Television Production Handbook

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Television Production Handbook N

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The essential book for students and working professionals Considered the reference text in the industry, Herbert Zettl's Television Production Handbook covers all aspects of television production— from camera and audio to digital editing and special effects. With an accessible style and a hands-on approach, Zettl helps you achieve mastery of the production technologies and techniques that will enable you to move from idea to image with confidence, consistency, and effectiveness. Filled with clear illustrations, vivid photographs, and cutting-edge content, Zettl's Television Production Handbook has long been a trusted resource in the classroom—and one that working professionals refer to throughout their careers.

Get more from your course with these resources: Television Production Workbook by Herbert Zettl, San Francisco State University The essential Television P r o d u c t i o n W o r k b o o k will help you practice and reinforce y o u r television p r o d u c t i o n skills. Giving you a h a n d s - o n learning e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e W o r k b o o k helps y o u apply t h e concepts you'll learn in y o u r course to various s t u d i o a n d field p r o d u c t i o n s . As y o u progress t h r o u g h t h e W o r k b o o k ' s quizzes, skill-enhancing exercises, a n d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g applications, you'll review i m p o r t a n t topics a n d check y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of concepts a n d t e r m i n o l o g y vital to success in this fast-paced field. ISBN: 0-534-64728-6

Book Companion Website http://communication.wadsworth.com/zettl_tvph9 Free access! Link to the Book Companion Website, where you'll find interactive resources that help you study and learn. This outstanding site features chapter-by-chapter tutorial quizzes, web links, flashcards, and other chapter review materials, plus a practice final exam and much more.

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Television Production Handbook N

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Herbert Zettl San Francisco State University

THOMSON

W A D S W O R T H AUSTRALIA

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BRAZIL

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CANADA

UNITED KINGDOM

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MEXICO

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SINGAPORE

UNITED STATES

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THOIVISOIM W A D S W O

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Television Production Handbook, Ninth Edition Herbert Zettl

Publisher: Holly J. Allen

Print Buyer: Karen Hunt

Senior Development Editor: Renee Deljon

Permissions Editor: Joohee Lee

Assistant Editor: Darlene Amidon-Brent

Production Service: Ideas to Images

Editorial Assistant: Sarah Allen

Cover and Text Designer: Gary Palmatier, Ideas to Images

Senior Technology Project Manager: Jeanette Wiseman

Art Editor: Gary Palmatier, Ideas to Images

Marketing Manager: Mark Orr

Photo Researcher: Roberta Broyer

Marketing Assistant: Alexandra I r a n

Copy Editor: Elizabeth von Radics

Marketing Communications Manager: Shemika Britt

Illustrator: Ideas to Images

Project Manager, Editorial Production: Jennifer Klos

Compositor: Robaire Ream, Ideas to Images

Creative Director: Rob Hugel

Cover Printer: Phoenix Color Corp

Executive Art Director: Maria Epes

Printer: R.R. Donnelley/Willard

© 2006 Thomson Wadsworth, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo, and Wadsworth are trademarks used herein under license.

Thomson Higher Education 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, information storage and retrieval systems, or in any other manner—without the written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 1

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ExamView® and ExamView Pro® are registered trademarks of FSCreations, Inc. Windows is a registered trademark of the Microsoft Corporation used herein under license. Macintosh and Power Macintosh are registered trademarks of Apple Computer, Inc. Used herein under license. Library of Congress Control Number: 2005927283 Student Edition: ISBN 0-534-64727-8 International Student Edition: ISBN 0-495-00908-3

For more information about our products, contact us at: Thomson Learning Academic Resource Center 1-800-423-0563 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit a request online at http://www.thomsonrights.com. Any additional questions about permissions can be submitted by e-mail to [email protected].

Brief Contents

1 The Television Production Process 1.1 What Television Production Is All About 1.2

11 Switching, or Instantaneous Editing 2 4 2

2 4

Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas

2 Analog and Digital Television 2.1

Analog and Digital Television

2.2

Scanning Systems

28

How Television Cameras Work

3.2

From Light to Video Image

How Switchers Work

11.2

What Switchers Do

244 254

12.1

How Video Recording Works

12.2

How Video Recording Is Done

13 Postproduction Editing

40

3.1

11.1

12 Video-recording and Storage Systems 2 6 0

26

36

3 The Television Camera

4 Lenses

18

42 63

262 276

284

13.1

How Postproduction Editing Works

13.2

Making Editing Decisions

286

308

14 Visual Effects 3 2 0

68

4.1

What Lenses Are

70

14.1

Electronic Effects and How to Use Them

4.2

What Lenses See

82

14.2

Nonelectronic Effects and How to Use Them

5 Camera Mounting Equipment 5.1 5.2

Special Camera Mounts

90

98

6 Camera Operation and Picture Composition 1 0 4 6.1

Working the Camera

6.2

Framing Effective Shots

106 115

7.1

Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls

7.2

Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media

8 Techniques of Television Lighting Lighting in the Studio

8.2

Lighting in the Field

9 Audio: Sound Pickup

15.1

Designing and Using Television Graphics

15.2

Scenery and Props

16 Production People 3 6 6 16.1

What Production People Do

16.2

How to Do Makeup and What to Wear

368 386

128 150

17.1

What Producing Is All About

17.2

Dealing with Schedules, Legal Matters, and Ratings

392

178

18.1

How a Director Prepares

18.2

Moving from Script to Screen

414 431

19 The Director in Production and Postproduction 4 4 4

188

9.1

How Microphones Hear

190

19.1

Multicamera Control Room Directing

9.2

How Microphones Work

209

19.2

Single-camera Directing, Postproduction, and Timing 464

10.1

Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations 220

10.2

Postproduction and Sound Aesthetics

407

18 The Director in Preproduction 4 1 2

156

158

446

10 Audio: Sound Control 2 1 8

vi

344

355

17 Producing 3 9 0

7 Lighting 1 2 6

8.1

337

15 Design 3 4 2

88

Standard Camera Mounts and Movements

322

20 Field Production and Big Remotes 4 7 0 235

20.1

ENG, EFP, and Big Remotes

20.2

Covering Major Events

487

472

Contents

Photo Credits

xxiii

About the Author Preface

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

xxv

xxvi

1

The Television Production Process

1.1

What Television Production Is All About BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM

2

4

4

EXPANDED STUDIO AND ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS System Elements of Studio Production Studio System in Action

5

System Elements of Field Production PRODUCTION ELEMENTS Camera

8

9 10

Switching

12

Videotape Recording Tapeless Systems

13

14

Postproduction Editing Special Effects

S E C T I O N

1.2

7

8

Lighting Audio

4

14

16

Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas TELEVISION STUDIO

18

Physical Layout

18

Major Installations

19

STUDIO CONTROL ROOM

20

Program Control Switching

21

22

Audio Control

22

Lighting Control Video Control

22 23

18

4

Contents

viii MASTER CONTROL

23

Program Input 23 Program Storage 23 Program Retrieval 24 STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS

24

Scenery and Properties

24

Makeup and Dressing Rooms

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

25

2

Analog and Digital Television

2.1

Analog and Digital Television BASIC IMAGE CREATION

28

28

BASIC COLORS OF THE VIDEO DISPLAY WHAT DIGITAL IS ALL ABOUT

28

28

Why Digital? 30 Difference Between Analog and Digital Digitization Process 30 BENEFITS OF DIGITAL TELEVISION

2.2

Scanning Systems

33

36

INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING Interlaced Scanning System

36

36

Progressive Scanning System DTV SYSTEMS

30

32

Quality 32 Computer Compatibility and Flexibility Signal Transport 33 Compression 34 Aspect Ratio 34

S E C T I O N

26

36

37

480p System 720p System 1080i System

37 37 38

FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS 38 Plasma Display Panel 38 Liquid Crystal Display 38

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

3J

The Television Camera

3.1

How Television Cameras Work PARTS OF THE CAMERA

42

FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL Beam Splitter 42 Imaging Device 43

42

40 42

ix

Contents

CAMERA CHAIN

45

Camera Control Unit

45

Sync Generator and Power Supply TYPES OF CAMERAS

46

46

Analog Versus Digital Cameras 46 Studio Cameras 47 ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders 48 Consumer Camcorders 48 Prosumer Camcorders 50 ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS Aspect Ratio 51 White Balance 51 Resolution 52 Operating Light Level Gain 55

50

55

Video Noise and Signal-to-noise Ratio 56 Image Blur and Electronic Shutter 56 Smear and Moire 56 Contrast 57 Shading 57 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 57 Operational Items and Controls: Studio Cameras 57 Operational Items: ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders

59

External Operational Controls: ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders

S E C T I O N

3.2

From Light to Video Image CCD PROCESS

62

63

63

NATURE OF COLOR

64

Color Attributes 64 Color Mixing 64 CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS

65

Chrominance Channel 65 Luminance Channel 65 Encoder 66 ELECTRONIC CINEMA

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

A

Lenses

4.1

What Lenses Are

66

68 70

TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES 70 Studio and Field Lenses Zoom Range 70 Lens Format 72

70

Contents

X

OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES Focal Length Focus 74

72

73

Light Transmission: Iris, Aperture, and /-stop Depth of Field 76

75

OPERATIONAL CONTROLS 78 Zoom Control 78 Digital Zoom Lens 80 Focus Control 80

S E C T I O N

4.2

What Lenses See

82

HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD

82

Wide-angle Lens 82 Normal Lens 84 Narrow-angle, or Telephoto, Lens

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

85

5

Camera Mounting Equipment

5.1

Standard Camera Mounts and Movements BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS

90

Handheld and Shoulder-mounted Camera Monopod and Tripod 90 Studio Pedestal 92 CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS Fluid Heads 94 Cam Heads 95 Plate and Wedge Mount CAMERA MOVEMENTS

S E C T I O N

5.2

95

95

Special Camera Mounts SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES

98 98

High Hat 98 Beanbag and Other Car Mounts Steadicam 98 Short and Long Jibs 100 Studio Crane 100

98

ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS 100 Robotic Pedestal 101 Stationary Robotic Camera Mount Rail System 102

102

94

90

88 90

Contents

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

XI

U

Camera Operation and Picture Composition

6.1

Working the Camera

J06

WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA Some Basic Camera "Don'ts" Before the Shoot During the Shoot After the Shoot

104

106

106

107 108 111

WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA

112

Before the Show 112 During the Show 113 After the Show 114

S E C T I O N

6.2

Framing Effective Shots

115

SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW Screen Size 115 Field of View 115

115

FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS Dealing with Height and Width 116 Framing Close-ups 117 Headroom 118 Noseroom and Leadroom 119 Closure 120 DEPTH

123

SCREEN MOTION

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

116

123

/

Lighting

7.1

Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Spotlights 128 Floodlights 130 FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Portable Spotlights 133 Portable Floodlights 136 Diffusing Portable Spotlights Camera Lights 139 LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT Mounting Devices 140 Directional Controls 144

126 128

128

133

138

140

Intensity Controls: Instrument Size, Distance, and Beam Intensity Controls: Electronic Dimmers 147

146

Contents

S E C T I O N

7.2

JLiQ.

Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media LIGHT INTENSITY

150

Foot-candles and Lux Incident Light 150 Reflected Light 151

150

CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY

151

OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT Baselight Levels TYPES OF LAMPS

152

152

153

Incandescent 153 Fluorescent 153 HMI 153 COLOR MEDIA 153 How to Use Color Media Mixing Color Gels 154

CHAPTER S E C T I O N

154

0

Techniques of Television Lighting

8.1

Lighting in the Studio QUALITY OF LIGHT

158

158

Directional Light and Diffused Light COLOR TEMPERATURE

158

158

How to Control Color Temperature

159

LIGHTING FUNCTIONS 160 Terminology 161 Specific Functions of Main Light Sources SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES 165 Flat Lighting 165 Continuous-action Lighting 166 Large-area Lighting 167 High-contrast Lighting 167 Cameo Lighting 169 Silhouette Lighting 170 Chroma-key Area Lighting 170 Controlling Eye and Boom Shadows CONTRAST

172

Contrast Ratio

173

Measuring Contrast

173

Controlling Contrast

173

BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES 174 Key-to-back-light Ratio 174 Key-to-fill-light Ratio 174 LIGHT PLOT

175

171

161

156

xiii

Contents

OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS Safety

176

176

Preserving Lamps and Power Using a Studio Monitor 176

S E C T I O N

8.2

Lighting in the Field SAFETY

176

17J

178

Electric Shock Cables

178

178

Fire Hazard

178

ENG/EFP LIGHTING 178 Shooting in Bright Sunlight 179 Shooting in Overcast Daylight 180 Shooting in Indoor Light 180 Shooting at Night 184 LOCATION SURVEY Power Supply

CHAPTER S E C T I O N

184 185

z

Audio: Sound Pickup

9.1

H o w Microphones Hear

188

190

ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Sound-generating Elements Pickup Patterns 191 Microphone Features 192

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Lavaliere Microphones 193 Hand Microphones 195 Boom Microphones 197 Headset Microphones 201 Wireless Microphones 202 Desk Microphones 203 Stand Microphones 205 Hanging Microphones 206 Hidden Microphones 207 Long-distance Microphones 208

S E C T I O N

9.2

H o w Microphones Work

190

190

193

209

SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS 209 Dynamic Microphones 209 Condenser Microphones 209 Ribbon Microphones 209 Sound Quality 210 SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES 210 Impedance 210 Frequency Response 210 Balanced and Unbalanced Mies and Cables, and Audio Connectors

210

Contents

xiv MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP

214

Microphone Setup for Singer and Acoustic Guitar Microphone Setup for Singer and Piano

214

214

Microphone Setup for Small Rock Group and Direct Insertion MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

IU ID 10.1

215

215

Audio: Sound Control

215

Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO Audio Console 220 Patchbay 224 Audio-recording Systems 225 Analog Recording Systems 225 Tape-based Digital Recording Systems Tapeless Recording Systems 228

220

227

AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO 229 Audio Control Booth 229 Basic Audio Operation 230 PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO Keeping Sounds Separate Audio Mixer

233

233

AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD

233

Using the AGC in ENG and EFP EFP Mixing 233

S E C T I O N

10.2

233

Postproduction and Sound Aesthetics AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES

235

Linear and Nonlinear Sound Editing Correcting Audio Problems 236 Postproduction Mixing 236 Controlling Sound Quality 236 AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM

237

Digital Audio Workstation 237 Analog Audio Synchronizer 238 Keyboards and Sampler 238 Automatic Dialogue Replacement SOUND AESTHETICS 239 Environment 239 Figure/Ground 239 Perspective 239 Continuity 240 Energy 240 STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND Stereo Sound 240 Surround Sound 241

235

240

238

235

232

220

Contents

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

X V

I I 11.1

Switching, or Instantaneous Editing How Switchers Work

244

BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT

244 244

Program Bus 244 Mix Buses 245 Preview Bus 245 Effects Buses 246 Multifunction Switchers BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION Cut or Take 248 Dissolve 249 Super 251 Fade 251

246 248

Additional Special-effects Controls

S E C T I O N

11.2

What Switchers Do

242

251

254

SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS 254 Production Switchers 254 Postproduction Switchers 255 Master Control Switchers 256 Routing Switchers 256 ELECTRONIC DESIGNS 256 Composite and Component Switchers Analog and Digital Switchers 258 Audio-follow-video Switchers 258

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

12 IZ

12.1

256

Video-recording and Storage Systems How Video Recording Works

262

RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY 262 Analog and Digital Systems 262 Linear and Nonlinear Systems 263 Composite and Component Systems 263 Sampling 265 Compression 265 TAPE-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS How Videotape Recording Works 266 Operational VTR Controls 267 Electronic Features 269 Analog Videotape Recorders 269 Digital Videotape Recorders 270

266

260

Contents

xvi TAPELESS RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS 273 Hard Disk Systems

273

Read/Write Optical Discs Flash Memory Devices Data Transfer

S E C T I O N

12.2

274 274

274

H o w Video Recording Is Done

276

USES OF VIDEO RECORDING AND STORAGE Building a Show 276 Time Delay 276

276

Program Duplication and Distribution 276 Record Protection and Reference 276 VIDEO-RECORDING PRODUCTION FACTORS

276

Preproduction 277 Production 279

CHAPTER S E C T I O N

13 13.1

Postproduction Editing

284

How Postproduction Editing Works EDITING MODES: OFF-AND ON-LINE

286

Linear Off-and On-line Editing

286

Nonlinear Off- and On-line Editing BASIC EDITING SYSTEMS

286

287

287

Linear Systems 287 Nonlinear Systems 287 Editing Principle 287 LINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS

288

Single-source System 288 Expanded Single-source System Multiple-source Systems 290

289

CONTROL TRACK AND TIME CODE EDITING Control Track, or Pulse-count, Editing Time Code Editing 293 LINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Assemble Editing 294 Insert Editing 295 AB ROLLING AND AB-ROLL EDITING AB Rolling 295 AB-roll Editing 297 NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS

297

295

291 291

294

Contents

xvii NONLINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Capture

Compression Storage

298

298 299

299

Juxtaposing and Rearranging Video and Audio Files

299

PRE-EDITING PHASE 300 Shooting Phase 300 Review Phase 301 Preparation Phase 301 EDITING PROCEDURES

304

Shot Selection 304 Shot Sequencing 30S Audio Sweetening 30S Creating the Final Edit Master Tape Operational Hints

S E C T I O N

13.2

306

306

Making Editing Decisions

308

EDITING FUNCTIONS 308 Combine 308 Shorten 308 Correct 308 Build 309 BASIC TRANSITION DEVICES Cut 309 Dissolve 309 Wipe 309 Fade 310

309

MAJOR EDITING PRINCIPLES 310 Continuity Editing 312 Complexity Editing 317 Context 317 Ethics 318

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

14 14.1

Visual Effects

325

Electronic Effects and How to Use Them STANDARD ANALOG VIDEO EFFECTS Superimposition 322 Key 322 Chroma Key 324 Wipe 327 DIGITAL VIDEO EFFECTS

322

329

Computer-manipulated Effects 330 Image Size, Shape, Light, and Color 330 Motion 333 Multi-images 335

322

Contents

xviii

SECTION

14.2

Nonelectronic Effects and How to Use Them OPTICAL EFFECTS

337

337

Television Gobos 337 Reflections 338 Star Filter 338 Diffusion Filters 338 Defocus 339 MECHANICAL EFFECTS

339

Rain 340 Snow 340 Fog 340 Wind 340 Smoke 340 Fire 340 Lightning 341

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

15 15.1

Design

342

Designing and Using Television Graphics SPECIFICATIONS OF TELEVISION GRAPHICS Aspect Ratio 344 Scanning and Essential Areas Out-of-aspect-ratio Graphics

344

345 346

Matching STV and HDTV Aspect Ratios 346 Information Density and Readability 348 Color 350 Style 352 Synthetic Images

SECTION

15.2

353

Scenery and Props TELEVISION SCENERY

355 355

Standard Set Units 355 Hanging Units 357 Platforms and Wagons 358 Set Pieces 359 PROPERTIES AND SET DRESSINGS Stage Props 360 Set Dressings 360 Hand Properties 360 Prop List 360 ELEMENTS OF SCENE DESIGN Floor Plan 361

360

361

Set Backgrounds and Platforms Studio Floor Treatments 364

363

344

Contents

CHAPTER S E C T I O N

xix

10 16.1

m

Production People What Production People Do

368

NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL TECHNICAL PERSONNEL AND CREW

370

NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL TELEVISION TALENT

370

371

PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES

373

Performer and Camera 373 Performer and Audio 375 Performer and Timing 375 Performer and Postproduction Floor Manager's Cues 376 Prompting Devices 376 ACTING TECHNIQUES

S E C T I O N

16.2

How to Do Makeup and What to Wear

CLOTHING AND COSTUMING Clothing 388 Costuming 389

S E C T I O N

XL I / 17.1

384 384

384

MAKEUP 386 Materials 386 Application 387 Technical Requirements

CHAPTER

376

382

Audience 383 Blocking 383 Memorizing Lines 383 Timing 384 Actor and Postproduction Director/Actor Relationship AUDITIONS

368

386

387 388

m

Producing What Producing Is All About

392

PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: FROM IDEA TO SCRIPT Generating Program Ideas 392 Using Production Models 393 Writing the Program Proposal 395 Preparing a Budget 397 Writing the Script 401

392

Contents

X X

PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: COORDINATION People

401

401

Facilities Request Schedules

402

403

Permits and Clearances

403

Publicity and Promotion

404

LINE PRODUCER: HOST AND WATCHDOG Playing Host 404 Watching the Production Flow Evaluating the Production

404 404

404

POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES 405 Postproduction Editing 405 Evaluation and Feedback 405 Recordkeeping 405

S E C T I O N

17.2

Dealing with Schedules, Legal Matters, and Ratings TIMELINE

407

INFORMATION RESOURCES

407

UNIONS AND LEGAL MATTERS

409

Unions 409 Copyrights and Clearances Other Legal Considerations AUDIENCE AND RATINGS

410

Ratings and Share

S E C T I O N

409 410

410

Target Audience

CHAPTER

407

410

18

The Director in Preproduction

18.1

H o w a Director Prepares THE DIRECTOR'S ROLES

414

414

Director as Artist 414 Director as Psychologist 414 Director as Technical Adviser 415 Director as Coordinator 415 PREPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES Process Message

415

415

Production Method 415 Production Team and Communication Scheduling 416 Script Formats Script Marking

416 419

Floor Plan and Location Sketch Facilities Request

428

427

416

412

Contents

xxi SUPPORT STAFF

429

Floor Manager

429

Associate, or Assistant, Director Production Assistant 430

S E C T I O N

18.2

430

Moving from Script to Screen VISUALIZATION AND SEQUENCING

431 431

Formulating the Process Message Medium Requirements 435

435

Interpreting the Floor Plan and the Location Sketch SCRIPT ANALYSIS 440 Locking-in Point and Translation Storyboard 440

437

440

The Director in Production and Postproduction S E C T I O N

19.1

Multicamera Control Room Directing THE DIRECTOR'S TERMINOLOGY

446

446

MULTICAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES 446 Directing from the Control Room 447 Control Room Intercom Systems 447 DIRECTING REHEARSALS 455 Script Reading 455 Dry Run, or Blocking Rehearsal 456 Walk-through 457 Camera and Dress Rehearsals 457 Walk-through/Camera Rehearsal Combination Preparing a Time Line 459

458

DIRECTING THE SHOW 461 Standby Procedures 461 On-the-air Procedures 461

S E C T I O N

19.2

Single-camera Directing, Postproduction, and Timing SINGLE-CAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES Visualization 464 Script Breakdown 464 Rehearsals 466 Videotaping 466 POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES

464

466

CONTROLLING CLOCK TIME 467 Schedule Time and Running Time 467 Clock Back-timing and Front-timing 467 Converting Frames into Clock Time CONTROLLING SUBJECTIVE TIME

468

468

464

444

Contents

xxii

CHAPTER

S E C T I O N

20 20.1

Field Production and Big Remotes E N G , EFP, and Big Remotes

4Z2

ELECTRONIC NEWS GATHERING

472

ENG Production Features Satellite Uplink

410

473

473

ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION

474

Preproduction 474 Production: Equipment Check

475

Production: Setup 476 Production: Rehearsals 477 Production: Videotaping 477 Production: Strike and Equipment Check Postproduction BIG REMOTES

477

477

477

Preproduction: The Remote Survey 478 Production: Equipment Setup and Operation 480 Production: Floor Manager and Talent Procedures 485

S E C T I O N

20.2

Covering Major Events SPORTS REMOTES

481

487

LOCATION SKETCH AND REMOTE SETUPS

487

Reading Location Sketches 487 Production Requirements for Public Hearing (Indoor Remote) 495 Production Requirements for Parade (Outdoor Remote) 497 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

499

ENG Communication Systems 499 EFP Communication Systems 499 Big-remote Communication Systems SIGNAL TRANSPORT

499

500

Microwave Transmission

500

Communication Satellites: Frequencies, Uplinks, and Downlinks Cable Distribution 503

Epilogue Glossary

505 506

Selected Reading Index

534

532

501

Photo Credits

360 Systems, 10.12

C h i m e r a , 7.20, 7.24

E d w a r d Aiona, a u t h o r p o r t r a i t p. xxv, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.13,

Cinekinetic Pty Ltd., Australia, 5.18

1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 1.24, 2 . 1 , 3.6, 3.9, 3.11, 3.19, 3.22, 3 . 2 3 , 4 . 1 , 4 . 2 , 4 . 5 , 4 . 1 5 , 4 . 1 8 , 4.19, 4.20, 4 . 2 1 , 4.22, 4.23, 4.24, 4.29, 4.30, 5.13, 5.15, 5.19, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19, 6 . 2 0 , 6 . 2 1 , 6 . 2 2 , 6 . 2 3 , 6 . 2 4 , 6 . 2 5 , 6 . 2 6 , 6 . 2 7 , 6 . 3 0 , 6 . 3 1 , 6.34,

F r a n k e D. Cocke, courtesy O k i n o , 15.21 C o o p e r a t i v e M e d i a G r o u p , 14.27 C r e a t i o n Technologies, LLC, 11.12

6.35, 6.36, 6.37, 7.4, 7.6, 7.22, 7.27, 7.28, 7.29, 7.33, 7.34, 7.37, 7.38, 7.39, 7.40, 7.44, 7.45, 7.47, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.8, 8.9, 8.11, 8.16, 8.17, 8.18, 8.19, 8.20, 8.21, 8.22, 8.23, 8.24, 8.29, 9 . 1 , 9 . 7 , 9 . 8 , 9 . 9 , 9 . 1 5 , 9 . 1 6 , 9.17,9.18,9.24, 9.32, 9.35, 10.1, 10.3, 10.5, 10.7, 10.10, 10.16, 10.20, 11.1, 11.4, 11.5,

D e n o n Electronics, 10.15 DykorTech, 5.20 Echolab, LLC, 1.11

11.6, 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 11.10, 11.11, 11.15, 11.16 (lower), 12.15, 12.18, 12.19, 13.2, 13.14, 13.16, 1 3 . 2 0 , 1 3 . 2 1 , 13.22,

Electro-Voice, 9.34

13.23,13.24,13.25,13.26,13.27,13.28,13.29,13.33,13.34, 13.35, 14.3, 14.8, 14.9, 14.11, 14.12, 14.13, 14.14, 14.16, 14.17,14.19,14.20,14.21,14.22,14.23,14.24,14.25,14.32, 14.34, 14.36, 14.37, 15.8, 15.9, 15.12, 15.13, 15.19 (left),

Frezzi Energy Systems, 7.25 Fujinon, Inc., 4.17

15.20, 15.27, 15.37, 16.6, 16.7, 19.1, 19.6, 20.1

Leviton, C o l o r t r a n Division, 7.1, 7.36, 7.41

AKG Acoustics, 9.6, 9.25, 9.34

L o u d Technologies, Inc., 1.10

Alesis, 10.13

Lowel-LightMfg., Inc., 1.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.12, 7.14, 7.15, 7.18, 7.19, 7.21, 7.23, 7.26, 7.35

Alex Zettl, 4.27 M o l e - R i c h a r d s o n C o m p a n y , 7.3, 7.5, 7.7, 7.8, 7.11, 7.13, Apple C o m p u t e r , Inc., 10.14, 13.15

7.17

Avid Technology, Inc. ( o w n s Pro Tools), 10.21

N e u m a n n USA, 9.34

b e y e r d y n a m i c , Inc., 9.10, 9.34

NewTek, 11.14

Broadcast a n d Electronic C o m m u n i c a t i o n Arts D e p a r t m e n t

N i k o n , Inc., 4.6, 4 . 7 , 4 . 1 6

at San Francisco State University, 8.7, 9.29, 13.13, 14.18, 14.30, 15.26, 17.6

O C o n n o r Engineering, 5.4, 5.14

Renee Child, 14.31

G a r y Palmatier, 3.15, 3.16, 6.12, 12.20, 14.26, 20.2

xxiii

Photo

xxiv

Panasonic Broadcast & Digital Systems Co., 3.30,4.3,11.13, 12.14, 12.16, 13.1, 13.3, 13.4 P i o n e e r N e w M e d i a Technologies, 12.17 Professional S o u n d C o r p o r a t i o n , 9.34 QTV, 16.8 Steve Renick, 5.12, 5.19 (right) Sachtler G m b H & Co., 5.1 Selco P r o d u c t s C o m p a n y , 10.4

Credits

T h e Tiffen C o m p a n y , LLC, 5.16, 5.17 T h o m s o n / G r a s s Valley, 11.16 ( u p p e r ) , 14.15 Video Robotics, Inc., 5.24 V i n t e n , Inc., 5.2, 5.3, 5.5, 5.6, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, 5.21, 5.22, 5.23 Vizrt, 15.22, 15.23 H e r b e r t Zettl, 1.7, 3.8, 3.14, 3.20, 3.21, 4.12, 4.13, 4.25, 4.26, 4.28, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.13, 6.28, 6.29, 6.32, 6.33, 7.16, 7.30, 7.31, 7.32, 7.42, 7.43, 9.5, 9.11, 9.12, 9.13, 9.19, 9.20,9.31,9.33,13.31,13.32,14.1,14.10,14.28,14.29,14.30

Sennheiser Electronic C o r p o r a t i o n , 9.14, 9.21, 9.34

(inset), 14.35, 15.16, 15.19 (center), 15.25, 15.28, 15.31, 15.36, 20.3, 20.4, 20.18

Shure, Inc., 1.9, 9.22, 9.23, 9.34, 10.18 T h e C N N logo (15.1) is courtesy of Cable News N e t w o r k . Sony Electronics, Inc., 1.6, 1.12, 3.5, 3.10, 3.12, 3.13, 9.34, 12.8, 12.9, 12.10, 12.11, 12.13

T h e h a n d - d r a w n s t o r y b o a r d (18.20) is c o u r t e s y of B o b F o r w a r d , D e t o n a t i o n Films.

TASCAM C o r p o r a t i o n , 10.8, 10.11 T h e c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d s t o r y b o a r d (18.21) is courtesy of Telescript, Inc., 16.9

P o w e r P r o d u c t i o n Software.

About the Author

H

ERBERT ZETTL is a professor e m e r i t u s of the Broadcast a n d Electronic C o m m u n i c a t i o n Arts D e p a r t m e n t at San F r a n c i s c o State U n i v e r s i t y (SFSU). H e t a u g h t t h e r e for m a n y years in the fields of video p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics. W h i l e at SFSU h e h e a d e d t h e Institute of I n t e r n a t i o n a l M e d i a C o m m u n i c a t i o n . For his a c a d e m i c c o n t r i b u t i o n s , he received t h e California State Legislature D i s t i n g u i s h e d Teaching Award a n d , from t h e Broadcast Education Association, the Distinguished Education Service Award. P r i o r t o j o i n i n g t h e SFSU faculty, Zettl w o r k e d at KOVR ( S t o c k t o n - S a c r a m e n t o ) a n d as a p r o d u c e r - d i r e c t o r at KPIX, t h e CBS affiliate i n San Francisco. W h i l e at K P I X h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a v a r i e t y of CBS a n d N B C n e t w o r k television p r o d u c t i o n s . Because of his o u t s t a n d i n g con­ t r i b u t i o n s to t h e television profession, h e was elected to t h e prestigious Silver Circle of t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y of Television Arts a n d Sciences (NATAS), N o r t h e r n California Chapter. H e is also a m e m b e r of t h e Broadcast Legends of t h e NATAS N o r t h e r n California Chapter. In a d d i t i o n t o this b o o k , Zettl has a u t h o r e d Televi­ sion Production Workbook, Sight Sound Motion, a n d Video Basics. All of his b o o k s have b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o several languages a n d p u b l i s h e d overseas. His n u m e r o u s articles o n television p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics have a p ­ peared in major m e d i a journals worldwide. H e has lectured extensively o n television p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics at universities a n d professional b r o a d c a s t i n s t i t u t i o n s in t h e U n i t e d States a n d a b r o a d a n d has presented key papers a t a v a r i e t y of n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a ­ tion conventions. Zettl d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r a c t i v e D V D - R O M , Zettl's VideoLab 3.0, p u b l i s h e d b y T h o m s o n W a d s w o r t h . His previous C D - R O M version w o n several prestigious awards, a m o n g t h e m t h e Macromedia People's C h o i c e Award, the New Media Invision Gold Medal for H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n , a n d Invision Silver Medals in t h e categories of C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n a n d Use of Video. X X V

Preface

T

HE FACT that anyone with a digital c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r a n d a l a p t o p c o m p u t e r l o a d e d w i t h special-effects software can p r o d u c e high-quality images m a y mislead s o m e s t u d e n t s into believing t h a t t h e y are ready t o s h o o t an E m m y award-caliber d o c u m e n t a r y even before taking a television p r o d u c t i o n class. Far from it. Even t h e especially gifted ones w h o have m a n a g e d t o p r o d u c e s o m e impressive v i d e o t a p e s e g m e n t s all b y themselves will s o o n discover t h a t professional television requires a m a s t e r y of a great m a n y m o r e p r o d u c t i o n tools a n d t e c h n i q u e s . All are u s u ­ ally s u r p r i s e d b y t h e extent of t e a m w o r k r e q u i r e d for t h e efficient a n d effective p r o d u c t i o n of even a relatively simple show. T h e Television Production Handbook is designed t o help s t u d e n t s acquire these skills.

M y e m p h a s i s in this edition of t h e Handbook is n o t so m u c h o n highly detailed descriptions of available e q u i p ­ m e n t , such as specific m o d e l n u m b e r s o r t h e locations of v a r i o u s switches a n d jacks o n a p o p u l a r camcorder, b u t rather o n w h a t the major tools of television p r o d u c t i o n are, what they can a n d c a n n o t do, a n d h o w t o m a k e use of t h e m in a variety of p r o d u c t i o n situations. In this edition I e m ­ phasize t h e p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s of digital television, without compromising the proven production methods.

p r o d u c t i o n as a system, they are better p r e p a r e d t o see a n d u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e p r o d u c t i o n details interact as essential p a r t s of a larger process. Analog and digital

T h e text delineates t h e m a j o r dif­

ferences b e t w e e n analog a n d digital television processes a n d h o w t h e y apply t o p r o d u c t i o n . Related coverage also clarifies t h e often-puzzling t e r m i n o l o g y of digital television a n d explains t h e v a r i o u s interlaced a n d progressive scan­ n i n g systems. T h e key concept a b o u t digital television is that its signal is highly robust, w h i c h m e a n s that it r e m a i n s relatively noise-free t h r o u g h m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s a n d can b e easily m a n i p u l a t e d .

Consumer, prosumer, and professional equipment T h e differences a m o n g c o n s u m e r , p r o s u m e r , a n d profes­ sional e q u i p m e n t are often exaggerated by t h e m a n u f a c ­ t u r e r s a n d d i s t r i b u t o r s t o define their m a r k e t s r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r c o n c e r n w i t h p r o d u c t i o n quality. W i t h a d e q u a t e lighting t h e difference b e t w e e n a g o o d p r o s u m e r c a m e r a a n d l o w - e n d professional o n e is incidental. T h e v a r i o u s scanning, s a m p l i n g , a n d c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d s of digital television ( D T V ) , h i g h definition v i d e o ( H D V ) , a n d h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n television

PRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS

( H D T V ) are e x p l a i n e d in v a r i o u s c h a p t e r s . T h e m a j o r differences b e t w e e n H D V a n d H D T V a r e listed, as are t h e

T h e Handbook

focuses o n a variety of p o i n t s t h a t are es­

pecially relevant t o t h e television p r o d u c t i o n of t o d a y a n d

differences a m o n g t h e three digital s c a n n i n g s t a n d a r d s : 4 8 0 p , 720p, a n d 1080L

t o m o r r o w . T h e following s u m m a r i e s will provide y o u w i t h an overview of these m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n p o i n t s .

Television system Television p r o d u c t i o n is explained as a system i n w h i c h e q u i p m e n t , p e o p l e , a n d processes interrelate. It is i m p o r t a n t t o learn h o w every e l e m e n t in television p r o d u c t i o n is essential for t h e p r o p e r func­ t i o n i n g of all t h e others. O n c e s t u d e n t s perceive television

xxv i

Studio and field production Because of t h e m o b i l i t y of D T V e q u i p m e n t , t h e a r g u m e n t prevails t h a t s t u d i o s are obsolete a n d t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m u l t i c a m e r a a p p r o a c h to television p r o d u c t i o n has largely b e e n replaced b y t h e m u c h m o r e efficient single-camera field p r o d u c t i o n . B u t simply watching a day's television p r o g r a m s or reading t h e evening l i n e u p of shows in a p r o g r a m guide reveals t h a t a

Preface

xxvii

surprising a m o u n t of shows were created as m u l t i c a m e r a studio p r o d u c t i o n s . T h e s t u d i o still provides m a x i m u m p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l for single- a n d m u l t i p l e - c a m e r a p r o ­ d u c t i o n s . C o n t e m p o r a r y film directors t o o t e n d t o use a m u l t i c a m e r a television setup in a d d i t i o n t o t h e traditional film c a m e r a . N e v e r t h e l e s s , small, h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m c o r d e r s a n d p o r t a b l e a u d i o a n d lighting e q u i p m e n t often m a k e it m o r e

Two-tier approach T h e Handbook is designed t o serve b e g i n n i n g s t u d e n t s as well as t h o s e w h o are m o r e a d e p t at television p r o d u c t i o n . To prevent t h e less a d v a n c e d reader from getting b o g g e d d o w n by t h e m u l t i t u d e of technical details, each chapter is divided i n t o two sections. Section 1 contains t h e basic i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a specific topic; sec­ tion 2 presents m o r e - d e t a i l e d material. T h e t w o sections can b e assigned a n d read t o g e t h e r o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y .

practical to take t h e p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e street c o r n e r r a t h e r t h a n simulate t h e street c o r n e r in t h e s t u d i o . To function effectively in video p r o d u c t i o n , we can n o longer specialize in studio or field p r o d u c t i o n b u t m u s t be equally proficient in b o t h . T h i s is w h y b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s are t h o r ­ o u g h l y integrated t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k . Aesthetics and design Despite the D T V revolution, it is still t h e story t h a t drives p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a n d n o t t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d . A n d m a n y t r a d i t i o n a l aesthetic fac­ t o r s of p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n , lighting, a n d s h o t s e q u e n c i n g are relatively i n d e p e n d e n t of technological advances a n d therefore form t h e basis of effective television p r o d u c t i o n . T h e e x t e n d e d d e s c r i p t i o n of basic aesthetic principles is n o t i n t e n d e d to detract from l e a r n i n g t h e m a j o r technical aspects of p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t b u t r a t h e r t o facilitate their o p t i m a l application. Aspect ratio F o r s o m e t i m e t o c o m e , s t u d e n t s m u s t learn t o c o m p o s e shots for b o t h t h e 4 x 3 s t a n d a r d televi­ sion aspect ratio a n d t h e stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen. Stretching t h e 4 x 3 pictures into a 16 x 9 frame is still n e c e s s a r y w h e n s h o w i n g o l d footage b u t is n o l o n g e r acceptable w h e n p r o d u c i n g exclusively for w i d e - s c r e e n H D T V . A l m o s t all screen images i n this b o o k are therefore p r e s e n t e d in t h e n e w 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio. This p r e s e n t a t i o n s h o u l d help s t u d e n t s visualize shots in t h e stretched f r a m e a n d s t u d y t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d t h e disadvantages of t h e 1 6 x 9 ratio. Coverage also includes valuable i n f o r m a t i o n o n designing for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 4 x 3 aspect ratio as well as for t h e stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen.

Redundancy As in l e a r n i n g a n e w language, a certain a m o u n t of repetition is i m p o r t a n t in helping t h e s t u d e n t learn a n d r e m e m b e r t h e major television v o c a b u l a r y a n d p r o d u c t i o n concepts. T h e key t e r m s are listed at the begin­ n i n g of each chapter. To benefit from this l e a r n i n g aid, t h e student should read t h e key t e r m s before c o m m i t t i n g to t h e chapter. T h e key t e r m s a p p e a r in bold italic in t h e context in w h i c h t h e y are defined in t h e text a n d are repeated as part of t h e extensive glossary at t h e back of t h e b o o k . O t h e r glossary t e r m s appear in italictype t h r o u g h o u t the text. T h e M a i n Points section at t h e e n d of each chapter s u m m a r i z e s its essential c o n t e n t . S t u d e n t s s h o u l d use these s u m m a r i e s as a checklist of w h a t t h e y are expected t o know. illustrations T h e n u m e r o u s full-color p i c t u r e s a n d d i a g r a m s are i n t e n d e d t o bridge t h e gap b e t w e e n d e s c r i p ­ t i o n a n d t h e real thing. All a p p r o p r i a t e illustrations t h a t simulate T V images are i n t h e 1 6 x 9 H D T V aspect ratio. In m o s t cases t h e pictures of e q u i p m e n t are t o represent a generic t y p e r a t h e r t h a n a specific preferred m o d e l . NEW TO T H I S E D I T I O N In r e s p o n s e t o t h e helpful feedback I've received from s t u d e n t s a n d teachers using t h e Handbook, a n d to keep t h e text c u r r e n t , I've m a d e several i m p o r t a n t changes. Readers familiar with t h e previous edition will n o t i c e t h e following differences in this n e w edition: Fully u p d a t e d t h r o u g h o u t Full-color interior design ; M o s t screen images i n t h e H D T V aspect ratio

PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES To facilitate s t u d e n t learning, I have i n c o r p o r a t e d several pedagogical principles i n t o t h e

Handbook.

Brief sections Each chapter is b r o k e n u p into relatively s h o r t sections m a r k e d b y separate h e a d i n g s . I h o p e t h a t such a layout will c o u n t e r a c t reading fatigue w i t h o u t frac­ t u r i n g chapter c o n t e n t .

E x t e n d e d coverage of t h e 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio in relation t o t h e 4 x 3 screen v N e w section o n H D V a n d t h e differences b e t w e e n HDV and HDTV E m p h a s i s o n n o n l i n e a r editing Detailed coverage of visual effects C o o r d i n a t i o n with Zettl's VideoLab 3.0 D V D - R O M

xxviii

Preface

ACCOMPANYING RESOURCES: AN EXCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PACKAGE

THE

As w i t h p r e v i o u s editions, t h e N i n t h E d i t i o n of t h e Televi­ sion Production Handbook offers a wealth of s u p p o r t m a ­ terials for b o t h s t u d e n t s a n d instructors. W a d s w o r t h has p r e p a r e d t h e following list for y o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

This o u t s t a n d i n g site features such materials as chapter-by-

TELEVISION

PRODUCTION

WORKBOOK

W r i t t e n a n d revised by H e r b e r t Zettl, w i t h assistance from R o n a l d J. O s g o o d of I n d i a n a University, t h e

Workbook

enables s t u d e n t s to apply t h e concepts i n t r o d u c e d in t h e Television Production

Handbook

t o real-world p r o d u c t i o n

scenarios. Organized to follow t h e m a i n text, t h e

Workbook

c o n t a i n s t e a r - o u t w o r k s h e e t s t h a t reinforce a n d review t h e chapter material. Also, because s t u d e n t s in b e g i n n i n g p r o d u c t i o n classes t e n d to have widely differing experi­ ence levels, t h e Workbook can be a useful diagnostic tool to d e t e r m i n e w h o k n o w s w h a t a b o u t television p r o d u c t i o n . ZETTL'S

VIDEOLAB

3.0

DVD-ROM

Zettl's VideoLab 3.0is an interactive D V D - R O M ( W i n d o w s and Mac compatible), based on the award-winning C D - R O M Zettl's VideoLab 2.1. It is i n t e n d e d to give stu­ dents s o m e virtual h a n d s - o n practice a n d a proven shortcut from r e a d i n g a b o u t p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s to actually applying t h e m in t h e s t u d i o a n d t h e field.

TELEVISION

HANDBOOK

PRODUCTION

COMPANION WEBSITE

http://communication.wadsworth.com/zettl_tvphb9 chapter tutorial quizzes, m a i n t a i n e d a n d u p d a t e d Web links, a n d key t e r m flashcards, as well as a practice final exam.

INSTRUCTOR'S ANSWER

MANUAL

KEY

TO

WITH

WORKBOOK

W r i t t e n by H e r b e r t Zettl, this m a n u a l is for t h e i n s t r u c t o r w h o m a y be quite experienced in television p r o d u c t i o n b u t relatively n e w t o teaching. Even as an experienced i n s t r u c ­ tor, however, y o u m a y find i n f o r m a t i o n that makes y o u r difficult j o b of teaching television p r o d u c t i o n just a little easier. T h e m a n u a l c o m p r i s e s four parts: Part I, " G e n e r a l A p p r o a c h t o Teaching Television P r o d u c t i o n , " p r e s e n t s i n f o r m a t i o n o n teaching a p p r o a c h e s a n d ideas a b o u t h o w to teach television p r o d u c t i o n m o s t effectively. Part II, "Key C o n c e p t s , Activities, a n d Tests," c o n t a i n s e x p a n d e d definitions of t h e key concepts i n t r o d u c e d in each chapter, a p p r o p r i a t e activities for reinforcing t h e m , a n d m u l t i p l e choice p r o b l e m s to test s t u d e n t r e t e n t i o n of t h e material. Part III, "Additional Resources," is a c o m p a c t reference t h a t r e c o m m e n d s a d d i t i o n a l teaching a n d l e a r n i n g resources. Part IV is t h e answer key to all of t h e p r o b l e m s in t h e Television Production Workbook.

C h a n g e s t o ZVL 3.0 i n c l u d e t h e following: Greater freedom of c a m e r a m o v e m e n t

EXAMVIEW®

COMPUTERIZED

TESTING

C r e a t e , deliver, a n d c u s t o m i z e tests a n d s t u d y g u i d e s •

Increased interactivity, especially in t h e Try It a n d

( b o t h p r i n t a n d online) in m i n u t e s w i t h this easy-to-use

Q u i z sections

assessment a n d t u t o r i a l system. E x a m V i e w offers b o t h a

E n h a n c e d m o d u l e o n lighting, w h i c h allows stu­ d e n t s to e x p e r i m e n t with gels a n d t o choose specific i n s t r u m e n t s a n d p o s i t i o n t h e m to see t h e correlating lighting effects

y o u t o see t h e test y o u are creating o n - s c r e e n exactly as

5 E n h a n c e d m o d u l e o n a u d i o , w h i c h enables s t u d e n t s

it will p r i n t o r display online. You can b u i l d tests of u p to

Quick Test Wizard a n d an Online

Test Wizard t h a t guide

y o u s t e p - b y - s t e p t h r o u g h t h e process of c r e a t i n g tests, while its " w h a t y o u see is w h a t y o u get" interface allows

t o hear t h e quality a n d the directionality of v a r i o u s

250 q u e s t i o n s , using u p to 12 q u e s t i o n s types. Using t h e

microphones

c o m p l e t e w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g capabilities of ExamView, y o u can even e n t e r an u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r of n e w questions o r

A n e w section o n switching, which p e r m i t s s t u d e n t s t o practice takes, dissolves, wipes, a n d keys, w i t h preview a n d line m o n i t o r s s h o w i n g t h e results •

N e w editing exercises t h a t give s t u d e n t s experience w i t h s e q u e n c i n g a n d t r i m m i n g shots

edit existing ones. F o r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n please see t h e P r e v i e w at t h e front of this b o o k , c o n s u l t y o u r local T h o m s o n Wadsworth representative, or contact the Wadsworth A c a d e m i c Resource C e n t e r at 1-800-423-0563.

Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS O n c e a g a i n I w a s p r i v i l e g e d t o h a v e W a d s w o r t h call u p o n t h e expertise of its "A-team" t o p r o d u c e this N i n t h E d i t i o n of t h e Television Production Handbook: Holly Allen, publisher; Renee Deljon, senior d e v e l o p m e n t editor; M a r k Orr, marketing manager; Darlene Amidon-Brent, assistant e d i t o r ; S a r a h Allen, e d i t o r i a l assistant; M a r i a Epes, executive a r t d i r e c t o r ; Jennifer Klos, p r o d u c t i o n p r o j e c t m a n a g e r ; R o b e r t a Broyer, p h o t o e d i t o r ; G a r y P a l m a t i e r of Ideas t o I m a g e s , a r t d i r e c t o r a n d p r o j e c t m a n a g e r ; Robaire Ream, page layout artist a n d illustrator; Elizabeth v o n Radics, copy editor; a n d Ed Aiona, principal p h o t o g r a p h e r . All y o u n e e d t o d o is skim t h r o u g h this b o o k to u n d e r s t a n d m y a d m i r a t i o n a n d deep g r a t i t u d e for their exceptional work. A n u m b e r of dedicated instructors gave m e the benefit of their experience a n d n u m e r o u s excellent suggestions w h e n t h e y r e c o m m e n d e d changes for t h e N i n t h Edition. M a n y thanks to these reviewers: M a r a Alper, Ithaca College; George Bagley, University of Central Florida; Karyn Brown, Mississippi State University; H a m i d Khani, San Francisco State University; Michael Korpi, Baylor University; R o n a l d J. O s g o o d , I n d i a n a University; Paul Rose, University of U t a h ; a n d J o - A n n e Ryan, Western K e n t u c k y University. I a m also greatly i n d e b t e d to Michael Korpi a n d Paul Rose, w h o also reviewed t h e m a n u s c r i p t of this edition a n d suggested n u m e r o u s i m p r o v e m e n t s , a n d to R o n a l d J. O s g o o d , w h o r e c o m m e n d e d s o m e changes to t h e m a i n text a n d also h e l p e d revise t h e Workbook. M a n y t h a n k s to Joshua H e c h t a n d Vinay Shrivastava, w h o reviewed a n d helped u p d a t e t h e a u d i o chapters. I also received g e n e r o u s a s s i s t a n c e f r o m m y c o l l e a g u e s at S a n F r a n c i s c o State University: M a r t y G o n z a l e s , C h u l H e o , Rick H o u l b e r g , S t u a r t H y d e , H a m i d K h a n i , Phil K i p p e r , Steve Lahey, W i n s t o n T h a r p , Michelle Wolf, a n d Lena Z h a n g .

1

I also w a n t t o give a big t h a n k - y o u to all of t h e people a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h o r e s p o n d e d quickly a n d positively to m y n u m e r o u s requests for assistance: Stanley Alten, Syracuse University; Rudolf Benzler, Plazamedia, M u n i c h , G e r m a n y ; John Beritzhoff a n d Greg G o d d a r d , S n a d e r a n d Associates; Corey C a r b o n a r a , Baylor University; Ed Cosci, associate chief engineer, K T V U , O a k l a n d - S a n Francisco; S o n n y Craven, Virginia Military Institute; Ed D u d k o w s k i , Creative Technologies; Elan Frank, Elan P r o d u c t i o n s ; Jim H a m a n , director of local p r o g r a m m i n g / p r o d u c t i o n , KTVU, O a k l a n d - S a n Francisco; M a n f r e d M u c k e n h a u p t , chair, M e d i a Studies, University of Tuebingen, G e r m a n y ; Steve Shlisky, p r o d u c e r / e d i t o r , K T V U , San F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d ; a n d Manfred Wolfram, chair, Electronic M e d i a Division, University of C i n c i n n a t i . T h e m a n y p e o p l e w h o gave a considerable a m o u n t of their t i m e a n d displayed a n a m a z i n g level of professional­ ism d u r i n g o u r p h o t o sessions also deserve high praise: Talia Aiona, Karen Austin, Ken Baird, J e r o m e B a k u m , Rudolf Benzler, T i e m o B i e m u e l l e r , M o n i c a C a i z a d a , W i l l i a m C a r p e n t e r , A n d r e w Child, L a u r a Child, Rebecca Child, Renee Child, Skye C h r i s t e n s e n , Ed Cosci, Carla C u r r i e , Sabrina Dorsey, T a m m y Feng, Jedediah Gildersleeve, C a s s a n d r a Hein, Sangyong H o n g , Akiko Kajiwara, H a m i d K h a n i , Philip Kipper, C h r i s t i n e Lojo, O r c u n Malkoclar, Michael M o n a , J o h n n y M o r e n o , Anita M o r g a n , Jacqueline Murray, T u a n N g u y e n , Richard Piscitello, M a t t h e w Prisk, M a r l i n Q u i n t e r o , Kerstin Riediger, S u z a n n e Saputo, Alisa S h a h o n i a n , Steve Shlisky, Talisha Teague, Takako Thorstadt, a n d Yanlan W u . O n c e again, I have dedicated t h e n e w edition of this b o o k to m y wife, Erika. It is m y h u m b l e a t t e m p t to let e v e r y b o d y k n o w h o w m u c h I appreciate h e r s u p p o r t each t i m e I retreat to a T V world while w o r k i n g o n the Television Production H e r b e r t Zettl

Handbook.

Television Production Process You may think that television production is a relatively simple task. After all, y o u do pretty well w i t h your camcorder. W h e n w a t c h i n g a newscast from t h e control room at a local television station, however, y o u realize that television production involves m u c h m o r e than just operating a camcorder. Even a seemingly simple p r o d u c t i o n — s u c h as a n e w s anchor first introducing a n d t h e n playing a v i d e o t a p e of the school principal s h o w i n g to parents a n d reporters t h e c o m p u t e r lab—involves a great n u m b e r of intricate operations by n e w s production personnel a n d the use of m a n y sophisticated machines. A 55-second chitchat b e t w e e n a T V news anchor in Portland and a tennis star in L o n d o n presents a formidable challenge e v e n for highly experienced production personnel.

W h e n w a t c h i n g television, viewers are largely u n a w a r e of such production complexities. But as y o u can see, professional television production—regardless of w h e t h e r it is d o n e in a television station or in t h e field—is a complex creative process in w h i c h people a n d machines interact to bring a variety of messages a n d experiences to a large a u d i e n c e . Even w h e n involved in a relatively small production, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t machines and p e o p l e are necessary to achieve a certain t y p e of television c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d h o w to coordinate the m a n y creative and technical elements.

Chapter 1 is designed to provide y o u with an o v e r v i e w of t h e various e q u i p m e n t and production processes. S e c t i o n 1.1, W h a t Television Production Is All About, introduces t h e television system a n d its many production elements. Section 1.2, Studios, Master Control, a n d S u p p o r t Areas, describes the e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h the television studio system operates.

:

:

camcorder A portable camera with the videotape recorder or some other recording device attached or built into it to form a single unit. control room A room adjacent to the studio in which the director, the technical director, the audio engineer, and sometimes the lighting director perform their various production functions. electronic field production (EFP) Television production out­ side the studio that is usually shot for postproduction (not live). Usually called field production. electronic news gathering (ENG) The use of portable cam­ corders or cameras with separate portable VTRs, lights, and sound equipment for the production of daily news stories. ENG is usually not planned in advance and is usually trans­ mitted live or immediately after postproduction. expanded system A television system consisting of equip­ ment and procedures that allows for selection, control, recording, playback, and transmission of television pictures and sound. feed Signal transmission from one program source to another, such as a network feed or a remote feed. house number The in-house system of identification for each piece of recorded program material. Called the house number because the code numbers differ from station to station (house to house). intercom Short for intercommunication system. Used by all production and technical personnel. The most widely used system has telephone headsets to facilitate voice com­ munication on several wired or wireless channels. Includes other systems, such as I.F.B. and cell phones. lighting The manipulation of light and shadows: to provide the camera with adequate illumination for technically acceptable pictures; to tell us what the objects on-screen actually look like; and to establish the general mood of the event. 1

line monitor The monitor that shows only the line-out pictures that go on the air or on videotape. Also called master moni­ tor or program monitor. line-out The line that carries the final video or audio output for broadcast.

log The major operational document: a second-by-second list of every program aired on a particular day. It carries such information as program source or origin, scheduled pro­ gram time, program duration, video and audio information, code identification (house number, for example), program title, program type, and additional pertinent information. master control Nerve center for all telecasts. Controls the pro­ gram input, storage, and retrieval for on-the-air telecasts. Also oversees technical quality of all program material. monitor (1) Audio: speaker that carries the program sound in­ dependent of the line-out. (2) Video: high-quality television set used in the television studio and control rooms. Cannot receive broadcast signals. P.L. Stands for private line or phone line. Major intercommunica­ tion system in television production. preview (P/V) monitor (1) Any monitor that shows a video source, except for the line (master) and off-the-air monitors. (2) A color monitor that shows the director the picture to be used for the next shot. program speaker A loudspeaker in the control room that carries the program sound. Its volume can be controlled without affecting the actual line-out program feed. Also called audio monitor. studio talkback A public address loudspeaker system from the control room to the studio. Also called S.A. (studio address) or P.A. (public address) system. system The interrelationship of various elements and processes whereby the proper functioning of each element is depen­ dent on all others. tapeless system Refers to the recording, storage, and playback of audio and video information via computer storage devices rather than videotape. television system Equipment and people who operate the equipment for the production of specific programs. The basic television system consists of a television camera and a microphone that convert pictures and sound into electrical signals, and a television set and a loudspeaker that convert the signals back into pictures and sound.

3

1.1 What Television Production Is All About

T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m in learning a b o u t television p r o d u c ­ tion is that to u n d e r s t a n d o n e specific p r o d u c t i o n t o o l o r t e c h n i q u e , s u c h as o p t i m a l lighting, y o u s h o u l d already k n o w the functions of the lens, the iris, m a x i m u m a n d m i n i m u m a p e r t u r e , a n d d e p t h of field. In t u r n , y o u n e e d to k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w colored light behaves before y o u c a n adequately u n d e r s t a n d h o w a c a m e r a o r a color television receiver w o r k s . Because I can't c r a m all the n e c ­ essary i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a single p a r a g r a p h , a n d y o u can't learn the various p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s a n d o p e r a t i o n s all at once, we c o m p r o m i s e a n d begin this b o o k w i t h a b r o a d overview of t h e television p r o d u c t i o n system. By viewing television p r o d u c t i o n as a system, y o u will readily see t h e interconnections a m o n g the various system elements, even w h e n they are presented piecemeal. ^

BASIC T E L E V I S I O N

SYSTEM

The equipment that converts optical images and actual sounds into electric energy, and the people who operate it

•

E X P A N D E D STUDIO A N D E L E C T R O N I C F I E L D P R O D U C T I O N SYSTEMS The system elements of studio and field productions, and the studio system in action

^

PRODUCTION

ELEMENTS

Camera, lighting, audio, switching, videotape recording, tapeless systems, postproduction editing, and special effects

4

BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM A system is a collection of e l e m e n t s t h a t w o r k t o g e t h e r t o achieve a specific p u r p o s e . Each of t h e e l e m e n t s is d e p e n d e n t o n the p r o p e r w o r k i n g s of all the o t h e r s , a n d n o n e of the individual e l e m e n t s can d o the j o b alone. T h e television system consists of e q u i p m e n t a n d p e o p l e w h o o p e r a t e t h a t e q u i p m e n t for t h e p r o d u c t i o n of specific p r o g r a m s . W h e t h e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n s are simple or elabo­ rate, o r originate in t h e studio o r in t h e field—that is, o n l o c a t i o n — t h e system w o r k s o n the s a m e basic principle: the television c a m e r a converts w h a t e v e r it "sees" (optical i m a g e s ) i n t o electrical signals t h a t c a n b e t e m p o r a r i l y stored or directly reconverted by the television set i n t o visible screen images. T h e m i c r o p h o n e converts whatever it " h e a r s " (actual s o u n d s ) into electrical signals t h a t can be t e m p o r a r i l y stored o r directly reconverted i n t o s o u n d s by t h e loudspeaker. In general, t h e basic television system t r a n s d u c e s (converts) o n e state of energy (optical image, actual s o u n d ) into a n o t h e r (electrical energy), S E E 1.1 T h e picture signals are called video signals, a n d the s o u n d signals are called audio signals. A n y small c o n s u m e r camcorder represents s u c h a system.

EXPANDED STUDIO AND ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS T h e b a s i c t e l e v i s i o n s y s t e m is c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d w h e n d o i n g a television p r o d u c t i o n in t h e s t u d i o or in t h e field, such as a telecast of a s p o r t i n g event. T h e expanded system n e e d s e q u i p m e n t a n d p r o c e d u r e s t h a t allow for the selection of various pictures a n d s o u n d sources; for t h e c o n t r o l a n d m o n i t o r i n g of picture a n d s o u n d quality; for t h e recording, playback, a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n of pictures a n d s o u n d ; a n d for t h e integration of additional video a n d a u d i o sources. SYSTEM ELEMENTS OF S T U D I O P R O D U C T I O N T h e e x p a n d e d studio television system in its m o s t e l e m e n ­ tary stage includes: (1) o n e o r m o r e c a m e r a s , (2) a c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ( C C U ) o r units, (3) preview m o n i t o r s , (4) a switcher, (5) a line m o n i t o r , (6) o n e o r m o r e v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s , a n d (7) a l i n e - o u t t h a t t r a n s p o r t s t h e v i d e o signal to the v i d e o t a p e recorder a n d / o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n device, S E E 1.2 Usually integrated into t h e e x p a n d e d system are v i d e o t a p e m a c h i n e s for playback, character or graphic g e n e r a t o r s t h a t p r o d u c e v a r i o u s f o r m s of l e t t e r i n g o r g r a p h i c art, a n d an editing system.

Section

1.1

What

Television

Production

Is All

About

5

Videotape recorder • •I

Microphone

o

111

" • .

Audio signal Loudspeaker

Actual sounds

TV sound

Transmission TV picture Video signal Television receiver

Television camera Subject

1.1

BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM

The basic television system converts light and sounds into electrical video and audio signals that are transmitted (wireless or by cable) and reconverted by the television receiver into television pictures and sound.

T h e a u d i o p o r t i o n of t h e e x p a n d e d system consists

for e x a m p l e , lighten t h e d a r k s h a d o w area o n t h e a n c h o r

of (1) o n e or m o r e m i c r o p h o n e s , (2) a n a u d i o m i x e r or

s h o w n o n c a m e r a 1 a n d reduce the glare o n t h e co-anchor's

console, (3) a n a u d i o m o n i t o r (speaker), a n d (4) a line-

forehead as seen b y c a m e r a 2. O r t h e video o p e r a t o r can

o u t that t r a n s p o r t s t h e s o u n d signal to t h e v i d e o r e c o r d e r

adjust t h e colors so t h a t t h e y l o o k t h e s a m e from c a m e r a

a n d / o r t h e t r a n s m i t t e r (see figure 1.2).

to camera.

N o t e t h a t t h e system e l e m e n t s are identical regardless

T h e quality-controlled pictures from b o t h c a m e r a s are

of w h e t h e r the i n d i v i d u a l pieces of e q u i p m e n t are a n a l o g

fed i n t o preview

o r digital.

see w h a t t h e y l o o k like. A t h i r d p r e v i e w m o n i t o r is neces­

monitors,

o n e for each c a m e r a , so y o u can

sary to s h o w t h e v i d e o t a p e of t h e p r i n c i p a l . T h e s e t h r e e v i d e o signals (from c a m e r a s 1 a n d 2 a n d t h e v i d e o t a p e ) STUDIO SYSTEM IN ACTION

are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y fed i n t o t h e switcher, w h i c h allows y o u

Let us n o w p u t t h e e x p a n d e d system to w o r k a n d see h o w

t o select a n d switch any of t h e t h r e e v i d e o feeds t o t h e

t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s i n t e r a c t w h e n a news a n c h o r in the

line-out

s t u d i o i n t r o d u c e s a v i d e o t a p e of t h e s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l

i n g t h e b u t t o n for c a m e r a 1 will p u t t h e close-up view of

for t r a n s m i s s i o n or v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g . Press­

s h o w i n g h e r guests t h e n e w c o m p u t e r lab. C a m e r a s 1 a n d

o n e of t h e a n c h o r s o n t h e line monitor, w h i c h displays t h e

2 are focused o n t h e t w o n e w s a n c h o r s . C a m e r a 1 p r o v i d e s

l i n e - o u t signals t h a t go o n t h e air or o n v i d e o t a p e . Pressing

a close-up of o n e of t h e a n c h o r s , a n d c a m e r a 2 shows a

t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n will p u t c a m e r a 2's c l o s e - u p of t h e

c l o s e - u p of t h e c o - a n c h o r . T h e v i d e o signals from these

c o - a n c h o r o n t h e line m o n i t o r . Pressing t h e b u t t o n for the

c a m e r a s are fed a n d q u a l i t y - c o n t r o l l e d by their respective

v i d e o t a p e insert will p u t t h e p r i n c i p a l o n t h e line m o n i t o r .

camera control units (CCUs).

The CCUs can enhance and

W h a t e v e r a p p e a r s o n t h e line m o n i t o r will b e sent t o t h e

m a t c h certain v i d e o e l e m e n t s of t h e pictures sent b y t h e

l i n e - o u t t h a t feeds the t r a n s m i s s i o n device ( o n the air or

t w o c a m e r a s . W i t h t h e C C U s t h e video o p e r a t o r (VO) can,

cable) a n d / o r t h e video recorder.

Chapter

6

THE

1

TELEVISION

PRODUCTION

PROCESS

ecu'

Preview monitor camera 1

CCU 2 Preview monitor camera 2

"

... Ill

•

Videotape playback

Videotape preview monitor

Videotape audio

Mid Mic2 nd o

auunaodow

D D Q D B B B D B i S Q D a B B B I I D B a B O B D

ill

I i i I 6 .1. Audio console line-out

Video switcher line-out

Audio monitor (speaker)

Line or program monitor

... HI Home TV receiver with picture and sound

—

Video recorder (records audio and video signals)

Transmitter (audio and video signals)

1.2

EXPANDED STUDIO TELEVISION SYSTEM

The expanded studio television system contains quality controls ( C C U and audio console), selection controls (switcher and audio console), and monitors for previewing pictures and sound.

Section

1.1

What

Television

Production

Is All

About

7

T h e signals f r o m t h e n e w s a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s

category a n d is a c c o m p l i s h e d with a relatively simple field

are fed i n t o t h e a u d i o console, as is t h e a u d i o track of t h e

p r o d u c t i o n system. All y o u really n e e d is s o m e o n e w h o

principal's v i d e o t a p e . T h e a u d i o console n o w p e r m i t s y o u

o p e r a t e s t h e c a m c o r d e r a n d a field r e p o r t e r w h o describes

t o select a m o n g t h e a n c h o r s ' voices a n d t h e s o u n d track o n

t h e a c t i o n a n d tries to get s o m e brief c o m m e n t s from t h e

t h e v i d e o t a p e a n d to c o n t r o l t h e quality of t h e t h r e e s o u n d

p r i n c i p a l a n d p e r h a p s a teacher or s t u d e n t . O n c e t h e foot­

i n p u t s . You can, for e x a m p l e , select t h e voice of the p e r s o n

age reaches t h e n e w s r o o m , it is drastically cut a n d edited

o n t h e screen, m a t c h the v o l u m e of t h e three s o u n d sources

t o fit t h e brief t i m e s e g m e n t (10 s e c o n d s o r so) allotted to

(anchor, c o - a n c h o r , a n d principal), o r keep o n e lower t h a n

t h e story.

the others.

H a d the scene w i t h t h e principal been a live insert, you

U n a w a r e of all the complex p r o d u c t i o n m a n e u v e r s , the

w o u l d have h a d t o e x p a n d t h e system still further, w i t h a

viewer s i m p l y sees close-ups of t h e p e r s o n a b l e a n d k n o w l ­

p o r t a b l e t r a n s m i t t e r to t r a n s p o r t t h e signal from t h e field

edgeable n e w s a n c h o r s i n t r o d u c i n g t h e u p c o m i n g s t o r y

t o t h e s t a t i o n . T h e E N G signal is often t r a n s m i t t e d live to

a b o u t t h e school p r i n c i p a l a n d t h e n s h o w i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l

t h e s t u d i o , S E E 1.3

walking t h r o u g h t h e n e w facilities, p o i n t i n g p r o u d l y t o t h e latest c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t .

If t h e field p r o d u c t i o n is n o t for n e w s or is m o r e e l a b o r a t e , y o u are engaged in EFP (electronic tion).

SYSTEM OF

FIELD

ELEMENTS

separate VTRs [videotape

PRODUCTION

field

produc­

S o m e t i m e s field c a m e r a s t h a t feed their o u t p u t to recorders) are used, S E E 1 . 4 Big

remotes are field p r o d u c t i o n s w h o s e p r o d u c t i o n system is

ENfiw The principal obviously could not bring her new

similar t o t h e studio's, except t h a t c a m e r a s are placed o n

EFP

l o c a t i o n a n d t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is h o u s e d in a large t r u c k c o m p u t e r lab i n t o t h e s t u d i o , so s o m e o n e h a d t o go

o n location to v i d e o t a p e t h e event. Such location s h o o t i n g n o r m a l l y falls i n t o t h e ENG {electronic

news

trailer. (For a detailed discussion of EFP a n d big r e m o t e s , see c h a p t e r 20.) 4

gathering)

1.3 ENG SYSTEM The basic ENG system con­ sists of a camcorder and a microphone. The camcorder includes all video and audio quality controls as well as video- and audio-recording facilities. A portable transmit­ ter is necessary to send a live field pickup to the studio.

Transmitter

Camcorder

1.4 EFP SYSTEM VTR1 • 0 Camera 1 with attached or separate VTR

in

I

1 • • « •

•

•

•

• ••nii

_ £

The EFP system is similar to that for ENG, but it may use more than one cam­ era to feed the output to separate VTRs.

8

Chapter

THE

7

TELEVISION

PRODUCTION

PROCESS

PRODUCTION ELEMENTS W i t h t h e e x p a n d e d television system in m i n d , w e briefly explore eight basic p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s : (1) t h e c a m e r a , (2) lighting, (3) audio, (4) switching, (5) v i d e o t a p e record­ ing,

(6) tapeless systems (7) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, a n d

(8) special effects. W h e n l e a r n i n g a b o u t television p r o ­ d u c t i o n , always t r y to see each piece of e q u i p m e n t a n d its o p e r a t i o n within the larger context of the television system, t h a t is, in relation to all t h e o t h e r pieces of e q u i p m e n t t h a t are u s e d a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o use t h e m — t h e personnel.

production

It is, after all, t h e skilled a n d p r u d e n t use of t h e

television e q u i p m e n t by t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m , a n d n o t s i m p l y t h e s m o o t h i n t e r a c t i o n of the m a c h i n e s , t h a t gives t h e system its value. ( T h e specific roles of t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l are o u t l i n e d in c h a p t e r 16.)

CAMERA The most obvious production element—the

camera—

c o m e s in all sizes a n d configurations. S o m e c a m e r a s are so small t h a t t h e y fit easily into y o u r coat pocket, w h e r e a s o t h e r s are so heavy t h a t y o u have to s t r a i n yourself to lift t h e m o n t o a c a m e r a m o u n t . T h e camera mount

enables

t h e o p e r a t o r t o m o v e a heavy c a m e r a / l e n s / t e l e p r o m p t e r a s s e m b l y o n t h e s t u d i o floor w i t h relative ease,

SEEI.S

Portable c a m e r a s are often used for E N G a n d EFP. M a n y E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are c a m c o r d e r s t h a t c o m b i n e t h e c a m e r a a n d the v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r in o n e u n i t , m u c h like p o p u l a r c o n s u m e r m o d e l s . T h e E N G / E F P c a m c o r d ­

1.5

ers,

High-quality studio cameras are mounted on a studio pedestal for smooth and easy maneuverability.

however, are of h i g h e r quality a n d cost c o n s i d e r a b l y

m o r e . It is often t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y lens t h a t distinguishes a

STUDIO CAMERA WITH PNEUMATIC PEDESTAL

professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a from a h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r m o d e l . S o m e E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are built so t h a t they c a n " d o c k " with a v i d e o t a p e recorder, a digital disc, or h a r d -

a n d c o n t i n u o u s l y change from a long s h o t (showing a w i d e

drive r e c o r d i n g unit; such u n i t s are s i m p l y p l u g g e d i n t o

vista) to a close-up view w i t h o u t m o v i n g either t h e c a m e r a

t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a to f o r m a c a m c o r d e r . Regardless of

or t h e object y o u are p h o t o g r a p h i n g .

w h e t h e r t h e c a m c o r d e r is a n a l o g or digital, its o p e r a t i o n a l features are basically identical, S E E I . 6 T h e s t u d i o television c a m e r a h a s t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t s : t h e lens, t h e c a m e r a itself, a n d t h e viewfinder.

T h e c a m e r a is p r i n c i p a l l y designed to c o n v e r t t h e optical i m a g e as projected b y t h e lens i n t o a n electrical s i g n a l — t h e v i d e o signal. As m e n t i o n e d ear­ lier, t h e m a j o r conversion e l e m e n t is t h e i m a g i n g device,

The lens

I n all photography

(meaning "writing with

a s m a l l e l e c t r o n i c c h i p called t h e CCD

[charge-coupled

light"), t h e lens selects p a r t of t h e visible e n v i r o n m e n t a n d

device).

It r e s p o n d s to light in a m a n n e r t h a t resembles

p r o d u c e s a small optical i m a g e of it. In s t a n d a r d still a n d

a light meter. W h e n t h e C C D receives a large a m o u n t of

m o v i e c a m e r a s , t h e i m a g e is t h e n projected o n t o film; in

light, it p r o d u c e s a s t r o n g v i d e o signal (just as t h e needle

digital still c a m e r a s a n d television c a m e r a s , it is projected

of a light m e t e r goes way u p ) ; w h e n it receives faint light,

o n t o the imaging

device, w h i c h converts t h e light f r o m

it p r o d u c e s a weak signal (just as t h e light m e t e r n e e d l e

t h e optical i m a g e i n t o a n electrical signal. All television

barely m o v e s from its original p o s i t i o n ) . O t h e r optical a n d

c a m e r a s have a zoom lens, w h i c h allows y o u to s m o o t h l y

electronic c o m p o n e n t s e n a b l e t h e c a m e r a to r e p r o d u c e

Section

1.1

What

Television

Production

Is All

t h e studio pedestal

9

About

( s h o w n in figure 1.5), w h i c h lets y o u

raise a n d lower t h e c a m e r a a n d m o v e it s m o o t h l y across the s t u d i o floor while it is "hot," t h a t is, o n t h e air. S o m e news studios use robotic cameras that are remotely controlled via c o m p u t e r b y a single o p e r a t o r in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m . Because h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s can b e relatively small a n d light, s u c h r o b o t i c systems have b e c o m e q u i t e p o p u l a r in newsrooms.

LIGHTING Like t h e h u m a n eye, t h e c a m e r a c a n n o t see well w i t h o u t a certain a m o u n t of light. Because it is n o t objects w e a c t u ­ ally see b u t t h e light reflected off of t h e m , m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e light falling o n objects influences the way we perceive t h e m o n - s c r e e n . Such m a n i p u l a t i o n is called

lighting.

Lighting has four b r o a d p u r p o s e s : (1) to p r o v i d e t h e

1.6

television c a m e r a with a d e q u a t e i l l u m i n a t i o n for t e c h n i ­

PROFESSIONAL CAMCORDER

The professional camcorder is a highly portable, self-contained camera/video recording unit. It is usually battery-powered.

cally acceptable p i c t u r e s ; (2) to tell us w h a t t h e objects s h o w n o n - s c r e e n actually look like; (3) to s h o w us w h e r e t h e objects are in relation to o n e a n o t h e r a n d to t h e i r i m ­ m e d i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d w h e n t h e event is t a k i n g place

t h e colors a n d t h e l i g h t - a n d - d a r k v a r i a t i o n s of the actual

in t e r m s of t i m e of day o r season; a n d (4) t o establish t h e

scene as accurately as possible, as well as t o amplify t h e

general m o o d of t h e event.

relatively weak v i d e o signal so t h a t it can b e sent t o t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t w i t h o u t getting lost a l o n g t h e way.

Types of illumination

For b o t h analog a n d digital c a m e r a s , t h e basic i m a g i n g

involves t w o t y p e s of i l l u m i n a t i o n : d i r e c t i o n a l a n d dif­

devices are t h e s a m e .

fused. Directional

All television lighting basically

light h a s a s h a r p b e a m a n d p r o d u c e s

h a r s h s h a d o w s . You can a i m t h e light b e a m to i l l u m i n a t e The viewfinder

T h e viewfinder

is a s m a l l television

a precise area. A flashlight a n d car h e a d l i g h t s p r o d u c e

set m o u n t e d o n t h e c a m e r a t h a t s h o w s w h a t t h e c a m e r a

d i r e c t i o n a l light. Diffused

is seeing. M o s t viewfinders of professional c a m e r a s are

t h a t illuminates a relatively large area a n d p r o d u c e s soft,

monochrome,

t r a n s l u c e n t s h a d o w s . T h e fluorescent l a m p s in a d e p a r t ­

w h i c h m e a n s that the display is in b l a c k - a n d -

white. M a n y c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s a n d s o m e h i g h - q u a l i t y

lighthas

a wide, indistinct b e a m

m e n t store p r o d u c e diffused lighting.

s t u d i o c a m e r a s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , have color viewfinders,

S t u d i o lighting consists of carefully c o n t r o l l i n g light

so y o u c a n see the color p i c t u r e s t h a t t h e c a m e r a delivers.

a n d s h a d o w areas. T h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s for electronic

Generally, b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e viewfinders s h o w m o r e p i c ­

field p r o d u c t i o n are u s u a l l y q u i t e different f r o m t h o s e

t u r e detail t h a n color displays do, w h i c h m a k e s it easier t o

for s t u d i o w o r k . I n electronic n e w s g a t h e r i n g , y o u w o r k

achieve s h a r p focus.

m o s t l y w i t h available light o r occasionally with a single lighting i n s t r u m e n t t h a t gives just e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n

Mounting equipment

Portable c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d ­

for t h e c a m e r a t o record an event relatively close t o the

ers are d e s i g n e d t o rest m o r e o r less c o m f o r t a b l y o n y o u r

c a m e r a . For EFP y o u also use available light, especially

shoulder. But even a small, h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r can get

w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s , o r highly diffused light t h a t p r o ­

q u i t e heavy w h e n y o u o p e r a t e it for p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s of

vides o p t i m a l visibility i n d o o r s . S o m e field p r o d u c t i o n s ,

t i m e . In s u c h cases a tripod n o t only relieves y o u of h a v i n g

s u c h as d o c u m e n t a r i e s or d r a m a t i c scenes, r e q u i r e careful

t o c a r r y t h e c a m e r a b u t also e n s u r e s steady pictures. T h e

i n t e r i o r lighting t h a t resembles s t u d i o lighting t e c h n i q u e s .

heavy s t u d i o c a m e r a s also n e e d m o u n t s ; these r a n g e f r o m

T h e difference is t h a t t h e l o c a t i o n lighting for EFP is d o n e

t r i p o d s , similar to t h o s e u s e d for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s , to

w i t h p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n with s t u d i o

large cranes. T h e m o s t c o m m o n s t u d i o c a m e r a m o u n t is

lights, w h i c h are m o r e or less p e r m a n e n t l y installed.

Chapter

10

THE

1

TELEVISION

PRODUCTION

PROCESS

1.7 STUDIO LIGHTING The typical studio lighting uses spotlights and a variety of floodlights.

Lighting instruments

T h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t

p r o d u c e d i r e c t i o n a l light are called spotlights,

and the

o n e s t h a t p r o d u c e diffused light are called floodlights.

In

television lighting, especially o n n e w s a n d i n t e r v i e w sets, for g a m e shows a n d s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s , a n d in m a n y field productions.

t h e television s t u d i o , t h e v a r i o u s types of spotlights a n d floodlights are usually s u s p e n d e d from t h e ceiling, S E E 1.7 S t u d i o lights are m u c h t o o heavy a n d b u l k y t o b e u s e d outside t h e studio. M o s t EFPs use portable lighting packages

AUDIO A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m television

does not include audio, the

s o u n d p o r t i o n of a television s h o w is nevertheless o n e of its

that consist of several small, highly efficient i n s t r u m e n t s

m o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s . Television a u d i o n o t o n l y c o m ­

t h a t c a n b e p l u g g e d i n t o o r d i n a r y electrical outlets. T h e r e

m u n i c a t e s precise i n f o r m a t i o n b u t also c o n t r i b u t e s greatly

are also larger fluorescent b a n k s for large-area o r v i r t u ­

to t h e m o o d a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r e of a scene. If y o u were t o

ally shadowless lighting. M o s t p o r t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t s c a n

t u r n off t h e a u d i o d u r i n g a newscast, even t h e best n e w s

either b e m o u n t e d o n collapsible floor stands o r clipped

a n c h o r s w o u l d have difficulty c o m m u n i c a t i n g their stories

o n t o d o o r s , windowsills, o r furniture. T h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s

t h r o u g h facial e x p r e s s i o n s , g r a p h i c s , a n d v i d e o i m a g e s

generally o p e r a t e as floodlights, b u t they can b e adjusted t o

a l o n e . T h e aesthetic f u n c t i o n of s o u n d (to m a k e us per­

function as spotlights as well. To o b t a i n m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l

ceive an event o r feel i n a p a r t i c u l a r way) b e c o m e s o b v i o u s

c o n t r o l , EFP lighting packages i n c l u d e a n u m b e r of small

w h e n y o u listen to t h e b a c k g r o u n d s o u n d s d u r i n g a c r i m e

spotlights, w h i c h c a n b e diffused w i t h a collapsible diffu­

show, for e x a m p l e . T h e squealing tires d u r i n g a h i g h - s p e e d

sion t e n t , often called soft box (see c h a p t e r 7). S E E 1.8

chase are real e n o u g h , b u t t h e r h y t h m i c a l l y fast, exciting b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s t h e scene is definitely

Lighting techniques

All television l i g h t i n g is b a s e d

artificial. After all, t h e getaway car a n d t h e police car a r e

on a simple principle: use some instruments (usually

n o t followed in real life by a t h i r d vehicle w i t h m u s i c i a n s

spotlights a n d

playing t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c . But w e have g r o w n so a c ­

floodlights)

t o i l l u m i n a t e specific areas,

soften s h a d o w s , a n d b r i n g t h e overall light o n a scene t o a n

c u s t o m e d t o s u c h devices t h a t w e p r o b a b l y w o u l d perceive

i n t e n s i t y level at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a s c a n generate o p t i m a l

t h e scene as less exciting if t h e m u s i c w e r e missing.

pictures. In general, television lighting has less c o n t r a s t

T h e v a r i o u s a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s are m i c r o ­

b e t w e e n light a n d s h a d o w areas t h a n d o film a n d t h e a t e r

phones, ENG/EFP a n d studio sound control equipment,

l i g h t i n g . Diffused light is t h e r e f o r e u s e d extensively i n

a n d s o u n d r e c o r d i n g a n d playback devices.

Section

1.8

1.1

What

Television

Production

Is All

About

PORTABLE LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS

Portable lighting instruments consist of versatile spotlights and floodlights that can be plugged into regular household outlets

Microphones

All m i c r o p h o n e s c o n v e r t s o u n d waves

i n t o electric e n e r g y — t h e a u d i o signals. T h e s o u n d signals are amplified a n d sent to t h e loudspeaker, w h i c h reconverts t h e m i n t o audible s o u n d . T h e m y r i a d m i c r o p h o n e s avail­ able t o d a y are designed to p e r f o r m different tasks. Picking u p a newscaster's voice, c a p t u r i n g t h e s o u n d s of a t e n n i s m a t c h , a n d r e c o r d i n g a r o c k c o n c e r t — a l l m a y require dif­ ferent m i c r o p h o n e s or m i c r o p h o n e sets.

Eggw

ENG/EFP sound control equipment

E \v

t h e a u d i o is n o r m a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e c a m e r a o p ­

In E N G

erator, w h o wears a small e a r p h o n e t h a t carries the i n c o m ­

1.9

ing s o u n d . Because t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r is b u s y r u n n i n g

The portable audio mixer has a limited amount of inputs and volume controls.

t h e c a m e r a , t h e s o u n d controls o n t h e c a m c o r d e r are often switched t o t h e automatic

setting. In t h e m o r e critical EFP,

t h e v o l u m e of i n c o m i n g s o u n d s is usually c o n t r o l l e d by a p o r t a b l e mixer a n d r e c o r d e d n o t only o n v i d e o t a p e b u t also o n a p o r t a b l e a u d i o t a p e recorder, S E E 1.9


LIGHTS-^ Color temperature^ white balance | controlling

Lenses Lenses are used in all fields of photographic art. Their primary function is to project a small, clear i m a g e of t h e v i e w e d scene o n the film or, in t h e case of digital photography and television, on the electronic imaging device. As discussed in chapter 3, the lens is o n e of the three major parts of the camera. In studio cameras t h e lens is often considerably larger t h a n the camera itself. Section 4 . 1 , W h a t Lenses Are, covers the basic optical characteristics of lenses and their primary operational controls. T h e performance characteristics of lenses, that is, h o w they see t h e world, are explored in section 4.2, W h a t Lenses See.

68

aperture Iris opening of a lens, usually measured in /-stops. auto-focus Automated feature whereby the camera focuses on what it senses to be your target object.

iris Adjustable lens-opening that controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Also called diaphragm or lens diaphragm.

calibrate To preset a zoom lens to remain in focus throughout the zoom.

macro position A lens setting that allows it to be focused at very close distances from an object. Used for close-ups of small objects.

compression The crowding effect achieved by a narrow-angle (telephoto) lens wherein object proportions and relative distances seem shallower.

minimum object distance (MOD) How close the camera can get to an object and still focus on it.

depth of field The area in which all objects, located at different distances from the camera, appear in focus. Depth of field depends on the focal length of the lens, its /-stop, and the distance between the object and the camera. digital zooming Simulated zoom by cropping the center por­ tion of an image and electronically enlarging the cropped portion. Digital zooms lose picture resolution. digital zoom lens A lens that can be programmed through a small built-in computer to repeat zoom positions and their corresponding focus settings. fast lens A lens that permits a relatively great amount of light to pass through at its maximum aperture (relatively low /-stop number at its lowest setting). Can be used in lowlight conditions. field of view The portion of a scene visible through a particular lens; its vista. Expressed in symbols, such as CU for close-up. focal length The distance from the optical center of the lens to the front surface of the camera's imaging device at which the image appears in focus with the lens set at infinity. Focal lengths are measured in millimeters or inches. Shortfocal-length lenses have a wide angle of view (wide vista); long-focal-length (telephoto) lenses have a narrow angle of view (close-up). In a variable-focal-length (zoom) lens, the focal length can be changed continuously from wide-angle (zoomed out) to narrow-angle (zoomed in) and vice versa. A fixed-focal-length (or prime) lens has a single designated focal length. focus A picture is in focus when it appears sharp and clear on­ screen (technically, the point where the light rays refracted by the lens converge).

narrow-angle lens Gives a close-up view of an event relatively far away from the camera. Also called long-focal-length or telephoto lens. normal lens A lens or zoom lens position with a focal length that approximates the spatial relationships of normal vi­ sion. rack focus To change focus from one object or person closer to the camera to one farther away or vice versa. range extender An optical attachment to the zoom lens that extends its focal length. Also called extender. selective focus Emphasizing an object in a shallow depth of field through focus while keeping its foreground and/or background out of focus. servo zoom control Zoom control that activates motor-driven mechanisms. slow lens A lens that permits a relatively small amount of light to pass through at its maximum aperture (relatively high /-stop number at its lowest setting). Can be used only in well-lighted areas. wide-angle lens A short-focal-length lens that provides a broad vista of a scene. zoom lens A variable-focal-length lens. It can gradually change from a wide shot to a close-up and vice versa in one con­ tinuous move. zoom range The degree to which the focal length can be changed from a wide shot to a close-up during a zoom. The zoom range is often stated as a ratio; a 20:1 zoom ratio means that the zoom lens can increase its shortest focal length twenty times.

/ - s t o p The calibration on the lens indicating the aperture, or iris opening (and therefore the amount of light transmit­ ted through the lens). The larger the /-stop number, the smaller the aperture; the smaller the /-stop number, the larger the aperture.

69

And all may be talking a b o u t the s a m e zoom lens. This

4.1

section looks at these classifications.

STUDIO A N D FIELD LENSES As t h e n a m e i n d i c a t e s , studio

zoom

lenses are n o r m a l l y

u s e d w i t h s t u d i o c a m e r a s . Field zooms i n c l u d e large lenses m o u n t e d o n h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s t h a t are used for r e m o t e

What Lenses Are

telecasts, s u c h as s p o r t i n g events, p a r a d e s , a n d t h e like. T h e y also i n c l u d e t h e z o o m lenses a t t a c h e d to E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e lenses of c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s usually c o m e w i t h t h e c a m e r a a n d c a n n o t b e exchanged. S o m e h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r m o d e l s , however, allow y o u to attach a variety of z o o m lenses. Because y o u can, of course, use a field lens in t h e s t u d i o a n d vice versa, a b e t t e r a n d m o r e a c c u r a t e way to classify t h e v a r i o u s z o o m lenses is b y their z o o m r a n g e a n d lens f o r m a t , that is, w h a t c a m e r a s they fit.

ZOOM RANGE If a z o o m lens p r o v i d e s a n overview, for e x a m p l e , of t h e w h o l e t e n n i s c o u r t a n d p a r t of t h e bleachers w h e n z o o m e d all t h e way o u t a n d ( w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a closer t o t h e c o u r t ) a tight c l o s e - u p of t h e player's tense expression T h e lens d e t e r m i n e s w h a t t h e c a m e r a c a n see. O n e t y p e

w h e n z o o m e d all t h e way in, t h e lens has a g o o d z o o m

of lens can p r o v i d e a w i d e vista even t h o u g h y o u m a y b e

r a n g e . T h e zoom

relatively close to t h e scene; a n o t h e r t y p e m a y p r o v i d e a

c h a n g e t h e focal length of t h e lens ( a n d t h e r e b y t h e angle

close view of a n object t h a t is q u i t e far away. Different

of view, or vista) d u r i n g t h e z o o m .

range is t h e degree to w h i c h y o u c a n

types of lenses also d e t e r m i n e t h e basic visual p e r s p e c ­

T h e z o o m r a n g e of a lens is often stated as a ratio,

t i v e — w h e t h e r y o u see an object as d i s t o r t e d o r w h e t h e r

s u c h as 10:1 o r 4 0 : 1 . A 10:1 z o o m m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n

y o u perceive m o r e or less distance b e t w e e n objects t h a n

increase t h e shortest focal l e n g t h ten t i m e s ; a 4 0 : 1 , forty

t h e r e really is. T h e y also c o n t r i b u t e to a large extent to t h e

t i m e s . To m a k e t h i n g s easier, these ratios are usually listed

quality of t h e p i c t u r e a n d h o w m u c h y o u can z o o m in o r

as lOx (ten times) o r 4 0 x (forty t i m e s ) , referring to t h e

o u t o n a n object w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a . This section

m a x i m u m m a g n i f i c a t i o n of t h e i m a g e of w h i c h t h e lens is

e x a m i n e s w h a t lenses c a n d o a n d h o w t o use t h e m .

capable. SEE4.1

T h e large ( s t u d i o ) c a m e r a s t h a t are p o s i t i o n e d o n ^

TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES

t o p of t h e bleachers for s p o r t s coverage m a y h a v e z o o m

Studio and field lenses, zoom range, and lens format

ranges of 4 0 x a n d even 7 0 x . In t h e s t u d i o t h e c a m e r a s are well served b y a 2 0 x z o o m lens. T h e smaller a n d lighter

OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES

E N G / E F P c a m e r a lenses rarely exceed a 15x z o o m r a n g e .

Focal length, focus, light transmission (iris, aperture, and f-stop), and depth of field

Optical and digital z o o m r a n g e s OPERATIONAL CONTROLS

You m a y h a v e

n o t i c e d t h a t t h e z o o m r a n g e o n a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r is

Zoom control, digital zoom lens, and focus control

r a t h e r limited; a n optical z o o m range of 15x is c o n s i d e r e d excellent even for h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s . This is w h y c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s offer t h e o p t i o n of increasing the z o o m

TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES

r a n g e digitally. D u r i n g a n optical z o o m to a t i g h t e r shot, zoom

t h e i m a g e m a g n i f i c a t i o n is achieved b y m o v i n g e l e m e n t s

lenses, you will m o s t likely hear o n e p e r s o n refer to a s t u d i o

w i t h i n t h e lens. In effect, y o u are c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g t h e

W h e n l i s t e n i n g to p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e talk a b o u t

r a t h e r t h a n a field z o o m , a n o t h e r to a 2 0 x lens, a n d yet 2

a n o t h e r to a z o o m lens that fits a /3-inch i m a g e f o r m a t .

70

focal length d u r i n g t h e z o o m - i n or z o o m - o u t . In zooming

digital

such a c h a n g e in focal length d o e s n o t take place.

Section

4.1

What

Lenses

Are

71

4.1 MAXIMUM ZOOM POSITIONS OF A l O x LENS The 10x zoom lens can increase its focal length ten times. It magnifies a portion of the scene and seems to bring it closer to the camera and ultimately the viewer. - ,_$N

For a z o o m - i n , t h e electronics of t h e c a m e r a s i m p l y select

despite t h i s digital wizardry, t h e digital z o o m d o e s n o t

t h e center p o r t i o n of the l o n g s h o t a n d enlarge t h e c r o p p e d

achieve t h e crispness of t h e optical z o o m .

area to full-screen size. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h digital z o o m i n g

S t u d i o , field, a n d E N G / E F P lenses are all detachable

is t h a t t h e enlarged pixels noticeably r e d u c e t h e r e s o l u t i o n

from the camera. M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have a built-

of t h e i m a g e (recall t h e m o s a i c tiles in c h a p t e r 3). At o n e

in lens t h a t c a n n o t b e d e t a c h e d , SEE 4.2 A N D 4.3

p o i n t in digital z o o m i n g , t h e pixels can get so large t h a t t h e y look m o r e like a special effect t h a n a m a g n i f i c a t i o n of

Studio and large field lenses

t h e original i m a g e . H i g h e r - e n d c a m c o r d e r s , w h i c h have a

lens b e c o m e s a field lens if it is u s e d "in t h e field," t h a t is,

digital z o o m o p t i o n , t r y to restore t h e full-pixel r e s o l u t i o n

for a p r o d u c t i o n t h a t h a p p e n s o u t s i d e t h e s t u d i o . G e n ­

of t h e original i m a g e by a process called interpolation.

erally, however, field lenses have a m u c h greater z o o m

But

Note that a 20x studio

4.2 STUDIO ZOOM LENS High-quality studio lenses are quite heavy and often larger than the camera itself. They cannot be mounted on an ENG/EFP camera.

Mounting head *m*-^*

Panning handle with zoom control

72

Chapter

LENSES

4

o p e r a t i n g t h e c a m e r a , especially w h e n in a n a r r o w - a n g l e ( z o o m e d - i n ) p o s i t i o n . Realize, however, t h a t such stabiliz­ ers cause a n additional d r a i n o n t h e battery. Use this feature only if y o u d o n ' t have a t r i p o d o r are u n a b l e to stabilize t h e c a m e r a in any o t h e r way. 4 Consumer camcorder lenses

These z o o m lenses

generally have a n optical z o o m r a n g e of lOx to 18x. You m a y have n o t i c e d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m w i t h z o o m lenses o n c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s is t h a t t h e m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n is often n o t w i d e e n o u g h , d e s p i t e t h e i r g o o d z o o m range. M o s t c a m c o r d e r s have s o m e sort of i m a g e stabilization. S o m e h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r m o d e l s , w h i c h have a b u i l t - i n lens, let y o u attach e l e m e n t s t h a t allow a w i d e r angle or t i g h t e r close-ups.

4.3 ENG/EFP ZOOM LENS The ENG/EFP camera lens is considerably lighter and smaller than the studio zooms. Although these lenses are not as high quality as studio lenses, ENG/EFP lenses nevertheless have many of the studio zoom's features, such as servo and manual zoom controls, automatic iris control, and sometimes an autofocus feature.

Range extenders

If a z o o m lens d o e s n o t get you close

e n o u g h to a scene f r o m w h e r e t h e c a m e r a is located, y o u can use a n a d d i t i o n a l lens e l e m e n t called a range

extender,

or s i m p l y an extender. This optical e l e m e n t , usually avail­ able o n l y for lenses o n p r o f e s s i o n a l c a m e r a s , d o e s n o t actually e x t e n d t h e r a n g e of t h e z o o m b u t r a t h e r shifts t h e

range (from 4 0 x to 7 0 x ) t h a n s t u d i o c a m e r a s . S o m e field

m a g n i f i c a t i o n — t h e t e l e p h o t o p o w e r — o f t h e lens t o w a r d

lenses have even a greater z o o m range, allowing t h e c a m ­

t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e e n d of t h e z o o m r a n g e . M o s t lenses have

era o p e r a t o r to z o o m f r o m a w i d e establishing s h o t of t h e

2 x extenders, which m e a n s that they double the z o o m

football s t a d i u m to a tight c l o s e - u p of t h e q u a r t e r b a c k ' s

r a n g e in t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e y also r e d u c e

face. D e s p i t e t h e great z o o m r a n g e , these lenses deliver

t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens p o s i t i o n b y t w o t i m e s . W i t h such a n

h i g h - q u a l i t y pictures even in relatively low light levels. For

extender, y o u c a n z o o m in to a closer s h o t , b u t y o u c a n n o t

s t u d i o use s u c h a z o o m r a n g e w o u l d b e u n n e c e s s a r y a n d

z o o m b a c k o u t as w i d e as y o u could w i t h o u t t h e extender.

often c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e .

T h e r e is a n o t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e t o range extenders: they c u t d o w n c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e light e n t e r i n g t h e c a m e r a , w h i c h

Ejjjtiw ENG/EFP lenses EFP'

These lenses are m u c h smaller, to

can b e p r o b l e m a t i c in low-light c o n d i t i o n s .

fit the p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s . T h e i r n o r m a l z o o m r a n g e

varies b e t w e e n l l x a n d 2 0 x . A 15x z o o m lens w o u l d b e

LENS FORMAT

sufficient for m o s t E N G / E F P a s s i g n m e n t s , b u t s o m e t i m e s

Because c a m e r a lenses are designed to m a t c h the size of t h e

y o u m i g h t w a n t a closer view of a n event t h a t is relatively

C C D i m a g i n g device, y o u m a y h e a r a b o u t a lens format

far away. You w o u l d t h e n n e e d t o exchange t h e 15x z o o m

image format

lens for o n e w i t h a h i g h e r z o o m r a n g e — s u c h as 2 0 x o r

t h a t y o u c a n use o n l y a lens t h a t fits t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

even 3 0 x . You c a n also use a range extender

(discussed

or

2

of Vi-inch, Vi-inch, o r /3-inch. This m e a n s

C C D i m a g e f o r m a t . Like film, t h e larger C C D s p r o d u c e

later in this c h a p t e r ) , w h i c h w o u l d let y o u z o o m b e y o n d

b e t t e r p i c t u r e s . T h e t e r m lens format

the n o r m a l z o o m range into a tighter shot.

w h e t h e r a l e n s is u s e d for s t a n d a r d N T S C c a m e r a s o r

A m o r e i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n for E N G / E F P lenses

m a y also refer t o

H D T V cameras.

is w h e t h e r t h e y have a w i d e e n o u g h angle of view (a very s h o r t focal l e n g t h ) , w h i c h w o u l d allow y o u to s h o o t in highly c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s , s u c h as in a car, a small r o o m ,

OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES

o r a n airplane. Also, t h e w i d e - a n g l e v i e w is i m p o r t a n t for

Effective use of a c a m e r a d e p e n d s to a great extent o n y o u r

s h o o t i n g in t h e wide-screen 1 6 x 9 f o r m a t .

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of f o u r o p t i c a l characteristics of lenses:

M a n y lenses have digital or m e c h a n i c a l stabilizers t h a t a b s o r b at least s o m e of the p i c t u r e wiggles resulting from

(1) focal l e n g t h ; (2) focus; ( 3 ) light t r a n s m i s s i o n — i r i s , a p e r t u r e , a n d / - s t o p ; a n d (4) d e p t h of field.

Section

4.1

What

Lenses

73

Are

4 . 4 FOCAL LENGTH Optical center of lens

Lens with focus .... set at infinity

Distant image in focus

The focal length is the dis­ tance from the optical center of the lens to the front sur­ face of the imaging device.

„ . . . , . CCD imaging device

i

FOCAL LENGTH Technically, focal length refers to t h e distance from t h e opti­ cal center of t h e lens to t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e i m a g e t h e lens sees is in focus. This p o i n t is t h e camera's i m a g i n g device. SEE 4.4 Operationally, the focal length d e t e r m i n e s h o w w i d e o r n a r r o w a vista a p a r t i c u l a r c a m e r a h a s a n d h o w m u c h a n d in w h a t ways objects a p p e a r magnified. W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e way out, t h e focal length of the lens is s h o r t a n d at t h e m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ; t h e c a m e r a will p r o v i d e a w i d e vista. W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e way in, t h e focal l e n g t h is l o n g a n d at t h e m a x i m u m n a r r o w - a n g l e ( t e l e p h o t o ) p o s i t i o n ; t h e c a m e r a will p r o ­ vide a n a r r o w vista o r field of v i e w — a close-up view of t h e scene, SEE 4.5 W h e n y o u stop t h e z o o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y halfway in b e t w e e n these e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n s , t h e lens h a s t h e n o r m a l focal length. This m e a n s t h a t y o u will get a " n o r m a l " vista t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e s y o u r actually l o o k i n g at t h e scene. Because t h e z o o m lens can a s s u m e all focal lengths f r o m its m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d all t h e way o u t ) t o its m a x i m u m n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d all t h e w a y i n ) , it is called a

variable-focal-length

lens. frA'i%»CAMERA-> Zoom lens^ normal | wide | narrow | try it O n t h e television screen, a z o o m - i n appears as t h o u g h t h e object is gradually c o m i n g t o w a r d y o u . A z o o m - o u t seems to m a k e t h e object m o v e away from y o u . Actually, all t h a t t h e m o v i n g e l e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e z o o m lens d o is

Wide angle

Narrow angle

g r a d u a l l y m a g n i f y ( z o o m - i n ) or r e d u c e t h e m a g n i f i c a ­ t i o n ( z o o m - o u t ) of t h e object while k e e p i n g it in focus, but the camera remains stationary during both opera­ t i o n s . SEE 4.6

Minimum object distance and macro position You will find that t h e r e is often a limit to h o w close y o u can m o v e a c a m e r a ( a n d lens) to t h e object to be p h o t o g r a p h e d a n d still k e e p t h e p i c t u r e i n f o c u s . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y

4 . 5 WIDE-ANGLE AND NARROW-ANGLE ZOOM POSITIONS A The wide-angle zoom position (zoomed out) has a wider vista (field of view) than B , the narrow-angle zoom position (zoomed in). Note that zooming in magnifies the subject.

Chapter

74

LENSES

4

4.6 ELEMENTS OF A ZOOM LENS A zoom lens consists of many sliding and stationary lens elements that interact to maintain focus throughout the continuous change of fo­ cal length. The front elements control the focus; the middle elements control the zoom.

Variator lens

Variator lens

Relay lens

Focusing lens

Beam-splitting prism

p r o b l e m a t i c w h e n t r y i n g to get a c l o s e - u p of a very small

a variable-focal-length lens to a

object. Even w h e n z o o m e d in all t h e way, t h e s h o t m a y still

prime, lens. T h e fixed focal l e n g t h is n o t a big disadvantage

fixed-focal-length,

or

look t o o w i d e . M o v i n g t h e c a m e r a closer to t h e object will

because t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n is used only in highly specific

m a k e t h e shot tighter, b u t y o u can n o longer get t h e picture

c i r c u m s t a n c e s . For e x a m p l e , if y o u n e e d to get a screen-

in focus. Range extenders help little, b u t while t h e y provide

filling c l o s e - u p of a p o s t a g e s t a m p , y o u w o u l d switch t h e

y o u w i t h a tighter c l o s e - u p of t h e object, t h e y force y o u

c a m e r a to t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e n y o u c a n n o t use t h e

to back off w i t h t h e c a m e r a to get t h e s h o t in focus. O n e

c a m e r a for z o o m i n g u n t i l y o u switch b a c k to t h e n o r m a l

way t o solve this p r o b l e m is to z o o m all t h e way o u t to a

zoom mechanism.

wide-angle position. C o n t r a r y to n o r m a l expectations, the wide-angle z o o m position often allows y o u to get a tighter close-up of a small

FOCUS A p i c t u r e is " i n focus" w h e n t h e projected i m a g e is s h a r p

object t h a n does t h e extended n a r r o w - a n g l e z o o m position

a n d clear. T h e focus

( z o o m e d all t h e way in w i t h a 2 x e x t e n d e r ) . But even w i t h

lens t o t h e film (as in a still or m o v i e c a m e r a ) or from t h e

d e p e n d s o n t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e

t h e lens in the w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , t h e r e is usually a p o i n t

lens t o t h e camera's i m a g i n g device ( b e a m splitter w i t h

at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a will n o l o n g e r focus w h e n m o v e d

C C D s ) . Simply adjusting t h e distance f r o m t h e lens to t h e

t o o close to t h e object. T h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e c a m e r a is as

film o r i m a g i n g device b r i n g s a p i c t u r e i n t o focus or takes

close as it can get a n d still focus o n t h e object is called t h e

it o u t of focus. In television z o o m lenses, this a d j u s t m e n t

minimum

is a c c o m p l i s h e d n o t b y m o v i n g t h e l e n s o r t h e p r i s m

object distance

(MOD)

of t h e lens.

A l t h o u g h there are z o o m lenses t h a t allow y o u , w i t h ­

b l o c k ( b e a m splitter) b u t by m o v i n g certain lens e l e m e n t s

o u t extenders, to get e x t r e m e l y close t o t h e object while

relative to each o t h e r t h r o u g h t h e z o o m focus c o n t r o l (see

still m a i n t a i n i n g focus over t h e entire z o o m r a n g e , m o s t

figure

4.6).

z o o m lenses have a m i n i m u m object distance of 2 to 3 feet.

Focus c o n t r o l s c o m e in v a r i o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . Por­

H i g h - r a t i o z o o m lenses, s u c h as 4 0 x or 5 0 x , have a m u c h

table c a m e r a s have a focus r i n g o n t h e lens t h a t y o u t u r n ;

greater M O D t h a n d o lenses w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e starting

s t u d i o c a m e r a s have a twist g r i p a t t a c h e d to t h e p a n n i n g

p o s i t i o n a n d a relatively low z o o m ratio (such as l O x ) .

h a n d l e (see figure 4.18). M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have

This m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n p r o b a b l y get closer to a n object

a n a u t o m a t i c focus feature, called auto-focus,

w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e field lens t h a t can magnify t h e object

discussed in t h e c o n t e x t of o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s later in

only ten or twelve t i m e s t h a n w i t h a large field lens t h a t

this section.

starts with a n a r r o w e r angle b u t can magnify the scene fifty or m o r e t i m e s .

w h i c h is

If p r o p e r l y preset, a z o o m lens keeps in focus d u r i n g t h e entire z o o m r a n g e , a s s u m i n g t h a t n e i t h e r t h e c a m e r a

field

n o r t h e object moves very m u c h t o w a r d or away from t h e

lenses, m a n y field lenses o n E N G / E F P c a m e r a s have a

other. But because you walk a n d even r u n while carrying a n

macro position,

E N G / E F P c a m e r a , y o u c a n n o t always prefocus t h e z o o m .

D e s p i t e t h e relative a d v a n t a g e of w i d e - a n g l e

w h i c h lets y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a e v e n

closer to a n object w i t h o u t losing focus. W h e n t h e lens

In s u c h cases y o u w o u l d d o well by z o o m i n g all t h e way

is in t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n , y o u c a n a l m o s t t o u c h t h e object

o u t t o a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , considerably r e d u c i n g t h e

with t h e lens a n d still retain focus; y o u can n o longer z o o m ,

n e e d to focus. This is e x a m i n e d m o r e t h o r o u g h l y in t h e

however. T h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n changes t h e z o o m lens from

discussion o n d e p t h o f field later in this section.

Section

4.1

What

Presetting (calibrating) the zoom lens s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e for presetting,

o r calibrating,

Lenses

Are

75

T h e r e is a the zoom

lens so t h a t t h e c a m e r a r e m a i n s in focus t h r o u g h o u t a z o o m : Z o o m all t h e way in o n t h e target object, s u c h as a newscaster o n a n e w s set. Focus o n t h e newscaster's face (eyes or t h e b r i d g e of h e r nose) b y t u r n i n g the focus c o n ­ trol. W h e n z o o m i n g back o u t to a l o n g shot, y o u will notice t h a t e v e r y t h i n g r e m a i n s in focus. T h e s a m e is t r u e w h e n y o u z o o m in again. You s h o u l d n o w be able to m a i n t a i n focus over t h e entire z o o m range. If y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a , however, or if t h e object m o v e s after y o u preset t h e z o o m lens, y o u n e e d to calibrate t h e lens again. For e x a m p l e , if y o u h a d preset t h e z o o m o n t h e news a n c h o r b u t t h e n t h e director i n s t r u c t e d y o u to m o v e t h e c a m e r a a little closer a n d t o t h e left so t h a t she could m o r e easily r e a d t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r , y o u w o u l d n o t b e able to

4.7

m a i n t a i n focus w i t h o u t p r e s e t t i n g t h e z o o m again from

The iris, or lens diaphragm, consists of a series of thin metal blades that form, through partial overlapping, an aperture, or lens opening, of variable size.

t h e n e w p o s i t i o n . If, after presetting t h e z o o m , y o u were asked to z o o m in o n t h e m a p b e h i n d t h e n e w s a n c h o r , y o u

LENS IRIS

w o u l d have to adjust t h e focus w h i l e z o o m i n g p a s t t h e a n c h o r — n o t a n easy task for even a n e x p e r i e n c e d c a m e r a operator. If t h e c a m e r a m o v e s are p r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d r e p e a t e d f r o m s h o w to show, as in a daily newscast, y o u c a n use t h e preset features of t h e digital z o o m lens. T h e lens t h e n r e m e m b e r s t h e v a r i o u s z o o m positions a n d p e r f o r m s t h e m a u t o m a t i c a l l y w i t h t h e p u s h of a b u t t o n . U n l e s s y o u h a v e a n a u t o m a t i c focus c o n t r o l , y o u m u s t preset t h e z o o m o n a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a even w h e n

Maximum aperture

Minimum aperture

covering a n e w s event in t h e field. You m a y have n o t i c e d t h a t u n e d i t e d v i d e o of a disaster (such as a t o r n a d o o r fire)

4.8

often c o n t a i n s b r i e f o u t - o f - f o c u s c l o s e - u p s followed b y

A At the maximum aperture, the iris blades form a large opening, permitting a great amount of light to enter the lens. B At the minimum setting, the blades overlap to form a small hole, admitting only a small amount of light.

focusing a n d q u i c k z o o m - o u t s . W h a t t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r is d o i n g is calibrating the z o o m lens to stay i n focus d u r i n g subsequent zoom-ins.

LIGHT T R A N S M I S S I O N : IRIS, APERTURE, A N D /-STOP

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM APERTURES

y o u close t h e lens all t h e w a y — t h a t is, if y o u set it to its m i n i m u m a p e r t u r e — v e r y little light is a d m i t t e d , SEE 4.8B

Like t h e p u p i l in t h e h u m a n eye, all lenses have a m e c h a ­

S o m e irises can b e closed entirely, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t n o

n i s m t h a t c o n t r o l s h o w m u c h light is a d m i t t e d t h r o u g h

light at all goes t h r o u g h t h e lens.

t h e m . T h i s m e c h a n i s m is called t h e iris or lens

diaphragm.

T h e iris consists of a series of t h i n m e t a l blades that f o r m

/-stop

a fairly r o u n d h o l e — t h e aperture,

goes t h r o u g h a lens, regardless of t h e lens type, is the

or lens o p e n i n g — o f

variable size, SEE 4.7 If y o u " o p e n u p " t h e lens as w i d e as it will go, or,

T h e s t a n d a r d scale that indicates h o w m u c h light f-stop.

SEE 4.9 If, for example, y o u have t w o c a m e r a s — a c a m c o r d e r w i t h a lOx z o o m lens a n d a field c a m e r a w i t h a large 5 0 x

technically, if y o u set t h e lens to its m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e ,

l e n s — a n d b o t h lenses are set at f/5.6,

it a d m i t s t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t of light, SEE 4.8A If y o u

in b o t h c a m e r a s will receive a n identical a m o u n t of light.

close the lens s o m e w h a t , t h e m e t a l blades of t h e iris f o r m a smaller h o l e a n d less light passes t h r o u g h t h e lens. If

the i m a g i n g devices

Regardless of c a m e r a t y p e , / - s t o p s are expressed in a series of n u m b e r s , s u c h as f/1.7, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6,

//8,

76

Chapter

LENSES

4

for instance, from f/1.7 to / / 4 (see figure 4.9). T h i s r e d u c ­ Zoom ring

Manual zoom lever

t i o n in light t r a n s m i s s i o n is n o t a big h a n d i c a p , however, because range extenders are n o r m a l l y used o u t d o o r s , w h e r e

/-stop calibration

\

^

/

Focus ring

t h e r e is e n o u g h light. T h e m o r e serious p r o b l e m is a slight d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e original p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n . Because t h e a m o u n t of light that strikes t h e c a m e r a ' s i m a g i n g device is s o i m p o r t a n t for p i c t u r e quality, t h e c o n t i n u o u s a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e iris is a fundamental function o f video control. Studio cameras have a remote iris control, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e a p e r t u r e can b e c o n t i n u o u s l y adjusted b y t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r ( V O ) f r o m t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ( C C U ) . If t h e set is p r o p e r l y lighted a n d t h e c a m e r a p r o p e r l y set u p (electronically a d ­ j u s t e d t o t h e l i g h t / d a r k e x t r e m e s o f t h e scene), all t h a t t h e V O h a s t o d o to m a i n t a i n g o o d pictures is w o r k t h e r e m o t e iris c o n t r o l — o p e n t h e iris in low-light c o n d i t i o n s a n d close it d o w n s o m e w h a t w h e n t h e r e is m o r e light t h a n n e e d e d .

4 . 9 /-STOP SETTINGS The /-stop is a calibration that indicates how large or small the aperture is.

Most c a m e r a s , especially ENG/EFP and c o n s u m e r camcorders, can be switched from the m a n u a l t o t h e a u t o - i r i s m o d e , see 4.10 T h e c a m e r a t h e n

/ / I I , a n d f/16 (see figure 4.9). T h e lower / - s t o p n u m b e r s

senses t h e light e n t e r i n g the lens a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y adjusts

indicate a relatively large a p e r t u r e o r iris o p e n i n g (lens is

the iris for o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e . This auto-iris fea­

relatively w i d e o p e n ) . T h e higher f-stop

t u r e w o r k s well s o long as the scene does n o t have t o o m u c h

n u m b e r s indicate a

relatively small aperture (lens is closed d o w n considerably).

c o n t r a s t . T h e r e are c i r c u m s t a n c e s , however, in w h i c h y o u

A lens t h a t is set at /71.7 has a m u c h larger iris o p e n i n g

m a y w a n t t o switch t h e c a m e r a over t o m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l .

a n d therefore a d m i t s m u c h m o r e light t h a n o n e t h a t is set

For e x a m p l e , if y o u t o o k a loose c l o s e - u p s h o t of a w o m a n

at / / 1 6 . ( T h e r e a s o n w h y t h e low / - s t o p n u m b e r s indicate

w e a r i n g a w h i t e h a t in b r i g h t sunlight, t h e a u t o m a t i c iris

large iris o p e n i n g s a n d h i g h / - s t o p n u m b e r s i n d i c a t e

w o u l d adjust t o t h e b r i g h t light of t h e w h i t e h a t , n o t t o

relatively small iris o p e n i n g s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r way

t h e d a r k e r ( s h a d o w e d ) face u n d e r t h e hat. T h e auto-iris

a r o u n d , is that t h e / - s t o p n u m b e r s actually express a ratio.

c o n t r o l w o u l d therefore give y o u a perfectly e x p o s e d h a t

In this sense / / 4 is actually fl A; t h a t is, / o n e over four.)

b u t a n u n d e r e x p o s e d face. In this case y o u w o u l d switch t o

As m e n t i o n e d , m o s t lenses p r o d u c e t h e sharpest pictures

m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l , z o o m in o n t h e face t o e l i m i n a t e m o s t

b e t w e e n f/5.6 a n d / / 8 . S o m e lenses e x t e n d t h e o p t i m a l

of t h e w h i t e hat, t h e n adjust t h e iris t o t h e light reflecting

l

off t h e face r a t h e r t h a n t h e hat. W h e n switching t o m a n u a l

focus to / / l l .

iris c o n t r o l , however, y o u will find t h a t even a fairly g o o d T h e "speed" of a lens has n o t h i n g t o d o with

E N G / E F P c a m e r a can't h a n d l e such an extreme contrast. In

h o w fast it t r a n s m i t s light, b u t w i t h h o w m u c h light it lets

this case y o u m i g h t t r y a neutral density (ND) filter, w h i c h

t h r o u g h . A lens that allows a relatively great a m o u n t of light

w o u l d lower t h e e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e

Lens speed

to enter is called a fast lens. Fast lenses go d o w n t o a small

d e n s e s h a d o w areas a n y darker. ( O t h e r ways t o h a n d l e ex­

/ - s t o p n u m b e r (such as / / 1 . 4 ) . M o s t g o o d s t u d i o z o o m

t r e m e c o n t r a s t are explained in chapter 8.) E32S>CAMERA^>

lenses o p e n u p to / / 1 . 6 , w h i c h is fast e n o u g h to m a k e t h e

Exposure control-* aperture | / - s t o p | auto iris | try it

c a m e r a w o r k p r o p e r l y even in low-light c o n d i t i o n s . A lens t h a t t r a n s m i t s relatively little light at t h e m a x i ­

D E P T H OF FIELD

m u m iris a p e r t u r e is called a slow lens. A s t u d i o lens w h o s e

If y o u place objects at different distances from t h e c a m e r a ,

lowest / - s t o p is / / 2 . 8 is obviously slower t h a n a lens t h a t

s o m e will b e in focus a n d o t h e r s will b e o u t o f focus. T h e

can o p e n u p t o / / 1 . 7 . Range extenders r e n d e r t h e z o o m

area in which the objects are in focus is called depth of field.

lens inevitably slower. A 2 x e x t e n d e r c a n r e d u c e t h e lens

T h e d e p t h of field c a n b e shallow o r great, b u t it is always

speed by as m u c h as t w o " s t o p s " (higher / - s t o p n u m b e r s ) ,

greater b e h i n d t h e object t h a n in front o f it. SEE 4.11

Section

4.7

What

Lenses

Are

_ _- - In focus

77

Outof f o c u s

Outof focus

4.11 DEPTH OF FIELD The depth of field is the area within which all objects, although located at different distances from the camera, are in focus.

4.10 AUTO-IRIS SWITCH The auto-iris switch lets you change the aperture control from manual to automatic. You can quickly change back to manual simply by pressing the auto-iris switch without interrupting your shot.

If y o u have a shallow d e p t h of field a n d y o u focus o n a n object in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d a n d b a c k ­ g r o u n d objects will b e o u t of focus, SEE 4.i 2 If t h e d e p t h of field is great, all objects ( f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d ) will b e in focus, even t h o u g h y o u focus o n t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d object only. SEE4.13 W i t h a great d e p t h of field, there is a large "sharp z o n e " in w h i c h p e o p l e o r objects can m o v e t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a w i t h o u t going o u t of focus o r w i t h o u t a n y n e e d

4.12 SHALLOW DEPTH OF FIELD With a shallow depth of field, the area in which an object is in focus is limited.

for adjusting t h e c a m e r a focus. If t h e y m o v e in a shallow d e p t h of field, however, t h e y can quickly b e c o m e b l u r r e d unless y o u adjust t h e c a m e r a focus. A similar thing h a p p e n s w h e n y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a . A great d e p t h of field m a k e s it relatively easy t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a t o w a r d o r away from t h e object because y o u d o n o t have t o w o r k a n y controls t o keep t h e p i c t u r e in focus. If y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a simi­ larly in a shallow d e p t h of field, y o u m u s t adjust t h e focus c o n t i n u o u s l y t o k e e p t h e target object s h a r p a n d clear. Operationally, t h e d e p t h of field d e p e n d s o n t h e c o ­ o r d i n a t i o n of t h r e e factors: (1) t h e focal l e n g t h of t h e lens, (2) t h e a p e r t u r e , a n d (3) t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e object.

4.13 GREAT DEPTH OF FIELD Focal length

T h e focal length of t h e lens is t h e factor

t h a t m o s t influences t h e d e p t h of field. In general, w i d e angle lenses a n d , of course, wide-angle (short-focal-length) z o o m p o s i t i o n s ( z o o m e d o u t ) have a great d e p t h of field. N a r r o w - a n g l e lenses a n d n a r r o w - a n g l e (long-focal-length)

With a great depth of field, almost everything in the camera's field of view appears in focus.

78

Chapter

LENSES

4

4.14 DEPTH-OF-FIELD FACTORS DEPTH

mm I

APERTURE

Short

Small

m

OF F I E L D Great

LIGH r

SUBJECT/CAMERA

/-STOP

LEVE L

DISTANCE

Large /-stop

High

Far

number (//22) (bright light)

(wide-angle) Shallow

Near

Small /-stop

Large

number (//1.4)

Long

Low

(dim light)

(narrow-angle) This chart was prepared by Michael Hopkinson of Lane Community College.

z o o m p o s i t i o n s ( z o o m e d in) have a shallow d e p t h of field.

Camera-to-object distance

You m a y w a n t t o r e m e m b e r a s i m p l e r u l e of t h u m b :

t o t h e object, t h e shallower t h e d e p t h of field. T h e farther

T h e closer t h e c a m e r a is

t h e c a m e r a is from t h e object, t h e greater t h e d e p t h of field. Depth

of field increases as focal length

decreases.

C a m e r a - t o - o b j e c t distance also influences t h e focal-length

E N Q ^ W h e n r u n n i n g after a f a s t - m o v i n g n e w s e v e n t ,

effect o n d e p t h of field. For e x a m p l e , if y o u have a w i d e -

EFP

angle lens ( z o o m lens i n a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ) , t h e d e p t h

s h o u l d y o u z o o m all t h e w a y in o r all t h e w a y out?

All the way out. Why? Because, first, t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i ­

of field is great. But as s o o n as y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a close

t i o n of t h e z o o m lens will at least s h o w t h e viewer w h a t is

to t h e object, t h e d e p t h of field b e c o m e s shallow. T h e s a m e

going o n . Second, a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e resulting great

is t r u e in reverse: If y o u w o r k w i t h t h e z o o m lens in a n a r ­

d e p t h of field will help keep m o s t of y o u r shots i n focus,

r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d i n ) , y o u have a shallow d e p t h

regardless of w h e t h e r y o u are close t o o r far away from t h e

of field. But if t h e c a m e r a is focused o n a n object relatively

event o r w h e t h e r y o u o r t h e event is o n t h e m o v e .

far away from t h e c a m e r a (such as a field c a m e r a located h i g h i n t h e s t a n d s t o cover a n a u t o m o b i l e race), y o u w o r k

Large iris o p e n i n g s cause a shallow d e p t h of

in a fairly great d e p t h of field a n d d o n o t have t o w o r r y

field; small iris o p e n i n g s cause a large d e p t h of field. T h e

t o o m u c h a b o u t adjusting focus, unless y o u z o o m in t o a n

rule of t h u m b for a p e r t u r e s is this:

e x t r e m e close-up. SEE4.i4
Camera moves^ dolly T

4.25 NORMAL LENS FIELD OF VIEW AND PERSPECTIVE

zoom | try it W h e n p e o p l e o r objects m o v e t o w a r d o r away from

The normal lens gives a field of view that approximates normal vision.

t h e c a m e r a , t h e i r speed appears greatly accelerated b y t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens. T h e w i d e - a n g l e z o o m p o s i t i o n is often

seem larger t h a n t h e y actually are, t h e n o r m a l lens o r t h e

used t o accelerate t h e speed of a car o r a d a n c e r m o v i n g

m i d r a n g e z o o m p o s i t i o n s m a k e objects a n d their spatial

t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a .

relationships a p p e a r m o r e like o u r n o r m a l vision, SEE

4.25

ENGiK W h e n covering a news event t h a t exhibits a great E F P ^ d e a l of m o v e m e n t o r t h a t r e q u i r e s y o u t o m o v e

sitioned o n an easel, y o u s h o u l d p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e

rapidly, y o u s h o u l d p u t t h e z o o m lens in its e x t r e m e w i d e -

m i d r a n g e position. These are t h e m a i n advantages: (1) You

angle p o s i t i o n . As y o u recall, t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n will

can quickly correct t h e f r a m i n g o n t h e card b y z o o m i n g

W h e n s h o o t i n g g r a p h i c s s u c h as c h a r t s t h a t are p o ­

reduce c a m e r a w o b b l e s t o a great extent a n d m a k e it m u c h

in o r o u t slightly o r b y dollying in o r o u t w i t h o u t u n d u e

easier t o keep t h e event in t h e viewfinder. Also, t h e great

focus change. (2) You are far e n o u g h away from t h e easel t o

d e p t h o f field helps y o u t o keep t h e pictures in focus. T h e

avoid c a m e r a s h a d o w s yet close e n o u g h so t h a t t h e d a n g e r

disadvantage of t h e e x t r e m e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n is t h a t

of s o m e o n e ' s walking i n front o f t h e c a m e r a is m i n i m a l .

y o u n e e d t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a q u i t e close t o t h e a c t i o n if

(3) By placing t h e easel at a s t a n d a r d distance from t h e

y o u w a n t a closer look.


A narrow-angle lens (zoom lens in the telephoto position) has a narrow field of view and enlarges the objects in the background. Exactly opposite of the wide-angle lens, which

CAMERA-* Zoom l e n s ^ normal | wide | narrow | try it 73

VAUW* C A M E R A S Exposure controls aperture | f-stop | auto iris | try it 76

E53I>

CAMERA-* Focusing^ focus ring | depth of field | great depth | shallow | rack focus | auto focus | try it 78

EJJJ3> M'iW

•

For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.

C A M E R A S Camera rmoves^ dolly | zoom | try it 84 C A M E R A S Picture d e p t h s perspective and distortion | try it 86 C A M E R A S Focusing-* rack focus | try it

86

Camera Mounting Equipment Because television cameras differ considerably in size a n d weight, various camera mounts are n e e d e d for ease a n d efficiency of operation. For example, y o u may find that a camera m o u n t for the studio has to support not only a heavy camera w i t h its large z o o m lens but also the a d d e d w e i g h t of a bulky teleprompting device. In contrast, most E N G / E F P cameras are designed to be carried on t h e operator's shoulder. A n d , as y o u know, some camcorders are so small that y o u can hold a n d operate t h e m w i t h o n e h a n d . But there are many production situations in w h i c h the E N G / E F P camera a n d the small camcorder should be m o u n t e d on a tripod rather than carried by the operator. Section 5.1, Standard Camera M o u n t s and M o v e m e n t s , examines the basics of camera mounts; section 5.2, Special Camera Mounts, discusses other m o u n t i n g devices.

88

arc To move the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck. cam head A camera mounting head for heavy cameras that permits extremely smooth tilts and pans. cant Tilting the shoulder-mounted or handheld camera side­ ways. crab Sideways motion of the camera crane dolly base. crane (1) Motion picture camera support that resembles an actual crane in both appearance and operation. The crane can lift the camera from close to the studio floor to more than 10 feet above it. (2) To move the boom of the camera crane up or down. Also called boom. dolly (1) Camera support that enables the camera to move in all horizontal directions. (2) To move the camera toward (dolly in) or away from (dolly out or back) the object. fluid head Most popular mounting head for lightweight ENG/ EFP cameras. Balance is provided by springs. Because its moving parts operate in a heavy fluid, it allows very smooth pans and tilts. high hat Cylindrical camera mount that can be bolted to a dolly or scenery to permit panning and tilting the camera with­ out a tripod or pedestal. jib arm Similar to a camera crane. Permits the jib arm operator to raise, lower, and tongue (move sideways) the jib arm while titling and panning the camera. monopod A single pole onto which you can mount a camera.

quick-release plate Mounting plate used to attach camcorders and ENG/EFP cameras to the fluid head. robotic pedestal Motor-driven studio pedestal and mounting head. It is guided by a computerized system that can store and execute a great number of camera moves. Also called robotic. spreader A triangular base mount that provides stability and locks the tripod tips in place to prevent the legs from spreading. Steadicam Camera mount whose built-in springs hold the camera steady while the operator moves. tilt To point the camera up or down. tongue To move the boom or jib arm with the camera from left to right or right to left. track Another name for truck (lateral camera movement). tripod A three-legged camera mount. Can be connected to a dolly for easy maneuverability. truck To move the camera laterally by means of a mobile cam­ era mount. Also called track. wedge mount Wedge-shaped plate attached to the bottom of a studio camera; used to attach the heavier cameras to the cam head. zoom To change the lens gradually to a narrow-angle position (zoom-in) or to a wide-angle position (zoom-out) while the camera remains stationary.

pan To turn the camera horizontally. pedestal (1) Heavy camera dolly that permits raising and lower­ ing the camera while on the air. (2) To move the camera up and down via a studio pedestal.

89

The most common camera mounts are the tripod, the

5.1

t r i p o d dolly, a n d t h e s t u d i o pedestal. T h e m o r e elaborate c a m e r a m o u n t s , such as jib a r m s , s t u d i o c r a n e s , b o d y m o u n t s , a n d r o b o t i c devices are discussed in section 5.2. You will find t h a t m a n y gadgets are available to help y o u get g o o d shots a n d to generally m a k e y o u r life as a c a m e r a o p e r a t o r easier. For e x a m p l e , y o u can clip o n a flexible

Standard Camera Mounts and Movements

a r m w i t h a small plastic plate t h a t shields y o u r viewfinder from sunlight. Because they change from year to y e a r — a n d s o m e t i m e s d i s a p p e a r from t h e m a r k e t a l t o g e t h e r — w e ig­ n o r e such novelties here, b u t y o u s h o u l d certainly m a k e an effort to find o u t w h a t is c u r r e n t l y available from catalogs a n d W e b sites.

HANDHELD AND SHOULDERMOUNTED CAMERA

Even if y o u r c a m e r a is small a n d light e n o u g h to carry in y o u r h a n d s , y o u s h o u l d m o u n t it o n a c a m e r a s u p p o r t w h e n e v e r possible. Using a c a m e r a s u p p o r t will reduce fatigue a n d especially p r e v e n t u n n e c e s s a r y a n d distracting c a m e r a m o t i o n . This section discusses t h e m o r e c o m m o n c a m e r a m o u n t s a n d t h e basic c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s .

ft* BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS The handheld and shoulder-mounted camera, the monopod and the tripod, and the studio pedestal

^

CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS Fluid heads, cam heads, and the plate and the wedge mount

P

CAMERA MOVEMENTS Standard camera movements: pan, tilt, pedestal, tongue, crane or boom, dolly, truck or track, crab, arc, cant, and zoom

BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS W h e n using a c a m c o r d e r o n vacation o r w h e n r u n n i n g after a n e w s story, you will p r o b a b l y c a r r y it w i t h y o u r h a n d s o r o n y o u r shoulder. But w h e n m o r e - p r e c i s e camera w o r k is required, you n e e d t o s u p p o r t t h e c a m e r a w i t h a t r i p o d . Studio c a m e r a s t h a t have large s t u d i o lenses a n d t e l e p r o m p t e r s attached are so heavy t h a t t h e y are usually m o u n t e d on, a n d moved with, a heavy-duty tripod or studio pedestal.

90

If the c a m e r a is lightweight e n o u g h , t h e m o s t flexible c a m ­ era m o u n t is y o u r a r m s or shoulder. You can lift a n d lower t h e c a m e r a , tilt it u p or d o w n , swing it a r o u n d , c a n t it (tilt it sideways), a n d walk o r r u n w i t h it. So w h y b o t h e r w i t h a tripod? First, w i t h a t r i p o d y o u will b e able t o o p e r a t e t h e c a m e r a m u c h l o n g e r w i t h o u t getting fatigued; even a small c a m c o r d e r can get awfully heavy w h e n s h o o t i n g over a p e r i o d of several h o u r s . Second, a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e i m ­ p o r t a n t , using s o m e k i n d of c a m e r a s u p p o r t prevents u n ­ m o t i v a t e d c a m e r a m o t i o n — s w i n g i n g a n d weaving it b a c k a n d forth n o t unlike a firefighter using a fire h o s e to p u t o u t a fire. Unless m o t i v a t e d , as in s o m e c o m m e r c i a l s a n d M T V shows, wild a n d r a p i d c a m e r a m o v e m e n t draws t o o m u c h a t t e n t i o n to itself a n d is o n e of t h e sure signs of a m a ­ teur c a m e r a h a n d l i n g . T h i r d , even if y o u are exceptionally well c o o r d i n a t e d , t h e t r i p o d m a k e s for s m o o t h e r m o v e s . Nevertheless, t h e r e are s o m e t e c h n i q u e s that professional c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s have developed t o keep t h e h a n d h e l d o r s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d c a m e r a as steady as possible. T h e s e are explored in c h a p t e r 6.

MONOPOD A N D TRIPOD E N G 4 . Y 0 U will find t h a t even a relatively light E N G / E F P E F P ' c a m e r a can get awfully heavy d u r i n g l o n g s h o o t s . Using a p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s u p p o r t , such as a m o n o p o d o r t r i p o d , will get t h e c a m e r a off y o u r h a n d s or back, a n d keep y o u from m a k i n g u n n e c e s s a r y or distracting c a m e r a movements. Monopod

T h e monopod

is a single pole, or a single

"pod," o n t o w h i c h you can m o u n t a c a m e r a . W h e n using a m o n o p o d , y o u still n e e d to balance t h e c a m e r a o n the pole as y o u w o u l d o n y o u r shoulder, b u t at least you are relieved

Section

5.1

Standard

Camera

Mounts

and

Movements

91

5.2 TRIPOD WITH BUILT-IN SPREADER The tripod is one of the most basic camera supports and is used extensively in field productions. This tripod has a built-in spreader at midlevel.

Tripod and tripod dolly

T h e tripod is used extensively

for all t y p e s of fiieldwork. Regardless of w h e t h e r y o u use a heavy t r i p o d for t h e s u p p o r t of a s t u d i o c a m e r a o r a lightweight o n e for a field c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r , all t r i p o d s w o r k o n a similar principle: they have t h r e e collapsible legs (pods) t h a t can b e individually extended so that t h e c a m e r a is level, even o n a n irregular surface such as a steep drive­

5.1 MONOPOD

way, bleachers, o r stairs. T h e tips of t h e legs are e q u i p p e d

The monopod is designed to take the weight off your shoulders by letting you balance a small to medium-sized camcorder on a single pole.

w i t h spikes a n d / o r r u b b e r c u p s t h a t keep t h e t r i p o d from slipping. M o s t t r i p o d s c a n b e adjusted to specific h e i g h t s (usually from a b o u t 16 t o 60 inches) a n d have a b u i l t - i n spreader

of t h e camera's weight. S o m e m o n o p o d s u p p o r t s have a

that p r e v e n t s t h e t r i p o d legs f r o m s p r e a d i n g a n d

collapsing u n d e r a heavy load, SEE 5.2

f o l d - o u t extension t h a t y o u step o n t o steady t h e pole so

For t r i p o d s that d o n o t have a spreader built-in,

that you can work the camera with both hands. The advan­

t h e r e a r e a u x i l i a r y s p r e a d e r s t h a t y o u c a n place o n t h e

tages of s u c h a c a m e r a s u p p o r t are t h a t it is easy t o c a r r y

g r o u n d a n d t h e n fasten t o t h e t h r e e t i p s of t h e t r i p o d .

a n d c a n b e set u p in less t h a n a m i n u t e . Such m o n o p o d s

These s p r e a d e r s c a n b e adjusted t o a c c o m m o d a t e a small

are b y n o m e a n s perfect, b u t t h e y offer a w e l c o m e relief

or large t r i a n g u l a r base. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of a separate

d u r i n g a l o n g s h o o t , n o t u n l i k e finding a log o r r o c k t o sit

s p r e a d e r is t h a t y o u c a n use it o n l y w h e n t h e g r o u n d is

o n after a l o n g hike, SEE S.I

relatively level, SEE 5.3

Chapter

92

CAMERA

5

MOUNTING

EQUIPMENT

5.3 TRIPOD MOUNTED ON SPREADER

5.4 TRIPOD ON STEPS

Tripods designed for heavy camera loads have a separate spreader that can be put on the level floor. The tips of the tri­ pod are anchored by the spreader.

Because each pod can be adjusted individually, the tripod can be leveled on extremely uneven ground.

W h e n setting u p a t r i p o d , y o u m u s t take p a r t i c u l a r

STUDIO PEDESTAL

care t h a t t h e t r i p o d , a n d with it t h e c a m e r a , is level. Such

W i t h a s t u d i o pedestal,

a s e t u p is especially difficult w h e n w o r k i n g o n steps or

directions ( a s s u m i n g t h e r e is a s m o o t h floor) a n d elevate

y o u c a n m o v e a c a m e r a in all

SEE 5.4 Fortunately, m o s t h i g h - q u a l i t y

a n d lower t h e c a m e r a while o n t h e air. T h i s u p - a n d - d o w n

t r i p o d s have a leveling bowl as a platform, w h i c h c a n accept

m o v e m e n t a d d s an i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n to the a r t of tele­

uneven ground,

a ball-like device a t t a c h e d to the b o t t o m of t h e fluid h e a d .

vision p h o t o g r a p h y . You can n o t only adjust the c a m e r a to

This simple device, w h i c h can b e adjusted by a twist grip,

a c o m f o r t a b l e w o r k i n g h e i g h t b u t also c h a n g e t h e eye level

allows y o u to level the c a m e r a w i t h o u t h a v i n g to adjust the

from w h i c h y o u look at a n event. For example, if y o u are in

length of each leg o n u n e v e n g r o u n d . M o s t p a n - a n d - t i l t

d a n g e r of o v e r s h o o t i n g t h e set, y o u can always pedestal

h e a d s h a v e a b u i l t - i n air b u b b l e t h a t indicates w h e n the

(raise t h e c a m e r a ) a n d l o o k d o w n o n t h e scene. O r y o u can

c a m e r a is level.

pedestal down (lower t h e c a m e r a ) a n d l o o k u p at t h e scene,

You can also place a t r i p o d o n a t h r e e - c a s t e r

dolly,

up

s u c h as at t h e lead singer of a r o c k g r o u p . S o m e pedestals

w h i c h is simply a s p r e a d e r with wheels. Because t h e t r i p o d

use c o u n t e r w e i g h t s to b a l a n c e t h e weight of t h e c a m e r a in

a n d t h e dolly are collapsible, t h e y are ideal for

its u p - a n d - d o w n m o v e m e n t ; o t h e r s use p n e u m a t i c p r e s ­

fieldwork.

You will find t r i p o d dollies used even in s t u d i o s e q u i p p e d

sure o r b o t h weights a n d p n e u m a t i c p r e s s u r e .

with s t u d i o - c o n v e r t e d E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e dolly base

Regardless of t h e specific b a l a n c i n g m e c h a n i s m , all

s h o u l d b e adjustable so t h a t y o u c a n m a n e u v e r it t h r o u g h

s t u d i o pedestals have similar o p e r a t i n g features. You can

various-sized d o o r s , a n d it s h o u l d have cable guards

that

steer t h e pedestal s m o o t h l y in a n y d i r e c t i o n w i t h a large

p r e v e n t the c a m e r a cable from getting c a u g h t u n d e r t h e

h o r i z o n t a l steering ring or steering wheel. By pulling u p o n

dolly base or r u n over b y t h e dolly wheels, SEE 5.5 4

t h e steering ring, y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a higher, or pedestal

Section

5.1

Standard

Camera

Mounts

and

Movements

93

5.5 COLLAPSIBLE TRIPOD MOUNTED ON DOLLY BASE The tripod can be mounted on a dolly, which permits quick repositioning of the camera. This is called a tripod dolly.

up.

By pressing d o w n o n it, you lower the camera, or p e d e s ­

tal d o w n . Pedestals are n o t necessarily j u d g e d b y h o w high t h e y can elevate t h e c a m e r a s b u t often b y h o w low t h e y can m o v e the camera relative t o the floor. T h e m o r e the pedestal

5.6 STUDIO PEDESTAL The studio pedestal permits smooth dollies and trucks and has a telescoping center column that pedestals the camera from a low of 2 feet to a maximum height of about 6 feet above the studio floor.

c o l u m n telescopes, t h e b e t t e r it is. T h e telescoping pedestal c o l u m n c a n b e locked at a n y h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n . Like t r i p o d dollies, s t u d i o pedestals n e e d a cable guard t o keep f r o m r u n n i n g over cables. Always check t h a t t h e adjustable skirt of t h e pedestal base is low e n o u g h t o p u s h t h e cable o u t of t h e way r a t h e r t h a n roll over it. SEE 5.6 Generally, y o u w o r k t h e pedestal in t h e parallel, o r crab, steering p o s i t i o n , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t all t h r e e casters p o i n t in t h e s a m e direction, SEES.ZA If, however, y o u w a n t t o rotate t h e pedestal itself, to m o v e it closer to a wall or piece of scenery, for e x a m p l e , y o u can switch it from t h e crab to t h e tricycle steering p o s i t i o n , SEE S.7B T h e r e are also lighter p n e u m a t i c pedestals t h a t c a n b e adjusted t o t h e lightweight E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e s e c a n b e t a k e n o n r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s a n d used w h e n s m o o t h dollies, trucks, a n d c a m e r a elevations are required. You can

5.7 PARALLEL (CRAB) AND TRICYCLE STEERING A In the parallel, or crab, position, all three casters point in the same direction. B In the tricycle position, only one wheel is steerable. A foot pedal allows a quick change from parallel to tricycle steering.

94

Chapter

CAMERA

5

MOUNTING

EQUIPMENT

5.9 FLUID HEAD Fluid heads are designed for mounting and operating ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders on tripods. They have a limited weight capacity. p o u n d s . T h e r e are h e a v y - d u t y fluid h e a d s that can o p e r a t e w i t h heavier loads, w h i c h m a y c o m e f r o m a t e l e p r o m p t e r

5.8 PORTABLE CAMERA PEDESTAL

o r t r a n s m i s s i o n e q u i p m e n t a t t a c h e d to t h e E N G / E F P

These pedestals are much lighter than the studio pedestals and can be disassembled and transported to various (usually indoor) field locations.

camcorders.

disassemble such pedestals for t r a n s p o r t a n d , as with t r i p o d

fluid h e a d s have four controls: a tilt a n d p a n d r a g a n d a

dollies, adjust t h e w i d t h of t h e dolly base to fit t h r o u g h

tilt a n d p a n lock. T h e d r a g controls give v a r i o u s degrees of

d o o r s . SEE 5.8

resistance to p a n n i n g a n d tilting to m a k e t h e c a m e r a m o v e ­

Fluid h e a d s c o n t a i n a s p r i n g - l o a d e d c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g m e c h a n i s m t h a t is encased in thick oil, w h i c h supplies t h e drag necessary for s m o o t h p a n s a n d tilts. M o s t professional

m e n t s optimally s m o o t h . T h e lock controls i m m o b i l i z e t h e p a n - a n d - t i l t m e c h a n i s m to k e e p t h e c a m e r a from m o v i n g

CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS

w h e n left u n a t t e n d e d , SEE 5.9 Never use the drag

T h e camera

to lock the mounting

mounting

head c o n n e c t s t h e c a m e r a to t h e

controls

head, or the lock controls to assist the

t r i p o d or s t u d i o pedestal. T h e m o u n t i n g h e a d ( n o t to b e

drag. N e i t h e r practice will w o r k very well a n d will e v e n t u ­

confused with t h e camera head, w h i c h represents t h e actual

ally w r e c k t h e m o u n t i n g head.

c a m e r a ) allows y o u to tilt ( p o i n t t h e c a m e r a u p a n d d o w n )

T h e fluid h e a d a t t a c h e s t o t h e leveling ball, w h i c h

a n d pan ( t u r n it h o r i z o n t a l l y ) extremely s m o o t h l y . T h e

attaches to t h e t r i p o d p l a t f o r m w i t h t h e leveling bowl. As

m o u n t i n g devices for t h e lighter t r i p o d - s u p p o r t e d c a m ­

stated, t h e leveling ball enables y o u t o level t h e c a m e r a

eras are fluid

w i t h o u t a d j u s t i n g t h e t r i p o d legs, a s s u m i n g t h e t r i p o d

use cam

heads; t h e heavier field a n d s t u d i o c a m e r a s

heads.

is relatively level already. T h e actual p a n n i n g a n d tilting are d o n e w i t h a single p a n n i n g h a n d l e o r d o u b l e p a n n i n g

FLUID HEADS

h a n d l e s that are attached to the m o u n t i n g head. By m o v i n g

Fluid heads are n o r m a l l y used for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s

t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e u p a n d d o w n , y o u tilt t h e c a m e r a ; b y

o r c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s t h a t w e i g h less t h a n 30

m o v i n g it left a n d right, y o u p a n t h e c a m e r a . 4

Section

5.10

5.7

Standard

Camera

Mounts

5.11

CAM HEAD

The cam head is designed for heavier cameras. It is normally used for mounting studio cameras with teleprompters onto studio pedestals.

and

Movements

95

QUICK-RELEASE PLATE

The quick-release plate enables you to reattach the camera to the mounting head in a balanced position without time-con­ suming readjustment.

CAM HEADS Cam heads are designed t o c o n n e c t heavy s t u d i o o r field

t h e n r e t u r n to t h e t r i p o d p o s i t i o n . T h e quick-release plate

c a m e r a s t o s t u d i o or field pedestals. Like fluid h e a d s , c a m

makes it possible to detach the c a m e r a a n d p u t it back again

h e a d s have separate d r a g a n d lock m e c h a n i s m s . Be sure to

in a perfectly b a l a n c e d p o s i t i o n in seconds, SEE S.I 1

find o u t exactly w h i c h k n o b adjusts t h e friction (to m a k e

M a n y c a m h e a d s use a similar device, called a wedge

y o u r tilt a n d p a n m o v e m e n t s s o m e w h a t looser or tighter)

mount—a

a n d w h i c h o n e locks t h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g h e a d , SEE S.IO

t h e studio camera. All y o u have to d o is slip the c a m e r a with

As w i t h fluid h e a d s , never use the drag control to lock the

t h e w e d g e plate o n t o t h e c a m h e a d receptacle; the c a m e r a

cam head, or the lock control to adjust the drag. Using t h e

is t h e n securely a t t a c h e d t o t h e c a m h e a d , balanced, a n d

d r a g c o n t r o l to lock the c a m e r a will r u i n t h e c a m h e a d in

ready to go. SEE 5.12

w e d g e - s h a p e d plate attached to t h e b o t t o m of

a very s h o r t t i m e , a n d t r y i n g to use t h e locking device for tilt a n d p a n d r a g c o n t r o l s will a l m o s t always result in jerky

CAMERA MOVEMENTS

and uneven camera movements.

Before l e a r n i n g t o o p e r a t e a c a m e r a , y o u s h o u l d b e c o m e

PLATE A N D W E D G E M O U N T H o w d o y o u a t t a c h the c a m e r a to t h e fluid h e a d so t h a t t h e c a m e r a is fairly well balanced d u r i n g tilts? This is d o n e with a n a t t a c h m e n t m e c h a n i s m called a quick-release

plate. You

attach a m e t a l plate to t h e b o t t o m of t h e c a m e r a (with o n e o r two bolts) a n d t h e n simply slide t h e plate (with the c a m ­ era attached) o n t o its receptacle o n t h e fluid head. A simple lever h o l d s t h e c a m e r a in t h e preset b a l a n c e d p o s i t i o n .

familiar w i t h t h e m o s t c o m m o n c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . Left a n d right always refer to t h e camera's p o i n t of view. T h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g e q u i p m e n t h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d solely t o help y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a s m o o t h l y a n d efficiently in v a r i o u s ways. T h e m a j o r c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s are p a n , tilt, pedestal, t o n g u e , crane or b o o m , dolly, t r u c k or track, crab, arc, cant, a n d z o o m , SEE 5.13

T h e p r o b l e m is h o w far f o r w a r d or b a c k w a r d to slide

Pan m e a n s t u r n the c a m e r a horizontally, from left to

t h e plate so t h a t t h e c a m e r a is i n d e e d b a l a n c e d . Digital

r i g h t o r f r o m r i g h t to left. W h e n t h e director tells y o u to

t e c h n o l o g y has again c o m e to t h e rescue. H i g h - e n d fluid

" p a n right," w h i c h m e a n s p o i n t t h e lens a n d t h e c a m e r a

h e a d s n o w have a digital r e a d o u t t h a t tells y o u just w h e r e

to the right (clockwise), you m u s t p u s h the p a n n i n g

t o place t h e quick-release plate for o p t i m a l balance. M a n y

h a n d l e s t o t h e left. To " p a n left," w h i c h m e a n s swivel t h e

field p r o d u c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t y o u take t h e c a m e r a off t h e

lens a n d t h e c a m e r a to t h e left ( c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e ) , y o u

t r i p o d , r u n to a n e w p o s i t i o n for a few q u i c k shots, a n d

p u s h t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e s to t h e right.

96

Chapter

Wedge (attaches to camera base) \

5

Wedge mount receptacle (attaches to cam head)

CAMERA

MOUNTING

EQUIPMENT

p o i n t i n g at a right angle to t h e direction of travel. To " t r u c k r i g h t " m e a n s to m o v e t h e c a m e r a m o u n t to t h e right with t h e c a m e r a p o i n t i n g at a right angle to t h e d i r e c t i o n of travel. •

Crab m e a n s a n y sideways m o t i o n of t h e crane dolly.

A crab is similar t o a t r u c k except t h a t t h e c a m e r a m o u n t d o e s n o t have to stay lateral to t h e action t h e w h o l e time; it can m o v e t o w a r d or away from t h e action as well. C r a b ­ b i n g is u s e d m o r e in film t h a n in television. T h e t e r m is s o m e t i m e s used t o m e a n t r u c k i n g . Arc m e a n s m o v e t h e c a m e r a in a slightly curved dolly o r t r u c k m o v e m e n t w i t h a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . To "arc left" m e a n s to dolly in or o u t in a camera-left curve or to t r u c k left in a curve a r o u n d t h e object; to "arc right" m e a n s to dolly in o r o u t in a c a m e r a - r i g h t curve o r to t r u c k right in a curve a r o u n d t h e object.

5 . 1 2 WEDGE MOUNT The wedge mount makes it easy to connect the studio camera to the cam head in a balanced position.

Cant m e a n s tilting t h e s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d or h a n d ­ held c a m e r a sideways. T h e result, called a canting

effect,

is a slanted h o r i z o n line, w h i c h p u t s the scene o n a tilt. T h r o u g h the skewed h o r i z o n line, y o u can achieve a highly d y n a m i c scene.

•

Tilt m e a n s p o i n t t h e c a m e r a u p o r d o w n . W h e n Zoom

y o u "tilt u p , " y o u m a k e t h e c a m e r a p o i n t u p gradually.

m e a n s c h a n g e t h e focal l e n g t h of t h e l e n s

W h e n y o u "tilt d o w n , " y o u m a k e t h e c a m e r a p o i n t d o w n

t h r o u g h t h e use of a z o o m c o n t r o l while t h e c a m e r a re­

gradually.

m a i n s stationary. To " z o o m in" m e a n s to c h a n g e t h e lens g r a d u a l l y to a n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e

•

Pedestal

m e a n s elevate o r l o w e r t h e c a m e r a o n a

scene a p p e a r to m o v e closer to t h e viewer; t o " z o o m o u t "

s t u d i o pedestal. To "pedestal up," y o u raise t h e c a m e r a ; to

m e a n s to c h a n g e t h e lens g r a d u a l l y to a w i d e - a n g l e posi­

"pedestal d o w n , " y o u lower t h e c a m e r a .

tion, thereby m a k i n g the scene a p p e a r to m o v e farther away

m e a n s m o v e t h e w h o l e c a m e r a from left to

from t h e viewer. A l t h o u g h n o t a c a m e r a m o v e m e n t p e r se,

right or from right to left w i t h the b o o m of a c a m e r a crane.

t h e z o o m effect looks similar to t h a t of a m o v i n g c a m e r a

W h e n y o u t o n g u e left or right, t h e c a m e r a usually p o i n t s

a n d is therefore classified as such. BJH^CAMERA^ Camera

in t h e s a m e general direction, w i t h only t h e b o o m m o v i n g

moves-> dolly | zoom | truck | pan | tilt | pedestal | try it

•

Tongue

left (counterclockwise) or r i g h t (clockwise). •

Crane or boom m e a n s m o v e t h e w h o l e c a m e r a u p o r

d o w n o n a c a m e r a crane or jib a r m . T h e effect is s o m e w h a t similar to an u p o r d o w n pedestal except t h a t t h e c a m e r a s w o o p s over a m u c h greater vertical distance. You either

•

The basic camera mounts are handheld and shouldermounted, the monopod, the tripod and the tripod dolly, and the studio pedestal.

•

A monopod is a single pole upon which a small camcorder is mounted. Tripods are used extensively for supporting ENG/EFP cameras or smaller camcorders in field pro­ ductions. The tripod can be mounted on a three-caster dolly base.

•

Studio pedestals can support heavy studio cameras and permit extremely smooth camera movements, such as dollies, trucks, and arcs. The camera can also be raised and lowered while on the air.

"crane [or b o o m ] u p " or " c r a n e [or b o o m ] d o w n . " Dolly m e a n s m o v e the c a m e r a toward or away from the scene in m o r e o r less a straight line by m e a n s of a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . W h e n y o u "dolly in," y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a closer to t h e scene; w h e n y o u "dolly o u t " or "dolly back," y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a farther away f r o m t h e scene. •

Truck or track m e a n s m o v e t h e c a m e r a laterally b y

m e a n s of a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . To " t r u c k left" m e a n s t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a m o u n t to t h e left w i t h t h e c a m e r a

Section

5.7

Standard

Camera

Mounts

and

Movements

97

5.13 CAMERA MOVEMENTS Major camera movements include pan, tilt, pedestal, tongue, crane or boom, dolly, truck or track, arc, and cant.

•

The camera mounting head connects the camera to the camera mount and allows the camera to be smoothly tilted up and down and panned horizontally. There are two types of mounting heads: fluid heads, used for consumer cam­ corders and ENG/EFP cameras; and cam heads, designed for use with studio cameras or heavy camcorders with teleprompters or transmission equipment.

•

The quick-release mounting plate is used to attach cam­ corders and ENG/EFP cameras to the fluid head. The wedge mount attaches the heavier cameras to the cam head.

•

The most common camera movements are pan, turning the camera horizontally; tilt, pointing the camera up or down; pedestal, lowering or elevating the camera on a studio pedestal; tongue, moving the whole camera from

left to right or from right to left with the boom of a camera crane or jib arm; crane or boom, moving the whole camera up or down on a camera crane or jib arm; dolly, moving the camera toward or away from the scene; truck or track, mov­ ing the camera laterally; crab, moving the whole base of a camera crane sideways; arc, moving the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck movement; cant, tilting the camera sideways; and zoom, changing the focal length of the lens while the camera is stationary.

expensive e q u i p m e n t , h o w w o u l d y o u d o it? H e r e are s o m e

5.2

of t h e m o r e accessible m o u n t i n g devices: (1) t h e h i g h h a t , (2) t h e b e a n b a g a n d o t h e r car m o u n t s , (3) t h e Steadicam, (4) s h o r t a n d l o n g jibs, a n d (5) t h e s t u d i o crane.

H I G H HAT T h e high hatis a s h o r t ( a b o u t 6 inches) c y l i n d e r - s h a p e d o r

Special Camera Mounts

three-legged m e t a l m o u n t t h a t accepts t h e usual fluid o r c a m m o u n t i n g head. You c a n b o l t o r c l a m p t h e high h a t o n t o p a r t of t h e scenery, o n t h e bleachers of a s t a d i u m , o n a fence post, or, for low-angle shots, o n a piece of p l y w o o d fastened t o a t r i p o d dolly, SEE 5.14

B E A N B A G A N D OTHER CAR M O U N T S N o k i d d i n g ! T h e b e a n b a g h a s its place as a n effective c a m ­ era m o u n t . It is s i m p l y a canvas b a g filled n o t w i t h b e a n s b u t w i t h h i g h - t e c h foam t h a t m o l d s itself t o t h e s h a p e o f any E N G / E F P c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r . All y o u d o is set t h e camera o n the bag a n d then strap the bag with the camera to t h e object t h a t acts as a c a m e r a m o u n t . You c a n use this b a g m o u n t o n cars, b o a t s , m o u n t a i n ledges, bicycles, o r ladders, SEE 5.15 N o n c o n v e n t i o n a l c a m e r a m o u n t s are designed t o help y o u

If y o u have a big b u d g e t , y o u c a n r e n t s h o c k - a b s o r b ­

o p e r a t e a c a m e r a in u n u s u a l s h o o t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as

ing car m o u n t s that are specially designed for a t t a c h i n g

w h e n covering a scene in a c r a m p e d living r o o m o r field

t h e c a m e r a t o a car. T h e s p r i n g - l o a d e d devices a r e usually

p o s i t i o n , s w o o p i n g from a view high a b o v e t h e event t o

a t t a c h e d t o t h e h o o d o r t h e sides of t h e car b y m e a n s of

below eye level, r u n n i n g u p a flight of stairs, o r s h o o t i n g

large s u c t i o n c u p s .

from t h e perspective o f a s p e e d i n g car. S o m e p e d e s t a l s are designed t o d o w i t h o u t y o u ; their m o v e m e n t s are

STEADICAM

controlled n o t by t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r b u t b y a c o m p u t e r .

Just as w e u s e t h e t e r m Xerox t o m e a n any k i n d of p h o ­

This section e x a m i n e s s u c h n o n s t a n d a r d c a m e r a m o u n t ­

tocopier, we u s e Steadicam

ing devices.

w o r n b y t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r . This c a m e r a m o u n t uses

to m e a n a n y c a m e r a m o u n t

v a r i o u s springs to a b s o r b t h e wobbles a n d jitters while y o u ^

SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES The high hat, the beanbag and other car mounts, the Steadicam, short and long jibs, and the studio crane

)•

r u n w i t h t h e c a m e r a . D u r i n g t h e take, y o u c a n w a t c h t h e scene in a small viewfinder m o u n t e d b e l o w t h e c a m e r a . T h e c o u n t e r b a l a n c e m e c h a n i s m keeps t h e c a m e r a so steady

ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS

t h a t even w h e n y o u r u n u p s t a i r s o r o n a m o u n t a i n trail

Used for shows with rigid production formats, such as newscasts

t h e c a m e r a s h o t s will c o m e o u t as t h o u g h y o u h a d used a large c a m e r a c r a n e . T h e Steadicam h a r n e s s a n d m o u n t for m o t i o n p i c t u r e c a m e r a s a n d large E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s

SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES

are relatively heavy, a n d only experienced o p e r a t o r s c a n

Despite their flexibility t h e t r i p o d a n d t h e s t u d i o pedestal

wear t h e m a n d t h e c a m e r a / m o n i t o r c o m b i n a t i o n for a n

c a n n o t always facilitate t h e required c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . If

e x t e n d e d p e r i o d , SEE 5.16

d u r i n g a field p r o d u c t i o n , for example, t h e director w a n t e d

There are, however, m o r e - c o m p a c t spring-loaded

y o u t o follow t h e m a i n character from t h e car t h r o u g h t h e

c a m e r a m o u n t s that s u p p o r t lighter (from 8 to 17 p o u n d s )

front d o o r a n d d o w n t h e hall w i t h great fluidity, a n d t h e n

E N G / E F P c a m e r a s o r small ( 2 - t o 6 - p o u n d ) digital o r

follow t h e c h a r a c t e r r u n n i n g u p a flight of stairs w i t h ­

c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . T h e c a m e r a m o u n t s for s u c h

o u t a n y distracting c a m e r a wiggles, y o u ' d n e e d a special

lightweight c a m e r a s d o n o t n e e d a b o d y b r a c e . You s i m ­

m o u n t i n g device. If t h e d i r e c t o r t h e n asked y o u t o a t t a c h

ply g r a b t h e w h o l e u n i t with b o t h h a n d s a n d r u n w i t h it,

the c a m e r a t o a m o v i n g car w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o extremely

similar t o c a r r y i n g a small flag, SEE 5.17

98

Unless y o u are a

Section

5.14

5.2

Special

Camera

Mounts

99

HIGH HAT

The high hat can be bolted or clamped to scenery, bleachers, or a fence post. You can use it with a fluid head or even a cam head.

5.15

BEANBAG

This canvas bag filled with synthetic material adjusts to any camera and any object on which the camera is mounted. Both bag and camera can be easily secured with nylon rope.

5.16

CAMERA STABILIZING SYSTEM

This type of stabilizing system, generically called a Steadicam, allows you to walk or run with the camera while keeping the pictures perfectly steady. The rather heavy spring-balanced mechanism is connected to a body harness.

5.17

STEADICAM MOUNT FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CAMCORDERS

The Steadicam JR mount is designed for lightweight consumer camcorders, such as the Hi8 or DTV models.

100

5.18

Chapter

5

CAMERA

MOUNTING

EQUIPMENT

SHORT JIB

This lightweight, counterbalanced jib arm can be clamped onto any suitable surface. It is especially useful when work­ ing in cramped quarters.

5.19

LONG JIB

With the long jib, the camera operator can dolly, truck, and boom the camera up and down and simultaneously pan, tilt, focus, and zoom.

weightlifter, however, even a lightweight c a m e r a seems to

S o m e jib a r m c a m e r a m o u n t s are specially designed

get heavy w h e n carried this way for a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d .

for fieldwork. You can quickly a n d easily collapse the whole

T h e r e are small b o d y braces available even for relatively

jib a n d c a r r y it i n a single 6-foot bag. O n c e at t h e r e m o t e

light p r o s u m e r a n d c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s .

l o c a t i o n , y o u can have t h e 12-foot jib assembled a n d o p ­ e r a t i o n a l in less t h a n five m i n u t e s , SEE 5.20

SHORT A N D LONG JIBS T h e s h o r t jib arm is a c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d c a m e r a m o u n t designed for s h o o t i n g o n location. You can c l a m p it o n t o a d o o r f r a m e , a chair, a deck railing, or a car w i n d o w a n d t h e n t o n g u e t h e c a m e r a sideways a n d b o o m it u p a n d d o w n , SEE 5.18 T h a t way y o u can n o t only p e r f o r m s m o o t h c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s b u t also pay full a t t e n t i o n to p a n n i n g a n d z o o m i n g a n d t h e general c o m p o s i t i o n of y o u r shots. T h e l o n g jib o r long jib a r m is a cranelike device that

STUDIO CRANE A l t h o u g h a crane is desirable for creative c a m e r a w o r k , it is used in very few television s t u d i o s . In m o s t cases t h e long jib a r m is preferred over a crane because it is lighter a n d c a n p e r f o r m a l m o s t all t h e functions of a c r a n e . T h e stu­ d i o c r a n e is used m o r e frequently in film w o r k o r w i t h an H D T V c a m e r a for electronic c i n e m a p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 5.21

lets y o u — b y y o u r s e l f — l o w e r t h e c a m e r a practically t o t h e s t u d i o floor, raise it 12 feet or even higher, t o n g u e t h e jib a r m a n d swing it a full 360 degrees, dolly o r t r u c k t h e

ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS

w h o l e assembly, a n d , at t h e s a m e t i m e , tilt, p a n , focus,

A u t o m a t e d pedestals a n d m o u n t i n g heads, sometimes

a n d z o o m t h e c a m e r a . Obviously, all of these m o v e m e n t s

called robotics, are used m o r e a n d m o r e for shows with rigid

r e q u i r e practice if t h e y are t o l o o k s m o o t h o n t h e air. T h e

p r o d u c t i o n f o r m a t s , s u c h as newscasts, teleconferences,

c a m e r a a n d the jib a r m are b a l a n c e d by a m o n i t o r , t h e b a t ­

a n d c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m s . T h e r e are basically

t e r y pack, r e m o t e c a m e r a controls, a n d , for g o o d m e a s u r e ,

t h r e e types of robotics: (1) t h e r o b o t i c pedestal, (2) t h e sta­

actual c o u n t e r w e i g h t s , SEE 5.19

t i o n a r y r o b o t i c c a m e r a m o u n t , a n d (3) the rail system.

Section

5.2

Special

Camera

Mounts

5.20 FIELD JIB

5.21 STUDIO CRANE

This field jib can be easily disassembled, carried in a canvas bag, and reassembled in minutes.

Studio cranes are used for elaborate productions. Besides the camera operator, cranes need one or two extra people to operate the crane dolly and boom.

101

ROBOTIC PEDESTAL T h e robotic

pedestal

consists of a m o t o r - d r i v e n s t u d i o

pedestal and a m o u n t i n g head. The robotic pedestal a n d t h e r e m o t e z o o m a n d focus c o n t r o l s are g u i d e d by a c o m p u t e r i z e d system t h a t can store u p t o 800 c a m e r a m o v e s . SEE 5.22 For e x a m p l e , t h e c o m p u t e r list for a p o r t i o n of a n e w s s h o w m a y display a n d eventually activate t h e follow­ ing scenario: while c a m e r a s 2 a n d 3 are still o n t h e n e w s a n c h o r , c a m e r a 1 relocates to t h e w e a t h e r set a n d sets u p t h e o p e n i n g s h o t b y tilting u p a n d z o o m i n g o u t to a l o n g s h o t of t h e w e a t h e r p e r s o n a n d t h e m a p ; c a m e r a 1 is t h e n j o i n e d by c a m e r a 2 for close-ups of t h e w e a t h e r m a p ; in t h e m e a n t i m e c a m e r a 3 t r u c k s to t h e center of t h e set a n d z o o m s o u t for a cover s h o t — a n d all this w i t h o u t a c a m e r a o p e r a t o r in sight o n t h e s t u d i o floor. T h e o n l y h u m a n b e ­ ings in t h e s t u d i o are t h e n e w s a n c h o r , t h e w e a t h e r p e r s o n , t h e sportscaster, a n d s o m e t i m e s a lonely floor m a n a g e r . Even t h e d i r e c t o r n o l o n g e r gives a n y c a m e r a i n s t r u c t i o n b u t s i m p l y checks t h e c o m p u t e r list in t h e n e w s script against t h e actual r o b o t i c execution of c a m e r a shots in t h e preview monitors.

5.22 ROBOTIC PEDESTAL The robotic pedestal is fully automated and needs no camera operator. All necessary camera movements and functions are computer-controlled.

102

Chapter

5

CAMERA

MOUNTING

EQUIPMENT

5.23 OPERATOR CONTROL PANEL FOR ROBOTIC PEDESTAL With such computer control panels, an individual can operate several cameras by remote control.

Because a small e r r o r in setting t h e pedestal wheels o n long dollies c a n cause t h e c a m e r a to e n d u p in t h e w r o n g place, s o m e systems use a l u m i n u m tape o n the s t u d i o floor to g u i d e accurate c a m e r a travel. A n operator control

panel

in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m allows for r e m o t e c o n t r o l of t h e c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s t h a t have n o t b e e n s t o r e d in t h e c o m p u t e r , SEE 5.23 But w h a t h a p p e n s if t h e c o m p u t e r fails? You m u s t have s o m e b o d y ready to o v e r r i d e t h e a u t o m a t i c system, r u n i n t o t h e s t u d i o , g r a b t h e nearest c a m e r a , a n d z o o m o u t t o a l o n g s h o t of t h e news set.

STATIONARY ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNT T h a n k s to smaller a n d lighter-weight c a m e r a s , s o m e n e w s stations use small s t a t i o n a r y m o u n t s . T h e s e m o u n t s are

5.24 STATIONARY ROBOTIC MOUNTS The stationary robotic mounts enable an ENG/EFP camera or a prosumer camera to pan, tilt, and zoom. It is normally attached to a standard tripod. It is controlled by a joystick panel and can be interfaced with a laptop computer for storing and executing predetermined camera moves.

in a fixed p o s i t i o n b u t allow t h e c a m e r a t o b e p a n n e d a n d tilted from a r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d joystick p a n e l . This r e m o t e c o n t r o l can also activate t h e z o o m lens for closer or w i d e r shots. S o m e r o b o t i c systems u s e d p r i m a r i l y for

RAIL SYSTEM

news have c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s that c o n t r o l a variety of

You have u n d o u b t e d l y seen a rail system in action. T h e

a d d i t i o n a l event functions, s u c h as switching from c a m e r a

c a m e r a that follows s p r i n t e r s o r speed skaters a r o u n d t h e

to c a m e r a , o p e n i n g a n d closing m i c r o p h o n e s , a n d c o n t r o l ­

racetrack o r ice r i n k is m o u n t e d o n a c a r t t h a t resembles a

ling t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r . T h e s e small s t a t i o n a r y systems are

small railroad car. It r u n s o n rails that are laid parallel to t h e

also p o p u l a r in classrooms a n d teleconferences, w h e r e t h e

t r a c k o r rink. T h e speed of t h e cart a n d all c u s t o m a r y c a m ­

c a m e r a action can b e precisely preset, SEE 5.24

era f u n c t i o n s are r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d via a joystick p a n e l .

Section

5.2

•

The high hat is a short (about 6 inches) cylinder-shaped or three-legged metal mount that accepts the usual fluid or cam mounting head.

•

The beanbag is a canvas bag filled with synthetic foam that molds itself to the shape of any ENG/EFP camera or cam­ corder. It can be tied to the hood of a car. Spring-loaded, shock-absorbing car mounts are usually attached with suction cups.

•

•

•

The Steadicam is a spring-loaded device that keeps the camera steady even if the operator, who wears a harness and a mount, runs with the camera. Steadicam JR mounts are available for lightweight consumer camcorders; these are handheld by the operator or attached to a body harness.

Special

Mounts

103

•

The robotic pedestal, or robotic, consists of a motor-driven studio pedestal and a mounting head. The robotic pedestal and the remote zoom and focus controls are guided by a computerized system that can store and execute a great number of camera moves. The stationary robotic mount usually allows pans, tilts, and zooms of small cameras from a fixed position.

•

Some robotic news systems include software that also controls a variety of additional event functions, such as switching among cameras, opening and closing micro­ phones, and controlling the teleprompter.

•

The rail system consists of a small cart that runs on rails that are laid parallel to a racetrack or ice rink.

The short jib arm is a camera mount that can be attached to furniture or scenery. The long jib has a longer arm that allows a single camera operator to simultaneously dolly, pan and tilt, move the camera up and down, and activate the zoom. The studio crane is larger than the jib arm and can sup­ port a heavy camera. It is usually used in film or electronic cinema productions.

Camera

For your reference, or to track your work, the VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its cor­ responding page number.

__J__>

C A M E R A S Camera moves^- dolly | zoom | truck | pan | tilt | pedestal | try it

Camera Operation and Picture Composition Although television cameras are getting more complex so far as digital electronics are c o n c e r n e d , they are also b e c o m i n g more user-friendly. The a u t o m a t i o n of s o m e camera functions c a n n o t m a k e y o u an expert camera operator overnight, however. Even the smartest a u t o m a t e d camera has no w a y of knowing w h a t part of the e v e n t you consider important a n d h o w best to clarify a n d intensify the selected e v e n t details t h r o u g h maximally effective shots. Nor can it exercise aesthetic j u d g m e n t — h o w to frame an extreme close-up, for example. This is w h y it is important to learn as m u c h as possible a b o u t camera operation before trying to do your blockbuster documentary. Section 6.1, W o r k i n g the Camera, discusses t h e basic do's a n d don'ts of camera operation. Section 6.2, Framing Effective Shots, focuses o n s o m e of the aesthetic aspects of picture composition.

104

automatic gain control (AGC) Regulates the volume of the audio or video level automatically, without using manual controls.

knee shot Framing of a person from approximately the knees up. leadroom The space left in front of a person or an object

bust shot Framing of a person from the upper torso to the top of the head.

moving toward the edge of the screen. long shot (LS) Object seen from far away or framed loosely.

close-up (CU) Object or any part of it seen at close range and framed tightly. The close-up can be extreme (extreme or big close-up—ECU) or rather loose (medium closeup— MCU). closure Short for psychological closure. Mentally filling in spaces of an incomplete picture. cross-shot (X/S) Similar to the over-the-shoulder shot except that the camera-near person is completely out of the shot. extreme close-up (ECU) Shows the object with very tight framing. extreme long shot (ELS) Shows the object from a great distance. Also called establishing shot. follow focus Maintaining the focus of the lens in a shallow depth of field so that the image of an object is con­ tinuously kept sharp and clear even when the camera or object moves. headroom The space left between the top of the head and the upper screen edge.

Also called establishing shot or full shot. medium shot (MS) Object seen from a medium distance. Covers any framing between a long shot and a close-up. Also called waist shot. noseroom The space left in front of a person looking or point­ ing toward the edge of the screen. over-the-shoulder shot (O/S) Camera looks over a person's shoulder (shoulder and back of head included in shot) at another person. shot sheet A list of every shot a particular camera has to get. It is attached to the camera to help the camera operator remember the shot sequence. Also called shot list. three-shot Framing of three people. two-shot Framing of two people. z-axis Line representing an extension of the lens from the camera to the horizon—the depth dimension.

105

6.1

of the o p e r a t i o n a l steps are similar or identical regardless of the type of c a m e r a , except t h a t d u r i n g EFP y o u n o r m a l l y have a few m o r e p e o p l e h e l p i n g y o u . W h e n caught u p in a large s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n or cover­ ing a h o t news story, it's easy to forget t h a t t h e c a m e r a is a n extremely c o m p l e x piece of m a c h i n e r y . A l t h o u g h it m a y n o t b e as p r e c i o u s or fragile as y o u r g r a n d m o t h e r ' s china,

Working the Camera

it still n e e d s careful h a n d l i n g a n d a m e a s u r e of respect. H e r e are s o m e " d o n ' t s " y o u s h o u l d k n o w before l e a r n i n g t h e " d o ' s " of c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n . These early w a r n i n g s m a y well p r e v e n t y o u from d a m a g i n g o r losing t h e e q u i p m e n t before y o u ever get to use it. In this light these t a b o o s r e p ­ resent a r a t h e r positive b e g i n n i n g .

SOME BASIC CAMERA

"DON'TS"

D o n ' t leave a c a m c o r d e r in a c a r — e v e n in t h e t r u n k — for a n extended p e r i o d of time unless the car is safely locked in a garage. Like p e o p l e a n d animals, electronic e q u i p m e n t t e n d s to suffer from excessive heat. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , k e e p ­ ing t h e c a m e r a gear w i t h y o u as m u c h as possible is a fairly s i m p l e way of p r e v e n t i n g theft. W h e n reading a b o u t all t h e details of setting u p a n d o p e r ­ ating a c a m e r a or c a m c o r d e r , y o u m a y feel o v e r w h e l m e d . D o n ' t worry. After y o u have s t u d i e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d t h e procedures a n d practiced with t h e c a m e r a a few times, such o p e r a t i o n a l details b e c o m e r o u t i n e , very m u c h like driving a car. Section 6.1 helps clarify s t u d i o a n d p o r t a b l e c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n by laying o u t t h e sequential steps t h a t y o u — t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r — n e e d to follow before, d u r i n g , a n d after a p r o d u c t i o n . O n c e y o u are familiar w i t h t h e t e c h n i c a l details of c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n , y o u can t u r n y o u r a t t e n t i o n to h o w to get effective, d y n a m i c shots.

D o n o t leave a c a m c o r d e r u n p r o t e c t e d in t h e rain, h o t s u n , o r e x t r e m e cold or, worse, e x p o s e d in a car o n a h o t day. W h e n y o u m u s t use a c a m c o r d e r in t h e rain, protect it with a " r a i n c o a t " — a prefabricated plastic h o o d — o r at least a plastic sheet. A simple b u t effective m e a n s of keeping rain away from a c a m e r a is a large u m b r e l l a . S o m e z o o m lenses stick in extremely wet o r cold weather. Test t h e lens before u s i n g it o n location. Prevent t h e videocassettes o r optical discs from getting wet, a n d n e v e r use w e t t a p e s . A w e t t a p e m a y get sticky a n d r u i n t h e drive m o t o r in t h e V T R . M o i s t u r e is a m a j o r h a z a r d to all electronic e q u i p m e n t . D o n o t p o i n t the lens for a n extended p e r i o d of t i m e at

)•

^

WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA

t h e m i d d a y s u n . A l t h o u g h t h e C C D s will n o t b e d a m a g e d

Some basic camera "don'ts"; and camera setup, operation, and care—the basic operational steps before, during, and after a field production

b y t h e intensity of t h e sunlight, t h e y m a y suffer from t h e h e a t g e n e r a t e d by t h e focused rays. T h e s a m e goes for t h e viewfinder: d o n ' t leave it p o i n t e d at t h e s u n for a n extended

WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA

p e r i o d of t i m e ; the viewfinder's magnifying lens can collect

Camera setup, operation, and care—the basic operational steps before, during, and after a studio production

t h e sun's rays, m e l t i n g its h o u s i n g a n d electronics. D o n o t leave c a m c o r d e r batteries in t h e s u n or, worse, d r o p t h e m . A l t h o u g h a b a t t e r y m a y l o o k r u g g e d from t h e

WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA ENGv W h e t h e r y o u are w o r k i n g w i t h a small c o n s u m e r E F W camcorder, a large professional E N G / E F P camcorder,

o u t s i d e , it is actually q u i t e sensitive t o h e a t a n d shock. S o m e batteries s h o u l d n o t b e charged in extremely cold temperatures.

or a h i g h - e n d EFP c a m e r a with a separate VTR, you s h o u l d

D o n o t lay a c a m c o r d e r o n its side. You r u n t h e risk

k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w to check it before the s h o o t a n d

of d a m a g i n g t h e viewfinder or t h e c l i p p e d - o n m i c r o p h o n e

w h a t t o d o w i t h it d u r i n g a n d after the p r o d u c t i o n . M a n y

o n t h e o t h e r side. W h e n finished s h o o t i n g , cap t h e c a m e r a

106

Section

6.1

w i t h t h e external lens cover a n d , just to m a k e sure, close t h e a p e r t u r e to t h e C (cap) p o s i t i o n . Given these i m p o r t a n t w a r n i n g s , y o u can n o w relax a n d devote y o u r full a t t e n t i o n to learning w h a t to d o before, d u r i n g , a n d after t h e s h o o t .

BEFORE THE S H O O T Before d o i n g a n y t h i n g else, c o u n t all t h e pieces of e q u i p m e n t a n d m a r k t h e m o n y o u r checklist (see c h a p t e r 20). If y o u n e e d auxiliary e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as external m i c r o p h o n e s , c a m e r a lights, a p o w e r supply, or field m o n i ­ tors, m a k e sure y o u have t h e right c o n n e c t o r s a n d cables. Recall t h a t B N C a n d S-video are t h e s t a n d a r d c o n n e c t o r s for professional v i d e o cables, a n d RCA p h o n o is t h e stan­ d a r d v i d e o c o n n e c t o r for c o n s u m e r e q u i p m e n t . T h e RCA p h o n o c o n n e c t o r is also used for c o n s u m e r a u d i o e q u i p ­ m e n t (see figure 3.23). Take s o m e extra a d a p t e r s along just in case you n e e d to c o n n e c t a B N C cable to a n RCA p h o n o jack. Unless y o u are r u n n i n g after h o t news, first set u p t h e t r i p o d a n d check w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a plate fits t h e receptacle o n the fluid h e a d a n d balances t h e c a m e r a w h e n locked in place. D o s o m e p a n n i n g a n d tilting to d e t e r m i n e t h e o p t i m a l p a n a n d tilt drag. C h e c k t h e p a n a n d tilt locks. Insert t h e battery or c o n n e c t t h e c a m c o r d e r to its alternate p o w e r s u p p l y ( A C / D C converter a n d t r a n s f o r m e r ) a n d d o a brief test r e c o r d i n g before t a k i n g the c a m c o r d e r into t h e field. C h e c k t h a t t h e c a m c o r d e r records video as well as a u d i o . If y o u are engaged in m o r e - e l a b o r a t e field p r o d u c ­ t i o n s using h i g h - q u a l i t y EFP c a m e r a s a n d separate V T R s , check t h e connecting cables a n d t h e various power supplies (usually batteries). You m a y n e e d a video feed from t h e c a m e r a (or VTR) to a b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d field m o n i t o r for t h e director. Be especially aware of c o n n e c t o r s . In EFP a loose c o n n e c t o r can m e a n a lost p r o d u c t i o n day. As w i t h t h e camcorder, hook up all the equipment you will use in the field and do a test recording before going on location. Never assume t h a t everything will w o r k merely because it w o r k e d in t h e past. C h e c k t h a t t h e external m i c r o p h o n e (usually a h a n d m i c ) a n d t h e c a m e r a m i c are w o r k i n g p r o p e r l y . M o s t c a m e r a m i c s n e e d to be switched o n before t h e y b e c o m e o p e r a t i o n a l . Is t h e r e sufficient cable for t h e external m i c so that t h e r e p o r t e r can w o r k far e n o u g h away from t h e camera? If you are p r i m a r i l y d o i n g news t h a t requires an

Working

the

Camera

107

external m i c for t h e field reporter, you m a y w a n t to keep the external m i c plugged in t o save t i m e a n d m i n i m i z e costly mistakes. You can coil t h e m i c cable a n d b o w - t i e it w i t h a string o r s h o e l a c e — o n e t u g , a n d t h e cable is uncoiled with the mic. D o e s t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a light work? D o n ' t just look at the l a m p . T u r n o n t h e light to verify that it works. W h e n using a separate battery for the light, m a k e sure that t h e bat­ tery is fully charged. If y o u have a d d i t i o n a l lights, are t h e y all operational? D o y o u have e n o u g h AC extension cords to p o w e r the a d d i t i o n a l lights? A l t h o u g h m o s t h o u s e h o l d s have t h r e e - p r o n g receptacles, y o u s h o u l d still c a r r y s o m e t h r e e - p r o n g to t w o - p r o n g a d a p t e r s to fit older h o u s e h o l d outlets. W h e n using a separate VTR for EFP, d o a test record­ ing to e n s u r e t h a t t h e V T R is in g o o d w o r k i n g order. (See chapter 12 for details o n V T R o p e r a t i o n . ) O p e n t h e videocassette b o x a n d verify t h a t it c o n t a i n s t h e cassette t h a t fits t h e V T R o r c a m c o r d e r a n d t h a t it m a t c h e s t h e tape length indicated o n t h e b o x ( n o r m a l l y given in s t a n d a r d - s p e e d playing t i m e , such as 60 m i n u t e s , 120 m i n u t e s , or 180 m i n u t e s ) . C h e c k t h a t t h e cassette's supply reel has e n o u g h t a p e to justify t h e indicated play­ ing t i m e . Even if y o u can't be sure a b o u t t h e exact length, a 1 8 0 - m i n u t e cassette will obviously have a fuller supply reel t h a n a 1 2 0 - m i n u t e tape. C h e c k w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a accepts a mini-cassette o r a D V C P R O or D V C A M tape. S o m e relatively large p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s c a n n o t accept the larger tapes a n d use o n l y mini-cassettes. Check t h a t the safety t a b is in place. If it has b e e n r e m o v e d , you c a n n o t record o n t h a t t a p e (see c h a p t e r 12). Always take along a few m o r e cassettes o r other storage m e d i a t h a n y o u t h i n k y o u will n e e d . A l t h o u g h y o u are n o t a m a i n t e n a n c e engineer, carry s o m e spare fuses for the principal e q u i p m e n t . S o m e E N G / EFP cameras a n d professional camcorders have a spare fuse right n e x t to t h e active o n e . N o t e , however, t h a t a b l o w n fuse indicates a m a l f u n c t i o n in t h e e q u i p m e n t . Even if t h e c a m c o r d e r w o r k s again w i t h t h e n e w fuse, have it checked w h e n y o u r e t u r n from t h e shoot. Like carrying a m e d i c a l first-aid kit, you s h o u l d al­ ways have afield production ki t t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e following items: several videocassettes or a p p r o p r i a t e storage m e d i a , an audiocassette recorder a n d several audiocassettes, an a d d i t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e a n d a small m i c r o p h o n e stand,

108

Chapter

6

CAMERA

OPERATION

AND

PICTURE

COMPOSITION

one or more p o r t a b l e lights a n d stands, a d d i t i o n a l l a m p s for all lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , AC cords, spares for all types of batteries, v a r i o u s clips or w o o d e n clothespins, gaffer's tape, a small reflector, a roll of a l u m i n u m foil, a small white card for w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g , light-diffusing m a t e r i a l , v a r i o u s effects filters, a c a n of c o m p r e s s e d air for cleaning lenses, a n d a c a m e r a raincoat. You s h o u l d also carry such personal survival items as a w o r k i n g flashlight, an u m b r e l l a , s o m e spare clothes, a n d , yes, toilet paper. O n c e y o u have w o r k e d in t h e field a few times, y o u will k n o w h o w to p u t t o g e t h e r y o u r o w n field p r o d u c t i o n kit.

D U R I N G THE SHOOT After s o m e field p r o d u c t i o n experience, y o u will p r o b a b l y develop your o w n t e c h n i q u e s for c a r r y i n g a n d o p e r a t i n g a camcorder or ENG/EFP camera. Nevertheless, there are s o m e well-established basics t h a t will h e l p y o u w h e n starting o u t .

Handheld camcorder operating techniques You m a y t h i n k that t h e small, h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r is m u c h easier t o o p e r a t e t h a n its heavier cousin. This m a y be t r u e if all y o u d o w i t h t h e c a m c o r d e r is s h o o t vacation pictures. T h e small c a m c o r d e r is lightweight e n o u g h to b e tilted, held in o n e h a n d , a n d m o v e d freely t h r o u g h t h e air. Al­

6.1

t h o u g h such wild c a m e r a m o v e m e n t may, o n occasion, fit

Steady the camcorder with both hands, with your elbows pressed against your body.

the style of t h e event, it usually reflects t h e inexperience

HOLDING THE SMALL CAMCORDER

of t h e o p e r a t o r o r disrespect for t h e a u d i e n c e . In m o s t p r o d u c t i o n situations, t h e c a m c o r d e r ' s small size a n d light weight require steady h a n d s a n d s m o o t h m o v e m e n t s .

foldout screen is often r e n d e r e d useless b y t h e s u n s h i n i n g o n it, o b l i t e r a t i n g the i m a g e . Use the foldout screen only if

To avoid jittery pictures, y o u m u s t keep t h e c a m e r a as steady as possible. This is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n t h e

y o u r c a m e r a is in t h e a u t o m a t i c m o d e a n d y o u n e e d only a r o u g h guide to f r a m i n g a shot.

z o o m lens is in the t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . S u p p o r t t h e small c a m c o r d e r in t h e p a l m of y o u r h a n d a n d use t h e o t h e r

W h e n m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a , s h o u l d y o u b e z o o m e d in

h a n d to s u p p o r t the " c a m e r a a r m " or t h e c a m c o r d e r itself.

or out? Z o o m e d out, of course. By z o o m i n g o u t all the way,

SEE 6.1 W h e n e v e r possible, press y o u r elbows against y o u r

y o u p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , w h i c h is

body, inhale, a n d h o l d y o u r b r e a t h d u r i n g t h e s h o t . Bend

very forgiving a n d d o e s n o t s h o w m i n o r c a m e r a w o b b l e s .

y o u r k n e e s slightly w h e n s h o o t i n g , or lean against a s t u r d y

Also, b e c a u s e of t h e great d e p t h of field, y o u have fewer

s u p p o r t to increase the stability of t h e camera, SEE 6.2 Such

p r o b l e m s k e e p i n g the event in focus, even if y o u or t h e

c a m e r a h a n d l i n g is r e c o m m e n d e d even if you have t h e i m ­

subject m o v e s . But even in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , y o u

age stabilizer t u r n e d o n . N o t e t h a t i m a g e stabilizers d r a i n

s h o u l d m o v e t h e c a m e r a as s m o o t h l y as possible.

the b a t t e r y relatively quickly, unless y o u have a n optical o n e built i n t o t h e lens.

To pan t h e c a m e r a ( p o i n t it sideways), m o v e it w i t h y o u r w h o l e b o d y r a t h e r t h a n just y o u r a r m s . First, p o i n t

W h e n e v e r possible, use t h e viewfinder r a t h e r t h a n

y o u r k n e e s in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e end of the p a n . T h e n

the foldout screen to c o m p o s e y o u r shots. T h e viewfinder

twist y o u r b o d y with t h e c a m e r a a i m e d t o w a r d t h e

m a k e s focusing m o r e a c c u r a t e (you get a s h a r p e r image)

ning of t h e p a n . D u r i n g t h e p a n y o u are like a s p r i n g t h a t

begin­

a n d is a better guide to p r o p e r e x p o s u r e ( / - s t o p ) t h a n t h e

is u n c o i l i n g f r o m t h e start of t h e action to t h e finish. T h i s

flat screen. W h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s , y o u will find t h a t t h e

p o s i t i o n is m u c h s m o o t h e r t h a n if y o u r knees are p o i n t e d

Section

6.2

Working

6.1

STEADYING THE CAMERA OPERATOR

6.3

the

Camera

109

PANNING THE CAMCORDER

Lean against a tree or wall to steady yourself and the camcorder.

Before panning, point your knees in the direction of the end of the pan, then uncoil your upper body during the pan.

t o w a r d t h e start of the a c t i o n a n d y o u are forced t o w i n d

y o u are often closer to t h e object t h a n the viewfinder image

u p y o u r b o d y d u r i n g t h e p a n . Always b e n d y o u r k n e e s

i n d i c a t e s . Be careful n o t to h i t s o m e t h i n g or s o m e o n e

slightly w h e n shooting; as in skiing, y o u r knees act as shock

w i t h t h e c a m e r a , especially if y o u walk f o r w a r d w i t h it

a b s o r b e r s . D o n ' t p a n i c if y o u lose t h e subject t e m p o r a r i l y

into a crowd.

i n t h e viewfinder. Keep t h e c a m e r a steady, l o o k u p to see w h e r e t h e subject is, a n d a i m t h e c a m e r a s m o o t h l y in t h e n e w direction, SEE 6.3 W h e n m o v i n g w i t h p e o p l e w h o are walking, get in

Effflw ENG/EFP camera or camcorder operating techniques

W h e n o p e r a t i n g t h e larger a n d h e a v i e r

p r o s u m e r or s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d ENG/EFP camcorder, m a n y of t h e rules for small c a m c o r d e r s still apply.

front of t h e m w i t h t h e c a m e r a a n d walk b a c k w a r d at t h e s a m e speed. This way y o u can see their faces r a t h e r t h a n their backs. M o v i n g b a c k w a r d also forces y o u to w a l k o n t h e balls of y o u r feet, w h i c h are better shock absorbers t h a n y o u r heels, SEE 6.4

W a t c h t h a t y o u d o n o t b u m p i n t o or

First a n d foremost, p u t t h e c a m e r a o n a t r i p o d w h e n ­ ever possible. You will have m o r e c o n t r o l over f r a m i n g a n d steadying t h e shot. You will also get less tired d u r i n g a long shoot.

s t u m b l e over s o m e t h i n g while walking b a c k w a r d . A q u i c k

All large E N G / E F P c a m e r a s or c a m c o r d e r s are d e ­

c h e c k of y o u r p r o p o s e d r o u t e c a n p r e v e n t u n e x p e c t e d

signed t o b e c a r r i e d o n t h e o p e r a t o r ' s shoulder. T h e r e are

m i s h a p s . W i t h t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ,

s h o u l d e r p o d s available for the larger p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s .

110

Chapter

6

CAMERA

OPERATION

AND PICTURE

COMPOSITION

6.4 WALKING BACKWARD When moving with some­ thing or somebody, walk backward rather than for­ ward. The balls of your feet act like shock absorbers.

A s s u m i n g that y o u are r i g h t - h a n d e d , c a r r y t h e c a m e r a o n y o u r right s h o u l d e r a n d slip y o u r right h a n d t h r o u g h t h e s u p p o r t s t r a p o n t h e z o o m lens. T h i s helps y o u steady t h e c a m e r a while allowing y o u to o p e r a t e t h e z o o m a n d a u t o focus c o n t r o l s . Your left h a n d is free to o p e r a t e t h e m a n u a l focus r i n g . If y o u are left-handed, reverse t h e p r o c e d u r e s . You can also switch the viewfinder to t h e o t h e r side so t h a t y o u c a n w a t c h t h e scene with y o u r left r a t h e r t h a n y o u r right eye. SEE 6.5 Keep y o u r b o d y a n d , w i t h it, t h e c a m e r a as steady as possible. P u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i ­ t i o n w h e n m o v i n g . Preset y o u r knees d u r i n g a p a n , a n d walk b a c k w a r d r a t h e r t h a n f o r w a r d w h e n m o v i n g with t h e event. Unless t h e c a m e r a h a s a fully a u t o m a t e d white balance (as d o m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s ) , y o u m u s t w h i t e - b a l ­ ance it before starting to shoot. Be sure to white-balance camera in the same light that illuminates

the

the scene you are

shooting. If y o u d o n ' t have a w h i t e card, focus t h e c a m e r a o n a n y t h i n g w h i t e , such as s o m e b o d y ' s shirt or t h e b a c k of a script. M o s t c a m e r a utility bags have a w h i t e sheet sewn into t h e flap for w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g . Repeat t h e white balance

6.5 SHOULDER-MOUNTED ENG/EFP CAMERA

each t i m e y o u e n c o u n t e r n e w lighting c o n d i t i o n s , such as

Carry the larger professional camcorder on your shoulder. One hand slips through the strap on the lens to steady the camcorder and to operate the zoom. Your other hand is free to operate the focus ring at the front of the zoom lens and to provide further support for the camcorder.

w h e n m o v i n g from an i n t e r v i e w o n a street c o r n e r to t h e interior of a n e w r e s t a u r a n t . Careful w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g m a y save y o u h o u r s of color c o r r e c t i o n in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .

Section

6.1

Working

U n d e r n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e a u t o iris m o d e . Normal

conditions

m e a n s that y o u d o n ' t have to

reveal picture detail in a dense s h a d o w area o r struggle with e x t r e m e c o n t r a s t p r o b l e m s , such as w h e n t r y i n g to get a decent exposure of s o m e b o d y s t a n d i n g in t h e bright s u n or in front of a brightly lit wall. Despite the objections of s o m e especially critical c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s , using t h e c a m c o r d e r in t h e auto-iris m o d e o n an overcast day will often yield b e t t e r - e x p o s e d v i d e o t h a n d o i n g it manually, especially during ENG. Try t o calibrate (preset) the z o o m lens as m u c h as p o s ­ sible, even w h e n o n t h e r u n d u r i n g E N G . M o r e often t h a n n o t , such a r o u t i n e will pay off with good, in-focus pictures. Just as a r e m i n d e r : y o u calibrate a z o o m lens b y z o o m i n g i n o n t h e target object, such as t h e l i m o u s i n e carrying t h e celebrities, focusing t h e c a m e r a , a n d z o o m i n g b a c k o u t again to t h e o p e n i n g shot. W h e n y o u t h e n z o o m in o n t h e people getting o u t of t h e car, t h e c a m e r a will r e m a i n i n focus even for t h e close-ups. Or, better yet, start w i t h a focused close-up a n d t h e n z o o m b a c k t o a w i d e r shot. In effect, w h a t y o u are d o i n g is presetting t h e z o o m while o n the air. If y o u haven't calibrated t h e z o o m lens a n d n e e d to z o o m in from a w i d e shot, you n e e d to follow focus as well as you can. This m e a n s t h a t y o u have to t u r n t h e focus r i n g to keep t h e p i c t u r e s h a r p a n d clear while z o o m i n g i n — n o t an easy task by any m e a n s . T h e focus b e c o m e s m o r e critical w h e n y o u s h o o t u n d e r low-light c o n d i t i o n s . Recall t h a t low light levels necessitate a large lens a p e r t u r e (iris o p e n i n g ) , w h i c h in t u r n reduces t h e d e p t h of field. Unless you're s h o o t i n g v a c a t i o n pictures o r for an H D V focus check, p u t t i n g a camera in the auto-focus m o d e is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d ; t h e c a m e r a frequently gets confused a b o u t just w h a t it is y o u i n t e n d t o focus o n , a n d fast z o o m s are frequently o u t of focus w i t h c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . Achieving o p t i m a l focus is especially difficult w i t h H D V a n d H D T V because the high-resolution picture looks in focus even if it is slightly o u t of focus. If t h e scene is rather steady, p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e auto-focus m o d e if available. Otherwise, rack t h r o u g h t h e focus a few t i m e s to see w h e r e t h e o p t i m a l focus lies. Look t h r o u g h t h e viewfinder r a t h e r t h a n at t h e foldout screen w h e n focusing. All E N G / E F P a n d m o s t p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s display a u d i o levels of t h e two a u d i o channels. S o m e E N G / E F P c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a small speaker attached to their side, in w h i c h case y o u listen to t h e a u d i o w i t h y o u r right ear resting against t h e speaker. Usually, camera o p e r a ­ tors hear t h e a u d i o t h r o u g h headsets or a m o l d e d earpiece

the

Camera

111

t h a t fits t h e ear. W h e n e v e r possible, check the a u d i o level before a n d d u r i n g recording. W h e n w o r k i n g in relatively quiet s u r r o u n d i n g s , r e c o r d w i t h t h e automatic gain con­ trol (AGC). O t h e r w i s e , y o u n e e d t o switch to m a n u a l gain control, take a s o u n d level, a n d record. (See chapters 9 a n d 10 for m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n E N G s o u n d . ) W h e n e v e r v i d e o t a p i n g , record s o u n d w i t h t h e c a m ­ era m i c regardless of w h e t h e r s o m e b o d y is talking. This a m b i e n t s o u n d is i m p o r t a n t to achieve c o n t i n u i t y in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. W h e n t h e r e p o r t e r is h o l d i n g t h e external m i c , d o n o t start to r u n away from h i m or h e r to get a better shot of the event. Either you b o t h r u n together, or you m u s t stay p u t . H e e d t h e w a r n i n g signals in t h e viewfinder display or foldout screen. It is usually the e q u i p m e n t , n o t the w a r n i n g display, t h a t is m a l f u n c t i o n i n g . In EFP y o u usually w o r k w i t h o t h e r c r e w m e m b e r s . Even w i t h a small p r o d u c t i o n t e a m , you m u s t assign each m e m b e r specific functions. For e x a m p l e , a s s u m i n g that y o u w o r k w i t h a separate VTR, y o u m i g h t r u n t h e c a m e r a , w i t h s o m e b o d y else taking care of all V T R functions. A t h i r d p e r s o n m i g h t d o t h e lighting a n d w o r k t h e external m i c r o p h o n e . W h e n y o u r E N G / E F P c a m e r a is p a r t of a m u l t i c a m e r a s h o o t , y o u n e e d a g o o d cable puller w h o will anticipate y o u r m o v e s a n d feed t h e cable so t h a t y o u can walk or r u n freely to t h e n e x t s h o o t i n g position. Above all, use common sense. Always be m i n d f u l of y o u r a n d o t h e r people's safety. Use s o u n d j u d g m e n t in d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r t h e risk is w o r t h t h e story. In E N G reliability a n d consistency are m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n s p o ­ radic feats, however spectacular. D o n o t risk y o u r n e c k a n d t h e e q u i p m e n t t o get a shot t h a t w o u l d simply embellish a story already o n tape. Leave t h a t t y p e of s h o o t i n g to t h e gifted a m a t e u r s .

AFTER THE SHOOT Unless y o u have just shot a really h o t story t h a t m u s t air immediately, even u n e d i t e d , take care of the e q u i p m e n t before delivering t h e tape. If you are p r o p e r l y organized, it s h o u l d take j u s t a few m i n u t e s . Take the full videocassette or o t h e r m e d i a o u t of t h e V T R a n d i m m e d i a t e l y replace it w i t h a n e w one. Label all cassettes or discs right away. P u t all t h e switches in the qfjposition, unless y o u are h e a d i n g for a n o t h e r a s s i g n m e n t , in w h i c h case p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e standby

position.

112

Chapter

6

C a p t h e c a m e r a by closing t h e iris all t h e way a n d s n a p p i n g o n t h e lens cover. Roll u p t h e m i c cable a n d b o w - t i e it w i t h a string or shoelace. I m m e d i a t e l y p u t e v e r y t h i n g back i n t o its designated box or bag. D o n ' t leave it for t h e n e x t day because y o u m a y find yourself having to cover an i m p o r t a n t news story o n y o u r way h o m e . Recharge all batteries as s o o n as you r e t u r n from t h e assignment. If the c a m c o r d e r got wet, wait until everything has d r i e d o u t before p u t t i n g t h e c a m e r a b a c k i n t o its case. M o s t c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s a n d E N G / E F P crews c a r r y a bat­ t e r y - p o w e r e d h a i r d r y e r or fan t h a t will accelerate t h e d r y i n g . M o i s t u r e is o n e of t h e m o s t s e r i o u s t h r e a t s t o c a m c o r d e r VTRs. If you have t i m e , check all t h e p o r t a b l e lights so t h e y will w o r k for t h e next a s s i g n m e n t . Coil all AC extension c o r d s — y o u will n o t have t i m e to u n t a n g l e t h e m d u r i n g an o n g o i n g event. 4

WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA T h e big difference b e t w e e n o p e r a t i n g a n E N G / E F P c a m ­ c o r d e r a n d a s t u d i o c a m e r a is t h a t t h e latter is always m o u n t e d o n s o m e k i n d of c a m e r a s u p p o r t — u s u a l l y a studio pedestal. In o n e way the s t u d i o c a m e r a is easier to o p e r a t e t h a n t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a : all electronic adjust­ m e n t s are p e r f o r m e d for you by t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r ( V O ) , w h o " s h a d e s " t h e c a m e r a at t h e C C U ( c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ) . In a n o t h e r way, however, y o u m a y find t h a t o p e r a t ­ ing t h e studio c a m e r a is m o r e difficult because y o u have to steer t h e pedestal (or o t h e r c a m e r a m o u n t ) a n d adjust t h e focus while c o m p o s i n g effective pictures. H e r e are t h e i m p o r t a n t steps to observe before, d u r i n g , a n d after a show o r rehearsal.

BEFORE THE SHOW P u t o n y o u r headset a n d check that t h e i n t e r c o m sys­ t e m is functioning. You s h o u l d hear at least t h e director, t h e technical director ( T D ) , a n d t h e v i d e o operator. Unlock the pan-and-tilt mechanism on the camera m o u n t i n g h e a d a n d adjust t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical drag, if necessary. C h e c k t h a t t h e c a m e r a is balanced o n t h e m o u n t i n g h e a d . U n l o c k t h e pedestal, t h e n pedestal u p a n d d o w n . C h e c k t h a t the pedestal is correctly c o u n t e r weighted. A p r o p e r l y b a l a n c e d c a m e r a r e m a i n s p u t in any

CAMERA

OPERATION

AND

PICTURE

COMPOSITION

given vertical position. If it drops down or moves up by itself, t h e pedestal is n o t p r o p e r l y c o u n t e r w e i g h t e d . See h o w m u c h c a m e r a cable you have a n d w h e t h e r there are any obstacles t h a t m a y interfere with t h e cable r u n . C h e c k t h a t t h e pedestal skirt or o t h e r t y p e of cable guard is low e n o u g h to m o v e the cable o u t of the way rather t h a n roll over it. Ask the V O to u n c a p t h e c a m e r a from t h e C C U , a n d ask if y o u can r e m o v e t h e lens cap. You can t h e n see in t h e viewfinder the pictures t h e c a m e r a actually takes. Is t h e viewfinder p r o p e r l y adjusted? Like a h o m e television set, t h e viewfinder c a n b e a d j u s t e d for b r i g h t n e s s a n d contrast. If y o u n e e d framing guides, flip t h e switch t h a t shows t h e essential area a n d t h e screen-center m a r k (see c h a p t e r 15). C h e c k t h e z o o m lens. Z o o m in a n d o u t . D o e s t h e lens stick, or does it m o v e s m o o t h l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e z o o m range? W h a t exactly is t h e range? Get a feel for h o w close you can get to t h e m a i n event from a certain p o s i t i o n . If you w o r k w i t h a digital z o o m lens, check w h e t h e r the lens r e t u r n s to t h e designated p o s i t i o n (focal length) in s u b ­ s e q u e n t z o o m s . Is t h e lens clean? If it is dusty, use a fine camel-hair b r u s h and carefully clean off t h e larger dust par­ ticles. W i t h a small r u b b e r b u l b o r a can of c o m p r e s s e d air, b l o w off t h e finer dust. D o n o t b l o w o n t h e lens w i t h y o u r m o u t h : t h e m o i s t u r e will fog it u p a n d get it even dirtier. Rack t h r o u g h f o c u s — t h a t is, m o v e t h e focus c o n t r o l from o n e e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n to t h e other. C a n y o u m o v e easily a n d s m o o t h l y into a n d o u t of focus, especially w h e n in a n a r r o w - a n g l e , z o o m e d - i n position? Calibrate the z o o m lens. Z o o m all the way in o n t h e target object in t h e z o o m r a n g e , such as t h e newscaster or t h e d o o r o n the far wall of t h e living r o o m set. Focus o n t h i s far object. N o w z o o m all t h e way b a c k t o t h e w i d e s t - a n g l e setting. You s h o u l d n o w r e m a i n in focus t h r o u g h o u t t h e z o o m , p r o v i d e d neither t h e object n o r t h e c a m e r a moves. If y o u have a shot sheet (also called a shot list), this is a g o o d t i m e t o practice t h e m o r e complicated z o o m a n d dolly or t r u c k shots. A shot sheet is a list of every shot a p a r t i c u l a r c a m e r a has to get. It is attached to t h e c a m e r a to help t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r r e m e m b e r t h e shot sequence. If a t e l e p r o m p t e r is a t t a c h e d to t h e camera, check all the connections. Lock the c a m e r a again (the pedestal a n d the p a n - a n d tilt m e c h a n i s m ) before leaving it. Don't ever leave a camera

Section

6.7

unlocked,

even for a short while. S o m e of t h e newer p e d e s ­

Working

the

Camera

113

before leaving t h e c a m e r a .

In a straight dolly, you can keep b o t h h a n d s o n the p a n n i n g h a n d l e s . If you have to steer t h e camera, steer w i t h y o u r right h a n d , keeping y o u r left h a n d o n t h e focus control.

C a p t h e c a m e r a if y o u leave it for a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d of t i m e .

before it hits t h e stops at t h e e x t r e m e pedestal positions.

D U R I N G THE S H O W

t h e d i r e c t o r i n s t r u c t s y o u to s h o o t f r o m either a h i g h

tals have a p a r k i n g b r a k e . Set t h e brake(s) o n t h e pedestal

If y o u pedestal u p o r d o w n , t r y to b r a k e t h e c a m e r a Generally, keep y o u r shots at t h e talent's eye level unless

P u t o n the headset a n d establish c o n t a c t with t h e di­ rector, technical director, a n d v i d e o operator. U n l o c k t h e

(pedestal u p a n d look d o w n ) or a low (pedestal d o w n a n d l o o k u p ) angle.

c a m e r a a n d recheck t h e p a n a n d tilt drag a n d t h e pedestal movement. C a l i b r a t e t h e z o o m at each n e w c a m e r a p o s i t i o n . See w h e t h e r y o u can stay in focus over t h e entire z o o m range. W h e n checking t h e focus b e t w e e n shots, rack t h r o u g h focus a few times to d e t e r m i n e at which position the picture is t h e sharpest. W h e n focusing o n a p e r s o n , t h e hairline usually gives y o u e n o u g h detail t o d e t e r m i n e the s h a r p ­ est focus, or you m a y focus o n eyes. In extreme close-ups (ECUs), focus o n the bridge of the nose. As m e n t i o n e d , you will p r o b a b l y find t h a t achieving a n d r e m a i n i n g in p r o p e r focus is m o r e difficult w i t h an H D T V c a m e r a . Because t h e H D T V p i c t u r e detail looks so s h a r p in t h e viewfinder even if y o u are slightly o u t of focus, y o u m a y n o t notice t h e p r o b l e m until y o u r v i d e o is played b a c k o n a larger m o n i t o r . After s o m e practice, however, y o u will be able to read t h e H D T V i m a g e for p r o p e r focus.

W h e n y o u o p e r a t e a freewheel c a m e r a dolly, always preset t h e wheels toward t h e i n t e n d e d camera m o v e m e n t to prevent the dolly from starting off in t h e w r o n g direction. Check t h a t t h e cable g u a r d s are l o w e n o u g h to p r e v e n t t h e c a m e r a from r u n n i n g over t h e cables o n t h e s t u d i o floor instead of p u s h i n g t h e m o u t of t h e way. D e t e r m i n e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e reach of t h e c a m e r a cable. In a l o n g dolly, t h e cable m a y t u g a n n o y i n g l y at t h e c a m ­ era. D o n o t t r y t o pull t h e cable along with y o u r h a n d . To ease t h e tension, l o o p it over y o u r s h o u l d e r or tie it to t h e pedestal base, leaving e n o u g h slack so t h a t you can freely pan, tilt, and pedestal. O n complicated camera m o v e m e n t s , have a floor p e r s o n help y o u w i t h t h e cable; otherwise, the m i c r o p h o n e m a y pick u p t h e dragging s o u n d . If t h e cable gets twisted d u r i n g a dolly, d o n o t drag t h e w h o l e mess along; have a floor p e r s o n u n t a n g l e it.

If y o u a n t i c i p a t e a dolly, set t h e z o o m lens to t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . Preset the focus at t h e a p p r o x i m a t e m i d p o i n t of t h e dolly distance. W i t h t h e z o o m lens in t h e e x t r e m e w i d e - a n g l e position, t h e d e p t h of field s h o u l d be large e n o u g h so t h a t you n e e d to adjust focus o n l y w h e n you are very close to t h e object or event.

At all times d u r i n g t h e show, be aware of t h e activity a r o u n d you. W h e r e are t h e other cameras? T h e m i c r o p h o n e b o o m ? T h e floor m o n i t o r ? It is y o u r responsibility to keep o u t of t h e view of t h e o t h e r c a m e r a s a n d n o t hit a n y t h i n g (including floor p e r s o n n e l or talent) d u r i n g y o u r moves. Watch especially for obstacles in y o u r dolly p a t h , such as scenery, p r o p e r t i e s , a n d floor lights. Rugs are a c o n s t a n t hazard t o c a m e r a m o v e m e n t . W h e n dollying into a set that has a rug, watch t h e floor so that y o u d o n o t suddenly dolly u p o n t o t h e rug. Better yet, have a floor p e r s o n w a r n you w h e n y o u c o m e close t o t h e r u g . Be particularly careful w h e n dollying back. A g o o d floor m a n a g e r will h e l p clear t h e way a n d t a p you o n t h e s h o u l d e r to p r e v e n t y o u from b a c k i n g into s o m e t h i n g .

A l t h o u g h a c a m e r a pedestal allows y o u to dolly ex­ tremely smoothly, you m a y have s o m e difficulty m o v i n g or s t o p p i n g it w i t h o u t jerking t h e c a m e r a . Start slowly to o v e r c o m e t h e inertia, a n d slow d o w n just before t h e e n d of t h e dolly o r truck. If y o u have a difficult t r u c k o r arc t o p e r f o r m , have a floor p e r s o n help you m o v e a n d steer t h e camera. You can t h e n concentrate o n t h e c a m e r a operation.

In general, keep y o u r eyes o n t h e viewfinder. If t h e f o r m a t allows, l o o k a r o u n d for s o m e t h i n g interesting to s h o o t b e t w e e n shots. T h e d i r e c t o r will a p p r e c i a t e good visuals in a n a d - l i b s h o w (in w h i c h t h e shots have n o t b e e n r e h e a r s e d ) . If you have a shot sheet, t h o u g h , stick to it, however t e m p t i n g t h e shot possibilities m a y be. D o n o t t r y to o u t d i r e c t t h e director.

As y o u l e a r n e d in t h e section o n lenses, s o m e have a built-in focus-assist m e c h a n i s m : you select the critical area of the image with a roller ball (similar to t h a t of a c o m p u t e r m o u s e ) a n d tell t h e lens t h a t this is t h e area that n e e d s to be in s h a r p focus. T h e lens will t h e n t r y t o comply. Such m a n e u v e r s are obviously possible only w i t h a static scene a n d p l e n t y of p r o d u c t i o n t i m e .

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Chapter

6

Watch for t h e tally light to go o u t before calibrating the

CAMERA

At t h e e n d of t h e show, wait for t h e "all clear" signal

Ask t h e V O w h e t h e r y o u c a n cap t h e lens w i t h t h e lens cap.

D u r i n g r e h e a r s a l i n f o r m t h e floor m a n a g e r o r t h e director of u n u s u a l p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s , s u c h as a n in­ ability to prevent a c a m e r a shadow. T h e director will decide w h e t h e r to c h a n g e the c a m e r a p o s i t i o n or t h e lighting. T h e c a m e r a m a y b e t o o close to t h e object to keep it i n focus, o r t h e d i r e c t o r m a y n o t give y o u e n o u g h t i m e to preset t h e z o o m again after y o u m o v e i n t o a n e w s h o o t i n g p o s i t i o n .

Lock t h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g h e a d a n d the pedestal a n d p u s h t h e c a m e r a to its d e s i g n a t e d " p a r k i n g p l a c e " in t h e s t u d i o . If t h e c a m e r a is so e q u i p p e d , set t h e b r a k e . D o n o t leave t h e c a m e r a in t h e m i d d l e of t h e s t u d i o , w h e r e it can easily b e d a m a g e d by a piece of scenery b e i n g m o v e d or by o t h e r s t u d i o traffic.

Alert t h e director if h e o r she h a s t o l d y o u to m o v e t h e c a m e r a while o n t h e air a n d y o u r z o o m lens is i n a n a r ­

COMPOSITION

before y o u lock the c a m e r a .

special effects. W i t h s o m e effects t h e tally lights of b o t h c a m e r a s involved are o n (see c h a p t e r 11).

AND PICTURE

AFTER THE SHOW

zoom or moving the camera into a new shooting position. This is especially i m p o r t a n t if y o u r c a m e r a is engaged in

OPERATION

Coil t h e cable as neatly as possible in t h e c u s t o m a r y figure-eight

loops.

r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s it is h a r d for t h e d i r e c t o r to tell from t h e preview m o n i t o r t h e exact z o o m p o s i t i o n of a lens. M a r k all shot changes o n t h e s h o t sheet. Use m a s k i n g tape o n t h e s t u d i o floor t o m a r k t h e criti­

•

When working a camcorder or portable camera, be sure to handle it with the utmost care. Do not leave it unprotected in the sun or uncovered in the rain.

•

Before using a camcorder, check that the batteries are fully charged and that you have enough videotape or other re­ cording media for the assignment. Do an audio check with the camera mic and the external mic.

•

When shooting pay particular attention at all times to white balance, presetting the zoom, and recording ambient sound. If the lighting is fairly even, you can switch to autoiris control. Respond immediately to any warning signals in the viewfinder or foldout screen.

•

After the production put everything back carefully so that the equipment is ready for the next assignment.

•

Before operating the studio camera, check the headset, the camera mount (tripod dolly, pedestal, or crane), and the zoom and focus mechanisms.

•

During the show pay particular attention to calibrating the zoom, smooth camera movements, the camera cable's reach and travel, and focus.

•

After the show lock the camera mounting head, cap the camera, and move it to its designated place in the studio. If available, set the parking brake.

cal c a m e r a positions. Line u p exactly o n these m a r k s d u r i n g t h e actual show. If you d o n ' t have a shot sheet, m a k e o n e o n y o u r o w n . M a r k particularly t h e c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s (dollies, trucks, a n d t h e like) so t h a t y o u can set t h e z o o m in a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . If y o u w o r k w i t h o u t shot sheets, t r y t o r e m e m b e r t h e t y p e a n d t h e s e q u e n c e of shots from t h e rehearsal. A g o o d camera o p e r a t o r has the next shot lined u p before t h e direc­ t o r calls for it. If y o u w o r k from a s h o t sheet, go to t h e next shot i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e — d o n ' t wait until the last m i n u t e . T h e director m a y have to " p u n c h u p " y o u r camera ( p u t it o n the air) m u c h s o o n e r t h a n y o u r e m e m b e r from rehearsal. D o n o t z o o m in or o u t needlessly d u r i n g shots unless y o u are calibrating t h e z o o m lens. Listen carefully to w h a t the director tells all the c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s ( n o t just y o u ) so t h a t y o u can c o o r d i n a t e y o u r shots w i t h t h o s e of the o t h e r c a m e r a s . Also, y o u c a n avoid wasteful d u p l i c a t i o n of shots b y k n o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y w h a t t h e o t h e r c a m e r a s are d o i n g . Avoid u n n e c e s s a r y chatter o n t h e i n t e r c o m .

^

6.2

DEPTH Creating the illusion of a third dimension in both aspect ratios: choice of lens, positioning of objects, depth of field, and light­ ing and color

^

SCREEN MOTION Z-axis motion (movement toward and away from the camera) and lateral movement in both aspect ratios'

Framing Effective Shots

SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW Screen size a n d field of view are closely related. O n t h e large m o v i e screen, y o u c a n s h o w a relatively large vista w i t h a great a m o u n t of event detail. W h e n t h e s a m e scene is s h o w n o n television, however, y o u will n o t o n l y have difficulty m a k i n g o u t t h e smaller event details b u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , y o u will lose t h e aesthetic i m p a c t of t h e shot. This is w h y s o m e film critics suggest seeing a p a r t i c u l a r film " o n t h e big screen."

SCREEN SIZE M o s t television sets have a relatively small screen, especially w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e average m o v i e screen. To reveal event details, y o u m u s t s h o w t h e m in close-ups r a t h e r t h a n T h e basic p u r p o s e of f r a m i n g a s h o t is to s h o w images as clearly as possible a n d to p r e s e n t t h e m so t h a t t h e y convey m e a n i n g a n d energy. Essentially, y o u clarify a n d intensify t h e event before y o u . W h e n w o r k i n g a c a m c o r d e r , y o u are t h e only o n e w h o sees t h e television pictures before t h e y

long shots. In o t h e r w o r d s , y o u r field of view m u s t gener­ ally b e t i g h t e r o n television t h a n o n t h e m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen. Such a close-up a p p r o a c h necessitates choosing a n d e m p h a s i z i n g t h o s e details t h a t c o n t r i b u t e m o s t effectively to t h e overall event.

are v i d e o t a p e d . You therefore c a n n o t rely o n a d i r e c t o r t o tell y o u h o w t o frame every p i c t u r e for m a x i m u m ef­

FIELD OF V I E W

fectiveness.

Field of view refers to h o w w i d e o r h o w close t h e object

The m o r e you know about picture composition, the

a p p e a r s relative t o t h e c a m e r a , t h a t is, h o w close it will a p ­

m o r e effective y o u r clarification a n d intensification of t h e

pear to t h e viewer. It is basically o r g a n i z e d into five steps:

event will be. But even if y o u are w o r k i n g as a c a m e r a o p ­

(1) extreme

erator d u r i n g a m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o s h o w o r a large r e m o t e

(2) long shot (LS), also called full shot or establishing

w h e r e t h e d i r e c t o r can p r e v i e w all t h e c a m e r a p i c t u r e s ,

(3) medium

long shot (ELS), also called establishing shot (MS), also called waist shot; (4)

y o u still n e e d to k n o w h o w to c o m p o s e effective s h o t s .

(CU);

T h e director m i g h t be able to correct s o m e of y o u r shots,

CAMERA-* Composition-* field of view

b u t h e o r she will certainly n o t have t i m e t o teach y o u t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s of g o o d c o m p o s i t i o n . T h i s section describes t h e m a j o r c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r i n ­

a n d (5) extreme

close-up

(ECU),

shot; shot;

close-up

SEE 6.6

F o u r o t h e r ways of designating conventional shots are: bust shot, w h i c h frames t h e subject from t h e u p p e r t o r s o to t h e t o p of t h e h e a d ; knee shot, w h i c h frames t h e subject

ciples a n d explains h o w to frame a s h o t for m a x i m u m

from just above or b e l o w t h e k n e e s ; two-shot,

w i t h two

clarity a n d i m p a c t .

p e o p l e o r objects in t h e frame; a n d three-shot,

with three

P

SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW Operating with close-ups and medium shots rather than long shots and extreme long shots

^

FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS Dealing with height and width, framing close-ups, headroom, noseroom and leadroom, and closure

p e o p l e o r objects in t h e frame. A l t h o u g h m o r e a b l o c k i n g a r r a n g e m e n t t h a n a field of view, y o u s h o u l d also k n o w t w o a d d i t i o n a l shots: t h e o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r s h o t a n d t h e

1.

For an extensive discussion of screen forces and how they can be used for effective picture composition, see Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 93-194.

115

116

Chapter

CAMERA

6

OPERATION

AND

PICTURE

COMPOSITION

6 . 6 FIELD-OF-VIEW STEPS The shot designations range from ELS (extreme long shot) to ECU (extreme close-up).

Extreme long shot (ELS), or establishing shot

Long shot (LS), or FULL shot

Close-up (CU)

cross-shot. In t h e over-the-shoulder

shot (O/S), t h e c a m e r a

Medium shot (MS), or waist shot

Extreme close-up (ECU)

ratios of s t a n d a r d television a n d H D T V are quite different

looks at s o m e o n e over t h e s h o u l d e r of t h e c a m e r a - n e a r

a n d r e q u i r e different technical m a n i p u l a t i o n s , m a n y of

p e r s o n . In a cross-shot

t h e c a m e r a looks alternately

t h e aesthetic p r i n c i p l e s of g o o d p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n a p ­

at o n e o r t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w i t h t h e c a m e r a - n e a r p e r s o n

ply to b o t h . Nevertheless, in f r a m i n g effective shots s o m e

(X/S),

a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s n e e d to b e a d j u s t e d to t h e specific

completely o u t of the shot, SEE 6.7 O f course, exactly h o w to frame s u c h shots d e p e n d s

r e q u i r e m e n t s of the aspect ratio. This section takes a closer

n o t only o n y o u r sensitivity to c o m p o s i t i o n b u t also o n t h e

l o o k at (1) dealing w i t h h e i g h t a n d w i d t h , (2) f r a m i n g

director's preference.

c l o s e - u p s , (3) h e a d r o o m , (4) n o s e r o o m a n d l e a d r o o m , a n d (5) closure.

FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS

DEALING WITH HEIGHT A N D WIDTH You will find t h a t t h e 4 x 3 aspect r a t i o is well suited t o

Many high-end studio cameras, ENG/EFP cameras, and

f r a m i n g a vertical scene, such as a h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g , as

even s o m e h i g h - q u a l i t y c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s h a v e a

well as a h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t e d vista, SEE 6.8 AND 6.9 It is also

switch for c h a n g i n g t h e aspect ratio f r o m t h e s t a n d a r d

relatively easy t o a c c o m m o d a t e a scene t h a t h a s b o t h w i d e

4 x 3 f o r m a t t o t h e H D T V 1 6 x 9 . A l t h o u g h t h e aspect

a n d h i g h e l e m e n t s . SEE6.10

6 . 7 OTHER SHOT DESIGNATIONS Other common shot designa­ tions are the bust shot, knee shot, two-shot, three-shot, over-the-shoulder shot, and cross-shot. Note that the bust shot is similar to the MS and that the knee shot is similar to the LS.

Bust shot

Knee shot

Two-shot (two persons or objects in frame)

Three-shot (three persons or objects in frame)

Over-the-shoulder shot (0/S)

Cross-shot(X/S)

Section

6.2

Framing

Effective

6.8 FRAMING A VERTICAL VIEW

6.9 FRAMING A HORIZONTAL VIEW

The 4 x 3 aspect ratio allows you to frame a vertical scene without having to use extreme camera distance or angles.

The 4 x 3 aspect ratio readily accommodates a horizontal vista.

6.11 FRAMING A HORIZONTAL VIEW IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO The

Shots

117

6.10 FRAMING HEIGHT AND WIDTH IN A SINGLE SHOT T h 4 x 3 aspect ratio easily accommodates both horizontal and vertical vistas. e

6.12 FRAMING A VERTICAL VIEW IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO

16 x 9 format is ideal for framing wide horizontal vistas.

The 1 6 x 9 format makes it quite difficult to frame a vertical object. One way to frame a tall object is to shoot it from below and cant the camera.

A l t h o u g h t h e horizontally stretched 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio m a k e s h o r i z o n t a l scenes l o o k q u i t e spectacular, it p r e s e n t s a f o r m i d a b l e obstacle to framing a vertical view.

SEE6.II

You can either tilt t h e c a m e r a u p t o reveal t h e h e i g h t of t h e object or s h o o t f r o m b e l o w a n d cant t h e c a m e r a to m a k e t h e subject fit i n t o t h e diagonal screen space, SEE6.12 A n o t h e r frequently used film t e c h n i q u e for dealing w i t h vertical objects is to have o t h e r p i c t u r e e l e m e n t s b l o c k t h e sides of t h e screen a n d , in effect, give y o u a vertical aspect ratio in w h i c h to frame t h e shot, SEE 6.13

FRAMING CLOSE-UPS C l o s e - u p s (CUs) a n d e x t r e m e close-ups (ECUs) are c o m ­ m o n e l e m e n t s in t h e visual language of television b e c a u s e , c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e large m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen, even large television screens are relatively small. T h e 4 x 3 aspect ratio a n d t h e small screen of t h e s t a n d a r d television receiver are

6.13 NATURAL MASKING OF THE SCREEN SIDES IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO You can use parts of the natural environment to block the sides of the wide 1 6 x 9 screen to create a vertical space in which to frame the vertical object. In this shot the foreground buildings create a vertical aspect ratio for the high-rise building.

118

Chapter

6.14

6

CAMERA

6.15

FRAMING A CLOSE-UP

The normal close-up shows the head of the person and part of the shoulders.

t h e ideal c o m b i n a t i o n for close-ups a n d e x t r e m e close-ups

OPERATION

AND

PICTURE

FRAMING AN EXTREME CLOSE-UP

In an extreme close-up, you should crop the top of the head while keeping the upper part of the shoulders in the shot.

b y i n c l u d i n g s o m e visual e l e m e n t s in t h e shot t h a t fill t h e e m p t y spaces o n either side, SEE 6.18

of people's h e a d s , SEE 6.14

COMPOSITION

S o m e directors simply

As y o u can see, t h e n o r m a l close-up shows t h e c u s ­

tilt t h e c a m e r a o r t h e talent s o m e w h a t so t h a t t h e s h o t oc­

t o m a r y h e a d r o o m a n d p a r t of t h e u p p e r body. T h e E C U

cupies m o r e of t h e h o r i z o n t a l space. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the

is s o m e w h a t trickier to frame: t h e t o p screen edge cuts

H D T V aspect r a t i o lets y o u easily frame close-ups of t w o

across t h e t o p p a r t of t h e h e a d , a n d the lower edge cuts

p e o p l e face-to-face. Such an a r r a n g e m e n t is quite difficult

just b e l o w t h e t o p p a r t of t h e s h o u l d e r s , SEE 6.15

BSE^

CAMERA-* Composition-* close-ups

in the t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a t because t h e two dialogue p a r t n e r s m u s t s t a n d u n c o m f o r t a b l y close together, SEE 6.19

W h e n y o u t r y to frame t h e s a m e s h o t in t h e H D T V 1 6 x 9 aspect r a t i o , h o w e v e r , y o u are left w i t h a great

HEADROOM

a m o u n t of leftover space o n b o t h sides of t h e subject's

Because t h e edges of t h e television frame seem t o attract

face. T h e c l o s e - u p l o o k s s o m e w h a t l o s t in t h e w i d e -

like m a g n e t s w h a t e v e r is close t o t h e m , leave s o m e space

screen f o r m a t , a n d t h e e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p looks as t h o u g h

a b o v e p e o p l e ' s h e a d s — c a l l e d headroom—in

it is squeezed b e t w e e n t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m screen edges.

l o n g shots, m e d i u m shots, a n d c l o s e - u p s . SEE 6.20 Avoid

SEE6.16AND 6.17 You can solve this p r o b l e m relatively easily

h a v i n g t h e h e a d " g l u e d " to t h e u p p e r edge of t h e frame.

6.16

6 . 1 7 FRAMING AN EXTREME CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO

FRAMING A CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO

When framing the same close-up in the 1 6 x 9 format, both screen sides look conspicuously empty.

normal

In the 1 6 x 9 format, the ECU of the person seems oddly squeezed between the upper and lower screen edges.

Section

Framing

6.2

Effective

119

Shots

6.18 NATURAL MASKING OF A CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO To avoid excessive empty space when framing a screencenter close-up of a person in thel 6 x 9 format, you can mask the sides with objects from the actual environment.

6.19 FACE-TO-FACE CLOSE-UPS IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO The 1 6 x 9 format makes it relatively easy to have two people face each other on a close-up without having to stand uncomfortably close together.

6.20 NORMAL HEADROOM

6.21 TOO LITTLE HEADROOM

6.22 TOO MUCH HEADROOM

Headroom counters the magnetic pull of the upper frame. The person appears comfortably placed in the frame.

With no, or too little, headroom, the person looks cramped in the frame. The head seems to be glued to the upper screen edge.

With too much headroom, the pull of the bottom edge makes the picture bottomheavy and strangely unbalanced.

SEE 6.21 Because y o u lose a certain a m o u n t of p i c t u r e area

NOSEROOM AND LEADROOM

in v i d e o t a p i n g a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n , y o u n e e d to leave a little

S o m e b o d y l o o k i n g o r p o i n t i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n

m o r e h e a d r o o m t h a n feels comfortable. Leaving t o o m u c h

o t h e r t h a n straight i n t o t h e c a m e r a creates a screen force

h e a d r o o m , however, is just as b a d as t o o little, SEE 6.22 If

called a n index vector. You m u s t c o m p e n s a t e for this force

y o u r c a m e r a is so e q u i p p e d , y o u c a n use t h e frame guide

by leaving s o m e space in front of t h e vector. W h e n s o m e ­

in the viewfinder to see t h e p i c t u r e area t h a t actually a p ­

o n e looks or p o i n t s screen-left or screen-right, t h e i n d e x

pears o n t h e television screen. T h e h e a d r o o m rale applies

v e c t o r n e e d s to b e b a l a n c e d w i t h noseroom.

equally t o b o t h aspect ratios. QJJJ^CAMERA-> Composition^

n o s e r o o m or l e a d r o o m m a k e s t h e p i c t u r e look o d d l y o u t

headroom

A lack of

120

Chapter

6

CAMERA

OPERATION

AND PICTURE

COMPOSITION

6.23 PROPER NOSEROOM

6.24 LACK OF NOSEROOM

To absorb the force of the strong index vector created by the person's looking toward the screen edge, you need to leave some noseroom.

Without noseroom the person seems to be blocked by the screen edge, and the picture looks unbalanced.

6.25 PROPER LEADROOM

6.26 LACK OF LEADROOM

Assuming that the cyclist is actually moving, his motion vector is properly neutralized by the screen space in front of him. We like to see where the person is heading, not where he has been. Note that a still picture cannot show a motion vector. What you see here is an index vector.

Without leadroom the moving person or object seems to be hindered or stopped by the screen edge.

of balance; t h e p e r s o n seems to be blocked by t h e screen

d o n ' t m o v e b u t simply p o i n t in a specific direction, they are

edge. SEE 6.23 A N D 6.24

i n d e x vectors. M'Jg»CAIVIERA-» Composition-* leadroom

Screen m o t i o n creates a motion vector. W h e n s o m e o n e or s o m e t h i n g m o v e s in a screen-right or screen-left direc­ tion, y o u m u s t leave leadroom

to b a l a n c e t h e force of t h e

CLOSURE

m o t i o n vector, SEE 6.25 Even in a still p h o t o y o u can see that

Closure,

w i t h o u t p r o p e r l e a d r o o m t h e cyclist seems to b e crashing

w h i c h o u r m i n d s fill in i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t we c a n n o t a c t u ­

s h o r t for psychological

closure, is t h e process b y

into right screen border. SEE6.26 To avoid such crashes, y o u

ally see o n - s c r e e n . Take a look a r o u n d y o u : y o u see o n l y

m u s t always lead t h e m o v i n g object with t h e c a m e r a r a t h e r

p a r t s of the objects t h a t lie in y o u r field of vision. T h e r e is

t h a n follow it. After all, we w a n t to see w h e r e t h e m o v i n g

n o w a y y o u c a n ever see an object in its e n t i r e t y unless t h e

object is going, n o t w h e r e it has b e e n . N o t e , however, t h a t

object m o v e s a r o u n d y o u or y o u m o v e a r o u n d t h e object.

n e i t h e r of t h e l e a d r o o m e x a m p l e s here r e p r e s e n t actual

T h r o u g h experience we have learned to mentally supply the

m o t i o n vectors because they are still pictures; because they

missing parts, w h i c h allows us to perceive a w h o l e w o r l d

Section

Framing

6.2

Effective

121

Shots

6.27 FACILITATING CLOSURE BEYOND THE FRAME In this shot we perceive the whole figure of the person and her guitar although we see only part of them. This shot gives us sufficient clues to project the figure beyond the frame and apply psychological closure in the off-screen space.

6.28 TRIANGLE CLOSURE We tend to organize things into easily recognizable patterns. This group of similar objects forms a triangle.

6.29 SEMICIRCLE CLOSURE These objects organize the screen space into a semicircle.

a l t h o u g h we actually see only a fraction of it. Because close-

t h e figure b e y o n d t h e screen edges a n d perceive a sensible

u p s usually show only p a r t of an object, y o u r psychological

whole.

closure m e c h a n i s m m u s t w o r k o v e r t i m e .

also a u t o m a t i c a l l y g r o u p things together so that t h e y form

Positive closure

pressed not t o perceive figure 6.28 as a t r i a n g u l a r p a t t e r n

SEE6.27

To organize t h e visual w o r l d a r o u n d us, w e

a sensible p a t t e r n , To facilitate closure y o u s h o u l d always

frame a s h o t in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e viewer c a n easily extend

SEE 6.28 AND 6.29

a n d figure 6.29 as a semicircle.

You w o u l d b e h a r d -

6.30

UNDESIRABLE CLOSURE WITHIN THE FRAME

This shot is badly framed because we apply closure within the frame without projecting the rest of the person into off-screen space.

6.31

DESIRABLE CLOSURE IN OFF-SCREEN SPACE

In this ECU there are enough on-screen clues to project the rest of the person's head and body into off-screen space, thus applying closure to the total figure.

T h i s c l o s u r e a u t o m a t i o n can also w o r k against g o o d c o m p o s i t i o n . For e x a m p l e , w h e n fram­ ing a close-up of a face w i t h o u t giving p r o m i n e n t visual clues t o help viewers project t h e image b e y o n d t h e screen edges, t h e h e a d seems o d d l y cut off from its body, SEE 6.30 You therefore n e e d to p r o v i d e e n o u g h visual clues to lead t h e v i e w e r s ' eyes b e y o n d t h e f r a m e so t h e y c a n a p p l y c l o s u r e a n d perceive t h e c o m p l e t e p e r s o n in off-screen space. SEE 6.31 O u r m e c h a n i s m to organize our e n v i r o n m e n t into s i m p l e p a t t e r n s is so s t r o n g t h a t it often w o r k s against

6.32

ILLOGICAL CLOSURE

Although we know better, we perceive this reporter as balancing a street sign on his head.

r e a s o n . In t h e excitement of getting a g o o d s t o r y a n d a n interesting shot, it is easy to forget to look behind t h e object of a t t e n t i o n , b u t it is often t h e b a c k g r o u n d t h a t spoils a g o o d p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n , SEE 6.32

As y o u can see in figure

6.32, we tend to perceive the b a c k g r o u n d as p a r t of the fore­ g r o u n d . T h e r e p o r t e r seems to b e b a l a n c i n g a street sign

Section

6.2

Framing

Effective

Shots

123

o n his h e a d . M o s t often y o u m u s t g u a r d against c o m p o s i ­ t i o n s w h e r e i n b a c k g r o u n d objects seem to b e g r o w i n g o u t of the f o r e g r o u n d people's h e a d s . A slightly tilted h o r i z o n line is a n o t h e r c o m m o n c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o b l e m . O n c e y o u are aware of t h e b a c k g r o u n d , it is relatively easy to avoid illogical closure. rVi*--»CAMERA-» Composition-} closure

DEPTH Because t h e television screen is a flat, t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l piece of glass u p o n w h i c h t h e i m a g e a p p e a r s , we m u s t create t h e illusion of a t h i r d d i m e n s i o n . Fortunately, t h e p r i n c i p l e s for creating t h e illusion of d e p t h o n a t w o - d i ­ m e n s i o n a l surface have b e e n a m p l y e x p l o r e d a n d estab­ lished by p a i n t e r s a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s over t h e years. For creating a n d intensifying t h e illusion of d e p t h o n t h e m o s t

6.33 FOREGROUND, MIDDLEGROUND, AND BACKGROUND In general, try to divide the z-axis (depth dimension) into a prominent foreground (dead tree), middleground (pine trees), and background (ski run). Such a division helps create the illusion of screen depth.

basic level, t r y to establish a clear division of t h e i m a g e into f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d . To d o this y o u n e e d to c o n s i d e r t h e following factors:

m o v i n g images requires q u i c k reactions a n d full a t t e n t i o n

Choice of lens. A w i d e - a n g l e z o o m p o s i t i o n exagger­ ates d e p t h . N a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n s r e d u c e t h e illu­

t h r o u g h o u t t h e telecast. T h e s t u d y of the m o v i n g i m a g e is a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of l e a r n i n g t h e fine a r t of television a n d film p r o d u c t i o n ; h e r e we l o o k at s o m e of its m o s t

sion of a t h i r d d i m e n s i o n .

basic principles. i Positioning

of objects. T h e z-axis—the

line r e p r e ­

s e n t i n g an extension of t h e lens from t h e c a m e r a to

9

t h e h o r i z o n — h a s significant b e a r i n g o n perceiving

away from t h e c a m e r a ) are stronger t h a n any type of lateral

d e p t h . A n y t h i n g p o s i t i o n e d a l o n g t h e z-axis relative

m o t i o n (from o n e screen edge to t h e o t h e r ) . Fortunately,

to t h e c a m e r a will create t h e illusion of d e p t h .

t h e y are also t h e easiest to frame: y o u s i m p l y k e e p t h e

Depth of field. A slightly shallow d e p t h of field is usually m o r e effective to define d e p t h because t h e in-focus f o r e g r o u n d object is m o r e clearly set off against t h e o u t - o f - f o c u s b a c k g r o u n d .

e

W h e n f r a m i n g for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 4 x 3 aspect ratio a n d small screen, m o v e m e n t s a l o n g t h e z-axis ( t o w a r d or

Lighting

c a m e r a as steady as possible a n d m a k e sure that t h e m o v ­ ing object does n o t go o u t of focus as it a p p r o a c h e s t h e c a m e r a . R e m e m b e r t h a t a w i d e - a n g l e z o o m lens p o s i t i o n gives t h e impression of accelerated m o t i o n along the z-axis, whereas a n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n slows z-axis m o t i o n for

and color. A b r i g h t l y lighted object w i t h

s t r o n g (highly s a t u r a t e d ) color seems closer t h a n

t h e viewer. W h e n w o r k i n g in t h e 16 x 9 H D T V a s p e c t r a t i o ,

o n e t h a t is d i m l y lighted a n d h a s w a s h e d - o u t (low-

however, lateral m o v e m e n t takes o n m o r e p r o m i n e n c e .

s a t u r a t i o n ) colors, SEE6.33

A l t h o u g h t h e stretched screen w i d t h gives y o u a little m o r e

CAMERA-* Picture

depth-* z-axis | lens choice | perspective and

distortion

b r e a t h i n g r o o m , y o u m u s t still have p r o p e r l e a d r o o m d u r ­ ing the entire p a n . As m e n t i o n e d , t h e viewer w a n t s t o k n o w w h e r e t h e object is going, n o t w h e r e it has b e e n . If y o u are o n a close-up a n d t h e subject shifts back a n d

SCREEN MOTION

forth, d o n ' t t r y to follow each m i n o r wiggle. You m i g h t r u n

C o n t r a r y to t h e p a i n t e r o r t h e still p h o t o g r a p h e r , w h o

t h e risk of m a k i n g viewers seasick; at t h e very least, they

deals w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of static i m a g e s w i t h i n t h e

will n o t b e able to c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e subject for very long.

p i c t u r e frame, t h e television c a m e r a o p e r a t o r m u s t a l m o s t

Keep t h e c a m e r a p o i n t e d at t h e m a j o r a c t i o n area o r z o o m

always c o p e w i t h framing images in m o t i o n . C o m p o s i n g

o u t (or pull b a c k ) to a slightly w i d e r shot.

124

Chapter

6.34

TWO PERSONS SAYING GOOD-BYE

CAMERA

6

6.35

If in a two-shot the people walk away from each other toward the screen edges, don't try to keep both people in the shot.

OPERATION

AND

PICTURE

COMPOSITION

CAMERA STAYS WITH ONE OF THEM

You must decide which person you will keep in the frame and let the other move off-camera.

W h e n o n e of t h e p e r s o n s in a t w o - s h o t m o v e s o u t of

W h a t e v e r y o u d o to o r g a n i z e screen m o t i o n , d o it

t h e frame, d o n o t t r y to keep b o t h p e o p l e in t h e f r a m e —

smoothly. Try t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a as little as possible unless

stay w i t h just o n e of t h e m , SEE 6.34 AND 6.35 M i»>CAMERA->

y o u n e e d to follow a m o v i n g object or d r a m a t i z e a s h o t

Screen motion-* z-axis | lateral | close-ups

t h r o u g h m o t i o n . Because y o u c a n m o v e a c a m c o r d e r so

T

If even after extensive rehearsals y o u find t h a t in a n

easily, it m a y b e t e m p t i n g to " a n i m a t e " a basically static

o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r s h o t t h e p e r s o n closer to t h e c a m e r a

scene b y m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a w i t h great fervor. D o n ' t d o

blocks t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w h o is f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e

it. Excessive c a m e r a m o t i o n is a telltale sign of a n a m a t e u r

c a m e r a , y o u can solve t h e p r o b l e m by t r u c k i n g o r arcing

camera operator.

to t h e right or left, SEE 6.36 AND

6.36

6.37

CAMERA-FAR PERSON BLOCKED

In an over-the-shoulder shot, you may find that the cameranear person blocks the camera-far person.

6.37

CAMERA TRUCKS TO CORRECT

To correct this over-the-shoulder shot so that the camera-far person can be seen, simply truck or arc the camera to the right.

Section

6.2

•

Because the television screen size is relatively small, we use more close-ups and medium shots than long shots. When shooting for wide-aspect-ratio, large-screen HDTV, you can use more medium shots and long shots.

•

Field of view refers to how much of a scene you show in the viewfinder, that is, how close the object appears relative to the viewer. The field of view is organized into five steps: ESL (extreme long shot, or establishing shot), LS (long shot, or full shot), MS (medium shot, or waist shot), CU (close-up), and ECU (extreme close-up).

•

•

Alternate shot designations include the bust shot, the knee shot, the two-shot, the three-shot, the over-the-shoulder shot (O/S), and the cross-shot (X/S). In organizing the screen area for the traditional 4 x 3 and the HDTV 1 6 x 9 aspect ratios, the major considerations are: dealing with height and width, framing close-ups, headroom, noseroom and leadroom, and closure.

•

In organizing screen depth, a simple and effective way is to establish a distinct foreground, middleground, and back­ ground.

•

In creating the illusion of a third dimension (depth), you need to consider the choice of lens, positioning of objects, depth of field, and lighting and color.

•

In organizing screen motion for the 4 x 3 aspect ratio, z-axis motion (movement toward or away from the camera) is stronger than lateral movement (from one side of the screen to the other). When working in the 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio, lateral movement becomes more prominent.

Framing

Effective

125

Shots

For your reference, or to track your work, each Video­ Lab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.

E3H>

CAMERAS Composition^ field of view CAMERA-^ Compositions close-ups CAMERAS Compositions headroom CAMERA-} Composition^- leadroom CAMERA-} Composition-* closure CAMERAS Picture d e p t h s z-axis | lens choice | perspective and distortion CAMERAS Screen motion^ z-axis | lateral | close-ups 124

115 118 119 120 123

123

Lighting Lighting m e a n s to control light a n d s h a d o w s for three principal reasons: (1) to help the television camera see well, that is, produce technically optimal pictures; (2) to help the v i e w e r see w e l l — t o recognize w h a t things a n d p e o p l e look like a n d w h e r e t h e y are in relation to o n e another a n d to their immediate environment; a n d (3) to establish for the v i e w e r a specific m o o d that helps intensify t h e feeling about t h e event.

Section 7 . 1 , Lighting Instruments a n d Lighting Controls, describes the tools y o u n e e d to accomplish these lighting objectives. Section 7.2, Light Intensity, Lamps, a n d Color Media, introduces a few m o r e elements about light, h o w to control a n d measure it, a n d h o w to use colored light.

126

barn doors Metal flaps mounted in front of a lighting instru­ ment that control the spread of the light beam. baselight Even, nondirectional (diffused) light necessary for the camera to operate optimally. Normal baselight levels are 150 to 200 foot-candles (1,500 to 2,000 lux) at f/8 to f/16. Also called base.

HMI light Stands for hydragyrum medium arc-length iodide. Uses a high-intensity lamp that produces light by passing electricity through a specific type of gas. Needs a separate ballast. Similar to the HID light. incandescent The light produced by the hot tungsten filament of ordinary glass-globe or quartz-iodine light bulbs (in con­ trast to fluorescent light).

broad A floodlight with a broadside, panlike reflector. clip light Small internal reflector spotlight that is clipped to pieces of scenery or furniture with a gator clip. Also called PAR (parabolic aluminized reflector) lamp.

incident light Light that strikes the object directly from its source. An incident-light reading is the measure of light in foot-candles (or lux) from the object to the light source. The light meter is pointed directly into the light source or toward the camera.

cookie A popularization of the original term cucolorisor cucaloris. Any pattern cut out of thin metal that, when placed inside or in front of an ellipsoidal spotlight (pattern projector), produces a shadow pattern. Also called gobo.

lumen The light intensity power of one candle (light source radiating isotropically, i.e., in all directions).

dimmer A device that controls the intensity of light by throt­ tling the electric current flowing to the lamp.

luminant Lamp that produces the light; the light source.

ellipsoidal spotlight Spotlight producing a very defined beam, which can be shaped further by metal shutters. flag A thin, rectangular sheet of metal, plastic, or cloth used to block light from falling on specific areas. Also called gobo. floodlight Lighting instrument that produces diffused light with a relatively undefined beam edge. fluorescent Lamps that generate light by activating a gas-filled tube to give off ultraviolet radiation, which lights up the phosphorous coating inside the tubes. follow spot Powerful special-effects spotlight used primarily to simulate theater stage effects. It generally follows action, such as dancers, ice skaters, or single performers moving in front of a stage curtain. foot-candle (fc) The American unit of measurement of illumi­ nation, or the amount of light that falls on an object. One foot-candle is the amount of light from a single candle that falls on a 1-square-foot area located 1 foot away from the light source. Fresnel spotlight One of the most common spotlights, named after the inventor of its lens. Its lens has steplike concentric rings. gel Generic term for color filters put in front of spotlights or floodlights to give the light beam a specific hue. Gel comes from gelatin, the filter material used before the invention of more-durable plastics. Also called color media.

luminaire Technical term for lighting instrument.

lux European standard unit for measuring light intensity. 10.75 lux = 1 fc; usually roughly translated as 10 lux = 1 fc. neutral density (ND) filter Filter that reduces the incoming light without distorting the color of the scene. patchboard A device that connects various inputs with specific outputs. Also called patchbay. pattern projector An ellipsoidal spotlight with a cookie (cucoloris) insert, which projects the cookie's pattern as a cast shadow. quartz A high-intensity incandescent light whose lamp consists of a quartz or silica housing (instead of the customary glass) that contains halogen gas and a tungsten filament. Produces a very bright light of stable color temperature (3,200K). Also called TH (tungsten-halogen) lamp. reflected light Light that is bounced off the illuminated object. A reflected-light reading is done with a light meter held close to the illuminated object. scoop A scooplike television floodlight. scrim A spun-glass material that is put in front of a lighting in­ strument as an additional light diffuser or intensity reducer. softlight Television floodlight that produces extremely dif­ fused light. spotlight A lighting instrument that produces directional, relatively undiffused light with a relatively well-defined beam edge.

127

7.1 Lighting Instruments

STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS All s t u d i o lighting is a c c o m p l i s h e d with a variety of s p o t ­ lights a n d floodlights. These i n s t r u m e n t s , technically called luminaires,

are designed t o o p e r a t e from t h e s t u d i o ceiling

or from floor s t a n d s .

SPOTLIGHTS Spotlights

p r o d u c e directional, well-defined light w h o s e

b e a m can b e adjusted f r o m a s h a r p light b e a m like t h e o n e

and Lighting Controls

from a focused flashlight or a car headlight to a softer b e a m that is still highly directional b u t that lights u p a larger area. All s t u d i o spotlights have a lens t h a t helps s h a r p e n t h e b e a m . M o s t s t u d i o lighting uses t h r e e basic types of s p o t ­ lights: t h e Fresnel, t h e ellipsoidal, a n d t h e follow spot. Fresnel spotlight

N a m e d for t h e early-nineteenth-cen­

t u r y F r e n c h physicist A u g u s t i n Fresnel ( p r o n o u n c e d "franel") w h o invented t h e lens used in it, t h e Fresnel

spotlight

is widely used in television s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 7.1 It is relatively lightweight a n d flexible a n d h a s a h i g h o u t p u t . T h e spotlight can b e adjusted t o a "flood" b e a m p o s i t i o n , W h e n y o u t u r n o n t h e light in y o u r r o o m , y o u a r e c o n ­ cerned primarily with having enough illumination to

w h i c h gives off a w i d e s p r e a d light b e a m ; or it can b e "spot­ ted," o r focused t o a s h a r p , clearly defined b e a m .

see well a n d get a r o u n d . C o n t r a r y to t h e lighting in y o u r h o m e , however, television l i g h t i n g m u s t also please t h e 'anning mechanism controlled by poleoperated knob (see inset)

television c a m e r a a n d fulfill certain aesthetic f u n c t i o n s , such as s i m u l a t i n g o u t d o o r o r i n d o o r lighting o r creating a h a p p y o r sinister m o o d . S t u d i o lighting requires i n s t r u ­ m e n t s that can s i m u l a t e b r i g h t sunlight, a street l a m p at a lonely bus stop, t h e efficiency of a hospital o p e r a t i n g r o o m , or t h e h o r r o r of a medieval d u n g e o n . It m u s t also reflect

Gel and scrim holder

t h e credibility of a news anchor, t h e high energy of a g a m e show, o r t h e r o m a n t i c m o o d in a soap o p e r a scene. W h e n in t h e field, y o u n e e d lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t are easy t o t r a n s p o r t a n d set u p a n d flexible e n o u g h t o

Fresnel lens

w o r k in a great variety of e n v i r o n m e n t s for a m u l t i t u d e of lighting tasks. This section describes t h e m a j o r s t u d i o a n d field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t h e v a r i o u s types of light­ Other side:

ing controls. Section 7.2 provides i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t light intensity, v a r i o u s types of l a m p s , a n d color m e d i a . T h e t e c h n i q u e s of lighting are discussed in c h a p t e r 8. ^

STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Spotlights and floodlights Focus knob

Pan knob

Tilt knob

FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Portable spotlights, portable floodlights, and camera lights

7 . 1 FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT •

LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT Mounting devices, directional controls, and intensity controls

128

This spotlight is one of the most useful lighting instruments in the studio.

Section

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Lighting

Instruments

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Lighting

Controls

129

You m a n i p u l a t e the relative s p r e a d of t h e b e a m w i t h a b e a m c o n t r o l t h a t changes t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e light b u l b a n d t h e lens. M o s t Fresnel spotlights have a reflector

lamp-

unit i n s i d e t h e l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t t h a t slides

A

Flood position

B

Spot position

t o w a r d o r away from the lens. S o m e i n s t r u m e n t s have a spindle that y o u c r a n k a n d thereby m o v e the lamp-reflector u n i t t o w a r d or away from t h e lens; o t h e r s have a r i n g or k n o b t h a t can be t u r n e d b y h a n d o r from t h e s t u d i o floor w i t h a small h o o k o n t o p of a l o n g pole, called a

lighting

pole. W h a t e v e r t h e m e c h a n i s m , t h e r e s u l t is t h e s a m e : To spot, o r focus, t h e b e a m , t u r n t h e c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e lamp-reflector u n i t m o v e s away from t h e lens. To flood, o r spread, t h e b e a m , t u r n t h e c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e l a m p reflector u n i t moves toward the lens. Even in t h e flood posi­ tion, t h e b e a m of t h e spotlight is still directional a n d m u c h sharper t h a n that of a floodlight. T h e flood position merely softens t h e b e a m ( a n d w i t h it t h e s h a d o w s ) a n d s i m u l t a ­ n e o u s l y reduces t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n t h e object. Always adjust the b e a m gently. W h e n t h e b u l b is t u r n e d o n , its h o t

filament

is h i g h l y sensitive to shock,

SEE 7.2

S o m e Fresnel spots h a v e a d d i t i o n a l external k n o b s w i t h w h i c h y o u c a n also c o n t r o l t h e p a n a n d the tilt of the i n s t r u m e n t w i t h o u t c l i m b i n g a l a d d e r a n d d o i n g it m a n u ­ ally (see figure 7.1). Fresnel spotlights c o m e in different sizes, d e p e n d i n g o n h o w m u c h light they p r o d u c e . Obviously, t h e larger i n s t r u m e n t s p r o d u c e m o r e light t h a n the smaller ones. T h e size of Fresnel spotlights is n o r m a l l y given in the w a t t a g e of t h e l a m p . For e x a m p l e , you m i g h t b e asked to r e h a n g t h e l k W (1 kilowatt = 1,000 watts) Fresnel or c h a n g e the l a m p in t h e 2 k W Fresnel.

7.2 BEAM CONTROL OF FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT

T h e size of l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t to use d e p e n d s o n several factors: (1) t h e t y p e of c a m e r a a n d t h e sensitivity of t h e i m a g i n g device; (2) t h e distance of the lighting i n s t r u ­ m e n t from t h e object or scene to b e i l l u m i n a t e d ; (3) t h e

A To flood (or spread) the beam, turn the focus spindle, ring, or knob so that the lamp-reflector unit moves toward the lens. B To spot (or focus) the beam, turn the focus spindle, ring, or knob so that the lamp-reflector unit moves away from the lens.

reflectance of t h e scenery, objects, c l o t h i n g , a n d s t u d i o floor; a n d , of course (4) t h e m o o d y o u w a n t to convey. In m o s t television studios, the m o s t c o m m o n Fresnels

a m p l e , if y o u w a n t to create pools of light reflecting off the

are t h e l k W a n d t h e 2 k W i n s t r u m e n t s . For m a x i m u m

s t u d i o floor, t h e ellipsoidal spot is t h e i n s t r u m e n t t o use.

lighting control, t e c h n i c i a n s usually prefer t o o p e r a t e with

As w i t h t h e Fresnel, y o u can s p o t a n d flood t h e light

as few (yet a d e q u a t e l y powerful) lighting i n s t r u m e n t s as

b e a m of t h e ellipsoidal. Instead of sliding t h e l a m p inside

possible. T h e increased sensitivity of cameras has m a d e the

t h e i n s t r u m e n t , however, y o u focus t h e ellipsoidal s p o t by

l k W Fresnel t h e w o r k h o r s e in average-sized studios.

m o v i n g its lens in a n d out. Because of the peculiarity of t h e

Ellipsoidal spotlight

even s h a p e t h e b e a m i n t o a triangle or rectangle by adjust­

ellipsoidal reflector (which has t w o focal p o i n t s ) , y o u can T h e ellipsoidal

spotlightproduces

a sharp, highly defined b e a m . Even w h e n in a flood p o s i ­

ing t h e four m e t a l s h u t t e r s inside t h e i n s t r u m e n t , SEE 7.3

t i o n , t h e ellipsoidal b e a m is still s h a r p e r t h a n t h e focused

Ellipsoidal s p o t l i g h t s c o m e i n sizes f r o m 5 0 0 W to

b e a m of a Fresnel spot. Ellipsoidal spots are generally used

2,000W, b u t t h e m o s t c o m m o n is 750W. S o m e ellipsoidal

w h e n specific, precise lighting tasks are necessary. For ex-

s p o t l i g h t s can also b e u s e d as pattern

projectors.

These

130

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LIGHTING

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7.5 FOLLOW SPOT The follow spot allows you to follow action and simultaneously adjust the light beam.

To m a k e lighting t e r m i n o l o g y a little m o r e confusing,

7.3 ELLIPSOIDAL SPOTLIGHT

s o m e lighting people call these p a t t e r n s gobos. U n f o r t u ­

The highly focused beam of the ellipsoidal spotlight can be further shaped by shutters. It produces the most directional beam of all spotlights.

nately, gobo seems to have as a m b i g u o u s a m e a n i n g as t h e w o r d spring. If a lighting director (LD) asked y o u to fetch a g o b o , h e or she c o u l d m e a n a cookie; a flag, w h i c h is a r e c t a n g u l a r piece of plastic o r m e t a l t o keep light f r o m

i n s t r u m e n t s are e q u i p p e d w i t h a slot n e x t to t h e b e a m s h a p i n g s h u t t e r s , w h i c h can h o l d a m e t a l p a t t e r n called a cucoloris, or cookie for s h o r t . T h e ellipsoidal s p o t projects

falling o n t o certain areas; or even a freestanding piece of scenery, s u c h as p r i s o n bars o r a p i c t u r e frame, t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e c a m e r a can s h o o t a related scene.

t h e cookie as a s h a d o w p a t t e r n o n a n y surface. M o s t often it is u s e d to b r e a k u p flat surfaces, s u c h as t h e

cyclorama

Follow spot

S o m e t i m e s y o u m a y find that a television

(large cloth d r a p e used for backing of scenery) or t h e s t u d i o

s h o w r e q u i r e s a follow

floor. SEE 7.4

spotlight u s e d p r i m a r i l y to s i m u l a t e t h e a t e r stage effects.

spot,

a powerful

special-effects

T h e follow s p o t generally follows a c t i o n , such as d a n c e r s , ice skaters, or single p e r f o r m e r s m o v i n g in front of a stage c u r t a i n , SEE 7.5 In smaller s t u d i o s , y o u c a n use a n ellipsoi­ dal spotlight t o s i m u l a t e a follow spot.

FLOODLIGHTS Floodlights

are d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e great a m o u n t s of

h i g h l y diffused light. T h e y a r e often used as p r i n c i p a l sources of light (key lights) in situations w h e r e s h a d o w s are to b e kept to a m i n i m u m , s u c h as n e w s sets a n d p r o d u c t displays; to slow d o w n falloff

(reduce contrast between

light a n d s h a d o w areas); a n d to p r o v i d e baselight.

With

s o m e floodlights, as w i t h s o m e spotlights, y o u can adjust

7.4 COOKIE PATTERN ON CYCLORAMA The cookie pattern is projected by an ellipsoidal spotlight (pattern projector) in which you can insert a variety of metal templates. Because the spotlight can be focused, you can make the projected pattern look sharp or soft.

t h e s p r e a d of t h e b e a m so t h a t u n d u e spill i n t o o t h e r set areas can b e m i n i m i z e d . You c a n also create a floodlight effect by flooding t h e b e a m of a spotlight a n d diffusing it further w i t h a scrim—a

spun-glass m a t e r i a l held in a m e t a l

f r a m e — i n front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t .

Section

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Controls

131

7.7 INCANDESCENT SOFTLIGHT The softlight produces extremely diffused light and is used for illumination with slow fa 11 off. It renders a scene almost shadow­ less.

Adjustable-focus

scoops have adjustable b e a m s , from

7.6 SCOOP

m e d i u m - s p r e a d p o s i t i o n s to full flood. You m a y use t h e

The scoop is a rugged, all-purpose floodlight. Its scooplike reflector gives its beam some directionality. This scoop has a scrim attached to soften the beam.

adjustable scoops as key lights a n d fill in the resulting shad­ ows w i t h o t h e r floodlights that e m i t a m o r e highly diffused light. M o s t s c o o p s range from l k W t o 2 k W ( 1 , 0 0 0 W t o 2 , 0 0 0 W ) , w i t h t h e 1,500W scoop b e i n g t h e m o s t p o p u l a r .

T h e r e are four basic types of s t u d i o floodlights: (1) the

BJH^UGHTS^ Instruments^ studio | field

s c o o p , (2) t h e softlight a n d t h e b r o a d , (3) t h e fluorescent floodlight b a n k , a n d (4) t h e strip, o r eye, light.

Softlight and broad

Softlights

are u s e d for even, ex­

t r e m e l y diffused lighting. T h e y have large tubelike l a m p s , for its p e c u l i a r scooplike reflector, t h e

a diffusing reflector in t h e back of the large h o u s i n g , a n d

scoop is o n e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r floodlights. A l t h o u g h it

a diffusing m a t e r i a l covering the front o p e n i n g to further

has n o lens, it nevertheless p r o d u c e s a fairly directional b u t

diffuse t h e light. Softlights are often used for flat (virtually

Z - N a m e d

diffused light b e a m , SEE 7.6

shadowless) l i g h t i n g s e t u p s . You c a n also use softlights

T h e r e are t w o types of scoops: fixed-focus a n d adjust­

t o increase t h e baselight level w i t h o u t affecting specific

able-focus. The fixed-focus scoop p e r m i t s n o simple adjust­

lighting w h e r e highlights a n d s h a d o w areas are carefully

m e n t of its light b e a m . You c a n increase t h e diffusion of

c o n t r o l l e d . For e x a m p l e , if a scene calls for a hallway with

t h e b e a m by a t t a c h i n g a s c r i m (see figure 7.6). A l t h o u g h

a l t e r n a t i n g b r i g h t a n d d a r k areas, y o u can lighten u p t h e

t h e light o u t p u t t h r o u g h t h e scrim is considerably reduced,

d a r k areas with softlights t o p r o v i d e e n o u g h baselight for

s o m e lighting p e o p l e p u t s c r i m s o n all scoops, n o t only

t h e c a m e r a to see well even in t h e d a r k areas. Softlights

t o p r o d u c e highly diffused light b u t also to p r o t e c t s t u d i o

c o m e in v a r i o u s sizes a n d use i n c a n d e s c e n t o r H M I l a m p s ,

p e r s o n n e l in case t h e h o t l a m p inside t h e s c o o p shatters.

w h i c h are discussed in section 7.2. SEE 7.7

Chapter

132

7.8

LIGHTING

7

LARGE BROAD

This instrument illuminates a fairly large area with diffused light. Its light output is normally greater than that of a softlight of equal size.

T h e broad (from broadside)

7.9

FLUORESCENT FLOODLIGHT BANK

These floodlight banks act like softlights except that they do not get as hot as incandescent floodlights of equal output. Some floodlight banks use lamps that operate on various fluorescent-like principles.

is similar t o a softlight

except t h a t it h a s a h i g h e r light o u t p u t t h a t causes m o r e d i s t i n c t s h a d o w s . B r o a d s also h a v e s o m e p r o v i s i o n for

m u c h m o r e c o o l l y — a definite a d v a n t a g e w h e n lighting

b e a m control. T h e y are generally used t o evenly i l l u m i n a t e

interiors with p o o r ventilation. T h e disadvantages are

large areas w i t h diffused light, SEE 7.8 Smaller b r o a d s e m i t

t h a t fluorescent b a n k s are still quite large a n d b u l k y a n d

a m o r e directional light b e a m t h a n d o t h e larger types,

t h e i r color s p e c t r u m is s o m e t i m e s u n e v e n . T h i s m e a n s

for evenly i l l u m i n a t i n g s m a l l e r areas. To p e r m i t s o m e

t h a t t h e light e m i t t e d d o e s n o t r e p r o d u c e all colors faith­

directional c o n t r o l over t h e b e a m , s o m e b r o a d s have barn

fully. S o m e i n s t r u m e n t s cause a persistent a n d noticeable

doors—movable

greenish sheen.

metal flaps—to block gross light spill i n t o

o t h e r set areas.

Floodlight b a n k s have rows of l o w - p o w e r e d fluores­ cent l a m p s inside a h o u s i n g t h a t looks similar t o a softT h e fluorescent flood­

light. These l a m p s l o o k m u c h like t h e fluorescent b u l b s

light b a n k goes back t o t h e early days of television lighting.

you c a n n o w b u y t o replace n o r m a l i n c a n d e s c e n t b u l b s .

In t h o s e days t h e b a n k s were large, heavy, a n d n o t very ef­

SEE 7.9 S o m e fluorescent s t u d i o l i g h t i n g fixtures have a

ficient. Today's fluorescent b a n k s are relatively lightweight,

gridlike c o n t r a p t i o n , called a n egg crate, a t t a c h e d t o m a k e

m u c h m o r e efficient, a n d c a n b u r n close t o t h e s t a n d a r d

the light b e a m m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l w i t h o u t losing its soft­

i n d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e (3,200K) o r even a lower o n e

ness. SEE 7.10

Fluorescent floodlight bank

(giving off m o r e - r e d d i s h light). By s i m p l y c h a n g i n g t h e tubes, y o u c a n a p p r o x i m a t e t h e s t a n d a r d o u t d o o r color

Strip, or eye, light

t e m p e r a t u r e (5,600K) o r achieve even h i g h e r o n e s ( m o r e -

m o n l y used t o achieve even i l l u m i n a t i o n of large set areas,

T h i s t y p e of i n s t r u m e n t is c o m ­

bluish light) t h a t resemble t h e extremely b l u i s h m i d d a y

such as t h e eye (cyclorama)

sunlight filtered by a h a z y sky. (Color t e m p e r a t u r e is ex­

b a c k g r o u n d . Similar t o t h e border, o r eye, lights of t h e t h e ­

p l a i n e d in detail in c h a p t e r 8. F o r n o w it s h o u l d suffice t o

ater, television strip lights consist of rows of t h r e e t o twelve

or some other uninterrupted

k n o w that a h i g h color t e m p e r a t u r e refers to w h i t e light

q u a r t z l a m p s m o u n t e d in long, boxlike reflectors. T h e m o r e

w i t h a slight bluish tint, a n d a low color t e m p e r a t u r e t o

sophisticated strip lights have, like t h e a t e r b o r d e r lights,

white light w i t h a slight r e d d i s h tint. C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e

colored-glass frames for each of t h e reflector u n i t s so t h a t

has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h h o w h o t a l a m p gets.)

t h e eye c a n b e i l l u m i n a t e d in different colors, SEE 7.11

O t h e r advantages of fluorescent b a n k s are that t h e y

You c a n also use strip lights as general floodlights by

use less p o w e r t h a n i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p s a n d t h e y b u r n

s u s p e n d i n g t h e m from t h e s t u d i o ceiling, o r y o u c a n place

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Lighting

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Controls

133

grid. T h e r e are several advantages to u s i n g these lighter i n s t r u m e n t s instead of t h o s e o n t h e grid: (1) you can place t h e small i n s t r u m e n t s a n y w h e r e in the s t u d i o with a m i n i ­ m u m of effort, (2) t h e y c a n b e r e p o s i t i o n e d quite easily to get t h e desired lighting effect, (3) t h e y d r a w considerably less p o w e r t h a n t h e larger i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d (4) they gener­ ate less heat. T h e following section highlights s o m e of t h e m a j o r p o r t a b l e field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s .

FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS ENGW You

can use s t u d i o lighting i n s t r u m e n t s o n r e m o t e

E F P ^ locations, b u t you'll find t h a t m o s t of t h e m are t o o b u l k y to m o v e a r o u n d easily, t h e i r large plugs d o n o t fit t h e n o r m a l h o u s e h o l d receptacles, a n d they d r a w t o o m u c h power. O n c e in place a n d o p e r a t i n g , they m a y n o t p r o v i d e t h e a m o u n t or type of i l l u m i n a t i o n y o u n e e d for g o o d field lighting. Besides, m o s t s t u d i o lights are s u s p e n d e d o n an o v e r h e a d lighting grid. To take t h e m d o w n each t i m e y o u h a v e to light a r e m o t e telecast n o t only wastes valuable p r o d u c t i o n t i m e b u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , r o b s t h e s t u d i o of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . Unless y o u d o big r e m o t e s w h e r e t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s rival s t u d i o lighting, you n e e d in­

7.10

EGG CRATE ON FLUORESCENT FIXTURE

The egg crate makes the floodlight from a fluorescent fixture more directional without influencing the light's softness.

s t r u m e n t s that are easy to t r a n s p o r t a n d quick to set u p a n d t h a t give y o u t h e lighting flexibility n e e d e d in the field. A l t h o u g h m a n y p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s fulfill d u a l spotlight a n d floodlight functions, y o u m a y still find it useful to g r o u p t h e m , like s t u d i o lights, i n t o those catego­ ries. N o t e , however, that b y b o u n c i n g a spotlight b e a m off t h e ceiling or t h e wall or b y p u t t i n g s o m e k i n d of diffuser in front of t h e lens, t h e spotlight will take o n t h e function of a floodlight. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u can use a small floodlight a n d c o n t r o l its b e a m w i t h b a r n d o o r s so t h a t it i l l u m i n a t e s a relatively l i m i t e d area, o p e r a t i n g as a s p o t .

7.11

PORTABLE SPOTLIGHTS

STRIP, OR CYC, LIGHT

Strip lights are used to illuminate cycloramas and other large areas that need even illumination.

Portable spotlights are designed to b e lightweight, rugged, efficient (which m e a n s t h a t t h e light o u t p u t is great relative t o t h e size of t h e i n s t r u m e n t ) , easy t o set u p a n d t r a n s p o r t , a n d small e n o u g h to be effectively h i d d e n from c a m e r a

t h e m o n t h e s t u d i o floor t o separate pillars a n d o t h e r set

view even in c r a m p e d i n t e r i o r s . T h e m o s t frequently used

pieces from t h e lighted b a c k g r o u n d . Strip lights are s o m e ­

spotlights are (1) t h e small Fresnel spot, (2) t h e H M I light,

t i m e s used for silhouette

(3) t h e small focusable s p o t , (4) t h e open-face spot, a n d

lighting ( w h e r e t h e b a c k g r o u n d is

evenly i l l u m i n a t e d a n d t h e f o r e g r o u n d objects r e m a i n u n ­ lit) a n d special-effects chroma-key

(5) t h e i n t e r n a l reflector s p o t .

lighting (see c h a p t e r 8).

E3S>LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette

Small Fresnel spot

If y o u n e e d precise lighting for EFP,

For relatively static scenes, such as news o r interviews,

s u c h as for a scene t h a t takes place in a n actual living r o o m

y o u will find t h a t it is often easier t o use t h e m u c h lighter

r a t h e r t h a n o n a s t u d i o set, y o u m a y w a n t t o use l o w - p o w ­

a n d m o r e flexible field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , even if there's

ered ( 3 0 0 W to 6 5 0 W ) Fresnel spotlights. T h e y have all t h e

a great variety of s t u d i o lights h a n g i n g f r o m the lighting

features of the larger Fresnel spots, b u t they are smaller a n d

134

Chapter

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LIGHTING

7.12 SMALL FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT This low-powered (300W to 650W) Fresnel spotlight is espe­ cially effective in EFP lighting. You can focus or diffuse its beam and attach four-way barn doors and color media (gels).

7.13 PORTABLE HMI FRESNEL SPOT WITH BALLAST lighter weight. You can m o u n t t h e m o n light stands or even clip t h e m o n v a r i o u s braces or h a n g e r s , SEE 7.12

The HMI Fresnel spotlight burns with the daylight standard (5,600K). It needs considerably less power than does an incan­ descent light of equal intensity.

The HMI light is a Fresnel spotlight that h a s

t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c daylight ( o u t d o o r ) s t a n d a r d of 5,600K.

proved highly successful in elaborate EFP, large r e m o t e s ,

You c a n use t h e m as t h e p r i n c i p a l light source o r to fill in

a n d film p r o d u c t i o n s . SEE7.13 It h a s a l a m p t h a t delivers

s h a d o w s w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s . You can also use t h e m

from three to five times the illumination of an incandescent

i n d o o r s to fill in s h a d o w s caused by daylight s t r e a m i n g

q u a r t z i n s t r u m e n t of t h e s a m e wattage. This m e a n s t h a t

through a window.

you can get t h e s a m e level of i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h a 5 0 0 W

O n e of t h e m a j o r advantages of these superefficient

H M I Fresnel as w i t h a 2 , 5 0 0 W i n c a n d e s c e n t Fresnel. T h e

H M I lights is that y o u can use u p to five 2 0 0 W i n s t r u m e n t s

H M I l a m p also generates c o n s i d e r a b l y less heat t h a n d o e s

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h o u t o v e r l o a d i n g a single circuit, as­

an incandescent l a m p of the s a m e wattage. To p e r f o r m such

s u m i n g t h a t n o t h i n g else is plugged i n t o t h e s a m e circuit.

miracles, each i n s t r u m e n t n e e d s its o w n starter a n d ballast

Because you p l u g m o s t of the lights i n t o h o u s e h o l d outlets,

units to p o w e r t h e l a m p . It is used p r i m a r i l y for s i m u l a t i n g

y o u can light m o s t interiors w i t h a m i n i m u m of t i m e a n d

o r s u p p l e m e n t i n g o u t d o o r light. (See section 7.2 for m o r e -

effort. All y o u actually n e e d are p l e n t y of e x t e n s i o n cords

technical details a b o u t h o w t h e v a r i o u s l a m p s w o r k . )

a n d p o w e r strips. As m e n t i o n e d before, t h e H M I l a m p s

For n o r m a l EFP w o r k , y o u m a y find t h a t t h e 200W,

d o n ' t g e n e r a t e m u c h heat, w h i c h keeps interiors relatively

575W, a n d 1,200W i n s t r u m e n t s are t h e m o s t useful. H M I

cool even w h e n several i n s t r u m e n t s are a i m e d at a small

lights are designed for location s h o o t i n g a n d b u r n w i t h

a c t i o n area.

Section

7.7

Lighting

Instruments

and

Lighting

Controls

135

But t h e r e is a d o w n s i d e to these m i r a c l e lights. T h e ballast b o x of t h e H M I light is relatively heavy, c a n get q u i t e w a r m , a n d occasionally h u m s . Even t h e l a m p can e m i t a h i g h - f r e q u e n c y noise. W h e n switched o n , t h e l a m p ' takes a n y w h e r e from o n e to t h r e e m i n u t e s t o reach full i l l u m i n a t i o n power. H M I lights c a n also cause flicker in t h e video image u n d e r certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s (high s h u t t e r speeds). You c a n n o t d i m t h e lights w i t h o u t a noticeable color shift (change in color t e m p e r a t u r e ) . All H M I lights are expensive, a n d even t h e smaller 5 0 0 W i n s t r u m e n t s are b u l k y c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e i r i n c a n d e s c e n t cousins. This small, l o w - p o w e r e d ( 1 2 5 W t o 2 0 0 W ) spotlight functions m u c h like a Fresnel except t h a t it h a s a different lens. Because of its efficient reflector a n d lens, it gives off m o r e light t h a n a Fresnel of equal watt­ age.

Its b e a m can b e focused or spread, m u c h like t h a t of

a Fresnel. It is especially effective w h e n h i g h l i g h t i n g small areas, SEE 7.14 Open-face spot

M a i n l y b e c a u s e of weight c o n s i d e r ­

a t i o n s a n d light efficiency, t h e open-face

spotlight

has n o

lens. This p e r m i t s a higher light o u t p u t , b u t t h e b e a m is less even a n d precise t h a n t h a t of t h e Fresnel. I n m o s t r e m o t e

7.14 SMALL SPOTLIGHT This small, low-powered (125W to 200W) spotlight has an efficient reflector and lens (not a Fresnel) that, despite its small size, make it into a highly effective lighting instrument. It is primarily used for ENG and EFP.

lighting tasks, however, a highly defined b e a m offers n o p a r t i c u l a r advantage. Because y o u usually have to w o r k w i t h a m i n i m u m of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , a fairly general i l l u m i n a t i o n is often b e t t e r t h a n a highly defined o n e . Even in the field, you s h o u l d t r y to achieve t h e lighting t h a t best fits t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n p u r p o s e . For e x a m p l e , if y o u light a simple i n t e r v i e w in a h o t e l r o o m , flat lighting for o p t i m a l visibility is all y o u n e e d . But if y o u d o a d o c u ­ m e n t a r y o n big-city s l u m s , d o n ' t light u p a d a r k t e n e m e n t as t h o u g h it w e r e a n elegant d e p a r t m e n t store. S u c h a s i t u a t i o n requires more-careful lighting t h a t will retain the actual lighting c o n d i t i o n s of t h e scene while still p r o v i d i n g e n o u g h light to satisfy the needs of the c a m e r a . T h e open-face spot c a n serve b o t h of these r e q u i r e ­ m e n t s . You can s p o t or s p r e a d t h e b e a m of t h e high-effi­ ciency q u a r t z l a m p t h r o u g h a focus c o n t r o l lever or k n o b o n the back. SEE7.15 Unfortunately, the focused b e a m is n o t always even. W h e n y o u place t h e s p o t close to t h e object, y o u m a y notice ( a n d t h e c a m e r a surely will) that t h e r i m of the b e a m is intense a n d " h o t " while t h e center of t h e b e a m h a s a hole—a l o w - i n t e n s i t y d a r k spot. If y o u place t h e i n s t r u m e n t t o o close w h e n lighting a face, for e x a m p l e , t h e hot spot m a y cause a glowing w h i t e area s u r r o u n d e d b y red o n t h e lighted face or, at best, a distinct color distortion. B u t by s p r e a d i n g t h e b e a m a little a n d p u l l i n g t h e i n s t r u ­ m e n t farther away from t h e person, or by placing a scrim in

7.15 OPEN-FACE SPOT The open-face (external reflector) spot has no lens. Its beam spread can be adjusted to a spot or moderate flood position. It is one of the most versatile lighting instruments in field production.

136

Chapter

7

LIGHTING

front of the spotlight, y o u c a n usually correct t h e p r o b l e m . In fact, w h e n u s i n g a s p o t for general i n d o o r lighting, y o u s h o u l d r o u t i n e l y place a scrim or similar light-diffusing material in front of the i n s t r u m e n t . M o s t o p e n - f a c e s p o t s u s e 5 0 0 W t o 1,000W l a m p s a n d c a n therefore b e p l u g g e d i n t o a regular h o u s e h o l d receptacle w i t h o u t risking a circuit overload. M o s t of these i n s t r u m e n t s have a p o w e r switch close t o t h e l a m p , so t o extend t h e life of t h e l a m p y o u c a n t u r n t h e i n s t r u m e n t off a n y t i m e it is n o t in use. All of these small spotlights c o m e as p a r t of a lighting kit—a suitcase c o n t a i n i n g several such i n s t r u m e n t s a n d light s t a n d s . You m a y find that s o m e t i m e s the relatively inexpensive 5 0 0 W "utility lights" y o u c a n b u y in a n y h a r d w a r e store will d o t h e s a m e j o b as t h e m o r e expensive i n s t r u m e n t s

7.16

in lighting kits. Note, however, t h a t utility lights are m u c h

The clip light, or PAR lamp, consists of a normal internal reflector bulb (such as a PAR 38), a socket with an on/off switch, and a clip for fastening the lamp to a support.

better suited for general-area r a t h e r t h a n specific light­ ing. T h e y also get extremely h o t : d o n ' t t o u c h t h e front of

CLIP LIGHT

t h e i n s t r u m e n t w h e n h a n d l i n g it, a n d place it far e n o u g h away from c u r t a i n s a n d o t h e r c o m b u s t i b l e materials t o p r e v e n t fires.

Internal reflector bulb

W i t h a n y lighting i n s t r u m e n t , always b e careful n o t to overload t h e circuit; t h a t is, d o n o t exceed t h e circuit's

Metal housing

rated a m p e r a g e by p l u g g i n g in m o r e t h a n o n e i n s t r u m e n t per outlet. Extension cords also a d d their o w n resistance to Barn doors

that o f the l a m p , especially w h e n they get w a r m . O r d i n a r y h o u s e h o l d outlets c a n tolerate a load of u p to 1,200 watts. You c a n therefore p l u g t w o 5 0 0 W spots o r o n e 1,000W i n s t r u m e n t into a single circuit w i t h o u t risking a n overload (see c h a p t e r 8 ) . Internal reflector spot

This spotlight is also k n o w n as

a clip %fofbecause it is usually clipped o n t o things. It looks

Gaffer grip or gator clip

like a n o v e r g r o w n , slightly s q u a s h e d h o u s e h o l d b u l b . You have m o s t likely used it already in still p h o t o g r a p h y or t o light u p y o u r driveway. These l a m p s are often called PAR

7 . 1 7 CLIP LIGHT WITH METAL HOUSING AND BARN DOORS The metal housing and the barn doors help control the beam.

lamps for their p a r a b o l i c a l u m i n i z e d reflector, w h i c h is t h e inside coating of the l a m p . SEE7.16 T h e clip light is easy to use a n d can p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l

p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s . Floodlights are therefore preferred

subtle highlights a n d accents i n h a r d - t o - r e a c h areas. I n ­

over h i g h l y d i r e c t i o n a l s p o t l i g h t s . W e l o o k first at t h e

ternal reflector spots c o m e in a variety of b e a m s p r e a d s ,

m o r e p o p u l a r p o r t a b l e floodlights: (1) t h e V-light, (2) t h e

from a soft, diffused b e a m t o a h a r d , precisely s h a p e d b e a m

p o r t a b l e softlight, (3) t h e p o r t a b l e fluorescent b a n k , a n d

(often called PAR 38 lamp). F o r even b e t t e r b e a m c o n t r o l ,

(4) t h e LED light. W e t h e n discuss h o w y o u c a n c h a n g e

as well as for t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a l reflector b u l b ,

p o r t a b l e open-face, a n d even Fresnel, s p o t s i n t o effective

t h e l a m p c a n b e used i n a m e t a l h o u s i n g with b a r n d o o r s

floodlights.

attached, SEE 7.17 O n e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r floodlights is t h e PORTABLE

FLOODLIGHTS

V-light. A l t h o u g h t h e V - l i g h t w a s o r i g i n a l l y a specific

M o s t E N G / E F P lighting requires a m a x i m u m a m o u n t o f

floodlight m a n u f a c t u r e d b y t h e Lowel-Light M a n u f a c ­

even i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h a m i n i m u m of i n s t r u m e n t s a n d

t u r i n g c o m p a n y , it h a s b e c o m e t h e generic n a m e for a n y

Section

7.18

7.1

Lighting

Instruments

V-LIGHT

and

7.19

This small lighting instrument is popular in field productions because of its light weight and high output.

Lighting

Controls

137

ENG/EFP PORTABLE SOFTLIGHT

The softlight comes as a single unit of lamp and diffusion tent. It can be folded up for easy transport.

small i n s t r u m e n t t h a t consists of a large ( 5 0 0 W t o 7 5 0 W ) incandescent quartz lamp wedged into a V-shaped metal reflector, SEE 7.18

T h e V-light is h i g h l y p o r t a b l e a n d easy

to set u p a n d can light u p large areas relatively evenly. Be careful w h e n h a n d l i n g such lights—they get very hot. D o n ' t t o u c h t h e m w h e n t h e y are switched o n , a n d keep t h e m away from c o m b u s t i b l e materials. Portable softlight

P o r t a b l e s o f t l i g h t s c o n s i s t of a

h i g h - i n t e n s i t y ( 2 5 0 W t o 1,000W) l a m p t h a t is placed i n t o a soft-box, also called a diffusion

tent, w h i c h is n o t h i n g b u t

a black heat-resistant cloth b a g w i t h a scrim at its o p e n i n g . (Diffusion tents that can b e attached to a variety of portable lights are discussed in section 7.2.) SEE 7.19 A h i g h l y effective p o r t a b l e softlight is t h e lantern.

Chinese

This softlight is a m o r e d u r a b l e v e r s i o n of a n

actual r o u n d o r b u l b - s h a p e d C h i n e s e l a n t e r n . It is usually s u s p e n d e d from a m i c s t a n d o r a m i c r o p h o n e fish pole (see c h a p t e r 9). You can p u t v a r i o u s k i n d s of l o w - p o w e r e d

7.20

l a m p s inside t h e s a m e l a n t e r n , s u c h as a 2 5 0 W clip light,

This floodlight is modeled after a Chinese lantern. It can be suspended from a pole and illuminates a relatively large area with extremely soft light.

a 2 0 0 W h o u s e h o l d light b u l b , o r even a daylight (5,600K) l a m p if y o u w a n t t o m a t c h o u t d o o r light, SEE

7.20

T h e C h i n e s e l a n t e r n gives off a very soft yet n o t i c e ­ able light t h a t is especially useful for c l o s e - u p s h o t s . T h e

CHINESE LANTERN

Chapter

138

LIGHTING

7

a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g t h e l a n t e r n as a p r i n c i p a l light source is t h a t y o u c a n follow t h e subject as y o u w o u l d w i t h a m i c r o p h o n e ( b u t y o u h a v e t o secure t h e l a n t e r n t o t h e pole so t h a t it d o e s n ' t swing). Because t h e l a n t e r n has a n o p e n i n g o n t h e b o t t o m t o vent t h e heat, keep t h e b r i g h t spot c o m i n g f r o m this h o l e o u t of y o u r p i c t u r e . F o r brief takes, covering it with a light s c r i m w o r k s well. T h e r e are h u g e C h i n e s e l a n t e r n s available t h a t a r e used p r i m a r i l y for p r o v i d i n g even light for large, reflective objects, s u c h as a u t o m o b i l e s o r large appliances. Portable fluorescent bank

Even small p o r t a b l e fluo­

rescent floodlights are c o n s i d e r a b l y b u l k i e r a n d heavier t h a n c o m p a r a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t i n s t r u m e n t s . But because fluorescent floodlights u s e m u c h less p o w e r a n d generate practically n o heat, they are frequently used for i n d o o r EFP lighting. As m e n t i o n e d , t h e p r o b l e m with fluorescent lights is that they d o n o t accurately r e p r o d u c e all colors, even if t h e c a m e r a has b e e n p r o p e r l y w h i t e - b a l a n c e d . If highly ac­ curate color r e p r o d u c t i o n is n o t a m a j o r c o n c e r n , however, the small fluorescent u n i t is a valuable EFP lighting tool. W h e n lighting for E F P in relatively c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s , y o u c a n use s o m e of t h e smaller, lightweight fluorescent

7.21

b a n k s a n d m o u n t t h e m o n light stands, SEE 7.21

The portable fluorescent bank can be mounted on a light stand. It has great light output and emits no heat.

Because

fluorescent i n s t r u m e n t s d o n o t always b u r n at t h e s t a n d a r d

PORTABLE FLUORESCENT BANK

Kelvin ratings of 3,200K a n d 5,600K, p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n ­ t i o n t o w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g t h e c a m e r a s . C h e c k t h e colors a n d especially t h e skin t o n e s o n a well-adjusted field m o n i t o r

several ways t o achieve a m o r e diffused light w i t h these

before starting t o v i d e o t a p e .

instruments.

LED light

L E D lights are like small c o m p u t e r screens o r

a stretched foldout viewfinder, b u t instead of displaying

Bouncing the light

T h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o diffuse t h e

light is t o b o u n c e it off t h e wall o r ceiling. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,

an image, they s i m p l y s h o w w h i t e light. T h e LEDs (light-

b o u n c i n g light drastically reduces its intensity, even if t h e

e m i t t i n g d i o d e s ) of t h e s e small p a n e l s ( a b o u t 7 i n c h e s

walls are p a i n t e d a light color. To salvage m a x i m u m light

wide) p u t o u t e n o u g h light t o i l l u m i n a t e a n object suf­

intensity, t r y t o get t h e i n s t r u m e n t as close t o t h e wall o r

ficiently

ceiling as possible w i t h o u t c h a r r i n g t h e paint.

for acceptable video images, p r o v i d e d t h e p a n e l

is fairly close t o t h e object. T h e b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d ( 1 2 V t o 24V) p a n e l p r o d u c e s light w i t h t h e 5,600K daylight color

Attaching a scrim

t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t c a n b e d i m m e d w i t h a k n o b o n its t o p ­

scrims a n d frosted gels. As m e n t i o n e d , scrims a r e s p u n -

side. It is a n ideal c a m e r a light because y o u c a n get fairly

glass diffusers t h a t y o u c a n p u t i n front of small spotlights,

close t o t h e subject w i t h o u t c a u s i n g a h o t spot. W h e n it's

floodlights, o r open-face spots t o achieve m a x i m u m dif­

T h e m o s t p o p u l a r diffusers a r e

n o t m o u n t e d o n t h e camera, y o u can use it to light u p small

fusion of t h e light. T h e simplest way t o attach a scrim t o

areas, s u c h as a car interior.

a n open-face i n s t r u m e n t is t o clip it o n t h e b a r n d o o r s w i t h w o o d e n clothespins. D o n ' t use plastic o n e s : o p e n -

DIFFUSING PORTABLE SPOTLIGHTS

face lights get very h o t a n d will m e l t plastic w i t h i n a few

T h e open-face i n s t r u m e n t s (discussed at t h e b e g i n n i n g of

m i n u t e s , SEE 7.22

this section) c a n also b e used as floodlights—just c h a n g e

Scrims c o m e i n v a r i o u s thicknesses; t h e t h i n n e r o n e s

the light from a s p o t t o a flood p o s i t i o n . You will find t h a t

a b s o r b less light, a n d t h e thicker o n e s a b s o r b m o r e light.

despite t h e flood c o n t r o l , however, y o u will n o t always get

You c a n also convert a s c o o p i n t o a softlight by a t t a c h i n g a

t h e even diffusion y o u m a y n e e d . Fortunately, t h e r e are

scrim t h a t is t r i m m e d t o fit a s c r i m h o l d e r (see figure 7.6).

Section

7.1

Lighting

Instruments

and Lighting

7.23

Controls

139

DIFFUSION UMBRELLA

The umbrella reflector is a popular diffusion device. Note that the lighting instrument shines into, not away from, the inside of the umbrella.

N o t e , however, t h a t a n y t i m e y o u p u t t h e spotlight in

7.22

SCRIM ATTACHED TO BARN DOORS

To further diffuse the beam of an open-face instrument, you can attach a scrim to the barn doors with wooden clothespins.

t h e flood p o s i t i o n , o r p u t a diffuser in front of t h e lens, y o u r e d u c e t h e light o u t p u t . Here's a g o o d rule of t h u m b : the more you diffuse the light, the weaker it gets. W h e n d o i n g e l a b o r a t e field p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as covering a h i g h - s c h o o l basketball g a m e , y o u can t r y t o use

S o m e lighting people prefer frosted gels as diffusers. Frosted

h i g h - p o w e r e d V-lights a n d u m b r e l l a s , b u t y o u m a y n e e d

gels are w h i t e t r a n s l u c e n t sheets of plastic t h a t h a v e a

larger floodlights, such as scoops, o r floodlight b a n k s . If

s e m i o p a q u e surface. Like scrims, t h e y c o m e in different

available, H M I floodlights w o u l d p r o b a b l y be t h e m o s t

densities that diffuse a n d therefore r e d u c e t h e intensity of

efficient i n s t r u m e n t s . A few l k W s o r even 5 7 5 W i n s t r u ­

t h e light b e a m by v a r y i n g degrees.

m e n t s in t h e flood p o s i t i o n are all y o u n e e d to light u p a gymnasium.

Using a diffusion umbrella

A n o t h e r highly effective

diffusion device is t h e umbrella.

T h e small, silvery, h e a t -

CAMERA LIGHTS

resistant u m b r e l l a is n o t t o protect y o u from t h e rain b u t to

Electronic news gathering requires yet a n o t h e r type of light,

reflect a n d diffuse t h e light source t h a t shines i n t o it. You

w h i c h c a n b e m o u n t e d o n t o p of t h e c a m e r a o r h a n d h e l d

c a n a t t a c h t h e scooplike u m b r e l l a t o t h e lighting i n s t r u ­

by t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r o r an assistant, SEE 7.25

m e n t a n d / o r t h e light s t a n d a n d t h e n a i m t h e umbrella's

lights have a h i g h light o u t p u t . T h e y are o p e n - f a c e d a n d

Camera

o p e n i n g in t h e general direction of i l l u m i n a t i o n . You n e e d

relatively small a n d have a n a s s o r t m e n t of diffusion filters

to shine t h e light i n t o t h e u m b r e l l a o p e n i n g , n o t o n t h e

a n d a daylight filter (5,600K), w h i c h y o u can flip over t h e

r o u n d e d surface, SEE 7.23

o p e n i n g of the small light. C a m e r a lights d r a w their p o w e r

Attaching a tent

t h a t c a n b e a t t a c h e d t o a t r i p o d o r carried by t h e c a m e r a

either f r o m t h e c a m e r a b a t t e r y o r from a larger b a t t e r y As m e n t i o n e d earlier y o u c a n u s e a

diffusion tent r a t h e r t h a n a tentlike softlight u n i t to c h a n g e

operator.

an i n c a n d e s c e n t spotlight i n t o an effective softlight. M o s t

If y o u d e t a c h t h e light from t h e c a m e r a , avoid s h i n i n g

Fresnel s p o t s c a n be c h a n g e d i n t o softlights by a t t a c h i n g

it directly o n t h e scene right away—it is often a n n o y i n g t o

a diffusion tent t o t h e front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t . You n e e d

a p e r s o n t o have a h i g h - p o w e r e d light p o p into his o r h e r

t h e ring a t t a c h m e n t t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e tent t o t h e spotlight.

eyes w i t h o u t at least a little w a r n i n g . First p o i n t t h e c a m e r a

SEE 7.24 EJH>I_IGHTS^ Instruments^ field

light t o w a r d t h e ceiling a n d t h e n tilt it d o w n gradually.

140

Chapter

LIGHTING

7

This also gives t h e auto-iris o n t h e c a m e r a sufficient t i m e

kits help y o u k e e p t r a c k of t h e various instruments and

to adjust to t h e n e w lighting c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t noticeable

accessories a n d facilitate their t r a n s p o r t , setup, a n d stor­

b r i g h t n e s s a n d color changes. W h e n y o u have an assistant

age.

SEE 7.26 •

to h a n d l e t h e light, h e o r she c a n direct its b e a m so t h a t it strikes t h e o n - c a m e r a p e r s o n at a slight angle r a t h e r t h a n directly from t h e front.

LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT

Lighting kits

w i t h s o m e specific e q u i p m e n t : (1) m o u n t i n g d e v i c e s ,

To u n d e r s t a n d lighting c o n t r o l , y o u n e e d t o b e familiar S t a n d a r d lighting kits c o n t a i n a variety

of s p o t a n d flood i n s t r u m e n t s , light s t a n d s , b a r n d o o r s ,

(2) directional controls, a n d (3) i n t e n s i t y c o n t r o l s .

v a r i o u s diffusion materials, cables, a n d extra l a m p s . These

MOUNTING DEVICES M o u n t i n g devices let y o u safely s u p p o r t a variety of light­ ing i n s t r u m e n t s a n d a i m t h e m in t h e desired d i r e c t i o n . G o o d m o u n t i n g devices are as i m p o r t a n t as t h e i n s t r u ­ m e n t s themselves. T h e m a j o r devices specially designed a n d i n t e n d e d for s t u d i o lights are: (1) t h e p i p e grid a n d t h e c o u n t e r w e i g h t b a t t e n s , (2) t h e C - c l a m p , (3) t h e sliding r o d a n d t h e p a n t o g r a p h , a n d (4) a variety of floor s t a n d s . Portable lights are m o u n t e d p r i m a r i l y o n collapsible stands

7.24 DIFFUSION TENT ON FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT You can turn a small Fresnel spot into a softlight by diffusing its beam with a portable diffusion tent.

7.25 CAMERA LIGHT

7.26 LIGHTING KIT

This small light is mounted on the camera and powered by the camcorder battery or a separate battery pack. Its beam is further diffused by a small diffusion tent.

A typical EFP lighting kit contains a variety of floodlights and spotlights and such accessories as light stands, barn doors, and diffusers.

Section

7.7

Lighting

Instruments

and

Lighting

141

Controls

7.27

PIPE GRID

This simple pipe grid supports all the lighting necessary for a small performance area, such as a news, interview, or kitchen set.

t h a t are typically p a r t of a lighting kit. For o n - l o c a t i o n

tells h o w m a n y weights a r e necessary t o b a l a n c e each t y p e

lighting, t h e r e is a variety of m o u n t i n g devices available,

of i n s t r u m e n t , p l u s t h e weight of t h e e m p t y b a t t e n .

s u c h as small b o o m s , cross braces, a n d braces t h a t fit over doors or furniture.

T h e o b v i o u s a d v a n t a g e of t h e c o u n t e r w e i g h t b a t t e n s over t h e p i p e g r i d system is t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t s c a n b e h u n g , adjusted, a n d m a i n t a i n e d from t h e s t u d i o floor. You

Pipe grid and counterweight battens

S t u d i o lights

will find, however, t h a t y o u c a n n o t d o entirely w i t h o u t a

are h u n g either from a fixed pipe grid o r from c o u n t e r ­

ladder. First, a l t h o u g h y o u c a n initially adjust t h e i n s t r u ­

weight b a t t e n s . T h e pipe grid consists of heavy steel p i p e

m e n t s t o a r o u g h o p e r a t i n g position, y o u n e e d t o r e - a i m

s t r u n g e i t h e r crosswise o r parallel a n d m o u n t e d 12 t o

t h e m o n c e t h e b a t t e n s are locked at t h e o p t i m a l height.

18 feet above t h e s t u d i o floor. T h e height of t h e g r i d is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e height of t h e s t u d i o ceiling; b u t even in r o o m s w i t h l o w ceilings, t h e p i p e s h o u l d b e m o u n t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 feet below t h e ceiling so t h a t t h e lighting

g

a t t e n

,

Power outlets

Trough to catch power cable when raising batten

i n s t r u m e n t s or h a n g i n g devices c a n b e easily attached. T h e space above t h e g r i d is also necessary t o dissipate t h e heat g e n e r a t e d b y t h e lights, SEE 7.27 Unlike t h e p i p e grid, w h i c h is p e r m a n e n t l y m o u n t e d b e l o w t h e ceiling, t h e counterweight

battens can b e raised

a n d lowered t o a n y desired p o s i t i o n a n d locked firmly in place, SEE 7.28 T h e b a t t e n s a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are c o u n terweighted b y heavy iron weights a n d m o v e d b y m e a n s of a r o p e - a n d - p u l l e y system o r b y i n d i v i d u a l m o t o r s , SEE 7.29 Before u n l o c k i n g a c o u n t e r w e i g h t r o p e to m o v e t h e b a t ­ t e n u p o r d o w n , always check t h a t t h e b a t t e n is p r o p e r l y weighted. You c a n d o this b y c o u n t i n g t h e weights a n d c o m p a r i n g t h e m w i t h t h e t y p e a n d n u m b e r of i n s t r u ­ ments m o u n t e d o n the batten. T h e counterweights and

7 . 2 8 COUNTERWEIGHT BATTEN

t h e i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d r o u g h l y b a l a n c e each other. Such

The counterweight batten can be raised and lowered and locked at a specific operating height.

r o p e - a n d - p u l l e y systems s h o u l d h a v e a sign p o s t e d t h a t

Chapter

142

LIGHTING

7

7.30

C-CLAMP

The C-clamp is the connection between the lighting instrument and the batten. Even when the C-clamp is securely tightened to the batten, you can swivel the instrument as necessary.

all lighting i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d b e c h a i n e d or secured to t h e b a t t e n itself by a s t r o n g steel cable l o o p . Similarly, t h e b a r n d o o r s m u s t be secured to t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . Even if y o u are u n d e r severe t i m e p r e s s u r e w h e n r e h a n g ing lights, do not neglect to secure each instrument

with

the

safety chain or cable, SEE 7.30

7.29

COUNTERWEIGHT RAIL

The battens and the lighting instruments attached to them are counterweighted by heavy iron weights and moved up and down by a rope-and-pulley system from a common rail.

Sliding rod and pantograph

If t h e s t u d i o h a s a fixed

pipe grid, or if y o u n e e d to raise o r lower i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u ­ m e n t s w i t h o u t m o v i n g a n entire batten, y o u can use sliding rods. A sliding rod consists of a s t u r d y p i p e a t t a c h e d to t h e b a t t e n b y a m o d i f i e d C - c l a m p ; it can b e m o v e d a n d locked into a specific vertical p o s i t i o n . For a d d i t i o n a l flexibility,

Second, by t h e t i m e y o u n e e d t o trim, o r fine-tune, t h e

t h e m o r e expensive sliding rods have telescopic extensions.

lights, t h e s t u d i o floor is generally c r o w d e d with sets, c a m ­

SEE 7.31 More-elaborate lighting systems have m o t o r - d r i v e n

eras, a n d m i c r o p h o n e s , w h i c h prevent lowering t h e b a t t e n s

sliding r o d s w h o s e vertical m o v e m e n t can b e r e m o t e l y

to a c o m f o r t a b l e w o r k i n g height. You c a n t h e n squeeze

activated from t h e s t u d i o lighting c o n t r o l .

t h e l a d d e r i n t o the set o r use a lighting pole to d o t h e final

S o m e s t u d i o s use t h e pantograph,

a spring-loaded

t r i m m i n g . As y o u recall, h i g h - e n d Fresnel spots have k n o b s

h a n g i n g device that c a n b e adjusted from t h e s t u d i o floor

that allow y o u to tilt, p a n , a n d focus t h e i n s t r u m e n t from

to a n y vertical p o s i t i o n w i t h i n its 12-foot r a n g e , SEE 7.32

the s t u d i o floor with a lighting pole (see figure 7.1).

P a n t o g r a p h s are m o s t useful for adjusting t h e h e i g h t of

C-clamp

T h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s are directly a t t a c h e d

g r a p h is that y o u can adjust it from the s t u d i o floor w i t h o u t

either to the b a t t e n by a large C-clamp or to h a n g i n g devices

affecting the h e i g h t of spotlights that m a y b e h u n g o n t h e

scoops a n d o t h e r floodlights. T h e a d v a n t a g e of a p a n t o ­

(discussed n e x t ) . You n e e d a w r e n c h o r key to securely

s a m e b a t t e n . T h e disadvantages are t h a t t h e p a n t o g r a p h

fasten t h e C - c l a m p to t h e r o u n d m e t a l b a t t e n . T h e lighting

is b u l k y a n d t h a t the c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g s p r i n g s get o u t of

i n s t r u m e n t is attached to the C - c l a m p a n d can b e swiveled

a d j u s t m e n t a n d , worse, wear o u t from e x t e n d e d use.

h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h o u t l o o s e n i n g t h e b o l t t h a t h o l d s it to t h e b a t t e n . A l t h o u g h t h e C - c l a m p will s u p p o r t t h e lighting

Floor stand

i n s t r u m e n t a n d n o t fall off t h e b a t t e n even if t h e large bolt

p i p e grid or b a t t e n s . S o m e are m o u n t e d o n roller-caster

is loose, you s h o u l d nevertheless check that all C-clamps o n

floor stands t h a t can b e rolled a r o u n d t h e s t u d i o a n d verti­

the grid are securely tightened. As an a d d e d safety m e a s u r e ,

cally e x t e n d e d , SEE 7.33

N o t all s t u d i o lights are m o u n t e d o n t h e

Such s t a n d s c a n h o l d all types of

Section

7.7

Lighting

Instruments

and

Lighting

Controls

143

C-clamp

Locking screw

7.31 Sliding rod

SLIDING ROD (TELESCOPE HANGER)

This sliding rod, called a telescope hanger, allows you to move the instrument up and down and lock it into position. It is used primarily on lighting grids but also on counterweight systems when more vertical control is needed.

Locking screw

Telescopic extension

7.32

PANTOGRAPH

You can adjust this spring-loaded pantograph quickly and easily by pushing it up or pulling it down with a lighting pole. The springs act as a counterweight for the lights attached to it.

7.33

FLOOR STANDS

The floor stand can support a variety of lighting instruments and can be adapted for an easel or for large reflectors.

Chapter

144

LIGHTING

7

7.35

CROSS BRACE

This extendible cross brace can be clamped to scenery or furni­ ture as a battenlike support for portable lighting instruments.

specifically d e s i g n e d t o h o l d small lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e advantage of such a b o o m is t h a t y o u can s u s p e n d t h e light over the scene o u t of c a m e r a range a n d easily relocate it as necessary. T h e disadvantages are t h a t b o o m s are q u i t e expensive a n d t h a t even a small o n e takes u p m o r e space t h a n is often available. M a n y i n g e n i o u s m o u n t i n g devices are available, s u c h as cross braces a n d braces t h a t fit conveniently over d o o r s , a n d o t h e r s t h a t let y o u attach small lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to scenery, desks, furniture, t r a s h c a n s , o r any o t h e r c o n v e ­

7.34

PORTABLE LIGHT STANDS

These light stands are designed for relatively light­ weight portable instruments and can be extended to a height of 8 to 10 feet. Because light stands tend to tip over when fully extended, always secure them with sandbags.

n i e n t object i n t h e r e m o t e location, SEE 7.35 You can also m a k e a simple lighting bridge o u t of 1 x 3 l u m b e r t h a t will h o l d o n e o r t w o p o r t a b l e spotlights for b a c k - l i g h t i n g . Whatever m o u n t i n g devices y o u u s e — i n c l u d i n g y o u r o w n c o n t r a p t i o n s — s e e to it t h a t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t is securely fastened a n d sufficiently far f r o m c u r t a i n s , upholstery, o r o t h e r ignitable materials. Light s t a n d s t h a t

i n s t r u m e n t s : scoops, b r o a d s , spots, a n d even strip lights.

are fully e x t e n d e d t e n d to t o p p l e at t h e slightest pull o n

T h e s t a n d s usually have a switch to t u r n t h e light o n a n d

t h e p o w e r cable o r even in a s t r o n g breeze. Always put a

off. Floor s t a n d s are especially i m p o r t a n t if y o u light for

sandbag

on the light stand to prevent

it from

tipping

over.

film-style s h o o t i n g , w h i c h m e a n s that y o u adjust t h e light­ ing, o r light separately, for each take.

DIRECTIONAL CONTROLS You are familiar w i t h t h e s p o t a n d flood b e a m c o n t r o l

Portable light stand

Because y o u w o n ' t find b a t t e n s

o n spotlights. Several o t h e r devices can help y o u c o n t r o l

or grids conveniently installed at field l o c a t i o n s , y o u n e e d

t h e d i r e c t i o n of the b e a m , s u c h as b a r n d o o r s , flags, a n d

to c a r r y t h e lighting s u p p o r t s w i t h y o u . A large ^variety of

reflectors. You can use reflectors for intensity as well as

l i g h t w e i g h t a n d d u r a b l e m o u n t i n g devices is*''available,

directional c o n t r o l . M o s t of t h e t i m e , however, reflectors

a n d all of t h e m consist basically of collapsible s t a n d s a n d

are used for s h a d o w c o n t r o l .

extendible poles, SEE 7.34 You can attach to t h e s t a n d s a n d poles a w i d e a r r a y

Barn door.';

This admittedly c r u d e b e a m control m e t h o d

of p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d o t h e r devices, s u c h

is very effective for b l o c k i n g certain set areas partially or

as reflectors, s c r i m s , a n d flags (see figures 7.37-7.39). I n

totally from i l l u m i n a t i o n . Barn

m o r e - e l a b o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u can use a p o r t a b l e b o o m

four m e t a l flaps t h a t y o u can fold over t h e lens of t h e

doors consist of t w o o r

Section

7.1

Lighting

Instruments

and Lighting

Controls

7.36 FOUR-WAY BARN DOOR

7.37 FLAG

This four-way barn door allows you to control the beam spread on all four sides—top and bottom, and left and right.

Flags come in various sizes and densities. You use them to prevent light from hitting specific set areas.

145

lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o p r e v e n t t h e light from falling o n

c a m e r a . I n m o v i e lingo, flags are also called g o b o s . Yes,

certain areas. For e x a m p l e , if y o u w a n t t o keep t h e u p p e r

this is yet a n o t h e r definition of gobo; this t i m e it refers

p a r t of t h e scenery d a r k w i t h o u t sacrificing i l l u m i n a t i o n

to a flag a n d n o t t o a c o o k i e — t h e m e t a l t e m p l a t e t h a t is

of t h e lower p a r t , y o u s i m p l y b l o c k off t h e u p p e r p a r t of

inserted i n t o an ellipsoidal spotlight to p r o d u c e a s h a d o w

t h e b e a m w i t h a b a r n d o o r . O r if y o u w a n t t o eliminate a

p a t t e r n (see figure 7.4). Obviously, y o u c a n use flags only

b o o m shadow, y o u can partially close a b a r n door, SEE

if t h e c a m e r a a n d talent m o v e m e n t s have b e e n carefully

7.36

EBtfrllGHTS-* Instruments-* beam control

rehearsed, SEE

7.37

B a r n d o o r s are also effective for p r e v e n t i n g t h e back light from s h i n i n g into t h e c a m e r a lens, w h i c h c a n cause

Reflectors

lens flare (an u n c o n t r o l l e d light reflection inside t h e lens

You c a n p o s i t i o n t h e m t o redirect a light source (often t h e

M i r r o r s a r e t h e m o s t efficient reflectors.

t h a t shows u p as s u p e r i m p o s e d rays of light circles). Be­

s u n ) i n t o areas t h a t are t o o small o r n a r r o w for setting u p

cause b a r n d o o r s slide i n t o their h o l d e r s easily, they have a

lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . For e x a m p l e , if y o u h a d t o light u p

t e n d e n c y to slide o u t of t h e m just as readily. Always secure

a long, d a r k hallway t h a t h a s a n exterior door, y o u could

all b a r n d o o r s t o their i n s t r u m e n t s w i t h t h e safety c h a i n o r

use m i r r o r s to redirect t h e sunlight into t h e hall a n d reflect

cable. Barn d o o r s also get very hot: wear protective gloves

it off t h e wall. This t e c h n i q u e w o u l d save y o u s e t u p t i m e ,

while adjusting t h e m w h e n t h e i n s t r u m e n t is t u r n e d o n .

e q u i p m e n t , a n d electricity. M o s t often, however, y o u use reflectors to p r o d u c e highly diffused light t o lighten u p

Flags

Rectangular metal frames w i t h heat-resistant cloth

o r t h i n m e t a l sheets of v a r i o u s sizes, flags act very m u c h

dense s h a d o w s ( i n m e d i a aesthetic language, t o slow falloff)

down

o n s o m e o n e ' s face or o n a n object. You d o n ' t use

like b a r n d o o r s except t h a t y o u d o n ' t place t h e m directly

m i r r o r s t o slow d o w n falloff; rather, y o u u s e m a t e r i a l that

o n t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t . Flags are m o u n t e d o n light

will reflect only a p o r t i o n of t h e light a n d diffuse it at t h e

s t a n d s a n d p u t a n y w h e r e they're n e e d e d to b l o c k t h e light

s a m e t i m e . M o s t LDs prefer a large sheet of w h i t e foam

from falling o n a specific area w i t h o u t b e i n g seen b y t h e

core; it is lightweight, q u i t e sturdy, s i m p l e to set u p , a n d

Chapter

146

7.38

LIGHTING

7

7.39

FOIL REFLECTOR

This homemade but highly efficient reflector uses crumpled aluminum foil taped to a piece of cardboard.

PORTABLE REFLECTOR

Small portable reflectors are round and can be folded up for easy transport. Most of them have a silver-colored reflector on one side and a warmer, gold-colored reflector on the other.

easily replaced if it gets d i r t y or b r o k e n . A n y large w h i t e

of i n c a n d e s c e n t a n d fluorescent l a m p s , y o u d o n ' t n e e d

c a r d b o a r d will d o a l m o s t as well. If y o u n e e d a m o r e ef­

t h e large i n s t r u m e n t s y o u m a y still see i n m o t i o n p i c t u r e

ficient reflector ( o n e t h a t reflects m o r e light), y o u c a n

p r o d u c t i o n . T h e largest i n s t r u m e n t used in m o s t television

c r u m p l e u p s o m e a l u m i n u m foil t o get a n u n e v e n surface

studios is a 2 k W Fresnel spotlight. T h e lights for E F P / E N G

(for a m o r e diffused reflection) a n d t h e n tape it t o a piece

rarely exceed 6 5 0 watts.

of c a r d b o a r d , SEE 7.38

frVi*»LIGHTS->

Field-* use of reflectors

C o m m e r c i a l r e f l e c t o r s c o m e i n w h i t e , silver, a n d

Dista nee

W h e n you m o v e t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t closer

gold a n d can b e folded u p for easy t r a n s p o r t a n d setup.

to t h e object, t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light increases; if y o u

SEE 7.39 T h e silver a n d white m o d e l s reflect a h i g h e r - c o l o r -

m o v e it farther away, t h e intensity decreases. You c a n apply

t e m p e r a t u r e light t h a n d o t h e g o l d - c o l o r e d o n e s .

this principle easily so l o n g as t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are m o u n t e d

INTENSITY CONTROLS: INSTRUMENT SIZE, DISTANCE, A N D BEAM

effort. In m a n y cases this is t h e m o s t efficient w a y of c o n ­ trolling light intensity o n a n E N G / E F P s h o o t . You can also

T h e r e are t h r e e basic m e t h o d s of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e intensity

apply this p r i n c i p l e in t h e s t u d i o if t h e lights are m o u n t e d

o n light s t a n d s a n d y o u can m o v e t h e m w i t h o u t t o o m u c h

of light w i t h o u t t h e use of d i m m e r s : (1) selecting an in­

o n a m o v a b l e b a t t e n . I n general, t r y t o p o s i t i o n t h e i n s t r u ­

s t r u m e n t of t h e p r o p e r size, (2) adjusting t h e distance of

m e n t s as low as possible w i t h o u t getting t h e m i n t o c a m e r a

lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o object, a n d (3) focusing or diffusing

range. This w a y y o u achieve m a x i m u m light intensity w i t h

t h e light b e a m .

m i n i m a l power. M if--»LIGHTS-» Instruments-* field

Instrument size

T

T h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o c o n t r o l light

intensity is obviously t o t u r n o n only a certain n u m b e r of

Beam

T h e m o r e focused t h e light b e a m , t h e h i g h e r its

intensity. T h e m o r e diffused t h e light b e a m is, t h e less i n ­

i n s t r u m e n t s of a specific size (wattage). Because of t h e light

tensity it h a s . You have already l e a r n e d a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s

sensitivity of m o d e r n c a m e r a s a n d t h e h i g h light o u t p u t

m e t h o d s of diffusing t h e b e a m using t h e focus c o n t r o l in

Section

7.1

Lighting

Instruments

and

Lighting

147

Controls

t h e i n s t r u m e n t a n d with v a r i o u s scrims a n d reflectors. You can also use a specially designed wire-mesh

screen t o dif­

fuse a n d block a certain a m o u n t of light. You s i m p l y slide t h e m e t a l screen directly i n front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , m u c h like s c r i m s a n d frosted gels. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e fineness of t h e m e s h , t h e screen d i m s t h e light w i t h o u t influencing its color t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h w i r e - m e s h screens is t h a t t h e heat of t h e q u a r t z l a m p t e n d s t o b u r n u p t h e fine m e t a l wires w i t h i n a relatively s h o r t t i m e ; t h e screens b e ­ c o m e brittle a n d eventually disintegrate (see figure 7.13).

INTENSITY CONTROLS: ELECTRONIC D I M M E R S T h e m o s t precise light c o n t r o l is t h e electronic d i m m e r .

7.40

W i t h a dimmer

The higher you push the lever on this manual dimmer, the more voltage flows to the lamp. At the 0 setting, no voltage flows to the lamp; at a setting of 10, the lamp burns at full intensity.

y o u c a n easily m a n i p u l a t e each light, o r

a g r o u p of lights, t o b u r n at a given intensity, from 0 {off p o s i t i o n ) t o full strength. A l t h o u g h d i m m e r s are technically complex, their basic

MANUAL DIMMER CALIBRATION

o p e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e is simple: b y allowing m o r e o r less voltage t o flow to t h e l a m p , t h e l a m p b u r n s w i t h a h i g h e r o r lower intensity. If y o u w a n t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o b u r n at full intensity, t h e d i m m e r lets all t h e voltage flow t o t h e l a m p . If y o u w a n t it to b u r n at a lesser intensity, t h e d i m m e r reduces t h e voltage. To d i m t h e light completely—called a blackout—the

d i m m e r p e r m i t s n o voltage (or at least an

i n a d e q u a t e voltage) t o reach t h e l a m p .

Individual dimmers

A useful d i m m e r system s h o u l d

h a v e a fair n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l d i m m e r s ( t w e n t y o r m o r e ) , each w i t h a n intensity calibration. T h e u s u a l cali­ b r a t i o n is n o r m a l l y in i n c r e m e n t s u p t o 10, w i t h 0 p r e v e n t ­ ing a n y voltage from reaching t h e i n s t r u m e n t ( t h e light is off) a n d 10 allowing t h e full voltage to flow t o t h e l a m p ( t h e l a m p b u r n s a t full i n t e n s i t y ) . A l t h o u g h m o s t s t u d i o s '

Individual dimmers

d i m m e r s are c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d , it is easier t o learn t h e

Group faders

Computer memory input

Remote control

p r i n c i p l e of d i m m e r s by l o o k i n g at a m a n u a l system. T h e c o m p u t e r does n o t c h a n g e t h e basic principle of d i m m i n g ; it simply facilitates t h e storage a n d retrieval of t h e v a r i o u s

7.41

d i m m i n g c o m m a n d s , p r o v i d e s a w i d e variety of d i m m i n g

The computerized dimmer can store, recall, and execute a wide variety of dimming functions. You can also switch it to manual control.

options, a n d activates t h e actual d i m m i n g process at precise m o m e n t s in t h e p r o d u c t i o n .

COMPUTERIZED DIMMER CONTROL

O n m a n u a l d i m m e r s y o u p u s h t h e c o n t r o l lever t o t h e desired setting b e t w e e n 0 a n d 10. Such calibrations are necessary n o t only t o set t h e initial light intensity b u t

store a n d recall t h e m either a u t o m a t i c a l l y o r b y p u s h i n g

also t o r e c o r d t h e exact settings so that t h e y c a n b e s t o r e d

a single b u t t o n . It is n o t u n c o m m o n for a c o m p u t e r i z e d

a n d recalled with m i n i m a l effort, SEE 7.40 C o m p u t e r i z e d

d i m m e r t o offer h u n d r e d s of i n d i v i d u a l f u n c t i o n s that

d i m m e r s h a v e s i m i l a r slide faders t h a t c a n b e m a n u ­

y o u can store o n disk. M o s t c o m p u t e r d i m m e r s keep y o u r

ally o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y controlled. A variety of c o n t r o l s lets

i n p u t i n s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y , even if y o u have switched

y o u c o m b i n e a great n u m b e r of d i m m i n g functions a n d

t h e m off. SEE 7.4i

148

Chapter

LIGHTING

7

7.42 MANUAL PATCHBOARD

Instrument connected to dimmer

The patchboard enables you to establish power connections between specific lighting instru­ ments and specific dimmers.

Patch cord (connection to lighting instrument)

Power sockets, or jacks (connection to dimmer)

Breakers

T h e d o w n s i d e of d i m m i n g is t h a t lowering t h e voltage

T h e p a t c h b o a r d t h u s allows for m a n y c o m b i n a t i o n s

will cause incandescent l a m p s to lower their color t e m p e r a ­

of specific lighting i n s t r u m e n t s from different s t u d i o areas

t u r e t o a m o r e r e d d i s h light. (We discuss this p r o b l e m in

a n d lets y o u c o n t r o l their intensity either individually or in g r o u p s . As a safety m e a s u r e , all p a t c h b o a r d s have circuit

m o r e detail in c h a p t e r 8.)

breakers for each p o w e r c o n n e c t i o n to t h e d i m m e r . Do not Patchboard

T h e patchboard,

o r patchbay,

m a k e s it

turn on the breaker before plugging

possible to c o n n e c t each lighting i n s t r u m e n t to a specific

appropriate

d i m m e r . Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u have o n e l a m p in y o u r study

patching,

a n d a n o t h e r l a m p in y o u r b e d r o o m b u t o n l y o n e d i m m e r .

and—especially—you.

the patch cord into

the

dimmer jack. If t h e b r e a k e r is o n , y o u are hota practice t h a t can d a m a g e b o t h t h e e q u i p m e n t

Because y o u can't b e in t h e s t u d y a n d t h e b e d r o o m at t h e

T h e software p r o g r a m in a c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d d i m ­

s a m e t i m e , y o u can p l u g l a m p 1 i n t o t h e d i m m e r w h e n in

m i n g system will r e c o r d y o u r p a t c h i n g decisions a n d trig­

t h e study, a n d l a m p 2 w h e n in t h e b e d r o o m . W h a t y o u

ger t h e actual p a t c h e s o n c o m m a n d . For e x a m p l e , if y o u

have d o n e is patched

w a n t t o t u r n u p all t h e fill lights while t u r n i n g off all t h e

different lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to a

single d i m m e r . If y o u h a d t w e n t y lights t h a t y o u w a n t e d

spotlights or vice versa, y o u simply type t h e n u m b e r s of the

to d i m at different t i m e s , y o u c o u l d select a n y o n e of t h e m

v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s a n d tell t h e c o m p u t e r w h i c h o n e s to

a n d p a t c h it i n t o t h e single d i m m e r . T h e p a t c h b o a r d of a n

c o m b i n e for a specific g r o u p function. T h e n all y o u n e e d

actual d i m m e r system w o r k s in t h e s a m e way.

to d o is press t h e g r o u p b u t t o n at t h e specific t i m e , a n d t h e

To patch a specific lighting i n s t r u m e n t into a specific

c o m p u t e r will take care of t h e rest. W h a t formerly required

d i m m e r , y o u select its designated patch c o r d a n d p l u g it

c u m b e r s o m e r e p a t c h i n g can n o w b e a c c o m p l i s h e d with a

into t h e d i m m e r receptacle (called a jack),

SEE 7.42

Just for practice let's d o s o m e p a t c h i n g . You are asked to p a t c h i n s t r u m e n t 5 (a spotlight plugged into t h e #5 b a t ­

single c o m p u t e r c o m m a n d . T h e computer-assisted system, however, does n o t c h a n g e t h e simple p r i n c i p l e of p a t c h i n g t h a t y o u used w i t h y o u r s t u d y a n d b e d r o o m lights.

ten outlet) a n d i n s t r u m e n t 27 (a scoop plugged into the #27

T h e r e are m a n y t y p e s of d i m m e r s o n t h e m a r k e t ,

batten outlet at t h e o t h e r e n d of t h e studio) to d i m m e r 1. At

r a n g i n g from simple r h e o s t a t s t o sophisticated c o m p u t e r -

the p a t c h b o a r d y o u look for the p a t c h cords #5 a n d #27 a n d

d r i v e n m o d e l s . Regardless of t h e e l e c t r o n i c s i n v o l v e d ,

plug t h e m into t h e jacks for d i m m e r 1. W h e n y o u b r i n g u p

t h e d i m m e r systems used in television s t u d i o s have two

d i m m e r 1 at t h e p a t c h b o a r d , b o t h i n s t r u m e n t s — s p o t l i g h t

basic features: a series of i n d i v i d u a l d i m m e r s t h a t c o n t r o l

5 a n d s c o o p 2 7 — s h o u l d light u p s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d be

t h e c u r r e n t flowing t o t h e l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d a

d i m m e d at e q u a l intensity, SEE 7.43 If y o u w a n t to c o n t r o l

p a t c h b o a r d a n d o t h e r g r o u p i n g devices with t h e necessary

t h e m separately, y o u w o u l d plug spotlight 5 i n t o d i m m e r

storage a n d retrieval e q u i p m e n t .

1 a n d s c o o p 27 i n t o d i m m e r 2.

Section

7.1

Lighting

Instruments

and

Besides c o n t r o l l i n g t h e intensity of t h e light, d i m m e r s lighting i n a p a r t i c u l a r area to a n o t h e r . For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y c h a n g e a d i n i n g r o o m set from day to n i g h t by s i m p l y d i m m i n g o n e lighting s e t u p a n d b r i n g i n g u p a n o t h e r . You also can light several s t u d i o areas at once, store t h e lighting s e t u p in t h e d i m m e r ' s m e m o r y , a n d activate p a r t or all of t h e s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n w h e n e v e r necessary. S o m e s h o w s m a y r e q u i r e t h a t y o u go from o n e b a c k g r o u n d color t o a n o t h e r , s u c h as from a r e d to a b l u e o n e . W i t h t h e d i m m e r y o u can s i m p l y fade d o w n all i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t t h r o w red light o n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d while at t h e s a m e t i m e b r i n g i n g u p t h e b l u e lights.

149

All studio lighting is accomplished by a variety of spotlights and floodlights.

•

Studio spotlights include the Fresnel spot, the ellipsoidal spot, and the follow spot. Ellipsoidal and follow spots are for special lighting effects.

•

Studio floodlights include the scoop, the softlight and the broad, the fluorescent floodlight bank, and the strip, or eye, light.

•

Field lighting uses the small Fresnel spot, the HMI light, the small focusable spot, the open-face spot, and the internal reflector spot (clip light or PAR lamp).

•

Most portable floodlights are open-faced, which means that they have no lens. Small fluorescent banks are also used as portable floodlights. Diffusers can turn a spotlight into a floodlight.

•

ENG lighting is often done with small, versatile lights that are mounted on the camera or handheld.

•

Lighting kits contain a variety of field lighting equipment.

•

Lighting control equipment includes a variety of mounting devices, directional controls, and intensity controls.

•

Major mounting devices are the pipe grid and the coun­ terweight battens, the C-clamp, the sliding rod and the pantograph, and a variety of floor stands.

•

Directional controls include barn doors, flags, and reflectors.

•

Intensity controls are the size of the instrument (lamp watt­ age), the relative distance of lighting instrument to target object, and the relative focus or diffusion of the beam.

•

With an electronic dimmer, you can easily manipulate a light, or a group of lights, to burn at a given intensity. The patchboard, or patchbay, makes it possible to connect each lighting instrument to a specific dimmer.

7.43 MANUAL PATCHING

e n a b l e y o u to quickly a n d easily c h a n g e f r o m o n e t y p e of

Controls

•

Dimmer 1

As you can see, the patches for the lighting instruments (spotlight 5 and scoop 27) are both patched to dimmer 1. Consequently, both lighting instruments respond identically to any dimmer 1 setting.

Lighting

7.2

a n object actually reflects, a n d h o w m u c h light t h e c a m e r a lens actually receives. A light meter gives u s a m o r e accurate r e a d i n g of light intensity.

F O O T - C A N D L E S A N D LUX T h e s t a n d a r d u n i t s of m e a s u r i n g light i n t e n s i t y a r e t h e A m e r i c a n foot-candle

Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media

(fc) a n d t h e E u r o p e a n lux. Because

o r d i n a r y television lighting doesn't require extremely precise u n i t s of intensity, y o u c a n s i m p l y figure l u x b y m u l t i p l y i n g foot-candles b y a factor of t e n , o r y o u c a n figure foot-candles b y dividing lux b y ten: To find lux w h e n given foot-candles, m u l t i p l y footcandles b y ten. To find foot-candles w h e n given lux, divide l u x by ten. As a n e x a m p l e , 100 f o o t - c a n d l e s a r e a b o u t 1,000 l u x (100 x 10), a n d 2,000 l u x a r e a b o u t 200 foot-candles (2,000 •*•10). If y o u w a n t to b e m o r e accurate, use a factor of 10.75 t o calculate foot-candles from lux, o r l u x from foot-candles. E q u i p p e d w i t h f o o t - c a n d l e s o r l u x as t h e u n i t o f

Before l e a r n i n g t o d o actual lighting i n t h e s t u d i o a n d t h e

light intensity, y o u c a n n o w m e a s u r e either of t h e t w o

field, y o u n e e d t o s t u d y a few m o r e e l e m e n t s a b o u t light,

t y p e s of light intensity: incident

h o w t o c o n t r o l a n d m e a s u r e it, a n d h o w t o p r o d u c e col­

E 2 ^ L I G H T S - » Measurement-* meters

light a n d reflected

light.

o r e d light. T h i s section a d d s t o t h e technical details given in section 7.1. ^

LIGHT INTENSITY Incident and reflected light measured in foot-candles and lux

INCIDENT LIGHT T h e r e a d i n g of incident

light gives y o u s o m e idea of h o w

m u c h light reaches a specific set area. W h e n m e a s u r i n g i n c i d e n t light, y o u a r e actually m e a s u r i n g t h e a m o u n t

^

CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY

of light t h a t falls o n a subject o r a p e r f o r m a n c e area b u t

The lumen and the inverse square law

n o t w h a t is reflected b y it. To m e a s u r e i n c i d e n t light, y o u

OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT

p o i n t the i n c i d e n t - l i g h t m e t e r toward the camera lens. T h e

Providing the optimal operating light level, or baselight

m e t e r will give a q u i c k reading of the overall light level that

m u s t s t a n d in t h e lighted area o r next t o t h e subject a n d ^

^

TYPES OF LAMPS The basic luminants: incandescent, fluorescent, and HMI

^

reaches t h e p a r t i c u l a r set area. T h i s general light level is also called baselight. But i n c i d e n t light can also refer t o t h e light t h a t c o m e s t o y o u from a specific i n s t r u m e n t . If you

COLOR MEDIA

w a n t a r e a d i n g of t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light c o m i n g from

Plastic sheets (gels) that change the color of light

p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t s , y o u s h o u l d p o i n t t h e foot-candle ( o r lux) m e t e r into t h e lights, SEE 7.44 Such m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y c o m e in h a n d y , especially

LIGHT INTENSITY

w h e n y o u n e e d t o duplicate t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n for a scene

A l t h o u g h there are video cameras that can p r o d u c e pictures

s h o t o n t h e same set over a p e r i o d of several days. For s o m e

in a l m o s t t o t a l d a r k n e s s , m o s t s t a n d a r d c a m e r a s n e e d

r e a s o n d u p l i c a t i n g t h e exact lighting from o n e day t o t h e

a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f light for o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e . As

n e x t is difficult t o d o , even w h e n y o u r c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d

sensitive as o u r eyes are, t h e y c a n n o t always tell accurately

p a t c h b o a r d faithfully duplicates the d i m m e r settings of the

j u s t h o w m u c h light a n i n s t r u m e n t p r o d u c e s , h o w m u c h

p r e v i o u s day. A n incident-light check, however, guarantees

light is actually o n t h e set o r o n l o c a t i o n , h o w m u c h light

identical o r fairly close intensities.

150

Section

7.2

Light

Intensity,

Lamps,

and

Color

Media

151

7.44 INCIDENT-LIGHT READING

7.45 REFLECTED-LIGHT READING

To read incident light, you point the light meter at the camera or into the lights while standing next to the lighted subject or performance area.

To measure reflected light, you point the reflected-light meter (used in normal still photography) close to the lighted subject or object.

To discover possible holes in t h e lighting ( u n l i g h t e d

visually display t h e light levels against c a m e r a tolerances

o r u n d e r l i g h t e d areas), w a l k a r o u n d t h e set with t h e light

t h a t t h e y forget t o look at t h e m o n i t o r to see w h e t h e r t h e

m e t e r p o i n t e d at t h e m a j o r c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s . W a t c h t h e

lighting looks t h e way it was i n t e n d e d . If y o u c o m b i n e your

light m e t e r : w h e n e v e r t h e needle d i p s way d o w n , it is i n ­

knowledge of h o w the c a m e r a w o r k s with artistic sensitivity

dicating a hole.

a n d , especially, c o m m o n sense, y o u will n o t let t h e light

REFLECTED LIGHT

m a k e y o u r j o b m o r e efficient.

m e t e r tell y o u h o w to light b u t r a t h e r use it as a g u i d e to T h e reading of reflected light gives y o u an idea of h o w m u c h light is b o u n c e d off the v a r i o u s objects. It is p r i m a r i l y used to measure

contrast.

To m e a s u r e reflected light, y o u m u s t use a reflected-

CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY Light intensity

m e a s u r e s h o w m u c h light strikes an object.

light m e t e r ( m o s t c o m m o n p h o t o g r a p h i c light m e t e r s

O n e f o o t - c a n d l e is t h e a m o u n t of light of a single candle

m e a s u r e reflected l i g h t ) . P o i n t it closely at t h e l i g h t e d

t h a t falls o n a 1 -by-1 foot surface located 1 foot away from

o b j e c t — s u c h as t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s face o r w h i t e b l o u s e or

t h e candle. O n e lux is t h e light t h a t falls o n a surface of

t h e d a r k b l u e b a c k g r o u n d c u r t a i n — f r o m t h e d i r e c t i o n of

1 s q u a r e m e t e r ( a b o u t 3 b y 3 feet) g e n e r a t e d by a single

t h e c a m e r a (the b a c k of t h e m e t e r s h o u l d face the principal

candle t h a t b u r n s at a distance of 1 m e t e r ( r o u g h l y 3 feet).

c a m e r a p o s i t i o n ) , SEE 7.45

T h e n o r m for t h e light i n t e n s i t y of o n e candle is 1

D o n o t s t a n d b e t w e e n t h e light

source a n d t h e subject w h e n taking this r e a d i n g or y o u will

lumen.

Light intensity is subject to t h e inverse square law. This

m e a s u r e y o u r s h a d o w instead of t h e light actually reflect­

law states that if a light s o u r c e radiates isotropically

i n g off t h e subject. To m e a s u r e c o n t r a s t , p o i n t t h e m e t e r

formly in all directions), s u c h as a candle o r a single light

first at t h e lighted side of the object a n d t h e n m o v e it t o

b u l b b u r n i n g in t h e m i d d l e of a r o o m , t h e light intensity

t h e s h a d o w side. T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a d i n g s

falls off (gets weaker) as l/d

gives y o u t h e contrast ratio. ( C h a p t e r 8 describes c o n t r a s t

t h e source. For e x a m p l e , if t h e intensity of a light is 1 fc

ratio a n d its i m p o r t a n c e in television lighting.) D o n o t b e a slave to all these m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d ra­

2

(uni­

w h e r e d is t h e distance from

at a distance of 1 foot f r o m t h e source, its intensity at a distance of 2 feet is Vi fc. SEE 7.46

tios, however. A q u i c k check of t h e baselight is all t h a t is

T h e inverse s q u a r e law also applies to lux. In this case

generally n e e d e d for m o s t lighting s i t u a t i o n s . In especially

t h e light i n t e n s i t y is m e a s u r e d off a surface of 1 m located

critical situations, y o u m a y w a n t t o check t h e reflectance

1 m e t e r from t h e light source of 1 l u m e n .

2

of faces o r exceptionally b r i g h t objects. S o m e p e o p l e get

T h i s f o r m u l a tells y o u t h a t light intensity decreases

so involved in r e a d i n g light m e t e r s a n d oscilloscopes t h a t

t h e farther away y o u m o v e t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t from

152

Chapter

LIGHTING

7

level, called baselight o r base. As y o u recall, baselight is t h e general, overall light level o n a scene.

power of source in , foot-candles or lux ntensity = distance v

BASELIGHT LEVELS

2

M a n y a n a r g u m e n t has b e e n raised c o n c e r n i n g a d e q u a t e Intensity = 1 feat V from the light source (1 candle = 1 lumen)

m i n i m u m baselight levels for v a r i o u s c a m e r a s . T h e p r o b ­ lem is t h a t baselight levels d o n o t represent absolute values b u t are d e p e n d e n t o n o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n factors, s u c h as t h e sensitivity of t h e c a m e r a , t h e desired lighting c o n t r a s t , the general reflectance of t h e scenery, a n d , of course, t h e a p e r t u r e of t h e lens ( / - s t o p ) . W h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s o n a n E N G a s s i g n m e n t , y o u d o n o t have m u c h c o n t r o l over baselight levels; y o u m u s t accept whatever light t h e r e is. But even t h e r e y o u m i g h t b e able to use s u n l i g h t reflectors

Intensity = % feat 2'from the light source

to lighten u p s h a d o w areas, or a d d i t i o n a l lighting i n s t r u ­ m e n t s to b o o s t available light. M o s t often t h e p r o b l e m is i n a d e q u a t e baselight. But there are also situations in w h i c h y o u struggle w i t h c o n t r o l l i n g t o o m u c h light.

Not enough baselight

A l t h o u g h y o u often h e a r t h a t

c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s c a n o p e r a t e in light levels as low as

7.46

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

0.1 fc o r even 0.02 fc (10 or even 2 l u x ) , t h e light levels for

Note that the inverse square law applies only to light sources that radiate isotropically (uniformly in all directions). This law applies equally to lux.

o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e are m u c h higher. Professional E N G / E F P a n d s t u d i o c a m e r a s n o r m a l l y n e e d a b o u t 150 fc, or a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,500 lux, for o p t i m a l p i c t u r e quality at an a p e r t u r e setting of f/5.6 to f/8.0. T h e s e / - s t o p s p r o d u c e

t h e object, a n d increases if y o u m o v e t h e l i g h t closer.

t h e highest-resolution images. You will p r o b a b l y read c a m ­

O t h e r w i s e , t h e f o r m u l a does little to m a k e television light­

era specifications that use 200 fc (2,000 lux) as t h e s t a n d a r d

ing m o r e accurate. T h e b e a m s of a searchlight, a flashlight,

i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d t h e n give t h e highest / - s t o p , s u c h as / / l 1,

car h e a d l i g h t s , a n d a Fresnel o r an ellipsoidal s p o t l i g h t

at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a still delivers o p t i m a l pictures.

d o n o t radiate light isotropically b u t are collimated

(the

M o s t v i d e o c a m e r a s can w o r k at baselight levels t h a t

light rays are m a d e to r u n parallel as m u c h as possible)

are c o n s i d e r a b l y lower, w i t h o u t noticeable loss of p i c t u r e

a n d , therefore, d o n o t o b e y t h e inverse s q u a r e law. Even

quality. By switching to a low gain setting (which, as y o u

floodlights radiate their light m o r e in t h e direction of t h e

recall, will electronically b o o s t t h e v i d e o signal), y o u m a y

reflector o p e n i n g t h a n its back. T h e m o r e collimated t h e

get a n acceptable i m a g e even in low-light c o n d i t i o n s . D e ­

l i g h t — t h a t is, t h e m o r e focused its b e a m — t h e slower its

spite m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' claims to t h e contrary, high gain c a n

intensity decreases with distance. This is w h y we "focus" a

cause increased video noise a n d occasional color distor­

spotlight w h e n we want m o r e light o n an object a n d "flood"

t i o n . For h o m e video o r even E N G , video quality m a y b e

its b e a m w h e n we w a n t less light, w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e

s e c o n d a r y to p i c t u r e c o n t e n t , b u t it is of m a j o r c o n c e r n

distance b e t w e e n the lighting i n s t r u m e n t a n d t h e object.

for EFP a n d s t u d i o shows t h a t m u s t tolerate m a n y copies

An e x a m p l e of a n extremely well-collimated light is a laser

a n d p i c t u r e m a n i p u l a t i o n s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. In

b e a m , which, as y o u k n o w , m a i n t a i n s its intensity over a

general, digital c a m e r a s tolerate higher gain t h a n d o analog

great distance.

c a m e r a s , w i t h o u t noticeable p i c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n . If y o u w o r k w i t h sets o r c o s t u m e s w h o s e colors a n d

OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT To m a k e t h e c a m e r a "see well" so t h a t t h e p i c t u r e s are

t e x t u r e s a b s o r b a great a m o u n t of light, y o u o b v i o u s l y n e e d h i g h e r baselight levels t h a n with a set w h o s e brightly p a i n t e d surface reflects a m o d e r a t e a m o u n t of light.

relatively free of video noise (artifacts in t h e p i c t u r e , or

A n o t h e r p r o b l e m with s h o o t i n g in i n a d e q u a t e b a s e -

" s n o w " ) , y o u m u s t establish a m i n i m u m o p e r a t i n g light

light is t h e resulting shallow d e p t h of field. In low-light

Section

7.2

Light

Intensity,

c o n d i t i o n s , t h e iris m u s t b e fairly w i d e o p e n (low / - s t o p

Lamps,

and

Color

153

Media

h o m e fixtures except that they usually have m o r e wattage

n u m b e r ) to allow as m u c h light as possible to strike t h e

a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o d u c e h i g h e r - i n t e n s i t y light. T h e y also

c a m e r a p i c k u p device. But, as y o u recall, a lens w h o s e iris

i n c l u d e t h e smaller b u t h o t t e r quartz

is set at its m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e gives a fairly shallow d e p t h

disadvantages of regular i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p s are t h a t t h e

of field. C o n s e q u e n t l y , focusing b e c o m e s a p r o b l e m , a n d ,

higher-wattage l a m p s are quite large, the color t e m p e r a t u r e

if t h e r e is a great deal of object a n d / o r c a m e r a m o v e m e n t ,

b e c o m e s progressively lower ( m o r e r e d d i s h ) as t h e l a m p

y o u m a y e x p e r i e n c e noticeable lag ( s m e a r t h a t follows t h e

ages, a n d t h e y have a relatively s h o r t life.

lamps. The major

m o v i n g object). H e r e is t h e r u l e of t h u m b : in general, a c a m e r a h a s less t r o u b l e p r o d u c i n g high-quality, crisp pictures w h e n

Quartz

T h e quartz

l a m p h a s a filament t h a t is encased

in a q u a r t z b u l b filled w i t h h a l o g e n gas. T h e advantages

t h e light level is fairly h i g h a n d t h e c o n t r a s t limited t h a n

of a q u a r t z l a m p over regular i n c a n d e s c e n t systems are

u n d e r very low levels w i t h h i g h - c o n t r a s t lighting.

t h a t it is s m a l l e r a n d m a i n t a i n s its c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e over its entire life. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it b u r n s at an

Too much base;

Despite t h e validity of this general

rule for baselight a n d picture quality, there will be instances

e x t r e m e l y h o t t e m p e r a t u r e . When changing

quartz

lights,

do not touch the lamp with your fingers. T h e old l a m p m a y

w h e n t h e r e is s i m p l y t o o m u c h light for t h e c a m e r a t o

still b e h o t e n o u g h to b u r n y o u r skin, a n d y o u r finger­

o p e r a t e properly. You can c o p e w i t h t o o m u c h light by

p r i n t s will cause t h e n e w o n e to have a m u c h s h o r t e r life

r e d u c i n g t h e lens a p e r t u r e , w h i c h translates into setting

s p a n . Always use gloves, a p a p e r towel, o r a clean rag w h e n

t h e / - s t o p to a h i g h e r n u m b e r , s u c h as f/22,

handling lamps.

or u s i n g a n

N D filter that is p a r t of t h e filter wheel inside t h e c a m e r a . M u c h like a small a p e r t u r e , neutral

density

(ND)

filters

FLUORESCENT

r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n a scene or e n t e r i n g

Fluorescent

t h e b e a m splitter in t h e c a m e r a w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e color

t u b e to give off ultraviolet r a d i a t i o n . This r a d i a t i o n in t u r n

t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e light. ( C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e is explained

lights u p the p h o s p h o r o u s coating inside t h e t u b e s , similar

in detail in c h a p t e r 8.) Such N D filters will also h e l p you

t o the way the electron b e a m lights u p the television screen.

c o n t r o l t h e e x t r e m e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n light a n d s h a d o w s

Despite i m p r o v e d fluorescent l a m p s that p r o d u c e a fairly

t u b e s g e n e r a t e light b y activating a gas-filled

w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s o n a s u n n y day. fr4Ti*:»l_l0iHT.s-»

even w h i t e light, m a n y fluorescent t u b e s have a t e n d e n c y

Measurement-* baselight

t o give off a slightly greenish light or, at best, a color t e m ­ p e r a t u r e t h a t m a k e s it difficult to b l e n d w i t h o t h e r i n d o o r o r o u t d o o r light sources.

TYPES OF LAMPS Lighting i n s t r u m e n t s are classified n o t o n l y by function

HMI

(spotlight or floodlight) b u t also b y t h e l a m p (bulb) they

HMI

use. W h e n classifying i n s t r u m e n t s b y t y p e of l a m p , w e

iodide) l a m p s g e n e r a t e light by m o v i n g electricity t h r o u g h

( w h i c h s t a n d s for hydragyrum

medium

arc-length

c a n refer t o t h e p o w e r rating, such as 12V o r 30V for b a t ­

v a r i o u s types of gases. This creates a sort of lightning inside

t e r y - p o w e r e d l a m p s or l k W or 2 k W ( 1 , 0 0 0 W or 2,000W)

t h e b u l b , w h i c h is t h e discharge t h a t creates t h e light. To

l a m p s for studio lighting, o r to a specific way of generating

create t h e l i g h t n i n g inside the l a m p , y o u n e e d a

a light o u t p u t — t h e luminant.

Obviously, y o u s h o u l d n o t

fairly heavy t r a n s f o r m e r . H M I l a m p s p r o d u c e light w i t h a

use a 12V l a m p w i t h a 30V b a t t e r y o r p u t a 2 k W l a m p in

color t e m p e r a t u r e of 5,600K, the o u t d o o r s t a n d a r d . (See

a n i n s t r u m e n t t h a t is r a t e d for o n l y a l k W . Television l i g h t i n g generally uses t h r e e basic t y p e s

ballast—a

section 7.1 for t h e advantages a n d disadvantages of t h e H M I w h e n used in p r o d u c t i o n . ) As with q u a r t z b u l b s , d o

o f l u m i n a n t s : (1) i n c a n d e s c e n t , (2) f l u o r e s c e n t , a n d

n o t t o u c h H M I l a m p s w i t h y o u r h a n d s : y o u r fingerprints

(3) H M I .

will weaken the q u a r t z h o u s i n g a n d cause t h e l a m p to b u r n o u t in a relatively s h o r t t i m e .

INCANDESCENT T h e incandescent

lamp operates on the same principle

as t h e o r d i n a r y h o u s e h o l d light b u l b . It generates light

COLOR MEDIA

b y h e a t i n g u p a filament w i t h electricity. T h e i n c a n d e s ­

You can p r o d u c e a great variety of colored light s i m p l y

cent l a m p s used in television r e s e m b l e the o n e s in y o u r

b y p u t t i n g different color media,

o r gels, in front of t h e

Chapter

154

7.47

7

LIGHTING

COLOR MEDIA

Color media, or gels, are colored filters that are put in front of lighting instruments to produce colored light.

lighting i n s t r u m e n t . (Gel is s h o r t for gelatin, w h i c h was the

t h e g r e e n — i n front of t h e s a m e i n s t r u m e n t , y o u w o u l d

color m e d i u m u s e d before t h e m o r e h e a t - a n d m o i s t u r e -

get n o light from t h e i n s t r u m e n t . This is because t h e red

resistant plastic was developed.) Color m e d i a are sheets of

gel blocks (subtracts) all t h e green light, a n d t h e green gel

highly heat-resistant plastic t h a t act as color filters. T h e y

negates all t h e red light.

are used extensively to c o l o r - t i n t scenic b a c k g r o u n d s or

A similar p r o b l e m occurs if y o u shine colored lights o n

to create color special effects, s u c h as in d a n c e p r o g r a m s ,

colored objects. We see a n apple as red because t h e color

rock concerts, o r s o m e m y s t e r y o r o u t e r - s p a c e a d v e n t u r e

filters in t h e apple a b s o r b all colors of white light except red,

shows. SEE 7.47

w h i c h is reflected b a c k to o u r eyes. A green a p p l e a b s o r b s

HOW TO U S E COLOR M E D I A

t h e a p p l e look green. W h a t w o u l d h a p p e n if y o u s h i n e d a

You c a n cut t h e color m e d i a sheet to fit t h e frame of t h e

red light o n a green apple? W o u l d it t u r n yellow? N o , t h e

gel h o l d e r of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t . You t h e n slip the

apple w o u l d l o o k d a r k b r o w n o r black. Why? Because t h e

all colors except green, w h i c h is reflected b a c k a n d m a k e s

gel h o l d e r i n t o brackets in front of t h e lens of t h e lighting

red light that shines o n t h e green apple c o n t a i n s n o green.

i n s t r u m e n t . If t h e colored lighting does n o t have t o b e t o o

T h e apple, w h i c h absorbs all or m o s t of t h e red light, has n o

precise, y o u can use w o o d e n clothespins (plastic o n e s melt)

or very little red to reflect back. In the s a m e way, y o u m a y

to h a n g t h e color sheets from t h e b a r n d o o r s like l a u n d r y

have a p r o b l e m u s i n g yellow objects u n d e r b l u e " n i g h t "

o n a clothesline. T h e advantages of this m e t h o d are t h a t it

i l l u m i n a t i o n : t h e blue light c o n t a i n s n o yellow, a n d t h e

saves you from having to cut t h e expensive gels a n d they are

objects therefore have n o yellow to reflect, so t h e y t u r n

farther away from the h e a t g e n e r a t e d by t h e l a m p . H i g h l y

d a r k gray or black.

focused i n s t r u m e n t s g e n e r a t e so m u c h h e a t that t h e y m a y

M o s t l i g h t i n g e x p e r t s advise against u s i n g c o l o r e d

b u r n o u t t h e center of even t h e m o s t h e a t - r e s i s t a n t gels.

lights to i l l u m i n a t e t a l e n t a n d p e r f o r m a n c e areas unless,

You c a n avoid s u c h b u r n s by p u t t i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t i n t o

of course, it's for special effect, such as the greenish t i n t

m o r e of a flood p o s i t i o n (by m o v i n g t h e lamp-reflector

o n c r i m e shows or t h e m u l t i c o l o r e d lights o n a rock m u s i c

u n i t t o w a r d t h e lens), t h e r e b y dissipating s o m e w h a t t h e

scene. If colors are critical, t r y to keep t h e colored light

heat of t h e b e a m .

away from t h e faces.

M I X I N G COLOR GELS

j o b of color correction in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing (explored

You m a y have h e a r d a b o u t t h e t e d i o u s b u t i m p o r t a n t subtrac-

in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 13). A l t h o u g h this h a s n o t h i n g to d o

tively. For e x a m p l e , if y o u p u t a red gel in o n e i n s t r u m e n t

w i t h u s i n g color m e d i a in s t u d i o lighting, it nevertheless

a n d a green gel in t h e o t h e r a n d t h e n partially overlap

is b a s e d o n electronically r e m i x i n g t h e RGB q u a n t i t i e s

their b e a m s , you get yellow in t h e overlap. Because y o u

a n d qualities of t h e RGB light p r i m a r i e s . This p r o c e d u r e

W h e n using gels the colors can m i x additively

or

a d d e d o n e light o n t o p of the other, this is additive

mix­

ing. If, however, y o u were t o p u t b o t h g e l s — t h e red a n d

is a special skill, however, a n d its t e c h n i q u e s far exceed t h e scope of this h a n d b o o k .

Section

7.2

Light

intensity,

•

Light intensity is measured in foot-candles (fc) or lux. To find lux when given foot-candles, multiply foot-candles by ten. To find foot-candles when given lux, divide lux by ten.

•

Although the general conversion factor of foot-candles into lux is 10, the more accurate conversion factor is 10.75; thus, 1 fc = 10.75 lux, and 10.75 lux = 1 fc.

•

To measure incident light (the light that falls on the scene), point the light meter away from the lighted scene toward the camera or into the lights that are illuminating the subject.

Lamps,

and

Color

155

Media

For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.

B3D>

LIGHTS-* Instruments-* studio | field

E33>

LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette

133

BSS>

LIGHTS^ Instruments-* field

139

LIGHTS-* Instruments-* beam control LIGHTS^ Field-* use of reflectors

•

To measure reflected light, use a reflected (standard) light meter and point it closely at various areas of the lighted subject or object. Reflected-light readings measure primar­ ily contrast.

•

The inverse square law in illumination applies only if the light source radiates isotropically (uniformly in all direc­ tions), such as a bare light bulb or a candle. Because most television lighting instruments collimate the light (focus the light rays), the inverse square law does not apply to the same degree. The general principle, however, still holds true: the farther away the light source is from the object, the less intense the light; the closer the light is to the ob­ ject, the more intense the light.

•

Baselight is the overall light level on a scene. Cameras require a minimum baselight level for optimal operation.

•

Lamps are rated by the voltage they need to operate—their power rating. They are also labeled by the type of luminant: (1) incandescent, including quartz, (2) fluorescent, and (3) HMI. Incandescent lamps include regular household bulbs and the more efficient quartz lamps. Fluorescent lamps produce ultraviolet rays that light up the phosphorous layer inside the tube. The HMI lamp generates light by discharging electricity through various gases.

•

Color media, normally called gels, are colored plastic filters that, when put in front of the lens of a lighting instrument, give the light beam the color of the gel.

•

Colored light beams mix additively, but overlaying filters mix subtractively.

131

EE2>

LIGHTS^ Instruments-* field

145 146

146

LIGHTS-* Measurement-* meters LIGHTS-} Measurement-* baselight

150 153

Techniques of Television Lighting W h e n w a t c h i n g television, y o u will probably notice that p e o p l e a n d sometimes t h e entire scenes in newscasts, situation comedies, and g a m e shows are brightly lit with a m i n i m u m of s h a d o w s on their faces. But w h e n w a t c h i n g crime shows or soap operas, there are often more d e e p s h a d o w s on the actors' faces than light, a n d even t h e colors are sometimes distorted. T h e techniques of television lighting suggest h o w to achieve such different lighting effects and more.

In most video production situations, especially EFP, available space, time, a n d people are insufficient for y o u to accomplish motion picture-quality lighting. You may find, for instance, that t h e time allotted to lighting is so short that all you c a n do is flood the studio or location site with highly diffused light, regardless of t h e nature of the e v e n t to be illuminated. A l t h o u g h such a t e c h n i q u e may please the camera a n d probably the v i d e o operator ( w h o because of the uniform light levels has little shading to do), it does not always fulfill t h e aesthetic requirements of the production. For example, a dramatic scene that is supposed to play on a dark street corner will not look convincing if every­ thing is brightly a n d evenly illuminated by softlights. O n the other h a n d , there is no reason to spend a great deal of time on dramatic lighting for such events as newscasts, interviews, or the corporate manager's telling her e m p l o y e e s about recent sales. Even lighting will do just fine.

156

The ever-present time limitation should not preclude g o o d a n d creative television light­ ing, but it does call for a high d e g r e e of efficiency. W i t h o u t a t h o r o u g h understanding of t h e basic lighting principles, you c a n easily spend all your allotted time, and part of the rehearsal time, o n trying t o achieve a specific lighting effect that, in t h e e n d , might look out of place. Efficiency in lighting also m e a n s careful preparation.

This chapter will help you w i t h such preparations. Section 8.1, Lighting in t h e Studio, covers basic a n d special-effects studio lighting techniques a n d principles; section 8.2, Lighting in t h e Field, addresses lighting techniques for E N G a n d EFP.

background light Illumination of the set, set pieces, and back­ drops. Also called set light. back light Illumination from behind the subject and opposite the camera. cameo lighting Foreground figures are lighted with highly directional light, with the background remaining dark. chroma keying Effect that uses color (usually blue or green) for the backdrop, which is replaced by the background image during a key. color temperature The standard by which we measure the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. It is measured on the Kelvin (K) scale. The standard color tem­ perature for indoor light is 3,200K, for outdoor light, 5,600K. Technically, the numbers express Kelvin degrees. contrast ratio The difference between the brightest and the darkest portions in the picture (often measured by reflected light in foot-candles). The contrast ratio for most cameras is normally 40:1 to 50:1, which means that the brightest spot in the picture should not be more than forty or fifty times brighter than the darkest portion without causing loss of detail in the dark or light areas. High-end digital cameras can exceed this ratio. cross-keying The crossing of key lights for two people facing each other. diffused light Light that illuminates a relatively large area with an indistinct light beam. Diffused light, created by flood­ lights, produces soft shadows. directional light Light that illuminates a relatively small area with a distinct light beam. Directional light, produced by spotlights, creates harsh, clearly defined shadows. falloff (1) The speed with which light intensity decays. (2) The speed (degree) with which a light picture portion turns into shadow area. Fast falloff means that the light areas turn abruptly into shadow areas and there is a great brightness difference between light and shadow areas. Slow falloffin­ dicates a very gradual change from light to dark and a mini­ mal brightness difference between light and shadow areas.

fill light Additional light on the opposite side of the camera from the key light to illuminate shadow areas and thereby reduce falloff. Usually done with floodlights. floor plan A diagram of scenery and properties drawn onto a grid pattern. Can also refer to floor plan pattern. high-key Light background and ample light on the scene. Has nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key light. Kelvin (K) Refers to the Kelvin temperature scale. In lighting it is the specific measure of color temperature—the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. The higher the K number, the more bluish the white light. The lower the K number, the more reddish the white light. key light Principal source of illumination. kicker light Usually directional light that is positioned low and from the side and the back of the subject. light plot A plan, similarto a floor plan, that shows the type, size (wattage), and location of the lighting instruments relative to the scene to be illuminated and the general direction of the beams. location survey Written assessment, usually in the form of a checklist, of the production requirements for a remote. low-key Dark background and illumination of selected areas. Has nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key light. photographic lighting principle The triangular arrangement of key, back, and fill lights, with the back light opposite the camera and directly behind the object, and the key and fill lights on opposite sides of the camera and to the front and the side of the object. Also called triangle lighting. side light Usually directional light coming from the side of an object. Acts as additional fill light or a second key light and provides contour. silhouette lighting Unlighted objects or people in front of a brightly illuminated background.

157

8.1

^

CONTRAST Contrast ratio, measuring contrast, and controlling contrast

^

BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES Key-to-back-light ratio and key-to-fill-light ratio

•

Lighting in the Studio

LIGHT PLOT Indicating the location of instruments and their beams

P-

OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS Safety, preserving lamps and power, and using a studio monitor

QUALITY OF LIGHT W h a t e v e r y o u r l i g h t i n g objective, y o u will b e w o r k i n g w i t h t w o types of light: directional a n d diffused. N o r m a l w h i t e light, w h i c h y o u get f r o m the s u n o r the light y o u use while r e a d i n g , is never p u r e white b u t h a s a slight r e d ­ dish o r b l u i s h tinge. Technically, white light h a s a certain color

temperature.

DIRECTIONAL AND

DIFFUSED

LIGHT LIGHT

Lighting m e a n s t h e c o n t r o l of light a n d s h a d o w s . Both are

Directional

necessary to s h o w t h e s h a p e a n d t h e t e x t u r e of a face o r

relatively small area with a distinct light b e a m a n d p r o d u c e s

an object, to suggest a p a r t i c u l a r e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d , like

d e n s e , well-defined s h a d o w s . T h e s u n o n a cloudless day

m u s i c , to create a specific m o o d . Regardless of w h e t h e r

acts like a giant spotlight, p r o d u c i n g d e n s e a n d distinct

you d o lighting for d r a m a t i c o r n o n d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s ,

shadows.

y o u will find t h a t t h e r e are usually m a n y s o l u t i o n s to a n y

light, p r o d u c e d b y s p o t l i g h t s , i l l u m i n a t e s a

Diffused

light illuminates a relatively large area w i t h

o n e p r o b l e m . A n d t h o u g h t h e r e is n o universal recipe t h a t

a w i d e , indistinct b e a m . It is p r o d u c e d by

w o r k s for every possible lighting s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e are s o m e

creates soft, t r a n s p a r e n t s h a d o w s . T h e s u n o n a c l o u d y o r

basic principles t h a t y o u can easily a d a p t to a great variety

foggy day acts like a n ideal floodlight b e c a u s e t h e overcast

of specific r e q u i r e m e n t s . W h e n faced w i t h a lighting task,

t r a n s f o r m s t h e h a r s h light b e a m s of t h e s u n i n t o highly

d o n o t start w i t h a n t i c i p a t e d l i m i t a t i o n s . Start w i t h h o w

diffused light.

you w o u l d like the lighting to look a n d t h e n adapt to the ex­ isting technical facilities a n d especially t h e available t i m e . Section 8.1 covers the following lighting t e c h n i q u e s :

floodlights

and

Actually, it is t h e d e n s i t y of t h e s h a d o w s a n d t h e i r falloff

t h a t i n d i c a t e s w h e t h e r t h e light is d i r e c t i o n a l o r

diffused. If y o u l o o k e d only at t h e i l l u m i n a t e d side, y o u w o u l d have a h a r d t i m e telling w h e t h e r it was d i r e c t i o n a l

QUALITY OF LIGHT

o r diffused light.

Directional and diffused ^

COLOR TEMPERATURE

COLOR TEMPERATURE

The reddishness and bluishness of white light and how to control it

You m a y have n o t i c e d that a

fluorescent

t u b e gives off a

different " w h i t e " light t h a n d o e s a candle. T h e fluorescent ^

^

LIGHTING FUNCTIONS

t u b e actually emits a white light t h a t h a s a b l u i s h - g r e e n

Terminology and specific functions of the main light sources

tinge, w h e r e a s t h e c a n d l e p r o d u c e s a m o r e r e d d i s h w h i t e

SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES Flat, continuous-action, large-area, high-contrast, cameo, silhouette, and chroma-key area lighting, and controlling eye and boom shadows

158

light. T h e setting s u n gives off a m u c h m o r e r e d d i s h light t h a n does t h e m i d d a y s u n , w h i c h is m o r e bluish. T h e s e color v a r i a t i o n s in light are called color temperature.

Note

t h a t color t e m p e r a t u r e has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h physical

Section

8.1

Lighting

in the

159

Studio

8 . 1 COLOR TEMPERATURE Reddish-white light

1,000K

3,200K

Candlelight

Indoor standard for white light

Bluish-white light

4,000K

5,600K

7,000+K

Outdoor standard for white light

Actual outdoor light

Color temperature is mea­ sured on the Kelvin (K) scale. It measures the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. The norm for indoor light is 3,200K; for out­ door light, 5,600K.

t e m p e r a t u r e , that is, h o w h o t t h e light b u l b actually gets;

w i t h o u t t h e color c h a n g e b e c o m i n g t o o noticeable o n a

it is strictly a m e a s u r e of t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s or b l u i s h ­

color m o n i t o r . Incidentally, d i m m i n g t h e lights by at least 10 p e r c e n t will n o t only r e d u c e p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n b u t

ness of w h i t e light. This r e d d i s h n e s s a n d b l u i s h n e s s of w h i t e light c a n b e precisely m e a s u r e d a n d are expressed in degrees of color t e m p e r a t u r e , or Kelvin

j u s t a b o u t d o u b l e t h e life of t h e b u l b s . H ' i H FLIGHTS^ Color temperature-^ white balance | controlling | try it

(K) degrees. In lighting lingo t h e

degrees are d r o p p e d a n d a specific color t e m p e r a t u r e is

HOW TO CONTROL COLOR T E M P E R A T U R E

referred t o only as a certain a m o u n t of K.

As y o u l e a r n e d in chapter 3, y o u n e e d to w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e

T h e color t e m p e r a t u r e s t a n d a r d for i n d o o r i l l u m i n a ­

c a m e r a to ensure t h e correct color r e p r o d u c t i o n even if the

t i o n is 3,200K, w h i c h is a fairly w h i t e light w i t h just a little

i l l u m i n a t i o n h a s different color t e m p e r a t u r e s . You m a y

r e d d i s h ( w a r m ) tinge. All s t u d i o lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d

find, however, t h a t occasionally t h e c a m e r a will refuse to

p o r t a b l e lights i n t e n d e d for i n d o o r i l l u m i n a t i o n are r a t e d

w h i t e - b a l a n c e a l t h o u g h y o u follow exactly t h e p r o c e d u r e s

a t 3,200K, a s s u m i n g t h e y receive full voltage. L i g h t i n g

o u t l i n e d here. T h i s difficulty m a y b e caused b y a color

i n s t r u m e n t s used to a u g m e n t or s i m u l a t e o u t d o o r light

t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t is t o o l o w (light is t o o r e d d i s h ) o r t o o

have l a m p s t h a t e m i t a 5,600K light. T h e y a p p r o x i m a t e

h i g h (light is t o o bluish) for t h e a u t o m a t i c white balance

m o r e t h e bluish light of t h e o u t d o o r s , S E E S . I

t o h a n d l e . In this case y o u n e e d to c h o o s e o n e of t h e color

W h e n y o u d i m a l a m p t h a t is r a t e d at 3,200K, the light

filters o n t h e filter wheel inside t h e c a m e r a (see c h a p t e r 3).

b e c o m e s progressively m o r e r e d d i s h , similar to sunlight at

Light-blue filters c o m p e n s a t e for t h e r e d d i s h n e s s of low-

sunset. T h e color c a m e r a , w h e n adjusted t o seeing w h i t e

c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e light, a n d a m b e r or l i g h t - o r a n g e filters

in 3,200K light, will faithfully s h o w this increasing red­

c o m p e n s a t e for t h e b l u i s h n e s s of h i g h - c o l o r - t e m p e r a -

dishness. For e x a m p l e , t h e w h i t e shirt of a p e r f o r m e r will

t u r e light.

g r a d u a l l y t u r n o r a n g e or p i n k , a n d t h e skin t o n e s will take

M o s t professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a s r e m e m b e r s o m e

o n a n u n n a t u r a l r e d glow. S o m e lighting experts therefore

of these setups, so y o u c a n go b a c k to the p r e v i o u s light­

w a r n against any d i m m i n g of lights t h a t i l l u m i n a t e per­

ing e n v i r o n m e n t a n d recall t h e a p p r o p r i a t e white balance

f o r m e r s o r p e r f o r m a n c e areas. T h e skin t o n e s are, after all,

automatically. Experienced camerapersons, however, prefer

t h e only real s t a n d a r d viewers have by w h i c h to j u d g e t h e

t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e from scratch to b e sure t h a t t h e actual

accuracy of t h e television color s c h e m e . If t h e skin colors

colors as seen b y t h e c a m e r a , i n c l u d i n g w h i t e , are as t r u e

are d i s t o r t e d , h o w can we t r u s t t h e o t h e r colors to b e true?

as possible.

So goes t h e a r g u m e n t . Practice h a s s h o w n , however, t h a t

A n o t h e r w a y to raise t h e c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e

y o u can d i m a light by 10 p e r c e n t or even a little m o r e

r e d d i s h light (to m a k e it m o r e bluish) is by p u t t i n g a light-

160

8.2

Chapter

8

TECHNIQUES

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

MATCHING COLOR TEMPERATURES OF DIFFERENT LIGHT SOURCES

A When illuminating an object with indoor light mixed with outdoor light coming through a window, you need to equalize the color temperatures of both light sources to ensure proper white-balancing.

B To equalize the color temperatures, you can put light-blue gels on the indoor lighting instruments to raise their 3,200K color temperature to the more prominent 5,600K daylight com­ ing through the window.

b l u e gel (sheet of colored plastic) in front of t h e lighting

In certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s y o u c a n get away w i t h m i x ­

i n s t r u m e n t ' s lens; or y o u c a n lower t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e

ing lights of different color t e m p e r a t u r e s so long as o n e or

(to m a k e it m o r e r e d d i s h ) b y placing a l i g h t - o r a n g e gel in

t h e o t h e r d o m i n a t e s t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n . For e x a m p l e , if y o u

front of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t .

are in an office t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y o v e r h e a d fluorescent

W h e n s h o o t i n g a n i n d o o r s c e n e t h a t is p a r t i a l l y

t u b e s a n d y o u n e e d to a d d key a n d back lights (see t h e fol­

i l l u m i n a t e d by o u t d o o r (5,600K) light c o m i n g t h r o u g h a

lowing discussion) to p r o v i d e m o r e sparkle a n d d i m e n s i o n

w i n d o w a n d by p o r t a b l e i n d o o r (3,200K) lighting i n s t r u ­

to t h e p e r f o r m e r , y o u can m o s t likely use n o r m a l p o r t a b l e

m e n t s , y o u have t w o choices: either lower t h e high o u t d o o r

lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t b u r n at t h e i n d o o r color t e m ­

color t e m p e r a t u r e (bluish light) or raise t h e i n d o o r color

p e r a t u r e s t a n d a r d (3,200K). Why? Because t h e p o r t a b l e

t e m p e r a t u r e ( r e d d i s h light) to m a t c h t h e daylight s t r e a m ­

i n s t r u m e n t s p r o v i d e t h e d o m i n a n t light, o v e r p o w e r i n g

ing t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w . In elaborate field p r o d u c t i o n s ,

t h e o v e r h e a d lights t h a t n o w act as r a t h e r w e a k fill lights.

t h e usual way is t o cover t h e entire w i n d o w w i t h a m b e r

T h e c a m e r a will have little t r o u b l e w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g o n t h e

plastic sheets t h a t act like gigantic filters, l o w e r i n g t h e

s t r o n g i n d o o r lights while m o r e or less i g n o r i n g t h e h i g h e r

high o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e to the lower i n d o o r

color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e o v e r h e a d fluorescent lights.

s t a n d a r d . T h e a d v a n t a g e of this m e t h o d is t h a t t h e w h o l e i n t e r i o r is adjusted to t h e 3,200K s t a n d a r d . A quicker a n d c h e a p e r way is to let t h e h i g h - c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e o u t d o o r

LIGHTING FUNCTIONS

light s t r e a m t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w a n d p u t b l u i s h filters

You will n o t i c e t h a t l i g h t i n g t e r m i n o l o g y is b a s e d n o t

in front of t h e i n d o o r lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to raise their

so m u c h o n w h e t h e r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are s p o t l i g h t s or

light to t h e o u t d o o r s t a n d a r d , SEE 8.2 KVJ»»LlGHTS-» Color

floodlights b u t r a t h e r o n their functions a n d their p o s i t i o n

temperature-^ light sources

relative t o t h e object to b e lighted.

Section

8.1

Lighting

in the

161

Studio

TERMINOLOGY A l t h o u g h there are variations for t h e following t e r m s , m o s t lighting p e o p l e in t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c arts ( i n c l u d i n g video) use this s t a n d a r d t e r m i n o l o g y . •

T h e key light is t h e a p p a r e n t p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e of di­ rectional i l l u m i n a t i o n falling o n a subject o r a n area; it reveals t h e basic s h a p e of t h e object. T h e back light p r o d u c e s i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m b e h i n d t h e subject a n d o p p o s i t e t h e c a m e r a ; it distinguishes t h e s h a d o w of t h e object from t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d e m p h a s i z e s t h e object's o u t l i n e . T h e fill light p r o v i d e s generally diffused i l l u m i n a ­ t i o n t o r e d u c e s h a d o w o r c o n t r a s t r a n g e (to slow falloff). It c a n b e directional if t h e area t o b e "filled in" is r a t h e r limited. T h e background

light, o r set light, is u s e d specifically

to i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d o r t h e set a n d is sepa­ rate from t h e light p r o v i d e d for t h e p e r f o r m e r s or Key light (spot or flood)

p e r f o r m a n c e area. 9 T h e side light is placed directly t o t h e side of t h e subject, usually o n t h e o p p o s i t e side of t h e c a m e r a

8 . 3 KEY LIGHT

from t h e key light. S o m e t i m e s t w o side lights are

The key light represents the principal light source and reveals the basic shape of the object or person.

used o p p o s i t e each other, acting as t w o keys for special-effects lighting of a face. •

T h e kicker light is a directional i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m t h e back, off t o o n e side of t h e subject, usually from a l o w angle o p p o s i t e t h e key light. W h e r e a s t h e b a c k light m e r e l y highlights t h e b a c k of t h e h e a d a n d t h e s h o u l d e r s , t h e kicker light highlights a n d defines t h e entire side of t h e p e r s o n , s e p a r a t i n g h i m o r h e r from the b a c k g r o u n d .

a cue from

filmmakers

a n d still p h o t o g r a p h e r s a n d use

reflectors as key a n d fill lights. Instead of diffusing t h e key a n d fill lights w i t h diffusion material, s u c h as scrims or frosted gels, y o u d o n o t a i m t h e key light (a Fresnel spot) directly a t t h e subject b u t r a t h e r b o u n c e it off white foam core o r a large w h i t e p o s t e r b o a r d . T h e reflected, highly diffused light nevertheless p r o d u c e s distinct, yet extremely

SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS OF M A I N L I G H T S O U R C E S

soft, slow-falloff s h a d o w s . S o m e LDs prefer this m e t h o d

H o w d o these lights n o w function i n basic lighting tasks?

gives t h e m m o r e g r a d u a l (slower) falloff.

Let's take a look.

over key-lighting directly w i t h a softlight, claiming t h a t it B e c a u s e d u r i n g t h e d a y w e see t h e p r i n c i p a l light s o u r c e — t h e s u n — c o m i n g from a b o v e , t h e key light is

Key light

As t h e p r i n c i p a l source of i l l u m i n a t i o n , t h e

n o r m a l l y placed above a n d t o t h e r i g h t o r left front side of

m a j o r function of t h e key light is t o reveal t h e basic s h a p e

t h e object, from t h e camera's p o i n t of view. L o o k again at

of t h e subject, SEE 8.3 To achieve this t h e k e y light m u s t

figure 8.3, w h i c h shows t h e w o m a n i l l u m i n a t e d w i t h t h e

p r o d u c e s o m e shadows. Fresnel spotlights, m e d i u m spread,

key light only, a n d notice t h a t t h e falloff is very fast, b l e n d ­

are n o r m a l l y used for key i l l u m i n a t i o n . B u t y o u c a n use

ing p a r t of h e r h a i r a n d s h o u l d e r w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d . To

a scoop, a b r o a d , o r even a softlight for a k e y if y o u w a n t

help clarify t h e outline a n d t h e texture of the w o m a n ' s right

softer shadows or, technically, slower falloff. I n t h e absence

(camera-left) side, y o u obviously n e e d light sources o t h e r

of expensive softlights, s o m e lighting directors (LDs) take

t h a n t h e single k e y light.

162

Chapter

TECHNIQUES

8

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

b a c k g r o u n d a n d giving t h e h a i r sparkle, the light s i m p l y brightens the t o p of her head, causing dense shadows below h e r eyes a n d chin. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , if t h e b a c k light is p o s i t i o n e d t o o low, it shines i n t o t h e c a m e r a . To get g o o d back lighting o n a set, y o u n e e d a generous space b e t w e e n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e areas ( t h e areas in w h i c h t h e talent m o v e ) a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery. T h e r e f o r e y o u m u s t place "active" f u r n i t u r e , s u c h as chairs, tables, sofas, o r b e d s actually u s e d b y t h e p e r f o r m e r s , at least 8 to 10 feet away f r o m t h e walls t o w a r d t h e center of t h e set. If t h e talent w o r k s t o o close to t h e scenery, t h e b a c k lights m u s t b e tilted at very steep angles to reach over t h e flats, a n d s u c h steep angles inevitably cause u n d e s i r a b l e t o p light. Fill l i g h t

N o w take a n o t h e r l o o k at figure 8.4. Despite

t h e b a c k light, the difference b e t w e e n t h e light a n d s h a d o w sides is still rather extreme, a n d t h e light side of t h e face still c h a n g e s a b r u p t l y to a d e n s e s h a d o w . This c h a n g e is called falloff. Falloff m e a n s t h e speed (degree) to w h i c h a light p i c t u r e p o r t i o n t u r n s i n t o s h a d o w area. If t h e c h a n g e is s u d d e n , as in figure 8.4, it is fast falloff. W i t h fast falloff t h e s h a d o w side of t h e subject's face is very dense; t h e c a m e r a sees n o s h a d o w detail. To slow d o w n t h e falloff, that is, t o Key light (spot or flood)

m a k e t h e s h a d o w less p r o m i n e n t a n d m o r e t r a n s p a r e n t , y o u n e e d s o m e fill light, SEE 8.5

^^^^^^^^

N o t surprisingly, you place the fill light o n t h e opposite

8 . 4 KEY AND BACK LIGHTS The back light provides more definition to the actual shape of the subject (her hair on camera-left), separates her from the background, and gives her hair sparkle and highlights.

side of t h e c a m e r a from t h e key light. A highly diffused floodlight or reflected light is generally used as fill. T h e m o r e fill light you use, t h e slower the falloff b e c o m e s . W h e n t h e intensity of t h e fill light a p p r o a c h e s or even m a t c h e s t h a t of t h e key light, t h e s h a d o w s , a n d w i t h t h e m t h e fall-

Back light

Adding illumination from behind helps

off, are virtually eliminated. T h i s gives t h e subject a flat

SEE 8.4 N o t e

l o o k — s h a d o w s n o l o n g e r h e l p define s h a p e a n d t e x t u r e .

separate t h e subject from t h e b a c k g r o u n d ,

h o w t h e back light helps distinguish b e t w e e n t h e s h a d o w

W h e n d o i n g critical l i g h t i n g in a specific area a n d

side of the w o m a n a n d t h e d a r k b a c k g r o u n d , e m p h a s i z i n g

y o u d o n ' t w a n t t h e fill light t o spill over t o o m u c h i n t o

t h e o u t l i n e — t h e c o n t o u r — o f h e r hair a n d s h o u l d e r s . W e

t h e o t h e r set areas, y o u c a n use a Fresnel s p o t l i g h t as fill

have n o w established a clear

relationship,

by s p r e a d i n g t h e b e a m as m u c h as possible or b y p u t t i n g a

w h i c h m e a n s t h a t we c a n easily p e r c e i v e a figure ( t h e

s c r i m in front of t h e lens. You c a n t h e n use t h e b a r n d o o r s

w o m a n ) in front of a (dark) b a c k g r o u n d . Besides providing

to f u r t h e r c o n t r o l the spill.

figure/ground

spatial definition, t h e b a c k light a d d s sparkle a n d profes­ sional polish. In general, t r y to p o s i t i o n t h e b a c k light as directly b e h i n d t h e subject ( o p p o s i t e t h e c a m e r a ) as possible; t h e r e

The photographic ing

principle, o r triangle

light­

W i t h t h e three m a i n light sources (key, fill, a n d back)

in t h e triangle setup, y o u have established t h e basic pho­

is n o i n h e r e n t v i r t u e in placing it s o m e w h a t to o n e side o r

tographic

t h e o t h e r unless it is in t h e camera's view. A m o r e critical

8.5). But y o u are n o t d o n e yet! You m u s t n o w fine-tune this

lighting principle,

o r triangle lighting (see

figure

p r o b l e m is controlling t h e vertical angle at w h i c h t h e b a c k

lighting a r r a n g e m e n t . Take a g o o d h a r d look at t h e lighted

light strikes t h e subject. If it is p o s i t i o n e d directly above

object or, if possible, t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r to see w h e t h e r

the p e r s o n , or s o m e w h e r e in t h a t n e i g h b o r h o o d , t h e b a c k

t h e scene (in o u r case, t h e c l o s e - u p of t h e w o m a n ) n e e d s

light b e c o m e s a n u n d e s i r a b l e t o p light. Instead of reveal­

s o m e f u r t h e r a d j u s t m e n t for o p t i m a l lighting. Are t h e r e

ing t h e subject's c o n t o u r to m a k e h e r s t a n d o u t from t h e

any u n d e s i r a b l e shadows? Are t h e r e s h a d o w s t h a t d i s t o r t

Section

8.1

Lighting

8 . 5 KEY, BACK, A N D FILL LIGHTS The fill light slows falloff, making the shadow side (camera-left) more transparent and revealing details without erasing the form-revealing shadows altogether.

in the

163

Studio

8 . 6 BACKGROUND LIGHT The background light illuminates the background area. It must be on the same side of the camera as the key light to keep the background shadows (curtain) on the same side as the fore­ ground shadows (woman).

r a t h e r t h a n reveal t h e face? H o w is t h e light balance? D o e s

t h e key, t h e viewer m a y a s s u m e t h a t there are t w o separate

t h e fill light wash o u t all t h e necessary s h a d o w s , o r are t h e

light sources i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e scene or, worse, that t h e r e

s h a d o w s still t o o dense? Is t h e back light t o o s t r o n g for t h e

are t w o s u n s i n o u r solar system. H'J*»LlGHTS-> Triangle

key/fill c o m b i n a t i o n ?

lighting-* key | back | fill | background | try it B a c k g r o u n d light f r e q u e n t l y goes b e y o n d its m e r e

Background, or set, light

To i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k ­

s u p p o r t i n g role t o b e c o m e a m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t .

g r o u n d (walls o r c y c l o r a m a ) of t h e set o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e

Besides accentuating an otherwise dull, m o n o t o n o u s back­

set t h a t are n o t a direct p a r t of t h e p r i n c i p a l p e r f o r m a n c e

g r o u n d w i t h a slice of light or a n interesting cookie, t h e

area, y o u use t h e background

b a c k g r o u n d light c a n b e a m a j o r i n d i c a t o r of t h e show's

light, or, as it is frequently

SEE 8.7

called, t h e set light. To keep t h e s h a d o w s of t h e b a c k g r o u n d

locale, t i m e of day, a n d m o o d ,

o n t h e s a m e side as t h o s e o f t h e p e r s o n o r object in front

t i o n of p r i s o n b a r s o n t h e wall, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e

A cookie projec­

of it, t h e b a c k g r o u n d light m u s t strike t h e b a c k g r o u n d

clanging of cell d o o r s , i m m e d i a t e l y places t h e event in a

from t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n as t h e key light, SEE 8.6

p r i s o n , SEE 8.8

As y o u

c a n see in t h e figure, t h e key light is placed o n t h e c a m e r a -

A l o n g slice o f light o r l o n g s h a d o w s falling across

right side, causing t h e s h a d o w s o n t h e subject t o fall o n

t h e b a c k wall of a n i n t e r i o r set suggests, i n c o n n e c t i o n

t h e camera-left side. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e b a c k g r o u n d light

w i t h o t h e r c o n g r u e n t p r o d u c t i o n clues, late a f t e r n o o n o r

is also placed o n c a m e r a - r i g h t t o m a k e t h e s h a d o w s o n

evening. D a r k b a c k g r o u n d s a n d distinct shadows generally

camera-left c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h o s e of t h e f o r e g r o u n d . If

suggest a low-key

y o u place t h e b a c k g r o u n d light o n t h e o p p o s i t e side f r o m

fast-falloff lighting) a n d a d r a m a t i c o r m y s t e r i o u s m o o d .

scene ( d a r k b a c k g r o u n d with selective

164

Chapter

TECHNIQUES

8

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

8 . 7 SETTING MOOD WITH BACKGROUND LIGHTING The colorful background lighting in this set suggests a trendy environment and an upbeat mood.

Side (spot, flooded)

Side (spot, flooded)

8 . 8 SETTING LOCALE WITH BACKGROUND LIGHTING

Camera

Background lighting can place an event in a specific locale or environment. Here the background light produces barlike shad­ ows, suggesting that the scene takes place in a prison.

A light b a c k g r o u n d a n d a generally h i g h baselight level are usually regarded as a high-key

scene w i t h an u p b e a t , h a p p y

8.9

SIDELIGHT

The side light strikes the subject from the side. It can act as key and/or fill light. In this case two opposing side lights are used as two keys.

m o o d . T h a t is w h y s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s a n d g a m e shows are m u c h m o r e brightly lighted (higher baselight level a n d

m e d i u m - a n d d a r k - c o l o r e d c l o t h i n g are nicely set off b y

less c o n t r a s t ) t h a n are m y s t e r y a n d police d r a m a s (lower

t h e lighter lower p o r t i o n s of t h e set. (3) T h e d a r k u p p e r

baselight level a n d m o r e contrast). D o n o t confuse

high-key

p o r t i o n s suggest a ceiling. You c a n d a r k e n t h e u p p e r p o r ­

a n d low-key with high a n d low vertical h a n g i n g positions o f

t i o n s of t h e set easily b y using b a r n d o o r s t o block off a n y

the key light o r w i t h t h e intensity with w h i c h it b u r n s . In n o r m a l b a c k g r o u n d lighting of a n i n t e r i o r setting,

spotlight ( i n c l u d i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d lights) t h a t w o u l d h i t t h o s e areas.

t r y t o keep t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s of t h e set relatively d a r k , with only the m i d d l e a n d lower p o r t i o n s (such as the walls)

Side light

illuminated. T h e r e are three m a i n reasons for this c o m m o n

subject, t h e side light c a n function as a key o r fill light.

lighting practice: (1) M o s t i n d o o r lighting is designed t o

W h e n used as a key, it p r o d u c e s fast falloff, leaving half of

illuminate l o w w o r k areas r a t h e r t h a n t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s

t h e face in d e n s e s h a d o w . W h e n used as a fill, it lightens

U s u a l l y p l a c e d directly t o t h e side of t h e

of walls. (2) T h e p e r f o r m e r ' s h e a d is m o r e pleasingly c o n ­

u p t h e w h o l e s h a d o w side of t h e face. W h e n y o u place side

trasted against a slightly d a r k e r b a c k g r o u n d . T o o m u c h

lights o n o p p o s i t e sides of t h e p e r s o n , t h e sides of the face

light at that height m i g h t cause a silhouette died,

rendering

are b r i g h t , w i t h t h e front of t h e face r e m a i n i n g s h a d o w e d .

t h e face u n u s u a l l y d a r k . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f u r n i t u r e a n d

SEE 8.9 T h e side light b e c o m e s a m a j o r light source if t h e

Section

8.1

Lighting

in the

165

Studio

Back light

8 . 1 0 SIDE FILL-LIGHT SETUP The side (ill light provides soft illumination, with the key (spot) adding sparkle. When the key is turned off, the side fill takes over the function of the key light.

camera's s h o o t i n g arc is exceptionally wide. If, for instance, t h e c a m e r a m o v e s a r o u n d t h e subject from a 6 o'clock to a n 8 o'clock p o s i t i o n , t h e side light takes o n t h e function of t h e key light a n d provides essential m o d e l i n g (lighting

Key light

for t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l effect). A l t h o u g h Fresnel spots at a w i d e - b e a m setting are generally u s e d for side lighting, u s ­ ing s c o o p s o r b r o a d s as side lights can p r o d u c e interesting lighting effects. For extrabrilliant h i g h - k e y lighting, y o u can s u p p o r t

8 . 1 1 KICKER LIGHT The kicker light rims the subject opposite the key, emphasizing contour. Like the back light, the kicker helps separate the fore­ ground subject from the background.

t h e key light w i t h side fill light. T h e fill light gives t h e key side of t h e subject basic i l l u m i n a t i o n , w i t h t h e key light p r o v i d i n g t h e necessary sparkle a n d accent, S E E S . I O (1) flat lighting, (2) c o n t i n u o u s - a c t i o n lighting, (3) largeGenerally a s h a r p l y focused Fresnel spot,

area lighting, (4) h i g h - c o n t r a s t lighting, (5) c a m e o lighting,

t h e kicker light strikes t h e subject from b e h i n d a n d o n t h e

(6) silhouette lighting, (7) c h r o m a - k e y area lighting, a n d

opposite side of t h e c a m e r a from t h e key light (the fill-light

(8) controlling eye a n d b o o m s h a d o w s .

Kicker light

side). Its m a i n p u r p o s e is t o highlight t h e subject's c o n t o u r at a place w h e r e key-light falloff is t h e densest a n d w h e r e

FLAT L I G H T I N G

t h e dense s h a d o w of t h e subject o p p o s i t e t h e key-lighted

Flat lightingmeans

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

side t e n d s to m e r g e with t h e d a r k b a c k g r o u n d . T h e func­

m i n i m a l s h a d o w s . M o s t flat-lighting setups use floodlights

that y o u light for o p t i m a l visibility with

t i o n of t h e kicker is similar to t h a t of t h e b a c k light, except

(softlights o r fluorescent b a n k s ) for front l i g h t i n g a n d

t h a t t h e kicker " r i m s " t h e subject n o t at t h e t o p - b a c k b u t

b a c k g r o u n d lighting a n d m o r e - f o c u s e d i n s t r u m e n t s (Fres­

at t h e lower side-back. It usually strikes t h e subject from

nel spots or small b r o a d s ) for back lights. T h i s s e t u p is t h e

b e l o w eye level. Kicker lights are especially useful for creat­

favorite lighting t e c h n i q u e for m o r e o r less p e r m a n e n t l y

ing t h e illusion of m o o n l i g h t ,

SEES.II

installed news sets a n d interview areas, SEE 8.12 As y o u can see in t h e figure, t h e basic lighting triangle is preserved. In effect, y o u have t h r e e key lights, or, if y o u wish, t h r e e fill

SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

lights, evenly i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e front area. T h e back lights

O n c e y o u are familiar w i t h h o w t o apply t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c

a d d t h e sparkle a n d m a k e t h e flatness of t h e lighting setup

principle in a variety of lighting situations, y o u can m o v e

less noticeable. T h e additional b a c k g r o u n d lights illuminate

o n t o a few specific l i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e :

t h e set. T h e flat lighting of such p e r m a n e n t p e r f o r m a n c e

166

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TECHNIQUES

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

Back 2

8.12

FLAT-LIGHTING SETUP FOR NEWS

This flat-lighting setup consists of three frontal softlights that act as key and fill lights, three spots or spotted floods for back lights, and three background floodlights.

areas h a s several advantages: ( 1 ) It is q u i c k — a l l y o u n e e d to d o is t u r n o n o n e switch a n d y o u r lighting is d o n e . (2) It is flexible—two o r m o r e n e w s p e o p l e c a n join t h e n e w s a n c h o r w i t h o u t y o u r h a v i n g t o reset a n y l i g h t s .

Camera

8.13

MULTIPLE-TRIANGLE APPLICATION

In this lighting setup, a separate lighting triangle with its own key, back, and fill light is used for each of the two persons (per­ formance areas). If floodlights are used for the keys, you can probably dispense with the fill lights.

(3) It is f l a t t e r i n g — t h e virtually shadowless lighting hides any wrinkles t h a t m a y have survived t h e m a k e u p . (4) T h e c a m e r a s c a n m a i n t a i n their original s e t u p a n d d o n ' t have to be w h i t e - b a l a n c e d for every show. T h e m a j o r disadvantage is t h a t it looks like w h a t it

b e m u l t i p l i e d a n d o v e r l a p p e d for each set o r p e r f o r m a n c e area for continuous-action

lighting. Even if t h e r e are only

t w o p e o p l e sitting at a table, y o u have to use a m u l t i p l e

is: flat.

a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e basic lighting triangle, S E E 8.13

CONTINUOUS-ACTION LIGHTING

y o u s h o u l d i l l u m i n a t e all adjacent p e r f o r m a n c e areas so

W h e n w a t c h i n g d r a m a s o r s o a p operas o n television, y o u

t h a t t h e basic triangle-lighted areas overlap. T h e p u r p o s e

probably notice that m a n y of t h e m have fast-falloff, low-key

of overlapping is to give t h e performers c o n t i n u o u s lighting

To c o m p e n s a t e for t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e p e r f o r m e r s ,

lighting, w h i c h m e a n s p r o m i n e n t s h a d o w s a n d relatively

as t h e y m o v e from o n e area t o a n o t h e r . It is all t o o easy t o

dark b a c k g r o u n d s . In s u c h m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e

c o n c e n t r a t e o n l y o n t h e m a j o r p e r f o r m a n c e areas a n d t o

c a m e r a s look a t a scene from different p o i n t s of view, a n d

neglect t h e small, seemingly insignificant areas in between.

p e o p l e a n d c a m e r a s are always o n t h e m o v e . W o u l d n ' t it b e

You m a y n o t even n o t i c e t h e u n e v e n n e s s of s u c h lighting

easier t o light "flat," t h a t is, t o flood the w h o l e p e r f o r m a n c e

until t h e p e r f o r m e r s m o v e across t h e set a n d all of a s u d ­

area w i t h flat light rather t h a n w i t h spotlights? Yes, b u t t h e n

d e n t h e y s e e m t o b e playing a " n o w y o u see m e , n o w y o u

the lighting w o u l d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e m o o d of t h e scene

d o n ' t " g a m e , p o p p i n g alternately from a well-lighted area

or h o w we feel a b o u t t h e p e r s o n s acting in it. Fortunately,

into d e n s e shadow. I n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s a light m e t e r c o m e s

t h e basic lighting triangle of key, back, a n d fill lights c a n

in h a n d y t o p i n p o i n t t h e "black holes."

Section

Lighting

8.1

in the

Studio

167

h a s b e e n precisely lighted are n o t very p o p u l a r with t h e lighting crew. Accurate lighting is always d o n e with basic c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s a n d p o i n t s of view in m i n d . It therefore helps i m m e n s e l y to k n o w at least t h e basic c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e r a n g e of all m a j o r c a m e r a v i e w p o i n t s before starting w i t h t h e lighting (see figures 8.27 a n d 8.28). For e x a m p l e , a n object that appears perfectly well lighted from a 6 o'clock c a m e r a p o s i t i o n m a y look woefully unlit from a 10 o'clock p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s , as in d r a m a s , variety shows, o r rock concerts, " u n l i g h t e d " s h o t s from s h o o t i n g angles t h a t lie o u t s i d e t h e lighted p a r a m e t e r s m a y look q u i t e startling; in m o s t o t h e r shows of less flexible lighting formats, s u c h as news features o r instructional p r o g r a m s , these shots simply look bad. Key 2

LARGE-AREA LIGHTING For large-area lighting, such as for a n audience o r orchestra, t h e basic p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n c i p l e still h o l d s : all y o u d o is partially overlap o n e triangle o n a n o t h e r u n t i l y o u have a d e q u a t e l y covered t h e entire area. Instead of key-lighting f r o m just o n e side of t h e c a m e r a a n d fill-lighting from t h e other, however, key-light from b o t h sides of t h e c a m e r a w i t h Fresnel spots in t h e flood position. T h e key lights from

Camera

o n e side act as fill for t h e o t h e r side. If the area is really big, y o u c a n have a d d i t i o n a l sets of Fresnel s p o t s p o s i t i o n e d closer t o t h e center.

8.14

CROSS-KEYING

T h e b a c k lights are s t r u n g o u t in a r o w o r a semicircle

In this lighting setup, the key light for person A (the cam­ era-near person) also functions as a back light for person B (the camera-far person), and the back light for person A is the key for person B.

o p p o s i t e t h e m a i n c a m e r a p o s i t i o n . T h e fill lights ( b r o a d s o r scoops) usually c o m e directly from t h e front. If t h e c a m e r a s m o v e to t h e side, s o m e of t h e key lights also func­ t i o n as b a c k lights. You c a n also u s e b r o a d s o r fluorescent b a n k s instead of Fresnel s p o t s for this t y p e of area light­

If y o u d o n o t h a v e e n o u g h i n s t r u m e n t s t o a p p l y

ing. SEE 8.15

m u l t i p l e - t r i a n g l e l i g h t i n g for several p e r f o r m a n c e areas

For s o m e a s s i g n m e n t s , s u c h as lighting a school g y m

w h e n lighting for c o n t i n u o u s action, y o u m u s t place t h e

for a basketball g a m e , all y o u n e e d is e n o u g h light for

i n s t r u m e n t s so t h a t each c a n serve t w o o r m o r e functions.

t h e c a m e r a s to see t h e players a n d at least s o m e of t h e

In reverse-angle shooting, for instance, t h e key light for o n e

spectators. In this case s i m p l y flood t h e g y m with highly

p e r f o r m e r m a y b e c o m e t h e back light for t h e o t h e r a n d vice

diffused light. As m e n t i o n e d , o n e possibility is to use fairly

versa. This t e c h n i q u e is generally called cross-keying.

h i g h - p o w e r e d open-face i n s t r u m e n t s with light-diffusing

Or

y o u m a y have t o u s e a key light t o serve also as directional

umbrellas.

fill in a n o t h e r area. Because fill lights have a diffused b e a m , y o u can use a single fill light to lighten u p d e n s e s h a d o w s

HIGH-CONTRAST LIGHTING

in m o r e t h a n o n e area, S E E 8 . 1 4

T h e o p p o s i t e of flat lighting is high-contrast

O f course, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s for

lighting, m u c h

of w h i c h m i r r o r s m o t i o n p i c t u r e lighting t e c h n i q u e s . Be­

m u l t i p l e functions requires exact p o s i t i o n i n g of set pieces

cause of t h e increased tolerance of today's video c a m e r a s t o

such as tables a n d chairs, clearly defined p e r f o r m a n c e areas,

l o w light levels a n d h i g h e r - c o n t r a s t lighting, m a n y televi­

a n d blocking ( m o v e m e n t s of p e r f o r m e r s ) . D i r e c t o r s w h o

sion plays m a k e extensive use of fast-falloff lighting. You

decide to c h a n g e b l o c k i n g o r m o v e set pieces after t h e set

m a y have noticed t h a t s o m e series, such as c r i m e o r medical

168

8.15

Chapter

8

TECHNIQUES

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

LARGE-AREA KEYING

In this lighting setup, the Fresnel spots at the left and right sides function as keys and directional fill lights. Fresnel spots are also strung out as regular back lights behind the main action area. If necessary, scoops provide additional fill light from the front.

8.16

FAST-FALLOFF LIGHTING ON FACE

The fast-falloff lighting increases the dramatic impact of this close-up.

shows, use n o t only extremely fast-falloff lighting ( h a r s h

In a d d i t i o n to fast-falloff lighting, color d i s t o r t i o n c a n

s h a d o w s ) b u t also color d i s t o r t i o n t o intensify t h e scenes.

a d d d r a m a t i c impact. In this example t h e scene is p u r p o s e l y

For example, extremely fast falloff o n a face inevitably looks

given a green tint, SEE

m o r e d r a m a t i c t h a n if it were lighted w i t h slow falloff. SEE 8.16 M'Jt»LIGHTS-^ Design^ high key | low key P r o m i n e n t side lighting a n d fast-falloff lighting c a n

8.19

Realize t h a t such lighting effects r e q u i r e n o t only skill b u t also a lot of p r o d u c t i o n t i m e . T h a t said, y o u s h o u l d still t r y t o apply s o m e of these lighting t e c h n i q u e s w h e n e v e r

A n d instead

p o s s i b l e — a n d w h e n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e show. If y o u r light­

of always h a v i n g t h e k e y - l i g h t e d side face t h e c a m e r a ,

ing t i m e is limited, however, stay away from such precision

b e c o m b i n e d for d r a m a t i c effect,

SEES.17

you m a y show the s h a d o w side to establish a certain

lighting a n d stick t o t h e classic triangle-lighting a p p r o a c h .

m o o d , SEE

You m i g h t be pleasantly s u r p r i s e d to find that b y t u r n i n g

8.18

Section

Lighting

8.1

8.17

in the

Studio

169

HARSH SIDE LIGHT

The fast falloff and prominent side lighting intensify the mysterious mood of the scene.

8.18

SHADOW SIDE TOWARD CAMERA

The camera-far person is lighted so that his shadow side, rather than key side, is seen by the camera. This shadow reversal has dramatic impact.

8.19

COLOR DISTORTION

In addition to fast-falloff lighting, the precariousness of this scene is further emphasized by the green tint.

o n a few Fresnel spots a n d fill lights, y o u r lighting will look

background), SEE 8 . 2 0

q u i t e acceptable.

c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e talent a n d n o t the e n v i r o n m e n t .

Like t h e close-up, c a m e o lighting

CAMEO LIGHTING

m o s t effectively u s i n g spotlights w i t h b a r n - d o o r s . In small

C e r t a i n television shows, especially t h o s e of a d r a m a t i c

s t u d i o s t h e b a c k g r o u n d areas are carefully shielded from

All c a m e o lighting is highly directional a n d is achieved

n a t u r e , are staged in the m i d d l e of a n e m p t y s t u d i o against

a n y k i n d of distracting spill light w i t h black, l i g h t - a b s o r b ­

a n u n l i g h t e d b a c k g r o u n d . T h i s t e c h n i q u e , w h e r e t h e per­

i n g draperies. O n e of the p r o b l e m s with c a m e o lighting is

f o r m e r s are h i g h l i g h t e d against a p l a i n d a r k b a c k g r o u n d ,

t h a t it often exceeds t h e acceptable contrast ratio b e t w e e n

is c o m m o n l y k n o w n as cameo

(from t h e c a m e o

t h e darkest a n d b r i g h t e s t spots in t h e p i c t u r e , w h i c h m a y

a r t f o r m in w h i c h a light relief figure is set against a d a r k e r

lead to overexposed bright areas a n d loss of detail, as well as

lighting

170

8.20

Chapter

8

TECHNIQUES

CAMEO LIGHTING

8.21

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

SILHOUETTE LIGHTING

In cameo lighting, the background is kept dark, with only the foreground person illuminated by highly directional spotlights.

In silhouette lighting, only the background is lighted, with the figure in front remaining unlighted. It emphasizes contour.

possible color d i s t o r t i o n in the d a r k areas. Also, because t h e

i n t o a m o n i t o r to see t h e m a p . SEE 8.22 (See c h a p t e r 14 for

lighting is highly directional, t h e talent m u s t m e t i c u l o u s l y

a n i n - d e p t h e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e c h r o m a - k e y process.)

a d h e r e to t h e r e h e a r s e d blocking. A slight deviation m e a n s

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspect of lighting the c h r o m a - k e y

that t h e talent steps o u t of t h e light a n d , for all practical

set area is even b a c k g r o u n d i l l u m i n a t i o n , which m e a n s t h a t

p u r p o s e s , d i s a p p e a r s f r o m t h e screen. Finally, if a m i c r o ­

t h e b l u e or green b a c k d r o p m u s t b e lighted w i t h highly dif­

p h o n e b o o m is used for s o u n d p i c k u p , its distinct s h a d o w s

fused i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as softlights o r floodlight b a n k s .

p r e s e n t a c o n s t a n t h a z a r d . S o m e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e use

If t h e r e are u n u s u a l l y d a r k areas o r hot spots ( u n d e s i r a b l e

t h e t e r m cameo lighting even w h e n s h o w i n g p a r t of a set

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of light in o n e area), the electronically s u p ­

in t h e scene.

plied b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e looks discolored or, worse, breaks u p . W h e n lighting t h e weathercaster in the f o r e g r o u n d , p r e v e n t any of t h e lights u s e d for t h e f o r e g r o u n d from

SILHOUETTE LIGHTING Lighting for a silhouette effect is the o p p o s i t e of c a m e o

h i t t i n g t h e b a c k d r o p . Such spill w o u l d u p s e t t h e evenness

y o u light t h e b a c k g r o u n d

of t h e c h r o m a - k e y b a c k g r o u n d i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d lead t o

b u t leave the figures in front u n l i g h t e d . This way y o u see

keying p r o b l e m s . In practice this m e a n s that t h e key a n d

only t h e c o n t o u r of objects a n d p e o p l e b u t n o t their vol­

directional fill light (a Fresnel in the flood p o s i t i o n ) m u s t

u m e a n d texture. To achieve silhouette lighting, use highly

strike t h e subject f r o m a s t e e p e r - t h a n - n o r m a l angle. You

lighting. In silhouette

lighting

diffused light, usually from softlights, eye lights, o r s c o o p s

m a y find t h a t using softlights for t h e key a n d fill lights o n

with scrims, to evenly i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d . O b v i ­

t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r will n o t affect t h e c h r o m a key even if

ously, you light in silhouette only t h o s e scenes t h a t gain b y

they spill o n t o t h e b a c k d r o p .

e m p h a s i z i n g c o n t o u r , SEE 8.21 You can also use silhouette

S o m e t i m e s t h e o u t l i n e of a weathercaster looks o u t of

lighting to conceal t h e identity of a p e r s o n a p p e a r i n g o n -

focus or seems to vibrate d u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key. O n e of

c a m e r a . M ' i F L I G H T S - > Design^ silhouette

t h e reasons for s u c h v i b r a t i o n s is t h a t especially d a r k col­

CHROMA-KEY AREA LIGHTING

tinge, caused by a reflection from t h e colored b a c k d r o p .

ors o r s h a d o w s at t h e c o n t o u r line take o n a b l u e or green T h e c h r o m a - k e y set area n o r m a l l y consists of a p l a i n b l u e

D u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key, these b l u e or green spots b e c o m e

or green b a c k d r o p . It is used to p r o v i d e a variety of b a c k ­

t r a n s p a r e n t a n d let t h e b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e s h o w t h r o u g h .

g r o u n d s t h a t are electronically g e n e r a t e d , replacing t h e

To c o u n t e r a c t a blue reflection, try p u t t i n g a light-yellow o r

blue o r green areas d u r i n g the k e y — a process called

a m b e r gel o n all t h e b a c k lights or kicker lights. For green

chroma

keying. A p o p u l a r use of the c h r o m a key is a weather report.

reflections, use a l i g h t - m a g e n t a or soft-pink gel. T h e b a c k

A l t h o u g h t h e weathercaster seems to b e s t a n d i n g in front

lights t h e n n o t only separate t h e f o r e g r o u n d subject from

of a large w e a t h e r m a p , she is in fact s t a n d i n g in front of

the background picture through contour illumination b u t

an empty, evenly lighted blue or green b a c k d r o p . W h e n

also n e u t r a l i z e t h e b l u e or green s h a d o w s with t h e c o m p l e ­

t h e blue or green areas are electronically replaced by t h e

m e n t a r y yellow o r p i n k filters. As a result, t h e o u t l i n e of

w e a t h e r m a p d u r i n g t h e key, t h e weathercaster m u s t l o o k

t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r will r e m a i n relatively s h a r p even d u r i n g

Section

8,1

Lighting

in the

171

Studio

8.22 CHROMA-KEY EFFECT: WEATHERCAST A In this weathercast, the blue background is evenly lighted with floodlights. The weathercaster is lighted with the standard triangle arrangement of key, back, and fill lights.

B During the chroma key, the weathercaster seems to stand in front of the satellite view.

t h e c h r o m a key. Be careful, however, n o t t o let any of t h e

Key light and eye shadows

c o l o r e d b a c k light h i t t h e a r m s o r h a n d s o f t h e p e r s o n

subject from a steep angle will cause large d a r k s h a d o w s

s t a n d i n g in t h e c h r o m a - k e y area.

i n a n y i n d e n t a t i o n a n d u n d e r a n y p r o t r u s i o n , such as in

T h e key light's striking t h e

Because t h e b l u e reflections f r o m t h e sky are h a r d

t h e eye sockets a n d u n d e r t h e n o s e a n d chin. If t h e subject

t o c o n t r o l o u t d o o r s , in E F P green is t h e preferred color

wears glasses, t h e s h a d o w of t h e u p p e r r i m of t h e frames

for a c h r o m a - k e y b a c k d r o p . You c a n also use green as t h e

m a y fall directly across t h e eyes, preventing t h e c a m e r a ( a n d

c h r o m a - k e y color in t h e studio, especially if t h e talent likes

t h e viewer) from seeing t h e m clearly, SEE 8.23

t o wear b l u e .

T h e r e are several ways t o r e d u c e t h e s e u n d e s i r a b l e s h a d o w s . First, t r y t o lower t h e vertical p o s i t i o n o f t h e

C O N T R O L L I N G EYE A N D B O O M S H A D O W S

light itself or use a key light farther away from t h e s u b ­

Two fairly persistent p r o b l e m s in s t u d i o lighting are t h e

ject. W h e n y o u lower it (with a m o v a b l e b a t t e n o r a r o d ) ,

s h a d o w s c a u s e d b y eyeglasses a n d m i c r o p h o n e b o o m s .

n o t i c e t h a t t h e eye s h a d o w s seem t o m o v e farther u p t h e

D e p e n d i n g o n t h e specific lighting setup, s u c h u n w a n t e d

face. As s o o n as t h e s h a d o w s are h i d d e n b e h i n d t h e u p p e r

s h a d o w s c a n p r e s e n t a f o r m i d a b l e challenge t o t h e lighting

r i m of t h e glasses, lock t h e key light in p o s i t i o n . Such a

crew. M o s t often, however, y o u will b e able t o correct s u c h

t e c h n i q u e w o r k s well so l o n g as t h e subject d o e s n o t m o v e

p r o b l e m s r a t h e r quickly.

a r o u n d t o o m u c h , SEE 8.24 Second, y o u c a n t r y to r e d u c e

8.23 SHADOW CAUSED BY GLASSES

8.24 KEY LIGHT LOWERED

The steep angle of the key light causes the shadow of the woman's glasses to fall right across her eyes.

By lowering the key light, the shadow moves up and is hidden behind the glasses.

172

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OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

eye s h a d o w s by i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e p e r s o n from b o t h sides with similar i n s t r u m e n t s . You can also r e p o s i t i o n t h e fill light so that it strikes t h e subject directly from t h e front a n d from a lower angle, t h u s placing t h e s h a d o w s u p w a r d , away from t h e eyes. A n n o y i n g reflections from eyeglasses can b e e l i m i n a t e d w i t h the s a m e recipe. A l t h o u g h you m a y not n o r m a l l y use a large m i c r o p h o n e b o o m in t h e s t u d i o except for s o m e d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e principles of dealing with b o o m s h a d o w s also apply to h a n d h e l d m i c r o p h o n e b o o m s , s u c h as fishpoles a n d even h a n d h e l d s h o t g u n mics. W h e n y o u m o v e a b o o m m i c in front of a lighted s c e n e — i n this case a single p e r s o n — a n d m o v e t h e b o o m a r o u n d a little, y o u m a y notice s h a d o w s o n t h e actor or o n the b a c k g r o u n d w h e n e v e r the m i c or b o o m passes t h r o u g h

8.25

a spotlight b e a m . (You can easily test for s h a d o w s by s u b ­

The instrument that causes the undesirable boom shadow lies at the extension of a line drawn from the shadow to the micro­ phone causing it.

s t i t u t i n g a b r o o m s t i c k or t h e lighting pole.) Such s h a d o w s are especially distracting w h e n they m o v e in a n d o u t d u r i n g

LOCATING THE SHADOW-CAUSING LIGHT

a highly d r a m a t i c scene. You c a n deal w i t h b o o m s h a d o w s in t w o ways: m o v e t h e lights a n d / o r t h e m i c b o o m so t h a t t h e s h a d o w falls o u t of c a m e r a range, o r use s u c h highly

A n o t h e r simple way to avoid b o o m s h a d o w s is to light

diffused lighting that t h e s h a d o w b e c o m e s all b u t invisible.

m o r e steeply t h a n usual. You d o this by m o v i n g the key

First of all, you n e e d to find the light that is causing t h e

light closer t o t h e set area. T h e closer t h e lights are to t h e

b o o m shadow. As simple as this m a y seem, it is n o t always

p e r f o r m a n c e area, t h e steeper they will have t o b e angled

so easy to s p o t t h e t r o u b l e m a k i n g i n s t r u m e n t , especially

to h i t t h e target. T h e b o o m will n o w cast its s h a d o w o n t h e

if several spotlights are i l l u m i n a t i n g v a r i o u s adjacent areas

s t u d i o floor r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e talent's face o r b a c k g r o u n d

o n t h e set. T h e easiest way to locate t h e light is to m o v e

scenery a n d t h u s b e o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e . T h e d o w n s i d e

your h e a d directly in front of t h e b o o m s h a d o w a n d look at

to this t e c h n i q u e is t h a t t h e steep key lights p r o d u c e dense

the m i c r o p h o n e s u s p e n d e d from the b o o m . T h e s h a d o w -

a n d p r o m i n e n t s h a d o w s u n d e r the eyes, nose, a n d chin.

c a u s i n g light will n o w inevitably shine i n t o y o u r eyes. Be

You c a n also t r y to use b a r n d o o r s to b l o c k off t h e

careful n o t to stare i n t o t h e light for any p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d .

p a r t of t h e spotlight t h a t causes the b o o m shadow. Such a

M o r e precisely, the i n s t r u m e n t lies at t h e e x t e n s i o n of a

t e c h n i q u e is especially useful w h e n t h e s h a d o w appears in

line d r a w n from the s h a d o w t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e causing

the u p p e r p a r t of t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery.

it. SEE 8.25 To get r i d of t h e shadow, simply t u r n off the offending i n s t r u m e n t . You m a y b e pleasantly s u r p r i s e d to find t h a t

CONTRAST

y o u have e l i m i n a t e d t h e s h a d o w w i t h o u t i m p e d i n g t h e

In c h a p t e r 3 y o u l e a r n e d a b o u t c o n t r a s t r a t i o a n d t h e

overall lighting. If s u c h a drastic step seriously weakens

way television c a m e r a s react t o it. In this s e g m e n t you get

t h e lighting s e t u p , try t o p o s i t i o n t h e b o o m so t h a t it d o e s

a c q u a i n t e d w i t h h o w lighting affects c o n t r a s t a n d h o w t o

n o t have to travel t h r o u g h this light. If y o u use a h a n d h e l d

keep it w i t h i n tolerable limits (40:1 to 50:1). C o n t r a s t d o e s

fishpole

b o o m , walk a r o u n d t h e set while p o i n t i n g t h e

n o t d e p e n d so m u c h o n h o w m u c h light c o m e s from t h e

m i c t o w a r d t h e s o u n d source. W a t c h t h e s h a d o w m o v e

lighting i n s t r u m e n t s (incident-light reading) as o n h o w

o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d wall u n t i l it is o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e .

m u c h light is reflected by the i l l u m i n a t e d objects (reflected-

If t h e m i c r o p h o n e is still in a p o s i t i o n for o p t i m a l s o u n d

light r e a d i n g ) . For e x a m p l e , a white refrigerator, a yellow

p i c k u p , y o u have solved t h e p r o b l e m . You m a y locate s u c h

plastic raincoat, a n d a p o l i s h e d brass plate reflect m u c h

a shadow-safe spot m o r e readily w h e n h o l d i n g or placing

m o r e light t h a n does a d a r k - b l u e velvet cloth, even if t h e y

the b o o m parallel to t h e key-light b e a m r a t h e r t h a n w h e n

are i l l u m i n a t e d by t h e very s a m e source. If y o u place t h e

crossing it. S o m e LDs use t h e key a n d fill lights close t o

b r a s s plate o n t h e velvet cloth, t h e r e m a y b e t o o m u c h

side-light p o s i t i o n s t o p r o v i d e a " c o r r i d o r " in w h i c h t o

contrast for the television c a m e r a to h a n d l e p r o p e r l y — a n d

operate the b o o m .

y o u have n o t even b e g u n w i t h t h e lighting.

Section

8.1

Lighting

W h a t you have to consider w h e n dealing with c o n t r a s t is a c o n s t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g v a r i o u s factors, s u c h as

in the

Such h e l p is m u c h a p p r e c i a t e d by t h e video (VO),

173

Studio

operator

also called t h e shader, w h o is ultimately responsible

h o w m u c h light falls o n t h e subject, h o w m u c h light is

for c o n t r o l l i n g c o n t r a s t . If t h e r e is t o o m u c h c o n t r a s t ,

reflected, a n d h o w m u c h difference there is b e t w e e n t h e

however, even t h e best VOs have difficulty unless you're

f o r e g r o u n d a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d or t h e lightest a n d darkest

w o r k i n g w i t h t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e c a m e r a s . By "pulling d o w n , "

s p o t s in t h e s a m e p i c t u r e . Because w e deal w i t h r e l a t i o n ­

or clipping, the brightest areas of t h e scene, t h e VO causes

ships r a t h e r t h a n absolute values, we express t h e camera's

t h e d a r k areas in t h e p i c t u r e to also b e c o m e c o m p r e s s e d , a n d they are often r e n d e r e d u n i f o r m l y black. This is w h y

c o n t r a s t limit as a ratio.

y o u d o n o t see m u c h detail in the s h a d o w s of a h i g h - c o n ­ t r a s t scene. For e x a m p l e , it is difficult for t h e c a m e r a to

CONTRAST RATIO As s t a t e d in c h a p t e r 3, contrast

ratio

is t h e difference

b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e d a r k e s t s p o t s in t h e p i c ­ t u r e (often m e a s u r e d by reflected light in f o o t - c a n d l e s ) . T h e b r i g h t e s t spot, that is, t h e area reflecting t h e greatest a m o u n t of light, is called t h e reference white, a n d it deter­ m i n e s the "white level." T h e area reflecting t h e least a m o u n t of light is t h e reference black, w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e "black

r e p r o d u c e t r u e skin color if t h e talent is w e a r i n g a highly reflective starched white s h i r t a n d a l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g black jacket. If t h e c a m e r a adjusts for t h e white shirt by clipping t h e w h i t e level, t h e talent's face will go d a r k . If t h e c a m e r a tries to b r i n g u p t h e black level ( m a k i n g t h e black areas in t h e p i c t u r e light e n o u g h to distinguish s h a d o w detail), the face will w a s h o u t .

level." W i t h a c o n t r a s t limit of 40:1 or 50:1, t h e reference

D o e s this m e a n t h a t y o u have to m e a s u r e all items

w h i t e s h o u l d n o t reflect m o r e t h a n forty or fifty t i m e s t h e

t o see w h e t h e r t h e y exceed t h e acceptable contrast ratio

light of t h e reference black. R e m e m b e r that t h e c o n t r a s t is

w h e n seen together? N o t at all. A few small, shiny items

d e t e r m i n e d n o t necessarily by the a m o u n t of light gener­

in t h e p i c t u r e will n o t u p s e t a limited c o n t r a s t ratio, espe­

ated by t h e l a m p s b u t by h o w m u c h light the objects reflect

cially w h e n using h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s . R h i n e s t o n e s o n a

b a c k to t h e c a m e r a lens.

dress, for e x a m p l e , m a k e t h e p i c t u r e c o m e alive a n d give it sparkle. In fact, video o p e r a t o r s like to have s o m e t h i n g w h i t e a n d s o m e t h i n g black o n the set so t h a t they can set

MEASURING CONTRAST

t h e a p p r o p r i a t e video levels. But avoid h a v i n g relatively

You m e a s u r e c o n t r a s t w i t h a reflected-light r e a d i n g — b y

large, extremely b r i g h t areas a n d extremely d a r k o n e s right

first p o i n t i n g t h e light m e t e r close t o t h e brightest s p o t

next to each other.

(often a small w h i t e card o n t h e set, w h i c h serves as t h e

O n e big advantage of s h o o t i n g in the studio is that you

reference white) a n d t h e n to t h e darkest s p o t (serving as

c a n c o n t r o l t h e light intensity a n d , with it, t h e c o n t r a s t .

t h e reference black). Even if y o u d o n ' t have a light m e t e r

Even if t h e talent w e a r c o n t r a s t i n g clothes, y o u can always

o r waveform m o n i t o r for checking t h e c o n t r a s t ratio, y o u

r e d u c e t h e c o n t r a s t b y adjusting t h e key a n d fill lights so

c a n tell b y l o o k i n g at t h e m o n i t o r . W h e n t h e white areas,

t h a t the differences b e t w e e n light a n d d a r k areas are s o m e ­

s u c h as t h e white tablecloths in a r e s t a u r a n t set, l o o k aw­

what reduced.

fully bright, or t h e black clothing of the p e o p l e sitting at t h e tables awfully black w i t h o u t a n y detail, t h e c o n t r a s t is

H e r e are a few tips for p r e v e n t i n g an overly high c o n ­ trast r a t i o .

o b v i o u s l y great a n d p r o b a b l y exceeds t h e o p t i m a l ratio. W i t h a little practice, s q u i n t i n g y o u r eyes w h e n t a k i n g a

•

Be aware of t h e general reflectance of t h e objects.

brief l o o k at the set will give y o u a g o o d idea a b o u t t h e

A highly reflective object obviously n e e d s less illu­

c o n t r a s t ratio even w i t h o u t using t h e light meter. A look

m i n a t i o n t h a n does a highly l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g o n e .

at t h e c a m e r a viewfinder o r s t u d i o m o n i t o r is, of course, a m o r e a c c u r a t e a n d reliable m e a s u r i n g tool. KVJr-»LIGHTS-»

Avoid e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s c o n t r a s t s in t h e s a m e shot. For e x a m p l e , if y o u n e e d to s h o w a n e w line of white

Measurement-* contrast

china, d o n o t p u t it o n a d a r k - p u r p l e tablecloth. By

CONTROLLING

CONTRAST

If y o u feel t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t ratio is t o o h i g h , t h i n k a b o u t w h a t y o u can d o t o r e d u c e it before fussing w i t h t h e light­

displaying it o n a lighter, m o r e light-reflecting cloth, you can limit t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n t h e p o r c e l a i n w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e tablecloth a p p e a r t o o dark and muddy.

ing. For example, changing the white tablecloth to a p i n k or light-blue o n e will help eliminate t h e c o n t r a s t m o r e readily

Have t h e talent avoid clothes w h o s e colors are t o o

t h a n d i m m i n g s o m e of t h e lights o r asking t h e talent to

c o n t r a s t i n g (such as a starched white shirt with a

c h a n g e i n t o slightly lighter-colored clothes.

black suit).

Chapter

174

TECHNIQUES

8

M a n y contrast p r o b l e m s , however, o c c u r w h e n s h o o t ­ ing o u t d o o r s o n a s u n n y day. T h e s e p r o b l e m s a n d h o w t o solve t h e m are explored in section 8.2.

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

light ratio, b u t for starters y o u m a y w a n t to t r y a

fill-light

i n t e n s i t y t h a t is half t h a t of t h e key a n d go from there. Re­ m e m b e r t h a t t h e m o r e fill light y o u use, t h e less m o d e l i n g t h e key light is d o i n g b u t t h e s m o o t h e r t h e texture (such as of a p e r s o n ' s face) b e c o m e s . If y o u use a l m o s t n o fill light,

BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES

t h e dense s h a d o w s reveal n o p i c t u r e detail a n d y o u r u n t h e

Even if y o u have carefully adjusted the p o s i t i o n a n d t h e

risk of s o m e color d i s t o r t i o n in t h e s h a d o w areas. If, for

b e a m of the key, back, a n d fill lights, y o u still n e e d to b a l ­

example, a detective refers to a small scar o n t h e left side

ance t h e i r relative intensities. For e x a m p l e , it is n o t o n l y

of a w o m a n ' s face a n d a close-up of h e r face shows n o t h i n g

t h e d i r e c t i o n of the lights that o r i e n t s t h e viewer in t i m e

b u t a dense s h a d o w w h e r e t h e scar s h o u l d be, or w h e n t h e

b u t also their relative intensities. A s t r o n g b a c k light w i t h

s h a d o w hides a n i m p o r t a n t detail in a p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a ­

high-key, slow-falloff front lighting can suggest t h e early-

t i o n , t h e key-to-fill-light ratio is o b v i o u s l y w r o n g .

m o r n i n g s u n ; a g e n e r o u s a m o u n t of s t r o n g b a c k light

If y o u are asked to light for a h i g h - b a s e l i g h t , low-

a n d low-key, very l o w - i n t e n s i t y front lighting can suggest

c o n t r a s t scene ( h i g h - k e y lighting), y o u m a y w a n t to use

moonlight.

1

floodlights for b o t h t h e key a n d t h e fill, with t h e fill b u r n ­

T h e r e is s o m e a r g u m e n t a b o u t w h e t h e r to first balance

ing at almost t h e s a m e intensity as the key. As y o u k n o w b y

the key a n d back lights, or the key a n d fill lights. Actually, it

now, high-key has n o t h i n g to d o with t h e actual p o s i t i o n i n g

m a t t e r s little w h i c h y o u d o first so l o n g as t h e e n d effect is

of t h e key light b u t r a t h e r t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e overall light

a well-balanced p i c t u r e . Because b a l a n c i n g t h e t h r e e lights

level. T h e b a c k light s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b u r n w i t h a h i g h e r

of t h e lighting t r i a n g l e d e p e n d s o n w h a t y o u i n t e n d t o

intensity t h a n t h e key or t h e fill light to p r o v i d e t h e n e c ­

convey to the viewer, y o u can't use precise i n t e n s i t y ratios

essary sparkle. In a low-key scene, t h e b a c k light is often

a m o n g key, back, a n d fill lights as an absolute guide for

considerably b r i g h t e r t h a n t h e key a n d fill lights, SEE 8.26

effective lighting. Nevertheless, t h e r e are s o m e ratios t h a t have p r o v e d beneficial for a n u m b e r of r o u t i n e lighting a s s i g n m e n t s . You can always start w i t h these ratios a n d t h e n adjust t h e m to y o u r specific lighting task. Back (same as key: 200 fc or 2,000 lux)

KEY-TO-BACK-LIGHT RATIO In n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s b a c k lights have a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same intensity as key lights. A n u n u s u a l l y intense back light t e n d s to g l a m o r i z e p e o p l e ; a b a c k light w i t h an intensity m u c h lower t h a n t h a t of t h e key t e n d s t o get lost o n t h e m o n i t o r . A television p e r f o r m e r w i t h b l o n d h a i r a n d a l i g h t - c o l o r e d suit will n e e d c o n s i d e r a b l y less b a c k light

Background (100 fc or 1,000 lux)

t h a n will a d a r k - h a i r e d p e r f o r m e r in a d a r k suit. T h e 1:1 k e y - t o - b a c k - l i g h t r a t i o (key a n d b a c k lights have e q u a l intensities) c a n go as high as 1:1.5 (the b a c k light h a s o n e a n d a half t i m e s t h e i n t e n s i t y of the key) if y o u n e e d a fair a m o u n t of sparkle or if the talent has dark, l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g

(150 fc or 1,500 lux)

Key (200 fc or 2,000 lux)

t e x t u r e d hair.

KEY-TO-FILL-LIGHT RATIO T h e fill-light i n t e n s i t y d e p e n d s o n h o w fast a falloff y o u want. If y o u w a n t fast falloff for d r a m a t i c effect, little fill

Camera

is n e e d e d . If y o u w a n t very slow falloff, h i g h e r - i n t e n s i t y fill is n e e d e d . As you c a n see, t h e r e is n o single key-to-fill-

8.26 1. Sec Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 28-30.

LIGHTING RATIOS

Lighting ratios differ, depending on the specific 'ighting task. These ratios are a good starting point.

Section

8.1

Again, as helpful as light m e t e r s are in establishing r o u g h lighting r a t i o s , d o n o t rely solely o n t h e m . Your

Lighting

175

Studio

a r b i t r a r y a n d saves t h e crew considerable t i m e a n d energy. You can also use it again later for similar s e t u p s .

final c r i t e r i o n is h o w t h e p i c t u r e looks o n a well-adjusted monitor.

in the

A n easy way to m a k e a light p l o t is to p u t a t r a n s p a r ­ ency over a c o p y of t h e floor p l a n a n d d r a w the lighting i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e transparency. Use different icons for spotlights a n d floodlights, d r a w i n g a r r o w s to indicate t h e

LIGHT PLOT

m a i n directions of t h e b e a m s , SEE 8.27 AND 8.28

S o m e LDs

use small c u t o u t s of their spotlights a n d floodlights, which

T h e light plot shows: (1) t h e location of t h e lighting i n s t r u ­

t h e y t h e n lay o n t h e floor plan a n d m o v e i n t o t h e a p p r o ­

m e n t s relative to t h e set a n d t h e i l l u m i n a t e d objects a n d

priate p o s i t i o n s .

areas; (2) t h e principal directions of the b e a m s ; a n d , ideally (3) t h e t y p e a n d t h e size of t h e i n s t r u m e n t s used.

Try t o w o r k with the set designer (usually the art direc­ t o r ) or t h e floor m a n a g e r ( w h o is responsible for p u t t i n g

In d r a w i n g a successful light plot, you n e e d an accurate

u p t h e set) as m u c h as possible to have t h e m place t h e set

floor plan that shows t h e scenery a n d t h e stage p r o p s , the

in the s t u d i o w h e r e y o u w o n ' t have to m o v e any, o r only

p r i n c i p a l talent p o s i t i o n s , a n d t h e m a j o r c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s

a few, i n s t r u m e n t s to achieve t h e desired lighting. Plac­

a n d s h o o t i n g angles (see section 15.2). M o s t r o u t i n e shows,

ing the small set to suit t h e available lighting p o s i t i o n s is

s u c h as n e w s , interviews, o r p a n e l shows, are relatively easy

m u c h easier t h a n m o v i n g t h e lights to suit the location of

to light a n d d o n o t c h a n g e their lighting s e t u p from s h o w

a small set.

t o show, so y o u d o n ' t n e e d a light plot. If y o u have to light

S t u d i o lighting is successful w h e n y o u get it d o n e o n

a n atypical show, however, such as a g r a d u a t e dance project

t i m e . W i t h d u e respect to creative lighting, d o n ' t fuss over

o r an interview w i t h the university p r e s i d e n t a n d m e m b e r s

a single d e n s e s h a d o w s o m e w h e r e o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d

of t h e b o a r d of trustees, a light p l o t makes t h e lighting less

while neglecting t o light t h e rest of t h e set. If y o u are really

Camera on CU

8.27

LIGHT PLOT FOR FLAT LIGHTING OF INTERVIEW

This light plot shows the slow-falloff (flat) lighting setup for a simple interview. Ordinarily, such a simple setup would not reguire a light plot. Note that the sketch is not to scale.

8.28

LIGHT PLOT FOR INTERVIEW, USING FLOODS AND SPOTS

This interview is lighted for faster falloff. It uses spots for key and back lights, and scoops for fill and background lights.

176

Chapter

TECHNIQUES

8

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

pressed for time, t u r n o n s o m e floodlights and b a c k lights

strikes it. If you must look into the light, wear dark glasses

that h a n g in a p p r o x i m a t e positions a n d h o p e for t h e best.

a n d d o so o n l y briefly.

M o r e often t h a n n o t , t h e lighting will l o o k acceptable.

Before y o u start p a t c h i n g ( a s s u m i n g t h a t you use a physical p a t c h b o a r d ) have all d i m m e r s a n d breakers in t h e

OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS

o p p o s i t i o n . D o n o t " h o t - p a t c h " by c o n n e c t i n g t h e p o w e r

W h e n initially h a n g i n g lights, divide the s t u d i o i n t o major

cord of t h e i n s t r u m e n t to t h e p o w e r outlet o n t h e b a t t e n

p e r f o r m a n c e areas a n d h a n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t s

with t h e breaker switched on. H o t - p a t c h i n g can b u r n y o u r

(spotlights a n d floodlights) in t h e triangular a r r a n g e m e n t s

h a n d a n d also pit t h e patches so that t h e y n o longer m a k e

of the basic p h o t o g r a p h i c principle. Try to p o s i t i o n t h e

the proper connection.

i n s t r u m e n t s so that t h e y can serve m u l t i p l e functions, that is, light m o r e t h a n o n e p e r s o n o r several p a r t s of t h e set.

PRESERVING L A M P S A N D POWER

This will help y o u illuminate all major p e r f o r m a n c e areas

Try t o w a r m u p large i n s t r u m e n t s t h r o u g h r e d u c e d p o w e r by keeping t h e d i m m e r low for a s h o r t while before s u p ­ plying full power. This will p r o l o n g t h e l a m p life a n d t h e Fresnel lenses, which occasionally crack w h e n w a r m e d u p too fast. This w a r m - u p p e r i o d (about o n e to three m i n u t e s ) is essential for getting H M I lights u p to full o p e r a t i o n . D o n o t overload a circuit: it m a y h o l d d u r i n g rehearsal b u t t h e n go o u t just at t h e w r o n g t i m e d u r i n g the actual show. If e x t e n s i o n c o r d s s t a r t to get h o t , u n p l u g a n d replace t h e m i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h lower-gauge (thicker wire, such as 14-gauge) cables.

adequately w i t h m i n i m u m effort a n d i n s t r u m e n t s .

SAFETY In t h e actual o p e r a t i o n of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t h e associated control e q u i p m e n t , y o u s h o u l d h e e d t h e rule for all p r o d u c t i o n activities: safety

first.

As m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 7, always wear gloves working

with active lighting

instruments.

when

T h e gloves will

protect you from b u r n s w h e n t o u c h i n g h o t b a r n d o o r s or l a m p s a n d will give y o u s o m e p r o t e c t i o n from electric shock. Always secure t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to t h e b a t t e n s with safety chains or cables a n d attach t h e b a r n d o o r s a n d scrims to t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . C h e c k all C - c l a m p s periodically, especially t h e bolts t h a t c o n n e c t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to the h a n g i n g device. Be careful w h e n plugging in lights a n d w h e n m o v i n g active ( s w i t c h e d - o n ) i n s t r u m e n t s . Because t h e h o t l a m p s are especially v u l n e r a b l e to physical shock, t r y n o t to jolt the i n s t r u m e n t ; m o v e it gently. W h e n replacing l a m p s , wait until t h e i n s t r u m e n t has cooled s o m e w h a t . Always t u r n off t h e i n s t r u m e n t before reaching in to r e m o v e a b u r n e d - o u t l a m p . As a d o u b l e p r o t e c t i o n , u n p l u g t h e light at t h e b a t t e n . Do not touch the new quartz lamp with your fingers. Fingerprints, or any other stuff clinging to t h e quartz h o u s i n g of the l a m p , cause the l a m p to overheat a n d b u r n o u t . W e a r gloves or, if you have n o t h i n g else, use a tissue o r even y o u r shirttail w h e n handling the lamp. W a t c h for obstacles above a n d below w h e n m o v i n g ladders. D o n o t take any chances by leaning way o u t to reach an i n s t r u m e n t . Position t h e l a d d e r so that you can work from b e h i n d , r a t h e r t h a n in front of, t h e i n s t r u m e n t . W h e n adjusting a light, t r y n o t t o look directly i n t o it; look instead at t h e object to be lighted a n d see h o w t h e b e a m

Do not waste energy. D r y r u n s ( w i t h o u t c a m e r a s ) can be d o n e just as efficiently w h e n i l l u m i n a t e d by w o r k lights as by full s t u d i o lighting. If you have m o v a b l e battens, tele­ scope hangers, or p a n t o g r a p h s , t r y to b r i n g the lights d o w n as close as possible to t h e object or scene to be illuminated. As y o u know, light intensity d r o p s off considerably t h e farther the light moves from t h e object. Bring the lights u p full only w h e n necessary.

USING A STUDIO MONITOR If y o u i n t e n d to use a well-adjusted color m o n i t o r as a guide for lighting, y o u m u s t be ready for s o m e c o m p r o m i s e . As n o t e d , t h e lighting is correct if t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r shows w h a t y o u w a n t t h e viewer to perceive. To get to this p o i n t , you s h o u l d use t h e monitor as a guide t o lighting, r a t h e r t h a n t h e less direct light meter. But you m a y r u n i n t o diffi­ culties. T h e video o p e r a t o r m a y tell you t h a t she c a n n o t set u p t h e c a m e r a s (adjust t h e m for an o p t i m a l v i d e o signal) before you have finished t h e lighting. A n d y o u r a r g u m e n t p r o b a b l y is ( a n d s h o u l d be) t h a t you c a n n o t finish t h e lighting w i t h o u t checking it o n t h e m o n i t o r . A p p r o a c h this a r g u m e n t w i t h a readiness for c o m p r o ­ mise because b o t h parties have a valid p o i n t . You can d o t h e basic lighting w i t h o u t the camera. A n i n c i d e n t - l i g h t r e a d i n g (foot-candle o r lux) can help you detect gross in­ adequacies, such as insufficient baselight levels, extremely u n e v e n i l l u m i n a t i o n , o r t o o h i g h a contrast. W i t h s o m e

Section

8.1

e x p e r i e n c e y o u c a n also tell w h e t h e r a s h a d o w is t o o d e n s e

Lighting

Studio

177

•

Specific lighting techniques include flat lighting, continu­ ous-action lighting, large-area lighting, high-contrast lighting, cameo lighting, silhouette lighting, chroma-key area lighting, and controlling eye and boom shadows.

•

Falloff indicates how fast the lighted side of a subject changes to shadow and how dense the shadows are. Fast falloff means that the light and shadow areas are distinct and that the shadows are dense. Slow falloff means that the transition from light to shadow is more gradual and that the shadows are transparent. Generally, fast falloff means high-contrast lighting; slow fall-off means low-contrast, or flat, lighting.

•

A low-key scene has a dark background with selective fast-falloff lighting and a dramatic or mysterious mood. A high-key scene has a light background, a generally high baselight level, and usually an upbeat, happy mood.

•

Contrast is the difference between the lightest and the darkest areas in a picture as measured by reflected light.

•

The contrast ratio is the contrast as measured by reflected light. The normal optimal contrast ratio is 40:1 to 50:1. It can be higher for digital cameras, which means that they can tolerate a higher contrast.

for a d e q u a t e r e p r o d u c t i o n of color a n d detail. B u t for t h e fine t r i m m i n g , y o u need at least o n e c a m e r a . Ask t h e V O t o w o r k w i t h you; after all, it is also t h e VO's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to deliver o p t i m a l p i c t u r e s . T h e single c a m e r a c a n b e r o u g h l y

in the

set u p t o t h e existing i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d p o i n t e d at t h e set. W i t h t h e direct feedback of t h e p i c t u r e o n t h e studio m o n i ­ tor, y o u c a n p r o c e e d to correct glaring discrepancies o r s i m p l y t o u c h u p s o m e of t h e lighting as t o b e a m d i r e c t i o n a n d intensity. After this fine t r i m m i n g , all c a m e r a s c a n b e set u p a n d b a l a n c e d for o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e .

•

All lighting uses directional and/or diffused light.

•

The key light is the principal source of illumination and reveals the basic shape of the object.

•

The back light provides more definition to the object's out­ line, separates it from the background, and gives it sparkle.

•

The fill light reduces falloff and makes the shadows less dense.

•

Balancing the intensities of the various lights depends largely on the desired effect.

Most television lighting setups use the basic photographic principle, or triangle lighting, of key, back, and fill lights.

•

The background, or set, light illuminates the background of the scene and the set. The side light acts as additional fill or a side key. The kicker light is used to outline the con­ tour of an object that would otherwise blend in with the background.

The light plot indicates the location of the lighting instru­ ments, the principal direction of their light beams, and sometimes the type and size of the instruments used.

•

Exercise caution during all lighting operations. Do not look directly into the instruments, and wear gloves when han­ dling the hot lights.

•

•

8.2

ELECTRIC

SHOCK

Be especially careful w i t h electric p o w e r w h e n o n location. A charge of 110 volts c a n b e deadly. Secure cables so t h a t p e o p l e d o n o t trip over t h e m . Every c o n n e c t i o n — f r o m cable t o p o w e r outlet, from cable to cable, a n d from cable to lighting i n s t r u m e n t — c a n cause a n electric s h o c k if n o t p r o p e r l y j o i n e d a n d secured.

Lighting in the Field

CABLES String the cables above d o o r w a y s or tape t h e m to the floor a n d cover t h e m w i t h a r u b b e r m a t o r flattened c a r d b o a r d at p o i n t s of heavy foot traffic. A loose cable n o t only c a n t r i p s o m e b o d y b u t m a y also t o p p l e a lighting i n s t r u m e n t a n d start a fire. See t h a t all light stands are secured w i t h sandbags.

FIRE H A Z A R D As discussed in c h a p t e r 7, p o r t a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t lighting i n s t r u m e n t s get very h o t w h e n t u r n e d o n for only brief p e r i o d s of t i m e . Place t h e m as far away as possible from E N G K W h e n lighting field p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u are n o t w o r k i n g

c o m b u s t i b l e materials, such as d r a p e s , b o o k s , tablecloths,

EFP

w o o d ceilings, a n d walls. It pays to d o u b l e - c h e c k . If t h e y

in t h e s t u d i o , w h e r e all t h e lighting e q u i p m e n t is in

place a n d ready to go. Every piece of e q u i p m e n t , h o w e v e r

m u s t b e close to walls o r o t h e r combustibles, insulate t h e m

large o r small, m u s t be h a u l e d t o t h e r e m o t e location a n d

w i t h a l u m i n u m foil.

set u p in places t h a t always s e e m either t o o small o r t o o large for g o o d television lighting. Also, y o u never seem to get e n o u g h t i m e to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h v a r i o u s lighting

ENG/EFP LIGHTING

setups to find t h e m o s t effective o n e . W h a t e v e r t h e r e m o t e

E N G w T h e r e is n o clear-cut division b e t w e e n lighting for

l i g h t i n g task, y o u n e e d to b e especially efficient in t h e

E F P ^ E N G a n d EFP, except t h a t in electronic news gather­

choice of i n s t r u m e n t s a n d their use. This section explains

ing y o u often have to s h o o t in whatever light t h e r e is o r

the t e c h n i q u e s of field lighting a n d describes s o m e of its

as s u p p l i e d by t h e c a m e r a light. But w h e n called u p o n to

essential r e q u i r e m e n t s .

d o a n i n t e r v i e w in a h o t e l r o o m or in t h e office of a C E O ,

^

SAFETY

E N G a n d E F P l i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e s are p r e t t y m u c h t h e

Primary safety concerns: electric shock, cables, and fires

s a m e . T h e big difference is t h a t in EFP y o u have e n o u g h

or w h e n covering a c e r e m o n y at the e n t r a n c e to city hall,

lead t i m e to survey t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s before t h e ^

ENG/EFP LIGHTING Shooting in bright sunlight, in overcast daylight, in indoor light, and at night

event is t a k i n g place; b u t t h e n y o u m a y b e expected t o m a k e t h e office of a c o r p o r a t e p r e s i d e n t look like the best H o l l y w o o d c a n m u s t e r or to i l l u m i n a t e t h e h e a r i n g r o o m

LOCATION SURVEY

of t h e b o a r d of s u p e r v i s o r s so t h a t it rivals a c o u r t r o o m

Survey checklists and power supply

scene in the latest blockbuster movie—all w i t h o u t adequate time or equipment.

SAFETY

W h e n e n g a g e d in field lighting, y o u will find yourself confronted with problems b o t h indoors and out. W h e n

E N G K As in t h e studio, safety is a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n w h e n

o u t d o o r s y o u have to w o r k w i t h available l i g h t — t h e illu­

EFP

lighting in the field. In fact, there are m o r e safety

m i n a t i o n already p r e s e n t at t h e scene. At n i g h t y o u m u s t

h a z a r d s in t h e field t h a n in t h e s t u d i o . N o p r o d u c t i o n ,

s u p p l e m e n t available light or p r o v i d e t h e entire i l l u m i n a ­

however exciting or difficult, excuses y o u from a b a n d o n i n g

t i o n . A l t h o u g h y o u have a little m o r e t i m e in EFP t h a n in

safety for e x p e d i e n c y o r effect.

E N G , y o u m u s t still w o r k quickly a n d efficiently to o b t a i n

178

Section

8.2

Lighting

in

the

Field

179

n o t only a d e q u a t e lighting b u t also t h e m o s t effective light­ ing possible u n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

SHOOTING IN BRIGHT SUNLIGHT ENG w M o s t l i g h t i n g p r o b l e m s o c c u r w h e n y o u h a v e to EFP

s h o o t in b r i g h t sunlight. A shooter's n i g h t m a r e is

h a v i n g t o cover a m i x e d choir, w i t h t h e w o m e n dressed in starched white blouses a n d t h e m e n in w h i t e shirts a n d black jackets, w i t h half of t h e m s t a n d i n g in the s u n a n d t h e rest of t h e m in a d e e p s h a d o w against a s u n - f l o o d e d w h i t e b u i l d i n g . Even a g o o d digital E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r w o u l d have t r o u b l e h a n d l i n g such high c o n t r a s t . If y o u p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e a u t o - i r i s m o d e , it will faithfully read t h e b r i g h t light of t h e shirts a n d t h e light b a c k g r o u n d a n d close its iris for o p t i m a l e x p o s u r e . T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t t h e d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n of light c o m i n g t h r o u g h t h e lens will d a r k e n equally drastically t h e s h a d o w area a n d t h e p e o p l e s t a n d i n g in it. T h e black jackets will t u r n i n t o a dull black a n d lose all detail. If y o u switch to m a n u a l iris to o p e n the a p e r t u r e s o m e w h a t t o achieve s o m e t r a n s p a r e n c y in t h e s h a d o w s a n d t h e black jackets, t h e white shirts a n d t h e sunlit b a c k g r o u n d will b e overexposed. Worse, the highlights on the perspiring foreheads and occasional bald spots of t h e choir m e m b e r s will begin to " b l o o m , " t u r n i n g the skin color i n t o strangely l u m i n e s c e n t white spots surrounded by a pinkish rim. S h o u l d y o u give up? N o , even t h o u g h y o u r o p t i o n s are s o m e w h a t limited, here are s o m e p o t e n t i a l remedies: Whenever possible, t r y to position the talent in a s h a d o w area, away from a b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d . You could p r o b a b l y m o v e t h e w h o l e c h o i r in t h e s h a d o w a n d away from t h e sunlit b u i l d i n g . For a single o n - c a m e r a p e r s o n , y o u can always create a s h a d o w area with a large u m b r e l l a . Ask w h e t h e r t h e m a l e c h o i r m e m b e r s can take off t h e i r black jackets. This is w o r t h a try, even t h o u g h y o u will p r o b a b l y be t u r n e d d o w n .

8.29

S h o o t from a n angle t h a t avoids t h e w h i t e b u i l d i n g in the background.

USING A REFLECTOR: SHOOTING AGAINST THE SUN

When shooting against the sun, reflect as much sunlight as possible back to the talent with a simple reflector (in this case a white card).

Use a reflector t o slow d o w n falloff. S E E 8 . 2 9 A N D 8 . 3 0 C o n t r o l the a p e r t u r e . O n c e t h e talent is in t h e s h a d o w area, y o u can p u t the c a m e r a back in auto-iris m o d e for a n a p p r o p r i a t e e x p o s u r e . If this fails t o correct the p r o b l e m , switch t h e iris back to m a n u a l a n d see w h e t h e r you can get t h e right e x p o s u r e . Use a n e u t r a l - d e n s i t y filter. T h e neutral density

a m o u n t of light t h a t falls o n t h e p i c k u p device w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i n g t h e actual colors of t h e scene. In fact, t h e N D filter seems to r e d u c e e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s while still reveal­ ing detail in t h e s h a d o w areas. It will certainly eliminate t h e r e d - r i m m e d flares o n t h e shirts a n d t h e p e r s p i r i n g

(ND)

filters act like sunglasses of v a r y i n g densities, r e d u c i n g t h e

foreheads of t h e choir, w i t h o u t r e n d e r i n g the rest of t h e p e o p l e invisible.

180

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TECHNIQUES

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

nated by the daylight that comes through large windows, others by high-color temperature

fluorescent

banks that

m a k e u p a light ceiling. Still o t h e r s , s u c h as w i n d o w l e s s hotel r o o m s , have desk a n d floor lighting that p r o v i d e a r o m a n t i c m o o d b u t h a r d l y t h e p r o p e r i l l u m i n a t i o n for g o o d television pictures. T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m h e r e is n o t so m u c h h o w t o s u p p l y a d d i t i o n a l light, b u t h o w t o place t h e i n s t r u m e n t s for o p t i m a l aesthetic effect a n d h o w t o m a t c h t h e v a r i o u s color t e m p e r a t u r e s . I n all cases t r y first to m a i n t a i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n c i p l e of key, fill, a n d back lights. If this isn't possible, t r y t o adjust t h e s e t u p so t h a t y o u m a i n t a i n at least t h e effect of triangle lighting. W h e n e v e r possible t r y t o m a i n t a i n a back-light effect; it is t h e b a c k light t h a t distinguishes g o o d lighting f r o m m e r e illumination. Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u are lighting a n i n t e r v i e w of t h e C E O of a software c o m p a n y . Except for s o m e c u t a w a y close-ups of t h e interviewer at t h e e n d of t h e show, t h e C E O

8.30

USING A REFLECTOR: SHOOTING WITH THE SUN

When shooting in bright sunlight, the dark shadows can be easily lightened with a reflector.

is seen in a close-up for m o s t of t h e interview. Let's p u t h e r in t h r e e different e n v i r o n m e n t s : (1) in a w i n d o w l e s s h o t e l r o o m , (2) in a hotel r o o m w i t h a w i n d o w , a n d (3) in h e r office w i t h a large p i c t u r e w i n d o w b e h i n d h e r desk.

W h a t if y o u are r u n n i n g after a n e w s story a n d have n o t i m e for any of these remedies? P u t t h e c a m e r a in a u t o -

Windowless room

In a r o o m w i t h n o w i n d o w s , y o u

can s i m p l y set u p p o r t a b l e , open-face lights in a typical

iris m o d e — o r , if y o u have t i m e , p o p in a n e u t r a l density

triangle fashion. Use a diffused key light, a m o r e focused

h o p e for t h e best. EJB^UGHTS-* Fields outdoor

b a c k light of t h e s a m e k i n d , a n d a reflector or softlight ( o r

filter—and

a diffusion t e n t ) for t h e fill (see figure 8.5). If y o u have a

indoor | mixed | try it

f o u r t h i n s t r u m e n t , y o u can use it as a b a c k g r o u n d light. If

S H O O T I N G IN O V E R C A S T D A Y L I G H T

only t w o i n s t r u m e n t s are available, use a n open-face s p o t

ENflw T h e ideal light for o u t d o o r s h o o t i n g is a n overcast F-Flr day: t h e clouds or fog act as diffusers for t h e h a r s h

as a b a c k light a n d use a diffused light (open-face spot w i t h

sunlight, p r o v i d i n g a n even i l l u m i n a t i o n similar t o that of

t h e face is i l l u m i n a t e d . T h e spill of t h e key will also take

softlights. D o n o t be s u r p r i s e d if y o u have t o use a n N D

care of t h e b a c k g r o u n d lighting, SEE 8.31

s c r i m , tent, or u m b r e l l a ) as a key, placed so t h a t m o s t of

a n d / o r c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filter. T h e light of a c l o u d y day

If t h e d i r e c t o r insists o n cross s h o o t i n g w i t h t w o

is often surprisingly b r i g h t a n d usually h a s a h i g h color

c a m e r a s to catch t h e i m m e d i a c y of t h e interviewer's asking

temperature.

q u e s t i o n s o r reacting t o t h e C E O , y o u c a n still get b y w i t h

Even i n diffused l i g h t i n g , t r y t o a v o i d a n o v e r l y

two o r t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s . Place t w o open-face spots or

b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d . If y o u have to s h o o t against a light

small Fresnel spots with tents, scrims, or umbrella reflectors

b a c k g r o u n d , z o o m in o n t h e p e r s o n ( t h e r e b y avoiding as

so t h a t t h e y s h i n e over t h e s h o u l d e r of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s sit­

m u c h of t h e b a c k g r o u n d as possible). Be sure that y o u have

ting opposite each other. In this cross-keying, t h e t w o lights

m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l , a n d adjust t h e iris t o m e e t t h e light

n o w serve as m u l t i f u n c t i o n key a n d b a c k lights. You c a n

r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e p e r s o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e b a c k g r o u n d .

use t h e t h i r d i n s t r u m e n t as general fill light. T h i s lighting

It is b e t t e r to have an overexposed b a c k g r o u n d t h a n an

setup can also b e used for an i n t e r v i e w i n a hallway, living

u n d e r e x p o s e d p e r s o n . Despite t h e highly diffused light,

r o o m , or any o t h e r s u c h location, SEE 8.32

t r y t o use a reflector o n t h e p e r s o n . Room with window

S H O O T I N G IN I N D O O R

ENGiV You e n c o u n t e r EFP'

w

LIGHT

W h e n t h e r e is a w i n d o w in t h e

r o o m , y o u can use it as a key or even a back light. If y o u use

v a r i o u s a m o u n t s a n d types of light

the w i n d o w as a key, y o u n e e d a reflector o r a fill light o n t h e

h e n s h o o t i n g i n d o o r s . S o m e interiors are illumi-

o p p o s i t e side. I n a n y case y o u n e e d a s t r o n g back light. To

Section

8.2

Lighting

in the

181

Field

Open-face spot (back light for interviewee, key for interviewer) Interviewee

Interviewer Open-face spot (back light for interviewer, key for interviewee)

Camera

8 . 3 1 TRIANGLE INTERVIEW LIGHTING This one-person lighting setup uses two instruments. The dif­ fused key light is an open-face spot with a scrim, a tent, or an umbrella. The back light is a spread or focused open-face spot. If fill light is necessary, it can be created with a softlight or a reflector. You can use an additional softlight as a background light. Note that the interviewee is looking at the interviewer, who is sitting or standing next to the camera, out of the shot.

8 . 3 2 CROSS KEYING FOR INTERVIEW The two portable lights serve multiple functions: key and back lights for the interviewer and the interviewee. If you have a third light, use it as fill.

m a t c h t h e o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e w i n d o w light,

D r a w the d r a p e s o r the b l i n d s and light the person

b o t h t h e fill a n d back lights n e e d either 5,600K l a m p s or

w i t h p o r t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t s . O r go to a tight close-up a n d

3.200K l a m p s w i t h blue gels to raise their color t e m p e r a ­

cut o u t as m u c h b a c k g r o u n d as possible. Unfortunately,

ture, SEE 8.33 T h e better way of lighting is to p o s i t i o n t h e

m a n y w i n d o w s d o n o t have d r a p e s or blinds, a n d n o t all

C E O so that t h e w i n d o w acts as a b a c k l i g h t — w i t h o u t let­

c o m p a n y officials look g o o d in e x t r e m e close-up.

ting it get into t h e shot. You can t h e n use a single diffused 5,600K key light (an open-face s p o t w i t h 5,600K l a m p or

M o v e t h e c a m e r a t o t h e side of t h e desk a n d have the

a 3,200K l a m p w i t h a b l u e gel) t o i l l u m i n a t e m o s t of h e r

p e r s o n face t h e c a m e r a . You can t h e n s h o o t parallel to the

face, e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e e d for a fill light, SEE 8.34

w i n d o w . You can use t h e light from the w i n d o w as key, a n d fill w i t h a large reflector or an additional light o n a s t a n d

Panoramic office window

A typical p r o b l e m is having

(see figure 8.33).

to s h o o t against a large w i n d o w . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e C E O insists o n m a k i n g h e r s t a t e m e n t from b e h i n d h e r desk that

If t h e p e r s o n insists o n h a v i n g t h e w i n d o w in t h e

is located in front of a large p i c t u r e w i n d o w , y o u r light­

b a c k g r o u n d , y o u m u s t cover it with large color t e m p e r a t u r e

ing p r o b l e m is identical w i t h t h a t of a p e r s o n s t a n d i n g in

filters a n d / o r N D filters (plastic sheets) of v a r y i n g densi­

front of a b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d : If y o u set t h e iris a c c o r d i n g

ties. Use t w o s t r o n g b u t diffused open-face i n s t r u m e n t s

to t h e b a c k g r o u n d b r i g h t n e s s , t h e p e r s o n in front t e n d s to

(5,600K) as key a n d fill, or use a large, highly efficient

a p p e a r in silhouette. If y o u adjust t h e iris for t h e p e r s o n

reflector that b o u n c e s t h e light from the w i n d o w o n t o the

in front, t h e b a c k g r o u n d is overexposed. H e r e are s o m e

CEO's face. Bear in m i n d t h a t these p r o c e d u r e s take u p a

possible s o l u t i o n s :

great a m o u n t of t i m e a n d are generally left to EFP.

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8

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

Window

Window

Camera Camera

8.33 WINDOW AS KEY LIGHT

8.34 WINDOW AS BACK LIGHT

The daylight shining through a window can serve as the key light, and a reflector as the fill light. If you use a portable light as fill and/or back light, you need to bring its color temperature up to the 5,600K daylight standard.

You can use a window as back light so long as you place the talent with the window out of the shot. The key light can be a diffused open-face spot that burns at 5,600K.

Take a p i c t u r e of t h e w i n d o w view a n d u s e it as a c h r o m a - k e y video source (see c h a p t e r 14).

light b e a m with scrims. T h e m o s t effective m e t h o d is t o use p o r t a b l e H M I , q u a r t z , o r fluorescent softlights a n d flood the active area. Always b e sure t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e c a m e r a

S o m e t i m e s you have to

for t h e light in w h i c h t h e event actually takes place.

deal w i t h g r o u p s of p e o p l e w h o are g a t h e r e d in locations

As y o u p r o b a b l y n o t i c e d , all these lighting t e c h n i q u e s

w i t h i n a d e q u a t e i l l u m i n a t i o n . Typical e x a m p l e s are m e e t ­

a i m to establish a high baselight level. Even w h e n pressed

ing r o o m s , hotel lobbies, a n d hallways. M o s t of t h e t i m e ,

for t i m e , t r y t o place o n e o r t w o diffused b a c k lights o u t of

a c a m e r a light p r o v i d e s e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n t o cover t h e

c a m e r a range. T h e y will p r o v i d e sparkle a n d professional

speaker a n d i n d i v i d u a l a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s . If y o u are to

polish to an o t h e r w i s e flat scene, SEE 8.35

d o extensive coverage of s u c h a n event, however, y o u n e e d additional illumination. T h e quickest a n d m o s t efficient w a y to light such a

Working with fiuorescents

T h e b a s i c p r o b l e m of

w o r k i n g w i t h t h e fluorescent lights used i n stores, offices,

location is t o establish a general, n o n d i r e c t i o n a l baselight

a n d p u b l i c buildings is their color t e m p e r a t u r e . It is usually

level. Use t w o o r t h r e e o p e n - f a c e spots o r V-lights a n d

h i g h e r t h a n t h e 3,200K i n d o o r s t a n d a r d of i n c a n d e s c e n t

b o u n c e t h e light off t h e ceiling o r walls. If y o u have light-

lights. Even if s o m e fluorescent t u b e s b u r n at t h e w a r m e r

reflecting u m b r e l l a s , direct t h e lights i n t o t h e u m b r e l l a s

i n d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e , they have a strange greenish blue

a n d place t h e m so t h a t y o u can cover t h e event area. You

tint. So if y o u t u r n o n t h e c a m e r a light for a d d i t i o n a l illu­

will be surprised by h o w m u c h i l l u m i n a t i o n y o u can get o u t

m i n a t i o n , y o u are confronted w i t h t w o color t e m p e r a t u r e s .

of a single V-light w h e n diffused b y an u m b r e l l a . If t h a t is

S o m e lighting p e o p l e advise t u r n i n g off t h e fiuorescents

n o t possible, direct t h e lights o n t h e g r o u p , b u t diffuse t h e

altogether w h e n w o r k i n g w i t h q u a r t z lights (3,200K), b u t

Section

8.2

Lighting

in the

Field

183

Audience

Portable light with umbrella

8 . 3 5 LARGE-AREA LIGHTING To establish sufficient baselight over a large area, you need highly diffused light. Here three portable incandescent lights and lightdiffusing umbrellas provide maximally diffused light over the entire area. You can, of course, use fluorescent or HMI lights in place of the quartz lights.

this is unrealistic. If y o u n e e d to get a fast-breaking story

As m e n t i o n e d i n c h a p t e r 7, t h e p o r t a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t

a n d y o u s h o o t in a hallway t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y fluores­

l i g h t s — i n c l u d i n g t h e c a m e r a l i g h t — a r e s t r o n g e n o u g h to

cent lights, y o u certainly d o n o t have t i m e to locate a n d

wash o u t t h e fluorescent baselight. If available, t h e better

p e r s u a d e t h e b u i l d i n g m a n a g e r t o t u r n off the lights a n d

s o l u t i o n , of course, is t o use floodlights t h a t b u r n at t h e

t h e n to relight t h e scene before starting to s h o o t .

o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e of 5,600K or floodlights w h o s e

If t h e fluorescent lights give e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n ,

color t e m p e r a t u r e is raised by light-blue gels.

simply select the a p p r o p r i a t e color t e m p e r a t u r e filter in the

One word of caution: Despite all t h e praise for fluores­

c a m e r a (to b r i n g d o w n t h e high color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e

cent field lights, stay away from t h e m if color r e p r o d u c t i o n

fiuorescents) a n d white-balance t h e c a m e r a with t h e avail­

is critical. Even t h e best fluorescent l a m p s d o n o t give y o u

able light. If y o u have to use a c a m e r a light for a d d i t i o n a l

t h e color m i x for white light t h a t y o u get from i n c a n d e s ­

i l l u m i n a t i o n , either b o o s t t h e c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e

cent a n d H M I l a m p s . Careful w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g will help,

c a m e r a light (by inserting a dichroic filter t h a t often comes

b u t y o u m a y still discover a greenish or b l u i s h tint to y o u r

with t h e c a m e r a light) o r w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e c a m e r a w i t h

pictures that is difficult, if possible at all, t o correct in p o s t -

t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y t h e c a m e r a light (3,200K).

production.

184

Chapter

8

TECHNIQUES

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

S H O O T I N G AT N I G H T

the opposite side to generate somefill.Once again, avoid

ENGiv W h e n c o v e r i n g a n i g h t t i m e n e w s event, y o u will

s h o o t i n g against a b r i g h t l y lighted b a c k g r o u n d .

EFP'

m o s t often use t h e c a m e r a light or a single light t h a t

is o p e r a t e d by t h e c a m e r a assistant. H e r e are s o m e p o i n t s to consider:

If y o u are to cover a brief feature r e p o r t o u t s i d e the c o u n t y hospital, for e x a m p l e , a n d y o u are n o t u n d e r great t i m e pressure, use a portable light m o u n t e d o n a light stand

A s s u m i n g t h a t y o u have only o n e c a m e r a light a n d

as a key. Use t h e lighted h o s p i t a l d o o r or a w i n d o w as fill

n o assistant, use t h e c a m e r a light a n d a i m it straight at

or b a c k light. In this case p o s i t i o n t h e field r e p o r t e r so t h a t

t h e field reporter. T h e closer t h e r e p o r t e r is to t h e c a m e r a ,

h e or she is n o t directly in front of t h e d o o r or w i n d o w b u t

t h e s t r o n g e r t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n . You can c h a n g e t h e light

off to o n e side a n d o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e (see figure 8.34).

intensity b y m o v i n g just o n e or t w o steps t o w a r d or away

W h e n e v e r possible, p l u g t h e lights into regular h o u s e h o l d

from t h e r e p o r t e r a n d z o o m in o r o u t to c o m p e n s a t e for

outlets r a t h e r t h a n u s i n g batteries as a p o w e r source.

y o u r r e p o s i t i o n i n g . A l m o s t all professional c a m e r a lights have diffusion filters t h a t y o u c a n use to soften the s h a d o w o n the r e p o r t e r ' s face.

If t h e r e p o r t e r n e e d s a r e m o t e t e l e p r o m p t e r , check t h a t t h e p r o m p t i n g device is w o r k i n g before t h e r e p o r t e r goes o n t h e air. As a reporter, ask t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n

If y o u have an assistant, h e o r she c a n h o l d t h e light

in charge to r u n t h e first few lines for y o u .

s o m e w h a t above c a m e r a level (to avoid s h i n i n g t h e light directly i n t o t h e r e p o r t e r ' s eyes) a n d a little to t h e side of the c a m e r a so t h a t t h e single c a m e r a light acts as a key

LOCATION SURVEY

light. If y o u are fairly close to the event, p u t this single light

E N G r ^ O n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspects of lighting for

i n t o a semiflood p o s i t i o n to avoid h o t spots. Take a d v a n ­

EFP

tage of any a d d i t i o n a l light source, s u c h as a lighted store

SEES.36 T h e survey checklists in figure 8.36 are i n t e n d e d

w i n d o w or a street l a m p , as fill b y p o s i t i o n i n g the subject

for relatively s i m p l e p r o d u c t i o n s , as are all o t h e r discus­

appropriately. D o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t m i x i n g color t e m p e r a ­

sions of EFP. (For m o r e - d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n location

EFP is a t h o r o u g h location survey of the r e m o t e site.

tures; viewers readily accept color d i s t o r t i o n s w h e n seeing

surveys, see t h e r e m o t e survey section in chapter 20). T h e

events s h o t at night. You could also use t h e store w i n d o w

lighting for large a n d c o m p l e x electronic field p r o d u c t i o n s

as a key light a n d have y o u r assistant h o l d a reflector o n

is m o r e closely related t o m o t i o n p i c t u r e t e c h n i q u e s a n d is

8.36

EFP LOCATION SURVEY

Is the available light sufficient? If not, w h a t additional lights do you need? W h a t type of available light do you have? Incandescent? Fluorescent? Daylight coming through w i n d o w s ? PRINCIPAL

Do you need any additional lights? W h e r e is the sun in relation to the planned action? Is there enough room to place the necessary reflectors?

BACKGROUND

Is there any action planned against a white wall? Are there w i n d o w s in the background? If so, do they have curtains, drapes, or Venetian blinds that can be drawn? If you w a n t to use the daylight from the window, do you have lights that match the color temperature of the daylight (5,600K)? If the w i n d o w is too bright, or if you have to reduce the color temperature coming through the window, do you have the appropriate ND or color filters to attach to the w i n d o w ? You will certainly need some reflectors or other type of fill-light illumination.

How bright is the background? Even if the sun is not hitting the background at the time of the survey, will it be there w h e n the actual production takes place? W h e n shooting at the beach, does the director plan to have people perform with the ocean as the background? You will need reflectors and/or additional lights (HMIs) to prevent the people from turning into silhouettes, unless the director plans on ECUs most of the time.

Section

8.36

8.2

Lighting

EFP LOCATION SURVEY

in the

Field

1 8 5

(continued)

INDOORS

OUTDOORS

CONTRAST If there are dense shadows or if the event takes place in high-contrast areas (sunlight and shadows), you need extra fill light and/or ND filters to reduce the contrast.

LIGHT

Does the production take place in bright sunlight? Can the scene be moved into the shadow area? If not, you must then provide for a generous amount offilllight (reflectors and/or HMI spotlights) to render the shadows transparent, or NDfiltersto reduce the glare of overly bright areas.

POSITIONS

Can you place the lights out of camera range? What lighting supports do you need (light stands, gaffer grip, clamps)? Do you need special mounting devices, such as battens or cross braces? Are the lighting instruments far enough away from combustible materials? Are the lights positioned so that they do not interfere with the event? People who are not used to television complain mostly about the brightness of the lights. POWER

If you need reflectors or additional lights on stands, is the ground level enough for the stands to be securely placed? If out­ doors, will you need to take extra precautions because of wind? (Take plenty of sandbags along, or even some tent stakes and rope, so that you can secure the light stands in case of wind.)

REQUIREMENTS

Your main concern will be power and how to get it to the lighting instruments. Is the necessary power available nearby? Do you need a generator? If you can tap available power, make sure you can tell the engineer in charge the approximate power requirement for all lights. (Simply add up the wattage of all the lights you plan to use, plus another 10 percent to ensure enough power.) Do you have enough extension cords to reach all the lighting instruments?

You do not need to use lighting instruments very often when shooting outdoors unless you shoot at night or need to fill in particularly dense shadows that cannot be reached with a simple reflector.

Do you know exactly where the outlets are, what the rating of the circuits is, and which outlets are on the same circuit? Make a rough sketch of all outlets and indicate the distance to the corresponding light or lights. What adapters do you need to plug lights into the available outlets? Do you have the necessary cables, extension cords, and power strips so that you can get by with a minimum of cable runs? In the projected cable runs, have you taken all possible safety precautions?

n o t addressed here. But even in a relatively s i m p l e EFP, you

T h e m o s t frequently used p o w e r s u p p l y is h o u s e h o l d

will find t h a t the p o w e r s u p p l y is o n e of t h e key e l e m e n t s

c u r r e n t . W h e n u s i n g regular wall outlets, b e aware of t h e

for g o o d r e m o t e lighting.

p o w e r r a t i n g of t h e circuits, w h i c h is usually 15 or 20 a m p s

POWER SUPPLY

retically p l u g in a 1,500W (or 2 , 0 0 0 W ) i n s t r u m e n t , or any

( a m p e r e s ) per circuit. This rating m e a n s t h a t y o u can t h e o ­ In EFP y o u have to w o r k w i t h t h r e e types of p o w e r for

c o m b i n a t i o n of lights t h a t does n o t exceed 1,500 (or 2,000)

lighting i n s t r u m e n t s : h o u s e h o l d c u r r e n t (usually from 110

watts, w i t h o u t o v e r l o a d i n g t h e circuit, p r o v i d e d n o t h i n g

t o 120 volts), g e n e r a t o r s , a n d 12V or 30V b a t t e r i e s .

else is o n t h e s a m e circuit. But t h a t is n o t always wise to

186

Chapter

TECHNIQUES

8

OF TELEVISION

LIGHTING

8.37 CALCULATING ELECTRIC POWER REQUIREMENTS WATTAGE O F L A M P

N U M B E R OF INSTRUMENTS P E R 1 5 - A M P CIRCUIT

100

15

150

10

175

9

200

7

350

4

500

3

750

2

1,000

1

1,500

1

To find the maximum load (watts) for a single circuit, use the following formula: amperes x volts = watts The ampere rating of a standard household circuit is 15 amps (normally stamped on the circuit breaker). This means that the circuit can theo­ retically hold a maximum load of 15 amps x 110 volts = 1,650 watts. To be safe always figure 100 volts instead of 110 volts: 15 amps x 100 = 1,500 watts To calculate how many instruments to plug into a single circuit, divide their total w a t t a g e into 1,500 watts (maximum load). The table lists the number of instruments of a certain w a t t a g e that you can safely plug into a single 15-amp circuit.

do. Recall t h e discussion a b o u t extension cords t h a t b u i l d

s a m e circuit b r e a k e r o r fuse. If t h e light goes o u t , t h e plugs

u p a d d i t i o n a l resistance, especially w h e n w a r m . To b e o n

are o n t h e s a m e circuit. If t h e light stays o n , it's a different

t h e safe side, do not load up a single circuit to full

circuit a n d y o u are safe to use it.

capacity.

O t h e r w i s e , y o u m a y find t h a t t h e lights g o o u t just at t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e s h o o t . You c a n find t h e capacity of t h e circuit b y checking its

Safe power extensions

Obviously, y o u n e e d e n o u g h

fuse o r breaker. Each b r e a k e r is labeled w i t h t h e n u m b e r

extension c o r d s t o get from t h e outlets t o t h e lighting i n ­

of a m p s it can h a n d l e . You c a n n o w figure t h e total w a t t ­

s t r u m e n t s . You c a n m i n i m i z e cable r u n s b y u s i n g p o w e r

age capacity of each circuit: s i m p l y m u l t i p l y t h e n u m b e r

strips ( m u l t i p l e - o u t l e t boxes), especially if y o u use low-

of a m p s of t h e circuit (15 o r 20 a m p s ) b y 100 ( a s s u m i n g

w a t t a g e i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e larger t h e wires in t h e extension

t h e h o u s e h o l d c u r r e n t rates b e t w e e n 110 a n d 120 volts).

cords (lower g a u g e r a t i n g s ) , t h e m o r e w a t t a g e t h e y c a n

This gives y o u a n u p p e r limit: 1,500 w a t t s for a 1 5 - a m p

h a n d l e w i t h o u t getting u n d u l y h o t . Have e n o u g h a n d vari­

breaker (100 volts x 15 a m p s = 1,500 total wattage) o r 2,000

o u s k i n d s of adapters available so that lights can be plugged

watts for a 2 0 - a m p b r e a k e r ( 1 0 0 V = 2 , 0 0 0 W ) . B u t d o n ' t

i n t o t h e existing outlets.

press y o u r luck. Try to use lower-wattage i n s t r u m e n t s p e r

W h e n e v e r t h e r e is d o u b t a b o u t t h e availability o r

circuit t o e n s u r e that t h e lights will w o r k p r o p e r l y d u r i n g

reliability of power, u s e a generator, t h e responsibility of

t h e entire p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 8.37

w h i c h falls to t h e e n g i n e e r i n g crew. T h e circuit ratings a n d

If y o u n e e d t o p o w e r m o r e lights t h a n a single circuit can h a n d l e , p l u g t h e m i n t o different circuits. But h o w d o y o u k n o w w h i c h outlets are o n separate circuits?

t h e allowable c o m b i n e d w a t t a g e of t h e lights p e r circuit still apply. For relatively s i m p l e o n - l o c a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u m a y p o w e r t h e lights w i t h batteries. First check w h e t h e r t h e

Determining the circuits

N o r m a l l y , several d o u b l e

l a m p s in t h e p o r t a b l e lights are a p p r o p r i a t e for t h e voltage

wall outlets are c o n n e c t e d to a single circuit. You c a n d e ­

of t h e battery. Obviously, y o u c a n n o t use a 12-volt l a m p

t e r m i n e w h i c h outlets are o n t h e s a m e circuit b y p l u g g i n g

w i t h a 30-volt battery. T h e n check that t h e batteries are

o n e l o w - p o w e r e d l a m p i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r outlet. F i n d t h e

p r o p e r l y c h a r g e d a n d t h a t t h e r e are e n o u g h spares for t h e

specific circuit b r e a k e r t h a t t u r n s off t h e l a m p . Switch t h e

d u r a t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . T u r n i n g off t h e lights whenever

breaker o n again. T h e light s h o u l d light u p again. N o w plug

possible saves b a t t e r y p o w e r a n d greatly extends t h e life o f

the light into t h e next c o n v e n i e n t outlet a n d switch off t h e

the l a m p s .


•

When a window is present, use it for fill or back light. Any indoor lights must then burn at 5,600K. Gel your 3,200K indoor lights with light-blue media, or use 5.600K lamps. Use a large panoramic window for the key light or cover it with a curtain and use a triangle lighting setup. If the win­ dow is in the shot, filter the intensity of the light and lower the color temperature with gels on the window, and add 3,200K key and fill lights.

•

When shooting in fluorescent light, use 5,600K lights for ad­ ditional key and back lights, or "wash ouf'the fluorescent ceiling lights with incandescent key, back, and fill lights.

•

When shooting at night, use the camera light as the princi­ pal light source if no other light is available. Use a diffusion filter on the camera light and any other available light or a reflector for fill.

•

Before doing any EFP lighting, conduct a location survey.

•

The formula for figuring the electric power rating is watt = volt x ampere.

•

When powering portable lights with household current, check the capacity of the circuits and do not overload them.

EDO

BS1>

LIGHTS-* Color temperature^ white balance | controlling | try it 159 UGHTS-> Color temperature-* light sources LIGHTS^ Triangle lighting^ key [ back | fill | background | try it 163

ES2J>

LIGHTS^" Design-* high key | low key

EEZS>

LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette

170

LIGHTS-* Measurement-* contrast

EEZ5>

168

LIGHTS^ Fields outdoor | indoor | mixed | try it 180

173

160

Audio: Sound Pickup W e are usually so engrossed in the barrage of colorful pictures w h e n w a t c h i n g television that w e are often totally u n a w a r e of t h e s o u n d — u n l e s s there is an audio problem. All of a s u d d e n w e realize that w i t h o u t sound w e have a hard time following w h a t is going o n . But so long as w e c a n hear t h e sound track, w e can turn a w a y from the TV and still know pretty m u c h what's h a p p e n i n g on-screen. But isn't a picture w o r t h a t h o u s a n d words? Apparently not in television. Because so m u c h information is transmitted by s o m e o n e talking, t h e infamous "talking h e a d " is not such a bad production t e c h n i q u e after all, provided t h e person talking has something w o r t h w h i l e to say.

S o u n d is important for establishing m o o d a n d intensifying an event. A g o o d chase sequence invariably has a barrage of sounds, including agitated music a n d squealing tires. The sound track also helps us c o n n e c t t h e visual fragments of the relatively small, low-definition television i m a g e to form a meaningful w h o l e .

If sound is, indeed, such an important production element, w h y do w e fail to have better sound on television? Even w h e n y o u produce a short scene as an exercise in t h e studio, y o u will probably notice that although the pictures may look acceptable, it is usually the sound portion that could stand s o m e improvement. It is often assumed, unfortunately, that by sticking a m i c r o p h o n e into a scene at t h e last minute t h e audio requirements

188

have b e e n satisfied. Don't believe it. G o o d television audio needs at least as m u c h preparation and attention as the video portion. A n d , like any other production element, television audio should not simply be a d d e d — i t should be integrated

into the produc­

tion planning from the v e r y beginning.

Section 9.1, H o w M i c r o p h o n e s Hear, covers the sound pickup portion of audio

(from t h e

Latin v e r b audire, "to hear"), including the electronic and operational characteristics of microphones. In Section 9.2, H o w M i c r o p h o n e s Work, you learn about the more t e c h n i ­ cal aspects of sound-generating elements a n d the various m i c r o p h o n e uses in E N G / E F P .

'A audio The sound portion of television and its production. Tech­ nically, the electronic reproduction of audible sound. cardioid Heart-shaped pickup pattern of a unidirectional mi­ crophone. condenser microphone A microphone whose diaphragm consists of a condenser plate that vibrates with the sound pressure against another fixed condenser plate, called the backplate. Also called electret or capacitor microphone. direct insertion Recording technigue wherein the sound sig­ nals of electric instruments are fed directly to the mixing console without the use of speaker and microphone. Also called direct input. dynamic microphone A microphone whose sound pickup de­ vice consists of a diaphragm that is attached to a movable coil. As the diaphragm vibrates with the air pressure from the sound, the coil moves within a magnetic field, generat­ ing an electric current. Also called moving-coil microphone. fishpoie A suspension device for a microphone; the mic is at­ tached to a pole and held over the scene for brief periods. flat response Measure of a microphone's ability to hear equally well over its entire frequency range. Is also used as a measure for devices that record and play back a specific frequency range. foldback The return of the total or partial audio mix to the talent through headsets or I.F.B. channels. Also called cuesend. frequency response Measure of the range of frequencies a microphone can hear and reproduce. headset microphone Small but good-quality omni- or unidi­ rectional mic attached to padded earphones; similar to a telephone headset but with a higher-quality mic.

impedance Type of resistance to the signal flow. Important es­ pecially in matching high- or low-impedance microphones with high- or low-impedance recorders. lavaliere microphone A small microphone that can be clipped onto clothing. omnidirectional Pickup pattern in which the microphone can pick up sounds equally well from all directions. phantom power The power for preamplification in a condenser microphone, supplied by the audio console rather than a battery. pickup pattern The territory around the microphone within which the microphone can "hear equally well,"that is, has optimal sound pickup. polar pattern The two-dimensional representation of a micro­ phone pickup pattern. ribbon microphone A microphone whose sound pickup device consists of a ribbon that vibrates with the sound pressures within a magnetic field. Also called velocity mic. shotgun microphone A highly directional microphone for picking up sounds from a relatively great distance. system microphone Microphone consisting of a base upon which several heads can be attached that change its sound pickup characteristic. unidirectional Pickup pattern in which the microphone can pick up sounds better from the front than from the sides or back. wireless microphone A system that transmits audio signals over the air rather than through microphone cables. The mic is attached to a small transmitter, and the signals are received by a small receiver connected to the audio con­ sole or recording device. Also called RF (radio freguency) mic or radio mic.

189

9.1

There are t h r e e major types of s o u n d - c o n v e r t i n g systems, which are used t o classify m i c r o p h o n e s : dynamic,

condenser,

a n d ribbon. Section 9.2 explores h o w t h e v a r i o u s types of m i c r o p h o n e s t r a n s d u c e s o u n d i n t o electrical signals. These are t h e m o s t rugged. Dy­ namic microphones,

How Microphones Hear

also called moving-coil

microphones,

can tolerate r e a s o n a b l y well t h e r o u g h h a n d l i n g t h a t tele­ vision m i c r o p h o n e s frequently ( t h o u g h u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y ) receive. T h e y c a n b e w o r k e d close t o t h e s o u n d s o u r c e a n d still w i t h s t a n d h i g h s o u n d levels w i t h o u t d a m a g e t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e o r excessive input overload ( d i s t o r t i o n of very h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d s ) . T h e y can also w i t h s t a n d fairly e x t r e m e t e m p e r a t u r e s . As y o u c a n p r o b a b l y guess, they are a n ideal o u t d o o r m i c . Condenser microphones mics, condenser

microphones

Compared with dynamic are m u c h m o r e sensitive t o

physical shock, t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e , a n d i n p u t overload, but they usually produce higher-quality s o u n d when used at greater distances from t h e s o u n d source. Unlike d y n a m i c mics, t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c (or, m o r e precisely, t h e T h e pickup of live s o u n d s is d o n e t h r o u g h a variety of m i ­ c r o p h o n e s . H o w g o o d o r b a d a p a r t i c u l a r m i c r o p h o n e is d e p e n d s n o t only o n h o w it is built b u t especially o n h o w it is used. Section 9.1 focuses o n t h e specific m a k e a n d use of m i c r o p h o n e s . P

n e e d s a small b a t t e r y t o p o w e r its built-

t h o u s a n d h o u r s , y o u s h o u l d always keep spares o n h a n d , especially if y o u are u s i n g c o n d e n s e r m i c s for E N G o r EFP. M a n y t i m e s c o n d e n s e r m i c failures can b e traced to a d e a d or w r o n g l y inserted battery, SEES-.I

ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Sound-generating elements (dynamic, condenser, and ribbon), pickup patterns (omnidirectional and unidirectional), polar patterns, pop filter, windscreen, and system microphones

fc-

electret condenser)

in preamplifier. A l t h o u g h these batteries last for a b o u t a

C o n d e n s e r mics c a n also b e p o w e r e d t h r o u g h t h e a p ­ p r o p r i a t e voltage supplied by t h e a u d i o console o r mixer

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Mobile microphones (lavaliere, hand, boom, headset, and wireless) and stationary microphones (desk, stand, hanging, hidden, and long-distance)

ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Choosing the most appropriate microphone, or mic ( p r o n o u n c e d " m i k e " ) , a n d o p e r a t i n g it for o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p requires that y o u k n o w a b o u t t h r e e basic electronic characteristics: (1) s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g e l e m e n t s , (2) p i c k u p p a t t e r n s , a n d (3) m i c r o p h o n e features.

SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS All m i c r o p h o n e s transduce

( c o n v e r t ) s o u n d waves i n t o

electric energy, which is amplified a n d reconverted i n t o s o u n d waves b y t h e loudspeaker. T h e initial conversion is accomplished b y t h e generating element o( t h e m i c r o p h o n e .

190

9.1

POWER SUPPLY BATTERY FOR CONDENSER MICROPHONE

Many condenser microphones are powered by a battery rather than from the console (phantom power); be sure to observe the + and - poles as indicated on the battery housing.

Section

How

9.1

Microphones

191

Hear

t h r o u g h t h e a u d i o cable. T h i s m e t h o d of s u p p l y i n g p o w e r

ter w h e n they c o m e f r o m a specific d i r e c t i o n . T h e t e r r i ­

t o t h e mic's preamplifier is called phantom

t o r y w i t h i n w h i c h a m i c r o p h o n e can h e a r equally well is

power.

called its pickup pattern; Ribbon microphones

Similar i n sensitivity a n d q u a l ­

ity to t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c s , ribbon

microphones

produce

its t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l representa­

t i o n is called t h e polar pattern,

as s h o w n in figures 9.2

t h r o u g h 9.4.

a w a r m e r s o u n d , frequently preferred by singers. Unlike

In television p r o d u c t i o n y o u n e e d t o u s e b o t h o m n i ­

c o n d e n s e r mics, w h i c h y o u m a y use o u t d o o r s u n d e r cer­

directional and unidirectional microphones, depending

t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , r i b b o n mics are strictly for i n d o o r use.

o n w h a t a n d h o w y o u w a n t t o hear. T h e

T h e y are also called velocity

m i c r o p h o n e hears s o u n d s from all (omnis in Latin) direc­

microphones.

BJH^AUDIO^

Microphones-* mic choice | transducer

tions m o r e o r less equally well, SEE 9.2 T h e m i c r o p h o n e h e a r s b e t t e r in o n e {unus

PICKUP PATTERNS

omnidirectional unidirectional

i n Latin) d i r e c ­

t i o n — t h e front of t h e m i c — t h a n from its sides o r back.

W h e r e a s s o m e m i c r o p h o n e s , like o u r ears, h e a r s o u n d s

Because t h e p o l a r p a t t e r n s of u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e s

f r o m all d i r e c t i o n s equally well, o t h e r s h e a r s o u n d s bet­

are r o u g h l y h e a r t - s h a p e d , t h e y a r e called cardioid.

SEE 9.3

9 . 2 OMNIDIRECTIONAL PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS The omnidirectional pickup pattern is like a small rubber ball with the mic in its center. All sounds that originate within its pickup pattern are heard by the mic without marked difference.

9 . 3 CARDIOID PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS The heart-shaped pickup pat­ tern makes the mic hear bet­ ter from the front than from the sides. Sounds to its rear are suppressed.

192

Chapter

9

AUDIO:

SOUND

PICKUP

9.4 HYPERCARDIOID PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS The supercardioid and hypercardioid pickup patterns narrow the sound pickup. They have a long but narrow reach in front and eliminate most sounds coming from the sides. They also hear sounds coming from the back.

T h e supercardioid,

hypercardioid,

and

ultracardioid

MICROPHONE FEATURES

m i c r o p h o n e s have progressively narrower pickup pat­

M i c r o p h o n e s t h a t are held close to the m o u t h have a built-

terns, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t their h e a r i n g is m o r e a n d m o r e

in pop filter, w h i c h eliminates t h e s u d d e n b r e a t h p o p s t h a t

c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e front. T h e i r claim to fame is t h a t they

m i g h t o c c u r w h e n s o m e o n e speaks directly i n t o t h e m i c .

can h e a r s o u n d s from far away a n d m a k e t h e m a p p e a r to

S E E 9.5 W h e n u s e d o u t s i d e , all types of m i c r o p h o n e s are

be relatively close. T h e s e mics also hear s o u n d s t h a t are

susceptible to w i n d , w h i c h they r e p r o d u c e as low r u m b l i n g

in b a c k of t h e m ; b u t b e c a u s e they excel o n h e a r i n g in o n e

noises. To r e d u c e w i n d noise, p u t a windscreen

direction (a n a r r o w p a t h in front), t h e y still b e l o n g to t h e

acoustic f o a m r u b b e r over t h e m i c r o p h o n e . T h e p o p u l a r

u n i d i r e c t i o n a l g r o u p , SEE 9.4

n a m e is zeppelin because it resembles an airship, S E E 9.6 To

W h i c h t y p e y o u use d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n the p r o d u c ­

cut t h e w i n d noise even m o r e , y o u n e e d to pull a

t i o n s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e s o u n d quality r e q u i r e d . If y o u are d o i n g a s t a n d - u p r e p o r t ( s t a n d i n g in front of t h e actual scene) o n c o n d i t i o n s at t h e local zoo, y o u w o u l d w a n t a rugged, o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c t h a t n o t only favors speech b u t also picks u p s o m e of t h e a n i m a l s o u n d s for a u t h e n t i c ­ ity. If, o n the o t h e r h a n d , y o u are v i d e o t a p i n g a singer in the s t u d i o , y o u s h o u l d p r o b a b l y c h o o s e a h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c with a m o r e directional cardioid p i c k u p p a t t e r n . To record an i n t i m a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o s o a p o p e r a c h a r a c ­ ters, a h y p e r c a r d i o i d s h o t g u n m i c is p r o b a b l y y o u r best bet. Unlike t h e o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c , t h e s h o t g u n m i c can pick u p their conversation from relatively far away w i t h o u t losing s o u n d presence (the closeness of t h e s o u n d ) , while i g n o r i n g to a large extent m a n y of t h e o t h e r s t u d i o noises, such as p e o p l e a n d c a m e r a s m o v i n g a b o u t , t h e h u m m i n g of lights, o r t h e r u m b l e of air c o n d i t i o n i n g . A table of t h e m o s t c o m m o n m i c r o p h o n e s a n d their characteristics is i n c l u d e d in section 9.2 (see figure 9.34). i-4 i»-»AUDlO->

9 . 5 POP FILTER

Microphones-* pickup patterns

The built-in pop filter eliminates breath pops.

T

m a d e of

windsock,

Section

How

9.7

Microphones

Hear

193

T h e s t a t i o n a r y m i c r o p h o n e s i n c l u d e (1) desk, (2) stand, (3) h a n g i n g , (4) h i d d e n , a n d (5) l o n g - d i s t a n c e mics.

LAVALIERE M I C R O P H O N E S T h e first of t h e m o b i l e t y p e , t h e lavaliere

microphone,

usually referred t o as a lav, is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t frequently used o n - c a m e r a m i c r o p h o n e in television. T h e h i g h - q u a l ­ ity lavalieres, w h i c h range in size from a small p u s h b u t t o n o n y o u r h o m e t e l e p h o n e t o t h e eraser section o n t h e back of y o u r pencil, c a n b e fastened to clothing w i t h a small clip. Because of their size, t h e y are u n o b t r u s i v e a n d l o o k m o r e like jewelry t h a n a technical device, SEE 9.7 Lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e s are o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l or u n i d i ­ rectional, w i t h a d y n a m i c or c o n d e n s e r s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g element. T h e y are designed p r i m a r i l y for voice pickup. T h e

9 . 6 WINDSCREEN

quality of even t h e smallest o n e is amazingly high. O n c e the

The windscreen, normally made of acoustic foam rubber, covers the whole microphone to reduce the low rumble of wind noise.

lav is p r o p e r l y a t t a c h e d to t h e p e r f o r m e r ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 to 8 inches b e l o w t h e chin, o n t o p of t h e clothes, a n d away from a n y t h i n g t h a t could r u b or b a n g against it), t h e s o u n d p i c k u p is n o longer a worry. T h e a u d i o engi­ neer also h a s less difficulty riding the gain (adjusting the

or wind jammer,

over the w i n d s c r e e n . T h e w i n d j a m m e r is

v o l u m e ) of t h e lavaliere t h a n the b o o m m i c or h a n d m i c .

m a d e from synthetic m a t e r i a l a n d resembles m o r e a m o p

Because t h e distance b e t w e e n the m i c a n d t h e s o u n d source

t h a n a sophisticated a u d i o device (see figure 9.15). W h a t ­

does n o t c h a n g e d u r i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e , an even s o u n d

ever y o u use, b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e r u m b l e of w i n d noise

level c a n b e achieved m o r e easily t h a n w i t h o t h e r m o b i l e

c a n n o t be eliminated totally. T h e only way t o have n o w i n d

microphones.

n o i s e o n t h e v i d e o t a p e is t o s h o o t w h e n t h e r e is n o w i n d .

T h e use of lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e s frees the lighting

You can, however, use certain filters in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n that

p e o p l e from "lighting a r o u n d the b o o m " to avoid shadows.

can r e d u c e or eliminate s o m e w i n d noise.

T h e y can c o n c e n t r a t e m o r e o n t h e aesthetic subtleties of

To r e d u c e t h e n e e d for m i c r o p h o n e s w i t h v a r i o u s p i c k u p p a t t e r n s , y o u can use a system microphone,

lighting as r e q u i r e d b y t h e scene.

which

A l t h o u g h t h e a c t i o n r a d i u s of p e r f o r m e r s is still

c o n s i s t s of a b a s e u p o n w h i c h several " h e a d s " c a n b e

limited b y t h e lavaliere cable, t h e cable is flexible e n o u g h

attached. These heads change the pickup pattern from

t h a t t h e y can m o v e quickly a n d relatively u n r e s t r i c t e d in a

o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l to h y p e r c a r d i o i d . As c o n v e n i e n t as this

limited s t u d i o area. For greater m o b i l i t y y o u can p l u g t h e

m a y be, y o u will find t h a t m o s t a u d i o engineers favor t h e

lavaliere i n t o a small t r a n s m i t t e r , w h i c h y o u can clip o n a

i n d i v i d u a l mics built for specific applications.

OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES S o m e m i c r o p h o n e s are designed a n d used p r i m a r i l y for s o u n d sources t h a t are m o v i n g , w h e r e a s o t h e r s are used m o r e for s t a t i o n a r y s o u n d s o u r c e s . W h e n g r o u p e d ac­ c o r d i n g to their actual o p e r a t i o n , t h e r e are mobile stationary

and

m i c r o p h o n e s (see figure 9.34). Of course, a n y of

t h e m o b i l e m i c s c a n b e u s e d in a s t a t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e s t a t i o n a r y m i c s can b e m o v e d a b o u t if t h e p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n so requires. T h e m o b i l e m i c r o p h o n e s i n c l u d e (1) l a v a l i e r e , (2) h a n d , (3) b o o m , (4) headset, a n d (5) wireless mics.

9.7

LAVALIERE MICROPHONE

This lavaliere mic is properly attached for optimal sound pickup.

194

Chapter

AUDIO:

9

belt or put in a coat pocket, and use it as a wireless mic (see figure 9.23). Despite their small size a n d high-quality s o u n d pickup characteristics, lavs are durable a n d relatively i m m u n e to physical shock. Because t h e y are so small a n d lightweight, s o m e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e u n f o r t u n a t e l y take m u c h less care w h e n h a n d l i n g a lav t h a n w i t h other, larger mics. If y o u h a p p e n to d r o p a lavaliere, o r any o t h e r m i c , check it i m m e d i a t e l y to see if it is still o p e r a t i o n a l . When to use lavaliere microphones H e r e are s o m e typical p r o d u c t i o n s t h a t use lavs as t h e p r i m a r y m i c r o ­ phone: N e w s T h e lavaliere is t h e m o s t efficacious s o u n d p i c k u p device for all types of i n d o o r news shows a n d interviews. You c a n also use it o u t d o o r s w i t h a small w i n d s c r e e n at­ tached for ENG/EFP. I n t e r v i e w s So long as t h e interview takes place in o n e location, t h e w e a r i n g of lavaliere mics b y t h e interviewer a n d each guest ensures g o o d , consistent voice p i c k u p . Panel s h o w s R a t h e r t h a n use desk m i c s , w h i c h are a p t to pick u p t h e u n a v o i d a b l e b a n g i n g o n t h e table, y o u can achieve good a u d i o with individual lavalieres. But n o t e that each panel m e m b e r n e e d s his o r h e r o w n lavaliere m i c . Instructional s h o w s I n shows with a principal p e r f o r m e r o r television teacher, t h e lavaliere is ideal. T h e s o u n d p i c k u p is the s a m e w h e t h e r t h e i n s t r u c t o r speaks to t h e class o r t u r n s t o t h e blackboard. D r a m a s S o m e m u l t i c a m e r a studio p r o d u c t i o n s , such as soap operas, u s e wireless lavalieres for a u d i o p i c k u p . I n such p r o d u c t i o n s t h e lavs are h i d d e n from c a m e r a view. If properly attached to t h e talent's clothing so that t h e voices do n o t s o u n d muffled, a lavaliere m i c seems t h e ideal solu­ tion to a traditionally difficult s o u n d pickup p r o b l e m . Once the levels are set, t h e a u d i o engineer n e e d d o very little to keep t h e voices balanced. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e lighting director (LD) can design t h e lighting w i t h o u t w o r r y i n g a b o u t b o o m o r c a m e r a shadows. T h e m a i n p r o b l e m w i t h using lavs for d r a m a is n o t o p ­ erational b u t aesthetic. Because the lavaliere m i c is always at the s a m e distance from its s o u n d source, long shots s o u n d exactly t h e s a m e as close-ups. T h e u n c h a n g i n g presence does n o t c o n t r i b u t e to a credible sound perspective (closeups s o u n d closer a n d l o n g shots s o u n d farther away). T h i s is w h y m o s t p r o d u c t i o n s of television d r a m a s use a b o o m m i c r a t h e r t h a n a lavaliere (see c h a p t e r 10). Wireless m i c s are discussed in m o r e detail later in this chapter.

SOUND

PICKUP

Music The lavaliere m i c h a s b e e n successfully used for singers (even w h e n a c c o m p a n y i n g themselves o n guitar) a n d for t h e p i c k u p of certain i n s t r u m e n t s , such as a string bass, w i t h t h e m i c t a p e d b e l o w t h e fingerboard. I n t h e realm of m u s i c , there is always r o o m for e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n ; d o n o t b e too limited by convention. If the lavaliere s o u n d s as g o o d as or better t h a n a larger, m o r e expensive m i c , stick to t h e lavaliere.

ENQk. ENG/EFP

T h e lav is often used for field r e p o r t s , i n E F P " w h i c h case y o u n e e d to attach the little w i n d s c r e e n . Wireless lavs are used w h e n t h e field r e p o r t e r needs a great deal of mobility. For example, if y o u talk w i t h a farmer a b o u t t h e d r o u g h t while walking with h i m in t h e p a r c h e d field, two wireless lavs will solve t h e a u d i o p r o b l e m . W i r e ­ less lavs can also save y o u m a n y headaches w h e n picking u p the principal's c o m m e n t s while c o n d u c t i n g a t o u r t h r o u g h t h e newly c o m p l e t e d c o m p u t e r lab. i

Disadvantages of lavaliere mics disadvantages to t h e lavaliere:

T h e r e are also s o m e

T h e w e a r e r c a n n o t m o v e t h e m i c a n y closer to his m o u t h ; consequently, if there is extraneous noise, it is easily picked u p by a n o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mic, a l t h o u g h a u n i d i r e c ­ tional lavaliere will usually take care of this p r o b l e m . T h e lavaliere can b e used for only o n e s o u n d source at a t i m e — t h a t of t h e wearer. Even for a simple interview, each p a r t i c i p a n t m u s t wear his or h e r o w n m i c . A l t h o u g h t h e lavaliere m i c allows considerable m o ­ bility, a wired lavaliere can limit t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s action radius. Because it is attached to clothing, t h e lavaliere t e n d s to pick u p occasional r u b b i n g noises, especially if the per­ former moves a r o u n d a great deal. This noise is emphasized w h e n the m i c r o p h o n e is concealed u n d e r n e a t h a blouse o r jacket. If t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s clothes generate static electricity, the discharge m a y be picked u p by t h e m i c as l o u d , s h a r p pops. If t w o lavalieres are at a certain distance from each other, they m a y cancel o u t s o m e frequencies a n d m a k e t h e voices s o u n d strangely "thin" (see figure 9.28).

How to use lavaliere microphones Lavalieres are easy to use, b u t t h e r e are s o m e p o i n t s y o u n e e d to consider:

Section

9.1

Be sure to p u t it on. You w o u l d n o t b e t h e first per­ f o r m e r t o be discovered sitting o n , rather t h a n wearing, the microphone by airtime. To p u t o n the m i c r o p h o n e , b r i n g it u p u n d e r n e a t h t h e b l o u s e o r jacket a n d t h e n attach it o n t h e o u t s i d e . Clip it firmly to t h e clothing so t h a t it does n o t r u b against any­ t h i n g . D o n o t w e a r jewelry in p r o x i m i t y to t h e m i c . If y o u get r u b b i n g noises, p u t a piece of foam r u b b e r b e t w e e n the m i c a n d t h e clothing. T h r e a d t h e m i c cable u n d e r n e a t h t h e c l o t h i n g a n d secure t h e cable so t h a t it c a n n o t pull t h e m i c r o p h o n e sideways. L o o p the cable or even m a k e a loose k n o t in it just below t h e clip to block s o m e u n w a n t e d p o p s a n d r u b b i n g noises. If y o u e n c o u n t e r electrostatic p o p s , t r y to treat t h e clothes w i t h antistatic l a u n d r y spray, available at super­ markets. If y o u m u s t conceal t h e mic, d o n o t b u r y it u n d e r layers of clothing; keep it as close to t h e surface as possible. If y o u use t h e dual-redundancy m i c r o p h o n e system ( w h i c h uses t w o i d e n t i c a l m i c r o p h o n e s for t h e s o u n d p i c k u p in case o n e fails), fasten b o t h mics securely a n d use a clip designed to h o l d t w o lavalieres so t h a t t h e y d o n o t t o u c h each other. Avoid hitting the m i c r o p h o n e w i t h any object y o u m a y be demonstrating on-camera. If t h e lavaliere is a wireless a n d / o r c o n d e n s e r m i c , check t h a t t h e b a t t e r y is in g o o d c o n d i t i o n a n d installed correctly. D o u b l e - c h e c k that t h e t r a n s m i t t e r is t u r n e d o n (there are n o r m a l l y two s w i t c h e s — o n e for p o w e r a n d o n e for t h e m i c ) a n d t h a t it is t u r n e d off w h e n leaving t h e set. If y o u r lavaliere was u s e d as a wireless m i c , d o n ' t walk off w i t h t h e m i c still clipped to y o u r clothing. T u r n off t h e transmitter, take off the m i c r o p h o n e , a n d remove t h e cable from u n d e r t h e clothing before leaving the set. P u t t h e m i c d o w n gently. E N G v W h e n using a lavaliere o u t d o o r s , attach t h e w i n d E F P screen. You can also m a k e a w i n d s c r e e n by t a p i n g a small piece of acoustic foam or cheesecloth over t h e m i c . Experienced EFP people claim t h a t b y w r a p p i n g t h e m i c in cheesecloth a n d covering it with t h e tip of a child's w o o l e n glove, t h e w i n d noise is virtually e l i m i n a t e d .
Microphones-* mic types | placement

Try t o keep t h e m i c in front of t h e s o u n d s o u r c e a n d as low as possible w i t h o u t getting it in the p i c t u r e . D o n o t

HEADSET MICROPHONES

ride the m i c directly above the talent's h e a d — t h e p e r f o r m e r

E N G w T h e headset microphone

speaks from t h e m o u t h , n o t t h e t o p of t h e h e a d . W a t c h t h e s t u d i o line m o n i t o r (which shows t h e p i c ­

consists of a small b u t good-

EFP q u a l i t y o m n i - or u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c a t t a c h e d t o e a r p h o n e s . O n e of t h e e a r p h o n e s carries t h e p r o g r a m

t u r e t h a t goes o n t h e air o r is v i d e o t a p e d ) . Try to ascertain

s o u n d (whatever s o u n d s t h e h e a d s e t m i c picks u p o r is fed

d u r i n g rehearsal h o w far y o u can dip t h e m i c t o w a r d the

from t h e s t a t i o n ) , a n d t h e o t h e r carries t h e I.F.B. (inter-

s o u n d source w i t h o u t getting it o r t h e b o o m in t h e p i c ­

r u p t i b l e foldback or feedback) cues a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s of

t u r e . T h e closer t h e m i c , t h e b e t t e r t h e s o u n d . (In b o o m

t h e d i r e c t o r or p r o d u c e r . H e a d s e t mics are used in certain

m i c o p e r a t i o n , y o u can never get close e n o u g h to violate

EFP situations, s u c h as s p o r t s r e p o r t i n g , or in E N G from

t h e m i n i m u m distance r e q u i r e d of cardioid mics to avoid

a helicopter or c o n v e n t i o n floor. T h e h e a d s e t m i c isolates

b r e a t h p o p s or similar s o u n d distortions.)

y o u sufficiently from t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d so t h a t y o u can

T h e o p t i m u m distance for b o o m m i c s is w h e n t h e

c o n c e n t r a t e o n y o u r specific r e p o r t i n g j o b in the m i d s t of

talent c a n almost t o u c h t h e m i c b y reaching u p at a b o u t a

m u c h noise a n d c o m m o t i o n while at the s a m e time keeping

4 5 - d e g r e e angle.

y o u r h a n d s free t o shuffle p a p e r s w i t h players' statistics or b u t t o n h o l e s o m e o n e for a n interview, SEE 9.21 overview T h e p r o b l e m with u n b a l a n c e d (two-wire) mics a n d lines is t h a t t h e y are m u c h m o r e susceptible t o h u m a n d

Section

9.34

How

9.2

Microphones

Work

TABLE OF MICROPHONES ELEMENT TYPE

MICROPHONE SHOTGUN

PICKUP PATTERN —

MIC

USE

Excellent reach and presence, there­

B o o m , fishpole, handheld. Best for

LONG

Condenser

Sennheiser MKH 70

CHARACTERISTICS

Supercardioid

fore excellent distance mic. Extremely

EFP and sports remotes to capture

directional. Quite heavy w h e n held

sounds over considerable distances.

on extended fishpole.

SHOTGUN

MICS

—

SHORT

Good reach and wider pickup pattern

Condenser

Sennheiser MKH 60

Supercardioid

B o o m , fishpole, handheld.

than long shotguns. Less presence

Especially good for

over long distances but requires less

EFP indoor use.

precise aiming at sound source. Lighter and easier to handle than long shotgun mics.

Condenser

Neumann KMR81i

Slightly less reach than the M K H 60

B o o m , fishpole, handheld.

but has w a r m e r sound.

Especially good for EFP. Excellent dialogue mic.

Supercardioid

Sony ECM 672

Condenser Supercardioid

HAND,

DESK,

Electro-Voice 635N/D

AND

STAND

Dynamic Omnidirectional

Highly focused but

B o o m , fishpole, handheld.

slightly less presence

Especially good for

t h a n long shotguns.

EFP indoor use.

MICS

An improved version of the classic

Excellent mic (and therefore

635 A. Has good voice pickup that

standard) for all-weather ENG

seems to know h o w to differentiate

and EFP reporting assignments.

b e t w e e n voice and ambience. Extremely rugged. Can tolerate rough handling and extreme outdoor conditions.

2

212

9.34

Chapter

9

AUDIO:

SOUND

PICKUP

TABLE OF MICROPHONES (continued) ELEMENT TYPE

MICROPHONE HAND,

PICKUP PATTERN DESK,

Electro-Voice RE50

Beyerdynamic M58

ShureSM57

AND

STAND

MICS

CHARACTERISTICS (continued)

S i m i l a r t o t h e E-V 635N/D.

Good, reliable desk and stand mic.

Rugged. Internal shock mount

Good for music pickup, such as

Omnidirectional

and blast filter.

vocals, guitar, and drums.

Dynamic

S m o o t h frequency response,

Good E N G / E F P mic.

Dynamic

bright sound. Rugged. Internal

Especially designed as

Omnidirectional

shock mount. Low handling noise.

an easy-to-use hand mic.

Dynamic

Good-quality frequency response.

Good for music, vocals, electric

Can stand fairly high input volume.

guitars, keyboard instruments, and even drums.

Cardioid

Shure SM58

USE

Dynamic

Rugged. Good for indoors and

Standard for vocals and speech.

outdoors. Cardioid

Shure SM81

Dynamic

W i d e frequency response.

Excellent for miking acoustic

Also good for outdoors.

instruments.

Sensitive mic with excellent frequency

Especially good for all sorts of music

response. Can tolerate fairly high

pickup, such as strings, brass, and

input volume.

piano. Also works well as a stand

Cardioid

Beyerdynamic M160

Double ribbon Hypercardioid

mic for voice pickup.

Beyerdynamic M500

Dynamic

Classic ribbon mic.

Good vocal mic. Very good for a variety of music and voice

Hypercardioid

recordings. W a r m sound.

Section

9.2

How

9 . 3 4 TABLE OF MICROPHONES

Microphones

Work

(continued)

ELEMENTTYPE

MICROPHONE HAND,

DESK,

PICKUP PATTERN AND

AKGD112

STAND

Dynamic Cardioid

LAVALIERE

SonyECM55

MICS

CHARACTERISTICS

USE

( c o n t i n u e d )

Rugged. Specially

For close miking

built for high-energy

of kick drum.

percussive sound.

MICS

Condenser Omnidirectional

Excellent presence. Produces close-up

Excellent for voice pickup in a

sounds. But, because of this excellent

controlled environment (studio

presence, does not mix well w i t h boom

interviews, studio n e w s ,

mics, which are normally farther a w a y

and presentations).

from the sound source.

SennheiserMKE 102

Condenser Omnidirectional

Mixes well w i t h boom mics.

Excellent for most lavaliere uses.

Excellent, smooth overall sound pickup.

Works well as a concealed mic.

Very sensitive to clothes noise and even rubbing of cable, however. Must be securely fastened to avoid rubbing noises.

Sony ECM 77

Condenser Omnidirectional

Highly directional. Isolates most

Excellent pickup of all sounds.

ambient noise w h e n used for speech

Good for concealed mic use

pickup in noisy surroundings. High

and even for the pickup of some

directionality can be a problem w h e n

musical instruments.

mic shifts from original point. Blends well w i t h boom mic. Mic and cable are sensitive to rubbing on clothes. Must be securely fastened.

Professional Sound

Condenser

PSCMilliMic Omnidirectional

Extremely small yet has excellent

Excellent as a concealed mic for

pickup quality. Blends well w i t h boom

interviews, dramas, and d o c u m e n ­

mics. Well shielded against electro­

taries. Works well outdoors.

magnetic interference.

213

214

Chapter

9

AUDIO:

SOUND

PICKUP

9 . 3 5 AUDIO CONNECTORS Balanced audio cables use XLR connectors (A and B); unbalanced cables use the phone plug (C), the RCA phono plug (D), and the mini plug (E).

A

B

C

D

E

o t h e r electronic noise t h a n are b a l a n c e d mics a n d lines.

such as d r u m s , electric guitar speakers, a n d s o m e singers,

W i t h a d a p t e r s y o u c a n c o n n e c t a n XLR to t h e u n b a l ­

whereas r i b b o n or c o n d e n s e r m i c s are used for such s o u n d

a n c e d c o n n e c t o r s a n d vice versa. N o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t

sources as singers, strings, a n d acoustic guitars. A l t h o u g h

every a d a p t e r is a p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e spot. If at all possible,

m a n y factors influence t h e type of m i c r o p h o n e used a n d its

t r y to find a m i c cable w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n n e c t o r

p l a c e m e n t , the figures in this section give s o m e idea of h o w

already attached.

t h r e e different yet typical m u s i c a l events m a y b e m i k e d . Again, t h e final c r i t e r i o n is n o t w h a t e v e r y b o d y tells y o u b u t w h e t h e r t h e playback l o u d s p e a k e r s reflect t h e s o u n d s

MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP

y o u have in m i n d . T h e following suggestions of h o w to m i k e m u s i c a l events s h o u l d be taken with a grain of salt. A n y t w o a u d i o experts milked a n d w h a t mics t o use. Nevertheless, t h e suggested

M I C R O P H O N E SETUP FOR SINGER A N D ACOUSTIC GUITAR

setups will h e l p y o u get started.

For a singer a c c o m p a n y i n g himself or herself o n a n acoustic

w o u l d rarely agree o n just h o w a m u s i c a l event s h o u l d b e

T h e s o u n d p i c k u p of a n i n s t r u m e n t a l g r o u p , such as

guitar, y o u m a y t r y to a t t a c h t w o m i c r o p h o n e s o n a single

a r o c k b a n d , is n o r m a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h several s t a n d

m i c s t a n d , s u c h as a B e y e r d y n a m i c M 1 6 0 for t h e singer,

mics. T h e s e are placed i n front of each speaker t h a t emits

p o i n t i n g just b e l o w t h e m o u t h , a n d a n o t h e r p o i n t i n g at

t h e amplified s o u n d of a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t as well as

t h e guitar, SEE 9.36 Of course, y o u can also use t w o stands,

in front of u n a m p l i f i e d s o u n d sources, s u c h as singers a n d

b u t t h e y usually get in t h e way of g o o d shots.

d r u m s . T h e m i c to use d e p e n d s o n such factors as s t u d i o acoustics, the t y p e a n d c o m b i n a t i o n of i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d t h e aesthetic quality of t h e desired s o u n d .

3

Generally, t h e r u g g e d d y n a m i c , o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l , or c a r d i o i d mics are used for h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d sources,

MICROPHONE SETUP FOR S I N G E R A N D P I A N O If t h e c o n c e r t is formal, w i t h t h e vocalist singing classical songs, y o u s h o u l d k e e p t h e m i c s o u t of t h e pictures. You m a y w a n t to t r y a B e y e r d y n a m i c M l 6 0 m i c s u s p e n d e d

3.

See Alten, Audio in Media, p p . 3 1 6 - 2 1 .

from a small giraffe b o o m . For t h e p i a n o t a p e a b o u n d a r y

Section

9.2

How

Microphones

2 1 5

Work

9 . 3 6 MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SINGER AND ACOUSTIC GUITAR

9.37

The mic setup for a singer with an acoustic guitar is to have one mic for the voice and another lower on the same mic stand for the guitar.

If the singer's mic is to be out of camera view, it should be suspended from a boom. The piano is miked separately. For an on-camera mic, the singer can use a hand mic.

MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SINGER AND PIANO

m i c o n t h e lid in the l o w - p e g p o s i t i o n o r directly o n t h e

low i m p e d a n c e , y o u n e e d to m a t c h i m p e d a n c e s t h r o u g h the

s o u n d b o a r d , SEE 9.37 A n o t h e r way of m i k i n g a p i a n o is

direct box, unless t h e i n p u t e q u i p m e n t d o e s it for y o u .

t o have o n e S h u r e S M 8 1 m i c p o i n t i n g at t h e lower half

W h e n setting up mics and speakers, watch

of t h e strings a n d a n o t h e r at t h e u p p e r half. G o o d results

m u l t i p l e feedback o r m i c r o p h o n e interference. For t h e

have also b e e n achieved by p u t t i n g t h e m i c u n d e r n e a t h t h e

b a n d m e m b e r s t o h e a r themselves, y o u m u s t s u p p l y t h e

p i a n o close to t h e s o u n d b o a r d a n d a b o u t a foot b e h i n d

foldback s o u n d m i x t h r o u g h either e a r p h o n e s or speak­

t h e pedals.

ers. Foldback,

If t h e recital consists of p o p u l a r songs, such as light classics o r rock, a h a n d m i c , such as a Beyerdynamic M 5 0 0

also called cue-send,

for

is t h e r e t u r n of t h e

total or partial a u d i o m i x from t h e m i x i n g console t o t h e m u s i c i a n s , SEE 9.38

o r a S h u r e S M 5 8 , m a y b e t h e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e choice for t h e singer. T h e m i k i n g of t h e p i a n o does n o t c h a n g e .

MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP E N G K T h e s o u n d p i c k u p r e q u i r e m e n t s in E N G / E F P d o n o t

M I C R O P H O N E S E T U P FOR S M A L L R O C K GROUP A N D DIRECT INSERTION

EFP

W h e n setting u p for a r o c k g r o u p , y o u n e e d m i c r o p h o n e s

s o u n d . You will find, however, t h a t s o u n d p i c k u p in t h e

for the singers, d r u m s , a n d o t h e r direct s o u n d - e m i t t i n g

field is m u c h m o r e challenging t h a n in t h e studio. W h e n

i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as s a x o p h o n e s a n d p i a n o s , as well as for

o u t d o o r s t h e r e is t h e ever-present p r o b l e m of w i n d noise

differ significantly from t h o s e in studio o p e r a t i o n . In

t h e field as in the studio, y o u r u l t i m a t e objective is o p t i m a l

t h e speakers that c a r r y t h e s o u n d of amplified i n s t r u m e n t s ,

a n d o t h e r u n w a n t e d s o u n d s , s u c h as airplanes o r t r u c k s

such as electric guitars a n d keyboards. T h e s o u n d signals of

passing b y d u r i n g a critical scene. T h e best way to c o m b a t

electric i n s t r u m e n t s , such as t h e bass, are often fed directly

w i n d noise is to use a highly directional m i c , cover it with

t o t h e m i x i n g console w i t h o u t t h e use of a speaker a n d a

a n effective w i n d s c r e e n a n d w i n d j a m m e r , a n d h o l d it as

m i c r o p h o n e . T h i s t e c h n i q u e is called direct insertion

or

close to t h e s o u n d source as possible. But c o n t r a r y t o m o s t

Because m o s t electric i n s t r u m e n t s are high

s t u d i o s h o w s , a m b i e n t ( e n v i r o n m e n t a l ) s o u n d s are often

i m p e d a n c e a n d all o t h e r professional s o u n d e q u i p m e n t is

n e e d e d to s u p p o r t t h e video. W i e n i n d o o r s you n e e d to

direct input.

216

9.38

Chapter

9

AUDIO:

SOUND

PICKUP

MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SMALL ROCK BAND

The types and the placement of microphones in this illustration are merely a suggestion for how you may start with the mic setup. The final criterion for a successful setup is when the sounds coming out of the control room speakers are satisfactory.

"silence" of an e m p t y r o o m w i t h o u t

If y o u have only o n e m i c r o p h o n e , w h i c h y o u m u s t use

speaker or a u d i e n c e a n d the a m b i e n t s o u n d s of t h e r o o m

for voice p i c k u p , r e c o r d t h e a m b i e n t s o u n d s o n a small,

w i t h the a u d i e n c e p r e s e n t b u t w i t h o u t t h e speaker's voice.

p o r t a b l e a u d i o c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r o r o n v i d e o t a p e after

These a m b i e n t s o u n d s are essential for m a s k i n g the v a r i o u s

finishing

cuts in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .

s o m e a u t h e n t i c s o u n d s w i t h w h i c h t o b r i d g e t h e edits.

record room tone—the

t h e voice w o r k . Again, the editor will appreciate

W h e n o n an E N G a s s i g n m e n t , always have a m i c r o ­

You m a y find t h a t a seemingly simple a u d i o p i c k u p ,

p h o n e o p e n to r e c o r d a m b i e n t s o u n d s , even w h e n s h o o t ­

s u c h as a speech in a large conference r o o m , can p o s e a

ing "silent" footage. In fact, w h e n u s i n g a h a n d m i c for a

f o r m i d a b l e a u d i o p r o b l e m especially if y o u c a n n o t get

s t a n d - u p r e p o r t (with t h e r e p o r t e r telling a b o u t a n e w s

close e n o u g h in t h e c r o w d e d a n d noisy r o o m for a clean

event while s t a n d i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n ) , y o u s h o u l d

voice p i c k u p . In this case it m a y b e easier t o ask t h e e n ­

also t u r n o n t h e c a m e r a m i c ( t h e s h o t g u n m i c , w h i c h

gineer in charge (usually t h e audiovisual m a n a g e r of the

is built into, or clipped to, t h e c a m e r a ) for t h e a m b i e n t

h o t e l or conference r o o m ) t o assist y o u w i t h a

s o u n d s . Feed each of t h e t w o m i c s i n t o a separate V T R

tie-in. In s u c h a setup, y o u d o n o t n e e d a m i c r o p h o n e to

a u d i o track. As w i t h r o o m t o n e , s u c h a m b i e n t s o u n d s are

pick u p t h e speaker's s o u n d b u t s i m p l y a direct feed from

essential for s o u n d c o n t i n u i t y in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing.

t h e audio control b o a r d of t h e i n - h o u s e audio system to the

T h e split tracks allow t h e v i d e o e d i t o r to c o n t r o l t h e m i x

a u d i o i n p u t of y o u r camcorder. In effect, y o u "tie in" to the

b e t w e e n t h e r e p o r t e r ' s voice a n d the a m b i e n t s o u n d s .

audio feed from the audio system of t h e conference r o o m . 4

line-out

Section

9.2

How

Microphones

217

Work

lower sounds without distortion—called a flat response— than can low-quality mics. •

All microphones have a diaphragm, which vibrates with sound pressure, and a generating element, which transduces the physical vibrations of the diaphragm into electric energy.

•

In the dynamic, or moving coil, mic, the diaphragm is at­ tached to the voice coil. The air pressure moves the voice coil back and forth within a magnetic field. This type of generating element is quite rugged.

•

The condenser, or electret, mic has a condenser-like generating element. The movable diaphragm constitutes one of the two condenser plates; a fixed backplate is the other. The varying air pressure of the incoming sounds moves the diaphragm plate against the fixed backplate, thus continuously changing the capacitance of the condenser and modulating the current of the audio signal. Condenser mics have a wide frequency response.

•

In the ribbon, or velocity, mic, a thin metal ribbon vibrates within a magnetic field. Because the ribbon is fragile, the mics are generally used indoors under controlled conditions.

•

Impedance, usually expressed as high-Z or low-Z, is a type of resistance to the signal flow. The impedances of mics and electric instruments must be matched with that of the other electronic audio equipment. When using the direct-insertion (direct-input) method, whereby the output of electric instruments is patched directly into the mixing console, the high-Z instruments must first be routed through a direct box, which changes the signal to a low-Z impedance. Most modern equipment will match impedances automatically.

•

High-quality microphones pick up sounds equally well over a wide frequency range. They can better hear higher and

•

Microphones can be balanced or unbalanced. Most profes­ sional mics have a balanced output. Balanced microphone cables have two wires for the audio signal and a third wire as a ground shield. The balanced audio cable prevents external signals from causing a hum in the audio track. Un­ balanced cables have only a single wire for the audio signal and a second wire as a ground. They cannot be as long as unbalanced cables and are more vulnerable to signal interference.

•

All professional microphones and audio equipment use the three-pronged XLR connectors for balanced cables. Unbal­ anced connectors include the phone plug, the RCA phono plug, and the mini plug.

•

Foldback is the return of the total or partial audio mix from the mixing console to the musicians.

For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. B S D

A U D I O ^ Microphones-* mic choice | transducer

EJffi^ E2H>

AUDIO-* Microphones-* pickup patterns A U D I O ^ Microphones-* mic types | placement

EEDE^

191

201

AUDIO-* Connectors^ overview

210

192

Audio: Sound Control T h e previous chapter dealt mostly w i t h sound pickup—the t y p e s of microphones and their uses. This chapter explores the e q u i p m e n t and t h e techniques of controlling sound a n d sound recording in television studio a n d field production. Section 10.1, S o u n d Controls a n d Recording for Studio a n d Field Operations, identifies the major e q u i p m e n t a n d production techniques for mixing a n d recording sound in the studio and t h e field. Section 10.2, Postproduction a n d S o u n d Aesthetics, familiarizes you w i t h basic informa­ tion on analog a n d digital audio postproduction e q u i p m e n t a n d their primary uses. It also highlights the principal aesthetic factors of sound.

You should realize that audio production is a highly specialized field in its o w n right a n d that that this chapter is limited to the major equipment, t h e basic production tech­ niques, a n d s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l aesthetic considerations. Even if you don't intend to b e ­ c o m e a sound designer, y o u n e e d to know w h a t g o o d audio is all about. W h a t e v e r you do, the most important prerequisite to successful audio for television is, a n d will always be, a g o o d pair of ears. E J H ^ A U D I O Audio introduction

218

ambience Background sounds. audio control booth Houses the audio, or mixing, console; ana­ log and digital playback machines; a turntable; a patchbay; computer(s); speakers; intercom systems; a clock; and a line monitor.

figure/ground Emphasizing the most important sound source over the general background sounds. flash memory device A small read/write portable storage device that can download, store, and upload very fast (in a flash) a fairly large amount (1 gigabyte or more) of digital information. Also called flash drive, stick flash, flash stick, or

audio postproduction room For postproduction activities such as sweetening; composing music tracks; adding mu­ sic, sound effects, or laugh tracks; and assembling music bridges and announcements.

mini disc (MD) Optical 2V2-inch-wide disc that can store one hour of CD-quality audio.

automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) The synchronization of speech with the lip movements of the speaker in postproduction. Not really automatic.

mixing Combining two or more sounds in specific proportions (volume variations) as determined by the event (show) context.

automatic gain control (AGC) Regulates the volume of the audio or video level automatically, without using manual controls.

mix-minus Type of multiple audio feed missing the part that is being recorded, such as an orchestra feed with the solo instrument being recorded. Also refers to program sound feed without the portion supplied by the source that is receiving the feed.

calibrate To make all VU meters (usually of the audio console and the record VTR) respond in the same way to a specific audio signal. cassette A video- or audiotape recording or playback device that uses tape cassettes. A cassette is a plastic case contain­ ing two reels—a supply reel and a takeup reel. compact disc (CD) A small, shiny disc that contains information (usually sound signals) in digital form. A CD player reads the encoded digital information using a laser beam. digital audiotape (DAT) The sound signals are encoded on audiotape in digital form. Includes digital recorders as well as digital recording processes. digital cart system A digital audio system that uses built-in hard drives, removable high-capacity disks, or read/write optical discs to store and access almost instantaneously a great amount of audio information. It is normally used for the playback of brief announcements and music bridges. digital versatile disc (DVD) The standard DVD is a read-only, high-capacity (4.7 gigabytes or more) storage device of digital audio and video information. Also called digital videodisc.

flash memory

card.

M P 3 A widely used compression system for digital audio. Most Internet-distributed audio is compressed in the MP3 format. musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) A standardized protocol that allows the connection and interaction of vari­ ous digital audio equipment and computers. peak program meter (PPM) Meter in audio console that measures loudness. Especially sensitive to volume peaks, it indicates overmodulation. sound perspective Distant sound must go with a long shot, close sound with a close-up. surround sound Sound that produces a soundfield in front of, to the sides of, and behind the listener by positioning loud­ speakers either to the front and rear or to the front, sides, and rear of the listener. sweetening Variety of quality adjustments of recorded sound in postproduction. volume unit (VU) meter Measures volume units, the relative loudness of amplified sound.

equalization Controlling the quality of sound by emphasizing certain frequencies while de-emphasizing others.

219

10.1

AUDIO CONSOLE Regardless of i n d i v i d u a l d e s i g n s — a n a l o g or digital—all audio consoles, or a u d i o control b o a r d s , are built to p e r f o r m five m a j o r functions: •

Input: to p r e a m p l i f y a n d c o n t r o l t h e v o l u m e of t h e v a r i o u s i n c o m i n g signals

Sound Controls and

s

Mix: to c o m b i n e a n d b a l a n c e t w o o r m o r e i n c o m i n g signals

Recording for Studio

Quality

control: to m a n i p u l a t e the s o u n d

characteristics

and Field Operations

Output:

to r o u t e t h e c o m b i n e d signals to a

specific o u t p u t •

Monitor:

t o listen t o the s o u n d s before or as their

signals are actually r e c o r d e d or b r o a d c a s t , SEE 10.1

:; - .

S t u d i o consoles have m u l t i p l e i n p u t s to accept a

:

variety of s o u n d sources. Even small s t u d i o consoles m a y have sixteen o r m o r e i n p u t s . A l t h o u g h that m a n y i n p u t s are rarely used in t h e average i n - h o u s e p r o d u c t i o n or b r o a d c a s t W h e n w a t c h i n g a television p r o g r a m , we are generally n o t

day, t h e y m u s t nevertheless be available for t h e p r o g r a m

aware of s o u n d as a separate m e d i u m . S o m e h o w it seems to

y o u m a y have to d o t h e next day.

b e l o n g to t h e pictures, a n d we b e c o m e aware of t h e a u d i o

E a c h i n p u t m o d u l e r e q u i r e s t h a t y o u select e i t h e r

p o r t i o n only w h e n it is u n e x p e c t e d l y i n t e r r u p t e d . But in

t h e mic o r t h e line i n p u t . Mic-level

y o u r o w n v i d e o t a p e s , y o u p r o b a b l y n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e are

sources t h a t n e e d to b e preamplified before t h e y are sent

inputs

are for s o u n d

always s o m e m i n o r or even m a j o r audio p r o b l e m s t h a t t e n d

to t h e v a r i o u s i n p u t c o n t r o l s . All m i c r o p h o n e s n e e d s u c h

to d r a w attention away from y o u r beautiful shots. A l t h o u g h

preamplification a n d are therefore r o u t e d to the m i c i n p u t .

a u d i o is often t r e a t e d casually, y o u quickly realize t h a t t h e

Line-level

s o u n d p o r t i o n is, indeed, a critical p r o d u c t i o n element that

recorders, have a s t r o n g e n o u g h signal t o b e r o u t e d to t h e

inputs, such as C D players, D V D players, or DAT

requires y o u r full a t t e n t i o n . ^

PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO The audio console, the patchbay, and analog and digital tapebased and tapeless audio-recording systems

^

AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO The audio control booth and basic audio operation

^

PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO Keeping sounds separate and the audio mixer

^

AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD Using the automatic gain control in ENG and EFP, and EFP mixing

PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO T h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s of a u d i o e q u i p m e n t are (1) t h e a u d i o console, (2) t h e patchbay, a n d (3) a n a l o g a n d digital t a p e - b a s e d a n d tapeless a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g systems.

220

10.1

AUDIO CONSOLE

Each module of this audio console contains a volume control (slide fader), various quality controls, and assignment switches. It can route several mixes to various destinations.

Section

10.1

Sound

Controls

and

Recording

for Studio

and

Field

Operations

line input without preamplification. All incoming audio signals must reach line-level strength before they can be further adjusted or mixed at the audio console. Because not all input levels of microphones or line signals are the same, they run the risk of becoming overamplified. To prevent this from occurring, you can manipulate the signals individually with the trim control, which adjusts the input strength of the microphone signals so that they won't become distorted during further amplification. Regardless of input, the audio signals are then routed to the volume control, a variety of quality controls, switches (mute or solo) that silence all the other inputs when you want to listen to a specific one, and assignment switches that route the signal to certain parts of the audio console and to signal outputs, SEE 10.2

Sub pot Input selectors

Equalizers (quality controls)

V o l u m e control All sounds fluctuate in volume (loud­ ness). Some sounds are relatively weak, so you have to increase their volume to make them perceptible. Other sounds come in so loud that they overload the audio system and become distorted or they outweigh the weaker ones so much that there is no longer proper balance between the two. The volume control that helps you adjust the incoming sound signals to their proper levels is usually called a pot (short for potentiometer) or a fader (also called attenuator or gain

Auxiliary (send) outputs (headphones, etc.)

control).

To increase the volume, turn the knob clockwise or push the fader up, away from you. To decrease the volume, turn the knob counterclockwise or pull the fader down, toward you. SEE 10.3

Mix The audio console lets you combine, or mix, the signals from various inputs, such as two lavaliere mics, the background music, and the sound effect of a phone ring. The mix bus combines these various audio signals with the specific volume that you assign. Without the mixing capability of the board, you could control only one input at a time. The completed mix is then fed to the line-out. A mix bus is like a riverbed that receives the water (signals) from several different streams (inputs). These streams (various sound signals) converge (mixed sound signal) and finally flow downstream along the riverbed (mix bus) to their destination (recorder). r4.'J»»AUDlO-» Consoles and mixersparts | signals | control | try it

•Pan pot

Solo monitor

Slide faders

Output selectors

1 0 . 2 AUDIO CONSOLE MODULE Q u a l i t y c o n t r o l All audio consoles have various con­ trols that let you shape the character of a sound (see figure 10.2). Among the most important are equalization, filters, and reverberation (reverb) controls.

The major controls on this module are the slide fader volume control, equalizers, assignment switches, the mute switch (silences this input), the pan pot (moves the sound horizontally from one stereo speaker to the next), and various other quality controls.

222

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AUDIO:

10

SOUND

CONTROL

10.4 ANALOG VU METER 10.3 SLIDE FADERS Pushing the fader up increases the volume; pulling it down decreases the volume.

The VU meter indicates the relative loudness of a sound. The upper figures ranging from -20 to +3 are the volume units (decibels). The lower figures represent a percentage scale, ranging from 0 to 100 percent signal modulation (signal am­ plification). Overmodulation (too much signal amplification) is indicated by the red line on the right (0 to +3 VU).

T h e process of controlling t h e a u d i o signal b y e m p h a ­ sizing certain frequencies a n d d e - e m p h a s i z i n g or eliminat­ ing o t h e r s is called equalization.

It can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d

m a n u a l l y or a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h r o u g h an equalizer,

which

w o r k s like t h e t o n e c o n t r o l o n y o u r h o m e stereo receiver. It can b o o s t o r reduce selected frequencies a n d t h e r e b y influence t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e s o u n d . For e x a m p l e , y o u can m a k e a s o u n d m o r e b r i l l i a n t b y b o o s t i n g t h e h i g h frequencies or m o r e solid by b o o s t i n g t h e lows, o r y o u can eliminate a low-frequency h u m or a h i g h - f r e q u e n c y hiss. Filters eliminate a u t o m a t i c a l l y all frequencies above or below a certain p o i n t . T h e reverb c o n t r o l s c a n a d d a n increasing a m o u n t of r e v e r b e r a t i o n to each of t h e selected

"in t h e m u d . " If t h e needle oscillates a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e of t h e scale a n d p e a k s at, o r occasionally over, t h e red line o n the right, y o u are r i d i n g t h e gain correctly. If t h e n e e d l e swings almost exclusively in the red o n t h e right side of t h e scale, a n d even occasionally hits t h e right edge of t h e meter, t h e v o l u m e is t o o h i g h — y o u are " b e n d i n g t h e needle," "spilling over," or " r i d i n g in t h e red." M u c h like t h e v o l u m e i n d i c a t o r amplifier of a h o m e stereo system, t h e V U m e t e r in s o m e a u d i o consoles c o n ­ sists of light-emitting

diodes (LEDs), w h i c h show u p as thin,

colored light c o l u m n s t h a t fluctuate u p a n d d o w n a scale. W h e n y o u ride t h e gain t o o h i g h , the c o l u m n s h o o t s u p o n

inputs.

t h e scale a n d c h a n g e s color, SEE 10.5 A m o n g the additional quality controls o n large c o n s o l e s are s w i t c h e s t h a t a l l o w y o u t o a c c o m m o d a t e the relative strengths of i n c o m i n g s o u n d signals or t h a t p r e v e n t i n p u t overloads, a n d o t h e r s that let y o u " p a n " t h e stereo s o u n d t o a p a r t i c u l a r s p o t b e t w e e n t h e t w o stereo speakers.

S o m e a u d i o consoles have a n additional peak meter

(PPM),

program

which measures loudness peaks. A P P M

reacts m o r e quickly t o t h e v o l u m e p e a k s t h a n does t h e needle of the V U m e t e r a n d clearly shows w h e n y o u are o v e r m o d u l a t i n g ( r i d i n g t h e gain t o o h i g h ) . O u t p u t channels We often classify a u d i o consoles by t h e

T h e m i x e d a n d q u a l i t y - p r o c e s s e d s i g n a l is

n u m b e r of o u t p u t channels. O l d e r television consoles h a d

To e n s u r e

several i n p u t channels b u t only o n e o u t p u t c h a n n e l because

that t h e m i x e d signals stay w i t h i n the acceptable v o l u m e

television s o u n d was m o n o p h o n i c . Today, however, even

t h e n r o u t e d to t h e o u t p u t , called t h e line-out.

limits, t h e y are regulated b y final v o l u m e c o n t r o l s — t h e

small television consoles have at least t w o o u t p u t c h a n ­

m a s t e r p o t s — a n d m e t e r e d by v o l u m e indicators, t h e m o s t

nels t o h a n d l e s t e r e o p h o n i c s o u n d or to feed t w o pieces of

c o m m o n of w h i c h is t h e volume

unit (VU) meter. As t h e

e q u i p m e n t (such as h e a d p h o n e s a n d a v i d e o t a p e recorder)

v o l u m e varies, t h e needle of t h e V U m e t e r oscillates b a c k

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t w o i n d e p e n d e n t signals. W i t h h i g h -

a n d forth a l o n g a calibrated scale, SEE 10.4 If t h e v o l u m e is so low t h a t t h e needle barely m o v e s from t h e e x t r e m e left, y o u are r i d i n g t h e gain (or v o l u m e )

definition television ( H D T V ) , t h e s o u n d r e q u i r e m e n t s also c h a n g e . Very m u c h like m o t i o n p i c t u r e s , large-screen T V displays will r e q u i r e surround

sound, w h i c h involves

Section

10.1

Sound

Controls

and

Recording

for Studio

and

Field

223

Operations

c h a n n e l s of a stereo recorder. But if y o u w a n t to keep t h e various s o u n d s separated to exercise m o r e control in the fi­ nal p o s t p r o d u c t i o n mix, o r if y o u w a n t to feed separate sur­ r o u n d - s o u n d speakers, y o u n e e d m o r e o u t p u t s . Even w h e n covering a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d rock c o n c e r t , for e x a m p l e , y o u m a y have to p r o v i d e o n e m i x for t h e musicians, a n o t h e r for t h e a u d i e n c e , o n e for t h e v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r ( V T R ) , a n d yet a n o t h e r for t h e m u l t i t r a c k a u d i o t a p e recorder (ATR). You will b e s u r p r i s e d b y h o w fast y o u r u n o u t of available i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s even o n a big console. consoles called in-line

S o m e of t h e m o r e elaborate consoles,

consoles, h a v e i n p u t / o u t p u t , o r I/O,

mod­

ules, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t each i n p u t h a s its o w n o u t p u t . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e are t w e n t y - f o u r i n p u t s a n d each o n e receives a different s o u n d signal, y o u c o u l d s e n d each of t h e m directly t o t h e separate tracks of a twenty-fourt r a c k recorder w i t h o u t feeding t h e m t h r o u g h any of t h e m i x b u s e s . T h a t way y o u use t h e console to c o n t r o l the v o l u m e of each i n p u t , b u t t h e console d o e s n o t function as a m i x i n g o r q u a l i t y - c o n t r o l device. In fact, t h e s o u n d is

10.5 LED VU METER The LED (light-emitting diode) VU meters indicate overmodulation by lighting up in a different color (usually red).

sent to t h e tape r e c o r d e r in its r a w state. T h e m i x i n g a n d quality c o n t r o l of t h e v a r i o u s s o u n d s are all d o n e in the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n a n d m i x d o w n sessions. T h e I/O circuits let y o u t r y o u t a n d listen to all sorts of mixes a n d s o u n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s w i t h o u t affecting t h e original signal sent

multiple discrete o u t p u t channels a n d a variety of speak­

to t h e recorder.

ers that are strategically placed in front a n d in back of t h e display screen (see figure 10.22). This increasing d e m a n d

P h a n t o m power

for h i g h - q u a l i t y a u d i o has led to greater use of m u l t i c h a n ­

m e n t i o n e d before, t h e " p h a n t o m " in phantom

nel ( o u t p u t ) consoles in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h a n d es­

m o r e like "virtual." All it m e a n s is that t h e a u d i o console

D o n ' t let t h e n a m e scare y o u : As power

is

pecially in t h e a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n r o o m ( w h i c h is explored

o r s o m e o t h e r source, r a t h e r t h a n a battery, supplies the

in section 10.2).

p r e a m p l i f i c a t i o n p o w e r t o s o m e c o n d e n s e r mics.

To identify h o w m a n y i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s a specific console has, they are labeled with t h e n u m b e r of i n p u t a n d

Monitor and cue

o u t p u t c h a n n e l s , s u c h as a n 8 x 1 o r a 32 x 4 console. This

w h i c h lets y o u h e a r t h e final s o u n d m i x o r allows y o u to

m e a n s t h a t t h e small 8 x 1 console has eight i n p u t s a n d

listen to a n d adjust the m i x before switching it to t h e line-

o n e o u t p u t ; t h e larger 32 X 4 console has t h i r t y - t w o i n p u t s

o u t . A separate a u d i t i o n o r cue r e t u r n system lets y o u hear

All consoles have a m o n i t o r system,

a n d four o u t p u t s . W i t h a single o u t p u t c h a n n e l , t h e 8 x 1

a particular s o u n d source w i t h o u t r o u t i n g it to the m i x bus.

b o a r d obviously is m o n o p h o n i c .

This system is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n y o u w a n t to cue a

M o s t larger television a u d i o consoles have eight or

digital a u d i o t a p e (DAT) o r a cassette or y o u w a n t to check

m o r e o u t p u t c h a n n e l s (with eight m a s t e r p o t s a n d eight

t h e b e g i n n i n g s o u n d s of a c o m p a c t disc ( C D ) or a digital

V U m e t e r s ) , each of which can carry a discrete s o u n d signal

versatile disc ( D V D ) track while o n t h e air w i t h the rest of

o r mix. T h e a d v a n t a g e of m u l t i p l e o u t p u t s is that y o u can

t h e s o u n d sources.

feed t h e i n d i v i d u a l signals o n t o a m u l t i t r a c k a u d i o t a p e recorder for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n m i x i n g .

Computer-assisted consoles

A l m o s t all n e w e r c o n ­

If, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e are t w e n t y - f o u r i n p u t s b u t only

soles c o n t a i n a c o m p u t e r t h r o u g h w h i c h y o u can preset,

t w o o u t p u t s , y o u n e e d to m i x t h e various i n p u t signals

store, recall, a n d activate m a n y of t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l func­

d o w n to two, w h i c h y o u c a n t h e n feed to t h e left a n d r i g h t

t i o n s . For e x a m p l e , y o u c a n t r y o u t a p a r t i c u l a r m i x with

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AUDIO:

SOUND

CONTROL

specific volume, equalization, and reverberation values for each of the individual s o u n d s , store it all in t h e c o m p u t e r ' s m e m o r y , t r y s o m e t h i n g else, a n d t h e n recall t h e original setup w i t h t h e press of a b u t t o n . Digital consoles

T h e s e consoles l o o k like t h e i r a n a l o g

cousins except that t h e y have centralized controls t h a t trig­ ger v a r i o u s s o u n d c o n t r o l a n d r o u t i n g f u n c t i o n s for each i n p u t m o d u l e . These controls are n o t unlike the delegation controls of a video switcher (see figure 11.4). T h e advantage is t h a t this r o u t i n g architecture keeps t h e console relatively small a n d w o r k a b l e .

PATCHBAY T h e p r i m a r y function of the patchbay,

or p a t c h panel, is

c o n n e c t i n g a n d r o u t i n g a u d i o signals to a n d from v a r i o u s pieces of e q u i p m e n t . You c a n a c c o m p l i s h this b y u s i n g actual wires t h a t establish specific c o n n e c t i o n s , o r w i t h a c o m p u t e r t h a t r e a r r a n g e s the signals a n d sends t h e m ac­ cording to y o u r instructions. Whatever m e t h o d y o u use, t h e principle of p a t c h i n g is t h e s a m e . H e r e w e use wires, called patch cords, to explain a simple p a t c h i n g p r o c e d u r e . A s s u m e t h a t y o u w a n t to have t w o m i c r o p h o n e s , a r e ­ Fader 2 (controls lavl)

m o t e feed from a field reporter, a n d a C D o p e r a t i n g d u r i n g a newscast. Lav 1 a n d 2 are t h e newscasters' lavalieres. T h e

Fader 3 (controls lav 2)

r e m o t e feed c o m e s from t h e field r e p o r t e r w i t h a live story. T h e C D c o n t a i n s t h e o p e n i n g a n d closing t h e m e m u s i c for

10.6

t h e newscast. Just as t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s c a n b e p a t c h e d i n t o a n y of t h e d i m m e r s , any o n e of these a u d i o sources can b e p a t c h e d to individual v o l u m e controls (pots

PATCHING

This patching shows that the signal outputs (audio sources) of two microphones, a remote feed, and a CD are grouped in the following order of fader inputs: CD, lavaliere 1, lavaliere 2, remote feed.

or faders) in a n y desired order. S u p p o s e y o u w a n t t o o p e r ­ ate t h e v o l u m e controls in the following order, from left to right: C D , lavaliere 1, lavaliere 2, r e m o t e feed. You c a n

p e r - r o w jack t o a n o t h e r u p p e r - r o w jack) or i n p u t to i n p u t

easily patch these i n p u t s to t h e a u d i o console in t h a t order.

(lower-row jack to l o w e r - r o w jack) will give y o u n o t h i n g

If y o u w a n t t h e i n p u t s in a different order, y o u n e e d n o t

but headaches.

u n p l u g t h e e q u i p m e n t ; all y o u d o is pull t h e p a t c h cords a n d r e p a t c h t h e i n p u t s in t h e different order, SEE IO.6

To r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r of p a t c h c o r d s , c e r t a i n fre­ q u e n t l y used c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n o u t p u t s (a specific m i c , DAT m a c h i n e , or C D ) a n d i n p u t s (specific v o l u m e controls

Wired patchbay

All wired p a t c h panels c o n t a i n rows of

holes, called jacks, w h i c h represent the various o u t p u t s a n d

assigned to t h e m ) are directly wired, o r normaled,

to o n e

a n o t h e r . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e o u t p u t a n d t h e i n p u t of a

i n p u t s . T h e u p p e r rows of jacks are n o r m a l l y t h e o u t p u t s

circuit are c o n n e c t e d w i t h o u t a p a t c h cord. By i n s e r t i n g a

(which c a r r y t h e signals from mics, C D s , a n d so f o r t h ) .

p a t c h cord i n t o o n e of t h e jacks of a n o r m a l e d circuit, y o u

T h e rows of jacks i m m e d i a t e l y below t h e o u t p u t jacks are

break, r a t h e r t h a n establish, t h e c o n n e c t i o n .

t h e i n p u t jacks, w h i c h are c o n n e c t e d to t h e a u d i o console.

A l t h o u g h p a t c h i n g helps m a k e t h e r o u t i n g of an a u ­

T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n o u t p u t a n d i n p u t is m a d e w i t h

dio signal m o r e flexible, it can also cause s o m e p r o b l e m s .

the p a t c h cord.

P a t c h i n g takes t i m e ; p a t c h cords a n d jacks get w o r n o u t af­

To accomplish a p r o p e r patch, you m u s t p l u g the patch

ter frequent use, w h i c h can cause a h u m or an i n t e r m i t t e n t

cord from o n e of the u p p e r o u t p u t jacks i n t o o n e of t h e

c o n n e c t i o n ; a n d m a n y patch cords crisscrossing each o t h e r

lower i n p u t jacks, SEE 10.7 P a t c h i n g o u t p u t to o u t p u t ( u p -

are confusing a n d l o o k m o r e like spaghetti t h a n o r d e r l y

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and

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225

Operations

w i t h a separate a u d i o r e c o r d i n g , o r record the a u d i o o n a separate system for h i g h - e n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Even if y o u d o n ' t i n t e n d to b e c o m e a n a u d i o expert, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t systems are available to y o u . In general, a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g systems can r e c o r d a u d i o signals in a n a l o g or digital f o r m . As explained in chapter 2, analog m e a n s t h a t t h e signal fluctuates exactly like t h e original stimulus; digital m e a n s t h a t the signal is translated i n t o m a n y discrete digits (on/off pulses). A l m o s t all a u d i o r e c o r d i n g in professional television is d o n e digitally. As with video, digital a u d i o recordings excel n o t only in s o u n d quality b u t also in m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t quality in extensive p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. Because digital systems allow y o u t o see a visual display of t h e r e c o r d e d s o u n d s , t h e y m a k e editing m u c h m o r e precise t h a n w i t h the analog m e t h o d s .

10.7

PATCHBAY WITH PATCHES

All patchbays connect the signal outputs (mics, CDs, VTRs) to specific input modules of the audio console. The patching is accomplished by connecting the audio outputs (top row) to the inputs (bottom row) with patch cords.

But d o n ' t dismiss analog a u d i o just yet. M a n y older c a m ­ corders a n d V H S r e c o r d e r s are still analog, a n d t h e r e are extensive analog s o u n d archives that will m o s t likely r e m a i n analog even in t h e digital age. You m a y still have a collection of a n a l o g e q u i p m e n t t h a t m o s t likely includes a n analog cassette m a c h i n e . S o m e a u d i o p u r i s t s have r e t u r n e d to analog s o u n d systems because, a c c o r d i n g to t h e m , analog

c o n n e c t i o n s , m a k i n g i n d i v i d u a l patches difficult to trace.

r e c o r d i n g s have a w a r m e r s o u n d t h a n digital ones.

Also, w h e n p a t c h i n g with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g fader still set at a r e a s o n a b l y high v o l u m e , t h e p o p caused b y p l u g g i n g or

ANALOG RECORDING SYSTEMS

u n p l u g g i n g t h e p a t c h cord can b l o w even t h e m o s t r o b u s t

All a n a l o g r e c o r d i n g s y s t e m s are t a p e - b a s e d . H e r e we

speaker. O n c e again, a l t h o u g h physical c o n n e c t i o n s are

briefly t o u c h o n t h e t w o analog a u d i o systems t h a t are still

i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e y o u c a n see w h i c h signal goes w h e r e ,

in use: t h e o p e n - r e e l a u d i o t a p e recorder a n d the a u d i o c a s -

t h e c o m p u t e r c a n p e r f o r m m a n y of the r o u t i n e p a t c h i n g

sette recorder. T h e o p e r a t i o n a l features of a n a l o g ATRs

functions m o r e efficiently.

have b e e n i n h e r i t e d by t h e digital recorders.

Computer patching

Open-reel audiotape recorder

In computer patching, the sound

signals from the various sources, s u c h as mics, direct boxes,

m e r l y called reel-to-reel, audiotape

T h e open-reel,

for­

recorder is generally

C D s , D V D s , or v i d e o t a p e s , are r o u t e d to t h e p a t c h p a n e l

used for m u l t i t r a c k r e c o r d i n g or for playing back longer

p r o g r a m m e r , w h i c h assigns t h e m u l t i p l e signals to specific

pieces of a u d i o m a t e r i a l . For e x a m p l e , t h e b a c k g r o u n d

fader m o d u l e s of t h e a u d i o console for further process­

m u s i c a n d t h e s o u n d effects, s u c h as traffic n o i s e , are

ing. To r o u t e lavaliere 1 to p o t 2, a n d t h e C D to p o t 1, for

generally p r e m i x e d ( p r e r e c o r d e d ) o n a u d i o t a p e a n d t h e n

e x a m p l e , you d o n ' t n e e d a n y physical patches; y o u s i m p l y

played b a c k a n d m i x e d again w i t h the dialogue d u r i n g an

enter t h e r o u t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o the c o m p u t e r (patch

actual p r o d u c t i o n . T h e ATR is also used to r e c o r d m a t e r i a l

p a n e l p r o g r a m m e r ) , w h i c h tells t h e electronic p a t c h p a n e l

for archival p u r p o s e s . A l t h o u g h a great variety of ATRs are

t o c o n n e c t the i n p u t s to t h e desired faders o n t h e console,

used in television p r o d u c t i o n , t h e y all o p e r a t e o n c o m m o n

s h o w t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e display screen, a n d store y o u r

principles a n d w i t h similar c o n t r o l s .

p a t c h i n g c o m m a n d s o n a disk for future use. P a t c h i n g is

All professional ATRs, analog a n d digital, have, in ad­

n o w as easy as p a s t i n g w o r d s w i t h a w o r d processor.

d i t i o n t o t h e switch for t h e v a r i o u s r e c o r d i n g speeds, five

AUDIO-RECORDING SYSTEMS

w h i c h m o v e s the t a p e at t h e designated r e c o r d i n g speed;

T h e s o u n d of r o u t i n e television p r o d u c t i o n s is u s u a l l y

(2) fast-forward,

r e c o r d e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e pictures o n o n e of t h e

(3) stop, w h i c h brakes t h e reels to a stop; (4) rewind, which

c o n t r o l b u t t o n s t h a t regulate t h e t a p e m o t i o n : (1) play, w h i c h advances t h e tape at high speed;

a u d i o tracks of t h e v i d e o t a p e recorder. T h e r e are occasions,

r e w i n d s t h e t a p e at high speed; a n d (5) record, w h i c h acti­

however, w h e n y o u n e e d t o b a c k u p y o u r s o u n d r e c o r d i n g

vates b o t h t h e erase a n d t h e r e c o r d heads, SEE IO.8

Many

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1 0 . 8 OPEN-REEL ANALOG AUDIOTAPE RECORDER This open-reel ATR can record up to eight separate audio tracks on a Vi-inch audiotape and can locate certain cue points automatically. It can interface with the SMPTE time code for audio/video synchronization. All of the controls—including the standard operational controls of play, fast-forward,

Supply reel

Takeup reel

VU meters

stop,

rewind, and record—are

on

a panel that can be used from a remote location.

Remote transport controls

Transport controls

Stationary head assembly

t a p e recorders also have a cue c o n t r o l , w h i c h enables you

n e w a u d i o m a t e r i a l o n t h e t a p e . W h e n t h e t a p e is played

to h e a r t h e s o u n d o n a t a p e even w h e n r u n n i n g at fast-

back, t h e p l a y b a c k h e a d r e p r o d u c e s t h e a u d i o m a t e r i a l

forward o r r e w i n d speeds.

p r e v i o u s l y r e c o r d e d . T h e erase a n d r e c o r d h e a d s are n o t

T h e tape m o v e s from a supply reel to a takeup reel over

activated d u r i n g playback.

at least three h e a d s : t h e erase h e a d , t h e record h e a d , a n d

S o m e a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s in large stations have

t h e playback h e a d , SEE 10.9 T h i s h e a d assembly a r r a n g e ­

m u l t i t r a c k recorders t h a t use w i d e r f o r m a t s t h a n t h e stan­

m e n t is s t a n d a r d for all analog t a p e recorders. W h e n t h e

d a r d Vi-inch (such as ¥i-, 1 - , o r 2 - i n c h ) to a c c o m m o d a t e

ATR is being used for r e c o r d i n g , t h e erase h e a d clears t h e

t h e multiple ( u p to twenty-four) tracks. H i g h - q u a l i t y four-

p o r t i o n s of t h e tape t h a t receive t h e r e c o r d i n g (tracks) of

track m a c h i n e s use Vi- or 1-inch tape. T h e 2 - i n c h t a p e is

all a u d i o m a t e r i a l that m i g h t have b e e n left o n t h e t a p e

used for sixteen or m o r e a n a l o g tracks.

from a p r e v i o u s recording; t h e r e c o r d h e a d t h e n p u t s t h e Audiocassette recorder Erase head

Professional cassette systems

are similar to the o n e y o u have at h o m e or c a r r y a r o u n d except t h a t t h e y have m o r e - s o p h i s t i c a t e d electronics t o r e d u c e noise a n d m o r e - d u r a b l e t a p e t r a n s p o r t s t h a t allow faster a n d s m o o t h e r fast-forward a n d r e w i n d speeds. As y o u k n o w from experience, cassettes are easy t o store a n d h a n d l e a n d c a n play u p to 120 m i n u t e s of a u d i o material. Despite t h e n a r r o w t a p e , cassettes p r o d u c e g o o d s o u n d , especially if t h e y are t h e n e w e r , m e t a l - p a r t i c l e coated variety. D e s p i t e t h e digital r e v o l u t i o n , a n a l o g cas­

1 0 . 9 ANALOG AUDIOTAPE HEAD ASSEMBLY The head assembly of an analog reel-to-reel ATR consists of an erase head, a record head, and a playback head.

settes are still p o p u l a r in television p r o d u c t i o n . If y o u w a n t s u p e r i o r a u d i o quality from cassettes, however, y o u s h o u l d use a DAT recorder.

Section

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Sound

Controls

and Recording

for Studio

and Field

227

Operations

1 0 . 1 0 ANALOG AND DAT CASSETTES The DAT cassette is consider­ ably smaller than the regular analog audiocassette.

Analog audiocassette

DAT cassette

Digital r e c o r d i n g is d o n e w i t h either t a p e - b a s e d sys­

Besides r e c o r d i n g s o u n d w i t h the c u s t o m a r y digital,

t e m s or a variety of tapeless devices.

virtually noise-free high fidelity, h i g h - e n d DAT recorders

TAPE-BASED DIGITAL RECORDING SYSTEMS

for v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n :

include t h e following features that are especially i m p o r t a n t

T h e t a p e - b a s e d systems i n c l u d e v i d e o t a p e u s e d b y t h e

H i g h - s p e e d search a n d extremely a c c u r a t e c u e i n g

s t a n d - a l o n e o r c a m c o r d e r V T R s , a n d DAT r e c o r d e r s .

Verbal slating (identifying a scene or take) t h r o u g h a

S o m e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s have larger digital m u l t i t r a c k

built-in microphone

recorders that use S-VHS o r H i 8 v i d e o t a p e , b u t t h e m o r e flexible a n d efficient h a r d disk r e c o r d e r s have m a d e these modular

digital multitrack

( M D M ) recorders a n d

tape recording systems {DTRSs)

digital

all b u t obsolete.

T i m e code r e c o r d i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h the a u d i o material, for cueing a n d for m a t c h i n g s o u n d a n d p i c t u r e s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n Display t h a t shows t h e t i m e r e m a i n i n g o n the t a p e

Videotape recorders

M o s t digital a u d i o r e c o r d i n g for

video is d o n e simultaneously with t h e video o n o n e o r b o t h tracks of t h e v i d e o t a p e (see figure 12.6). S o m e p r o s u m e r a n d professional c a m c o r d e r s let y o u choose b e t w e e n h i g h -

S y n c h r o n i z a t i o n , if desired, of its i n t e r n a l t i m e code w i t h an external t i m e c o d e (such as t h e o n e supplied b y o r to the c a m e r a s )

q u a l i t y (16-bit) a n d a s o m e w h a t l o w e r - q u a l i t y (12-bit)

R e c o r d i n g a n d display of t h e c u r r e n t d a t e a n d t i m e

recording mode.

SEE 10.11

Digital

audiotape

{DAT)

recorders

c a n use o p e n - r e e l t a p e or cassettes. T h e digital o p e n - r e e l m a c h i n e s look a n d o p e r a t e m u c h like t h e analog o p e n - r e e l r e c o r d e r s — t h e y have a s u p p l y a n d a t a k e u p r e e l — b u t t h e h e a d assembly is m o r e like t h a t of a V T R . Its r e c o r d i n g a n d playback h e a d s r o t a t e at h i g h speed while t h e a u d i o t a p e passes by t h e m . Because t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d playback h e a d s r o t a t e , these m a c h i n e s are also called R-DAT

recorders.

Normally, a DAT r e c o r d e r refers to a digital cassette recorder. T h e s e m a c h i n e s o p e r a t e m o r e like videocassette recorders t h a n audiocassette r e c o r d e r s . As w i t h o p e n - r e e l DAT recorders, t h e h e a d s of t h e cassette recorders rotate at high speed. Because of t h e r o t a t i n g h e a d s , t h e cassettes can b e smaller t h a n a n a l o g cassettes, b u t at their slowest speed t h e y still r e c o r d u p to four h o u r s of h i g h - q u a l i t y a u d i o . As w i t h v i d e o t a p e , however, t h e slower t a p e speeds p r o d u c e lower-quality recordings, SEE IO.IO

10.11

PORTABLE DAT RECORDER

This portable DAT recorder can record up to two hours on a single battery charge. It has one balanced stereo input (two XLR jacks) and four unbalanced inputs (RCA phono jacks). Its excellent frequency response lets you make high-fidelity recordings of speech and music.

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B u t these w o n d e r m a c h i n e s are n o t p r o b l e m - f r e e . T h e h i g h - s p e e d r o t a r y h e a d s are subject t o w e a r a n d tear, especially if n o t p r o p e r l y m a i n t a i n e d , a n d t h e r e c o r d e r s are sensitive to m o i s t u r e . DAT cassettes c a n n o t have a n y flaws, o r t h e r e c o r d i n g will b e equally flawed. Finally, DAT recorders are quite expensive, which is w h y tapeless record­ ers are b e c o m i n g m o r e p o p u l a r . TAPELESS RECORDING

SYSTEMS

High-capacity, rugged h a r d drives c o u p l e d w i t h efficient compression systems such as MP3 make disk-based systems the p r i m e a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g m e d i u m i n television p r o d u c ­ tion. T h e m o r e p o p u l a r systems include: (1) t h e digital cart system, (2) m i n i disks a n d flash m e m o r y devices, (3) h a r d

10.12

drives with r e m o v a b l e o r fixed disks, a n d (4) optical disc

This digital cart system uses a removable high-density com­ puter disk and allows random and instant cueing and playback via remote control.

systems w i t h a variety of C D a n d D V D f o r m a t s .

DIGITAL CART RECORDER/PLAYER

T h e digital recorder/players that constitute a digital

cart system

use regular h i g h - c a p a c i t y

r e m o v a b l e c o m p u t e r disks, s u c h as t h e 2 5 0 - m e g a b y t e Z i p disks, for r e c o r d i n g a n d playback, o r r e a d / w r i t e optical discs o r m i n i discs. These digital systems operate very m u c h

capacity, a n d easy c u e i n g m a k e it a useful playback device for television p r o d u c t i o n . T h e flash

memory

device,

o r flash

drive, is a s m a l l

m e m o r y stick, very m u c h like t h e o n e y o u m i g h t b e u s i n g

like a h o m e C D player. You c a n select a p a r t i c u l a r cut a n d

in y o u r digital still c a m e r a o r p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r . It h a s

start t h e a u d i o track instantly. You c a n also interface t h e

n o m o v i n g p a r t s b u t c a n store 1 gigabyte of i n f o r m a t i o n .

digital cart w i t h a d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r that lets y o u assemble

This m e a n s t h a t t h e flash drive c a n hold a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e

a playlist, w h i c h will a u t o m a t i c a l l y cue a n d start v a r i o u s

h o u r of high-quality a u d i o . It plugs right into t h e USB p o r t

a u d i o s e g m e n t s , SEE 10.12

on your computer.

Mini discs and

flash memory devices

T h e mini

disc

Hard drives

T h e r e are large-capacity systems built

(MD) is a small ( a b o u t 2 / 2 - i n c h ) r e a d - o n l y o r r e a d / w r i t e

specifically for a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n

optical disc t h a t c a n store m o r e t h a n a n h o u r of h i g h -

t h a t store a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n just like y o u w o u l d o n y o u r

quality digital stereo a u d i o . Its small size, large s t o r a g e

c o m p u t e r h a r d drive, SEE 10.13

1

10.13

Despite its d i m i n u t i v e size,

DIGITAL MULTITRACK RECORDER/PLAYER

This digital recorder can record twenty-four tracks on two high-capacity hard drives. Both hard disks (10 megabytes each) are removable and can be swapped from bay to bay.

Section 10.1

Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations

229

t h e u b i q u i t o u s A p p l e iPod has a 20-gigabyte h a r d drive t h a t y o u c a n c o n n e c t to y o u r c o m p u t e r via USB cable or FireWire (IEEE 1394) for s t o r i n g a u d i o files a n d o t h e r data. You can t h e n transfer these files to a digital editing system, SEE 10.14

S o m e have b u i l t - i n h a r d drives; o t h e r s

have r e m o v a b l e disks t h a t can b e e x c h a n g e d f r o m o n e recorder/player to a n o t h e r . T h e professional compact digital versatile

disc (DVD)

disc (CD)

and

players are often used in tele­

vision ( a n d r a d i o ) stations for playing b a c k c o m m e r c i a l l y p r o d u c e d m u s i c a n d o t h e r a u d i o m a t e r i a l . T h e rewritable C D s a n d D V D s are used for m u l t i p l e r e c o r d i n g a n d play­ back. T h e r e are several different C D a n d D V D f o r m a t s o n t h e m a r k e t , all of w h i c h p e r f o r m similar p r o d u c t i o n functions: t h e storage a n d playback of a variety of a u d i o material.

1

SEE 10.15

Professional C D a n d D V D players allow r a n d o m access of a specific track; let y o u enter, store, a n d activate v a r i o u s play sequences; a n d display, a m o n g o t h e r things, t h e m e n u of t h e playlist, w h a t t h e disc is playing, a n d h o w m u c h of t h e s e g m e n t t i m e is r e m a i n i n g . A l t h o u g h C D s a n d D V D s can theoretically w i t h s t a n d a n u n l i m i t e d a m o u n t of playbacks w i t h o u t d e t e r i o r a t i o n , t h e y are nevertheless q u i t e v u l n e r a b l e . If y o u scratch t h e shiny side or even t h e label side, the disc w o n ' t play past the

10.14

scratch. A n d if t h e r e are

This tiny player can store a great amount of music and other data on its 20-megabyte hard drive.

m a y t r y t o read t h e

fingerprints

fingerprints

o n t h e disc, t h e laser

instead of t h e i m p r i n t e d

APPLE IPOD DIGITAL MUSIC PLAYER

digits. W h e n h a n d l i n g C D s a n d D V D s , t r y to keep y o u r h a n d s off t h e surface a n d always p u t d o w n t h e disc o n its

it. S o m e p r o v i d e visual access to t h e s t u d i o or, at least, to

label s i d e — n o t its shiny side.

t h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l r o o m . W h e n walking i n t o t h e a u d i o b o o t h , y o u will p r o b a b l y b e surprised by the variety a n d the

AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO Recall f r o m c h a p t e r 1 t h a t m o s t a u d i o b o o t h s are separate

c o m p l e x i t y of a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , especially because we are generally u n a w a r e of t h e a u d i o aspect of television unless s o m e t h i n g goes w r o n g .

from the p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section yet in close p r o x i m i t y to AUDIO CONTROL 1. Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 122-29.

BOOTH

T h e audio control booth h o u s e s t h e audio, o r m i x i n g , c o n ­ sole; analog a n d digital recording a n d playback e q u i p m e n t ,

10.15 PROFESSIONAL CD PLAYER Professional CD and DVD players allow instant random access to various tracks. The play sequence can be stored and displayed on playback.

230

10.16

Chapter

AUDIO

10

AUDIO:

Window to video control room

^

SOUND

CONTROL

Computer display of console functions

CONTROL BOOTH The television audio control booth contains a variety of audio control equipment, such as the control console with computer display, patchbay, CD and DVD players, DAT machines, loudspeakers, intercom systems, and a video line monitor.

^ Audio console

Studio talkback

such as cassette recorders, a reel-to-reel a n a l o g ATR, DAT

m a t c h e s t h e console o u t p u t ( l i n e - o u t signal). This process

recorders, an M D player, C D a n d / o r D V D m a c h i n e s ; a n d ,

is called a u d i o system c a l i b r a t i o n or s i m p l y calibration.

largely for nostalgic reasons, a t u r n t a b l e . T h e r e is also a

calibrate

To

a system is to m a k e all t h e V U m e t e r s (usually of

physical p a t c h b a y despite t h e presence of c o m p u t e r p a t c h ­

the a u d i o console a n d t h e record VTR) r e s p o n d in the s a m e

ing, a n d o n e o r m o r e d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r s fulfilling v a r i o u s

way t o a specific a u d i o s i g n a l — t h e control tone. ( N o t e t h a t

functions. You will also find cue a n d p r o g r a m speakers,

a u d i o calibration has n o t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e z o o m lens

i n t e r c o m systems, a clock, a n d a line m o n i t o r . O n e a u d i o

calibration, w h e r e b y y o u adjust t h e z o o m lens so t h a t it

e n g i n e e r (or a u d i o o p e r a t o r or a u d i o technician) operates

stays in focus d u r i n g t h e entire z o o m range.)

the a u d i o c o n t r o l s d u r i n g a show, SEE 10.16 H e r e are t h e basic steps of a u d i o calibration: B A S I C

A U D I O

O P E R A T I O N

1. W i t h all faders o n t h e console or m i x e r t u r n e d all t h e

L e a r n i n g to o p e r a t e all this e q u i p m e n t takes t i m e a n d

way d o w n , activate the c o n t r o l t o n e , w h i c h is either a

p r a c t i c e . F o r t u n a t e l y , in m o s t s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s y o u r

c o n t i n u o u s t o n e o r a n i n t e r m i t t e n t beep. M o s t p r o ­

a u d i o tasks consist m o s t l y of m a k i n g s u r e that t h e voices

fessional a u d i o consoles a n d m i x e r s have s u c h a t o n e

of the news a n c h o r s or panel guests have acceptable v o l u m e

generator built-in.

levels a n d are relatively free of e x t r a n e o u s noise a n d t h a t t h e s o u n d appears with the pictures w h e n video recordings are played. M o s t likely y o u will n o t b e asked to d o intricate s o u n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s d u r i n g complex recording sessions— at least n o t right away. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e focus h e r e is o n t h e basic a u d i o c o n t r o l factors: (1) a u d i o system calibra­ t i o n , (2) v o l u m e c o n t r o l , a n d (3) live s t u d i o m i x i n g .

2. Bring u p t h e m a s t e r ( l i n e - o u t ) fader o n t h e console o r m i x e r to t h e 0 V U m a r k . 3. Bring u p t h e fader for the control t o n e until t h e m a s t e r ( l i n e - o u t ) V U m e t e r reads 0 VU. W h i l e b r i n g i n g u p t h e fader, y o u s h o u l d h e a r t h e s o u n d b e c o m i n g p r o ­ gressively l o u d e r u n t i l it h a s r e a c h e d t h e 0 V U level.

Before d o i n g a n y s e r i o u s

4. N o w t u r n u p t h e i n c o m i n g v o l u m e c o n t r o l o n t h e

volume adjustment or mixing, you need to make sure

V T R u n t i l its V U m e t e r also reads 0 VU. W h e n b o t h

A u d i o system calibration

that t h e a u d i o console a n d t h e V T R or any o t h e r device

t h e m a s t e r V U m e t e r of t h e console or mixer a n d t h e

o n w h i c h y o u are r e c o r d i n g t h e a u d i o " h e a r " in the s a m e

V U m e t e r of t h e V T R r e a d t h e s a m e 0 V U level, t h e

way, t h a t is, t h a t t h e V T R i n p u t v o l u m e ( r e c o r d i n g level)

system h a s b e e n calibrated.

Section

10.1

Sound

Controls

and Recording

for Studio

and Field

231

Operations

VTR input (record level): O V U Audio console line-out: O V U

1 0 . 1 7 AUDIO SYSTEM CALIBRATION An audio system is calibrated when all VU meters respond in the same way to a specific audio signal. Here the line-out of the audio mixer is calibrated with the input (record level) of the VTR. Both VU meters show the same value.

F r o m this p o i n t o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e recording, t h e V T R

a n d s i m p l y c o u n t r a p i d l y t o t h r e e o r four; t h e n , w h e n they

o p e r a t o r s h o u l d n o t t o u c h t h e a u d i o i n p u t level, even if t h e

are o n t h e air, their voices rise to t h e o c c a s i o n — a n d also

V U m e t e r indicates low v o l u m e levels. It is u p to y o u — t h e

in v o l u m e . Always be p r e p a r e d for this s u d d e n v o l u m e

console o p e r a t o r — t o m a i n t a i n p r o p e r a u d i o levels.

increase. Experienced p e r f o r m e r s give a few of their o p e n ­

Because t h e V T R is n o w receiving exactly w h a t y o u send from t h e console or mixer, y o u can confidently engage in s o m e s e r i o u s v o l u m e c o n t r o l , SEE 10.17

frA'i*»AUDIO^

Consoles and mixers-> calibration

ing r e m a r k s in a b o u t as l o u d a voice as t h e y will use w h e n o n t h e air. W h e n o v e r m o d u l a t i n g speech (riding t h e gain consis­ tently at t o o high a level), y o u e n d u p n o t w i t h a r e c o r d i n g t h a t is slightly t o o l o u d b u t with distorted s o u n d . A l t h o u g h

O n c e t h e system is calibrated, y o u c a n

it is relatively easy t o b o o s t s o u n d that w a s r e c o r d e d at a

p a y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e finer p o i n t s of adjusting t h e v o l u m e

slightly l o w e r - t h a n - n o r m a l level (even at t h e risk of a m ­ plifying s o m e of t h e noise with t h e low-level s o u n d s ) , it is

of t h e i n c o m i n g s o u n d sources.

very difficult a n d often i m p o s s i b l e t o fix o v e r m o d u l a t e d , Taking a l e v e l Except w h e n literally r u n n i n g after a story

d i s t o r t e d s o u n d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Digital s o u n d is espe­

o n an E N G assignment, before starting t h e videotape

cially susceptible t o o v e r m o d u l a t i o n .

r e c o r d i n g y o u s h o u l d always take a level—that

is, adjust

t h e i n p u t level so t h a t t h e talent's speech falls m o r e o r less

Live studio mixing

w i t h i n t h e tolerable v o l u m e r a n g e ( n o t r i d i n g in t h e m u d

a n d b a l a n c e s o u n d s while t h e p r o d u c t i o n is in progress.

a n d n o t b e n d i n g t h e n e e d l e ) . Ask t h e talent t o talk long

S t u d i o m i x i n g m a y range from t h e relatively simple task of

Live mixingmeans

that you c o m b i n e

e n o u g h for y o u to see w h e r e t h e lower a n d u p p e r limits of

r i d i n g gain for t h e newscaster's lavaliere m i c o r b a l a n c i n g

t h e speech v o l u m e are, t h e n place t h e fader b e t w e e n these

t h e voices of several p a n e l m e m b e r s d u r i n g a discussion,

t w o e x t r e m e s . A n e x p e r i e n c e d p e r f o r m e r will stay w i t h i n

t o t h e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d j o b of switching a m o n g v a r i o u s

this v o l u m e range even in s u b s e q u e n t takes. Unfortunately, w h e n asked t o give a level, m o s t per­ f o r m e r s c o n s i d e r it a n i n t r u s i o n o n their c o n c e n t r a t i o n

a u d i o sources d u r i n g a newscast o r r e c o r d i n g a rock b a n d o r even a d r a m a t i c scene for an interactive m u l t i m e d i a p r o g r a m o n h o w t o recognize p o t e n t i a l shoplifters.

232

Chapter

10

As with the setup of mics for a complex production, there is no formula for how an optimal mix is achieved. When riding gain for the single mic of the news anchor, simply keep his or her level within the acceptable audio range and watch that the anchor is clearly heard. When controlling the audio of the panel discussion, riding gain is easiest if every member wears a lavaliere. Once the levels are set, you have little to do except bring down the fader somewhat if one of the members gets excited and starts talking much louder than normal, or bring it up when somebody drifts off mumbling. When using desk mics, the most important audio job is before the show even starts—the mic setup. Remember to place the mics at least three times as far apart as the distance of any mic to the panel member (as described in chapter 9) to eliminate possible multiple-microphone interference. After taking preliminary levels, adjust the mics for optimal positions and tape them down. Take another level, adjust the faders for all mics, and hope that the panel members' kicking and banging on the table will be kept to a minimum. The multisource newscast is more challenging. For example, you may need to switch quickly from the anchor's introduction to SOT [sound on tape), and from there to the co-anchor, to the guest in London (remote source), back to the co-anchor, to another VTR, back to the anchor, to a commercial, and so forth. You will find that labeling each audio input will greatly facilitate your audio control: sim­ ply put a strip of masking tape below the faders and mark them with a grease pencil. As for volume control, you have to watch the remote sources and the SOT segments more than the mics of the anchors and weathercaster (whose voice levels you have set before the newscast). The mixing for the rock band or dramatic scene for the multimedia project can be quite complicated and is best left to an audio expert. Again, the initial choice of mics and their proper placement are more challenging than the mix­ ing itself. You may also have to patch the mics for various audio feeds, such as foldback, mix-minus, audience feed, or videotape feed. A mix-minus feed is a type of foldback in which you send into the studio a complete mix (usually the band or orchestra) minus the sound generated in the studio (such as the singer's voice). Regardless of the com­ plexity of the setup, there are some basic steps to follow: 1. Label each input. 2. Calibrate the audio system. 3. Check the mics individually by having an assistant lightly scratch the surface of each mic. This will

AUDIO:

SOUND

CONTROL

identify the specific mic whose input you are trying to locate. Having someone talk in the vicinity of the mic is not as accurate—you may well think you are testing one mic while actually receiving sound from another. 4. If foldback is required, check the foldback levels in the studio. 5. Do a brief test recording and listen to the play­ back mix. 6. Adjust the necessary quality controls until the singer's voice sounds the way you like it to sound. Check with the band's manager or producer, who usually likes to listen to the rehearsal in the audio control booth, before deciding on the final recording setup. 7. Try to record major sound sources (voice and instru­ ments, dialogue and sound effects, guitar, bass, and keyboard) on separate tracks. Such separation makes postproduction mixing much easier than if you mix everything live on a single track. 8. Anticipate the director's cues. For example, be pre­ pared to open (activate) a specific person's mic so that you can react immediately to the director's cue. 9. Do not panic and lose your temper if you hear some accidental noise, such as a door slamming or some­ thing being dropped. Although such noise may sound to you like irreparable damage at the time, most view­ ers will not even be aware of it. Don't take this friendly advice as an invitation to sloppy sound control but rather as an appeal to common sense. If, however, you are doing a recording meant for postproduction, alert the director of such incidents and let him or her decide whether to do a retake.

PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO ENfiwAs with all audio, the better the sound

pickup, the EFP easier the sound control during the production or in postproduction. (Refer to chapter 9 for information and advice on what mics to use outdoors and how to achieve optimal sound under various field conditions.) Unless you are engaged in a big remote (see chapter 20), the audio equipment in the field is much less elaborate than its studio counterparts. This is not because you don't need to produce optimal audio in the field but simply because in ENG the audio requirements are usually more

Section

10.1

Sound

Controls

and Recording

for Studio

modest. Similarly, in EFP most of the quality control is done in postproduction in the studio. But don't be fooled into thinking that field audio is somehow easier than studio audio. On the contrary—sound pickup and recording in the field are actually more difficult. In the field you have to worry about wind noise, barking dogs, traffic sounds, airplanes overhead, chattering onlookers, or rooms that produce the dreaded inside-a-barrel sounds. KEEPING SOUNDS SEPARATE The key to good field audio is keeping the primary sounds as separate from the environmental sounds as possible. For example, you usually want to record the reporter's mic input on one audio track and the camera mic's input of primarily ambient sounds on the second audio track. There will nevertheless be circumstances in which you need to mix and balance several sound sources in the field. For example, if you have to cover an interview of several people in somebody's living room, you should balance their voices right then and there. This is where the field mixer comes in. AUDIO MIXER An audio mixer differs from a console in that it normally serves only the input (volume control) and the mixing (combining two or more signals) functions, SEE 10.18 Most portable mixers have only three or four input channels and one or two outputs. Even then the small mixers require that you distinguish between low-level and high-level input sources. A switch above or below each sound input must be set either to mic for low-level inputs,

10.18

PORTABLE MIXER

This portable mixer has three inputs and two outputs. The volume controls are rotary knobs. Such big knobs and switches are especially convenient in the field, where digital menus are often hard to see and activate.

and Field

Operations

233

such as all microphones, or to line for high-level sources, such as the output of a CD player. Because most of the time you will use the field mixer for mixing microphones, double-check that the input switch is set to mic. If you are not sure whether a particular piece of audio equipment produces a mic-level or a line-level signal, do a brief test recording. Don't rely on the VU meter when playing back the test recording—you should actually listen to it with headphones. The VU meter might show the recording to be in the acceptable volume range, but it will not reflect sound distortions. Even though some digital mixers have more inputs as well as some quality controls, elaborate mixing in the field is not recommended unless you're doing a live telecast.

AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD ENSw You usually do not need a mixer when doing ENG. EFP^You can plug the external mic into one of the cam­ corder audio inputs and plug the camera shotgun mic into the other audio input. U S I N G THE A G C IN E N G A N D EFP Be especially conscious of the overmodulation problem during ENG or EFP. When you are on an ENG assign­ ment and cannot watch the VU meter on the camcorder, switch on the automatic

gain control (AGC),

which boosts

low sounds and reduces high-volume sounds so that they conform to the acceptable volume range. The AGC does not discriminate between wanted and unwanted sounds, however; it faithfully boosts the sound of the passing truck and the coughing crewmember and even the noise of the pauses when the field reporter is thinking of something clever to say. But whenever possible, and especially when in noisy surroundings, switch off the AGC, take a level, and try to watch the audio levels. When using DAT, turn down the pot (volume control) a bit from where you had it while taking a level. This way you can be pretty sure not to overmodulate once you are on the air. EFP M I X I N G In EFP mixing there are always assignments for which you have to control more audio sources than the two micro­ phones. Even a simple assignment such as covering the opening of the local elementary school's new gym will most likely require that you mix at least three microphones: the field reporter's mic, the lectern mic for the speeches, and a mic to pick up the school choir. If you run out of mic inputs on the mixer, you can always cover the choir with the camera mic.

234

Chapter

AUDIO:

10

Despite the number of mics, the mixing itself is fairly simple. Once you have set the level for each input, you probably need to ride gain only for the reporter's mic dur­ ing interviews and for the various speakers at the lectern. You may also want to bring up (increase the gain of) the choir mic during the performance. Although in an emer­ gency you could try to pick up most of these sounds with the camera mic or by pointing a shotgun mic at the various areas, the multiple-mic setup and the portable mixer afford you better control. Here are a few basic guidelines for live ENG/EFP mixing: Even if you have only a few inputs, label each one with what it controls, such as field reporter's mic, audience mic, and so forth. You would be surprised at how quickly you forget whose mic corresponds to which pot. In case you have to turn over the audio control to someone else, he or she can take over without long explanations.

It is usually easier to do complicated and subtle mixing

•

The major production equipment for studio audio includes the audio console, the patchbay, analog and digital tapebased recording systems (VTR, ATR, and DAT), and tapeless recording systems (digital cart, mini disc and flash memory devices, hard drives with removable or fixed disks, and opti­ cal disc systems, such as CDs and DVDs).

•

Audio consoles perform five major functions: input—select, preamplify, and control the volume of the various incoming signals; mix—combine and balance two or more incoming signals; quality control—manipulate the sound charac­ teristics; output—route the combined signal to a specific output; and monitor—route the output or specific sounds to a speaker or headphones so that they can be heard.

•

The audio control area of a television studio includes the basic audio control booth, which is used for the sound control of daily broadcasts. It houses the audio console, the patchbay, various recording and playback systems, high-quality speakers, a video monitor, and at least one computer that carries the essential in-house information.

•

The basic audio operation includes: the audio system cali­ bration, which means that all VU meters in the system must respond in the same way to a specific audio signal (control tone); volume control; and live studio mixing.

•

Live studio mixing usually involves combining and balanc­ ing sounds while the production is in progress.

•

In EFP the key to good field audio is keeping the various sound sources reasonably separate so that they can be properly mixed in postproduction.

•

The automatic gain control (AGC) is a convenient means of keeping the volume within acceptable limits, but in its automatic amplification it will not distinguish between important sounds and unwanted sounds.

If you feed the mixer line-out to the camcorder and a backup audio recorder, you must calibrate all of the equip­ ment. Double-check all inputs from wireless mic systems— they have a tendency to malfunction just before the start of an event. If recording for postproduction, try to put distinctly different sound sources on separate audio tracks of the videotape, such as the reporter's and guests' voices on one track and the speaker's lectern mic and the choir on the other. That way it will be easier during postproduction sweetening (getting rid of unwanted noises and improving the sound quality) to balance the reporter's voice with the other sounds.

CONTROL

in postproduction rather than live in the field. This does not mean that you should forgo filtering out as much un­ wanted sound as possible during the on-location pickup, assuming that the mixer has some basic quality controls available. If it doesn't, don't worry. If any sweetening is to be done, do it in postproduction. Remember that the more attention you pay to good sound pickup in the field, the less time you need in postproduction. AUDIO^ Aesthetics-* continuity | environment ] sound perspective | try it

STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND As you read this brief discussion of stereo and surround sound, apply it to the context of video—either film or standard-sized and large-screen television. STEREO SOUND Stereo sound, which defines especially the horizontal audio field (left-right or right-left positioning of the major audio source) is of little use when playing it back on a standardsized television set. Because the horizontal dimension of the screen is so small, any panning (horizontal position­ ing) of sound will inevitably lead to off-screen space, even if you sit in the sweet spot (the center where you perceive the two channels as one). At best, stereo for television will enrich the general shape of the sound, that is, make it more spacious. With large-screen, home-theater HDTV video projec­ tions, however, stereo sound becomes extremely important for keeping up with and balancing the high-energy video. In fact, the movielike experience when watching largescreen video projections will be greatly intensified by a surround-sound system.

Section

TO.2

Postproduction

and

Sound

241

Aesthetics

Most audio postproduction involves linear or nonlinear editing of the sound tracks of video recordings. When editing the audio track to serve as a guide for sub­ sequent video editing, you must transcribe all spoken material on the source tapes. Postproduction mixing means "sweetening" or mixing recorded sound tracks for optimal quality. When engaged in mixdowns (reducing the various sound tracks to stereo or surround sound) of the audio portion of a video production, always judge the audio mix relative to the video. The audio postproduction room contains the equipment of a television audio control booth, plus a digital audio work­ station (DAW), an analog audio synchronizer, keyboards and a sampler, and sometimes an automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) room.

10.22

The five major aesthetic factors in sound control are: envi­ ronment—sharpening an event through ambient sounds; figure/ground—emphasizing the most important sound source over the general background sounds; perspec­ tive—matching close-up pictures with nearby sounds, and long shots with distant sounds; continuity—maintaining the quality of sound when combining various takes; and energy—matching the force and the power of the pictures with a similar intensity of sound.

SURROUND SOUND

The 5.1 Dolby surround-sound system uses six speakers— three in front and three in back. The rear-center speaker is a subwoofer for very low sounds.

Surround-sound technology uses three speakers placed in front of the listener and three in back to produce a sound field that surrounds the listener.

SURROUND SOUND Surround

sound is a t e c h n o l o g y t h a t p r o d u c e s a soundfield

i n front of, to t h e sides of, a n d b e h i n d the listener, enabling o n e to h e a r s o u n d s from t h e front, sides, a n d back. Devel­ o p e d originally for film r e p r o d u c t i o n , it is n o w u s e d for For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.

H D T V a n d other large-screen h o m e - t h e a t e r a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e m o s t p r e v a l e n t s u r r o u n d - s o u n d system is D o l b y 5.1, w h i c h positions t h r e e speakers in front a n d t w o in t h e b a c k for s o u n d r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s e five speakers are s u p p o r t e d b y an a d d i t i o n a l s u b w o o f e r t h a t is usually p o s i t i o n e d b e ­ t w e e n t h e t w o rear speakers. This .1 speaker can r e p r o d u c e especially low-frequency, t h u n d e r o u s s o u n d s , SEE

10.22

G o o d s u r r o u n d - s o u n d m i x i n g generally restricts o n ­ screen d i a l o g u e t o t h e c e n t e r - f r o n t speaker a n d laterally

E_33> AUDIO-* Audio introduction E3_

__> __>

spreads a c t i o n to all t h r e e front speakers. But if t h e video shows t h e h e r o s t a n d i n g a m i d d o w n t o w n traffic, playing in an o r c h e s t r a , or d o d g i n g b o m b s , all five speakers are active, as well as t h e " t h u n d e r b o x " at r e a r - c e n t e r .

3.

See Alten, Audio in Media, pp. 413-24.

E_E>

3

E__

218

AUDIO-* Consoles and mixers-* parts | signals | control | try it 221 AUDIO-* Consoles and mixers-* calibration

231

EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-* audio transcript 236 EDITING-* Functions^ correct

236

EDITING-* Continuity^ sound

240

AUDIO-* Aesthetics-* continuity | environment | sound perspective | try it 240

Switching, or Instantaneous Editing W h e n w a t c h i n g a television director during a live multicamera show, such as a newscast or a basketball g a m e , you might be surprised to find that the primary activity of the director is not telling the camerapersons w h a t to do but rather selecting the most ef­ fective shots from t h e variety of video sources displayed on a row of preview monitors. In fact, the director is e n g a g e d in a sort of editing, except that it's the selection of shots during

rather than after the production. Cutting from o n e v i d e o source to another or

calling for other transitions, such as dissolves, wipes, a n d fades, while a show is in prog­ ress is k n o w n as switching

242

or instantaneous

editing.

Unlike postproduction editing, in w h i c h y o u have t h e time t o deliberate exactly w h i c h shots a n d transitions t o use, switching d e m a n d s snap decisions. A l t h o u g h the aesthetic principles o f s w i t c h i n g are identical t o t h o s e u s e d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , t h e t e c h n o l o g y in­ v o l v e d is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . I n s t e a d o f v a r i o u s l i n e a r a n d n o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g s y s t e m s , t h e m a ­ j o r e d i t i n g t o o l is t h e v i d e o s w i t c h e r o r a c o m p u t e r t h a t p e r f o r m s t h e s w i t c h e r f u n c t i o n s .

Section 11.1, H o w Switchers Work, acquaints y o u with the basic functions, layout, a n d o p e r a t i o n o f a p r o d u c t i o n s w i t c h e r in a t e l e v i s i o n c o n t r o l r o o m . S e c t i o n 11.2, W h a t Switchers Do, looks at s o m e specific switching systems a n d features.

auto transition An electronic device that functions like a fader bar.

layering Combining two or more key effects for a more complex effect.

bus A row of buttons on the switcher.

M/E bus Short for mix/effects bus. A row of buttons on the switcher that can serve a mix or an effects function.

delegation controls Controls on the switcher that assign specific functions to a bus. downstream keyer (DSK) A control that allows a title to be keyed (cut in) over the picture (line-out signal) as it leaves the switcher. effects buses Program and preview buses on the switcher, assigned to perform effects transitions. fader bar A lever on the switcher that activates preset transi­ tions, such as dissolves, fades, and wipes, at different speeds. It is also used to create superimpositions. key bus A row of buttons on the switcher, used to select the video source to be inserted into a background image.

mix bus Rows of buttons on the switcher that permit the mixing of video sources, as in a dissolve or a super. preview/preset bus Rows of buttons on the switcher used to select the upcoming video (preset function) and route it to the preview monitor (preview function) independent of the line-out video. Also called preset/background. program bus The bus on a switcher whose inputs are directly switched to the line-out. Also allows cuts-only switching. Also called direct bus or program/background. switching A change from one video source to another during a show or show segment with the aid of a switcher. Also called instantaneous editing.

key-level control Switcher control that adjusts the key signal so that the title to be keyed appears sharp and clear. Also called clip control or clipper.

243

11.1

(3) to create o r access special effects. S o m e switchers can a u t o m a t i c a l l y switch t h e p r o g r a m a u d i o with t h e video. As i n t r o d u c e d in c h a p t e r 1, each v i d e o i n p u t o n a switcher has a c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n . If y o u have only t w o c a m e r a s a n d all y o u w a n t to d o is cut from o n e to the other, t w o b u t t o n s ( o n e for c a m e r a 1 a n d t h e o t h e r for c a m e r a 2) are sufficient. By pressing t h e c a m e r a 1 b u t t o n , y o u p u t

How Switchers Work

c a m e r a 1 "on t h e air," t h a t is, r o u t e its video to t h e l i n e - o u t , w h i c h carries it to t h e t r a n s m i t t e r or t h e video recorder. Pressing t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n will p u t c a m e r a 2 o n the air. W h a t if y o u w a n t e d to e x p a n d y o u r switching to include a v i d e o recorder, a character g e n e r a t o r (C.G.), a n d a r e m o t e feed? You w o u l d n e e d three a d d i t i o n a l b u t t o n s — o n e for the video recorder, o n e for the C.G., a n d o n e for t h e r e m o t e feed. W h e n y o u w a n t t h e screen in black before switching to o n e of t h e v i d e o sources a n d t h e n go to black again at t h e e n d of t h e show, y o u n e e d an a d d i t i o n a l BLK (black) b u t t o n . T h e r o w of b u t t o n s , called a bus, h a s increased to six i n p u t s . P r o d u c t i o n switchers have n o t only m a n y m o r e b u t t o n s b u t several buses as well. Let's find o u t why. r-4_%_-SWITCHING-» Switching functions-* select | connect

W h e n you look at a large p r o d u c t i o n switcher w i t h all t h e different-colored rows of b u t t o n s a n d v a r i o u s levers, y o u m a y feel as i n t i m i d a t e d as w h e n l o o k i n g i n t o t h e cockpit

SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT It m a y b e easier to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a r t s of a switcher b y

of an airliner. But once y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e basic principles

c o n s t r u c t i n g o n e t h a t fulfills t h e basic switcher functions:

a n d functions of a switcher, y o u can learn to o p e r a t e it

cuts, dissolves, supers, a n d fades. This switcher s h o u l d

1

faster t h a n r u n n i n g a n e w c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . Even t h e

also let y o u see t h e selected video i n p u t s or effects before

m o s t e l a b o r a t e digital v i d e o - s w i t c h i n g system p e r f o r m s

y o u p u n c h t h e m u p o n t h e air. W h i l e b u i l d i n g a switcher,

t h e s a m e basic f u n c t i o n s as a s i m p l e p r o d u c t i o n switcher,

y o u will realize that even a simple switcher can get q u i t e

except that large switchers have m o r e video i n p u t s a n d can

complicated a n d that we n e e d to c o m b i n e several functions

p e r f o r m m o r e visual tricks.

to keep it m a n a g e a b l e .

This section explores w h a t a p r o d u c t i o n switcher does a n d h o w it basically w o r k s .

PROGRAM BUS If all y o u w a n t e d to d o is cut (switch i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y ) from

P

•

P

BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS

o n e video source to a n o t h e r w i t h o u t previewing t h e m , y o u

Selecting video sources, performing transitions between them, and creating special effects

could d o it with a single row of b u t t o n s , each o n e represent­

SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT

w h i c h sends e v e r y t h i n g y o u p u n c h u p directly to t h e line-

Program bus, mix buses, preview bus, effects buses, and multi­ function switchers and additional switcher controls

is called t h e program

BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION Cut or take, dissolve, super, fade, and additional special-effects controls

ing a different video i n p u t , SEE 11.1 T h i s r o w of b u t t o n s , o u t ( a n d from t h e r e to t h e t r a n s m i t t e r o r video r e c o r d e r ) , bus. Also called

program/background,

t h e p r o g r a m b u s represents, in effect, a selector switch for t h e l i n e - o u t . It is a direct i n p u t / o u t p u t link a n d therefore is also called t h e direct bus. N o t e t h a t t h e r e is an a d d i t i o n a l b u t t o n at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e p r o g r a m b u s , labeled BLK

BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS T h e basic functions of a p r o d u c t i o n switcher are (1) to se­ lect an a p p r o p r i a t e video source from several i n p u t s , (2) to p e r f o r m basic t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n t w o v i d e o sources, a n d

244

1. See Stuart W. Hyde, Television and Radio Announcing, 4th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983), pp. 226-35. He explains the workings of an audio console by building one. I am using his construction metaphor with his permission.

Section

11.1

How

Switchers

245

Work

1 1 . 1 PROGRAM BUS Whatever source is punched up on the program bus goes directly to the line-out.

Program bus

1 1 . 2 PROGRAM BUS WITH MIX BUSES AND FADER BAR The mix buses A and B enable the mixing of two video sources.

Mix bus A

Mix bus B

Program bus

o r BLACK. Instead of calling u p a specific p i c t u r e , t h e BLK

PREVIEW BUS

b u t t o n p u t s t h e screen to black.

T h e preview

bus is identical to t h e p r o g r a m b u s in t h e

n u m b e r , type, a n d a r r a n g e m e n t of b u t t o n s . T h e functions

MIX BUSES

of t h e b u t t o n s are also similar, except t h a t t h e " l i n e - o u t "

If y o u w a n t the switcher t o d o dissolves ( d u r i n g w h i c h o n e

of t h e p r e v i e w b u s does n o t go o n t h e air or to a r e c o r d ­

image gradually replaces t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h a t e m p o r a r y

ing device b u t simply to a preview

double exposure), supers (a double exposure of two images,

e x a m p l e , y o u p r e s s t h e c a m e r a 1 (C-1)

w i t h t h e t o p o n e letting t h e b o t t o m o n e s h o w t h r o u g h ) ,

p r e v i e w b u s , c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e appears o n t h e preview

a n d fades (the g r a d u a l a p p e a r a n c e of an i m a g e from black

m o n i t o r w i t h o u t affecting t h e o u t p u t of t h e p r o g r a m b u s ,

or d i s a p p e a r a n c e to black) in a d d i t i o n to simple cuts, y o u

such as t h e C G . text. If y o u d o n ' t like c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e

(P/V)

monitor.

If, for

button on the

a lever, called

a n d w a n t to switch to c a m e r a 2, y o u s i m p l y press t h e C-2

t h e fader bar, t h a t controls t h e speed of t h e m i x (dissolves

b u t t o n o n t h e p r e v i e w b u s . T h e p r o g r a m b u s will still dis­

n e e d t w o m o r e b u s e s — t h e mix buses—and

play t h e C G . text o n the line m o n i t o r a n d will n o t switch

a n d fades) a n d t h e n a t u r e of the super, SEE 11.2 W h e n m o v i n g t h e fader b a r t o t h e full extent of travel, t h e p i c t u r e of o n e b u s is faded in while t h e p i c t u r e of the

to c a m e r a 2. T h e p r e v i e w b u s is also called t h e preset

bus

if it also functions as a m o n i t o r t h a t shows v a r i o u s preset

o t h e r b u s is faded o u t . T h e actual dissolve h a p p e n s w h e n

effects. ( T h e preview/preset b u s is explored further later

t h e v i d e o images of t h e t w o buses t e m p o r a r i l y m i x . W h e n

in this section.)

y o u s t o p t h e fader b a r s o m e w h a t in the m i d d l e , y o u ar­

Like t h e t w o - s c r e e n c o m p u t e r display o n a p o s t p r o ­

of t h e two

d u c t i o n editing u n i t , t h e p r e v i e w a n d line m o n i t o r s are

H o w does t h e p r o g r a m b u s get this " m i x " to t h e line-

will c u t t o g e t h e r well, t h a t is, preserve vector c o n t i n u i t y

rest t h e dissolve a n d create a superimposition video sources.

out? You m u s t a d d still a n o t h e r b u t t o n to t h e p r o g r a m

usually side-by-side to s h o w w h e t h e r t w o succeeding shots a n d m e n t a l m a p p o s i t i o n s (see c h a p t e r 13).

b u s t h a t can transfer to t h e l i n e - o u t t h e v i d e o g e n e r a t e d

As y o u c a n see, o u r s i m p l e switcher h a s g r o w n t o

b y t h e m i x b u s e s . This MIX b u t t o n is at t h e far r i g h t of t h e

twenty-six b u t t o n s , a r r a n g e d in four buses, a n d h a s a fader

p r o g r a m bus.

bar added, SEEIT.3

246

Chapter

I1

1 1 . 3 BASIC PRODUCTION SWITCHER WITH PREVIEW BUS This basic production switcher has a program bus, two mix buses, and a preview bus. Note that the preview bus is identical to the program bus except that its output is routed to the preview moni­ tor rather than to the line-out.

SWITCHING,

OR INSTANTANEOUS

EDITING

Preview bus

Mix bus A

Mix bus E

Program bus

EFFECTS B U S E S

b u t t o n s ) , a p r o g r a m b u s ( m i d d l e r o w ) , a n d a key b u s ( u p ­

If y o u n o w w a n t e d y o u r switcher to p e r f o r m s o m e special

p e r r o w ) . It also has a n u m b e r of b u t t o n g r o u p s that let

effects, such as a variety of wipes (one i m a g e f r a m e d in a

y o u create certain effects.

geometrical s h a p e gradually replacing t h e o t h e r ) , title keys

Let's briefly review t h e functions of t h e v a r i o u s buses.

(lettering inserted i n t o a b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e ) , a n d o t h e r

T h e p r o g r a m b u s always directs its o u t p u t to t h e l i n e - o u t .

image manipulations (shape a n d / o r color transforma­

If, for e x a m p l e , y o u press t h e C-1 b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m

t i o n s ) , t h e basic design w o u l d have to i n c l u d e at least two

bus, c a m e r a 1 is o n t h e air. If y o u t h e n press t h e VTR b u t ­

or m o r e effects buses a n d o n e a d d i t i o n a l fader bar. You

t o n , y o u cut f r o m c a m e r a 1 to t h e V T R video. If y o u d o n ' t

would p r o b a b l y t h e n w a n t to e x p a n d the o t h e r video i n p u t s

n e e d to preview the u p c o m i n g pictures a n d y o u r switching

to a c c o m m o d a t e several m o r e cameras, t w o or t h r e e VTRs,

is "cuts-only," y o u can d o it all o n the p r o g r a m b u s . W h e n

a n electronic still store (ESS) system, a graphics generator,

assigned a m i x o r a n effects f u n c t i o n , it b e c o m e s M / E

a n d r e m o t e feeds. In n o t i m e y o u r switcher w o u l d have so

b u s A. SEE 11.5

m a n y b u t t o n s a n d levers that operating t h e m w o u l d require roller skates to get to all of t h e m in a h u r r y .

T h e preview/preset

bus, also called

preset/background,

lets y o u p r e v i e w t h e v i d e o source t h a t y o u selected as y o u r next shot. W h e n e v e r y o u press t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n

MULTIFUNCTION SWITCHERS

o n t h e preset b u s , t h e selected s h o t will a u t o m a t i c a l l y a p ­

To keep switchers m a n a g e a b l e , m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e d e ­

pear o n the preview/preset m o n i t o r . As s o o n as y o u activate

signed buses t h a t p e r f o r m m u l t i p l e functions. R a t h e r t h a n

a certain t r a n s i t i o n (cut, dissolve, or w i p e ) , this preview

have separate p r o g r a m , mix, effects, a n d preview buses, y o u

p i c t u r e will replace t h e o n - t h e - a i r p i c t u r e as s h o w n o n t h e

can assign a m i n i m u m of buses v a r i o u s mix/effects

(M/E)

line m o n i t o r . As y o u c a n see, this preview/preset b u s n o w

functions. W h e n y o u assign two M/E buses (A a n d B) to

functions as M / E b u s B. You can n o w u n d e r s t a n d w h y this

t h e m i x m o d e , y o u can dissolve from A t o B or even d o a

is called a p r e v i e w / p r e s e t b u s : it is a p r e v i e w b u s because it

super (by stopping the dissolve m i d w a y ) . By assigning t h e m

lets y o u p r e v i e w t h e u p c o m i n g source; it is a preset b u s b e ­

to t h e effects m o d e , y o u can achieve special effects, such

cause it lets y o u preset t h e u p c o m i n g effect. Despite its dual

as a variety of wipes from A to B. You c a n even assign t h e

function, this b u s is generally k n o w n as t h e p r e v i e w b u s .

p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w buses v a r i o u s M / E functions while

C o m p l i c a t i n g t h e t e r m i n o l o g y a little m o r e , b o t h t h e

still preserving t h e i r original functions. T h e b u t t o n s w i t h

p r o g r a m a n d the preview/preset buses are s o m e t i m e s called

which you delegate w h a t a b u s is to d o are, logically e n o u g h ,

" b a c k g r o u n d " buses because they can serve as b a c k g r o u n d

called delegation

controls. T h e following discussion identi­

for v a r i o u s effects. Let's a s s u m e that y o u have c a m e r a 1

fies the v a r i o u s buses a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t o n a simple

p u n c h e d up on the program bus (M/E bus A), showing

m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher, SEE 11.4

a C U (close-up) of t h e latest c o m p u t e r m o d e l . W h e n y o u insert t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r over this shot, t h e p r o ­

As y o u c a n see, t h e switcher in figure 11.4 has only t h r e e buses: a p r e v i e w / p r e s e t b u s (lower r o w of

g r a m b u s supplies t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e (the C U of t h e c o m p u t e r ) for this title key.

Section

11.1

How

Switchers

, Wipe selectors

247

Work

Color background controls

Joystick - Auto transition rate

Key controls

Clipper Soft wipe

^

Downstream keyer

Black buttons

Delegation controls

Key bus Program bus (M/E bus A)

• p - D S K fade-toblack button

Preset/preview bus (M/E bus B)

Fader bar

Take button '

Auto transition button

1 1 . 4 MULTIFUNCTION SWITCHER This multifunction switcher (Grass Valley 100) has only three buses: a preview/preset bus, a program bus, and a key bus. You can delegate the program and preview/preset buses M/E functions.

1 1 . 5 SWITCHING ON THE PROGRAM BUS Program bus

"Take one.'

Program bus

"Take two.'

T h e third ( t o p ) r o w of b u t t o n s is t h e key bus. It lets y o u

When switching on the program bus, the transitions will be cuts-only. With cam­ era 1 on the air, you can cut to camera 2 by pressing the C-2 button.

Delegation controls

T h e s e c o n t r o l s let y o u c h o o s e a

select t h e v i d e o sources, s u c h as lettering s u p p l i e d b y t h e

t r a n s i t i o n or a n effect. O n this m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher, they

C.G., t o b e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e , s u p p l i e d

are l o c a t e d t o t h e i m m e d i a t e left o f t h e fader bar. SEE 11.6

b y t h e p r o g r a m b u s . •Vi»»SWITCHING-> Architecture^ program bus | preview bus | mix buses | fader bar automatic transition | try it

By pressing t h e b a c k g r o u n d b u t t o n (BKGD),

you put

t h e p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w / p r e s e t (A a n d B) buses in m i x

248

Chapter

SWITCHING,

I 7

OR INSTANTANEOUS

EDITING

tional b u t t o n s to achieve the s a m e key effect. ES^SWITCHING-* Switching functions-^ transitions | create effects Before m o v i n g o n t o s o m e o t h e r m a j o r s w i t c h e r controls, let's p u t s o m e of the t h e o r y i n t o practice a n d d o s o m e simple switching.

BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION A l t h o u g h y o u are n o w w o r k i n g w i t h a specific a n a l o g 2

switcher (Grass Valley 1 0 0 ) w h o s e controls are a r r a n g e d in a p a r t i c u l a r way, m o s t m u l t i f u n c t i o n switchers o p e r a t e o n a similar switcher architecture. O n c e y o u k n o w h o w to o p e r a t e a specific p r o d u c t i o n switcher, y o u can readily transfer t h o s e skills to a n o t h e r o n e . L o o k again at the switcher in figure 11.4. H o w w o u l d y o u achieve a cut, a dissolve, a super, a fade from black, a n d a fade to black?

CUT OR TAKE 11.6

As y o u recall, t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) lets y o u cut f r o m o n e

DELEGATION CONTROLS

The delegation controls assign the function of the buses and the specific transition mode.

s o u r c e to a n o t h e r by s i m p l y pressing t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n . If y o u w a n t c a m e r a 1 o n t h e air, press t h e C-1 b u t ­ t o n ; t o cut to c a m e r a 2, press t h e C-2 b u t t o n . T h e p r o b l e m with s u c h direct switching is t h a t t h e n e x t s h o t will n o t

m o d e . Whatever you p u n c h u p o n the p r o g r a m b u s (A) will

a p p e a r o n the preview m o n i t o r . A l t h o u g h each video

go o n t h e air a n d , therefore, s h o w u p o n the line m o n i t o r .

i n p u t shows u p o n a designated m o n i t o r in t h e c o n t r o l

Whatever you press o n t h e preview/preset b u s (B) will show

r o o m , y o u will have a difficult t i m e seeing w h e t h e r t h e

u p o n the p r e v i e w m o n i t o r , ready to r e p l a c e — t h r o u g h a

n e w s h o t ( c a m e r a 2) will cut t o g e t h e r well ( p r o v i d e visual c o n t i n u i t y ) w i t h t h e o n e already o n t h e air ( c a m e r a 1).

c u t — t h e p i c t u r e from b u s A c u r r e n t l y o n t h e air. By additionally pressing t h e red MIX

b u t t o n in the

W i t h a preview/preset m o n i t o r p o s i t i o n e d next t o t h e line

delegation c o n t r o l s section of t h e switcher, y o u have ex­

m o n i t o r , y o u c a n j u d g e w h e t h e r c a m e r a 2's i m a g e will

p a n d e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n s from c u t s - o n l y to i n c l u d e dissolves

p r o v i d e t h e necessary c o n t i n u i t y w h e n c u t w i t h t h e i m a g e

as well. You can n o w c u t from o n e video s o u r c e to a n o t h e r

o n c a m e r a 1. To effect such a preview, y o u have to p u n c h

or dissolve b e t w e e n t h e m . W h e n y o u press t h e r e d

up camera 2 on the preset/preview bus.

WIPE

b u t t o n instead of t h e M I X b u t t o n , t h e t r a n s i t i o n will b e a wipe instead of a dissolve (see c h a p t e r 14). By pressing t h e X E Y b u t t o n , y o u activate t h e t o p (key)

But wait! You first n e e d to tell the p r o g r a m a n d preview buses t h a t t h e y are s u p p o s e d t o i n t e r a c t as a p a i r of M / E buses. Pressing t h e BKGD delegation c o n t r o l b u t t o n will

bus. O n this b u s y o u c a n select a p r o p e r key source, such as

a c c o m p l i s h this a s s i g n m e n t . M / E b u s A (also the p r o g r a m

the C.G., t h a t is to b e inserted i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d picture

b u s ) is n o w feeding c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e t o the line m o n i t o r

c u r r e n t l y activated o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) a n d , therefore,

( a n d to t h e l i n e - o u t ) , a n d M / E b u s B (also the preset b u s )

o n t h e air. G o i n g back t o o u r c o m p u t e r e x a m p l e , t h e C-1

is feeding c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e to t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r , ready

b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e back­

to replace c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e , SEE I 1.7

g r o u n d image of t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d t h e CG b u t t o n o n t h e key b u s w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r . T h e advantage of a m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher is t h a t y o u can achieve all of these effects w i t h only t h r e e b u s e s . If y o u h a d c o n t i n u e d the architecture—the

electronic design

logic—of the switcher w e were b u i l d i n g , y o u w o u l d have n e e d e d at least five buses, two fader bars, a n d several a d d i ­

2. The GV100 switcher is a classic that you still find in many smaller pro­ fessional and educational television studios. Whereas more-modern digital switchers have greater effects capabilities, which allow the layering of a variety of effects through multiple keys, a high-capacity effects memory, and two or more downstream channels to provide separate video feeds, they still operate on the principal M/E architec­ ture of the GV 100.

Section

How

11.1

Switchers

Preview monitor (camera 2)

11.7

249

Work

Line monitor (camera 1)

DUAL FUNCTION OF PROGRAM AND PRESET BUSES

When delegated a background and mix function, the program bus becomes M/E bus A and the preview/preset bus becomes M/E bus B. Here camera 1 is punched up on bus A and is on the air. Camera 2 is preset to replace camera 1 as soon as you press the CUT button.

Preview monitor (cameral)

Line monitor (camera 2)

1 1 . 8 IMAGE CHANGE AFTER CUT When the cut is completed, the program bus shows camera 2 on the air, and the preview/preset bus switches automatically to camera 1.

To p e r f o r m t h e actual cut from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2,

b u s (which n o w shows c a m e r a 1) a n d p r o g r a m b u s (which

you m u s t press t h e CUT b u t t o n right b e l o w t h e MIX b u t ­

h a s c a m e r a 2 o n the air)? Yes. T h i s toggle feature of the

t o n (see figure 11.6). T h e p i c t u r e o n t h e line m o n i t o r will

C U T b u t t o n is helpful w h e n e v e r y o u have t o switch quickly

i n s t a n t l y switch from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2, a n d t h e p i c ­

a n d repeatedly b e t w e e n t h e s a m e t w o v i d e o sources. For

t u r e o n t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r will switch from c a m e r a 2 to

example, in switching an interview, t h e single CUT b u t t o n

c a m e r a 1. T h e light of t h e C-1 b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s

lets y o u react quickly to w h a t is b e i n g said a n d p e r f o r m

(indicating that its video source is o n t h e air) will d i m , a n d

w i t h great accuracy r e p e a t e d cuts b e t w e e n the close-ups

the C-2 b u t t o n will light (indicating t h a t c a m e r a 2 is n o w

of t h e h o s t a n d t h e guest.

o n the air). T h e o p p o s i t e will h a p p e n o n t h e preset b u s : t h e C-2 b u t t o n will d i m (indicating t h a t its source is n o longer

DISSOLVE

p r e v i e w e d ) , a n d t h e C-1 b u t t o n will light ( i n d i c a t i n g that

To achieve a dissolve, y o u m u s t n o w press t h e MIX b u t t o n

its source is n o w fed to t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r ) . By pressing

in a d d i t i o n to t h e BKGD b u t t o n t o delegate t h e m i x func­

t h e C L T b u t t o n , y o u have, in effect, transferred the o u t p u t

tion to b o t h buses. If for s o m e reason the BKGD b u t t o n has

of the p r e v i e w b u s to t h e p r o g r a m b u s a n d transferred t h e

b e e n t u r n e d off, y o u n e e d to also press this b u t t o n again.

former o u t p u t of t h e p r o g r a m b u s back to t h e preview b u s .

W h e n b o t h t h e BKGD a n d t h e MIX b u t t o n s are lighted,

This m a n e u v e r is also called flip-flop

switching,

SEE 11.8

t h e switcher is in t h e correct m i x m o d e .

W h a t if y o u were t o press t h e CUT b u t t o n again?

To dissolve from c a m e r a 1 t o c a m e r a 2, y o u n e e d to

Would y o u get t h e same flip-flop effect between the preview

first p u n c h u p c a m e r a 1 o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) to p u t

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SWITCHING,

OR INSTANTANEOUS

EDITING

A

Mix bus A Preview monitor (camera 2)

Line monitor (camera!)

Preview monitor (camera 2)

Line monitor (superimposition)

Preview monitor (camera!)

Line monitor (camera 2)

Mix bus B

B

Mix bus A

Mix bus B

C

Mix bus A

Mix busB

11.9

DISSOLVE

Once assigned the mix function through the mix delegation control, you can dissolve from camera 1 to camera 2. Assuming that camera 1 is on the air on bus A, you need to preset camera 2 on bus B. By moving the fader bar to the full extent of travel (in this case, up), you activate the dissolve from camera 1 to camera 2. Once the dissolve is completed, camera 2 will replace camera 1 on the program bus. Note that you can move the fader bar either up or down for the dissolve.

c a m e r a 1 o n t h e air. N o w p u n c h u p c a m e r a 2 o n t h e p r e ­

revert to their p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w functions. Because

view b u s (B). As s o o n as y o u press t h e C-2 b u t t o n o n t h e

t h e p r o g r a m b u s has c o m m a n d over w h a t picture is o n the

preset b u s , it will light u p a n d r o u t e c a m e r a 2's video to the

air, t h e preset b u s transfers c a m e r a 2's v i d e o i n p u t to the

preview m o n i t o r . But instead of pressing t h e CUT b u t t o n

p r o g r a m b u s a n d c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e to its o w n b u s just in

as you w o u l d d u r i n g a take, y o u m o v e t h e fader b a r all

case y o u w a n t to dissolve back to c a m e r a 1 at t h e e n d of

t h e way u p (away from y o u ) or d o w n ( t o w a r d y o u ) to t h e

t h e dissolve.

full extent of travel. T h e speed of t h e dissolve d e p e n d s o n

You can also use t h e auto transition

device to execute

h o w fast y o u m o v e t h e fader bar. W h e n y o u have reached

t h e dissolve. Instead of m o v i n g t h e fader b a r u p o r d o w n ,

t h e limit of travel with t h e fader bar, the dissolve is c o m ­

y o u can press t h e AUTO

plete a n d c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e will have replaced c a m e r a l's

b u t t o n — s e e figure 11.4), w h i c h t h e n takes over t h e fader

p i c t u r e , SEE 11.9

b a r function. T h e rate of t h e dissolve is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e

You can w a t c h the dissolve o n t h e line m o n i t o r , w h i c h

TRANS b u t t o n (next to t h e TAKE

n u m b e r of frames y o u p u n c h u p in t h e a u t o t r a n s i t i o n

displays c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e at t h e start of the dissolve a n d

section. Because o u r television system o p e r a t e s w i t h 30

c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e at the e n d of it. A l t h o u g h y o u h a d b o t h

frames p e r second, a frame rate of 60 w o u l d give y o u a

buses act t e m p o r a r i l y as M / E b u s e s A a n d B, they quickly

2-second dissolve. S o u n d complicated? Yes, b u t o n c e you've

Section

11.1

How

Switchers

251

Work

Mix bus A

Mix bus B

Preview monitor

Line monitor

(black)

(camera 2)

1 1 . 1 0 FADE When fading to black from camera 2, you need to punch up the BLK button on bus B (preview/preset) and then dissolve into it by moving the fader bar to the full extent of travel (in this case, down).

d o n e it a few t i m e s , p u n c h i n g all these b u t t o n s b e c o m e s as m u c h a r o u t i n e as u s i n g a c o m p u t e r k e y b o a r d w i t h a word-processing program.

To fade t o black from c a m e r a 2 (which h a s b e e n t r a n s ­ ferred to t h e p r o g r a m b u s a n d is therefore o n t h e air) y o u press t h e 5UC~button o n t h e preset b u s a n d m o v e t h e fader b a r t o t h e o p p o s i t e limit of travel, S E E I I . I O Because y o u lit­

SUPER

erally dissolve from a n i m a g e t o black, y o u c a n also use t h e

If y o u w e r e t o s t o p t h e dissolve halfway b e t w e e n t h e p r o ­

a u t o t r a n s i t i o n c o n t r o l for t h e fade to black. Q2J>swiTCH-

g r a m (A) a n d preset (B) buses, y o u w o u l d have a s u p e r -

ING-> Transitions-* cut | mix/dissolve | wipe | fade | try it

i m p o s i t i o n , o r super (see figure 11.9b). B o t h buses will b e activated, each delivering a p i c t u r e w i t h exactly o n e - h a l f

ADDITIONAL SPECIAL-EFFECTS CONTROLS

video (signal s t r e n g t h ) . If y o u w a n t t o favor t h e p i c t u r e

B e c a u s e y o u h a v e b e c o m e so proficient i n p e r f o r m i n g

from b u s A ( m a k e t h e "old" video source s t r o n g e r ) , simply

simple switcher o p e r a t i o n s , y o u c a n w o r k w i t h a few m o r e

s t o p t h e travel of t h e fader b a r before it reaches m i d p o i n t .

controls t o create a variety of special effects. These include:

To favor t h e source from b u s B ( t h e " n e w " i m a g e ) , m o v e

(1) w i p e controls a n d w i p e p a t t e r n s , (2) k e y a n d clip c o n ­

t h e fader b a r past t h e m i d p o i n t .

trols, (3) t h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer, a n d (4) color b a c k g r o u n d c o n t r o l s . At this p o i n t d o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t exactly h o w these

FADE

controls are o p e r a t e d . A l t h o u g h all professional p r o d u c ­ is a dissolve from black t o a p i c t u r e ; t o "fade to

t i o n switchers have these a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r o l s , t h e y often

black" o r "go t o black" is a dissolve from t h e o n - t h e - a i r

require different m e a n s of o p e r a t i o n . To b e c o m e efficient

p i c t u r e t o black. Using o u r switcher, h o w w o u l d y o u fade

in using a p a r t i c u l a r switcher, y o u n e e d t o s t u d y its o p e r a ­

A fade-in

in c a m e r a 2 from black? H e r e is t h e switching s e q u e n c e

t i o n s m a n u a l a n d , above all, practice, as y o u w o u l d w h e n

for d o i n g so:

l e a r n i n g t o play a m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t .

1. Press t h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s . Because t h e p r o g r a m b u s delivers its p i c t u r e t o t h e l i n e - o u t , t h e line m o n i t o r shows black v i d e o .

Realize that these controls d o n o t b y themselves create t h e effect; rather, it is t h e special-effects

generator

(SEG)

t h a t p e r f o r m s this task (see c h a p t e r 14). All p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a b u i l t - i n SEG. I n fact, y o u will find that

2. Press b o t h t h e BKGD a n d t h e MIX b u t t o n s . As y o u

t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s of m o s t digital p r o d u c t i o n switchers

recall, these delegation controls assign t h e p r o g r a m

p r i d e t h e m s e l v e s n o t so m u c h o n o p e r a t i o n a l ease b u t

a n d preset b u s e s ' mix/effects functions. 3. Press t h e C-2 b u t t o n o n t h e preset b u s . 4. M o v e t h e fader b a r t o t h e o p p o s i t e position. T h e speed

o n t h e m a n y visual tricks their SEGs c a n p e r f o r m . T h e b u z z w o r d is layering, w h i c h m e a n s c o m b i n i n g several key effects i n t o a m o r e c o m p l e x o n e . W h e n d o i n g c o m p l i c a t e d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, y o u will find t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d

of t h e fade-in is d e t e r m i n e d b y h o w fast y o u m o v e

switcher SEG will n o t give y o u e n o u g h variety. In this case

t h e fader bar. T h e c a m e r a 2 p i c t u r e "develops" o n t h e

y o u n e e d t o u s e a p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switcher o r a c o m p u t e r

line-out monitor.

with special-effects software.

252

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1I

OR INSTANTANEOUS

EDITING

3. In the delegation controls section (effects/transition g r o u p ) , press t h e KEY a n d M I X b u t t o n s . 4. In t h e key controls, press t h e KEY BUS b u t t o n , w h i c h will m a k e t h e k e y s o u r c e a p p e a r o n t h e p r e v i e w monitor. 5. Adjust t h e clipper a n d the gain c o n t r o l ( t u r n clockwise o r counterclockwise) until the key looks s h a r p . If t h e ' Joystick positioner

Wipe patterns

key does n o t a p p e a r as i n d i c a t e d in step 4, adjust t h e clip c o n t r o l until it does.

1 1 . 1 1 WIPE MODE SELECTORS The wipe mode selectors offer a choice of geometrical wipe patterns. The configurations can be placed in a specific screen position using the joystick.

6. Press t h e CUT b u t t o n to activate t h e key. T h e back­ g r o u n d i m a g e a n d t h e key s h o u l d b o t h a p p e a r o n t h e line m o n i t o r . N o t e t h a t v a r i o u s switcher m o d e l s require different sequences to achieve a key effect. W h a t e v e r t h e steps, y o u

Wipe controls and wipe patterns

W h e n pressing

the WIPE b u t t o n in t h e delegation controls section in ad­ dition to the BKGD b u t t o n , all t r a n s i t i o n s will b e wipes. D u r i n g a w i p e t h e source v i d e o is gradually replaced b y t h e s e c o n d i m a g e t h a t is framed in a g e o m e t r i c a l s h a p e (see c h a p t e r 14). You c a n select t h e specific p a t t e r n in t h e g r o u p of b u t t o n s called wipe mode or pattern

n e e d t o select t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e ( t h e m a i n i m a g e i n t o w h i c h y o u w a n t to i n s e r t t h e title) a n d t h e key s o u r c e ( t h e title) a n d t h e n w o r k w i t h the clip c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e key has s h a r p a n d clear edges. (For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h o w a key w o r k s , as well as an a d d i t i o n a l f o r m of keying called t h e chroma key, see c h a p t e r 14.)

selectors.

C o m m o n w i p e p a t t e r n s are e x p a n d i n g d i a m o n d s , boxes, or circles, SEE 1 1 . 1 1 O n large switchers these controls can b e e x t e n d e d to nearly 100 different p a t t e r n s b y i n p u t t i n g a code into the switcher. You c a n also c o n t r o l t h e d i r e c t i o n of the w i p e ( w h e t h e r a h o r i z o n t a l wipe, for e x a m p l e , starts from screen-left or screen-right d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n ) . T h e joystick p o s i t i o n e r lets y o u m o v e p a t t e r n s o n t h e screen. O t h e r controls give t h e wipes a soft or h a r d edge a n d give letters different b o r d e r s a n d s h a d o w s .

Downstream keyer keyer (DSK)

T h e " d o w n s t r e a m " in

downstream

refers to t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e signal at t h e

l i n e - o u t ( d o w n s t r e a m ) , r a t h e r t h a n at t h e M / E ( u p s t r e a m ) stage. W i t h a d o w n s t r e a m keyer, y o u c a n insert (key) a title or o t h e r g r a p h i c over t h e signal as it leaves t h e switcher. This l a s t - m i n u t e m a n e u v e r , w h i c h is totally i n d e p e n d e n t of a n y of t h e controls o n t h e buses, is d o n e to keep as m a n y M / E buses as possible available for the o t h e r switching a n d effects functions. M o s t switchers w i t h a DSK have a master fader, w h i c h consists of a n a d d i t i o n a l fader b a r or, m o r e

Key and clip controls

Keying lets y o u insert lettering

c o m m o n , a f a d e - t o - b l a c k AUTO

TRANS

button, with

or o t h e r p i c t u r e e l e m e n t s into t h e existing, o r b a c k g r o u n d ,

w h i c h you c a n fade-to-black t h e base p i c t u r e together w i t h

scene. T h e m o s t c o m m o n use of keys is to p u t lettering over

t h e d o w n s t r e a m key effect (see figure 11.4).

p e o p l e or scenes, or t h e familiar b o x over t h e newscaster's

You m a y ask w h y this fade-to-black c o n t r o l is neces­

shoulder. T h e key b u s lets y o u select t h e p a r t i c u l a r video

sary w h e n , as just d e m o n s t r a t e d , y o u c a n fade t o black b y

source to insert i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d scene, s u c h as t h e

s i m p l y dissolving to black o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s . T h e reason

titles from t h e C G . T h e key-level

for t h e extra fade c o n t r o l is t h a t t h e effect p r o d u c e d by t h e

control,

also called the

clip control or clipper, adjusts t h e key signal so t h a t t h e let­

DSK is totally i n d e p e n d e n t of the rest of t h e ( u p s t r e a m )

ters a p p e a r s h a r p a n d clear d u r i n g t h e key. O n t h e Grass

switcher c o n t r o l s . T h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s

Valley 100 switcher, y o u w o u l d use t h e following steps to

will e l i m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d b u t n o t t h e key itself. O n l y

achieve a key:

t h e BLK b u t t o n in t h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer section (to t h e

1. O n the preset b u s , select t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n t o w h i c h y o u w a n t to insert a key. 2. O n t h e key b u s , select the video s o u r c e to b e keyed ( n o r m a l l y t h e C.G.).

right of t h e fader bar) will fade t h e entire screen to black. Wl^SWITCHING-) Effects-* keys | key types | downstream keyer | special effects

As a n e x a m p l e , let's set u p a s i m p l e DSK effect at t h e e n d of a p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e latest c o m p u t e r

Section

How

11.1

Switchers

Work

253

m o d e l a n d t h e n fade to black. T h e final scene s h o w s a C U of t h e c o m p u t e r as t h e b a c k g r o u n d , w i t h t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r i n s e r t e d by the DSK. Recall t h a t o n e way t o fade

•

Instantaneous editing is the switching from one video source to another, or the combining of two or more sources while the show, or show segment, is in progress.

•

All switchers, simple or complex, perform the same basic functions: selecting an appropriate video source from several inputs, performing basic transitions between two video sources, and creating or accessing special effects.

•

The switcher has a separate button for each video input. There is a button for each camera, VTR, C.G., and other video sources, such as a remote input. The buttons are arranged in rows, called buses.

•

The basic multifunction switcher has a preset bus for selecting and previewing the upcoming shot; a program bus that sends its video input to the line-out; a key bus for selecting the video to be inserted over a background picture; a fader bar to activate mix effects; and various special-effects controls.

•

The program bus is a direct input/output (I/O) link and is therefore also called the direct bus. Whatever is punched up on the program bus goes directly to the line-out. It can also serve as a mix/effects (M/E) bus.

•

The preview/preset bus is used to select the upcoming video (preset function) and route it to the preview monitor (preview function). It also serves as an M/E bus.

•

The M/E bus can serve a mix (dissolve, super, or fade) or an effects function.

•

The key bus is used to select the video source to be inserted (keyed) into a background image.

•

Delegation controls are used to assign the buses specific functions.

•

The actual transition is activated by moving the fader bar from one limit of travel to the other, or by an AUTOTRANS button that takes on the functions of the fader bar.

•

Most switchers offer additional effects, such as a variety of wipe patterns, borders, and background colors, and the possibility of effects layering.

t o black is to press t h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e preset b u s a n d t h e n dissolve i n t o it by m o v i n g t h e fader b a r or pressing t h e AUTO

TRANS

b u t t o n . But w h e n y o u l o o k at t h e line

m o n i t o r , t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e ( C U of t h e c o m p u t e r ) h a s b e e n replaced b y black as it s h o u l d , b u t t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r r e m a i n s o n - s c r e e n . You n o w k n o w why. T h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer is unaffected by w h a t y o u d o in t h e u p s t r e a m p a r t of t h e s w i t c h e r — s u c h as g o i n g t o b l a c k o n t h e M / E b u s . Totally i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e rest of t h e switcher c o n t r o l s , t h e DSK obeys o n l y t h o s e controls in its o w n ( d o w n s t r e a m ) territory, h e n c e t h e n e e d for its o w n black c o n t r o l s . Color b a c k g r o u n d controls

M o s t switchers have

c o n t r o l s w i t h w h i c h y o u c a n p r o v i d e color b a c k g r o u n d s to keys a n d even give the lettering of titles a n d o t h e r w r i t ­ t e n i n f o r m a t i o n v a r i o u s colors or c o l o r e d o u t l i n e s . C o l o r g e n e r a t o r s built i n t o t h e switcher consist of dials t h a t y o u c a n use to adjust hue (the color itself), saturation s t r e n g t h ) , a n d brightness

o r luminance

(the color

(the relative d a r k ­

ness a n d lightness of the color) (see figure 11.4). O n large p r o d u c t i o n switchers, these color c o n t r o l s are r e p e a t e d o n each M / E b u s .

rooms and remote trucks. Their primary purpose is to

11.2

select specific video sources t o go o n t h e air; to c o n n e c t t h e selected v i d e o t h r o u g h cuts, dissolves, or wipes; a n d to create a n d a p p l y keys a n d o t h e r effects. P r o d u c t i o n switchers m u s t let y o u p e r f o r m these tasks reliably a n d w i t h relative ease. W h e n switching a live football g a m e , t h e r e is n o r o o m for error.

What Switchers Do

P r o d u c t i o n s w i t c h e r s m u s t offer e n o u g h i n p u t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e v a r i o u s v i d e o sources available. Even a small s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n m a y require i n p u t s f r o m t h r e e c a m e r a s , a C.G., t w o or t h r e e VTRs, a n ESS (electronic still store) system, a n d two o r t h r e e r e m o t e feeds (such as a m o b i l e E N G t r u c k , n e t w o r k p r o g r a m , o r satellite h o o k u p ) . Because each b u t t o n o n a switcher c a n h a n d l e only a single i n p u t , this p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d r e q u i r e a b u s w i t h a m i n i m u m of t e n b u t t o n s , c o u n t i n g the B I X b u t t o n as a black v i d e o i n p u t . Despite t h e fact t h a t large p r o d u c ­ t i o n switchers have t h i r t y or m o r e i n p u t s , t h e r e are occa­ sions w h e n a T D (technical d i r e c t o r ) feels s t r a p p e d for m o r e , especially d u r i n g live coverage of i n t e r n a t i o n a l n e w s or large s p o r t i n g events. You m a y t h e n have to press i n t o service a n a d d i t i o n a l switcher t h a t can take over a specific

This s e c t i o n gives a brief o v e r v i e w of a n a l o g a n d digi­

a s s i g n m e n t , s u c h as t h e i n s t a n t replays.

tal s w i t c h e r s a n d s w i t c h i n g software. V i r t u a l l y all n e w

Yet in m a n y cases y o u d o n ' t n e e d a large t h i r t y - i n p u t

switchers are digital in design a n d partially or fully c o m ­

switcher a n d a r e m o t e t r u c k to d o a live or l i v e - o n - t a p e

p u t e r - d r i v e n . W i t h the p r e d o m i n a n c e of c o m p o n e n t video

p i c k u p of a variety of m u l t i c a m e r a events, such as a w e d ­

recorders, the electronic design of switchers h a s c h a n g e d

d i n g , b a s k e t b a l l g a m e , r o c k s h o w , classical c o n c e r t , o r

accordingly.

g r a d u a t i o n ceremony. For e x a m p l e , t h e PixBox features a complete a u d i o / v i d e o switching system, i n c l u d i n g a variety

•

P

SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS

of t r a n s i t i o n s a n d special effects—all p a c k e d i n t o a small

Production and postproduction switchers, master control switchers, and routing switchers

suitcase. You c a n c o n n e c t u p to t e n video i n p u t s — a n y four

ELECTRONIC DESIGNS Composite and component switchers, analog and digital switchers, and audio-follow-video switchers

of w h i c h are s w i t c h a b l e — a n d a n u m b e r of stereo line- a n d mic-level a u d i o sources. It also h a s efficient t w o - w a y inter­ c o m a n d tally light systems. M u c h like a l a p t o p c o m p u t e r , the lid of t h e suitcase serves as t h e source m o n i t o r s a n d t h e larger p r e v i e w a n d line m o n i t o r pair, SEE 1 1 . 1 2 A l t h o u g h t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n

SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS

s w i t c h e r s is t o facilitate i n s t a n t a n e o u s e d i t i n g — s e l e c t ­

W h e n l o o k i n g m o r e carefully at switchers, a n d especially

ing v a r i o u s video sources a n d s e q u e n c i n g t h e m t h r o u g h

w h e n y o u begin to o p e r a t e t h e m , y o u will notice t h a t t h e y

t r a n s i t i o n s — t h e y are expected t o p e r f o r m m o r e a n d m o r e

are designed to fulfill specific p r o d u c t i o n functions. T h e

c o m p l e x effects t h a t rival t h o s e of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n edit­

m a j o r types of switchers are: (1) p r o d u c t i o n switchers,

ing. Are such effects necessary o r even a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n

(2) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers, (3) master control switchers,

switching a live or l i v e - o n - t a p e show? Isn't t h e p r i m a r y

a n d (4) r o u t i n g switchers. M o s t switchers are built to fulfill

task of live switching t o select shots a n d s e q u e n c e t h e m

b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n functions.

p r o p e r l y t h r o u g h a variety of transitions? Yes. B u t because

PRODUCTION SWITCHERS

dazzle of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n effects, live s h o w s (such as n e w s

Production

a n d sports) c a n n o t afford to l o o k any less exciting. At least

audiences have b e c o m e so a c c u s t o m e d to the visual razzle-

switchers

are u s e d i n m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o or

field p r o d u c t i o n s . You will find t h e m in s t u d i o c o n t r o l

254

so goes t h e a r g u m e n t .

Section

What

11.2

Switchers

255

Do

Camera previews

Line monitor

Preview monitor

Video and audio outputs

Tally line output Video and audio inputs Switcher with effects

11.12

PORTABLE SWITCHING SYSTEM

This portable production switching system (PixBox2) is designed for multicamera live and live-on-tape productions. It has eight video and six audio inputs, a tally light, an intercom hookup, and a rich transition menu. The LCD panel displays all video inputs and simulates a larger preview and line monitor. All this technology is contained in a relatively small suitcase.

A m o r e persuasive a r g u m e n t is that expensive switch­

e q u i p m e n t that c a n b u i l d , step-by-step, a highly c o m p l e x

ers c a n n o t be limited to t h e few live o r l i v e - o n - t a p e p r o ­

effect. For e x a m p l e , t h e small p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switcher in

d u c t i o n s d o n e in m o s t television stations; they m u s t b e

figure 11.13 can p r o d u c e 1,600 different effects—more t h a n

able to p e r f o r m t h e m o r e c o m p l e x p o s t p r o d u c t i o n tasks

e n o u g h for even t h e m o s t a r d e n t special-effects fanatic.

as well. Fortunately, all p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a c o n ­

A n d just in case y o u w a n t even m o r e effects, y o u can h o o k

siderable n u m b e r of digital effects b u i l t - i n , a n d t h e y can

u p via USB or FireWire cable to a c o m p u t e r with special-

b e easily h o o k e d u p to c o m p l e x digital effects e q u i p m e n t

effects software. SEE 11.13

t o b e used as p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers. Because switch­

S o m e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a small a u d i o

ers are basically c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , they allow y o u to store

mixer b u i l t - i n , w h i c h for r o u t i n e a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n

a great n u m b e r of p r e p r o d u c e d special effects a n d recall

jobs m a k e s p a t c h i n g to a n external mixer unnecessary.

t h e m instantly by pressing a single b u t t o n , w i t h o u t h a v i n g

P o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers are basically m e n u - d r i v e n :

t o c l i m b all over t h e p a n e l to reach t h e necessary b u t t o n s

you activate t h e major functions n o t by pressing b u t t o n s o n

a n d levers.

t h e switcher p a n e l b u t b y c h o o s i n g o p t i o n s o n p u l l - d o w n m e n u s in a software p r o g r a m . T h e c o m p u t e r r e s p o n d s

POSTPRODUCTION SWITCHERS

to t h e c o m m a n d s , activating t h e switcher b u t t o n s a n d ,

T h e switcher in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is used for i n s t a n t a n e o u s

if e v e r y t h i n g goes r i g h t , d e l i v e r i n g t h e specified effect

editing r a t h e r t h a n for creating t r a n s i t i o n s a n d special ef­

or transition.

fects. A g o o d postproduction

switcher is n o t necessarily t h e

Because such switchers are c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , c o u l d n ' t

o n e w i t h the m o s t video i n p u t s b u t r a t h e r t h e o n e t h a t of­

we d o away w i t h the actual switcher a n d s i m p l y use c o m ­

fers t h e greatest n u m b e r of key effects a n d o t h e r multilevel

p u t e r software to execute t h e various transitions? Yes. There

256

Chapter

SWITCHING,

7 7

11.13 SMALL DIGITAL PRODUCTION SWITCHER

OR INSTANTANEOUS

Joystick

EDITING

Control panel

This postproduction switcher (Panasonic AG-MX70) can cre­ ate 600 effects, which, with a special-effects board, can be expanded to 1,600 two- and three-dimensional effects. It has a built-in audio mixer with six inputs. Its large con­ trol panel displays operation and monitoring information, and, like all postproduction switchers, it can also be used for simple live switching.

Mix buses

Audio mixer

Fader bar

are software p r o g r a m s for b o t h W i n d o w s a n d M a c i n t o s h

matically to r e m o t e feeds, such as a n e t w o r k p r o g r a m o r

platforms that function as basic switchers. Instead of press­

live event, SEE 11.15

ing a b u t t o n , y o u click a m o u s e , SEE 1 1 . 1 4 T h e r e are also c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s t h a t have a w h o l e switching sequence

ROUTING SWITCHERS

p r o g r a m m e d for highly predictable s h o w formats, such as

Routing

a s i n g l e - a n c h o r news o r w e a t h e r p r o g r a m . Such software

tions. For e x a m p l e , y o u s h o u l d use a r o u t i n g switcher t o

n o t only takes care of t h e switching from c a m e r a to c a m e r a

feed v a r i o u s m o n i t o r s w i t h t h e l i n e - o u t v i d e o , t h e n switch

b u t also tells t h e r o b o t i c c a m e r a s w h a t t o do.

to the preview video, a n d t h e n t o t h e satellite video. O r y o u

switchers

r o u t e video signals t o specific destina­

C o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e switcher

m a y assign the line-out signal to the video server instead of

as y o u k n o w it will have its place for s o m e t i m e . Even t h e

V T R 2 because V T R 2 is involved in editing. T h e b u t t o n s

m o s t sophisticated c o m p u t e r switchers are s i m p l y n o t as

o n a r o u t i n g switcher are usually arranged in rows that look

flexible a n d functional as t h e actual switcher p a n e l w i t h its

very m u c h like t h e p r o g r a m b u s o n a p r o d u c t i o n switcher

b u t t o n s a n d levers. A T D pressing b u t t o n s o n a switcher

or p a r t of a c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d system.

p a n e l is still t h e m o s t effective m e a n s of i n s t a n t a n e o u s editing, p r o v i d e d h e or she presses t h e r i g h t b u t t o n s at t h e right t i m e .

ELECTRONIC DESIGNS A l t h o u g h the ability to operate a switcher does n o t hinge o n

MASTER CONTROL SWITCHERS

a n i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e of its electronic design, y o u s h o u l d

Computer-assisted switching is especially helpful in master

have s o m e idea of t h e major electronic characteristics of

c o n t r o l . In fact, t h e c o m p u t e r is so i m p o r t a n t in m a s t e r

switchers: (1) c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o n e n t , (2) analog a n d

c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n that often t h e e n g i n e e r assists t h e c o m ­

digital, a n d (3) audio-follow-video.

p u t e r rather t h a n t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d . T h e c o m p u t e r i z e d master control switcher retrieves all t h e p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l

COMPOSITE AND COMPONENT SWITCHERS

stored in the p r o g r a m server (an extralarge c o m p u t e r stor­

T h e composite switcher is built t o t r a n s p o r t a n d process t h e

age device) a c c o r d i n g to t h e p r o g r a m log t i m e line; it cues,

NTSC

rolls, a n d stops V T R s a n d video cart m a c h i n e s ; it calls u p

(C) v i d e o signals i n t o a single o n e . C o m p o s i t e switchers

any n u m b e r of still shots from t h e ESS system; it activates

n e e d only a single wire to t r a n s p o r t the v i d e o signal. If y o u

any n u m b e r of t r a n s i t i o n sequences; a n d it switches a u t o ­

use t h e switcher strictly for m u l t i c a m e r a live switching,

signal t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e l u m i n a n c e (Y) a n d color

Section

11.2

What

Switchers

257

Do

1 1 . 1 4 COMPUTER SWITCHER INTERFACE This software program of the NewTek switcher VT[4] displays and activates all basic production and postproduc­ tion switcher functions. It has an amazing array of built-in test and video-guality equip­ ment, as well as a multitrack audio console. This switcher can be used for live switching or postproduction work.

11.15 The

MASTER CONTROL SWITCHER

computerized master control switcher switches specific video and audio sources automatically.

258

Chapter

I7

SWITCHING,

OR INSTANTANEOUS

EDITING

such as a s t u d i o s h o w or a s p o r t s r e m o t e , t h e c o m p o s i t e switcher is perfectly a d e q u a t e because y o u deal o n l y w i t h N T S C signals. For h i g h - q u a l i t y p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , however, you n e e d a switcher t h a t allows Y/C c o m p o n e n t , Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t , or RGB c o m p o n e n t signal process­ ing (see figures 12.1-12.4). Component

switchers process the v i d e o signal in either

the Y/C or t h e Y/color difference configuration. In the Y / C c o m p o n e n t switcher, t h e l u m i n a n c e a n d color i n f o r m a t i o n are processed separately a n d t r a n s p o r t e d via two wires. In the Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t switcher, t h r e e signals (a l u m i n a n c e a n d two color signals, o r RGB) are t r a n s ­ p o r t e d separately by t h r e e wires t h r o u g h o u t t h e switcher a n d processed separately. M o s t digital switchers are built to a d a p t to either c o m p o s i t e o r c o m p o n e n t signals or t o accept either configuration. (These systems are e x p l a i n e d

GV Model 110-HD digital switcher

in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 12.)

ANALOG A N D DIGITAL SWITCHERS A l t h o u g h m o s t analog switchers digital video effects (DVE)

have a digital device for

or t h e storage of s u c h effects,

they basically process t h e analog video signals as supplied by a n a l o g c a m e r a s or V T R s in t h e i r original analog f o r m . Digital switchers, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , process all i n c o m i n g video signals digitally. M o s t digital switchers are c o m p o ­ n e n t systems, b u t they let y o u c h a n g e from t h e c o m p o n e n t to t h e c o m p o s i t e configuration. O n e advantage of digital switchers is t h a t y o u can use as t h e video source signals t h a t c o m e directly from digital e q u i p m e n t , such as digital cameras, digital editing systems, servers, c o m p u t e r h a r d drives, r e a d / w r i t e optical discs, a n d any n u m b e r of digital storage devices. F o r t u n a t e l y , digital s w i t c h e r s h a v e m a i n t a i n e d t h e

GV Model 100 analog switcher

architecture of their analog cousins, w h i c h for o u r p u r ­ poses m e a n s t h a t t h e digital switcher p a n e l still h a s M / E , p r o g r a m , p r e v i e w / p r e s e t , a n d key b u s e s a n d fader b a r s

1 1 . 1 6 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SWITCHERS

m u c h like an a n a l o g switcher. I n fact, t h e a p p e a r a n c e of

The appearance and operational functions of the digital switcher are very similar to those of its analog cousin.

a switcher alone will n o t tell y o u w h e t h e r it is a n a l o g o r digital. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e is m u c h similarity in t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e two types, S E E 1 1 . 1 6

to t h e p e r s o n o n t h e far e n d of t h e conversation. W h e n

AUDIO-FOLLOW-VIDEO SWITCHERS

switching b a c k to t h e "close" p e r s o n , t h e switcher cuts o u t

Audio-follow-video

t h e a u d i o filter a n d y o u h e a r t h e regular a u d i o .

switchers

switch t h e a u d i o w i t h t h e

pictures t h a t go w i t h it. For e x a m p l e , w h e n switching a

M a s t e r c o n t r o l s w i t c h e r s are a u d i o - f o l l o w - v i d e o

scene in w h i c h t w o p e o p l e are talking o n t h e p h o n e , a

switchers—they automatically change the accompanying

t e l e p h o n e - q u a l i t y a u d i o filter cuts in every t i m e y o u switch

a u d i o along w i t h t h e v i d e o source.

Section

1 1.2

•

Production switchers are used to facilitate instantaneous editing during multicamera productions. They must have enough video inputs to accommodate the number of video sources used during the production.

•

Postproduction switchers are used primarily for creating transitions and special effects rather than for instantaneous editing.

•

Master control switchers are computer-driven. They not only switch from one program source to the next but also roll VTRs and video cart machines and call up DVE (digital video effects), ESS (electronic still store) video, or material stored on video servers.

•

Routing switchers simply direct a video signal to a specific destination.

•

Composite switchers are built to transport and process NTSC video signals.

•

Component switchers are built to handle Y/C component, Y/color difference, or RGB video signals. Most digital switchers can handle both composite and component signals.

•

Analog switchers process analog video inputs throughout the switching operation, although they often treat special effects digitally.

•

Digital switchers are mainly component switchers, pro­ cessing the video inputs exclusively in digital form. They normally maintain the switcher architecture (switching logic and the arrangement and functions of buses) in a similar way to analog switchers.

•

Audio-follow-video switchers switch the audio with the pictures that go with it.

What

Switchers

259

Do

For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. SWITCHINGS Switching functions^ select | connect 244 SWITCHINGS Architectures program bus | preview bus | mix buses | fader bar automatic transition | try it 247 SWITCHINGS Switching functionsS transitions I create effects 248 SWITCHINGS TransitionsS cut | mix/dissolve | wipe | fade | try it

251

SWITCHINGS EffectsS keys | key types | downstream keyer | special effects 252

Video-recording and Storage Systems Although one of television's great assets is its capability to transmit an event "live,"that is, while t h e event is in progress, most programs have been prerecorded on s o m e kind of video-recording device. Even live newscasts contain a p r e p o n d e r a n c e of prerecorded material. In corporate v i d e o a n d in i n d e p e n d e n t production houses, almost all program material originates from s o m e kind of video recording.

Because of the importance of video recording, manufacturers are constantly striving to compress more a n d more video a n d audio information o n t o ever smaller storage devices w h i l e making the retrieval of program material as quick and simple as possible. Section 12.1, H o w Video Recording Works, acquaints y o u w i t h t h e major tape-based a n d tapeless video-recording a n d storage systems. A tape-based system uses v i d e o t a p e as t h e storage m e d i u m for a n a l o g or digital video a n d audio signals. Tapeless systems store only digital video a n d audio signals on computer hard disks, read/write optical discs, or large-capacity flash m e m o r y devices. Because today almost all video footage is captured w i t h digital cameras, great strides have b e e n m a d e toward tapeless recording, editing, a n d playback.

Section 12.2, H o w Video Recording Is Done, introduces you to s o m e of the operational uses of v i d e o recording a n d the major studio and E N G / E F P recording procedures.

260

analog recording systems Record the continually fluctuating video and audio signals generated by the video and/or audio source. composite system A process in which the luminance (Y, or black-and-white) signal and the chrominance (C, or red, green, and blue) signal as well as sync information are encoded into a single video signal and transported via a single wire. Also called NTSCsignal.

J P E G A video compression method mostly for still pictures, developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group. M P E G A compression technique for moving pictures, devel­ oped by the Moving Picture Experts Group. M P E G - 2 The compression standard for motion video. M P E G - 4 The compression standard for Internet streaming. RGB component system Analog video-recording system

compression Reducing the amount of data to be stored or transmitted by using coding schemes that pack all original data into less space (lossless compression) or by throwing away some of the least important data (lossy compression). control track The area of the videotape used for recording the synchronization information (sync pulse). Provides refer­ ence for the running speed of the VTR, for the placing and reading of the video tracks, and for counting the number of frames. digital recording systems Sample the analog video and audio signals and convert them into discrete on/off pulses. These digits are recorded as O's and Vs. disk-based video recorder All digital video recorders that record or store information on a hard disk or read/write optical disc. All disk-based systems are nonlinear. electronic still store (ESS) system An electronic device that can grab a single frame from any video source and store it in digital form. It can retrieve the frame randomly in a frac­ tion of a second. field log A record of each take during the videotaping. flash memory device A small read/write portable storage device that can download, store, and upload very fast (in a flash) a fairly large amount (1 gigabyte or more) of digital information. Also called flash drive, stick flash, flash stick, or flash memory card. framestore synchronizer Image stabilization and synchroniza­ tion system that stores and reads out one complete video frame. Used to synchronize signals from a variety of video sources that are not genlocked.

wherein the red, green, and blue signals are kept separate throughout the entire recording and storage process and are transported via three separate wires. tape-based video recorder All video recorders (analog and digital) that record or store information on videotape. All tape-based systems are linear. time base corrector (TBC) Electronic accessory to a video recorder that helps make playbacks or transfers electronically stable. video leader Visual material and a control tone recorded ahead of the program material. Serves as a technical guide for playback. videotape recorder (VTR) Electronic recording device that records video and audio signals on videotape for later play­ back or postproduction editing. videotape tracks Most videotape systems have a video track, two or more audio tracks, a control track, and sometimes a separate time code track. Y/C component system Analog video-recording system wherein the luminance (Y) and chrominance (C) signals are kept separate during signal encoding and transport but are combined and occupy the same track when actually laid down on videotape. The Y/C component signal is trans­ ported via two wires. Also called S-video. Y/color difference component system Video-recording system in which three signals—the luminance (Y) signal, the red signal minus its luminance (R-Y) signal, and the blue signal minus its luminance (B-Y)—are kept separate throughout the recording and storage process.

261

ANALOG A N D DIGITAL

12.1 How Video Recording Works

SYSTEMS

A l t h o u g h digital v i d e o is firmly established as t h e profes­ sional system of choice, y o u will also find that t h e h i g h - e n d Betacam r e c o r d i n g systems are very m u c h alive a n d well in m a n y professional o p e r a t i o n s .

Analog videotape recording

A n a l o g v i d e o t a p i n g is

similar to t h e analog a u d i o t a p e - r e c o r d i n g process. W i t h analog recording

systems,

t h e electronic i m p u l s e s of tele­

vision p i c t u r e s (the v i d e o signal) a n d s o u n d ( t h e a u d i o signal) are r e c o r d e d a n d stored o n t h e plastic v i d e o t a p e by m a g n e t i z i n g its i r o n - o x i d e coating. D u r i n g playback t h e s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n is r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o video a n d a u d i o signals a n d t r a n s l a t e d by t h e television set i n t o television pictures a n d s o u n d . T h e a m o u n t of electronic i n f o r m a t i o n is m a n y t i m e s greater for v i d e o t h a n for a u d i o r e c o r d i n g . N o t surprisingly, n o t all a n a l o g systems are t h e s a m e . S o m e , such as y o u r V H S recorder, are designed for costeffective h o m e use a n d o p e r a t i o n a l ease. Its p i c t u r e a n d s o u n d quality is n o t great, b u t it's sufficient for a reasonably

D e s p i t e t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y of v i d e o r e c o r d i n g d e v i c e s ,

g o o d r e c o r d i n g of a football g a m e o r s o a p o p e r a s e g m e n t

t h e r e are basically t w o types of systems: t a p e - b a s e d a n d

y o u missed. But as s o o n as y o u start m a k i n g copies for

tapeless. Tape-based systems c a n r e c o r d analog o r digital

y o u r friends, t h e quality deteriorates even after t h e first

signals; tapeless systems can r e c o r d o n l y digital i n f o r m a ­

d u b . T h e S-video system is similar t o t h e V H S system b u t

t i o n . T h e o p e r a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s of a tapeless system are

is designed for professional use. T h e initial r e c o r d i n g will

t h a t it is generally faster a n d it allows r a n d o m access of

have considerably higher image a n d audio quality that

information.

will n o t d e t e r i o r a t e f r o m d u b t o d u b as q u i c k l y as t h e

To help y o u m a k e sense of t h e v a r i o u s systems, this section gives a n overview of s o m e i m p o r t a n t r e c o r d i n g

V H S copies. H i g h - q u a l i t y a n a l o g s y s t e m s , s u c h as t h e

Betacam

systems a n d t e c h n o l o g y a n d a m o r e detailed d e s c r i p t i o n

SP, p r o d u c e p i c t u r e s as g o o d as t h e best digital systems.

of t h e v a r i o u s t a p e - b a s e d a n d tapeless r e c o r d i n g devices.

A l t h o u g h t h e s e r e c o r d i n g s d e t e r i o r a t e relatively little in a l i m i t e d a m o u n t of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n d u b s , t h e y d o

P

RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY Analog and digital systems, linear and nonlinear systems, com­ posite and component systems, sampling, and compression

P

(A generation

is t h e n u m b e r of d u b s away from t h e original

recording.)

TAPED-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS How videotape recording works, operational VTR controls, electronic features, and major analog and digital systems

•

s h o w noticeable quality loss after a b o u t t e n g e n e r a t i o n s .

Digital video recording cording systems

T h e a d v a n t a g e of digital

re­

over analog is t h a t digital systems can u s e

TAPELESS RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS

recording media other than videotape, which do n o t sus­

Hard disk systems, read/write optical discs, flash memory

tain quality loss even after a great n u m b e r of g e n e r a t i o n s .

devices, and data transfer

For all practical p u r p o s e s , t h e fiftieth g e n e r a t i o n looks t h e s a m e as t h e original r e c o r d i n g . Besides v i d e o t a p e , digital

RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY This section e x a m i n e s t h e following r e c o r d i n g systems a n d

v i d e o a n d a u d i o signals can b e r e c o r d e d o n , a n d played back from, c o m p u t e r h a r d drives, optical discs ( C D s a n d D V D s ) , a n d flash m e m o r y devices. ( T h e specifics of these

technology: (1) analog a n d digital systems, (2) linear a n d

r e c o r d i n g devices are e x p l o r e d later in this section.) N o t e

n o n l i n e a r systems, (3) c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o n e n t systems,

t h a t c o m p u t e r h a r d disks are spelled w i t h a k, a n d optical

(4) s a m p l i n g , a n d (5) c o m p r e s s i o n .

discs with a c.

262

Section

12.1

How

LINEAR A N D NONLINEAR SYSTEMS Although the terms linear and nonlinear apply more to the way the recorded information is retrieved rather than stored, you may also hear tape-based systems described as linear recording devices, and disk-based systems as nonlinear ones. Linear systems All tape-based video recorders are lin­ ear, regardless of whether the signals recorded are analog or digital. Linear systems record their information serially, which means that during retrieval you need to roll through shots 1 and 2 before reaching shot 3. Even if a tape-based system records the information digitally rather than in ana­ log, it is linear and does not allow random access. You can't call up shot 3 without first rolling through shots 1 and 2. Nonlinear syst

All disk-based

video

recorders

(including optical discs and flash memory devices) are nonlinear, which means that you can randomly access any shot without having to roll through the previous mate­ rial. For example, you can access shot 3 directly by simply calling up the shot 3 file. Of course you can also watch the recording in linear fashion, starting with shot 1 and then watching shot 2, shot 3, and so on. Random access is especially important when editing because it lets you call up instantaneously any video frame or audio file regardless of where it may be buried on the disk. (The difference between linear and nonlinear systems

Video

Recording

263

Works

is explored further in the context of postproduction editing in chapter 13.) COMPOSITE AND COMPONENT SYSTEMS The division of video recorders into composite and com­ ponent systems is significant because the two systems are not compatible and they differ in production application. Analog and digital recording systems can treat their signals in one of four basic ways: (1) composite, (2) Y/C com­ ponent, (3) Y/color difference component, and (4) RGB component. Composite system The composite system combines the color (C, or chrominance) and the brightness (Y, or luminance) information into a single (composite) signal. Only one wire is necessary to transport the composite sig­ nal. Because this electronic combination was standardized some time ago by the National Television System Commit­ tee (NTSC), the composite signal is also called the NTSC signal or, simply, NTSC. The NTSC system is different from other composite systems, such as the European PAL system. A standard conversion is necessary when systems don't match. Most such standard conversions are done in the satellite that distributes the signals. The major disadvantage of the composite signal is that there usually is some interference between chrominance and luminance information that gets worse and therefore more noticeable with each videotape generation, SEE 12.1

Color (RGB)

luminance (Y)

Composite NTSC signal

Chrominance (C) channel

12.1

Luminance (Y) channel

COMPOSITE SYSTEM

The composite system uses a video signal that combines the luminance (Y, or brightness) and color (C) information. It needs a single wire to be transported and recorded on videotape as a single signal. It is the standard NTSC system.

264

Chapter

Y/C component system system,

also called S-video,

12

In t h e a n a l o g Y/C

VIDEO-RECORDING

AND

STORAGE

SYSTEMS

component

t h e l u m i n a n c e (Y) a n d c h r o ­ Luminance (Y)

m i n a n c e (C) signals are kept separate d u r i n g t h e e n c o d i n g ("write") a n d t h e d e c o d i n g ("read") processes. D u r i n g t h e r e c o r d i n g process, however, the t w o signals are c o m b i n e d a n d o c c u p y t h e s a m e t r a c k w h e n s t o r e d , t h a t is, w h e n

Color(C)

actually laid d o w n o n t h e v i d e o t a p e . T h e Y/C configura­ t i o n requires t w o wires to t r a n s p o r t t h e Y/C c o m p o n e n t signal, SEE 12.2 To m a i n t a i n the advantages of Y/C c o m p o n e n t record­ ing, o t h e r e q u i p m e n t used in t h e system, such as m o n i t o r s , m u s t also keep t h e Y a n d C signals separate. This m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n n o t play a Y/C c o m p o n e n t v i d e o t a p e o n a regular V H S r e c o r d e r b u t only o n an S-VHS recorder. T h e

1 2 . 2 Y/C COMPONENT SYSTEM The Y/C component system separates the Y (luminance) and C (color) information during signal encoding and transport, but it combines the two signals on the videotape. It needs two wires to transport the separate signals.

advantage of t h e Y/C c o m p o n e n t system is that it p r o d u c e s h i g h e r - q u a l i t y pictures that will suffer less in s u b s e q u e n t tape g e n e r a t i o n s t h a n d o c o m p o s i t e tapes.

Y/color difference component system log Y/color difference

component

system,

In t h e ana­

the luminance

signal, t h e red signal m i n u s its l u m i n a n c e ( R - Y ) , a n d t h e b l u e signal m i n u s its l u m i n a n c e ( B - Y ) are t r a n s p o r t e d a n d s t o r e d as three separate signals. T h e green signal is r e g e n e r a t e d ( m a t r i x e d ) f r o m t h e s e t h r e e signals. T h i s system n e e d s t h r e e wires to t r a n s p o r t t h e t h r e e separate signals, SEE 12.3 RGB

component system

tem,

t h e red, green, a n d b l u e signals are k e p t separate a n d

In t h e RGB component

sys­

treated as separate c o m p o n e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d storage process. Each of the t h r e e signals r e m a i n s sepa­ rate even w h e n laid d o w n o n t h e v i d e o t a p e . Because t h e RGB system n e e d s t h r e e wires t o t r a n s p o r t the c o m p o n e n t

1 2 . 3 Y/COLOR DIFFERENCE COMPONENT SYSTEM The Y/color difference component system separates the three RGB signals throughout the recording process. It needs three wires to transport the three component signals: the Y (lumi­ nance) signal, the R-Y (red minus luminance) signal, and the B-Y (blue minus luminance) signal. The green signal is then matrixed (regenerated) from these signals.

signal, all o t h e r associated e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as switchers, editors, a n d m o n i t o r s , m u s t also b e capable of processing t h e t h r e e separate RGB signal c o m p o n e n t s . This m e a n s that t h e y all m u s t have "three w i r e s " to h a n d l e t h e video

Red (R)

signal instead of t h e single wire of t h e n o r m a l c o m p o s i t e system—all in all a r a t h e r expensive r e q u i r e m e n t , SEE 12.4

Green (G) T h e big a d v a n t a g e of t h e t h r e e - s i g n a l c o m p o n e n t system is that even its analog recordings m a i n t a i n m u c h of

Blue(B)

their original quality t h r o u g h m a n y tape g e n e r a t i o n s . Such a feature is especially i m p o r t a n t if a p r o d u c t i o n requires m a n y special effects, s u c h as a n i m a t i o n scenes, t h a t n e e d to b e built u p t h r o u g h several r e c o r d i n g s . Obviously, the Y/C, Y/color difference, a n d RGB c o m ­ p o n e n t systems eventually m u s t c o m b i n e the separate parts of their video signals i n t o a single N T S C c o m p o s i t e signal for t r a d i t i o n a l analog b r o a d c a s t or t a p e d i s t r i b u t i o n .

1 2 . 4 RGB COMPONENT SYSTEM Like the Y/color difference system, the RGB component system (also called the RGB system) separates the three RGB signals throughout the recording process. It needs three wires to trans­ port the signals. It provides the greatest color quality but takes up an inordinate amount of frequency space.

Section

12.1

How

Video

Recording

265

Works

SAMPLING

k i n d — t h e y t h r o w away r e d u n d a n t data. W h e n dealing with

You will u n d o u b t e d l y hear people talk a b o u t t h e relative benefits of 4:2:2 over 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g ratios i n all f o r m s of video recording. All t h a t this m e a n s is that in t h e digitizing process, t h e C (color) signals are s a m p l e d less frequently t h a n t h e Y ( l u m i n a n c e , o r b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e ) signal. I n fact, in 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g t h e Y signal is s a m p l e d four times, whereas t h e C signals are s a m p l e d o n l y once. I n 4:2:2 s a m ­ pling the Y signal is s a m p l e d twice as often as t h e C signals: t h e Y signal is s a m p l e d four times, b u t t h e C signals only twice d u r i n g a certain p e r i o d of t i m e . T h e l u m i n a n c e signal receives s u c h privileged t r e a t m e n t because it is a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r t o p i c t u r e sharpness.

video compression, there are two basic systems: intraframe

M o s t n o r m a l p r o d u c t i o n s l o o k s t u n n i n g with 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g . If, however, y o u require h i g h - q u a l i t y color t h a t m u s t w i t h s t a n d a variety of special effects, s u c h as v a r i o u s b l u e - s c r e e n o r c h r o m a - k e y effects (see c h a p t e r 14) o r a great n u m b e r of key layers, y o u will d o well t o use e q u i p ­ m e n t that e m p l o y s t h e h i g h e r 4:2:2 s a m p l i n g ratio. Confused? D o n ' t worry. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t things t o r e m e m b e r a b o u t these systems are that, i n c o m p a r i s o n , t h e video signal of t h e N T S C c o m p o s i t e system is of lower quality t h a n t h a t of t h e Y / C c o m p o n e n t system, w h i c h is s o m e w h a t inferior t o t h e Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t system o r t h e RGB c o m p o n e n t system. A 4:2:2 s a m p l i n g ratio p r o d u c e s better pictures t h a n does a 4:1:1 ratio, al­ t h o u g h t h e latter certainly p r o d u c e s g o o d images. I n fact, y o u w o u l d notice t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o s a m p l i n g ratios only w h e n building c o m p l e x effects o r w h e n record­ ing u n d e r e x t r e m e ( h i g h - c o n t r a s t ) lighting c o n d i t i o n s . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s t o r e m e m b e r are t h a t s o m e of these systems are i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e others, a n d all n e e d their o w n r e c o r d i n g a n d playback e q u i p m e n t . Also, c o n t r a r y t o analog ones, digital recordings s h o w n o notice­ able d e t e r i o r a t i o n even after m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s .

COMPRESSION As y o u recall from c h a p t e r 2, compression refers t o t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o r e l i m i n a t i o n of r e d u n d a n t p i c t u r e i n ­ f o r m a t i o n for more-efficient storage a n d signal t r a n s p o r t . Lossless compression m e a n s t h a t w e r e a r r a n g e t h e d a t a so t h a t they take u p less space. This t e c h n i q u e is similar t o repacking a suitcase to m a k e all t h e stuff fit i n t o it. I n lossy compression we t h r o w away s o m e of t h e u n n e c e s s a r y items a n d therefore c a n use a m u c h smaller suitcase. Digital pictures require a great a m o u n t of t i m e for t r a n s p o r t a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e disk space for s t o r a g e . Be­ cause it is m u c h easier t o store a n d travel w i t h a smaller digital "suitcase," m o s t c o m p r e s s i o n systems are t h e lossy

a n d interframe.

Intraframe compression

This c o m p r e s s i o n system is

designed p r i m a r i l y for still images, b u t it c a n also b e a p ­ plied t o i n d i v i d u a l video frames. Intraframe

compression

looks at each frame a n d t h r o w s away all video i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t is u n n e c e s s a r y t o perceiving p r e t t y m u c h t h e s a m e p i c t u r e as t h e original. I n technical t e r m s it eliminates spatial redundancy. Let's consider o u r overstuffed suitcase again. To save s o m e space, w e m u s t l o o k at each p a r t of t h e p a c k e d suitcase a n d ask w h e t h e r w e c a n get along w i t h t w o shirts instead of six; t h e n we m o v e to t h e sweater section a n d take o u t five of t h e six sweaters we packed, especially since we are going t o go t o a w a r m , s u n n y location. We c o n t i n u e t o check all t h e spaces in t h e suitcase t o see w h a t w e c a n leave b e h i n d . Pretty s o o n w e will have discarded e n o u g h u n n e c e s s a r y clothing ( r e d u n d a n t pixels) t o get b y w i t h a m u c h smaller suitcase. T h e JPEG s y s t e m — a video c o m ­ pression m e t h o d used m o s t l y for still p i c t u r e s — e m p l o y s this i n t r a f r a m e c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e .

Interframe compression T h i s system w a s developed for m o v i n g video images. Rather t h a n compress each frame i n d e p e n d e n t of all the others, interframe compression looks for r e d u n d a n c i e s from o n e frame t o t h e next. Basically, t h e system c o m p a r e s each frame w i t h t h e preceding o n e a n d keeps only t h e pixels t h a t c o n s t i t u t e a c h a n g e . For e x a m p l e , if y o u see a cyclist m o v i n g against a cloudless b l u e sky, t h e system will n o t b o t h e r with repeating all t h e i n f o r m a t i o n that m a k e s u p t h e b l u e sky b u t only with t h e p o s i t i o n change of t h e cyclist. As y o u c a n see, interframe c o m p r e s s i o n looks for temporal redundancy (change from frame t o frame) r a t h e r t h a n spatial r e d u n d a n c y w i t h i n a single frame. Let's use t h e suitcase example o n e last t i m e . We n o w have t w o people w i t h suitcases. J o h n has already p a c k e d his big suitcase, a n d Ellen is ready t o begin packing. Before she starts, however, she checks w i t h John to see what h e has packed (full v i d e o frame 1). To h e r delight h e has packed a lot of stuff she w a n t e d t o take along, so s h e n e e d s t o fit only a few m o r e items into a very small suitcase (interframe c o m p r e s s e d frame 2). MPEG-2, t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d for m o t i o n video, uses t h e interframe t e c h n i q u e . (MPEG is a c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e for m o v i n g pictures, developed by t h e M o v i n g Picture Experts G r o u p . )

266

Chapter

VIDEO-RECORDING

12

AND STORAGE

SYSTEMS

The problem with this system is in editing. Because some of the compressed frames are very lossy, they can't be used as the starting or end point of an edit. The system therefore periodically sends a full reference frame (say, every fifth or tenth frame) that is independent and not the result of a comparison with the previous one. The editor can then go to the full frame to do the actual cut. Being restricted to every fifth or tenth frame for a cut does not please an editor who may need to match each frame of lip movement with the corresponding sound, but in most cases a five-frame cutting restriction is not too much of a handicap. This is why systems designed for editing include these refer­ ence frames as often as feasible. Some more-sophisticated MPEG-2 editing systems can recalculate a complete frame anywhere in the compressed video. Regardless of the compression technique, you can always apply a simple compression/quality formula: the less compression,

the better the image quality. But then there

is another, not so happy, formula: the less compression, the more unwieldy

the huge amount

of information

becomes.

12.5

HELICAL SCAN, OR SLANT-TRACK, SYSTEM

The video track is slanted to gain a sufficient amount of area on a narrow tape.

TAPE-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS This section explores (1) how videotape recording works, (2) the operational VTR controls, (3) their electronic features and how they function, and (4) the major analog and digital VTRs currently in use. HOW VIDEOTAPE RECORDING WORKS Generally speaking, a videotape recorder (VTR) is any electronic recording device that records video and audio signals on videotape for later playback or postproduction editing. During video recording, the videotape moves past a rotating head assembly that "writes" the video and audio signals on the tape during the recording process and "reads" the magnetically stored information off the tape during playback. Some VTRs use two or four heads for the record/play (write/read) functions. Some digital VTRs have even more read/write heads for various video, audio, and control tracks. In the play mode on some VTRs, the same heads used for recording are also used to read the informa­ tion off the tracks and convert it back into video signals. Others use different heads for the record and playback functions. For a simple explanation of how video recording works, the following discussion uses an analog VTR with only two record/playback heads. Record/playback heads The two heads are mounted opposite each other either on a rapidly spinning head drum or on a bar that spins inside a stationary head drum, in

which case they make contact with the tape through a slot in the drum. To gain as much tape space as possible for the large amount of video information without undue tape or drum speed, the tape is wound around the head drum in a slanted, spiral-like configuration. Based on helix—the Greek word for "spiral"—we call this tape wrap, and often the whole video-recording system, the helical scan, or slanttrack, system.

SEE 12.5

Videotape tracks four separate videotape

The standard VHS recorder puts tracks on the tape: the video

track

containing the picture information, two audio tracks containing all sound information, and a control track that regulates the videotape and rotation speed of the VTR heads, SEE 12.6 As we shall soon see, digital VTRs operate with a totally different track arrangement. EDITINGS Postproduction guidelines-> tape basics

Analog video track When you record the video signal in the normal NTSC composite configuration, one pass of the head records a complete field of video information (Y + C). The next pass of the head—or, with a two-head machine, the second head—lays down the second field right next to it, thus completing a single video frame. Because two fields make up a single frame, the two heads must write 60 tracks for 60 fields, or 30 frames, for each second of NTSC video.

Section

How

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Video

Recording

267

Works

o n a similar m a c h i n e can b e played back w i t h o u t p i c t u r e b r e a k u p s . As explained in chapter 13, t h e c o n t r o l track is also essential for precise v i d e o t a p e editing. S o m e V T R s have a sync track (reserving t h e c o n t r o l track for editing p u r p o s e s ) a n d still a n o t h e r track for additional data, such as t h e SMPTE

time code. Because space is so scarce in a

small videocassette, s o m e systems squeeze t h e t i m e code a n d o t h e r data b e t w e e n t h e video a n d a u d i o p o r t i o n s of a single track.

1 2 . 6 BASIC VIDEOTAPE TRACK SYSTEM The basic videotape track system consists of a slanted video track, two or more audio tracks, and a control track.

Rather than a video o r a u d i o signal, digital systems r e c o r d on/off pulses t h a t a r e usually c o d e d as O's a n d l's. S o m e digital systems, such as t h e D V C P R O a n d t h e D V C A M systems, use very small (V4-inch) cassette

In Y / C c o m p o n e n t V T R s , t h e separate l u m i n a n c e a n d

tapes for their h i g h - q u a l i t y recording. Instead of using just

c h r o m i n a n c e signals are c o m b i n e d a n d laid d o w n o n a

t w o tracks for recording a full frame of video, these systems

single t r a c k w i t h each pass of t h e r e c o r d h e a d . In t h e RGB

use as m a n y as t e n o r m o r e tracks t o r e c o r d a single video

a n d Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t systems, three passes

frame. For e x a m p l e , t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y D V C P R O 50 system

are r e q u i r e d t o lay t h e t h r e e signals next t o each other.

uses t w e n t y t r a c k s for e a c h c o m p l e t e f r a m e . E x t r e m e l y h i g h r e c o r d - h e a d speeds m a k e u p for t h e lack of t a p e

A n a l o g a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n is g e n e r ­

w i d t h . T h e a u d i o tracks are e m b e d d e d in t h e video track.

ally r e c o r d e d o n l o n g i t u d i n a l tracks n e a r t h e edge of t h e

T h e c o n t r o l t r a c k a n d c u e tracks (for t h e t i m e code) are

tape. Because of t h e d e m a n d for stereo a u d i o a n d for k e e p ­

l o n g i t u d i n a l , w h i c h m e a n s that t h e y r u n along t h e edge of

ing certain s o u n d s separate even i n m o n o p h o n i c s o u n d ,

t h e tape, SEE 12.7

A u d i o tracks

all V T R systems (even V H S recorders) p r o v i d e at least t w o

OPERATIONAL VTR CONTROLS

a u d i o tracks.

T h e b a s i c o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s a n d f e a t u r e s of V T R s T h e control track c o n t a i n s evenly spaced

are similar, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y

blips o r spikes, called t h e sync pulse, w h i c h m a r k each

record is analog o r digital. A typical V T R has t h e s a m e

Control track

c o m p l e t e television frame. These pulses s y n c h r o n i z e t h e

controls as o n y o u r h o m e VCR, except that t h e professional

t a p e speed ( t h e s p e e d w i t h w h i c h t h e t a p e passes from

m o d e l s have a few a d d i t i o n a l s h u t t l e a n d edit c o n t r o l s .

t h e s u p p l y reel t o t h e t a k e u p reel i n t h e cassette) a n d t h e

Each of these b u t t o n s o r k n o b s lets y o u c o n t r o l a specific

r o t a t i o n speed of t h e r e c o r d h e a d s so t h a t a t a p e m a d e

V T R function.

Cue track Overwrite margin Subcode area Gap 3 Video area Gap 2 Audio area Gap 1 ITI area Control track

1 2 . 7 DVCPRO 50 TRACK PATTERN The digital DVCPRO 50 system writes twenty tracks to record a single video frame.

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1 2 . 8 BASIC VTR CONTROLS Standard VTR controls are similar to those on a home videocassette recorder.

The most basic controls on any VTR—regardless of type or sophistication, analog or digital—are the play, stop, record, fast-forward,

rewind,

and eject buttons and

the audio volume controls, SEE T2.8 The more sophisti­ cated VTRs have these additional functions: (1) standby, (2) pause or still, (3) search or shuttle, (4) audio controls, and (5) tracking. In the standby mode, the VTR threads the tape and rotates the video heads, but the tape is still stationary. The rotating video heads are disengaged and not in contact with the tape. The pause control will stop the tape with the heads still moving. In this mode the rotating video heads are in contact with the tape and will continu­ ously scan the adjacent video fields and produce a still—or freeze—frame on the video monitor or in the camera viewfinder. But do not keep the machine in pause too long—the heads are apt to scrape the iron-oxide coating off the tape and leave you with nothing but clogged heads and video noise on the monitor.

or lower than the normal record/play speed. The shuttle feature is especially important when searching for a par­ ticular shot or scene on the videotape. You can advance the video frame-by-frame or rattle through a whole scene until you find the right picture. You can also slow down the shuttle enough to get a jogging effect, which shows a frame-by-frame advancement of the videotape. Some elaborate recorders have separate shuttle and jog controls. You should note that in the search or shuttle mode, the heads are still engaged and in contact with the tape. If you have a rough idea of where a particular scene is located, use the fast-forward or rewind controls instead of search. The fast-forward and rewind modes disengage the heads, thus preventing excessive tape and head wear; but because you can no longer see the pictures, you have to watch the tape counter.

Most home VCRs switch out of pause mode if the tape has had enough abuse. Some professional recorders, however, will not do this automatically, to avoid interfer­ ing with the creative process. Don't leave a tape too long in pause mode, especially if you want to use it for editing.

Audio The main audio controls are the volume control and VU monitoring for each audio channel. Some record­ ers have separate volume controls for sound recording and playback. The audio dub control lets you record sound in­ formation without erasing the pictures already recorded on the video track. Most professional VTRs give you a choice of selecting regular (analog) and hi-fi (digital) audio. De­ pending on how the sound on the videotape was recorded, you may have to switch to or from hi-fi audio. If the audio doesn't play back properly, try the other mode.

Search or shuttle This control lets you advance or re­ verse the tape at variable speeds that may be much higher

Tracking Tracking errors usually show up as a jittery picture. It happens when the playback head of the playback

Section

12. 1

How

VTR is not exactly aligned with the heads of the VTR on which the program was recorded. Most professional VTRs do this alignment automatically, but some lower-end machines have manual controls. ELECTRONIC FEATURES The major electronic features that you need to know to operate a VTR are: (1) input and output jacks, (2) the time base corrector, (3) the framestore synchronizer, and (4) the automatic moisture shutdown. Input and output jacks The most important jacks (receptacles) are the video input (camera or any other video feed, such as the signal from a television set) and video output (to other VTRs for editing and to monitors or televi­ sion sets). Digital recorders have standard analog SMPTE composite and component video as well as S-video output jacks. Most consumer VTRs have in and out RF(radio fre­ quency) jacks, which let you use a regular television set as a monitor. You simply connect the coaxial cable from the RF output of the VTR to the antenna input of the television set and switch the set to a particular channel (usually channel 3 or 4). The RF signal also carries the audio. Besides the RF connection, the VTR has separate video and audio output jacks that operate independent of the RF. They are designed for RCA phono plugs and are normally color-coded white and red for audio and yellow for video. Good television receivers have similar video and audio input jacks. Time base corrector All good-quality videotape sys­ tems need some device that stabilizes the picture and elimi­ nates jitter during playback. Two of the most common are the time base corrector (TBC) and the more versatile digital framestore synchronizer. Both electronic devices adjust the scanning of the source signal to that of the playback device to keep both scanning "clocks" in step. This synchroniza­ tion of the scanning of both video sources allows you to interface VTRs with a variety of video equipment without temporary picture breakup. Normally, you need to provide the same synchronization information—called house sync—to all video sources if you expect to switch among them without picture glitches. When you import a video source without such genlock, that is, without supplying house sync to all video sources, the TBC will help prevent picture breakup when switching from one video source to the other. Most high-end VTRs have a built-in TBC to prevent picture breakup and ensure jitter-free pictures.

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Framestore synchronizer The digital framestore syn­ chronizers a more sophisticated digital version of a TBC. The framestore synchronizer grabs each digitized frame of the video signal and stores it momentarily until its scanning is synchronized with that of another video source. This system is so efficient that you can switch among various independent video sources that are not genlocked. You may have seen a picture freeze momentarily when watching a live report from a different city: when the signal is tem­ porarily interrupted, the framestore synchronizer holds everything until the video is in sync again. Automatic moisture shutdown This feature can prevent you from losing a hard day's work or it can drive you crazy. Because the tape heads and the videotape itself are especially sensitive to moisture, stand-alone VTRs and those in camcorders shut down automatically if they get too damp. When in the field, such a shutdown can be frustrat­ ing and time-consuming. Experienced VTR operators, or "shooters," therefore carry a battery-powered hair dryer to dry out the VTR and get it up and running again. ANALOG VIDEOTAPE RECORDERS Professional VTR models are as varied and ever-changing as consumer models. Rather than concentrate on specific makes, this overview looks at the quality differences and the specific functions of tape-based analog and digital recording systems. You can accomplish many production tasks with lessthan-top-of-the-line VTRs. Even home VCRs are sufficient if all you want to do is look for a particular shot or scene. The more popular analog VTRs in television stations and production centers, in descending order of qual­ ity, include (1) Betacam SP, (2) S-VHS, and—yes—even (3) VHS models. :am SP The SP of this system stands, quite aptly, for superior performance. This is the improved version of the original Betacam recording process. Despite the digital revolution, Betacam SP is still used in quite a few broadcast stations, independent production companies, and corporate video operations. This is because it cap­ tures high-quality video and audio and because it is hard to retire such a good and initially very expensive piece of equipment. The Betacam SP keeps the Y (luminance) signal and the Y/color difference signals (R-Y and B-Y) separate throughout the recording process and is, there­ fore, a Y/color difference component system. Two of its

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Audio controls

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Editing controls

This high-quality Betacam SP VTR has all the controls of a standard VTR plus additional audio, shuttle, and editing controls.

Operational controls

Shuttle controls

four a u d i o tracks p r o d u c e high-fidelity s o u n d . This VTR, which c a n also b e a t t a c h e d to a c a m c o r d e r , is u s e d m a i n l y for c a p t u r i n g video, SEE 12.9 A N D 12.10 T h e S-VHS v i d e o t a p e recorder is a greatly i m ­ proved version of t h e w e l l - k n o w n c o n s u m e r V H S record­ ers. You can find S-VHS systems in television n e w s r o o m s , in e d i t i n g suites of c o r p o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n h o u s e s , a n d especially in schools t h a t teach v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n or that p r o d u c e p r o g r a m s for a local cable station. S o m e are used for viewing footage that has been shot with S-VHS c a m e r a s or d u b b e d from digital tape, SEE 12.11 T h e S - V H S s y s t e m r e c o r d s v i d e o i n f o r m a t i o n as

Camera

Betacam SP recorder

Y/C c o m p o n e n t signals. H i g h - e n d m o d e l s have a b u i l t - i n

12.10

T B C t h a t e n s u r e s p i c t u r e stability d u r i n g playback a n d

Many professional camcorders can be docked with a variety of VTRs. This camera is docked with a Betacam SP VTR.

editing. T h e S-VHS recorders p r o v i d e four s o u n d tracks

BETACAM SP VTR DOCKED WITH CAMERA

(two of w h i c h are for high-fidelity s o u n d ) a n d a separate c o n t r o l track. editing, d o c u m e n t i n g shows for tape archives, a n d even VHS

T h e V H S system, w h i c h y o u u n d o u b t e d l y have in

your h o m e , records the video signals in t h e N T S C c o m p o s ­

off-line editing. (Logging a n d editing p r o c e d u r e s are ex­ p l o r e d in c h a p t e r 13.)

ite f o r m a t . Its pictures a n d s o u n d are noticeably inferior to o t h e r analog a n d especially digital systems, b u t d o n ' t

DIGITAL VIDEOTAPE RECORDERS

t h r o w away y o u r V H S r e c o r d e r just yet. T h e V H S system

At this p o i n t y o u m a y w o n d e r w h y we b o t h e r w i t h digital

still serves i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t i o n functions. You can use

r e c o r d i n g systems w h e n t h e a n a l o g V T R s d e s c r i b e d p r o ­

these inexpensive m a c h i n e s for basic p r o g r a m screening,

d u c e perfectly acceptable p i c t u r e s a n d s o u n d . T h e m a j o r

previewing a n d logging of scenes s h o t for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n

advantages of digital V T R s are t h a t they are m o r e c o m p a c t

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12.11 S-VHS STUDIO VTR This S-VHS studio VTR uses Vi-inch cassettes to record Y/C component video and four separate audio tracks. Two of the audio tracks are for highfidelity sound.

a n d t h a t even inexpensive m o d e l s p r o d u c e h i g h - q u a l i t y

press t h e r i g h t b u t t o n s . Nevertheless, to o p e r a t e a specific

p i c t u r e s a n d s o u n d t h a t m a i n t a i n their q u a l i t y t h r o u g h

V T R reliably a n d efficiently, y o u n e e d to b e familiar w i t h

r e p e a t e d d u b s . Digital r e c o r d i n g s also d o n o t n e e d to b e

at least s o m e of t h e m a j o r digital systems a n d t h e i r basic

c o n v e r t e d — u n l i k e analog r e c o r d i n g s — f o r c o m p u t e r stor­

features: (1) DV, (2) D V C A M , (3) D V C P R O , (4) B e t a c a m

age o n a h a r d disk for n o n l i n e a r editing a n d special-effects

SX, (5) H D V , a n d (6) H D T V , SEE 12.12

manipulation. W h e n o p e r a t i n g a V T R , it d o e s n ' t really m a t t e r w h a t

All small digital c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s use t h e DV

system y o u are u s i n g so l o n g as y o u use the p r o p e r t a p e a n d

system, b u t it quickly f o u n d its w a y i n t o n e w s r o o m s a n d

12.12 DIGITAL RECORDING SYSTEMS This table lists the most widespread digital video systems. SYSTEM

CASSETTE

PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS

DV

14-inch (6.35mm) mini-cassette

Good digital quality.

DVCAM

14-inch (6.35mm) full-sized cassette

Excellent quality. Cassette not compatible with DVCPRO.

DVCPRO

Vi-inch (12.65mm) full-sized cassette

Excellent quality. Cassette not compatible w i t h DVCAM.

Betacam SX

1

/2-inch (12.65mm) full-sized cassette

Excellent quality. Bulky.

HDV

1

/4-inch (6.35mm) mini-cassette

Excellent quality. Superior resolution. Records only half the video information of HDTV.

HDTV

%-inch (6.35mm) full-sized cassette

Superior resolution and color.

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1 2 . 1 3 DVCAM DESKTOP VTR This DVCAM digital VTR can record high-quality digital video and high-fidelity audio on a V4-inch cassette as well as on DV mini-cassettes. It can be connected directly to a computer via a FireWire (i-link or IEEE 1394) interface cable.

i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c t i o n h o u s e s because of t h e a s t o n i s h ­ ingly g o o d q u a l i t y a n d small size of its c a m c o r d e r a n d VTR. In fact, t h e D V r e c o r d i n g m e t h o d is the f o r e r u n n e r of t h e D V C P R O a n d D V C A M systems, a n d several p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s use D V r e c o r d i n g . T h e m i n i - c a s s e t t e used in t h e D V system can r e c o r d u p t o a n h o u r of c o n t i n u o u s p r o g r a m m i n g . N o t e , however, t h a t extensive editing w i t h t h e D V system is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d ; in t h e D V m o d e , t h e a u d i o / v i d e o s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n is n o t "locked," w h i c h m e a n s t h a t it is n o t f r a m e - a c c u r a t e .

12.14 T h e Sony DVCAM

V T R has a 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g

ratio w h e n recording Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t signals. It uses i n t r a f r a m e c o m p r e s s i o n a n d t h e '/4-inch ( 6 . 3 5 m m )

DVCPRO 50 STUDIO VTR

This recorder uses twenty tracks on a 14-inch (6.35mm) tape for each frame—twice as many tracks as the standard DVCPRO VTR. It can record ninety minutes of program material.

cassette, w h i c h is a little larger t h a n t h e m i n i - c a s s e t t e . T h e cassettes c o n t a i n v a r i o u s t a p e l e n g t h s c a p a b l e of r e c o r d i n g u p t o t h r e e h o u r s of p r o g r a m m i n g . Besides the

( t w e n t y instead of t e n ) , a h i g h e r s a m p l i n g ratio (4:2:2 for

D V C A M ' s small size a n d excellent a u d i o a n d v i d e o q u a l ­

interlaced f o r m a t s instead of 4:1:1), a n d a lower c o m p r e s ­

ity, t h e recordings suffer virtually n o d e t e r i o r a t i o n d u r i n g

sion rate t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d D V C P R O system, SEE

12.14

p o s t p r o d u c t i o n because they stay c o m p r e s s e d t h r o u g h the entire editing process, SEE

12.13

T h e digital Betacam

SX s y s t e m uses a

Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t signal a n d has a 4:2:2 s a m ­ u s e s a Vi-inch

pling ratio. It uses Vi-inch t a p e cassettes t h a t can r e c o r d

( 6 . 3 5 m m ) cassette t h a t c a n r e c o r d a b o u t t w o h o u r s of

c o n t i n u o u s l y for a b o u t t h r e e h o u r s . T h i s s y s t e m n e v e r

p r o g r a m m i n g . It is similar to t h e D V C A M cassette b u t

achieved t h e p o p u l a r i t y of its analog c o u n t e r p a r t , Betacam

uses a v i d e o t a p e with a different coating. Like t h e D V C A M

SP, m a i n l y because it was u p s t a g e d by t h e lighter a n d m o r e

system, t h e D V C P R O uses Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t

flexible D V C A M a n d D V C P R O systems.

T h i s P a n a s o n i c DVCPRO

signals, a 4:1:1 sampling ratio, a n d intraframe compression. As y o u recall, this m e a n s t h a t y o u can use a n y frame for a n edit-in or e d i t - o u t p o i n t .

High-definition

video (HDV)

is a p r o s u m e r f o r m a t

t h a t m a k e s high-definition television accessible to p r o d u c ­

T h e D V C P R O 50 system, for h i g h - e n d V T R s a n d

t i o n c o m p a n i e s t h a t c a n n o t s p e n d tens of t h o u s a n d s of

c a m c o r d e r s , uses twice as m a n y tracks for each video frame

dollars o n a c a m c o r d e r . As can be expected, t h e v a r i o u s

Section

12.1

How

formats on the market have their own recording systems and are not compatible, except for one thing: they all record on standard DV mini-cassettes. Some operational systems (JVC and Panasonic) record with a 720p (progressive) scanning standard; Sony with a 1080i (interlaced) one (see chapter 2). All use MPEG-2 compression. Although properly produced HDV has the same picture resolution as HDTV, purists insist that HDV's colors and grayscale are still a far cry from those of HDTV. You will find that the real problems of prosumer HDV are not only the lack of color information but also a lower-quality lens and playback equipment. When played back on standard television equipment, you obviously lose the resolution advantage you gained with HDV recording. Much like HDTV, HDV requires large-capacity hard drives to import the massive amount of digital information. You will also find that your favorite editing software may still not support HDV without first having to decompress and reconfigure the stored HDV data. The ultimate in image quality is high-definition television (HDTV). Of the many recording systems, two are considered standard: VTRs that use the 1080i or the 720p system. As discussed in chapter 2, the 1080i is an interlaced system that produces 60 fields, or 30 frames, per second. The 720p system produces 720 visible lines, which are scanned progressively to produce 30 frames per second. Like DTV, HDTV needs not only HDTV cameras or cam­ corders with high-quality HDTV lenses and HDTV record­ ers but also HDTV playback and display equipment. Although many television operations are producing shows in HDTV, it is still much too expensive for most smaller production houses and individual video producers. This is one of the reasons for the development of HDV.

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HARD DISK SYSTEMS These video-recording systems include: (1) large-capacity hard disks, (2) portable hard drives, and (3) electronic still store (ESS) systems. Large-capacity hard disks The simplest way to store and retrieve digital video and audio information for postproduction editing is with large-capacity hard disks. Accel­ erated hard-drive speeds and highly efficient compression techniques enable you to store hours of video and audio information and call up any frame in a fraction of a second. Unlike videotape, which inevitably degrades after repeated use, the hard disk has no such problem—it remains like new even after a great many recordings and erasures. In the ongoing move to an entirely tapeless operation, many television stations use video servers, which are very large-capacity disk systems that can record, store, and play many hours of television programming. These servers are controlled by computers that tell them what to play at a particular time. Servers are also used in newsrooms so that editors, writers, and producers have instant access to the news material stored on them, SEE 12.15

TAPELESS RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS The basis for nonlinear postproduction editing is the development of large-capacity hard disks and read/write optical discs with fast access times. All tapeless digital video-recording systems operate on the same principle: they store digital data in computer files that can be iden­ tified and randomly retrieved. If that sounds familiar, it's because disk-based systems are, indeed, specialized computers. This is why you can use a desktop computer and appropriate software as the key elements for a diskbased editing system. This overview looks at (1) hard disk systems, (2) read/write optical discs, (3) flash memory devices, and (4) data transfer.

12.15

VIDEOSERVER

The video server consists of large-capacity computer disks that can store a great number of brief program segments, such as commercials and promotional announcements.

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T h e s e small hard drives,

E F P ^ s o m e t i m e s called fieldpacks,

are d e s i g n e d t o b e

AND

STORAGE

SYSTEMS

READ/WRITE OPTICAL DISCS T h e r e is a variety of read/write

optical discs that can re­

docked with ENG/EFP cameras. The Ikegami Editcam

cord a n d play b a c k a great a m o u n t of digital i n f o r m a t i o n .

c a m c o r d e r , for e x a m p l e , has an 80-gigabyte fieldpack a n d

T h e o p t i c a l discs m o s t often u s e d are C D s a n d D V D s ,

is a b o u t t h e size of a d o c k a b l e V T R , yet it can store u p

a l t h o u g h t r u e t o t h e n a t u r e of digital r e c o r d i n g , y o u m a y

t o six h o u r s of DV video a n d a u d i o . Such portable

hard

n o t b e able to play b a c k y o u r v i d e o m a s t e r p i e c e from a

drives r e c o r d h i g h - q u a l i t y digital video, t i m e c o d e , a n d

D V D unless y o u used certain a u t h o r i n g software for the

two- or f o u r - c h a n n e l a u d i o . T h e y all have i n / o u t FireWire

r e c o r d i n g , SEE 12.17

c o n n e c t i o n s , w h i c h g r e a t l y facilitates t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e

S o m e c a m c o r d e r s use r e a d / w r i t e optical discs r a t h e r

c a p t u r e d video a n d a u d i o to t h e editing c o m p u t e r . T h e r e

t h a n h a r d disks as their r e c o r d i n g m e d i a . T h e great a d v a n ­

are p o r t a b l e drives t h a t c a n b e c o n n e c t e d via FireWire t o

tages of such optical discs are t h a t they are easy to store a n d

p r o s u m e r DV camcorders. S o m e portable h a r d drives allow

they p e r m i t extremely fast access t i m e . T h e disadvantage is

you to d o editing in t h e field w i t h an externally c o n n e c t e d

that, despite v a r i o u s c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s , t h e storage

l a p t o p — a big a d v a n t a g e in E N G . S o m e c a m c o r d e r s have

capacity is r a t h e r limited.

a t a p e - b a s e d as well as a disk-based r e c o r d i n g system. You can use b o t h s i m u l t a n e o u s l y for r e c o r d i n g , or use t h e t a p e

FLASH MEMORY DEVICES

as a b a c k u p in case t h e h a r d drive crashes.
Editing introduction

Section 13.1, H o w Postproduction Editing Works, examines t h e basic editing func­ tions a n d t h e major editing systems. Section 13.2, M a k i n g Editing Decisions, helps you sharpen your aesthetic j u d g m e n t a b o u t w h y a n d h o w to assemble shots. Despite the p r e d o m i n a n c e of nonlinear editing, t a p e - b a s e d linear editing is discussed first because k n o w i n g h o w linear editing works will help y o u understand nonlinear editing a n d h o w to apply it with m a x i m u m efficiency.

284

AB-roll editing Creating an edit master tape from two source VTRs, one containing the A-roll, the other the B-roll. The editing is initiated by the edit controller rather than through switching. A B rolling The simultaneous and synchronized feed from two source VTRs (one supplying the A-roll, the other the B-roll) to the switcher for instantaneous editing as though they were live sources. assemble editing Adding shots in linear editing on videotape in consecutive order without first recording a control track on the edit master tape. capture Transferring video and audio information to a com­ puter hard drive for nonlinear editing. complexity editing The juxtaposition of shots that primarily, though not exclusively, helps intensify the screen event. Editing conventions as advocated in continuity editing are often purposely violated. continuity editing The preservation of visual continuity from shot to shot. control track system An editing system that counts the control track pulses and translates this count into elapsed time and frame numbers. It is not frame-accurate. Also called pulsecount system.

mental map Tells viewers where things are or are supposed to be in on- and off-screen space. nonlinear editing (NLE) Allows instant random access to shots and sequences and easy rearrangement. The video and audio information is stored in digital form on computer hard disks or read/write optical discs. Uses disk-based computer systems. off-line editing In linear editing it produces an edit decision list or a videotape not intended for broadcast. In nonlinear editing the selected shots are captured in low resolution to save computer storage space. on-line editing In linear editing it produces the final highquality edit master tape for broadcast or program dupli­ cation. In nonlinear editing it requires recapturing the selected shots at a higher resolution. record VTR The videotape recorder that edits the program seg­ ments as supplied by the source VTR(s) into the final edit master tape. Also called edit VTR. slate (1) Visual and/or verbal identification of each videotaped segment. (2) A small blackboard or whiteboard upon which essential production information is written. It is recorded at the beginning of each take. source tape The videotape with the original footage.

cutaway A shot of an object or event that is peripherally con­ nected with the overall event and that is often neutral as to its screen direction (such as a straight-on shot). Used to intercut between shots to facilitate continuity. edit controller Machine that assists in various editing func­ tions, such as marking edit-in and edit-out points, rolling source and record VTRs, and activating effects equipment. Often a desktop computer with specialized software. Also called editing control unit. edit decision list (EDL) Consists of edit-in and edit-out points, expressed in time code numbers, and the nature of transi­ tions between shots. edit master tape The videotape on which the selected portions of the source tapes are edited. Used with the record VTR.

source VTR The videotape recorder that supplies the program segments to be assembled by the record VTR. Also called play VTR. time code Gives each television frame a specific address (num­ ber that shows hours, minutes, seconds, and frames of elapsed tape). It is frame-accurate. vector Refers to a force with a direction. Graphic vectors suggest a direction through lines or a series of objects that form a line. Index vectors point unquestionably in a specific direc­ tion, such as an arrow. Motion vectors are created by an object or a screen image in motion.

insert editing Requires the prior laying of a control track on the edit master tape. The shots are edited in sequence or in­ serted into an already existing recording. Necessary mode for editing audio and video tracks separately.

VTR log A list of all takes on the source videotapes compiled during the screening (logging) of the source material. It lists all takes—both good (acceptable) and no good (unac­ ceptable)—in consecutive order by time code address. Often done with computerized logging programs. A vector column facilitates shot selection.

linear editing Analog or digital editing that uses tape-based systems. Selection of shots is nonrandom.

window dub A "bumped-down"copy of all source tapes that has the time code keyed over each frame.

285

13.1

P

Using the control track (pulse count) and time code systems P

LINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Assemble and insert editing

fc-

How Postproduction

CONTROL TRACK AND TIME CODE EDITING

AB ROLLING AND AB-ROLL EDITING Creating an edit master tape from two source VTRs

P

NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS Basic desktop systems

Editing Works fc-

NONLINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Capture, compression, and storage of information, and shot juxtaposition and rearrangement

P-

PRE-EDITING PHASES The shooting, review, and preparation phases

fc-

EDITING PROCEDURES Shot selection, shot sequencing, audio sweetening, creating the final edit master tape, and operational hints

EDITING MODES: O F F - A N D ON-LINE Although editing e q u i p m e n t changes almost from day

Unless y o u edit news footage for a n u p c o m i n g newscast o r

to day, t h e basic editing functions r e m a i n t h e s a m e — t o

a s h o r t , basically c u t s - o n l y piece, y o u will p r o b a b l y engage

c o m b i n e , s h o r t e n , correct, a n d b u i l d . H o w y o u d o this

in off-line a n d o n - l i n e editing p r o c e d u r e s . Off-line

d e p e n d s a great deal o n just w h a t t h e editing j o b involves,

results in a rough-cut.

h o w m u c h p o s t p r o d u c t i o n time y o u have, a n d w h a t e q u i p ­

series that serves as a guide for the final edit. On-line

m e n t is available. If, for example, y o u n e e d to edit an M T V

p r o d u c e s t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e or disc. A l t h o u g h simi­

s e g m e n t t h a t consists of m a n y c o m p l e x effects t h a t have

lar in intent, t h e p r o c e d u r e s for these t w o m o d e s of editing

to m a t c h t h e m u s i c track exactly, y o u c a n n o t use a simple,

are different for linear a n d n o n l i n e a r editing.

editing

It will p r o d u c e a l o w - q u a l i t y p i c t u r e editing

t a p e - b a s e d c u t s - o n l y editor n o m a t t e r h o w h a r d y o u try. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a simple c u t s - o n l y t a p e editing system

LINEAR OFF- A N D ON-LINE EDITING

is perfectly a d e q u a t e if all y o u have to d o is select o n e o r

Linear off-line editing is d o n e to give y o u a r o u g h idea of

t w o s o u n d bites from a brief speech.

h o w t h e i n t e n d e d s h o t s e q u e n c e looks a n d feels. It is a

Section 13.1 explains t h e m a j o r e d i t i n g p r o c e d u r e s

sketch, n o t t h e final p a i n t i n g . Even skilled editors like to d o

a n d systems a n d w h a t t h e y d o best. A l t h o u g h editing, like

a n off-line edit to check t h e r h y t h m of t h e shot s e q u e n c e ,

bicycling, is difficult to learn from a b o o k , this section will

decide o n v a r i o u s t r a n s i t i o n s a n d effects, a n d get s o m e

at least m a k e y o u c o m f o r t a b l e w h e n y o u are finally called

idea of t h e a u d i o r e q u i r e m e n t s . Linear off-line editing is

u p o n to d o it. •

EDITING MODES: OFF-AND ON-LINE Linear and nonlinear on- and off-line editing—defined by quality and editing intent

usually d o n e w i t h l o w - e n d e q u i p m e n t . You c o u l d even use t w o V H S recorders for an off-line r o u g h - c u t : o n e feeds t h e s o u r c e tapes, t h e o t h e r records t h e selected s h o t s in t h e desired s e q u e n c e (see figure 13.2). Never m i n d t h e sloppy t r a n s i t i o n s or a u d i o — a l l y o u w a n t to see is w h e t h e r t h e

P

P-

286

BASIC EDITING SYSTEMS

sequences m a k e sense, t h a t is, tell t h e i n t e n d e d story. If

Basic linear and nonlinear systems and their corresponding operational principles

y o u d o a p r e l i m i n a r y edit for a client, of course, t h e off-line

LINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS

V H S m a c h i n e s will n o longer suffice. T h e m o s t valuable

Single-source, expanded single-source, and multiplesource systems

b y - p r o d u c t of off-line editing is a final edit decision

edit s h o u l d l o o k as g o o d as y o u can possibly m a k e it, so

(EDL) t h a t y o u can t h e n use for o n - l i n e editing.

list

Section

13.1

Linear on-line

How

Postproduction

Editing

287

Works

editing results in the final p r o d u c t in­

t e n d e d for b r o a d c a s t or o t h e r f o r m s of d i s t r i b u t i o n . It is actually a re-edit according to the EDL. It contains all of t h e

Timeline for arrang­ ing video and audio clips and controlling transitions

t r a n s i t i o n s a n d effects as well as a clean a u d i o track. This is t h e version y o u are pleased to h a n d to y o u r client o r t o see b r o a d c a s t or projected in a theater. You obviously use t h e best e q u i p m e n t available to p r o d u c e t h e o n - l i n e version. M o s t h i g h - e n d , c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d edit controllers will use t h e EDL as a guide for t h e final edit.

Available shots

NONLINEAR OFF- A N D ON-LINE

EDITING

In n o n l i n e a r editing off-line m e a n s t h a t y o u c a p t u r e t h e selected s h o t s in l o w - r e s o l u t i o n v i d e o a n d use t h e m for y o u r r o u g h - c u t . T h e r e a s o n for i m p o r t i n g the v i d e o in l o w - r e s o l u t i o n is to save s t o r a g e space a n d p r o c e s s i n g t i m e . Even t h o u g h y o u c a n r u n t h e edited l o w - r e s o l u t i o n version f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o e n d , y o u r final a i m is actually a n a c c u r a t e EDL. W h e n editing t h e on-line version, y o u redigitize t h e selected clips in high resolution a n d sequence t h e m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e EDL. This p r o c e d u r e m a k e s little sense if you're editing a relatively s h o r t piece. If y o u kept a fairly a c c u r a t e VTR log, y o u c a n c a p t u r e t h e selected clips

13.1

NONLINEAR DISPLAY OF SHOTS TO BE EDITED

A nonlinear editing system can display a number of still frames, a choice of transitions and effects, and graphic representations of various audio tracks. It allows you to run shot sequences with or without sound and preview various transitions and effects.

in h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n w i t h o u t straining y o u r h a r d drive. T h e n every t i m e y o u t r y o u t a p a r t i c u l a r editing s e q u e n c e , y o u r editing is o n - l i n e even t h o u g h y o u r i n t e n t i o n s m a y b e to

NONLINEAR SYSTEMS

d o just a r o u g h - c u t . As y o u can see, this is o n e of t h e h u g e

W h e n i n f o r m a t i o n is stored o n a disk-based editing system,

a d v a n t a g e s of n o n l i n e a r editing.

y o u can j u m p to s h o t 25 directly w i t h o u t rolling t h r o u g h t h e p r e c e d i n g t w e n t y - f o u r shots. Being able t o access any specific s h o t or frame in r a n d o m o r d e r is a n o n l i n e a r p r o ­

BASIC EDITING SYSTEMS As explained in c h a p t e r 12, all t a p e d - b a s e d r e c o r d i n g sys­

cess. All disk-based systems are, therefore, called

nonlinear.

Because they are c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , they can o p e r a t e only w i t h digital signals. In effect, t h e n o n l i n e a r editing system

t e m s are linear, a n d all disk-based systems are n o n l i n e a r .

operates like a large ESS (electronic still store) system that

Similarly, all editing systems u s i n g v i d e o t a p e are linear,

allows y o u to identify a n d access each frame o r frame

regardless of w h e t h e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e c o r d e d o n t h e

s e q u e n c e in a fraction of a s e c o n d . Because t h e system is

t a p e is a n a l o g or digital. All e d i t i n g systems t h a t are disk-

n o n l i n e a r , it can display a n y t w o o r m o r e frames side-by-

based are n o n l i n e a r . W h a t exactly d o e s t h i s m e a n from

side o n a single c o m p u t e r screen so y o u c a n see h o w well

a p r o d u c t i o n p o i n t of view? Let's l o o k at h o w r e c o r d e d

t h e s h o t s will edit together. SEE 13.1

i n f o r m a t i o n is retrieved.

EDITING PRINCIPLE LINEAR SYSTEMS

This big o p e r a t i o n a l difference between the t w o systems has

As y o u recall from chapter 12, h a v i n g to roll t h r o u g h all the

c h a n g e d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t of h o w editing w o r k s .

p r e c e d i n g shots is a l i n e a r — o n e - a f t e r - t h e - o t h e r — p r o c e s s .

Linear editing is basically selecting shots from o n e t a p e a n d

To locate s h o t 25 o n a v i d e o t a p e , y o u n e e d t o roll t h r o u g h

copying t h e m in a specific o r d e r o n t o a n o t h e r t a p e . T h e

t h e p r e v i o u s t w e n t y - f o u r shots before reaching s h o t 25.

o p e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e of linear editing is copying.

You c a n n o t s i m p l y j u m p t o s h o t 25, skipping all p r e c e d i n g shots. All t a p e - b a s e d editing systems are therefore called

Nonlinear

editing (NLE) allows y o u to select a n d rear­

range frames a n d shots. R a t h e r t h a n copy certain images

linear, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e tapes c o n t a i n a n a l o g or

(as in linear e d i t i n g ) , y o u sort t h r o u g h t h e image files a n d

digital signals.

m a r k t h e m to play back in a specific order. T h e o p e r a t i o n a l

288

Chapter

13

POSTPRODUCTION

p r i n c i p l e of n o n l i n e a r editing is selecting video and data files and making specific

the computer

EDITING

audio

W h e n d o i n g t h e actual editing, y o u use t h e s o u r c e

play them back as a

V T R t o find t h e exact i n - a n d o u t - p o i n t s of the footage y o u

sequence.

w a n t t o copy t o t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e . T h e record V T R d o e s t h e actual c o p y i n g of t h e m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e d b y t h e source V T R a n d j o i n s t h e frames at p r e d e t e r m i n e d p o i n t s — t h e

LINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS

edit points. You have t o tell t h e record V T R w h e n t o start

Regardless of h o w c o m p l e x t a p e - b a s e d linear editing sys­

r e c o r d i n g (copying) t h e source material a n d w h e n to stop

t e m s m a y be, t h e y all w o r k o n t h e s a m e basic principle:

r e c o r d i n g . A n "in" o r " e n t r a n c e " c u e tells t h e r e c o r d V T R

o n e o r several V T R s play back p o r t i o n s of t h e tape with t h e

w h e n t o start r e c o r d i n g t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l ; a n " o u t " o r

original footage, a n d a n o t h e r V T R records o n its o w n t a p e

"exit" cue tells it w h e n t o stop. Assisting y o u in this task is

t h e selected m a t e r i a l from t h e original t a p e . T h e different

a piece of e q u i p m e n t called t h e edit controller.

tape-based systems fall i n t o t h r e e categories: (1) t h e singlesource system, (2) t h e e x p a n d e d single-source system, a n d

Edit controller

(3) m u l t i p l e - s o u r c e systems.

unit, a u t o m a t e s editing to a certain extent. It m e m o r i z e s

T h e edit controller,

o r editing

control

y o u r c o m m a n d s a n d executes t h e m w i t h p r e c i s i o n a n d

SINGLE-SOURCE

SYSTEM

reliability,

A basic system t h a t h a s only o n e V T R s u p p l y i n g t h e m a ­ terial t o be e d i t e d is called a single-source,

or

cuts-only,

C o n t r o l s V T R search m o d e s (variable forward a n d

editing system. T h e m a c h i n e t h a t plays b a c k t h e t a p e w i t h t h e original footage is called t h e source VTR o r play

SEE 13.3 A basic edit controller p e r f o r m s t h e

following functions:

reverse speeds) separately for t h e s o u r c e a n d record

VTR.

V T R s t o locate scenes

T h e m a c h i n e t h a t copies t h e selected m a t e r i a l is called t h e record VTR o r edit VTR. In t h e s a m e m a n n e r , t h e videotape

Reads a n d displays elapsed t i m e a n d frame n u m b e r s

with t h e original footage is t h e source tape, a n d t h e o n e

o r t i m e c o d e (frame address) for a c c u r a t e c u e i n g of

o n t o w h i c h t h e selected p o r t i o n s are r e c o r d e d in a specific

t h e source a n d edit m a s t e r tapes

editing sequence is t h e edit master

tape. To see w h a t is o n

b o t h t h e s o u r c e a n d edit m a s t e r tapes, y o u n e e d m o n i t o r s

3 M a r k s a n d r e m e m b e r s precise e d i t - i n a n d - o u t p o i n t s (cues)

for b o t h VTRs. SEE 13.2

Backs u p , o r "backspaces," b o t h V T R s t o precisely t h e s a m e preroll p o i n t ( o n s o m e edit controllers, a switch gives y o u several preroll choices, s u c h as Source (play) VTR monitor shows first frame of new shot Shot 3

Record (edit) VTR monitor shows last frame of previous shot Shot 2

a 2 - s e c o n d o r a 5-second preroll; preroll helps t h e V T R s achieve o p t i m a l speed for jitter-free r e c o r d i n g ) S i m u l t a n e o u s l y starts b o t h m a c h i n e s a n d s y n c h r o ­ nizes t h e i r t a p e speeds «

M a k e s t h e record V T R p e r f o r m in either t h e as­ s e m b l e o r t h e insert edit m o d e (discussed later in this section) M o s t single-source system edit controllers c a n also d o

a d d i t i o n a l editing tasks, such as letting y o u d o a trial r u n before p e r f o r m i n g t h e actual edit, p e r f o r m i n g s e p a r a t e Source (play) VTR and monitor

Record (edit) VTR and monitor

edits for v i d e o a n d a u d i o tracks w i t h o u t o n e affecting t h e other, o r p r o d u c i n g intelligible s o u n d s at v a r i o u s fast-for­ w a r d tape speeds.

1 3 . 2 BASIC TAPE-BASED SINGLE-SOURCE SYSTEM The source VTR supplies specific sections of the source tape (displayed on the source VTR monitor). The record VTR copies in a particular sequence and adds each new shot to the previously recorded shot (displayed on the record VTR monitor).

Compact portable editor

C o m p a c t p o r t a b l e digital

editing systems, often called laptop editors, are similar t o t h e p o r t a b l e switcher discussed in chapter 11. T h e y contain source a n d record VTRs that can record u p to two hours

Section

13.1

How

Postproduction

Editing

289

Works

13.3

EDIT CONTROLLER

The edit controller is an interface between the source and record VTRs. It displays elapsed tape time and frames, controls source and record VTR rolls, stores edit-in and edit-out points and tells the VTRs to locate them on the tape, and offers previewing before the edit and reviewing after the edit.

13.4

LAPTOP EDITOR

This briefcase-sized linear laptop editor contains source and record VTRs, video dis­ plays for the two VTRs, audio speakers, and an edit control­ ler that can remember a hun­ dred editing decisions.

of p r o g r a m m i n g material; source a n d r e c o r d LCD (liquid

EXPANDED SINGLE-SOURCE

crystal display) v i d e o m o n i t o r s ; a u d i o speakers; a n d a n

You will n o t i c e t h a t the basic single-source editing system

SYSTEM

edit controller t h a t can r e m e m b e r a h u n d r e d editing deci­

m a y n o t always give y o u e n o u g h flexibility. For e x a m p l e ,

sions—all in o n e small, briefcase-sized package. It is a c u t s -

you may want to mix in music under some wedding

o n l y editor, b u t it's ideal for E N G . You can edit t h e n e w s

scenes; o r in a d o c u m e n t a r y o n r u s h - h o u r traffic, y o u m a y

footage o n t h e way back to t h e station ( p r o v i d e d s o m e o n e

w a n t to a d d m o r e traffic s o u n d s to intensify t h e s h o t s of

else is driving the n e w s vehicle!), SEE 13.4

a d o w n t o w n gridlock. Such m a n i p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

290

Chapter

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POSTPRODUCTION

EDITING

1 3 . 5 EXPANDED SINGLE-SOURCE SYSTEM The expanded single-source linear system integrates special effects, a video switcher, a CD player, and an audio mixer.

source tape a u d i o a n d t h e desired a u d i o track o n t h e edit

v i d e o t a p e is pulling itself u p b y its o w n b o o t s t r a p s . ) This

m a s t e r t a p e r e q u i r e s interfacing a n audio

mixer. If y o u

m e a n s that y o u can create a dissolve, or any o t h e r available

also w a n t to a d d titles t o t h e d o c u m e n t a r y , y o u n e e d a

transition, b e t w e e n t w o shots t h a t are supplied b y only o n e

CG. [character generator)

a n d a switcher t h a t c a n m i x t h e

s o u r c e VTR. A l t h o u g h s u c h a feat is c o m m o n p l a c e w i t h

titles w i t h t h e scene f r o m t h e source t a p e w i t h o u t t h e edit

NLE systems, linear single-source systems n o r m a l l y use

m a s t e r tape's u n d e r g o i n g a n o t h e r g e n e r a t i o n . N o t e t h a t

t w o o r m o r e source V T R s for t r a n s i t i o n s o t h e r t h a n cuts.

t h e l i n e - o u t s from t h e a u d i o m i x e r a n d t h e v i d e o switcher

You will find this p r e r e a d function especially useful w h e n

go directly to the r e c o r d V T R a n d n o t t h r o u g h t h e edit

i n s e r t i n g t i t l e s — w i t h o u t h a v i n g to m a k e yet a n o t h e r d u b .

controller, SEE 13.5 T h e r e is a variety of software t h a t can t r a n s f o r m a

MULTIPLE-SOURCE SYSTEMS

d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r i n t o a sophisticated edit controller o r

T h e t a p e - b a s e d multiple-source

NLE system. As an edit controller, t h e c o m p u t e r interfaces

t w o o r m o r e source V T R s (generally labeled w i t h letters A,

editing system consists of

with t h e source a n d r e c o r d VTRs, t h e a u d i o mixer, a n d t h e

B, C, etc.), a single r e c o r d V T R , a n d a c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d

video switcher a n d offers a variety of special effects a n d

edit controller. Like t h e e x p a n d e d single-source system, t h e

t r a n s i t i o n s . Wi*r*EDITING-*

Linear editing^ system

m u l t i s o u r c e systems can, a n d usually d o , i n c l u d e an a u d i o mixer, a switcher, a n d special-effects e q u i p m e n t . T h e c o m ­

Because t h e s i n g l e - s o u r c e e d i t i n g

puterized edit controller directs t h e functions of the source

system has only a single s o u r c e VTR, edits are n o r m a l l y

A a n d B VTRs, the C G . or effects g e n e r a t o r (unless p a r t of

cuts-only, t h a t is, y o u c a n n o t d o t r a n s i t i o n s s u c h as dis­

t h e software p r o g r a m ) , t h e a u d i o mixer, a n d , finally, t h e

solves or wipes. Right? Yes a n d n o .

edit a n d r e c o r d functions of t h e r e c o r d VTR. SEE 13.6

:

M o s t single-source systems can p r o d u c e only cuts a n d are therefore called cuts-only

systems; b u t b e c a u s e s o m e

record VTRs have a preread function

b u i l t - i n , y o u can have

T h e m u l t i p l e - s o u r c e e d i t i n g s y s t e m allows y o u t o s y n c h r o n o u s l y r u n t w o or m o r e source VTRs a n d c o m b i n e the shots a n d / o r a u d i o tracks from any of t h e m quickly a n d

the V T R read (play) a p a r t i c u l a r scene while s i m u l t a n e ­

effectively t h r o u g h a variety of t r a n s i t i o n s or o t h e r special

ously r e c o r d i n g n e w material o n t h e s a m e v i d e o t a p e . ( T h e

effects. T h e big advantage of this system is that it facilitates

Section

13.6

13.1

How

Postproduction

Editing

Works

291

MULTIPLE-SOURCE EDITING SYSTEM

The multiple-source linear editing system has two or more source VTRs (A and B) and interfaces special effects, audio, and switcher equipment or functions.

a great variety of t r a n s i t i o n s (such as cuts, dissolves, a n d

which m e a n s that the actual edit p o i n t s m a y b e a few frames

wipes) a n d allows t h e m i x i n g of a u d i o t r a c k s from two

off from t h e o n e s y o u chose.

o r m o r e source tapes. A n o t h e r advantage is t h a t y o u can

T h e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d m o r e a c c u r a t e linear

a r r a n g e all e v e n - n u m b e r e d shots o n t h e A-roll (the t a p e

systems use t i m e c o d e to a c c o m p l i s h these tasks. Time code

used for t h e s o u r c e A V T R ) a n d all o d d - n u m b e r e d shots

gives each television frame a u n i q u e a d d r e s s — a n u m b e r

o n t h e B-roll ( t h e v i d e o t a p e for t h e s o u r c e B V T R ) . By

that s h o w s h o u r s , m i n u t e s , seconds, a n d frames. T h e t i m e

switching from t h e A-roll t o t h e B-roll d u r i n g editing, y o u

code system is f r a m e - a c c u r a t e .

c a n quickly assemble t h e " p r e - e d i t e d " shots, as explained

CONTROL TRACK, OR PULSE-COUNT, EDITING

later in this section.

As y o u n o w k n o w , t h e c o n t r o l track o n a v i d e o t a p e m a r k s

CONTROL TRACK AND TIME CODE EDITING

each frame of r e c o r d e d material. It therefore takes t h i r t y

All linear editing systems are g u i d e d by t h e c o n t r o l track

c o n t r o l t r a c k "spikes" to m a r k each second of t a p e play.

o r a specific address code. T h e control track system

counts

SEE 13.7 A n y o n e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l spikes, o r sync pulses, of

t h e c o n t r o l t r a c k pulses a n d t r a n s l a t e s t h i s c o u n t i n t o

t h e c o n t r o l track can b e c o m e an actual e d i t - i n or e d i t - o u t

elapsed t i m e a n d frame n u m b e r s , w h i c h y o u use t o find

p o i n t (frame). By c o u n t i n g t h e n u m b e r of c o n t r o l track

specific shots o n t h e source tapes a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e edit-

pulses, y o u can, for e x a m p l e , locate specific edit-in a n d

in a n d e d i t - o u t p o i n t s o n t h e record VTR. Also k n o w n as

e d i t - o u t p o i n t s w i t h greater accuracy t h a n b y s i m p l y look­

t h e pulse-count

ing at t h e video pictures. Control track editingis

system, this m e t h o d is n o t f r a m e - a c c u r a t e ,

also called

292

Chapter

13

POSTPRODUCTION

EDITING

1 3 . 7 CONTROL TRACK PULSES The control track, or pulsecount, system counts the control track pulses to mark a specific spot on the videotape. Every thirty pulses mark one second of elapsed tape time. Control track

15 pulses = / 2 second 30 pulses = 1 second

13.8

PULSE-COUNT OR TIME CODE DISPLAY

This display shows elapsed hours, minutes, seconds, and frames. The frames roll over (into seconds) after 29, the seconds to minutes, and the minutes to hours after 59; the hours are reset to 0 after 24.

Hours

Minutes

Seconds

Frames

editing because the edit controller c o u n t s t h e

ficult w h e n y o u have to find h o u s e n u m b e r 110. A n d w h a t

n u m b e r of c o n t r o l t r a c k pulses. •A'i*»EDITING-» Postproduc­

if y o u have t o find h o u s e n u m b e r 1,010? You are sure t o

tion guidelines-* tape basics

m i s c o u n t s o m e w h e r e along the line a n d arrive at t h e w r o n g

pulse-count

T h e edit controller counts t h e pulses of b o t h the source

address. W h a t if y o u were to start c o u n t i n g s o m e w h e r e

a n d t h e edit m a s t e r tapes from t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d displays

in t h e m i d d l e of t h e block instead of at t h e b e g i n n i n g ?

the c o u n t as elapsed t i m e — h o u r s , m i n u t e s , seconds, a n d

C o u n t i n g to t e n w o u l d definitely take y o u to a different

n u m b e r of frames. Because t h e r e are 30 frames p e r second,

h o u s e t h a n t h e o n e originally i n t e n d e d .

t h e seconds are advanced by o n e digit after 29 frames (with

T h e p u l s e - c o u n t system h a s similar difficulties. T h e

t h e t h i r t i e t h frame m a k i n g u p t h e next s e c o n d ) . T h e sec­

c o n t r o l t r a c k pulses d o n o t have specific addresses b u t

o n d s a n d m i n u t e s roll over to t h e next after 59.

1

SEE 13.8

are s i m p l y c o u n t e d b y t h e edit controller a n d , as y o u have seen, t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t e m p o r a r y t i m e a n d frame addresses. A s s u m i n g t h a t y o u have reset the p u l s e c o u n t e r to 0 a n d

Finding the right address

Although the pulse-count

h a v e rolled t h e t a p e f r o m its very b e g i n n i n g , t h e

first

system can identify a specific frame w i t h a p u l s e - c o u n t

s e c o n d o n t h e c o u n t e r s h o u l d s h o w t h e n u m b e r 01 in t h e

n u m b e r , it is n o t f r a m e - a c c u r a t e . This d r a w b a c k m e a n s

seconds c o l u m n of t h e t a p e c o u n t e r a n d 00 in t h e frames

that y o u m a y get different frames w h e n a d v a n c i n g r e p e a t ­

c o l u m n (the frame n u m b e r s roll over to t h e first second

edly t o t h e s a m e p u l s e - c o u n t n u m b e r .

after frame 29). Let's a s s u m e t h a t this

I m a g i n e t h a t y o u n e e d to find a specific address i n

first-second

frame

shows a glass of m i l k a l m o s t t o u c h i n g a child's lips. If y o u

a l o n g r o w of identical h o u s e s — b u t t h e r e are n o h o u s e

r e w i n d t h e t a p e to 0 a n d r u n it again t o t h e

n u m b e r s o n a n y of t h e m . If y o u are t o l d to find t h e t e n t h

m a r k , y o u will m o s t likely get the same f r a m e — b u t it m i g h t

first-second

h o u s e o n the left, y o u s h o u l d have n o t r o u b l e . You s i m p l y

instead s h o w t h e glass already t o u c h i n g t h e lips. T h e t a p e

start at the b e g i n n i n g of the r o w a n d c o u n t t h e h o u s e s

h a s m o v e d o n e frame t o o far. Just as w i t h c o u n t i n g h o u s e s ,

until y o u reach t h e t e n t h h o u s e . T h e task gets m o r e dif-

the edit controller has a t e n d e n c y to get even m o r e off-track w h e n c o u n t i n g t h o u s a n d s of pulses repeatedly, particularly at h i g h speed.

1. In countries that use a 25-frame-per-second system, the rollover oc­ curs, of course, after the twenty-fourth frame instead of the twentyninth as in the 30-frame NTSC system.

Realize that w h e n you advance the t a p e by only 2 m i n ­ utes, t h e edit c o n t r o l l e r m u s t c o u n t 3,600 pulses. So if y o u

Section

13.1

How

Postproduction

Editing

293

Works

were t o b a c k u p t h e t a p e t o t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d r u n it again

Several t i m e c o d e systems are available. Even s o m e

for 2 m i n u t e s , y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y e n d u p w i t h a different

small c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s c a n g e n e r a t e their o w n t i m e

frame, even if y o u started t h e t a p e at 0 as displayed b y t h e

c o d e . M o s t professional editing e q u i p m e n t is built t o read

edit controller a n d s t o p p e d it w h e n it i n d i c a t e d exactly

t h e SMPTE/EBU

2 m i n u t e s . Why? Because d u r i n g h i g h - s p e e d shuttles o r

s t a n d s for Society of M o t i o n Picture a n d Television Engi­

repeated t h r e a d i n g a n d u n t h r e a d i n g , t h e t a p e m a y stretch

neers. EBUis s h o r t for E u r o p e a n Broadcasting U n i o n . Both

o r slip, o r t h e u n i t m a y s i m p l y skip s o m e pulses w h e n

o r g a n i z a t i o n s set a n d t r a c k technical s t a n d a r d s .

time code. SMPTE ( p r o n o u n c e d "sempty")

c o u n t i n g t h o u s a n d s of t h e m . Fortunately, m a n y editing j o b s d o n o t have t o b e f r a m e - a c c u r a t e ; unless y o u have t o

ad/write mechanisms

m a t c h t h e lip m o v e m e n t t o t h e w o r d s u t t e r e d , b e i n g a few

VTRs, p o r t a b l e professional VTRs, a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a

Many studio

frames off does n o t p r e s e n t a serious h a n d i c a p .

b u i l t - i n t i m e c o d e g e n e r a t o r for w r i t i n g t i m e c o d e d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e a d i n g it d u r i n g playback. M o s t o t h ­

Finding t h e r i g h t s t a r t i n g p o i n t

Another poten­

tial p r o b l e m of t h e c o n t r o l track system is t h a t it begins

ers have jacks for a t t a c h i n g a separate t i m e c o d e generator.

J3jmyEDITING->

c o u n t i n g from whatever s t a r t i n g p o i n t y o u assign. If, for

rdint-

e x a m p l e , y o u forget to reset t h e c o u n t e r t o 0 at t h e b e ­ g i n n i n g of t h e tape, o r if y o u have n o t r e w o u n d t h e t a p e c o m p l e t e l y w h e n resetting t h e c o u n t e r t o 0, t h e c o u n t will b e off. Because t h e addresses given t o frames b y t h e p u l s e c o u n t system are t e m p o r a r y a n d , i n effect, arbitrary, t h e p u l s e - c o u n t system is n o t a n address code. W h e n e d i t i n g w i t h t h e p u l s e - c o u n t system, always reset t h e c o u n t e r t o 0 at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e tape a n d n o t s o m e w h e r e in t h e m i d d l e o f it.

Postproduction guidelines-* time code

In larger s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , the

t i m e c o d e is r o u t i n e l y r e c o r d e d w i t h t h e p r o g r a m . H i g h quality c a m c o r d e r s p r o d u c e their o w n t i m e code a n d lay it o n a designated track d u r i n g v i d e o t a p i n g . If t i m e c o d e is n e e d e d for EFP p r o d u c t i o n s , o r w h e n t h e c a m c o r d e r y o u are using does n o t have a b u i l t - i n t i m e code generator, y o u c a n a d d t h e t i m e c o d e after t h e p r o g r a m h a s already b e e n recorded o n videotape. For example, w h e n y o u " d u b d o w n " ( m a k e a lower-quality copy) for a workprint,

o r you " b u m p

u p " ( m a k e a h i g h e r - q u a l i t y copy) for t h e actual editing copy, y o u c a n lay d o w n t h e t i m e c o d e o n t h e source tape

TIME CODE EDITING

a n d o n its copy simultaneously.

W h e n m o r e - p r e c i s e e d i t i n g is r e q u i r e d , s u c h as w h e n

You c a n set t h e code t o c o r r e s p o n d with t h e actual time

editing video t o t h e beat of m u s i c o r w h e n s y n c h r o n i z i n g

of day or, m o r e c o m m o n , t o s i m p l y start from 0 regardless

dialogue o r specific s o u n d effects t o t h e v i d e o track, y o u

of t i m e o f day. You will find that s o m e v i d e o g r a p h e r s use

n e e d t o edit with a system t h a t uses precise frame addresses.

t h e h o u r n u m b e r t o indicate t h e t a p e (reel) n u m b e r . For

Time code is an electronic signal t h a t p r o v i d e s a specific

e x a m p l e , y o u w o u l d m a r k t h e first t a p e w i t h 01/00/00/00

a n d u n i q u e address for each electronic frame. T h e address

a n d t h e s e c o n d t a p e w i t h 0 2 , a n d c o n t i n u e o n t h e 02 t a p e

is usually r e c o r d e d o n a d e d i c a t e d address code t r a c k of

w i t h t h e t i m e c o d e t h a t was r e c o r d e d at t h e e n d of t a p e 0 1 .

t h e v i d e o t a p e , o n an available a u d i o track, or i n t e g r a t e d

T h e t h i r d t a p e w o u l d s h o w 03 in t h e h o u r c o l u m n a n d so

i n t o , o r r e c o r d e d alongside, t h e v i d e o signal. F r o m t h e r e

forth. Actually, y o u c a n start a n y w h e r e w i t h t h e t i m e code

it c a n b e visually displayed, as in t h e p u l s e - c o u n t system

so l o n g as it c o n t i n u e s w i t h i n t h e source t a p e a n d from

(see figure 13.8). W i t h t i m e c o d e each of t h e h o u s e s in o u r

tape to tape.

e x a m p l e n o w has its o w n h o u s e n u m b e r affixed, so y o u n o

If y o u u s e t h r e e c a m c o r d e r s for a s y n c h r o n i z e d

longer have t o c o u n t t h e h o u s e s t o find a specific o n e ; y o u

p i c k u p — f o r e x a m p l e , o n e is o n a c o n t i n u o u s l o n g shot,

c a n s i m p l y look for its address a n d drive t o h o u s e n u m b e r

a n o t h e r is o n c o n t i n u o u s m e d i u m shot, a n d t h e t h i r d is

1,010 directly.

o n a continuous close-up—you can synchronize the cam­

Because each frame h a s its o w n address, y o u can locate

eras b y h a v i n g t h e m start w i t h t h e s a m e t i m e code. This is

a specific frame relatively quickly a n d reliably, even if it is

tricky in practice, however, a n d it takes t i m e t o get all t h e

b u r i e d in h o u r s of r e c o r d e d p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l o r despite

c a m c o r d e r s exactly t i m e - c o d e s y n c h r o n i z e d . Fortunately,

occasional tape slippage d u r i n g repeated high-speed

t h e r e is a n easy m e t h o d for s y n c h r o n i z i n g c a m e r a s t h a t w e

shuttles. O n c e t h e edit controller is told w h i c h frame t o

l e a r n e d f r o m film: start all t h e c a m e r a s m o r e or less at t h e

use as an edit p o i n t , it will find it again n o m a t t e r h o w

s a m e t i m e a n d have t h e m focus o n s o m e b o d y w h o triggers

m a n y times y o u shuttle t h e t a p e back a n d forth a n d will n o t

t h e flash of a still c a m e r a . T h e overexposed frame will be

initiate a n edit u n t i l t h e right address is located.

t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t for all t i m e c o d e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n .

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EDITING

Non-drop frame and drop frame modes Although

LINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES

w e a l w a y s f i g u r e t h a t t h e N T S C s y s t e m o p e r a t e s at

M o s t professional V T R s let y o u switch b e t w e e n t w o m a j o r

30 frames p e r second, this is n o t quite accurate. In fact,

e d i t i n g m o d e s : assemble editing a n d insert

editing.

each frame takes just a little bit less t h a n V30 s e c o n d . This difference is so m i n u t e t h a t for m o s t editing projects y o u can s i m p l y i g n o r e it. But w h e n y o u have t o b e absolutely f r a m e - a c c u r a t e , s u c h as w h e n t r y i n g t o m a i n t a i n lip sync over a long p e r i o d of t i m e , y o u will find t h a t t h e t i m e code is s o m e w h a t off. In fact, w h e n a s t o p w a t c h reads exactly o n e h o u r of elapsed r e c o r d i n g t i m e , t h e t i m e c o d e displays 1:00:03:18, w h i c h is 3.6 seconds longer. If this difference is n o t crucial t o y o u r editing, y o u can keep t h e c a m c o r d e r in non-drop frame mode, assuming that it gives y o u t h e choice. If y o u m u s t b e perfectly in sync w i t h t h e actual event t i m e , y o u n e e d t o w o r k in drop frame mode. This m e a n s that t h e time c o d e skips s o m e frames from time t o t i m e w h e n keep­ ing c o u n t . You will usually d o just fine in t h e n o n - d r o p frame m o d e , at least m o s t of t h e t i m e . Audio/video synchronizing

ASSEMBLE EDITING W h e n in t h e assemble m o d e , t h e record V T R erases every­ t h i n g o n its t a p e (video, a u d i o , control, a n d address tracks) just a h e a d of copying t h e m a t e r i a l supplied by t h e source VTR. W h e n y o u use a t a p e t h a t h a s last year's vacation pic­ tures o n it to chronicle y o u r n e w adventures, t h e c a m c o r d e r will, i n effect, use assemble

editing

every t i m e y o u s h o o t a

n e w scene: it will s i m p l y erase w h a t w a s t h e r e before a n d replace it w i t h t h e n e w video a n d a u d i o . T h e s a m e t h i n g h a p p e n s in a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d editing system. Even if t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e has a p r e v i o u s recording o n it, t h e assemble m o d e will clear t h e p o r t i o n of t h e t a p e that is n e e d e d for t h e n e w first shot. W h e n editing s h o t 2 o n t o s h o t 1, t h e r e c o r d V T R will erase e v e r y t h i n g

T i m e code lets y o u r u n in

o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e following s h o t 1 t o m a k e r o o m for

sync n o t only several V T R s b u t also v i d e o - a n d a u d i o t a p e

c o p y i n g t h e n e w video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e c o r d

recorders. Because t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n is f r a m e - a c c u r a t e ,

V T R will t h e n supply a n e w c o n t r o l track that is m o d e l e d

you c a n m a t c h video a n d a u d i o tracks f r a m e - b y - f r a m e i n

exactly after t h e c o n t r o l track i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n

p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . You c a n , for e x a m p l e , strip l o w - q u a l i t y

shot 2 of t h e source t a p e . T h e s a m e h a p p e n s w h e n y o u

speech s o u n d s a n d o t h e r s o u n d effects off t h e v i d e o t a p e

assemble t h e s u b s e q u e n t shots, SEE 13.9

a n d replace t h e m f r a m e - b y - f r a m e with n e w dialogue a n d

T h e p r o b l e m w i t h assemble e d i t i n g is that t h e c o n t r o l

s o u n d effects from a n a u d i o t a p e . As explained in c h a p ­

track o n t h e edit master tape, as reconstructed by t h e record

ter 10, this process is called automatic

V T R from t h e bits a n d pieces of t h e source tapes, is n o t

ment

Control track of e d i t ' master tape

13.9

dialogue

{ADR).

replace­

always s m o o t h a n d evenly spaced. For e x a m p l e , t h e r e c o r d

n. Control pulses must align at the edit point

ASSEMBLE EDITING

In assemble editing, the record VTR produces the control track in bits and pieces. The record VTR copies from the source VTR all video and audio information of shot 2. The control track for shot 2 stays with the source VTR but is regenerated and attached to the shot 1 control track by the record VTR.

Section

13.1

How

Postproduction

Editing

295

Works

color reference. As t h o u g h it were r e c o r d i n g an i m p o r t a n t event, the V T R faithfully lays d o w n a c o n t r o l track in the process. T h e " b l a c k e n e d " t a p e h a s n o w b e c o m e an e m p t y edit master, ready to receive t h e m o m e n t o u s scenes from y o u r s o u r c e tapes. T h e r e c o r d i n g of black or color bars ( a n d t h e r e b y lay­ ing a c o n t r o l track) h a p p e n s in real time, w h i c h m e a n s that y o u c a n n o t speed u p the process b u t m u s t take 30 m i n u t e s t o lay a 3 0 - m i n u t e c o n t r o l track. T h o u g h this m a y seem like w a s t e d t i m e , it h a s t h e following advantages: •

13.10

All edits are roll-free a n d tear-free.

SYNC ROLL

Even a slight misalignment of the control tracks from shots 1 and 2 will cause a sync roll—a momentary breakup of the picture at the edit point.

•

You c a n easily insert n e w video a n d / o r a u d i o m a t e ­ rial a n y w h e r e in t h e t a p e w i t h o u t affecting a n y t h i n g p r e c e d i n g or following t h e insert (hence t h e n a m e ) .

•

You c a n edit t h e video w i t h o u t affecting t h e s o u n d

V T R is expected to m a k e a perfectly c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l

track, or y o u can edit t h e a u d i o w i t h o u t affecting

track o u t of the fragments from shots 1,7, a n d 11. Even t h e

the p i c t u r e s (called a split edit). This is especially

best VTRs d o n o t always succeed at this. A slight m i s m a t c h

i m p o r t a n t w h e n y o u w a n t to insert s o m e shots

of sync pulses will cause s o m e edits t o "tear," causing a sync

w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y of t h e original

roll, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e p i c t u r e will b r e a k u p or roll

s o u n d track. In fact, t h e m o s t efficient way of edit­

m o m e n t a r i l y at t h e edit p o i n t d u r i n g playback, SEE 1 3 . 1 0

ing d o c u m e n t a r i e s or m u s i c p r o g r a m s is to lay

T h e p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e of assemble editing is t h a t it

d o w n t h e a u d i o track first a n d t h e n insert-edit t h e

is fast. You d o n o t have to first lay d o w n o n t h e edit m a s t e r

v i d e o to m a t c h t h e a u d i o , SEE

13.11

t a p e a black video signal w i t h its c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l t r a c k before y o u begin editing. In fact, y o u can use any t a p e for t h e edit master, regardless of w h e t h e r it c o n t a i n s p r e v i o u s

AB ROLLING AND AB-ROLL EDITING

video material ( n o t r e c o m m e n d e d for use as a n edit m a s t e r in any case) o r h a s a c o n t r o l track already r e c o r d e d o n it.

A l t h o u g h b o t h of these t e c h n i q u e s are a d m i t t e d l y c r u d e

Because y o u d o n ' t have to first record a c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l

a n d m o s t l y r e n d e r e d obsolete by n o n l i n e a r editing, they

t r a c k o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e , s o m e " h o t n e w s " editing

n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e t h e i r p l a c e in t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c t i o n .

is d o n e in t h e assemble, r a t h e r t h a n t h e insert, m o d e . A

T h e s e m e t h o d s are useful n o t for their accuracy b u t for

c a m c o r d e r edits in t h e assemble m o d e each t i m e y o u press

t h e i r speed. B o t h t e c h n i q u e s resemble i n s t a n t a n e o u s edit­

t h e record b u t t o n .

ing (switching) m o r e t h a n p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing.

INSERT

AB-roll editing is t h a t in AB rollingyou

In a nutshell t h e difference b e t w e e n AB rolling a n d

EDITING

W o u l d n ' t it b e sensible to lay d o w n a c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l track o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e w i t h o u t t r y i n g to m a t c h u p all t h e c o n t r o l track bits a n d pieces from t h e v a r i o u s source t a p e selections? You could t h e n i n s t r u c t the r e c o r d V T R to

switch (do i n s t a n ­

t a n e o u s editing via t h e switcher) b e t w e e n t h e t w o s o u r c e V T R s as t h o u g h t h e y w e r e live v i d e o sources; in editingyou

AB-roll

use t h e edit controller t o set u p t h e t r a n s i t i o n s

b e t w e e n t h e s o u r c e A V T R a n d t h e source B VTR.

yield to t h e c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l track o n the edit master. As y o u p r o b a b l y guessed, this is i n d e e d possible. T h e process

AB

of using a c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l t r a c k is called insert

edit­

Because t w o separate sources s u p p l y visual material simul­

ROLLING

ing. But h e r e is t h e r u b : to p r e p a r e t h e edit m a s t e r tape

t a n e o u s l y in AB rolling, y o u can switch at a n y given p o i n t

for insert editing, y o u n e e d to first r e c o r d a c o n t i n u o u s

from the m a t e r i a l o n the A-roll (source A V T R ) to t h a t o n

c o n t r o l t r a c k o n it. T h e simplest way to d o this is to r e c o r d

t h e B-roll (source B V T R ) , a n d vice versa, a n d c o m b i n e

"black," w i t h t h e video a n d a u d i o i n p u t s in t h e o p p o s i t i o n .

t h e m w i t h v a r i o u s t r a n s i t i o n devices o r effects available

S o m e editors prefer to record color bars as a c o n t i n u o u s

in t h e switcher, SEE

13.12

296

Chapter

13.11

13

POSTPRODUCTION

EDITING

INSERT EDITING

In insert editing, the source material is transferred without its control track and placed according to the prerecorded continuous control track of the edit master tape.

13.12

AB ROLLING

In AB rolling, the source A VTR supplies the A-roll and the source B VTR supplies the B-roll. Both machines are synchronized and feed their video material to the switcher. Because they represent two simultaneous video feeds, they can be switched (instanta­ neously edited) as though they were two live sources.

T h e advantages of AB rolling are that it can greatly

can't m a t c h t h e speed of AB rolling. But w h a t y o u gain in

speed u p t h e e d i t i n g process a n d it allows y o u to r e d o

speed, y o u lose in accuracy. AB rolling w o r k s best w h e n

t h e editing a n u m b e r of t i m e s u n t i l y o u are satisfied w i t h

t h e edit p o i n t s b e t w e e n t h e A a n d B rolls d o n o t have to

the s h o t sequence. If y o u d o n ' t like t h e editing y o u have

b e t o o precise.

just d o n e , y o u can r e w i n d t h e source V T R s a n d cut t h e

H e r e is a n e x a m p l e of a n e d i t i n g a s s i g n m e n t t h a t

p r o d u c t i o n again. Even t h e m o s t experienced p o s t p r o d u c ­

l e n d s itself well to AB rolling: A s s u m e t h a t o n e of t h e

tion editors u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l linear editing e q u i p m e n t

source tapes—the A-roll—contains primarily long a n d

Section

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How

Postproduction

Editing

Works

297

1 3 . 1 3 AB ROLLING TO COMMON SOUND TRACK In this AB-roll editing exam­ ple, the A-roll consists of long and medium shots of the band; the B-roll contains CUs of the individual members. Because both source VTRs are synchronized, you can use the A-roll sound track to insert the B-roll video.

m e d i u m shots of a rock b a n d . T h e second source t a p e — t h e

a t t e m p t a similarly precise cut d u r i n g AB rolling w o u l d

B-roll—has various CUs (close-ups) of the b a n d m e m b e r s .

p r o b a b l y require several retakes.

A s s u m i n g that t h e source tapes have a c o m m o n t i m e c o d e

T h e advantage of AB-roll editing is t h a t y o u c a n ac­

a n d , in this case, a c o m m o n a u d i o track ( t h e b a n d play­

cess t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l f r o m two sources r a t h e r t h a n just

ing),

one,

y o u c a n roll b o t h t a p e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d k e e p

w h i c h allows a great variety of t r a n s i t i o n s . T h e A a n d

t h e m in sync; feed t h e m t o t h e switcher as t w o separate

B rolls d o n o t have to r u n in sync from b e g i n n i n g t o end,

v i d e o sources; cut, dissolve, or w i p e b e t w e e n t h e l o n g a n d

a n d y o u can advance either tape to a specific edit p o i n t a n d

m e d i u m shots o n t h e A-roll a n d t h e close-ups o n t h e B-roll

c o p y the m a t e r i a l over to t h e r e c o r d V T R w i t h o u t h a v i n g

as t h o u g h t h e y w e r e live sources; a n d record t h e switcher's

t o c h a n g e v i d e o t a p e s o n t h e source m a c h i n e .

l i n e - o u t signal o n t h e r e c o r d V T R . Because t h e t w o source

In AB-roll editing the edit controller has its h a n d s full:

tapes are s y n c h r o n i z e d by their t i m e code, y o u can feed

it m u s t r e s p o n d t o edit-in a n d - o u t p o i n t s for t h e source

t h e s o u n d track from only o n e s o u r c e t a p e to t h e r e c o r d

A VTR, t h e s o u r c e B V T R , a n d t h e record VTR; initiate

V T R a n d still m a i n t a i n lip-sync for t h e A-roll a n d B-roll

prerolls for all t h r e e m a c h i n e s ; a n d tell t h e record V T R

video, SEE

w h e n to start r e c o r d i n g a n d t h e switcher w h a t t r a n s i t i o n

13.13

t o p e r f o r m . Fortunately, t h e c o m p u t e r c a n h a n d l e these

AB-ROLL EDITING

c o n t r o l functions w i t h ease a n d efficiency. O n c e y o u have

If y o u n o w s u b s t i t u t e t h e edit controller for t h e switcher,

e n t e r e d y o u r EDL into t h e editing p r o g r a m , it will seek o u t

y o u are engaged in AB-roll editing. Let's edit t h e rock video

t h e listed t i m e c o d e n u m b e r s specifying the edit p o i n t s a n d

again b u t this t i m e w i t h t h e edit controller. You c a n first

faithfully initiate t h e various transitions as stipulated by the

lay d o w n t h e entire s o u n d track o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e

E D L — a s s u m i n g t h a t e v e r y t h i n g w o r k s right.

while r e c o r d i n g black. T h e s i m u l t a n e o u s r e c o r d i n g of t h e s o u n d t r a c k a n d black v i d e o will also establish t h e c o n t r o l t r a c k necessary for insert editing. N o w y o u c a n use t h e s o u n d t r a c k as a g u i d e a n d

NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS All n o n l i n e a r editing systems are basically c o m p u t e r s that

i n s e r t - e d i t i n t o t h e l o n g shots of t h e A-roll t h e v a r i o u s

store digital video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n o n high-capacity

close-ups o n t h e B-roll, w i t h a variety of t r a n s i t i o n s . By

h a r d disks or read/write optical discs. Besides the c o m p u t e r

r u n n i n g t h e two source V T R s in sync, y o u d o n o t have to

a n d a h i g h - c a p a c i t y h a r d drive, t h e n o r m a l N L E system

engage in t i m e - c o n s u m i n g shuttles to search for t h e a p ­

c o n t a i n s a V T R t o play t h e source tapes, o r s o m e o t h e r

p r o p r i a t e C U — y o u can s i m p l y choose b e t w e e n t h e A- a n d

digital device that holds t h e original footage (external h a r d

B-roll shots at any given m o m e n t . A l t h o u g h this m e t h o d is

drive or server), a small a u d i o mixer, a large m o n i t o r t h a t

considerably slower t h a n AB rolling, it is m o r e precise. For

displays t h e editing interface, a n d a second m o n i t o r that

e x a m p l e , if y o u w a n t a close-up of t h e lead guitarist at t h e

plays b a c k t h e edited sequences, SEE

13.14

exact m o m e n t w h e n h e b e g i n s his solo, t h e edit controller

Recall t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n linear

c a n locate t h e s t a r t i n g frame w i t h precision a n d ease. To

a n d n o n l i n e a r editing systems is t h a t linear systems copy

298

Chapter

13

POSTPRODUCTION

EDITING

1 3 . 1 4 BASIC NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEM The basic nonlinear editing system consists of a computer with large-capacity storage devices and editing/effects software. The output of this editing system is an EDL as well as high-quality on-line video and audio material.

Computer

Keyboard

Audio mixer

i n f o r m a t i o n from o n e v i d e o t a p e to a n o t h e r w h e r e a s n o n ­

p l a t f o r m s a n d offer a greater n u m b e r of t r a n s i t i o n s a n d

linear systems allow r a n d o m access of shots a n d sequences

special effects.

a n d enable their playback in a p a r t i c u l a r order. Instead of

T h a n k s t o readily available a n d sophisticated editing

editing o n e shot next to another, with NLE y o u are basically

software, even y o u r n o t e b o o k c o m p u t e r c a n b e t u r n e d

engaged in file management.

q u i t e easily i n t o a p o w e r f u l n o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g s y s t e m .

N o n l i n e a r editing allows y o u

to try, c o m p a r e , a n d keep as m a n y editing versions as y o u

Giving y o u even m o r e o p t i o n s (and h e a d a c h e s ) , m o s t n o n ­

like, w i t h o u t b e i n g c o m m i t t e d to a n y o n e . All y o u actually

linear systems can b e linked as n e t w o r k s for s h a r i n g video

d o is create v a r i o u s EDLs, t h a t is, m a r k certain files to play

a n d a u d i o data files, for a u d i o sweetening, o r for s e n d i n g

b a c k in v a r i o u s l e n g t h s a n d sequences. O n c e y o u decide

r o u g h - c u t s to a client for final approval. »Vi*--»EDITING->

o n a p a r t i c u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t , y o u tell t h e c o m p u t e r t h a t

Nonlinear editing-* system

this version is y o u r final editing choice a n d t o e x p o r t it t o t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e or, w i t h p r o p e r a u t h o r i n g software, to a n o t h e r digital storage device, such as a D V D . T h e o t h e r b i g a d v a n t a g e of N L E is t h e ease w i t h

NONLINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES N o n l i n e a r editing systems are as varied as desktop c o m p u t ­

video

ers a n d w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g p r o g r a m s . Their features, soft­

effects (DVE). You c a n b u i l d these effects in real t i m e — t h e

w a r e , a n d t e c h n i q u e s are varied a n d often q u i t e intricate.

w h i c h y o u can i n t e g r a t e a great n u m b e r of digital

r e n d e r i n g t i m e h a s b e e n drastically r e d u c e d ; w h a t u s e d to

Even if y o u have s o m e e x p e r i e n c e in n o n l i n e a r editing,

take h o u r s can n o w b e d o n e in m i n u t e s . But t h e ease w i t h

y o u will n e e d the o p e r a t i n g m a n u a l close by. Despite the

w h i c h y o u can create DVE m i g h t t e m p t y o u to p a y m o r e

different m o d e l s , t h e r e are features a n d t e c h n i q u e s c o m ­

a t t e n t i o n to t h e effects t h a n to t h e story. Use s u c h " k n o c k -

m o n to all NLE systems: (1) c a p t u r i n g , c o m p r e s s i n g , a n d

your-socks-off" effects o n l y if t h e y fit t h e c o n t e n t of t h e

s t o r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n ; a n d (2) j u x t a p o s i n g a n d r e a r r a n g i n g

s t o r y a n d help energize t h e message.

t h e video a n d a u d i o files.

Because of i m p r o v e d h a r d w a r e , software, a n d c o m ­ pression methods, combined with high-capacity hard

CAPTURE

disks a n d optical discs, d e s k t o p software can p r o d u c e h i g h -

You m a y b e s u r p r i s e d to h e a r t h a t o n e of t h e real b o t t l e ­

quality v i d e o a n d C D - q u a l i t y a u d i o in t h e editing process.

n e c k s in n o n l i n e a r editing is getting the a n a l o g or digital

H i g h - e n d N L E systems r u n o n b o t h P C a n d M a c i n t o s h

video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r , a process

Section

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How

Postproduction

Editing

Works

299

called capture. If y o u have ever b a c k e d u p m a t e r i a l from a

frame, b u t t h e " h o u s e n u m b e r " d o e s n o t tell you w h a t t h e

h a r d disk, y o u k n o w that it can t r y y o u r patience. Transfer­

h o u s e looks like. Similarly, t h e t i m e c o d e reveals n o t h i n g

r i n g a n a l o g v i d e o t a p e s to digital storage devices is always

a b o u t the n a t u r e of the shot it is identifying. W h a t you need

quite t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Even if the footage was recorded o n

is a list t h a t tells y o u w h a t is actually stored. C o m p u t e r i z e d

a digital c a m c o r d e r or V T R , t r a n s f e r r i n g it from t a p e to

logging systems c a n create file m e n u s , or s h o t lists, a n d

h a r d disk takes t i m e . S o m e N L E systems, designed p r i m a r ­

transfer t o a data file t h e S M P T E t i m e c o d e addresses of

ily for n e w s , load t h e digital source v i d e o faster t h a n real

t h e scenes y o u w a n t . T h e r e is also software t h a t helps you

t i m e (the t i m e it w o u l d take for a straight d u b ) . N e v e r t h e ­

create a list of stored files. Such lists s h o w t h e in- a n d o u t ­

less, all s u c h transfers take l o n g e r t h a n y o u t h i n k .

n u m b e r s for each s h o t as well as i n f o r m a t i o n like the n a m e

This is w h e r e a g o o d field log c o m e s in handy. You c a n check t h e field log a n d i m p o r t only t h e g o o d takes.

of t h e shot, its c o n t e n t , a n d so forth. A shot list, or r a t h e r a n editing file m e n u , is similar to a regular V T R log.

Such a p r o c e d u r e m a y n o t always save y o u t i m e , b u t it will certainly save y o u a fair a m o u n t of disk space.

JUXTAPOSING AND REARRANGING V I D E O A N D A U D I O FILES

COMPRESSION T h e r e are h i g h - e n d p r o p r i e t a r y editing systems that capture

N o w y o u are finally ready to d o s o m e editing, or, rather,

a n d process all source m a t e r i a l w i t h o u t any c o m p r e s s i o n ,

juxtapose images and rearrange video a n d audio

b u t such systems m u s t rely o n high-capacity storage devices

Because y o u have fast a n d easy access to each of t h e stored

a n d h i g h - s p e e d c o m p u t e r s to deal w i t h t h e h u g e a m o u n t

f r a m e s , y o u have t h e u l t i m a t e m u l t i p l e - s o u r c e e d i t i n g

of digital i n f o r m a t i o n . To speed u p t h e c a p t u r e a n d edit­

system at y o u r disposal. To duplicate t h e s a m e feat with

files.

i n g p r o c e s s , m a n y n o n l i n e a r systems t h e r e f o r e o p e r a t e

a t a p e d - b a s e d system, y o u w o u l d n e e d a separate s o u r c e

w i t h s o m e k i n d of compression.

Recall from c h a p t e r 12 the

V T R for each single frame r e c o r d e d o n t h e source tapes.

detailed discussion of c o m p r e s s i o n — t h a t it's like t r y i n g to

As p o i n t e d o u t earlier, n o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g is c o m p a r a b l e to

p u t half y o u r w a r d r o b e into a c a r r y - o n suitcase. Sometimes

r e a r r a n g i n g letters, w o r d s , sentences, a n d p a r a g r a p h s with

y o u succeed by refolding y o u r clothes a n d b y using all the

a word-processing program.

available space; this is t h e lossless k i n d of c o m p r e s s i o n .

Because the stored i n f o r m a t i o n allows r a n d o m access,

M o s t c o m p r e s s i o n is t h e lossy kind, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t y o u

y o u can call u p a n y frame, or v i d e o a n d a u d i o sequence,

n e e d to leave s o m e c l o t h i n g b e h i n d . D o y o u really n e e d

in a fraction of a s e c o n d a n d display it as a series of still

t h r e e sweaters or can y o u get by w i t h one? Obviously, t h e

images o n the c o m p u t e r screen. Such access speed c o m e s as

less you discard, t h e m o r e c o m p l e t e y o u r w a r d r o b e will be.

a great relief to v i d e o t a p e editors w h o were used to waiting

In c o m p r e s s i o n t e r m s , t h e less c o m p r e s s i o n t h e r e is, t h e

a n x i o u s l y for a p a r t i c u l a r s h o t that was b u r i e d s o m e w h e r e

h i g h e r t h e video a n d s o u n d quality will b e .

t o w a r d t h e e n d of t h e source tape. N o w y o u simply click

T h e bigger p r o b l e m for you as a p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editor is that the generally accepted M P E G - 2 interframe

compres­

t h e m o u s e o r press a b u t t o n , a n d t h e next frame or series of frames, called a clip, a p p e a r s o n - s c r e e n .

s i o n s t a n d a r d m a k e s it difficult to d o precise f r a m e - a c ­

Besides h a v i n g a l m o s t i n s t a n t access to a n y frame of

c u r a t e editing. As y o u recall, to save "suitcase space," n o t

t h e s t o r e d v i d e o a n d a u d i o data, y o u can j u x t a p o s e two

all frames c o n t a i n t h e c o m p l e t e v i d e o i n f o r m a t i o n . For

frames o r clips t o see h o w well t h e y c u t t o g e t h e r . T h e

f r a m e - a c c u r a t e editing, y o u n e e d M P E G - 2 systems t h a t

side-by-side display consists, in effect, of t h e last frame

u s e f r e q u e n t reference frames or t h a t can calculate t h e

of t h e p r e v i o u s s h o t a n d t h e first frame of t h e following

full frame wherever y o u w a n t to cut. T h e a d v a n t a g e of t h e

s h o t . SEE 13.15

intraframe

t e c h n i q u e , in w h i c h each frame u n d e r g o e s its

By r u n n i n g t h e newly "edited" s e q u e n c e , y o u can see

o w n c o m p r e s s i o n , is that y o u can use any given frame as a n

w h e t h e r it fulfills y o u r s t o r y c o n t i n u i t y a n d aesthetic re­

edit p o i n t w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l d e c o d i n g software.

q u i r e m e n t s . If it doesn't, y o u can call u p a n o t h e r frame o r s e q u e n c e a n d t r y o u t a n e w a r r a n g e m e n t . You can also test

STORAGE

a n u m b e r of transitions a n d effects. O n c e y o u are satisfied,

T h e greatest library in t h e w o r l d is useless if the b o o k s are

y o u can tell t h e c o m p u t e r t o r e c o r d a n d r e m e m b e r t h e in-

n o t cataloged so t h a t you c a n easily find t h e m . T h e s a m e

a n d o u t - n u m b e r s for each of t h e selected sequences. T h e

is t r u e of video material, regardless of w h e t h e r it is s t o r e d

c o m p l e t e list of s u c h in- a n d o u t - n u m b e r s constitutes t h e

o n v i d e o t a p e or a h a r d disk. You already k n o w a b o u t t h e

final edit decision list. F r o m n o w o n this EDL serves as

S M P T E t i m e c o d e t h a t gives a u n i q u e a d d r e s s to each

t h e g u i d e for t h e final editing p r o c e d u r e .

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13

POSTPRODUCTION

EDITING

13.15 NONLINEAR EDITING DISPLAY This shot display shows the last frames of the previous shot and the first frames of the new shot.

PRE-EDITING PHASE

t h e t a p e . For e x a m p l e , if t h e field r e p o r t e r has j u s t e n d e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to a story, have h i m o r her r e m a i n silent

While shooting video and recording audio during a p r o d u c t i o n , e x p e r i e n c e d p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e are already t h i n k i n g of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. T h e actual editing will also b e greatly facilitated if y o u s p e n d s o m e t i m e l o o k i n g over a n d keeping a c c u r a t e r e c o r d s of w h a t y o u have s h o t . Finally, y o u h a v e t o select t h e m o s t effective s h o t s a n d decide h o w t o p u t t h e m t o g e t h e r to give the v i d e o p r o ­ g r a m clarity a n d i m p a c t . T h e p r e - e d i t i n g phase includes: (1) t h e s h o o t i n g phase, (2) t h e review p h a s e , a n d (3) t h e preparation phase.

SHOOTING

PHASE

M u c h of t h e editing is p r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e way the m a ­ terial is shot. S o m e novice directors or c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s stop o n e s h o t or scene a n d b e g i n t h e next w i t h o u t a n y pads ( o v e r l a p p i n g a c t i o n ) o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n for c o n t i n u i t y . O t h e r s have t h e ability a n d foresight to visualize transitions b e t w e e n shots a n d scenes a n d t o p r o v i d e images t h a t cut t o g e t h e r well in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . T h e key here is to visual­ ize n o t just individual shots b u t a shot sequence. I m a g i n i n g a s h o t s e q u e n c e will help y o u c o m p o s e shots t h a t can b e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r to f o r m seamless t r a n s i t i o n s .

a n d in place for a few m o r e seconds. This p a u s e will give y o u a video p a d , called trim handles, in case t h e e n d of t h e actual r e p o r t a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of the following scene d o n o t p r o v i d e p r o p e r video or a u d i o continuity. For the s a m e reason, roll t h e t a p e for several seconds before b e g i n n i n g a n a c t i o n t h a t will b e used in t h e edited version. A c h a n g e in t h e angle a n d field of view ( m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a nearer o r farther away f r o m t h e event) b e t w e e n s h o t s will also h e l p T

m a k e t h e cuts l o o k o r g a n i c a n d s m o o t h . n i*.-»EDlTlNG-> Production guidelines-* pickup

Always get s o m e cutaway shots. A cutaway

t h e necessary video p a d w h e n editing a c c o r d i n g to s o u n d bites ( p o r t i o n of v i d e o t a p e d interview in w h i c h we see a n d hear the p e r s o n talk); a n d , in m o r e - a m b i t i o u s p r o d u c t i o n s , helps b r i d g e j u m p s in t i m e a n d / o r l o c a t i o n . T h e cutaway m a y o r m a y n o t b e p a r t of the p r i n c i p a l action, b u t it m u s t b e t h e m a t i c a l l y related to t h e actual event. G o o d cutaways are relatively static a n d n e u t r a l as to screen direction. Ex­ a m p l e s are s t r a i g h t - o n shots of o n l o o k e r s , r e p o r t e r s w i t h still c a m e r a s o r c a m c o r d e r s , b u i l d i n g s t h a t s h o w t h e loca­ tion, h o u s e n u m b e r s , or objects t h a t are p a r t of t h e s t o r y T

W h e n r e c o r d i n g v i d e o t a p e d o n o t stop exactly at t h e e n d of a scene—record a few m o r e seconds before s t o p p i n g

is a brief

shot that establishes continuity between t w o shots; provides

(such as the b o o k the guest h a s w r i t t e n ) . M i»>EDITING-> Production guidelines-* cutaways

Section

How

13.1

Postproduction

ENGv

W h e n o n an E N G a s s i g n m e n t , t r y to get s o m e cut-

EFP

away shots t h a t identify the location of t h e event. For

example, after covering t h e d o w n t o w n fire, get a shot of t h e street signs of t h e nearest intersection, t h e traffic t h a t has b a c k e d u p because of t h e fire, a n d s o m e close-ups of o n l o o k e r s a n d exhausted

firefighters.

For g o o d m e a s u r e

also get several w i d e shots of t h e event location. You will t h e n have cutaways that n o t only facilitate t r a n s i t i o n s b u t also show exactly w h e r e t h e fire t o o k place. Always r e c o r d t h e a m b i e n t s o u n d w i t h t h e cutaways. T h e s o u n d is often as i m p o r t a n t as t h e pictures for s m o o t h t r a n s i t i o n s . T h e c o n t i n u i t y of a m b i e n t ( b a c k g r o u n d ) s o u n d can also help i m m e n s e l y in preserving shot continuity, even if the visuals d o n o t cut together t o o well. Always record a m i n u t e or two of " r o o m t o n e " o r any o t h e r k i n d of e n v i r o n m e n t a l s o u n d , even if t h e c a m e r a has n o t h i n g interesting to s h o o t . W h e n e v e r possible d u r i n g E N G , verbally slate (iden­ tify) the v a r i o u s takes or at least t h e shot series. You can d o this by simply calling o u t t h e n a m e of t h e event a n d the take n u m b e r , such as: " M a r k e t Street police station, take 2." You can d o t h e slating o n t h e c a m e r a m i c o r t h e p o r t a b l e (reporter's) m i c . After saying the take n u m b e r , c o u n t back­ w a r d from five or t h r e e to o n e . This c o u n t i n g is similar to t h e b e e p e r after t h e slate in studio p r o d u c t i o n s . A l t h o u g h n o t essential, it helps locate t h e take a n d cue it u p d u r i n g editing, especially if n o address code is u s e d . '

REVIEW PHASE Unless y o u deal w i t h news footage t h a t m u s t be edited for t h e u p c o m i n g newscast, y o u n e e d to m a k e copies of all t h e source tapes. This is especially i m p o r t a n t for linear editing because y o u can n o w preserve the original source tapes for t h e actual editing while reviewing t h e tape copies. W h e n transferring the analog o r digital source tapes to t h e h a r d disk of t h e editing system, b a c k u p t h e h a r d disk immediately. You m a y t h i n k t h a t backing u p is overkill a n d basically a waste of time; this is t r u e — u n t i l y o u r superd e p e n d a b l e c o m p u t e r crashes or s o m e b o d y else erases your h a r d drive to m a k e r o o m for a n e w project. Reviewing Before you can m a k e decisions a b o u t w h a t t o include a n d w h a t to cut, you n e e d to k n o w w h a t you've got. Regardless of w h e t h e r you are editing a brief n e w s story or a play t h a t was shot film-style, you m u s t l o o k at everything o n t h e source tape or, m o r e likely, o n t h e stack of videotapes that c o n t a i n t h e bits a n d pieces of t h e source material. This way you get an overall i m p r e s s i o n of w h a t y o u have t o w o r k w i t h . Repeated screening of the source

Editing

Works

301

tapes will reveal n e w things every t i m e you play t h e m a n d will suggest o p t i m a l ways of sequencing. Even if y o u have n o t t a k e n p a r t in t h e actual p r o d u c ­ t i o n , this preview s h o u l d give you (the editor) an idea of w h a t the story is all a b o u t . W i e n you w o r k in c o r p o r a t e television, w h e r e m a n y of the p r o d u c t i o n s have specific i n s t r u c t i o n a l objectives, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t t h o s e o b ­ jectives are. If you c a n n o t d e d u c e story or objectives from t h e first preview, ask s o m e o n e w h o k n o w s . After all, the story a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n objective will greatly influence y o u r selection of shots or scenes a n d their sequencing. Read t h e script a n d discuss t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n objectives w i t h t h e writer or p r o d u c e r / d i r e c t o r . Discussions a b o u t overall story, m o o d , a n d style are especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n edit­ ing d o c u m e n t a r i e s or plays. E N G v W h e n editing s o m e o n e else's E N G footage, however, E F P y o u rarely get a chance to learn e n o u g h a b o u t the total event. Worse, y o u have to keep to a rigid t i m e frame ("Be s u r e to k e e p this s t o r y to t w e n t y s e c o n d s ! " ) a n d w o r k w i t h limited footage ("Sorry, I just c o u l d n ' t get close e n o u g h t o get g o o d s h o t s " or " T h e m i c was w o r k i n g w h e n I checked it"). Also, you have precious little t i m e to get t h e j o b d o n e ("Aren't you finished yet? We go o n the air in forty-five m i n u t e s ! " ) . Very m u c h like a reporter, an E N G c a m e r a operator, o r an e m e r g e n c y - r o o m doctor, the E N G editor has to w o r k quickly yet accurately a n d w i t h little preproduction preparation. Get as m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n as y o u can a b o u t t h e story before y o u start editing. Ask the reporter, t h e c a m e r a o p ­ erator, o r the p r o d u c e r to fill y o u in. After s o m e practice y o u will be able t o sense t h e story c o n t a i n e d o n t h e tape a n d edit it accordingly. You will also find t h a t you often get a better idea a b o u t t h e story b y listening to t h e s o u n d t r a c k t h a n by l o o k i n g at t h e pictures.
Continuity-* vectors For the actual logging, y o u can take the w i n d o w d u b s h o m e

Vectors. Vectors indicate the major directions of lines or

a n d view t h e m o n y o u r h o m e VCR. A l t h o u g h the VCR will

m o t i o n s w i t h i n a shot. N o t i n g s u c h directional vectors will

n o t s h o w the h i g h - q u a l i t y pictures of the source tapes, it is

h e l p y o u locate specific shots that c o n t i n u e o r p u r p o s e l y

certainly sufficient for giving you a n idea of w h a t video a n d

o p p o s e a p r i n c i p a l direction.

a u d i o m a t e r i a l y o u have. It also lets y o u freeze t h e starting

T h e r e are t h r e e types of vectors: g r a p h i c , index, a n d m o t i o n . A graphic vector is created b y s t a t i o n a r y e l e m e n t s

a n d e n d i n g frames of each shot so y o u c a n read a n d log their respective t i m e c o d e n u m b e r s .

t h a t g u i d e o u r eyes in a specific direction, s u c h as a line

If y o u s h o t t h e m a t e r i a l yourself, y o u are p r o b a b l y

f o r m e d b y t h e w i n d o w frame o r t h e edge of a b o o k . A n in­

familiar w i t h m o s t takes. You c a n therefore get b y with a

dex vector is created b y s o m e t h i n g t h a t p o i n t s u n q u e s t i o n ­

rather sketchy V T R log that indicates reel a n d take n u m b e r s

304

Chapter

13

POSTPRODUCTION

EDITING

a n d some s h o t identification. B u t if y o u arc given material

T h e extreme time restrictions in E N G require that y o u

that was s h o t b y s o m e o n e else, y o u s h o u l d log as m u c h

tell t h e stories as economically as possible. W h e n l o o k i n g at

a b o u t it as possible so t h a t you will n o t have to go back to

t h e footage, t h e highlights of t h e event usually reveal t h e m ­

t h e source tapes to l o o k for a p p r o p r i a t e s h o t s . T h e m o r e

selves quite readily. T h e reporter or p r o d u c e r will occasion­

careful a n d accurate y o u r logging, the m o r e t i m e , m o n e y ,

ally select the sound bite—a brief m e m o r a b l e p h r a s e — t h a t

a n d nerves y o u will save d u r i n g t h e actual editing.

drives t h e story. M'i*l'»EDITING-> Continuity-* quiz

T h e r e are several g o o d c o m p u t e r i z e d logging p r o ­

Nevertheless, u n d e r n o r m a l circumstances, E N G edit­

g r a m s available. Because t h e c o m p u t e r c a n display each

ing requires t h a t y o u l o o k at t h e source m a t e r i a l repeat­

frame w i t h its t i m e c o d e address, you can use t h e clips y o u

edly t o see w h a t y o u h a v e to w o r k with. After a few such

i m p o r t e d from t h e s o u r c e tapes. Such logging software

screenings, t h e story s h o u l d p r e t t y m u c h reveal itself. All

provides space for the n a m e of t h e scene or shot a n d for

t h e p r e v i e w i n g a n d editing is d o n e w i t h t h e actual source

identifying certain a u d i o segments. Note, however, that the

tapes o r footage i m p o r t e d from o t h e r r e c o r d e d m e d i a . 4

c o m p u t e r will n o t d o t h e logging all by itself. It c a n n o t tell

All o t h e r p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g requires a careful

h o w y o u w a n t t o n a m e a p a r t i c u l a r shot, for e x a m p l e , or

a n d deliberate selection of shots that h e l p clarify, intensify,

w h e t h e r you consider a take acceptable o r u n a c c e p t a b l e .

a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e i n t e n d e d message. S o m e t i m e s y o u r job is m a d e relatively easy b e c a u s e y o u c a n w o r k from a detailed script or s t o r y b o a r d (see section 18.2). For e x a m p l e , m o s t

EDITING PROCEDURES

commercials are carefully designed, with every shot a n d the s h o t s e q u e n c e sketched o u t in p r e p r o d u c t i o n . A s s u m i n g

N o w y o u are finally ready to d o s o m e editing. W h a t does editing actually m e a n ? In video a n d film p r o d u c t i o n , it is the selecting a n d assembling of shots in a seamless sequence

that t h e director followed the s t o r y b o a r d in the p r o d u c ­ t i o n p h a s e , all y o u n e e d to d o is l o o k for t h e shots that best r e p r e s e n t t h e s t o r y b o a r d sketch a n d clip t h e m together. At

that tells t h e s t o r y m o s t effectively. Editing requires a sense

o t h e r times y o u n e e d to view t h e material repeatedly before

for h o w a story develops, a g o o d eye a n d ear, a n d patience.

y o u c a n select t h e m o s t effective shots.

But before you t u r n o n t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d start w i t h edit­ ing, y o u should pay special a t t e n t i o n to these m a j o r editing steps: (1) shot selection, (2) s h o t s e q u e n c i n g , (3) a u d i o sweetening, (4) creating t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e , a n d

Because t h e a u d i o t r a c k is often used as guide for edit­ ing t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g video, t h e t r a n s c r i b e d a u d i o t r a c k is e d i t e d first, t h e n t h e v i d e o is " d r o p p e d in" a c c o r d i n g t o t h e edited a u d i o track (see section 10.2).

(5) o p e r a t i o n a l h i n t s . Preparing a paper-and-pencil EDL

W h e n y o u edit a

SHOT SELECTION

longer a n d m o r e c o m p l e x p r o d u c t i o n , s u c h as a d o c u m e n ­

In this d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p h a s e y o u m u s t first b e guided

t a r y o r d r a m a , y o u r m a i n c o n c e r n is picking the shots t h a t

by t h e context of t h e total s t o r y a n d its o v e r r i d i n g c o m ­

m o s t effectively fulfill t h e story a n d c o n t r i b u t e to a s m o o t h

m u n i c a t i o n i n t e n t . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t selection criterion

s h o t s e q u e n c e (see c h a p t e r s 14 a n d 18). You c a n save a

is w h e t h e r t h e shots c o n t r i b u t e t o a s m o o t h , seamless se­

great a m o u n t of actual editing t i m e by simply w a t c h i n g t h e

q u e n c e . G o o d editing s h o u l d go u n n o t i c e d b y t h e viewer.

w i n d o w d u b s (in linear editing) or t h e clips (in n o n l i n e a r editing) a n d m a k i n g a list of t h e e d i t - i n a n d - o u t p o i n t s

Select only those shots that are essential

for each selected shot. This list will b e y o u r p r e l i m i n a r y

to tell t h e story. D o n ' t use ten shots if y o u can d o t h e j o b

EDL. Because this list is usually w r i t t e n by h a n d , this d e ­

with t h r e e . T h i s is especially t r u e w h e n editing news. It is

c i s i o n - m a k i n g activity is called paper-and-pencil

n o t u n c o m m o n to cut t o a b o u t seven s e c o n d s of visuals

or paper editing for s h o r t . SEE13.18 rt'i%t»EDITING-> tinear

a s t o r y t h e E N G c a m e r a / r e p o r t e r t e a m m a y have s p e n t a

editing-* paper edit

Choosing shots

w h o l e day risking their lives to get. E N G v Editing n e w s footage does n o t allow y o u t h e l u x u r y EFP

editing,

W h e n u s i n g a c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d logging system, t h e c o m p u t e r will store y o u r decisions a n d p r i n t o u t t h e p r e ­

of p o n d e r i n g over a shot s e q u e n c e o r t r y i n g o u t sev­

l i m i n a r y E D L . M o s t h i g h - e n d editing software will give

eral different ways before settling o n t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e

y o u a n o p t i o n to display s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a certain n u m b e r

one. In fact, m a n y E N G stories are e d i t e d in the E N G v a n

of v i d e o a n d a u d i o tracks. T h e tracks, stacked u n d e r n e a t h

in the field or o n t h e way back t o t h e station. If t h e news

t h e s o u r c e a n d r e c o r d m o n i t o r s , display t h e v i d e o a n d

event is big e n o u g h , the footage m a y even b e sent u p t o t h e

a u d i o tracks w i t h their t i m e c o d e n u m b e r s . Such displays

satellite u n e d i t e d .

can greatly facilitate b u i l d i n g y o u r p r e l i m i n a r y EDL.

Section

13.18

13.1

How

Postproduction

Editing

305

Works

HANDWRITTEN EDIT DECISION LIST

Paper-and-pencil off-line editing normally produces a handwritten EDL containing information similar to that generated by a

computerized system.

SHOT S E Q U E N C I N G

so t h a t n o w o r d s are lost or m a n g l e d , a n d a d d i n g s o m e

O n c e y o u have a p r e l i m i n a r y EDL, y o u can p r o c e e d t o t h e

m u s i c or s o u n d effects. In linear editing y o u can m a t c h t h e

first tentative s e q u e n c i n g of s h o t s — t h e r o u g h cut. W i t h

s o u n d t r a c k w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g video via t i m e code.

a linear system, y o u insert t h e v a r i o u s tapes i n d i c a t e d o n

T h i s is b y n o m e a n s a n easy j o b , a n d it takes practice, b u t

t h e p r e l i m i n a r y EDL, tell t h e edit controller to search for

this is w h e r e t h e a d v a n t a g e of n o n l i n e a r editing c o m e s in.

t h e selected shots, a n d c o p y t h e m over to t h e record V T R .

Even the simplest editing software allows y o u to m i x at least

W i t h a n o n l i n e a r system, y o u s i m p l y tell t h e c o m p u t e r to

t w o s o u n d tracks, a n d m o r e - s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r o g r a m s let

r u n t h e selected sequence.

y o u m a n i p u l a t e close to a h u n d r e d tracks. Because s o u n d s

W h e n l o o k i n g at the r o u g h cut, y o u will u n d o u b t e d l y

in NLE are treated as clips, m u c h like video, y o u c a n call

see s o m e shots t h a t d o n ' t m a k e sense (despite their artistic

u p t h e s o u n d files in r a n d o m order, look at t h e m in addi­

value) or t h a t i n t e r r u p t t h e continuity. This is t h e t i m e to

t i o n to h e a r i n g t h e m , scrub t h r o u g h t h e m ( m o v e t h r o u g h

eliminate r e d u n d a n t shots or look for similar shots in t h e

t h e s o u n d sequence using t h e m o u s e ) to find a p a r t i c u l a r

V T R log t h a t facilitate continuity.

p o i n t or frame, a n d m a n i p u l a t e a n d c o m b i n e t h e m in any n u m b e r of ways. N o t e , however, t h a t m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d

Adding transitions

O n c e satisfied w i t h t h e r o u g h cut,

y o u can m o v e to t h e next stage of deciding t r a n s i t i o n s a n d

s o u n d w o r k takes an a d d i t i o n a l set of skills a n d is best left t o the s o u n d designer or s o u n d editor.

2

special effects. Again, d o n ' t go o v e r b o a r d w i t h dissolves,

O n c e y o u have c o m p l e t e d t h e final s h o t s e q u e n c i n g ,

wipes, a n d flips. Because t h e y are so readily available in

y o u can p r i n t o u t the final EDL t h a t eventually triggers all

NLE, t h e y are especially t e m p t i n g . Even if y o u see a n excess

t h e c o m m a n d s for the final edit, or tell t h e c o m p u t e r to

of effects o n the air every day, d o n ' t t r y to c o m p e t e . A clean

r u n t h e final editing sequence, SEE 13.19 At this p o i n t even m i n o r e d i t i n g c h a n g e s are quite

c u t is still o n e of t h e m o s t effective a n d u n o b t r u s i v e ways of c o m b i n i n g shots.

t i m e - c o n s u m i n g in linear editing a n d m a y even require t h a t y o u r e d o all t h e edits t h a t follow the p o i n t of change.

AUDIO SWEETENING In relatively simple editing projects, t h e s o u n d editing will consist m a i n l y of c o m b i n i n g t h e s o u n d tracks of t h e shots

2.

See Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 135-44.

306

Chapter

POSTPRODUCTION

13

EDITING

13.19 COMPUTER-GENERATED EDL The computer-generated EDL is similar to the handwritten one. It contains in- and out­ numbers for both the source and record VTRs and the nature of the transitions.

TITLE: TRAFFIC SAFETYHeader 001 003 V c 001 004 V W001 204 EFFECTS NAME IS SWING IN

00:00:03:12 00:00:05:14 01:00:20:01 01:00:22:03 00:00:06:24 00:00:12:23 01:00:08:12 01:00:14:11

002 004 V C 002 001 V W003 204 EFFECTS NAME IS SWING IN

01:16:22:03 01:16:29:02 01:00:06:24 01:00:13:25 01:18:27:15 01:18:34:09 01:00:06:24 01:00:13:18

V c 003 004 V W000 204 003 001 EFFECTS NAME IS SWING IN

01:18:33:15 01:00:25:14 01:00:13:18 01:00:20:12 01:18:38:02 01:18:44:26 01:00:13:18 01:00:20:12

004 004 V C V W002 204 004 001 EFFECTS NAME IS SWING IN

01:19:10:02 01:19:15:03 01:19:20:12 01:19:25:12 01:19:23:19 01:19:30:13 01:00:20:12 01:00:27:06

005 004 V c 005 001 V W011 203 EFFECTS NAME IS ZOOM

01:34:12:02 01:34:16:04 01:00:22:05 01:00:26:06 01:50:15:29 01:50:22:22 01:00:27:06 01:00:33:29

006

003

V

c

01:52:14:25 01:52:16:05 01:00:33:29 01:00:35:15

007

001

V

c

01:39:08:00 01:39:14:24 01:00:58:15 01:01:05:09

T Event number

T Edit mode Source reel ID

Source in

I Source out

I Record in

" Record out

Transition type

T h e s a m e c h a n g e can b e d o n e m u c h m o r e quickly w i t h t h e

OPERATIONAL HINTS

NLE system. W h a t y o u see a n d h e a r d u r i n g the playback is

N o w y o u have to sit d o w n a n d practice. You c a n n o t learn

simply video a n d a u d i o data files a r r a n g e d in a p a r t i c u l a r

editing simply by r e a d i n g a b o o k — e v e n this o n e . 'There

order. All y o u d o to m a k e a n editing c h a n g e is r e a r r a n g e

are also so m a n y linear a n d n o n l i n e a r editing systems o n

s o m e c o m p u t e r files a n d generate a n e w play o r d e r — a n e w

t h e m a r k e t t h a t it w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e to list t h e m all.

EDL. Obviously, this takes c o n s i d e r a b l y less t i m e t h a n r e -

T h e variety of editing e q u i p m e n t places m o r e a n d m o r e

editing tape.

i m p o r t a n c e o n t h e aesthetic p r i n c i p l e s — h o w t o achieve

CREATING THE FINAL EDIT MASTER TAPE

jolts viewers o u t of their p e r c e p t u a l c o m p l a c e n c y (such

All that's left for y o u t o d o is to create a final edit m a s t e r

basic o p e r a t i o n a l steps for editing o n either t a p e - b a s e d or

tape. In linear editing t h e creation of t h e final edit m a s t e r

disk-based systems:

a shot sequence that looks seamless or that purposely

d e p e n d s o n t h e relative sophistication of t h e system. S o m e edit controllers can use t h e final EDL to select t h e p r o p e r shots from t h e source V T R s a n d i n s t r u c t t h e r e c o r d V T R to r e c o r d t h e m a c c o r d i n g to t h e i n - a n d o u t n u m b e r s indicated. If y o u w o r k with a n o n l i n e a r system, y o u tell

principles are the focus of section 13.2). H e r e are s o m e

If y o u share editing facilities, d o u b l e - c h e c k o n their availability. Have y o u r e q u e s t e d a d d i t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t y o u m a y n e e d to interface, such as a C O , a switcher, a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , o r DVE?

t h e c o m p u t e r to r u n t h e entire s e q u e n c e a n d e x p o r t t h e

If w o r k i n g with a t a p e - b a s e d system, check t h e tapes

selected video a n d a u d i o files in t h e specified s e q u e n c e for

t h a t y o u i n t e n d to use for edit m a s t e r s . Use only n e w tapes

r e c o r d i n g o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e o r disc.

for t h e r e c o r d VTR. W h e n d o i n g insert editing, t h e edit

Section

How

1 3.7

Postproduction

m a s t e r t a p e s m u s t have black or color b a r s r e c o r d e d o n

Editing

Works

307

•

Linear editing is performed with single-source, expanded single-source, and multiple-source systems. Single-source systems have a source (or play) VTR and a record (or edit) VTR, which are normally governed by an edit controller. Ex­ panded single-source systems may contain an audio mixer, a switcher, and a C G . (character generator). Multiple-source systems have two or more source VTRs and permit a great variety of transitions.

•

The control track, or pulse-count, linear editing system uses pulses of the control track for locating specific edit-in and -out points, automatic prerolling of the source and record VTRs, previewing and executing the edit at a specific point on the edit master tape, and reviewing the edit. The con­ trol track system does not supply a specific frame address, however, and is not frame-accurate.

•

Time code editing uses a specific code that gives each frame a unique address. It fulfills the same functions as the control track system but is frame-accurate. The most popu­ lar time code is the SMPTE/EBU time code.

•

In assemble editing all video, audio, control, and address tracks on the edit master tape are erased to make room for the shot to be copied over from the source tape (contain­ ing its own video, audio, and control track information for the record VTR). The record VTR will regenerate the control tracks of the copied shots and try to form a continuous control track. If the newly assembled control track is not perfectly aligned, the edits will cause brief video break­ ups—or sync rolls—at the edit points.

•

In insert editing the entire control track is prerecorded con­ tinuously on the edit master tape before any editing takes place. It prevents breakups at the edit points and allows separate video and audio editing.

•

In AB rolling two VTRs (A-roll and B-roll) feed their mate­ rial simultaneously into two separate video inputs of the switcher. The editing is done by switching between the A-roll and the B-roll tapes.

•

In AB-roll editing the switcher is replaced by the edit con­ troller, which helps select the various shots from the source A VTR and the source B VTR.

•

Nonlinear editing (NLE) reguires capturing all analog and digital source tapes on the hard disk or optical disc storage systems. Digital source tapes must still be transferred to the hard disk of the editing system. Most storage systems use some kind of compression to store a maximum amount of video and audio data.

•

The re-editing phase consists of the shooting phase, the review phase, and the preparation phase.

•

The editing procedures include shot selection, shot se­ quencing, audio sweetening, and creation of the final edit master tape.

t h e m . ( R e m e m b e r t h a t t h e r e a l - t i m e r e c o r d i n g of black will give y o u the c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l track n e e d e d for insert editing.) To m i n i m i z e tracking p r o b l e m s , m a n y editors like t o lay t h e c o n t r o l t r a c k w i t h t h e V T R t h a t is actually used as a r e c o r d V T R d u r i n g t h e e d i t i n g process. In a t a p e - b a s e d system, set u p b o t h s o u r c e a n d r e c o r d V T R s . T h e r e c o r d V T R m u s t be i n t h e assemble or i n s e r t m o d e . Calibrate t h e a u d i o levels of the s o u r c e a n d r e c o r d V T R s (see section 10.2). When

finished

editing, r e w i n d t h e edit m a s t e r tape

a n d play it w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n . You m a y discover s o m e discrepancies b e t w e e n t h e v i d e o a n d a u d i o tracks o r p r o b ­ lems with continuity that you did not notice w h e n you w o r k e d edit b y edit. N o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g lets y o u r e a r r a n g e t h e v i d e o a n d a u d i o d a t a files to s m o o t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n s relatively easily. A u d i o s w e e t e n i n g is a little m o r e c u m ­ bersome. Complex audio sweetening requires that you strip the a u d i o t r a c k off t h e v i d e o t a p e for t h e necessary manipulation and then d u b the audio track back onto the v i d e o t a p e again. F r a m e - a c c u r a t e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of video a n d a u d i o requires S M P T E t i m e c o d e for b o t h v i d e o a n d audio tracks. W h e n w o r k i n g w i t h a d i s k - b a s e d system, allow p l e n t y of t i m e for t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e s o u r c e t a p e s t o t h e h a r d disk of t h e e d i t i n g system. Back u p t h e stored m a t e r i a l , even if it is t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Backing u p v i d e o a n d a u d i o files is m u c h less t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t h a n h a v i n g to r e c a p t u r e all the source material. P u t the v a r i o u s t a p e s of a specific scene into o n e file (also called a bin) a n d t h o s e of t h e n e x t scene in a n o t h e r . This storage m e t h o d will m a k e it easier for y o u to visualize w h e r e t h i n g s are a n d to call u p t h e v a r i o u s s h o t s .

•

•

There are two basic editing modes, off-line and on-line. Off-line in linear editing means to use lower-quality eguipment for the rough cut; in nonlinear editing it means to capture the selected shots in low-resolution. It can be used by both systems to produce an edit decision list (EDL). On-line means for both systems to prepare the final edit master tape. Linear systems are all tape-based and do not allow random access of information. Nonlinear systems are all disk-based and allow random access.

13.2

EDITING FUNCTIONS Editing is d o n e for different reasons. S o m e t i m e s y o u n e e d to a r r a n g e shots so t h a t they tell a story. O t h e r t i m e s y o u m a y have to eliminate e x t r a n e o u s m a t e r i a l to m a k e a story fit a given t i m e slot, or y o u m a y w a n t to cut o u t t h e shot w h e r e t h e t a l e n t s t u m b l e d over a w o r d o r s u b s t i t u t e a

Making Editing Decisions

close-up for an uninteresting m e d i u m shot. These different reasons are all examples of the four basic editing functions: (1) c o m b i n e , (2) s h o r t e n , (3) correct, a n d (4) build.

COMBINE T h e simplest e d i t i n g is c o m b i n i n g p r o g r a m p o r t i o n s by h o o k i n g t h e v a r i o u s v i d e o - r e c o r d e d pieces t o g e t h e r in t h e p r o p e r s e q u e n c e . T h e m o r e care t h a t w a s t a k e n d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n , t h e less w o r k y o u have t o d o in p o s t p r o ­ d u c t i o n . For e x a m p l e , m o s t s o a p o p e r a s are shot in long, c o m p l e t e scenes or in even l o n g e r sequences w i t h a m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o setup; t h e sequences are t h e n c o m b i n e d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Or, y o u m a y select v a r i o u s shots taken at a friend's w e d d i n g a n d s i m p l y c o m b i n e t h e m in t h e o r d e r in w h i c h they o c c u r r e d .

SHORTEN G o o d editors m u s t b e able to tell a story efficiently while

M a n y editing a s s i g n m e n t s involve c u t t i n g t h e available

m a x i m i z i n g viewer interest. This requires t h a t they operate

m a t e r i a l to m a k e t h e final v i d e o t a p e fit a given t i m e slot

an editing system, visualize a s m o o t h s h o t s e q u e n c e while

or to eliminate e x t r a n e o u s material. As a n E N G editor, you

l o o k i n g at a n u m b e r of single shots, a n d select t h e a p p r o ­

will find t h a t y o u often have to tell a c o m p l e t e s t o r y in a n

priate t r a n s i t i o n s for s u c h a s e q u e n c e . G o o d editors c a n

u n r e a s o n a b l y s h o r t a m o u n t of t i m e a n d t h a t y o u have to

also detect c o n t i n u i t y p r o b l e m s , s u c h as t h e talent h o l d i n g

p a r e d o w n t h e available m a t e r i a l to its b a r e m i n i m u m . For

t h e coffee c u p in his left h a n d in t h e m e d i u m s h o t a n d in

e x a m p l e , the p r o d u c e r m a y give y o u o n l y t w e n t y seconds

his right h a n d in the following close-up. O n c e y o u have

to tell the s t o r y of a d o w n t o w n fire, a l t h o u g h t h e E N G

m a s t e r e d t h e editing system you are using, y o u will realize

t e a m h a d p r o u d l y r e t u r n e d w i t h t w e n t y m i n u t e s of excit­

that t h e real a r t of editing is in storytelling a n d a p p l y i n g

ing footage.

aesthetic s e q u e n c i n g principles. This section d e m o n s t r a t e s s o m e of t h e m a j o r o n e s .

3

Paradoxically, w h e n e d i t i n g E N G footage, y o u will discover that a l t h o u g h y o u have an a b u n d a n c e of similar material, y o u m a y lack certain s h o t s to tell t h e story coher­

EDITING FUNCTIONS

P

Combine, shorten, correct, and build

fc-

BASIC TRANSITION DEVICES The cut, the dissolve, the wipe, and the fade

ently. For example, w h e n screening the fire footage you m a y find t h a t there are m a n y beautiful shots of flames s h o o t i n g o u t of w i n d o w s a n d of firefighters o n ladders, p o u r i n g wa­ ter i n t o t h e b u i l d i n g , b u t n o pictures of t h e wall collapsing, w h i c h injured a firefighter.

MAJOR EDITING PRINCIPLES

P

Continuity editing (subject identification, the mental map, vectors, movement, color, and sound), complexity editing, context, and ethics

CORRECT M u c h editing t i m e is s p e n t o n c o r r e c t i n g mistakes, either b y e l i m i n a t i n g u n a c c e p t a b l e p o r t i o n s of a scene or by replacing t h e m w i t h better o n e s . This t y p e of editing can be simple—merely cutting out the part during which the

3.

For a more detailed treatment of aesthetic principles, see Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2005).

308

talent c o u g h e d a n d replacing it with a retake. B u t it can also b e challenging, especially if t h e retake does n o t m a t c h

Section

13.2

Making

t h e rest of t h e r e c o r d i n g . You m a y find, for e x a m p l e , t h a t

Editing

Decisions

309

y o u see are t h e p r e c e d i n g a n d following shots. It resembles

s o m e of t h e c o r r e c t e d scenes differ noticeably from t h e

m o s t closely t h e c h a n g i n g field of t h e h u m a n eye. Try t o

o t h e r s in c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e , s o u n d quality, o r field of

l o o k f r o m o n e object to a n o t h e r located s o m e distance

view ( s h o t t o o close or t o o loose in relation to the rest of

away. Notice t h a t y o u d o n o t look at t h i n g s in b e t w e e n , as

t h e footage). In such cases t h e relatively simple editing j o b

y o u w o u l d in a c a m e r a p a n , b u t t h a t y o u r eyes j u m p ahead

b e c o m e s a f o r m i d a b l e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n challenge a n d , in

to t h e s e c o n d p o s i t i o n , as in a cut.

s o m e cases, a n i g h t m a r e . A l t h o u g h m o s t n o n l i n e a r edit­

T h e cut, like all o t h e r t r a n s i t i o n devices, is basically

ing software m a k e s r e m a r k a b l y powerful color c o r r e c t i o n

used for t h e clarification a n d intensification of an event.

features available, a p p l y i n g t h e m is often a t e d i o u s a n d

Clarification

highly t i m e - c o n s u m i n g affair. This is o n e of t h e r e a s o n s

clearly as possible. For e x a m p l e , in an interview s h o w t h e

m e a n s t h a t y o u s h o w t h e viewer the event as

w h y you s h o u l d p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to color m a t c h i n g

guest h o l d s u p t h e b o o k she has written. To help the viewer

during production.

identify t h e b o o k , y o u cut to a c l o s e - u p of it.

BUILD

t h e screen event. In a n e x t r e m e l o n g shot, for example,

Intensification

m e a n s t h a t y o u s h a r p e n the i m p a c t of

T h e m o s t difficult, b u t also t h e m o s t satisfying, editing

a football tackle m i g h t l o o k q u i t e t a m e ; w h e n seen as a

a s s i g n m e n t s are w h e n y o u can b u i l d a s h o w from a great

tight close-up, however, t h e a c t i o n reveals its b r u t e force.

m a n y takes. P o s t p r o d u c t i o n is n o l o n g e r ancillary t o p r o ­

By c u t t i n g to t h e close-up, t h e a c t i o n has b e e n intensified.

d u c t i o n b u t constitutes t h e m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e . For example, w h e n y o u use a single c a m c o r d e r d u r i n g a film-

DISSOLVE

style field p r o d u c t i o n , y o u n e e d to select t h e best shots a n d

T h e dissolve, or lap dissolve, is a g r a d u a l t r a n s i t i o n from

p u t t h e m in the p r o p e r sequence in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing.

shot to shot, the two images temporarily overlapping.

Film-style refers to a m o t i o n picture t e c h n i q u e whereby y o u

W h e r e a s t h e cut itself c a n n o t be seen o n - s c r e e n , t h e dis­

repeat a brief scene several times a n d s h o o t it from a variety

solve is a clearly visible t r a n s i t i o n . Dissolves are often used

of angles a n d fields of view, irrespective of t h e scripted

to p r o v i d e a s m o o t h b r i d g e for a c t i o n or to indicate t h e

event s e q u e n c e . B u t w h e n editing these shots, y o u c a n n o t

passage of t i m e . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e overall r h y t h m of an

s i m p l y select s o m e a n d c o m b i n e t h e m in t h e s e q u e n c e in

event, y o u can use slow o r fast dissolves. A very fast o n e

w h i c h t h e y were t a k e n ; rather, y o u have to go back to t h e

functions a l m o s t like a c u t a n d is therefore called a soft-

script a n d r e a r r a n g e t h e shots to fit the s t o r y l i n e . T h e story is literally built s h o t - b y - s h o t .

B25F>EDITING^

Functions^

select | combine | condense | correct | try it

cut. For an interesting a n d s m o o t h t r a n s i t i o n from a w i d e s h o t of a d a n c e r t o a close-up, for instance, simply dissolve from o n e c a m e r a to t h e other. W h e n y o u h o l d t h e dissolve in the m i d d l e , y o u will create a superimposition,

BASIC TRANSITION DEVICES W h e n e v e r you p u t t w o s h o t s together, y o u n e e d a

or super. A

slow dissolve will indicate a relatively l o n g passage of time; a fast dissolve, a s h o r t o n e . transi­

Because dissolves are so readily available in N L E soft­

tion—a device t h a t implies t h a t t h e t w o s h o t s are related.

ware, y o u m a y b e t e m p t e d to use t h e m m o r e often t h a n

T h e r e are four basic t r a n s i t i o n devices: (1) t h e cut, (2) t h e

necessary or even desirable. A dissolve will inevitably slow

dissolve, (3) t h e w i p e , a n d (4) t h e fade. In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e

d o w n t h e t r a n s i t i o n a n d , w i t h it, t h e scene. If dissolves are

a r e c o u n t l e s s special effects available t h a t c a n serve as

overused, t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n will lack precision a n d accent

t r a n s i t i o n s . E x a m p l e s are flips, p a g e t u r n s , or fly effects

a n d will b o r e t h e viewer.

(see c h a p t e r 14). A l t h o u g h t h e y all have t h e s a m e basic p u r p o s e — t o p r o v i d e an acceptable link b e t w e e n s h o t s —

WIPE

t h e y differ in function, t h a t is, h o w we are to perceive t h e

T h e r e is a great variety of wipes available, t h e simplest of

t r a n s i t i o n in a s h o t s e q u e n c e .

w h i c h is w h e n t h e base p i c t u r e is replaced by a n o t h e r o n e t h a t m o v e s c o n s p i c u o u s l y from o n e screen edge to the

CUT

other. O t h e r w i p e effects look as t h o u g h t h e t o p p i c t u r e is

T h e cut is an i n s t a n t a n e o u s c h a n g e from o n e i m a g e (shot)

peeled off a stack of o t h e r s , or a d i a m o n d e x p a n d i n g from

t o another. It is t h e m o s t c o m m o n a n d least obtrusive t r a n ­

t h e center of t h e t o p p i c t u r e gradually s h o w s the o n e u n ­

sition device, a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e p r e c e d i n g a n d following

d e r n e a t h . T h e w i p e is such an u n a b a s h e d t r a n s i t i o n device

shots s h o w s o m e continuity. T h e c u t itself is n o t visible; all

t h a t it is n o r m a l l y classified as a special effect.

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EDITING

The wipe tells the viewers that they are definitely go­ A brief dip to black could reduce, or even eliminate, this ing to see s o m e t h i n g else, or it injects s o m e interest or fun

potentially funny or i n a p p r o p r i a t e m o n t a g e effect.

into t h e shot sequence. Wipes a n d o t h e r such effects are

T h a t said, d o n o t go to black t o o o f t e n — t h e p r o g r a m

especially magnified o n t h e large 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen. Like

c o n t i n u i t y will be i n t e r r u p t e d t o o m a n y times by fades t h a t

with a n y o t h e r special effect, y o u s h o u l d use discretion;

all suggest final e n d i n g s . T h e o t h e r e x t r e m e is t h e never-

o v e r u s e d or i n a p p r o p r i a t e w i p e s easily u p s t a g e t h e shots

g o - t o - b l a c k craze: s o m e directors d o n o t dare go to black

they are c o n n e c t i n g . ( T h e v a r i o u s wipes a n d special-effects

for fear of giving the viewer a c h a n c e to switch t o a n o t h e r

t r a n s i t i o n s are discussed in c h a p t e r 14.)

c h a n n e l . If a c o n s t a n t d r i b b l e of p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l is t h e only way to h o l d a viewer's attention, however, the p r o g r a m

FADE

content, rather than the presentation techniques, should

In a fade t h e p i c t u r e either goes gradually to black

(fade-

out)

black

or appears gradually on the screen from

(fade-in).

You use t h e fade to signal a definite b e g i n n i n g

b e e x a m i n e d . FjJHE^SWITCHING^ Transitions-* fade ] try it

(fade-in) or e n d (fade-out) of a scene. Like t h e c u r t a i n in

MAJOR EDITING PRINCIPLES

a theater, it defines the b e g i n n i n g or t h e e n d of a p o r t i o n

To give y o u r editing d i r e c t i o n a n d m a k e y o u r s e q u e n c i n g

of a screen event.

choices less arbitrary, y o u n e e d to k n o w t h e p u r p o s e of

As such, t h e fade is technically n o t a t r u e t r a n s i t i o n .

t h e s h o w a n d t h e specific c o n t e x t of t h e event y o u are t o

for a

re-create t h r o u g h editing. For e x a m p l e , t h e event c o n t e x t

quick fade to black followed immediately by a fade-in to t h e

for t h e five o u t - o f - o r d e r shots (clips) in figure 13.20 is a

next i m a g e . H e r e t h e fade acts as a t r a n s i t i o n device, deci­

y o u n g w o m a n getting into her car to drive h o m e after work.

sively s e p a r a t i n g the p r e c e d i n g a n d following images from

SEE 13.20 Take a close l o o k at these five frames, r e p r e s e n t i n g

each other. T h e cross-fade is also called a dip to black.

t h e b e g i n n i n g s of brief shots r e c o r d e d o n t h e source t a p e .

S o m e directors a n d editors use t h e t e r m cross-fade

You are certainly familiar w i t h t h e u n f o r t u n a t e t e n ­ d e n c y to cut directly from o n e c o m m e r c i a l to t h e o t h e r

H o w w o u l d y o u a r r a n g e t h e m so that they cut together well while effectively telling t h e story?

w i t h o u t c o n n e c t i n g t h e m w i t h s o m e t r a n s i t i o n device that

W i t h o u t p e e k i n g a h e a d , r e n u m b e r t h e s h o t s in t h e

would tell us w h e r e o n e c o m m e r c i a l e n d s a n d the o t h e r

o r d e r y o u w o u l d s e q u e n c e t h e m to tell t h e s t o r y of t h e

begins. Such j u x t a p o s i t i o n s can easily lead to e m b a r r a s s i n g

w o m a n getting i n t o t h e car a n d d r i v i n g off. N o w look at

m e a n i n g s , similar to a m o n t a g e effect i n film, w h e r e two

t h e t h r e e e d i t e d versions, SEE

adjoining images are i n t e n d e d t o create special m e a n i n g s .

y o u t h i n k is t h e best c o m b i n a t i o n of shots.

Shot 1—car in motion

13.20

Identify t h e o n e

Shot 3

Shot 2

Shot 4—backing up

13.21-13.23

Shot 5

SOURCE TAPE SHOT SEQUENCE

The event context for these shots is a woman getting into a car to drive home after work. This sequence is as it appears on the source tape.

Section

13.21

Making

13.2

Editing

Decisions

EDITING SEQUENCE 1

Evaluate this sequence to determine whether the shots are ordered to pro­ vide event continuity.

13.22

EDITING SEQUENCE 2

Evaluate this sequence to determine whether the shots are ordered to pro­ vide event continuity.

13.23

EDITING SEQUENCE 3

Evaluate this sequence to determine whether the shots are ordered to pro­ vide event continuity.

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If y o u selected s e q u e n c e 3, you m a d e t h e right choice.

POSTPRODUCTION

actually

missing, and t o assemble t h e shots

EDITING

in

such a way

Here's why: Obviously, t h e driver n e e d s t o walk to t h e car

t h a t viewers are largely u n a w a r e of t h e edits. Specifically,

(shot 3) a n d u n l o c k t h e d o o r (shot 2) before fastening t h e

y o u n e e d t o o b s e r v e t h e s e aesthetic factors: (1) subject

seat belt (shot 5 ) . T h e n e x t action is t o b a c k t h e car o u t

identification, (2) t h e m e n t a l m a p , (3) vectors, (4) m o v e ­

(shot 4 ) . Finally, we see t h e car d r i v i n g off (shot 1).

m e n t , (5) color, a n d (6) s o u n d .

N o n l i n e a r editing is n o t unlike t h e p r e c e d i n g exercise: to s u p p l y s t r u c t u r e to a n u m b e r of shots, initially repre­

Subject identification

sented as i n d i v i d u a l stills, w h i c h y o u t h e n r u n as clips. You

to recognize a subject o r a n object from o n e s h o t t o t h e

T h e v i e w e r s h o u l d be able

p r o b a b l y n o t i c e d that this is t h e exact o p p o s i t e of linear

next. Therefore, avoid editing b e t w e e n shots of extreme

editing, w h e r e y o u start o u t w i t h r u n n i n g sequences a n d

changes in distance, SEE 13.24

t h e n freeze p a r t i c u l a r frames t h a t m a r k t h e edit p o i n t s .

c o n t i n u i t y for identification, b r i d g e t h e g a p by telling t h e

This shot selection was based primarily o n story continuity. Equally i m p o r t a n t aspects of editing c o n c e r n

If y o u c a n n o t m a i n t a i n visual

viewer t h a t t h e shot is, i n d e e d , t h e s a m e p e r s o n o r t h i n g . Mmt»EDITING-> Continuity^ subject ID

c o m p l e x i t y e d i t i n g a n d p r e s e r v i n g context. You s h o u l d

Despite w h a t was just n o t e d , t r y i n g to edit t o g e t h e r

realize t h a t all e d i t i n g p r i n c i p l e s — i n c l u d i n g a e s t h e t i c

s h o t s t h a t are t o o similar c a n lead to even w o r s e t r o u ­

ones—are conventions a n d n o t absolutes. They work

b l e — t h e jump

well u n d e r m o s t c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d are a basic p a r t of t h e

are identical i n subject yet slightly different in screen l o ­

cut. T h i s occurs w h e n y o u edit shots that

visual literacy o f m o s t television viewers a n d p r o d u c t i o n

cation; t h e subject seems to jerk from o n e screen l o c a t i o n

p e r s o n n e l . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e event c o n t e x t a n d t h e c o m ­

to a n o t h e r as if p u s h e d b y a n u n s e e n force, SEE 13.25 To

m u n i c a t i o n a i m , s o m e of t h e "do's" of editing m a y easily

avoid a j u m p c u t , t r y t o find a succeeding shot t h a t shows

b e c o m e t h e " d o n ' t s " a n d vice versa.

t h e object from a different angle o r field o f view, o r insert a cutaway shot, SEE 13.26

CONTINUITY EDITING Continuity

editing refers to t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of s t o r y c o n ­

t i n u i t y despite t h e fact t h a t great c h u n k s of t h e s t o r y are

13.24

Mental map

Because television has a relatively small

screen, w e n o r m a l l y see little o f a total scene in t h e o n -

EXTREME CHANGES IN DISTANCE

When you cut from an extreme long shot to a tight close-up, viewers may not recognize exactly whose close-up it is.

13.25

JUMP CUT

If the size, screen position, or shooting angle of an object is only slightly differ­ ent in two succeeding shots, the object seems to jump within the screen.

Section

13.26

13.2

Making

Editing

Decisions

313

CUTAWAY

You can avoid a jump cut by changing image size and/or angle of view or by separating the two shots with a cutaway, as shown here.

screen space. Rather, the m a n y close-ups suggest, or s h o u l d

viewer c o n s t r u c t a mental

suggest, t h a t t h e event c o n t i n u e s in the off-screen space.

in a logical place regardless of w h e t h e r t h e y are in o n - or

map t h a t p u t s people a n d things

W h a t y o u s h o w in t h e o n - s c r e e n space defines t h e off­

off-screen space. O n c e t h e m a p is in place, t h e viewer ex­

screen space as well. For e x a m p l e , if y o u s h o w p e r s o n A

pects t h e s u b s e q u e n t screen p o s i t i o n s to a d h e r e to it.

l o o k i n g s c r e e n - r i g h t in a close-up, o b v i o u s l y talking to an

T h e m e n t a l m a p is so s t r o n g that if t h e s u b s e q u e n t

off-screen p e r s o n (B), t h e viewer w o u l d expect p e r s o n B to

shot s h o w e d p e r s o n B also looking screen-right, the viewer

look screen-left o n a s u b s e q u e n t close-up. SEE 13.27 AND

w o u l d t h i n k t h a t b o t h p e r s o n s A a n d B are talking to a

13.28

W h a t y o u have d o n e — q u i t e u n c o n s c i o u s l y — i s h e l p t h e

13.27

t h i r d party.

MENTAL MAP SHOT 1

Here person A's screen-right gaze (his index vector) suggests that person B must be located in the off-screen space to the right.

13.28

MENTAL MAP SHOT 2

When we now see person B in a close-up looking screen-left, we assume person A to be in the left off-screen space.

314

Chapter

13.29

13

POSTPRODUCTION

EDITING

MAINTAINING SCREEN POSITIONS IN REVERSE-ANGLE SHOOTING

In this over-the-shoulder reverse-angle shot sequence, the interviewer and the interviewee maintain their basic screen positions.

map,

To help you facilitate a n d m a i n t a i n t h e viewer's m e n t a l y o u need t o k n o w s o m e t h i n g m o r e a b o u t vectors.

C o n t i n u i t y editing is little m o r e t h a n using graphic, index, a n d m o t i o n vectors in t h e source m a t e ­ rial t o establish o r m a i n t a i n t h e viewer's m e n t a l m a p . If you were t o a p p l y t h e vectors t o t h e e x a m p l e of o n - s c r e e n p e r s o n A talking t o off-screen p e r s o n B, t h e screen-right i n d e x vector o f A n e e d s t o b e edited t o t h e screen-left index vector of B. A l t h o u g h t h e index vectors of t h e t w o p e r s o n s are converging in off-screen space, t h e y indicate t h a t A a n d B are talking with each o t h e r rather t h a n away from each other. M a i n t a i n i n g screen p o s i t i o n s is especially i m p o r t a n t in o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r shots. If, for e x a m p l e , y o u s h o w a r e p o r t e r interviewing s o m e b o d y in a n o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r t w o - s h o t , the viewer's m e n t a l m a p expects t h e t w o people to r e m a i n in their relative screen p o s i t i o n s a n d n o t switch places d u r i n g a reverse-angle shot, SEE 13.29 O n e i m p o r t a n t aid in m a i n t a i n i n g t h e viewer's m e n t a l m a p a n d keeping t h e subjects i n t h e expected screen space in reverse-angle s h o o t i n g is t h e vector line. T h e vector line (also called t h e line, t h e line of conversation and action, o r t h e hundredeighty) is a n extension of converging i n d e x vectors or of a m o t i o n vector i n t h e direction of object travel, SEE 13.30 W h e n d o i n g reverse-angle switching from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2, y o u need t o position t h e c a m e r a s o n t h e s a m e side o f t h e vector line, SEE 13.31 Crossing t h e line with o n e of the two cameras will switch t h e subjects' screen positions a n d m a k e t h e m a p p e a r t o be playing m u s i c a l chairs, t h u s upsetting the m e n t a l m a p . SEE 13.32

13.30

VECTOR LINE

The vector line is formed by extending converging index vec­ tors or a motion vector.

Crossing t h e m o t i o n vector line w i t h cameras (placing c a m e r a s o n o p p o s i t e sides of a m o v i n g object) will reverse the direction o f object m o t i o n every t i m e you cut. You will also see t h e o p p o s i t e c a m e r a in t h e b a c k g r o u n d , SEE 13.33 To c o n t i n u e a screen-left o r screen-right object m o t i o n , y o u m u s t keep b o t h c a m e r a s o n the s a m e side of t h e vector line. E£J5E>EDrriNG-» Continuity-* mental map | try it W h e n editing, o r c u t t i n g a n action w i t h a switcher, t r y t o c o n t i n u e t h e action as m u c h as possible from shot t o shot. T h e following discussion covers s o m e of t h e major p o i n t s t o keep in m i n d . To preserve m o t i o n continuity, cut duringihe m o t i o n of t h e subject, n o t before o r after it. F o r e x a m p l e , if y o u have a close-up of a m a n p r e p a r i n g to rise from a chair, c u t to a w i d e r s h o t just after h e has started to rise b u t before

Section

13.2

Making

Editing

315

Decisions

1 3 . 3 1 VECTOR LINE AND PROPER CAMERA POSITIONS To maintain the screen posi­ tions of persons A and B in over-the-shoulder shooting, the cameras must be on the same side of the vector line.

1 3 . 3 2 CROSSING THE VECTOR LINE When one of the cameras crosses the vector line, per­ sons A and B will switch positions every time you cut between the two cameras.

316

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EDITING

13.33 CROSSING THE MOTION VECTOR LINE When crossing the motion vector line with cameras, the object motion will be reversed in each shot.

h e finishes the m o v e m e n t . Or, if y o u have t h e choice, y o u

W h e n w o r k i n g w i t h f o o t a g e in w h i c h t h e a c t i o n

can let h i m a l m o s t finish the a c t i o n o n t h e c l o s e - u p (even

has b e e n shot from b o t h sides of t h e m o t i o n vector line

if h e goes o u t of t h e frame t e m p o r a r i l y ) before c u t t i n g to

(resulting in a reversal of screen d i r e c t i o n s ) , y o u m u s t

t h e w i d e r shot. But d o n o t wait until h e h a s finished get-

separate t h e t w o shots w i t h a cutaway o r a h e a d - o n s h o t

ting u p before going to the w i d e r shot.

so t h a t t h e reversed screen direction c a n b e perceived as

Wl%[•">EDITING-*

Continuity-* cutting on motion

c o n t i n u i n g , SEE

13.34

If o n e s h o t c o n t a i n s a m o v i n g object, d o n o t follow it

O n e of t h e m o s t s e r i o u s c o n t i n u i t y p r o b l e m s

with a shot t h a t shows t h e object stationary. Similarly, if

o c c u r s w h e n colors in the s a m e scene d o n ' t m a t c h . For

you follow a m o v i n g object in o n e shot w i t h a c a m e r a p a n ,

e x a m p l e , if t h e script for an EFP calls for a n exterior M S

d o n o t c u t to a s t a t i o n a r y c a m e r a in the next shot. Equally

( m e d i u m s h o t ) of a w h i t e b u i l d i n g followed b y a n M S

j a r r i n g w o u l d b e a cut from a s t a t i o n a r y object to a m o v i n g

of s o m e b o d y walking t o t h e front of t h e s a m e b u i l d i n g ,

one.

it s h o u l d n o t s u d d e n l y t u r n b l u e . As o b v i o u s as such a

You n e e d t o have t h e subject or c a m e r a m o v e in b o t h

t h e p r e c e d i n g a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t shots.

13.34

discrepancy m a y be, color c o n t i n u i t y is n o t always easy

CUTAWAY

If you want to suggest continuing motion of two shots that show the objects converging, you need to insert a cutaway that has a neutral screen direction.

Section

13.2

Making

Editing

Decisions

317

t o m a i n t a i n , even if y o u are careful to w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e

casual o r flowing, dissolves are usually m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e

cameras for each n e w location a n d lighting situation. W h a t

t h a n h a r d cuts. B u t d o n o t be a slave to this c o n v e n t i o n .

c a n t h r o w y o u off are lighting c h a n g e s y o u m a y n o t n o t i c e

C u t t i n g " a r o u n d t h e b e a t " (slightly earlier or later t h a n

in t h e fervor of p r o d u c t i o n . For e x a m p l e , t h e t e m p o r a r y

t h e beat) o n occasion can m a k e t h e c u t t i n g r h y t h m less

b l o c k i n g of t h e s u n by s o m e clouds can drastically influ­

m e c h a n i c a l a n d intensify t h e scene.

ence the color t e m p e r a t u r e , as can t h e highly p o l i s h e d red p a i n t of a car reflecting o n t o t h e white shirt of a p e r s o n s t a n d i n g next t o it.

COMPLEXITY EDITING Complexity

editing is a deliberate break w i t h editing con­

T h e m o r e a t t e n t i o n y o u pay t o w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g the

ventions to increase the complexity a n d intensity of a scene.

c a m e r a to the prevailing color t e m p e r a t u r e of the lighting,

Your selection a n d s e q u e n c i n g of shots is g u i d e d n o longer

t h e easier it is t o m a i n t a i n color c o n t i n u i t y in p o s t p r o d u c ­

by t h e n e e d to m a i n t a i n visual a n d aural c o n t i n u i t y b u t by

t i o n . As m e n t i o n e d before, any t y p e of color c o r r e c t i o n in

ways of getting a n d keeping t h e viewers' a t t e n t i o n a n d in­

p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is difficult a n d t i m e - c o n s u m i n g .

creasing their e m o t i o n a l involvement. C o m p l e x i t y editing does n o t m e a n t h a t y o u s h o u l d flaunt t h e rules of c o n t i n u ­

W h e n editing dialogue or c o m m e n t a r y , take extra care to preserve t h e general r h y t h m of the speech.

ity editing b u t r a t h e r that y o u m a y deliberately break s o m e of t h e m to intensify y o u r c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t e n t .

T h e pauses b e t w e e n shots of a c o n t i n u i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n

M a n y c o m m e r c i a l s use c o m p l e x i t y editing to m a k e

should be neither m u c h shorter n o r m u c h longer than

us sit u p a n d take n o t i c e . Even t h e j u m p cut h a s gained

t h e o n e s in t h e u n e d i t e d version. In a n i n t e r v i e w t h e c u t

p r o m i n e n c e as a n aesthetic intensifier. You have u n d o u b t ­

(edit or switcher-activated) usually occurs at t h e e n d of a

edly seen t h e erratic editing that makes a p e r s o n j u m p from

q u e s t i o n or an answer. Reaction shots, however, are often

o n e screen location to the next, even w h e n h e is only talking

s m o o t h e r w h e n t h e y o c c u r d u r i n g , r a t h e r t h a n at t h e e n d

a b o u t t h e v i r t u e s of a credit card. M u c h of m u s i c televi­

of, p h r a s e s or sentences. But n o t e t h a t action is generally a

sion ( M T V ) editing is based o n t h e c o m p l e x i t y principle.

s t r o n g e r m o t i v a t i o n for a c u t t h a n dialogue. If s o m e b o d y

A l t h o u g h h a r d l y necessary, t h e j a r r i n g d i s c o n t i n u i t y of

m o v e s d u r i n g the conversation, y o u m u s t cut o n t h e m o v e ,

s h o t s further intensifies t h e high e n e r g y of t h e m u s i c .

even if t h e o t h e r p e r s o n is still in t h e m i d d l e of a s t a t e m e n t . E J H S ^ E D I T I N G - * Continuity^ sound

C o m p l e x i t y e d i t i n g is also an effective intensification device in television plays. For e x a m p l e , t o c a p t u r e t h e

As discussed in c h a p t e r 10, a m b i e n t ( b a c k g r o u n d )

e x t r e m e confusion of a p e r s o n driven to the p o i n t of a

s o u n d s are very i m p o r t a n t in m a i n t a i n i n g editing c o n t i n u ­

b r e a k d o w n , y o u m a y w a n t to cross t h e vector line with t h e

ity. If the b a c k g r o u n d noise acts as e n v i r o n m e n t a l s o u n d s ,

c a m e r a s to s h o w t h e p e r s o n in a q u i c k series of flip-flop

w h i c h give clues to w h e r e t h e event takes place, y o u n e e d

S h o t s . SEE 13.35

to m a i n t a i n these s o u n d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e scene, even if it was built from shots actually t a k e n from different angles

CONTEXT

a n d at different times. You m a y have to supply this c o n t i n u ­

E N Q w In all types of editing, b u t especially w h e n editing

ity b y m i x i n g in a d d i t i o n a l s o u n d s in t h e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n

E FP

sweetening sessions.

t h e t r u e context in w h i c h t h e m a i n event t o o k place. As­

W h e n editing video to m u s i c , t r y to cut w i t h t h e beat.

news stories a n d d o c u m e n t a r i e s , y o u m u s t preserve

s u m e t h a t t h e n e w s footage of a speech by a local political

C u t s d e t e r m i n e t h e beat of the visual s e q u e n c e a n d keep

c a n d i d a t e c o n t a i n s a funny c l o s e - u p of an a u d i e n c e m e m ­

t h e a c t i o n r h y t h m i c a l l y tight, m u c h as t h e bars m e a s u r e

b e r s o u n d asleep. But w h e n y o u screen t h e rest of t h e foot­

divisions in m u s i c . If t h e general r h y t h m of t h e m u s i c is

age, y o u discover t h a t all t h e o t h e r a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s were

13.35

COMPLEXITY EDITING

Here the shooting from both sides of the vector line creates a disturbing flip-flop, intensifying the subject's confusion.

318

Chapter

13

not only wide awake but quite stimulated by the candidate's r e m a r k s . Are y o u going t o use t h e close-up? Of course not. T h e p e r s o n asleep was in n o way representative of t h e over­ all context in w h i c h t h e e v e n t — t h e s p e e c h — t o o k place. You m u s t be especially careful w h e n using stock shots in editing. A stock shot depicts a c o m m o n o c c u r r e n c e — clouds, beach scenes, s n o w falling, traffic, c r o w d s — t h a t can be applied in a variety of contexts because its qualities are typical. S o m e television stations either subscribe to a stock-shot library or m a i n t a i n their o w n collections. H e r e are t w o examples of using stock shots in editing: W h e n editing t h e speech by t h e political c a n d i d a t e , y o u find t h a t you n e e d a cutaway to m a i n t a i n c o n t i n u i t y d u r ­ ing a change in screen direction. You have a stock shot of a news p h o t o g r a p h e r . C a n you use it? Yes, because a news p h o t o g r a p h e r certainly fits into the actual event context. But s h o u l d y o u use a stock s h o t of t h e a u d i e n c e happily clapping after t h e c a n d i d a t e reads t h e g r i m statistics of Labor Day traffic accidents, just to preserve visual c o n t i n u ­ ity? Definitely not. T h e smiling faces of t h e a u d i e n c e are certainly o u t of place in this context.

ETHICS Because as e d i t o r y o u have even m o r e p o w e r t h a n t h e c a m e r a p e r s o n over w h a t a n d w h a t n o t t o s h o w a n d to construct different m e a n i n g s of the basic event footage, this section ends with a brief discussion of ethics, or principles of right c o n d u c t . T h e willful d i s t o r t i o n of an event t h r o u g h editing is n o t a case of p o o r aesthetic j u d g m e n t b u t a q u e s t i o n of ethics. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e for t h e editor, as for all p r o d u c t i o n people w o r k i n g w i t h t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of nonfictional events (news a n d d o c u m e n t a r i e s r a t h e r t h a n d r a m a ) , is to r e m a i n as t r u e to t h e actual event as possible. For example, if you were to a d d applause simply because y o u r favorite political c a n d i d a t e said s o m e t h i n g y o u h a p ­ p e n t o s u p p o r t , a l t h o u g h in reality there was d e a d silence, you w o u l d definitely be acting unethically. It w o u l d b e

POSTPRODUCTION

EDITING

equally wrong t o edit out all the s t a t e m e n t s t h a t go against y o u r convictions a n d leave o n l y t h e o n e s w i t h w h i c h you agree. If s o m e o n e presents p r o a n d con a r g u m e n t s , be sure to p r e s e n t t h e m o s t representative of each. D o n o t edit o u t all of o n e side or the o t h e r to m e e t t h e p r e s c r i b e d length of t h e segment. Be especially careful w h e n j u x t a p o s i n g two shots t h a t m a y generate b y i m p l i c a t i o n a t h i r d idea n o t c o n t a i n e d in either of t h e t w o shots. To follow a politician's plea for i n ­ creased a r m a m e n t s w i t h t h e explosion of an a t o m i c b o m b m a y unfairly i m p l y t h a t this politician favors n u c l e a r war. These types of m o n t a g e shots are as powerful as they are d a n g e r o u s . M o n t a g e effects b e t w e e n v i d e o a n d a u d i o i n ­ f o r m a t i o n are especially effective; they m a y be m o r e subtle t h a n t h e v i d e o - o n l y m o n t a g e s b u t are n o less p o t e n t . For example, a d d i n g t h e p e n e t r a t i n g a n d aggravating s o u n d s of police sirens to t h e footage of "for sale" signs of several h o u s e s in a wealthy n e i g h b o r h o o d w o u l d p r o b a b l y sug­ gest t h a t t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d is c h a n g i n g for t h e worse. T h e implied message is t o n o t b u y any h o u s e s in this " c r i m e ridden" neighborhood. D o n o t stage events just t o get exciting footage. For e x a m p l e , if a police officer has m a d e a successful rescue a n d all you got was t h e rescued p e r s o n o n a stretcher, d o n o t ask t h e officer to r e t u r n t o the scene of t h e accident to s i m u l a t e t h e d a r i n g feat. A l t h o u g h r e e n a c t m e n t s of this sort have b e c o m e r o u t i n e for s o m e E N G teams, stay away from t h e m . T h e r e is e n o u g h d r a m a in all events if you look closely e n o u g h a n d take effective pictures. You d o n o t have to stage anything. Finally, y o u are ultimately responsible to t h e viewers for y o u r choices as an editor. D o n o t violate the trust t h e y p u t in you. As you can see, t h e r e is a fine line b e t w e e n in­ tensifying an event t h r o u g h careful editing practices a n d d i s t o r t i n g an event t h r o u g h careless o r u n e t h i c a l o n e s . T h e o n l y safeguard t h e viewers have against irresponsible p e r s u a s i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n is y o u r responsibility as a professional c o m m u n i c a t o r a n d y o u r basic respect for y o u r audience.

Section

•

•

13.2

The four basic editing functions are: (1) to combine—to hook various videotaped pieces together pretty much in the sequence in which they were videotaped; (2) to shorten—to make the program fit a given time slot and to eliminate extraneous material; (3) to correct—to cut out bad portions of a scene and replace them with good ones; and (4) to build—to select and sequence shots that will advance a specific story. There are four basic transition devices: (1) the cut—an instantaneous change from one shot to another; (2) the dissolve—a temporary overlapping of two shots; (3) the wipe—having one image gradually replace another in various ways; and (4) the fade—having the picture gradually appear from black or go to black.

Making

Editing

319

Decisions

For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. EDITING-* Editing introduction

284

EDITING-* Linear editing-} system

290

EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-* tape basics 292 EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-* time code 293 EDITINGS Nonlinear editings system EDITINGS Production guidelines-* pickup

•

There is a great variety of special effects that also can be used for transitions.

•

The three major editing principles are continuity, complexity, and maintaining context.

300

EDITING-* Production guidelines-* cutaways

300

EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-*

•

•

•

•

Continuity editing means to establish continuity in subject identification, subject placement, movement, color, and sound. It should facilitate the viewer's mental map of where things are or should be or where they should move. Graphic, index, and motion vectors are pictorial forces that play an important part in establishing and maintaining continuity from shot to shot. Complexity editing is a deliberate break with editing conventions to increase the complexity and intensity of a scene. In editing nonfiction, ethics becomes the overriding editing principle.

VTR log

303

EDITING-} Continuity^ vectors EDITING-} Continuity-} quiz

303 304

EDITING-* Linear editing-* paper edit

304

EDITING-} Functions-* select | combine | condense | correct | try it 309 SWITCHINGS Transitions^ fade | try it EDITING-* Continuity-* subject ID

310 312

EDITINGS Continuity-* mental map | try it

314

EDITING-* Continuity-* cutting on motion

316

EDITING-} Continuity^ sound

317

Effects Even n e w s presentations are so loaded with video special effects that they often rival, if not surpass, the latest v i d e o games. Titles d a n c e across the screen, c h a n g e color, a n d z o o m in a n d out. N e w s anchors, field reporters, and guests are squeezed into side-byside boxes w h e n talking to o n e another. The brief stories that introduce the latest trou­ bles in this world often e n d in a freeze-frame a n d t h e n peel off the screen and t u m b l e out of sight to make room for the next batch of maladies.

The screen is often loaded with simultaneous information. W h i l e the anchor's c o m m e n t s a b o u t a tragic traffic accident are a c c o m p a n i e d by graphic v i d e o footage, the stock market quotes crawl across the b o t t o m of t h e screen, a n d the side panel reveals the latest sports scores a n d weather. T h r o u g h o u t it all, t h e station or network logo is solidly e m b e d d e d in a corner.

S u c h electronic wizardry is so readily available that it may t e m p t you to substitute effect for content. Do not fall into the trap of camouflaging insignificant content or poorly shot or edited pictures with electronic effects. As dazzling as the effects may be, they c a n n o t replace t h e basic message. W h e n used judiciously, however, many effects can e n h a n c e production considerably a n d give t h e message a d d e d impact.

W h e n e v e r you intend to use a visual effect, ask yourself: Is it really necessary? clarify and intensify

my message?

Is it appropriate?

Does it help

For example, a freeze-frame showing

t h e n e w tennis c h a m p i o n lifting her trophy in triumph is a perfectly appropriate closing shot; to apply t h e same technique to a victim of a terrorist b o m b i n g is not. If y o u can answer yes to these three basic questions, leave the effect in. If you answer no or even m a y b e to any of t h e m , leave it out.

In section 14.1, Electronic Effects a n d H o w to Use T h e m , w e examine standard electronic effects a n d digital video effects; section 14.2, Nonelectronic Effects a n d H o w to Use T h e m , looks at s o m e of t h e more practical optical a n d mechanical effects.

chroma keying Effect that uses color (usually blue or green) for the backdrop, which is replaced by the background image during a key.

key An electronic effect. Keying means cutting with an elec­ tronic signal one image (usually lettering) into a different background image.

computer-manipulated DVE Digital video effects created by a computer using an existing image (camera-generated video sequence, video frame, photo, or painting) and en­ hancing or changing it in some way.

matte key Keyed (electronically cut in) title whose letters are filled with shades of gray or a specific color.

defocus Simple yet highly effective optical effect wherein the camera operator zooms in, racks out of focus, and, on cue, back into focus again. Used as a transitional device or to indicate strong psychological disturbances or physiological imbalance. diffusion filter Filter that attaches to the front of the lens; gives a scene a soft, slightly out-of-focus look. digital video effects (DVE) Visual effects generated by a com­ puter or digital effects equipment in the switcher.

special-effects generator (SEG) An image generator built into the switcher that produces special-effects wipe patterns and key effects. star filter Filter that attaches to the front of the lens; changes prominent light sources into starlike light beams. super Short for superimposition. A double exposure of two images, with the top one letting the bottom one show through. wipe Transition in which a second image, framed in some geometric shape, gradually replaces all or part of the first image.

gobo In television, a scenic foreground piece through which the camera can shoot, thus integrating the decorative foreground with the background action. In film a gobo is an opaque shield used for partially blocking a light, or the metal cutout that projects a pattern on a flat surface.

321

14.1

SUPERIMPOSITION A superimposition,

or super for s h o r t , is a form of d o u b l e

e x p o s u r e . T h e p i c t u r e f r o m o n e v i d e o s o u r c e is elec­ tronically s u p e r i m p o s e d over t h e p i c t u r e from a n o t h e r . As explained in c h a p t e r 11, t h e s u p e r is easily achieved by activating b o t h m i x b u s e s w i t h t h e fader b a r (see

figure

11.9b). A distinct characteristic of a s u p e r is t h a t y o u can

Electronic Effects and

see t h r o u g h t h e s u p e r i m p o s e d i m a g e to t h e o n e that lies b e n e a t h it. You can t h e n v a r y t h e s t r e n g t h of either p i c t u r e

How to Use Them

(signal) b y m o v i n g t h e fader b a r t o w a r d o n e m i x b u s o r t h e other. I n case y o u c a n n o t key a title over a b a c k g r o u n d image, y o u c a n still use a super for the title effect. W h e n " s u p e r i n g " titles, o n e c a m e r a is focused o n t h e s u p e r card, w h i c h has white letters o n a black b a c k g r o u n d . T h e b a c k g r o u n d pic­ t u r e c a n be supplied b y either a n o t h e r c a m e r a (focused o n a live event, s u c h as a l o n g shot of a s p o r t s s t a d i u m ) or any o t h e r v i d e o source. Because t h e black card does n o t reflect any light, or o n l y an insignificant a m o u n t , it will r e m a i n invisible d u r i n g t h e m i x i n g of t h e t w o v i d e o sources. M o r e often supers are u s e d for creating t h e effects of i n n e r e v e n t s — t h o u g h t s , d r e a m s , o r processes of i m a g i n a ­ t i o n . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l (albeit overused) s u p e r of a d r e a m

A judicious use of visual effects p r e s u p p o s e s that y o u k n o w

s e q u e n c e shows a c l o s e - u p of a sleeping p e r s o n , with i m ­

which effects are available. S o m e effects c a n b e readily cre­

ages s u p e r i m p o s e d over his or h e r face. S o m e t i m e s supers

ated d u r i n g a p r o d u c t i o n , s u c h as title keys a n d v a r i o u s

are u s e d to m a k e an event m o r e c o m p l e x . For e x a m p l e ,

wipes; o t h e r s n e e d to b e built w i t h digital e q u i p m e n t in

y o u m a y w a n t to s u p e r a c l o s e - u p of a d a n c e r over a l o n g

t h e p r e - or p o s t p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e . This section discusses

shot of t h e s a m e dancer. If t h e effect is d o n e properly, w e

t h e t w o m a j o r t y p e s of visual effects.

are given n e w insight i n t o t h e d a n c e . You are n o l o n g e r p h o t o g r a p h i n g a dance b u t helping create it. M'i ^ S W I T C H ­

P-

STANDARD ANALOG VIDEO EFFECTS

ING-* Transitions-* mix/dissolve

Superimposition, key, chroma key, and wipe

fc-

DIGITAL VIDEO EFFECTS

KEY

Computer-manipulated effects; manipulation of image size, shape, light, and color; manipulation of motion; and manipu­ lation of multi-images.

Keying means using an electronic signal t o cut o u t p o r t i o n s of a television picture a n d fill t h e m in with various colors or p o r t i o n s of a n o t h e r image. T h e basic p u r p o s e of a key is to a d d titles to a b a c k g r o u n d picture or to cut a n o t h e r picture (the i m a g e of a weathercaster) into t h e b a c k g r o u n d p i c ­

STANDARD ANALOG VIDEO EFFECTS

t u r e ( t h e satellite w e a t h e r m a p ) . T h e lettering for t h e title

T h e special-effects

is generally s u p p l i e d b y a C.G. (character

generator

(SEG) is built into all p r o d u c ­

generator)

(see

t i o n switchers. It can p r o d u c e a dazzling variety of special

c h a p t e r 15). You can also use a title card for keying titles.

effects reliably a n d w i t h ease. M a n y electronic effects have

T h e card l o o k s exactly like t h e s u p e r card (white letters o n

b e c o m e so c o m m o n p l a c e in television p r o d u c t i o n t h a t they

a black b a c k g r o u n d ) , b u t in a key t h e letters are electroni­

have lost their specialty status a n d are s i m p l y c o n s i d e r e d

cally cut i n t o t h e base p i c t u r e a n d t h e n filled w i t h a w h i t e

p a r t of t h e s t a n d a r d visual arsenal. T h e s e i n c l u d e (1) t h e

or color signal, SEE 14.1 FCTf»SW[TCHING-» Effects^ keys

s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n , (2) t h e key, (3) t h e c h r o m a key, a n d

You m a y b e s o m e w h a t bewildered h e a r i n g a b o u t keys,

(4) t h e wipe. You can a c c o m p l i s h all of these effects w i t h

m a t t e s , a n d m a t t e keys—all seemingly referring to the s a m e

the s t a n d a r d analog switcher a n d its b u i l t - i n SEG.

t h i n g . It really doesn't m a t t e r w h a t t e r m y o u use, so l o n g

322

Section

14.1

Electronic

Effects

and

How

to Use

323

Them

as y o u are consistent a n d all m e m b e r s of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m k n o w w h a t y o u m e a n . T h e r e are basically t h r e e types of keys: (1) the internal key, (2) the external key, a n d (3) t h e m a t t e key. Because c h r o m a keying w o r k s o n a different principle, we discuss it separately later in this section. Internal key

T h e internal

key uses t w o s i g n a l s — o n e

supplies t h e b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e , a n d t h e o t h e r supplies t h e o u t l i n e for " c u t t i n g " ( t h e letters). T h e signal t h a t is d o i n g the c u t t i n g is also u s e d to fill t h e holes (in t h e f o r m of t h e letters), SEE 14.2 To achieve a clean key, in w h i c h t h e letters are cut i n t o t h e base p i c t u r e w i t h o u t any t e a r i n g or b r e a k u p , y o u

1 4 . 1 KEY

m a y have to first adjust t h e key-level

When keying a title over a base picture, the key signal cuts a hole into the base picture in the shape of the letters supplied by the C G .

(or clip) control a n d

t h e gain control (see c h a p t e r 11). O n o u r Grass Valley 100 switcher, t h e gain c o n t r o l is right above t h e clip c o n t r o l in t h e key c o n t r o l section (see figure 11.4). T h e clip c o n t r o l , o r clipper, adjusts t h e o p t i m a l l u m i n a n c e (brightness) level for t h e key signal, a n d the gain c o n t r o l adjusts t h e signal strength. B o t h have a n o p t i m a l setting for a clean, tear-free key. You c a n preset t h e key effect a n d t h e n w a t c h the p r e ­ view m o n i t o r to check that t h e key shows u p a n d w h e t h e r t h e letters are t e a r i n g or o t h e r w i s e displaying fuzzy edges. Simply t u r n t h e clipper k n o b until t h e letters a p p e a r s h a r p . If this m a n e u v e r d o e s n o t fix t h e p r o b l e m , adjust t h e gain c o n t r o l . O n m a n y switchers with downstream

keyers, y o u

c a n p u s h d o w n t h e key-level c o n t r o l to display t h e total key effect o n t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r . You can, of course, also key shapes of objects i n t o t h e base p i c t u r e so l o n g as t h e y have e n o u g h c o n t r a s t relative t o t h e base picture t h a t t h e i r edges d o n o t tear. External key

T h e external

key uses t h r e e signals: t h e

Background signal (base picture)

b a c k g r o u n d signal, t h e h o l e - c u t t i n g signal, a n d a t h i r d

Key signal cuts hole and fills it

signal, often called t h e f o r e g r o u n d signal, w h i c h is filling t h e hole. This t h i r d video source c a n b e colors f r o m the C.G., a V T R ( v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r ) , o r even a second c a m ­ era ( a s s u m i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d v i d e o is also supplied by a c a m e r a ) . For e x a m p l e , if y o u w a n t to key t h e character-

1 4 . 2 INTERNAL KEY In an internal key, the signal that is doing the cutting is also used to fill in the hole.

g e n e r a t e d letter L over a dancer, a n d y o u w a n t to fill t h e L with b u r l a p to give it s o m e texture, y o u could have a second c a m e r a focus o n a piece of b u r l a p a n d t h e n c o m b i n e t h e effect t h r o u g h external keying so t h a t t h e letter a p p e a r s as

o r e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h c o n t o u r s o r s h a d o w s , it is a

t h o u g h it were cut o u t of b u r l a p , SEE 14.3 You could also

key.

matte

SEE 14.4 You c a n select any of t h e p o p u l a r m a t t e key

fill t h e letter, or a n y o t h e r base p i c t u r e c u t o u t , w i t h a n

m o d e s : t h e edge m o d e , t h e d r o p - s h a d o w m o d e , o r t h e

a n i m a t e d scene.

outline mode. In t h e edge mode, each letter h a s a t h i n , black o u t l i n e

If t h e c u t o u t p o r t i o n s of the title are filled w i t h v a r i o u s grays o r c o l o r s g e n e r a t e d b y t h e s w i t c h e r

a r o u n d it. SEE 14.5 In t h e drop-shadow

mode, t h e letters

have a b l a c k s h a d o w c o n t o u r t h a t m a k e s t h e m a p p e a r

324

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14

VISUAL

EFFECTS

14.3 EXTERNAL KEY In this example the letter L is supplied by the C G . and keyed into the camera 1 video (base picture of the dancer). Camera 2 is focused on the burlap and supplies the external signal that fills the cutout letters.

t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l , SEE 14.6 In t h e outline mode, t h e letters

Because t h e c h r o m a key r e s p o n d s to t h e hue of t h e

themselves a p p e a r in o u t l i n e f o r m , w i t h t h e base p i c t u r e

b a c k d r o p r a t h e r t h a n to t h e brightness

filling t h e inside, SEE 14.7

trast as in a regular key, b e sure t h a t t h e c h r o m a - k e y area

M o s t s w i t c h e r s allow y o u to c h o o s e t h e key m o d e

(luminance) con­

is p a i n t e d u n i f o r m l y (even b l u e or green w i t h a fairly h i g h

t h a t will m a k e t h e titles l o o k attractive or p r e v e n t t h e m

s a t u r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e a r e a ) a n d especially evenly

from getting lost in a b u s y b a c k g r o u n d . S o m e keys are

lighted. U n e v e n b a c k g r o u n d lighting will p r e v e n t a full

s e m i t r a n s p a r e n t a n d let t h e b a c k g r o u n d s h o w t h r o u g h ,

r e p l a c e m e n t of t h e b l u e or green b a c k d r o p by t h e b a c k ­

similar to a super. T h i s effect is a favorite t e c h n i q u e for

g r o u n d video or cause t h e f o r e g r o u n d i m a g e to tear.

displaying statistics while still letting y o u see the full-screen

If the o n - c a m e r a talent wears s o m e t h i n g similar to t h e

b a c k g r o u n d action.

b a c k d r o p color, such as a b l u e sweater, while s t a n d i n g in

C H R O M A KEY

will also b e replaced b y t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e d u r i n g t h e

Chroma

key. Unless y o u w a n t t o shock y o u r a u d i e n c e w i t h a special

front of t h e b l u e c h r o m a - k e y area, t h e b l u e of t h e sweater keying is a special effect t h a t uses a specific color

( c h r o m a ) , usually b l u e or green, as t h e b a c k d r o p for t h e

effect in w h i c h p a r t of t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r d i s a p p e a r s , d o n ' t

p e r s o n or object that is to a p p e a r in front of t h e b a c k ­

let h i m or h e r w e a r a n y t h i n g b l u e in front of t h e b l u e

g r o u n d scene. D u r i n g t h e key t h e blue o r green b a c k d r o p

c h r o m a - k e y set. If t h e talent likes to w e a r blue, use green

will b e replaced by t h e b a c k g r o u n d v i d e o source w i t h o u t

as t h e b a c k d r o p color.

affecting t h e f o r e g r o u n d object. A typical e x a m p l e is t h e

Even blue eyes can present a p r o b l e m d u r i n g close-ups

w e a t h e r c a s t e r s t a n d i n g in front of a w e a t h e r m a p o r a

in c h r o m a keying, a l t h o u g h , fortunately, m o s t b l u e eyes

satellite p i c t u r e . D u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key, t h e c o m p u t e r -

reflect or c o n t a i n e n o u g h o t h e r colors a n d are n o t s a t u ­

g e n e r a t e d w e a t h e r m a p or satellite i m a g e replaces all b l u e

r a t e d e n o u g h to k e e p t h e m f r o m b e c o m i n g t r a n s p a r e n t .

or green a r e a s — b u t n o t t h e weathercaster. T h e key effect

If t h e weathercaster s t a n d s t o o close t o t h e c h r o m a - k e y

m a k e s t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r a p p e a r to b e s t a n d i n g in front of

area, t h e reflections of t h e b l u e b a c k g r o u n d o n p a r t of

t h e w e a t h e r m a p or satellite image, SEE 14.8

his o r h e r c l o t h i n g or hair m a y cause t h e key to tear. Such

Section

14.4

14.1

Electronic

14.5

MATTE KEY

In a matte key, the cutout letter is filled with shades of gray or with a color supplied by the switcher or C.G.

14.6

MATTE KEY IN DROP-SHADOW MODE

and

How to Use

Them

325

MATTE KEY IN EDGE MODE

The edge mode matte key puts a black border around the letter to make it more readable than with the normal key.

1 4 . 7 MATTE KEY IN OUTLINE MODE

The drop-shadow matte key adds a prominent attached shadow to the letter as though a threedimensional letter were illuminated by a strong spotlight.

14.8

Effects

The outline matte key makes the letter appear in outline form. It shows only the contour of the letter.

CHROMA KEY EFFECT: WEATHERCAST

A In this chroma key, the weathercaster stands in front of a blue backdrop.

B During the key the blue backdrop is replaced by this computer-enhanced satellite photo.

C The weathercaster seems to be stand­ ing in front of the satellite photo.

326

Chapter

14

VISUAL

wanted t h e

EFFECTS

capture h e r against t h e

p r o b l e m s m a y also o c c u r especially if t h e lighting o n t h e

lar view, she

weathercaster has extremely fast falloff. T h e deep shadows,

w i n d o w . If t h e suggested lighting s o l u t i o n s d o n o t r e m e d y

w h i c h are apt to be seen as b l u e b y t h e c a m e r a , m a y cause

t h e lighting p r o b l e m s (silhouette effect, high color t e m ­

t h e i m a g e to tear d u r i n g t h e key.

p e r a t u r e ) , y o u can t r a n s p o r t h e r office i n t o t h e s t u d i o for

c a m e r a to

Recall t h a t y o u c a n c o u n t e r a c t this n u i s a n c e to s o m e

a c h r o m a - k e y effect. Set u p a similar desk a n d chair in t h e

extent by using light-yellow or a m b e r gels o n the back lights

s t u d i o in front of a b l u e c h r o m a - k e y b a c k d r o p . T h e n have

( n o t b a c k g r o u n d lights) because t h e yellow or a m b e r b a c k

a c a m e r a focus o n a p h o t o g r a p h of t h e spectacular view.

light neutralizes t h e b l u e s h a d o w s , t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g t h e

Use this c a m e r a to s u p p l y t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e d u r i n g

tearing. W h e n using green as t h e c h r o m a - k e y color, y o u

t h e key. Because t h e s t u d i o gives y o u s u c h g o o d lighting

need to use a light ( d e s a t u r a t e d ) m a g e n t a (bluish red) gel

c o n t r o l , y o u can m a k e t h e c h r o m a key look a l m o s t m o r e

to c o u n t e r a c t t h e green reflections.

realistic t h a n if y o u w e r e in h e r actual office, SEE 14.9

Studio use of chroma key

Despite the availability of

scenic b a c k g r o u n d s or e n v i r o n m e n t s . Assume, for example,

highly sophisticated digital video effects (DVE), t h e c h r o m a -

that y o u w o u l d like t o s h o w a t o u r i s t s h o o t i n g s o m e foot­

key process is used extensively in various studio p r o d u c t i o n

age of a m u s e u m . T h e m u s e u m b a c k g r o u n d is accessed

situations. T h e p r e v i o u s discussion focuses o n s o m e of t h e

f r o m an ESS "slide" (electronic still store f r a m e ) . C a m e r a

You can also use c h r o m a keying t o create a variety of

m o s t p o p u l a r uses of c h r o m a - k e y effects in weathercasts,

1 focuses o n t h e t o u r i s t w i t h his c a m c o r d e r , s t a n d i n g in

b u t t h e r e are o t h e r situations i n w h i c h c h r o m a keying is

front of a n evenly lighted, w e l l - s a t u r a t e d blue b a c k d r o p .

equally applicable a n d effective. Recall t h e lighting situa­

T h r o u g h c h r o m a keying, all t h e b l u e areas will b e replaced

t i o n discussed briefly in c h a p t e r 8: t h e C E O w a n t e d to give

b y t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e as p r o v i d e d by t h e ESS system,

h e r speech sitting b e h i n d h e r desk, w h i c h was in front of a

a n d t h e t o u r i s t will a p p e a r to b e s t a n d i n g in front of t h e

large picture w i n d o w . Because she is p r o u d of the spectacu­

m u s e u m . SEE 14.IO M'i*»SWITCHING-> Effects-* special effects

14.9

CHROMA-KEY EFFECT: WINDOW

A In this chroma key, a suitable back­ ground view is selected from the ESS (electronic still store) system.

14.10

B A studio camera focuses on the office set in front of a green chromakey backdrop.

C Through chroma keying there seems to be a picture window behind the CEO sitting at her desk.

CHROMA-KEY EFFECT: SIMULATED LOCATION

A The source for the background image is a video frame of the museum exterior from the ESS system.

B The studio camera focuses on the actor playing a tourist in front of a blue chroma-key backdrop.

C All blue areas are replaced by the back­ ground image; the tourist appears to be in front of the museum.

Section

Electronic

14.1

Ultimatte

T h e Ultimate

Effects

is a specific t y p e of b l u e -

screen ( c h r o m a ) keying. This system p r o d u c e s a crisp a n d

and

How

to Use

327

Them

t h e s t u d i o , with t h e r e m o t e feed ( l o n g shot of t h e football s t a d i u m ) serving as t h e c h r o m a - k e y b a c k g r o u n d .

highly stable key t h a t is h a r d t o distinguish from a n actual

If y o u d o t h e c h r o m a keying o n l o c a t i o n , w i t h the

f o r e g r o u n d / b a c k g r o u n d scene. It allows y o u to m i x fore­

talent s t a n d i n g o u t d o o r s , watch o u t for reflections from

g r o u n d a n d b a c k g r o u n d c a m e r a s so precisely so t h a t t h e

t h e sky. W i t h b l u e as the c h r o m a - k e y color, the b l u e re­

lighting a n d m o v e m e n t of f o r e g r o u n d are transferred to

flections from t h e sky m a y fool t h e c h r o m a keyer a n d let

t h e b a c k g r o u n d . For example, if t h e figure were to m o v e in

t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e s h i n e t h r o u g h , or at least cause t h e

front of t h e blue screen d u r i n g t h e key, the s h a d o w w o u l d

edges of the f o r e g r o u n d figure to b r e a k u p . To avoid such

also b e c o m e p a r t of the b a c k g r o u n d a n d m o v e across t h e

p r o b l e m s , switch to green for the c h r o m a - k e y color a n d

b a c k g r o u n d scene. S o m e c o m p l e x m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c ­

p u t t h e talent in front of a green cloth b a c k d r o p .


TELEVISION SCENERY

scenery are t h a t it is difficult t o h a n g pictures o n t h e flats,

Standard set units, hanging units, platforms and wagons, and set pieces

a n d t h e y often shake w h e n s o m e o n e closes a d o o r o r a w i n ­

PROPERTIES AND SET DRESSINGS Stage props, set dressings, hand properties, and the prop list

^

d o w o n t h e set o r w h e n s o m e t h i n g b r u s h e s against t h e m . Hardwall

flats a r e m u c h

sturdier

t h a n softwall flats a n d are preferred for m o r e - a m b i t i o u s

ELEMENTS OF SCENE DESIGN

television p r o d u c t i o n s . Hardwall scenery does have a

The floor plan, set backgrounds and platforms, and studio floor treatments

few d r a w b a c k s : h a r d w a l l u n i t s d o n o t always c o n f o r m t o t h e s t a n d a r d set d i m e n s i o n s o f softwall scenery, a n d t h e flats are heavy a n d difficult t o store. (In t h e interest

TELEVISION SCENERY

of y o u r — a n d t h e

flats'—well-being,

do n o t try to move

h a r d w a l l scenery b y yourself.) H a r d w a l l flats also reflect

Because t h e television c a m e r a looks at a set b o t h at close

s o u n d m o r e readily t h a n d o softwall flats, w h i c h c a n eas­

range a n d at a distance, scenery m u s t b e detailed e n o u g h

ily interfere w i t h g o o d a u d i o p i c k u p . For e x a m p l e , if a set

to a p p e a r realistic yet plain e n o u g h t o p r e v e n t cluttered

design requires t h a t t w o h a r d w a l l flats s t a n d o p p o s i t e a n d

p i c t u r e s . Regardless of w h e t h e r it's a s i m p l e i n t e r v i e w set

in close p r o x i m i t y t o each other, t h e talent o p e r a t i n g in this

355

356

15.25

Chapter

15

DESIGN

SOFTWALL FLATS

Softwall flats consist of a wood frame covered with muslin or canvas.

1 5 . 2 6 H A R D W A L L SET This set was constructed with hardwall flats for a specific television drama. Note the specific set props that give the set its character.

space will m o s t likely s o u n d as t h o u g h t h e y were speaking inside a barrel. Most hardwall scenery is built for specific s h o w s — s u c h

For small television stations or educational i n s t i t u t i o n s , w h e r e y o u d o n o t have t h e l u x u r y of b u i l d i n g n e w sets for every show, y o u m a y consider versatile set

as n e w s c a s t s , i n t e r v i e w a r e a s , a n d s o a p o p e r a s — a n d

m o d u l e s t h a t can be used in a variety of c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .

r e m a i n s set u p for t h e l e n g t h of t h e series. C a r e f u l l y

A set module is a series of flats a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l set

c o n s t r u c t e d h a r d w a l l scenery is a m u s t for H D T V or a n y

pieces w h o s e d i m e n s i o n s m a t c h , w h e t h e r t h e y are u s e d

o t h e r form of digital television that h a s a h i g h e r p i c t u r e

vertically (right side u p ) , h o r i z o n t a l l y ( o n t h e i r sides), o r

r e s o l u t i o n t h a n STV. SEE 15.26

in v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s .

Section

Scenery

15.2

and

357

Props

15.27 MUSLIN CYCLORAMA The muslin eye runs on over­ head tracks and normally cov­ ers three sides of the studio.

For e x a m p l e , y o u m i g h t use a m o d u l a r h a r d w a l l set piece as a flat in o n e p r o d u c t i o n a n d as a p l a t f o r m in the next. O r y o u can d i s m a n t l e a m o d u l a r desk a n d use t h e boxes ( r e p r e s e n t i n g the drawers) a n d t h e t o p as display u n i t s . A w i d e v a r i e t y of set m o d u l e s is c o m m e r c i a l l y available.

HANGING UNITS W h e r e a s flats s t a n d o n t h e s t u d i o floor, hanging

units are

s u p p o r t e d from overhead tracks, t h e lighting grid, o r light­ ing b a t t e n s . T h e y i n c l u d e (1) t h e cyclorama, (2) d r o p s , a n d (3) d r a p e s a n d c u r t a i n s .

Cyclorama cyclorama,

T h e m o s t versatile h a n g i n g b a c k g r o u n d is a

or eye, a c o n t i n u o u s piece of m u s l i n or canvas

stretched a l o n g t w o , t h r e e , a n d s o m e t i m e s even all four s t u d i o walls, SEE 15.27 S o m e eyes have o n a s e c o n d t r a c k a c u r t a i n of loosely w o v e n material, called a scrim, h a n g i n g in front of t h e m t o b r e a k t h e light before it hits t h e eye, p r o d u c i n g a soft, u n i f o r m b a c k g r o u n d . A fairly light color (light gray or beige) is m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s t h a n a d a r k eye. You c a n always m a k e a light eye d a r k b y k e e p i n g the light off it, a n d y o u can colorize it easily u s i n g floodlights (scoops o r softlights) w i t h color gels attached. A d a r k eye will let y o u d o neither. S o m e s t u d i o s have h a r d w a l l eyes,

15.28

w h i c h are n o t actually h a n g i n g u n i t s b u t are built solidly

The hardwall eye is made of hardwall material and is perma­ nently installed on one or two sides of the studio.

against t h e s t u d i o wall, SEE 15.28 M o s t s t u d i o s use a ground

row t o b l e n d t h e b o t t o m

edge of t h e m u s l i n eye i n t o t h e s t u d i o floor, SEE 15.29

HARDWALL CYC

358

Chapter

15

DESIGN

15.30

SEAMLESS PAPER DROP

A simple yet effective backdrop can be constructed by hanging a roll of seamless paper from a row of flats.

15.29

GROUND ROW

The ground row runs along the bottom of the eye to make it blend into the studio floor.

PLATFORMS AND WAGONS T h e v a r i o u s t y p e s of p l a t f o r m s are e l e v a t i o n d e v i c e s . Typical p l a t f o r m s are 6 o r 12 inches ( r o u g h l y 15 or 30

A drop is a w i d e roll of canvas w i t h a b a c k g r o u n d

centimeters) high a n d can be stacked. S o m e t i m e s the w h o l e

scene p a i n t e d o n it. It c o m m o n l y serves stylized settings

p l a t f o r m is called a riser, a l t h o u g h technically a riser is

w h e r e t h e viewer is aware t h a t t h e a c t i o n o c c u r s in a n

only t h e elevation p a r t of t h e p l a t f o r m w i t h o u t its (often

artificial setting. S o m e d r o p s consist of large p h o t o m u r a l s

r e m o v a b l e ) t o p . If y o u use a p l a t f o r m for interviews, for

( w h i c h are c o m m e r c i a l l y available) for m o r e - r e a l i s t i c

e x a m p l e , y o u m a y w a n t to cover it w i t h c a r p e t i n g . This cover n o t only will l o o k g o o d o n c a m e r a b u t will also a b ­

b a c k g r o u n d effects. drop is a w i d e roll of c h r o m a - k e y b l u e

s o r b t h e h o l l o w s o u n d s of p e o p l e m o v i n g o n the p l a t f o r m .

or green cloth t h a t can b e p u l l e d d o w n a n d even s t r e t c h e d

You c a n f u r t h e r d a m p e n this s o u n d by filling t h e p l a t f o r m

over p a r t of t h e s t u d i o floor for c h r o m a keying.

interior with foam rubber.

A chroma-key

You can m a k e a simple a n d inexpensive d r o p by s u s ­

S o m e of t h e 6 - i n c h p l a t f o r m s have four casters so

p e n d i n g a roll of seamless p a p e r (9 feet w i d e b y 36 feet

that t h e y can b e m o v e d a r o u n d . Such p l a t f o r m s are called

l o n g ) , w h i c h c o m e s in a variety of colors. Seamless p a p e r

wagons. You c a n m o u n t a p o r t i o n of a set, or even a w h o l e

h u n g from a r o w of flats p r o v i d e s a c o n t i n u o u s cyclike

set, o n a series of w a g o n s a n d , if the d o o r s are big e n o u g h ,

b a c k g r o u n d . Simply roll it sideways a n d staple t h e t o p edge

m o v e these sections w i t h relative ease in a n d o u t of t h e

to the flats. You can p a i n t it for a m o r e detailed b a c k g r o u n d

studio. O n c e in place, w a g o n s s h o u l d b e secured w i t h w o o d

or use it for a cookie projection, SEE 15.30

wedges a n d / o r s a n d b a g s so t h e y d o n o t m o v e u n e x p e c t ­ edly. SEE 15.31

Stay away f r o m overly detailed

L a r g e r r i s e r s a n d h a r d w a l l s c e n e r y are often s u p ­

p a t t e r n s or fine stripes w h e n c h o o s i n g d r a p e s . Unless y o u

p o r t e d b y a slotted-steel f r a m e , w h i c h w o r k s like a big

s h o o t w i t h H D T V c a m e r a s , fine p a t t e r n s t e n d t o l o o k

erector set. You can c u t t h e v a r i o u s slotted-steel pieces t o

smudgy, a n d c o n t r a s t i n g stripes often cause moire interfer­

any length a n d bolt t h e m t o g e t h e r in a n y configuration.

Drapes and curtains

ence. D r a p e s are usually stapled to 1 x 3 b a t t e n s a n d h u n g

Slotted steel h a s several advantages: it is d u r a b l e a n d rela­

from t h e tops of t h e flats. M o s t c u r t a i n s s h o u l d b e t r a n s ­

tively lightweight, a n d it allows easy d i s m a n t l i n g of scenic

l u c e n t e n o u g h to let t h e back light c o m e t h r o u g h w i t h o u t

p i e c e s — a n i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e n storage space is

revealing scenic pieces that m a y b e in b a c k of t h e set.

at a p r e m i u m .

Section

15.2

15.31

Scenery

and

Props

359

PLATFORMS AND WAGONS

Platforms are usually 6 or 12 inches high. When equipped with sturdy casters, they are called wagons.

15.32

SET PIECES

Set pieces are freestanding scenic elements that roll on casters for quick and easy repositioning.

SET

PIECES

y o u can c h a n g e t h e neutral yellow b a c k g r o u n d to any scene

Set pieces are i m p o r t a n t scenic e l e m e n t s . T h e y consist of

b y swiveling t h e p e r i a k t o s to t h e c h r o m a b l u e side while

f r e e s t a n d i n g t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l objects, s u c h as pillars,

c h r o m a - k e y i n g a specific b a c k g r o u n d scene, SEE

pylons

15.32

(which l o o k like t h i n , t h r e e - s i d e d pillars), sweeps

T h e r e are n u m e r o u s a d v a n t a g e s to u s i n g set pieces:

( c u r v e d pieces of s c e n e r y ) , f o l d i n g s c r e e n s , steps, a n d

y o u can m o v e t h e m easily, they are self-supporting, a n d

periaktoi,

three-sided standing unit

t h e y quickly a n d easily establish t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l space.

t h a t looks like a large p y l o n . M o s t p e r i a k t o i m o v e a n d

A l t h o u g h set pieces are freestanding a n d s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g

p l u r a l for periaktos—a

swivel o n casters a n d are p a i n t e d differently o n each side

( w h i c h are, after all, their m a j o r a d v a n t a g e s ) , always check

t o allow for q u i c k scene changes. For e x a m p l e , if o n e side

w h e t h e r t h e y n e e d a d d i t i o n a l b r a c i n g . At a m i n i m u m they

is p a i n t e d a w a r m yellow a n d t h e o t h e r a c h r o m a - k e y b l u e ,

m u s t b e able t o w i t h s t a n d b u m p s by p e o p l e o r c a m e r a s .

360

Chapter

15

DESIGN

As a general rule, it is always better to overbrace t h a n to

silverware, telephones, radios, a n d d e s k t o p computers.

u n d e r b r a c e a set. As in all o t h e r aspects of television p r o ­

In television t h e h a n d p r o p s m u s t b e realistic: use o n l y real objects. A p a p i e r - m a c h e chalice m a y l o o k regal a n d impressive o n stage, b u t o n t h e television screen it looks d i s h o n e s t if n o t ridiculous. Television is very d e p e n d e n t o n h u m a n action. T h i n k of h a n d p r o p s as extensions of gestures. If y o u w a n t t h e actions to b e sincere a n d g e n u i n e , t h e extension of t h e m m u s t b e real as well. If a n actor is s u p p o s e d to c a r r y a heavy suitcase, m a k e sure t h e suitcase is actually heavy. P r e t e n d i n g t h a t it is heavy does n o t go over well o n television.

d u c t i o n , d o n o t forsake safety for convenience o r speed.

PROPERTIES AND SET DRESSINGS After having struggled w i t h softwall a n d h a r d w a l l scenery, you will find t h a t it is really t h e p r o p e r t i e s a n d t h e set dressings that give t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a specific l o o k a n d style. M u c h like d e c o r a t i n g y o u r r o o m , it is p r i m a r i l y t h e furniture a n d w h a t y o u h a n g o n t h e walls t h a t distinguish a particular e n v i r o n m e n t , rather t h a n the walls themselves. Because g o o d television has m o r e close-ups t h a n m e d i u m a n d l o n g shots, t h e t h r e e types of props—stage p r o p s , set dressings, a n d h a n d p r o p s — m u s t b e realistic e n o u g h t o w i t h s t a n d the close scrutiny of t h e c a m e r a .

STAGE PROPS Stage props i n c l u d e c o m m o n f u r n i t u r e a n d i t e m s c o n ­ s t r u c t e d for a specific p u r p o s e , such as news desks, p a n e l tables, a n d a variety of chairs. You s h o u l d also have e n o u g h furniture to create settings for a m o d e r n living r o o m , a study, a n office, a comfortable interview area, a n d p e r h a p s some type of o u t d o o r area with a patio table a n d chairs. For an interview set, relatively simple chairs are m o r e useful t h a n large, u p h o l s t e r e d ones. You d o n ' t w a n t t h e chairs t o take o n m o r e p r o m i n e n c e t h a n t h e people sitting i n t h e m . Try to get chairs a n d couches t h a t are n o t t o o low, so t h a t sitting a n d rising gracefully is n o t p r o b l e m a t i c , especially for tall people. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h stage p r o p s is finding a d e q u a t e storage space for t h e m . Store t h e heavier items o n t h e floor a n d t h e smaller p r o p s o n shelves. Always use a p r o p cart to t r a n s p o r t heavy i t e m s — i t will save y o u r b a c k a n d t h e stage p r o p s .

SET D R E S S I N G S Set dressings are a m a j o r factor in d e t e r m i n i n g the style a n d t h e character of a set. A l t h o u g h t h e flats m a y r e m a i n t h e s a m e from o n e s h o w to a n o t h e r , t h e dressings h e l p give each set individual character. T h e y i n c l u d e such items as draperies, pictures, l a m p s a n d chandeliers, fireplaces, flowerpots, plants, c a n d l e h o l d e r s , a n d sculptures. Second­ h a n d stores p r o v i d e a n u n l i m i t e d source for these things. In a n e m e r g e n c y y o u c a n always raid y o u r o w n office o r living q u a r t e r s .

HAND

PROPERTIES

Hand properties consist of all i t e m s t h a t are actually h a n ­ dled b y t h e p e r f o r m e r d u r i n g a show. T h e y i n c l u d e dishes,

If y o u m u s t use food, check carefully that it is fresh a n d t h a t t h e dishes a n d silverware are m e t i c u l o u s l y clean. L i q u o r is generally replaced b y water (for clear spirits), tea (for whiskey), or fruit juice (for r e d w i n e ) . W i t h all d u e respect for realism, such s u b s t i t u t i o n s are perfectly appropriate. As o b v i o u s as it s o u n d s , see to it t h a t h a n d p r o p s actu­ ally w o r k a n d t h a t t h e y are o n t h e set for t h e p e r f o r m e r s t o u s e . A missing p r o p or a bottle t h a t doesn't o p e n at t h e right t i m e m a y cause costly p r o d u c t i o n delays.

P R O P LIST I n s m a l l r o u t i n e p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e floor m a n a g e r o r a m e m b e r of t h e floor crew n o r m a l l y takes care of t h e p r o p s . M o r e - e l a b o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n s , however, have a p e r s o n as­ signed exclusively to t h e h a n d l i n g of p r o p s — t h e property manager. To p r o c u r e t h e various p r o p s a n d ensure that they are available at t h e c a m e r a rehearsal a n d t a p i n g sessions, y o u n e e d to p r e p a r e a prop list. S o m e p r o p p e o p l e divide t h e list into stage p r o p s , set dressings, a n d h a n d p r o p s , a l t h o u g h in m o s t cases the various types of p r o p s are c o m ­ b i n e d o n a single list, SEE 15.33 Always d o u b l e - c h e c k t h a t all t h e p r o p s m e n t i o n e d in t h e script a p p e a r o n t h e p r o p list a n d that t h e y are actually available for c a m e r a rehearsal a n d t a p i n g sessions. If y o u n e e d to strike t h e set a n d set it u p again for s u b s e q u e n t t a p i n g sessions, m a r k all t h e p r o p s a n d take several digital p h o t o s of t h e set before p u t t i n g t h e p r o p s away. This w a y y o u will have a n i n s t a n t record of w h a t p r o p s were used a n d w h e r e t h e y are i n t h e set. A missing p r o p , or o n e t h a t is placed in a different location for t h e next t a p i n g session can create a serious c o n t i n u i t y p r o b l e m for t h e editor. M o s t p r o d u c t i o n studios have a collection of s t a n d a r d p r o p s — v a s e s , plants, tablecloths, tables, chairs, couches, a n d so forth. Unless y o u d o p r o d u c t i o n s that need p r o p s o n a regular basis, such as a c o m e d y series o r d a y t i m e d r a m a , y o u can b o r r o w m o s t set a n d h a n d p r o p s w h e n n e e d e d . It is usually easier to find an office t h a t can b e s t r i p p e d of

Section

15.2

Scenery

and

Props

361

lawyer, y o u d o n ' t a u t o m a t i c a l l y have to set u p a typical lawyer's office c o m p l e t e w i t h a n t i q u e desk, leather chairs, five outside bushes

6' blue sofa

a n d law b o o k s in t h e b a c k g r o u n d . Ask a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of

t w o rubber plants

set of eight family photos

t h e i n t e r v i e w a n d its i n t e n d e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n objective.

potted palm

sunflower painting

Your design d e p e n d s o n t h e answers y o u get, such as: " T h e basic idea is to p r o b e the conscience a n d t h e feelings of

transparent curtains

Picasso print

low 8'cabinet

magazines

strategies. T h e viewer s h o u l d see i n t i m a t e close-ups of the

square end table

newspaper

guest d u r i n g m o s t of the interview." Does this i n t e r v i e w

small chest of drawers

books

require a n elaborate lawyer's set? N o t at all. C o n s i d e r i n g the

t w o bookcases

stereo

chair (with armrests)

tea set

blue wing chair

lamp for end table

coffee table

Indian sculpture

round end table

louvered screen

t h e defense lawyer r a t h e r t h a n h e a r a b o u t future defense

s h o o t i n g style t h a t includes a m a j o r i t y of tight close-ups, t w o c o m f o r t a b l e chairs in front of a s i m p l e b a c k g r o u n d will d o just fine. W h e n t h e s h o w is sketched o u t o n a fairly detailed storyboard,

y o u r set d e i g n is frequently p r e d e t e r m i n e d .

Nevertheless, speak to t h e p r o d u c e r a n d director if y o u t h i n k y o u have a m u c h b e t t e r idea. Let's n o w m o v e to t h e major elements of scene design:

15.33

PROP LIST

This prop list contains all set props, set dressings, and hand properties shown in the set in figure 15.35.

(1) t h e floor plan, (2) set b a c k g r o u n d s a n d p l a t f o r m s , a n d (3) s t u d i o floor t r e a t m e n t s . FLOOR

PLAN

A set design is d r a w n o n t h e floor plan pattern,

w h i c h is

its furniture for t h e p r o d u c t i o n day t h a n to b u y a n d store

literally a p l a n of t h e s t u d i o floor. It shows t h e floor area,

v a r i o u s office sets. If y o u d o an especially a m b i t i o u s p r o ­

t h e m a i n s t u d i o d o o r s , t h e location of the c o n t r o l r o o m ,

d u c t i o n , s u c h as a p e r i o d play, y o u can always call o n t h e

a n d t h e s t u d i o walls. T h e lighting g r i d or b a t t e n locations

t h e a t e r arts d e p a r t m e n t of a local college o r high school

are n o r m a l l y d r a w n o n t h e floor area to give a specific

o r r e n t t h e p r o p s from a c o m m e r c i a l c o m p a n y .

o r i e n t a t i o n p a t t e r n a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e sets c a n b e placed. In effect, t h e grid resembles t h e o r i e n t a t i o n squares

ELEMENTS OF SCENE DESIGN Before y o u design a set, y o u m u s t k n o w w h a t t h e s h o w is

of a city m a p . SEE 15.34 T h e c o m p l e t e d floor plan

should

convey e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e floor m a n a g e r a n d crew can p u t u p t h e set a n d dress it, even in t h e absence

all a b o u t . Talk to t h e director a b o u t his or h e r c o n c e p t for

of t h e director or set designer. You m a y find t h a t b o t h t h e

t h e show, even if it is a s i m p l e interview. You arrive at a

floor p l a n p a t t e r n a n d the finished floor p l a n t h a t shows

set design b y defining t h e necessary spatial e n v i r o n m e n t

t h e scenic design are called "floor plan."

for o p t i m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n b y c o p y i n g w h a t

T h e scale of t h e floor p l a n p a t t e r n varies, b u t it is

y o u see o n t h e air. For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y feel that t h e best

n o r m a l l y M inch = 1 foot. All scenery a n d set p r o p e r t i e s

w a y to i n f o r m viewers is n o t b y h a v i n g an a u t h o r i t a t i v e

are t h e n d r a w n o n t h e floor p l a n p a t t e r n in t h e p r o p e r

newscaster read stories from a pulpitlike c o n t r a p t i o n b u t

p o s i t i o n relative t o t h e s t u d i o walls a n d t h e lighting grid.

b y m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a s i n t o t h e n e w s r o o m itself a n d o u t

For s i m p l e setups y o u m a y n o t n e e d to d r a w t h e flats a n d

i n t o t h e street w h e r e events are h a p p e n i n g . If the s h o w is

t h e set p r o p e r t i e s to scale; y o u can a p p r o x i m a t e their size

i n t e n d e d t o b e s h o t w i t h a single c a m e r a for heavy p o s t -

a n d p l a c e m e n t relative to t h e grid, SEE 15.35

p r o d u c t i o n editing, it m a y b e easier to take t h e c a m e r a to

M o r e - e l a b o r a t e sets, however, r e q u i r e a floor p l a n

t h e street c o r n e r r a t h e r t h a n to re-create t h e street c o r n e r

t h a t , like a b l u e p r i n t for a h o u s e , is d r a w n precisely to

in t h e s t u d i o .

scale. Even if y o u d o n ' t have to d r a w a floor p l a n to scale,

But even if t h e s h o w is slated for t h e s t u d i o , y o u can

y o u are greatly aided if y o u use t e m p l a t e s t h a t have c u t o u t s

often s t r e a m l i n e t h e set design b y t a k i n g s o m e t i m e to

of s t a n d a r d furniture. T h e y n o r m a l l y c o m e in a scale of

discover j u s t w h a t t h e s h o w is all a b o u t . Try to visualize

Vi inch = 1 foot a n d are readily available in college b o o k ­

t h e entire s h o w in screen images a n d w o r k f r o m t h e r e . For

stores or a r t - s u p p l y stores. M o s t art directors use c o m p u t e r

e x a m p l e , even if t h e i n t e r v i e w guest is a f a m o u s defense

software t o m a k e floor p l a n s a n d set designs.

362

Chapter

15.34 FLOOR PLAN PATTERN The floor plan pattern shows the dimensions of the studio floor, which is further defined by the lighting grid or similar pattern. The set is drawn on this basic studio grid.

DESIGN

15

Control room door ~
PROCESS->

Effect-to-cause^

actual effect

ing activities, w h e r e a s o t h e r s leave s u c h responsibilities to t h e director. Nevertheless, y o u s h o u l d always b e available in case t h e e d i t o r or d i r e c t o r w a n t s y o u r advice a b o u t a

RECORDKEEPING

p a r t i c u l a r l y sensitive editing decision.

Each t i m e y o u finish a p r o d u c t i o n , file a cassette c o p y or

EVALUATION A N D FEEDBACK

s u c h archives as a " m o r g u e " — a r e s o u r c e a b o u t p e o p l e

If t h e p r o d u c t i o n is for a c o r p o r a t i o n or o t h e r n o n b r o a d -

a n d places t h a t m i g h t b e c o m e n e w s w o r t h y again. Such a

cast o r g a n i z a t i o n , a r r a n g e a viewing date for t h e client.

copy will also p r o t e c t y o u from u n r e a s o n a b l e claims by

In fact, y o u s h o u l d always s h o w t h e client t h e c o m p l e t e d

a n irate client.

D V D for archival p u r p o s e s . T h e news d e p a r t m e n t uses

off-line version of t h e p r o d u c t i o n before d o i n g a n y final

Besides t h e v i d e o t a p e copy of y o u r o n - l i n e p r o d u c ­

o n - l i n e editing. If y o u have t a k e n t h e effect-to-cause a p ­

tion, p u t t o g e t h e r a file t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e p e r t i n e n t p r e -

p r o a c h , t h e client w o u l d have b e e n c o n t i n u o u s l y involved

p r o d u c t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n , a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n records. At

in the p r o d u c t i o n a n d m o s t changes w o u l d have been m a d e

a m i n i m u m s u c h a file s h o u l d c o n t a i n : t h e final p r o g r a m

b y now. D o n ' t s h o w a half-finished editing version that,

p r o p o s a l , t h e b u d g e t , t h e t i m e line ( i n c l u d i n g rehearsals,

for e x a m p l e , lacks t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c . M o s t clients

crew calls, a n d so forth), facilities requests, the list of p r o ­

are n o t sufficiently sophisticated in p r o d u c t i o n to b e able

d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l , t h e list of talent, talent c o n t r a c t s a n d

t o m e n t a l l y fill in t h e m i s s i n g p a r t s . Your off-line editing

releases, v a r i o u s p e r m i t s , a n d t h e s h o o t i n g script. File a n d

s h o u l d b e as c o m p l e t e as possible. Still, the s h o w i n g of t h e

cross-reference it w i t h t h e v i d e o t a p e copy o r D V D so that

finished o n - l i n e version is n o t t h e t i m e to discover m a j o r

y o u have access t o b o t h w h e n n e e d e d .

p r o d u c t i o n mistakes. Regardless of w h a t y o u show, keep

As y o u r e m e m b e r f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of this chapter,

a n o p e n m i n d d u r i n g t h e " s c r e e n i n g " of y o u r off-line

p r o d u c i n g m e a n s m a n a g i n g ideas a n d coordinating people,

p r o d u c t i o n a n d listen carefully to t h e client's r e c o m m e n ­

e q u i p m e n t , activities, a n d d e t a i l s . A g a i n , t r i p l e - c h e c k

d a t i o n s for changes. D o n o t haggle w i t h t h e client a b o u t

everything. D o n ' t leave a n y t h i n g to c h a n c e . Finally, never

y o u r p r o d u c t i o n decisions. Have t h e director explain w h y a

breach t h e prevailing ethical s t a n d a r d s of society a n d the

scene was shot in a certain way or w h y s o m e of the original

t r u s t t h e a u d i e n c e h a s — a n d inevitably m u s t — p u t in you.

script h a d to b e c h a n g e d .

W h a t e v e r y o u d o , use as y o u r guideline a basic respect a n d

If t h e s h o w solicits viewer feedback ("Please call t h e 8 0 0 - n u m b e r or visit o u r W e b site"), see to it t h a t t h e feed­

c o m p a s s i o n for y o u r a u d i e n c e a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o a p p e a r in y o u r show.

406

Chapter

PRODUCING

17

major and minor expenses, unless they are absorbed by the overall operating budget. •

•

•

•

Producing means seeing to it that a worthwhile idea becomes a worthwhile television show. The producer man­ ages a great number of people and coordinates an even greater number of activities and production details. The effect-to-cause model starts with the basic idea, then defines the desired audience effect—the process message. The definition will determine the medium requirements: content elements, production elements, and people. The closer the actual process message (actual effect) matches the defined one, the more successful the communication. The program proposal normally contains the following minimum information: program or series title, objective, target audience, show treatment, production method, and tentative budget. The tripart budget is generally divided into preproduction, production, and postproduction costs. It must include all

•

The script is the most important preproduction element. It determines the entire production process.

•

Preproduction coordination involves selecting and contacting the production people, deciding on facilities and production locations, scheduling all production activities, and taking care of permits, clearances, publicity, and promotion.

•

During the production the producer acts as host, watches the production flow, and oversees the general quality of the show.

•

Postproduction activities include scheduling postproduc­ tion facilities and people, supervising the editing, a final evaluation of the program, handling solicited and unsolic­ ited feedback, and recordkeeping.

17.2

to p u t t i n g b a c k t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d filing t h e crew's l u n c h receipts. In s m a l l e r o p e r a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , t h e p r o d u c e r functions n o t only as the p r e p r o d u c t i o n organizer b u t also as t h e p r o d u c t i o n m a n a g e r of t h e v a r i o u s activities d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n day. In this case y o u n e e d to k n o w h o w to design a m a x i m a l l y efficient t i m e line, w h i c h will save n o t only t i m e a n d m o n e y b u t a l s o — a n d especially—energy.

Dealing with Schedules,

Even if y o u are n o t directly responsible for t h e d a y - t o - d a y

Legal Matters, and Ratings

m a x i m a l l y efficient.

t i m e line, y o u s h o u l d keep an eye o n it a n d see t h a t it is

T h e efficiency of t h e p r o d u c t i o n s c h e d u l e d e p e n d s to a large extent o n p r o p e r event sequencing.

For e x a m p l e , d o

n o t o r d e r a complicated o p e n i n g title sequence from the art d e p a r t m e n t if t h e writer is still struggling w i t h t h e script. N o r s h o u l d y o u a r g u e w i t h the director over t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s or n u m b e r of cameras before y o u have visited t h e r e m o t e location or seen a floor plan. E N Q K In EFP especially, t h e event s e q u e n c e s h o u l d b e d e E F P t e r m i n e d by p r o d u c t i o n requirements (location, w e a t h e r , sets, a n d t h e like) a n d n o t necessarily b y t h e scripted sequence. See w h i c h events can b e s c h e d u l e d t o ­ gether, s u c h as t h e o p e n i n g or closing of a show, o r o t h e r As a p r o d u c e r y o u n e e d s u c h specific p r o d u c t i o n skills as

widely s p r e a d scenes t h a t nevertheless play in t h e s a m e

d e s i g n i n g an efficient t i m e line a n d quickly accessing ac­

location. A l t h o u g h m o v i n g from set to set in a s t u d i o p r o ­

c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n . A l t h o u g h y o u m a y have t h e services

d u c t i o n as scripted m a y n o t cause t o o m a n y logistical p r o b ­

of a legal d e p a r t m e n t , y o u will inevitably have to deal w i t h

lems, unnecessarily c h a n g i n g locations in t h e field does.

b r o a d c a s t guilds a n d u n i o n s as well as copyrights a n d other

Establish a tentative schedule of events a n d t r y to fit

legal m a t t e r s . Finally, you m u s t b e c o n v e r s a n t in t h e r u d i ­

t h e m i n t o the p r o d u c t i o n schedule. Such a n event schedule

m e n t s of ratings.

will s h o w y o u n o t only h o w a single p r o d u c t i o n day s h o u l d progress b u t also t h e flow of a n entire p r o d u c t i o n series.

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TIMELINE

For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y find that w i t h only a few c h a n g e s of

The daily time line, event sequencing, and the produc­ tion schedule

set p r o p e r t i e s y o u can use a single set for t h e w h o l e series,

INFORMATION RESOURCES

a l t h o u g h t h e v a r i o u s shows m a y ultimately b e s h o w n in a

Local resources, computer databases, and basic reference books and directories

different sequence, SEE 17.7