Type 2 Diabetes Your Questions Answered

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Type 2

Diabetes Your Questions Answered

Type 2

Diabetes Your Questions Answered

Based on Diabetes, A practical guide to managing your health

Rosemary Walker & Jill Rodgers US MEDICAL EDITOR DAVID S. SCHADE, MD

LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH, MELBOURNE, DELHI

Senior Editor Janet Mohun Editors Kesta Desmond, Teresa Pritlove US Senior Editor Jill Hamilton Managing Editor Adèle Hayward Production Controller Heather Hughes

Senior Designer Nicola Rodway Designer Iona Hoyle Managing Art Editors Emma Forge, Karla Jennings DTP Designer Julian Dams

First American Edition, 2006 06 07 08 09 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Based on text from Diabetes, A Practical Guide to Managing Your Health by Rosemary Walker and Jill Rodgers, first published in 2005 Published in the US by DK Publishing, Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 Every effort has been made to ensure that the information in this book is accurate. The information in this book may not be applicable in every case so you are advised to obtain expert medical advice for specific information on personal health matters. Never disregard expert medical advice or delay in receiving advice or treatment due to information obtained from this book. The naming of any product, treatment, or organization in this book does not imply endorsement by the authors, imprimatur, or publisher, nor does the omission of such names indicate disapproval. The publisher, authors, and imprimatur cannot accept legal responsibility for any personal injury or other damage or loss arising from any use or misuse of the information and advice in this book. Copyright © 2006 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London Text copyright © 2006 Rosemary Walker and Jill Rodgers The authors have asserted their moral right to be identified as the authors of this work. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American copyright conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owners. DK books are available at special discounts for bulk purchases for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or education use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 375 Hudson Street, New York, NY 10014 or [email protected] A Cataloging-in-Publication record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN-10 0-7566-1872-X ISBN-13 978-0-75661-872-8 Reproduced by Colourscan, Singapore Printed and bound in Singapore by Tien Wah Press Discover more at

www.dk.com

Foreword We believe that understanding your diabetes and how it is treated is one of the most important factors in living successfully and healthily with the condition. In this book you will find up-to-date information about all aspects of living with Type 2 diabetes. We have answered many of the questions people commonly ask when they find out they have diabetes, from what they should be eating to how they should take their medication. In our answers we have offered clear, straightforward advice and information that is of practical use in everyday life. Type 2 diabetes is a serious condition and it can affect you at any age and in any circumstances. Even if you don’t have diabetes youreself, you may be affected by it because you live with someone or care for someone who has the condition. We feel privileged to have written this book, and we hope you enjoy reading it and find the information interesting and useful. We wish you well on the journey of your life with Type 2 diabetes.

Rosemary Walker

Jill Rodgers

Contents What is Type 2 diabetes? Understanding diabetes 10 How your body uses glucose 16 Type 2 diabetes and heart disease 18 Causes of Type 2 diabetes 21 Who gets Type 2 diabetes? 24 Type 2 diabetes and young people 26 Long-term complications 28 Reducing your risk of Type 2 diabetes 30

Finding out you have diabetes Symptoms of Type 2 diabetes 34 Diagnosing Type 2 diabetes 36 Dealing with emotions 38 Who’s who in my healthcare team? 40

Food and drink Types of food 46 Healthy eating 48 Reading a food label 53 When to eat 54 Carbohydrates and the glycemic index 56 Healthier cooking 60

Eating out 62 Alcohol 64 Why weight and body shape matter 66 How to lose weight 70

Physical activity The benefits of physical activity 78 Physical activity and your blood glucose level 82 Incorporating activity into your life 86 Getting started and keeping going 88 Becoming more active 90 Choosing a physical activity 92 Making activity work for you 96

Monitoring your diabetes Understanding your blood glucose level 100 Monitoring equipment 104 Carrying out a blood glucose test 106 What your results mean 110 The A1c test 113 Understanding your blood pressure 115 Monitoring blood pressure 118 Your annual review 120

Living with diabetes Day-to-day life 124 Dealing with hypoglycemia 126 Dealing with hyperglycemia 130 Looking after your heart 132 Looking after your feet 133 Stress and diabetes 138 How to manage stress 140 When you are ill 142 Women’s health 146 Caring for someone with diabetes 150 Living with someone with diabetes 152

The role of insulin injections 164 Types of insulin 166 Insulin regimens 168 Adjusting your insulin doses 170 Insulin equipment 172 Injecting yourself 174

Long-term complications

Medication

Heart and circulatory disease 180 Eye conditions 184 Kidney conditions 188 Foot conditions 190 Depression 194 Erection difficulties 196 Other conditions 198

Taking pills 156 Pills to treat raised blood glucose 158 Pills for high blood pressure 160 Other pills that may be prescribed 162

Useful addresses 200 Index 201 Acknowledgments 208

What is Type 2 diabetes? If you have Type 2 diabetes, your body cannot regulate your blood glucose, blood pressure, and blood fat levels properly. This can affect your short-term and long-term health, although a combination of treatment and lifestyle changes can help reduce these risks. In the past, Type 2 diabetes affected mainly older people but it now affects an increasing number of younger people.

10

W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

Understanding diabetes Q What is Type 2 T diabetes?

Q What is the T difference between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes?

Type 2 diabetes is the most common type of diabetes and used to be called “maturity onset” or “non-insulindependent” diabetes. When you have diabetes your body cannot use glucose (your body’s main source of energy) in the usual way. Normally, glucose is absorbed by your body cells and burned as fuel. In Type 2 diabetes, glucose stays in your bloodstream either because your natural supply of insulin—a hormone that regulates the level of glucose in your blood—is not working properly or your body is not making enough of it. A raised blood glucose level can give you a range of symptoms including intense thirst and frequent urination. You are also much more prone to heart and circulatory problems because it is one part of a syndrome or collection of conditions, known medically as the metabolic syndrome, that causes high blood pressure and high blood fat levels. A high blood glucose level, without treatment, can damage your kidneys, nerves, and eyes. However, you can do a great deal to reduce the risk of these complications. People with Type 1 diabetes usually develop severe symptoms over a short time in childhood or early adulthood and their bodies cannot absorb any glucose without the help of a continuous supply of insulin either by injection every day or by an infusion of insulin through a pump. People who are prone to Type 1 diabetes have a specific genetic makeup that causes their bodies to destroy some of their own cells.

U N D E R S TA N D I N G D I A B E T E S

Q Is Type 2 less T serious than Type 1 diabetes?

Q Why does Type 2 T diabetes develop?

Q How common is T Type 2 diabetes?

11

Definitely not. In some ways, Type 2 diabetes is a more serious condition than Type 1 because you could have it for a number of years before you are diagnosed. Consequently, you could already have developed some of the long-term complications of diabetes without being aware of them. In particular, Type 2 diabetes is linked with heart disease because of its association with high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels. These cause progressive thickening of your arteries over years that reduces your blood flow and increases the likelihood of a heart attack or stroke. Being overweight, particularly if you carry surplus weight around your waist, makes the risk of heart disease even greater. There is no single reason why you develop Type 2 diabetes. A combination of factors affects how likely you are to develop the condition. Being overweight and inactive are two major factors that increase your risk of developing Type 2 diabetes. Other factors that put you at a higher risk include a family history of diabetes and being a member of certain ethnic groups, such as African-American, Hispanic, or American Indian. See pp21–23 for more about the causes of diabetes. About 130 million people worldwide have Type 2 diabetes, and this number is increasing each year. In the US, more than 17 million people are known to have diabetes. About 90–95 percent of these have Type 2 diabetes. There are also many people who have Type 2 diabetes but have not yet been diagnosed with the condition.

12

W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

Q Why is Type 2 T diabetes becoming more common?

Q What does insulin T do in my body?

Q What would my T blood glucose level be if I didn’t have diabetes?

Q How high can blood T glucose rise in someone with Type 2 diabetes?

Today, people are much less active in their daily lives than those of previous generations. Therefore, they are more likely to be overweight or obese, which, in turn, increases the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes. More children and teenagers are developing Type 2 diabetes for this reason. Insulin is a hormone (body chemical) that is made and released by your pancreas, which lies behind your stomach. Insulin acts like a key to let glucose (which comes from carbohydrate foods) move from your bloodstream into your cells, where it is used to produce energy. Your body normally produces more insulin immediately and for some time after a meal, when there is more glucose around, and less at other times. Another hormone called glucagon (also produced by your pancreas) prevents insulin from letting your blood glucose level drop too low. If you didn’t have diabetes, your insulin and glucagon would keep your blood glucose level within a narrow range (75–130 milligrams of glucose per deciliter [mg/dl] of blood). As a result, whether you eat a lot of carbohydrate or only a little, your body has the constant supply of energy it needs to work properly. Very rarely, a blood glucose level of up to 1,800 mg/dl can be recorded when you are first diagnosed with diabetes. The most common situation is for your blood glucose to reach a level of 180–360 mg/dl—at which stage your symptoms would lead to you being diagnosed (see pp36–37).

U N D E R S TA N D I N G D I A B E T E S

Q What goes wrong in T Type 2 diabetes?

Q What does insulin T resistance mean?

Q How can I tell T if I have Type 2 diabetes?

Q Will I have to inject T myself with insulin every day?

13

Because your body doesn’t produce enough insulin, produces it more slowly, and/or your cells are resistant to the action of insulin (see below), your blood glucose cannot be as finely regulated as it would be normally. As a result, it is difficult for glucose to pass into your cells to be burned for energy, so it builds up in your blood (see pp16–17). This term means that, even if you still produce insulin, your body cannot use it in the normal way to let glucose into your cells. Insulin resistance is linked to being overweight and being physically inactive. If you have Type 2 diabetes, you are also more likely to have high blood pressure and elevated cholesterol levels. You may not have any symptoms, in which case your diabetes might only be found at a routine medical or eye test. Many of the symptoms you might experience can be part of growing older—for example, feeling tired, or getting up at night to urinate—and you may not think you have diabetes, particularly if these symptoms are mild. You can read more about the symptoms of diabetes on pp34–35. Controlling your weight, eating healthily, and keeping or becoming physically active may keep your blood glucose level in the recommended range without any medication, sometimes for a short time or, in some cases, for years. If your blood glucose is regularly too high, despite your best efforts, you will be prescribed pills and, eventually, you are likely to need insulin injections (see pp156–177).

MYTH OR TRUTH?

Myth “Type 2 diabetes isn’t serious unless you need insulin injections” Truth The seriousness of diabetes isn’t linked to the type of treatment you have but to whether your blood glucose and blood pressure are within healthy limits. For example, it is far more serious if your blood glucose level is too high and your pills aren’t controlling it than if your blood glucose level is under better control from taking insulin.

U N D E R S TA N D I N G D I A B E T E S

Q Why have I been T told to control my weight?

Q Does Type 2 diabetes T get worse over time?

Q Can diabetes T be cured?

15

Your weight influences how easy it is for your own insulin supplies to work properly and for your body to regulate your blood pressure. It also influences the type and dose of any medication you take. Being overweight can cause a rise in your blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels, and it increases your risk of complications such as heart disease. Keeping your weight within the recommended range for your height or, if you need to, losing some weight, has a number of health benefits. Type 2 diabetes is a progressive condition. When this type of diabetes starts to develop, your body needs to produce more insulin to keep your blood glucose level in a healthy range. At first, healthier eating, losing weight, and increasing your physical activity may be sufficient to control your blood glucose level. Over time, however, your body probably won’t be able to keep up with the demand for insulin—especially if you are overweight. Eventually, you are likely to need pills and probably insulin injections to keep your blood glucose level between 75 and 130 mg/dl. Keeping your blood pressure in the recommended range is also important when you have Type 2 diabetes. You may need several types of medications over time for this. As yet there is no cure for diabetes. The important thing is to actively manage your condition each day so that you can continue to live a healthy life. Keeping your blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels, as well as your blood glucose, in the recommended range can help prevent the long-term complications of diabetes.

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W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

How your body uses glucose Glucose, in carbohydrate foods, is your body’s main energy source. Without diabetes, the quantity of glucose in your blood is carefully regulated by two hormones produced by your pancreas. In Type 2 diabetes, this regulating system is impaired and the level of glucose in your blood rises too high. Over time, a high blood glucose level damages your eyes, kidneys, or nerves. Glucose enters bloodstream after eating and drinking Blood glucose level rises Glucagon converts glycogen (from the liver) to glucose, which enters blood Pancreas produces extra insulin Pancreas produces glucagon Insulin enables cells to take in glucose Blood glucose level falls

A HEALTHY BODY

After you eat, glucose enters your bloodstream and, with the help of insulin, is taken up by blood cells. Some glucose is also

Cells “burn” glucose to produce

stored in your liver as glycogen. When your

energy; liver cells convert

blood glucose level falls, such as after a period

glucose to store as glycogen

without food, glucagon converts glycogen to glucose, and your blood glucose level rises.

17

HOW YOUR BODY USES GLUCOSE

Glucose enters

Pancreas produces

Blood glucose

bloodstream after

insufficient insulin, or

level rises

eating and drinking

produces it too slowly, or cells are resistant

Cells can take in only small amounts of glucose from blood With limited glucose,

Blood glucose level

cells have reduced

remains high

energy

Symptoms: Fatigue; lack of energy

Small amounts of fat

Kidneys produce extra

may be broken down

urine to remove glucose

as alternative source

from blood

of energy

Symptoms: Gradual

Symptoms: Urinating

weight loss; can also

frequently, leading to

If blood glucose

cause damage to blood

dehydration and thirst;

stays

vessels and general

urinary tract infections;

very high

infections

blurred vision

TYPE 2 DIABETES

Your pancreas produces insufficient insulin or produces it

Symptoms: Extreme

too slowly, or your body cells are resistant to it. Your blood

dehydration may develop

glucose rises and cells cannot burn glucose for energy. This

leading to loss of

leads to diabetes symptoms and, if your glucose level remains high, eventual damage to your eyes, kidneys, or nerves.

consciousness

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W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

Type 2 diabetes and heart disease Q What is the link T between Type 2 diabetes and heart disease?

Q What is T cardiovascular disease?

Type 2 diabetes is more than simply a raised blood glucose level. You are also likely to develop various problems related to your heart and blood vessels – for example, high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels. Although the link between high blood pressure and diabetes is not yet fully understood, it is thought that it may result from high levels of insulin circulating in your blood as a result of insulin resistance (which is usual in Type 2 diabetes). As a result, your blood vessels become scarred and hard plaques form—this causes narrowing of your blood vessels, which makes it more difficult for your blood to flow. The risk of blockages in your blood vessels also increases; these can cause angina (severe chest pain) or a heart attack. “Cardio” means heart and “vascular” means blood vessels. If you have Type 2 diabetes, you are prone to a range of cardiovascular problems including high blood pressure, hyperlipidemia (a high level of fat in your blood), angina (severe chest pain), heart attack, stroke, peripheral vascular disease (pain in your legs when walking or resting due to reduced circulation), and heart failure. You are also two to four times more likely to develop cardiovascular disease (CVD) than someone without diabetes. CVD is one of the major problems associated with Type 2 diabetes.

T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S A N D H E A RT D I S E A S E

Q How would I know if T I have CVD?

Q Can I take drugs to T prevent CVD?

Q What exactly are T “raised blood lipids”?

19

CVD does not necessarily cause any symptoms and may only become apparent when you have a heart attack or a stroke. But it is possible for your health professional to look for signs of CVD, such as high blood pressure and high levels of cholesterol in your blood. If tests are positive, you can have treatment for these conditions even though they do not make you feel ill. This is why you need to have your blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels checked regularly. Taking regular low doses of aspirin (or other bloodthinning tablets if you can’t take aspirin) can help reduce your risk. You may also be prescribed pills to reduce your cholesterol level if you need them. Even if you need pills, eating healthily and becoming or staying active will play an important role in lowering your risk of CVD. When you have Type 2 diabetes, your levels of cholesterol and triglycerides—two types of lipids (fats) in the blood—are likely to be raised, a condition known as hyperlipidemia. Both of these fats are essential in small amounts, but when their levels are raised they can damage your arteries. There are two types of cholesterol in your blood: high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL). In a healthy person, the proportion of HDL to LDL is higher than it is in a person with Type 2 diabetes. Elevated levels of lipids in the blood are treated in order to lower your blood fats and to correct the ratio of HDL to LDL. This in turn prevents your arteries from narrowing.

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W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

Q How can losing T

If you are overweight, losing even a few pounds is one weight prevent CVD? of the most important things you can do if you have Type 2 diabetes. Losing weight and becoming more active will help to lower your blood cholesterol levels and blood pressure. Your body will also become more responsive to the insulin you produce, and your heart will be under less strain.

Q Will physical activity T help me prevent CVD?

Q How important is T it to stop smoking now I have Type 2 diabetes?

Q My Type 2 diabetes T was diagnosed after a heart attack. How can I prevent another?

Yes, just 30 minutes of moderate activity five times a week will help you control your blood pressure and reduce your cholesterol level, which in turn reduces your risk of CVD. Physical activity helps you lose weight because you not only burn more calories while you are active but you also speed up your metabolic rate so that your body uses up more calories even when you are less active. See pp78–97 for how to become more active, whatever your activity level is now. Very important: if you smoke, you have a far higher risk of CVD, heart attack, and stroke. Having Type 2 diabetes further increases the risk. Going to smoking cessation clinics and using nicotine replacement therapy such as patches or chewing gum can help you give up. Taking any medication you have been prescribed to reduce your blood pressure and cholesterol level, increase your blood flow, and control your blood glucose level will make a big difference. Relaxation therapy and attending your cardiac rehabilitation meetings will help to reduce your risk. Stopping smoking and being active—for example, walking every day—are also important.

CAUSES OF TYPE 2 DIABETES

21

Causes of Type 2 diabetes Q Is it possible to T discover why I got Type 2 diabetes?

Type 2 diabetes develops as a result of a combination of factors, and it’s not possible to know exactly why you have developed the condition. Some risk factors, such as being from a particular ethnic background and having a family history of diabetes, are genetic and therefore beyond your control. Other factors, such as being overweight or inactive, may be the result of your lifestyle. Whatever your circumstances, your diabetes will not go away, but there is a great deal you can do to live with it successfully once you are diagnosed.

Q Can eating too much T

Not directly. Sugar itself doesn’t cause diabetes but sugar cause diabetes? eating sugary foods can make you gain weight, and being overweight can increase your risk of developing Type 2 diabetes. This is the reason that making sure that your weight is in the correct range for your height can help prevent Type 2 diabetes.

Q Could my Type 2 T diabetes have been triggered by a viral infection?

No, only Type 1 diabetes can be triggered by a virus in a person who already has a genetic predisposition to diabetes (see p10). Type 2 diabetes is a different condition from Type 1 diabetes. Your diabetes may have appeared at the same time as you had an illness or viral infection, simply because your body produces extra glucose when you are ill but you are unable to produce the extra insulin you need to deal with this. Consequently, you develop a high blood glucose level and symptoms quite rapidly, and this in turn leads to a diagnosis of diabetes.

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W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

Q Why does being T overweight increase the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes?

Being overweight can make your body cells resistant to the action of the insulin that your body makes. Obesity, which is defined as weighing 20 percent more than your ideal body weight, further increases your risk of Type 2 diabetes. Where you carry extra weight is also important. If you have excess weight around your waist (rather than your hips or thighs), your risk of developing Type 2 diabetes is even higher. See pp66–69 for more information on body shape and size.

DRUGS THAT INCREASE YOUR RISK OF DIABETES Certain drugs for long-term conditions can raise your blood glucose level or prevent your insulin from working properly. If you take any of the following drugs, you have a higher chance of developing Type 2 diabetes. Rather than stopping your prescribed medication, talk to your health professional about how to limit your risk. Steroids, such as prednisone and dexamethasone. These are used to treat inflammatory conditions like chronic bowel conditions and rheumatoid arthritis. Taking steroids via an inhaler or skin patch will not affect your blood glucose as much as pills and injections do. Thiazide diuretics, such as hydrochlorothiazide. These drugs remove excess fluid from your body. They may be prescribed to treat high blood pressure or heart failure. Beta-blockers, such as propranalol. These are often used for high blood pressure. Immunosuppressants, such as cyclosporin. These are used to prevent rejection of organs following a transplant.

CAUSES OF TYPE 2 DIABETES

Q Why do some T diseases make Type 2 diabetes more likely to develop?

Q Is there a link T between pregnancy and getting Type 2 diabetes?

23

Some diseases other than diabetes can affect how much insulin you make or can stop it from working properly. Any of the following diseases put you at increased risk of developing Type 2 diabetes: pancreatitis (an inflammation of your pancreas); cystic fibrosis (a genetic condition that causes body secretions to be abnormally thick); and hemochromatosis (a buildup of excess iron that gradually damages your insulinproducing cells). There are also some hormonal disorders that can increase the risk of Type 2 diabetes developing. The main hormonal disorders linked with diabetes are Cushing’s disease, in which your adrenal glands produce excess steroid hormones, and acromegaly, in which your pituitary gland overproduces growth hormone. These hormones prevent your insulin from working properly, which makes your blood glucose level rise. Yes. There is a type of diabetes known as gestational diabetes that can start during pregnancy. When you are pregnant, your body increases its blood glucose level to cope with the demands of your growing baby and, in turn, you need more insulin. If your body cannot produce enough insulin, your blood glucose level remains high and gestational diabetes is diagnosed. Once you have had gestational diabetes, you are at an increased risk of developing Type 2 diabetes because your body has shown that it has a tendency not to regulate your blood glucose levels. You can reduce the likelihood of getting Type 2 diabetes by getting regular physical activity and keeping your weight within the recommended range for your height.

24

W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

Who gets Type 2 diabetes? Q Can you be born T with Type 2 diabetes?

Q What are my chances T of getting Type 2 diabetes if one or both of my parents has it?

Q My sister has been T diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes. Should I be tested for it?

Q I am overweight. T Does this mean I will get diabetes?

No, Type 2 diabetes is a condition that develops over time. It is most common in people over the age of 40, but there are increasing numbers of children and teenagers who are developing Type 2 diabetes, especially those who are overweight and inactive. If one of your parents has Type 2 diabetes, you are at a slightly increased risk of developing it; if both of your parents have it, your risk is much greater. If you have a family history of diabetes, you can do a lot to reduce your risk by keeping your weight in the normal range and becoming more active if you need to. If you have a brother or sister with Type 2 diabetes you have an increased risk of developing the condition. If you have an identical twin sister or brother who has Type 2 diabetes, you have a very high chance of developing it. Having a blood test will reveal whether you have Type 2 diabetes (see pp36–37). If you find you don’t have diabetes, you can take steps to reduce your risk of developing it in the future. Not necessarily, but being overweight can reduce your body’s ability to regulate glucose levels, which in turn can lead to Type 2 diabetes. You can dramatically decrease your risk of Type 2 diabetes by losing weight. How your weight is distributed is also important. Carrying extra fat around your waist rather than your hips is linked with Type 2 diabetes (see pp66–69).

WHO GETS TYPE 2 DIABETES?

Q Is it true that ethnic T background is a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes?

Q I gave birth to large T babies but didn’t have gestational diabetes. Does this mean I won’t get Type 2 diabetes?

25

Yes, if you are of Mexican or Hispanic, AfricanAmerican, or American Indian descent, you are two to three times more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes than if you are of Caucasian origin. One reason that babies grow very large is because they have to make more insulin to deal with extra glucose coming through the placenta. Even though you weren’t diagnosed with gestational diabetes, finding out if any tests revealed an increased glucose level will help you and your health professional assess your level of risk of Type 2 diabetes in the future.

RISK FACTORS FOR DEVELOPING TYPE 2 DIABETES Your chances of developing Type 2 diabetes depend on a number of different factors, including your family background, your weight and body shape, and how much physical activity you get. LOWER RISK

HIGHER RISK

Few or only one family member

Many family members with diabetes

with diabetes Caucasian

Mexican/Hispanic, African-American, or American Indian

No previous gestational diabetes

Gestational diabetes in the past

(diabetes that develops in pregnancy) Fairly active

Very little activity every day

Normal weight for height

Overweight, especially around the waist

26

W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

Type 2 diabetes and young people Q Can children and T teenagers develop Type 2 diabetes?

Yes; although traditionally Type 2 diabetes has affected only older people, with the increased tendency for children and teenagers to be overweight and less active, the incidence of Type 2 diabetes in this age group has increased dramatically in recent years, especially in North America and northern Europe.

Q How many young T

It is estimated that there may be approximately 500,000 people are there with children in the US with the condition. Children born Type 2 diabetes? today have a greatly increased risk of Type 2 diabetes and heart disease because of obesity and inactivity. It is likely that nearly half of all people diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes in the next 15 years will be young people.

Q Is Type 2 diabetes T

The condition is equally serious at whatever age it more or less serious develops. However, the complications of diabetes are if you develop it associated with the length of time you have it. So if you when you are young? develop diabetes at a younger age, you are at greater risk of heart disease and the other complications of diabetes, such as eye, kidney, and nerve damage.

Q Do children grow out T of Type 2 diabetes?

You cannot grow out of or be cured of diabetes. However, the risk of long-term problems associated with it can be greatly reduced by losing weight, if necessary, and being more active. These changes can make you better able to use the insulin that you produce naturally.

TYPE 2 DIABETES AND YOUNG PEOPLE

Q What’s the best T way to treat Type 2 diabetes in children and young people?

Q My 20-year-old T daughter has been diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes. What restrictions will she have on her life?

27

The ideal way is to help them lose weight by encouraging healthy eating and more physical activity (see pp78–97). If these habits become a normal part of a child’s lifestyle, they may delay the need for pills and insulin injections and make any prescribed medication as effective as possible. She will always need to look after her diabetes on a day-to-day basis, which she can do by eating healthily, staying active, and taking any medication she is prescribed. However, she won’t be restricted in what she can do, unless she wants to pursue one of the few careers that have specific rules relating to people with diabetes (see p124).

Q What is MODY? T

MODY stands for “maturity onset diabetes of the young,” a rare type of diabetes that affects about 1 in 100 people with diabetes. It usually appears in your teens or 20s and is similar to Type 2 diabetes in that your treatment focuses on healthy eating and physical activity first, then pill treatment and/or insulin if necessary. There are different forms of MODY, which might affect your risk of complications occurring, so having a genetic test (see below) is important.

Q I have had diabetes, T

MODY develops only in people with specific genes that cause a defect in the way the insulin-producing cells in your pancreas work. This leads to your producing less insulin. MODY can be confirmed by genetic testing. If several members of your family also developed diabetes at a young age, you can have the genetic test that will tell you what type of diabetes you have.

which I treat with pills, since I was 19. How do I know whether it is MODY or Type 2 diabetes?

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W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

Long-term complications Q I’ve just been T

You are at increased risk of two main sets of diagnosed with Type complications: those affecting your heart and circulation 2 diabetes. What sort (macrovascular problems) and those affecting your eyes, feet, kidneys, and nerves (microvascular problems). of health problems Although serious, these problems are not inevitable. might I develop in You can do a lot to reduce the risk of developing them the long term? by leading a healthy lifestyle and working with your health professionals to make sure that you have routine medical checks when you need them.

Q How long after T diagnosis do the complications of Type 2 diabetes usually occur?

Q What heart problems T might I experience?

Q Why is diabetes T linked with kidney problems?

Complications take at least 5–10 years to develop but this can be misleading because you can have signs of them when you are first diagnosed. This is because you may have been developing Type 2 diabetes for years before your diagnosis. Once you know you have diabetes, you can slow the rate at which complications progress, or increase the time before they develop. Type 2 diabetes is strongly linked to high blood pressure and high blood cholesterol. These two factors increase your risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and heart attack (see pp180–183). High blood glucose levels over a period of years can damage the delicate filtering system in your kidneys (see pp188–189). If left untreated, this damage can eventually progress so that your kidneys no longer function efficiently. Urine tests will be done once or twice a year to look for any early signs of damage.

L O N G - T E R M C O M P L I C AT I O N S

Q Is it true that T diabetes can affect my eyesight?

Q Why are people with T diabetes prone to foot problems?

Q How will having T diabetes affect my sex life?

Q What can I do to T

29

When you are first diagnosed with diabetes, you may have blurred vision. This is linked to high blood glucose levels and is usually temporary. Once your blood glucose levels reduce, your eyesight will return to normal. In the longer term, one of the complications of diabetes is retinopathy—damage to the small blood vessels at the back of your eye. Retinopathy can be successfully treated if diagnosed at an early stage, but if it is left untreated, your eyesight will be affected. Having your eyes checked at least once a year will reveal whether you have retinopathy (see pp184–185). Over a long period of time, high blood glucose levels can cause poor circulation and nerve damage, resulting in reduced sensation in your feet. This makes you more prone to problems such as ulcers on your feet or legs, or damage to the bones of your feet (see pp190–193). If you are a man, over time you may find it more difficult to get an erection because of damage to your nerves or circulation. There are a variety of treatments for erectile dysfunction (see pp196–197).

Controlling your blood glucose level and blood pressure prevent myself from as well as possible reduces your risk of complications. getting the long-term Eating healthily, being physically active, losing complications of weight if you need to, stopping smoking, and taking diabetes? prescribed pills or insulin all help. Other important measures include an annual checkup and keeping your knowledge of diabetes up to date. To minimize foot problems, check your feet daily, and seek help if you notice any injuries or abnormalities (see pp190–193).

30

W H AT I S T Y P E 2 D I A B E T E S ?

Reducing your risk of Type 2 diabetes Q Is it possible to T prevent Type 2 diabetes?

Q How does keeping T to the correct weight for my height help?

Q Why is it important T to stay physically active?

Q Could I lose weight T

If you know that you are prone to diabetes because, for example, you have a family history of Type 2 diabetes or you had diabetes during pregnancy, making lifestyle changes can help you delay or even prevent its onset. These changes include eating more healthily, becoming more active, and losing weight if you need to. Stopping smoking and drinking less alcohol do not affect whether or not you will develop diabetes, but they will help reduce your risk of developing heart disease. Your body will be able to handle glucose and use insulin as efficiently as possible. If you are overweight, your resistance to insulin increases. Physical activity helps you maintain your weight in the correct range for your height or to lose weight if you need to. It also increases your body’s efficiency at storing and using glucose. Furthermore, activity keeps your heart and blood vessels healthy—this is very important if you are at risk of developing diabetes.

Yes, eating less is the key to losing weight. However, by changing my activity can go a long way to help. For example, you eating habits without can burn off excess calories through exercise. Reducing doing more physical your calorie intake and using more energy than you exercise? take in will facilitate weight loss.

REDUCING YOUR RISK OF TYPE 2 DIABETES

Q I am 50 and have T been overweight for most of my adult life. Will losing weight now help me prevent diabetes?

Q I’ve always been T slim. Will this naturally protect me from Type 2 diabetes?

Q There is a lot of T diabetes in my family and we tend to be overweight. I want to protect my teenagers from diabetes but they eat a lot of junk food. What can I do?

Q I am in my 60s T and have Type 2 diabetes. How can I help my young grandchildren avoid developing it?

31

If you are overweight, losing weight will always improve your health, regardless of how old you are. There is no guarantee of preventing Type 2 diabetes, but being the correct weight for your height will greatly reduce your risk and will be of benefit if you do develop Type 2 diabetes. Being the correct weight for your height is an important part of reducing your risk of Type 2 diabetes. However, body shape is also important; carrying extra fat around your waist rather than your hips increases the risk of diabetes. Checking your body mass index and waist size will help you find out whether your weight and body shape are risk factors (see pp66–69). Your children are at risk of Type 2 diabetes due to your family history, and their risk increases if they become overweight (too much junk food can cause weight gain, especially if your children are not very active). Teach them about Type 2 diabetes and the role that high-calorie, high-fat, and junk food plays in weight gain. Including your children in the shopping for and preparation of food, adapting recipes (see pp61), and helping them learn about food labeling (see pp53) may also help. Encouraging healthy eating habits by offering meals and snacks that are low in fat, salt, and sugar (reserving candy and chocolate for special treats) will help reduce their risk. You could also encourage them to walk rather than being driven short distances, or play active games rather than sit in front of a computer or television.

Finding out you have diabetes You may be diagnosed with diabetes as a result of your symptoms, or you may have no symptoms and be diagnosed during a routine medical check. Discovering that you have diabetes can give rise to a range of emotions from anxiety and fear, to anger and guilt. A team of health professionals can give you help and support.

34

F I N D I N G O U T Y O U H AV E D I A B E T E S

Symptoms of Type 2 diabetes Q Could I have Type 2 T

Type 2 diabetes can sometimes be symptomless, and diabetes even though it may only be discovered when you have a routine medical or eye test that detects abnormalities. Equally, I feel well? because Type 2 diabetes develops gradually, your symptoms may be mild and you may not notice them. If you think you may have Type 2 diabetes, ask your health professional about being tested.

Q I feel tired all the T time, which I’ve been blaming on my age. Could I have diabetes?

Q Recently, I have been T getting up several times a night to urinate and feeling very thirsty. Does this mean I have diabetes?

Diabetes can cause fatigue if your body is unable to convert the glucose in your bloodstream into energy. Fatigue is a symptom of many conditions, but if you are also feeling thirsty and urinating frequently, you may have diabetes—being tested will tell you whether this is the case. Being thirsty and urinating frequently are both symptoms of diabetes. When the level of glucose in your blood rises too high, your kidneys start to filter the excess glucose out of your blood and into your urine. As a result, you need to urinate frequently, which you might notice particularly during the night. This makes you dehydrated, causing thirst and a dry mouth. If you drink sugary drinks to quench your thirst, your blood glucose will rise even higher. You then urinate even more to get rid of the glucose and become even more dehydrated as a result.

SYMPTOMS OF TYPE 2 DIABETES

Q I went to see my T ophthalmologist about blurred vision, and she suggested that I be tested for diabetes. Why is this?

Q Is it true that cystitis T and yeast can be a sign of diabetes?

Q Do people with T Type 2 diabetes get fruity-smelling breath?

Q If I have Type 2 T diabetes without knowing about it, could I fall into a coma?

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Blurred vision can be a symptom of diabetes. If your blood glucose level is high, the lenses of your eyes absorb glucose and water, making them swell and affecting your ability to focus properly. If you are diagnosed with diabetes and you reduce your blood glucose level, your lenses and your eyesight return to normal within a few weeks. Yes. When you have diabetes, the glucose in your urine provides an excellent environment for bacteria and fungi to grow and thrive, making cystitis (an inflammation of the bladder, usually due to bacterial infection) and yeast (a fungal infection of the vagina) more likely to occur frequently. Only people with Type 1 diabetes get this symptom because they have no insulin to process glucose, and their body has to break down fats instead to provide energy for cells. This process produces chemicals called ketones as toxic by-products. Ketones are partly excreted by the lungs, causing fruity-smelling breath. This is highly unlikely. However, a rare and serious condition called hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HONK) can sometimes lead to a coma. This develops gradually and makes you very dehydrated; you would have a very high blood glucose level and you would need to be treated in the hospital. HONK usually happens if you are not well enough to detect the early symptoms of diabetes or if you have a very severe infection. If you think you might have symptoms of diabetes, discuss them with your health professional.

36

F I N D I N G O U T Y O U H AV E D I A B E T E S

Diagnosing Type 2 diabetes Diagnosing Type 2 diabetes is straightforward and consists of tests to check the level of glucose in your blood. Initially, your health professional may use fingerprick blood tests and urine tests, both of which can detect the presence of glucose. However, neither test can diagnose diabetes conclusively because they cannot measure exact amounts of glucose, and you may need one or more further laboratory blood tests (see opposite). Sometimes one test is enough, but if results are inconclusive (for example, you may have symptoms of diabetes but the test shows a normal blood glucose level, or you may have no symptoms and a blood glucose level that is slightly raised), you need further blood tests. A correct diagnosis ensures that you get the right treatment for your long-term health.

INITIAL MEDICAL TESTS URINE TEST

FINGERPRICK TEST

A sample of your urine is tested using a

A drop of blood from your finger is placed

dipstick that changes color according to the

onto a testing strip. This strip is then inserted

amount of glucose present. The dipstick is

in a blood glucose meter to be analyzed.

then compared to a color chart. The same

What the results mean A healthy

test will also check for other substances

blood glucose level is in the range of

present in your urine.

70 to 99 mg/dl. If your test result is above

What the results mean If glucose is

100 mg/dl, or if you have symptoms, your

detected, or you have symptoms but no

health professional will suggest further

glucose, you will be referred for blood tests.

blood tests (see opposite).

DIAGNOSING TYPE 2 DIABETES

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BLOOD TESTS TO DIAGNOSE DIABETES Although urine and fingerprick tests can reveal a higher than normal blood glucose level, you need one or more of three laboratory blood tests to diagnose diabetes: the random or fasting blood glucose test and, if necessary, the oral glucose tolerance test. RANDOM BLOOD GLUCOSE TEST

126 mg/dl, you have diabetes. If you have

A blood sample is taken from your arm for

no symptoms, or the result is less than this

analysis by a laboratory. The sample can

and you have symptoms, you may need

be taken whether or not you have eaten

to repeat the test or take an oral glucose

recently. Your health professional receives

tolerance test.

the results within a week. What the results mean If you have

ORAL GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST

symptoms and a test result above 200

You do not eat or drink overnight. In

mg/dl, you are diagnosed with diabetes.

the morning, a blood sample is taken

If you have no symptoms, or the result is

immediately before and 2 hours after

less than this, you may be asked to repeat

drinking a sugary drink. The samples

the test while fasting or to take an oral

are sent for analysis and the results are

glucose tolerance test.

available within a week. What the results mean If your fasting

FASTING BLOOD GLUCOSE TEST

level is above 126 mg/dl and/or your 2-

You do not eat or drink overnight and a

hour test result is above 200 mg/dl, you

blood sample is taken in the morning. The

are diagnosed with diabetes, whether or

sample is sent for analysis, and the results

not you have symptoms. This test is used

are available within a week.

when other tests have been inconclusive

What the results mean If you have

or to diagnose gestational (pregnancy-

symptoms and a test result above

related) diabetes.

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F I N D I N G O U T Y O U H AV E D I A B E T E S

Dealing with emotions Q Is it true that my T

It’s true that being overweight makes your own insulin diabetes is caused by less likely to work properly. However, to develop Type being overweight? I 2 diabetes, you also need to be genetically predisposed to the condition, and you cannot control your genetic feel so guilty. makeup. Many people feel responsible and guilty about what they have or have not done in the past. These feelings are normal, but focusing on looking after yourself now may help you feel more positive.

Q I can’t get used to T the idea of having diabetes. Won’t the pills make it go away?

Q Can diabetes affect T your mood? I feel very down about it and sometimes cry.

Pills for diabetes can lower your blood glucose level and make it seem as though your diabetes has disappeared, but it hasn’t—you have diabetes for life. This can be a shock and hard to accept, especially if your diabetes has come out of the blue and you haven’t felt particularly unwell. Over time, feeling more in control will help you get accustomed to having diabetes. Talking to your health professional, family, friends, or other people, or contacting a support organization, can help if you are having trouble adjusting. Yes, having diabetes can affect your mood: it may be the worry of feeling unwell or thinking about your future health; the stress of having to think about food, activity, and blood glucose testing; or the frequent visits to health professionals or hospitals. If your mood is up and down, talking to your family and friends may help. If you still feel depressed most of the time, you may need treatment from a mental health professional. This could include counseling or antidepressant medication.

DEALING WITH EMOTIONS

Q My partner says I’ve T been really irritable since I got diabetes. Is it my blood glucose level?

Q I’m an optimist and T I want to control my diabetes, not let it control me. How can I help myself?

Q I’m scared of going T blind or needing an amputation. How can I deal with these fears?

Q Everyone seems T to be nagging me about my food or my weight and it annoys me. What can I do?

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A high blood glucose level can make you moody or irritable, but other causes include stress, feeling unwell, or even lack of sleep due to the need to go to the toilet during the night. Diabetes doesn’t change your personality, but it can change the way you think and feel—figuring out what is making you irritable and explaining this to your partner or family can help. Finding out as much as you can about which lifestyle changes will be beneficial to you and setting achievable short-term goals can help get you started. There may also be days when you feel less motivated. On these days, concentrating on the positive things that you can do to control your diabetes, such as healthy eating and physical activity, can help you cope. These fears are understandable, especially if you know people who have these complications. Finding out how to prevent complications can help you take positive action. Some concern about the future can be a good thing, but constant worry can have a negative impact on how you look after yourself. Talking to someone about your concerns can help reduce your fears. When you are newly diagnosed, it can be irritating to have other people suddenly commenting on what you eat and drink, especially if their opinions are illinformed, judgmental, or out-of-date. People may do this because they care about what happens to you and want to help. Tactfully letting them know how their comments make you feel—and perhaps how they could be more helpful—might be useful.

MYTH OR TRUTH?

Myth “Having diabetes gives you mood swings” Truth Diabetes itself does not change your mood, but uncontrolled blood glucose levels can make you feel moody, irritable, or depressed. Other reasons for changes in your mood include worrying about your diabetes and how to control it, feeling sick, or even lack of sleep due to the need to get up during the night to urinate. At times, you may also have feelings of resentment, disappointment, or anger about your diabetes.

DEALING WITH EMOTIONS

Q If I feel that I’m not T coping, who could I talk to?

Q How can I deal with T the negative feelings I have toward my diabetes?

Q It seems as if T diabetes has taken over my life. What can I do about this?

Q My diabetes feels T overwhelming and I can’t face thinking about it. What can I do?

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If you want to talk about a specific aspect of your diabetes, a diabetes helpline (see p200) can offer confidential and impartial information. If you feel you are not coping well with your diabetes, your health professional can refer you to a counselor. A local support group for people with diabetes—where you can share your feelings with others who understand what it is like living with diabetes—can also help. Strong negative emotions, such as fear, guilt, and anger, are normal from time to time, especially when you are first diagnosed. Understanding as much as you can about diabetes and how to manage it can be helpful. Writing your feelings down (including any questions you have about diabetes care) can help make sense of them. Being regularly physically active can help reduce stress. Discuss with your health professional any negative feelings you have. Adapting to life with diabetes can take a lot of thought, time, and energy. Eventually, blood glucose testing, healthy eating, being active, and taking pills (or injecting insulin) will be more automatic. Understanding the importance of your diabetes-related tasks can help you stay motivated. Sharing your experiences with others who have diabetes can also make it easier to cope. Breaking down your fears and anxieties into specific concerns, for example, about food or your blood glucose level, can help you. Tackle each concern one at a time. Learning as much as you can about Type 2 diabetes can help you feel in control.

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F I N D I N G O U T Y O U H AV E D I A B E T E S

Who’s who in my healthcare team? Q Who will help me T

You will be helped by a team of people trained in manage my diabetes? diabetes care, including your doctor, an endocrinologist, a diabetes specialist nurse, a diabetes educator, a registered nurse in your doctor’s office, a dietitian, a podiatrist, and an eye specialist who will take a retinal photograph (see p185). You may also see various other health professionals such as a hospital consultant, and counselor or psychologist. Ideally, one person will be your contact in between appointments.

Q I have appointments T for diabetes clinics at both my doctor’s office and the hospital. Which should I go to?

Q What’s the difference T between my practice nurse and a diabetes specialist nurse?

When you are first diagnosed, you may have some of your appointments at your doctor’s office and some at the hospital. For example, the hospital might run education sessions for people newly diagnosed with diabetes. Ask the staff what the appointments are for and whether you need to go to both. In general, registered nurses work in doctors’ offices and health centers and are trained to run various clinics, including those for people with diabetes. Diabetes specialist nurses work only with people with diabetes and are often based in hospitals or diabetes centers, providing education for newly diagnosed people or those with specific difficulties. You may see a registered nurse most often and a diabetes specialist nurse occasionally, depending on your specific needs.

W H O ’ S W H O I N M Y H E A LT H C A R E T E A M ?

Q Will I see the same T people at each appointment?

Q What is an annual T checkup?

Q Why would I need a T psychologist to help with my diabetes?

Q What happens to my T

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Not necessarily, although you will have one person who you can contact if you have difficulties or are confused about how your care is organized. It’s likely that you will see a variety of health professionals who will support you in your day-to-day diabetes care and in the prevention of long-term complications. At your annual checkup, your health professionals will assess how well your blood glucose level and blood pressure are controlled. They will also carry out a number of checks for the signs of the long-term complications of diabetes. It may be necessary for you to have some of these tests carried out more frequently than once a year. You can find out more about annual checkups on pp120–121. When you have diabetes, you can have strong emotions that can get in the way of you looking after yourself. A psychologist can help you explore your feelings or can help with any specific issues that are causing difficulties with your diabetes care. If you are not sure why you have been asked to see a psychologist—or any other health professional—ask about it before or at the beginning of an appointment.

If you know you have a diabetes clinic appointment appointments if I am at a time when you are going to be in the hospital, in the hospital? you can let the clinic know in advance and change the time of the appointment. If you are in the hospital unexpectedly, a relative or the hospital staff may need to cancel it on your behalf. You can make a new appointment when you are out of the hospital.

Food and drink Eating healthily is one of the main ways in which you can manage your diabetes and help keep your heart and blood vessels working efficiently. You may be overweight if you have Type 2 diabetes. If you want to lose weight, it’s good to know which foods to choose.

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FOOD AND DRINK

Types of food Q What different types T of food are there?

Q Why is it important T not to eat too much salt, sugar, and fat?

Q What are T antioxidants?

Q Can I take pill T

There are a number of main food types that, in combination, provide a healthy and balanced diet. The chart opposite shows each food type and how it affects your blood glucose. Eating too much salt increases your risk of high blood pressure or makes high blood pressure worse if you already have it. Too much sugar can cause you to put on weight and make it more difficult for you to control your blood glucose level. Fat is high in calories and eating more than the recommended amount can lead to weight gain. Eating too much saturated fat also increases your risk of heart disease. Antioxidants are a group of healing substances found in foods. Vitamins A, C, and E, beta-carotene, and selenium—as well as many substances found in plants (phytochemicals)—have an antioxidant action. Eating foods that are rich in antioxidants has many health benefits, including protecting you from heart disease.

You can, but a balanced and varied diet will provide all supplements such the nutrients you need to stay healthy. The only reason as fish oils, vitamins, you might be advised to take supplements is if your and minerals? healthcare team have diagnosed a deficiency. If you believe that you are deficient in a particular nutrient, your health professional will discuss possible actions with you.

TYPES OF FOOD

FOOD TYPES AND HOW THEY AFFECT HEALTH FOOD TYPES

EFFECT ON GLUCOSE

RECOMMENDED INTAKE

Complex

Your body’s main source of energy,

About two-fifths of

carbohydrates

they cause a gradual rise in your

each meal should

(starches): e.g. rice,

blood glucose.

consist of this type of

potatoes, pasta

carbohydrates.

Simple

These provide your body with

Eat in moderation or

carbohydrates

energy but cause a sharp rise in

after other food to

(sugars): e.g. sugar,

blood glucose. Not recommended

reduce the effect on

honey, soft drinks

as part of everyday meals.

your blood glucose.

Proteins: e.g. meat,

Little effect on your blood glucose,

Up to one-fifth of

fish, eggs, dairy

but some proteins are high in fat.

each meal.

products, beans, and Lower-fat options such as lean meat legumes

or low-fat cheese are preferable.

Fats: e.g. butter

Little effect on your blood glucose.

Up to 2.5 oz (75g) a

margarine, oils

Saturated fat (e.g. butter) is more

day for women,

harmful than unsaturated fat (e.g.

3.4 oz (95g) a day

olive oil). Excess fat can lead to

for men.

weight gain and heart disease. Fiber: e.g. legumes,

Slows down carbohydrate

oats, fruit, and some digestion, preventing your blood vegetables

Aim to include about 1 oz (25g) a day.

glucose from rising too quickly. Helps prevent constipation and lowers blood cholesterol.

Vitamins and

Essential to keep your body and

Have at least five

minerals: e.g. fruit

metabolism healthy. More than one

portions of fruit and

and vegetables

piece of fruit at a time can cause a

vegetables spread

rise in your blood glucose.

throughout the day.

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48

FOOD AND DRINK

Healthy eating Q What should I eat T now that I have diabetes?

Q How do I know T whether I’m eating a balanced diet?

Q Does it really matter T

Healthy eating is the key to managing your diabetes. The principles of healthy eating for you are the same as those for everyone else. No foods are banned but eating more of some foods and less of others can help keep you healthy and your blood glucose level within the recommended range. Sometimes, you may not have a choice about what food is available but, generally, you can adapt recipes and meals so that you can enjoy food while still eating healthily (see p61). Selecting a balance of foods from the main food groups is the first step. Aim for complex carbohydrates (starches) and fiber (such as bread, pasta, and whole grains) to make up about a third of what you eat, with fruit and vegetables forming another third. Making up the rest of your food intake from protein foods and dairy products (2–3 servings daily from each group) will give you a healthy balance. Choosing lower fat alternatives where you can will help reduce your risk of heart disease.

Eating healthily is not simply about avoiding what I eat? My health medication to treat your diabetes—it reduces your risk professional told me of heart and circulatory diseases, helps your digestive I’ll eventually need system work more effectively, and helps your pancreas to take pills—and be more efficient if it is struggling to produce enough probably insulin insulin. Type 2 diabetes is progressive and you may —anyway. need pills and insulin in time, but eating healthily can help slow down this progression and make it easier to manage your blood glucose level.

H E A LT H Y E AT I N G

Q I’m a vegetarian T and have Type 2 diabetes. Does this make any difference to what I should eat?

Q My local T supermarket seems to label every food as healthy—how can I tell if they are?

Q Do I need to eat T special diabetic foods?

Q Should I use T artificial sweeteners?

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Healthy eating principles for diabetes remain the same whether you are vegetarian or following any other eating pattern. One of the advantages of vegetarian eating is that it is usually lower in fat because it doesn’t include meat. You will know what sources of protein you prefer to meat, but there is no difference in the amount or type of carbohydrate you need to eat. Many supermarkets now sell ranges of food that are healthier than their counterparts. It could mean the food is healthier in only one aspect or several—for example, less fat, less sugar, fewer calories, or more fiber, or it could include a range of more healthy aspects. Reading the label (see p53) will help you figure out which foods might help you reach your healthy eating goals. In general, processed foods will still be less healthy than those you prepare using fresh ingredients. No. Foods labeled “diabetic” are often expensive and do not give you any benefits. They usually contain the sweetener sorbitol, which has 2.6 calories/gram (compared with 4 calories/gram for glucose). Sorbitol causes a slower rise in your blood glucose but in large quantities it can give you diarrhea. You can use artificial sweeteners as an alternative to sugar to sweeten food and drinks, such as tea and coffee. These products contain aspartame, saccharin, cyclamate, acesulfame K, or sucralose, none of which will affect your blood glucose. These products are classed as food additives and, for this reason, have been tested for safety.

MYTH OR TRUTH?

Myth “People with diabetes can’t eat sugar” Truth It’s impossible to avoid sugar altogether but sugar and sugary foods are converted into glucose faster than other foods so they can cause a sudden rise in your blood glucose level. Eating less sugar reduces the strain on your pancreas (the organ that produces insulin). If you want to eat sweet foods, have them at the end of a meal when your body is already digesting other food in order to slow down the rise in your blood glucose.

H E A LT H Y E AT I N G

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Choosing healthier options Q Which carbohydrateT containing foods are better for me?

Starchy carbohydrates, including bread, pasta, rice, potatoes, cereals, and legumes, are better because they take longer to digest and therefore cause your blood glucose to rise more slowly than sweet carbohydrates such as white sugar, chocolate, and sugary drinks.

Q I know that protein T

Protein foods that are low in fat, such as low-fat milk, doesn’t really affect low-fat yogurt and cheese, and beans, peas, and lentils my blood glucose, so will reduce your risk of heart disease. Eating oily fish does it matter what two to three times a week and having less red meat will type I eat? also protect your heart.

Q I’m trying to cut T down on how much fat I eat—what can I do to make this easier?

Q How can I add extra T fiber to my food every day?

You can reduce your fat intake by choosing foods such as low-fat margarines, crème fraîche, and Greek yogurt, or low-fat fromage frais instead of standard yogurt or cream. Fish and poultry are lower in fat than red meat, and leaner cuts of meat help reduce your fat intake. Nuts, seeds, and oily fish provide essential fatty acids that can help prevent heart disease. Grilling meat instead of frying it and draining excess fat during cooking are other ways of cutting down on fat. Avoiding processed foods and pastry-based snacks will also help. Adding extra fruit to breakfast cereals and yogurts, and having fruit and vegetable snacks instead of fatty foods will increase your fiber intake. So will eating high-fiber snacks, such as chopped raw vegetables. You can also add beans or vegetables to dishes such as shepherd’s pie and chili con carne.

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FOOD AND DRINK

Q I have high blood T pressure and need to cut down on salt, how can I do this?

Reducing the amount of salt you add to your meals, either while you are cooking or at the table, will reduce your overall salt intake. Most processed and convenience foods (including stock cubes and soy sauce) tend to be high in salt, so cutting down on these can also help reduce your salt intake.

Q How can I make sure T

The fructose in fruit and fruit juice will make your that when I eat fruit blood glucose level rise if you eat more than one piece my blood glucose of fruit at a time. Eating fruit after starchy meals and doesn’t rise too high? spacing out your fruit intake throughout the day will give you the nutritional benefits without raising your blood glucose too high.

Q Which drinks will T make my blood glucose level go up?

Q Which drinks won’t T affect my blood glucose level?

Sugary drinks such as glucose drinks, cola, lemonade, and orange juice are digested very quickly and can cause a sharp rise in your blood glucose level (which is why it is recommended that you drink them when your blood glucose is too low). Sugar added to tea or coffee will have the same effect. Because your body is unable suddenly to increase its insulin production when you have Type 2 diabetes, your blood glucose may take some time to return to an acceptable level. For day-to-day drinks, water or sugar-free drinks such as diet cola won’t affect your blood glucose level. Tea, coffee, and other hot drinks without added sugar will not affect your diabetes. Drinking them with skim or low-fat milk will ensure that their fat content is not too high. Powdered drinks can have a high sugar content, so check the label to determine what effect they are likely to have.

H E A LT H Y E AT I N G

53

Reading a food label Labels can give you useful information on which to base your food choices. Ingredients are always listed in decreasing order of weight. Sugar is also called fructose, glucose syrup, maltose, or dextrose. Looking at the position of these names on the list will help you gauge the quantities of sugar. Energy Written as kilocalories (kcals),

Protein Protein is unlikely to cause large

usually shortened to calories, and

fluctuations in your blood glucose level,

kilojoules (kj)—this information can help

or affect your weight.

if you are calorie counting to lose weight. Generally, opt for low-calorie products.

Carbohydrate The total amount of carbohydrate is given, and how much of that is made up of sugars. A healthy

NUTRITION FACTS

amount of sugar per 100g is 2g or less

Serving size: 3.5oz (100g) Servings per container: 2

likely you are to gain weight.

—the higher the sugar content, the more

Fat Choosing items with a lower fat

Amount per serving Calories

109kcal % Daily value

Total fat 600mg Saturated fat 100mg

1% 0.2%

Cholesterol 0mg

0%

Total Carbohydrate 18.9g

6%

Dietary fiber 5.2g

16%

Sugars 2.0g

Sodium 200mg

content (3g or less per 100g) will help you lose weight. Foods with a higher proportion of poly- or monounsaturated than saturated fats are healthier. Fiber Choosing foods with a higher fiber content will help you toward the recommended 25g a day. Sodium This is the salt content and limiting your intake (to 100mg or less

1%

per 100g) will be beneficial to your blood pressure.

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FOOD AND DRINK

When to eat Q Should I eat at T specific times?

Q Why is it important T for me to eat regular meals?

Q I normally eat one T large meal a day —is that alright?

�

No, but if you know when your pills or insulin work, you can make sure that your meals or snacks coincide with these times—your health professional will help you identify when this is. For example, some pills may make your blood glucose level drop mid-morning or mid-afternoon, in which case you might need to eat a snack at these times to compensate. If you can’t eat when you need to, perhaps because of long shifts or meetings at work, talk to your health professional to see if there are different medications that may suit your routine better. Regularly eating meals containing carbohydrate will give you energy, help your digestive system function properly, and help avoid sharp rises and falls in your blood glucose level. Regular meals also prevent you from needing additional snacks to compensate for meals you have missed. A regular eating pattern is more likely to fit in with any pills or insulin that you take for your diabetes. If you have only one large meal a day, your body may struggle to use all the energy this meal provides. The extra calories will be stored as fat and this could contribute to an increase in your weight. Your body will also be deprived of energy at other times of day when you are not eating. Your blood glucose levels, and whether you have hypoglycemic attacks, will tell you if your eating pattern is suiting your diabetes.

W H E N T O E AT

Q Should I have snacks T during the day?

Q If I get hungry T between meals, what should I snack on?

Q What is the T maximum time I should leave between meals?

Q What happens if T I am fasting?

Q It seems like I’ll be T eating more now I have diabetes. I’m already overweight —what can I do?

55

Not everyone needs to, but if you inject insulin or take insulin-stimulating pills, you may find that you need a snack around the time when your insulin or pill is having its peak effect (see p158 and p167). If this is the case for you, making sure that your snacks are low in fat will help prevent you from putting on weight. Vegetables, low-fat yogurts and milkshakes, and fresh and dried fruit are healthy snacks. They are low in calories and contain beneficial vitamins and minerals. Having a variety of these snacks throughout the day, if you need them, will help your blood glucose stay balanced. There is no maximum time, but you may find that you get hungry if you leave long gaps between meals, which might tempt you to eat unhealthy snacks or larger meals, which can then cause your blood glucose level to rise. Making your mealtimes fit both your daily routine and any blood glucose lowering medication you take is more important than the exact time between meals. When you go without food, you may need to adjust the dosage of your tablets or insulin for both the period that you are fasting and the times that you are eating. Talk with your health professional to work out what will best suit your circumstances. Rearranging the times and amounts you eat rather than eating more can help you lose or avoid gaining weight. Choosing lower-fat foods in general, and low-calorie alternatives as snacks, will also help keep your weight under control. See pp70–75 for more on losing weight.

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FOOD AND DRINK

Carbohydrates and the glycemic index Q Why are T carbohydrates important in Type 2 diabetes?

Carbohydrates, also known as sugar, starch, and fiber, are broken down into glucose when they are digested, and insulin then helps that glucose move into your cells to be used for energy or stored for use later on. If you have Type 2 diabetes, your body is resistant to insulin so the glucose continues to circulate in your blood. You need carbohydrate-rich foods for energy, but choosing carbohydrate foods that your body digests at a slower rate will help reduce the demand on your insulin and thereby keep your blood glucose level more stable.

Q Which carbohydrates T

Any form of sugar, which can be called dextrose, are digested quickly? glucose, sucrose, fructose, maltose, or lactose, is digested easily and rapidly. This is why sugar causes your blood glucose level to rise sharply, resulting in an immediate demand for insulin. Eating sugar in small quantities, and/or with or after other food, slows down its absorption so that it doesn’t have a dramatic effect on your blood glucose.

Q How do starch and T fiber affect my blood glucose?

Starch and fiber include bread, potatoes, rice, pasta, cereals, and legumes and beans. They are broken down into glucose relatively slowly during digestion. Unlike simple carbohydrates, they do not raise your blood glucose sharply, so eating them helps keep your blood glucose level balanced.

C A R B O H Y D R AT E S A N D T H E G LY C E M I C I N D E X

Q I’ve heard that T some people with diabetes count their carbohydrates. What is this and would it be useful for me?

Carbohydrate counting is a way of assessing how much carbohydrate you are eating. Many people with Type 1 diabetes use this method to calculate the dose of insulin they need. If you have Type 2 diabetes, it can be helpful to know how much carbohydrate you are eating so that you can make sure that your diet remains balanced. If you have Type 2 diabetes that is treated with insulin, counting carbohydrate on its own will not tell you how much insulin you need because of factors such as how resistant your body cells are to the action of insulin. If you are interested in learning more about carbohydrate counting and whether it could help you, consult your health professional.

UNDERSTANDING CARBOHYDRATE CONTENT The more carbohydrate your food contains, the more insulin you need to convert it into immediate or stored energy. Knowing how much carbohydrate is in different foods can help you understand its effect on your blood glucose level. AMOUNT

EXAMPLES OF TYPE OF CARBOHYDRATE

0.4oz (10g)

1 thin slice bread, 1 tablespoon uncooked rice, 1 plain cookie, 2 tablespoons baked beans, 1 small apple

0.5 oz (15g)

1 medium slice bread, 1 3oz boiled potato, 7–10 french fries, 1 english muffin, 1 medium calzone, 1 medium grapefruit

0.7 oz (20g)

1 thick slice bread, 1 large croissant, 1 cup custard, 1 mango, 2 tablespoons raisins

1 oz (30g)

57

1 bagel, 1 large scone, 1 cup bran cereal, 1 jam tart, 4 slices pineapple, 8–10 dried apricots

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FOOD AND DRINK

Q How does the T glycemic index work?

Q Should I eat high T or low GI foods?

Q Why do similar T foods have a different GI rating?

Q How does eating a T

The glycemic index (GI) is a ranking of carbohydratecontaining foods based on the length of time they take to make your blood glucose level rise. Pure glucose has a rating of 100 and all other carbohydrate foods are rated in relation to this. Foods digested slowly have a low GI rating (below 55), medium foods are rated between 55 and 70, and foods that are quickly absorbed have a high rating of 70 or above. Because low GI foods are more slowly absorbed, they produce a slower rise in your blood glucose level than those with a high GI rating. Try to include low GI items as at least half your food at each meal to balance the effect of foods that have a higher GI rating. If a high GI food is combined with fat, the GI is lowered. This is the reason that french fries and sauteed potatoes have a lower GI than potatoes cooked without fat. The way that food is cooked also influences the GI rating. For example, the starch molecules in potatoes are broken down in baking to a greater degree than they are when boiling. This factor raises the GI rating and explains why baked potatoes have a higher GI than boiled potatoes.

The GI rating of a particular food only tells you how combination of foods quickly or slowly it raises blood glucose when eaten on affect GI ratings? its own. You usually eat a mixture of foods at any one meal—bread is often eaten with butter or margarine, and potatoes with meat and vegetables, for example. Combining foods with different GI ratings changes the overall GI of a meal.

C A R B O H Y D R AT E S A N D T H E G LY C E M I C I N D E X

Q How can I apply T the glycemic index to the food I eat in my everyday life?

59

You can use it as a guide to which low GI foods to include in a meal or snack. If you eat a baked potato (high GI), for example, adding baked beans (low GI) reduces the overall GI of the meal, so the effect on your blood glucose is less. Low GI foods also tend to be more filling, making you less hungry between meals.

GLYCEMIC INDEX OF COMMON FOODS Foods have a GI rating between 1 and 100. Glucose (sugar) is 100 because it causes blood glucose to rise rapidly—within 30 minutes of eating. Different foods need to be specifically measured for their GI rating (individual brands of the same food can vary). These are some foods that tend to fall into the different categories of GI. LOW (BELOW 55)

oatmeal, grape nuts,

• Fruit: apples, grapefruit

wholemeal bread, rye bread,

• Vegetables: all legumes, such as

croissants, brown rice, couscous

chickpeas, kidney beans; sweet potatoes • Cereals and grains: oatmeal with milk, rolled oats, oat bran, granary bread, mixed grain bread, wheat tortilla, pasta, instant noodles • Snacks and desserts: peanuts, milk chocolate, yogurt • Beverages: milk MEDIUM (55–70)

• Fruit: melons, pineapples

• Snacks and desserts: plain cookies, muesli bars, ice cream • Beverages: cranberry juice HIGH (OVER 70)

• Fruit: dates, watermelons • Vegetables: parsnips, broad beans, mashed potatoes, baked potatoes • Cereals and grains: cornflakes, puffed rice cereal, wheat biscuit cereal, bagels, brown/white bread, instant rice • Snacks and desserts: rice cakes,

• Vegetables: corn, beets, new potatoes

jelly beans, doughnuts

• Cereals and grains: muesli, instant hot

• Beverages: glucose drink

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FOOD AND DRINK

Healthier cooking Q How can I cook food T

Grill, steam, microwave, or bake foods rather than to make it low in fat? frying them to reduce their fat content. Placing meat on a rack in the oven helps drain away excess fat.

Q If a recipe states T

Consider whether you could use one of the above frying as a cooking methods instead. Or, if you do fry food, using the method, what should smallest amount of monounsaturated oil, such as canola I do? oil, is the healthiest way.

Q I love eating sweet T desserts. How can I still enjoy them without putting on weight?

Using a small amount of intense sweeteners, for example, honey, can sweeten a dish more effectively than a large amount of sugar. You can also use artificial sweeteners in desserts but add them after cooking. Having smaller portions will also reduce the fattening effect of desserts.

Q I’ve started eating T

Add ginger, garlic, or other spices to a vegetable dish more vegetables or sprinkle herbs such as basil, tarragon, rosemary, dill, because they’re low sage, mint, thyme, or oregano on vegetables to help in calories. How can bring out their flavor and you may find that that you I spice up my meals? are less likely to add salt. Low-fat dressings on your food also give a variety of tastes.

Q I find it difficult to T cut down on cheese, even though I know it’s high in calories. What can I do?

Lower fat (and therefore lower calorie) varieties of most cheeses are available. Eating smaller amounts of strongtasting cheese gives you the same taste with fewer calories. Parmesan, for example, is high in fat, but has a very strong flavor—you need far less than you would of most other cheeses.

H E A LT H I E R C O O K I N G

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HOW YOU CAN ADJUST RECIPES Soups

Using more vegetables will increase fiber content. Fat content can be reduced by adding low-fat yogurt rather than cream.

Cheese-based

Try using goat cheese or feta cheese, which have a lower fat

appetizers

content than cow’s milk cheese.

Savory nibbles

Lightly brush oil onto spring rolls, filo pastry snacks, or cheese in breadcrumbs, and bake rather than deep-fry them.

Mince dishes

Pre-cook ground beef or lamb to drain off some of the fat. Meat substitutes or soy both contain less fat.

Pies

Use a very thin layer of pastry or make a potato topping instead of pastry; try adding herbs or chopped scallions to a mashed potato topping as an alternative to butter.

Casseroles

Replace a proportion of the meat in a recipe with vegetables.

Pasta dishes

Tomato-based sauces are healthier than cream-based sauces.

Mayonnaise

Try a combination of natural yogurt and low-fat crème fraîche instead of mayonnaise, which is high in fat.

Tiramisu

Try making this with virtually fat-free fromage frais and reducedfat cream cheese in equal quantities instead of eggs and mascarpone cheese. You can still add a small amount of sugar.

Cheesecake

Opt for low-fat soft cheese, add fresh fruit, and decorate with grated orange or lemon rind rather than cream.

Crumble

Use oats or wholewheat flour for the crumble, and use more fruit filling and less crumble topping.

Custard

Use skim rather than whole milk and instead of using sugar, add an artificial sweetener after cooking.

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FOOD AND DRINK

Eating out If you are eating out, many restaurants now offer healthier options that are lower in fat, sugar, and calories, and smaller portions. Also, restricting yourself to one or two courses can help you eat more healthily. If no healthy options are available, or you feel like eating less healthily for once, and you inject insulin, you can adjust your dose to accommodate a rise in your blood glucose level if

you need to. If you don’t have this option, your blood glucose will rise temporarily, but will fall once you get back to your usual eating pattern. If you often eat out, selecting your food with care can help you eat healthily. When choosing an appetizer from the menu, a fruit- or vegetablebased dish is healthier than anything that is deep-fried or drenched in sauce or oil. For your main course, baked

MEAT DISHES

FISH DISHES

Good choices: Steak without sauce; roast

Good choices: Baked or poached salmon

chicken (with skin removed); grilled lamb

or tuna; grilled swordfish steak; smoked

steak (with fat removed); stir-fried pork

mackerel fillets; tuna salad; potato-topped

with vegetables.

fish pie.

Less good choices: Beef stroganoff;

Less good choices: Fried fish; deep-

deep-fried chicken; steak with béarnaise

fried scampi; fish in creamy sauce; fish

sauce; fried lamb chop; hamburger.

in cheese-based sauce.

or boiled potatoes without butter are healthier than roast, sauteed, and mashed potatoes. Asking for extra vegetables and less meat, and requesting that any sauces be served on the side, allows you to control how much goes onto your plate. To finish your meal, fresh fruit or fruit-based desserts, or sharing a dessert with a friend, can help you consume fewer calories.

PASTA DISHES

VEGETABLE-BASED DISHES

Good choices: Pasta with vegetable

Good choices: Vegetable-stuffed peppers;

or tomato sauce; spaghetti bolognese;

vegetable stir-fry; spanish omelette;

pasta with tuna or smoked mackerel;

steamed vegetables with rice; ratatouille;

seafood pasta.

grilled vegetable kebabs.

Less good choices: Pasta with creamy

Less good choices: Vegetable pizza;

sauce, such as carbonara; beef lasagne,

cauliflower cheese; vegetable samosas;

pasta with four-cheese sauce.

eggplant parmesan.

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FOOD AND DRINK

Alcohol Q Is it safe to drink T alcohol?

Q How much alcohol T can I drink?

Q Why might I get a T hypoglycemic attack if I drink a lot?

Q Can I adjust my pills T or insulin injection if I know that I’m going out for a drink?

Q I’m trying to lose T weight. Should I avoid alcohol?

There is no reason why you shouldn’t drink alcohol when you have diabetes, unless you have been advised not to because of other medical conditions or treatment. The standard guidelines for you are the same as the general population when it comes to alcohol consumption: women can drink two units a day and men can drink three units daily (see box opposite). When you drink alcohol, your blood glucose level initially rises because alcohol contains sugar. As you continue to drink, your liver’s ability to produce glucose is reduced and your blood glucose may start to fall. If you take insulin or insulin-stimulating pills you may have a hypoglycemic attack (hypoglycemia; see pp126– 127). Reduce this risk by having a meal or snacks containing carbohydrate before or while you are drinking. If you know you will be drinking alcohol and food may be in short supply, you may want to take a smaller dose of your pills or insulin on that day to reduce the risk of a hypoglycemic attack. Carrying a snack with you as well as your usual remedies might be helpful, too. Alcohol is high in calories, so cutting down can help you lose weight or prevent weight gain. It also helps to drink low-calorie mixers with your alcoholic drinks: conventional mixers, such as tonics, colas, lemonade, and fruit juices are high in sugar.

ALCOHOL

Q I’m going to an office T Christmas party and everyone will be drinking heavily. How can I stay in control?

65

Having a meal beforehand or eating snacks while you are drinking will lessen the effect of the alcohol. Substituting glasses of water for some alcoholic drinks can help and will still give you a drink in your hand. It will also help if someone else knows what to do if you have a hypoglycemic attack. People who don’t know you might think you are intoxicated when in fact you are hypoglycemic—and they won’t necessarily realize that you need help quickly.

ALCOHOL AND BLOOD GLUCOSE Alcohol contains sugar and will initially raise your blood glucose level. However, in larger quantities, alcohol prevents your liver from releasing glucose, therefore it can lower your blood glucose and increase the risk of a hypoglycemic attack. POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT ALCOHOL

Drinking a lot of alcohol can cause

Alcohol consumption is measured in

hypoglycemia if you are taking insulin or

units. One unit of alcohol is equal to

insulin-stimulating pills so be prepared

half a pint of ordinary strength beer,

and learn to recognize signs of a

or 1.5 fl oz (25ml) of sherry, vermouth,

hypoglycemic attack (see pp126–129).

liqueur, or aperitif. There is also 1 unit

Drinking alcohol with a meal or some carbohydrate-containing food will reduce your risk of hypoglycemia. All alcoholic drinks are high in calories. Low-calorie mixers such as diet cola, diet ginger ale, and diet tonic water help you avoid extra calories.

of alcohol in one small glass (4.5 fl oz/ 125ml) of wine or 1.5 fl oz (25ml) of liquor. The maximum recommended daily intake of alcohol is two to three units for women and three to four for men. It is recommended that you have two alcohol-free days a week.

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FOOD AND DRINK

Why weight and body shape matter Q Why is my body T shape relevant to diabetes?

Q How do I know if T I have too much fat around my waist?

Q How do I measure T my waist-to-hip ratio?

Q I thought that people T with diabetes often lost weight before they were diagnosed. Is this a myth?

If you carry extra fat around your waist rather than on your hips, you are at increased risk of developing heart and circulatory problems. Even if you are not overweight, your risk of heart disease is reduced if you have less fat around your waist than on your hips. Measure your waist at the widest point. If it is more than 40in (102cm) for a man or 34in (88cm) for a woman, your risk of heart disease is increased. Measure your waist and hips at the widest points and divide waist size by hip size. For example, a waist size of 33in (82cm) and hip size of 41in (103cm) gives a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.80. More than 0.95 (for a man) or 0.85 (for a woman) increases your risk of heart disease. You can lose weight before you are diagnosed if your blood glucose level is very high. If your body cannot use glucose properly for energy, it starts to use fat stored in your muscles and under your skin. This happens more often at the onset of Type 1 diabetes because of the sudden shortage of insulin, and weight loss can be very rapid. With Type 2 diabetes, any weight loss would be more gradual (mainly due to inefficient glucose storage and loss of glucose in the urine). Your weight will be regained when blood glucose is more balanced.

W H Y W E I G H T A N D B O D Y S H A P E M AT T E R

Q Why are overweight T and obese people more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes?

Q How can losing T weight help my diabetes?

Q How do I know if T I am overweight?

67

People who are overweight are much more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes because excess weight can make body cells resistant to the action of insulin. Although the pancreas still produces insulin, the body is unable to respond to it properly. In a person who doesn’t have diabetes, insulin “unlocks” body cells and allows the uptake of glucose so that it can be used for fuel. However, in a person who has diabetes, insulin doesn’t work properly and glucose stays in the bloodstream, raising the blood glucose level. See pp16–17 for an explanation of how diabetes affects blood glucose control. Losing weight, even a small amount, will make it easier to control your blood glucose level, lower your blood pressure and your cholesterol level, and prevent or delay the onset of other health problems, such as heart disease. Your body needs less insulin to process the glucose in your blood if your weight is in a normal range for your height. The insulin you produce also works better. Your heart and circulation work more efficiently if you lose weight. You can tell if you are overweight by working out your body mass index (BMI; see p69)—this is considered the most accurate way of assessing whether you are overweight. Your BMI is a ratio of your weight to your height. The figure that you come up with will tell you whether you are underweight, a healthy weight, overweight, or obese. If you have a body mass index of 25 or more, you are overweight. If you have a BMI of 30 or more, you are considered obese.

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FOOD AND DRINK

Q How do I work T out my BMI?

You can work out your BMI by using a chart (see opposite) or you can calculate it on paper by dividing your weight in pounds by the square of your height in inches and multiplying by 703. For example, if you weigh 150lb and your height is 68 inches, your BMI is 150 ÷ (68 x 68) x 703 = 22.8.

Q I am overweight. T

If you lose weight, you can reduce your body’s need Will losing weight for insulin. This may prolong the time before you need allow me to continue to take pills or insulin for your diabetes, although it is to manage my likely that you will still need to take medication at some diabetes without point. Your health professional can help you determine pills or insulin? whether losing weight might postpone your need for medication, or whether you need pills or insulin based on the test results of the blood glucose tests you do at home and your A1c test result (see pp113–114).

Q I am overweight. T If I lose weight, will I be able to take a lower dose of pills or insulin for my diabetes?

Q Is it true that having T diabetes can make me put on weight?

Possibly—it’s likely that losing weight will enable the insulin you produce naturally to work better and this may lead to a reduction in your dosage of pills or insulin. At the very least it will help your medication work more effectively. Your health professional can discuss this possibility with you. Type 2 diabetes on its own does not make you put on weight. However, there are other reasons why your weight may increase. Some of the pills used to treat a high blood glucose level can cause weight gain or make it difficult for you to lose weight. Also, injecting insulin may cause you to gain some weight initially. Other causes of weight gain, such as eating too much for your level of activity, are not related to diabetes.

W H Y W E I G H T A N D B O D Y S H A P E M AT T E R

69

Working out your body mass index (BMI) To find your BMI, measure your unclothed weight and your height. Trace a straight horizontal and vertical line from each measurement on the chart below. The point at which the two lines cross indicates the weight range you are in. You can then tell whether you need to gain weight, lose weight, or maintain your healthy weight.

Ib

kg

210

95

200

90

190 180

Weight

170 160 150 140 130

80

Overweight (BMI 25–29.9)

75 70

Healthy weight (BMI 20–24.9)

65 60

120

55

110

50

100

45

90

Obese (BMI 30 or above)

85

Underweight (BMI less than 19.9)

40 144 148 57

59

152 156 61

160 164 63

65

168 172 67

Height

176 69

180 184 188 71

73

192 196 cm 75

77

in

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FOOD AND DRINK

How to lose weight Q I want to lose T weight. Where do I start?

Q How much should I T aim to lose a week?

Q I’ve read that it’s a T good idea to keep a food diary. Why?

Q How can a food T diary help me lose weight?

Eating fewer calories and burning more energy is the key to losing weight. This entails eating healthily by cutting down on foods that are higher in fat and calories, and being more active in your daily life. Losing weight gradually is the most effective approach; “quick-fix” diets that lead to rapid weight loss are less healthy, and you are less likely to keep the weight off. Aiming to lose about 1–2lb (0.5–1kg) per week is a good starting point, although the exact amount will vary from one week to another. This is normal as you adjust to new patterns of eating and activity. Keeping a food diary of what and when you eat and drink can make you aware of where you might be able to cut calories. It can also show you whether your meals are spread evenly throughout the day and whether snacking between meals is contributing to your weight. When you review your food diary, ask yourself the following questions to help you identify where you can make changes: Do I eat high-fat or high-sugar foods at certain times of the day? Do I tend to sample food while I’m cooking? Do I use ordinary mixers with alcoholic drinks instead of diet versions? Do I dine out often? Do I eat very large meals? Analyzing your answers to these questions may help you work out which changes will help you lose weight.

HOW TO LOSE WEIGHT

Q I’ve tried to lose T weight in the past but usually give up after a week. How can I stay motivated?

Q A friend is trying T to lose weight and she has written a detailed weight-loss plan. Should I be doing the same?

Q The last time I tried T to eat less I ended up having hypoglycemic attacks. How can I avoid this?

71

Setting yourself small, short-term targets rather than long-term ones—for example, aiming to lose 2.2lb (1kg) by next week rather than nearly 45lb (20kg) by next year—can make you more successful. Even if you lose only 1lb (0.5kg) in a week, as long as you are still following your eating and activity plan, your weight will continue to fall. Replacing tempting high-calorie foods in your refrigerator and cabinet with lower-calorie alternatives can help you stick to your plans. You may also find it helpful to record your successes on a notice board together with inspirational pictures and encouraging notes. Friends and family can help by being understanding about your goals. Yes—working through the following questions will help you come up with a plan. How much weight would you like to lose in the next few weeks? What changes are you going to make to what you eat and how much activity you do? How will you change your routine to fit these in? How will you measure your weight loss each week? How will you motivate yourself to achieve your weekly targets? Who will help you stay motivated? What will you do when you face obstacles? When will you start your plan? Is it realistic? If not, set yourself smaller targets that you will be able to achieve. Testing your blood glucose level will let you know if your blood glucose is starting to drop and, if it is, reducing the dose of your pills or insulin will compensate. Once you’ve lost weight, you are likely to need a lower dose of medication to prevent hypoglycemic attacks.

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FOOD AND DRINK

Counting calories Q How many calories T should I cut to lose weight?

To lose about 1lb (0.5kg) per week simply by eating less, you will need to reduce your calorie intake by 500 a day. Then, to maintain your lower weight, you need to eat around 2,000 calories per day if you are a woman, and 2,500 calories per day if you are a man.

Q How can I find out T

You may need to refer to a book listing the calorie the calorie content of content of foods, and weigh your food at first, to work specific foods? out your calorie intake. Looking at food labels will also help you become familiar with energy values (see p53). Keeping a food diary can help you keep track of your calorie intake.

Q Is cutting down on T fat the best way to reduce calories?

Q Should I cut out T carbohydrate or protein foods?

Q What is meant by T “hidden calories” in food?

It is a good start. Fat is higher in calories than any type of food. Carbohydrate provides 4 calories per gram while fat provides 9 calories per gram—more than double the calories. Supermarkets offer low-fat options but often these are higher in sugar, so read the labels carefully. Even if you are eating less, you still need a variety of food types; excluding an entire type of food is not good for your health. Cutting out carbohydrate, your main source of energy, is particularly unhealthy because your body will deplete its own energy stores to compensate. You also need protein in order to stay healthy. Some foods can be deceiving. For example, fruit juice is high in sugar; alcohol contains a lot of calories; and some sauces that accompany meals are high in fat.

HOW TO LOSE WEIGHT

Q How important is the T size of the portions I eat at each meal?

73

A large portion of lower-calorie food may contain the same number of calories as a small amount of high-fat food. If you enjoy eating larger portions, lower-calorie foods will suit you. If you still want to eat higherfat foods, you may need to reduce your portion size.

CUTTING DOWN ON CALORIES You can make simple choices on an everyday basis that will cut calories and help you lose weight without denying yourself the foods you like. Below are some low-calorie alternatives to high-calorie foods and drinks.

HIGHER-CALORIE FOODS

CALS

LOWER-CALORIE ALTERNATIVE

3.5oz (100g) carbonara sauce

200

3.5oz (100g) tomato sauce

Small thick crust pizza

350

Small thin crust pizza

Medium bacon, lettuce, and

CALS

70 220

Medium salmon and

tomato sandwich

502

cucumber sandwich

10oz (300g) cream tomato soup

216

10oz (300g) can minestrone soup

Chicken breast with skin

300

Skinless chicken breast

1.75oz (50g) cheddar cheese

215

1.75oz (50g) cottage cheese

51

1oz (25g) blue cheese dressing

115

1oz (25g) low-fat Italian dressing

22

5oz (150g) Greek yogurt

195

5oz (150g) low-fat yogurt

80

1.4oz (40g) salted peanuts

250

4 breadsticks

84

12oz (33ml) can ordinary cola

135

12oz (330ml) can diet cola

0

Regular-sized espresso

4

Small cappuccino

70

274 93 190

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FOOD AND DRINK

Q Is it safe to lose T weight by missing a whole meal?

Q If I eat more calories T than I mean to, can I burn them off through physical activity?

Q If I eat the same T number of calories but am more active, will I lose weight?

Q Some diet plans T suggest a number of portions of different types of foods. How does that relate to calories?

Eating regularly provides the energy that your body needs and helps keep your blood glucose within the recommended range. If you skip meals, you are likely to be hungrier by the time you do eat, and this may lead you to overeat and have an erratic blood glucose level. Yes, although the exact amount of calories you burn depends on the intensity and duration of the activity you choose. Physical activity benefits you in two ways: it burns calories while you are doing the activity, and it raises your metabolic rate, so that your body burns more calories even when you are resting. Whether you lose weight or put it on depends on how well your energy intake (in other words, calories) is matched to how much energy you use. You may find that if you are more active than you were in the past, you can lose weight without altering your food intake. Whether you choose to count calories or not, your weight-loss plan will be more successful if you find a method that you are likely to be able to continue over the longer term. All weight-loss plans are based on a combination of food types and how many calories they contain. So a food plan based on portions means that the authors have already converted the calories for you, while trying to include foods that might help you feel less deprived. Choosing an eating plan that you can live with comfortably and therefore stick to in the long term is the most important factor for success.

HOW TO LOSE WEIGHT

75

Low calorie, low carbohydrate diets Q I’m always reading T about new weightloss diets. Should I avoid them because I have diabetes?

Q Is it true that you T can lose weight quickly by cutting out carbohydrates?

Q Is it safe for me to T follow a very lowcarbohydrate diet?

Q Can I replace one T of my meals with a commercially prepared shake designed for dieters?

It depends on the eating plan that is being recommended. The most effective ways to lose weight healthily are to reduce the number of calories that you eat and/or to burn calories through extra physical activity. Diets that provide extremely different amounts of the main food groups may not be suitable for you. If you think a particular eating plan might be for you, it may help to discuss it with your health professional. Diets such as the Atkin’s diet work by forcing your body to burn fat and muscle for energy. You can lose weight quickly but your body will replace the fat and muscle it has lost when you start eating normally again. This type of diet can be a “quick start” to losing weight, but cutting out carbohydrates deprives your body of its main energy source. If you take insulin or insulin-stimulating pills, a very low-carbohydrate diet may cause hypoglycemic attacks. Choosing healthy food options and generally reducing your calorie intake is the safest way to lose weight. Although these shakes are designed to help you lose weight, changing your eating habits in the longer term is a more successful approach to weight loss. If you look at what foods you normally eat and then see where you can reduce excess calories, you can gradually adjust your food intake and maintain your lower weight more easily without the need for commercial products.

Physical activity An active lifestyle helps your body work more efficiently, benefiting both your general health and your diabetes. It can also help you lose weight. Building more activity into your daily life is an important part of managing your diabetes.

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

The benefits of physical activity Q My doctor keeps T telling me that I should be more active—why?

Q How much physical T activity do I need to do before I feel the benefits?

Q How quickly can T

Regular activity helps insulin you have produced or injected work more efficiently. Being more active won’t make your diabetes go away, but it can go a long way to helping you manage it. Another advantage is that it helps you stay at a healthy weight or lose weight if you need to. Any activity that raises your heart rate or makes you slightly out of breath will bring benefits. This doesn’t necessarily mean joining a gym or doing strenuous activity. Activities such as dancing or walking briskly burn calories and help your circulation. The amount of activity to aim for is at least 30 minutes of moderate activity five times a week. This will help you lose weight, regulate your blood glucose level, and reduce your risk of the long-term complications of diabetes.

If you combine regular physical activity with eating physical activity help fewer calories, you may be able to lose 1–2lb (about me lose weight? 0.5kg) a week. Doing more physical activity can stimulate your appetite, so you may be tempted to eat high-calorie food if you feel hungry after activity. Snacking on low-calorie foods such as chopped raw vegetables or fruit will help you avoid too many calories. Your body will adjust to extra activity and expect less food as you lose weight.

THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Q How does being T more active help prevent the longterm complications of diabetes?

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Regular physical activity helps the insulin you have produced or injected work more efficiently, which in turn contributes toward keeping your blood glucose and your blood pressure in the recommended ranges. These two benefits make the long-term complications of diabetes less likely.

Q How will being T

Regular activity helps lower your blood pressure and active help my heart? your blood cholesterol levels, and, consequently, you have less chance of having a heart attack or a stroke. It also makes your heart stronger and more efficient so that it can pump more blood with every heartbeat, and it reduces your risk of having a heart attack from clots forming in your coronary arteries. The more active you are, the less likely you are to have a heart attack, and the greater your chance of surviving a heart attack if you have one.

Q I’m prone to T depression. Will being active help me?

Q I don’t take pills T or insulin yet. Will staying active allow me to continue without medication?

Yes, activity raises your levels of endorphins and serotonin. These brain chemicals influence your mood and sense of well-being and have a strong antidepressant effect. Some types of activity, for example, playing golf or tennis, also entail spending time with other people, and this can help lift your spirits, too. Because of the progressive nature of diabetes, you will probably need pills or insulin eventually, but with an active lifestyle, you may delay the need for medication because regular activity reduces your insulin resistance. Activity can help at any stage. If you already take tablets, increasing your activity levels may help delay the need to start injecting insulin and reduce the dose you need.

MYTH OR TRUTH?

Myth “You have to spend a lot of time being active to get any benefit” Truth The recommended amount of activity is 30 minutes five times a week. But you don’t necessarily have to dedicate specific times to this—you can feel the benefits just by being more active in your day-to-day life. Everyday things such as climbing stairs, going shopping, gardening, and housework all count as activity.

THE BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Q Will I still need to T take my diabetes medication if I become more active?

Q I’ve been told I have T impaired glucose tolerance. Will being more physically active help me?

Q I’m 65 this year; isn’t T it a bit late to start being more active?

Q How is physical T activity beneficial after a heart attack?

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Yes, but you may need a lower dose to achieve the same effect. If you are on insulin-stimulating pills, you may be more at risk of a hypoglycemic attack when you become more active, so you may need a reduction in the dose of your pills or a change to a different type of pill. Also, if you are more active, you may find that you lose weight. If you lose more than a few pounds you are likely to need a lower dose of pills or insulin. Yes, people who have impaired glucose tolerance are more likely to go on to develop Type 2 diabetes. Becoming more active, especially if you also lose weight, will help your natural insulin work as effectively as possible to regulate your blood glucose level. Once you have impaired glucose tolerance, you will always be at risk of developing diabetes, but the more active you are, the longer it may take to develop. It’s never too late to become more active. You don’t have to start a vigorous or ambitious form of activity —just becoming more active generally throughout your day (see pp88–89) will help your blood glucose level and blood pressure stay within the recommended ranges. Being active will also help you feel more energetic over time. Regular activity will help strengthen your blood vessels and improve blood circulation to your heart. Physical activity can also help prevent stress, depression, and anxiety after you have had a heart attack, and this can go a long way to helping you recover and feel like your normal self again.

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Physical activity and your blood glucose level Q What happens to my T blood glucose level when I’m active?

Gentle activity for 10–30 minutes is unlikely to have much effect on your blood glucose level. However, more vigorous activity will cause your blood glucose level to fall because of the extra glucose your muscles are using. When you stop activity, your muscles and, to a lesser extent, your liver, replace their glycogen stores by taking glucose from your bloodstream. The longer or more intense the activity, the more glucose you need to replenish these stores, so your blood glucose level could be affected for several hours.

Q Can a lot of physical T

If you take insulin-stimulating pills or insulin, physical activity cause a activity can sometimes cause your blood glucose level hypoglycemic attack? to fall below 70 mg/dl so that you have a hypoglycemic attack either at the time or some hours later. This is more likely if an activity is intense or prolonged. It’s important to understand what effect particular activities have on your blood glucose level so that you can take action to prevent or treat hypoglycemia if you need to.

Q My blood glucose T

If your blood glucose level is 90 mg/dl or lower before drops when I mow gardening, eat a snack such as fruit to raise your blood the lawn. What can I glucose level and reduce your risk of a hypoglycemic do to prevent this? attack. Another option is reducing your medication before you mow. If your level is higher beforehand, you may not need to snack or reduce your medication.

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND YOUR BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL

Q Why did I feel T anxious and shaky during a recent shopping trip?

Q How will I know the T effect of activity on my blood glucose?

Shopping is a physical activity and may have caused your blood glucose level to fall. If you take insulin or insulin-stimulating pills, walking in and out of stores, climbing stairs, and carrying heavy bags can increase your risk of a hypoglycemic attack. Test your blood glucose level before and after activity, and again a few hours later. If you are active for more than an hour, check your blood glucose level in the middle of the activity to find out if you need to take action to prevent a hypoglycemic attack.

THE IMPACT OF ACTIVITY ON BLOOD GLUCOSE If you are moderately active for 30 minutes or more, your blood glucose level changes throughout the activity. The more intense or long-lasting the activity, the greater the impact on your blood glucose. Knowing the effect of your activity can help you decide how to manage your diabetes. DURATION OF ACTIVITY

EFFECT ON BLOOD GLUCOSE

Approx 0–15 minutes

Blood glucose level rises slightly as your body converts glycogen stored in your liver into glucose in your blood.

Approx 15–30 minutes Blood glucose level falls slightly as your muscles start to use up the glucose available in your body. Approx 30–45 minutes Blood glucose level could fall even further as more glucose is used up by your muscles to keep them working. End of activity

Blood glucose level continues to fall as your liver and muscles replace their glycogen stores by taking glucose from your bloodstream.

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Q Can strenuous T activity during the day cause a hypoglycemic attack at night?

Q Does having sex T make a difference to my blood glucose level?

Q Being more active T doesn’t seem to make any difference to my blood glucose level. Why?

Q Can I make T adjustments to the dose of my pills or insulin before physical activity?

Yes, your blood glucose level can sometimes take up to 24 hours to return to normal after strenuous activity. This is because your body is gradually replacing the stores of glucose in your muscles. It is important to test your blood glucose level before you go to bed so that you can take any necessary action to reduce the chances of a hypoglycemic attack during the night. Yes, sex is an activity like any other. If you have very active sex or sex that goes on for a long time, your blood glucose level is likely to fall. Testing your blood glucose level before and after sex will help you determine if you need to take action to avoid a hypoglycemic attack. The intensity or duration of your activity may not be enough to affect your blood glucose level. Alternatively, if your blood glucose level is raised before your activity and it doesn’t fall as you expect, you may not have enough insulin to help your muscles use the extra glucose your body is producing. In this case, you may need to increase your pills or insulin dose—talking with your health professional can help you decide. Yes, if you know in advance that an activity will make your blood glucose level fall, you can reduce your dose of pills or insulin beforehand. If your activity is unplanned, or you know that it won’t make a major difference to your blood glucose level, you could have a small snack beforehand instead. Checking your blood glucose level after physical activity will help you determine whether you need to eat a carbohydrate snack to prevent it from dropping too low.

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND YOUR BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL

EATING TO CONTROL YOUR BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL BEFORE ACTIVITY If you take insulin or insulin-stimulating pills and prefer not to reduce your dose before you are active, this information will help you decide what snacks to eat. This is based on the intensity and duration of the activity you do, together with your preactivity blood glucose level in milligrams per deciliter. TYPE AND DURATION

BLOOD GLUCOSE

EXAMPLES OF WHAT TO EAT

OF ACTIVITY

BEFORE ACTIVITY

30 MINUTES BEFORE ACTIVITY

Gentle

90 or less

One slice of bread or

For example, walking or

one piece of fruit.

bicycling for less than

Any level above

30 minutes.

90

Moderate

90 or less

For example, playing golf, brisk walking,

One slice of bread plus one piece of fruit.

90–160

dancing, or swimming for 1 hour.

No carbohydrate needed.

One slice of bread plus one piece of fruit.

160–270

No carbohydrate needed.

Above 270

Activity not advised until your blood glucose level is lower.

Intense

90 or less

For example, playing soccer or tennis for

one piece of fruit. 90–160

2 hours. Vigorously bicycling or swimming

Two slices of bread plus One slice of bread plus one piece of fruit.

160–270

for more than 1 hour.

One slice of bread or one piece of fruit.

Above 270

Activity not advised until your blood glucose level is lower.

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Incorporating activity into your life Q Can I do anything T to become more physically active at home?

Q Is it worth buying T exercise equipment to use at home?

Q What type of T equipment can I buy?

Q I’ve got a hectic work T schedule. How can I fit physical activity into my routine?

Yes, vigorous housework, gardening, and walking up and down stairs are activities that keep you moving and increase your heart rate. You might also want to use exercise videos or DVDs at home. Good quality equipment is expensive and can take up a fair amount of space in your home. Think about whether you will use it on a long-term basis before you decide if it is worth purchasing. There is a huge range of exercise equipment available, but before you buy you can try out different machines in a gym to see which ones you enjoy using. Popular pieces of equipment include exercise bikes, treadmills, rowing machines, and step machines. Some have extra features, such as a variety of programs and a built-in heart rate monitor, for example. It can be helpful to identify times in your working day when you could set aside 10–30 minutes to be active. For example, walking part or all of the way to or from work, or going for a walk at lunchtime. If you have a desk job it is even more important to consider ways to keep active. Getting up from your desk and moving around whenever you can, and using the stairs in preference to the elevator, might be options for you.

I N C O R P O R AT I N G A C T I V I T Y I N T O Y O U R L I F E

Q I’m worried that I T might need to spend a lot of time doing an activity to get the benefits—is this true?

Q I’m now more active T throughout the day. How can I measure my progress?

Q Should I avoid some T physical activities because I have diabetes?

Q I had a heart attack T last year. Should I avoid exertion?

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You don’t necessarily have to dedicate specific times to being active—you might be able to introduce more activity into your day by staying on the move, walking briskly, cycling instead of driving a car, getting off the bus a stop early, and avoiding prolonged periods of sitting down. The recommended amount of activity is 30 minutes five times a week, but you will also feel the benefits if you are generally more active every day. Losing weight, lower blood glucose and blood pressure levels, and feeling fitter are all measures of progress. You may want to use an electronic device to measure these effects. For example, you could measure your heartbeat with a heart rate monitor, which consists of a strap that you wear around your chest and a watch device. Or you could wear a pedometer, which counts how many steps you take in a day. Having diabetes places no restrictions on the type of physical activity you can do. But as with everyone, building up your fitness gradually is recommended. If you want to increase your muscle bulk or train for an endurance sport, your program can be tailored to your needs. The chart on p94 gives more information on the fitness benefits of different activities. Physical activity is particularly important if you already have heart problems, but consulting your health professional before embarking on an activity program will help you plan what to do. Starting slowly and increasing your activity level very gradually will probably be recommended.

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Getting started and keeping going Q I’ve been inactive T for so long. Where do I start?

If you haven’t been active for some time, it’s sensible to start with a gentle activity, such as walking, swimming, or simply becoming more active around the house. You can build on this gradually over time—see pp92–95. If you take insulin-stimulating pills or insulin, measuring your blood glucose level before and after any new activity will help you assess its impact—if your blood glucose level falls below 72 mg/dl, you will need to treat yourself for hypoglycemia (see p128).

Q How can I find T

If you are unable to climb one or two flights of stairs out how fit (or unfit) without being short of breath, or if you are unable to I am? carry on a conversation when you are walking briskly, you could benefit from being more active. You should be able to do 30 minutes of moderate physical activity, making you sweat and breathe harder, at least five times a week, if you are fit.

Q How should I warm T up and cool down?

If your chosen activity is fairly intense, it is important to warm up your muscles so that they work better and are less prone to injury. You can do this by doing your chosen activity at a slow pace for the first 10 minutes. Afterward, cool down by decreasing the intensity of the exercise for the last 10 minutes. Finish by gently stretching your arms, legs, and back muscles to avoid stiffness and injury.

G E T T I N G S TA RT E D A N D K E E P I N G G O I N G

Q My health T professional suggested I work out an activity plan. Why?

Q How do I know if T I’m being active enough?

Q I don’t always feel T like being active although I know I should. How can I get motivated?

Q I used to swim a lot T but then I got ill and stopped. How can I get started again?

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Creating an activity plan (see pp96–97) will give you a clear idea of your goals and how you plan to achieve them. Long-term changes in your approach to physical activity will give you the most benefit, so it makes good sense to look at your overall activity from the start. Feeling warmer and slightly out of breath are signs of your activity being effective. If you can sing while you are active, you could probably work harder; if you feel you are gasping for breath, you are probably doing too much too quickly. You should not exercise so hard that you experience pain, and you should stop if you feel nauseous, dizzy, or unwell. An activity plan (see pp96–97) that specifies realistic daily goals can be a great source of motivation. Putting your plan in a prominent place will act as a reminder, and recording any achievements in terms of weight loss, improved blood glucose levels, or simply feeling better or fitter will help motivate you. You may find the promise of a reward each time you reach a specific milestone can also help. If you feel you will be encouraged by being active with other people, you might like to try joining an exercise class or a walking group, or arrange to do an activity with a friend or partner. Your activity level may take time to build up again. Developing a new activity plan and working out what type and intensity of activity is right for you now will help you get back to being active and swimming as soon as you can.

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Becoming more active Whatever your circumstances or lifestyle, you can become more active. The goal is a total of 30 minutes of activity five times a week. This doesn’t have to be 30 minutes of continuous activity. You might want to break it down into three sets of 10 minutes, for example. A good way of measuring how active you are is to see how many steps you take over the course of a day, using a device known as a pedometer. Your aim should be to build up to 10,000 steps a day. As you gradually become more active, build in rewards for your achievements to help you stay motivated.

HOW FIT ARE YOU? It is a good idea to assess your level of fitness before you start any regular activity. You may be surprised at the amount of activity you already do, or you may feel that you want to do more. You can assess your fitness by answering the following questions: • Can you climb one or two flights of

• Would you walk for 10 minutes rather

stairs without being short of breath or

than take the car?

feeling heaviness or fatigue in your legs?

• Do you do 30 minutes of moderate

• Do you normally take the stairs rather

activity that makes you feel warmer and

than the escalator or elevator?

breathe harder at least five times a week?

• Are you able to maintain a conversation

If you answered “no” to any of the

during light to moderate activity such

questions above, you could benefit from

as walking?

fitting more activity into your daily routine.

BECOMING MORE ACTIVE

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INCREASING YOUR LEVEL OF ACTIVITY Before starting any new activity, you may want to consult your health professional first. If you have been very inactive, start slowly. For example, if you want to start running, begin by walking more and jogging for short spells between walking. IF YOU ARE VERY INACTIVE

IF YOU ARE REGULARLY ACTIVE

Try starting with simple extra movements,

The most important thing is to stay

such as manually changing the channel

motivated by keeping activities varied,

on the TV rather than using the remote

doing activities with family or friends, or

control, leaving the phone away from you

linking activity with a reward: a brisk walk

so that you have to move to answer it, or

to see a friend, a bike ride ending in a

walking around the room before sitting

drink or meal, or a hot bath after the gym.

down. You could gradually increase the number of times you do these activities, and set yourself targets, such as not sitting down for more than an hour at a time. IF YOU ARE MODERATELY ACTIVE

Try to build upon the amount of activity you already do by, for example, adding an extra 5–10 minutes to your walk, bike ride, gardening session, or swim. Or increase the intensity of an activity. Set yourself a longer-term goal, such as a 5-mile walk in a month’s time, training for a charity swim, or joining an aerobics class.

CALORIES (CALS) BURNED BY ACTIVITIES

Activity

Cals per 30 minutes

Climbing stairs

330

Gardening, digging

240

Mowing the lawn

140

House cleaning

120

Shopping

120

Gardening, weeding

105

Ironing

60

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Choosing a physical activity Q What is the best type T

Aerobic activities are the best way to burn calories and of activity to help me lose weight. This includes anything that raises your heart rate and makes you breathe faster. Activities such lose weight? as walking, gardening, cleaning, and climbing stairs are all aerobic activities; so too are dancing, swimming, cycling, and aerobics classes. The more aerobic activity you do, and the longer you do it, the more calories you will burn.

Q I get out of breath T when I walk upstairs. What can I do to develop more stamina?

Q What type of activity T is good for stress relief?

Increasing your activity level gradually is a good way to develop your stamina. For example, going for a 10minute walk or gardening for a little longer than usual, or doing extra housework, will all build stamina. As you become fitter, you will soon notice that you can keep going for longer and are less likely to be breathless after minor exertion. Monitoring your fitness level by keeping a record of your progress may motivate you to stay active. Almost any type of activity is good for combating stress because activity causes the release of brain chemicals known as endorphins and serotonin, which have a positive effect on your mood and sense of wellbeing. You might find that taking part in gentle, noncompetitive, or meditative activities such as yoga, t’ai chi, or swimming helps you deal with stress.

CHOOSING A PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Q What physical T activities can I do with my partner?

Q I enjoy physical T activity with a group but don’t want to go to an aerobics class. What else can I do?

Q I have high blood T pressure. Are there any activities that I should avoid?

Q How can I find a T physical activity that I enjoy?

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Finding activities you both enjoy will make it easier to keep motivated. Walking, biking, or hiking together, playing badminton or tennis either indoors or outdoors, or going to dancing classes together might all be options for you. Other group activities include joining a rambling group, playing golf, softball, or bowling or going to a stretching or yoga class. You might like to try aquaaerobics, which is a more gentle and low-impact alternative to conventional aerobics. If you have high blood pressure, becoming or staying physically active is very important. The only activities to avoid are weight-lifting, and sports such as squash, which are quite vigorous and demand intense activity. If you are very overweight, have heart or breathing problems, have been inactive for a long time, or your blood pressure is very high, talk with your health professional before you take up a new activity. Relaxation exercises can be helpful if you have high blood pressure. A good starting point for creating your activity plan (see pp96–97) is to think about activities you have enjoyed in the past. Is activity a way of getting some time to yourself, or is it a way to meet people and be sociable? Do you enjoy being outdoors or indoors? Do you like being at home or going out? Do you enjoy competing with others, either individually or in teams? The answers to these questions will help you choose an activity that you enjoy.

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Q How can I best take T care of myself while being physically active?

Drinking plenty of water to avoid becoming dehydrated will help. Monitoring the effect of your activity on your blood glucose by testing it frequently and taking action to avoid a hypoglycemic attack if you need to will help keep your blood glucose well balanced. Your health professional will give you specific information about an activity program that will fit in with your diabetes.

FITNESS BENEFITS OF DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES When selecting a new activity, you can choose which aspect of your health and fitness to work upon: weight loss, stamina, flexibility, or strength. The fitness benefits of some suggested forms of activity are shown below. One square indicates a small benefit; four squares indicates a major benefit. ACTIVITY

CALS PER 30 MINS

STAMINA

FLEXIBILITY

STRENGTH

Aerobics

215







Cycling (fast)

280







Golf

195







Hiking

200







Jogging

245







Swimming (fast)

300





  

Tennis

210







Walking (brisk)

180







Aqua-aerobics

140







Yoga

135







CHOOSING A PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Q My health T professional told me that I should look after my feet more when I go hiking. Why?

Q Should I avoid T hiking and jogging if I have blisters on my feet?

Q My 16-year-old son T

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Long periods of walking can make you vulnerable to foot injuries. For example, a stone in your shoe or friction from a shoe or boot can lead to cuts, blisters, and inflammation. If you have reduced blood flow or nerve damage to your feet, you may not be able to feel this kind of damage and it may quickly become worse. Consequently, minor foot problems can develop into ulcers. Making sure that your socks and hiking shoes or boots fit your feet perfectly and don’t rub will help prevent this. Yes, waiting until the blisters on your feet have completely healed will ensure that they do not become worse or infected through added pressure or rubbing. See pp135–137 for more information about caring for your feet.

If your son is overweight, he may not feel confident has Type 2 diabetes about participating in team sports, but he might be and is very inactive. happier doing other types of activity. For example, if What activities could he frequently travels short distances by car or public he do? transportation, he could start walking or cycling instead. At home, he could help you with household jobs, such as washing the car or mowing the lawn; offering him a reward might act as an incentive for doing these things. You might also want to set a good example by being more active yourself or as a family, with trips to your favorite leisure spots or walking in the park. As your son becomes fitter and loses weight, he may feel more confident and want to take up an activity that he has expressed an interest in—such as skateboarding, working out in the gym, or soccer.

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Making activity work for you You might have ambitious plans when it comes to physical activity, but if an activity is difficult to fit into your lifestyle or you don’t enjoy it very much, you may find it difficult to stay motivated. You are more likely to be successful if you spend some time working through the points below and create your own unique activity plan that matches your needs and lifestyle.

MAKING AN ACTIVITY PLAN 1 WHAT ARE YOUR GOALS? Deciding what you want to achieve—for

4 WHAT WILL GET IN THE WAY? Planning your time around other

example relaxation, feeling fitter, losing

commitments you have will increase your

weight, or lowering your blood pressure

chance of success. Thinking of ways to

or cholesterol level—will help you identify

avoid potential distractions will also help.

the activity that’s right for you. 2 WHICH ACTIVITY? Choosing activities that you like and that you

5 WRITE DOWN YOUR PLAN A written plan can help you remember your goals and help you record your

can achieve will help you plan realistically.

achievements. See opposite for an

Use the tips opposite to think about what

example of an activity plan for one week.

you’d like to do. Remember, it’s never too late to start something new as long as you start gently and gradually.

6 ASSESS YOUR PLAN At the end of each week, assess how well you’ve done. Do you need to make any

3 WHEN CAN YOU BE MORE ACTIVE? Identifying the time you have available,

changes in your activity plan? For example,

whether it is part of your usual day or if

might want to do more next week. If

you need to put time aside, will help you

too many things got in the way, give

plan. You may need to do this each week

yourself a more realistic plan—for example

if your lifestyle is variable.

smaller goals.

if you have achieved all your goals, you

SAMPLE ACTIVITY PLAN MONDAY 10-minute walk immediately after breakfast with my wife 10-minute walk to visit my friend in the evening TUESDAY 20 minutes weeding in the garden CHOOSING YOUR ACTIVITY

Different activities have different benefits. The following tips may suggest new activities and give you more help in chosing one that works best for you. • Jogging, cycling, hiking, and going to the gym can help you lose weight and lower your blood pressure and blood fats. • Gentle stretching, t’ai chi, and swimming can help you to relax and unwind. • Yoga and Pilates can improve your muscle strength and posture. • Running up stairs, cycling instead of driving, and walking during work breaks can help you fit activity into a busy day. • Using an exercise bike or video at home are useful if you prefer to be active alone. • Hiking with a group, golf, tennis, and bowling are ways of combining activity with socializing.

WEDNESDAY 15 minutes on my exercise bike after work THURSDAY Long day at work—no extra activity FRIDAY Walk to the local stores—15 minutes each way SATURDAY Wash my car by hand in the afternoon SUNDAY Wash the kitchen floor Play tennis with my wife (first time!) Short-term goals (over next 3 weeks): Go swimming on Monday and Thursday evenings for 30 minutes at a time. Walk rather than drive to the stores on Tuesday and Friday.

Monitoring your diabetes Monitoring the amount of glucose in your blood is part of your daily diabetes care. It helps you determine whether any adjustments to your treatment or lifestyle are necessary. Your blood pressure and blood fat levels, which are likely to be elevated, also need to be monitored regularly.

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MONITORING YOUR DIABETES

Understanding your blood glucose level Q Why do I need to T monitor my blood glucose level?

Q What level of blood T glucose should I be aiming for?

Q Why can’t I rely on T symptoms to tell me whether my blood glucose level is too high or low?

The only way to know if your blood glucose level is within the recommended range is to take a sample of your blood and measure the amount of glucose in it. This is important even if you are eating healthily and being active. Regular tests tell you how your blood glucose level is affected by your food, the amount and type of activity you do, and by the impact of stress and illness. If your blood glucose level is regularly too high you are more likely to develop long-term complications. Blood glucose is measured in milligrams per deciliter. The ideal range is 75–130 mg/dl. Even when your blood glucose is well controlled, you are always likely to get occasional results outside this range, but it is the general pattern of your results that is important. If your blood glucose is slightly raised (between 130 and 180 mg/dl), you probably won’t have symptoms (your body starts producing larger amounts of urine only when your blood glucose is above this level). If you regularly have high readings, you may not get symptoms until your blood glucose level is 270 mg/dl or higher. With a low blood glucose level, it can be dangerous to wait for symptoms, because by that point you may be feeling too confused or disoriented to treat yourself.

U N D E R S TA N D I N G Y O U R B L O O D G L U C O S E L E V E L

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Q What should I do if T

These levels might be caused by weight gain, eating more, or being less active than usual. If you know that I keep getting high blood glucose levels? one of these factors is responsible, you may be able to remedy it yourself. If you still have high readings for no obvious reason over a week or two, you may need to alter your medication. Your health professional can help you identify what changes you might need to make to your pills or insulin.

Q I often get readings T

Yes, hypoglycemia means any blood glucose level below below 75 mg/dl but 75 mg/dl, although the level at which you start to have I feel fine. Am I symptoms may vary. If you have had diabetes for years hypoglycemic or not? and have often had hypoglycemic attacks, your body may no longer give you any early warning symptoms. Keeping your blood glucose level above 75 mg/dl and taking glucose whenever it drops lower will help restore your early warning symptoms.

Q I’m taking insulin T and sometimes have hypoglycemia and then a very high reading later. Why does this happen?

Q My uncle has T

If you have readings below 75 mg/dl, your body will produce extra glucose to help you recover, which contributes to the high reading a few hours later. Preventing the hypoglycemic attacks, either by reducing your insulin dose or making other changes, will help prevent the high readings that follow.

Urine testing was once the standard way to monitor diabetes and tests diabetes, but it is no longer recommended because his urine for glucose. it will show a positive result only when your blood Why have I been glucose is around 180 mg/dl or above. Blood testing is taught to test my more accurate and up-to-date. Your uncle could discuss blood? with his health professional whether it would be helpful for him to test his blood instead.

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MONITORING YOUR DIABETES

Q How frequently T should I check my blood glucose level?

This will depend on what information you need at the time. For example, if your medication has changed or if you are sick, you may need a lot of information and be testing 4–7 times a day. At times when your blood glucose level does not vary much, you might test a lot less frequently than this and, on some days, you may not test at all. Your health professional can help you work out how often you should test. The main reason for testing is to find out what you need to do to keep your blood glucose in the recommended range.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT YOUR BLOOD GLUCOSE These everyday factors have an influence on your blood glucose level. Understanding the effect of each will mean you can take action to prevent your blood glucose level rising too high or falling too low. FACTOR

EFFECT

Carbohydrate foods;

Raise your blood glucose. How quickly and how much

sugary food and

depends on the type and quantity.

soft drinks Physical activity

Lowers your blood glucose by helping insulin work more efficiently and using up energy.

Insulin injections

Lower your blood glucose. How quickly and for how long depends on the type of insulin.

Diabetes pills

Lower your blood glucose.

Stress

Likely to raise your blood glucose; rarely, may lower it.

Illness

Raises your blood glucose.

U N D E R S TA N D I N G Y O U R B L O O D G L U C O S E L E V E L

Q At what times of day T should I check my blood glucose?

Q In what situations is T it really important for me to test?

Q When might I need T to check my blood glucose level more frequently than usual?

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Testing before a meal tells you what your blood glucose level is when it is least affected by food. Also, testing 2 hours after a meal tells you how well your body has used the glucose from your meal. Testing before you go to bed will tell you whether you need to take any action to keep your blood glucose in the recommended range during the night. Testing at one or more of these times helps you compose a picture of what happens to your blood glucose level at different times of the day and in response to food and medication. You may want to test at other times—for example, if you want to find out the effect of physical activity on your blood glucose level. If you inject insulin or take insulin-stimulating pills, test your blood glucose level if you start to feel hypoglycemic so that you can take action quickly. Test your blood glucose level before you drive and take action if necessary to avoid a hypoglycemia while driving. Testing when you are sick is also important. You may want to test more often when your diabetes treatment changes or if you are diagnosed with longterm complications such as kidney or eye problems. There are also short-term situations in which you might need more information about your blood glucose level: for example, when you are ill, when you are drinking alcohol, and when you are in a hot climate. Also, if your weight changes, you become more or less active, or your eating patterns change, testing more often can help you check that your blood glucose level is still in the recommended range. If it isn’t, you can take steps to remedy it before it starts to cause longer-term damage.

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Monitoring equipment Specialized equipment is available for you to test your blood glucose level wherever you are. Testing is usually done by inserting a blood testing strip into a blood glucose meter and applying a blood sample (obtained using a lancet) to the testing strip to obtain a reading. Your health professional can help you decide what type of equipment is best for you. You can also get information from books, the internet, or a national diabetes organization (see p200). Testing strips and lancets are obtained by prescription. You can buy meters from a pharmacy or your health professional may give you a starter kit.

BLOOD GLUCOSE METERS Battery-operated devices called glucose

one of two different methods to analyze

meters analyze the amount of glucose in

the results but both are highly accurate

the blood sample on your testing strip and

and give results ranging from 10 to 600

then display the result on a screen. With

mg/dl. Some meters also have additional

most meters, you insert a testing strip into

features—for example, one type includes

the meter before applying your blood to a

its own lancing device for collecting a

specific area on the strip. The meters use

blood sample. On/off button

Back-light button

Scroll up and down buttons

Meter set up and review of memory

Power and set-up button

Strip holder Strip holder

On/off button Memory Testing strip

STANDARD BLOOD GLUCOSE METERS

Strip release button Scroll up and down Accept or okay button Flip down cover

MONITORING EQUIPMENT

105

LANCING DEVICES AND BLOOD GLUCOSE STRIPS Most lancing devices consist of a hand-

testing strips usually come in packs of 25

held tube into which you put a needle

or 50. Always check the expiry date of

(lancet). A dial enables you to choose how

your blood testing strips before use.

deeply the needle enters your site. Lancets

Priming tube or handle

Lancet and spring cover

are used with a lancing device to prick your skin. They are designed to be used once to avoid infection and to make sure

spring release

Depth selection dial

the needle is as sharp as possible. Blood

LANCING DEVICE

CHOOSING A METER

Size of blood sample The amount of

Considering the following factors will help

blood you need to put on your strip can

you to choose a glucose meter.

vary from 0.3 to 10 microliters.

Size Some meters are smaller and

Memory Meters vary greatly in the

more compact than others. If you have

number of results they can store. Some

problems with dexterity, you may find a

can store 10; others can store up to 450.

larger meter helpful.

A large memory is useful if you aren’t

Result display Meters with large displays

always able to write down your results.

may be easier to read if you have vision

Timing After you have applied blood,

problems. Some meters just give you your

meters can take anything from 5 to 45

test result, others give the date and time.

seconds to give you a result.

Averages Many meters provide you with

Testing sites All meters can analyze

an average of your readings, for example,

blood from your fingertips. Some can also

over the previous 7, 14, or 28 days.

analyze blood from your forearm, the

Computer download facility Some

palm of your hand, or your abdomen.

meters have a facility that allows you to

Additional features Some devices

download your results and analyze them

combine a blood glucose meter with other

on a computer.

features, such as a lancing device.

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MONITORING YOUR DIABETES

Carrying out a blood glucose test Q Do all blood glucose T meters work in the same way?

Q How can I make T sure I get the most accurate result possible?

Q Why does my blood T glucose meter turn itself off before I’ve done a test?

No. The exact procedure for carrying out a blood test will vary according to which type of blood glucose meter you have. With most machines, you will need to prepare the meter for use (see opposite), insert a blood testing strip, obtain a blood sample, apply blood to the testing strip, and wait for a result. Check the instructions that come with your meter to determine any variations to this routine. Your blood glucose meter comes with instructions on how to use it, so the first step is to read and follow these. The following additional tips are also important to ensure an accurate reading: wash and dry the site you intend to take blood from; calibrate your meter each time you start a new container of testing strips; use a new testing strip for each test. Also, avoid “topping up” blood on your strip if your equipment isn’t designed for this. If you insert your testing strip into the meter and then take too long to apply your blood, your meter switches itself off to save battery power. If this happens, you need to remove the testing strip and reinsert it. Once you have put a drop of blood on the testing strip and the strip is in the meter, a built-in timing device takes over.

C A R RY I N G O U T A B L O O D G L U C O S E T E S T

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PREPARING A BLOOD GLUCOSE METER FOR USE Blood testing strips vary from batch to batch (they may contain different amounts of chemicals), so you need to calibrate most meters every time you start a new pack of strips to obtain an accurate result. Testing your meter at least once a month with a quality control solution (which contains a known amount of glucose) will enable you to check that your machine is measuring blood glucose correctly. 1 If your meter has a coding chip provided with the strips, insert the chip into the slot on the meter. If it has a coding strip, insert this into the meter, then remove it once the code has been registered. If it has a code (C) button, insert the strip, then press the button until the code matches the one on the new pack of strips.

2 When you insert a test strip, compare the code number on the display with the number printed on the test strip container. The two numbers must be identical. If they are not identical, repeat the above coding procedure until the correct code number is displayed.

3 To test using the quality control solution, apply the solution to the test strip in the same way as you would apply your blood, then compare the control solution result with the range printed on the test strip or control solution packet. The result will fall within this range if your meter is reading accurately.

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MONITORING YOUR DIABETES

OBTAINING A BLOOD SAMPLE Blood tests form part of your day-to-day routine when you have diabetes. Although your finger is the most common site to use, you can also test blood from your forearm, the palm of your hand, or your abdomen—if your equipment is designed to test blood from these sites. Following these steps will help ensure that you get an accurate reading from your blood glucose test. 1 Wash your hands and then rub them to increase your circulation. Put a fresh lancet into your lancing device and remove its disposable cap. Replace the lancing device’s cover and turn the dial to set your preferred depth level. Switch on your blood glucose meter, or insert the test strip into your meter to switch it on. 2 Put your lancing device firmly against the side of the tip of your finger. Press the button on the side or end of the device to fire the lancet. Move the lancing device away from your finger and wait a few seconds for the blood to flow. 3 If a drop of blood doesn’t appear, apply pressure to the base of your finger to assist your blood flow. If you still can’t get enough blood, start again using another finger and a new test strip, and increase the depth setting if necessary. 4 When you have enough blood, apply it to the pad on the end of the testing strip. Depending on the type of strip, wait 5–45 seconds for your meter to display your blood glucose level. Dispose of your lancet and strip in a recommended sharps box.

C A R RY I N G O U T A B L O O D G L U C O S E T E S T

Q Is there a device that T can continuously monitor my blood glucose level?

Q Why do I need to T keep a diary of my test results?

Q What information do T I need to put in my monitoring diary?

Q Can I create an T electronic diary?

109

There are two types of device available for continuous testing: a watchlike device that you wear on your wrist and a machine that is connected to a needle in your abdomen. These are not widely used, partly because they are more expensive than a blood glucose meter and partly because the technology is still being developed. If you use this equipment, you still need to do some fingerprick tests to calibrate the machines, and you need to buy ongoing supplies for the equipment. Recording the results of your blood glucose tests will enable you to see how your blood glucose level changes over the course of a day or a week. If you notice patterns of high and low blood glucose readings, you can take action to bring your blood glucose level back within the recommended range. A monitoring diary provides space for you to enter the results of seven or more blood glucose tests a day, together with the date and time of the tests. You can also record what type and dose of medication you are taking plus any additional relevant information, such as what has caused high or low readings or what changes you are making to correct fluctuating readings. Yes, some blood glucose meters have a facility that allows you to download your results and analyze them on a computer. This facility enables you to view your results in graph or table form, and you can also look specifically at readings at certain times of day, or average readings within various time scales, for example over the last 7 days.

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MONITORING YOUR DIABETES

What your results mean Q What can I do if I T regularly get high readings?

Q I hurt my back while T gardening and have needed to rest. My test results have all been over 270 mg/dl since. What should I do?

Q My blood glucose T keeps swinging between high and low readings—what should I do?

You can identify the cause by looking at the times when your readings are high and considering what you were doing in the hours leading up to this. Once you’ve done this assessment, the next step is taking some action to remedy the situation. You might decide, for example, to decrease the amount of food you eat or increase the amount of physical activity you do. Your blood glucose level is likely to be high because you are inactive, so temporarily increasing the dose of your pills or insulin (if you are using medication) will bring it down again. When you are better and become active again, your blood glucose level is likely to fall, so you may need to decrease the dose of your medication at this point. You can also increase your pills or insulin dose like this when you are ill or when you gain weight —when you recover or lose weight you can adjust your dose down again. This may happen when you treat a hypoglycemic attack with glucose or a sugary snack. Since your liver also releases glucose to compensate, you end up with a high level of glucose in your blood. Reducing your medication, or altering your activity levels or eating patterns, can help you avoid hypoglycemic attacks. Other causes of a swinging blood glucose level are an irregular daily routine or food intake, or variations in the timing or dose of your medication. Examining these possibilities will help you identify the cause.

W H AT Y O U R R E S U LT S M E A N

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SOME REASONS FOR HIGHS AND LOWS The occasional high or low blood glucose reading doesn’t indicate that your diabetes is out of control (although treating a low blood glucose as soon as possible will prevent it from dropping lower). However, if you notice a pattern to your highs and lows, finding out why they are happening can help you take corrective action. The following is a list of possible reasons. HIGH READINGS

LOW READINGS

Having more food than usual or a

Having less food than usual, or taking

different type of food. (A specific

your insulin or pills and then being

food may be the cause if it is associated

unable to eat when you had planned.

with high readings on several different occasions). Illness and stress can cause a high

Stress can make your blood glucose

blood glucose reading because of the

level fall if you respond to it by using

effect of the hormones released at

up more energy or eating less

these times.

than usual.

Forgetting to take your pills or your

Taking an extra dose of pills, injecting

insulin or taking a dose that is too

more insulin than you need, or being

low for you.

on too high a dose of pills or insulin.

Putting on weight.

Losing weight.

Having a hypoglycemic attack earlier

Drinking a lot of alcohol without eating

in the day, which you treated with

carbohydrate-containing food at

glucose.

the same time or reducing your medication.

Being less physically active than usual.

Being more physically active than usual.

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Q How often does my T blood glucose need to be high before I should worry about it?

Q What can I do if T I get a lot of low readings?

Q Can low readings do T any harm?

Q Is it okay to round T my test results up or down to make whole numbers in my diary?

A single or an occasional high reading with an obvious cause will not cause long-term damage to your nerves or blood vessels, but if you have high readings for more than a day or two, then it’s worth trying to identify the cause and taking remedial action. Your monitoring diary will help you identify what you were doing—in terms of activity, eating, drinking, or taking medication—before your low readings. Once you have figured out the reason for the low readings you can decide what action to take to prevent them from recurring. If you are unsure what steps you should take, talking to your health professional might help you determine a course of action. If you have repeated low readings, you are less safe while driving and they may reduce your awareness of when you are starting to have a hypoglycemic attack (see pp172–175). This lack of awareness is dangerous because if you are not able to react to the early warning signs you will be less able to treat yourself. Taking action quickly in response to low readings, such as having a glucose drink, will help keep or restore your warning symptoms. Avoiding hypoglycemic episodes altogether for a few weeks can also help. Yes. The range of your results is more important than the exact tenth of a milligram that the decimal point indicates. If you have a reading of 133.4 you can round down to 133, while if you have a reading of 133.5 or more then you could round up to the next whole number, in this example 134.

THE A1C TEST

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The A1c test Q What is an A1c test? T

The A1c test (each letter is pronounced separately) provides information about your blood glucose level. It measures the amount of glucose attached to the hemoglobin (oxygen-carrying molecule) in your blood and gives an average picture of your blood glucose level over the previous 6–8 weeks. The test involves having a blood sample taken from your arm or finger. The sample is then analyzed in a laboratory or in the clinic. The A1c test is not affected by what you have eaten or drunk in the last few days.

Q How often do I need T

Your A1c test is taken every three months. You might need more frequent tests if, for example, your medication has changed or to assess the effect of any lifestyle changes you have made. Unless you are pregnant, you are unlikely to have an A1c test more frequently than every 2 months because it takes this amount of time for the results to change significantly.

an A1c test?

Q What do my A1c test T results mean?

A1c results are given as a percentage—the closer they are to 7 percent (or below), the nearer you are to everyday blood glucose results between 75 and 130 mg/dl. If your A1c result is above 7 percent, discussing your diabetes management with your health professional can help you decide what needs to change. Every 1 percent rise in your A1c result increases the risk of long-term complications by 30 percent, so taking steps to keep your A1c level at or below 7 percent provides great long-term benefit.

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MONITORING YOUR DIABETES

Q If I have a result of T 7 percent or lower, will this prevent the long-term complications of diabetes?

Q I’m hoping to get T pregnant. Do I need an A1c test beforehand?

Q My home blood T glucose tests are usually in the range 75–130 mg/dl. Will my A1c level be around 7 percent?

Q Can I buy a home T A1c testing kit?

Q My tests are all T

Your A1c is only one factor that influences your risk, but it is an important one. It is impossible to guarantee that you will never develop the long-term complications of diabetes, such as eye and kidney problems, but the more time your A1c is below 7 percent the higher your chance of staying healthy, and the risk of your developing these problems is greatly reduced. Yes, your health professional will check your A1c if you are planning a baby. High readings can affect your baby’s development, so working to achieve a reading below 7 percent before you conceive is very important. Your A1c test is a measure of your blood glucose levels at all times of the day, so if you don’t do home tests very often, you may be falsely reassured by results that are in the 75–130 mg/dl range. However, if you test at least once or twice a day and all your results are in the recommended range, your A1c level will be close to or below 7 percent. You can buy a home A1c testing kit at some pharmacies. It might be useful to discuss with your health professional whether home A1c testing would benefit you before you buy a kit.

Although your results are below 180 mg/dl at the times under 180 mg/dl, you do them, they may be higher at other times. This but my A1c is 12 will affect your A1c result. Varying the times you test, percent. Why is this? for example, after meals as well as before, and aiming for results between 75 and 130 mg/dl, helps influence your A1c result.

U N D E R S TA N D I N G Y O U R B L O O D P R E S S U R E

115

Understanding your blood pressure Q My doctor tested me T for Type 2 diabetes because I am having treatment for high blood pressure. Why is that?

Q What is high blood T pressure?

Q I have high blood T

Type 2 diabetes and high blood pressure are both linked to insulin resistance, so if you have one of these conditions it is common to have the other, too. If you keep both your blood pressure and your blood glucose level under control, your chances of developing long-term complications, especially heart disease, are greatly reduced. If your larger blood vessels become more rigid and your smaller blood vessels start to constrict, your blood has to flow through a narrower space than before. The result is greater pressure on your blood vessel walls, which is known as high blood pressure or, medically, as hypertension. Having high blood pressure is common when you have Type 2 diabetes.

Having high blood pressure makes you much more pressure but I don’t prone to cardiovascular disease (CVD)—a serious feel sick. Why does condition that develops over many years as your blood it need to be treated? vessels gradually become narrower and less flexible. You may have high blood pressure without knowing it and, if it remains untreated, you may develop angina (severe chest pain) or have a heart attack or a stroke. Taking your blood pressure treatment as prescribed and having regular checkups can help prevent these serious conditions.

MYTH OR TRUTH?

Myth “You know if you have high blood pressure because it gives you headaches” Truth High blood pressure does not always give you symptoms, and it is often found by chance during routine health checkups. Having your blood pressure checked at your annual diabetes reviews, and more frequently if your health professional suggests it, will be a more reliable indicator of whether your blood pressure is high.

U N D E R S TA N D I N G Y O U R B L O O D P R E S S U R E

Q What should my T blood pressure be?

Q Why are there T two figures in my blood pressure measurement?

Q What can I do to T lower my blood pressure?

Q How low can my T blood pressure go?

117

If you have Type 2 diabetes your blood pressure should be below 130/80 millimeters of mercury (mmHg). In some situations, for example if you have already developed kidney damage (nephropathy), you may need to keep your blood pressure lower, for example, 125/75 millimeters of mercury (mmHg) to prevent further damage. Discussing your ideal blood pressure level, and ways to achieve it, with your health professional will give you the level that is right for you. The top figure refers to the level of pressure in your blood vessels as your heart contracts and pumps blood around your body. This is known as the systolic blood pressure. The second figure is the lowest pressure as your heart relaxes between beats. This is known as the diastolic blood pressure. Stop smoking and lose weight if you need to, eating more fresh fruit and vegetables and less saturated fat and salt (for example, less processed or commercially prepared meals) to help reduce your blood pressure. Physical activity (see pp78–97) will also lower your blood pressure. Take any blood pressure pills that you have been prescribed, even if they do not affect the way you feel, to help keep your blood pressure in the recommended range. It would be unusual for your blood pressure to be under 100/60 mmHg if you are otherwise healthy. For every 10 mmHg drop in your systolic blood pressure (the first figure) toward this level, you benefit by reducing your risk of heart attack or stroke.

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MONITORING YOUR DIABETES

Monitoring blood pressure Q How often should T I have my blood pressure checked?

Q How will my T blood pressure be measured?

Q I am always anxious T when I visit my clinic—will that raise my blood pressure?

Q Can I measure my T blood pressure at home?

Your blood pressure will be checked at least once a year at your annual review (see pp120–121). If you have high blood pressure, you will probably have frequent checks, for example, every 1–4 weeks. Once stable, your blood pressure will be checked every 3–6 months. Your health professional will wrap a cuff around your upper arm and inflate it until it is tight enough to prevent blood from flowing to your lower arm. The cuff is then slowly deflated and your blood pressure is measured by the electronic device or by your health professional listening to the blood flow in your arm with a stethoscope. The two figures in your blood pressure measurement refer, firstly, to the pressure in your blood vessel as your heart contracts (systolic blood pressure) and, secondly, to when your heart is relaxed (diastolic blood pressure). Your blood pressure goes up and down depending on the time of the day and your stress levels. If you feel anxious about seeing your health professional, your blood pressure rises. This is why your blood pressure may be checked two or three times—or for 24 hours —before you are diagnosed with high blood pressure. Yes, but before buying your own monitor, talk to your health professional, who may give you useful information or be able to loan you a monitor if you need one just for a short time.

MONITORING BLOOD PRESSURE

Q If I want to monitor T my own blood pressure, how often should I do it?

Q How do I use my T electronic monitor?

Q What do I do if I get T

119

How often you check your blood pressure depends on what you want to know. For example, if you want to find out how a stressful situation affects your blood pressure, take “before and after” readings. If you simply want to know whether your blood pressure is in the recommended range, take readings several times a day for a few days to establish what is normal for you. After this, checking your blood pressure occasionally, for example once or twice a week, will be enough. Your monitor will contain specific instructions on how to use it—the exact position of the cuff or your arm varies from monitor to monitor. Once you start the monitor, the cuff will automatically inflate and deflate and then the monitor will give you a reading of your blood pressure. Sitting down for 5–10 minutes before you measure your blood pressure will increase the accuracy of the reading.

Occasional high readings can be due to stress or life readings that seem events such as a busy day or pressure at work, but if you to be higher than my are regularly having high readings, you may need to recommended range? have your treatment started, or reviewed and changed. With Type 2 diabetes, you may need three or more different types of pills to control your blood pressure (see pp160–161). Other factors that can raise your blood pressure are eating a lot of salt and being very inactive. Tackling any of these factors can help lower your blood pressure—for example, you could regularly do relaxation exercises, you could increase your activity levels, or you could prepare more meals yourself instead of eating processed food.

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Your annual review Q What is an annual T review?

Once a year, your health professional will assess with you how well your blood glucose level and blood pressure are controlled and check for any signs of the long-term complications of diabetes. Many of the tests are the same as those that were carried out shortly after your diagnosis. You will also have the opportunity to discuss any problems or concerns at your review.

Q How can I get the T

Write down any questions or concerns you have and most from my annual take them to your review to help you remember them. review? During the review, make a note of any changes to your pills or insulin or other medications you are taking. You may also find it useful to write down what any change in treatment is for, how quickly treatment will work, what side effects you should look out for, and what action to take if side effects occur.

Q What happens if T any of my tests are outside the expected range?

Q What should I do if T

You may need changes to your diabetes treatment or other medications to bring your test results back into the recommended range. If you have signs of long-term complications (with your eyes or feet, for example), you will be referred to a specialist.

Your medical records will have a comprehensive record I’m not sure whether of your overall health and should contain information I’ve had all the tests about your latest results. If you want to check that you I need? have had all the tests, you can make an appointment with your health professional about 3 weeks after your annual review.

YOUR ANNUAL REVIEW

Q When do I get my T test results?

Q What if I need help T between my annual reviews?

Some of your tests provide information immediately —for example, your blood pressure or your feet being examined. Others, such as blood tests, may take a week or two before your results are available. Contact your health professional if you have problems such as frequent hypoglycemic attacks, a consistently high blood glucose level, foot injuries that do not heal, sudden vision changes, problems with medication or equipment, or feeling unable to cope with your diabetes. He or she can give information, arrange tests, and make sure you see any other health professionals as needed.

MEDICAL TESTS AT YOUR ANNUAL REVIEW Blood pressure check

Identifies how well your blood pressure is controlled.

Eye examination or

Identifies any damage to the retina (the light sensitive

photograph

part at the backs of your eyes).

Foot check

Assesses whether you have poor circulation and/or reduced sensation in your feet.

Weight and

Assesses whether your weight or body shape increases

waist and hip

your risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD).

measurements Urine test

Tests for the presence of protein in your urine, which may be a sign of kidney damage.

Blood tests

121

Several different tests are made on blood samples to assess your overall blood glucose control, blood fats, and kidney function.

Living with diabetes Taking good care of your feet, managing stress, and knowing what to do when you are ill are all important aspects of your day-today life with diabetes. If you are a woman, pregnancy and menopause will also affect your diabetes. If you live with, or are close to, someone who has Type 2 diabetes, you will find information on the condition and support helpful in day-to-day life.

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LIVING WITH DIABETES

Day-to-day life Q How will having T diabetes affect my work?

Q Are there any jobs T that I won’t be able to do?

Q Can I still drive? T

Hopefully, very little, with some advance planning. You may find it helpful to develop a plan for testing, eating, or adjusting your medication to fit your working day. If your job is unpredictable or involves a lot of physical activity, you may need to check your blood glucose several times during the day. If your job is sedentary, your blood glucose level may rise. If appropriate, you may find it helpful to keep supplies of medication and hypoglycemia remedies at work. Yes, there are a few jobs that are not open to you. They include entering the army, navy, or air force, and flying commercial aircraft. If you take insulin, you may not be able to hold a commercial vehicles licence. Otherwise, if you take insulin or insulin-stimulating pills (meaning that you are risk of hypoglycemic attacks) and you are responsible for the safety of others, you must tell your employer that you have diabetes. If your treatment consists of healthy eating and physical activity, you do not need to inform your state department of motor vehicles (DMV) about your diabetes. If you take tablets or insulin, you have to notify the DMV and your insurance company. If you take insulin, your licence will be restricted to 1, 2, or 3 years, and you may not be able to hold a commercial vehicle licence. If you already have either of these types of licence, and you start insulin treatment, your licence may be revoked.

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Q I sometimes have a T

Testing your blood glucose before you drive and about hypoglycemic attack. every 2 hours during the trip will tell you if your blood glucose is within the recommended range. Keep food, How should I deal drinks, and hypoglycemic remedies in the car to have with a long drive? supplies readily available.

Q I travel abroad a lot. T How will this affect my diabetes?

Q Can I still go out on T the town now that I have diabetes?

Q Which organizations T can I contact for advice about diabetes?

Long distance and air travel, changes in time zones, temperature, and different food, drinks, or activities when you are abroad will all affect your blood glucose level, even if you do not take any medication for your diabetes. You can help prevent problems by making sure that your travel insurance covers any diabetesrelated problems, and packing enough supplies of your equipment and medication because they may not be available in other countries. If you are flying, ask your health professional for a letter explaining to the airline that you need to keep your diabetes equipment in your hand luggage. Detailed planning ahead will help you manage your diabetes safely during your trips. Having diabetes will not stop you from doing anything you enjoyed before. If you drink a lot of alcohol on nights out with friends and you take insulin or insulin– stimulating pills, you will need to protect yourself from hypoglycemic attacks (see pp126–129). National organizations such as the American Diabetes Association (ADA) have a telephone hotline and a website, and they publish a range of leaflets and magazines with up-to-date information about all aspects of diabetes. See p200 for contact details for the ADA and other useful organizations.

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Dealing with hypoglycemia Q What is a T

A hypoglycemic attack is when your blood glucose level hypoglycemic attack? falls below 75 mg/dl. This happens when you have more insulin working in your body than you need. Your symptoms (see below) should warn you that your blood glucose level is low, although if your body is accustomed to blood glucose levels below 75 mg/dl, your symptoms may be reduced or absent.

Q What would I T

When your blood glucose level is between 50 and feel like if I had a 75 mg/dl, you may get symptoms such as palpitations, hypoglycemic attack? sweating, trembling, feeling anxious, turning pale, and hunger. If your blood glucose level falls below 50 mg/dl your symptoms alter as your brain starts to be deprived of glucose and no longer functions well. You might feel disorientated, find it difficult to concentrate, or have blurred vision or a headache. You may also be uncooperative or aggressive.

Q How likely am I to T have a hypoglycemic attack?

You are at risk of hypoglycemic attacks only if you take insulin or insulin-stimulating pills, such as sulfonylureas. (Even if you manage your diabetes with other types of pills or with diet and exercise, you may have hypoglycemic attacks if the blood glucose rises and insulin secretion is delayed. The delayed insulin production caused by your diabetes can cause your blood glucose to drop after a meal, but this will correct itself without you needing extra carbohydrate.) Hypoglycemic attacks are more likely if you lose weight—you will probably need less medication.

D E A L I N G W I T H H Y P O G LY C E M I A

Q How can I prevent T myself from having a hypoglycemic attack?

Q My blood glucose T sometimes drops below 75 mg/dl but I feel fine. Do I need to do anything?

Q How should I treat a T

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Identifying situations where you are at risk of hypoglycemic attacks, for example, eating less, drinking alcohol, or being in a hot climate/environment, such as a hot bath or sauna, will help you plan ahead. In these situations, carrying extra snacks or reducing your insulin/pill dose in advance allows you to be prepared if your blood glucose drops. If it helps, ask friends, family, or colleagues to remind you to test your blood glucose or to eat snacks. If you suspect that your blood glucose level is falling at any time, a blood test will give you the information you need to take action. Yes, any blood glucose level below 75 mg/dl is defined as a hypoglycemic attack, regardless of how you are feeling. If you don’t get symptoms—or you used to, but don’t any more—keeping your blood glucose out of the hypoglycemia range for a few weeks can help restore your symptoms. If you have hypoglycemia symptoms and a test result of 75 mg/dl, don’t wait for your blood glucose to drop below that level—treat yourself for hypoglycemia immediately.

The initial treatment for hypoglycemia is to eat or drink hypoglycemic attack? something that is high in glucose and quickly absorbed. The options include: three glucose pills (available from pharmacies); a high-energy sugar drink, ordinary cola, or lemonade; two teaspoons of sugar dissolved in water; or one dose or 10g of glucose or dextrose gel (available from pharmacies). Follow this by eating a slower-acting carbohydrate food to help keep your blood glucose level up. Options include a sandwich, a piece of toast, a piece of fruit, two or three cookies, or a bowl of cereal.

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Q Will I become T

If you don’t treat or receive treatment for your hypoglycemic attack and your blood glucose level unconscious or continues to fall, you may lose consciousness, although pass out if I have a hypoglycemic attack? this is rare. It usually takes up to 2 hours or more after your early warning symptoms start—but it may happen within 10–15 minutes of the later symptoms. If you lose consciousness and you don’t receive help, your body will usually gradually recover by itself, and you regain consciousness naturally within an hour or two.

TREATING A HYPOGLYCEMIC ATTACK A friend who takes insulin or insulin-stimulating pills may have an occasional hypoglycemic attack. If the person is confused and unable to treat himself, you may need to help. Follow these two steps if the person is conscious. If the person loses consciousness, you may need to give a glucagon injection (see opposite). 1 If the person has early symptoms of hypoglycemia, such as sweating, trembling, or palpitations, ask him to do a blood glucose test. If he has later symptoms, such as confusion, aggression, or blurred vision, ask him to eat three glucose pills or drink a sugary drink immediately. 2 If the person starts to feel better quickly, give a carbohydrate snack to keep his blood glucose level up after the glucose has been absorbed. This could be two or three cookies, a sandwich, or a piece of fruit. Too much carbohydrate food can cause a high blood glucose level later. Stay with the person until he or she feels better. Don’t give any food or drink to someone you suspect is losing consciousness in case he or she is unable to swallow.

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Q One of my friends T

Glucagon is sometimes used to treat serious hypoglycemic attacks—it works by converting glycogen has a glucagon injection kit at home. in your liver to glucose. If you have good early warning symptoms, you do not need a glucagon kit because Should I have one? you will have plenty of time to take glucose followed by a carbohydrate snack. If you don’t get the early symptoms, or you tend to become disoriented or lose consciousness very quickly, it might be a good idea to get a glucagon kit so that a colleague, friend, or family member can inject you with glucagon if necessary. If you are unsure about whether you need a glucagon kit, consult your health professional to help you decide.

Q What will happen T to me if I have a hypoglycemic attack in the middle of the night when I am asleep?

Q Sometimes after a T hypoglycemic attack my blood glucose goes really high. Does this mean I’ve eaten too much?

You may wake up, but even if you remain asleep, your body will eventually correct your blood glucose level by converting glycogen in your liver into glucose and releasing it into your bloodstream. Excess insulin also wears off naturally in time. Hypoglycemic attacks can, rarely, be life-threatening if you have been drinking large amounts of alcohol on an empty stomach because alcohol impairs this corrective mechanism. This is why it is essential to balance your alcohol intake with food or to take a lower dose of insulin or insulin-stimulating tablets if you know that you are going to be drinking. Not necessarily. Your liver responds to a hypoglycemic attack by releasing extra glucose into your bloodstream, which can make your blood glucose rise too high after you have had a hypoglycemic attack. Eating about 1 oz of a carbohydrate food should be sufficient to treat your hypoglycemic attack—eating a greater amount than this can contribute to your high blood glucose reading.

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Dealing with hyperglycemia Q What is T hyperglycemia?

Q What will I T feel like if I get hyperglycemia?

Q I feel well even T though my blood glucose is between 180 and 270 mg/dl. Is that OK?

When you have hyperglycemia, your blood glucose level rises above 130 mg/dl. You probably had hyperglycemia when you were first diagnosed with diabetes. You may also have it if your treatment— healthy eating, physical activity, taking pills, and/or insulin—is not working effectively enough. You may have symptoms such as a dry mouth, excessive thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and blurred vision. However, these symptoms usually appear only when your blood glucose level is 180 mg/dl or more. If you want to know if your blood glucose is rising above 130 mg/dl, the only way to tell is by doing blood glucose tests. No, you still need to take action to lower your blood glucose level. If your blood glucose level is routinely raised, your risk of developing long-term complications will be increased (see pp180–199). Also, if your body becomes accustomed to a higher-thannormal blood glucose level, you may not get symptoms until your blood glucose level reaches 270 mg/dl or more. So, even if you are feeling well, testing your blood glucose level regularly rather than waiting for symptoms to appear is the only way to reliably detect hyperglycemia.

D E A L I N G W I T H H Y P E R G LY C E M I A

Q If my blood glucose T is well controlled does that mean I will never have hyperglycemia?

Q What should I do if T I keep getting a high blood glucose level?

Q How can I prevent T hyperglycemia?

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No. There will be times when you have readings of more than 130 mg/dl, for example, after a celebratory meal, if you are less active than usual, or during an illness or infection. Occasional high readings will not do you any harm, but regular high readings should prompt you to take action. Try to determine what is causing your hyperglycemia, whether it is related to your food intake or reduced physical activity on a particular day, and take appropriate action (for example, eating less or being more active). If there are no obvious causes of your raised blood glucose level, you may need to start taking pills or injecting insulin, or increase either one. The American Diabetes Association recommends an A1c test every 3 months to check your glucose control. Preventive measures include taking your pills or insulin every day, avoiding foods that make your blood glucose rise too high, or compensating for eating these foods by adjusting your medication or being more active. If you are aware of the effect of stress and other hormonal changes on your blood glucose, this can help you predict when you will need to adjust your treatment. To prevent hyperglycemia during illness, don’t stop taking your insulin (especially if you are vomiting) or pills. If your pills or insulin don’t keep your blood glucose level in the recommended range during an illness, you may need an increased dose. See pp142–145 for more information on illness. Regular blood glucose testing can also warn you of hyperglycemia.

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Looking after your heart Q What can I do to T keep my heart and circulation healthy?

Q I’ve had so much T advice about what to eat—what are the most important things to remember?

Q What sort of exercise T

The most important things you can do are to stay or become active, eat healthily (see pp46–47 and pp78–79), and stop smoking and lose weight if you need to. Also, take any prescribed treatment to help keep your blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels within healthy limits. Eating healthy types of fats, for example, monounsaturated fat rather than saturated fat, and limiting your overall fat intake will help protect your heart. High-calorie foods can cause weight gain, which in turn will increase your risk of heart disease, so trying to keep your calorie intake within the recommended limits will help (see pp72–74). If you have high blood pressure, keep the amount of salt you eat to a minumum (see p52). Foods that are rich in fiber and antioxidants, such as fruit, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes, can provide some protection against heart disease (see pp46–47).

Any aerobic activities—those that increase your heart will help reduce my rate and make you feel warm and slightly out of breath risk of heart disease? —such as walking, swimming, or digging the garden, are all good for your heart. If you haven’t been active for a long time, see pp88–91 for ideas on how to get started. If you already have a heart problem, physical activity is likely to improve your health, but your health professional can help you decide which activities will most benefit you.

L O O K I N G A F T E R Y O U R H E A RT

Q What help can I get T to stop smoking?

Q My doctor has T prescribed eight different pills. Do I really need to take all of them?

Q I’ve already had a T heart attack. Is there any point trying to keep healthy?

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Your health professional can help you find local programs to help you stop smoking. Such programs may necessitate regular attendance, and you may be asked to talk about how you are coping, or you may be offered information about using nicotine replacement therapy (such as patches or chewing gum) to help deal with your cravings. You can also buy self-help books that you might find useful. Type 2 diabetes is a complex disease and you probably have a number of conditions: a high blood glucose level, high blood pressure, and a high level of blood fats, often accompanied by being overweight. Each one of these increases your chance of developing heart disease, so you may have been prescribed pills for each of these. You may need two or more types of pill just to control your blood glucose level and possibly insulin as well; you may need three or more different types of pills to treat your blood pressure (see pp160–161); and you may need more pills to lower your blood fat levels. In addition to these, you may be prescribed aspirin to protect your heart, and pills to reduce your appetite. Your heart attack shows that heart disease has already done some damage, but taking steps toward better health will prevent this from getting worse and improve the health of your heart. Taking action now, such as becoming more active and giving up smoking if you smoke, will greatly reduce your chances of having another heart attack or a stroke. Your heart is able to recover, and each step you take toward healthier living will help.

MYTH OR TRUTH?

Myth “I will know if my nerves are damaged because my feet will be more painful” Truth When the nerves to your feet become damaged, this alters your ability to feel what’s happening to them. You might get different sensations from normal, such as tingling, but in general you will have less feeling, so burning or damaging your feet won’t cause you much pain. The amount of pain you have is not a good indication of whether you have nerve damage.

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Looking after your feet Q Why do I need to T look after my feet?

Q If there is something T wrong with my feet, will they be painful?

Q How should I look T after my feet?

Q Can I cut my T toenails myself?

Over time, diabetes can reduce the efficiency of your blood circulation and nervous system, which can affect many areas of your body, including your feet. This makes you more prone to foot ulcers and other injuries, all of which can become infected. You can prevent serious problems by looking after your feet carefully. Not necessarily—if the nerves supplying your feet have been damaged, you may have reduced sensation. You may experience tingling feelings in your feet, but not be aware of an injury or other problem until it is quite advanced. Checking your feet all over every day is the only sure way to tell if something is wrong. You may need to enlist someone else’s help if you can’t do this yourself, for example, if your eyesight is poor or you have problems bending to reach your feet. The box on p137 shows you how to check, wash, dry, and moisturize your feet on a day-to-day basis. In addition to this, taking precautions such as not walking barefoot, particularly when you are outside or in unfamiliar surroundings, will help prevent you from damaging your feet. Yes, see the box on p137 for advice on nail cutting. However, if you have reduced feeling or circulation in your feet, check with your health professional whether you can cut your nails safely. If you can’t bend to cut your nails, or they are too thick, you may need help.

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Q What sort of T footwear do I need?

Q What should I do if T I have a blister?

Q Do I need to T take any special precautions when I go hiking?

Q When should I seek T professional help for foot injuries?

Q Can I put a hot T water bottle on my feet?

Try to avoid wearing tight or restrictive socks or panty hose. It’s also a good idea to avoid pointed toes and high heels for everyday wear—your footwear should not rub or cramp any areas of your feet. Check inside your footwear to make sure there are no sharp objects sticking through the soles. Try to leave blisters alone. Don’t pop them, and avoid putting pressure on them. If a blister bursts, cover it with an adhesive bandage and keep checking it to make sure it heals. Consult your health professional if a blister is not healing properly. It’s a good idea to invest in a pair of good quality shoes or boots that support the length and width of your feet. Leather is an ideal material since it molds to the shape of your feet. Check your feet carefully before you go hiking and when you come back. It’s useful to take a basic first aid kit in case you get a blister. All but the most minor foot problems should be treated by a health professional. You can treat athlete’s foot by yourself at home using an antifungal cream or powder, but you should seek help for all of the following: corns, ingrown toenails, hard or cracked skin, sore areas that don’t seem to be healing, bruising or discoloration, and any loss of feeling in any part of your foot. It’s not advisable to put your feet against any direct source of heat, whether it’s a hot water bottle or a radiator, because of the risk of burns. If your feet get cold in bed, wear a pair of loose-fitting socks.

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DAY-TO-DAY FOOT CARE A good foot-care routine will help you keep your feet healthy. Carry out this procedure every day, allowing plenty of time to thoroughly check your feet for injuries and problems, to help you find potential problems early on. 1 Wash your feet daily in warm water, using a mild soap. Avoid soaking your feet for more than 10 minutes, however, because this can dry out the skin.

2 Dry your feet carefully, especially in between your toes. Now check for tender areas, bruising, and cuts or hard or cracked skin on the top and on the soles of your feet. Trim your toenails when you need to. Cut them to the shape of and level with the end of your toe. Don’t cut them too short and don’t stick sharp instruments down the side of a nail. 4 Apply an unperfumed moisturizing cream to your feet, paying attention to the skin between your toes and any hard skin on your soles.

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Stress and diabetes Q I sometimes feel T

Short-term irritability may be normal for you, but if irritable—is this the you’re irritable most of the time, you are probably same thing as stress? suffering from stress. Being constantly annoyed or irritated, feeling pressured, and finding it difficult to make day-to-day decisions about your life and your diabetes are all signs of stress. Try to find out what is causing your stress in order to find ways to deal with it —see the action plan on p141.

Q What signs of stress T should I look out for?

Q Can stress cause T diabetes?

Q How will stress T affect my diabetes?

Stress affects people in different ways. You may have physical symptoms such as tension headaches, migraines, digestive problems, or insomnia. Your appetite may increase or decrease, and you may have cravings for caffeine, alcohol, or sugary snacks. The hormones you produce when you are stressed or sick, or after a shock, can make your insulin less effective and cause your blood glucose to rise. If your pancreas has already been struggling to produce enough insulin, stress may be the factor that tips the balance and raises your blood glucose, leading to your diabetes being diagnosed. But stress only exposes underlying diabetes—it doesn’t cause it. Stress hormones tend to cause your blood glucose level to rise (see previous question). If stress is regularly causing high blood glucose—even if this is short-term —you may need an increase in your medication. If you are unsure of what to do, ask your health professional.

STRESS AND DIABETES

Q How can I beat T stress?

Q Can physical activity T reduce stress?

Q How can relaxation T help me be less stressed?

Q When I’m stressed T I find it difficult to look after my diabetes. What can I do?

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Relaxation can provide a longer-term solution to stress than more instant solutions, such as smoking, drinking coffee or alcohol, or eating comfort foods. If you find it difficult to take any time out to reduce your stress, talk to someone close to you and ask for help and support. The four-step action plan on p141 can help you find ways of coping. Yes, being active raises your levels of endorphins and serotonin, two brain chemicals that influence your mood and sense of well-being. If you can fit physical activity into your life on a regular basis, you will feel better in general. Being active helps your body work more efficiently and raises your self-esteem. See pp78– 97 for information on becoming and staying active. Unlike quick-fixes, such as alcohol, coffee, cigarettes, or sugary comfort food, relaxation is a solution to stress that will help you cope better in the long-term. Taking time to relax can help you put things into perspective. Deep breathing, stretching, a walk in the fresh air, or listening to your favorite music can all help reduce your level of stress. Stress can reduce your ability to cope with daily tasks, including looking after your diabetes. You may also feel you want to overeat or eat less healthily when you are stressed. Try to set yourself small realistic goals during these times, for example, eating two or three portions of fruit and vegetables a day or limiting the number of cookies you eat. Feeling that you can still meet one or two small goals will help you stay motivated.

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How to manage stress Diabetes is a lifelong condition and at times it’s normal to feel frustrated or tired of the effort of looking after yourself. Being aware of stress, and taking action quickly, can prevent things from getting you down. Dealing with stress can also help your blood glucose control. When you are under stress, your body produces hormones that make your insulin even less effective—this is why it’s important to closely monitor your blood glucose level at times of stress. Physical activity is a useful way of relieving stress—and it lowers your blood glucose, too.

SOURCES OF DIABETESRELATED STRESS Working hard to control your diabetes but still getting high blood glucose readings. Feeling guilty because you haven’t found time to monitor your blood glucose level. Finding it hard to remember to take your medication at the right times. Being in situations where you don’t have access to the sort of food you need. Conflict between the way you manage your diabetes and the way other people —friends and family, for example—tell you you should be managing your diabetes. Guilt about being inactive or overweight. Feeling fed up with your day-to-day diabetes routine.

LEARNING TO RELAX

Yoga is a great way to calm your mind, and you don’t have to spend lots of time learning complicated poses. Some simple stretching movements combined with breathing exercises can quickly make you feel calmer.

ACTION PLAN TO BEAT DIABETES-RELATED STRESS If you feel that the stress of looking after your diabetes is getting on top of you, this four-step action plan can help. Checking your progress will help you see if you are achieving your goals. You might want to reward yourself if you are doing well, or revise your plan if you are still struggling. 1 What situations are causing stress in your life?

3 What are your options? Identify how you would like to care for

Identify the times when you find it difficult

your diabetes, then ask yourself what

to look after your diabetes, and which

steps you could take to be in this position.

tasks present the biggest challenge. Be as

For example, if you are worried about not

specific as possible about what is stressful.

doing enough blood glucose tests, what changes in your life would enable you

2 What are your feelings? Consider how you feel about situations

to test more frequently?

that cause stress and write down your feelings. Acknowledging that you feel

4 What are you going to do? Work out what exactly you are going to

anxious, resentful, or angry about some

do on a week-to-week basis with targets

aspects of your diabetes care is often

and a time scale. Keeping your action plan

the first step to tackling this.

readily available will remind you of these.

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When you are ill Q Am I more prone to T infections because I have diabetes?

Q How does an T infection, such as a cold or flu, affect my blood glucose level?

Q What should I do T about my diabetes if I become ill?

Q What should I do T about eating and drinking when I am ill?

Simply having diabetes does not make you more prone to common illnesses than anyone else. But if your blood glucose level is consistently high—for example, more than 180 mg/dl—this increases your vulnerability to infection because your white blood cells cannot fight bacteria and viruses as effectively as usual. An infection is likely to raise your blood glucose level, because part of your body’s natural reaction to illness is to produce more glucose. You also produce stress hormones, such as epinephrine and cortisol, that make your natural or injected insulin less efficient at controlling your blood glucose level. So, even if you are not eating any food, your blood glucose level is likely to be elevated. Testing your blood glucose level at least every four hours will tell you whether it is above 180 mg/dl—if it is, you will need to adjust your medication. If you feel too ill to do blood tests or you are unsure what to do, consult your health professional sooner rather than later. Try not to stop eating and drinking—you need food and liquid to help you fight disease, prevent dehydration, and keep your temperature down. Drink at least 4 pints of sugar-free fluids every day to prevent dehydration. If you are vomiting uncontrollably, contact your health professional urgently.

WHEN YOU ARE ILL

Q If I can’t eat when T I’m ill, should I still take my pills and insulin?

Q I usually take cough T medicine and flu remedies when I’m ill. Can I still do this?

Q What effect would T a stomach upset have on my blood glucose?

Q Is it true that severe T

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Yes, your body produces glucose even if you are not eating, and it may produce more glucose than usual when you are ill. Continuing to take your pills or insulin is essential to keep your blood glucose level down, and you may even need to temporarily increase your dose. You can reduce the dose when you recover. If you have a longer-term illness, taking your medication to keep your blood glucose within the recommended range will help prevent the long-term complications of diabetes. Drugs and remedies that you buy over the counter are safe to use when you have diabetes. Even drugs that contain sugar, such as cough syrup, will not have a significant effect on your blood glucose level because the dose that you will need to take is fairly small. If you prefer, you can ask your pharmacist to recommend a low-sugar product. Bouts of vomiting and diarrhea may be short-lived but they can have a serious effect on your diabetes within the space of a few hours. The main danger is that your blood glucose level can rise very high, causing severe dehydration. Doing regular blood glucose tests—or asking someone to do this for you if you are not well enough—will give you information about your diabetes control and when to contact your health professional.

Severe dehydration can lead to a condition known as dehydration can lead nonketotic hyperosmolar state (HONK), which may to a coma? result in a coma. This is why, if you can’t take your pills or keep food or fluids down, you should contact your health professional or hospital as soon as possible.

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Drugs for chronic illness Q I take pills for high T blood pressure. Will these affect my diabetes control?

Q Is it true that T steroids can affect my blood glucose?

Q My blood pressure T pills affect my blood glucose level but my doctor says they are the ones I need. What can I do?

Certain medicines that may be prescribed for high blood pressure, including thiazide diuretics such as hydrochlorthiazide, and beta blockers such as propranolol, can affect your blood glucose level. You might need two or three different types of pills in combination to treat your high blood pressure effectively. Even if your blood pressure pills affect your blood glucose, you still need to take them, because reducing your blood pressure is just as important as lowering your blood glucose. Yes, steroid pills or injections increase your blood glucose level because they make it harder for your insulin to work effectively. Even if you are only taking steroids for a short time, you may need to increase the dose of your pills or insulin to compensate. Consult your health professional if you are unsure. Steroids may be prescribed to reduce inflammation if you have Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, or rheumatoid arthritis. They are also used to treat chronic lung conditions, such as asthma. Controlling your blood pressure is as important as controlling your blood glucose level in terms of preventing the long-term complications of diabetes. If your blood pressure pills are effective, you may need to work out with your health professional what food or activity changes you can make to control your blood glucose level, or what changes in medication you need.

WHEN YOU ARE ILL

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Going into the hospital Q I am having an T operation unrelated to diabetes. Should I keep up my normal diabetes routine?

Q What do a glucose T drip and an insulin infusion do?

Q When I’m discharged T from the hospital should I go back to my old diabetes routine?

If you are asked not to eat or drink anything before your operation, you may need to reduce your dose of pills or insulin before you go into the hospital—consult your health professional about this. Once you are in the hospital, the staff will probably take over your diabetes care around the time of your operation. If you have to remain in the hospital, you may be able to do your own blood glucose tests and manage your own medication. This treatment closely controls your blood glucose level when you are not able to eat properly, for example, when you are having an operation. An insulin infusion and a glucose drip are inserted into your vein—the rate at which insulin enters your bloodstream is adjusted according to your blood glucose level, which is measured every hour. As soon as you are eating properly again, the glucose drip and insulin infusion are replaced with your usual pills or insulin. During your hospital stay, changes may have been made to your diabetes medication because of the effect of your illness or operation. Before you leave the hospital, ask your health professional if your medication has changed or what the effects of the change may be. If you have been far less active in the hospital than normal and you take insulin-stimulating pills or insulin, you might be at risk of a hypoglycemic attack if you continue to take the same dose of medication when you resume your normal life at home.

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Women’s health Q Can my hormones T affect my blood glucose level?

Yes, during your menstrual cycle, levels of estrogen and progesterone in your body rise and fall, and this can cause your blood glucose level to rise and fall. This is because your body’s production of insulin may not match the varying hormone levels.

Q My blood glucose T

If your blood glucose level rises before your period, level changes just extra physical activity, avoiding extra carbohydrates, before my menstrual or increasing the dose of pills or insulin for the few period. How should I days before your period can all help. If your blood deal with this? glucose level falls and you have more hypoglycemic attacks before your period, it may be useful to eat more carbohydrates or reduce the dose of your medication, and to carry extra remedies for hypoglycemic attacks.

Q Can I take oral T contraceptives when I have Type 2 diabetes?

Q I’m menopausal and T

Yes, all oral contraceptives are safe to take when you have diabetes. Sometimes the pill can cause a slight rise in your blood glucose level—but you can adapt your diabetes management to deal with this.

During menopause, your hormone levels are my blood glucose unpredictable and this can affect your blood glucose levels are all over the level. Sometimes changes in your blood glucose level let place. Why is this you know that your hormone levels have changed, and and what can I do? sometimes it works the other way round. Monitoring your blood glucose frequently and recording the results —together with how you are feeling—can give you the information you need to adjust your medication. Talking to your health professional may also be helpful.

W O M E N ’ S H E A LT H

Q Can I take hormone T therapy (HT) if I have diabetes?

Q Why do I keep T getting cystitis and yeast infections?

Q Can I still get T pregnant now I’ve got Type 2 diabetes?

Q Can I still take my T diabetes pills when I’m pregnant?

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Diabetes itself will not stop you from taking HT for a short time to relieve your menopause symptoms. Taking HT in the long term is not recommended because it may increase your risk of heart disease. If you have had certain forms of cancer, HT may not be suitable. Cystitis (an inflammation of your bladder) and yeast (an overgrowth of fungus in your vagina) can both occur if your blood glucose level is frequently higher than recommended. A raised blood glucose level allows bacteria and yeast to thrive. You can be treated with antibiotics or antifungal pills or creams. If you have autonomic neuropathy (see p199) that affects your bladder you may also be more prone to cystitis. Yes, diabetes does not affect your fertility, but you will need to plan your pregnancy, ideally with your health professional. Changing or stopping your usual medication and taking insulin is recommended and be sure that your kidneys and eyes are checked. You will be advised to take folic acid daily and attend a diabetes prenatal clinic. If you become pregnant by accident, contact your health professional as soon as you know. You may be able to keep taking metformin (see p158) for a time after you find you are pregnant if your pregnancy is unplanned, but other tablets for Type 2 diabetes are not recommended when you are pregnant (or breastfeeding). Your blood glucose level will rise during pregnancy, and when you need medication to control this, your health professional is likely to recommend insulin injections.

MYTH OR TRUTH?

Myth “I am less likely to get pregnant because I have Type 2 diabetes” Truth Type 2 diabetes doesn’t affect fertility so if you are not yet menopausal, you are just as likely to become pregnant as before. However, there are risks to your baby’s health as well as your own if you conceive when your blood glucose level is regularly outside the recommended range. If you wish to become pregnant, control your blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels to reduce these risks.

W O M E N ’ S H E A LT H

Q How should I care T for my diabetes while I’m pregnant?

Q Will I need special T tests during my pregnancy?

Q What will happen to T my diabetes during labor?

Q Can I breastfeed if T I have diabetes?

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Aiming for your pre-meal blood glucose level to be between 75 and 108 mg/dl and your post-meal (2 hours after eating) blood glucose level to be 75–130 mg/dl, with an A1c test result of 7 percent or below, is recommended. As your pregnancy progresses, you will need to take an increased amount of insulin and you will have regular appointments with your health professional. Yes, you will be offered an A1c test every 1–2 months, your blood pressure will be taken on every visit to your health professional, and your eyes will be checked at least every 3 months for retinopathy (see pp184– 185) All your medication will be reviewed. You may be offered special scans to check your baby’s growth and development. If your labor progresses normally, you may be able to monitor your own blood glucose level and give yourself insulin. If you have been advised not to eat —in case you might need a general anesthetic—you may need to have an intravenous glucose drip and insulin (see p145) to keep your blood glucose in the recommended range. Yes, although you may be more prone to hypoglycemic attacks if you take insulin. Reducing your dose or increasing the amount of carbohydrate food you eat can be helpful. While you are breastfeeding, keep your hypoglycemic treatments and snacks nearby and drink extra sugar-free fluid. Taking pills for diabetes is not recommended while you are breastfeeding.

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LIVING WITH DIABETES

Caring for someone with diabetes Q My partner has T diabetes. How will this affect our relationship?

Q My parents live in T an assisted living facility. Although they are well, I worry about them having hypoglycemic attacks. How can I make sure they are safe?

Q I care full-time for T my husband who has diabetes and heart disease. Can I get any help?

Your partner may want you to be closely involved with his or her diabetes care, or may want to manage it alone. Discuss with your partner the type of support he or she needs and wants. On a practical level, it is useful to know what to do if your partner has a hypoglycemic attack (if insulin-stimulating pills or insulin are used) or what to do if he or she becomes very ill. Checking what your parents know about hypoglycemic attacks and how to treat themselves and each other will help reassure you. If they are unsure of what to do in the event of a hypoglycemic attack, get information for them that might help. Your parents may find that eating regularly is sufficient to prevent hypoglycemic attacks most of the time. Having remedies readily available and checking their blood glucose levels regularly will prepare them if a hypoglycemic attack does happen. If your parents start to have hypoglycemic attacks regularly, they may need a change of medication. Caring for someone fulltime can be physically and emotionally demanding—help might be available from friends, family, health professionals, volunteer organizations, and social workers. There might also be a carergivers’ support group in your area that you may find helpful to contact.

CARING FOR SOMEONE WITH DIABETES

Q Our 18-year-old son T has diabetes and learning difficulties. How can we help him look after his diabetes?

Q My husband and son T both have diabetes. My son is also obese. I’m fed up with making three different meals a day. What can I do?

Q My teenage daughter T has just been diagnosed with diabetes, but doesn’t seem to accept it. What can I do?

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You may find that your son is more anxious to do some things than others, and he may behave responsibly on one day but not on the next. Forcing him to look after his diabetes when he isn’t ready might cause a lot of unnecessary stress for all the family. On the other hand, doing everything for him might feel like a lot of hard work. You might strike a balance by encouraging your son to do the things that he is willing and able to do (and always giving him plenty of praise when he does something well) and taking over his diabetes care when he is struggling. The guidelines for eating healthily are the same for all three of you, but you may have different tastes in food. Rather than letting diabetes be the reason to prepare different foods, it might help you to discuss as a family the foods each of you like and how to include these. If your son needs to lose weight but your husband does not, you may be able to adjust the portion sizes of meals so that your son eats fewer calories than your husband (see pp72–73 for more information on calories). Your daughter might have strong feelings about her diagnosis, ranging from denial to anger, resentment, and depression. She may also be feeling very self-conscious about her body if she is overweight. You might help your daughter by giving as much emotional support as you can, while also being firm and consistent in your approach to her diabetes care. If you are finding it difficult to communicate with her, your daughter might talk more easily with another member of the family, a friend, or a counselor.

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LIVING WITH DIABETES

Living with someone with diabetes Q My child has been T diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes. How will I cope?

You may have experienced a variety of emotions when you discovered that your child had diabetes. You may feel angry, upset, guilty, helpless, or anxious. Your health professional can provide you with information about any local support networks and put you in touch with others in a similar position. Learning more about diabetes can also reassure you that you have the most up-to-date information to help you care for your child.

Q How do I look after T

Help your child choose healthy food options, and my child with Type 2 encourage him or her to engage in lots of physical diabetes? activity and lose weight in order to stay healthy. Blood glucose testing, taking prescribed medication, and attending diabetes clinics are all part of routine diabetes care for children as well as adults. Your health professional can advise you about specific aspects of diabetes care, for example, coping with diabetes at school or when your child is away from home.

Q I live with my T 85-year-old mother who has just been diagnosed with diabetes. How will I need to help her?

Your mother may have symptoms such as blurred vision, intense thirst, or frequent urination, and she may need you to read things for her and help her get drinks or visit the toilet. When her blood glucose is lower, her symptoms will abate but she may need to test her blood glucose and take medication. You can also help her eat healthy food on a regular basis.

LIVING WITH SOMEONE WITH DIABETES

Q I don’t feel that T my husband looks after his diabetes properly. Is it right to interfere?

Q I’m frightened T that I won’t be able to cope if my girlfriend develops complications. What can I do?

Q I’m always worried T about whether my partner has done his tests and injections. How can I cope better?

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Discovering what your husband thinks about how well he is looking after his diabetes—and listening to him impartially—is more helpful than directly interfering. Being interested and learning more about diabetes will help you be aware of the issues your husband might be facing. Helping him find his own solutions is more likely to be successful in the long term than offering advice. In particular, being critical can lead to mutual resentment and make it less easy for the two of you to have an objective discussion about his diabetes. Finding out with your girlfriend about the long-term complications of diabetes, what causes them, and how to help prevent them will increase your confidence. There is a lot that your girlfriend might be able to do on a day-to-day basis to look after her health. If she is happy for you to attend her annual review (see pp120–121), you can go along and ask her health professional about any issues that are worrying you. If your girlfriend does develop long-term complications, understanding what treatment she needs—and how she should care for her diabetes—will enable you to give support and assistance where necessary. Worrying about someone close to you is normal. Sharing your concerns with your partner and not blaming him or being critical will help you both find solutions. Find out whether he would like to be reminded about blood glucose tests and injections, or if he would feel that you were checking up on him. See pp38–41 for more information on dealing with the emotional aspects of diabetes.

Medication You will probably need to take some form of medication to help control your blood glucose level. This medication may be either glucose-lowering pills or insulin injections. You are also likely to need to take pills for high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels, to reduce your risk of circulatory conditions such as heart attack and stroke.

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Taking pills Q After 3 years of T having diabetes I now need pills to control my glucose level. Is this because I haven’t lost enough weight?

When you have Type 2 diabetes, your body cells are resistant to the action of insulin, so your pancreas needs to work harder to produce extra insulin. Eventually, you may no longer produce enough insulin, and then you need pills to control your blood glucose level. Losing weight reduces your insulin resistance so that you can delay your need for pills, but it is unlikely that you will never need them.

Q Are the pills I take T

No, insulin would be destroyed during digestion before for my glucose levels it could reach your bloodstream if taken in pill form. the same as insulin? This is why, if you need insulin, it is taken in the form of injections.

Q Can pills cure my T diabetes?

Q Every 6 months, my T health professional seems to prescribe more glucoselowering pills. Why is this?

No, pills don’t cure diabetes. Instead, they work in various ways to help keep your blood glucose in the recommended range. This may seem like a cure but if you stop taking your pills, your blood glucose will start to rise again. Diabetes is a progressive condition, which means that it will continually change over time because your insulin production steadily declines. The dose and type of pills may need to be altered to reflect what is happening in your body. Your health professional will prescribe the number and dose of pills or insulin that you need to keep your blood glucose level in the recommended range at any one time, and this is likely to continue to change over time.

TA K I N G P I L L S

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Q What is the T

If you have Type 2 diabetes you are likely to have a maximum number of combination of insulin resistance (causing your blood glucose level to rise), high blood pressure, high blood pills I will need? fat levels, and an increased risk of heart disease. You are likely to need different pills at different times to treat each aspect of your diabetes, so there is no maximum amount.

Q Can I adjust the T dose of my glucoselowering pills myself?

Q What should I do if I T forget to take a pill?

Q I need three different T types of pills—how can I remember to take them all?

If you know how your pills work, for how long, and what the maximum dose is, you are more likely to be able to make your own dose adjustments successfully. You may find this useful when you are ill or if your routine changes frequently. Regular blood glucose testing will tell you whether your adjustments have achieved the result you wanted. Keep your health professional informed about changes you’ve made. If you remember within the hour, take the pill then. If you forget until the next pill is due, take your usual dose rather than taking double. If you forget a pill occasionally, this is unlikely to do you any harm, but if you are constantly forgetting, you may need to find ways of reminding yourself (see below). Count out your pills at the beginning of the day and check that you have taken them all at the end of the day. You can also put your pills somewhere obvious, for example, by the coffeepot or on a bedside table. You could set an alarm for the time you need to take your pills or ask someone to remind or call you. If you are often away from home at the times when you take your pills, keep a supply in your pocket or bag.

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PILLS TO TREAT RAISED BLOOD GLUCOSE One or more of these drugs may be prescribed to control your blood glucose level. Some pills contain a combination of two of the drugs shown—this helps reduce the number of pills you need to take. Your health professional will know which pills are available in combination form. TYPE OF DRUG

BIGUANIDE

Example

Metformin hydrochloride

How it works

Increases body cells’ sensitivity to insulin, and reduces amount of glucose produced by your liver.

Dosage and timing

500mg and 850mg pills. The initial dose of metformin is a single pill (500mg); the maximum dose is 2,500 mg once daily. You need to take it with or after meals. Slow-release pills (once a day) are also available.

Precautions/other

Side effects include nausea and diarrhea, which can be

information

reduced by taking your pills with or after a meal or starting with a small dose and increasing gradually. If you have kidney problems or severe heart disease, metformin may not be suitable for you.

TYPE OF DRUG

SULFONYLUREAS

Examples

Glimepiride, glipizide, glyburide, tolbutamide

How they work

Increase your insulin production.

Dosage and timing

Once, twice, or three times a day before meals, depending on your pills’ duration of action.

Precautions/other

Side effects include weight gain and hypoglycemic attacks.

information

You may need to eat regular meals or snacks to avoid hypoglycemic attacks. If you also take other drugs, for example nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)—or if you are pregnant or breastfeeding, or have reduced kidney or liver function, you may not be able to take sulfonylureas.

TA K I N G P I L L S

TYPE OF DRUG

MALEATE THIAZOLIDINEDIONES (GLITAZONES)

Examples

Rosiglitazone and pioglitazone

How they work

Reduce your insulin resistance and have a beneficial effect

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on blood fat levels, helping protect against heart disease. Dosage and timing

Once or twice a day; either one or two pills at a time.

Precautions/other

Side effects include putting on weight and retaining fluid.

information

If you have heart failure or reduced liver function, you are pregnant or breastfeeding, or you are taking diuretics (pills to remove extra fluid in your body), these pills will not be suitable for you. You may need regular liver function tests.

TYPE OF DRUG

MEALTIME GLUCOSE REGULATORS

Examples

Repaglinide and nateglinide

How they work

Increase your insulin production over a short period.

Dosage and timing

One pill before each meal.

Precautions/other

Gaining weight and hypoglycemic attacks are possible side

information

effects but less likely than with other insulin-stimulating pills because they work just at mealtimes. If you are pregnant or breastfeeding they are unsuitable for you.

TYPE OF DRUG

ALPHA-GLUCOSIDASE INHIBITOR

Example

Acarbose

How they work

Slows down speed of carbohydrate digestion and absorbtion so that glucose is released more slowly into your bloodstream.

Dosage and timing

25–50mg once a day with the first mouthful of your evening meal, increased slowly every 2–3 weeks up to a maximum of 200mg three times a day with meals.

Precautions/other

Side effects include flatulence and diarrhea. If you are

information

pregnant or breastfeeding, it is unsuitable for you.

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PILLS FOR HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE You will probably need more than one type of pill to control your blood pressure. Taking small doses of pills in combination rather than large doses of single pills can limit side effects. When you first take pills, you are likely to take a small dose at night (to prevent your blood pressure dropping when you stand up). Your dose will be increased until it controls your blood pressure effectively. TYPE OF DRUG

ACE (ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME) INHIBITORS

Examples

Lisinopril, captopril, enalapril, perindopril, and ramipril

How they work

These drugs relax blood vessels to lower your blood pressure. They also lower pressure on the filtering units in your kidneys and help prevent further kidney damage if you have early nephropathy.

Precautions/other

The main side effect is a dry cough. They may be less effective

information

if you are of African–American origin. They may not be suitable if you have autonomic neuropathy, are pregnant, or take diuretics, such as amiloride or spironolactone.

TYPE OF DRUG

ANGIOTENSIN II RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS

Examples

Losartan, irbesartan, valsartan, and candesartan

How they work

They relax your blood vessels, lowering your blood pressure and the pressure of blood flowing through your kidneys.

Precautions/other

You may be prescribed these instead of ACE inhibitors if you

information

have a cough as a side effect (see above).

TYPE OF DRUG

ALPHA 1 BLOCKERS (ADRENERGIC)

Examples

Doxazosin, prazosin, and hydralazine

How they work

Widen blood vessels to help your blood flow more easily. They can also reduce blood fat levels and insulin sensitivity.

Precautions/other

Side effects may include nasal stuffiness or low blood

information

pressure on standing.

TA K I N G P I L L S

TYPE OF DRUG

BETA BLOCKERS

Examples

Atenolol, metoprolol, and propranolol

How they work

They block the action of epinephrine (a hormone that

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causes your blood vessels to narrow). Some beta blockers act directly on your heart, reducing the amount of blood it pumps at a time. Precautions/other

Beta blockers are not suitable if you have asthma or

information

peripheral ischemia (see p191). Side effects you may experience include less warning of hypoglycemia, cold hands, vivid dreams, and a rise in blood glucose and blood fats. Men may develop erectile dysfunction. Beta blockers may be less effective if you are of African–Caribbean origin.

TYPE OF DRUG

CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS

Examples

Nifedipine, amlodipine, diltiazem, and verapamil

How they work

They lower your blood pressure by dilating (widening) your blood vessels.

Precautions/other

These might be prescribed if you have angina or an irregular

information

heartbeat (arrhythmia) as well as high blood pressure. Side effects include fluid retention in your ankles. Calcium channel blockers are not suitable if you have heart failure or autonomic neuropathy (see p199).

TYPE OF DRUG

DIURETICS

Examples

Furosemide and hydrochlorthiazide

How they work

They increase the amount of fluid your kidneys excrete (so lowering blood pressure by reducing the amount of fluid throughout your body) and dilate (widen) your blood vessels.

Precautions/other

These drugs may help protect you from a stroke. They may

information

cause your blood glucose and cholesterol levels to rise and can contribute to erectile dysfunction (see pp196–197).

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OTHER PILLS THAT MAY BE PRESCRIBED In addition to pills for your blood glucose and your blood pressure, you may also be prescribed pills if you have other conditions related to your Type 2 diabetes. This chart gives you information about some of the pills that may be prescribed for these conditions. TYPE OF DRUG

ASPIRIN

How it works

Aspirin makes your blood clot less readily, making it flow through your blood vessels more efficiently.

Dosage and timing

You are likely to be prescribed a small dose of aspirin (up to 300mg) each day, using the coated variety, and be told to take it with food.

Precautions/other

If you do not already take aspirin regularly, it may be given to

information

you if the doctors suspect that you have had a heart attack. Aspirin may also be recommended if you are flying long distances, unless you have side effects from it. Aspirin would not be prescribed if you have a stomach ulcer or abnormal bleeding patterns since it can irritate your stomach lining. An alternative may be prescribed if aspirin is unsuitable for you.

TYPE OF DRUG

HMG COA REDUCTASE INHIBITOR

Examples

Atorvastatin, pravastatin, and simvastatin

How they work

Statins work by reducing the level of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in your bloodstream. Some also reduce the level of triglycerides in your blood.

Dosage and timing

You are likely to be prescribed a single dose of statin to take once a day at any time.

Precautions/other

Your liver function is checked before you start treatment

information

and regularly while you are taking it. You may experience stomachache, indigestion, constipation, and flatulence as side effects.

TA K I N G P I L L S

TYPE OF DRUG

FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVES

Examples

Gemfibrozil and fenofibrate

How they work

Fibrates reduce the amount of triglycerides in your bloodstream and increase your HDL cholesterol.

Dosage and timing

You will be prescribed a single dose each day.

Precautions/other

Your kidney function is checked before starting a fibric acid

information

derivative. Some statins cannot be used in combination with these drugs.

TYPE OF DRUG

PANCREATIC LIPASE INHIBITOR

Example

Orlistat

How it works

It reduces your body’s ability to process fat so that it passes through your body.

Dosage and timing

You take one pill each day.

Precautions/other

You may be prescribed this pill if you are very overweight

information

but have started to lose weight. It is most successful if you eat healthily and try to reduce the number of calories you are consuming. Side effects including flatulence and a sense of urgency in your bowel movements and diarrhea, which can be avoided if your food intake is low in fat. If you continue to lose weight using orlistat, you may find that your blood glucose and cholesterol levels also decrease.

TYPE OF DRUG

APPETITE SUPPRESSANTS

Example

Sibutramine

How they work

These pills reduce your appetite and slightly increase your body temperature so that you burn more calories.

Dosage and timing

You take one pill each day.

Precautions/other

Sibutramine can be successful in helping you lose weight

information

but your blood pressure may rise so you will have regular blood pressure checks while you are taking it.

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The role of insulin injections Q I’ve taken pills for T

Your natural insulin production is so low that, even with the help of pills, eating healthily, and being active, my diabetes for years. Why do I need your blood glucose is not adequately controlled. Your blood glucose tests and A1c test will show that your to start injecting blood glucose level is persistently higher than the insulin? recommended range of 75–130 mg/dl.

Q I usually take pills. T Why was I given insulin when I went into the hospital?

Q Does the insulin I T inject work in the same way as insulin produced naturally?

Q Can I stop taking T pills now I’m on insulin?

When you are unwell or stressed, your blood glucose level can rise. Keeping your glucose level within the recommended range is an important part of your recovery, so if you need a major operation or are too ill to eat or drink, you will need insulin temporarily by infusion (see p145) or by injection. If you have had a heart attack, you may be prescribed insulin by injection for some months, even after you leave the hospital. Yes, it lowers the level of glucose in your blood by enabling your body cells to take in glucose, and your liver and muscles to store glucose in the form of glycogen. Insulin also plays an important part in preventing glycogen in your liver from being converted back into glucose. Not necessarily—your health professional might suggest that you continue taking some or all of your pills as well as insulin. This is because your pills can help your body to use the insulin you inject as effectively as possible. See pp158–159 for information on how your glucose-lowering pills work.

THE ROLE OF INSULIN INJECTIONS

Q What is the T

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Unlike other medications, such as analgesics or antibiotics, there is no maximum dose of insulin. Everyone’s needs are different and your insulin dose will vary according to your blood glucose level. You may start by taking a small dose (10–20 units per day) of insulin, but this may gradually increase and vary until you find the dose that keeps your blood glucose in the recommended range of 75–130 mg/dl.

maximum dose of insulin?

Q Does insulin have T any side effects?

Insulin will cause a hypoglycemic attack if it is not balanced with carbohydrate-containing food or if your dose is higher than you need. Also, one of insulin’s functions is to enable your body to store glucose, so it can cause weight gain. Rarely, the preservatives can cause an allergic reaction. In this case, you can try an insulin with different additives. Your health professional will be able to prescribe a type of insulin that suits you.

NORMAL BLOOD GLUCOSE AND INSULIN LEVELS Your pancreas maintains a background level of insulin and produces extra

Insulin/blood glucose levels

insulin to deal with increases in blood glucose when you eat and drink.

12am

Breakfast

Lunch

Snack

Dinner

Insulin Blood glucose

2am

4am

6am

8am

10am 12pm

2pm

4pm

6pm

8pm

10am 12pm

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TYPES OF INSULIN There are several types of insulin, grouped according to how quickly they act and how long they work. Rapid- and short-acting insulins have a quick onset and a short duration of action. They are used at mealtimes to deal with the rise in your blood glucose that is brought on by eating. You can have extra doses if necessary. Intermediate-acting, long-acting, and peakless long-acting insulins are released into your bloodstream slowly and provide a constant background level of insulin. TYPE OF INSULIN

RAPID-ACTING INSULIN

Brand names

Novolog, Humalog, and Apidra

When taken

Just before meals or up to 15 minutes afterward.

Peak of action

Between 1 and 2 hours.

Duration of action

Up to 5 hours.

Comments

Less chance of hypoglycemic attacks than with short-acting insulin because it wears off more quickly. Insulin pumps usually use rapid-acting insulin.

TYPE OF INSULIN

SHORT-ACTING INSULIN

Brand names

Humulin R

When taken

20–30 minutes before meals.

Peak of action

Between 2 and 3 hours.

Duration of action

Up to 8 hours.

Comments

Have a snack 2–3 hours after a meal to avoid hypoglycemia.

TYPE OF INSULIN

INTERMEDIATE-ACTING INSULIN

Brand names

Humulin I, Insulatard, and Insuman Basal

When taken

Morning, evening, or both (no need to take with food).

Peak of action

Between 4 and 8 hours.

Duration of action

Up to 20 hours.

Comments

You may need a snack around the peak of action, late morning, and before bed, to prevent hypoglycemia.

TYPES OF INSULIN

TYPE OF INSULIN

LONG-ACTING INSULIN

Brand names

Detemir

When taken

At 24-hour intervals

Peak of action

Between 6 and 8 hours.

Duration of action

Up to 24 hours.

Comments

Reduces your chance of hypoglycemic attacks during the night.

TYPE OF INSULIN

PEAKLESS LONG-ACTING INSULIN

Brand names

Lantus

When taken

At 24-hour intervals.

Peak of action

None.

Duration of action

Approximately 24 hours.

Comments

Reduces your chance of hypoglycemic attacks because there is no peak of action.

TYPE OF INSULIN

MIXED INSULINS

Brand names

• Those containing short-acting insulin: Mixtard 10 (or 20, 30, 40, 50), Humulin M2 (or M3, M5), Insuman Comb 15 (or 25, 50) • Those containing rapid-acting insulin: Humalog Mix25 (or Mix50), Novolog

When taken

Twice a day, with your breakfast and evening meal. If your brand contains short-acting insulin, 20–30 minutes before your meal. If it contains rapid-acting insulin, just before or up to 15 minutes after your meal.

Comments

These insulins are a mixture of two types of insulin, either rapid- or short-acting insulin plus intermediate- or longacting insulin. The peak and duration of action are a combination of both insulins. Because of this, you might need snacks between meals and before bed.

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Insulin regimens Q What is an insulin T regimen?

Q Will I always have T the same insulin regimen?

Q Can I start with just T one injection a day?

This is the term used to describe the type(s) of insulin you inject and how many injections you need a day. Your insulin regimen ensures that you have enough insulin to keep your blood glucose in the recommended range of 75–130 mg/dl, including at mealtimes. Not necessarily—you may need to change to a different regimen if you find that you can’t keep your blood glucose level within the recommended range, or if you need more flexibility in your daily routine. Lifestyle changes, such as a new job or a major illness, can also alter the type, timing, and amount of insulin you need. Possibly. Starting with a single bedtime injection prevents your blood glucose from rising too much overnight, and taking it once a day also gives you a chance to get used to injections.

Q If I’ve had diabetes T

The number of injections you have depends on how for a long time, will I well your insulin regimen suits your lifestyle and keeps need more injections your blood glucose level in the recommended range. every day? One injection may be enough to do this or you may need up to four injections a day.

Q I’ve heard that T insulin pumps available—what are they?

Instead of daily injections you may be able to take insulin by means of a pump. This constantly delivers rapid-acting insulin via a tube in your abdomen. You then program the pump to deliver extra doses at mealtimes and when your blood glucose rises too high.

INSULIN REGIMENS

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TYPES OF INSULIN REGIMENS How often you take your insulin depends on the type of insulin you have been prescribed. You and your health professional will discuss the most appropriate regimen for you. ONCE A DAY

Type of insulin

Intermediate-, long-, or peakless long-acting.

Time of injection

Usually before bed but you can take it in the morning.

Comments

This is usually a starting regimen, particularly if you are still producing some insulin yourself. TWICE A DAY

Type of insulin

Intermediate-acting, or a mixture of intermediate- plus rapid- or short-acting insulin.

Time of injection

With breakfast and evening meal—exact timing depends on whether you take rapid- or short-acting insulin (see p166).

Comments

Easier to manage if you have a regular lifestyle. If you take an insulin mixture, you will probably need extra snacks midmorning and before bed to avoid hypoglycemic attacks. FOUR TIMES A DAY

Type of insulin

One intermediate-, long-, or peakless long-acting insulin injection, plus rapid- or short-acting injections before meals.

Time of injection

Longer-acting—usually before bed, but can be in the morning. Shorter-acting—with meals (exact timing depends on whether you take rapid- or short-acting insulin; see p166).

Comments

The most flexible regimen (apart from using an insulin pump) since you can alter the timing and/or amount of insulin you inject to suit variations in your day. Unlike a mixed insulin regimen, you can alter the doses of your longer- or shorteracting insulins independently of each other.

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Adjusting your insulin doses Q How will I know T if my insulin dose needs to be adjusted?

Your home blood glucose test results will reveal when your blood glucose is outside the recommended range of 75–130 mg/dl, or your target range. If your blood glucose is too high or too low, identifying the cause— for example, being less active, missing a meal, or altering your routine—will help you decide whether to change your food, your physical activity, or your insulin dose.

Q Should I consult my T

When you first start insulin treatment, you will health professional if probably need to learn from your health professional I want to adjust my how to alter doses based on your blood glucose test insulin dose? results. Over time, you’re likely to gain confidence and be able to make your own adjustments.

Q How do I decide T which insulin dose to adjust?

Q How do I decide how T

The first step is to identify the time (or times) of day when your blood glucose is too high or low. Then, work out which insulin has its peak effect at that time. For example, if you inject insulin four times a day and your blood glucose is high late in the morning, your breakfast insulin dose needs adjusting. You may need to experiment—you can change it back if it doesn’t work.

Making small, gradual changes every day or two, for many units to add or example, 2–4 units at a time, will increase your chances take away from my of achieving your aim without the risk of getting very insulin dose? high or low blood glucose readings. However, if you usually take large doses of insulin, such as 40–60 units in a single dose, you may need to make larger changes, perhaps 4–6 units at a time, to see the effect.

ADJUSTING YOUR INSULIN DOSES

Q How should I adjust T my insulin dose if I am eating out?

Q How should I adjust T my insulin dose if I’m being more active than usual?

Q How should I adjust T my insulin dose when I am ill?

Q I need to fast at T Ramadan. How should I alter my insulin dose?

Q How do I know T

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If you are eating later than usual, try delaying the timing of your insulin injection to coincide with your meal, and, if you are eating more food than usual, you can also increase your dose. Your blood glucose test results will tell you if your adjustments have worked. Your blood glucose level falls when you are more active, so you may need to decrease your insulin dose to avoid hypoglycemia. If your activity is unplanned, you can have an extra snack before the activity. Testing your blood glucose later will show whether your action has worked. Your blood glucose level is likely to rise when you are ill (see pp142–145). Increasing your insulin dose to keep your glucose level below 180 mg/dl will help. This increase may be 2–4 units or more. If you are very ill, you may need several dose increases before your test results fall below 180 mg/dl. Consult your health professional promptly if your blood glucose level keeps rising despite your actions. You are likely to need a reduced dose during fasting. If you still produce your own insulin, you may be able to stop insulin altogether during the fasting hours. Work out with your health professional in advance how to manage your insulin.

Test your blood glucose level after any adjustments if I’ve altered my in order to determine the effect of your dose changes. insulin dose enough? Unless you’re injecting insulin four times a day or using an insulin pump, you will need to wait 2–3 days between adjustments to see if your change has worked.

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Insulin equipment Q There’s such a wide T range of injection devices. How do I choose?

Q How do injection T devices work?

Q How big are the T needles on injection devices?

Q How does the T needle-free device work?

Q What is an insulin T pump?

You may find it more convenient to use a disposable device, or you may prefer a reusable one. Other features that might influence you are how easy you find the device to use, or which type of insulin you are using— some types of insulin do not fit in all devices. They hold 300 units of insulin and consist of a plunger, a dose-dialing system, and a disposable needle. Your device may be disposable or reusable (an insulin cartridge is used with reusable devices). The needles, which you will attach yourself, are small and fine, ranging from 5–12.7mm in length. The length you use depends upon what you find most comfortable, and how much fat you have under your skin—the less fat, the shorter the needle. A needle-free jet injector sends a fine stream of insulin through your skin under pressure. If you are nervous about needles, this device might be useful. You draw up insulin from a bottle each time you need a dose. This is a small electronic device that you can wear all the time. It uses rapid- or short-acting insulin. To use a pump, you need to insert a needle or small plastic tube into your abdomen and attach it to the pump. This gives you small doses of insulin continuously. You can press buttons to deliver extra doses when you eat or when your blood glucose level is too high.

INSULIN EQUIPMENT

Q Do I always need to T keep insulin in the refrigerator?

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Your current insulin can safely be kept at room temperature (up to 77ºF/25˚C) up to one month. Your spare insulin supplies should be kept in a refrigerator at 36–49ºF (2–8˚C). Insulin that is frozen, exposed to high temperatures or direct sunlight, or out-of-date is less effective and should be thrown away.

Q Can I use the same T

Syringes with integral needles and attachable needles needle for more than for insulin devices are designed to be used once only. one injection? However, it is safe for you to use a single needle up to five times before it becomes dull, as long as no one else uses the same needle.

Q How can I safely T

You can use a small, portable needle-clipping device to clip off the ends of your used needles. Alternatively, you can put them in a punctureproof, heavy plastic or metal container with a tight-fitting lid.

dispose of my needles?

TYPES OF INSULIN EQUIPMENT There are several different types of devices you can use to deliver insulin. A standard insulin device

DISPOSABLE SYRINGE

is often pen-shaped and can be reused, or you may prefer to inject using a disposable syringe. No single device is more

DISPOSABLE PEN

accurate than any other. Your health professional will work with you to find the device that best suits your lifestyle.

REUSABLE PEN DEVICE

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Injecting yourself Q What checks should T I carry out before I inject myself?

Q I’ve been told I need T to take insulin—do I have to inject into a vein?

Q I have lumpy areas T in my abdomen. It’s less painful to inject there but I’ve been told not to—why?

Q How do I give myself T an injection?

Before you inject insulin, check its appearance and expiration date. If it is cloudy when it should be clear, or has a pink tinge, looks lumpy, or contains particles after you have rotated it, discard it and use new insulin. No, you insert the needle into the fat beneath your skin (the subcutaneous layer) and the insulin is absorbed from here into your bloodstream. You may occasionally bleed when you inject, but using the recommended sites (see opposite) will help you avoid this. If you repeatedly inject into one site, the constant presence of insulin builds up the fat cells and causes lumps to form (see lipohypertrophy, p198). Insulin will enter your bloodstream less efficiently and make your blood glucose level erratic if you inject it into a lumpy site. Follow the steps in the box on p176 or p177. If you are using 12.7mm needles, or if you are using 8mm needles but have very little fat under your skin, you will need to pinch up your skin between your thumb and index finger. Then insert your needle at an angle of 90 degrees and inject. After 10 seconds, remove the needle and release your skin. This technique prevents you from accidentally injecting into muscle. If you use 5mm or 6mm needles, or if you use 8mm needles and you have a deep layer of fat under your skin, you can insert the needle at 90 degrees without pinching up your skin.

INJECTING YOURSELF

Q How can I make T injections as comfortable as possible?

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Being relaxed and trying not to tense your muscles when you are about to inject can make it more comfortable. Using the pinch-up technique, if this is appropriate for you, will also help (see p176). Insulin that is at room temperature is less likely to cause discomfort than insulin that you have taken straight from the refrigerator. Using a new needle every time you inject also makes your injection more comfortable. If your injections are always uncomfortable despite these tips, try a shorter needle prescribed by your health professional.

INSULIN INJECTING SITES Knowing where on your body to inject your insulin is important. The colored areas on these diagrams are the areas on your body into which you can safely inject. In other parts of your body, there is less subcutaneous fat, so you would be more likely to inject into muscle. Change your injection sites every few days in order to avoid lumps from forming. Even if you inject into one site more than others, injecting over a wide area within that site will reduce this risk. FRONT

BACK

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how to use an insulin device Your insulin device works in the same way whether it is reusable or disposable, although the details may vary slightly from one device to another—reading the manufacturer’s instructions will tell you exactly how to use it. Check the appearance and expiration date of your insulin before you inject yourself (see p174). This person is using the pinch-up technique. 1 Pull off the outer cover of your insulin device and screw a needle into the cartridge in its holder. Remove the needle’s inner cap. If you are injecting a cloudy insulin, invert your device several times to make sure it is uniformly cloudy. 2 Dial a small dose of 2–4 units and press the plunger until a drop of insulin appears at the end of the needle. This is called an air shot and it ensures that the plunger is connecting properly and expels any air from the device. Repeat this step if no insulin appears the first time. 3 Dial the dose that you wish to inject. Then, pinch up a fold of skin at your chosen injection site (in this case, the abdomen). Insert the needle all the way in to your pinchedup skin, making sure the insulin device is at a 90-degree angle to your body. 4 Press the plunger and keep it depressed while you inject your dose of insulin. Then, leave the needle in your skin for about 10 seconds (longer if you are injecting a large dose) before removing it. Dispose of your needle if you need to, and replace the cap of your insulin device.

injecting yourself

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HOW TO USE A syringe Check the appearance and expiration date of your insulin before you inject yourself. Discard any insulin that is out-of-date or looks different from usual. Make sure that the top of the insulin bottle is clean and use a new syringe each time you inject. This person is using the pinch-up technique (see box opposite). 1 For cloudy insulin, invert the bottle several times so it is uniformly cloudy. Uncap the needle and draw air into the syringe to match the insulin required. Insert the needle into the bottle and inject the air into the bottle. Invert the bottle and check that the needle is in the insulin. Pull back the plunger to draw up insulin. When you have drawn up the correct dose, withdraw the needle from the insulin bottle. 2 Remove any air bubbles by holding the syringe with the needle pointing upward and tapping or flicking the bubbles to the needle end. Gently press on the plunger to push out any air bubbles. Check that you still have the correct dose of insulin in the syringe. Draw up more insulin if you do not have the required dose.

3 Pinch up a fold of skin at your chosen injection site (in this case, the thigh) and insert the needle at a 90degree angle to your body. Press the plunger to deliver the insulin. After injecting, remove the syringe and dispose of it by putting it into a puncture-proof container known as a sharps box or use a needle-clipping device to clip the needle from the syringe.

Long-term complications Having Type 2 diabetes over a period of years can result in damage to your blood vessels and nerves and this can affect your health in a number of ways, including your heart and circulation. Being aware of these complications will enable you to take steps toward preventing them. Knowing what treatments are available can be helpful.

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Heart and circulatory disease Q Why am I at risk of T

Type 2 diabetes is strongly linked to high heart and circulatory blood pressure and high fat levels in your blood (hyperlipidemia), which are major risk factors for other disease? conditions, such as coronary artery disease (CAD), stroke, and peripheral vascular disease. Although you will always have diabetes, adopting a healthy lifestyle can reduce your risk of cardiovascular conditions.

Q What can I do to T make sure my blood pressure stays under control?

Eating healthily, becoming more active, managing stress, losing weight, and stopping smoking if you need to can all help lower your blood pressure. Reducing your salt intake (by adding less salt in cooking and at the table, or by cutting down on convenience foods) also helps.

Q What treatment will T

In addition to the above lifestyle changes, you will I have for high blood probably need pills. You may be given just one pill pressure? or a combination of three or more (see pp160–161).

Q I’ve been told I have T too much fat in my blood. What does this mean?

You have hyperlipidemia, in which your levels of cholesterol or triglycerides are too high (see opposite). Consequently, you are more prone to poor circulation and blocked arteries, which in turn puts you at greater risk of a heart attack or stroke. Drinking less alcohol, choosing mono-unsaturated rather than saturated fats, and doing more physical activity are all steps you can take to lower your blood fat levels.

H E A RT A N D C I R C U L AT O RY D I S E A S E

Q What treatment T will I have for hyperlipidemia?

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In addition to the actions you can take yourself, you are likely to be prescribed pills. The particular medication will depend on your blood fat profile. See pp162–163 for information about the types of pills that you might be prescribed.

Q How would I know if T

If you are diagnosed with angina, heart failure, or a I had coronary artery heart attack, you have CAD. Angina is a temporary disease (CAD)? feeling of pain or pressure in your chest, left shoulder, or left arm during stress or exertion. It is caused by your blood circulating less efficiently than usual. In heart failure, your heart gradually pumps blood around your body less well; signs include swelling in your legs, feet, or around your middle, shortness of breath, and fatigue. Signs of a heart attack include severe chest pain, palpitations, and nausea.

HEALTHY LEVELS OF FATS IN THE BLOOD High levels of some fats (lipids) in the blood—and low levels of others— increase your risk of coronary artery disease. If you have a blood test to check your lipid levels, these are the results that you need to aim for to keep your heart and blood vessels healthy. TYPE OF FAT

RECOMMENDED LEVEL

Non-HDL

Below 130 mg/dl

Triglycerides

Below 150 mg/dl

LDL cholesterol

Below 100 mg/dl

HDL cholesterol

Above 40 mg/dl (men); above 50 mg/dl (women)

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Q What treatment will T I have for coronary artery disease?

Q How is a heart T attack treated?

Q Why do I have T pain in my calves when I walk?

Pills will be prescribed and you may also need surgery. The type of pills you might be prescribed are shown in the charts on pp160–163. If you need surgery, you might have a coronary artery bypass or coronary angioplasty. Bypass surgery involves grafting a blood vessel from another part of your body, for example, your leg, and using it to replace the blocked section of the artery supplying your heart. A coronary angioplasty operation widens your partially blocked artery using a tube that is inflated and then removed. You may also have a metal device (a stent) inserted to permanently hold the artery open. If you have a heart attack, you will need to call an ambulance. The ambulance staff will immediately give you aspirin and set up a drip to reduce the risk of your blood clotting. You will be admitted to the hospital, where you will have an insulin infusion to control your blood glucose level (see p145). You will have treatment for your blood pressure and blood fat levels, and your heart will be monitored closely. Once you have recovered, you will start a cardiac rehabilitation program. You may be asked to continue insulin injections at home for at least the first few months to reduce your chances of having a further heart attack. You may have peripheral vascular disease (PVD). This means the blood vessels supplying your legs become partially blocked. When you walk, your muscles get a limited supply of blood, and this causes you pain. If you have severe PVD, you may be able to walk only very short distances.

H E A RT A N D C I R C U L AT O RY D I S E A S E

Q What treatment will T I have for peripheral vascular disease?

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You may be prescribed pills to increase your circulation or the elasticity of your blood vessels (see pp160–161). If your arteries are severely blocked, you may also be offered surgery in the form of angioplasty or a coronary artery bypass (see opposite).

Q What is a stroke? T

A stroke, medically known as a cerebrovascular accident (CVA), occurs when the blood flow to your brain is interrupted as a result of a blood clot or a burst blood vessel. Your brain is then deprived of oxygen and some brain cells die or are damaged. A stroke is diagnosed by your symptoms and/or a brain scan. Your recovery depends on the extent to which your brain has been affected. High blood pressure is the main risk factor for a stroke, so keeping your blood pressure in the recommended range (see p117) helps reduce your risk.

Q What are the T

Depending on which part of your brain is affected, you may experience changes in your movement, speech, memory, vision, hearing, or balance. For example, you may have slurred speech, partial or double vision, dizziness, weakness or paralysis of one arm or leg, or abnormal sensations along one side of your body. Your symptoms appear on the side of your body that is opposite the damaged side of your brain.

symptoms of a stroke?

Q How is a stroke T treated?

Your treatment is based on which specific functions have been affected by the stroke. For example, you may be offered physical therapy to help with walking and movement, or speech therapy to help you regain your ability to communicate.

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Eye conditions Q I’ve been told I T have early signs of damage to my eye. How is this linked to my diabetes?

Q What causes T retinopathy?

Q What are the T symptoms of retinopathy?

Q Are there stages of T retinopathy?

Over a period of years, having raised blood glucose and raised blood pressure can cause the blood vessels in your retina (an area at the back of the eye) to become weak and prone to bleeding. Your body tries to grow new vessels to compensate, but these are also weak and bleed easily. This condition is known as retinopathy. The blood vessels in your retina are small and thin and easily damaged by constant high blood glucose or blood flowing through them at high pressure. You may have had Type 2 diabetes for some years without knowing it, and during this time some damage may have already occurred. You can stop retinopathy from progressing by lowering your blood glucose and blood pressure. You may not have any symptoms of retinopathy because it develops slowly over years. Your first sign might be a sudden loss of sight due to a bleeding blood vessel in your retina. An annual eye check is vital because changes can be detected before they affect your sight. There are three stages: background retinopathy, preproliferative retinopathy, and proliferative retinopathy. If you have background retinopathy, your vision does not change, but in the next two stages, when your retina grows new blood vessels and these bleed, you will find your sight is affected to a minor or major degree. If you have preproliferative or proliferative retinopathy, you will be offered treatment by laser therapy or surgery.

EYE CONDITIONS

Q What would happen T if my retinopathy was not treated?

Q How is retinopathy T diagnosed?

Q What is the T treatment for retinopathy?

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If retinopathy progresses beyond the background stage, eventually your sight may become limited or even lost. This may be caused by one of the complications of retinopathy. These include: maculopathy (affecting your central vision), vitreous hemorrhage (bleeding into the space between your lens and your retina), retinal detachment (causing sudden loss of sight), and rubeotic glaucoma (new blood vessels growing on your iris, the colored part of your eye). There are a range of tests to check if you have retinopathy. You are asked to read rows of letters on a chart known as a Snellen chart. You also have a digital photograph taken of the backs of your eyes (you may be given eye drops to dilate your pupils before this), and your eyes may be examined using an instrument called an ophthalmoscope. If you have advanced retinopathy, you might have a special examination known as fluorescein angiography, in which a dye is injected into a vein in your arm. The dye travels to the blood vessels in your eye and your retina is then examined under X-ray. This depends on how advanced your condition is. In the early stages (background retinopathy), you don’t need any treatment, but your eyes are photographed regularly (every 6 months) for signs of deterioration. If you have a later stage of retinopathy, you will have laser treatment. Laser beams are used to destroy the fragile new blood vessels that have formed. You may also have laser treatment if you have maculopathy or a vitreous hemorrhage.

MYTH OR TRUTH?

Myth My routine sight check will show if diabetes has damaged my eyes Truth Not necessarily. To check for eye damage due to diabetes, your ophthalmologist would need to check your eyes in a specific way, by looking at the backs of your eyes or taking a digital photograph of them after your pupils have been dilated (widened) using drops. The routine sight check you have for your glasses will not include these examinations.

EYE CONDITIONS

Q Can eye surgery T restore my vision?

Q Is it true that I T am more prone to cataracts?

Q What are the T symptoms of cataracts?

Q How are cataracts T treated?

Q I can’t see as well as T before—how can I manage my diabetes tests and injections?

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If you have vitreous hemorrhage, rubeotic glaucoma, or retinal detachment, eye surgery can help. In all of these complications, extensive damage has already affected your retina. As with any treatment for advanced retinopathy, your treatment will save as much of your sight as possible. Yes, you are more likely to develop cataracts if you have diabetes. A cataract is a clouding over of the lens of your eye. You might experience gradual loss of vision because the cloudiness of your lens prevents sufficient light from entering your eye. Also, you might see a “halo” on bright lights. Cataracts develop slowly and may never require treatment. However, if your vision deteriorates, cataracts can be surgically removed under local anesthetic, and you will have a new lens inserted. This will restore your vision as long as it is not affected by retinopathy. If testing your blood glucose level, taking pills, injecting yourself with insulin, or managing hypoglycemia is difficult, ask your health professional about equipment that can make things easier. For example, a blood glucose meter that has a memory will enable someone else to read your test results at a convenient time. An insulin delivery device that provides a fixed dose, or a pill box with sections for each day, may also help. If your vision is particularly affected, you may need help from someone else to manage your diabetes safely.

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Kidney conditions Q My health T professional says I have tiny amounts of protein in my urine. What does this mean?

Q How will I know if I T have nephropathy?

Q What are the stages T of nephropathy?

This may mean that you have the first signs of damage to your kidneys, a condition known medically as nephropathy or renal (kidney) disease. Having high blood pressure and a high blood glucose level over a long period of time (perhaps even before your diabetes is diagnosed) can lead to the development of nephropathy. When your nephropathy is detected in this first stage, known as microalbuminuria, lowering your blood pressure and blood glucose level can help reverse it. As part of your diabetes care, your health professional will test your urine once or twice a year to check for the presence of protein (a sign of possible kidney damage). A single positive test for protein does not necessarily mean that you have kidney damage. Urine infections, such as cystitis (see p147), can also cause protein levels in urine to rise. For this reason, if a single test is positive, you will have follow-up tests. If these show that your kidneys are continuously leaking protein, you have nephropathy. There are three main stages: the first is microalbuminuria, in which tiny amounts of a protein called albumin are found in your urine. The second stage is proteinuria, in which a higher quantity of protein is present in your urine and some permanent damage to your kidneys may have occurred. The third stage is end-stage renal failure, when your kidneys stop working because they can no longer filter out waste products.

KIDNEY CONDITIONS

Q What are the T symptoms of nephropathy?

Q What is the T treatment for nephropathy?

Q What is dialysis? T

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You may have no symptoms in the early stages of nephropathy. However, if your body starts to lose protein in large amounts and you do not receive treatment, your body will retain fluid (making your ankles or legs swell), and you may be short of breath, feel tired, nauseous, and have itchy skin. With endstage renal failure, your face, limbs, and abdomen may swell, you may lose weight, produce little urine, have very itchy skin, and feel lethargic and nauseous. Initially, you will be prescribed ACE inhibitor pills (see p160), which help reduce the amount of protein lost through your kidneys. Your blood pressure will be checked regularly and treated if necessary, and you will have at least twice-yearly blood and urine tests to check your kidney function, as well as twice-yearly A1c tests (see pp113–114). You may be asked to drink less fluid and to cut down on protein, potassium, and salt to prevent the buildup of waste products. A specialist dietitian will advise you. If your kidneys can no longer filter your blood and get rid of waste products, dialysis can carry out this process for you. There are two main forms of dialysis: one is hemodialysis, which involves your blood being pumped through a machine (either in the hospital or at home). The other method is peritoneal dialysis, also known as continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD), which you do yourself every day by running specific fluid through a tube into your abdomen, then draining it off, along with your body’s waste products, after several hours.

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Foot conditions Q My health T professional says I have peripheral neuropathy. What is this?

Q How would I know T if I have peripheral neuropathy?

Q What treatment will T I have for peripheral neuropathy?

It means the nerves supplying the extremities of your body are damaged as a result of a high blood glucose level. Peripheral neuropathy usually causes pain or loss of feeling in your toes and feet, and may affect a small part of one foot, parts of both feet, all of both feet or your lower legs. Rarely, it affects your arms and hands. Symptoms vary according to which type of nerves have been damaged. You may experience: tingling, burning, or prickling; short, stabbing, or burning pains, which are severe at night; numbness or insensitivity to temperature or pain; or extreme sensitivity to touch (even bedclothes). Alternatively, you may have no symptoms, or symptoms may come and go. Your health professional will diagnose neuropathy by assessing your reflexes and your response to light and firm touch. You may be prescribed pills. Antidepressants, such as amitriptyline or imipramine, or anticonvulsants, such as gabapentin or carbamazepine, are effective in reducing pain from neuropathy. Creams, such as capsaicin, can also help. If bedclothes irritate your feet and legs, you can apply a film dressing (plastic wrap will work) to protect sensitive areas, or you can use a cradle to raise your bedclothes. If your neuropathy progresses, your pain will reduce as your nerves become more damaged. You will need to carefully observe and care for your feet (see p137), and you may need specially made shoes to protect your feet from excess pressure.

FOOT CONDITIONS

Q Are there any T complications of peripheral neuropathy?

Q What should I do if I T develop a foot ulcer?

Q What will happen T if I develop Charcot foot?

Q I’ve been diagnosed T with peripheral ischemia. What is this?

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Yes, you can develop foot ulcers or a condition known as Charcot foot. If you have neuropathy, your ulcers are most likely to develop on the soles of your feet or on any areas of increased pressure—they can form beneath a layer of hard skin, or be caused by an injury, such as a burn, or a blister from tight or rubbing footwear. Charcot foot is a condition in which the bones in your feet become damaged and distorted. You will need urgent treatment, which will include antibiotics. Your health professional will remove any infected tissue, and dress your wound. You will be asked to avoid putting pressure on the ulcer, which may mean wearing a cast on your foot for many weeks. Controlling your blood glucose level will help your ulcer heal and help prevent from it recurring. If it doesn’t heal, you may need an amputation of part of your foot. Your foot will probably become hot, swollen, and painful, getting worse over two to three months. Your bones will be thinner and more easily damaged, for example, fracturing or dislocating your joints, causing your foot shape to alter. Treating Charcot foot involves keeping the weight off affected parts of your feet, usually by wearing a cast in the short-term and specially made footwear in the long-term. Ischemia is a condition in which poor circulation, caused by narrowed arteries, means that parts of your body don’t get enough oxygen. Your legs and feet are most likely to be affected because they are farthest from your heart.

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Q How can I find out T if I have peripheral ischemia?

Q How is peripheral T ischemia treated?

Q Are there any T complications of peripheral ischemia?

Q Can I develop both T peripheral ischemia and peripheral neuropathy?

Symptoms include: a cramplike pain in your calves when you walk; cold, pale feet; wounds or injuries that are slow to heal; and persistent foot ulcers. Alternatively, you may not have any symptoms. Your health professional will check your foot pulses as part of your annual review (see pp120–121). Faint or absent pulses are a sign of ischemia. Your peripheral ischemia will be regularly monitored by your health professional. If you smoke, it is important to stop (smoking damages your circulation). For severe ischemia, you may need surgery. Your arteries can be widened using a technique called angioplasty, or your damaged blood vessels may need to be bypassed. If surgery is not possible and the blood supply to your foot is blocked, you may need to have an amputation of part or all of your foot or leg. Yes, you may develop foot ulcers and gangrene. The most common site of foot ulcers if you have ischemia is the side of your foot. It is important to prevent ischemic ulcers from becoming gangrenous—this is when an area of your foot loses its blood supply and the affected tissue dies. Gangrene is treated by amputation of the affected area—this prevents it from spreading. Yes, having diabetes makes you prone to both nerve and circulation damage, and your feet and legs are the most likely places to be affected. If you develop both peripheral ischemia and peripheral neuropathy —known as neuroischemia—you are also vulnerable to foot ulcers, Charcot foot (see p191), and gangrene.

FOOT CONDITIONS

Q How can I prevent T the complications of ischemia and neuropathy?

You can check your feet daily for sores or wounds, and take good care of your feet by keeping the area between your toes dry and applying an unperfumed moisturizer to your feet every day. Don’t let hard skin build up on your feet and seek prompt help for minor problems such as corns. For more information, see pp135–137.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOT CONDITIONS Peripheral neuropathy and ischemia cause different problems and have different characteristics. Some people have a combination of these conditions, which further increases your chances of developing foot problems. PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY

PERIPHERAL ISCHEMIA

Warm skin.

Cool or cold skin.

Lack of feeling in foot or feet.

Normal or slightly reduced feeling.

Pink or normal color.

Pale or blue-tinged color.

May be painless, but pain can occur

Painful during exertion or rest at any time

and is most severe at night.

of day.

Normal or increased pulses in the feet.

Faint pulses in the feet, or no pulses at all.

Callused skin.

No callus.

Reduced reflexes.

Normal reflexes.

Prone to ulcers on any areas of pressure,

Prone to ulcers on the sides of the feet.

for example, the soles of the feet. Potential to develop Charcot (misshapen) foot.

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Potential to develop gangrene.

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Depression Q What is the link T between diabetes and depression?

Q How can I prevent T myself from getting depressed?

Q How can I help T myself feel better when I’m depressed?

If you have diabetes, you may be worried about how developing long-term complications will affect your life in the future. Or perhaps you are struggling to manage your day-to-day diabetes routine. Finding it difficult to cope, or not feeling in control of your health, can cause or contribute to depression. In addition, if you are depressed, you might find it hard to stay motivated to look after your diabetes. Anything that makes you feel successful, useful, and in control can help prevent depression. This may mean spending regular social time with your friends and family, or on your favorite interest or hobby. Work or volunteering can also give you a sense of self-worth. Being physically active (see pp78–97) helps prevent or combat depression because it increases the level of mood-enhancing chemicals such as endorphins in your brain. Being aware of the possible signs of depression (see box opposite) and simply talking about how you are feeling from time to time can also help prevent you from becoming depressed. Talking to your partner, a friend, or a family member can help you think more clearly about what you are going through. Don’t be afraid of asking someone to just listen rather than give you advice. Try to avoid unnecessary stress when you are feeling down, and be realistic about how much you can achieve. If you have a busy schedule, take time out to do things you enjoy.

DEPRESSION

Q How can I manage T

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Try to set yourself small goals, such as taking your pills eight or nine times out of 10, or testing your blood glucose just once a day. Asking for help or talking to your health professional is the first step if you find it a challenge to look after yourself.

my diabetes care when I’m feeling depressed?

Q What treatment can I T have for depression?

Your health professional may recommend counseling, antidepressant pills, or both. Counseling can help you find new ways of thinking and behaving. Antidepressants work by increasing the levels of one or two chemicals in the brain: serotonin and norepineprine. Most antidepressants take several weeks to reach their peak effect, so you don’t feel different immediately. Taking antidepressants for at least 6 months is recommended.

RECOGNIZING DEPRESSION These are some of the symptoms of depression. You may have just one symptom or a combination of several. Regularly feeling sad, pessimistic, or hopeless about life, or feeling unable to enjoy things. Disinterest in your usual activities and relationships. Feeling anxious or tearful, or crying a lot. Difficulty sleeping, or waking up very early in the morning. Feeling constantly lethargic and short of energy. Finding it difficult to concentrate and feel motivated.

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Erection difficulties Q I’ve been having T

Damage to your blood vessels or nerves as a result of diabetes can affect your ability to get an erection. trouble getting an erection lately. Could But erectile dysfunction (ED) can also be a side this be linked to my effect of drugs, such as beta blockers (for high blood pressure). Other causes include: depression, stress, diabetes? anxiety, relationship difficulties, and heavy smoking and drinking. If your ED is linked to diabetes it will probably develop slowly and you are likely to have difficulty getting an erection at any time of day.

Q How can I find out T what’s causing my erection difficulties?

Q Is there anything I T can do to treat my erection difficulties?

Q What treatments T

You can have a blood pressure check, a physical examination, and a blood test to check your testosterone and thyroxine levels (two hormones that affect sexual response). You may be tested for autonomic neuropathy (see p199) or peripheral neuropathy, conditions that are also caused by nerve damage. You will be asked how much alcohol you drink, and when and how often you get an erection. Controlling your blood glucose level as well as you can, stopping smoking if you need to, and reducing your alcohol intake if you drink more than the recommended amount (see pp64–65) can all help.

Apart from pills (see opposite), there are physical might be prescribed? aids that can help you have an erection, including vacuum devices and penile implants. Ask your health professional about these or contact a national helpline (see p202) to obtain more information.

E R E C T I O N D I F F I C U LT I E S

Q Erectile T dysfunction has developed over the last few months —how can I talk to my wife about it?

197

Enlisting your partner’s opinion, help, and support can be valuable, even though ED is a difficult matter to discuss. Explaining to your partner that you find the subject uncomfortable, but that you want her to know what has been happening might make it easier. Discussing how you would both like your sex life to be and talking about the treatments available will help you understand each other’s needs.

PILLS FOR ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION Several drugs are available to treat ED. These can be prescribed by your doctor —some tablets are not recommended if you take other medication. DRUG

TIMING/LENGTH OF ACTION

COMMENTS

Sildenafil and

One hour before sexual

Should not be taken with

vardenafil

activity. Sildenafil can be

nitrate drugs (such as isosorbide

effective for up to 6–8 hours;

mononitrate or glyceryl trinitrate),

vardenafil for up to 48 hours.

which you might take for angina or high blood pressure—the two drugs combined can cause very low blood pressure.

Tadalafil

Between 30 minutes and 12

Should not be taken with nitrate

hours before sexual activity. It

drugs (see above).

is effective for up to 24 hours. Apomorphine

Twenty minutes before sexual

It is safe to take this drug with

hydrochloride

activity. It is effective for up to

nitrates.

8 hours.

198

L O N G - T E R M C O M P L I C AT I O N S

Other conditions Q What other T conditions might I develop?

Q Why do I have T lumps in the place where I inject insulin?

Q What are the T symptoms of lipohypertrophy?

Q What can I do about T lipohypertrophy?

There are two other conditions—lipohypertrophy and autonomic neuropathy—that you could develop if you have diabetes. Lipohypertrophy is a side effect of injecting insulin (you will not develop it if you manage your diabetes with pills, or with healthy eating and activity). Autonomic neuropathy is a permanent condition that affects the nerves in your body that you cannot consciously control. You may have lipohypertrophy. This is the name for fat deposits that accumulate under your skin due to constantly injecting insulin into a small area. You are more likely to get it if you inject into small areas for years, but sometimes it can develop after a few months. If you run your hand over the areas where you inject, you may feel lumps under your skin. You may also find your injections are completely painless—this is because repeated injections in one area damage the nerve supply to your skin. Lipohypertrophy can make your blood glucose levels swing up and down from day to day because your insulin will not be absorbed properly through the lumps under your skin. You can prevent lipohypertrophy by injecting into a slightly different place on each occasion and rotating between the sites on your body you use regularly. If you avoid injecting into lumpy sites, the lumps may lessen or disappear over time.

OTHER CONDITIONS

Q What is autonomic T neuropathy?

Q What are the T symptoms of autonomic neuropathy?

Q Can I have treatment T for autonomic neuropathy?

199

Autonomic neuropathy is the medical name for damage to nerves that control the parts of your body that you don’t move voluntarily. These include the nerves that regulate your temperature, heart rate, and digestion. In men, autonomic neuropathy can affect the nerves that are involved in getting an erection. Autonomic neuropathy can be caused by a blood glucose level that has been consistently high for many years, even before you knew you had diabetes. You might experience a range of symptoms, depending on which of your nerves are affected. Possible symptoms include: too much or too little sweating; very dry skin; feeling bloated and nauseous, or being nauseous after you have eaten; diarrhea or constipation; dizziness when you stand up or get out of bed (this is known as postural hypotension); difficulty being active because your heart rate does not increase or decrease in the normal way; being unable to empty your bladder completely; difficulties in getting an erection; and being less aware of your hypoglycemic symptoms. Your treatment will depend on your symptoms and their severity. Autonomic neuropathy is likely to be permanent, so your treatment will aim to reduce your symptoms. For example, you may be prescribed medication to stop nausea or to control diarrhea, or you may need an operation to help your stomach empty more efficiently. If you have a tendency to feel faint when you stand up, your health professional will review your blood pressure medication and consider whether any changes in your treatment would be beneficial.

200

USEFUL ADDRESSES

Useful addresses American Diabetes Association 1701 North Beauregard Street Alexandria, VA 22311 Tel: (800) 342-2383 Website: www.diabetes.org

National Kidney Foundation 30 East 33rd Street, Suite 1100 New York, NY 10016 Tel: (800) 622-9010 Website: www.kidney.org

Hypoglycemia Support Foundation PO Box 451778 Sunrise, FL 33345 Tel: (518) 272-7154 Web site: www.hypoglycemia.org

American Council of the Blind 1155 15th Street NW, Suite 1004 Washington, DC 20005 Tel: (800) 424-8666 Tel: (202) 467-5081 Web site: www.acb.org

Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International 120 Wall Street New York, NY 10005 Tel: (800) 533-CURE Tel: (212) 785-9500 Website: www.jdrf.org National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases National Institute of Health Building 31, Room 9A04 Center Drive, MSC 2560, Bethesda, MD 20892 Tel: (800) 860-8747 Tel: (301) 654-3327 Website: www.niddk.nih.gov

Sexuality Information and Education Council of the US 130 West 42nd Street New York, NY 10036 Tel: (212) 819-9770 Web site: www.siecus.org National Stroke Association 9707 Easter Lane Englewood, CO 80112 Tel: (800) 787-6537 Website: www.stroke.org For information on regulations and restrictions on driving, contact your state Department of Motor Vehicles.

INDEX

201

Index A activity plans 89, 96–7 Alc test 113–14, 149 aerobic activities 92, 132 alcohol 64–5, 125, 129 alpha 1 blockers (adrenergic) 160 alpha-glucosidase inhibitors 159 amputation 192 angina 18, 115, 181 angiotensin II receptor antagonists 160 angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors 160 189 annual reviews 43, 120–1 antidepressant drugs 195 antioxidants 46 appetite suppressants 163 aspirin 19, 162 asthma 144 athlete’s foot 136 autonomic neuropathy 147, 198, 199

B beta blockers 22, 144, 161 biguanide 158 bladder infections 147 blisters 136 blood fat levels 19, 180–1 blood glucose level 10, 12–13 adjusting insulin doses 170–1

blood glucose level cont. alcohol and 64, 65 carbohydrates and 56–9 in diabetes 17 factors affecting 102 in healthy body 16, 165 hyperglycemia 130–1 hypoglycemia 126–9 and infections 142 insulin injections 164 and menstrual cycle 146 meters 104–5, 106–7, 109 monitoring 100–14 physical activity and 82–5 pills for 156, 157, 158–9 in pregnancy 149 blood pressure see high blood pressure blood tests 36–7, 101–14 blurred vision 35 body mass index (BMI) 31, 67–9 body shape 31, 66 brain, stroke 183 breastfeeding 147, 149 breath, fruity-smelling 35 breathlessness 92

C calcium channel blockers 161 calories 70, 72–5

202

INDEX

carbohydrates 47, 48, 51, 56–7 food labels 53 glycemic index 58–9 low carbohydrate diets 75 and weight loss 72 cardiovascular disease (CVD) 18–20, 28, 115, 180–3 caregivers 150–3 cars, driving 124–5 cataracts 187 causes of diabetes 11, 21–3 Charcot foot 191 cheese 60 children 26–7, 31, 151, 152 cholesterol 19, 180 circulatory disease see cardiovascular disease clinics 43 colitis, ulcerative 144 coma 35, 143 complications, long-term 28–9, 179–99 contraceptives, oral 146 cooking techniques 60–1 cooling down, after exercise, 88 coronary artery disease (CAD) 180,181–2 cortisol 142 cough medicine 143 Crohn’s disease 144 cystitis 35, 147, 188

D dehydration 142, 143 depression 38, 79, 81, 194–5 diagnosis 36–7 dialysis 189 diaries food diaries 70 monitoring blood glucose 109, 112 diarrhea 143 diet see food dieting 70–5 diuretics 22, 144, 161 doctors 42 drinks 52, 142 driving 124–5 drugs see pills

E eating out 62–3, 171 emotional problems 38–41, 43, 151, 152 endorphins 79, 92, 139, 194 epinephrine 142, 161 equipment injections 172–3 monitoring 104–5, 106–7 erectile dysfunction (ED) 29, 196–7 pills for 197 estrogen 146 ethnic origin 25 exercise see physical activity eye conditions 29, 35, 184–7

INDEX

F fasting 55, 171 fat, levels in blood 19, 180–1 fats, in diet 46, 47 food labels 53 preventing heart disease 132 reducing fat intake 51 and weight loss 72 fatigue 34 fiber 47, 48, 51, 53 fibric acid derivatives (fibrates) 163 fingerprick tests 36, 108 fitness, assessing 90 flu 143 folic acid 147 food 45–75 carbohydrates 56–9 cooking techniques 60–1 eating out 62–3, 171 food diaries 70 healthy eating 48–52 labels 49, 53 preventing heart disease 132 types of 46–7 weight loss 70–5 foot conditions 29, 95, 134–7, 190–1 fruit 52

G gangrene 192 gestational diabetes 23, 25 glitazones 159

203

glucagon 12, 129 glucose 16–17 blood tests 36–7 in diabetes 10 17 glucose drips 145 impaired glucose tolerance 81 see also blood glucose level glycemic index (GI) 58–9 glycogen 82, 129

H HDL (high-density lipoprotein) 19, 181 healthcare team 42–3 heart care of 132–3 heart disease 18–20, 28, 66, 115, 180–2 heart failure 181 physical activity and 79 heart attack 19 care after 133 causes 18, 28 high blood pressure and 115 insulin injections 164 physical activity and 79, 81, 87 prevention 20 signs of 181 treatment 182 high blood pressure 115–19 causes 18, 46 monitoring 118–19 physical activity and 79, 93 pills for 144, 160–1, 180

204

INDEX

hormones hormone therapy (HT) 147 menopause 146 menstrual cycle 146 stress 138, 142 hospital treatment 145, 164 hyperglycemia 130–1 hyperlipidemia 19, 180–1 hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HONK) 35, 143 hypoglycemia alcohol and 64, 65 caring for someone with diabetes 150 dealing with 126–9 during breastfeeding 149 monitoring blood glucose level 101, 103, 110 physical activity and 82–4 weight loss and 71

insulin adjusting doses 165, 170–1 in diabetes 17 during illness 143 functions 12 in healthy body 16, 165 hypoglycemia 126 infusions 145 injections 164–77 insulin devices 172, 176 physical activity and 78–9 in pregnancy 149 pumps 168, 172 regimens 168–9 side effects 165 storing 173 types of 166–7 insulin resistance 13, 18, 157 ischemia, peripheral 191–3

I

K

illness 142–5, 171 immunosuppressants 22 impaired glucose tolerance 81 incidence of diabetes 11 infections 142 injections 13, 156, 164–77 equipment 172–3 injecting yourself 174–7 insulin regimens 168–9 sites 175 types of insulin 166–7

ketones 35 kidney conditions 28, 188–9

L labor 149 lancing devices 105, 108 LDL (low-density lipoprotein) 19, 181 legs, circulatory disease 182–3 lipids 19, 180–1 lipohypertrophy 198

INDEX

long-term complications 28–9, 179–99 lumps, injection sites 174, 198

M meals 54–5, 74 mealtime glucose regulators 159 medication see injections; pills menopause 146–7 menstrual cycle 146 menstrual periods 146 metabolic rate 74 meters, blood glucose 104–5, 106–7, 109 metformin 147, 158 minerals 47 MODY 27 monitoring 99–121 annual reviews 120–1 blood glucose level 100–14 blood pressure 118–19 equipment 104–5 mood swings 38–40

N nails, cutting 135, 137 needle-free jet injectors 172 needles 172, 173, 174, 175 nephropathy 188–9 nerve damage autonomic neuropathy 198, 199 feet 134, 135, 190–1, 192–3

norepinephrine 195 nurses 42

O operations see surgery overweight see weight

P pancreatic lipase inhibitor 163 peripheral ischemia 191–3 peripheral neuropathy 190–1, 192–3 peripheral vascular disease (PVD) 182–3 physical activity 30, 77–97 activity plans 89, 96–7 assessing fitness 90 benefits of 78–9 and blood glucose level 82–5 in daily life 86–7, 91 equipment 86 and heart disease 20 for stress 139 types of 92–5 pills 155–63 dosage 156–7 during pregnancy 147 for erectile dysfunction 196–7 forgetting to take 157 for high blood pressure 160–1, 180

205

206

INDEX

Ramadan 171 relaxation 139, 141 restaurants 62–3, 171 retinopathy 29, 184–7 rheumatoid arthritis 144 risk factors 21–5 reducing 30–1

sex life 29, 84, 196–7 sharps boxes 173 shoes 136 sickness 143 side effects, insulin 165 smoking 20, 117, 133 snacks 54–5 sorbitol 49 statins 162 steroids 22, 144 stomach upsets 143 stress 92, 138–41 stress hormones 138, 142 strips, blood glucose 105 stroke 18, 19, 115, 183 sugar 21, 46, 50 sulfonylureas 126, 158 supplements 46 surgery for coronary artery disease 182 eye conditions 187 insulin and 145, 164 for peripheral ischemia 192 sweeteners 49, 60 symptoms 10, 13, 34–5 syringes 173, 177

S

T

salt 46, 52, 53, 180 serotonin 79, 92, 139, 195

thiazolidinediones 159 thirst 34

pills cont. for illness 143, 144 physical activity and 81 preventing heart disease 19 for raised blood glucose 156, 157, 158–9 risk factors 22 types of 133 pinch-up technique, injections 174, 175 portion sizes 73, 151 pregnancy 23, 25, 114, 147–9 progesterone 146 proteins 47, 48, 51 food labels 53 in urine 188 vegetarian diet 49 psychologists 43 pumps, insulin 168, 172

R

INDEX

toenails, cutting 135, 137 travel 125 triglycerides 19, 180–1

U ulcers, foot 135, 191, 192 unconsciousness 128 urine frequent urination 34 protein in 188 tests 36, 101

V vegetables 60 vegetarian diet 49 viruses 21 vitamins 46, 47

207

WXYZ waist size 31, 66 warming up 88 water, drinking 52 142 weight 15 body mass index 67–9 body shape 66 and heart disease 20 physical activity and 78 risk factors 22, 24, 67 weight loss 66, 67, 68, 70–5 women’s health 146–9 work 124 yeast 35, 147 yoga 141 young people 26–7, 31, 151

Picture credits 2: Alamy/Stock Connection Distribution/Phoebe Dunn; 7l: Getty Images/FoodPix/Jonelle Weaver, Getty Images/Altrendo Images (c); 8: Corbis/Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc; 22: Corbis/Tom Stewart; 32: Getty Images/Taxi/Adamsmith; 36l: Science Photo Library/Faye Norman; 37: Science Photo Library/BSIP, LENEE; 40: Alamy/Stock Connection Distribution/Lew Lause; 44: Getty Images/PhotoAlto/Jean-Blaise Hall; 50: Anthony Blake Photo Library/J. Lee Studios; 63: Corbis/ Michael Keller (t); 76: Corbis/Layne Kennedy; 80: Corbis/Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc; 90: Getty Images/ Photonica/White Packert; 91: Getty Images/Taxi/

Justin Pumfrey; 97: Getty Images/Photonica/Steve Ibb; 98: Corbis/Steve Prezant; 116: Getty Images/ Stone/Charles Thatcher; 122: Corbis/Norbert Schaefer; 134: Getty Images/Taxi/Nick White; 140: Corbis/Chuck Savage; 141: Getty Images/ Taxi/Deborah Jaffa; 148: Corbis/Norbert Schaefer; 154: Getty Images/Taxi/Michael Goldman; 178: Science Photo Library/Custom Medical Stock Photo; 186: Getty Images/Stone/Dave Crosier; 195: Corbis/JLP/Sylvia Torres. All other images © Dorling Kindersley. For further information see www.dkimages.com

208

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

About the Authors Rosemary Walker and Jill Rodgers worked for many years as diabetes specialist nurses in the UK, and have both been at the forefront of a variety of initiatives to improve diabetes care. In 2002 they set up In Balance Healthcare UK, a consultancy that provides skillsbased training for people with diabetes and for health professionals. Their philosophy is one of empowerment, an approach that acknowledges peoples’ ability to make their own decisions about what is right for them. This book and their first book, Diabetes: A practical guide to managing your health, have been written using this approach. About the Consultant David S. Schade MD is Chief of the Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism at the University of New Mexico School of Medicine. He has been involved with research on diabetes for over 30 years and cares for many people with diabetes in his clinic. He has written over 250 publications and books on diabetes. About the ADA The American Diabetes Association is the nation’s leading nonprofit health

organization providing diabetes research, information, and advocacy. Their mission is to prevent and cure diabetes and to improve the lives of all people affected by diabetes. For further information contact the ADA at 1-800-DIABETES (342-2383) or go to the website at www.diabetes.org

Authors’ acknowledgments We would like to thank the people that have helped us shape the content of this book. We particularly wish to acknowledge the many people with diabetes whose thoughts and feelings have given us valuable insight into what helps them live more successfully with their diabetes, Janet Mohun at Dorling Kindersley, our close friends, families and colleagues who have given us much appreciated support and encouragement. For the publishers Dorling Kindersley would like to thank Jenny Orr, Amanda Vezey and Emma Bunn at Diabetes UK for their expert advice; Frances Vargo for picture research, Hilary Bird for indexing, and Ann Baggaley for proofreading.