The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales

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The Western fairy tale tradit from medieval to modern Edited by Jack Zipes 'authoritative

and fascinating'

lona

Opie

T H E O X F O R D C O M P A N I O N TO FAIRY TALES 'Professor Zipes and his team are . . . to be warmly congratulated on producing this rich hran-tuh of a hook—virtually every dip is a lucky one TLS 1

W h e r e d o fairy t a l e s c o m e f r o m ? W h y d o w e find t h e m s o e n c h a n t i n g ? W h a t is it a b o u t t h e m t h a t is s o m a g i c a l ? F r o m its o r i g i n s in t h e oral t r a d i t i o n to the m o d e r n m e t h o d s o f s t o r y t e l l i n g t h r o u g h film a n d t e l e v i s i o n , t h e fairy tale h a s a l w a y s h a d a p o w e r f u l grip over t h e c u l t u r a l i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e Western world. U n d e r the editorial g u i d a n c e o f J a c k Z i p e s , 6 7 e x p e r t c o n t r i b u t o r s from a r o u n d t h e w o r l d h a v e corme t o g e t h e r in this b e a u t i f u l l y i l l u s t r a t e d A—Z Companion

to c o m b i n e their i n s i g h t a n d e x p e r t i s e to e x p l o r e all a s p e c t s o f t h e

W e s t e r n fairy-tale t r a d i t i o n . T h e r e s u l t is a u n i q u e s y n t h e s i s o f k n o w l e d g e , f r o m A l i c e in W o n d e r l a n d to T o m T h u m b , f r o m G a b r i e l G a r c i a M a r q u e z to L o u i s a M a y A l c o t t , from C h a r l e s P e r r a u l t to A n g e l a C a r t e r , from H a n s C h r i s t i a n A n d e r s e n to Disney, m a k i n g this a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e a n d w i d e - r a n g i n g r e f e r e n c e work, e s s e n t i a l for a n y o n e w h o v a l u e s t h e tradition o f storytelling.

R E V I E W S OF T H E H A R D B A C K ' c o m p e l l i n g a n d e n c h a n t i n g ' Literary

Review

'Attractive, well w r i t t e n , a n d a p p r o a c h a b l e , this solid g u i d e to the world is w i t h o u t e q u a l ' Library

fairy-tale

Journal

Tf you p u r c h a s e only o n e r e f e r e n c e b o o k a b o u t the fairy-tale t r a d i t i o n this year, this s h o u l d b e it' The

Green Man

Review

'Packed with f a s c i n a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , a s s e m b l e d with i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d c a r e . . . helpful, r e l i a b l e , a n d full of f r e s h s u r p r i s e s a s a fairy g o d m o t h e r ' Christian

Science

Monitor

'An o u t s t a n d i n g b o o k '

Choice

C o v e r illustration: detail o f a n i l l u s t r a t i o n by E d m u n d D u l a c f r o m The Buried

Moon.

R e p r o d u c e d by p e r m i s s i o n o f H o d d e r a n d S t o u g h t o n L i m i t e d ; i l l u s t r a t i o n f r o m Arthur A Life with Illustration

Rackhatn:

by J a m e s H a m i l t o n © A r t h u r R a c k h a m E s t a t e ISBN

0-19-860509-9

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 9"780www.oup.com

£14.99 R R P

The Oxford Companion to

Tairy Tales

The Oxford Companion to

Tairy Taies Edited by Jack Zipes

OXiORD UNIVERSITY

PRESS

OXFORD U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford 0x2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sâo Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press 2000 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2000 First issued as an Oxford University Press paperback 2002 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data The Oxford companion to fairy tales / edited by Jack Zipes. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. 1. Fairy tales—History and criticism. I. Zipes, Jack David. PN3437.094 2002 398.2—dc21 2002072251 ISBN 0-19-860115-8 ISBN 0-19-860509-9 (pbk.) 3 5 7 9

10 8 6 4 2

Typeset by Tradespools Ltd Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by TJ. International Ltd Padstow, Cornwall

CONTENTS

List of Contributors

vii

Introduction

xv

A-Z ENTRIES

I

Bibliography

563

L I S T OF C O N T R I B U T O R S AAR AD AL ALL AMM AR AS AZ BH BKM CB CF CGS CLMF CM CS DH DJB DMT EMM EWH CA CD GF GRB HG HNBC IWA JAS JB JGH JMM JS JSN JZ

Amelia A. Rutledge Anne Duggan Alison Lurie Ann Lawson Lucas Anne-Marie Moscatelli Amy Ransom Anita Silvey Adrienne E. Zuerner Betsy Hearne Bettina Kummerling-Meibauer Cristina Bacchilega Carolina Fernandez Carole Silver Claire-Lise Malarte-Feldman Cheryl McMillan Caroline Schatke Donald Haase David J. Buch D. Maureen Thum Eva-Marie Metcalf Elizabeth Wanning Harries Gillian Avery Giuseppe Di Scipio Geoffrey Fenwick George R. Bodmer Harriet Goldberg H. Nicholls B. Clark Ian Wojcik-Andrews John Stephens Jeannine Blackwell Joan G. Haahr James M. McGlathery Jan Susina Judith S. Neaman Jack Zipes GENERAL

KD KNH KS LCS LS MBS MLE MN MNP MT NC NI NJW PAOB PF PFN PGS RAS RBB RD RF RM SB SCJ SR SS TAS TH THH TSH TW UM WC WM

Klaus Doderer Karen Nelson Hoyle Karen Seago Lewis C. Seifert Louisa Smith Mary Beth Stein Mary Louise Ennis Maria Nikolajeva Maria Nicolai Paynter Maria Tatar Nancy Canepa Niels Ingwersen Naomi J. Wood Patricia Anne Odber de Baubeta Philip Furia Peter F. Neumeyer P. G. Stanwood Richard A. Schindler Ruth B. Bottigheimer Robert Dunbar Richard Flynn Robyn McCallum Stephen Benson Shawn Jarvis Suzanne Rahn Sharon Scapple Terry Staples Tom Higgins Thomas H. Hoernigk Thomas S. Hischak Terri Windling Ulrich Marzolph William Crisman Wolfgang Mieder

EDITOR

has been Professor of German at the University of Minnesota since 1989. He is Editorial Consultant for Children's Literature Quarterly and General Editor of Garland's Studies in Children's Literature and Culture. His many books on fairy tales and associated subjects include Breaking the Spell: Radical Theories of Folk and Fairy Tales (1979), Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion (1983), Victorian Fairy Tales (1987), The Complete Fairy Tales of the Brothers Grimm (1987), The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World (1988), Beauties, Beasts, and Enchantment: Classic French Fairy Tales (1989), Spells of Enchantment: The Fairy Tales of Western Culture (1991), and The Fairy Tales of Hermann Hess (1995).

JACK ZIPES ( J Z ) ,

CONTRIBUTORS

NON-CONTRIBUTING EDITORS Professor of Cultural Studies and Comparative Literature at the University of Minnesota, is the author of The Sight and Sound: Music, Representation, and the History of the Body (1993) and Art and the Committed Eye (1999).

RICHARD LEPPERT ( R L ) ,

is Maître de Conférence at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, France. She is the author of L'Histoire des contes (1992).

CATHERINE V E L A Y - V A L L A N T I N ( C V - V ) ,

CONTRIBUTING EDITORS is a historian of children's literature, whose books include Childhood's Pattern (1975) and Behold the Child: American Children and their Books 1621—1922 (1994).

GILLIAN AVERY ( C A ) ,

is Professor of English at the University of Hawai'i at Manoa, and author of Postmodern Fairy Tales: Gender and Narrative Strategies (1997).

CRISTINA BACCHILECA ( C B ) ,

is Professor of German and Women's Studies at the University of Kentucky, and co-editor of the anthology Bitter Healing: German Women Writers iyoo—1840 (1990).

JEANNINE BLACKWELL ( J B ) ,

Adjunct Professor of Comparative Literature at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, is the editor of Fairy Tales and Society (1986) and the author of Grimms' Bad Girls and Bold Boys (1987).

RUTH B . BOTTIGHEIMER ( R B B ) ,

Associate Professor of French and Italian at Dartmouth College, is the editor of Out of the Woods: The Origins of the Literary Fairy Tale in Italy and France (1997) and author of From Court to Forest: Giambattista Basile's Lo cunto de li cunti' and the Birth of the Literary Fairy Tale (1999).

N A N C Y C A N E PA ( N C ) ,

is the founder and former director of the Institut fur Jugendbuchforschung at the Johann-Wolfgang-GoetheUniversitàt in Frankfurt am Main. He has published numerous books and essays on topics dealing with children's literature and fairy tales.

PROFESSOR KLAUS DODERER ( K D ) ,

Professor of Spanish at Villanova University, is the author of Motif-Index of Medieval Spanish Folk Narratives (1998).

HARRIET GOLDBERG ( H G ) ,

Professor of German Studies at Wayne State University, is the editor of The Reception of Grimms ' Fairy Tales: Responses,

D O N A L D HAASE ( D H ) ,

Reactions, Revisions (1993). Professor of Scandinavian Studies at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, is director of the Folklore Program, and has published on narrative folklore.

NIELS INGWERSEN ( N I ) ,

CONTRIBUTORS

Professor of Folklore and Children's Literature at Cornell University, is the author of Don't Tell the Grownups (1990) and three collections of folk tales for children.

ALISON LURIE ( A L ) ,

Associate Professor in the Departments of Comparative Literature at Stockholm University, Sweden, and at the Academy University, Finland, is the author of The Magic Code: The Use of Magical Patterns in Fantasy for Children (1988) and Children's Literature Comes of Age: Toward a New Aesthetics (1996).

MARIA NIKOLAJEVA ( M N ) ,

Associate Professor of French Studies at Brown University, is the author of Fairy Tales, Sexuality, and Gender in France, 1690—iji5 (1996).

LEWIS C . SEIFERT ( L C S ) ,

Professor of German at Harvard University, is the author of The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales (1987) and Off with their Heads! Fairy Tales and the Culture of Childhood (1992).

MARIA TATAR ( M T ) ,

JACK ZIPES ( J Z ) ,

General Editor. CONTRIBUTORS

Ph.D. from Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London, has published on contemporary literature and the folk tale.

STEPHEN BENSON ( S B ) ,

Professor of English at Indiana University Northwest, has published on illustration and the American picture book.

GEORGE R. BODMER ( G R B ) ,

Professor of Music History at the University of Northern Iowa, has written Magic Flutes and Enchanted Forests: Music and the Marvelous in the Eighteenth-Century Theatre (forthcoming).

DAVID J . BUCH ( D J B ) ,

an art historian specializing in 19th-century American painting and sculpture, is currently Chair of Education at the High Museum in Atlanta, Georgia.

H . NICHOLS B . CLARK ( H N B C ) ,

Associate Professor of English, Comparative Literature, and German at Pennsylvania State University at Altoona, is the author of The Crises of Language and Dead Signs ' in Ludwig Tieck's Prose Fiction (1997).

WILLIAM CRISMAN ( W C ) ,

Professor of Italian at City University of New Y o r k / Hunter College, is the author of works on Dante and editor of Telling Tales: Medieval Narratives and the Folk Tradition (1998).

GIUSEPPE D I SCIPIO ( G D ) ,

Assistant Professor of French at Wayne State University in Detroit, has published on early modern French women writers.

A N N E DUGGAN ( A D ) ,

lecturer in English at the Church of Ireland College of Education, Dublin, is editor of the anthologies First Times (1997) and Enchanted Journeys (1997).

ROBERT DUNBAR ( R D ) ,

CONTRIBUTORS

X

Professor of French Literature at Wesleyan University in Connecticut, has published on gardens, clandestine literature, and fairy tales.

M A R Y LOUISE ENNIS ( M L E ) ,

author of Teaching Children's Literature in the Primary School (1990), specializes in reading studies and children's literature at the Department of Education and Community Studies at John Moores University, Liverpool.

GEOFFREY FENWICK ( G F ) ,

Assistant Professor at the University of Oviedo, Spain, is the author of Las nuevas hijas de Eva: re/escrituras feministas del cuento de 'Baraba^ul' (1997) and Las re/escrituras contemporâneas de 'Cenicienta' (1997).

CAROLINA FERNANDEZ ( C F ) ,

Associate Professor of English at Georgia Southern University, is the author of Randall Jarrell and the Lost World of Childhood (1990).

RICHARD F L Y N N ( R F ) ,

Chair, Department of English at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, is the author of The Poets of Tin Pan Alley: A History of America's Great Lyricists (1990).

P H I L I P FURIA ( P F ) ,

Professor of English at Yeshiva University, has published on the medieval amatory tradition, medieval historiography, and Chaucer's poetry.

JOAN G . H A A H R ( J G H ) ,

Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Smith College, is the author of The Unfinished Manner: Essays on the Fragment in the Later Eighteenth Century (1994).

ELIZABETH W A N N I N G HARRIES ( E W H ) ,

teaches in the Graduate School of Library and Information Science at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and is the author of Beauty and the Beast: Visions and Revisions of an Old Tale (1989).

BETSY HEARNE ( B H )

currently in his fourth season as Associate Conductor of the Kingston Orpheus Society, has appeared with the London Symphony, the London Philharmonic, the BBC Symphony, and the BBC Scottish Symphony orchestras.

TOM HIGGINS ( T H ) ,

Professor of Theatre at the State University of New York College at Cortland, is the author of Word Cra^y: Broadway Lyricists from Cohan to Sondheim (1991) and Stage it with Music: An Encyclopedic Guide to the American Musical Theatre (1993).

THOMAS S . HISCHAK ( T S H ) ,

teaches German literature and history in Berlin and writes regularly on music for German publications.

THOMAS H . H O E R N I G K ( T H H )

Professor and curator of the Children's Literature Research Collections at the University of Minnesota Libraries, is the author of Wanda Gag (1994).

KAREN N E L S O N H O Y L E ( K N H ) ,

CONTRIBUTORS

Professor of German at St Cloud State University, Minnesota, is the editor of two critical editions of fairy tales by Gisela von Arnim.

SHAWN JARVIS ( S C J ) ,

lecturer in German at the University of Tubingen, Germany, is the editor of Current Trends in Comparative Children's Literature Research (1995) and Klassiker der Kinder- und Jugendliteratur (1998).

BETTINA KUMMERLING-MEIBAUER ( B K M ) ,

Lecturer in Italian at the University of Hull, is the translator and editor of The Adventures of Pinocchio (1996).

A N N LAWSON LUCAS ( A L L ) ,

Associate Professor of French at the University of New Hampshire in Durham, is the author of Charles Perrault's Critique since i960: An Annotated Bibliography (1989).

CLAIRE-LISE MALARTE-FELDMAN ( C L M F ) ,

Professor of Islamic Studies at the University of Gôttingen and senior member of the editorial committee of the Ençyklopàdie des Màrchens, is the author of Arabia ridens (1992), and editor of Grimms Màrchen International (1995).

ULRICH MARZOLPH ( U M ) ,

teaches children's literature at Macquarie University, Australia and is the author of Ideologies of Identity in Adolescent Fiction and co-author of Retelling Stories, Framing Culture: Traditional Story and Metanarratives in Children's Literature (1998).

ROBYN M C C A L L U M ( R M )

Professor of German and Comparative Literature at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, is the author of books on the Grimms' fairy tales, E. T. A. Hoffmann, Richard Wagner, and Heinrich von Kleist.

JAMES M . MCGLATHERY ( J M M ) ,

Ph.D. candidate at Macquarie University, is currently researching postmodernism in young adult fiction.

CHERYL M C M I L L A N ( C M ) ,

Assistant Professor of German at the University of Mississippi, is the author of Astrid Lindgren (1995).

E V A - M A R I A METCALF ( E M M ) ,

Professor of German and Folklore in the Department of German and Russian at the University of Vermont, is the author of Grimms Màrchen—modern: Prosa, Gedichte, Karikaturen (1979) and Tradition and Innovation in Folk Literature (1987).

W O L F G A N G MIEDER ( W M ) ,

Associate Professor of French at West Chester University, Pennsylvania, works on Rabelais, Francophone literature, and comparative studies on French and Italian fairy tales.

A N N E - M A R I E MOSCATELLI ( A M M ) ,

Professor of English at Yeshiva University, has written numerous articles on medieval optics, art, and literature.

JUDITH S . NEAMAN ( J S N ) ,

has taught at universities in Europe and the United States and is a regular children's book reviewer for the Boston Globe.

PETER F. NEUMEYER ( P F N )

is a Senior Lecturer and Director of Portuguese Studies at the University of Birmingham, and has published on medieval Portuguese literature.

PATRICIA A N N E O D B E R DE BAUBETA ( P A O B )

CONTRIBUTORS

Professor of Italian at City University of New York/Hunter College, received the Ignazio Silone International Prize for her dissertation, 'Symbolism and Irony in Silone's Narrative Works'.

M A R I A NICOLAI PAYNTER ( M N P ) ,

Associate Professor in the English Department at Pacific Lutheran University, is the author of Rediscoveries in Children's Literature (1995) and The Wizard of 0 { : Shaping an Imaginary World (1998).

SUZANNE R A H N ( S R ) ,

Professor of French at the University of Montevallo, is the author of The Feminine as Fantastic in the Conte fantastique: Visions of the Other (1995).

A M Y RANSOM ( A R ) ,

Associate Professor of English at George Mason University, has published on science fiction, Merlin, Italo Calvino, and Richard Wagner.

A M E L I A A . RUTLEDGE ( A A R ) ,

Ph.D. in Children's and Adolescent Literature from the University of Minnesota, is a faculty member at the University of Minnesota and Metropolitan State University.

SHARON SCAPPLE ( S S ) ,

has studied English and German Literature at the University of Hanover, Germany, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford, specializing in fairy tales, children's literature, and the Gothic novel.

CAROLINE SCHATKE ( C S )

Associate Professor of Art at Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania, has published on Joseph Noel Paton and Victorian fairy painting, and is himself an illustrator of fantasy and science fiction.

RICHARD A . SCHINDLER ( R A S ) ,

Senior Lecturer in German Language and Literature at the University of North London, has published on the reception of the Grimms' fairy tales in English translation and on Angela Carter.

KAREN SEAGO ( K S ) ,

Professor of English at Stern College, Yeshiva University, is the author of Strange and Secret Peoples: Fairies and Victorian Consciousness (1998).

CAROLE SILVER ( C G S ) ,

editor of Children's Books and their Creators, is VicePresident and Publisher, Children's Books, at Houghton Mifflin.

ANITA SILVEY ( A S ) ,

Professor of English at Mankato State University, is currently co-editor of The Lion and the Unicorn.

LOUISA SMITH ( L S ) ,

Professor of English at the University of British Columbia, is co-editor of The Selected Prose of Christina Rossetti (1998) and the author of essays on 17th- and 20th-century opera.

P . G . STANWOOD ( P G S ) ,

is a freelance teacher and cinema researcher, author of All Pals Together: The Story of Children's Cinema (1997) and Film in Victorian Britain (1998).

TERRY STAPLES ( T A S )

CONTRIBUTORS

Assistant Professor of German at George Washington University in Washington, D C , is currently working on an edited volume on teaching the fairy tale.

MARY BETH STEIN ( M B S ) ,

Associate Professor of English at Macquarie University, Australia, is the author of Language and Ideology in Children's Fiction (1992) and co-author of Retelling Stories, Framing Culture: Traditional Story andMetanarratives in Children's Literature (1998).

JOHN STEPHENS ( J A S ) ,

Associate Professor of English specializing in children's and adolescent literature at Illinois State University, is a book editor for The Lion and the Unicorn.

JAN SUSINA ( J S ) ,

Professor of English at the University of MichiganFlint, has published on Wilhelm Hauff, the Brothers Grimm, and folkloric motifs in literature.

D . MAUREEN THUM ( D M T ) ,

editor of seven anthologies of contemporary fiction based on fairy tales, has published two fairy-tale inspired novels, The Wood Wife (1996) and The Moon Wife (1999).

TERRI W I N D L I N G ( T W ) ,

Professor of English at Eastern Michigan University, has written extensively on film and children's literature.

IAN WOJCIK-ANDREWS ( I W A ) ,

Associate Professor of English at Kansas State University, has published on Disney's Cinderella and on 19th-century literary fairy tales by George MacDonald, Charles Kingsley, and Lucy Clifford.

NAOMI J . W O O D ( N J W ) ,

Assistant Professor of French at Skidmore College in New York, has published on Corneille, Mme d'Aulnoy, and Mme de Villedieu.

ADRIENNE E . ZUERNER ( A Z ) ,

INTRODUCTION Towards a Définition of the Literary Fairy Tale HERE is no such thing as the fairy tale; however, there are hundreds of thousands of fairy tales. And these fairy tales have been defined in so many different ways that it boggles the mind to think that they can be categorized as a genre. In fact, the confusion is so great that most literary critics con­ tinually confound the oral folk tale with the literary fairy tale and vice versa. Some even argue, to the dismay of folklorists, that we might as well label any text or narrative that calls itself and is called a fairy tale as such since the average reader is not aware of the distinction between the oral and literary traditions or even cares about it. Why bother with dis­ tinctions when very few people necessarily want them? There is even a strong general tendency among many readers in the West to resist defining the fairy tale. It is as though one should not tamper with sacred material. By dissecting the fairy tale, one might destroy its magic, and it appears that this magic has something to do with the blessed realm of childhood and inno­ cence. On the other hand, almost every reader of fairy tales, young and old, is curious about their magic. What is it that endows fairy tales with such en­ chantment? Where do these tales come from? Why do they have such a grip on us? Why do we always seem to need them? We want to know more about ourselves by knowing something more about fairy tales. We want to fathom their mysterious hold on us. Perhaps this is why there are literally hundreds of scholarly books and essays about the tales, and why the more serious studies insist on making a distinction between the oral folk tale and the liter­ ary fairy tale. It is distinction that preserves the unique socio-historical nature of genres. It is distinction that exposes the magic of a genre while at the same time allowing us to preserve and cultivate it so that it will continue to flourish. One of the first German scholars to analyse the literary fairy tale systemat­ ically in our contemporary period is Jens Tismar, who has written two im­ portant studies, Kunstmdrchen (1977) and Das deutsche Kunstmàrchen des pvan^igsten Jahrhunderts (1981). In his first short monograph, Tismar set down the principles for a definition of the literary fairy tale (das Kunstmàr­ chen) as genre: (1) it distinguishes itself from the oral folk tale {das Volksmàrchen) in so far as it is written by a single identifiable author; (2) it is thus synthetic, artificial, and elaborate in comparison to the indigenous formation of the folk tale that emanates from communities and tends to be simple and anonymous; (3) the differences between the literary fairy tale and the oral folk tale do not imply that one genre is better than the other; (4) in fact, the literary fairy tale is not an independent genre but can only be understood and defined by its relationship to the oral tales as well as to the legend, novella, novel, and other literary fairy tales that it uses, adapts, and remodels during the narrative conception of the author.

INTRODUCTION

XVI

Tismar's principles are helpful when contemplating the distinguishing fea­ tures of the literary fairy tale. But there are many other distinctions that must be made, and this Companion is one of the first major efforts in the English language to make some of these distinctions and to define the socio-historical rise of the fairy tale mainly in the nation-states of Western Europe and North America that share common literary traditions. It also seeks to provide infor­ mation on all the writers, artists, musicians, film-makers, and movements that have contributed to the changing nature of the fairy tale as genre. Whenever possible, the contributions of other cultures from Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Asia, South America, and Africa have been included, but the focus of this Companion is essentially on the literary formation of the Western fairy­ tale genre and its expansion into opera, theatre, film, and other related cul­ tural forms. During its long evolution, the literary fairy tale distinguished itself as genre by 'appropriating' many motifs, signs, and drawings from folklore, embel­ lishing them and combining them with elements from other literary genres, for it became gradually necessary in the modern world to adapt a certain kind of oral storytelling called the wonder tale to standards of literacy and make it acceptable for diffusion in the public sphere. The fairy tale is only one type of literary appropriation of a particular oral storytelling tradition related to the oral wonder tale, often called the Zaubermdrchen or the conte merveilleux, which existed throughout Europe in many different forms during the medi­ eval period. As more and more wonder tales were written down in the 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries—often in Latin—they constituted the genre of the literary fairy tale that began establishing its own conventions, motifs, topoi, characters, and plots, based to a large extent on those developed in the oral tradition but altered to address a reading public formed by the aristoc­ racy, clergy, and middle classes. Though the peasants were marginalized and excluded in the formation of this literary tradition, their material, voices, style, and beliefs were incorporated into the new genre during this period. What exactly is the oral wonder tale? This is a question that is almost impossible to answer because each village and community in Europe and in North America developed various modes of storytelling and different types of tales that were closely connected to their customs, laws, morals, and be­ liefs. But Vladimir Propp's now famous study, The Morphology of the Folk Tale (1928), can be somewhat helpful here. Using the 600 texts of Aleksandr Afanasyev's Russian Folktales (1855—63), he outlined 31 basic functions that constitute the formation of a paradigmatic wonder tale, which was and still is common in Russia and shares many properties with wonder tales throughout the world. By functions, Propp meant the fundamental and constant compon­ ents of a tale that are the acts of a character and necessary for driving the action forward. Consequently, most plots will follow a basic pattern which begins with the protagonist confronted with an interdiction or prohibition which he or she violates in some way. This leads to the banishment of the protagonist or to the assignment of a task related to the interdiction or pro­ hibition. His or her character will be marked by the task that becomes his

XVll

INTRODUCTION

or her assigned identity and destiny. Afterwards the protagonist will have encounters with all sorts of characters: a deceitful villain; a mysterious individual or creature, who gives the protagonist gifts; three different animals or creatures who are helped by the protagonist and promise to repay him or her; or three different animals or creatures who offer gifts to help the protagonist, who is in trouble. The gifts are often magical agents, which bring about miraculous change. Since the protagonist is now endowed with gifts, he or she is tested or moves on to deal with inimical forces. But then there is a sudden fall in the protagonist's fortunes that is generally only a temporary setback. A wonder or miracle is needed to reverse the wheel of fortune. The protagonist makes use of endowed gifts (and this includes magical agents and cunning) to achieve his or her goal. Often there are three battles with the villain; three impossible tasks that are miraculously completed; or the breaking of a magic spell through some counter-magical agent. The inimical forces are vanquished. The success of the protagonist usually leads to marriage and wealth. Sometimes simple survival and acquisition of important knowledge based on experience form the ending of the tale. Propp's structural approach to the wonder tale, while useful, should be regarded with caution because there are innumerable variations in theme and plot types throughout Europe and North America. In fact, the wonder tale is based on a hybrid formation that encompassed the chronicle, myth, legend, anecdote, and other oral forms and constantly changed depending on the circumstances of the teller. If there is one 'constant' in the structure and theme of the wonder tale that was also passed on to the literary fairy tale, it is transformation—to be sure, miraculous transformation. Everybody and everything can be transformed in a wonder tale. In particular there is generally a change in the social status of the protagonists. For the peasants who constituted the majority of the population in the Middle Ages, the hope for change was embedded in this kind of narrative, and this hope had nothing to do with a systematic and institutionalized belief system. That is, the tales told by the peasants were secular, and the fortuitous changes and happenings that occur in the tales cannot be predicted or guaranteed. Rarely do wonder tales end unhappily in the oral tradition. They are wish-fulfilments. They are obviously connected to initiation rites that introduce listeners to the 'proper' way to become a member of a particular community. The narrative elements issue from real-life experiences and customs to form a paradigm that facilitates recall for tellers and listeners. The paradigmatic structure enables teller and listeners to recognize, store, remember, and reproduce the stories and to change them to fit their experiences and desires due to the easily identifiable characters who are associated with particular assignments and settings. For instance, many tales concern a simple fellow named Jack, Hans, Pierre, or Ivan who is so naïve that he seems as if he will never do well in life. He is often the youngest son, and his brothers and other people take advantage of him or demean him. However, his goodness and naïveté eventually enable him to avoid disasters. By the end of the tale he generally rises in social status and proves himself to be more gifted and astute than he

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seems. Other recognizable characters in wonder tales include: the Cinderella girl who rises from the ashes to reveal herself to be more beautiful than her stepsisters; the faithful bride; the loyal sister; the vengeful discharged soldier; the boastful tailor; the cunning thief; devious robbers; ferocious ogres; the unjust king; the queen who cannot have a child; the princess who cannot laugh; a flying horse; a talking fish; a magic sack or table; a powerful club; a kind duck; a sly fox; treacherous nixies; a beast-bridegroom. The forests are often enchanted, and the settings change rapidly from the sea to glass and golden mountains. There are mysterious underground realms and caves. Many tales are about the land of milk and honey where everything is turned upside down, and the peasants rule and can eat to their heart's content. The protagonist moves faster than jet planes on the backs of griffins and eagles or through the use of seven-league boots. Most important are the capes or clothes that make the hero invisible or magic objects that endow him with power. In some cases there are musical instruments with enormous captivating powers; swords and clubs capable of conquering anyone or anything; lakes, ponds, and seas that are difficult to cross and serve as the home for supernatural creatures. The characters, settings, and motifs are combined and varied according to specific functions to induce wonder. It is this sense of wondrous change that distinguished the wonder tales from other oral tales as the chronicle, the legend, the fable, the anecdote, and the myth; it is clearly the sense of wondrous change that distinguishes the literary fairy tale from the moral story, novella, sentimental tale, and other modern short literary genres. Wonder causes astonishment, and the marvellous object or phenomenon is often regarded as a supernatural occurrence and can be an omen or portent. It gives rise to admiration, fear, awe, and reverence. In the oral wonder tale, listeners are to ponder about the workings of the universe where anything can happen at any time, and these happy or fortuitous events are never to be explained. Nor do the characters demand an explanation—they are opportunistic. They are encouraged to be so, and if they do not take advantage of the opportunity that will benefit them in their relations with others, they are either stupid or mean-spirited. Only the 'good' opportunistic protagonist succeeds because he or she is open to and wants a change. In fact, most heroes need some kind of wondrous transformation to survive, and they indicate how to take advantage of the unexpected opportunities that come their way. The tales seek to awaken our regard for the marvellous changing condition of life and to evoke in a religious sense profound feelings of awe and respect for life as a miraculous process which can be altered and changed to compensate for the lack of power, wealth, and pleasure that most people experience. Lack, deprivation, prohibition, and interdiction motivate people to look for signs of fulfilment and emancipation. In the wonder tales, those who are naïve and simple are able to succeed because they are untainted and can recognize the wondrous signs. They have retained their belief in the miraculous condition of nature and revere nature in all its aspects. They have not been spoiled by conventionalism, power, or rationalism. In contrast to the humble characters, the villains are those who use their status, weapons, and words intentionally

xix

INTRODUCTION

to exploit, control, transfix, incarcerate, and destroy for their benefit. They have no respect or consideration for nature and other human beings, and they actually seek to abuse magic by preventing change and causing everything to be transfixed according to their interests. The wondrous protagonist wants to keep the process of natural change flowing and indicates possibilities for overcoming the obstacles that prevent other characters or creatures from liv­ ing in a peaceful and pleasurable way. The focus on wonder in the oral folk tale does not mean that all wonder tales, and later the literary fairy tales, served and serve a liberating purpose, though they tend to conserve a Utopian spirit. Nor were they subversive, though there are strong hints that the narrators favoured the oppressed prot­ agonists. The nature and meaning of folk tales have depended on the stage of development of a tribe, community, or society. Oral tales have served to stabilize, conserve, or challenge the common beliefs, laws, values, and norms of a group. The ideology expressed in wonder tales always stemmed from the position that the narrator assumed with regard to the developments in his or her community, and the narrative plot and changes made in it depended on the sense of wonder or awe that the narrator wanted to evoke. In other words, the sense of wonder in the tale and the intended emotion sought by the narrator is ideological. The oral tales have always played some role in the socialization and acculturation of listeners. Certainly, the narratives were in­ tended to acquaint people with learning experiences so that they would know how to comport themselves or take advantage of unexpected opportunities. The knowledge imparted by the oral wonder tales involves a learning process through which protagonist and listener are enriched by encounters with extraordinary characters and situations. Since these wonder tales have been with us for thousands of years and have undergone so many different changes in the oral tradition, it is difficult to determine clearly what the ideological intention of the narrator was; and if we disregard the narrator's intention, it is often difficult to reconstruct (and/or deconstruct) the ideological meaning of a tale. In the last analysis, however, even if we cannot establish whether a wonder tale is ideologically conserva­ tive, sexist, progressive, liberating, etc., it is the celebration of wondrous change and how the protagonist reacts to wondrous occurrences that account for its major appeal. In addition, these tales nurture the imagination with alternative possibilities to life at 'home', from which the protagonist is often banished to find his or her 'true' home. This pursuit of home accounts for the Utopian spirit of the tales, for the miraculous transformation does not only involve the transformation of the protagonist but also the realization of a more ideal setting in which the hero/heroine can fulfil his or her potential. In fairy tales home is always a transformed home opening the way to a different future or destiny than the hero or heroine had anticipated. Ultimately, the definition of both the wonder tale and the fairy tale, which derives from it, depends on the manner in which a narrator/author arranges known functions of a tale aesthetically and ideologically to induce wonder and then transmits the tale as a whole according to customary usage of a society in

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a given historical period. The first stage for the literary fairy tale involved a kind of class and perhaps even gender appropriation. The voices of the nonliterate tellers were submerged. Since women in most cases were not allowed to be scribes, the tales were scripted according to male dictates or fantasies, even though many were told by women. Put crudely, one could say that the literary appropriation of the oral wonder tales served the hegemonic interests of males within the upper classes of particular communities and societies, and to a great extent this is true. However, such a crude statement must be quali­ fied, for the writing down of the tales also preserved a great deal of the value system of those deprived of power. And the more the literary fairy tale was cultivated and developed, the more it became individualized and varied by intellectuals and artists, who often sympathized with the marginalized in soci­ ety or were marginalized themselves. The literary fairy tale allowed for new possibilities of subversion in the written word and in print, and therefore it was always looked upon with misgivings by the governing authorities in the civilization process. The literary fairy tale is a relatively young and modern genre. Though there is a great deal of historical evidence that oral wonder tales were written down in India and Egypt thousands of years ago, and all kinds of folk motifs of magical transformation became part and parcel of national epics and myths throughout the world, the literary fairy tale did not really establish itself as a genre in Europe and later in North America until some new material and socio-cultural conditions provided fruitful ground for its formation. The most significant developments from 1450 to 1700 include: the standardization and categorization of the vernacular languages that gradually became official nation-state languages; the invention of the printing press; the growth of reading publics throughout Europe that began to develop a taste for short narratives of different kinds for their reading pleasure; the conception of new literary genres in the vernacular and their acceptance by the educated élite classes. Literary fairy tales were not at first called fairy tales, nor can one with certainty say that they were simple appropriations of oral folk tales that were popular among the common people. Indeed, the intersection of the oral trad­ ition of storytelling with the writing and publishing of narratives is definitely crucial for understanding the formation of the fairy tale, but the oral sources were not the only ones that provided the motifs, characters, plot devices, and topoi of the genre. The early authors of fairy tales were generally extremely well educated and well read and drew upon both oral and literary materials when they created their fairy tales. Beginning with Apuleius' fairy tale 'Cupid and Psyche', part of The Golden Ass, which appeared in the 2nd century A D , we can see that the fairy tale distinguished itself from the oral tradition—as it did throughout the early medieval period—through carefully constructed plots, sophisticated references to religion, literature, and customs, embel­ lished language that signified the high civilized status of the writer, and lin­ guistic codes that were informed by a particular civilizing process and carried information about it.

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INTRODUCTION

Contained in chivalric romances, heroic sagas and epics, chronicles, ser­ mons, poems, lais, and primers during the European Middle Ages, the fairy tale was often a story about miraculous encounters, changes, and initiations illustrating a particular didactic point that the writer wished to express in an entertaining manner. It was often written in Latin, Middle English, or in some old high form of French, Spanish, Italian, or German. For the most part, these early fairy tales were not intended for children. In fact, they were not intended for most people since most people could not read. The fairy tale was thus marked by the social class of the writers and readers, and since the clerics dominated literary production in Latin up through the late Middle Ages, the 'secular' if not hedonistic fairy tale was not fully acceptable in European courts and cities, and it was certainly not an autonomous literary genre. In the late 13th century the anonymous collection Novellino {The Hundred Old Tales), with its fantastic themes, unusual medieval exempla, and fables, indicated along with other medieval marvellous tales and reports that new literary genres were about to flower, and in the 14th century writers like Boccaccio {The Decameron, 1349—50) and Chaucer {The Canterbury Tales, 1387) helped prepare the way for the establishment of the fairy tale as an independent genre. Although they did not write 'pure' fairy tales per se, many of their stories—and these were not the only writers who influenced the de­ velopment of the fairy tale—have fairy-tale motifs and structures and borrow from oral wonder tales. Moreover, the frame narratives that they created allowed for the introduction of diverse tales told in different modes and styles, and it is the frame that became extremely important for Giovan Fran­ cesco Straparola in his Lepiacevoli notti {The Pleasant Nights, 1550—3) and for Giambattista Basile in Lo cunto de li cunti { The Story of Stories) better known as II Pentamerone (1634—6), for they used their frames to produce some of the most illustrious literary fairy tales in the West that were to influence major writers of the genre in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. In many ways the tales of Straparola and Basile can be considered crucial for understanding the rise of the genre. Straparola wrote in succinct Tuscan or standard Italian, and Basile wrote in a Neapolitan dialect marked by an elaborate baroque style with striking metaphors and peculiar idioms and ref­ erences that are difficult to decipher today. Though all their fairy tales have moral or didactic points, they have very little to do with official Christian doctrine. On the contrary, their tales are often bawdy, irreverent, erotic, cruel, frank, and unpredictable. The endings are not always happy. Some are even tragic; many are hilarious. Some tales are very short, but most are some­ what lengthy, and they are all clearly intended to represent and reflect upon the mores and customs of their time, to shed light on the emerging civilizing process of Italian society. From the beginning, fairy tales were symbolic com­ mentaries on the mores and customs of a particular society and the classes and groups within these societies and how their actions and relations could lead to success and happiness. Although other Italian writers such as Cesare Cortese and Pompeo Sarnelli created fairy tales in the 17th century, the conditions in the different reading

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publics in Italy were not propitious for the genre to take root. The oral trad­ ition and the 'realistic' novellas and stories remained dominant in Italy. This was also the case in Great Britain. Although there was a strong interest in fairylore in the 1590s, as indicated by The Faerie Queene (1590—6) written by Sir Edmund Spenser, who was influenced by Italian epic poetry, and although Shakespeare introduced fairies and magical events in some of his best plays such as A Midsummer Night's Dream and The Tempest, the trend in English society was to ban the fairies and to make way for utilitarianism and puritanism. There were, of course, some interesting attempts in poetry by Ben Jonson, Michael Drayton, and Robert Herrick to incorporate folklore and fairy-tale motifs in their works. But the waning interest in fairy tales and the obstacles created by censorship undermined these literary attempts. Fortu­ nately, oral storytelling provided the refuge for fairy beliefs. It was not until the 1690s in France that the fairy tale could establish itself as a 'legitimate' genre for educated classes. It was during this time that nu­ merous gifted female writers such as Mme d'Aulnoy, Mme d'Auneuil, Mme de Murât, Mlle Lhéritier, Mme de La Force, Mlle Bernard, and others intro­ duced fairy tales into their literary salons and published their works, and their tales, along with those of Charles Perrault and Jean de Mailly, initiated a mode or craze that prepared the ground for the institution of the literary fairy tale as a genre. First of all, the French female writers 'baptized' their tales contes de fées or fairy tales, and they were the first to designate the tales as such. The designation is not simply based on the fact that there are fairies in all their tales but also on the fact that the seat of power in their tales—and also in those of Perrault and other male writers of the time—lies with om­ nipotent women. Similar to the tales of Straparola and Basile, whose works were somewhat known by the French, the contes de fées are secular and form discourses about courtly manners and power. The narratives vary in length from 10 to 60 pages, and they were not at all addressed to children. Depend­ ing on the author, they are ornate, didactic, ironic, and mocking. In the period between 1690 and 1705, the tales reflected many of the changes that were occurring at King Louis X I V ' s court, and Perrault wrote his tales con­ sciously to demonstrate the validity of this 'modern' genre as opposed to the classical Greek and Roman myths. Many of the tale types can be traced to the oral folk tradition, and they also borrow from the Italian literary fairy tale and numerous other literary and art works of this period. In addition to the accomplishments of the first wave of French authors, mention should be made of Antoine Galland and his remarkable translation of Arabic narratives in Les Mille et une nuits {The Thousand and One Nights, 1704—17). Not only did Galland introduce the tradition and customs of the Middle East to West­ ern readers, but he also imitated the oriental tales and created his own— something hundreds of authors would do in the centuries that followed. By 1720, at the very latest, the fairy tale was being institutionalized as genre, and the paradigmatic form and motifs were becoming known through­ out Europe. This dissemination of the tales was due in large part to the dom­ inance of French as the cultural language in Europe. But there were other

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INTRODUCTION

ways in which the French tales became known and set a pattern for most fairy-tale writers. It was during this time that chapbooks or 'cheap' books were being produced in series such as the Bibliothèque bleue, and the books were carried by pedlars from village to village to be sold with other goods. The 'sophisticated' tales of the upper-class writers were abbreviated and changed a great deal to address other audiences. These tales were often read aloud and made their way into or back into the oral tradition. Interestingly, the tales were retold innumerable times and circulated throughout diverse regions of Europe, often leading to some other literary appropriation and publication. In addition, there were numerous translations into English, German, Spanish, and Italian. Another important development was the rise of the literary fairy tale for children. Already during the 1690s, Fénelon, the important theologian and Archbishop of Cambrai, who had been in charge of the Dauphin's education at King Louis X I V ' s court, had written several didactic fairy tales to make the Dauphin's lessons more enjoyable. But they were kept for private use and were printed only in 1730 after Fénelon's death. More important than Fénelon was Mme Leprince de Beaumont, who published Le Magasin des enfants (1743), which included 'Beauty and the Beast' and ten or so overtly moralistic fairy tales for children. Like many of her predecessors, she used a frame story in which a governess engaged several young girls between 6 and 10 in discussions about morals, manners, ethics, and gender roles that lead her to tell stories to illustrate her points. Mme Leprince de Beaumont's utilization of such a frame was based on her work as a governess in England, and the frame was set up to be copied by other adults to cultivate a type of storytelling and reading in homes of the upper classes that would reinforce acceptable notions of propriety, especially proper sex roles. It was only as part of the civilizing process that storytelling developed within the aristocratic and bourgeois homes in the 17th and 18th centuries, first through governesses and nannies, and later in the 18th and 19th centuries through mothers, tutors, and governesses who told stories in separate rooms designated for children and called nurseries. Towards the end of the 18th century numerous publishers in France, England, and Germany began serious production of books for children, and the genre of the fairy tale assumed a new dimension which now included concerns about how to socialize children and indoctrinate them through literary products that were appropriate for their age, mentality, and morals. The rise of 'bourgeois' children's literature meant that publishers would make the fairy-tale genre more comprehensive, but they would also—along with parents, educators, religious leaders, and writers—pay great attention to the potential of the fantastic and miraculous in the fairy tale to disturb and/or enlighten children's minds. There were numerous debates about the value of the fantastic and the marvellous in literary form and their possible detrimental effects on the souls of readers in many European countries. They were significant and interesting, but they did not have any real impact on the publication of fairy tales. Certainly, not in France. Indeed, by 1785 Charles-Joseph Mayer could begin producing his famous 40-volume Cabinet des fées, which

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was completed in 1789 and contained the most significant of the 100-year mode of fairy tales that paved the way for the institution of the fairy tale in other countries. From this point on, most writers in the West, whether they wrote for adults or children, consciously held a dialogue with a fairy-tale discourse that had become firmly established in Europe and embraced inter­ course with the oral storytelling tradition and all other kinds of folklore that existed throughout the world. For instance, the French fairy tale, which now included The Arabian Nights, had a profound influence on German writers of the Enlightenment and romanticism, and the development in Germany pro­ vided the continuity for the institution of the genre in the West as a whole. Like the French authors, the German middle-class writers like Johann Musâus in his collection Volksmdrchen der Deutschen (1782—6) and Benedikte Naubert in her work Neue Volksmdhrchen der Deutschen (1789—93) employed the fairy tale to celebrate German history and customs. Musàus and Naubert both combined elements of German myth, folklore, legend, and the French fairy tale to address educated Germans. At the same time, Christoph Martin Wieland translated and adapted numerous fairy tales from the Cabinet des fées in Dschinnistan (1786—9), and he also wrote a novel and some poems that revealed his familiarity with Basile and the Italian fairy-tale tradition. Aside from these collections for upper-class readers, numerous French fairy tales became known in Germany by the turn of the century through the popular series of the Blaue Bibliothek and other translations from the French, and children's books began to carry more and more fairy tales. Most important at the turn of the century was the contribution of the Ger­ man romantic writers. Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, Joseph von Eichendorff, Clemens Brentano, Adelbert Chamisso, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, E . T. A . Hoffmann, and others wrote extraor­ dinary and highly complex metaphorical tales that revealed a major shift in the function of the genre: the fairy tale began to address philosophical and practical concerns of the emerging middle classes and was written in defence of the imagination and as a critique of the worst aspects of the Enlightenment and absolutism. This viewpoint was clearly expressed in Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's classical narrative bluntly entitled 'The Fairy Tale' (1795), as though it were the fairy tale to end all fairy tales. Goethe optimistically envis­ ioned a successful rebirth of a rejuvenated monarchy that would enjoy the support of all social classes in his answer to the violence and destruction of the French Revolution. In response, Novalis wrote a long, elaborate fairy tale in Heinrich von Ofterdingen (1798) called 'Klingsohr's Màrchen', that cele­ brates the erotic and artistic impulses of revolution and emphasizes magical transformation and flexibility. Though hopeful, many of the romantics were sceptical about prospects for individual autonomy and the reform of decadent institutions in a Germany divided by the selfish interests of petty tyrants and the Napoleonic Wars. Characteristically many of the early romantic tales do not end on a happy note. The protagonists either go insane or die. The evil forces assume a social hue, for the witches and villains are no longer allegor­ ical representations of evil in the Christian tradition but are symbolically

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INTRODUCTION

associated with the philistine bourgeois society or the corrupt aristocracy. The romantics did not intend their fairy tales to amuse audiences in the trad­ itional sense of divertissement. Instead, they sought to engage the reader in a serious discourse about art, philosophy, education, and love. The focus was on the creative individual or artist, who envisioned a life without inhibitions and social constraints. It was a theme that became popular in the romantic fairy tales throughout Europe and in North America. In contrast to most folk tales or fairy tales that have strong roots in folklore and propose the possibil­ ity of the integration of the hero into society, the fairy tales of the 19th and 20th centuries tend to pit the individual against society or to use the protago­ nist in a way to mirror the foibles and contradictions of society. This conflict between the 'heroic' individual, often identified with Nature or natural forces, and society, understood as one-dimensional rationality and bureaucracy, became a major theme in British romanticism. At the same time the romantics also sought to rediscover their English, Scottish, Welsh, and Irish heritage by exploring folklore and the history of the fairies, elves, lepre­ chauns, and other 'little people'. Here the prose (Sir Walter Scott, James Hogg, Allan Cunningham), poetry (Samuel Coleridge, Robert Southey, John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Tom Moore and Thomas Hood) and folklore and fairy-tale studies (Walter Scott, Thomas Crofton Croker, Thomas Keightley) paved the way for an astounding production of fairy tales in the second half of the 19th century. In addition, the fairy paintings of William Blake and Henry Fuseli had an enormous impact on the later fantastic paint­ ings of Daniel Maclise, Joseph Noel Paton, Richard Dadd, John Anster Fitz­ gerald, Arthur Hughes, Richard Doyle, and many others, and numerous plays and operas were also influenced by the fairy-tale vogue, as can be seen in the work of James Planché. While the function of the fairy tale for adults underwent a major shift in the 19th century that made it an appropriate means to maintain a dialogue about social and political issues within the bourgeois public sphere—and this was clear in all nations in Europe and North America—the fairy tale for children was carefully monitored and censored until the 1820s. Although there were various collections published for upper-class children in the latter part of the 18th century and at the turn of the century along with numerous chapbooks containing classical fairy tales, they were not regarded as prime and 'proper' reading material for children. They were not considered to be 'healthy' for the development of young people's minds. For the most part, publishers, church leaders, and educators favoured other genres of stories, more realistic, sentimental, and didactic. Even the Brothers Grimm, in particular Wilhelm, began to revise their collected tales in Kinder- und Hausmdrchen {Children's and Household Tales, 1812—15), making them more appropriate for children than they had done in the beginning and cleansing their narratives of erotic and bawdy passages. However, the fantastic and miraculous elements were kept so that they were not at first fully accepted by the middle-class reading audience, which only began to change its attitude towards the fairy tale dur­ ing the course of the 1820s and 1830s throughout Europe.

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The tales of the Brothers Grimm played a key role in this change. More than the collections of the French writers of the 1790s, the Grimms' work was consciously designed to address two audiences at the same time, and they carefully cultivated the form of their tales so that they could be easily grasped by children and adults. From 1812 until 1857, the Grimms published seven editions of what they called the Large Edition (Grosse Ausgabe), which ultim­ ately contained 211 tales, for the household in general and for scholars as well. The Grimms thought of their book as an Eriiehungsbuch (an educational manual), and thus they also wanted to attract children and appeal to the morals and virtues of middle-class readers. Thus they also published a socalled Small Edition (Kleine Ausgabe), a selection of 50 tales, in 1825 to popu­ larize the larger work and create a more manageable best-seller. There were ten editions of this book from 1825 to 1858, and they contained the majority of the magic fairy tales such as 'Cinderella', 'Snow White', 'Sleeping Beauty', 'Little Red Riding Hood', and 'The Frog King'. Since they all underlined morals in keeping with the Protestant ethic and a patriarchal notion of sex roles, the book was bound to be a success. When we think of the form and typical fairy tale today, we tend to think of a paradigmatic Grimms' fairy tale (quite often modified by the Disney industry). Their tales are all about three to five pages long and are constructed rationally to demonstrate the virtues of an opportunistic protagonist who learns to take advantage of gifts and magic power to succeed in life, which means marriage to a rich person and wealth. Most of the male heroes are dashing, adventurous, and courageous. Most of the female protagonists are beautiful, passive, and industrious. Their com­ mon feature is cunning: they all know how to take advantage of the rules of their society and the conventions of the fairy tale to profit. Very few of the Grimms' fairy tales end on an unhappy note, and they all comply with the phallocratie impulses and forces of the emerging middle-class societies of Western culture. Aside from the gradual success that the Grimms' tales had as a 'children's book', the publication of Wilhelm Hauff s Màrchen Almanack (1826), contain­ ing oriental-flavoured tales for young people, Edward Taylor's translation of the Grimms' tales as German Popular Stories (1823), with illustrations by the famous George Cruikshank, and Pierre-Jules Hetzel's Livre des enfants (1837), which contained 40 tales from the Cabinet des fées edited for children, indicated that the fairy tale had become acceptable for young readers. This acceptance was largely due to the fact that adults themselves became more tolerant of fantasy literature and realized that it would not pervert the minds of their children. Indeed, the middle-class attitudes towards amusement began to change, and people understood that children needed the time and space for recreation without having morals and ethics imposed on them and without the feeling that their reading or listening had to involve indoctrin­ ation. It is not by chance, then, that the fairy tale for children came into its own from 1830 to 1900. The most significant writer of this period was Hans Chris­ tian Andersen, who began publishing his tales in 1835, and they were almost

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INTRODUCTION

immediately translated into many different languages and became popular throughout the Western world. Andersen combined humour, Christian senti­ ments, folklore, and original plots to form tales which amused and instructed old and young readers at the same time. More than any writer of the 19th century, he fulfilled what Perrault had begun: to write tales such as 'The Ugly Duckling', 'The Little Mermaid', and 'The Princess and the Pea' which could be readily grasped by children and adults alike. Of course, Andersen wrote many tales that were clearly intended for adults alone, and they are filled with self-hate, paranoia, and dreams of vengeance. More and more the fairy tale of the 19th century became marked by the very individual desires and needs of the authors who felt that industrialization and rationalization of labour made their lives compartmentalized. A s daily life became more structured and institutions more bureaucratic, there was little space left for leisure, hobbies, daydreaming, and the imagination. It was the fairy tale that provided room for amusement, nonsense, and recreation. This does not mean that it abandoned its more traditional role in the civilizing process as agent of socialization. For instance, up until the 1860s the majority of fairy-tale writers for children, including Catherine Sinclair, George Cruikshank, and Alfred Crowquill in Britain, Collodi in Italy, comtesse Sophie de Ségur in France, and Ludwig Bechstein in Germany, emphasized the lessons to be learned in keeping with the principles of the Protestant ethic—industriousness, honesty, cleanliness, diligence, virtuousness—and male supremacy. However, just as the 'conventional' fairy tale for adults had become subverted at the end of the 18th century, there was a major move­ ment to write parodies of fairy tales, which were intended both for children and adults. In other words, the classical tales were turned upside down and inside out to question the value system upheld by the dominant socialization process and to keep wonder, curiosity, and creativity alive. By the 1860s numerous writers continued the 'romantic' project of subvert­ ing the formal structure of the canonized tales (Perrault, Grimm, Bechstein, Andersen) and to experiment with the repertoire of motifs, characters, and topoi to defend the free imagination of the individual and to extend the dis­ cursive social commentary of the fairy tale. The best example of the type of subversion attempted during the latter part of the 19th century is Lewis Car­ roll's Alice in Wonderland (1865), which engendered numerous imitations and original works in Europe and America. Even today, unusual versions of Alice have been created for the theatre, television, the cinema, comic books, and other kinds of literature, demonstrating the exceptional way that the fairy-tale genre has evolved to address changing social issues and aesthetic modes. Of course, Victorian England was an unusual time for fairylore because many people from all social classes seriously believed in the existence of fair­ ies, elves, goblins, selfies, and dwarfs otherwise known as the little people, and their beliefs were manifested in the prodigious amount of fairy stories, paintings, operas, plays, music, and ballets from the 1820s to the turn of the century. The need to believe in other worlds and other types of living people was certainly connected to a need to escape the pressures of utilitarianism and

INTRODUCTION

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industrialism and a rebellion against traditional Christian thinking. But it was also linked to a scientific quest to explain the historical origins of the little people, and folklorists, anthropologists, and ethnologists contributed to the flowering of the fairy tale and folk tale. The work of the Scottish scholar Andrew Lang, who published 13 coloured books of fairy tales from 1889 to 1910, still in print today, is a good example of how important the fairies and their lore had become in Britain. Influenced greatly by the anthropological school of folklore, Lang sought to further historical investigation into the origins of myths and rituals and their connection to folk tales while at the same time he collapsed distinctions between folk and fairy tales and sought to address young and adult audiences with international collections of tales and his own literary fairy tales. By the beginning of the 20th century, the fairy tale had become fully insti­ tutionalized in Europe and North America, as indicated by the great success and popularity of L . Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wii9

nated them, explored social problems in eastern Ger­ many. The extent to which German intellectuals have refor­ mulated and reformed individual fairy tales as well as the genre itself indicates the privileged position accorded fairy tales in German popular and learned culture. T h e German Europâische Màrchengesellschaft (European Fairy Tale Society), the largest of its kind anywhere in the world, holds large annual meetings at which storytell­ ers and scholars alike gather, while the En^yklopddie des Màrchens {Encyclopedia of the Tale), an ongoing project of the German Academy of Sciences whose completion is envisaged for about 2010, is a monumental scholarly undertaking funded by the national government. The publishing history of fairy tales in Germany from 1550 to the present is one of gradual importation of tales from beyond its borders, their translation and transform­ ation into German tales, and their ultimate integration into German culture. First to appear were French tales augmented by oriental literary fairy tales in French. Next were French and oriental fairy tales translated into Ger­ man, tales that were themselves adapted for the German Blue Library of all Nations. These popular books pro­ vided Germany's simple readers with a shared repertoire of tales, which in turn furnished subsequent collectors all over Germany with 'folk' sources. From a broad field of competing tale collections in the 19th-century, the Grimms' Tales slowly gained ground in the popular mind until they came to dominate the genre at the end of the 19th and through the 20th centuries. 2 . FAIRYTALE S C H O L A R S H I P

It has long been believed that the fairy tale is an ancient genre that has existed since the beginnings of human communication, but many 20th-century scholars, begin­ ning with Albert Wesselski, no longer believe that to be true. They note the medieval documentary evidence from the lowest to the highest levels of society of a great var­ iety of literary genres, among which were ballads, verse epics, Aesopic fables, folk tales, legends, animal tales, and jests, but not a single fairy tale. This is as true of a com­ pendious source like the Karlsruhe Codex 408 as it is of hundreds of marginal manuscript notations. A principal cause of confusion surrounding the history of the fairy tale in Germany is the German word Mdr­ chen, which has designated the fairy-tale genre for nearly two centuries. Mdrchen means 'brief tale'. Brief tales

GERMANY

GERMANY

210

have existed for uncounted millenia, but because the word Mdrchen formed part of the title of the Grimms' Kinder- und Hausmdrchen—which was often translated into English as Grimms' Fairy Tales—it came to stand for 'fairy tales' in English in the 19th and 20th centuries. A s a result, everything that was written about Mdrchen was undifferentiatedly, and often erroneously, applied to 'fairy tales'. That confusion has been further compounded by the fact that certain kinds of tales which are not themselves fairy tales, but which are routinely included in fairy-tale collections, do have a demonstrably long history. One is the cautionary tale 'Little Red Riding Hood'. Many scholars have concluded that Ecbasis captivi (c. 1043—6) by Egbert of Liège, with its little girl, tunica rubicunda, and worrying wolf, provides an ancient rendering of the well-known modern story. Most contemporary scholars, however, distinguish between individual motifs and entire stories in the world of contemporary tales and storytelling, but since the early 19th century beginnings of fairy-tale scholarship, there has existed a tendency to equate the documented existence of an individual motif with the contemporaneous presence of an entire fairy tale. The vocabulary and names in 'Cinderella' stories provide another relevant example. Its heroine in the Grimms' version is Aschenputtel, in the Bechstein version Aschenbrôdel. Some commentators have pointed to the fact that similar names were used by Martin Luther ('Aschenbroedel'), Geiler von K e y sersberg ('Eschengrudel'), and Georg Rollenhagen ('AschenpoesseP) in the 1500s to prove that the Aschenputtel/ Cinderella story was widespread at that time. But no evidence exists to support that proposition. The greater likelihood is that when the 'Cinderella' story entered Germany, it appropriated an already-existing name for its heroine. RBB Apel, Friedmar, Die Zaubergdrten der Phantasie. Zur Théorie und Geschichte des Kunstmdrchens (1978). Gratz, Manfred, Das Mdrchen in der deutschen Aufkldrung. Vom Feenmdrchen ^um Volksmarchen (1988). Haase, Donald, The Reception of Grimms' Fairy Tales (1993). Klotz, Volker, Das europdische Kunstmdrchen (1985). Schenda, Rudolf, Von Mund {u Ohr: Bausteine ^u einer Kulturgeschichte volkstiimlichen Er^dhlens in Europa (1993). Tismar, Jens, Kunstmdrchen (1977).

211

W h i l e a husband is on a p i l g r i m a g e to R o m e , his wife takes a l o v e r , a necromancer, w h o makes an enchanted w a x i m a g e o f the husband to kill him in absentia. In R o m e , an adviser gives the husband a m a g i c mirror. W h e n he sees the necromancer in the mirror prepared to shoot, he must immerse himself in w a t e r ( e n ) . A king dies, leaving to the y o u n g e s t son a magic ring with p o w e r to make the w e a r e r b e loved, a necklace to accomplish the heart's d e sire o f any person, and a cloth that will transport a n y o n e to any destination. H e m a r ries a w o m a n w h o steals all three gifts. In his travels he acquires w a t e r that takes flesh off bones and fruit that causes leprosy. H e finds a stream that restores the flesh o f his feet, and a second tree that cures leprosy. N o w a great healer, he is called to his w i f e ' s house to cure her. She must first confess her sins and restore all defrauded g o o d s in exchange for a cure. H e gives her the flesh-eating w a t e r and the fruit that causes leprosy. M a n y different versions and translations o f the Gesta Romanorum w e r e disseminated throughout E u r o p e , and the tales w e r e generally used to endorse religious morals and virtues and to expose vice. Y e t , since they also stemmed in part from oriental culture and w e r e filled with adventure, miracles, and romance, they w e r e often secularized and changed in the oral tradition and w e r e adapted b y such great writers as Boccaccio, C h a u c e r , *Shakespeare, and *Schiller. H G Marchalonis, Shirley, 'Medieval Symbols and the Gesta Romanorum', Chaucer Review, 8 (1974). Roll, Walter, 'Zur Uberlieferungsgeschichte der "Gesta Romanorum" ', Mittellateinisches

Jahrbuch, 21 (1986). GIRAUDOUX, JEAN (1882-1944), French n o v e l ist, playwright, and critic. S t r o n g l y influenced by G e r m a n romantics, he w r o t e Ondine (1939), a play based on a tale b y Friedrich de la Motte *Fouqué (* Undine, 1 8 1 1 ) , w h i c h w a s itself a version o f a 14th-century p o e m . T h r o u g h the unsuccessful union o f a n y m p h and a knight, G i r a u d o u x suggests the difficulty o f reconciling the natural and the human w o r l d s . LCS

G O D O Y ALCANTARA, JOSÉ

singers before their characters on screen. A s an interpretation o f the fairy-tale film, G l a s s ' s o p eratic score and media experiment stress the l o v e story and the artist's i n w a r d j o u r n e y tow a r d s creativity. DH GLINKA, MIKHAIL IVANOVICH (1804-57), R u s sian c o m p o s e r . T h e history o f R u s s i a n art music begins with G l i n k a ' s opera A Life for the

Tsar (Ivan Sussanin), in 1836; in addition to its patriotic story, it w a s the first major c o m p o s ition to e m p l o y themes from R u s s i a n folk music. His second opera, Russian and Ludmilla (1842), also rich in folk themes, established the R u s s i a n national style. T h e story, from a p o e m b y *Pushkin based on a R u s s i a n folk tale, r e lates h o w the D u k e o f K i e v ' s daughter L u d milla is kidnapped b y the evil flying d w a r f C h e r n o m o r and rescued b y the knight R u s s i a n w i t h his m a g i c s w o r d . SR GOBLE, PAUL ( 1 9 3 3 - ) , E n g l i s h - b o r n A m e r i c a n illustrator and author w h o has retold m a n y 19th-century G r e a t Plains Indian myths and l e gends, primarily o f the S i o u x , B l a c k f o o t , and C h e y e n n e cultures. G o b l e ' s w o r k s are w e l l r e ceived b y N a t i v e A m e r i c a n readers. In fact, he has been adopted into the Y a k i m a and S i o u x

tribes. The Girl who Loved Wild Horses (1979), a legend about a girl so impassioned b y horses, she is transformed into one, received the C a l decott M e d a l . It is a text epitomizing G o b l e ' s illustrative blend o f N a t i v e A m e r i c a n l e d g e r b o o k art and personal style, w h i c h stems from distinguished w o r k as an artist and industrial designer in E n g l a n d . A m o n g his other important b o o k s with fairy-tale motifs are: Buffalo

Woman (1984), Her Seven Brothers (1988), and Iktomi and the Boulder (1988). SS G O D O Y ALCANTARA, JOSÉ ( 1 8 2 5 - 7 5 ) , Spanish writer and scholar. H i s fame is due both to his w o r k as a journalist and to several research w o r k s o f his w h i c h received a w a r d s from the Spanish A c a d e m y o f L a n g u a g e and the Spanish A c a d e m y o f H i s t o r y . H i s tales appeared in periodicals such as Semanario Pintoresco Espa-

hol (Spanish Picturesque Weekly). In 1849 GLASS, PHILIP ( 1 9 3 7 - ) , A m e r i c a n c o m p o s e r

whose La Belle et la Bête: An Opera for Ensemble and Film (première, 1994) is an innovative operatic adaptation o f J e a n *Cocteau's film La

Belle et la Bête (*Beauty and the Beast, 1946). Glass transforms C o c t e a u ' s film into a live p r o duction o f music-theatre b y eliminating the film's soundtrack, synchronizing his n e w o p e r atic score with the film, and presenting live

G o d o y published ' U n abad c o m o hubo m u c h o s y un cocinero c o m o no h a y n i n g u n o . C u e n t o ' ( ' A n A b b o t as T h e r e H a v e B e e n M a n y and a C o o k as T h e r e Is N o Other. T a l e ' . T h i s story is a literary rendition o f a popular E u r o p e a n tale w h i c h had already been taken from the oral tradition and incorporated into the written one b y the Spanish 16th-century w r i t e r J u a n de Timoneda. CF

GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON

212

GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON ( 1 7 4 9 - 1 8 3 2 ) . G e r m a n y ' s O l y m p i a n poet and dramatist, G o e t h e turned to literary fairy tales on several occasions in mid-life, integrating them into m e m o i r s and novels. C h a p b o o k s read in his childhood introduced him to popular tales like 'Fortunatus', *'Melusine', ' T i l l E u l e n s p i e g e l ' , and ' T h e W a n d e r i n g J e w ' , and storytelling at h o m e made children's stories like ' T h e * B r a v e Little T a i l o r ' familiar. In his twenties he made references in his correspondence to magical components recognizable from fairy tales such as ' T h e *Juniper T r e e ' , ' O n e - E y e , T w o - E y e s , and T h r e e - E y e s ' , and ' T h e * F r o g K i n g ' . L i k e all educated urban G e r m a n s o f the 18th cen­ tury, G o e t h e w a s also acquainted with F r e n c h tales about fairies, both through his o w n read­ ing and, b y his o w n account, from stories his l i v e l y y o u n g mother had told him in his y o u t h .

In his first novel, Die Leiden des jungen Werther

(The Sorrows of Young Werther, 1774), he de­ v e l o p e d this motif and had his W e r t h e r tell children stories.

protagonist

A s the 6 1 - y e a r - o l d author o f Dichtung und

Wahrheit (Poetry and Truth, part I , b o o k 2), G o e t h e reported recounting to childhood p l a y ­ mates a 'fairy tale for b o y s ' , ' D e r neue P a r i s ' ( ' T h e N e w P a r i s ' ) . A dream sequence, it e m b e d d e d the narrative in a real and w e l l k n o w n location, the fortifications surrounding Frankfurt am Main. But the tale d r e w its elab­ orate m a g i c , classic references, colourful cast of beautiful n y m p h s , and i n v e n t o r y of delicate crystal, exotic fruit, and courtly entertainments from the style and content of 18th-century F r e n c h tales about fairies. In part 2, b o o k 10 o f Poetry and Truth, G o e t h e recorded telling ' D i e neue Melusine' ( ' T h e N e w Melusine') to a g r o u p o f y o u n g friends near Strasbourg as a y o u n g man. T y p ­ ical o f the literary trajectory o f m a n y m o d e r n stories, it w a s a legend that had been published as a Volkshuch and d e v e l o p e d b y Mlle de * L u b ert as 'Princess C a m i o n ' before it entered Wil­

helm Meisters Wanderjahre (Wilhelm Meister's Years of Travel, 1821) as a novella (3.6). His final effort, ' D a s M à r c h e n ' ( ' T h e F a i r y T a l e ' ) , c o m p o s e d in 1795, became part o f Conversation

of German Emigrants ( Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten). ' T h e F a i r y T a l e ' w a s G o e t h e ' s attempt to c o m p o s e the consummate narrative of this genre and to address the chaos brought about b y the F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n and N a p o l e o n i c W a r s . T h e basic theme o f the c o m p l e x s y m b o l ­ ical fairy tale concerns the g o l d e n age and the restoration o f order and h a r m o n y on earth. In

' T h e F a i r y T a l e ' t w o lands are separated b y a river, and chaos reigns. A peasant man with a light is called upon to g o to the temple on the other side of the river and to help cure the d y i n g L i l y . V a r i o u s characters such as the ferryman, t w o w i l l - o ' - t h e - w i s p s , a beautiful green serpent, and a y o u n g man must make sacrifices and w o r k together to bring about the establishment o f a n e w enlightened realm. G o e t h e ' s ' F a i r y T a l e ' has been interpreted as a religious, political, philosophical, and even economic allegory. * N o v a l i s , the G e r m a n r o ­ mantic poet, w r o t e a fairy tale about Klingsohr to critique G o e t h e ' s w o r k , and numerous G e r ­ man writers up to the present day have been influenced b y it. L i k e m a n y others in 18th-century G e r m a n y , G o e t h e had been influenced b y imports from F r a n c e like The ^Arabian Nights and tales about fairies. In high old age he enjoyed telling such stories to the princesses o f the W e i m a r court and to his o w n grandchildren. Respectful 19th-century contemporaries like J . G . B u s c h i n g and W i l h e l m * G r i m m kept G o e t h e informed about n e w l y published G e r ­ man fairy-tale collections. G o e t h e ' s references to brief narratives and to fairy tales in theor­ etical terms are varied and various, admiring, analytical, and denigrating in turn. His remarks reflect the tension that fairy tales generate and express between competing realms: magic and morality, fantasy and reason. His utterances also e m b o d y his mixed experience with fairy tales, which included a notably failed effort to c o m p o s e a sequel to the Zauberflôte. RBB Geulen, Hans, 'Goethes Kunstmarchen "Der neue Paris" und "Die neue Melusine": Ihre poetologischen Imaginationen und Spielformen', Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift fur Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte, 5 9 . 1 (1985).

Hoermann, Roland, 'Goethe's Masked Masque in "Das Màrchen": Theatrical Anticipations of Romanticism's Self-Reflexive Peril', in Clifford A. Bernd (ed.), Romanticism and Beyond ( 1 9 9 6 ) . Mommsen, Katharina, '"Màrchen der Utopien": Goethes Màrchen und Schillers Àsthetische Briefe', in Jiirgen Brummack (ed.), Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte ( 1 9 8 1 ) . Solbrig, Ingeborg H., 'Symbolik und ambivalente Funktion des Goldes in Goethes "Màrchen" \Jahrbuch des Wiener Goethe- Vereins, 73 (i9SPINK, R E G I N A L D ,

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Tales Told in Sweden

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Tales Told in Japan

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Fairy

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MACMANUS, SEUMAS, MACMILLAN,

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ALEXANDER,

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MANLOVE,

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PHILIP,

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Book of Fairy

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Tales from

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JAMES

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OZAKI, YEI THEODORA PAINTER, WILLIAM

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Tales, illus. W . Heath Robinson

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NEIL

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PINO-SAAVEDRA,

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PITRE, GIUSEPPE

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GIUSEPPE

POGREBIN, POLEVOI,

PETR

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L E T T Y

Russian

NIKOLAEVICH,

Fairy

Tales, ed. and trans. R . Nisbet

Bain, illus. N o e l L . Nisbet (1927). (comp.), Arthur Rackham

RACKHAM, ARTHUR

Favorites with New Illustrations (comp. and illus.), Fairy

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A . K . (ed.), Folktales from India (1991).

RAMANUJAN, RANDOLF,

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(ed.), The Devils

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Pretty Daughter

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Tales

(i955)RANKE,

K U R T

RANSOME, REED,

(ed.), Folktales

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WYCLIF,

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Fables and Fairy Stories, illus. J o a n K i d d e l l - M o n r o e

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RIORDAN, JAMES

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Stories One Generation

Elijahs

Tells Another

Violin and Other Jewish

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STEPHENS, JAMES, STEPHENS, JOHN

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BEATRICE

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THOMAS

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WILLIAMS-ELLIS, AMABEL, WILLIAMSON,

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Tales of Ireland,

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Tales of Persia,

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French Classical Fairy

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The Wondrous Fairy

Tales of Western

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Princess and the Gentle Knight

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(1994).

SPECIALIST JOURNALS

Africa: Journal

of the International

African Institute/Revue

de l'Institut

Africain

International Appalachian

Journal:

A Regional

Baum Bugle: A Journal Bealoideas: Bestia: Bulletin

Studies

Review

of 0{

The Journal of the Folklore of Ireland

Yearbook of the Beast Fable Folklorique

Children's Literature:

Society

Society

d'Ile de France Annual

Children's Literature

of the Modern Language

and the Children's Literature

Association Association

Division

on

601

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Children's Literature Ethnologie Fabula:

Association

Française: Revue

Quarterly

Trimestrielle

de la Société d'Ethnologie

Zeitschrift fiir Erjàhlforschung/Journal

sur le Conte Populaire

Studies

Folklore: English Monthly

Devoted

Folklore Historian: Journal

of the Folklore and History

to the Cause of Indian Folklore

Mitteilungen:

in Wissenschaft und International

Folklore

Zeitschrift fur Deutsche

Journal

of the Fantastic

in the Arts

Journal

of the Folklore

Institute

Journal

of Folklore

Research

Journal

of Popular

Culture

Folklore Record: A Regional Journal Folklore Folklore et Contes

Mythlore:

Kultur

of Folklore

and

of Children's

Folklife

Literature

Miscellany

Merveilles Mid-America

und

Tales

Medieval

Midwestern

Literatur

Folklore

The Lion and the Unicorn: A Critical Journal and

Sprache,

Review

of American

Marvels

American

Praxis

Journal

Louisiana

Society

Section of the

Society

Germanistische

Kentucky

d'Etudes

{Fabula)

Folklore and Mythology

Folklore

Française

of FolktaleStudies/Revue

Folklore Folklore

A Journal

ofJ. R. R. Tolkien,

Genres of Myth and New York Folklore

Charles Williams,

and the

Quarterly

North Carolina Folklore North Wind: Journal

Journal

of the George MacDonald

Phaedrus: An International Présence Africaine:

C. S. Lewis,

Fantasy

Revue

Annual

Society

of Children's Literature

Research

Culturelle du Monde Noir/Cultural

Review

of the

Negro

World Revista

de Dialectologia

Revista

y Tradiciones

Schlesien: Arts, Science, Sinsear:

Populares

Iberoamericana The Folklore

Southern

Folklore Journal

Folklore

Tennessee Folklore Society Western

Yed'a- 'Am/Yeda-Am: Society

Bulletin

Folklore Bamah

le-Folklor

Yehudi/Journal

of the Israel

Folklore

P i c t u r e

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

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