The Works: Anatomy of a City

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Have you ever wondered how the water in your faucet gets there? Where your garbage goes? What all the pipes underneath city streets do? For those who have ever stopped mid-crosswalk, looked around at a rapidly moving metropolis, and asked themselves "How does it all work?," THE WORKS is required reading.

ALL CITIES, BIG AND S M A L L , rely on a vast array of interconnected systems to take care of their citizens' most basic needs: keeping water bubbling through the pipes, traffic moving on the streets, power flowing to businesses a n d homes. Largely invisible and almost always taken for granted, these are the basic building blocks of urban life. But how exactly do these systems w o r k ? Using New York City—among the biggest and most complex of world cities—as its point of reference, The Works: Anatomy of a City answers that question. Deftly interweaving text and graphics, it sheds light on the technologies that power the metropolis: how do a billion gallons of water each day get to city homes and businesses? Who coordinates traffic lights to keep traffic moving on roads? How do flowers get to your corner store from Holland or bananas from Ecuador? Where does waste go w h e n you flush your toilet? What happens w h e n a subway car stalls? It also describes the people w h o lie behind these technologies—the pilot w h o brings a ship through the Narrows, the sandhogs w h o are digging Water Tunnel No. 3 under Manhattan, the maintenance engineer w h o ensures the Holland Tunnel doesn't leak. Scattered throughout are fascinating facts and anecdotes: did you know that the George Washington Bridge was originally designed to be clad i n concrete, but its skeleton was so attractive that the Port Authority decided to leave it "naked"? Or that city sewage used to be sent by train to a field i n western Texas but is now routinely turned into pellets that

( c o n t i n u e d on b a c k

flap)

1105

(continued /rom / r o n t /lap)

fertilize orange groves in Florida? That the more than a billion gallons of water New Yorkers use each day are gravity fed, meaning they will naturally rise to the sixth floor of any building without needing a pump? Or that retired subway cars travel by barge to the mid-Atlantic, where they are dumped overboard to form natural reefs for fish? Unique in the breadth and depth of its information, here is "the city that never sleeps" operating 24/7. The Works is the ultimate guide to the w a y things work in the modern city.

Kate A s c h e r received her M.Sc. and Ph.D. in government from the London School of Economics and her B.A. in political science from Brown University. Kate formerly held positions at the Port Authority of New York and New J e r s e y and in corporate finance overseas before taking up her current position as executive vice president of the New York City Economic Development Corporation.

The Penguin Press

A member of Penguin Group ( U S A ) Inc. 375 Hudson Street, New York, N . Y . 1 0 0 1 4 www.penguin.com

ISBN

1-59420-071-8

THE W O R K S

A N A T O M Y OF

Kate Ascher Researched by Wendy Marech Designed by Alexander Isley Inc.

The Penguin Press New York 2005

THE PENGUIN PRESS Published by the Penguin Group Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014, U.S.A. Penguin Group (Canada), 90 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 700, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4P 2Y3 (a division of Pearson Penguin Canada Inc.) Penguin Books Ltd, 80 Strand, London WC2R oRL, England Penguin Ireland, 25 St. Stephen's Green, Dublin 2, Ireland (a division of Penguin Books Ltd) Penguin Books Australia Ltd, 250 Camberwell Road, Camberwell, Victoria 3124, Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi - no 017, India Penguin Group (NZ), Cnr Airborne and Rosedale Roads, Albany, Auckland 1310, New Zealand (a division of Pearson New Zealand Ltd) Penguin Books (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd, 24 Sturdee Avenue, Rosebank, Johannesburg 2196, South Africa Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: 80 Strand, London WC2R oRL, England First published in 2005 by The Penguin Press, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2 Copyright © Portfolio Projects, 2005. All rights reserved Illustration credits appear on pages 218 and 219. CIP data availbale. ISBN 1-59420-071-8 Printed in Singapore Set in FF Eureka and Square 721 Designed by Alexander Isley Inc.

Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this book. The scanning, uploading, and distribution of this book via the Internet or via any other means without the permission of the publisher is illegal and punishable by law. Please purchase only authorized electronic editions and do not participate in or encourage electronic piracy of copyrightable materials. Your support of the author's rights is appreciated.

To Rebecca and Nathaniel

live in the world's largest cities—places like London, Sao Paulo, Shanghai, and New York—and hundreds of millions more commute to them each day. Wave upon wave of vehicles course through their streets, while thousands of tons of cargo move in and out of their freight terminals. Less visibly, millions of gallons of clean water flow silently

through their pipes—while millions more

e.g., on a unified system of water delivery,

are carried away as waste. All the while,

on in-city generation of power, on the world s

vast amounts of power are consumed by

largest central steam system.

their homes and businesses and millions of gigabytes of data flow through their telecom wires. Rarely does a resident of any of the

The magnitude and scope of the infrastructure that supports daily life in New York makes it the ideal subject for a study of how cities work. New York has

world's great metropolitan areas pause to

everything: sewers, power, telecom,

consider the complexity of urban life

water, road, rail and marine traffic—all

or the myriad systems that operate round

piled atop one another in what may be the

the clock to support it. He or she wakes

densest agglomeration of infrastructure

up in the morning to turn on a tap, switch

anywhere on earth. Exploring the systems

on a light, flush a toilet or perhaps grab

that keep New York functioning at the

a banana—little knowing how much effort,

pace it does provides a fascinating insight

on the part of how many people, goes

into the complexity of urban life at the

into making the simplest morning routine

dawn of the twenty-first century.

possible. The rest of the day is also

The chapters that follow explore five of

deceptively simple: crossing a street, riding

the most interesting, and in many cases

the subway, taking out the garbage—even

least visible, components of New York City's

the most mundane domestic tasks would be

infrastructure: moving people, moving

impossible without the far-reaching,

freight, providing power, supporting

complex, and often invisible network of

communications, and keeping the city clean.

infrastructure that supports them.

Like the essential systems that keep a

While this holds true for urban life across

human body running, each of these is vital

the globe, no city is more dependent on its

to the functioning of the metropolis.

infrastructure than New York. A vertical as

And as with any lesson in anatomy, these

well as a horizontal city, power is king:

complex systems—while interdependent—

without it, the two things that move more

are best studied discretely. Each chapter

bodies than any other—the subway and

is devoted to a system, and may be read as

elevators—would grind to a screeching halt.

a whole or, alternatively, in sections

As a city of trade, thousands of tons of goods

designed to highlight its most important

move in and out of its ports and terminals

component parts. In either case, the

each day—by rail, truck, sea, and air. And as

graphic explanations and illustrations that

one of the world's most densely populated

accompany the text should form an

urban areas, it relies on communal delivery

integral—and we hope enlightening—

of services to an extent few cities do—

part of the reading experience.

The world of infrastructure

is vast, and to many of us infinitely

interesting. Throughout this book, every attempt has been made to select those topics that seemed most relevant and at the same time least familiar to a broad spectrum of readers, and to approach them in a way that readers will easily grasp.

The pages that follow are full of both facts and This information

explanations.

is generally intended to convey an order of

magnitude, a chronology of events, or a broad causal relationship. While every effort has been made to ensure that the data presented here are accurate at the time of publication, neither the publisher nor the author assumes any responsibility for or changes that occur after publication.

errors,

Moving People Moving Freight Power

2

Streets

26

Subway

44

Bridges £r Tunnels

58

Rail Freight

68

Maritime Freight

80

Air Cargo

86

Markets

92

Electricity

no

Natural Gas

116

Communications Keeping It Glean

124

Telephone

136

Moving the Mail

142

The Airwaves

152

Water

170

Sewage

184

Garbage

The Future

204

Index

220

Between residents, visitors and commuters, tens of millions of journeys are made each day within New York City's boundaries. Many of these are made by mass transit, generally subway or bus; the remainder rely on taxis, private cars, or commercial vehicles. Just how the street and transit networks get everybody where they are going—safely, quickly, and with relatively little hassle—is one of the miracles of the modern city. Streets are, of course, the most important element of moving large numbers of people—without a system of traffic signals and pedestrian crossings, urban life would be chaotic indeed. But subways are also important, and keep the volume of people on the roads to a manageable level. And bridges and tunnels, as an extension of the region s roadways, are equally necessary to move people smoothly across this city of islands.

and subway system below while providing a platform for traffic signals, parking signs and meters, streetlights, and sewers. Alongside the streets run the equally important sidewalks, which

New York is a city of streets. Almost 20,000 miles of streets and highways connect the o J inhabitants of the five boroughs. Only 1,250

cater to pedestrian life and offer a foundation for conveniences like telephones and mailboxes, and for the urban vegetation known as street trees. The street system we see today is both more complex and yet more orderly than at

any time in New York's history. The earliest

of those miles represent highways: most

roads, clustered in lower Manhattan,

are primary and secondary roads (7,300

were narrow affairs—easily choked with the

miles) or local streets (11,000 miles).

traffic of the day. As Manhattan expanded

The streets themselves, while simple in appearance, provide either the covering

northward, roads to northern settlements were developed somewhat randomly,

or the foundation for a world of related

probably along the routes of old Indian

infrastructure. They protect the utilities

trails. Many if not all of these roads were the predecessors of today's broad north-

Streets

south avenues. The first real systemization of streets— and perhaps the event that best explains what we see around us today—was the development of the Grid Plan for Manhattan in 1811. Also known as the Commissioners' Plan, it fixed block and lot sizes and imposed the rectilinear grid that governs

The Commissioners' Plan

Manhattan's streets. While it succeeded in its

of

primary purpose of underpinning orderly

1811

The Commissioners' Plan for

M a n h a t t a n , also known as the Grid Plan,

real estate development, it arguably failed

was adopted in 1 8 1 1 by the Common Council

to provide capacity for the heavy north-

of the city. It mandated a gridiron layout

south traffic that would later be addressed

for the expansion of M a n h a t t a n ' s s t r e e t

by the development of the subways.

network, which up t o t h a t time had evolved haphazardly. The plan's authors envisioned the heaviest traffic would flow from east to w e s t , so t h e s e s t r e e t s were spaced closely (the width of these s t r e e t s was set at 6 0 feet between building lines). In c o n t r a s t , north-south avenues were set farther apart and were wider ( 1 0 0 feet between building lines).

Keeping traffic moving on the streets of New York almost two centuries after the Grid Plan was introduced is a formidable

New York's Street Network

and expanding task. From 1982 to 2000, when the population of the city increased

Highways

by roughly 10 percent, the number of

Major Roads

miles traveled within city borders rose by

M i n o r Roads

some 45 percent. Twenty years ago, roughly 3.4 hours each day were considered "rush hour"; today, rush hour has more than doubled, to between seven and eight hours each day. But it is not just cars that are the focus of the city's traffic management efforts. Pedestrians are an equal presence on the streets, and any successful system must carefully integrate and synchronize the two. Doing so requires more than just the streetlights which govern traffic at 11,400 of the city's 40,000 intersections. It involves parking rules and restrictions, a pedestrian crossing system, one-way traffic patterns, and a host of other innovations—bus lanes, truck routes, "thru streets," and limitedaccess roads, to name just a few.

4

The Works

Mouing People

Streets Regional Traffic

Most of the vehicles that clog Manhattan's streets, and

many that regularly use streets in the outer boroughs, come from outside the city. Each day, an estimated I.I million cars and trucks cross into New York—from New Jersey, Long

Anatomy of an Accident

Island, or Westchester. Managing this flow—on highways,

major accident occurs in the

bridges, tunnels, and local roads—is an important part of

region, among the most important agencies to

the overall effort to keep New Yorkers on the move.

t r a v e l e r s is Transcom. Created originally

While the city's Department of Transportation (DOT)

when a

metropolitan

as a way to enable its member agencies to share

is largely responsible for the movement along city streets

road construction information and resolve

and bridges, a number of agencies share responsibility

schedule conflicts, it soon gave birth to a round-

for the wider regional road transportation network, including

the-clock control room, set up to communicate

the Port Authority (trans-Hudson bridges and tunnels);

information about major traffic accidents in the

the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (Verrazano,

region. The idea is simple: when an accident

Triborough, Whitestone, and Throgs Neck bridges,

occurs, the transportation agency responsible for

among others); and New York State (all state highways).

t h a t road will be too busy dealing with the

Altogether, more than 16 different public transportation or

problem to inform neighboring jurisdictions of the

safety agencies—with more than 100 different control

incident. Transcom's job is to do j u s t t h a t .

rooms—operate within the region. Alert times 5 : 3 0 - 6 : 0 0 a.m.

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Transcom Screen Shot

Until recently, little if any coordination existed between these agencies, particularly with respect to infrastructure repairs, leaving the public to suffer through weekend after weekend of torturous road travel. That changed rather dramatically in the mid-1980s with the birth of Transcom, the "United Nations of transportation." An organization made up of 18 member agencies, Transcom monitors roadways in the tristate area and shares information on active and

At 7:00 a.m.

planned construction, sports events, and accidents with its

Subsequently, outreach w a s expanded

member agencies. In addition to providing advice for

with calls to agencies in Pennsylvania,

investigation, cleanup, and

Delaware, M a r y l a n d , a n d South

inspection for structural damage.

broadcast over the radio, Transcom also orchestrates the variable message signs that drivers may find along the region's highways—telling them where the delays are and how they might best avoid them—and runs a round-the-clock control room to deal with major traffic accidents in the region.

Jersey. Communications referred t o the / a c t t h a t although the New

Agencies alerted: New Jersey

Jersey-bound lower level was likely to

Transit Public Affairs, New York

have a lane clear shortly, delays

Waterway Ferry, Smart Routes

would be extended due t o the pending

(Boston), M e t r o Traffic (Providence).

Before 6:00 a.m. Within ten minutes, the closure w a s expanded to incorporate

the

entire

M a n a g e m e n t Center, MTA Command Center, NYC DOT, NYC Transit

Before 7:00 a.m. The communications outreach, / o l l o w i n g / u l l closure, incorporated the approaches coming into New York. The information disseminated gave the impression of a temporary closure and estimated a delay of 6 0 - 9 0 minutes during the impending rush hour. Agencies alerted: New Jersey State Police, Westchester County Police, Port Authority Staten Island Bridges, Verrazano Narrows Bridge,

Agencies alerted: Lincoln Tunnel,

Buses, S h a d o w / M e t r o Traffic, Throgs

Palisades Interstate Parkway, New

Neck Bridge, Whitestone Bridge,

Jersey Transit Buses, Port Authority

Trihoro Bridge, NY State

Bus Terminal, Bergen County Police,

LaGuardia Airport, New Jersey

Fort l e e Police, NYPD Traffic

Turnpike Authority.

Newburgh Beacon Bridge, Henry Hudson Bridge, Tenafly Police, leonia Police, Edgewater Police, Inglewood Cliffs Police, Alpine Police, Palisades Park Police, Pennsylvania DOT, Connecticut DOT, New York State DOT, JFK I n t e r n a t i o n a l Airport, New Jersey Highway Authority, M e t r o Traffic (Delmarva), M e t r o Traffic (Hartford).

Thruway,

6

The Works

Moving People

Streets Traffic Signals

New York City is awash in

traffic lights—11,400 of them to be exact. Contrary to the belief of many, they are not intended to limit speed; their primary purpose is to control right-of-way at

1. Fifteen computers a t the TMC control up to 720 intersections each, monitoring real-time data including current signal displays, traffic detectors, and cycle lengths for each intersection. The area computers are connected to t h e intersections themselves by a variety of broadband cable technologies.

intersections. In that sense, they are critical 2. In addition to the computers, traffic flow is monitored on video cameras by TMC staff. Some 230 cameras, 90 of them in Manhattan, send images to the operations center. In case of an incident the TMC engineers can remotely adjust signal timing online or, if needed, dispatch m a i n t e n a n c e engineers.

to the successful coexistence of people and cars in the urban environment. As with most conventional traffic lights, New York's have two phases: an east-west one and a north-south one. They generally operate on 60-, 90-, or 120-second intervals; the cycle is determined by local traffic conditions and may even be longer at times. The city's longest cycles are on the West Side Highway and on Queens Boulevard, each of which features cycle times of two

3. The TMC also manages the "don't walk" signals t h a t govern pedestrian flow. These are programmed to accommodate an average stride of four feet per second but can be adjusted to fit local conditions. In areas with a concentration of elderly people or young children, a slower stride (three feet per second) governs the pedestrian crossing cycle.

minutes and fifteen seconds. Anyone who has ever had a good run down Columbus or up Amsterdam avenues in Manhattan knows that lights on major avenues in the city are often set sequentially—turning green in about six-second progressions. (The ideal cruising speed is about 30 miles per hour, which is, not coincidentally, the speed limit.) But other lights turn green simultaneously, including on many of the two-way avenues like Park Avenue. These lights are choreographed by New York City Department of Transportation at its Traffic Management Center (TMC) in Long Island City or manipulated manually by DOT staff. Connected to the lights by city-owned coaxial cable running under the streets, the TMC can change the length of red and green signals to accommodate daily fluctuations in traffic flow. During the morning rush hour, for instance, longer green lights on roadways leading into

4. Although a green light on one

Manhattan facilitate the movement of inbound traffic; in the evening, the pattern is reversed. Similar adjustments are made for planned events, such as parades and ballgames, and for unplanned ones, such as roadway accidents or water main bursts.

face of a traffic signal generally corresponds with a red light on the 5. Detector signals provide real-time information on traffic conditions. Magnetic loops adjacent to major intersections sense metal in cars passing above and send vehicle counts back to the operations center.

opposite side, in most cases there is a two-second period when both sides are red.

Traffic Light Buttons

was t o allow traffic t o flow freely on

M o s t of the 5 , 0 0 0 traffic lights not

t h e larger road until a sensor in

controlled directly by t h e T M C

the side street—or a button located

are set mechanically at boxes located

along it—signaled t h e presence of

near the intersection. Some of

a vehicle or pedestrian.

them—though not as many as one

Some 3 , 2 5 0 or so of these buttons

might expect—are still controlled,

remain in New York City, but fewer

at least in p a r t , by push buttons

than a quarter of them actually work.

located on nearby poles. Called

The cost of removing t h e deactivated

"semi-actuated signals" by traffic

ones is high (roughly $ 4 0 0 per

engineers, they f i r s t appeared in

intersection), so they remain—a

New York City in 1 9 6 4 . Located a t

testament t o a level of control

the intersection of a major roadway

by man over machine t h a t many New

and a minor side s t r e e t , t h e idea

Yorkers might wish still existed.

To address the daily conflicts between cars and pedestrians in New York, split phasing was introduced in parts of Manhattan in the fall of 2002 and became a permanent city initiative in 2004. Split phasing divides a traffic signal into three distinct parts, shown below, to provide pedestrians a safe street-crossing period, free from vehicle turns.

In the first instance, traffic on the avenue moves ahead on the green light, and traffic on the cross street is sto

During the next phase, traffic on the

In the last stage, both cars

avenue is stopped while vehicles on the cross street that are traveling

t u r n i n g from and going s t r a i g h t on

straight ahead may proceed. Those turning from the cross street

move; pedestrians m a y continue t o

are n o t permitted to move, enabling pedestrians on the avenue to cross on both sides of the street.

the cross street are allowed to cross on the n o n t u r n i n g crosswalk.

The Works

Moving People

Streets

Traffic Cameras

To monitor traffic flow across

number have been contested, and very few ticket recipients

the city, DOT has installed

have been found not guilty.

cameras at major intersections and on highways and bridges.

The program is apparently achieving its goals; studies have

Many of these cameras simply allow traffic engineers to

shown a 40 percent decrease in the total number of

watch and adjust signal timing. Others are more active in

motorist violations at intersections with the cameras. City

their pursuit of drivers violating traffic rules. "Red-light

transportation planners would like to see the program

cameras," for example, have been installed at fifty major

expand to additional locations. In the meantime, another

intersections throughout the city. These cameras take

200 locations have "dummy" cameras, which flash strobe

high-resolution photographs of vehicles that go through red

lights in similar fashion to the real ones.

lights, including a close-up of the license plate. Summonses, including a photograph of the plate, are sent to violators. New York was the first major city in the United States to implement a red-light enforcement program. Since its inception in 1993, more than 1.4 million summonses have been issued throughout the five boroughs. Only a small

Traffic Camera Locations Top Infraction Sites Madison and East 79th St., M a n h a t t a n ^{Park Avenue and East 30th St., M a n h a t t a n

-^C J-495 Service Rd. Westbound a t Van Dam St., Queens Kings Highway and Remsen Ave., Brooklyn

-^Cl-678 Service Rd. Eastbound a t Hillside Ave., Queens

130th St. a n d 20th Ave., Queens

-^C Rutland a n d Utica Aves., Brooklyn

Avenue Z a n d Coney Island Ave., Brooklyn

Q

Still Camera

+

Video Camera Top Infraction Site

How Red-Light Cameras Work

Red-light cameras are connected to

The computer calculates the speed of

The license plate in the photograph

The digital or photographic evidence

the traffic signal and to two sensors buried in the pavement

the vehicle and then takes a second shot of the car in the middle

is then referenced against Department 0 / M o t o r Vehicles d a t a ,

time in case the ticket is challenged.

a t the crosswalk or stop line. If a vehicle activates only one sensor

of the intersection. A camera records t h e d a t e , time, speed, a n d seconds elapsed since the light turned red.

to ensure the plate matches the description on record. The d a t a

ajter the light has turned red, the computer knows it has stopped a t the edge of the intersection; if it activates both, the computer takes a digital photo of the car entering the intersection.

Thru Streets Program

is stored online for a period of

are then converted to a printed violation a n d forwarded to the city's Department of Finance, and a summons is sent by mail to the owner of the vehicle in question.

Midtown Manhattan auto speeds are

notoriously slow—4.8 mph on average eastbound and 4.2

To better manage the midtown grid, in the fall of 2002, DOT selected certain streets to be designated "thru steets" to facilitate crosstown traffic. No turns would be permitted

mph on average heading west. Many factors contribute

on or off five pairs of streets (36th/37th, 45th/46th,

to this problem beyond simply the high volume of vehicles

49th/50th, 53rd/54th, 59th/6oth) from Third to Sixth avenues

using the streets: large numbers of pedestrians, illegal

—with the exception of Park Avenue—between the hours

parking, construction activity, and truck loading are most

of 10 a.m. and 6 p.m. Neighboring streets were earmarked for localized circulation and commercial goods delivery,

to blame.

which was facilitated by providing curb space on both sides (as opposed to one side) of these adjacent streets.

Speeding Across Town Before

>v*i>sr

After

The Works

Moving People

Streets Traffic-Calming Measures Thru streets and split phasing are just two of the newest weapons in the DOT's armory of traffic-management techniques; traffic lights and stop signs, in contrast, Neckdowns, also

are two of the oldest. Some are laborintensive, such as deploying police at congested intersections. Others, such as

called curb

extensions,

Bus Bulbs involve widening

the

sidewalk

involve narrowing

at a bus stop so t h a t

the street and widening

buses do not leave the

the sidewalk.

travel lane when stopping

concrete barriers, may be temporary—and

Roadway Narrowing can be achieved either by widening

the sidewalk

or by using street markings to indicate

to pick up passengers.

narrowed

Bike Lanes must be a t least five feet wide when located next to a curb or parking.

Roadway Color or Texture may be used to accent or better define pedestrian crossing areas.

travel

lanes.

simply a way to protect or facilitate ongoing repair or construction. Beyond these, there are more than a dozen accepted "traffic-calming" measures designed to slow traffic or manage pedestrian flow.

Pedestrian Refuges involve small islands located in the middle of a two-way street, which allow pedestrians to cross in stages.

Speed Humps m a y be

Raised Crosswalks,

as high as three or / o u r inches, a n d m a y be circular, parabolic, or flat-topped in shape.

two to four inches above the street, may be located a t intersections or in the middle of a block.

Roadway Medians generally appear as raised islands along the center of a street.

Raised Intersections involve flat, raised areas t h a t cover a n intersection and often include a textured

surface.

Chicanes involve

Partial Diverters

Diagonal Diverters

All-Pedestrian Phases

building o u t curb lines

block travel in a

force all traffic to turn in

involve red lights on

on a l t e r n a t i n g sides

particular direction at

a certain direction.

of the street.

an intersection.

both streets a t an intersection, which allows pedestrians protected crossing

time.

Gateway Treatment involves a combination of measures, such as texture and raised street surfaces, to mark the entrance to a particular area.

Leading Pedestrian Intervals involve holding all vehicles at an intersection while giving pedestrians on at least one approach a green walk sign.

11

Calming Queens Boulevard

Twelve-lane

Queens Boulevard is one of the widest streets in the city. It is also one of the busiest—and most dangerous. A t least 5 0 pedestrians have been killed along Queens Boulevard in the last decade alone. To make the s t r e e t safer, in 2 0 0 0 , DOT began implementing improvements along Queens Boulevard between the Long Island Expressway and Union Turnpike. Pedestrian fatalities subsequently dropped, from an average of nine a year in the 1 9 9 0 s to just three in 2 0 0 1 and two in 2 0 0 2 . Roughly 1 6 , 0 0 0 linear feet of pedestrian

Midblock signalized crossings, with highvisibility crosswalk markings, were installed at three locations.

Nine new highvisibility crosswalks

fencing were installed on the service road medians.

were introduced.

Sidewalk extensions, known as neckdowns were installed a t 14 locations.

Pedestrian refuge areas at service road medians were expanded a t nine locations.

12

The Works

Moving People

Streets

For a city of extraordinary diversity, New York's streets are remarkably uniform—materialwise, that is. The vast majority of city streets consist of two layers of asphalt over a concrete base, although a handful are made entirely of concrete. Nearly all are graded to be slightly higher in the center, to allow water to run off into catch basins at street corners. Sidewalks are generally concrete with steel-faced curbs, though distinctive curbs made of granite or bluestone may be found within a historic district or near notable commercial buildings. The use of asphalt as a paving material in the city is largely a twentieth-century phenomenon. Various forms of impacted stone and gravel were common street materials until 1872, when Battery Park and Fifth Avenue were the first streets to be paved with asphalt. But the longest-lived and most durable New York City street material to date is cobblestone: it has served as the road material of choice for two hundred years.

The A r t of the Manhole Cover /v-rrn ~rr~r~i /-rrrr fArm nrri~7f~r"r~r~ , 3)J£JLSJ4

-rrrrrrr

The Catskill Water m a n h o l e cover

Con Edison m a i n t a i n s t h e largest

A commemorative manhole cover,

The Borough of Richmond, now

was p a r t of the second phase of

n u m b e r of manhole covers in

called Global Energy, was

known as Staten Island, was created

the city's development of its upstate

the city, encompassing various designs.

designed by Karim Rashid

when the City of New York was

for Con Edison in honor of the

incorporated in 1898.

water delivery system.

millennium.

Beneath City Streets

Most New York City roads

have

two top layers, each consisting of two to three inches of asphalt.

Below the asphalt is usually a base layer of concrete, though

occasionally

wood or clay is found below the

History in Stone

New York's

cobblestones are not as old as most New Yorkers

surface. think. The concept of using small round stones as s t r e e t paving dates back 3 5 0 y e a r s , but the cobblestones we ride across today are a mere 150

years old. Flat rectangles of Belgian granite,

they were originally brought to New York in the 1 8 3 0 s as ship ballast. Today, some 3 6 lane miles of cobblestones remain in New York City. Some s t r e e t s , like W o o s t e r , Greene, M e r c e r , and Bond in S o H o , are in a protected historic district; others—such as P e r r y and Sewer pipes generally r u n down t h e middle of the street; catch basins located a t the corners feed into it.

Bank s t r e e t s — a r e not. Four times as

expensive as asphalt, cobblestones in "unprotected" d i s t r i c t s will only occasionally be replaced in kind. Often holes in these streets are filled in with asphalt or a mix of other kinds of s t o n e s .

This snow/lake design dates from the

This cover can be traced back to t h e

late nineteenth century and was

city's Department of Public Works.

used to cover manholes used by the electric utility companies.

This manhole cover design was done for the Fire Department.

The initials RTS stand for "rapid t r a n s i t system " and are found above some subway shafts.

The Works

Moving People

Streets Street Defects

New York City streets are in

Street Repair

constant need of repair, either on

a spot basis or requiring replacement of the street surfaces in its entirety. Most of the repair work is caused by extreme winter temperatures and heavy truck traffic, although some is simply a product of general wear and tear. A variety of street defects keep DOT crews busy. Potholes are one kind of common defect; others include sinkholes, ditches, hummocks, ponding, open or failed street cuts, and cracked catch basins. Repair tactics vary, according to the defect. If the problem is the result of a failed utility cut,

Ponding conditions refer to the buildup 0 / w a t e r and occur a t low points in t h e roadway as a result of poor drainage systems or insufficient grading.

Cave-ins, also known as sinkholes, are characterized by jagged edges around a deep hole.

the responsible utility company is asked to make the fix. If the defect is too large for the DOT's emergency pothole crew, a temporary "make safe" repair is completed until the street can be properly restored. The most dangerous defects are those found in a crosswalk or driving lane —and they are repaired first. Both street and utility crews rely on a uniform system of prerepair street markings to distinguish the type and location of underground infrastructure adjacent to a repair area. These seemingly random colored markings on streets are actually part of a sophisticated repair language: different colors and shapes are used to indicate either

Manhole covers can present a danger to drivers if they are cracked or missing or improperly placed above or below street level.

Old utility cuts are generally square or rectangular. If the repair was made within the last three years, the contractor is responsible for fixing it.

the limits of the work zone or the location of nearby utility lines. White paint is generally used to delineate a work site in advance of repair work being undertaken by city or private repair crews.

S t r e e t Markings

GU

) Level of Service C: >24 sq. ft./ped. At LOS C, sufficient space is available to select normal walking speeds and to bypass other pedestrians in primarily unidirectional streams. Where reversedirection or crossing movements exist, minor conflicts will occur, and speeds and volume will be somewhat lower.

Level of Service E: >6 sq. ft./ped. At LOS E, virtually all pedestrians would have their normal walking speed restricted, requiring frequent adjustment of gait. At the lower range of this LOS, forward movement is possible only by "shuffling." Insufficient space is provided for passing of slower pedestrians.

Level of Service D: >15 sq. ft./ped. At LOS D, freedom to select individual walking speed and to bypass other pedestrians is restricted. Where crossing or reverse-flow movements exist, t h e probability of conflict is high, and its avoidance requires frequent changes in speed and position.

The Works

Moving People

Streets Street signs abound in New York and

other street signs are also required to have a consistent

are a key element in the city's

shape, color, style, and meaning. Nearly all New York City signs are produced at DOT's sign shop in Maspeth, Queens.

efforts to manage its vehicular flow. Signs indicate where to

Only very rarely does a New York City sign maker have a

turn and where not to, where to park and for how long, where to catch a bus, how fast to travel, etc. They also, of

chance to be creative. The most recent opportunity came

course, tell pedestrians or drivers what street they're on.

with the initiation of the "thru streets" initiative in midtown

There are over one million signs on New York City streets,

Manhattan in 2002. After much deliberation, the color

with parking and street-cleaning signs the most

purple—not yet a nationally designated color—was chosen

predominant. Just as a stop sign is universally recognized,

for the new signs.

The Evolution of a Street Sign £

The division of signs and

|?|

markings

the end limits of the streets chosen

it was the express street concept.

for the Thru Streets program.

A plan for the sign layout is devised.

,THR

U

0

(TU* '

THRU

©

THRU

DOT proposes signs for specific street locations. • These are placed at the entrances to the Thru Streets, and on the Thru Streets themselves.

Generic letters, w i t h o u t distortion, are chosen for readability. In order to make it look as if the words were moving,

• Turn restriction signs are also proposed. • Signs are also proposed for the street corners.

• the word " T h r u " is given a slant. t i 101 I I I MvU *

TI I

11*11 111 x

1 _

DOT chooses the street corridors and

is given a concept. In this case,

• lines are drawn off to the left.

• Once it has been determined, the formula for sign assignation is applied to every intersection.

Colors are chosen.

WHRU

• Because of standards set out in a federal traffic m a n u a l , certain colors can't be used.

STREET

Q

The borough office okays the signs.

• Green, which is for directional signs, is considered. • Coral and purple are both unassigned colors. • Purple s t a n d s o u t , a n d it is also used for E-ZPass, which makes

7M

it

The sign specifications are sent to

48" 5-C BLACK STHRU STREET BLACK ARROW

desirable.

NEXT T U R N PERMITTED AT AVE I0AM-6PM MON-FRI

5-D BLACK

the sign shop in Maspeth. Approximately 700 signs, including those for changes in parking regulations, are made.

3

^

I n / o r m a t i o n will be printed in regulation size and style.

Counting Signs New

the

Street-cleaning regulations 3 3 . 2 % Other parking regulations 2 3 . 4 %

York is home

to a world of s t r e e t signs— over a million. Some, like

Snow emergency route signs 3 . 3 %

those governing a l t e r n a t e side of the

s t r e e t parking, Arterial

signs 1 . 5 %

are fashioned specifically for city s t r e e t s .

Priority regulatory signs 1 3 % (stop signs, do not enter)

Street name signs 1 9 . 3 %

Turn restrictions and other intersection signs 6.3%

There are 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 "priority regulation " signs, which include stop signs as well as one-way arrow and "do not enter" signs.

An estimated 3 3 2 , 0 0 0 signs depicting streetcleaning regulations are found on city streets.

t ^

Street-marking changes, such as t u r n lanes and " t h r u " lanes, are made to the streets. Changes in parking regulations are also instituted.

NEXT TURN PERMITTED AT 3 AVE

The signals division installs mast arms for the signs.

Because all signs c a n n o t be h u n g simultaneously, signs are hung in advance and then covered the program is officially

until

unveiled.

^

Inspectors from the planning u n i t are sent to study compliance and to make traffic counts. The Police Department also sends officers to monitor the traffic.

^

Small adjustments, such as allowing t u r n s onto Park Avenue, are made. So as to not have to make entirely new signs, overlays are used when possible.

^

10AM-6PM° MON-FRI DEPT OF TRANSPORTATION

Maintenance records are begun. Signs last approximately 1 0 years.

HOUR PARKING 0 A M - 7 P M

WALL Over 1 9 0 , 0 0 0 street signs can be found across the five boroughs.

INCLUDING SUNDAY

There are 2 3 4 , 0 0 0 parking regulation signs.

More than 6 0 , 0 0 0 signs govern t u r n s and other movements a t city intersections.

The Works

Moving People

Streets Two Centuries of Streetlights

t

1820

1800

1807 Among the earliest lampposts were those made of wood, which burned oil.

1830

1 1840

—1 1850

—I— 1880

1— i860

1892 The j î r s t o r n a m e n t a l

1825 Gas streetlighting was first installed in New York City in 1825 a n d continued into the twentieth century.

lamppost w a s placed on Fi/th Ave. in 1892 and was limited to t h a t street.

I 1930 1900 The bishop's crook, which appeared a t the t u r n of the last century, was the second o r n a m e n t a l electric streetlight. It was reproduced in 1980.

40

— i — 1950

1908 The boulevard system was designed for streets with center malls. Mast arm lights

1970

1

1990

1980 The original cobra streetlight featured a pendant light with the recognizable octagonal pole.

reached over the roadway.

A century after electric lighting began pushing gas streetlights into oblivion, New York City is awash in streetlights— 333,670 in all. These include 35 to 40 different types. recognizable by an illumination component

The Streetlight of the Flltlire In February 2 0 0 4 , a competition

closely resembling the head of a cobra.

to design a new citywide streetlight was

First introduced in the 1950s, its design is

undertaken by the city's Department of

purely functional; as a result, it has

Design and Construction in conjunction with

The standard is the cobra streetlight,

relatively few fans. More beloved are the

DOT. Some 2 0 1 entries from 2 4 countries

30 or so other models that survive in

were submitted to a panel made up of

small numbers across the city—models with

prominent architects, engineers, and public

magical names like bishop's crook, reverse

servants. The winning design, announced

scroll, and lyre.

in October 2 0 0 4 , was submitted by Thomas

Historic or modern, street lighting

Phifer and P a r t n e r s . The new design will

is big business. The city pays Con Ed roughly

be used to light streets, sidewalks, and parks

$50 million each year in lighting bills,

within the city.

most of which finds its way to the New York Power Authority, which provides the electricity. In residential areas, illumination is at no volts; in commercial areas— where some business districts choose to buy and maintain their own streetlights— it is provided at 220 volts.

Parking Meters

Parking meters

traffic cop, regulating who can use valuable

Alternate Side of the S t r e e t Parking N o t all parking

curb space and for how long. For the city,

the city costs money: in residential areas,

they are an important revenue generator:

parking is generally free to those lucky enough

the 66,000 meters belonging to DOT's

to find a space. B u t in many areas of the

act as a sort of

in

Division of Meter Collections collectively

city even free parking is complicated, thanks

bring in upward of $70 million each

to alternate side of the street regulations,

year. Although parking meters in some areas

which force drivers to clear one side of the

have been replaced by "muni-meters,"

street every couple of days for street cleaning.

which issue tickets that must be placed on

Begun in the 1 9 5 0 s on the Lower East Side

car dashboards, the familiar gray boxes

as an experiment to facilitate the movement

are unlikely to disappear from the New York

of newly mechanized street-cleaning

City landscape anytime soon.

machines, the program today incorporates some 1 0 , 0 0 0 miles of city roads.

Most meters are designed to run a little long, to avoid challenges to their accuracy. A mechanical meter with a new timer can run from one to nine minutes long over the course of an hour.

0

Coins deposited in the meters accumulate in a coin box located in the " v a u l t " of each meter. Separate keys are needed to open the vault and the coin box located within.

Each parking meter has the capacity to hold between $ 3 0 and $ 6 0 , depending on the size of the coin box and the mix of coins.

DOT's Division 0 / M e t e r Collections is responsible for collecting coins from each of the roughly 66,000 parking meters t h r o u g h o u t the city a t least once during a 2 4 - d a y cycle. To collect coins from parking meters, collection crews use "canisters," steel boxes t h a t roll along the streets. Field supervisors are assigned to observe the crews during their collection assignments to ensure collection procedures are being carefully followed.

%

The Works

Moving People

Streets Look down any street in the city, and

one year), they can plant them. There are several ways

chances are you will see at least

to do this:

a few trees sprouting from the concrete. At last count, there

• Fill Out a Street Tree Request Form and Wait.

were an estimated 2.5 million trees in the city, of which

There is no charge for this service, but it can take up to

500,000 or so can be found on the streets (as opposed to the

two years until the requested tree gets planted by the

parks or backyards) of the metropolis.

Parks Department.

It's not easy being green in the middle of the city. In

• Visit the Parks Department s One-Stop Tree Shop.

addition to the usual challenges of disease and insects, street

Residents pay for the tree and its installation,

trees are also subject to vandalism, neglect, dogs, and

but parks staff pick it, plant it, and care for it.

generally difficult growing conditions. Yet they are a vital part of the streetscape, adding shade and color to the

• Plant It. This requires a permit from the Borough Forestry Office, adherence to a list of approved species,

sidewalks, providing cleaner air, contributing to energy

and an inspection. If a new tree pit is to be dug,

savings, and raising property values.

both a permit from the Department of Transportation

Street trees are one of the few municipal services where citizens may participate firsthand. New Yorkers can assist in tree maintenance so long as they complete the officially licensed, 12-hour "Citizen Pruner" course offered by Trees New York, which covers subjects such as tree biology and identification, pests, tree pruning, and tree-pit gardening. Although New Yorkers can't own street trees (all trees planted in the city's right-of-way become city property after

Mapping New York's Trees

and strict observance of guidelines for removing concrete are required.

A Sampling of New York's S t r e e t Trees

Serviceberry is a small tree that produces w h i t e / l o w e r s .

Japanese Flowering Cherry is a small, rounded tree t h a t does best in lawns and grassy strips.

Korean Mountain Ash is a narrow, small tree t h a t produces a white /lower.

Japanese Tree Lilac h a s a pyramidal shape and produces a white flower.

American Hornbeam is a slow-

Chinese Elm features purple leaves in the fall a n d is sensitive to the Asian long-horned beetle.

Red Maple is a medium-height tree with a rounded shape.

Bald Cypress has a pyramidal shape a n d can grow beyond 50 feet in height.

English Oak is a slow-growing tree t h a t can tolerate salty and dry conditions.

to the Asian long-horned beetle and is

growing tree with a pyramidal shape.

Gingko is a narrow, slow-

Callery Pear grows to

growing tree t h a t / e a t u r e s yellow

between 35 a n d 50 feet in height a n d

leaves in the fall.

produces a white /lower.

Shantung Maple is susceptible there/ore prohibited from Queens, Brooklyn, and M a n h a t t a n .

European Ash is prohibited in Queens, Brooklyn, and M a n h a t t a n due to its sensitivity to the Asian long-horned beetle.

Golden Raintree is a rounded tree t h a t produces yellow flowers.

Pin Oak has leaves that t u r n scarlet in the fall and can tolerate wet or dry soils.

Scholar Tree has a rounded shape and features creamcolored /lowers,

26

The Works

Moving People

of trains, it is absolutely the biggest—its 6,200 cars servicing 25 lines dwarf the fleets of even its largest competitors. And with 45,600 employees, represented by 25 unions, it is arguably one of the most complex subway systems to operate. The system we recognize

New York City's subway system is among the busiest urban transit systems in the world.

today by its award-winning color-coded map dates back to the nineteenth century. The earliest public transport within the city's bounds took the form of a 12-seat stagecoach running north along Broadway from the Battery

Every day, it handles over 4.5 million

starting in 1827; the earliest railways—

passengers—which equates to roughly 1.4

elevated ones—made their debut in 1868.

billion passengers each year. In terms

Not long after that, the first subway—

of volume, it is among the world's largest—

an experimental one run on pneumatic

surpassed only by Tokyo, Moscow, Seoul

power—was built furtively under City Hall,

and Mexico City. With respect to the number

but was abandoned for lack of political support within just a few years.

Subway Though g r a n t e d a license to build a p n e u m a t i c tube to carry

packages

under Broadway between Warren and Cedar streets, Alfred

Beach—a

young inventor—proceeded to drill a "people-moving

t u n n e l " in stealth.

The true predecessors of the modern subway were private subway lines set up by entrepreneurs after the turn of the last century. The earliest was the Interborough Rapid Transit (IRT) Line, which opened

In its first year, 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 people rode the car, but a stock market crash caused investors to withdraw and the service was terminated in 1873, three years after it began.

in 1904 and ran for nine miles along Broadway from City Hall to 145th St. in Manhattan. Initially calling at 28 stations, the IRT service was extended to the

Building a Subway Network The earliest subway

Bronx the following year, and subsequently

lines s t r e t c h e d along Broadway, from

to Brooklyn in 1908 and Queens in 1915.

north to s o u t h , and connected the

A second private line, the Brooklyn Rapid

boroughs of M a n h a t t a n and Brooklyn.

Transit Company (BRT), began providing

Gradually, the system expanded t o

service to Brooklyn at about the same time,

Queens and the Bronx.

but ran short of cash and emerged from bankruptcy as the Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT). The first city-run service, the Independent Rapid Transit Railroad (IND), did not appear until 1932. Eight years later, with the private lines on the verge of bankruptcy, the city purchased both the IRT and BMT and became the sole operator of all subway and elevated lines within city limits. The city operated the lines under the jurisdiction of its Bureau of Transport until 1953, when the New York State legislature created the New York City Transit Authority as a separate public corporation to manage and operate all city-owned transportation— Introduction of subway lines by years

subways, buses, and trolleys.

1930

Naming the Subways

1940

The letter system

of subway names was introduced following the unification of the independent subway lines in the 1 9 4 0 s , and the system of color codes was introduced in 1 9 7 9 to tie

together,

graphically, trains running along the same lines.

OOO OOOOO

OOOOOO

OOO O0OO

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9

A, B, C, D, E, F

J, L, M, N, Q, R, W

AA, QB, RJ

The first subway company, the IRT, originally designated the subway routes by the avenues they r a n under (e.g., Lexington) and included reference to the line's northern terminus. In 1948, this system was replaced with the numbered code t h a t is still in use today.

The IND, which made its appearance

The IND system of letter names was

in 1 9 3 2 , initially relied on a

extended to the various lines of

letter code t h a t r a n from A to H.

the BMT in i960, using some of the

For m a n y years, express trains on the BMT a n d IND systems bore single letters while local trains on these lines carried double ones (the AA, for example, w a s the slow train to Harlem). I n 1985, after color codes were introduced on the subway, double letters were eliminated entirely.

rest of the alphabet.

The Works

Mowing People

Subway The Subway Network

New York's subwaysystem is made up of a

far-flung and complex network of physical facilities. Its 25 interconnected lines stretch across four boroughs (Staten Island has its own overland railway system), with the New York's subway r u n s across / o u r boroughs day a n d night. It has more stations

longest (the C line) covering a length of over 32 miles. Some 68 bridges and 14 tunnels carry track through or into

t h a n other large systems a n d

468 subway stations. There, another 60 elevators and 161

relies on a system of parallel

escalators provide service to passengers.

express a n d local tracks to speed travel across the city.

The system runs along 842 miles of track—enough to stretch from the city to Chicago. Roughly 20 percent of it, or 180 miles, is not used for passenger service at all: it comprises support yards, shops, and storage areas that support the passenger network. But at its heart lie 660 miles of working track—two-thirds of it underground, with the remainder either elevated (156 miles) or at grade (57). Many of these miles lie in parallel, to support the local/express system— only 230 distinct "route miles" exist.

Tokyo boasts an a n n u a l ridership approaching three billion—making it as widely used as the New York a n d Paris systems combined. It also reaches the highest speeds—62 miles per h o u r on certain stretches.

Moscow opened its first Metro line in 1 9 3 5 . Today, its 270-kilometer system carries roughly three billion passengers a year through 165 stations, some of which are deep enough to serve as bomb shelters in the event of a nuclear war.

London's subway system is the oldest of the four major city subways in the world—it opened in 1863. I t is also the longest, serving 253 route miles. Its longest line, the Central Line, stretches a full 46 miles west to east across London.

Moscow

Tokyo

New York

London

In many ways, the system—although largely underground —relies on technology similar to other American railroads. Its track gauge, the distance between the rails, is the same as all major American rail systems (4 feet 8 inches) and its signaling system is hardly unique. But what set New

MOPNÎLLCJ S c h e d u l e d

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t r û i n s

d u r i n g

m o r n i n g rush

York's subway system apart from its very earliest days was the integration of local and express tracks into one network:

9

New York was the first major world city to construct and operate such a two-tiered system. Today, its uniqueness

-^^-^J^ - -

8 minutes

stems largely from the 24/7 nature of its operation: no %3

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Around-the-Clock Service: People per Car per Hour

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30

The Works

Moving People

Subway New York's subway

the network currently includes 734 token

system has more stations

booths and over 31,000 turnstiles. The

than any of its worldwide counterparts—

busiest single station in the system is Times

468 in total. More than half of them are

Square: it handles over 35 million paying

underground; the remainder are either

passengers each year. But that number is

elevated (153) or built on an embankment or

dwarfed by the number of passengers

"open cut" (39). The highest station is

moving through the 34th St.-Penn Station

Smith/Ninth Street in Brooklyn (F, G lines);

-Herald Square complexes on the A, C,

the lowest is 191st St. in Manhattan (1/9

E, B, D, F, N, Q, R, and 1, 2, 3, 9 lines:

lines), at 180 feet below street level.

collectively these three stations handle 60

Most New York subway stations are built to accommodate large volumes of passengers:

million fare passengers each year.

31

Times Square Station

The Times

Square s t a t i o n , deep under W e s t 4 2 n d S t . and Eighth Ave., is the busiest—and arguably the most complex—station in the subway system. The addition of new IRT, B M T , and IND lines to the original 1 9 0 4 IRT station over time created t h e transportation hub t h a t we know today. M a j o r redevelopment currently under way at the station, costing $ 2 5 0 million, encompasses renovation to platforms, passageways, and mezzanines, as well as elevators and escalators.

Abandoned Stations „ , „ „ . Uptown Platform Q, R, W Trams n

x

Over the f i r s t hundred

years of its existence, a number of subway platforms, * ' r

levels, and even entire stations have been taken out of use. The most notable is the City Hall s t a t i o n on the original IRT line—known for its soaring ceiling, skylights, and period chandeliers. The sharp curves along the platform proved too much for subsequent generations of t r a i n s , and it was abandoned in 1 9 4 5 . In t o t a l , t h e r e are nine abandoned stations in t h e

network

—five of which can t o d a y be seen from passing subway trains. These include W e s t 9 1 s t S t . along the 1 , 2 , 3 , 9, lines; E a s t 1 8 t h S t . on the 4 , 5 , 6 ; W o r t h S t . on t h e 4 , 5 , 6 ; the old City Hall station on the 6 line; and M y r t l e A v e . on the B, D , N , and Q lines.

The Works

Moving People

Subway Token Timeline

The first token, minted by the IRT in 1928 in expectation of a two-cent increase, was never issued. The fare increase w a s overturned by the Supreme Court and the tokens w e n t into storage until 1 9 4 3 , when they were sold to the Hudson and M a n h a t t a n Railroad for their metal value.

Upon unification of the IND, BMT, and IRT systems in 1940, a transfer token was minted t o enable passengers t o move through a turnstile a t no additional cost on the second leg of their j o u r n e y by bus or subway.

The first full fare token debuted in 1953, when the Transit Authority was created. At 16 millimeters in width, it featured the u n u s u a l "y" c u t o u t . Fares stood at 15 cents through 1966 a n d then rose to 20 cents in 1970.

In 1970, a new, larger token — s t i l l with the "y" cut— was introduced for the fare

After 1 0 years, in 1980, the 23mm "y" cut was replaced with a solid brass

increase to 3 0 cents. This token survived the increase to 3 5 cents in 1973 and 50 cents in 1975 (despite an announcement, no doubt designed to avoid hoarding,

token (and a 60-cent fare). I t remained in use for

t h a t a new token would be introduced in 1975).

—I— 1930

Entering a Station Trains usually enter the station a t a b o u t 25 mph, under either a green or yellow signal. The train operator reverses the controller (motors r u n in reverse) to decelerate, and then employs air brakes to bring the train to a halt.

Be/ore opening the train doors, the conductor (generally in the center car) lowers the window and points his or her finger when the car is lined up with a mark at the center of the platform. If the train is not lined up properly, he or she calls the operator to adjust the position of the train before opening the doors.

The train doors remain open for at least 10 seconds, while the conductor makes any announcement over the public address system. Before closing the doors, he or she must also announce "stand clear of the closing doors, please." The back half of the train doors are closed first, followed by the / r o n t .

The conductor then signals the train operator that he or she can proceed. The conductor then visually inspects both front and back sections of the t r a i n to ensure t h a t no passengers are being dragged along by the train.

—I—r 1950

1— i960

only six years, during which time the fare jumped to 75 cents, 90 cents, and, ultimately, $ 1 . 0 0 .

Subway Announcements Although they are not always audible or intelligible, station announcements are an inevitable part of the subway experience. In general, announcements across the system are uniform: "Please do not hold train doors open"; "Due to a schedule adjustment, we are holding this train in the station"; or "There is a southbound train approaching 96th St." And with good reason: the Transit Authority's policy has been to provide only information needed to use the system wisely and "to cause minimal intrusion on our customers' right to think their own thoughts as they ride our trains." Ad-libbing, as it is referred to in the "blue book" of subway announcements, is frowned upon. However, in an attempt to be more customer-friendly, announcers are permitted to use their discretion in making the following announcements "in order to add just a touch of something extra": • The time of day: "Ladies and gentlemen, the time is three o'clock." • Patronage recognition: "Thank you for riding with MTA New York City Transit." • Or both: "Ladies and gentlemen, the time is three o'clock. Thank you for riding with MTA New York City Transit."

Gap fillers are used in stations with highly curved tracks, such as South Ferry, to bridge the space between the platform and the train car doors.

34

The Works

Moving People

Subway Beginning in the late 1990s, the MTA placed a series of orders for new subway cars to replace what subway followers know as the "redbird" fleet—some of which had been in operation for 50 years. Built by Kawasaki and Bombardier respectively in Yonkers

Dissecting the New Subway Car

and upstate New York, the first trains were placed into passenger service in 2000. To date, more than 1,500 new cars have been ordered; deliveries are expected to continue through 2006. The purchase of new trains is not as simple as it sounds. The maintenance shop

The t r a i n s cab is n o w wholly computerized. A single lever governs t r a c t i o n a n d braking; alongside it on the control stand are a reversing key, a keypad, and an LCD flat-panel display. These are used to control doors a n d display train data.

at East 180th St. in Manhattan had to be overhauled to accommodate new maintenance routines. Extensive testing of the cars was undertaken on the Dyre Avenue line in the Bronx before the cars could move into passenger service. And delivery of the cars themselves was complex: those in Yonkers moved by flatbed truck to the 207th St. yard in Manhattan, where they were loaded onto the track, while the Bombardier cars arrived from upstate New York by train over the Hell Gate Bridge to the New York and Atlantic Railway's Fresh Pond Yard in Queens.

The new cars have slightly squarer ends and feature clear windows, which allow passengers to see into the next car.

Cars have been designed with nothing below the seats, for easy sweeping and maintenance. A dark p a t t e r n — black with speckles—was chosen for the floor, to hide dirt.

While the new car is slightly smaller t h a n the old due to thicker walls, new lighting a n d the removal 0/ the backlit advertisements make it feel bigger. Shiny floors and the new color scheme also contribute to the feeling of a bigger space.

35

To improve access for wheelchairs, vertical poles between seats have been removed and a lift-up seat for wheelchair parking has been introduced. A ceiling-mounted bar was added to encourage taller people to hold on there, leaving room on the vertical poles for children and shorter people.

New LED signage appears both inside and outside of the cars. The outside signs indicate both t r a i n number and destination; on the inside, variable message signs and next-stop indicators provide useful in/ormation t o passengers.

Car bodies are all stainless steel. Passenger e n t r y doors a r e a full foot wider than they are in the preexisting fleet.

Retired Subway Cars

Subway

cars, once retired, are stripped of all asbestos and small metal items; handholds are removed and sold as memorabilia t o collectors. The hollowed-out car then meets an unusual fate: it moves by barge south along the Atlantic Coast to be dumped on artificial reefs off the coast of Delaware, S o u t h Carolina, Virginia, or Georgia. Bright-colored benches have replaced the traditional "scoop" seats. Front- and hack-facing seats are now opposite benches t h a t are parallel to the sides of the train.

Commercial fishermen are all too happy t o get the cars: the reefs—piles of armored personnel carriers, tanks, and demolition d e b r i s — a t t r a c t small sea mollusks and, in t u r n , increasingly large game fish.

Stainless steel cars, introduced in the 1980s to combat graffiti, scratched easily. Mélanine, a /ormicalike material, was reintroduced to hide scratches. In addition, a protective layer of replaceable film has been placed on window glass to prevent permanent scratching.

The Works

Moving People

Subway Signals and Interlocking

The subway-

train will the signal turn to green, enabling the next train

relies on a

to move on to that portion of track.

century-old system of signals, known as "wayside color-light

Control lengths and signal placements almost always

block signaling." Signals are located to the sides of the

overlap beyond the next signal, and are designed so that an

tracks and rely—much like traffic lights—on a system of red,

out-of-control train will stop before hitting something.

yellow, and green signals to determine safe passage. Unlike

Stopping relies on a system of automatic train stops, which

the street system, which relies on traffic lights changing

trip a train violating a signal. The trip stop is a T-shaped

on a predetermined schedule, subway signals are determined

metal rod, painted yellow, which goes up when a train runs

by a system of track circuits and blocks, which detect the

a signal. It engages a trip cock on the wheel frame of

presence of trains on various portions of track. And while

the train, which in turn cuts power abruptly to the engine

streetlights turn from green to yellow to red, subway signals

and applies the train's brakes in an emergency position.

go in reverse: from red to yellow, and from yellow to green.

All cars, not just the lead car of a train, are equipped with

There are essentially two types of signals that govern the operation of subway trains: automatic and approach

trip stops. Approach signals, in contrast, control the movement

signals. Automatic signals, the ones most frequently glimpsed

of trains across switches. They are generally characterized

by passengers riding on the system, are determined

by two sets of vertical displays—one stacked above the

"automatically" by the presence or absence of a train on a

other. These signals are not automatic: they are set at red by

length of track ahead. The distance along the track

a terminal operator in a remote control tower until he

measured by the automatic signal is its "control length."

or she determines that it is safe for the train to proceed

Only when the control length is fully clear of a previous

through an area where tracks merge.

Proceed: the next signal is clear.

Proceed with caution: prepare to stop a t next signal.

Stop: operate a u t o m a t i c

Approach a t the posted speed; continue on the main route. (A double signal generally has two sets of signal lights which control the movement of trains through switches and which are normally red until cleared by the tower operator.)

release, then proceed with caution a n d be prepared to stop within

Gap filler is extended. Stop a n d stay.

Gap f i l e r retracted. Proceed.

vision.

Wheel detector is on for the route. The switch is set t o the diverging route and the train speed is within the speed limit required. X LI4

37

These areas where tracks meet, join, or switch—known as "interlockings"—are among the most complicated parts of the subway's signal system. Historically, the operation of interlocking was done by machines with mechanical levers that remotely controlled track switches and signals; these levers were designed to physically "interlock" with one another to avoid unsafe track configurations. Levers that related to a particular set of switches at a crossover could be thrown from the normal position (go straight) to the reverse position (switch track) by an operator. Other levers could force signals to red, to accommodate a crossing train, but an operator could not force them to green: the lever could instead be set to "permit the signal to clear," if the automatic signal did not detect the presence of a train on nearby track. Interlocking technology remains at the heart of today's subway. Dozens of satellite towers house interlocking machines; in most cases, they are accompanied by a large model board displaying the track layout and featuring red lights to indicate the presence of trains on particular sections of track. To this day, tower operators have no automatic method of knowing which train is represented by the lights; train operators must push a "Train Identification Pushbutton" at the station located before an interlocking to request safe passage through the interlocking that lies ahead.

A Network of Control Towers Satellite offices, or " t o w e r s , " are responsible for controlling the subway's local switches and signals. Inside the towers, t r a n s i t personnel monitor train movement with the help of electronic maps linked directly to the subway's signal system.

A M a s t e r towers K Interlocking towers O Satellites

38

The Works

Moving People

Subway The subway system is, perhaps not surprisingly,

In general, subway

New York City's largest single electricity

trains are crewed

customer. Each year, it consumes some 1.8 billion kilowatt

by two people: a motorman, or operator, and

hours of power—enough to light the city of Buffalo for a

a conductor. The operator rides in the

year. Most power is provided by the New York Power

cab at the front of the train and governs the

Authority, which draws it from hydroelectric, nuclear, and

movement of the train along the tracks

fossil-fuel plants in New York State; a small amount is

and through stations. He or she is entirely

provided by the Long Island Power Authority for the part of

responsible for the safe operation of the

the subway system that operates on the Rockaway Peninsula.

train when it is moving.

Like the signal system, power delivery to the subway has changed little in concept since the system opened in 1904.

The conductor, in contrast, rides in the middle of the train. He or she is responsible

Alternating current is sent from generators along high-

for the opening and closing of the doors

tension cable to 214 substations along the various routes.

of the train at stations and announcements.

There it is changed from alternating current to direct

The conductor indicates to the operator

current (625V) and fed—via 900 miles of heavy traction

when the train is appropriately aligned upon

power cables and 1700 circuit breakers—onto the third rail.

arrival at a station and is in charge of

Every train has a "shoe" connected to the third rail,

announcements relating to the boarding and

which picks up the electricity and allows the train to move.

exiting of passengers.

A separate system of power, involving an additional 1,600 miles of cable, provides alternating current to signals, ventilation and line equipment, and station and tunnel lighting. By separating the two systems, the lights remain on when power to the third rail is cut off and vice versa. The amount of power provided to the system is largely

Making It as a Motorman Only recently has anyone other than a subway employee been able to apply to drive

a function of the distance covered by a particular line. Trains

an NYC subway train. A t a t e s t given in

draw power according to their operational needs. Express

November 2 0 0 3 , some 1 4 , 0 0 0 people showed

trains generally travel at speeds averaging 25 miles per hour.

up a t 1 4 locations across the city to

Local trains operate at approximately 15 miles per hour

compete for about 3 0 0 train operator jobs.

on average below 96th St., and at 18 miles per hour above it

The t e s t itself had 7 0 questions and

due to the greater distance between stations.

took about three and a half hours to complete. Sample questions included:

Daily Power Usage 1 . Safety rules are most M a x i m u m power demand 8:30 a.m.

useful because they: a. Make it unnecessary to think b. Prevent carelessness c. A r e a guide to avoiding common dangers d. Make the worker responsible for any

39

Inside the cab The train status panel, located in front of the operator in the cab, provides information about all aspects of the tram's operation, including location, all aspects of maintenance, the status of communication and signage, power and braking systems, and trouble indicators. The control panel includes a lever t h a t governs the train's movement.

2. The maximum speed permitted when a t r a i n is passing through a passenger station without stopping is: a. 5 mph b. 1 0 mph c. 1 5 mph d. Series speed

3. Third rail power is used to operate the: a. Compressors b. Emergency car lights c. Motorman's indication d. Conductor's signal lights

•e •£

'o -g

' 3 'l

:SJ3AASU\/

Subway For a century-old system, New York's subways are pretty reliable. The "mean distance between failures"—the distance

The Emergency Brake

a car travels on average between

There are a number of situations t h a t

breakdowns—averages over 100,000 miles.

can trigger deployment of a train's

Nevertheless, there is hardly a subway rider

emergency brake. In any of these

who has not experienced at least one

cases, a vent is opened, leading to a

breakdown in his or her mass transit career.

reduction in brake pipe pressure

When such an incident occurs, a standard

(normally at 1 1 0 psi); this triggers

set of procedures is followed:

the immediate application of

1. The Subways Control Center is notified,

The train operator can manually t u r n the brake valve to the emergency position.

electropneumatic friction brakes.

generally by a portable radio carried by train staff. The notification would include the train's "call signs" (e.g., "1427 C 168th St./Euclid" is the call sign for a train that departed 168th St. at 2:27 p.m. and is destined to terminate at Euclid Ave.), its location, and a description of the problem (often coded). 2 . Subways Control Center notifies the local satellite tower and the tower begins rerouting service around the

Emergency Codes

delayed train. Rerouting directions are

conditions are readily identified by subway radio code:

A t least 1 1 emergency

a function both of the layout of the tracks in the area around the incident

12-1

Emergency—clear the air

and of the location of switches

12-2

Fire or smoke on train or roadbed

enabling diversion from one set of

12-3

Flood or serious water condition

tracks to another.

12-5

Stalled train

For many problems, particularly

12-6

Derailment

in heavily trafficked corridors, there are

12-7

Request for assistance

predetermined detour routes. For

12-8

Armed passenger

example, a problem on the A or C line

12-9

Passenger under train

in lower Manhattan would result in

12-10

Unauthorized person on track

all A and C trains being diverted to the

12-11

Serious vandalism

F line between J a y St. in Brooklyn

12-12

Disorderly passengers

and West 4th St. in Manhattan.

41

/

The passengers or conductor can

The t r a i n operator could become

The trip cocks on an individual

pull the emergency brake cord located

incapacitated and fail to keep

could strike an object on the tracks.

inside each car.

the master controller lever depressed (the "dead man's"

Rerouting a Train

feature).

New York is

fortunate to have a subway system generally comprised of three or four tracks. Should there be a problem on the C line, for example ("Control 1 4 2 7 Charlie 1 6 8 to Euclid is at 8 1 s t S t . experiencing a door malfunction"), the nearest switches—in this case at W e s t 1 2 5 t h S t . and W e s t 5 9 t h St.—would be identified. The local tower, at 5 9 t h S t . , would reroute all service from the local track to the express track at 1 2 5 t h S t . A t 5 9 t h S t . , local trains would switch back to the local track.

car

42

The Works

Moving People

Subway

'

2 4 0 t h St,

Pelham

Shops and Yards In

1 7

Keeping subway cars moving around the

Z

2 3 9 t h St.

207th

clock requires a far-flung network of support

Westchester(

services, including subway storage yards and maintenance shops. Thousands of Transit Authority employees in the Car Maintenance Department are responsible for regular inspection of the cars at the 13

addition to repair shops, the system features 21 subway yards spread out across the network. Some of these are near or adjacent to shops; others are situated remotely but serve as staging or parking areas for subway cars not in use.

maintenance shops in Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx. Cleaning and repair also occur at these shops. In addition, two overhaul shops are used for major repairs and car rebuilding: the Coney Island shop in Brooklyn and the 207th St. shop in Manhattan. The overhaul shop at Coney Island, for example, operates 24 hours a day to provide repair services to both the Transit Authority and to the Staten Island Rapid Transit Fleet.

Keeping subway tracks dry is key to the smooth running of the system. Each day, 309 pump plants—with a total of 748 pumps—remove up to 13 million gallons of rain and other water from the subway system. Fed by a system of drains running under the tracks, they pump water into a manhole under the street that empties into the city's storm-water system. Flooding can, however, occur for a variety of reasons. Sometimes debris blocks the drain along the tracks. Other times the pipes leading from the drains to the pump rooms are overwhelmed with the volume of water that builds up on the track. To minimize failures, the TA is in the process of installing wider inlet pipes and placing slatted boxes over the track drains to better protect them from blockage.

/

43

Passenger cars make up the bulk

through stations to provide basic collection services. Others,

of the Transit Authority's fleet—

like snow blowers and tank cars, are rarely seen inside

close to 6,000 in all. But there are another 350 or so rail cars

the tunneled portion of the network. And still others—weld

that are largely hidden from public view, without which

cars, crane cars, and signal supply cars, among others—

the entire system would come to a screeching halt. Some of

are part of the fleet responsible for repair and maintenance

them—for example the refuse and revenue cars—move

across the system.

Revenue Collection Cars There

Crane Cars These cars are

generally

are 10 two-car trains that move

used to carry, lift, or unload

sections

through the stations collecting

fares

Flat Cars These cars generally

haul

machinery and other equipment to

of track being replaced but also may

and from work sites. They can carry

from the station booths.

be used to lift equipment such as

loads up to 3 0 tons.

These trains will soon be phased out

generators and track ties. They are

and replaced by armored

trucks.

Signal Supply Cars These cars are equipped with cranes to remove existing signals from the track and install new signals, and are generally

generally

pulled by locomotives.

Tank Cars These cars are used t o carry liquids a r o u n d t h e subway system. They are

generally

pulled by locomotives.

pulled by passenger cars.

The Vacuum Car Among the most unique of the specialized subway cars is the vacuum car. Weighing several tons and costing roughly $ 1 5 million, it sucks in 7 0 , 0 0 0 cubic feet of air per minute in a never-ending battle to keep the subway tracks clean. Carefully

Weld Cars These are retired passenger cars t h a t are designed to

Locomotives Locomotives pull nonpowered

cars and crane cars, to and from

transport them to areas where they

job sites. Sixty-two are diesel electric

will he installed on the track.

designed to steer clear of small,

work cars, such as flat

carry eight 3 9 0 / o o t rails and

locomotives, and ten are

electric.

heavy objects Clike track ballast), it is estimated to have picked up more than five million pounds of debris in the last two years alone. B u t even a s m a r t machine like this one needs help at times: an advance team is sent out along the track ahead of the vacuum to pick up larger

Snow Blowers These cars

Ballast Regulators These cars

items, such as shoes, cell phones,

are equipped with a jet engine to blow

spread ballast on the tracks after

snow off the tracks. They require

it is dumped. They feature a rotating

and cosmetic bags, t h a t might

two locomotive escorts as the u n i t is

broom which distributes ballast

not be so easily digested by it.

too short for the signal system t o

and sweeps excess ballast onto a

recognize its presence on the track.

conveyor for removal.

44

The Works

the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA), DOT, New York State Department of Transportation, New York City Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), Amtrak, and the New York City Department of Parks.

New York's fabulous harbor and multiple waterways once made it a center of trade, but

Nearly all of the city's major bridges—and several of its tunnels—have broken or set records. The Holland Tunnel was the world's first vehicular tunnel, when it opened in 1927. The George Washington and Verrazano Narrows

today they make it a city of bridges

bridges were the world's longest suspension

and tunnels. Over 2,000 of them provide

bridges when they opened in 1931 and 1964

uninterrupted vehicular movement

respectively; likewise, the Bayonne Bridge,

throughout the region. Seven agencies claim

a steel arch structure connecting Staten

jurisdiction over this web of crossings:

Island with Bayonne, New Jersey, was very briefly the longest of its type.

Bridges & Tunnels

New York's crossings date back to 1693, when its first bridge—known as the King's Bridge—was constructed over Spuyten Duyvil Creek between Manhattan and the Bronx. Composed of stone abutments and a timber deck, it was demolished in 1917. The oldest crossing still standing is Highbridge, which connects Manhattan to the Bronx over the Harlem River. Never designed to carry vehicles, it was opened in 1843 to carry water to the city as part of the new Croton Aqueduct system. Ten bridges and one tunnel serving New York City have been awarded some degree of landmark status. The Holland Tunnel, operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1993 in recognition of its pioneering role in vehicular tunnel technology. The George Washington Bridge (another Port Authority facility), Highbridge

In 1927, after seven years of construction, the Holland Tunnel— the first mechanically ventilated vehicular underwater tunnel—opened. The toll w a s 5 0 cents.

More t h a n 1 4 , 4 0 0 miles of steel cable

(operated by DEP), and the Hell Gate

were used in the construction of

Bridge (operated by Amtrak) have also been

the Brooklyn Bridge, which opened to

made landmarks. So too have seven other

great fanfare in 1883.

bridges under the control of New York City

Manhattan's Crossings

DOT: the Queensboro, Brooklyn, Manhattan, Macombs Dam, Carroll Street, University

Henry Hudson Bridge

Heights, and Washington bridges. Today, the 14 major bridge and tunnel crossings that connect the city to its neighbors account for millions of vehicle passages each day. The busiest—the George Washington Bridge, the Verrazano, and

The Alexander Hamilton Bridge, which forms part of Interstate 95, handles more t h a n twice the vehicular traffic of any other Harlem River crossing.

Broadway Bridge

University Heights Bridge

the Triborough—were all designed by one man: an engineer named Othmar Amman.

Washington Bridge

(Amman also designed the Whitestone and Throgs Neck bridges and the Lincoln Tunnel—making him something of

Macombs Dam Bridge

The George Washington

a father figure in New York City civil engineering circles.)

Bridge handles roughly 3 2 0 , 0 0 0 vehicles each day—more than any other crossing in the region—and takes in approximately $ 1 million per day in tolls.

145th Street Bridge ^ HI

Madison Avenue Bridge Third Avenue Bridge Willis Avenue Bridge Triborough Bridge

The Lincoln Tunnel

ii

E-ZPass

Jj

J

carries roughly 50 percent more traffic than the Holland, offering 13 toll lanes to the Holland s nine.

With close to 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 vehicles each day, the ^ Queensboro Bridge is the busiest East River crossing.

Queens Midtown Tunnel E-ZPass is an electronic toll

collection system now operating in eleven states in the Northeast and Midwest. Participating vehicles are equipped with a small electronic tag t h a t transmits data Williamsburg Bridge

to a remote computer at a customer service Holland Tunnel

center in S t a t e n Island. The data are processed and a toll is automatically deducted from the driver's prepaid account.

Manhattan Bridge

E-ZPass has been wildly successful since its introduction in 1 9 9 3 and is now in operation at all MTA and P o r t

Authority

bridges and tunnels in the region.

Inbound

Outbound

The Brooklyn Bridge is the oldest, and by far

over 1 0 0 , 0 0 0

the busiest, of the four

80,000-100,000 60,000-79,999 40,000-59,999 20,000-39,999 10,000-19,999 below 1 0 , 0 0 0

lower M a n h a t t a n bridge Brooklyn Battery Tunnel

crossings to Brooklyn.

46

The Works

Mouing People

Bridges & Tunnels Bridge Types

Cantilever bridges exhibit a lacy superstructure of rods, plates, girders, and cross braces to support the bridge deck. The Queensboro Bridge is a notable example of a cantilever truss bridge here in New York.

Girder span bridges are used to bridge relatively short distances. The steel girders carry the roadway load to supports a t each end of the bridge.

Suspension bridges depend on large cables t h a t are s t r u n g over a

Trestle bridges are supported by a series of connected pilings or beams.

pair of towers and anchored to shoreside blocks of concrete. Suspender cables are hung from the primary cables to hold the roadway. The George Washington, Verrazano, Brooklyn, M a n h a t t a n , and Williamsburg bridges are all notable New York City suspension bridges.

Steel arch bridges are made up of one or more arches made out of concrete or steel. Only one steel arch bridge is under city control: the

Truss bridges are characterized by road decks supported by steel trusses t h a t rest on piers and abutments.

Washington Bridge over the Harlem River, which is constructed / r o m twin steel arches.

New York features a variety of bridges—

functional. Consider the Williamsburg Bridge, for example:

of all lengths and types, carrying everything

its two heavy rail transit tracks carry tens of thousands

from cars, trucks, and subway trains to bicycles and

of people each day on the J , M, and Z subway lines; its eight

pedestrians. Technically, a bridge is denned as a structure

traffic lanes support over 140,000 vehicles a day, and its

that spans a distance greater than 20 feet. According to

sidewalk provides service to about 500 pedestrians each day.

this definition, the longest municipally owned bridge is the

In total, roughly 2,000 bridges dot the landscape of

Gowanus; the longest railroad-owned bridge is the elevated

the city, over 700 of them under the responsibility of New

tracks in the Bronx by Yankee Stadium.

York City's DOT. Twenty of these connect boroughs; the

But the bridges that New York City is famous for are not

remainder are somewhat evenly distributed across them.

those over land, but rather those that connect its islands. The

Within this total are 25 movable bridges whose openings

Verrazano Narrows Bridge, the George Washington Bridge,

are governed by Coast Guard regulations and organized by

and the Brooklyn Bridge are considered among the most

means of two-way radios or a telephone call to the DOT's

beautiful in the world. Others fall into the category of the most

Division of Bridges.

47

Movable Bridges

Retractile bridges are mounted on tracks alongside a navigable waterway and are "retracted" when a ship needs passage. They were popular in the nineteenth century for narrow crossings requiring maximum horizontal clearance. The Barden Avenue and Carroll Street bridges are examples of retractile bridges.

Swing bridges are supported by a central pier situated in the water. The bridge is opened by r o t a t i n g it horizontally along wheels on a circular track, and in its open position it forms two separate channels for passing vessels. The Third Avenue, Madison Avenue, and Macombs Dam bridges are all examples of this type.

/

L

r/M/M/M/M

\

l/l\l/!\l/M7FJ Bascule bridges, also known as drawbridges, rely on counterweights to vertically lift two spans. The Pelham, Hamilton Avenue, and Greenpoint Avenue bridges are all bascule bridges.

Vertical lift bridges are movable bridges with roadways t h a t can be raised in an elevatorlike fashion. This is accomplished through a system of attaching supporting end cables to rotary drums in towers on the sides of the waterway. The 103rd Street Bridge, Ward's Island Foot Bridge, and Roosevelt Island Bridge to Queens are examples of vertical lift bridges.

Most Frequently Opened Bridges (1988-2002) £

Shore Road-Pelham Parkway (B

Q

Hamilton Avenue (Brooklyn)

Q

Ninth Street (Brooklyn)

Q

Greenpoint Avenue (Brooklyn/Queens,

Q

Metropolitan Avenue (Brooklyn)

0

Bruckner Expressway (Bronx)

Q

Pulaski (Brooklyn/Queen

Q

Third Street (Brooklyn)

0

Mill Basin (Brooklyn)

^

Carroll Street (Brooklyn)

• •

land bridge waterway brit

•

railroad bridge

•

movable bridge

New York City's Bridges

48

The Works

Moving People

Bridges & Tunnels Brooklyn Bridge The Brooklyn Bridge is the oldest suspension bridge in the harbor. When built, its towers were the tallest structures in lower M a n h a t t a n . I t opened to g r e a t fanfare

in 1883, having cost

j u s t over $ 1 5 million and 20 lives.

l 8 9 0

Williamsburg Bridge In contrast to the Brooklyn Bridge, which took 13 years to build, t h e Williamsburg Bridge was built in seven—opening to traffic in 1 9 0 3 . I t s main span l

(1,600 feet) and height (135 feet above

9°^

mean high water) are almost precisely those of its sister to the south.

Queensboro Bridge The Queensboro Bridge, the only major cantilever bridge in the region, was opened in 1909. It was originally

I 9 I (

j

configured

to accommodate two elevated railway lines and two trolley lines— both 0 / w h i c h were eventually removed—as well as a marketplace on the M a n h a t t a n side tiled in Gustavino tile, the same tile found in Grand Central Terminal's famed Oyster Bar.

Bayonne Bridge The Bayonne Bridge is one of the longest steel arch bridges in the world, with a midspan clearance of 151 feet. The hyperbolic

193°,

1,675' •

curve arch over the roadway is complemented by steel trusses placed in a triangular

pattern.

George Washington Bridge The George Washington Bridge opened in 1931 with one deck, though it

I

9

4

-

1

9

5

-

was designed to handle a second level to c a r r y either rail traffic or additional road traffic. In 1962, t h e second level was eventually completed—for vehicular traffic only. Today, its 14 lanes make it one of the world's busiest suspension bridges.

Verrazano Narrows Bridge When it was opened in 1964, t h e Verrazano Narrows Bridge w a s t h e longest suspension bridge in t h e world. At 228 feet above the water, it

I 9

6o

also s a t higher t h a n a n y other bridge in the harbor; indeed, its towers were so high and so widely

spaced

t h a t its builders had to account for the c u r v a t u r e of the e a r t h s sur/ace, which is w h y the t o w e r s ' tops a r e 1 5 / 8 " / a r t h e r a p a r t t h a n their bases.

I 9 7 G

1 1I 1 1 1 1

1,000'

I

1 1 1 1I 1 1 1 1

2,000'

I

1 1 1 1I 1 1 1 1

3,000'

I

1 1 1 1I 1 1 1 1

4,000'

I

1 1 1 1I 1 1 1 1

5,000'

I

1 1 1 1I 1 1 1 1

6,000'

I

1 1 1 1

7,000'

49

Screen shot of George Washington Bridge a n d approach road speeds

Bridge Operations

Few New Yorkers appreciate how complex operating

a bridge can be. Take the George Washington Bridge, for example. Its operations center collects information from • 159 radar detectors, which detect vehicle volume, occupancy of portions of the road, and speed; • 39 cameras, which provide a real-time look at the bridge's roadway conditions; • pavement sensors in the asphalt, which show

The Naked Bridge

Although the George

Washington Bridge is by no means t h e longest suspension bridge in the world, it remains among the most robust. It contains 1 1 3 , 0 0 0 tons of fabricated steel and 1 0 6 , 0 0 0 miles of steel cable wire— almost half the distance to the moon. But the most unusual fact about the George, as she is affectionately called, is not her size or her strength; it is her appearance, which is something of a historical accident. The original design for the

temperature, icing conditions, freeze point, and road surface information; • wind speed, air temperature, and visibility sensors, which indicate dangerous conditions; • Highway Advisory Telephones and call boxes, which provide highway and roadway information; • Variable Message Sign (VMS) sensors, which show travel times but also indicate which of the signs' pixels and fans are (or are not) working. In addition to staff at the bridge's Operations Center,

bridge saw her towers cloaked in masonry. But once

84 full-time and 23 part-time toll collectors are on hand to

partially built, the awesome skeletal beauty of

collect tolls from drivers who don't use E-ZPass. In total,

the s t r u c t u r e — a s well as t h e cost of continuing

it takes 300 people to keep the elegant bridge working.

construction—staved off the concrete cladding. By 1 9 3 1 , the Depression was in full force and the bridge's sponsor—the P o r t Authority—opted to leave the bridge half dressed, bringing construction in under the original $ 6 0 million cost.

The Works

Moving People

Bridges & Tunnels Bridge Maintenance

Just like

pedestrian and railroad bridges, state law requires that all vehicular bridges be

Bridge Cleaning and Maintenance

inspected every two years. Inspection is largely visual: technicians ride along the bridge undersides in motorized "travelers" looking for cracks, rusting, and corrosion or, alternatively, watch from the ground as trucks traverse the bridge. They may also strike the bridge with hammers, listening to vibrations from the concrete or steel. More sophisticated instruments—such as X-ray, laser, and acoustic devices—may be used to identify particular problems. Inspection of a major bridge can involve as many as 50 people and take up to three months. Each inspection results in a bridge rating on a scale of 1 to 7; a rating of lower than 4 justifies inclusion in DOT's capital plan. A "flag system" is used to identify the existence of conditions that pose or could present a danger:

Cleaning of expansion joints Expansion joints, located a t a bridges surface level, are subject to a variety of elements: water, ozone, dust, and dirt, as well as to chemicals in salt products a n d gasoline. Preventing penetration of these is achieved by using compressed air and water to remove debris before cleaning a n d resealing the joints.

Snooper truck A snooper truck, which remains on the bridge deck, has a mechanical boom with a bucket or platform and is used to give access to the underside of a bridge in situations where a ladder or bucket truck are insufficient.

• A red flag is used to report the immediate failure of a critical structural component. Red flags must be addressed within six weeks. In 1988, for example, inspectors found the Williamsburg Bridge so crippled with rust that it was closed for two months for emergency repairs. • A yellow flag is used to report a hazardous condition or the imminent failure of a noncritical component (one whose failure would not result in structural collapse). • A safety flag is used to report a condition that presents a vehicle or pedestrian hazard, but that is not likely to result in any loss of reserve capacity or redundancy for the bridge. A missing railing or loose piece of concrete, for example, would warrant a safety flag.

Bucket truck To get a close look a t a bridge's underside, maintenance crews use a specialized truck with a n articulated a r m t h a t can curve u n d e r n e a t h the s t r u c t u r e .

Debris removal Debris can cause hazardous conditions on bridges; it also traps moisture and salt on the structure a n d can block proper drainage. Debris ranges from rocks to mufflers and wheel covers to paper, bottles, and cans.

Paint removal and repainting Paint removal is accomplished through abrasive blasting, but a containment area (including tarps, sca//olding, and cables) must be set up first. Three coats of lead-free paint are generally applied: t h e primer, intermediate, and top coats.

Cleaning of drainage systems The cleaning of surface gratings, gutters, and downspouts calls for brooms, brushes, and a variety of other hand tools. Occasionally a n air compressor will be needed to thoroughly empty certain g u t t e r s .

Paving Wbrn surfaces, which are usually made of a two-inch slab of bituminous concrete, are replaced and the roadways

repaved.

Spot painting Surface contamination

Mechanical sweeper Mechanical

De-icing De-icing trucks are used to

due to corrosive objects such as de-icing salts, bird excrement, or

sweepers move along the curb of the

spread abrasives and chemicals on road surfaces to prevent them from freezing over and causing unsafe driving conditions.

sea salt is generally removed by power washing with clean w a t e r or steam. Areas containing deteriorated paint are generally cleaned with hand tools.

bridge deck to remove dust and debris.

The Works

Moving People

Bridges & Tunnels In contrast to New York's bridges, lauded

first trans-Hudson rail tunnel had opened as early as 1910,

in song and poetry, New York City's

the larger size demanded by vehicular tunnels, coupled

tunnels merit little attention.Yet the four vehicle tunnels

with the need to remove vehicle exhaust, presented more

that connect Manhattan with Long Island and New Jersey

substantial challenges to builders. The system developed

—the Brooklyn Battery, the Queens Midtown, Holland,

for the Holland Tunnel in the late 1920s—a two-duct system

and Lincoln tunnels—are a critical part of managing the

that relies on one duct to draw in fresh air and the other

flow of people into and out of the city every day. The tunnels that run under the East and Hudson rivers

to suck out exhaust—would be adopted by vehicular tunnels worldwide and is still in operation today.

were marvels of engineering in their day. Although the

Tunnel Profiles length in feet

^

I The Brooklyn Battery Tunnel When it opened in 1950, the Brooklyn Battery Tunnel was, a t 9,117 feet, the longest continuous u n d e r w a t e r vehicular tunnel in the world— a title it still holds. Two ventilation buildings in lower M a n h a t t a n , one in Brooklyn, and a fourth off Governors Island change the air in the tunnel every 90 minutes.

) The Queens Midtown Tunnel The Queens Midtown Tunnel was opened in 1940 to relieve congestion on the city's East River bridges. Each of its tubes was designed one and a half feet wider than the Holland Tunnel in order to accommodate the wider cars of that period, and its m a x i m u m roadway gradient is 4%. The tunnel serves as the westbound terminus of the Long Island Expressway.

) The Holland Tunnel The oldest of the region s vehicular tunnels, the Holland Tunnel connects Canal St. in M a n h a t t a n with 12th and 14th streets in Jersey City. Opened to great fanfare in 1927 as the first mechanically ventilated underwater vehicular tunnel, it was designated a National Historic l a n d m a r k in 1993.

53

The Brooklyn Battery Bridge Proposals for a tunnel between B a t t e r y Park and the Red Hook section of Brooklyn were approved by the city in 1 9 3 0 , but were put on hold with the onset of the Depression. Very keen to see the tunnel built, M a y o r LaGuardia turned to Robert Moses—whose Triborough Bridge A u t h o r i t y was running a surplus—to fund, construct, and operate the new crossing. N o t nearly as passionate about tunnels as he was about bridges, M o s e s changed the plan for a six-lane tunnel to a six-lane bridge crossing; it would be cheaper to build and operate, carry more traffic, and almost certainly be more monumental. The new Brooklyn B a t t e r y Bridge would be a twin suspension bridge, held together by a central anchorage at Governors Island and connecting with the W e s t Side Highway via a low-level causeway near Battery Park. Notwithstanding the support of the City Planning Commission, Moses's bridge proposal ran into strong opposition both locally and in W a s h i n g t o n . In July 1 9 3 9 , Franklin Roosevelt's secretary of war put an end to the project, claiming t h a t the proposed bridge would be vulnerable to attack and would block access to the Brooklyn Navy Yard, ^

The Lincoln Tunnel The Lincoln Tunnel consists of three tubes t h a t link midtown M a n h a t t a n with Routes i and 9, Route 3, and t h e New jersey Turnpike in New Jersey. The three-tube con/iguration o//ers the /lexibility to provide / o u r lanes in one direction during rush hour or three lanes in each direction.

giving life once again to the idea of a tunnel.

54

The Works

Moving People

Bridges & Tunnels

Inside the Holland Tunnel

Exhaust a i r moves through a duct on the tunnel ceiling. The air is changed every 90 minutes.

The tile finish requires c o n s t a n t cleaning. An estimated / o u r million tiles were installed when the tunnel's ceiling was replaced in t h e late 1980s.

Ventilation buildings, the most visible parts of New York tunnels, are generally located on land on either side of the tunnel. The Holland Tunnel has / o u r , which together contain 4 2 / a n s (28 0/which are in operation a t any one time) responsible for blowing fresh air into the tunnel through a duct below the roadway. Each fan is 80 feet in diameter.

The tunnel's outer ring is composed of 1 4 - 1 5 cast iron sections—18"x 3 ' — bolted together. The seams are staggered for greater strength.

Water moves out of the t u n n e l roadway through a system of curb drains. .Most w a t e r leaks in the tunnel occur on land as a result of g r o u n d w a t e r penetration or broken w a t e r mains.

The Exclusive Bus Lane (XBL) Perhaps no

^

•A

-i

~-r:... .

4C4DEMY

M. » JÊÈM

•

IHHG3B1

the New Jersey Turnpike, converted to eastbound use during weekday

aspect of regional traffic management

morning peak periods. Over 1 0 0

is as unfamiliar to New Yorkers

different bus lines, numbering 1,700

as the Exclusive Bus Lane (XBL),

or so buses, use the lane each day.

which provides access to the Lincoln

An estimated 6 0 , 0 0 0 commuters

Tunnel for city-bound commuters

save somewhere between 1 5 - 2 0

from New Jersey. The XBL is actually

minutes in travel time, compared with

a 2.5-mile-long s t r e t c h of a

the normal congested Route 4 9 5

westbound lane, from the tunnel to

approach to the tunnel.

55

Tunnel Maintenance

New York State law does

looking for cracks or missing chunks of concrete, broken

not require specific

bolts, and water seepage or leaks. Inspectors will tap

repair or maintenance procedures for tunnels. However,

the concrete with a hammer, called "sounding," and listen

tunnels coming into the city are regularly inspected for

to the echo. Inspections go beyond the tunnel itself to

structural integrity by either the MTA or the Port Authority.

include ventilation and service buildings as well as ancillary

In the case of the Port Authority, comprehensive tunnel

structures such as retaining walls and pump rooms.

inspections are undertaken by outside consultants every

In addition to inspections, the tunnels require a sizable

two years to ensure structural integrity and as a

retinue of maintenance staff who carry out daily cleaning,

supplement to annual routine inspections. Deficiencies

repair, and maintenance work. The Holland Tunnel,

are generally classified as high priority, priority, routine

for example, maintains a staff of 83; the Lincoln requires 79.

priority, or routine—and addressed accordingly. To inspect tunnels, inspectors crawl through the system

Personnel service costs for each of these tunnels on an annual basis exceed $4 million.

Tunnels need to be cleaned regularly; the Holland Tunnel, with one of the lowest clearances, will t u r n black from truck exhaust in j u s t two days. Giant electrical toothbrush trucks, sporting arms with rotating brushes, move through the tunnel three to four times a week. They rely primarily on w a t e r for cleaning, to avoid any environmental concerns.

Cities are great consumers of goods, and nowhere is that more true than New York. Each day, hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of goods moves into the region by ship, rail, air, or truck—much of it destined for the city Though largely taken for granted, trade is as important to life in New York today as it was when the city was founded. Yet the physical manifestations of trade are now all but invisible to most New Yorkers; gone are the docks and wharves pulsing with exotic cargos. Today, trade moves much more quietly—and much more efficiently— through the region's port and airport facilities, through half a dozen rail freight yards, and through a handful of wholesale markets. The occasional sight of a cargo ship steaming into port or a freight train running down the Hudson belies a complex system of transportation logistics that underpins the commercial life of the city

another, the "merchandise trains" destined for New York contain a mix of commodities coming from numerous producers and earmarked for dozens of consumers. These freight trains—some up to 120 cars in length—are environmentally friendly.

Each week, roughly 1,750 railcars move through the metropolitan regiona small but important

On average, each train replaces 280 trucks that would otherwise be making the same journey. Unfortunately there are not more of them: rail cargo today makes up only about 5.6 percent

part of the regions freight lifeline. Each of

of the freight moving through the region,

these railcars represents a shipment loaded

down from a high of roughly 40 percent

hundreds or thousands of miles away

in the early 1940s. The drop in rail traffic is

and destined for consumers in the New York

in part a reflection of the region's appetite

area. Unlike "unit trains" made up of a

for imports, but also a function of

single commodity moving from one place to

increased competition from long-distance trucking industries. The fact that rail has survived at all is due

Rail Freight Reinventing the High Line One of the most talked-about relics of New York's rail freight era is M a n h a t t a n ' s High Line, a 1.5-mileîong, 3 0 / o o t - w i d e elevated rail deck r u n n i n g from West 34th St. to Gansevoort St. Now due to become a linear park, it was built in the 1930s as a n attempt to reduce congestion on 10th Ave. For 3 0 years, the High line brought food and merchandise into M a n h a t t a n — u n t i l improvements in highways led to a falloff in rail freight in the early 1960s.

in part to a largely successful intervention on the part of the federal government over 25 years ago. Once the primary means of moving goods from the west, rail service had deteriorated so badly by 1976 that Washington, D.C., stepped in to create the Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail) out of the bankrupt Penn Central Railroad and five other struggling lines in the Northeast. Roughly $7 billion of taxpayers' money was invested in trains and track repair, and in 1987—after some reasonable success—Conrail was sold to the public. With a monopoly on freight traffic into and out of the metropolitan region, the company proved an attractive target for both Norfolk Southern and CSX railroads and the two railroads jointly purchased Conrail in 1999 for $10.3 billion. Although Conrail continues to exist today as a subsidiary of both companies performing switching services at local yards, most Conrail assets were divided up between the two railroads.

•ak Point Yard

Harlem River Yard

Fresh Pond Yard

South Brooklyn Marine Terminal

\

65th Street Yard

Brancn

Today, the New York-New Jersey region

serving businesses requiring carfloat service;

supports more than a dozen rail terminals,

the South Brooklyn Railway, serving NYC

served by three major railroads: the

Transit's needs; the Providence £r Worcester

Canadian Pacific, handling traffic to and

Railroad, running from the region to

from eastern Canada, and CSX and Norfolk

parts of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and

Southern, both of whose routes lie

Massachusetts; the New York Susquehanna

primarily to the south and Midwest. They

and Western, serving traffic between

are supported by seven smaller regional

upstate New York and New England and the

or terminal railroads: the New York and

mid-Atlantic region via a connecting line

Atlantic, serving Long Island's freight

around New York City; and the Port Jersey

customers; Express Rail, serving port users;

Railroad, providing local switching

the New York Cross-Harbor Railroad,

services in northern New Jersey.

Rail Freight There are roughly 1.3 million railcars in the United States, of varying shapes and sizes. Many are highly specialized, designed to carry lumber, chemicals, forest products,

Boxcar A boxcar is a fully enclosed car used to t r a n s p o r t commodities.

or autos, for example. Others are variations

Gondola car A gondola car is a low freight car with a flat bottom, fixed sides, and no roof. It generally carries bulk goods such as

on standard "hopper" or "gondola" cars.

stone or steel.

Hopper cars generally handle dry bulk commodities impervious to weather conditions—stone, gravel, or coal, for example; gondola cars, either covered or open, are used to ship heavy or bulk products such as scrap metal, steel, wood chips, and aggregates. Refrigerated cars, with diesel-powered cooling units, are used

Tank car Tank cars are used to t r a n s p o r t liquids, compressed or liquefied gases, or solids t h a t are liquefied before unloading.

to meet the long-distance travel

Covered hopper car Covered hopper cars are used for handling bulk commodities t h a t can't get wet. They have openings for either top or side loading.

requirements of fresh or frozen products. Regardless of type, all railcars carry markings on their flanks. Generally these will include the car number, the railroad

::::::

trademark or logo, and the name or initials

\ "7

of the car s owner. They will also carry abbreviations referring to their cubic and weight capacity, length, width, height, and date built.

Trilevel auto car A trilevel a u t o car consists of a three-level steel rack t h a t holds 12 standard sedans or 15 compact cars.

Floats No More

Prior to

Refrigerator car Also known as a "reefer, " a refrigerated car is used to move goods needing refrigeration. Before the era of gas-powered coolers, these cars were loaded with ice.

2 , 0 0 0 cars each year between

the opening of the Holland Tunnel

South Brooklyn and Greenville Yards

in 1 9 2 7 , nearly all domestic freight

in Jersey City—about the same

destined for New York terminated

amount t h a t was handled each day in

its rail journey in New Jersey. From

1 9 6 5 . Between 15 and 2 0 railcars

there, it crossed the river on cargo

can be ramped from the shore onto

ferries or on carfloats, barges

tracks on a waiting barge, which

specially outfitted with rail tracks

is hauled by a tug across the river to

for cargo moving from one rail system

an unloading yard.

to another. A t one time, dozens

M o s t cargo, primarily for Long

of carfloat bridges existed along

Island customers, is of the "not in a

Brooklyn's shoreline.

r u s h " variety: the journey takes

Today, in an age of multiple truck

longer but is cheaper than the

routes across New York Harbor,

alternative rail journey up the Hudson

only one carfloat operation remains.

and across the river at Selkirk,

Known as the New York Cross-

near Albany.

Harbor Railroad, it moves roughly

Intermodal Cargo

M I M MI

The lion's share

of rail cargo into and out of the New York region is what's known as "intermodal" cargo;

Center beam bulkhead flatcar

COFC Container-on-flatcar

(COFC)

These cars are often used to transport

service is a common sight on

lumber or sheets of drywall,

freight trains rumbling down both

which are stacked on either side of a

sides of the Hudson River.

i.e., cargo moving by more than one means of transportation. Truck trailers, for instance, may

be loaded on rail flatcars and taken

center beam. long distances by train. Containers may travel the same way, moving easily between any combination of ship, rail, and truck. A t least one specialized vehicle—the RoadRailer— can move on both road and rail. Special-purpose depressed

Double-stack Double-stacked

center flatcar These flatcars

containers are placed on specially

are generally used to haul extremely

designed low-level chassis to meet t h e

oversized items.

22-feet clearances common on rail lines in parts of the United States.

Increasingly, however, intermodal traffic moves in containers. Thanks to special low-level rail chassis, containers can be stacked on top of each other for long journeys across the country. Known as "double-stack" trains, this mode of rail travel has proved so efficient t h a t Asian cargo headed for the New York region is often dropped off on the W e s t Coast and completes its journey to the East Coast this way—in what has become

RoadRailer The RoadRailer is a specialized trailer vehicle designed to move over the highway, b u t also to be pulled in a t r a i n . Originally designed in 1952, it is used by a number of railroads, including Amtrak for mail service.

TOFC Trailer-on-/latcar (TOFC)

known as the "mini-landbridge" system.

service consists of truck trailers riding on flatcars.

This system is generally

referred to as "piggybacking."

Double-stack trains are also loaded here at the port, and in other northern New Jersey terminals, with imports bound for eastern Canada and the Midwest as well as exports.

W h a t ' s în a train?

As anyone who has ever

waited at a grade crossing for a freight t r a i n t o pass knows, these trains can be very long indeed. And t h a t is precisely the economics t h a t underpin rail freight: link as many different cars as possible going roughly to the same location, pulled by the same locomotive. The unusual mix of commodities t h a t can result is represented here by the lineup of a train delivered to the New York & Atlantic Railway on August 2 6 , 2 0 0 3 .

Wine

x

x-

Pulpboard

62

The Works

Moving Freight

Rail Freight Classification Yards

Railroads' advantage over trucking turns on

their ability to move many diverse shipments over a

of the yard; the switch engine pushes the car over the hump and gravity accelerates it onto its predetermined track. Automatically operated retarders brake each car's wheels so

relatively long distance on one train. But making up a train

that it couples at just the right speed to the cars already

is a cumbersome process, as no two cars may have the

lined up on the track.

same origin and destination. Here's where the classification yard comes in: cars are collected from shippers and

Within the New York-New Jersey region, several classification yards act as part of the regional rail network.

assembled into trains for travel to a second yard, where they

Oak Island, just north of Port Newark, New Jersey, is

are broken up and sorted for delivery to customers.

operated by Norfolk Southern and CSX. Oak Point Yard, in

Two kinds of classification yards predominate—flat yards

the Bronx, is the largest classification yard within New York

and hump yards. Flat yards consist of a set of parallel tracks

City. It serves as a classification and staging yard for

interconnected by switches, and rely on switch engines

freight rail traffic to and from Long Island over the Hell Gate

to move cars in blocks or individually. Hump yards, in

Bridge. Most traffic bound for New York City from the

contrast, are characterized by a track raised above the rest

west moves over Selkirk Yard, just south of Albany.

Selkirk Yard

Nearly all freight moving

directly into New York City comes through the Selkirk Yard, located eight miles south of Albany and operated by CSX. W i t h 7 0 tracks— the longest will hold 7 0 cars and the

shortest

37—Selkirk is the largest classification yard on the East Coast.

Receiving yard After the engine is removed from the train, the remaining cars are inspected for mechanical defects.

Pulpboard

Engine house The engine house is where the engines are inspected a n d m a i n t e n a n c e and repairs are undertaken. It is often located a t the center of the yard, so as not to disrupt the humping activity.

Propane

Corn Feed

63

Car repair yard The car repair yard is the location of light repair. Maintenance men will be dispatched throughout the yard, generally to tracks designated by type: hopper, a, etc.

For Local Delivery

Perhaps the closest

thing New York has to a local railroad is the New

York & Atlantic (NY&A), which operates a

269-mile system t h a t primarily serves customers on Long Island. It is a recent phenomenon: until 1 9 9 7 , the rail freight business on Long Island (including Queens and Brooklyn) had been the purview of the Long Island Rail Road or its predecessors. A t t h a t time, N Y S A , a subsidiary of the Anacostia and Pacific Railroad holding company, was awarded a 20-year concession from the MTA with the goal of reversing a 2 5 - y e a r decline in Long Island rail freight volume. Employing only 3 0 people, it runs eight trains a day

(six days a week) along t r a c k s it shares

with the commuter railroad. Its 1 8 , 0 0 0 annual carloads consist primarily of aggregates, scrap paper and metal, forest products, chemicals, and food products.

Departure yard Blocks move j r o m the classification yard to t h e departure yard, where they are made up into t r a i n s . Car inspectors look over the t r a i n , a t t a c h the air hoses, and couple the engines.

Pulpboard

^

Rice

^

Flour, Bagged

m w ijjijjH W H I N I J J I J J H WLLIHI imjjHi iimmmiu

The Works

Moving Freight

Rail Freight

How

a Hump Yard Works

Hump yards are most efficiently used to classify trains made up of cars going to many different destinations. The hump locomotive travels only one train length in order to "classify" or segregate the entire t r a i n .

Pit As a train leaves a receiving yard and moves toward the hump t h a t signals its entrance into the dassi/ication yard, the train rolls over a glassed-in pit under the track. An inspector will examine the couplers, gears, and brakes among other things.

Hump The h u m p is a n artificial hill, generally about 2 0 - 3 0 feet high. A hump engine is attached to the train and pushes the cars over the h u m p a t a rate of 3 - 4 per minute, down a grade 0/between 2% and 4%. Some humps include a scale and inspection pit.

"Do Not Hump" Occasionally freight cars rumbling through the New York region carry the admonition "do not hump." These are generally cars carrying fragile or high-value loads—liquor, bricks, glass, or delicate food products, for example. Sending these trains "over the hump" could damage the goods—hence the warning.

Classification yard Once over the hump, cars roll into the classification yard, where each track is assigned a destination. As cars accumulate in the yard, blocks of similarly destined cars are built. Yards are often called "bowls," as most track slopes to the center. Retarder Speed meters monitor the cars' speed once over the hump, and this information is passed to the retarder operator. This indicates j u s t how much to slow the train (via mechanical retarders t h a t grip each car's wheel flanges) so that coupling speed does not exceed 4 mph.

Building a train Power-operated switches control the track routes from the classification yard to the pullout leads. One or more leads feed the departure yard or yards, where trains are made up based on destination.

66

The Works

Moving Freight

Rail Freight Transcontinental Freight

Not all that long ago, produce

moving from the West Coast to New York was shipped

But transcontinental rail freight is trying to make a comeback, with clean, refrigerated cars ("reefers") and— most important—more reliable train scheduling. Though

almost exclusively by rail: potatoes and onions from the

cross-country rail transit times are roughly double those

Northwest, fruit from California, for example. However,

by road, the cost of moving by reefer is roughly half that of

as trucking became more competitive and efficient (in part

truck thanks to labor shortages, rising fuels costs, and

due to the interstate highway system) and rail service

increasing highway congestion. As a result, rail is making

deteriorated, the tables began to turn. Today, only a minority

inroads with the more durable types of western produce:

of produce moves into the New York region by rail:

carrots, onions, celery, potatoes, broccoli, and citrus fruit.

Sunkist, for example, used to load more railcars in a day than it does now in a year.

The Journey of a Carrot

i. At a packing shed n e a r Bakers/ield, California, workers for Grimmway—the world's largest carrot grower— hand-load over 2,500 50-pound bags of carrots into a refrigerated railcar a b o u t to begin its eight-day journey to the Bronx.

Plastic Pellets

Plywood

2. Once packed, a local train collects the car and brings it to a classification yard in Fresno. Along with refrigerated trains collected elsewhere a n d several cars carrying nonperishables, it leaves for the Union Pacific's N o r t h e r n California h u b , Roseville Yard, where it is coupled with another block of refrigerated cars.

Potatoes, Fresh

Oak Flooring

3. At Roseville, engines are added and the train, limited to 85 cars to enable it to manage the steep grade of the Sierra Nevada, departs for Bailey Yard in North Platte, Nebraska — t h e largest classification yard in the world. At N o r t h Platte, the refrigerated cars will be combined with reefer loads from Idaho and Oregon and sorted into two new trains — o n e headed for Selkirk, New York, a n d the other for Waycross, Georgia.

Beer

4. The Selkirk-bound train arrives at Union Pacific's Proviso Yard west of Chicago and is then moved by a local switching railroad to a CSX yard nearby. The Union Pacific crew is replaced by a CSX crew, although the Union Pacific's engine will continue on the t r a i n t h r o u g h o u t its j o u r n e y to Selkirk.

67

"Big Milk"

To this day, rail freight

buffs remember with fondness the "milk trains" —the trains t h a t brought nearly a million gallons of milk each day into the region from farms in upstate New York. These trains carried cans of milk in special insulated cars (packed with ice in the summer) to "milk y a r d s " in the region. Three terminated at the 6 0 t h S t . Milkyard on the west side of M a n h a t t a n , dropping off cars at the Bronx Terminal M a r k e t and the 1 3 0 t h S t . Milkyard in M a n h a t t a n en route; a fourth terminated in Weehawken, New Jersey. The trains generally began their rural runs in the afternoon, arriving in the city during the wee hours of the night. Tank cars for milk replaced cans around the t u r n of the last century: precooled milk was pumped into the 6,000-gallon car at the origin of the journey and pumped out into waiting t r u c k s a t the receiving end, where it was moved t o pasteurization plants. 6. The carrot car, along with 1 9 other reefers, arrives a t Oak Point Yard and is moved alongside a shed a t nearby Hunts Point M a r k e t , the largest wholesale produce complex in the nation.

Though the tank cars brought greater levels of efficiency than the can cars, they proved no match for the truck. By the 1 9 5 0 s , trucks traveling on improved state highways offered a more direct and faster haul from the country milk station to distribution

7. Here, the car is unloaded and its contents distributed to the u l t i m a t e consignees. The car will r e t u r n to the West Coast either empty or loaded with westbound cargo.

Pulpboard

^

Onions, Fresh

Corn Starch

points in t h e city and "Big M i l k " ' s days were numbered.

Lumber

The Works

Moving Freight

epicenter of this trade. Initially, it was the docks and wharves of South Street that bustled with mail and other cargo ships. Businesses sprang up along the piers to serve the trade, and longshoremen settled their families in adjacent

By almost any account, New York owes its origins as a commercial center to its advantageous location

neighborhoods. Soon, the network of shipping activity— and the intricate web of finger piers it required—spread to Manhattan's West Side, as well as to the Brooklyn, Hoboken,

on maritime trade lanes. With one of the world's great natural harbors at its front door and a mighty river at its back, maritime

and Jersey City waterfronts. These finger piers served as the lifeblood of the city and—in times of war—the nation.

trade gave rise to the young city in the

During World War II, there were roughly

eighteenth century and propelled it

750 active piers in the port—able to berth

to national prominence in the nineteenth.

425 oceangoing vessels simultaneously.

The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 served

Within two generations, however, nearly

to cement its commercial position and

all of them disappeared. No event was more

by i860 nearly half of the nation's trade

responsible for that transformation than

moved through the Port of New York.

the invention of the container in the 1950s,

For a century or so, Manhattan was the

which offered tremendous efficiencies and greatly expanded maritime trade. Its

Maritime Freight

demands for large tracts of open space found an outlet in the swampy backwaters of New Jersey, and within a generation the din of the working waterfront was but a memory to most New Yorkers. In the years since then, New York's maritime trade has grown dramatically— more than 80 million metric tons of cargo move through the port each year—but it is also less visible. Much of it moves over docks at the Port Newark/Elizabeth Marine Terminal in New Jersey, whose 2,100 acres sit just east of Newark Airport. Supplemented by New York Container Terminal on Staten Island, Red Hook Container Terminal in Brooklyn, and a number of private marine terminals in New Jersey, the littleheralded complex serves in many ways as the economic lifeline of the region.

The West Side waterfront, circa 1869.

69

Today, New York Harbor remains among the city's greatest assets. It covers 650 miles of shoreline, reaching from the banks of Sandy Hook in New Jersey around Staten Island and northward along the contours of Newark Bay and the Hudson and East rivers. Although it is a natural harbor, it is not a naturally deep one—silty deposits from the Hudson, Hackensack, and Passaic rivers give it a natural depth of between 18 and 21 feet. As a result, harbor traffic must stick carefully to a predetermined set of man-made and wellmaintained navigation channels and anchorages.

Port Newark/Elizabeth, the destination for much of the region s cargo, is accessed via the narrow Kill van Kull located on the n o r t h side 0/Staten Island.

Brooklyn Marine/Red Hook Container Terminal is located opposite Governors Island in t h e Red Hook section of Brooklyn.

The Statue of Liberty is the official center of the port, with the "port d i s t r i c t " radiating out 25 miles in each direction.

New York Container Terminal, formerly known as Howland Hook Marine Terminal, is on the n o r t h \ shore of Staten Island and handles both containerized and noncontainerized traffic.

70

The Works

Moving Freight

Maritime Freight Entering the Harbor

Each year,

unofficial gateway to New York Harbor. The passage under the Verrazano is but

more than 12,000 ships enter or leave New

one of several tricky maneuvers todays

York Harbor. Roughly 40 percent of them

cargo vessels must make before reaching port.

are tankers or "drugstore ships," carrying

In some places, the harbor bottom is made

refined products or crude oil. Another

up of soft material like sand, silt, or clay; in

45 percent are laden with containers,

other places, the seabed is rock—a less

destined for warehouses and distribution

forgiving matter. The combination of sharp

centers in the region. The rest are bulk or

turns, wild currents, and a preponderance

break-bulk (cargo consolidated into smaller,

of reefs and shoals means that only a

noncontainerized units) vessels, often

trained harbor pilot is allowed to guide large

carrying single products such as iron, steel,

ships into port: even the most experienced

or forest products. With the exception of

ship captain must relinquish the wheel

tankers headed for terminals along the

to a Sandy Hook pilot when his or her ship

Arthur Kill, nearly all of them pass under

reaches New York waters.

the Verrazano Narrows Bridge, the

Making for P o r t

The captain of the ship cedes contra! to t h e Sandy Hook pilot, who takes the ship through the Narrows and into t h e harbor.

A skiff from the pilot boat moored offshore approaches the ship, and a Sandy Hook pilot climbs up a rope ladder to board the vessel entering the harbor.

Ships major (from east),

approach from one of the three shipping lanes—Barnegat the s o u t h ) , Hudson (from the or Nantucket (from the n o r t h ) .

71

P o r t Newark/Elizabeth

A docking pilot takes over a s the ship approaches Port Newark. He or she will guide the ship into her berth a t the port.

The Invisible Pilots

Since 1 6 9 4 ,

when the Colonial Assembly commissioned a group of local sea captains to aid ship masters entering New York Harbor, pilots have been Tugs come alongside the ship,

responsible for navigating ships through New

to assist in making the sharp t u r n s necessary t o travel t h r o u g h t h e

York Harbor's treacherous waters. Relying

Kill van Kull between Bayonne and

initially on oars and sail, local pilot groups in

Staten Island.

New

York and New Jersey competed for

the patronage of the incoming vessels. A tragic accident in 1 8 8 8 forced New York Monitoring Waves and Tides

State to act to combine local pilot companies;

Current velocities and depths in New York H a r b o r v a r y

widely,

across the harbor and over the course of a day. The National

Ocean

Service, part of the Department of Commerce, m a i n t a i n s a model to provide mariners with in/ormation t h a t can help them time their j o u r n e y

seven years later, the New York and New

Jersey pilots groups merged and the

Sandy Hook Pilots Association was born. Today, a full century later, the Sandy Hook Pilots still have a monopoly on this business.

or decide which r o u t e t o take. I t

Some 7 6 pilots take t u r n s manning one

is three dimensional a n d relies on

of two large pilot boats stationed around the

real-time wind and water-level d a t a t o predict water levels and c u r r e n t s a t t h o u s a n d s of locations across the harbor. • • • •

< 0 . 3 knots 0 . 3 - 0 . 6 knots 0 . 6 - 1 . 0 knots 1.0—1.3 knots > 1.3 knots

clock off Sandy Hook, assisting on average 3 5 - 4 0 incoming or outgoing ships each day. And they are well t r a i n e d : a seven-year apprenticeship must be followed by seven more years of work as a deputy pilot.

Maritime Freight Managing Harbor Traffic

The U.S. Coast

• Channel

12 serves the Arthur Kill and East River and

is used by the Coast Guard to administer the harbor's

Guard, once part

anchorages.

of the Department of Transportation and now part of the Department of Homeland Security, is responsible for

• Channel

14 covers boats steaming through the main

shipping channel, including the Lower and Upper

monitoring and coordinating New York's harbor traffic. It does this largely through its 24-hour Vessel Traffic Service

Bay, the Kill v a n Kull, Newark and Raritan bays, and

(VTS), based at Fort Wadsworth on Staten Island. Staffed

Sandy Hook Channel.

by a mix of civilian and military personnel, the service

In addition to coordinating vessel movements, the Coast

gathers and disseminates real-time information about marine

Guard monitors and administers boat "parking" in the harbor

movements via three radio frequencies:

at the three federally designated anchorages at Bay Ridge and Gravesend, off Brooklyn, and at Stapleton, off Staten

11 is provided for initial check-in, when a

• Channel

Island. Vessels are required to provide four-day advance

boat is getting under way from a mooring or entering

notice before arriving at an anchorage and are permitted to

the harbor.

stay for a limited period of time—generally 30 days.

NEXT: 5031-5331

ATLANTIC SUPERIOR GRASELLI COCKS

MARIE J TURECAPIO IflTT BAYONNE

m

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HOUfIA . BOH PORT ELIZ

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45-1

niSS YVETTE OUT HOLLAND

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commercial buildings and delivered to |

recyclers, exporters, or paper manufacturers. The remainder, often referred to as "putrescible waste," is delivered to many

transportation £r warehousing £

information

1 pro/essional, technical {/scientific H state £r/ederal government j administrative support services

of the same transfer stations now handling much of the city's residential waste— primarily in New Jersey, the Hunts Point

H arts, entertainment {/recreation accommodation irfood services HI other services

area of the Bronx, the Greenpoint/ Williamsburg area of Brooklyn, or in Jamaica, Queens. Both collections typically occur at night, when the streets are quietest. In addition to commercial waste, New York produces over seven million tons

Waste and " t h e M o b "

of construction and demolition debris

Until the middle of the twentieth

each year. Some 30 to 40 percent of it is

century, the city bore responsibility

effort on the p a r t of law

one or another form of building waste

for collecting commercial waste

enforcement agencies, indictments were handed down against the

much they paid for waste removal. In t h e m i d - 1 9 9 0 s , after much

(plasterboard, plumbing, etc.) and moves

as well as residential waste. That

to transfer stations permitted to handle

changed in 1 9 5 7 , when t h e city

leaders of the trash cartel in the

this kind of waste, many of them in the outer

withdrew from the commercial

city. A t the same time a new

boroughs or New Jersey. The remainder

waste business and t h e private

local entity, t h e Trade W a s t e

is often referred to as "clean fill" and consists

carting industry—and organized

Commission, was set up to regulate

of gravel, dirt, rock, concrete, and stone

crime—took over. Some private

the commercial waste haulers

that is largely the result of site excavation

c a r t e r s found themselves members

by licensing valid businesses and

and building demolition. It is crushed and

of t r a d e associations controlled

setting maximum and minimum

milled at a "clean fill" milling operation

by organized crime, and individual

rates for waste collection and

and used by both public and private

businesses found themselves with

disposal. A l t h o u g h its name has

sectors as soil cover in a variety of places.

little choice of provider: specific

been changed t o t h e Business

locations were "owned" by specific

Integrity Commission, the

haulers and the local business

organization's oversight role

owner had little or no say in how

continues today.

199

Roosevelt Island

With one exception, New-

pull the garbage at 60 mph through a vacuum to a central

York City's garbage collection

facility for collection, compaction, and containerization.

is pretty low-tech—trucks, cans, and a lot of manual

Manned by nine Department of Sanitation employees, the

labor. The exception is Roosevelt Island's "Automated vacuum

system has the capacity to collect trash from 20,000

Assisted Collection" system—otherwise known as AVAC.

people, making it the largest of only 10 such systems operating

Designed to handle refuse in densely populated areas, it

in the country (DisneyWorld has one as well). Currently

relies on a series of chutes which run vertically through the

it processes eight tons each day, though expansion to nine

island's high-rise buildings and are connected to a 20-

new apartment buildings on the island is planned.

inch pipe running under the island. Centrifugal turbines

The AVAC in Action 1. Residents deposit trash in chutes located on each floor of the island s residential buildings.

2. A dozen times a d a y — a n d more jrequently on weekends—the system switches itself on, and all accumulated garbage is sucked through a 20-inch pipe a t speeds up to 60 mph.

3. Material moves into a hopper a t the central AVAC building, from which it drops into a container on large rollers.

4. The container fits inside a giant compactor, which reduces the garbage to roughly one-fifth of its original size. When full, it is rolled away for removal.

5. A Sanitation Department truck carries the container away— currently to the Tully transfer station in College Point, Queens—for disposal. Five or six of these large, compacted c o n t a i n e r s a r e removed from the island each week.

Garbage Most New Yorkers know little

per hour. Each sweeper holds 5.5 yards of debris, and will

about street cleaning other

dump into collection trucks—generally twice a day, but more

than that it's one of the main reasons they can't leave their car parked on a street for days at a time. Few recognize

in leaf season. The key to a successful sweep is water, and each of the

how important a role the mechanical street sweepers and

sweeper vehicles holds 240 gallons of it. When they run out

their drivers play in keeping city streets clean.

of water en route, drivers will refill their tanks at

Each day, the Sanitation Department sends out roughly 325

predetermined hydrants with special magnetic caps on them.

sweepers. Though the machines travel slowly, generally

Like the Fire Department, the street sweeper is guardian

covering between six and 20 miles a day, they are actually

of a special wrench that gives him or her the ability to open

capable of moving much faster if necessary: thanks to

the designated hydrants.

a Mercedes-Benz engine, their top speed is a swift 37 miles

Underneath the S t r e e t Sweeper

The vehicle s hydraulics allow the sweeper to automatically shift balance when the brooms get worn down.

Street sweepers have two g u t t e r brooms, which r o t a t e and t h u s sweep inward.

A rubber conveyor tosses anything picked up into a hopper.

There is also a long, t u b u l a r , pickup broom which r u n s across the bottom of the vehicle.

201

How

Clean Is Clean?

Policing the Streets

businesses comply with health and

The Sanitation Police are a part of

sanitary laws governing both waste

the department's enforcement

disposal, including recycling, and

division, whose white cars are not

s t r e e t cleanliness. The division also

uncommon sights on New York

operates an Illegal Dumping Task

City s t r e e t s . The division's job is to

Force and a bounty program to reward

ensure t h a t both residents and

people who report illegal dumping.

Street Cleanliness Ratings 1980-2003

S t r e e t cleanliness is

measured by the Mayor's Office of Operations, and ratings are based on rigorous photographic standards of cleanliness. Inspectors are trained to assess conditions based on a scale of I (cleanest) to 3 (dirtiest), with ratings below 1.5 considered "acceptably clean." Inspections may occur before or after street cleaning activities, and not all s t r e e t s are visited: sample s t r e e t s are statistically and geographically representative of a given district. The information produced is provided to Community Boards, Business Improvement Districts (BIDs), and other public interest groups interested in local conditions. Fiscal Year

Acceptably clean: 1.0 a clean

Acceptably clean: 1.2 a clean

street, with no litter

street, with just a few traces of litter

Filthy: 1.8 litter is

Filthy: 2.0 litter is concentrated,

Filthy: 3.0 litter is very

concentrated in spots, w i t h gaps

with gaps between piles

concentrated, both in a straight line

between piles or pieces of litter

Not acceptably clean: 1.5 la gaps between pieces of litter

along and running over the curb

202

The UUorks

Keeping It Clean

Garbage Snow Removal

Although most of its day-to-day resources are devoted to garbage

To deal with particularly large snowstorms, the department relies on snow melters—diesel-powered machines that

removal and street cleaning, the Department of Sanitation

are towed into place by a tractor cab and can melt as many

endears itself most to New Yorkers during snowstorms.

as 60 tons an hour. The machines are relatively new—

With the first hint of snow, the department readies itself for

a response to the late 1990s ban on dumping salty snow into

action. Depending on the forecast, a certain number of

the river—and have proved effective at tackling the

sanitation trucks are "dressed"—fitted with plows in the front

larger mounds that can clog intersections and streets. Built

and chains on the back tires. Once two inches cover the

with extra-large holding tanks, the machines melt the

ground (they can't plow less than that due to a mount on the

snow and direct the water runoff into nearby storm drains.

vehicle which protects them from uneven manhole covers and other obstacles), they hit the streets.

Let It Snow. mm*

= 1 0 trucks

With only one inch of snow, only salt

When there is a snow/all of between

A t / o u r to six inches, between two-

A big snow/all, more t h a n six inches,

spreaders—350 of them, as well

two a n d / o u r inches, all spreaders

thirds and three-quarters of the fleet

will involve equipping 1 0 0 percent

as 60 small pickup/salt spreaders—

are used a n d one-quarter of t h e

will he used—over 7 0 0 trucks.

of the fleet (1,335 f u c k s ) with plows.

are used.

Sanitation truck fleet—roughly

380

vehicles—is equipped with plows and sent o u t .

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Mapping the Salt Domes The city has a total of 3 4 salt dome sites, 16 of which are covered, 13 of which are uncovered, and nine of which are strictly seasonal. They house salt until it is needed for placement on roadways, generally during the winter.

Salt Dome Type M Dome ft Shed Tarp w

Uncovered

Snow melters A diesel-powered

Salt spreaders Salt spreaders use

burner heats water in t h e holding

a conveyor to move salt to the back of

t a n k . The hot w a t e r is sprayed

the truck, where it is sent down a

over snow as it is added to t h e t a n k

chute. A gate, located adjacent to t h e

by a front-end loader. The liquid

chute, is adjusted to allow a certain

sinks to the bottom, passes t h r o u g h

a m o u n t of salt through a t a time. The

a filter, and is piped directly into

salt hits a spinner, which can

city storm drains.

spread it anywhere from four to eight feet, depending on the type of road being salted.

HE F U T U R E

Looking back over the last century, it is fair to say that the layers of New York's infrastructure took form haphazardly in response to discrete civic needs and at different times—for streets and clean water in the nineteenth century, for efficient transport at the dawn of the twentieth, for speedier means of trade by the middle of that century. It is not surprising, then, that the systems portrayed here operate almost entirely independently

commitment to its upstate watershed delivery system.

of one another and share little or nothing in the way of

New freight rail routes will open, but they will

physical infrastructure.

support—rather than supplant—vehicular tunnels and

As we look to the future, however, it is likely that

will rely almost exclusively on rail lines laid out

connections between forms of infrastructure will

generations ago. Channels will be dug and blasted deeper,

become more routine—in New York and elsewhere.

but they represent almost precisely the maritime

Telecom lines may well run through sewers, solar

trade lanes that ships have plied for centuries.

power will be used at sewage plants, wastewater can

Over the past two centuries, New York's infrastructure

replace freshwater for industrial uses, and garbage

has successfully supported the growth of the city

may be among the fastest growing rail freight

around it. The durability and longevity of the region's

commodities. And as parts of New York are reimagined

infrastructure is a testament to the vision of those

in their entirety—lower Manhattan and the West

w h o laid it down in some cases more t h a n a century

Side yards above all—so too will be the infrastructure

ago—who saw the need for express tracks on the

that supports them: green power, gray (reused)

subway, for open stretches of swamp for containers,

water, new subway lines and tunnels, and possibly the

and for upstate land for clean water. But it is also a

first expansion of the city's steam system in decades.

tribute to the thousands of municipal and private sector

To the casual observer, these changes are relatively

workers who, for generations, have toiled around

minor. A third water tunnel will facilitate local

the clock to maintain the way of life that New Yorkers

water distribution, but it only reinforces the city's

have come to expect.

The Works

The Future

Moving People

As we look to the future, it is hard to imagine traffic not moving faster on the region s roads: tollbooths and E-ZPass

Second Avenue Subway There are many projects on the drawing board in the headquarters of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, but none awaited so eagerly—or for so long—as the Second Avenue Subway. One quick glance at a New York City subway

will become relics of the past, as electronic

map suggests why: while the West Side of

identification is built into individual cars;

Manhattan has multiple lines running

traffic warnings will become more precise

south from the Bronx, the East Side has only

and timely, as new ways to monitor data

one: the notoriously overcrowded

about road conditions become available; and

Lexington Avenue line.

low-tech improvements to mitigate traffic in the most congested areas of the city will continue to be made by city DOT. But while roadway congestion may be the focus of daily life in Los Angeles,

As early as the 1920s, when it was proposed as phase two of the plan for the new city-owned IND system, there was strong public support for the Second Avenue line. But plans for the project were shelved

Dallas, or Miami, in New York it is rail

due to the tight fiscal environment following

transportation that—more than any

the Depression and did not reappear until

other mode of travel—knits together people

after World War II.

and their workplaces. And it is changes to that system in the future that will

In the early 1950s, $500 million in New York State bonds were issued to support

contribute most to more efficient movement

construction of the line, but the proceeds

of people in the future.

were spent on more urgent capital

Three new initiatives are likely to improve

projects required by the then-aging system.

regional rail connections. The first, the

Plans for the line were revived with

Second Avenue Subway, will relieve the

the establishment of the Metropolitan

severe overcrowding on the numbers 4, 5,

Transportation Authority in the late

and 6 lines that are the sole north-south

1960s, and small portions of the subway

subways on the East Side of Manhattan. The

were subsequently constructed in

next, the proposed subway to JFK, would

East Harlem and the Lower East Side, but

offer direct rail access to the airport as well

the project once again fell victim to

as dramatically improve travel times for

New York City's financial woes.

Long Island commuters who work in lower Manhattan. The third, a proposed new

With the recent allocation of federal funding, the project has returned to

tunnel to increase direct rail service from

life. The current plan is to build a new

New Jersey into midtown Manhattan, is

line along the length of Second Ave.,

likewise aimed at improving the commuter

from 125th St. to Hanover Square, although

experience—in this case for those living

the speed at which this occurs will be

west of the Hudson.

determined by the availability of additional local funding.

207

Direct Rail to JFK For almost two decades, the MTA operated

Access to the Region s Core (ARC)

the "train to the plane": an hour-long

A new passenger rail tunnel entering

journey on the A train to the Howard Beach

Manhattan from the east could well

station in Queens, where a bus would

be matched by one from the west, if bistate

wait to shuttle riders to their terminals. So

transportation planners have their way.

light was traffic on the line that no

A comprehensive study of a new two-track

one complained, and few even noticed, when

tunnel under the Hudson River from

the service was scrapped by the MTA in 1990. The idea of a direct rail link to John F.

Secaucus into Penn Station was recently completed under the supervision of the

Kennedy Airport from Manhattan was

Port Authority and New Jersey Transit. The

revived after September 11, 2001, more

study suggests that completion of a new

as a component of an economic development

tunnel, along with new passenger facilities

strategy for lower Manhattan than as a

near Penn Station, could double west-of-

solution to any particular

transportation

problem. A new rail link between the

Hudson rail capacity, speeding up travel times and providing nearly all

airport and lower Manhattan would not

commuters from New Jersey, as

only make the latter a more attractive

well as those from Orange and Rockland

office location for business travelers, but

counties in New York, with a one-seat

by connecting at Jamaica with the Long

ride into midtown Manhattan.

Island Railroad would facilitate the journeys of hundreds of thousands of Long Island

The tunnel would operate much the same way the existing Penn Station tunnel

commuters destined for lower Manhattan,

operates today: diesel-electric locomotives

who today must switch to a downtown-

would operate

bound subway at Penn Station. Forty alternative routes were evaluated

under diesel on the branch lines

during the course of 2004 by consultants

in the suburbs

hired by the Lower Manhattan Development

but switch to

Corporation, the Port Authority, the MTA,

electric power to

and New York City. Ultimately, a route that

travel through

involves extending the existing Air Train

the new tunnel

line (which runs from JFK to Jamaica Station)

into Penn Station.

along the Atlantic branch of the LIRR

Although the

and through a new tunnel between

precise alignment

Newark Penn Station

downtown Brooklyn and lower Manhattan

of the new line

was recommended. Although the projected

has not been

cost of the tunnel is considerable

determined, it is expected to run under the

(approximately six billion dollars), and the

Palisades, very close to the existing

public review process extensive, moves

Northeast Corridor track that carries

are afoot to secure a large share of federal

Amtrak trains into Penn Station today.

monies for the project.

The estimated cost of the tunnel is a whopping three to five billion dollars. Should funding be secured, groundbreaking for the tunnel could occur as early as 2006, with completion possible in 2015.

The Works

The Future

Mowing Freight

In some respects, the technology used to move goods—as opposed to people—has changed only modestly over the course of

Cross-Harbor Tunnel The idea of a cross-harbor freight tunnel is not a new one; planners as far back as the turn of the last century saw a freightonly tunnel under the harbor as the ideal way to reduce congestion on waterways in the harbor. But with the opening

centuries. The bulk of international

of the Holland and Lincoln tunnels for

trade still moves in ships, much as it did at

vehicles, cargo found a new, speedier

the time New York City was founded. The

way to cross the river, and the idea of a

ships are bigger, faster, and more reliable—

rail freight tunnel was shelved.

and much of the cargo is stuffed inside

Today, trucks crossing the Hudson

containers for ease of handling along the

continue to carry the bulk of the region's

shore—but the mode of transportation is

cargo: less than 2 percent of all freight

essentially the same. Somewhat more change

enters areas east of the Hudson by rail. Rail

has occurred with respect to the inland

freight coming to the region from the

portion of the move, where trucks and trains

west and south must travel over a crossing

have largely replaced stagecoaches and

at Selkirk, 140 miles to the north of the

canals, but the overall pace of change has

city, or make use of the limited carfloat

been slow—and is likely to remain that

service operating between Greenville

way for the foreseeable future.

Yards in New Jersey and Brooklyn.

There are nevertheless a handful of

Keen to reduce reliance on trucking and

projects afoot in the metropolitan area that

increase rail freight options, the federal

will, if they come to fruition, facilitate

government recently funded a major study

and potentially reconfigure local freight

on the impact of a freight rail tunnel

handling. Two of them—the Cross-Harbor

between Brooklyn and New Jersey. The

Tunnel and the Staten Island Railroad—are

proposed tunnel—consisting of either

rail projects, aimed at taking trucks off

one or two tubes—would connect the

the congested local highways and expanding

Greenville Yards in Jersey City to the Bay

activity on the region's underutilized

Ridge Line in Brooklyn, and terminate

rail infrastructure. The tunnel is much more

at an intermodal yard in Queens, from which

speculative, and much more costly, than

the rail cargo would be distributed by

the railroad—which is fully funded and

truck. The cost of the proposed tunnel is

likely to be completed as early as 2006.

high (between five and seven billion

The third freight project highlighted here

dollars) and local community opposition

involves the Bayonne Bridge. As container

is strong, making it likely that the rail

ships continue to increase in size, both harbor

tunnel will continue to be the subject of

depths and bridge clearances will need to

discussion for many years to come.

accommodate them. Considerable resources have been put into ensuring deep water in local shipping channels, but as of yet no formal commitments have been made to address the first of the harbor's bridgeclearance problems: the Bayonne Bridge.

209

Staten Island Railroad

Bayonne Bridge

New York is getting a new freight railroad.

The Bayonne Bridge, which connects

Abandoned by its previous operator a

Bayonne to the north shore of Staten Island

decade ago, the Staten Island Railroad—

remains one of the world's longest steel

which spans the Arthur Kill and

arch bridges—its

connects industrial businesses in Staten

central arch spans

Island with the domestic rail system in

1,675 f - Although it

New Jersey—is being brought back to

won an award soon

eet

life in a joint venture of the Port Authority

after its opening in

and the City of New York.

1931 as the most

Acquired by New York City from CSX

beautiful steel arch

Railroad, the railroad will provide

bridge, today the

direct rail service to the expanding New

bridge is something

York Container Terminal at Howland

of a stepchild to the

Hook, to the Department of Sanitation's

region's busier and

new containerization facility at Fresh

better known suspension bridges—the

Kills, and to industrial businesses on the

George Washington, the Brooklyn, and the

railroad's Travis branch, which runs

Verrazano, among others. It has geography

down the western shore of Staten Island.

to thank for that: located in something

Reconstruction involves not only new track

of a metropolitan backwater, it handles only

and replacement of rotting wooden-

about 20,000 vehicles each day and is

trestle creek bridges, but the completion of

largely invisible to the great majority of

improvements to the Arthur Kill lift

New Yorkers.

bridge, one of the region's few rail bridges

But the bridge is anything but invisible to

over water. The bridge will be painted

the pilots and captains of cargo vessels

cobalt blue—the color of the original railroad

calling at the Port of New York and New

serving that part of Staten Island.

Jersey. At 151 feet above sea level at

Reactivation of the railroad will do more

midspan, the bridge is a navigational hazard

than meet the needs of Staten Island's

to the larger container ships that make

freight-dependent businesses. It is expected

their w a y through the Kill v a n Kull off

to reduce truck traffic on the island by

Staten Island en route to Port Newark/

roughly 100,000 trips a year when it opens,

Elizabeth. To date, several have collided

in 2006.

with the bridge, forcing its temporary closure but not resulting in any serious structural damage. To minimize conflicts in the future, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey is evaluating the options for raising the bridge. The most likely plan involves leaving the bridge structure intact, but raising the roadway to provide greater clearance to ships. However, the estimated cost of such a plan could be several hundred million dollars, a sum unlikely to be paid back by fees from the relatively small number of cargo ships that stand to benefit from the removal of this rather unusual navigational hazard.

The Works

The Future

Power

Over the next several decades, the technologies used to produce electric power are likely to change relatively little.

Hydro Turbines The world's first bank of tide-powered turbines is likely to be developed here in New York City—in the middle of the East River. The plan is for six electricity turbines owned by Verdant Power, a Virginia-based energy company, to be attached to concrete

However, as power plants get harder to

piles driven into bedrock some 30 feet

locate within city boundaries, transmission

below the surface of the river. The heads

projects bringing power generated

of the turbines will move to face the current,

outside of the region to the city are likely

and the blades will spin according to the

to become more attractive. So too are

ebb and flow

alternative energy sources, which

of the tides,

should prove more competitive as the

producing a

technologies mature and the cost of reliance

modest 200

on traditional fossil-fuel sources increases.

kilowatts

Two projects under consideration

of power—

involve renewable energy sources. The

enough to

first relies on water power, an important

provide energy

source of energy for the state as a whole

to roughly 200

but one that is largely absent, to date, from

houses—at

the city's energy mix. Another proposal

their peak. Initially, the power produced

focuses on wind power. Open stretches of

will be delivered to two Con Edison

ocean off the south coast of Long Island

customers on Roosevelt Island.

would be used to harness the wind's energy,

If the pilot is successful, however, the field

delivering relatively modest amounts of

of turbines could grow significantly.

power to the New York State grid or, possibly,

New York State has articulated a target of

to particular local facilities.

25 percent reliance on renewable energy

A third project addresses the region s

sources statewide by 2013, and tide power

need for natural gas. Existing pipelines often

would join hydroelectric, wind, solar, and

operate at capacity, and a variety of new

geothermal as means to that end. Verdant

proposals to expand pipeline capacity are

envisions a field of 200-500 turbines

making their way through the regulatory

in the East River between Manhattan and

process. But r a t h e r than building a new

Roosevelt Island.

pipeline, at least one company has

Tide projects to date—most of them

proposed expanding the use of liquefied

overseas—have generally acted more like

natural gas (LNG) to meet the region's

dams, relying on barriers to hold back

growing need for gas. The proposal to moor

tidal waters to power generators. Only a few

an LNG delivery vessel in the middle of

tidal mills have ever been put into use:

Long Island Sound, if successful, would

the first 300-kilowatt turbine was installed

mark a departure from the region's historic

off the coast of Devon in England in 2003

reluctance to locate infrastructure

and another, of similar size, was located near

facilities offshore.

Hammerfest, Norway.

The Long Island Offshore Wind Initiative

Nearly all of the natural gas used by the

Long Island is also the site of an ambitious

region's power plants, homes, and businesses

Liquefied Natural Gas

proposal to harness the region's wind

is imported from the Gulf or western

power. Known as the Long Island Offshore

Canada via transcontinental pipeline. But

Wind Initiative, the plan—initiated by

reliance on the busy pipelines could be

the Long Island Power Authority (LIPA) under

dramatically reduced if Broadwater

a power purchase agreement with

Technologies—a joint venture of Royal

developer Florida Power and Light Energy—

Dutch Shell and TransCanada—succeeds in

involves the placement of 40 wind

constructing and mooring a Floating

turbines in an eight-square-mile area to

Storage and Regasification Unit in the

the southwest of Robert Moses State

middle of Long Island Sound.

Park, on the island's southern shore. If it

The shiplike terminal, roughly the size

moves ahead, the project could produce

of the Queen Mary 2 ocean liner, would

up to 140 megawatts each day as early as

receive liquefied natural gas shipments—

2007—enough to power 42,000 homes

natural gas "frozen" into a liquid

in the service area.

state and kept at 260 degrees below zero

Wind energy is the world's fastest-growing source of energy, in part because the

Fahrenheit. At the terminal, the LNG would be warmed back into a gas

costs of producing it have dropped roughly

and pumped into the existing Iroquois

80 percent in the last three decades.

pipeline, which runs from Milford,

While the UK and continental Europe have

Connecticut, to Northport on Long Island.

relied on wind power much more

The double-hulled vessel-cum-terminal

extensively than the United States to date,

would be able to store the equivalent of

states like California have successfully

about eight billion cubic feet of natural gas.

harnessed wind power since the 1970s and

The proposed siting area is in the widest

the federal government has articulated a

part of Long Island Sound, roughly 10

goal of relying on wind power for 5 percent

miles off the coasts of New Haven and

of the country's energy needs by 2020. A successful offshore wind power project

Riverhead, in water 70-90 feet deep. From here, a 25-mile long line would run

requires high winds, of course, but also

west along the seabed to meet the

relatively shallow water. Long Island's south

existing Iroquois pipeline.

shore is ideal in this regard, as it features

Though the idea of an offshore facility

shallow water (up to 70 feet is acceptable for

is new, the use of LNG in New York

wind turbines) as far as six miles out—

is not. Both Con Edison and KeySpan

meaning that the windmills, which extend

maintain supplies of LNG locally, to meet

up to 200 feet above sea level—might

peak demand during the coldest winter

not be visible from the shore.

periods. When temperatures fall below 10 or 15 degrees Fahrenheit, LNG from onsite storage tanks is vaporized and sent out to meet system needs.

The Works

The Future

Communications

The world of communications, and telecommunications in particular, is evolving so rapidly that it is difficult to envision how residents and businesses will

Wireless on Pole Tops In an effort to improve mobile telephone services to city residents, New York City is planning to make available a variety of streetside poles under its control for transmission of mobile telecom services. This marks a departure from the evolution of the cellular market to date, which has largely

communicate with each other two decades

relied on locating transmission equipment

from now. It is much easier to identify a

on private property—with no oversight by

handful of projects that will expand either

the Department of Information Technology

the accessibility or the reliability of

and Telecommunications (DoITT).

telecommunications services throughout the city in the shorter-term future. One project, placing wireless transponders

To facilitate this process, DoITT issued a Request for Proposals in early 2004. Six companies were subsequently granted

on street pole tops, is actually part of a

franchises, including one company that

broader city initiative aimed at expanding

will be providing telephone access over the

wireless coverage throughout the city. In

Internet—which should provide a lower

addition to pole tops, the city is actively

cost alternative for phone service to low-

identifying other property it owns or controls,

income families. The franchises themselves

such as schools, office buildings, and garages,

run for a period of up to 15 years, and

that may be made available to wireless

provide the company with the right to install

carriers that desire expanded coverage. Another two projects are wholly private sector initiatives. One, broadband over power lines, is a technology that has been

and use telecommunications equipment on streetlights, traffic signals, and highway sign support poles. Installation of the antennas is

employed to a limited extent by utilities

expected to begin in 2005. In addition to

here and elsewhere for some time, but has

street-based poles, DoITT is also

yet to find a sizable commercial market.

working with other agencies to identify

The concept is simple: take advantage

other city facilities—including office

of existing power lines as channels for

buildings, schools, and garages—that may

information communication. The execution

serve as useful transmission points to

is more difficult. In contrast, the other private sector

improve and expand cellular coverage across the city. A previous effort to locate cell­

project—the antenna proposed for the top

phone antennas on schools ran into

of the new Freedom Tower in lower

significant community opposition and

Manhattan—involves an old and proven

was withdrawn.

technology: radio transmission. Once built, the project would simply involve the relocation of radio transmission activity from one place in the region—in most cases the Empire State Building—to another.

Broadband over Power Lines

Freedom Tower Broadcasting

The concept of using power lines for

The Freedom Tower, which will rise 1,776

communication purposes is not new: utility

feet above the ground at the former

companies have for years been using their

World Trade Center site, is intended to be

own lines for various relay and control

the centerpiece of the rebuilding of

tasks. These applications require minimal

lower Manhattan. It will also be the world's

bandwidth and low frequency and have

tallest building, or at

been largely successful. However, the use of

least the world's tallest

power lines for high-bandwidth, two-way

freestanding structure,

transmission involving retail customers has

taking into account the

remained illusive—until now.

broadcast antenna that

There are signs that the concept may soon come of age. Advances in chip design and electronics technology have improved

will rise to 2,000 feet. The antenna is designed to do more than

delivery, and the explosion in demand for

simply pierce a height

consumer broadband services has produced

record. It is intended to

a stronger market. Equally important,

be home to New York

deregulation in the electricity industry

City broadcasters who

has taken firms like Con Edison out of the

historically relied on the

generation business entirely, leaving

antenna on the south

only their distribution and transmission

tower of the World Trade

assets as core businesses. Increasing

Center. In specific, the

the value of those assets by devising new

Metropolitan Television

revenue sources from them is more

Alliance—which includes city channels 2,

important than ever.

4, 5, 7, 9,11, and 13—signed a Memorandum

Only one utility, in Cincinnati, has rolled

of Understanding (MOU) with Larry

out broadband over power line technology

Silverstein, the Freedom Tower's developer,

on a commercial basis in the United States.

in 2003. The intention was to relocate

Here in New York, a trial program is

their transmissions from their temporary

currently under way involving Con Edison

home atop the Empire State Building.

and Ambient power line broadband

The MOU marked a departure from the

systems: a number of electronic devices have

alliance's earlier plans—which was to

been deployed at points within the power

build a 200-foot freestanding broadcast mast

distribution system to overlay a separate

in Bayonne, New Jersey. Relying on the

communications network on the power

Freedom Tower would theoretically save

lines. This network is delivering broadband

money and effort, but it is not without

services to a limited number of residences

its technical unknowns—most of them

and a government facility. The trial has been

a function of the off-center location of the

successful to date, opening the door for

spire on the building's roof. Questions

commercialization of the technology at

raised about the spire include how it might

some point in the future.

behave in high winds, what kind of material it should be made of so as not to interfere with broadcast signals, and whether the signal sent out from it would be blocked in any way by the building's shadow.

The Works

The Future

Keeping It Clean

The capital budgets of the Department of Environmental Protection and the Department of Sanitation are among the

The Lloyd Aquifer For a number of years, the city's Department of Environmental Protection has been looking at ways of storing water underground to minimize the impact of droughts. Among the most promising technologies being explored is something known as

largest in city government, though much

"ARS"—aquifer recovery systems. The idea

of what they build is not particularly

is to inject potable water from the

new or interesting and is simply replacement

upstate system into the Lloyd Aquifer—

for facilities that have grown too old or

layers of porous rock deep beneath

too decrepit to carry out their original

Brooklyn and Queens—during periods of

mission effectively. But there are now on the table a number

surplus, and pump it out during times of need. The aquifer would serve as a sort

of novel and challenging projects aimed

of underground reservoir, able to provide

at improving the health of the city. Two

water to a much larger audience than

relate to improved management of the

the barrier beach communities that it

city's water supply. The Lloyd Aquifer project

serves today.

involves an experiment with "water banking" as a way to expand the city's ability

Subterranean banking of water is a wellestablished practice in dry regions, such

to provide water to consumers in times

as California and Nevada, and in New

of water shortage or drought.

Jersey—where the rock formations are not

The Croton filtration plant project is less notable for its proposed technology than

dissimilar to those existing in Brooklyn and Queens. Although it has never been used

for the fact that it is being built at all. Its

in the city, engineers are optimistic about

opening will mark the first time that

its prospects: the clay cap of the Lloyd Aquifer

New York's water supply has been subject

would likely protect the water in the

to the filtering requirements that have

aquifer from sources of land contamination,

applied across the country for years, and

and the freshwater would inhibit

will signal an end to a bitter battle over

saltwater intrusion.

the siting of the facility in Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx. Another new initiative involves the city's

The ARS concept is expected to undergo a 14-month pilot test beginning in 2005: four observation wells will monitor the

garbage. For the first time since the

aquifer's performance, and injected water

announcement of the closure of Fresh Kills,

will be tested for research purposes before

the city is on the verge of embracing

being discharged into the sewer system.

a new and relatively sophisticated system of waste disposal—one that relies on existing marine facilities to containerize the city's municipal waste and, in doing so, transform it from an environmental problem to a readily transportable export commodity.

The Croton Filtration Plant

Containerized Garbage

After a decade of battling, first with federal

Like every county in the state, New York City

environmental agencies and then with

is required to have a 20-year plan for

local activists, the city is at last moving ahead

disposing of its solid waste—but it doesn't.

with plans to build a water filtration

The relatively sudden closure of its

plant under the Mosholu Golf Course in Van

historic landfill in Staten Island left it with

Cortlandt Park in the Bronx. This plant

a network of marine transfer stations

would filter the relatively small percentage—

and barges, but no destination for the waste.

10 percent—of city water coming from

Since 2001, its marine transfer stations

the Croton system.

have lain dormant and most of its residential

In most places across the country,

waste has been hauled to transfer

federal law requires that drinking water be

stations in the outer boroughs, where it

filtered to screen out impurities. While

is shifted to larger tractor trailers for

New York City has historically been granted

delivery to landfills in neighboring states.

a waiver from this mandate for its Catskill

All that will change if the city is

and Delaware water on account of their

successful in implementing its new 20-

purity, the Croton system—located in a more

year plan for waste disposal. It envisions a

developed and faster growing suburban

network of reactivated marine transfer

area—does not meet the more stringent

stations exporting containerized garbage by

criteria for filtration avoidance. Since

barge or rail to landfills in the Midwest

1998, when the city was forced to enter into

and South. Containers of waste

a consent decree with federal

packed at the rebuilt transfer

EPA requiring the completion of the plant

stations would be barged

on a certain timetable, it has been fined

to either on-dock rail facilities

more than $400,000 for its failure to meet

in the harbor, where they

federal standards for drinking water.

would move to railcars for their

The project is an expensive one, made

journey to a disposal site, or

more so by the stiff opposition the

to normal berths in the harbor,

project aroused from neighborhood and

where they would be loaded

environmental interests in the Bronx.

onto oceangoing coastal barges.

To placate these interests, the city agreed to spend $220 million on unrelated

The idea of containerized waste is not entirely new: a facility run by Waste

improvements to parks in the Bronx—

Management operates at Harlem River

for playgrounds, running tracks,

Yards in the Bronx. But by embracing the

landscaping, equipment, and waterfront

concept of containerized waste so

access—in addition to the estimated

enthusiastically, the city is expecting to

$1.2 billion cost of constructing the

take an estimated three million truck

underground filtration plant itself.

miles off the road each year—a boon both to environmentalists and to residents in the communities now home to the transfer stations.

The Works

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments There are many people who have contributed facts or information to this book, but only a handful responsible for what sets it apart from so many others. Having struggled for more than a year with book designers who couldn't fully grasp the idea of interweaving graphics and text, the partnership with Alexander Isley and his team has been more than serendipitous—it has been an honor and a pleasure. Their professionalism and enthusiasm over the past few months could not have been greater, and the book reflects both. Among Alex's worthy crew, one name stands out above the others: George Kokkinidis. On the back of a one-day course with Edward Tufte, the dean of information graphics, George was able to conceptualize each and every section of this book— in ways that bordered on the spectacular. His ability to digest my conceptual vision for this book and translate it into a series of more than a hundred distinct and compelling spreads, while managing a far-flung team of graphic artists, has been an inspiration to us all. What George has been to graphics, Wendy Marech has been to text—providing first-class research support over a period of two years. Although the research process may at times have been fun for her, it has been anything but easy. For all the people who cooperated in providing information or who took her on behind-the-scenes facility tours, there have been an equal number who refused to take her calls or answer her questions. Without her persistence and

commitment—and there are very few cases

Kelly, Don Lotz, Louis Menno, Ken Philmus,

in which it did not pay off—there would

Joe Sardo, Joe Seebode, and Ken Spahn.

have been no book to write. Myriad organizations and individuals

Many other individuals contributed their expertise, including Ken Stigner of

provided information along the way. The

Vollmer Associates, Bruce Lieberman of

Department of Environmental Protection;

the New York £r Atlantic Railroad, Sal

the Department of Information

Catucci of American Stevedoring, Captain

Technology and Telecommunications; the

W. W. Sherwood of the Sandy Hook

Department of Sanitation; the Department

Pilots Association, Matthew D'Arrigo of

of Transportation; the Department of

Hunts Point Cooperative Market, John

City Planning and the Economic Development

Arrowsmith and Rich Wolf of ABC, Creighton

Corporation—all of the City of New York—

Pritzlaff of Seagrave, Tom Peitz of

provided ongoing assistance. Among

FedEx, Ron Fridman of Duncan Parking

others, thanks are due to Marty Bellew,

Meters, Peter Scorziello of Synagro,

Mike Bellew, Tanessa Cabe, Agostino Cangemi,

Ellen Neises of Field Operations, Sam

Alice Cheng, Tom Cocola, Ed Corbett,

Schwartz of Sam Schwartz Engineering,

Walter Czwartacky, Rocco DiRico, Anthony

Tom Schulze, Ted Olcott, David Lazecko,

Etergineoso, Magdi Farag, Renzo Ferrari,

Jim Larsen, and the staff of the New-York

Salome Freud, Andrew Genn, Doug Greeley,

Historical Society.

Robert Kuhl, Venetia Lannon, Peter

To those who helped get this idea out

McKeon, Jeff Manzer, Ralph Mondella,

of the starting block—Silvio da Silva, Sloan

Michael Mucci, David Nati, Henry Perahia,

Harris at I CM, and above all Ann Godoff

Gil Quiniones, Bruce Regal, Andrew

at Penguin Press—I am most grateful. I am

Salkin, Jack Schmidt, Girish Shelat, Tom

thankful, too, to those at Penguin who

Simpson, Gerard Soffian, Harry Szarpanski,

helped bring it over the finish line in what

and John Tipaldo.

I consider record time, in particular Liza

Other public agencies, including the Port

Darnton. But the largest debt of all is

Authority of New York and New Jersey,

owed to those who patiently watched the

the New York State Department of

marathon itself from the dining room

Transportation; the U.S. Coast Guard, the

sidelines—to my daughter Rebecca, who

MTA; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,

loves to write, and to my son Ned, who

the United States Postal Service, and

is passionate about how things work. For

Transcom also proved tremendously helpful.

your good-natured acceptance of yet

In particular, I am grateful for input

another adult activity in our busy home, I

provided by Bob Beard, Mike Bednarz,

can say only the biggest of thank-yous—

Amrah Cardoso, Jamie Cohen, Doug Currey,

and hope that one day you get as much

Bob Durando, Matthew Edelman, Bob

pleasure in reading The Works as I have had

Glantzberg, Lt. Michael Keane, Victoria Cross

in writing it.

The Works

C o n t r i b u t i n g A r t i s t s I a m also i n d e b t e d t o

Image C r e d i t s Pages 2, 44 (right), 68, 86, 116, 124,

a n u m b e r of s u p e r b i l l u s t r a t o r s a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s

136, 153 (two i m a g e s ) : Collection of T h e New-York

w h o a r e r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e a r t t h a t i n m a n y

H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y ( n e g a t i v e n o . 42616, n e g a t i v e n o .

w a y s f o r m s t h e b a c k b o n e of t h i s b o o k . T h e y s t r u g g l e d

77578d, n e g a t i v e n o . 72507, n e g a t i v e n o . 50756,

mightily to meet our ambitious deadlines a n d

n e g a t i v e n o . 77582d, n e g a t i v e n o . 77577d, n e g a t i v e

ultimately performed well beyond our admittedly

n o . 50739, a c c e s s i o n n o . X.47, n o . 74563).

high expectations.

4 (left): T r a n s c o m . 9 (bottom), 10, 20 ( e v o l u t i o n of a s t r e e t sign), 47 ( m a p ) :

A a r o n A s h l e y 6, 9, 12, 18, 78, 84, 96, 1 0 0 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 ,

N e w York City D e p a r t m e n t of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , Division

1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 7 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 0 , 1 4 6 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 6 , 167, 172, 173,175,

of Traffic P l a n n i n g , 2005. P e r m i s s i o n g r a n t e d b y

175, 178, 193, 196

t h e N e w York City D e p a r t m e n t of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n .

M i c h a e l F o r n a l s k i 23, 39, 40, 52, 55, 66, 70, 84, 9 4 , 1 0 5 ,

15 (bottom): © 1998, 2001, F u n d for t h e City of N e w York.

126,127,138,147,177,180,187,190,197

22 (top): C o u r t e s y of t h e N e w York City D e p a r t m e n t

Roger G a r b o w 1 1 , 14, 36, 49, 183

of Design a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n , i l l u s t r a t i o n b y Charles

H y p e r a k t Design G r o u p 24, 47, 71, 76, 87, 88, 89, 93, 98,

Hearn, Jr.

1 0 2 , 1 0 3 , 109, i n , 1 1 3 , 1 1 8 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 1 , 143, 147, 148, 154, 158,

22 (bottom): Courtesy of t h e N e w York City D e p a r t m e n t

165, 168, 169, 171, 174, 177, 179, 183, 186, 188, 191, 194, 203

of Design a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n .

J i m Kopp 12, 18, 30, 54, 58, 62, 67, 77, 83, 96, 102, 104,

24 USDA Forest Service N o r t h e a s t e r n Research S t a t i o n

106, 114, 128, 129, 137, 159, 163, 164, 176, 186, 199, 201, 203

a n d N o r t h e a s t e r n A r e a S t a t e a n d P r i v a t e Forestry.

J a s o n Lee 5, 7, 9, 19, 20, 41, 43, 50, 64, 72, 73, 74, 85,

(Available f r o m Open Accessible Space I n f o r m a t i o n

88, 95, 1 0 7 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 0 , 140, 143, 149, 189, 202

S y s t e m (OASIS), w w w . o a s i s n y c . n e t )

M g m t . Design 3, 5, 8, 1 5 , 20, 27, 28, 29, 3 1 , 37, 38, 42,

26 (two), 44 (left): Science, I n d u s t r y & Business Library,

45, 59, 69, 72, 78, 81, 82, 95, 99, 133, 134, 147. 148, 155.

T h e N e w York Public Library, Astor, Lenox a n d Tilden

161, 162, 181, 182, 198, 201

Foundations.

A r t h u r M o u n t 19, 21, 25, 32, 155

49 ( s c r e e n s h o t ) , 54 (bottom), 77 (right): Courtesy of t h e

R a n d y O'Rourke 4 5 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 3 , 1 6 0 , 1 7 9 , 201, 209

P o r t A u t h o r i t y of N e w York a n d N e w Jersey.

S e y m o u r S c h a c h t e r 14, 32,161

49 (bottom): The N a t i o n a l City Company, d r a w i n g by

Chris S c h a p p e r t 7 , 1 3 , 23, 5 4 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 8

Cass Gilbert, 1926.

M a r k S c h r o e d e r 144, 145

53 (right): Courtesy of t h e MTA Bridges a n d T u n n e l s

M a r t y S m i t h 23, 33, 34, 60, 61, 74, 119, 200

Special A r c h i v e .

Steve S t a n k i e w i c z 1 0 , 1 5 , 16, 17, 22, 42, 46, 48, 79, 1 0 5 ,

60 (bottom): N e w York Regional Railroad, J e r s e y City,

112, 1 1 5 , 121, 129, 132, 156, 165, 167, 192

N e w Jersey.

63 (right): J o s e p h A. Tischner.

145 (top): Courtesy of P a n a s o n i c Broadcasting.

67 P h o t o g r a p h b y P r e s t o n S. J o h n s o n , collection of

147 (left): N e w York City D e p a r t m e n t of I n f o r m a t i o n

W a y n e D. Hills.

Technology a n d T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .

71 P h o t o g r a p h b y A. McGovern.

152 F i f t h A v e n u e , l o o k i n g s o u t h f r o m 42nd S t r e e t ,

72 (screen s h o t ) : Courtesy of t h e U n i t e d States Coast

c. 1880. M u s e u m of t h e City of N e w York.

Guard Activities, New York.

164 (bottom): Local U n i o n #147 L.I.U.N.A.

75 (screen s h o t ) : © Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Co.

169 (right), 179 (bottom): R e p r o d u c e d w i t h

79 (left), 98 (bottom left): N e w York City Economic

p e r m i s s i o n of t h e N e w York City D e p a r t m e n t of

Development Corporation.

Environmental Protection.

80 Cradle of Aviation M u s e u m , G a r d e n City, N e w York.

170 P h o t o g r a p h b y C. S m i t h & K. Stigner, Vollmer

92 (left): Edison u n d e r g r o u n d system i n 1883, M u s e u m

Associates LLP.

of t h e City of New York; (right): Edison's l a r g e d y n a m o -

185 P i c t u r e C o l l e c t i o n , T h e B r a n c h L i b r a r i e s ,

e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r , 1881, M u s e u m of t h e City of

T h e N e w York P u b l i c Library, Astor, L e n o x a n d

New York.

Tilden Foundations.

98 (top): E n t e r g y C o r p o r a t i o n .

191 (top): W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t of N e w York, LLC.

98 (bottom right), 113 (right): KeySpan C o r p o r a t i o n .

192 (bottom): Field O p e r a t i o n s .

99 (right): Used b y p e r m i s s i o n of t h e N e w York

195 Hugo N e u C o r p o r a t i o n .

I n d e p e n d e n t System Operator.

207 Design b y NJ T r a n s i t / S y s t r a C o n s u l t i n g , I n c .

106 (bottom left): T h e Blizzard of 1888, N e w S t r e e t

210 © 2004 V e r d a n t Power, LLC.

looking t o w a r d Wall Street. Photograph: Brown Brothers.

213 Lower M a n h a t t a n D e v e l o p m e n t Corp.

M u s e u m of t h e City of N e w York.

215 C o u r t e s y of t h e N e w York City D e p a r t m e n t

110 S t r e e t l a m p , s t a n d a r d t y p e . M u s e u m of t h e City

of S a n i t a t i o n . Greely a n d H a n s e n , LLC a n d

of New York.

Dattner Architects.

m (bottom): E n e r g y I n f o r m a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Office of Oil & Gas. 118 (right): Courtesy of Con Edison. 125 (bottom): Courtesy of t h e E m p i r e City S u b w a y Company, L i m i t e d . 133 ( p h o t o g r a p h ) : K i m b e r l e e H e w i t t . 142 P h o t o g r a p h y Collection, M i r i a m a n d I r a D. W a l l a c h Division of A r t , P r i n t s a n d P h o t o g r a p h s , T h e N e w York Public Library, Astor, Lenox a n d Tilden F o u n d a t i o n s .

The Works

A

A t r a i n 27, 29, 30

e x p a n s i o n j o i n t s 50

sewage s y s t e m i n 170, 174

AA t r a i n 27

AT&T 124-25, 127

first 44

s t e a m p l a n t s i n 119

ABC TV 144, 149

automated vacuum-assisted

l o n g e s t 46

s u b w a y s y s t e m i n 27

m a i n t e n a n c e a n d r e p a i r of

w a t e r s y s t e m i n 164, 214

c o l l e c t i o n (AVAC) 199

a c c i d e n t s , t r a f f i c 4-5, 6

a u t o m o b i l e c a r r i e r s 73, 77

ACS 190-91

50-51

B r o o k l y n B a t t e r y T u n n e l 45, 52-53

m a p of 47

B r o o k l y n Bridge 44, 45, 46, 48

n u m b e r of 92

B

m o s t f r e q u e n t l y o p e n e d 47

B r o o k l y n N a v y Yard 119

w a t t a g e u s e d b y 95

b a n a n a s , d i s t r i b u t i o n of 87

m o v a b l e 46-47

B r o o k l y n T e r m i n a l M a r k e t 86, 88

B a n k of t h e M a n h a t t a n

n u m b e r of 46

B r o o k l y n U n i o n Gas 113

o l d e s t 44

Brooklyn Wholesale Meat Market

air conditioners

aircraft

84

Air E x p r e s s I n t e r n a t i o n a l air freight

83

80-85

Air T r a i n 207

C o m p a n y 153

86, 88

B a n k St. 13

o p e r a t i o n of 49

barges

p a i n t i n g of 51

B R T l i n e 27 B t r a i n 27, 29, 30

a i r w a v e s 142-49, 212-13

g a r b a g e 192

p e d e s t r i a n 19

Albany, N e w York 104

power

p e d e s t r i a n access to 46

B u i l d i n g s , D e p a r t m e n t of 18

A l e x a n d e r H a m i l t o n Bridge 45

s l u d g e 179

r a i l r o a d - o w n e d 46, 47, 209

b u l k e r s 73

98

t y p e s of 46-47

Allis C h a l m e r s C o r p o r a t i o n 98

B a r n e g a t s h i p p i n g l a n e 70

a l u m i n u m 168

b a s k e t s , l i t t e r 186

b r o a d b a n d 213

A m b i e n t 213

B a t t e r y P a r k 12

broadcasting

A m b r o s e C h a n n e l 69, 74

B a y o n n e Bridge 44, 48, 209

f u t u r e of 212-13

American Broadcasting

Bay Ridge, B r o o k l y n 72

r a d i o 148-49

C o r p o r a t i o n . See ABC TV

B e a c h , Alfred

26

Burr, A a r o n 153 bus(es) b u l b s 10 h i g h w a y l a n e s for 54 B u s i n e s s I m p r o v e m e n t Districts (BIDs) 186

s a t e l l i t e 145, 147

Business I n t e g r i t y Commission 198

Bell A t l a n t i c 125

B r o a d St. 170

Bell o p e r a t i n g c o m p a n i e s 125

B r o a d w a t e r T e c h n o l o g i e s 211

B u t t e r m i l k C h a n n e l 182

Bell T e l e p h o n e 124

B r o a d w a y Bridge 45

b u t t o n s , traffic l i g h t 7

Amfels S h i p y a r d 177

Berlin Airlift

Bronx, t h e

A m t r a k 44, 207

b i c y c l e l a n e s 10

cable t e l e v i s i o n i n 147

c

Big Allis 98

g a r b a g e r e m o v a l i n 191

cables

A m e r i c a n P n e u m a t i c Service C o m p a n y 136 A m e r i c a n Ref-Fuel

AM t r a n s m i s s i o n

190-91

148, 149

80

A n a c o s t i a a n d Pacific R a i l r o a d 63

b i o m a s s e n e r g y 100

m a r k e t s i n 86, 88, 89

c o a x i a l 146

A n c h o r a g e C h a n n e l 74

b i o s o l i d s . See s l u d g e

p a y p h o n e s i n 132

e l e c t r i c a l 92, 106-7

a n t i q u e s 82

b l a c k o u t s 38, 108-9, 182

p o w e r p l a n t s i n 98

B l i z z a r d of 1888 106, 124, 185

r a i l f r e i g h t i n 62

cable t e l e v i s i o n 146-47

appliances

94-95

aqueducts

156-57

t e l e p h o n e 128-29

BMT l i n e 27, 3 1 , 32

s u b w a y s y s t e m i n 27

Cablevision 146, 147

a q u i f e r r e c o v e r y s y s t e m 214

Bombardier

w a t e r s y s t e m i n 215

Cable & W i r e l e s s 127

A r k a n s a s , r e c y c l i n g i n 180

B o n d St. 13

B r o n x T e r m i n a l M a r k e t 67, 86, 88

A r m y Corps of E n g i n e e r s 74, 182

B o s t o n Post Road 136

B r o o k l y n 53

a r t , i m p o r t a n d e x p o r t of 82

boxes

A r t h u r Kill 74

call 49

a s b e s t o s 119 A s h o k a n R e s e r v o i r 153, 156, 168 a s p h a l t 12

34

cable t e l e v i s i o n i n 147

California w i n d p o w e r 211 z i p codes 140

m a r i t i m e t r a d e i n 68, 72

call b o x e s 49

fire a l a r m 135

m a r k e t s i n 86, 88

calls, t e l e p h o n e 126, 129, 130-31

r e l a y 49

p a y p h o n e s i n 132

cameras

B r a z i l , m a r i t i m e t r a d e w i t h 76

p o w e r p l a n t s i n 98

b r i d g e ( s ) 44-51. See also specific

r a i l f r e i g h t i n 60

bridges

b r i d g e 49 traffic l i g h t 8-9 Canada

b u s i e s t 45

n a t u r a l gas from

c a m e r a s o n 49

911 access 134

d e f i n i t i o n of 46

no

221

C a n a d i a n Pacific 59

f u t u r e of s e r v i c e 212

c o m p o s t i n g 197

D

C a n a r s i e B r o o k l y n 86

l o w f r e q u e n c i e s for 142

c o m p r e s s o r s , g a s 112

d e a d l e t t e r office 139

computers

d e - i c i n g b r i d g e s 51

C a n n o n s v i l l e Reservoir 168

m a r k e t for 130

carfloats 6o, 208

n u m b e r of u n i t s 92

n u m b e r of 92

D e l a w a r e A q u e d u c t 156-57, 162-63

cargo

p a t h of call 130-31

w a t t a g e u s e d b y 94

D e l a w a r e County, N e w York

a i r 82

s u b s c r i b e r s , n u m b e r of 124

c o n c r e t e 1 2 , 18, 51

!54.155

m a r i t i m e 68, 76-77

C e n t r a l P a r k 152, 192

c o n d u c t o r , s u b w a y 32, 38

D e l a w a r e R i v e r 155

r a i l , i n t e r m o d a l 61-67

C h a n i n B u i l d i n g 140

Con E d i s o n 12, 22, 92, 93, 98,

D e l a w a r e w a t e r s y s t e m 154-55,

cargo s h i p s . See vessels, cargo

Chase M a n h a t t a n 153

99,107, 108, n o , 113, 115, 116,

c a r r i e r h o t e l s 127

Chelsea p u m p i n g s t a t i o n 161

118-19, 1 2 0 , 211, 213

156-57, 159, 162-63, 165, 215 d e m o l i t i o n d e b r i s 198

Carroll St. Bridge 45

Chicago, I l l i n o i s 135, 143

c a r r o t s , t r a n s p o r t of 66-67

c h i c a n e s 10

e l e c t r i c i t y c o n s u m e r s 93

Protection, Department

c a r s . See a u t o m o b i l e s ; r a i l c a r s

C h i n a 76

e n v i r o n m e n t a l l a w s u i t s b y 182

of (DEP)

cars, subway

Connecticut

c h l o r i n e 168

C o n r a i l 58

b r e a k d o w n s of 40

C h r i s t m a s t r e e s 188, 197

c o n s t r u c t i o n 198

cabs 39

C h r y s l e r B u i l d i n g 140

containers

DEP. See E n v i r o n m e n t a l

Design a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n D e p a r t m e n t of 22 Devon, E n g l a n d 210

d i s s e c t i o n of 34-35

C i n c i n n a t i , Ohio 213

a i r 80-81, 84

graffitiproof

35

City H a l l 26, 31

m a r i t i m e 68, 76-79

i n s p e c t i o n of 42

City I s l a n d 149

c o n t a i n e r s h i p s 72, 73

d i s a b l e d access, i n s u b w a y 35 dishwashers

d i a m o n d s , i m p o r t a t i o n of 82 d i e s e l e m i s s i o n s 186

City W a t e r T u n n e l No. 1 158

c o p p e r cable 128

City W a t e r T u n n e l No. 2 158, 161

Corcraft b a s k e t s 186

w a t e r u s e d b y 167

n e w 34

City W a t e r T u n n e l No. 3 158

Cormorant 177

w a t t a g e u s e d b y 95

n u m b e r of 26, 28

c l e a n fill 198

c r a n e s , c o n t a i n e r 79

r e d b i r d 34

c l e a r c h a n n e l f r e q u e n c i e s 149

g a n t r y 79

d i v e r t e r s , traffic 10

clocks 94

r a i l - m o u n t e d 79

DOT. See T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,

coal

s h i p - t o - s h o r e 79

m a i n t e n a n c e a n d r e p a i r of 34. 42

r e t i r e d 35 signage 35 s t a t u s p a n e l 39

no

Coast G u a r d , U.S. 46, 72

D i s n e y W o r l d 199

D e p a r t m e n t of (DOT)

s t i c k 79

D o u g l a s t o n , Q u e e n s 159

s t o p p i n g m e c h a n i s m s 36

c o a x i a l cable 146

Cross-Harbor T u n n e l

s u p p o r t 43

c o b b l e s t o n e s 12-13

c r o s s w a l k s , r a i s e d 10

d r o u g h t s 214

v a c u u m 43

c o b r a s t r e e t l i g h t s 22

C r o t o n Falls R e s e r v o i r 168

d r y c l e a n e r s 117

c a t c h b a s i n s 176

Collect P o n d 152

C r o t o n R i v e r 152

D t r a i n 27, 29, 30

Catskill A q u e d u c t 156-57

c o m b i n e d s e w e r o v e r f l o w 174-77

C r o t o n w a t e r s y s t e m 152-55, 159,

Catskills, e l e c t r i c i t y g r i d 104

c o m m e r c i a l gas

Catskill w a t e r s y s t e m 12, 153-55,

c o m m e r c i a l w a s t e 184, 185, 190,

156-57, 159, 165, 215

no

191, 198

208

168, 214, 215 CSX R a i l r o a d 58, 59, 62, 66, 191, 209

d r e d g e r s 73, 74-75

E E a s t e r n I n t e r c o n n e c t i o n 102 East R i v e r 182, 184, 210

c a u s t i c soda 168

C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' P l a n of 1811 2

C t r a i n 27, 29, 30

East River S t a t i o n 118-19

cave-ins, s t r e e t 14

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . See also specific

cultural institutions, electric

E d i s o n , T h o m a s 92, 106

CBS TV 143, 144, 149

forms of communications

c o n s u m p t i o n b y 95

cellar d o o r s , s t r e e t 18

e m e r g e n c y 134-35

c u r b s 1 2 , 18

cell p h o n e ( s )

f u t u r e of 212-13

c u r r e n t , e l e c t r i c a l 97

e n h a n c e d 911 134

m a n h o l e s for 125, 129 C o m m u n i c a t i o n s Act of 1934 142 C o m m u n i t y E n e r g y 100

811 T e n t h Ave. 127 e l e c t r i c i t y 92-109 b l a c k o u t s 38, 108-9, 182 c o n s u m p t i o n of 93-95 d e l i v e r y of 92 d i s t r i b u t i o n of 102-7 g e n e r a t i o n of 95-98

The Works

Index

f l o o d i n g , s u b w a y 42

r e c y c l i n g 194-96

m e t e r i n g 105

D e p a r t m e n t of (DEP) 44, 161,

Florida Power a n d Light Energy 211

r e s i d e n t i a l 184-97

N e w York S t a t e g r i d 98-99

167, 169, 171, 176-77, 180, 182, 214

f l u o r i d e 168

a f t e r s p e c i a l e v e n t s 189

f l u s h t r u c k s 106

t o n n a g e 184

g r i d s 102

p e a k c o n s u m p t i o n 94, 99

Environmental Protection,

E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection Agency (EPA) 215

p o w e r p l a n t s 96-98 r e s e r v e m a r g i n 99 street lighting consumption 22, 95 for s u b w a y s y s t e m 38

e q u i p m e n t h u t , t e l e p h o n e 128

food w a s t e 197

g a r b a g e b a r g e s 192

Erie C a n a l 68

F o r m s a n d S u r f a c e s b a s k e t s 186

g a r b a g e t r a i n 191

e s c a l a t o r s , s u b w a y 28

F o r t W a d s w o r t h 72

gas. See c o m m e r c i a l gas; n a t u r a l gas

Essex R e s o u r c e R e c o v e r y F a c i l i t y

4 t r a i n 27, 29, 206

gaslight

Fox TV 149

gas m a i n s 114-15

E t r a i n 27, 29, 30

F r a n k l i n St. 152

gas m e t e r s 115

E u r o p e , w i n d p o w e r i n 211

F r e e d o m Tower 212, 213

e x c l u s i v e b u s l a n e 54

f r e i g h t e r s (cargo a i r c r a f t )

e x p r e s s c a r r i e r s . See i n t e g r a t e d

f r e i g h t t r a i n s . See r a i l f r e i g h t

GE B u i l d i n g 141

F r e s h Kills

g e n e r a t o r , e l e c t r i c a l , first 92

190, 191

u n d e r g r o u n d w i r i n g for 106-7 w h o l e s a l e m a r k e t for 99 E l e c t r i c R e l i a b i l i t y C o u n c i l of Texas 102 e l e v a t o r s , s u b w a y 28

t r a n s f e r s t a t i o n s 190, 215

FM t r a n s m i s s i o n 148-49

air carriers

E l m h u r s t , Q u e e n s 113

no

gas p l a n t s n o 84

g a t e w a y t r e a t m e n t s , traffic 10

e m e r g e n c y b r a k e s , s u b w a y 40-41

E x p r e s s r a i l 59

C h r i s t m a s t r e e r e c y c l i n g 188

g e o m e m b r a n e 193

emergency(ies)

e x p r e s s s u b w a y s e r v i c e 29, 38

c o n t a i n e r i z a t i o n f a c i l i t y 209

George W a s h i n g t o n Bridge 44-45,

E-ZPass 45

l a n d f i l l 185, 190, 192-93, 197

s u b w a y codes 40 telephone communications 134-35 Emergency Medical Service (EMS) 134-35

46, 48-49

f r u i t 87

g e o t h e r m a l e n e r g y 101

F

FSM East River A s s o c a t e s 118

G e r m a n y 76

FAA. See F e d e r a l A v i a t i o n

F t r a i n 27, 29, 30

Global Crossing 127

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (FAA)

fuel cells 100-101

Global E n e r g y 12

E m p i r e City S u b w a y C o m p a n y 125

f a r m e r s ' m a r k e t s 86

F u l t o n F i s h M a r k e t 88-89

Global M a r i n e T e r m i n a l 69

E m p i r e S t a t e B u i l d i n g 95, 116, 117,

f a u c e t s 167

F u l t o n St. 86

g o n d o l a c a r s 60

141, 149, 213 Empire State Development C o r p o r a t i o n 140 employees b r i d g e s 49 p o s t a l 138 s a n i t a t i o n 184

G o v e r n o r s I s l a n d 69, 78, 184

FDR Drive 16-17 Federal Aviation A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (FAA) 113 Federal Communications C o m m i s s i o n (FCC) 142-43, 149 Federal Energy Regulatory C o m m i s s i o n 112

G o w a n u s Bridge 46

G G a n s e v o o r t M e a t M a r k e t 86, 88

G o w a n u s Canal 98, 182

g a n t r y c r a n e s 79

g r a f f i t i 35

garbage a n d garbage removal

g r a n i t e 13

c o l l e c t i o n r o u t e s 188

G r a v e s e n d , B r o o k l y n 72

c o m m e r c i a l 184, 185, 190,191, 198

g r a v i t y 159, 172

s u b w a y 26, 32, 38

FedEx 81, 83, 85

c o m p o s t i n g 197

G r e a t L a w n 152

311 s y s t e m 133

ferries

c o n t a i n e r i z a t i o n of 214, 215

G r e e n County, N e w York 154

t u n n e l s 55 EMS. See E m e r g e n c y M e d i c a l S e r v i c e (EMS) energy. See also specific forms of energy alternative sources, c o n s u m p t i o n of 100-101

c a r g o 60

d e s t i n a t i o n s for 191

G r e e n e St. 13

p a s s e n g e r 72

e q u i p m e n t for 186-87

Green Heron 177

f e r t i l i z e r 180-81, 197

e x p o r t a t i o n of 190-91

G r e e n p o i n t , B r o o k l y n 113

F i f t h Ave. 12

m a p s 190-91, 194

G r e e n v i l l e Yards 60, 208

f i l t r a t i o n 169

marine transfer stations

Grid P l a n 2-3

fire a l a r m b o x e s 135

190, 215

Grimes/Todt Hill, S t a t e n Island 159

Fire D e p a r t m e n t 1 3 , 134-35

o c e a n d u m p i n g 184, 194

G r i m m w a y 66

E n t e r g y C o r p o r a t i o n 98

firefighting

p u b l i c v e r s u s p r i v a t e 198

g r o u n d w a t e r 161, 169

Environmental Conservation,

fish 182-83

GTE 125, 127

5 t r a i n 27, 29, 206

G t r a i n 29

flat y a r d s 62

Gulf of Mexico, n a t u r a l gas from n o

r e n e w a b l e 210

D e p a r t m e n t of (DEC) 174, 182

159, 160, 200

floatables 176

223

K

M

H a c k e n s a c k River 69

c o m p o s t i n g i n 197

K a w a s a k i 34

M c A l l i s t e r T o w i n g 73

h a i r d r y e r s 94

r e c y c l i n g i n 194

Kensico R e s e r v o i r 156, 164, 168

M c L e a n , M a l c o l m 78

H a l m a r Cargo C e n t e r 83

solid w a s t e t r e a t m e n t i n

K e y S p a n 98, i n , 211

M a c o m b s D a m Bridge 45

Kill v a n Kull 69, 71, 74, 209

M a d i s o n Ave. Bridge 45

H u n t s P o i n t m a r k e t s 67, 86, 87, 89

King's Bridge 44

M a d i s o n W i n d Project 100

h a r b o r p i l o t s 70-71

h y d r a n t s , fire 159, 160, 200

K o r e a n A i r l i n e s 83

m a i l a n d m a i l s y s t e m 136-41

H a r l e m River Yards 190, 191, 215

h y d r o c a r b o n g a s e s . See n a t u r a l gas

Hartsfield A t l a n t a I n t e r n a t i o n a l

h y d r o e l e c t r i c p o w e r 100, 1 0 1 , 104

L

b o x e s 138

H y d r o - Q u é b e c 103

L a G u a r d i a , F i o r e l l o 53

d i s t r i b u t i o n of 138-39

h y d r o t u r b i n e s 210

L a G u a r d i a A i r p o r t 83

p n e u m a t i c 136-37

H e l m s l e y B u i l d i n g 140

lamps

s o r t i n g 138-39

H e n r y H u d s o n Bridge 45

l a n d f i l l s 185, 190, 192-93, 197

Hunts Point

H

179, 180

H a m m e r f e s t , N o r w a y 210 Hanover Square

206

A i r p o r t 80, 81 Hell Gate Bridge 44, 62

a u t o m a t i o n i n 138-39, 140

94

u n d e l i v e r a b l e 139 Manhattan

Ibis 177

l a w n s p r i n k l e r s 167

H e r o d o t u s 140

IESI 190-91

l e a c h a t e 193

b r i d g e s a n d t u n n e l s i n t o 45

Highbridge

Illegal D u m p i n g Task Force 201

l e a v e s , r e c y c l i n g 188, 197

cable t e l e v i s i o n i n 147

H i g h Line 58

i m p o r t s a n d e x p o r t s 82, 87

L i b e r t y St. 160

earliest streets 2

H i l l v i e w R e s e r v o i r 154, 156, 158,

i n c i n e r a t o r s 184, 185, 191

libraries, electricity

g a r b a g e r e m o v a l i n 190

H e r a l d S q u a r e 30

44

161, 164, 168

I n d e p e n d e n t Electricity Market

(HARS) 74 H o b o k e n , N e w J e r s e y 68

H o m e l a n d Security, D e p a r t m e n t of 72

Grid P l a n 2 m a r i t i m e t r a d e i n 68

I n d i a 76

l i q u e f i e d n a t u r a l gas 210, 211

p a y p h o n e s i n 132

Indianapolis International

l i t t e r b a s k e t s 186

pneumatic tube network,

Lloyd A q u i f e r 214

A i r p o r t 81

H o l l a n d T u n n e l 44, 45, 52-53, 54, 60, 164

c o n s u m p t i o n b y 95 L i n c o l n T u n n e l 45, 52-53, 54, 55

O p e r a t o r of O n t a r i o 103

H i s t o r i c A r e a R e m e d i a t i o n Site

m a p of 137

I n d i a n P o i n t 98

l o b s t e r s 82

s e w a g e s y s t e m i n 179

IND l i n e 27, 3 1 , 32, 206

local s u b w a y s e r v i c e 29, 38

s t e a m p l a n t s i n 119

Information Technology a n d

L o n d o n s u b w a y s y s t e m 28

s u b w a y s y s t e m i n 27

Long I s l a n d

traffic v o l u m e , i n - a n d

H o n e y b e e 120

Telecommunications,

h o o d s , sewage s y s t e m 176

D e p a r t m e n t of (DoITT) 1 3 2 ,

r a i l f r e i g h t for 60, 62-63

h o p p e r c a r s 60

146, 212

w i n d p o w e r o n 210

outbound

45

w a t e r s y s t e m i n 164

h o r s e m a n u r e 184-85

i n t e g r a t e d a i r c a r r i e r s 81, 83, 85

Long I s l a n d City 194

M a n h a t t a n B r i d g e 45

h o s p i t a l s 117

i n t e r s e c t i o n s , s t r e e t 6-7, 10

Long Island Power A u t h o r i t y 38, 211

M a n h a t t a n C o m p a n y , t h e 152

H o u s i n g A u t h o r i t y , N e w York

I r o q u o i s Gas i n

Long I s l a n d R a i l r o a d 63

m a n h o l e c o v e r s 12-13, 14, 172

I r o q u o i s p i p e l i n e 211

Long I s l a n d S o u n d 182, 210, 211

manholes

City 95, 188 H o w l a n d Hook M a r i n e T e r m i n a l 69,78

1

IRT l i n e 26-27, 3 - 3

2

I t a l y 76

Long I s l a n d S o u n d k e e p e r 182 Los A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a 143 Los A n g e l e s I n t e r n a t i o n a l

H u d s o n River 69, 157, 161, 179, 182

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s services 125, 129 e l e c t r i c a l 1 0 3 , 106-7 s e w e r 172

A i r p o r t 81

H u d s o n River S t a t i o n 118

J

H u d s o n s h i p p i n g l a n e 70

J a m a i c a Bay 182

Louisville I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t 81

Hugo N e u 194

J a m e s F a r l e y Post Office 140

Lower East Side 23

m a n u f a c t u r i n g , p o r t f a c i l i t i e s 77

h u m m o c k s 15

J a p a n Air Lines 83

Lower M a n h a t t a n D e v e l o p m e n t

maps

h u m p y a r d s 62, 64-65, 67

J e r o m e P a r k R e s e r v o i r 156, 168 J e r s e y City 68, 194

Corporation L t r a i n 27, 29

207

s t e a m 116

b l a c k o u t of 2003, 109 b r i d g e s 47

JFK A i r p o r t 80-81, 83, 206, 207

e l e c t r i c i t y g r i d 102-5

J. P. M o r g a n 153

gas p a t h w a y s

J t r a i n 27, 29, 46

JFK A i r p o r t c a r g o f a c i l i t i e s

in

m a i l s y s t e m 137, 141

83

m a p of 69

M e t Life B u i l d i n g 140

p a t h w a y s , m a p of

M e t r o C a r d 33

r e g u l a t i o n of i n d u s t r y 112

p n e u m a t i c m a i l n e t w o r k 137

M e t r o - N o r t h 67

r e p a i r a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of

power plants

M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of A r t

m a r i t i m e t r a d e 76 N e w York H a r b o r

69

98

s o u r c e s of 87

M e t r o p o l i t a n Television Alliance

r a d i o s t a t i o n l o c a t i o n s 148 r a i l f r e i g h t t e r m i n a l s 59

Metropolitan Transportation

s a n i t a t i o n s y s t e m 190-91, 194

A u t h o r i t y (MTA) 44, 95, 1 3 2 ,

s e w a g e s y s t e m 175, 179

206, 207

s t e a m s t a t i o n s 118

M i a m i I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t 81

traffic i n 72-73

O p e r a t o r 99, 103 N e w York O r g a n i c F e r t i l i z e r

s t o r a g e a r e a s for 112-13

C o m p a n y 180

NBC TV 142, 143, 144, 149

213

sewage overflow i n t o 174

N e w York I n d e p e n d e n t S y s t e m

s y s t e m 120 s o u r c e s of n o , 112

116, 117

produce, international

in

N e w York P o w e r A u t h o r i t y 22,

n e c k d o w n s 10

38, 104

N e v e r s i n k R e s e r v o i r 168 N e w a r k , N e w J e r s e y 190

N e w York Public L i b r a r y 152

Newark International Airport

N e w York S t a t e alternative energy

80, 81, 83, 85

street network 3

M i c h i g a n , e l e c t r i c a l c o n s u m e r s 93

s t r e e t s m o o t h n e s s 15

m i c r o w a v e d i s h e s 145

N e w C r o t o n A q u e d u c t 156-57

s u b w a y s y s t e m 27, 3 1 , 37

microwaves, wattage

N e w E n g l a n d , e l e c t r i c i t y i n 103

e l e c t r i c a l g r i d 98-99

New Jersey

e n e r g y m a r k e t 103

traffic s y s t e m 8, 9, 72 w a t e r s y s t e m 1 5 3 , 154, 158, 165, 168, 169 z i p codes 141

c o n s u m e d b y 95 M i l f o r d , C o n n e c t i c u t 211

e n e r g y m a r k e t 103

m i l k t r a i n s 67

l a n d f i l l s i n 190, 191

M i n n e a p o l i s , d e a d l e t t e r office 139

l a w s u i t s b y 155, 185

m i l k f r o m 67 n a t u r a l gas c o n s u m p t i o n i n i n N e w York S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t of

M a r c y e l e c t r i c a l s u b s t a t i o n 104

M o r a n T o w i n g C o r p o r a t i o n 73

m a r i t i m e t r a d e i n 62, 68-69

m a r i n e t r a n s f e r s t a t i o n s 190, 215

Morgan Processing a n d

passenger rail t u n n e l from

m a r i t i m e f r e i g h t 68-79

D i s t r i b u t i o n C e n t e r 136

c o n s u m p t i o n i n 100

Transportation

44

N e w York S t e a m C o m p a n y 116 N e w York S u s q u e h a n n a a n d

206, 207

W e s t e r n R a i l r o a d 59

M o s c o w s u b w a y s y s t e m 28

r e c y c l i n g i n 194

i n t e r n a t i o n a l r o u t e s , m a p of 76

Moses, R o b e r t 53

solid w a s t e t r e a t m e n t i n 180

s h i p p i n g l a n e s 70

M o s h o l u Golf Course 215

New Jersey Transit

m o t o r m a n , s u b w a y 38

N e w J e r s e y T u r n p i k e 54

New York Times, The 92 N e w York W a t e r Q u a l i t y S u r v e y

c o n t a i n e r s 68, 76-79

m a r k e t s 86-89. See also s p e c i e

N e w York T e l e p h o n e C o m p a n y 124, 127

207

M o t o r V e h i c l e s , D e p a r t m e n t of 9

n e w s 144-45

M a r y l a n d , e l e c t r i c i t y i n 103

M t r a i n 27, 29, 46

n e w s t r u c k s 145

M a s p e t h , Q u e e n s 149, 186

m u n i c i p a l offices, e l e c t r i c i t y

N e w Year's Eve 189

911 s y s t e m 1 3 0 , 1 3 3 , 134-35

N e w York & A t l a n t i c R a i l w a y

9 t r a i n 27, 29, 30

markets

M a s p e t h H o l d e r s 113

c o n s u m p t i o n b y 95

183

N i p p o n Cargo Air Lines 83

59, 61, 63

m e a t m a r k e t s 86, 88, 89

munimeters

m e d i a n s 10

M u r r a y Hill R e s e r v o i r 152

N e w York C o n t a i n e r T e r m i n a l

M e r c e r St. 13

N

N e w York C r o s s - H a r b o r R a i l r o a d

m e t a l 194, 195

N a n t u c k e t s h i p p i n g l a n e 70

meters

National Broadcasting Company.

23

e l e c t r i c a l 105

p a r k i n g 23 w a t e r 167 methane

no

N e w York Gas C o m p a n y

b o t t o m of 70 c u r r e n t s 71

44,140

Norfolk S o u t h e r n R a i l r o a d 58, 59, 62

59, 60

N e w York H a r b o r

See NBC TV National Historic Landmarks

gas 115

n i t r o g e n t a n k s 129

68-69, 78-79» 87, 209

M e m p h i s I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t 81

n i t r o g e n 182

no

N o r t h e a s t e r n U.S. e n e r g y m a r k e t 103 z i p codes 140 N o r t h River T r e a t m e n t P l a n t 178, 179

N a t i o n a l O c e a n S e r v i c e 71

d e p t h of 69, 71

n a t u r a l gas

d r e d g i n g of 74-75

N o r t h w e s t A i r l i n e Cargo 83

e n t e r i n g 70-71

NRG E n e r g y 98

d e l i v e r y of 110-15

floatables 176

N t r a i n 27, 29, 30

l e a k d e t e c t i o n 115

m a i n t e n a n c e of 74-75

c o m p o s i t i o n of

no

l i q u e f i e d 210, 211 o d o r a n t for 115

225

0

paving

Oak I s l a n d 62 Oakland International Airport 80, 81

Port Newark/Elizabeth Marine

b r i d g e s 51

T e r m i n a l 62, 68-69, 76-77, 209

s t r e e t s 12-13 pay phones

p o r t ( s ) , 68, 76-77. See also specific

132-33

ports

R r a d a r d e t e c t o r s 49 r a d i a t o r s , c l a n g i n g 121 radio

Oak P o i n t Yard 62, 67

PBS 149

o c e a n d u m p i n g 170, 171, 179,

P e a r l St. 92, 152

142 (USPS). See also m a i l a n d

f r e q u e n c i e s 72

p e d e s t r i a n ( s ) 3, 6-7

mail system

s t a t i o n s 143

184-85, 194

Postal S e r v i c e , U n i t e d S t a t e s 1 3 6 ,

b r o a d c a s t i n g 148-49

O'Hare I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t 81

b r i d g e access for 46

p o t h o l e s 14-15

Ohio, landfills i n 190

b r i d g e s 19

p o w e r b a r g e s 98

oil 104, 106

d e a t h s of n

p o w e r l i n e s 102-5, 213

railcars 60-61 r a i l f r e i g h t 58-67

R a d i o C o r p o r a t i o n of A m e r i c a (RCA) 142, 143

Old Croton A q u e d u c t 156

r a m p s 18

p o w e r p l a n t s 96-98, 108-9

on-dock r a i l facilities 77

refuges 10

p r i m a r y f e e d e r s 1 0 3 , 104

c a r g o 61-67

1 t r a i n 27, 29, 30

traffic 19

p r o d u c e 66, 82, 86-87

classification y a r d s for 62-65, 67

130th St. M i l k y a r d 67

P e n n S t a t i o n 30

P r o d u c e E x c h a n g e 136

f u t u r e of 208, 209

140 West St. 127

Pennsylvania

Providence & Worcester

o n - d o c k f a c i l i t i e s 77

145th St. Bridge 45

c o m p o s t i n g i n 180

o p t i c a l fiber 128, 146

electricity i n 103

o r a n g e j u i c e 76, 77

l a n d f i l l s i n 190, 191

O r i e n t Overseas Line 79

Pennsylvania Station

R a i l r o a d 59 Public Broadcasting Service. See PBS p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n 4, 26, 95.

t e r m i n a l s 59 transcontinental

66-67

R a n d a l l s I s l a n d 188, 197 R a s h i d , K a r i m 12

Osprey 183

Redevelopment Corporation

See also specific types of

R a v e n s w o o d , Q u e e n s 98

o v e n s , w a t t a g e c o n s u m e d b y 95

140

transportation

R a v e n s w o o d S t a t i o n 118

o v e r n i g h t c a r r i e r s . See i n t e g r a t e d air carriers Owls Head t r e a t m e n t p l a n t 179

P e p a c t o n R e s e r v o i r 168

P u b l i c W o r k s , D e p a r t m e n t of 13

p e r f u m e , i m p o r t a t i o n of 82

p u m p i n g s t a t i o n s , w a t e r 159, 161

P e r r y St. 13

P u t n a m C o u n t y 154, 155

r e c y c l i n g 188, 194-96. See also

Q

r e d b i r d s u b w a y c a r s 34

QB t r a i n 27

Red Hook, B r o o k l y n 53

Q t r a i n 27, 29, 30

Red Hook C o n t a i n e r T e r m i n a l

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania P

136, 143

p a i n t i n g b r i d g e s 51

p h o s p h o r i c a c i d 168 pigg g

Park Avenue Plaza 140

p i l o t s , h a r b o r 70-71

Québec 104

parking

p i p e l i n e s , g a s n o - i i , 112-13

Queens

t

n

e

p i p e 115

A m e r i c a (RCA)

specific items

p a p e r 194, 196, 198

i n

RCA. See R a d i o C o r p o r a t i o n of

68-69, 78 r e d - l i g h t e n f o r c e m e n t 8-9

a l t e r n a t e side of t h e s t r e e t 23

Piping Plover 177

a i r c a r g o c o m p a n i e s i n 81

r e e f e r s 73

m e t e r s 23

p l a n e s . See a i r c r a f t

AM t r a n s m i t t e r s i n 149

r e f r i g e r a t e d c a r s 60, 66

signs 20-21

p l u g uglies 160

cable t e l e v i s i o n i n 147

refrigerators, wattage

P a r k s , D e p a r t m e n t of 44, 132, 188

pneumatic tubes

Passaic River 69

Police D e p a r t m e n t 189

p o w e r p l a n t s i n 98

p a s s e n g e r b o a t s 72

p o n d i n g 14

s e w a g e s y s t e m i n 174

R e l i a n t 98

passengers, subway

population 3

s t e a m p l a n t s i n 119

r e m o t e c o n t r o l s 94

s u b w a y s y s t e m i n 27

r e s e r v o i r s 155, 162. See also

n u m b e r of 26, 28 p e r c a r p e r h o u r 29 p a v e m e n t s e n s o r s 49

136-37

P o r t A u t h o r i t y of N e w York a n d N e w J e r s e y 4, 44, 49, 55, 76, 78-79, 80, 95, 161, 207, 209

p a y p h o n e s i n 132

w a t e r s y s t e m i n 164, 214 Q u e e n s b o r o Bridge 45, 48

P o r t J e r s e y C h a n n e l 74

Q u e e n s B o u l e v a r d 6, n

P o r t J e r s e y R a i l r o a d 59

Q u e e n s M i d t o w n T u n n e l 45, 52-53 Qwest 127

c o n s u m e d b y 95 r e l a y b o x e s 138

specific reservoirs Rhode Island, electrical c o n s u m e r s 93

The Works

index

l o w e s t 30

R i c h m o n d T u n n e l 158, 161, 164

S e c a u c u s , N e w J e r s e y 207

60th St. S t a t i o n 118

R i k e r s I s l a n d 197

s e c o n d a r y f e e d e r s 103

60 H u d s o n S t r e e t 127

n u m b e r of 28, 30

R i v e r b a n k S t a t e P a r k 179

S e c o n d A v e n u e S u b w a y 206

s k i m m i n g vessels 177

S t a t u e of L i b e r t y 69 s t e a m a n d s t e a m s y s t e m 116-21

RJ t r a i n 27

s e e d s l u d g e 178

s l u d g e 171, 178, 180-81

r o a d w a y s . See s t r e e t ( s )

S e l k i r k Yard 62, 66, 208

s l u d g e b a r g e s 179

c o n s u m p t i o n of 116

robots, pipe inspection a n d

s e p t i c t a n k s 173

s n o o p e r t r u c k s 50

d i s t r i b u t i o n of 118-19

7 t r a i n 27, 29

s n o w m e l t e r s 203

e x p l o s i o n s 121

R o c k a w a y t r e a t m e n t p l a n t 179

74th St. S t a t i o n 118

snow removal

l e a k s 120

Rockefeller C e n t e r 117, 141, 143

s e w a g e a n d s e w a g e s y s t e m 170-83

repair

120,163

202-3

Snowy Egret 177

s t a t i o n s 118-19

R o n d o u t R e s e r v o i r 156, 168

b r e a k d o w n s 182

s o l a r p o w e r 1 0 0 , 101

w a t e r u s e d b y 116

Roosevelt, F r a n k l i n 53

c a t c h b a s i n s 176

Solid W a s t e 190-91

s t e a m m a i n s 119

Roosevelt I s l a n d 199

c o l l e c t i o n 172-73

South Brooklyn Marine Terminal

s t e r e o s , e l e c t r i c i t y u s e d b y 94

R o s e t o n , N e w York 162

c o m b i n e d sewer overflow

Roseville Yard 66

174-77

R o u t e 1 136

d e w a t e r i n g 171

Royal D u t c h S h e l l 211

m a n a g i n g effluent

R t r a i n 27, 29, 30

m a p s 175, 179

rush hour

p u m p i n g s t a t i o n s 178

l e n g t h of 3 i n t h e s u b w a y 29, 38 traffic s i g n a l s d u r i n g 6

182-83

s t o r m - w a t e r t r e a t m e n t 170, 172-73, 174 t r e a t m e n t a n d processing

t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s 170-71,

St. V i n c e n t ' s H o s p i t a l 117 s a l t d o m e s 203 s a l t s p r e a d e r s 203

178-79, 182 s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s 170-71,

s t o r m w a t e r 170, 172-73, 174

S o u t h St. 68

S t r e e t C l e a n i n g , D e p a r t m e n t of

S o u t h St. S e a p o r t 88

airwaves

185, 194 s t r e e t l i g h t s 22, n o s t r e e t ( s ) 2-23

s p e e d h u m p s 10

c l e a n i n g of 23, 200

speed limit 6

color 10

speed(s)

defects i n 14-15

s u b w a y 32, 38

e l e c t r i c a l w i r i n g of 106-7

traffic 9

h a r d w a r e for 15

split p h a s i n g 7

h i g h w a y c o m p o s i t i o n of 2, 3

S p r i n g f i e l d G a r d e n s , Q u e e n s 81

i n t e r s e c t i o n s of. See

S t a p l e t o n 72

178-79, 182

stick c r a n e s 79

S o u t h B r o o k l y n R a i l w a y 59

s p e c t r u m , e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c . See

178-81, 182 S

194,195

Staten Island

intersections, street l i g h t s . See s t r e e t l i g h t s

s a n d h o g s 164

S e w a r d P a r k h o u s i n g 117

S a n d y Hook, N e w J e r s e y 74

s e w e r p i p e s 12-13, 7

cable t e l e v i s i o n o n 146

m a p s 3, 8, 9

S a n d y Hook Pilots 70-71

s h a v e r s 94

E-ZPass c e n t e r o n 45

m a r k i n g s , r e p a i r 14

s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l 192

s h i p p i n g . See m a r i t i m e f r e i g h t

m a n h o l e c o v e r s 12

m e d i a n s 10

S a n i t a t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t of 184,

s h i p p i n g l a n e s 70

m a r i t i m e t r a d e o n 68, 72, 78-79

m i l e s of 2

s h i p s . See v e s s e l s , c a r g o

p a y p h o n e s o n 132

n a r r o w i n g of 10

S a n i t a t i o n Police 201

s h o w e r s 167

p o w e r p l a n t s o n 98

o p e n c u t s 14

s a t e l l i t e b r o a d c a s t i n g 145, 147

s i d e w a l k s 1 2 , 18

r a i l w a y s y s t e m o n 28

p a v i n g m a t e r i a l s 12-13

s a t e l l i t e t o w e r s 37

S i e r r a B l a n c a , Texas 171

r e c y c l i n g o n 194

r e p a i r of 14-17

S c h o h a i r i e County, N e w York 154

signals

w a t e r s y s t e m o n 158, 161, 164

186, 202, 209, 214

schools e l e c t r i c i t y c o n s u m p t i o n b y 95 g a r b a g e c o l l e c t i o n f r o m 188

r

2

s u b w a y 36-37

S t a t e n I s l a n d R a i l r o a d 208, 209

traffic 6-7

stations, subway

signs a n d signage

signs 20-21 s m o o t h n e s s of 15 s y s t e m i z a t i o n of 2

a b a n d o n e d 31

t e x t u r e 10

seafood, i m p o r t a n d e x p o r t of 82

s t r e e t 20-21

e n t e r i n g 32-33

t h r u streets program 9

S e a g r a m B u i l d i n g 140

s u b w a y c a r 35

h i g h e s t 30

t y p e s of 2

S i l v e r L a k e , S t a t e n I s l a n d 161

u n d e r n e a t h t h e 12-13

6 t r a i n 27, 29, 206

w i d t h of 2

60th St. M i l k y a r d 67

street sweepers

200

s u b s t a t i o n s , e l e c t r i c a l 103, 104-5 S u b w a y s Control C e n t e r

40

s u b w a y s y s t e m 26-43

T

375 P e a r l St. 127

speeds 9

tall buildings

T h r o g s Neck Bridge 4, 45

violations

a i r t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d 146

t h r u streets program 9

w a t e r s u p p l y for 166

tide(s)

a n n o u n c e m e n t s i n 33

t a n k s h i p s 72, 73

breakdowns

telephone(s) and telephone

40-41

Car M a i n t e n a n c e D e p a r t m e n t 42

s y s t e m 124-35

8

train(s) f r e i g h t . See r a i l f r e i g h t

g a t e s 175

g a r b a g e 191

m o n i t o r i n g 71

to t h e p l a n e

p o w e r 210

subway, r e r o u t i n g 41

207

c a r s . See c a r s , s u b w a y

call b o x e s

disabled, access for 35

calls. See calls, t e l e p h o n e

N e w Year's Eve i n 189

Transcom

e l e v a t e d l i n e s 28

c a r r i e r h o t e l s 127

s u b w a y s t a t i o n 30-31

Transcontinental pipeline

e m p l o y e e s of 26, 32, 38

emergency communications

e x p r e s s service 29, 38

49

Times S q u a r e

infrastructure

first s u b w a y 26

125, 127, 128-29

local v e r s u s l o n g d i s t a n c e

flooding of 42

124-25

f u t u r e of 206-7

Time W a r n e r

Telecom 127

T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t of

t o k e n s , s u b w a y 32

JFK A i r p o r t l i n k

pay phones

Tokyo

r e p a i r s a n d m a i n t e n a n c e 129 i n s u b w a y s 132

toll c o l l e c t o r s

m a p s 27, 31, 37

s w i t c h i n g s t a t i o n s 127

track, subway

n u m b e r i n g of 27

u n d e r g r o u n d cables 128-29

cleaning

o t h e r s y s t e m s c o m p a r e d t o 28

underground infrastructure

c u r v e d 33

88

subway system

express

125, 128-29

(DOT) 4, 6, 14, 18, 22, 45, 46, 50

28

49

43

95

t r a v e l i n g s l u g 121 t r e e s 24-25, 188, 197 T-Rex 75 T r i b o r o u g h B r i d g e 45 Triborough Bridge a n d T u n n e l A u t h o r i t y 4, 53

29

g a p fillers 33

television

transportation, electricity consumption

m a i n t e n a n c e a n d r e p a i r 42-43

subway

30

fish e x c h a n g e

l o n g e s t l i n e 28

p a s s e n g e r s . See p a s s e n g e r s ,

6

t o i l e t s 167, 170

n u m b e r of 125 132-33

I Q

T r a n s i t A u t h o r i t y 27, 32, 59

h o u r s of o p e r a t i o n 28-29

p e n e t r a t i o n of 132

t r a n s f o r m e r s , e l e c t r i c a l 97, 1 0 3 , 104-5,

token booths

207

in

t o a s t e r s , w a t t a g e u s e d b y 95

N n codes 133-34

local service 29, 38

4-5

t r a n s f e r s t a t i o n s , g a r b a g e 190, 215

cable t e l e v i s i o n 146, 147

134-35

fare i n c r e a s e s 32

T r a n s C a n a d a 211

t r u c k i n g 58, 62, 6 6 , 1 9 0 , 208 t u g b o a t s 72, 73

p h o n e s i n 132

cable 146-47

g a u g e 29

Tully 190-91

p o w e r for 38

p e n e t r a t i o n of 143

i n t e r l o c k i n g s 37

t u n n e l - b o r i n g m a c h i n e s 164

sets 92, 94

local 29

t u n n e l ( s ) 44-45, 52-55. See also

t r a n s m i s s i o n s 213

m i l e s of 28

p r i v a t e l i n e s 26-27 p u m p r o o m s 42 r a i l y a r d s 42 s a t e l l i t e t o w e r s 37 Second A v e n u e S u b w a y

T r a d e W a s t e C o m m i s s i o n 198

T e n n e s s e e Gas i n , 112 tests, subway motor m a n 206

38-39

Texas E a s t e r n p i p e l i n e 112

specific tunnels b o r i n g m a c h i n e s 164

t r a f f i c , h a r b o r 72-73

cross-harbor freight

traffic, r o a d w a y

m a i n t e n a n c e a n d r e p a i r 55

208

signals 36-37

T h i r d Ave. Bridge 45

a c c i d e n t s 4-5, 6

new passenger rail

speeds i n 32, 38

30 Rockefeller C e n t e r 141

a m o u n t e n t e r i n g city 4

ventilation buildings

s t a t i o n s . See s t a t i o n s , s u b w a y

30 Rockefeller Plaza 143

c a l m i n g m e a s u r e s 10-11

w a t e r 158, 164-65

t r a c k . See t r a c k , s u b w a y S u l l i v a n County, N e w York 154, 155 Sunkist

66

207 54

33 T h o m a s St. 127

c a m e r a s 6, 8-9

turnstiles

T h o m a s P h i f e r a n d P a r t n e r s 22

f u t u r e of

26th W a r d t r e a t m e n t p l a n t 179

3 train

M a n h a t t a n in- a n d o u t b o u n d

27, 29, 30

311 s y s t e m 133

volume

206

45

S u n s e t Park, B r o o k l y n 194-95

m a p s 8, 9, 72

s w i t c h i n g s t a t i o n s 127

r e g i o n a l 4, 6 signals

6-7

30

2 t r a i n 27, 29, 30

The Works

u

V i c t o r S t a n l e y b a s k e t s 186

s a m p l i n g s i t e s 169

W o o l w o r t h B u i l d i n g 140, 141

U l s t e r County, N e w York 154, 155

Viele, E g b e r t L u d o v i c u s 153

s t e a m s y s t e m , u s e i n 116

W o o s t e r St. 13

U n i o n Pacific

violations, motorist 8

s t o r a g e 161

W o r l d F i n a n c i a l C e n t e r 140, 141

U n i t e d N a t i o n s 116, 117

V i r g i n i a , l a n d f i l l s i n 190, 191

t o w e r s 166

U.S. Lines 78

Visy P a p e r Mill 194, 196

treatment

U n i v e r s i t y H e i g h t s Bridge 45

v o l t a g e 97, 1 0 3 , 104, 105

w a t e r m a i n s 159, 162-63

UPN 149

V t r a i n 29

w a t e r s h e d s 155

66

W o r l d Trade C e n t e r 141, 149, 213 168-69

WQEW 149 W t r a i n 27, 29

W a t e r s i d e S t a t i o n 118

U p p e r East River 182 UPS 81, 83, 85

w

W a t e r T u n n e l No. 3 164-65

Y o n k e r s , N e w York 156

u p s t a t e N e w York. See N e w York

W a l l a b o u t M a r k e t 86

w a t e r w a y s . See also speci/ic waterways

Yorkville R e s e r v o i r 152

Wards Island t r e a t m e n t plant

State USPS. See Postal S e r v i c e , U n i t e d

g a r b a g e d u m p i n g i n 184

178, 179

S t a t e s (USPS)

sewage d u m p i n g a n d runoff

w a r e h o u s i n g 77, 80-81

I

u t i l i t i e s 12-13, 5- See also specific

171, 174-77- 179

W a r i n g , George 185, 194

utilities

vacuum cleaners, electricity

c l e a n l i n e s s of 182-83

W a r P r o d u c t i o n Board 98

w a t t s 94-95. 97

w a s h i n g m a c h i n e s 167

w a v e l e n g t h s 142

W a s h i n g t o n Bridge 45

Waverley, V i r g i n i a 191

W a s h i n g t o n H e i g h t s 159

w a v e s 71

W a s h i n g t o n M a r k e t 86

WCBS 149

v a l v e c h a m b e r s 164, 165

W a s h i n g t o n St. 86

W e e h a w k e n , N e w J e r s e y 67

V a n C o r t l a n d t P a r k Valve

W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t 190-91, 215

WEPN 149

W a s t e Service NY 190-91

West B r a n c h R e s e r v o i r 161

w a s t e s h e d s 190

W e s t c h e s t e r C o u n t y 93, n o ,

u s e d b y 95

C h a m b e r 164, 165 variable message sign sensors

49

154,156

v a u l t l i g h t s 18

w a s t e w a t e r 170

v a u l t s , s i d e w a l k 18

w a t e r a n d w a t e r s y s t e m 152-69

VCRs 94

Council I n t e r c o n n e c t i o n 102

a q u e d u c t s 156-57

vehicles, s a n i t a t i o n 186-87,

2 0 0

>

2

°3

Western Systems Coordinating

a q u i f e r r e c o v e r y s y s t e m 214

West Side H i g h w a y 6

c a p a c i t y , s t o r a g e 154

WFAN 149

V e r d a n t P o w e r 210

c o n s e r v a t i o n m e a s u r e s 167

W h e e l a b r a t o r T e c h n o l o g i e s 180

V e r i z o n 125, 127, 129

c o n s u m p t i o n 167

W h i t e s t o n e Bridge 4, 45

V e r r a z a n o N a r r o w s Bridge 4, 44,

f i l t r a t i o n 214, 215

w i l d l i f e 182-83

f u t u r e p r o j e c t s 214, 215

W i l l i a m s b u r g Bridge 45, 46, 48

g r o u n d w a t e r 161, 169

W i l l i a m St. 160

ventilation buildings

54

45, 46, 48, 70 V e s e y S t . 86

l e a k s 162-63

Willis Ave. Bridge 45

c r a n e s o n 79

l o c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n 158

w i n d p o w e r 1 0 0 , 101, 210, 211

h a r b o r e n t r y of 70-71

m a p s 153, 154, 158, 165, 168, 169

WISOR r o b o t 120

t y p e s of 73

m e t e r s 167

w o o d 166

v o l u m e of 72

p e o p l e d i s p l a c e d b y 153, 154, 155

Woods Hole O c é a n o g r a p h i e

vessels, cargo

209

I n s t i t u t e 163

v e s s e l s , s k i m m i n g 177

p r e s s u r e 159

Vessel Traffic Service 72

p u m p i n g s y s t e m s 159, 161, 166 r e g u l a t o r s 159 repair and maintenance r e s e r v o i r s 155

162-63

zip codes 140-41 Zone I m p r o v e m e n t P l a n 140 Z t r a i n 29, 46