay o f the o r i g i n a l s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k are w a s h e d a w a y . T h e r e s i d u e o f f t h e sieves i s t a k e n t o the lab and t h e b o n e f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e d b y passing i t t h r o u g h h i g h - d e n s i t y l i q u i d s . T h e s e float o f f light sand grains w h i l e t h e h e a v i e r b o n e s and t e e t h sink. T h e r e s u l t i n g u l t r a c o n c e n t r a t e i s w a s h e d and d r i e d ,

then sorted under a

m i c r o s c o p e . G o o d s p e c i m e n s o f t e e t h and b o n e s are g l u e d t o t h e heads o f pins stuck in c o r k s so that t h e y can be h a n d l e d easily. T h e c o r k s slip i n t o small glass vials f o r s t o r a g e . T h e technique of screen-washing, believe it or not, is remarkably effective. I n the n o t - s o - o l d e n days m a n y fossil c o l l e c t i o n s w e r e biased t o w a r d l a r g e r animals. O f c o u r s e v i r t u a l l y e v e r y natural c o m m u n i t y o f v e r t e b r a t e s has small s p e c i e s , a s w e l l a s m e d i u m - s i z e d and l a r g e o n e s . W h e r e w e r e t h e small o n e s in the fossil c o l l e c t i o n s that had o n l y l a r g e r species r e p r e s e n t e d ? In m a n y cases, until the a d v e n t o f s c r e e n - w a s h i n g , t h e y w e r e s i m p l y o v e r l o o k e d . W h e t h e r a fossil is f r o m s c r e e n i n g or f r o m a q u a r r y or just an i s o l a t e d find, it is i m p e r a t i v e that the l o c a l i t y w h e r e it w a s f o u n d and its p o s i t i o n in the r o c k s e q u e n c e b e a c c u r a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d and p r e c i s e l y r e c o r d e d . T h e s e t w o p i e c e s o f data are basic t o e v e r y fossil, m o r e i m p o r t a n t e v e n than its i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T h e i d e n t i t y o f a fossil can b e r e p e a t e d l y d e t e r m i n e d b y w h o m e v e r w i s h e s t o d o s o , but o n c e a fossil i s o u t o f t h e g r o u n d , i t i s v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e , e x c e p t in rare circumstances, for anyone to pinpoint the exact place w h e r e it was f o u n d . T h e o n l y usual e x c e p t i o n i s the o r i g i n a l c o l l e c t o r , and t h e n o n l y s o w e l l as notoriously unreliable m e m o r y serves. W i t h o u t k n o w i n g a fossil's l o c a l i t y a c c u r a t e l y , its p l a c e i n the r o c k seq u e n c e c a n n o t b e p r e c i s e l y d e t e r m i n e d and n e i t h e r can its a g e b y any m e t h o d independent

of guessing

from

the

fossil

itself.

The

time

element—the

s t r e n g t h o f p a l e o n t o l o g y — i s d i m i n i s h e d . A fossil w i t h o u t t i m e i s l i k e y e s t e r d a y ' s d o u g h n u t s — y o u m i g h t s u r v i v e o n t h e m f o r a w h i l e , b u t w h o w a n t s to? F i e l d r e c o r d s are i m p o r t a n t .

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

60 AND

WHAT

O F p r o p e r f i e l d attire? I n the w o r d s o f Sir

H a r r y Johnston

speaking in 1 8 9 7 , " G e n e r a l l y , I m a y say this a b o u t c l o t h i n g , that a m a n should a l w a y s s t r i v e t o dress n e a t l y and b e c o m i n g l y i n C e n t r a l A f r i c a , o r h e w i l l q u i c k l y lapse i n t o a s l o v e n l y state o f e x i s t e n c e . " I find stout shoes are i m p o r t a n t .

JOURNALS F R O M

THE

GROUND

7

July

1

990,

Saturday.

The

beginning

of

the

field

season.

I a m o n m y w a y f r o m the U n i t e d States t o A f r i c a . It is 5:48 in the a f t e r n o o n . I am a b o a r d D e l t a F l i g h t 26 en r o u t e to Frankfurt. F r o m t h e r e it is s o u t h , a b r i e f transit s t o p in J o h a n n e s b u r g , t h e n u l t i m a t e l y on t o M a l a w i . I h a v e t w o b a c k - t o - b a c k o v e r n i g h t flights, o n e s e v e n h o u r s , the o t h e r f o u r t e e n . O n this o n e the seats are f i l l e d o n e i t h e r side o f m e . T h e r e is not much to do on an airplane, especially on an intercontinental flight, especially o v e r n i g h t , e s p e c i a l l y o n e that i s c r o w d e d . Y o u can t r y t o s l e e p o r try t o think, b u t y o u can d o n e i t h e r v e r y w e l l . I n a f e w m i n u t e s a t r a v e l c o m a w i l l take o v e r . F o r a t least a full t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s I w i l l b e n o t q u i t e a w a k e , but unable t o s l e e p . S o I w i l l w r i t e , a t least f o r a w h i l e . A s o f this w r i t i n g I h a v e m a d e f o u r trips t o M a l a w i — t h r e e o f t h e m actually o u t i n the f i e l d c o l l e c t i n g fossils; o n e , the f i r s t o n e , t o set i t all u p . T h e p r o j e c t has b e e n g o o d . another

field

T h e r e h a v e b e e n e n o u g h d i s c o v e r i e s each t i m e t o justify

season.

We

have

found

s p e c i e s , t h r e e kinds o f c r o c o d i l e s ,

dinosaur

bones

from

five

different

i n c l u d i n g half a d o z e n s k e l e t o n s o f the

strangest kind o f c r o c I h a v e e v e r s e e n .

We have e v e n found frogs.

I am

satisfied w i t h w h a t w e h a v e f o u n d s o far. N o w I a m o n t h e f i f t h t r i p . W i l l

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

62 Downs,

w h o will be coming next week,

e x p e d i t i o n t o the

Dinosaur Beds.

has b e e n w i t h m e o n each f i e l d

F o r D a l e W i n k l e r and

Kent N e w m a n ,

t r a v e l i n g w i t h m e , this i s the t h i r d t i m e . T h e last m e m b e r o f the A m e r i c a n c o n t i n g e n t i s Alisa W i n k l e r , w h o w i l l b e c o m i n g o v e r t o j o i n u s i n a f e w weeks.

This is her second trip to M a l a w i .

A l l are p r o f e s s i o n a l s ,

all are

s e a s o n e d i n t h e f i e l d , all h a v e A f r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e . T h a t is t h e w a y I w a n t e d it this y e a r . T h e strategy is to take t r u s t w o r t h y professionals t o M a l a w i f r o m h e r e ,

w o r k with D e p a r t m e n t of Antiquities

p e o p l e t h e r e , and r e c r u i t a g o o d M a l a w i a n s t u d e n t f o r f i e l d w o r k and g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g . T h e n , the n e x t t i m e , and t h e n e x t , m a y b e the p r o j e c t w i l l b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o i n c l u d e o t h e r students and n e w faces. N o w w e m u s t o b t a i n e n o u g h h i g h - q u a l i t y results to m a k e sure that t h e r e is a n e x t t i m e . W e k n o w e x a c t l y w h e r e w e are g o i n g . have the localities p i n p o i n t e d .

W e k n o w t h e r e are fossils.

W e k n o w w h a t w e are g o i n g after.

We

W e are

g o i n g t o q u a r r y b o n e s , and that m e a n s m a i n l y d i n o s a u r s . W e k n o w the r o c k s t h e y are p a c k e d i n , and w e k n o w h o w high t h e hills a r e . W e k n o w w h a t i t takes t o m o v e t h e supplies i n and the f i n i s h e d jackets o u t .

W e h a v e the

v e h i c l e s a r r a n g e d . W e k n o w w h e r e t o c a m p and h o w t o p r o v i s i o n the l a r d e r . I t s h o u l d b e just a m a t t e r o f d o i n g the w o r k . N o w , since w e are n o l o n g e r r o o k i e s i n M a l a w i , I w a n t t o d e t e r m i n e , t h r o u g h this s e a s o n ' s f i e l d w o r k , i n w h i c h d i r e c t i o n I can lead this p r o j e c t . T h e g o a l s are s i m p l e . W e w i l l increase t h e s a m p l e o f d i n o s a u r b o n e s . W e w i l l g e t m o r e o f t h e m . T h a t i s w h a t w e a r e a f t e r . D i n o s a u r b o n e s t o study and display.

Of course we w i l l not ignore nondinosaurs.

Maybe a mammal

w i l l t u r n u p . W e w i l l q u a r r y c a r e f u l l y , and w e m i g h t s i e v e i f the s e d i m e n t l o o k s g o o d e n o u g h . But w e h a v e d o n e that b e f o r e . T h i s y e a r w e m u s t p r o v e t h e e x t e n t o f t h e b o n e layers i n the g r o u n d and the c o m p l e t e n e s s o f the d i n o s a u r s k e l e t o n s . If t h e y are p r o f u s e and w e l l p r e s e r v e d , t h e i r value as a w i n d o w i n t o the c r y p t i c A f r i c a n past w i l l b e g r e a t e r . W e w a n t lots o f b o n e s , m a p s o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s , s a m p l e s o f the e n c l o s i n g s e d i m e n t s , and m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e i r host r o c k s . T h a t should take u p the t i m e . T h e field techniques will be as in previous expeditions.

A l l the c l o s e

e x c a v a t i o n w i l l b e d o n e w i t h small hand t o o l s , a w l s , and brushes. I n the e a r l i e r f i e l d seasons picks and s h o v e l s w e r e used t o r e m o v e t h e o v e r b u r d e n o f s t e r i l e soil and r o c k . W e h a v e d u g t h r o u g h the easy p a r t . T h i s y e a r w e w i l l m o v e t h e E a r t h . I n the c a r g o h o l d o f t h e p l a n e , c h e c k e d w i t h o u r duffel bags, a r e t w o r o t a r y and d e m o l i t i o n h a m m e r s — w e call t h e m r o t o - h a m m e r s — t o

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND 63

blast a w a y the r o c k . T h e y w i l l b e p o w e r e d b y a p o r t a b l e g e n e r a t o r w a i t i n g f o r u s a t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s i n L i l o n g w e . I w i l l o n l y h a v e a m o n t h in the field this y e a r . T h a t d o e s n o t s e e m l i k e m u c h , but it is all 1 can m u s t e r . T h e late t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y g o e s at a fast p a c e , with time being a c o m m o d i t y at a p r e m i u m . T o o bad. M u c h can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d i n a m o n t h . T h e c r e w , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e w a i t ing f o r u s i n M a l a w i , i s l a r g e , e x p e r i e n c e d , and efficient. W e can d o i n a m o n t h w h a t w o u l d h a v e taken

m a n y t i m e s l o n g e r i n t h e e a r l i e r days o f

p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n . A n d w e can c o l l e c t m o r e i n a m o n t h than can be p r e p a r e d in a y e a r — s e v e r a l y e a r s .

It is n o t l i k e T e n d a g u r u .

Besides,

T e n d a g u r u i s n o t b e i n g d u g a n y m o r e . M a l a w i is. I t s h o w s u s things a b o u t the past that T e n d a g u r u c a n n o t because t h e t w o a r e d i f f e r e n t w i n d o w s w i t h d i f f e r e n t v i e w s . N e w fossils are c o m i n g o u t o f M a l a w i . I t i s t h e o n l y d i n o saur e x c a v a t i o n o f its k i n d c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y i n A f r i c a .

E v e r y t h i n g has

b e e n d o n e , e v e r y t h i n g w e c o u l d think of, t o m a k e things g o s m o o t h l y w h i l e w e w o r k it. T o w a r d the e n d o f t h e season, a f t e r I l e a v e , W i l l , D a l e , and Alisa w i l l r e c o n n o i t e r the south e n d o f t h e c o u n t r y .

M a p s and o l d r e p o r t s r e v e a l a

possibility o f f i n d i n g dinosaurs and o t h e r fossils d o w n t h e r e i n the tsetse-flyinfested w o o d l a n d s o f L e n g w e and M w a b v i . E v e n i f t h e y d o n o t f i n d d i n o saurs, t h e r e is an e v e n b e t t e r p o s s i b i l i t y that t h e r e are lavas that can be d a t e d t o g i v e a m a x i m u m - a g e e s t i m a t e f o r the D i n o s a u r B e d s . T h a t i s v e r y i m p o r tant. M y efforts t o d a t e the r o c k s w i t h p a l e o m a g n e t i s m h a v e b e e n unsuccessful. T h e fossils g i v e an i m p r e c i s e a g e , and a n y w a y I n e e d a d a t e i n d e p e n d e n t o f the b o n e s w h o s e a n t i q u i t y I w a n t t o k n o w . I w a n t W i l l , and D a l e , and Alisa to find the lavas and b r i n g back a s a m p l e . T h e n , w i t h a g o o d d a t e , a firm handle o n t h e i r a g e , w e can r e a l l y f i t M a l a w i ' s D i n o s a u r Beds i n t o the g l o b a l p i c t u r e o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e b o n e s w i l l m a k e b e t t e r sense i f t h e i r a g e is m o r e precisely k n o w n . I have b u t t e r f l i e s i n m y g u t .

W i l l the g e n e r a t o r w o r k w i t h the r o t o -

h a m m e r s ? W i l l t h e v e h i c l e s h o l d up?

Will

we have plaster to jacket the

specimens? I f w e h a v e it, w i l l i t actually set t o p r o t e c t the b o n e s ? A n d w o r s t o f all, w i l l t h e fossils play out? W i l l t h e r e b e e n o u g h t o justify the effort? W i l l t h e y i n s p i r e e n o u g h t o c a t a l y z e f u r t h e r research? W i l l t h e y b e g o o d e n o u g h f o r display? W e w i l l n o t k n o w until w e d o the f i e l d w o r k . M y eyes w a n t t o close, but m y m i n d i s active. M y thoughts k e e p returning

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

64 t o the e v o l u t i o n this p r o j e c t has u n d e r g o n e . I t has b e e n a l o n g t i m e d e v e l o p i n g — s i x y e a r s a l r e a d y . H a s i t r e a l l y b e e n that l o n g ? M y f i r s t t r i p t o M a l a w i w a s i n January 1 9 8 4 . I n o l o n g e r l i v e d i n N a i r o b i , h a v i n g taken a j o b in T e x a s . I w a s in K e n y a d o i n g fieldwork on t h e p r o j e c t in the T u g e n H i l l s , b u t I c o u l d see signs that the plans f o r M a l a w i I had m a d e w i t h Z e f e t w o years p r e v i o u s l y w e r e steadily d r i f t i n g o f f c o u r s e . I t w a s taking t o o long to get them i m p l e m e n t e d . I quickly flew d o w n to M a l a w i to m e e t w i t h h i m . H e had f i n a l l y f i n i s h e d his d e g r e e and just r e t u r n e d f r o m C a l i f o r n i a . I also m e t his bosses a t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s , b o t h o f w h o m also h e l d P h . D . 's f r o m Berkeley. T h e y w e r e strongly behind the project. It was decided that I should s u b m i t a p r o p o s a l f o r f u n d i n g of a fossil-hunting e x p e d i t i o n to the

National

Geographic

Society immediately.

National

Geographic came

t h r o u g h , and I r e t u r n e d w i t h t w o o t h e r b o n e s e e k e r s f o r m y f i r s t e x p e d i t i o n i n June o f t h e s a m e y e a r . T h e p r o j e c t w a s f i n a l l y g e t t i n g o f f the g r o u n d . I was a bit c o n c e r n e d my first trip d o w n . T h e r e s e e m e d to be a f e w h o l d o v e r r e g u l a t i o n s o n t h e b o o k s d e s i g n e d t o p r e v e n t a n invasion o f lates u r v i v i n g h i p p i e s . N o l o n g hair. N o b e l l - b o t t o m e d t r o u s e r s f o r the m e n . N o pants o r shorts f o r the w o m e n . W h i l e n o n e o f these rules p o s e d any particular p r o b l e m , I w a s a l i t t l e a p p r e h e n s i v e . P e r h a p s t h e r e w e r e o t h e r rules that I m i g h t n o t b e a w a r e of.

As it turned out, no o n e was into bell b o t t o m s ;

c u l o t t e s s o l v e d a n o t h e r p r o b l e m ; and w h e t h e r c l o s e o r n o t , w e h a v e n e v e r had a c o n f r o n t a t i o n o v e r h a i r d o s . O r a n y t h i n g e l s e . K n o c k o n w o o d . O n that f i r s t t r i p t o t h e D i n o s a u r Beds I b e c a m e s o enthusiastic a b o u t the p o t e n t i a l f o r fossils that I w r o t e t o A l a n C h a r i g , c h i e f p a l e o n t o l o g i s t i n c h a r g e o f the A f r i c a n dinosaurs i n the British M u s e u m ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) . I asked h i m if, o n m y w a y back t o t h e States, I m i g h t a r r a n g e a visit t o L o n d o n t o l o o k a t M i g e o d ' s c o l l e c t i o n o f M a l a w i a n b o n e s . C h a r i g r e p l i e d that h e w o u l d b e e x p e c t i n g m e o n July n i n t h . I n c l o s i n g h e o f f h a n d e d l y w r o t e , " S h o u l d y o u a c c i d e n t a l l y b u m p i n t o the P r e s i d e n t o f M a l a w i , D r . H a s t i n g s K . Banda, k i n d l y g i v e h i m m y r e g a r d s . ( H e used t o b e o u r f a m i l y d o c t o r i n the G o l d C o a s t , t h i r t y years a g o , and a v e r y g o o d doctor h e was t o o . ) " U n f o r t u n a t e l y I h a v e n e v e r had the o p p o r t u n i t y .

W H A T AN I N T E R E S T I N G place the w o r l d is for travelers. Everything is so n e w o n the f i r s t visit. T h e r e are s o m a n y things t o d i s c o v e r , t o l e a r n , and t o

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

6; e x p l o r e . It m u s t be that w a y f o r all t r a v e l e r s . In a N a i r o b i b o o k s t o r e in 1983 I d i s c o v e r e d a b o o k c a l l e d Sir Apolo Kagwa Discovers Britain. W h a t is i n t e r e s t i n g a b o u t this b o o k i s its u n i q u e and p e r s o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e o n A f r i c a n e x p l o r a t i o n . It is an e d i t e d v e r s i o n of Uganda's Katikiro in England, first p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 0 4 . It is a true story, w r i t t e n by H a m Mukasa, secretary to the p r i m e minister o f Buganda, A p o l o K a g w a . I n 1902 Sir A p o l o w a s a n i n v i t e d w i t n e s s t o the coronation of King Edward VII in London.

H e and his s e c r e t a r y , t h r o u g h

a c c e p t a n c e o f this i n v i t a t i o n , b e c a m e e x p l o r e r s i n Britain, s t r a n g e l y m i m i c k ing the h i s t o r y o f t h e i r o w n c o n t i n e n t . T h e y w e r e caricatures o f V i c t o r i a n e x p l o r e r s ; t h e E u r o p e a n s had g o t t e n t o A f r i c a f i r s t . H a m M u k a s a p r o v i d e d a n a c c o u n t of the a d v e n t u r e , just as L i v i n g s t o n e , and S t a n l e y , and B u r t o n , and Y o u n g , and countless o t h e r s , n o w i n c l u d i n g m e , h a v e d o n e f o r t h e i r o w n travels i n A f r i c a . But M u k a s a ' s d i s c o v e r i e s w e r e o f t u r n - o f - t h e - c e n t u r y G r e a t Britain. M u k a s a ' s a c c o u n t o f G r e a t Britain i s p a r t i c u l a r l y auspicious i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t because the initial E u r o p e a n c o l o n i z a t i o n o f M a l a w i w a s b y S c o t s . O n e o f the chapters i n his b o o k i s e n t i t l e d , " G l a s g o w C i t y C o u n c i l l o r s a r e D r u n k a r d s . " T h i s m a y o r m a y n o t a p p e a r l u d i c r o u s t o t h e c u r r e n t inhabitants o f that land; h o w e v e r , i n the c o n t e x t o f a d i s c o v e r e r o f A f r i c a , I a m c e r t a i n that m a n y o f m y o b s e r v a t i o n s m u s t a p p e a r l u d i c r o u s t o A f r i c a n s . It is like a l a t t e r - d a y H a m M u k a s a that I d i s c o v e r e d A f r i c a . It is a beautiful, diverse continent. T h e climate o v e r m u c h of it is tropical; the p e o p l e are w a r m . M y i m p r e s s i o n s o f A f r i c a d e r i v e f r o m K e n y a i n the east, C a m e r o o n i n the F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g w e s t , and M a l a w i i n the southeast. A l l t h r e e are differe n t , and each i s i n t e r n a l l y v a r i e d .

Kenya was my introduction to Africa.

M a l a w i i s n o w the focus o f m y A f r i c a n w o r k . C a m e r o o n has its o w n p l a c e i n this s t o r y , as w i l l be s e e n l a t e r . K e n y a , m u c h o f it, a b o u n d s w i t h w i l d l i f e . I n the south t h e vast h e r d s o f the

Serengeti make

their p e r i o d i c appearance w i t h the yearly migrations

across the grasslands. C o s m o p o l i t a n N a i r o b i , the c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d capital, i s set high near the c o o l f o o t o f the N g o n g H i l l s . T h e n o r t h e r n half o f K e n y a i s d e s e r t . I t i s sparsely i n h a b i t e d b y n o m a d i c o r s e m i n o m a d i c t r i b e s . T h e t r i b e s are v a r i e d : C u s h i t i c R e n d i l l e and B o r a n , N i l o t i c T u r k a n a , w e s t o f t h e lake t o w h i c h t h e y g i v e t h e i r n a m e , and S a m b u r u . T o the south o f these t r i b e s , t h e R i f t V a l l e y i s inhabited b y P o k o t , f i s h - e a t i n g N j e m p s a t L a k e B a r i n g o , and Masai. A large p r o p o r t i o n o f tribal p e o p l e l i v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y , h e r d i n g g o a t s , c o w s , c a m e l s , and d r i n k i n g t h e i r a n i m a l s ' b l o o d m i x e d w i t h m i l k . M a n y dress

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

66 in skins, plait t h e i r hair w i t h fat and o c h r e , fashion m u d packs on the backs o f t h e i r skulls, and a r m t h e m s e l v e s w i t h spears and k n o b k e r r i e s . W e s t e r n w a y s are s l o w t o m a k e incursions i n t o t h e m o r e r e m o t e , i n h o s p i t a b l e areas. M a l a w i has a d i f f e r e n t f e e l i n g f r o m

Kenya.

N o t b e t t e r o r w o r s e , just

d i f f e r e n t . It is the I n t e r i o r , as L i v i n g s t o n e c a l l e d it. It bills itself as the W a r m H e a r t o f A f r i c a , and that i s e x a c t l y the f e e l i n g i t i m p a r t s . M a l a w i has g a m e , b u t lacks the vast h e r d s o f w i l d e b e e s t and z e b r a and the g r e a t p r i d e s o f l i o n s o c o m m o n i n s o u t h e r n K e n y a . M a l a w i m a y n e v e r have s e e n such h u g e h e r d s as t h o s e that c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e S e r e n g e t i . T h e r e are no giraffe.

I t i s a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f land.

In M a l a w i , g a m e ,

e x c e p t f o r small

a n t e l o p e and d u i k e r , i s m o s t l y c o n f i n e d t o w i l d l i f e parks and r e s e r v e s . L i o n , e l e p h a n t , h i p p o , b u f f a l o , r o a n , and m o s t o f the o t h e r l a r g e animals can still b e s e e n . But animals i n t h e bush i n M a l a w i are s i m p l y b e t t e r h i d d e n and h a r d e r t o see than t h o s e o n t h e plains o f K e n y a . A l t h o u g h a small c o u n t r y ,

Malawi

is a m a z i n g l y d i v e r s e .

It has d a m p

f o r e s t e d hills and v e r d a n t m o u n t a i n s . D r y , flat w o o d l a n d s rest o n the s h a l l o w soil o f c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s , l e v e l e d t h r o u g h m i l l e n n i a o f ceaseless e r o s i o n . Bald, s t r a i g h t - w a l l e d , g r a n i t e i n s e l b e r g s and b a r e - r o c k kopjes p r o j e c t s k y w a r d . P r e c i p i t o u s cliffs w i t h w a t e r f a l l s and c o n v o l v u l u s v i n e s t u m b l e s t e e p l y d o w n , all h e a d e d t o w a r d the l a k e . T h e c o o l m o o r l a n d and h e a t h e r o f the N y i k a Plateau i n the n o r t h , w i t h m o r e than 120 species o f o r c h i d s , contrasts w i t h the h o t , dusty l a k e s h o r e p l a i n , d o t t e d w i t h n a k e d , e l e p h a n t i n e b a o b a b s , the c r e a m - o f tartar t r e e , t h e t r e e s built u p s i d e d o w n , t h e i r leafless j a g g e d b o u g h s r o o t e d i n the sky ( F i g u r e swiftly.

1 6 ) . R i v e r s that run f r o m the plateaus t o the lake f l o w

A s w a y i n g r o p e and b a m b o o b r i d g e p r o v i d e d the crossing o f the

N o r t h R u k u r u a t N c h e n a c h e n a until last y e a r . N o w a c o n c r e t e b r i d g e i s b e i n g built. T h e p e o p l e o f M a l a w i are w a r m and f r i e n d l y , c u r i o u s and t a l k a t i v e , and a b o v e all p o l i t e . T h e p o p u l a t i o n i s a b i t m o r e than e i g h t m i l l i o n , w h i c h i s n o t a l a r g e n u m b e r e x c e p t w h e n c o n s i d e r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o the size o f the c o u n t r y . I t has the a t m o s p h e r e o f a small t o w n . E v e r y o n e k n o w s e v e r y o n e e l s e . T h e p e o p l e really are f r i e n d l y . T h e r e appears t o b e l i t t l e c o r r u p t i o n b y A f r i c a n standards. T h e p o l i c e are strict, m a t t e r - o f - f a c t , b u t they d o n o t o p e n l y e x t o r t as a habit. T h e r e are f e w c h e c k p o i n t s on t h e r o a d s , and I h a v e n e v e r seen the g u a r d s that m a n t h e m d r u n k . T h e r e is a p l a c i d , if superficial, aura of safety and s e c u r i t y . T h e r e i s a m i x t u r e o f c u l t u r e s i n M a l a w i . M a n y Indians, m o s t l y d e s c e n d -

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

67

FIGURE 16: A baobab tree. According to an East African legend, the baobab was a vain and prideful tree whose vanity so disturbed the god N'gai that he uprooted the baobab and made it stand on its head for all eternity. scale.

Note the person for

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

68 ants

of laborers

brought

to

Africa by

the

British

in

colonial

times,

are

s h o p k e e p e r s and m e r c h a n t s i n m a j o r t o w n s . T h e r e are M u s l i m s . T h e y have been there

e v e r since

A r a b traders

f r o m t h e coast sent caravans t o the

I n t e r i o r . T h e o r i g i n a l tribal r e l i g i o n s w e r e animalistic and naturalistic, w i t h a

strong

reverence

for

ancestors.

M o s t nontraditional

religion

nowadays

f o l l o w s the British m i s s i o n a r y p a t h . J e h o v a h ' s W i t n e s s e s h a v e b e e n b a n n e d since

1972

f o r t h e i r c o n t i n u e d s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the n a t i o n ' s o n l y p o l i t i c a l

party. T h e r e is tribal d i v e r s i t y in M a l a w i , as in o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . But o n e n e v e r sees M a l a w i a n s i n t r a d i t i o n a l tribal d r e s s . A b o u t t h e closest a p p r o a c h to it is in t h e b r o t h e r h o o d

of the

Gule

Wamkulu

(Figure

17).

These

are

f e a r s o m e m a s k e d and c o s t u m e d m e n p o r t r a y i n g g r o t e s q u e h u m a n o i d s and t e r r i f y i n g beasts. T h e y d a n c e a t I n d e p e n d e n c e D a y c e l e b r a t i o n s and the l i k e , but they are m e m b e r s of a secret society, the N y a u , w h o s e function is to m a i n t a i n social o r d e r b y w a r n i n g and p u n i s h i n g m i s c r e a n t s . T h e i r influence has b e e n r e d u c e d i n r e c e n t years a l l e g e d l y . T h e y a r e w i d e l y f e a r e d , and t h e y m a i n t a i n t h e i r s e c r e t w a y s . It is n o t u n c o m m o n to see a Gule Wamkulu a l o n g t h e r o a d i n c e n t r a l M a l a w i w h e r e the N y a u i s p r e v a l e n t , but t h e y are t o b e avoided. T h e name of M a l a w i p r i o r to gaining independence was Nyasaland.

In

1 8 9 1 , t h r o u g h the l e a d e r s h i p o f Sir H a r r y J o h n s t o n , i t w a s p r o c l a i m e d a British

Protectorate;

in

1953

it was

in

the

Federation

o f R h o d e s i a and

N y a s a l a n d . T h e sixties w a s the d e c a d e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e f o r A f r i c a . Nyasaland became Malawi in

1964. T h e name M a l a w i is d e r i v e d f r o m the Chichewa

t o n g u e , t h e national l a n g u a g e ; i t m e a n s " f l a m e s . " I t r e f e r s t o i m a g e s shimm e r i n g i n heat. T h e c i r c u m f l e x o v e r the w i s t h e p r e f e r r e d t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n t o E n g l i s h , a c c o r d i n g t o the N a t i o n a l C h i c h e w a B o a r d . Its p r e s e n c e indicates that t h e s o u n d o f the w i s aspirant, b u t i t i s subtle t o the W e s t e r n e a r — m i n e a n y w a y . T o t e l l y o u t h e t r u t h , I c a n n o t r e a l l y hear m u c h d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the s o u n d of a r e g u l a r w and an aspirant o n e .

But the aspirant w and a

c i r c u m f l e x i n the s p e l l i n g a r e c o r r e c t . A f r i c a ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e d e c a d e , the 1 9 6 0 s , w a s awash w i t h m e t a p h o r s . O n e o f t h e c o m m o n t h e m e s w a s a n e w d a y , a fresh b e g i n n i n g . I n C h i c h e w a the w o r d m e a n i n g " d a w n " i s kwacha. T h a t i s also t h e n a m e o f the f u n d a m e n t a l unit of c u r r e n c y . T h e e x c h a n g e r a t e is a b i t less than t h r e e kwacha to the d o l l a r . O n e h u n d r e d tambala, w h i c h m e a n s " r o o s t e r , " m a k e o n e kwacha. O n e h u n d r e d r o o s t e r s t o the d a w n , a c o n s t a n t allusion t o t h e p r o m i s e o f the f u t u r e .

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND 69

FIGURE

17:

A

GULE

in central Malawi,

WAMKULU

of the

Nyau

society.

GULE

WAMKULU

are

often

seen

where their secret society is most prevalent.

T h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r o f t h e c o u n t r y i s H i s E x c e l l e n c y the L i f e P r e s i d e n t N g w a z i D r . Hastings K a m u z u Banda. M a l a w i has a o n e - p a r t y , p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t , and Banda is the o n l y l e a d e r the c o u n t r y has had since i n d e p e n d e n c e . H e w a s e d u c a t e d i n the U n i t e d States and S c o t l a n d . H e b e c a m e a m e d i c a l d o c t o r , p r a c t i c i n g f o r s o m e t i m e i n L o n d o n a n d , f o r a w h i l e i n the 1950s, i n W e s t A f r i c a , b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g h o m e t o b r i n g his c o u n t r y t o i n d e -

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

70 p e n d e n c e . A t t h e t i m e o f this w r i t i n g , Banda i s n e a r i n g n i n e t y and still g o i n g strong. M a l a w i has a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n f o r its s i z e .

It lacks significant m i n e r a l

w e a l t h , e x c e p t f o r a b i t o f c o a l . I n t h e r e c e n t past m a n y y o u n g m e n j o i n e d migrations f r o m their h o m e s by choice in o r d e r to w o r k the mines of Zambia, Z i m b a b w e , and e s p e c i a l l y S o u t h A f r i c a . I n c e n t u r i e s past m a n y w e r e f o r c e d t o l e a v e t h e i r h o m e l a n d b y A r a b slavers. Banda r e c o g n i z e d his p e o p l e a s a r e s o u r c e . Early o n h e e m p h a s i z e d agricultural d e v e l o p m e n t . M a l a w i g r o w s r i c e , t o b a c c o , c o t t o n , c o r n ( c a l l e d m a i z e i n A f r i c a ) , and sugar. Foodstuffs are exported to neighboring countries. M a l a w i has m a i n t a i n e d a p o l i c y o f f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h South A f r i c a . I t has o p e n t r a d e , w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r t h e a b u n d a n c e o f c o n s u m e r g o o d s available o n s t o r e s h e l v e s , i n c l u d i n g s o m e r a t h e r g o o d S o u t h A f r i c a n w i n e and o t h e r f r i v o l o u s p r o d u c t s that t h e p o p u l a t i o n at l a r g e c a n n o t a f f o r d . M a l a w i is o n e o f t h e f e w places i n A f r i c a w h e r e South A f r i c a n tourists can g o o n h o l i d a y o r b u s i n e s s m e n can g o o n c o m m e r c e . A s a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , the quality o f life f o r M a l a w i a n s p r o b a b l y i s b e t t e r w i t h t h e o p e n - t r a d e p o l i c y than i t w o u l d b e o t h e r w i s e . T h a t i s n o t t o say M a l a w i a n s a p p r o v e o f South A f r i c a n p o l i c y . I n t h e w o r d s o f O l i v e r M w e n i f u m b o , a M a l a w i a n b u s i n e s s m a n , " Y o u can t r a d e w i t h the d e v i l , b u t y o u d o n ' t h a v e t o l i k e his p o l i t i c s . " I f o t h e r black A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s t r a d e w i t h South A f r i c a , t h e y d o s o s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y . But t h e r e i s a n o t h e r c o m p o n e n t t o B a n d a ' s p o l i c y t o w a r d South A f r i c a that was especially important in borders

Malawians

know

the

that

e a r l i e r y e a r s o f the

white

South

Africans,

country. and

W i t h open

everyone

else,

c o m i n g t o M a l a w i can j u d g e f o r t h e m s e l v e s the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f b l a c k r u l e , and t h e y can see t h e e f f e c t o f the m a j o r i t y v o i c e o n the w h i t e m i n o r i t y . M o r e o v e r , i n t h e s t r u g g l e against a p a r t h e i d , M a l a w i ' s black d i p l o m a t s i n P r e t o r i a had t o be

e x t e n d e d the

same

courtesies

as

whites for diplomatic

reasons,

thus

c r e a t i n g at least a slight chink in racist a r m o r .

THAT

FIRST

M A L A W I expedition of mine in

1984 v i s i t e d the same area

w h e r e the British had g o n e b e f o r e . I n 1 9 3 0 , w h e n M i g e o d m a d e his side t r i p f o r t h e British M u s e u m t o the n o r t h w e s t side o f L a k e N y a s a , h e stayed w i t h a p l a n t e r n a m e d M a x w e l l a t the v i l l a g e o f N y u n g w e . I n 1 9 3 0 N y u n g w e w a s i n the m i d d l e o f n o w h e r e . N o w t h e m a i n r o a d i s p a v e d , but N y u n g w e i s still i n the m i d d l e o f n o w h e r e . I t i s l o c a t e d a t the t u r n o f f f r o m t h e m a i n r o a d o n t o the d i r t track

J O U R N A L S

F R O M

T H E

G R O U N D

71 l e a d i n g to the D i n o s a u r B e d s . Its b i g g e s t a t t r a c t i o n is a d i p tank to g i v e c a t t l e s o m e measure of p r o t e c t i o n f r o m h o r d e s of infesting ticks. I d o u b t w h e t h e r a n o t h e r w h i t e has l i v e d i n N y u n g w e since M a x w e l l l e f t . But h e l e f t a l e g a c y . In

1989, on my third M a l a w i e x p e d i t i o n , I d e c i d e d to c a m p at nearby

N g a r a , w h e r e M i g e o d had l a n d e d w h e n h e c r o s s e d t h e lake o n the Guendolen o v e r half a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r . It is a beautiful s p o t , r i g h t on t h e s h o r e of t h e l a k e , six m i l e s n o r t h o f N y u n g w e . I t i s a t i n y b u t i n t e r e s t i n g f i s h i n g v i l l a g e . S o m e o f the inhabitants are l i g h t e r s k i n n e d , w i t h u n - A f r i c a n g r a y e y e s t i n g e d w i t h g r e e n . I s o u g h t the p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n t o set u p c a m p . H e w a s q u i t e a g r e e a b l e , v a c a t i n g his f a v o r i t e shade t r e e i n a m a g n a n i m o u s g e s t u r e o f goodwill.

A s w i t h m a n y o t h e r w e l l - t o - d o A f r i c a n m e n o f the area, h e had

s e v e r a l w i v e s , each w i t h a small h o u s e s c a t t e r e d a l o n g the s h o r e , a b o u t f i f t y yards back f r o m the e d g e o f t h e l a k e . T h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n ' s n a m e ? M a x w e l l . C o u l d i t b e that t h e r e i s a n all b u t f o r g o t t e n b r a n c h o f t h e M a x w e l l clan? T h e a n s w e r i s y e s . I l e a r n e d the s t o r y f r o m the v i l l a g e h e a d m a n and his n e p h e w . W i l l i a m A l e x a n d e r M a x w e l l , a y o u n g S c o t , left h o m e t o e s c a p e his o v e r b e a r i n g father.

He

obtained a position

with

the

British

Cotton

Growers

A s s o c i a t i o n and fled t o M a l a w i i n 1 9 0 2 . H e a c q u i r e d land a t N y u n g w e , w h e r e h e m a d e his h o m e , o n the N y i k a P l a t e a u , w h e r e h e p l a n t e d p i n e s , and a t Ngara, w h e r e he built a c o t t o n ginnery. He returned to Scotland only o n c e , in 1923, briefly. W i l l i a m M a x w e l l t o o k six n a t i v e w i v e s . H e g o t o n e o f t h e m o n a t r i p t o t h e N y i k a . A y o u n g g i r l o f a b o u t e l e v e n c a u g h t his e y e . H e asked h e r father h o w m a n y c o w s h e w a n t e d f o r h e r . T h e a n s w e r w a s six. M a x w e l l t o o k t h e h o r r i f i e d c h i l d r i g h t t h e n o n c r e d i t , m a r c h e d back t o N y u n g w e , and sent the c o w s back t o h e r father. T h e g i r l and h e r husband n e v e r t a l k e d i n all the years o f t h e i r l o n g m a r r i a g e . She c o v e r e d h e r e y e s w h e n h e had s e x w i t h h e r . H i s p i n k b o d y l o o k e d t o h e r l i k e a h u g e mass o f r a w m e a t . Each o f M a x w e l l ' s w i v e s b o r e h i m o n e c h i l d . T h r e e w e r e sons. M a x w e l l w o u l d g a t h e r t h e m a t his f e e t i n the e v e n i n g s and t e l l t h e m s t o r i e s . H e s h o w e d t h e m fossils h e had f o u n d .

O n e o f his sons i s n o w t h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n a t

N y u n g w e . A n o t h e r — t h e y o u n g e s t — i s D a v i d James M a x w e l l , also k n o w n a s V i l l a g e H e a d m a n M a k o n g a n y a , the b i g m a n o f N g a r a . T h e p a t r i a r c h o f t h e M a x w e l l clan d i e d i n M a l a w i i n 1 9 6 3 .

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

72 THE

DINOSAUR

D I G S a r e a b o u t e i g h t m i l e s inland f r o m the lake near a

v i l l a g e c a l l e d M w a k a s y u n g u t i . W e m a d e friends w i t h the locals r i g h t a w a y o n o u r f i r s t t r i p . O n e e s p e c i a l l y b r i g h t r e s i d e n t o f t h e M w a k a s y u n g u t i area b e g a n to question W i l l D o w n s ,

a v e t e r a n w h o has h o p p e d t h e g l o b e c o l l e c t i n g

fossils, a b o u t w h a t e x a c t l y w e w e r e d o i n g t h e r e . W i l l e x p l a i n e d o u r l o f t y g o a l s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g life o n

Earth.

The

conversation turned to human

o r i g i n s . W i l l p a t i e n t l y e x p l a i n e d h u m a n e v o l u t i o n based o n the s e q u e n c e o f fossil r e m a i n s f o u n d i n K e n y a . H e g a v e the a g e o f Kenyapithecus, o n e o f L o u i s L e a k e y ' s early finds, as fifteen million years. " F o u r t e e n m i l l i o n , " h e was c o r r e c t e d . T h e Mwakasyunguti native k n e w the story! T h e m a n t o w h o m W i l l w a s s p e a k i n g w a s L i g h t w e l l M k w a l a , a t the t i m e a s t u d e n t and n o w a s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r . I h i r e d L i g h t w e l l to d i g b o n e s , and he has e x c a v a t e d a l o n g s i d e us f o r t w o seasons. L o n g h o u r s in a q u a r r y scratching b o n e s g i v e s p l e n t y o f t i m e t o g e t t o k n o w s o m e o n e . L i g h t w e l l g a v e s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g insight i n t o c o n t e m p o r a r y life i n rural M a l a w i .

H e also

taught us h i s t o r y . " W h a t d o M a l a w i a n s think a b o u t D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e , L i g h t w e l l ? " I asked this q u e s t i o n o f L i g h t w e l l b e c a u s e I k n e w t h e standard v e r s i o n o f the d e d i cated missionary w h o w a n t e d to o p e n up Central Africa to trade in o r d e r to s t o p t h e f l o w o f slaves e a s t w a r d f o r t h e insatiable a p p e t i t e s o f the A r a b s . 1 w a n t e d t o k n o w i f the M a l a w i a n p e r s p e c t i v e w a s d i f f e r e n t . " D r . D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e . T h e y like h i m . H e s t o p p e d s l a v e r y i n this part o f A f r i c a , and h e b r o u g h t e d u c a t i o n . " T h e standard v e r s i o n ; n o r e v i s i o n i s t historical scandal f o r L i v i n g s t o n e f r o m Lightwell. " D o t h e y think o f h i m a s a n e x p l o r e r ? " " O f course not. Africans k n e w they w e r e h e r e . " Sir A p o l o L i v i n g s t o n e d i s c o v e r s A f r i c a . T h e n L i g h t w e l l w e n t o n t o e x p l a i n t h e life o f L i v i n g s t o n e and the h i s t o r y of M a l a w i in very great detail. Livingstone was a man of action. Despite being an e v a n g e l i s t , he w a s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s and u n c o m f o r t a b l e at p u b l i c speaking, e s p e c i a l l y i n E n g l a n d . H i s v o i c e w a s i n d i s t i n c t , p e r h a p s unpleasant, because h e had a n o v e r l y l o n g u v u l a . A t o n e p o i n t h e had s u r g e r y t o c o r r e c t the p r o b l e m , but the a t t e m p t w a s a p p a r e n t l y n o t t o t a l l y successful. A t t h e t i m e L i v i n g s t o n e f i r s t s a w L a k e M a l a w i , the m o r a l issues i n v o l v e d w i t h slavery w e r e u n d e r i n t e n s e and c o n t i n u e d s c r u t i n y . P r i o r t o L i v i n g s t o n e ,

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

all t r a d e n o r t h o f P o r t u g u e s e t e r r i t o r y , w h a t i s n o w M o z a m b i q u e , and south o f British East A f r i c a w a s c o n t r o l l e d b y A r a b s . T h e m a j o r c o m m o d i t i e s w e r e i v o r y , b o t h w h i t e and b l a c k — t h e t e e t h o f e l e p h a n t s and the l i v e s o f p e o p l e . T h e motivation for Livingstone's e x p l o r a t i o n of the Interior was to bring t r a d e and c o m m e r c e and t o o p e n t h e area f o r w h i t e s . T h i s w a s his strategy f o r e n d i n g the East A f r i c a n slave t r a d e . I n t h e A r a b m a r k e t s o f Z a n z i b a r — t h e cesspool of wickedness, as it was c a l l e d — w h e r e cloves w e r e cultivated w i t h the b l o o d o f slaves, o r i n t h e m a r k e t s o f O m a n , M u s c a t , I r a q , o r any n u m b e r o f p l a c e s a l o n g the

Red

Sea and

Persian

Gulf,

there was no abolitionist

m o v e m e n t . T h e d e m a n d f o r slaves r e m a i n e d . I n the W e s t , slavery w a s n o l o n g e r a c c e p t a b l e . T o s t o p i t i n t h e East, t h e s u p p l y o f slaves had t o b e c u t . T h a t i s w h a t L i v i n g s t o n e set o u t t o d o . C l e a r l y , f o r h i m , i t w a s a m i s s i o n sanctioned b y G o d . T h e t r a d i t i o n o f s l a v e r y i n East A f r i c a g o e s b a c k t o t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , m u c h l o n g e r than the W e s t A f r i c a n slave t r a d e that f e d t h e cannibalistic plantations o f the N e w W o r l d . T h e East A f r i c a n slave t r a d e , f o r m u c h o f its e x i s t e n c e , w a s a m i n o r c o m p o n e n t o f coastal S w a h i l i c o m m e r c e w i t h A r a b i a and p o i n t s east. A l o n g w i t h slaves, the city-states o f t h e East A f r i c a n coast e x p o r t e d i v o r y f r o m the I n t e r i o r , g o l d f r o m t h e Z i m b a b w e c u l t u r e , and i r o n . T h e n u m b e r o f slaves e x p o r t e d w a s n o t l a r g e , b u t , o f c o u r s e , t h e y w e r e still slaves. I n t h e latter half o f t h e ninth c e n t u r y t h o s e w h o had b e e n s h i p p e d t o the s o d d e n land o f s o u t h e r n Iraq r e v o l t e d . S o , t o o , i n later y e a r s , d i d t h o s e i n the small b l a c k e n c l a v e s o f w e s t e r n India. T h i s e a r l y phase o f t h e East A f r i c a n slave t r a d e d i d n o t d e c i m a t e the t r i b e s . H o w e v e r , s o m e c e n t u r i e s later t h e d e m a n d f o r slaves escalated a l o n g w i t h the rise o f l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e spice and sugar p l a n t a t i o n s . I n c r e a s e d d e m a n d f o r slaves c o i n c i d e d w i t h v i c i o u s i f u n r e l a t e d tribal h o s t i l i t i e s , and the result w a s t r u l y devastating. S o i t w a s w h e n L i v i n g s t o n e f i r s t w e n t t o A f r i c a i n 1 8 4 0 . I n t h e e a r l y years his w i f e , M a r y , and his c h i l d r e n w e r e w i t h h i m . T h e v shared his A f r i c a n hardships. I t b e c a m e t o o m u c h . T h e c h i l d r e n r e t u r n e d p e r m a n e n t l y t o Eng l a n d , b u t L i v i n g s t o n e r e m a i n e d , set i n his r e s o l v e . A n d r e s o l v e d h e w a s . H i s d a u g h t e r s a w h i m o n l y o n c e i n h e r l i f e , o n o n e o f his t w o visits back t o E n g l a n d , and that w h e n she w a s f i v e years o l d . By

1861

L i v i n g s t o n e had v i e w e d t h e r o t t i n g c o r p s e s and h u m a n b o n e s

l i t t e r i n g the charnel h o u s e that w a s t h e l a k e s h o r e . N i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A f r i c a w a s a h e c a t o m b o f slaughter. I t n e e d e d h e l p . M r s . L i v i n g s t o n e , w i s h i n g t o b e

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

74 w i t h h e r husband i n A f r i c a , t o share i n his m i s s i o n , r e t u r n e d o n c e m o r e t o the I n t e r i o r t o j o i n the g o o d d o c t o r .

She w a s c l a i m e d b y f e v e r a l o n g the

Z a m b e z i b e f o r e she c o u l d catch u p w i t h h i m . T h a t w a s i n 1 8 6 2 . Also in Stanley,

1 8 6 2 , h a l f w a y a r o u n d the w o r l d , t h e W e l s h m a n H e n r y M o r t o n

long before

he

found

Livingstone

in

Africa,

found

himself by

a

c i r c u i t o u s r o u t e i n the A m e r i c a n C i v i l W a r . H e w a s c a p t u r e d a t the Battle o f Shiloh w h i l e f i g h t i n g f o r t h e

Confederacy with Company E,

Dixie

Grays,

Sixth Arkansas R e g i m e n t . T o e s c a p e p r i s o n , h e j o i n e d the U n i o n A r m y . H e w a s l u c k y i n that w a r : H e s u r v i v e d . D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e ' s e l d e s t s o n , R o b e r t , w h o w a s also i n the A m e r i c a n C i v i l W a r , w a s n o t s o l u c k y . H e d i e d a U n i o n s o l d i e r i n a C o n f e d e r a t e p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r c a m p n o t l o n g after his m o t h e r d i e d in A f r i c a . N e a r l y a d e c a d e l a t e r c a m e the w o r d s , " D o c t o r L i v i n g s t o n e , I p r e s u m e . " Stanley, the n e w s p a p e r r e p o r t e r , d i s c o v e r e d a destitute D r . Livingstone at Ujiji o n t h e shores o f L a k e T a n g a n y i k a . S t a n l e y ' s search f o r L i v i n g s t o n e w a s o n e o f t h e g r e a t m e d i a stunts o f all t i m e . H e had b e e n sent b y the New York Herald f o r t h e s t o r y . I t t o o k h i m w e l l o v e r a y e a r t o g e t i t , and then i t w a s g r e e t e d with skepticism in England. L i v i n g s t o n e w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y f a m o u s i n E u r o p e , and t h e r e w a s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i n his w e l l - b e i n g . C o n s e q u e n t l y initial r e p o r t s o f his d e a t h g e n e r a t e d q u i t e a stir. A s i t t u r n e d o u t , t h e y w e r e g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a t e d . H i s p o r t e r s , i t s e e m s , had had e n o u g h o f L i v i n g s t o n e ' s s e v e r e l i f e , s o t h e y d e s e r t e d , p r e s u m ably t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r h o m e s i n the C o m o r o Islands b e t w e e n M a d a g a s c a r and the A f r i c a n coast. W h e n t h e y r e a c h e d Z a n z i b a r after t r e k k i n g o u t f r o m the Interior, they w e r e forced to explain their return w i t h o u t Livingstone. T h e y d i d n o t w a n t t o g e t i n t o t r o u b l e . W h a t c o u l d t h e y say? T h e y said L i v i n g s t o n e w a s d e a d , k i l l e d i n a n attack o n t h e caravan. But t h e y w e r e w i d e l y d i s b e l i e v e d . S t a n l e y ' s w a s the f o u r t h o f e i g h t r e l i e f parties sent after t h e g r e a t m a n , b u t b e i n g o n l y after a s t o r y , i t w a s the o n e having the least c o n n e c t i o n w i t h L i v i n g s t o n e ' s w o r k . D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e r e f u s e d t o r e t u r n t o c i v i l i z a t i o n w i t h Stanley. H e d i e d in May

1873,

south o f L a k e B a n g w e u l u i n w h a t i s n o w Z a m b i a , w e s t o f

M a l a w i . His heart was buried in Africa. His b o d y was returned to L o n d o n , w h e r e it was e n t o m b e d in W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y ,

the c e n t r a l edifice o f the

Church of England. T h e t h o u g h t o f L i v i n g s t o n e ' s h e a r t b e i n g b u r i e d i n his b e l o v e d A f r i c a i s t o u c h i n g . H o w e v e r , i t d o e s n o t a p p e a r that i t w a s d o n e s o m u c h a t his r e q u e s t

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

as t h r o u g h n e c e s s i t y . C h u m a and Susi, his m o s t faithful n a t i v e assistants, had t o p r e p a r e the c o r p s e f o r t r a n s p o r t back t o Z a n z i b a r t o p r o v e his d e a t h a t t h e British C o n s u l a t e . T h e y r e m o v e d all t h e internal o r g a n s , i n c l u d i n g the h e a r t , and b u r i e d t h e m . T h e n t h e y d r i e d t h e e v i s c e r a t e d carcass f o r t w o w e e k s i n the t r o p i c a l sun s o that i t c o u l d b e t o l e r a t e d w h i l e b e i n g c a r r i e d t o t h e coast. At Z a n z i b a r t h e b o d y w a s p o s i t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as L i v i n g s t o n e ' s . It had a p o o r l y m e n d e d b r o k e n a r m . Y e a r s e a r l i e r L i v i n g s t o n e had b e e n a t t a c k e d and m a u l e d b y a l i o n . H i s a r m w a s s h a t t e r e d b y t h e beast and d i d n o t set p r o p e r l y . T h i s bad a r m p r o v i d e d a signature f o r his w o r l d l y r e m a i n s . A f t e r Livingstone's explorations of the Interior m o r e Europeans c a m e , disciples o f L i v i n g s t o n e , also Scots f o r the m o s t p a r t , and m o s t l y p l a n t e r s and t r a d e r s . T h e y w e r e s u p p l i e d b y and s o l d t h e i r g o o d s t o the A f r i c a n Lakes Company,

a Scottish

firm

established t o c a r r y o n c o m m e r c e i n the area

o p e n e d b y L i v i n g s t o n e . Its A f r i c a n h e a d q u a r t e r s w e r e n e a r B l a n t y r e , the f i r s t m a j o r t o w n o f the' r e g i o n , f o u n d e d b y the Established C h u r c h o f S c o t l a n d i n the Shire highlands o f the south. I t i s still the m a j o r c i t y o f M a l a w i . B l a n t y r e w a s n a m e d b y the f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o f D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e ' s f o l l o w e r s f o r the small v i l l a g e east o f G l a s g o w , a l o n g t h e R i v e r C l y d e , w h e r e L i v i n g s t o n e w a s b o r n . T h e m i s s i o n o f the s e t t l e r s r e m a i n e d t h e s a m e a s L i v i n g s t o n e ' s a t f i r s t , b u t the d e c a d e n c e o f s o m e o f the E u r o p e a n s i n s u b s e q u e n t d e c a d e s , the abuse o f the p e o p l e , the c h e a t i n g , the b e d d i n g o f n a t i v e w o m e n , w e r e u n l i k e l y t o attract the L o r d ' s s a n c t i o n , and c e r t a i n l y n o t L i v i n g s t o n e ' s .

OTHER

SUBJECTS

I had l e a r n e d a b o u t f r o m L i g h t w e l l p o p i n t o m y m i n d

a s the a i r p l a n e ' s t u r b i n e s d r o n e i n m y ears. " L i g h t w e l l , w a s slavery bad h e r e i n n o r t h e r n M a l a w i ? " I asked o n c e . "Oooh, "How

yes." so?"

" W e l l , t h e r e w a s a n A r a b i n this p l a c e . H i s n a m e w a s M l o z i . H i s s t o c k a d e w a s near K a r o n g a . " K a r o n g a i s a m a j o r c i t y i n far n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . W e g o t h e r e f o r supplies. F o r the n e x t half h o u r I r e f l e c t e d o n w h a t L i g h t w e l l had t o l d o f the a t r o c i t i e s o f slavery and the h o r r o r s inflicted b y the b a r b a r o u s half-caste M l o z i d u r i n g the last t w o d e c a d e s o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . S o m e slaves w e r e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h purchase f r o m t r e a c h e r o u s tribal l e a d e r s . M o s t w e r e c a p t u r e d i n e a r l y - m o r n i n g raids b y M l o z i ' s ruga-ruga, m e r c e n a r i e s . M a n y o f the m e n o f a hapless v i l l a g e

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

w o u l d b e k i l l e d a s t h e y e m e r g e d , s l e e p still i n t h e i r e y e s , f r o m t h e i r huts. T h o s e p o o r f e w w h o w e r e n o t k i l l e d and c o u l d n o t escape t o the b u s h — w o m e n , c h i l d r e n , b o y s , t h e r e m a i n i n g m e n — w e r e h e r d e d t o g e t h e r and t h e i r n u m b e r s f u r t h e r d i m i n i s h e d until o n l y t h o s e w h o m i g h t s u r v i v e the m a r c h t o the coast w e r e l e f t . T h e y w e r e s t r i p p e d . T h e goree, o r slave stick, a f o r k e d b r a n c h , w a s y o k e d a r o u n d t h e n e c k o f e a c h . T h e l o n g , p o l e l i k e ends o f t w o slave sticks w e r e t i e d t o g e t h e r s o that each slave w a s affixed t o a n o t h e r . A t night the l o n g e n d o f t h e slave stick w a s t i e d v e r t i c a l l y t o a t r e e , t h e f o r k e d e n d p i n n i n g the m i s e r a b l e captive to the ground by the neck. V i l l a g e r s r a i d e d f r o m the

n o r t h e n d o f the

lake

w e r e kept in

Mlozi's

s t o c k a d e until t h e i r n u m b e r s w e r e high e n o u g h t o a s s e m b l e a caravan o f death d e s t i n e d f o r the coast f i v e h u n d r e d m i l e s a w a y ( F i g u r e 1 8 ) . Each s l a v e , near s t a r v e d , w a s f o r c e d t o c a r r y a l o a d , p e r h a p s o f i v o r y , and t o step t o the w h i p . A n y o n e i n the coffle w h o b e c a m e sick o r i n f i r m o n the t r i p s i m p l y d i e d . I t is said that t h e c o n d e m n e d w e r e o f t e n d e c a p i t a t e d , as that w a s an efficient method

f o r r e l e a s i n g the goree.

S t a r v a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t the

long

m a r c h , w h i c h c o u l d last t h r e e t o f o u r m o n t h s . T h e ruga-ruga

w e r e p a i d t h e i r daily r a t i o n s ,

the opportunity to l o o t ,

a

m i n o r share o f the slave caravan p r o f i t s , and t h e sexual use o f p r i s o n e r s . I n 1905

a f o r m e r ruga-ruga

from

East A f r i c a d e s c r i b e d the

rewards:

"Plenty

f o o d , p l e n t y w o m e n ; v e r y l o v e l y . " T h e y had n o c o m p a s s i o n o r c o n c e r n f o r the c o m m o d i t y they w e r e transporting for profit. T h e r e was, they thought, an e n d l e s s s u p p l y . O n c e a t t h e coast m a n y o f t h e slaves w e r e s o l d t o w o r k t h e local plantat i o n s o r t h e l a r g e sugar estates o n the F r e n c h islands n o w c a l l e d M a u r i t i u s and R e u n i o n . Females w e r e evaluated for their potential in Turkish harems. M o s t o f the r e m a i n i n g m a l e s w e r e castrated because eunuchs w e r e o f h i g h e r m a r k e t v a l u e i n the c o u r t s o f t h e O r i e n t . M a n y d i d n o t s u r v i v e t h e o p e r a t i o n . W h e n the s o u t h w e s t m o n s o o n s b e g a n i n A p r i l , A r a b d h o w s c a m e t o f e r r y t h e slaves f r o m the s t o c k a d e s o f t h e A f r i c a n coast t o Z a n z i b a r . T h e passage w a s a n i n c r e d i b l e h o r r o r . Each d h o w w a s e n g o r g e d w i t h a n anguish o f slaves. T h e y w e r e l e d a b o a r d and m a d e t o lie o n the d e c k . N o r o o m — a t a l l — w a s a l l o w e d the d e h u m a n i z e d v i c t i m s . O n t o p o f this l a y e r w a s built a t e m p o r a r y d e c k . O n this a n o t h e r s t r a t u m o f slaves w a s d e p o s i t e d . T h i s c o n t i n u e d until t h e d h o w w a s fully l a d e n . T h e r e w a s a b s o l u t e l y n o r o o m f o r m o v e m e n t , and n o n e w a s a l l o w e d until the c a r g o w a s o f f - l o a d e d a t Z a n z i b a r . A t best t h e v o y a g e w o u l d take a full day and n i g h t . I t c o u l d g o t h r e e days

J O U R N A L S

F R O M

T H E

G R O U N D

77

FIGURE

18: A

coffle of slaves.

nineteenth-century Africa

Nothing more graphically portrays the anguish

than yoked

and

shackled people

driven from

the

of

Interior

to the voracious slave dhows at the coast.

o r m o r e . I f t h e w i n d s c a l m e d , t h e c a r g o s t a r v e d . I f a p p r o a c h e d b y a British e n f o r c e m e n t v e s s e l , the c a r g o m i g h t b e t h r o w n o v e r b o a r d . T h e sick w e r e d i s p a t c h e d , r a t h e r than pay c u s t o m o n t h e m a t Z a n z i b a r .

T h e stench w a s

u n b e a r a b l e , the m i s e r y w a s h o r r i f i c , t h e i n h u m a n i t y w a s u n f a t h o m a b l e . I n Z a n z i b a r the s u r v i v o r s w e r e f a t t e n e d i n p e n s l i k e c a t t l e , t h e n put o n the m a r k e t . T h e l u c k y s t a y e d i n Z a n z i b a r t o w o r k t h e c l o v e plantations o f the sultan. O t h e r s had t o m a k e e v e n l o n g e r and m o r e h o r r i d v o y a g e s than the o n e t h e y had c o m p l e t e d , t o T u r k e y o r C h i n a o r s o m e e v e n t o Brazil. H o w m a n y p e o p l e d i e d f r o m all this? W h o can say? H o w m a n y p e o p l e o u t o f all t h o s e a f f e c t e d , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e ruga-ruga r a i d s , l i v e d ? W h o can say? O n l y a small and sad p e r c e n t a g e , that is c e r t a i n .

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

7S ''LIGHTWELL,

WHAT

happened

to

Mlozi,

the

big

slaver

in

northern

Malawi? H o w was he s t o p p e d ? " " W e l l , h e b a t t l e d f o r s o m e t i m e , f o r a l o n g t i m e , w i t h the p e o p l e o f the A f r i c a n Lakes C o m p a n y , f o r e x a m p l e L . M o n t e i t h F o t h e r i n g h a m . T h e y had a t r a d i n g station i n K a r o n g a . T h e n h e w a s h a n g e d . " " W h e n was that?" " E i g h t e e n , let's see, eighteen ninety-five, I t h i n k . "

E N O U G H T H O U G H T O F t h e slave t r a d e f o r a w h i l e . But L i g h t w e l l ' s c o n v e r sation d i d n o t l e a v e m y m i n d . " E x c u s e m e , " said L i g h t w e l l ,

" d o y o u k n o w a b o u t Shaka the Z u l u ? "

" N o , " I said, " t e l l m e a b o u t h i m . " " W e l l , he was a Zulu.

I n fact, h e w a s the Z u l u l e a d e r .

He was very

fierce." "Very fierce?" "Oooh,

yes.

Very fierce."

Shaka w a s f i e r c e . H e b r o u g h t w a r t o s o u t h e r n A f r i c a a s i t had n e v e r b e e n . S o m e say h e w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t w o m i l l i o n d e a t h s , a s t a g g e r i n g n u m b e r u n d e r any c i r c u m s t a n c e s , all the m o r e a p p a l l i n g c o n s i d e r i n g the l o w p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y o f the t i m e . Shaka c o m m a n d e d a w e l l - d i s c i p l i n e d and m e r c i l e s s a r m y . O n e o f his strategies w a s t e r r o r , w a n t o n b r u t a l i t y , w h i c h h e inflicted o n his o w n p e o p l e and w h i c h his a r m y inflicted u p o n t h o s e h e c o n q u e r e d . I n 1 8 1 9 the N g o n i faction o f the Z u l u s w a s v a n q u i s h e d b y Shaka and d r i v e n o u t o f t h e i r h o m e l a n d o f N a t a l i n w h a t i s n o w South A f r i c a . T h e y r e t a i n e d t h e i r Z u l u w a y s , m u r d e r i n g , p i l l a g i n g , and p l u n d e r i n g a s t h e y w o r k e d t h e i r w a y n o r t h w a r d , t h e n south again t o t h e r e g i o n o f M a l a w i . L i k e the v i c t i m s o f Shaka, a pitifully small p e r c e n t a g e s u r v i v e d the slaughter o f the N g o n i . T r i b e s w h o s e h o m e l a n d s lay b e f o r e the i n v a d e r s w e r e s p l i n t e r e d . T h o s e w h o c o u l d , fled i n a d v a n c e o f the o n s l a u g h t . Y o u n g m e n o f c o n q u e r e d tribes w e r e c o n s c r i p t e d i n t o the N g o n i w a r r i o r a r m y . D e s i r a b l e y o u n g w o m e n w e r e taken as w i v e s . M e n not conscripted w e r e brained, b l u d g e o n e d , or speared. U n d e sirable w o m e n had t h e i r breasts l o p p e d off, t h e n w e r e left t o d i e . S i x t e e n years a f t e r Shaka d r o v e t h e m f r o m N a t a l , f i v e years b e f o r e L i v i n g stone c a m e to Africa, the N g o n i reached the Z a m b e z i on their w a y north. It w a s t h e day o f a solar e c l i p s e , 2 : 0 0 P.M.,

19 N o v e m b e r 1835. T w o events

o f i n t e r e s t f o l l o w e d . L e g e n d has i t that the c h i e f o f t h e N g o n i , Z w a n g e n d a b a ,

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

79 struck the w a t e r s o f the Z a m b e z i w i t h his spear, and like M o s e s a t t h e R e d Sea, the w a t e r s p a r t e d . T h e N g o n i w e r e a b l e t o c r o s s . T h e s e c o n d e v e n t w a s t h e p r e m a t u r e b i r t h o f a son t o o n e o f Z w a n g e n daba's w i v e s , o v e r c o m e w i t h the e x c i t e m e n t o f the d a y . T h e s o n ' s n a m e w a s M'Mbelwa. The

H e w a s d e s t i n e d t o b e c o m e the l e a d e r o f the N g o n i .

Ngoni,

w h o w e r e basically pastoralists,

eventually settled in the

less-fertile highlands o f w h a t w a s t o b e c o m e M a l a w i . T h e y b e g a n t o face f o o d shortages and i n d e e d e v e n f a m i n e . C o n s t a n t l y t h e y r a i d e d the T u m b u k a and e s p e c i a l l y the T o n g a , w h o l i v e d o n the f e r t i l e g r o u n d s near t h e l a k e , taking f o o d and slaves. I t w a s n o t until years later that the N g o n i , u n d e r M ' M b e l w a , relinquished their belligerent ways.

I n t h e m e a n t i m e t h e i r w a y s , plus the

actions o f the slavers, c r e a t e d t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s f o u n d b y L i v i n g s t o n e . " S o w h a t t r i b e lives h e r e a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i n o w ? " I a s k e d . " W e are T u m b u k a , "

Lightwell replied.

" A n d h o w d i d the T u m b u k a c o m e t o b e h e r e ? " " W e c a m e f r o m the n o r t h . W e fled b e f o r e the N g o n i i n v a s i o n . " L i g h t w e l l l o o k e d a r o u n d a t the p i c t u r e s q u e L u w o n y a H i l l s .

" T h e Tumbuka, Henga,

N k a m a n g a , and o t h e r t r i b e s e s c a p e d t o t h e d e s o l a t e r e g i o n s . " I asked h o w the T u m b u k a d i f f e r e d f r o m the N g o n i . " W e are s o different.

W e have our l a n g u a g e . "

" W e l l , d o n ' t the N g o n i have a l a n g u a g e ? " " O h , n o . T h e y a d o p t e d the languages o f t h e t r i b e s t h e y c o n q u e r e d . T h e T u m b u k a k e p t t h e i r t o n g u e ; w e speak T u m b u k a . " " I s that the o n l y d i f f e r e n c e ? " " N o , t h e r e are s o m a n y . But w e used t o b e m o r e d i f f e r e n t . " "How

so?"

" W e l l , N g o n i are p a t r i l i n e a l , b y w h i c h I m e a n i f a m a n g e t s m a r r i e d , his w i f e w i l l c o m e t o l i v e i n his h o u s e . " " I s n ' t that the w a y y o u d o i t ? " " N o w i t is, but i n t h e past w e w e r e m a t r i l i n e a l . I n t h e past t h e s o n - i n - l a w w a s taken i n t o the h o m e o f the d a u g h t e r . O u r c u l t u r e has c h a n g e d . I t has changed in so many ways w i t h the m o d e r n t i m e s . " A little later we b e g a n a n e w subject. " L i g h t w e l l , w h y d o y o u say L i v i n g s t o n e b r o u g h t e d u c a t i o n ? " " H e f o u n d e d the m i s s i o n s , and the missions a l w a y s t e a c h . " L i g h t w e l l w a s c e r t a i n l y r i g h t a b o u t that. E d u c a t i n g the natives w a s a l w a y s a m a j o r part of L i v i n g s t o n e ' s p l a n , and it w a s p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e by his f o l l o w e r s

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

80 a s w e l l . T o d a y M a l a w i has a d e c e n t e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m , r e a c h i n g e v e r y o n e i n the c o u n t r y . T h i s l e g a c y p r o d u c e s p e o p l e like L i g h t w e l l , w h o are affected b y t h e b r o a d t r a d i t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n s t a r t e d s o l o n g a g o i n this far-off part o f the w o r l d . P u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n M a l a w i r e q u i r e s a n o m i n a l f e e e v e n t h o u g h the p e o p l e a r e v e r y p o o r . P a r e n t s , b y r e m i t t i n g f e e s , are t h o u g h t t o take a g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s p r o g r e s s ; t h e y w a n t t o b e sure t h e y are g e t t i n g t h e i r money's worth. T h e established e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m i n M a l a w i traces its r o o t s t h r o u g h a r e m a r k a b l e p e d i g r e e , e v e n after L i v i n g s t o n e . I n 1 8 7 5 , t w o years after D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e d i e d , L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n , f o u n d e d b y R o b e r t L a w s o f the F r e e C h u r c h o f S c o t l a n d , w a s b e g u n a t the south e n d o f t h e lake ( F i g u r e 1 9 ) . I t w a s a beautiful s p o t , b u t u n h e a l t h y . A f t e r the d e a t h o f f i v e missionaries w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s , L a w s m o v e d t h e m i s s i o n t o a h e a l t h i e r s p o t , B a n d a w e , o n the w e s t side o f the l a k e . B a n d a w e w a s near N g o n i l a n d ,

and i t w a s the N g o n i u n d e r M ' M b e l w a

(Figure 2 0 ) w h o first c a m e into contact w i t h Laws of Livingstonia Mission. L a w s f o l l o w e d the l o n g - s t a n d i n g m i s s i o n a r y p o l i c y o f n o t taking p a r t i n tribal m a t t e r s , e v e n t o t h e e x t e n t o f r e m a i n i n g n e u t r a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o N g o n i raiding activities.

FIGURE Captain

19:

T h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e n o t r a i d e d , p r o b a b l y because t h e y w e r e

The original Livingstonia Mission

Elton

in

Interior shared his

1877).

Many of those

antislavery passion.

and the ILALA

(based on

a sketch by

who followed David Livingstone

into

the

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

81 armed.

Eventually

L a w s w o n the

confidence of M ' M b e l w a .

r e s p e c t o f all t h e

local

tribes

A long friendly relationship was begun.

and

the

Laws is

q u o t e d a s saying o f the chief, " G o d s e e m s t o have c a l l e d h i m and used h i m f o r the special p u r p o s e o f a d m i t t i n g t h e G o s p e l t o his p e o p l e . " T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s n o t a l w a y s s m o o t h , h o w e v e r . T h e r e i s t h e tale o f M ' M b e l w a ' s y o u n g son visiting L a w s a t his c a m p . M a t r o n l y M r s . L a w s p a t t e d h i m o n the head and s p o k e k i n d l y t o h i m . T h e g e s t u r e w a s i n t e r p r e t e d b y s o m e o f the t r i b e a s a h e x , " s o h i g h and n o h i g h e r , " b e c a u s e s o o n a f t e r w a r d M ' M b e l w a ' s son d i e d . Passions ran high a m o n g the p e o p l e , b u t M ' M b e l w a refused

to

turn

on

Laws.

He

calmed

the

bloodthirsty

warriors.

Under

M ' M b e l w a ' s l e a d e r s h i p , s i x t e e n years after his f i r s t a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h L a w s , the N g o n i had g i v e n u p t h e p e r p e t r a t i o n o f g e n o c i d e o n t h e i r tribal n e i g h b o r s . T h e y w e r e a changed p e o p l e . L a w s spent f i v e d e c a d e s i n M a l a w i r u n n i n g the L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n . I n 1894 he m o v e d it f r o m

B a n d a w e t o its c u r r e n t h o m e i n the n o r t h w e s t

highlands o v e r l o o k i n g the l a k e . T h e r e i t has faced d a n g e r a s w e l l . D u r i n g t h e freedom m o v e m e n t in

1 9 5 9 , a p o l i t i c a l State o f E m e r g e n c y w a s d e c l a r e d

because o f w i d e s p r e a d unrest w h e n Banda, l a t e r t o b e c o m e p r e s i d e n t , w a s

FIGURE 20: finally

The Ngoni leader M'Mbelwa.

reigned over

the lake

and

Through his vision and leadership peace

its surroundings.

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

82 a r r e s t e d and l e d a w a y t o g a o l .

T h e same

British a u t h o r i t i e s w h o a r r e s t e d

Banda w e r e c o n c e r n e d o v e r t h e safety o f w h i t e s a t L i v i n g s t o n i a . T h e head o f the m i s s i o n w a s asked b y a i r - d r o p p e d m e s s a g e i f h e w i s h e d t o b e e v a c u a t e d . T h e r e p l y was spelled out in w h i t e w a s h e d stones in a field n e x t to Laws's old stone house:

"Ephesians 2 : 1 4 . "

Nothing more,

simply reference

t o that

passage f r o m P a u l ' s L e t t e r . I t r e a d s , " F o r h e i s o u r p e a c e , w h o has m a d e u s b o t h o n e , and has b r o k e n d o w n t h e d i v i d i n g w a l l o f h o s t i l i t y . " T h e m i s s i o n aries w a n t e d n o r e l i e f ; t h e y c a m e t o n o h a r m . L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n , t h r o u g h its s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , still turns o u t artisans, and t e a c h e r s , and b u s i n e s s m e n , and p r e a c h e r s , and l e a d e r s . In fact P r e s i d e n t H a s t i n g s K a m u z u Banda i s n a m e d f o r o n e o f its f o r m e r m i s s i o n a r i e s .

The

m o t t o o f t h e s c h o o l is, I w i l l t r y . T h e s t o r y o f L i v i n g s t o n i a s t u d e n t L e g s o n K a y i r a i s p a r t i c u l a r l y inspiring. He w a s a T u m b u k a f r o m near K a r o n g a .

T h e name

Legson was made up

b e c a u s e i t w a s t h o u g h t t o s o u n d British.

Having c o m p l e t e d Livingstonia in

1 9 5 8 , L e g s o n d e c i d e d t o g o t o c o l l e g e — i n t h e U n i t e d States. F i r e d b y the L i v i n g s t o n i a s c h o o l m o t t o , L e g s o n w a l k e d 2 , 5 0 0 m i l e s across A f r i c a , w i t h n o m o n e y , f e w b e l o n g i n g s , and n o s h o e s . I n U g a n d a h e w r o t e t o Skagit V a l l e y C o l l e g e i n W a s h i n g t o n . H e c a m e across the n a m e a t the U . S . I n f o r m a t i o n Service library. T h e y responded w i t h a promise of help. Legson walked on. A t K h a r t o u m a n A m e r i c a n c o n s u l a r o f f i c e r b e f r i e n d e d h i m and w r o t e t o the s c h o o l o n his behalf. T h e s c h o o l raised m o n e y f o r his s t u d i e s , p r o v i d e d f o r his a i r f a r e , and f o u n d a f a m i l y f o r h i m t o l i v e w i t h — a w h i t e f a m i l y that already had s e v e n c h i l d r e n , but w e l c o m e d this A f r i c a n y o u n g m a n . Embassy p e r s o n n e l g a v e h i m a suit and s o m e s h o e s . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 6 0 L e g s o n a r r i v e d i n America.

H e g o t his e d u c a t i o n , f i r s t a t Skagit,

t h e n a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f

W a s h i n g t o n . He w r o t e a b o o k a b o u t his t r a v e l s e n t i t l e d / Will Try. H i s s t o r y of p e r s e v e r a n c e is r e p e a t e d in a high s c h o o l h i s t o r y t e x t , and Civilization,

c u r r e n t l y in

World History, Patterns

use in T e x a s .

T o r e a c h L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n , o n e m u s t m a k e a n e f f o r t , e v e n t o d a y , but i t is c e r t a i n l y w o r t h a visit. T h e r e is a m a g n i f i c e n t stained-glass w i n d o w , a n o m a lous i n the h e a r t o f A f r i c a . I t i s a r o m a n t i c p o r t r a y a l o f L i v i n g s t o n e . B e h i n d h i m stand Susi and C h u m a , his assistants, b e s t k n o w n f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g his b o d y t o Z a n z i b a r . H i s hand i s o u t s t r e t c h e d t o a g r o u p o f n a t i v e s , t w o m e n and a w o m a n . T h e w o m a n has a b a b y o n h e r b a c k , snugly n e s t l e d i n a c l o t h t i e d o v e r h e r s h o u l d e r i n t y p i c a l A f r i c a n fashion. L a k e M a l a w i i s i n t h e d i s t a n c e .

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND 83

' ' L E T ' S SEE I F I h a v e this straight, L i g h t w e l l . T h e N g o n i i n v a d e d and w e r e raiding o t h e r t r i b e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e M l o z i w a s taking slaves a b i t f a r t h e r t o the north around K a r o n g a ? " " I t was very b a d . " " T h e n L a w s and t h e L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n w o r k e d w i t h the N g o n i l e a d e r M ' M b e l w a t o pacify and e d u c a t e the t r i b e s ? " " T h a t is r i g h t . " " A n d the A f r i c a n L a k e s C o m p a n y p e o p l e s t a r t e d f i g h t i n g w i t h M l o z i and finally hanged him at about the same t i m e ? " " Y e s . A n d that i s also a b o u t t h e t i m e w h e n N y a s a l a n d w a s p r o c l a i m e d a p r o t e c t o r a t e b y the B r i t i s h . " " A n d L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n i s still u p t h e r e o n the hill t o the south o f u s ? " "Yes." " T h a n k s , L i g h t w e l l . Y o u h a v e taught m e a l o t a b o u t y o u r c o u n t r y . " " Y o u are w e l c o m e . "

T H A T I S T H E last I r e m e m b e r t h i n k i n g a b o u t o n the airplane b e f o r e I fell i n t o an a p p r e h e n s i v e s l e e p .

9

July,

Monday.

O v e r the L i m p o p o , o v e r t h e Z a m b e z i , t o K a m u z u I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t o n the r o l l i n g L i l o n g w e P l a i n , e t c h e d i n r e d dust. W e h a v e a r r i v e d i n M a l a w i . I t i s hazy w i t h the d r y season.

All our baggage arrived,

c h e c k e d straight

t h r o u g h f r o m Dallas w i t h t h r e e transfers. N o p r o b l e m w i t h c u s t o m s . Yusuf, that is, D r . Y u s u f J u w a y e y i , P r i n c i p a l C o n s e r v a t o r o f A n t i q u i t i e s , and Fidelis M o r o c c o , D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s t e c h n i c i a n , m e t u s a t the a i r p o r t . O n t h e twenty-minute drive to t o w n I was brought up-to-date.

E v e r y t h i n g f o r the

f i e l d season w a s o r g a n i z e d . " L i k e c h e e s e o n b r e a d , " K e n t w o u l d say. Y u s u f had s e c u r e d o n e thousand p o u n d s o f d e n t a l p l a s t e r f o r u s f r o m G o v e r n m e n t M e d i c a l S t o r e s . O f c o u r s e o u r r e s e a r c h c l e a r a n c e had n o t c o m e t h r o u g h y e t , but i t w a s a t the a p p r o p r i a t e g o v e r n m e n t a l o f f i c e , i n g o o d o r d e r , a w a i t i n g a signature. T h e f o r m a l i t i e s a r e p r o c e e d i n g s m o o t h l y and e f f i c i e n t l y . T h e r e w i l l b e n o unnecessary d e l a y . W e w i l l s o o n h e a d o u t t o the f i e l d . But f i r s t t h e r e are a f e w things t o d o i n t o w n . W e can l o o k a r o u n d t h e c i t y w h i l e g i v i n g o u r b i o l o g i c a l c l o c k s a c h a n c e t o r e s e t and r e c o v e r f r o m j e t lag. L i l o n g w e , w i t h its specially built capital area, is a c i t y w i t h t h e v a c u o u s

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

84 ambience of a n e w house not quite ready for occupancy. T h e n e w e r sectors, w i t h d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n s , g o v e r n m e n t b u i l d i n g s , and the c e n t r a l s h o p p i n g m a l l , have w i d e streets l i n e d w i t h v i v i d r e d poinsettias g r o w n t o bush size i n the t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e . T h e r e a r e r o w s o f y e l l o w - g r e e n cassia t r e e s . L a w n s are m a n i c u r e d . T r a f f i c is l i g h t , like a Sunday no m a t t e r w h a t day it is. Streets b e a r such n a m e s a s A f r i c a n U n i t y A v e n u e , K a m u z u P r o c e s s i o n D r i v e , and Presidential W a y .

T h e f l o w o f v e h i c l e s i s c o n t r o l l e d a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s b y traffic

c i r c l e s , e x c e p t a t o n e T - j u n c t i o n , w h e r e t h e Japanese r e c e n t l y e r e c t e d a traffic signal f o l l o w i n g the d e a t h of o n e of t h e i r nationals in a car a c c i d e n t at that spot. Everywhere red,

green,

and b l a c k banners p r o c l a i m t h e t w e n t y - s i x t h

a n n i v e r s a r y o f i n d e p e n d e n c e , LONG LIVE K A M U Z U , t h e y shout. P o r t a l s w i t h the national c o l o r s and e m b l e m s , o v e r s e e n b y s t y l i z e d r e n d e r i n g s o f p a i n t e d b u f f a l o , a n t e l o p e , and l i o n , g r a c e the r o a d s . T h e tambala and kwacha,

the

r o o s t e r a t d a w n , d e c o r a t e the sides o f b u i l d i n g s . T h e o l d t o w n i s b u s t l i n g , full o f s h o p s , and n o i s e and the c e n t r a l m a r k e t . T h e air i s suffused w i t h d i e s e l f u m e s and b l a c k s m o k e b e l c h e d f r o m lurching buses and stalled l o r r i e s . I n t h e m a r k e t , d i v i d e d i n t o sections d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m e r c h a n d i s e , t h e din o f t h e sheet m e t a l w o r k e r s b a n g i n g and t a p p i n g o u t b u c k e t after b u c k e t , w a t e r i n g can after w a t e r i n g c a n , r e v e r b e r a t e s m e r c i lessly.

P i l e s and p i l e s o f b r o w n s m o k e d f i s h lie n e x t t o r o w s and r o w s o f

s i l v e r y d r i e d f i s h . T h e r e are heaps o f g l i s t e n i n g m o i s t fresh f i s h t o o . T h i s part of t h e m a r k e t has a d i s t i n c t i v e o d o r , b u t it is n o t b a d . C o l o r f u l c l o t h , and b a s k e t r y , h a r d w a r e , used nuts and b o l t s , a x e s , s a l v a g e d g e a r s and b e a r i n g s , fruits and v e g e t a b l e s — o r a n g e s , c a b b a g e s , o n i o n s , bananas, a f e w p a w p a w s and c a r r o t s — a n d the offal p i l e i n the c o r n e r , all h a v e t e r r i t o r i e s staked o u t i n the bazaar. Snack p e d d l e r s h a w k b o i l e d e g g s , p e a n u t s , c h i c k e n f e e t , and o t h e r such t i d b i t s . Y u s u f d r o p p e d me at C o u n t r y C a r H i r e (START W I T H us A N D SEE THE COUNTRY). I always rent vehicles there. T h e p r o p r i e t o r is an Asian. His family c a m e t o M a l a w i f r o m India i n the 1890s and has p r o s p e r e d e v e r since. H e appears to be e x c e e d i n g l y shifty, b u t he has a strange likability if y o u can stand t o b e a r o u n d h i m l o n g e n o u g h t o l e t i t s h o w t h r o u g h . H e n e v e r has a p o s i t i v e w o r d t o say a b o u t a n y t h i n g . T h e w o r l d i s p e r s i s t e n t l y o n the v e r g e o f c o l l a p s e . T h a t is, e x c e p t f o r o n e t h i n g . A s k h i m h o w business i s and h e w i l l invariably r e p l y that it is g o o d . H a v i n g paid his p r i c e s to r e n t his v e h i c l e s , I am sure it is. H e s u p p l i e d m e a L a n d R o v e r , assuring m e i t w a s i n g o o d w o r k i n g o r d e r .

J O U R N A L S

F R O M

T H E

G R O U N D

W e shall s e e .

Last y e a r w e t r i e d t h r e e b e f o r e w e s w i t c h e d t o a n Isuzu that

could get us out of t o w n . A t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s D a l e and K e n t i n v e n t o r i e d t h e p r o j e c t f i e l d supplies left o v e r f r o m last y e a r .

Everything was there.

No pilferage.

T e n t s and mattresses w e r e b e i n g s u p p l i e d t o the p r o j e c t b y the d e p a r t m e n t . M o s t w e r e t h e r e , b u t f o r o t h e r s w e had t o send t o B l a n t y r e . F i d e l i s , a l o n g w i t h James,

the

driver,

is to go

north to

set u p

camp

tomorrow.

The

d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r has a n a n g l e - i r o n l u g g a g e rack that e x t e n d s f r o m the back o f the c a b , f o r w a r d o v e r the h o o d , t o the f r o n t b u m p e r s , f r o m w h i c h i t i s s u p p o r t e d b y t w o l o n g a r m s . I t p r o v i d e s f o r the o v e r l o a d i n g o f the v e h i c l e s o that i t i s e x c e s s i v e l y t o p - h e a v y . W e w i l l m e e t F i d e l i s and James a t c a m p , after t h e y h a v e set i t u p . O u r t h i r d m e m b e r f r o m t h e d e p a r t m e n t , E l i z a b e t h G o m a n i , w i l l g o n o r t h o n the bus. Today at noon we m e t with a representative of Caltex O i l w h o presented the p r o j e c t w i t h a c h e c k f o r t e n thousand kwacha ( a b o u t t h r e e g r a n d ) t o offset o u r v e h i c l e e x p e n s e s . H e a l e r t e d the p r e s s . T h e y r e p o r t e d i t i n the n e w s p a p e r and o n R a d i o M a l a w i , thus i n f o r m i n g the v i l l a g e r s o f r e m o t e M w a k a s y u n g u t i o f o u r arrival i n the c o u n t r y l o n g b e f o r e w e w i l l g e t t o the f i e l d . T h e y w i l l b e e x p e c t i n g us. W e s e e m t o b e h a p p i l y r e m e m b e r e d b y the staff a t the L i l o n g w e H o t e l . S m i l y , the g r i n n i n g l i t t l e p o r t e r , i s still t h e r e and still s m i l i n g . Last y e a r K e n t w r o t e a letter for him, granting permission to r u m m a g e through our tattered discards. T h e p o o r g u y had b e e n r e p r i m a n d e d b y his boss f o r r e m o v i n g s o m e t o s s e d - o u t g o o d s f r o m t h e trash. H e t h o u g h t S m i l y had p i l f e r e d t h e m , b u t h e had n o t . I t i s n i c e t o b e back i n the W a r m H e a r t o f A f r i c a . T o m o r r o w i t w i l l b e n i c e t o head t o t h e f i e l d .

13

July,

Friday.

Ngara camp.

L u c k y F r i d a y the t h i r t e e n t h .

T h e d r i v e u p f r o m L i l o n g w e w a s pleasant. T h e w e a t h e r w a s p e r f e c t , the skies w e r e b l u e . National

Park on

W e b r o k e the t r i p i n t o t w o l e g s . the f i r s t day and

advantage o f its l o c a t i o n f o r r e s t .

s p e n t the

W e d r o v e t o Kasungu

n i g h t a t the

lodge,

taking

It g a v e us a chance to w a t c h elephant,

a n t e l o p e , and h i p p o , and t o see s o m e c o u n t r y s i d e . T h e rest o f o u r stay i n M a l a w i w i l l b e f i l l e d w i t h digging b o n e s , not sightseeing.

We w e n t for an

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D

86 a f t e r n o o n g a m e d r i v e and g o t m i r e d i n sticky m u d just a s the sun w a s g o i n g down.

I t t o o k t w o h o u r s i n the g r e a s y b l a c k o o z e t o e x t r i c a t e o u r s e l v e s .

L u c k i l y w e had flashlights and s o m e t o o l s w i t h us. W e also had a n a r m e d g a m e r a n g e r . H e , a t least, f e l t s e c u r e f r o m buffalo and o t h e r w i l d beasts w i t h his a n c i e n t r i f l e . I a m n o t sure that the rest o f u s w e r e s o c o m f o r t e d . T h e r o a d f r o m K a s u n g u t o M z u z u , w h i c h w e take t o g e t u p t o the n o r t h e r n e n d o f t h e c o u n t r y , passes t h r o u g h t h e plains and o n t o the spectacular forests o f the V i p h y a P l a t e a u .

Peasant f a r m e r s s o l d s w e e t p o t a t o e s a l o n g the r o a d .

B o y s and g i r l s h e l d o u t sticks o f M a l a w i sausages, d r i e d m i c e , f o r sale a s lunch t o t r a v e l e r s . T h e m i c e are caught i n t h e f i e l d s b y t h e c h i l d r e n . T h e n they are b o i l e d w i t h o u t m u c h f u r t h e r a d o . N o s k i n n i n g , n o r e m o v i n g the heads. A f t e r b o i l i n g , t h e i r n i c e b u t n u b b l y l i t t l e b o d i e s are d r i e d and salted. H a l f a d o z e n o r s o o f t h e stiff s u n - d r i e d carcasses a r e p l a c e d i n a p i e c e o f split b a m b o o f o r easy h a n d l i n g . T h e n t h e y a r e r e a d y f o r sale ( F i g u r e 2 1 ) . A n d f o r e a t i n g — h a i r , b o n e s , t e e t h , t o e n a i l s , and t a i l s — e v e r y t h i n g .

FIGURE 21:

Malawi sausages—boiled,

this is not your idea of lunch, culture.

salted,

and dried mice—-Jor sale.

Even

the child's smile is a disarming introduction

if

to the

J O U R N A L S

F R O M

T H E

G R O U N D

87 I have had s o m e d e a l i n g s w i t h these sausages. I am a l w a y s on t h e l o o k o u t f o r c o m p a r a t i v e skeletal m a t e r i a l o f m o d e r n s p e c i e s o f animals t o use i n m y studies o f fossils. W h a t a g o l d e n o p p o r t u n i t y t h e s e M a l a w i sausages p r e s e n t e d f o r m a k i n g a c o l l e c t i o n o f A f r i c a n m o u s e s k e l e t o n s that c o u l d b e used i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m y fossil-rat i n t e r e s t s .

Last y e a r I b o u g h t e v e r y stick o f

M a l a w i sausages that I c o u l d g e t m y hands o n . T h e c h i l d r e n m u s t h a v e t h o u g h t I w a s r a v e n o u s . I t o o k all m y s p e c i m e n s , f o r t h e y had n o w b e c o m e scientific, back t o the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s i n L i l o n g w e . I left t h e m i n t h e office t o b e s h i p p e d t o m e i n Dallas a l o n g w i t h s o m e o f the s e a s o n ' s i m p o r t a n t fossils. T h e y had n o t b e e n i n L i l o n g w e t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s b e f o r e the staff, t h i n k i n g I had b r o u g h t t h e m a t r e a t , ate m y e n t i r e s a m p l e o f A f r i c a n r o d e n t s ! T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l dishes b e s i d e s M a l a w i sausages that d o n o t s e e m t o b e particularly w e l l suited f o r the

W e s t e r n palate.

F o r instance,

The Malawi

Cookbook has an e n t i r e c h a p t e r on insects. F r o m it y o u l e a r n that b e e l a r v a e should be f r i e d w i t h a little salt and s e r v e d as a relish or a p p e t i z e r . L a r g e g r e e n c r i c k e t s that s w a r m a t s t r e e t l i g h t s should h a v e t h e i r w i n g s and the h o r n e d parts o f t h e i r legs r e m o v e d . dried,

and

panfried,

just

T h e n t h e y should b e b o i l e d f o r f i v e m i n u t e s ,

like grasshoppers

and

red

locusts.

R e c i p e s are

i n c l u d e d f o r t e r m i t e s , b l a c k flying ants, sand c r i c k e t s , cicadas, t h e r e g u l a r shield b u g , and t h e l a r g e g r e e n shield b u g . G r e e n c a t e r p i l l a r s are b e t t e r w i t h the s t o m a c h and intestine r e m o v e d . T h e n t h e y should b e b o i l e d and f r i e d . F o r variation add o n e c h o p p e d t o m a t o , a c h o p p e d o n i o n , and s o m e p e a n u t flour. A f t e r d r y i n g , c a t e r p i l l a r s can b e s t o r e d f o r t h r e e m o n t h s . I am p e r h a p s m o s t a m u s e d by t h e t i n y lakefly, Chaobora edulis, L i v i n g s t o n e ' s kungu, a s a n i n g r e d i e n t o f the M a l a w i k i t c h e n . E v e r y m o n t h a t t h e n e w m o o n these g n a t - s i z e d flies arise i n c l o u d s , b i l l i o n s o f t h e m , f r o m t h e l a k e . T h e i r mists can b e s e e n f r o m far i n the d i s t a n c e , e v e n f r o m t h e t o p s o f the high scarps o v e r l o o k i n g the lake ( s e e F i g u r e

11

in Chapter 2 ) . W h e n they drift

ashore at a v i l l a g e , m o i s t e n e d w i n n o w i n g baskets, usually used f o r separating chaff f r o m g r a i n , are w a v e d t h r o u g h t h e s w a r m . T h e t i n y m i d g e s stick t o the w e t basket. T h e n t h e y are s c r a p e d off and m o l d e d i n t o cakes b y p r e s s i n g t h e m i n t o a mass. T h e cakes are left to d r y in t h e sun. T o p r e p a r e , b r e a k the lakefly cake i n t o p i e c e s and b o i l i n salted w a t e r until soft. A d d a c h o p p e d t o m a t o , o n i o n , c r u s h e d p e a n u t s , and a l i t t l e o i l . C o o k g e n t l y and s e r v e w i t h r i c e . L i v i n g s t o n e said i t " t a s t e d n o t u n l i k e c a v i a r e , o r salted l o c u s t s . " S o u n d d e l i c i o u s ? N o , I h a v e n e v e r e a t e n M a l a w i sausage o r tasted any o f t h e r e c i p e s just related.

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

88 T h e d r i v e f r o m K a s u n g u P a r k t o N g a r a c a m p , past the c h i l d r e n selling M a l a w i sausages,

was uneventful

e x c e p t for the

radiator boiling dry.

We

a r r i v e d a t N g a r a c a m p t w o days a g o t o f i n d n o o n e . Fidelis and James had b e g u n t o set u p c a m p , b u t had l e f t i t unfinished. W h e r e w e r e they? I finally tracked Fidelis d o w n at n o o n yesterday in K a r o n g a . T h e y w e r e having vehicle t r o u b l e and had g o n e t o t o w n f o r r e p a i r s . T h e n t h e y c o u l d n o t g e t back t o c a m p . Stuck i n t o w n , F i d e l i s w a s a s l e e p a t t h e Enikani R e s t H o u s e w h e r e I f o u n d h i m . I t o o k h i m b a c k t o c a m p w i t h m e , l e a v i n g James t o l o o k after the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r . V e h i c l e p r o b l e m s are t o b e e x p e c t e d . N o w , a day l a t e r , t h e c a m p has t a k e n shape. It is at t h e v i l l a g e of N g a r a , w h e r e t h e M - l h i g h w a y runs c l o s e t o t h e l a k e . T h e v i l l a g e i t s e l f i s p r o b a b l y l a r g e r , b u t o t h e r w i s e n o t m u c h c h a n g e d since e a r l i e r days w h e n M i g e o d and P a r r i n g t o n v i s i t e d the S c o t s m a n M a x w e l l i n 1 9 3 0 . A sandy d i r t t r a c k f r o m the tarmac,

paralleling the

lakeshore,

leads

down

to

African

Mr.

Maxwell's

c o t t o n g i n n e r y . M r . M a x w e l l i s t h e official v i l l a g e h e a d m a n , a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n in the social and p o l i t i c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . Because his e l d e r b r o t h e r is also a v i l l a g e h e a d m a n , at N y u n g w e , this M a x w e l l has t a k e n on the official t i t l e o f V i l l a g e H e a d m a n M a k o n g a n y a . I t m e a n s " b i g m a n , " and t h e r e c o u l d n o t be a m o r e accurate description of h i m .

O n t h e w e s t side o f the dirt track,

b e t w e e n i t and t h e t a r m a c , a r e M a x w e l l ' s f i v e b r i c k h o u s e s , s t u c c o e d w i t h c o n c r e t e and c r o w n e d w i t h c o r r u g a t e d i r o n r o o f s . H e parks his o l d b r o w n M e r c e d e s o f f the t r a c k n e x t t o the f i r s t o n e . H i s houses are s u r r o u n d e d b y c h i c k e n c o o p s , c h i l d r e n , and his w i v e s ' o p e n c o o k i n g f i r e s . T h e area i s literally s w a r m i n g w i t h M a x w e l l o f f s p r i n g o f all a g e s . A t last c o u n t h e had t h i r t y - t w o c h i l d r e n f r o m six w i v e s , b u t that w a s a f e w years a g o . S o m e o f M a x w e l l ' s sons h a v e w o r k e d f o r m e . H e w i l l n o t a l l o w t h e m t o learn skills; e v e n the art o f truck driving is prohibited. He does n o t wish t h e m to be educated. He is very p r o t e c t i v e o f his d a u g h t e r s , w h o , w i t h t h e i r g r a y e y e s , are striking i n the extreme. I h a v e just l o o k e d o v e r t h e c a m p . I t i s g o o d . I t e x t e n d s a l o n g 165 f e e t o f p r i m e b e a c h f r o n t p r o p e r t y , across t h e track f r o m M r . M a x w e l l ' s houses. T h e b e a c h is sand w i t h a strand of c o b b l e s . T h e y g r i n d in t h e surf, a d d i n g t h e i r p e r c u s s i o n t o the r h y t h m o f the w a v e s , p r o v i d i n g a n a u d i b l e b a c k g r o u n d t o all w e d o a t this p l a c e . A n d b e c a u s e this i s o u r h o m e i n M a l a w i , w e w i l l d o a l o t a t this p l a c e . T h i s i s w h e r e w e w i l l r e t u r n after t h e d a y ' s w o r k , w h e r e w e w i l l e a t , and w h e r e w e w i l l r e s t . I w a n t i t t o b e pleasant and c o m f o r t a b l e . T h e c a m p sits o n a flat, dusty t e r r a c e o f sandy b l a c k soil f i f t e e n f e e t a b o v e

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

the l a k e . A rank of s p i n d l y y o u n g b l u e g u m s , as Eucalyptus t r e e s a r e c a l l e d , variable i n h e i g h t but n o n e m o r e than a f e w f e e t h i g h , lines the t e r r a c e e d g e a l o n g the c e n t r a l part o f c a m p . T h e n o r t h e n d i s b o u n d e d b y a c l u m p o f l o w - g r o w i n g p a l m s w i t h f a n - s h a p e d , p a l m e t t o l i k e f r o n d s . T h e r e i s also a n Acacia t r e e . N o r t h of that a f e w h u n d r e d yards is an a b a n d o n e d , c r u m b l i n g church b u i l d i n g and the c o t t o n g i n n e r y built b y the b i g m a n ' s father. D u r i n g t h e 1959 c i v i l disturbances t h e M a x w e l l h o m e a t N y u n g w e w a s r a z e d and the g i n n e r y c a m e u n d e r attack. T h e M a x w e l l b o y s w e r e a r m e d and sent t o the r o o f . T h e y w e r e t o l d t o s h o o t t o kill i f t h e y h e a r d t w o shots f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r ' s pistol.

O n e shot w a s f i r e d o v e r t h e heads i n the c r o w d .

No more w e r e

necessary. T h e g i n n e r y w a s s a v e d , and i t i s still o p e r a t i n g t o d a y . K e n t ' s b l u e - d o m e d n y l o n t e n t sits u n d e r t w o l a r g e , m o s t l y leafless e u p h o r bia t r e e s .

T h e A f r i c a n n a m e f o r t h e m i s mkomwa.

T h e y have thin,

light-

c o l o r e d , p e e l i n g b a r k and l a r g e , hairy seeds s c a t t e r e d b e n e a t h t h e i r b r a n c h e s . South o f K e n t ' s t e n t and t h e t w o mkomwa t r e e s i s m y a b o d e , a l a r g e g r e e n canvas safari t e n t , shaded by an Acacia. L a n d w a r d , and n e x t to m e , is D a l e ' s and W i l l ' s safari t e n t .

A small Gmelina t r e e , a m e m b e r of the teak f a m i l y

i n t r o d u c e d t o A f r i c a f r o m t r o p i c a l A s i a , sits t o t h e left o f t h e i r f r o n t f l a p . O u r t e n t s , at right a n g l e s , o p e n i n t o a c o m m o n area crisscrossed w i t h a s p i d e r w e b o f g u y r o p e s and c l o t h e s l i n e s . O u r t o w e l s and t h e d a y ' s l a u n d r y are h u n g o u t to d r y . Behind t h e i r t e n t is a l a r g e Gmelina and a c l u m p of fan p a l m s , i n t o w h i c h is set a g r a s s - w a l l e d s h o w e r e n c l o s u r e . T h e focal p o i n t o f c a m p i s a l a r g e t a m a r i n d t r e e , its shade, w i t h t y p i c a l A f r i c a n h o s p i t a l i t y , y i e l d e d t o u s b y the l o c a l b e e r d r i n k e r s .

Drinking is

p o p u l a r i n M a l a w i . T h e i n t e m p e r a t e natives o f N g a r a s e e m t o p r e f e r t h e i r o w n h o m e b r e w , o r else t h e y c a n n o t afford the c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t . T h e y imbibe

glass-bottled

beer

available is C a r l s b e r g .

only

infrequently.

The

It c o m e s in f o u r labels:

only

green,

commercial

brand

w h i c h is a l a g e r ,

progressing to b r o w n , w h i c h is an ale, then g o l d , w h i c h is e x p e n s i v e " s p e c i a l b r e w " f o r the M a l a w i a n y u p p i e c r o w d . T h e f o u r t h label i s f o r b l a c k s t o u t . T h e rallying cry of M a l a w i ' s Carlsberg drinkers is " G i v e a guy a g r e e n . " T h e b r e w i n g c o m p a n y has a t r e e - p l a n t i n g p r o g r a m t o f u r t h e r the g r e e n i n g o f t h e country. It is activated by the appropriate n u m b e r of g r e e n bottle tops. M a x w e l l and the b o o z y m e n o f the v i l l a g e s e e m i n g l y s p e n d e v e r y spare m o m e n t imbibing an acrid, cheesy h o m e b r e w . It is p r e p a r e d f r o m m i l l e t by the w i v e s . E v e r y t h r e e o r f o u r days a n e w batch i s r e a d y f o r d r i n k i n g . T h e thick, s e d i m e n t - l a d e n e l i x i r i s d r u n k t h r o u g h a c o m m o n s t r a w , s u b m e r g e d i n

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

90 a calabash to a d e p t h that p r o v i d e s f o r m a x i m u m

a l c o h o l and m i n i m u m

sludge. A c o m m e r c i a l v e r s i o n , chibuku,

s o l d in h a l f - g a l l o n - s i z e d m i l k - c o n t a i n e r -

t y p e c a r t o n s , takes t h e p l a c e o f h o m e b r e w d u r i n g n e c e s s i t y .

Chibuku,

like

h o m e b r e w but unlike b o t t l e d b e e r , is a dense m i l l e t c o n c o c t i o n . It continues f e r m e n t i n g a f t e r its d e l i v e r y f r o m t h e f a c t o r y . T h e sides o f t h e c a r t o n b e g i n t o b u l g e w i t h t h e p r e s s u r e o f g e n e r a t i n g gas. W h e n this h a p p e n s , the chibuku i s said t o b e t o u g h . T h e m i l l e t r e s i d u e settles t o the b o t t o m . A t d r i n k i n g t i m e t h e t o p o f the c a r t o n i s g r a s p e d and the p a c k a g e v i g o r o u s l y a g i t a t e d , g i v i n g t h e m i x e d l i q u i d the c o r r e c t t e x t u r e and c h e w y n e s s . T h e t o p o f t h e c a r t o n i s cut o f f and t h e p a c k a g e i s passed a r o u n d the c i r c l e o f f r i e n d s . H u g e , r i c k e t y a r t i c u l a t e d l o r r i e s d i s t r i b u t e the b r e w , t o u t e d a s " T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l B e e r , " across t h e l e n g t h and b r e a d t h o f the c o u n t r y , t h e i r g r u m b l i n g sides g a y l y p a i n t e d w i t h the c o m p a n y m o t t o , Shake, shake Chibuku] D r i n k i n g p a r t i e s can b e g i n

a t any t i m e

of day.

T h e y are often

loud,

a c c o m p a n i e d b y b l a r i n g m u s i c w h e n the g e n e r a t o r i s w o r k i n g o r i f t h e r e are b a t t e r i e s f o r t h e r a d i o . W e are n e v e r b o t h e r e d b y the i n e b r i a t e s , h o w e v e r , and t h e y d o n o t j o i n u s i n o u r c a m p . I think that i s v e r y g r a c i o u s o f t h e m c o n s i d e r i n g that t h e i r p r e f e r r e d v e n u e i s t h e shade o f the t a m a r i n d . U n d e r its t h i c k , s p r e a d i n g b r a n c h e s o u r t h r e e tables are p o s i t i o n e d e n d t o e n d . T h e r e w e sit, talk, and take o u r m e a l s .

B e t w e e n the tables and the

s c r a g g l y l i n e of b l u e g u m s at t h e t e r r a c e e d g e is F i d e l i s ' s and James's safari t e n t , w h i c h d o u b l e s f o r f i e l d and v e h i c l e s u p p l y s t o r a g e . O u t s i d e t h e i r t e n t , u n d e r t h e fly,

h u n d r e d - p o u n d sacks o f plaster o f P a r i s ,

t e n o f t h e m , are

s t a c k e d . H e r e , t o o , the g l e a m i n g r o w s o f w h i t e p l a s t e r j a c k e t s , each c o n t a i n i n g its t r e a s u r e of fossil b o n e s , w i l l be l i n e d in a display f o r constant i n s p e c t i o n and i n s p i r a t i o n as the season p r o g r e s s e s . B e h i n d the t a m a r i n d is t h e k i t c h e n . It is a r o o f l e s s t w o - r O o m grass e n c l o s u r e . T h e f i r s t has a makeshift w o r k t a b l e c o n s t r u c t e d o f r e e d s , f o u r o r f i v e b u c k e t s of lake w a t e r f o r w a s h i n g , a trash p i t , and t w o c o o k i n g fires. A stack o f f i r e w o o d i s r e p l e n i s h e d daily f r o m t h e h e a d o f a y o u n g w o m a n w i t h a baby o f a f e w m o n t h s o l d s w a d d l e d o n h e r back. She g e n u f l e c t s , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h l o c a l c u s t o m , w h e n she a c c e p t s p a y m e n t f o r the w o o d . T h e o t h e r e n c l o s u r e i s the p a n t r y and s l e e p i n g q u a r t e r s f o r R o n a l d , the c o o k . I t has a l o n g r e e d t a b l e t o k e e p f o o d supplies o f f t h e g r o u n d . Plastic b u c k e t s w i t h t i g h t - f i t t i n g lids p r o v i d e m o r a l s u p p o r t but f e w t a n g i b l e results i n t h e c o n t i n u i n g s t r u g g l e t o k e e p o u r f o o d supplies a w a y f r o m the j a w s o f

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

m a r a u d i n g ants. W e w o u l d e n j o y t h e r i g h t t o d i n e w i t h o u t t h e m , b u t t h e y a r e as m u c h a part of the c a m p as the t a m a r i n d t r e e . T h e r e is also a space f o r the storage o f small fossils, and f o r crates o f b e e r ( g r e e n s and b r o w n s ) and soda b o t t l e s . Finally t h e r e is a p i t , w h i c h is actually a s h o w of bush r e f r i g e r a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y . I t i s f i l l e d w i t h d r i n k s and c o v e r e d w i t h w e t b u r l a p and sand. T h e r e f r e s h m e n t s are k e p t m a r g i n a l l y , b u t p l e a s a n t l y , c o o l e r than t h e a m b i e n t temperature. N e x t t o the p a n t r y e n c l o s u r e i s the 1 5 0 - g a l l o n w a t e r b o w s e r , a tank o n a t r a i l e r , f o r s t o r i n g d r i n k i n g w a t e r . N e x t t o i t i s t h e car park f o r o u r t w o L a n d R o v e r s . B e y o n d , a t the e d g e o f the t e r r a c e , i s E l i z a b e t h ' s b l u e - d o m e d n y l o n t e n t . T h e south e d g e o f c a m p i s m a r k e d b y a t h i c k e t o f p r i c k l y p e a r , w h e r e local d r i n k e r s p e e ; a b a o b a b ; a p i n k - f l o w e r e d d e s e r t r o s e ; and a f e w c a s h e w t r e e s . T h e n starts t h e f i s h i n g suburb o f m u d and thatch huts, s m o k i n g sheds, and d u g o u t c a n o e s .

B e y o n d the f i s h i n g huts are the marshes w i t h

m o s q u i t o e s , m u d , and bilharzia. D i s c r e e t l y t u c k e d a w a y across the r o a d f r o m o u r c a m p i n a t h i c k e t o f fan p a l m i s the g r a s s - w a l l e d e n c l o s u r e f o r o u r l o n g drop. All

is

in

order at c a m p ,

and

we are

ready to begin

w i t h the b o n e s

t o m o r r o w . I t i s a l m o s t a s i f w e n e v e r left M a l a w i after the f i e l d season c l o s e d last y e a r . A l m o s t , b u t n o t q u i t e . T h i n g s are n o t e x a c t l y the s a m e this y e a r . T h e r e c e p t i o n i s t a t the D e p a r t m e n t i n L i l o n g w e d i e d , and V i l l a g e H e a d m a n M a x w e l l lost o n e o f his six w i v e s t o c e r e b r a l malaria.

14

July,

Saturday.

O u r f i r s t day i n the f i e l d . I t i s g o o d t o see this again, t o l e t m y e y e s take i t in. T h e fossil l o c a l i t i e s o f M w a k a s y u n g u t i sit high i n the L u w o n y a H i l l s o n the east side o f the v a l l e y o f the S i t w e R i v e r . T h e y are p e r c h e d i n the w h i t e and p a s t e l - r e d sands o f the D i n o s a u r B e d s . S u r r o u n d i n g t h e sites and d o w n the v a l l e y the s c r u b b y t r e e s are g r e e n and y e l l o w , s o m e w i t h l e a v e s d a u b e d r e d . I t i s the d r y season, and the rains w e r e p o o r this y e a r . M o s t o f the t r e e s are mercifully without thorns. T h e v a l l e y o n its eastern e d g e i s t o p p e d w i t h s t r a i g h t - w a l l e d w h i t e cliffs c a p p e d w i t h h a r d , r e d g r a v e l . T h e t e r r a i n i s r o u g h and b r o k e n f r o m the f o o t o f the cliffs d o w n t o the v a l l e y f l o o r . Patches o f d i n o s a u r - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e , w h i t e and pink and rust i n c o l o r , p e e k t h r o u g h the s c r u b . P a r c h e d , t a w n y grass patches the g r o u n d , g r o w i n g i n t i n y h i l l o c k s and m o u n d s . I t g r o w s a s

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

92 tall a s a p e r s o n i n s o m e o f t h e l o w p l a c e s . S h o r t f r o n d s o f p a l e - g r e e n p a l m a r e s c a t t e r e d a b o u t i n c l u m p s . A l o n g t h e r i v e r t h e t r e e s are a brilliant dark g r e e n . C o a r s e r e e d s g r o w thick and rank a l o n g the s t r e a m banks. T h e r e i s o n e small stand o f b a m b o o w i t h s p i d e r y l e a v e s and g o l d e n , j o i n t e d t r u n k s . Fields c l e a r e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e a r e d o t t e d w h i t e w i t h c o t t o n o r i n f e s t e d w i t h spindly cassava. M o n s t r o u s g r a y baobabs l u m b e r o u t o f p a r c h e d e a r t h , g r a s p i n g the sky w i t h leafless, t o r t u r e d b r a n c h e s . T h e air s m e l l s c l e a n , e s p e c i a l l y i n the cool

morning.

A c r o s s the v a l l e y t h e v e g e t a t i o n i s c o l o r l e s s o n t h e d r y , crystalline slopes o f the o p p o s i t e h i l l s i d e . B e y o n d , t o the w e s t , t h r o u g h t h e A f r i c a n h a z e , i s the N y i k a P l a t e a u . B e y o n d that lies Z a m b i a and its L u a n g w a V a l l e y , w h e r e fossil b o n e s h a v e also b e e n f o u n d . T h e c l o u d s b u i l d u p daily o v e r t h e N y i k a , but i t w i l l n o t r a i n — a t least i t i s n o t l i k e l y t o a t this t i m e o f y e a r . T h e b r e e z e picks u p and d i e s . A s the day heats u p , t h e s w e a t b e e s e m e r g e , s o m e t i m e s i n d r o v e s . T o r e a c h the sites, w e m u s t f i r s t d r i v e south a l o n g the t a r m a c M - l

lake

r o a d f r o m N g a r a c a m p . A f t e r t e n m i n u t e s w e r e a c h N y u n g w e and turn r i g h t o n t o t h e d i r t r o a d that skirts t h e r i d g e o f c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s f o r m i n g the east side o f t h e v a l l e y . A f t e r a n o t h e r t e n m i n u t e s w e turn n o r t h o n t o the r o u g h t r a c k that leads u p the v a l l e y t o the r e g i o n c a l l e d M w a k a s y u n g u t i . T h e j o l t i n g track requires f o u r - w h e e l d r i v e . It steeply fords the Sitwe R i v e r — t w i c e . W e w a v e a t p o t b e l l i e d c h i l d r e n , n a k e d o r i n r a g s , and m e n languid i n the shade.

Women,

pounding maize w i t h heavy four-foot-long pestles,

carry

babies t i e d t o t h e i r b a c k s . T h e y g r o u p t o g e t h e r a r o u n d t h e m u d and thatch huts. A f t e r half a n h o u r o r s o w e reach the n e w L a n d R o v e r path c o n s t r u c t e d i n o u r a b s e n c e b y M j u d a , o n e o f o u r local T u m b u k a l a b o r f o r c e . T h i s i s all f o u r - w h e e l d r i v e . W e can o n l y g o a n o t h e r f i v e m i n u t e s b e f o r e w e hit the e n d . M o r e r o a d w o r k i s n e e d e d . W e p a r k and w a l k t h e last f i f t e e n m i n u t e s o n a f o o t p a t h snaking t h r o u g h the d i v i d e s and drainages t o the q u a r r i e s . T h e t o t a l distance f r o m N g a r a c a m p i s e l e v e n m i l e s . T h e w h o l e trip takes just o v e r a n h o u r .

W e w o u l d save a

lot of time

if we

camped here at

Mwakasyunguti, but w e w o u l d g i v e u p s o m e important creature c o m f o r t s . T h e c a m p w o u l d b e m u c h m o r e difficult t o s u p p l y . T h e m o n o t o n y w o u l d play o n o u r m i n d s . T h e r e w o u l d n o t b e e n o u g h clean w a t e r f o r bathing. R e s o r t i n g t o t h e r i v e r w o u l d i n v i t e bilharzia. I t i s w o r t h the e x t r a d r i v e t o stay a t N g a r a . T h e a f t e r n o o n d i p in the lake is g o o d f o r the s o u l . It picks up the spirits and r e l a x e s the b o d y . I t i s g o o d f o r m o r a l e . B e t t e r t o c a m p t h e r e . O n c e w e h a v e t u r n e d o n t o the d i r t t r a c k i n t o the v a l l e y , w e n e v e r see any v e h i c l e s b e s i d e s o u r o w n L a n d R o v e r s . W e are t o l d the track i s also used b y

J O U R N A L S

F R O M

T H E

G R O U N D

93 the W a t e r D e p a r t m e n t f o r p e r i o d i c c h e c k s o n a b o r e h o l e and b y a m e d i c a l t e a m that cares f o r l e p e r s i n r e m o t e p l a c e s . T h e r e a r e n o stores o r shops i n t h e v a l l e y . T h e r e i s a s c h o o l and t h e r e i s a c l e a r i n g used f o r a s o c c e r field. V i r t u a l l y all t h e f o o d that is e a t e n in the v a l l e y i s raised h e r e . A l l a l o n g the r i v e r b o t t o m , i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h c o t t o n , t h e cash c r o p , a r e f i e l d s o f cassava, m a i z e , g r o u n d n u t s , a f e w beans and c o w p e a s , t o m a t o e s and squash, and a b i t of s u g a r c a n e . A r o u n d t h e huts and v i l l a g e s are d a r k - g r e e n m a n g o t r e e s , n o w i n f l o w e r , and the o d d p a w p a w t r e e . L u x u r i a n t banana g r o v e s t h r i v e i n l o w , w e l l - w a t e r e d earth a l o n g the r i v e r . T h e r e are c a t t l e , a f e w b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e - s p o t t e d h o g s , and c h i c k e n s a r o u n d e v e r y hut. S o m e d w e l l i n g s sport r o u n d p i g e o n roosts of reeds w o v e n into a f o u r - f o o t - l o n g c y l i n d e r , r o o f e d w i t h thatch. T h e r o o s t s sit o n stilts and a r e c l o s e d o f f a t n i g h t t o p r o t e c t t h e f u r r y - f o o t e d p i g e o n s f r o m i n t e r l o p e r s such a s g e n e t s and c i v e t cats. S t o r a g e g r a n a r i e s are also p e r c h e d o n stilts t o k e e p v e r m i n o u t o f the g r a i n a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e . L i f e appears i d y l l i c in the v a l l e y , but it is n o t . It is a difficult e x i s t e n c e , fraught w i t h disease and h a r d s h i p . Y e t the p e o p l e h a v e q u i c k , b r i g h t s m i l e s , abundant l a u g h t e r , and a r a d i a n t , e n d e a r i n g w a r m t h . T h i s i s the d r y season and w i n t e r b e l o w t h e e q u a t o r . F o r t h e p e o p l e o f the S i t w e V a l l e y i t i s the s l o w t i m e o f y e a r . T h e r e i s l i t t l e t o d o i n t h e f i e l d s , save a bit o f c o t t o n h a r v e s t i n g .

M u c h of their t i m e is taken up w i t h dancing.

W o m e n d a n c e t h e ndola, and m e n t h e malipenga. D i f f e r e n t d r u m s and r h y t h m s c h a r a c t e r i z e e a c h . W e w i l l hear t h e m p r a c t i c i n g m o s t e v e r y d a y , a t m o s t any t i m e o f day. T h e s o u n d o f t h e d r u m , the quintessential s o u n d o f A f r i c a , w i l l s u b l i m a t e o u r m i n d s w h i l e w e q u a r r y , and w e w i l l n e v e r f o r g e t it. T h e malipenga dances a r e b i g e v e n t s . Each v i l l a g e has a t e a m of d a n c e r s and musicians that c o m p e t e s w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e o n l y i n s t r u m e n t s used besides the d r u m s are k a z o o s m a d e o f calabashes w i t h m a t s o f s p i d e r w e b , o r o c c a s i o n a l l y bits o f plastic b a g , f o r r e v e r b e r a t i o n . T h e malipenga c o n j u r e s visions o f the C h i n e s e m a r t i a l art tai c h i , d a n c e d in synchrony to an African beat.

T h e m e n arrange themselves in a line,

d a n c i n g i n unison w h i l e p l a y i n g t h e i r k a z o o s . D r u m s and a p r i m a r y k a z o o e n s e m b l e are just o f f t o t h e s i d e .

Legs are kicked,

arms snaked, heel to

g r o u n d , then t o e p o i n t e d , and s p i n , all i n s l o w m o t i o n , o r a t m o s t half s p e e d . It is said that the malipenga is d e r i v e d in p a r t f r o m W o r l d W a r I p r i s o n e r - o f w a r c a m p s and f r o m the S o u t h A f r i c a n m i n i n g c a m p s o f transient w o r k e r s i n the 1 9 2 0 s . T h e w o m e n ' s ndola d a n c e i s m o r e a n i m a t e .

For t h e m , m o v e m e n t is in

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

94 c o u n t e r - c i r c l e s , w i t h f e e t m o v i n g and shuffling, r o u n d b u t t o c k s g y r a t i n g , and chests h e a v i n g t o t h e shrill s o p r a n o v o i c e characteristic o f A f r i c a n w o m e n i n song.

THE

OBJECTIVES

F O R o u r first day o f w o r k a t t h e fossil localities are

s i m p l e . T h e state o f t h e last y e a r ' s q u a r r i e s m u s t b e e v a l u a t e d , a p r e l i m i n a r y s t r a t e g y f o r e x c a v a t i o n m u s t b e d e v i s e d , t h e size o f the n e e d e d l a b o r f o r c e m u s t b e e s t i m a t e d , and the local c r e w m u s t b e a s s e m b l e d . O u r first day w e n t w e l l w i t h r e g a r d t o all o f t h e s e . I n o u r a b s e n c e o v e r the past y e a r , M j u d a , o u r former

employee,

has

w o r k e d on the road,

shown greatly

appreciated

initiative.

He

not

only

laying o u t a path all t h e w a y t o the q u a r r y , b u t h e

b u s h w h a c k e d t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y f o r a l a r g e part o f i t s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y . H e also m a i n t a i n e d a w a t c h f u l , p r o t e c t i v e v i g i l o v e r the sites, m a k i n g certain that d r a i n a g e channels t r e n c h e d a r o u n d i m p o r t a n t areas d i v e r t e d rain and runoff, s h i e l d i n g u n e x c a v a t e d fossils f r o m e r o s i o n and w e a t h e r .

N o cattle h o o v e s

w e r e a l l o w e d access t o the b o n e s still i n t h e g r o u n d . There

are

three

good

quarry

sites

strung out along

s e v e n t y yards

of

w e s t - f a c i n g hill s l o p e . C D - 9 w a s w o r k e d last y e a r and a bit the p r e v i o u s field season. I t w i l l b e o u r m a i n q u a r r y . C D - 1 0 w a s f o u n d b y Alisa i n 1 9 8 7 . I t has a v e r y i m p o r t a n t stegosaur p e l v i s ,

f r a g i l e but l a r g e and h e a v y .

W e have

p r o t e c t e d i t f o r t h r e e years b e c a u s e o f the difficulty i n r e m o v i n g it. T h i s y e a r , events p e r m i t t i n g , we w i l l g e t it out. T h e third quarry site, C D - I 1, is at a slightly h i g h e r l e v e l i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s than the o t h e r t w o . I t has s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g b o n e s sticking o u t and i t l o o k s t o h a v e a chance o f s o m e small animals as w e l l as d i n o s a u r s . W e a s s e m b l e d a c r e w and set t h e m t o c l e a r i n g o f f t h e o v e r b u r d e n a t C D - 9 . W e k n o w h o w m u c h t o r e m o v e because w e can a l r e a d y see t h e fossils o f the productive bone layer—the sweet zone.

18

July,

Wednesday.

T h e e x c a v a t i o n o f b o n e s has b e g u n . Fossils are c o m i n g fast and furious. I t i s fun t o w o r k l i k e this, w i t h e x c i t e m e n t r u n n i n g a t a p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l f e v e r p i t c h . T h e w h o l e e x c a v a t i o n c r e w i s a s s e m b l e d , b o t h f o r e i g n and d o m e s t i c c o m p o n e n t s . A l l t h r e e q u a r r i e s have b e e n o p e n e d . T h e g e n e r a t o r w o r k s , but i t can h a n d l e

o n l y o n e o f the t w o r o t o - h a m m e r s w e b r o u g h t a t a t i m e .

H o w e v e r , that o n e cuts t h r o u g h the o v e r b u r d e n a s i f i t w e r e c h e e s e . T h i c k

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

95 chunks s l u m p off. T h e r o t o - h a m m e r cuts r a p i d l y t h r o u g h t h e soft s a n d s t o n e , m o r e s l o w l y b u t still e f f e c t i v e l y t h r o u g h the s t o n y , h e a v i l y c e m e n t e d , c o n c r e t e l i k e sand. T h e c r e w likes t o use i t ; i t i s l i k e a t o y , n o i s y and p o w e r f u l . T h e p r o t e c t i v e soil and e n o u g h o v e r b u r d e n has b e e n s t r i p p e d f r o m each quarry t o a l l o w the e x c a v a t i o n t o start. A l a r g e b a m b o o and grass shade has been e r e c t e d o v e r C D - 9 , the main quarry.

A smaller one covers C D - 1 1 .

L a t e r , w h e n w e can e x p e n d m o r e e f f o r t t h e r e , I w i l l have o n e built o v e r CD-10. T h e b o n e , w h e n i t i s freshly e x p o s e d b y e x c a v a t i o n and n o t w e a t h e r e d o n the surface o f the g r o u n d , i s i n g o o d shape. I t i s n o t p e t r i f i e d fully t o s t o n e . A l t h o u g h i t i s f r a g i l e , i t i s w e l l p r e s e r v e d and n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t o r t e d , e v e n after 100 m i l l i o n years u n d e r the g r o u n d . Fresh b o n e i s p a l e , c r e a m y w h i t e w i t h a n i r o n - r e d stain o n the surface. W i t h the a b u n d a n c e o f fossils w e can see n o w , t h e r e i s n o sign that t h e y w i l l g i v e o u t , b u t h o w d o w e k n o w w h a t w i l l h a p p e n a f e w f e e t farther u n d e r the g r o u n d ? Last y e a r w e left a n u m b e r o f g o o d s p e c i m e n s i n p l a c e .

A t C D - 9 the

s a u r o p o d tail w e h a v e b e e n e x c a v a t i n g f o r t w o seasons i s c o n t i n u i n g i n t o the hillside. T h e r e are also t h r e e o r f o u r ribs and a f e w v e r t e b r a e . A t C D - 1 0 K e n t ' s first a s s i g n m e n t is to o u t l i n e t h e stegosaur p e l v i s . W h a t a b e a u t y it is! T h e small sliver o f b o n e n e x t t o i t l e d i n t o m o s t o f a s a u r o p o d f e m u r , a t h i g h b o n e . C D - I 1 has s o m e l i m b b o n e s , a r m s o r l e g s , but i t also appears rich i n small b o n e f r a g m e n t s .

D a l e has b e g u n m a p p i n g t h e f i r s t b o n e s t o g e t

u n c o v e r e d . K e n t has p l a s t e r e d a f e w . Fidelis and E l i z a b e t h are c l e a r i n g n e w s p e c i m e n s t h e y just f o u n d . T h i s is r e a l l y g o o d . T h e r e are as m a n y b o n e s as w e can h a n d l e — m o r e e v e n . W e hit t h e g r o u n d r u n n i n g this y e a r and i t feels great. I have a f i n e c r e w . F o r n o w t h e r e are f o u r A m e r i c a n s i n c l u d i n g m e . W i l l D o w n s is the mnyako mwembe, t h e b e a r d e d f r i e n d . He is a n i m a t e d , u n c o n v e n t i o n a l , and f o u l m o u t h e d . H i s face is h i d d e n b e h i n d a full, bushy b e a r d , starting to gray. His piercing eyes are quick behind m e t a l - r i m m e d spectacles. His dark p e l a g e i s thin o n t o p w i t h a f e w u n k e m p t strands r e m a i n i n g . T h e back and sides o f his head a r e f r i n g e d w i t h a d i s h e v e l e d s h o c k o f n o t e s p e c i a l l y l o n g , but w i l d and u n r u l y s w e p t - b a c k hair. H e had i t t r i m m e d b e f o r e h e c a m e h e r e w i t h m e i n 1 9 8 4 . I d o n o t think i t has g r o w n l o n g e r s i n c e . E n e r g e t i c and q u i c k t o laugh, h e i s a u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l i n the g o o d s e n s e . W e m e t w h e n I m o v e d t o the M u s e u m o f N o r t h e r n A r i z o n a after I g o t m y P h . D . i n 1 9 7 7 . H e w a s already e m p l o y e d t h e r e .

W e have w o r k e d t o g e t h e r consistently e v e r since.

W i l l has a d e g r e e in h u m a n i t i e s ,

but he is l o a t h e to f o l l o w standard

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

96

p a t t e r n s o f social s y s t e m s . H e i n h e r i t e d a t r e m e n d o u s r e s p e c t f o r the truth and an a d m i r a b l e d i s r e s p e c t f o r a u t h o r i t y f r o m his d a d . H i s father w a s a b i g n e w s m a n i n t h e days o f E d w a r d R . M u r r o w . H e i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y w e l l r e a d , p r o f i c i e n t i n M a n d a r i n C h i n e s e , and hates t e l e v i s i o n ( t h e r e i s n o n e y e t i n M a l a w i ) . H i s m i n d i s c r e a t i v e and p e r p e t u a l l y a c t i v e , s p r i n g i n g f r o m subject t o subject. H e f i r e s o f f q u e s t i o n s and ideas like a G a t l i n g g u n . L i f e i s n e v e r dull a r o u n d h i m . He k n o w s

fieldwork.

H i s e y e i s k e e n f o r f i n d i n g fossils. O n c e t h e y are

f o u n d , h e can g e t t h e m o u t o f the g r o u n d . H i s e x c a v a t i o n t o o l s are c u s t o m machined,

the paleontological equivalent of pearl-handled six-guns.

He is

p a t i e n t . H e i s g o o d w i t h his steady hands. H i s k n o w l e d g e o f f i e l d g e o l o g y i s f i r s t - r a t e and all s e l f - t a u g h t .

His e x p e r i e n c e is b r o a d :

the

United

States,

C h i n a , A f r i c a , G r e e n l a n d , t h e P u n j a b , and Baluchistan. N o w h e w o r k s a s a f r e e l a n c e w i t h m e , H a r v a r d , the U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a , the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , and I d o n o t k n o w w h o e l s e , b u t h e i s based a t Northern

Arizona

University

in

Flagstaff.

Besides

fieldwork,

he

prepares

fossils in the l a b o r a t o r y and translates C h i n e s e technical r e p o r t s i n t o English. D a l e W i n k l e r is as methodical as W i l l is i m p e t u o u s . He is clean-cut w i t h c u r l y b l o n d hair and s i d e b u r n s . H i s p e l a g e is as fair as W i l l ' s is dark. T h e o n l y s i m i l a r i t y is a t h i n n i n g on t o p . Q u i e t , d e l i b e r a t e , and p r e c i s e , D a l e is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r all t h e m a p p i n g and m e a s u r i n g . D a l e has b e e n w i t h m e f o r f i v e years n o w . H e ' s o r i g i n a l l y f r o m M i c h i g a n . I h i r e d h i m after I s a w his p r e s e n t a t i o n a t a scientific m e e t i n g o n fossils f r o m the T e x a s P a n h a n d l e . H i s q u a l i t y w a s immediately obvious.

H e b r i n g s e x p e r t i s e i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the e c o l o g i c a l

i m p l i c a t i o n s o f r o c k s and s e d i m e n t s and the p a t t e r n s i n w h i c h b o n e s are s c a t t e r e d . H e i s a n a b s o l u t e l y essential m e m b e r o f the t e a m . K e n t N e w m a n , a tall, b i g T e x a n w i t h b l o n d hair, c a m e t o w o r k f o r m e n e a r l y f o u r years a g o o n w h a t w a s t o b e a s i x - m o n t h stint p r e p a r i n g fossils i n the l a b o r a t o r y . H e has b e e n w i t h m e e v e r s i n c e , b u t after this f i e l d season h e w i l l b e g i n t e a c h i n g i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s . H e i s p r o u d and has a g o o d sense o f h u m o r . H i s m e m o r y h o l d s a w e a l t h o f t h e r i g h t facts, s t o r e d f o r use a t just t h e r i g h t m o m e n t . I w i l l b e s o r r y t o l o s e h i m , b u t the j o b I can o f f e r s i m p l y w i l l n o t p r o v i d e f o r a s e c u r e f u t u r e . M y loss i s the P i a n o I n d e p e n d e n t S c h o o l District's gain. He w i l l be the kind of teacher a school system always needs, a g o o d o n e . I h o p e h e , o r s o m e o n e v e r y l i k e h i m , teaches m y k i d s . A t the v e r y least h e w i l l h a v e g o o d s t o r i e s o f A f r i c a and dinosaurs t o e n l i v e n his c l a s s r o o m . K e n t and I w i l l b e t h e f i r s t t o l e a v e t h e f i e l d this y e a r .

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

T h e f i n a l m e m b e r o f the A m e r i c a n suite i s A l i s a W i n k l e r . She w a s m y f i r s t P h . D . s t u d e n t . Because she is so d e e p l y i n t e r e s t e d in s c i e n c e and so w i t h o u t p r e t e n s e , she i s t r u l y a p l e a s u r e t o w o r k w i t h . N o w she has a p o s t d o c and teaches a n a t o m y a t the m e d i c a l s c h o o l . She w i l l n o t a r r i v e until K e n t and I h a v e d e p a r t e d . T h e n she w i l l j o i n D a l e and W i l l o n t h e r e c o n n a i s s a n c e o f the south. She is p i g g y b a c k i n g a t r i p to K e n y a on this o n e . She w i l l e x a m i n e the dinosaur s p e c i m e n s i n t h e N a t i o n a l M u s e u m i n N a i r o b i . T h e y o n l y h a v e a f e w , but t h e y m i g h t b e i m p o r t a n t .

She w i l l also c o n t i n u e h e r studies o f small-

m a m m a l fossils f r o m the R i f t V a l l e y , e i g h t y ( a n d m o r e ) m i l l i o n years y o u n g e r than the D i n o s a u r Beds h e r e i n M a l a w i . She m a y w a n t t o s t o c k u p o n M a l a w i sausages f o r t h e i r b o n e s . Alisa and D a l e a r e m a r r i e d t o each o t h e r .

OUR

AFRICAN

C O L L E A G U E S h a v e a v e r y d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h t o life f r o m

that o f the A m e r i c a n c o n t i n g e n t . I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y the p e r v a s i v e fatalism s o c o m m o n i n the i m p o v e r i s h e d w o r l d . T h e r e i s a q u i e t r e s i g n a t i o n t o , i f n o t a n a c c e p t a n c e of, e v e n t s and c o n f l a g r a t i o n s that a r e , o r a p p e a r t o b e , b e y o n d i m m e d i a t e c o n t r o l . T h i n g s like high infant m o r t a l i t y , o r failed rainy seasons, o r n o spare p a r t s , o r t h e bus s h o w i n g u p t h r e e h o u r s late o r n o t a t all, o r , i f y o u have t h e f e w tambala i n c o i n , y o u r o r d e r o f a c o l d C o k e b e i n g f i l l e d w i t h a w a r m Fanta, a n o r a n g e d r i n k . T h e lack o f r e l i a b i l i t y , the u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y , and the fatalism suffuse t h e a t m o s p h e r e , b l a n k e t i n g e v e r y t h i n g ,

every

a c t i o n , w i t h the facade of c a l m n e s s . It is a p e a c e f u l v e n e e r o v e r a pitiless r e s i g n a t i o n . E n t e r i n g this s y s t e m f r o m t h e W e s t can b e frustrating, n e r v e w r a c k i n g . But i t i s t h e i r c o u n t r y and t h e i r l i v e s . T h i n g s a r e d o n e t h e i r w a y in Africa.

O f c o u r s e p e o p l e o f t h e D e v e l o p i n g W o r l d h a v e t h e s a m e basic

d e s i r e s , the s a m e f e e l i n g s , the s a m e e m o t i o n s , t h e s a m e a n x i e t i e s that are c o m m o n t o all p e o p l e . T h e y a r e just m o r e r e s i g n e d . T h e o b v e r s e o f the fatalism i s a k i n d o f i n g e n u i t y that a c c o m p a n i e s m a t e r i a l inadequacies.

T h e s y m b o l o f this i n g e n u i t y is, f o r m e , a spirit l a m p D a l e

b o u g h t i n the K a r o n g a m a r k e t ( F i g u r e 2 2 ) . I t i s m a d e f r o m a light b u l b and a tin can. M a n y r e m o t e areas o f M a l a w i are n o t y e t s u p p l i e d w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y . But a light b u l b still has its use. W i t h the m e t a l base r e m o v e d , l e a v i n g o n l y the g l o b e , and t u r n e d u p s i d e d o w n , i t m a k e s a p e r f e c t l y functional r e s e r v o i r f o r spirit. A string h a n g i n g d o w n i n t o t h e g l o b e i s the w i c k . T h e tin can i s cut and b e n t t o f o r m a stand and h o l d e r , c o m p l e t e w i t h handles o n e i t h e r s i d e . H o w very clever. W h a t a g o o d example of making do.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

98

FIGURE 22: An

ingenious spirit lamp.

People make their own light

where electricity

does not reach. A light bulb is inverted and used as a reservoir into which a wick dangles. the

A

tin

can

is cut

and fashioned into a

base—complete

with

handles—for

lamp.

M y M a l a w i a n c o l l e a g u e s are indispensable t o t h e p r o j e c t . T h e y are a s m u c h a p a r t o f i t a s any o f the A m e r i c a n s . W e all h a v e o u r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . T h e y , l i k e all M a l a w i a n s I h a v e m e t , a r e k i n d , f r i e n d l y , s o f t - s p o k e n , and e x c e e d i n g l y polite.

F i d e l i s M o r o c c o has w o r k e d w i t h m e since t h e f i r s t e x p e d i t i o n .

A

l o n g t i m e e m p l o y e e o f the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s , h e sports a u n i v e r s i t y T - s h i r t p u r c h a s e d d u r i n g his t h r e e - m o n t h t r a i n i n g p e r i o d i n m y Dallas labs last y e a r . He l e a r n e d to p r e p a r e fossils and has since set up a p r e p a r a t i o n lab in M a l a w i . James K h o m u i s the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r d r i v e r . H i s hands are full

trying to c o a x yet another k i l o m e t e r out of the tired gray

machine.

O c c a s i o n a l l y h e d o e s , b u t i t i s s o o l d that e v e r y e f f o r t , e v e n i f t h e b a t t l e i s w o n , i s a futile g e s t u r e t o w a r d a l o s t w a r . T w i c e a l r e a d y the v e h i c l e has b e e n i n f o r r e p a i r s and w e o n l y just g o t h e r e . I a n t i c i p a t e a l o n g c o n v a l e s c e n c e f o r

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

99 it. W e w i l l b e lucky t o h a v e i t a s a b a c k u p t o the r e n t a l v e h i c l e i f ( w h e n ? ) w e r e a l l y n e e d it. Elizabeth G o m a n i i s r e c e n t l y g r a d u a t e d f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i w i t h a s t r o n g b a c k g r o u n d i n Earth s c i e n c e s , c h e m i s t r y , and c o m p u t e r s . H e r v o i c e is so s o f t , it can b a r e l y be h e a r d . Last y e a r she j o i n e d us as a s t u d e n t . T h i s y e a r she w a s h i r e d b y the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s t o take o n this p r o j e c t . I f all g o e s w e l l , a s a n t i c i p a t e d , she w i l l u n d e r t a k e g r a d u a t e studies w i t h m e i n the U n i t e d States, t h e n r e t u r n t o h e r p e r m a n e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l p o s i t i o n at the d e p a r t m e n t . I t i s hard t o handicap the o d d s o f success f o r E l i z a b e t h . T h e r e i s n o p o o l o f aspiring p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s t o s o r t t h r o u g h t o f i n d the best p e r s o n f o r f o r e i g n training. O n l y o n e p e r s o n can b e s e l e c t e d , i n this case E l i z a b e t h . A l l the e g g s are i n o n e basket. T h a t i s the g e n e r a l case i n the D e v e l o p i n g W o r l d . O n l y a f e w have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a d v a n c e d study a b r o a d , and b y the t i m e t h e y a r e s e l e c t e d , t h e i r futures a r e l o c k e d — a n d s o i s that o f the s p o n s o r i n g a g e n c y . C e r t a i n l y Elizabeth has the a b i l i t y . A n d she has had e n o u g h e x p e r i e n c e w i t h m e and m y c r e w i n the f i e l d that she should k n o w b y n o w i f she can s t o m a c h it. She says she e n j o y s the w o r k and w i l l d e d i c a t e h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l life t o t h e study o f fossils. O k a y . L e t ' s g o w i t h it. A t the site w e h a v e f i v e p e r m a n e n t assistants d u r i n g the f i e l d season. F o u r o r f i v e o t h e r s are h i r e d a s day l a b o r e r s f o r r o a d w o r k o r w h e n t h e r e i s a n e x t r a - h e a v y l o a d o f p i c k - a n d - s h o v e l w o r k . T h e D i n o s a u r P r o j e c t i s the o n l y s o u r c e o f e m p l o y m e n t i n the v a l l e y . Because w e w o r k t h r o u g h a g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y , the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s , I pay g o v e r n m e n t w a g e s , a b o u t t w o kwacha p e r day, less than o n e d o l l a r . T h a t is b e e f e d up w i t h a f e w p e r k s and a bonus at the e n d , but still field l a b o r r e m a i n s o n e of t h e s m a l l e r e x p e n s e s o f the e x p e d i t i o n . A l l but o n e o f t h e f i v e p e r m a n e n t staff h a v e w o r k e d f o r m e b e f o r e . M j u d a i s the m a n w h o w a t c h e d o v e r the sites i n o u r a b s e n c e and w h o laid o u t the n e w r o a d f r o m the track t o the q u a r r y . H e w o r k s f o r u s d i g g i n g b o n e s d u r i n g the day. A t night h e sleeps i n the canvas s t o r a g e t e n t a t C D - 9 t o k e e p a n e y e on the supplies. He is thin and s p a r e , missing a f e w t e e t h . H i s high v o i c e is characteristic, but his q u i c k , W o o d y W o o d p e c k e r g i g g l e i s his t r a d e m a r k . S o m e of the locals say he is a w i t c h d o c t o r and can turn p e o p l e i n v i s i b l e , but n o e x a m p l e s can b e c i t e d . H e has a c o m m a n d o f m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s , taught h i m b y his father and w h i c h h e i s passing o n t o his s o n . L i k e M j u d a , W e l l i n g t o n , Joseph, and Yasaki are g o o d g u y s . T h e y l i k e t o j o k e a r o u n d . W e l l i n g t o n s m i l e d and asked K e n t , " W h a t i s the capital o f N e w Z e a l a n d ? "

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

" W e l l i n g t o n , I t h i n k , " K e n t r e p l i e d , and W e l l i n g t o n b e a m e d w i t h p r i d e . Joseph is the m o s t q u i e t of t h e l o t . Yasaki is t h e least industrious and just a bit surly. Finishing o f f the c r e w i s D y s o n M k w a l a , the b r o t h e r o f L i g h t w e l l , t h e f o r m e r e m p l o y e e , n o w s c h o o l t e a c h e r , w h o taught m e M a l a w i history a t the site d u r i n g t h e f i r s t f i e l d season. D y s o n s p e n t m o s t o f t h e a f t e r n o o n t o d a y s i n g i n g "Frere Jacques" in English. A l l of the o t h e r s h a v e run t h r o u g h m o s t of t h e i r English v o c a b u l a r i e s . " O n e , t w o , t h r e e , f o u r , f i v e , six, s e v e n , e i g h t . " T h e n the c o u n t i n g stops. " T h i s i s m y n o s e , this i s m y e y e , this i s m y e a r " — a l l phrases f r o m t h e i r childhood

schooling.

T h e y g e t i n t o t h e i r w o r k . T h e i r e y e s a r e k e e n t o mafupa, b o n e , and s o m e o f t h e m a r e b e c o m i n g s k i l l e d e x c a v a t o r s . T h e y a p p e a r t o b e a t e a s e , laughing and j o k i n g , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y w o r k h a r d . T h a t i s h o w I p r e f e r i t t o b e . I t m a k e s the days fun.

23

July,

Monday.

C a m p life has b e c o m e a steady r o u t i n e , ably m a n a g e d b y M r . R o n a l d M w a g o m b a . R o n a l d i s the c o o k , and a v e r y g o o d o n e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h chambo f i s h and c u r r y . N o w i n his m i d - s i x t i e s , h e spent years w o r k i n g i n g o v e r n m e n t rest h o u s e s , w h i c h are a k i n d o f official h o t e l . H e started i n 1 9 4 6 , s e r v i n g a c o u p l e o f t w o - y e a r stints i n South A f r i c a . M a l a w i , itself b e i n g chiefly a g r i c u l t u r a l , has t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n a s o u r c e o f industrial and s u p p o r t l a b o r f o r the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e c o n t i n e n t , m a i n l y , i n M r . M w a g o m b a ' s e a r l y days, f o r the m i n e s o f t h e R h o d e s i a s and South A f r i c a . H e i s n o w r e t i r e d and r e a s o n a b l y w e l l off, relatively speaking, although not so w e l l off as he might have b e e n . Up to a c o u p l e o f years a g o h e had f o r t y c a t t l e . A l l b u t t w o have d i e d o f h o o f - a n d m o u t h disease.

H e s u p p l e m e n t s his p e n s i o n b y w o r k i n g f o r us. T h i s i s his

second year. M r . M w a g o m b a is a d a p p e r f e l l o w and he runs a tight k i t c h e n . H i s s t o v e b u r n e r s a r e b e d s o f coals f r o m t w o o p e n f i r e s . H e has t h r e e h e l p e r s . O n e o f t h e m , G r e s h a m , clean and s m a r t l y d r e s s e d a t d i n n e r t i m e , has b e e n taught b y M r . M w a g o m b a t o s e r v e m e a l s w i t h British d e c o r u m i n strict a d h e r e n c e t o the

protocol

of etiquette:

Serve

from

the

right,

remove

from

the

left;

E l i z a b e t h , the l a d y , m u s t b e s e r v e d f i r s t , t h e n m e a s e x p e d i t i o n l e a d e r . T h e day starts e a r l y , b e f o r e d a w n . R o n a l d and his assistants are u p b e f o r e f i v e . T h e rest o f u s g e t u p l a t e r , a w a k e n i n g i n o u r tents t o the n e a r b y sound

J O U R N A L S

F R O M

T H E

G R O U N D

101 o f the lake w i t h its s l e e p y m o r n i n g w a v e s l a p p i n g the s h o r e . I a m usually the last

one

out

of t h e

bag.

At

this

early

hour

the

sun

is

an

incandescent

o r a n g e - r e d s p h e r e rising f r o m the l a k e . Pans o f w a r m w a t e r a r e b r o u g h t t o the t e n t f o r the m o r n i n g ' s w a s h . A r o u n d six the c r e w b e g i n s t o g a t h e r a t t h e breakfast

table.

Maxwell's

wives

and

daughters

are

already

filling

water

b u c k e t s a t t h e lake and t r u d g i n g back t o t h e i r c o o k i n g f i r e s w i t h t h e full vessels b a l a n c e d o n t h e i r heads. Breakfast, usually s e r v e d by s i x - f i f t e e n , is t o a s t , c e r e a l , fresh fruit, t i n n e d j u i c e , c o f f e e o r t e a , and b o i l e d e g g s i f w e h a v e t h e m . A c c o m p a n y i n g breakfast i s malaria p r o p h y l a x i s : o n e P a l u d r i n e t a b l e t e v e r y day and t w o c h l o r o q u i n e tablets o n M o n d a y s . T h e A m e r i c a n Embassy r e m i n d e d u s t o take b o t h ; t h e y lost o n e o f t h e i r p e o p l e last y e a r . B y s e v e n w e a r e o n the r o a d t o t h e q u a r r y , each and all t u m b l e d i n t o o n e o f o u r t w o L a n d R o v e r s . I t i s usually the r e n t e d o n e because i t s e e m s t o b e the m o r e r e l i a b l e . W e t a k e turns d r i v i n g , r o t a t i n g t o a d i f f e r e n t d r i v e r each d a y . W h e n w e a r r i v e a t o u r p a r k i n g s p o t , p l a s t e r o r w h a t e v e r o t h e r supplies are n e e d e d a t the q u a r r i e s a r e c a r r i e d u p b y the local c r e w and w e set t o w o r k . D u r i n g the d a y , w h i l e w e a r e o u t , M r . M w a g o m b a o v e r s e e s t h e c l e a n i n g o f tents and w a s h i n g o f l a u n d r y .

H e i r o n s all t h e c l o t h e s , i n c l u d i n g u n d e r -

w e a r , w i t h a h e a v y m e t a l i r o n f i l l e d w i t h coals f r o m t h e f i r e . H e sets the p r o g r a m f o r r u n n i n g the c a m p , i n his fashion, w i t h little d i r e c t i o n f r o m m e . As l o n g as he is d o i n g such a g o o d j o b , t h e b e s t t h i n g I can do to h e l p h i m i s t o stay o u t o f t h e w a y . Some chickens,

supplies ducks,

for

the

kitchen

can

and a b i t o f m i l k are

be

obtained

available

at

Ngara.

around

camp,

Fresh f i s h , regularly

b r o u g h t i n b y o u r n e i g h b o r s . T h e w o r d has s p r e a d that w e are i n the m a r k e t f o r such things. E v e r y f o u r o r f i v e days a L a n d R o v e r m u s t d r i v e t h e f o r t y - m i l e r o u n d - t r i p t o K a r o n g a f o r d r y g o o d s and o t h e r s u p p l i e s . D r i n k i n g w a t e r , h e l d i n the

150-gallon b o w s e r ,

must be replenished at the Karonga T e a c h e r ' s

C o l l e g e , but it does not often r e q u i r e refilling. O n c e w e t o o k a b u s m a n ' s h o l i d a y t o g i v e R o n a l d and the c a m p c r e w a day off. It also g a v e us a c h a n g e of s c e n e r y and p r o v i d e d the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r me t o visit 2 5 0 m i l l i o n - y e a r - o l d K a r r o o r o c k s a t a spectacular l o c a l i t y o v e r l o o k i n g the lake near the v i l l a g e o f C h i w e t a . K a r r o o r o c k s are m o s t abundant i n South A f r i c a and are i m p o r t a n t in p a l e o n t o l o g y b e c a u s e t h e y c o n t a i n in m a s s i v e abundance a n e x t e n s i v e fossil r e c o r d o f m a m m a l i a n r e l a t i v e s a s t h e y e x i s t e d b e f o r e they can r e a l l y b e d e e m e d m a m m a l s i n t h e m o d e r n sense. T h e y are

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

102 m o r e p r i m i t i v e than all the animals w e c o m m o n l y and easily r e c o g n i z e a s mammals today.

T h e y used t o b e c a l l e d m a m m a l l i k e r e p t i l e s .

I had l o n g

w a n t e d t o see this s i t e , also v i s i t e d b y the Britisher M i g e o d i n his 1 9 3 0 t r e k to Nyasaland.

T h e locality is incredibly rich in b o n e p r e s e r v e d in tough

c o n c r e t i o n s . W e f o u n d t h r e e skulls and lots o f o t h e r fossils. T h e sky w a s b l u e , the b r e e z e w a s c o o l , the f o a m w a s w h i t e o n the crests o f the w a v e s dancing o n the l a k e — a n d t h e fossils s t a m p e d e d f r o m the g r o u n d . I t w a s just the kind of day o f f I l i k e . I n p r e v i o u s years w e used t o take o u r d a y - o f f d i n n e r s i n the f i r s t - c l a s s d i n i n g cabin of the llala w h e n it d o c k e d at C h i l u m b a . T h i s y e a r it is b e i n g r e f u r b i s h e d . W e t o o k o u r m e a l a t a small b u t pleasant a t t e m p t a t a tourist camp on the lake.

WE

ARE

M A K I N G g o o d progress at the quarries.

O u r daily ritual i s a n

obsession t o g e t t h e fossil b o n e s o u t o f t h e g r o u n d i n g o o d shape, r e a d y t o t r a n s p o r t , and w i t h all t h e necessary data a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e m t o m a x i m i z e t h e i r significance.

Dale continues the mapping, quarrying w h e n he is not

m e a s u r i n g . T h e rest o f u s are e i t h e r scratching a w a y a t a s p e c i m e n , a w l i n g t h r o u g h s e d i m e n t t o f i n d n e w o n e s , sacking u p m a t r i x , p l a s t e r i n g a b o n e , o r removing overburden.

The

musty

smell

of damp

earth i s

always in

our

n o s t r i l s , the rat-a-tat s o u n d o f the r o t o - h a m m e r c o n s t a n t l y rings i n o u r ears. G r a y c l o u d s o f f t h e N y i k a h a v e b e e n t h r e a t e n i n g the past c o u p l e o f days. T h e sky has spit rain, b u t n o t e n o u g h t o cause any d a m a g e .

I t k e e p s the

w e a t h e r c o o l . I d o u b t i t has r e a c h e d m u c h o v e r n i n e t y , i f that, since w e have b e e n h e r e . O v e r b u r d e n i s b e c o m i n g a p r o b l e m , b u t w e each have a little s p o t , a c h o i c e a r e a , i n w h i c h t o w o r k . I w a n t i t t o stay that w a y . T h e r o t o - h a m m e r is r u n n i n g full-tilt and f u l l - t i m e to c u t t h r o u g h the steadily increasing thickness o f r o c k c o v e r i n g t h e pay l a y e r a s w e q u a r r y farther i n t o the hillside. B o n e s , m o s t l y s a u r o p o d , are c o m i n g a s fast a s w e can handle t h e m . T h e y are s o j a c k - s t r a w e d that w e c a n n o t g e t o n e o u t w i t h o u t r u n n i n g i n t o a n o t h e r . W h i c h s h o u l d b e r e m o v e d f i r s t ? N e w s p e c i m e n s are f o u n d e v e r y d a y . W i t h e v e r y n e w b o n e , s o m e o n e o n t h e c r e w , t h e d i s c o v e r e r , has the i n t o x i c a t i n g h o n o r o f b e i n g the f i r s t p e r s o n e v e r t o lay e y e s o n that b i t o f the Earth's treasures. W i l l f o u n d w h a t l o o k s t o b e part o f a s a u r o p o d skull. T h a t i s q u i t e a f i n d b e c a u s e skull b o n e s are e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t . W h o w a n t s t o

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

see a dinosaur w i t h o u t a head? But W i l l ' s s p e c i m e n is so small, no l a r g e r than a s i z e - t e n s h o e . It is a l m o s t c u t e , if such things can b e . So n o w we h a v e skull b o n e s , c l a w s , tail v e r t e b r a e , and s o m e o f the b o n e s i n b e t w e e n . W h a t m o r e c o u l d w e w a n t ? T h e e x c i t e m e n t o f d i s c o v e r y persists t h r o u g h t h e m o r n i n g s , p r o v i d e s the subject f o r l u n c h t i m e c o n v e r s a t i o n s , and p r o p e l s u s t h r o u g h t h e sunny a f t e r n o o n s . L u n c h at the site is a r r a n g e d i n d i v i d u a l l y f r o m stocks of pilchards and sardines, fresh and d r i e d fruits, m a c a d a m i a s and p e a n u t s , c o r n e d b e e f , and assorted biscuits. T h e v i l l a g e r s c o o k nsima f o r o u r l o c a l l a b o r e r s . E l i z a b e t h , Fidelis, and James j o i n t h e m . Nsima is the staple dish of M a l a w i . It is g r o u n d m a i z e m e a l , s o r t o f like g r i t s . S o m e f o r m o f i t i s e a t e n all o v e r A f r i c a . T h e p r o j e c t p r o v i d e s nsima to the local c r e w just as it d o e s pilchards to the r e s t . A t t h r e e w e b e g i n t o clean u p the q u a r r y and p u t a w a y o u r t o o l s . T h e b o n e s and jackets r e m o v e d d u r i n g t h e day a r e t r a n s p o r t e d back t o t h e L a n d R o v e r o n the heads o f the c r e w . W e g e t back t o c a m p b e t w e e n f o u r - t h i r t y and f i v e . T h e n t h e l a k e . H o w refreshing it i s — t h e lake.

C o o l w a t e r w a s h e s a w a y the s w e a t and

g r i m e and dust, t h e s o r e backs and aching m u s c l e s o f t h e d a y , l e a v i n g the e u p h o r i a o f o u r pleasant s u r r o u n d i n g s and o u r g o o d f o r t u n e . T h e r e i s p l e n t y o f t i m e f o r u n w i n d i n g , s u n d o w n e r s , and sodas w i t h fresh r o a s t e d p e a n u t s . K e r o s e n e lanterns a r e l i g h t e d a t dusk.

We p r e f e r t h e m to pressure lamps

because t h e y cast a s o f t e r light and t h e y h a v e n o s o u n d t o p e r m e a t e t h e evening. Sunset is a v e r y special t i m e in A f r i c a . T h e t r o p i c a l sun d r o p s r a p i d l y , c a t a c l y s m i c a l l y , f r o m the sky, l e a v i n g a l m o s t n o t i m e f o r t w i l i g h t . T h e fading light t h r o u g h the A f r i c a n h a z e , i n w h i c h e v e r hue has b e e n c h o s e n f o r t h e n i g h t , has a thick, p a l p a b l e q u a l i t y , l i k e a pleasant taste that is just on the v e r g e o f b e i n g t o o s w e e t . I t f l o w s v i s c o u s l y and bathes and c o n s u m e s . T h e j a g g e d branches o f the t r e e s take o n a v i v i d b l a c k e r - t h a n - b l a c k c o l o r against the sky. C o n c e a l e d b y the r o a r i n g s i l e n c e i s the s o u n d o f t h e l a k e , and the b i r d s t a k i n g roost. T h e evening meal is served around six-thirty. It begins w i t h soup. T h e n c o m e s a m p l e , m a y b e t o o a m p l e , quantities o f r i c e o r nsima, a m a i n c o u r s e o f c h i c k e n , d u c k , o r f i s h , s o m e t i m e s b e e f , w i t h c a b b a g e and t o m a t o salad, and t i n n e d v e g e t a b l e s . R o n a l d m a k e s a m e a n stuffing t o g o w i t h d u c k . D e s s e r t i s usually t i n n e d o r fresh fruit w i t h c r e a m , also t i n n e d . A f t e r d i n n e r t h e r e i s b r a n d y and light c o n v e r s a t i o n ,

or perhaps d e e p

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

104 p h i l o s o p h y , a discussion o f chaos t h e o r y , o r w h o k n o w s w h a t e l s e . T h e d a y ' s results and t o m o r r o w ' s plans are m u l l e d o v e r . P r o b l e m s a r e anticipated and s o l u t i o n s discussed. T h e skies o f m o o n l e s s nights are i l l u m i n a t e d b y i n c r e d i b l e n u m b e r s o f i n c r e d i b l y b r i g h t shining stars.

T h e S o u t h e r n C r o s s hangs o v e r the f i s h i n g

v i l l a g e . T h e p l a n e o f the e c l i p t i c crosses d i a g o n a l l y o v e r c a m p , spraying the skies w i t h m i s t y d r o p s o f light.

Fireflies d a n c e a l o n g the line o f b r e a k i n g

w a v e s , a s e g u e f r o m t h e Earth t o the h e a v e n s . O n m o s t n i g h t s , e v e r y o n e i s r e a d y t o r e t i r e t o t h e tents b y e i g h t , r e a d a f e w p a g e s b y flashlight u n d e r t h e m o s q u i t o n e t , and drift o f f t o s l e e p , lulled o n c e m o r e b y the w a v e s . T h e sounds o f the l a k e , its seiche and c y c l e s i n w a k i n g and s l e e p i n g , p r o v i d e a s y m m e t r y t o the d a y .

25

July,

Wednesday.

Y e s t e r d a y w e had a f e w e q u i p m e n t p r o b l e m s . First the g e n e r a t o r failed. W e c o u l d b e h a n d i c a p p e d i n t h e e x t r e m e w i t h o u t t h e r o t o - h a m m e r t o k n o c k off o v e r b u r d e n . W e also had a b i t o f a v e h i c l e p r o b l e m . W e had c o m e t o the site i n the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r w i t h James d r i v i n g . U s u a l l y w e park a t the t o p o f the b i g hill a t the fault c u t t i n g t h r o u g h the D i n o s a u r B e d s . Because the g e n e r a t o r i s h e a v y and w e n e e d e d t o l o a d i t i n t o the L a n d R o v e r t o take i t for repairs, an attempt was m a d e to m o t o r along Mjuda's road to get closer t o the q u a r r y . T h a t w a y t h e g e n e r a t o r w o u l d n o t h a v e t o b e h a u l e d s o far b y h a n d . T h e plan w o r k e d w e l l e x c e p t f o r o n e t h i n g : T h e L a n d R o v e r g o t stuck i n a s t e e p h o l l o w b e t w e e n t w o hills. T h e d r i v e shaft b r o k e , k n o c k i n g o u t p o w e r t o t h e r e a r w h e e l s . W i t h n o p o w e r a t the b a c k , the f r o n t w h e e l s c o u l d n o t p u l l the L a n d R o v e r u p t h e i n c l i n e and o u t o f t h e bush. A t the m o m e n t o f this w r i t i n g i t i s sitting a l o n g the g u l l y w h e r e i t s t o p p e d , a t t h e c o n v e r g i n g bottom

o f t w o s t e e p hills,

in the m i d d l e

o f the

badlands,

unable

to go

anywhere. T h e r e w e w e r e , stuck a t the s i t e , w i t h n o easy w a y o f g e t t i n g back t o c a m p . W i l l , a c r o s s - c o u n t r y c y c l i n g enthusiast, s c r o u n g e d a t e e t e r y b i c y c l e f r o m w h o k n o w s w h e r e w i t h t h e h e l p o f M j u d a . I t had n e a r l y flat t i r e s , a b e n t s p r o c k e t , a chain w i t h the a n n o y i n g habit o f p o p p i n g off, and n o b r a k e s . But it w a s a b i c y c l e . D o w n the d i r t t r a c k w e n t W i l l , b o u n c i n g and w a g g l i n g , b o u n d f o r c a m p t o f e t c h t h e o t h e r L a n d R o v e r . T h e rest o f u s w a l k e d d o w n t o a b i g t a m a r i n d

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

t r e e in the v a l l e y . It w a s a l e i s u r e l y w a l k , and at that t i m e of d a y , q u i t t i n g t i m e , w e w e r e a b l e t o a p p r e c i a t e a p o r t i o n o f the vast and c o l o r f u l array o f b i r d l i f e i n A f r i c a : i r i d e s c e n t sunbirds, g r e e n b e e e a t e r s , r e d f i r e f i n c h e s , b l u e c o r d o n b l e u s , black d r o n g o s . C a s q u e - h e a d e d h o r n b i l l s c h a t t e r e d i n the t o p s o f trees (Figure 2 3 ) . U n d e r d i e t a m a r i n d w e r e the malipenga d a n c e s . W e w a t c h e d , m e s m e r i z e d b y the

drum

beat,

a s the

synchronous r o w s of dancers

performed

with

p r e c i s i o n u n d e r the e y e s o f t h e i r e l d e r l y c o a c h . T i n y c h i l d r e n , s t a t i o n e d a t the e d g e o f the adult s p h e r e , m i m i c k e d t h e i r d a n c i n g r o l e m o d e l s . T h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n , d r u n k o n local b r e w , a s v i l l a g e h e a d m e n s o m e t i m e s a r e , c a m e t o e x t e n d his g r e e t i n g s , h a v e his p h o t o g r a p h t a k e n , and j o i n i n the d a n c e the w a y that drunks o f t e n d o . I n the m e a n t i m e W i l l had m a d e i t safely back t o c a m p , a l t h o u g h the chain o n the b i c y c l e had b e g u n t o fail e v e r y h u n d r e d y a r d s .

H e d r o v e the L a n d

R o v e r back and p i c k e d u p the rest o f u s w h e r e w e w a i t e d u n d e r t h e t a m a r i n d .

T O D A Y W A S T H E day t o b e g i n r e p a i r i n g the d a m a g e . I had t o m a k e a t r i p t o K a r o n g a . A t s e v e n , a s usual, w e left c a m p i n t h e f u n c t i o n i n g C o u n t r y C a r H i r e L a n d R o v e r . A t the site I p i c k e d u p the d e f u n c t g e n e r a t o r a n d , l e a v i n g the c r e w a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i , h e a d e d back f o r c a m p w i t h F i d e l i s . I t w a s w i n d y and the lake w a s r o u g h , like the G u l f o f M e x i c o . I n c a m p w e p i c k e d u p James and the e x p e c t e d g a g g l e o f n e i g h b o r s n e e d i n g a lift t o t o w n . T h e n w e h e a d e d f o r K a r o n g a . Since I had t o g o t o t o w n t o g e t the g e n e r a t o r r e p a i r e d a n y w a y , this w a s a g o o d o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e s t o c k o u r s u p p l i e s . T h e d r i v e t o K a r o n g a i s l o n g e n o u g h , l o u d e n o u g h , and shaky e n o u g h t o i n d u c e a t r a n c e . The M-l

highway is always littered with pedestrians on both shoulders,

n o r t h and s o u t h , c o m i n g and g o i n g , f o r the e n t i r e t w e n t y m i l e s t o K a r o n g a . T h a t i s usual. M o s t p e o p l e i n M a l a w i d o n o t have cars, s o m o s t p e o p l e w a l k . M o s t p e o p l e i n this part o f M a l a w i l i v e near the l a k e , w h i c h i s w h e r e the r o a d lies. T h e y w a l k a l o n g the r o a d . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e r e w e r e f e w v e h i c l e s o n the r o a d t o K a r o n g a . T h e r e w e r e s o m e o x c a r t s and b i c y c l e s . A n d t h e r e w e r e a f e w o d d cars, a handful o f o v e r l o a d e d l o r r i e s , b e l c h i n g chibuku t r a n s p o r t s , a t r a c t o r , and o n e o r t w o b r o k e n - d o w n trucks. M o s t l y there w e r e p e o p l e . A l m o s t all the w o m e n a l o n g the r o a d had a l o a d o f s o m e s o r t , i f o n l y a baby slung o n b e h i n d . A f r i c a n w o m e n h a v e a c e r t a i n g r a c e and p o i s e . A s t h e v

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

106

FIGURE 23:

Birds of the African bush:

(upper right), inextricably

and a sunbird.

linked

with

that

a casque-headed hornbill (left),

Birds have an

a bee eater

illustrious evolutionary history

of dinosaurs.

w a l k , they carry their inanimate burdens on their heads. T h e y carry almost a n y t h i n g y o u can i m a g i n e :

amorphous bundles w r a p p e d in cloth, firewood,

a full pail o f w a t e r , shocks o f l o n g grass, baskets o f m a i z e , calabashes o f h o m e b r e w , and w h o k n o w s w h a t e l s e . O n e l a d y , b a r e f o o t e d , b a l a n c e d a single s h o e on h e r head and h e l d the o t h e r in h e r h a n d . T h i s is n o t so u n c o m m o n as y o u

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND 107

w o u l d p r o b a b l y t h i n k . T h e shoes are f o r s h o w o n dressy o c c a s i o n s . I f t h e y a r e u n c o m f o r t a b l e o n b r o a d f e e t used t o b e i n g u n f e t t e r e d , w h y n o t c a r r y t h e m t o the u l t i m a t e d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e n p u t t h e m on? W i t h t h e i r loads b a l a n c e d o n b o l d l y e r e c t h e a d s , the w o m e n g l i d e a l o n g the r o a d o n t h i n - c a l v e d l e g s . T h e i r p o s t u r e i s a c c e n t u a t e d b y t h e i r s t r i k i n g kitenges, a l o n g sheet of c l o t h w r a p p e d a r o u n d l i k e a skirt. T h e kitenges c o m e in many designs. prints.

S o m e are v i b r a n t g e o m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n s o r b r i l l i a n t floral

O n e popular m o t i f is political.

immortalized,

A l l o v e r A f r i c a , heads o f state are

t h e i r p i c t u r e s w o v e n i n t o kitenges,

o v e r the r o u n d b o t t o m s o f w o m e n .

then strategically placed

E v e n the p o p e has his h o l y likeness

g r a c i n g o n e . M o s t , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t p o l i t i c a l , but r a t h e r t h e y d e p i c t visions o f e v e r y d a y life and n a t u r e , things like a n t e l o p e , o r p e r h a p s a v i l l a g e s c e n e . T h o s e that h a v e m a d e t h e i r w a y d o w n f r o m T a n z a n i a h a v e a quaint m o r a l o r cliche w r i t t e n in Swahili u n d e r n e a t h the p i c t u r e . O n c e in K e n y a I s a w a kitenge w i t h the p i c t u r e o f a l a r g e insect b e i n g s p r a y e d s y m m e t r i c a l l y b y f o u r cans o f i n s e c t i c i d e a r r a n g e d a b o u t it.

H e r e in Malawi,

the t w o - h u m p e d bactrian

c a m e l i s particularly p o p u l a r . C a m e l s d o n o t inhabit this p a r t o f A f r i c a . T h o s e in the d e s e r t n o r t h are o n e - h u m p e d d r o m e d a r i e s . Kitenges are fun c l o t h e s that p r o v i d e a splash o f v e r v e t o hard l i v e s . D i n o s a u r s w o u l d l o o k g o o d o n t h e m (Figure 2 4 ) .

IT

IS

T O O l o u d t o talk inside the L a n d R o v e r ,

so it is a g o o d t i m e for

r e f l e c t i o n . W h a t a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e w o r l d o n e has f r o m inside a s c r e a m i n g v e h i c l e c o m p a r e d t o t h e v a n t a g e o f w a l k i n g a l o n g the r o a d . Inside i s a c a c o p h o n y o f n o i s e and p e t r o l f u m e s . O u t s i d e , a n o n y m o u s p e o p l e — t h e y m i g h t a s w e l l b e t r e e s — z i p b y the w i n d o w s , u n n o t i c e d , t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d . It is a d i s t o r t e d r e l a t i v i t y of t i m e and space. E v e r y t h i n g g l i m p s e d is g o n e in a n instant, but n o t h i n g c h a n g e s , b e c a u s e m o r e o f t h e s a m e r e p l a c e s that w h i c h has b e e n passed b y . Inside the L a n d R o v e r life is l o u d and fast. O u t s i d e the L a n d R o v e r , o n this r o a d w i t h f e w v e h i c l e s , the w a l k i s m o s t l y q u i e t , p u n c t u a t e d w i t h t h e o d d D o p p l e r r o a r and a c l o u d o f dust. T h e n i t i s g o n e , and it is as if it n e v e r h a p p e n e d . P e r i o d i c a l l y t h e p r o c e s s r e p e a t s , b u t i t has n o r e l e v a n c e t o the side o f t h e r o a d . L i k e the passengers i n the L a n d R o v e r , the pedestrians g e t w h e r e t h e y are g o i n g . I t just takes l o n g e r . T h e r i d e has s p e e d , but the q u i e t o f the w a l k has s o m e t h i n g t o o f f e r that the r i d e c a n n o t g i v e . S o m e p e o p l e c a n n o t afford t h e e f f o r t t o w a l k , o t h e r s d o n o t h a v e the r e s o u r c e s t o d o o t h e r w i s e . T h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f t h e r i d e r s and the w a l k e r s are

LOUIS

FIGURE 24: A woman walking along the road. wraparound skirt decorated with

JACOBS,

She is wearing a KITENGE,

colorful patterns or pictures.

PH.D.

a sort of

The design shown

here is not one I have seen, but it looks good, doesn't it?

d i f f e r e n t , b u t t h e y a r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . A f t e r all, p e d e s t r i a n s m a y o n e day r i d e , and r i d e r s m i g h t o n e day w a l k again.

AT T H E

E N D of the ride is Karonga. It is a grubby c o m m e r c i a l center in

n o r t h e r n M a l a w i , b u t n o t w i t h o u t its o w n b r a n d o f rustic A f r i c a n c h a r m . I t lies a l o n g s i d e the l a k e , south o f the T a n z a n i a n b o r d e r . T o t h e o u t s i d e r t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a c h r o n i c s h o r t a g e o f sugar and v a r y i n g a c u t e shortages d e p e n d -

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

ing o n the d e m a n d s o f t h e bustling s m u g g l e r t r a d e w i t h the n o r t h . T h e r e i s little m o t o r traffic, b u t l o t s o f p e d e s t r i a n s . A n d l o t s o f dust. I

motored

past

the

turnoff to

the

airport,

served by

Air

Malawi

on

M o n d a y s and F r i d a y s , past the t r a n s p l a n t e d W o r l d W a r I g r a v e s , past the n e w p o s t office and the t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r t . A l l o v e r A f r i c a , v i l l a g e s g o v e r n t h e m selves d e m o c r a t i c a l l y w i t h barazas. T h e s e are o p e n t o all w h o w i s h t o a t t e n d . T h e p e o p l e m e e t w i t h t h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n i n the shade o f a t r e e t o w o r k o u t a c c e p t a b l e s o l u t i o n s t o p r o b l e m s . B o t h accuser and a c c u s e d , t r a n s g r e s s o r and v i c t i m , are p r e s e n t . A l l the facts a r e laid b a r e . O p t i o n s are discussed. E v e r y o n e has a say. E v e r y t h i n g is in t h e o p e n . A consensus is r e a c h e d .

Usually

conflicts are r e s o l v e d . M i s c r e a n t s a r e d e a l t w i t h . Last y e a r M j u d a ' s b r o t h e r , Brighton,

was brought before

a baraza

for beating o n e

o f his w i v e s .

He

suffered the o s t r a c i s m o f his n e i g h b o r s and r e m a i n e d a n outcast f o r s o m e t i m e . T h a t is a s t r o n g p u n i s h m e n t in rural A f r i c a , w h e r e e x t e n d e d f a m i l i e s are the c e n t e r o f social l i f e . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r t i n K a r o n g a i s a f o r m a l e x t e n s i o n o f the baraza s y s t e m o n t h o s e o c c a s i o n s w h e n difficulties c a n n o t b e s o r t e d o u t a t the v i l l a g e l e v e l and w h e n t h e y t a k e o n g r e a t e r legal significance. H o w e v e r , the p r o c e s s i s n o t m u c h d i f f e r e n t , e v e n i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r t , f r o m a v i l l a g e baraza. Each y e a r at the digs we h o l d a baraza

w i t h the area s c h o o l t e a c h e r s ,

p o l i t i c a l - p a r t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , and v i l l a g e h e a d m e n o f M w a k a s y u n g u t i p r e sent. O u r p u r p o s e s i n b e i n g t h e r e , s t r a n g e f o r e i g n e r s that w e a r e , d i g g i n g i n the g r o u n d , are e x p l a i n e d s o that t h e y d o n o t m i s u n d e r s t a n d o u r i n t e n t i o n s . Everyone

makes

a speech.

Mutual

friendship

is

expressed.

Blessings a r e

h e a p e d u p o n us. O n c e , after w e had p r e s e n t e d the s c h o o l w i t h a s o c c e r ball, the h e a d m a s t e r t h a n k e d u s p r o f u s e l y b e c a u s e , h e said, w i t h the ball " m o r e children will be d r a w n to s c h o o l . " I was given a chicken.

THE

R O A D T O d o w n t o w n K a r o n g a leads u p t o t h e T - j u n c t i o n across f r o m

the N e w A p o s t o l i c C h u r c h ( I n M a l a w i ) . Straight a h e a d , the N o r t h e r n C o r r i dor,

an

ambitious

road-building

project

to

allow

Malawi's

goods

to

be

t r a n s p o r t e d across T a n z a n i a t o t h e p o r t o f D a r e s Salaam, i s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n b y G e r m a n s . Just a f e w m i l e s d u e n o r t h o f h e r e G e r m a n y and Britain f o u g h t a b a t t l e d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I . I t has n o t g o t t e n m u c h a t t e n t i o n , a s battles g o . G e r m a n f o r c e s m a r c h e d south i n t w o c o l u m n s f r o m t h e b o r d e r w i t h G e r m a n East A f r i c a i n t o N y a s a l a n d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e a British f o r c e w a s

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

h e a d e d n o r t h , t o w a r d G e r m a n t e r r i t o r y . A s i t h a p p e n e d , the British m a r c h e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o G e r m a n c o l u m n s u n d e t e c t e d . N e i t h e r the British n o r the G e r m a n forces w e r e aware of the o t h e r ' s p r o x i m i t y .

T h e y w e r e like ships

passing in the n i g h t . T h e G e r m a n f o r c e c o n t i n u e d its m a r c h and at t ack ed the British g a r r i s o n a t K a r o n g a . T h e y w e r e r e p e l l e d . A s t h e y r e t r e a t e d , t h e y ran squarely i n t o the British c o l u m n . G e r m a n casualties w e r e h i g h , British losses w e r e less. M o s t o f the d e a d w e r e blacks. W h i t e G e r m a n s and British w h o d i e d — t h e r e w e r e not m a n y — w e r e buried in Karonga. T h e i r graves have been m o v e d so as not t o b e d e s t r o y e d b y a rising l a k e , b u t t h e y a r e still p r e s e r v e d t o this day. T h e y a r e m a i n t a i n e d b y the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s . T h e loss o f A f r i c a n lives i n this s k i r m i s h , the l i v e s o f black m e n c o n s c r i p t e d against t h e i r w i l l , w a s o n e o f the factors that p l a y e d o n John C h i l e m b w e , a n A f r i c a n m i s s i o n a r y t r a i n e d at L y n c h b u r g , V i r g i n i a . He l e d his f o l l o w e r s in a r e b e l l i o n i n 1 9 1 5 , p r e c i p i t a t e d b y the Battle o f K a r o n g a , that cost h i m his life a t t h e hands o f the British. T h i s w a s t h e first m a j o r c o l o n i a l uprising i n w h a t was to b e c o m e Malawi.

I

NEEDED T O g e t my e r r a n d s d o n e . I t u r n e d r i g h t past the H o m e of Sofas

F u r n i t u r e s t o r e , t h e C h i p i k u G e n e r a l S t o r e , and t h e T i k h a l e n a o G r o c e r y and B o t t l e S t o r e , its p a i n t e d w a l l s s h o w i n g C o c a - C o l a and s c r e a m i n g CAFENOL STOPS PAIN FAST! I d r o v e past t h e squalid chibuku bars w i t h r a n c i d e a r l y m o r n i n g c l i e n t e l e l o u n g i n g i n t h e l u r i d shade, d r i n k i n g o r s l u m p e d o v e r i n septic c o r n e r s . I left Fidelis and James a t t h e P V H O ( t h e a c r o n y m f o r Plant and V e h i c l e H i r e O r g a n i z a t i o n , I f o u n d o u t l a t e r ; i t i s the g o v e r n m e n t m e c h a n i c a l w o r k s h o p ) t o a r r a n g e f o r the e x t r i c a t i o n o f t h e stuck L a n d R o v e r and t o see t o g e n e r a t o r r e p a i r s . T h e n I w e n t t o m y first s t o p , the N a t i o n a l Bank o f M a l a w i , to c h a n g e d o l l a r s to kwacha. T h e bank is a small b l o c k b u i l d i n g w i t h m a n i c u r e d l a w n s n e x t t o t h e N a t i o n a l L i b r a r y S e r v i c e , K a r o n g a Branch. Bank transact i o n s are n o t s i m p l e in A f r i c a . I s t o p p e d in at the library w h i l e s o m e r e q u i r e d signatures w e r e b e i n g o b t a i n e d at t h e bank. It is a small r e a d i n g r o o m . I w a s surprised,

although I do not k n o w w h y ,

t o find

i t full o f y o u n g p e o p l e

p e r u s i n g b o o k s , n e w s p a p e r s , and m a g a z i n e s . It is, after all, a l i b r a r y . T h e library i s n e x t t o S o u t h e r n B o t t l e r s L i m i t e d , the s o f t - d r i n k and b e e r distributor.

I e x c h a n g e d e m p t i e s f o r t h r e e crates o f sodas, t h r e e crates o f

g r e e n , and a c r a t e o f b r o w n . U p the s t r e e t i s the p o l i c e s t a t i o n , w h i t e w a s h e d

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

111 a g l e a m i n g w h i t e and t r i m m e d i n b l u e . T h e M a l a w i P o l i c e insignia, a w h i t e h e a d e d f i s h e a g l e , v e r y m u c h l i k e the A m e r i c a n bald e a g l e , flies high o n t h e w a l l . R o w s o f w h i t e w a s h e d stones spell o u t :

WELCOME TOKARONGAPOLICE SUBDIVISION D o w n the s t r e e t i s the M a r i n a C l u b o n the l a k e , the hub o f u p p e r - c r u s t social life in K a r o n g a . It has a o n e - r o o m b a r , a dart b o a r d , a f e w c a b l e s p o o l s f o r tables s c a t t e r e d o u t s i d e , and s o m e h o t e l r o o m s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . Past that i s the G o v e r n m e n t R e s t H o u s e , w h e r e m y g r o u p stayed i n 1 9 8 7 . T h e c e n t e r o f t o w n i s the m a r k e t and bus s t a t i o n . I p a r k e d n e x t t o a t r e e across f r o m the C o r n e r T a r v e n (sic) C h i b u k u W e l c o m e b a r . O n t h e Gmelina tree in front was tacked a notice for a traveling m o v i e theater. It was s h o w i n g an o l d T a r z a n film. T h e m a r k e t i n K a r o n g a i s l e a n ; i t lacks the e x c e s s i v e c o l o r and v i b r a n c e , not

to

mention

the

foodstuffs,

of one

better

stocked.

I

continue

to

be

surprised at t h e lack of v e g e t a b l e d i v e r s i t y and a b u n d a n c e in this t r o p i c a l m a r k e t . Bright t o m a t o e s , p a l e - g r e e n c a b b a g e s , and shiny d r i e d beans p r o v i d e some c o l o r in the marketplace,

b r e a k i n g the

m o n o t o n o u s earth t o n e s o f

p e a n u t s , r i c e , t i n y o n i o n s , s h r i v e l e d s w e e t p o t a t o e s , and s o m e t i m e s e g g s . C a b b a g e is a a w o n d e r f u l field v e g e t a b l e b e c a u s e it k e e p s . It can last a c o u p l e o f w e e k s w i t h o u t g o i n g bad o r l o s i n g its f l a v o r .

Fish—dried,

smoked, or

f r e s h — i s the m a i n p r o t e i n s o u r c e . M e a t i s available e a r l y i n the m o r n i n g s , b u t i t i s usually sold o u t b e f o r e w e a r r i v e . T h e b u t c h e r y stalls are g r e a t charnel houses

thronged

with

customers.

The

butchers

smash t h e

b e e f carcasses

m e r c i l e s s l y w i t h a x e s , m o r e like w o o d s m e n than t h e s p a t t e r e d b u t c h e r s t h e y are. Each v e n d o r i n the m a r k e t has g o o d s a l i g n e d i n small piles o n the g r o u n d o r o n t a b l e s , each p i l e w o r t h a f e w tambala. T h e c a m p r e q u i r e s s o m u c h m o r e than the a v e r a g e h o u s e h o l d that m e r c h a n t s o u g h t t o e n j o y m y c o m i n g . I g o b y , s c o o p i n g u p p i l e after p i l e i n t o m y plastic m a r k e t b a g t o w h a t I w o u l d suppose m i g h t b e t h e i r d e l i g h t . S o m e are h a p p y and fun t o j o k e a r o u n d w i t h . O t h e r s are r e s i g n e d and fatalistic, e x p r e s s i n g l i t t l e satisfaction o v e r a b i g sale. T o t h e m , e i t h e r I w i l l b u y o r I w i l l n o t , and i t s e e m s t o h a v e l i t t l e c o n s e q u e n c e to them either w a y . O u t s i d e the m a r k e t are the fruit v e n d o r s . Bananas, o f c o u r s e , a r e cheap

LOUIS JACOBS, PH.D. 112 and a b u n d a n t .

P a w p a w s are less c o m m o n and m o r e e x p e n s i v e . T h e r e are

p l e n t y o f o r a n g e s , t a n g e r i n e s , and o c c a s i o n a l l y a v o c a d o s b r o u g h t d o w n f r o m Tanzania. M y n e x t e r r a n d w a s t o c h e c k t h e p r o g r e s s o n the g e n e r a t o r r e p a i r . I t w a s n o w i n w o r k i n g o r d e r . F o r the L a n d R o v e r , James and Fidelis had a r r a n g e d t h r o u g h the district c o m m i s s i o n e r f o r a P V H O r o a d - s e r v i c e v e h i c l e t o f i x o u r ailing s t e e d — s o m e t i m e . N o w i t w a s a p p r o a c h i n g lunch. I still n e e d e d t o call Y u s u f i n L i l o n g w e t o c h e c k i n w i t h h e a d q u a r t e r s . T h a t c o u l d b e d o n e later. T h e w a t e r b o w s e r n e e d e d filling. T h e p e t r o l n e e d e d topping off as w e l l . A n d t h e n I had to purchase c a n n e d g o o d s . I d e c i d e d on l u n c h . T h e culinary d e l i c a c y o f K a r o n g a i s susa, w h i c h i s small cubes o f b e e f and fat s k e w e r e d on a b i c y c l e s p o k e , r u b b e d in salt and c r u s h e d r e d p e p p e r , t h e n grilled o v e r a charcoal bucket.

It is d e l i c i o u s .

Its o n l y a c c o m p a n i m e n t is

r o a s t e d g r e e n u n r i p e banana, w h i c h is n o t s w e e t , b u t s e r v e s as a starchy " b r e a d . " F i d e l i s , J a m e s , and I s a u n t e r e d across the s t r e e t to a g r i m y susa m a n w h o s e stand w a s u n d e r a shade m a d e o f l o n g grass. O n e i t h e r s i d e , u n d e r the t r e e s and o u t o f t h e t r o p i c a l m i d d a y sun,

w e r e greasy bicycle repairmen

w o r k i n g i n the dust a t t h e e d g e o f the r o a d . L i g h t w e l l M k w a l a , i n t o w n f r o m his s c h o o l , p o p p e d u p and j o i n e d us. H e l o o k e d sharp i n his b r o w n t i e , a r e s p e c t a b l e t e a c h e r . W e a r r a n g e d a visit t o the c a m p f o r h i m after the school t e r m ends o n F r i d a y .

Lunch was t o p p e d off w i t h s o m e cold buttermilk.

T h e w a t e r b o w s e r was f i l l e d a t the Karonga T e a c h e r ' s C o l l e g e , w h e r e w e w e r e also a b l e t o p h o n e h e a d q u a r t e r s . A f t e r b u y i n g pilchards and t i n n e d fruit a t t h e P T C ( w h i c h stands f o r P e o p l e ' s T r a d i n g C e n t e r ) , w e c r o s s e d o v e r t o t h e p e t r o l station t o f i l l u p . I had t w o j e r r y cans t o c a r r y fuel f o r the g e n e r a t o r . T h e y also n e e d e d f i l l i n g . B o t h had h o l e s , s o I left t h e m — e m p t y — a t the P V H O t o b e w e l d e d . T h e a f t e r n o o n w o r e o n . Finally all w a s d o n e that c o u l d b e d o n e . T h e g e n e r a t o r w a s r e p a i r e d . W e d r o v e o u t o f t o w n , past the Enikani R e s t H o u s e , the Safari L o d g e , and the K a m p u n g a E n t e r t a i n m e n t C e n t e r . F o r the t w e n t y m i l e s back t o N g a r a I d r o v e past the u n b r o k e n l i n e o f p e d e s t r i a n s . A f t e r u n l o a d i n g a t c a m p I j o s t l e d h u r r i e d l y back t o M w a k a s y u n g u t i t o g e t t h e g a n g . T h e y had had a g o o d d a y .

F o u r b o n e s w e r e p l a s t e r e d , and they

f o u n d s o m e n e w o n e s . Best o f all, n o days w i l l b e lost d u e t o t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r o r the b r o k e n g e n e r a t o r . T h e w o r k w i l l g o o n u n i n t e r r u p t e d . Back again t o N g a r a and i n t o the e v e n i n g r o u t i n e . A t s u n d o w n a g r o u p o f f i s h e r m e n p u l l e d t h e i r b i g n e t n e a r o u r c a m p . R o n a l d ' s y o u n g e s t son and his g r a n d s o n , b o t h t h e s a m e a g e , e a r l y t e e n a g e r s I s u p p o s e , are w o r k i n g w i t h

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

t h e m . Fresh f i s h w i l l b e o n t h e t a b l e . T h e lake i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y c a l m t o n i g h t . T h e soft, l a p p i n g w a v e s are g o o d m u s i c f o r s l e e p i n g .

28

July,

Saturday.

W e are m a k i n g g o o d p r o g r e s s a t the q u a r r i e s . B o n e s a r e still c o m i n g thick and fast. Each day b r i n g s n e w d i s c o v e r i e s . T h e r e i s n o sign o f i t l e t t i n g u p . W e have o n l y b e e n w o r k i n g C D - 9 . T h a t o n e q u a r r y i s m o r e than w e can h a n d l e f o r the t i m e b e i n g . I t d o e s n o t l o o k like i t w i l l p l a y o u t b e f o r e w e l e a v e . Elizabeth found a l o w e r j a w of the sauropod yesterday. It is so tiny, smaller than the o n e W i l l f o u n d last Saturday. I f that o n e w a s c u t e , this o n e i s d a i n t y . S t r a n g e , but all the s a u r o p o d b o n e s s e e m s m a l l . T h e s t e g o s a u r p e l v i s d o e s n o t strike m e a s b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y d i m i n u t i v e , b u t t h e s a u r o p o d b o n e s a r e unusual in t h e i r uncharacteristically small s i z e . S a u r o p o d s , after all, i n c l u d e t h e l a r g e s t of all dinosaurs, the largest of all l a n d - d w e l l i n g animals e v e r . Is this a small s p e c i e s , o r are t h e y just y o u n g s t e r s ? T h e r e are c a r n i v o r o u s d i n o s a u r t e e t h , t o o , b u t n o l i m b b o n e s o r v e r t e b r a e that w e h a v e r e c o g n i z e d , o t h e r than t h e sharp, h o o k e d c l a w K e n t f o u n d last y e a r . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e a r e n o skulls o f a m e a t - e a t e r y e t . W h e r e a r e t h e y hiding? C l o u d s have b e e n g r a y and h e a v y f o r t h e past f e w d a y s , b u t thus far o n l y b l u s t e r , n o rain. T h e P V H O r o a d - s e r v i c e v e h i c l e c a m e o u t y e s t e r d a y t o r e p a i r the d r i v e train o f the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r , w h i c h had b e e n a w a i t i n g the arrival o f f i r s t a i d , n e s t l e d i n the h o l l o w w h e r e i t w a s s t r a n d e d . I had p r o v i d e d i t w i t h its o w n w a t c h m a n f o r c o m p a n y s o that i t w o u l d n o t g e t t o o l o n e l y . T h e P V H O mechanics f i n a l l y g o t i t functioning b y cannibalizing their o w n v e h i c l e , then w i t h o u t f o u r - w h e e l d r i v e t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y g o t stuck f o r t w o h o u r s w h i l e crossing the r i v e r . T h e y c h e w e d u p the r i v e r b e d , s p i n n i n g t h e i r w h e e l s , t r y i n g t o g e t o u t , w h i c h m a d e t h e c o n d i t i o n s d i c e y f o r u s t o pass t h r o u g h w h e n o u r turn c a m e . But all i s w e l l that e n d s w e l l . James w a s a b l e t o l i m p the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r i n t o K a r o n g a f o r a t h o r o u g h g o i n g o v e r . Fidelis w e n t w i t h h i m . T h e P V H O d o e s n o t w o r k o n Saturdays ( t o d a y ) o r Sundays, so I e x p e c t James and Fidelis back no e a r l i e r than M o n d a y n i g h t , if t h e n . W e c o u l d sure use t h e m a t t h e s i t e . T h e r e a r e a l o t o f b o n e s t o g e t o u t , and t i m e i s g e t t i n g s h o r t . O h , w e l l , s o l o n g a s t h e r e n t e d L a n d R o v e r i s i n w o r k i n g o r d e r , k n o c k o n w o o d , w e can m a n a g e . A m o r e i m m e d i a t e p r o b l e m i s t h e g e n e r a t o r . T h e m o t o r runs f i n e n o w , this m i n u t e , but t h e r e is a l o o s e c o n n e c t i o n in t h e w i r i n g s y s t e m p r e v e n t i n g

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

114 t h e j u i c e f r o m g e t t i n g o u t . I t m u s t b e r e p a i r e d — a g a i n . W e d o n o t have the t o o l s t o w o r k o n i t , s o I h a v e i n s t r u c t e d Fidelis t o t r y t o find a n e l e c t r i c i a n i n K a r o n g a . T h e thickness o f t h e r o c k o v e r l y i n g the p a y l o a d i s n o w a real difficulty. T h e local l a b o r i s attacking i t w i t h h a m m e r s and chisels, but that i s i n e f f i c i e n t , and t h e y c a n n o t c l e a r e n o u g h t o g i v e each o f the e x c a v a t o r s r o o m t o q u a r r y . W e h a v e o p e n e d C D - 1 0 i n e a r n e s t t o sidestep t h e o v e r b u r d e n p r o b l e m . It, t o o , i s p a c k e d w i t h b o n e , and n o t just t h e stegosaur p e l v i s and s a u r o p o d f e m u r w e f o u n d e a r l i e r .

Parts o f t w o articulated tails have

t u r n e d u p , s o m e stegosaur p l a t e s , and s o m e u n i d e n t i f i e d s .

T H E R E WAS A l a b o r p r o b l e m w h e n I w a s i n t o w n last W e d n e s d a y . O n e o f m y e m p l o y e e s , Yasaki, the surly o n e , a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t w i s h t o s h o v e l w i t h t h e o t h e r s . H e w a s r u d e i n e x p l a i n i n g t o E l i z a b e t h that h e w a s n o t g o i n g t o do it. T h i s c e r t a i n l y is n o t t h e a t m o s p h e r e I w a n t . I sacked Yasaki. Fidelis g a t h e r e d all t h e T u m b u k a c r e w a r o u n d in a mini-baraza u n d e r the t r e e near the supply shed.

H e e x p l a i n e d i n e x c r u c i a t i n g detail w h y t h e sacking w a s

t a k i n g p l a c e . H e r e i t e r a t e d t o t h e m t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s sanction o f this p r o j e c t and its i n t e r e s t i n it. H e e x p o s t u l a t e d o n the f a m e i t w a s b r i n g i n g t o their r e g i o n . T h e m e n o f the local c r e w , t h e i r faces s t e r n , r e m i n d e d Yasaki that t h e y t h e m s e l v e s , his n e i g h b o r s and r e l a t i v e s , had s c o l d e d h i m f o r his b e h a v i o r . T h e y t o l d h i m h e should n o t h a v e b e e n a r g u i n g a b o u t the w o r k . H e should n o t h a v e b e e n r u d e t o E l i z a b e t h . Fidelis said Yasaki s e e m e d h u m b l e d b y the e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h i s w h a t barazas are s u p p o s e d t o d o i f s o m e o n e m i s b e h a v e s . It is t h e m e c h a n i s m f o r m a i n t a i n i n g social h a r m o n y . Yasaki w a s paid for his t i m e . H e absently s a u n t e r e d o f f t o j o i n the malipenga d a n c e . I h i r e d J o s e p h ' s b r o t h e r , A l f r e d , t o fill the g a p . A l f r e d i s a n i c e f e l l o w , b l i n d i n o n e e y e . H e w o r k e d for m e i n 1 9 8 7 . Fidelis used the baraza f o r s o m e t h i n g else since he had e v e r y o n e ' s attent i o n . H e m a d e t h e p o i n t , i n a n i c e w a y , that o v e r l y helpful c h i l d r e n l i v i n g i n these p a r t s , o r adults l o o k i n g f o r a q u i c k p r o f i t that t h e y w i l l n o t m a k e f r o m m e , should n o t p i c k u p b o n e s and b r i n g t h e m t o us. T h i s has increasingly b e c o m e a p r o b l e m , b u t i t i s n o t u n e x p e c t e d . W e k n o w t h e r e are b o n e s all o v e r this v a l l e y , b u t i t i s u n w i s e t o p i c k t h e m u p until t h e i r g e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t and t h e i r e x a c t l o c a t i o n can b e p r o p e r l y e v a l u a t e d . I f c h i l d r e n , o r a n y o n e e l s e , n o m a t t e r h o w w e l l - m e a n i n g , picks u p t h e f r a g m e n t s , t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t i s l o s t , plus clues a r e r e m o v e d that m i g h t h a v e h e l p e d u s t o find m o r e b o n e . But

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND US

m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y i m p o r t a n t , the g o v e r n m e n t o f M a l a w i , t h r o u g h t h e D e partment of Antiquities,

has strict rules p r o t e c t i n g fossils and o t h e r such

objects. T h e y are not t o b e disturbed w i t h o u t authorization. T h e d e p a r t m e n t is q u i t e serious a b o u t e n f o r c i n g its p o l i c i e s . It is e q u a l l y serious a b o u t e d u c a t ing the local p e o p l e s o that t h e y u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e y o u g h t and w h a t t h e y ought not d o .

M a n y W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s c o u l d stand t o b e s o e n l i g h t e n e d .

Fossils i n M a l a w i are r e c o g n i z e d t o b e f o r t h e p u b l i c g o o d — l o n g t e r m .

L I G H T W E L L S H O W E D U P a t breakfast this m o r n i n g . H e has j o i n e d u s a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i , his h o m e area, b u t o n l y f o r t h e d a y . A t the s i t e , M j u d a , his legs b o w e d r i c k e t s l i k e , had o u r t o o l s laid o u t a s usual. H e maintains a w r i t t e n i n v e n t o r y , n o t o n m y i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t b y his o w n v o l i t i o n and d e s i r e t o d o a g o o d , r e s p o n s i b l e j o b . W e h a v e n o t lost s o m u c h a s a n a w l . H i s m o t h e r and father w e r e t h e r e . Y o u c o u l d see the p r i d e , theirs and his, a s h e s h o w e d t h e m a r o u n d the digs w i t h a flourish. I n o t i c e d a r i n g o f ashes a r o u n d the s u p p l y t e n t w h e r e M j u d a s l e e p s . T h e y w e r e f o r siafu.

Siafu are t h e safari ants o f l e g e n d a r y f e r o c i t y . T h e y t r a v e l i n

r o v i n g c o l u m n s , d e v o u r i n g hapless v i c t i m s o f any animal p e r s u a s i o n . W h e n they e n t e r a h u t , snakes and lizards l e a v e t h e i r safe havens in t h e w a l l s . I used t o pull the c l i n g i n g b o d i e s and c l a m p e d j a w s o f these fearless insects f r o m b e t w e e n the t o e s o f m y d o g s i n K e n y a .

H u m a n babies have s u c c u m b e d t o

t h e i r v i c i o u s attacks. T h e r e i s a s t o r y that M a r y L e a k e y o n c e set the l e g s o f o n e o f h e r s o n ' s cribs i n dishes o f k e r o s e n e t o p r e v e n t siafu f r o m g e t t i n g a t the s l e e p i n g c h i l d . M j u d a s a w s o m e o n the m a r c h n e a r the site y e s t e r d a y . K e n t c a m e across a r e g i m e n t o n t h e trail this m o r n i n g . M j u d a says t h e y w i l l n o t cross ashes. I h a v e h e a r d that b e f o r e , and I b e l i e v e it. Siafu are t o o painful n o t to find some protection from them.

2

August,

Thursday.

T o d a y w a s the last day o f q u a r r y w o r k f o r K e n t and m e .

I t w a s hard t o

c o n c e n t r a t e o n e x c a v a t i n g e v e n w h e n I had the c h a n c e . A f t e r l e a v i n g c a m p t o m o r r o w I w i l l b e s p e n d i n g a f e w days i n L i l o n g w e t y i n g u p l o o s e e n d s . W i l l and D a l e w i l l s p e n d a n o t h e r w e e k o r s o h e r e , t h e n seal t h e q u a r r i e s and head south, w a y d o w n the c o u n t r y . Alisa w i l l j o i n t h e m f o r a r e c o n n a i s s a n c e o f t h e southern equivalent of the Dinosaur Beds.

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

PH.D.

116 T h e bones have n o t played o u t in the quarries at Mwakasyunguti. T h e y s h o w n o signs o f d o i n g s o . I f o u r e x p e r i e n c e i s any i n d i c a t i o n , and I think i t is, t h e r e a r e b o n e s t o d i g h e r e f o r m a n y seasons t o c o m e . T h e r e are c l e a r l y e n o u g h s p e c i m e n s t o d o a t h o r o u g h scientific study. But t h e fossils are b e t t e r than that. T h e r e are e n o u g h t o m a k e a display available t o all the p e o p l e o f M a l a w i . T h a t w o u l d b e e x c i t i n g f o r e v e r y o n e , n o t just scientists.

Hooray!

T h e g e n e r a t o r has n o t b e e n w o r k i n g w e l l , just b a r e l y o r n o t a t all, f o r the past c o u p l e o f days. I t has n o t b e e n m u c h h e l p d u r i n g that t i m e . N e v e r m i n d . W e are b e y o n d t h e critical p o i n t . T w o days a g o t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r r e t u r n e d f r o m t h e s h o p . Y e s t e r d a y i t w e n t b a c k f o r starter r e p a i r s . T o d a y i t is w i t h us again. Still t h e w o r k g o e s o n .

N o w w e h a v e the

e n v i a b l e p r o b l e m o f setting

p r i o r i t i e s f o r w h i c h o f t h e b o n e s can realistically b e r e m o v e d and w h i c h w i l l h a v e t o b e p r o t e c t e d , b u r i e d , and left f o r s e e d until the n e x t f i e l d season. I t is almost like t o o m u c h of a g o o d thing. C D - 1 0 is e v e r y bit as g o o d as C D - 9 . I f w e had t i m e t o f i n d o u t , I b e t C D - I 1 w o u l d b e a s w e l l . A f t e r a fast-paced e x c a v a t i n g s e a s o n , t h e c r e w has g r o w n t o g e t h e r . T h e y m o v e l i k e c l o c k w o r k . Senses a r e a c u t e , a t t u n e d t o t h e subtle nuances o f each e x h u m e d b o n e . Skills are h o n e d sharp. T h e c a m p i s full, l i t t e r e d w i t h h e a v y , t r e a s u r e - l a d e n p l a s t e r j a c k e t s c a r r i e d f r o m t h e q u a r r i e s o n the heads and s h o u l d e r s o f straining l a b o r e r s , w r e s t l e d i n t o t h e v e h i c l e s , and chauffeured t o t h e l a k e . A c a m a r a d e r i e has b u i l t u p . It is hard to l e a v e . A c o u p l e of days a g o a f e l l o w w i t h a h o m e m a d e g u i t a r s h o w e d up at the site.

H e m a k e s guitars h i m s e l f , b u t h e appears d e a f and d u m b , a n autistic

savant.

H e struck a g o o d c h o r d .

hammers

tapped

chisels

and

awls

S p o n t a n e o u s l y , a s the g u i t a r s t r u m m e d , drummed

shovels

in

a

paleontological

s y m p h o n y , c u l m i n a t i n g in a c r e s c e n d o of e x u b e r a n t l a u g h t e r .

It is a g o o d

crew. W e had visitors i n c a m p a t s i x - f i f t e e n this m o r n i n g . W e d o n o t g e t m a n y v i s i t o r s a n y w a y , b u t these w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o t e w o r t h y a t any t i m e . I t w a s a g r o u p o f v i l l a g e r s , m a y b e a d o z e n p e o p l e , all singing and d a n c i n g . T h e r h y t h m c a m e f r o m a n a l u m i n u m c o o k i n g suffria f i l l e d w i t h a bit o f u n c o o k e d r i c e and shaken t o the b e a t . O n e p a r t i c u l a r l y a n i m a t e d and o v e r w e i g h t w o m a n d a n c e d w i t h a t w o - p o u n d plastic b a g o f salt b a l a n c e d o n h e r h e a d , h e r j i g g l i n g c o n t o u r s o u t l i n e d b y h e r s o i l e d d r e s s . E v e r y t h i n g t o g e t h e r w a s a strange sight t o see s o e a r l y i n the m o r n i n g , w h e n o u r e y e s w e r e still d u s t e d w i t h s l e e p . I w o n d e r i f i t w o u l d h a v e s e e m e d less s t r a n g e later i n t h e day. T h i s w a s the

JOURNALS

FROM

THE

GROUND

A f r i c a n e q u i v a l e n t o f a n Irish w a k e . S o m e o n e i n the n e i g h b o r i n g v i l l a g e had d i e d d u r i n g the night. N o w this g r o u p o f d a n c e r s w a s g o i n g a r o u n d s o l i c i t i n g m o n e y f o r the funeral e x p e n s e s and f o o d t o f e e d t h e b e r e a v e d , w h o w o u l d b e a r r i v i n g shortly f r o m all o v e r M a l a w i , f r o m w h e r e v e r t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y had d i s p e r s e d . I d o n a t e d .

T H I S BEING THE last day f o r K e n t and m e , i t w a s the t i m e f o r a p h o t o session a t the q u a r r y . A l l o f the l o c a l c r e w w e r e d r e s s e d i n t h e i r b e s t . M j u d a had on a m i l i t a r y hat w i t h a M a r i a T h e r e s a m e d a l l i o n p i n n e d to it. He had a b i g leather b e l t a r o u n d his w a i s t and across his s h o u l d e r . H e w o r e b o o t s and high k n e e socks, but he w a s d i s a p p o i n t e d that he d i d n o t h a v e short pants l i k e a n official g u a r d and w a t c h m a n .

T h e g u y s b r o u g h t u p all t h e i r w i v e s and

c h i l d r e n . T h e y w e r e p r e t t y w o m e n and p l u m p b a b i e s , d o n e u p i n t h e i r b e s t . O n e o f W e l l i n g t o n ' s w i v e s c o u l d n o t n e g o t i a t e t h e r o c k y path t o t h e site i n her t h i c k - s o l e d , h i g h - h e e l e d shoes, s o naturally she c a r r i e d t h e m o n h e r head and w a l k e d b a r e f o o t u p and d o w n the hills.

W e all t o o k turns i n v a r i o u s

p e r m u t a t i o n s o f p i c t u r e taking and p o s i n g . W i l l , the b e a r d e d f r i e n d , w a s i n b i g d e m a n d . A l f r e d , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s o f his bad e y e , w o r e dark glasses f o r his p h o t o g r a p h s . E v e r y o n e felt c l o s e . I t w a s r e a l l y a v e r y t o u c h i n g e v e n t . W h e n i t w a s o v e r , the ladies left and the m e n c h a n g e d i n t o t h e i r w o r k a d a y rags, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f W e l l i n g t o n , w h o c o n t i n u e d t o w e a r a n e w makeshift hat o f b r i g h t y e l l o w c l o t h w i t h e m b r o i d e r y saying,

"I re m e m b e r . "

T h e n the press a r r i v e d . Y u s u f c a m e u p f r o m L i l o n g w e , b r i n g i n g w i t h h i m half a d o z e n n e w s p a p e r and m a g a z i n e r e p o r t e r s and p h o t o g r a p h e r s . I p a r t i c u larly w a n t e d Yusuf, a B e r k e l e y - t r a i n e d P h . D . a r c h a e o l o g i s t , t o see o u r d i g s . I had b e e n u r g i n g h i m to c o m e up and pay a visit f o r s o m e t i m e . He is t h e m a n i n a u t h o r i t y a t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s and h e w o u l d b e able t o e v a l u a t e , and h o p e f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e , o u r e f f o r t s . A f e w m i n u t e s o f his v i e w i n g the sites w o u l d d o m o r e f o r the p r o j e c t than all t h e f i n a l r e p o r t s I c o u l d w r i t e . N o t that t h e r e w a s any p r o b l e m ; Y u s u f has a l w a y s b e e n m o r e a m e m b e r o f the t e a m than a g o v e r n m e n t a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r . I w a n t e d h i m to see because he w o u l d like it. A n d he did.

S o d i d the p r e s s . T h e y p h o t o g r a p h e d and q u e s t i o n e d and

w r o t e and t a p e d .

H o w i t w i l l t u r n o u t I d o n o t k n o w , but t h e y s e e m e d

i m p r e s s e d . A s usual, t h e y w e r e f i r s t o f all i m p r e s s e d a t s e e i n g the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f these b o n e s f r o m the Earth.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

118 " H o w did they get t h e r e ? " they w o n d e r e d . N e x t t h e y w o n d e r e d a t h o w I e v e r c a m e t o this e x a c t spot t o f i n d these b o n e s , h a l f w a y a r o u n d the w o r l d f r o m w h e r e I l i v e . " H o w did y o u k n o w w h e r e t o d i g ? " Finally t h e y w e r e o v e r w h e l m e d w i t h the p r i d e that these dinosaurs are a part of little M a l a w i . " W i l l you put t h e m o n d i s p l a y ? "

T H E Y LEFT I N the m i d d l e o f t h e a f t e r n o o n , and I t r i e d t o g o back t o w o r k .

THE R O A M I N G

TITAN

LIZARDS

w

ITH SO MANY bones

c o m i n g o u t o f the g r o u n d i n

Malawi,

there

was

little q u e s t i o n that t h e y w o u l d h a v e a n i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t s t o r y t o t e l l a b o u t life i n the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n , b u t b y n o m e a n s all, o f the fossils that h a v e b e e n e x c a v a t e d s o dinosaurs.

W e assigned a r o u n d

far are

the

bones of sauropod

150 f i e l d n u m b e r s t o j a c k e t s and w r a p p e d

s p e c i m e n s o f s a u r o p o d s a l r e a d y taken o u t o f t h e g r o u n d . N o t all w e r e s i n g l e , isolated b o n e s . S o m e w e r e a r t i c u l a t e d sets f o u n d a s t h e y w e r e a r r a n g e d i n l i f e , m o s t n o t a b l y a s e c t i o n of tail w i t h t w e n t y - t w o v e r t e b r a e in a r o w and a set o f b r e a s t b o n e s p l a c e d just a s i f the d i n o s a u r had lain d o w n o n its b e l l y . T h e r e w e r e also t w o l o w e r j a w s , parts o f skulls, assorted v e r t e b r a e f r o m v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s a l o n g the b o d y , a r m b o n e s , t o e s , a c l a w , a t h i g h b o n e and o t h e r parts o f the hind l e g , and a spaghetti b o w l o f ribs. T h e n e x t s t e p , n o w that t h e s e s p e c i m e n s had b e e n r e m o v e d f r o m t h e g r o u n d , w a s t o m a k e sense o f t h e m . W e a l r e a d y k n e w m o r e than w h e n w e started o u t s i m p l y f r o m s e e i n g t h e b o n e s a s w e e x c a v a t e d t h e m , b u t that i s n o t e n o u g h . S o m e o f t h e fossils, a t least the m o r e i m p o r t a n t o n e s , o b v i o u s l y n e e d e d t o b e p r e p a r e d f r o m t h e i r jackets b e f o r e w e c o u l d g e t any r e l i a b l e , i f p r e l i m i n a r y , u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the animals t h e y r e p r e s e n t . I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the p r e p a r e d s p e c i m e n s c o u l d b e s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h p h o t o g r a p h s and m e a s u r e m e n t s o f o t h e r b o n e s r e c o r d e d

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

120 i n the q u a r r i e s w h i l e t h e y w e r e b e i n g e x c a v a t e d , and the p i e c e s o f the p u z z l e w o u l d b e g i n t o fall i n t o p l a c e . D a l e and I , a l o n g w i t h W i l l and E l i z a b e t h , j o i n t l y u n d e r t o o k t o study the s a u r o p o d s . S a u r o p o d dinosaurs a r e familiar t o m o s t e v e r y o n e . I t i s the g r o u p c o m m o n l y c a l l e d b r o n t o s a u r s , and w i t h such c r e a t u r e s as Brachiosaurus ( s e e F i g u r e 4 in C h a p t e r 1 ) , it i n c l u d e s the largest animals that h a v e e v e r l i v e d on land. L i k e m o s t all r e a l l y h u g e animals inhabiting the landscape at a g i v e n t i m e , the s a u r o p o d s w e r e h e r b i v o r o u s . T h e y ate plants and o n l y plants. T h e y w e r e b i g , and t h e y w e r e n o t necessarily f r i e n d l y , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t necessarily f e r o cious either. L a r g e r size o f t e n c o n v e y s c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s . I t stacks the d e c k i n f a v o r o f b i g g e r individuals i n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e same s p e c i e s . L a r g e r i n d i v i d u a l s can o b t a i n the b e s t s p a c e , r e s o u r c e s , m a t e s , and they m a y b e b e t t e r a b l e t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s . T h u s i n c r e a s i n g size t h r o u g h a b i o l o g i c a l lineage is a c o m m o n trend in evolutionary history. This trend to e v o l v e larger d e s c e n d a n t species f r o m s m a l l e r a n c e s t o r s i s k n o w n a s C o p e ' s r u l e . T h e b e s t - k n o w n s a u r o p o d s a r e o f g i g a n t i c p r o p o r t i o n s . T h e largest o f the sauropods might have w e i g h e d as much as fifty, sixty, m a y b e e v e n eighty tons. M o s t w e r e p r o b a b l y i n the t w e n t y - t o - t h i r t y - t o n r a n g e , still highly r e s p e c t a b l e . Early i n s a u r o p o d e v o l u t i o n t h e r e had t o b e e v e n s m a l l e r o n e s , p r e s u m a b l y , i f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f l a r g e r s p e c i e s f o l l o w e d C o p e ' s r u l e . T h e dinosaurian a n c e s t o r s o f the k n o w n s a u r o p o d s , the h y p o t h e t i c a l f i r s t t r u e s a u r o p o d , i f w e had a c o m p l e t e fossil r e c o r d , w o u l d h a v e b e e n m u c h s m a l l e r than the giants. Some

or

all

o f the

evolutionary

lineages

leading

to

different

species

of

s a u r o p o d giants b e c a m e l a r g e r w i t h g e o l o g i c t i m e until t h e y w e n t e x t i n c t . T h e o n l y animals that h a v e e v e r surpassed the s a u r o p o d size r e c o r d are the blue whales. T h e y , of course, have an advantage because they live in seawater, w h i c h is a d e n s e fluid that b u o y s up t h e i r m a s s i v e b o d i e s . If s t r a n d e d on land, w h a l e s , e v e n t h e s m a l l e r o n e s , w i l l suffocate f r o m b e i n g c r u s h e d u n d e r t h e i r o w n w e i g h t . T h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r b o d i e s c a n n o t k e e p t h e i r w e i g h t off o f their lungs. T h e p r o b l e m s o f s u p p o r t i n g w e i g h t f o r any animal are m u c h g r e a t e r o n land than t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d in an a q u e o u s m e d i u m , such as w h a l e s inhabit, b u t t h e p r o b l e m s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y difficult f o r t h o s e l a n d - d w e l l i n g animals o f e x c e p t i o n a l l y l a r g e s i z e . B e i n g such l a r g e animals a s m o s t o f the s a u r o p o d s a r e , shear b u l k p l a c e s a t r e m e n d o u s strain o n t h e m . O n e r e a s o n c o n t r i b u t i n g t o w h y s a u r o p o d dinosaurs w e r e a b l e t o e v o l v e i n t o such l a r g e and h e a v y

T H E

R O A M I N G

T I T A N

L I Z A R D S

121 f o r m s i s that a t s o m e t i m e i n t h e i r e a r l y h i s t o r y t h e y b e g a n t o w a l k o n f o u r legs rather than t w o .

S t r a n g e a s i t s e e m s , dinosaurs started o u t w a l k i n g ,

r u n n i n g , and standing o n t w o l e g s . B i p e d a l l o c o m o t i o n i s p r i m i t i v e f o r t h e g r o u p as a w h o l e ( a n d f o r m a n y of the m o r e f a m i l i a r d i n o s a u r s ,

such as

Tyrannosaurus rex). In s a u r o p o d s , dinosaurs s p e c i a l i z e d in o b t a i n i n g l a r g e s i z e , f o u r legs p r o v i d e a m o r e stable f o u n d a t i o n f o r b o d y mass and d o u b l e the n u m b e r o f pillars s u p p o r t i n g the a n i m a l . T h e r e are b i g ancillary p r o b l e m s associated w i t h C o p e ' s r u l e . T h e mass o f an a n i m a l ' s b o d y increases at a g r e a t e r r a t e than the s i m p l e i n c r e a s e in a linear d i m e n s i o n . T h a t m e a n s that a n a n i m a l t w i c e a s l o n g a s a n o t h e r o f the s a m e shape and physical a p p e a r a n c e w i l l w e i g h m o r e than t w i c e t h e s e c o n d a n i m a l ' s weight.

L a r g e r animals w e i g h p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y , a s w e l l a s a b s o l u t e l y , m o r e

than s m a l l e r animals. T h e r e f o r e , i f a s a u r o p o d l i n e a g e i s t o b e c o m e g i g a n t i c , i t m u s t b e able t o s u p p o r t a spiraling i n c r e a s e i n w e i g h t w i t h each m o d e r a t e i n c r e m e n t i n s i z e . T h e s t r e n g t h o f the b o n e s m u s t b e g r e a t e n o u g h t o h o l d u p all that b u l k , but i f the b o n e s are m a d e b i g g e r t o b e s t r o n g e r , t h e y w i l l reach a p o i n t w h e r e t h e y i n c r e a s e in w e i g h t faster than t h e y increase in strength. T h e r e is the d i l e m m a . T h e s o l u t i o n i s t o e v o l v e structural m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n the shape and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b o n e s s o that t h e y a r e b o t h light and s t r o n g . Birds d o i t b y h a v i n g thin-walled, h o l l o w bones. Pterodactyls do it the same w a y . F r o m a p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , such b o n e s a r e f r a g i l e . T h a t i s w h y b o t h these g r o u p s o f flying r e p t i l e s a r e u n c o m m o n l y p r e s e r v e d a s fossils, and w h e n t h e y a r e , t h e y are usually c r u s h e d . O f c o u r s e , s a u r o p o d s d o n o t fly, b u t t h e i r b u l k necessitates m o d i f i c a t i o n of their supporting b o n e s . N o t surprisingly, they do it in a rather different sort o f w a y f r o m birds and p t e r o s a u r s — o n e that r e m i n d e d the g r e a t A m e r i c a n v e r t e b r a t e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t and d i n o s a u r e x p e r t E d w i n H . C o l b e r t o f a ship. A ship, i f laden w i t h m o r e than i t can safely h o l d , w i l l f o u n d e r . I n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Britain a l a w w a s e n a c t e d against the o v e r l o a d i n g o f s e a g o i n g v e s s e l s . I t w a s d e c i d e d t o p l a c e a l i n e o n t h e o u t s i d e o f British m e r c h a n t ships t o indicate the l a w f u l l e v e l o f s u b m e r g e n c e o f t h e hull. T h e ship c o u l d b e l o a d e d until i t r o d e i n t h e w a t e r a t the l e v e l o f t h e l i n e and n o m o r e . T h e m a r k w a s called a P l i m s o l l l i n e , after S a m u e l P l i m s o l l , t h e statesman w h o c h a m p i o n e d the

legislation.

Sauropods

no

more

ply

through

the

w a t e r than t h e y fly

t h r o u g h the air, but that is n o t w h a t t h e a n a l o g y w i t h the P l i m s o l l line is based o n . I t i s based o n the fact that t h e l i m b s o f s a u r o p o d s a r e h e a v y and r a t h e r

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

122 dense,

while

the

vertebrae

and

skull

are

light

with

many

weight-saving

m o d i f i c a t i o n s . I f y o u w e r e t o d r a w a l i n e a l o n g the base o f the b a c k b o n e i n a s a u r o p o d s k e l e t o n f r o m the s h o u l d e r g i r d l e t o t h e h i p s , the b o n e s b e l o w the l i n e — t h e paleontological Plimsoll l i n e — w o u l d be heavier in construction, and the b o n e s a b o v e w o u l d b e l i g h t e r ( F i g u r e 2 5 ) .

Such a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

w e i g h t p r o v i d e s f o r a l o w c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y and t h e r e f o r e g r e a t e r stability. T h i s has s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g e v o l u t i o n a r y i m p l i c a t i o n s . A b o v e the P l i m s o l l line

the

evolutionary

modifications

f o r m a k i n g the

skeleton

in

sauropods

l i g h t e r a r e p r o f o u n d . T h e o u t e r , superficial l a y e r o f each b o n e i s e x t r e m e l y t h i n , n o t all that m u c h t h i c k e r than that in a b i r d . Inside the b o n e the osseus tissue takes o n a n a p p e a r a n c e r a t h e r l i k e soap b u b b l e s , the c u r v e d surfaces o f f r a g i l e b o n e p r o v i d i n g i n t e r n a l s t r e n g t h t o t h e w h o l e . T h e v e r t e b r a e o f the b a c k and n e c k , and the h e a d , d o n o t h a v e t h e d e n s e internal s t r u c t u r e o f the b o n e s b e l o w the P l i m s o l l l i n e , b u t t h e y are n o t h o l l o w e i t h e r . T h e b u b b l y i n t e r n a l b o n y s t r u c t u r e i s a g o o d and a p p a r e n t l y v e r y e f f e c t i v e c o m p r o m i s e . However,

i t c r e a t e s p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s f o r the p a l e o n t o l o g i s t .

Such thin-

w a l l e d b o n e w i t h w i s p y internal s t r u c t u r e i s easily d a m a g e d o r d e s t r o y e d

FIGURE

25:

The paleontological Plimsoll line.

The bones of the limbs

that support

the body of a sauropod are heavily constructed and dense relative to the vertebrae, which

are light

and have evolved a

ship the heavy ballast, the level above dinosaurs

are

which

number of weight-reducing features.

which gives stability,

a

is placed well below the Plimsoll line,

a ship cannot safely float.

top-heavy.

In

Neither ships nor sauropod

T H E

R O A M I N G

T I T A N

L I Z A R D S

123 unless the c o n d i t i o n s o f fossilization a r e just r i g h t . T h e b o n e s i n M a l a w i h a v e not

been

completely

petrified

into

stone,

so

excavating

them

and

even

p r e p a r i n g t h e m in t h e l a b o r a t o r y is a t e d i o u s j o b if t h e d e l i c a t e surface is n o t to be damaged.

I f t h e lightness o f s a u r o p o d b o n e s a b o v e the P l i m s o l l l i n e

p r e s e n t s practical f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y p r o b l e m s t o t h e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , o t h e r structural adaptations f o r m a k i n g b o n e l i g h t e r w h i l e still s u p p o r t i n g w e i g h t p r o v i d e a w e a l t h o f features f o r a n a l y z i n g t h e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s . O n e o b v i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n f o r b e a r i n g w e i g h t i s t h e alterat i o n o f v e r t e b r a l s t r u c t u r e . V e r t e b r a e o f any l a n d - d w e l l i n g animal a r e c o m p l i cated,

but especially those of sauropods.

T h e vertebrae must be strongly

enough linked together to p r o v i d e for their support function, yet they must retain the capability t o b e n d a t the j o i n t s s o that t h e b a c k b o n e can r e t a i n flexibility.

O n t o p o f that, t h e y m u s t b e l i g h t . T h e w a y this i s a c h i e v e d i n

d i f f e r e n t s a u r o p o d s is a c l u e to t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A l l s a u r o p o d s h a v e l o n g n e c k s . I n s o m e s p e c i e s t h e n e c k v e r t e b r a e and t h e adjacent v e r t e b r a e a t t h e f r o n t e n d o f the back are m o d i f i e d i n a special w a y . I f y o u tilt y o u r chin d o w n t o w a r d y o u r chest and f e e l t h e back o f y o u r n e c k , y o u w i l l n o t i c e the t i g h t nuchal l i g a m e n t that attaches f r o m y o u r h e a d t o y o u r back v e r t e b r a e . T h e h a r d , b o n y p r o j e c t i o n s i n y o u r back a t the base o f y o u r n e c k and d o w n are c a l l e d the n e u r a l spines o f y o u r v e r t e b r a e . T h e s e are q u i t e l o n g i n animals that m u s t h o l d u p a l a r g e h e a d and n e c k . T h i n k o f the h u m p o n a b u f f a l o ' s b a c k . T h e h u m p , b e n e a t h t h e h i d e , g e t s its shape f r o m l o n g spines o f the v e r t e b r a e and the m u s c l e s and l i g a m e n t s that run t o w a r d t h e h e a d . T h e spines m u s t also b e l o n g i n s a u r o p o d s , n o t s o m u c h b e c a u s e t h e y have b i g h e a v y heads b u t b e c a u s e the c r a n i u m i s s o far a w a y f r o m the b o d y o n such a l o n g n e c k . I n s o m e , b u t n o t all, s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s t h e spines a p p e a r t o b e f o r k e d , b i f u r c a t e d , i n t h e n e c k and adjacent b a c k , f o r m i n g a t r o u g h o r channel i n w h i c h the n e c k m u s c l e s lie ( F i g u r e 2 6 ) . I n g e n e r a l , a m o n g t h o s e species that s h o w this f e a t u r e , t h e s h o r t e r t h e f r o n t l e g s a r e , r e l a t i v e l y , t h e d e e p e r the trough.

S a u r o p o d s such as Diplodocus w i t h a t r o u g h a p p a r e n t l y

f o r m e d b y t h e i r v e r t e b r a l spines h a v e t h e i r l o n g n e c k s c a n t i l e v e r e d o u t i n f r o n t o f the b o d y .

T h e n e c k h e l d o u t i n that w a y p r o v i d e s a l o n g radius

t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e h e a d can m o v e w h i l e the animal i s f e e d i n g . I t c o u l d b r o w s e a large area w h i l e standing in o n e s p o t . In s a u r o p o d s such as Brachiosaurus t h e head i s h e l d a t o p a n e r e c t , g i r a f f e l i k e n e c k and t h e r e i s n o t r o u g h a t all f o r m e d b y the spines o f t h e v e r t e b r a e . f o l i a g e i n the t o p s o f t r e e s .

It w a s b e t t e r suited for feeding off higher

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

124

FIGURE

26:

Cantilevered-versus-erect posture in

One suggestion

of the weaning of differing

the necks of sauropod dinosaurs.

vertebral shape in sauropod necks is

that

vertebrae

with divided spines support cantilevered necks (top)

with

undivided spines support necks held in

while

vertebrae

a more erect posture (bottom).

T h e r e a r e a g r e a t m a n y v e r t e b r a e in a spinal c o l u m n , so it m a k e s sense that i f s o m e t h i n g c o u l d b e d o n e t o m a k e each o f t h e m l i g h t e r , i t w o u l d h a v e a relatively big effect w h e n totaled up along the entire b a c k b o n e . T h e main b o d y o f a v e r t e b r a , t o w h i c h the spine and o t h e r b o n y p r o c e s s e s attach, i s c a l l e d a c e n t r u m . T h e c e n t r u m i s t h e b i g g e s t single c o m p o n e n t o f a v e r t e b r a . C e n t r a a r e basically c y l i n d r i c a l in s h a p e , and in t h e b a c k b o n e t h e y line up o n e after the o t h e r l e n g t h w i s e .

( I n h u m a n s a s l i p p e d disk is a c a r t i l a g e p l a t e

b e t w e e n t w o v e r t e b r a l c e n t r a that has s h i f t e d . ) S o m e s a u r o p o d s have lightened the centra in ingenious ways.

L a r g e p o c k e t s , c a l l e d p l e u r o c o e l s , are

e x c a v a t e d i n the sides o f the c e n t r a ,

r e a r r a n g i n g the p r i m i t i v e

cylindrical

shape i n t o a f o r m that is l i g h t e r y e t still p r o v i d e s a d e q u a t e s t r e n g t h and retains a p p r o p r i a t e l e n g t h . N o t all s a u r o p o d s h a v e p l e u r o c o e l s , and n o t all t h o s e that d o h a v e t h e m d e v e l o p e d o n the s a m e v e r t e b r a e o r i n t h e s a m e w a y . I t s e e m s that o n c e t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o d u c i n g p l e u r o c o e l s w a s a c h i e v e d ,

T H E

R O A M I N G

T I T A N

L I Z A R D S

125 natural s e l e c t i o n and chance c o u l d m o l d t h e specific shape o f the p l e u r o c o e l s i n a n u m b e r o f d i r e c t i o n s d e p e n d i n g o n the s p e c i e s . A n d since t h e l i g h t e n i n g o f v e r t e b r a e t h r o u g h the d e v e l o p m e n t o f p l e u r o c o e l s i s o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d t o the a t t a i n m e n t o f g i g a n t i c s i z e , p l e u r o c o e l s m a y h a v e e v o l v e d m o r e than o n c e in separate s a u r o p o d lineages as g r a n d size w a s a p p r o a c h e d . I t s e e m s p r e t t y c l e a r that h u g e animals m u s t h a v e a l a r g e i n t a k e o f f o o d to keep themselves alive.

Even a l o w estimate of food requirements w o u l d

have to be l a r g e in real t e r m s f o r such animals as s a u r o p o d s . T h e r e f o r e , it is all the m o r e a s t o u n d i n g t o take a l o o k a t a s a u r o p o d h e a d .

N o species o f

s a u r o p o d has a large h e a d ; all a r e small c o n s i d e r i n g the t o t a l size of the b o d y . Y e t all the f o o d that i s e v e r e a t e n m u s t e n t e r t h e t i n y p i n h e a d and pass d o w n the g u l l e t . S a u r o p o d heads h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r l y nasty habit so far as field p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s are c o n c e r n e d . T h e y are n o t o f t e n f o u n d . I n life t h e y m u s t h a v e b e e n w e a k l y attached t o the e n d o f the n e c k , because i n d e a t h the h e a d i s q u i c k l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m the b o d y . I c a n n o t shake the i m a g e o f a s a u r o p o d head r o l l i n g o f f l i k e a s o c c e r ball, b u t o f c o u r s e i t w a s n o t l i k e that. T h e l i g h t , thin b o n e s o f the head are as l i g h t l y b u i l t and as t h i n - w a l l e d as t h e v e r t e b r a e a r e . T h e y are i n s e c u r e l y fastened t o each o t h e r . A s a d e a d s a u r o p o d r o t t e d o r w a s d i s m e m b e r e d , the head s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e n e c k , and the d e l i c a t e b o n e s b e c a m e s c a t t e r e d and d e s t r o y e d . T h e p r o b l e m this m a k e s f o r p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s i s that m a n y species o f s a u r o p o d s a r e k n o w n o n l y f r o m b o n e s that c o m e f r o m the n e c k o r farther back i n the s k e l e t o n , and w e h a v e n o idea w h a t the h e a d w a s actually l i k e . species.

In

H e a d s are k n o w n i n o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f the n a m e d s a u r o p o d fact Apatosaurus,

the

real

name

of b r o n t o s a u r u s ,

suffered

for

d e c a d e s w i t h the w r o n g head until the m i s t a k e w a s caught and c o r r e c t e d . S a u r o p o d skulls that a r e k n o w n s h o w q u i t e a b i t o f d i v e r s i t y i n t h e i r shapes ( F i g u r e 2 7 ) . I n all, the b o n y h o l e s t h r o u g h w h i c h the nasal passages g o a p p e a r e x c e s s i v e l y l a r g e . I n life t h e s e a c c o m m o d a t e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o the air passages, tissue and b l o o d vessels that h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d s p e c u l a t i v e l y a t o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r t o c o n t r o l the

temperature

of b l o o d f l o w i n g to the brain,

to

r e s o n a t e the sounds u t t e r e d b y t h e beast, o r t o facilitate a f l e x i b l e p r o b o s c i s . T h e issue is still o p e n . S o m e s a u r o p o d s h a v e l o n g h e a d s , o t h e r s h a v e heads that are a l m o s t i n c r e d ibly b l u n t . E l o n g a t i o n o f s a u r o p o d skulls s e e m s t o h a v e e v o l v e d i n a t least t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s . Brachiosaurus w a s d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 1 as h a v i n g an a b s u r d , t o o t h y d u c k ' s b i l l . T h e f r o n t o f t h e h e a d i s l o n g b e c a u s e the b o n e s that h o l d

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

126

FIGURE 27: dinosaurs.

The head shape, This

the sauropods. cetiosaurids,

cladogram

tooth shape,

suggests

Two of the less

are not included,

focus for

where

of evolutionary

well known families,

the

branching

titanosaurid relationships lie

within

vulcanodontids and

but they may ft to the left of titanosaurids.

only one of many possible evolutionary trees. explain

and family relationships of sauropod

the pattern

This is

It is an hypothesis that seeks to among

the sauropods and provides a

discussion.

the t e e t h , c a l l e d m a x i l l a and p r e m a x i l l a , a r e e x a g g e r a t e d i n t o the shape o f a d u c k ' s b i l l . T h e nasal b o n e s , w h i c h s u p p o r t the n o s t r i l s , are l o o p e d high u p and b a c k , d o m i n g the skull. O t h e r s a u r o p o d s , such as Camarasaurus, have high h e a d s , b u t the j a w s a r e n o t d r a w n n e a r l y so far f o r w a r d as in Brachiosaurus and the

nostrils a r e n o t so

far back and u p .

S a u r o p o d s such as the

familiar

Apatosaurus and Diplodocus are d i f f e r e n t . T h e i r nostrils are back and on the t o p o f t h e i r h e a d s , b u t the nasal b o n e s are n o t l o o p e d and t h e b o n y o p e n i n g i n the skull f o r t h e nasal passage is m u c h s m a l l e r . T h e skulls in Diplodocus and Apatosaurus a r e o b l o n g - s h a p e d , s o m e w h a t like l o z e n g e s . T h e j a w s are l o n g , b u t t a p e r f r o m t h e back o f t h e skull t o the snout g r a d u a l l y , r a t h e r than b e i n g d r a w n o u t i n t o a d u c k ' s b i l l . A n d the t e e t h are r e s t r i c t e d t o the f r o n t part o f t h e u p p e r and l o w e r j a w s instead o f c o n t i n u i n g back a l o n g t h e sides o f the

THE

ROAMING

TITAN

LIZARDS

m o u t h . In a d d i t i o n , the f r o n t of the j a w s is s q u a r e d o f f and b l u n t , r a t h e r than c u r v i n g m o r e g e n t l y t o m e e t a t the m i d l i n e . Jaws

and

teeth

are

particularly

important

when

considering

how

the

s a u r o p o d giants m a n a g e d t o o b t a i n sufficient n o u r i s h m e n t . Besides the variat i o n i n j a w shape discussed a b o v e , t h e r e i s also v a r i a t i o n a m o n g s a u r o p o d species i n the shape o f the t e e t h ( s e e F i g u r e 2 7 ) . S o m e s a u r o p o d s , such a s Brachiosaurus and Camarasaurus, h a v e t e e t h w i t h s p o o n - s h a p e d c r o w n s . O t h e r s , such as Diplodocus,

h a v e t e e t h that a r e shaped l i k e p e n c i l s .

T h e y are l i t t l e

r o u n d c y l i n d e r s . B o t h o f t h e s e shapes o f s a u r o p o d t e e t h , w h e n m u l t i p l i e d b y a mouthful of t h e m ,

are a d e q u a t e f o r p l u c k i n g and n i p p i n g sprigs,

twigs,

f r o n d s , and l e a v e s , but t h e y a r e n o t g o o d f o r c h e w i n g t h e m u p . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y are n o t h e l d v e r y s t r o n g l y i n t h e i r s o c k e t s , and t h e y w e r e r e p l a c e d i n life a t f r e q u e n t intervals b y r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h g r o w i n g i n f r o m the r o o t s . A f t e r a s a u r o p o d d i e s , the t e e t h v e r y q u i c k l y fall o u t . Since n e i t h e r t o o t h shape is adequate for a g o o d , t h o r o u g h c h e w i n g of the f o o d ,

the t e e t h w e r e used

primarily to obtain f o o d . T h e processing of it was d o n e by gizzard stones, called g a s t r o l i t h s , that g r o u n d foodstuffs i n t o a m a s h , after w h i c h it w a s m o s t likely f e r m e n t e d b y the a c t i o n o f m i c r o b e s . T h e gastroliths are r o c k s that w e r e s e l e c t i v e l y s w a l l o w e d f o r the p u r p o s e . Birds and c r o c o d i l e s d o that n o w . I t is n o t all that unusual in the w o r l d of animal d i g e s t i o n . T h e r e can b e

variation

i n the shape o f t e e t h w i t h i n

c e r t a i n species o f

s a u r o p o d s . In Brachiosaurus, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e t e e t h in the f r o n t of the m o u t h are m o r e b r o a d l y s p o o n - s h a p e d than t h o s e farther b a c k . Still, e v e n i n the back o f the m o u t h t h e y are d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e p e n c i l - s h a p e d t e e t h f o u n d i n Diplodocus,

a shape that is m u c h m o r e s i m p l e and less variable because it is

basically a n u n c o m p l i c a t e d c y l i n d e r . B y c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r , m o r e p r i m i t i v e dinosaurs,

it s e e m s m o s t l i k e l y that the s p o o n - s h a p e d t e e t h are less

e v o l v e d and m o r e akin t o t h e shape o f t e e t h i n h y p o t h e t i c a l ancestral sauropods.

P e n c i l - s h a p e d t e e t h e v o l v e d f r o m the m o r e p r i m i t i v e s p o o n - s h a p e d

f o r m , b u t since o n e s i m p l e c y l i n d r i c a l shape l o o k s p r e t t y m u c h like any o t h e r s i m p l e c y l i n d r i c a l shape, t h e possession o f p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h a l o n e , w h e n c o n s i d e r e d a m o n g all the s p e c i e s o f s a u r o p o d s ,

d o e s n o t necessarily r e f l e c t a

c o m m o n ancestry. I n o t h e r w o r d s , simple teeth m a y have e v o l v e d f r o m m o r e c o m p l e x t e e t h m o r e than o n c e . T h a t idea plays a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n u n d e r standing the e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f the s a u r o p o d b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i . T h e h e a v i e r b o n e s o f the l i m b s , t h o s e that lie b e l o w t h e s a u r o p o d P l i m s o l l line,

are

designed

f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g the

total

w e i g h t o f the

animal t o

the

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

128 g r o u n d . N o w , f o r a d o g o r a h o r s e o r a l i z a r d , w a l k i n g o n f o u r legs i s the p r i m i t i v e w a y of d o i n g t h i n g s . B u t , as I said b e f o r e , f o r d i n o s a u r s , the style of l o c o m o t i o n that c h a r a c t e r i z e s the g r o u p as a w h o l e is b i p e d a l p r o g r e s s i o n — w a l k i n g o n t w o hind l e g s . T h e c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f all dinosaurs, t h e h y p o thetical f i r s t t r u e d i n o s a u r , w a s b i p e d a l . eaters,

S a u r o p o d s and s o m e o t h e r plant-

such as stegosaurs and c e r a t o p s i a n s ,

have

s e c o n d a r i l y r e s o r t e d to

w a l k i n g o n all f o u r s . E v i d e n c e o f t h e i r t w o - l e g g e d h e r i t a g e i s r e f l e c t e d i n the l e n g t h o f the back legs c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e o f the f r o n t . T h e y are g e n e r a l l y q u i t e a b i t l o n g e r and m o r e massive than t h e f r o n t l e g s , s h o w i n g that the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the w e i g h t i n a s a u r o p o d b o d y i s shifted t o w a r d the back e n d . I n b i s o n o r horses o r c a m e l s , g o o d s e l f - r e s p e c t i n g q u a d r u p e d s w h o n e v e r had a b i p e d a l a n c e s t r y , the f r o n t l i m b b o n e s are m o r e massive than the h i n d , r e f l e c t i n g a d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the w e i g h t , a d i f f e r e n t b u i l d , i f y o u w i l l (Figure 28). Such e v o l u t i o n a r y m o d i f i c a t i o n s as o c c u r in s a u r o p o d l i m b s are in l a r g e part g r a v i p o r t a l — a d a p t a t i o n s f o r c a r r y i n g g r e a t w e i g h t , a s i n e l e p h a n t s . T h e

FIGURE 28:

Weight distribution in a horse and in a sauropod dinosaur.

their ancestors have always been more massive As

a

than

consequence

the rear. of their

quadrupedal,

with

Horses and

the front end of their bodies

Quadrupedal dinosaurs evolved from bipedal ancestors. evolving four-legged

anatomically suited to moving about more toward the rear of their bodies.

on

locomotion from

hind limbs only,

ancestors

their weight is distributed

THE

ROAMING

TITAN

LIZARDS 129

legs o f g r a v i p o r t a l animals a r e a l w a y s h e a v i l y b u i l t ,

like the c o l u m n s o f a

G r e e k t e m p l e . L a r g e g r a v i p o r t a l animals c a n n o t lift all f o u r f e e t o f f t h e g r o u n d a t the s a m e t i m e . S a u r o p o d s , l i k e e l e p h a n t s , w e r e n o t j u m p e r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s g r a v i p o r t a l animals such as e l e p h a n t s can r e a r up on t h e i r h i n d l i m b s , and t h e y d o s o o c c a s i o n a l l y , r a t h e r than habitually, i n t h e i r natural state. A t A m b o s e l i Park i n s o u t h e r n K e n y a ,

w h e r e the h e r d i s l a r g e ,

I have witnessed t w o

elephants in the w i l d r e a r up facing each o t h e r and e n g a g e in a bit of a wrestling match. If it is t r u e that s o m e q u a d r u p e d a l m a m m a l s h a v e a w e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n d i f f e r e n t f r o m s a u r o p o d s , and w i t h m o r e m a s s i v e f o r e l i m b s than h i n d , t h e n an interesting analogy, w i t h regard to their r e p e r t o i r e of m o v e m e n t s anyway, m i g h t b e the r e a r i n g u p o f s a u r o p o d s o n t h e i r hind l e g s , c o m p a r e d w i t h the tilting o f h o r s e s o r buffalo o n t o t h e i r f o r e l e g s . H o r s e s , o f c o u r s e , can d o just that w h e n e v e r t h e y c h o o s e t o k i c k the hell o u t o f s o m e o n e . Bulls can a s w e l l ; just g o t o a r o d e o i f y o u w a n t t o see t h e m d o i t . E v e n e l e p h a n t s , w h i c h are m u c h m o r e s a u r o p o d l i k e than h o r s e s i n t h e i r g e n e r a l b o d y shape, because b o t h elephants and s a u r o p o d s are g r a v i p o r t a l , can do it. I saw t h e m do it last y e a r w h e n I t o o k m y c h i l d r e n t o t h e c i r c u s . Elephants can tilt u p o n t h e i r f r o n t legs i n t o a p a c h y d e r m handstand. I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h e y d o i t i n the w i l d , e x c e p t p e r h a p s i n t h e strangest o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s , b u t t h e y c e r t a i n l y c o u l d d o i t i f the m o o d s o struck t h e m . T h e r e i s o b v i o u s l y n o t h i n g i n t h e i r a n a t o m y that physically p r e v e n t s t h e m f r o m d o i n g handstands. A s q u a d r u p e d a l animals that r e v e r t e d t o q u a d r u p e d a l i s m i n t h e i r e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y , i t i s n o t u n t h i n k a b l e that e v e n the l a r g e s t o f t h e s a u r o p o d species m a i n t a i n e d the a n a t o m i c a l capacity t o r e a r u p o n t h e i r h i n d l i m b s . I n fact, i t has b e c o m e q u i t e p o p u l a r t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e m that w a y e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f g o i n g o v e r b o a r d . I n t h e tails o f all s a u r o p o d s t h e r e a r e b o n e s , c a l l e d c h e v r o n s , that articulate w i t h the v e r t e b r a l c e n t r a and hang d o w n . A b l o o d vessel f l o w s a l o n g the u n d e r s i d e o f t h e v e r t e b r a e , and the c h e v r o n s b r a n c h a r o u n d and p r o t e c t i t , t h e n e i t h e r t h e y p r o g r e s s d o w n w a r d and b a c k w a r d , p r o v i d i n g areas f o r m u s c l e a t t a c h m e n t , o r t h e y f o r k i n t o a sled shape p o i n t i n g f o r w a r d u p the tail

t o t h e hip and b a c k w a r d t o w a r d t h e tip

o f the tail.

Diplodocus and its r e l a t i v e s , p e r h a p s u n i q u e l y a m o n g s a u r o p o d s , possess the sled-shaped c h e v r o n s . T h e s t r a n g e shape o f t h e c h e v r o n s , w h i c h o c c u r o n l y o n v e r t e b r a e i n the m i d d l e o f the tail, n o t t h e b a s e , has s u g g e s t e d t o s o m e that t h e y f o r m e d a p r o t e c t i v e shield o n t h e u n d e r s i d e o f the tail, a l l o w i n g t h e dinosaur to use it as a b r a c e w h e n r e a r i n g up on its hind l e g s . T h e c h e v r o n s

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

130 p r o t e c t e d the b l o o d vessel i n t h e u n d e r s i d e o f the tail f r o m b e i n g d a m a g e d , and w i t h the tail acting as a t h i r d l e g , t h e animal c o u l d stand and g r a z e f r o m t h e t o p s o f t r e e s f o r a s l o n g a s i t d e s i r e d . F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r the s u g g e s t i o n c o m e s f r o m the h e i g h t o f the spines i n t h e d i p l o d o c i d r e a r e n d and the massive size

o f the

pelvic

bones.

None

of the

evidence

has

been

quantitatively

a n a l y z e d , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s , that i s the w a y t h e s t o r y g o e s . I d o n o t b u y it. I t s e e m s a b i t t o o H o l l y w o o d f o r m e . T h e c o n c l u s i o n that h u g e g r a v i p o r t a l animals had such an habitual b e h a v i o r should f o l l o w d e t a i l e d analysis o f functional r e a l i t y based o n a t h o r o u g h r e v i e w o f t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e b o n e s . I w i l l c o n c e d e , a n e c d o t a l l y , that s a u r o p o d s c o u l d r e a r u p , and i f t h e y c o u l d , I see n o r e a s o n w h y t h e y s h o u l d n o t g r a b a f e w snacks e v e r y n o w and t h e n that w a y . But t h e t h o u g h t o f t r i p o d a l d i n o s a u r s , e s p e c i a l l y d i p l o d o c i d s , t h e s a u r o p o d s w i t h the shortest f o r e l i m b s r e l a t i v e t o the hind l i m b s , and w i t h the l o n g e s t tails, disrupts m y sense o f s y m m e t r y . W h e n s a u r o p o d s d i d r e a r u p , i t v e r y l i k e l y w o u l d n o t have b e e n t o w a l k a b o u t i n any e x t e n d e d w a y . R a t h e r , i t m i g h t h a v e b e e n o n l y f o r a s e c o n d o r t w o , o r a little l o n g e r , p e r h a p s t o nip a leaf, o r t o i n t i m i d a t e a n o t h e r s a u r o p o d o f its o w n s p e c i e s , m a y b e t o w r e s t l e l i k e t h e e l e p h a n t s I saw a t A m b o s e l i . I t s e e m s r a t h e r u n l i k e l y that a h u g e animal l i k e a s a u r o p o d w o u l d habitually rear up on its h i n d legs to f e e d o f f the t o p s of t r e e s or as a d e f e n s i v e p o s t u r e against t h r e a t e n i n g c a r n i v o r e s , a s t h e y are s o m e t i m e s s h o w n . R e a r i n g u p w o u l d d o l i t t l e m o r e than e x p o s e t h e vital b e l l y t o t h e s c i m i t a r c l a w s and r a p i e r t e e t h of predators.

Animals,

w h e t h e r elephants or sauropods,

are c a p a b l e o f a

g r e a t e r r a n g e o f l o c o m o t i o n and m o v e m e n t than t h e y u t i l i z e a s a r e g u l a r part o f t h e i r natural b e h a v i o r . T h e fact that t h e y a r e a b l e t o rise o n t o t w o l e g s , w h e t h e r the f r o n t o r the r e a r , d o e s n o t m e a n t h e y d o s o a t e v e r y f e e d i n g , e v e r y attack b y a p r e d a t o r , o r e v e r y social e n c o u n t e r . S a u r o p o d s s h o w l i t t l e i n the w a y o f d e f e n s i v e structures e x c e p t l a r g e s i z e . S o m e s a u r o p o d s , l i k e Diplodocus and Apatosaurus, h a v e l o n g , thin tails, d r a w n o u t a t the t i p t o r e s e m b l e a w h i p l a s h . sauropods,

Shunosaurus and Omeisaurus,

Even m o r e strangely, t w o Chinese

are r e p o r t e d to s p o r t b o n y clubs on

the e n d s o f t h e i r tails. D e f e n s e has b e e n s u g g e s t e d a s the f u n c t i o n o f b o t h the clubs and the w h i p l a s h . But a w h i p is a w e a p o n of finesse, a trait n o t g e n e r a l l y associated w i t h g r a v i p o r t a l a n i m a l s , and a c l u b or a w h i p l a s h s w u n g at the e n d of a tail s e v e r a l yards l o n g c o u l d cause a l o t of unnecessary injury to the tail's o w n e r w h e n i t m a d e c o n t a c t . S a u r o p o d s m a y have used t h e i r tails t o c o m m u nicate w i t h their o w n kind,

m u c h t h e w a y that w o l v e s c o m m u n i c a t e , b y

THE

ROAMING

TITAN

LIZARDS

131 changing p o s t u r e s and h o l d i n g the tail i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s . T a i l s m a y w e l l have b e e n used f o r signaling, f o r t o u c h i n g and caressing, r a t h e r than as w h i p s o r b l u d g e o n s . T h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e shape o f the e n d s o f tails m a y r e f l e c t this kind o f use a m o n g d i f f e r e n t s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s . So h o w did sauropods protect themselves f r o m fierce predators if not by r e a r i n g u p t o squash t h e i r attackers o r s w a t t i n g t h e m w i t h t h e i r tails? A d u l t s a u r o p o d s , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s i z e , w e r e fully a b l e t o w a l k o v e r any animals a t t e m p t i n g t o s u b d u e t h e m . C e r t a i n l y y o u n g w o u l d b e v u l n e r a b l e , and e v e n large individuals m i g h t s u c c u m b t o a c o o r d i n a t e d attack b y a pack o f t h e r o p o d s , b u t basically I i m a g i n e s a u r o p o d s just t r i e d t o g e t a w a y . I n e s c a p i n g , t h e y m i g h t g o i n any d i r e c t i o n , a w a y f r o m the p r e d a t o r o r d i r e c t l y o v e r it. T h e i r b e h a v i o r w h i l e u n d e r attack m a y h a v e had n o m o r e m o t i v a t i o n than the u r g e t o f l e e . O n e o f the s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r s l e a d i n g t o the o p e r a t i o n o f C o p e ' s rule i n s a u r o p o d s m a y h a v e b e e n t h e f i n e d e f e n s e that g i g a n t i s m i n and o f i t s e l f p r o v i d e s . In fact, it is p o s s i b l e that t h e r e a s o n s a u r o p o d s g o t so l a r g e w a s b e h a v i o r a l l y n o m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d than the e v o l u t i o n o f a passive d e f e n s e mechanism.

IF ALL THIS talk of d i f f e r e n t features in t h e tails, t e e t h , l i m b s , skulls, and vertebrae of different species of sauropods is confusing to y o u , y o u are n o t a l o n e . I t has o f t e n b e e n l a m e n t e d b y t o p p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s that s a u r o p o d s are e v o l u t i o n a r i l y v e r y c o m p l e x . T h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s are difficult t o u n r a v e l w i t h the v e r y g o o d b u t l i m i t e d s a m p l e o f t h e i r fossils that i s k n o w n . T h e s a m p l e i s l i m i t e d because i t i s s p o t t y . S o m e s p e c i e s a r e b e t t e r k n o w n , s o m e c o n t i nents are m o r e t h o r o u g h l y s e a r c h e d , and s o m e t i m e s , g e o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , are m u c h b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d i n c o l l e c t i o n s . A n d that i s w h y t h e s a u r o p o d s f r o m M a l a w i are s o i m p o r t a n t . I t i s a n e w batch o f fossils, a w h o l e n e w set o f data, t o t h r o w i n t o the a r g u m e n t .

It gives better material on a p o o r l y

k n o w n s p e c i e s , f r o m a c o n t i n e n t that has n o t b e e n t h o r o u g h l y s a m p l e d and a t i m e that is p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d . S o m e w h e r e around 1 SO species of sauropods have b e e n n a m e d ; h o w e v e r , n o t n e a r l y that m a n y are r e a l l y v a l i d .

S o m e names have been applied to

fragments

their

of bone

so

incomplete

that

true

owners

are

completely

u n k n o w a b l e . T h e y d o n o t tell u s m u c h about anything. T h e g o o d , r e c o g n i z able species a r e g r o u p e d i n t o six f a m i l i e s , s o m e o f w h i c h a r e m o r e f a m i l i a r than o t h e r s .

T h e d i p l o d o c i d s c o n t a i n such g e n e r a as Diplodocus,

obviously,

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

132 Apatosaurus, and s o m e o t h e r s like Dicraeosaurus f r o m A f r i c a and Barosaurus f r o m b o t h A f r i c a and N o r t h A m e r i c a . ( A l l the n a m e s o f f a m i l i e s e n d h e r e i n " - i d , " t h e v e r n a c u l a r f o r the scientific e n d i n g o f f a m i l y n a m e s " - i d a e . " ) D i p l o d o c i d s have l o n g , w h i p l a s h tails, p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h l i m i t e d t o the f r o n t o f the m o u t h , l o n g h e a d s , and a t r o u g h f o r m e d b y t h e i r v e r t e b r a e t o h o u s e the m u s c l e s and l i g a m e n t s that c o n t r o l m o v e m e n t s o f t h e n e c k and h e a d . Brachiosaurids a r e t h e g i r a f f e - n e c k e d s a u r o p o d s w i t h l o n g f r o n t l e g s . T h e i r tails a r e short c o m p a r e d w i t h d i p l o d o c i d s , and t h e y d o n o t e n d i n a l o n g , thin w h i p l a s h . Camarasaurids a r e similar t o brachiosaurids i n h a v i n g s p o o n - s h a p e d t e e t h , but t h e spines o n the n e c k v e r t e b r a e a r e d i v i d e d i n t o the b e g i n n i n g s o f a t r o u g h , l i k e d i p l o d o c i d s . T h e v u l c a n o d o n t i d s are the m o s t p r i m i t i v e o f the s a u r o p o d s . T h e y h a v e a n e x t r a b u m p o n t h e t h i g h b o n e n e a r w h e r e i t slips i n t o t h e hip s o c k e t . T h e b u m p i s f o r m u s c l e a t t a c h m e n t , and i t i s p r e s e n t i n m o s t o t h e r d i n o s a u r s , but n o t t h e o t h e r f a m i l i e s o f s a u r o p o d s — t h a t i s o n e g o o d reason w h y

vulcanodontids are

considered so primitive.

O n e family,

the

g r o u p c a l l e d c e t i o s a u r i d s , i s basically a w a s t e b a s k e t full o f n a m e s , s o m e o f w h i c h r e p r e s e n t a p p a r e n t l y p r i m i t i v e s p e c i e s and s o m e that r e p r e s e n t o t h e r s p e c i e s that are o b v i o u s l y n o t p r i m i t i v e . N o n e o f t h e m has b e e n a d e q u a t e l y s t u d i e d . T h e f i n a l f a m i l y , t h e t i t a n o s a u r i d s , i s the o n e that w i l l c o n c e r n u s m o s t . T h e b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i e n a b l e u s t o g r a f t its b r a n c h o n t o the e v o l u t i o n ary t r e e o f s a u r o p o d s ( s e e F i g u r e 2 7 ) . S a u r o p o d s have b e e n k n o w n f r o m M a l a w i f o r a l o n g t i m e , since the 1920s i n fact. T h e s p e c i m e n s i n the British M u s e u m c o l l e c t e d b y M i g e o d i n 1 9 3 0 h a v e n e v e r , e v e n n o w , b e e n s t u d i e d i n d e t a i l , b u t t w o years b e f o r e M i g e o d , t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n Britisher S. the D i n o s a u r B e d s .

H.

H a u g h t o n n a m e d Gigantosaurus dixeyi f r o m

H e n a m e d i t f o r Frank D i x e y , the British head o f the

Geological Survey in Nyasaland,

t o w h o m a p l a n t e r n a m e d H o l t had f i r s t

r e p o r t e d fossils. D i x e y i n v e s t i g a t e d , c o l l e c t e d s o m e b o n e s , w h i c h h e sent t o H a u g h t o n , and later g u i d e d M i g e o d a r o u n d the fossil b e d s , s h o w i n g h i m all the l o c a l i t i e s h e k n e w .

A m o n g the fossils D i x e y sent t o H a u g h t o n w e r e a

v e r t e b r a f r o m the f r o n t part o f t h e tail, part o f a h i p b o n e , a b r e a s t b o n e , and part of a shoulder blade. It was those specimens to w h i c h Haughton applied the n a m e Gigantosaurus dixeyi.

N o f i r s t h a n d study o f s a u r o p o d s f r o m M a l a w i

w a s u n d e r t a k e n after H a u g h t o n ' s i n 1928 until m y p r o j e c t started i n 1 9 8 4 . I t has t a k e n six years t o d e v e l o p t h e s a u r o p o d b o n e s f o u n d b y m y g r o u p t o the p o i n t w h e r e t h e y m a k e sense and can say s o m e t h i n g o f real v a l u e i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the dinosaurs.

THE

ROAMING

TITAN

LIZARDS

N e v e r t h e l e s s i t w a s k n o w n e a r l y o n , since

1911

i n fact, that the n a m e

Gigantosaurus w a s n o t v a l i d f o r A f r i c a n s a u r o p o d s ; i t had b e e n used b e f o r e f o r a n o t h e r fossil in V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d , so it c o u l d n o t be used again f o r a d i f f e r e n t species i n w h i c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the o r i g i n a l w a s n o t d e m o n s t r a b l e .

The

n a m i n g legalities of Gigantosaurus dixeyi a r e e v e n m o r e c o m p l e x than w h a t I have w r i t t e n , but y o u g e t the p i c t u r e , I a m s u r e . I t b o i l s d o w n t o this: T h e species dixeyi is a g o o d s p e c i e s , b u t it d o e s n o t b e l o n g to Gigantosaurus. H a u g h t o n n a m e d o n l y o n e s p e c i e s o f s a u r o p o d f r o m the D i n o s a u r B e d s . M y p r o j e c t has s h o w n that t h e r e a r e t w o a t least. T h e e v i d e n c e p r o v i n g the e x i s t e n c e o f t w o species c a m e m o s t c o n c l u s i v e l y f r o m the t w o l o w e r j a w s w e c o l l e c t e d f r o m C D - 9 . T h e y a r e c l e a r l y n o t the s a m e . B o t h o f t h e m are s m a l l , a s s a u r o p o d j a w s g o , the l a r g e r b e i n g o n l y a b o u t a f o o t l o n g , a l t h o u g h the s p e c i m e n i s n o t c o m p l e t e i n t h e b a c k . T h e s e c o n d s p e c i m e n i s o n l y a little m o r e than half t h e size o f the f i r s t . T h e r e f o r e w e n e e d e d t o r u l e o u t t h e possibility that t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w e c o u l d see i n shape and f o r m b e t w e e n t h e t w o w e r e a result o f t h e a g e o f the i n d i v i d u a l s , b a b y versus adult. N e i t h e r o f the j a w s has functional t e e t h p r o t r u d i n g f r o m t h e i r s o c k e t s , b u t the tips o f a n u m b e r o f r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h are still t h e r e . F r o m w h a t can b e s e e n o f the r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h , t h e t o o t h shape i s d i f f e r e n t i n t h e t w o j a w s . T h e t o o t h sockets e x t e n d i n a r o w back t o n e a r t h e e n d o f t h e j a w i n the l a r g e r s p e c i m e n , but i n the s m a l l e r o f the t w o t h e t o o t h s o c k e t s s t o p m u c h farther f o r w a r d . Moreover, t o w a r d the

the f r o n t e n d o f t h e s m a l l e r j a w s e e m s t o c u r v e m o r e sharply "chin."

E v e n b e f o r e w e f o u n d t h e j a w s , t h e r e w a s e v i d e n c e f r o m t e e t h that t w o kinds o f s a u r o p o d s a r e p r e s e n t . I n q u a r r y i n g , t w o d i f f e r e n t kinds o f s a u r o p o d t e e t h w e r e f o u n d i s o l a t e d and s c a t t e r e d a b o u t t h r o u g h the s e d i m e n t .

One

g r o u p had a r o u n d e r c r o s s - s e c t i o n , the o t h e r w a s f l a t t e n e d , b u t n a r r o w , and also a bit l a r g e r in l e n g t h and b r e a d t h than t h e first. T h e l a r g e r - s i z e d t e e t h m a t c h e d w i t h the r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h o f t h e l a r g e r j a w , and the r o u n d e r t e e t h m a t c h e d w i t h the s m a l l e r j a w . I t t h e n b e c a m e c l e a r . T h e s m a l l e r j a w , r e g a r d less o f b e i n g a v e r y y o u n g a n i m a l , has p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h l i m i t e d t o the f r o n t o f the j a w , w h i c h c u r v e s m o r e o r less sharply t o w a r d the c h i n . T h e r e f o r e i t i s a d i p l o d o c i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r e w a s o n e a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e o f the small l o w e r j a w that s e e m e d strange and p u z z l i n g . T h e f r o n t e n d flares i n a w a y n o t s e e n i n o t h e r d i p l o d o c i d s . Based o n that, i t i s v e r y l i k e l y that the l i t t l e d i p l o d o c i d jaw f r o m M a l a w i represents a b r a n d - n e w species. But w h a t of the l a r g e r j a w ? If the s m a l l e r is a d i p l o d o c i d , and the l a r g e r

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

134 i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m it, t o w h i c h f a m i l y should t h e l a r g e r b e assigned? Frankly i t i s easier t o say w h a t i t i s n o t than t o say w h a t i t is. S o w e p r o c e e d e d t o f i n d o u t w h a t t h e rest o f the s a u r o p o d b o n e s c o u l d t e l l us. O n e i n t e r e s t i n g p a t t e r n i s that o f all the o t h e r b o n e s d i a g n o s t i c e n o u g h t o b e assigned t o a f a m i l y , n o n e s e e m e d t o b e d i p l o d o c i d , e v e n t h o u g h w e k n e w f r o m the tiny l o w e r j a w that that f a m i l y w a s t h e r e . M o r e o v e r , o f all t h e s p e c i m e n s that have b e e n p r e p a r e d , n o n e i s small e n o u g h t o g o w i t h t h e s m a l l e r l o w e r j a w . F r o m m e a s u r e ments taken w h i l e excavation was under w a y there s e e m e d to be o n e vertebra that m i g h t g o w i t h i t , b u t since i t has n o t b e e n p r e p a r e d and because o u r p h o t o g r a p h s a t h o m e a r e i n c o n c l u s i v e , w e h a v e n o w a y o f k n o w i n g f o r sure. A l l t h e rest o f t h e s a u r o p o d b o n e s s e e m t o b e l o n g t o o n e n o n d i p l o d o c i d family. T h e y are titanosaurid. T h e titanosaurid f a m i l y has a l o n g , c o m p l i c a t e d h i s t o r y . Its f i r s t m e m b e r w a s n a m e d i n 1 8 7 7 w h e n R i c h a r d L y d e k k e r c a l l e d s o m e tail v e r t e b r a e and a f e w o t h e r b o n e s f r o m t h e C r e t a c e o u s o f India Titanosaurus indicus.

The name

Titanosaurus, t h e " t i t a n l i z a r d , " w a s just t o o c l e v e r and t o o g o o d t o pass u p f o r n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s i n a f r e n z y t o n a m e giant r e p t i l e s n e v e r before

seen.

The

U n i v e r s i t y and E .

legendary D.

feuding paleontologists

O.

C.

Marsh of Yale

C o p e o f P h i l a d e l p h i a had o n e o f t h e i r m a n y e p i s o d e s

w h e n Marsh, quite independently f r o m L y d e k k e r , named an A m e r i c a n dinosaur Titanosaurus. T o his g l e e , C o p e w a s able t o r e p r i m a n d M a r s h b y p o i n t i n g out the preoccupation of the n a m e . Since the t i m e that L y d e k k e r n a m e d t h e f i r s t o n e , titanosaurids have b e e n f o u n d all o v e r the p l a c e .

T h e y are i n E u r o p e ,

Africa,

Madagascar,

South

A m e r i c a , and e v e n N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e i r o c c u r r e n c e s o u t s i d e o f A f r i c a are r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e C r e t a c e o u s P e r i o d , and m o s t l y the L a t e C r e t a c e o u s a t that, w e l l after t h e r e i g n o f t h e d i p l o d o c i d s and brachiosaurids that o c c u r r e d f o r t y m i l l i o n y e a r s — a n d m o r e — p r i o r t o t h e h e y d a y o f the titanosaurids. T h e r o o t s o f the f a m i l y can b e t r a c e d back t o t h e i r f i r s t g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d r e c o r d a t T e n d a g u r u in the s a m e area w i t h Brachiosaurus and d i p l o d o c i d s .

M a k i n g the

c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the l a t e r t i t a n o s a u r i d s , s p r e a d all o v e r the w o r l d , and the r a t h e r p o o r l y k n o w n and c o n f u s e d titanosaurid f r o m T e n d a g u r u w a s a difficult task f o r p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s . I n fact, i t c o u l d n o t b e d o n e satisfactorily until the M a l a w i s p e c i m e n s c a m e o u t o f the g r o u n d . T i t a n o s a u r i d s h a v e o n e f e a t u r e that w a s k n o w n t o L y d e k k e r , w h i c h set them

apart

from

all

other sauropods.

The

vertebrae

o f the

tail have

an

e x t r e m e l y p e c u l i a r shape ( F i g u r e 2 9 ) . T h e c e n t r u m has a d e e p c u p a t the f r o n t

T H E

R O A M I N G

FIGURE

29:

Ball-and-socket

Malawi-saurus. vertebra)

T I T A N

L I Z A R D S

tail

vertebrae

of the

titanosaurid sauropod

The rounded surface toward the bottom

is characteristic of titanosaurids and allows

left (the back side of the

them

to

be recognized

wherever they may be found.

end,

into

which

a

large

ball

at

the

back

o f the

V e r t e b r a e of this shape a r e c a l l e d p r o c o e l o u s .

preceding

c e n t r u m fits.

It is a b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t j o i n t

unlike that seen in any o t h e r g r o u p of s a u r o p o d s . Because that f e a t u r e is so characteristic and s o o b v i o u s , and because tail v e r t e b r a e are m o r e massive and t h e r e f o r e m o r e r e a d i l y p r e s e r v e d a s fossils than o t h e r v e r t e b r a e , the t i t a n o saurs can b e r e c o g n i z e d and i d e n t i f i e d w i t h o n l y a small a m o u n t o f v e r y lousy material.

E v e n t h o u g h t h e y are k n o w n f r o m m a n y p l a c e s , t h e b o n e s f r o m

m o s t o f t h e m d o n o t t e l l u s m u c h m o r e than that titanosaurids w e r e t h e r e . T h a t state o f affairs l e d t o titanosaurids b e i n g l o o k e d u p o n a s t h e bad b o y s o f the

sauropod

clan,

n o t t e l l i n g all

they

could

and n o t

seeming to

fit

in

anywhere. A s i t turns o u t , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f d i a g n o s t i c features that h e l p t o m a k e sense o f titanosaurids. First o f all, the b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a e r e a l l y a r e a u n i q u e f e a t u r e that the f a m i l y shares w i t h n o o t h e r s a u r o p o d s .

Haughton

k n e w that w h e n he d e s c r i b e d and n a m e d Gigantosaurus dixeyi in 1 9 2 8 . T h a t is

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

136 w h y h e c a l l e d his n e w s p e c i e s Gigantosaurus t o b e g i n w i t h , because that i s w h a t t h e titanosaurid Tendaguru

f r o m T e n d a g u r u had f i r s t b e e n c a l l e d .

titanosaurid has

since

been changed

( T h e n a m e o f the

to Janenschia

t h r o u g h a n o t h e r i t e r a t i o n o n the w a y f r o m Gigantosaurus.

after passing

W i l l the c o n f u s i o n

n e v e r cease?) W h e n I w e n t i n t o M a l a w i , I k n e w that titanosaurid b o n e s had b e e n f o u n d t h e r e , and n o w m y p r o j e c t had v e r i f i e d i t . O n e t h i n g a b o u t i t , t h o u g h : N e i t h e r D i x e y n o r H a u g h t o n n o r m y p r o j e c t e v e r f o u n d any t r u l y g i g a n t i c b o n e s a t all. N o t o n e . T h e n a m e Gigantosaurus c e r t a i n l y d o e s n o t f i t , i f f o r n o t h i n g but e s t h e t i c r e a s o n s . I t i s hard t o a c c e p t that all o f the c o l l e c t i o n s m a d e o v e r the y e a r s b y H o l t , D i x e y , M i g e o d , and m y g r o u p r e p r e s e n t o n l y j u v e n i l e sauropods.

R a t h e r , I think we h a v e a p i c t u r e of n e a r - a v e r a g e - s i z e d i n d i v i d u a l s . I

think t h e M a l a w i t i t a n o s a u r i d is just small f o r a s a u r o p o d , p r i m i t i v e in size r e l a t i v e t o the g i a n t s , p r o b a b l y a b o u t t h i r t y f e e t l o n g , and p e r h a p s t e n t o n s i n w e i g h t . N o t bad f o r a p i p - s q u e a k . I n a d d i t i o n t o the b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a e , t h e r e are o t h e r features u n i q u e t o titanosaurids. F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e o f t h e b o n e s o f the h i p , the i s c h i u m , t h e b o n e i n humans o n w h i c h y o u sit, i s g r e a t l y e x p a n d e d and u n c o m m o n l y w i d e i n m o s t titanosaurids. N o n e o f t h o s e had e v e r b e e n f o u n d i n M a l a w i b e f o r e u s , b u t w e g o t o n e . W e also f o u n d a set o f b r e a s t b o n e s laid o u t a s i n l i f e . T h e i r s h a p e , and the w a y t h e y w e r e a r r a n g e d w a s e x a c t l y l i k e that o f the t i t a n o s a u r i d Alamosaurus as it w a s laid o u t in the hills of U t a h . H a u g h t o n had r e p o r t e d a b r e a s t b o n e f r o m M a l a w i , b u t t h e o n e h e had w a s i n bad shape. I t had t o b e p i e c e d back t o g e t h e r and p a t c h e d w i t h p l a s t e r . T h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s a tad iffy. W h a t it l o o k s l i k e m o s t is a b r e a s t b o n e , y e s , b u t it appears that H a u g h t o n ' s s p e c i m e n n e e d s t o b e r o t a t e d n i n e t y d e g r e e s c l o c k w i s e f r o m the w a y h e p u t i t i n his o r i g i n a l p i c t u r e t o g e t the p r o p e r o r i e n t a t i o n f o r j o i n i n g w i t h its c o m p a n i o n b o n e . T i t a n o s a u r i d s have a n o t h e r f e a t u r e that i s the m o s t o d d o f the l o t . T h e y h a v e b o n y a r m o r i n t h e i r skin.

That is not unheard of a m o n g vertebrate

a n i m a l s . A f t e r all, c r o c o d i l e s and alligators h a v e b o n e s i n t h e i r skins. ( T h a t i s w h y the fashion industry utilizes o n l y t h e b e l l y l e a t h e r o f c r o c o d i l e s f o r belts and purses and s h o e s . ) A r m a d i l l o s h a v e a b o n y shell m a d e u p o f m a n y d e r m a l plates.

S o m e other dinosaurs,

n o t a b l y t h e ankylosaurs, a r e w e l l a r m o r e d .

W h y n o t s a u r o p o d s ? T h e r e i s n o r e a s o n w h y n o t , b u t t h e r e i s also o n l y o n e f a m i l y o f s a u r o p o d s k n o w n t o b e a r m o r e d , and that i s the titanosaurids. S u r p r i s i n g l y e n o u g h , the s u g g e s t i o n o f a r m o r e d s a u r o p o d s w a s m a d e l o n g

THE

ROAMING

TITAN

LIZARDS

137 ago. T h e French paleontologist Charles D e p e r e t ,

w h i l e s t u d y i n g dinosaurs

f r o m M a d a g a s c a r , f o u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p i e c e s o f d e r m a l a r m o r that h e sugg e s t e d b e l o n g e d t o titanosaurids.

That was in

1896.

D e p e r e t ' s claim was

c o n s i d e r e d i n t e r e s t i n g b u t it d i d n o t m a k e a real splash b e c a u s e titanosaurids h a v e b e e n f o r s o l o n g b a c k - b u r n e r s a u r o p o d s , and a t t h e t i m e t h e c o n c e p t o f armored

dinosaurs

w a s just

too

foreign.

The

confirmation

of Deperet's

assertion c a m e n o t f r o m m o r e w o r k i n M a d a g a s c a r o r A f r i c a . I t c a m e f r o m South A m e r i c a . I n 1 9 8 0 t w o A r g e n t i n i a n p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s , Jose B o n a p a r t e and Jaime P o w e l l , w o r k i n g w i t h the e x c e l l e n t titanosaurid m a t e r i a l t h e y had b e e n e x c a v a t i n g — e x c e l l e n t e x c e p t f o r m i s s i n g the h e a d s — p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r illustrating scutes o f d e r m a l b o n e and p r o v i n g u n a m b i g u o u s l y that a t least s o m e titanosaurids w e r e a r m o r e d . T h e r e are a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t shapes o f a r m o r p l a t e s , but basically t h e y h a v e a r o u n d base w i t h a r i d g e or c r e s t rising up f r o m its surface. T h e e x a c t a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e d i f f e r e n t v a r i a t i o n s o f this f o r m o n the b o d y i s c u r r e n t l y u n k n o w n , and t h e p u r p o s e , w h e t h e r f o r d e c o r a t i o n o r d e f e n s e o r s o m e o t h e r r e a s o n , i s also u n k n o w n .

But the titanosaurids are

armored. I f titanosaurids a r e a r m o r e d , and i f w e w e r e d i g g i n g u p titanosaurids i n the L u w o n y a H i l l s o f M a l a w i , t h e n w h y w e r e w e n o t d i g g i n g u p d e r m a l ossicles a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r bones? W e n e v e r h a v e , e v e n t o this d a y . H o w e v e r , w e w e r e finding a n u m b e r of strangely

shaped

objects

c o m p o s e d entirely of

crystals o f the m i n e r a l c a l c i t e . T h e s a m e m i n e r a l also g r e w i n t h e m a r r o w cavities o f s o m e o f the fossil b o n e s i n M a l a w i . L o o k i n g a t t h o s e c a l c i t e o b j e c t s c a r e f u l l y , w e c o n c l u d e d that t h e y had t o r e p r e s e n t s o m e shape o f b i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n . It is n o t all that r a r e in g e o l o g y f o r a s t r u c t u r e to be d i s s o l v e d a w a y and its shape t o b e f i l l e d w i t h a d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l . T h e r e s u l t i n g f o r m s are c a l l e d p s e u d o m o r p h s . I n o r g a n i c substances such as salt crystals, t h e m i n e r a l halite, can b e d i s s o l v e d a w a y f r o m r o c k , b u t t h e i r o r i g i n a l c u b i c f o r m left b e h i n d . I t can also h a p p e n w i t h b i o l o g i c a l structures i n t h e s a m e w a y . T h e calcite p s e u d o m o r p h s f r o m armor.

They

are

M a l a w i resemble nothing so much as dermal

n o t shaped

exactly

the

same as the a r m o r f r o m

South

A m e r i c a or Madagascar, but they are similar. T h e r e is no b o n e left, so if they are p s e u d o m o r p h s o f d e r m a l o s s i c l e s , all t h e b o n e w a s d i s s o l v e d a w a y and calcite g r e w i n its p l a c e . T h e p s e u d o m o r p h s h a v e a c i r c u l a r base w i t h a d o z e n or so p r o j e c t i o n s sticking o u t f r o m the e d g e . T h e r e is a tall spine that slants b a c k w a r d — a t least t o w h a t w e c o n s i d e r t o b e the b a c k w a r d d i r e c t i o n . S o i n M a l a w i w e have b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a e , a h i p w i t h a w i d e i s c h i u m ,

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

138 a r t i c u l a t e d b r e a s t b o n e s , and v e r y p o s s i b l y t h e r e m n a n t s o f d e r m a l a r m o r . A g o o d case f o r titanosaurids i n d e e d . Y o u m a y h a v e n o t i c e d that I h a v e n o t m e n t i o n e d the l a r g e r o f the t w o l o w e r j a w s f r o m M a l a w i b y n a m e , o r t h e f l a t t e n e d t e e t h . T h a t i s because they do

not

necessarily

fit

the

mold

of what

titanosaurid j a w s

and

teeth

are

s u p p o s e d t o l o o k l i k e . But t h e y a r e a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t i t a n o s a u r i d . W e c a m e to that c o n c l u s i o n t h r o u g h a c i r c u i t o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In

1 9 2 9 F r i e d r i c h B a r o n v o n H u e n e n a m e d the s a u r o p o d Antarctosaurus

wichmannianus f r o m the

Cretaceous of Argentina.

T h e s p e c i m e n consists o f

skull p a r t s , the f r o n t e n d o f a l o w e r j a w , s o m e t e e t h , p a r t o f a n i s c h i u m , and a f e w o t h e r o d d s and e n d s , b u t n o tail v e r t e b r a e . A t that t i m e t h e r e w a s n o w a y t o r e c o g n i z e titanosaurids o t h e r than b y the p r e s e n c e o f b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t caudal v e r t e b r a e .

So w h y d i d v o n H u e n e call Antarctosaurus a titanosaurid if

h e d i d n o t h a v e e v e n o n e b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a a m o n g t h e m a t e r i a l that h e d i d h a v e o f it? There

w a s p r o b a b l y n o p l a c e b e t t e r f o r h i m t o assign

i t than t o the

titanosaurid f a m i l y , j u d g i n g f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f h i n d s i g h t . I t w a s n o t a bad h y p o t h e s i s ( a n d t h e r e i s still the c h a n c e that i t m a y turn o u t t o b e substantially c o r r e c t , i n w h i c h case t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f titanosaurids w i l l b e e v e n m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d than i t s e e m s t o b e n o w ) .

P l e n t y o f g o o d titanosaurid

v e r t e b r a e w e r e k n o w n f r o m the C r e t a c e o u s o f South A m e r i c a , i t i s just that n o n e b e l o n g e d t o Antarctosaurus.

A n d b e s i d e s , i t w a s n o t l i k e h e k n e w that

Antarctosaurus had tail v e r t e b r a e d i f f e r e n t f r o m titanosaurids. T h e r e w e r e n o tail v e r t e b r a e of Antarctosaurus k n o w n at all f r o m South A m e r i c a . T h a t is still t h e case t o d a y . O n e o t h e r t h i n g : N o o t h e r f a m i l i e s o f s a u r o p o d s , n o n e b u t the titanosaurids,

w e r e k n o w n f r o m the C r e t a c e o u s o f South A m e r i c a i n v o n

H u e n e ' s day. N o n e o f this w o u l d m a k e any d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e s t o r y i n M a l a w i w e r e i t n o t f o r t h e j a w and the t e e t h o f Antarctosaurus that v o n H u e n e d e s c r i b e d . T h e t e e t h a r e p e n c i l l i k e , and t h e y are l i m i t e d t o the f r o n t o f the j a w , w h i c h itself c u r v e s sharply t o w a r d the c h i n . I t i s o n t h e basis o f that j a w and t h o s e t e e t h that e v e r y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f titanosaurid skulls until n o w has b e e n m o d e l e d after Diplodocus—long,

w i t h nostrils a t t h e t o p and t e e t h l i m i t e d t o t h e f r o n t .

T h e features o f Antarctosaurus a r e the s a m e o n e s w e used t o identify the s m a l l e r o f t h e t w o j a w s f r o m M a l a w i a s a d i p l o d o c i d . T h o s e are the same characters that w e use n o w t o suggest that, g i v e n t h e lack o f p o s i t i v e e v i d e n c e to t h e c o n t r a r y , Antarctosaurus is n o t a titanosaurid at all, but r a t h e r a South

THE

ROAMING

TITAN

LIZARDS

A m e r i c a n C r e t a c e o u s d i p l o d o c i d . F o r o v e r sixty y e a r s titanosaurids h a v e b e e n taking a b u m rap o v e r w h a t t h e i r heads l o o k l i k e . T h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a y have also caused s o m e p r o b l e m s f o r v o n H u e n e in his later studies. In 1933 he p u b l i s h e d a m o n o g r a p h on Indian dinosaurs with Charles A l f r e d M a t l e y . tosaurus,

I n i t t h e y r e c o g n i z e d a n e w species o f Antarc-

w h i c h t h e y c a l l e d Antarctosaurus septentrionalis.

T h e Indian s p e c i m e n

i n c l u d e d t h e back o f the skull, t h o u g h t b y v o n H u e n e and M a t l e y t o b e similar t o that f r o m South A m e r i c a . T h e y w e r e l e d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n , based o n that s i m i l a r i t y , that t h e animals f r o m w h i c h t h o s e b o n e s f r o m the back o f the skull w e r e d e r i v e d b e l o n g e d t o the s a m e c l o s e - k n i t g r o u p o f s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s . T h u s the g e n u s c a m e t o b e k n o w n f r o m b o t h A r g e n t i n a and India.

T h e Indian

s p e c i m e n also i n c l u d e d a b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a , w h i c h w a s t h e r e f o r e o b v i o u s l y titanosaurid ( b u t o f c o u r s e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , the first p l a c e f r o m w h i c h titanosaurids w e r e k n o w n w a s India, s o i t i s n o t surprising that m o r e o f t h e m should b e f o u n d ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e back ends o f skulls are o f t e n v e r y conservative

in

evolution.

In

this

case,

while

the

Indian

"Antarctosaurus"

m a t e r i a l i s d e f i n i t e l y titanosaurid ( w e k n o w that f r o m t h e tail v e r t e b r a ) , t h e South A m e r i c a n Antarctosaurus, t h e t r u e Antarctosaurus, m a y n o t b e . It is m o r e l i k e l y t o b e d i p l o d o c i d . T h e r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e S o u t h A m e r i c a n and Indian b o n e s f r o m t h e back o f t h e skull m a y u l t i m a t e l y p r o v e t o i n d i c a t e n o t h i n g m o r e than that b o t h b e l o n g t o s a u r o p o d s . V o n H u e n e and M a t l e y also d e s c r i b e d a s a u r o p o d u p p e r j a w b o n e ,

or

m a x i l l a , i n t h e i r m o n o g r a p h . N o w , this i s a n i n t e r e s t i n g s p e c i m e n . I t w a s d e s c r i b e d by t h e m as c o m i n g f r o m a beast w i t h a short and v e r y high s n o u t , s o t h e y c o n c l u d e d that i t c o u l d n o t h a v e c o m e f r o m Antarctosaurus, w h i c h t h e y thought to be a titanosaurid, but which we n o w k n o w may i n v o l v e sauropods o f t w o d i f f e r e n t families a n y w a y . V o n H u e n e had r e c o n s t r u c t e d Antarctosaurus as h a v i n g a l o n g Diplodocus-like

snout based

on

t h e Antarctosaurus j a w

from

South A m e r i c a that h e had d e s c r i b e d f o u r years e a r l i e r . A s w e shall s e e , the u p p e r j a w f r o m India f i t s w i t h n o t h i n g s o w e l l a s a t i t a n o s a u r i d , short snout and all, based o n w h a t has b e e n f o u n d i n M a l a w i . T h e r e w a s o n e o t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n . S o m e m o r e o r less p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h , n o t s p o o n - s h a p e d , had b e e n f o u n d w i t h g o o d titanosaurid b o n e s . A s I have said b e f o r e , i t i s n o t u n l i k e l y that s i m p l e t e e t h m a y h a v e e v o l v e d f r o m s p o o n shaped t e e t h m o r e than o n c e i n d i f f e r e n t s a u r o p o d e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e s . T h e l a r g e r s a u r o p o d t e e t h f r o m M a l a w i d e m o n s t r a t e that p o s s i b i l i t y because t h e y are n o t o f e i t h e r shape. T h e y are i n t e r m e d i a t e , m o r e d e r i v e d than s p o o n -

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

140 shaped t e e t h and m o r e p r i m i t i v e than p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h . I n m o s t features n o t w o f a m i l i e s o f s a u r o p o d s are m o r e u n l i k e each o t h e r than titanosaurids and d i p l o d o c i d s . T h a t s o m e t i t a n o s a u r i d s p e c i e s m a y h a v e p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h superf i c i a l l y r e s e m b l i n g d i p l o d o c i d s m e r e l y s h o w s that c y l i n d r i c a l t e e t h e v o l v e d s e p a r a t e l y m o r e than o n c e i n s a u r o p o d s . S i m p l y s t a t e d , t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o a c c e p t that titanosaurids had heads like d i p l o d o c i d s . Since that i s t h e c a s e , t h e r e i s n o particular r e a s o n t o l u m p the small d i p l o d o c i d j a w f r o m M a l a w i w i t h the b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a e and the o t h e r b o n e s that a r e d e f i n i t e l y t i t a n o s a u r i d . T h e o t h e r j a w , the l a r g e r o n e , w i t h its l o n g t o o t h r o w and f l a t t e n e d t e e t h , f i t s b e t t e r w i t h the titanosaurid b o n e s b e c a u s e i t i s the r i g h t s i z e . F r o m that r e a s o n i n g , w e can say that w e k n o w w h a t the l o w e r j a w o f t h e M a l a w i titanosaurid l o o k s l i k e . M o r e o v e r , t h e t e e t h , w h i c h a r e f l a t t e n e d , n o t p e n c i l l i k e , and h a v e the e d g e f o r m e d like that

i n b r a c h i o s a u r i d s and

camarasaurids,

show

c l e a r l y that the

common

a n c e s t o r o f d i p l o d o c i d s and titanosaurids d i d n o t h a v e p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h . O n c e i t w a s d e c i d e d that t h e l a r g e r o f t h e t w o l o w e r j a w s f r o m M a l a w i w a s t i t a n o s a u r i d , it b e c a m e r e l a t i v e l y easy to i d e n t i f y as titanosaurid a p r e m a x i l l a r y b o n e , the t o o t h - b e a r i n g b o n e r i g h t a t t h e f r o n t o f the skull, f o u n d i n M a l a w i . F o u r r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h are still i n the s o c k e t s . T h e y are o f the f l a t t e n e d v a r i e t y , p r o v i n g that this p r e m a x i l l a b e l o n g s t o the s a m e species a s t h e l a r g e r l o w e r j a w . I n fact t h e t w o c o u l d h a v e b e l o n g e d t o the v e r y same a n i m a l . N o w w e c o u l d s h o w f o r the f i r s t t i m e w i t h r e a s o n a b l e c e r t a i n t y w h a t t h e l o w e r j a w and the s n o u t o f a titanosaurid r e a l l y l o o k e d l i k e . T h e p r e m a x i l l a is v e r y strange as sauropod premaxillaries g o . It is n o t so l o n g as in d i p l o d o c i d s or d r a w n o u t i n t o a t o o t h y d u c k ' s bill as in Brachiosaurus. T h e h o l e f o r the nasal passage is l a r g e . A thin p i e c e of the p r e m a x i l l a stands u p n e a r l y v e r t i c a l l y t o f o r m the f r o n t e d g e o f the n o s e . T h e p r e m a x i l l a s h o w s c o n c l u s i v e l y b y its s t r u c t u r e that t h e snout w a s b l u n t — v e r y ,

very blunt.

W e i r d l y b l u n t . T h e back e n d o f t h e p r e m a x i l l a e n d s i n a m o r e o r less straight e d g e that runs f r o m the b o t t o m o f the n o s e o p e n i n g i n a d o w n w a r d d i r e c t i o n , p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the t o o t h r o w .

T h a t e d g e i s w h e r e a m a x i l l a , the o t h e r

tooth-bearing b o n e o f the upper j a w ,

would fit.

T h e p r e m a x i l l a f r o m M a l a w i i s the o n l y titanosaurid p r e m a x i l l a that has e v e r b e e n f o u n d a n y w h e r e . I n a d d i t i o n t o s h o w i n g h o w b l u n t the face w a s , i t s h o w s that the f r o n t e n d o f t h e m a x i l l a r y b o n e e n d s b e l o w the nasal o p e n i n g w h e r e i t abuts against the p r e m a x i l l a . N o n e o f i t e x t e n d s i n f r o n t o f the n o s e h o l e s . T h a t , t o o , i s s t r a n g e f o r s a u r o p o d s . I n fact n o s a u r o p o d s k n o w n , e x c e p t

THE

ROAMING

TITAN

LIZARDS

titanosaurids, h a v e this f e a t u r e . S o m e o t h e r dinosaurs d o , such a s p r o s a u r o p o d s f o r instance, and that suggests that the p o s i t i o n o f the n o s e a t t h e v e r y f r o n t o f the head i s w h e r e , e v o l u t i o n a r i l y , i t started o u t i n s a u r o p o d s . T h o s e s a u r o p o d s i n w h i c h t h e nasal o p e n i n g s a r e farther back e v o l v e d f r o m s a u r o p o d ancestors that w e r e m o r e l i k e titanosaurids i n the p o s i t i o n o f the n o s e . A s I said, t h e r e i s o n l y o n e titanosaurid p r e m a x i l l a k n o w n i n all the w o r l d a s o f this m o m e n t — t h a t is, k n o w n t o m e a n y w a y . T h e r e i s also o n l y o n e m a x i l l a k n o w n , and that i s the o n e d e s c r i b e d b y v o n H u e n e and M a t l e y f r o m India in

1933,

but

confusion.

which

You

they

can t e l l

could

it

is

a

c o m p l e t e l y b e l o w the n o s e h o l e . shaped

like

the

one

from

not

identify because

titanosaurid b e c a u s e

o f t h e Antarctosaurus its

front

edge

ends

I t w o u l d f i t n i c e l y against a p r e m a x i l l a

Malawi.

Both

o f these

bones

show

important

features o f the titanosaurid skull: I t i s short b u t v e r y h i g h , and v e r y n a r r o w . F r o m the side these g u y s had heads that l o o k e d l i k e the f r o n t ends o f giant w o r m s (Figure 30). O b v i o u s l y t h e n e x t step i n t h e study o f the titanosaurid f r o m M a l a w i w a s to figure o u t w h a t to call it. H a u g h t o n had c a l l e d it Gigantosaurus dixeyi, b u t f o r the legalities o f n o m e n c l a t u r e , the n a m e Gigantosaurus w a s n o t g o o d . T h e w a y t o start the n e x t step w a s t o d e c i d e i f dixeyi w a s a g o o d s p e c i e s based o n its b i o l o g i c a l m e r i t , u n i q u e in the animal k i n g d o m ,

or if it w a s s i m p l y a

p a t r o n y m f o r a s a u r o p o d that w a s k n o w n m o r e c o m m o n l y u n d e r a n o t h e r n a m e . T h e w a y t o b e g i n f i n d i n g that o u t w a s t o c o m p a r e i t w i t h t h e titanosaurid f r o m T e n d a g u r u . Janenschia robusta w a s d e s c r i b e d in

1908

(under a different n a m e ) .

It is

k n o w n f r o m a tail and s o m e o t h e r b o n e s that m a y o r m a y n o t r e a l l y b e l o n g t o the same species o f animal a s t h e tail. I t d o e s n o t m a t t e r f o r o u r p u r p o s e s because all we r e a l l y n e e d in this case is to s h o w that t h e tail is, or is n o t , the same as that of dixeyi.

We can s h o w that it is n o t b e c a u s e the spines of

the v e r t e b r a e , and the b o n y p r o c e s s e s b y w h i c h t h e y attach t o t h e i r n e i g h b o r s , are d i f f e r e n t . T h o s e in Janenschia are m o r e l i k e o t h e r s a u r o p o d s . But t h e r e is o n e b i g s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n Janenschia and dixeyi.

W h i l e the v e r t e b r a e in the

f r o n t o f the tail are p r o c o e l o u s — t h e y h a v e b i g balls o n t h e back e n d o f the c e n t r a — t h e v e r t e b r a e t o w a r d the m i d d l e and i n the back o f the tail are n o t . T h e species dixeyi is distinct f r o m b u t similar to Janenschia robusta. Janenschia i s g e o l o g i c a l l y o l d e r and a n a t o m i c a l l y m o r e p r i m i t i v e . A l l the o t h e r titanosaurids s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d t h e w o r l d w i t h o n l y a c o u p l e o f e x c e p t i o n s have b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t caudal v e r t e b r a e all the w a y t o t h e e n d o f

FIGURE

30:

A family group

of Malawi-saurus

in

a

gallery forest.

braided streams and rivers drain nearby hills and mountains. seasonal.

The

vegetation—with ferns,

shrubs—is generally similar to

that

horsetails, at

cycads,

Tendaguru

except

Swift-flowing

The climate is

and conifer trees and that

by

100 million

years ago,

the time of the Dinosaur Beds and 45

million years after

flowering plants (angiosperms) were starting to come onto the scene. grew luxuriantly in the galleries along the watercourses, and

rivers vegetation was much less dense.

Tendaguru, Vegetation

but away from the streams

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

144 the tail. T h e r e f o r e dixeyi c a n n o t b e l o n g t o any o f t h o s e s p e c i e s g r o u p s e i t h e r . W e w i l l s o o n g i v e i t its o w n scientifically v a l i d f i r s t n a m e . F o r n o w I w i l l i n f o r m a l l y r e f e r to it as M a l a w i - s a u r u s . N e v e r t h e l e s s M a l a w i - s a u r u s is similar t o t h e titanosaurids o f S o u t h A m e r i c a , and e v e n N o r t h A m e r i c a , i n the shape o f t h e n e u r a l spines and o t h e r b o n y p r o c e s s e s o n the v e r t e b r a e . I t i s p a r t i c u larly c l o s e t o Andesaurus f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a . T h a t m e a n s i t i s i n t e r m e d i a t e i n b o t h a n a t o m y and i n a g e t o t h e o l d e r titanosaurid o f A f r i c a and the y o u n g e r titanosaurids o f the W e s t e r n H e m i s p h e r e . W i t h that b i t o f k n o w l e d g e , w e are able t o d e v i s e a g e o g r a p h i c s c e n a r i o f o r the e v o l u t i o n o f titanosaurids. The

oldest

k n o w n titanosaurid

i s Janenschia

from

Tendaguru,

approxi-

m a t e l y 145 m i l l i o n years o l d . T i t a n o s a u r i d s w e r e d e f i n i t e l y i n A f r i c a t h e n , n e a r b y o t h e r s a u r o p o d s i n c l u d i n g Brachiosaurus and d i p l o d o c i d s . T h e y are n o t c u r r e n t l y u n a m b i g u o u s l y k n o w n f r o m that t i m e i n t e r v a l i n any o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s , but that m a y b e m i s l e a d i n g . A t that t i m e the dinosaurs s h o w a g r e a t deal o f s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n N o r t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a a s a h o l d o v e r f r o m the P a n g a e a n g e o g r a p h y , w h e n landmasses w e r e b r o a d l y c o n n e c t e d and animals c o u l d r o a m w i d e l y . O f t h e six f a m i l i e s o f s a u r o p o d s , all a r e i n e x i s t e n c e b y the t i m e i n t e r v a l r e p r e s e n t e d a t T e n d a g u r u . A l l six a r e k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a , and f i v e , all b u t t h e t i t a n o s a u r i d s , are k n o w n f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a w a y back then.

Brachiosaurus and Barosaurus,

b o t h s a u r o p o d s , are k n o w n ,

albeit f r o m

d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s , i n b o t h N o r t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a . T h e similarities i n t h o s e d i n o s a u r faunas is p r e t t y a m a z i n g . T h e r e f o r e , it w o u l d n o t be surprising if a North

American

titanosaurid

Chinese paleontologist, s a u r o p o d Bellusaurus,

o f the

same

Dong Zhiming,

vintage

surfaced.

Moreover,

a

has o n l y r e c e n t l y n a m e d the n e w

w h i c h has tail v e r t e b r a e suspiciously l i k e titanosaurids.

But Bellusaurus is f r o m C h i n a , and so far no o n e w h o has s t u d i e d it firsthand has c a l l e d it a t i t a n o s a u r i d . T h e p o i n t of this is to say that the early fossil record

o f titanosaurids

is

so p o o r l y

known

at

this

time

that i t

is

quite

i m p o s s i b l e t o say w i t h any d e g r e e o f c e r t a i n t y w h e r e t h e y o r i g i n a t e d , b u t w i t h e v e r y d e g r e e o f c e r t a i n t y that t h e y w e r e i n A f r i c a b y T e n d a g u r u t i m e s . Then,

after T e n d a g u r u ,

through

plate

tectonics

and

continental

drift,

S o u t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a b e g a n t o s e p a r a t e a s t h e S o u t h A t l a n t i c o p e n e d . T h i s , the Early C r e t a c e o u s , i s t h e t i m e r e p r e s e n t e d b y M a l a w i - s a u r u s . D u r i n g the

Early

Cretaceous,

the

more

familiar sauropods w e r e

o n the

W h e r e a s t h e y used t o d o m i n a t e t h e landscape i n e a r l i e r t i m e s ,

decline.

they n o w

b e c a m e r a r e , i n t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e a t least. T o w a r d the e n d o f the Early

Cretaceous

to

the

beginning

of the

Late

Cretaceous,

about ninety

m i l l i o n years a g o , s a u r o p o d s a p p a r e n t l y b e c a m e e x t i n c t i n N o r t h A m e r i c a .

THE

ROAMING

TITAN

LIZARDS 145

M e a n w h i l e they persisted in the Southern H e m i s p h e r e .

Between Ten-

daguru t i m e s and M a l a w i - s a u r u s t h e characteristic features o f t h e a n a t o m y e v o l v e d that link M a l a w i - s a u r u s w i t h Andesaurus and the o t h e r South A m e r i c a n titanosaurids. A f t e r t h e South A t l a n t i c o p e n e d , t h e South A m e r i c a n titanosaurid fauna, and m o s t e v e r y t h i n g else that w a s t h e r e ,

e v o l v e d in isolation.

T h e South

A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t w a s s e p a r a t e d b y the sea f r o m A f r i c a and N o r t h A m e r i c a , and b y the r i g o r s o f A n t a r c t i c a , t o w h i c h i t w a s still a t t a c h e d , f r o m A u s t r a l i a . T h e isolation lasted f o r a b o u t t h e n e x t t h i r t y m i l l i o n y e a r s . I t w a s n o t until a r o u n d s e v e n t y m i l l i o n years a g o , n e a r t h e e n d o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s , that N o r t h and South A m e r i c a b e c a m e o n c e m o r e c o n n e c t e d b y d r y land, a c y c l e that w a s t o r e p e a t again a t a l a t e r t i m e d u r i n g t h e A g e o f M a m m a l s . W i t h t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a s , animals f r o m o n e c o n t i n e n t , other,

w e r e able t o s p r e a d .

T h e b i p e d a l hadrosaurian

but n e w to the

dinosaur Kritosaurus

c a m e south. S o d i d the h o r n e d c e r a t o p s i a n s . S o , t o o , d i d marsupial m a m m a l s , the o p o s s u m s . A n d f r o m south t o n o r t h across t h e b r i d g e w e n t t h e titanosaurids. A f t e r t w e n t y m i l l i o n years o r s o w i t h o u t s a u r o p o d s , N o r t h A m e r i c a w a s i n v a d e d b y titanosaurids. T h e last N o r t h A m e r i c a n s a u r o p o d i s the titanosaurid

Alamosaurus

sanjuanensis,

named

for

the

old

Ojo

Alamo

trading

post,

Spanish f o r c o t t o n w o o d s p r i n g , n o w g o n e , just l i k e t h e w a t e r , i n the San Juan Basin o f N e w M e x i c o . Alamosaurus i s also k n o w n f r o m

U t a h and s o u t h e r n

W y o m i n g , b u t n o t f r o m farther n o r t h , and f r o m t h e Big B e n d o f t h e R i o G r a n d e in T e x a s . Alamosaurus, p o s s i b l y the last of all t h e s a u r o p o d s , d i e d o u t near the e n d o f t h e A g e o f t h e

Reptiles,

a part of the

G r e a t D y i n g that

d e c i m a t e d t h e M e s o z o i c w o r l d and b r o u g h t i t t o a c l o s e .

W H A T A HISTORY! T i t a n o s a u r i d s t r a c e d f r o m 145 m i l l i o n years a g o until t h e i r e x t i n c t i o n a t 6 6 m i l l i o n years a g o — 7 9 m i l l i o n y e a r s o f f a m i l y g e n e a l o g y l e a d i n g f r o m the shorelands o f a n c i e n t T e n d a g u r u , t h r o u g h the h e a r t o f A f r i c a , across South A m e r i c a , t h e n o v e r the land b r i d g e l i n k i n g South w i t h N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e r e w a s o n e r e a s o n , and o n e r e a s o n o n l y , w h y this h i s t o r y c o u l d b e c o m p l e t e d : the titanosaurian missing l i n k , M a l a w i - s a u r u s , had b e e n r e c o g n i z e d .

W H O SAYS S T U D Y I N G dinosaurs i n A f r i c a d o e s n o t t e l l y o u a b o u t things closer to home?

AFRICAN DINOSAURS, BEFORE AND AFTER

T

HE

SAUROPOD

M a l a w i - s a u r u s i s a p p a r e n t l y the

m o s t abundant animal

i n t h e D i n o s a u r B e d s , b u t i t i s b y n o m e a n s the o n l y o n e . T h e r e i s its s a u r o p o d c o u s i n , the n e w , u n n a m e d species o f d i p l o d o c i d . T h e r e a r e a t least t h r e e m o r e k i n d s o f dinosaurs besides the titanosaurid and d i p l o d o c i d s a u r o p o d s . Besides dinosaurs t h e r e are crustaceans, snails, f i s h , f r o g s , and c r o c o d i l e s . But d i n o saurs m a k e u p the b u l k o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n , i n mass and i n n u m b e r s o f specimens. D i n o s a u r s , b y d e f i n i t i o n , a r e n o t h i n g m o r e n o r less than a particular g r o u p o f g e n e t i c a l l y r e l a t e d r e p t i l e s . T h e y are m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r than t h e y a r e to any o t h e r r e p t i l e s b e c a u s e t h e y all share a c o m m o n a n c e s t o r . T h a t c o m m o n a n c e s t o r had specific characteristics and features that can b e r e c o g n i z e d i n its d e s c e n d a n t s , b u t n o t i n o t h e r r e p t i l e s , and that i s w h y they d e s e r v e to be l u m p e d t o g e t h e r under the dinosaur rubric. Q u i t e fortunately m a n y o f t h e d i a g n o s t i c features o f r e p t i l e s a r e i n the b o n e s ; t h e r e f o r e t h e y can b e s e e n i n fossils and w e can i n t e r p r e t r e p t i l i a n g e n e a l o g y f r o m b o n e s d u g o u t o f the g r o u n d . S o m e o f t h e d i a g n o s t i c features o f r e p t i l e s are i n the skull. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f b o n y arches i n t h e c h e e k r e g i o n , and the gaps and spaces that separate 146

t h e m , s h o w similarities a m o n g such s e e m i n g l y disparate g r o u p s a s lizards,

AFRICAN

DINOSAURS,

BEFORE

AND

AFTER

snakes, c r o c o d i l e s , d i n o s a u r s , and e v e n b i r d s , each o f these g r o u p s e x h i b i t i n g the same f u n d a m e n t a l p a t t e r n o f r e p t i l i a n a n a t o m y . D i n o s a u r s h a v e a n a d d i tional s t r u c t u r e i n f r o n t o f the e y e that separates t h e m f r o m snakes and l i z a r d s , and m a r k s t h e m a s m e m b e r s o f t h e R u l i n g R e p t i l e s , t h e A r c h o s a u r i a . Y o u m i g h t think that i t i s o v e r k i l l t o use such features a s the s t r u c t u r e o f the face and snout t o s o r t o u t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n , say, snakes and d i n o saurs, b u t t h e r e are a g r e a t m a n y kinds o f r e p t i l e s , and the characteristic used t o m a k e g e n e a l o g i c a l sense o u t o f t h e m m u s t r e f l e c t f u n d a m e n t a l r e l a t i o n ships, n o t adaptations t o specific kinds o f l i f e - s t y l e s and e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e s . T o m a k e a light analogy w i t h o u r o w n species, w e w o u l d n o t e x p e c t m e m b e r s of the same trade union to be related by b l o o d necessarily, e v e n though in the same c o m m u n i t y m a n y o f t h e m m i g h t b e .

M o r e f u n d a m e n t a l relationships

w o u l d b e o b v i o u s f r o m o b s e r v i n g f a m i l y r e u n i o n s w h e n cousins and u n c l e s and the r e s t , all o f w h o m h a v e b e e n o u t i n t h e w o r l d t o m a k e t h e i r l i v i n g s i n their o w n w a y s ,

come together.

T h e family portrait shows the family

r e s e m b l a n c e , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n w o r k c l o t h e s . M a n y o f the m o s t o b v i o u s skeletal d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g animals r e f l e c t adaptations t o t h e i r w a y s o f l i f e , and c o n v e r s e l y , animals w i t h similar w a y s o f life m a y e x h i b i t similar adaptations and skeletal f e a t u r e s . O n e m u s t l o o k d e e p e r f o r characteristics o f genealogical

significance.

D i n o s a u r s are n o t the o n l y m e m b e r s o f t h e A r c h o s a u r i a , and t h e r e a r e , o f c o u r s e , s e v e r a l branches t o the d i n o s a u r t r e e . A l l o f t h e d i n o s a u r s , h o w e v e r , are u n i t e d b y the possession o f c e r t a i n characteristic features o f the skull, p e l v i s , and l i m b s . D i n o s a u r s , w i t h all t h e i r d i v e r s i t y , h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n divided into only t w o fundamental groups. T h e b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i r e p r e s e n t b o t h o f the classical d i v i s i o n s o f d i n o saurs, the " l i z a r d - h i p p e d " saurischians and the " b i r d - h i p p e d " ornithischians. T h e s a u r o p o d s are e x a m p l e s o f l i z a r d - h i p p e d d i n o s a u r s , and s o a r e t h e b i p e d a l c a r n i v o r e s , o f w h i c h w e h a v e f o u n d a f e w b o n e s and t e e t h ( F i g u r e 3 1 ) . T h e stegosaur that K e n t w a s w o r k i n g o n a t C D - 1 0 i s a n e x a m p l e o f a b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaur ( F i g u r e 3 2 ) . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n that the shape o f the p e l v i s i s i m p o r t a n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g the e v o l u t i o n a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f dinosaurs g o e s back t o n e a r the b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e i r study. H a r r y G o v i e r S e e l e y , a B r i t i s h e r , d e v i s e d this classification i n 1 8 8 7 , a t the t i m e the s l a v e r M l o z i w a s b e i n g b a t t l e d b y t h e British i n n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a n a t o m y b e t w e e n b i r d - h i p p e d and l i z a r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs a r e r e a l , b u t m o r e r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s , n o t i n M a l a w i b u t e l s e w h e r e , h a v e s u g g e s t e d t o s o m e i n v e s t i g a t o r s that t h e t w o f o l d

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D

148 d i v i s i o n m a y b e t o o s i m p l e t o a c c o u n t f o r all the d i v e r s i t y s e e n i n dinosaurs. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n discussing A f r i c a n d i n o s a u r s , t h e t w o f o l d d i v i s i o n i s c o n v e n i e n t and a d e q u a t e . T h e r e i s a g o o d r e a s o n w h y the p e l v i s s h o u l d b e s o i m p o r t a n t i n the study of dinosaurs.

Because dinosaurs are p r i m i t i v e l y b i p e d a l ,

walking about on

t h e i r t w o h i n d l e g s , t h e r e had t o b e structural changes i n the s k e l e t o n t o c a r r y the w e i g h t in a w a y different f r o m their quadrupedal ancestors. W a l k i n g on the back l e g s i n v o l v e s t i l t i n g t h e b o d y b a c k w a r d , w i t h the c o n s e q u e n t transm i s s i o n o f all t h e w e i g h t d o w n t h e hind legs t o t h e g r o u n d . I t m a k e s sense that the j o i n t c o n n e c t i n g t h e l e g s t o t h e h i p w o u l d b e m o d i f i e d , a s w e l l a s the m u s c l e s c o n t r o l l i n g the legs and b a c k . T h e r e a r e t w o m a j o r w a y s i n w h i c h that has b e e n d o n e i n d i n o s a u r s . T h e r e s u l t i n g skeletal changes are o b v i o u s i n the

FIGURE

31:

evolutionary facilitates shown

in

Relationships of lizard-hipped dinosaurs. tree of these dinosaurs.

discussion

and

investigation.

the lower right.

pelvis shown

in Figure 32.

It provides a The

bones

This cladogram

is one possible

logical arrangement of the

Compare this saurischian pelvis

that

lizard-hipped pelvis with

are

the bird-hipped

AFRICAN

DINOSAURS,

BEFORE

AND

AFTER

t h r e e b o n e s that m a k e u p the p e l v i s . T h o s e features a r e w h a t h a v e b e c o m e t e r m e d l i z a r d - h i p p e d o r b i r d - h i p p e d . B o t h g r o u p s c o n t a i n s o m e s p e c i e s that are b i p e d a l and o t h e r s that are q u a d r u p e d a l . G i v e n that b i p e d a l i s m i s p r i m i t i v e f o r dinosaurs i n g e n e r a l , i t s e e m s that i n b o t h the l i z a r d - h i p p e d and b i r d h i p p e d c a t e g o r i e s s o m e o f t h e s p e c i e s h a v e , t h r o u g h e v o l u t i o n , eased t h e i r f o r e q u a r t e r s back d o w n t o the g r o u n d and r e v e r t e d t o w a l k i n g o n all f o u r s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , the dinosaurs can b e v i e w e d a s b e i n g e i t h e r c a r n i v o r o u s o r h e r b i v o r o u s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r r o l e i n the e c o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y . As we have seen, w i t h regard to their l o c o m o t i o n , they are either bipedal or quadrupedal.

A l l o f the c a r n i v o r o u s dinosaurs b e l o n g t o the l i z a r d - h i p p e d

g r o u p ( s e e F i g u r e 3 1 ) , a s d o t h e q u a d r u p e d a l h e r b i v o r o u s s a u r o p o d s and t h e i r p l a n t - e a t i n g r e l a t i v e s , the b i p e d a l p r o s a u r o p o d s . W h i l e t h e r e are m a n y s p e cies o f b i p e d a l h e r b i v o r o u s d i n o s a u r s , b o t h l i z a r d - h i p p e d and b i r d - h i p p e d , t h e r e are n o q u a d r u p e d a l c a r n i v o r o u s d i n o s a u r s . A l l o f the c a r n i v o r o u s d i n o saurs t o g e t h e r are c a l l e d t h e r o p o d s . T h i s is t h e g r o u p that i n c l u d e s Tyrannosaurus rex, the giant m e a t - e a t e r at the e n d of the A g e of R e p t i l e s . T. rex w a s e n o r m o u s , w i t h a huge head a r m e d w i t h serrated daggerlike teeth. T h e hind

FIGURE

32:

Relationships of bird-hipped dinosaurs.

evolutionary tree of these dinosaurs. facilitates discussion

and

investigation.

shown in the lower right.

It provides a The

bones

This cladogram

is one possible

logical arrangement of the

ornithischian

that pelvis

are

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

ISO

l i m b s w e r e l a r g e , b u t the f o r e l i m b s , w h i l e s t r o n g , w e r e r e l a t i v e l y m i n u t e and had

only

two

fingers.

Other

theropods

are

not

quite

so

much

like

the

t y r a n n o s a u r i d m o l d . AUosaurus, f o r i n s t a n c e , k n o w n f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a and T e n d a g u r u i n A f r i c a , had l a r g e r f o r e l i m b s , w i t h t h r e e f i n g e r s , r a t h e r than t w o , on t h e h a n d . Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, s h o w n in F i g u r e 2 in C h a p t e r 1, is also k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a , b u t ^ f r o m E g y p t and f r o m r o c k s m u c h y o u n g e r than t h o s e at T e n d a g u r u .

It is o n e of t h e strangest of the t h e r o p o d s .

It had a

n a r r o w , c r o c o d i l e l i k e s n o u t , and o n its back w a s a sail o r h u m p s u p p o r t e d b y v e r y l o n g spines f r o m t h e v e r t e b r a e . T h e spines and the sail are e n i g m a t i c . A l l o f the t h e r o p o d s are i n t e r e s t i n g , b u t o n e r a t h e r c o n f u s e d j u m b l e o f t h e r o p o d s , the c o e l u r o s a u r s , I find p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g . E v o l u t i o n a r y relationships w i t h i n the g r o u p a r e v e r y i m p e r f e c t l y d e c i p h e r e d , and i t i s l i k e l y that a m a j o r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the g r o u p w i l l o c c u r as its e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e is m o r e realistically r e s o l v e d . F o r n o w i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o discuss t h e m a s o n e set o f d i n o s a u r s . C o e l u r o s a u r s are l i g h t l y b u i l t , a c t i v e a n i m a l s . T h e r e i s a n e n o r m o u s v a r i e t y o f t h e m , e v e n s o m e that h a v e lost all t h e i r t e e t h . Elaphrosaurus bambergi f r o m T e n d a g u r u is an A f r i c a n c o e l u r o s a u r . Its skull is u n k n o w n . T h e small but v i c i o u s Deinonychus is a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a c o e l u r o s a u r . It has o n e e n l a r g e d s i c k l e l i k e c l a w o n each h i n d f o o t . I t w a s shaped r a t h e r l i k e t h e can o p e n e r o n a Swiss a r m y k n i f e . T h e c l a w w a s h e l d o f f t h e g r o u n d as Deinonychus ran. It was constantly ready to be brought into use, like a switchblade, to disembowel

its

prey.

While

Deinonychus

was not

particularly

large,

i t possibly

h u n t e d i n p a c k s , m a k i n g i t the dinosaurian e q u i v a l e n t o f w o l v e s , and t h e r e f o r e t h e b e h a v i o r o f the s p e c i e s e n a b l e d i t t o b r i n g d o w n m u c h l a r g e r p r e y s p e c i e s . I n M a l a w i t e e t h o f t w o s p e c i e s o f c a r n i v o r o u s dinosaurs h a v e b e e n f o u n d . I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e is a c l a w that appears to b e l o n g to a c o e l u r o s a u r . T h e r e a r e m a n y t h e r o p o d s p e c i e s k n o w n o t h e r than t h o s e I have m e n t i o n e d , m a i n l y f r o m the c o n t i n e n t s o f the N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . T h e y are found on every continent,

including Antarctica.

T h e y w e r e t h e t o p o f the

e c o l o g i c a l p y r a m i d , the last link i n the M e s o z o i c f o o d chain. The

lizard-hipped

dinosaurs

also

include

three

groups

of plant-eating

dinosaurs. T h e first of these are the very large quadrupedal h e r b i v o r e s — t h e sauropods—like

Malawi-saurus,

Brachiosaurus,

Apatosaurus,

Diplodocus,

and

Camarasaurus, w h i c h w e r e discussed i n C h a p t e r 4 . T h e r e i s a l a r g e n u m b e r o f l e s s e r - k n o w n s p e c i e s t o c o m p l e m e n t the r a n g e o f the m o r e familiar giants. African sauropods,

besides Malawi-saurus,

include

Brachiosaurus,

Barosaurus,

A F R I C A N

D I N O S A U R S ,

B E F O R E

A N D

A F T E R

151 and Dicraeosaurus, k n o w n f r o m T e n d a g u r u , the f i r s t t w o f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a as w e l l .

O t h e r African sauropods include

Vulcanodon f r o m Z i m b a b w e ,

Ceti-

osaurus and Rebbachisaurus f r o m N o r t h A f r i c a , Algoasaurus f r o m South A f r i c a , and bothriospondylus and

Titanosaurus f r o m t h e island of M a d a g a s c a r ( w h i c h w a s

n o t a n island f o r a g o o d p a r t o f t h e t i m e s a u r o p o d s l i v e d i n A f r i c a ) . N o t o n l y w e r e s a u r o p o d s w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d across the c o n t i n e n t , b u t t h e y w e r e t h e r e , a p p a r e n t l y , f o r as l o n g as s a u r o p o d s e x i s t e d on E a r t h , so far as we can t e l l . A l l the s a u r o p o d s can b e easily r e c o g n i z e d a s s a u r o p o d s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e differences

between

separate

species.

Although

distinct

in

shape,

all

the

s a u r o p o d s have r i d i c u l o u s l y small heads f o r t h e i r b o d y s i z e . T h e i r t e e t h are s i m p l e p e g s , o r s o m e t i m e s s p o o n shapes. T h e y are l o o s e l y set i n the j a w s , and seemingly not g o o d for much of anything, but obviously, if surprisingly, they w e r e functional. T h e t e e t h o f s a u r o p o d s are a s u n l i k e l y f o r t h e i r giant o w n e r s as a m e a t - e a t i n g d i n o s a u r ' s t e e t h a r e blatantly l i k e steak k n i v e s . B o t h e x i s t e d , s o the t i n y t e e t h o f s a u r o p o d s c l e a r l y d i d t h e i r j o b a s a n i n t e g r a l c o m p o n e n t o f the s a u r o p o d f o o d - p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m .

T h e m o s t g i a n t o f the s a u r o p o d s

w e r e the h e i g h t o f the h e r b i v o r e g u i l d , l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y . T h e y d e r i v e d protection f r o m predators simply by virtue of their size. A herd of sauropods must have had q u i t e an effect on t h e landscape as it passed t h r o u g h , b r o w s i n g and t r a m p l i n g w i t h u n w o r r i e d e a s e . T h e s e c o n d g r o u p o f l i z a r d - h i p p e d p l a n t - e a t i n g h e r b i v o r e s are the b i p e d a l prosauropods (see Figure

3 1 ) . T h i s g r o u p o c c u r s e a r l i e r i n t i m e than the

s a u r o p o d s , and i t i s f r o m s o m e t h i n g like t h e m that the s a u r o p o d s e v o l v e d . T h e y are q u i t e w i d e s p r e a d across t h e g l o b e i n the e a r l y p a r t o f t h e A g e o f Reptiles.

S e v e r a l s p e c i e s are k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a .

T h e f i n a l g r o u p o f the l i z a r d - h i p p e d d i n o s a u r s , t h e s e g n o s a u r s , are v e r y p o o r l y k n o w n , t h e i r m a j o r f e a t u r e b e i n g a strange p e l v i c a n a t o m y that m i m i c s that o f a b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaur t o s o m e e x t e n t . H o w c o n f u s i n g ! N e v e r t h e l e s s , those w h o have m o s t s t u d i e d the segnosaurs think t h e y a r e a n o d d b u n c h o f l i z a r d - h i p p e d d i n o s a u r s , n o t b e l o n g i n g w i t h the t h e r o p o d s y e t n o t q u i t e a s a u r o p o d o r p r o s a u r o p o d e i t h e r . T h e consensus i s that t h e y a r e p l a n t - e a t e r s . T h e i r f o r e l i m b s are r o b u s t , and t h e y m a y h a v e spent a b o u t a s m u c h , o r m o r e , t i m e i n the q u a d r u p e d a l p o s i t i o n a s t h e y d i d b i p e d a l l y . N o n e i s k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a as y e t . All

o f the

bird-hipped

dinosaurs

(see

Figure

32),

w h e t h e r bipedal

or

q u a d r u p e d a l , are h e r b i v o r e s . T h e r e are n o b i r d - h i p p e d m e a t - e a t e r s . T h e i r t e e t h , e x c e p t i n the m o r e p r i m i t i v e f o r m s , are m u c h m o r e sophisticated than

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

152 t h e s i m p l e p e g s and s p o o n s o f s a u r o p o d s . P r i m i t i v e l y l e a f - s h a p e d , the t e e t h b e c o m e m o d i f i e d i n t o e l a b o r a t e c h o p p i n g and g r i n d i n g b a t t e r i e s . F o o d i s h e l d i n t h e m o u t h b y f l e s h y c h e e k s . W h i l e all ornithischians are p l a n t - e a t e r s , this g r o u p c o n t a i n s a startling and a m a z i n g d i v e r s i t y o f b o d y f o r m s , a l t h o u g h n o n e o b t a i n s t h e t r u l y g i g a n t i c size o f the b i g g e s t s a u r o p o d s . Just as in t h e l i z a r d - h i p p e d g r o u p , t h e b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs can be d i v i d e d i n t o t h o s e that w a l k o n t h e i r t w o hind f e e t and t h o s e that r e v e r t e d back t o f o u r . T h e g e o l o g i c a l l y o l d e s t b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs a r e s m a l l , b i p e d a l , and h a v e s i m p l e leaf-shaped t e e t h . ples

of primitive

bipedal

Small Hjpsilophodon and Dryosaurus are e x a m -

bird-hipped

dinosaurs.

They

and

their

relatives

b o u n d e d and g a m b o l e d g o a t l i k e across the M e s o z o i c l a n d s c a p e . T h e l a t t e r i s k n o w n f r o m T e n d a g u r u and N o r t h A m e r i c a . dinosaurs as a g r o u p toward

the

end

are

of the

anatomically

Age

r e s p e c t a b l e s i z e . Iguanodon,

H o w e v e r , bipedal bird-hipped

varied,

of Reptiles.

Many

especially of them

those

that l i v e d

achieved

quite

a

t h e first d i n o s a u r n a m e d in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n -

t u r y , w a s c a l l e d " i g u a n a t o o t h " b e c a u s e its t e e t h l o o k like t h o s e o f a n iguana lizard.

Its t h u m b w a s a stiff spike d i r e c t e d u p w a r d .

Its r e l a t i v e s w e r e the

d u c k - b i l l e d hadrosaurian d i n o s a u r s , s o c o m m o n n e a r the e n d o f the C r e t a ceous

in

North America.

Unlike

the

iguanodonts,

which have

a row

of

r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e p l a n t - e a t i n g t e e t h , t h e hadrosaurs h a v e m a n y t e e t h f o r m i n g d e n t a l b a t t e r i e s that slice and s h r e d v e g e t a t i o n . Each of t h e t e e t h in a dental b a t t e r y i s s m a l l , and t h e r e are m a n y o f t h e m , c o n t i n u o u s l y g r o w i n g o u t f r o m the

roots

and

replacing

older

teeth

that

have

become

worn

down

from

c h e w i n g . T h e w o r n t e e t h a r e shed and spit o u t . C h e e k s i m p r i s o n the f o o d i n the m o u t h w h i l e i t i s b e i n g m a s t i c a t e d and t o r t u r e d . C l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the hadrosaurs are the l a m b e o s a u r s . T h e y d e v e l o p e d o r n a t e crests o n t h e i r skulls. T h e s e w e r e probably for interactions w i t h m e m b e r s o f their o w n species, i n c l u d i n g b o t h display and r e s o n a t i n g s o u n d t h r o u g h the g r e a t l y l e n g t h e n e d nasal passages, w h i c h c o u r s e d t h r o u g h e n l a r g e d cranial c r e s t s . T h e i r t r u m p e t ing was c o m m o n i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . Ouranosaurus ( s h o w n in F i g u r e 3 of C h a p t e r 1) is a b i p e d a l p l a n t - e a t e r f r o m A f r i c a r e l a t e d t o l a m b e o s a u r s , d u c k - b i l l e d d i n o s a u r s , and i g u a n o d o n t s . I t i s u n i q u e in h a v i n g a sail or h u m p on its back s u p p o r t e d by t h e spines of the v e r t e b r a e and superficially v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e A f r i c a n t h e r o p o d Spinosaurus, t o w h i c h it is n o t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . T h e s e sails are i n t r i g u i n g . I suspect that t h e y functioned

to

control

body temperature,

p e r h a p s b y e n g o r g i n g the

surface area t h e y p r o v i d e d w i t h h o t b l o o d i n o r d e r t o dissipate heat.

large

AFRICAN

DINOSAURS,

BEFORE

AND

AFTER

153 T w o o t h e r g r o u p s o f b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs d e v e l o p e d special b o n y arr a n g e m e n t s a r o u n d the skull. T h e s e a r e t h e b o n e - h e a d e d p a c h y c e p h a l o s a u r s and the h o r n e d dinosaurs o r c e r a t o p s i a n s ( s e e F i g u r e 3 2 ) . I n t h e i r e x t r e m e d e v e l o p m e n t the p a c h y c e p h a l o s a u r s h a v e a v e r y thick d o m e o f b o n e e n l a r g i n g the h e a d . T h e h e a d i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f a b a l d - h e a d e d m a n w i t h a l o n g f a c e . T h e thick skull r o o f w a s b e h a v i o r a l l y f u n c t i o n a l .

T h e p a c h y c e p h a l o s a u r s appar-

ently butted heads, slamming their b o n e d o m e s t o g e t h e r the w a y bighorn sheep slam t h e i r h o r n s . P a c h y c e p h a l o s a u r s are m o s t l y k n o w n f r o m t h e N o r t h ern H e m i s p h e r e , but o n e specimen is k n o w n f r o m Madagascar. The

horned

dinosaurs,

four-footed plant-eaters.

or

ceratopsians,

Their teeth,

beasts

like those

such

as

Triceratops,

are

of advanced bipedal her-

b i v o r e s , also e v o l v e d i n t o a n e f f i c i e n t s h r e d d i n g m a c h i n e , w h i c h t h e y used f o r c h e w i n g u p l o w - g r o w i n g plants c l o s e t o the g r o u n d . T h e r e i s g o o d e v i d e n c e that at least s o m e h o r n e d dinosaurs l i v e d in h e r d s and m i g r a t e d seasonally, just a s the g r e a t h e r d s o f w i l d e b e e s t d o t o d a y o n t h e S e r e n g e t i Plains o f A f r i c a . T h e r e are fossil l o c a l i t i e s w i t h i m m e n s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f c e r a t o p s i a n b o n e s e n t o m b e d i n s e d i m e n t s d e p o s i t e d b y rushing r i v e r s , a p p a r e n t l y the v i c t i m s o f f l o o d i n g , again similar t o the fate o f a p o r t i o n o f t h e S e r e n g e t i h e r d s . S o m e o f the e a r l y b i p e d a l b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs had small b o n y plates i n t h e i r skin. T h e s e s p e c i e s a r e a p p a r e n t l y c l o s e t o t h e a n c e s t r y o f g e o l o g i c a l l y l a t e r , and l a r g e r , dinosaurs that had b o n y plates o r a r m o r and that w a l k e d a b o u t o n all f o u r s . I n c l u d e d h e r e a r e the familiar s t e g o s a u r s , w i t h plates and spikes o f b o n e r u n n i n g d o w n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e b a c k f r o m t h e n e c k t o t h e t i p o f the tail, and o n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e n o d o s a u r i d s and a n k y l o s a u r i d s , w h i c h w e r e c o v e r e d w i t h b o n y a r m o r and spines ( s e e F i g u r e 3 2 ) . L i k e the h o r n e d c e r a t o p s i a n s , the a r m o r e d and p l a t e d dinosaurs f e d o n l o w - g r o w i n g v e g e t a t i o n . U n l i k e h o r n e d d i n o s a u r s , the a r m o r e d and p l a t e d dinosaurs d i d n o t h a v e a n e v o l v e d b a t t e r y o f t e e t h t o c h e w t h e i r f o d d e r ; r a t h e r , t h e y had s i m p l e , leaf-shaped t e e t h q u i t e b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs.

similar t o t h o s e

o f the

o l d e s t and m o s t p r i m i t i v e

T h e heads o f p l a t e d dinosaurs w e r e small w i t h l o n g

j a w s t o h o l d the t e e t h . I n the a r m o r e d dinosaurs the skull w a s c o v e r e d o v e r w i t h s e c o n d a r y g r o w t h s o f b o n e , b u t t h e y w e r e still r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , u n l i k e the c e r a t o p s i a n s . N o r t h A m e r i c a n Stegosaurus i s t h e b e s t k n o w n o f the p l a t e d d i n o s a u r s , b u t the g r o u p i s w i d e s p r e a d and also k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a . T h e b e s t - k n o w n A f r i c a n f o r m is Kentrosaurus f r o m T e n d a g u r u . It is v e r y m u c h l i k e Stegosaurus, b u t a bit s m a l l e r and w i t h spikes instead o f plates d o w n the tail e n d o f the b a c k .

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

754 T h e r e i s a s t e g o s a u r i n the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i — t h e o n e K e n t w a s digging on.

W e h a v e n o t y e t f o u n d the skull, b u t i t i s c l e a r l y a stegosaur

b e c a u s e o f the shape o f the p e l v i s . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e are s o m e u n i q u e features o n o n e o f the b o n e s that w e d o h a v e that d e m o n s t r a t e s that e i t h e r the M a l a w i stegosaur is a n e w ,

u n n a m e d s p e c i e s o r i t i s o n e o f the scrappy A f r i c a n

stegosaurs n a m e d o n m a t e r i a l that d o e s n o t i n c l u d e the p e l v i s . M o r e f i e l d w o r k w i l l s o r t o u t that p r o b l e m . T h e n o d o s a u r i d s and ankylosaurids a r e c o v e r e d w i t h a mail o f a r m o r . T h e y are f o u r - f o o t e d m i n i b u s - s i z e d ( o r s m a l l e r ) dinosaurs that fed o n plants g r o w i n g c l o s e t o t h e g r o u n d , using t e e t h that r e t a i n the p r i m i t i v e leaflike shape. T h e y p r o b a b l y r e s e m b l e d giant a r m a d i l l o s a s m u c h a s a n y t h i n g e l s e . I n N o r t h A m e r i c a t h e n o d o s a u r i d s are r a t h e r c o m m o n l y , s o i t s e e m s , f o u n d floated o u t i n t o r o c k s that w e r e d e p o s i t e d i n the sea, s o t h e y m u s t have e n j o y e d the seashore a s w e l l a s any o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t s t h e y m a y h a v e i n h a b i t e d . k y l o s a u r i d s h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r l y rich r e c o r d i n A s i a .

An-

No reliable records of

n o d o s a u r i d s o r ankylosaurids a r e k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a . T h e t h u m b n a i l sketches just p r o v i d e d p r e s e n t a taste o f the d i z z y i n g array o f dinosaurian s p e c i e s that i n h a b i t e d t h e M e s o z o i c w o r l d . T h e r e are m a n y m o r e than w e r e m e n t i o n e d b y n a m e a b o v e . T h e g r a n d p a n o p l y s e e m s infinite. Ornate

lambeosaurs,

spike-thumbed

iguanodonts,

duck-billed

hadrosaurs,

giant s a u r o p o d s , t i n y h y p s i l o p h o d o n t s , and all t h e o t h e r p l a i n , d e c o r a t e d , h o r n e d , or a r m o r e d herbivores fed on ancient g r e e n e r y . T h e carnivores fed on them o r ,

d e p e n d i n g o n the s p e c i e s ,

reptiles or insects.

other fare,

such a s e g g s o r small

D i n o s a u r s p e c i e s , all o f t h e m , m u s t h a v e had e l a b o r a t e

s o c i a l - s t r u c t u r e and b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e s equal t o the sophistication seen i n b i r d s and m a m m a l s . H o w c o u l d t h e y not? T o g e t h e r a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , and w i t h all t h e o t h e r s p e c i e s o f plants and animals l i v i n g a t the

time,

they

c o m p r i s e d v i a b l e , w o r k i n g natural c o m m u n i t i e s , w e b s o f life d i f f e r e n t f r o m t o d a y b u t suited t o t h e i r t i m e s . T h e M e s o z o i c Era, t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s , lasted f r o m a b o u t 2 2 0 m i l l i o n t o 6 6 m i l l i o n years a g o .

I t w a s a n i n t e r v a l o f 154 m i l l i o n years o f dinosaur

d o m i n a n c e o v e r the e c o s y s t e m . D u r i n g that t i m e the c o n t i n e n t s r e a r r a n g e d f r o m t h e c o n f l u e n t landmass c a l l e d Pangaea t o e n d u p , i n m o s t essentials, a s t h e y a r e n o w . T h e r e w e r e p r o f o u n d changes i n the physical w o r l d , i n the g e o g r a p h y o f c o n t i n e n t s and o c e a n s , and i n c l i m a t e . A l l this vast d y n a m i s m i n t h e physical w o r l d i n v o k e d changes i n the b i o l o g i c a l w o r l d t h r o u g h natural s e l e c t i o n , w h i c h i n turn affected t h e physical w o r l d t h r o u g h the influence that

AFRICAN

DINOSAURS,

BEFORE

AND

AFTER 155

plants and animals h a v e o n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t s .

T h e M e s o z o i c was a long

expanse of t i m e , but it was e v e r changing. N o dinosaur species lived for the entire duration o f the M e s o z o i c . N o n e even

came

c l o s e t o d o i n g that.

There

was tremendous

faunal

succession

a m o n g the d i n o s a u r s . T h o s e s p e c i e s a l i v e a t the e n d o f t h e era d i d n o t e x i s t at the b e g i n n i n g , and t h o s e inhabiting the landscape at the b e g i n n i n g w e r e l o n g e x t i n c t b y t h e e n d . A s the sands o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s passed t h r o u g h the h o u r g l a s s , life w a s n o t still. T h e r e w a s a s o r t o f c o n t i n u o u s t u r n o v e r , a conveyor

belt

exhibiting

older

species

to

be

replaced

by

newer

models

through t i m e . D u r i n g the M e s o z o i c E r a , a s i n any e x t e n s i v e i n t e r v a l o f t i m e , the s p e c i e s o f life w e r e c h a n g i n g , and the physical w o r l d w a s c h a n g i n g , and t h e y w e r e b o t h influencing each o t h e r . F r o m this w e can m a k e c e r t a i n p r e d i c t i o n s . First, w e w o u l d e x p e c t the inhabitants o f t h e land t o b e m o r e u n i f o r m i f all t h e landmasses are j o i n e d , a s i n P a n g a e a , s u b j e c t , o f c o u r s e , t o r e g i o n a l differe n c e s that m a y affect t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a n i m a l s . R e g i o n a l e f f e c t s , i f t h e r e a r e n o a b s o l u t e m o u n t a i n b a r r i e r s o r o t h e r such o b s t a c l e s , s h o u l d b e a t a l o w e r level

o f significance

than

the

opportunities

for interbreeding provided by

b r o a d and m o r e - o r - l e s s easy access t h r o u g h o u t a c o n f l u e n t s u p e r c o n t i n e n t . W e should see a similar p a t t e r n o f faunal succession all across the landmass a s t i m e p r o g r e s s e d . N e x t , w e s h o u l d see i n c r e a s i n g d i f f e r e n c e s d e v e l o p i n t e r r e s t r i a l faunas a s the c o n t i n e n t s drift apart f r o m o n e a n o t h e r .

Greater

p e r i o d s o f i s o l a t i o n s h o u l d p r o d u c e g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g t h e faunas. I f land c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n c o n t i n e n t s b e c o m e r e e s t a b l i s h e d , e v e n i f f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d , w e should e x p e c t t o see the dispersal o f s p e c i e s , and n e w c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n s p e c i e s , i n the c o n n e c t e d faunas. A f r i c a should b e a n i d e a l c o n t i n e n t t o test these p r e d i c t i o n s d u r i n g t h e M e s o z o i c b e c a u s e o f its e a r l y inclusion i n Pangaea and its s u b s e q u e n t i s o l a t i o n f r o m South A m e r i c a d u r i n g t h e Early Cretaceous. Speaking specifically o f d i n o s a u r s , i n A f r i c a t h e y g o back t o t h e t i m e w h e n the w o r l d ' s landmasses w e r e c o a l e s c e d i n t o P a n g a e a ( s e e F i g u r e 9 i n C h a p t e r 1 ) , o v e r 2 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h a t w a s a t the t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g s o f the dinosaurs, w h e n t h e y f i r s t e v o l v e d .

W i t h all the c o n t i n e n t a l areas b r o a d l y

c o n n e c t e d a t that t i m e , i t i s e x p e c t e d that t h e animal inhabitants w o u l d b e substantially alike across t h e l a n d , a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of g e o g r a p h i c v a r i a t i o n in the fauna n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . T h a t is w h a t is s e e n in t h e d i n o s a u r s . T h e earliest k n o w n dinosaurs o f o v e r 2 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o w e r e n o t - s o - l a r g e , c a r n i v o r o u s

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

156 c r e a t u r e s that w a l k e d u p r i g h t o n t h e i r hind

legs,

f r e e i n g t h e i r hands f o r

m a n i p u l a t i o n and o t h e r f u n c t i o n s . T h o s e features c h a r a c t e r i z e the o r i g i n o f d i n o s a u r s . L a t e r , b u t n o t m u c h l a t e r , p l a n t - e a t e r s e v o l v e d . A t this early stage l i z a r d - h i p p e d and b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs l o o k e d v e r y m u c h a l i k e . H o w e v e r , they soon began t o d e v e l o p their o b v i o u s distinctions o f b o d y f o r m .

The

l i z a r d - h i p p e d and l a r g e p r o s a u r o p o d s b e c a m e the c o n s p i c u o u s p l a n t - e a t e r s . T h e r e was an interval of roughly evolutionary

beginnings

of the

3 0 t o 4 0 m i l l i o n years b e t w e e n the

dinosaurs

and

the

first

major

breakup

of

P a n g a e a . I n that t i m e p e r i o d the s e d i m e n t a r y r e c o r d s h o w s significant changes i n the e n v i r o n m e n t , and the fossil r e c o r d s h o w s c o n s i d e r a b l e changes i n the vertebrate life. T h e interior of what is n o w N o r t h A m e r i c a w e n t from a m o r e m e s i c , w e t t e r , c l i m a t i c r e g i m e t o o n e that w a s m o r e arid and d o m i n a t e d b y vast sand d u n e s . R i f t - v a l l e y lakes b e g a n f o r m i n g i n eastern N o r t h A m e r i c a , e x p r e s s i n g t h e t e n s i o n s a b o u t t o r i p t h e c o n t i n e n t s apart. T h e n , a r o u n d 180 m i l l i o n years a g o , t h e N o r t h A t l a n t i c b e g a n f o r m i n g , s h a l l o w seas c o v e r e d m u c h o f E u r o p e , and n o r t h w e s t e r n A f r i c a split a w a y f r o m southeastern N o r t h A m e r i c a . A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a w e r e still c o n j o i n e d w i t h each o t h e r and t h e o t h e r G o n d w a n a c o n t i n e n t s , but t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o N o r t h A m e r i c a w a s less c l e a r . O n e t h i n g i s c e r t a i n : A r i d c o n d i t i o n s i n the h e a r t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a w e r e r e p l a c e d b y m o r e pleasant c l i m a t e s , seasonal, but w i t h a r e a s o n a b l y abundant

w a t e r supply.

All

this

time

life

continued

to

evolve.

Now

the

e n v i r o n m e n t had a m u c h g r e a t e r c a r r y i n g capacity than the p r e c e d i n g t i m e o f d e s e r t s and sand d u n e s . T h a t set the stage f o r the L a t e Jurassic, 145 m i l l i o n years a g o , the g o l d e n a g e o f t h e d i n o s a u r s . T h e L a t e Jurassic i s m o s t n o t a b l e f o r h a v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t d i v e r s i t y o f the l a r g e s t c r e a t u r e s that e v e r l i v e d o n l a n d — t h e s a u r o p o d s . S u r p r i s i n g l y , e v e n t h o u g h the b r e a k u p o f P a n g a e a had b e g u n , b i g s a u r o p o d s a r e f o u n d all o v e r t h e p l a c e . T h e y are i n E u r o p e , S o u t h A m e r i c a , C h i n a , A u s t r a l i a , India, A f r i c a , and N o r t h A m e r i c a . V i r t u a l l y e v e r y w h e r e . Part of this is s i m p l y a l e g a c y , a h o l d o v e r f r o m earlier times w h e n Pangaea was t o g e t h e r . Broad connections still r e m a i n e d intact b e t w e e n the G o n d w a n a c o n t i n e n t s . But i t m u s t also m e a n that t e m p o r a r y o r o t h e r w i s e m i n o r c o n n e c t i o n s e x i s t e d b e t w e e n c l o s e - l y i n g landmasses that w e r e n o l o n g e r p e r m a n e n t l y c o n n e c t e d and had e m b a r k e d o n t h e i r d r i f t i n g c o u r s e s . T r u e , t h e r e a r e r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s across the g l o b e , and s o m e fairly s t r o n g o n e s , e v e n i n the s a u r o p o d fauna, e s p e c i a l l y i n C h i n a . Still, o n e c a n n o t h e l p b u t b e i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e a m a z i n g , a l m o s t uncanny s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e dinosaurs o f T e n d a g u r u and C o l o r a d o ,

Utah,

and

AFRICAN

DINOSAURS,

BEFORE

AND

AFTER 157

W y o m i n g . A n d n o t just the s a u r o p o d s ; the t h e r o p o d s and h y p s i l o p h o d o n t s are also s i m i l a r . A n d n o t just i n A f r i c a and N o r t h A m e r i c a . Apatosaurus and Brachiosaurus are also r e p o r t e d f r o m

Portugal.

W i t h the c l o s e o f the Jurassic, t h e h e y d a y o f the s a u r o p o d s w a s o v e r . T h e i r n u m b e r s d w i n d l e d i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , w h e r e t h e y had b e e n s o c o m m o n . T h e last p e r i o d o f t h e M e s o z o i c Era, t h e C r e t a c e o u s , s a w t h e final d i s m a n t l i n g o f G o n d w a n a and the d e v e l o p m e n t o f f a m i l i a r c o n t i n e n t a l p o s i t i o n s , n o t q u i t e m o d e r n o f c o u r s e , but n e a r l y s o . W i t h t h e C r e t a c e o u s c a m e m o r e changes in

climate,

m o r e areas o f i s o l a t i o n ,

and m o r e

transient c o n n e c t i o n s that

a l l o w e d dinosaurs t o m i g r a t e f r o m c o n t i n e n t t o c o n t i n e n t . S a u r o p o d s , specifically titanosaurids, w e r e r e i n t r o d u c e d t o N o r t h A m e r i c a f r o m South A m e r i c a n e a r t h e e n d o f the C r e t a c e o u s . S t e g o s a u r s , l i k e saurop o d s , have t h e i r m o s t abundant fossil r e c o r d f r o m the L a t e Jurassic i n t h e m i d d l e p o r t i o n o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , a r o u n d

145 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h e y

a r e k n o w n f r o m E u r o p e , N o r t h A m e r i c a , C h i n a , and A f r i c a i n t h e Jurassic, but n o t f r o m South A m e r i c a o r A u s t r a l i a , t h e n o r e v e r . T h e y d e c l i n e after t h e Jurassic. N o r t h A m e r i c a n ankylosaurids and n o d o s a u r i d s are m o r e abundant and d i v e r s e after the d e c l i n e o f t h e stegosaurs than t h e y w e r e b e f o r e . A t t h e time

sauropods begin their decline

Elsewhere,

stegosaurs

continue

on

in

North America,

into

the

Cretaceous

s o d o stegosaurs. in

China,

India,

E u r o p e , and A f r i c a , n o t a b l y i n M a l a w i . T h e d i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n ankylosaurids i n t h e L a t e C r e t a c e o u s i s due

to

the

intermittent

establishment

of a c o n n e c t i o n

across

the

Bering

Straits. T h e m o r e p r i m i t i v e o f t h e t w o a r m o r e d b i r d - h i p p e d d i n o s a u r f a m i l i e s , the n o d o s a u r i d s , a p p a r e n t l y had a b r o a d e r g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n than t h e i r s c i o n s , the ankylosaurids. A n k y l o s a u r i d s u n d e r w e n t a g r e a t deal o f i s o l a t e d e v o l u t i o n i n A s i a . T h e n , w h e n the straits a f f o r d e d the o p p o r t u n i t y , t h e y c a m e across. T h e y w e r e n o t a l o n e e i t h e r . T h e r e has b e e n a s u g g e s t i o n that the newly

named

sauropod,

Dyslocosaurus,

may

have

come

from

Asia.

Other

g r o u p s used the straits as w e l l — d u c k - b i l l e d dinosaurs and l a m b e o s a u r s and big ferocious tyrannosaurids—and they have a c o m p l i c a t e d history of migrat i o n b e t w e e n Asia and N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e h o r n e d c e r a t o p s i a n s , s o c h a r a c t e r istic o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n fossil f i e l d s , t r a c e t h e i r r o o t s back t o A s i a . T h e y k e p t m o v i n g south t h r o u g h the c o n t i n e n t a n d , a l o n g w i t h o n e o f t h e d u c k - b i l l e d species and a f e w o t h e r s ,

c r o s s e d the C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n land b r i d g e f r o m

N o r t h A m e r i c a t o South A m e r i c a a s titanosaurids w e r e c r o s s i n g t h e o t h e r way.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

158 T h e fossil r e c o r d i n A f r i c a c o v e r s m u c h o f dinosaurian h i s t o r y , but i n a s p o t t y , i n c o m p l e t e , and n o t v e r y a d e q u a t e w a y . T h e r e i s a g o o d r e c o r d o f the e a r l y P a n g a e a n fauna. T h e r e are a f e w r e p o r t s f r o m t h e m i d d l e o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s p r i o r t o the e x c e l l e n t and a s t o u n d i n g suite o f fossils f r o m T e n d a g u r u . T h r o u g h o u t the C r e t a c e o u s , Early and L a t e , t h e r e are s c a t t e r e d o c c u r r e n c e s o f dinosaurs i n A f r i c a . F e w o f t h e m have b e e n a d e q u a t e l y w o r k e d and studied. T w o stand o u t m o r e than the o t h e r s : G a d o u f a o u a i n N i g e r , and the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i . G a d o u f a o u a i s i m p o r t a n t because i t has r e l a t i v e l y c o m p l e t e s k e l e t o n s o f a n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s . T h e m o s t f a m o u s d i n o s a u r f r o m t h e r e i s the ornithischian Ouranosaurus, t h e t w o - f o o t e d , p l a n t - e a t i n g , sail-backed c r e a t u r e r e l a t e d t o the c r e s t e d l a m b e o s a u r s . D a t i n g o f G a d o u f a o u a i s i m p r e c i s e , but it is Early C r e t a c e o u s . Ouranosaurus is n o t f o u n d in the D i n o s a u r B e d s of M a l a w i . N o r is anything l i k e it. T h e r e are s o m e similarities b e t w e e n t h e t w o s p o t s , f o r instance i n the c o m m o n o c c u r r e n c e o f the small c r o c o d i l e Araripesuchus, f i r s t d e s c r i b e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a . But no Ouranosaurus. Is that because G a d o u f a o u a is y o u n g e r ? M a y b e dinosaurs like Ouranosaurus had n o t e n t e r e d A f r i c a f r o m the n o r t h until after t h e D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e d e p o s i t e d ? O r i s i t because the e c o l o g y o f the t w o areas w a s d i f f e r e n t , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y w e r e a b o u t the s a m e age? O r i s i t just the c h a n c e o f c o l l e c t i n g ? W e d o n o t k n o w y e t , a l t h o u g h a s y o u w i l l see i n C h a p t e r 6 , t h e r e w e r e significant r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s across A f r i c a a t the t i m e i t w a s b r e a k i n g a w a y f r o m South A m e r i c a .

A T THE

CLOSE o f t h e C r e t a c e o u s , 6 6 m i l l i o n years a g o , after a n i m m e n s e

h i s t o r y o f d o m i n a t i o n and c h a n g e , o r i g i n a t i o n and e x t i r p a t i o n , the same thing h a p p e n e d in A f r i c a as h a p p e n e d e v e r y w h e r e e l s e : D i n o s a u r s , in the traditional sense, w e n t e x t i n c t . D u r i n g t h e i r t e n u r e o n Earth, dinosaurs had a l o n g and distinguished r e c o r d . T h e y inhabited e v e r y continent, including Antarctica, essentially

c o v e r i n g the

Earth's

entire range

of latitude,

from

w i t h i n the

A r c t i c C i r c l e , o v e r the t e m p e r a t e z o n e s , t h r o u g h the t r o p i c s , t o n e a r the South P o l a r r e g i o n . T h e i r t i m e o n Earth lasted o v e r 150 m i l l i o n years. T h e c o n s p i c u o u s giant and n o t - s o - g i a n t d e n i z e n s o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s p l a y e d major ecological roles in the c o m m u n i t i e s of the M e s o z o i c w o r l d .

Those

b e a s t s — D i p l o d o c u s , Allosaurus, and the r e s t — w e r e the o b v i o u s d o m i n a n t v e r t e b r a t e h e r b i v o r e s and c a r n i v o r e s o f the

Mesozoic community.

Nowadays

m a m m a l s d o m i n a t e . T h e r e f o r e a basic r e a r r a n g e m e n t i n the l i n e u p o f players

AFRICAN

DINOSAURS,

BEFORE

AND

AFTER

i n terrestrial e c o s y s t e m s has o c c u r r e d since t h e e n d o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e dinosaurs, w h i c h r u l e d the l a n d , are n o l o n g e r h e r e . O f c o u r s e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e Earth o r the life o n i t r e m a i n s static f o r such an i m m e n s e span of t i m e as that r e p r e s e n t e d by the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . D i n o s a u r s u n d e r w e n t a g r e a t deal o f e v o l u t i o n d u r i n g that i n t e r v a l . T h e s p e c i e s that l i v e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e i r r e i g n w e r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e a t the e n d , o r e v e n i n t h e m i d d l e . T h u s , b e s i d e s the G r e a t D y i n g a t the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s ,

there w e r e numerous ex-

t i n c t i o n s o f lesser i m p a c t t o the g r o u p a s a w h o l e t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r t i m e o n Earth.

T h e r e w e r e also t i m e s o f o r i g i n a t i o n o f n e w s p e c i e s .

M a n y of the

details o f this e v o l u t i o n a r y p u z z l e r e m a i n t o b e d e c i p h e r e d b e c a u s e ,

con-

trary t o the c o m m o n p o p u l a r i t y o f dinosaurs and d e s p i t e the i m p r e s s i o n y o u m a y have

received

from

this s u m m a r y ,

dinosaurs

are

o n t h e w h o l e less

t h o r o u g h l y c o l l e c t e d , m o r e p o o r l y d a t e d , and less i n t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d than m a m m a l i a n fossils f r o m the s u c c e e d i n g era. T h e y a r e m o r e p o p u l a r because o f the size o f t h e i r giant m e m b e r s , w h i c h also m a k e s t h e m h a r d e r t o c o l l e c t , and the a m b i v a l e n t fear instilled i n s o m e o f u s b y the m o r e f e r o c i o u s species. R e g a r d l e s s o f the fact that m a n y d i n o s a u r s p e c i e s o r i g i n a t e d and w e n t e x t i n c t a t various t i m e s d u r i n g the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , t h e r e i s a n u n d e n i a b l e trauma i n t h e i r h i s t o r y a t t h e e n d o f the C r e t a c e o u s . T h e G r e a t D y i n g o f the dinosaurs i s o n e o f the m o s t c h a l l e n g i n g o f q u e s t i o n s because s o m a n y species w e n t e x t i n c t . T h a t , t o o , instills a n a m b i v a l e n t fear i n us. H o w e v e r , o u r v i e w o f i t should b e t e m p e r e d t o s o m e d e g r e e b y h a v i n g seen the c o m p l i c a t e d patterns o f o r i g i n a t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n that o p e r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r r e i g n . But t h e r e are still o v e r p o w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s . W h y , and h o w , d i d dinosaurs g o e x t i n c t ? H o w c o u l d these vast b e h e m o t h s , a r o u n d f o r s o l o n g , y e t that n o o n e has e v e r o r e v e r w i l l see i n the flesh, the r u l e r s o f t h e land f o r m i l l i o n s and m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s , h o w c o u l d t h e y g o e x t i n c t ? T h e a n s w e r s w e h a v e s o far are n o t c o m p l e t e l y satisfying.

It is h a r d l y surprising that t h e r e are m a n y u n -

r e s o l v e d issues a b o u t e x t i n c t i o n . T h e e n d of s p e c i e s is n e a r l y as e n i g m a t i c as their o r i g i n . T h e G r e a t D y i n g affected m o r e than just d i n o s a u r s .

Monstrous marine

lizards, flying p t e r o s a u r s , a n u m b e r o f i n v e r t e b r a t e s , m a n y o f t h e m t i n y , and s o m e plants w e n t e x t i n c t a t the s a m e t i m e .

O t h e r groups survived, most

n o t a b l y c r o c o d i l e s , b i r d s , and m a m m a l s . W h y this s e l e c t i v i t y ? W h a t e v e r ideas m a y b e put f o r w a r d t o a c c o u n t f o r the e x t i n c t i o n , i n o r d e r t o b e realistic, t h e y

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

160 m u s t also a c c o u n t f o r t h e s p e c i e s that d i d n o t g o e x t i n c t b e c a u s e , f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n , t h e y w e r e a b l e t o resist the cause o f t h e d y i n g . M a n y t h e o r i e s have b e e n a d v a n c e d f o r t h e cause o f t h e t e r m i n a l C r e t a c e o u s e x t i n c t i o n e v e n t . C o l l e c t i v e c o n s t i p a t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e . O r disease. C h a n g i n g c l i m a t e s and e n v i r o n m e n t s v e r y o f t e n a r e a t t r i b u t e d a r o l e i n the p r o c e s s . S o m e o f t h e s e ideas m a k e m o r e sense than o t h e r s , and t h e e x t i n c t i o n c o u l d h a v e i n v o l v e d a train o f e v e n t s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s that o p e r a t e d synergistic a l l y , t o g e t h e r c u l m i n a t i n g i n a result that n o n e o f t h e m a l o n e m i g h t have c a u s e d . T h a t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e , i f n o t p r o b a b l e , b u t i t i s also r e a s o n a b l e t o search

for

a

catalyst,

some

constellation

of circumstances

or

events

that

p r e c i p i t a t e d the mass e x t i n c t i o n . T h e r e i s m o u n t i n g e v i d e n c e and a g r o w i n g consensus that e x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l e v e n t s , u l t i m a t e l y o r i m m e d i a t e l y , m a y h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o the d e m i s e o f the dinosaurs i n t h e c a l a m i t y that m a r k s t h e e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s .

The

f u n d a m e n t a l e v i d e n c e f o r a n e x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l - e x t i n c t i o n h y p o t h e s i s i s the p r e s e n c e o f a thin l a y e r o f clay a t the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e C r e t a c e o u s and o v e r l y i n g r o c k s . T h i s l a y e r has b e e n f o u n d i n m a n y places all o v e r the w o r l d . O n the face o f i t t h e m e r e p r e s e n c e o f such a w i d e s p r e a d clay layer appears t o b e r e f l e c t i n g s o m e g l o b a l e v e n t that o c c u r r e d r i g h t a t t h e e n d o f C r e t a c e o u s t i m e , and that o f c o u r s e i s t h e t i m e o f the d i n o s a u r - e x t i n c t i o n e v e n t . I s t h e r e a m e a n i n g f u l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n these t w o o b s e r v a b l e p h e n o m e n a ? Chemical

analyses o f t h e

boundary

clay

layer have y i e l d e d

some very

i n t e r e s t i n g results. T h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g i s t h e a n o m a l o u s l y high c o n c e n t r a tion

of iridium,

a

metallic

element

of the

platinum

family.

r o c k s o f t h e Earth c o n t a i n v e r y , v e r y small a m o u n t s o f it.

Usually

the

H o w e v e r , irid-

i u m i s m a n y t i m e s m o r e a b u n d a n t i n t h e b o u n d a r y clay l a y e r than i t o u g h t t o b e . W h e r e o n Earth c o u l d all that i r i d i u m h a v e c o m e f r o m ? T h e r e i s n o good

explanation.

I t can b e a s s u m e d that all o f t h e c h e m i c a l e l e m e n t s m a k i n g u p the solid Earth w e r e o r i g i n a l l y p r e s e n t w h e n i t w a s f i r s t f o r m e d b i l l i o n s o f years a g o i n t h e c o s m i c p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e solar s y s t e m . I f that i s s o , t h e n the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f i r i d i u m i n t h e Earth s h o u l d b e the s a m e , o r a t least c o m p a r a b l e , t o that m e a s u r e d i n m e t e o r i t e s that c o m e i n t o o u r w o r l d f r o m o u t e r space and strike the E a r t h . T h a t is because m e t e o r i t e s and the Earth all had the same c o s m i c o r i g i n , a l o n g w i t h the rest o f the solar s y s t e m . O n the E a r t h ' s surface, h o w e v e r , the i r i d i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n d o e s n o t r e f l e c t c o s m i c a b u n d a n c e . Iridi u m is m a n y t i m e s less rich than the p r i m o r d i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n m e a s u r e d in

AFRICAN

DINOSAURS,

BEFORE

AND

AFTER

m e t e o r i t e s , e x c e p t i n o n e i n s t a n c e — t h e b o u n d a r y clay a t t h e t e r m i n a l C r e t a c e o u s e x t i n c t i o n e v e n t . T h i s raises t w o f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s . W h e r e has all the o r i g i n a l i r i d i u m i n t h e Earth g o n e , and w h y a r e the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e b o u n d a r y clay m o r e like c o s m i c p r o p o r t i o n s ? I r i d i u m is w h a t is c a l l e d a s i d e r o p h i l e ;

it is an e l e m e n t that l o v e s to

c o m b i n e c h e m i c a l l y w i t h i r o n . I n the e a r l y f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Earth, b i l l i o n s o f years a g o , b e f o r e life e x i s t e d , h e a v y e l e m e n t s l i k e i r o n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e planet's c o r e ,

leaving lighter e l e m e n t s to m a k e up the crust.

Siderophilic

i r i d i u m p r e s u m a b l y a c c o m p a n i e d i r o n a s t h e c o r e and s u r r o u n d i n g m a n t l e w e r e f o r m e d , m i g r a t i n g t o the c e n t e r o f t h e E a r t h , e n r i c h i n g its c e n t e r w h i l e d e p l e t i n g the

crust.

The

result

is

the

observation

that c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

of

i r i d i u m m e a s u r a b l e t o d a y o n t h e surface o f t h e Earth are m u c h less than that in m e t e o r i t e s . But w h a t a b o u t the b o u n d a r y clay? E i t h e r the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s w a s r e s t o r e d t o that m o r e n e a r l y r e s e m b l i n g m e t e o r i c a m o u n t s b y f o r c e s b r i n g i n g r o c k f r o m d e e p i n the b o w e l s o f the Earth u p t o the surface, o r i r i d i u m w a s b r o u g h t t o t h e Earth f r o m s o m e w h e r e e l s e . T h e r e are n o o t h e r realistic o p t i o n s . W h i c h w a s it? T h e o n l y m e c h a n i s m f o r b r i n g i n g r o c k f r o m d e e p d o w n i n the Earth t o the surface o f the crust i s t h r o u g h v o l c a n i c p r o c e s s e s . T h e r e a r e i n fact l a r g e v o l c a n i c f i e l d s o f a b o u t t h e right age i n India. But t h e r e are s o m e p r o b l e m s w i t h the v o l c a n o h y p o t h e s i s that m a k e i t n o t c o m p l e t e l y satisfactory. instance,

For

w h y are t h e r e n o t m a n y m o r e layers high i n i r i d i u m c o m m o n l y

associated w i t h v o l c a n i c e v e n t s t h r o u g h o u t Earth t i m e ? O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a v o l c a n i c m e c h a n i s m has n o t b e e n r u l e d o u t c o m p l e t e l y . A s f o r the s e c o n d o p t i o n , h o w c o u l d i r i d i u m b e b r o u g h t f r o m o u t s i d e the Earth t o e n d u p i n the b o u n d a r y clay layer? T h e a n s w e r i s s i m p l e : T h r o u g h the c o l l i s i o n o f the Earth w i t h a m e t e o r i t e . M e t e o r i t e s h a v e the r i g h t c o m p o s i t i o n . Small o n e s e n t e r the E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e all t h e t i m e . T h e r e i s a m p l e evidence,

such

as

Meteor

Crater in

A r i z o n a or the

Steinheim

Crater

in

Bavaria, that l a r g e r o n e s can also strike the surface. W h e n a m e t e o r i t e slams i n t o t h e E a r t h , i t p l o w s i n t o the g r o u n d , v a p o r i z ing r o c k and itself and c r e a t i n g a massive e x p l o s i o n . T h e m a g n i t u d e o f the e x p l o s i o n d e p e n d s o n t h e size o f the m e t e o r i t e and the s p e e d o f the c o l l i s i o n . T h e size o f the h y p o t h e s i z e d m e t e o r i t e that m a y h a v e caused the G r e a t D y i n g w a s o v e r o n e - h a l f m i l e i n d i a m e t e r . T h e a m o u n t o f ejecta t h r o w n u p i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e b y its i m p a c t w o u l d h a v e b e e n o f e n o r m o u s p r o p o r t i o n s . A s the

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

162 dust r e s u l t i n g f r o m the e x p l o s i o n s e t t l e d o u t o f t h e sky, t h e b o u n d a r y clay l a y e r , e n r i c h e d i n i r i d i u m c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e usual c o m p o s i t i o n o f the Earth's c r u s t , f o r m e d in d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s , such as in o c e a n basins, w h e r e t h e l a y e r is m o s t easily f o u n d . T h e r e i s a g r e a t deal o f s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e t o suggest that the i m p a c t h y p o t h e s i s i s m o r e p r o b a b l e than the E a r t h b o u n d v o l c a n i c h y p o t h e s i s . C h i c x ulub C r a t e r o n the n o r t h w e s t e r n m a r g i n o f the Y u c a t a n Peninsula o f M e x i c o has e v e n b e e n s u g g e s t e d a s the site o f i m p a c t . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s u g g e s t i o n o f the t i m i n g o f the i m p a c t has b e e n m a d e based o n fossil plants f o u n d i n Wyoming.

Damage,

apparently

caused

by

freezing,

can

be

observed

in

a q u a t i c , w a t e r - d w e l l i n g , species that w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y f o s s i l i z e d . T h e fossil d e p o s i t is of the a p p r o p r i a t e g e o l o g i c a g e and o c c u r s in a stratigraphic s e c t i o n that also contains i m p a c t d e b r i s . T h e r e p r o d u c t i v e stage o f the fossil plants w h e n t h e y d i e d suggests that the f r e e z e that k i l l e d t h e m o c c u r r e d i n J u n e — e a r l y June n o less. Such p r e c i s i o n m u s t b e v e r y c r i t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d . A certain a m o u n t o f s k e p t i c i s m i s h e a l t h y . C o n c o r d a n c e o f data m a y b e m o r e a p p a r e n t than r e a l . E v e n if t h e r e is c o n c o r d a n c e , t h e r e m a y be a b e t t e r or an equally t e n a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n . N o n e t h e l e s s t h e s u g g e s t i o n s a r e plausible. In either hypothesis,

however,

Earthbound or asteroid,

the i m m e d i a t e

physical effects o f c o l l i s i o n o r v o l c a n i c e x p l o s i o n m u s t b e a n a l y z e d i n r e l a t i o n to the selective extinctions at the

e n d o f the

A g e of Reptiles.

In either

s c e n a r i o , t h e i m m e n s e a m o u n t s o f dust and v a p o r t h r o w n u p i n t o the a t m o s p h e r e w o u l d b l o c k t h e sun, casting the Earth i n t o a n e e r i e d a y t i m e darkness. I t w o u l d persist f o r m o n t h s . T e m p e r a t u r e s w o u l d p l u m m e t drastically, r e m a i n i n g b e l o w f r e e z i n g , l i k e a n e n d l e s s w i n t e r n i g h t , until the sun c o u l d f i g h t its w a y t h r o u g h t h e dusty a t m o s p h e r e t o w a r m the Earth. Plant p r o d u c t i v i t y , w h i c h d e p e n d s d i r e c t l y o n t h e sun's r a y s ,

w o u l d drop precipitously.

The

effect o n p h o t o s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i s m s , p l a n t s , w o u l d d e p e n d s o m e w h a t o n the season in w h i c h t h e i m p a c t o c c u r r e d , but in any case, on a g l o b a l scale it would

be

devastating.

That

is

the

basis

of estimating

the

t i m i n g o f the

unseasonable e a r l y June " w i n t e r " m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . T h o s e o r g a n i s m s n o t k i l l e d b y t h e i m m e d i a t e effects o f the blast w o u l d suffer

long,

agonizing,

species could not,

torturous

w o u l d not,

years

of ecological

s u r v i v e it.

readjustment.

Some

H e r b i v o r e s left w i t h o u t f o d d e r

w o u l d s t a r v e . P r e d a t o r s w o u l d b e d e p r i v e d o f p r e y . O n l y t h o s e species that c o u l d s u r v i v e the c o l d and d a r k w i t h the i n t e g r i t y o f t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s intact w o u l d e n d u r e t h r o u g h w h a t w a s t o b e c o m e the C r e t a c e o u s - T e r t i a r y b o u n d -

AFRICAN

DINOSAURS,

BEFORE

AND

AFTER 163

ary,

d e f i n e d b y the death o f s o m a n y s p e c i e s .

Small,

secretive mammals

s u r v i v e d . C r o c o d i l e s and t u r t l e s s u r v i v e d . F r o g s s u r v i v e d . A n d s o d i d w a r m b l o o d e d b i r d s . But n o t , f o r w h a t e v e r d i s m a l r e a s o n s , t h e dinosaurs.

D O E S THIS S C E N A R I O o f a n a t m o s p h e r e full o f d u s t , s h r o u d i n g t h e Earth f r o m the l i f e - g i v i n g e n e r g y rays o f t h e sun, sound u n c o m f o r t a b l y familiar? I s it an a p o c a l y p t i c tale? In fact s o m e of t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f o r the d i r e c t i o n s t ak en i n assessing t h e less i m m e d i a t e effects o n life o f t h e r m o n u c l e a r w a r , and i n d e v e l o p i n g the c o n c e p t o f n u c l e a r w i n t e r , c o m e s f r o m just this r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e effects o f dust i n the a t m o s p h e r e . I t d o e s n o t m a t t e r w h e t h e r t h e dust is put there by volcanic eruptions or m e t e o r i t e impacts or the irresponsibility o f h u m a n s . T h e calculations a r e d o n e t h e s a m e w a y i n each case, and t h e p r e d i c t e d o u t c o m e i s t h e s a m e . T h e d e m i s e o f t h e d i n o s a u r s , i n a v e r y real sense, displays t h e fragility o f l i f e . O n c e s o m e t h i n g l i k e a n i m p a c t h a p p e n s , t h e r e i s a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g that can b e d o n e t o s t o p u n c a r i n g , i n s e n s i t i v e , a m o r a l physical p r o c e s s e s f r o m r u n n i n g t h e i r c o u r s e and taking t h e i r t o l l . T h e lesson o f dinosaur e x t i n c t i o n i s a p o c a l y p t i c t o that e x t e n t . E v e n w i t h the s i m i l a r i t i e s , t h e r e a r e s o m e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the G r e a t D y i n g a t the e n d o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s and the m o s t realistic models of thermonuclear war.

The

effects

of intense

radioactivity due

a t o m i c e x p l o s i o n and fallout m u s t b e a d d e d t o the e q u a t i o n .

to

That w o u l d

r e n d e r the d e s t r u c t i o n o f life far g r e a t e r and far m o r e h o r r i f i c than the loss caused s i m p l y b y darkness and c o l d and t h e i r associated h a v o c . T h e s e c o n d fundamental d i f f e r e n c e , o f e v e n g r e a t e r significance, i s that i n t h e r m o n u c l e a r w a r w e are n o t speaking o f t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f dinosaurs. W e a r e talking a b o u t p e o p l e . P e o p l e d o n o t cause m e t e o r i t e s ; t h e y d o cause w a r s . W e d o n o t n e e d t o e x a m i n e the effects o f n u c l e a r w a r t o d e r i v e insights f r o m dinosaur e x t i n c t i o n . H o w l o n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , d o y o u think a catastrophic e x t i n c t i o n like o n e o f the m a g n i t u d e o f the G r e a t D y i n g takes t o o c c u r ? H o w l o n g i s a g e o l o g i c a l instant? T h e a n s w e r s t o b o t h t h o s e q u e s t i o n s v a r y , b u t think o f this: W e a r e n o w i n t h e m i d s t o f the g r e a t e s t e p i s o d e o f e x t i n c t i o n that the w o r l d has e v e r s e e n , all b r o u g h t a b o u t b y the effects o f h u m a n s , n o t t h r o u g h nuclear w a r b u t t h r o u g h o u r efforts t o b u i l d b e t t e r l i v e s f o r o u r s e l v e s , by

stealing

a

kiss

from

the

Earth

when

we

m i g h t be

building

a

lasting

ecological relationship. W i t h our current tools for unraveling g e o l o g i c t i m e , the e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d i n w h i c h w e n o w l i v e w o u l d appear b u t a n instant o n

L O U I S JACOBS,

PH . D

164 t h e E a r t h ' s scale o f things i f i t w e r e v i e w e d f r o m s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n years i n the future. T h e r e must be a better w a y .

A L L T H A T SORT o f talk i s d e p r e s s i n g . W e a r e f o r t u n a t e t o b e a t t h e e n d o f t h e C o l d W a r w h e n t h e t h r e a t o f n u c l e a r c o n f r o n t a t i o n appears less i m m i nent.

A l s o , a s a s o c i e t y w e are m o r e fully a w a r e o f the e c o l o g i c a l c o n s e -

q u e n c e s o f o u r actions i f w e c h o o s e t o c a r e . C a r e f u l a s w e o u g h t t o b e i n the f u t u r e , this i s n o t t h e p l a c e t o d w e l l o n the t h o u g h t . Ideas o f n u c l e a r w i n t e r m a y d e r i v e i n s o m e w a y f r o m the study o f d i n o s a u r s , and i n c o n g r u o u s l y w e m a y b e e n t h r a l l e d m o r e b y the e x t i n c t i o n o f dinosaurs than b y the species g o i n g e x t i n c t t o d a y , b u t t h e r e i s o n e t h i n g f o r c e r t a i n that dinosaurs are n o t s u p p o s e d t o b e — d e p r e s s i n g . H a p p i l y t h e r e are r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s o m e l i v i n g animals and dinosaurs that g i v e a m o r e p o s i t i v e v i e w o f l i f e . I n fact, l o o k i n g a t the issue o f d i n o s a u r e x t i n c t i o n f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f g e n e a l o g i cal r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r a t h e r than the fate o f the c o m m o n l y d e p i c t e d dinosaurian s p e c i e s , t h e y h a v e n o t r e a l l y g o n e e x t i n c t a t all. S o m e are still a l i v e . I n fact, they comprise

one of the m o s t c o m m o n ,

diverse,

and

familiar o f all t h e

v e r t e b r a t e g r o u p s . T h e y a r e the b i r d s . T h e c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f b i r d s and the t r a d i t i o n a l dinosaurs w a s a d i n o s a u r .

T h e r e f o r e b i r d s are t o o .

And while

dinosaurs i n t h e c o m m o n sense d i d n o t pass t h r o u g h the G r e a t D y i n g a t the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , b i r d s d i d . To

understand

the

origin

of birds

from

their

dinosaurian

roots,

and

t h e r e f o r e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e " n o n e x t i n c t i o n " o f d i n o s a u r s , w e m u s t g o back f o r a n o t h e r l o o k a t the t w o f o l d d i v i s i o n o f t h e d i n o s a u r s . R e c a l l that t h e r e are t h e l i z a r d - h i p p e d saurischians and t h e b i r d - h i p p e d ornithischians as p r o p o s e d b y S e e l e y i n t h e latter part o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

H e p r o p o s e d those

n a m e s f o r the v e r y s i m p l e r e a s o n that the p e l v i s o f s o m e dinosaurs r e m i n d e d him

of lizards,

and

the

others

reminded

him

of birds.

This

has

been

a

s u r p r i s i n g l y r e s i l i e n t w a y t o d i v i d e u p t h e d i n o s a u r s , later d i s c o v e r i e s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e n a m i n g o f b i r d - h i p p e d o r ornithischian dinosaurs has t u r n e d i n t o a strange s o r t o f h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t . T h e r e s e m b l a n c e t o birds is superficial. T h e r e is a b o n y p r o c e s s that p o i n t s b a c k w a r d f r o m the fused and stiff p e l v i s o f m o d e r n b i r d s that r e c a l l e d a b a c k w a r d l y p r o j e c t e d dinosaurian p u b i c b o n e t o S e e l e y . I t turns o u t n o t t o b e the s a m e s t r u c t u r e a t all, s o the b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs d o n o t r e s e m b l e birds i n the w a y t h e y w e r e s u p p o s e d t o . M o r e o v e r , t o m a k e t h e s t o r y a bit m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g , a s y o u w i l l s e e , the

A F R I C A N

D I N O S A U R S ,

B E F O R E

A N D

A F T E R

birds e v o l v e d f r o m the l i z a r d - h i p p e d saurischians, n o t the b i r d - h i p p e d o r n i thischians. O n e feature that l i v i n g birds h a v e that n o o t h e r g r o u p o f o r g a n i s m s has i s feathers. F e a t h e r s are a b o d y c o v e r i n g , e v o l u t i o n a r i l y d e r i v e d f r o m r e p t i l ian scales, that shape the w i n g s and b o d y f o r flight and insulate the b i r d ' s w a r m - b l o o d e d b o d y , p r o t e c t i n g i t f r o m heat loss.

Living birds have other

f e a t u r e s , t o o , and the o n e s m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s are t h o s e o f the s k e l e t o n .

L i v i n g birds g e n e r a l l y h a v e t h i n - w a l l e d and h o l l o w b o n e s , a

f a c t o r that i s t h o u g h t t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r dismal fossil r e c o r d . M u c h m o r e o f t e n than n o t , the l i g h t , fragile b o n e s g e t d e s t r o y e d b e f o r e t h e y are p r e s e r v e d . M o s t m o d e r n b i r d s h a v e a l a r g e b r e a s t b o n e and a c u r v y w i s h b o n e , t o w h i c h the

m u s c l e s o f flight attach.

T h e f o r e l i m b s o f m o d e r n b i r d s are

u n i q u e , and the n u m b e r o f fingers and t h e i r c l a w s are r e d u c e d .

Several of

the a r m b o n e s have fused t o g e t h e r , a s h a v e s o m e i n the l e g . T h e p e l v i s has b e c o m e a s o l i d , r i g i d s t r u c t u r e , and the spinal c o l u m n i s s h o r t . T h e r e are n o t e e t h t o w e i g h t d o w n the skull, n o r d o l i v i n g s p e c i e s h a v e l o n g , b o n y tails. T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n d o e s n o t s o u n d v e r y m u c h l i k e a d i n o s a u r , s o w h y are birds t h o u g h t t o b e a d i n o s a u r s c i o n , a n e v o l u t i o n a r y s h o o t f r o m the m o s t f a m o u s of all fossils? T h e b i g g e s t and m o s t i m p o r t a n t c l u e c o m e s f r o m f e a t h e r s . Y o u w o u l d n o t think that feathers w o u l d p r e s e r v e i n t h e fossil r e c o r d , y e t s o m e o f the m o s t w o r t h w h i l e fossils k n o w n i n the w o r l d a r e the i m p r e s s i o n s o f feathers surr o u n d i n g the b o n e s of a c r o w - s i z e d s p e c i e s c a l l e d Archaeopteryx lithographica ( F i g u r e 3 3 ) . T h e f e a t h e r i m p r i n t s o w e t h e i r e x i s t e n c e t o a p a r t i c u l a r set o f g e o l o g i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s that c u l m i n a t e d in t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n . Archaeopteryx is about 1 50 m i l l i o n years o l d , L a t e Jurassic. It is f o u n d o n l y in the S o l n h o f e n L i m e s t o n e o f Bavaria. T h i s l i m e s t o n e w a s d e p o s i t e d i n a s h a l l o w sea c o v e r i n g m u c h o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e and w a s p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d t o c o n t i n e n t a l m o v e m e n t s f o l l o w i n g the initial b r e a k u p o f Pangaea i n t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . T h e sea w a s b r o a d , s h a l l o w , and q u i e t . I t w a s s o q u i e t , and t h e w a t e r s o still, that v e r y fine grains o f l i m e , c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e , w e r e d e p o s i t e d u n d i s t u r b e d o n the seabed.

T h e f i n e l i m e b l a n k e t e d the b o d i e s o f m a n y kinds o f v e r t e b r a t e s ,

i n c l u d i n g Archaeopteryx, small d i n o s a u r s , and p t e r o s a u r s , a m o n g o t h e r s p e c i e s . T h e e x t r e m e l y small size o f t h e s e d i m e n t a r y p a r t i c l e s , s l o w l y f i l t e r i n g o n t o the carcasses, e n c a s e d the b o d i e s w i t h o u t any s u b s e q u e n t d i s t u r b a n c e t o speak of. T h e l i m e w a s left t o lithify i n t o l i m e s t o n e , p r e s e r v i n g i n e x q u i s i t e detail the s k e l e t o n s o f the animals c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n i t , s o m e t i m e s e v e n r e t a i n i n g the

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

166 shapes and i m p r e s s i o n s o f tissue that w o u l d n o r m a l l y vanish. T h a t i s w h y the feathers

of Archaeopteryx

are

preserved.

T h e S o l n h o f e n L i m e s t o n e t o d a y lies i n t h i n , hard layers that h a v e b e e n q u a r r i e d f o r b u i l d i n g and flagstone f o r h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s .

Because i t i s s o

f i n e - g r a i n e d , i n e a r l i e r days i t w a s used t o m a k e l i t h o g r a p h i c illustrations. Basically t h e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s d r a w i n g a p i c t u r e on a p o l i s h e d surface of the s t o n e w i t h a w a x p e n c i l . T h e b l o c k is t h e n s u b m e r g e d in an acid that etches a w a y the surface w h e r e i t i s n o t p r o t e c t e d b y the w a x . T h e n the s t o n e i s w a s h e d and c l e a n e d o f the w a x . T h e result i s a raised surface w h e r e the w a x w a s and a l o w e r e d surface, e a t e n d o w n b y the a c i d , w h e r e the w a x w a s n o t . T h e s t o n e i s t h e n r e a d y f o r i n k i n g , and the i m a g e i s p r e s s e d o n t o p a p e r . A l t h o u g h i t i s n o l o n g e r practical t o use s t o n e l i t h o g r a p h y , s o m e o f the m o s t beautiful illustrations e v e r m a d e o f fossil b o n e s w e r e d o n e w i t h this t e c h nique.

The

Archaeopteryx

FIGURE oldest

use its

of the specific

33: ARCHAEOPTERYX, unquestionable

bird.

Solnhofen epithet,

Limestone

for

lithographic

plates

lithographica.

the most primitive,

and at

150 million years,

the

gave

AFRICAN

DINOSAURS,

BEFORE

AND

AFTER

167 Archaeopteryx has t r u e f e a t h e r s ,

as is c l e a r f r o m

the i m p r e s s i o n s in

the

S o l n h o f e n L i m e s t o n e , and f r o m that w e can c o n c l u d e that i t i s a b i r d . W h a t o t h e r features d o e s it have? It has t e e t h , w h i c h s e e m s u n b i r d l i k e , b u t it turns o u t that s o m e b i r d s f r o m t h e C r e t a c e o u s h a v e t e e t h . T h e p r e s e n c e o f t e e t h , t h e r e f o r e , is o n l y a p r i m i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , lost in m o d e r n b i r d s but p r e s e n t in s o m e e x t i n c t b i r d s and also in m o s t all d i n o s a u r s , p r e d i c t a b l y i n c l u d i n g t h e a n c e s t o r of b i r d s . Archaeopteryx r e s e m b l e s t h e ancestral c o n d i t i o n in a n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t w a y s . N o n e o f the w i n g b o n e s i s fused. T h e r e are t h r e e f i n g e r s . T h e b r e a s t b o n e is p o o r l y d e v e l o p e d . T h e r e is a l o n g tail s u p p o r t e d by a string o f v e r t e b r a e . T h e b o n e s o f the legs h a v e fused i n a specific k i n d o f w a y . T h e r e a r e o t h e r characteristics a s w e l l ,

and t h e y all s e e m t o p o i n t i n the s a m e

d i r e c t i o n . Archaeopteryx is a d i n o s a u r . It is a special o n e , b u t it is o n e n e v e r t h e less. It is also a b i r d because it has f e a t h e r s . It is o f t e n said that if Archaeopteryx had b e e n p r e s e r v e d w i t h o u t the f e a t h e r i m p r e s s i o n s , i t w o u l d have b e e n c a l l e d a dinosaur and m u c h o f t h e i n t e r e s t and c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u n d i n g i t w o u l d n o t have m a t e r i a l i z e d o r w o u l d a t least h a v e b e e n f o r e s t a l l e d .

But the feathers

w e r e p r e s e r v e d , and Archaeopteryx is u n d e n i a b l y a p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l m i s s i n g link. Thank goodness for those feather impressions! I f Archaeopteryx and all o t h e r b i r d s are d i n o s a u r s , t o w h i c h o f the t r a d i t i o n a l dinosaurs are t h e y m o s t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d ? S u r e l y n o t the stegosaurs, o r c e r a t o p sians, o r d u c k - b i l l e d d i n o s a u r s . T h o s e a r e ornithischians, and w e k n o w that the p e l v i s of Archaeopteryx,

strange as it m a y s e e m , is n o t " b i r d - h i p p e d " in

S e e l e y ' s sense o f the t e r m .

It is lizard-hipped,

and the b o x l i k e p e l v i s o f

m o d e r n b i r d s i s e v o l v e d f r o m that. But t h e r e a r e m a n y kinds o f saurischians. Birds surely are n o t m o s t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o M a l a w i - s a u r u s o r t h e o t h e r s a u r o p o d s . T h o s e giants are q u a d r u p e d a l , and e v e r y o n e can see f r o m the s p a r r o w s h o p p i n g a b o u t a t the w i n d o w that birds are n o t . W e m u s t l o o k t o the b i p e d a l t h e r o p o d s . M e a t - e a t i n g giants like Tyrannosaurus rex, w h i c h in m a n y w a y s a r e p r i m i t i v e t h e r o p o d s , are t o o s p e c i a l i z e d t o h a v e g i v e n rise t o Archaeopteryx b e c a u s e , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , T. rex has o n l y t w o fingers in t h e hand and Archaeopteryx still has t h r e e . S o m e o t h e r t h e r o p o d s h a v e t h r e e f i n g e r s , plus the s a m e k i n d o f l e g s t r u c t u r e , plus a similar k i n d o f w i s h b o n e . T h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f characters a m o n g s p e c i e s ( a n d s o m e o t h e r s I h a v e n o t g o n e i n t o ) , all t a k e n t o g e t h e r , indicates that Archaeopteryx—and t h e r e f o r e the p r i m i t i v e state o f all b i r d s — h a s the d e f i n i n g features o f c o e l u r o s a u r i a n dinosaurs. A n o t h e r w a y o f stating the s a m e t h i n g i s t o say b i r d s a r e c o e l u r o s a u r i a n dinosaurs ( s e e F i g u r e 3 1 ) . Y o u c o u l d say that all b i r d s a r e c o e l u r o s a u r s but

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

n o t all c o e l u r o s a u r s are b i r d s . T h a t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . A l l c o e l u r o s a u r s share a c o m m o n a n c e s t r y w i t h each o t h e r that o t h e r g r o u p s o f dinosaurs d o n o t share.

rex and AUosaurus j o i n t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l t r e e farther back.

T.

branched off the

main

t h e r o p o d trunk before

birds, f o r m e d their o w n branch. separate

the

coelurosaurs,

They

including

A f t e r that b r a n c h w a s f o r m e d , the b i r d s ,

f r o m other coelurosaurs,

split and

split in an a d a p t i v e radiation

l e a d i n g t o the h u g e d i v e r s i t y o f f e a t h e r e d s p l e n d o r that b r i g h t e n s o u r w o r l d t o d a y , w i t h c o l o r and s o n g , each l i v i n g s p e c i e s its o w n t w i g o n the t r e e o f life. T h e r e a r e m a n y s p e c i e s o f c o e l u r o s a u r s that e v o l v e d b i r d l i k e features i n parallel w i t h b i r d s , y e t t h e y are n o t t r u e b i r d s . T h e o s t r i c h d i n o s a u r s , f o r e x a m p l e , h a v e a b u i l d m o r e o r less l i k e a n o s t r i c h , and t h e y h a v e n o t e e t h , as in m o d e r n birds.

But t h e o s t r i c h dinosaurs are t h e i r o w n e v o l u t i o n a r y

l i n e a g e , a separate b r a n c h w i t h i n the c o e l u r o s a u r s , t o b e s u r e , but n o t part o f t h e b i r d b r a n c h o f c o e l u r o s a u r s . O s t r i c h dinosaurs a r e n o t t h e o n l y o n e s w i t h b i r d l i k e characteristics. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e m o s t b i r d l i k e o f the n o n b i r d c o e l u r o s a u r s , the g r o u p that i n c l u d e s s i c k l e - c l a w e d Deinonychus, t i v e l y late i n t i m e , l o n g after Archaeopterjx,

o c c u r rela-

b y tens o f m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s , and

e v e n after s o m e o t h e r fossil b i r d s w e r e o n the s c e n e . If we

look

at

the

fossil

record

of coelurosaurs

and

their

distribution

t h r o u g h t i m e , w e f i n d that o n e o f the o l d e s t - k n o w n c o e l u r o s a u r s i s Archaeopterjx

lithographica.

Famous

Archaeopterjx.

It

has

feathers.

Only

birds

have

f e a t h e r s . Archaeopterjx is a l r e a d y a b i r d . T h e r e are s o m e o l d e r c o e l u r o s a u r s g o i n g back t o w a r d t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f d i n o s a u r s , b u t t h e y are p o o r l y k n o w n and

confusingly

difficult

with

respect

to

early

dinosaur,

much

less

bird,

e v o l u t i o n . C o e l u r o s a u r s start t o b e c o m e b e t t e r k n o w n a t a b o u t the t i m e o f Archaeopterjx. daguru

In fact,

called

I m e n t i o n e d above a nonbird coelurosaur f r o m T e n -

Elaphrosaurus

bambergi.

H o w can i t b e that t h e fossil r e c o r d o f b i r d o r i g i n s i s s o t o p s y - t u r v y ? W h e r e a r e the o l d e r , n o n f e a t h e r e d c o e l u r o s a u r ancestors o f birds? T h i s i s a b o t h e r f o r t h o s e , l i k e m e , w h o w o u l d p r e f e r the fossil r e c o r d t o r e f l e c t the s e q u e n c e , s p e c i e s b y s p e c i e s , o f the e v o l u t i o n o f m a j o r g r o u p s o f animals. U n f o r t u n a t e l y that is an ideal that the fossil r e c o r d has b e e n unable to l i v e up t o i n m a n y cases. I f i t a l r e a d y d i d that, t h e r e w o u l d b e less r e a s o n t o search f o r fossils. T h e t r u e ancestral s p e c i e s m a y n e v e r b e f o u n d , b u t s o what? W e c a n n o t e v e n say f o r sure that the s p e c i e s ancestral to b i r d s w a s f o s s i l i z e d . In this c a s e , r o c k s o f the a p p r o p r i a t e a g e — t h a t is, i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g Archaeopterjx—and

representing

the

necessary

depositional

environment

to

pre-

A F R I C A N

D I N O S A U R S ,

B E F O R E

A N D

A F T E R

169 s e r v e b i r d a n c e s t o r s are r a r e .

N e v e r t h e l e s s the hypothesis,

based o n the

a n a t o m y o f b i r d s , d i n o s a u r s , and all o t h e r a n i m a l s , r e m a i n s that all b i r d s , n o t just Archaeopteryx, are c o e l u r o s a u r s , and that t h e y e v o l v e d specifically f r o m an o l d e r , as yet u n k n o w n ancestor. This p r o v i d e s a prediction, as g o o d hypotheses d o , that such a n animal m a y b e f o u n d . T h e h y p o t h e s i s d o e s n o t d e p e n d on such a d i s c o v e r y . It c o u l d , in p r i n c i p l e , be falsified, that is, it c o u l d be s h o w n t o b e i m p o s s i b l e , strictly f r o m a n a t o m i c a l data d e r i v e d f r o m k n o w n species.

That would

not be

intellectually devastating

so

l o n g a s realistic

m o d e l s o f b i r d e v o l u t i o n can b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m w h a t w e h a v e i n t h e fossil r e c o r d and i n l i v i n g s p e c i e s , c o n s t r a i n e d i n t i m e t o s o m e e x t e n t and t e s t e d b y future d i s c o v e r i e s . I f n e w d i s c o v e r i e s can b e e x p e c t e d t o test h y p o t h e s e s , t h e y can also b e e x p e c t e d t o t h r o w a f e w w r e n c h e s i n t o the g e a r s . T h a t i s w h a t has h a p p e n e d w i t h Archaeopteryx and the o r i g i n o f b i r d s . N e w fossils f o u n d o n l y a f e w years a g o i n W e s t T e x a s a p p e a r v e r y b i r d l i k e t o t h e i r d i s c o v e r e r , s o m u c h s o that a n e w g e n u s and species n a m e , Protoavis texensis, w a s g i v e n to t h e m . In fact, the pheasant-sized Protoavis i s r e p o r t e d t o b e m o r e l i k e m o d e r n b i r d s than i s Archaeopteryx. T h i s is n o t i m p o s s i b l e , b u t w h a t m a k e s the r e p o r t so fascinating is that Protoavis is o l d e r than Archaeopteryx by s e v e n t y - f i v e m i l l i o n y e a r s ! T h a t w o u l d m o v e the fossil r e c o r d o f b i r d s back t o a t i m e c o m p a r a b l e w i t h the o r i g i n of dinosaurs, a p o s i t i o n that is n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e . It w o u l d m e a n that birds split o f f e a r l y i n d i n o s a u r h i s t o r y ,

and

i t w o u l d i m p l y that all c o -

e l u r o s a u r s , if t h e y actually h a v e any m e a n i n g as a natural g r o u p i n g of d i n o saurs, d i d s o a s w e l l .

T h e issue, h o w e v e r , b o i l s d o w n t o the a n a t o m i c a l

features o f the s k e l e t o n o f Protoavis.

N o feathers o f i t are k n o w n .

L i k e Archaeopteryx, Protoavis has a l o n g tail. It also has t e e t h , b u t t h e y are l i m i t e d t o the f r o n t e n d o f t h e j a w r a t h e r than e x t e n d i n g farther b a c k , a s i n Archaeopteryx. T h e e n t i r e skull a r c h i t e c t u r e i s m o r e l i k e that o f m o d e r n b i r d s . T h e e y e sockets are l a r g e , p r o v i d i n g f o r b i n o c u l a r , t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l v i s i o n . T h e b r a i n , j u d g i n g f r o m t h e b o n e s that h o u s e i t , w a s b u i l t f o r balance and the acuity necessary in a flying b i r d . Protoavis d o e s a p p e a r f r o m the d e s c r i p t i o n to

have

been

more

"birdlike"

than

Protoavis has n o t g o n e u n c h a l l e n g e d .

Archaeopteryx—reallv. S u g g e s t i o n s h a v e b e e n m a d e that

Protoavis is n o t a b i r d at all, just a c o m p o s i t e of b o n e s of s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t species t h r o w n t o g e t h e r in a p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l p o t p o u r r i . But w h a t if Protoavis withstands the scrutiny and turns o u t t o b e a b i r d after all? W h a t d o e s that do

to

Archaeopteryx?

T h e a n s w e r i s that i t d o e s a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g t o t h e r o l e o f Archaeopteryx

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

170 in the e v o l u t i o n of b i r d s . T h e fact r e m a i n s , w h e t h e r Protoavis is a b i r d or n o t , that Archaeopteryx i s p r i m i t i v e , t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e o f k n o w n b i r d s . I t m a y b e g e o l o g i c a l l y y o u n g e r than Protoavis, b u t it still r e s e m b l e s t r a d i t i o n a l dinosaurs m o r e than Protoavis d o e s . S p e c i e s l i v i n g t o d a y i n v a r i a b l y e x h i b i t a m o s a i c o f p r i m i t i v e and a d v a n c e d features i n t h e i r a n a t o m y . L a m p r e y s h a v e n o j a w s , f o r e x a m p l e . T h a t i s o n e o f t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e features that any v e r t e b r a t e c o u l d h a v e , b e c a u s e v e r t e b r a t e s e v o l v e d f r o m j a w l e s s a n c e s t o r s , y e t l a m p r e y s are a l i v e t o d a y . T h a t m a k e s t h e m a s o r t o f l i v i n g fossil, a t least w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r lack o f j a w s . I f b i r d s had b e e n a r o u n d f l y i n g , h a p p i l y f l i t t e r i n g , f o r 7 5 m i l l i o n years b e f o r e Archaeopteryx l i v e d , it m e a n s that Archaeopteryx w a s a l i v i n g fossil i n its o w n day.

F r o m that w e can m a k e a p r e d i c t i o n :

The common

a n c e s t o r of Protoavis, if it is t r u l y a b i r d , and Archaeopteryx m u s t h a v e l i v e d p r i o r t o Protoavis,

a r o u n d 2 2 0 m i l l i o n years a g o .

T h a t m e a n s t h e r e are still g o o d fossils t o f i n d .

THE CROCODILE

OF

CARNIVAL

WHEN

W E S T E P P E D f r o m t h e L a n d R o v e r i n t o the tall grass o n t h e

w a y t o p r o s p e c t the D i n o s a u r B e d s f o r the f i r s t t i m e , w e m e t a snake. I t c o u l d have b e « n a bad o m e n . In K e n y a , in t h e T u g e n H i l l s , I o n c e saw a spitting c o b r a spit a t p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s w a l k i n g a l o n g a path b a c k t o c a m p . I t g a v e m e the c r e e p s . B o n n i e o n c e a l m o s t p e e d o n a s a w - s c a l e d v i p e r . T h a t g a v e h e r the c r e e p s . It is bad luck to h a v e c o b r a s and puff a d d e r s and v i p e r s a r o u n d . T h e s e c o n d thing w e s a w i n t h e f i e l d i n M a l a w i w a s a g o o d o m e n . I t w a s dinosaur b o n e — l o t s o f it. T h a t w a s e x c i t i n g . Snakes o r n o t , w e w e r e o n t h e right track. Just w h i c h fossil species m i g h t b e f o u n d w e a t h e r i n g o u t o f t h e g r o u n d o n any particular f i e l d t r i p i s t o u g h t o say i n a d v a n c e , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t o n e really w a n t s t o f i n d . T h e r e a r e s o m e things that a r e s i m p l y u n p r e d i c t a b l e . S o m e t i m e s w h a t is f o u n d , w h i l e u n e x p e c t e d , is just as i m p o r t a n t as w h a t is b e i n g s o u g h t . I guess i t c o u l d b e c a l l e d the luck o f the d r a w . I n t h e e a r l y stages o f t h e M a l a w i P r o j e c t m y c o n s u m i n g g o a l w a s t o f i n d p r i m i t i v e m a m m a l s , c o n t e m p o r a r i e s o f the d i n o s a u r s . T h e r e f o r e the p r i m e o b j e c t i v e i n the f i e l d w a s t o l o c a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f small b o n e s i n the r o c k that c o u l d t h e n b e s i e v e d t o o b t a i n m a m m a l s , i f t h e y w e r e t h e r e . M o s t o f the fossils w e w e r e f i n d i n g i n the D i n o s a u r Beds a t f i r s t w e r e b o n e f r a g m e n t s o f

l o u i s

j a c o b s ,

p h . d .

172 n o v a l u e e x c e p t a s clues that w e w e r e i n the r i g h t area. T h e s m a l l e r p i e c e s o f b o n e that w e r e p r e s e n t i n t h e r o c k d i d n o t c o m e f r o m small a n i m a l s ; rather t h e y w e r e o n l y the

f r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s o f a o n c e - l a r g e r b o n e o f a large

a n i m a l . T h a t i s b e t t e r than n o t h i n g . T h e rainy seasons and the p o r o u s s a n d s t o n e o f the D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e o b v i o u s l y u n k i n d t o fossils, p a r t i c u l a r l y o n c e t h e y lay e x p o s e d o n the surface o f the g r o u n d t h r o u g h e r o s i o n .

O c c a s i o n a l l y o n e o f the m o r e d u r a b l e frag-

m e n t s w e f o u n d w o u l d b e r e c o g n i z a b l e . T h e s e s p e c i m e n s , w h i l e n o t spectacular, w e r e o f s o m e scientific v a l u e . W e d i d n o t f i n d m o r e than o n e b o n e i n a s p o t , and e v e n w h e n w e d u g d o w n , w e d i d n o t f i n d b e t t e r b o n e s .

I t was

getting to be discouraging. T h e n o n June 5 o f the f i r s t f i e l d e x p e d i t i o n , I n e e d e d t o g o t o the bush. S e e k i n g p r i v a c y , I s e a r c h e d t h e h i d d e n n o o k s and crannies o f the dinosauri n f e s t e d badlands until I f o u n d a t i n y c a n y o n w i t h just the right a m b i e n c e . A g l i n t o f w h i t e i n t h e g u l l y w a l l caught m y e y e . Y o u n e v e r k n o w w h e n y o u m i g h t f i n d s o m e t h i n g g o o d . I t can h a p p e n a t t h e m o s t a w k w a r d t i m e s . What is that? I asked m y s e l f . It's probably one of those damned weathered metamorphic pebbles, maybe not.

Oh,

hell,

I t h o u g h t , but

this can wait.

Pants b u t t o n e d . I r e a c h e d o v e r w i t h m y p i c k - m a t t o c k and h a m m e r e d t h e p o w d e r y s t o n e f r o m the w a l l . I p i c k e d u p t h e half that fell o u t . It had t e e t h . Oops! W i l l D o w n s heard my w h o o p s . He came at a run. I was o v e r j o y e d with the find of a skull, b u t m i l d l y e m b a r r a s s e d , at least a l i t t l e sheepish, at my lack of finesse. " O k a y , Jacobs. I ' l l t a k e o v e r f r o m h e r e . " I e x p e c t e d h i m t o . H e has g o o d , sure hands, w e l l a d a p t e d f o r salvaging and r e p a i r i n g b r o k e n fossils. W i l l r e m o v e d the remaining fragments f r o m the wall. W e began t o l o o k a r o u n d . T h e r e w a s a p i e c e o f t u r t l e . A n d t h e r e w a s a n o t h e r skull! I t w a s a b o u t t h r e e inches l o n g , t h e s a m e size a s t h e f i r s t , b u t n o t b r o k e n . Fantastic! O v e r all it had b e e n a g r e a t m o r n i n g . I b r o k e t h e first s p e c i m e n , b u t I also f o u n d it. A n d c l e a r l y i t w a s n o t d a m a g e d b e y o n d r e p a i r . M o r e o v e r , w e had a s e c o n d skull.

These w e r e our first really g o o d finds. T h e

locality was

d e s i g n a t e d C D - I . ( T h e C D stands f o r " C r e t a c e o u s D i n o s a u r B e d s . " T h a t i s h o w g e o l o g i c m a p s label t h e r o c k s . )

THE

CROCODILE

OF

CARNIVAL

F r o m w h a t w e c o u l d see i n t h e f i e l d , w e k n e w the t w o skulls w e r e g o o d s p e c i m e n s . But t o h e i g h t e n o u r a n x i e t y , w e c o u l d n o t tell e x a c t l y w h a t t h e y w e r e . W e w e r e n o t e v e n sure i f t h e y w e r e the s a m e k i n d o f a n i m a l . T h e y c e r t a i n l y w e r e n o t dinosaurian.

E v e n t h o u g h t h e y w e r e o n l y the size o f a

Chihuahua d o g , t h e y s e e m e d a b i t l a r g e f o r a n e a r l y m a m m a l , b u t w h o k n e w h o w big Cretaceous m a m m a l s w e r e supposed to be in Africa? W e just c o u l d n o t see the skulls w e l l e n o u g h t o j u d g e w h a t t h e y w e r e because b o t h w e r e c o v e r e d i n a r e d c r u s t . O n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y d i d w h i t e , friable bone p e e k through. T h e y w o u l d have to be p r e p a r e d in the laboratory, n o t f i d d l e d w i t h i n the f i e l d . W e w o u l d o n l y b e able t o see t h e m r e a l l y w e l l , f r e e f r o m t h e i r r o c k c o v e r i n g , i n a f e w m o n t h s . N e v e r t h e l e s s w e k n e w w e had a w i n n e r . T h e s e w o u l d b e e n o u g h t o m a k e the p r o j e c t a success i n its f i r s t y e a r . T h a t w e k n e w e v e n f r o m w h a t little w e c o u l d s e e . N o c o m p a r a b l e skulls, and t h e r e f o r e n o c o m p a r a b l e a n i m a l s , had e v e r b e e n f o u n d i n A f r i c a b e f o r e . T h e s e w e r e u n i q u e . T h e o n l y casualty o f the day w a s m y r e g u l a r i t y . T h e season c o n t i n u e d a n o t h e r f e w w e e k s after t h e skulls w e r e f o u n d . W e stayed w i t h the f i e l d w o r k and c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e c t i n g f o r a s p o t w o r t h s i e v i n g . W e c o n t i n u e d the t e d i o u s e x e r c i s e o f e x a m i n i n g e v e r y square inch o f e x p o s e d r o c k f o r a p o c k e t that m i g h t y i e l d t i n y b o n e s . f r a g m e n t s o f dinosaurs.

We continued to pick up

T w o days after the skulls w e r e f o u n d ,

W i l l came

t h r o u g h . H i s e a g l e e y e s p o t t e d p a r t o f a l i z a r d l i k e t h i g h b o n e , a b o u t half a n inch l o n g , w e a t h e r e d f r o m a sandstone o r i g i n a l l y p l a c e d t h e r e as an o l d s t r e a m channel. T h e t h i g h b o n e w a s n o t o f a m a m m a l , b u t i t s h o w e d that small animal r e m a i n s w e r e p r e s e r v e d r i g h t t h e r e i n that a n c i e n t s t r e a m b e d . A n d t h e r e w a s m o r e b o n e still i n the g r o u n d . W e w e r e e l a t e d again. C a r e f u l l y w e b e g a n q u a r r y i n g the c h a n n e l , w h i c h w e d e s i g n a t e d l o c a l i t y C D - 4 . W e b e g a n t o f i n d t h e s e r r a t e d steak-knife t e e t h o f m e a t - e a t i n g d i n o saurs. T h e r e w e r e also l o t s o f r o u n d e d hunks o f b o n e , t u m b l e d and s m o o t h e d b y the r i v e r that had d e p o s i t e d t h e channel sands w e w e r e e x c a v a t i n g . T h e sands w e r e s o c o a r s e , and m o s t o f the b o n e s o t u m b l e d , that w e b e g a n t o w o n d e r a b o u t the p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i n d i n g the r e a l l y small b o n e s and t e e t h w e w e r e after. P e r h a p s t h e y had b e e n d e s t r o y e d b e f o r e t h e y c o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d . L u c k i l y , a b o u t t e n f e e t a b o v e u s t h e r e w e r e m o r e b o n e s , and i n a m u d d i e r m a t r i x . T h i s w e c a l l e d C D - 5 . W e b a g g e d gunnysacks full o f the fossiliferous s e d i m e n t s f r o m b o t h s p o t s , e a g e r t o take i t t o w a t e r , w h e r e w e c o u l d s i e v e f o r tiny b o n e s w i t h the e a g e r n e s s , e n t h u s i a s m , and a p p r e h e n s i o n o f f o r t y niners p a n n i n g f o r g o l d . O u r f i r s t task w a s t o g e t the bags o f m a t r i x back t o t h e L a n d R o v e r . F o r

LOUIS JACOBS, PH.D. 174 this I w a n t e d t o h i r e s o m e o f the local v i l l a g e r s . T h e o n l y p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e t o o u r i n q u i r i e s w a s f r o m s o m e o f t h e v i l l a g e w o m e n . T h e y w e r e q u i t e happy t o balance t h e h e a v y bags o n t h e i r h e a d s , t o t e t h e m t o the v e h i c l e , a distance o f a c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d yards o v e r r o u g h and b r o k e n g r o u n d , then r e t u r n f o r a n o t h e r l o a d . I paid by the bag. W h e n the m e n s a w t h e w o m e n turn t o , and that t h e i r industry r e a l l y w a s b e i n g r e w a r d e d r e a s o n a b l y w e l l c o n s i d e r i n g the w o r k i n v o l v e d , t h e v w a n t e d a p i e c e o f t h e a c t i o n . T h e w o m e n , h o w e v e r , had a l r e a d y f o r m e d a m o n o p o l y and w o u l d a d m i t n o m e n . A l t h o u g h all the chatter w a s i n T u m b u k a , t h e r e s e e m e d t o b e a l o t o f g o o d - n a t u r e d r i b b i n g taking p l a c e . N e v e r since that day h a v e w o m e n b e e n available t o w o r k f o r u s i n the f i e l d . T h e y d o n o t s e e m t o b e a l l o w e d . T r a d i t i o n insures that the m e n m a y d o this sort of labor if they choose.

W o m e n w o r k i n c r e d i b l y hard i n M a l a w i , but

n o w , p e r h a p s because i t i s f o r w a g e s , o n l y m e n w o r k f o r m y p r o j e c t . T h e gunnysacks full o f s e d i m e n t that the w o m e n c a r r i e d t o the L a n d R o v e r w e r e d r i v e n t o the G o v e r n m e n t V e t e r i n a r y F a r m i n K a r o n g a . W e n e e d e d a n a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e t o s i e v e o u r s a m p l e s because w e d i d n o t w a n t t o c o n t a m i nate t h e lake w i t h t h e r e s i d u e o f k e r o s e n e - s o a k e d d i r t .

We made arrange-

m e n t s w i t h the f a r m t o d o the w o r k w h e r e i t c o u l d d o n o d a m a g e using a large s h e e t - m e t a l f i s h tank, b o r r o w e d f r o m the G o v e r n m e n t Fisheries D e p a r t m e n t , a s a s i e v i n g t r o u g h . C h r i s D a b o r n , the e x p a t r i a t e v e t e r i n a r i a n , a g r e e d t o let u s h a v e w a t e r f r o m t h e f a r m a t n o c h a r g e . T h a t w a s i m p o r t a n t because o f the state o f the K a r o n g a W a t e r W o r k s i n 1 9 8 4 . W a t e r w a s n o t r e l i a b l y d e l i v e r e d , s o l a r g e s t o r a g e cisterns w e r e necessary f o r a c o n s i s t e n t f l o w . T h e cistern w e used at the f a r m w a s the r e s i d e n c e of a l a r g e m o n i t o r l i z a r d , a f o o t or so in l e n g t h , w h i c h I d i s c o v e r e d o n l y after I filled the c i s t e r n and t o o k a d r i n k f r o m the n o z z l e l e a d i n g f r o m it. T h e m o n i t o r s c r a m b l e d o u t o f the e n d o f the hose w h e r e o n l y a f e w s e c o n d s b e f o r e I had had m y m o u t h . W e had o n e p r o b l e m w i t h the s i e v i n g . T h e r e w a s n o k e r o s e n e , o r paraffin a s i t i s c a l l e d i n M a l a w i , i n w h i c h t o soak o u r d i r t . T h e r e w a s n o n e w h a t s o e v e r i n all o f n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . W e n e e d e d t o f i n d a substitute. T h i s w e d i d i n the f o r m o f d i e s e l o i l . I t i s a n e x t r e m e l y unpleasant substance t o w o r k w i t h i n this w a y . W e used plastic g l o v e s t o p r o t e c t o u r hands, but after a f e w m i n u t e s t h e y w o u l d b e g i n t o d i s s o l v e i n t o a g u m m y w a d . D e s p i t e that, w e c o u l d g e t the job done. S o w e set t o the task o f s i e v i n g . A s s e d i m e n t w a s s c r e e n e d and d r i e d , w e passed casual m o m e n t s s o r t i n g t h r o u g h the c o a r s e r f r a c t i o n o f r e s i d u e left i n

T H E

C R O C O D I L E

O F

C A R N I V A L

175 the s c r e e n - b o t t o m e d b o x e s . J e r r y B r i t t , a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , f o u n d a strange t o o t h . It w a s a b o u t an e i g h t h of an inch l o n g , w i t h a b i g c e n t r a l c o n e and a r i d g e c o m i n g d o w n f r o m the t i p . I t l o o k e d a b i t l i k e e a r l y m a m m a l s k n o w n f r o m e l s e w h e r e i n the w o r l d , b u t n o t e n o u g h l i k e t h e m t o d e m o n s t r a t e that it really was a m a m m a l t o o t h . T h e r e w a s no indication of a g o o d r o o t on it, like m a m m a l s h a v e , but t h e n again, the base w a s b r o k e n . W e f i n a l l y c o n c l u d e d it c a m e f r o m a fish. O t h e r than that t o o t h and a f e w d i n o s a u r - t o o t h scraps, w e d i d n o t p i c k anything

particularly

good

out

of the

wash

while

we

were

in

the f i e l d .

P a t i e n c e i s a v i r t u e i n p a l e o n t o l o g y . W e s h i p p e d all o u r c o n c e n t r a t e back t o the States a t the e n d o f the f i e l d season, w h e r e W i l l s e p a r a t e d the b o n e f r o m the sand using h e a v y l i q u i d c h e m i c a l s . T h e n h e p i c k e d t h r o u g h the b o n e s and scraps.

W e g o t n o m a m m a l s , but w e d i d g e t s e v e r a l o f t h o s e " f i s h " t e e t h ,

s o m e f r o g b o n e s , bits and p i e c e s o f o t h e r tiny b o n e s , l i t t l e crustaceans, and c u r i o u s l y e n o u g h a c o u p l e o f s e e d l i k e s t r u c t u r e s — o u r o n l y plant r e m a i n s . T h e f i r s t s c r e e n i n g c a m p a i g n i n the D i n o s a u r Beds w a s n o t a c o m p l e t e bust, but i t w a s d o w n a t the b o t t o m o f t h e b a r r e l f o r a g u y w h o w a n t e d m a m m a l s . Still, i t p r o v i d e d a m o r e c o m p l e t e f i r s t g l a n c e o f the life o f the D i n o s a u r Beds than w e had g o t t e n f r o m p i c k i n g b o n e s off the surface o f the g r o u n d . W h e n w e r e t u r n e d h o m e f r o m the 1984 f i e l d season, W i l l n o t o n l y s o r t e d the c o n c e n t r a t e b u t h e b e g a n t o p r e p a r e t h e skulls w e had f o u n d a t C D - I . H e w a s w o r k i n g in his l a b ,

in A r i z o n a .

Each day he sat staring t h r o u g h his

m i c r o s c o p e , s c r a p i n g , g l u i n g , c l e a n i n g w i t h a v a r i e t y o f t o o l s . I w a s i n Dallas. A s the skulls e m e r g e d f r o m t h e i r shrouds o f i r o n - s t a i n e d crust, W i l l f e d m e b l o w - b y - b l o w r e p o r t s o v e r the p h o n e . " J a c o b s , this is w e i r d . I can see p a r t of a n o t h e r t o o t h . It has l o t s of cusps. This could be a m a m m a l . " N e x t call:

" J a c o b s , the r o o t s a r e all w r o n g . T h i s i s a f i s h . "

N e x t call: " J a c o b s , this is a r e p t i l e . " W e w e r e a bit like b l i n d m e n t r y i n g t o d e s c r i b e a n e l e p h a n t f r o m the parts w e w e r e familiar w i t h , but n o t r e a l l y m a k i n g m u c h sense. A s each l i t t l e hunk o f o b s c u r i n g crust w a s s c r a p e d a w a y t o r e v e a l t h e details o f h i d d e n b o n e , i t b e c a m e m o r e o b v i o u s that w h a t e v e r w e h a d , i t w a s b i z a r r e . T h e s e w e r e t h e skulls o f the animals w i t h the o d d t e e t h w e had f o u n d i n the s i e v i n g . O f c o u r s e we w e r e pleased.

W e k n e w all a l o n g that searching a n u n k n o w n t i m e i n

A f r i c a ' s past w o u l d v e r y l i k e l y y i e l d u n p r e d i c t a b l e f i n d s . H e r e w e had t h e f i r s t o f t h e m , and t h e y w e r e m o r e s t r a n g e than a n y t h i n g w e c o u l d have e x p e c t e d .

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

7 76 B o t h skulls f r o m that f i r s t season are l i t t l e m o r e than t h r e e inches l o n g , s o the animals t h e m s e l v e s w e r e n o t v e r y l a r g e , m a y b e a f o o t i n l e n g t h . O n e skull is in b e t t e r shape than the o t h e r , o w i n g to the w a y I had f o u n d the first. T h e m u z z l e i s s h o r t and d e e p , t h e b a c k o f t h e skull i s b r o a d . T h e nostrils are o n t h e sides and c l o s e t o t h e tip

of the snout.

T h e l o w e r j a w s are still

c o n n e c t e d t o t h e skulls i n b o t h s p e c i m e n s . T h e b o n e s a r e p u r e w h i t e and v e r y s o f t , w h i c h m a d e i t difficult and s l o w f o r W i l l t o f r e e t h e m f r o m t h e i r r o c k y crust. T h e e n a m e l o f the t e e t h i s a m u t e d b e i g e c o l o r . T h e t e e t h s e e m e d t o b e cuspy r o u n d e d " m o l a r s " i n the b a c k o f the j a w s , p r e c e d e d b y s m a l l e r , cuspy " p r e m o l a r s , " t h e n s o m e large " c a n i n e s , " and f i n a l l y s o m e t i n y t e e t h i n the f r o n t o f the u p p e r j a w . F o r s o m e o n e l i k e m e w h o w a s a t t h e t i m e m o s t f a m i l i a r w i t h m a m m a l s , this a r r a n g e m e n t o f t e e t h i s v e r y m a m m a l l i k e , s o r t o f r a c c o o n y . But this animal was not a m a m m a l . W i l l and I t o o k the s p e c i m e n s t o t h e annual m e e t i n g o f the S o c i e t y o f V e r t e b r a t e P a l e o n t o l o g y , w h e r e w e had g r e a t fun s h o w i n g t h e m a r o u n d . I t w a s o b v i o u s to s e v e r a l p e o p l e a t t e n d i n g that this animal w a s a c r o c o d i l e , a strange o n e , b u t a c r o c o d i l e n e v e r t h e l e s s . T h e y w e r e c o r r e c t . I t i s clear f r o m t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f b o n e s and h o l e s i n the skull and l o w e r j a w . But such a weird crocodile!

C R O C O D I L E S and t h e i r kin c o m p r i s e o n e o f t h e t w o l i v i n g g r o u p s o f R u l i n g R e p t i l e s , the A r c h o s a u r i a . T h e o t h e r l i v i n g g r o u p i s the b i r d s . T h a t i s r i g h t . A m o n g l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s , c r o c o d i l e s a r e m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o birds than t o a n y t h i n g e l s e . Birds and c r o c o d i l e s share a c o m m o n a n c e s t o r s o m e w h e r e back i n t h e m u r k y , distant past that n o o t h e r l i v i n g animals shared w i t h t h e m . But t h e y d o h a v e s o m e e x t i n c t r e l a t i v e s t o w h i c h t h e y are c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . T h e r e are the dinosaurs ( f r o m w h i c h t h e b i r d s , b u t n o t the c r o c o d i l e s , d e s c e n d e d ) , the f l y i n g p t e r o s a u r s , w h i c h a r e n o t b i r d s a t all e v e n t h o u g h t h e y c o u l d f l y , and a n u m b e r o f l e s s e r - k n o w n g r o u p s . I n t h e i r p r i m i t i v e states all o f these g r o u p s r e s e m b l e each o t h e r m u c h m o r e than any o n e o f t h e m r e s e m b l e s a n y t h i n g e l s e . M u c h o f t h e r e s e m b l a n c e lies i n t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f the b o n e s in the skull. T h e y are also c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c o n i c a l t e e t h set in h o l e s a l o n g the j a w , b u t w i t h o u t h a v i n g g o o d r o o t s t o h o l d t h e m i n the s o c k e t s . ( L i v i n g b i r d s , o f c o u r s e , h a v e e v o l u t i o n a r i l y lost all t h e i r t e e t h , b u t s o m e fossil species had t h e m , a s d i d t h e i r archosaurian a n c e s t o r s . )

THE

CROCODILE

OF

CARNIVAL

Because o f these shared f e a t u r e s , and a f e w m o r e , all o f t h e m — c r o c s , b i r d s , p t e r o s a u r s , and d i n o s a u r s — a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e archosaurs. N o animals w i t h o u t t h o s e specific characteristics o f a n a t o m y can b e l o n g t o t h e c l u b . I t i s o n l y the separate paths o f e v o l u t i o n f o l l o w e d s u b s e q u e n t l y b y c r o c s , dinosaurs, b i r d s , and p t e r o s a u r s that m a k e s each o f t h e m a p p e a r s o d i f f e r e n t f r o m each o t h e r i n o u r e y e s . A l l o f t h o s e g r o u p s , i n s u m the archosaurs, a r e distantly r e l a t e d t o the lizards and snakes, and m o r e distantly r e l a t e d still t o the t u r t l e s .

C R O C O D I L I A N S h a v e a n e x c e l l e n t fossil r e c o r d g o i n g w a y back a c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d m i l l i o n y e a r s , b u t t h e r e a r e o n l y t h r e e g r o u p s still a r o u n d . T h e f i r s t g r o u p i s e x e m p l i f i e d b y the N i l e c r o c o d i l e , e v e n n o w a c o m m o n animal i n m a n y parts o f A f r i c a . T h e r e a r e also c r o c o d i l e s i n A u s t r a l i a and N e w G u i n e a , Asia, and A m e r i c a . S o m e inhabit salt w a t e r . T h e r e are d w a r f c r o c o d i l e s i n W e s t A f r i c a . A l l o f these are c l o s e r e l a t i v e s o f t h e N i l e c r o c o d i l e . T h e n t h e r e are the a l l i g a t o r s , n o w i n c l u d i n g t h e A m e r i c a n a l l i g a t o r o f t h e G u l f Coastal states, its c o u s i n , the C h i n e s e a l l i g a t o r , and the caimans o f South A m e r i c a . T h e y have b l u n t snouts c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e N i l e c r o c o d i l e . T h e t h i r d g r o u p contains o n l y the l o n g - s n o u t e d gharial o f t h e Indian r e g i o n . A l l o f the l i v i n g species o f all t h r e e g r o u p s a r e c a r n i v o r o u s and s e m i a q u a t i c , m e a n i n g that t h e y lead a n a m p h i b i o u s l i f e - s t y l e , h a n g i n g o u t i n the w a t e r o f s w a m p s , estuaries, r i v e r s , o r lakes and t h e n c r a w l i n g u p o n land a s u r g e s and instincts take t h e m t o bask o r r e p r o d u c e . A m o n g the t w e n t y - t w o l i v i n g species t h e r e i s q u i t e a v a r i e t y o f head shapes. A l l i g a t o r s h a v e r a t h e r b l u n t s n o u t s , w h i l e c r o c o d i l e snouts are m o r e n a r r o w , and the gharial has the n a r r o w e s t snout o f all. T h e p r e s e n c e o f l o n g , thin, n a r r o w snouts i n aquatic animals indicates a p r e f e r e n c e f o r a f i s h y d i e t . T h e gharial has a m e n u m o r e r e s t r i c t e d t o f i n n y p r e y than d o crocodiles or alligators. A l l o f the l i v i n g c r o c o d i l e clan share s o m e i m p o r t a n t similarities i n t h e i r a n a t o m y that are d i f f e r e n t f r o m s o m e fossil c r o c s . living species,

F o r i n s t a n c e , i n all the

the v e r t e b r a e j o i n t o g e t h e r i n b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t j o i n t s .

Each

v e r t e b r a l o o k s kind o f l i k e t h o s e i n t h e tail o f titanosaurid s a u r o p o d s , b u t t h e r e s e m b l a n c e i s c e r t a i n l y s e p a r a t e l y e v o l v e d , and i n the case o f t h e c r o c s , b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t v e r t e b r a e a r e n o t l i m i t e d t o the tail. L i v i n g c r o c s also h a v e a h a r d , b o n y s e c o n d a r y p a l a t e — a shelf o f b o n e f o r m i n g the r o o f o f t h e m o u t h and separating the nasal passages f r o m t h e m o u t h c a v i t y . It is an i m p o r t a n t

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

178 s t r u c t u r e f o r c r o c s t o h a v e . T h e l i v i n g s p e c i e s , w i t h t h e i r nostrils o n the t o p o f t h e i r s n o u t s , can h o l d t h e i r n o s e s o u t o f t h e w a t e r t o b r e a t h e , y e t t h e i r m o u t h s can b e o p e n and full o f w a t e r o r f o o d . M a m m a l s , i n c l u d i n g us, h a v e a similar b o n y p a l a t e , w h i c h s e r v e s t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n as that in c r o c s , w a l l i n g o f f the air passages f r o m the m o u t h .

C r o c s have certainly e v o l v e d in s o m e

i n t e r e s t i n g w a y s , a s w e can t e l l s i m p l y f r o m l o o k i n g a t t h e l i v i n g s p e c i e s . B u t t o t h e d i v e r s i t y o f l i v i n g s p e c i e s o f c r o c s can b e a d d e d t h e i r v e r y rich fossil r e c o r d and its 2 0 0 - m i l l i o n - y e a r h i s t o r y . N o t all fossil c r o c o d i l i a n s had c o m p l e t e b o n y palates o r b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t v e r t e b r a e ; i n fact m o s t o f t h e m d i d not.

S o m e of them w e r e not even amphibious.

S o m e w e r e strictly land-

d w e l l e r s . O t h e r s w e r e strictly m a r i n e , t h e i r tails e v o l v i n g t o l o o k and funct i o n l i k e t h o s e o f sharks and t h e i r l e g s e v o l v i n g i n t o f i n l i k e p a d d l e s . T h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s e c o n d a r y palate i n v a r i o u s s p e c i e s i s particularly important

in

deciphering

the

evolutionary history

of crocs.

In

the

most

p r i m i t i v e g r o u p o f c r o c o d i l i a n s p e c i e s , t h e s e c o n d a r y palate i s n o t a t all w e l l d e v e l o p e d , s o t h e i n t e r n a l n a r e s , the h o l e s o n the inside that are c o n n e c t e d b y t h e air passage t o t h e n o s e h o l e s o n the o u t s i d e o f the skull, are w a y u p a t the f r o n t o f t h e r o o f o f the m o u t h . T h e r e i s n o s e c o n d a r y palate t o speak of, and that i s the p r i m i t i v e c o n d i t i o n . T h e n e x t g r a d e o f s t r u c t u r e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f the c r o c o d i l i a n s e c o n d a r y palate is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the i n t e r n a l nares l y i n g q u i t e far back and t h e air passage e x t e n d i n g f o r a l o n g e r distance t h r o u g h the s n o u t . In the m o s t a d v a n c e d e v o l u t i o n a r y g r a d e t h e i n t e r n a l nares are w a y back i n the skull and t h e s e c o n d a r y palate i s c o m p l e t e . C r o c o d i l i a n s w i t h the m o r e a d v a n c e d g r a d e o f palate s t r u c t u r e also h a v e b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t v e r t e b r a e . F r o m M a l a w i w e h a v e skulls o f t h e l i t t l e c r o c ( I w i l l r e f e r t o i t a s the M a l a w i c r o c , f o r w a n t o f a b e t t e r t e r m ) , w h i c h s h o w s i t t o b e o f the s e c o n d , or intermediate, grade of crocodilian evolution w i t h respect to the construct i o n o f t h e s e c o n d a r y p a l a t e . O n t o p o f that, r a t h e r than b e i n g a flattish skull, l i k e N i l e c r o c o d i l e s and a l l i g a t o r s ,

the M a l a w i c r o c skull i s d e e p e r .

The

n o s t r i l s are n o t p l a c e d o n t h e t o p o f t h e s n o u t f o r s n o r k e l i n g i n w a t e r . Instead t h e nasal b o n e s g o f o r w a r d t o a p o i n t a t the e n d o f the snout and the nostrils lie b e l o w t h e m . But i t w a s n o t the s n o u t o r e v e n the s e c o n d a r y palate that caught m y i n t e r e s t f i r s t . T h e r e w a s s o m e t h i n g e l s e a b o u t t h e m o u t h o f the M a l a w i c r o c that i n t r i g u e d m e m o r e . T h i s w a s n o t t h e m u s k y , tusky o r i f i c e a c r o c o d i l e should h a v e . I t w a s d i f f e r e n t . H a v i n g s t u d i e d rats and o t h e r m a m m a l s f o r q u i t e some time,

o n e g l a n c e a t that c r o c ' s t e e t h t o l d m e i t w a s far o u t o f the

T H E

C R O C O D I L E

O F

C A R N I V A L

179 o r d i n a r y . T h i s c r o c m o v e d its l o w e r j a w f o r w a r d w h e n i t c h e w e d . But h o w c o u l d that be? M o d e r n c r o c s d o n o t c h e w . T h e y r i p a hunk o f flesh f r o m a carcass and fling i t d o w n t h e i r t h r o a t s , n o fuss, n o m u s s , n o b o t h e r . But t h e y do not chew. T h e t e e t h o f t h e l i v i n g N i l e c r o c o d i l e a r e basically c o n e s . V e r y sharp c o n e s . T h e i r j a w j o i n t s are h i n g e s . T h e y o p e n and t h e y c l o s e b y r o t a t i n g a b o u t a f i x e d p o i n t o n the skull, s n a p p i n g the j a w s t i g h t l i k e a v i c i o u s pair o f scissors. T h e r e i s n o m o t i o n a t all a t t h e j o i n t , e x c e p t t h e o p e n i n g and c l o s i n g o f the j a w . E v e n w e humans can slide o u r j a w s a r o u n d a b i t a t t h e j o i n t , just t r y it. C r o c o d i l e s c a n n o t d o that. T h e i r sharp t e e t h and f i x e d j a w j o i n t s are s u p e r b l y a d a p t e d f o r g r a b b i n g and h o l d i n g p r e y s t r u g g l i n g i n p a n i c . T h e d i e t o f the N i l e c r o c o d i l e c h a n g e s w i t h the s i z e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e a g e , o f the a n i m a l . Y o u n g e r and s m a l l e r individuals t a k e a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f insects. L a r g e r c r o c s eat f i s h , f r o g s , t u r t l e s , w a t e r f o w l , w h a t e v e r t h e y can catch. T h e b i g o n e s can g r a b a d r i n k i n g a n t e l o p e b y the s n o u t , haul i t i n t o t h e w a t e r , d r o w n i t , l e a v e i t t o p u t r e f y , l e t the m e a t s o f t e n and t e n d e r i z e , t h e n pull i t apart and eat it.

C r o c s a r e m e a n . E v e n t o d a y t h e y are a d a n g e r t o

p e o p l e a l o n g m a n y r i v e r s and lakes i n A f r i c a . E v e r y y e a r s e v e r a l h u m a n b e i n g s d i e f r o m c r o c attacks. O f all the m a n y , m a n y d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f c r o c s , l i v i n g and e x t i n c t , n e a r l y all o f t h e m h a v e t e e t h m o r e o r less l i k e t h o s e o f t h e N i l e c r o c o d i l e . A l i t t l e m o r e b l u n t , o r a l i t t l e m o r e sharp, o r a l i t t l e m o r e squished f r o m side t o s i d e , b u t m o s t all c r o c s h a v e basically t h e s a m e k i n d o f c o n i c a l t e e t h . A n d the j a w j o i n t i s t h e s a m e i n a l m o s t all o f t h e m t o o . So the M a l a w i c r o c is s t r a n g e f o r a c r o c o d i l e . It has the head of a c r o c o d i l e , but n o t s o flat, and its t e e t h are s t r a n g e , and its j a w j o i n t i s s t r a n g e . T h e j a w j o i n t has a l o n g surface that a l l o w s t h e l o w e r j a w t o slide f o r w a r d a s t h e m o u t h i s c l o s e d . Its u p p e r " m o l a r " t e e t h h a v e a b i g c e n t r a l cusp w h o s e p o i n t leans t o w a r d the back o f the t h r o a t . A small b u t sharp r i d g e runs b a c k w a r d f r o m the t i p . T i n y cusps g o a l o n g the e d g e o f the base. L o w e r " m o l a r s " are a l m o s t e x a c t l y like the u p p e r s , b u t w i t h o n e b i g e x c e p t i o n : T h e tip o f the b i g c u s p , and the r i d g e that c o m e s o f f o f i t , p o i n t t o w a r d t h e f r o n t o f t h e j a w r a t h e r than the back as in t h e u p p e r s . It is as if a m i r r o r w e r e h e l d to the back of an upper t o o t h , the m i r r o r image being a l o w e r t o o t h . O n e g l a n c e a t that and i t i s easy t o c o n c l u d e that t h o s e t e e t h had t o w o r k against each o t h e r . T h e y d i d n o t g r i n d e n a m e l against e n a m e l a s m a m m a l s l i k e y o u d o w h i l e c h e w i n g , b u t the t e e t h d i d m o v e t o w a r d each o t h e r a s t h e beast

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

180 c h e w e d . T h e j a w m o v e d n o t l i k e a pair o f scissors, b u t a s the m o u t h c l o s e d , the j a w m o v e d f o r w a r d . T h i s c r o c c h e w e d f r o m back t o f r o n t , slicing and b r e a k i n g f o o d b e t w e e n its t e e t h .

Rats c h e w f r o m back t o f r o n t .

But self-

respecting crocs should not. T h e n e x t step w a s t o u n d e r s t a n d i n e v e n m o r e d e t a i l the m e c h a n i s m o f h o w m o d e r n c r o c o d i l e s c h e w i n o r d e r t o a p p l y that k n o w l e d g e t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g the M a l a w i c r o c m o r e t h o r o u g h l y . I t w a s also necessary t o u n r a v e l w h i c h , if any,

of the k n o w n species of c r o c s ,

living or extinct,

o u r animal f r o m

M a l a w i w a s m o s t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o . T h i s w a s a f o r m i d a b l e task because o f the w i d e s p r e a d fossil r e c o r d o f c r o c s . M y f r i e n d Jim C l a r k w a s a l r e a d y a n e x p e r t o n c r o c o d i l e s and t h e i r fossils. H e had e x p r e s s e d a n i n t e r e s t i n the M a l a w i c r o c , s o I i n v i t e d h i m o n b o a r d f o r t h e initial study. H e w o u l d p r o v i d e the p e r s p e c t i v e o f his e x p e r i e n c e a s a d e d i c a t e d c r o c j o c k .

T h e expertise he

b r o u g h t g a v e d e p t h t o t h e u n f o l d i n g s t o r y o f the u n i q u e animal w e had. J i m k n e w a b o u t the a n a t o m y o f m o d e r n c r o c o d i l e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y h o w the c h e w i n g m u s c l e s w o r k , w h e r e t h e y attach o n t h e skull, and i n w h i c h d i r e c t i o n t h e y p u l l w h e n the j a w c l o s e s . I t b e c a m e c l e a r t o h i m that the a n a t o m y o f the M a l a w i c r o c j a w j o i n t w o r k e d w i t h t h e m u s c l e s that c l o s e the m o u t h t o a l l o w t h e l o w e r j a w t o slide f o r w a r d w h e n the m o u t h shuts. T h a t a g r e e s w e l l w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m a d e f r o m t h e shape o f t h e t e e t h . T h e r e a s o n t h e j a w s o f o t h e r c r o c s d o n o t slide i s that t h e r e i s a buttress o f b o n e o n t h e l o w e r j a w that h o o k s a r o u n d back o f t h e j o i n t surface o f the skull. I f that buttress w e r e r e m o v e d , the j a w c o u l d s l i d e . T h e M a l a w i c r o c d o e s n o t h a v e it. T h e j a w c o u l d slide b o t h w a y s , t o w a r d the f r o n t and t o w a r d t h e b a c k , b u t w e k n e w f r o m the shape o f t h e t e e t h that, e v e n t h o u g h the l o w e r j a w m o v e s b a c k and f o r t h , the p o w e r s t r o k e w a s i n the f o r w a r d d i r e c t i o n a s t h e m o u t h c l o s e d . F o o d i n t h e m o u t h w o u l d bank against the u p p e r t e e t h and b e c r u s h e d and s l i v e r e d a s t h e l o w e r j a w slid t o w a r d the f r o n t e n d o f the h e a d . T h u s , the shape o f t h e t e e t h , the a n a t o m y o f the j a w j o i n t , and the function o f m u s c l e s i n l i v i n g c r o c o d i l e s all h e l p e d u s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e w a y this fossil species,

100 m i l l i o n y e a r s o l d , ate its f o o d . T h e o n l y l i v i n g r e p t i l e w h o s e

l o w e r j a w m o v e s i n this s a m e w a y i s the l i z a r d l i k e tuatara that t o d a y inhabits small islands o f f N e w Z e a l a n d . I t i s n o t a c r o c o d i l e . T h e m u s c l e s that m o v e t h e tuatara's j a w f o r w a r d are a n a t o m i c a l l y the s a m e a s t h o s e that m o v e the M a l a w i c r o c ' s j a w . R o d e n t s , w h o s e j a w s also m o v e f o r e and aft, d o i t w i t h d i f f e r e n t m u s c l e s . T h e s i m i l a r i t y o f c h e w i n g m o t i o n s i n the M a l a w i c r o c , the tuatara,

and s o m e r o d e n t s w a s e v o l v e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y .

This phenomenon,

THE

CROCODILE

OF

CARNIVAL 181

w h e r e b y a n a d a p t i v e f e a t u r e e v o l v e s s e p a r a t e l y i n distinct e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e s , i s c a l l e d c o n v e r g e n c e . T h e e v o l u t i o n o f a s e c o n d a r y palate i n c r o c o d i l ians

and

in

mammals

is

another

example

of

convergence.

So

is

the

b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t v e r t e b r a e o f a d v a n c e d c r o c o d i l i a n s and i n the tail o f titanosaur i d s a u r o p o d s . T h e similarity a m o n g species caused b y c o n v e r g e n c e i s real b u t superficial, and i t d o e s n o t r e f l e c t a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p o r c o m m o n a n c e s t r y . C o n v e r g e n t e v o l u t i o n reflects

a likeness in

f u n c t i o n and a d a p t a t i o n ,

not

h e r i t a g e . I t i s b o d y f o r m a t w o r k w i t h l i f e - s t y l e and e c o l o g y . T h e M a l a w i c r o c is a g r e a t e x a m p l e of it. J i m also p o i n t e d o u t t o u s that, after all, the M a l a w i c r o c i s n o t a l o n e i n the c r o c o d i l e w o r l d i n h a v i n g a n e l o n g a t e d surface o n t h e j a w j o i n t that w o u l d a l l o w s o m e m o v e m e n t . T h e r e is also a fossil species in South A m e r i c a that shares the s a m e characteristic f e a t u r e . I t , t o o , i s C r e t a c e o u s i n a g e , b u t L a t e C r e t a c e o u s , a bit y o u n g e r than t h e M a l a w i c r o c . It is c a l l e d Notosuchus. T h e r e are o t h e r features b e s i d e s t h e j a w j o i n t i n c o m m o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o , f o r instance the w a y the snout i s b u i l t . O u r s p e c i m e n s f r o m M a l a w i are n o t the same s p e c i e s , o r e v e n g e n u s , b u t a r e i n the s a m e f a m i l y , the N o t o s u c h i d a e , a s the South A m e r i c a n f o r m . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c h e w i n g cusps o n t h e t e e t h set the M a l a w i c r o c apart, u n i q u e l y , f r o m e v e r y o t h e r c r o c i n t h e w o r l d , e v e n its closest South A m e r i c a n fossil r e l a t i v e s . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e M a l a w i c r o c , and the distrib u t i o n o f its f a m i l y m e m b e r s i n t i m e and space i s r e a l l y e x c i t i n g . A l l a l o n g w e had b e e n i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e

G o n d w a n a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n A f r i c a and

South A m e r i c a . N o w w e had a f a m i l y o f c r o c o d i l e s c o m m o n t o b o t h p r o v i d i n g further t e s t i m o n y o f the i n f l u e n c e o f g l o b a l g e o g r a p h y o n life i n t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s . M o r e o v e r , Notosuchus f r o m South A m e r i c a and t h e M a l a w i c r o c are d i f f e r e n t e n o u g h f r o m each o t h e r t o m a k e the s t o r y e v e n m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g . T h e i r c o m m o n a n c e s t o r had t o l i v e p r i o r t o the M a l a w i c r o c , and i t i s n o t likely t o h a v e b e e n e x a c t l y l i k e e i t h e r t h e A f r i c a n o r South A m e r i c a n f o r m i n its a n a t o m y . I t i s still w a i t i n g t o b e d i s c o v e r e d , s o m e w h e r e i n G o n d w a n a . T h e " m a m m a l i a n " features o f t h e M a l a w i c r o c , that is, its c o m p l i c a t e d , cuspy t e e t h and the c o m p l e x w a y i t m o v e d its j a w i n p r o c e s s i n g f o o d , b e g s the q u e s t i o n o f its o u t c o m p e t i n g m a m m a l s f o r a p l a c e i n t h e A f r i c a n e c o s y s t e m d u r i n g t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s . N o m a m m a l s h a v e y e t b e e n f o u n d i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s . But o n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e s a m p l e o f small animal fossils o f any kind is sparse in M a l a w i . It is r e a s o n a b l e to e x p e c t m a m m a l s to turn up a s m o r e and m o r e small fossils are f o u n d . I t w o u l d b e u n f o u n d e d s p e c u l a t i o n

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

a t this t i m e t o suggest that m a m m a l s a r e absent f r o m the D i n o s a u r Beds b e c a u s e t h e m a m m a l n i c h e w a s f i l l e d b y the M a l a w i c r o c . N e v e r t h e l e s s the n o t i o n of c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o is not so farfetched as to be c o m p l e t e l y b e y o n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A f t e r all, t h e M a l a w i c r o c d i d e v o l v e c o n v e r gently with mammals. It is v e r y l i k e l y that the M a l a w i c r o c p r o c e s s e d its f o o d m o r e , and in a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d w a y , than o t h e r c r o c o d i l e s . I t c h e w e d , but i t did n o t c h e w e x a c t l y l i k e m a m m a l s because the t e e t h d o n o t s e e m t o c o m e i n c o n t a c t w i t h each o t h e r , a s h a p p e n s i n m o s t m a m m a l s . But w h a t did the M a l a w i c r o c c h e w ? W h a t w a s its diet? All

living

species

of crocodiles

eat

flesh

of one

sort

or

another.

No

c r o c o d i l e species i s k n o w n t o b e h e r b i v o r o u s . S m a l l , y o u n g N i l e c r o c o d i l e s eat m o r e insects a n d , a s t h e y g r o w l a r g e r , take p r o g r e s s i v e l y l a r g e r p e r c e n t ages o f v e r t e b r a t e p r e y , such a s f i s h , f r o g s , b i r d s , and m a m m a l s . I d o n o t k n o w a t this p o i n t e x a c t l y w h a t the M a l a w i c r o c a t e , b u t i t a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y w a s n o t a h e r b i v o r e , based o n t h e d i e t a r y habits o f l i v i n g c r o c s i f n o t h i n g e l s e . It is a small c r o c , p r o b a b l y n o t o v e r a f o o t in total l e n g t h , so it c o u l d n o t have t a k e n l a r g e p r e y . F r a n k l y I d o u b t w h e t h e r i t w a s o v e r l y particular a b o u t w h a t it a t e , p u r s u i n g m o r e or less w h a t e v e r it c o u l d catch. I suspect it m a y have e a t e n insects and s p i d e r s , m a y b e crayfish, crabs and o t h e r crustaceans, thins h e l l e d snails, and p e r h a p s small f r o g s and the o c c a s i o n a l fish caught a l o n g a r i v e r b a n k . I suspect its f o r a g i n g w a s m o r e l i k e l y d o n e o n land than i n w a t e r , p e r h a p s o c c a s i o n a l l y i n the s h a l l o w s and b a c k w a t e r s o f a s t r e a m o r p o n d . I t d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e the s a m e h u n t i n g tactics as m o d e r n c r o c s . In fact it p r o b a b l y d i d n o t . T h e M a l a w i c r o c m a y h a v e b e e n a less stealthy, i f m o r e a c t i v e , f o r a g e r . C o u l d this k i n d o f animal h a v e c o m p e t e d f o r the same f o o d w i t h early mammals? M a m m a l s are v e r y r a r e i n t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s . T h e y are n o t particularly abundant a n y w h e r e in the w o r l d , c e r t a i n l y n o t as abundant as m a m m a l fossils b e c o m e after dinosaurs g o e x t i n c t . M o s t a r e q u i t e t i n y , a b o u t t h e size o f small m i c e . T h o s e m a m m a l s that are k n o w n f r o m the Early C r e t a c e o u s are e i t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d h e r b i v o r e s o r t h e y h a v e t e e t h suitable f o r e a t i n g a v a r i e t y o f small animal p r e y — t h e y a r e c a r n i v o r o u s i n the sense that t h e y w o u l d eat w h a t e v e r l i t t l e m o l l u s c s , a r t h r o p o d s , o r v e r t e b r a t e s t h e y m i g h t c a t c h . I n g e n e r a l the c a r n i v o r o u s m a m m a l s k n o w n f r o m the fossil r e c o r d a p p e a r m o r e d i v e r s e o n a g l o b a l scale than the h e r b i v o r e s d u r i n g C r e t a c e o u s t i m e s . T h e r e s e e m t o b e m o r e species o f t h e m . T h e d i e t o f c a r n i v o r o u s e a r l y m a m m a l s , s o m e o f t h e m

THE

CROCODILE

OF

CARNIVAL

a n y w a y , m i g h t o v e r l a p a g r e a t d e a l w i t h w h a t i s s u g g e s t e d f o r the M a l a w i croc. I n the fossil c o m m u n i t y r e p r e s e n t e d i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s , I w o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d b o t h h e r b i v o r o u s and i n s e c t i v o r o u s m a m m a l s i f the fossil r e c o r d w e r e c o m p l e t e . I t w o u l d b e unjustified t o a t t r i b u t e the lack o f all m a m m a l fossils t o c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h the M a l a w i c r o c , o n e r e a s o n b e i n g that t h e r e w o u l d b e little c o m p e t i t i o n , f o r f o o d a n y w a y , b e t w e e n the c r o c and p l a n t - e a t i n g m a m mals.

N e v e r t h e l e s s the M a l a w i c r o c m i g h t o v e r l a p t o s o m e e x t e n t i n its

habitat and e c o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h e a r l y c a r n i v o r o u s m a m m a l s , and therefore I do not c o m p l e t e l y rule out competition with t h e m . O f particular i n t e r e s t i n this r e g a r d i s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n e w Early Cretaceous

mammal

from

Brazil,

Candidodon

itapecuruense.

This

species

is

k n o w n o n l y f r o m a f e w small i s o l a t e d t e e t h . W h a t m a k e s i t s o i n t e r e s t i n g i s that the t e e t h a p p e a r t o b e q u i t e similar t o t h e M a l a w i c r o c ' s . E i t h e r Candidodon i s a c r o c i n disguise, w h i c h w o u l d n o t b e o v e r l y surprising n o w that w e k n o w a b o u t M a l a w i , o r i t i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y striking e x a m p l e o f e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n v e r g e n c e . E i t h e r w a y , i t p r o v i d e s a n i m p o r t a n t d i r e c t i o n f o r the study o f G o n d w a n a faunas. T h e r e i s still m u c h w e d o n o t k n o w a b o u t t h e M a l a w i c r o c . O u r initial study i n v e s t i g a t e d o n l y t h e skull and t e e t h , and e v e n t h o s e r e q u i r e m o r e d e t a i l e d study.

I n the

1 9 8 7 f i e l d season g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t John C o n g l e t o n

f o u n d a s p o t w i t h half a d o z e n or so of the l i t t l e c r o c s in it across the g u l l y f r o m C D - I . A n o t h e r skull w a s f o u n d i n the 1 9 8 9 season. N o w w e h a v e a b o u t a d o z e n really g o o d s p e c i m e n s . T h e r e a r e six f i n e skulls, all w i t h the l o w e r jaws attached.

We

also h a v e

some

skeletons

with

the

bones

still j o i n e d

t o g e t h e r m o r e o r less a s t h e y w e r e i n l i f e . S o m e o f t h e s e s h o w the thin b o n y plates that a r m o r e d the a n i m a l ' s b a c k , similar t o the c o n d i t i o n i n m o d e r n crocs. A l l o f the g o o d s p e c i m e n s c o m e f r o m a small area o f just a f e w square yards a t C D - 6 and across the g u l l y . T h e skulls and s k e l e t o n s o c c u r i n a c o a r s e r e d sand w i t h p e b b l e s and n o d u l e s i n i t h e r e and t h e r e . I n fact, t h e c r o c o c c u r s at several o t h e r l o c a l i t i e s , but just as a f e w bits and p i e c e s , or single t e e t h . A l l o f the r e a l l y g o o d o n e s are f r o m that s i n g l e s p o t . S o m e o f t h e s k e l e t o n s s e e m t o b e s c r u n c h e d u p , a s i f t h e y w e r e l y i n g i n a b u r r o w and had g o t t e n b u r i e d . O n l y d e t a i l e d study w i l l t e l l u s f o r sure i f the M a l a w i c r o c l i v e d i n b u r r o w s , b u t i t i s c e r t a i n n o w that t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c o m p l e t e s k e l e t o n s o f the c r o c , all i n t h e s a m e a r e a , w i t h n o o t h e r species o f fossils t o speak o f f o u n d

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D

184 w i t h t h e m , i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o t h e r fossil localities i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s . I think i t o w e s its e x i s t e n c e t o the w a y the animal l i v e d . M a y b e its b e h a v i o r i n life c o n t r o l l e d its p r e s e r v a t i o n after d e a t h . W e shall learn m o r e a b o u t h o w the M a l a w i c r o c l i v e d w h e n the a n a t o m y o f its s k e l e t o n i s m o r e t h o r o u g h l y s t u d i e d . A l r e a d y s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g features a r e c o m i n g t o l i g h t . F o r i n s t a n c e , i t l o o k s a s i f this c r e a t u r e m i g h t have h e l d its h e a d u p ,

a s i f y o u h e l d y o u r hand h o r i z o n t a l l y , p a l m d o w n ,

forearm

v e r t i c a l , and y o u r w r i s t b e n t a t a n i n e t y - d e g r e e a n g l e . A t least the parts o f t h e n e c k v e r t e b r a e t o w h i c h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m u s c l e s and l i g a m e n t s w o u l d attach, and t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e h o l e i n the back o f the skull w h e r e the spinal c o r d passes, suggest that t h e p o s t u r e o f t h e M a l a w i c r o c i s n o t that o f the N i l e c r o c o d i l e . A n d w h y should i t be? S o t h e studies w i l l c o n t i n u e . S h o u l d the r e a d e r b e w o n d e r i n g w h a t the M a l a w i c r o c i s f o r m a l l y c a l l e d , I m u s t l e a v e y o u h a n g i n g . T h e r e i s o n e study, h o w e v e r , that d e f i n i t e l y m u s t b e f o r t h c o m i n g . T h a t i s the o n e i n w h i c h the M a l a w i c r o c is g i v e n a n a m e . I h a v e s o m e v e r y h a p p y f e e l i n g s t o w a r d the M a l a w i c r o c . I t w a s o u r f i r s t b i g s t r i k e in the D i n o s a u r B e d s . It is c l e a r l y u n i q u e in t h e w o r l d . Its f a m i l y i s k n o w n f r o m w h a t i s n o w A f r i c a and f r o m South A m e r i c a , possibly a t the s a m e t i m e a s t h e M a l a w i c r o c w a s l i v i n g i n t h e area that w a s t o b e c o m e the D i n o s a u r B e d s , and c e r t a i n l y i n g e o l o g i c a l l y y o u n g e r South A m e r i c a n r o c k s . Its a n a t o m y m a k e s m y i m a g i n a t i o n run w i l d . Just f o r fun, think o f i t h o l d i n g its h e a d u p , searching f o r a b u g ( F i g u r e 3 4 ) . If it s a w o n e h o p , it dashed in f o r t h e k i l l , p u n c t u r i n g t h e t o u g h m o r s e l w i t h its p o i n t e d c a n i n e s , masticating t h e c h i t i n o u s e x o s k e l e t o n w i t h c u s p y t e e t h — t e e t h w i e l d e d b y its p i s t o n j a w , f o r c e f u l l y p u n c h i n g f o r w a r d , t h e n r a p i d l y p u l l i n g b a c k . I f i t sensed d a n g e r , i t dashed f o r its b u r r o w . I t w o r e a c r o c o d i l i a n c o a t o f a r m o r , b u t i t b e h a v e d like a m o n g o o s e , a reptilian m e e r k a t .

It is a l m o s t like a small m a m m a l in a

c r o c o d i l e c o s t u m e , l i k e a k i d d r e s s e d up f o r a s h o w . Its c o s t u m e is as striking a s any o n e m i g h t e x p e c t t o see a t R i o d e J a n e i r o ' s C a r n i v a l i n B r a z i l , w h e r e its c l o s e s t r e l a t i v e s l i v e d . T h e M a l a w i c r o c m i g h t h a v e l o o k e d g o o d a m o n g the fruit o n C a r m e n M i r a n d a ' s hat, g o i n g f o r insects that w o u l d b e a t t r a c t e d t o t h e b r i g h t c o l o r s — i t i s just 100 m i l l i o n years t o o o l d ! T h e M a l a w i c r o c w o u l d h a v e b e e n a g o o d f i n d b y itself, b u t i t i s a part o f a fauna, a c o m m u n i t y o f a n i m a l s . A n d i t i s n o t t h e o n l y c r o c o d i l i a n m e m b e r of the c o m m u n i t y p r e s e r v e d in the Dinosaur Beds.

T h e r e are t w o o t h e r

s p e c i e s o f c r o c s a s w e l l , b o t h k n o w n o n l y f r o m t e e t h . O n e , the m o r e p o o r l y

THE

CROCODILE

FIGURE 34:

CARNIVAL

The Malawi crocodile.

a gallery forest,

with

This new species of small crocodile is shown in

one croc rearing to capture a dragonfly lunch,

peering from its burrow. insect.

OF

another

The frog looks jealous of the crocodile's success with

the

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

186 r e p r e s e n t e d o f t h e t w o , has n o n d e s c r i p t c o n i c a l t e e t h . T h e o t h e r i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y s m a l l , b l u n t t e e t h that a r e flattened f r o m side t o side b u t n o t r e a l l y sharp. T h e s e t e e t h ,

like t h o s e o f t h e M a l a w i c r o c , can also b e t r a c e d t o

r e l a t i v e s i n South A m e r i c a . T h e l i t t l e f l a t t e n e d t e e t h b e l o n g t o a g e n u s o f c r o c o d i l e c a l l e d Araripesuchus. I t has t w o s p e c i e s , t h e first o n e d e s c r i b e d f r o m South A m e r i c a , and r e p r e s e n t e d b y t w o skulls and a s k e l e t o n . T h e o t h e r species w a s f i r s t d i s c o v e r e d in N i g e r in Araripesuchus

W e s t Africa. also

occur

in

It is k n o w n Cameroon,

from one West

skull.

Africa,

but

Isolated teeth of they

cannot

be

a t t r i b u t e d t o o n e o r the o t h e r o f t h e n a m e d species w i t h any c e r t a i n t y . B o t h species are a b o u t the s a m e a g e a s t h e fossils f r o m the D i n o s a u r B e d s . W i t h o n l y i s o l a t e d t e e t h f r o m M a l a w i , l i t t l e m o r e can b e d o n e than t o suggest that Araripesuchus is p r e s e n t , b u t that is an i m p o r t a n t s t a t e m e n t to be able to m a k e . Araripesuchus, j u d g i n g f r o m t h e skulls that are k n o w n ,

is similar to t h e

M a l a w i c r o c w i t h respect to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the secondary palate. Both a r e a b o u t the m i d d l e g r a d e o f e v o l u t i o n , w i t h the i n t e r n a l nares n o t s o far back a s i n m o d e r n l i v i n g c r o c o d i l e s and a l l i g a t o r s .

T h e e x t e r n a l nares i n

Araripesuchus, a s i n the M a l a w i c r o c , a r e n o t o n t h e t o p o f the snout but r a t h e r o n t h e sides o f t h e t i p , and the nasal b o n e s are l o n g and p o i n t e d . T h e head i s d e e p i n b o t h , n o t flat a s i n a l l i g a t o r s . T h e t e e t h i n the t w o are o b v i o u s l y d i f f e r e n t , s o t h e y d i d n o t eat t h e s a m e w a y o r possibly n o t e v e n the same t h i n g s . Araripesuchus d o e s n o t h a v e t h e l o n g j a w a r t i c u l a t i o n o f the M a l a w i c r o c that a l l o w s i t t o c h e w f r o m back t o f r o n t .

Araripesuchus i s stuck w i t h the

scissorlike j a w c l o s u r e o f m o s t o t h e r c r o c s . T h e v e r t e b r a l c e n t r a are similar and p r i m i t i v e i n t h e t w o , b u t the neural spines i n the n e c k a p p e a r t o b e m u c h l o n g e r i n t h e M a l a w i c r o c , and the h o l e a t t h e back o f t h e skull f o r the spinal c o l u m n i s farther u n d e r i n the M a l a w i c r o c , r a t h e r than m o r e o u t the back of t h e skull as in Araripesuchus. Araripesuchus,

l i k e the M a l a w i c r o c , w a s b e t t e r a d a p t e d f o r a m o r e fully

t e r r e s t r i a l w a y o f life than f o r a s e m i a q u a t i c o n e such a s t h e N i l e c r o c o d i l e has. T h a t i s c l e a r f r o m its h i n d l i m b s , w h i c h are l o n g e r than the f o r e l i m b s and less s p r a w l i n g , m o r e u n d e r n e a t h the a n i m a l , than t h o s e i n m o d e r n c r o c s . T h e shape o f t h e h e a d , d e e p w i t h n o s t r i l s b e l o w the e n d , i s n o t like that o f semiaquatic crocs either. T h e South A m e r i c a n s p e c i e s , Araripesuchus gomesii,

c o m e s f r o m o n e o f the

w o r l d ' s g r e a t fossil areas, f r o m t h e A r a r i p e Basin o f Brazil. T h o u s a n d s u p o n thousands u p o n thousands o f fossils are k n o w n f r o m t h e r e . Far and a w a y m o s t

THE

CROCODILE

OF

CARNIVAL

o f the v e r t e b r a t e s k n o w n f r o m the Basin are fish. T h a t i s b e c a u s e t h e r o c k s of the A r a r i p e Basin are lithified s e d i m e n t s d e p o s i t e d in a g r e a t l a k e , o n e that p e r s i s t e d f o r s e v e r a l , i f n o t tens of, m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s . T h e lake a p p a r e n t l y u n d e r w e n t a t least o n e p e r i o d w h e n i t d r i e d o u t , and t o w a r d the e n d o f its life the sea transgressed far e n o u g h inland t o r e a c h t h e l a k e . A n d a l o n g w i t h the s e a w a t e r c a m e a f e w m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s . A t the

time

the

Araripe

lake

came

into

existence,

A f r i c a and

South

A m e r i c a w e r e still j o i n e d i n the s u p e r c o n t i n e n t o f G o n d w a n a . T h e s e p a r a t i o n had b e g u n a t the s o u t h e r n e n d o f A f r i c a , b u t the t w o c o n t i n e n t s w e r e still c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h Brazil and s e v e r a l w e s t e r n A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , m o s t n o t a b l y C a m e r o o n . L a k e A r a r i p e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n a d e e p r i f t - v a l l e y lake like L a k e M a l a w i . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t o w e d its e x i s t e n c e t o d o w n w a r p i n g caused b y the same structural features that w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y lead t o the f o r m a t i o n o f the South A t l a n t i c , e v e n i f L a k e A r a r i p e w a s o f f t o t h e side f r o m the m a i n rift. A n d i t w a s d e e p e n o u g h a t t i m e s t o b e stratified and t o d e v e l o p s t e r i l e b o t t o m w a t e r s w i t h n o d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n l e f t i n the w a t e r . S o m e t i m e s e v a p o r a t i o n e x c e e d e d the i n f l o w o f fresh w a t e r , causing crystals o f salt t o g r o w i n the s e d i m e n t s . T h e r i v e r s d r a i n i n g the i n t e r i o r o f G o n d w a n a , s o m e o f t h e m a t least, m u s t have f l o w e d i n t o the w i d e n i n g g u l f f o r m e d a s s o u t h e r n A f r i c a m o v e d a w a y f r o m s o u t h e r n South A m e r i c a . I t m a y h a v e b e e n r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r f l o w i n g i n t o the G u l f o f C a l i f o r n i a . T h e rift v a l l e y that w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y p r y A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a c o m p l e t e l y apart e x t e n d e d n o r t h w a r d f r o m t h e ancient g u l f b e t w e e n t h e s o u t h e r n e x t r e m i t i e s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a , then i t b r a n c h e d . T h e c l i m a t e i n c e n t r a l G o n d w a n a w a s a r i d . T h e p l a c e w a s c l o s e t o b e i n g a d e s e r t . Y e t t h e r e w a s e n o u g h w a t e r f r o m rainfall t o c o l l e c t i n t o lakes. Just a s i n the G r e a t Basin o f t h e A m e r i c a n W e s t t o d a y , f o r s o m e o f the c e n t r a l G o n d w a n a lakes, n o t a b l y A r a r i p e , t h e r e w e r e n o o u t l e t s . T h i n k o f G r e a t Salt L a k e . B e t t e r y e t , think o f L a k e C h a d i n A f r i c a , q u i t e s o l i d l y i n the m i d d l e o f a n e a r - d e s e r t e n v i r o n m e n t , y e t p e r m a n e n t l y c o n t a i n i n g w a t e r , s u p p o r t i n g an a b u n d a n c e of fish and o t h e r aquatic l i f e , and fluctuating in size w i t h the c y c l e s o f rainfall. M o r e o v e r , the l o c a t i o n o f L a k e C h a d , o u t i n t h e exact middle of n o w h e r e , in the m i d d l e of Africa, was dictated by geological structures that are g e n e t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o the o p e n i n g o f t h e S o u t h A t l a n t i c , and t h e r e f o r e are cousins t o the structures that f o r m e d L a k e A r a r i p e s o l o n g a g o . T h e area o f A r a r i p e has u n d e r g o n e s u b s e q u e n t Earth m o v e m e n t s and c l i m a t i c change that h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d the lake s e d i m e n t s i n t o an e r o d i n g plateau and

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

188 t r a n s f o r m e d Brazil i n t o the lush g r e e n land that it is t o d a y . But it w a s n o t a l w a y s l i k e that. L a k e C h a d has n o t a l w a y s b e e n like i t i s n o w , e i t h e r , but i t has had a d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y f r o m A r a r i p e . M o s t o f the r e a l l y g o o d fossils f r o m A r a r i p e are p r e s e r v e d i n c o n c r e t i o n s — m a s s e s of limestone chemically precipitated f r o m w a t e r around dead o r g a n i s m s . H a d t h e o r g a n i s m n o t b e e n t h e r e , the l i m e s t o n e m a y n o t have c o m e o u t o f s o l u t i o n and t h e c o n c r e t i o n m a y n o t h a v e f o r m e d . But because the concretions did f o r m ,

t h e y p r e s e r v e animals i n e x q u i s i t e d e t a i l .

The

c o n c r e t i o n s can b e p l o p p e d i n t o a bath o f acid and s u p e r s k e l e t o n s w i l l y a w n i n t o t h e l i g h t . T h e y are t r u l y m a g n i f i c e n t fossils. T h e a c i d - p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e has o n l y b e e n used o n t h e m f o r a short t i m e , b u t fossils i n the A r a r i p e c o n c r e t i o n s h a v e b e e n k n o w n f o r o v e r a c e n t u r y and a half. V i r t u a l l y e v e r y m u s e u m that is serious a b o u t fossils has s o m e , and e v e r y r o c k shop has o n e o r t w o f o r sale. T h e c o n c r e t i o n s f o r m a s a r e a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c h e m i s t r y o f the lake w a t e r and t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r o f a d e a d o r g a n i s m . T h u s t h e y are o n l y f o u n d in strata that r e f l e c t a suitable e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h e m i s t r y . history of Lake A r a r i p e ,

G i v e n the v a r i e d

o n l y s o m e o f t h e strata c o n t a i n c o n c r e t i o n s , b u t

l u c k i l y m a n y o f the o t h e r strata also p r e s e r v e fossils, e v e n i f t h e y are n o t s o spectacular. T h e f i s h fauna f r o m

Lake

Araripe

is

tremendous.

There

are

at

least

t w e n t y - o n e d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a . V i r t u a l l y all o f t h e m are k n o w n f r o m e x c e l l e n t c o m p l e t e s k e l e t o n s . T h e r e i s a k i n d o f p r i m i t i v e shark. T h e r e i s a r a y . T h e r e is

an

abundance

of bony fish. T h e r e

are

even

two

kinds

of coelacanth,

l o b e - f i n n e d f i s h e s that are distantly r e l a t e d t o the f i r s t a m p h i b i a n s that c a m e o u t o f t h e w a t e r t o c o n q u e r t h e l a n d . S t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , like L a k e M a l a w i , L a k e A r a r i p e lacks lungfish, e v e n t h o u g h t h e y are k n o w n t o h a v e inhabited G o n d w a n a at the t i m e , and as in A f r i c a , t h e r e are lungfish l i v i n g in South America today. B e s i d e s f i s h t h e r e i s a h u g e list o f o t h e r s p e c i e s . T h e r e a r e vast n u m b e r s of i n s e c t s — c o c k r o a c h e s , mayflies, dragonflies, termites, crickets, katydids, l e a f h o p p e r s , g r a s s h o p p e r s , w a s p s , and m o r e . T h e r e are s p i d e r s . T h e r e are s h r i m p and c r a b s . T h e d i v e r s i t y o f animals i s a m a z i n g . T h e r e are plants t o o . T h e r e a r e f e r n s and c o n i f e r s and a v a r i e t y o f f l o w e r i n g - p l a n t p o l l e n . W h a t Lake A r a r i p e does not have is an abundance or diversity of land-dwelling v e r t e b r a t e s , and t h e reasons f o r that should b e o b v i o u s : U n l e s s a carcass e n d e d u p i n the m i d d l e o f t h e l a k e , i t c o u l d n o t b e p r e s e r v e d .

THE

CROCODILE

OF

CARNIVAL

A r a r i p e i s a n i m p o r t a n t site i n p a l e o n t o l o g y because o f its l o c a t i o n , n e x t t o the p l a c e w h e r e G o n d w a n a b r o k e a p a r t , and its a g e . I n all p r o b a b i l i t y i t straddles the t i m e i n t e r v a l w h e n A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a m a d e t h e i r f i n a l s e p a r a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e i t p r o v i d e s u s a n a b s o l u t e baseline o f w h a t t o e x p e c t i n b o t h c o n t i n e n t s w h e n t h e y set o u t o n t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l paths o f h i s t o r y . T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n g e o g r a p h i c and e c o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n a w a y f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f the

continents,

b u t t h e area a r o u n d A r a r i p e w a s t h e s a m e

for

b o t h . I t w o u l d b e w o n d e r f u l i f t h e r e w e r e m o r e sites l i k e A r a r i p e , p e r h a p s a f e w places d i r e c t l y c o m p a r a b l e t o i t . But t h e r e a r e n o t , s o w e use w h a t w e have. S o m e o f the f i s h s o b e a u t i f u l l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n Brazil are k n o w n f r o m less c o m p l e t e and less n u m e r o u s s p e c i m e n s f o u n d in r o c k s of a similar a g e in A f r i c a . T h e similarities w i t h fossils i n W e s t A f r i c a — N i g e r and C a m e r o o n — are p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g , a s y o u m i g h t e x p e c t i n r o c k s o f the s a m e a g e that w e r e so close t o g e t h e r at the t i m e they w e r e f o r m e d .

T h e similarities a r e n o t

l i m i t e d t o f i s h . Araripesuchus, t h e c r o c o d i l i a n , i s o n e o f s e v e r a l animals k n o w n f r o m b o t h c o n t i n e n t s , b u t best k n o w n f r o m A r a r i p e . Araripemys.

T h e r e i s the t u r t l e

A n d there are frogs f r o m b o t h continents.

T h e f l y i n g v e r t e b r a t e s p r e s e r v e d a t A r a r i p e are e x c e e d i n g l y i n t e r e s t i n g , although n o n e i s p r e s e r v e d , o r p r e s e r v e d s o w e l l , i n A f r i c a . T h e r e i s a b i r d feather. T h e r e i s also a m i n d - b o g g l i n g d i v e r s i t y o f p t e r o s a u r s , f l y i n g r e p t i l e s — a r c h o s a u r s m o r e p r e c i s e l y — r e l a t e d t o dinosaurs and c r o c o d i l e s . T h e i r w i n g m e m b r a n e s , c o v e r e d w i t h l i t t l e hairy p r o j e c t i o n s , w e r e s u p p o r t e d b y a n immensely elongated forth digit, the ring finger. T h e y w e r e almost certainly f i s h - e a t e r s . T h e y c o n g r e g a t e d a r o u n d L a k e A r a r i p e l i k e t e r n s and p e t r e l s o v e r a bay, s o a r i n g , s w o o p i n g , and d i p p i n g f i s h f r o m the surface w a t e r s o f the l a k e . T h e r e are n o less than f o u r t e e n species f o u n d a t A r a r i p e . T h e r e a l l y e n d e a r i n g thing a b o u t t h e m i s the unreal shape o f t h e i r l i g h t - b o n e d skulls. T h e y h a v e l o n g snouts, b u t s o m e o f t h e m h a v e b i z a r r e b o n y sails o n t h e i r n o s e s . T h e s e s u p p o s e d l y h e l p e d t h e m cut t h r o u g h the w a t e r a s t h e y d o v e t o catch a s i l v e r y , slithery fish. T h e r e are a f e w d i n o s a u r f r a g m e n t s f r o m A r a r i p e , b u t n o t m a n y , and n o n e o f those that h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i a g n o s t i c . O n e has b e e n c a l l e d an

ornithischian,

and

that

would

not

be

unreasonable

considering

that

Ouranosaurus l i v e d just across the rift in N i g e r and C a m e r o o n . T h e r e is at least o n e t h e r o p o d , again n o t surprising, and a c o u p l e o f o t h e r s p e c i m e n s n e e d i n g preparation or under study.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

190 I f w e take things a t face v a l u e , L a k e A r a r i p e w a s a l a r g e b o d y o f w a t e r i n a flat, d r y c o u n t r y . T h e land w a s o p e n , the v i e w u n o b s t r u c t e d b y d e n s e vegetation (Figure 35).

L o w - g r o w i n g f e r n s , h o r s e t a i l s , bushy shrubs, and

o c c a s i o n a l p r i m i t i v e f l o w e r i n g plants c o v e r e d the g r o u n d . H e r b a c e o u s conifers g r e w o n salty flats a l o n g the s h o r e . A l l b u t the ferns and horsetails are o n l y distantly r e l a t e d t o l i v i n g s p e c i e s . T r e e s such a s m o n k e y p u z z l e s and o t h e r c o n i f e r s that h a v e n o l i v i n g d e s c e n d a n t s d o t t e d the landscape and c l u m p e d like junipers on gentle slopes. T h e w a t e r s o f the lake t e e m e d and its surface r i p p l e d w i t h f i s h chasing m a y f l y larvae and s h r i m p . C r a b s s c a v e n g e d the s h a l l o w s near the s h o r e l a n d , but

not

the

depths

where

there

was

no

oxygen.

A

plethora

o f soaring

p t e r o s a u r s c h o s e t h e f i s h m e n u f r o m t h e i r v a n t a g e i n the air. T h e y n e s t e d a m o n g t h e distant cliffs o f hills and m o u n t a i n s associated w i t h t h e rift v a l l e y and its s t r u c t u r e s , s o m e o f t h e m v i s i b l e o n t h e h o r i z o n , and f r o m w h i c h the p t e r o s a u r s launched t h e m s e l v e s t o f l y and t o g l i d e w i t h ease o n t h e r m a l c u r r e n t s . Birds s k i t t e r e d i n t h e s c r u b b y t r e e s n e a r b y . T u r t l e s and a m p h i b i o u s c r o c o d i l e s sunned t h e m s e l v e s . crocodile,

pounced.

Frogs

Arahpesuchus,

hopped

away,

t h e small and agile t e r r e s t r i a l escaping

among

the

ferns

and

h o r s e t a i l s , b o u n c i n g i n t h e tubs that w e r e d i n o s a u r f o o t p r i n t s , m a d e w h e n they t r a m p l e d along the w a t e r ' s e d g e as they came to drink. C o m p a r e that i m a g i n a r y v i s i o n t o the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i ( s e e F i g u r e 3 0 i n C h a p t e r 4 ) , the s a m e a g e , b u t w a y across t h e A f r i c a n p o r t i o n o f the G o n d w a n a c o n t i n e n t . T h e c l i m a t e w a s seasonally a r i d , but n o t s o h o s t i l e . T h e land w a s r o u g h and b r o k e n , v e r d a n t i n the rainy s e a s o n , less s o w h e n i t w a s d r y . T h e r e w e r e mountains nearby. T h i c k gallery forests o f m o n k e y puzzles and t h e i r c o n i f e r o u s r e l a t i v e s l i n e d t h e p e r m a n e n t s t r e a m s . T h e s u r r o u n d i n g w o o d l a n d s w e r e o p e n b u t g r e w m o r e d e n s e l y u p hillside c a n y o n s . T h e o p e n g r o u n d s p o r t e d a c o v e r o f l o w shrubs, tiny f l o w e r s , and f e r n s . C y c a d s and s i m i l a r - l o o k i n g plants,

distinctive w i t h round,

s t u m p y stalks t o p p e d w i t h

l o n g , p a l m l i k e c r o w n s o f d a r k g r e e n e r y , f i l l e d the i n t e r m e d i a t e heights b e t w e e n t h e h e r b a g e and t h e t r e e s . I n t h e rainy season w a t e r f l o w e d briskly d o w n from

the

mountain flanks in

the

channels

of intermittent streams.

H o r s e t a i l s and ferns g r e w a l o n g t h e w a t e r ' s e d g e . Fish o c c a s i o n a l l y f o u g h t the c u r r e n t s . T h e r e w a s n o l a k e , s o t h e r e w e r e f e w e r p t e r o s a u r s i n the sky. But t h e r e w e r e f r o g s and turtles a l o n g t h e banks, and t h e y , t o o , l i k e t h e i r cousins at Araripe, footprints.

f o u n d c o m f o r t i n t h e b a c k w a t e r p o n d s f o r m e d f r o m dinosaur

THE

CROCODILE

OF

CARNIVAL

191

FIGURE 3S: A view of the Cretaceous lake at Araripe, Brazil. Lake Araripe was in the middle of a

dry, flat

country—the

Gondwanan

shores were dotted with horsetails, Jems, flowering plant.

Frogs,

turtles,

conifers,

interior.

It had no outlet.

Its

and occasionally a small

and crocodiles inhabited the shores.

visited to drink and left their footprints in the soft earth.

Dinosaurs

The waters teemed with

fish. Here a pterosaur is eating the coelacanth AxELRODlCHTHYS.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

192 T h r o u g h the g r e e n e r y ,

crashing this w a y and that,

a family g r o u p of

M a l a w i - s a u r u s b r o w s e d , each s t o p p i n g e v e r y f e w f e e t t o p l u c k the f o l i a g e that g r e w i n t h e easily accessible h e m i s p h e r e a r o u n d the f r o n t e n d o f its b o d y . M a l a w i - s a u r u s used its l o n g n e c k t o take its head t o t h e f o o d . Stegosaurs m u n c h e d , t o o , b u t t h e i r heads w e r e c a r r i e d l o w e r t o the g r o u n d and t h e i r n e c k s w e r e n o t s o l o n g . T h e y ate t h e s h o r t e r plants. A l l o f t h e m , s a u r o p o d and s t e g o s a u r , w e r e w a t c h e d . W h e n t h e y w a l k e d t o o c l o s e t o a c o l o n y o f the mammallike

Malawi

crocs,

the

furtive

little

beasts t o o k s h e l t e r i n t h e i r

b u r r o w s . W h e n t h e dinosaurs passed b y , w h e n d a n g e r passed, o u t p o p p e d the c r o c s , searching a n e w f o r b u g s ( s e e F i g u r e 3 4 ) . T h e dinosaurs w e r e b e i n g w a t c h e d b y s o m e t h i n g else a s w e l l . I m a g i n e a y o u n g d i p l o d o c i d o n the o t h e r side o f t h e r i v e r b e i n g stalked b y a t h e r o p o d . C o u l d that h a v e b e e n the w a y i t was? A r e t h o s e i m a g e s o f A r a r i p e and the

D i n o s a u r Beds realistic? T h a t

I

do not k n o w .

We

may never k n o w .

But t h e y are r e a s o n a b l e p i c t u r e s , g i v e n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w e h a v e . T h a t information is not extensive. Araripe.

T h e r e a r e s o m e fossil l e a v e s and p o l l e n f r o m

A d d i t i o n a l l e a v e s and p o l l e n are k n o w n f r o m n e a r b y C a m e r o o n .

T h e r e are o n l y a f e w tiny fruit o r s e e d l i k e plant fossils f r o m M a l a w i , and w e h a v e n o idea w h a t the plants that p r o d u c e d t h e m l o o k e d l i k e . inferences as

to

what the

Cretaceous

vegetation

was

like

in

Other

Malawi

or

A r a r i p e c o m e f r o m a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w o f the plant-fossil r e c o r d . W e have a p r e t t y g o o d idea o f w h a t w a s g r o w i n g o n the p l a n e t , and w e have s o m e idea o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f species i n d i f f e r e n t c l i m a t e s and i n s o m e e c o l o g ical c o n t e x t s . T h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i m a g e s o f A r a r i p e and the D i n o s a u r Beds a r e just b e s t g u e s s e s , b u t t h e y are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e data, and t h e y can b e c o r r e c t e d w h e n t h e y n e e d t o b e . F o r n o w , that i s h o w I see t h e m . T o p l a c e t h e m i n p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e s e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s should b e v i e w e d a s hyp o t h e t i c a l f r a m e s i n a f i l m o f t i m e . T h e y are d i f f e r e n t f r o m that p r e s e n t e d for T e n d a g u r u in Chapter

1 . T e n d a g u r u had d i f f e r e n t a n i m a l s , a p p a r e n t l y

across t h e b o a r d , a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e m are g r o s s l y similar t o t h o s e f o u n d in

Malawi.

T h e plants w e r e d i f f e r e n t .

At Tendaguru,

145

m i l l i o n years

a g o , there was probably a greater variety of coniferous plants. T h e r e w e r e n o f l o w e r i n g plants that w e k n o w of. I n y o u n g e r t i m e s , i n t h e L a t e C r e t a c e o u s , f l o w e r i n g plants w e r e o n the r i s e . T h e p i v o t a l t i m e f o r t h e m s e e m s t o b e t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s , the t i m e r e p r e s e n t e d b y A r a r i p e and t h e D i n o saur B e d s . A l o n g w i t h t h e a b u n d a n c e o f f l o w e r i n g plants, the dinosaurs o f the Late Cretaceous w e r e different f r o m earlier t i m e s .

THE

CROCODILE

OF

CARNIVAL

N o m a t t e r h o w c o r r e c t o r i n c o r r e c t the v i s i o n o f M a l a w i ' s D i n o s a u r B e d s m i g h t b e , n o m a t t e r h o w p r e c i s e and a c c u r a t e t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e t i m e p r e s e r v e d in the D i n o s a u r Beds w a s o n l y a t e m p o r a r y phase in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f life. E v e r y t i m e i n t e r v a l b e c o m e s the n e x t , and a s t i m e c h a n g e s , things are n o l o n g e r the s a m e .

FOR ONE TOOTH

M

Y

FIRST

EXPEDITION

to

Malawi was completed.

We

had

found

m a m m a l s , w h i c h i s w h a t w e w e r e p r i m a r i l y after o n that t r i p . L u c k i l y the mammallike

crocodile

more

than m a d e

up

f o r o u r shortfall

in terms of

e x c i t e m e n t and scientific i n t e r e s t . T h e M a l a w i c r o c t o l d u s a b o u t a s p e c i e s , i n t e r e s t i n g i n its o w n r i g h t , that w a s a r o u n d a t t h e t i m e the v e r y ancient ancestors of living m a m m a l s e m e r g e d .

But e a r l y m a m m a l s i n A f r i c a w e r e

t u r n i n g o u t t o b e frustrating and e l u s i v e . I d i d n o t g e t o n e i n K e n y a , w h e r e I f i r s t l o o k e d . T h a t w a s strike o n e . I d i d n o t g e t o n e i n M a l a w i , w h e r e I c o n t i n u e d t h e search. T h a t w a s strike t w o . E v e n w o r s e , t h e p r o s p e c t s o f e v e r g e t t i n g t i n y m a m m a l s f r o m the sandy r o c k s o f the D i n o s a u r Beds d i d n o t l o o k p r o m i s i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s I still w a n t e d t o f i n d t h e m s o m e w h e r e . 1 w a s m o r e c o n v i n c e d than e v e r , s t u b b o r n i n m y o p i n i o n , that k n o w i n g a b o u t t h e m w a s i m p o r t a n t f o r k n o w i n g a b o u t t h e m a m m a l s o f the m o d e r n w o r l d , and that i n c l u d e s us. I t w a s i m p o r t a n t t o f i n d t h e m . I f I w a s t o a v o i d striking o u t a l t o g e t h e r , m y search f o r e a r l y m a m m a l s i n A f r i c a w o u l d have t o g o farther afield. I n January 1986 I had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o g o t o C a m e r o o n i n f r a n c o p h o n e W e s t A f r i c a ( F i g u r e 3 6 ) . M y F r e n c h i s a b y s m a l , I a m n o t p r o u d t o say, b u t w h a t a g r e a t o p p o r t u n i t y this w a s .

A multinational project c o m p o s e d of

no

FOR

ONE

TOOTH

195

FIGURE 36: Location map of Africa with Cameroon stippled. below the kink to the south of Lake Chad.

The Koum Basin is

The dinosaurs of the Koum Basin lived

on the eastern side of the South America—Africa rift at the time (probably) that Lake Araripe existed on the western side of the rift.

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

196 C a m e r o o n i a n s , F r e n c h , and m y o l d b u d d i e s f r o m Pakistan and K e n y a days, m a i n l y British and A m e r i c a n , w a s e x t e n d i n g the search f o r m o r e fossil e v i d e n c e o f h u m a n e v o l u t i o n . V i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g o f significance t o that issue w a s known

from

all o f W e s t A f r i c a .

N o r w e r e t h e r e any b o n a f i d e g o r i l l a o r

c h i m p a n z e e fossils k n o w n f r o m a n y w h e r e . T h e fossil r e c o r d o f the a p e and h u m a n d i v e r g e n c e n e e d e d w o r k . W i t h o u t d o u b t , W e s t A f r i c a n fossils, i f t h e y c o u l d b e f o u n d , w o u l d b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g the e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f the g r e a t apes and h u m a n s o v e r the past t w e n t y m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h i s w a s t o o g o o d a p r o j e c t f o r m e t o pass u p , e v e n t h o u g h m y m a j o r r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t had b e g u n t o shift t o the m u c h o l d e r r o c k s o f the C r e t a c e o u s . Besides, C a m e r o o n w a s t h e f i n a l p o i n t o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n S o u t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a . I f things g o t s l o w i n t h e y o u n g e r r o c k s , m a y b e I c o u l d g e t a p e e k a t the o n e s that r e c o r d e d the a n c i e n t r i f t i n g o n t h e east side o f the A t l a n t i c , p e r h a p s I m i g h t e v e n f i n d s o m e fossils, m a y b e e v e n e a r l y m a m m a l s . T h e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n w e r e a g r e e a b l e t o this; t h e y c o u l d see t h e significance o f the o l d e r rocks also. So off I w e n t to C a m e r o o n . T h e n a m e C a m e r o o n has a l w a y s s o u n d e d u n - A f r i c a n t o m e i n the same sort o f w a y that C o t e d ' l v o i r e , o r I v o r y C o a s t a s w e used t o say, d o e s n o t sound African.

T h e y d o n o t b e c a u s e t h e w o r d s are n o t A f r i c a n .

C a m e r o o n is a

E u r o p e a n w o r d . I n t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y the P o r t u g u e s e sailed i n t o the estuary o f t h e W o u r i R i v e r and f o u n d i t t e e m i n g w i t h s h r i m p .

T h e n a m e o f the

country derives f r o m the Portuguese w o r d for " p r a w n s . " The

northern

half o f

Cameroon,

where

most

o f the

country's

game

r e s i d e s , is also the best p l a c e to search f o r fossils. It is a r i d , but n o t so d r y as n o r t h e r n K e n y a . It, t o o , has a l a r g e lake in the n o r t h , just as K e n y a has. C a m e r o o n b a r e l y r e a c h e s t o L a k e C h a d , a lake a s w e s a w i n C h a p t e r 6 , w h i c h has n o o u t l e t . T h e B e n o u e R i v e r , full o f h i p p o s , f l o w s across the c o u n t r y s i d e t o the south o f L a k e C h a d t o its c o n f l u e n c e w i t h the N i g e r .

T h e Benoue

p r o v i d e s a b o u n t y o f fresh f i s h , and i t supplies w a t e r f o r small t r u c k g a r d e n s , t h e p r o d u c t s o f w h i c h m a k e t h e i r w a y t o the b u s t l i n g m a r k e t s o f n o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n . T h e N i g e r d e b a u c h e s i n t o t h e O c e a n a t the G u l f o f G u i n e a , w h e r e its d e l t a f o r m s the e a s t e r n e d g e o f t h e B i g h t o f B e n i n . Back i n the n o r t h , the r o a d s l e a d i n g t o the fossil g r o u n d s f r o m o u r staging area a t t h e E c o l e d e F a u n e , the s c h o o l o f w i l d l i f e , i n t h e d u s t - b o w l t o w n o f G a r o u a a r e l i t t e r e d w i t h a r m y c h e c k p o s t s . T h e s o l d i e r s are usually d r u n k o n B e a u f o r t o r T r e n t e - t r o i s , t h e local b e e r , and t h e y can b e — l i k e t o b e — r a t h e r

F O R

O N E

T O O T H

197 f r i g h t e n i n g . T h e y s e e m t o e n j o y it. G l a r i n g t h r o u g h s q u i n t i n g , s o g g y e y e s i n the

brilliant

African

sunlight,

they fish for

bribes,

usually

halfheartedly.

Clutching their w e a p o n s , they scrutinize clearance papers f r o m a discerning i f illiterate p e r s p e c t i v e .

T h e y e x a m i n e the g e a r i n t h e back o f t h e T o y o t a .

M o s t l y t h e y just cast glances f r o m u n d e r h e a v y lids t o w a r d the r e a r w i n d o w . O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e i r c l a m m y f i n g e r s , l i k e the t e n t a c l e s o f a n o c t o p u s , e x p l o r e o u r g o o d s as if searching f o r a v a l u a b l e m o r s e l . It is a c h i l l i n g e x p e r i e n c e . But s o o n the s o l d i e r s ' g a m e s a r e o v e r and the c h e c k posts are i n the r e a r v i e w mirror. M o s t o f the p e o p l e i n this area o f n o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n are F u l b e . T h e m e n dress in f l o w i n g kanzus and c o v e r t h e i r heads w i t h e m b r o i d e r e d tarbooshes. T h e i r r e l i g i o n i s Islam. T h e y a r e f a r m e r s , g r o w i n g c o t t o n f o r e x p o r t , m i l l e t , p e a n u t s , t o m a t o e s , and o k r a . A n d t h e y a r e h e r d e r s . T h e i r c a t t l e a r e l o n g horned

zebu.

Some

of the

men,

especially

the

older

ones,

wear

wide-

b r i m m e d s t r a w hats w i t h p i n n a c l e d c r o w n s o v e r t h e i r tarbooshes, t i e d u n d e r their chins.

T h e y g r e e t each o t h e r enthusiastically,

"Jaam, jaam." T h e m o r e

n o m a d i c and t r a d i t i o n a l o f t h e F u l b e , the M b o r o r o , m a y t a t t o o t h e i r faces, even today.

M o s t m e n c a r r y straight d a g g e r s .

Leather is d y e d purple, a

r e m n a n t o f the crafts o f a n c i e n t T i m b u k t u , and w o r k e d i n t o scabbards o r i n t o pouches

to

hold

crystals

of galena—lead

ore—to

be

ground

into

black

p o w d e r and used t o a c c e n t the e y e s o f w o m e n . S t r a n g e l y , i n the far n o r t h , a r o u n d M a r o u a , t h e r e i s a t r a d i t i o n o f h o r s e m a n s h i p and s w o r d s . It, t o o , i s a remnant of an ancient culture.

I t s e e m s o u t o f p l a c e , b u t i n that part o f

t r o p i c a l A f r i c a horses can s u r v i v e disease. I n the m a r k e t s the p e o p l e o f n o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n bargain w i t h unsurpassed v e r v e . H e r b a l i s t s , e x p e r t s i n t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i v e m e d i c i n e , sell p h a r m a c o p o e i a l t r e e bark and strange animal p a r t s , such as hyaena skin or h e d g e h o g fur or bat w i n g s o r p o r c u p i n e q u i l l s . L e a t h e r - c o v e r e d a m u l e t s , each c o n t a i n i n g the j a w o f a rat o r the t o o t h o f a m o n g o o s e , o r p e r h a p s a special s e e d , a r e s o l d t o w a r d o f f e v i l . T r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e and o t h e r p r a c t i c e s a r e s l o w t o b e r e p l a c e d , e v e n w h e n i t w o u l d b e t o the b e n e f i t o f t h e p e o p l e . L i v i n g s t o n e , e a r l y i n his c a r e e r , g a v e u p m o s t o f his m e d i c a l w o r k , e x c e p t f o r s e v e r e cases, because h e c o u l d n o t a r g u e i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A f r i c a n l o g i c against m e d i c i n e m e n and the traditional b e l i e f i n r a i n m a k i n g . T h e n a t i v e s insisted that t h e r e w a s n o m o r e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n his m e d i c i n e and t h e c u r i n g o f disease than b e t w e e n t h e i r m e d i c i n e and rain. H e a r g u e d that rain falling after t h e i r c e r e m o nies,

as it occasionally

did,

was

only coincidence

and

not

due

to

their

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

198 practices.

They

argued

that h e

could

show

no better

f o r his

medicine.

S o m e t i m e s rain d i d n o t c o m e ; s o m e t i m e s patients d i e d . T h e r e w a s n o differe n c e . L i v i n g s t o n e g a v e u p t h e a r g u m e n t and c o n c e n t r a t e d o n saving souls. T r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e is still p r a c t i c e d . Shops and kiosks i n C a m e r o o n are small and d i n g y .

A l l o f t h e m carry

stocks o f t i n n e d sardines, p i l c h a r d s , and M a j i , a soy sauce—like f o o d a d d i t i v e . T h e l a r g e r and fancier shops are run b y L e b a n e s e t r a d e r s . T h e Fali c o m e d o w n f r o m the hills o c c a s i o n a l l y t o visit the m a r k e t and t o b u y a t the shops. T h e y a r e p e o p l e o f a n o t h e r , m u c h m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l l o o k . Superficially they appear t o m y W e s t e r n e y e like the Masai o f K e n y a , o n l y s h o r t e r i n stature. T h e y r e p r e s e n t w h a t i s left o f t h e t r i b e s w h o l i v e d h e r e b e f o r e t h e Fulbe m i g r a t e d i n t o t h e area and s u p p l a n t e d t h e m .

THE

C A M E R O O N P r o j e c t started a y e a r b e f o r e I j o i n e d it.

T h e French

c o n t i n g e n t w a s l e d b y M i c h e l B r u n e t f r o m P o i t i e r s , a suave c o n t i n e n t a l w i t h fieldwork e x p e r i e n c e in Iraq and A f g h a n i s t a n . He is a specialist on m a m m a l s . W i t h h i m w a s A b e l B r i l l a n c e a u , a r e g i s t e r e d w i n e taster and chain s m o k e r o f G a u l o i s e c i g a r e t t e s , a n e n g i n e e r and g e o l o g i s t . H e m a n a g e d v e h i c l e logistics f o r the p r o j e c t and h e l p e d o u t w i t h the g e o l o g y . Jean D e j a x w a s the tall, slim p a l e o b o t a n i s t w i t h a g o o d sense o f h u m o r . S e v k e t Sen w a s a n a t i v e T u r k , but a n a t u r a l i z e d F r e n c h c i t i z e n . H e had b e e n w i t h M i c h e l i n Afghanistan and was p r o f i c i e n t i n b o t h fossils and p a l e o m a g n e t i s m . H e w a s t h e r e o n l y i n m y f i r s t o f t h r e e seasons. O t h e r F r e n c h c o l l e a g u e s c a m e i n the later seasons, o r a t t i m e s w h e n I w a s n o t i n the f i e l d . T h e r e w e r e q u i t e a n u m b e r o f t h e m . T h e A m e r i c a n and British c o n t i n g e n t s w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o w i n d d o w n t h e i r involvement

after

the

initial

expedition

to

Cameroon

in

search

ot

fossil

humans and g o r i l l a s . I n the s e c o n d e x p e d i t i o n w e c o n t i n u e d t o search f o r these t h i n g s , b u t as the p r o b a b i l i t y f o r finding t h e m g r e w less and less as m o r e and m o r e area w a s s e a r c h e d unsuccessfully, w e b e g a n t o shift emphasis t o the C r e t a c e o u s , specifically t o the search f o r early m a m m a l s . T h e o n l y p e r s o n w h o p r o v i d e d c o n t i n u i t y f r o m t h e f i r s t t r i p t o the n e x t a m o n g the a n g l o phones was Larry Flynn. He is a happy guy, originally f r o m Cleveland, with w h o m I had b e e n a g r a d u a t e student at A r i z o n a . He had spent t i m e at Paris U n i v e r s i t y , a t the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , and h e i s n o w a t H a r v a r d . L a r r y is a c o m p e t e n t field m a n , an e x c e l l e n t scientist, and a g e n u i n e l y g o o d h u m a n b e i n g . H e i s also fluent i n F r e n c h . I e n j o y e d g e t t i n g back

FOR

ONE

TOOTH

199 o u t i n t o the f i e l d w i t h h i m . T h e r e w a s also a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t f r o m W y o m i n g , K a t h y Flanagan, w h o had b e e n a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e a t A r i z o n a w h e n L a r r y and I w e r e g r a d u a t e students t h e r e . T h i s w a s h e r f i r s t t r i p t o C a m e r o o n . T h e C a m e r o o n i a n f i e l d c o m p o n e n t w a s l e d b y Joseph V i c t o r H e l l , o f t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t of a national g e o l o g i c a l s u r v e y . J o s e p h is a s e d i m e n t o l o g i s t t r a i n e d a t P o i t i e r s , w h e r e M i c h e l , the l e a d e r o f the F r e n c h c o n t i n g e n t , t e a c h e s . H e had d o n e his g r a d u a t e w o r k o n the o i l f i e l d s o f t h e G u l f o f G u i n e a , that part o f the A t l a n t i c that f o r m e d a s the o p e n i n g e m b a y m e n t b e t w e e n South A m e r ica and A f r i c a . He is a s t r o n g , e n e r g e t i c g e o l o g i s t , g r e a t fun in the field, and a f o r m e r star s o c c e r p l a y e r . W i t h h i m f r o m t h e s u r v e y w e r e Sodia, a t e c h n i cian, and also a c o o k . T h e f i r s t c o o k w a s sacked b e c a u s e h e w a s d r u n k t o o o f t e n a t breakfast. S a l l e e , the r e p l a c e m e n t , w a s m u c h b e t t e r , m o r e r e l i a b l e , and s i n c e r e l y l i k a b l e . O n c e Sallee b o u g h t a g o a t f r o m a n M b o r o r o w h i l e w e w e r e i n the field because i t w a s c h e a p e r than b u y i n g o n e i n t o w n . H e n e e d e d t h e g o a t t o pay f o r a b r i d e , his o n l y w i f e h a v i n g d i e d s h o r t l y b e f o r e . T h e idea o f a bargain w a s irresistible t o J o s e p h , w h o w a s also c o n t e m p l a t i n g m a r r i a g e . tered for a big white zebu,

c l o s e d the d e a l ,

H e bar-

and m o n e y c h a n g e d hands.

A r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e m a d e f o r Joseph t o r e t u r n o n a c e r t a i n date t o p i c k u p the s t e e r . W h e n h e d i d , the M b o r o r o w a s n o w h e r e t o b e f o u n d . T h e z e b u and

the

Mbororo

herdsman

were

never

seen

again.

Joseph

had

been

c h e a t e d . H e had t o b u y a n o t h e r c o w i n t o w n f o r m o r e m o n e y than h e lost o n his o r i g i n a l b a r g a i n , b u t h e i s m a r r i e d n o w a n y w a y . A l l i s w e l l that ends well. O c c a s i o n a l l y w e had w i t h u s a g e n e r a l l y u n r e l i a b l e d r i v e r n a m e d S a m u e l . I o n c e caught h i m at 1 0 : 0 0 A . M . in t h e c a m p supply t e n t , in b e d w i t h a p r o s t i t u t e . F o r a n u m b e r o f reasons I t h o u g h t this t o b e p o o r f o r m . S a m u e l i s a b i g b o y and h e can d o w h a t h e w a n t s — b u t n o t i n c a m p . H i s activities c e r t a i n l y w e r e n o t i n t h e best interests o f o b t a i n i n g the e x p e d i t i o n o b j e c t i v e s . Besides, the p r e s e n c e o f s t r a n g e r s , m u c h less p r o s t i t u t e s , leads t o p i l f e r a g e . Joseph, a s the r a n k i n g C a m e r o o n i a n , c a l l e d S a m u e l o u t and i n s t r u c t e d h i m t o dismiss his c o n s o r t . A m o r o u s S a m u e l w a s s o d r u n k , h e v e r y n e a r l y sloshed o v e r flat o n his f a c e . H e w a s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n t r i t e . M o r e o v e r , h e w a s sulky f o r a day o r t w o b e c a u s e his p a r t y had b e e n p u t t o a n u n t i m e l y e n d . Finally a rabbit was b r o u g h t i n t o o u r c a m p by a v i l l a g e r . S a m u e l p u r c h a s e d it and had i t c o o k e d . I c a n n o t r e m e m b e r i f h e d i d i t h i m s e l f o r i f h e had Sallee d o it; p r o b a b l y the l a t t e r . He passed a r o u n d p o r t i o n s of the d e l i c i o u s lapin as a p e a c e

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

200 o f f e r i n g . S a m u e l w a s h a p p y again, and h e b e h a v e d after that, but h e w a s n o t given much rope.

FIELDWORK

U N D E R c o n d i t i o n s o f hardship can b e t r y i n g , and strains can

b e e x a c e r b a t e d i f results a r e s l o w t o c o m e . C a m e r o o n w a s t o u g h d u t y , m a i n l y because fossils w e r e hard t o c o m e b y . T h e c r e w , b e i n g a m i x t u r e o f d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s , w a s c a l l e d u p o n f o r special u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t o l e r a n c e , and f l e x i b i l i t y . It is i m p o r t a n t to h a v e a p o s i t i v e f o r c e such as L a r r y F l y n n i n v o l v e d in p r o j e c t s like that. I t k e e p s things o n a n e v e n k e e l t o h a v e a fair, unflustered m i n d t o deal w i t h p e t t y ,

unnecessary,

and e v e n m e a n i n g l e s s p r o b l e m s that m i g h t

c r e e p i n w i t h the a g g r a v a t i o n and t e d i u m o f s l o w p r o g r e s s . A n d p r o g r e s s w a s s l o w a t first i n C a m e r o o n . T h e l a r g e c r e w d i v i d e d i n t o s m a l l e r g r o u p s t o m a k e e x p l o r a t o r y m i s s i o n s . I t o o k a g r o u p t o the M b e r e R i v e r , w h i c h is in a s p e c t a c u l a r v a l l e y w i t h its s t e e p s o u t h e r n w a l l rising sharply across the r i v e r f r o m o u r c a m p . T h e v a l l e y f l o o r w a s m o s t l y c o v e r e d w i t h f l a m i n g - r e d l a t e r i t e , an i r o n - r i c h t r o p i c a l soil that d e s t r o y s all fossils. It w a s d o t t e d w i t h a b u n d a n t , o r a n g e - f r u i t e d p a l m s and luscious a v o c a d o t r e e s . M u s h r o o m - s h a p e d t e r m i t e m o u n d s e m e r g e d f r o m the g r o u n d . Elephant grass g r e w in profusion.

T h i s w a s n o t t h e ideal p l a c e t o l o o k f o r fossils.

Rock

e x p o s u r e s w e r e just plain m i s e r a b l e . W e had t o adapt a special strategy just t o find t h e m . W e g o t local g u i d e s t o take u s a r o u n d f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e w h e r e t h e y k n e w patches o f g o o d r o c k m i g h t b r a v e the surface. W e l o o k e d i n all the w a t e r w e l l s . N o luck. W e l o o k e d w h e r e w o m e n d u g clay t o m a k e p o t s . N o l u c k . W e h i k e d the s t r e a m b e d s . Still n o l u c k . But t h e v a l l e y w a s pleasant and the a v o c a d o s w e r e d e l i c i o u s . T h e p e o p l e o f C a m e r o o n a r e v e r y e n j o y a b l e , b u t t h e i r e a t i n g habits can take a l i t t l e g e t t i n g used t o . T h e y h a v e a c a t h o l i c d i e t ; t h e y eat e v e r y t h i n g . T h e r e s e e m e d t o b e n o t h i n g that m o v e d a b o u t o f w h i c h Joseph w o u l d n o t say, " I t ' s a very good m e a t . "

O n c e w h e n w e w e r e i n t o w n , Joseph o r d e r e d

m o n i t o r lizard at the O s t r i c h R e s t a u r a n t . It tasted like c h i c k e n . I saved the b o n e s and b r o u g h t t h e m back t o m y lab i n D a l l a s . M o n i t o r l i z a r d , t o m e , w a s o d d e n o u g h , a c u l t u r a l l y f o r e i g n dish, b u t a n o t h e r t i m e w h i l e crossing t h e M b e r e R i v e r on a pont des lianes, a b r i d g e of v i n e s spanning the w a t e r , on a l o n g w a l k i n search o f r o c k e x p o s u r e , w e m e t a m a n c a r r y i n g a gunnysack. H e and o u r g u i d e , D a o u d a , the c h i e f ' s b r o t h e r , e n g a g e d i n a l i v e l y c o n v e r s a t i o n in t h e language of the F u l b e p e o p l e . Inside the sack w a s a d e a d , d r e s s e d

FOR

ONE

TOOTH

201 python of immense proportions.

T h e s n a k e ' s carcass w a s d e s t i n e d f o r t h e

l a r d e r . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m e a t , t h e r e w a s a sticky w a d o f g o o e y y e l l o w i s h p y t h o n fat and s o m e p y t h o n e g g s t a k e n f r o m inside t h e b o d y . A f t e r c o n t i n u e d p a l a v e r , D a o u d a s t r e t c h e d a n o o z y mass o f fat o n t o a banana leaf. W i t h this g e n e r o u s gift f r o m his f r i e n d , w e w e n t o n o u r w a y . I s u p p o s e D a o u d a e n j o y e d it. A f t e r all the possibilities o f r o c k e x p o s u r e s and all the leads o n fossil localities w i t h i n w a l k i n g distance o f t h e M b e r e R i v e r c a m p w e r e e x h a u s t e d , w e w e r e forced t o expand the reconnaissance. W e d r o v e out f r o m camp i n the m o r n i n g s , s t o p p i n g a t e v e r y l i t t l e v i l l a g e t o i n q u i r e a b o u t p o t t e r y clay. W e w e r e s h o w n pits and s c o u r e d t h e m f o r fossil f r a g m e n t s . N o luck. S o o n w e w e r e r u n n i n g o u t o f days and t r a v e l i n g l o n g h o u r s t o reach n e w v i l l a g e s . T h e process was b e c o m i n g tedious. W i t h four of us in the g r o u p , there w e r e m o r e p e o p l e than necessary t o d o the j o b . I t w o u l d h a v e b e e n efficient o n l y w i t h o n e o r t w o p e o p l e , and t h e y w o u l d n e e d t h e p a t i e n c e o f J o b . I started t o b e c o m e c o n c e r n e d because t h e r e w e r e n o t a n g i b l e , p o s i t i v e field results c o m i n g o u t o f the M b e r e Basin. T r u e , I w a s g e t t i n g a handle o n the r e g i o n a l g e o l o g y , and I had g o t t e n a first b u t r a t h e r u n i n s p i r i n g g l i m p s e o f the C a m e r o o n i a n C r e t a c e o u s . But I w a n t e d a t least t o g e t e n o u g h samples and r a w data t o d e r i v e s o m e k i n d o f scientific c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m the s o j o u r n a t the M b e r e . A t that t i m e studies o f m o l e c u l a r e v o l u t i o n w e r e c o m i n g i n t o v o g u e . D N A c o m p a r i s o n s based o n m o l e c u l e s taken f r o m fresh l i v e r o r o t h e r organs c o u l d s h o w h o w d i f f e r e n t , o r s i m i l a r , t w o species m i g h t b e .

I had

already used fossils to try to figure o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p s of rats in Pakistan and K e n y a . It w a s g r a s p i n g at s t r a w s , b u t if I c o u l d n o t g e t fossils, p e r h a p s I c o u l d g e t s o m e m o u s e l i v e r s f o r s o m e o n e w h o w o u l d s a m p l e the D N A , and t h e n the h y p o t h e s e s based o n fossils c o u l d b e t e s t e d . R o d e n t s are a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d p e s t s , disease v e c t o r s , and d e s t r o y e r s o f g r a i n . H u m a n s w a g e a constant b a t t l e against t h e m . T h e y are n e v e r p r o t e c t e d i n the D e v e l o p i n g W o r l d ( a n d v e r y f e w r o d e n t species are e n d a n g e r e d o r p r o t e c t e d i n the W e s t e r n w o r l d ) . B y s a m p l i n g t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s i n the M b e r e V a l l e y s o m e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i r b i o l o g y and e v o l u t i o n c o u l d b e m a d e . T h r o u g h that w e w o u l d k n o w m o r e a b o u t b i o l o g y and e v o l u t i o n i n g e n e r a l . Because r o d e n t s are basically a p l a g u e , n o o n e w o u l d e v e r c a r e i f t h e y w e r e caught, m u c h less i f t h e i r l i v e r s w e r e d o n a t e d t o s c i e n c e . I w a s n o t c o n c e r n e d a b o u t catching a n y t h i n g f r o m t h e m ; bubonic plague.

T h e w i l d m i c e o f the

I had b e e n i n o c u l a t e d f o r

M b e r e V a l l e y are n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y

insidious in t h e i r effect on h u m a n s , but had I k n o w n that the v i l l a g e of Lassa,

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

202 f o r w h i c h the r o d e n t - b o r n e h e m o r r h a g i c disease Lassa f e v e r w a s n a m e d , w a s just across t h e b o r d e r t o t h e w e s t i n N i g e r i a , I m i g h t n o t h a v e b e e n s o a n x i o u s t o g u t t h e s p e c i m e n s and e x t r a c t t h e i r o r g a n s . It w a s t h e d r y season, and t h e tall grass w a s b e i n g b u r n e d off, as it is o v e r m u c h o f A f r i c a e v e r y y e a r , t o m a k e w a y f o r n e w g r o w t h m o r e suitable f o r g r a z i n g c a t t l e . I e n g a g e d a c o u p l e o f v i l l a g e b o y s t o catch r o d e n t s f o r m e . T h e y w o u l d set f i r e t o a stand o f e l e p h a n t grass, t h e n catch the m i c e s c a m p e r i n g f r o m hole to hole.

I t w a s e f f e c t i v e , b u t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n hazards t o this

m e t h o d w h e n p r a c t i c e d b a r e f o o t e d . T h e b o y s a l t e r n a t e d m o u s e catching w i t h j u m p i n g u p and d o w n t o c o o l t h e c a l l o u s e d soles o f t h e i r f e e t . My mouse

collectors w e r e

successful

i n o b t a i n i n g a small b u t d i v e r s e

s a m p l e . T h e y g o t p e r h a p s half a d o z e n s p e c i e s . I d e c i d e d t o k e e p o n c o l l e c t ing, so I b o u g h t a n u m b e r of mousetraps at the m a r k e t . O n e e v e n i n g , near t h e t o w n o f N ' G a o u n d e r e , n a m e d f o r a h u g e b o u l d e r p e r c h e d a t o p a hill and shaped l i k e an o u t y - s t y l e b e l l y b u t t o n , I c h o s e w h a t I t h o u g h t to be a v e r y l i k e l y s p o t t o set t h e t r a p l i n e . W h e n I w e n t t o c h e c k the traps a t d a w n , I f o u n d s o m e o t h e r p e o p l e — C a n a d i a n s , a s I r e c a l l — a l s o c h e c k i n g traps. T h e y w e r e after r o d e n t s f o r a d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n , and the s p o t had l o o k e d g o o d t o t h e m t o o . N e i t h e r g r o u p had b e e n a w a r e o f the o t h e r ' s a c t i v i t i e s . I had n o idea a n y o n e e l s e i n t h e n a t i o n o f C a m e r o o n w a s e n g a g i n g i n scientific rat t r a p p i n g . I a m c e r t a i n t h e y also d i d n o t . W h a t a n a m a z i n g c o i n c i d e n c e that w e should b u m p i n t o each o t h e r , d o i n g t h e s a m e t h i n g , a t t h e same p l a c e , o n t h e s a m e n i g h t ! U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r t h e t r a p p e r s , the rats a v o i d e d b o t h trap lines. I n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e D N A , I w a s t o l d b y m y m o l e c u l a r c o l l e a g u e s , the l i v e r and o t h e r o r g a n s o f the s p e c i m e n w e r e t o b e p l a c e d i n e t h a n o l . W e l l , I had no e t h a n o l o u t in the field in t h e M b e r e Basin. So I used g i n . U l t i m a t e l y I t u r n e d the p r e s e r v e d s p e c i m e n s o v e r t o a m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g i s t w i t h lots o f A f r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e s o that h e c o u l d study t h e m . A l a s , t e c h n o l o g y i s m a k i n g m y c o l l e c t i n g m e t h o d all b u t o b s o l e t e . N o w t h e r e are c l o n i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o multiply

minor

amounts

of D N A

such

as

can

be

retrieved

from

stuffed

m u s e u m s p e c i m e n s , and f r o m that t o m a k e e n o u g h f o r c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s . M i c e can rest easier f o r it. T h e M b e r e V a l l e y d i d n o t p r o d u c e fossils o f any k i n d , m u c h less a n c i e n t mammals.

W e h e a d e d back t o h e a d q u a r t e r s i n G a r o u a t o r e g r o u p .

It was

d e c i d e d that the K o u m Basin, farther t o t h e arid n o r t h , w a s w o r t h a visit. A r i v e r , t h e M a y o R e y , cuts t h r o u g h the e l o n g a t e basin f r o m east t o w e s t . A l o n g

F O R

O N E

T O O T H

203 its v a l l e y t h e r e a r e e x p o s u r e s o f r o c k . I s a w p u r p l e shales o f the C r e t a c e o u s . T h e s e w e r e t h e b e s t - l o o k i n g s e d i m e n t s I had s e e n i n all o f C a m e r o o n . M u c h o f the g r o u n d w a s c o n c e a l e d b y l a t e r i t e and e l e p h a n t grass. Still, the K o u m Basin i s d r i e r than the M b e r e and i t has m u c h m o r e r o c k e x p o s u r e . T h e m e r e sight o f t h o s e r o c k s after all the days o f s e a r c h i n g clay pits w a s e n o u g h t o e x c i t e m y spirit. T h e K o u m Basin i s r e m o t e , l y i n g a s i t d o e s a l o n g t h e b o r d e r w i t h C h a d . I n c e r t a i n seasons the e v i l , d u s t - l a d e n w i n d s o f the h a r m a t t a n b l o w south f r o m the Sahara, c h o k i n g and b l i n d i n g p e o p l e and animals and t u r n i n g the sky y e l l o w . A t o t h e r t i m e s i t i s just h a z y , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f dust and t h e u b i q u i t o u s smoke

of African fires.

A r o a d runs d o w n the axis o f the basin, a l o n g t h e n o r t h s i d e , parallel t o the M a y o R e y , f r o m the t o w n o f T c h o l l i r e i n t h e w e s t t o t h e v i l l a g e o f M a y o D j a r e n d i and b e y o n d i n the east. T o the n o r t h o f the r o a d i s the Boubanjida G a m e R e s e r v e , t e e m i n g w i t h w i l d l i f e . T o the south i s t h e r i v e r w i t h e x p o sures o f r o c k . A n i m a l s are p l e n t i f u l i n t h e basin. W h i l e p r o s p e c t i n g f o r fossils I o n c e surprised a p o a c h e r r e n d e r i n g p o i s o n and fixing it to his a r r o w s . In t h e d r y season W e s t e r n h u n t e r s pay fees t o s h o o t the animals that stray o f f the reserve.

C a m e r o o n , e v e n i n this day and a g e , has a s t r o n g c o n t i n g e n t o f

E u r o p e a n s m i g r a t i n g south e v e r y y e a r t o hunt. I n fact the g o v e r n m e n t e n c o u r ages it. It is b i g business. A f r i c a has it as p a r t of its l o n g l e g a c y . M o s t of the b o o k s w r i t t e n a b o u t A f r i c a i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y speak g r a n d l y o f s p o r t and g a m e . But o f c o u r s e w e h a v e n o t b e e n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r a l o n g , l o n g t i m e . C o n s e r v a t i o n and g a m e m a n a g e m e n t a r e b e g i n n i n g t o m e a n s o m e t h i n g i n d e v e l o p i n g A f r i c a these d a y s . W h e n h u n t e r s i n C a m e r o o n g o o u t i n t o the bush, t h e y o f t e n m a k e t h e i r w a y d i r e c t l y t o t h e K o u m Basin, t o the area b o r d e r i n g the g a m e p r e s e r v e . T h e y stay a t R h i n o c e r o s C a m p , a r o n d a v a l o n the r i v e r t e r r a c e o v e r l o o k i n g the M a y o R e y south o f t h e v i l l a g e o f K o u m . T h e y can h i r e a c o o k . T h e y can f i n d g u i d e s t o t a k e t h e m o u t o n the g a m e trails and to dress t h e i r kills. As a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e area a r o u n d the c a m p is l i t t e r e d w i t h the b o n e s o f animals left o v e r f r o m h u n t e r s and s c a t t e r e d a b o u t b y small animals and b i r d s c o m e t o p i c k t h e m c l e a n .

Rhinoceros C a m p is centrally

l o c a t e d f o r o u r w o r k , and since i t i s c l o s e t o t h e r i v e r , i t i s c o n v e n i e n t f o r s i e v i n g . I t i s r e l a t i v e l y safer than t h e m o r e r e m o t e east e n d o f the basin. W e o c c a s i o n a l l y set u p o u r tents and m o s q u i t o nets i n t h e c l e a r i n g t h e r e . Elephants are t o o w i s e t o stray far f r o m t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f the g a m e r e s e r v e d u r i n g the h u n t i n g season. I n the rainy s e a s o n , w h e n f i f t y o r s o inches o f rain

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

204 falls, t h e y c o m e d o w n past the v i l l a g e s a l o n g the r o a d . T h e i r d u n g and s p o o r a r e e v e r y w h e r e . P e r h a p s s e e i n g m o d e m e l e p h a n t tracks i s w h a t t u r n e d o u r e y e s t o t h e t e l l t a l e traces p r e s e r v e d i n the r o c k s . O n the v e r y f i r s t t r i p t o the K o u m Basin,

w i t h i n the f i r s t day o r t w o ,

K a t h y Flanagan f o u n d dinosaur

f o o t p r i n t s n e a r R h i n o c e r o s C a m p . W i t h that w e w e r e f i n a l l y g e t t i n g s o m e w h e r e in the C a m e r o o n i a n Cretaceous. W e d i d n o t h a v e l o n g i n the basin,

o n l y a f e w days.

B o n e s failed t o

m a t e r i a l i z e a r o u n d R h i n o c e r o s C a m p . W e d r o v e east t o M a y o D j a r e n d i and p a r k e d o n the r o a d near t h e r i v e r . W e s e a r c h e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e h o t a f t e r n o o n . Flanagan f o u n d a single scrap o f b o n e . T h e n e x t day w e had t o l e a v e the basin b e c a u s e o u r flight f r o m G a r o u a and o u t o f C a m e r o o n left i n t h e e v e n i n g . T h e f i e l d season w a s all b u t o v e r . I t w a s a f i v e - h o u r d r i v e f r o m the K o u m Basin to

Garoua,

three of them o v e r grueling dirt roads.

Still,

Mayo

Djarendi

l o o k e d g o o d . W e d e c i d e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e area e a r l y i n the m o r n i n g t o put i n just a f e w h o u r s ' p r o s p e c t i n g . W a l k i n g and l o o k i n g , w a l k i n g and l o o k i n g . N o t h i n g t u r n e d u p . W e w e r e to m e e t at t h e L a n d C r u i s e r at high n o o n — s h a r p . I l o o k e d at my w a t c h ; I had t o m a k e m y w a y back r i g h t a w a y . I s p e d a l o n g a t a brisk w a l k , e y e s g l u e d t o the g r o u n d m o v i n g under the pendula of my feet. A l l of a sudden my psyche w a s shaken. M y l e f t f o o t c a m e d o w n d i r e c t l y o n t o p o f a d i n o s a u r b o n e . T h e r e w a s n o w a y t o c o l l e c t t h e b o n e i n the t i m e available. I c o u l d n o t e v e n d o a t h o r o u g h s u r v e y o f t h e area. W e had t o g e t back t o t o w n . O u r A i r C a m e r o o n flight w o u l d n o t wait for us if we w e r e late. I l o o k e d hurriedly a r o u n d . T h e r e w a s a l o t o f b o n e w e a t h e r i n g o u t . A n d t h e r e w a s small b o n e i n t h e p u r p l e m u d s t o n e m a t r i x e n t o m b i n g t h e d i n o s a u r b i t s . T h i s s p o t had t o be w o r k e d . That was clear. I t o o k o u t m y c o m p a s s and r e a d b e a r i n g s t o t h r e e distant hills. T h e n I built a cairn t o m a r k t h e s p o t . T h e small s t o n e I p i c k e d u p last t o c r o w n m y p i l e o f r o c k s w a s a d i n o s a u r t o o t h . H e r e w a s a g o o d s p e c i m e n that I c o u l d take b a c k , i d e n t i f y , and use t o m a k e a case f o r future w o r k . T h e n I t o o k p h o t o g r a p h s . As a habit, I c a r r y my c a m e r a in a plastic bag to k e e p it f r e e f r o m dust.

A f t e r p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e s i t e , I f i l l e d t h e plastic b a g w i t h m a t r i x t o

s a m p l e a t least s o m e small a m o u n t f o r m i c r o v e r t e b r a t e s b e c a u s e t h e s e d i m e n t l o o k e d so p r o m i s i n g . I labeled the bag K B - 6 , then placed it on my head, A f r i c a n s t y l e , and s c a m p e r e d back t o t h e v e h i c l e , and back h o m e t o the U n i t e d States. A y e a r passed.

D u r i n g that t i m e I p l a n n e d r e t u r n e x p e d i t i o n s t o b o t h

F O R

O N E

T O O T H

C a m e r o o n and M a l a w i . I w o u l d g o t o C a m e r o o n i n January, and t h e n M a l a w i in July. I t a l k e d up K B - 6 . It w a s the o n l y p l a c e of w h i c h I k n e w in C a m e r o o n that had g o o d b o n e s , and I w a s the o n l y p a l e o n t o l o g i s t w h o had e v e r s e e n i t , and t h e n f o r o n l y t w e n t y m i n u t e s . I s c r e e n e d t h e s a m p l e I b r o u g h t b a c k . T o my delight it p r o d u c e d bones. N o t h i n g v e r y g o o d , but bones nevertheless. T h e r e w a s e v e n a scrap o f w h a t I t o o k t o b e a m i n u t e j a w , and that I t o o k e v e n f u r t h e r t o b e m a m m a l i a n . O n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f K B - 6 , the dinosaur t o o t h I had b r o u g h t b a c k , and the m e a g e r but p r o m i s i n g results f r o m the initial s i e v i n g o f a f e w p o u n d s o f s e d i m e n t , L a r r y and I a p p r o a c h e d the N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n f o r f u n d i n g . T h e y r e s p o n d e d p o s i t i v e l y . W e had s o m e m o n e y t o d o the w o r k . N o w p i c t u r e this. T h e r e w e w e r e b a c k i n t h e K o u m Basin. I w a s surrounded by Larry,

W i l l D o w n s , a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , and m y F r e n c h c o l -

l e a g u e s . I c o u l d n o t find the s i t e ! "Jacobs,

are y o u sure y o u w r o t e d o w n the b e a r i n g s c o r r e c t l y ? "

Will

asked, unable t o h i d e his disgust b u t t r y i n g t o b e g e n t l e . " L o u i s , it was very hot w h e n you w e r e here b e f o r e , " began Michel's theory,

spoken sympathetically,

b u t w i t h an e d g e I am sure I i m a g i n e d .

" P e r h a p s y o u d i d n o t w a l k s o far f r o m t h e r o a d a s y o u t h o u g h t . " F o u r days w e had b e e n t h e r e , h a l f w a y a r o u n d the w o r l d f r o m o u r h o m e s , searching f o r K B - 6 . I t w a s h u m i l i a t i n g . Since this w a s a m u l t i n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t , it was a multinational humiliation. W h a t could have g o n e w r o n g ? T h e French g r o u p , i n c l u d i n g o n e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t w h o had risen i n the ranks o f the d i p l o m a t i c c o r p s , had t o l e a v e . T h a t left t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n g e n t o n l y , w h i c h w a s n o t q u i t e s o bad o n m y e g o . Still, I had this s u b l i m i n a l , c l o y i n g a p p r e h e n s i o n that s o m e h o w h o n o r w a s a t stake. I t f e l t like i t d o e s just b e f o r e a n a n x i e t y attack. T h e n John, m y g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , f o u n d t h e site again. W h a t a r e l i e f . I t had b e e n right t h e r e w h e r e w e had b e e n l o o k i n g , w h e r e w e had b e e n standing w h i l e I felt s o r i d i c u l o u s .

My bearings w e r e e v e n c o r r e c t .

W h a t had g o n e

wrong? I t w a s that d a m n e d b u r n i n g o f t h e e l e p h a n t grass. I t i s d o n e e v e r y y e a r , but w i t h n o p a t t e r n t o it.

T h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , w h e n I f o u n d t h e site, the

grass w a s u n b u r n e d . T h i s y e a r i t w a s . O n c e t h e grass a r o u n d t h e site w a s b u r n e d , the g r o u n d w a s c o v e r e d w i t h b l a c k , o b s c u r i n g ash.

Soot covered

the fossils, h i d i n g c l u e s . T h e area a r o u n d K B - 6 l o o k e d sufficiently d i f f e r e n t f r o m the p r e v i o u s y e a r that t h e b o n e s lay h i d d e n until t h e y w e r e s t u m b l e d

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

206 o v e r again.

But n o w t h e site w a s r e l o c a t e d and the w o r l d l o o k e d b e t t e r

to m e . W e s p e n t the n e x t m o n t h c a r e f u l l y q u a r r y i n g . O u r c a m p w a s o n the sandy bank o f the M a y o R e y a t t h e far east e n d o f the basin,

w e l l away from

R h i n o c e r o s C a m p . T o s l e e p , w e s t r e t c h e d sisal t w i n e f r o m t r e e s , o n w h i c h w e hung our m o s q u i t o nets.

T e n t s w e r e pitched for those w h o preferred

s l e e p i n g a w a y f r o m the e q u a t o r i a l v i e w o f the n i g h t sky. T h e r e w a s a b i g supply t e n t and a c o o k t e n t . G u i n e a f o w l and chickens w e r e t e t h e r e d t o a n acacia t r e e n e x t t o the c o o k t e n t . I t w a s a pleasant c a m p , a t w e n t y - m i n u t e w a l k f r o m t h e site w e w e r e w o r k i n g . A t n i g h t w e c o u l d w a t c h the d i s t a n t — o r s o m e t i m e s n o t s o d i s t a n t — g l o w o f b u r n i n g e l e p h a n t grass. W e slept pleasa n t l y , e x c e p t t o w a r d m o r n i n g o n the o c c a s i o n s w h e n a b o i s t e r o u s r o o s t e r c h o s e t o c r o w . T h e c u l p r i t b e c a m e s u p p e r s o o n after that habit w a s d e v e l oped.

O n c e , b e f o r e d a w n had b e c o m e a serious issue, a r o o s t e r t o o k t o

c r o w i n g i n t h e w o r s t i m a g i n a b l e w a y . L a r r y j u m p e d o u t o f his s l e e p i n g b a g , sacrificing h i m s e l f t o the chill air f o r t h e g o o d o f the c a m p , b o u n d t o q u i e t the b i r d . B a r e f o o t e d and i n his B V D s , L a r r y chased the b i r d a r o u n d the acacia t r e e . I t w a s n o t a fair m a t c h . T h e b i r d w a s t i e d . But L a r r y still caught it. H e c o v e r e d i t w i t h a b u c k e t , w h i c h sent i t g e n t l y back t o s l e e p , insuring that i t w a s fully r e s t e d f o r the s t e w p o t . A m o s q u i t o n e t w a s also e r e c t e d o v e r t h e q u a r r y , n o t f o r bugs but f o r shade.

I t w a s s o m e t h i n g , a m e a g e r g e s t u r e , t o c u t the f o r c e o f the sun's

t r o p i c a l rays and y e t l e a v e e n o u g h light f o r u s t o see w h a t w e w e r e really a f t e r — m a m m a l s . T h e r e w a s p l e n t y o f small b o n e i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h dinosaur t e e t h and f r a g m e n t s o f l a r g e r b o n e s . T h e r e w e r e lots o f f r o g fossils. T h e site had e v i d e n t l y b e g u n as a s t r e a m d e p o s i t in the e a r l y stages of its f o r m a t i o n . T h e n , a s s t r e a m f l o w r e d u c e d , a p o n d had f o r m e d . I t had t e e m e d w i t h f r o g s . T h e p o n d e v e n t u a l l y silted u p , e n t o m b i n g w h a t e v e r b o n e s and b o d i e s had sunk t o the b o t t o m . T h e n a soil b e g a n t o d e v e l o p o n the t o p o f the m u d s that had f i l l e d i n t h e p o n d and p r e s e r v e d the fossils. T h e ancient soil i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n its o w n r i g h t . I t i s i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e , the caliche

of semiarid environments.

T h e s t r e a m s and f l o o d p l a i n s o f ancient

C a m e r o o n w e r e c e r t a i n l y n o t l o w l a n d forests and s w a m p s . W i t h i n the ancient soil f o r m e d a t t h e t o p o f t h e p o n d s e d i m e n t s a r e clusters o f e l o n g a t e o v o i d structures a n inch o r s o l o n g . T h e s e w e r e c l e a r l y o f b i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n . T h e y a r e n o t fossil e g g s , but w h a t are t h e y ? T h e y turn o u t t o b e the r e m a i n s o f insects, actually the h o m e s o f s w e a t b e e s o r s o m e t h i n g like t h e m .

FOR

ONE

TOOTH

207 T h e insect r e m a i n s are r e a l l y v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e i t i s n o t until a b o u t this t i m e in Earth h i s t o r y , the Early C r e t a c e o u s , that flowering plants b e g a n their vast r a d i a t i o n and d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n . L o o k e d a t a n o t h e r w a y , i t w a s n o t until t h e n that the Earth g a i n e d the b e a u t y o f

flowers

w i t h all t h e i r f l a m b o y a n t

c o l o r s and s w e e t scents. T h e c o l o r s and t h e scents attract insects, w h i c h i n turn p o l l i n a t e the f l o w e r s . I f f l o w e r s w e r e u n d e r g o i n g a n e v o l u t i o n a r y radiat i o n 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , t h e animals that p o l l i n a t e t h e m m u s t h a v e b e e n c o e v o l v i n g right a l o n g w i t h t h e m .

O t h e r w i s e , h o w could insect-pollinated

plants r e p r o d u c e , and w h a t w o u l d the p o l l i n a t i n g insects eat? N o w , i f t h e insects w e r e d i v e r s i f y i n g a l o n g w i t h the f l o w e r i n g plants, w o u l d i t n o t m a k e sense that the animals that eat insects w o u l d b e c o e v o l v i n g right a l o n g w i t h t h e m ? H e r e i n C a m e r o o n , a t K B - 6 , w e had t h e r e m a i n s o f social, f l o w e r p o l l i n a t i n g insects, a t t h e s a m e l o c a l i t y w i t h d i n o s a u r s , f r o g s , and w h o k n e w what else.

OBVIOUSLY

WHAT

I had h o p e d f o r w a s a m a m m a l .

A l l living mammals

h a v e hair and p r o d u c e m i l k t o n u r t u r e t h e i r y o u n g . T h e y can b e d i v i d e d i n t o three fundamental g r o u p s distinguished by their m e t h o d of r e p r o d u c t i o n as w e l l a s o t h e r features ( F i g u r e 3 7 ) . T h e f i r s t g r o u p o f l i v i n g m a m m a l s i s the e g g - l a y i n g m o n o t r e m e s . T h e s e c o n d i s the p o u c h e d m a r s u p i a l s , w h o g i v e birth t o p o o r l y d e v e l o p e d y o u n g , b o r n a t q u i t e a n i m m a t u r e s t a g e . T h e y are hairless and pink and b l i n d , but t h e i r a r m s are s t r o n g f o r t h e i r s i z e . T h e y c l i m b f r o m the vagina, u p the b e l l y o f the m o t h e r , p u l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s a l o n g f r o m hair t o hair, until t h e y r e a c h t h e p o u c h . O n c e i n s i d e , the y o u n g marsupial s w a l l o w s a n i p p l e , and f o r m o s t o f t h e r e m a i n d e r o f its life i n t h e p o u c h , i t i s p o w e r fed m i l k b y m u s c u l a r c o n t r a c t i o n s i n the breast o f t h e m o t h e r . I t i s a g o o d life i f that f i r s t j o u r n e y can b e m a d e successfully. T h e third g r o u p o f living m a m m a l s is the p l a c e n t a l s , w h i c h r e t a i n a d e v e l o p i n g fetus in t h e u t e r u s , nourishing it t h r o u g h a p l a c e n t a . T h e platypus and e c h i d n a s , o r spiny a n t e a t e r s , a r e m o n o t r e m e s .

They

a l o n e a m o n g l i v i n g m a m m a l s lay e g g s . T h e y a r e o n l y k n o w n n o w a d a y s f r o m Australia, T a s m a n i a , and N e w G u i n e a . H o w e v e r , a fossil m o n o t r e m e p e r h a p s 6 0 m i l l i o n years o l d w a s r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d f r o m South A m e r i c a . T h e l i v i n g o p o s s u m s , k a n g a r o o s , w o m b a t s , and t h e i r r e l a t i v e s are marsupials. T h e y a r e m o s t characteristic t o d a y o f t h e island c o n t i n e n t o f A u s t r a l i a , and t o s o m e e x t e n t , South A m e r i c a . T h e V i r g i n i a o p o s s u m i s the o n l y marsupial that n o w

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

208

FIGURE 37: A sampling of modern mammals. anteater sloth

and

bear,

a

platypus,

a placental;

both

egg-laying

monotremes from

and a pouched kangaroo,

Mammalian

distribution,

during

time of the dinosaurs.

the

Clockwise from

even

today,

a

upper left, Australia;

marsupial,

an

a spiny Asian

also from Australia.

bears the stamp of events that occurred

l i v e s i n t h e U n i t e d States. T h e r e used t o b e m a n y n a t i v e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m a r s u p i a l s , as s h o w n by t h e fossil r e c o r d , b u t t h e trash can ' p o s s u m is a r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t f r o m South A m e r i c a .

Placentals a r e m o r e n u m e r o u s and m o r e

d i v e r s e than m a r s u p i a l s , and h u g e l y m o r e s o than m o n o t r e m e s . W h a l e s , d o g s , cats, h u m a n s , fruit bats, e l e p h a n t s , i n fact m o s t f a m i l i a r m a m m a l s , and t h e i r e x t i n c t r e l a t i v e s , are p l a c e n t a l s . T h e y inhabit m o s t o f the Earth.

F O R

O N E

T O O T H

209 O n e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f m a m m a l s i s that t h e y are w a r m - b l o o d e d . T h e r e is a s o p h i s t i c a t e d p h y s i o l o g i c a l m e c h a n i s m f o r internal t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l o f the b o d y . T h a t insures a r e a s o n a b l y c o n s t a n t , n o n f l u c t u a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , m a i n t a i n e d a t a n o p t i m u m f o r t h e b i o c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e s that e n a b l e the o r g a n i s m t o o p e r a t e . T h e r e s u l t , basically, i s that m a m m a l s are m o r e a c t i v e animals m o r e o f t e n than, say, lizards o r m o s t o t h e r r e p t i l e s . T h e r e a r e r e q u i r e m e n t s that g o a l o n g w i t h b e i n g w a r m - b l o o d e d .

Heat must be con-

s e r v e d . H a i r , a s o p p o s e d t o scales, p r o v i d e s insulation and r e d u c e s heat loss f r o m the surface o f the b o d y . W a r m - b l o o d e d animals also r e q u i r e a m o r e o r less constant supply o f f o o d , fuel f o r t h e internal f i r e s i f y o u w i l l , a s o p p o s e d t o r e p t i l e s . A snake m a y eat o n l y o n c e a w e e k o r s o , b u t y o u eat e v e r y day and s o d o m o s t o t h e r m a m m a l s . S o d o b i r d s , w h i c h are w a r m - b l o o d e d , and s o w o u l d have any o t h e r dinosaurs that m i g h t h a v e b e e n w a r m t h r o u g h similar p r o c e s s e s o f internal t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l . Because o f t h e changes that h a v e o c c u r r e d w i t h t i m e i n v a r i o u s e v o l u t i o n ary l i n e a g e s , the casual o b s e r v e r m i g h t b e hard p r e s s e d t o r e c o g n i z e the t i n y s h r e w l i k e c r e a t u r e s that w e r e the earliest m a m m a l s and e l e p h a n t s , f o r e x a m p l e , a s b e l o n g i n g t o the s a m e g r o u p o f animals d e f i n e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f hair and the p r o d u c t i o n o f m i l k .

But t h e y d o .

Unfortunately m a m m a r y glands,

w h i c h p r o d u c e m i l k , are n o t the sorts o f things that a r e o f m u c h use i n t r y i n g to understand fossil m a m m a l s because t h e y are just n o t p r e s e r v e d as fossils. N e i t h e r i s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f the u t e r u s .

H a i r i s o c c a s i o n a l l y p r e s e r v e d and

fossilized, but n o t o f t e n e n o u g h t o b e o f m a j o r significance i n t h e fossil r e c o r d . S o m e features o f b o n e g r o w t h , a p p a r e n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h w a r m - b l o o d e d n e s s , can b e o b s e r v e d i n fossil b o n e u n d e r the m i c r o s c o p e , but a b r o a d e r u n d e r standing o f b o t h b o n e g r o w t h and w a r m - b l o o d e d n e s s i s necessary t o p u t the suggestions o f m i c r o s c o p i c b o n e s t r u c t u r e t o full u s e . T h e r e n e e d s t o b e a c a t a l o g o f r e l i a b l e characteristics o f t h e s k e l e t o n w i t h w h i c h t o r e c o g n i z e fossil m a m m a l s . Such characteristics m u s t b e p r e s e r v e d i n fossils, and t o b e o f g r e a t e r use, w e s h o u l d b e able t o o b s e r v e t h e m d e v e l o p i n g e v o l u t i o n a r i l y o v e r t i m e . F o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e a r e such d e f i n i n g skeletal characteristics i n l i v i n g m a m m a l s and that a l l o w s t h e i r r o o t s t o b e t r a c e d w e l l back i n t o the fossil r e c o r d . T h e structural features o f the s k e l e t o n h a v e functional significance a s w e l l a s g e n e a l o g i c a l i m p o r t a n c e . T h e d e m a n d f o r a c o n s t a n t f o o d supply t o m a i n tain a constant w a r m - b l o o d e d b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e e n e r g e t i c s o f such a life-style are i n t i m a t e l y i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h t h e structural e v o l u t i o n o f m a m -

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

210 m a l s . O n e o f t h e m o s t o b v i o u s features o f m o s t m a m m a l s i s t h e i r p o s t u r e . U n l i k e m o s t c r o c o d i l e s , l i z a r d s , o r o t h e r such t e r r e s t r i a l r e p t i l e s , m a m m a l s a r e n o t s p r a w l i n g , w i t h t h e i r legs sticking o u t s i d e w a y s f r o m the b o d y , t h e n t u r n i n g d o w n a t the e l b o w s and k n e e s . T h e f r o n t and h i n d legs o f m a m m a l s a r e p o s i t i o n e d d i r e c t l y u n d e r the b o d y , t r a n s m i t t i n g the w e i g h t straight d o w n the legs b e c a u s e o f the m o r e e r e c t p o s t u r e . D i n o s a u r s a r e a special case a m o n g t h e r e p t i l e s b e c a u s e t h e i r l i m b s , l i k e t h o s e o f m a m m a l s , are p o s i t i o n e d m o r e d i r e c t l y b e n e a t h the b o d y . T h e j o i n t s i n t h e f r o n t and h i n d legs o f m a m m a l s a r e g e n e r a l l y m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d , than i n r e p t i l e s , m a k i n g f o r a t i g h t e r f i t o f adjacent b o n e s a t the j o i n t . T h a t i s m a d e p o s s i b l e b y the w a y m a m m a l i a n bones g r o w as c o m p a r e d w i t h those of reptiles in general. T h e b o n e , an upper a r m b o n e f o r e x a m p l e , i s p r e f o r m e d i n cartilage i n a y o u n g and d e v e l o p i n g mammal.

As

it g r o w s ,

bone

salts,

the

stuff that m a k e s b o n e h a r d ,

are

d e p o s i t e d i n t h e shaft o f the b o n e and also a t the e n d s w h e r e the j o i n t s a r e . B e t w e e n t h e areas o f b o n e - s a l t d e p o s i t i o n , the c a r t i l a g e k e e p s g r o w i n g and the b o n e gets longer.

A f t e r a w h i l e the d e p o s i t i o n o f b o n e salts o u t p a c e s the

g r o w t h o f c a r t i l a g e , and the ends fuse w i t h the shaft. W h e n that h a p p e n s , t h e b o n e essentially stops g r o w i n g i n s i z e . T h a t i s w h y i f y o u are t w e n t y years o l d and f i v e f e e t tall, y o u m i g h t a s w e l l g i v e u p ideas o f p l a y i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l b a s k e t b a l l . Y o u w i l l n o t g e t any t a l l e r . R e p t i l e s , a s o p p o s e d t o m a m m a l s , g e n e r a l l y but n o t a l w a y s , h a v e the ends o f t h e i r l i m b b o n e s e n c a s e d i n c a r t i l a g e caps, w h e r e g r o w t h takes p l a c e w h i l e b o n e salts a r e d e p o s i t e d i n t h e shaft. T h a t g r o w t h can take p l a c e m u c h l o n g e r , and t h e r e f o r e , m a x i m u m size o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s n o t f i x e d i n m a n y r e p t i l i a n s p e c i e s in the s a m e sense that it is in m a m m a l s . T h e result is that the j o i n t s in

the

limbs

of reptiles,

because

their bones

lack

complex

ends that f i t

t o g e t h e r l i k e i n t r i c a t e k e y s , h a v e a l o o s e r , less efficient l o o k t o t h e m than d o the j o i n t s i n t h e l i m b s o f m a m m a l s . C o u p l e this w i t h the d i f f e r e n c e i n p o s t u r e , and the g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n i s that m a m m a l s h a v e e v o l v e d a m u c h m o r e efficient l o c o m o t o r r e p e r t o i r e than m o s t any o t h e r t e r r e s t r i a l v e r t e b r a t e s . I t i s n o t that r e p t i l e s are i n c o m p e t e n t . T h e y o b v i o u s l y d o q u i t e w e l l w i t h w h a t t h e y h a v e . I t i s just that m a m m a l s a r e d i f f e r e n t . T h e utility o f a n efficient s k e l e t o n w i t h r e s p e c t to d i e t in a w a r m - b l o o d e d a n i m a l is in m o v i n g it to its f o o d s o u r c e , p r o v i d i n g the t o o l s — n o t a b l y t e e t h and c l a w s — w i t h w h i c h t o catch and p r o c u r e a m e a l , o r e n a b l i n g i t t o flee t o a v o i d b e c o m i n g o n e . M a m m a l s b i t e and c h e w t h e i r f o o d w i t h t h e i r t e e t h and j a w s , c u t t i n g m e a t

F O R

O N E

T O O T H

211 as in c a r n i v o r e s and g r i n d i n g h e r b a g e as in h e r b i v o r e s . B e t w e e n t h o s e e x t r e m e s are

all the

o t h e r adaptations f o r f o o d p r o c e s s i n g — s l i c i n g ,

dicing,

j u i c i n g , p u l p i n g — a n y t h i n g ( a l m o s t ) a V e g - O - M a t i c can d o . S o m e m a m m a l species h a v e lost t h e i r t e e t h a l t o g e t h e r and f e e d b y l a p p i n g and sucking n e c t a r o r t e r m i t e s . Since m a m m a l s m u s t f e e d a t r e g u l a r and c l o s e l y s p a c e d i n t e r v a l s to s t o k e the fires that maintain t h e i r b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e , it is h a r d l y surprising that the m a m m a l i a n d e n t i t i o n p r o v i d e s a w e a l t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n the d i e t a r y adaptations o f fossil s p e c i e s . T h a t i s w h y i t i s s o v e r y f o r t u n a t e f o r p a l e o n t o l o gists that t e e t h are the m o s t c o m m o n l y p r e s e r v e d m a m m a l i a n skeletal e l e m e n t s . T h e y m a k e g o o d fossils b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t h e hardest parts o f t h e b o d y , and t h e r e f o r e t h e y resist d e s t r u c t i o n b y g e o l o g i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s that r e t a r d fossilization. A g e n e r a l f e a t u r e o f m a m m a l s i s that t h e t e e t h a r e c o m p l i c a t e d . M a m m a l s usually have a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t - s h a p e d t e e t h , and t h e r e is a d i v i s i o n of l a b o r b e t w e e n the i n c i s o r s , c a n i n e s , p r e m o l a r s , and m o l a r s . M a n y o f the t e e t h h a v e n u m e r o u s b u m p s and cusps, a s y o u can t e l l f r o m r u n n i n g y o u r t o n g u e o v e r t h o s e i n the back o f y o u r m o u t h .

T h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d cusp p a t t e r n o f

individual t e e t h e n a b l e s the u p p e r t e e t h t o fit w i t h the l o w e r t e e t h i n p r e c i s e occlusion.

This

precise

occlusion

allows

for

precise

function—the

exact

a l i g n m e n t o f shearing crests and g r i n d i n g m o r t a r s t o p r o d u c e t h e r e q u i r e d r e s u l t , m a s t i c a t e d f o o d . M a m m a l s , a s a r u l e , h a v e o n e set o f b a b y t e e t h and o n e set o f p e r m a n e n t t e e t h . T h e y d o n o t c o n t i n u o u s l y r e p l a c e t e e t h the w a y dinosaurs d i d . T h e result is that p r e c i s e o c c l u s i o n is m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t life. M a n y structural

features h a v e i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n the

c o m p l i c a t e d and

integrated process of m a m m a l i a n c h e w i n g . T h e teeth are anchored securely i n the j a w s b y m u l t i p l e r o o t s . M o s t r e p t i l e s , i f t h e y h a v e r o o t s , h a v e o n l y o n e f o r each t o o t h . S o c k e t s i n t o w h i c h the t o o t h r o o t s sit a r e a r r a n g e d a l o n g t h e e d g e o f the j a w s i n o n e r o w . T h i s i s o b v i o u s t o us, b u t m a n y n o n m a m m a l i a n v e r t e b r a t e s h a v e m u l t i p l e r o w s o f t e e t h , s o m e o n b o n e s that n e v e r b e a r t e e t h in mammals. In m o d e r n mammals there is only o n e tooth-bearing bone in each half o f the l o w e r j a w , and t h e c o u n t e r p a r t s a r e c o n n e c t e d a t the c h i n . I n s o m e v e r y early and e x t i n c t m a m m a l s , and i n r e p t i l e s , t h e r e i s m o r e than o n e b o n e i n each half o f the l o w e r j a w . T h a t i s t h e p r i m i t i v e c o n d i t i o n . T h e additional b o n e s a r e m o s t l y t o w a r d t h e back o f t h e j a w . T h a t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t because the j a w j o i n t , w h e r e t h e l o w e r j a w and the skull m e e t , i s f o r m e d b y d i f f e r e n t b o n e s i n m o d e r n m a m m a l s than i n r e p t i l e s .

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

212 T h e j a w j o i n t a l l o w s t h e m o u t h t o o p e n and c l o s e , s o i t i s clear that its c o n s t r u c t i o n m u s t b e a r s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e w a y a n animal c h e w s . I n m a m m a l s its c o n s t r u c t i o n is an a d a p t a t i o n that facilitates p r e c i s e o c c l u s i o n and the mammalian w a y o f c h e w i n g . T h e b o n e s that f o r m the m a m m a l i a n j a w j o i n t are c a l l e d the squamosal i n t h e skull and t h e d e n t a r y in the l o w e r j a w .

In r e p t i l e s t h e articulation is

b e t w e e n t h e q u a d r a t e i n the skull and t h e articular i n t h e l o w e r j a w . T h r o u g h e m b r y o l o g y , a n a t o m y , and t h e fossil r e c o r d , w e can d e t e r m i n e the h o m o l o g y o f these b o n e s b e t w e e n r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s ; that i s t o say, w e can p i n p o i n t e x a c t l y w h e r e i n t h e m a m m a l i a n s k e l e t o n t h e b o n e s e q u i v a l e n t t o the r e p t i l i a n q u a d r a t e and articular are l o c a t e d . T o d o that w e m u s t e x a m i n e the s t r u c t u r e o f the m i d d l e e a r , a s e n s o r y o r g a n l o c a t e d n e a r the j a w j o i n t . S o u n d v i b r a t i o n s are t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m the e a r d r u m t o t h e o v a l w i n d o w o f the i n n e r e a r b y b o n e s i n b o t h r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s . R e p t i l e s h a v e o n l y o n e , b u t m a m m a l s h a v e t h r e e b o n e s i n each ear. T h e possession o f t h r e e m i d d l e - e a r b o n e s is a f u n d a m e n t a l f e a t u r e of all l i v i n g m a m m a l s . In c o m m o n p a r l a n c e the three are

c a l l e d the h a m m e r ,

equivalent of the stirrup.

anvil,

and

stirrup.

Reptiles have

o n l y the

T h e e q u i v a l e n t s o f the q u a d r a t e and articular o f

t h e r e p t i l i a n j a w j o i n t h a v e u n d e r g o n e a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n the h i s t o r y o f m a m m a l s t o b e c o m e t h e anvil and h a m m e r o f the m a m m a l i a n m i d d l e ear. That is w h y reptiles have only o n e m i d d l e - e a r b o n e , yet m o d e r n m a m m a l s h a v e t h r e e . I t i s also w h y m a m m a l s h a v e t h e j a w j o i n t f o r m e d f r o m d i f f e r e n t b o n e s than r e p t i l e s , and w h y m o d e r n m a m m a l s h a v e o n l y o n e b o n e i n each half o f t h e l o w e r j a w . A l l o f t h o s e features are easily s e e n i n the fossil r e c o r d . A n d t h e y are all r e l a t e d t o the f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e t e e t h i n p r e c i s e o c c l u s i o n , a n a d a p t a t i o n f o r f e e d i n g that facilitates w a r m - b l o o d e d n e s s , b e cause t h e j a w j o i n t and t h e m u s c l e s that o p e r a t e i t m u s t p r o v i d e f o r p r e c i s e occlusion to occur.

T H E T E E T H O F m a m m a l s d e s e r v e a c l o s e r l o o k because t h e y are the p r i m a r y f o o d p r o c e s s o r s f o r a n a n i m a l . E v e r y o n e k n o w s that v a r i o u s kinds o f m a m m a l s h a v e d i f f e r e n t diets and that t h e i r t e e t h l o o k d i f f e r e n t . M e a t - e a t e r s such as l i o n s l o o k l i k e t h e y d o w h e n t h e y r o a r b e c a u s e o f t h e i r b i g , stabbing fangs. T h e t e e t h i n t h e back o f t h e j a w s slice m e a t a s c l e a n l y a s scissors c u t t i n g p a p e r . H o r s e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e g r a z i n g animals that m u s t g r i n d l a r g e a m o u n t s o f abrasive f o o d , w h i c h i s t o say grass. T h e i r c h e e k t e e t h are like m i l l s t o n e s ,

FOR

ONE

TOOTH 213

n o t a d a p t e d f o r p u n c t u r i n g flesh a t all. F r o m these e x a m p l e s w e can see t w o things: T h e shape o f t e e t h i s r e l a t e d t o t h e e c o l o g y o f m a m m a l species and the r a n g e of shapes is q u i t e vast.

N a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n surely plays a r o l e in

e v o l u t i o n a r i l y d i r e c t i n g t h e shape o f t e e t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i e t . Species w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r i e s can e v o l v e s i m i l a r l y shaped t e e t h s i m p l y as adaptations to similar d i e t s . G i v e n the adaptational significance o f t o o t h shape and the c o n s e q u e n t l i k e l i h o o d o f c o n v e r g e n t e v o l u t i o n , i t w o u l d b e useful t o d e t e r m i n e a structural c o m m o n plan f r o m w h i c h all m a m m a l i a n t o o t h shapes can b e d e r i v e d . T h a t i s n o t s o s i m p l e , f o r o n e r e a s o n because l i v i n g m o n o t r e m e s h a v e n o functional t e e t h . F o r marsupials and placentals i t s e e m s that the p r i m i t i v e p a t t e r n i s like that o f a n o p o s s u m o r a s h r e w . R i d g e s o f t h e l o w e r t e e t h shear across crests o n the u p p e r t e e t h . T h e n , a s t h e j a w slams shut, the m a i n cusps o n the u p p e r m o l a r s crush i n t o basins o n t h e l o w e r t e e t h . T h i s dual f u n c t i o n , shearing and c r u s h i n g , i s w h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s the t e e t h o f the c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f marsupial and placental m a m m a l s a s j u d g e d b o t h f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r ations and f r o m the fossil r e c o r d . A s e v o l u t i o n p r o c e e d e d , the c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g f u n c t i o n b e c a m e e n h a n c e d in disparate lineages of h e r b i v o r o u s m a m m a l s , such as k a n g a r o o s , w h i c h are marsupials, and h o r s e s , w h i c h are p l a c e n t a l s . I n t h o s e t w o species the t e e t h d o n o t l o o k s o m u c h a l i k e , b u t t h e t a p i r , a c l o s e r e l a t i v e o f the h o r s e , has t e e t h q u i t e similar to a k a n g a r o o ' s . P i g s , h u m a n s , and e v e n bears h a v e t e e t h w i t h l o w , r o u n d e d cusps that l o o k v e r y m u c h alike b e c a u s e all t h r e e have diets that i n c l u d e a l i t t l e b i t of e v e r y t h i n g . In fact, fossil b e a r and j a v e l i n a t e e t h h a v e b e e n m i s i d e n t i f i e d a s h o m i n o i d . I n c a r n i v o r e s the p r i m i t i v e shearing f u n c t i o n i s p e r f e c t e d a t the e x p e n s e o f structures r e l a t i n g t o crushing and g r i n d i n g . T h u s , o n e p r i m i t i v e k i n d o f t o o t h shape, o n e that c o u l d b o t h shear and g r i n d , g a v e rise t o t h e i n c r e d i b l e v a r i e t y o f t o o t h shapes s e e n i n marsupials and placentals t o d a y . W h a t a b o u t m o n o t r e m e s ? T h e i r l i v i n g m e m b e r s d o n o t h a v e functional t e e t h . T h e platypus has h o r n y pads o n its j a w s , but luckily the v e s t i g e s o f t e e t h can b e seen a s the animal d e v e l o p s . S o m e fossil species h a v e t e e t h similar t o the d e v e l o p m e n t a l stages o f t h e p l a t y p u s , thus p r o v i d i n g i m p o r t a n t c l u e s . I t s e e m s that m o n o t r e m e s c o m p r i s e a b r a n c h that split o f f o n its o w n c o u r s e p r i o r t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e k i n d o f t e e t h that c h a r a c t e r i z e marsupials and placentals.

T h a t m a k e s all kinds o f sense.

M o n o t r e m e s are also p r i m i t i v e

because t h e y lay e g g s r a t h e r than g i v e b i r t h t o l i v e y o u n g a s i n the o t h e r t w o

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

214 g r o u p s . T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s that a m o n g the t h r e e g r o u p s o f m o d e r n m a m m a l s l i v i n g i n the w o r l d t o d a y ,

marsupials and placentals h a v e a m o r e r e c e n t

c o m m o n a n c e s t o r than e i t h e r d o e s w i t h m o n o t r e m e s , and t h e r e f o r e those t w o a r e m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r than e i t h e r i s t o platypuses. W h a t i s r e a l l y f o r t u n a t e f o r p a l e o n t o l o g y is that this r e l a t i o n s h i p can be seen w i t h n o t h i n g m o r e than isolated t e e t h . I s n ' t it fascinating? Structural changes that f u n c t i o n in h e a r i n g and in c h e w i n g h a v e a c o m m o n s o u r c e i n e v o l u t i o n that a l l o w s u s t o d e f i n e m a m m a l s apart f r o m t h e features o f hair and m i l k and r e p r o d u c t i o n that d o n o t p r e s e r v e i n t h e fossil r e c o r d . T h e shape o f t e e t h , w h i c h i s u l t i m a t e l y e n m e s h e d i n the c o m p l e x o f j a w and ear c h a n g e s , p r o v i d e s i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e a b o u t the d i e t o f e x t i n c t m a m m a l s and the e v o l u t i o n a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g t h e m . A g o o d bit o f the e a r l y e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f m a m m a l s t o o k p l a c e i n the s h a d o w s , i f n o t the f o o t p r i n t s , o f d i n o s a u r s .

V i e w e d i n this w a y , w e can

i m a g i n e m a m m a l s a s s e c r e t i v e , v o r a c i o u s , and t i n y s h r e w l i k e c r e a t u r e s , scurr y i n g f r o m h a r m ' s w a y . T h e s e u n o b t r u s i v e e l e m e n t s o f the fauna e m e r g e d i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t d u r i n g the A g e o f M a m m a l s , after the G r e a t D y i n g , t o b e c o m e w h a t t h e y are n o w . But d i n o s a u r s , e x c e p t f o r b i r d s , w e n t e x t i n c t . S o w h e n and w h e r e d i d the t h r e e g r o u p s o f m o d e r n m a m m a l s — m o n o t r e m e s , m a r s u p i a l s , and p l a c e n t a l s — r e p r e s e n t i n g e v e r y m a m m a l i a n species a l i v e t o d a y , f i r s t d i v e r g e f r o m each o t h e r t o e v o l v e t h e i r separate ways? W h a t w e r e t h e i r earliest t r u e m e m b e r s like? W h a t w e r e t h e i r ancestors like? W h y did they diverge? W a s it because G o n d w a n a was fragmenting into the m o d e r n s o u t h e r n c o n t i n e n t s ? T h e s e a r e basic q u e s t i o n s a b o u t m o d e r n m a m m a l s , and I thought Africa might hold s o m e answers. That is w h y I was in C a m e r o o n l o o k i n g f o r a n c i e n t fossils. T h e attributes that a n a t o m i c a l l y d e f i n e all l i v i n g m a m m a l s as a single i n c l u s i v e g r o u p a p p e a r t o h a v e e v o l v e d n o l a t e r than a b o u t 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , s o m e w h e r e w i t h i n the r o u g h l y 4 0 m i l l i o n years o f t i m e that i s c a l l e d the Early C r e t a c e o u s . T h e d i v e r g e n c e o f placentals and marsupials, i t i s t h o u g h t , can b e t r a c e d back t o a c o m m o n a n c e s t o r slightly later i n t i m e , later than the split b e t w e e n t h e i r c o m m o n a n c e s t o r and the m o n o t r e m e s , b u t still i n the Cretaceous. But w h e r e d i d the m o n o t r e m e - m a r s u p i a l - p l a c e n t a l c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s c o m e f r o m ? W e k n o w f r o m fossils that r e c o g n i z a b l e m a m m a l s e v o l v e d m u c h e a r l i e r , a r o u n d 2 2 0 m i l l i o n years a g o i n fact, a t a b o u t the t i m e dinosaurs o r i g i n a t e d . E v e n t h o s e s p e c i e s o f o v e r 2 0 0 m i l l i o n years

FOR

ONE

TOOTH 215

a g o have a l o n g and u n i q u e h i s t o r y separate f r o m r e p t i l e s . T h e s e v e r y earliest m a m m a l s are q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o n e s a r o u n d t o d a y . T h e y are e v e n v e r y different f r o m

the o n e s a r o u n d i n

the

Early

Cretaceous.

T h e y w e r e the

inhabitants o f P a n g a e a . T h e y had the m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l skeletal features o f m a m m a l s , but t h e y had n o t y e t e v o l v e d t h e features o f t h e t e e t h , e a r s , and j a w t o the e x t e n t s e e n i n m o d e r n m a m m a l s . B y 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , after m a m m a l s had m o r e than

100 m i l l i o n years o f p r i o r e v o l u t i o n u n d e r t h e i r

b e l t s , and after Pangaea had f r a g m e n t e d , s o m e o f the species r e a c h e d t h e g r a d e o f m o d e r n m a m m a l s . I t i s w i t h i n this Early C r e t a c e o u s c o m p l e x that w e must search f o r the o r i g i n s o f m o n o t r e m e s , m a r s u p i a l s , and p l a c e n t a l s , because

that

is

the

time

when

the

features

that d e f i n e

these

groups

of

m a m m a l s first e v o l v e .

T H E Q U A R R Y I N G A T K B - 6 c o n t i n u e d . W e w r a p p e d m a n y small s p e c i m e n s f o r p r e p a r a t i o n i n the lab, b u t n o n e o f t h e m w a s i d e n t i f i e d a s m a m m a l i a n . M a t r i x w a s c o l l e c t e d — e i g h t t o n s o f i t that y e a r — a n d taken back t o R h i n o c e r o s C a m p , w h e r e e v e r y bit o f i t w a s s i e v e d . T h e small s p e c i m e n s and the s i e v e d c o n c e n t r a t e w e r e s h i p p e d t o m y lab. M o n t h s l a t e r , back in D a l l a s , I g o t a p h o n e call. I w a s at h o m e on a Sunday a f t e r n o o n . I t w a s m y s t u d e n t , John C o n g l e t o n , e x c i t e d . " I h a v e a m a m m a l ! " h e said. H o m e run! T h a t w a s the first d e c e n t m a m m a l s p e c i m e n t o c o m e o u t o f C a m e r o o n — o r f r o m the e n t i r e A f r i c a n C r e t a c e o u s f o r that m a t t e r . T h e p r o j e c t c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k K B - 6 the n e x t y e a r and t h e n e x t . I n 1988 w e w e n t t o set the c a m p i n the usual s p o t o n the banks o f the M a y o R e y a t the east e n d o f the basin. A t that t i m e t h e r e w a s a lull i n the s h o o t i n g w a r b e t w e e n L i b y a and C h a d . T h a t left s o m e a r m e d Chadians w i t h n o t m u c h t o s h o o t , b u t w i t h p l e n t y o f t i m e o n t h e i r hands. T h e y had taken t o crossing the b o r d e r i n t o the K o u m Basin.

They became highwaymen,

robbing p e o p l e on the road.

Thirteen

vehicles returning f r o m market at the b o r d e r village of Mandingrin d o w n the r o a d f r o m c a m p had b e e n s t o p p e d all a t o n c e and r o b b e d a t g u n p o i n t . T o c o m b a t the t h r e a t , the a u t h o r i t i e s o r d e r e d all l o r r i e s t o t r a v e l i n e v e n l a r g e r c o n v o y s . Soldiers in plainclothes, a r m e d w i t h machine guns, r o d e shotgun in each t r u c k . It l o o k e d like a situation that c o u l d t u r n sticky f o r a b u n c h of wazungu

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

216 c a m p e d o u t i n the m i d d l e o f n o w h e r e w i t h s o m a n y fancy a m e n i t i e s , such a s t e n t s and s l e e p i n g b a g s , f o o d and funds. I spread t h e w o r d a m o n g the local v i l l a g e r s that w e w o u l d b e

encamped

f o r six w e e k s , just s o that a n y o n e

i n t e r e s t e d w o u l d n o t think t h e r e w a s a n e e d t o rush i n t o d e v i l m e n t . I n f i v e days w e had s t o c k p i l e d a s u p p l y o f m a t r i x f o r w a s h i n g and c o m p l e t e d the n e e d e d g e o l o g i c a l study a r o u n d t h e s i t e .

I

ordered camp

struck w i t h o u t

f u r t h e r n o t i c e . W e m o v e d t o the r e l a t i v e safety o f R h i n o c e r o s C a m p . F u r t h e r w o r k a r o u n d K B - 6 w a s d o n e i n day t r i p s .

W e had n o p r o b l e m s — l u c k i l y .

Since that f i r s t m a m m a l t o o t h , a n u m b e r o f s p e c i m e n s h a v e c o m e t o l i g h t , all i m p o r t a n t . N o n e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s p e c t a c u l a r , b u t that d o e s n o t m a t t e r . T h e f i r s t s p e c i m e n s f r o m the A f r i c a n C r e t a c e o u s w e r e the hardest t o f i n d . W e b r o k e the g r o u n d .

O t h e r s w i l l c o m e m o r e easily b e c a u s e n o w i t i s k n o w n

where to look. T h e r e are p r o b a b l y f o u r s p e c i e s o f m a m m a l s ,

a t least,

represented by

fossils f r o m t h e K o u m Basin, b u t o n l y o n e has y e t b e e n n a m e d . N o n e o f the C a m e r o o n i a n m a m m a l fossils are p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e m a r s u p i a l s , o r placentals, o r m o n o t r e m e s , s o far a s I can t e l l . A n d n o n e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e the w i d e spread

mammals

that

inhabited

the

megacontinent

of Pangaea,

landmasses w e r e j o i n e d and w h e n m a m m a l s f i r s t e v o l v e d , earlier

than

when

the

Cameroonian

mammals

lived.

when

all

100 m i l l i o n years

Their

most

similar

r e l a t i v e s s e e m t o b e f r o m r o c k s a t least 4 0 m i l l i o n years o l d e r than t h e y a r e , and f o u n d in E n g l a n d . T h a t w a s a s u r p r i s e . A s i t stands n o w ,

i t appears that m a m m a l s g e n e r a l l y

like those

from

C a m e r o o n w e r e w i d e s p r e a d across the N o r t h e r n and S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e s at the

b e g i n n i n g o f the

Cretaceous.

T h e y may

not have

been

extremely

a b u n d a n t , b u t t h e r e w e r e p r o b a b l y q u i t e a f e w s p e c i e s o f t h e m . F r o m this w i d e s p r e a d s t o c k , m o n o t r e m e s , the l i v i n g e g g - l a y e r s , e v o l v e d i n the S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . I n that sense the C a m e r o o n i a n fossil m a m m a l s a r e r e l a t e d t o the d u c k - b i l l e d p l a t y p u s e s . Based o n that l o g i c , all o t h e r things b e i n g e q u a l , t h e y also laid e g g s . S o m e tens o f m i l l i o n s o f years after m o n o t r e m e s e v o l v e d , w h e n Australia and S o u t h A m e r i c a w e r e still c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h A n t a r c t i c a , b u t after A f r i c a had split off, the c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f placentals and marsupials e v o l v e d . I t e v o l v e d n o t i n t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e , b u t i n the N o r t h e r n . G e o g r a p h y c o n t i n u e d t o play a r o l e . D e s c e n d a n t s o f the c o m m o n a n c e s t o r g a v e rise t o species

that

diversified

into

marsupials

in

North

America,

and

placental

m a m m a l s i n A s i a . M a r s u p i a l s d i d n o t g e t t o A f r i c a until tens o f m i l l i o n s o f

FOR

ONE

TOOTH

217 years l a t e r ,

and e v e n t h e n ,

coming from

Europe as they did,

they only

inhabited N o r t h A f r i c a . T h e i r stay i n A f r i c a w a s o n l y f o r just a b r i e f p e r i o d of time. T o w a r d t h e e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , n o t l o n g b e f o r e dinosaurs b e c a m e e x t i n c t , marsupials i n v a d e d S o u t h A m e r i c a f r o m the n o r t h and s p r e a d across A n t a r c t i c a t o Australia. South

America.

The

T h e n A n t a r c t i c a split o f f f r o m A u s t r a l i a and f r o m

geography

of pouched

mammals

was

following

the

a r r a n g e m e n t o f the c o n t i n e n t s ( s e e F i g u r e 9 i n C h a p t e r 1 ) . T h a t e x p l a i n s w h y the m o d e r n m a m m a l fauna o f A u s t r a l i a i s s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , w i t h platypuses and koalas and k a n g a r o o s , b u t still r e s e m b l e s that o f South A m e r i c a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y than a n y w h e r e e l s e . M u c h , m u c h l a t e r m i c e and d i n g o s and humans h o p p e d f r o m island t o island, f i n a l l y t o r e a c h i s o l a t e d A u s t r a l i a , a s w e shall s e e , l o n g after placentals i n h a b i t e d o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s . Placental m a m m a l s h a v e a c o m p l e x g e o g r a p h i c a l h i s t o r y , b u t t h e i r s p r e a d t o s o u t h e r n c o n t i n e n t s c o m e s after t h e m a j o r g e o g r a p h i c r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f the C r e t a c e o u s . P l a c e n t a l s e n t e r e d South A m e r i c a f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e near the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , r o u g h l y s e v e n t y m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o , p r o b a b l y a b o u t the same t i m e marsupials w e r e h e a d i n g s o u t h . N e w d i s c o v e r i e s i n d i c a t e that, like marsupials, t h e y c a r r i e d o n t o A u s t r a l i a , b u t t h e s e e a r l y i n v a d e r s n e v e r g a i n e d a s t r o n g f o o t h o l d . M u c h later o t h e r p l a c e n t a l s , such a s m i c e , e n t e r e d Australia p e r h a p s as r e c e n t l y as e i g h t or t e n m i l l i o n years a g o . H u m a n s and d i n g o s c a m e e v e n l a t e r . W h y d i d n ' t t h e e a r l y placentals flourish i n Australia like the marsupials did? T h a t i s a g o o d q u e s t i o n and n o o n e k n o w s t h e a n s w e r .

CAMEROON

WAS

B O T H g o o d t o u s and b a d .

N o matter h o w great the

p r e c a u t i o n s , c o m p l i c a t e d situations can arise i n t h e f i e l d . T r a g e d i e s d o s t r i k e . I n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r t h e y can strike a n y w h e r e . W e had a d e a t h . I n 1989 o u r c o l l e a g u e A b e l B r i l l a n c e a u , the c h a i n - s m o k i n g w i n e taster, m a s t e r o f l o g i s t i c s , g e o l o g i s t , and g o o d f r i e n d t o u s all, d i e d o f spinal malaria w h i l e i n C a m e r o o n . E i t h e r A b e l w a s n o t taking malaria p r o p h y l a x i s , a s h e should h a v e , o r h e w a s and i t d i d n o t w o r k . T h e Plasmodium m e r o z o i t e struck w i t h a high f e v e r . H e w a s b e i n g a i r l i f t e d t o F r a n c e w h e n his h e a r t s t o p p e d o n the r u n w a y o f the G a r o u a a i r p o r t .

He was g o n e .

W e m u s t assume that A b e l w a s satisfied w i t h his l i f e , d o i n g w h a t h e c h o s e t o d o w h e n the m o s q u i t o bit h i m . Still, h e w a s a p a r t o f the e f f o r t . H i s fate c o u l d have v i s i t e d any o f us. W e h a v e n o a d e q u a t e w a y t o h o n o r o u r fallen

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

218 c o l l e a g u e — b u t w e t r y . M i c h e l , L a r r y , and I , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r friends o n the p r o j e c t , n a m e d Abelodon abeli after h i m .

It is t h e o n l y fossil m a m m a l e v e r

named from Cameroon.

I T W A S w i t h a g r e a t deal o f e f f o r t that t h o s e f i r s t m a m m a l s w e r e r e t r i e v e d f r o m t h e A f r i c a n C r e t a c e o u s . A t t h e t i m e I b e g a n p l a n n i n g the M a l a w i P r o j e c t t h e r e w e r e n o fossil m a m m a l s o f E a r l y C r e t a c e o u s a g e , that is, b e t w e e n 144 and 9 7 . 5 m i l l i o n years o l d , k n o w n f r o m any o f the s o u t h e r n c o n t i n e n t s . N o w , a d e c a d e l a t e r , t h e y a r e k n o w n f r o m South A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a , and A f r i c a . T h e y d o n o t a p p e a r t o b e v e r y c o m m o n animals o f the Early C r e t a c e o u s w o r l d , b u t t h e y are t h e r e . W a s i t l u c k that w e f o u n d t h e m i n C a m e r o o n , t h o s e p i n h e a d - s i z e d teeth? M a y b e s o , b u t w e w e r e l o o k i n g f o r t h e m . I s i t luck w h e n y o u fly halfway a r o u n d the w o r l d , o n t w o b a c k - t o - b a c k o v e r n i g h t flights, t o a n A f r i c a n n a t i o n , t h e n catch a t w o - h o u r d o m e s t i c flight t o the n o r t h e n d o f t h e c o u n t r y , t h e n d r i v e f i v e h o u r s , t h r e e o f t h e m o n j o l t i n g d i r t r o a d s , t o g e t t o t h e banks o f a b i l h a r z i a - i n f e s t e d r i v e r , search t h e g r o u n d o n f o o t f o r h o u r after h o u r until a l i k e l y s p o t i s f o u n d , t h e n c o l l e c t e i g h t t o n s o f d i r t , s i e v e it, t r a n s p o r t the r e s i d u e b a c k , r e t r a c i n g y o u r steps t h e s a m e w a y y o u c a m e , s o r t i t u n d e r a m i c r o s c o p e , and c o m e u p w i t h a m a m m a l t o o t h o v e r 100 m i l l i o n years o l d ? Is it l u c k , skill, e f f o r t , or just plain crazy? It is at least t h e first t h r e e . I am n o t sure a b o u t t h e last.

OTHER NEIGHBORS

DINOSAURS,

CROCODILES,

A N D mammals have s h o w n themselves

t o b e i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s o f A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , t h e y d i d n o t l i v e i n a v a c u u m and t h e y w e r e n o t the o n l y v e r t e b r a t e s f o r w h i c h this p e r i o d i s a n i m p o r t a n t t i m e o f i n n o v a t i o n . M a n y kinds o f b a c k b o n e d animals i n a d d i t i o n t o b i r d s and m a m m a l s w e r e u n d e r g o i n g significant d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v a l p r i o r t o 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . S o m e m o d e r n families o f f r o g s and lizards p r o b a b l y had t h e i r o r i g i n s t h e n . A similar s t a t e m e n t can b e m a d e f o r snakes. A l l o f this e v o l u t i o n , l e a d i n g t o o u r m o d e r n w o r l d , w a s n o t i n d e p e n d e n t o f the r e a r r a n g e m e n t s i n t h e E a r t h ' s g e o g r a p h y , n o r w a s v e r t e b r a t e e v o l u t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t a m o n g its v a r i o u s s u b g r o u p s o r f r e e f r o m the influence o f plants and insects, w h i c h w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e i r o w n r a d i a t i o n s .

Food

w e b s w e r e u n d e r g o i n g s o m e r a t h e r drastic m o d i f i c a t i o n s t h r o u g h all this c o e v o l u t i o n . F r o m that m i l i e u e m e r g e d a w o r l d m o r e r e c o g n i z a b l e , m o r e c l o s e l y similar t o w h a t w e have n o w . S u b s e q u e n t t o 100 m i l l i o n years a g o the E a r t h ' s c o n t i n e n t s d i d n o t cease t h e i r a d v e n t u r e t h r o u g h t i m e . T h e g e o g r a p h y o f c o n t i n e n t s and o c e a n s c o n t i n u e d t o c h a n g e . M o u n t a i n s w e r e u p l i f t e d and e r o d e d . C l i m a t e s c h a n g e d . T h e Ice A g e s w a x e d and w a n e d . E x t i n c t i o n s o c c u r r e d , m o s t n o t a b l y the G r e a t D y i n g , b u t also m a n y o f lesser p o p u l a r i t y . E v o l u t i o n a r y radiations o c c u r r e d , r e p l e n i s h i n g the n u m b e r o f species inhabiting t h e Earth.

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

220 E v o l u t i o n a r y radiations can b e d e f i n e d a s r e l a t i v e l y short t i m e i n t e r v a l s , g e o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , j a m m e d full o f l o t s and l o t s o f e v o l u t i o n . T h e n e t result i s usually

the

appearance

of a large

n u m b e r of n e w species.

I f the

time

i n v o l v e d a p p e a r s t o b e n o t a b l y s h o r t , the r a d i a t i o n m a y b e t e r m e d e x p l o s i v e . T h e flock of cichlid fish species living n o w in Lake M a l a w i is the p r o d u c t of an e x p l o s i v e radiation. It c a m e about w h e n a f e w species of the cichlid family g o t i n t o t h e lake a t s o m e late d a t e i n its h i s t o r y . S o m e e s t i m a t e s , based o n m o l e c u l a r differentiation

of D N A

in the

cichlid

species,

suggest that

the

r a d i a t i o n b e g a n o n t h e o r d e r o f a scant c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d thousand years a g o . T h a t i s n o t m u c h t i m e a t all f r o m a g e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . O n c e t h e r e , the cichlids e v o l v e d r a p i d l y t o f i l l a n a s t o u n d i n g v a r i e t y o f fishy n i c h e s , u t i l i z i n g m u c h o f t h e s p e c t r u m o f t h e l a k e ' s habitats and its f o o d r e s o u r c e s . T h i s w a s d o n e , p r e s u m a b l y , t o the d e t r i m e n t and n e a r e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r n o n c i c h l i d fish species. T h e A g e o f M a m m a l s , t h e C e n o z o i c Era i n technical p a r l a n c e , w a s initiated s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n years a g o b y a n a d a p t i v e r a d i a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g the d e m i s e o f t h e d i n o s a u r s . T h e t i m i n g i s s o p r e c i s e that i t i s s u g g e s t i v e . W e r e t h e m a m m a l s , a g r o u p that had its e v o l u t i o n a r y o r i g i n s at a b o u t the s a m e t i m e as dinosaurs, in s o m e w a y held back, p r e v e n t e d f r o m achieving p r e d o m i n a n c e , b y a n e c o l o g i c a l l y s u p e r i o r d i n o s a u r clan? I d o n o t k n o w , but the p o s s i b i l i t y has s u g g e s t e d

itself t o m a n y p e o p l e .

million-year history of the A g e of M a m m a l s ,

T h r o u g h o u t the

sixty-six-

a f t e r that initial r a d i a t i o n o f

s p e c i e s , t h e m a m m a l s d i d n o t s i m p l y r e s t o n t h e i r l a n d - c o n q u e r i n g laurels. They

continued

to

speciate

and

to

radiate

periodically

throughout

their

history. T h e r e s e e m t o b e a t least t w o sorts o f e v o l u t i o n a r y r a d i a t i o n s . O n e o c c u r s when

new

connections

are

made

between

previously

isolated

landmasses

t h r o u g h g e o g r a p h i c changes associated w i t h c o n t i n e n t a l drift o r o t h e r m a j o r physical p r o c e s s e s .

O f t e n i n such cases, t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f p r e v i o u s l y un-

r e p r e s e n t e d s p e c i e s i n t o a n e w area results i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f n e w s p e c i e s , not

uncommonly

to

the

detriment

of native

species,

similar t o

the

case

h y p o t h e s i z e d f o r the c i c h l i d fishes of L a k e M a l a w i . In such a case it appears a l m o s t a s i f t h e r e a r e unfilled e c o l o g i c a l niches w a i t i n g t o b e e x p l o i t e d . I t i s a m a t t e r of b e i n g in the r i g h t p l a c e at the r i g h t t i m e and h a v i n g the right e q u i p m e n t . R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e specific details o f L a k e M a l a w i , b u t using i t a s an e x a m p l e , t h e c u r r e n t d i v e r s i t y of c i c h l i d s , plus h i n d s i g h t , tells us that as a g r o u p the cichlids w e r e e v o l u t i o n a r i l y a b l e t o e x p l o i t the situation i n w h i c h they found themselves.

OTHER

NEIGHBORS

T h e other sort of radiation occurs w h e n an adaptive threshold is crossed, a n e w w a y of m a k i n g a l i v i n g is d e v i s e d , such as g n a w i n g in r o d e n t s . O n c e a basic n o v e l t y i s e v o l v e d , t h e r e a r e m a n y , m a n y variations o n t h e t h e m e t o b e e x p l o i t e d . T h a t i s a m a j o r f a c t o r , p r o b a b l y , i n w h y t h e r e are s o m a n y species o f bats and rats, these t w o b e i n g t h e m o s t d i v e r s e g r o u p s o f l i v i n g m a m m a l s . T h e e v o l u t i o n of an i n n o v a t i v e w a y to m a k e a l i v i n g , b i o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , is a r e c u r r e n t p a t t e r n . I t has h a p p e n e d o v e r and o v e r again i n the h i s t o r y o f life o n Earth. T h e initial a c h i e v e m e n t o f a n a d a p t i v e f e a t u r e , a n a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f e c o l o g i c a l e n t r e p r e n e u r ship, p a v e s t h e w a y . T h e n d e s c e n d a n t species fan o u t . F l i g h t i n v e r t e b r a t e s offers p r i m e e x a m p l e s . B i r d s , w h i c h e v o l v e d a s flying dinosaurs f r o m a single ancestral s p e c i e s , e x h i b i t an u n e q u a l e d f l a m b o y a n c e , all t i e d , i n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r , t o the e c o l o g i c a l d o o r o p e n e d t o t h e m b y the acquisition o f t h e i r initial a d a p t a t i o n — f l i g h t .

Pterosaurs,

the

o t h e r flying

archosaurs, u n d e r w e n t a fine r a d i a t i o n , and it is r e g r e t t a b l e f o r us that n o n e h a v e s u r v i v e d , because t h e y w o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e fun t o w a t c h . Bats are t h e t h i r d g r o u p o f v e r t e b r a t e s t o e v o l v e t r u e flight. T h e r e a r e m o r e species o f bats l i v i n g t o d a y than any o t h e r o r d e r o f m a m m a l s e x c e p t f o r the r o d e n t s , w h o h a v e u n d e r g o n e t h e i r o w n e x p l o s i v e and a d a p t i v e r a d i a t i o n s , l e a v i n g t h e m w i t h a n u n e q u a l e d n u m b e r o f species i n t h e t e r r e s t r i a l - v e r t e b r a t e r e a l m . A f t e r the d e m i s e o f the d i n o s a u r s , the c o m b i n e d r e s u l t o f the basal A g e of M a m m a l s m a m m a l i a n r a d i a t i o n , plus all the s u b s e q u e n t o n e s , is a vast n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s , a vast d i v e r s i t y o f b o d y f o r m s , and a vast fossil r e c o r d that reflects a l o t o f changes a m o n g t h e s u m t o t a l o f the species i n v a r i o u s s e g m e n t s o f the A g e o f M a m m a l s . T h u s the s p e c t r u m o f m a m m a l s o b s e r v a b l e t o d a y s h o w s i m m e n s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n h o w v a r i o u s species l i v e and w h a t t h e y l o o k l i k e . C o m p a r e a flying bat w i t h a s w i m m i n g w h a l e . C o m p a r e a fruit bat, also c a l l e d a flying f o x , w i t h its l o n g snout and l a r g e D r a c u l a w i n g s , w i t h a t i n y l e a f - n o s e d b a t . T h e y are v e r y d i f f e r e n t . C o m p a r e a b l u e w h a l e w i t h a s p e r m w h a l e , or a humpback, or a killer, or a blind r i v e r dolphin. A l l are whales, but they are v e r y d i f f e r e n t .

C o m p a r e any o f t h e m w i t h t h e i r m a m m a l i a n

cousins that h a v e also i n v a d e d the s e a — s e a l s , w a l r u s e s , sea c o w s , sea o t t e r s . A l l o f these d i f f e r e n t e x a m p l e s f o l l o w e d d i f f e r e n t e v o l u t i o n a r y paths t o e n d u p a t the same p l a c e ,

which is the w o r l d of today.

W e c o u l d use o t h e r

e x a m p l e s and d o t h e s a m e e x e r c i s e that w e just d i d w i t h w h a l e s . W e c o u l d e x a m i n e the d i v e r s i t y w i t h i n t h e p r i m a t e s , o r w i t h i n all c a r n i v o r e s , o r w i t h i n all h e r b i v o r e s and w e w o u l d r e a c h t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n : M a m m a l i a n d i v e r s i t y i s a s t o u n d i n g . A n d w e h a v e n o t e v e n t a k e n e x t i n c t species k n o w n o n l y f r o m the fossil r e c o r d i n t o a c c o u n t . T h e p o i n t i s that t h e r e h a v e b e e n t r e m e n d o u s

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

222 e v o l u t i o n a r y changes i n t h e m a m m a l s d u r i n g the r e l a t i v e l y short p e r i o d o f Earth h i s t o r y c a l l e d the A g e o f M a m m a l s — o n l y s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n y e a r s . Other groups

of vertebrates

cannot

boast

such

a

track r e c o r d .

Some

s p e c i e s l i v i n g t o d a y a p p e a r s o p r i m i t i v e , s o u n m o d i f i e d f r o m w h a t the ancest o r m u s t h a v e b e e n l i k e , that t h e y stand o u t c o n s p i c u o u s l y f r o m o t h e r l i v i n g species. M a n y times the m o s t p r i m i t i v e of living species in a g i v e n g r o u p of v e r t e b r a t e s r e s e m b l e s a n a n c i e n t m e m b e r o f its e v o l u t i o n a r y c l a d e o t h e r w i s e k n o w n o n l y f r o m t h e d e p t h s o f the fossil r e c o r d . S o m e t i m e s p r i m i t i v e l i v i n g s p e c i e s h a v e v e r y p o o r fossil r e c o r d s . T h e lack o f a g o o d fossil r e c o r d , o r c o n v e r s e l y t h e r e s e m b l a n c e o f t h e l i v i n g s p e c i e s t o a fossil species f r o m e a r l y i n its g e n e a l o g y , suggests that t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e o f l i v i n g s p e c i e s a r e , i n s o m e s e n s e , l i v i n g fossils. D a r w i n r e c o g n i z e d t h e c o n c e p t in the Origin of Species. H i s e x a m p l e s i n c l u d e t h e p l a t y p u s and t h e lungfish. H e w r o t e o f differential rates o f e v o l u t i o n o n the o n e h a n d , and o f e x t i n c t i o n o n t h e o t h e r , b o t h o f w h i c h c o u l d r e s u l t i n l i v i n g s p e c i e s a p p e a r i n g t o b e l i v i n g fossils. M y f a v o r i t e l i v i n g fossil c o m e s f r o m t h e w o r l d o f f i s h e s , a s d o e s D a r w i n ' s lungfish e x a m p l e , b u t I think t h e hagfish i s m u c h m o r e s t r i k i n g . A t the earliest stages o f t h e i r e v o l u t i o n , g e t t i n g back b e y o n d 5 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o , v e r t e b r a t e s had n o j a w s .

T h e borders of their mouths w e r e not supported by

h i n g e d , b i t i n g s t r u c t u r e s . V e r t e b r a t e a n c e s t o r s fed b y straining f o o d particles t h r o u g h a b a s k e t l i k e o r g a n in the t h r o a t .

It is this basket that e v e n t u a l l y

e v o l v e d t o b e c o m e the gills and t h e i r b o n y s u p p o r t s , a n d , a t the f r o n t e n d , t h e j a w s . T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m a n a t o m y and e m b r y o l o g y i s q u i t e s t r o n g and unequivocal on

the

derivation

of the jaws.

The

earliest v e r t e b r a t e

fossils

b e l o n g t o animals w i t h soft f i s h l i k e b o d i e s and h a r d , p o i n t y " t e e t h " — n o t true teeth, but b o n y food-gathering organs nonetheless. T h e s e w e r e c o n o d o n t s . V e r t e b r a t e s f r o m a slightly y o u n g e r t i m e i n the g e o l o g i c r e c o r d w e r e c o v e r e d w i t h a b o n y shell f o r m e d i n the skin. T h e y had n o j a w s . L o c o m o t i o n w a s p r o b a b l y t h r o u g h j e r k y f l e x i n g o f t h e i r tails, m o v i n g t h e animals e r r a t i cally f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e , t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e f e e d i n g basket t o d i f f e r e n t spots o n t h e o c e a n f l o o r , w h e r e t h e y snuffled i n t h e b o t t o m o o z e t o f i l t e r o u t d i g e s t i b l e particles. N o such animals e x i s t t o d a y — n o t e x a c t l y a n y w a y .

H o w e v e r , t h e r e are

l i v i n g animals w i t h n o j a w s , and f o r that v e r y b i g r e a s o n t h e y are p r i m i t i v e a m o n g all l i v i n g v e r t e b r a t e s .

T h e r e are t w o groups of living jawless v e r t e -

b r a t e s . T h e m o r e f a m i l i a r o f t h e t w o i s the l a m p r e y s f r o m the G r e a t Lakes region.

L a m p r e y s are a n a d r o m o u s , m e a n i n g t h e y l i v e i n t h e o c e a n m o s t o f

O T H E R

N E I G H B O R S

223 their l i v e s , but r e t u r n t o f r e s h w a t e r r i v e r s and s t r e a m s t o b r e e d .

Besides

h a v i n g n o j a w s , l a m p r e y s h a v e n o b o n e i n t h e i r s k e l e t o n s , n o scales, and n o p a i r e d f i n s , u n l i k e m o r e f a m i l i a r f i s h . T h e y h a v e o n l y the f i n that runs a l o n g the m i d l i n e o f t h e b o d y and tail. L a m p r e y s n o t o n l y lack j a w s , t h e y lack t e e t h a s w e l l . T h e y o b t a i n t h e i r f o o d n o t a s m u d - g r u b b i n g f i l t e r f e e d e r s , b u t b y sucking o n t o t h e side o f a f i s h w i t h t h e i r r o u n d , j a w l e s s m o u t h s , t h e n rasping a h o l e i n the side o f t h e i r v i c t i m s w i t h t o u g h , h o r n y s t r u c t u r e s inside t h e i r m o u t h s . T i s s u e fluids f r o m a n a b r a d e d v i c t i m w e e p i n t o t h e l a m p r e y ' s g u l l e t . Because l a m p r e y s attack c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s p e c i e s , t h e y a r e w e l l k n o w n t o G r e a t Lakes f i s h e r m e n . T h e y are v e r t e b r a t e parasites, and like all parasites t h e y t e n d t o turn o u r s t o m a c h s . But l e t ' s h a v e a l o o k a t t h e o t h e r g r o u p o f l i v i n g j a w l e s s f i s h e s . T h e lesser k n o w n o f t h e l i v i n g j a w l e s s f i s h e s are the e x c l u s i v e l y m a r i n e hagfish and s l i m e hags. Q u a i n t n a m e s , d o n ' t y o u think? T h e hagfish and s l i m e hags ( F i g u r e 3 8 ) are e v e n m o r e p r i m i t i v e than the l a m p r e y s because t h e y h a v e f e w e r s e m i c i r c u l a r canals i n t h e i n n e r e a r , w h i c h

FIGURE 38: A hagfish beginning to feed on a fish carcass. knot,

which it then moves forward to push against the fish

head.

A hole is ripped in

presumably

the side of the fish,

happily—enters.

through

It throws its body into a while it pulls with its

which

the hagfish—

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D

224 p r o v i d e f o r balance and o r i e n t a t i o n , and t h e y h a v e o n l y a single n o s t r i l . T h e s e w e r e a p p a r e n t l y t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e m o s t a n c i e n t o f v e r t e b r a t e s , and the l i v i n g hagfish h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e m as characteristic f e a t u r e s .

Hagfish are so

p r i m i t i v e that s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s d o n o t e v e n i n c l u d e t h e m inside the v e r t e b r a t e s , p l a c i n g t h e m a s t h e i r o w n special g r o u p that b r a n c h e d off the e v o l u tionary

tree

even

before

lampreys.

This

is

a

rather m o o t point in

our

discussion since hagfish are c l e a r l y n o t r e l a t e d t o a n y t h i n g but v e r t e b r a t e s . Hagfish lack b o n e , t e e t h , and scales, l i k e the l a m p r e y s , and t h e r e f o r e , t h e y also h a v e a dismal fossil r e c o r d . T h e i r p l a c e i n e v o l u t i o n i s d e c i d e d m o r e o n the a n a t o m y o f l i v i n g species than o n fossils. T h e o n l y k n o w n fossil hagfish, and the f i r s t o n e o f t h e f e w k n o w n fossil l a m p r e y s that h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d , c o m e f r o m 300-million-year-old rocks i n Illinois. T h e t w o living jawless f i s h g r o u p s w e r e s u r e l y distinct w e l l b e f o r e t h e n . Hagfish and l a m p r e y s are l i v i n g fossils in the sense that t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e i r fossil a n t e c e d e n t s and h a v e n o t e v o l v e d i n t o c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t sorts o f a n i m a l s . L a m p r e y s and hagfish m a y e v e n have b e e n separated on different branches of the evolutionary tree l o n g e r than any o t h e r pair o f v e r t e b r a t e species a l i v e t o d a y — l o n g e r , f o r instance, than t h e h u m a n and l a m p r e y b r a n c h e s h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e d . T h a t i s assuming hagfish and l a m p r e y s d i v e r g e d b e f o r e a n y t h i n g e l s e — i n c l u d i n g the b r a n c h that w e a r e o n — s p l i t f r o m t h e l i n e a g e that g a v e rise t o m o d e r n l a m p r e y s . I t i s a m a t t e r o f the g e o m e t r y o f the e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e . S o hagfish m i g h t b e m o r e p r i m i t i v e than l a m p r e y s , b u t n e i t h e r o f t h e m has j a w s . Hagfish h a v e a d i f f e r e n t s t y l e o f f e e d i n g f r o m that o f the l a m p r e y s . T h e y are p r e d a t o r s and t h e y are strictly m a r i n e . M o s t o f the d o z e n o r s o species o f hagfish a p p a r e n t l y b u r r o w t h r o u g h b o t t o m o o z e i n search o f w o r m s . O n c e t h e y f i n d o n e , i t i s h o o k e d i n t o the m o u t h b y the a l t e r n a t e w o r k i n g o f h o r n y m o u t h parts. Hagfish a r e also a t t r a c t e d t o d e a d o r n e a r l y d e a d f i s h , w h i c h t h e y e n t e r and c o n s u m e f r o m the i n s i d e o u t .

T h e y have an interesting m e t h o d of getting

i n s i d e . T h e m o u t h d e s i g n o f hagfish i s such that w h e n the r o u n d , j a w l e s s o r i f i c e is a p p r e s s e d against t h e surface of a b o d y , t h e t o n g u e can be p u l l e d back to create an increasingly strong g r i p , like a vicious Chinese finger puzzle. U s u a l l y the hagfish c h o o s e s a s p o t on t h e b o d y of a d e a d fish w h e r e t h e flesh is r o u g h , p e r h a p s at an injury or at t h e anus or g i l l s , a n y p l a c e w h e r e the hag can gain a b e t t e r p u r c h a s e . T h e n the hagfish l o o p s its e e l l i k e b o d y i n t o a k n o t a t t h e tail, w h i c h i t slides f o r w a r d o n its b o d y t o w a r d the h e a d and f i n a l l y against t h e carcass o f t h e m e a l . I t f o r c e s its k n o t against the b o d y w a l l o f the

O T H E R

N E I G H B O R S

225 d e a d f i s h w h i l e p u l l i n g w i t h its a t t a c h e d m o u t h until a hunk o f flesh i s r i p p e d o u t , o p e n i n g the d o o r f o r e n t r y . O n c e i n s i d e , d i n i n g i s e a s i e r , i f n o t m o r e leisurely. W h e n a morsel of f o o d is s w a l l o w e d , it b e c o m e s e n v e l o p e d in a mass o f m u c u s t h r o u g h w h i c h d i g e s t i v e j u i c e s pass and n u t r i e n t s e x i t . T h e n the m u c u s - w r a p p e d u n d i g e s t i b l e r e m a i n s a r e e x p e l l e d . W h i l e t h e i r m e t h o d o f e a t i n g m i g h t strike the m o r e a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c o f u s as disgusting, that is n o t w h y these c r e a t u r e s h a v e e a r n e d t h e n a m e s hagfish and s l i m e hags. T h e real r e a s o n i s that t h e y s e c r e t e c o p i o u s a m o u n t s o f thick mucus f r o m their l o n g ,

slimy,

pinkish p u r p l e b o d i e s .

In addition,

coiled

s e g m e n t s o f p r o t e i n are m i x e d w i t h t h e m u c u s . T h e s e u n c o i l i n s e a w a t e r , s e r v i n g t o t a n g l e the m e s s a r o u n d the a n i m a l . T h e y are n o t a l w a y s i n that state. U s u a l l y t h e y a r e just a v e r a g e s l i m y . H o w e v e r , w h e n d a n g e r t h r e a t e n s , the s l i m e glands k i c k i n t o high g e a r . It is a d e f e n s e m e c h a n i s m , and a g o o d o n e . N o t o n l y h u m a n s f i n d i t d i s g u s t i n g , s o d o p r e d a t o r s . T h e y t e n d t o pass, n o d o u b t c e r t a i n that t h e hagfish i s n o t s o g o o d t o e a t , and t h e y c o n t i n u e searching f o r a m e a l that is just a b i t m o r e a p p e t i z i n g . W h e n t h e hagfish is o u t o f d a n g e r , i t again t h r o w s its b o d y i n t o a k n o t . A s the k n o t m o v e s f o r w a r d f r o m the tail t o the h e a d , the e x c e s s m u c u s i s b u l l d o z e d b e f o r e i t d o w n t o the n o s e . T h e n the hagfish issues a b i g s n e e z e l i k e c o n v u l s i o n , f r e e i n g itself f r o m the s l i m e , and s w i m s o f f t o c o n t i n u e its l i f e . D e s p i t e t h e i r l i f e - s t y l e , hagfish d e s e r v e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d because t h e y a r e of considerable c o m m e r c i a l interest. On the negative side, they damage the catch in g i l l nets by f e e d i n g on t r a p p e d fish. But t h e y also h a v e a p o s i t i v e s i d e , b e l i e v e i t o r n o t . F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e y a r e e a t e n — b y h u m a n s — i n s o m e parts o f the w o r l d . A n d y o u p r o b a b l y d i d n o t k n o w that hagfish p r o v i d e eelskin f o r wallets.

H o w i g n o b l e t o b e c o m e a y u p p i e w a l l e t after h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s

o f years o f p r e c i o u s m a i n t e n a n c e o f the p r i m i t i v e status q u o . A f t e r all its l o n g e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y t h e hagfish m a y b e t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e of living vertebrates, but paradoxically it is n o t necessarily v e r y m u c h like the earliest v e r t e b r a t e s f r o m w h i c h it w a s d e r i v e d . It is a l i v i n g fossil because it has n o j a w s and b e c a u s e o f a f e w o t h e r f e a t u r e s . Its e a r l y j a w l e s s a n c e s t o r s surely d i d n o t h a v e the u n i q u e a t t r i b u t e s s e e n t o d a y i n l i v i n g hagfish. T h e c o n o d o n t s had hard " t e e t h " w h i l e hagfish d o n o t . B e i n g c o v e r e d w i t h a r m o r p l a t e s , o t h e r early j a w l e s s v e r t e b r a t e s k n o w n f r o m t h e fossil r e c o r d c o u l d n o t t i e t h e m s e l v e s i n k n o t s , n o r d i d t h e y e n j o y the d e f e n s e o f s e c r e t i n g e n o r m o u s a m o u n t s o f m u c u s and t h e n s n e e z i n g i t all a w a y w h e n d a n g e r passed. P e r h a p s hagfish e v o l v e d f r o m c a r t i l a g i n o u s a n c e s t o r s that left n o r e c o g n i z a b l e ( o r a s

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

226 y e t d e c i p h e r a b l e ) fossil r e c o r d . P e r h a p s they e v o l v e d f r o m c o n o d o n t s . E v e n s o , i t w o u l d strain c r e d u l i t y t o p r o p o s e that hagfish, l i v i n g fossils o r n o t , are e x a c t l y like t h e i r a n c e s t o r s o f o v e r 5 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o . E m p i r i c a l l y , j u d g i n g f r o m all w e can o b s e r v e , e v o l u t i o n d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o w o r k that w a y . O r g a n i s m s e v o l v e as a w e l l - i n t e g r a t e d mosaic of features, s o m e primitive like the ancestral c o n d i t i o n and o t h e r s a d v a n c e d , o r , i n o t h e r w o r d s , d e r i v e d f r o m that o f the a n c e s t o r . Hagfish are a m o s a i c . T h e lack o f j a w s i s p r i m i t i v e , but the details o f the h o r n y b i t i n g parts i n the r o u n d m o u t h a r e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y d e r i v e d relative to their ancestors. T h e mucus-Hood defense is v e r y likely a derived

feature n o t present in

the

earliest

vertebrates.

The

reason

it is

p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d is because it is so s p e c i a l i z e d . If a s t r u c t u r e is s p e c i a l i z e d , the o p t i o n s f o r t h e d i r e c t i o n s i n w h i c h i t can e v o l v e further b e c o m e l i m i t e d . T h e lesson f r o m all this is that a l t h o u g h species l i v i n g t o d a y have a l o n g history o f e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , s o m e features o f a species e v o l v e faster than o t h e r s . E v e n species that can l e g i t i m a t e l y be r e f e r r e d to as l i v i n g fossils are u n i q u e and u n l i k e t h e i r a n c e s t o r s e x c e p t in a v e r y g e n e r a l sense and in a f e w v e r y basic d e t a i l s . O f c o u r s e , n o t all g r o u p s o f v e r t e b r a t e s e v o l v e w i t h the a p p a r e n t e x c r u c i ating s l o w n e s s o f s l i m e hags o n the o n e h a n d , o r the a p p a r e n t e x p l o s i v e n e s s o f m a m m a l s o n the o t h e r . T h e r e i s n o e v o l u t i o n a r i l y c o r r e c t p r e s c r i p t i o n . Each g e n e a l o g y i s d i f f e r e n t i n d e t a i l . T h e history o f o r g a n i s m s i s c o m p l e x , involving

internal

biological

attributes

o f the

individual

and

the

species,

e x t e r n a l factors i m p o s e d b y the physical e n v i r o n m e n t and o t h e r i n t e r a c t i n g s p e c i e s , plus a b i g d o s e o f statistical p r o b a b i l i t i e s , o r w h a t w e m i g h t c o m m o n l y r e f e r t o a s c h a n c e , m a y b e e v e n luck. T h e v a r i o u s characteristics o f a single species e v o l v e a s a n i n t e g r a t e d m o s a i c , s o m e faster and s o m e s l o w e r , s o i t m a k e s sense that i f w e l o o k a t a c o m m u n i t y o f a n i m a l s , a c o l l e c t i o n o f s p e c i e s all l i v i n g i n p r o x i m i t y , s o m e w i l l s e e m t o b e m o r e e v o l v e d , w h i l e o t h e r s a p p e a r less e v o l v e d . S o m e w i l l b e m o r e like l i v i n g fossils than o t h e r s . The

different patterns

of evolution

o f the

individual

species w i t h i n

a

c o m m u n i t y w i l l usually r e f l e c t , a t least i n s o m e g e n e r a l w a y , the g e o g r a p h y that has i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r e v o l u t i o n , w h e t h e r i t b e t h e d i v i d i n g o f s u p e r c o n t i n e n t s , t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f a n isthmus a l l o w i n g animal m i g r a t i o n , o r the p r e s e r v a t i o n o f suitable p r o t e c t i v e r e f u g i a . W e have a l r e a d y seen e x a m p l e s f r o m the dinosaurs, c r o c o d i l e s , and m a m m a l s o f g e o g r a p h i c r e a r r a n g e m e n t s influencing the a d m i x t u r e o f species p r e s e n t o n a g i v e n c o n t i n e n t a t a g i v e n t i m e . Frogs p r o v i d e another e x a m p l e .

O T H E R

N E I G H B O R S

227 F r o g s e v o l v e d just a bit b e f o r e d i n o s a u r s , c r o c s , and m a m m a l s . T h e y are one of three

l i v i n g d i v i s i o n s i n the

v e r t e b r a t e class A m p h i b i a .

The most

ancient a m p h i b i a n s g o w a y back i n t i m e t o w h e n v e r t e b r a t e s f i r s t left a n o b l i g a t o r y aquatic l i f e - s t y l e and b e g a n t o i n v a d e t e r r a f i r m a . N o n e o f t h e l i v i n g a m p h i b i a n s l o o k s a g r e a t deal l i k e t h e i r P a l e o z o i c f o r e r u n n e r s . Back t h e n the a m p h i b i a n s l o o k e d like t w o - f o o t - l o n g , and l o n g e r , spatulas h a v i n g stubby l e g s and s t o u t b o d i e s . T h e i r p a n c a k e - t u r n e r heads w e r e f i t t e d w i t h j a w s e a g e r t o snap shut o n p r e y . N o n e o f t h e e a r l y a m p h i b i a n s w a s h e r b i v o r o u s . E v e n n o w , all are c a r n i v o r o u s , at least as adults. F r o g s do n o t a p p r o a c h the size of t h e large

early amphibians,

and t h e y a r e

r a t h e r distantly

related

(within

the

A m p h i b i a ) t o m o s t o f t h e m , b u t w h i l e t h e i r skull b o n e s a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t , l i v i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the class still s h o w t h e b r o a d , flat h e a d and e n d e a r i n g K e r m i t the F r o g s m i l e o f all a m p h i b i a n s . O b t a i n i n g the l a n d , a s a m p h i b i a n s d i d , p r e s e n t s all kinds o f p r o b l e m s . Since b o d i e s d o n o t float i n air like t h e y d o i n w a t e r ,

the most obvious

p r o b l e m i n v o l v e s s u p p o r t i n g the a n i m a l ' s w e i g h t . V a r i o u s structural m o d i f i cations and e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n s o c c u r r e d e a r l y i n a m p h i b i a n h i s t o r y . T h e backb o n e w a s r e i n f o r c e d , and the l i m b s s t r e n g t h e n e d . D r y i n g o u t i s a p r o b l e m , m o r e s o than b r e a t h i n g . Early a m p h i b i a n s had lungs l i k e t h e i r f i s h y aquatic a n c e s t o r s . M o r e o v e r , air-breathing

through

t h r o u g h m o i s t skin.

lungs The

absorbing

oxygen

d o w n s i d e o f m o i s t skin i s that m o i s t u r e

could

be

supplemented

by

i s lost

t h r o u g h i t , d e h y d r a t i n g and k i l l i n g the a n i m a l i f the d e h y d r a t i o n g e t s o u t o f c o n t r o l . L i v i n g a m p h i b i a n s a l w a y s h a v e a t o u g h t i m e w i t h that. T h e y are m o s t c o m m o n a r o u n d l o w , w e t areas, p o n d s , o r s t r e a m s , and w h e n t h e y are f o u n d e l s e w h e r e , t h e r e are s o m e s o p h i s t i c a t e d survival tricks b r o u g h t i n t o play. R e p r o d u c t i o n in m o d e r n amphibians f o l l o w s a rather p r i m i t i v e pattern that in its basic f o r m w o u l d be just as g o o d f o r a fish. U s u a l l y the f e m a l e sheds o v a d i r e c t l y i n t o the w a t e r and a m a l e d u m p s s p e r m i n t o t h e w a t e r t o f e r t i l i z e t h e m o u t s i d e o f the f e m a l e ' s b o d y .

T h e n , in m o s t species, the d e v e l o p i n g

amphibians u n d e r g o a f r e e - l i v i n g , fully aquatic t a d p o l e s t a g e . T h a t is v e r y unlike r e p r o d u c t i o n i n r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s , b o t h o f w h i c h h a v e internal f e r t i l i z a t i o n and fetal m e m b r a n e s , i n c l u d i n g a n a m n i o n , e m b r a c i n g the d e v e l oping embryo. L i v i n g amphibians c o m p r i s e t h e caecilians, the s a l a m a n d e r s , and the f r o g s ( w i t h t h e i r w a r t y b u d d i e s , the t o a d s ) . C a e c i l i a n s h a v e n o l e g s . T h e y l i v e i n the t r o p i c s , b u r r o w i n g i n t h e g r o u n d . A f e w s p e c i e s are fully a q u a t i c , l i v i n g

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

228 the

whole

of their

lives

i n fresh w a t e r .

In

Africa

caecilians

seem

to be

p a r t i c u l a r l y f o n d o f b u r r o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e o r g a n i c l o a m o f banana plantat i o n s . T h e y h a v e a m i s e r a b l e fossil r e c o r d , n o t v e r y i n f o r m a t i v e e x c e p t f o r s o m e t i n y s p e c i m e n s f r o m A r i z o n a , d a t i n g f r o m b e f o r e Pangaea b r o k e u p . T h e A r i z o n a s p e c i m e n s h a v e l e g s . It should n o t be surprising that an ancient fossil caecilian has d i m i n u t i v e l e g s w h i l e l i v i n g caecilians have n o n e . L e g l e s s caecilians had t o e v o l v e f r o m a n c e s t o r s w i t h l e g s . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s a t r u l y w o n d e r ful thing to find t h e m in the fossil r e c o r d and to see t h e m . It is a p u z z l e p i e c e that f i t s p e r f e c t l y i n t o the h y p o t h e t i c a l h o l e w h e r e i t s h o u l d . S a l a m a n d e r s are o f t e n q u i t e p r e t t y w i t h brilliant y e l l o w o r o r a n g e c o l o r p a t t e r n s . T h e y h a v e l o n g b o d i e s and tails and b r o a d , s m i l i n g faces. A s they w a l k , t h e y s w i n g t h e i r b o d i e s back and f o r t h i n a n S - s h a p e d c u r v e , like the f l e x i n g o f a f i s h tail. T h e y are m o s t d i v e r s e i n the A p p a l a c h i a n r e g i o n , but t h e y are d i s t r i b u t e d all o v e r m u c h o f the N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . O n e salamander f a m i l y e n t e r e d S o u t h A m e r i c a , a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y , and l i v e s t h e r e t o d a y . Salamanders a p p e a r t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d i n the n o r t h after G o n d w a n a separated in the breakup of Pangaea. Frogs are currently w o r l d w i d e in distribution, amphibians,

t h e y a r e l i m i t e d b y salt w a t e r .

a l t h o u g h like all o t h e r

T h e i r earliest r e c o r d i s f r o m

M a d a g a s c a r . T h e y e v o l v e d just a bit b e f o r e t h e dinosaurs and m a m m a l s d i d . T h r o u g h o u t t h e i r 2 0 0 - m i l l i o n - y e a r - p l u s h i s t o r y f r o g s h a v e b e e n unmistakable a s f r o g s . O n c e t h e structural and a d a p t i v e t h r e s h o l d o f f r o g d o m w a s passed, f r o g s w e r e h e r e t o stay. I t i s a plan that w o r k s . T h e r e are m a n y l i v i n g s p e c i e s , and t h e r e is v a r i e t y in w h a t t h e y do in n a t u r e , b u t basically a f r o g is a f r o g i s a f r o g . T h e y a r e n o t like m a m m a l s , m a n y m o d e r n species o f w h i c h b e a r l i t t l e r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e m a m m a l s o f 1 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h e y a r e , i n the sense of h a v i n g a s t r o n g s i m i l a r i t y to e a r l y fossil f r o g s , l i v i n g fossils. Because t h e y w e r e a r o u n d since the days o f P a n g a e a , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t that the s e p a r a t i o n o f N o r t h e r n and S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e landmasses had a n effect o n s u b s e q u e n t f r o g e v o l u t i o n , w h i c h i t d i d , and that the later b r e a k u p o f G o n d w a n a also had a n i n f l u e n c e .

S o m e o f the m o d e r n d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f r o g

families m a y w e l l b e r e l a t e d t o the d i s s e c t i o n o f P a n g a e a , just a s the distribut i o n o f s a l a m a n d e r s is. T h e g e n e a l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g l i v i n g f r o g s h a v e b e e n studied f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r b i o c h e m i s t r y , b u t n o t s o m u c h f r o m t h e i r a n a t o m y and e a r l y fossil r e c o r d . T h a t i s i n part because the a n a t o m y o f f r o g s , e x c e p t in a f e w n o t a b l e and i m p o r t a n t studies, is p e r c e i v e d as b e i n g m o n o t o n o u s .

O T H E R

N E I G H B O R S

229 Using the magnitude of immunological

reactions a m o n g frogs,

it w a s es-

t i m a t e d that s o m e o f the m o d e r n f a m i l i e s o f f r o g s d i v e r g e d f r o m each o t h e r d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s . O n e f a m i l y o f l i v i n g f r o g s , the p i p i d s , i s n o w e s p e cially characteristic o f A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a .

O f t e n t h e y are c o n s i d e r e d

q u i t e p r i m i t i v e a m o n g f r o g s . P i p i d s , t h e g r o u p that i n c l u d e s the m i d w i f e t o a d s and the little mail o r d e r f r o g s f o r c h i l d r e n , are n o w a d a y s e n t i r e l y aquatic. A s s u m i n g that t h e y have t h e i r o r i g i n i n the t i m e b e t w e e n the split o f Pangaea and

the

breakup

of G o n d w a n a ,

the

fossil

frogs

collected

in

Malawi

and

C a m e r o o n o u g h t t o i n c l u d e p i p i d s . T h a t appears t o b e the case. Partial skulls f r o m b o t h M a l a w i and C a m e r o o n are h e a v i l y c o n s t r u c t e d like m o d e r n p i p i d s ' skulls a r e . T h e b e s t f r o g s a m p l e available t o m e i s f r o m the o l d C r e t a c e o u s p o n d i n C a m e r o o n . T h e r e are b o t h adults and p r o b a b l y t a d p o l e s t h e r e , b u t I h a v e n o t b e e n able t o m a k e m o r e sense o u t o f t h e m than t o r e c o g n i z e p i p i d s . T h a t s e e m s t o b e the o n l y f a m i l y t h e r e , f o r n o w a n y w a y . L i z a r d s and t u r t l e s ,

t w o groups of living reptiles,

have

a distribution

p a t t e r n similar t o a m p h i b i a n s and e q u a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . T h u s w e a r e b e g i n n i n g t o see c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n s o f b i o t i c c h a n g e e m e r g e f r o m t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s , initiated u n d e r the f e e t o f dinosaurs and c o n c l u d i n g w i t h o u r o w n familiar m o d e r n w o r l d . A m o n g t h e b e t t e r - k n o w n l i z a r d s , the iguanas and t h e i r c l o s e relatives seem

to have

originated

in

G o n d w a n a f o l l o w i n g the

breakup

of

Pangaea. W i t h further f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s o u t h e r n landmass, c h a m e l e o n s emerged.

Skinks, g e k k o s , r a c e r u n n e r s ,

G i l a m o n s t e r s , and m o n i t o r s m a y

trace t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c o r i g i n s back t o N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e landmasses after the

breakup

o f Pangaea.

Considerable

mixing

of Northern

and

Southern

H e m i s p h e r e lizards has o c c u r r e d since t h e e n d of the C r e t a c e o u s , just as it has f o r m a m m a l s , but the fossil r e c o r d of lizards is less c o m p l e t e , or at least less intensively studied. T u r t l e s p r e s e n t a p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g s t o r y because t h e y are such an o d d g r o u p o f animals. I n s o m e w a y s , m o s t n o t a b l y i n the s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r skulls, t h e y are t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e o f r e p t i l e s .

A m n i o t e s , that i s all t h o s e

v e r t e b r a t e s h a v i n g a n a m n i o t i c m e m b r a n e d u r i n g fetal d e v e l o p m e n t , can b e d i v i d e d u p i n t o basically t h r e e d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e w a y t h e i r c h e e k b o n e s arch. T h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f c h e e k b o n e s i s i m p o r t a n t f o r h o w animals c h e w because s o m e o f the i m p o r t a n t m u s c l e s that w o r k the l o w e r j a w attach t o t h e m o r c o n t r a c t n e x t t o t h e m . T o test this, f e e l y o u r c h e e k b o n e t o l o c a t e i t i n y o u r face. T h e n slide y o u r hand d o w n t o w a r d the a n g l e o f y o u r j a w and b i t e . Y o u w i l l feel the b u l g e o f y o u r m a s s e t e r m u s c l e . T h e n m o v e

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

230

y o u r hand t o y o u r t e m p l e r e g i o n and b i t e again.

N o w y o u w i l l feel y o u r

t e m p o r a l muscles. Both function w h e n you c h e w . Y o u r cheekbone provides a strut a l l o w i n g the m u s c l e s t o w o r k e f f i c i e n t l y . P r i m i t i v e l y the skull of v e r t e b r a t e s is c o n s t r u c t e d l i k e a b o x w i t h all the muscles for c h e w i n g confined within the b o x . b o n e s t o f o r m c h e e k arches o p e n s u p g a p s ,

T h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f skull or w i n d o w s ,

through which

m u s c l e s can pass, a l l o w i n g t h e m t o b e c o m e l o n g e r and t h e r e f o r e s t r o n g e r . T h e m u s c l e s o f t e n attach a r o u n d t h e w i n d o w o p e n i n g , and w h e n t h e y c o n t r a c t , the b u l g e o f the e x e r t i n g m u s c l e has a p l a c e t o g o , t h r o u g h the w i n d o w , r a t h e r than b e i n g t r a p p e d in a b o x l i k e skull. Y o u , and o t h e r species in the mammal

clade,

have but o n e

cheekbone

arch o n

each side

o f the skull.

D i n o s a u r s , b i r d s , c r o c o d i l e s , lizards, and snakes e i t h e r have t w o o r t h e y have skulls that w e r e m o d i f i e d f r o m a n c e s t o r s that had t w o . A l l l i v i n g r e p t i l e s are o f the t w o - a r c h skull v a r i e t y , w i t h o n e e x c e p t i o n — t h e t u r t l e s . T u r t l e s retain a b o x l i k e skull, but m o d i f i e d i n o t h e r w a y s . T h e y d o n o t have c h e e k arches a t all and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e i r c h e w i n g m u s c l e s w o r k d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m the basic plan o f o t h e r r e p t i l e s . A s a m a t t e r o f fact, turtles d o n o t e v e n have t e e t h . T h e i r jaws are c o v e r e d by a horny beak. E v o l u t i o n a r i l y a d v a n c e d t u r t l e s h a v e s o p h i s t i c a t e d skulls and c h e w i n g m u s cles,

which

evolved

in

other

directions

from

those

taken

by

mammals.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , b e c a u s e t u r t l e s lack c h e e k arches i n the sense o f m a m m a l s o r as

in

other

primitive

reptiles,

amphibians

and b e c a u s e lack

cheek

geologically

arches,

turtles

ancient are

and

evolutionarily

considered

primitive

a m o n g the a m n i o t e s . T h e i r cheeks may leave a little something to be desired f r o m an advanced a m n i o t e p e r s p e c t i v e , b u t t u r t l e s c l e a r l y h a v e t h e i r o w n u n i q u e specializations. Just think a b o u t the shell. I t i s n a t u r e ' s o w n m o b i l e h o m e , the W i n n e b a g o o f v e r t e b r a t e e v o l u t i o n . T o g e t a n i d e a o f just h o w r e m a r k a b l e the t u r t l e shell is, r e a c h b e h i n d y o u r back and f e e l y o u r s h o u l d e r b l a d e . I t juts o u t , right? N o w f e e l y o u r ribs b e l o w y o u r s h o u l d e r b l a d e . Y o u r s h o u l d e r b l a d e and y o u r c o l l a r b o n e , the b o n e s that m a k e u p y o u r s h o u l d e r g i r d l e , t o w h i c h y o u r a r m attaches, all o f i t lies o u t s i d e o f y o u r rib c a g e . N o t s o w i t h t u r t l e s . T h e b o n y shell o f t u r t l e s i s m a d e u p m o s t l y o f ribs and the b a c k b o n e . O b v i o u s l y the shoulder b l a d e — a n d arms,

l e g s , tail, and n e c k , f o r that m a t t e r — a r e n o t

attached o u t s i d e o f t h e r i b c a g e . T h e y c o u l d n o t b e and still b e seen e x t e n d i n g o u t f r o m inside the s h e l l , o r , m o r e i m p r e s s i v e l y i n s o m e s p e c i e s , the a p p e n d ages c o u l d n o t b e r e t r a c t e d c o m p l e t e l y i n t o the p r o t e c t i o n o f the shell. T h e

OTHER

NEIGHBORS

231 s k e l e t o n s o f t u r t l e s , t h e r e f o r e , n o m a t t e r h o w p r i m i t i v e the c h e e k arches m i g h t b e , a r e v e r y special s t r u c t u r e s . T h e r e are t w o major groups o f living turtles.

T h e m o r e c o m m o n and

abundant g r o u p c o m p r i s e s t h e h i d d e n - n e c k e d t u r t l e s .

T h e mechanism for

d r a w i n g the head i n t o t h e shell r e l i e s o n a c o m p l i c a t e d suite o f v e r t e b r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s a l l o w i n g the n e c k t o b e essentially l o o p e d u p o n itself i n a n S - s h a p e d c u r v e and t h e n r o t a t e d in a v e r t i c a l p l a n e back i n t o the shell. T h e o t h e r m a j o r g r o u p i s t h e s i d e - n e c k e d t u r t l e s . T h e y s i m p l y s w i n g t h e i r heads t o the side t o f i t i t u n d e r the p r o t e c t i o n o f the shell. T h e s i d e - n e c k e d turtles are c o n s i d e r e d the m o r e p r i m i t i v e o f the t w o g r o u p s . T u r t l e s t r a c e t h e i r o r i g i n s back t o the h e y d a y o f P a n g a e a , and t h e r e i s g o o d e v i d e n c e that the t w o g r o u p s o f t u r t l e s w e r e distinct b e f o r e t h e b r e a k u p o f Pangaea b e g a n . H o w e v e r , as in the case of f r o g s and lizards, the isolation and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f G o n d w a n a had a m a j o r effect o n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v a r i o u s t u r t l e families a s w e f i n d t h e m t o d a y . T h e s i d e - n e c k e d t u r t l e s a r e basically S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e i n d i s t r i b u t i o n , w h i l e S - n e c k e d t u r t l e s are m u c h m o r e w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d , i n c l u d i n g i n the o c e a n s o f t h e w o r l d because s o m e o f t h e m , such as l e a t h e r b a c k s and g r e e n sea t u r t l e s , have i n v a d e d the m a r i n e environment. Fossil turtles w e r e f i r s t f o u n d i n the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i l o n g a g o . In fact o n e of t h e m w a s n a m e d Platycheloides nyasae in

1 9 2 8 . Platycheloides is

a s i d e - n e c k e d t u r t l e . T h e s a m e k i n d o f t u r t l e i s f o u n d i n r o c k s o f similar a g e i n the W e s t A f r i c a n n a t i o n o f N i g e r a l o n g w i t h o t h e r t u r t l e s m o s t similar t o t h o s e f o u n d a t A r a r i p e i n Brazil. T h e fossil r e c o r d o f turtles i s a n o t h e r case w h e r e ancient life r e f l e c t s the l a r g e - s c a l e g e o g r a p h y o f the C r e t a c e o u s . U n t i l r e c e n t l y i t w a s h e l d a m o n g s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s that g r e e n sea t u r t l e s , a l i v i n g species, s h o w a p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f o r m a t i v e l i f e - s t y l e that harkens back to t h e i r a n c e s t o r ' s habits o f 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . G r e e n sea turtles are o n e o f t h e S - n e c k e d species that h a v e taken t o the o c e a n s ( F i g u r e 3 9 ) . F e m a l e s l e a v e the sea o n l y t o s c r a m b l e o n t o sandy beaches and lay e g g s . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l b r e e d i n g c e n t e r s f o r t h e s p e c i e s . G r e e n sea turtles are h e r b i v o r e s . S o m e p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e m g r a z e o n sea grass o f f the coast o f Brazil, but b r e e d and lay t h e i r e g g s o v e r 2 , 3 0 0 k i l o m e t e r s distant, s o m e 1,400 m i l e s a w a y . Each y e a r a g r o u p o f g r e e n sea turtles turns t h e i r beaks t o t h e east and s w i m s t o t h e island o f A s c e n s i o n , a n u n p r e p o s s e s s i n g v o l c a n i c r o c k j u t t i n g a b o v e the surface o f the o c e a n a l o n g the M i d - A t l a n t i c Ridge.

I t i s unclear e x a c t l y h o w the n a v i g a t i o n i s m a n a g e d ,

perhaps by

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

232 utilizing

the

sun

or

moon,

perhaps

ocean

currents,

perhaps

the

Earth's

magnetic field, perhaps by a combination of several means. T h e most recent studies i m p l i c a t e the d i r e c t i o n o f w a v e s and p e r h a p s the local v a r i a t i o n i n the intensity o f the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d caused b y t h e m a g n e t i c stripes i n the sea f l o o r as p o s s i b l e clues f o r t u r t l e n a v i g a t i o n ( s e e F i g u r e 8 in C h a p t e r 1 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s the fact r e m a i n s that a p o p u l a t i o n of g r e e n sea t u r t l e s feeds off t h e coast o f B r a z i l , t h e n r e g u l a r l y t h e s a m e g r o u p r e t u r n s faithfully, i t s e e m s , t o the s a m e f o r s a k e n island i n t h e m i d d l e o f the A t l a n t i c t o r e p r o d u c e . I t w a s s u g g e s t e d a t o n e t i m e that t h e m o d e r n m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n o f t h e g r e e n sea t u r t l e w a s n o t h i n g m o r e than a n u p d a t e d v e r s i o n o f the a n c i e n t p a t t e r n o f the ancestral b r e e d i n g c y c l e established as A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a split apart through continental

drift.

W h e n those

continents rifted apart,

the

South

A t l a n t i c O c e a n f o r m e d . A s t h e y c o n t i n u e d t o drift a p a r t , t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n g o t w i d e r and w i d e r until the p r e s e n t g e o g r a p h y w a s r e a c h e d . O n e fly i n t h e o i n t m e n t i s the age o f A s c e n s i o n Island. I t i s n o w h e r e near o l d e n o u g h t o h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t i n the e a r l y stages o f the f o r m a t i o n o f the S o u t h A t l a n t i c . I t i s q u i t e y o u n g , n o t m o r e than a f e w m i l l i o n years o l d . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e that t u r t l e s w e r e b r e e d i n g o n its b e a c h e s e i t h e r late i n the A g e o f R e p t i l e s o r early i n the A g e o f M a m m a l s b e c a u s e i t s i m p l y w a s n o t t h e r e . T h e d i l e m m a could be solved by realizing h o w geologically active mid-ocean

FIGURE 39: Island in

Green sea turtle. A population of these sea turtles nests on Ascension

the middle of the Atlantic

Ocean.

OTHER

NEIGHBORS

233 ridges

are.

There

are

always

new

volcanic

islands b e i n g f o r m e d

because

m o l t e n r o c k i s c a r r i e d t o t h e surface a l o n g m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s , n e w sea f l o o r is created (see Figure 7 in Chapter

1 ) , and s o m e t i m e s i n t h e h e a t o f t h e

g e o l o g i c a l m o m e n t lava i s e x t r u d e d t h r o u g h v o l c a n o e s t o such a n e x t e n t that a p i l e rises a b o v e the surface o f t h e o c e a n w a t e r . L i k e A s c e n s i o n , I c e l a n d i s an island on the M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e . In fact I c e l a n d is the largest island on t h e ridge. O n c e a v o l c a n i c island i s f o r m e d a l o n g a m i d - o c e a n r i d g e , t w o f o r c e s b e g i n t o act o n it. First i t b e g i n s a n i n e x o r a b l e v o y a g e a w a y f r o m the r i d g e d u e s i m p l y t o t h e w a y p l a t e t e c t o n i c s w o r k s . N e w sea f l o o r i s c r e a t e d and o l d e r sea f l o o r , i n c l u d i n g that o n w h i c h v o l c a n o e s are s t a c k e d , m o v e s l a t e r a l l y a w a y . A s sea f l o o r m o v e s a w a y f r o m the r i d g e , i t c o o l s and b e c a u s e i t i s c o o l e r , i t b e c o m e s d e n s e r . T h e c o o l e r , d e n s e r sea f l o o r a w a y f r o m t h e r i d g e settles d e e p e r i n t o t h e m o r e plastic substance o f the E a r t h ' s i n t e r i o r . T h e n e t result i s that the islands that w e r e o n c e e m e r g e n t a b o v e t h e r i d g e s l o w l y s u b m e r g e as they m o v e away f r o m the r i d g e . T h e s e c o n d f o r c e a c t i n g o n t h e island i s that o f e r o s i o n . W a v e s i m m e d i ately b e g i n b a t t e r i n g its surface as s o o n as it is f o r m e d . Such h o s t i l e actions b y the o c e a n against t h e shores s p e e d u p t h e p r o c e s s o f s u b m e r g e n c e . E v e n t u ally a flat t o p is p u m m e l e d o n t o the island and it sinks c o m p l e t e l y b e n e a t h t h e w a v e s t o b e c o m e w h a t i s k n o w n a s a s e a m o u n t . T h e H a w a i i a n Islands, w h i l e e r u p t e d o v e r a h o t s p o t in the o c e a n crust r a t h e r than a s p r e a d i n g c e n t e r , are a chain that illustrates t h e p r o c e s s . T h e y o u n g e s t island i s t h e b i g o n e , H a w a i i . T h e islands are o l d e r i n a l i n e g o i n g t o the n o r t h w e s t f r o m M a u i t o M o l o k a i t o O a h u t o K a u a i . T h e o l d e s t islands i n t h e H a w a i i a n chain are n o l o n g e r islands. T h e y are the E m p e r o r S e a m o u n t s . T h a t i s w h a t i s g o i n g t o h a p p e n t o A s c e n s i o n Island. I n t i m e i t w i l l sink. W h e n i t d o e s , t u r t l e s v e r y c e r t a i n l y w i l l breed there no longer. S o w h e r e w i l l t h e y g o ? T h e s i m p l e a n s w e r i s just s o m e w h e r e e l s e . T h e y w i l l f i n d a n e w p l a c e t o lay e g g s , o r t h e y w i l l d i e o u t . N o w s u p p o s e that this t u r t l e s p e c i e s w i t h its e x a c t i n g sense o f n a v i g a t i o n s w i m s t o w a r d A s c e n s i o n , b u t a n o t h e r island has s p r o u t e d n e a r b y f r o m b e neath the w a v e s a l o n g the m i d - o c e a n r i d g e . W o u l d t h e y just lay t h e i r e g g s o n the n e w beaches? I f the t u r t l e s w e r e t o f i n d a n o t h e r island that w a y , i t m a y n o t matter to

the

turtles

that

Ascension goes

under.

Is

it possible

that

A s c e n s i o n is o n e island in a l o n g string of islands a p p e a r i n g and d i s a p p e a r i n g t h r o u g h t i m e ? I t i s easy t o i m a g i n e such a t h i n g i f w e l o o k a t t h e H a w a i i a n

LOUIS JACOBS, PH.D. 234 island chain on a m a p ,

strung a l o n g f r o m a v o l c a n i c s o u r c e , the y o u n g e r

islands fresh and h i g h , t h e o l d e r islands l o w e r and less r u g g e d , phasing i n t o s e a m o u n t s . T h e r e are s e a m o u n t s a l o n g t h e M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e , s o the q u e s t i o n b e c o m e s , h a v e t h e g r e e n sea t u r t l e s l e a p - f r o g g e d f r o m m i d - o c e a n island t o m i d - o c e a n island a s the S o u t h A t l a n t i c w i d e n e d f o r a p e r i o d o f 100 m i l l i o n years? W h a t a n e a t s t o r y if t h e y had. T h e fossil r e c o r d o f sea t u r t l e s i s less e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d than i t o u g h t t o b e i n o r d e r t o m a k e sense o f t h e h i s t o r y o f the g r e e n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s turtles o f a similar e v o l u t i o n a r y g r a d e had t a k e n t o t h e sea b y C r e t a c e o u s t i m e s . T h e y c a n n o t h a v e i n v a d e d the South A t l a n t i c until i t w a s o p e n , o b v i o u s l y , s o unless they

were

in

the

hypersaline

waters

off southwest

Africa,

which

seems

u n l i k e l y , g r e e n sea t u r t l e s p r o b a b l y d i d n o t e x i s t a r o u n d A f r i c a , i f t h e y e x i s t e d i n the C r e t a c e o u s a t all. M o r e o v e r , t h e l i f e - s t y l e o f g r e e n sea turtles i n the A t l a n t i c d e p e n d s o n the p r e s e n c e o f l a r g e fields o f sea grass, o n w h i c h the s p e c i e s f e e d s , m o r e than i t d e p e n d s o n t h e b e a c h e s o f A s c e n s i o n Island, w h e r e o n l y o n e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i e s lays e g g s . T h e r e are n o indications that t u r t l e grass w a s w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d until the l a t t e r half o f t h e A g e o f M a m m a l s , p e r h a p s a r o u n d t w e n t y m i l l i o n years a g o o r less. C o n c l u s i v e p r o o f that the g r e e n sea turtles of A s c e n s i o n Island are not the s u r v i v o r s o f a l o n g and majestic r a c e o f M i d - A t l a n t i c seafaring turtles c o m e s from

a

detailed

comparison

of their genetic

material

with

that

of other

p o p u l a t i o n s o f g r e e n sea t u r t l e s . T h e m o l e c u l e s o f i n h e r i t a n c e c l e a r l y indicate that t h e r e has b e e n m i x i n g , a t least t o s o m e d e g r e e , o f the f e m a l e s f r o m the v a r i o u s p o p u l a t i o n s o f the s p e c i e s . T h e A s c e n s i o n Island p o p u l a t i o n has n o t b e e n s e p a r a t e all t h e s e y e a r s , and t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f the b e a c h e s i n the m i d d l e o f the A t l a n t i c , w h i l e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y a n a m a z i n g feat o f animal m i g r a t i o n , i s not

necessarily

the

end

result

of a

chain

of longer

and

longer

distance

c o l o n i z a t i o n s b y a s i n g l e c o n t i g u o u s p o p u l a t i o n . I t c o u l d b e n o t h i n g m o r e than happenstance

that

the

beaches

of A s c e n s i o n

are

used

as

a

nesting area,

r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r o t h e r islands a l o n g the M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e h a v e , o r have n o t , b e e n u t i l i z e d i n t i m e s past. T h e i d e a o f i s l a n d - h o p p i n g v e r t e b r a t e s i s n o t l i m i t e d t o t u r t l e s , and i t i s not even

limited

to true

islands,

n o r t o animals that s w i m .

I t has b e e n

s u g g e s t e d that the r a t h e r c o n s t a n t s u p p l y o f v o l c a n i c r o c k s t o I c e l a n d has m a i n t a i n e d t h e island a b o v e t h e surface f o r tens o f m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s . T h a t part o f i t l y i n g o v e r t h e M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e , t h e s o u r c e o f lava, r e m a i n s e m e r g e n t , but the lateral flanks of t h e island subside and d i s a p p e a r . It is similar to the

O T H E R

N E I G H B O R S

235 n o t i o n o f c o n t i n u a l l y c r e a t i n g n e w islands a l o n g t h e r i d g e , e x c e p t that w i t h I c e l a n d the island is a l w a y s f o r m e d at the s a m e s p o t . T h u s , such t e r r e s t r i a l animals a s m a y have b e e n inhabiting I c e l a n d t w e n t y m i l l i o n years a g o h a v e n e v e r b e e n w i t h o u t d r y l a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o this t h e o r y , and the land surface w h e r e they l i v e d a c t e d a s a s o r t o f t r e a d m i l l , w i t h t h e inhabitants r e q u i r e d t o maintain their p o s i t i o n o v e r the r i d g e o n y o u n g e r and y o u n g e r r o c k a s t i m e progressed.

It is an i n t e r e s t i n g i d e a , but t h e r e is no d i r e c t e v i d e n c e that

v o l c a n i c islands have b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y significant in this r e g a r d , at least so far a s t e r r e s t r i a l v e r t e b r a t e s a r e c o n c e r n e d . But s o m e e v i d e n c e i s s u g g e s t i v e . O n e r e c e n t study i n t r o d u c e s the p o s s i b i l i t y that the life o f t h e G a l a p a g o s Islands, straddling the e q u a t o r o f f t h e coast o f E c u a d o r i n t h e eastern Pacific O c e a n , can b e v i e w e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f islands t h r o u g h t i m e , w e a r i n g t o s e a m o u n t s , subsiding and s u b m e r g i n g w h i l e n e w islands f o r m . T h i s i s a n e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g s u g g e s t i o n b e c a u s e t h e G a l a p a g o s Islands p l a y e d a c e n tral r o l e in D a r w i n ' s f o r m u l a t i o n of e v o l u t i o n by natural s e l e c t i o n . It is a u n i q u e set o f islands w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n g fauna and flora. T h e n a m e G a l a p a g o s d e r i v e s f r o m the Spanish w o r d f o r t o r t o i s e . large,

to o v e r

100 p o u n d s

in

fact.

The

Galapagos tortoises g r o w quite

islands w e r e

a regular stop

for

b u c c a n e e r s and later f o r m o r e l e g i t i m a t e sailing ships. T h e t o r t o i s e s p r o v i d e d a n easy s o u r c e o f fresh m e a t and t h e y c o u l d b e c o n v e n i e n t l y s t o r e d o n t h e i r backs i n a ship's h o l d f o r w e e k s w i t h o u t t r o u b l e . Besides t o r t o i s e s t h e r e are all kinds o f n o t e w o r t h y animals o n t h e islands. G a l a p a g o s p e n g u i n s s u r v i v e a t t h e e q u a t o r because o f t h e c o l d - w a t e r c u r r e n t s that c o m e u p f r o m A n t a r c t i c a a l o n g t h e w e s t coast o f S o u t h A m e r i c a . M a r i n e iguanas are lizards that h a v e t a k e n to f e e d i n g in t h e sea o f f plants g r o w i n g a l o n g the r o c k y shores o f the islands. D a r w i n w a s struck b y the s i m i l a r i t y o f m o s t o f the fauna o f the islands t o that o f m a i n l a n d South A m e r i c a , y e t each island h e l d a d i f f e r e n t b u t r e l a t e d set o f s p e c i e s . D a r w i n r e a s o n e d that each island i n the a r c h i p e l a g o p r o v i d e d a separate locus f o r natural s e l e c t i o n and c o n s e q u e n t l y f o r the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f s p e c i e s , p e r h a p s m o s t f a m o u s l y the b i r d s k n o w n a s D a r w i n ' s f i n c h e s . If t h e G a l a p a g o s Islands are s i m p l y the last e m e r g e n t r o c k s in a s y s t e m that i n c l u d e s s e a m o u n t s that w e r e p r e v i o u s l y islands, t h e a n c e s t o r s o f t h e t e r r e s trial inhabitants m a y h a v e h o p p e d f r o m island t o island t h r o u g h t i m e . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n i s that t h e i r e v o l u t i o n has b e e n m o r e c o m p l e x than that e n v i s i o n e d by Darwin.

The

e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m the

fact that t h e r e are s e a m o u n t s

associated w i t h the p r e s e n t islands, and the l i m i t e d b i o m o l e c u l a r e v i d e n c e

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

236 suggests that the b i r d s m a y n o t have had such a l o n g separate history as the marine

iguanas

have

had

from

their terrestrial

cousins.

It

would

not be

p a r t i c u l a r l y startling i f t h e y d i d n o t , b e c a u s e d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s d o n o t necessarily c o l o n i z e islands at the s a m e t i m e . A m o r e p r e c i s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g is likely t o f o l l o w d e t a i l e d m o l e c u l a r studies and c o m p a r i s o n s a m o n g islands and w i t h the m a i n l a n d o f South A m e r i c a . W h e t h e r t h e h i s t o r y o f G a l a p a g o s species i s m o r e o r less c o m p l e x ,

t h e r e s u l t — o b t a i n e d b y the p r o c e s s e n v i s a g e d b y

Darwin—is

Different

the

same.

but

related

species

evolved

on

separate

islands t h r o u g h natural s e l e c t i o n .

ON

THE

the

mid-ocean

O T H E R side o f t h e o c e a n ' s s u r f a c e — t h e p e r m a n e n t l y w e t s i d e — ridges

and

their

islands

have

been

of great biogeographic

s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e f e e t o f v o l c a n i c islands f o r m a substrate u p o n w h i c h c o r a l and o t h e r o r g a n i s m s n e e d i n g c l e a n o c e a n w a t e r w i t h i n the r a n g e o f sunlight can flourish. C o r a l , b e c a u s e o f t h e s t o n y l i m e i t s e c r e t e s , actually builds r o c k . C l e a r l y , t h e n , m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s h o p f r o m the shores and l a g o o n s o f o n e island t o the n e x t , taking a d v a n t a g e o f a fresh p l a c e t o call h o m e . A s o t h e r i n v e r t e b r a t e s j o i n the c o r a l t o b u i l d a c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t y , s o , t o o , d o v e r t e b r a t e s j o i n the p a r t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e vast array o f c o r a l - r e e f f i s h e s . T h e r e i s e v e n a v e r y l i k e l y case of a l i v i n g fossil, c a l l e d a c o e l a c a n t h (its b i o l o g y w i l l be discussed at g r e a t e r l e n g t h in the n e x t c h a p t e r ) , in w h i c h the a n i m a l , its kind s u p p o s e d l y e x t i n c t f o r e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s , n o w l i v e s o n l y a l o n g the s t e e p sides o f v o l c a n i c islands o n l y f i v e m i l l i o n years o l d o r s o . I t i s o n l y k n o w n f r o m t h e C o m o r o Islands b e t w e e n M a d a g a s c a r and A f r i c a , e x c e p t f o r o n e s p e c i m e n caught o f f t h e coast o f S o u t h A f r i c a . Coelacanths

are

not

deep-sea

dwellers;

rather

they

inhabit

moderate

d e p t h s . T h e i r l i m i t e d g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n can o n l y b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e i r h o p p i n g f r o m island f o o t t o island f o o t ( o r a l o n g v o l c a n o e s that n e v e r b r o k e the surface o f the sea) a s t h o s e features w e r e f o r m e d . E i t h e r that o r w e m u s t a d m i t that w e s i m p l y d o n o t k n o w m u c h a b o u t w h e r e animals l i v e u n d e r the sea. T h e l a t t e r i s t r u e t o s o m e e x t e n t , and t h e f o r m e r m a y b e a s w e l l . T h e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f t h e f e e t o f islands b y c o r a l s and o t h e r life d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s i n c r e a t i n g n e w real estate and i n a d d i n g t o the d i v e r s i t y o f e n v i r o n m e n t s available f o r life t o i n v a d e and e x p l o i t . c o r a l - r e e f habitats

are

centered

in

the

photic

zone,

the

depth

The

of water

p e n e t r a t e d b y l i g h t . B e l o w t h e p h o t i c z o n e , o n t h e s e a b e d , the p r o c e s s e s o f

O T H E R

N E I G H B O R S

p l a t e t e c t o n i c s p r o v i d e o t h e r areas w h e r e life m i g h t t h r i v e . H o t w a t e r escaping f r o m inside the Earth t h r o u g h v e n t s a l o n g o c e a n r i d g e s p r o v i d e f o r a n o t h e r k i n d o f b i o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y , o n e that d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n sunlight f o r its primary energy but on chemical reactions. These h y d r o t h e r m a l vent c o m m u nities are r e l a t i v e l y n e w t o u s b e c a u s e e x p l o r a t i o n o f the o c e a n f l o o r i s such a n o v e l t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is a characteristic suite of o r g a n i s m s l i v i n g in the dark d e p t h s , w e l l a w a y f r o m any h o p e o f sunlight. T h e r e a r e b a c t e r i a . T h e r e are m o l l u s c s and crustaceans. T h e r e are w o r m s o f m a n y k i n d s , s o m e g r o w i n g t o i n c r e d i b l e l e n g t h s and h a v i n g t e n t a c l e s l i k e f l o w e r p e t a l s . I t i s a w h o l e d i f f e r e n t w o r l d , and o n e that i n s o m e r e s p e c t s m a y r e f l e c t life o n Earth prior to produce.

photosynthesis

and

the

abundant

free

oxygen

that g r e e n

plants

O r g a n i s m s e v o l v i n g i n the w a r m t h o f a h y d r o t h e r m a l v e n t d e e p

b e n e a t h the seas are s h e l t e r e d f r o m m e t e o r i t e s and c l i m a t i c fluctuations that m i g h t d r i v e s p e c i e s a t t h e surface t o e x t i n c t i o n . C h e m o s y n t h e t i c c o m m u n i t i e s are n o t l i m i t e d t o h y d r o t h e r m a l v e n t s a l o n g o c e a n - f l o o r - s p r e a d i n g c e n t e r s . T h e r e are o t h e r w a y s t o establish a n a p p r o p r i ate c h e m i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e m . F o r e x a m p l e , and s t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , the carcass o f a w h a l e d e c o m p o s i n g a t the b o t t o m o f the sea p r o v i d e s the c o r r e c t c o m b i n a t i o n o f factors f o r a small u n d e r s e a island o f c h e m o s y n t h e t i c life t o e x i s t . It is a t r a n s i e n t c o m m u n i t y , b u t still, it is a l i t t l e e n c l a v e , just like an island, in an o t h e r w i s e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y p h o t o t r o p h i c sea. I s n ' t that amazing? T h e c o n d i t i o n s at a m i d - o c e a n r i d g e and at a d e c a y i n g w h a l e carcass are sufficiently similar that the s a m e g e n e r a l k i n d o f c o m m u n i t y o f o r g a n i s m s flourishes a r o u n d e a c h .

W h a t is so special a b o u t w h a l e carcasses that t h e y

should do this? T h e a n s w e r i s that t h e r e i s n o t h i n g r e a l l y special a b o u t w h a l e s o t h e r than t h e i r size and p e r h a p s t h e i r high o i l c o n t e n t . If a w h a l e carcass can s u p p o r t a

chemosynthetic

community

under the

sea,

then

so

can

sufficiently l a r g e size t o p r o v i d e t h e r i g h t e n v i r o n m e n t .

any

carcass of

So the bodies of

v e r t e b r a t e animals c o u l d h a v e b e e n a c t i n g as islands u n d e r t h e sea e v e r since large m a r i n e v e r t e b r a t e s e v o l v e d . W h a l e s o n l y g o back 5 2 m i l l i o n years o r s o . H o w e v e r , large f i s h g o back m u c h e a r l i e r . T h e h u g e m a r i n e r e p t i l e s o f the M e s o z o i c g o back 2 0 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s ,

t o the t i m e o f Pangaea.

Plesiosaurs,

ichthyosaurs, and mosasaurs, t h e t h r e e g r e a t r e p t i l i a n l i n e a g e s that r u l e d the sea d u r i n g the M e s o z o i c , m a y h a v e p l a y e d a r o l e i n the e v o l u t i o n o f h y d r o t h e r m a l - v e n t faunas w a y back t h e n just a s w h a l e s d o n o w . L i k e t h e p a t t e r n seen o n l a n d , the w h a l e s — m a r i n e m a m m a l s — d i d n o t b e c o m e t h e b e h e m o t h s

L O U I S JACOBS, P H . D . 238 o f t h e o c e a n s — i n d e e d t h e y d i d n o t e v e n e v o l v e — u n t i l after the r e p t i l i a n giants o f t h e o c e a n s b e c a m e c o m p l e t e l y e x t i n c t a t the G r e a t D y i n g , the e n d o f the

SEA

Cretaceous.

T U R T L E S e v o l v e d b e f o r e w h a l e s , b u t n e v e r h a v e t h e y p r o d u c e d species

c o m p a r a b l e i n size t o the b i g g e s t m a r i n e m a m m a l s . Still, sea turtles a c h i e v e q u i t e r e s p e c t a b l e d i m e n s i o n s . M o r e o v e r , t h e y are r e p t i l e s and t h e r e f o r e they h a v e a d i f f e r e n t m e t a b o l i s m f r o m the w a r m - b l o o d e d m a m m a l s that maintain h i g h e r rates o f b o d i l y a c t i v i t i e s . C o m p a r i n g the m e t a b o l i c characteristics o f a l a r g e r e p t i l e that u n d e r g o e s t a x i n g t e m p e r a t u r e changes (such as sea t u r t l e s ) w i t h t h o s e o f a m a m m a l m i g h t b e v e r y i n s t r u c t i v e and p e r h a p s r e l e v a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g dinosaurs. Leatherback

turtles,

another

species

o f the

S-necked

group,

grow

to

b e t w e e n f o u r and f i v e h u n d r e d p o u n d s i n w e i g h t . T h e y s w i m i n latitudes r a n g i n g f r o m the w a r m - w a t e r t r o p i c s t o t h e f r i g i d A r c t i c C i r c l e . T h u s , since they

swim,

temperature

they

are

while

forced

remaining

to

experience

active.

Their

rather

extreme

measured

conditions

metabolic

rates

of are

b e l o w t h o s e e x p e c t e d i n m a m m a l s o f t h e s a m e s i z e , s o the leatherbacks m u s t b e s o l v i n g t h e i r p r o b l e m s o f m a i n t a i n i n g a c t i v i t y and b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e i n ways different f r o m w a r m - b l o o d e d m a m m a l s .

N o t surprising.

I n b o t h l a r g e m a m m a l s and l a r g e r e p t i l e s , t h e sheer bulk o f flesh b e t w e e n the inside and the o u t s i d e o f the b o d y p r o v i d e s insulation against the loss o f h e a t . H o w e v e r , l e a t h e r b a c k s m u s t s o m e h o w dissipate t h e i r b o d y heat w h i l e s w i m m i n g i n w a r m e r w a t e r s , and c o n v e r s e l y t h e y m u s t c o n s e r v e t h e i r heat while s w i m m i n g in colder N o r t h Atlantic waters. This is accomplished by r e g u l a t i n g c i r c u l a t i o n , increasing t h e f l o w o f b l o o d t o areas w h e r e heat can b e m o r e easily lost w h e n t h e animal i s i n d a n g e r o f o v e r h e a t i n g , and restricting the f l o w o f b l o o d w h e n heat loss i s d e t r i m e n t a l . C e n t r a l t o t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e b y l e a t h e r b a c k s , h o w e v e r , i s l a r g e size and the insulation that b u l k p r o v i d e s . It m a k e s a g r e a t deal of s e n s e , t h e n , that d i n o s a u r s , at least the l a r g e r species,

may have e m p l o y e d the same kind of g i g a n t o t h e r m y in regulating

t h e i r b o d i e s a s l e a t h e r b a c k t u r t l e s d o , s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e o f l a r g e size. T h e c o n c l u s i o n , if that is s o , is that g i g a n t o t h e r m i c dinosaurs c o u l d have b e e n a c t i v e t h r o u g h a w i d e r a n g e o f t e m p e r a t u r e s . O t h e r d i n o s a u r s , particularly the s m a l l e r o n e s , m a y n o t h a v e b e e n a b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e i r b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e

OTHER

NEIGHBORS

239 i n the s a m e u n c o n s c i o u s w a y .

S o m e must have d e v e l o p e d a true w a r m -

b l o o d e d n e s s , e v e n w i t h small b o d y size.

W e k n o w that f o r c e r t a i n b e c a u s e

b i r d s are w a r m - b l o o d e d . D i n o s a u r g e o g r a p h y p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e that these r e p t i l e s v e r y p r o b a b l y w e r e tolerant of a w i d e range of temperatures. T h e geographic distribution o f dinosaurs i s h u g e . I t g o e s f r o m t h e l o w e q u a t o r i a l t r o p i c s t o the high p o l a r latitudes.

Early

C r e t a c e o u s dinosaurs are k n o w n f r o m Australia and L a t e

C r e t a c e o u s dinosaurs are k n o w n f r o m b o t h Alaska and A n t a r c t i c a .

It is a

t r e m e n d o u s g e o g r a p h i c r a n g e , e m b r a c i n g e x t r e m e s o f t e m p e r a t u r e , b u t leat h e r b a c k turtles h a v e a similar r a n g e f r o m the t r o p i c s to t h e A r c t i c , so it is n o t necessarily strange that dinosaurs d o . T h e a v e r a g e y e a r l y t e m p e r a t u r e f o r Australia i n t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e less than 5 d e g r e e s c e n t i g r a d e , w h i c h i s o n l y 4 1

degrees

F a h r e n h e i t . T h a t i s a y e a r l y a v e r a g e o f t e m p e r a t u r e based o n t h e g e o c h e m i s t r y o f o x y g e n . T e m p e r a t u r e s w o u l d h a v e fluctuated w i t h t h e seasons just a s t h e y d o n o w . Austral w i n t e r s w e r e dark and v e r y l i k e l y b i t t e r l y c o l d . S u m m e r s w e r e w a r m . T h e Antarctic polar region was probably icebound. Overwintering

in

harsh

conditions—in

the

dark—with

temperatures

p l u m m e t i n g and f o o d g r o w i n g s c a r c e , i s difficult. S o m e d i n o s a u r s , perhaps the s m a l l e r o n e s , m a y h a v e b e e n able t o s u r v i v e d u r i n g the w i n t e r because they w e r e a c t i v e and w a r m - b l o o d e d .

O t h e r dinosaurs m a y h a v e s o l v e d the

p r o b l e m b y h i b e r n a t i n g , s l e e p i n g t h r o u g h the t o u g h t i m e s . Still o t h e r s m a y have m i g r a t e d t o m o r e pleasant c l i m e s o n the n o r t h e r n side o f A u st r al i a. T h a t is all s p e c u l a t i o n . W h a t is so i n t e r e s t i n g a b o u t t h e l e a t h e r b a c k t u r t l e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o dinosaurs i s that t h e y are r e p t i l e s , t h e y suffer e x t r e m e s o f t e m p e r a t u r e , and t h e y m i g r a t e .

M o s t importantly w e k n o w something about h o w

their b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e i s c o n t r o l l e d and that i t enables t h e m t o t r a v e l t h r o u g h the r a n g e o f t e m p e r a t u r e s that t h e y d o . P e r h a p s s o m e o f the dinosaurs w e r e similar.

T E M P E R A T U R E , b o t h inside and o u t s i d e t h e b o d y , i s a n i m p o r t a n t factor f o r all animals, but the o u t s i d e t e m p e r a t u r e plays a p e c u l i a r r o l e in s o m e l i v i n g r e p t i l e s . I n m o s t t u r t l e s , s o m e l i z a r d s , and i n c r o c o d i l e s the t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h e g g s are i n c u b a t e d at a critical t i m e in t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t d e t e r m i n e s the sex o f the a n i m a l . Sea t u r t l e e g g s p r o d u c e m a l e s i f i n c u b a t e d b e l o w 2 8 degrees centigrade

(82

degrees

Fahrenheit),

but they p r o d u c e

females if

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

i n c u b a t e d a b o v e 2 9 . 5 d e g r e e s ( 8 5 d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t ) d u r i n g the m i d d l e third o f d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e r e f o r e , since c r o c o d i l e s , a l l i g a t o r s , s o m e lizards, and s o m e o t h e r t u r t l e s d e v e l o p i n similar fashion, i t i s n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e t o assume that s o m e o r e v e n m o s t dinosaurs had a similar m e t h o d o f sex d e t e r m i n a t i o n . I t c a n n o t b e p r o v e n , b u t i t has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that c h a n g i n g c l i m a t e s t o w a r d t h e e n d o f the M e s o z o i c m a y h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e s e x r a t i o o f dinosaur species and

thereby contributed to

t h e i r e x t i n c t i o n b y d i s r u p t i n g the p o p u l a t i o n

balance.

T H I S C H A P T E R BEGAN b y l o o k i n g a t d i f f e r i n g rates and p a t t e r n s o f e v o l u t i o n r e s u l t i n g in a d a p t i v e radiations on t h e o n e hand and l i v i n g fossils on the o t h e r . F r o m t h e e x a m p l e s p r e s e n t e d i t s h o u l d b e clear that t h e r e i s n o set path that a n e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e m u s t f o l l o w , b u t that the g e n e t i c p o t e n t i a l o f a s p e c i e s w i l l l i m i t its e v o l u t i o n a r y o p t i o n s , a s w i l l the constraints i m p o s e d b y its b i o l o g i c a l and physical e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e physical processes o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s m o d i f y the

Earth and c r e a t e n e w e n v i r o n m e n t s f o r life t o

c o l o n i z e . A s t h e E a r t h ' s g e o g r a p h y c h a n g e s , s o a r e l i f e ' s strategies m o d i f i e d . S o m e g e n e r a l i t i e s a b o u t the r o o t s o f the m o d e r n w o r l d b e g i n t o e m e r g e . Pangaea o f 2 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o p r o v i d e d a n i n t e r c o n n e c t e d canvas o f c o n t i n e n t s across w h i c h w a s p a i n t e d the r u d i m e n t s o f t e r r e s t r i a l v e r t e b r a t e life f o r the m o d e r n w o r l d : p r i m i t i v e f r o g s , l i z a r d s , m a m m a l s , t u r t l e s , and p e r h a p s b i r d s . N o n e had a c h i e v e d the sophistication o f t h e i r m o d e r n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . T h a t c a m e w i t h t h e later stages o f g e o g r a p h i c r e a r r a n g e m e n t w h e n Pangaea b r o k e apart and G o n d w a n a f r a g m e n t e d . T h e vicars left o n d r i f t i n g landmasses e v o l v e d t h e i r separate w a y s , o f t e n t o r e a c h d i f f e r e n t , but f o r each, m o r e d e r i v e d g r a d e s o f e v o l u t i o n . T h e d i n o s a u r s , t o o , e v o l v e d a l o n g the lines of geographical vicars,

s e p a r a t e d f r o m each o t h e r b y w i d e n i n g o c e a n s and

f o u n d e r i n g land b r i d g e s . O n l y s p o r a d i c a l l y d i d landmasses c o n j o i n t o a l l o w the m i x i n g o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e r e i s o n e a d d i t i o n a l case, i n s o m e w a y s t h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g , o f the g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f animals t h r o u g h t i m e that should b e b r o u g h t u p h e r e : the E u r o p e a n fossil l o c a l i t y o f M e s s e l . L o c a t e d i n G e r m a n y near Frankfurt am M a i n , the site is r o u g h l y f o r t y m i l l i o n years o l d . It is the r e m a i n s of a n ancient lake that e x i s t e d a r o u n d t w e n t y - s i x m i l l i o n years after the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , w e l l i n t o the A g e o f M a m m a l s . M e s s e l w a s o r i g i n a l l y e x c a v a t e d f o r o i l shale. Such a l a r g e h o l e i n the g r o u n d i n c r o w d e d E u r o p e w i l l n o t g o

O T H E R

N E I G H B O R S

u n n o t i c e d b y all sorts o f p e o p l e w i t h j o b s t o a c c o m p l i s h . n e a r l y t u r n e d i n t o a g a r b a g e d u m p until it w a s s a v e d .

Messel was very

N o w it is a fossil

reserve. T h e fossils that are p r e s e r v e d a t M e s s e l a r e e x q u i s i t e . M a n y s p e c i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y w h o l e , a r t i c u l a t e d s k e l e t o n s . N o t o n l y that, b u t s o m e o f t h e m a m m a l s h a v e the i m a g e of t h e i r hair p r e s e r v e d as an o r g a n i c film in t h e shale. S o m e e v e n have the s t o m a c h c o n t e n t s o f t h e last m e a l . B e i n g i n the A g e o f M a m m a l s , a s i t is, M e s s e l has a n i n t e r e s t i n g suite o f m a m m a l i a n fossils. T h e list i n c l u d e s i n s e c t i v o r e s , p r i m a t e s , r o d e n t s , b a t s — v e r y nice b a t s — a n d other species. It e v e n includes an anteating p a n g o l i n , a k i n d o f m a m m a l f o u n d t o d a y i n Asia and A f r i c a . T h e y a r e c o v e r e d i n l a r g e , stiff scales, w h i c h m a k e t h e m l o o k a l o t like w a l k i n g p i n e c o n e s . H o w e v e r , the strangest of all m a m m a l s f r o m M e s s e l is a n o t h e r k i n d of a n t e a t e r . It is an a n t e a t e r that i s the o n l y E u r o p e a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e — f o s s i l o r l i v i n g — o f a g r o u p o f s p e c i a l i z e d anteaters n o w l i v i n g i n South A m e r i c a ( F i g u r e 4 0 ) . H o w c o u l d i t have g o t t e n t o M e s s e l w i t h o u t l e a v i n g a t r a c e a n y w h e r e else? T h e a n s w e r f o r s o m e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s i s that this g r o u p o f a n t e a t e r s , and perhaps

other

groups

of placental

mammals,

differentiated

between

100

m i l l i o n vears a g o and the b e g i n n i n g o f the A g e o f M a m m a l s a t 6 6 m i l l i o n years

FIGURE 40: was found in

South American giant anteater. Germany.

A fossil related to

this living species

Alight similar fossils one day he found in Africa?

L O U I S JACOBS,

PH . D

242 a g o i n w h a t i s n o w A f r i c a . T h e t i m i n g w o u l d b e later than the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i , o r t h e K o u m Basin i n C a m e r o o n , o r A r a r i p e i n Brazil. I t w o u l d also b e y o u n g e r than t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f South A m e r i c a and A f r i c a i s usually c o n s i d e r e d t o b e unless the p r o c e s s o f s e p a r a t i o n i s actually m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d than has b e e n p r e s e n t e d . T h e r e i s n o v i a b l e fossil r e c o r d i n A f r i c a r e p r e s e n t i n g that i n t e r v a l , s o the p o s s i b i l i t y c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d o n the basis o f w h a t w e c u r r e n t l y k n o w o f A f r i c a n l i f e . I t i s p o s s i b l e that the m o v e m e n t o f A f r i c a and South

Africa

away

from

each

other

during

this

interval

was

sufficiently

c o m p l i c a t e d that island h o p p i n g , o r p e r h a p s c o n t a c t , m i g h t just have o c c u r r e d . I f i t d i d , the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the South A m e r i c a n a n t e a t e r and its M e s s e l relative m i g h t be explained. By Messel t i m e the anteaters, primates, pangol i n s , e a r l y r e l a t i v e s o f h o r s e s , and s o m e o t h e r kinds o f m a m m a l s had m i g r a t e d into E u r o p e , possibly f r o m Africa. I h a v e n o idea w h e t h e r such a s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s actually o c c u r r e d . T h e e v i d e n c e is w e a k and i n c o n c l u s i v e .

However,

it is an h y p o t h e s i s that is

p l a u s i b l e to the e x t e n t that it e x p l a i n s the M e s s e l fauna, and it p r e d i c t s that a n u n d o c u m e n t e d e p i s o d e o f m a m m a l i a n e v o l u t i o n o c c u r r e d late i n t h e A g e of Reptiles in Africa.

I t also p r e d i c t s w h i c h kinds o f m a m m a l s should b e

i n v o l v e d i n it. T h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s w i l l b e t e s t e d w h e n fossils o f the right a g e and i n t h e r i g h t p l a c e a r e f o u n d . T h i s c o u l d b e a n o t h e r case o f g o o d fossils just w a i t i n g t o b e d i s c o v e r e d . W h a t e v e r the case, i t i s c l e a r that t o w a r d t h e e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s the Earth w a s rich i n b i o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y . I n m a n y w a y s i t w a s r e c o g n i z a b l e as the parent of today's w o r l d . In one w a y , h o w e v e r , it was very different. T o d a y ' s rulers,

the

mammals,

did

little

b u t skulk

furtively about

in

the

M e s o z o i c w o r l d . T h e y d i d n o t suffer f r o m a n i d e n t i t y crisis; t h e y w e r e c l e a r l y m a m m a l s and o f the t h r e e m a j o r g r o u p s ( p l a c e n t a l s , m a r s u p i a l s , and m o n o t r e m e s ) that w e r e c o g n i z e t o d a y , plus s o m e m a m m a l i a n g r o u p s that have since b e c o m e e x t i n c t . Y e t i t s e e m s t h e m a m m a l s w e r e a l m o s t i n t i m i d a t e d b y the dinosaurs.

T h e y s i m p l y and u n d e n i a b l y d i d n o t flourish d u r i n g the A g e o f

R e p t i l e s . O n l y after the t e r m i n a l C r e t a c e o u s e x t i n c t i o n s , w h e n dinosaurs and m a n y o t h e r c r e a t u r e s w e n t e x t i n c t , d i d the c h a n g i n g o f the g u a r d o c c u r and a n e w p e r i o d o f faunal a d j u s t m e n t t a k e p l a c e . A n d n o w here w e are.

A

LIVINC

DINOSAUR?

F

OSSILS O F M A N Y

K I N D S r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e w o r l d o f 100 m i l l i o n years

a g o can b e f o u n d t o d a y , p r e s e r v e d i n the a n c i e n t r o c k s o f A f r i c a . M a n y o f t h e m are s t r a n g e . H o w e v e r , o n o n e o f m y flights t o M a l a w i I r e a d i n a n airline m a g a z i n e o f s o m e t h i n g e v e n m o r e s t r a n g e . I t w a s a " s e r i o u s scientific e x p e d i tion"

t o D a r k e s t A f r i c a i n search n o t o f fossils, n o t e v e n o f l i v i n g l i o n s ,

hyaenas, o r e l e p h a n t s , b u t o f a living d i n o s a u r . N o t b i r d s , b u t dinosaurs i n the traditional

sense.

A

sauropod.

Something

presumably

resembling

bron-

tosaurus, or m a y b e a M a l a w i - s a u r u s . T h e e x p e d i t i o n I r e a d a b o u t is n o t the f i r s t t o p r o p o s e the search. T h e r e h a v e b e e n a t least f o u r o t h e r s . T h e s e are n o t scientific e x p e d i t i o n s . T h e y a r e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n — a n d n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d s c i e n c e fiction, e i t h e r , j u d g i n g f r o m t h e 1985 m o t i o n p i c t u r e Baby: Secret of the Lost Legend, w h i c h is based on such a search. A f r i c a , the D a r k C o n t i n e n t , the land of t h e u n k n o w n , is a c l i c h e , an allure e v e n n o w . T h a t m y s t i q u e used t o b e j u s t i f i e d . A t least p a r t o f i t g o e s back t o the intense i n t e r e s t that t h e V i c t o r i a n era t o o k i n t h e search f o r the h e a d w a t e r s o f the N i l e . I n the l a t t e r half o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the g e o g r a p h y o f A f r i c a really w a s m u c h m o r e p o o r l y k n o w n than that o f m o s t o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s . Back t h e n the I n t e r i o r w a s a blank spot o n t h e British m a p , e v e n t h o u g h i n e a r l i e r c e n t u r i e s t h e P o r t u g u e s e had a b e t t e r r e c k o n i n g o f it. N o w A f r i c a i s n o l o n g e r

243

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

244 s o r e m o t e , s o h i d d e n , a s i t used t o b e . T h e b i g q u e s t i o n s o f o l d , such a s the c o u r s e s o f its r i v e r s and the t r a c e s o f its m o u n t a i n s , are n o t o b s c u r e . The

River

Nile

originates

from

the

lake

region

o f East

Africa

and

d e b a u c h e s i n t o the M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea. T h e R i v e r C o n g o , t h r o u g h the Lualaba and t h e I t u r i , has its h e a d w a t e r s n e a r t h o s e o f the N i l e . I t f l o w s n o r t h t h e n w e s t f r o m t h e lake r e g i o n t o d r a i n the f e t i d s w a m p s o f C e n t r a l A f r i c a i n t o the A t l a n t i c . O n l y o n e g r e a t l a k e , L a k e M a l a w i , drains south, o u t t h r o u g h the Shire and t h e n the Z a m b e z i t o t h e Indian O c e a n . T h e r i v e r s w e r e h i g h w a y s w h e n t h e c o n t i n e n t o p e n e d u p t o E u r o p e a n s . E x p l o r e r s used t h e m t o t r a v e l through the land. D a n i e l D e f o e ' s f i c t i o n a l h e r o C a p t a i n B o b S i n g l e t o n , the p i r a t e , c r o s s e d the A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t t h r o u g h his a u t h o r ' s p e n , o n p a p e r and i n the imaginat i o n , b u t m u c h b e f o r e his t i m e .

D e f o e w r o t e Singleton's made up travel

a d v e n t u r e s m o r e than a c e n t u r y b e f o r e

L i v i n g s t o n e actually d i d cross the

c o n t i n e n t i n 1 8 5 4 . L i v i n g s t o n e f o l l o w e d a c o u r s e a l o n g the Z a m b e z i f o r m o s t o f t h e w a y . H e m a d e i t t o t h e A t l a n t i c coast and t h e n h e m a d e his w a y back. T h e truth o f A f r i c a n e x p l o r a t i o n i s s t r a n g e r than

fiction.

M e n like D a v i d

L i v i n g s t o n e are n o t n o r m a l . H e w a s caught u p i n t h e search f o r the h e a d w a t e r s o f t h e N i l e . L i v i n g s t o n e w a s a m i s s i o n a r y , b u t h e , like R i c h a r d B u r t o n and John S p e k e , e x p l o r e d t h e R i f t V a l l e y w h e r e the g r e a t lakes o f A f r i c a hang like d e l i c i o u s w e t g r a p e s o n a d r y b r o w n stalk. H e s e a r c h e d f o r the h e a d w a t e r s o f the N i l e f o r y e a r s . H e t h o u g h t h e had f o u n d t h e m , b u t h e had n o t . H e w a s still s e a r c h i n g w h e n h e d i e d . H e n r y Stanley s e a r c h e d f o r L i v i n g s t o n e and b e c a m e i n f e c t e d w i t h the f e v e r of African

exploration.

Bula

Matari,

"the

breaker

of r o c k s , "

as

Stanley

b e c a m e k n o w n t o t h e n a t i v e s , t o o k o n L i v i n g s t o n e ' s q u e s t . H e f o l l o w e d the c o u r s e o f t h e Lualaba, n o t t o t h e N i l e a s h e w a n t e d b u t all the w a y t o the C o n g o , e v e n t o t h e w e s t coast o f A f r i c a . I t i s all p a r t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n , this searching and e x p l o r a t i o n o f A f r i c a . T h e e x p l o r e r s , driven m e n , k n e w what they w e r e looking for.

T h e y had t h e i r

r e a s o n s , and t h e reasons w e r e v a l i d . T h e searches m a d e sense t o the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w o r l d . T h e N i l e d o e s h a v e h e a d w a t e r s , and t h e y w e r e i m p o r tant

to

find.

Livingstone

was

alive

when

Stanley

searched,

and

he

was

i m p o r t a n t t o f i n d . T h e e a r l y e x p l o r e r s o p e n e d u p the c o n t i n e n t t o E u r o p e . T h e r e are n o m o r e b l a n k spots o n the m a p . T h e o n l y w a y n o t t o b e a w a r e of Africa nowadays is to i g n o r e , for w h a t e v e r reason, the c o m m o n , hard-won knowledge

o f that c o n t i n e n t .

A

LIVING

DINOSAUR? 245

E x p e d i t i o n s t o A f r i c a i n search o f l i v i n g d i n o s a u r s , l i k e t h e o n e I r e a d a b o u t i n the airline

magazine,

are based o n w o r d - o f - m o u t h r e p o r t s o f a

l e g e n d a r y beast c a l l e d Mokele-Mbembe. the

reports

o f the

Loch

Ness

T h e p h e n o m e n o n is no different f r o m

Monster,

Yeti,

or

Bigfoot.

The

only

real

d i f f e r e n c e is that in this case it is set in A f r i c a . Mokele-Mbembe's haunts a r e a l l e g e d t o b e the Likouala S w a m p o f the P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f t h e C o n g o , r i g h t i n the e x t r e m e d e p t h s o f the c o n t i n e n t . T h i s i s t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f the h u g e s w a m p y r e g i o n t r a v e r s e d b y Stanley o n his s e v e n - m o n t h float d o w n the C o n g o R i v e r . Mokele-Mbembe i s t h o u g h t t o l o o k l i k e a b r o n t o s a u r u s — t h e w o r d used b y English-speaking s e a r c h e r s — b a s e d m o s t s t r o n g l y , i n t h e i r o p i n i o n , o n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m u g shots b y n a t i v e s .

A man named Appolonaire encoun-

t e r e d b y o n e o f the e x p e d i t i o n s e v e n s k e t c h e d a c r u d e effigy i n the soil that w a s said to r e s e m b l e a s a u r o p o d . He had s e e n the b e a s t , he said, at the v i l l a g e o f P i k u n d a , n o t far f r o m the r o u t e Stanley t o o k o n his t h i r d A f r i c a n e x p e d i t i o n . O n that o n e Stanley left i n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h his r e a r g u a r d t o j o i n h i m w i t h e x t r a supplies and a m m u n i t i o n . T h e r e a r g u a r d n e v e r caught u p w i t h S t a n l e y , partly because t h e y h e a r d h e w a s d e a d . S u p p o s e d l y h e had b e e n m u r d e r e d i n r e t a l i a t i o n f o r the a t r o c i t i e s h e a l l e g e d l y b e s t o w e d o n t h e n a t i v e s .

Rumors

w e r e r a m p a n t a m o n g the local p o p u l a t i o n s that h u m a n a r m s and legs had b e e n seen i n S t a n l e y ' s c o o k i n g p o t s . T h e r e w a s g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e o f a q u a l i t y e q u a l to that used in the search f o r Mokele-Mbembe.

S t a n l e y , w h o w a s assuredly n o t

d e a d , w r o t e , " S k e t c h e s b y a n a m a t e u r artist a r e said t o h a v e b e e n m a d e o f w h o l e parties i n d u l g i n g i n cannibal r e p a s t s . " Stanley, o f c o u r s e , had n o t b e e n m u r d e r e d , t h e English w e r e n o t cannibals (any m o r e than t h e n a t i v e s w e r e ) , and the sketches o f S t a n l e y ' s c o o k i n g p o t s had n o b e a r i n g o n r e a l i t y . I d o n o t k n o w w h a t the C o n g o l e s e A p p o l o n a i r e d r e w , o r w h y , b u t t h e r e p o r t that h e s k e t c h e d a s a u r o p o d d o e s n o t substantiate t h e i r e x i s t e n c e a l i v e i n the C o n g o . N e v e r t h e l e s s a n e x p e d i t i o n t o the L i k o u a l a S w a m p c o u l d b e scientifically v e r y i m p o r t a n t i f q u e s t i o n s o f m o r e g e n e r a l significance w e r e b e i n g a s k e d : W h a t i s the d i v e r s i t y o f l i f e — p l a n t and a n i m a l — i n t h e L i k o u a l a S w a m p ? H o w m a n y species are t h e r e ? W h a t i s the e c o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ? H o w d o e s i t c o m p a r e w i t h o t h e r t r o p i c a l j u n g l e s , such a s the A m a z o n ? W h a t i s the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e A f r i c a n t r o p i c s t o t h e g l o b a l e c o l o g i c a l balance? W h a t are the e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t species? W h i c h species h a v e m e d i c i n a l p r o p e r t i e s ? H o w has the s w a m p c h a n g e d t h r o u g h g e o l o g i c t i m e ? H o w i s i t b e i n g affected b y h u m a n i m p a c t ? I s i t b e i n g d e s t r o y e d ? A r e steps necessary f o r

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D

246 c o n s e r v a t i o n ? H o w can t h e p e o p l e o f the r e g i o n b e s t and m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y utilize their resources? If q u e s t i o n s such as these w e r e a d d r e s s e d ,

sauropods,

if t h e y e x i s t e d ,

w o u l d t u r n u p i n d u e c o u r s e . W h e t h e r t h e y d i d o r d i d n o t , w e w o u l d have a m u c h g r e a t e r k n o w l e d g e a b o u t this p a r t o f the w o r l d and i t w o u l d b e o f much greater consequence. But s u r e l y , o n e m i g h t insist, dinosaurs could b e l i v i n g s o m e w h e r e i n A f r i c a , c o u l d t h e y not? S u r e , t h e y c o u l d . A n d that w o u l d b e fun. But h o w likely i s it? T h e o d d s are so g r e a t against it that the p r o b a b i l i t y of finding a l i v i n g s a u r o p o d has,

f o r all i n t e n t s and p u r p o s e s , r e a c h e d z e r o .

I r e g r e t that it

i s — s a d l y — a virtual c e r t a i n t y that n o n e w i l l b e f o u n d a l i v e . But i t d o e s m a k e sense. N o t a single r e a l l y n e w k i n d o f l a r g e animal has b e e n d i s c o v e r e d i n A f r i c a since t h e o k a p i , a r e l a t i v e o f t h e g i r a f f e , w a s n a m e d i n 1 9 0 1 , v e r y n e a r l y a century a g o . A n d p e o p l e have l o o k e d . T h e p y g m y hippopotamus was discove r e d i n 1 9 1 2 , but r e g u l a r h i p p o s w e r e a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r l o n g b e f o r e t h e n . T h e giant f o r e s t h o g w a s f o u n d i n 1 9 0 2 , b u t p e o p l e a l r e a d y k n e w that pigs w e r e a r o u n d . A l m o s t c e r t a i n l y s o m e less c o n s p i c u o u s small animals still r e m a i n t o b e d i s c o v e r e d and d e s c r i b e d f r o m m a n y parts o f the w o r l d . T h i n g s such a s m i c e , i n s e c t s , o r f i s h are sure t o h a v e m u l t i t u d e s o f u n n a m e d s p e c i e s . Perhaps e v e n s o m e l a r g e r t e r r e s t r i a l s p e c i e s w i l l b e d i s c o v e r e d . But w h i l e t h e r e m a y b e species n e w t o s c i e n c e , t h e y a r e u n l i k e l y t o b e g r o s s l v d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t is already k n o w n . T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g the E u r o p e a n d i s c o v e r y o f the giant f o r e s t hog,

Hjlochoerus meinertzhageni,

are

well

documented,

so

they

ought

to

be

i n f o r m a t i v e a s t o h o w n e w and l a r g e animals w e r e d i s c o v e r e d i n the V i c t o r i a n past. R i c h a r d M e i n e r t z h a g e n , f o r w h o m the s p e c i e s w a s n a m e d , r e c o r d e d the e v e n t s in his d i a r y .

A s o l d i e r and an a v i d s p o r t s m a n in the sense of early

t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y A f r i c a , h e spent m u c h t i m e afield. H e l i v e d i n the bush, b e i n g s t a t i o n e d i n s e v e r a l r e m o t e and m o u n t a i n o u s posts i n K e n y a . H e k e p t a s c r u p u l o u s r e c o r d of his daily l i f e . M e i n e r t z h a g e n w r i t e s in his diary on 5 S e p t e m b e r 1902 w h i l e on a t r i p to the A b e r d a r e Mountains,

W h i l e w a n d e r i n g in the forest at dusk I saw t w o animals I have n e v e r seen b e f o r e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y I caught o n l y a fleeting g l i m p s e of t h e m . . . . [ O n e ) was an e n o r m o u s black pig, p r o b a b l y a forest variety of the w a r t h o g . H e r e again I o n l y just saw the beast for a m o m e n t .

A

LIVING

DINOSAUR? 247

T h e n , i n 1 9 0 4 , t w o years l a t e r , w h i l e o n a p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n against t h e Embu tribe of M o u n t Kenya:

Just as we w e r e e m e r g i n g f r o m the forest the leading man of my patrol fired a shot at something w h i c h I could n o t see, and on c o m i n g up I found he had killed a huge pig w i t h l o n g black hair, unlike anything I e v e r heard of. I put a piece of the skin i n t o my haversack but left the carcass. I shall send to bring it in t o m o r r o w . As we have several of the e n e m y in the vicinity I could not remain and e x a m i n e h e r , f o r she was a s o w , but I n o w wish I had brought h o m e the skull, w h i c h was unlike that of any pig I know.

Then on 24 March 1904 he w r o t e ,

I may as w e l l n o t e d o w n what I k n o w of the huge forest p i g w h i c h I found on 11 M a r c h in the K e n y a forests. Up till n o w I have seen but o n e , a s o w , and she after she had b e e n k i l l e d . A l l I have of this beast is a small piece of skin. 1 asked all my Masai levies w h e t h e r they k n e w the animal and they all said they did but that it l i v e d in thick forest and was called elguia by t h e m . T h e y m a d e their shields of its tough skin, and I actually purchased a shield w h i c h purports to be m a d e f r o m the forest p i g . Its o w n e r t o l d me he bought the skin f r o m a D o r o b o hunter w h o had killed it on the M a u escarpment, w h i c h shows the animal has a w i d e range. T o w a r d s the end o f the e x p e d i t i o n m y m e n found several large pieces of skin in villages. O n e p i e c e in particular is e n o r m o u s and c o u l d n e v e r have been taken off an animal m u c h smaller than a d o n k e y . T h e hair is l o n g and black, measuring s o m e 10 inches on the crest. O n returning t o Fort H a l l I e n q u i r e d f r o m the W a k i k u y u c o n c e r n i n g the pig and found they all k n e w it w e l l , calling it numiira. I have offered a c o w to the first man w h o can g e t me a c o m p l e t e skin w i t h the skull. I have sent all the skin I h a v e , t o g e t h e r w i t h the a b o v e i n f o r m a t i o n , to Ray Lankester at the British M u s e u m . I think there can be no d o u b t that the animal is n e w to science. It is exasperating n o t to have g o t a skull, but I live in hopes and shall hunt f o r him in forest w h e n I g e t the chance. I am c o n v i n c e d that the pig I saw in the A b e r d a r e s . . . was this forest

PigT h e e l e m e n t s o f M e i n e r t z h a g e n ' s " d i s c o v e r y " o f the giant f o r e s t h o g ( s e e F i g u r e 4 1 ) are p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n , t a n g i b l e r e m a i n s , and v e r i f i a b l e g e n e r a l

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D

248 k n o w l e d g e o f the beast f r o m l o c a l inhabitants. S c i e n c e r e q u i r e s that t h e r e b e s o m e t h i n g t a n g i b l e , s o m e r e p e a t a b l e , testable s t r e a m o f l o g i c , i n o r d e r f o r a n i d e a — o r the c l a i m o f a n e w a n i m a l — t o b e a c c e p t e d . A f r i c a n natives n o t o n l y had n a m e s f o r the giant f o r e s t h o g , t h e y m a d e shields f r o m its h i d e . M e i n e r t z h a g e n c o l l e c t e d a p i e c e o f h i d e h i m s e l f . I n June o b t a i n e d a skull significant.

f r o m o n e o f the

1904 M e i n e r t z h a g e n e v e n

local inhabitants.

That

w a s particularly

Skulls are v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n m a m m a l o g y — t h e study o f m a m -

m a l s — w h i c h i s w h a t the giant f o r e s t h o g is, because a l m o s t e v e r y species can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y the s t r u c t u r e o f its skull b o n e s and t e e t h . Meinertzhagen w r o t e on

FIGURE 4 1 : until

early

were

recorded and provide

known.

in

Giant forest hog. the

twentieth

1 6 June,

This species was unknown to the scientific community century.

a

The

circumstances surrounding

model for how large

"unknown"

its

animals

"discovery" become

A

LIVING

DINOSAUR?

249 But today I had e v e n b e t t e r luck. I had seen the tracks of p i g in the forest and have often b e e n out after t h e m .

It was o n l y today w h e n I was

successful. I came on her in s o m e thick stuff and killed her at about 40 yards. She is a y o u n g s o w , and I was able to p r e s e r v e the c o m p l e t e skull and skin, which I shall send to the British M u s e u m . T h i s is p r o b a b l y the first of her kind to be killed by a E u r o p e a n .

S o i t w a s a t the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y . W h e n M e i n e r t z h a g e n m o v e d t o N a n d i Fort in western Kenya in

1904, he found,

" F o r e s t h o g are quite c o m m o n

h e r e ; I saw o n e t o d a y , and t h e y f r e q u e n t l y c o m e i n t o m y v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n a t n i g h t . " H i s infatuation w i t h this a n i m a l c o n t i n u e d .

O n 8 June

1905 h e

writes,

I r e c e i v e d by t o d a y ' s mail the description and figure of the skull of my n e w forest pig. T h o u g h the beast occurs in the forest all r o u n d my house up h e r e , my efforts to obtain specimens have so far p r o v e d fruitless; y e t the natives k n o w the beast w e l l . I have o f f e r e d a h a n d s o m e r e w a r d f o r a specimen in the flesh, but I suppose they cannot c o n c e i v e that a n y o n e can be so mad as to w a n t a pig and m e r e l y regard my w h i m as a f o r m of insanity.

T h e h o g s v i s i t e d his g a r d e n :

I n o w have m o s t English vegetables g r o w i n g and they are n o w b e i n g raided by jackal, small antelope and forest p i g . I sat up last night and saw a forest duiker and t w o forest p i g , o n e a n e n o r m o u s b o a r , calmly r o o t i n g u p m y potatoes and t o m a t o e s . . . . S o m e day I shall p e p p e r those pig or put a bullet into o n e .

T h e discovery of the living okapi was not much different f r o m the discove r y o f the giant f o r e s t h o g . scientists,

In

1900 the okapi was u n k n o w n to W e s t e r n

a l t h o u g h n o w t h e y can b e s e e n i n m o s t z o o s .

T h e okapi is a

s h o r t - n e c k e d giraffe that inhabits t h e d e e p j u n g l e s o f t h e C o n g o Basin, w h e r e dinosaurs are s u g g e s t e d t o b e l i v i n g n o w . A t the turn o f t h e c e n t u r y p y g m i e s t o l d Sir H a r r y J o h n s t o n — t h e s a m e Sir H a r r y w h o had e a r l i e r s e c u r e d N y a s a l a n d , n o w M a l a w i , a s a British P r o t e c t o r a t e — o f a m u l e l i k e animal w i t h z e b r a l i k e s t r i p e s .

H e sent t w o p i e c e s o f t h e

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

250 s t r i p e d h i d e that had b e e n g i v e n h i m back t o B r i t a i n , and i n 1 9 0 1 , o n the basis of that e v i d e n c e , it w a s n a m e d Equus? johnstoni after h i m . L a t e r that same y e a r , w i t h b e t t e r and m o r e s p e c i m e n s , t h e beast w a s c o r r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e d t o b e a m e m b e r o f t h e giraffe f a m i l y . T h e r e f o r e , the n a m e w a s c h a n g e d t o Okapia johnstoni b e c a u s e it is c e r t a i n l y n o t a z e b r a or d e s e r v i n g of the h o r s e n a m e Equus. W h i l e t h e o k a p i i s a distinct s p e c i e s o f g i r a f f e , s o m e i n v e s t i g a t o r s early i n this c e n t u r y t h o u g h t that i t b o r e s o m e r e s e m b l a n c e t o e x t i n c t giraffes, also w i t h s h o r t n e c k s , w h i c h had b e e n k n o w n f r o m fossils f o r s o m e t i m e . C r y p t o z o o l o g i s t s , a s such p e o p l e w h o i n v e s t i g a t e c l a i m s o f h i d d e n species like t o call t h e m s e l v e s , p i c k e d up the o k a p i as an e x t i n c t animal f o u n d alive m i l l i o n s of years

after it

was

supposed

to

have

gone

extinct,

as Mokele-Mhemhe

is

s u p p o s e d t o b e . H o w e v e r , t h e o k a p i c l e a r l y i s n o t o n e o f the f o r m e r l y k n o w n fossil s p e c i e s , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the a n c i e n t r e c o r d o f the giraffe f a m i l y o r the p r i m i t i v e shortness o f t h e o k a p i ' s n e c k . The

d i s c o v e r i e s o f the g i a n t f o r e s t h o g and

the

okapi

are p a r t i c u l a r l y

e n l i g h t e n i n g w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h the r u m o r s o f a n o t h e r a n i m a l , s u p p o s e d l y l i v i n g i n t h e s a m e g e n e r a l area a s the g i a n t f o r e s t h o g , but w i t h n o t a n g i b l e p r o o f o f its e x i s t e n c e .

T h a t o n e i s c a l l e d the N a n d i b e a r .

T h e r e are t w o

t h e o r i e s as to w h a t a N a n d i b e a r m a y r e p r e s e n t . O n e is that it is r e a l l y a h o n e y badger or ratel,

a large m e m b e r of the weasel family. T h e other is m o r e

a p p e a l i n g t o l o n g - l o s t - a n i m a l enthusiasts. I t has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the N a n d i b e a r is r e a l l y an e x t i n c t m a m m a l c a l l e d a c h a l i c o t h e r e .

C h a l i c o t h e r e s have

l o n g , h o r s y h e a d s , l o n g f r o n t l i m b s , and c l a w s o n t h e i r f i n g e r s . T h e y are g o r i l l a - s i z e d o r l a r g e r . W h i l e c h a l i c o t h e r e s h a v e a l o n g and s e e m i n g l y g o o d fossil r e c o r d i n m a n y parts o f the w o r l d i n c l u d i n g N o r t h A m e r i c a , E u r o p e , A s i a , and A f r i c a , i t i s a s hard t o i m a g i n e t h e i r e x i s t e n c e i n w e s t e r n K e n y a t o d a y a s i t i s t o i m a g i n e l i v i n g s a u r o p o d s i n the C o n g o , m o n s t e r s i n L o c h N e s s , o r A b o m i n a b l e S n o w m e n o n the t o p s o f m o u n t a i n s . I f c h a l i c o t h e r e s e x i s t e d n o w , t h e y w o u l d h a v e b e e n f o u n d o u t just like t h e giant f o r e s t h o g w a s . I f t h e r e is a n y t h i n g to the N a n d i - b e a r s t o r y b e s i d e s i m a g i n a t i o n , I suspect it m a y b e the w o r d - o f - m o u t h d e s c r i p t i o n o f g o r i l l a s passed across the c o n t i n e n t f r o m areas w h e r e t h e y l i v e t o areas w h e r e t h e y d o n o t . T h e r e a r e f o u r g e n e r a o f m a m m a l s — w o r l d w i d e — k n o w n f i r s t a s fossils, then d i s c o v e r e d to have living representatives. O n e is a peccary, a pig relative f r o m South A m e r i c a . O n e i s a m e m b e r o f t h e d o g f a m i l y , also k n o w n f r o m South A m e r i c a . O n e , n o t a l w a y s p u t i n this c a t e g o r y , i s a s m a l l , m o u s e l i k e

A

LIVING

DINOSAUR? 251

o p o s s u m k n o w n f r o m A u s t r a l i a , the f i r s t l i v e o n e , i n t e r e s t i n g l y e n o u g h , b e i n g caught in a ski hut in the Australian A l p s . T h e last e x a m p l e is a fruit bat f r o m N e w G u i n e a . N o n e o f the fossils i s h i g h l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m o t h e r , p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n r e l a t i v e s , and n o n e i s a n y w h e r e n e a r t h e tens o r e v e n h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s o f years o f dinosaur a n t i q u i t y .

If sauropods, so very different f r o m

a n y t h i n g else a l i v e t o d a y , w e r e still e x t a n t i n A f r i c a , s u r e l y s o m e r e m a i n s o f t h e m , e v e n a scrap o f skin a s i n the case o f t h e o k a p i o r f o r e s t h o g , w o u l d b e available t o v e r i f y the c l a i m . T h e s h o w p i e c e o f c r y p t o z o o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s i s t h e l i v i n g f i s h Latimeria ( F i g u r e 4 2 ) , t h e c o e l a c a n t h discussed b r i e f l y i n C h a p t e r 8 . I t b e l o n g s t o a g r o u p o f b o n y f i s h that w a s t h o u g h t t o h a v e b e e n e x t i n c t f o r e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h e n i n 1938 M i s s M . C o u r t e n a y - L a t i m e r w a s i n t r i g u e d b y a strange f i s h caught

in

the

Indian

Ocean

off South

Africa near the

mouth

of the

C h a l u m n a R i v e r . A l i v i n g c o e l a c a n t h had b e e n c a u g h t ! T h i s w a s t r u l y a stellar d i s c o v e r y . W h i l e Latimeria itself, as a distinct s p e c i e s , has no fossil r e c o r d , it i s a m e m b e r o f the l a r g e r c o e l a c a n t h g r o u p that had b e e n u n k n o w n f o r the vast l e n g t h o f t i m e b e t w e e n the A g e o f R e p t i l e s and n o w . T o this d a y , l i v i n g coelacanths are k n o w n o n l y f r o m a small p a t c h o f t h e o c e a n . T h e f i r s t w a s caught b y a South A f r i c a n f i s h i n g t r a w l e r . A l l the rest h a v e b e e n c a u g h t n e a r the C o m o r o Islands b e t w e e n M a d a g a s c a r and the A f r i c a n coast. T h e C o m o r o s w e r e the h o m e o f t h e p o r t e r s w h o d e s e r t e d L i v i n g s t o n e and r e p o r t e d h i m dead,

leading to

Stanley's

search

for

Livingstone.

Living coelacanths

are

k n o w n f r o m n o w h e r e else b u t t h o s e t i n y s p o t s , b u t m o s t l y the C o m o r o s , i n all the vast, vast o c e a n . C e r t a i n l y this i s a n e x a m p l e o f the fossil r e c o r d s o m e h o w p l a y i n g t r i c k s o n us. I t d o e s n o t a d e q u a t e l y r e f l e c t the e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f c o e l a c a n t h s . E v e n until t o d a y t h e r e h a v e b e e n n o fossil d i s c o v e r i e s t o f i l l t h e e i g h t y - m i l l i o n - y e a r gap i n the fossil r e c o r d . T h e r e a s o n m o s t l i k e l y lies w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r e f e r e n c e s o f fossil and l i v i n g c o e l a c a n t h s . Fossil c o e l a c a n t h s a r e p r e s e r v e d i n s h a l l o w - w a t e r e n v i r o n m e n t s , b o t h fresh and m a r i n e , that a r e a b u n d a n t l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n the r o c k r e c o r d . Latimeria l i v e s i n d e e p e r w a t e r , 6 5 0 f e e t d e e p , 2 0 0 m e t e r s or s o , in a m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t , and in a v e r y specific habitat as w e l l . T h e r u g g e d sea b o t t o m a l o n g t h e s t e e p l y s l o p i n g f e e t o f t h e C o m o r o Islands is f o r m e d f r o m lava. Latimeria hangs o u t in and a r o u n d c a v e s in the lava r o c k , f o r a g i n g and s w i m m i n g a b o u t , f o r the m o s t p a r t casually. Such e n v i r o n ments

as

those

frequented

by

Latimeria

are

rarely

preserved

in

the

rock

r e c o r d , e s p e c i a l l y i n such a state that fossils m i g h t b e p r e s e r v e d w i t h t h e m .

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

252

FIGURE

42:

The

coelacanth

coelacanths

were

turned

alive off the coast

up

thought

LATIMERIA

to

have

been

CHALUMNAE.

The

extinct for eighty

ultimate

living fossil,

million years

until

one

of South Africa.

M o r e o v e r , t h e y m a y n o t last all that l o n g . T h e C o m o r o s are v o l c a n i c islands, and a s w e h a v e s e e n , o c e a n i c v o l c a n o e s m o v e a w a y f r o m t h e i r lava s o u r c e b y p l a t e t e c t o n i c s and b e c o m e s u b m e r g e d t o g r e a t e r d e p t h s . Latimeria's habitat i n the C o m o r o s c a n n o t b e o l d e r than t h e islands t h e m s e l v e s , w h i c h i s o n l y a f e w m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h a t c r e a t e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a d o x : H e r e i s a l i v i n g fossil, disjunct f r o m its p r e d e c e s s o r s b y e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s , y e t l i v i n g a l o n g the u n d e r s e a s l o p e s o f a n island p e r h a p s o n l y

five

m i l l i o n years o l d .

Clearly

Latimeria m u s t e i t h e r l i v e u n d i s c o v e r e d e l s e w h e r e b e s i d e s the C o m o r o s ( a n d p e r h a p s n e a r t h e C h a l u m n a R i v e r ) o r i t i s s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d i n its d i s t r i b u t i o n . E i t h e r w a y i t has b e e n d o i n g s o m e u n d e r w a t e r island h o p p i n g a l o n g the f e e t of n e w l y c r e a t e d v o l c a n o e s . I suspect it is s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d in its g e o g r a p h y and that i t has b e e n h o p p i n g v o l c a n o e s f o r a l o n g , l o n g t i m e .

A

L I V I N G

D I N O S A U R ?

Latimeria is a n a t o m i c a l l y and b e h a v i o r a l l y an e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g a n i m a l . It is h e a v i l y b u i l t , and like s o m e o t h e r fish that l i v e at similar d e p t h s , its flesh i s q u i t e o i l y . T h e tail f i n has t h r e e l o b e s , a n e x t r a o n e c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r f i s h . T h e p a i r e d f i n s , r e p r e s e n t i n g the a r m s and legs o f t e r r e s t r i a l a n i m a l s , a r e f l e s h y w i t h b o n y internal s u p p o r t s e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e b o d y i n t o t h e f i n s , thus d i s c l o s i n g t h e c o e l a c a n t h ' s c r y p t i c e v o l u t i o n a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p t o lungfish and t e t r a p o d s . I t d o e s n o t u t i l i z e its p a i r e d f i n s t o w a l k a l o n g the b o t t o m , but o f t e n its s l o w , d e l i b e r a t e m o v e m e n t s a r e s y n c h r o n i z e d and a l t e r n a t i n g . Its m o v e m e n t s appear a s a f i s h y f o r e s h a d o w o f t h e l o c o m o t i o n i n t e r r e s t r i a l v e r t e b r a t e s . It is a c a r n i v o r e , f e e d i n g on fishes and s q u i d s , p e r h a p s o t h e r things as w e l l . E v e n t h o u g h it is c a r n i v o r o u s , it is g e n e r a l l y sluggish, l e i s u r e l y m a i n t a i n i n g its p o s i t i o n i n the w a t e r w i t h casual f l i c k s o f this f i n o r that. P e r h a p s m o s t i n t r i g u i n g o f its b e h a v i o r a l traits i s its habit o f standing o n its h e a d . T h e r e are o r g a n s i n t h e snout that are q u i t e sensitive t o e l e c t r i c i t y . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a small a m o u n t of e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t to the w a t e r n e a r a Latimeria w i l l e l i c i t a head-standing r e s p o n s e .

It has

the

same behavior naturally,

without a

r e s e a r c h e r a p p l y i n g the c u r r e n t . T h a t suggests that Latimeria uses e l e c t r i c i t y t o sense its e n v i r o n m e n t , p o s s i b l y i n l o c a t i n g o t h e r a n i m a l s . W i t h Latimeria l i v i n g n o w a s i t d o e s , and w i t h the a n c i e n t fossil r e c o r d o f c o e l a c a n t h s , w h i c h i s r e a s o n a b l y g o o d e x c e p t f o r that e i g h t y - m i l l i o n - y e a r g a p , s h o w i n g a d i v e r s i t y of s p e c i e s and habitats f o r Latimeria's c o u s i n s , the c o e l a canths m u s t have a v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d s t o r y t o t e l l . inhabited b o t h salt and fresh w a t e r .

Early o n ,

coelacanths

T h e s a m e k i n d o f fossil c o e l a c a n t h i s

k n o w n f r o m the C r e t a c e o u s o f W e s t A f r i c a and f r o m A r a r i p e i n B r a z i l . ( A p t e r o s a u r i s e a t i n g a c o e l a c a n t h i n F i g u r e 3 5 ) . A t e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o the m o r e easily o b s e r v e d f r e s h w a t e r and s h a l l o w - m a r i n e species b e c a m e e x t i n c t . D e s c e n d a n t species abundant since

the

such as Latimeria

Cretaceous.

may n e v e r have been particularly

T h e y m a y have just b o u n c e d

along from

s u b m e r g e d island t o s u b m e r g e d island, t h e i r r a n g e and a b u n d a n c e d i m i n i s h i n g w i t h the passage o f g e o l o g i c t i m e . Because w e k n o w that Latimeria i s d i f f e r e n t a t the f a m i l y l e v e l f r o m o t h e r c o e l a c a n t h s , w e k n o w that e v o l u t i o n i n the g r o u p d i d n o t s t o p , it just c h a n g e d v e n u e . Latimeria is a l i v i n g fossil, to be sure, and the r e a s o n is because it still s h o w s s o m e p r i m i t i v e f e a t u r e s , at least in its a n a t o m y , that are l i t t l e c h a n g e d f r o m o l d e r fossil s p e c i e s .

In o t h e r

r e g a r d s Latimeria i s u n d o u b t e d l y d e r i v e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e ancestral c o n d i t i o n . It is a l i v i n g fossil, but it is its o w n u n i q u e animal at the s a m e t i m e . Even

though

the

example

o f Latimeria

is

widely

touted

by

the

cryp-

t o z o o l o g y c o m m u n i t y , t h e r e i s n o m e a n i n g f u l a n a l o g y b e t w e e n the d i s c o v e r y

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

254 o f a n e w f a m i l y o f f i s h o v e r f i f t y y e a r s a g o , w h i c h i n o n e sense i s w h a t the d i s c o v e r y o f Latimeria a m o u n t e d t o , and the p r e d i c t i v e ability t o f i n d l i v i n g d i n o s a u r s , also b e l i e v e d t o b e e x t i n c t since the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e o b v i o u s : W e h a v e the f i s h ; w e d o n o t h a v e the d i n o s a u r . N o m a t t e r h o w r e m o t e the L i k o u a l a S w a m p is, i t i s n o t a s r e m o t e a s the o c e a n a r o u n d t h e C o m o r o Islands, 6 5 0 f e e t d o w n .

I t i s m u c h m o r e l i k e l y that a l i v i n g

s a u r o p o d w o u l d b e f o u n d , i f t h e y i n fact e x i s t e d , than that Latimeria w o u l d be f o u n d , m u c h less o b s e r v e d and p h o t o g r a p h e d in its natural habitat. T h e r e i s a n o t h e r b i g d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f Latimeria and the search f o r l i v i n g d i n o s a u r s . T h e search f o r l i v i n g dinosaurs i s justified o n l y o n the basis o f i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i m o n i e s . T h e r e i s n o o b j e c t i v e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e i r e x i s t e n c e i n the p r e s e n t w h a t s o e v e r . T h i s a p p r o a c h had a b s o l u t e l y n o r o l e i n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f Latimeria. rumors,

nor

searching

Miss M.

for

C o u r t e n a y - L a t i m e r w a s n o t o u t chasing

monsters

under

her

bed

or

in

her

extended

b a c k y a r d . She w a s a m u s e u m specialist m a k i n g c o l l e c t i o n s of fish on a South A f r i c a n t r a w l e r . A n o d d f i s h w a s c a u g h t , and t h e n , t h r o u g h the a t t e n d v e n e s s o f the c a p t a i n , i t w a s b r o u g h t t o h e r e y e . She k n e w she w o u l d f i n d f i s h o n a f i s h i n g b o a t . Small w o n d e r . T h e s h o c k c a m e w h e n she r e c o g n i z e d w h a t the f i s h w a s . T h e scientific significance o f h e r d i s c o v e r y c a n n o t b e c h a l l e n g e d , but the e x i s t e n c e o f Latimeria c a m e a s n o surprise t o the natives o f the C o m o r o Islands, w h o had caught t h e m b e f o r e . T h e scientific significance c a m e f r o m k n o w i n g w h a t it m e a n t .

Latimeria is a l i v i n g but distant r e l a t i v e of the fish

ancestral t o t h e f i r s t b a c k b o n e d animals t o l e a v e t h e w a t e r and take t o the land permanently. E v e n i f s a u r o p o d s w e r e still a l i v e , w h y should D a r k e s t A f r i c a b e t h e i r h o m e as o p p o s e d t o , say, L o n g Island? T h e a p p a r e n t r e a s o n is that A f r i c a is u n k n o w n i n t h e W e s t , a t least t o t h o s e p e o p l e m o u n t i n g the e x p e d i t i o n s t o the C o n g o . D i n o s a u r survival i n f a m i l i a r , w e l l - k n o w n , o r p o p u l a t e d c o r n e r s o f the U n i t e d States w o u l d tax the c r e d u l i t y o f e v e n t h e m o s t d y e d - i n - t h e - w o o l c r y p t o z o o l o g i s t , b u t i t i s a c c e p t a b l e , i n s o m e c i r c l e s , t o b e l i e v e s a u r o p o d s are i n A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a m o r e ad hoc reason that is usually o f f e r e d . T h e C o n g o Basin i s c o n s i d e r e d b y c r y p t o z o o l o g i s t s — a n d , i n fairness t o t h e m , b y s o m e s c i e n t i s t s — t o h a v e b e e n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y stable since the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n years a g o . T h e e n v i r o n m e n t i s n o t s u p p o s e d t o h a v e c h a n g e d i n any significant w a y . A t all. T h e e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s i s t h e m a g i c t i m e b e c a u s e that i s w h e n dinosaurs vanished f r o m the fossil r e c o r d e v e r y w h e r e e l s e i n the w o r l d . I f the s w a m p s o f A f r i c a w e r e

A

L I V I N G

D I N O S A U R ?

n e v e r - c h a n g i n g , dinosaurs c o u l d have s u r v i v e d i n the sanctuary o f this s l i m y , murky,

unknown refugium.

H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s abundant and c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e that e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s i n A f r i c a have c h a n g e d w i t h t i m e , that s a u r o p o d s w e r e n o t l i m i t e d t o s w a m p s , and that the fossil r e c o r d w i t h its vast array o f species contains not

one

sauropod

specimen

from

any

place

on

Earth,

not

one

scrap

of

s a u r o p o d b o n e , since the A g e o f R e p t i l e s e n d e d . A l l that m u s t b e c o m b i n e d w i t h the o b s e r v a t i o n that t h e r e i s n o t o n e s h r e d o f t a n g i b l e e v i d e n c e , n o t a p i e c e o f skin, n o t a t o e n a i l , n o e v i d e n c e a t all that s a u r o p o d s l i v e t o d a y — anywhere. I t i s e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y that the p a r a m e t e r s d e f i n i n g the e n v i r o n m e n t s o f the A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t have r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t , h a v e n o t w a v e r e d , f o r s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h e Earth, as a s p h e r e , s h o w s variations in t e m p e r a t u r e as o n e g o e s f r o m the t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s a d j o i n i n g the e q u a t o r t o the t e m p e r a t e z o n e s , and i n t o the c o l d h i g h - l a t i t u d e b o r e a l and a r c t i c c l i m a t e s .

In addition to

variation i n the sun's heating capacity r e l a t i v e t o the c u r v a t u r e o f the Earth, o c e a n s and

landmasses h a v e d i f f e r e n t t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s ,

h e a t i n g up

and

c o o l i n g d o w n a t d i f f e r e n t rates. H e a t differential and the spinning o f t h e Earth c r e a t e a t m o s p h e r i c and o c e a n i c c u r r e n t s , w h i c h d i s t r i b u t e t h e r m a l e n e r g y about the g l o b e i n patterns specific t o the shapes o f the c u r r e n t s . It should be o b v i o u s that physical changes in the g e o g r a p h y of c o n t i n e n t s and oceans w i l l c h a n g e c l i m a t e . I f c o n t i n e n t s d r i f t apart t h r o u g h plate t e c t o n i c s , the c l i m a t e w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t i t i s a t t i m e s w h e n landmasses are c o n j o i n e d . C o n t i n e n t s that c h a n g e

latitude t h r o u g h t i m e e x p e r i e n c e a n e v o l u t i o n o f

c l i m a t e . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f s h a l l o w seas c o v e r i n g l a r g e p o r t i o n s o f c o n t i n e n t s w i l l affect c l i m a t e . T h e f o r m a t i o n o f n e w o c e a n s w h e r e n o n e e x i s t e d p r e v i o u s l y w i l l m o d i f y o c e a n c u r r e n t s and influence c l i m a t e . But o n t o p o f all that t h e r e are a s t r o n o m i c a l c y c l e s that i m p o s e c l i m a t i c fluctuations o n t h e Earth. T h e a m o u n t of e n e r g y f r o m t h e sun r e a c h i n g the Earth varies in a r e c u r r e n t fashion. T h e r e are several causes. T h e Earth w o b b l e s o n its axis o f r o t a t i o n i n a p r e d i c t a b l e w a y , c o m p l e t i n g a c y c l e i n a b o u t 2 6 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . T h e tilt o f the E a r t h ' s axis also varies o v e r a p e r i o d o f about 4 1 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . M o r e o v e r the E a r t h ' s o r b i t a r o u n d the sun is n o t p e r f e c t l y r o u n d , and t h e r e is v a r i a t i o n in the t i m e of y e a r that the Earth is closest to or farthest a w a y f r o m the sun. T h i s t h i r d v a r i a b l e has a c y c l e of about 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . A l l t h r e e o f the c y c l e s are p e r p e t u a l l y influencing the a m o u n t o f e n e r g y r e c e i v e d f r o m the s u n — a n d its d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t h e g l o b e — a n d t h e r e f o r e they influence c l i m a t e t h r o u g h t i m e .

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

256 T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s q u i t e c l e a r : T h e c l i m a t e and e n v i r o n m e n t o f any g i v e n p l a c e o n Earth w i l l c h a n g e . I t w i l l c h a n g e because o f the effects b r o u g h t a b o u t b y the physical r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s , and i t w i l l b e c h a n g e d b y the i m p o s i t i o n o f a s t r o n o m i c a l c y c l e s . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h all o f that, t h e r e are any

number

of small-

or

large-scale

influences

on

climate,

some

purely

p h y s i c a l , o t h e r s caused b y b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y . A l l o f these v a r i o u s influences c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o f c l i m a t e t h r o u g h t i m e , t o the e n v i r o n m e n t s and e c o s y s t e m s w i t h i n w h i c h o r g a n i s m s e v o l v e , and t o the c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h species g o extinct. I f c l i m a t i c c h a n g e i s t r u e f r o m a t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e n w e should b e a b l e t o see e v i d e n c e o f i t i n t h e r o c k s , and i n fact w e can. E v i d e n c e o f g l a c i e r s and i c e ages h a v e l o n g b e e n s e e n i n r o c k s . A n c i e n t b u r i e d soils l e a v e t e l l t a l e c l u e s a s t o the c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n u n d e r w h i c h t h e y f o r m e d . S o m e o f the

most

compelling

evidence

for

past

climate

comes

from

fossils.

The

a d a p t a t i o n s o f plants and animals o f t e n i n d i c a t e t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e y m u s t l i v e . Fossil p o l l e n i s f r e q u e n t l y p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f o r m a t i v e w h e n i t can be r e c o v e r e d , w h i c h is surprisingly often. H o w e v e r , r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s in g e o c h e m i s t r y have p r o v i d e d s o m e o f the b e s t n e w e v i d e n c e o f ancient climates. T h e E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e i s m a d e u p o f a m i x t u r e o f gases, m o s t l y n i t r o g e n , but also o x y g e n c o n t r i b u t e d b y p h o t o s y n t h e t i c p l a n t s , c a r b o n d i o x i d e , w a t e r v a p o r , and o t h e r m i n o r c o m p o n e n t s . A t o m s m a k i n g u p these gases c o m e i n v a r i o u s " f l a v o r s " a t t h e s u b a t o m i c l e v e l , and the a l t e r n a t i v e " f l a v o r s " are called isotopes.

A n y r o c k f o r m i n g i n c h e m i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h the a t m o -

s p h e r e , or an o r g a n i s m — s u c h as a c l a m , f o r i n s t a n c e — b u i l d i n g its shell f r o m e l e m e n t s i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h the a t m o s p h e r e w i l l r e f l e c t the i s o t o p i c c o m p o sition f o u n d at that p a r t i c u l a r t i m e in t h e air s u r r o u n d i n g the Earth.

Even

t h o u g h w e are talking a b o u t e l e m e n t s and i s o t o p e s and a t o m s and m o l e c u l e s , s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e s a l l o w the w e i g h t s o f d i f f e r e n t i s o t o p e s t o b e m e a sured w i t h g r e a t p r e c i s i o n . O x y g e n atoms of concern here c o m e in t w o isotopes.

O n e isotope is

h e a v i e r than the o t h e r . W h e n d e a l i n g w i t h such small p a r t i c l e s a s a t o m s and m o l e c u l e s , y o u w o u l d think that such a t r e m e n d o u s l y m i n u t e d i f f e r e n c e c o u l d not possibly have

any c o n s e q u e n c e .

But i t d o e s .

O x y g e n combines with

h y d r o g e n to f o r m w a t e r molecules. T h o s e w i t h an a t o m of heavy o x y g e n will w e i g h m o r e than a w a t e r m o l e c u l e m a d e w i t h a light o x y g e n . Subtle differe n c e s i n i s o t o p i c c o m p o s i t i o n affect the physical p r o p e r t i e s o f the w a t e r .

A

LIVING

DINOSAUR? 257

T h e s e slight d i f f e r e n c e s i n f l u e n c e t h e w a y the w a t e r m o l e c u l e s b e h a v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , h o w easily t h e y g o i n t o t h e g a s e o u s state b y e v a p o r a t i o n a n d , o n c e t h e r e , h o w t h e y c o n d e n s e and fall t o t h e Earth a s rain o r s n o w . T h e s y s t e m i s c o m p l i c a t e d , b u t t h e e n d r e s u l t i s that s o m e v a r i a t i o n s i n c l i m a t i c p a r a m e t e r s , such a s t e m p e r a t u r e , h a v e a c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h o x y g e n i s o t o p e c o m p o s i t i o n , and that r e l a t i o n s h i p can b e m e a s u r e d . Since r o c k s o r shells f o r m i n g i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e a t m o s p h e r e w i l l r e f l e c t the r a t i o o f l i g h t - t o - h e a v y o x y g e n a t the t i m e o f t h e i r f o r m a t i o n , a stratigraphic s e c t i o n , usually o f m a r i n e r o c k s and fossils, w i l l r e c o r d t h e h i s t o r y o f c l i m a t e - r e l a t e d o x y g e n - i s o t o p e variations through t i m e .

That is h o w a long geochemical

r e c o r d o f the E a r t h ' s c l i m a t e i s b u i l t u p . O n c e t h e t e c h n o l o g y i s a t hand t o m a k e the m e a s u r e m e n t s , and after g o o d s a m p l e s h a v e b e e n c o l l e c t e d , i t i s basically q u i t e s i m p l e t o u n d e r s t a n d . I s o t o p e s o f o x y g e n a r e useful p a l e o c l i m a t i c t o o l s ,

but the t e m p e r a t u r e

r e g i m e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e m i s usually a n a v e r a g e f o r t h e Earth a s a w h o l e . T h a t i s e n o u g h t o t e l l u s that t h e r e h a v e b e e n e p i s o d e s o f significant g l o b a l c l i m a t e c h a n g e . T h e e v i d e n c e i s c l e a r o n that. I f the c l i m a t e o f the w h o l e Earth has u n d e r g o n e c h a n g e s ,

n o p l a c e has b e e n u n a f f e c t e d .

Still,

the c l i m a t i c

h i s t o r y o f specific r e g i o n s o f the g l o b e — t h e L i k o u a l a S w a m p f o r i n s t a n c e — i n contrast t o t h e E a r t h ' s a v e r a g e c l i m a t i c values m e a s u r e d t h r o u g h t i m e , i s o f t e n m o r e difficult t o d e c i p h e r . A v a r i e t y o f m e t h o d s i s o f t e n u s e d d e p e n d i n g o n what is available, including p o l l e n samples e x t r a c t e d f r o m sediments, envir o n m e n t a l l y sensitive a n c i e n t soils, fossil animals and p l a n t s , e v e n the shape of the l a n d — g e o m o r p h o l o g y , as it is c a l l e d . I n o r d e r f o r s w a m p s t o e x i s t , t w o basic r e q u i r e m e n t s m u s t b e m e t : T h e r e m u s t b e a d e q u a t e rainfall i n the w a t e r s h e d s that e m p t y i n t o t h e m , plus t h e r e must be a s l o w drain through w h i c h the accumulated w a t e r exits. T h a t is what k e e p s s w a m p y basins full. W a t e r m u s t p o n d and m e a n d e r , stand and stagnate, rather than f l o w s w i f t l y and c l e a n l y o u t o f t h e s y s t e m .

M o d i f y e i t h e r the

a m o u n t o f w a t e r o r the e f f i c i e n c y o f d r a i n a g e and t h e c o n d i t i o n s p r o d u c i n g the s w a m p w i l l b e a l t e r e d . T h e s w a m p w i l l c h a n g e . I t w i l l t r a n s f o r m t o r e f l e c t c h a n g i n g c l i m a t e and rainfall p a t t e r n s ,

and t o r e f l e c t the

d e v e l o p m e n t of

m o u n t a i n s and o t h e r l a n d f o r m s that m o d i f y the d r a i n a g e basins. M a j o r Earth p r o c e s s e s such as p l a t e t e c t o n i c s and c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t c r e a t e m o u n t a i n s and o c e a n s , and a s w e k n o w , t h e y affect c l i m a t e . At

100

million

years

ago

South

America

w a s just

beginning

to

drift

w e s t w a r d a w a y f r o m A f r i c a . Since t h e n t h e t w o h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o drift apart.

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

2S8 A c o n t i n u o u s l y w i d e n i n g A t l a n t i c O c e a n m u s t affect o c e a n i c and a t m o s p h e r i c c i r c u l a t i o n — a n d c l i m a t e . A f t e r 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , and w e l l i n t o the A g e o f M a m m a l s , m u c h o f N o r t h and W e s t A f r i c a w a s i n u n d a t e d b y fluctuating seas, s o m e e x t e n d i n g q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e L i k o u a l a r e g i o n o f the C o n g o . T h e s e seas had a n e f f e c t o n c l i m a t e that w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d i n C e n t r a l Africa. T h e m i g h t i e s t m o u n t a i n s o f t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t r e f l e c t g e o l o g i c a l history that o c c u r r e d after the Africa;

A g e of Reptiles.

Kilimanjaro,

the highest p e a k i n

K e r i n y a g a o r M o u n t K e n y a , w i t h the s e c o n d - h i g h e s t p e a k ; and the

R u w e n z o r i e s o r P t o l e m y ' s " M o u n t a i n s o f the M o o n , " o n the eastern e d g e o f t h e C o n g o B a s i n — t h e s e a r e all y o u n g c o n s t r u c t i o n s associated w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e East A f r i c a n R i f t S y s t e m . T h e C o n g o Basin drains the w e s t e r n side o f the East A f r i c a n highlands. I n W e s t A f r i c a , M o u n t C a m e r o o n and

the

Adamoua

Plateau,

just

to the

northwest

of Likouala,

are

much

y o u n g e r than the y o u n g e s t - k n o w n d i n o s a u r s . T h e g e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f all these highlands m u s t h a v e a f f e c t e d n o t o n l y c l i m a t e but also drainage p a t t e r n s . T h o s e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s that m a k e the C e n t r a l A f r i c a n s w a m p s w e r e not

there

throughout

much

o f the

Age

of Mammals.

Sure,

there

were

d r a i n a g e s , and s o m e spots w e r e l o w e r and w e t t e r than o t h e r s , but based o n g e o m o r p h o l o g y t h e l a n d f o r m s that m a k e the s w a m p s t o d a y s i m p l y d i d n o t e x i s t until g e o l o g i c a l l y m o r e r e c e n t t i m e . T h e g e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t o f A f r i c a c l e a r l y r e f l e c t s the d y n a m i c s o f the past and a r g u e s against a n e v e r l a s t i n g and abyssal C e n t r a l A f r i c a n s w a m p . O n t o p o f all this a d d the fluctuations o f g l o b a l c l i m a t e r e c o r d e d i n o x y g e n i s o t o p e s and

the

cyclic

fluctuations

influences o n the

Earth.

known

to

G i v e n these

have

occurred

circumstances,

due

to

astronomical

there is virtually no

g e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n t o think that the L i k o u a l a S w a m p w o u l d have r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d since the days o f t h e d i n o s a u r s . Moreover,

e n v i r o n m e n t a l e v i d e n c e f r o m a n u m b e r o f s o u r c e s indicates

that no e x t e n s i v e l o w l a n d rain f o r e s t s such as c h a r a c t e r i z e the C o n g o Basin t o d a y e x i s t e d i n A f r i c a a t 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . C l a y m i n e r a l s o f that a g e , w e a t h e r e d f r o m A f r i c a n r o c k s and b l o w n o u t t o settle g e n t l y o n the o c e a n f l o o r , a r e o f the k i n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y f o r m e d i n seasonally arid e n v i r o n m e n t s , n o t i n s w a m p s . A n c i e n t soils and fossils o f plants w i t h special adaptat i o n s f o r d r y o r salty habitats d e m o n s t r a t e seasonal a r i d i t y . T h e r e is, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o fossil r e c o r d f r o m the depths o f the Likouala S w a m p . T h e reason is straightforward e n o u g h . It being a s w a m p , sediments

A

LIVING

DINOSAUR?

259 are b e i n g d e p o s i t e d , h i d d e n u n d e r w a t e r and rank v e g e t a t i o n , r a t h e r than b e i n g e x p o s e d t h r o u g h e r o s i o n t o d i s c l o s e w h a t e v e r fossils t h e y m i g h t c o n tain. B o n e s f o u n d i n N i g e r , C a m e r o o n , and M a l a w i s h o w that A f r i c a n d i n o saurs, i n c l u d i n g s a u r o p o d s , i n h a b i t e d a seasonally d r y , h o t land. T h e dinosaur fossils f r o m C a m e r o o n are l o c a t e d a short f i v e h u n d r e d m i l e s t o the n o r t h w e s t o f the L i k o u a l a . T h e g e o l o g i c a l changes that h a v e r e s u l t e d i n uplift, e r o s i o n , and the d i s c o v e r y o f fossils i n C a m e r o o n a r e r e l a t e d t o the g e o l o g i c a l e v e n t s that m o l d e d the n o r t h w e s t e r n m a r g i n o f the C e n t r a l A f r i c a n s w a m p l a n d s .

THERE

IS

ANOTHER related bit of science

fiction—or

rather pseudo-

s c i e n c e — t h a t is as e q u a l l y u n t e n a b l e as l i v i n g s a u r o p o d s in A f r i c a . It is the search f o r human fossils associated w i t h dinosaur fossils. G l e n R o s e , T e x a s , a t w o - h o u r d r i v e s o u t h w e s t o f D a l l a s , i s t h e w o r l d ' s h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r that search. I n this p a r t o f T e x a s the P a l u x y R i v e r f l o w s t h r o u g h 111 - m i l l i o n - y e a r - o l d r o c k s , r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e n t i n a g e t o those o f M a l a w i , C a m e r o o n , and A r a r i p e i n Brazil. T h e r o c k s a t G l e n R o s e r e p r e s e n t the r e m n a n t s o f o l d s h o r e l i n e s and m u d flats f r o m a t i m e w h e n t h e o c e a n s c o v e r e d m u c h o f w h a t i s n o w T e x a s . Dinosaur

footprints—four-footed

sauropods,

strong-clawed

three-toed

t h e r o p o d s , and b l u n t " b i r d - f o o t " o r n i t h o p o d s — c r i s s c r o s s t h e a n c i e n t flats, p r e s e r v i n g single m o m e n t s o f m o v e m e n t i n t h e l i v e s o f these g r e a t beasts. T h e e x i s t e n c e o f dinosaur t r a c k w a y s i n the P a l u x y R i v e r b o t t o m s has b e e n k n o w n since e a r l y i n this c e n t u r y . T h e Apatosaurus a t the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y i n N e w Y o r k , until r e c e n t l y , t o w e r e d o v e r G l e n R o s e footprints.

O f c o u r s e the b o n e s o f t h e Apatosaurus s k e l e t o n are a b o u t

145

m i l l i o n years o l d , and the f o o t p r i n t s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y y o u n g e r , a scant 111 m i l l i o n . T h e f o o t p r i n t s b e a r t h e n a m e Brontopodus birdi, n a m e d f o r R o l a n d T . B i r d w h o , w i t h the h e l p o f W P A w o r k c r e w s , b r a v e d the f l o o d s o f the P a l u x y t o c o l l e c t fossils f o r the m u s e u m i n N e w Y o r k . F o o t p r i n t s , a s a special kind o f trace fossil,

n o t a part of an animal,

b u t v e r y c e r t a i n e v i d e n c e o f its

p r e s e n c e , and e v e n its b e h a v i o r , can b e g i v e n t h e i r o w n scientific n a m e s . D u r i n g the D e p r e s s i o n and after, a f e w o f the l o c a l r e s i d e n t s a t t e m p t e d t o sell prints to b r i n g in s o m e scarce cash.

D i g g i n g up dinosaur f o o t p r i n t s is

tough w o r k . Apparently some ingenious entrepreneurs decided it w o u l d be easier t o c a r v e n e w f o o t p r i n t s i n s t o n e r a t h e r than d i g u p o l d o n e s . T h e p r i n t s t h e y c h o s e t o c a r v e w e r e i n the shape o f h u m a n f e e t .

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

PH . D

260 F u n d a m e n t a l i s t s c a r r i e d this a step f u r t h e r . ( E x c u s e t h e p u n ; I c o u l d n o t resist i t . ) T h e y i d e n t i f i e d s o m e e l o n g a t e e r o s i o n a l d e p r e s s i o n s — t o o l a r g e , but n e v e r m i n d — a s h u m a n p r i n t s , m a k i n g the c l a i m that dinosaurs and humans w a l k e d t o g e t h e r a l o n g t h e s h o r e o f the a n c i e n t G l e n R o s e sea. T h e claims are s o o u t r a g e o u s l y false that t h e w h o l e s t o r y w o u l d b e c o m i c a l w e r e i t n o t f o r the i m p l i c a t i o n s t o p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t a g e n d a .

Y e t this

nonsense is amazingly resilient. T h e r e is a m u s e u m outside of G l e n R o s e , the C r e a t i o n E v i d e n c e s M u s e u m , that p r e s e n t s such absurdities a s t h e p e t r i f i e d f i n g e r o f a w o m a n ( r e a l l y a b u r r o w f i l l i n g o r c o n c r e t i o n f r o m the G l e n R o s e L i m e s t o n e ) , a b n o r m a l l y l a r g e c l o t h i n g t o d e m o n s t r a t e that giants l i v e , and a h y p e r b a r i c c h a m b e r . T h i s last o n e i s a m u s i n g . T h e l o g i c g o e s s o m e t h i n g like this: I n the days o f N o a h , w i t h all that r a i n , the a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e m u s t h a v e b e e n m u c h h i g h e r than i t i s n o w .

O r g a n i s m s , s o the creationists say,

g r o w t o unnaturally l a r g e size u n d e r such a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . T h e h y p e r b a r i c c h a m b e r i s a m e t a l s e p t i c tank o r s o m e such c o n t a i n e r , p r e s u m a b l y b e i n g c o n v e r t e d t o h o u s e k i t t y cats and o t h e r v i c t i m s u n d e r p r e s s u r e , a l l e g e d l y t o turn t h e m i n t o giants. B e l i e v e r s i n the association o f d i n o s a u r and h u m a n f o o t p r i n t s r e j e c t v i r tually all standably,

intelligent explanation. do

not

generally

c o n t i n u a l l y d o u s i n g such

A n d professional paleontologists,

address

the

issue.

frivolous backfires,

If their

time

under-

was

spent

legitimate research questions

w o u l d g o u n a d d r e s s e d . T h e r e i s a t r e m e n d o u s b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e testifying a s t o w h y the creationists are w r o n g o n this issue.

L i b r a r i e s are full o f it.

M o s t all o f w h a t has b e e n discussed i n this b o o k d i s p r o v e s i t ( a n d t h e r e s t i s n o t r e l e v a n t t o t h e i s s u e ) . M o s t c r e a t i o n i s t s just s i m p l y c h o o s e t o r e m a i n overzealous, unaware, uninformed, or purposely deceitful. T h e r e is no excuse f o r such shabby, i n n u m e r a t e l o g i c w h e n t h e p r o b l e m s the w o r l d faces require

deliberate,

considered,

and

reasoned

solutions.

Much

to

their

c r e d i t , t h e latest falsifications o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s t f o o t p r i n t d o g m a h a v e b e e n made

not

by

professional

paleontologists

but

by

interested

and

curious,

d e e p l y w o n d e r i n g a m a t e u r p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s . T h e i r attitudes a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l . Unfortunately w h e n e v e r one allegation is disproved, another o n e ,

equally

ludicrous, crops up. T h e r e i s a v e r y s i m p l e r e a s o n w h y c r e a t i o n i s t s c l i n g t o the G l e n R o s e f o o t p r i n t s and insist o n t h e c o - o c c u r r e n c e o f m e n and d i n o s a u r s :

Such a n

association w o u l d d i s p e l the necessity o f a n Earth w i t h vast a n t i q u i t y . T h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y o f c r e a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g the day o f r e s t , c o u l d b e a c c o m m o d a t e d

A

LIVING

DINOSAUR?

i n the s e v e n b i b l i c a l days o f the G e n e s i s m y t h . quished.

For creationists,

Evolution w o u l d be van-

l i v i n g dinosaurs w o u l d d o the s a m e t h i n g .

fundamentalist c r e a t i o n i s t m o v e m e n t

was

involved

in

at

least o n e

The

o f the

Likouala S w a m p e x p e d i t i o n s . In A f r i c a I ran i n t o a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t f o o t p r i n t p h e n o m e n o n similar to w h a t I w a s familiar w i t h i n T e x a s . I n 1988 the C a m e r o o n e x p e d i t i o n d i s c o v e r e d o v e r t w o h u n d r e d dinosaur tracks a l o n g the M a y o R e y , a s t r e a m i n the K o u m Basin n o t all that far f r o m w h e r e w e f o u n d M e s o z o i c m a m m a l s . T h i s i s a s t r o n g l y M u s l i m area o f the c o u n t r y n e a r t h e b o r d e r w i t h C h a d .

We were

v e r y e x c i t e d w i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y o f l o t s and lots o f t r a c k s . Back a t R h i n o c e r o s C a m p , w h e r e w e w e r e staying, I t o l d o u r local l a b o r e r s a b o u t o u r " d i s c o v ery. T h e y had the p e r f e c t r e p l y :

" W h y d i d n ' t y o u t e l l u s that i s w h a t y o u

w a n t e d t o f i n d ? W e c o u l d h a v e taken y o u t h e r e t o b e g i n w i t h . " I t w a s e x p l a i n e d t o u s that t h e f o o t p r i n t l o c a l i t y w a s w e l l k n o w n t o the native

populace.

Of course

they

did

not

know

about

dinosaurs

per

se.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , f r o m t h e i r w a y o f l i f e , l i v i n g i n the bush a s t h e y d o , t h e y c o u l d c e r t a i n l y r e c o g n i z e s p o o r , n o t that that i s hard t o d o w i t h d i n o s a u r f o o t p r i n t s , e v e n i f t h e y d i d n o t k n o w w h a t c r e a t u r e s had m a d e the trails. S o m e o f the m o r e d e v o u t and i m a g i n a t i v e o f t h e m c l a i m e d that t h e y had s e e n , i n a m o n g s t the tracks, the k n e e , e l b o w , and f o r e h e a d p r i n t s o f o n e o f the g e n u f l e c t i n g Islamic faithful p r a y i n g t o M e c c a . I n t h e d e p t h s o f A f r i c a r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n talism w a s s h o w i n g itself a m o n g d i n o s a u r t r a c k s , just as it d o e s back h o m e in T e x a s . M y friends w e r e unable t o r e l o c a t e the h u m a n p r i n t s , s o t h e y c o u l d n o t b e s h o w n t o m e . But m y g u i d e s w e r e sure t h e y had s e e n t h e m b e f o r e . N o w , M u h a m m a d w a s n o t b o r n until the sixth c e n t u r y . I d o n o t k n o w w h e n M u s l i m i n f l u e n c e f i r s t b e g a n t o b e felt i n n o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n , b u t i t c o u l d have b e e n fairly l a t e , m a y b e w i t h i n the last c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d y e a r s — m a y b e e v e n later than that. H o w m i g h t c r e a t i o n i s t s i n t e r p r e t this? C o u l d t h e y argue

that dinosaurs

are

not an

Old

Testament

legacy,

drowned

in

the

N o a c h a n f l o o d , that t h e y l i v e d w e l l i n t o l a t e r t i m e s — w h e n w e h a v e , i n c i d e n tally, abundant and e l a b o r a t e w r i t t e n r e c o r d s — a n d also w e l l i n t o t h e t i m e that the E a r t h ' s b i g animals w e r e b e c o m i n g g e n e r a l l y familiar? I t w o u l d m e a n n o t h i n g i f such a r g u m e n t s w e r e m a d e — j u s t s o l o n g a s t h e y stay o u t s i d e t h e science c l a s s r o o m .

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

262 THE

REAL

I M P O R T A N C E o f that site i n C a m e r o o n i s i n t h e f o o t p r i n t s .

D i n o s a u r t r a c k s , as fossils, are i n t e r e s t i n g . U n l i k e b o d y fossils such as b o n e s or t e e t h , t r a c k w a y s p r e s e r v e an instant in t i m e . It is fossilized m o v e m e n t , and therefore

it

embodies

Dinosaur

tracks

are

the

n o t so

spirit rare

o f the as

behavior

you

might

that

think.

movement

entails.

Their preservation

d e p e n d s o n dinosaurs m o v i n g across the r i g h t k i n d o f g r o u n d , soft e n o u g h t o l e a v e an i m p r e s s i o n , y e t firm e n o u g h and n o t so m u s h y as to fill in the shape o r o b s c u r e d e f i n i t i o n . S o m e o f the t r a c k w a y s i n C a m e r o o n s h o w the trackm a k e r p r o g r e s s i n g f r o m f i r m e r t o s l o p p i e r substrate. T h e size and w e i g h t o f dinosaurs can b e e s t i m a t e d using m a t h e m a t i c a l e q u a t i o n s based o n f o o t p r i n t m e a s u r e m e n t s . Estimates o f s p e e d and gait can b e d e t e r m i n e d . D i r e c t i o n s o f t r a v e l can b e s e e n , and the sizes o r r e l a t i v e ages o f individuals l i k e l y t o b e t r a v e l i n g i n the s a m e g r o u p can b e c o n t e m p l a t e d . A t the m a i n track site i n C a m e r o o n ,

c a l l e d K B - 1 7 because i t w a s the

s e v e n t e e n t h l o c a l i t y f o u n d i n t h e K o u m Basin, t h e r e are f o u r s u p e r i m p o s e d stratigraphic

levels,

four

bedding

surfaces

on

the

tops

o f f o u r sequential

s e d i m e n t a r y strata, that h o l d m o s t of the t r a c k w a y s . T h e site itself is a stretch o f t h e M a y o R e y i n the m i d d l e o f the basin. T h e south bank i s f o r m e d o f C r e t a c e o u s sandstone and s i l t s t o n e , t i l t e d d o w n t o the n o r t h a t a t e n - d e g r e e a n g l e . T h e r i v e r i n f l o o d d u r i n g the rainy season s w e e p s the sandstone clean and e x p o s e s t h e surfaces p o c k e d w i t h tracks. T r a c k s a r e n o t the o n l y s e d i m e n tary structures p r e s e n t . T h e r e are t r a c e s o f a n c i e n t plant r o o t s i n a t least o n e s p o t . T h e r e are r i p p l e m a r k s i n p l a c e s , s h o w i n g that w a t e r c o v e r e d the m u d . T h e r e are m u d c r a c k s , s h o w i n g i t d r i e d o u t . T h e r e i s e v e n a d i n o s a u r track m a d e o n a flat surface, w i t h o u t r i p p l e m a r k s , but inside the track a r e m u d c r a c k s . W a t e r c o l l e c t e d i n the i m p r i n t o f the d i n o s a u r f o o t , m a k i n g a little p o o l . A s the w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d and s o a k e d i n t o the g r o u n d , the m u d inside the p r i n t w a s left t o d r y . A s i t d i d , the m u d shrank and c r a c k e d . A l l that t o l d in one print. W e spent s e v e r a l days o n the slab m e a s u r i n g t o e s , a n g l e s , p a c e s , s t r i d e s , e v e r y t h i n g necessary t o r e c o n s t r u c t the site o n p a p e r i n a d e t a i l e d m a p . M y g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , John C o n g l e t o n , d i d a fine j o b on the s t u d y , as y o u can j u d g e f r o m the s u m m a r y that f o l l o w s .

At K B - 1 7 we measured forty-seven

separate t r a c k w a y s w i t h a t o t a l o f n e a r l y 2 5 0 i n d i v i d u a l p r i n t s . T h e i d e n t i t y o f the tracks m a t c h e d w h a t w e e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e s c r a p p y b o n e s and t e e t h w e had f o u n d i n o u r q u a r r i e s a t the east e n d o f t h e basin, s o t o g e t h e r the t w o sets o f data c o m p l e m e n t e d each o t h e r i n w h a t t h e y c o u l d say about the

A

L I V I N G

D I N O S A U R ?

263 dinosaurs that l i v e d t h e r e . B o t h are i m p o r t a n t because n o dinosaurs had e v e r b e e n f o u n d i n t h e K o u m Basin b e f o r e o u r e x p e d i t i o n s w e n t t h e r e . U s i n g b o d y fossils, w e c o u l d i d e n t i f y a c o u p l e o f kinds o f t h e r o p o d s based o n m e a t - e a t i n g t e e t h . W e also had a f e w s a u r o p o d t e e t h and o n e lousy t o o t h that c o u l d possibly have c o m e o u t o f a s t e g o s a u r ' s m o u t h . T h e sail-backed p l a n t - e a t e r Ouranosaurus ( s e e F i g u r e 3 in C h a p t e r 1) w a s c l e a r l y p r e s e n t . T h e other

members

of the

fauna,

based

on

body

parts,

include

crustaceans,

lungfish and a t least o n e o t h e r f i s h s p e c i e s , f r o g s , t u r t l e s , and c r o c o d i l e s , m o s t n o t a b l y little Araripesuchus.

A n d of course we got what we w e n t there f o r —

early m a m m a l s . The

footprints

i n the

Koum

Basin w e r e all m a d e b y d i n o s a u r s .

Most

abundant b y far are t h e r o p o d prints ( l i k e t h o s e o f Spinosaurus i n F i g u r e 2 ) . These show three narrow toes.

M o r e than o n e s p e c i e s i s p r o b a b l y r e p r e -

s e n t e d . L a r g e r p r i n t s w i t h t h r e e b r o a d t o e s w e r e m a d e b y Ouranosaurus i n all p r o b a b i l i t y . T h e smallest prints f o u n d a r e o n l y a b o u t t h r e e inches o r s o i n l e n g t h . T h e y also h a v e t h r e e t o e s . T h e y m a y r e p r e s e n t a small s p e c i e s o f dinosaur, or they could b e l o n g to y o u n g of o n e of the larger species. A l l three o f the t r a c k w a y s m a d e b y the s m a l l e s t f e e t w e r e t r a v e l i n g t o the n o r t h e a s t . W e f o u n d n o s a u r o p o d prints a t K B - 1 7 , b u t just a short distance a w a y t h e r e w e r e u n m i s t a k a b l e traces o f s a u r o p o d s w a l k i n g i n sticky m u d .

Their feet,

a d a p t e d t o b e a r i n g w e i g h t o n t h e e n d s o f p i l l a r l i k e l e g s , sank d e e p i n t o the o o z e , l e a v i n g b e h i n d t h e i r t r a c e s , m o r e h o l e s than p r i n t s , a s t h e f e e t w e r e t u g g e d f r o m the m u d that sucked t o h o l d t h e m in. A b o u t half o f the dinosaur t r a c k w a y s a t K B - 1 7 p r o c e e d e d p r e f e r e n t i a l l y i n a northeast-southwest

direction.

The

o t h e r half w e r e

g o i n g the

opposite

d i r e c t i o n . P e r h a p s the same individuals w e r e g o i n g s o m e p l a c e i n o n e d i r e c t i o n and c o m i n g back f r o m i t i n the o t h e r . O n l y o n e t r a c k w a y i s o r i e n t e d eastw e s t . Because the t r a c k w a y s are spread o v e r m o r e than f o u r h u n d r e d y a r d s ' d i s t a n c e , t h e y are o n f o u r d i f f e r e n t s e d i m e n t a r y b e d d i n g surfaces, and t h e y r e p r e s e n t s e v e r a l species o f d i n o s a u r s , the u n i f o r m i t y i n the a l i g n m e n t o f the t r a c k w a y s , w h e t h e r c o m i n g o r g o i n g , i s s t r i k i n g . I t suggests that s o m e e n v i r o n m e n t a l o b s t r u c t i o n , such a s a r i v e r , c o n t r o l l e d the a v e n u e o f m o v e m e n t . Perhaps the dinosaurs w e r e m o v i n g parallel t o a r i v e r c h a n n e l , a l o n g its bank, o r m a y b e t h e y w e r e c o n s t r a i n e d i n the d i r e c t i o n s t h e y c o u l d t r a v e l b y s o m e o t h e r physical b a r r i e r . M o s t o f the dinosaurs a t K B - 1 7 w e r e w a l k i n g w h e n t h e y left t h e i r p r i n t s ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e are e x a m p l e s o f o t h e r gaits a s w e l l . T h e r e are e x a m p l e s o f

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

264 t r o t t i n g and s p r i n t i n g , a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e l e n g t h o f s t r i d e , and e v e n s o m e cases o f s p e e d i n g u p and s l o w i n g d o w n . S m a l l e r dinosaurs s e e m t o h a v e b e e n m o r e active

and agile than

larger ones.

O n e t r a c k m a k e r m a y have b e e n

i n j u r e d , as its t r a c k w a y i n d i c a t e s it w a s l i m p i n g a l o n g its w a y .

At first I

t h o u g h t w e had t h e m a r k s o f a tail d r a g g i n g i n o n e o f the t r a c k w a y s , but I w a s w r o n g . W h e n w e m a p p e d i t o u t , the t r a c k w a y s h o w e d a t h e r o p o d m a k i n g a t u r n , its o u t s i d e f o o t m a k i n g a b r o a d s w e e p o n the substrate. T h e lack o f tail drags e v e r y w h e r e i s significant and tells u s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w dinosaurs h e l d t h e i r tails: u p o f f t h e g r o u n d . T h e t r a c k w a y s I r e m e m b e r m o s t pleasantly a t K B - 1 7 can b e i n t e r p r e t e d in

a

controversial

manner,

and

I

really

have

no

way

of supporting

my

c o n t e n t i o n , but here it g o e s . T h e r e are t w o trackways at the w e s t e r n end of the s i t e ,

b o t h t h r e e - t o e d t h e r o p o d s b u t o n e c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r than the

o t h e r . T h e l a r g e r is s t r o l l i n g a l o n g , b u t c u r i o u s l y it is w a l k i n g in a c u r v i n g p a t h . T h e s m a l l e r o f the t w o i s w a l k i n g a l o n g b e s i d e i t , i n the same d i r e c t i o n , p a r a l l e l i n g the c u r v e to a r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e . C o u l d this be an adult and its offspring traveling along

together?

If s o ,

it reflects a

sophisticated

social

s t r u c t u r e . W h y n o t ? I i m a g i n e a m o t h e r w i t h y o u n g . I t w o u l d n o t b e startling r e a l l y , i t i s just that I c a n n o t p r o v e that the t w o w e r e actually w a l k i n g t o g e t h e r at the s a m e t i m e p u r p o s e l y r a t h e r than t h e i r associated tracks b e i n g a spurious and f o r t u i t o u s c o i n c i d e n c e .

P a r e n t a l b e h a v i o r in h e r b i v o r o u s dinosaurs has

a l r e a d y b e e n d o c u m e n t e d i n n e s t i n g areas and w i t h j u v e n i l e a g g r e g a t e s . T h e y also f o r m e d h e r d s and f l o c k s ,

s o m e of them anyway. T h e r o p o d s may w e l l

h a v e b e h a v e d i n t h e s a m e g e n e r a l w a y , c a r i n g f o r y o u n g and p e r h a p s f o r m i n g packs. T h e r e a r e n o l i v i n g dinosaurs i n A f r i c a ,

a t least i n the sense o f r e l i c t

s a u r o p o d s , but w e h a v e c e r t a i n l y b e e n able t o learn a g r e a t deal a b o u t the o n e s f o u n d t h e r e a s fossils. W e can a p p r e c i a t e t h e m a s l i v i n g a n i m a l s , a s w e l l w e s h o u l d , b e c a u s e we k n o w that in a m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e sense dinosaurs are still living.

A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , t h e y are l i v i n g i n the f o r m o f b i r d s , the

descendants of t h e r o p o d s .

Birds a r e dinosaurs that fly,

that have c o l o r f u l

p l u m a g e , and d e l i c a t e e g g s , and p a r e n t s that c a r e f o r t h e y o u n g . T h e y are n o t s a u r o p o d s , t y r a n n o s a u r s , o r any o f the o t h e r p o p u l a r M e s o z o i c d e n i z e n s , b u t w e can b e t t e r i m a g i n e t h o s e beasts b y h a v i n g a n a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r the l i v i n g dinosaurs. speculate

T h r o u g h b i r d s w e can w a t c h the on

the

courtship

behavior

m a t i n g dances o f cranes and

of Ornithomimus.

Birds,

as

dinosaurs,

p r o v i d e a fascinating n e w d i m e n s i o n t o d i n o s a u r b i o l o g y — a n d a w i n d o w t h r o u g h w h i c h t o v i e w it.

A

LIVING

DINOSAUR? 265

E v e r since t h e i r o r i g i n f r o m t h e r o p o d s , b i r d s h a v e u n d e r g o n e a m a r v e l o u s radiation beautifully e x e m p l i f i e d in tropical Africa. Is it n o t m o r e grand, m o r e inspiring,

t o see b i r d s a s l i v i n g dinosaurs e v o l v i n g t h r o u g h t i m e w i t h the

e c o l o g y of a c h a n g i n g Earth, to l e a r n a b o u t the past as it w a s and f o r w h a t i t m e a n s t o the f u t u r e , than t o h o l d fast w i t h n o g o o d r e a s o n t o t h e n o t i o n that s a u r o p o d s still l i v e o r that h u m a n s w a l k e d w i t h g i a n t dinosaurs? T h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s i s s i m p l y a n e x p i r e d w o r l d that n o l o n g e r e x i s t s e x c e p t t h r o u g h its l e g a c y — i t s f o u n d a t i o n f o r o u r m o d e r n w o r l d .

THE

GOOD

OF

DINOSAURS

T

H E FIELD SEASON i s o v e r f o r m e . I t w a s successful. W e g o t fossils.

N o w I a m i n t h e airplane and the p e o p l e o f M w a k a s y u n g u t i are o n the g r o u n d . I g o t t h e fossils and n o w I a m l e a v i n g . F r o m h e r e i n t h e a i r p l a n e , flying o v e r , the v a l l e y of t h e D i n o s a u r Beds l o o k s insignificant. version

o f d r i v i n g past p e d e s t r i a n s .

The

It is like a large-scale

perspective

is

so

different.

Can

M w a k a s y u n g u t i m a t t e r , this s p e c k l y i n g i n t h e v a l l e y s o far b e l o w m e ? C a n M a l a w i ? It is so o u t - o f - t h e - w a y and such a small p l a c e . Its t e l e p h o n e d i r e c t o r y i s a p u n y half-inch t h i c k — i n c l u d i n g t h e y e l l o w p a g e s — f o r the w h o l e c o u n t r y . I t i s easy t o b e cynical a b o u t A f r i c a . L o n g a g o t h e g e o l o g i s t J . W . G r e g o r y w r o t e that L i v i n g s t o n e ' s d e a t h i n

1873

" c l o s e d t h e w o r k o f the d r e a m e r s

. . . h e n c e f o r w a r d t h e y [ w o u l d b e ] u n i m p o r t a n t . " T h a t can n e v e r have b e e n less t r u e than n o w i n p r e s e n t - d a y A f r i c a . W i t h o u t d r e a m s t h e r e i s n o v i s i o n . W i t h o u t v i s i o n , h o w can p r o b l e m s b e s o l v e d ? W i t h o u t A f r i c a n s o f v i s i o n , h o w can A f r i c a s o l v e its p r o b l e m s ? I s u p p o s e that i f M w a k a s y u n g u t i d o e s n o t m a t t e r i n the g r e a t s c h e m e o f things, M a l a w i does not. If M a l a w i does n o t , Africa does not. A n d if Africa does not matter, neither does the w o r l d at large. A l l of them matter, or none o f t h e m d o e s . I n the f i n a l analysis, w e all h a v e t o l i v e o n this Earth. S o M w a k a s y u n g u t i d o e s m a t t e r . I t i s n o t insignificant. Still, the p r o b l e m s

266

THE

GOOD

OF

DINOSAURS 267

of such a t i n y c o u n t r y as M a l a w i , stuck w a y o f f in A f r i c a , a p p e a r i n s u p e r a b l e . A n d a hunt f o r dinosaurs in such a p l a c e a p p e a r s l u d i c r o u s , s o m e t i m e s e v e n t o m e . But it is n o t . T h e r e is so m u c h a b o u t w o r k i n g in a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e that is i n c o n g r u o u s . So much of Africa is incongruous.

M u c h of what I do not understand is

pleasant, such as the sign on the business e s t a b l i s h m e n t b e l l o w i n g o u t , WELDING AND DISCOTHEQUE.

W h a t can that m e a n ? O n the o t h e r h a n d ,

s o m e of

w h a t I do n o t u n d e r s t a n d is n o t pleasant at all. O n e o f the b i g g e s t p r o b l e m s M a l a w i faces can b e blatantly o b s e r v e d o n the m a i n h i g h w a y . T h e r o a d south f r o m L i l o n g w e t o B l a n t y r e , w h e r e o u r fossils are p r e p a r e d i n the l a b o r a t o r y f o r s t u d y , runs f o r p a r t o f its l e n g t h a l o n g the c o u n t r y ' s w e s t e r n b o r d e r w i t h M o z a m b i q u e . O n the r i g h t s i d e , i n M o z a m b i q u e , h o m e s and shops stand d i l a p i d a t e d and v a c a n t — b o m b e d o u t .

Such

d o o r s a s r e m a i n slap i n e f f e c t u a l l y i n the b r e e z e o n the r e m n a n t s o f rusty h i n g e s . T u m b l e w e e d s . I t i s d e s e r t e d . A c r o s s t h e r o a d , i n M a l a w i , life t e e m s a m o n g c r o w d e d shacks. H e r e are t h e r e f u g e e s o f M o z a m b i q u e ' s d e c a d e - a n d a-half n o t - s o - c i v i l w a r , w h i c h has lasted since t h e P o r t u g u e s e p u l l e d o u t o f their i l l - p r e p a r e d c o l o n y . T h e m a j o r i t y o f the r e f u g e e s i n M a l a w i are w o m e n and c h i l d r e n . M o z a m b i q u a n m e n are m o s t l y d e a d , c o n s c r i p t e d , o r e l s e w h e r e . Malawi,

a country

of s o m e

eight

million

inhabitants,

has

over

850,000

r e f u g e e s l i v i n g i n its b o r d e r s . I n o n e d i s t r i c t , r e f u g e e s o u t n u m b e r M a l a w i a n s nearly t w o t o o n e . T h e p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o f A f r i c a are E u r o p e a n i m p o s i t i o n s . W i t h n e p o tism r o y a l , Q u e e n V i c t o r i a t r a n s f e r r e d s o v e r e i g n t y o f K i l i m a n j a r o t o h e r f i r s t grandson,

Kaiser W i l h e l m II of G e r m a n y .

In

1 8 9 0 , just b e f o r e N y a s a l a n d

b e c a m e a p r o t e c t o r a t e , Britain and G e r m a n y w e r e n e g o t i a t i n g b e t w e e n t h e m selves t o d e f i n e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s p h e r e s o f i n f l u e n c e o n the D a r k C o n t i n e n t . T h e L i v i n g s t o n e M o u n t a i n s w e n t t o t h e G e r m a n s . T h a t i s w h y the L i v i n g stones t o d a y are i n T a n z a n i a and M a l a w i t e r r i t o r y stops w e s t o f t h e m . T h e British s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e , u p until W o r l d W a r I , e n d e d a t the S o n g w e R i v e r , n o w the b o r d e r b e t w e e n M a l a w i and T a n z a n i a . T h i s n o r t h e r n area o f w h a t i s n o w M a l a w i fell t o the British o n l y b e c a u s e , d u r i n g the s p h e r e - o f - i n f l u e n c e n e g o t i a t i o n s , Britain r e l i n q u i s h e d c l a i m t o the N o r t h Sea island o f H e l g o l a n d , t u r n i n g i t o v e r t o G e r m a n y i n e x c h a n g e f o r the t e r r i t o r y south o f the S o n g w e . But t h e p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o f A f r i c a are t r a d i t i o n a l l y m e a n i n g l e s s f r o m a fundamental cultural p e r s p e c t i v e , just a s t h o s e o f East and W e s t G e r m a n y w e r e , o r N o r t h and South K o r e a a r e . T h e r e f u g e e s f r o m M o z a m b i q u e are the

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

268 s a m e p e o p l e — Y a o , N g o n i , Sena, and o t h e r t r i b e s — a s l i v e i n the areas across the M a l a w i b o r d e r w h e r e t h e y settle i n r e f u g e e c a m p s . T h e c u l t u r e i s the s a m e , the l a n g u a g e is t h e s a m e . O f t e n this is n o t e n o u g h to i n d u c e a h u m a n i tarian r e s p o n s e t o t h e t r a g e d i e s o f w a r i n adjacent c o u n t r i e s . Warm

Heart

of Africa,

does

have

a

humanitarian

M a l a w i , the

philosophy,

accepting

r e f u g e e s f r o m t h e i r w a r - r a v a g e d n e i g h b o r and c a r i n g f o r t h e m . But i t i s n o t easy. T h e n u m b e r o f r e f u g e e s has s w e l l e d t e n f o l d since 1 9 8 6 . T h e r e f u g e e s are a l m o s t all i l l i t e r a t e peasants, subsistence f a r m e r s r e s i g n e d to simple lives. T h e y do not want to be in M a l a w i . T h e y want to be h o m e . F a r m i n g t h e land.

T h e r e i s r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e m i g r a t i o n o f r e f u g e e s f r o m the

c a m p s i n rural b o r d e r areas t o u r b a n c e n t e r s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y c r i m e has n o t y e t s k y r o c k e t e d the w a y o n e m i g h t h a v e p r e d i c t e d w i t h such a massive influx o f impoverished,

downtrodden people.

R e f u g e e s r e c e i v e h u m a n i t a r i a n assistance, t h e basics f o r s u r v i v a l : f o o d and c l o t h i n g . T h e daily f o o d r a t i o n i s just o v e r t w o thousand c a l o r i e s , b a r e l y a t the a c c e p t a b l e m e d i c a l l i m i t s . F o o d r a t i o n s a r e m a d e u p o f m a i z e m e a l , pulses ( m e a n i n g peas and b e a n s ) , sugar, salt, e d i b l e o i l , s o m e d r i e d f i s h , and d r i e d skim milk.

P e l l a g r a , a n u t r i t i o n a l disease caused by lack of niacin f o u n d in

fresh v e g e t a b l e s , i s b e c o m i n g c o m m o n . S u p p l e m e n t a r y f o o d i s p r o v i d e d t o m a l n o u r i s h e d c h i l d r e n and t o p r e g n a n t o r lactating w o m e n i n the f o r m o f likuni phala,

a marginally higher-protein mixture

of 80 p e r c e n t m a i z e ,

10

p e r c e n t p e a n u t s , and 1 0 p e r c e n t p u l s e s . Each f a m i l y i s a l l o t t e d o n e c o o k i n g s e t , o n c e , and t w o w a t e r c o n t a i n e r s , again o n l y o n c e .

O t h e r n o n f o o d items include s o a p — a bit o v e r one pound

per family per m o n t h ,

o n e b l a n k e t e v e r y t w o y e a r s f o r each p e r s o n , and

c l o t h i n g . Infants r e c e i v e a y a r d and a half of c l o t h , b o y s and m e n g e t a pair o f shorts and a shirt, g i r l s g e t a d r e s s , w o m e n g e t a t w o - y a r d l e n g t h o f c l o t h and o n e b l o u s e o r T - s h i r t . T h e t o t a l v a l u e o f life p l a c e d b y t h e w o r l d o n the 8 5 0 , 0 0 0 r e f u g e e s w a s $ 2 4 m i l l i o n last y e a r . Less than t h i r t y d o l l a r s a h e a d . A n d the r e f u g e e s d i d n o t cause t h e w a r . N e i t h e r d i d M a l a w i . A l l parties i n v o l v e d a g r e e that life i s m o r e than t h i r t y d o l l a r s ' w o r t h o f beans and b l a n k e t s . T h e a t t e m p t t o s o l v e the p r o b l e m surely d e s e r v e s m o r e s u p p o r t . But i t i s n o t f o r t h c o m i n g . T h e h e l p that i s available c o m e s f r o m the i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y , i n p a r t i c u l a r f r o m the U n i t e d N a t i o n s H i g h C o m m i s s i o n f o r R e f u g e e s , and f r o m p r i v a t e aid g r o u p s . T o M a l a w i the g r e a t e s t costs are h i d d e n , y e t t h e y a r e s e v e r e .

Health,

sanitation, e d u c a t i o n , and social s e r v i c e s a r e strained b e y o n d capacity. T h e

T H E

G O O D

O F

D I N O S A U R S

269 roads

and

physical infrastructure a r e b e i n g w o r n

out.

The

land i s b e i n g

d e f o r e s t e d f o r f i r e w o o d . M a l a w i i s a small c o u n t r y w i t h h a r d l y e n o u g h land f o r its o w n agricultural uses. Its o w n p o p u l a t i o n i s b u r g e o n i n g . Jobs are scarce e v e n f o r M a l a w i a n s . H o w can t h e y sacrifice m o r e ? Still, the M a l a w i a n s r e m a i n h u m a n i t a r i a n , h o s p i t a b l e , and o p e n . T h e r e is no resolution to the refugee p r o b l e m e x c e p t repatriation. That has t w o basic r e q u i r e m e n t s : T h e r e f u g e e s m u s t f e e l i t i s safe t o r e t u r n h o m e , and t h e y m u s t b e able t o e k e o u t a l i v i n g o n c e t h e y a r e t h e r e . T h e latter i s n o t a b i g r e q u i r e m e n t . Subsistence f a r m i n g i n the m u d - a n d - t h a t c h v i l l a g e s o f rural A f r i c a i s h a n d - t o - m o u t h i n t h e best o f t i m e s . But e v e n i f t h e p e o p l e a r e w i l l i n g t o g o h o m e just i n the r e a s o n a b l e aspiration o f s u r v i v i n g i n t h e i r o w n h o m e l a n d , t h e y c a n n o t d o s o until the w a r q u i t s . P e r h a p s that w i l l b e s o o n e r than later. If t h e r e e v e r w a s a f a t h o m a b l e reason f o r the h o s t i l i t i e s , this w a r has g o n e on so l o n g , so v i c i o u s l y , and so r u i n o u s l y that reasons p r o b a b l y c a n n o t b e r e m e m b e r e d , m u c h less m a t t e r a t this stage. M a n y o f t h e c o m b a t ants, like the m e r c e n a r y ruga-ruga o f the slavers o f o l d , n o w s i m p l y kill f o r f o o d and p l u n d e r . Voluntary repatriation is understandably not g o i n g w e l l . T h e r e is a v e r y e f f e c t i v e g r a p e v i n e f o r w a r i n f o r m a t i o n a m o n g the r e f u g e e s ; t h e y w i l l k n o w w h e n i t i s safe t o r e t u r n .

A t this t i m e i n m o s t o f M o z a m b i q u e i t i s n o t .

N o w a d a y s a b o u t f i v e thousand r e f u g e e s p e r y e a r r e t u r n t o " s a f e " areas. M o s t o f the repatriates a r e the heads o f h o u s e h o l d s . T h e i r f a m i l i e s r e m a i n a t the r e f u g e e c a m p s , and w i t h u n f o r t u n a t e f r e q u e n c y , t h e r e p a t r i a t e , n o t e x p e c t i n g t o s u r v i v e i n his h o m e l a n d , f l e e s again f o r the sanctuary o f the c a m p . I n the c a m p s t h e r e i s little t o d o , n o land t o f a r m . T h e r e i s n o official j o b s p r o g r a m , i t b e i n g difficult e n o u g h t o f i n d w o r k f o r M a l a w i a n s , but v o c a t i o n a l training i s part o f the r e p a t r i a t i o n p l a n — h e a l t h w o r k e r s , t e a c h e r s , m e t a l w o r k e r s , c a r p e n t e r s . A f e w p r i v a t e aid o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e m e a g e r s e l f - h e l p and f o o d f o r - w o r k schemes. T h e r e i s little else that can b e d o n e w i t h tight m o n e y . E v e n i f m o n e y w e r e easy, o n l y p e a c e w i l l r e a l l y s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m . F r i e n d l y , p e a c e f u l M a l a w i w i l l d o w h a t i t can f o r its b e l e a g u e r e d n e i g h b o r . M a l a w i ' s r o a d s , its f o r e s t s , its f a r m e r s d e p r i v e d o f land n o w used f o r r e f u g e e c a m p s , and its h e a l t h , e d u c a tional and social s y s t e m s m u s t c o p e . A f r i c a n r e s i g n a t i o n c o m e s i n t o p l a y , o n c e again a l l o w i n g p e o p l e t o l i v e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m . provide

adequate

water,

Malawians get

some

A t least,

benefit

i n the e f f o r t t o

from

newly

drilled

w e l l s . But the p r o b l e m m u s t still b e s o l v e d . T h e r e f u g e e p r o b l e m i s a c u t e , b u t M a l a w i m u s t also face the c h r o n i c

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

270 problems

of development

common

to

all

countries

o f the

impoverished

w o r l d . T h e process of d e v e l o p m e n t is interminable. It seems to progress at the s a m e u n n o t i c e a b l e p a c e a t w h i c h e r o s i o n w e a r s a w a y g r a n i t e . W h i l e the i m p o v e r i s h e d w o r l d d e v e l o p s , the D e v e l o p e d W o r l d m o v e s ahead w i t h R & D , p r o d u c i n g taster c o m p u t e r s , lasers, C A T scans, and all the o t h e r a c c o u t e r m e n t s o f t h e n e x t c e n t u r y . I t i s r e a l l y easy t o b e c y n i c a l a b o u t the p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e D e v e l o p i n g W o r l d . H o w can i t e v e r catch up? H o w can i t s o l v e the p r o b l e m s that h i n d e r i t f r o m m a k i n g p r o g r e s s ? O n the o t h e r hand, h o w are m o u n t a i n s e v e r e r o d e d t o t h e sea? M a l a w i has b e e n i n d e p e n d e n t f o r t w e n t y - n i n e y e a r s , a b o u t the same l e n g t h o f t i m e a s m o s t A f r i c a n , i n d e e d m o s t all d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . T h e m a t u r i n g p r o c e s s f o r a n a t i o n d o e s n o t take p l a c e o v e r n i g h t . I t takes t i m e . I t t o o k t i m e f o r all t h e d e v e l o p e d nations t o o . A n d f o r M a l a w i the p r o c e s s m u s t take place i n t h e d i s t i n c t l y A f r i c a n c o n t e x t that e x i s t s n o w . A f r i c a n s h a v e a n A f r i c a n p e r s p e c t i v e , n o t W e s t e r n b y any m e a n s , but o n e that is instilled by t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e d e r i v e s at least in part f r o m the social d y n a m i c s o f e x t e n d e d f a m i l i e s . T h e y a r e c l o s e - k n i t , and o l t e n t h e r e are

large numbers of children.

E x t e n d e d families p r o v i d e a sort of

t r a d i t i o n a l insurance against t h e t r i b u l a t i o n s o f o l d a g e and o t h e r hardships that can b e eased and a l l e v i a t e d b y familial c o m p a s s i o n . C o m m e r c i a l insurance and p e n s i o n funds, o u r usual m e t h o d s , a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y affordable t o m o s t Africans.

A l t h o u g h the g o v e r n m e n t p r o v i d e s t h e m e d i c a l and o t h e r social

s e r v i c e s its m e a n s a l l o w , these a r e l i m i t e d . I n A f r i c a large families are the safety nets that h e l p p e o p l e c o p e w i t h w h a t t h e y c a n n o t c o n t r o l — d r o u g h t , disease, d e a t h , h u n g e r . But large f a m i l i e s cause o v e r p o p u l a t i o n . W i t h d e v e l o p m e n t and p r o g r e s s a n e w safety n e t m u s t b e f o u n d . R e l i g i o n , a l w a y s a b i g cultural f a c t o r , t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n c l u d e d the spirits o f animals and a n c e s t o r s , b u t t h o s e b e l i e f s are n o w o f t e n m a n t l e d w i t h the c l o a k of W e s t e r n missionary indoctrination. introduced

T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n g i v e s s o m e o f the

Christian r e l i g i o n s a distinctly A f r i c a n f l a v o r .

S o m e aspects o f

m i s s i o n a r y faith are r e a d i l y a c c e p t e d . A l f r e d a Ibui i n N a i r o b i o n c e t o l d m e she l i k e d C h r i s t i a n i t y . " O t h e r w i s e t w i n s are bad l u c k , and m y sons w o u l d have been k i l l e d . " A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n has n o t b e e n d e s t r o y e d , i t has e v o l v e d t o f i t m o d e r n Africa. social v a l u e ,

Traditions change,

but s l o w l y .

A t each step s o m e t h i n g o f

d e r i v e d f r o m past t r a d i t i o n but suited f o r the p r e s e n t ,

must

a l w a y s r e m a i n . Social s y s t e m s m u s t r e t a i n i n t e g r i t y . I t i s part o f the m a t u r i n g process.

T H E

G O O D

O F

D I N O S A U R S

F r e e d o m and i n d e p e n d e n c e f o r M a l a w i w a s w o n , s o i t i s said, t h r o u g h U n i t y , L o y a l t y , O b e d i e n c e , and D i s c i p l i n e . E a r l y o n , P r e s i d e n t Banda i d e n t i f i e d the t h r e e g r e a t e n e m i e s o f the p e o p l e a s p o v e r t y , disease, and i g n o r a n c e . T h e f o u r t r a d i t i o n a l qualities o f the p e o p l e that l e d t o i n d e p e n d e n c e a r e still t r a i n e d o n these e n e m i e s a s t h e path t o e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e c o u n t r y is

racially

fully i n t e g r a t e d ,

but

citizens

of Asian descent,

w h o are

often

successful m e r c h a n t s , are a l l o w e d t o o p e n t h e i r shops o n l y i n g r e a t e r Blant y r e , L i l o n g w e , M z u z u , and Z o m b a . T h i s i s s u p p o s e d t o b e a k i n d o f affirmat i v e a c t i o n w h e r e b y m o r e black s h o p k e e p e r s are i n t r o d u c e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . T h e p o l i c i e s o f the g o v e r n m e n t , i f n o t the t r a d i t i o n s o f the p e o p l e , insure access t o o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r w o m e n . The

e c o n o m i c strength of M a l a w i

i s its

agricultural

system.

I t i s the

l i f e b l o o d o f the c o u n t r y . M a l a w i i s usually self-sufficient i n f o o d , e v e n e x p o r t ing to n e i g h b o r i n g c o u n t r i e s . It p r o d u c e s cash c r o p s such as t o b a c c o , sugar, c o t t o n , t e a , and m a c a d a m i a nuts. I t i s p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h c o n c o m i t a n t g r o w t h i n s u p p o r t industries that the b a t t l e against p o v e r t y is being w a g e d . M o r e o v e r , today M a l a w i is setting an e x a m p l e in sub-Saharan A f r i c a b y p r o d u c i n g charcoal f r o m t h e l u m b e r i n g w a s t e w o o d o f c o m m e r c i a l plantations,

t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g fuel f o r u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n s and

easing s o m e w h a t the p r e s s u r e f o r

firewood

o n natural v e g e t a t i o n .

D e s p i t e t h e b u r d e n s p l a c e d o n t h e m , health c a r e and s e r v i c e s a r e steadily i m p r o v i n g . A c c e s s t o hospitals and m e d i c a l w o r k e r s i s i n c r e a s i n g . T h e r e a r e w i d e s p r e a d p r o g r a m s f o r i n o c u l a t i o n , n u t r i t i o n , h y g i e n e and sanitation, and safe d r i n k i n g w a t e r . T h e r e i s a n a c t i v e e f f o r t t o face the A I D S t h r e a t . T h e y had b e t t e r m a k e a n a c t i v e e f f o r t : T h e p r o b l e m s caused b y r e f u g e e s p a l e i n c o m p a r i s o n t o the reality o f A I D S i n A f r i c a . Since t h e disease strikes t h o s e i n t h e i r p r i m e o f l i f e , a c t i v e p e o p l e full o f v i g o r , and i t i m p o s e s t e n years o r s o o f i m p r e s s e d s e r v i c e a s a n u n w i t t i n g c a r r i e r o f the v i r u s , the t r a g e d y m u s t o n l y g e t w o r s e b e f o r e i t g e t s b e t t e r . D e a t h f r o m A I D S i s b e c o m i n g m o r e and m o r e c o m m o n p l a c e , r e m o v i n g s o m e o f the m o s t t a l e n t e d and e n e r g e t i c f r o m t h e l a b o r f o r c e and f r o m the ranks o f m i d d l e m a n a g e m e n t . W h o w i l l see t o the e v e r y d a y r u n n i n g o f the c o u n t r y a s t h e n e x t c e n t u r y begins? W h o w i l l c a r e f o r the thousands u p o n thousands o f o r p h a n e d y o u n g s t e r s , t h e i r p a r e n t s g o n e and their aunts and uncles d y i n g , a s t h e i r p a r e n t s w i l l h a v e d o n e , f r o m A I D S , and their g r a n d p a r e n t s passing o n t h r o u g h attrition? W h a t h a p p e n s t o e x t e n d e d - f a m i l y safety nets w h e n t h e r e i s n o o n e l e f t i n the f a m i l y t o e x t e n d a hand? I t i s easy t o b e d e s p a i r i n g and d e c i d e t h e r e i s n o h o p e . But t h e r e m u s t b e .

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

272 L i f e m u s t adjust, e v e n t o this latest a t r o c i t y . I t i s easy t o b e c o m p l a c e n t f r o m across t h e sea, b u t A I D S i s h e r e , t o o , and t h e m a g n i t u d e o f the p r o b l e m i n this c o u n t r y has n o t s e e n its l i m i t . I n M a l a w i the e f f o r t s t o c o m b a t the A I D S virus are b e i n g i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h e n l i g h t e n m e n t p r o g r a m s . P o i g n a n t e d u c a t i o n a l s l o g a n s , such a s D e a t h b y A I D S i s t h e d e a t h o f M a l a w i , catch the m i n d s o f the p e o p l e . E d u c a t i o n s i m p l y m u s t w o r k i f the ravages o f the disease are t o b e m i t i g a t e d . L u c k i l y e d u c a t i o n has had a l o n g and a c c e p t e d t r a d i t i o n i n M a l a w i . I g n o r a n c e i s c o m b a t t e d t h r o u g h a s y s t e m o f local v i l l a g e schools such as

the

one

in

which

our

friend

Lightwell

teaches,

boarding

schools

for

s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n , v o c a t i o n a l and t r a d e s c h o o l s , t e a c h e r s ' c o l l e g e s , and the U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i . T h e u n i v e r s i t y i s staffed w i t h f o r e i g n and d o m e s t i c a l l y t r a i n e d M a l a w i a n s and s o m e e x p a t r i a t e s .

M a n y M a l a w i a n professionals are

e d u c a t e d a b r o a d , q u i t e a f e w i n A m e r i c a , w h e r e Banda r e c e i v e d his training. T h e r o a d t o d e v e l o p m e n t i s p o t h o l e d and a r d u o u s . T h e r e i s a l o n g w a y t o g o . But M a l a w i has m a d e p r o g r e s s b y k e e p i n g f o c u s e d o n its real e n e m i e s : p o v e r t y , d i s e a s e , and i g n o r a n c e . W i l l M a l a w i e v e r b e h o m o g e n i z e d i n t o the W e s t e r n w o r l d ? W h y s h o u l d it? W i l l i t o v e r c o m e t h e hardships i m p o s e d b y t h e r e f u g e e p r o b l e m ? I t has t o . W i l l i t s u r v i v e t h e A I D S e p i d e m i c ? I t m u s t . W h a t are the alternatives? M a l a w i is an o p t i m i s t i c c o u n t r y that has f o l l o w e d

its o w n path since

i n d e p e n d e n c e . T h o s e are appealing qualities, imparting self-respect, a l l o w i n g i t t o b e h a p p y . T h e r e m a y n o t b e a n A p p l e c o m p u t e r i n e v e r y hut, b u t t h e r e m a y c o m e t o b e , w i t h hard w o r k and v i s i o n , f u l l - b e l l i e d , h e a l t h y , w i s e p e o p l e in t h e m . It is w i s d o m , w i t h i n a realistic c o n t e x t , that charts the c o u r s e of d e s t i n y . M a l a w i w i l l set its o w n c o u r s e . Q u i e t , p e a c e f u l , little M a l a w i . N o o n e hears o f i t i n the W e s t . E v e r since i n d e p e n d e n c e , all the w a y till n o w , it has b e e n t o o s t a b l e .

BECAUSE

OF ITS stability, t h e friendliness and h o s p i t a l i t y of the p e o p l e , and

t h e r e l a t i v e l y efficient b u r e a u c r a c y , M a l a w i i s a g o o d p l a c e t o run a n e x p e d i t i o n . T h e scientific a g e n d a o f m y M a l a w i P r o j e c t has c h a n g e d o v e r the last d e c a d e . T h a t i s t h e w a y i t should b e . H y p o t h e s e s e v o l v e a s m o r e i s l e a r n e d ; n e w strategies m u s t b e d e v i s e d t o a n s w e r n e w q u e s t i o n s . But o n e o b j e c t i v e has n o t c h a n g e d since its i n c e p t i o n : T h e p r o j e c t should c o n t r i b u t e t o M a l a w i , n o t parasitize it. T h i s o b j e c t i v e i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f the scientific results o f the p r o j e c t t o t h e e x t e n t that i t can b e , r e c o g n i z i n g that the c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e

T H E

G O O D

O F

D I N O S A U R S

o f t h e p r o j e c t rests p r i m a r i l y o n the a d e q u a c y o f the s c i e n c e .

I would not

a r g u e that this p r o j e c t has b e e n a m a j o r f o r c e in the b a t t l e against p o v e r t y , disease, and i g n o r a n c e . T h e o n l y a m m u n i t i o n t h e p r o j e c t has s u p p l i e d against disease is the dispensing of a f e w aspirins and s o m e q u i n i n e t a b l e t s . I do h o p e , o n the o t h e r hand, that t h e r e m a y b e s o m e p o s i t i v e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , h o w e v e r m i n u s c u l e , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e m i t i g a t i o n o f p o v e r t y and a l l e v i a t i o n o f i g n o rance. O v e r the years the cost o f f i e l d w o r k i n M a l a w i has a m o u n t e d t o n e a r l y $ 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , much of it c o m i n g f r o m the National G e o g r a p h i c Society. Conside r i n g I have run f i v e field seasons and d o n e s o m e l a b o r a t o r y w o r k t h e r e , this sum is, b y s o m e m e a s u r e s , n o t m u c h m o n e y .

B y o t h e r s , i t is.

Excluding

international t r a v e l e x p e n s e s , m o s t o f t h e m o n e y w a s spent i n M a l a w i , and m u c h o f i t i n e c o n o m i c a l l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d p o r t i o n s o f the n o r t h . I n M w a k a s y u n g u t i , w h e r e t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f o n e U . S . d o l l a r pays a m a n f o r a d a y ' s l a b o r , and I a m the o n l y e m p l o y e r , t h e i m p a c t o f t h e D i n o s a u r P r o j e c t , i n t h o s e relative t e r m s , is considerable indeed. Each f i e l d season the p r o j e c t has specific g o a l s and o b j e c t i v e s . T h e M w a k a syunguti l a b o r f o r c e h e l p s t h o s e g o a l s b e r e a l i z e d . T h e v i l l a g e r s a r e o n e o f the c o m p o n e n t s that m a k e f o r a successful season. G o o d results p o s i t i o n t h e project

for

continued

funding,

which

means

more

employment.

As

the

project blossoms, n e w avenues must be traveled. Early on I r e a l i z e d that dinosaurs in A f r i c a p r e s e n t f o r m i d a b l e l o g i s t i c a l p r o b l e m s . T h i s w a s n o t m u c h o f a b o t h e r i n the f i r s t t w o e x p e d i t i o n s b e c a u s e c o l l e c t i n g dinosaurs w a s n o t a p r i m a r y g o a l , finding m a m m a l s w a s . I g o t a m a m m a l l i k e c r o c o d i l e i n s t e a d , but that animal i s n o t l a r g e e n o u g h t o cause p r o b l e m s . T h e n i n the

1 9 8 9 season t h e emphasis b e g a n t o shift, and f r o m

1 9 9 0 dinosaurs have b e e n the m a i n thrust. O n c e the b o n e s w e r e o u t o f t h e g r o u n d , h o w w o u l d I e v e r g e t t h e m p r e p a r e d o u t o f t h e i r jackets? C l e a r l y t h e cost o f shipping plaster and b o n e biscuits t o m y labs i n D a l l a s , t h e n s h i p p i n g f i n i s h e d b o n e s b a c k , w a s p r o h i b i t i v e . I had t o f i n d a n o t h e r w a y . T h e s o l u t i o n w a s to train a p e r s o n in the t e c h n i c a l skills r e q u i r e d in fossil preparation.

S e n d i n g s o m e o n e t o the States f o r a f e w m o n t h s had distinct

advantages. F o r o n e t h i n g i t i s m u c h m o r e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e than s e n d i n g b o n e s . For another it is a much m o r e long-range solution,

supplying to M a l a w i

i n - c o u n t r y technical e x p e r t i s e t o h a n d l e t h e i r o w n p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s o n a c o n t i n u i n g basis. T h i s o b v i o u s l y a p p e a l e d t o t h e A n t i q u i t i e s D e p a r t m e n t , w h o assigned F i d e l i s , w h o had b e e n w i t h m e i n t h e f i e l d e v e r y t i m e , the

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

274 r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f l e a r n i n g t o b e a fossil p r e p a r a t o r . I o b t a i n e d s o m e p r i v a t e f u n d i n g , e n a b l i n g Fidelis t o c o m e t o Dallas f o r t h r e e m o n t h s i n 1 9 8 9 . T h e r e h e w o r k e d i n t e n s i v e l y w i t h K e n t , l e a r n i n g all t h e t e c h n i q u e s w e c o u l d teach h i m and g a i n i n g p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e o n the fossils. I p r o v i d e d h i m w i t h m u c h o f t h e e q u i p m e n t necessary t o h a v e a f u n c t i o n i n g , e f f i c i e n t p r e p a r a t i o n laboratory. N o w there is one in M a l a w i w h e r e there was not one before. T e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e i s o n l y half the b a t t l e . W h a t happens t o the b o n e s o n c e they

are

prepared?

There

is

no

professional

paleontological

expertise

in

M a l a w i , s o t h e pleasures and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f the scientific i n v e s t i g a t i o n have b e e n l e f t t o t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n g e n t . W h i l e w e are h a p p y t o study the fossils, the a r r a n g e m e n t i s n o t i d e a l . F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e r e i s m o r e t o d o than D a l e and W i l l and I can h a n d l e . F o r a n o t h e r , I find the w h o l e c o n c e p t o f e n t e r i n g i n t o a c o o p e r a t i v e e x p e d i t i o n in a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y , o b t a i n i n g the professional a d v a n t a g e s , t h e n a b a n d o n i n g the c o u n t r y a t the c l o s e o f t h e p r o j e c t t o b e l a t t e r - d a y i n t e l l e c t u a l e x p l o i t a t i o n and v i s c e r a l l y d i s p l e a s u r a b l e . I w o u l d h a v e to train a M a l a w i a n s t u d e n t . It is n o t a l w a y s so easy to find an appropriate candidate. W h y , for instance, should little M a l a w i want to h a v e a p r o f e s s i o n a l p a l e o n t o l o g i s t ? W h a t g o o d d o e s i t d o the c o u n t r y ? W o u l d n o t all t h e r e a l l y g o o d students b e i n t e r e s t e d i n m e d i c i n e , l a w , e c o n o m i c s ? Of course,

m o s t a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n p u r s u i n g t h o s e subjects.

But individual

i n t e r e s t s v a r y , and t h e r e are p e o p l e i n t e n s e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n the Earth and the life o n it. T h e y can b e f o u n d i n M a l a w i just a s t h e y can b e f o u n d i n e v e r y o t h e r c o u n t r y . M o r e o v e r , M a l a w i has a f i r s t - c l a s s D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s i n the M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n and C u l t u r e . I t runs the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m , p r o t e c t s the n a t i o n ' s m o n u m e n t s , s u r v e y s the c o u n t r y ' s cultural and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s , and c o n d u c t s scholarly r e s e a r c h . T h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s o f the d e p a r t m e n t teach c o u r s e s a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i . A v e r t e b r a t e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t is n o t such an absurd t h i n g f o r an educational organization, w h e t h e r a m u s e u m or university, in a d e v e l o p i n g country to h a v e . T h e r e s e a r c h o f p a l e o n t o l o g y can b e a s h i g h - t e c h , o r a s l o w - t e c h , a s facilities a l l o w . T h a t translates t o the fact that s o m e l e g i t i m a t e and i m p o r t a n t lines of i n v e s t i g a t i o n can be p u r s u e d at r e l a t i v e l y l o w c o s t . P a l e o n t o l o g y is a b a r g a i n . M o r e o v e r , a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t m u s t b e familiar w i t h a g r e a t n u m b e r o f d i s c i p l i n e s . T o take e x a m p l e s f r o m this b o o k , e f f e c t i v e p a l e o n t o l o g y r e q u i r e s k n o w l e d g e o f g e o l o g y , e c o l o g y , a n a t o m y , animal b e h a v i o r , and any n u m b e r o f o t h e r subjects. W h e n staffing p o s i t i o n s are l i m i t e d , a v e r t e b r a t e p a l e o n t o l o gist can g o a l o n g w a y t o w a r d r o u n d i n g o u t a d e p a r t m e n t . T h e c o u n t r y o f Malawi will be needing talented young p e o p l e , broadly proficient in a number

THE

GOOD

OF

DINOSAURS 275

of p r o f e s s i o n a l skills. A p a l e o n t o l o g i s t c o u l d do o t h e r things as w e l l as fossils. A p a l e o n t o l o g i s t c o u l d b e s e c o n d e d i n t o s e r v i c e w i t h the c o u n t r y ' s g e o l o g i c a l s u r v e y or w a t e r d e p a r t m e n t . need evaluation, school

might

N a t u r a l hazards such as landslides and f l o o d s

and cities n e e d t o b e p l a n n e d a c c o r d i n g l y .

need

instructors

in

human

anatomy.

The

T h e medical

university

might

r e q u i r e instructors i n s c i e n c e . M u s e u m s n e e d t a l e n t . A l l o f these o r g a n i z a t i o n s n e e d w h a t i s t o o o f t e n lacking i n e v e r y c o u n t r y : c o m p e t e n t , w e l l - i n f o r m e d , k n o w l e d g e a b l e l e a d e r s . A d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y such a s M a l a w i c o u l d d o m u c h w o r s e than r e c r u i t a r i g o r o u s l y and b r o a d l y t r a i n e d p a l e o n t o l o g i s t . S o c o u l d m a n y universities in this c o u n t r y . T h e a u t h o r i t i e s a t the

Department

of Antiquities,

in

response

to

the

e x c i t i n g results w e w e r e o b t a i n i n g , c r e a t e d a n e w p o s i t i o n f o r a p r o f e s s i o n a l paleontologist. N o w , if I trained a M a l a w i a n for a P h . D . , there w o u l d be a j o b w a i t i n g o n the r e t u r n . T h e s t u d e n t c o u l d , a s a r e s e a r c h t o p i c , d e v o t e the necessary l o n g h o u r s t o the i n t e n s e study o f the c o l l e c t i o n o f b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i that i s e v e n n o w b e i n g p r e p a r e d b y F i d e l i s . I t w i l l take a t least a s l o n g to p r e p a r e t h e b o n e s as to study t h e m f o r a d i s s e r t a t i o n . P r e p a r a t i o n has a head start, s o the s c i e n c e w i l l n o t b e d e l a y e d . T h e future d e p a r t m e n t a l p a l e o n t o l o g i s t m u s t h a v e t h e necessary t r a i n i n g f o r the a p p r o p r i a t e

m a n a g e m e n t and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l r e -

s o u r c e s , the i n t e r e s t and ability f o r o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h , and the i n c l i n a t i o n t o teach

t h r o u g h the

Malawi

higher

education

system

to

b r i n g the

relevant

c o n c e p t s o f Earth and life sciences t o a b r o a d e r , b e t t e r - e d u c a t e d a u d i e n c e . I f e v e r y t h i n g g o e s a c c o r d i n g t o p l a n , M a l a w i can m a n a g e its o w n p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s , and m y v a l u e t o t h e i r c o u n t r y , such a s i t is, w i l l d i m i n i s h . T h a t w o u l d b e the m e a s u r e o f success. I t i s v e r y difficult,

f o r m e a n y w a y , t o p r e d i c t the o d d s f o r a s t u d e n t ' s

success. S o m u c h d e p e n d s o n the f o r t i t u d e o f the i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s i s t r u e u n d e r the b e s t o f c o n d i t i o n s ,

when

there

is

a large

applicant p o o l ,

and

when

universities can s e l e c t i v e l y p i c k and c h o o s e w h o w i l l b e a d m i t t e d . I t i s o f t e n m o r e difficult w i t h f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , s t e e p e d i n u n f a m i l i a r c u l t u r e s . I n cases like that o f M a l a w i , o n e p e r s o n w i l l b e a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t and assume all the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y that the p o s i t i o n w i l l o b t a i n . O n e p e r s o n i s s e l e c t e d f r o m the c o u n t r y , f r o m a m o n g p e o p l e w h o are e a g e r b u t n o t k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t the subject o r p e r h a p s n o t e v e n p r e d i s p o s e d t o a c o n s u m i n g d e d i c a t i o n t o it. W h o k n o w s , p e r h a p s the p e r s o n m i g h t t u r n o u t t o dislike fossils. T h e n y o u are stuck. A l l the e g g s are i n t h e basket o f the single p e r s o n s e l e c t e d f o r t r a i n i n g . I e n l i s t e d the h e l p o f m y M a l a w i a n c o l l e a g u e s i n the search f o r a n a p p r o p r i -

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

276 ate c a n d i d a t e . R e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e a s t r o n g m a t h and s c i e n c e b a c k g r o u n d and a n e x c e l l e n t p e r f o r m a n c e a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i . T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f Antiquities i n t e r v i e w e d the most promising candidate.

T h a t was Elizabeth

G o m a n i . She has a s t r o n g b a c k g r o u n d in m a t h , c o m p u t e r s , statistics, c h e m i s t r y , and Earth s c i e n c e — a v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e b a c k g r o u n d . I n 1 9 8 9 and again i n 1990

Elizabeth joined

the

expedition

in

the

field

to

get

some

practical

p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s also a l l o w e d m e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e v a l u a t e h e r a s a p o t e n t i a l s t u d e n t , f o r h e r t o d e c i d e i f she r e a l l y w a n t e d t o pursue this o p t i o n , and f o r u s b o t h t o g e t a chance t o k n o w each o t h e r . M y o p i n i o n : E l i z a b e t h has w h a t it t a k e s . E l i z a b e t h a r r i v e d t o start g r a d u a t e s c h o o l t w o y e a r s a g o last January. She started i n t h e w i n t e r s e m e s t e r . H e r flight o v e r b r o u g h t h e r t h r o u g h C h i c a g o , w h e r e she s a w s n o w f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . T h a t e v e n i n g she s a w t e l e v i s i o n f o r the f i r s t t i m e . T h e n e x t day she ate p i z z a and a r e d a p p l e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . I t o o k h e r o n a t o u r a r o u n d c a m p u s . I s h o w e d h e r the brass f l o o r p l a t e u n d e r the d o m e o f t h e m a i n hall. A f t e r w a r d , w a l k i n g d o w n the s t r e e t , she e x a m i n e d each

manhole

cover

very

carefully.

She

is

doing well.

Malawi

now

has

t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e and i t w i l l s o o n h a v e p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r t i s e t o handle its f o s s i l s — a l l o f t h e m , dinosaurs i n c l u d e d o f c o u r s e . A n d f o r the p u r p o s e s o f the p r o j e c t , w h e n E l i z a b e t h has c o m p l e t e d h e r t r a i n i n g , l i k e a d i n o s a u r i n the traditional v i e w , I w i l l go extinct. D i n o s a u r s h a v e g r e a t p o p u l a r a p p e a l i n M a l a w i , just a s t h e y d o e v e r y w h e r e e l s e . W i t h all t h e f i e l d w o r k w e w e r e d o i n g , i t w a s i n e v i t a b l e that the w o r d a b o u t o u r a c t i v i t i e s w o u l d suffuse i n t o t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e and that this w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y s w e l l i n t o national e x c i t e m e n t . I t w a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o g e n e r a t e e x c i t e m e n t a t t h e r i g h t t i m e , n o t t o o s o o n , b e f o r e the scientific significance o f t h e p r o j e c t c o u l d b e g u a r a n t e e d , and n o t t o o l a t e , w h e n the enthusiasm w o u l d b e o f n o h e l p f o r insuring c o n t i n u e d success. T h e 1 9 9 0 season w a s the r i g h t t i m e . B o n e s w e h a d , and n o w w e n e e d e d t o k e e p t h e p r o j e c t r o l l i n g . F i d e l i s had r e c e i v e d his t r a i n i n g , and the w h e e l s w e r e turning to g e t Elizabeth into graduate school.

Benefits t o the c o u n t r y

w e r e b e c o m i n g a p p a r e n t . M o r e o v e r , C a l t e x O i l i n M a l a w i had d e c i d e d t o m a k e a d o n a t i o n t o t h e p r o j e c t ( a n d t h e y h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p o r t u s subs e q u e n t l y ) . T h e y w a n t e d publicity for their part, so they i n f o r m e d the press. A r e p o r t e r and a p h o t o g r a p h e r w e r e p r e s e n t w h e n M r .

A l l e n , the C a l t e x

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , p r e s e n t e d t h e c h e c k a t o u r arrival i n e a r l y July. T h e result w a s a f r o n t - p a g e s t o r y , short b u t i n f o r m a t i v e , in the Malawi Times and a r e p o r t on

THE

GOOD

Radio Malawi.

OF

DINOSAURS

I t w a s heard a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i b e f o r e w e g o t t o the f i e l d .

T h e n , i n A u g u s t a t the e n d o f m y t i m e i n t h e f i e l d , r e p o r t e r s and p h o t o g r a p h e r s c a m e to the s i t e .

A feature article appeared

s h o r t l y after in

Quest,

Malawi's foremost magazine. A l l this fans the flames o f e x c i t e m e n t i n the g e n e r a l p u b l i c — a d u l t s and c h i l d r e n . N o o n e e v e r t h o u g h t that d i n o s a u r s , t h o s e s t r a n g e , b i z a r r e , f a r a w a y c r e a t u r e s , w o u l d actually b e f o u n d i n t i n y , p e a c e f u l , n o t h i n g - e v e r - h a p p e n s M a l a w i . Y e t t h e y w e r e , and s o m e p e o p l e had k n o w n i t f o r y e a r s . N o w i t i s e v e r y b o d y ' s t u r n . T r i v i a l a s i t m a y s e e m i n s o m e r e g a r d s , t h e dinosaurs are a s o u r c e o f national p r i d e , o f esprit.

T h a t is g o o d .

W i t h increased interest w i l l c o m e s o m e complications. P e o p l e w i l l w a n t t o see the dinosaurs. O t h e r s w i l l w a n t t o o w n t h e m . V i s i t o r s t o the n o r t h e r n reaches

of Malawi

might

want to

see

the

site,

or perhaps

take h o m e

a

s o u v e n i r . A s all t o o o f t e n h a p p e n s , that g e n e r a t e s a c o m m e r c i a l d e m a n d f o r fossils.

That w o u l d be bad.

T h e paleontological resources of the

country

b e l o n g t o all its c i t i z e n s , n o t t o just a s e l e c t f e w . T h e scientific v a l u e b e l o n g s t o the w o r l d .

T h e fossils o f M a l a w i are f r a g i l e .

T h e y are a n o n r e n e w a b l e

resource. T h o s e w h o w o u l d have a m e m e n t o on their mantel do m o r e harm than t h e y k n o w ; the careless r e m o v a l o f fossils f r o m the surface o f t h e g r o u n d d e s t r o y s the clues that g i v e fossils m e a n i n g and that p r o v i d e a m e a n s t o f i n d i n g still-buried s p e c i m e n s . resources

of the

In

country

M a l a w i such b e h a v i o r carries a risk: are

protected

by

law,

and

the

T h e fossil

Department

of

A n t i q u i t i e s i s serious i n the e x t r e m e a b o u t l i v i n g u p t o its c a r e t a k e r r e s p o n s i bilities. T h e y i n t e n d t o n i p any p r o b l e m i n the b u d . A n a p p r o p r i a t e s t r a t e g y for protection is being devised.

It involves educating locals,

and p e r h a p s

establishing a site m u s e u m a l o n g the lines o f D i n o s a u r N a t i o n a l M o n u m e n t i n U t a h . It a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y w i l l r e q u i r e a small b u t p e r m a n e n t staff at M w a k a syunguti. A f e w jobs w i l l be created. T h a t w i l l be g o o d . Still, t h e p u b l i c d e m a n d f o r dinosaurs m u s t b e m e t f o r t h r e e r e a s o n s : I t is fun, it is p r o f i t a b l e , it is e d u c a t i o n a l . T h e fun of e x t i n c t animals is u n d e n i a b l e . It is o b v i o u s . So is the p r o f i t a b i l i t y . W a l k t h r o u g h m o s t any s t o r e in t h e U n i t e d States that sells g o o d s f o r c h i l d r e n and y o u w i l l see t h e d i n o s a u r m o t i f . Breakfast c e r e a l , s p a g h e t t i , H a l l o w e e n c o s t u m e s , T - s h i r t s , p o s t c a r d s , backpacks, r o c k e r s , T V s h o w s , c o l o r i n g b o o k s , cassettes, p o s t e r s , w i n d u p t o y s , b o a r d g a m e s , v i d e o g a m e s . Y o u n a m e it. T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f d i n o s a u r m a n i a is w o r l d w i d e .

I f a n y o n e k n o w s t h e e c o n o m i c v a l u e o f this p e r s i s t e n t and

n e v e r - e n d i n g c r a z e , I h a v e n o t b e e n able t o f i n d o u t . Y e t i t m u s t b e t r e m e n -

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

278 d o u s . I n s o m e f o r m o r o t h e r this c o m m e r c i a l p h e n o m e n o n w i l l d e v e l o p i n M a l a w i . A n d that w i l l b e g o o d . T h e k i c k e r a b o u t dinosaurs is that t h e y are just as g o o d at selling science a s t h e y are a t s e l l i n g t o y s o r breakfast c e r e a l o r c a n n e d spaghetti. T h e y m i g h t e v e n b e the best single t h i n g a r o u n d f o r a t t r a c t i n g p e o p l e t o science a t all l e v e l s , k i n d e r g a r t e n t h r o u g h g r a d u a t e s c h o o l . N o t e v e r y o n e w h o likes fossils w i l l b e c o m e a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , b u t that is n o t the p o i n t . P a l e o n t o l o g y itself does not

need

a

recruiting

drive.

A

lot

of p e o p l e

like

the

subject

matter

of

p a l e o n t o l o g y just f o r w h a t i t is. T h e y w i l l like w h a t p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s d o , e v e n if they are not paleontologists themselves. T h e e d u c a t i o n a l aspects o f m y w o r k i n M a l a w i I f i n d m o s t i n t r i g u i n g . I n e f f e c t the dinosaurs a r e a t o o l ,

the b a i t ,

i f y o u w i l l , t o s t i m u l a t e healthy

c u r i o s i t y and the g o o d habit o f e n j o y i n g it. E d u c a t i o n i s a n i t e r a t i v e p r o c e s s , c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g r e d o n e and e m b e l l i s h e d i n individuals and constantly r e p e a t e d f o r each age g r o u p o f c h i l d r e n . M a n y o f the d e m a n d s and r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h e s a m e f o r any c l a s s r o o m , w h e t h e r i t b e i n rural M a l a w i o r i n a n affluent p r i v a t e s c h o o l i n t h e U n i t e d States. T h e r e f o r e these A f r i c a n dinosaurs o u g h t to have educational value for e v e r y o n e e v e r y w h e r e .

T h e y teach a b o u t the

h i s t o r y o f life and o f t h e E a r t h , a s dinosaurs f r o m a n y w h e r e d o . T h e y teach specifically a b o u t M a l a w i . M a l a w i a n s c h o o l k i d s k n o w w h e r e the U n i t e d States is; h o w m a n y A m e r i c a n s o f any age k n o w w h e r e M a l a w i is? H o w can t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l o f these dinosaurs b e s t b e r e a l i z e d ? I n M a l a w i the A n t i q u i t i e s D e p a r t m e n t w i l l p l a c e t h e m o n display i n the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m i n B l a n t y r e . T h e r e m a y a l s o , i n t i m e , b e a site m u s e u m a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i , and p e r h a p s a small t r a v e l i n g e x h i b i t . S u p p l e m e n t a r y b o o k l e t s f o r v a r i o u s g r a d e l e v e l s are p l a n n e d . O u t s i d e o f M a l a w i n e w s o f this w o r k w i l l e v e n t u a l l y f i l t e r d o w n t o c h i l d r e n ' s b o o k s . But t o m e i t w o u l d b e m u c h m o r e e l e c t r i f y i n g t o r e s u r r e c t these dinosaurs i n l i f e l i k e c r e a t i v i t y and let t h e m tell t h e i r o w n s t o r y b y t o u r i n g the w o r l d f o r all t o s e e . T h e n t h e r e w o u l d b e s o m e i n t e r e s t g e n e r a t e d — i n A f r i c a , i n M a l a w i , and i n s c i e n c e . I t o n l y takes m o n e y .

O F COURSE

ALL this p r e s u p p o s e s that t h e M a l a w i dinosaurs h a v e a w o r t h -

w h i l e s t o r y t o t e l l . I think t h e y d o . Just l o o k a t w h a t w e h a v e s e e n . A t least t h i r t e e n kinds o f b a c k b o n e d animals h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n t h e D i n o s a u r B e d s , plus a f e w s e e d l i k e plant r e m a i n s , and t w o kinds o f f r e s h w a t e r i n v e r t e b r a t e s . B o n e s are abundant and w e l l p r e s e r v e d , a l l o w i n g u s t o d e t e r m i n e a g r e a t deal

T H E

G O O D

O F

D I N O S A U R S

a b o u t the animals o f a n c i e n t A f r i c a .

T h e a g e o f t h e fossil r e m a i n s i s Early

C r e t a c e o u s , falling s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 144 and 9 7 . 5 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h i s i n t e r v a l i s g e n e r a l l y the m o s t p o o r l y k n o w n o f any i n the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , but it is i m p o r t a n t because it is in this t i m e i n t e r v a l that the animals and plants o f the m o d e r n w o r l d e m e r g e . M a l a w i p r o v i d e s a m a j o r s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the terrestrial a n i m a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e a n i m a l s , o n t h e Earth d u r i n g that t i m e . It m a y be the best in A f r i c a f o r its a g e . But it is n o t an isolated o c c u r r e n c e . I t exists i n a g l o b a l c o n t e x t , its v e r y p r e s e n c e g o v e r n e d b y the g r a n d p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o l o g y and b i o l o g y . W h a t i t c o n t r i b u t e s t o o u r k n o w l e d g e of the w o r l d as a w h o l e , and A f r i c a ' s p l a c e in its e v o l u t i o n , is g r e a t e r by far than any little details a b o u t any specific a n i m a l . It is i m p o r t a n t to k n o w this b i g p i c t u r e because i f the w o r l d o f t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s w a s n o t a s i t w a s , the w o r l d o f t o d a y w o u l d n o t b e a s i t is. D o w e n o t w a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t w e can d o t o the w o r l d o f t o m o r r o w , t o plan r a t i o n a l l y f o r the future? T h e D i n o s a u r Beds are a u n i q u e w i n d o w i n t o the past f o r a t least t w o reasons. T h e y p r e s e r v e a fauna, a suite of a n i m a l s , the likes of w h i c h is f o u n d n o w h e r e else in the w o r l d . It has r e l a t i v e s e l s e w h e r e , and that h e l p s us to understand its p l a c e , but n o o t h e r l o c a l i t y p r e s e r v e s e x a c t l y t h e s a m e a m a l g a m o f s p e c i e s . M o r e o v e r the M a l a w i fossils r e p r e s e n t the c o m m u n i t y o f animals l i v i n g just a t the t i m e A f r i c a w a s b e c o m i n g i s o l a t e d f r o m South A m e r i c a . O n t o p o f that, the b o n e s a r e p r e s e r v e d i n s e d i m e n t s r e f l e c t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s that are i n s o m e w a y s d i f f e r e n t f r o m the usual e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e dinosaurs are f o u n d . T h a t tells u s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e i r e c o l o g y . F i v e species o f d i n o s a u r s , a t least, o c c u r i n n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . T h e c a r n i v o r o u s o n e s are the m o s t p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d . T h a t m a k e s s e n s e . C a r n i v o r e s a r e high

on

the

food

chain,

and

in

a balanced

community

they

should

not

o u t n u m b e r t h e i r p r e y . T h e h e r b i v o r e s are a s p i k y - p l a t e d s t e g o s a u r that f e e d s o n l o w plants c l o s e t o the g r o u n d and a t least t w o kinds o f s a u r o p o d s that eat taller plants. O n e o f the s a u r o p o d s i s a n e w and d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f d i p l o d o c i d , r e p r e s e n t e d at first by a small j a w , p r o b a b l y f r o m a b a b y . Last field season w e r e c o v e r e d m o r e o f it.

T h e o t h e r s a u r o p o d i s t h e titanosaurid M a l a w i -

saurus. T h a t species is the best r e p r e s e n t e d of all the dinosaurs in M a l a w i . Parts o f the s k e l e t o n are k n o w n f r o m sets o f b o n e s a r t i c u l a t e d a s i n l i f e . O t h e r b o n e s are s c a t t e r e d . V e r y i n t e r e s t i n g l y , parts o f t h e skull, the l o w e r j a w , and s o m e t e e t h have b e e n f o u n d . I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e M a l a w i - s a u r u s s a m p l e , o f the m o r e than 150 species o f s a u r o p o d s that h a v e b e e n n a m e d w o r l d w i d e , perhaps o n l y t w o d o z e n are r e a s o n a b l y w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d b y fossils. O f t h e s e ,

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D .

skulls are k n o w n i n less than half. T h e fossils o f M a l a w i - s a u r u s i n c l u d e the o n l y s a u r o p o d - s k u l l m a t e r i a l k n o w n i n all o f A f r i c a f r o m b e t w e e n the t i m e o f T e n d a g u r u and the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s — a n i n t e r v a l o f n e a r l y e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s . W i t h such n i c e m a t e r i a l o f this s a u r o p o d , its relationships can be w o r k e d o u t . It is n o t like Diplodocus or Apatosaurus.

It d o e s n o t have the

l o n g skull, p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h , o r s c a l e s o m e , f l a i l s o m e tail o f t h o s e t w o . Its a r m s are s h o r t e r than Brachiosaurus, and its t e e t h and s n o u t are d i f f e r e n t f r o m b o t h Brachiosaurus and Camarasaurus. It is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g , t h e n , that r e g a l M a l a w i saurus a l l o w s f o r the r e v i s i o n o f ideas a b o u t the f a m i l y t r e e o f s a u r o p o d s , especially

with

regard

to

the

place

o f titanosaurids.

Titanosaurids,

while

h a v i n g s o m e d e r i v e d features u n i q u e t o t h e i r o w n f a m i l y , and w h i l e b e i n g m u c h m o r e characteristic o f the C r e t a c e o u s than t h e L a t e Jurassic h e y d a y o f the s a u r o p o d s , a r e basically p r i m i t i v e i n t h e i r a n a t o m y . O n e o f t h e i n t e r e s t i n g features o f M a l a w i - s a u r u s i s its s i z e . A t t h i r t y f e e t l o n g and p e r h a p s a d o z e n t o n s in w e i g h t , it is small f o r a s a u r o p o d . As I said e a r l i e r , o f all the b o n e s c o l l e c t e d i n M a l a w i f r o m all t h e m a n y d i f f e r e n t spots i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s , n o n e a p p r o a c h e s t h e size o f a t r u l y l a r g e s a u r o p o d . T h i s i n c l u d e s e v e r y t h i n g c o l l e c t e d b y c o l o n i a l e x p a t r i a t e s i n t h e 1920s, M i g e o d i n 1 9 3 0 , and all the b o n e s m y c r e w s h a v e c o l l e c t e d . M a l a w i - s a u r u s i s o n l y o n e t h i r d the size o f Diplodocus. W h y s h o u l d that be? W h i l e i n the f i e l d I t h o u g h t o f t w o p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s . P e r h a p s the b o n e s c o m e f r o m y o u n g individuals. E v e n the d i n o s a u r giants m u s t g r o w f r o m h a t c h l i n g s , b u t n o n e o f the places w h e r e b o n e i s f o u n d appears t o b e a n e s t i n g area o r o t h e r social a g g r e g a t i o n b r o u g h t a b o u t b y the b e h a v i o r o f b a b y dinosaurs.

I f n o t b a b i e s , m a y b e the

b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i are t h o s e o f d i n o s a u r t e e n a g e r s , a s i t w e r e . O n the o t h e r h a n d , m a y b e M a l a w i - s a u r u s r e a l l y w a s a small s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s . C r e t a c e o u s s a u r o p o d s a r e p o o r l y k n o w n all o v e r t h e w o r l d , and m o s t real giants a p p e a r t o h a v e l i v e d m i l l i o n s o f years e a r l i e r , but I h a v e t o a d m i t t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g amusing, e v e n appealing, about a t h i r t y - f o o t - l o n g sauropod dinosaur, a p y g m y i f y o u l i k e , l i v i n g i n A f r i c a o v e r 100 m i l l i o n years a g o w h e r e t o d a y , after all that t i m e , p y g m y h u m a n s l i v e . T h e r e is, o f c o u r s e , n o c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n dinosaur and h u m a n p y g m i e s . M a l a w i - s a u r u s is a distinct s p e c i e s of a n i m a l ; h u m a n p y g m i e s are just a p o p u l a t i o n o f the o n e g l o b a l h u m a n species w i t h a s m a l l e r a v e r a g e h e i g h t . But still, the t h o u g h t o f p y g m y s a u r o p o d s i s e n t e r t a i n ing. S a u r o p o d s h a v e o f t e n i n the past b e e n d e p i c t e d a s c r e a t u r e s o f the l o w lands—swamps,

seashores,

sluggish r i v e r b a n k s , and b a y o u s .

Indeed,

their

T H E

G O O D

O F

D I N O S A U R S

281 f o o t p r i n t s a r e m o s t o f t e n f o u n d i n r o c k s r e p r e s e n t i n g these e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e r o c k s o f M a l a w i ' s D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e d e p o s i t e d b y f a s t - f l o w i n g s t r e a m s that d r a i n e d the hilly c o u n t r y a t the f e e t o f m o u n t a i n s . probably

fairly

rugged

and

the

vegetation

not

T h e terrain was

particularly

dense,

except

p e r h a p s f o r the g a l l e r i e s a l o n g w a t e r c o u r s e s . T h e v e g e t a t i o n w a s c e r t a i n l y n o t as d e n s e as that in a rain f o r e s t . T h e w e a t h e r w a s h o t and seasonal, oscillating b e t w e e n w e t and d r y seasons. T h e s a m p l i n g o f this kind o f e n v i r o n m e n t , a s p r o v i d e d b y the D i n o s a u r B e d s , m a y b e r e l e v a n t t o w h y the s a u r o p o d s w e r e small. W a s the c o u n t r y s i d e t o o r o u g h f o r f i f t y - t o n b e h e m o t h s ? D i d the y o u n g o f giants l i v e i n the hills, a w a y f r o m the l o w l a n d s ? A l l o w m e t o s p e c u l a t e a l i t t l e f u r t h e r . T h e r e a l l y giant s a u r o p o d s are v e r y specialized

animals.

They

had

to

evolve

from

species

smaller

and

more

p r i m i t i v e than t h e m s e l v e s , b u t t h o s e ancestral species are c u r r e n t l y u n k n o w n t o p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s . T h e y m u s t h a v e l i v e d w h e r e the r e a l l y b i g o n e s d i d n o t , o t h e r w i s e w e should h a v e f o u n d t h e m a t T e n d a g u r u o r D i n o s a u r N a t i o n a l M o n u m e n t or s o m e other famous dinosaur hot spot. Malawi-saurus is b o t h small f o r a s a u r o p o d and it has s o m e p r i m i t i v e features in the v e r t e b r a e and the skull. T h i s has s o m e v e r y i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r d i n o s a u r s . T i t a n o s a u r i d s , as a f a m i l y , are the last of the s a u r o p o d s . T h e y are m o s t c o m m o n i n r o c k s y o u n g e r than the D i n o s a u r B e d s , n o t i n A f r i c a , but i n India and South A m e r i c a . T h e y also a p p e a r i n the L a t e C r e t a c e o u s o f E u r o p e and i n N o r t h A m e r i c a ( t h e beast c a l l e d Alamosaurus), w h e r e t h e y w e n t e x t i n c t a t the G r e a t D y i n g that m a r k s the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s .

Malawi-saurus

p r o v i d e s a k i n d o f m i s s i n g link b e t w e e n o l d e r C r e t a c e o u s titanosaurids and t h o s e o f the

Late

Cretaceous

so

c o m m o n i n t h e rest o f t h e

world.

The

titanosaurids m a y h a v e e v o l v e d i n A f r i c a and t h e n s k i p p e d o v e r t o S o u t h A m e r i c a just p r i o r t o the o p e n i n g o f the South A t l a n t i c O c e a n . S o m e f o r t y m i l l i o n years after t h e y left A f r i c a , t h e y w e r e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e bizarre m a m m a l l i k e c r o c o d i l e f r o m unexpected.

M a l a w i tells u s t o e x p e c t t h e

W e c a n n o t a l w a y s p r e d i c t a c c u r a t e l y w h a t w e w i l l f i n d i n the

u n k n o w n past, e v e n t h o u g h w e can c o n s t r u c t h y p o t h e s e s that m a k e r e a s o n able p r e d i c t i o n s . T h e M a l a w i c r o c w a s u n e x p e c t e d , b u t i t d o e s n o t v i o l a t e t h e b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e u p o n w h i c h p a l e o n t o l o g y i s b a s e d . I t i s just a n i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c o v e r y , a p p e a l i n g i n its w a y just a s the d i n o s a u r d i s c o v e r i e s f r o m M a l a w i a r e . D o e s the p r e s e n c e o f the m a m m a l l i k e c r o c h a v e any r e l e v a n c e t o the a p p a r e n t a b s e n c e o f t r u e m a m m a l s f r o m t h e D i n o s a u r Beds? M a y b e s o , b u t e v e n i f i t d o e s n o t , i t d e m o n s t r a t e s that v i a b l e , l o n g - l i v e d , f u n c t i o n i n g e c o l o g -

LOUIS

JACOBS,

PH.D.

282 ical c o m m u n i t i e s can b e m a d e u p o f species vastly d i f f e r e n t f r o m those a r o u n d t o d a y , each w i t h its special r o l e i n t h e w e b o f l i f e . A s e x e m p l i f i e d b y the D i n o s a u r B e d s , the e c o s y s t e m s o f t h e past a r e n o t s i m p l y j u n i o r - l e a g u e m o d e l s o f t h o s e that e x i s t t o d a y . T h e y w e r e d i f f e r e n t , and t h e y had t o b e m o d i f i e d f o r the w o r l d t o b e c o m e w h a t i t is. A l l o f the studies d o n e thus far a r e p r e l i m i n a r y . M o r e w o r k n e e d s t o b e d o n e o n e v e r y t h i n g . T h e f r o g s are u n s t u d i e d , the m a m m a l l i k e c r o c i s n o t y e t named,

n o r are M a l a w i - s a u r u s o r o u r n e w species o f d i p l o d o c i d f o r m a l l y

n a m e d . T h e stegosaur and t h e r o p o d s n e e d d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n . W h a t w i l l t h e y t e l l us? T h e q u e s t i o n s g o o n and o n . I t w i l l b e years b e f o r e t h e f i n a l r e p o r t s a r e c o m p l e t e d . I t w i l l b e years b e f o r e E l i z a b e t h has t u r n e d i n her f i n i s h e d dissertation and r e t u r n e d t o h e r c o u n t r y t o u n d e r t a k e n e w investigations in M a l a w i ' s fossil b e d s .

E v e n after that has h a p p e n e d , scholars w i l l

f o r e v e r e m p l o y the s p e c i m e n s c o l l e c t e d i n o u r M a l a w i e x p e d i t i o n s , and those f r o m C a m e r o o n , just a s t h e y use b o o k s i n a l i b r a r y , f o r t h e i r o w n research p u r p o s e s . Ideas w i l l c o n s t a n t l y b e r e v i s e d , e t e r n a l l y u p d a t e d , n e v e r static. W h a t w e think n o w a b o u t M a l a w i - s a u r u s and t h e o t h e r fossils f r o m A f r i c a i s sure to c h a n g e in t h e f u t u r e . In o n e sense that m e a n s that w h a t is b e i n g said t o d a y i s sure t o b e w r o n g ,

or at best,

not c o m p l e t e l y right;

in a m o r e

i m p o r t a n t sense i t m e a n s that w h a t i s b e i n g said n o w w i l l h e l p u s b e c l o s e r to the truth n e x t t i m e .

THIS

August

IS

H O W i t w a s w h e n I left N g a r a c a m p :

3,

Friday.

L i g h t w e l l w a s i n c a m p this m o r n i n g b e c a u s e K e n t and I are l e a v i n g t o d a y . H e came quietly up to m e . " E x c u s e m e , s i r , " h e said, " m a y I speak t o y o u ? " I w a s h e a d i n g f o r m y t e n t . " S u r e , " I a n s w e r e d . " C a n y o u talk w h i l e I pack my gear?" L i g h t w e l l f o l l o w e d m e o v e r t o t h e s u b d u e d light b e n e a t h the g r e e n canvas of my Malawi home. " S i r , I h a v e p r e p a r e d a s o r t o f r e p o r t , w h i c h I w o u l d l i k e t o r e a d because y o u are l e a v i n g . " "Okay, go ahead."

T H E

G O O D

O F

D I N O S A U R S

283 L i g h t w e l l started t o r e a d . I s t o p p e d h i m . " I think this i s f o r the w h o l e g r o u p . L e t ' s g o back and g a t h e r e v e r y o n e , " I suggested. A r o u n d the t a b l e , u n d e r t h e shade o f t h e t a m a r i n d t r e e , L i g h t w e l l b e g a n . " F i r s t , b e f o r e I r e a d m y r e p o r t , please l e t m e say that i f a n y t h i n g w a s d o n e that o f f e n d e d y o u , please f o r g i v e us, f o r y o u a r e v i s i t o r s h e r e and w e n e v e r d o anything t o o f f e n d y o u . But i f w e d i d s o m e t h i n g that o f f e n d e d y o u w i t h o u t o u r k n o w l e d g e , I am s o r r y . I h a v e h e a r d that Yasaki m i s b e h a v e d and had to b e sacked f o r b e i n g r u d e . I a m s o r r y . H e e m b a r r a s s e d u s . " W e e c h o e d w a r m s e n t i m e n t s , and I assured h i m o f o u r d e e p f e e l i n g s f o r all the p e o p l e o f M w a k a s y u n g u t i , i n c l u d i n g Y a s a k i . G o o d - b y e s i n M a l a w i are always g l o r p y . L i g h t w e l l r e a d his h a n d w r i t t e n n o t e w i t h t r e m b l i n g l i p :

Farewell

Report

It is my great appreciation and sincere gratitude f o r y o u o n c e m o r e c o m i n g here t o visit m y c o u n t r y , i n particular m y village T h a w i l o . I again thank y o u for the best t i m e I spent w i t h y o u h e r e on Saturday, 28th July. I e x t e n d my sincere gratitude to y o u also f o r the g o o d and fruitful ideas y o u shared w i t h me on that day. M a y I take an o p p o r t u n i t y for thanking y o u o n c e again for the p o i n t o f d e v e l o p i n g m y h o m e area. Because of this s o m e of my h o m e b r o t h e r s are able to g e t a sort of e m p l o y m e n t w h e r e b y they can obtain m o n e y f o r their living. In addition to this d e v e l o p m e n t , my village bears its i m p o r t a n c e and great fame in the country. It is my absolute b e l i e f that p e o p l e always tend to n e g l e c t places found in r e m o t e areas or away f r o m the main r o a d . But w i t h the case of T h a w i l o , in particular M w a k a s y u n g u t i v i l l a g e , no o n e can n e g l e c t it as it is n o w . So for y o u to d i s c o v e r such an e x p e n s i v e thing in my h o m e area, it is because of the great w i s d o m p o u r e d in y o u . T h e r e f o r e , may y o u and y o u r family be healthy and strong all the w a y to Dallas in the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a as y o u w i l l be g o i n g back h o m e .

M a y y o u have such an

e x c e l l e n t w i s d o m so that all the best quality businesses planned and prepared for y o u may be fulfilled. It is of no w o n d e r that y o u have left p e o p l e of T h a w i l o w i t h great e x c i t e m e n t and healthy pockets for such an unforgettable d e v e l o p m e n t y o u have i n t r o d u c e d in the area. To say for sure, p e o p l e in Mwakasyunguti

L O U I S

J A C O B S ,

P H . D

284 village n e v e r f o r g e t y o u though y o u l e a v e t h e m because y o u have brought a sort o f d e v e l o p m e n t i n T h a w i l o . T h e y always feel happy w i t h y o u w h e n y o u live a m o n g t h e m . A l t h o u g h t i m e has c o m e n o w for y o u t o leave t h e m , spiritually y o u w i l l always b e a m o n g t h e m .

Please,

may y o u r families

r e m e m b e r us h e r e . I o n c e m o r e say thanks are due to y o u , D r . Louis Jacobs, D r . D a l e W i n k l e r , K e n t D . N e w m a n , and W i l l i a m D o w n s . I wish y o u all a g o o d journey.

YOU

ALL

DESERVE

BEST

L.S.E. L I G H T W E L L

WISHES

AND

THANKs!

M K W A L A

SADALA

ENDSON

MKWALA

M y o w n e m o t i o n s a b o u t M a l a w i , its p e o p l e , and its future j o s t l e d w i t h i n m e a s w e r a t t l e d o f f d o w n the t a r m a c t o K a r o n g a , t h r o u g h the t e r r i t o r y M l o z i and his slavers had s a v a g e d a c e n t u r y b e f o r e . W e d r o v e past the sign f o r the S y n o d o f L i v i n g s t o n i a , past t h e W o r l d W a r I g r a v e s , past K a r o n g a T e a c h e r s ' C o l l e g e , past the b r i g h t , n e w r e g i o n a l h o s p i t a l , t o the a i r p o r t . " W i l l i t fly t o d a y ? " I asked t h e A i r M a l a w i t i c k e t a g e n t . T h r o u g h a broad grin h e r e p l i e d ,

"I hope s o . "

EXPEDITION 1

MEMBERS M A L A W I

9 8 4

E X P E D I T I O N

R. Jerry Britt (Southern M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y ) W i l l i a m Chilinda ( D e p a r t m e n t o f Antiquities) William R.

D o w n s ( S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y and N o r t h e r n A r i z o n a University) L o u i s L . Jacobs ( S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y ) Zefe M.

Kaufulu ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s )

Biswick K h o m b a ( D e p a r t m e n t of Antiquities) Petros Mfiri (Karonga) Fidelis M o r o c c o ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s ) Greavens Mwanza (Karonga) Lloyd Nyalwa (Karonga) N i c o l a Stern ( H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y )

( O u r s o n , M a t t h e w , w a s b o r n i n S e p t e m b e r after the 1 9 8 4 M a l a w i E x p e d i t i o n . I n M a y 1 9 8 5 , B o n n i e and I t o o k M a t t h e w w i t h u s t o K e n y a w h i l e w e did o u r w o r k o n y o u n g e r fossils. T h a t y e a r I d u g dinosaurs and o t h e r b o n e s i n T e x a s and A r i z o n a . )

1

C A M E R O O N

9 8 6

E X P E D I T I O N

Sodia A d a m o u ( Y a o u n d e ) A b e l Brillanceau ( U n i v e r s i t e d e P o i t i e r s , F r a n c e ) Michel Brunet (Universite de Poitiers) Jean D e j a x ( M u s e u m national d ' H i s t o i r e n a t u r e l l e , P a r i s ) Kathryn M .

Flanagan ( U n i v e r s i t y o f W y o m i n g )

L a w r e n c e J. Flynn (Harvard University)

285

E X P E D I T I O N

M E M B E R S

286 E m i l e H e i n t z ( M u s e u m national d ' H i s t o i r e n a t u r e l l e ) Joseph V i c t o r H e l l ( I n s t i t u t e d e R e c h e r c h e G e o l o g i q u e e t M i n i e r e , Garoua) L o u i s L. Jacobs Jean (last n a m e n o t k n o w n , G a r o u a ) J e a n - P i e r r e (last n a m e n o t k n o w n , G a r o u a ) S e v k e t Sen ( U n i v e r s i t e d e Paris V I )

1

9 8 7

C A M E R O O N

E X P E D I T I O N

Sodia A d a m o u Abel

Brillanceau

Michel Brunet John D .

Congleton (Southern Methodist University) Jean D e j a x William R.

Downs

V e r a E i s e n m a n n ( M u s e u m national d ' H i s t o i r e n a t u r e l l e ) Kathryn M.

Flanagan

L a w r e n c e J. Flynn Emile

Heintz

Joseph V i c t o r H e l l L o u i s L. Jacobs Y v e s Jehenne ( U n i v e r s i t e de Poitiers) Guy Mouchelin (Universite de Poitiers) David Pilbeam (Harvard University) Sallee (last n a m e n o t k n o w n , G a r o u a ) Samuel (last n a m e n o t k n o w n , G a r o u a )

1

9 8 7

M A L A W I John D .

E X P E D I T I O N

Congleton

William R.

Downs

L o u i s L. Jacobs Alfred

Kapira ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) Zefe

Kaufulu

James K h o m u ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s ) B r i g h t o n Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i )

E X P E D I T I O N

M E M B E R S

287 M j u d a Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) W e l l i n g t o n Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) Lightwell Mkwala (Mwakasyunguti) Fidelis M o r o c c o Kent D. N e w m a n (Southern Methodist University) Alisa J . W i n k l e r ( S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y ) Dale A. W i n k l e r (Southern Methodist University)

1

C A M E R O O N

9 8 8

E X P E D I T I O N

Sodia A d a m o u A b e l Brillanceau M i c h e l Brunet John D . C o n g l e t o n Jean D e j a x Joseph V i c t o r H e l l L o u i s L. Jacobs Guy Mouchelin Sallee

1

9 8 9

M A L A W I

E X P E D I T I O N

William R. Downs Elizabeth G o m a n i ( U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i ) L o u i s L. Jacobs Joseph K a p i r a Zefe

Kaufulu

James K h o m u Laura M a c L a t c h y ( H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y ) Augustine M a x w e l l ( N g a r a ) Patson M a x w e l l ( N g a r a ) Yasaki M h a n g o ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) M j u d a Missiska W e l l i n g t o n Missiska Lightwell Mkwala Fidelis M o r o c c o Ronald M w a g o m b a (Karonga)

E X P E D I T I O N

M E M B E R S

288 Kent D.

Newman

Gresham N g w i r a (Ngara) Dale A.

1

9 9 0

Winkler

M A L A W I

E X P E D I T I O N

William R.

Downs

Elizabeth G o m a n i ( D e p a r t m e n t o f Antiquities) L o u i s L. Jacobs Alfred

Kapira

Joseph K a p i r a James K h o m u Augustine

Maxwell

Patson M a x w e l l Yasaki M h a n g o Dyson Mkwala (Mwakasyunguti) M j u d a Missiska W e l l i n g t o n Missiska Fidelis M o r o c c o Ronald

Mwagomba

Kent D.

Newman

Gresham

Ngwira

Alisa J . W i n k l e r Dale A.

Winkler

( T h e r e w a s n o A f r i c a n f i e l d season i n 1 9 9 1 , b u t D a l e W i n k l e r and I w e n t t o the

D e p a r t m e n t of Antiquities to prepare

fossils i n t h e i r l a b o r a t o r y

with

Fidelis M o r o c c o . )

1

9 9 2

M A L A W I

E X P E D I T I O N

John Chilachila ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s ) E l i z a b e t h G o m a n i ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s and S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t University) L o u i s L. Jacobs Alfred

Kapira

Joseph K a p i r a

E X P E D I T I O N

M E M B E R S

289 James

Khomu

Saulos M a k a l e ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) Banana Joe Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i . I c a n n o t resist g i v i n g t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f Banana J o e ' s n a m e .

His given name in T u m b u k a sounded very much

like the C h i c h e w a w o r d f o r e g g s . H e a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t l i k e that. O n a t r i p t o L i l o n g w e h e w a s v i s i t e d b y spirits i n his s l e e p , s o h e says, and t h e y instructed h i m t o c h a n g e his n a m e t o Banana J o e , w h i c h h e d i d . ) K e n i Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) Mjuda

Missiska

Wellington Dyson

Mkwala

Fidelis Ronald Kent D.

Missiska

Morocco Mwagomba

N e w m a n ( S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y and P i a n o I n d e p e n d e n t School District, W i l s o n M i d d l e School) Gresham

Ngwira

Locala N y i l o n g o (Mwakasyunguti) Louis H . T a y l o r ( W e s t e r n Interior Paleontological Society, D e n v e r ) Thomas Thwindwa Dale A.

(Ngara)

Winkler

Suggestions For Further Reading ( T h i s is not an exhaustive b i b l i o g r a p h y , o n l y an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the l i t e r a t u r e , but it should lead the interested r e a d e r to the w e a l t h of published sources available about the topics of this b o o k . S o m e references are r e l e v a n t to m o r e than o n e chapter, but each is listed o n l y o n c e , in the m o s t appropriate p l a c e . )

C H A P T E R

1 .

T H E

F O R G O T T E N

D I N O S A U R S

O F

A F R I C A A l b r i t t o n , C. C. 1986. The Abyss of Time. F r e e m a n , C o o p e r and C o m p a n y , N e w York. Blaikie, W.

Garden.

1910.

The Personal Life of David Livingstone. John M u r r a y ,

London. Campbell, R. J.

1930. Livingstone. D o d d , M e a d & C o m p a n y , N e w Y o r k .

Crichton, Michael.

1990. Jurassic Park. A l f r e d A . K n o p f , N e w Y o r k .

C o l b e r t , E d w i n H. 1973. Wandering Lands and Animals. E. P. D u t t o n & C o m p a n y , Inc., N e w Y o r k . D a r w i n , C. 1859. The Origin of Species. John M u r r a y , L o n d o n . (A v a r i o r u m t e x t edited b y M o r s e Peckham [ 1 9 5 9 , U n i v e r s i t y o f Pennsylvania Press] indicates that the passage m e n t i o n i n g L i v i n g s t o n e was changed in the fifth e d i t i o n t o , " L i v i n g s t o n e states that g o o d d o m e s t i c b r e e d s are valued by the n e g r o e s in the interior o f Africa w h o have n o t associated w i t h E u r o p e a n s . " ) DeSalle,

Rob;

Gatesy, John;

Wheeler, Ward;

and G r i m a l d i ,

David.

1992.

" D N A Sequences f r o m a Fossil T e r m i t e i n O l i g o - M i o c e n e A m b e r and their Phylogenetic Implications." 257:1933 Drummond, Henry. .

1888.

1884.

36.

" G e o l o g y o f Central A f r i c a . " Nature 2 9 : 5 5 1 .

Tropical Africa.

H o d d e r and S t o u g h t o n , L o n d o n .

G o u l d , Stephen Jay. 1980. The Panda's Thumb. W . W . N o r t o n & C o m p a n y , N e w York.

291

S U G G E S T I O N S

F O R

F U R T H E R

R E A D I N G

292 .

1 9 8 3 . Hen's Teeth and Horses Toes. W. W. N o r t o n & C o m p a n y , N e w

York. .

1985.

H a l l a m , A.

The Flamingo's Smile.

W. W. N o r t o n & Company, N e w York.

1973. A Revolution in the Earth Sciences. C l a r e n d o n , O x f o r d .

Hillis, D a v i d M . , and M o r i t z , Craig.

1990. Molecular Systematics. Sinauer Associ-

ates I n c . , Sunderland, Mass. Jacobs, Louis L.; W i n k l e r , D a l e A . ; and D o w n s , W i l l i a m R . Paleontological

Heritage."

1992. " M a l a w i ' s

Occasional Papers of the Malawi Department of An-

1:5—23.

tiquities

Kenyatta, J o m o .

1938. Facing Mount Kenya:

The Tribal Life of the Gikuyu.

Seeker

and W a r b u r g , L o n d o n . Kipling,

Rudyard.

1978. Just So Stories for Little Children.

Weathervane Books,

N e w Y o r k . ( T h e r e are, o f c o u r s e , many editions o f this delightful w o r k . T h e advice o f the k o l o k o l o bird i s f r o m " T h e Elephant's C h i l d . " A f e w other d e s c r i p t i v e t e r m s f r o m o t h e r stories have also b e e n u s e d . ) Maier, Gerhard.

1989. Tendaguru Through Time: The Information Trail of a Scientific

Expedition. T h e U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , Unpublished Research P r o j e c t submitted to the Faculty of Library and I n f o r m a t i o n Studies. M i g e o d , F . W . H . 1930. " R e p o r t o n the British M u s e u m East Africa E x p e d i t i o n . Season

1929."

Natural History Magazine 2 ( 1 9 3 0 ) :

185-98.

. 1931 A . " B r i t i s h M u s e u m East Africa E x p e d i t i o n . A c c o u n t o f the W o r k D o n e in . Morell,

1930."

193IB.

Virginia.

Natural History Magazine 9 : 8 7 - 1 0 3 .

" D i g g i n g for D i n o s a u r s . " Discovery 1 2 : 1 4 2 ^ 4 5 . 1992.

" T h i r t y - M i l l i o n - Y e a r - O l d D N A Boosts a n E m e r g i n g

F i e l d . " Science 2 5 7 : 1 8 6 0 - 6 2 . Parkinson, J.

1930. The Dinosaur in East Africa: An Account of the Giant Reptile Beds

of Tendaguru,

H.

Tanganyika Territory.

F.

& G.

Witherby, London.

Paul, G . S . 1988. " T h e Brachiosaur Giants o f the M o r r i s o n and T e n d a g u r u w i t h a

D e s c r i p t i o n of a N e w

Subgenus,

Giraffatitan,

and

a comparison

of the

W o r l d ' s Largest D i n o s a u r s . " Hunteria 2:1—14. Scotese,

Christopher (chairman).

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Technical

Report

1990. Atlas of Phanerozoic Plate Tectonic Recon-

90,

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Project

Technical

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No.

10-90-1, University of Texas, Arlington. Simpson, G e o r g e G a y l o r d .

1963.

This View of Life:

The World of an Evolutionist.

H a r c o u r t , Brace & W o r l d , Inc., N e w Y o r k . .

1 9 8 3 . Fossils and the History of Life.

Scientific A m e r i c a n B o o k s , N e w

York. W i l l i a m , G. Calif.

1982.

The Road to Jaramillo.

Stanford U n i v e r s i t y Press, Stanford,

S U G G E S T I O N S

W i l s o n , J.

F O R

Tuzo;

F U R T H E R

and others.

R E A D I N G

1972.

Continents Adrift.

W.

H.

F r e e m a n and

C o m p a n y , San Francisco.

C H A P T E R

T A H I T I

2 .

W I T H O U T

A n d e r s o n - M o r s h e a d , A . E . M . ; and G a r l a n d , V e r a . Story of Lake Malawi's M.

Chauncy M a p l e s .

V.

SALT

1 9 9 1 . Lady of the Lake: The Central Africana,

Blantyre,

Malawi. A v i s e , John C .

1990. " F l o c k s o f African F i s h e s . " Nature 3 4 7 : 5 1 2 - 1 3 .

Bemis, W i l l i a m E.; B u r g g r e n , W a r r e n W . ; and K e m p , N o r m a n E . ( e d i t o r s ) . 1987.

The Biology and Evolution of Lungfshes.

Carter, Judy.

1987. Malawi:

A l a n R. Liss, I n c . , N e w Y o r k .

Wildlife, Barks and Beserves.

M a c M i l l a n Publishers

Ltd., London. Clark, J. D e s m o n d ; H a y n e s , C. V a n c e ; M a w b y , John E.; and G a u t i e r , A. 1970. " I n t e r i m R e p o r t o n P a l a e o - A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l Investigations i n the Lake M a l a w i Rift."

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13:305-54.

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D e p a r t m e n t of A n t i q u i t i e s , Li-

longwe, Malawi. C o l i n , J . - P . ; and Jacobs, L .

L.

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B e d s . " Comptes Bendus de Academie des Sciences, Paris 311:1025—29. D i x e y , F. 1927. " T h e Mlanje M o u n t a i n s of N y a s a l a n d . " The Geographical Review 17(4):611-26. —.

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1897. British Central Africa. M e t h u e n , L o n d o n .

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M a t e e r , Niall J.; and others. 1 9 9 2 . " C o r r e l a t i o n of N o n m a r i n e C r e t a c e o u s Strata of Africa and the M i d d l e E a s t . " Cretaceous Besearch 13:273—318. M e y e r , A x e l ; K o c h e r , T h o m a s D . ; Basasibwaki, P.; and W i l s o n , A . C .

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M o i r , Jane F. 1 8 9 1 . A Lady's Letters from Central Africa. A journeyfrom Mandala, Shire Highlands to Ujiji, Lake Tanganyika, and Back in 1890. James M a c l e h o s e & Sons, G l a s g o w . (Reissued w i t h a n e w i n t r o d u c t i o n in

1991

by Central Africana

Limited, Blantyre.) N y a m w e r u , Celia. 1980. Rifts and Volcanoes: A Study of the East African Rift System. T h o m a s N e l s o n and Sons L t d . , N a i r o b i . Reinthal,

P.

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National Geographic

177(5):42-51. Sturmbauer, Christian; and M e y e r , A x e l . 1992. " G e n e t i c D i v e r g e n c e , Speciation and M o r p h o l o g i c a l Stasis in a L i n e a g e of African Cichlid F i s h e s . " Nature 358:578-81. Y o u n g , E. D.

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C H A P T E R

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3 .

Benson, C. W . ; and Benson, F. M.

F R O M

THE

G R O U N D

1986. The Birds of Malawi. M o n t f o r t Press,

Limbe, Malawi. Bernstein, J. 1990. " T h e Dark C o n t i n e n t of H e n r y S t a n l e y . " The New Yorker, 31 D e c e m b e r 1990: 9 3 - 1 0 7 . C l o u g h , Juliet.

1989. Malawi:

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Warm Heart of Africa.

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Munich. D a v i d s o n , Basil.

1978. Let Freedom Come: Africa in Modern History. L i t t l e , B r o w n

and C o m p a n y , Boston. .

1980. The African Slave Trade. L i t t l e , B r o w n and C o m p a n y , Boston.

.

1 9 9 1 . African Civilization Revisited: From Antiquity to Modern Times. Africa

W o r l d Press, I n c . , T r e n t o n N . J . F o t h e r i n g h a m , L. M o n t e i t h . 1 8 9 1 . Adventures in Nyassaland; A Two Years' Struggle with Arab Slave-Dealers in Central Africa.

Sampson L o w , M a r s t o n , Searle, &

Rivington, London. Howson,

P.

J.

1972.

A

Short History of Karonga.

Department

of Antiquities

Publication II, G o v e r n m e n t Press, Z o m b a . Johnston, H a r r y H. 1930. A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races. N e w revised e d i t i o n . C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m b r i d g e . K a n d o o l e , B. F.; and Phiri, K. M. dence in Malawi,

1964—1989.

1989. Malawi 25: Twenty-five Years of Indepen-

Silver Jubilee C o m m e m o r a t i v e B o o k .

Publishing C o m p a n y L i m i t e d , Blantyre, M a l a w i .

Dzuka

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F U R T H E R

R E A D I N G

295 Kayira, L e g s o n .

1965. / Will Try. D o u b l e d a y & C o m p a n y , I n c . , G a r d e n C i t y ,

N.Y. L a m p o r t - S t o k e s , Barbara.

1989. Blantyre: Glimpses of the Early Days. T h e Society

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INDEX

Africa, 229, 242

Age of Reptiles

and climatic change, 258

dating of, 10

dinosaur overview in, 158

See also individual reptiles; Dinosaur fossils;

exploration of, 243 -44

Dinosaurs

first dinosaur fossils in, 3

AIDS, 52, 271-72

formation of, 4, 33, 34, 48, 187,

Alamosaurus sanjuanensis, 145

189 and hunting, 203

Alcoholic beverages, 89-90 Algoasaurus, 1 5 1

importance of, 267

Alligators, 177

and "living" dinosaur, 245, 246, 251-65

Allosaurus, 16-17, 18, 150, 168

and marsupials, 216 17

Amniotes, 229

mystique of, 6

Amphibia

paleontological role of, 9 reconstructed image of, 190, 192 See also individual names and subjects;

characteristics of, 227 living, 227-29 Ankylosaurids, 153, 157

Cameroon project; Malawi; Malawi

Antarctica, 216, 217, 239

project

Antarctosaurus, 138-39, 141

Africans, outlook of, 97 Age of Mammals

Ants, 115 Anvil, in ear, 212

vs. dinosaur dominance, 220

Apatosaurus, 125, 126-27, 130, 131-32, 259

emergence of, 242

Arabs, and slave trade, 70, 72, 73, 75

evolutionary diversity of, 221-22

Araripe Basin, 186-90, 191, 192

See also Cameroon project; Mammal fossils;

Araripemys, 189

Mammals

Araripesuchus, 186, 189, 190

305

Archaeopteryx lithographica, 165 70, 166

head of, 125-26

Archosauria, 147, 176

overview of, 18

Arizona, 6 7, 228

See also Sauropods

Armor, 153, 154, 183

Brazil, 49, 186

of titanasaurids, 136-37

Breathing, in amphibians, 227

Ascension Island, 231-33, 232, 234 Asia, 216

death of, 217-18

Asians, in Malawi, 271 Atlantic Ocean, formation of, 33

Brillanceau, Abel, 198

British Museum, 4, 22 34, 49

Britt, Jerry, 175

Atmosphere, and climatic change, 256-57

Brontosaurus, 125

Attire, for field workers, 60

Brunei, Michel, 198, 199, 205

Australia, 207, 217, 239 Australopithecus, 20, 48

Caecilians, 227 28 Caimans, 177

Bacteria, and evolution, 24

Caltex Oil, 276

Banda, Dr. Hastings Kamuzu, 69 70, 81 82

Camarasaurus, 126, 127, 132

Baobah tree, 66, 67

Camels, 107

Barazas, 109, 114

Cameroon, 49, 186, 187, 190, 192, 229, 259

Barosaurus, 132, 144, 150

geography of, 197

Battle of Karonya, 109-10

people of, 196 98

Beer, 89-90 Bellusaurus, 144 Benoue River, 196

See also Cameroon project Cameroon project conditions in, 206

Bering Straits, 157

death in, 217-18

Bipedal locomotion, 121, 128

dinosaur discovery in, 204

and pelvic structure, 148 Bird, Roland T., 259 Bird-hipped dinosaurs, 147, 149, 149, 151-54, 155, 164-65, 167 Birds, 105, 106, 239, 264-65 ancestry of, 165-70

and footprints, 262-64 luck in, 218 mammal finds of, 216, 218 objective of, 214 personnel of, 198-200 rodent search in, 201 2

bones of, 121

site described, 206 7

and crocodiles, 176

and site location, 205-6

Blantyre, Malawi, 75

Camp (Malawi), description of, 88 91

Blue whale, 120

Candidon itapecuruense, 18 3

Bonaparte, Jose, 137

Canoes, 41—42

Bones

Cape Maclear, 41

of birds, 165, 167

Carnivorous dinosaurs, 149 50

of mammals, 209 14

Cartilage, 210

of reptiles, 210, 212

Cenozoic Era, 220

and weight support, 121-25, 122, 127-30 See also Dinosaur fossils; Fossils; Mammal fossils

See also Age of Mammals Centrum, 124, 134 35 Ceratopsians, 153

Bothrwspondylus, 151

Cetiosaurids, 1 32

Boubanjida Game Reserve, 203

Chadians, 215

Brachiosaurus, 16 17, 19, 120, 123, 127, 132,

Chalicothere, 250

144, 150

Chambo, 41

I N D E X

307 Charig, Alan, 64

Crocodiles

Cbauncey Maples, 40

anatomy of, 177-78, 180

Cheekbones, and chewing, 229-30

fossil discovery of, 172, 175-76

Chemosynthetic life, 237

lineage of, 176-77

Chevrons, 129-30 Chewing

" M a l a w i " type, 178-84, 18S, 192 Cryptozoologists, 250, 254

crocodile style, 179-80, 182, 186

Cushitic Rendille, 65

mammal style, 211-14

Cutler, W . E . , 15

turtle style, 229-30 Cbicapa, 39

Daborn, Chris, 174

Chicxulub Crater, 162

Dances, of Malawians, 93 94

Chilembwe, John, 110

Darwin, Charles, 21, 21, 22, 23, 235, 236

China, 144

Dating, 63

Cichbds, 4a 41, 42, 220

techniques for, 26-30

Clark, Jim, 180

Death, African " w a k e " for, 116 17

Climate

Defensive structures, of sauropods, 130-31

changes in, 255-59 and fossil searches, 50

Defoe, Daniel, 244 Dehydration, in amphibians, 227

Coelacanth, 188, 236, 251-54

Deinonychus, 150, 168

Coelurosaurs, 150-51

Dejax, Jean, 198

and birds, 167-70

Department of Antiquities, 114—15

Colbert, Edwin H., 121

Deperet, Charles, 137

Communication

Diatoms and diatomite, 46 47

among lambeosaurs, 152

Dicraeosaurus, 18, 19, 132, 151

among sauropods, 130-31

Digging, justification for, 54

Comoros Island, 251-52

Dinosaur Beds, 158, 184

Concretions, 188

age of, 48, 49-50

Congleton, John, 183, 215, 262

fossil productivity of, 172

Congo Basin, environmental stability of, 254

imagined image of, 191-92

Conifers, 190

and mammal fossils, 181-82

Conodonts, 222, 225, 226

overview of, 279-82

Continents characteristic animals of, 34—35 and plate tectonics, 4, 30-36, 144 See also specific names and subjects; Plate tectonics Convergence, as evolutionary phenomenon, 180-81

reconstructed image of, 191

93

Dinosaur fossils earliest discoveries of, 3—4 and Malawian economy, 272-73 and rocks, 10 scarcity of, 11 shipping logistics of, 273-74

Cope, E.D., 134

significance of, 4

Cope's rule, 120, 131

and Tendagura, 14—20

Coral, 236

See also individual names and subjects; Dinosaur

Courtenay-Latimer, M., 251, 254 Creationism, 260-61 Cretaceous Period, 144, 157, 158, 182-83, 192, 207, 214-15, 218, 229, 234, 239

Beds; Dinosaurs; Fossils; Malawi project; Sauropods Dinosaurs and birds, 164, 167

Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, 160 63

classical divisions of, 147

Crew. See Field crew

common features of, 146 47

I N D E X

308 Dinosaurs (cont'd) definition of, 146

factors in, 226 and mammalian tooth function, 213-14

etymology of, 22

and natural selection, 25-26

evolution and migration traced, 155-58

overview of, 22-25

extinction of, 158-63

and volcanic islands, 232-36

limb position of, 210

Evolutionary radiations, types of, 220 21

"living," 245, 246, 251, 254-65

Excavation, procedures for, 54—55, 55

and pelvic structure, 147-56

Expedition, essential ingredients of, 50,

popular appeal of, 276-78 social structure of, 264

51 Extinction

and temperature regulation, 238

and sex ratio, 240

tracks of, 261-64

theories on, 158 63

See also individual names and subjects; Dinosaur fossils Diplodocus, 123, 126-27, 129, 130, 131-32, 133 Dixey, Frank, 132, 136 D N A , 23, 201 and species antiquity, 24—25 Dong Zhiming, 144 Dove, 39 Downs, Will, 61 62, 72, 104-5, 172, 175, 205, 274, 284 described, 95-96 Drainage, and swamps, 257-58 Drummond, Henrv, 3

Fali tribe, 198 Faunal succession, concept of, 27 Feathers, evolution of, 165, 167 Field crew (Malawi) African members of, 97

100

American members of, 95-97 camaradarie of, 58 overview of, 51 Field work, logistics of, 51 60 Fish, 220, 222 and Araripe basin, 188 and Lake Malawi, 40 43 See also individual names and subjects

Dtyosaurus, 16-17, 18, 19, 152

Flanagan, Kathy, 199, 204

Ear, and bones, 214

Floral succession, concept of, 27

Early Cretaceous. See Cretaceous Period

Flowering plants, evolutionary role of, 35

Flight, and evolutionary radiation, 221

Earth, climatic cycles of, 255-56

and insects, 207

Earthquakes, 32

Flynn, Larry, 198-99, 200, 205, 206

Echidna, 207

Food

Ecology, and human policy, 163 64

for field crew, 51

Egypt, 11

Malawi style, 87

Elaphosaurus, 76-/7, 19, 150, 168

and warm-bloodedness, 209

Elephants, 129, 204

Footprints and tracks, counterfeit, 259 61

England, 216

Forest hog, 246-49, 248

Erosion, on volcanic islands, 233

Fossils

Euphorbia trees, 89

and climate, 50, 256 59

Europe, 217

dating, 26-30

Evolution

formation processes of, 46-47

and Age of Mammals, 220 22

"living," 222-26, 245-65

and amphibians, 227-29

vs. modern bone, 54

and birds, 165-70

potential information in, 26

and chemosynthesis, 237-38

of rats, 9-10

defined, 26

resiliency of, 53-54

I N D E X

See also individual names and subjects; Dinosaur fossils; Mammal fossils French archeologists, 11

Heads and skulls of crocodilians, 177 of plated dinosaurs, 153

Frogs, 227, 228 29

of Protoavis, 169

Fruit bat, 251

of sauropods, 125

Fulbe tribe, 197, 198

of turtles, 230

Funding, 51, 85

Heat, and warm-bloodedness, 209

from Caltex Oil, 276

Hell, Joseph Victor, 199, 200

outlook for, 273

Herbivorous dinosaurs, 149, 150 Hill, Andrew, 7

Gadoufaoua, Niger, 11, 158

Himalayas, 32

Gait, and dinosaur tracks, 264

Homed dinosaurs, 153

Galapagos Islands, 235

Human evolution and fossils

Galapagos penguins, 235

Asian chapter of, 7

Galapagos tortoises, 235

and counterfeit footsteps, 259-61

Gastroliths, 127

and Leakey finds, 6

Gekkos, 229

and West Africa, 196

Geneological tree, vs. evolutionary tree, 23

Hunting, 203

Genetics, and natural selection, 25

Hydrothermal vents, 237

Geomorphology, 257

Hyperbaric chamber, 260

German East Africa, 14

Hypsilophodon, 1 52

Germans, 240—42 and Tendagura expedition, 14, 15

Iceland, 233, 234-35

Gharial, 177

Iguanodon, 152

Gigantosaurus dixeyi, 132 33, 135-36, 142, 144

llala and llala II. 39

Gila monsters, 229

India, 139

Giraffe, 249-50

Indians, 66, 68

Glen Rose, Texas, 259-61

Insects

Gomani, Elizabeth, 85, 99, 276, 282 Gondwana, 33-34, 34, 156, 157, 181, 187, 188, 189, 228, 229, 231 Government, of villages, 109

as food, 87 vs. field crew, 57-58 and flowering plants, 207 and Lake Araripe, 188

Graviportal design, 128 29

Iraq, 73

Great Dying, 159-63, 164, 238

Iridium, and extinction theorv, 160-62

See also Extinction

Ischium, of titanosaurids, 136, 137

Great Rift Valley, 5, 9, 45, 46

Islam, 197, 261

Green sea turtles, 231

/ Will Try (Kayira), 82

34, 232

Gregory, J . W . , 266 Guendolen, 14, 15 Gule Wamkulu, 68, 69

Jacketing application of, 56—57 removal of, 58

Hadrosaurs, 152

Jacobs, Bonnie, 8, 11, 58, 171

Hagfish, 222-26, 223

Jacobs, Dr. Louis,

Hair, and warm-bloodedness, 209

on Africa, 266-68

Hammer, in ear, 212

biographical data on, 6-8

Haughton, S.H., 1 32, 1 33, 1 35

and Cameroon project, 194

Hawaiian Islands, 233 34

and crocodile skulls, 172

Jacobs (cont'd)

Laurasia, 33, 34

in Kenya, 6-20

Laws, Robert, 80-81

See also individual names and subjects; Malawi

Leakey, Louis, 11, 12, 14

project

Leakey, Mary, 19

Janescbia robusta, 141

Leakey, Richard, 6, 10

Jaws

hiring by, 7—8

of crocodiles, 179-80, 182

Leatherback turtles, 238

evolutionary derivation of, 222

Likoualo Swamp, 245, 254, 257 59

and "living" fossils, 222 26

Lilongwe, Malawi, 21, 83

of mammals, 211-12

Lithography, 166

of sauropods, 126-27, 133 34, 138-39

Livingstone, Dr. David, 3, 21 22, 36, 38, 72,

Johnston, Sir Harry, 60, 68, 249

75, 79, 197-98, 244, 251

Joints, of mammals, 210

Livingstone, Mary, 73-74

Jurassic period, 157

Livingstonia Mission, 80-83

Juwayeyi, Dr. Yusuf, 83

Lizard-hipped dinosaurs, 147-51, 148, 155

Kampango, 41

Lizards, 229

Kangaroos, 207

Locality, and fossil identity, 59

Karonga, Malawi, 75, 108-12

Luck, role of, 218

Karoo rocks, 101 2

Lungfish, 43 45, 44, 188, 222

Kayira, Legson, 82

Lydekker, Richard, 134

and birds, 164, 167

Kentrosaurus, 15, 16 17, 19, 153 Kenya, 194

Madagascar, 4 8 ^ 9 , 137, 153

early work in, 6-11

Magnetic fields

overview of, 65

reversal of, 28

Khomu, James, 98-99, 11 3

See also Paleomagnetism

Kitenges, 107, 108

Malaria, 51, 217-18

Koobi Fora, 48

Malawi, 229, 259

climate of, 50 Koum Basin, 195, 202^, 216, 261

arrival in, 83-85 64

Kntosaurus, 145

climate of, 50 economy of, 273 food in, 87

Lactimeria cbalumnae, 251 54, 252

geography of, 4

Lake Araripe, 187-90, 191, 192

outlook for, 272

Lake Baikal, 5 6

overview of, 66, 68 71

Lake Chad, 187 88, 196

paleontology career in, 274 75

Lakefiy cakes, 87

social problems of, 267-72

Lake Malawi described, 4 6, 36, 37, 38 fish of, 40 43

women in, 174 See also individual names and subjects Malawi Cookbook, 87

Lake Nyasa, 15

Malawi croc, 178 84, 185, 192, 281

Lake Tanganyika, 4, 36

Malawi project

Lake Victoria, 36

base camp for, 88-91

Lambeosaurs, 152

crew described, 95-100

Lamprey, 170, 222-23, 224

daily routine of, 100-2

Lassa fever, 202 3

excavation of, 94-95

Late Cretaceous. See Cretaceous Period

future of, 116

I N D E X

last days of, 116-18

Meteorites, and extinction theory, 161 63

original proposal on, 21

Mice, as sausage, 86 87, #6

pre-trip overview of, 61-64

Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 31, 32, 33. 234

sites described, 91-93

Middle ear, bones of, 212

summary of, 278-82 Malawi-saurus, 142-143.

Migeod, F . W . H . , 15, 53, 136 144-45, 281

Missionaries, 80-83

See also Sauropods

Mjuda, 99, 115, 117

Malawi sausages, 86-87

Mkwala, Dyson, 100

Malipenga dances, 93, 105

Mkwala, Lightwell, 72, 75, 78, 79 83, 1 15,

Mammal fossils, 171-72, 175

282 84

and Cameroon Project, 196, 204, 215

18

and Dinosaur Beds, 181-82

Mlozi, 75 78, 83 M'Mbelwa, 79 83, 81

elusiveness of, 194

Moir, John, 51

and Karoo rocks, 101 2

Mokele-Mbembe, 245-62 Mombasa, Kenya, 11

of Messel, 241-42 recognizable characteristics of, 209

14

Monitors, 229

searching for, 58-59

Monotremes, 207, 213 15, 216

and Tendagura, 19

Morocco, Fidelis, 83, 85, 88, 113, 114

See also Mammals Mammals, 7 emerging dominance of, 242 evolutionary roots of, 214-15, 216-17, 218 groups of, 207-8, 208

background of, 98 Mountains, and continental drift, 31, 32 Mozambique, 1 1 refugees from, 267-69 Mukasa, Ham, 65

as "living fossils," 250 51

Museum fur Naturkunde, 19

metabolism of, 238 39

Mwagomba, Ronald, 100 101

as reptile competitors, 182 warm-bloodedness of, 209

Nandi bear, 250

See also Mammal fossils

Nares, and crocodiles, 178, 186

Maples, Bishop Chauncey, 40

National Geographic Society, 21, 273

Mapping, roles of, 57

National Museums, Kenva, 16

Marine iguanas, 235, 236

National Science Foundation, 205

Marsh, O . C . , 134

Natural selection, 25, 236

Marsupials, 207-8, 208, 213, 214 15, 216-17 Masai, 65

See also Evolution Navigation, of turtles, 231-32

Matley, Charles Alfred, 139, 141

Ndola dances, 93-94

Maxwell, David James, 71

Newman, Kent, 62, 115, 1 17, 274

Maxwell, William Alexander, 70-71

described, 96

Mayo Rey River, 202 3, 206, 215, 261

Ngara, Malawi, 88

Mbere River, 200-2

Ngong Hills, 9

Mbororo tribe, 197

Ngoni, 78 83, 81

Mbuna, 40-41

Niger, 11, 49, 186, 189

Medicine, in Cameroon, 197-98

Nigeria, 49

Mediterranean Sea, 33

Niger River, 196

Meinertzhagen, Richard, 246 -49

Nile crocodile, 178, 180

Mesozoic Era, overview of, 154-57

Nilotic Turkano, 65

Messel, Germany, 240 42

Njemps, 65

Metabolism, reptilian vs. mammalian, 238-39

Nodosaurids, 153, 157

I N D E X

312 North America, 144, 145, 152, 156, 208, 216, 228

Pleurocoels, 124 Plimsoll line, 121-23, 122, 127

Nostrils, of sauropods, 126

Pokot, 65

Notosuchus, 181

Posture, of mammals, 210

Mima, 103

Powell, Jaime, 137

Nuclear winter, 163 64

Primate fossils

Nyasaland, 68 Nyungwe, Malawi, 70—71

emotional impact of, 8-9 See also Human fossils Procoelous vertebrae, 135

Oceans, and continental drift, 32

Prosauropods, 141, 151

Omeisaurus, 1 30

Prospecting, fundamentals of, 53

Oppossums, 207-8, 250-51

Protoavis texensis, 169-70

Origin of Species (Darwin), 21, 22

Pseudomorphs, 137

Ostrich dinosaurs, 168

Pterasaurs, 176, 189, 190

Ouranosaurus. 1 1, 1 3, 13, 152, 158, 189

Pterodactyls, bones of, 121

Overburden, 56 57, 114

Pygmies, 280

O w e n , Sir Richard, 22 Oxygen, and climatic change, 257

Quadripedal locomotion, 121, 128

Pachycephalosaurs, 153 Painted Desert, 57-58

and pelvic structure, 149 Quest, 277

Pakistan, field work in, 7 Palate, of crocodileans, 177-78, 186

Racerunners, 229

Paleoecology, 47

Radiocarbon dating, 21, 29

Paleomagnetism, 27-28, 29, 30

Rainfall, and swamps, 257

and continental drift, 32, 33, 33 Paleontology, 50

Rainmaking, and Cameroon, 197-98 Rats, fossils of, 9-10

as career, 274 75

Kebbachisarus, 1 5 1

implications of, 30

Red Sea, 45

Paluxy River, 259

Refugees, in Malawi, 267 69

Pangea, 33, 34. 215, 216, 228, 229, 231

Religion, 270

legacy of, 240 See also Plate tectonics Parrington, Rex, 15, 53

and science, 22 Reproduction, in amphibians, 227 Reptiles

Peccary, 250

bones of, 210

Pellagra, 268

ear bones of, 212

Pelvis, evolutionary significance of, 147

metabolism of, 238

Photic zone, 236

See also individual names and subjects;

Pilbeam, David, 7 Pipids, 229 Placentals, 207, 208, 208, 213, 214-15, 217 Plate tectonics, 30-36, 31, 33, 34, 144

Dinosaur fossils; Dinosaurs; Sauropods Rhinoceros Camp, Cameroon, 203, 204, 216 Rocks

and climatic change, 255

and dating, 26-30

and ocean life, 236-37

and dinosaur beds, 10, 11

and volcanic islands, 233, 252

and excavation, 56-57

Platycheloides nyasae, 231

in Malawi beds, 21

Platypus, 207, 213, 217, 222

visibility of, 50

I N D E X

313 Rodents

Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, 176

chewing style of, 180

Sodia, 199

of Mbere Valley, 201-2

Solnhofen Limestone, 165-67

Roto-hammer, 94-95

South Africa, 70 South America, 137, 138, 139, 145, 157, 181,

Salamanders, 228

185, 186-87, 189, 207, 208, 216, 217,

Sallee, 199

228, 229, 235, 236, 257

San Andreas Fault, 32

formation of, 33, 34

Saurischians. See Lizard-hipped dinosaurs Sauropods, 102-3, 150-51, 168

South Adantic, 187 Spinosaurus, 11, 12, 44, 150

defensive structures of, 130-31

Stanley, Henry Morton, 74, 244, 245, 251

fossil assortment found, 119

Stegosaurus, 15, 113, 114, 153-54, 157

head of, 125

Stirrup, in ear, 212

on hind legs, 129-30

Sunset, description of, 103

and Jurrasic Era, 156-57

Superposition, principles of, 27, 29

"living," 245, 246, 251, 254-65

Susa, 112

size of, 120-21, 280-81

Swamps, requirements for, 257-58

species of, 131-32 structural design of, 121-23,

122, 127-30

titanosaurid family of, 134-45 vertebrae of, 123-25, 124

Tails, 264 of sauropods, 130-31 Tanzania, 11,12—20

Science, and religion, 22

Taylor, Lou, 51-52

Screen-washing, 59

Tectonics. See Plate tectonics

Sealey, Harry Govier, 147, 164

Teeth

Seamount, 233

and birds, 167, 176

Segnosaurs, 151

of crocodiles, 175, 176, 178-80, 186

Sen, Sevket, 198

as fossils, 54

Sex determination, and temperature, 239—40

of hadrosaurs, 152

Shaka, 78

of mammals, 210-14

Shell, of turtles, 230-31

of plated dinosaurs, 153

Sheriff, 40

of Protoavis, 169

Ships, and Lake Malawi, 39

of sauropods, 126, 138-39

Shunosaurus, 1 30

Temperature, regulation of, 238-39

Siafu, 115

Tendagura, 11, 12-20, 63, 136, 144, 150,

Siderophile, iridium as, 161

152, 153

Sieving, 174-75

Texas, 259

Sir Apolo Kagwa Discovers Britain (Mukasa), 65

Thermonuclear war, and nuclear winter,

Sitwe River, 91, 92 Size evolutionary role of, 120 and vertebrae structure, 125

163-64 Theropods, 149-50, 187 and birds, 167 Titanosaurids, 126, 132, 134-45, 151, 281

Skinks, 229

Tourists, in Malawi, 41

Skulls. See Heads and skulls

Town meeting, and African villages, 109

Slavery, 72 73, 75-78, 77

Trees, of Tendagura,

Slave stick (goree), 76

Triceratops, 153

Slime hags. See Hag fish

Tugen Hills, 9

Snakes, 171, 201

Tumbuka, 79, 82

16-11

I N D E X

T u r t l e grass, Turtles,

234

and h u m a n fossils,

229-34,

238-39

Tyrannosaurus rex, 1 4 9 , 157, 1 6 7 , 168

Whales,

237-38

W i n k l e r , Alisa, 6 2 , United Nations,

268

described,

University of M a l a w i ,

272,

described, Wombats, 178

of sauropods,

123-25,

124,

134-35,

V o l c a n i c islands, 2 3 2 - 3 6 , 252

von H u e n e , Friedrich,

138-39,

von L e t t o w - V o r b e c k , Paul,

r e q u i r e m e n t s for,

127-30, West

Africa

128

161

African,

105-7

World W a r I,

Yasaki,

151

114

Young, E.D., 41

238-39

42

Zambezi River, 6, 79

209

Z a m b i a , 11 120-25,

Z i m b a b w e , 11 Zulus, 78 Zwandgendaba,

174

109-10

141

14

W e i g h t , structural s u p p o r t of,

135

in M a l a w i culture,

Volcanism, and extinction theory,

Warm-bloodedness,

96

207

Women

of crocodiles,

132,

115

97

W i n k l e r , D a l e , 6 2 , 1 15, 2 7 4

274

Vertebrae

Vulcanodontids,

196

See also C a m e r o o n ; C a m e r o o n p r o j e c t ; N i g e r

78-79

A B O U T

T H E

A U T H O R

L o u i s JACOBS received his P h . D . from the University of Arizona in 1977. His doctoral research was based on fossils he collected in Pakistan. After a short time in northern Arizona he m o v e d to Kenya to b e c o m e Head of the Division of Palaeontology

at

the

National

Museum,

working

for

Richard Leakey. He has conducted extensive field w o r k in the United States, Pakistan, M e x i c o ,

Kenya,

Cameroon,

M a l a w i , and Y e m e n . He recently discovered the first dinosaur known from the Arabian Peninsula. He has published nearly 100 technical papers. Currently he lives and teaches in Dallas. His wife studies fossil plants and his son and daughter like to accompany them in search of fossils.

Praise for Quest for the African Dinosaurs "A gripping adventure to t w o mysterious realms—the heart of Africa, and the world of giant dinosaurs. Lou Jacobs is that rarest of creatures—a scientist w h o can write for us all, and make his discoveries c o m e alive." — D O N I.I SSI \i

President, the Dinosaur Society, and author of Kings of Creation

"Louis Jacobs has produced a most interesting book, w h i c h will certainly give the reader a feel for dinosaur h u n t i n g in some exotic and unusual places. M a n y books have been written on the collecting of dinosaurs in North America, but this book is very different, and I found it refreshing, fun, and informative." —RICHARD E. LEAKEY

Director, Kenya Wildlife Service "Splendid book. If y o u like dinosaurs, this is for y o u . If y o u e n j o y reading engaging stories of life in the field, this is for y o u . And if y o u care to reflect a bit on the personal impact of the West on the developing world, and—as i m p o r t a n t — of the developing world on us, this is certainly for you. It's a most engaging read." — D R . DAVID PILBKAM

Henry Ford II Professor of the Social Sciences, Harvard University "I love it. The book is just what I have learned to expect of Lou Jacobs—original, delightfully entertaining, accurate, and stimulating. Lou Jacobs writes as well as he talks, n o t o n l y about h o w paleontologists study dinosaurs and w h a t they come up with, but also about w h y they do it and w h y t h e study of such esoterica as dinosaurs is of intellectual and emotional value to all of humanity. In his warm and witty style, Lou Jacobs has made a significant contribution to t h e demystification of science, which is badly needed in these days of creeping scientific illiteracy." — D R . NICHOLAS HOTTON III

Research Curator, Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution