Varney's Midwifery, Fourth Edition

Citation preview

varney’s

midwifery

Other Titles Available from Jones and Bartlett Publishers Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, Second Edition, Riordan/Auerbach Clinical Lactation: A Visual Guide, Auerbach Coach’s Notebook: Games and Strategies for Lactation Education, Smith Comprehensive Lactation Consultant Exam Review, Smith Core Curriculum for Lactation Consultant Practice, Walker Counseling the Nursing Mother: A Lactation Consultant’s Guide, Third Edition, Lauwers/Shinskie Family-Centered Maternity Care, Phillips Health and Welfare for Families in the 21st Century, Second Edition, Wallace/Green/Jaros Impact of Birthing Practices on Breastfeeding: Protecting the Mother and Baby Continuum, Kroeger/Smith Integrated Women’s Health: Holistic Approaches for Comprehensive Care, Olshansky The Lactation Consultant in Private Practice: The ABCs of Getting Started, Smith Maternal and Infant Assessment for Breastfeeding and Human Lactation: A Guide for the Practitioner, Cadwell/Turner-Maffei/O’Connor/Blair New Dimensions in Women’s Health, Second Edition, Alexander Pocket Guide for Counseling the Nursing Mother, Shinskie/Lauwers Pocket Guide to Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, Second Edition, Riordan/Auerbach Reclaiming Breastfeeding for the United States: Protection, Promotion, and Support, Cadwell Resource Guide to Accompany Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, Riordan/Auerbach Study Guide for Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, Second Edition, Riordan/Auerbach Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding: An 18 Hour Interdisciplinary Breastfeeding Management Course for the United States, Cadwell/Turner-Maffei Varney’s Midwifery Study Question Book, Fahey Varney’s Pocket Midwife, Varney/Kriebs/Gegor

Varney’s

midwifery fourth edition


helen varney, cnm, msn, dhl, (hon.) FACNM Professor, Nurse-Midwifery Specialty Yale University School of Nursing

Jan M. KrIebs, cnm, msn, facnm Assistant Professor, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences University of Maryland School of Medicine

carolyn l. gegor, cnm, msn, facnm FORMERLY Assistant Professor, Department of Obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive sciences University of Maryland School of Medicine

World Headquarters Jones and Bartlett Publishers 40 Tall Pine Drive Sudbury, MA 01776 978-443-5000 [email protected] www.jbpub.com

Jones and Bartlett Publishers Canada 2406 Nikanna Road Mississauga, ON L5C 2W6 CANADA

Jones and Bartlett Publishers International Barb House, Barb Mews London W6 7PA UK

Copyright © 2004 by Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Varney, Helen. Varney’s midwifery / Helen Varney Burst, Jan M. Kriebs, Carolyn L. Gegor. – 4th ed. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7637-1856-4 1. Midwifery. 2. Gynecologic nursing. 3. Maternity nursing. I. Title: Midwifery. II. Kriebs, Jan M. III. Gegor, Carolyn L. IV. Title. [DNLM: 1. Nurse Midwives. 2. Midwifery. 3. Obstetrical Nursing. 4. Women’s Health. WY 157 V318v 2003] RG950. V37 2003 618.2—dc21

2003047512 Chief Executive Officer: Clayton Jones Chief Operating Officer: Don W. Jones, Jr. Executive V.P. and Publisher: Robert W. Holland, Jr. V.P., Design and Production: Anne Spencer V.P., Manufacturing and Inventory Control: Therese Bräuer Director of Sales and Marketing: William Kane Acquisitions Editor: Penny M. Glynn Production Manager: Amy Rose Associate Production Editor: Karen C. Ferreira Associate Production Editor: Renee Sekerak Associate Editor: Karen Zuck Production Assistant: Jenny L. McIsaac Senior Marketing Manager: Alisha Weisman Associate Marketing Manager: Joy Stark-Vancs Manufacturing Buyer: Amy Bacus Cover Design: Anne Spencer Interior Design: Anne Spencer Composition: Jacqueline Davies Printing and Binding: Courier Westford Cover Printing: Courier Westford Printed in the United States of America 07 06 05 04 03 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

A rededication to the students, practitioners, and profession of midwifery; and to the women, mothers, babies, and families who receive health care from all those who study this book. Helen Varney For the mentors, midwives, and mothers who have shared with me their knowledge of midwifery and birth; and for David, my partner in everything I do. Jan M. Kriebs To Lisa L. Paine, CNM, DrPH, my midwifery mentor and friend, and to all those whose wisdom and vision inspires us to go further and to give more than we ever knew was possible to care for mothers and babies; and to Andy, my husband and soul mate, with whom so many dreams have come true. Carolyn L. Gegor

Dedication to the Third Edition In honor and memory of my beloved parents, Helene Hahn Varney and Theodore Roosevelt Varney. Dedication to the Second Edition In tribute to Therese Dondero and all other Certified NurseMidwives whose masterly contributions to our profession were tragically curtailed because of untimely death. Dedication to the First Edition For my students, peers, and colleagues; the profession of nursemidwifery; and the women, mothers, babies, and families who receive health care from those who study this book.

Holy Births and Howling Babies In my backyard there are nuns who live in a shaded brick building next to the St. Stanislaus church and elementary school. Together we rise before the sun is in the sky. Behind the kitchen curtain, in the damp haze of morning, I watch them walk in shades of blue robe. They glide in white sneakers across the parking lot. They are cool, calm, brisk. Some day, I’ll go see them I’ll ask for some lesson on prayer. Because the thing is . . . I pray now. Not Dear God Almighty! Just slow, easy, quiet thoughts. I pray when my patience is worn. When my shoulders ache. When my own voice becomes tiring to my ears. I pray when my heart sits heavy with stories and faces of women. A prayer for the 32 week babe. A prayer for the lady with the skinny, squawking twins. A prayer for the woman without a mother, or a lover, or a friend. I pray when my cold hands run across a pregnant belly and I feel a kick from the inside. I pray for all my babies, Be good to your mama. I pray for all my mothers, Be strong, be good to this baby. I pray secretly and I pray slowly. I pray for us, the midwives and almost-midwives. I pray that we make the right decisions. And I pray for those of us who make bad decisions. Decisions we regret with outcomes we can’t change. I pray that we learn from our mistakes. That with age comes wisdom. I pray deeply and I pray completely. For all of the hands and all of the bellies. I pray for holy births and howling babies. Dana Quealy, CNM, MSN

Brief Contents Part I

Midwifery

Chapter 1 Chapter 2

Part II

Primary Care of Women

Chapter 3 Chapter 4

Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10

Chapter 11 Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Part III

The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States Basics of Management of Care 29

Cultural Competence in Midwifery Practice 49 Jo-Anna L. Rorie International Midwifery and Safe Motherhood 59 Margaret A. Marshall Joyce E. Thompson Preconception Care 85 Nutrition in Women’s Health 99 Jenifer O. Fahey Primary Care and Midwifery 135 Chronic Infectious Diseases 165 Women and Exercise 187 Ann Cowlin Pharmacology and Midwifery 249 Mary C. Brucker Mary Ann Faucher Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women 299 Laura Zeidenstein Substance Abuse 313 Nancy Jo Reedy Mary C. Brucker Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women 335 Mary Ellen Rousseau

Reproductive Health Care

Chapter 14

Chapter 15 Chapter 16

Common Diagnoses in Women’s Gynecological Health William F. McCool Dawn Durain Infections of the Genital Tract 439 Family Planning and Contraception 461

vii

379

3

viii

Brief Contents

Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20

Part IV

Antepartal Care

Chapter 21 Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

Part V

22 23 24 25

Normal Pregnancy Database: Adaptations of the Mother, Development and Growth of the Embryo and the Fetus, and the Placenta 543 Management Plan for Normal Pregnancy 571 Fetal Assessment 623 Screening for and Collaborative Management of Antepartal Complications 661 Complications of Gestational Age Assessment and the Postdate Pregnancy 715 Carol L. Wood

Intrapartal Care

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

26 27 28 29

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

30 31 32 33 34 35

Part VI

Natural Methods of Family Planning 471 Carmela Cavero Nonhormonal Contraceptive Methods 481 Intrauterine Contraceptive Devices 499 Hormonal Contraception 513

The Normal First Stage of Labor 737 Fetal Assessment During Labor 793 The Normal Second Stage of Labor 821 Screening for and Collaborative Management of Selected Complications During the First and Second Stages of Labor 853 Management of Selected Obstetric Complications and Deviations from Normal 883 The Normal Third Stage of Labor 905 Third Stage Complications and Management 913 The Normal Fourth Stage of Labor 917 Management of Immediate Postpartum Hemorrhage 925 Birth in the Home and in the Birth Center 929 Alice J. Bailes Marsha E. Jackson

Newborn Care

Chapter 36 Chapter 37 Chapter 38 Chapter 39 Chapter 40

Physiological Transition to Extrauterine Life 961 Mary Kathleen McHugh Immediate Care and Assessment of the Healthy Newborn 973 Mary Kathleen McHugh Resuscitation at Birth 983 Mary Kathleen McHugh Examination of the Newborn 999 Mary Kathleen McHugh Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks 1011 Mary Kathleen McHugh

Brief Contents

Chapter 41

Part VII

Chapter 44

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

The Normal Puerperium 1041 Infant Feeding 1067 Karin Cadwell Cynthia Turner-Maffei Sarah Coulter Danner Screening for and Midwifery Management of Puerperal Abnormality

1093

Skills 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61

Chapter 62 Chapter 63

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

1029

Postpartal Care

Chapter 42 Chapter 43

Part VIII

Recognition and Immediate Care of Sick Newborns Mary Kathleen McHugh

64 65 66 67 68 69 70

Universal Precautions 1107 Finger Puncture 1109 Venipuncture 1113 Inserting an Intravenous Catheter 1121 Giving Intravenous Medications 1125 Spin-Down Hematocrit 1127 Removal of Norplant 1131 Breast Examination 1135 Obstetric Abdominal Examination 1147 Checking for Costovertebral Angle Tenderness 1161 Checking for Deep Tendon Reflexes and Clonus 1163 Pelvic Examination 1169 Obtaining a Specimen for Papanicolaou (Pap) Diagnostic Evaluation 1195 Obtaining a Specimen for Gonococcal (GC) and Chlamydia Diagnostic Testing 1199 Making a Wet Smear Slide of Vaginal Secretions 1201 Using a Microscope 1203 Anatomy of the Pelvis, Pelvic Types, Evaluation of the Bony Pelvis, and Clinical Pelvimetry 1205 Breast Massage, Manual Expression, and Nipple Rolling 1217 Injection of Intradermal Sterile Water Papules for Relief of Low Back Pain in Labor 1219 Saraswathi Vedam Inserting an Intrauterine Pressure Catheter; Amnioinfusion 1223 Attaching a Fetal Scalp Electrode 1227 Perineal Prep (Cleaning) 1231 Second Stage Pushing 1233 Pudendal Block 1235 Local Infiltration 1239 Hand Maneuvers for Birth with the Mother in Lithotomy or Modified Lithotomy Position 1241

ix

x

Brief Contents

Chapter 71 Chapter 72 Chapter 73

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81

Chapter 82

Hand Maneuvers for Birth with the Mother in Dorsal Position 1249 Hand Maneuvers for Birth with the Mother in the Hands and Knees Position 1253 Saraswathi Vedam Hand Maneuvers for Birth with the Mother in the Squatting or Supported Squat Position 1257 Saraswathi Vedam Inspection of the Placenta, Membranes, and Cord 1261 Postbirth Inspection of the Cervix and Upper Vaginal Vault 1267 Manual Removal of the Placenta 1269 Fourth Stage Intrauterine Exploration 1271 Bimanual Compression 1273 Cutting an Episiotomy and Repairing Episiotomies and Lacerations 1275 Physical Examination of the Newborn 1295 Circumcision 1313 Vivian H. Lowenstein Endometrial Biopsy 1327 Wendy Grube William F. McCool

Contents Contributor List for the Fourth Edition Preface to the Fourth Edition xxix Acknowledgments xxx Preface to the Third Edition xxxii Preface to the Second Edition xxxv Preface to the First Edition xxxviii

Part I

xxvii

Midwifery

Chapter 1

The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States Definitions and Practice 3 Beliefs Characterizing Midwifery 4 Early History 5 Factors Leading to Disrepute 5 The Early Twentieth Century 7 The First Nurse-Midwifery Education Programs 10 The 1940s and 1950s 12 The 1960s 13 The 1970s 14 The 1980s 17 The 1990s and Early 2000s 18 The American College of Nurse-Midwives 19 References 23 Bibliography 24

Chapter 2

Basics of Management of Care 29 Primary Care and Scope of Practice 29 Independent and Collaborative Management of Care 30 The Management Process 31 Screening for Abnormality and Differential Diagnosis 33 Physical Assessment for a Database 35 References 45 Additional References 46

Part II

Primary Care of Women

Chapter 3

Cultural Competence in Midwifery Practice Jo-Anna L. Rorie The Demographic Shift 50 xi

49

3

xii

Contents

Women of Color Population Overview 51 Culturally Competent Care 52 Application of the Cultural Competence Continuum Conclusion 56 References 56 Additional References 57 Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

53

International Midwifery and Safe Motherhood 59 Margaret A. Marshall Joyce E. Thompson Introduction 59 The Situation Worldwide 60 The Newborn 64 Global Partners Promoting the Health of Women and Childbearing Families Frequently Asked Questions About International Midwifery 76 Future Trends and Challenges in International Midwifery 79 References 80 Bibliography 81 Appendix A: Sources for International Health Low Cost Books 83 Appendix B: Helpful Websites and Videos 83 Preconception Care 85 Health and Risk Assessment 87 Counseling Specific to Preconception Care Medical Risk Factors 89 Environmental and Workplace Issues 93 Preconception Issues for Men 95 Other Considerations 96 Intervention 96 References 97

88

Nutrition in Women’s Health 99 Jenifer O. Fahey Principles of Nutrition 99 Weight and Body Fat Measurements and Overweight and Obesity Cardiovascular Disease 115 Cancer 116 Diabetes 117 Nutrition, the Menstrual Cycle, and Fertility 118 Adolescence 118 Nutrition During Menopause and Beyond 119 Eating Disorders 120 Nutrition and Vegetarianism 122 Nutrition and the Female Athlete 122 Alcohol and Nutrition 123

112

66

Contents

Nutritional Guidelines 123 Conclusion 129 References 129 Additional References 133 Chapter 7

Primary Care and Midwifery 135 Primary Care 135 Hematologic Conditions 138 The Cardiovascular System 141 Respiratory Diseases 143 Gastrointestinal Disorders and Abdominal Pain Assessing Abdominal Pain 150 Genitourinary Problems 151 Diabetes 152 Thyroid Disease 154 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome 156 Headache 156 Depression 158 Conclusion 160 References 160 Additional References 164

147

Chapter 8

Chronic Infectious Diseases 165 HIV/AIDS 165 Tuberculosis 175 Hepatitis 177 (Coauthored with Mary Curran) References 183

Chapter 9

Women and Exercise 187 Ann Cowlin The Value of Exercise to Women’s Health 187 A New Exercise Model for Adolescent Girls 188 Appropriate Exercise during Pregnancy 193 Exercise for Postpartum Recovery 214 Essential Exercise for Menopause 220 Exercise in the Senior Years 231 Summary 233 References 233 Additional References 247

Chapter 10

Pharmacology and Midwifery 249 Mary C. Brucker Mary Ann Faucher Introduction 249 The Lexicon of Pharmacology 249

xiii

xiv

Contents

Drugs in Modern Society 251 Practicalities and Issues Involving Drugs 252 Adverse Drug Reactions/Adverse Drug Events 255 Drug Resistance 255 Drug-to-Drug Reactions 256 Drug Costs 256 Drugs and Herbs 257 Pregnancy and Drug Use 257 Metabolism 259 Elimination/Clearance 259 Teratology and Drugs During Pregnancy 260 Commonly Used Pharmaceuticals 264 Drugs for the Treatment of Various Medical Conditions 266 Pharmaceuticals and Breastfeeding 268 Selected Drugs and the Breastfeeding Woman 269 Conclusion 272 References 272 Additional References 276 Appendix A: Top 200 Drugs by Rank, by Generic Name, and by Brand Name 277 Appendix B: Teratology Information Systems by Location 289 Appendix C: The Transfer of Drugs and Other Chemicals into Human Milk 292 Chapter 11

Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women Laura Zeidenstein Background 299 Data Collection 301 Management of Health Care Issues 302 Childbearing and Parenting 304 Special Health Concerns 307 Summary 308 References 308 Appendix: Resources 310

299

Chapter 12

Substance Abuse 313 Nancy Jo Reedy Mary C. Brucker Introduction 313 Women and Substance Abuse 313 Attraction of Substance Abuse 315 Assessment of Drug Use 316 General Treatment Issues 317 General Management of Substance Abuse During Pregnancy Substance Abuse and Lactation 318 Neonatal Implications 318 Common Substances of Abuse 320

317

Contents

Appendix A: Health Education Fact Sheet from the American Lung Association on Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT) 330 References 332 Additional References 334 Chapter 13

Part III

Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women 335 Mary Ellen Rousseau Definitions 335 Age at Menopause 336 Adult Development, Society, and Menopause 336 Medicalization of Menopause 336 Endocrinology 339 Changes of Perimenopause and Aging 340 Breast Cancer 347 Cardiovascular Disease 350 Osteoporosis 352 The Perimenopausal Visit 357 Postmenopausal and Older Woman Visit 358 Menopausal Therapeutic Interventions, Preventive Measures, and Health Promotion 361 The Menopause as Opportunity 366 References 367

Reproductive Health Care

Chapter 14

Common Diagnoses in Women’s Gynecological Health William F. McCool Dawn Durain Issues Concerning the Menstrual Cycle 379 Abdominal and Pelvic Pain 396 Pelvic Masses 404 Congenital Uterine Anomalies 407 Pelvic Floor 408 Urinary Incontinence 409 Effects of DES Use 410 Special Considerations in Gynecologic Care 411 Cancer Screening/Diagnoses 413 Conclusion 428 References 429

379

Chapter 15

Infections of the Genital Tract 439 Vulvovaginal/Cervical Infections and Sexually Transmitted Diseases Pelvic Inflammatory Disease 457 Anaphylactic Shock 458 References 458

439

xv

xvi

Contents

Chapter 16

Family Planning and Contraception 461 History and Concepts of Family Planning 461 Selection of a Contraceptive Method 462 Effectiveness of a Contraceptive Method 465 Folklore Methods 466 Sterilization 467 Future Methods of Contraception 468 References 468 Bibliography 469

Chapter 17

Natural Methods of Family Planning 471 Carmela Cavero The Calendar Method (Rhythm Method) 472 The Ovulation Method (Cervical Mucus Method; Billings Method; Creighton Model) 472 The Basal Body Temperature Method 474 The Sympto-Thermal Method 475 Lactation Amenorrhea Method 478 Client/Couple Instruction 478 Technology and Natural Family Planning 478 References 478 Bibliography 478 Resources 479

Chapter 18

Nonhormonal Contraceptive Methods 481 Spermicidal Preparations 481 Condoms 484 Diaphragms 487 Cervical Caps 493 Other Vaginal Contraceptive Barrier Methods References 496 Additional References 497

Chapter 19

Chapter 20

496

Intrauterine Contraceptive Devices 499 Description, Effectiveness, User Response, and Noncontraceptive Benefits Contraindications and Side Effects 500 Management Plan for the IUD 501 References 510 Hormonal Contraception 513 Combination Pills 513 Progestin-Only Contraceptive Pills (Minipills) 527 Emergency Postcoital Contraception 528 Injectable Hormonal Contraception 531 Subdermal Implants 534 Contraceptive Vaginal Ring (NuvaRing) 536

499

Contents

Transdermal Contraceptive Patch (OrthroEvra) References 539 Additional References 540

Part IV

xvii

537

Antepartal Care

Chapter 21

Normal Pregnancy Database: Adaptations of the Mother, Development and Growth of the Embryo and the Fetus, and the Placenta 543 Maternal Anatomical and Physiological Changes 543 Maternal Physiological Changes 549 Maternal Psychological Adjustment and Processes 553 Fetal Growth and Development 556 Placental Development, Circulation, and Functions 564 References 568 Additional References 569

Chapter 22

Management Plan for Normal Pregnancy 571 Philosophy and Scope 571 Diagnosis and Early Management of Care During Pregnancy 573 Assessment and Evaluation of the Well-Being of the Woman 577 Case Study 587 Common Discomforts of Pregnancy and Their Relief Measures 591 Nutritional Intervention in Pregnancy 598 Instruction and Anticipatory Guidance 608 References 612 Bibliography 614 Appendix A: Immunization During Pregnancy 619

Chapter 23

Fetal Assessment 623 First Trimester Assessment of Pregnancy Well-Being 623 Second Trimester Screening 627 Invasive Fetal Assessment Throughout Gestation 630 Third Trimester Fetal Assessment 632 References 652 Additional References 658

Chapter 24

Screening for and Collaborative Management of Antepartal Complications First Trimester Bleeding 662 Ectopic Pregnancy 666 Hydatidiform Mole 667 Hyperemesis Gravidarum 668 Incompetent Internal Cervical Os 669 Infections 670 Tuberculosis 670 Hepatitis 674

661

xviii

Contents

Rubella 674 Cytomegalovirus 676 Toxoplasmosis 677 Varicella 678 Parvovirus B19 (Fifth Disease, Erythema Infectiosum) 680 Urinary Tract Infections 681 Anemias and Hemoglobinopathies 683 Heart Disease 688 Thyroid Disorders 689 Asthma 690 Multiple Pregnancy 691 Polyhydramnios (Hydramnios) 694 Oligohydramnios 694 Diabetes Mellitus 695 Rh(D) Isoimmunization 699 Placenta Previa 702 Abruptio Placentae 703 Management of Hemorrhage Due to Placenta Previa or Abruptio Placentae Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy 705 References 712 Chapter 25

Part V

Complications of Gestational Age Assessment and the Postdate Pregnancy 715 Carol L. Wood Fetal Age Determination 715 The Size/Date Discrepancy: Identifying the Problem 718 Postdate Pregnancy: The Clinical Problem 721 Anatomy and Physiology of the Cervix 722 Management Approach for the Postdate Pregnancy: Anticipatory Versus Active 723 Summary 729 References 730

Intrapartal Care

Chapter 26

Chapter 27

705

The Normal First Stage of Labor 737 Signs and Symptoms of Impending Labor 737 Database for the First Stage of Labor 739 Management of Care During the First Stage of Labor References 790

754

Fetal Assessment During Labor 793 Introduction and History 793 Physiology and Scope of Problem 794 Midwifery Management of Nonreassuring Fetal Heart Rate Patterns Methods to Evaluate Fetal Acid-Base Balance Directly 813 Fetal Oxygen Saturation Monitoring 815

811

Contents

Admission to L&D and Establishing Initial Well-Being Summary 817 References 818 Chapter 28

The Normal Second Stage of Labor 821 Database for the Second Stage of Labor 821 Management Plan for the Second Stage of Labor References 845 Bibliography (Chapters 26 and 28) 846

xix

816

829

Chapter 29

Screening for and Collaborative Management of Selected Complications During the First and Second Stages of Labor 853 Previous Cesarean Section 853 Preterm Labor/Birth 856 Premature Rupture of the Membranes 863 Amnionitis and Chorioamnionitis 867 Group B Streptococcus 868 Umbilical Cord Prolapse 870 Cephalopelvic Disproportion 872 Deep Transverse Arrest 873 Uterine Dysfunction 874 Maternal Exhaustion (Maternal Distress; Ketoacidosis) 876 Uterine Rupture 876 Blood Transfusion Reaction 877 References 878 Additional References 881

Chapter 30

Management of Selected Obstetric Complications and Deviations from Normal Management of Shoulder Dystocia 883 Delivery of an Infant with a Face Presentation 890 Delivery of an Infant with a Breech Presentation 892 Delivery of a Woman with Multiple Gestation 899 References 901 Bibliography 902

Chapter 31

The Normal Third Stage of Labor 905 Database for the Third Stage of Labor 905 Management Plan for the Third Stage of Labor References 911

Chapter 32

Third Stage Complications and Management Retained Placenta 913 Third Stage Hemorrhage 914 Placenta Accreta 914 Uterine Inversion 915 References 916

907

913

883

xx

Contents

Chapter 33

The Normal Fourth Stage of Labor 917 Database for the Fourth Stage of Labor 917 Management Plan for the Fourth Stage of Labor 919 Initiation of Family Relationships with the Newborn 921 References 923

Chapter 34

Management of Immediate Postpartum Hemorrhage 925 Causes of Immediate Postpartum Hemorrhage 925 Predisposing Factors 926 Preparatory Measures 926 Action, Effect, Dosage, and Route of Oxytocic Drugs 926 Management Steps 927 References 928

Chapter 35

Birth in the Home and in the Birth Center 929 Alice J. Bailes Marsha E. Jackson Introduction 929 History 930 (Authored by Helen Varney Burst) Characteristics of Birth Center and Home Birth 933 Birth Center and Home Birth Practice Models 936 Midwife/Client Relationship 938 Initial Visit 939 Return Visits 943 The Family’s Preparation for Birth and Postpartum 943 The Experience of Birth at Home or in the Birth Center 945 The Early Postpartum Period and Follow-up 947 Maintaining Safety 947 How to Accomplish an Effective Hospital Transfer 954 Business Issues 955 Special Home and Birth Center Resources 956 References 957

Part VI

Newborn Care

Chapter 36

Physiological Transition to Extrauterine Life Mary Kathleen McHugh Immediate Extrauterine Transition 961 Ongoing Extrauterine Transition 967 References 972

961

Chapter 37

Immediate Care and Assessment of the Healthy Newborn Mary Kathleen McHugh Assessment Prior to Birth 973

973

Contents

Assessment at the Moment of Birth 973 Care During the First Hours After Birth 974 Plan of Care for the First Few Days of Life 977 Planning Discharge 979 References 982 Chapter 38

Resuscitation at Birth 983 Mary Kathleen McHugh Infrastructure for Safe Resuscitation of the Newborn Pathophysiology of Asphyxia 984 Care of the Newborn Following Resuscitation 986 The Process of Resuscitation 987 Special Situations in Neonatal Resuscitation 995 Quality Assurance and Risk Management 996 References 997

983

Chapter 39

Examination of the Newborn 999 Mary Kathleen McHugh Structuring the Newborn Examination 999 Gestational Age Assessment 1002 Physical Examination of the Newborn 1004 References 1009

Chapter 40

Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks 1011 Mary Kathleen McHugh The Midwife’s Role in Neonatal Well-Child Care 1011 Newborn Behavior 1014 Developmental Milestones in the First Six Weeks 1016 Psychological Tasks of Early Infancy 1016 Physical Care of the Newborn 1018 The Circumcision Decision 1019 Nonnutritive Sucking 1020 Feeding 1020 Common Variations in the First Six Weeks 1023 Eating Patterns and Weight Gain 1025 Physiological Jaundice 1026 References 1027

Chapter 41

Recognition and Immediate Care of Sick Newborns Mary Kathleen McHugh The Midwife’s Roles and Responsibilities 1029 The Sick Newborn 1030 Signs of Possible Infection 1033 Signs of Birth Injuries 1034 Signs of Neurological Disease 1035 Signs of Surgical Emergencies 1036

1029

xxi

xxii

Contents

Signs of Drug Exposure in the Newborn Infants of Diabetic Mothers 1039 Signs of Intrauterine Growth Restriction References 1040

Part VII

1036 1039

Postpartal Care

Chapter 42

The Normal Puerperium 1041 Database for the Puerperium 1041 Management Plan for the Puerperium References 1064 Additional References 1065

1052

Chapter 43

Infant Feeding 1067 Karin Cadwell Cynthia Turner-Maffei Sarah Coulter Danner Breastfeeding-Optimal Infant Nourishment 1067 The Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative 1069 The International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes 1070 Anatomy and Physiology of Lactation 1070 Antepartum Preparation for Breastfeeding 1072 The Effect of Birth Practices on Breastfeeding 1074 Successful Breastfeeding 1074 Problem Prevention and Management 1078 Breast Discomfort 1079 Milk Supply 1081 When Breast Is Not Best 1085 Conclusion 1087 References 1087 Professional Resources and Equipment and Supply Resources 1091

Chapter 44

Screening for and Midwifery Management of Puerperal Abnormality 1093 Puerperal Morbidity 1093 Puerperal Infection 1094 Other Puerperal Complications 1095 Postpartum Depression 1098 Attachment Failure and the Potential for Child Abuse or Neglect 1101 References 1102 Additional References 1103

Part VIII

Skills

Chapter 45

Universal Precautions References 1108

1107

Contents

Chapter 46

Finger Puncture 1109 Bibliography 1111

Chapter 47

Venipuncture 1113 Bibliography 1120

Chapter 48

Inserting an Intravenous Catheter Bibliography 1124

Chapter 49

Giving Intravenous Medications

Chapter 50

Spin-Down Hematocrit

Chapter 51

Removal of Norplant References 1133

Chapter 52

Breast Examination 1135 Relevant History 1135 Physical Examination 1136 Variations in Breast Examination and Findings for the Pregnant Woman Variations in Breast Examination for the Postpartal Woman 1143 Teaching Breast Self-Examination 1144 References 1144 Additional References 1145

Chapter 53

1121

1125

1127 1131

Obstetric Abdominal Examination 1147 Antepartal/Intrapartal Abdominal Examination Postpartal Abdominal Examination 1156 References 1159 Additional References 1159

1147

Chapter 54

Checking for Costovertebral Angle Tenderness 1161 Anatomy 1161 Significance and Charting 1161 Procedure and Rationale for Examination 1161

Chapter 55

Checking for Deep Tendon Reflexes and Clonus Deep Tendon Reflexes 1163 Clonus 1167 Bibliography 1167

Chapter 56

Pelvic Examination 1169 Procedures, Observations or Findings, and Significance Bibliography 1193

Chapter 57

1142

1163

1169

Obtaining a Specimen for Papanicolaou (Pap) Diagnostic Evaluation Reference 1197

1195

xxiii

xxiv

Contents

Chapter 58

Obtaining a Specimen for Gonococcal (GC) and Chlamydia Diagnostic Testing

Chapter 59

Making a Wet Smear Slide of Vaginal Secretions

Chapter 60

Using a Microscope

Chapter 61

Anatomy of the Pelvis, Pelvic Types, Evaluation of the Bony Pelvis, and Clinical Pelvimetry 1205 Anatomy 1205 Types of Pelves 1209 Procedure, Rationale, and Description of Findings 1211 Evaluation of Findings 1215 Bibliography 1215

Chapter 62

Breast Massage, Manual Expression, and Nipple Rolling Procedure for Breast Massage 1217 Procedure for Manual Expression 1218 Procedure for Nipple Rolling 1218 Reference 1218 Additional Reference 1218

Chapter 63

Injection of Intradermal Sterile Water Papules for Relief of Low Back Pain in Labor 1219 Saraswathi Vedam References 1221

Chapter 64

Inserting an Intrauterine Pressure Catheter; Amnioinfusion References 1225

Chapter 65

Attaching a Fetal Scalp Electrode References 1229

Chapter 66

Perineal Prep (Cleaning)

Chapter 67

Second Stage Pushing 1233 Breath Control 1233 Body Position 1233 Arm Position and Action 1234 Pubic Pressure 1234 Vaginal Stimulation 1234

Chapter 68

Pudendal Block

Chapter 69

Local Infiltration 1239 Local Infiltration Before Birth 1239 Local Infiltration for Repair After Birth

1201

1203

1227

1231

1235

1240

1217

1223

1199

Contents

Chapter 70

Hand Maneuvers for Birth with the Mother in Lithotomy or Modified Lithotomy Position 1241 Reference 1248

Chapter 71

Hand Maneuvers for Birth with the Mother in Dorsal Position

Chapter 72

Hand Maneuvers for Birth with the Mother in the Hands and Knees Position Saraswathi Vedam

Chapter 73

Hand Maneuvers for Birth with the Mother in the Squatting or Supported Squat Position 1257 Saraswathi Vedam

Chapter 74

Inspection of the Placenta, Membranes, and Cord Database 1261 Procedure 1264 Bibliography 1266

Chapter 75

Postbirth Inspection of the Cervix and Upper Vaginal Vault 1267 Procedure for Cervical Inspection 1267 Procedure for Inspection of the Upper Vaginal Vault 1268

Chapter 76

Manual Removal of the Placenta

Chapter 77

Fourth Stage Intrauterine Exploration

Chapter 78

Bimanual Compression

Chapter 79

Cutting an Episiotomy and Repairing Episiotomies and Lacerations 1275 Relevant Anatomy 1275 Cutting an Episiotomy 1279 Aids to Wound Healing 1280 Manipulation of Equipment 1281 Knots and Suture Stitches 1282 Principles of and Thoughts About Episiotomy and Laceration Repair 1284 Repair of a Midline Episiotomy 1287 Repair of First and Second Degree Lacerations and Sulcus Tears 1290 Repair of Third Degree Lacerations 1290 Repair of Fourth Degree Lacerations 1291 Repair of Periurethral and Clitoral Lacerations 1291 Repair of Cervical Lacerations 1292 Defibulation and Repair 1292 References 1293

Chapter 80

Physical Examination of the Newborn

1249

1261

1269 1271

1273

1295

1253

xxv

xxvi

Contents

Chapter 81

Chapter 82

Index

Circumcision 1313 Vivian H. Lowenstein Relevant Male Genital Anatomy 1314 Circumcision Instruments 1314 Pain Relief 1315 Postcircumcision Care and Parental Instruction References 1324 Additional References 1325

1323

Endometrial Biopsy 1327 Wendy Grube William F. McCool Indications for Endometrial Biopsy 1327 Contraindications and Precautions 1327 Potential Side Effects/Complications and Preventive Measures Procedure and Rationale 1328 Results and Management 1331 References 1332 Additional References 1332 1333

1328

Contributor List for the Fourth Edition Alice J. Bailes, CNM, MSN Co-Director, BirthCare & Women’s Health, Ltd. Alexandria, Virginia

Wendy Grube, RN, CRNP, MSN Lecturer/Clinical Specialist Women’s Health Care Studies University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing

Mary C. Brucker, CNM, DNSc, FACNM Director, Parkland School of Nurse-Midwifery Dallas, Texas

Marsha E. Jackson, CNM, MSN, FACNM Co-Director, BirthCare & Women’s Health, Ltd. Alexandria, Virginia

Karin Cadwell, RN, PhD, IBCLC Faculty, Healthy Children Project, Inc. East Sandwich, Massachusetts

Vivian H. Lowenstein, CNM, CRNP, MSN, Certified Mohelet Nurse Midwife, GCSF OB/GYN Assoc. Abington, Pennsylvania

Carmela Cavero, CNM, MS, FACNM Certified Natural Family Planning Instructor Consultant with the Natural Family Planning Program of the Diocese of San Diego, California

Margaret Ann Marshall, CNM, MPH, EdD, FACNM Technical Advisor for AIDS and Child Survival Latin America and the Caribbean United States Agency for International Development

Ann F. Cowlin, MA, CSM, CCE Dance and Movement Specialist, Yale University Athletic Department Assistant Clinical Professor, Yale University School of Nursing Founder/Director, Dancing Thru Pregnancy®,Inc. Expert Consultant, U.S. Army Pregnancy Fitness Physical Training Program

William F. McCool, CNM, PhD, FACNM Associate Professor Director, Midwifery Graduate Program University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing Mary Kathleen McHugh, CNM, MSN Lecturer/Clinical Specialist University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing

Mary E. Curran, CNM, MPH Nurse-Midwife Dartmouth Hitchcock Nashua Nashua, New Hampshire

Dana Quealy, CNM, MSN Nurse Midwife, Alivio Medical Center Chicago, Illinois

Sarah Coulter Danner, CNM, CPNP, MSN, IBCLC Chairperson, Department of Nursing, Oglala Lakota College Pine Ridge, South Dakota

Nancy Jo Reedy, CNM, MPH Director of Nurse-Midwifery Services Texas Health Care, PLLC Fort Worth, Texas

Dawn Durain, CNM, MPH Faculty, Midwifery Graduate Program University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing

Jo-Anna L. Rorie, CNM, MSN, MPH, FACNM Assistant Professor, Maternal and Child Health Associate Director, Nurse-Midwifery Education Program Boston University School of Public Health

Jenifer O. Fahey, CNM, MSN, MSPH Nurse-Midwife and Clinical Instructor Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences University of Maryland School of Medicine

Mary Ellen Rousseau, CNM, MS, FACNM Associate Professor, Nurse-Midwifery Specialty Yale University School of Nursing Joyce Beebe Thompson, CNM, DrPH, FAAN, FACNM Lacey Professor of Community Health Nursing Western Michigan University Bronson School of Nursing Director, Board of Management International Confederation of Midwives

Mary Ann Faucher, CNM, PhD Faculty, Parkland School of Nurse-Midwifery Dallas, Texas

xxvii

xxviii

Contributor List for the Fourth Edition

Cynthia Turner-Maffei, MA, IBCLC Faculty, Healthy Children Project, Inc. East Sandwich, Massachusetts

Carol L. Wood, CNM, EdD Associate Professor and Graduate Program Coordinator University of Maine School of Nursing

Saraswathi Vedam, CNM, MSN Assistant Professor, Nurse-Midwifery Specialty Yale University School of Nursing

Laura Zeidenstein, CNM, MSN Assistant Professor of Clinical Nursing Program Director, Graduate Nurse Midwifery Program Columbia University School of Nursing

Preface to the Fourth Edition

T

his is a textbook written for all midwives. Midwives worldwide have a primary focus on pregnancy and birth in all types of settings. International concern for safe motherhood and the health and well-being of women builds on this core of midwifery. In the United States, the practice of midwifery encompasses the health care of women from puberty through senescence and from normal to high-risk, and the collaborative care of the medically or obstetrically complicated. To be with and provide care to women in all settings requires an extensive and in-depth knowledge base and skill competency. This book was written to provide both the student and the practitioner with the underlying theory, procedural know-how, and elaboration on the Hallmarks of Midwifery that enables the midwife to function with knowledge, safety, and caring in all settings. The book thus reflects a balance of art and science, a blend of spirituality and evidence-based care, and a commitment to being “with woman”. The book once again expanded with the fourth edition to provide more comprehensive coverage of the scope of practice of midwifery as the primary health care of women from puberty through senescence. Clinical content expansion is reflected in new chapters on Cultural Competence in Midwifery Practice, Primary Care and Midwifery, Nutrition in Women’s Health, Common Diagnoses in Women’s Gynecological Health, and Pharmacology and Midwifery. Other new chapters reflect increased comprehensiveness of material previously found in chapters such as Chronic Infectious Diseases, Complications of Gestational Age Assessment and the Postdate Pregnancy, Fetal Assessment in Labor, and Infant Feeding. A new chapter on International Midwifery and Safe Motherhood bespeaks acknowledgment of the role midwives have internationally in

promoting and safeguarding the health and wellbeing of women. Two previous chapters were completely rewritten and retitled by new authors as Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women and Birth in the Home or Birth Center. Four new skills chapters were essential additions supplementing our clinical practice: Endometrial Biopsy, Sterile Water Papules, Hands and Knees Birth Position Hand Maneuvers, and Squatting or Supported Squat Birth Position Hand Maneuvers. Although Norplant has been removed from the market, the removal procedure was retained as there are still women who have the implants. All chapters, references, and bibliographies were meticulously scrutinized and comprehensively updated to reflect both expansion and evidence-based changes in our practice. The book has more than doubled in size (a combination of page size and number of pages) since first published in 1980. The number of chapters has increased from 57 to 82. The preface and acknowledgments to each of the previous editions are included for historical purposes. As with earlier editions, the comments and suggestions of readers are encouraged. Finally, the fourth edition is the last edition of this book that I will author. The continuity and future of this book has been ensured by the two coauthors with whom I worked on this edition and who henceforth will be the authors of the book. They not only meet but exceed my requirements of having compatible clinical and educational philosophy with that upon which this book is structured, imposing expertise in clinical practice, exquisite writing and editorial talent, and absolute integrity in their work. Helen Varney Burst New Haven, Connecticut

xxix

Acknowledgments

T

he fourth edition has been a time of transition from a book with a single author to a book with three co-authors and preparing for two co-authors in the future. This enabled Helen Varney (HV) to take Jan Kriebs (JK) and Carolyn Gegor (CG) through the endless details and decisions of the entire process of book publishing from contract through writing, working with contributing authors, editing, copyediting, page proofs, front matter, permissions, art work, marketing, and relations with all the helpful people at Jones and Bartlett Publishers. We want to thank all the contributing authors, some of whom comprehensively updated their chapters and others who authored new chapters which assured expansion of the book to cover all facets of the scope of our practice. All wrote magnificently and we are so proud and pleased to have them sharing their knowledge and expertise in this book that represents our profession. Five contributing authors responded with commitment and grace to personal requests for help in meeting formidable deadlines relatively late in the process and to them we are especially grateful: Mary Brucker, Karin Cadwell and Cindy Turner-Maffei, Bill McCool, and Carol Wood. Each of us had the support of family, friends, and colleagues, without whom the book would never have been completed. HV expresses heartfelt gratitude to Margaret-Ann Corbett, CNM, MS, JD who has supported, encouraged, and enabled me to write the book through all four editions. In the end, it was Margaret-Ann who convinced me that I had to write the book one last time in order to facilitate an effective and fair transition. She then provided me with knowledgeable and wise counsel throughout, and the time, space, and sanity that I needed to do the work. Margaret-Ann’s contributions to the book through the years defy an adequate thank you. I am also grateful to my brother and sister-inlaw, T. William Varney, BS, CPA and Laura E. Varney, PhD for providing back-up dog walking and meals in Maine, and who gave of themselves and respected my need for time; to Catherine L.

Gilliss, RN, DNSc, FAAN, Dean of the Yale University School of Nursing, for supportive understanding; and to my friends, family, and colleagues who sacrificed time together over and over again in order for me to work on the book. JK expresses gratitude to my current and former partners at the University of Maryland: Carolyn L. Gegor, CNM, MS, FACNM, Mary E. Curran, CNM, MPH, Lisa McCullum, CNM, MSN, MPH, Jenifer Fahey, CNM, MSN, MPH, Rachel K. Payne, CNM, MS, IBCLC, Jennifer Kaye, CNM, MSN, and to Linda Sparks, our administrative secretary, all of whom made space in our practice for this book to grow. I am also grateful to Carol Snapp, CNM, MSN, who willingly reviewed and commented on material for me, and to Tekoa King, CNM, MPH and Lisa Summers, CNM, DrPH for their continual support this last year. Finally, I owe a great debt to my family: David, Rob, and Juniper, each of whom contributed time out of our lives so I could learn how to write a book, and then do it. Many thanks to each of these and all the other midwives and friends who believed I could do this. Although my name (CG) appears as co-author, it is truly the work and love and support of so many people that has made this possible. I have to start with my husband, Andy, and daughters, Stacey and Brittany, whose love and support have sustained me and continue to make my life glow. I am grateful to my parents, Gordon and Sylvia Pearson who have always believed in me. The path that led me to this book began at Johns Hopkins under the mentoring of Lisa L. Paine, CNM, DrPH, FACNM and Timothy R. B. Johnson, MD who showed me the value of teaching, writing and mentoring as a means of improving the care for many women and babies, far beyond those I could actually care for myself. The midwives with whom I practiced: Lisa Summers, CNM, DrPH, Aileen MacLaren, CNM, DrPH, Jan Kriebs, CNM, MSN, FACNM, Emily DeFerrari, CNM, Mary Curran, CNM, MPH, Lisa McCullum, CNM, MSN, MPH, Jenifer Fahey, CNM, MSN, MPH and Rachel Payne, CNM, MS,

xxx

Acknowledgments

IBCLC have all taught me so much and were supportive of creating opportunities to care for women as well as to teach midwives, nurses, medical students, and residents the ways of midwifery. Linda Sparks has always provided invaluable administrative support. Thank you to each one. We wish to express special thanks to the incredible team at Jones and Bartlett Publishers. First and foremost, we thank Penny Glynn, RN, ANP, PhD our editor who simultaneously cajoled and cared for us while unfailingly facilitating our efforts to get this book done; Karen Zuck, associate editor, who was always helpful but particularly invaluable with the permissions; Amy Rose, production editor, who was always open to author ideas and helpfully clear about what could and could not be done, Jenny McIsaac, production assistant, who carefully reviewed all the work and had endless essential questions and exhortations; Stephanie Magean, copyeditor, whose willingness to be simpatico with the author makes working with a copyeditor a pleasant experience; Joy Stark-Vancs, associate marketing manager, who sees involvement of authors as critical in the marketing process; and although not as directly involved in this edition, it was good to know that we had the continuing interest and support of Clayton Jones, CEO. Underlying their efforts is the philosophy of Jones and Bartlett to involve authors in all stages of production. This results in a real working relationship and partnership. A number of people helped with specific aspects of the book. There were those who were helpful in offering suggestions, acting as a sounding

xxxi

board, and contributing information at just the right times: Mary Curran, CNM, MPH, Kathryn Kravetz, SNM, MSN, Lisa McCullum, CNM, MSN, MPH, Lisa Paine, CNM, DrPH, FACNM and Johanna K. Rizzardini, CNM, MSN. As with each edition of the book, Phyllis Long, CNM, MPH wrote helpfully, this time with commentary from students at the Institute of Midwifery, Women, and Health that raised our consciousness in the use of words. Proofreading was done by the co-authors and by Margaret-Ann Corbett, CNM, MS, JD, who did the majority of this work, Donna Diers, RN, PhD, FAAN, who saved the day at one critical point, Teresa Marsico, CNM, MEd, FACNM, and T. William Varney, BS, CPA. Grateful thanks to each. Margaret-Ann and Donna have the distinction of having done proofreading for all four editions of the book. Carolyn Gegor and Jan Kriebs are indebted to Helen Varney Burst for giving us the honor, opportunity, and mentoring to participate in this book. Thank you for entrusting us with the profound responsibility to further the art and science of midwifery through this book. Finally, we wish to thank all of the midwifery students with whom we have worked during our professional lives. It is from our students that we have learned, been stimulated, and renewed our commitment to midwifery and to the constant search for knowledge. HVB JK CG

Preface to the Third Edition throughout the book. The second edition was in press just before the HIV/AIDS epidemic was generally recognized. The topics of HIV/AIDS and universal precautions are integrated throughout the third edition, in addition to being covered in depth in new chapters on the health care of women with HIV/AIDS and on universal precautions. Other new chapters address the full scope of practice of the midwife: preconception care, women and exercise, gynecologic and obstetric care of lesbian and bisexual women, substance abuse, midlife health, fetal assessment, Norplant insertion and removal, inserting an intrauterine pressure catheter, attaching a fetal scalp electrode, and circumcision. Kate McHugh has totally rewritten all the chapters in Part V on Newborn Care and added a new chapter on the primary care of the newborn in the first six weeks. All told, the book has almost doubled in size (a combination of page size and number of pages) since the first edition was published 16 years ago. The preface and acknowledgments to the first and second editions are included in the third edition. I kept them in not only for historical purposes but also because in them I articulated why this book was originally written and the educational principles and beliefs on which this book is based. As always I welcome the comments of readers, including suggestions that will enable me to better meet the needs of our students, our colleagues, ourselves, and our profession in this book.

T

he third edition of this book marks a time of change and expansion in the profession. This change and expansion is reflected in the title and in the size of the book. The change in the title from Nurse-Midwifery to Midwifery reflects the recent actions of the American College of NurseMidwives and the ACNM Certification Council, which assumed responsibility for setting the standard for the practice of midwifery in the United States through the credentialing mechanisms of accreditation and national certification of both nursemidwives and non-nurse-midwives. The practice of midwifery in the United States has expanded and now entails the provision of primary care to women from puberty through senescence, including the maternity cycle and primary care of the well newborn. Thus, this edition of the book involved extensive rewriting, with significant changes in wording, the expansion of existing chapters, and the addition of several new chapters of content as well as the updating that largely comprises a revision. All chapters and bibliographies have been critically scrutinized and updated. Content has been expanded, added, or deleted as indicated. What was Part IV on Management of the Interconceptional Period in the first and second editions has been renamed Health Care of Women and appears as Part II in the third edition. Many of the new chapters are in this section. This section also contains a chapter on primary care, which includes new and expanded material on the definition of primary health care of women; basic gynecologic care with an emphasis on the diagnosis and treatment of vaginitis/cervicitis and sexually transmitted diseases; pelvic inflammatory disease; Pap smears; diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure; toxic shock syndrome; and premenstrual syndrome. The family planning methods in this section have been updated and expanded to include more natural methods of family planning, a chapter on long-term hormonal contraception, and information on emergency postcoital contraception. The second edition added a chapter on out-ofhospital birth settings; the third edition takes the additional step of integrating all practice settings

Acknowledgments The third edition is the product of many helping hands. I am going to run the risk of naming them because I believe that contributions should be acknowledged publicly and because the third edition is truly the effort of a large number of people who believe in the book and its contribution to our profession. I hope not to offend anyone by unintended oversight. The contribution of each was invaluable. The third edition would not have been written were it not for my friend Margaret-Ann Corbett, CNM, MS, JD. It was Margaret-Ann who saw me through the death of both of my parents, five major surgeries, and almost two years of daily occupaxxxii

Preface to the Third Edition

tional therapy for my right elbow and hand since the last edition of this book. Just as I began to feel my energy returning, Margaret-Ann spoke with me quite seriously about her concerns that the book was now out of date and what this could mean to the profession that I love so much. Throughout the subsequent year and a half it has taken to write the third edition, Margaret-Ann has provided continuous support, encouragement, wise counsel, and a sane balance in my life as well as help with obtaining permissions and proofreading. I am deeply grateful for all. The Guardian Angels of Varney’s Midwifery, Third Edition was what I named a group of Air Force nurse-midwives at Andrews Air Force Base. In addition to Captain Nancy Lachapelle, CNM, MS, the Squadron Leader of the Guardian Angels, the core group consisted of Lieutenant Colonel Debra Erickson-Owens, CNM, MS, Lieutenant Colonel Colleen Gutierrez, CNM, MS, Lieutenant Colonel Dorothea Morris, CNM, MS, and Major David Padd, CNM, MS. Major Marsha Atkins, CNM, ND was an early member of the group prior to being transferred to another Air Force base, and Major David Kutzler, CNM, MS joined the group in time for proofreading. Nancy wrote me a letter on behalf of the group, none of whom I knew, to volunteer their services in whatever way would be helpful to get out the third edition. The timing of her letter was shortly after Margaret-Ann’s motivating talk, and after ascertaining the group’s expectations and altruistic motivations, I took them up on their offer. The Guardian Angels, under Nancy’s tutelage, divvied up and did the painstaking work of reading the entire second edition word for word and marking it for additions, deletions, changes, and updating. They then did the leg work of library research. With each chapter they sent copies of the latest articles and book references pertinent to the topics they believed needed to be changed, updated, or added. I wrote a large part of the third edition last summer in my home far down east on the coast of Maine a long way from any university libraries for health care professionals. The writing would not have been possible without the work of the Guardian Angels. Two of them, Nancy Lachapelle and Colleen Gutierrez, also drafted new chapters that I had requested and became coauthors on them with me. The Guardian Angels were unfailingly willing, cheerful, and ontime productive. All I had to do was ask and they would respond on a moment’s notice to horrendous deadlines; the last time was for proofreading. How does one say thank you to guardian angels? But thank them I do, not only for the work they did for

xxxiii

the book but for the fun I’ve had in getting to know them. There are several authors to thank for new chapters in the third edition. In previous editions the only chapters totally written by someone other than me were the chapters on the newborn. If I thought something needed to be added to the book that I didn’t know how to do, I learned it so I could write about it from experience, as I did with out-of-hospital birth, uterine exploration, and manual removal of the placenta for the second edition. This was not possible for the third edition. It was clear to me that I could not claim to be an expert in all the facets of nurse-midwifery practice that needed to be included in the third edition. I sought out the experts, and each responded with alacrity to my call for help without even asking about contracts or payment; their only interest was to contribute to the profession through writing for the third edition. I thank each of them—Sue Andrews, CNM, MAT, MSN; Ann Cowlin, MA, CSM; Vivian Lowenstein, CNM, CRNP, MSN; Nancy Jo Reedy, CNM, MPH; Mary Ellen Rousseau, CNM, MS; Carolyn Gegor, CNM, MS, RDMS, and Jan Kriebs, CNM, MSN; and Christina Krutsky, CNM, MSN, Jennifer Foster, CNM, MPH, Nina Kleinberg, CNM, MSN, Anne Morris, MD, and Kathleen Singleton, RN, MPH not only for their magnificent contributions but also for their support, unhesitating willingness, and the pleasure of working with them on their chapters. A special thank you goes to Nancy Reedy, who came to Maine to coauthor Chapter 21 on antepartal complications with me. Nancy also wrote a new chapter on substance abuse, reviewed the old chapter on intrapartal complications to suggest revisions and put me in touch with Linda Bertucci, and through it all kept saying, “Helen, just tell me what you want me to do and I will do it for you.” Working with Nancy was a happy time of reliving old memories, making new ones, being productive, and knowing that the new tables in Chapter 21 would be the type midwives would copy to put in their pocket clinical notebooks. Linda Bertucci more than lived up to Nancy’s recommendation and I am grateful for Linda’s revision of the section in Chapter 25 on abnormal fetal heart rates and patterns. I am also grateful to Pat Paluzzi, CNM, MPH for sharing materials and for her help in integrating content on domestic violence. My other visitor to Maine for the purpose of writing was Kate McHugh, CNM, MSN, author of all the chapters on the newborn. Kate told me that rewriting the neonatal chapters (in contrast to revising the previously written neonatal chapters for the

xxxiv

Preface to the Third Edition

second edition) gave her the wonderful feeling of writing in her own voice. And a wonderful voice it is. Thank you, Kate, for elegant writing; shared purpose, values, and experiences; and friendship throughout. In addition to my collection of books and the work of the Guardian Angels, two other people made my writing life in Maine possible without immediate access to a library. Thanks go to Mary Brucker, CNM, DNSc, who generously shared the results of her life-long habit of clipping and filing articles by sending me her most recent article files and the references for the educational modules in the Parkland School of Nurse-Midwifery. The other thank you goes to Mary Angelotti, MLS, MS, librarian in the Yale University School of Nursing Wiedenbach Reference Room, whose helpfulness was as close as my telephone and fax machine. It was a special treat to work with an old friend separated by distance, Carmela Cavero, CNM, MS, FACNM, as coauthor of the chapter on natural methods of family planning. I had asked Carmela to review the old chapter and tell me honestly what she thought. She did and became coauthor of the chapter, for which I am grateful. I am deeply grateful to Barbara Decker, CNM, EdD, FACNM, Director of the Yale University School of Nursing Nurse-Midwifery Program, for her caring, unfailing support, understanding, and positive reinforcement, and to Judy Krauss, RN, MSN, FAAN, Dean of the Yale University School of Nursing, for her continuing support, thoughtfulness, good humor, and generosity of time. Special thanks are due to Yale University School of Nursing faculty member Carrie Klima, CNM, MSN, who was the official photographer and spent hours taking and retaking pictures to satisfy not only her own but my and the production editor’s demanding eyes. Yale University School of Nursing faculty Heather Reynolds, CNM, MSN, Mary Ellen Rousseau, CNM, MS, and Leslie Robinson, CNM, MSN and their patients posed for Carrie’s camera lens, as did Yale University School of Nursing students Candice Becker, RN, SNM, MPH, Julianne Seymour, RN, BA, MSN, and Michelle Sullivan, RN, SNM, BSN. Thanks to all. Several other CNMs also contributed to the effort to obtain pictures and figures in the book: Mary Bradish, CNM; Connie Breece, CNM, MSN; Mary Ellen Galante, CNM, MSN; Susan Thomforde, CNM, MSN; Susan Ulrich, CNM, DrPH; and Deanne Williams, CNM, MS. Henrietta Clews, CNM, MSN, Pat Cross, and Lucille Madri, AS, contributed in circumscribed but significant ways. Grateful thanks to each.

Toward the end, when every day meant a delay in when the book would be available, I traveled with page proofs to Palm Desert, Washington, D.C., and Maine seeking help from members of the ACNM Division of Accreditation Governing Board and Board of Review as well as from the Guardian Angels, Yale University School of Nursing faculty and students, family, and friends. Proofreading was done by Mary Brucker, CNM, DNSc; Nancy Clark, CNM, PhD; Margaret-Ann Corbett, CNM, MS, JD; Barbara Decker, CNM, EdD, FACNM; Jeanne F. DeJoseph, CNM, PhD, FAAN; Donna Diers, RN, MSN, FAAN; Theresa Gesse, CNM, PhD; Lieutenant Colonel Colleen Gutierrez, CNM, MS; Betty Hilliard, CNM, PhD, FAAN, FACNM; Carrie Klima, CNM, MSN; Major David Kutzler, CNM, MS; Captain Nancy Lachapelle, CNM, MS; Teresa Marsico, CNM, MEd, FACNM; Lieutenant Colonel Dorothea Morris, CNM, MS; Kristin Murray, RN, SNM, BA; Major David Padd, CNM, MS; Nancy Jo Reedy, CNM, MPH; Kelly Riordan, RN, SNM, BA; Betty Schlatter, CNM, PhD; Elizabeth S. Sharp, CNM, DrPH, FAAN, FACNM; Lara Slattery, BA; Gwen Spears, CNM, MSN, FACNM; and John Varney, BS, MBA. A heartfelt thank you to each. One of the joys of the third edition has been my association with Jones and Bartlett Publishers, the new publishing company for the book. Their welcoming inclusion and philosophy of involvement of the author in all stages of production; eager willingness to listen and understand the complexities of our profession; and overall class act have been deeply appreciated. I thank all with whom I have been involved at Jones and Bartlett but wish especially to thank Clayton Jones, Mary Sanger, and Jan Wall. Jones and Bartlett’s philosophy was shared by Lifland et al., Bookmakers, to whom Jones and Bartlett contracted the copyediting. Special thanks to Quica Ostrander who reversed my residual horror from the second edition with her very fine comprehensive copyediting and continuing communication throughout. Finally, I thank all those who spoke to me with comments or suggestions to improve the book. Two wrote thoughtful and specifically detailed letters: thanks to Phyllis Long, CNM, MPH and to Paula Stephens-Bibeau and the 100th graduating class from the Frontier Nursing School of Midwifery. Truly this has been a book from the profession to the profession. Helen Varney Burst New Haven, Connecticut

Preface to the Second Edition

T

he First Edition of this book reflected the basic practice of nurse-midwifery in the United States. The Second Edition addresses the full scope of nurse-midwifery practice in the United States, thereby adding the two ends of a continuum that extends from home birth to collaborative management of high-risk patients with physicians in tertiary medical centers. The process of addressing the full scope of nurse-midwifery practice entailed a rethinking of the philosophy and definition of nurse-midwifery. A commonly held viewpoint is that nurse-midwifery is the management of the health care of only normal, or essentially normal, women. A review of our history is instructive because it is quickly obvious that nurse-midwifery was never limited to “normal” or “low-risk” childbearing women. The women in the remote areas of the Kentucky mountains in 1925, or in the Madera County, California project, or in Mississippi, or in the city hospitals of New York City, or any of the number of other underserved areas where nurse-midwives have reduced perinatal and infant mortality and prematurity rates and increased birth weights, were high-risk, or at-risk, and rarely low-risk. The education of nurse-midwives has always emphasized screening for the earliest possible signs and symptoms of an existing or developing complication. The profession has unshakably believed that nurse-midwives must work in a health care system that provides for physician consultation, collaboration, and referral. Such emphasis on screening and relationships with physicians clearly reflects concerns emanating from working with at-risk or high-risk populations from the beginning of our profession in the United States. In the days when nurse-midwives worked only with underserved, and therefore at-risk or high-risk, populations, it was assumed that the nurse-midwife managed the care of the woman as long as she was essentially normal, consulted when there was any evidence of complications, and continued to care for the woman in a collaborative relationship with the physician. It was always entirely possible that if a woman remained essentially healthy that she

would never see a physician. This did not deny, however, the role of the nurse-midwife in contributing to the collaborative management of at-risk or high-risk patients if they developed complications nor the focus of the nurse-midwife upon those aspects of childbearing which are normal in any woman, regardless of how complex her obstetric care becomes. It was not until nurse-midwifery included the private patient sector in the early 1970s that nursemidwives began taking care of women from an essentially healthy, largely normal or low-risk population. Many of these women were seeking health care that involved them and their families in knowledgeable participatory decision making and which supported natural, normal processes. They found this in the care given by nurse-midwives. Some of them were disenchanted with technology and displeased with routine hospital maternity care. Nurse-midwives responded by being advocates for the women (both normal and complicated) who remained within the hospital health care system and by providing care to carefully screened, normal childbearing women in out-of-hospital settings. Being able to work with a variety of populations has meant that some nurse-midwives focus on one or another of these populations and thus apply the basic practice of nurse-midwifery to either end of the continuum. Those who work solely with a middle/upper class, educated, healthy population in an out-of-hospital setting have a different world view of the practice of nurse-midwifery than those nurse-midwives who work solely with a lower socioeconomic, complicated population in a tertiary medical center. This has led at times to a sense of dichotomy or of nurse-midwives on either end of the continuum being out of harmony with either accepted practice or with our basic definition. Not true. Our history encompasses the care of women in all settings. Our focus on normal does not define or limit our patient populations; it simply defines our area of expertise regardless of the population. This edition of Nurse-Midwifery thus adds the two ends of the continuum. Chapter 20 is a new

xxxv

xxxvi

Preface to the Second Edition

chapter which focuses on out-of-hospital birth and the responsibilities of both the consumer and the nurse-midwife in that setting. At the other end of the continuum Chapters 9 and 14 on antepartal and intrapartal complications have been completely rewritten and expanded to reflect the contribution the nurse-midwife makes to the collaborative management of complicated patients. These two chapters also add topics not included in the First Edition such as size/dates discrepancy, small-fordates, large-for-dates, postdates, oligohydramnios, preterm labor, etc. Chapters 57 and 58 on manual removal of the placenta and intrauterine exploration were added because of recognition that these are essential skills for a nurse-midwife to know in any setting in the event of an emergency. This led to changes in Chapters 17 and 19 on the management of third and fourth stage hemorrhage. All chapters and bibliographies have been critically scrutinized, updated, and content expanded, added or deleted as indicated. I made a deliberate last-minute decision to retain the chapter on intrauterine contraceptive devices (Chapter 31) after they were removed from the market because (1) some women we care for still have them, (2) some Certified Nurse-Midwives practice in other countries where they are still available, and (3) I believe they someday once again will be available in the United States and we need to have that knowledge. The removal of Nisentil from the market did not happen until too late to make changes in Chapter 12. The dedication, preface, and acknowledgments to the First Edition were retained for historical purposes and because the purpose of this book and the educational principles used in its writing have not changed and are articulated in the preface to the First Edition. Once again I welcome comments from readers including suggestions “which will enable me to ever better meet the needs of our students, our colleagues, and ourselves in this book.” Acknowledgments to the Second Edition Writing a new edition is quite different from writing the original text. The original text was based on what I knew, had practiced and taught for a number of years. I wanted, however, in the Second Edition to include some aspects of practice with which I was not as well versed. Since I refuse to write what I do not know and have not done myself, writing the Second Edition required some preparation and expansion of my own scope of practice.

I owe a debt of gratitude to four very special CNM friends who generously gave of themselves and allowed me to practice with them in their settings. With three of them I had the greatest joy and fulfillment a teacher can have: that of working with former students who now were teaching me. My odyssey for the Second Edition began with Judy Edwards, CNM, MS, with whom I began the transition away from 20 years experience in delivery rooms in tertiary medical centers. The patients in the obstetrical practice Judy is in deliver in a Level I New Hampshire community hospital which has a nursing staff supportive of all possible alternatives and delivery positions. Judy’s experienced, laid-back and honest approach provided a safe setting for me to accept the welcome challenge of learning what for me were new methods of delivery. My education in this vein culminated with Judy Kier, CNM, MSN in her combination birth center and home birth practice, Women’s Health Care Associates in Houston, Texas. Under Judy’s thoughtful, analytical, and articulate tutelage I expanded my mind in the realm of alternative modalities. I also learned the basics of out-of-hospital practice. This learning is reflected in Chapter 20. A special thank you goes to Cheryl, Tom, and Ashley Marie Linn who shared their life and home birth with me and to Susan Melnikow, CNM, who completely integrated me into the experience. Susan Wente, CNM, MPH, Director of Midwifery at Baylor Medical College/Jefferson Davis Hospital in Houston, Texas, spent precious time with me as I learned the procedures of manual removal of the placenta and intrauterine exploration (Chapters 57 and 58). What Susan has accomplished in a health care and hospital system that has the largest number of deliveries in the country is a pre-eminent model which served to remind me of the immense impact public health oriented nurse-midwifery can have. Therese Dondero, CNM, BSN, Director of Midwifery, North Central Bronx Hospital, New York, not only shared her unique setting with me but challenged me to remember my own early teachings and to rethink, again, the philosophy, definition, and scope of practice of nurse-midwifery. She entered this soul-searching thought process with me and then joined with me in the outcome of this process by coauthoring the total rewrite and expansion of Chapters 9 and 14. She also was influential in the review and discussion of parts of Chapters 3, 15, 17, 19, 20, 57, and 58. A year and a half of driving down and up the Merritt Parkway

Preface to the Second Edition

to accomplish this not only reinforced my enjoyment of that drive but also built a fund of shared time and thoughts with Therese which I treasure. Kate McHugh, CNM, MSN, accepted the job of reviewing, updating, and rewriting the section on the Neonate (Chapters 21, 22, and 23). Kate is a former neonatal intensive care nurse specialist and a former Yale nurse-midwifery faculty member who taught the Neonatal Module. It was good to once again work and enjoy lively and purposeful discussion with her. I said in the preface to the first edition that I would welcome comments and suggestions. A few wrote thoughtful and specifically detailed letters: Doris Abbott, CNM, MPH, Patricia Deibel, CNM, BSN, Helen Gabel, CNM, MSN, Mary Alice Johnson, CNM, MSN, and Phyllis Long, CNM, MSN. Into this category must also go the helpful book review written by Mary Widhalm, CNM, MS. Many other CNMs wrote or spoke to me with useful tidbits which ranged from clinical observations to missing categories in the index. Elisabeth Genley, CNM, MSN felt so strongly about the deficits of the index while a student that she became the indexer for this edition. In addition, Rochelle Kanell, CNM, MS undertook the initial critical review of Section VI (Chapter 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, and 31) to identify content that needed to be updated and added. Samuel G. Oberlander, MD, FACOG, Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of ObstetricsGynecology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine,

xxxvii

Bronx, New York, graciously reviewed the new and updated material in Chapters 9, 14, 17, 19, 57, and 58 for obstetric theoretical accuracy. Ellen Harrison, MD, Associate Director of Medicine, Montefiore-North Central Bronx Hospital Affiliation and Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York was critically helpful in her review of the segments on hepatitis and tuberculosis. I retain, however, full responsibility for any inaccuracies and the determination of clinical judgment presented in this book. Friends and family again played a critical role in the writing of the book. Margaret-Ann Corbett, CNM, JD, Anne Malley-Corrinet, CNM, MS, and Jerrilyn Meyer, CNM, MS took primary care of me as a person. My parents, Theodore R. and Helene Hahn Varney, sacrificed precious time for us to be together and were unfailingly interested and encouraging. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the editorial help of Richard Zorab, Editor in Chief, and of Elizabeth McGuire, Production Manager, at Blackwell Scientific Publications; and of Patricia Sheehan. Richard was especially supportive and facilitative when contracted copyediting proved problematic and delayed the publication of this edition by several months. A heartfelt thank you to all. Helen Varney Burst New Haven, Connecticut

Preface to the First Edition

T

his book was written because it needed to be written. As a nurse-midwifery educator I quickly became aware of my students’ frustration in trying to piece together what the practice of nurse-midwifery is from a conglomeration of American nursing and medical literature and English midwifery texts. The former was either too superficial or too much in depth with too little detail, while the latter were not always applicable to the practice of nurse-midwifery in the United States. This affected, in part, the content of this book. For example, the section on skills (Part VII) was written because the medical texts are woefully inadequate in explaining to non-physicians how to perform traditionally medical procedures. Consequently faculty in the different nurse-midwifery programs have written their own procedures or borrowed from other programs. Nurse-midwifery educators are characterized by their willingness to help each other and to share their materials with their peers. This has resulted in a sizable body of unpublished literature. What a student in any given program might actually get, however, varies considerably from program to program. The rest has been taught in the oral tradition from teacher to student, from demonstration to demonstration, from generation to generation. All have learned, and learned well, but at the price of frustration for the student and endless repetition for the teacher. Several educational principles have guided the writing of this book. A primary one has been that learning takes place best when used. For this reason the anatomical, physiological, and psychological bases for what is being observed and the rationale for action are given together rather than in separate and discrete chapters. This has been reinforced by my belief that the nurse-midwifery management process is the core of any nurse-midwifery curriculum. I first articulated the rudiments of this process in Mississippi based in part on my observations and analyses of my own and others’ thought processes when managing the care of patients. Others have since added their own interpretations. The one presented in this book is a composite drawn from

many minds. Learning the nurse-midwifery management process is facilitated by basic educational principles of application and reinforcement. In turn, the design of the process is such as to foster the utilization of these basic educational principles in teaching. This book has a definite hospital orientation, in part because this is what I know, and in part because this is where the basic education of students usually takes place. This orientation is not meant to imply any questioning of the value of out-of-hospital birth settings nor to reflect any personal reservations on my part in relation to them. Future editions of Nurse-Midwifery will include expanded coverage of nurse-midwifery practice in out-of-hospital birth settings, additional aspects of care during the interconceptional period, and comprehensive care of the pregnant adolescent as a specialty area. Finally, I have designed this book so that it will be of value as a permanent reference not only to nurse-midwifery students but to all those who are involved in the care of women and of the childbearing family. I welcome comments from readers, including suggestions which will enable me to ever better meet the needs of our students, our colleagues, and ourselves in this book. Acknowledgments to the First Edition This book would not exist were it not for a number of helping and helpful people, some whose contributions have been highly visible and others who have been supportive in various indirect ways. There have been the many who posed for pictures, took pictures, sent pictures, sent professional literature and materials, typed, photocopied and, most of all, patiently waited. And there have been the many who have touched and shaped my life and beliefs in nurse-midwifery: from Ernestine Wiedenbach, CNM, MA, my teacher and mentor from the beginning; through nurse-midwifery faculty and staff in the institutions where I have studied; to the nurse-midwifery faculty, staff, and students at the University of Mississippi Medical Center (1969–1974); the faculty, staff, and students at the

xxxviii

Preface to the First Edition

Medical University of South Carolina (1974–1979); the faculty in the nurse-midwifery education programs I have served as a consultant; the Certified Nurse-Midwives who have shared so much with me during my terms of office as President of the American College of Nurse-Midwives; and now the faculty and students at Yale University. There has been one person who has lived the book with me. To my friend, Margaret-Ann Corbett, CNM, MS, goes the most special acknowledgment and thank you for her never-failing encouragement, wise counsel, performance of innumerable detailed tasks, and provision of a sane counterbalance to the demands of the book. A special acknowledgment and thank you also goes to Sally Ann Yeomans, CNM, MSN, who has given much personally and professionally out of her conviction that the book should be written. This included her assuming the Chairpersonship of the Division of Examiners of the American College of Nurse-Midwives which I held, so I would have the time to write. A very special thank you must be said to Joy M. Brands, CNM, MPH, who rescued me and the book at one low point by volunteering to write the Neonatal section. She enlisted the aid of Mary J. Banigan, RN, PhD in that project and the results are Chapters 20, 21, and 22. They were assisted in their endeavors by Sally Ann Yeomans. A number of professionals reviewed parts of the book. Foremost among these is Henry A. Thiede, MD, FACOG, Professor and Chairman, Department of Obstetrics-Gynecology, The University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry and Strong Memorial Hospital. He reviewed the entire book for medical accuracy always with ready willingness and a prompt response. Alfred W. Brann, Jr., MD, FAAP and Linda Book, MD, FAAP, reviewed the section on the Management of the Newborn. Agnes Higgins, CM, BSc, PDT, FRSH, LLD, Executive Director of the Montreal Diet Dispensary, reviewed Chapter 8. Helen E. Browne, CNM, ScD (Hon.), CBE, Aileen Hogan, CNM, MA, Ruth Lubic, CNM, PhD, Agnes Reinders, CNM, MS in NEd., and Ernestine Wiedenbach, CNM, MA, reviewed parts of the first two chapters. Margaret-Ann Corbett, CNM, MS, and Linda Wheeler, CNM, EdD reviewed other

xxxix

chapters throughout the book. All reviewers undertook this work at my request as personal favors and I whole-heartedly thank them all, while assuming full responsibility for any inaccuracies which may exist. I learned a great deal about the arts from Betty Goodwin, Chief, Section of Illustration and Design, Division of Audiovisual Production, Medical University of South Carolina, who drew the original illustrations in this book, and from John Watts Clark, ARPS, Supervisor of Photograph Department, Medical University of South Carolina, the photographer who took most of the original photographs in this book. Their helpfulness and pleasant ways made my learning what is entailed in their respective fields a most enjoyable experience. I have known several editors throughout the process of writing this book. A special thank you goes to Christopher Campbell and Martha White Tenney of Blackwell Scientific Publications, Inc., and to Eleanor Mora. Without Chris and Marty urging and helping me through the last stages of production, the book would have stopped at the point of an edited manuscript. Special thanks must be given to Donna Diers, RN, MSN, FAAN, Dean and Professor of Yale University School of Nursing, for instigating and encouraging the contacts between Christopher Campbell and myself that led to the finalization and realization of the book. In the end it was my local friends who enabled the book to be finished. The bulk of the six hundred pages of galleys was divided up and proofread by Joy Ruth Cohen, CNM, MSN, Margaret-Ann Corbett, CNM, MS, Anne Malley-Corrinet, CNM, MS, Donna Diers, RN, MSN, FAAN, Charlotte (Pixie) Elsberry, CNM, MSN, Elizabeth Grob, CNM, BSN, and Elizabeth Cole Rogers, CNM, MN. Finally, not least but most, I acknowledge and thank my parents, Theodore R. and Helene Hahn Varney, who have provided both personal encouragement and financial support through the years it has taken to write this book, and in whose honor I have decided to publish this book under my maiden name. Helen Varney Burst New Haven, Connecticut

This page intentionally left blank

Midwifery

P A R T

I

This page intentionally left blank

C H A P T E R

1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States And it came to pass, when she was in hard labour, that the midwife said unto her, Fear not . . . Genesis 35:17

liveries on her own responsibility and to care for the newborn and the infant. This care includes preventative measures, the detection of abnormal conditions in mother and child, the procurement of medical assistance and the execution of emergency measures in the absence of medical help. She has an important task in health counseling and education, not only for the women, but also within the family and the community. The work should involve antenatal education and preparation for parenthood and extends to certain areas of gynaecology, family planning and child care. She may practise in hospitals, clinics, health units, domiciliary conditions or in any other service. [1]

Midwifery is as old as the history of Homo sapiens. Midwives are referred to in the Book of Genesis; these Hebrew midwives are the first midwives found in literature. Fulfilling its meaning of “with woman,” midwifery has survived through the centuries as birth, the renewal of life, continues through the ages.

Definitions and Practice Midwifery is an internationally recognized profession with practitioners throughout the world. The following international definition of a midwife and her sphere of practice has been accepted by the International Confederation of Midwives, the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, and the World Health Organization:

In the United States, midwifery education that meets the standards of the American College of Nurse-Midwives (ACNM) goes beyond the scope of practice considered midwifery in this international definition to include the primary health care of newborns and of women from puberty through senescence [2, 3]. The ACNM defines midwifery practice as conducted by Certified Nurse-Midwives and Certified Midwives as follows:

A Midwife is a person who, having been regularly admitted to a midwifery educational programme, duly recognized in the country in which it is located, has successfully completed the prescribed course of studies in midwifery and has acquired the requisite qualifications to be registered and/or legally licensed to practise midwifery. She must be able to give the necessary supervision, care and advice to women during pregnancy, labour and the postpartum period, to conduct de-

The independent management of women’s health care, focusing particularly on pregnancy, childbirth, the postpartum period, care of the newborn, and the family planning and gynecological needs of women. The Certified Nurse-Midwife and Certified Midwife practice within a health care system that provides for consultation, collaborative management or referral as indicated by the health

3

4

Part I Midwifery

status of the client. Certified Nurse-Midwives and Certified Midwives practice in accord with the Standards for the Practice of Nurse-Midwifery, as defined by the American College of NurseMidwives. [4]

The ACNM further states that “the education and preparation of CNMs/CMs described in the ACNM Core Competencies, qualify them to practice in a variety of settings including hospital, home and birth center” [5]. The ACNM defines a Certified Nurse-Midwife (CNM) as “an individual educated in the two disciplines of nursing and midwifery, who possesses evidence of certification according to the requirements of the American College of Nurse-Midwives” [6] and a Certified Midwife (CM) as “an individual educated in the discipline of midwifery, who possesses evidence of certification according to the requirements of the American College of Nurse-Midwives” [7]. Certification is conferred upon an individual who has met eligibility requirements for and successfully passed the national certification examination of the ACNM Certification Council, Inc. (ACC). Certification gives official recognition to an individual who has met professional standards for safe practice. This certification both protects the public and differentiates the well-educated, highly prepared ACC Certified Nurse-Midwives or ACC Certified Midwives, and their broad scope of practice, from other types of midwives.

Beliefs Characterizing Midwifery A number of beliefs are central to midwifery practice and characterize the health care given by midwives. Collectively, these beliefs and their implementation comprise the midwifery model of care. These beliefs include facilitation of natural processes and nonintervention in these normal processes unless indicated; continuity of care; promotion and implementation of family-centered maternity care; advocacy for the woman and her rights and responsibilities; education of women for knowledgeable participation and decision making in their health care and for understanding their bodily processes; promotion of health care, disease prevention, and the reduction of maternal and infant mortality and morbidity; the role of the midwife within the community; and the contribution of the midwife within the health care system. These

beliefs are further elaborated upon as Hallmarks of Midwifery in the ACNM Core Competencies for Basic Midwifery Practice [3]. The philosophy of the American College of Nurse-Midwives states beliefs that support and provide a base for the characteristics of health care given by nurse-midwives: Certified Nurse-Midwives believe that every individual has the right to safe, satisfying health care with respect for human dignity and cultural variations. We further support each person’s right to self-determination, to complete information and to active participation in all aspects of care. We believe the normal processes of pregnancy and birth can be enhanced through education, health care and supportive intervention. Nurse-midwifery care is focused on the needs of the individual and family for physical care, emotional and social support and active involvement of significant others according to cultural values and personal preferences. The practice of nurse-midwifery encourages continuity of care; emphasizes safe, competent clinical management; advocates nonintervention in normal processes; and promotes health education for women throughout the childbearing cycle. This practice may extend to include gynecological care of well women throughout the life cycle. Such comprehensive health care is most effectively and efficiently provided by nurse-midwives in collaboration with other members of an interdependent health care team. The American College of Nurse-Midwives (ACNM) assumes a leadership role in the development and promotion of high quality health care for women and infants both nationally and internationally. The profession of nurse-midwifery is committed to ensuring certified nurse-midwives are provided with sound educational preparation, to expanding knowledge through research and to evaluating and revising care through quality assurance. The profession further ensures that its members adhere to the Standards of Practice for Nurse-Midwifery in accordance with the ACNM philosophy. [8]

Individual CNMs and CMs also articulate these beliefs when writing their practice or service philosophy or presenting to the public or teaching students. Nancy Fleming captured the spirit and substance of a discussion in 1993 by the ACNM Board of Directors of the elements that distinguish midwifery when she wrote The Heart of Midwifery:

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

The heart of midwifery care for women and newborns lies more in the nature of that care than in its specific components. Midwifery practice has a firm foundation in the critical thought process and is focused on the prevention of disease and the promotion of health, taking the best from the disciplines of midwifery, nursing, public health, and medicine to provide safe, holistic care. Midwives are partners with women in the provision of health care, engaging in a dynamic reevaluation of each woman’s unique health needs. Midwives would rather nurture a woman’s progress with hands-on care than diagnose her problems from afar, . . . rather listen than lecture, . . . rather teach a health principle than treat an illness, . . . rather empower a woman to join in decisionmaking than decide for her, . . . rather urge her to speak for herself than to be her advocate, . . . rather instill a woman with trust in her body than demonstrate the midwife’s technical proficiency although midwives will do all these things when necessary. Midwifery is a profession born of a woman’s vision, nurtured in an understanding of women’s developmental phases, and committed to assuring women in all populations that it is their birthright to be part of this unique care. [9]

These beliefs have had practical application throughout the history of nurse-midwifery in the United States. Through the Maternity Center Association in New York City, nurse-midwives were active in the 1930s in the provision of prenatal care and were in the forefront of the early movements in the 1940s related to family-centered maternity care, natural childbirth, preparation for childbirth and parenthood, inclusion of fathers or significant others in hospital labor and delivery rooms, and rooming-in.

Early History The history of midwifery in the United States, for the purposes of this book, begins with the arrival of colonists in the New World. Midwives were among the first women to settle the colonies. Although surely there were midwives among the Native

5

Americans, their history is as yet generally unknown and unresearched. Midwives were considered vital to colonial community life and were treated with dignity. Special courtesies were extended to midwives, and arrangements were made to provide them with housing, land, food, and salary as payment for their services. This information is noted in town records and charters of the mid-seventeenth century. Midwifery was just one of many health care contributions colonial midwives made to the community. Often they also functioned as nurses who tended the sick and the dying and prepared the body after death, herbalists, and veterinarians. During the nineteenth century, pioneer women crossed the plains in covered wagons, followed the Oregon and Sante Fe trails, settled the “Wild West,” and bore children with the assistance of other women in the wagon trains, forts, or settlements who functioned as midwives in the situation [10]. Mormon history documents the honorable role and heroic functioning of midwives during their trek from Illinois to Utah in 1846 and 1847. Despite the initial honor accorded midwives in the colonies and their importance to other segments of the population through the years, a series of factors reduced midwifery from a respected profession to one in disrepute by the early twentieth century. These factors included religious attitudes, economic demands, replacement by physicians, inadequate education, a lack of organization, an influx of immigrants, and the low status of women.

Factors Leading to Disrepute Religious factors plagued midwives from the beginning. Most of the early midwives came from England, where in the seventeenth century the licensing of midwives took place under the auspices of the Church of England. Criteria were moralistically judgmental; they emphasized good character and granted the ability to denounce sins and to baptize. The midwives’ oath included a vow to pressure the mother into naming the true father. The results of such actions were not always appreciated. On the other hand, in the Puritan communities midwives were often suspected of witchcraft, especially if a malformed baby was born. By the early eighteenth century, compensation was not always adequate for the midwife; practic-

6

Part I Midwifery

ing midwifery was no longer economically feasible. This was especially true in the rapidly growing towns and cities. There was no organization or authority to establish guidelines for fees. In European society in the late eighteenth century, it was fashionable to have male midwives (physicians) for lying-in. This trend soon crossed the ocean, where physicians capitalized on it. Fox offers this analysis of the historical roots of antipathy toward the midwife: As the practice of medicine became highly competitive, physicians and medical students were advised that their presence at a delivery would insure the entire family as grateful patients thereafter. For example, the outspoken and highly influential Dr. Walter Channing, of Harvard, objected strongly to the practice of midwifery by women in his “Remarks on the Employment of Females as Practitioners in Midwifery,” (1820) and pointed out that “Women seldom forget a practitioner who has conducted them tenderly and safely through parturition—they feel a familiarity with him, a confidence and reliance upon him which is of the most essential mutual advantage. . . . It is principally on this account that the practice of midwifery becomes desirable to physicians. It is this which ensures to them the permanency and security of all their other business.” [11]

Male physicians thus replaced female midwives. The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries mark a time of rapid development in medical and nursing science and of discoveries and teaching pertinent to obstetric practice. These developments included the end of the Chamberlen family secret of forceps and the refinement of these instruments, technical advances that decreased the risks involved in cesarean section, pioneering efforts in obstetric anesthesia, conquest of puerperal fever, emergence of modern nursing in the 1860s, and inclusion of obstetrics in medical practice. Physician promises of relief from pain during childbirth, the use of chloroform by Queen Victoria during childbirth in 1850, the corresponding evolution of understanding the nervous system with the development of spinal methods of analgesia and anesthesia [12], the need for women receiving obstetric analgesia and anesthesia to be in the hospital, and the lack of access to hospitals by midwives all contributed to the decreased use of midwives.

The observations and teachings of William Smellie (1697–1763), who developed teaching manikins and kept meticulous records of his patients, identified the mechanisms of labor and refuted any number of myths and misconceptions. The anatomical studies of William Hunter (1718–1783) included discoveries pertaining to the lymphatic system, placental circulation, and pregnant uterus. William Shippen, Jr. (1736–1808), the first lecturer on obstetrics, and Samuel Bard (1742–1821), author of the first American textbook on obstetrics, are credited with promoting obstetrical teaching in the United States. All made measurable contributions to the science and art of obstetrics. These developments, new knowledge, and teachings were not accessible to the midwife because of the relative isolation of midwives from one another and the lack of schools, national organizations, journals, legal recognition, or other means of communication among midwives. Any one of these structures would have provided a channel for learning. Without them, the knowledge and practice of the midwife became sadly out-of-date while medicine advanced and modern nursing began. The Industrial Revolution at the end of the nineteenth century brought an influx of immigrants from a number of European countries who formed pockets of cultural communities within cities. Each such community had its own midwives who came from the “old country.” The vast majority were well-prepared midwives in their own country [13] but had the combined problems of not speaking English and not having access to the existing health care system. Their AfricanAmerican counterparts in the rural South also could not gain access to the health care system and were poorly educated because of racism. These “granny” midwives frequently passed the practice of midwifery from mother to daughter, learned through experience, and relied heavily on patience, home remedies, and prayer, as these were the only resources available to them and the women they served. Lack of licensure, organization, and formal education programs also contributed to preventing both the urban immigrant midwives and the black rural South midwives from being a part of the official health care system. The low status of women in general at the beginning of the twentieth century affected the work of midwives. Norma Swenson, in her analysis of social factors affecting the history of midwifery in the United States, makes the following comments:

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

But the final and I think more significant point was that the status of women at the turn of the century was at a particularly low ebb. At that point in time women were regarded as economically exploitable but at the same time socially and politically incompetent, in the sense that they were perceived as being unfit to exercise good judgment concerning their own affairs or the affairs of others, and in fact were legally prevented from doing so. Paternal domination of home and society was at an all-time high. It was then in this kind of atmosphere that midwives were outlawed and women were, therefore, in effect blamed for the appalling conditions under which mothers and babies died at that time, when in fact women were powerless to control social conditions, and coped as midwives as well as they could with circumstances which were largely the product of a man-made industrial and social revolution. [14]

These events and social factors combined by the end of the nineteenth century to create a system of health care education and service to which the descendants of the midwives in the colonies, the urban ethnic immigrant midwives, the African American rural midwives in the South, and the Native American midwives could not have access.

The Early Twentieth Century The first two decades of the twentieth century are notable for the recognition of woefully inadequate maternity care and subsequent actions taken to improve this care and for the establishment of two organizations: the Children’s Bureau in Washington, D.C. and the Maternity Center Association in New York City. Both of these agencies have had an immense influence on the development of maternalinfant health care and of nurse-midwifery. In 1906, a study was made of maternal and infant mortality in New York City. The study, attributed to the New York City Health Department, stated that more than 40 percent of deliveries were attended by approximately 3000 “incompetent and ignorant” midwives. Although the midwives were no more responsible than the physicians for the high maternal and infant mortality rates at that time, they bore the brunt of the blame. In reality, other factors of obstetrical care

7

contributed to maternal and infant mortality at that time: 1. The hospital was not viewed as a setting for ob-

2.

3. 4. 5.

stetrical care, so few hospital resources were available for treatment of emergencies or complications arising during childbirth in the home (where the vast majority of deliveries took place). The study of obstetrics was not an identified essential component of medical education, except in isolated teaching institutions. The practice of obstetrics was virtually limited to the intrapartal and postpartal periods. Few state laws applied to the licensure and regulation of midwives. No organized system of education for midwives existed.

Progress in improving care was slow. In 1915, the registration of births was a requirement in only ten states. It was not until 1935 that the registration of births became mandatory in every state. The Children’s Bureau In 1903, Lillian Wald, a nurse and founder of Henry Street Settlement and Visiting Nurse Association in New York City, suggested the formation of a federal children’s bureau. President Theodore Roosevelt recommended a bill to establish such a bureau in 1909, but it was 1912 before the U.S. Congress passed a bill, which President Taft signed, establishing the Children’s Bureau. The first act of the Children’s Bureau was to conduct a study of infant deaths, which, according to available statistics, produced an infant mortality rate of approximately 124 per 1000 live births. It is to the Children’s Bureau’s credit that in analyzing the data from its first study, the organization identified the inescapable link between infant health and maternal health during the maternity cycle. The Children’s Bureau then conducted studies of maternal mortality and conclusively established the importance of early and continuous prenatal care in reducing both maternal and infant mortality. Thanks to this information, the idea of prenatal care gained respectability and the concept of health care throughout the intraconceptional period began to grow. The Maternity Center Association In 1915, the New York City health commissioner made another study of maternal and infant mortality. The findings of this study, which again demon-

8

Part I Midwifery

strated the connection between mortality and lack of prenatal care, led to the formation of a plan whereby the city was zoned and a maternity center was established in each zone. The first such maternity center opened in 1917. The need for central organization quickly became evident, and the Maternity Center Association (MCA) was established in 1918. By 1920, MCA had 30 maternity centers in New York City. From this network grew MCA’s first endeavors in developing teaching materials and educational exhibits for use by individuals and agencies. In 1921, the association decided to concentrate its efforts on a demonstration of providing complete maternity care in one district and to cease the scattered efforts being carried out in its many centers, although some of the other clinics were still maintained for a while longer. This decision was based on the belief that most nursing agencies and hospitals caring for families were now giving sufficient emphasis to prenatal care in their health care services. In the meantime, MCA and the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Association collaborated on a study that illustrated the value of specialized maternity care within a generalized public health nursing program. Subsequently, MCA embarked on an intensive educational program in maternity care for the public and for professional health personnel, especially physicians and public health nurses. MCA eventually expanded its efforts beyond New York City; it endeavored to supply information about the need for maternity care to expectant parents throughout the United States. Mother’s Day was dedicated to this endeavor for several years, with an emphasis on saving mothers’ lives. The mayors of cities made Mother’s Day proclamations regarding saving mothers’ lives, and ministers preached their Mother’s Day sermons on the subject, using packets of educational materials sent by MCA. On the basis of their demonstration of providing complete maternity care, their collaboration with the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Association, and a study of maternity care in other countries, MCA concluded that there was a need to prepare nurses to do normal obstetrics and discussed opening a school of nurse-midwifery. This idea was temporarily thwarted in the early 1920s by bitter opposition from both medicine and nursing and by a lack of cooperation from city officials. The “Midwife Problem” In the early twentieth century, there was a debate over what was known as the “midwife problem.”

The factors mentioned earlier as contributing to the disrepute of midwifery converged between 1912 and 1914 to turn the licensing and practice of midwives into a heated issue. During this time, medical schools began to include obstetrics in their curricula, and obstetrics became an established medical specialty by 1930. Obstetric care began to move out of the home into the hospital, and laws were passed to regulate the practice of the indigenous midwives. A heated debate ensued. On one side of the debate were a majority who believed that all midwifery should be abolished; on the other side were those who believed midwives could perform a valuable function. The former feared the status midwives would gain if they achieved legal recognition and promoted the idea that improving the practice of midwives was an impossible task. Those in favor felt midwifery was practical given proper training, licensing, and supervision. Two significant events took place while the debate raged. The first event grew out of reality. Some states had already passed laws granting legal recognition to midwives and including requirements and specifications aimed at control of their practice. These laws were passed in an effort to reduce high mortality rates, as it was evident that the medical profession could not assume the entire task of obstetric care. In the South, licensure, education, and supervision of African American midwives was facilitated by the Sheppard-Towner Act from 1921 to 1929 [15]. This legislation assigned money, administered through the Children’s Bureau, for providing better maternal-infant care. Included in the Act was the specification that public health nurses should be employed for the instruction of untrained midwives. As a result of these laws to regulate midwifery practice, several midwifery schools were established. The best known of these schools were the Bellevue School of Midwifery in New York City and the Preston Retreat Hospital in Philadelphia. The Bellevue School of Midwifery, designed to instruct indigenous midwives in meeting requirements for practice, operated from 1911 until 1935, when it was closed by order of the New York City commissioner of hospitals, a physician. In his opinion, changing social and medical standards rendered the school superfluous and an unnecessary expense to the city. To support his action, he cited a decrease in the number of midwives as deliveries in hospitals had increased to 81 percent of all births in New York City [16]. The Preston Retreat was a mater-

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

nity hospital founded in 1836. In 1916, a practical nurse education program was started, and in 1923 a course in midwifery was started that eventually had both practical nurses and Registered Nurses for students. Enrollment dwindled but the midwifery course continued until 1960. It is not known when RNs were first admitted to the course [17]. The second significant event was the introduction of nurse-midwives from Europe. Nurse-midwives had proved their effectiveness in European countries, where they were an established part of the health care system. The Frontier Nursing Service The first nurse-midwives to practice in the United States were British-trained nurse-midwives brought to this country in 1925 by Mary Breckinridge as part of her plan to provide health care for people in the remote rural areas of the Kentucky mountains. This endeavor was organized as the Kentucky Committee for Mothers and Babies in May 1925; through a change in its articles of incorporation, it became the Frontier Nursing Service (FNS) in 1928. Thus, FNS traces its history back to, and dates itself from, 1925. Breckinridge was admirably suited for the task she undertook. Her qualifications included a family background and upbringing that gave her a wealth of influential contacts, professional preparation as a

9

Registered Nurse in the United States and as a StateCertified Midwife in England, personal and professional life experiences, and a carefully self-designed program of observation and study of the Highlands and Islands Medical and Nursing Service in Scotland, concentrating on the Outer Hebrides with further study in England. From this background she crystallized a plan involving outpost nursing centers staffed by nurse-midwives and backed by a medical director located at a small, local, rural hospital. Breckinridge’s program was to be administered by a director, overseen by an executive committee and board of trustees, and supported by local committees throughout the United States. Before the work began, a survey of births and deaths in the region where the nurse-midwives planned to work was conducted to provide baseline data for subsequent statistics and research. In her book Wide Neighborhoods [18], Breckinridge writes in fascinating detail of the myriad activities, people, concerns, and problems involved in bringing her plan to fruition. The work and record of the Frontier Nursing Service (Figure 1-1) are legendary. The records kept during the earlier years were in accord with a statistical system set up by the Carnegie Corporation and tabulated by statisticians from the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. In 1951, the FNS statistics showed that 8596 registered nurse-midwifery patients had been delivered since 1925, 6533 of whom were delivered in mostly primitive homes, with a

FIGURE 1-1 A nurse-midwife of the Frontier Nursing Service in a home in Kentucky, circa 1950. (Reproduced by permission from Frontier Nursing Service, Hyden, Kentucky.)

10

Part I

Midwifery

gross maternal death rate of 1.2 per 1000 for the 25 years studied. This rate was in contrast to national maternal mortality rates of 6.73 per 1000 in 1931, 3.76 per 1000 in 1940, and 0.83 per 1000 in 1950, or an average of 3.4 per 1000 for the same overall period of time. In addition, a comprehensive scope of health care services had been brought to the people, including general dental, pediatric, medical, and surgical services; general eye, tonsil, and worm treatment services; special tuberculosis and trachoma services; and social services supported by Alpha Omicron Pi, the national sorority of social workers, as its national philanthropic project. World War II had a great effect on the Frontier Nursing Service, both in staffing levels and in the direction the war mandated for nurse-midwifery education at FNS. Great Britain had been both the source of British nurse-midwives working in the Frontier Nursing Service and the provider of midwifery education for U.S. Registered Nurses, who were sent to Great Britain for their education and returned to work at FNS. With the advent of war, the British nurse-midwives wanted to return to their homeland to be of service to their country. It became evident that a long-deferred plan for an educational program in nurse-midwifery had to be instituted immediately. The Frontier Graduate School of Midwifery started with a class of two students in November 1939. By the summer of 1976, 460 nurse-midwives had graduated from the school. In 1970, the school changed its name to the Frontier School of Midwifery and Family Nursing when a Family Nurse Program was begun. This program closed in 1991 and then was resurrected in 1999 as the Community-Based Family Nursing Education Program (CFNP). In the meantime, midwifery education at FNS continued without pause, and in 1989 became the Community-Based NurseMidwifery Education Program (CNEP). The Frontier Nursing Service did not have, however, the first nurse-midwifery education program in the United States.

The First Nurse-Midwifery Education Programs The Manhattan Midwifery School [19] The first school established specifically to educate graduate nurses to be midwives was the Manhattan Midwifery School, which opened in New York City in 1925. Although the Preston Retreat course in

midwifery started in 1923, it is not known when it first admitted graduate nurses in addition to practical nurses, though it is thought to have occurred some time later. The Manhattan Midwifery School was affiliated with the Manhattan Maternity and Dispensary, a hospital specializing in maternity care. The midwifery course was initiated by Emily A. Porter, an R.N. and Superintendent of the Hospital, and placed under the jurisdiction of the hospital’s School of Nursing. Plans were formulated during 1924, and there were three graduates from the four-month course in 1925. The 1927 Annual Report of the Manhattan Maternity and Dispensary states that “this is the only school in the country offering such a course at present.” Mary M. Richardson, R.N., B.S., a public health nurse who was a graduate of St. Luke’s Hospital in New York City and of Columbia University Teachers’ College, studied midwifery at the Hospital for Mothers and Babies in London and became the Directress of the School of Nursing, including the course in midwifery, in 1928. Two of the 1928 graduates went to work with the Frontier Nursing Service. By 1929, the course was six months in length. The 1931 Annual Report noted that Mary Richardson had left as Directress of Nursing to return to public health work and that the course had ended: The Midwifery Course for graduate nurses started in 1925 has been discontinued during the last year as it was becoming more and more difficult to get enough District cases to take care of the needs of Medical Students. . . . It was the first and only Midwifery School for graduate nurses in the country. We are glad to hear that a similar one has recently been opened in New York City—The Lobenstine Midwifery Clinic to which we may refer our many applicants.

There were at least 18 graduates of the Manhattan Midwifery School [19]. The Lobenstine Midwifery School The School of the Association for the Promotion and Standardization of Midwifery was more commonly known as the Lobenstine Midwifery School, named for one of the charter members, Dr. Ralph Waldo Lobenstine. The Association for the Promotion and Standardization of Midwifery was the creation of the Maternity Center Association in New York City. MCA was convinced of the need for nurse-midwives whose preparation would com-

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

bine U.S. education in obstetric nursing with the education received by the professional European midwife. Much had happened to create a more favorable atmosphere since the abortive attempt by MCA in the early 1920s to establish a nurse-midwifery education program. There was growing recognition of how obstetric conditions in the United States compared poorly with those in other countries, which had much lower mortality rates and well-organized systems of educated and supervised midwives. Publicity spread about the conclusive proof gathered by the Frontier Nursing Service of the value of a system utilizing nurse-midwives, the work of Maternity Center Association in parent education, and its demonstration with the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Association of the value of specialized maternity nursing care. The Association for the Promotion and Standardization of Midwifery was incorporated in early 1931 by three members of the medical board of the Maternity Center Association and its general director, Hazel Corbin, R.N. Ralph Waldo Lobenstine, M.D., chairman of the medical board of MCA since 1918, was one of the charter members, as was Mary Breckinridge, director of the Frontier Nursing Service. Lobenstine worked tirelessly until his death in 1931 to bring about the establishment of nurse-midwifery services and education. The determination of the members of the Association for the Promotion and Standardization of Midwifery and the financial support of a group of 60 former patients and friends of Lobenstine led to the establishment of the Lobenstine Midwifery Clinic, Inc., in November 1931. Organizational and administrative details of the clinic were worked out, and a curriculum was designed for the school, the latter guided by British curricula but modified to meet the needs, cultural patterns, and health care systems in the United States. Hattie Hemschemeyer, a public health nurse educator, was named director of the Lobenstine Midwifery Clinic and School. Rose McNaught, a public health nurse who had obtained her midwifery preparation in London and then returned to work at the Frontier Nursing Service, was loaned out by FNS to help develop the program and joined the Lobenstine staff as a clinician and faculty member. The school opened in September 1932 and had six graduates in 1933, including Hattie Hemschemeyer. The memorial funds that had been pledged to establish and maintain the school and clinic for three years were exhausted in 1934. Therefore, in 1934, Maternity

11

Center Association and the Lobenstine Midwifery Clinic consolidated under the name and auspices of Maternity Center Association, which also assumed administrative and financial responsibility for the School of the Association for the Promotion and Standardization of Midwifery. Thus MCA traces the history of its school of nurse-midwifery back to 1932. The nurse-midwifery services provided through the clinic consisted of antepartal care and patient education at the clinic, intrapartal and postpartal care in the patient’s home except when hospitalization was required for medical reasons, and postpartum checkups at 14 days and 6 weeks in the clinic. Four attending obstetricians provided their services at medical clinics and round-the-clock consultation and, if necessary, were present in the patient’s home for delivery. During the 26 years the Lobenstine Clinic provided clinical services (1932–1958), a total of 7099 deliveries were attended, of which 6116 took place in patients’ homes. The maternal mortality rate of the clinic was 0.9 per 1000 live births, as contrasted to a maternal death rate of 10.4 per 1000 live births for the same geographic district as a whole and 1.2 per 1000 live births for a leading hospital in New York City. The Maternity Center Association School of Nurse-Midwifery (Figure 1-2) graduated 320 students between 1933 and 1959, utilizing the services

FIGURE 1-2 A new nurse-midwifery student (Margaret Thomas) in the 1930s being greeted by faculty member Rose McNaught at the Maternity Center Association Lobenstine Clinic and School. (Reproduced by permission from Maternity Center Association, New York, New York.)

12

Part I Midwifery

provided by the Lobenstine Clinic for educational purposes. In 1958, it moved inside a major medical and educational institution, and was established in the Downstate Medical Center, State University of New York in Brooklyn, New York; students used Kings County Hospital for clinical experience. This move was facilitated by Hazel Corbin, R.N., executive director of MCA, Marion Strachan, C.N.M., director of the nurse-midwifery program, and Louis Hellman, M.D., chairman and professor of obstetrics and gynecology at Downstate Medical Center and Kings County Hospital. Subsequent Programs of Education Almost all of the nurse-midwifery and midwifery education programs today that are accredited by the Division of Accreditation of the American College of Nurse-Midwives can trace their beginnings to the Maternity Center Association’s School of Nurse-Midwifery because they were started by either graduates or students of graduates of the MCA program. The exceptions are the Frontier School of Midwifery and a handful of programs started by Frontier Nursing Service graduates. There were seven nurse-midwifery education programs nationwide by the end of the 1950s. They are listed here with their starting dates, names, and locations as of 1960: 1932 School of the Association for the Promotion and Standardization of Midwifery (became the Maternity Center Association School of NurseMidwifery in 1934; affiliated with Downstate Medical Center, State University of New York and Kings County Hospital, Brooklyn, New York, in 1958; also includes an early affiliation of MCA and Kings County Hospital with Johns Hopkins University during 1958–1960) 1939 Frontier Graduate School of Midwifery of the Frontier Nursing Service, Hyden, Kentucky 1945 Catholic Maternity Institute School of NurseMidwifery, Santa Fe, New Mexico 1947 Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. (affiliated with Catholic Maternity Institute) 1955 Columbia University Graduate Program in Maternity Nursing, New York City, New York 1956 The Johns Hopkins University NurseMidwifery Program, Baltimore, Maryland 1956 Yale University Graduate Maternal and Newborn Health Nursing Program, New Haven, Connecticut Three of these programs subsequently closed: Catholic Maternity Institute (1968); Catholic

University of America (1968), which had the distinction of being the first nurse-midwifery education program to be part of a master’s degree program; and the Johns Hopkins University NurseMidwifery Program (1981). In addition to the closure of the Manhattan Midwifery School in 1931 and the Preston Retreat School of Midwifery in 1960, two other schools opened and closed during the 1940s: 1941–1946 The Tuskegee School of NurseMidwifery in Tuskegee, Alabama; a joint project of the Macon County Health Department, the Children’s Bureau, the Julius Rosenwald Fund, Tuskegee University, and the Alabama State Department of Health. Graduated 31 students [20]. 1942–1943 The Flint-Goodridge School of NurseMidwifery in New Orleans, Louisiana; in connection with Flint-Goodridge Hospital and Dillard University. Graduated two students [21].

The 1940s and 1950s The early graduates from MCA went into a variety of positions, the only common denominator being their goal of improving maternity care. The majority of graduates either practiced or taught clinical nurse-midwifery in MCA or FNS programs or became involved with various aspects of public health. A number of nurse-midwives in public health went to work in state health departments in positions designed for the supervision and teaching of indigenous midwives. These positions were in keeping with an original purpose of the SheppardTowner Act—that public health nurses be employed for the instruction of untrained midwives. As many of the early MCA graduates were also public health nurses, they were ideally prepared for working in rural maternity care, where the majority of indigenous midwives practiced. Other graduates held positions as maternalchild health consultants for state boards of health or within the federal bureaucracy. Still other graduates became involved in the nurse-midwifery education programs at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama and Flint Goodridge in Louisiana. In 1944, members of the Medical Mission Sisters, a Roman Catholic order, who were graduates of the MCA program started the Catholic Maternity Institute (CMI) in Santa Fe, New Mexico. CMI long stood as an outstanding example of what could be accomplished through intera-

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

gency cooperation and commitment to patient care. Births took place in the home or in La Casita, the first nurse-midwifery birth center. In the middle and late 1940s, graduates of MCA at Yale University were central in developing the concept and practice of rooming-in and in studying the effects of natural (prepared) childbirth and family-centered supportive care on a woman’s antepartal, intrapartal, and postpartal experience. The 1950s saw the development of three more educational programs by MCA graduates at Columbia University, Johns Hopkins University, and Yale University. Maternity Center Association was directly involved in initiating two of these programs (Columbia and Johns Hopkins) by sending nurse-midwives to start them. The 1950s also saw the founding of the American College of NurseMidwifery. The history of this professional organization is detailed later in this chapter. In the 1940s and 1950s, there was considerable demand for nurse-midwives to serve as nursing educators in maternity nursing; to fill nursing service staff, supervisory, and consultant positions in hospital obstetrics departments; and to act as consultants in federal and international health organizations. These employment possibilities, combined with a lack of opportunities for clinical nurse-midwifery practice, created the situation in which a large percentage of the early graduate nurse-midwives did not actually practice clinical nurse-midwifery. In a 1954 survey, 147 nurse-midwives identified 426 job positions they had held since graduation. Of these 426 job positions, 27 percent had been as a staff nurse-midwife [22].

The 1960s Opportunities to practice clinical nurse-midwifery were severely limited for a nurse-midwife graduating in the early 1960s. Only two states and one city legally recognized the practice of nurse-midwifery at that time: New Mexico, Kentucky, and New York City. Another state, Maryland, had nurse-midwives practicing under an old granny midwife law. In brief, a graduate could join the faculty of one of the existing nurse-midwifery education programs; practice at Catholic Maternity Institute in Santa Fe, Frontier Nursing Service in Kentucky, Baltimore City Hospital and Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, or Kings County Hospital or Cumberland Hospital in New York City; or go

13

to an overseas mission field. A few other isolated service positions or projects existed but generally were not known or, as in the case of the Madera County project in California, offered only shortterm employment by virtue of being demonstration projects. Therefore, the majority of graduates of that era went into teaching, supervisory, administrative, or consultative positions in related fields. This situation led to the need for refresher programs for nurse-midwives wanting to return to the practice of clinical nurse-midwifery when, less than a decade later, service sites in which to practice expanded rapidly. In the late 1950s and the 1960s, nurse-midwives made a deliberate and concerted effort to get into hospitals, as that was where the majority of births (approximately 70 percent at that time) now took place. The movement of nurse-midwives into hospitals brought concepts of family-centered maternity care and a consumer advocate to childbearing women who delivered in hospitals. Nurse-midwives were now working in both in-hospital and out-ofhospital settings. By 1967, approximately 23 percent of 468 employed nurse-midwives responding to a questionnaire [23] were actually practicing clinical nurse-midwifery. This number represented a substantial increase from the 11 percent practicing in 1963. Of the 468 employed nurse-midwives who responded to the 1967 survey, 103 (22 percent) worked in foreign countries, mostly through church missions or international health organizations. Fifty-six percent of the employed nurse-midwives were in service areas related to nurse-midwifery but were not actually practicing nurse-midwifery (working in obstetrics, pediatrics, maternal-child health programs, and public health departments as supervisors, administrators, staff nurses, head nurses, consultants, educators, and researchers); 75 percent held positions above the staff level. Of the 23 percent practicing nurse-midwifery, 35 percent were also on faculties of schools of nurse-midwifery; 53 percent gave nurse-midwifery services throughout the maternity cycle; and the remaining 12 percent functioned as nurse-midwives in one or more, but not all, of the phases of the maternity cycle. Development of opportunities to practice clinical nurse-midwifery remained slow into the late 1960s, with a few isolated areas utilizing practicing nurse-midwives and the remaining nurse-midwives contributing to maternal-infant health care in related fields. It was not until 1968, when nurse-mid-

14

Part I Midwifery

wives were employed in the Maternal-Infant Care (MIC) nurse-midwifery program in New York City to practice in community clinics linked with hospitals, that previously unheard-of employment opportunities for nurse-midwives to practice midwifery began to be available [24]. The first nurse-midwife to practice within the Indian Health Service was in 1969 [25]. Five nurse-midwifery education programs opened in the 1960s, four of which subsequently closed (the second date is the closing date): 1960–1981 University of Puerto Rico/Caparra Heights District Hospital 1963–1972 New York Medical College Graduate School of Nursing Nurse-Midwifery Program, New York City 1965 University of Utah Graduate Maternal-Infant Nursing Program 1966–1975 Ponce District Hospital, Ponce, Puerto Rico 1969–1985 University of Mississippi Medical Center Nurse-Midwifery Program A number of obstacles contributed to this slow development in practice and education. Paramount among these were misconceptions and stereotypes regarding nurse-midwives. These mistaken ideas led to outright hostility by some professionals. At the same time, other professionals came to believe in and support the development of nurse-midwifery. Hostility and support have emanated from both professional groups of colleagues with whom nursemidwives work: physicians and nurses. Following are some of the misconceptions and stereotypes often heard during that period of time that hindered the development of nurse-midwifery in the 1960s, as well as the factual rebuttals given at that time: • Stereotype: Midwives are all alike. Frequently, when only the midwife part of nurse-midwife is used or heard, the word conjures up a negative image. This image is of the good-hearted, loving, but untrained midwife either of past history or in rural areas of the South today or functioning as a birth attendant for those disenchanted with the present health care system. It leads to the irrational conclusion that nursemidwives are an uneducated menace representing a backward step into illiteracy in the provision of maternal-infant health care. • Fact: The name nurse-midwife actually specifies exactly who and what a nurse-midwife is. Either part of the name alone does not fully describe the unique profession of the nurse-mid-

wife in the United States. The nurse part recognizes the prerequisite education in nursing, differentiates the nurse-midwife from the historical or contemporary lay midwife, and assures a continuing emphasis on patient education, support, and counseling. All Certified Nurse-Midwives are Registered Nurses. Twothirds of the nurse-midwifery education programs are offered in schools granting a master’s degree. The midwife part of the name recognizes the additional specialized preparation and functioning of the nurse-midwife, tempers the medical focus in normal obstetrics, and identifies the nurse-midwife with professional midwife counterparts the world over. • Misconception: Nurse-midwives are trying to be “little doctors.” In general, physicians think that nurse-midwives don’t know “their place,” while nurses think that nurse-midwives have “sold out” to the physicians and are, therefore, traitors to nursing. • Fact: Nurse-midwifery is a clearly defined profession. Nurse-midwives believe fervently in who they are, what they have to offer, and what they can do. In fact, lack of acceptance for years by both medicine and nursing meant that the profession of nurse-midwifery attracted only those individuals who were highly dedicated and committed to contributing to the improvement and provision of maternal-infant health care in this capacity. Nurse-midwives are experts in the normal childbearing cycle. They wish to be precisely who they are and to do precisely what they do—encourage and facilitate natural, normal childbearing processes with a minimum of interference; educate, support, and instigate personal and family growth; foster selfconfidence and independence; dispel fear; and provide a calm atmosphere of acceptance and caring. Nurse-midwives are neither sell-outs nor traitors to either nursing or medicine. Instead, they realistically recognize the need for having the support of both the nursing and the medical professions in order for real growth in nurse-midwifery to take place. For the benefit of mothers and babies, nursemidwives continue to seek accord with both.

The 1970s In the late 1960s and early 1970s, everything changed. Suddenly nurse-midwifery was not only acceptable but inundated with requests for practitioners and berated for the lack of nurse-midwives

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

15

to meet the demand. The late 1960s and early 1970s were a time of rapid development in nursemidwifery, with widespread proliferation of nursemidwifery services and educational programs that continued through the decade. By the end of the 1970s, nurse-midwifery education had proliferated to a total of 22 basic educational programs, thereby doubling in 10 years the number of programs developed during the preceding 37 years. Fifteen new programs opened during this period of time, of which six subsequently closed (the second date is the closing date):

of Directors [26]. Nurse-midwives cooperated with one another in the provision of clinical facilities and clinical faculty for educational purposes. This effort has meant sacrifice on the part of many for the preservation of the profession; the joy and motivation of the practicing nurse-midwife comes from providing services directly to women, their babies, and their families. A number of factors contributed to this unprecedented growth in nurse-midwifery education and practice sites:

1972 University of Illinois at Chicago NurseMidwifery Program 1971–1975 Loma Linda University NurseMidwifery Program, California 1973 University of Minnesota Nurse-Midwifery Program 1973 Medical University of South Carolina NurseMidwifery Program 1973 Georgetown University Nurse-Midwifery Program, Washington, D.C. 1973–1984 St. Louis University Graduate Program in Nurse-Midwifery, Missouri 1973–1985 Meharry Medical College NurseMidwifery Program, Nashville, Tennessee 1973–1998 University of Kentucky NurseMidwifery Program 1975 University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Nurse-Midwifery Program 1975 University of California, San Diego NurseMidwifery Program 1974–1997 U.S. Air Force Nurse-Midwifery Program, Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland 1976 Emory University Nurse-Midwifery Program, Atlanta, Georgia 1977–1985 University of Arizona NurseMidwifery Program 1978 University of Miami Nurse-Midwifery Program, Florida 1978 San Francisco General Hospital/University of California San Francisco Interdepartmental Nurse-Midwifery Education Program

joint statement in 1971 by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the Nurses Association of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, and the American College of Nurse-Midwives recognized and supported the development and utilization of nurse-midwives [27]. Increased visibility and involvement of the women’s movement and feminism, which increased feelings of self-worth and self-confidence in all women. These attributes led to a natural alliance between women who wanted to participate in and be responsible for their childbearing experience and nurse-midwives, who facilitate the natural and normal processes, provide family-centered care, and promote parental self-determination. Recognition by the consumer. An increasing number of articles about the “new midwife” were published in major magazines such as Redbook, Newsweek, Life, and McCall’s, in Sunday newsmagazines, and in newspapers such as the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal. Greater consumer awareness and the satisfaction of those experiencing nurse-midwifery care and writing about it led to consumer demand for nurse-midwifery services. Use of nurse-midwives in federally funded projects such as Maternal-Infant Care (MIC), Family Planning monies (314E), Agency for International Development (AID), and demonstration projects geared toward improving maternal-infant health care and providing family planning services. Through these projects, more professionals became familiar with nurse-midwifery. This familiarity dispelled misconceptions, and many physicians and nurses subsequently became ardent supporters of nurse-midwifery. The children of the post–World War II baby boom were having babies during the mid-1960s and 1970s. This population peak meant that there was not, and would not be, a sufficient

The proliferation of educational programs overextended the existing resources for clinical experience for students. A workshop of nurse-midwifery education and service directors focusing on their interdependence was held in 1973. The group divided into task forces to make recommendations for solutions to the serious lack of clinical experience available to students. These recommendations were forwarded from the workshop to the ACNM Board

1. Official recognition by organized obstetrics. A

2.

3.

4.

5.

16

Part I Midwifery

supply of obstetricians to care for all of the childbearing women in the country. This shortage of obstetricians, combined with the small number of general practitioners doing obstetrics, highlighted the lack of human resources during this period of time. This shortage led to scrutiny of how best to use the optimal capabilities of each health care worker and promoted commitment to the obstetric team concept, which included utilization of the nurse-midwife. 6. Demonstration of the efficacy of the obstetric team concept. The effectiveness of nursemidwives had been statistically proved repeatedly since the first studies at the Frontier Nursing Service [28], in the Madera County Demonstration Program in California in the 1960s [29], in every service where nurse-midwives had worked, and in the team concept, which decreased by half the infant mortality in Holmes County, Mississippi, in the early 1970s [30]. 7. The involvement of nurse-midwives in interconceptional health care (i.e., family planning, human sexuality, and gynecological screening) and in neonatal care including promotion of parenting. This involvement fully rounded out nurse-midwifery management throughout the childbearing cycle, thereby providing continuity of care to the developing family. The credentialing mechanisms of individual national certification as a Certified Nurse-Midwife and the accreditation of nurse-midwifery education programs were well established by the early 1970s. A decade later, both ACNM credentialing mechanisms were recognized by umbrella organizations with that purpose: certification was recognized by the National Commission of Health Certifying Agencies, and accreditation of basic nurse-midwifery education programs was recognized by the U.S. Department of Education. The first private practice with nurse-midwives began in the early 1970s [31]. With the consumer “discovery” of the nurse-midwife came a burgeoning of private practice nurse-midwives, and another inhibiting misconception was laid to rest: • Misconception: Nurse-midwifery is secondclass care for second-class citizens. It follows that nurse-midwives can be utilized only for care of the indigent and will never be accepted by middle- and upper-class patients. • Fact: By the mid-1970s, nurse-midwives were in practice with physicians all over the country, taking care of middle- and upper-class patients. According to a 1976–1977 survey by the American College of Nurse-Midwives [32], ap-

proximately 26 percent of all nurse-midwives practicing nurse-midwifery worked in some form of private practice arrangement. Nursemidwives are well accepted by these women, who often prefer to be seen in the office and to be delivered by the nurse-midwife as long as their condition does not require the physician member of the team. This preference is largely a result of the time the nurse-midwife spends explaining and teaching during the office visits, the commitment of the nurse-midwife to the woman throughout labor, and the practical application of the beliefs of the nurse-midwife in promoting a family-centered, normal childbearing experience. This preference places the obstetrician in the difficult position of feeling displaced at the same time that the obstetrician is initially introducing the nurse-midwife into his or her private practice and is creating the environment in which women will come to accept the nurse-midwife by virtue of the care the nurse-midwife gives them. Mutual professional understanding and patience are required in order for the woman to obtain the maximum benefit and advantages of the physician/nursemidwife team approach. The misconception arose from the fact that nurse-midwifery practice for years took place mainly in large medical centers and city hospitals serving the medically indigent or in remote rural areas with few physicians. This initial concentration of nurse-midwives in settings serving women from lower socioeconomic groups occurred because the nurse-midwife’s professional services were welcomed first in areas where help was most desperately needed. During the 1970s, nurse-midwifery had become not only acceptable but also desirable and demanded. After years of struggling for existence, nurse-midwives now faced the problem of a severe shortage of supply to meet the demand. The first edition of this book (1980) discussed the conflicting pressure on nurse-midwives in the 1970s: On the one hand is the need for providing quantity services sufficient to warrant the expense of utilizing nurse-midwives by the established health care system and the need for nurse-midwives to be able to function within this system to benefit mothers and babies either desiring or needing care in the system. On the other hand, there is a small but growing number of consumers who are dissatisfied with the health care provided by the system, who desire care outside of the system, and who look to nurse-midwives for support and services. Lack of

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

response with childbirth alternatives (e.g., hospital birthing rooms, childbirth centers, or carefully selected home births) further disenchants the consumer with professional health care and fosters the development of often untrained lay midwives or birth attendants, and a do-it-yourself movement. Affecting this conflict is the issue of nurse-midwives being able to collect third party payment for services. The resolution of this conflict has farreaching implications and ramifications and constitutes the challenge nurse-midwifery has had in the latter half of the 1970s. [33]

Lay midwifery developed in the 1970s in response to the disenchanted childbirth consumers who wanted to give birth to their babies outside of the hospital. The term lay midwifery in the 1970s and 1980s referred to all non–nurse-midwives, whose preparation in midwifery was highly variable. Today the term refers to noncredentialed midwives. Some lay midwives prefer to call themselves traditional, community, empirical, or independent midwives. Sometimes the term direct entry is misused to mean lay or noncredentialed apprenticeship-prepared midwives. The term direct-entry midwives originated many years ago in England, where non-nurses completed a formal educational program leading to the same credentialed and regulated professional midwifery as nurse-midwives. Lay midwifery struggled with its early identity, as lay midwives disagreed sharply among themselves regarding the desirability of formal education, standards, credentialing, and regulation. A number of groups and organizations supportive of lay midwifery and home birth sprang up during the 1970s: NAPSAC (National Association of Parents and Professionals for Safe Alternatives in Childbirth), HOME (Home Oriented Maternity Experience), ACHI (Association of Childbirth at Home International), and NMA (National Midwives Association). Existing organizations such as ICEA (International Childbirth Education Association) and La Leche League added their support. The first national meeting of lay midwives took place in 1977 in El Paso.

The 1980s By the 1980s, nurse-midwives were practicing in the full range of possible arenas—from clinics and federally funded programs to HMOs and hospitals,

17

from being employed by physicians to employing the physicians—and providing a full range of services, from in-hospital delivery services to out-ofhospital delivery services or a mix of both. By this time nurse-midwives were perceived to be competitors for the obstetric health care dollar. Supportive physicians continued to enable nurse-midwifery practice to exist by providing necessary physician consultation, collaboration, and referral systems; opposing physicians tried to restrict the growth of nurse-midwifery through state legislative battles over statutory recognition of nurse-midwives, mandated third-party reimbursement, and prescriptive authority; denial of hospital practice privileges; and pressure on supportive physicians vis-à-vis their malpractice insurance. The entire situation was exacerbated by the fact that there was an overabundance of physicians, which would continue for the foreseeable future. In the view of many physicians, nurse-midwives were no longer needed. An investigative congressional hearing into the problems faced by nurse-midwives was held in 1980, and the Federal Trade Commission became actively concerned with possible and real restraintof-trade issues. At the same time health care costs had become unacceptably high and some services run by nurse-midwives were demonstrating that they were cost-effective. A survey of nurse-midwives in 1971 showed that 37 percent of the respondents were in the direct practice of nurse-midwifery, compared with 23 percent in 1967 and 18 percent of those nurse-midwives practicing in the United States in 1963. By 1976–1977, 51 percent of 1218 respondents living in the United States and replying to a questionnaire [32] were actually practicing nurse-midwifery. Within the 15 years from 1963 to 1978, active nurse-midwifery services increased from six services in three states and New York City to multiple services in 35 states, with more in planning stages. By 1982, 67 percent of 1584 survey participants living in the United States stated they were practicing nurse-midwifery [34]. In 1984, nurse-midwives were practicing in all 50 states; by 1988, nearly 80 percent of the respondents to an ACNM survey were in nurse-midwifery practice and education [35]. The legal practice of nurse-midwifery had spread from three states and New York City in 1963 with its legal status in the other states largely unknown, to a very clear legal status in all 50 states and four jurisdictions (District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) as a result of extensive and intensive work by the legislation

18

Part I Midwifery

committee of the American College of NurseMidwives. From practicing almost exclusively in large medical centers, city hospitals, and remote rural areas in the early 1960s, nurse-midwives had moved into every possible type of setting by the late 1970s and early 1980s. Because continuity of care is an essential component of nurse-midwifery care, a nurse-midwife may work in more than one practice setting. The late 1970s and early 1980s also saw the rapid development of out-of-hospital childbirth centers, with Maternity Center Association spearheading this movement. Chapter 35 details the history of out-of-hospital childbirth centers. Lay midwives organized themselves in 1982 with the creation of the Midwives Alliance of North America (MANA) to include midwives in Canada and Mexico as well as the United States. Membership is diverse; it includes anyone who chooses to call herself or, rarely, himself a midwife and reflects a complete range of educational preparation and experience. MANA established an Interim Registry Board (IRB) in 1986 to create an examination and maintain a registry of midwives who passed the examination. The examination was first administered in 1991, and the IRB subsequently separated from MANA and incorporated as the North American Registry of Midwives (NARM). In 1991, the National Coalition of Midwifery Educators, an organization separate from MANA and the MANA Education Committee, formed the Midwifery Education and Accreditation Council (MEAC).

The 1990s and Early 2000s The early 1990s witnessed another growth spurt in nurse-midwifery education programs, in part as a result of states’ recognizing the quality and costeffectiveness of nurse-midwifery care and funding programs within their states. The ACNM set the goal of having 10,000 Certified Nurse-Midwives by 2001. In 1995, slightly more than 5000 had been certified. With the increased number of new programs, the growing number of students in existing programs, and the advent of community-based long-distance learning, the trajectory to the goal was on target. In mid-2001, the total number of persons ever certified was 9327, including 28 Certified Midwives.

During the 1980s and 1990s, the number of programs again doubled, so that by the end of the century 45 accredited basic nurse-midwifery education programs existed, one of which was also an accredited basic midwifery education program. A listing of all the current education programs accredited by the ACNM Division of Accreditation can be obtained from the ACNM Web site [36]. Seven of the 38 programs that opened during these two decades subsequently closed: 1982–1987 Stanford University Midwifery Education Program, Stanford, California 1981–1988 Rush University Nurse-Midwifery Program, Chicago, Illinois 1982–1999 University of California, San Francisco/University of California, San Diego, Intercampus Nurse-Midwifery Program 1986–1998 Education Program Associates Midwifery Education Program, San Jose, California 1991–1996 University of Alabama NurseMidwifery Program 1993–2001 University of Rochester NurseMidwifery Program, New York 1995–2002 University of Missouri NurseMidwifery Program The health care system started to move in the direction of managed care in the early 1990s. Nurse-midwives once again found themselves struggling to be recognized and “at the table” both nationally and locally for far-reaching decisions affecting the health care system and nurse-midwifery practice. Practical preparation for establishing nurse-midwifery practices and services increasingly focused on business aspects of a practice, including marketing, budgets, financial concerns and policy issues, methods of determining productivity, billing and coding, and effective business practices. The Nurse-Midwifery Service Directors Network wrote An Administrative Manual for Nurse-Midwifery Services. In addition to its long existing Guidelines for Establishing a Nurse-Midwifery Practice, the ACNM put together a marketing packet for CNMs and handbooks on managed care and managed care contracting. In 1996, the Midwifery Business Institute was started by nurse-midwives at the University of Michigan School of Nursing and the University of Michigan Health System; both institutions co-sponsor this annual conference. The ACNM Division of Accreditation (DOA) was first recognized by the U.S. Department of

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

Education (USDOE) as a national accrediting body in 1982. Recognition has been renewed as proscribed by the USDOE ever since. In 1989, the ACNM Board of Directors (BOD) stated that “The ACNM will actively explore, through the DOA, the testing of non-nurse professional midwifery educational routes.” In 1990, the DOA determined that in order to address the charge from the BOD, it was necessary to first identify those nurse competencies that were assumed to be brought by a Registered Nurse to a nurse-midwifery education program. The DOA completed this task in 1994. These competencies were combined with specified prerequisite courses into an ACNM DOA document entitled Skills, Knowledge, Competencies, and Health Sciences Prerequisite to Midwifery Practice [37]. In 1994, the ACNM, in response to requests from state regulatory agencies, took the leadership role in setting the standards for the credentialing of non-nurse midwives. The immediate impetus for this effort was the growing use of licensed health care professionals, most often physician assistants, to practice midwifery without educational preparation or credentialing for this role. Using, at a minimum, the same criteria as for nurse-midwifery education programs, the ACNM DOA developed criteria for basic midwifery education programs for non-nurse midwives, and the ACNM Certification Council committed itself to the testing and certification of graduates from ACNM DOA-accredited midwifery programs who would receive the credential of Certified Midwife (CM) [37]. These directentry midwives meet the same end point academic and clinical objectives as Nurse Midwives: providing primary care to women from puberty through senescence with an emphasis on the maternity cycle and practice in all settings (hospital, birth center, and home). The first educational program for non-nurse midwives preaccredited by the ACNM DOA was established in 1996. The first graduates from this program were in 1997, and in 1999 the program was fully accredited. Two other direct-entry midwifery programs have since been preaccredited by the ACNM DOA. In May 2001, the U.S. Department of Education renewed its recognition of the ACNM DOA for preaccreditation and accreditation of nurse-midwifery education programs and recognized the expansion of the scope of its activities to include preaccreditation and accreditation of directentry midwifery education for the non-nurse. In the meantime, the Midwifery Education and Accreditation Council (MEAC), which had evolved

19

from the lay midwifery movement in the 1970s and 1980s, organized and defined itself in terms of accrediting education of non-nurse direct-entry midwives in the maternity cycle and out-of-hospital—especially home birth—practice only. MEAC applied for and received recognition from the U.S. Department of Education as an accrediting body in January 2001. MEAC-accredited programs prepare graduates for the examination of the North American Registry of Midwives (NARM) and recognition as a Certified Professional Midwife (CPM). In 2001, the National Association of Certified Professional Midwives was formed with the purpose of establishing a professional organization and setting national practice standards for CPMs. Credentialed midwifery at the beginning of the millennium now encompassed both nurses and two types of direct-entry non-nurses leading to certified midwives (CNM, CM, CPM) with different educational processes and two very different scopes of practice but well defined and distinguishable from the noncredentialed lay midwife.

The American College of Nurse-Midwives The American College of Nurse-Midwives (ACNM) is the national professional organization for Certified Nurse-Midwives and Certified Midwives. Its mission is to promote the health and well-being of women and infants within their families and communities through the development and support of the profession of midwifery as practiced by CNMs and CMs [38]. Incorporated in 1955, the ACNM was founded as the outgrowth of a series of circumstances that rendered its creation necessary. Early efforts to organize met with difficulties. An organizational meeting in 1940, chaired by Hattie Hemschemeyer, resulted in the formation of the National Association of Certified NurseMidwives (NACNM). Bylaws were written but the organization never evolved beyond this point. A 1944 meeting of nurse-midwives, again called by Hattie Hemschemeyer to discuss formation of a national organization, led the group to reject the option of establishing a new organization as financially and time/effort-prohibitive. The group also rejected the option of working to make the FNS-related American Association of NurseMidwives (AANM) become the national organization they envisioned because the AANM “did not

20

Part I Midwifery

admit colored nurse-midwives.” Instead, the group accepted an offer from the integrated National Organization of Public Health Nurses (NOPHN) to establish a section for nurse-midwives [39]. As a section of the NOPHN, nurse-midwives could define themselves, share information and knowledge, and start the process of setting educational and practice standards for the profession. In 1949, the nurse-midwifery section published the first national descriptive data gathered about nursemidwives [40]. The NOPHN was dissolved in 1952 following a general reorganization of the national nursing organizations. While the NOPHN was absorbed into the American Nurses Association (ANA) and the National League for Nursing (NLN), these organizations did not make any provision for a recognizable entity of nurse-midwives. Instead, the nurse-midwives were assigned to the ANA’s Maternal and Child Health Council and the NLN’s Interdivisional Council, which encompassed the areas of obstetrics, pediatrics, orthopedics, crippled children, and school nursing. The membership and concerns of the NLN council were simply too broad to serve as a forum or voice for nurse-midwifery. Being part of the ANA’s Council would have meant that nurses who were not midwives would be making decisions about nurse-midwifery practice and education. Ironically, even though nurse-midwives were in positions of leadership in maternal-child nursing in educational, professional, and federal organizations pertaining to health care, they were usually not thought of as being nurse-midwives. The Committee on Organization As the identity of nurse-midwives could not be maintained in the existing situation, the nurse-midwives present at an ANA convention in the spring of 1954 agreed to establish The Committee on Organization. Sister M. Theophane Shoemaker, the director of the Catholic Maternity Center in Santa Fe, New Mexico, was chair of the committee. The Committee on Organization, though claiming its progress was slow and tedious, had within two months identified reasons for organizing; discussed ways in which organization could be accomplished; written a definition of a nurse-midwife; identified the functions of a new organization if one was to be established; set educational standards for nurse-midwifery schools, including a statement of purpose and basic admission requirements; designed and mailed a questionnaire to locate nurse-midwives and ascertain their desire to organize; written and mailed two of the eventual six

Organization Bulletins of The Committee on Organization; and organized a meeting of nursemidwives for December 1954. Forty-six nurse-midwives attended that meeting, during which they reviewed the work done to that point and the results of the questionnaire (to which 147 nurse-midwives had replied), and approved the definition of a nurse-midwife and a statement of purposes of a nurse-midwifery organization. The major issue, however, was how organization could be accomplished. Four possible options had been identified: 1. Organization within the American Nurses’

Association (ANA) as a conference group 2. Organization within the National League for

Nursing (NLN) as a council 3. Reorganization of the American Association of

Nurse-Midwives (AANM) into a national organization 4. Formation of an entirely new organization of nurse-midwives to be known as the American College of Nurse-Midwifery The American Association of Nurse-Midwives had been started in 1929 as the Kentucky State Association of Midwives, incorporated by nursemidwives working with the Frontier Nursing Service. Mary Breckinridge, then director of the Frontier Nursing Service, was the continuing president of AANM during her lifetime. Its function was akin to that of an alumnae association, although membership was not limited to alumnae. Efforts to reach out to the AANM to persuade its members to reorganize were made by Sr. Theophane Shoemaker and Hattie Hemschemeyer. Mary Breckinridge, however, stood firm in her belief that nurse-midwives should be part of the nursing organizations and that the structure of the AANM would not change [39]. AANM, therefore, was eliminated as a possible option based on its members’ analysis and statement of preference not to be considered. The remaining options were either to organize within one of the national nursing organizations or to create a new organization. The decision was deferred until letters requesting a conference group and a council, respectively, were submitted to, and replies were received from, ANA and NLN. The letters were approved during the meeting. The NLN expressed interest and concern but pointed out that its bylaws for organization of a council would not meet the needs of the nurse-midwives. The reply from the ANA was not encouraging. The ANA was interested in a plan to establish

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

an interdisciplinary committee of the ANA and the NLN, with additional representatives from the public, to study the improvement of the care of mothers and children. The nurse-midwives could be a part of this committee. This information was published in the fourth Organization Bulletin, along with the plans for the next meeting of The Committee on Organization and a request for comments regarding what was emerging as the obvious direction for organization. At its meeting in May 1955, The Committee on Organization voted unanimously to proceed with the formation of the American College of NurseMidwifery. Those present based their action on the facts that all the other options had essentially been ruled out, that 133 of the 147 nurse-midwives answering the questionnaire had responded positively to the idea of belonging to a new organization of nurse-midwives, that formation of a separate organization obviously seemed to be the only way that nurse-midwives could work together and accomplish the goals that had been delineated in the statement of purposes, and that only one response had been received to the request for comments regarding this direction. The Committee on Organization had done such a splendid job of keeping all the nurse-midwives informed and involved that there was nothing further to be said. The Committee on Organization then began working to incorporate and establish the new organization. The incorporation of the American College of Nurse-Midwifery took place on November 7, 1955, in the state of New Mexico. New Mexico was chosen because it was one of the few states in which nurse-midwives were practicing and incorporation there involved the least amount of red tape, time, and expense. The ACNM as an Organization The first annual meeting of the American College of Nurse-Midwifery was held November 12 and 13, 1955, in Kansas City, Missouri. Hattie Hemschemeyer, director of the Maternity Center Association School of Nurse-Midwifery, was elected the first president of the ACNM. In her first message to members in the Bulletin of the American College of Nurse-Midwifery, she wrote about the driving force and movement of nurse-midwifery in terms that remain equally valid today: The College must select carefully the work it undertakes and then do well the work it has undertaken. We need to work with dedication and

21

conviction. We are beginning at a time when education has concentrated too heavily on techniques and too little on the human factors involved. It is essential that education relate in a responsible and practical way with the problems and moral issues of our times. We nurse-midwives are a specialized group and our education, experience, and service have led us to the considered conclusion that in our present society it is neither desirable nor necessary to eliminate specialization. We believe that creative imagination, plus the ability to utilize ideas, is one of the most powerful influences in the world today. . . . The nurse-midwives have not substituted rationalization nor routines for reason; they have not been helpless when it comes to effecting mass movements for the care of human beings where helplessness, faith in reason, responsibility, and the dignity of the individual were concerned. They know the difference between supplying verbal allegiance and action. . . . We have a pioneer job to do, and if we work as well and as constructively in a group as we have in the past as individuals, we can help to improve professional competence, provide better service and educational programs, and make fuller use of resources. The future looks bright. [41]

On the ACNM’s tenth anniversary, Hemschemeyer stated, “Our identity as a College gives us fundamental rights and grave responsibilities” [42]. In 1956, both the American College of NurseMidwifery and the American Association of Nurse-Midwives were accepted into the International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) upon the recommendation of England and Scotland and the unanimous vote of the executive council of the ICM. In 1969, the American Association of Nurse-Midwives (AANM) merged with the American College of Nurse-Midwifery (ACNM) to form the American College of NurseMidwives (ACNM). In October 1972, the American College of Nurse-Midwives hosted the triennial congress of the ICM in Washington, D.C., when Lucille Woodville, then nursing consultant to the Bureau of Indian Health Affairs and past president of the ACNM (1969–1971), was president of the ICM (1969–1972). The objectives of the American College of Nurse-Midwives, first expressed in the Articles of Incorporation in 1955, as amended through May 2000, reflect both nurse-midwifery’s concern for quality health care for women and infants and the

22

Part I Midwifery

assumption of the “grave responsibilities” alluded to by Hattie Hemschemeyer: That the objectives of said corporation shall be 1. To study, develop and evaluate standards for

2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11. 12.

midwifery care of women and infants as provided by Certified Nurse-Midwives (CNMs) and Certified Midwives (CMs); To study, develop and evaluate standards for nurse-midwifery and midwifery education; To support and assist in the development of nursemidwifery and midwifery services/practices; To evaluate and accredit nurse-midwifery and midwifery educational programs; To determine the eligibility of individuals to practice as Certified Nurse-Midwives and as Certified Midwives; To facilitate and coordinate the efforts of Certified Nurse-Midwives and Certified Midwives who in the public interest provide quality services to individuals and childbearing families; To establish channels for communication and cooperation with other professional and nonprofessional groups who in the public interest share the objectives of ensuring sufficient quality services to individuals and childbearing families; To establish channels for interpretation of midwifery as practiced by CNMs and CMs to allied professional and non-professional groups on a regional, national and international basis; To promote research and the development of literature in the field of midwifery as practiced by CNMs and CMs; To speak for all members of the College in relation to issues affecting the professional affairs of Certified Nurse-Midwives and Certified Midwives; To provide professional services to members of the College; To promote the College as a leader and major resource in the development and promotion of high quality care for women and infants, nationally and internationally. [43]

The seal of the ACNM (Figure 1-3) reflects basic philosophical beliefs of nurse-midwifery. Rita Kroska, who designed the seal in 1955, interprets its symbols as follows: The large shield is comprised of four symbols: a small shield of stars and stripes exemplify the United States of America; three intertwined circles exemplify the family with the lower circle containing crosshatching to illustrate the crib containing

FIGURE 1-3 The seal of the American College of NurseMidwives. (Reproduced by permission of the American College of Nurse-Midwives.) the child; a tripod with flames rising exemplifies continuance and warmth in dedication to the American family; and, lastly, the large shield contains an undulating band above the tripod but beneath the smaller shield and circles. The undulation portrays movement, persistence, steadiness, and steadfastness to the word written within. That word is VIVANT, an expletive in French which means Let Them Live! It is there to fill out the sentence of the symbols, to give emphasis short of exclamatory oath, that of unremitting dedication to safeguarding and promoting the health and wellbeing of family life, particularly the mother and infant. The large shield is encircled by a ribboned band containing the inscription, “AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NURSE-MIDWIVES, NEW MEXICO, Nov. 7, 1955.” Originally, between 1955 and 1969, the word “nurse-midwives” was “nurse-midwifery,” and without the year 1929 included within the inscription. The two changes took place in 1969 when the American Association of NurseMidwives with headquarters at the Frontier Nursing Service in Wendover, Kentucky, and the American College of Nurse-Midwifery joined and became the American College of Nurse-Midwives. The year 1929 was the founding of the American Association of Nurse-Midwives. [44]

Activities of the ACNM The membership of the American College of NurseMidwives has been characterized from the beginning by its dedication, commitment, hard work, articulateness, personal sacrifice, vision, and pioneering spirit. The annals of the ACNM’s brief history are peopled with creative giants who were also willing to do the necessary detail work while dipping into their own pocketbooks to finance it. Starting with a charter membership of 124, the

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

ACNM had grown to a membership of 860 by its twentieth anniversary in 1975. By 1980 the membership, now including students, had increased to more than 1500, by 1984 to 2534, and by 1995 to more than 5000. This figure reflects the fact that approximately 85 percent of the total number of Certified Nurse-Midwives belong to the ACNM. Seventeen nurse-midwives attended the first annual meeting in Kansas City in 1955; 291 members attended the twentieth annual meeting in Jackson, Mississippi, in 1975. Convention attendance first passed the 1000 mark with 863 members and 138 guests at the 1984 Philadelphia meeting, and more than 2000 attended the Washington, D.C., meeting in 2000. The rapid expansion of nurse-midwifery and proliferation of nurse-midwives placed stress on the professional organization. The total number of nurse-midwives tripled in less than ten years (1975–1984). The organization faced having to change from a small, intimate group of hard-working, dedicated nurse-midwives with a relatively simple organizational structure to a large group with an organizational structure and management style that could cope with a rapid increase in membership without losing its dedication and ideals. This goal was met. The productivity of the American College of Nurse-Midwives since its founding in 1955 is inspirational and shows what a small group can do. The ACNM has undergirded every aspect of nurse-midwifery: education, practice, recognition, legislation, credentialing, insurance, communication, research, and interprofessional and interorganizational relationships. The founding of the ACNM was described as follows: “To support individual efforts the nurse-midwives have banded together. . . . This provides them with an official mouthpiece for education, a base for common planning and discussion” [45]. Almost a century ago the lack of any national organizations, journals, system of education, legal recognition, or access to the health care system led to the “midwife problem and debate.” Today the ACNM provides or works for all of these mechanisms of survival and speaks for the profession of nurse-midwifery and midwifery as practiced by CNMs and CMs.

References 1. Jointly developed 1972 definition amended by

the International Confederation of Midwives, 1990; amendment ratified by the International

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10.

11.

12.

13. 14.

15.

16. 17. 18.

19.

23

Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 1991, and the World Health Organization, 1992. ACNM position statement: Certified NurseMidwives and Certified Midwives as Primary Care Providers/Case Managers, 1992, revised 1997. The Core Competencies for Basic Midwifery Practice, May 1997. ACNM. Definition accepted by the American College of Nurse-Midwives, 1997. ACNM Statement on Practice Settings, 1980, revised 1999. Definition accepted by the American College of Nurse-Midwives, 1978. Definition accepted by the American College of Nurse-Midwives, 1997. Philosophy of the American College of NurseMidwives, 1989. Nancy Fleming was Secretary of the ACNM Board of Directors at the time. The discussion was part of a visionary planning summit conceptualized and convened by Joyce Thompson, then president of ACNM. Raffloer, K. The Experience of Childbirth on the Oregon Trail: A Search for the Presence of Midwives. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 1999. Fox, C. G. Toward a sound historical basis for nurse-midwifery. Bull. Am. Coll. NurseMidwifery 14(3):76–82 (August) 1969. Pomerantz, M. Factors Contributing to the Widespread Use of Epidurals for Pain Relief in Childbirth. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 1999. Dawley, K. The campaign to eliminate the midwife. Am. J. Nurs. 100(10):53, 2000. Swenson, N. The role of the nurse-midwife on the health team as viewed by the family. Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwifery 13(4):128 (November) 1968. Pressley Byrd, D. Granny Midwives in South Carolina: The State’s Regulation and Education of a Vocational Cadre of Traditional Midwives 1910–1940. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 2001. Newspaper article, 1934. Katy Dawley, e-mail communication to Jill Cassells, November 6, 1999. Breckinridge, M. Wide Neighborhoods: A Story of the Frontier Nursing Service. New York: Harper, 1952. Cassells, J. The Manhattan Midwifery School. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 2000.

24

Part I Midwifery

20. Canty, L. The Graduates of the Tuskegee

21.

22. 23.

24.

25.

26.

27. 28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33. 34.

35.

School of Nurse-Midwifery. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 1994. Horch, J. The Flint-Goodridge School of Nurse-Midwifery. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 2002. Bull. Comm. Organ., vol. 1, no. 3, November 1954. American College of Nurse-Midwifery. Descriptive Data, Nurse-Midwives—U.S.A. Washington, DC: American College of NurseMidwives, 1968. Lang, D. Providing maternity care through a nurse-midwifery service program. Nurs. Clin. North Am. 4:509, 1969. Landwehr, G. A. Nurse Midwifery within the Indian Health Service: 1965–1980. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 2002. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Responding to the Demands for NurseMidwives in the United States: a Workshop Report. Washington, DC: ACNM, March 8–10, 1973. Joint Statement on Maternity Care, 1971. ACNM, ACOG, and NAACOG. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. Summary of the ten thousand confinement records of the Frontier Nursing Service. Frontier Nursing Service Quarterly Bulletin 33(4), 1958. Reprinted in the Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwifery 5(1):1–9, 1960. Levy, B. S., Wilkinson, F. S., and Marine, W. M. Reducing neonatal mortality rate with nursemidwives. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 109:50, 1971. Meglen, M. C. Nurse-midwife program in the Southeast cuts mortality rates. Contemp. OB/GYN 8:79, 1976. Burnett, J. E., Jr. A physician-sponsored community nurse-midwife program. Obstet. Gynecol. 40:719, 1972. American College of Nurse-Midwives. NurseMidwifery in the United States: 1976–1977. Washington, DC, 1978. Varney, H. Nurse-Midwifery. Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publishing, 1980, p. 26. American College of Nurse-Midwives. NurseMidwifery in the United States: 1982. Washington, DC, 1984. Lehrman, E.-J., and Paine, L. L. Trends in nurse-midwifery: Results of the 1988 ACNM Division of Research mini-survey. J. NurseMidwifery 35(4):192–203 (July/August) 1990.

36. www.acnm.org or www.midwife.org. 37. Burst, H. V. An update on the credentialing of

38. 39.

40. 41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

midwives by the ACNM. J. Nurse-Midwifery 40(3):290–296, (May/June) 1995. ACNM Mission Statement, 1992; revised 1998. Dawley, K. L. Leaving the Nest: NurseMidwifery in the United States 1940–1980. Doctoral dissertation. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania, 2001. Nurse-midwifery today. Public Health Nurs. (May) 1949. Hemschemeyer, H. Sends message to members. Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwifery 1(2):5–6 (March) 1956. Hemschemeyer, H. Report of the first president of the American College of Nurse-Midwifery. Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwifery 10(1):4–10 (Spring) 1965. Articles of Incorporation, as amended through May 2000. American College of NurseMidwives, 2000. Kroska, R. The emblem of the American College of Nurse-Midwives. J. NurseMidwifery 18(3):23–24 (Fall) 1973. Editorial. Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwifery 4(2):37–38, 1959.

Bibliography American College of Nurse-Midwifery. Descriptive Data, Nurse-Midwives—U.S.A., 1963. New York, 1963. American College of Nurse-Midwifery. Descriptive Data, Nurse-Midwives—U.S.A., 1968. New York, 1968. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Descriptive Data, Nurse-Midwives—U.S.A., 1971. New York, 1971. American College of Nurse-Midwives. NurseMidwifery in the United States: 1976–1977. Washington, DC, 1978. American College of Nurse-Midwives. What Is a Nurse-Midwife? Washington, DC, 1978. American College of Nurse-Midwives. NurseMidwifery in the United States: 1982. Washington, DC, 1984. Borst, C. Catching Babies: The Professionalization of Childbirth, 1870–1920. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996. Breckinridge, M. Wide Neighborhoods: A Story of the Frontier Nursing Service. New York: Harper, 1952.

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

Browne, H. E., and Isaacs, G. The Frontier Nursing Service. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 124:16, 1976. Burnett, J. E., Jr. A physician-sponsored community nurse-midwife program. Obstet. Gynecol. 40:719, 1972. Burst, H. V. Harmonious unity. J. Nurse-Midwifery 22:10, 1977. Burst, H. V. Our three-ring circus. J. NurseMidwifery 23:11, 1978. Burst, H. V. The American College of NurseMidwives: A professional organization. J. NurseMidwifery 25(1):4–6 (January/February) 1980. Burst, H. V. The influence of consumers on the birthing movement. In J. Strawn (ed.). Topics in Clinical Nursing: Rehumanizing the Acute Care Setting 5(3):42–54 (October) 1983. Burst, H. V. An update on the credentialing of midwives by the ACNM. J. Nurse-Midwifery 40(3):290–296, (May/June) 1995. Cameron, J. The History and Development of Midwifery in the United States. Can Maternity Nursing Meet Today’s Challenge? Columbus, OH: Ross Laboratories, 1967. Canty, L. The Graduates of the Tuskegee School of Nurse-Midwifery. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 1994. Cassells, J. The Manhattan Midwifery School. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 2000. Cavero, C. Modern midwifery: complicated rebirth of an ancient art. Fam. Community Health 2(3):29–39 (November) 1979. Chaney, J. A. Birthing in early America. J. NurseMidwifery 25(2):5–13 (March/April) 1980. Cherry, J., and Foster, J. C. Comparison of hospital charges generated by certified nurse-midwives’ and physicians’ clients. J. Nurse-Midwifery 27(1):7–11 (January/February) 1982. Cohn, S., Cuddihy, N., Kraus, N., and Tom, S. Legislation and nurse-midwifery practice in the USA. (Special legislative issue.) J. NurseMidwifery 29(2) (March/April) 1984. Corbin, H. Historical development of nurse-midwifery in this country and present trends. Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwifery 4(1):13–26 (March) 1959. Corbin, H. Forty-Fifth Annual Report. New York: Maternity Center Association, 1963. Crowe-Carraco, C. Mary Breckinridge and the Frontier Nursing Service. The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society, July 1978. Dawley, K. The campaign to eliminate the midwife. Am. J. Nurs. 100(10):53, 2000.

25

Diers, D., and Burst, H. V. Effectiveness of policy related research: Nurse-midwifery as case study. Image 15(3):68–74 (Summer) 1983. Ernst, E. K. Tomorrow’s child. J. Nurse-Midwifery 24(5):7–12 (September/October) 1979. Ernst, E. K. M., and Gordon, K. A. Fifty-three years of home birth experience at the Frontier Nursing Service, Kentucky: 1925–1978. In Stewart, L., and Stewart, D. Compulsory Hospitalization: Freedom of Choice in Childbirth? Vol. 2. Marble Hill, MO: NAPSAC Publications, 1979. Forman, A. M., and Cooper, E. M. Legislation and nurse-midwifery practice in the USA: Report on a survey conducted by the legislation committee of the American College of Nurse-Midwives. J. Nurse-Midwifery 21(2):1–57 (Summer) 1976. Fox, C. G. Toward a sound historical basis for nurse-midwifery. Bull. Am. Coll. NurseMidwifery 14(3):76–82 (August) 1969. Gatewood, T. S., and Stewart, R. B. Obstetricians and nurse-midwives: The team approach in private practice. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 123:35, 1975. Grady, S. Midwifery and Professional Autonomy in the Early Twentieth Century. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 1994. Harris, D. The development of nurse-midwifery in New York City. Bull. Am. Coll. NurseMidwifery 14(1):4–12 (February) 1969. Hellman, L. M., and O’Brien, F. B. Nurse-midwifery: an experiment in maternity care. Obstet. Gynecol. 24:343–349, 1964. Hellman, L. M. Nurse-midwifery in the United States. Obstet. Gynecol. 30:883, 1967. Hemschemeyer, H. Sends message to members. Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwifery 1(2):5–6 (March) 1956. Hemschemeyer, H. Report of the first president of the American College of Nurse-Midwifery. Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwifery 10(1):4–10 (Spring) 1965. Hogan, A. A tribute to the pioneers. J. NurseMidwifery 20(2):6–11 (Summer) 1975. Horch, J. The Flint-Goodridge School of NurseMidwifery. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 2002. Hosford, E. Alternative patterns of nurse-midwifery care: III. The home birth movement. J. NurseMidwifery 21(3):27–30 (Fall) 1976. Kroska, R. The emblem of the American College of Nurse-Midwives. J. Nurse-Midwifery 18(3):23–24 (Fall) 1973.

26

Part I Midwifery

Landwehr, G. A. Nurse-Midwifery within the Indian Health Service: 1965–1980. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 2002. Lang, D. M. Providing maternity care through a nurse-midwifery service program. Nurs. Clin. North Am. 4:509, 1969. Lang, D. The American College of NurseMidwives: What is the future for Certified Nurse-Midwives? In hospitals? Childbearing centers? Homebirths? In Stewart, L., and Stewart, D. 21st Century Obstetrics Now! NAPSAC, 1977, pp. 89–104. Lang, D. Modern midwifery. In Dickason and Schult. Maternal and Infant Care, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 1979, pp. 145–147. Lazarus, W., Levine, E. S., and Lewin, L. S. Competition among Health Practitioners: The Influence of the Medical Profession on the Health Manpower Market. Vol. 1: Executive Summary and Final Report; Vol. 2: The Childbearing Center Case Study. Washington, DC: Federal Trade Commission, February 1981. Lehrman, E.-J., and Paine, L. L. Trends in nursemidwifery: Results of the 1988 ACNM Division of Research mini-survey. J. NurseMidwifery 35(4):192–203 (July/August) 1990. Levy, B. S., Wilkinson, F. S., and Marine, W. M. Reducing neonatal mortality rate with nursemidwives. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 109:50, 1971. Litoff, J. B. American Midwives: 1860 to the Present. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978. Litoff, J. B. The midwife throughout history. J. NurseMidwifery 27(6):3–11 (November/December) 1982. Lubic, R. W. The nurse-midwife joins the obstetrical team. Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwives 27(3):73–77 (August) 1972. Lubic, R. W. Evaluation of an out-of-hospital maternity center for low risk patients. In Aiken, L. H. Hospital Policy and Nursing Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. Lubic, R. W., and Ernst, E. K. M. The childbearing center: An alternative to conventional care. Nurs. Outlook 26:754, 1978. Maternity Center Association. Maternity Center Association, 1918–1943. New York: Maternity Center Association, 1943. Maternity Center Association. Twenty Years of Nurse-Midwifery, 1933–1953. New York: Maternity Center Association, 1955.

Meglen, M. C. Nurse-midwife program in the Southeast cuts mortality rates. Contemporary OB/GYN 8:79, 1976. Meglen, M. C., and Burst, H. V. Nurse-midwives make a difference. Nurs. Outlook 22:382, 1974. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. Summary of the ten thousand confinement records of the Frontier Nursing Service. Frontier Nursing Service Quart. Bull. 1958, 33. Reprinted in Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwives 5:1–9, 1960. Nurse-midwifery today. Public Health Nursing, May 1949. Perry, D. S. The early midwives of Missouri. J. NurseMidwifery 28(6)15–22 (November/December) 1983. Pomerantz, M. Factors Contributing to the Widespread Use of Epidurals for Pain Relief in Childbirth. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 1999. Pressley Byrd, D. Granny Midwives in South Carolina: The State’s Regulation and Education of a Vocational Cadre of Traditional Midwives 1910–1940. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 2001. Raffloer, K. The Experience of Childbirth on the Oregon Trail: A Search for the Presence of Midwives. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 1999. Robinson, S. A historical development of midwifery in the black community: 1600–1940. J. NurseMidwifery 29(4):247–250 (July/August) 1984. Rooks, J. B. American nurse-midwifery: Are we making an impact? J. Nurse-Midwifery 23:15–19 (Fall) 1978. Rooks, J. Nurse-midwifery: The window is wide open. Am. J. Nurs. (December) 1990. Rooks, J., and Fischman, S. American nurse-midwifery practice in 1976–1977: Reflections of 50 years of growth and development. Am. J. Public Health 70:990–996, 1980. Roush, R. E. The development of midwifery—Male and female, yesterday and today. J. NurseMidwifery 24(3):27–37 (May/June) 1979. Schlinger, H. Circle of Midwives: Organized Midwifery in North America. New York: Hilary Schlinger, 1992. Sharp, E. S. Nurse-midwifery education: Its successes, failures, and future. J. Nurse-Midwifery 28(2):17–23 (March/April) 1983. Shoemaker, Sister M. (Agnes Reinders). History of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1947.

Chapter 1 The Profession and History of Midwifery in the United States

Smith, M. C. and Holmes, L. J. Listen to Me Good: The Life Story of an Alabama Midwife. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 1996. Swenson, N. The role of the nurse-midwife on the health team as viewed by the family. Bull. Am. Coll. Nurse-Midwifery 13(4):125 (November) 1968. The Committee on Organization. Organization Bulletin. Vol. 1: No. 1, 2, and 3, 1954, and Vol. 2: No. 1, 2, and 3, 1955. Thiede, H. A. A presumptuous experiment in rural maternal-child health care. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 111:736, 1971. Thiede, H. A. Interdisciplinary MCH teams can function within the system with proper planning. Am. J. Dis. Child. 127:633, 1974. Thomas, M. W. The Practice of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States. Washington, DC: Children’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1965. Thoms, H. Our Obstetrical Heritage: The Story of Safe Childbirth. Hamden, CT: Shoe String Press, 1960. Tom, S. A. The evolution of nurse-midwifery: 1900–1960. J. Nurse-Midwifery 27(4):4–13 (July/August) 1982.

27

Transcript of the Testimony Given to the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigation, Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee, U.S. House of Representatives. Washington, DC, December 18, 1980. Ulrich, L. T. A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785–1812. New York: Knopf, 1990. Varney, H. Nurse-Midwifery. Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publishing, 1980. Wertz, R. W., and Wertz, D. C. Lying-in, a History of Childbirth in America. New York: Free Press, 1977. Wiedenbach, E. Nurse-midwifery. . . purpose, practice, and opportunity. Nurs. Outlook 8:256, 1960. Williams, H. V. (now H. V. Burst). Nursing, NurseMidwifery, and the History of NurseMidwifery in the United States. Unpublished paper, 1969. Williams, S. R. Divine Rebel: The Life of Anne Marbury Hutchinson. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1981. Wilson, K. T. Physicians Instrumental in the Development of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States, 1915–1939. Master’s thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 1995.

This page intentionally left blank

C H A P T E R

2 Basics of Management of Care the woman for her ongoing health care. Such care by the CNM and CM is inclusive and integrated with the woman’s cultural, socioeconomic and psychological factors that may impinge on her health status.

Primary Care and Scope of Practice In 1992, the American College of Nurse-Midwives formally acknowledged the historical and ongoing link between nurse-midwifery and public health and issued a statement entitled Certified NurseMidwives as Primary Care Providers. This statement was revised in 1997 to include Certified Midwives and to add the term Case Managers in the title [1]. The statement is as follows:

This statement and the ACNM definition of midwifery practice (see Chapter 1) essentially define the scope of practice of midwifery as the primary health care of newborns and of women from puberty through senescence. Primary health care by midwives emphasizes disease prevention and health promotion. Inherent in the approach of the midwife is patient education and inclusion of the woman in participatory decision making about her own health care. The Committee on Primary Care of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) defined primary care in 1978 as having five attributes: (1) accessible, (2) comprehensive, (3) coordinated, (4) continuous, and (5) accountable. In 1990 the Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Public Health Service characterized primary care as community-based, family-centered, culturally sensitive, coordinated, comprehensive, continuous, and physically, temporally, and financially accessible. In 1996, the IOM Committee on the Future of Primary Care recommended adoption of a new definition, based on the 1978 definition but expanded to emphasize a multidimensional integrated health care delivery system. The 1996 IOM definition of primary care “is the provision of integrated, accessible health care services by clinicians who are accountable for addressing a large majority of personal health care needs, developing a sustained partnership with patients, and practicing in the con-

It is the position of the American College of NurseMidwives that Certified Nurse-Midwives (CNMs) and Certified Midwives (CMs) are providers of primary health care for women and newborns. Care by CNMs and CMs incorporates all of the essential factors of primary care that include evaluation, assessment, treatment and referral as required. The model of health care practiced by CNMs and CMs is focused on ambulatory care of women and newborns and emphasizes health promotion, education and disease prevention and sees the woman as central to the process of providing such care. Care by CNMs and CMs includes preconception counseling, care during pregnancy and childbirth, normal gynecological services, contraceptive care and care of the peri- and post-menopausal woman. With health education as a major focus, the goals are to prevent problems and to assist women in developing and maintaining healthy habits. CNMs and CMs are often the initial contact for providing health care to women, and they provide such care on a continuous and comprehensive basis by establishing a plan of management with

29

30

Part I Midwifery

text of family and community” [2]. All of the words in these definitions describe the practice and beliefs of nurse-midwives. In addition, the midwife specifically focuses on adolescents initiating pelvic health care and undergoing their first pelvic examination, female psychological growth and development throughout the lifespan, substance-abusing women, premenstrual syndrome, lesbian health care, female occupational health hazards and care, homeless women, gynecologic and psychologic trauma related to rape and battering, infertility concerns, physical changes and care of postmenopausal women, women (including pregnant women) with HIV/AIDS, women in prison, female sex workers, and the grief process. This is not an exhaustive listing. Midwifery has always been associated with pregnancy, childbirth, the postpartum period, and care of the newborn, but it also has a particular focus on family planning and gynecologic health care and screening. Gynecologic health care encompasses pelvic health care and management of infections and sexually transmitted diseases, menstrual concerns ranging from the normal physiologic processes involved in menarche and menopause through premenstrual syndrome to amenorrhea or dysfunctional uterine bleeding, differential diagnosis of lower abdominal and pelvic pain, and screening for breast and pelvic malignancies and disease. As the health care provider whom women often see first for their gynecologic or childbearing health care, the midwife becomes the primary care provider in screening the total woman for normality and health in all her body systems, managing the care of women with routine personal health care needs and minor conditions or diseases, and referring women to medical specialists as needed. Midwives conduct a woman’s annual physical examination with appropriate initial or interval history, laboratory testing, and adjunctive studies. The requisite screening assessment (history, physical and pelvic examination, laboratory tests, and adjunctive studies) is outlined later in this chapter.

Independent and Collaborative Management of Care “Nurse-midwifery practice is the independent management of women’s health care . . . within a health care system that provides for consultation, collabo-

rative management or referral as indicated by the health status of the client . . . ” [3]. In addition to including the concepts of both independent management and collaborative management within the definition of nurse-midwifery practice, the American College of Nurse-Midwives has issued separate statements specifically addressing each of these concepts [4,5]. These documents acknowledge that midwifery care is primarily intended for healthy women but state that CNMs and CMs can continue to be instrumental in the care of women who develop medical, gynecological, or obstetrical complications. Working with these women may involve the midwife in one of three processes: 1. Consultation. The advice or opinion of a physi-

cian or another member of the health care team is sought while the midwife retains primary responsibility of the woman’s care. 2. Collaboration. The midwife and physician jointly manage the care of a woman or newborn who has become medically, gynecologically, or obstetrically complicated. The goal of collaboration is to share authority while providing quality care within each individual’s scope of practice. The ability to share responsibility, mutual respect, trust, and effective communication between the midwife and physician is essential for successful collaborative management of quality care. 3. Referral. The midwife directs the client to a physician or another health care professional for management of a particular problem or aspect of the client’s care. “Independence and collaboration are not mutually exclusive” [6], but instead work together in an approach that benefits the woman and her baby. Midwives are experts on normality; when providing health care to the normal woman, the midwife practices independently. However, normality does not define or limit the patient populations of a midwife [7]. Nurse-midwifery’s long history of service to underserved and vulnerable populations has demonstrated repeatedly the reduction of infant mortality and morbidity in these at-risk and highrisk complicated and complex populations [8]. No matter how much at risk or how complicated her pregnancy or gynecological status, certain components of any woman’s condition and situation are normal and need attention. The contribution of a midwife in collaborative management of care includes protection and facilitation of whatever processes are normal, provision of information on safe options, inclusion of the woman in decision

Chapter 2 Basics of Management of Care

making, inclusion of the woman’s family, advocacy, teaching and counseling, and provision of continuity of care [7]. In many situations, collaborative management by the midwife and the physician is not only desirable, but also the most appropriate and safest approach to providing a woman with the best possible care [9]. The ACNM definition of referral implies a continuing relationship with the woman and is in keeping with the midwifery philosophy of continuity of care. Sometimes referral takes the form of outright transfer of the woman to a physician specialist. It has always been the function of a nursemidwife to screen women for the earliest signs and symptoms of medical conditions or pregnancy complications in order to refer women who need the special skills of an obstetrician/gynecologist, geneticist, cardiologist, urologist, surgeon, gastroenterologist, or other practitioner. According to Clark-Coller, the litmus test for transfer is “whether, if transferred, the woman would gain anything specific that would benefit her care.” She further clarifies that transfer should not be based on risk status but instead should take place “when there is demonstrated pathology that is outside the scope of our practice” [10]. At other times referral takes the form of obtaining medical management of a specific complicating disease when the woman is pregnant (e.g., hepatitis; see Chapter 8). In this situation, the midwife continues to manage the care of the pregnancy or enters into collaborative management of the woman’s care. This continuity is in keeping with the meaning of the word midwife, “with woman,” regardless of her risk status and locale [7]. The midwife does not “dump” or “punt” a pregnant woman through referral if medical or obstetrical complications arise. Rather, the midwife seeks the best balance of medicine and midwifery for the individual—hence the discussion of collaborative management. Shah identifies the hallmark of competent primary care as “knowing when to treat, when not to treat, when to just closely monitor, and when to refer the patient for consultation and/or medical intervention” [11].

[12,13]. It provides a method of organizing thoughts and actions in a logical sequence for the benefit of both the patient and the health care provider. This process is described in terms of expected behaviors of the clinician, which clearly state the thought process and action involved. The descriptors elucidate the behavioral level at which each step is to be achieved so as to provide safe, comprehensive patient care. Because the management process follows a logical sequence, it is also useful to students in learning the management of care of patients because it provides a means of pulling together isolated fragments of knowledge, findings, skills, and judgments into a meaningful whole and focuses on the transition into the role of patient management. The management process consists of seven sequential steps, which are periodically refined. It starts with the collection of a database and ends with evaluation. The seven steps constitute an overall framework that is applicable in all situations. Each step then may be broken down into finite tasks that vary in accord with the condition of the woman or newborn. It should be recognized that these steps are taken in collaboration with the woman and whomever she wishes to involve, or in collaboration with the parent(s) of the newborn. The seven steps follow: 1. Investigate by obtaining all necessary data for

complete evaluation of the woman or newborn. 2. Make an accurate identification of problems or

3.

4.

5.

6. 7.

The Management Process The management process is a clinical problem-solving, decision-making, care-giving process that originated in nurse-midwifery in the early 1970s

31

diagnoses and health care needs based on correct interpretation of the data. Anticipate other potential problems or diagnoses that might be expected because of the identified problems or diagnoses. Evaluate the need for immediate midwife or physician intervention and/or for consultation or collaborative management with other health care team members, as dictated by the condition of the woman or newborn. Develop a comprehensive plan of care that is supported by explanations of valid rationale underlying the decisions made and is based on the preceding steps. Assume responsibility for the efficient and safe implementation of the plan of care. Evaluate the effectiveness of the care given, recycling appropriately through the management process for any aspect of care that has been ineffective.

The steps of the management process are essentially self-explanatory. However, a brief discussion

32

Part I Midwifery

and examples of tasks that may be included in each of these steps may clarify the thinking involved in this action-oriented clinical process. The first step is the gathering of a complete database for evaluation of the woman or newborn. This database includes a history, physical and pelvic examination as indicated, review of the current chart or old hospital records, and review of laboratory data and reports of adjunctive studies—in short, all pertinent information from all sources that has a bearing on the condition of the woman or newborn. The midwife gathers a complete initial database even if the woman or newborn has a complication that will be presented to the consulting physician for collaborative management. At times step 1 may overlap with steps 5 and 6 (or be part of a continuing sequence) as obtaining additional necessary data from laboratory tests or other diagnostic studies may be part of the plan. Sometimes the midwife will need to begin with step 4. The second step evolves from the database: the interpretation of the data into specifically identified problems or diagnoses and health care needs. The words problems and diagnoses are both used, as some problems cannot be defined as diagnoses but do need to be considered in developing a comprehensive plan of care. Problems are frequently related to how the woman is experiencing the fact of her diagnosis and are often identified by the midwife’s focus on the experiencing individual person. For example, the diagnosis might be that the woman is pregnant, and a related problem might be that the woman does not want the pregnancy. Another example is a woman in her third trimester who is frightened by her impending labor and delivery. Being frightened does not fit any category of standard diagnostic nomenclature but certainly creates a problem that needs to be explored, and a plan needs to be developed for reducing this fear. Health care needs may be identified from the problems and diagnoses or may be separate. For example, a health care need of a woman may be for an annual gynecologic examination. Problems or diagnoses may or may not be identified from these findings. The third step—identifying other potential problems or diagnoses based on the current set of problems and diagnoses—is a matter of anticipation, prevention when possible, watchful waiting, and preparation for any eventuality. This step is vital to safe care. Take, for example, a woman with an overdistended uterus. The midwife should consider the possible reasons for the overdistention (e.g., polyhydramnios, large-for-dates baby, gesta-

tional diabetic mother, or multiple gestation) and then anticipate, take precautionary measures, and be prepared for the possibility of an immediate postpartum hemorrhage as a result of uterine atony from the overdistention. In the event of a single large baby, the midwife should also anticipate and be prepared for the possibility of shoulder dystocia and the need for infant resuscitation. Another example is the woman with sickle-cell trait. The midwife should be alert to the possibility of this woman developing a urinary tract infection, which in turn increases the possibility of either premature labor or a small-for-dates baby. Simple preventive measures, pertinent history taking at each prenatal visit, laboratory tests for asymptomatic bacteriuria, and immediate therapeutic treatment if a urinary tract infection does develop are indicated for a woman with sickle-cell trait. The fourth step reflects the ongoing nature of the management process not only during periodic primary care or prenatal visits, but also while the midwife is continuously with the woman, such as when she is in labor. New data are constantly obtained and evaluated. Some data indicate emergency situations in which the midwife must act immediately in the interest of the life of the mother or baby (e.g., third stage or immediate postpartal hemorrhage, shoulder dystocia, or a low Apgar score). Some data indicate a situation requiring immediate action while awaiting the intervention of the physician, such as a prolapsed cord. Other situations are not emergencies but may require physician consultation or collaborative management. Early signs of preeclampsia require physician consultation. On the other hand, an initial history, physical, and pelvic examination that yield the findings of heart disease, diabetes, or any other major medical problem require collaboration with a physician for management of the pregnant woman with these complications. The condition or situation of a woman or newborn may require consultation or collaborative management with other health care team members such as a social worker, a nutritionist, or a neonatal clinical nurse specialist. The midwife evaluates each clinical situation to determine the most appropriate health care team member for management of the care of the woman or newborn. The fifth step—developing a comprehensive plan of care—is determined by the preceding steps, is an outgrowth of the identified current and anticipated problems or diagnoses and health care needs, and also involves obtaining any missing or neces-

Chapter 2 Basics of Management of Care

sary additional pieces of information for the database. A comprehensive plan of care not only includes what is indicated by the condition of the woman or newborn and any related problems, but also outlines anticipatory guidance for the woman or parent as to what to expect next, teaching and counseling, and any necessary referrals for social, economic, religious, family, cultural, or psychological problems. In other words, anything that pertains to any aspect of health care is included in the plan. A plan of care must be mutually agreed upon by the midwife and the woman or parent in order to be effective, because it is the woman or parent who ultimately will or will not implement the plan. Therefore, tasks carried out in this step include formulation and discussion of the plan with the woman or parent as well as confirmation of agreement. All decisions made in developing a comprehensive plan of care must reflect a valid rationale based on pertinent, appropriate, and up-to-date theoretical knowledge and validated assumptions about what the woman or parent will or will not do. Rationale based on unvalidated assumptions of a person’s behavior, erroneous or deficient theoretical knowledge, or an incomplete database is not valid and yields care that is incomplete and may be unsafe. The sixth step is implementation of the comprehensive plan of care. This step may be done wholly by the midwife or in part by the woman or parent, the midwife, or other health team members. If the midwife is not doing it herself, she assumes responsibility for assuring that it is indeed done. In settings where the midwife collaborates with a physician and contributes to the management of care of women with complications, the midwife may assume responsibility for the implementation of the collaborative comprehensive plan of care. Efficient implementation minimizes time and costs and enhances the quality of care. A critical component of implementation is documentation that is timely, accurate, and thorough. The final step—evaluation—is really one of checking whether the plan of care actually met the needs-for-help identified in step 2 as problems, diagnoses, or health care needs. The plan is deemed effective if it did and ineffective if it did not. It is possible for parts of the plan to have been effective while other parts were ineffective. Perceiving the management process as a continuum, it is necessary to recycle any ineffective care back through the management process to identify why it was ineffec-

33

tive and to adjust the plan of care accordingly. The management process as a fluid continuum also enables the clinician to readily respond to any actual or potential change in the condition or situation of a woman or newborn. Because this book is clinically oriented, a modified version of the first five steps of this management process is used in presenting the content in the management sections. The steps are modified for the purpose of adding relevant theoretical knowledge necessary as background information for clinical management of the woman or newborn. Because the management process takes place in the clinical setting and because the last two steps depend on the clinical condition and situation of the woman or newborn, it is not possible to include them in this textbook.

Screening for Abnormality and Differential Diagnosis Screening for abnormality and making differential diagnoses are vital, but unfortunately sometimes misunderstood, functions of the midwife. It is important to be clear about what these two functions involve. The primary diagnosis made by the midwife is one of normality, and the role of the midwife includes continual screening of the woman or newborn for deviation from normal. The midwife must be astutely alert to what is abnormal and to complications that may develop, both generally in different patient populations and in relation to a specific patient situation. The midwife must differentiate between normal minor discomforts and medical conditions or diseases or, in pregnancy, complications of pregnancy. For example, the pregnancy discomfort of nausea and vomiting of the first trimester is not the same as hyperemesis gravidarum, nor is it a sign of hydatidiform mole. Likewise, rightsided round ligament pain must be differentiated from appendicitis, false labor differentiated from true labor or a urinary tract infection, bloody show differentiated from frank bleeding, and so forth. To make differential diagnoses the midwife must know, in depth and in detail, normal obstetrics, gynecology, and newborn care; primary care aspects of women’s health; and normal findings of the history, physical assessment, and pelvic examination in order to detect when a deviation from

34

Part I Midwifery

normal exists in a woman or newborn. A thorough knowledge of the signs and symptoms of pregnancy complications is invaluable in the recognition of deviations from normal. Recognition of the signs and symptoms of medical conditions and diseases and an understanding of how pregnancy affects preexisting medical conditions and diseases is also required. The purpose of being knowledgeable in all these areas is to be able to screen the patient (woman or newborn) for abnormality and to differentiate normal from abnormal. Differential diagnosis by a midwife does not mean pretending to be an expert diagnostician of medical conditions and diseases and pregnancy complications. If the midwife finds a medical abnormality, discussion with the consulting physician is in order for further evaluation and management of the complication. When caring for women, the midwife then enters into a relationship with the consulting physician for the collaborative management of the care of the woman, a relationship that benefits from each professional’s expertise: the physician for management of the medical, obstetrical, or gynecological complication and the midwife for management of those aspects of the woman that continue to be normal. In those situations in which referral or transfer is indicated, the midwife involves the woman in the planning and arrangements so she does not feel abandoned in fact or in perception. At no time does the midwife abandon the woman. Appropriate transfer of care, when properly done, is not abandonment. On the other hand, care of babies by the midwife generally does not extend beyond the neonatal period. The midwife counsels the mother regarding a pediatric care provider for the baby during the pregnancy. In the event of a neonatal abnormality or complication, the baby usually is transferred to the care of the pediatric care provider of the mother’s choice, who will collaborate with a neonatologist if indicated. The midwife begins the process of differential diagnosis. It is not enough, for example, for a midwife to consult with a physician about a woman whose labor is failing to progress normally. The midwife needs to provide the physician with a report that includes specific data indicating differentiation between hypertonic and hypotonic uterine dysfunction and, further, differentiation as to possible causes, such as cephalopelvic disproportion (the report should detail the midwife’s clinical evaluation of the pelvis, station, asynclitism, and estimated fetal weight); poorly timed administration of analgesia; psychological or environmental interfer-

ence; or malposition or malpresentation of the fetus. For other complications, the midwife goes beyond the initial signs and symptoms indicating a medical condition or pregnancy complication and orders laboratory or other adjunctive tests for confirmation or further evaluation of the diagnosis before discussing a plan of management with the consulting physician. Complications in this category may include suspected diabetes, unresponsive anemia, small-for-dates and large-for-dates fetuses, multiple pregnancy, endometritis, and postdates. Finally, there are a number of medical conditions or pregnancy complications that a midwife both diagnoses and treats as a primary care provider. These commonly include such conditions as sinusitis, upper respiratory infections, urinary tract infections, vaginitis/cervicitis, uncomplicated sexually transmitted diseases, breakthrough bleeding with oral contraceptives, need for RhoGAM, need for rubella vaccine, need for hormone replacement therapy, and so forth. Limits of practice are established by a state’s legal definition of practice; by ACNM’s definition and statements on practice; by the ACNM Standards for the Practice of Midwifery; by local and institutional standards of practice, policies, clinical practice guidelines, and delineated practice privileges; and by a midwife’s own limitations of knowledge and capabilities. Thus there are four types of limits—legal, professional, local, and personal [14]—and they have certain elastic qualities. There is a precise thought process involved in making differential diagnoses. This process must be followed in sequence to ensure that a diagnosis is not missed. The thought process starts with the recognition of a sign or symptom either indicative of abnormality or needing further evaluation. The next step is to list all the possible conditions, diseases, or complications of which the sign or symptom could be indicative. The third step is to go through the list methodically, obtaining additional pertinent data (from history, physical, pelvic, laboratory, or other adjunctive studies) that will either confirm or rule out each condition, disease, or complication on the list. All findings are documented, and unless the condition, disease, or complication can be independently managed by the midwife, the midwife discusses the situation with the consulting physician for further evaluation and collaborative management of care. The consultation with the physician and resulting plan of care are also documented on the patient’s chart.

Chapter 2 Basics of Management of Care

35

Physical Assessment for a Database

midwife’s report to the consulting physician or specialist and addresses the following questions:

The following presentation on history, physical and pelvic examination, laboratory tests, and adjunctive studies is not meant to be a definitive work on the subject of physical assessment. Several excellent textbooks detailing the content of and procedures and skills used in physical diagnosis are listed in the bibliography. What is presented here, rather, is an outline of what is included in a history, physical and pelvic examination, laboratory tests, and adjunctive studies that will initially screen a woman for abnormality and determine normalcy. Assessment of the neonate is discussed in Chapters 37, 39, and 80. Before 1970, routine physical assessment by nurse-midwives consisted primarily of thorough examination of the breasts and the pelvis; limited examination of the mouth, throat, thyroid gland, abdomen, and extremities; and hemoglobin, hematocrit, urinalysis, and Pap smear. In the early 1970s, however, nurse-midwives added interconceptional care to their services by virtue of their involvement in family planning and in accord with their philosophy of providing continuity of care. It became clear from nurse-midwives’ work in family planning that the only physical examination many women received from year to year was the one the nurse-midwives were doing when the woman returned for her annual or semiannual family planning visit. Obviously, the physical examination being done was inadequate for purposes of detecting medical problems not related to contraceptive methods. The solution was for nurse-midwives to learn the content, procedures, and skills of a total history and physical examination. Physical assessment was added to the curriculum in nurse-midwifery education programs, and in-service education was held for staff nursemidwives. By 1974, physical assessment was an accepted part of nurse-midwifery practice. The comprehensiveness of this examination has increased through the years, in keeping with the expansion of nurse-midwifery practice into gynecology and the primary care of women from puberty through senescence. A screening examination is aimed at detecting relatively gross evidence of abnormalities and disease. Any such findings start the process of formulating a differential diagnosis for discussion with the consulting physician or referral to a medical specialist. The midwife has the responsibility of obtaining a relevant history in relation to any abnormality detected. This history becomes part of the

Is the woman aware of the abnormality? What brought the abnormality to her attention (e.g., she has pain; she was told during a previous physical)? Are any related symptoms present? How long has the abnormality been present, and what has been its course since discovery? Has the woman ever been seen and treated for the abnormality? By whom? When? What was the diagnosis as the woman understands it? What was the treatment? How effective was the treatment? Is she continuing to receive care for this abnormality? In taking a history and doing a physical and pelvic examination, midwives go into greater detail in those areas germane to childbearing, pregnancy, gynecology, and family planning than is usual for a woman admitted to a medical unit for a diagnostic workup. This is not surprising, because most often a woman sees a midwife for preventive health care or conditions related to the reproductive tract. For this reason the following outline of a history, physical and pelvic examination, and laboratory tests lacks detail for some body systems but offers considerable detail for aspects specifically related to women’s health care. It includes concerns about domestic violence, occupational hazards, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS, and substance abuse. It also includes skills, detailed in Part 8, that are not strictly related to the reproductive system but are frequently used. Examples include checking for costovertebral angle (CVA) tenderness, because urinary tract infections are a common complaint of women, and checking deep tendon reflexes, essential in evaluating the possible severity of preeclampsia. History Principles of History Taking (Figure 2-1): 1. Introduce yourself and state what you are going

to do and your purpose for doing it. 2. Observe all rules of interviewing: a. Use open-ended, not closed-ended, questions. b. Ask only one question at a time. c. Avoid leading questions or questions that “put answers in the woman’s mouth.”

36

Part I Midwifery

14. Provide as much privacy from being overheard

as possible. 15. Speak in well-modulated, soothing, calming

tones. 16. Maintain eye contact—don’t always be reading

FIGURE 2-1 A midwife taking a woman’s history. d. Clarify what the woman’s behavior means to

her. e. Use a level of terminology the woman will

understand. 3. Be tactful and respectful of the woman’s right

4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

to privacy about her person and personal life at all times. Listen to the woman with interest and concern, and be responsive to what she is saying. For example, if she is talking about a past difficult time in her life, a response denoting sympathetic understanding is appropriate. Be responsive to requests for clarification or information. Be precise, thorough, and accurate in obtaining all essential information. Keep the history taking focused without wasting time on a wandering line of questioning. Screen out and do not record any irrelevant material. Allow the woman time to answer. Don’t interrupt unless she starts to ramble or you need clarification. Listen to the woman carefully. She may in one answer give an answer to a later question as well. If so, don’t repeat the later question. Also, don’t make her repeat what she just said because you weren’t paying attention. Follow up on unclear responses, pertinent information, or pertinent information not directly related to the current question. Be sure you understand what the woman is saying. Accents and expressions vary from one part of the country to the next. Don’t hesitate to ask the woman to spell or explain words she is using. Do not express negative judgments through facial expression, body language, or tonal inflection.

from the history form, writing responses, and charting. 17. Don’t ask a question unless you can explain to the woman your reason for asking it. A woman may consider social, sexual, economic, educational, occupational, and housing information extremely personal. Not all of the information that can be obtained in these areas is necessary information. You should obtain such information only with a purpose, because otherwise the woman may interpret your questioning as prying into her personal life and react accordingly. For example: a. Housing is important to ascertain. Some women are homeless, and life in shelters limits their ability to maintain personal hygiene and exposes them to a higher incidence of certain diseases, such as tuberculosis. Other women may be in group homes for drug rehabilitation, mental retardation, protection from domestic violence, etc. b. Sexual and substance use histories have become imperative as part of screening for sexually transmitted diseases and for HIV/AIDS. c. Before talking about diet and meal preparation with a woman, you should know if she does the grocery shopping and meal preparation. When possible, include the person who does these chores in your discussion if it is not the woman herself. d. Before talking about taking showers or soaking in a tub of warm or hot water, you should know what bathing facilities a woman has, if any. e. Knowing a woman’s occupation and household responsibilities is important in identifying risks for such job-related injuries as carpal tunnel syndrome and environmental hazards, and, if pregnant, in ascertaining appropriate job restrictions and planning rest periods with her feet elevated. Identifying Information 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Name Age Race/ethnicity Gravida and para Address/telephone Religion

Chapter 2 Basics of Management of Care

7. Marital status 8. Occupation 9. Date of interview

History of Present Illness (HPI) (relates to the chief complaint or problem) 1. Date and time of onset 2. Mode of onset 3. Precipitating or predisposing factors related to 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12.

onset Course since onset, including duration and recurrence Specific location Type of pain or discomfort and severity or intensity Other associated symptoms Relationship to bodily functions and activities Description of quality (color, consistency) and quantity (amount, volume, or number), if applicable (e.g., rash, discharge, bleeding) Factors influencing the problem, either aggravating or relieving Previous medical help (and from whom) for this problem; diagnosis and treatment Effectiveness of any treatments or medications used (self- or medically initiated)

13. 14. 15. 16.

17. 18. 19. 20.

21.

Past Medical and Primary Care History (includes social history) 1. Childhood diseases/immunizations, such as

measles (type), mumps, or chickenpox 2. Recent laboratory screening tests for infectious

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

diseases (e.g., hepatitis, measles, tuberculosis, HIV); date, result Major illnesses (e.g., pneumonia, hepatitis, rheumatic fever, diphtheria, polio) Hospitalizations; date, reason Surgery; date, reason Accidents; fractures, injuries, unconsciousness Blood transfusions; date, reason, reaction Allergies (e.g., food, hay fever, environmental, dust, animals; asthma) Drug allergies Alcohol abuse/alcoholism; treatment Drug abuse/addiction; substance(s), treatment Habits

smoking (amount; duration) alcohol (amount; duration) caffeine (coffee, tea, sodas, chocolate) “recreational” drugs (substance, amount; duration) e. safety (seat belts, helmets) Sleep patterns Diet/malnutrition Exercise/leisure activity Occupational hazards: position (standing, sitting), strain (eye, muscle), ventilation, exposure to toxic chemicals Environmental hazards: air, water, sewage, lack of window screens, open fireplace, lead paint Childhood physical/sexual abuse Domestic violence/battering/rape/isolation: historical, current; safety Genetic screening tests, when applicable (e.g., sickle cell, Tay-Sachs, G6PD, fragile X, cystic fibrosis); results Specific diseases a. diabetes b. heart disease (diagnosis, e.g., mitral valve prolapse), including rheumatic fever c. tuberculosis d. asthma e. liver/hepatitis f. kidney/urinary tract infections (UTI) g. varicosities/thrombophlebitis h. glandular/endocrine (diagnosis, e.g., hypo/ hyperthyroidism) i. gastrointestinal (diagnosis e.g., gastric ulcer) j. cancer k. hypertension l. HIV/AIDS m. mental illness (diagnosis: e.g., depression, bipolar) n. epilepsy o. blood dyscrasias, such as anemia (type) p. eating disorders (diagnosis, e.g., bulimia, anorexia) Medications a. prescription b. nonprescription a. b. c. d.

Chief Complaint (CC)

The reason the woman is seeing you in the clinic, office, emergency room, birth center, hospital, or her home, as stated in her own words (may relate to any body system).

37

22.

Family History (pertains to mother, father, siblings, grandparents, aunts, and uncles) 1. Mother, father, siblings a. age b. status, i.e., living and well? If deceased, what

was the cause of death?

38

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Part I Midwifery

Mental retardation Cancer Heart disease Hypertension Diabetes Kidney disease Mental illness Congenital anomalies Multiple pregnancies Tuberculosis Epilepsy Blood dyscrasias, such as anemia (type) Allergies Genetic disorders Autoimmune disorder (e.g., lupus)

h. postcoital bleeding i. sexual violence Obstetric History 1. Gravida/para (four- or five-digit system) 2. Rh and ABO blood type 3. Each pregnancy a. date of termination b. weeks gestation c. where delivered, i.e., hospital (name), child-

birth center (name), home d. length of labor e. type of delivery (spontaneous, C-section, f. g.

Menstrual History 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

Age at menarche Frequency; range if irregular Duration Amount of flow Characteristics of flow (e.g., clots) Last menstrual period (LMP); duration and amount normal? Dysmenorrhea Dysfunctional uterine bleeding, i.e., intermenstrual spotting or bleeding, menorrhagia, metrorrhagia Sanitary product use (tampons, pads) Toxic shock syndrome Premenstrual symptoms/premenstrual syndrome (PMS) Perimenopausal symptoms

Sexual History 1. Type of sexual relationship (heterosexual, ho2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

mosexual, bisexual) Monogamous relationship or number of partners Partner monogamous or number and type of partners Sexual frequency, satisfaction Satisfaction with sexual relationship Problems a. insufficient foreplay b. insufficient lubrication c. lack of personal consideration d. pain, vaginismus e. fear of becoming pregnant f. fear of hurting fetus, if pregnant g. problems of partner (e.g., impotence, premature ejaculation)

h. i. j.

k. l.

forceps, vacuum extraction) RhoGAM received any obstetric, medical, or social problems (1) during pregnancy (e.g., preeclampsia, UTI, domestic violence) (2) during labor and delivery (e.g., malpresentation, malposition, preeclampsia, eclampsia, pitocin induction, pitocin stimulation, major perineal laceration, cervical laceration) (3) during postpartum period (e.g., UTI, hemorrhage, uterine infection, depression, domestic violence) weight of baby at birth sex of baby any congenital anomalies or neonatal complications (e.g., jaundice, respiratory problems) status of infant at birth (alive or dead) present status of infant (e.g., living and well, problems, cause of death)

Gynecological History 1. Infertility 2. Diethylstilbestrol (DES) exposure 3. Vaginal infections (i.e., monilia, bacterial vagi-

nosis) 4. Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) (i.e.,

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrhea, herpes, trichomonas, condylomata acuminata) Chronic cervicitis Endometritis Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) Cysts (Bartholin’s, ovarian) Endometriosis Myomas Pelvic relaxations (cystocele, rectocele) Polyps Breast masses

Chapter 2 Basics of Management of Care

14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Abnormal Pap smears Biopsies (cervical, endometrial, breast) Gynecological cancer Gynecological surgery Rape

39

tem) to be split up so as to tie them to specific body structures. The advantage of proceeding this way is that it eliminates repetition. Physical Examination Principles of Doing a Physical Examination (Figure 2-2):

Contraceptive History 1. Whether contraception is wanted 2. Knowledge of contraceptive options 3. Present contraceptive method a. type b. satisfaction c. side effects d. consistency of use e. length of time using this method 4. Previous contraceptive methods a. types b. duration of use for each c. side effects of each d. reasons for discontinuing each Hormone History 1. Reason for use of contraceptive hormones (e.g.,

to regulate menses) 2. Hormone replacement therapy a. present, past, how long used b. type c. side effects

1. Wash your hands immediately before doing the

examination. 2. Be sure that your fingernails are clean and cut

to a length that will not hurt the woman. 3. Warm your hands prior to touching the woman

by washing them in warm water, rubbing them together, or holding them under a lamp. 4. Tell the woman what you will be doing in general. During the examination itself, tell the woman more specifically what you will be doing just before doing it—that is, let her know where you will be touching her, what you want her to do, and whether this portion of the examination will be uncomfortable. 5. Use a touch that is gentle yet firm enough not to tickle the woman and as firm as needed to elicit accurate information. 6. Let your approach and touch bespeak respect for her body as well as respect for her right to modesty and privacy.

Douching History 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Frequency Method Solutions used Reasons for douching Length of time woman has been douching Last time douched

Review of Systems The review of systems (ROS) is a structured inquiry about past or current symptoms or complaints related to each body system. Because some examiners prefer to do the review of systems during the physical examination, usually in the interest of saving time, and because it makes sense to ask questions about specific systems, organs, or body parts while they are being examined, the ROS is included in the following outline of the physical examination and designated as such. Combining the ROS with the examination has caused information about some systems (the lymphatic and hematopoietic systems, the central nervous system, and the endocrine sys-

FIGURE 2-2 A midwife doing a physical examination of a woman.

40

Part I Midwifery

7. Drape the woman in such a way that only the

area being examined at that particular point during the exmaination is exposed. 8. Organize your examination as follows: a. Progress from head to toe. b. Minimize movement of the woman; e.g., while having her sit up so you can inspect her breasts, also listen to her lungs from the back, observe and palpate for spinal deformities, and check for CVA tenderness rather than having her return to a sitting position several times during the examination. c. Wait until the end of the examination to touch parts of the body that will require you to rewash your hands (e.g., the bottom of her feet). d. Make sure the examination progresses in the same way for every woman; this will help you to remember everything. 9. Be alert for any inconsistency between the woman’s history and your physical findings. 10. Share your findings with the woman. If she is anxious about something that you find to be normal, immediately tell her your findings. If you find something that concerns you because it may be a possible deviation from normal, tell her that you are not sure of what you have found and want a physician to check it. Remember, it is the woman’s body and she has a right to know everything about it. Be honest and truthful with her. Physical Measurements 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Temperature Pulse Respirations Blood pressure Height Weight

General

ROS: 1. Woman’s evaluation of own health status 2. Woman’s evaluation of own dietary patterns 3. Unusual weight changes 4. Weakness 5. Fatigue 6. Malaise 7. Fever, chills, sweating 8. Woman’s evaluation of own emotional status 9. Ability to carry out activities of daily living Observations: 1. Appropriateness of appearance for age

General nutritional status Apparent state of health General personal appearance General mental and emotional state: speech; appropriateness of mood or affect; general mood (e.g., anxiety, depression); orientation to time, place, person; memory; logic and coherence of thought processes; general behavior (e.g., hostile, friendly, cooperative, confused) 6. Striking or obvious findings (e.g., pallor, cyanosis, respiratory distress, persistent cough, voice or speech abnormality, facial asymmetry, orthopedic abnormalities) 7. General posture, gait, body movements 2. 3. 4. 5.

Skin and Hair

ROS: 1. Skin a. pruritus b. rashes c. moles: any change noted d. lesions e. tendency to bruise f. general character (i.e., dry, oily) g. hirsutism 2. Hair and scalp a. general character (i.e., dry, oily) b. loss of hair c. wearing wig or not; if so, why d. scalp infections, dandruff, lice Observations and examination: 1. Skin a. temperature b. color: pigmentation, pallor, cyanosis, jaundice c. moisture d. turgor e. moles f. scars g. rashes, lesions, bruises h. patterns of injury, showing repetition of injury: fresh or in various stages of healing (e.g., cigarette burns) i. tumors 2. Hair and scalp a. hair pattern b. scalp infections, dandruff, lice, lesions c. bald spots (alopecia) d. general character (i.e., dry, oily) e. lumps

Chapter 2 Basics of Management of Care

Head

ROS: 1. Headaches: location, duration, time of day when they occur, frequency, type of pain, severity, relief measures and their effectiveness, any known causative factors, associated symptoms (e.g., nausea and vomiting, dizziness) 2. Dizziness 3. Syncope (fainting) 4. Sinusitis Observations and examination: 1. Size, shape, contour, symmetry 2. Facial symmetry 3. Location of facial structures 4. Involuntary movements 5. Tenderness over frontal and maxillary sinuses Eyes

ROS: 1. Blurring of vision 2. Scotomata (blind spots in vision) 3. Diplopia (double vision) 4. Spots before eyes 5. Flashing lights 6. Pressure or pain symptoms 7. Photophobia (sensitivity to light) 8. Lacrimation (excessive tearing) 9. Discharge, redness, burning 10. Woman’s evaluation of her own visual acuity and any recent changes 11. Glasses or contact lenses: for what, last time eyes examined, last time prescription changed 12. Injuries 13. Diseases or conditions Observations and examination: 1. Eyelids: closure, edema, signs of infection, blinking, squinting, masses, lesions, ptosis (drooping eyelid) 2. Eyelashes: matting from discharge, absence 3. Lacrimal ducts: signs of infection, tenderness 4. Involuntary eye movements 5. Color of lower conjunctival sac 6. Color of sclera 7. Abrasions or opacities of lens and cornea 8. Strabismus (cross-eyes) 9. Size, shape, and equality of pupils 10. Parallel movement of eyes and gross visual fields 11. Pupillary reaction to light and accommodation 12. Protrusion of eyeball and intraocular pressure as determined by finger tension

41

13. Ophthalmoscopic examination a. presence of red reflex b. color and outline of optic disc c. color, size, and shape of retinal vessels d. hemorrhagic areas e. color and shape of macula and fovea f. papilledema Ears

ROS: 1. Woman’s evaluation of her own hearing acuity and any recent changes 2. Earaches 3. Discharge 4. Tinnitus (ringing in the ears) 5. Vertigo (lack of balance) 6. Infections, injuries 7. Pain Observations and examination: 1. Enlargement or tenderness of mastoid 2. General hearing acuity 3. Placement of ears on head 4. Shape, growths, lesions, and discharge noted in auricles and outlets of external ear canal 5. Color, obstruction, lesions, edema, discharge, foreign objects in external auditory canal 6. Otoscopic examination of tympanic membrane a. color b. bulging or retraction c. bony landmarks d. cone of light: presence or absence e. scars, perforations Nose

ROS: 1. Nasal obstruction (difficulty with nasal breathing) 2. Epistaxis (nosebleeds) 3. Discharge: nasal and postnasal 4. Woman’s evaluation of her own sense of smell 5. Injuries 6. Frequency of colds Observations and examination: 1. Flaring of nares 2. Deformity or septal deviation 3. Symmetry, size, placement, including symmetry of nasolabial fold 4. Patency of nostrils 5. Perforation of nasal septum 6. Nasal speculum examination

42

Part I Midwifery

a. b. c. d. e.

size, signs of infection, edema of turbinates polyps, growths, obstructions ulcerations, lesions, bleeding points discharge color of mucosa

Mouth and Throat

ROS: 1. Toothaches 2. Bleeding, lesions, pain, or edema of gums 3. Extractions and dentures 4. Any difficulty with chewing or swallowing 5. Pain, lesions, bleeding, or edema of lips 6. Pain, lesions, tumors, or bleeding of mouth 7. Pain, lesions, color, texture, tumors, bleeding, edema of tongue 8. Frequency of sore throats 9. Number of cigarettes per day 10. Surgery (e.g., tonsillectomy) 11. Woman’s evaluation of own sense of taste 12. Hoarseness or voice change 13. Any difficulty with talking or speech 14. Dental care Observations and examination: 1. Odor of breath 2. Lips: symmetry, color, lesions, edema, tumors, fissures 3. Mouth and mucosa: lesions, tumors, plaques, intactness of palate, color, vascular spots 4. Teeth: state of repair, missing teeth, caries 5. Gums: bleeding, lesions, edema, tumors, color, retractions, pus/exudate 6. Tongue: symmetry, position, texture, color, lesions, tumors, moistness, coating, mobility, deviation 7. Uvula: deviation, size, enlargement 8. Oropharynx: signs of infection in posterior pharynx, tonsillar fossae, and tonsillar pillars; inflammation, edema, bleeding, exudate, pus patches, color, lesions, tumors, size, symmetry, and enlargment of tonsils Neck

ROS: 1. Pain or stiffness 2. Limitation of motion 3. Node enlargement or tenderness 4. Thyroid enlargement; history of goiter 5. Injuries, deformities 6. Thyroid (endocrine system)

a. sensitivity to environmental temperature and

weather changes b. amount of sweating (excessive?) c. changes in scalp and hair, breasts, skin, gen-

italia, neck, secondary sex characteristics d. changes in emotional lability e. changes in heart rate, tremors, nervousness f. change in body weight in relationship to ap-

petite g. change in energy levels and activity pattern h. results of previous BMR (basal metabolism

rate) and thyroid function tests i. known history of thyroid disease and med-

ications Observations and examination: 1. Enlargement or tenderness of the salivary, submaxillary, anterior, posterior, and deep cervical, preauricular and postauricular, and supraclavicular lymph nodes and glands; size, shape, consistency, and mobility of any palpable nodes and glands 2. Carotid pulse 3. Abnormal pulsations 4. Vein distention 5. Range of motion 6. Enlargement or tumor of parotid gland 7. Enlargement, tumor, symmetry, size, shape, tenderness, or nodules of thyroid gland 8. Symmetry and deviation (position) of trachea Cardiorespiratory System

ROS: 1. Dyspnea (shortness of breath) 2. Orthopnea 3. Tachypnea 4. Wheezing 5. Cough 6. Pleurisy 7. Sputum production: color, consistency, amount 8. Hemoptysis 9. Chest pain 10. Stridor (“crowing” inspiratory sounds) 11. History of bronchitis, pneumonia, asthma 12. Any contact with tuberculosis 13. Date of last chest x-ray film and result 14. Night sweats 15. Palpitations 16. Cyanosis 17. Dependent edema 18. Any known abnormalities of heart rate or rhythm 19. History of rheumatic heart disease, anemia, hypertension, coronary artery disease

Chapter 2 Basics of Management of Care

Observations and examination: 1. Chest and lungs a. configuration, deformities, symmetry, shape, masses, lesions, scars of chest structure and walls b. intercostal and/or subclavicular retractions or bulging c. equilateral respiratory excursion and symmetry with respiratory movement d. rate, depth, rhythm, and type (chest, abdominal) of respirations e. tactile fremitus f. auscultation of lungs (1) normal breath sounds (2) rales (3) rhonchi (4) wheezes (5) friction rub (6) adventitious sound 2. Heart a. size b. location of point of maximum impulse (PMI) c. palpable thrills, rubs, impulses, shocks d. observable bulgings, heavings, pulsations e. auscultation of heart (1) rate, rhythm, and quality of heart sounds at the four valvular areas (2) extra sounds, murmurs, splitting, rubs, thrills

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

14. 15. 16. 17.

Color of stools Character of stools (soft, diarrhea, constipation) Any recent change in bowel habits or stools Jaundice Rectal itching, pain, bleeding, hemorrhoids, sphincter control Known history of gallbladder disease, liver disease (hepatitis), appendicitis, colitis, ulcers, pancreatitis, parasites, hernia Food allergies and idiosyncracies Any gastrointestinal x-ray examinations; date and results Use of cathartics, laxatives, antacids, and antiemetics Pancreas (endocrine system) a. polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia in relation to food ingestion b. hypoglycemia symptoms (weakness, nervousness, sweating, tachycardia, hunger) in relation to food ingestion c. known history of diabetes

Observations and examination (Figure 2-3): 1. Symmetry, shape, contour, scars, distention, striae, lesions, pigmentation, bruises, abnormal pulsations

Breasts

ROS (see Chapter 52 for a more complete history related to the breasts): 1. Pain 2. Nipple discharge 3. Lumps, biopsies 4. Whether woman does breast self-examination Observations and examination: See Chapter 52 for observations, examination, and significance of findings. Abdomen (Gastrointestinal System)

ROS: 1. Appetite, anorexia (lack of appetite) 2. Nausea or vomiting 3. Heartburn 4. Eructation (belching) 5. Hematemesis 6. Pain 7. Flatulence

43

FIGURE 2-3 A midwife palpating a woman’s abdomen.

44

Part I Midwifery

2. Masses, tenderness, organomegaly, rigidity, 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

guarding, distention, peristaltic activity Femoral pulses Umbilical, inguinal, or femoral hernias Diastasis recti Enlargment or tenderness of inguinal lymph nodes Rectal examination, done at the time of the pelvic examination. See Chapter 56 for observations, examination, and significance of findings.

Genitourinary System

ROS: 1. Urinary a. frequency b. urgency c. dysuria d. hematuria e. nocturia f. suprapubic, flank, or low back pain g. polyuria or oliguria h. pyuria (pus in urine) i. incontinence j. known history of urinary tract infections or kidney stones 2. Adrenal (endocrine system) a. changes in melanin pigmentation of skin b. weakness c. symptoms suggesting hypoglycemia d. postural hypotension 3. Genitals a. lesions b. signs of trauma c. discharge: character, color, odor, pruritis d. sexually transmitted diseases* e. douching history* f. menstrual history* g. sexual history* h. obstetrical history* i. family planning history* j. date and results of last Pap smear 4. Endocrine system a. hirsutism b. known history of gonadal insufficiency; hormone therapy

Observations and examination: 1. Urinary: CVA tenderness (see Chapter 54 for methodology and significance of findings) 2. Genitals: See Chapter 56 for observations, examination, and significance of findings. Muscular-Skeletal-Vascular Systems

ROS: 1. Joint pain, stiffness, swelling, redness, heat 2. Muscle weakness, cramps, pain, twitching, tremors, paralysis, paresthesia, atrophy 3. Skeletal pain, injuries, deformities (e.g., scoliosis, lordosis, kyphosis) 4. Limitation of motion in back or range of motion of the extremities 5. Edema of extremities 6. Varicose veins, intermittent claudication (leg or calf muscle pain when walking or exercising), leg heat or tenderness 7. Known history of arthritis, gout, muscular dystrophy, thrombophlebitis, bursitis, osteomyelitis, fractures, disk disease, sciatica Observations and examination: 1. Curvature and mobility of the spine 2. Spinal column vertebral tenderness 3. Radial and pedal pulses 4. Skeletal deformities 5. Range of motion of extremities 6. Edema: finger, fascia, ankle (pedal), pretibial 7. Varicosities; calf heat and/or tenderness 8. Heat, swelling, or redness of joints 9. Homan’s sign 10. Length, size, edema, lesions, redness, skin temperature, tenderness or pain, muscle atrophy, contractures, color, scars, or involuntary movements of the extremities 11. Deep tendon reflexes** 12. Clonus** 13. Clubbing, cyanosis, or other abnormality of nails 14. Needle marks or tracks 15. Tremors of fingers Review of Other Systems Central Nervous System 1. General a. syncope, loss of consciousness, convulsions,

vertigo *

Do not repeat if this information was already obtained as special sections of the history or under the past medical history.

** See Chapter 55 for observations, examination, and significance of findings.

Chapter 2 Basics of Management of Care

b. known history of meningitis, encephalitis,

stroke 2. Mental status a. speech disorders, memory disorders b. emotional status, nervousness, mood; orientation to time, place, and person c. change in sleep pattern, insomnia, activity pattern d. history of “nervous breakdown,” depression 3. Motor a. clumsiness of movement (ataxia), weakness (paresis), paralysis b. tremor or muscle twitching 4. Sensory a. radicular or neuralgic pain (head, neck, trunk, extremities) b. paresthesia (burning or crawling skin sensation) c. hypoesthesia (decrease in tactile sensation) d. anesthesia (loss of sensation) e. hyperesthesia (excessive sensitivity of skin or special senses)

45

Additional tests for the pregnant woman are covered in Chapter 22 on antepartal examinations. Older women should also receive the following tests and adjunctive studies: 1. Occult blood 2. Mammography 3. Triglycerides and lipid profile in addition to

plasma cholesterol 4. Thyroid studies 5. Proctosigmoidoscopy (every 3–5 years) As laboratory values vary somewhat from one laboratory to another, each laboratory publishes the range of normal values for each test done in that laboratory. It is essential that you review a given laboratory’s range of normal for a test. If the woman is pregnant, you should then adjust interpretation of the test results for known normal physiologic changes occurring during pregnancy in order to determine whether the laboratory report indicates a normal physiologic state or suggests a deviation from normal that requires further evaluation.

Lymphatic and Hematopoietic Systems 1. Lymphatic: lymph node swelling 2. Hematopoietic a. unusual or excessive bruising or bleeding;

bleeding tendencies of skin or mucous membranes b. known history of anemia and treatment, blood transfusion and reaction, blood dyscrasias, exposure to radiation or toxic agents Laboratory Tests and Adjunctive Studies Laboratory tests and adjunctive studies are an essential component of physical assessment. Which tests and studies are performed as part of a routine screening vary based on the age of the woman, her risk status (e.g., if she has been exposed to sexually transmitted diseases or tuberculosis), and whether she is pregnant. At a minimum, for all ages and regardless of status with respect to pregnancy, an assessment should be made of the need to screen for vaginal infections or sexually transmitted diseases and the following lab tests and adjunctive studies done: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Hemoglobin/hematocrit Total cholesterol Urinalysis Pap smear

References 1. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Certified Nurse-Midwives and Certified Midwives as Primary Care Providers/Case Managers. Washington, DC: ACNM, 1997. 2. Committee on the Future of Primary Care, Institute of Medicine, National Research Council. Primary Care: America’s Health in a New Era. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996. 3. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Definition of Midwifery Practice. Washington, DC: ACNM, 1997. 4. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Independent Midwifery Practice. Washington, DC: ACNM, 1997. 5. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Collaborative Management in Midwifery Practice for Medical, Gynecological and Obstetrical Conditions. Washington, DC: ACNM, 1997. 6. Williams, D. R. Primary care for women: The nurse-midwifery legacy. J. Nurse-Midwifery 40(2):57 (March/April) 1995. 7. Burst, H. V. Real midwifery. J. NurseMidwifery 35(4):189–191 (July/August) 1990. 8. Scupholme, A., DeJoseph, J., Strobino, D. M., and Paine, L. L. Nurse-midwifery care to vulnerable

46

9.

10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

Part I Midwifery

populations: Phase I: Demographic characteristics of the national CNM sample. J. Nurse-Midwifery 37(5):341–347 (September/October) 1992. Avery, M. D., and DelGiudice, G. T. High-tech skills in low-tech hands: Issues of advanced practice and collaborative management. J. NurseMidwifery 38(2 supplement):10S (March/April) 1993. Clark-Coller, T. Letter to the editor. J. NurseMidwifery 39(6):389–390 (November/December) 1994. Shah, M. A. The nurse-midwife as primary care provider. J. Nurse-Midwifery 38(4):186 (July/August) 1993. University of Mississippi Medical Center, NurseMidwifery Education Program. Management Process. Jackson, MS: 1972–1973. College of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, New Jersey Medical School, NurseMidwifery Education Program. Management Process. Newark, NJ: 1975. Wiedenbach, E. Clinical Nursing—A Helping Art. New York: Springer Publishing, 1964.

Additional References Avery, M. D., and DelGiudice, G. T. High-tech skills in low-tech hands: Issues of advanced practice and collaborative management. J. NurseMidwifery 38(suppl. 2):10S (March/April) 1993. Barkauskas, V. (Ed.) Health and Physical Assessment, 2nd ed. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998. Bickley, L. S. (Ed.) Bates’ Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking, 7th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1999. Burst, H. V. Real midwifery. J. Nurse-Midwifery 35(4):189–191 (July/August) 1990. Byyny, R. L., and Speroff, L. A Clinical Guide for the Care of Older Women: Primary and Preventive Care, 2nd ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1996. Chez, N. Helping the victim of domestic violence. AJN 33–37 (July) 1994. Clark-Coller, T. Letter to the editor. J. NurseMidwifery 39(6):389–390 (November/

December) 1994. Committee on the Future of Primary Care, Institute of Medicine, National Research Council. Primary Care: America’s Health in a New Era. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996. Dornbrand, L., Hoole, A. J., and Fletcher, R. H. Manual of Clinical Problems in Adult Ambulatory Care, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1997. Erwin, D. K., and Hosford, B. Demystifying the nurse-midwifery management process. J. Nurse-Midwifery 32(1):26–32 (January/ February) 1987. Greener, D. Clinical judgment in nurse-midwifery: A review of the research with implications for education. J. Nurse-Midwifery 33(6):261–268 (November/December) 1988. Netter, F. H. The Ciba Collection of Medical Illustrations, Vol. II: Reproductive System. Summit, NJ: Ciba Pharmaceutical, 1988. Paine, L. L., Barger, M. K., Marchese, T., and Rorie, J. A. Primary care for women: An overview of the role of the nurse-midwife. J. Nurse-Midwifery 40(2):65–73 (March/April) 1995. Paluzzi, P. A., and Quimbly, C. H. Domestic Violence Education Module. Washington, DC: ACNM Special Projects Section, 1995. Reedy, N. J. Nurse-midwife in complicated obstetrics: Trend or treason? J. Nurse-Midwifery 24(1):11–17 (January/February) 1979. Scupholme, A., DeJoseph, J., Strobino, D. M., and Paine, L. L. Nurse-midwifery care to vulnerable populations: Phase I: Demographic characteristics of the national CNM sample. J. NurseMidwifery 37(5):341–347 (September/October) 1992. Shah, M. A. The nurse-midwife as primary care provider. J. Nurse-Midwifery 38(4):185–187 (July/August) 1993. Uphold, V. and Uphold, C. R. (Eds.) Clinical Guidelines in Family Practice, 3rd ed. Gainesville, FL: Barmarrae Books, 1999. Wiedenbach, E. Clinical Nursing—A Helping Art. New York: Springer Publishing, 1964. Williams, D. R. Primary care for women: The nurse-midwifery legacy. J. Nurse-Midwifery 40(2):57–58 (March/April) 1995.

Primary Care of Women

P A R T

II

This page intentionally left blank

C H A P T E R

3 Cultural Competence in Midwifery Practice JO-ANNA L. RORIE, CNM, MSN, FACNM

The United States is an abundantly pluralistic society, as evidenced by the dramatic demographic changes revealed in the data collected for the 1990 Census. In contrast to the European roots that predominated among earlier immigrants, 25 percent of today’s population traces its roots to Africa, Asia, or the Pacific Islands, or to Latino and Arab countries [1, 2]. One aim of midwifery care is to provide culturally competent care to all women across the life span. Culturally competent practice is particularly important for midwives in a country as diverse as the United States. To provide such care, midwives must understand the importance of each woman’s cultural frame of reference. Midwives serve a rich and varied tapestry of women from a multitude of populations. The data from the 1991 study entitled “Nurse-Midwifery Care to Vulnerable Populations in the United States” is a visit and practice analysis of 5.4 million annual patient visits conducted by CNMs [6]. According to this study, 71 percent of these visits were made to women and infants from vulnerable populations; 42 percent were to women of a race or ethnicity other than European American (including 19.4 percent Black, 15.8 percent Latino, 2.6 percent Native American, and 3.3 percent Asian) [7]. The majority of those visits was for maternity care and included client education and counseling, two core components of midwifery care. On average, midwives spend 22 minutes with women during an established visit [4, 5]. According to the 1998 NurseMidwifery Practice Survey, CNMs described the population they served as nonwhite, immigrant, and uninsured [3].

Because health care is a cultural construct— emerging from beliefs about the characteristics of disease and the impact on the human body—cultural issues are primary in the provision of health services treatment and preventive intervention [8]. Midwives must thus be prepared to deliver care in a culturally competent manner and to ensure that our own lack of knowledge about others does not impair the delivery of such care. Cultural competence is a set of behaviors, attitudes, and policies that enable a system, agency, or individual to function effectively with culturally diverse clients and communities. Competence also implies skills that help to translate beliefs and orientation into action and behavior within the context of daily interaction with women and their families. Cultural competence refers to a health care provider’s ability to honor and respect those beliefs, interpersonal styles, attitudes, and behaviors of clients as well as the multicultural staff who are providing services. These values must be incorporated at all levels— from policy and administration to clinical practice [9, 10]. Cultural competence is also a process in which the nurse-midwife gets in touch with his/her own culture and its influence on clinical practice. This is the first step in cross-cultural effectiveness. Culture implies an integrated pattern of human behavior that includes the thoughts, communications, actions, customs, beliefs, values, and institutions of racial, religious, socioeconomic, educational, occupational, or geographic groups. Culture defines all aspects of health care—how health care information is received and perceived, what is considered to 49

50

Part II Primary Care of Women

be a health problem, how symptoms are expressed, who and where treatment should be provided, and what type of treatment is acceptable and affordable [1, 8, 11]. To begin to understand the concept of culture and the plethora of world views that each person brings to a situation, it is important to keep the following three points in mind: 1. Culture is not static; it is dynamic and ever

changing; the cultural practices that individuals remember and practice from their country or place of origin are often different from the practices that are occurring in that same place today. 2. Culture, language, ethnicity, and race are not the only determinants of a person’s values, beliefs, and behaviors. Occupation, socioeconomic status, cultural upbringing, and educational level have an influence on how individuals define and view themselves. 3. In describing any culture or cultural practice, within-group differences are as great as acrossgroup differences. In other words, no culture and no ethnic, linguistic, or racial group is monolithic. There are wide variations in attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. To assume that people who share a common culture and language are alike is to make a dangerous mistake [11].

The Demographic Shift The United States has become a global village. There have been major population changes as a result of immigration patterns and significant increases among racially, culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse populations already residing in the United States. The 1990 Census data revealed that the number of persons who spoke a language other than English at home rose by 43 percent to 28.3 million. Of these, nearly 45 percent indicated that they had trouble speaking English. The results of a 2000 survey conducted by the Census Bureau reveal that one in every ten persons in the United States is foreign born. Currently, the U.S. foreignborn population comprises the largest segment of any time in the past 50 years—a trend that is expected to continue. To further illustrate the need for culturally competent health care interventions, the Children’s Defense Fund predicts that before 2010 there will be 9.5 million children of other races and 6.2 milllion fewer white, non-Latino children in the United States. By the middle of the twenty-first century, the average U.S. resident will trace his or her

roots to Africa, Asia, the Pacific Islands, Latino, and Arab countries [1, 12]. Nowhere are the divisions of race, ethnicity, and culture more sharply drawn than in the area of health care. “The Institute of Medicine (IOM) defines disparities in health care as racial or ethnic differences in the quality of healthcare that are not due to access-related factors or clinical needs, preferences, and appropriateness of intervention.” [8] Disparities in the incidence of illness and death among women of color persist. In recognition of these disparities the federal government has targeted several areas of health status, including infant mortality and committed resources [12]. Nationally, health care organizations are struggling with the challenges and opportunities of responding effectively to the needs of individuals and families from racially, ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse groups. The incorporation of culturally competent strategies within primary health care systems remains a great challenge for many communities. The National Standards for Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services in Health Care issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) reports that there currently is no agreement across health professional specialties on what specifically constitutes individual cultural competence or how it is best measured [8]. However, numerous reasons justify the need for cultural competence in the health care system at the patient-provider level. According to the Pew Health Professions Commission recommendations issued in 1998, the development of cultural competence is a priority [2, 12]. This is important for midwives who provide services in a variety of women’s health care settings throughout the United States. Midwives may provide care for a childbearing woman from Africa who has been ritually circumcised, an Arabic Muslim woman who can only be examined by a female provider, or a Hispanic woman newly arrived from Central America who does not speak English. According to the 2000 Census, there are 281.4 million persons living in the United States, of whom 143 million are female. Of this number, 27 million females are members of racial and ethnic minority groups [13]. Because of economic, social, and cultural barriers, these women are in poor health, have fewer health services, and bear the burden of poor health outcomes. Women of color in the United States encompass four major groups (which are listed in descending order of the size of the populations): (1) African American, (2) Hispanic, (3) Asian American/Pacific Islanders, and (4) American

Chapter 3 Cultural Competence in Midwifery Practice

Indian/Alaska native. The majority all-White population is referred to as Caucasian. Slightly more than 100 million or 71.6 percent of American females are Caucasian not of Hispanic origin [8, 9, 10].

Women of Color Population Overview When discussing racial and ethnic terms, the language is often confusing. The Office of Management and Budget (OMB), an agency that defines racial groups, issued new standards in 1997 for collecting and presenting data on race and ethnicity. These standards recognized two categories of ethnicity (Hispanic or Latino) and five categories of race: (1) Asian, (2) American Indian or Alaska Native, (3) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, (4) Black or African American, and (5) White. These categories are neither anthropologically nor scientifically based. In addition, the 2000 Census allowed respondents to self-identify and mark or select one or more races. The Office of Minority Health (OMH) within the Department of Health and Human Resources classifies minorities into the following main groups: (1) African American/Black, (2) Hispanic/Latina, (3) Asian American, Native Hawaiian, and Other Pacific Islanders, and (4) American Indian/Alaska Native. The term “of color” describes racial, ethnic, and national groups [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. African-American/Black Women According to the OMH, the term “African American or Black” refers to people having origins in any of the Black race groups in Africa. It is estimated that 10 million Africans were transported as slaves from the coast of West Africa to this country as part of the greatest migration in American history. They came from several African tribes including Ibo, Ashantis, Fanti, Mandingo, and Senegalese. TABLE 3-1

51

The first landing took place in 1619, 244 years before the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation [20]. The 2000 Census included people who reported themselves to be Black, African American, or Negro or wrote in entries such as Nigerian, Jamaican, or African American. Of the 281.4 million people in the United States in 2000, 12.9 percent (36.4 million) reported themselves to be African American or Black. Non-Hispanic Black women outnumbered non-Hispanic Black males by nearly 1.9 million. In 1999, 17.5 million, or 12.5 percent of all females living in the United States were African American, not of Hispanic origin, 54 percent of all African Americans lived in the southern United States [11]. African-American women are more likely to die from breast cancer than are women from any other ethnic group, although the incidence rate of newly diagnosed cases is about 13 percent lower for them than for White women. The five-year survival rate for African-American women who are diagnosed with breast cancer is 71 percent compared with 86 percent for White women. Heart disease is the leading cause of death among African-American women and they have the highest death rate from stroke of all women (see Table 3-1). When compared with mothers of non-Hispanic white infants, mothers of African-American infants are 145 percent more likely to experience an infant death. Between 1996 and 1998, the difference in this rate between Blacks and Whites increased from 2.0 to 3.1. Among African-American women, the low birth weight rate remains twice that of White women. Recent data indicate that even among highly educated upper-income African-American women disparate rates of adverse outcomes persist [11, 16, 21, 22, 23]. Hispanic/Latina Women In 2002, 12.5 percent of the U.S. population was Hispanic. The term “Hispanic” is an ethnic identity used by the federal government to classify those who

Leading Causes of Mortality Among Women in the United States, by Race and Ethnicity

White

African American

Hispanic/Latina

Asian American

American Indian/ Alaska Native

Heart disease Malignant neoplasms CVD (including stroke) Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases

Heart disease Malignant neoplasms CVD (including stroke) Diabetes mellitus

Heart disease Malignant neoplasms CVD (including stroke) Diabetes mellitus

Malignant neoplasms Heart disease CVD (including stroke) Unintentional injuries

Heart disease Malignant neoplasms Unintentional injuries Diabetes mellitus

Source: Cross et al. Towards a Culturally Competent System of Care. Washington: CASSP Technical Assistance Center, 1989.

52

Part II Primary Care of Women

identify ties to Spain as part of their heritage. Most Hispanics in the United States trace their origin to Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central America, or South America. The majority are Roman Catholic. The earliest forebears of this group were Spanish colonists from Mexico who came in the late 1500s to live in what is now the southwestern United States. Today, 43 percent of Hispanics live in the western United States. In 1999, Hispanic females of any race numbered 15.7 million, comprising slightly more than 11 percent of the U.S. female population. Many Hispanic women are recent immigrants. The leading causes of death among Hispanic/Latina women are the same as for African-American women [20, 24, 25, 26] (see Table 3-1). Asian American and Pacific Islander Women Asian American/Pacific Islander (AAPI) is a category that refers to people having origins in any of the original people of the Far East, Southeast Asia, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Philippines, Hawaii or other Pacific Islands, and Thailand. In the 2000 Census 11.9 million Americans, 4.2 percent report themselves as Asian, with Chinese being the largest Asian group; 5.4 million are female. Nearly 75 percent of this population group are foreign born, including an increasing number of immigrants and refugees from Southeast Asia. Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders speak more than 100 different dialects. Nearly 66 percent speak an Asian or Pacific Islander language at home. Approximately 35 percent are linguistically isolated, living in households where no one aged 14 or older speaks English “very well.” The 5.4 million females in this population group who are not of Hispanic origin comprised 3.8 percent of all U.S. females in 1999. The four leading causes of death for AAPI women are all cancers combined, heart disease, stroke, and unintentional injuries (see Table 3-1). Due to a lack of data, relatively little is known about the health status of AAPI women. According to Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) data, the highest age-adjusted incidence rate of cervical cancer occurs among Vietnamese women. A major barrier to care for AAPI women is the lack of linguistically and culturally appropriate services. Women of color for whom English is not the primary language often experience difficulties obtaining even the most basic health promotion and disease prevention information [14, 27, 28]. American Indian/Alaska Native Women According to the Office of Minority Health, American Indian/Alaska Native is a category that

refers to persons having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America, including Central America. They are members of more than 500 federally recognized tribes as well as many recognized or unrecognized tribal organizations. The largest tribal groups are Navajo, Sioux, Blackfeet, Cherokee, Latin American Indian, Choctaw, Chippewa, Iroquois, and Pueblo. The largest Alaska Native tribe is Eskimo. Of the 281.4 million people in the United States in 2000, 4.1 million (1.5 percent) reported themselves to be American Indian or Alaska Native. Slightly more than 1 million females, or 0.7 percent of all U.S. females, belonged to this population group in 1999. Forty-three percent of all American Indians live in the western United States. The states with the largest American Indian population are California, Oklahoma, and Arizona. The four leading causes of death among American Indian/Alaska Native women are heart disease, all cancers combined, unintentional injuries, and diabetes (see Table 3-1). Infants born to American Indian/Alaska Native women accounted for a disproportionate number of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) deaths. Native American women consider alcohol abuse to be the primary health issue affecting their families, and alcohol and its multigenerational effects are thought be at the root of many of the health-related problems they experience. The death rates associated with alcoholism are much higher than they are among women of all other races. American Indian/Alaska Native women who abuse alcohol and drugs rarely receive treatment; instead they are often sent to jail where they lose their parental rights [14, 29, 30]. Cultural groups often forgotten by our health care system are women prisoners and homeless women. In 1998, 84,000 women were incarcerated, 22 percent of all arrestees. Approximately 67,000 of these women were mothers of children under 18 years of age, and 26 percent of all incarcerated females were women of color. Eighteen percent of all drug arrests involved women of childbearing ages; half of all incarcerated women were serving sentences for drug related crimes (32, 33].

Culturally Competent Care The diversity among women of color accounts for a wide variance in health status, health behaviors, and health care needs. As primary care providers, midwives must ensure that women from vulnerable populations have access to a culturally responsive

Chapter 3 Cultural Competence in Midwifery Practice

health care system. Cultural competence requires commitment to an ongoing process [2]. The “cultural competence continuum” can help midwives meet the health care needs of a culturally diverse population. The “cultural competence continuum” (Figure 3-1) describes six distinct levels of competence, ranging from destructiveness to proficiency. Originally developed by Terry Cross et al. to describe six stages of competence at the organizational level [31], it has since been adapted for use at the individual level. It is especially helpful in the identification of cultural deficits and the targeting of areas in need of development and improvement. The cultural competence continuum also provides a framework for the recognition of practitioner and service intervention biases [2, 31]. The characteristics of the cultural competence continuum can be summarized as follows [31]: 1. Destructiveness: The attitudes, policies, and

2.

3.

4.

5.

practices that are exhibited can be destructive to a culture. At the individual level, people in this phase believe that everyone should be more like the “mainstream.” Incapacity: A biased, authoritarian system lacks the capacity to facilitate growth in culturally diverse groups. Individuals at this level lack cultural awareness skills and believe that the dominant group is racially superior. Blindness: A “we’re all human” approach is used, wherein culture, ethnicity, and race make no difference in how services are provided. Precompetence: Also known as “cultural sensitivity,” wherein there is a desire and attempt made to deliver services in a manner respectful of cultural diversity. In general, there is awareness about the set of norms, values, and beliefs associated with a particular group, and how these affect group interactions and experiences. Competence: There is an acceptance of, and respect for, cultural norms, patterns, beliefs, and differences. Individuals accept the influence of their own culture in relation to other cultures and are willing to examine components of cross-cultural interactions.

6. Proficiency: These individuals move beyond ac-

cepting, appreciating, and accommodating cultural differences to developing skills to interact in culturally diverse settings. There is a motivation toward developing culturally therapeutic approaches, and hiring staff who are specialists in cultural competence.

Application of the Cultural Competence Continuum The following scenarios illustrate three phases along the cultural competence continuum. Scenario 1 Tran is a 21-year-old Vietnamese woman Gravida 1, Para 0 who registered for prenatal care at 16 weeks gestation. Since she arrived from Vietnam nine months ago, Tran has been living with her aunt, who has accompanied her to the clinic. The FOB is a 25-year-old Vietnamese man, currently unemployed. He has lived in the United States for three years with his aunt and uncle. Both he and Tran speak no English. Tran was raised in a small village in the mountains of Vietnam where her mother sent her at the age of three because she could not afford to take care of her. When her mother died, Tran was brought to the United States by her aunt, the owner of a small jewelry store. The aunt does not intend to accompany Tran on all of her visits. Displeased about this pregnancy, she has told Tran that she and her boyfriend will have to find a place to live when the baby is born. Tran has little formal education and can read only at a fourth grade level. Social service has tried on numerous occasions to encourage Tran to take the English as a Second Language classes at the local church. Tran attended one class and refuses to return; the reason is unknown. Background Information

Incompetence ————————————————————————— Competence

Destructiveness —— Incapacity —— Blindness —— Precompetence —— Competence —— Proficiency

FIGURE 3-1 Cultural competence continuum.

53

Source: Cross et al. [31].

54

Part II Primary Care of Women

Tran has been labeled a poor historian by the OB staff at the health center. Tran has come to the clinic with facial and upper body bruises, and the midwife suspects that she is being battered. The midwifery service has two Vietnamese outreach workers in the clinical setting. One of the outreach workers, Lan, plans to accompany Tran for labor support. Lan has asked Tran about the bruises. She denies being beaten, and claims she obtained the bruises by falling and bumping into things. The hospital where Tran is going to deliver has no Vietnamese staff employed in any capacity. The night that Tran goes into labor the outreach worker has a personal family crisis and is unable to provide any support. Tran’s aunt is away on business. The FOB accompanies Tran to labor and delivery, but he leaves and goes to the waiting room, where he remains. He does not see Tran again until she is being sent to the postpartum floor. Tran has a spontaneous birth of a baby girl. Lan comes to the hospital the next day to help Tran with newborn care and to prepare for going home. The social service staff at the hospital are suspicious of Lan and do not believe she is translating their concerns regarding Tran’s possible history of battering. Communication shuts down between Tran and the hospital staff. Tran is discharged home from the hospital on the second postpartum day. This case study suggests a very typical precompetence. The health center has responded to the community needs by hiring two Vietnamese outreach workers. The hospital, an extension of Tran’s health care system, is not responsive to this population’s need. The next step on the continuum would be for the hospital administration to provide translation coverage and to meet with the health center administration to implement hospital and community-based strategies to assist women from other cultures who they know will be receiving care at the hospital. According to the Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services recommendations, health care organizations receiving federal funding must offer and provide interpreter service at no cost to patients with limited English proficiency [8]. Analysis

Scenario 2 Background Information Marie is a 26-year-old CNM who is a recent graduate of her nurse-midwifery program. She is working at an urban health center in Boston doing full-scope midwifery in fulfillment of her National Health Service Corps obligation. Of Irish and Italian decent, Marie was raised in a military family. Her family of origin has

settled in Illinois. She plans to return to Illinois to marry and join a physician/CNM practice when her obligation is completed in two years. Gwendolyn is a 25-year-old African-American woman with five previous births who presented late for prenatal care. All of Gwendolyn’s children have been in state custody. The first four are in the temporary custody of her mother, and she has custody of her two-year-old daughter. Now living in a shelter, Gwendolyn is waiting for her Section 8 (affordable housing) designation. She has a past history of depression treated with Prozac and individual counseling. She stopped taking the Prozac when she found out she was pregnant and decided not to return for counseling. Gwendolyn has been in drug treatment on seven separate occasions in five different programs. Drug free for 10 months, her urine toxicology was negative x1. Gwendolyn has 4 siblings that she is not willing to talk about. It has been two years since she has spoken to her mother, who refuses to allow her any access to her children. Gwendolyn dropped out of school in the seventh grade. When she comes to the clinic, she is demanding and argumentative with the clinic staff. She rarely keeps appointments, as public transportation to the clinic is difficult. The shelter where she stays is a 35-minute drive. She comes to the clinic when she can get a ride. The FOB is the same for all of her children. The relationship is abusive; the FOB is currently in prison serving a twoyear sentence for battering her. She has been evicted from two apartment buildings because of persistent fights between her and the FOB. Gwendolyn’s second prenatal care visit with Marie does not go well. Marie is frustrated with Gwendolyn because she arrives at the clinic unannounced, having missed her last two appointments. Gwendolyn’s weight is 340 pounds, her blood pressure is 120/68, and her urine 2+ glucose, neg. protein. Marie tells Gwendolyn she will have to wait because there are two patients before her. Gwendolyn agrees and goes to the cafeteria to get something to eat. When she and Marie meet for the visit, she has a list of physical complaints she wants to discuss. Gwendolyn’s goals for the visits are to speak to the outreach worker regarding housing and to obtain an ultrasound for sex determination because she would like to start collecting clothes for her baby. Marie wants to get a one-hour glucose test, and urine for toxicology as she thinks Gwendolyn has relapsed. Gwendolyn refuses to give a urine sample and accuses Marie of looking for an excuse to take her

Chapter 3 Cultural Competence in Midwifery Practice

baby away. Marie refuses to discuss another ultrasound and tells Gwendolyn that she “might as well write her a check for $500 now because an ultrasound for sex determination is a waste of the taxpayers’ money.” She also tells Gwendolyn that she will not be seen at the clinic unannounced again without an appointment. Gwendolyn leaves and goes to the clinic director’s office and files a complaint of discrimination. Marie tells the clinic director that she regrets the encounter and that she resents the charge of discrimination, as it would not matter to her what color Gwendolyn was. She says that she regards Gwendolyn as noncompliant and a drain on the clinical resources. The clinic director tells Marie that other staff members have heard her describe Gwendolyn using terms like “train wreck” and “walking wounded.” Marie’s response is that Gwendolyn has no business bringing another child into the world. Marie isolates herself and does not speak to any of the staff for the rest of the day. Gwendolyn transfers her care to another service. Analysis This scenario is complex in nature, illustrating several overlapping issues. There is cultural blindness on the part of both the provider and the client. Marie believes that she treats all clients the same, regardless of race or socioeconomic status and that the health care system is set up to serve everyone with equal effectiveness. This approach makes Gwendolyn a victim and blames her for her problems, thereby rendering her culturally invisible. Leadership can be provided here by providing training in which Marie is able to understand and acknowledge the influence of her own cultural roots, beliefs, and behaviors. From

TABLE 3-2 • • • • • • • • • • • • •

55

this assessment, she can acquire skills to progress toward cultural competence. Scenario 3 Itza is a 25-year-old married women from Cuba who presents for prenatal care with a midwifery service located in a community health center. Itza and her husband Rafael have been in the United States seven months. They came to the midwifery service based on a recommendation from her sister-in-law, who recently received labor and birth care from the same group. The demographics of this health center have changed rather rapidly. When the Hispanic/Latino population at the health center reached 20 percent, the administration applied for Healthy Start funding, with which the center hired two Spanish-speaking midwives, one trained medical assistant, and a case manager. Additionally the entire health center staff, including the administrators, have been involved in a yearlong cultural diversity training that includes developing and participating in community-based health fairs. Itza was made to feel immediately at home as the waiting room has a variety of Spanish literatures. Because Itza and Rafael speak very little English, they have been assured that a Spanish-speaking midwife and doula will support them in labor. Background Information

The midwifery service described in this scenario demonstrates the characteristics of a culturally proficient agency through its commitment to hiring multicultural providers and its active participation in community health promotion projects [2]. Table 3-2 summarizes the characteristics of a culturally competent practitioner.

Analysis

Characteristics of Culturally Competent Practitioners

Move from cultural unawareness to an awareness and sensitivity of their own cultural heritage. Recognize their own values and biases and are aware of how they may affect clients from other cultures. Demonstrate comfort with cultural differences that exist between themselves and clients. Know specifics about the particular cultural groups they are working with. Understand the historical events that may have caused harm to a particular cultural group. Respect and are aware of the unique needs of clients from diverse communities. Understand the importance of diversity within as well as between cultures. Endeavor to learn more about cultural communities through client interactions, participation in cultural diversity dynamics, and consultations with community experts. Make a continuous effort to understand a client’s point of view. Demonstrate flexibility and tolerance of ambiguity, and are nonjudgmental. Maintain a sense of humor and an open mind. Demonstrate a willingness to relinquish control in clinical encounters, to risk failure, and to look within for the source of frustration, anger, and resistance. Acknowledge that the process is as important as the product.

Source: Randall-David, E. Culturally Competent HIV Counseling and Education. Rockville, MD: DHHS Maternal and Child Health Bureau, 1994.

56

Part II Primary Care of Women

Conclusion Eliminating health disparities is a national agenda. Poverty, primary language, and health insurance are among the many factors that affect access to health care as well as health status. Recent national and state data describe the prevalence of the poor health outcomes among women of color. One approach to eliminating racial and ethnic health disparities is to increase the cultural competence of the health care workforce. Becoming a culturally competent provider requires a series of steps. The first is recognizing where one is on the continuum and moving forward. The second is to remain committed to the process. The health care system is very likely going to rely on midwives to provide leadership in the development and implementation of health promotion strategies for women of color across the life span. It is essential that CNMs and CMs deliver culturally competent, comprehensive primary care services for all women. Cultural competence includes being able to recognize and respond to health-related beliefs and cultural values. Examples of culturally competent midwifery care include striving to overcome cultural, language, and communications barriers, and providing an environment in which women and their families from diverse cultural backgrounds feel comfortable discussing their cultural health beliefs and practices in the context of reproductive health. Midwives must be at the forefront in the implementation of cultural competence training programs, which are now considered a key intervention in reducing the health care disparities that disproportionately affect women of color. Integrating traditional healing methods and spiritual beliefs where appropriate into treatment plans is another crucial element toward achieving the goal of cultural competence.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

References 12. 1. Rorie, J. L., Paine, L. L., Barger, M. K. Primary

care for women: Cultural competence in primary care services. J. Nurse-Midwifery 41(2):92–100 (March/April) 1996. 2. Callister, L. C. Culturally competent care of women and newborns: Knowledge, attitude, and skills. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonatal Nurs. 30(2):209–215, 2001. 3. Declercq, E. R., Williams, D. R., Koontz, A. M., Paine, L. L., Streit, E. L., McCloskey, L.

13.

14.

Serving women in need: Nurse-midwifery practice in the United States. J. Midwifery Womens Health 46(1):11–16 (January/February) 2001. Paine. L. L., et al. A comparison of visits and practices of nurse-midwives and obstetriciangynecologists in ambulatory care settings J. Midwifery Womens Health 42(1):37–44 (January/February) 2000. Scupholme, A., Paine, L. L., Lang, J. M., Shylendra, K., DeJoseph, J. F. Time associated with components of clinical services rendered by nurse-midwives: Sample data from phase II of nurse-midwifery care to vulnerable populations in the United States. J. Nurse-Midwifery 39(1):5–10 (January/February) 1994. Scupholme, A., DeJoseph, J., Strobino, D. M., Paine, L. L. Nurse-midwifery care to vulnerable population phase I: Demographic characteristics of the national CNM sample. J. NurseMidwifery 37(5):341–347 (September/October) 1992. Paine, L. L., et al. Characteristics of nurse-midwife patients and visits. Am J. Public Health 89(6):906–909, 1999. U.S Department of Health and Human Services, Offices of Minority Health. National Standards for Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services in Health Care, Executive Summary. March 2001. Randall-David, E. Culturally Competent HIV Counseling and Education. Rockville, MD: DHHS Maternal and Child Heath Bureau, 1994. Roberts, R., et al. Developing Culturally Competent Programs for Families of Children with Special Needs (Monograph), 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Child Development Center, 1990. Lynch, E., and Hanson, M. J., eds. Developing Cross-Cultural Competence: A Guide for Working with Children and Their Families, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brooks Publishing, 1999. Lollock, L. The Foreign Born Population in the United States: March 2000, Current Population Reports, pp. 20–534, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC. U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Profile of Gender in the United States. (March 2001). Internet Release Date: February 2, 2002. http:// eire.census.gov/popest/data/national/tables/asro/U S-EST2001-ASRO-02.php. Office of Women’s Health, CDC. The Health of Minority Women, May 2002.

Chapter 3 Cultural Competence in Midwifery Practice

57

15. Stover, G. Colorful communities: Toward a lan-

28. Ro, M. Moving forward: Addressing the health

guage of inclusion. Am. J. Public Health 92(4):512–513, 2002. The Black Population 2000, Census Brief 2000. http:/www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html. Thomas, S. B. The color line: Race matters in eliminating health disparities. Am. J. Public Health 91(7):1046–1048 (July) 2001. Willis, D. P. Them and us: the politics of population taxonomy. Am. J. Public Health 91(7):1048–1049 (July) 2001. Oppenheimer, G. M. Paradigm lost: race, ethnicity, and the search for a new population taxonomy. Am. J. Public Health 91(7):1049–1055, (July) 2001. Willis, W. Families with African-American roots. In Lynch, E. W. and Hanson M. J. (Eds.) Developing Cross-Cultural Competence: A Guide for Working with Children and Their Families. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing, 1998, pp.165–207. Hogan, V. K., Njoroge, T., Durant, T. M., and Ferre, C. D. Eliminating disparities in perinatal outcomes—lessons learned. Maternal Child Health J. 5(2):135–140 (June) 2001. Hogue, C. J. R., and Vasquez, C. Toward a strategic approach for reducing disparities in infant mortality. Am. J. Public Health 92(4):552–556 (April) 2002. Jackson, F. M., Phillips, M. T., HogueRowland, C. J., and Owens-Curry, T. Y. Examining the burdens of gendered racism: Implications for pregnancy outcomes among college-educated African-American women. Maternal Child Health J. 5(2):95–107 (June) 2001. Vasquez, M. J. T. Latinas. In Comaz-Diaz, L., and Green, B. (Eds.) Women of Color: Integrating Ethnic and Gender Identities in Psychotherapy. New York: Guilford Press, 1994, pp. 114–138. Zuniga, M. E. Families with Latino roots. In Lynch, E. W., and Hanson, M. J. (Eds.) Developing Cross-Cultural Competence: A Guide for Working with Children and Their Families. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing 1998, pp. 209–250. Ocasio-Burges, H. Understanding the Hispanic community. In Julia, M. C. (Ed.) Multicultural Awareness in the Health Care Professions. Needham Heights, MA: Simon and Schuster, 1996, pp. 111–130. The Asian American/Pacific Islander Population 2000, Census Brief 2000. http://www. census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html.

of Asian American and Pacific Islander women. Am. J. Public Health 92(2):516–519 (April) 2002. National Institutes of Health. Women of Color Health Data Book: Adolescents to Seniors. NIH publication no. 98-4247. Bethesda, MD: Office of Research on Women’s Health, 1996, pp. 1–5. The American Indian and Alaska Native Population 2000, Census Brief 2000. http://www. census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html. Cross, T. L., Brazon, B. J., Dennis, K. W., and Isaacs, M. R. Towards a Culturally Competent System of Care. Washington: CASSP Technical Assistance Center, 1989. Johnson, D. Developing services for incarcerated mothers. In Blinn, C. (Ed.) Maternal Ties: A Selection of Programs for Female Offenders. Arlington, VA: Kirby Lithographic Company, 1997, p. 1. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report: Women Offenders. NCJ 175688. December 1999, pp. 1–2.

16. 17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

Additional References Brice-Baker, J. R. West Indian women of color: the Jamaican women. In Diaz-Comas, L., and Green, B. (Eds.) Women of Color: Integrating Ethnic and Gender Identities in Psychotherapy. New York: Guilford Press, 1994, ch. 5, pp. 139–160. Fadiman, A. The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1997. Johnson, C., and Smith, P., and the WGBH Series Research Team. Africans in America: America’s Journey Through Slavery. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998. Kavanaugh, K. H., and Kennedy, P. H. Promoting Cultural Diversity: Strategies for Health Care Professionals. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992, pp. 9–34. Lynch, E. W., and Hanson, M. J. (Eds.). Developing Cross-Cultural Competence: A Guide for Working with Children and Their Families, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing, 1998. Leigh, W. E. The health of African-American women. Adams, D. L. (Ed.) Health Issues for

58

Part II Primary Care of Women

Women of Color: A Cultural Diversity Perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995, ch. 8, pp. 112–132. Paine, L. L., and Rorie, J. L. Expanding role of nurse-midwifery in obstetric practice. In Repke, J. T. (Ed.) Intrapartum Obstetrics. New York:

Churchill-Livingstone, 1995. Smedley, B. D., Stith, A. Y., and Nelson, A. R. (Eds.) Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, 2002.

C H A P T E R

4 International Midwifery and Safe Motherhood MARGARET A. MARSHALL, CNM, EdD, FACNM JOYCE E. THOMPSON, CNM, DrPH, FACNM, FAAN

A 43-year-old Gravida 11 came complaining of severe lower abdominal pain for the past two days. Then she had slight dark bleeding, dizziness, and couldn’t walk. Her BP 110/50, pulse 160, and abdomen tender to touch. Lucky for me it was on a Tuesday which is our market day and judging from her age and parity I thought could this be appendicitis. The BP too could not give me a clue as to ectopic. But I gathered courage, did the puncture [an abdominal puncture to rule out ectopic pregnancy], and it was positive. So I referred her immediately to hospital. Luck was not on my side. The only M.O. [medical officer] had traveled to Accra. She was detained according to her [the patient] to give her some tablets to take home the next day. So they returned to me on a Thursday with a BP of 60/0. I set up Dextrose 5% with hydrocortisone 100 mg IV and arranged for a boat to take her to Kpando Hospital on the Volta River. This patient will prefer to die in my clinic if I won’t accompany her to Kpando myself, for fear that if she does not meet any Doctor she won’t know what to do; and she believes my company will help give her prompt treatment. So, we got a boat which took 20,000 cedis [approximately one month’s salary for a hospital nurse]. Immediately we got there a blood transfusion was arranged for and I gave a pint of blood. I left on the third day for my station. I had lost all confidence as I knew this patient was going to die. But she survived!!!

of 26 hours to refer a patient to the nearest facility with surgical capability. Travel was by car/truck, boat, bicycle, and again car/truck. During the rainy season, referrals would take up to three days. Source: Marshall, M. A. Ghana Registered Midwives Association Continuing Education Project—Carnegie Corporation Grant B 5071, Final Evaluation Report. Unpublished evaluation of LifeSaving Skills Training Project, 1992.

Introduction Midwifery—“an ancient profession reborn in contemporary society” [1]—is by its very nature global. Midwives have been with women for pregnancy and birth since the beginning of civilization. Likewise, for centuries midwives often accompanied women as they migrated to new lands to live and raise their families. Today’s focus on international midwifery reflects the continued migration of the professional workforce of midwives. An international or global focus to midwifery practice is reflected in the expanding network of midwifery associations working in partnership with global agencies, policymakers in governments, and groups—from the World Health Organization and the United Nations, to the White Ribbon Alliance— that share common goals and concerns related to the health of women. The international nature of midwifery, and the work of midwives with women often not of their own race, ethnicity, or culture, also raises daily concerns for cultural competence and respect in the practice of midwifery. The most

This rural midwife from the Affron Plains in Ghana was trained in Life-Saving Skills. It took an average

59

60

Part II Primary Care of Women

compelling reason for understanding the international nature of midwifery is the ever-increasing demand for promoting basic human rights, especially for girls and women—including the right to a safe and secure reproductive life [2, 3]. This chapter will focus on the role of midwives as the key health professional in global efforts to make pregnancy and birth safe throughout the world and to promote the health and well-being of girls and women wherever they reside. Data on the health of women globally are used to set the stage for understanding the work of midwives around the world. The key role of the International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) and its work with midwives and women throughout the world will be featured. In addition, a brief introduction to the World Health Organization as a leader in global health efforts, and other global partners in the Safe Motherhood Initiative will be addressed. The end of the chapter will focus on frequently asked questions about international midwifery derived from decades of working with midwifery students in the United States and other areas of the world.

The Situation Worldwide Every minute of every day, somewhere in the world, a woman dies as a result of complications arising during pregnancy and childbirth. The majority of these deaths are avoidable. [4]

Every minute around the world 380 women become pregnant 190 women face unplanned or unwanted pregnancies 110 women experience pregnancy-related complications 40 women have unsafe abortions 1 woman dies White Ribbon Alliance for Safe Motherhood. Awareness, Mobilization, and Action for Safe Motherhood: A Field Guide. Washington, DC: NGO Networks for Health, 2000.

Since 1982, the World Health Organization (WHO) has systematically reviewed indexed medical literature, nonindexed publications, and reports from national and local authorities regarding maternal mortality and maternity care coverage worldwide. Its best estimate in 1987 was that there were in excess of 500,000 pregnancy-related deaths per

year, most of them preventable [4]. Subsequent reanalysis of the data revealed that closer to 585,000 women die per year [5]. Of these nearly 600,000 deaths, more than half come from just eight countries: Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Uganda. Nepal suffers a maternal death every five minutes, Nigeria every ten minutes. The worldwide Safe Motherhood Initiative was launched in 1987 in Nairobi, Kenya. The goal of this meeting was to raise awareness, alert the international community to this silent tragedy, and mobilize efforts and resources on the behalf of women. At the 1990 World Summit for Children, 166 nations signed on to the action plan goals, one of which was to reduce maternal mortality by 50 percent by the year 2000 [6]. In September 2000, the United Nations member states adopted the Millennium Development Declaration that reinforced the emphasis on healthy women and safe pregnancies and birth for development in any country. The Millennium Development goals included the reduction of maternal mortality by 75 percent between 1990 and 2015, using the proportion of births attended by skilled personnel as an indicator for this goal [7]. Mortality figures, though difficult to obtain, have been the most sensitive indicator of the health of women. However, in considering maternal mortality, it is important that a far wider scope of pregnancy-related health problems, including maternal trauma, chronic disease, and reduced energy output, which have profound ramifications for the family and the economy, not be overlooked. Maternal mortality represents only the tip of the mountain of health problems for women. The road to maternal death and disability for many women begins at birth, when they are born female. Morbidity has been even more difficult to define and measure. Many women never enter the health care system during pregnancy, even when gravely ill, and therefore their deaths or disabilities are not captured in vital statistics or other records. A myriad of service factors—from improper care to a lack of supplies, transport to a referral center, surgical capability, blood banks, and money with which to access available care—contribute to maternal mortality in developing countries. These factors most recently have been categorized as the “enabling environment or system of care” as distinct from the person who provides needed care [8]. Cultural factors that limit access to care tend to be less well known and less well documented.

Chapter 4 International Midwifery and Safe Motherhood

Utilization of faith healers, local herbs, over-thecounter treatments, and “quack” practitioners who claim unearned health credentials can complicate access to appropriate care given in a timely fashion. When disease is believed to be caused by black magic or lack of faith, orthodox medical services based on belief in the germ theory are not seen as offering solutions. Cultural factors also include the existing norms that define the status of women, with the consequence of interfering with a woman’s decisions to seek care in a timely manner. To confront the problems of maternal mortality and morbidity, issues of quality and access must be addressed. They can be analyzed within the framework of the three delays [9]: 1. Delay in recognition that there is a problem 2. Delay in reaching the appropriate level of care

once the problem/complication has been recognized 3. Delay in receiving the appropriate care after arrival at the service site Maternal Death The World Health Organization defines maternal mortality as follows: Death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and the site of pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy itself or its management, but not from accidental or incidental causes [10]. Accidental or incidental causes are those that would have caused death irrespective of pregnancy, such as traffic accidents, gunshot wounds, poisonings, and so forth.

Deaths are then divided into two categories: 1. Direct obstetrical deaths, resulting from obstet-

rical complications of the pregnancy state (pregnancy, labor, and puerperium), from interventions, omissions, incorrect treatment, or from a chain of events resulting from any of the above [10]. 2. Indirect obstetrical deaths, resulting from previous existing disease or disease that developed during pregnancy, and that were not due to direct causes, but were aggravated by physiologic effects of pregnancy [10]. In developing countries, the five major direct causes of maternal death are (1) hemorrhage, (2) sepsis, (3) pregnancy induced hypertension, (4) unsafe abortion, and (5) obstructed labor.

61

The patient was a 32-year-old Gravida 3, one live baby, who had been attendant since 12 weeks of pregnancy. She was my friend and came from this very village. The patient came in with labor pains at 9 p.m. onset 4 p.m. P.V. [vaginal examination] done. Os was 2 cms. dilated. Membranes intact. Labor progressed well. Patient delivered spontaneously a live female infant at 4:15 a.m. The placenta appeared to be complete but the membranes was ragged. Patient started bleeding. IV 500 cc set up with pitocin. External bimanual compression done without effect. Manual removal [uterine exploration] done. Only blood clots expelled. Internal bimanual compression done without effect. Another IV 1000 mls set up and the patient was transferred. There were transportation difficulties and the road is very bad. It took us 4 hours 10 minutes to travel a 35 km journey. The patient received 2500 mls of IV fluids but very unfortunately the IV got infiltrated on the way; but due to the bad road I could not get the vein. All attempt to start the IV again failed. The patient expired at the hospital before the Doctor arrived. EBL 2500cc. I collapsed at the hospital. They gave me Valium 20 mgs and put me in a bed. I was not aware for some time. I cried and felt very bad. They talked to me and explained that they sometimes have such women die at their hospital with everything. I did not feel confident and competent. Sometimes when I think about it now I cry. This rural midwife trained in Life-Saving Skills had organized the TBAs in the seven villages around her to come to her maternity home for continuing education and to refer their patients with problems. Note that once the bad road was graded, travel time was decreased from 4 hours 10 minutes to under an hour and a half. Source: Marshall, M. A. Ghana Registered Midwives Association Continuing Education Project—Carnegie Corporation Grant B 5071, Final Evaluation Report. Unpublished evaluation of LifeSaving Skills Training Project, 1992.

Ways to Express Mortality There are three main ways to calculate and express maternal mortality: (1) rate, (2) ratio, and (3) lifetime risk. Maternal Mortality Rate The maternal mortality rate

is expressed as the number of women who die while pregnant or within the first 42 days after pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by preg-

62

Part II Primary Care of Women

nancy per 100,000 women of reproductive age in a given year [10]. The WHO International Classification of Diseases (Vol. 10, 1997) has revised the definition to include deaths within one full year after the termination of pregnancy. Because this definition is less in use and difficult to obtain, it is important to see how data are reported when making comparisons over time or from one country to another for both maternal mortality rate and ratio [11]. The rate is determined as follows: Number of maternal deaths in a year 100,000 women of reproductive age in the population

The advantage of using the maternal mortality rate is that it compares maternal deaths with all women at risk in the population. In a society with a reliable system of gathering statistics, this provides a clear way of expressing deaths. However, in most developing countries, the census data are too old or faulty to make it possible to use rates. Maternal Mortality Ratio The maternal mortality ratio is expressed as the number of women who die while pregnant or within the first 42 days after pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by pregnancy per 100,000 live births in a given year [10]. Number of maternal deaths in a year 100,000 live births in a year

The advantage of using maternal mortality ratio is that the numbers of live births are comparatively easier to count. This is the most commonly used way to express trends within a country and to make cross-country comparisons. Lifetime Risk of a Maternal Death The lifetime risk of a maternal death is calculated by multiplying the maternal mortality rate by 30 (the number of years of exposure between ages 15 and 44), but the effective duration of exposure can vary widely. The lifetime risk of maternal death can be more simply stated as the risk of an individual woman dying from pregnancy or childbirth during her lifetime. Calculations are based on maternal mortality and fertility rates in the country. A lifetime risk of 1 in 3000 represents a low risk of dying from pregnancy and childbirth, while 1 in 100 is a high risk [12]. Table 4-1 presents regional data on lifetime risk of a woman dying during the childbearing cycle. The advantage of using lifetime risk of dying a maternal death is that it recognizes that women of high fertility or women lacking in universal access

TABLE 4-1

Women’s Lifetime Risk by Region

Region

Lifetime Risk of Dying

Africa Asia Latin America/Caribbean All developing countries All developed countries

1 1 1 1 1

in in in in in

16 65 130 48 1800

Source: From 1997 World Health Organization data, in Ross, S. R. Promoting Quality Maternal and Newborn Care: A Reference Manual for Program Managers. Washington, DC, Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE), 1998, pp. 1, 17.

to effective family planning have an extremely high risk of dying as a result of pregnancy or childbirth. Maternal Morbidity As difficult as it is to obtain accurate maternal mortality data, morbidity data collection is far more difficult. However, women worldwide are dying during pregnancy of diseases for which we have prevention and treatment strategies. In Nigeria, where a maternal death occurs every ten minutes, 10 percent of maternal deaths are from malaria. Other common causes include maternal tetanus, tuberculosis, and increasingly HIV/AIDS. One of the huge challenges for this century is improved prevention, recognition, and low-technology treatment for morbid conditions of pregnancy. Currently, there is no global agreement as to definitions of pregnancy-induced hypertension, obstructed labor, and hemorrhage. Definitions are crucial because they dictate what treatment protocol will be used. A practical example of this is hemorrhage, which is defined as 500 cc of blood loss during the birth process. A woman entering labor with a hemoglobin of 12 g can tolerate this blood loss with few symptoms. A woman entering labor with a hemoglobin of 4 g may well go into shock and die with a 300 cc blood loss. Historically, much time and effort have been invested in the training of traditional birth attendants (TBAs), feeling that this investment would decrease maternal deaths in the community. More than 20 years experience has shown that this has not contributed significantly to a reduction in mortality. Clearly, it is unreasonable to expect that community women, no matter how skilled and loving, can affect great change when working within a system bedeviled with poor transportation, lack of emergency funds, inadequate blood safety, and poor referral institutions. Rendering maternity care is a system problem

Chapter 4 International Midwifery and Safe Motherhood

requiring multiple levels of preparedness and active community awareness and participation. Many nations have felt that moving childbirth into institutions was the answer to maternal mortality. Experience has shown that site of delivery is not the critical factor. The linchpin of improved maternal outcomes is introducing skilled providers at every level of care. An important distinction has evolved to differentiate between a trained and a skilled provider. A trained provider may have as little as a five-day training for TBAs and is not in a position to negotiate and handle emergencies. Skilled Provider A skilled provider refers exclusively to a person with midwifery skills (for example, a doctor, midwife, or nurse) who has completed a set course of study and can manage normal labor and delivery, recognize the onset of maternal and neonatal complications, perform essential Life-Saving Skills, initiate treatment, and supervise the referral to a higher health care facility. Source: Family Care International. Saving Lives: Skilled Attendance at Childbirth. New York: FCI, in collaboration with Safe Motherhood Inter-Agency Group, 2001, pp. 5–16.

Persons who are skilled providers are referred to as those who have midwifery skills, whether or TABLE 4-2

63

not they are midwives. At the ten-year anniversary conference in Sri Lanka for the Safe Motherhood Initiative, it was noted that worldwide 75 million births take place annually and 60 million of those births take place without the presence of a skilled attendant. The single most critical intervention is to ensure that a health worker with midwifery skills is present at every birth, and transportation is available in case of emergency. A sufficient number of health workers must be trained and provided with essential supplies and equipment especially in poor and rural communities. [13]

Clearly the presence of a skilled provider, though essential, is not sufficient to save women’s lives. Providers work within teams with complementary skills and need essential equipment and supplies. Given a supportive environment, skilled providers may render safe, high-quality care in any site: home, maternity home, birth center, health post, district hospital, or referral hospital. The inputs at each level of care play an important role in rendering emergency obstetrical services when required. The levels of obstetric care and personnel providing such care are summarized in Table 4-2.

Levels of Obstetric Care

Comprehensive Emergency Obstetric Care Facilities: 1 per 500,000 people

District Hospital Providers

Perform surgery under general anesthesia Perform assisted removal (e.g., D&C) of retained placental pieces Perform manual removal of retained placenta Perform assisted vaginal delivery (e.g., vacuum extraction or forceps delivery) Provide safe blood replacement Administer parenteral (IV or IM) antibiotics Administer parenteral (IV or IM) sedatives Administer parenteral (IV or IM) oxytocics

Physicians, midwives, paramedical and support staff

Basic Emergency Obstetric Care Facilities: 4 per 500,000 people

Health Center

Perform manual removal of retained placenta/pieces Perform assisted vaginal delivery (e.g., vacuum extraction) Administer antibiotics, sedatives (e.g., Valium, magnesium sulfate), and oxytocics (ergometrine, Pitocin) IM or IV, and IV fluids.

Physicians and/or midwives, paramedical and support staff

Obstetric First Aid in the Community

Village/Community Level

Uterine massage/pressure point May be able to administer sublingual/nasal/IM oxytocics (ergometrine) Provide oral rehydration salts

Junior health staff, traditional birth attendants, local leaders, women’s groups, community workers, families

Source: Ross, S. R. Promoting Quality Maternal and Newborn Care: A Reference Manual for Program Managers. Washington, DC: Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE), 1998, p. 5.55.

64

Part II Primary Care of Women

The Newborn The mother/newborn dyad is inseparable. Improving the health of the mother will improve the outcome for the infant. It is likewise crucial to improve the survival of the infant so that women are not exposed to the risks of many pregnancies to ensure that a few children make it to adulthood and are able to care for their aged parents. Repeated pregnancies take a huge toll on a woman’s body and increase her lifetime risk of dying a death related to childbearing. Again, the essentials of newborn care are low technology and well within our hands today, as described in Table 4-3. Approximately 8 million perinatal deaths occur each year. Of these, approximately 85 percent of newborn deaths are from infections, birth asphyxia,

TABLE 4-3

and birth injury [14]. More than two-thirds of these newborn deaths occur in fully developed term-sized infants. These infant losses contribute in turn to the cycle of poor birth spacing, excessive fertility, recurring fetal loss, and maternal morbidity and mortality. The Situation in the United States For most women in the United States, childbirth is a relatively normal experience and people have come to expect the perfect delivery experience, the perfect newborn, and a mother unharmed by the experience. In fact, from 1990 to 1995, almost 2000 American women died from pregnancy and its complications, even with modern advances in health care (see Figure 4-1).

Essentials of Newborn Care

Care of Future Pregnancies

Special Attention

Improve the health and status of women Improve the nutrition of girls Discourage early marriage and early childbearing

Promote safer sexual practices Provide opportunities for female education

Care During Pregnancy

Special Attention

Improve the nutrition of pregnant women Immunize against tetanus Screen and treat infections, especially syphilis and malaria Improve communication and counseling: birth preparedness, awareness of danger signs, and immediate and exclusive breastfeeding

Monitor and treat pregnancy complications such as anemia, preeclampsia, and bleeding Promote voluntary counseling and testing for HIV Reduce the risk of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV

Care at Time of Birth

Special Attention

Ensure skilled care at delivery Provide for clean delivery, clean hands, clean delivery surface, clean cord cutting, tying and stump care, and clean clothes. Keep the newborn warm; dry and wrap baby immediately, including head cover, or put skin-to-skin with mother and cover Initiate immediate, exclusive breastfeeding, at least within one hour Give prophylactic eye care, as appropriate

Recognize danger signs in both mother and baby and avoid delay in seeking care and referral Recognize and resuscitate asphyxiated babies immediately Pay special attention to warmth, feeding, and hygiene practices with preterm and low birth weight babies.

Care after Birth

Special Attention

Ensure early postnatal contact Recognize danger signs in both mother and newborn, particuPromote continued exclusive breastfeeding larly of infections, and avoid delay in seeking care and referMaintain hygiene to prevent infection; ensure clean cord ral care and counsel mother on general hygiene practices, such Support HIV positive mothers to make appropriate, sustainas hand-washing able choices about feeding Continue to pay special attention to warmth, feeding, and Provide immunizations such as BCG, OPV, and hepatitis B vaccines, as appropriate hygienic practices for low birth weight babies Source: Costello, A. State of the World’s Newborns: A Report from Saving Newborn Lives. Washington, DC: Save the Children, 2001, p. 9.

Material deaths per 100,000 live births

Chapter 4 International Midwifery and Safe Motherhood

65

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1966 1963

1972

1975

1978

1981 1984 Year

1987

1990

1993

1996

FIGURE 4-1 Maternal mortality in the United States: 1966–1997. Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital Statistics, 1998.

According to the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), no progress has been made in decreasing maternal deaths since 1982 (see Figure 4-2). Twenty other countries have lower maternal mortality rates than the United States. In 1990, the federal government set a goal to decrease maternal mortality to 3.3 per 100,000 live births by the year 2000. Only three states achieved the goal: Massachusetts, Nebraska, and Washington. Eight other states were able to achieve a maternal mortality rate of less than four. This indicates clearly that there is excess mor-

tality, that decreases can be achieved, and that meeting these goals in other states will be difficult. The Health and Human Services Healthy People objectives for 2010 have again been set at 3.3 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. The special focus for the 2010 goal is to reduce racial disparities [15]. Early in the twentieth century, the death rate for Black women was twice that of White women. Today, the racial disparity has increased: the death rate of Black women is 4.5 times that of Whites and 1.6 times that of Hispanics. In addition to these

8.3

9.1 3.5

1.9

7.7

4.6

6.3

3.8 6.1

5.3

3.7

7.5

5.9 6.4

5.1

3.4 4.3

8.1

6.9 6.3

5.2

6.2

9.5 7.7

12.0 6.4

7.5 4.5 6.3 5.9 5.8 7.4 6.2 11.9 8.2 10.8 6.2 10.7 12.3 11.7

3.1 4.3 5.3 6.9 3.8 9.1 22.8 (D.C.)

11.7

3.6

9.7 4.6

>7.4 5.3 -7.4 70 y

600 mcg/day 900 mcg/day 900 mcg/day

Liver, dairy products, egg Teratological effects and yolks, fish, carrots, green liver toxicity (from preleafy vegetables, pumpformed vitamin A only) kins, sweet potatoes

Individuals with high alcohol intake are especially susceptible to adverse effects of excess.

D (calciferol) 1 mcg calciferol = 40 IU vitamin D

Maintains serum calcium and phosphorus (important for bone formation and maintenance)

9–50 y 50–70 y >70 y

5 mcg/day 10 mcg/day 15 mcg/day

Fortified dairy products and cereals, fish liver oils, egg yolks

Hypercalcemia, GI distress, anorexia, headache, nausea, vomiting, metallic taste in mouth

Patients on glucocorticoid therapy may need additional vitamin D.

E

Major function appears to be as a nonspecific chain-breaking antioxidant

9–13 y 14–70 y >70 y

11 mg/day 15 mg/day 15 mg/day

Vegetable oils, unprocessed cereal grains, nuts, fruits, vegetables, meats, wheat germ

None reported from vitaPatients on anticoagulants min E naturally occurring need to be monitored in foods but hemorrhagic when taking vitamin E toxicity possible from exsupplements. cess intake of vitamin E in supplements

K

Coenzyme during the synthesis of many proteins involved in blood clotting and bone metabolism

9–13 14–18 19–70 >70

y y y y

60 75 90 90

mcg/day mcg/day mcg/day mcg/day

Green leafy vegetables, brussels sprouts, cabbage, plant oils, margarine

None identified

C (ascorbic acid)

Cofactors for reactions re9–13 y quiring reduced copper or 14–18 y iron metalloenzyme and as 19–70 y a protective antioxidant >70 y

45 65 75 75

mg/day mg/day mg/day mg/day

Citrus fruits, tomatoes, po- GI disturbances, kidney stones, excess iron abtatoes, broccoli, brussels sorption sprouts, spinach

B6

Coenzyme in the metabolism of amino acids and glycogen

9–13 14–18 19–50 50–70 >70

1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.5

B12 (cobalamin)

Coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism; prevents megaloblastic anemia

9–13 y 14–70 y >70y

Folate (folic acid)

Coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism; prevents megaloblastic anemia

9–13 y 14–70 y >70 y

y y y y y

Food Sources

Adverse Effects of Excessive Consumption

Function

Fortified cereals, whole grain breads, organ meats, meat, poultry, legumes

No adverse effects from vitamin B6 in food. Sensory neuropathy has occurred from high intakes from supplement forms.

1.8 mcg/day 2.4 mcg/day 2.4 mcg/day

Fortified cereals, meat, fish, shellfish, poultry, dairy products

None identified

300 mcg/day 400 mcg/day 400 mcg/day

Enriched cereals, green leafy Masks neurological complications in people with vegetables, enriched vitamin B12 deficiency. whole grain bread, fortified foods

mg/day mg/day mg/day mg/day mg/day

Other

Patients on anticoagulant therapy should monitor vitamin K intake. Smokers and nonsmokers regularly exposed to smoke may require additional vitamin C.

Patients older than 50 may need to supplement dietary sources of vitamin B12. Maternal folate intake is inversely related to the risk of neural tube defects in the fetus.

Sources: National Academy of Sciences. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride, 1997; Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline, 1998; Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium and Carotenoids, 2000; and Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc, 2001. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Part II Primary Care of Women

RDA/Adequate Intake for Women

Vitamin

TABLE 6-9

Dietary Reference Intakes for Selected Minerals for Nonpregnant, Nonlactating Women RDA/Adequate Intake for Women

Food Sources

Adverse Effects of Excessive Consumption

Milk, cheese, yogurt, corn tortillas, calcium-set tofu, kale, broccoli

Kidney stones, hypercalAmenorrheic women have cemia, renal insufficiency reduced net calcium absorption.

5 mg/day 10 mg/day 15 mg/day 8 mg/day 8 mg/day

Fortified dairy products and cereals, fish liver oils, egg yolks

Gastrointestinal distress

Recommended intake assumes 75% of iron is from heme iron sources. Those consuming vegetarian diets may need up to twice the suggested iron intake than someone consuming a nonvegetarian diet.

9–13 y 14–70 y >70 y

120 mcg/day 150 mcg/day 150 mcg/day

Processed food, iodized salt

Elevated thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH concentration)

Individuals with autoimmune thyroid disease, previous iodine deficiency, or nodular goiter are distinctly susceptible to the adverse effects of excess iodine.

9–13 14–18 19–70 >70

8 9 8 8

Fortified cereals, red meats, certain seafood

Reduced copper status

Zinc absorption is lower for those consuming vegetarian diets than for those eating nonvegetarian diets.

Function

Calcium

Essential role in blood clotting, muscle contraction, nerve transmission, and bone and tooth formation

9–18 19–50 50–70 >70

y y y y

1300 1000 1200 1200

Iron

Used to make hemoglobin, which transports oxygen to all body tissues

9–13 14–18 19–50 50–70 >70

y y y y y

Iodine

Component of thyroid hormones

Zinc

Component of multiple enzymes and proteins; involved in the regulation of gene expression

y y y y

mg/day mg/day mg/day mg/day

mg/day mg/day mg/day mg/day

Other

Sources: National Academy of Sciences. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride, 1997; Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline, 1998; Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium and Carotenoids, 2000; and Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc, 2001. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Chapter 6 Nutrition in Women’s Health

Mineral

107

108

Part II Primary Care of Women

minerals necessary for certain women. In June of 2002, the American Medical Association released a statement saying that pending strong evidence from randomized trials, “it appears prudent for all adults to take vitamin supplements” to reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Please refer to the section on supplements later in this chapter for more information and guidelines on vitamin and mineral supplementation. Calcium Calcium is essential for the formation, development, and maintenance of teeth and bones. Although opinion is divided as to when peak bone mass is achieved, research indicates that the majority of adult bone mass is established by the age of 20 [18]. Maximizing peak bone mass during this time is now believed to be the most important step in the prevention of osteoporosis, a disease characterized by reduced bone mass, increased bone fragility, and subsequent increased susceptibility to fractures. Osteoporosis affects more than 30 million Americans, most of whom are women [19]. A majority of American women do not get enough calcium; furthermore, the prevalence of calcium deficiency, which can be measured indirectly through the prevalence of osteoporosis, has been increasing [20]. A major contributor to this rise in the rates of osteoporosis is inadequate calcium intake during adolescence. A recent national survey indicates that 85 percent of adolescent females do not consume the Recommended Daily Allowance for calcium [21]. This is due in part to a perception that all dairy products are high in fat and to the fact that many teens replace milk with regular or diet soda. The current recommended intake for calcium for adolescent females is 1300 milligrams per day. This reflects an adjustment made in 1997 to the RDA based on the recommendations made by the National Institutes of Health’s Consensus Development Conference on Optimal Calcium Intake. It is crucial for midwives to educate all women, but in particular adolescents, on the importance of adequate calcium intake during childhood and throughout adolescence. Appropriate calcium intake by postmenopausal women may also be important in protecting against osteoporosis. Calcium supplementation and high intake of dietary calcium among postmenopausal women have been shown in certain studies to increase bone mass density (BMD), reduce bone loss, and decrease the number of fractures [22]. More recent results from the Nurses’ Health Study cast some doubt on the true effect of dietary calcium in-

take on the rate of bone fractures in women [23]. However, although calcium alone may not be able to treat or prevent osteoporosis, it is nonetheless an important component of overall bone health, and women do need to ensure adequate intake of calcium throughout the life cycle to help protect against osteoporosis. Adequate vitamin D is also important for bone health because it allows calcium to be absorbed from the intestine and made available in the circulation for bone formation. Without any interventions, postmenopausal women can lose 10 to 40 percent of their bone mass between the ages of 50 and 60 [22]. Estrogen or hormone replacement therapy (ERT/HRT) has been shown to partially prevent bone loss and has been considered the most effective means to reduce rates of bone loss and fractures in postmenopausal women [20, 24]. Two recent findings should be noted, however: (1) a combination of HRT, exercise, and adequate calcium intake was shown to be more effective than HRT alone in reducing bone loss [25, 26] and (2) data released by the Women’s Health Initiative on hormone replacement therapy suggest that the risks of breast cancer, heart disease, stroke, and blood clots from HRT may outweigh its long-term benefits [27]. In the next few years clinicians may significantly alter their recommendations on the use of HRT for the long-term prevention of diseases such as osteoporosis. Alternative prevention measures for osteoporosis, including the important role of regular exercise in reducing the rates of osteoporosis and osteoporosis-related fractures, should be strongly emphasized with women. Some women who are at particularly high risk for either osteoporosis or osteoporosis-related fractures may benefit from medications other than HRT to prevent and/or treat osteoporosis. Chapter 13, which discusses midlife health, includes more detailed information both on osteoporosis and on hormone replacement therapy. Recommendations for calcium intake for females of all ages can be found in Table 6-9. The preferred source of calcium is from dietary sources, such as those listed in Table 6-10. Dairy products are an important source of calcium and, in a typical American diet, their use may constitute the difference between getting enough calcium or not [20]. It should be kept in mind, however, that many dairy products are high in fat and can contribute to cardiovascular disease. Clinicians should thus exercise caution when recommending an increase in these foods. Nonfat and low-fat dairy products that are now readily available in most grocery stores are excellent choices that help reduce fat intake while helping to ensure adequate intake of

Chapter 6 Nutrition in Women’s Health

TABLE 6-10

109

Food Sources of Calcium

Food

Quantity

Amount of Calcium (mg)

Ricotta cheese Sardines Yogurt, low-fat plain Yogurt, low-fat fruit varieties Collard greens Milk, low-fat 1% Tums E-X Milk, whole Spinach, cooked Molasses, blackstrap Tofu, firm made with calcium sulfate Cheese, Swiss Cheese, provolone Cheese, cheddar Cheese, mozzarella Sesame seeds Ice cream, vanilla, 16% fat Salmon, canned with bones Cheese, American Tofu, regular made with calcium sulfate Tofu made with nijare Cottage cheese Hummus Almonds, blanched Chickpeas Broccoli

1 cup 3 1/2 oz 1 cup 1 cup 1 cup 8 oz 1 tab 8 oz 1 cup 2 tbsp 4 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 2 tbsp 1 cup 3 oz 1 oz 4 oz 4 oz 4 oz 1/ 2 cup 1 oz 1/ 2 cup 1/ 2 cup

669 437 415 350 357 300 300 288 278 274 250–265 272 214 204 185 176 151 133 124 120–392 80–146 70 62 50 40 36

calcium and vitamin D as well as other nutrients necessary for bone health. It is also possible for women to get enough calcium from non-dairy food sources and from supplements. Adequate consumption of calcium and dairy products has been shown to have benefits beyond bone health, possibly lowering the risk of high blood pressure [28] as well as colon cancer [29, 30]. While the blood pressure benefits appear fairly small, the protection against colon cancer seems somewhat larger, and most of the benefit comes from having just one glass of milk per day. Getting more than this amount, however, does not seem to further lower risk. For individuals who do not or cannot obtain enough calcium from dairy products—for example, vegetarians or vegans or those who are lactose intolerant or who choose to avoid dairy products due to their high-fat content—calcium-fortified foods or calcium supplements may be indicated. Those individuals with lactose intolerance can obtain much of their calcium through aged hard cheeses or fermented milk products such as yogurt, which have very low or negligible amounts of lactose.

If calcium supplementation is necessary or desired, the amount of calcium from supplements should be determined based on the amount of dietary intake of calcium. In other words, the baseline amount of dietary calcium intake should be calculated and the rest of necessary calcium intake should come from supplementation. If more than 500 milligrams of supplemental calcium are necessary, the total dosage should be split into 250 to 500 milligram increments. Research suggests that the absorption of calcium from supplements is increased if the supplements, except for calcium carbonate, are taken between meals [31]. The total amount of calcium supplemented should not exceed 1000 milligrams daily because iron and zinc absorption may be inhibited. Doses of up to 2000 milligrams, however, are believed to be safe in most individuals. Excessive calcium intake is associated with kidney stones, hypercalcemia, and renal insufficiency. It is important for midwives to assess calcium intake among their client population, particularly among their adolescent, pregnant, lactating, and postmenopausal patients. Midwives can elicit infor-

110

Part II Primary Care of Women

mation on daily consumption of dairy products as a quick means of determining whether calcium intake is appropriate. A more detailed diet history is warranted if dairy product consumption is low or absent, for it most likely signals insufficient calcium intake. For women whose calcium intake is inadequate and for those who are choosing to reduce their fat intake by reducing or eliminating their intake of dairy products, focused nutritional counseling should be conducted and calcium supplements may be necessary. The midwife should provide advice on the proper type and dosage of these supplements. Table 6-11 shows the amount of elemental calcium in common supplements.

Iron Iron is a metallic element that is used by the body primarily to make hemoglobin, the component in red blood cells responsible for the transport of oxygen to all body tissues. Iron deficiency can lead to anemia—a reduction in the number of circulating red blood cells to the extent that the hemoglobin content of blood is less than that required to meet the oxygen needs of the body. (For additional discussions of anemia, see Chapters 7 and 24.) It must be noted that iron deficiency is only one cause of anemia and that treatment for anemia must be specific to its cause. Women of reproductive age (from menarche through menopause) whether pregnant or not are at higher risk than men for iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia. Nonpregnant women of childbearing age are at increased risk due to iron loss during menstruation, particularly if coupled with inadequate dietary intake of iron [20]. Pregnant women are also at increased risk for iron deficiency due to the increased iron requirements of pregnancy as well as to inadequate dietary intake of iron. Iron requirements in pregnancy and anemia in pregnancy are discussed in depth in Chapter 24; the sec-

TABLE 6-11 Calcium Calcium Calcium Calcium

carbonate citrate lactate gluconate

Amount of Elemental Calcium in Common Supplements 40% 24% 14% 9%

At 40% elemental calcium, a 500-mg tablet yields 200 mg of calcium.

tion below is meant to address iron needs in nonpregnant, nonlactating women. Research indicates that only one-fourth of all females of reproductive age meet the recommendations for dietary iron intake [20]. Due to adaptive mechanisms of the body, this deficiency may not translate into iron deficiency anemia. For example, while an estimated 15 to 20 percent of menstruating women are deficient in iron [32], research data reveal that the prevalence of iron deficiency anemia among females 12 to 49 years old is only about 4 percent [33]. In cases where either iron deficiency or iron deficiency anemia is suspected, a complete blood count (CBC) and iron indices should be ordered. The following changes are consistent with an iron deficiency anemia: Decreased hemoglobin Decreased hematocrit Decreased red blood cells (RBC) Decreased mean cell volume (MCV) Normal or decreased mean cell hemoglobin (MCH) Normal mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) Normal or decreased reticulocyte counts Decreased iron/ferritin Less than 15% transferrin saturation Iron depletion, which precedes and is more common than iron deficiency anemia, may be evident in the lab results before any anemia develops. Both iron depletion and iron deficiency anemia should be addressed through interventions aimed at correcting the deficiency and replenishing stores [33]. Iron depletion and iron deficiency anemia can both be addressed through diet and/or iron supplementation. Before initiating therapy, however, it may be necessary for the midwife to refer a client to a nutritionist for a full evaluation, including a thorough diet history and counseling or, in the case of profound anemias or anemias refractory to diet or iron supplementation, to a physician. Because iron is best absorbed in dietary form and because iron supplements are associated with gastrointestinal distress, it is preferable if possible to address inadequate iron intake through dietary modification rather than through supplementation. Iron is present in two forms in foods: (1) heme iron and (2) nonheme iron. Heme iron is found in animal products and is absorbed by the body more efficiently than nonheme iron, which is primarily derived from plant products. Tables 6-12 and 6-13 list good dietary sources of heme and nonheme iron.

Chapter 6 Nutrition in Women’s Health

TABLE 6-12

Food Sources of Heme Iron

Food

Quantity

Amount of Iron (mg)

Clams Oysters Chicken liver, cooked Beef liver, cooked Mussels Beef, chuck, braised Beef, tenderloin, roasted Turkey, dark meat, roasted Beef, eye of round, roasted Turkey, light meat, roasted Tuna, fresh bluefin, cooked, dry heat Chicken, leg, meat only, roasted Crab, blue crab, flaked and pieces, cooked, moist heat Chicken, breast, roasted Halibut, cooked, dry heat Pork, loin, meat only, broiled Tuna, white, canned in water

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3

24 11 7 6 6 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 0.9 0.8 0.8

TABLE 6-13

111

oz oz oz oz oz oz oz oz oz oz oz oz cup oz oz oz oz

Food Sources of Nonheme Iron

Food

Quantity

Ready-to-eat cereal, 100% fortified Ready-to-eat cereal, 50% fortified Soybeans, mature, cooked, boiled Lentils, cooked, boiled Molasses, blackstrap Kidney beans, cooked, boiled Pinto beans, cooked, boiled Lima beans, cooked, boiled Navy beans, cooked, boiled Black beans, cooked, boiled Oatmeal, instant, fortified Prunes, dried Prune juice Spinach, cooked, boiled Tofu, firm Black-eyed peas, cooked, boiled Spinach, frozen, cooked, boiled Whole wheat bread White bread, enriched

3/ 4 3/ 4

Iron supplementation may be necessary in cases where there is a profound anemia or where adequate dietary intake is not feasible. If iron supplementation is to be undertaken, the midwife should provide proper education to ensure the maximum benefit from the supplements and to avoid or minimize side effects. Women should be reminded that iron poisoning is the most common type of poison-

cup cup 1 cup 1 cup 2 tbsp 1 cup 1 cup 1 cup 1 cup 1 cup 1/ 2 cup 6 oz 8 oz 1/ 2 cup 1/ 2 cup 1 cup 1/ 2 cup 1 slice 1 slice

Amount of Iron (mg) 18.0 9.0 8 6 6 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 1

ing among children; therefore, iron supplements must be kept out of reach of children. The amount of iron supplement necessary will depend on the severity of the anemia. Doses usually range from 30 to 120 mg of elemental iron provided in divided doses. Meat and ascorbic acid–rich (vitamin C) foods such as citrus fruits enhance the absorption of iron; coffee, tea, and milk are iron inhibitors.

112

Part II Primary Care of Women

Calcium and magnesium also interfere with iron absorption. Therefore, supplemental iron should preferably be taken between meals with a glass of orange juice and not at the same time that a multivitamin supplement is taken. Side effects of iron supplementation—including nausea, constipation, diarrhea, abdominal cramping, and black or tarry stools—should be discussed with women as should ways to minimize and cope with them. Folic Acid Folic acid, also known as folate or folacin, is a coenzyme in the metabolism of nucleic and amino acids. Research has demonstrated that inadequate folate intake is strongly linked with neural tube defects in a developing fetus. Due to the fact that formation of the neural tube occurs in the earliest stages of pregnancy, often before a woman is even aware of a pregnancy, it is recommended that all women who are of childbearing age and capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 micrograms of folic acid daily, either in the form of supplements or through folate-fortified foods in addition to their usual intake of dietary folate. If a woman is already pregnant, the RDI for folic acid is 600 micrograms. This intake should continue at least through the sixth to eighth week of pregnancy, but preferably throughout pregnancy. Women who have had a child with a neural tube defect should consume 4 mg of folic acid daily starting at least one month prior to conception and continuing through the first three months of pregnancy [34]. Since January 1998, the FDA has required U.S. food manufacturers to fortify certain food with folate in order to facilitate adequate intakes of this nutrient by women of reproductive age. The foods required to be fortified are enriched bread, rolls, and buns; all enriched flour including bromated and self-rising flours; enriched corn grits and cornmeals; enriched farina and rice; and all enriched macaroni and noodle products, including vegetable macaroni, vegetable noodle, and nonfat milk macaroni products. In addition, breakfast cereals can add folic acid up to 400 micrograms per serving. It should be kept in mind that, with the exception of women with a history of a fetus or child with a neural tube defect, total daily intake of folic acid from all sources should be below 1 milligram. Intakes above that amount may mask symptoms of pernicious anemia, a form of vitamin B12 deficiency that left untreated can lead to severe permanent nerve damage.

Weight and Body Fat Measurements and Overweight and Obesity One of the most important steps a woman can take to maintain her health and prevent chronic disease is to maintain a healthy weight. Obesity has been linked with increased incidence of dyslipidemia, hypertension, Type II diabetes, coronary artery disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, gout, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea, and colon cancer [35]. Women who are obese are also at increased risk of poor pregnancy outcomes, miscarriage, polycystic ovarian syndrome, and breast and endometrial cancers [22, 36]. Recent results from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) indicate that overweight and obesity are on the rise among all age groups in the United States. The same data reveal that 35 percent of American adults of ages 20 to 74 years are overweight and that an additional 27 percent of adults are obese [37]. Women, and in particular minority women, are disproportionately affected by this epidemic and have the highest prevalence of both overweight and obesity across nearly all age groups and income levels. Data show that 33 percent of non-Hispanic whites, 52 percent of non-Hispanic blacks, and 50 percent of Hispanic women are overweight [38]. Although overweight and obesity are often used as interchangeable terms, they do in fact refer to different conditions. The National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion defines overweight as an excess in body weight in relation to height. Obesity, on the other hand, is defined as an excessively high amount of body fat in relation to lean body mass. Being overweight does not always mean having an excess in body fat. Professional athletes, for example, may have little body fat but may weigh more than others of their same height due to larger muscle mass. In the general population, however, being overweight and having an excess of body fat are usually coexisting conditions. There are several methods commonly used to determine desirable weights for individuals and to define clinical obesity. One such method, exemplified by the Metropolitan Life Insurance tables, is based on population averages. These tables provide desirable weight ranges for women and men of different height and body frame sizes. The recommended weight ranges are based on weights that have been associated with greater longevity. This

Chapter 6 Nutrition in Women’s Health

method to determine desirable weight is fraught with problems, including the fact that the data were derived from purchasers of life insurance—not from a random cross-section of the U.S. population—and include the weight of clothes and shoes. Another significant problem with this method is that it does not account for degree of body fat, which is a factor that more accurately predicts propensity for weight-related disease. The Body Mass Index (BMI), on the other hand, is highly predictive of degree of body fat and is the federally recommended measurement to classify overweight and obesity [39]. Table 6-14 illustrates how to find a person’s BMI. BMI is calculated by dividing a person’s body weight in kilograms by the square of his or her height in meters (kg/m2) or by multiplying an individual’s weight in pounds by 703 and then dividing by the height in inches squared (lbs ¥ 703/in2). Table 6-15 shows BMI calculations in pounds and inches. Although exact cutoff values to define overweight and obesity are still being debated, research has clearly demonstrated that in adults, a BMI greater than 25 to 27 is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. At a BMI of 27, for example, the risk for diabetes and hypertension is three times greater than normal and the risk for high serum cholesterol level is two times greater than normal [5]. The most recent U.S. federal guidelines define overweight as a BMI of 25 to 29.9 and obesity as a BMI of 30 and above [35]. Table 6-16 provides classifications for BMI that can be used to assist in conjunction with BMI calculation to determine whether or not an individual is at an appropriate weight for his or her height. A drawback of the BMI measurement is that it yields no information on the distribution of fat in the body, which is also an important determinant of health risk. Upper-body obesity, in which there is an excess of abdominal fat, is associated with increased risk of heart disease, hypertension, and diabetes [35]. This type of obesity is referred to as android obesity. Because progesterone encourages fat to accumulate preferentially in the lower body, women are less likely than men to develop upper-body obesity. This does not mean, however, that women are immune to upper-body obesity. There are two ways to assess excess abdominal fat. One is to perform a measurement of waist circumference. To do this, the clinician should use a tape measure to measure the distance around the smallest area below the rib cage and above the umbilicus. For women, a waist measurement greater than 35 inches (88 centimeters) is

113

considered a predictor of risk factors and ailments associated with obesity [35]. Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is another way of assessing fat distribution. It is determined by dividing waist circumference by hip circumference. Hip circumference is obtained by measuring the distance around the largest extension of the buttocks. A WHR of 1.0 or greater is considered to be associated with an increased risk of adverse health consequences [40]. It should be noted that overall obesity is more closely related to increased risk of morbidity and mortality than either increased waist circumference or increased waist-tohip ratio. These measurements should therefore be used in conjunction with BMI to evaluate an individual’s risk for overweight and obesity related diseases. Furthermore, in individuals with a BMI ≥35 kg/m2, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio add little to no predictive power for disease risk. The National Institutes of Health recommends a ten-step approach for primary care providers in treating overweight and obesity: 1. Measure height and weight. 2. Measure waist circumference. 3. Assess comorbidities. 4. Determine whether a patient needs treatment. 5. Assess whether a patient is ready and motivated

to lose weight. 6. Determine which diet should be recommended. 7. Determine and discuss a physical activity goal. 8. Review a weekly food and activity diary. 9. Provide the patient with literature on physical

activity, behavioral change, and diet modification. Provide guidelines for food and activity diary. 10. Record the goals that have been set with the patient and follow up to assess progress on a regular basis. These steps include body weight, height, and BMI assessments as well as an assessment of risk status and of daily food intake and physical activity. Behavioral, exercise, diet, pharmacological, and surgical interventions are then outlined based on an individual’s risk profile and degree of overweight and/or obesity. Much focus has been placed in the media and among the general population on the concept of calorie counting. Calories, kcalories, or kilocalories are a measure of the energy content in foods. One kilocalorie is the heat needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius. In general, caloric intake should be the same as

TABLE 6-14

Body Mass Index Chart

To calculate Body Mass Index (BMI), find the appropriate height in the column labeled “Height,” then move across to a given weight. The number at the top of the column is the BMI at that height and weight. Pounds have been rounded off. Normal BMI

19

Overweight

Obese

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

Height (inches)

Extreme Obesity 36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

Body Weight (pounds)

114

58

91

96

100

105

110

115

119

124

129

134

138

143

148

153

158

162

167

172

177

181

186

191

196

201

205

210

215

220

224

229

234

239

244

248

253

258

59

94

99

104

109

114

119

124

128

133

138

143

148

153

158

163

168

173

178

183

188

193

198

203

208

212

217

222

227

232

237

242

247

252

257

262

267

60

97

102

107

112

118

123

128

133

138

143

148

153

158

163

168

174

179

184

189

194

199

204

209

215

220

225

230

235

240

245

250

255

261

266

271

276

61

100

106

111

116

122

127

132

137

143

148

153

158

164

169

174

180

185

190

195

201

206

211

217

222

227

232

238

243

248

254

259

264

269

275

280

285

62

104

109

115

120

126

131

136

142

147

153

158

164

169

175

180

186

191

196

202

207

213

218

224

229

235

240

246

251

256

262

267

273

278

284

289

295

63

107

113

118

124

130

135

141

146

152

158

163

169

175

180

186

191

197

203

208

214

220

225

231

237

242

248

254

259

265

270

278

282

287

293

299

304

64

110

116

122

128

134

140

145

151

157

163

169

174

180

186

192

197

204

209

215

221

227

232

238

244

250

256

262

267

273

279

285

291

296

302

308

314

65

114

120

126

132

138

144

150

156

162

168

174

180

186

192

198

204

210

216

222

228

234

240

246

252

258

264

270

276

282

288

294

300

306

312

318

324

66

118

124

130

136

142

148

155

161

167

173

179

186

192

198

204

210

216

223

229

235

241

247

253

260

266

272

278

284

291

297

303

309

315

322

328

334

67

121

127

134

140

146

153

159

166

172

178

185

191

198

204

211

217

223

230

236

242

249

255

261

268

274

280

287

293

299

306

312

319

325

331

338

344

68

125

131

138

144

151

158

164

171

177

184

190

197

203

210

216

223

230

236

243

249

256

262

269

276

282

289

295

302

308

315

322

328

335

341

348

354

69

128

135

142

149

155

162

169

176

182

189

196

203

209

216

223

230

236

243

250

257

263

270

277

284

291

297

304

311

318

324

331

338

345

351

358

365

70

132

139

146

153

160

167

174

181

188

195

202

209

216

222

229

236

243

250

257

264

271

278

285

292

299

306

313

320

327

334

341

348

355

362

369

376

71

136

143

150

157

165

172

179

186

193

200

208

215

222

229

236

243

250

257

265

272

279

286

293

301

308

315

322

329

338

343

351

358

365

372

379

386

72

140

147

154

162

169

177

184

191

199

206

213

221

228

235

242

250

258

265

272

279

287

294

302

309

316

324

331

338

346

353

361

368

375

383

390

397

73

144

151

159

166

174

182

189

197

204

212

219

227

235

242

250

257

265

272

280

288

295

302

310

318

325

333

340

348

355

363

371

378

386

393

401

408

74

148

155

163

171

179

186

194

202

210

218

225

233

241

249

256

264

272

280

287

295

303

311

319

326

334

342

350

358

365

373

381

389

396

404

412

420

75

152

160

168

176

184

192

200

208

216

224

232

240

248

256

264

272

279

287

295

303

311

319

327

335

343

351

359

367

375

383

391

399

407

415

423

431

76

156

164

172

180

189

197

205

213

221

230

238

246

254

263

271

279

287

295

304

312

320

328

336

344

353

361

369

377

385

394

402

410

418

426

435

443

Source: Adapted from Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults: The Evidence Report.

Chapter 6 Nutrition in Women’s Health

TABLE 6-15

Body Mass Index Calculations Weight in kilograms (Height in meters)2 Weight in pounds ¥ 703 (Height in inches)2

TABLE 6-16

Classifications for Body Mass Index (BMI) BMI

Underweight Normal weight Overweight Obesity (Class 1) Obesity (Class 2) Extreme obesity (Class 3)

5 percent), or decreased or increased appetite nearly every day Insomnia or hypersomnia Psychomotor agitation or retardation (must be observed by others) Fatigue or loss of energy Feelings of worthlessness, or inappropriate or excessive guilt, possibly delusional Decreased ability to concentrate or think clearly, indecisiveness Recurrent thoughts of death, suicidal ideation, or a suicide plan or attempt

The symptoms must cause significant impairment of life activities or distress, and cannot be accounted for by loss of a loved one or other major life loss [86]. Dysthymia is a more low-grade, chronically depressed state, in which mood is depressed most days, for most of the day, for two or more years. It

TABLE 7-19

Examples of Medications Used in the Treatment of Depression and Related Disorders

Class

Initial Dose

Maximum Dose

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) Citalopram (Celexa) Fluoxetine (Prozac) Paroxetine (Paxil) Sertraline (Zoloft)

20 20 20 50

60 mg po QD 90 mg po QAM 50 mg po QD 200 mg po QD

C C C C

Antidepressants Venlafaxine (Effexor) Buproprion (Wellbutrin)

37.5–75 mg po bid 100 mg po bid

375 mg/day 450 mg/day

C B

Tricyclic Antidepressants Amitriptyline (Elavil) Imipramine (Tofranil)

50–100 mg po QHS 75 mg/day

150 mg/day 200 mg/day

C N

mg mg mg mg

po po po po

QD QAM QD QD

FDA Pregnancy Category

160

Part II Primary Care of Women

SSRIs are generally favored as first-line drugs because they have fewer anticholinergic effects as well as problems related to weight gain and the cardiovascular system. MAOI drugs are less commonly used because of the many food interactions that require dietary restriction. All of these classes of drugs do have negative side effects, and the midwife who considers prescribing any of these should be familiar with them. Medication, while easy to prescribe for depression requires monitoring for titration to an effective dose and subsequent stability. Patients newly started on an antidepressant need information about interactions and side effects. They then need to be seen on a one- to two-week basis for six weeks, and reevaluated at 12 weeks. If the first choice of medication is partially effective, a dose change is advised. If the first choice is ineffective, a change in therapy, after a washout period to clear one drug from the body if another class is prescribed, is recommended. Those not in complete remission by 12 weeks need referral to a mental health specialist. Because the antidepressant medications, particularly SSRIs and the atypical antidepressants, are being used for management of other problems, including premenstrual syndrome and menopausal symptoms, the midwife may find herself using these medications more frequently.

Conclusion Deciding the scope of midwifery practice issues used to be a simple matter: Midwives took care of healthy pregnant women and helped them give birth. The recognition then came that women’s family planning needs could be well served by midwives. Managing office-based gynecologic problems like infections, answering the questions that came with life changes, and addressing menopause all began to be recognized as part of the core of midwifery practice. Of course, midwives never did care only for healthy women, if for no other reason than that many of the women we have traditionally served were at risk by age, socioeconomic status, and lack of access to other health care resources. Today midwifery is practiced in a health care system in which the only provider many women see is their “women’s health” provider. And midwives still care for pregnant women. What does this mean for the student of midwifery? First, it means an obligation to correctly

identify common complaints—minor and major. This includes the obligation to describe accurately those symptoms or signs for which you cannot make a diagnosis. Second, it requires an ability to assess and triage these complaints. Which can you personally manage? Which require referral? Which will you care for, or direct the care of, because the woman is pregnant and her other sources of care are not familiar with the interactions of mother and fetus? These are matters for individual decisionmaking, with the stipulation that as a midwife you must have a resource for consultation and referral that is accessible. Midwives who practice primary care need to be sure that consultants include resources who are knowledgeable about primary health care concerns. In fact, all midwives need to know to whom they will refer cases beyond their scope of practice. This can include nurse-practitioners or physician assistants as well as physicians. Not all obstetrician-gynecologists are comfortable in the primary care role; not all women have an identified primary care provider. The astute reader may have noticed the frequency with which reference has been made in this chapter to counseling about lifestyle changes in order to prevent or treat diseases. One of the assets midwives bring to primary care for women is our understanding of the importance of health maintenance and disease prevention. This is the same strength we bring to pregnancy care and birth, the understanding that in order to maintain normalcy attention must be paid to the everyday aspects of health: from nutrition and exercise to substance use or abuse. Furthermore, to maintain normalcy, the midwife must be able to recognize when it is not present. Every midwife has an obligation to provide this aspect of primary care with all women.

References 1. American

College of Nurse-Midwives. Certified Nurse-Midwives and CertifiedMidwives as Primary Care Providers/Case Managers. Washington, DC: ACNM, 1992, rev. 1997. 2. Donaldson, M. S., Yordy, K. D., Lohr, K. N., and Vanselow, N. A. (Eds.) Primary Care: America’s Health in a New Era. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1996. 3. Cherry, D. K., and Woodwell, D. A. National ambulatory medical care survey: 2000 summary. Advance Data from Vital and Health

Chapter 7 Primary Care and Midwifery

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Statistics, No. 328. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, June 5, 2002. Horton, J. A., Cruess, D. F., and Pearse, W. H. Primary and preventive care services provided by obstetrician-gynecologists. Obstet. Gynecol. 82:723–726, 1993. Hendrix, S. L., Piereson, S. D., and McNeeley, S. G. Primary and preventive care in a university obstetrics and gynecology group practice. Am. J. Obstet.Gynecol. 172:1719–1725, 1995. Scupholme, A., and Carr, K. C. CNMs and primary care: Practice models and types of services. Quickening 24(6):14, 1993. Scroggs, J. A., Griffin, L. P., Bayerl, M., and Schulkin, J. Obstetrician-gynecologists as primary care physicians: the perspectives of health maintenance organization medical directors and obstetrician-gynecologists. Obstet. Gynecol. 90(2):291–295 (August) 1997. Slusarcick, A. L., and McCaig, L. F. National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 1998. Outpatient Department Summary, No. 317. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, July 27, 2000. Paine, L. L., Lang, J. M., Strobino, D. M., et al. Characteristics of nurse-midwife patients and visits, 1991. Am. J. Public Health 89(6):906–909 (June) 1999. Scupholme, A., Paine, L. L., Lang, J. M., Kumar, S., and DeJoseph, J. F. Time associated with components of clinical services rendered by nurse-midwives. J. Nurse-Midwifery 39(1):5–12 (January/February) 1994. Clinical Preventive Services for Normal-Risk Adults Recommended by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Put Prevention into Practice. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Quality and Research, June 2002. Fraser, I. S. A preliminary study of factors influencing perception of menstrual blood loss volume. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 149(7):788–793, 1984. Frewin, R., Henson, A., and Provan, D. ABC of clinical haematology. Iron deficiency anaemia. Br. Med. J. 314:360–363 (February) 1997. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. The Clinician’s Handbook of Preventive Services. Alexandria, VA: International Medical Publishing, 1994. Elwood, P. C. Evaluation of the clinical importance of anemia. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 26(9):958–964 (September) 1973. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Guide to Clinical Preventive Services. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1996.

161

17. Centers for Disease Control. Reference criteria

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

for anemia screening. MMWR Morb. Mort. Wkly. Rep. 38:400–404, 1989. Linker, C. A. Blood. In Tierney, L. M., McPhee, S. J., Papadakis, M. A. (Eds.) Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment 2001, 40th Ed. New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill, 2001. Claessens, E. A., and Cowell, C. A. Acute adolescent menorrhagia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 139:277–280, 1981. Kadir, R. A., Economides, D. L., Sabin, C. A., Owens, D., and Lee, C. A. Frequency of inherited bleeding disorders in women with menorrhagia. Lancet 351:485–489, 1998. Dilley, A., Drews, C., Miller, C., et al. Von Willebrand disease and other inherited bleeding disorders in women with diagnosed menorrhagia. Obstet. Gynecol. 97:630–636, 2001. Dajani, A. S., Taubert, K. A., Wilson, W., et al. Prevention of bacterial endocarditis. Recommendations of the American Heart Association. JAMA 277(22):1794–1801 (June 11) 1997. National Institutes of Health, National High Blood Pressure Education Program. The Sixth Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. NIH, November 1997. Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. Effects of weight loss and sodium reduction intervention on blood pressure and hypertension incidence in overweight people with high normal blood pressure. The Trials of Hypertension Prevention Phase II. Arch. Intern. Med. 157:657–667, 1997. Appel, L. J., Moore, T. J., Obazanek, E., et al., for the DASH Collaborative Group. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. N. Eng. J. Med. 336:1117–1124, 1997. Kramerow, E., Lentzer, H., Rooks, R., Weeks, J., and Saydh, S. Health, United States, 1999. With Health and Aging Chartbook, (PHS) 991232. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 1999. National Cholesterol Education Program. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). National Institutes of Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, May 2001. Accessed at www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/index on 8/2/02. McCaig, L. F., and Hughes, J. M. Trends in antimicrobial drug prescribing among office-

162

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

Part II Primary Care of Women

based physicians in the United States. JAMA 273:214–219 (January 18) 1995. Gonzales, R., Bartlett, J. G., Besser, R.E., et al. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of acute upper respiratory tract infections in adults: Background, specific aims, and methods. Ann. Intern. Med. 134(6):479–486 (March 20) 2001. Hayden, F. G., Diamond, L., Wood, P. B., Korts, D. C., and Wecker, M. T. Effectiveness and safety of intranasal ipratropium bromide in common colds: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 125(2):89–97, 1996. Luks, D., and Anderson, M. R. Antihistamines and the common cold. A review and critique of the literature. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 11:240–244 (April) 1996. Jefferson, T. Advances in the diagnosis and management of influenza. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 4(3):206–210 (June) 2002. Demicheli, V., Jefferson, T., Rivetti, D., and Deeks, J. Prevention and early treatment of influenza in healthy adults. Vaccine 18(11-12): 957–1030 (January 6) 2000. Low, D. E., Derosiers, M., McSherry, J., et al. A practical guide for the diagnosis and treatment of acute sinusitis. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 156(suppl. 6):S1–14 (March 15) 1997. Poole, M. D. A focus on acute sinusitis in adults: Changes in disease management. Am. J. Med. 106(5A):38S–47S (May 3) 1999. Gonzales, R., Bartlett, J. G., Besser, R. E., et al. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis: Background. Ann. Intern. Med. 134(6):521–529 (March 20) 2001. Fine, M. J., Auble, T. E., Yealy, D. M., et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N. Eng. J. Med. 336(4):243–250 (January 23) 1997. Bartlett, J. G., Dowell, S. F., Mendel, L. A., et al. Practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 3:347–382 (August) 2000. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Self-reported asthma prevalence among adults— United States, 2000. MMWR Morb. Mort. Wkly. Rep. 50(32):682–686 (August 17) 2001. National Institutes of Health. Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. Expert Panel Report 2. NIH Publication No. 97-4051, July 1997. National Institutes of Health. Practical Guide to the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma.

NIH Publication No. 97-4053, October 1997. 42. Liu, S., Wen, S. W., Demissie, K., et al.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

Maternal asthma and pregnancy outcomes: A retrospective cohort study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 184(2):90–96 (January) 2001. DuPont, H. L., and the Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology. Guidelines on acute infectious diarrhea in adults. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 92(11):1962–1975 (November) 1997. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnosis and Management of Foodborne Illnesses. MMWR Morb. Mort. Wkly. Rep. 50(No. RR-2):1–69, 2001. Browning, S. M. Constipation, diarrhea, and irritable bowel syndrome. Primary Care 26(1):113–139 (March) 1999. Ringel, Y., Sperber, A. D., Drossman, D. A. Irritable bowel syndrome. Ann. Rev. Med. 52:319–338, 2001. Drossman, D. R., and Thompson, W. G. The irritable bowel syndrome: Review and a graduated multicomponent treatment approach. Ann. Intern. Med. 116(12 pt 1):1009–1016 (June 15) 1992. Goroll, A. H., and Mulley, A. G., Jr. Approach to the patient with functional gastrointestinal disease. In Primary Care Medicine, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2000, ch. 74, pp. 484–493. McQuaid, K. R. Alimentary tract. In Tierney, L. M., McPhee, S. J., and Papadakis, M. A. (Eds.) Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment 2001. New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill, 2001. Fernando, H. C., Schauer, P. R., Rosenblatt, M., et al. Quality of life after antireflux surgery compared with nonoperative management for severe gastroesophageal reflux disease. J. Am. Coll. Surg. 194(1):23–27 (January) 2002. Schwitzer, W., Thurmshirn, M., Dent, J., et al. Helicobacter pylori and symptomatic relapse of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 357:1738–1742 (June 2) 2001. Irwin, R. S., and Richter, J. E. Gastroesophageal reflux and chronic cough. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 95(8)suppl:S9–14, 2000. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Helicobacter pylori and peptic ulcer disease—fact sheet for health care providers. www.cdc.gov/ ulcer/md.htm. Accessed 8/6/02. Braden, B., and Caspary, W. F. Detection of Helicobacter pylori infection: When to perform which test? Ann. Med 33:91–97, 2001.

Chapter 7 Primary Care and Midwifery

55. Stone,

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

M. A. Non-invasive testing for Helicobacter pylori. Postgrad. Med. J. 75:74–77, 1999. Soll, A. H., for the Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology. Medical treatment of peptic ulcer disease: practice guidelines. JAMA 275(8):622–629 (February 28) 1996. Graham, D. Y., and Malaty, H. M. Alendronate and naproxen are synergistic for development of gastric ulcers. Arch. Int. Med. 161:107–111 (January 8) 2001. Barone, J. E., Bears, S., Chen, S., and Tsai, J. Outcome study of cholecystectomy during pregnancy. Am. J. Surg. 177:232–236 (March) 1999. Mourad, J., Elliot, J. P., Erickson, L., and Lisboa, L. Appendicitis in pregnancy: New information that contradicts long-held clinical beliefs. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 182(5):1027–1029 (May) 2000. Anderson, B., and Nielsen, T. F. Appendicitis in pregnancy: Diagnosis, management, and complications. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 78:758–762, 1999. Orenstein, R., and Wong, H. S. Urinary tract infections in adults. Am. Fam. Physician 59(5):1225–1234 (March 1) 1999. Saint, S., Scholes, D., Fihn, S. D., et al. The effectiveness of a clinical practice guideline for the management of presumed uncomplicated urinary tract infection in women. Am. J. Med. 106:636–641 (June) 1999. Wing, D. A., Hendershott, C. M., Debuque, L., and Millar, L. K. A randomized trial of three antibiotic regimens for the treatment of pyelonephritis in pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. 92(2):249–253 (August) 1998. Harris, M. I., Flegal, K. M., Cowie, C. C., et al. Prevalence of diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and impaired glucose tolerance in U.S. adults: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. Diabetes Care 21:518–524, 1998. Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. Report of the expert committee on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 26(suppl. 1)S5–20 (January) 2003. American Diabetes Association. Medical Management of Pregnancy Complicated by Diabetes, 3rd ed. Alexandria, VA: American Diabetes Association, 2000. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of Type II diabetes

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

163

with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N. Eng. J. Med. 346(6):393–403 (February 7) 2002. Mandel, S. J., Larsen, P. R., Seeley, E. W., and Brent, G. A. Increased need for thyroxine during pregnancy in women with primary hypothyroidism. N. Eng. J. Med. 323:91–96, 1990. Gerstein, H. C. How common is postpartum thyroiditis? A methodologic overview of the literature. Arch. Int. Med. 150:1397–1400, 1990. Wilansky, D. L., and Greisman, B. Early hypothyroidism in patients with menorrhagia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 160(3):673–677 (March) 1989. Arafah, B. M. Increased need for thyroxine in women with hypothyroidism during estrogen therapy. N. Eng. J. Med. 344(23):1743–1749 (June 7) 2001. Karpitskaya, Y., Novak, C. B., and MacKinnon, S. E. Prevalence of smoking, obesity, diabetes mellitus, and thyroid disease in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. Ann. Plast. Surg. 48(3):269–273 (March) 2002. Lewis, R. A. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. In Leppert, P. C., and Howard, F. M. (Eds.) Primary Care for Women. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1997. Nathan, P. A., Wilcox, A., Emerick, P. S., et al. Effects of an aerobic exercise program on median nerve conduction and symptoms associated with carpal tunnel syndrome. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 43(10):840–843 (October) 2001. Lipton, R. B., Stewart, W. F., Diamond, S., et al. Prevalence and burden of migraine in the United States: data from the American Migraine Study II. Headache 41(7)646–657 (July/August) 2001. Lipton, R. B., Diamond, S., Reed, M., et al. Migraine diagnosis and treatment: results for the American Migraine Study II. Headache 41:638–645 (July/August) 2001. Capobianco, D. J., Cheshire, W. P., and Campbell, J. K. An overview of the diagnosis and pharmacologic treatment of migraine. Mayo Clin. Proc. 71:1055–1066 (November) 1996. Lipton, R., Stewart, W., and Ryan, R. Efficacy and safety of the nonprescription combination of acetaminophen, aspirin, and caffeine in alleviating headache pain of an acute migraine attack: Three double-blind randomized placebo trials. Arch. Neurol. 55:210–217, 1998. Kallen, B., and Lygner, P. E. Delivery outcome in women who used drugs for migraine during

164

80.

81. 82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

Part II Primary Care of Women

pregnancy with special reference to sumatriptan. Headache 41:351–356, 2001. O’Quinn, S., Ephross, S. A., Williams, V., et al. Pregnancy and perinatal outcomes in migraineurs using sumatriptan: a prospective study. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 263:7–12, 1999. Cady, R. K. Female population with migraine. Obstet. Gynecol. Survey 54(12):S7–13, 1999. Holroyd, K. A., Stensland, M., Lipchik, G. L., et al. Psychosocial correlates and impact of chronic tension-type headaches. Headache 40:3–16 (January) 2000. Diamond, S., Balm, T. K., and Freitag, F. G. Ibuprofen plus caffeine in the treatment of tension-type headache. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 68(3):312–319 (September) 2000. Holroyd, K. A., O’Donnell, F. J., Stensland, M., et al. Management of chronic tension-type headache with tricyclic antidepressant medication, stress management therapy, and their combination. JAMA 285(17):2208–2215 (May 2) 2001. Kessler, R. C. Sex differences in DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. J. Am. Med. Womens Assoc. 53:148–157, 1998. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM—IV)—TR. American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. Arlington, VA: June 2000.

Additional References Braunwald, E., Fauci, A. S., Kasper, D. L., et al. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. New York: McGraw Hill Professional Publishing, 2001.

Brinkley, L. S., and Szaligyi, P. G. Bates Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2002. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Summary of Adolescent/Adult Immunization Recommendations. www.cdc.gov/nip/recs/adultschedule.pdf. Accessed 9/24/2002. Goroll, A. H., and Mulley, A. G., Jr. Primary Care Medicine, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2000. Leppert, P. C., and Howard, F. Primary Care of Women. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1997. Report of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Guide to Clinical Preventive Services, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 1996. Tierney, L. M., McPhee, S. J., and Papadakis, M. A. (Eds.) Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment 2001, 40th ed. New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill, 2001. (Updated yearly, and with relevant Web sites.)

Useful Web Sites The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute www.nhlbi.nih.gov Centers for Disease Control and Prevention www.cdc.gov American Medical Association www.ama-assn.org Agency for Health Care Research and Quality www.ahrq.hhs.gov American Diabetes Association www.diabetes.org

C H A P T E R

8 Chronic Infectious Diseases Natural History The human immunodeficiency virus is an RNA retrovirus that preferentially attacks T-helper lymphocytes (CD4 cells) as well as other cell types. The natural history of HIV begins as an initial viral syndrome within the first month after exposure, including fever, muscle aches, sore throat, lymphadenopathy, and other nonspecific symptoms. During this time, the virus is rapidly reproducing, causing a drop in the CD4 count and a high viral load [1, 2]. Except in cases where the risk of transmission is appreciated, these early symptoms are generally interpreted as a simple viral infection and treated symptomatically. As the body mounts an immune response, the viral load subsides and the CD4 cell number increases. In uninfected adults, a normal CD4 count ranges from 500 to 1500. For a period of time that may exceed ten years, the disease remains hidden. Although the virus continues to replicate and destroy CD4 cells, these are rapidly replaced until the immune system is too worn down to maintain its protective effect. In the later stages of the disease, falling CD4 levels reach a point at which the body can no longer defend itself from common ailments or from diseases that do not commonly attack humans (opportunistic infections). Figure 8-1 depicts the natural history of HIV infection in the human body. Median time from infection to an AIDS defining condition is between eight and ten years. Among the factors that can affect the rate of disease progression are age, race, gender, IV drug abuse, and both genetic and viral characteristics. Women appear to have levels of virus in the bloodstream that are relatively lower than those in men at all stages of disease progression [3]. The diagnosis of

Infectious diseases, ranging from the common cold to mastitis, are discussed in this book in several chapters. This chapter provides an overview of three separate issues, each of which is a chronic disease that carries its own risks to women and their families: (1) human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), (2) the family of hepatitis infections, and (3) tuberculosis. Most midwives will not be the primary clinicians for women with any of these chronic diseases but will provide women’s health care in consultation with a physician or other clinician.

HIV/AIDS In the United States, HIV is a disease that has disproportionately attacked women who are poor, urban, and of color. These are all markers for social conditions that leave individuals at greater risk within our society. But those infected with the virus have been further stigmatized by the early perception that HIV was a disease of homosexual men and drug abusers. As the heterosexual transmission of HIV increases the proportion of those infected who are women, the U.S. data have begun to resemble more closely the statistics from the rest of the world. In considering counseling, screening, and treatment programs for women, the devastation that unchecked heterosexual and perinatal transmission bring to countries and cultures always needs to be considered. This is not a disease that can be ignored because “it can’t happen here.” It can.

165

166

Part II Primary Care of Women

1200

Primary infection

1100

CD4 + T Lymphocyte Count (cells/mm3)

1000

Death

Acute HIV syndrome Wide dissemination of virus Seeding of lymphoid organs

900

Opportunistic diseases

Clinical latency

1/512 1/256

800

1/128

Constitutional symptoms

700 600

1/64

500

1/32

400

1/16

300

1/8

200

1/4

100

1/2 0

0 0

3

6 9 Weeks

12

1

2

3

4

5 6 Years

7

8

9

10

11

FIGURE 8-1 Natural history of HIV disease. Source: From Fauci, et al. Immunopathogenic Mechanisms of HIV Infection. Ann Intern Med. 1996;124:654–663.

AIDS is based on specific clinical findings, as shown in Table 8-1. Transmission Transmission of HIV occurs sexually, through exposure to blood or other body fluids, and perinatally. For women, sexual transmission has become the prevalent mode, even in the United States, where intravenous substance abuse with sharing of needles was once believed to be the primary route. Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Figure 8-2) illustrate the relative risks of exposure types for women. On diagnosis, many women report no known risk, which is to say that they are not involved in drug use, nor are they involved in sex work, nor do they recall any cutaneous exposure. When the final determination of risk is made, about two-thirds of all women in the United States with HIV/AIDS have been exposed sexually [4]. Younger age is associated with increased sexual risk, as are multiple partners, partners with known risk factors, history of sexually transmitted diseases, and failure to use a protective barrier during intercourse. Rates of transmission between heterosexual partners are affected by level of infectivity in the affected partner, use of a protective latex barrier such as a condom, and concurrent infections with other sexually transmitted diseases.

TABLE 8-1

Criteria for AIDS Diagnosis

CD4 Count 1 month Cytomegalovirus other than liver, spleen, or lymphatic HIV encephalopathy HSV lesion persisting >1 month, or bronchitis, pneumonitis, esophagitis Disseminated or extrapulmonary histoplasmosis Isosporiasis >1 month Kaposi’s sarcoma Burkitt’s lymphoma Immunoblastic lymphoma Primary lymphoma of the brain M. avium complex M. tuberculosis Other mycobacterial infections outside the lungs Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia Recurrent pneumonia, any cause Multifocal leukoencephalopathy Recurrent salmonella septicemia Toxoplasmosis of the brain Wasting syndrome Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Case Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults. MMWR 41(no RR-17). December 18, 1992. Accessed online at cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00018871.htm.

Chapter 8 Chronic Infectious Diseases

Sex with injection drug user 16%

Injection drug use 32%

Heterosexual transmission 66%

Sex with men of other or uspecified risk 50%

Other/not identified** 3% *Data adjusted for reporting delays and estimated proportion and distribution of cases initially reported without risk. Data reported through June 2002. ** Includes patients whose medical record review is pending, who died, were lost to followup, or declined interview; and patients with other or undetermined modes of exposure. Includes sex with a bisexual male, a person with hemophilia, transfusion recipient with HIV infection, or an HIV infected person with an unspecified risk.

FIGURE 8-2 Risk factors for transmission of HIV in women. Source: From Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed online on February 14, 2003, at www.cdc.gov.

Transmission from the male to female partner is significantly more common than the reverse. Estimates of transmission with a single act of unprotected intercourse have ranged from 9/10,000 to as high as 5/1000 [5, 6]. Some factors that affect viral shedding at the cervix, and thus increase the risk of an HIV positive woman infecting her partner, include pregnancy, cervical ectopy, hormonal contraceptives, vaginal infections, STDs, and disease progression as shown by high viral load or decreased CD4 count. There are a number of counseling issues that arise when infected women or men are sexually active and ask about heterosexual transmission, including counseling about the use of contraception plus an effective barrier, the possible desire of a couple for a child, whether the uninfected partner is aware of their partner’s status, and the affected person’s level of infectivity. Midwives have an obligation to provide unbiased information to all our patients, and need to seek out community or other resources as needed to meet the woman’s information and care needs. Part of that responsibility is to educate and support women in disclosing their disease status to partners, or to provide her with other resources for doing so. Transmission through exposure to blood and body fluids (exclusive of sexual transmission) is strongly associated with intravenous substance abuse. However, it is essential to realize that any

167

open skin lesion is a portal for this type of transmission. Health care workers, including midwives, are at risk of exposure whenever universal precautions are not followed (see Chapter 45). Most clinicians do not take chances with the person they know to be infected with HIV. But many women with HIV are unaware that they are at risk, much less infected. Universal precautions means not taking chances based on a mistaken belief that one can “tell” who is at risk. The CDC maintains guidelines for post-exposure prophylaxis [7] that are regularly updated. These can be found at www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/guidelines.htm. Anyone who experiences a needlestick or splash injury should check with their employee health unit or personal physician regarding management. Not all exposures carry the same degree of risk, and the best time to deal with an exposure is immediately. Perinatal transmission is discussed in the section on pregnancy and HIV. Counseling and Testing for HIV The CDC recommends testing for HIV in a number of specific circumstances. Currently described populations at increased risk include women attending STD clinics and any adolescent program with a high rate of STDs, substance abuse programs, homeless shelters, outreach/needle exchange programs, and tuberculosis clinics. Testing is also recommended in other instances regardless of identified risk [8]. Table 8-2 lists those for whom HIV testing is currently recommended. Stigma associated with HIV diagnosis, and the implication of risky behavior in asking for the test long delayed acceptance of HIV screening as an important component of preventive health care. Whether the woman is requesting HIV testing, for example, after an unplanned, unprotected sexual encounter, or whether you are recommending testing, as with pregnancy, counseling and informed consent are essential components of care. Counseling prior to the performance of HIV testing includes a focused discussion of risk reduction for the individual including collecting the data for a risk assessment (see Table 8-3), acknowledging current attempts the woman is making to reduce her risk, and being specific in discussing her current risks and understanding of HIV. This session is also a time when further risk reduction plans can be made and skills reinforced—for example, negotiating condom use. Counseling prior to HIV testing, like all other health care counseling, should be individualized [8].

168

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 8-2

Recommendations for When to Test for HIV

1. All clients in settings where the population is at in-

creased behavioral or clinical risk of HIV a. adolescent and school-based clinics with high STD rates b. clinics serving men who have sex with men c. correctional facilities including juvenile detention d. drug and alcohol programs e. freestanding HIV testing sites f. homeless shelters g. outreach (e.g., needle exchange) programs h. STD clinics i. TB clinics 2. Individual in settings with 1% 4. Regardless of any of the above a. all pregnant women b. all persons with possible occupational exposure c. all clients known to be exposed to an HIV positive person sexually or through needle sharing Source: From Revised guidelines for HIV counseling, testing, and referral MMWR 50:(No. RR-19), 2001. Accessed online at cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr5019.

TABLE 8-3

Risk Assessment Questions for HIV in Women

How many sexual partners have you had in your lifetime? This year? How old were you the first time you were sexually active? Are your partners men, or women, or both? What have you used to protect yourself from pregnancy? From sexually transmitted infections? Have you ever had an abnormal Pap smear or an STD or hepatitis? Have you ever used an IV drug, or used other drugs like crack? Have you abused alcohol? Have you ever shared a needle? Have any of your partners ever used drugs, shared needles, been in jail, had an STD, had hepatitis, worked as a prostitute, or traded sex for drugs/money? Are you concerned that you have been put at risk for catching HIV? Sources: From Anderson, J. R. A Guide to the Clinical Care of Women with HIV 2001. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines 2002. May 10; 51(RR-6):1–80. Accessed at www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/mmwr/ mmwr2002.htm.

Posttest counseling for women whose results are negative offers a chance to reinforce positive messages about prevention of infection and makes sure that she understands the limitations of the test. For women whose results are positive, hearing the test results may block all further effective communication for a time. Empathic listening and emotional support are an important part of this visit. In this case, the next contact needs to be set before she leaves the site, for ongoing support, education, and clinical care. Pregnancy raises some specific concerns. The Institute of Medicine report Reducing the Odds, which was released in 1999, emphasized the need for routinizing HIV testing during pregnancy. Most evidence suggests that 6000 to 7000 HIV seropositive women give birth every year in the United States. The concerns expressed by many of the participants and the expert panel illustrated the tension between public health and risk reduction on the one hand, and the individual’s right to privacy and informed consent on the other [9]. An increasingly common approach is to offer HIV testing as a part of routine prenatal care and have women who wish not to be tested refuse consent. The CDC recommendation regarding HIV testing during pregnancy is universal counseling and voluntary testing. All pregnant women should ideally be tested for HIV as early in pregnancy as possible. However, no woman should be required to be tested or have the test done without her consent. Women with identified risk factors (e.g., STD exposure, IV drug use, multiple sexual partners) or who initially declined testing should be offered repeat testing during the third trimester, after an open discussion of any concerns. When a woman has not been tested during pregnancy, offering her a rapid HIV test during her labor may present another opportunity for intervening to prevent perinatal transmission of HIV. At least two currently marketed tests are available that can provide results within 1 to 2 hours. The same standards apply to counseling and informed consent during labor as at any other time. The current standard for HIV testing is to run an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and repeat it if positive, before performing the Western blot to confirm HIV-positive status. The initial ELISA can cross-react to give a false-positive result if it is used without the confirmatory test. For the Western blot to be read as positive, antibodies to two or more protein “bands” found in HIV must be present. The presence of a single band is inconclusive and may be the result of recent HIV expo-

Chapter 8 Chronic Infectious Diseases

sure or a chronic finding. Among the causes of these persistent inconclusive results are autoimmune or collagen vascular diseases, alloantibodies from pregnancy or transfusion, and infection with rare HIV subtypes or HIV-2. True false positives, to both ELISA and Western blot, are less than 0.001 percent in low prevalence areas [10]. The use of rapid tests in settings where quick results are essential or women may not return for results can expedite initial care. However, it should always be kept in mind that these tests are not conclusive until the confirmatory Western blot has been run. Since the interim results are immediately available, unlike standard tests in which results are rarely reported until both tests have been completed, the midwife has a responsibility to advise the woman tested during her labor that she is at high risk for HIV, but NOT that she has a confirmed diagnosis. Prophylaxis for the prevention of perinatal transmission of HIV can then be offered for the period of time required to obtain results of the confirmatory test. Usually this will include both intrapartum therapy for the mother and a few days of zidovudine syrup given to the newborn. One final aspect of HIV counseling has to do with reproductive counseling for the woman known to be HIV positive, or to have an HIV-positive partner. Preconceptional counseling for these women includes the risk of transmission with sexual intercourse, the factors such as viral load that affect that risk, risks of mother to child transmission and how to decrease that risk, the risks and benefits of antiretroviral medication, and the issue of having children while living with a chronic and life-threatening disease. Family planning should also be raised as part of this discussion. Monitoring HIV Progression Other than the tests mentioned previously for use in diagnosis of HIV, there are many others used to evaluate health and disease progression. Several of these are particularly important for the midwife to be familiar with, in order to interpret the woman’s health status. These include measurement of the CD4 subset of lymphocytes, plasma viral load, changes in the CBC and chemistry panels, and tests of disease resistance. Measuring CD4 counts is one way to measure disease progression, since over time the constant turnover of these cells depletes the body’s ability to regenerate new ones. The amount of virus present in the blood is another way in which disease progress is evaluated, since higher viral loads indicate more strain placed on the im-

169

mune system and therefore higher likelihood of disease progression. The CD4 cells are one group of the T-lymphocytes. Over the course of HIV disease, CD4 counts are used to measure the degree of immune suppression, or how effectively the body is protecting itself from the virus. Values in healthy nonpregnant adults are generally above 500 cells/mm3. The results of this test are usually reported both as an absolute value and as a percentage of lymphocytes. The lower level of normal is about 32 percent. Factors other than HIV infection can cause drops in this value, including pregnancy, drug abuse, steroid use, and other illnesses; diurnal variation is also a factor. For this reason, the CD4 count is not a test used in diagnosing HIV. When the CD4 count falls below an absolute level of 200 cells/mm3, a diagnosis of AIDS is made, based on decreased immune competence. As with all the tests discussed in this section, remember that each laboratory may report their own set of normal values; the midwife needs to be aware of the standard values used in the laboratory, as well as of the possibility of variation between labs. CD4 Lymphocyte Count

Several genetically based tests to measure the amount of virus present in the blood are available. All of them have a lower limit, below which virus is present but not in measurable amounts, and an upper limit, although greater quantities of virus may well be present. The one most frequently reported is the HIV PCR-RNA. Initially, a standard test, which measures RNA between 400 and 750,000 viral particles per milliliter, should be used to assess the level of infectivity. Once a woman is on HIV therapy, an ultrasensitive test, which measures as low as 20 copies/milliliter, can be used to monitor the effectiveness of therapy. The same version of the test should be used consistently, since each reports slightly different values. From the standpoint of clinical care, it is essential to understand that these tests measure the level of virus only in the bloodstream. Other tissue reservoirs may persistently maintain a latent source of virus. In addition, the amount of virus in cervical secretions may vary from that in the blood [11].

Viral Load Testing

Over time, the HIV virus mutates in the body and can become resistant to various medications, or even classes of medication. Both phenotype and genotype assays can be performed to determine whether a rising viral load is

Tests of Viral Resistance

170

Part II Primary Care of Women

due to resistance or to some other factor, such as not taking medication that has been prescribed. These tests should only be ordered by the person who is responsible for the long-term management of the woman’s care, since the effectiveness of future medication regimens depends on careful selection among available choices. If the midwife is participating in the care of HIV-positive women, whether during pregnancy or for family planning and well-woman care, it is essential that the woman also have access to a primary care provider experienced in HIV management on whom the midwife can call for therapeutic concerns. Women with HIV may also experience changes in standard laboratory values. The CBC may show a macrocytic anemia in women using zidovudine during pregnancy, or with any regimen in which zidovudine included. A decrease in WBCs or thrombocytopenia may also be seen with HIV. The protease inhibitors can produce hyperglycemia. Many of the antiretrovirals cause changes in liver and kidney function as may other health issues such as alcohol use or hepatitis. Adverse reactions to some medications may produce severe lactic acidosis. Abnormalities found on blood tests should be reported to the woman’s primary provider.

Changes in General Laboratory Values

Medication Therapy for HIV There are currently four classes of medication available commercially in the United States for treatment of HIV: (1) nucleoside and nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors, (2) nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, (3) protease inhibitors, and (4) fusion inhibitors. Each is named for the timing of its intervention in viral replication. By combining medications from one or more of these classes, viral replication can be suppressed almost completely. Table 8-4 gives examples of the medications found in the major classes. CDC Guidelines The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention publishes and regularly updates guidelines for the management of HIV disease. These guidelines discuss such issues as when to begin therapy, appropriate drug combinations for initial and continuing therapy, adherence to therapy, and evaluation of drug resistance. Midwives involved in the care of women living with HIV should familiarize themselves with this material, which is regularly updated at the CDC Web site (www.cdc.gov) [12].

HIV in Pregnancy During pregnancy, many of the “rules” for treating HIV disease change. In untreated populations the standard absolute risk of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) without breastfeeding is given as 25 percent. About 5 to 10 percent is antepartum, and up to 20 percent intrapartum. Breastfeeding adds an additional 5 to 15 percent absolute risk of transmission [13]. Where the usual management as of this writing is to delay the onset of antiretroviral therapy in adults until the CD4 count has declined to 350 cells/mm3 or less, therapy for the prevention of MTCT is aimed at maintaining a nondetectable viral load regardless of the CD4 count. The rationale is that viral levels are directly associated with infectivity. Although most perinatal infection (66 to 75 percent) occurs around the time of birth, the remaining portion has already occurred antenatally [14]. Many factors affect the risk of transmission during pregnancy and birth. An elevated viral load, clinical disease progression, coinfection with STDs, hepatitis C and other diseases, substance abuse, smoking, multiple sexual partners and unprotected intercourse, preterm birth, chorioamnionitis, and invasive fetal monitoring or testing, are among the factors that increase risk of MTCT [15–19].Viral load also varies among body compartments, so that blood levels of HIV may not directly correlate with cervical secretions, although they appear to behave similarly [11]. Medications for HIV During Pregnancy The original treatment for prevention of HIV transmission during pregnancy, zidovudine monotherapy, was initiated as the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trial Group (ACTG) 076 Trial in the early 1990s. The clinical effect of this three-part (antepartum, intrapartum, and neonatal) treatment was to reduce MTCT by two-thirds, from 25.6 to 8.3 percent [20, 21]. This remains the minimum standard of care for pregnant women with HIV, regardless of viral load. More effective regimens, called highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) regimens, have further reduced the risk to 1 to 2 percent [22, 23]. The midwife providing care for HIV-positive women during pregnancy coordinates medication therapy with an infectious disease specialist or primary care physician experienced in HIV management in order to maintain the most effective long-term options for treatment. Women already taking HAART should continue without stopping medication in the first trimester; newly diagnosed women, and those not

Chapter 8 Chronic Infectious Diseases

TABLE 8-4

171

Classes of HIV Medication

Nucleoside/Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs) Generic Drug Name, Abbreviation (Brand) Zidovudine, AZT (Retrovir) Lamivudine, 3TC (Epivir) Didanosine, ddI (Videx)

FDA Category C C B

Zalcitabine, ddC (Hivid) Stavudine, d4T (Zerit)

C C

Abacavir, APV (Ziagen) AZT + 3TC (Combivir) AZT + 3TC + ABC (Trizivir) Tenofovir DF (Viread)

C C C B

Dose 300 mg po bid 150 mg po bid 60 kg 400 mg po qd or 200 mg po bid (tabs) OR 500 mg po qd or 250 mg po bid (powder) OR Videx EC 400 mg po qd 0.75 mg po tid 60 kg 40 mg po bid 300 mg po bid 300 mg AZT + 150 mg 3TC po bid 300 mg AZT + 150 mg 3TC + 300 mg ABC po bid 300 mg po qd

Non-nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs) Generic Drug Name, Abbreviation (Brand) Nevirapine, NVP (Viramune) Delavirdine, DLV (Rescriptor) Efavirenz, EFV (Sustiva)

FDA Category C C C*

Dose 200 mg po bid 400 mg po tid 600 mg po qhs

FDA Category B B B C B C C

Dose 400 mg po bid with RTV 1200 mg po tid 600 mg po bid 800 mg po q 8 hours 750 mg po tid OR 1250 mg po bid 1200 mg po bid (caps) OR 1400 mg po (oral solution) 400 mg LPV + 100 mg RTV po bid

Protease Inhibitors (PIs) Generic Drug Name, Abbreviation (Brand) Saquinavir, SQV,hgc (Invirase) Saquinavir, SQV,sgc (Fortovase) Ritonavir, RTV (Norvir) Indinavir, IDV (Crixivan) Nelfinavir, NFV (Viracept) Amprenavir, APV (Agenerase) Lopinavir/Ritonavir, LPV/RTV (Kaletra)

* Not used in pregnancy due to primate studies showing teratogenicity. Note: Many of these drugs have specific dosing requirements, medication interactions, and/or significant side effects beyond the scope of this reference. Interested readers are referred to www.hivatis.org for current antiretroviral information. Sources: www.hivatis.org; Bartlett, J. G., and Gallant, J. Medical Management of HIV Infection, 2001–2002 Edition.

currently on medication, should wait until organogenesis is complete before beginning therapy. Considerations in prescribing medications during pregnancy include the woman’s own medication needs and ability to adhere to complex regimens, prior therapy, and potential for the development of resistance. Balancing short-term prevention of MTCT with the lifetime therapy of the mother is beyond the scope of basic midwifery practice.

Although all HIV medications currently marketed are classified as either FDA Class B or C (see Table 10-6), the data on fetal and neonatal effects largely come from pragmatic prescription of medication for the mother’s own need and reduction of viral load. Zidovudine remains the only medication used for a long enough period to state that outcomes for uninfected children indicate no long-term problems [24].

172

Part II Primary Care of Women

Studies of women taking antiretrovirals during pregnancy, compared with HIV-positive women not on medication, have shown no increase in fetal loss, preterm birth, or low birth weight [25]. However, significant adverse events have occurred that can affect the outcome of individual pregnancies, such as mitochondrial insufficiency and lactic acidosis. Simply knowing the FDA category is not enough to ensure safe use. Efavirenz (Sustiva) is known to produce teratogenic effects in primates and is therefore not used during pregnancy despite its category C rating. The antiretroviral pregnancy registry maintains an ongoing database of infant outcomes. During labor, women who have received antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy should receive intravenous zidovudine. Depending on the specific circumstances they may also be given a single oral dose of nevirapine. Women who have not received any antiretrovirals during pregnancy, whether because they have not obtained prenatal care or because they are newly diagnosed at the time of labor, should receive both zidovudine and nevirapine [26]. Several studies have now demonstrated a reduction in risk of transmission when birth occurs by cesarean section, at term, prior to the onset of labor, and with intact amniotic membranes. This reduction can exceed 50 percent, and is independent of other factors such as viral load or antiretroviral therapy. When women were on the original zidovudine-only regimen and had prophylactic cesarean delivery, the rates of transmission were found to be as low as 2 percent, comparable to the rates achieved with HAART, nondetectable viral load, and vaginal birth [27–29]. It is unclear how much additional reduction can be achieved with cesarean birth in women who do have undetectable viral loads on HAART, given that some cases of antepartum transmission may occur as early as the first trimester. Thus, vaginal birth is a reasonable choice for these women. It is also known that the longer membranes are ruptured, the greater the risk of transmission at the time of birth [30]. For these reasons, women with viral loads greater than 1000 should always be offered cesarean birth, and any woman who, following counseling regarding risks and benefits of vaginal versus cesarean birth for both mother and infant, requests cesarean delivery, should be accommodated. Route of Birth and Risk of Transmission

Support Systems for Infected Women Women living with HIV are frequently isolated from their natural support systems during preg-

nancy by their unwillingness to discuss their HIV diagnosis and fear of community response. Coupled with the social and economic disruption often present in the lives of these women, this isolation can lead to depression, lack of self-care, and other nonmedical problems. Substance abuse may also play a role. For all these reasons, the midwife who cares for HIV-positive pregnant women needs to maintain a network of resources including treatment programs, housing assistance, counseling, social work, nutrition, and even possible doula services. Among the barriers to care perceived by women, themes that are commonly mentioned include the lack of adequate health insurance, physical inaccessibility of clinical sites, lack of child care, inefficient scheduling that produces long waits, and provider behaviors that discourage women from seeking care. Women see both gender and race as factors in their treatment. A study by Meredith in 1997 asked HIV-positive women what they wanted from their care [31]. Their answers included the following: Personalized care and respect Having someone to talk to about problems Honest answers Medical follow-up Reduced barriers to care Education about their condition Physical and emotional abuse are also factors in the lives of women living with HIV. Recent studies have noted that disclosure can be associated with abandonment by family or friends, verbal abuse, or physical assault. Women with prior histories of abuse or substance use, who were homeless, or who lived with their male partners were most at risk [32–34]. Gynecologic Care of Women with HIV Women with HIV need regular gynecologic care and active management of any abnormalities found during care. On diagnosis, all women should have 6 month interval visits for one year. While women remain immune competent, with CD4 counts greater than 500, annual visits will then suffice, as long as the Pap smear remains normal. Counseling for STD prevention and family planning at this time is similar to that provided any other patient. Emphasis does need to be placed on condom use for prevention of heterosexual transmission, disclosure of the HIV diagnosis to sexual partners, and the importance of correct use of contraceptive measures.

Chapter 8 Chronic Infectious Diseases

Contraceptive Choice Counseling about contraception becomes increasingly important in HIV infected women, as an explanation of the need to include barrier protection against infecting a partner, reinfection with another HIV strain, and coinfection with STDs, must be included. However, the barriers are the least effective standard contraceptive measures and are often omitted when couples become comfortable with one another. Reinforcing the importance of condom use is essential to effective counseling in the younger population, who may feel that safer sex is no longer an issue. Condom use has been demonstrated to be the single most effective measure against transmission between sexual partners, and over time, HIV discordant heterosexual couples have been shown to increase their use of condoms [5, 6, 35]. Most methods of contraception can be safely used, but the use of IUDs is generally restricted. The increased severity of genital diseases in association with HIV and the increased inflammatory reaction within the uterus are specific concerns. Combined hormonal contraceptives utilize the same hepatic pathway for metabolism as some of the antiretroviral drugs; their effectiveness may be decreased by drug interactions. The woman’s infectious disease provider should be kept advised as to any changes in contraception.

Pap Smears, the Human Papillomavirus, and HIV

Annual Pap smear testing in women with no known cervical abnormalities is adequate unless she has developed symptomatic disease or has a CD4 count of less than 200. After that time, Pap smears should be performed every 6 months. Women living with HIV should consider having HPV testing done with Pap smears as long as they have never had a prior HPV diagnosis. There is increasing evidence that HIV increases the risk of persistent HPV infection at the cervix, including rapidly progressive Pap smear abnormalities, increased recurrence rates for treated lesions, and increased rates of cervical neoplasia [36, 37]. The rates of complication increase with progression of HIV disease [38]. Duerr [39] found rates of HPV infection and of squamos intraepithelial lesions (SIL) Pap results three times higher among HIV-infected women. Beginning in 1993, the CDC identified invasive cervical cancer as an AIDS-defining illness. Aggressive management of atypical squamos cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS) and SIL results on Pap smears including colposcopy and

173

biopsy at the first abnormal finding is appropriate. During this procedure, the colposcopist should take care to examine the entire lower genital area and anus for possible lesions, since an elevated risk of anal cancer among HIV-positive persons engaging in anal intercourse has been identified [40]. Proven cervical abnormality warrants Pap testing every 3 to 4 months for one year, followed by exams every 6 months. All STDs can be cofactors for HIV transmission, particularly those that produce vaginal or cervical lesions. Sexually transmitted diseases all share a common risk—exposure to more than one sexual partner, either individually or through one’s own partner. Thus STD counseling and screening should include a discussion of the risk of HIV and an offer of HIV testing. For women who are HIV infected, treating STDs decreases their risk of transmitting HIV by reducing associated inflammation and viral shedding. The treatment of any sexually transmitted disease and pelvic inflammatory disease requires attention to duration of therapy and the possibility of inadequate treatment effect. Test of cure or follow-up visits should not be omitted in this population. A Guide to the Clinical Care of Women with HIV, a reference published by the Health Resources and Services Administration, can be obtained online at www.hab.hrsa.gov/. This publication is an excellent source for more detailed information regarding all aspects of management of HIV in women.

STDs in HIV-Positive Women

HIV and Older Women About 10 percent of AIDS cases are found in adults over 50, many of whom know little about HIV risks and transmission. In addition, this is not a population group that regularly considers condom use for prevention of infection, nor do women in this age group need protection against unplanned pregnancy. One study found that older women are only half as likely as men to be tested for HIV [41]. However, the physiologic thinning of vaginal mucosa and decreased lubrication following menopause actually increase risk of HIV transmission. Another study of older adults found that active sexual lives and multiple partners were not uncommon; less than 40 percent of those sexually active were using condoms. A majority of men, and 80 percent of women, did not see themselves at risk in this study [42]. Counseling messages about safer sex cannot be limited to the young.

174

Part II Primary Care of Women

Global Aspects of HIV in Women Writing about the HIV pandemic from within the perspective of the resource-rich industrialized world provides a view that does not reflect the experience of the vast majority of women infected with HIV [43]. In Africa, the Middle East, and the Caribbean, half or more of all infected individuals are women [44]. Table 8-5 illustrates the relative burden of HIV in the developing world, which lacks both financial and infrastructure resources required to convert HIV from a death sentence to a serious but chronic disease. Although attempts are being made to obtain medications at reduced costs and distribute them equitably, this is far from a completed plan. Specific concerns include sexual transmission when women do not have the ability to protect themselves sexually, high rates of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT), and newly increasing concern about trans-

TABLE 8-5

mission to health care providers during birth when protective resources are not available. Several trials of shorter courses of medication during pregnancy to prevent MTCT have been conducted. As can be seen in Table 8-6, even limited therapy can produce effective decreases in HIV transmission. These studies, performed in Africa and Thailand, were primarily intended to determine whether short courses or different drug regimens could be of use in settings where resources are limited or health care is provided over widespread areas [45–50]. Among the many complications of implementing HIV reduction programs are the inability to monitor and manage drug reactions, the need of mothers to breastfeed in order to prevent infant death from malnutrition or diarrhea, and in some communities, the need to breastfeed in order to disguise the mother’s infected status.

Global HIV/AIDS Statistics through 2002, Ranked by Percentage of HIV-Positive Women Adult Prevalence

Sub-Saharan Africa North Africa and Middle East Caribbean South and Southeast Asia Latin America Eastern Europe and Central Asia Western Europe East Asia and Pacific North America Australia and New Zealand TOTAL

8.8% 0.3% 2.4% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.3% 0.1% 0.6% 0.1% 1.2%

Adults and Children with HIV/AIDS 29,400,000 550,000 440,000 6,000,000 1,500,000 1,200,000 570,000 1,200,000 980,000 15,000 50,000,000

Percentage of Adults Who Are Women 58 55 50 36 30 27 25 24 20 7 50

Source: UNAIDS data, 12/31/2002. UNAIDS (Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS). Accessed online at www.unaids.org

TABLE 8-6

Trials of Short Antiretroviral Therapy Courses

Trial Name

Site

Medication

Duration

Breastfeeding

Percentage of Reduction in MTCT

CDC

Thailand

Zidovudine (Retrovir)

No

50

Petra

Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa

Zidovudine/Lamivudine (Combivir)

36 weeks Labor 36 weeks Labor Postpartum Newborn Labor Postpartum Newborn Labor Newborn

Yes

52 at 6 weeks

Yes

38 at 6 weeks

Yes

47 at 4 months

Zidovudine/Lamivudine (Combivir) HIVNET 12

Uganda

Nevirapine (Virammune)

Source: Kriebs, J. The global reach of HIV, J. Perinatol. Neonatal Nurs. 16(3):1–10, 2002. Reprinted by permission.

Chapter 8 Chronic Infectious Diseases

Tuberculosis Exposure to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacillus produces a latent tuberculosis infection in about 21 to 23 percent of those exposed. The CDC estimates that 10 to 15 million people in the United States have been exposed and have latent TB infection. The only evidence of infection in this group will be a positive tuberculin test. About 10 percent of otherwise healthy women with latent infection will progress to active disease at some point. For people with a damaged immune system—for example, persons with diabetes—the risk is as much as three times higher. For HIV positive women, the risk of active TB may be as much as 100 times higher than the overall rate [51]. Other factors also influence the risk of progressive disease. Table 8-7 lists the major risk factors for TB infection. Because the bacterium is spread by droplet formation or aerosolization, casual contacts are at little to no risk. Close family members and those in close daily contact with the infected individual are most likely to have been exposed. The droplets spread through the respiratory system before being neutralized by macrophage response. In some cases, the bacterium will also reach the lymph glands and spread through the body to other susceptible tissues. Most people who are exposed to tuberculosis and develop a reaction to the tuberculin test have no symptoms and do not offer any risk of infection to others; the term used for this condition is latent tuberculosis [52]. Even when an initial lesion in the lung develops, most immune competent people will mount an

TABLE 8-7

Risk Factors for Tuberculosis Infection and Progression

Overcrowded environment Immigration from areas where TB is endemic Nosocomial exposure (e.g., nursing homes) Evidence of prior TB infection HIV Diabetes Steroid therapy Immunosuppressive therapy Head and neck cancers Renal disease Malabsorption syndromes Gastrectomy, intestinal bypass Malnutrition, low body weight Alcoholism Substance abuse

175

adequate response and their bodies will encapsulate and calcify the inflammatory lesion, preventing further symptoms. On x-ray, the lesion will be visible. Initial active clinical disease and reactivations of previously undiagnosed or inadequately treated disease may present with atypical pneumonia and patchy lung infiltrates, a generalized malaise and fatigue, night sweats, weight loss, fever, and/or a productive cough with or without hemoptysis. Pleuritic pain may develop. On examination, crepitus and rales may be heard [53]. Testing for Tuberculosis Infection Screening tests will detect hypersensitivity to the tuberculin protein. The screening test most commonly used is the Mantoux test, commonly known as a PPD (purified protein derivative) test. The purpose of screening for tuberculosis is to detect those individuals who have inactive disease, and those who have recently been exposed and converted. If a woman was screened previously and had a negative screening test, administer the PPD. If this PPD is positive, the woman is a converter representing new disease that may or may not be currently active. The tuberculin test does not need to be repeated in anyone with a documented prior positive result. Many individuals from countries outside the United States (e.g., England, Carribean Islands) receive Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine in childhood to prevent tuberculosis infection. These individuals should still be screened with PPD; they will have a positive PPD for up to two years secondary to the BCG vaccine. After that, one should not assume that positive PPD is secondary to vaccination [54, 55]. Since many people who received BCG vaccine as children may not know this is what they were given, look for the scar caused by the vaccine before giving PPD. The midwife should take a history prior to administration of PPD to determine the presence of conditions that might alter the reaction to the tuberculin (i.e., give a false positive or a false negative) and what classification of tuberculin reaction to use in reading the test. This history should include the following: 1. Previous history of tuberculosis 2. Previous screening test and results 3. Vaccination with BCG 4. Close contact with a person with infectious tu-

berculosis 5. Chest x-ray suggestive of previous tuberculosis with inadequate or no treatment

176

Part II Primary Care of Women

6. Current signs and symptoms of tuberculosis 7. 8. 9.

10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18.

19.

(see Table 8-8) Whether the woman is HIV positive Whether the woman is an intravenous drug abuser Whether the woman is foreign-born, from an area of the world where tuberculosis is common (e.g., Latin America, Africa, Asia) Whether the woman is in a high-risk racial or ethnic group (e.g., Native American, African American, Hispanic, Asian, or Pacific Islander) Whether the woman is a member of a medically underserved, low-income population Severe or febrile illness, measles, or other viral infections Live-virus vaccination Hodgkin’s disease Sarcoidosis Whether the woman is currently on corticosteroids or immunosuppressive drugs Whether the woman is a member of a locally identified high-prevalence group (e.g., homeless person, migrant worker) Whether the woman is a resident of a shelter or long-term facility (e.g., nursing home, correctional facility) Occupational exposure to tuberculosis (e.g., health care worker, on staff of long-term care facility, on staff of homeless shelter or drug treatment center)

TABLE 8-8

Signs and Symptoms of Active Tuberculosis

Fever: Initially minimal to moderate temperature elevation occurs daily in the late afternoon or evening, usually accompanied by a feeling of euphoria and well-being; as disease progresses, temperature elevations reach 103°F (39.5°C) or higher. Night sweats: The daily rise in body temperature reverses at night with accompanying diaphoresis. Weight loss: Minor weight loss with anorexia occurs early in the disease; increased weight loss, fatigue, and irritability occurs as the disease progresses. Chronic cough: A cough that is worse in the morning. Chronic, productive cough: A cough that produces large amounts of purulent, greenish-yellow sputum sometimes accompanied by hemoptysis. Pleurisy with effusion: This is particularly significant in young childbearing women, as pleurisy in this age group is uncommon. Spontaneous atelectasis: Especially in a young person, this may be a sign of active tuberculosis. Crepitant rales: This is heard best on auscultation after the woman coughs.

The Mantoux test consists of 0.1 mL of purified protein derivative (PPD) tuberculin containing 5 tuberculin units, administered intradermally in the forearm. The reaction to the PPD should be read 48 to 72 hours after injection. If a patient’s reaction is not read until after 72 hours and it is negative, the test should be repeated. A positive reaction may be measurable up to 1 week after testing. Reaction is the diameter of a palpable swelling (induration), measured in millimeters. Erythema is not included in the measurement. Tuberculin reactions are classified as positive according to risk factors, as follows [52] : 1. Induration ≥5 mm: a. persons known to have HIV infection b. persons in close contact with a person who

has infectious tuberculosis c. persons whose chest x-ray is suggestive of previous tuberculosis with inadequate or no treatment d. patients who are immune suppressed 2. Induration ≥10 mm: a. recent immigrants from an area of the world where tuberculosis is common (e.g., Latin America, Africa, Asia) b. persons who have high-risk health conditions c. children exposed to high-risk persons d. residents and employees of a homeless shelter, jail, long-term care facility, or any congregate living setting e. intravenous drug abusers f. mycobacteriology laboratory employees 3. Induration ≥15 mm: a. persons with no known risk factors for tuberculosis Both false-positive and false-negative readings may occur, as shown in Table 8-9.

TABLE 8-9 False Positive False Negative

Factors That May Cause False-Positive and False-Negative Responses to the Tuberculin Skin Test Nontuberculous mycobacteria BCG vaccination Anergy Recent TB infection Very young age (140/90), lower daytime and nighttime BP variabilities, and a reduced systolic BP response to submaximal exercise [282]. Women on HRT tended to have lower levels of 24-hour and nighttime diastolic BP, and smaller daytime and 24-hour diastolic BP loads [282]. After stepwise multiple regression analysis, the researchers determined that waist circumference was the primary predictor of most of the systolic BP-related cardiovascular risk factors, and that HRT was the best predictor for diastolic BP loads [282]. Other studies have shown either none or a small but statistically significant decrease in BP on HRT [283–285], and one study

222

Part II Primary Care of Women

demonstrated that a few women on HRT experienced increased BP [273]. Osteoporosis and Exercise. The greatest long-term impact of exercise on bone is its capacity to facilitate optimal peak development of bone mineral density (BMD) during the premenopausal years [286–295]. Participation in high-impact activities in young, healthy athletes results in the highest peak BMD [296, 297]. The effect of exercise on BMD in the perimenopausal and postmenopausal periods has been more difficult to assess. It appears that loading specific bones through strength-conditioning exercises can help delay mineral loss in those bones or, in postmenopausal women, produce small increases over time, as well as reducing the risk of fractures by lowering the incidence of falls [298–301]. BMD loss is greatest in the perimenopausal years; women may experience nearly half their bone loss before menopause actually occurs [302]. In the United States the rate of fracture of the proximal femur for white women rises abruptly between ages 40 and 44 [303]. White women have a lifetime risk rate of 15 percent for what is usually termed a hip fracture, but is actually a fracture in the neck or trochanters of the femur [304], while risk rates for Asian and African-American women are much lower. However, researchers studying Australian women of Asian descent concluded that ethnicity was not related to BMD in this group, but that clinical and lifestyle factors were [305]. A study of Taiwanese women concluded that physical activity played a major role in BMD levels in postmenopausal women [306]. In a number of cultural settings, exercise has a positive association with the BMD level of women in midlife and older years [307–311]. However, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) warns against making a false assumption that exercise, or exercise and diet, can substitute for hormone replacement [312]. While a decline in activity level clearly results in profound loss of bone mass, the results of increased activity are slower and less clear. The ACSM notes that the results of cross-sectional studies have demonstrated a more positive effect of exercise on bone than prospective studies [312]. Cancer and Exercise. Following the development of syn-

thetic estrogen in 1938, replacement therapy for natural and surgical menopause grew in practice. Beginning in 1975, strong evidence of the increased risk of endometrial cancer among users of unopposed conjugated estrogens began to be published

[313–315]. Progestogen was added to estrogen to combat this effect and the term hormone replacement therapy (HRT) was born. Estrogen-dependent cancers (breast, ovarian, and endometrial) have etiologies that are not totally understood, although it does appear that estrogen is implicated in a process that stimulates the expression of estrogen receptor sites [316–318]. Heavy exercise may play a role in decreasing the risk of breast cancer. Changes in 4-hydroxycatecholestrogen metabolism in response to heavy exercise include changes that may undermine fertility, while preventing free radicals and exposure of breast epithelium to endogenous estrogens [319]. One study followed 25,624 women aged 20 to 54 at entry into the program over a mean period of 13.7 years [320]. Findings included a correlation between recreational exercise and breast cancer showing that the greater the leisure-time activities of the participants, the lower the risk of breast cancer. In regular exercisers, the reduction of risk was greater in premenopausal than in postmenopausal women. Risk was lowest in lean women ( 1.0. Many clinicians defer prescribing it until the baby is mature enough to take the drug directly, although the AAP lists it as compatible with breastfeeding. The most commonly discussed problem with this macrolide is drug-to-drug interactions with other agents, like some nonsedating antihistamines. Therefore, as usual, the midwife should consult with the woman about all her current use of drugs and herbs. The use of metronidazole (Flagyl) by a breastfeeding woman is controversial [105]. Some authorities, including the American Academy of Pediatrics, have recommended that when a 2gram dose is used, it is followed by manual expression/pumping for 24 hours, during which the breast milk would be discarded. However, metronidazole is a drug in pediatric use and it has an MPR close to 1.0 with a 400 mg dose given three times a day. It is the side effects that make most scientists advise temporary cessation of breastfeeding. These adverse effects have included neonatal vomiting and potential blood dyscrasias. If the woman needs the medication for treatment of bacterial vaginosis, metronidazole in vaginal gel form (MetroGel) should pose no need to cease breastfeeding as the level in breast milk is undetectable. Aminoglycosides like kanamycin (Kantrex) are agents that are given directly to newborns. These drugs are compatible with breastfeeding.

Sex Hormones The puerperium is a critical period for most women. Postpartum women must decide if they want more children and, if so, when. Therefore, contraception is a major area of discussion. Breastfeeding women may use the lactational amenorrhea method (LAM) with excellent results if they are exclusively breastfeeding. Modern culture is not supportive of breastfeeding and many women find themselves at work in an unsupportive environment. For them, exclusivity of breastfeeding may not be feasible. The most popular temporary method of contraception in the United States is combination oral contraceptives (COCs). These agents have been found to have a moderate inhibitory effect on breast milk, especially the older agents with 50 micrograms or more of estrogen [106]. Some of the hormones may be transferred to the newborn, and no long-term effects have been found, although women who use COCs breastfeed their infants for a shorter period of time than women who use other contraceptive methods. Therefore, most sources recommend progesterone only methods, such as progestin only pills (POPs) or medroxyprogesterone acetate in oil (DepoProvera). Progestin methods do not inhibit milk volume, and according to some research, may even increase the volume. Nonsteroidal methods such as barriers and copper intrauterine devices are compatible with breastfeeding. Data are lacking on newer methods such as vaginal rings, transdermal patches, and estrogen/progesterone injections. However, each is composed of estrogen and progesterone and should be viewed as comparable to COCs. Analgesics Codeine and meperidine (Demerol) appear in low levels in breast milk and generally do not warrant cessation of either the drug or breastfeeding for the couplet. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are considered reasonable choices while breastfeeding because negligible amounts have been found in breast milk. However, when large amounts of opiates are administered during labor, the baby may be sleepy and hypotonic at birth, causing some difficulty in initiating breastfeeding. Slower initiation of breastfeeding has been reported for primigravidas when meperidine was administered 1 hour to 4 hours prior to birth [107]. Similar concerns about neonatal disorganization after intrapartum epidurals have been proposed, although no clear data exist to address these concerns.

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

Gastrointestinal Drugs and Antihistamines Cimetidine (Tagamet) is an antisecretory antihistamine in popular use for maternal pyrosis, or heartburn. However, it has antiandrogenic effects and possesses an MPR higher than 1, whereas antacids can also be used for heartburn and are compatible with breastfeeding. Many sources suggest that any antihistamine, whether indicated for respiratory or gastrointestinal reasons, should be used with caution, or avoided, during breastfeeding because of concerns regarding anticholinergic side effects and possible diminished milk supply rather than any direct effects on the newborn. Miscellaneous Recent studies indicate that heparin, low molecular weight heparin, and warfarin are compatible with breastfeeding. For the woman with hyperthyroidism, propylthiouracil (PTU) is the drug of choice and methimazole (Tapazole) should be avoided. Lifestyle Drugs As previously noted, smoking can have major negative effects on the newborn such as an increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Nicotine use previously was cited as a contraindication to breastfeeding. However, today smoking is viewed as a risk-benefit issue, since there is a greater appreciation of the benefits of breastfeeding for babies of smokers. Breastfeeding has been demonstrated to ameliorate the risk of SIDS as well as to decrease the incidence of respiratory infections in children of smoking mothers compared to bottle fed babies of smoking mothers [108]. Beer and wine are often part of breastfeeding management in European countries. Although not contraindicated during lactation, alcohol changes the odor and taste of the breast milk and infants tend to consume less milk as the concentration of alcohol in milk increases [109]. Caffeine accumulates in the infant. Moderate use, such as one to two daily cups of coffee, rarely is problematic. However, caffeine tends to be ubiquitous in modern food. A woman who drinks coffee, soft drinks containing caffeine, and even caffeine-enhanced bottled water may intake large amounts. Her breastfed baby may be wide awake and hyperactive. Smoking may enhance this effect. Discontinuation or at least a major decrease of caffeine will remedy the situation. In summary, every effort should be made to support breastfeeding. Obviously drugs should not

271

be casually prescribed or recommended. When a drug is needed, the midwife should choose one for which data exist and one that poses the least possibility of an adverse neonatal reaction. Moreover, midwives should initiate a discussion of drugs and breastfeeding with all lactating women, including the reassurance that it would be rare to discontinue breastfeeding, but that a woman should make certain that all her providers and her infant’s providers know that she is lactating. Such a proactive discussion also should decrease the chance that the woman herself might wean the baby of her own volition. Table 10-7 provides a summary of guidelines for breastfeeding and the use of medications. Galactagogues The most common reason for premature weaning is the assumption by the mother that she has inadequate breast milk [110]. Although this assumption may not be accurate, there are times in which a woman’s milk supply may be low. Nonpharmaceutical interventions such as hydration and frequent nursing may remedy the situation. However, there are some agents, both prescription and herbal, that are called galactagogues and may be of therapeutic help. For example, metoclopramide TABLE 10-7

Guidelines for Breastfeeding and Medication Use

• Reserve the use of pharmaceuticals for situations where they are necessary. • Delay the use of pharmaceuticals as long as possible since maturation of the infant includes ability to better metabolize agents. • Use the lowest dose for the shortest time that is therapeutic. • Whenever possible, choose an agent that Is used in pediatrics Has a short half-life Has a milk plasma ratio of 1 or less Is not sustained release • Manipulate timing so that the lowest amount is in the milk—usually immediately after a feeding or before the baby has a long sleep period. • Observe the baby for any changes, including behavior or physical signs like a rash. • Teach a woman about manual expression or use of a breast pump if the only drug available is contraindicated for the baby. • Encourage the woman to continue to breastfeed and not see use of medications as a reason she must wean her baby. Source: Adapted from Riordan, J., and Auerbach, K. Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, 2nd ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 1999.

272

Part II Primary Care of Women

(Reglan) is a dopamine antagonist used for gastrointestinal indications. A side effect of the drug is galactorrhea and it is used off label to help women increase their milk supply. Metoclopramide tends to have a number of side effects, including fatigue, mental exhaustion, and even extrapyramidal effects, so generally it is used for a limited duration. Herbal galactagogues are common. For example, fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) has been used for years and is well accepted in many countries, yet data demonstrating its efficacy remain elusive. Studies are ongoing in several areas of the world regarding efficacy of various galactagogues and other herbal remedies.

7. Phillips, K., Veenstra, D., Oren, E., Lee, J., and

8. 9.

10.

11.

12.

Conclusion Pharmaceutical agents are part of modern life. Today’s midwife should be knowledgeable about them. Like any other intervention in the midwife’s repertoire, drugs and herbs should be used appropriately and monitored for therapeutic as well as adverse effects. Pharmacology is an essential area in women’s health care, and it is one that continues to grow and challenge providers and women alike.

References

13.

14.

15.

16.

1. LaChance, P. Nutraceuticals and functional

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

foods. Food Technology 56(1):20 (January) 2002. Fahs, P. S. S., and Faucher, M. A. Nutriceuticals and cardiovascular health in women. J. Midwifery Womens Health 47(3):190–203 (May/June) 2002. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Cosmeceuticals. FDA Fact Sheet, February 24, 2000. Dechaud, H., Ravard, C., Claustrat, F., de la Perriere, A. B., and Pugeat, M. Xenoestrogen interaction with human sex hormone-binding globulin (hSHBG). Steroids 64(5):328–334 (May) 1999. Doyle, E. I., and Faucher, M. A. Pharmaceutical therapy in midwifery practice: A culturally competent approach. J. Midwifery Womens Health 47(3):122–129 (May/June) 2002. Wolf, C.R., Smith, G., and Smith, R.L. Science, medicine and the future: Pharmacogenetics. Br. Med. J. 320(7240):987–990 (April 8) 2000.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21. 22.

Sadee, W. Potential role of pharmacogenomics in reducing adverse drug reactions. JAMA 286(18):2270–2279 (November 14) 2001. Sadde, W. Pharmacogenomics. Br. Med. J. 319(7220):1–4 (November 13) 1999. Wood, A. J. Racial differences in the response to drugs. N. Engl. J. Med. 344(18):1394–1396 (May 5) 2001. Farmer, R., Williams, T., and Nightingale, A. Pitfalls of pharmacoepidemiology. Br. Med. J. 321(7272):1352 (November 25) 2000. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. CDER Report to the Nation: 1999. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1999. Pharmacy Times. Accessed online at http:// www.rxlist.com/top200.htm. Kaufman, D., Kelly, J., Rosenberg, L., Anderson, T., and Mitchell, A. Recent patterns of medication use in the ambulatory adult population of the United States: The Slone Survey. JAMA 287(3):337–344 (January 16) 2002. Woloshin, S., Schwartz, L., Tremmel, J., and Welch, H. Direct-to-consumer advertisements for prescription drugs: What are Americans being sold? Lancet 358(9288):1141–1146 (October 6) 2001. Pesticides and National Strategies for Health Care Providers: Draft Implementation Plan. Rockville, MD: U.S. Government, 2000. Gabbe, S., and Turner, L. Reproductive hazards of the American lifestyle: Work during pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 176(4):826–832 (April) 1997. Jacobson, J., and Jacobson, S. Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in uterus. N. Engl. J. Med. 335(11):783–789, September 12, 1996. Jacobson, J., and Jacobson, S. Postnatal exposure to PCBs and childhood development. Lancet 358(9293):1568–1569 (November 10) 2001. Walkowiak, J., Wiener J. A., Fastabend, A., et al. Environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and quality of home environment: effects on psychodevelopment in early childhood. Lancet 358(9293):1602–1607 (November 10) 2001. Zuccato, E., Calamari, D., Natangelo, M., and Fanelli, R. Presence of therapeutic drugs in the environment. Lancet 355(9217):1789–1790 (May 20) 2000. U.S. CFR Title 21: Food and Drugs: parts 1 to 1404. Accessed online at www.fda.gov. Hanson, G., Venturelli, P. J., and Fleckenstein,

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

A. E. Drugs and Society, 7th ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2002. Yankowitz, J., and Niebyl, J. R. Drug Therapy in Pregnancy. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Buying medicines and medical products on line. FDA Fact Sheet, March 29, 2002. Frederickson, M. The drug development process and the pregnant woman, J. Midwifery Womens Health 47(6):422–425 (November/ December) 2002. American College of Nurse-Midwives. NurseMidwifery Today: A Handbook of State Laws and Regulations. Washington, DC: ACNM, 2001. Minarik, P. A. Legislative and regulatory update: DEA registration for midlevel practitioners. Clinical Nurse Specialist 7(6):319, 329 (November) 1993. DeVries, T. P. G. M., Hemmings, R. H., Hogerzeil, H. V., and Fresel, D. A. The WHO Guide to Good Prescribing. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1995. Lazarou, J., Pomeranz, B., and Corey, P. Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA 279(15):1200–1205 (April 15) 1998. Audet, A., and Hartman, E. A 40 year old woman who noticed a medication error, 1 year later. JAMA 287(24):3258 (June 26) 2002. Enright, M. C., Robinson, D. A., Randle, G., Feil, E. J., Grundmann, H., and Spratt, B. G. The evolutionary history of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 99(11):7687–7692 (May 28) 2002. Hooper, D. Emerging mechanisms of fluroquinolone resistance. Emerging Infect. Dis. 7(2):337–341 (March/April) 2001. Levy, S. B. Antibacterial household products: Cause for concern. Emerging Infect. Dis. 7(3S):512–515 (June) 2001. Kalow, W. Pharmacogenetics in biological perspective. Pharmacol. Rev. 49(4):369–379 (December) 1997. Brucker, M. C. Resources for clinicians: Personal digital assistants and world wide web resources for pharmacology. J. Midwifery Womens Health 47(6):493–494 (November/ December) 2002. Cornell, S. Electronic prescribing: New technology can reduce errors and save time. Adv. Nurse Pract. 9(6):107–108 (June 1) 2001.

273

37. Hogan, R. New media/therapeutics: ePocrates

qRx 4.0, JAMA 286(2):711 (July 11) 2002. 38. Tumolo, J. When poor patients can’t pay, drug

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47. 48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

assistance programs will. Adv. Nurse Pract. 9(5):69–71 (May 1) 2001. Hoffman, F. A. Regulation of dietary supplements in the United States: Understanding the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 44(4):780–788 (December) 2001. Blumenthal, M., Busse, W., Goldberg, A., Gruenwald, J., Riggins, C., and Rister, R. (Eds.); Klein, S., and Rister, R. (trans.). Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Newton, MA: Integrative Medicine Communications, 1998. Marty, A. T. Review: The complete German Commission E Monographs. JAMA 281(19):1952 (May 19) 1999. Yankowitz, J., and Niebyl, J. R. Drug Therapy in Pregnancy, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001. Briggs, G. G. Drug effects on the fetus and breast-fed infant. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):6–21 (March) 2002. Hansen, W. F., and Yankowitz, J. Pharmacologic therapy for medical disorders during pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):13–52 (March) 2002. Briggs, G. G. Drug effects on the fetus and breast-fed infant. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):6–21 (March) 2002. Cunningham, F. G., Gant, N. F., Leveno, K. J., Gilstrap, L. C., Hauth, J. C., and Wenstrom, K. D. Williams Obstetrics, 21st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed online at www.fda.gov. Briggs, G. G., Freeman, R., and Sumner, S. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 2001. Henney, J. Clinical Pharmacology During Pregnancy: Addressing Clinical Needs through Science. Washington, DC: U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2000. Hansen, W., Peacock, A., and Yankowitz, J. Treatment of illnesses in pregnancy and lactation. J. Midwifery Womens Health 47(6):409–421 (November/December) 2002. Mills, J. L., and D. Alexander. Teratogens and “litogens.” N. Engl. J. Med. 315(19):1234– 1236 (November 6) 1986. Shiono, P., and Klebanoff, M. Bendectin and congenital malformations. Teratology 40(2):151– 155 (August) 1989.

274

Part II Primary Care of Women

53. Shepard,

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66

67.

T. “Proof” of human teratogenicity. Teratology 50(2):97–98 (August) 1994. Bar-Oz, B., Moretti, M. E., Mareels, G., Van Tittleboom, T., and Kroen, G. Reporting bias in retrospective ascertainment of drug induced embryopathy. Lancet 354(9191):1700 (November 13) 1999. Feldman, Y., Koren, G., Mattice, K., Shear, H., Pellegrini, E., and MacLeod, S. M. Determinants of recall and recall bias in studying drug and chemical exposure in pregnancy. Teratology 40(1):37–45 (July) 1989. Raje, N., and Anderson, K. Thalidomide: A revival story. N. Engl. J. Med. 341(21):1606–1608 (November 18) 1999. Koren, G., Pastuszak, A., and Ito, S. Drugs in pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med. 338(16):1128–1137 (April 16) 1998. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accutane exposed pregnancies. MMWR 49(2):28–31 (January 21) 2000. Yankowitz, J., and Niebyl, J. R. Drug Therapy in Pregnancy, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001. Cunningham, F. G., Gant, N. F., Leveno, K. J., Gilstrap, L. C., Hauth, J. C., and Wenstrom, K. D. Williams Obstetrics, 21st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Duff, P. Antibiotic selection in obstetrics: Making cost-effective choices. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):59–72 (March) 2002. Yankowitz, J., and Niebyl, J. R. Drug Therapy in Pregnancy, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001. Piper, J. M., Mitchel, E. F., and Ray, W. A. Prenatal use of metronidazole and birth defects: no association. Obstet. Gynecol. 82(3):348–352 (September) 1993. Hammes, B., and Laitman, C. DES Update. J. Midwifery Womens Health 48(1): (January/ February) 2003. Fu, H., Darroch, J., Haas, T., and Ranjit, N. Contraceptive failure rates: New estimates from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth. Fam. Plann. Perspect. 31(2):56–63 (March/April) 1999. Rothman, K., More, L., Singer, J., Nguyen, U., Mannino, S., and Milunsky, A. Teratogenicity of high vitamin A intake. N. Engl. J. Med. 333(21):1369–1373 (November 23) 1995. Botto, L. D., Moore, C. A., Khoury, M. J., and Erickson, J. D. Neural-tube defects. N. Engl. J. Med. 341(20):1509–1519 (November 11) 1999.

68. Fairfield, K., and Fletcher, R. Vitamins for

69.

70. 71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

chronic disease prevention in adults: scientific review. JAMA 287(23):3116–3126 (June 19) 2002. Fletcher, R., and Fairfield, K. Vitamins for chronic disease prevention in adults: clinical applications. JAMA 287(23):3127–3129 (June 19) 2002. Faix, R. Immunization during pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):42–58 (March) 2002. Conover, E.A. Over-the-counter products: Nonprescription medications, nutraceuticals and herbal agents. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):89–98 (March) 2002. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cigarette smoking during the last 3 months of pregnancy among women who gave birth to live infants in Maine 1988–1997. MMWR 48(20):421–426 (May 28) 1999. Curet, L. B., and His, A. C. Drug abuse during pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):73–88 (March) 2002. Clausson B., Granath F., Ekbom A., et al. Effect of caffeine exposure during pregnancy on birth weight and gestational age. Am. J. Epidemiol. 155(5):429–436 (March 1) 2002. Cnattingius S., Signorello L. B., Anneren G., et al. Caffeine intake and the risk of firsttrimester spontaneous abortion. N. Engl. J. Med. 343(25):1839–1845 (December 21) 2000. American Dietetic Association. Position statement: use of nutritive and nonnutritive sweeteners. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 98(5):580–587 (May) 1998. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Substance use among pregnancy women during 1999 and 2000. National Household Survey on Drug Abuse. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2002. Singer L. T. Arendt, R., Minnes, S., et al. Cognitive and motor outcomes of cocaine-exposed infants. JAMA 287(15):1952–1960 (April 17) 2002. Reedy, N. J. The nurse-midwife in complicated obstetrics: trend or treason. J. NurseMidwifery 24(1):11–17 (January/February) 1975. Hansen, W. F., and Yankowitz, J. Pharmacologic therapy for medical disorders during pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):136–152 (March) 2002. Hernandez-Diaz, S., Werler, M., Walker, A., and Mitchell, A. Folic acid antagonists during preg-

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

nancy and risk of birth defects. N. Engl. J. Med. 343(22):1608–1614 (November 30) 2000. Czeizel, A. E., Szegal, B. A., Joffe, J. M., and Racz, J. The effect of diazepam and promethazine treatment during pregnancy on the somatic development of human offspring. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 21(2):157–167 (March/ April) 1999. Wisner, K. L., Gelenberg, A. J., Leonard, H., Zarin, D., and Frank, E. Pharmacologic treatment of depression during pregnancy. JAMA 282(13):1264–1269 (October 6) 1999. Nulman, I., Rovet. J., Stewart, D. E., et al. Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to antidepressant drugs. N. Engl. J. Med. 336(4):258–262 (January 23) 1997. Pastuszak, A., Schick-Boschetto, B., Zuber, C., et al. Pregnancy outcome following firsttrimester exposure to fluoxetine (Prozac). JAMA 269(17):2246–2248 (May 5) 1993. Cohen, L. S., Friedman, J. M., Jefferson, J. W., Johnson, E. M., and Weiner, M. L. A reevaluation of risk of in utero exposure to lithium. JAMA 271(2):146–150 (January 12) 1994. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Thyroid disease in pregnancy. ACOG Pract. Bull. 37:1–8 (August) 2002. Barrilleaux, R. S., and Martin, J. N. Hypertensive therapy during pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):22–34 (March) 2002. Jannet, D., Carbonne, B., Sebban, E., and Milliez, J. Nicardipine versus metoprolol in the treatment of hypertension during pregnancy: a randomized comparative trial. Obstet. Gynecol. 84(3):354–358 (September) 1994. Hansen, W. F., and Yankowitz, J. Pharmacologic therapy for medical disorders during pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):136–152 (March) 2002. Jeyabalan, A., and Caritis, S. N. Pharmacologic inhibition of preterm labor. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):99–113 (March) 2002. Reedy, N. J. Addressing the Epidemic: Pharmacotherapeutic management of diabetes in women. J. Midwifery Womens Health 47(6):471–486 (November/December) 2002. Gonzalez, J. L. Management of diabetes in pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):163–169 (March) 2002. Langer, O., Conway, D., Berkus, M., Xenakis, E., and Gonzales, O. A comparison of glyburide and insulin in women with gestation diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 343(16):1134–1138 (October 19) 2000.

275

95. Leslie, K. K. Chemotherapy and pregnancy.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

105.

106.

107.

108.

109.

110.

Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 45(1):153–164 (March) 2002. Miller, R. Fetal drug therapy: principles and issues. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 34(2):241–250 (June) 1991. Auerbach, K. G. Breastfeeding and maternal medication use. JOGNN 28(5):554–563 (September/October) 1999. Ito, S. Drug therapy for breast-feeding women. N. Engl. J. Med. 343(2):118–126 (July 13) 2000. Riordan, J., and Auerbach, K. Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, 2nd ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 1999. Briggs, G. G., Freeman, R., and Sumner, S. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 2001. Hale, T. Medications and Mother’s Milk. Austin, TX: Pharmasoft Publishing, 2000, pp. 278–280. Ito, S. Drug therapy for breast-feeding women. N. Engl. J. Med. 343(2):118–126 (July 13) 2000. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk: policy statement. Pediatrics 108(3):776–789 (September) 2001. Briggs, G. G., Freeman, R., and Sumner, S. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins, 2001. Lawrence, R. A. Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession. St Louis, MO: Mosby, 1999. Lawrence, R. A. Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession. St Louis, MO: Mosby, 1999. Crowell, M. K., Hill, P. D., and Humenick, S. S. Relationship between obstetric analgesia and time of effective breast feeding. J. Nurse-Midwifery 39(3):150–156 (May/June) 1994. Chen, Y. Synergistic effect of passive smoking and artificial feeding on hospitalization for respiratory illness in early childhood. Chest 95(5):1004–1007 (May) 1989. Lawrence, R. A. Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession. St Louis, MO: Mosby, 1999. Riordan, J., and Auerbach, K. Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, 2nd ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 1999.

276

Part II Primary Care of Women

Additional References American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Substance Abuse and Committee on Children with Disabilities. Fetal alcohol syndrome and alcohol related neurodevelopmental disorders: policy statement. Pediatrics 106(2 pt 1):358–361 (August) 2000. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Teratology. ACOG Educ. Bull. 236:1–8, 1997. Ances, B. M. New concerns about thalidomide. Obstet. Gynecol. 99(1):125–128 (January) 2002. Flanders-Stepans, M. Uncertainty exists in recommendations for reducing prenatal exposure to mercury. J. Perinat. Educ. 8(4):40–42 (July/August) 1999. Gonzalez, C. H., Marques-Dias, M. J., Kim, C. A., et al. Congenital abnormalities in Brazilian children associated with misoprostol misuse in first trimester. Lancet 135(9116):1624–1628 (May 30) 1998.

Hansen, D., Lou, H., and Olsen, J. Serious life events and congenital malformations: a national study with complete followup. Lancet 356(9233):875–880 (September 9) 2000. Holmes, L., Harvey, E., Coull, B., et al. The teratogenicity of anticonvulsant drugs. N. Engl. J. Med. 344(15):1132–1138 (April 12) 2000. Paztuszak, A., Schüler L., Speck-Martins C. E., et al. Use of misoprostol during pregnancy and Mobius syndrome in infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 338(26):1881–1885 (June 25) 1998. Rubin, P. Drug treatment during pregnancy. Br. J. Med. 317(7220):1503–1506 (November 28) 1998. Samren, E., van Duijn, C. M., Christiaens, G. C., Hofman, A., and Lindhout D. Antiepileptic drug regimens and major congenital abnormalities in the offspring. Ann. Neurol. 46(5):739–746 (November) 1999. Sibai, B. M. Treatment of hypertension in pregnant women. N. Engl. J. Med. 335(4):257–265 (July 25) 1996.

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

277

Appendix A Top 200 Drugs by Rank, by Generic Name, and by Brand Name

TABLE 10A-1

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Rank

Rank

Generic Name

Brand Name

Manufacturer

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

Hydrocodone w/APAP Atorvastatin Conjugated Estrogens Atenolol Levothyroxine Azithromycin Furosemide Amoxicillin Amlodipine Alprazolam Albuterol Loratadine Hydrochlorothiazide Omeprazole Sertraline Paroxetine Triamterene/HCTZ Lansoprazole Ibuprofen Celecoxib Simvastatin Cephalexin Metformin Rofecoxib Lisinopril Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Propoxyphene N/APAP Conjugated Estrogens/Medroxyprogesterone Prednisone Norgestimate/Ethinyl Estradiol Acetaminophen/Codeine Cetirizine Fexofenadine Levothyroxine Amoxicillin Metoprolol Lorazepam Metoprolol Fluoxetine Ranitidine Zolpidem Citalopram Amitriptyline Alendronate Quinapril Sildenafil Citrate Pravastatin Naproxen Gabapentin Warfarin

Hydrocodone w/APAP Lipitor Premarin Atenolol Synthroid Zithromax Furosemide Amoxicillin Norvasc Alprazolam Albuterol Aerosol Claritin Hydrochlorothiazide Prilosec Zoloft Paxil Triamterene/HCTZ Prevacid Advil, Motrin, Nuprin Celebrex Zocor Cephalexin Glucophage Vioxx Zestril Augmentin Propoxyphene N/APAP Prempro Prednisone Ortho Tri-Cyclen Acetaminophen/Codeine Zyrtec Allegra Levoxyl Trimox Metoprolol Tartrate Lorazepam Toprol-XL Prozac Ranitidine HCl Ambien Celexa Amitriptyline Fosamax Accupril Viagra Pravachol Naproxen Neurontin Coumadin

Various Parke-Davis Wyeth-Ayerst Various Knoll Pfizer Various Various Pfizer Various Various Schering Various AstraZeneca Pfizer SK Beecham Various Tap Pharm Various Searle Merck Various B-M Squibb Merck Zeneca SK Beecham Various Wyeth-Ayerst Various Ortho Pharm Various Pfizer Hoech Mar R Jones Medical Ind Apothecon Various Various AstraZeneca Lilly Various Searle Forest Pharm Various Merck Parke-Davis Pfizer B-M Squibb Various Parke-Davis Dupont

278

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 10A-1

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Rank (continued)

Rank

Generic Name

Brand Name

Manufacturer

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Ciprofloxacin Verapamil Digoxin Albuterol Bupropion HCL Lisinopril Clonazepam Tramadol Cyclobenzaprine Trazodone Fluticasone Montelukast Diazepam Isosorbide Mononitrate S.A. Glyburide Venlafaxine Levofloxacin Medroxyprogesterone Amoxicillin Fluconazole Potassium Chloride Enalapril Warfarin Carisoprodol Potassium Chloride Trimeth/Sulfameth Fluticasone Propionate Benazepril Mometasone Doxycycline Estradiol Allopurinol Rosiglitazone maleate Clopidogrel Propranolol Amlodipine/Benazepril Methylprednisolone Valsartan Losartan Human Insulin NPH Clonidine Diltiazem Loratidine/Pseudoephedrine Latanoprost Pioglitazone Loratidine/Pseudoephedrine Risperidone Fexofenadine/Pseudoephedrine Amphetamine Mixed Salts Doxazosin

Cipro Verapamil HCl Lanoxin Albuterol Sulfate Wellbutrin SR Prinivil Clonazepam Ultram Cyclobenzaprine Trazodone Flonase Singulair Diazepam Isosorbide Mononitrate Glyburide Effexor XR Levaquin Medroxyprogesterone Amoxil Diflucan Potassium Chloride Enalapril Warfarin Carisoprodol K-Dur Cotrim Flovent Lotensin Nasonex Doxycycline Hyclate Estradiol Allopurinol Avandia Plavix Propranolol Lotrel Methylprednisolone Diovan Cozaar Humulin N Clonidine Diltiazem HCl Claritin D 24HR Xalatan Actos Claritin D 12HR Risperdal Allegra-D Adderall Doxazosin

Bayer Pharm Various Glaxo Wellcome Various Glaxo Wellcome Merck Various McNeil Various Various Glaxo Wellcome Schein Mylan Various Various Wyeth-Ayerst McNeil Various SK Beecham Pfizer Various Various Various Various Key Pharm Teva Glaxo Wellcome Novartis Schering Various Various Various SK-Beecham Sanofi Various Novartis Various Novartis Merck Lilly Various Various Schering Pharmacia/Upjohn Takeda Schering Janssen Hoech Mar R Shire Rchwd Various

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

TABLE 10A-1

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Rank (continued)

Rank

Generic Name

Brand Name

Manufacturer

101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150

Raloxifene Norethindrone/Ethinyl Estradiol Folic Acid Penicillin VK Oxycodone Temazepam Diltiazem Salmeterol Fosinopril Oxycodone/APAP Ramipril Promethazine Terazosin Olanzapine Gemfibrozil Levothyroxine Norethindrone/Ethinyl Estradiol Sumatriptan Hydroxyzine Meclizine Losartan/HCTZ Rabeprazole Phenytoin Clarithromycin Glimepiride Pantoprazole Potassium Chloride Spironolactone Ipratropium/Albuterol Tamsulosin Penicillin VK Lisinopril/HCTZ Metoclopramide Minocycline Bisoprolol/HCTZ Digoxin Valsartan/HCTZ Metronidazole Cefprozil Triamcinolone Glipizide Human Insulin 70/30 Ethinyl Estradiol/Norethindrone Levonorgestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Cefuroxime Nystatin Captopril Promethazine/Codeine Acyclovir Norgestimate/Ethinyl Estradiol

Evista Ortho-Novum Folic Acid Penicillin VK Oxycontin Temazepam Cartia XT Serevent Monopril Oxycodone/APAP Altace Promethazine Terazosin Zyprexa Gemfibrozil Levothroid Loestrin Fe Imitrex Oral Hydroxyzine HCl Meclizine Hyzaar Aciphex Dilantin Biaxin Amaryl Protonix Klor-Con Spironolactone Combivent Flomax Veetids Zestoretic Metoclopramide Minocycline Bisoprolol/HCTZ Digitek Diovan HCT Metronidazole Cefzil Triamcinolone Acetonide Glipizide Humulin 70/30 Necon Alesse 28 Ceftin Nystatin Captopril Promethazine/Codeine Acyclovir Ortho-Cyclen

Lilly Ortho Pharm Various Various Purdue Various Andrx Glaxo Wellcome B-M Squibb Various Monarch Various Various Lilly Various Forest Parke-Davis Glaxo Wellcome Various Various Merck Eisai Parke-Davis Abbott Hoech Mar R Wyeth Upsher-Smith Various Boehr lngel Abbott Apothecon Zeneca Various Various Various Bertek Novartis Various B-M Squibb Various Various Lilly Watson Wyeth-Ayerst Glaxo Wellcome Various Various Various Various Ortho Pharm

279

280

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 10A-1

*

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Rank (continued)

Rank

Generic Name

Brand Name

Manufacturer

151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200

Oxycodone/APAP Irbesartan Nefazodone Mirtazapine Valacyclovir Methylphenidate Cerivastatin Fluoxetine Nitrofurantoin Methylphenidate XR Loratadine Glyburide/Metformin Metformin Diltiazem Desogestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Mupirocin L-Norgestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Fluvastatin Aspirin Clarithromycin Clindamycin Esomeprazole Metaxalone Nortriptyline Cimetidine Fenofibrate Iprotropium Bromide Tamoxifen Calcitonin Salmon Felodipine Levonorgestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Salmeterol/Fluticasone Theophylline Tetracycline Tolterodine Gatifloxacin Nifedipine Diclofenac Triamcinolone Acetonide Promethazine Indomethacin Benzonatate Phenobarbital Naproxen Sodium Mometasone Hydrocodone/Ibuprofen Glipizide Divalproex Nitroglycerin Phenazopyridine

Roxicet Avapro Serzone Remeron Valtrex Methylphenidate Baycol* Fluoxetine Macrobid Concerta Claritin Reditabs Glucovance Glucophage XR Tiazac Mircette Bactroban Triphasil Lescol Aspirin Biaxin XL Clindamycin Nexium Skelaxin Nortriptyline Cimetidine Tricor Atrovent Tamoxifen Miacalcin Plendil Trivora-28 Advair Diskus Theophylline Tetracycline Detrol Tequin Nifedipine ER Diclofenac Nasacort AQ Phenergan Indomethacin Benzonatate Phenobarbital Naproxen Sodium Elocon Vicoprofen Glucotrol XL Depakote Nitroglycerin Phenazopyridine

Roxane B-M Squibb B-M Squibb Organon Glaxo Wellcome Various Bayer Various Procter and Gamble Alza Schering B-M Squibb B-M Squibb Forest Organon SK Beecham Wyeth-Ayerst Novartis Various Abbott Various AstraZeneca Elan Various Various Abbott Boehr lngel Various Novartis AstraZeneca Watson Glaxo Wellcome Various Various Pharmacia-Upjohn B-M Squibb Various Various Hoech Mar R R.P.R. Various Various Various Various Schering Knoll Pfizer Abbott Various Various

Removed from U.S. market in 2001.

Source: www.rxlist.com. Based upon more than 3.1 billion prescriptions; data furnished by NDC Health.

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

TABLE 10A-2

*

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Generic Name

Generic Name

Brand Name

Manufacturer

Rank

Acetaminophen/Codeine Acyclovir Albuterol Albuterol Alendronate Allopurinol Alprazolam Amitriptyline Amlodipine Amlodipine/Benazepril Amoxicillin Amoxicillin Amoxicillin Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Amphetamine Mixed Salts Aspirin Atenolol Atorvastatin Azithromycin Benazepril Benzonatate Bisoprolol/HCTZ Bupropion HCL Calcitonin Salmon Captopril Carisoprodol Cefprozil Cefuroxime Celecoxib Cephalexin Cerivastatin Cetirizine Cimetidine Ciprofloxacin Citalopram Clarithromycin Clarithromycin Clindamycin Clonazepam Clonidine Clopidogrel Conjugated Estrogens Conjugated Estrogens/Medroxyprogesterone Cyclobenzaprine Desogestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Diazepam Diclofenac Digoxin Digoxin Diltiazem

Acetaminophen/Codeine Acyclovir Albuterol Aerosol Albuterol Sulfate Fosamax Allopurinol Alprazolam Amitriptyline Norvasc Lotrel Amoxicillin Trimox Amoxil Augmentin Adderall Aspirin Atenolol Lipitor Zithromax Lotensin Benzonatate Bisoprolol/HCTZ Wellbutrin SR Miacalcin Captopril Carisoprodol Cefzil Ceftin Celebrex Cephalexin Baycol* Zyrtec Cimetidine Cipro Celexa Biaxin Biaxin XL Clindamycin Clonazepam Clonidine Plavix Premarin Prempro Cyclobenzaprine Mircette Diazepam Diclofenac Lanoxin Digitek Diltiazem HCl

Various Various Various Various Merck Various Various Various Pfizer Novartis Various Apothecon SK Beecham SK Beecham Shire Rchwd Various Various Parke-Davis Pfizer Novartis Various Various Glaxo Wellcome Novartis Various Various B-M Squibb Glaxo Wellcome Searle Various Bayer Pfizer Various Bayer Pharm Forest Pharm Abbott Abbott Various Various Various Sanofi Wyeth-Ayerst Wyeth-Ayerst Various Organon Mylan Various Glaxo Wellcome Bertek Various

31 149 11 54 44 82 10 43 9 86 8 35 69 26 99 169 4 2 6 78 192 135 55 179 147 74 139 145 20 22 157 32 175 51 42 124 170 171 57 91 84 3 28 59 165 63 188 53 136 92

Removed from U.S. market in 2001.

281

282

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 10A-2

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Generic Name (continued)

Generic Name

Brand Name

Manufacturer

Rank

Diltiazem Diltiazem Divalproex Doxazosin Doxycycline Enalapril Esomeprazole Estradiol Ethinyl Estradiol/Norethindrone Felodipine Fenofibrate Fexofenadine Fexofenadine/Pseudoephedrine Fluconazole Fluoxetine Fluoxetine Fluticasone Fluticasone Propionate Fluvastatin Folic Acid Fosinopril Furosemide Gabapentin Gatifloxacin Gemfibrozil Glimepiride Glipizide Glipizide Glyburide Glyburide/Metformin Human Insulin 70/30 Human Insulin NPH Hydrochlorothiazide Hydrocodone/Ibuprofen Hydrocodone w/APAP Hydroxyzine Ibuprofen Indomethacin Ipratropium/Albuterol Iprotropium Bromide Irbesartan Isosorbide Mononitrate S.A. Lansoprazole Latanoprost Levofloxacin Levonorgestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Levonorgestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Levothyroxine Levothyroxine Levothyroxine Lisinopril

Cartia XT Tiazac Depakote Doxazosin Doxycycline Hyclate Enalapril Nexium Estradiol Necon Plendil Tricor Allegra Allegra-D Diflucan Prozac Fluoxetine Flonase Flovent Lescol Folic Acid Monopril Furosemide Neurontin Tequin Gemfibrozil Amaryl Glipizide Glucotrol XL Glyburide Glucovance Humulin 70/30 Humulin N Hydrochlorothiazide Vicoprofen Hydrocodone w/APAP Hydroxyzine HCl Advil, Motrin, Nuprin Indomethacin Combivent Atrovent Avapro Isosorbide Mononitrate Prevacid Xalatan Levaquin Trivora-28 Alesse 28 Synthroid Levoxyl Levothroid Zestril

Andrx Forest Abbott Various Various Various AstraZeneca Various Watson AstraZeneca Abbott Hoech Mar R Hoech Mar R Pfizer Lilly Various Glaxo Wellcome Glaxo Wellcome Novartis Various B-M Squibb Various Parke-Davis B-M Squibb Various Hoech Mar R Various Pfizer Various B-M Squibb Lilly Lilly Various Knoll Various Various Various Various Boehr lngel Boehr lngel B-M Squibb Various Tap Pharm Pharmacia/Upjohn McNeil Watson Wyeth-Ayerst Knoll Jones Medical Ind Forest Zeneca

107 164 198 100 80 72 172 81 143 180 176 33 98 70 39 158 61 77 168 103 109 7 49 186 115 125 141 197 65 162 142 90 13 196 1 119 19 191 129 177 152 64 18 94 67 181 144 5 34 116 25

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

TABLE 10A-2

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Generic Name (continued)

Generic Name

Brand Name

Manufacturer

Rank

Lisinopril Lisinopril/HCTZ L-Norgestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Loratadine Loratadine Loratidine/Pseudoephedrine Loratidine/Pseudoephedrine Lorazepam Losartan Losartan/HCTZ Meclizine Medroxyprogesterone Metaxalone Metformin Metformin Methylphenidate Methylphenidate XR Methylprednisolone Metoclopramide Metoprolol Metoprolol Metronidazole Minocycline Mirtazapine Mometasone Mometasone Montelukast Mupirocin Naproxen Naproxen Sodium Nefazodone Nifedipine Nitrofurantoin Nitroglycerin Norethindrone/Ethinyl Estradiol Norethindrone/Ethinyl Estradiol Norgestimate/Ethinyl Estradiol Norgestimate/Ethinyl Estradiol Nortriptyline Nystatin Olanzapine Omeprazole Oxycodone Oxycodone/APAP Oxycodone/APAP Pantoprazole Paroxetine Penicillin VK Penicillin VK Phenazopyridine Phenobarbital

Prinivil Zestoretic Triphasil Claritin Claritin Reditabs Claritin D 24HR Claritin D 12HR Lorazepam Cozaar Hyzaar Meclizine Medroxyprogesterone Skelaxin Glucophage Glucophage XR Methylphenidate Concerta Methylprednisolone Metoclopramide Metoprolol Tartrate Toprol-XL Metronidazole Minocycline Remeron Nasonex Elocon Singulair Bactroban Naproxen Naproxen Sodium Serzone Nifedipine ER Macrobid Nitroglycerin Loestrin Fe Ortho-Novum Ortho Tri-Cyclen Ortho-Cyclen Nortriptyline Nystatin Zyprexa Prilosec Oxycontin Oxycodone/APAP Roxicet Protonix Paxil Penicillin VK Veetids Phenazopyridine Phenobarbital

Merck Zeneca Wyeth-Ayerst Schering Schering Schering Schering Various Merck Merck Various Various Elan B-M Squibb B-M Squibb Various Alza Various Various Various AstraZeneca Various Various Organon Schering Schering Schein SK Beecham Various Various B-M Squibb Various Procter and Gamble Various Parke-Davis Ortho Pharm Ortho Pharm Ortho Pharm Various Various Lilly AstraZeneca Purdue Various Roxane Wyeth SK Beecham Various Apothecon Various Various

56 132 167 12 161 93 96 37 89 121 120 68 173 23 163 156 160 87 133 36 38 138 134 154 79 195 62 166 48 194 153 187 159 199 117 102 30 150 174 146 114 14 105 110 151 126 16 104 131 200 193

283

284

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 10A-2

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Generic Name (continued)

Generic Name

Brand Name

Manufacturer

Rank

Phenytoin Pioglitazone Potassium Chloride Potassium Chloride Potassium Chloride Pravastatin Prednisone Promethazine Promethazine Promethazine/Codeine Propoxyphene N/APAP Propranolol Quinapril Rabeprazole Raloxifene Ramipril Ranitidine Risperidone Rofecoxib Rosiglitazone maleate Salmeterol Salmeterol/Fluticasone Sertraline Sildenafil Citrate Simvastatin Spironolactone Sumatriptan Tamoxifen Tamsulosin Temazepam Terazosin Tetracycline Theophylline Tolterodine Tramadol Trazodone Triamcinolone Triamcinolone Acetonide Triamterene/HCTZ Trimeth/Sulfameth Valacyclovir Valsartan Valsartan/HCTZ Venlafaxine Verapamil Warfarin Warfarin Zolpidem

Dilantin Actos Potassium Chloride K-Dur Klor-Con Pravachol Prednisone Promethazine Phenergan Promethazine/Codeine Propoxyphene N/APAP Propranolol Accupril Aciphex Evista Altace Ranitidine HCl Risperdal Vioxx Avandia Serevent Advair Diskus Zoloft Viagra Zocor Spironolactone Imitrex Oral Tamoxifen Flomax Temazepam Terazosin Tetracycline Theophylline Detrol Ultram Trazodone Triamcinolone Acetonide Nasacort AQ Triamterene/HCTZ Cotrim Valtrex Diovan Diovan HCT Effexor XR Verapamil HCl Coumadin Warfarin Ambien

Parke-Davis Takeda Various Key Pharm Upsher-Smith B-M Squibb Various Various R.P.R. Various Various Various Parke-Davis Eisai Lilly Monarch Various Janssen Merck SK-Beecham Glaxo Wellcome Glaxo Wellcome Pfizer Pfizer Merck Various Glaxo Wellcome Various Abbott Various Various Various Various Pharmacia-Upjohn McNeil Various Various Hoech Mar R Various Teva Glaxo Wellcome Novartis Novartis Wyeth-Ayerst Various Dupont Various Searle

123 95 71 75 127 47 29 112 190 148 27 85 45 122 101 111 40 97 24 83 108 182 15 46 21 128 118 178 130 106 113 184 183 185 58 60 140 189 17 76 155 88 137 66 52 50 73 41

Source: www.rxlist.com. Based upon more than 3.1 billion prescriptions; data furnished by NDC Health.

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

TABLE 10A-3

*

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Brand Name

Brand Name

Generic Name

Manufacturer

Rank

Accupril Acetaminophen/Codeine Aciphex Actos Acyclovir Adderall Advair Diskus Advil Albuterol Aerosol Albuterol Sulfate Alesse 28 Allegra Allegra-D Allopurinol Alprazolam Altace Amaryl Ambien Amitriptyline Amoxicillin Amoxil Aspirin Atenolol Atrovent Augmentin Avandia Avapro Bactroban Baycol* Benzonatate Biaxin Biaxin XL Bisoprolol/HCTZ Captopril Carisoprodol Cartia XT Ceftin Cefzil Celebrex Celexa Cephalexin Cimetidine Cipro Claritin Claritin D 12HR Claritin D 24HR Claritin Reditabs Clindamycin Clonazepam Clonidine

Quinapril Acetaminophen/Codeine Rabeprazole Pioglitazone Acyclovir Amphetamine Mixed Salts Salmeterol/Fluticasone Ibuprofen Albuterol Albuterol Levonorgestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Fexofenadine Fexofenadine/Pseudoephedrine Allopurinol Alprazolam Ramipril Glimepiride Zolpidem Amitriptyline Amoxicillin Amoxicillin Aspirin Atenolol Iprotropium Bromide Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Rosiglitazone maleate Irbesartan Mupirocin Cerivastatin Benzonatate Clarithromycin Clarithromycin Bisoprolol/HCTZ Captopril Carisoprodol Diltiazem Cefuroxime Cefprozil Celecoxib Citalopram Cephalexin Cimetidine Ciprofloxacin Loratadine Loratidine/Pseudoephedrine Loratidine/Pseudoephedrine Loratadine Clindamycin Clonazepam Clonidine

Parke-Davis Various Eisai Takeda Various Shire Rchwd Glaxo Wellcome Wyeth Various Various Wyeth-Ayerst Hoech Mar R Hoech Mar R Various Various Monarch Hoech Mar R Searle Various Various SK Beecham Various Various Boehr lngel SK Beecham SK Beecham B-M Squibb SK Beecham Bayer Various Abbott Abbott Various Various Various Andrx Glaxo Wellcome B-M Squibb Searle Forest Pharm Various Various Bayer Pharm Schering Schering Schering Schering Various Various Various

45 31 122 95 149 99 182 19 11 54 144 33 98 82 10 111 125 41 43 8 69 169 4 177 26 83 152 166 157 192 124 170 135 147 74 107 145 139 20 42 22 175 51 12 96 93 161 171 57 91

Removed from U.S. market in 2001.

285

286

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 10A-3

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Brand Name (continued)

Brand Name

Generic Name

Manufacturer

Rank

Combivent Concerta Cotrim Coumadin Cozaar Cyclobenzaprine Depakote Detrol Diazepam Diclofenac Diflucan Digitek Dilantin Diltiazem HCl Diovan Diovan HCT Doxazosin Doxycycline Hyclate Effexor XR Elocon Enalapril Estradiol Evista Flomax Flonase Flovent Fluoxetine Folic Acid Fosamax Furosemide Gemfibrozil Glipizide Glucophage Glucophage XR Glucotrol XL Glucovance Glyburide Humulin 70/30 Humulin N Hydrochlorothiazide Hydrocodone w/APAP Hydroxyzine HCl Hyzaar Ibuprofen Imitrex Oral Indomethacin Isosorbide Mononitrate K-Dur Klor-Con Lanoxin Lescol

Ipratropium/Albuterol Methylphenidate XR Trimeth/Sulfameth Warfarin Losartan Cyclobenzaprine Divalproex Tolterodine Diazepam Diclofenac Fluconazole Digoxin Phenytoin Diltiazem Valsartan Valsartan/HCTZ Doxazosin Doxycycline Venlafaxine Mometasone Enalapril Estradiol Raloxifene Tamsulosin Fluticasone Fluticasone Propionate Fluoxetine Folic Acid Alendronate Furosemide Gemfibrozil Glipizide Metformin Metformin Glipizide Glyburide/Metformin Glyburide Human Insulin 70/30 Human Insulin NPH Hydrochlorothiazide Hydrocodone w/APAP Hydroxyzine Losartan/HCTZ Ibuprofen Sumatriptan Indomethacin Isosorbide Mononitrate S.A. Potassium Chloride Potassium Chloride Digoxin Fluvastatin

Boehr lngel Alza Teva Dupont Merck Various Abbott Pharmacia-Upjohn Mylan Various Pfizer Bertek Parke-Davis Various Novartis Novartis Various Various Wyeth-Ayerst Schering Various Various Lilly Abbott Glaxo Wellcome Glaxo Wellcome Various Various Merck Various Various Various B-M Squibb B-M Squibb Pfizer B-M Squibb Various Lilly Lilly Various Various Various Merck Various Glaxo Wellcome Various Various Key Pharm Upsher-Smith Glaxo Wellcome Novartis

129 160 76 50 89 59 198 185 63 188 70 136 123 92 88 137 100 80 66 195 72 81 101 130 61 77 158 103 44 7 115 141 23 163 197 162 65 142 90 13 1 119 121 19 118 191 64 75 127 53 168

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

TABLE 10A-3

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Brand Name (continued)

Brand Name

Generic Name

Manufacturer

Rank

Levaquin Levothroid Levoxyl Lipitor Loestrin Fe Lorazepam Lotensin Lotrel Macrobid Meclizine Medroxyprogesterone Methylphenidate Methylprednisolone Metoclopramide Metoprolol Tartrate Metronidazole Miacalcin Minocycline Mircette Monopril Motrin Naproxen Naproxen Sodium Nasacort AQ Nasonex Necon Neurontin Nexium Nifedipine ER Nitroglycerin Nortriptyline Norvasc Nuprin Nystatin Ortho Tri-Cyclen Ortho-Cyclen Ortho-Novum Oxycodone/APAP Oxycontin Paxil Penicillin VK Phenazopyridine Phenergan Phenobarbital Plavix Plendil Potassium Chloride Pravachol Prednisone Premarin Prempro

Levofloxacin Levothyroxine Levothyroxine Atorvastatin Norethindrone/Ethinyl Estradiol Lorazepam Benazepril Amlodipine/Benazepril Nitrofurantoin Meclizine Medroxyprogesterone Methylphenidate Methylprednisolone Metoclopramide Metoprolol Metronidazole Calcitonin Salmon Minocycline Desogestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Fosinopril Ibuprofen Naproxen Naproxen Sodium Triamcinolone Acetonide Mometasone Ethinyl Estradiol/Norethindrone Gabapentin Esomeprazole Nifedipine Nitroglycerin Nortriptyline Amlodipine Ibuprofen Nystatin Norgestimate/Ethinyl Estradiol Norgestimate/Ethinyl Estradiol Norethindrone/Ethinyl Estradiol Oxycodone/APAP Oxycodone Paroxetine Penicillin VK Phenazopyridine Promethazine Phenobarbital Clopidogrel Felodipine Potassium Chloride Pravastatin Prednisone Conjugated Estrogens Conjugated Estrogens/Medroxyprogesterone

McNeil Forest Jones Medical Ind Parke-Davis Parke-Davis Various Novartis Novartis Procter and Gamble Various Various Various Various Various Various Various Novartis Various Organon B-M Squibb McNeil Various Various Hoech Mar R Schering Watson Parke-Davis AstraZeneca Various Various Various Pfizer B-M Squibb Various Ortho Pharm Ortho Pharm Ortho Pharm Various Purdue SK Beecham Various Various R.P.R. Various Sanofi AstraZeneca Various B-M Squibb Various Wyeth-Ayerst Wyeth-Ayerst

67 116 34 2 117 37 78 86 159 120 68 156 87 133 36 138 179 134 165 109 19 48 194 189 79 143 49 172 187 199 174 9 19 146 30 150 102 110 105 16 104 200 190 193 84 180 71 47 29 3 28

287

288

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 10A-3

Top 200 Drugs, 2001: By Brand Name (continued)

Brand Name

Generic Name

Manufacturer

Rank

Prevacid Prilosec Prinivil Promethazine Promethazine/Codeine Propoxyphene N/APAP Propranolol Protonix Prozac Ranitidine HCl Remeron Risperdal Roxicet Serevent Serzone Singulair Skelaxin Spironolactone Synthroid Tamoxifen Temazepam Tequin Terazosin Tetracycline Theophylline Tiazac Toprol-XL Trazodone Triamcinolone Acetonide Triamterene/HCTZ Tricor Trimox Triphasil Trivora-28 Ultram Valtrex Veetids Verapamil HCl Viagra Vicoprofen Vioxx Warfarin Wellbutrin SR Xalatan Zestoretic Zestril Zithromax Zocor Zoloft Zyprexa Zyrtec

Lansoprazole Omeprazole Lisinopril Promethazine Promethazine/Codeine Propoxyphene N/APAP Propranolol Pantoprazole Fluoxetine Ranitidine Mirtazapine Risperidone Oxycodone/APAP Salmeterol Nefazodone Montelukast Metaxalone Spironolactone Levothyroxine Tamoxifen Temazepam Gatifloxacin Terazosin Tetracycline Theophylline Diltiazem Metoprolol Trazodone Triamcinolone Triamterene/HCTZ Fenofibrate Amoxicillin L-Norgestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Levonorgestrel/Ethinyl Estradiol Tramadol Valacyclovir Penicillin VK Verapamil Sildenafil Citrate Hydrocodone/Ibuprofen Rofecoxib Warfarin Bupropion HCL Latanoprost Lisinopril/HCTZ Lisinopril Azithromycin Simvastatin Sertraline Olanzapine Cetirizine

Tap Pharm AstraZeneca Merck Various Various Various Various Wyeth Lilly Various Organon Janssen Roxane Glaxo Wellcome B-M Squibb Schein Elan Various Knoll Various Various B-M Squibb Various Various Various Forest AstraZeneca Various Various Various Abbott Apothecon Wyeth-Ayerst Watson McNeil Glaxo Wellcome Apothecon Various Pfizer Knoll Merck Various Glaxo Wellcome Pharmacia/Upjohn Zeneca Zeneca Pfizer Merck Pfizer Lilly Pfizer

18 14 56 112 148 27 85 126 39 40 154 97 151 108 153 62 173 128 5 178 106 186 113 184 183 164 38 60 140 17 176 35 167 181 58 155 131 52 46 196 24 73 55 94 132 25 6 21 15 114 32

Source: www.rxlist.com. Based upon more than 3.1 billion prescriptions; data furnished by NDC Health.

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

Appendix B Teratology Information Systems by Location ALABAMA Alabama Birth Defects Surveillance University South Alabama (800) 423-8324 or (334) 460-7691 Department Medical Genetics 307 University Blvd., Rm. 214, CC/CB Mobile, AL 36688-0002 Geographic Area Served: AL, MS, FL Hours: 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM, M-F ARIZONA Arizona Teratogen Information Program (888) 285-3410 or (520) 626-3410 (in Tucson) University of Arizona PO Box 245079 Tucson, AZ 85724-5079 Geographic Area Served: AZ/National Hours: 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM, M-F ARKANSAS Arkansas Teratogen Information Service (800) 358-7229 or (501) 296-1700 University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology Arkansas Genetics Program 4301 West Markham - Slot 506 Little Rock, AR 72205 Geographic Area Served: AR Hours: 8:00 AM to 4:30 PM, M-F CALIFORNIA California Teratogen Information Service and Clinical Research Program (800) 532-3749 (CA Only) or (619) 543-2131 UCSD Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics 200 W. Arbor Drive #8446 San Diego, CA 92103-8446 Geographic Area Served: CA Hours: 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM, M-F

289

Motherisk Program (416) 813-6780 Hospital for Sick Children 555 University Ave. Toronto, Ont. CN M5G 1X8 Geographic Area Served: Ontario (although calls accepted from across Canada) Hours: 9:00 to 5:00 PM, M-F EST CONNECTICUT Connecticut Pregnancy Exposure Information Service (800) 325-5391 (CT only) or (860) 679-8850 University of Connecticut Health Center Division of Human Genetics MC6310 263 Farmington Ave. Farmington, CT 06030-6310 Geographic Area Served: CT Hours: 8:00 AM to 4 PM, M-Th, 8:00 AM to 12:00 PM, F DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA (MARYLAND) Reproductive Toxicology Center, a Non-Profit Foundation (301) 620-8690 or (301) 657-5984 7831 Woodmont Ave., #375 Bethesda, MD 20814 Geographic Area Served: Unrestricted FLORIDA Florida Teratogen Information Service (800) 392-3050 (FL only) or (352) 392-3050 University of Florida Health Science Center Box 100296 Gainesville, FL 32610-0296 Geographic Area Served: Priority to FL calls; open to all callers Hours: 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM, M-F

CANADA

Florida Teratogen Information Service (305) 243-6006 University of Miami P.O. Box 016820 Miami, FL 33101 Geographic Area Served: South Florida Hours: 9:00 AM to 4:30 PM, M-F

IMAGE: Info-Medicaments en Allaitement et Grossesse (514) 345-2333 Pharmacy Dept. Ste. Justine Hospital Montreal (Quebec) H3T1C5 Cn. Geographic Area Served: Province of Quebec Hours: 9:00 AM to 12:00 PM, 1:00 PM to 4:00 PM, M-F

Teratogen Information Service (813) 259-8852 University of South Florida Birth Defects Center Department of Pediatrics 17 Davis Blvd. Tampa, FL 33606 Geographic Area Served: Central Florida Hours: 7:30 AM to 4:30 PM, M-F

290

Part II Primary Care of Women

ILLINOIS

MISSOURI

Illinois Teratogen Information Service (800) 252-4847 (IL only) or (312) 981-4354 680 N. Lake Shore Dr., Suite 1230 Chicago, IL 60611 Geographic Area Served: IL Hours: 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM, M-F

Missouri Teratogen Information Service (800) 645-6164 or (573) 884-1345 University of Missouri Hospital and Clinics 1 Hospital Dr., DC058.00 Columbia, MO 65212 Geographic Area Served: MO Hours: 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM, M-F

INDIANA/KENTUCKY/OHIO Indiana Teratogen Information Service (317) 274-1071 Indiana University Medical Center Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics 1B130 975 W. Walnut St. Indianapolis, IN 46202-5251 Geographic Area Served: Priority to IN callers; Also serves IL, KY, OH Hours: 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM, M-F MASSACHUSETTS/MAINE/NEW HAMPSHIRE/ RHODE ISLAND Massachusetts Teratogen Information Service (MaTIS) (800) 322-5014 (MA only) or (781) 466-8474 Pregnancy Environmental Hotline 40 Second Ave., Suite 520 Waltham, MA 02451 Geographic Area Served: MA, NH, ME, RI Hours: 9:00 AM to 2:00 PM, M-F Genetics and Teratology Unit, Pediatric Service (617) 726-1742 Massachusetts General Hospital Warren Building 801 55 Fruit St. Boston, MA 02114-2696 Geographic Area Served: Eastern Massachusetts Hours 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM, M-F MICHIGAN Michigan Teratogen Information Service (877) 52-MITIS (64847) or (313) 966-9368 4160 John R. St., Suite 616 Detroit, MI 48201 Geographic Area Served: MI and surrounding states Hours 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM, M-F

NEBRASKA Nebraska Teratogen Project (402) 559-5071 University of Nebraska Medical Center 985440 Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, NE 68198-5440 Geographic Area Served: NE Hours: 8:00 AM to 4:30 PM, M-F NEW JERSEY/DELAWARE/PENNSYLVANIA Pregnancy Healthline (888) 722-2903 (NJ) or (856) 665-6000 Southern New Jersey Perinatal Cooperative 2500 McClellan Ave., Suite 110 Pennsauken, NJ 08109-4613 Geographic Area Served: NJ, DE, PA Hours: 10:00 AM to 3:00 PM, M-F NEW YORK Pregnancy Risk Network (800) 724-2454 (then press 1) (NY only) or (716) 882-6791 (then press 1) 976 Delaware Ave. Buffalo, NY 14209 Geographic Area Served: NY Hours: 8:30 AM to 4:00 PM, M-F PEDECS (716) 275-3638 University of Rochester Medical Center Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology 601 Elmwood Ave. Rochester, NY 14642-8668 Geographic Area Served: NY Hours: 8:30 AM to 4:00 PM, M-F

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

NORTH DAKOTA

WASHINGTON/ALASKA/IDAHO

North Dakota Teratogen Information Service (701) 777-4277; Fax: (701) 777-3220 e-mail: [email protected] UND School of Medicine and Health Science Department of Pediatrics, Division of Medical Genetics P.O. Box 9037 Grand Forks, ND 58202-9037 Geographic Area Served: ND Hours: 8:30 AM to 4:30 PM, M-F

CARE Northwest (900) 225-2273 ($8/call) University of Washington Box 357920 Seattle, WA 98195-7920 Geographic Area Served: AK, ID, OR, WA Hours: 8:00 AM to 4:00 PM, M-F

TEXAS Texas Teratogen Information Service (800) 733-4727 or (940) 565-3892 UNT Department of Biology P.O. Box 305220 Denton, TX 76203-5220 Geographic Area Served: TX Hours: 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM, M-F MONTANA Pregnancy RiskLine (801) 328-2229 or (800) 822-2229 Utah Department of Health P.O. Box 144691 Salt Lake City, UT 84114-4691 Geographic Area Served: UT, MT Health Care Professionals served only from ID, NM, WY Hours: 8:30 AM to 4:30 PM, M-F VERMONT Pregnancy Risk Information Service 800-531-9800 (VT only) or 800-932-4609 Vermont Regional Genetics Center 1 Mill St., Box B-10 Burlington, VT 05401 Geographic Area Served: VT and Upstate NY Hours: 1:00 PM to 5:00 PM, Tu and F

291

WEST VIRGINIA West Virginia University Hospitals (304) 293-1572 Physician Office Center PO Box 782 OBGYN Clinic Morgantown, WV 26507 Geographic Area Served: WV and surrounding area WISCONSIN Wisconsin Teratogen Information Service (800) 442-6692 347 Waisman Center 1500 Highland Madison, WI 53705 Geographic Area Served: WI Hours: 9:00 AM to 3:00 PM Source: www.fda.gov

292

Part II Primary Care of Women

Appendix C The Transfer of Drugs and Other Chemicals into Human Milk*

TABLE 10C-1

Cytoxic Drugs That May Interfere with Cellular Metabolism of the Nursing Infant

Drug

Reason for Concern, Reported Sign or Symptom in Infant, or Effect on Lactation

Cyclophosphamide

Possible immune tropenia Possible immune Possible immune Possible immune tropenia

Cyclosporine Doxorubicin* Methotrexate *

suppression; unknown effect on growth or association with carcinogenesis; neusuppression; unknown effect on growth or association with carcinogenesis suppression; unknown effect on growth or association with carcinogenesis suppression; unknown effect on growth or association with carcinogenesis; neu-

Drug is concentrated in human milk.

TABLE 10C-2

Drugs of Abuse for Which Adverse Effects on the Infant During Breastfeeding Have Been Reported*

Drug

Reported Effect or Reasons for Concern

Amphetamine†

Irritability, poor sleeping pattern Cocaine intoxication: irritability, vomiting, diarrhea, tremulousness, seizures Tremors, restlessness, vomiting, poor feeding Only 1 report in literature; no effect mentioned; very long half-life for some components Potent hallucinogen

Cocaine Heroin Marijuana Phencyclidine

* The Committee on Drugs strongly believes that nursing mothers should not ingest drugs of abuse, because they are hazardous to the nursing infant and to the health of the mother. †

Drug is concentrated in human milk.

TABLE 10C-3

Radioactive Compounds That Require Temporary Cessation of Breastfeeding*

Compound

Recommended Time for Cessation of Breastfeeding

Copper 64 (64Cu) Gallium 67 (67Ga) Indium 111 (111In) Iodine 123 (123I) Iodine 125 (125I) Iodine 131 (131I) Iodine 131

Radioactivity in milk present at 50 hr Radioactivity in milk present for 2 wk Very small amount present at 20 hr Radioactivity in milk present up to 36 hr Radioactivity in milk present for 12 d Radioactivity in milk present 2–14 d, depending on study If used for treatment of thyroid cancer, high radioactivity may prolong exposure to infant Radioactivity in milk present 96 hr Radioactivity in milk present 15 hr to 3 d

Radioactive sodium Technetium 99m (99mTc), 99mTc macroaggregates, 99mTc O4 *

Consult nuclear medicine physician before performing diagnostic study so that radionuclide that has the shortest excretion time in breast milk can be used. Before study, the mother should pump her breast and store enough milk in the freezer for feeding the infant; after study, the mother should pump her breast to maintain milk production but discard all milk pumped for the required time that radioactivity is present in milk. Milk samples can be screened by radiology departments for radioactivity before resumption of nursing.

*Source: The 7 tables in this appendix are from the American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Drugs. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human breast milk. Pediatrics. 2001; 108:776–789 or go to: http://www.aap.org/policy/0063.html.

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

TABLE 10C-4

Drugs for Which the Effect on Nursing Infants Is Unknown but May Be of Concern*

Drug

Reported or Possible Effect

Antianxiety Alprazolam Diazepam Lorazepam Midazolam Perphenazine Prazepam† Quazepam Temazepam

None None None None None None -

Antidepressants Amitriptyline Amoxapine Bupropion Clomipramine Desipramine Dothiepin Doxepin Fluoxetine Fluvoxamine Imipramine Nortriptyline Paroxetine Sertraline† Trazodone

None None None None None None None Colic, irritability, feeding and sleep disorders, slow weight gain None None None None None

Antipsychotic Chlorpromazine Chlorprothixene Clozapine† Haloperidol Mesoridazine Trifluoperazine

Galactorrhea in mother; drowsiness and lethargy in infant; decline in developmental scores None None Decline in developmental scores None None

Others Amiodarone Chloramphenicol Clofazimine Lamotrigine Metoclopramide† Metronidazole Tinidazole

293

Possible hypothyroidism Possible idiosyncratic bone marrow suppression Potential for transfer of high percentage of maternal dose; possible increase in skin pigmentation Potential therapeutic serum concentrations in infant None described; dopaminergic blocking agent In vitro mutagen; may discontinue breastfeeding for 12–24 hr to allow excretion of dose when single-dose therapy given to mother See metronidazole

*

Psychotropic drugs, the compounds listed under antianxiety, antidepressant, and antipsychotic categories, are of special concern when given to nursing mothers for long periods. Although there are very few case reports of adverse effects in breastfeeding infants, these drugs do appear in human milk and, thus, could conceivably alter short-term and long-term central nervous system function. †

Drug is concentrated in human milk relative to simultaneous maternal plasma concentrations.

294

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 10C-5

Drugs That Have Been Associated with Significant Effects on Some Nursing Infants and Should Be Given to Nursing Mothers with Caution*

Drug

Reported Effect

Acebutolol 5-Aminosalicylic acid Atenolol Bromocriptine Aspirin (salicylates) Clemastine Ergotamine Lithium Phenindione

Hypotension; bradycardia; tachypnea Diarrhea (1 case) Cyanosis; bradycardia Suppresses lactation; may be hazardous to the mother Metabolic acidosis (1 case) Drowsiness, irritability, refusal to feed, high-pitched cry, neck stiffness (1 case) Vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions (doses used in migraine medications) One-third to one-half therapeutic blood concentration in infants Anticoagulant: increased prothrombin and partial thromboplastin time in 1 infant; not used in United States Sedation; infantile spasms after weaning from milk containing phenobarbital, methemoglobinemia (1 case) Sedation, feeding problems Bloody diarrhea (1 case)

Phenobarbital Primidone Sulfasalazine (salicylazosulfapyridine)

* Blood concentration in the infant may be of clinical importance.

TABLE 10C-6

Maternal Medication Usually Compatible with Breastfeeding*

Drug

Reported Sign or Symptom in Infant or Effect on Lactation

Acetaminophen Acetazolamide Acitretin Acyclovir† Alcohol (ethanol)

None None — None With large amounts, drowsiness, diaphoresis, deep sleep, weakness, decrease in linear growth, abnormal weight gain; maternal ingestion of 1 g/kg daily decreases milk ejection reflex — None — None — None None None None None See Table 10C-5 Suppresses lactation None Rash, weakness, absence of cry with maternal intake of 5.4 g/d None Irritability, poor sleeping pattern, excreted slowly; no effect with moderate intake of caffeinated beverages (2–3 cups per day) None None None Goiter None None None None

Allopurinol Amoxicillin Antimony Atropine Azapropazone (apazone) Aztreonam B1 (thiamin) B6 (pyridoxine) B12 Baclofen Barbiturate Bendroflumethiazide Bishydroxycoumarin (dicumarol) Bromide Butorphanol Caffeine Captopril Carbamazepine Carbetocin Carbimazole Cascara Cefadroxil Cefazolin Cefotaxime

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

TABLE 10C-6

295

Maternal Medication Usually Compatible with Breastfeeding* (continued)

Drug

Reported Sign or Symptom in Infant or Effect on Lactation

Cefoxitin Cefprozil Ceftazidime Ceftriaxone Chloral hydrate Chloroform Chloroquine Chlorothiazide Chlorthalidone Cimetidine† Ciprofloxacin Cisapride Cisplatin Clindamycin Clogestone Codeine Colchicine Contraceptive pill with estrogen/progesterone Cycloserine D (vitamin) Danthron Dapsone Dexbrompheniramine maleate with d-isoephedrine Diatrizoate Digoxin Diltiazem Dipyrone Disopyramide Domperidone Dyphylline† Enalapril Erythromycin† Estradiol Ethambutol Ethanol (cf. alcohol) Ethosuximide Fentanyl Fexofenadine Flecainide Fleroxacin Fluconazole Flufenamic acid Fluorescein Folic acid Gadopentetic (Gadolinium) Gentamicin Gold salts Halothane Hydralazine Hydrochlorothiazide Hydroxychloroquine†

None — None None Sleepiness None None None Excreted slowly None None None Not found in milk None None None — Rare breast enlargement; decrease in milk production and protein content (not confirmed in several studies) None None; follow up infant’s serum calcium level if mother receives pharmacologic doses Increased bowel activity None; sulfonamide detected in infant’s urine Crying, poor sleeping patterns, irritability None None None None None None None — None Withdrawal, vaginal bleeding None — None, drug appears in infant serum — None — One 400-mg dose given to nursing mothers; infants not given breast milk for 48 hr None None — None None None None None None — None

296

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 10C-6

Maternal Medication Usually Compatible with Breastfeeding* (continued)

Drug

Reported Sign or Symptom in Infant or Effect on Lactation

Ibuprofen Indomethacin Interferon-a Iodides Iodine Iodine (povidone-iodine—for example, in a vaginal douche) Iohexol Iopanoic acid Isoniazid

None Seizure (1 case) – May affect thyroid activity; see iodine Goiter Elevated iodine levels in breast milk, odor of iodine on infant’s skin

Ivermectin K1 (vitamin) Kanamycin Ketoconazole Ketorolac Labetalol Levonorgestrel Levothyroxine Lidocaine Loperamide Loratadine Magnesium sulfate Medroxyprogesterone Mefenamic acid Meperidine Methadone Methimazole (active metabolite of carbimazole) Methohexital Methyldopa Methyprylon Metoprolol† Metrizamide Metrizoate Mexiletine Minoxidil Morphine Moxalactam Nadolol† Nalidixic acid Naproxen Nefopam Nifedipine Nitrofurantoin Norethynodrel Norsteroids Noscapine Ofloxacin Oxprenolol Phenylbutazone Phenytoin Piroxicam

None None None; acetyl (hepatotoxic) metabolite secreted but no hepatotoxicity reported in infants None None None None – None – None None – None None None None None None None None None Drowsiness None None None None None None; infant may have measurable blood concentration None None Hemolysis in infant with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency — None — Hemolysis in infant with G6PD deficiency None None None None None None Methemoglobinemia (1 case) None

Chapter 10 Pharmacology and Midwifery

TABLE 10C-6

297

Maternal Medication Usually Compatible with Breastfeeding* (continued)

Drug

Reported Sign or Symptom in Infant or Effect on Lactation

Prednisolone Prednisone Procainamide Progesterone Propoxyphene Propranolol Propylthiouracil Pseudoephedrine† Pyridostigmine Pyrimethamine Quinidine Quinine Riboflavin Rifampin Scopolamine Secobarbital Senna Sotalol Spironolactone Streptomycin Sulbactam Sulfapyridine

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None — None None — None None None Caution in infant with jaundice or G6PD deficiency and ill, stressed, or premature infant; appears in infant’s milk Caution in infant with jaundice or G6PD deficiency and ill, stressed, or premature infant; appears in infant’s milk None None None None None; negligible absorption by infant Irritability None None mentioned; drug not used in United States None None Possible jaundice None None None None None None None

Sulfisoxazole Sumatriptan Suprofen Terbutaline Terfenadine Tetracycline Theophylline Thiopental Thiouracil Ticarcillin Timolol Tolbutamide Tolmetin Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole Triprolidine Valproic acid Verapamil Warfarin Zolpidem *

Drugs listed have been reported in the literature as having the effects listed or no effect. The word “none” means that no observable change was seen in the nursing infant while the mother was ingesting the compound. Dashes indicate no mention of clinical effect on the infant. It is emphasized that many of the literature citations concern single case reports or small series of infants. † Drug is concentrated in human milk.

298

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 10C-7

Food and Environmental Agents: Effects on Breastfeeding

Agent

Reported Sign or Symptom in Infant or Effect on Lactation

Aflatoxin Aspartame Bromide (photographic laboratory) Cadmium Chlordane Chocolate (theobromine)

None Caution if mother or infant has phenylketonuria Potential absorption and bromide transfer into milk; see Table 10C-6 None reported None reported Irritability or increased bowel activity if excess amounts (>16 oz/d) consumed by mother None

DDT, benzene hexachlorides, dieldrin, aldrin, hepatachlorepoxide Fava beans Fluorides Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorophene Lead Mercury, methylmercury Methylmethacrylate Monosodium glutamate Polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated biphenyls Silicone Tetrachloroethylene cleaning fluid (perchloroethylene) Vegetarian diet

Hemolysis in patient with G6PD deficiency None Skin rash, diarrhea, vomiting, dark urine, neurotoxicity, death None; possible contamination of milk from nipple washing Possible neurotoxicity May affect neurodevelopment None None Lack of endurance, hypotonia, sullen, expressionless facies Esophageal dysmotility Obstructive jaundice, dark urine Signs of vitamin B12 deficiency

C H A P T E R

11 Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women LAURA ZEIDENSTEIN, CNM, MSN

Background

coverage of the HIV/AIDS epidemic with its devastating effect on the gay male population. Language changed in public media: the New York Times first printed the words gay and lesbian instead of homosexual after years of active lobbying from various gay and lesbian groups. The mainstreaming of language began to legitimize lesbian and gay issues as worthy of the civil and human rights that were granted to the heterosexual population. This more open social climate had a positive effect on lesbian childbearing as more lesbians incorporated children into their families. Popular culture began to openly portray a particular view of lesbian “culture” in fashion, TV sitcoms, and advertisements. Movies that included empathetic portrayals of lesbians and the realities of discrimination have won national awards. As public visibility increases, however, homophobia, expressed in various forms including extreme violence, continues to occur. Hate crimes against lesbians are also on the rise. Antigay hate crimes accounted for 11.6 percent of the statistics collected by the FBI in 1996, making this the third largest category following racial hate crimes and crimes based on religions. Most lesbians have experienced public verbal attacks because they were lesbian [8]. Lesbians are often afraid to disclose their sexual orientation/practices to their health care provider for fear of negative treatment. In general, lesbians do not feel safe in the clinical setting and thus are more likely to delay health care that includes preventive screening. Understanding a

Lesbianism has a much broader meaning than the narrow dictionary definition of a woman who is sexually attracted to other women. The concept comprises an identity based on a woman’s choices as well as on a sexual orientation, psychological responses, cultural values, and societal expectations. Psychosocial and biomedical aspects of health care are influenced by a woman’s sexual activity with women; thus midwives need to understand how lesbians are unique with respect to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), HIV, cancer risk and screening, childbearing and family formation. It is important to every woman’s well-being that health care providers use language free of heterosexual assumptions. Most lesbians defy stereotypes; any female client can be lesbian or bisexual. Lesbian identity and sexual practices cross all divisions of socioeconomic, racial, ethnic, regional, religious, geographic, and age groups. Surveys estimate that 2 to 10 percent of the population are women sexually active with women. Lesbian sexual practices range from celibacy to sexual activity that may include both men and women. According to research studies, the majority of lesbians have at some point participated in heterosexual coitus [1–9]. Although lesbians have always existed as a marginal group in society, they have become increasingly visible in the mainstream since the 1990s. This visibility is a result of both the women’s movement of the 1970s and 1980s and the media

299

300

Part II Primary Care of Women

client’s culture is essential to developing appropriate assessments and interventions. Thus, midwives need to expand their competency in cultural issues by gaining knowledge and respect for the complexity of lesbian health care. The reasons lesbians may not seek or receive routine health care include fear of discrimination from health care providers; a feeling of detachment and invasion when questioned about sexual history, birth control, and marital status in a homophobic manner; a societal misperception that lesbians do not need the same tests and procedures as heterosexual women; and the lack of lesbian-sensitive and lesbian-knowledgeable health professionals. Access to health care is often blocked or delayed for financial reasons because of inequitable wages and because domestic partner benefits are seldom offered [3, 4, 10–14]. Combating Heterosexist Attitudes Homophobia is culturally constructed. The existence of lesbians calls into question the normative societal ideology about women. This norm identifies heterosexuality as universal, superior, and natural for all women. In a study that explored the cultural roots of homophobia in order to provide a better midwifery service for lesbian clients [15], five themes underlying cultural expression of homophobia were identified: Anxiety about sexual difference Fear of female sexuality The sexualization of lesbianism The characterization of lesbianism as “sick” or “unnatural” 5. The inability to identify lesbians with any certainty 1. 2. 3. 4.

In the context of midwifery, these themes are particularly powerful. The provision of safe and respectful care that honors each individual woman and her family is a component of midwifery care; midwives are thus in a unique position to provide sensitive and effective care to lesbians and bisexual women. The American College of Nurse-Midwives has designated hallmarks that characterize the art and science of midwifery. They include cultural competency and proficiency as well as care to vulnerable populations [16]. The quality of health care is dependent upon the relationship between the midwife and the client. Research indicates that many lesbians believe their care is compromised because of negative attitudes held by health care practitioners.

Disclosure of lesbian identity is known to evoke a wide array of negative reactions from health care providers, ranging from embarrassment to overt hostility. Reported responses include fear, ostracism, refusal to treat, cool detachment, shock, pity, voyeuristic curiosity, demeaning jokes, avoidance of physical contact, insults, invasions of privacy, rough physical handling, and breaches of confidentiality [8, 14, 15, 17]. Heterosexist health care structures make lesbians feel invisible and unwelcome. The assumption that heterosexuality is the norm is apparent in health brochures and posters, intake financial forms, health intake and history forms, interviews, comments, and other forms of communication. In hospital-based facilities, preventive services for women are located almost exclusively in birth control and obstetric clinics and outreach to lesbian communities is largely nonexistent. There is no validation for lesbians in the health care system. Repeated negative experiences often influence lesbians to delay their health care needs until they can no longer be ignored. Lesbians and women who partner with women may also delay care because of insufficient finances, lack of insurance, past negative experiences, or failure to see themselves at risk for illnesses such as sexually transmitted infections, breast cancer, and cervical cancer. Midwives need to involve themselves in exploring the unique health care needs of lesbians by communicating an openness to care. It is both the process of communication and the content of the message that demonstrate a provider’s ability to provide care to lesbians. Lesbian clients must be able to trust that their life experiences and identities are not beyond the routine of a competent midwife. All midwives should acquire basic knowledge about the health care needs of lesbians, bisexual, and transgender (male-to-female) lesbians and of available resources (see the appendix at the end of this chapter). Midwives must practice with an open attitude in order to provide good health care. Clinical Research on Lesbian Health Issues For the first time in U.S. history, improved data collection and analysis around lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) health issues will be a goal of the U.S. government. Healthy People 2010 (HP 2010), a publication of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), is the government’s public health plan focused on the elimination of health disparities across racial, ethnic,

Chapter 11 Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women

regional, gender, age, and (for the first time) sexual orientation lines [11, 12]. The unique aspect that has emerged in the development of HP 2010 is the recognition that sexual orientation also affects access to, and utilization of, health services. In the past, the federal government had focused its lesbian and gay health concerns on HIV. The Gay and Lesbian Medical Association (GLMA) and the Center for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Health at Columbia University’s Joseph L. Mailman School of Public Health, with the support of the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), created the White Paper: LGBT Health: Findings and Concerns, which summarized the research and pointed to the need for data on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender health needs [10]. Research is needed to identify health disparities in order to address them and eradicate them. Lesbians are difficult to recruit for clinical studies because they feel unsafe in the clinical setting. Like other socially or legally stigmatized populations, lesbians may feel that research findings will be used against them. Nonetheless, sampling a vulnerable and hidden population is necessary in order to ascertain their diverse characteristics. Current research has often failed to look for information on lesbian experiences across race, culture, socioeconomic groups, geographic area, and age. Research, clinical services, and community advocacy are most effective when they nurture one another [2, 8, 14, 18]. When lesbians feel safe in seeking health care, the clinical setting will become more conducive to conducting clinical research to identify health care needs and necessary interventions.

Data Collection History/Interview Skills The initial barrier to inclusive care that the lesbian client encounters is often the heterosexist structure of the health care setting. Informational brochures about Pap smears, breast exam, and STDs usually reflect heterosexual experience. Posters on the wall depict heterosexual families and coupling. In maternity areas of hospitals, signs may read, “visiting hours for fathers only.” If the environment is perceived as completely unsafe, questioning by the provider will elicit an inaccurate history. Midwives should be aware that excellent educational materials focusing on LGBT care are available from various health care centers [35].

301

Financial intake and health history forms often reflect heterosexist assumptions in their language. For example, intake forms often ask women whether they are married, divorced, widowed, or single. They ask about a spouse’s income and health insurance coverage. Health history intake forms need to be written with open-ended language. Questions about significant others should not assume gender. Many lesbians feel uncomfortable if the intake form does not allow them to indicate a same-sex relationship. If the only option for emergency contact is for a “husband, wife, or spouse,” many lesbian clients assume it is unsafe to list a lesbian partner [36]. An atmosphere of silence about lesbianism provides little evidence to clients that the midwife has the knowledge base and awareness of the diversity of lesbian life experience. The client must have a sense that the provider understands lesbian partnerships, family and friendship networks, sexual practices, cultural and community resources, health care concerns, and local laws regarding domestic partnership, marriage, and parenting/adoption [3, 4, 8, 14, 18] in order to actively participate in an effective interview. A midwife can convey understanding with both verbal and nonverbal language that conveys open-minded respect as well as a basic knowledge base. Lesbian clients report that interviewing frequently ceases once the provider ascertains through questioning that her client is a lesbian [3, 4, 14]. Often, on a traditional health history questionnaire, the sexual history appears after the obstetrical, gynecological, and contraceptive histories. This order of questioning may promote assumptions about a client’s sexuality. Questions related to sexual activity should not assume heterosexual activity. The following example of assumed heterosexuality with uncomfortable results is not uncommon: Q: Are you using birth control? A: No. Q: Are you sexually active? A: Yes. Q: Do you need birth control today? A: No. Q: Are you planning a pregnancy? A: No. If the client is brave enough, she may add, “I am a lesbian” or “My partner is a woman.” The usual response by the health care provider after this revelation is silence and awkwardness; the client is left on the defensive and distrustful.

302

Part II Primary Care of Women

It is imperative that information from an openended sexual history be known by the provider before the obstetric, gynecological, and contraceptive histories are taken. A midwife has to transcend biases and stereotypes in order to embrace the humanity of her client’s experience and conduct an interview that is respectful and effective for assessing health. Table 11-1 provides examples of phrasing sociosexual questions in a way that allows a lesbian to reveal her health needs in an affirmative manner. Gynecological Exam The gynecological exam provides a unique opportunity to share information in a sensitive manner. Lesbian couples may accompany each other to exams, which enables family-centered education to occur. It is always important to take a history that includes the sexual practices of your lesbian client and to ascertain whether vaginal entry from heterosexual intercourse or hands or sex toys has occurred in order to know how to proceed with both the speculum and bimanual exam. Some lesbians have never practiced vaginal entry of any sort. It is also important to know whether there has been a history of sexual abuse. This also impacts on meth-

TABLE 11-1

Phrasing Sociosexual Questions

With whom do you live? (alone / friend / partner / husband / children / pets / other) Who is your emergency contact? Do you currently have a sexual partner? Have you ever had a sexual partner? Is your current sexual partner female / male / both / transgender / none? Have your sexual partner(s) in the past been male / female / both / transgender? Do you have a need for birth control at this time? Have you ever used contraception? What methods have you used? Are you currently using any birth control method? Do you identify as heterosexual / lesbian / bisexual / transgender / celibate / other? Do you experience orgasm? Does your sexual activity include vaginal entry? Do you have pain with vaginal entry? Are you aware of safer sex practices? Do you use safer sex practices? If yes, please list the methods you are currently using. Have you ever had sex without your consent? Source: Adapted from Carroll, N. M. Providing gynecological and obstetric care for lesbians. Contemp. Rev. Obstet. Gynecol. March 2000. Table 1, p. 76.

ods for bimanual and speculum exams. If vaginal entry is a concern for your client, teaching exercises to relax and stretch the vaginal introitus may be appropriate. In some cases a pediatric speculum may be needed. Teaching your client about her anatomy and also teaching her and/or her partner to insert the speculum may foster a sense of control over her body. The pelvic exam may even be postponed to another date if that seems to put the lesbian client at ease. Breast care has been a neglected area in lesbian health care. Some lesbians have had negative experiences with health care providers that involved their breasts. This may be due to a false assumption that lesbians know more about breast care because their sexuality involves the breasts of another woman. Awareness of each individual’s history and needs, as well as sensitivity in performing the breast exam are key. For a lesbian, a positive experience with a gynecological exam may prove truly empowering.

Management of Health Care Issues There are several areas of health care management in which lesbians may have specific differences from their heterosexual counterparts: sexual practices and safer sex; cancer screening; STD transmission, and HIV. Lesbian Sexual Practices Lesbian sexual practices span a wide range. Intimacy and sexual activity may be distinct or intertwined. Stereotypes and myths portray lesbian couples as less sexual than gay male couples and heterosexual couples. It is important for midwives to be competent in sexuality counseling to make accurate assessments and appropriate interventions. This requires both a thorough knowledge base and a projected attitude of comfort and nonjudgment. Sexual practices are often less proscribed than heterosexual coitus and may range from affectionate, nongenital contact to genital and/or anal entry. They vary according to the preferences of each partner and perceptions of erotic behaviors; these behaviors and preferences may change over time. Sexual practices may include mutual masturbation involving vagina/vagina, mouth/vagina, mouth/anus, hand/vagina, or hand/ anus contact. Arousal of breast tissue may be integrated into sexual activity. Both partners or only one may desire vaginal or anal entry. Vaginal entry with

Chapter 11 Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women

fingers, tongue, fist, or sex toys and/or anal entry with fingers, tongue, or sex toys may be included. Sex toys may include dildos and vibrators as well as other objects such as candles and vegetables. When rougher sex is practiced, there is an increased risk for lesions and exchange of body fluids. A cardinal guideline is not to make assumptions about sexual practices without obtaining confirmation from the client [1, 3, 4, 8]. Safer Sex Practices Safer sex practices are dependent

on sexual behavior and the sexual history of the partners involved. The midwife must take a sensitive sexual history in order to assist the couple in decision making about safer sex practices. Is the couple using sex toys? Are they sharing them? Is their sex gentle, rough, or somewhere in between? So little research has been done on actual rates of transmission of infection from woman to woman that a lesbian couple needs extra encouragement to assess their risk factors in order to make sound decisions about safer sex practices. Safer sex practices will decrease the likelihood of the exchange of body fluids including vaginal secretions, anal secretions, saliva, and blood. Safer sex practices for lesbians include careful handwashing before and after sexual activity, keeping fingernails short and clean, good oral hygiene, and awareness of any lesions of the mouth and tongue. Bleeding of the gums and periodontal disease should be attended to. Caution is important during menses; it may be best to avoid oral sex during menstruation, although the level of HIV in menstrual blood is unknown [3, 4, 8, 9, 13, 27, 29, 36]. Awareness and care of any known lesion(s) or cuts on the mouth, hands, fingers, genital, and anal areas are important to decrease the risk of transmission of infections. Tissue in the anus is more friable than tissue in the vagina. Water-soluble lubricants such as Astroglide will decrease the likelihood of lesions. Latex barriers may be used and they include dental dams or latex sheets for oral sex; gloves or finger cots for vaginal or anal entry. Awareness of latex allergy or sensitivity must be considered. Vegetable oils and massage oils will break down latex; they should not be used together. Sex toys should be washed with warm water and soap in between use; water soluble lubricants can be used on sex toys. Ideally each partner should have her own sex toys and they should not be shared. A dildo should not enter the vagina after going into the anus or vice versa unless it has been carefully washed or covered with a condom.

303

Creative sex toys such as candles, fruits, and vegetables should also be carefully washed. Cancer Screening Cervical There is considerable room for improvement in knowledge, perceptions, and practices of all women regarding cervical cancer. Many lesbians are unaware of the cofactors which when combined with human papillomavirus (HPV) makes a woman at high risk for cervical cancer: cigarette smoking, multiple male sexual partners, sexual intercourse with a male partner before age 16, history of STDs, and history of or currently having genital warts (condylomata acuminata) [3–8, 13, 22, 23, 36–40]. The majority of lesbians report having engaged in heterosexual intercourse at some time. Further, woman to woman transmission of HPV can occur. Clients may not be aware of their risk for cervical cancer and the need to be regularly screened with Pap smears. It is important that all women are educated about cervical cancer screening and early detection because of their lifesaving potential. Educational material and community outreach that are inclusive of lesbians and women who partner with women need to be developed. Ovarian/Endometrial Protective factors against ovar-

ian and endometrial cancers include the use of oral contraceptives, and having been pregnant or given birth to a live infant. Lesbians, even those with a prior history of heterosexual intercourse, have used oral contraceptives less often and for a shorter period of time than their heterosexual counterparts [36–39]. They are also significantly less likely to have been pregnant or given birth. Therefore, many lesbians have a theoretical risk of ovarian cancer. If a lesbian has never used contraception, the potential benefit of even six to twelve months of use in reducing ovarian cancer risk could be considered [3, 4, 36–39]. Breast All women are at risk for breast cancer.

Some factors that may increase an individual’s risk are nulliparity or having her first child after the age of 35, heavy alcohol use, menarche before age 12, menopause after age 55, cigarette smoking, high body mass index, and hormone therapy [3, 4, 6, 8, 23–25, 36–38]. Lesbians and women who partner with women have lower rates of childbearing and higher rates of alcohol use [8, 26, 36–38]. While these factors may play a role in overall risk, the main concern for lesbians is lack of screening, which leads to delayed diagnosis and

304

Part II Primary Care of Women

treatment. There has been little research done on lesbians and breast cancer. A recent study found that lesbians report more breast biopsies than their heterosexual counterparts [25]. This finding needs further exploration. The current studies have predominantly sampled young Caucasian women. Future studies should sample women of different ages, ethnicity, economic groups, and geographic regions. In the only study about understanding lesbians’ mammography utilization, barriers were found to be consistent with barriers for women in general. Most often cited were systems barriers such as financial cost, scheduling, and geographic location. The sample of lesbians suggested that respect and outreach efforts targeted specifically to lesbians would promote utilization of mammography services [24]. STD Transmission Vaginal secretions can readily be exchanged by a variety of sexual behaviors practiced by lesbians including hand/vagina, hand/anus, vagina/vagina, mouth/vagina, and mouth/anus contact. They can also be transmitted by sharing sex toys (dildos, vibrators, etc.). Because it is likely that sexually transmitted diseases can be transmitted from woman to woman, routine screening for STDs should be offered to all lesbians. Bacterial vaginosis (BV) and candidiasis can occur when the vaginal environment becomes unbalanced. They can occur with new sexual partner(s) as different vaginal flora are introduced. It is possible for BV and vaginal candidiasis to be sexually transmitted between women [1, 3, 4, 27, 28, 36–40]. BV may be associated with pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), adverse pregnancy outcomes, and enhanced HIV transmission. These infections can also arise in women who are virginal or not currently sexually active. Lesbian partners should always be offered testing and treatment. Risk factors for specific STDs such as chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrhea, HPV, and herpes simplex virus (HSV) include the sexual history of the female partner as well as sexual partnering with a man in the past or present. Although rates of chlamydia and gonorrhea infection are reported as low among lesbian populations, this may be due to lack of screening. HPV and HSV can be easily transmitted [36–39]. HPV is often diagnosed by cytological findings on a Pap smear; thus lesbians who delay preventive health care screening may be underdiagnosed [40].

HIV Lesbians are a hidden population in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission statistics. Although HIV-related research on women who have sex with women, regardless of their sexual orientation, has been scarce, there have been some notable findings [8, 39]: 1. Higher HIV seroprevalence rates among

women who have sex with both women and men compared to exclusively lesbian or heterosexual counterparts 2. High levels of risk for HIV infection through unprotected sex with men who inject drugs 3. Risk for HIV infection of unknown magnitude owing to artificial insemination with unscreened semen A lesbian or bisexual woman is at risk for HIV if she or her partner has a history of a male sexual partner within the last ten years or a history of intravenous drug use. According to recent studies, from 10 to 40 percent of the lesbian and bisexual population fall into these risk behavior categories. Lesbians who perceive low-risk identity may be practicing high-risk sexual behavior [29, 39]. Sensitive education about risks and an assessment of risk behaviors are key factors. Midwives gain necessary knowledge about the range of sexual behavior of individual clients by obtaining a complete sexual history including past and present sexual behavior and intravenous drug use.

Childbearing and Parenting Family Configurations There are an estimated 6 million to 14 million children raised by lesbian and gay individuals in the United States [36]. Lesbian mothers cross all class, racial, ethnic, nationality, and physical ability lines. They live in heterosexual marriages or alternative family structures. Prior to the 1970s and 1980s and the lesbian feminist movement, most lesbian mothers became parents via heterosexual intercourse. The women’s, civil rights, and lesbian/gay movements of the 1960s and 1970s gave confidence to lesbians to parent children. Sperm banks and adoption agencies became accessible to single parents, giving lesbians more options for having children [19].

Chapter 11 Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women

Lesbian mothers are pioneer developers of new family forms (see Figure 11-1). Lesbian parent configurations may include any of the following: A single woman with one or more children Two female lovers with one or more children Two or more friends with one or more children A combined family consisting of two or more families coparenting each other’s children 5. An extended lesbian family consisting of a single lesbian or a lesbian couple with children and other friends or ex-lovers actively involved in childrearing 6. Extended biological families of origin [19] 1. 2. 3. 4.

There is an increase in interracial lesbian families that present new opportunities and challenges within a heterosexist and racist society. The midwife needs to remember that lesbian family configurations defy traditional definitions and may take a variety of creative forms. Many studies have examined the psychosocial development of children raised by lesbians and have found no differences in sexual or gender identity compared with children of heterosexual parents [20].

FIGURE 11-1 Family rejoicing. Source: Photo courtesy of Debbie Parker.

305

Although in some communities, particularly in large urban settings, well-developed resources and support groups are available for lesbian parents, in more rural settings lesbian parents and their children may be much more isolated [3, 4, 8, 36]. Options for Parenthood The birth mother has many considerations, beginning with method of conception. A thorough preconception visit is a wonderful opportunity to explore methods of alternative insemination. Homophobic stigmatization of lesbians as inappropriate parents include potential rejection by family of origin, lack of access to and availability of resources such as sperm banks, and denial of insurance coverage. Most health insurers refuse to cover the costs of semen and office inseminations for lesbians or single women who want to become pregnant until there have been 12 cycles of insemination without conception, at which point they may qualify for infertility services [3, 4, 8]. The birth mother needs information about fertility, basal body temperature charting, ovulation prediction kits, donor selection from sperm banks, laboratory testing, insemination methods, and sensitive prenatal care. Alternative fertilization (donor insemination), as a form of woman-controlled conception, is the process of introducing a donor specimen of sperm, either fresh or frozen, into the woman’s vagina at or near the time of ovulation with the intention of fertilizing the ovum (ova). The woman herself, her partner, or a health care provider can insert the sperm. Both partners should be included in all preconception counseling and decision making as well as in prenatal, intrapartal and postpartum care. Midwives can be an excellent resource for a lesbian or lesbian couple in advocating and facilitating this process. Whether to use a known or unknown donor has important repercussions. Issues to explore with a known donor include: Will the donor be involved in parenting? How will the lesbian mother(s) protect herself (themselves) if the donor desires custody of the child(ren)? With an unknown donor, the central issue is how much information will be available to the children. The AIDS pandemic has changed donor options. It is imperative to take thorough sexual histories and to screen for HIV and STDs in donor semen. Frozen semen should be quarantined until it is tested two times, six months apart, with negative results. Adoption is also an option for lesbians who desire children. The issue of second parent adoption

306

Part II Primary Care of Women

has been fiercely contested in many states. Second parent adoption provides legal adoptive parental rights to the social/nonbiological mother. This allows both the biological and nonbiological mothers to have equal legal status as parents. Three states (Utah, Mississippi, and Florida) effectively ban second parent adoptions; Washington, D.C., and seven states (Vermont, Connecticut, California, Illinois, New York, New Jersey, and Massachusetts) permit them by law or court ruling, and otherwise the legal status varies widely. In a number of states, lesbians cannot adopt openly as a family but must apply as a single parent if two women plan to coparent. In early 2002, the American Academy of Pediatrics announced its support for the right of gay men and lesbians to adopt their partners’ biological or adopted children [41]. A growing body of scientific literature demonstrates that children who grow up with one or two lesbian parents fare as well in emotional, cognitive, social, and sexual functioning as do children whose parents are heterosexual [42]. Midwives need to be familiar with local adoption regulations in order to counsel lesbians seeking to adopt children [2, 3, 8, 19]. Birth Mother Once pregnant, the birth mother is vulnerable in unique ways and may find herself “coming out” all over again, as a pregnant lesbian, then again later as a lesbian mother. Once pregnant, her physical status becomes public. Public assumption of heterosexuality becomes pervasive. A pregnant lesbian may endure a range of questions from family of origin members, coworkers, and neighbors as well as shopkeepers and passersby. Questioning may be as benign as curiosity or as dangerous as open hostility. Women who choose to give birth as open lesbians challenge societal notions of family. A pregnant lesbian may have to come out to people whose response is not predictable—i.e., hospital administrators, pediatricians, sonographers, and third-party payors. The birth mother and her partner face unique stressors that include the constant invention of their role(s) as mother(s) in a patriarchal society. She (they) must decide what level of disclosure about their identities and choices are optimum in each new situation in the hopes of gaining respect and attaining basic needs. Even if the midwife is respectful, the birth mother often faces homophobic attitudes and policies throughout her pregnancy and birth. Hospital staff may demonstrate a range

of behaviors from ignorance about lesbian coparenting to open hostility toward the parental couple. The couple may be made to feel invisible as a parental team through lack of validation of their relationship. During labor and the birth, this can be especially stressful for an emerging family. The couple may have to endure overheard homophobic remarks. During the vulnerable postpartum period, the birth mother may face policies that deny parental visitation rights to the social mother. A knowledgeable and supportive network of caregivers is vital. Coparenting “Nonbiological mother” is the most common term used to describe the coparent, although this gives a sense of negation. More inclusive terms include “coparent,” “comother,” “social mother,” “other mother,” and “second female parent.” Some families invent their own terms in this rapidly evolving kinship role. Lesbian families are creating a new female parent; the stress and isolation of the new female parent are due to lack of social and legal recognition. Generally, the second female parent’s lesbianism is visible, while her motherhood is invisible. She may experience tremendous pain when her parenting role is not recognized by colleagues, family of origin, neighbors, and friends [19]. Children growing up with same-sex parents also must struggle with homophobic attitudes of friends, teachers, camp counselors, and societal institutions. Children do best with open and honest discussion as well as a supportive environment that values their family configuration. Children need to be educated that love is the most important family ingredient. Midwives who are educated to empower families are in a position to promote social recognition by including the second female parent as an equal family member as well as providing public support for the lesbian family configuration. Legal Issues Legal concerns of lesbian parents include the custody rights a donor may have to the child and custody rights of the social mother in lesbian “divorce” cases or in the event of the death of the biological mother. Individual state laws concerning parentchild relationships should be understood before using donor fertilization. Some states recognize the rights of the social mother through a second parent adoption [8]. This recognition gives the social mother equal parental rights under the law includ-

Chapter 11 Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women

ing the rights and responsibilities of all legally recognized parents. Several documents may protect lesbian parental relationships in the event that second parent adoption is not a legal option: a will nominating the social mother as guardian in the event of the biological mother’s death; a nomination of guardianship; a parental agreement between the birth mother and the social mother that recognizes the social mother’s parental role and responsibility in the event of separation; and a medical consent form giving the comother medical authority. Midwives can guide their lesbian clients toward the need for legal resources and preparations during the pregnancy.

Special Health Concerns Certain health areas of special concern have unique meaning for lesbian clients who may live in secrecy and certainly are influenced by homophobia in daily living. Midwives and other clinical providers may be the first person to whom a lesbian client reveals her vulnerability. Mental Health Concerns Lesbians suffer from the stress of living in a homophobic society and often need to be secretive about their lives with families, coworkers, and friends. Fears of loss of job, loss of benefits, poverty, and loss of custody if one’s lesbian identity is revealed increase the risk of various mental health disorders. The process of coming out of this secrecy can lead to anxiety, rejection, loss of loved ones, and depression. In some studies adolescent gays and lesbians were more than twice as likely to attempt suicide as heterosexual young women [8, 21]. The number of hate or bias crimes against lesbians, including verbal abuse, threats of violence, property damage, physical violence, and murder is increasing each year [8, 10, 12]. All of these issues create unusual stresses on lesbian couples. Disruptions and breakups in lesbian couples, with or without children, can also be particularly difficult because of the lack of the usual societal structures and supports. The lack of traditional sanctions such as marriage and divorce create an invisibility of these breakups and losses to the world. The midwife may be one of the few persons in whom lesbians can confide. Inquiry about the couple and family life of lesbians is usually most wel-

307

come and helpful in determining the need for assistance, intervention, or referral. Screening for social, as well as domestic violence, life stressors and coping mechanisms are part of a comprehensive health assessment. Substance Use: Cigarettes, Alcohol, and Drug Use Higher than typical rates of alcohol use by lesbians have been suggested. Some sources suggest that alcoholism affects as much as 30 percent of the lesbian population, compared with 10 percent of the general female population. Alcohol abuse is often correlated with other substance abuse. Lesbians who are heavy alcohol users have high rates of cirrhosis, accidents, suicide, depression, hypertension, menstrual and reproductive problems, malnutrition, colon and stomach cancer, and gastrointestinal hemorrhage [8, 11, 13]. In various surveys, 27 to 31 percent of lesbians reported currently smoking cigarettes. The rate of current smokers increases in each age group whereas in the female population in general smoking rates decrease as the age increases. Very few data are available to document the use of illegal drugs by lesbians [8]. Domestic Violence Violence in lesbian relationships, as in heterosexual relationships, has existed behind closed doors for a long time. Abuse in lesbian relationships more often takes a nonphysical than a physical form. However, physical abuse is also used as a mechanism for resolving conflicts [8, 30–32]. Because lesbians often live in secrecy and isolation, issues of domestic violence become even more taboo and frightening. It is crucial for midwives to be aware of the possibility of same-sex partner abuse in order to help the victims of intimate violence. Methods of conflict resolution in the lesbian couple relationship need exploration. The belief that there is a high level of emotional merging in a lesbian relationship, possibly coupled with blurred personal and role boundaries, may enhance abusive behaviors [30]. Further research is needed on the incidence and correlates of violence in all forms of intimate adult relationships in order to provide better counseling services to lesbian batterers and their victims. Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups Views of sexual identity and sexual behavior can vary significantly across cultures, so it should not be assumed that a lesbian sexual identity is the same

308

Part II Primary Care of Women

for lesbians of different racial, ethnic, or cultural backgrounds. Nor should the midwife assume that racial and ethnic minority cultures share views of lesbian sexual orientation identical with the dominant culture. It can certainly be hypothesized that the stress effects of homophobic attitudes may be greatest for lesbians who are subject to multiple forms of discrimination, such as lesbians who are also members of racial and ethnic minority groups. Lesbians of color may also experience racism within the lesbian community. The combination of homophobia, racism, and sex-based discrimination has been referred to as being in “triple jeopardy” [8]. Stress-related illnesses such as elevated blood pressure and depression are likely to be exacerbated by racism. Transgender Lesbians (Male to Female) Transgender lesbians are individuals who through medical and/or surgical procedures have transformed their gender and identity from male to female and then self-identified as lesbian. Society continues to view transgender people as abnormal. For many transgender people, this results in secrecy, shame, depression, and fear. This leads to isolation and delayed utilization of preventive health care. A transgender lesbian needs sensitive and knowledgeable care. A transgender male to female (MTF) lesbian does not need gynecological care although she does need breast care. She may need a referral to a urologist for specialized care. A transgender female to male (FTM) person will continue to need pap smears unless he has had a hysterectomy and closure of the vagina. An FTM individual will also continue to need breast exams. Almost no research has been done to ascertain the unique health care needs of transgender people. Midwives who are educated to provide respectful care that honors the full range of human experience can provide sensitive care to this misunderstood minority [33, 34].

At the other end of the spectrum, lesbians who are menopausal and postmenopausal may encounter special situations associated with their sexual orientation, such as adverse societal attitudes, family rejection, and internalized homophobia. For many lesbians, the health concerns of aging may be their first entry into the health care system. Since many lesbians have not had children and have not had routine preventive screening, they are at higher risk for reproductive cancers. Societal supports such as next-of-kin benefits are not often available due to the lack of recognition of long-term lesbian relationships. Social support is lacking for elder lesbians who experience being with a partner through illness, hospitalization, hospice, funeral arrangements, and other stressful developmental events of getting older. They may not receive the same societal recognition of grief at the death of a long-term partner. Older lesbians may also be more isolated and at higher risk for stress-related illnesses. Regardless of whether they are sexually active, elder lesbians who still identify themselves as lesbian may not feel accepted in the dominant heterosexual environment of many assisted living communities [3, 4, 8, 12, 36].

Summary Protective factors such as strong social support systems, religious institutions, schools, and community groups can promote optimum health for lesbians. Strong ties with friends and family may also decrease the stressors of homophobia. As midwives gain basic skills about the special health care needs of lesbians and how to enhance a sense of safety and assertion within the health care system, there will no doubt be an increase in utilization by lesbians of midwifery’s unique offerings.

References Youth and Elder Needs There are unique needs of both young and elder lesbians. The adolescent lesbian is especially vulnerable to the emotional distress of coming out and is at increased risk of attempting suicide. Parental acceptance during this process may be a primary determinant of the development of healthy self-esteem. It is important for midwives to screen adolescents for these signs and to consider confusion about sexual orientation in the differential diagnosis of depression and substance abuse [3, 4, 8, 21].

1. Carroll, N. M. Gynecological infections and

sexual practices of Massachusetts lesbian and bisexual women. J. Gay Lesbian Med. Assoc. 1(1):15–23,1997. 2. Carroll, N. M. Developing a lesbian health research program: Fenway Community Health Center’s experience and evolution. J. Gay Lesbian Med. Assoc. 3(4):145–152, 1999. 3. Carroll, N. M. Optimal gynecologic and obstetric care for lesbians. Obstet. Gynecol. 93(4):611–613 (April) 1999.

Chapter 11 Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women

309

4. Carroll, N. M. Providing gynecological and ob-

18. White, J. C. Challenges and opportunities in

stetric care of lesbians. Contemp. Rev. Obstet. Gynecol. 75–79 (March) 2000. Price, J. H., Easton, A. N., and Telljohann, S. K., et al. Perceptions of cervical cancer and Pap smear screening behavior by women’s sexual orientation. J. Community Health 21(2):89–105 (April) 1996. Rankow, E. J. Breast and cervical cancer among lesbians. Women’s Health Issues 5(3):123–129 (Fall)1995. Rankow, E. J., and Tessaro, I. Cervical cancer risk and Papanicolaou screening in a sample of lesbian and bisexual women. J. Fam. Pract. 47(2):139–143, 1998. Solarz, A. L., (Ed.), Lesbian Health. Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, 1999. White, J. C. HIV risk assessment and prevention in lesbians and women who have sex with women: practical information for clinicians, Health Care Women Int. 18(2):127–138 (Review) 1997. Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, The White Paper: LGBT Health: Findings and Concerns, 2000. Accessed online at www.glma.org/policy/whitepaper/index.html. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Healthy People 2010, 2000. Accessed online at www.health.gov/healthypeople/document. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Healthy People 2010 Companion Document for LGBT populations, 2000. Accessed online at www.glma.org/policy/hp2010/index.html. Koh, A. S. Use of preventive health behaviors by lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women: questionnaire survey. West J. Med, 172:379–384, 2000. Stevens, P. E. Structural and interpersonal impact of heterosexual assumptions on lesbian health care clients. Nurs. Res. 44(1):25–30 (January/February) 1995. Diamant, A. L., Schuster, M. A., and Lever, J., et al. Receipt of preventive health care services by lesbians. Am. J. Prev. Med. 19(3):141–148, 2000. Wilton, T. Towards an understanding of the cultural roots of homophobia in order to provide a better midwifery service for lesbian clients. Midwifery 15(3):154–164, 1999. American College of Nurse-Midwives, ACNM Core Competencies, 1997. Accessed online at www.acnm.org/about/display.cfm?id=137.

clinical research on lesbian health [editorial]. J. Gay Lesbian Med. Assoc. 2(2):55–57, 1998. Zeidenstein, L. Lesbian mothers. In Rothman, B. K. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Childbearing, Critical Perspectives, Phoenix, Arizona: Oryx Press, 1993, pp. 225–226. Gold, M. A., Perrin, E. C., Futterman, D., and Friedman, S. B. Children of gay or lesbian parents. Pediatr. Rev. 15:354–358, 1994. Savin-Williams, R. C. Verbal and physical abuse stressors in the lives of lesbian, gay male, and bisexual youths: associations with school problems, running away, substance abuse, prostitution, and suicide. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 67(2):261–269, 1994. Kunkel, M. S., and Skokan, L. A. Factors which influence cervical cancer screening among lesbians. J. Gay Lesbian Med. Assoc. 2(1):7–15, 1998. White, J. C., and Dull, V. T. Health risk factors and health-seeking behavior in lesbians. J. Womens Health 6(1):103–112, 1997. Lauver, D. R., Karon, S. L., and Egan, J. Understanding lesbians’ mammography utilization. Women’s Health Issues 9(5):264–273 (September/October) 1999. Roberts, S. A., Dibble, S. L., and Scanlon, J. L. Differences in risk factors for breast cancer: lesbian and heterosexual women. J. Gay Lesbian Med. Assoc. 2(3):93–101, 1998. Hefferman, K. The nature and predictors of substance use among lesbians. Addict. Behav. 23(4):517–528, 1998. Berger, B. J., Kolton, S., and Zenilman, J. M. Bacterial vaginosis in lesbians: a sexually transmitted disease. Clin. Infect. Dis. 21:1402–1405 (December) 1995. McCaffrey, M., Varney, P., and Evans, B. Bacterial vaginosis in lesbians: evidence for lack of sexual transmission. Int. J. STD AIDS 10:305–308 (May) 1999. Norman, A. D., Perry, M. J., and Stevenson, L. Y. Lesbian and bisexual women in small cities—at risk for HIV? Public Health Rep. 111:347–352 (July/August) 1996. Lockhart, L. L., White, B. W., and Causby, V. Letting out the secret: violence in lesbian relationships. J. Interpersonal Violence, 9(4):469–492 (December) 1994. Burke, L. K., Follingstad, D. R. Violence in lesbian and gay relationships: theory, prevalence, and correlational factors. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 19(5):487–542, 1999.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

310

Part II Primary Care of Women

32. Rankow, E. J., Cambre, K. M., and Cooper, K.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

Health care seeking behavior of adult lesbian and bisexual survivors of childhood sexual abuse. J. Gay Lesbian Med. Assoc. 2(2):69–76, 1998. Lawrence, A. A., Shaffer, J. D., and Snow, W. R. Health care needs of transgendered patients. [letter to the editor] JAMA 276(11):874 (September) 1996. Israel, G. E., and Tarver II, D. E. Transgender Care. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1997. LGBT brochures and educational materials can be obtained from Callen-Lorde Community Health Center, 356 West 18th Street, New York, NY, 10011; telephone (212) 271-7200 or access online at www.Callen-Lorde.org. Association of Reproductive Health Professionals and Mautner Project for Lesbians with Cancer (eds.) Lesbian health [special issue]. Health and Sexuality 6 (2):1–15, 2001. Cochran, S. D., Mays, V. M., Bowen, D., et al. Cancer-related risk indicators and preventive screening behaviors among lesbians and bisexual women. Am. J. Public Health, 91(4):591–597, 2001. Rosenberg, J. Lesbians are more likely than U.S. women overall to have risk factors for gynecologic and breast cancer. Fam. Plann. Perspect. 33(4):183–184, 2001. Marrazzo, J. M., Koutsky, L. A., and Handsfield, H. H. Characteristics of female STD clinic clients who report same-sex behavior. Int. J. STD AIDS 12(1):41–46, 2001. Marrazzo, J. M., Koutsky, L. A., Kiviat, N. B., Kuypers, J. M., and Stine, K. Papanicolaou test screening and prevalence of genital human papillomavirus among women who have sex with women. Am. J. Public Health 91(6):947–952, 2001. American Academy of Pediatrics Policy Statement. Coparent or Second-Parent Adoption by Same-Sex Parents. Pediatrics 109(3):339–340 (February) 2002. Perrin, E. C., and Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. Technical report: coparent or second-parent adoption by same-sex parents, Pediatrics 109(3): 341–344 (February) 2002.

Appendix Resources National Organizations

PFLAG: Parents, Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays 1101 14th St., NW Suite 1030 Washington, DC, 20005 (202) 638-4200 www.pflag.org LAMBDA Legal Defense and Education Fund 120 Wall St. New York, NY 10005-3904 (212) 809-8585 www.lambdalegal.org Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network 121 West 27th St., Suite 804 New York, NY 10001 (212) 727-0135 www.glastn.org Michael Callen-Audre Lorde Community Health Center 356 West 18th St. New York, NY 10011 (212) 271-7200 www.Callen-Lorde.org SAGE: Senior Action in a Gay Environment 305 Seventh Ave. 16th floor New York, NY 10001 (212) 741-2247 [email protected] National Lesbian and Gay Health Association 1407 S St. N.W. Washington, DC 20009 (202) 939-7880 Mary-Helen Mautner Project for Lesbians with Cancer 1707 L St. N.W., Suite 1060 Washington, DC 20036 (202) 332-5536(Voice/TTY) www.mautnerproject.org

Chapter 11 Health Issues of Lesbian and Bisexual Women

Lesbian Health Fund/Gay and Lesbian Medical Association 459 Fulton St., Suite 107 San Francisco, CA 94102 (415) 255-4547 www.glma.org [email protected] Literature

Inside Out is an online magazine for gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. www.iomag.com

311

The American Psychological Association has a Web site with annotated books on gay and lesbian parenting. www.apa.org/pi/l&bbks.html COLAGE (Children of Lesbians and Gays Everywhere) has annotated lists of books and other publications for lesbian and gay parents. 3543 18th Street, #17 San Francisco, CA 94110 (415) 861-5437 www.colage.org/research/bibliography.html

This page intentionally left blank

C H A P T E R

12 Substance Abuse NANCY JO REEDY, CNM, MPH MARY C. BRUCKER, CNM, DNSC, FACNM

Introduction

and men. Thus, there are both similarities and differences between genders. Reyes suggested dividing gender differences in substance disorders into four categories: (1) social issues, (2) biological variations, (3) psychiatric comorbidity, and (4) medical sequelae [3].

Substance abuse is defined as “a pattern of psychoactive substance use that involves hazards to health” [1]. Substances that are of concern include caffeine, tobacco, and alcohol as well as licit and illicit drugs. Abuse may take various forms, including occasional experimentation, misuse of prescription medication, or addiction. Addiction indicates a physical and/or psychological dependence on the substance(s) of abuse. Substance abuse, whether occasional use or addiction, has implications for the health of a woman and her fetus or newborn. A glossary of commonly used terms is presented in Table 12-1. Women who abuse alcohol and drugs frequently suffer from serious psychological problems, are at risk for nutritional deficiencies, report late for prenatal care, and may have frequent interactions with the legal system as well as difficulty complying with recommended visit and treatment schedules. In addition, their personal and social lives are often difficult and place them at high risk for physical abuse and sexually transmitted infections.

Social Issues Compared to men, women experience more social stigma when they engage in substance abuse. Therefore, it is not unanticipated that, when compared to men, women who are substance abusers tend to be secretive and hide their addictions [4]. Women are more likely to live with other substanceabusing individuals. These women are more likely than men or nonabusing women to have had spouses or other nuclear family with drug addiction patterns and to be currently separated or divorced. Unlike men, who tend to have more problems at work, women tend to have more disruptive patterns in their families. Alcoholic women are more likely to have experienced childhood victimization than nonalcoholic women. Biological Variations Biological variations are also apparent between men and women substance abusers, especially in relationship to various types of abuse. Men metabolize nicotine more rapidly than women, resulting in a longer half-life for nicotine in smoking women. This potentially makes it easier for women to become addicted to cigarettes. Since women have less gastric alcohol dehydrogenase, they experience higher levels of intoxication after ingesting less alcohol than men. In addition, estrogen may make

Women and Substance Abuse According to the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse issued in 2002, men are more likely to be users of illicit drugs than women (7.7 percent compared to 5.0 percent) [2]. However, the nonmedical use of psychotherapeutic agents (e.g., analgesics, tranquilizers, and sedatives) was slightly less than 2 percent, essentially the same for both women

313

314

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 12-1

Glossary of Terms Used in Substance Abuse

Term

Definition

Designer drugs

A term that has different connotations. In the context of licit drugs, indicates new drugs intentionally created to minimize certain adverse effects (e.g., selective estrogen receptor modulators designed to decrease the risk of breast cancer). In the context of substance abuse, indicates new categories of hybrid drugs created usually by underground chemists to enhance such effects as euphoria. Also known as chemical or substance abuse. Intentional misuse of either licit or illicit drugs for recreation, perceived necessity, or convenience. Drug abuse is a more intense misuse of drugs than connoted by the term drug use. According to the World Health Organization, “a state of periodic or chronic intoxication detrimental to the individual and society, which is characterized by an overwhelming desire to continue taking the drug and to obtain it by any means.” Inappropriate use of prescribed or OTC drugs. Examples include taking more prescribed or OTC drugs than indicated, for a longer period than indicated, mixing drugs to potentiate euphoria, sharing drugs with others, or discontinuing drugs early. An agent that leads to another drug. Alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana are the most commonly used first drugs. Illegal drugs, such as marijuana, cocaine, and LSD. Legal drugs, such as caffeine-containing agents, alcohol, and tobacco. OTC drugs account for approximately $19 billion dollars in sales per year, based on 2002 statistics. Some of these agents are misused or abused, including laxatives, diet pills, and cough suppressants. The use of multiple agents simultaneously, risking additive, antagonistic, or synergistic effects. Also called polydrug use. Licit drugs that may be used, especially analgesics. In 2001, 3.1 billion prescriptions were written, and analgesics like oxycodone (Vicodin) were among the top 200 drugs in the United States. Substances that affect the central nervous system. They alter consciousness and/or perceptions. Use of drugs to achieve a certain mental or psychic state. See Drug abuse.

Drug abuse

Drug addiction

Drug misuse

Gateway drug Illicit drug Licit drug Over-the-counter drugs (OTC)

Polypharmacy Prescribed drugs

Psychoactive drugs Recreational drug use Substance abuse

Sources: Goode, E. Drugs in American Society, 5th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 1999; Hanson, G. R., Venturelli, P. J., and Fleckenstein, A. E. Drugs and Society, 7th ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc., 2002.

liver damage with alcohol worse for women. Women alcoholics are more likely to die from cirrhosis. Some research exists indicating that in addition to alcohol and tobacco, addiction to cocaine and opiates may progress faster among women than men. This phenomenon has been termed telescoping [4]. For women, chronic use of alcohol and cocaine may result in amenorrhea or other menstrual disorders. Menstrual irregularities may be perceived by the woman as evidence of infertility, and may lead a woman not to seek contraception or recognize early pregnancy when it occurs.

the opposite with men. Women who abuse alcohol are more likely to have higher rates of depression, panic disorders, and phobias than their male counterparts. Male substance abusers are more likely to have conduct disorders and antisocial personality disorders than female substance abusers. Among women, depression often accompanies treatment relapse. Depressed women are less successful than depressed men in attempting smoking cessation. No significant differences appear to exist between alcoholic men and women in relation to rates of concomitant illicit drug use [3].

Psychiatric Comorbidity Women usually first have psychiatric problems, followed by substance use disorders. This sequence is

Medical Sequelae In addition to risks of cirrhosis and the increased incidence of amenorrhea for some subgroups of

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

women substance abusers, other medical sequelae exist. Diseases of the liver, heart, and gastrointestinal system proceed more rapidly among women substance abusers than men. Higher rates of osteoporosis and breast cancer have been reported for some subgroups. In general, mortality rates among women who abuse substances are higher than among men with similar abusing patterns. When compared to nonabusing women, females who engage in substance abuse are more likely to have sexually transmitted infections, including HIV and hepatitis [4].

Attraction of Substance Abuse Recreational drug use has been documented for more than four millennia. Attempts at drug regulation were made as early as 2240 BC [5]. Historical drug use includes opiate lozenges for the Assyrians, hashish candies for the Romans, and cocaine found in Coca Cola’s original recipe for Americans. However, less is known about why certain individuals become addicted to substances, others are occasional users, and yet others are never substance abusers. Some substance abusers say that they become users because they are bored, frustrated, or alienated. For them, drugs may provide pleasurable

TABLE 12-2

315

feelings or heighten pleasure. Some drugs may temporarily relieve stress or tension or even help the individuals dissociate themselves from daily issues. For adolescents in particular, peer use of drugs may promote drug use. Some individuals begin to use analgesics and other drugs because of an acute or chronic disease and find themselves psychologically and/or physically dependent upon the agents. The absolute etiology of substance abuse remains elusive, especially since it may vary among different individuals. Without a single etiology, or even several specific etiologies, assessment and treatment of substance abuse remain a major challenge, not only for midwives, but also for society in general. Additionally, most substance abusers use a wide repertoire of drugs. Many individuals begin drug use with a gateway drug but then continue to mix drugs and may escalate to illicit drugs. For example, a woman may both smoke and drink a cup of coffee. That could be called a caffeine/nicotine mix. Alcohol and sedatives or opiates have proved to be deadly combinations, as illustrated by several well-publicized celebrity deaths. This polypharmacy, or polydrug, approach makes research and clinical management in the area even more difficult. Table 12-2 illustrates some examples of polypharmacy and the common interactions of agents with substances of abuse.

Examples of Polypharmacy: Common Interactions of Agents and Substances of Abuse

Agent

Combined With

Result

Sedatives Diazepam (Valium) or Triazolam (Halcion)

Alcohol Barbiturates

Increased sedative effects

Insulin Antidepressants

Decreased hypoglycemic effects Increased hypertensive effects

Barbiturates, diazepam Anticoagulants Antidepressants Amphetamines

Increased Increased Increased Increased

Antihypertensives Amphetamines, cocaine Cocaine

Increased blood pressure Increased cardiovascular effects Production of cocaethylene, which enhances euphoria and toxicity

Stimulants Amphetamines or Cocaine Opiates Heroin or Morphine

Tobacco Nicotine Alcohol

sedative effects bleeding sedative effects euphoria

Source: Hanson, G.R., Venturelli, P.J., and Fleckenstein, A.E. Drugs and Society, 7th ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc., 2002.

316

Part II Primary Care of Women

Assessment of Drug Use There is no single assessment technique for evaluating substance abuse. The complexity of individual motivations and the various physical reactions to drugs and their interactions, as well as the widespread tendency toward polypharmacy, all contribute to this problem. However, the best available method of evaluation is a good general history. When seeking an initial or annual history for a woman, use of alcohol, tobacco, caffeine, and all drugs should be explored. Since individuals who are substance abusers also tend to have a higher incidence of sexually transmitted infections or domestic violence, it is useful to discuss substance abuse if those conditions occur. Signs or symptoms of depression, family dysfunction, sleep disorders, and gastrointestinal problems may all indicate comorbidity with substance abuse and should alert the midwife to the possibility of drug abuse. Whenever one substance of abuse, such as cigarettes, is found, there should be a concerted effort to ascertain whether or not others are also being abused. In regard to pregnancy, the optimal time to assess for substance abuse is during a preconceptional visit. If substance abuse is identified then, there is time to implement management and treatment regimens before the woman becomes pregnant. Unfortunately, many women who abuse drugs are reluctant to interact with the health care system and may seek care later in pregnancy, if at all, especially when illicit drugs are involved, causing fear of legal implications. Some assessment instruments are substance specific. If a woman uses alcohol, a short question-

TABLE 12-3

naire may be of value. Many clinicians are familiar with the CAGE questionnaire that consists of four questions. However, the CAGE has been found to be less accurate among women, particularly Whites. Recently, the TWEAK questionnaire has been advocated [6]. Table 12-3 presents the components of the TWEAK questionnaire, including the weighting of each question. If a woman scores two to three points on the TWEAK scale, whether she is pregnant or not, it is considered a positive result. Some clinicians recommend that TWEAK scales be administered annually for all women in outpatient facilities [4]. It should be noted that this questionnaire has been studied with alcohol, but there is no strong recommendation for its use if adapted to other substances of abuse. If the midwife is caring for a woman whom she believes to be under the influence of drugs that will impact her life or that of her fetus or child, immediate drug testing may be indicated. Drug testing may be done on urine, blood, or hair. In the case of a newborn, positive drug testing of meconium provides indication that drugs have been used within the last two to three days. The most common source for drug testing for adults and adolescents is urine, but midwives should be aware that confounding factors can interfere with the accuracy of the results. For example, poppy seeds found in pastries may cause a urine test to be positive for narcotics. Sodium bicarbonate antacids alkalizes urine and increases excretion of some drugs such as methamphetamines. Use of diuretics may dilute the volume of drugs in the urine, making it more difficult to find them via urine tests. Legal and institutional policies and regulations may influence the situations wherein a midwife can

The TWEAK Questionnaire for Alcohol Use

T

Tolerance (2 points)

W

Worried (2 points)

E A

Eye Openers (1 point) Amnesia (1 point)

K

Cut down (1 point)

How many drinks can you hold? (Cutoff: Four or more is a conservative cutoff for use with women compared to six or more for men) Have close friends or relatives worried or complained about your drinking in the past year? Do you sometimes take a drink in the morning when you first get up? Has a friend or family member ever told you about things you said or did while you were drinking that you could not remember? Do you sometimes feel the need to cut down on your drinking?

Note: A total of 2 to 3 points may indicate an alcohol abuse problem. Source: Chan, A. K., Pristach, E. A., Welte, J. W., et al. The TWEAK test in screening for alcoholism/heavy drinking in three populations. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 6:1188–1192, 1993.

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

order drug testing. A midwife should know the appropriate policies and recognize that when such testing is performed the collection and results should be confidential.

General Treatment Issues The care of a woman struggling with substance abuse requires the collaboration of her midwife and professionals in multidisciplinary programs who have skills in treating chemical abuse and addictions. The professionals may include social workers, chemical abuse counselors, psychologists, psychiatrists, nutritionists, pharmacologists, and physicians with knowledge and experience in managing withdrawal, detoxification, and longterm treatment. The midwife must coordinate care for the woman with the professionals in substance abuse treatment. It is essential that the woman in treatment receive consistent information and that all team members hold the same expectations for her behavior. The course of treatment and recovery is often long, marked by periods of success and times of relapse. The cycle of recovery includes a period when the woman does not recognize the need to change behavior, a period of contemplation when the problem is recognized but no action is taken, a period when the woman plans action, a period of action, and a period of maintenance [7]. Relapses are to be expected, and recovery after relapse means repeating the cycle of recovery. The factors that motivate recovery in a woman who has been abusing drugs or alcohol are varied and unpredictable. Sometimes concern about a baby during pregnancy may be the catalyst to begin the cycle of recovery. For a woman with an addiction who has not moved into a recovery cycle, any concern for a baby may be overridden by her concern for acquiring drugs. The woman alone has the power to change her addictive behavior. The midwife must provide continuous support to the woman while recognizing the recovery and relapse pattern of addiction. By providing ongoing care, the midwife can work to minimize maternal and fetal complications, encourage decreased substance usage, and support the cycle of recovery. Many methods of drug treatment have evolved over the last several decades. These methods include

317

self-help groups, institutional rehabilitation, therapeutic counseling, and use of various pharmaceuticals, or any combination thereof. In general, it is difficult to ascertain the effectiveness of the methods since few randomized controlled trials have been conducted. Perhaps the most famous of the self-help groups is Alcoholics Anonymous. Detoxification, or detox, units were common at one time in order to provide a facility for people undergoing withdrawal symptoms, but such units are no longer as common since the emergence of inpatient institutional care. Institutional rehabilitation was made popular by the introduction of the Minnesota Model, an inpatient facility where a person could go for approximately one month during which time individual and group work would address some of the issues of desire and craving. The original 28-day time frame was determined by insurance reimbursement in Minnesota at the time but has since become a general standard. In addition to the original Minnesota facility, other institutions such as California’s Betty Ford Clinic made institutional treatment in style. Therapeutic counseling and behavioral modification have become the cornerstone of many programs. A wide variety of pharmaceutical agents including antidepressants and narcotic antagonists have been used in the quest for addiction treatment. However, the unique relationship of an individual with her addiction, the polypharmacy aspects, and the lack of quality research make it difficult to implement management with a known degree of success.

General Management of Substance Abuse During Pregnancy Obtaining a thorough patient history with questions specifically directed to detect substance abuse is essential. Midwives should recognize that women often use more than one substance. For example, use of caffeine and cigarettes is highly correlated; women who abuse sedatives may also abuse stimulants. Polydrug use is common in women using illicit drugs such as cocaine, heroin, or marijuana. The midwife must ask for information on all substances used, including over-the-counter medications, prescription drugs, illicit drugs, tobacco, and alcohol. It is important to know the method of consumption, amount, and combinations of drugs that

318

Part II Primary Care of Women

the woman uses. Combining drugs may potentiate the effect of the individual substances. After identification, management is directed at reducing or eliminating the substances and the concomitant risks. Specific strategies for intervening in substance abuse situations depend on the substance and pattern of usage. When substance abuse occurs during pregnancy, management must take into account the maternal, fetal, and neonatal risks associated with the substance(s) used. In prescribing medications or recommending over-the-counter medications, care must be taken to avoid preparations with high alcohol content. For the woman abusing alcohol and/or drugs, products containing alcohol can potentiate the effects of other drugs she is using. Prescribing medications containing alcohol sabotages the woman who is working toward abstinence. When a woman is suspected of actively abusing alcohol or drugs or is known to do so, care must be taken in managing acute pain such as that experienced during labor and delivery. Women need the full support of analgesics and anesthetics. A careful history and monitoring of the woman’s reaction to medication will enable appropriate pain relief without risk of overmedication. Withholding medication because of past or current substance abuse is cruel and unnecessary. Appropriate pain management will not precipitate a relapse or reinforce a drug habit. More information about pregnancy is contained in the discussion about common substances of abuse. Table 12-4 provides an overview of substances of abuse, maternal overdose, and neonatal effects.

Substance Abuse and Lactation Substances used by lactating women can be passed to the infant during breastfeeding. The benefits of breastfeeding must be weighed against the risks of the infant’s ingesting the abused substance. The infant, with an immature liver, may have diminished ability to metabolize and excrete the drug. In addition, the effect of the drug on the infant (for example, irritability) may compound the mother’s problems in caring for the infant. Women who abuse substances often have decreased ability and resources to cope with difficult infants. Women ac-

tively abusing drugs are at increased risk of behaviors that predispose them to sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, which can be transmitted to the baby in breast milk. The midwife must help the mother make a decision about whether to breastfeed after reviewing her history, current drug usage, social situation, and the risk to the infant posed by the drug used by the mother. Alternatively, midwives should not assume that a woman who abuses substances should automatically not breastfeed since this vulnerable dyad may benefit best by the nutritional and psychological advantages of breastfeeding. In the following discussion of specific substances, lactation is discussed in relationship to each of the common substances of abuse.

Neonatal Implications Some states require reporting of substance abuse in pregnancy, and some require universal screening of newborns for evidence of maternal drug usage during pregnancy. The ethics of screening are the subject of active debate. It is important for the midwife to know and to comply with state laws governing screening and/or reporting. In some jurisdictions, a positive test for maternal drug use mandates social services referrals and may result in the newborn being removed from maternal care. Therefore, such interventions must not be capricious for the sake of all involved. The midwife must be supportive of the family’s needs and concerns, while intervening in the child’s best interest. Occasionally, the first time that substance abuse is noticed is when neonatal signs are observed. The classic withdrawal signs of a newborn, especially associated with maternal opiate use, include CNS irritability (e.g., tremors, jitteriness), respiratory distress (e.g., increased rate of sneezing, increase in respiratory rate), fever, sweating, excessive sucking, and poor feeding. Nonpharmacological interventions such as swaddling and other calming behaviors are often implemented. As with maternal treatments, neonatal treatments have rarely been assessed with great scientific rigor and much remains to be understood about substance abuse and the newborn, including the best methods of care. Table 12-5 uses the algorithm of “withdrawals” to summarize symptoms of neonatal withdrawal and associated physical problems.

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

TABLE 12-4

319

Substances of Abuse, Maternal Overdose, and Fetal/Neonatal Effects

Substance of Abuse

Maternal Overdose/Withdrawal

Fetal/Neonatal Effects

Alcohol

Overdose: Unusual behavior, depression, amnesia, hypotension Withdrawal: Agitation, tremors

Microcephaly, growth retardation, mental retardation, craniofacial abnormalities, abortion Growth restriction occurs both before and after birth Nutritional deficiencies, smoking and polypharmacy confound data The fetus of a woman who ingests six drinks per day is at a 40% risk of developing some features of FAS, but the threshold is still unknown

Anticholinergics Atropine Belladonna Scopolamine

Overdose: Pupils dilated and fixed, increased heart rate and temperature, amnesia, vagueness Withdrawal: None

None noted

Cannabis Marijuana THC Hashish

Overdose: Infected conjunctiva with normal pupils, decreased blood pressure when standing, increased heart rate, time and space disoriented Withdrawal: None

Some subtle behavioral alterations noted but no anomalies or growth delay

CNS sedatives Barbiturates Chlordiazepoxide Diazepam Flurazepam Glutethimide Meprobamate

Overdose: Normal pupils, decreased, shocky blood pressure, depressed respiration, depressed tendon reflexes, coma, ataxia, slurring, convulsions Withdrawal: Tremulousness, insomnia, chronic blink reflex, agitation, toxic psychosis

No anomalies Limp baby

CNS stimulants Antiobesity Amphetamines Cocaine Methylphenidate Phenmetrazine Methaqualone

Overdose: Dilated and reactive pupils, shallow respirations, increased blood pressure, hyperactive reflexes, cardiac arrhythmias, dry mouth, tremors, sensorium hyperacute Withdrawal: muscle aches, abdominal pain, hunger, prolonged sleep, possibly suicidal

Questionable increased rate of abortion, hyperactivity in utero, depression of interactive behavior, controversy about anomalies Cocaine has been linked with some bowel atresias and possible congenital malformations of heart, limbs, face, and GU tract as well as growth restriction. Maternal and fetal complications include sudden death and placental abruption (sixfold increase in obstetrical complications)

Hallucinogens LSD Ketamine Mescaline Dimethyltryptamine Phencyclidine (PCP)

Overdose: Dilated pupils, increased blood pressure, heart rate and tendon reflexes, flush face, euphoria, anxiety, illusions, hallucinations Withdrawal: None

Dysmorphic face Behavioral problems

Opiates Codeine Heroin Hydromorphone Meperidine Morphine Opium Pentazocine Tripelennamine

Overdose: Constricted pupils, decreased blood pressure, heart rate and reflexes, hypoactive sensorium Withdrawal: Agitation, flu like symptoms, dilated pupils, abdominal pain

Intrauterine withdrawal with increased fetal activity Neonatal withdrawal Depressed breathing movements Methadone usually treatment of choice

Sources: Rayburn, W. F., and Zuspan, F. P. Drug Therapy in Obstetrics and Gynecology. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Year Book, 1992; American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Teratology. ACOG Educ. Bull. 233, 1–8, 1997; Wang, E. C. Methadone treatment during pregnancy. JOGNN 28(6):615–622, 1999; Dunbar, A. E., O’Neil, M., and Marben, L. Johns Hopkins Children’s Center NICU Guidebook 1999–2000. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, 1999.

320

Part II Primary Care of Women

TABLE 12-5

Signs and Symptoms of Neonatal Withdrawal and Associated Physical Problems

Signs and Symptoms W I T H D R A W A L S

Wakefulness Irritability, insomnia Tremors, temperature variations, tachypnea, twitching (jitteriness) Hyperactivity, high-pitched cry, hiccups, hyperreflexia, hypertonus Diarrhea (explosive), diaphoresis, disorganized suck Rub marks, respiratory distress, rhinorrhea, regurgitation Apnea, autonomic dysfunction Weight loss (failure to gain weight) Alkalosis (respiratory) Lacrimation (photophobia), lethargy “Stuffy” nose, sweating, sucking (nonproductive), sneezing, seizures

Physical Problems P H Y S I C A L

Prematurity High incidence of intestinal, genital, and urinary tract abnormalities, hypertension “Yellow” (jaundice) SGA, small head, SIDS (8–10 times increase in risk), stroke Immune system suppression (infection) Cranial abnormalities (abnormal EEG, seizures) Asphyxia, aspiration pneumonia, “abnormalities” aspiration (meconium), abruptio placenta Low birth weight Others: Vomiting, yawning, coughing, shock

Source: Adapted from Rayburn, W. F., and Zuspan, F. P. Drug Therapy in Obstetrics and Gynecology. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Year Book, 1992.

Common Substances of Abuse The following sections address the most common substances that are abused. Common treatments and implications for pregnancy and lactation are described. It should be noted that with the advent of designer drugs, new combinations frequently emerge and midwives need to continue to be aware of such complications. Public health and law enforcement agencies often provide updates on “street” drugs in a given locality.

Caffeine Caffeine is the most common substance of abuse in the United States. It is estimated that the average daily intake is more than 200 milligrams and approximately one-third of the population consumes more than 500 milligrams. Caffeine is a methylxanthine or xanthine and is known as a mild central nervous system stimulant. Although coffee and tea are the best-known sources of caffeine, soft drinks, chocolate, cocoa, over-the-counter drugs, and prescription drugs can also contain caffeine. Table 126 lists caffeine content of common foods and beverages.

Many women drink a cup of coffee every morning because it tends to enhance alertness and diminish fatigue [8]. However, caffeine can cause heart rate and rhythm changes as well as the more common effects of sleeplessness, irritability, nervousness, and anxiety. More minor effects include an increase in gastric secretions, potentially increasing hunger symptoms, as well as mild diuretic effects. Adults who consume more than 500 milligrams of caffeine daily may experience symptoms such as headache, nausea, and lethargy when caffeine is stopped or withdrawn. Many individuals consume caffeine regularly, but when they note some of the above symptoms, they will decrease their consumption until they are asymptomatic. Individuals suffering from caffeinism—severe symptoms caused by chronic consumption of high doses of caffeine—may be treated by slow or abrupt withdrawal. It should be noted that caffeine dependence is usually very difficult to cure. More than two-thirds of people who are treated for caffeinism relapse [5]. Caffeine dependence often is viewed as a minor issue, if one at all, in the field of substance abuse. However, it has been a major area of controversy among health care providers of pregnant women.

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

TABLE 12-6

321

Caffeine Content of Common Foods and Beverages

Food

Estimated Caffeine (mg)

Serving Size

Brewed coffee Instant coffee Decaffeinated coffee Tea Coca Cola (caffeinated) Mountain Dew soft drink Red Bull energy drink Chocolate bar

180–250 70–320 2–12 50–250 46 54 80 1–35

10 oz 10 oz 10 oz 10 oz 12 oz (1 can) 12 oz (1 can) 8.3 oz 1 oz

Source: Hanson, G.R., Venturelli, P.J., and Fleckenstein, A.E. Drugs and Society, 7th ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc., 2002.

During pregnancy, the half-life of caffeine increases twofold to fourfold [9]. Thus a woman who experiences the caffeine “buzz” when she drinks six cups of coffee may find herself irritable, anxious, and tachycardic after only two cups when she is pregnant. Therefore, she may self-discontinue or decrease her intake. Not only is maternal tachycardia possible, but fetal tachycardia is also common after ingestion of high doses of caffeine. A woman should not imbibe a beverage containing caffeine for a few hours prior to fetal monitoring or a nonstress test. In the past, there were several observational studies that suggested caffeine intake was associated with low birth weight infants. However, these early studies did not account for the factor of smoking. Subsequent studies were less clear about any association. Currently, the recommendation is that moderate use of caffeine poses no major issue to the birth weight of the newborn. Studies about caffeine and spontaneous abortion have been inconsistent. In 1996, Dlugosz and colleagues suggested that caffeine might result in a higher risk of first trimester abortion [10]. Klebanoff and colleagues provided reassurance that if such a link existed, it was unlikely for women drinking six cups or less of coffee daily. They also found that caffeine metabolites are higher with women who smoke [11]. Cnattingius and colleagues may have provided more insight into the issue when they noted that many women who have nausea during pregnancy self-discontinue or decrease caffeine as a comfort measure. Considering that there is some research suggestion that gestational nausea tends to be associated with healthy pregnancies, women who are destined to abort may be the ones who continue to consume caffeine [12]. Additional studies are ongoing regarding caffeine and pregnancy. Caffeine is not contraindicated for breastfeeding women, but if sleeplessness and irritability are seen in the breastfed infant, the mother should decrease her intake.

Tobacco More people die annually in the United States from tobacco-related illnesses than all deaths due to alcohol, cocaine, heroin, AIDS, suicides, homicides, fires, airplane and car crashes, fires, drowning, and the death penalty combined [3]. Smoking and passive, or secondary, smoking (inhaling the smoke of others) have received significant attention from public health agencies, with a resulting overall decrease in smoking nationwide. Figure 12-1 illustrates the general decrease in smoking juxtaposed with major public health and other historical events. However, smoking remains a major health concern, especially for women and girls. In 1997 and 1998, 34.5 percent of American Indian or Alaskan Native, 23.5 percent of White, 21.9 percent of African American, 13.8 percent of Hispanic, and 11.2 percent Asian/Pacific Islander women were current smokers. Among high school seniors, pastmonth current smoking rates for girls decreased from 39.9 percent in 1977 to 25.8 percent in 1992, but again increased to 35.3 percent during 1997. In 2000, smoking prevalence declined again to 29.7 percent. However, that percentage is essentially the same as in 1988, eradicating any success of the 1990s in decreasing smoking among the group [13]. Nicotine is a powerful vasoconstrictor, and it increases blood pressure, heart rate, and blood levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Prolonged tobacco use is associated with cancers, particularly lung cancer in smokers but also cancer of the oropharynx and even the bladder. Women who smoke are at increased risk of cardiovascular and respiratory disease as well as experiencing menopause at an earlier age [14]. Few women smoked in the early twentieth century, but as more adopted the habit, lung cancer overtook breast cancer in relation to mortality, as illustrated in Figure 12-2. Today lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer death among females.

322

Part II Primary Care of Women

5000 1964 Surgeon General’s report

Broadcast ad ban Coalescence of modern advocacy movement

Number of cigarettes

4000 Nonsmokers’ rights movement begins

U.S. entry into WWII

3000

First modern reports linking smoking and cancer

2000 U.S. entry into WWI

Federal cigarette tax doubles

Fairness Doctrine messages on broadcast media

1000

Cigarette price drop

Great Depression 0 1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

Year

FIGURE 12-1 Adult per capita cigarette consumption and major smoking and health events, from 1900–1999 in the United States. Source: Goode, E. Drugs in American Society, 5th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Rates per 100,000 women

30

Breast cancer

25 20 15 10 Lung cancer 5 0 1930

1936

1942

1948

1954

1960

1966 Year

1972

1978

1984

1990

1996

FIGURE 12-2 Age-adjusted death rates for lung cancer and breast cancer among women, from 1930–1997 in the United States. Source: U.S. Surgeon General. Women and Smoking. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2001.

Preventive health care for all women, especially adolescents, must include avoidance of tobacco and tobacco smoke (passive smoking). The woman who smokes a cigarette once or twice a month may be able to stop smoking when given information on the impact of smoking on her health and/or the health of her children. Information alone may not

be enough for the pregnant woman with a history of years of heavy smoking. Tobacco cessation is a major problem for most smokers. The majority of men and women who stop smoking, do so by the “cold turkey” method, without the aid of any drug or agent. However, individuals who are unable to self-discontinue smok-

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

ing may benefit from nicotine replacement therapy (NRT). No one method is best for all individuals, but any NRT appears to be better than placebos for recalcitrant smokers [15]. Combining NRT with buproprion (Zyban), a pharmaceutical that reduces nicotine craving, produces a higher cessation rate than either method alone [16]. A handout from the American Lung Association in regard to NRT and smoking cessation is found in the appendix at the end of this chapter. Table 12-7 provides a summary of evidence-based systematic reviews on various tobacco cessation methods [17–32]. The use of NRT during pregnancy is controversial. One study explored nicotine patches for six pregnant women in late pregnancy and found no adverse maternal or fetal effects. It was well received by the women, but the small sample size limits any conclusions [33]. According to evidence-based systematic review, smoking cessation programs in general during pregnancy appear to reduce smoking, which in turn lowers the incidence of low birthweight and preterm birth, but no effect was detected for very low birthweight or perinatal mortality [34]. Despite the adverse implications, smoking continues to be a relatively common activity in pregnancy, with an estimated 10 to 20 percent of pregnant

TABLE 12-7

323

women smoking. Of the various ethnic/racial groups, almost a quarter of Native American women smoke during pregnancy, as shown in Figure 12-3 [35]. Smoking prior to or early in pregnancy increases the risk of spontaneous abortion and abnormal placentation (including abruptio and placenta previa). During pregnancy, nicotine, carbon monoxide, and the various other components of cigarettes affect maternal circulation and cause constriction of uterine and placental vessels. In particular, carbon monoxide diminishes the oxygen carried to the fetus, culminating in growth restriction [36]. Studies of the placentas of smokers are able to isolate some metabolites from cigarettes, including nitrosaminioketone (NNK), a known carcinogen. It has been suggested that these biological components may make the intrauterine fetus more likely to engage in smoking as an adult and may explain in part why daughters whose mothers smoked during pregnancy seem to be more likely to smoke, even when their mothers stopped smoking shortly after their births [37]. Smoking during pregnancy is closely associated with low birth weight, decreased birth length, and preterm delivery. These fetal effects seem to be more pronounced if the woman combines cocaine with

Results of Evidence-Based Systematic Reviews of Various Methods Used for Tobacco Cessation

Evidence of Effectiveness* Antidepressants: bupropion (Zyban, Wellbutrin), nortriptyline (Sensaval) Clonidine: Catapres Community interventions for youth Group therapy Individual counseling Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) Self-help groups Insufficient Evidence of Effectiveness† Aversion therapy Anxiolytics: diazepam or Valium; meprobamate or Equanil, Meprospan and Miltown; metoprolol or Toprol; and oxpreonol or Trasicor Exercise Mecamylamine or Inversine (nicotine antagonist/antihypertensive) Opiate antagonist: naloxone or Narcan Telephone counseling No Evidence of effectiveness Acupuncture Hypnosis Lobeline (partial nicotine agonist) *

Degree of effectiveness is not the same for each intervention, but all demonstrate some effectiveness.

†

Usually too few studies available.

324

Part II Primary Care of Women

25 1990

22.4

1999

21.0 20

20.0

Percentage

15.7

15.9

15

10

9.1 6.7 5.5

5 3.7 2.9

0 American Indian

NonHispanic White

NonHispanic Black

Hispanic

Asian or Pacific Islander

FIGURE 12-3 Percentage of mothers who smoked during pregnancy, by race and Hispanic origin: Selected reporting areas, 1990 and 1999. Note: Excludes California, Indiana, New York State and South Dakota for 1999 and California, Indiana, New York, Oklahoma, and South Dakota for 1990. Source: Matthews, T. J. Smoking during pregnancy in the 1990s. Natl. Vital Statistics Rep. 49(7):1–15 (November 19) 2001.

cigarettes [38]. Infants of women who smoke have a higher incidence of apnea and sudden infant death syndrome. The newborn effects may be a combination of intrauterine effects of smoking and the passive smoking during the newborn period. Women should be helped to stop smoking not only during pregnancy but also during breastfeeding. The infant is at risk from ingestion of nicotine through breast milk and also from the effect of passive smoking. However, for women who are unable to completely stop smoking, breastfeeding should not be contraindicated. The myriad of benefits of breastfeeding should be available to children of smokers. Marijuana Of all the drugs involved in substance abuse, perhaps the most controversial is marijuana. Derived from the hemp plant, Cannabis sativa, it has a long history of use as a drug in Asia and Europe. In the United States, hemp was used in colonial times for making rope and apparel, and also for folk medi-

cine. By the 1930s, marijuana began to be perceived as a narcotic, and a link was assumed with violent criminal acts. Its use rose with the counterculture movement in the 1960s and then it began to decline. By the 1990s, however, marijuana use unexpectedly rose. Two percent of women aged 26 and older reported using marijuana in 2000, which although relatively small, reflects an increase of more than 40 percent from the previous year [39]. Marijuana remains controversial today: Proponents for its use and legalization are engaged in ongoing battles with those who strongly disapprove of the drug. Advocates point out that there are no reports that anyone has ever died of a marijuana overdose and characterize the agent as a mild lifestyle drug, similar to if not less problematic than alcohol. Furthermore, they point to the use of medical marijuana for such therapy as reduction of nausea and vomiting. Opponents emphasize the hallucinogenic properties of the drug and even suggest that centuries ago assassins emerged from hashish cults. As usual, it is likely that the truth lies between.

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

Marijuana is classified as a hallucinogen, although the psychoactive ingredient tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) specifically has been found to have characteristics of stimulants, depressants, and psychedelic agents. The action of marijuana is similar to that of alcohol, with an initial stimulation followed by a sense of well-being or mild euphoria, called a “high.” Marijuana causes tachycardia and decreased blood pressure, resulting in orthostatic hypotension. Marijuana smoke has effects on the lungs that are similar to those caused by tobacco smoke. Marijuana smoking increases respiratory diseases and produces more residue in the lungs than tobacco, particularly because the smoker tends to inhale more deeply. Smoking marijuana carries the same or an even greater risk for cancer as smoking tobacco. Marijuana is considered a gateway drug, although most users do not go beyond marijuana, cigarettes, and/or alcohol. For most people, the high experienced with marijuana is mild, but it is associated with impaired memory, coordination, and critical thinking. Thus, it is dangerous for a pregnant woman or new mother to attempt to perform tasks requiring complex mental components. Although the high lasts a few hours, THC and the other metabolites are fat-soluble and may remain stored in adiposity for prolonged periods. Even THC in plasma can be found for several days after a single use [40]. Some research has linked a condition known as the amotivational syndrome with marijuana users. The syndrome involves poor productivity and lack of motivation and is seen in some heavy marijuana users. However, it is difficult to ascertain any cause and effect between the drug use and the syndrome since it has been argued that the syndrome may preexist use of the drug. The symptoms even may cause the individual to seek solace in marijuana use. Over the last decade, controversy has swelled around the use of medicinal marijuana, which has been found to have some therapeutic effects against nausea, glaucoma, asthma, and muscle spasms as well as positive effects as an appetite stimulant, antidepressant, and antiseizure agent [41]. Although marijuana is an illicit drug, some locales have legalized the use for medical purposes and discussion is under way in many others. Few programs exist specifically to help individuals discontinue marijuana. Research has not focused on various treatment modalities. Most reports of discontinuation are based on anecdotes or personal stories involving cold turkey or selfhelp groups.

325

During childbearing, no adverse effects of marijuana have been confirmed, although debate continues. Theoretically it may be surmised that smoking marijuana, like smoking cigarettes, would produce low birth weight infants. However, either due to secrecy about the drug habit, or consumption of less marijuana than tobacco, no link between the drug and small infants has been found. What is known is that marijuana commonly is used with other substances and the combination may alter the effects of the individual drugs. Marijuana potentiates the adverse effects of alcohol during pregnancy and may increase the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), marijuana is a substance of abuse that should not be used by the lactating woman. Among the almost 400 research-based references on which their policy statement was based, the AAP Committee on Drugs noted only one study of marijuana during breastfeeding. No untoward effect was found, although it was noted that there possibly was a longer half-life for the psychoactive ingredients [42]. Alcohol Alcohol consumption in the United States has a long and paradoxical history. In colonial times, alcohol use was viewed favorably. The slave trade involved the procurement of molasses, which was transported to New England where the manufacturing of rum became the area’s largest and most profitable industry. Patent medicines liberally laced their concoctions with alcohol. By the mid-nineteenth century, the availability of alcohol and the number of alcoholics caused the temperance movement to gain momentum so that by the early twentieth century many locales had abstinence acts. In 1919 the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution abolished alcohol, but within the next decade criminally supported illegal trade in alcohol flourished. In 1933, the amendment was repealed. In the latter half of the twentieth century risks associated with alcohol again gained center stage when groups coalesced around drug and alcohol issues. For example, MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Drivers) emerged in 1980 as a powerful societal force in America. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant. After caffeine, it is the most widely used drug in the United States. Alcohol is a common ingredient in over-the-counter medications, especially liquid cough and cold preparations. Although men are

326

Part II Primary Care of Women

more likely than women to drink, according to the 2000 National Household Survey of Drug Abuse, more than 40 percent of women were current drinkers [43]. In contrast to men, women are more likely to start drinking heavily later in life. Working women tend to drink at the end of the work day, while women who do not work outside the home are more likely to drink throughout the day. A basic problem with alcohol as a substance of abuse concerns how to define alcoholism. Some individuals drink essentially all the time, others binge drink or drink to excess only at certain times, and yet others are frequent drinkers but never to the degree of intoxication. The percentage of women who drink, binge drink, or frequently drink has remained relatively constant in the last decade, as illustrated in Figure 12-4 [44]. Alcoholism is described by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism as being composed of craving, tolerance, physical dependency, and loss of control [45]. The average alcoholic is not a skid row bum, but rather the typical working person. As a chemical agent, alcohol is readily absorbed in the stomach and gastrointestinal system. In the healthy adult, more than 90 percent of ingested alcohol is metabolized in the liver. Intoxication occurs when more alcohol is ingested than can be metabolized. Tolerance develops when the metabolism has accommodated the chronic presence of alcohol and more alcohol is required to produce the same effects. Of particular concern is the cross-

60

Percentage

50 Any use Binge drinking Frequent drinking

40 30 20 10 0 1991

1992

1993 1995 Year*

1997

1999

*Data were not collected in 1994, 1996, and 1998.

FIGURE 12-4 Weighted percentage of nonpregnant women aged 18 to 44 years who reported alcohol use, from 1991 to 1999 in the United States. Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Alcohol use among women of childbearing age: United States, 1991–1999. MMWR 51(13):273–276 (April 5) 2002.

tolerance that can develop between alcohol and other central nervous system depressants. Individuals who develop a tolerance for alcohol may have a similar tolerance for sedatives and hypnotics, thereby requiring more drug to achieve an effect. Even when they have developed tolerance, women who abuse both alcohol and sedatives or hypnotics will show the additive effect of two central nervous system depressants. Like other substances of abuse, there is no single effective treatment for alcoholism. Relapse is a constant issue for an alcoholic, especially since, unlike other addictive substances, alcohol is socially sanctioned. Withdrawal from alcohol is associated with severe withdrawal symptoms. Of the many treatment options for alcoholics, one of the oldest is the self-help group Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). This organization was founded approximately 75 years ago and sponsors meetings around the world. Offshoots of AA include groups for families and friends such as Al-Anon and Alateen. Local meeting locations can be found on the Web site for AA (www.alcoholics-anonymous.com). Research about the effectiveness of AA has been scant since the program is committed to the anonymity of its members. Membership is voluntary, and members tend to be homogeneous in terms of socioeconomic level, education, etc. Detoxification units once were very popular but have been replaced largely by institutional rehabilitation settings where withdrawal can be medically supervised and therapeutic counseling begun. Opiate antagonists such as naloxone (Narcan) are sometimes used to augment therapy, and they have demonstrated some effectiveness, although recent evidence-based scientific review found the research insufficient to draw the conclusion that the pharmaceuticals should be part of management [46]. Disulfiram (Antabuse) is a deterrent drug that, when combined with alcohol, results in profound nausea and vomiting. It must be ingested by the alcoholic and may be of greatest value in deterring impulsive drinking. During pregnancy, it is unclear how much alcohol intake, or what threshold, will result in abnormalities and features of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). The fetus seems to be the most vulnerable to alcohol during the first few weeks of pregnancy, usually before the woman suspects she is pregnant. Regular moderate (more than two mixed drinks, two glasses of wine, or two beers a day) to heavy alcohol consumption during any stage in pregnancy has been associated with central nervous system ab-

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

18 16 14 Percentage

normalities, behavioral abnormalities, and features of fetal alcohol syndrome. Because there is no known threshold, public health officials in the United States advocate total abstinence during pregnancy. In other countries, moderation or restriction of alcohol are the public politics. In spite of widespread public health campaigns to stop drinking in pregnancy, between 10 and 20 percent of American women continue to drink during pregnancy, with 2 to 4 percent frequently drinking or binge drinking, as illustrated in Figure 12-5 [47]. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy is associated with increased risk of second trimester spontaneous abortion and nutritional deficiency. Alcohol is teratogenic to the fetus; the degree of effect depends on the amount of alcohol consumed and the point in the pregnancy when it is consumed. Fetal alcohol syndrome manifests itself as prenatal and postnatal growth retardation, central nervous system abnormalities in the fetus and child, and abnormal facies. Classic fetal alcohol syndrome includes at least two of the following: microcephaly, micropthalmia, short palpebral fissure, and poorly developed philtrum. Figure 12-6 illustrates the facial features of a baby with FAS. Software programs have been developed to help health care professionals assess neonatal facies for the characteristics of FAS. Additional abnormalities associated with alcohol include cardiac septal defects, hemangiomas, abnormal oral cavities, and hypospadias.

12 10

Any use Binge drinking Frequent drinking

8 6 4 2 0 1991

1992

1993 1995 Year*

1999

FIGURE 12-5 Weighted percentage of pregnant women aged 18 to 44 years who reported alcohol use, from 1991 to 1999 in the United States. Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Alcohol use among women of childbearing age: United States, 1991–1999. MMWR 51(13):273–276 (April 5) 2002.

The prevalence of FAS is unknown. According to the U.S. National Center for Birth Defects and Disabilities, prevalence rates for the United States range from 0.3 to 2.2 cases per 1000 births. Therefore, every year, between 1200 and 8800 babies are born with FAS. Babies may have some, but not all of the manifestations of FAS. These children are said to have alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), which shares some but not all of the characteristics of FAS [48].

Associated Features Epicanthal folds

Short palpebral fissures

Low nasal bridge

Flat midface Short nose

Minor ear anomalies

Indistinct philtrum

Micrognathia

In the Young Child FIGURE 12-6 Facial characteristics of a child with fetal alcohol syndrome. Source: Used by permission of Milner-Fenwick, Inc.

1997

*Data were not collected in 1994, 1996, and 1998.

Discriminating Features

Thin upper lip

327

328

Part II Primary Care of Women

Women should be counseled before pregnancy to avoid alcohol if they are planning a pregnancy or if pregnancy is suspected. During pregnancy, the woman abusing or addicted to alcohol should be encouraged to reduce her consumption with the goal of total abstinence. A safe level of alcohol consumption during pregnancy is unknown. According to the Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs, alcohol is compatible with breastfeeding. However, neonatal drowsiness, diaphoresis, deep sleep, weakness, decrease in linear growth, and abnormal weight gain have been reported when mothers drink large amounts of alcohol. Maternal use may also decrease the milk ejection reflex. Contrary to popular thought, alcohol tends to change the scent/taste of the milk, causing babies to consume less [49]. Cocaine Until recently, it was believed that cocaine did not cause dependency because withdrawal symptoms were so minor, especially compared to alcohol. Yet the popularity of cocaine, particularly since the 1980s, has resulted in a new respect for the serious nature of cocaine addiction. Cocaine has been available for centuries in the form of coca leaves. However, cocaine derived directly from the leaves tends to be mild. In the late nineteenth century, chemists were able to remove the active ingredient from the leaf, purify it, and obtain a far more potent version. Cocaine became a common ingredient in patent medicines, and even Sigmund Freud characterized it as a magical cure-all. Within the next several decades, the addictive properties of cocaine were recognized and it fell into disuse. With the advent of the 1980s, cocaine developed a cachet among prominent actors, athletes, and other celebrities. Within the decade, individuals at all socioeconomic levels were using it. A sophisticated infrastructure exists to move cocaine throughout the world, and especially into America. The U.S./Mexico border is the primary point of entry for cocaine shipments into the United States. The price of a kilogram of cocaine in a major metropolitan area can be as high as $25,000. However, crack cocaine, or “rock,” is relatively inexpensive with small amounts available from $5 to $25, making it within the reach of most people [50]. A central nervous system stimulant, cocaine can be taken in virtually every form—orally, intravenously, subcutaneously, and inhaled through the nose—and it can also be smoked, a method known

as “freebasing.” A particularly powerful and pure form of cocaine is “crack,” which is inhaled and/or smoked. The euphoria brought on by crack is rapid and profound. The danger is that cocaine consumed by freebasing or in crack form is purer than other forms, and the abuser may inadvertently overdose. Effects of cocaine ingestion include tachycardia and cardiac dysrhythmia, vasoconstriction, hypertension, hyperthermia, and seizures. Complications as a result of the vascular effects of cocaine include myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular accidents, and death. A woman who has recently used cocaine may be misdiagnosed as preeclamptic or eclamptic during pregnancy [51]. Cocaine withdrawal does exist, and the symptoms are related to the duration and intensity of use. Symptoms of withdrawal include depression, sleep disorders, and agitation. Three phases have been identified during recovery from cocaine dependence: (1) crash, (2) withdrawal, and (3) extinction. A variety of drugs have been suggested to aid in therapy during this time. None of the three major pharmaceuticals tried—antidepressants, dopamine agonists, and the antiseizure drug carbamazepine (e.g., Tegretol)—demonstrated effectiveness in randomized clinical trials [52–54]. During pregnancy, cocaine use is associated with spontaneous abortion, preterm labor and delivery, abruptio placentae, rapid labor and delivery, fetal intolerance to labor, low birth weight, and fetal death. Cocaine has been linked with fetal bowel atresias and possible congenital malformations of heart, limbs, face, and GU tract as well as growth restriction, although no clear teratogenic link has been established. Women who abuse cocaine need the full services of a drug treatment program and a health care facility prepared to manage the complications of labor, delivery, and the newborn. Newborns exposed to cocaine have a higher incidence of congenital malformations in general, although unlike alcohol no particular facies have been identified. Behavioral abnormalities, especially short sleep cycles and irritability, have been noted. Babies exposed to cocaine in utero have a higher risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Intrauterine exposure to cocaine has been linked to cognitive delays, although not necessarily mental retardation [55]. Long-term effects are unknown. Withdrawal in the newborns of cocaine-addicted mothers is milder than in babies born addicted to opiates, but it still exists. Symptoms of withdrawal in the newborn include irritability, gastrointestinal problems, and respiratory problems.

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

Breastfed neonates are at risk if their mothers use cocaine. Cocaine intoxication manifesting itself by neonatal irritability, vomiting, diarrhea, tremulousness, and seizures has been reported. Thus it is important that the breastfeeding mother refrain from cocaine. Amphetamines Amphetamines are potent synthetic central nervous system stimulants that are essentially a chemical product of the twentieth century. Originally they were used therapeutically as decongestants, although they no longer are indicated for that use. Today, they are FDA approved for treatment of narcolepsy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and weight reduction. Amphetamines can be synthesized in kitchen laboratories, and in some parts of the country they are more popular than cocaine. One type, a methamphetamine known as speed, tends to be less expensive and longer acting than cocaine. Amphetamines can be ingested orally or intravenously or they can be smoked. A smokable form of methamphetamine commonly is called ice. In recent years, a designer amphetamine, methylenedioxymethamphetamine—also known as MDMA or Ecstasy—has developed a following among adolescents and young adults due to its availability at clubs and dance parties such as raves. It has been estimated that almost one-third of people aged 16 to 25 in England have used Ecstasy [56]. People who abuse amphetamines often do so to enhance the effects of other drugs such as cocaine. The risks of amphetamines depend upon amount and duration. These risks include the increased stress on the cardiovascular system, like cocaine, as well as psychological symptoms. For example, decreased fatigue, irritability, and talkativeness can evolve into apprehension, fearfulness, paranoia, hallucinations, and psychosis. Treatment for amphetamine addiction is similar to other general treatments. Support groups and therapy to help modify behaviors are among the most common. Withdrawal has been estimated to occur in more than 80 percent of amphetamine users. No pharmaceutical treatment or model has been found to be effective, and supportive therapy remains the standard for withdrawal and amphetamine psychosis [57, 58]. Treatment during the recovery phase is also limited. There is some evidence that fluoxetine (Prozac) may decrease cravings to some degree and imipramine (Tofranil) may increase duration of adherence to treatment [59].

329

In spite of the growing popularity of amphetamines, little has been published about maternal and fetal effects. It is generally accepted that fetal and newborn effects are similar to those associated with cocaine. A breastfed baby of a mother using amphetamines will often demonstrate similar signs of irritability and sleeplessness that the woman manifests. More research is needed in this area. Narcotics/Opiates The term narcotic is from a Greek word meaning deadening or numbing. In the past the word has been applied liberally to a variety of drugs including heroin, marijuana, and cocaine. Today, many scientists advocate use of the term opiate instead of narcotic because opiates have a clearer pharmaceutical definition. Functioning as central nervous system depressants that act on opiate receptors opiates, or opioids, include heroin, morphine, codeine, meperidine (Demerol), fentanyl (Sublimaze), hydromorphone (Dilaudid), methadone (Methadose), nalbuphine (Nubain), oxycodone (OxyContin), and oxymorphone (Numorphan). A commonly abused drug is the combination of acetaminophen and hydrocodone known as Vicodin. Natural opiates are derived from the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. The addictive properties of opium have been known for centuries, and in the United States they were used for medical analgesia as well as in many folk remedies or patent medicines. Heroin was first introduced into the country in the late 1800s as a cough suppressant, and as an alternative to opium for those addicted. Since heroin enters the brain more quickly than opium, it rapidly replaced opium as the drug of choice for abuse, and it was banned from medical practice in 1924. Unlike other substances that are used only for abuse, opiates such as meperidine, morphine, and others continue to be major therapeutic agents. Opiates are primarily taken intravenously, although a few are usually taken orally. Since the 1980s, a smokable form of heroin has been available, sometimes called Persian heroin. The risks of the intravenous forms of the drugs are compounded by the risks associated with shared needles: hepatitis, human immunodeficiency virus, endocarditis, abscess, and cellulitis. Women dependent on opiates are at high risk for sexually transmitted infections, severe nutritional deficiency, and polydrug use. The acute dangers in opiate use are overdose and withdrawal.

330

Part II Primary Care of Women

Symptoms of withdrawal include anxiety, yawning, perspiring, pupil dilation, insomnia, hypertension, hyperglycemia, diarrhea, and vomiting. The symptoms vary according to duration and to the purity of the drug involved. In the last several years, purity of heroin has increased, and the price has dropped. The advent of smokable and sniffable heroin introduced the drug to groups that previously had avoided it in an intravenous form. Treatment of opiate dependency and addiction, as with other substances, is challenging. However, treatment programs for most other substances of abuse strive for total cessation. Heroin addiction in particular is refractory, and for more than a quarter of a century many heroin addicts have substituted a synthetic opiate, methadone, for heroin. Methadone is FDA approved as an opiate maintenance therapy although there is no single standard procedure for use [60]. Other similar preparations have been suggested, including LAAM (L-alpha-acetyl-methadol), which is long-lasting and requires only three weekly administrations, and buprenorphine (Buprenex, Subutex), an opiate agonist/antagonist that substitutes for the opiate but has minimal issues with dependency. Naltrexone (ReVia) has also been suggested for maintenance treatment, but studies are insufficient at this time to draw conclusions about effectiveness [61]. Systematic reviews evaluating withdrawal treatments have found that naltrexone (ReVia), buprenorphine (Buprenex, Subutex), and clonidine (Catapres) appear to ameliorate the signs and symptoms of withdrawal from opiates [62, 63]. When treatment attempts to wean people from opiates by the use of methadone or clonidine (Catapres), both seem effective, although side effects appear less with methadone and people remain in treatment longer [64]. Withdrawal from opiates during pregnancy has been associated with fetal distress and fetal death. Chronic opiate use is associated with low birth weight and small head circumference in the newborn. Withdrawal in the newborn requires supportive as well as drug therapy. Usually women who abuse opiates, such as heroin, will have a child born dependent upon the agents. Most neonates demonstrate withdrawal symptoms between six hours and eight days after birth, although the timing seems to be associated with type and dose of opiate involved. Neonatal symptoms tend to be multisystemic and usually involve prolonged neurological changes, including hyperirritability, respiratory distress, tremors, and vasomotor irritability. Treatment com-

bines nonpharmaceutical and pharmaceutical interventions such as loose swaddling, a quite environment, and a diluted opiate like paregoric that is administered by slowly decreasing the dosage. Newborns who have been exposed to opiates are considered at risk for developmental and cognitive problems and should have early and continued developmental follow-up. The midwife should consult with a physician regarding management and possible detoxification or conversion to methadone for the opiate-addicted woman. The woman may be offered a methadone program during pregnancy so that the drug received can be regulated and the risks of overdose and withdrawal can be avoided. The use of methadone is controversial because the newborn’s withdrawal from methadone is often more severe than withdrawal from opiates and because the woman may use the methadone in addition to illicit drugs. During labor, care must be taken to watch for signs of withdrawal, including vomiting, diarrhea, anxiety, restlessness, sweating, and abdominal cramping. Because these symptoms can also be normal findings in labor, careful evaluation is required. On her admission to labor and delivery, it is essential to question the woman carefully to ascertain when she last ingested opiates. If symptoms consistent with withdrawal begin, prompt assessment and provision of narcotic are required. Adequate drug levels need to be maintained to avoid withdrawal and the concomitant risk to the mother and fetus. When opiate use or addiction is suspected, butorphanol (Stadol) should be avoided in labor because this may precipitate withdrawal in the woman who has been using opiates.

Appendix A Health Education Fact Sheet from the American Lung Association on Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT) Nicotine replacement products help relieve some of the withdrawal symptoms people experience when they quit smoking. Three nicotine replacement products are currently available over-the-counter in the United States, including two nicotine patches and nicotine gum. Nicotine nasal spray and a nicotine inhaler are available only by prescription. A new non-nicotine pill also is available as a smoking cessation treat-

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

ment option. To be most effective, nicotine replacement products should be used in conjunction with a behavior change program. The nicotine patch releases a constant amount of nicotine in the body; the nicotine dissolves right through the skin and enters the body. The patches are similar to adhesive bandages and are available in different shapes and sizes. A larger patch delivers more nicotine through the skin. Less nicotine is obtained through the patch than in cigarettes. The patch also does not contain all the tars and poisonous gases that are found in cigarettes. Most of the patch products are changed once every 24 hours. One particular patch is worn only during the waking hours and is removed during sleep. Studies have shown that it is much easier to give up the patch than it would be to give up cigarettes for two reasons. First, people usually develop cravings for things that provide immediate satisfaction, such as chocolate. With the patch, the nicotine level in the body stays relatively constant day after day. There is not immediate satisfaction, so there is little craving for a patch. Second, anything people do often, such as smoking, becomes a habit; since you apply the patch only once a day, there is no strong habit to break. The goal in using nicotine medications is to stop smoking completely. If you plan to take nicotine medications, begin using them on the day you quit. If you continue to have strong urges to smoke or are struggling to stop smoking completely, ask your health care provider about additional help. Some side effects from wearing the patch can include • • • • • • • •

Headaches Dizziness Upset stomach Weakness Blurred vision Vivid dreams Mild itching and burning on the skin Diarrhea

Wearing the nicotine patch lessens chances of suffering from several of the major smoking withdrawal symptoms such as tenseness, irritability, drowsiness, and lack of concentration. Nicotine gum contains enough nicotine to reduce the urge to smoke. The over-the-counter gum is available in the same strength as the original pre-

331

scription product, 2 milligrams (for smokers of 24 or fewer cigarettes each day) and 4 milligrams (for smokers of 25 or more cigarettes each day). Like nicotine patches, nicotine gum helps take the edge off cigarette cravings without providing the tars and poisonous gases found in cigarettes. It is a temporary aid that reduces symptoms of nicotine withdrawal after quitting smoking. Nicotine gum must be used properly in order to be effective. Steps for nicotine gum users to follow include: Stop all smoking when beginning the nicotine gum therapy. Do not eat or drink for 15 minutes before using, or while chewing the gum (some beverages can reduce its effectiveness). Chew the gum slowly on and off for 30 minutes to release most of the nicotine. Parking the gum between the cheek and gum allows the absorption of nicotine into the lining of the cheek. Chew enough gum to reduce withdrawal symptoms (10 to 15 pieces a day but no more than 30 a day). Use the gum every day for about a month or so, then start to reduce the number of pieces you chew a day, chewing only what you need to avoid withdrawal symptoms. Discontinue use of gum after three months.

Nicotine nasal spray, dispensed from a pump bottle, relieves cravings for a cigarette. It delivers nicotine to the nasal membranes and reaches the bloodstream faster than any other NRT products. It is available by prescription. The nicotine inhaler consists of a plastic cylinder containing a cartridge that delivers nicotine when you puff on it. Although similar in appearance to a cigarette, the inhaler delivers nicotine into the mouth, not the lung, and enters the body much more slowly than the nicotine in cigarettes. The nicotine inhaler is available only by prescription. A non-nicotine pill, bupropion hydrochloride (Zyban) was approved in 1997 to help smokers quit. The drug, available by prescription only, is also sold as an antidepressant under the name Wellbutrin. It is necessary with all types of nicotine replacement therapy to follow the health care provider’s orders and use these products only as prescribed and/or according to labeling. These products can also be dangerous for pregnant women. Source: Accessed online from the American Lung Association at http://www.lungusa.org/tobacco/replacement_factsheet99.html.

332

Part II Primary Care of Women

References

14. Spangler, J. G. Smoking and hormone-related

1. Bennett, G., and Woolf, D. S. Substance Abuse:

2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Pharmacologic, Developmental and Clinical Perspectives. New York: Delmar, 1991. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: 1999. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2002. Reyes, C. D. Addiction and Special Issues: Report from 33rd Annual Meeting and MedicalScientific Conference American Society of Addition Medicine 2002. Accessed online at www.medscape.com/viewarticle/433837 on August 10, 2002. Uzel-Miller, N. D., and Dresner, N. Addressing substance abuse in obstetrics and gynecology. Primary Care Update Obstet. Gynecol. 9(3):98–104 (May/June) 2002. Goode, E. Drugs in American Society, 5th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 1999. Bradley, K. A., Boyd-Wickizer, J., and Powell, S. H. Alcohol screening questionnaires in women: a critical review. JAMA 280:166–171 (July 8) 1998. Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., and Norcross, J. C. In search of how people change: applications to addictive behaviors. Am. Psychol. 47(9):1102–1114 (September) 1992. Daly, J., and Fredholm, B. Caffeine: an atypical drug of dependence. Drug Alcohol Dependence 51(1-2):199–206 (June/July) 1998. Knutti, R., Rothweiler, H., and Schlatter, C. The effect of pregnancy on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine. Arch. Toxicol. (suppl.) 5:187–192, 1982. Dlugosz, L., Belanger, K., Hellenbrand, K., Holford, T. R., Leaderer, B., and Bracken, M. B. Maternal caffeine consumption and spontaneous abortion: a prospective cohort study. Epidemiol. 7(3):250–255 (May) 1996. Klebanoff, M. A., Levine, R. J., Clemens, J. D., and Wilkins, D. G. Maternal serum caffeine metabolites and small-for-gestational-age birth. Am. J. Epidemiol. 155(1):32–37 (January 1) 2002. Cnattingius, S., Signorello, L. B., Anneren, G., et al. Caffeine intake and the risk of firsttrimester spontaneous abortion. N. Eng. J. Med. 343(25):1839–1845 (December 21) 2000. U.S. Surgeon General. Women and Smoking. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2001.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

disorders. Primary Care: Clin. Office Pract. 26(3):499–511 (September) 1999. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Reducing tobacco use: a report of the Surgeon General executive summary. MMWR 49(16):1–40 (April 28) 2000. Joenby, D. E., Lieschow, S. J., Nides, M. A., et al. A controlled trial of sustained-release bupropion, a nicotine patch or both for smoking cessation. N. Eng. J. Med. 340:685–691 (March 4) 1999. Hughes, J. R., Stead, L. F., and Lancaster, T. Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Gourlay, S. G., Stead, L. F., and Benowitz, N. L. Clonidine for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Sowden, A., and Arblaster, L. Community interventions for preventing smoking in young people. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Stead, L. F., and Lancaster, T. Group behaviour therapy programmes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Lancaster, T., and Stead, L. F. Individual behavioural counseling for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Silagy, C., Lancaster, T., Stead, L., Mant, D., and Fowler, G. Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Lancaster, T., and Stead, L. F. Self-help interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Hajek, P., and Stead, L. F. Aversive smoking for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Hughes, J. R., Stead, L. F., and Lancaster, T. Anxiolytics for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Ussher, M. H., West, R., Taylor, A. H., and McEwen, A. Exercise interventions for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002.

Chapter 12 Substance Abuse

27. Lancaster, T., and Stead, L. F. Mecamylamine (a

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

nicotine antagonist) for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. David, S., Lancaster, T., and Stead, L. F. Opioid antagonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Stead, L. F., and Lancaster, T. Telephone counseling for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. White, A. R., Rampes, H., and Ernst, E. Acupuncture for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Abbot, N. C., Stead, L. F., White, A. R., and Barnes, J. Hypnotherapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Stead, L. F., and Hughes, J. R. Lobeline for smoking cessation. Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Wright, L. N., Thorp, J. M. Jr., Kuller, J. A., Shrewsbury, R. P., Ananth, C., and Hartmann, K. Transdermal nicotine replacement in pregnancy: maternal pharmacokinetics and fetal effects. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 176(5):1090–1094 (May) 1997. Lumley, J., Oliver, S., and Waters, E. Interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Matthews, T. J. Smoking during pregnancy in the 1990s. Natl. Vital Statistics Rep. 49(7):1–15 (November 19) 2001. Hanson, G. R., Venturelli, P. J., and Fleckenstein, A. E. Drugs and Society, 7th ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2002. Mathias, R. Daughters of mothers who smoked during pregnancy are more likely to smoke. NIDA Notes 10(5):11–14 (September/October) 1995. Pastrakuljic, A., Derewlany, L. O., and Koren, G. Maternal cocaine use and cigarette smoking in pregnancy in relation to amino acid transport and fetal growth. Placenta 20(7):499–512 (September) 1999. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: 2000. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2002.

40. Hanson,

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50. 51.

52.

53.

333

G. R., Venturelli, P. J., and Fleckenstein, A. E. Drugs and Society, 7th ed. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2002. Sibbald B. A primer for patients’ use of medicinal marijuana. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 165(3):329 (August 7) 2001. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics 108(5):776–789 (September) 2001. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). National Household Survey on Drug Abuse 2000. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2002. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Alcohol use among women of childbearing age: United States, 1991–1999. MMWR 51(13):273–276 (April 5) 2002. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Diagnostic criteria for alcohol abuse and dependence. Alcohol Alert 359(30):1 (October) 1995. Srisurapanont, M., and Jarusuraisin, N. Opioid antagonists for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Alcohol use among women of childbearing age United States, 1991–1999. MMWR 51(13):273–276 (April 5) 2002. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Birth Defects and Disabilities, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Accessed online at http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fas/default.htm. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs. The transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics 108(5):776–789 (September) 2001. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. State Fact Sheets. Washington, DC: DEA, 2002. Towers, C. V., Pircon, R. A., Nageotte, M. P., Porto, M., and Garite, T. J. Cocaine intoxication presenting as preeclampsia and eclampsia. Obstet. Gynecol. 81(4):545–547 (April) 1993. Lima, M. S., Reisser, A. A. P., Soares, B. G. O., and Farrell, M. Antidepressants for cocaine dependence. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Lima, A. R., Lima, M. S., Soares, B. G. O., and Farrell, M. Carbamazepine for cocaine dependence. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002.

334

Part II Primary Care of Women

54. Soares, B. G. O., Lima, M. S., Reisser, A. A. P.,

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

and Farrell, M. Dopamine agonists for cocaine dependence. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Singer, L. T., Arendt, R., Minnes, S., Farkas, K., Salvator, A., Kirchner, H. L., and Kliegman, R. Cognitive and motor outcomes of cocaineexposed infants. JAMA 287(15):1952–1960 (April 17) 2002. Gorb, C., Poland, R., Chang, L., and Ernst, T. Psychobiological effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in humans. Behav. Brain Research 73:103–107, 1995. Srisurapanont, M., Jarusuraisin, N., and Kittirattanapaiboon, P. Treatment for amphetamine withdrawal. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Srisurapanont, M., Kittiratanapaiboon, P., and Jarusuraisin, N. Treatment for amphetamine psychosis. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Srisurapanont, M., Jarusuraisin, N., and Kittirattanapaiboon, P. Treatment for amphetamine dependence and abuse. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Amato, L., Davoli, M., Ferri, M., and Ali, R. Methadone at tapered doses for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Kirchmayer, U., Davoli, M., and Verster, A. Naltrexone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. Gowing, L., Ali, R., and White, J. Opioid antagonists and adrenergic agonists for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane

Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. 63. Gowing, L., Ali, R., and White, J. Buprenorphine for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002. 64. Gowing, L., Farrell, M., Ali, R., and White, J. Alpha2 adrenergic agonists for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Issue 1, 2002.

Additional References American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Teratology. ACOG Educ. Bull. 233, 1–8, 1997. Chan, A. K., Pristach, E. A., Welte, J. W., et al. The TWEAK test in screening for alcoholism/ heavy drinking in three populations. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 6:1188–1192, 1993. Dunbar, A. E., O’Neil, M., and Marben, L. Johns Hopkins Children’s Center NICU Guidebook 1999–2000. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, 1999. Also found online at http://www.med.jhu.edu/peds/neonatology/ neo/ResidentGuidebook_1999-2000/ ResidentGuidebook.htm#Table. Hanson, G. R., Venturelli, P. J., and Fleckenstein, A. E. Drugs and Society. Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2002. Rayburn, W. F., and Zuspan, F. P. Drug Therapy in Obstetrics and Gynecology. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Year Book, 1992. Wang, E. C. Methadone treatment during pregnancy. JOGNN 28(6):615–622 (November/ December) 1999.

C H A P T E R

13 Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women MARY ELLEN ROUSSEAU, CNM, MS, FACNM

menstruation—and that it describes, not a condition, but rather a physical and psychological change that takes place at a certain time in a woman’s life [3]. Menopause is the permanent cessation of menses. The prefix men- is derived from the Greek word men, which refers to the menstrual cycle; -pause, a Latin word, signifies the cessation of the process. Since cessation of menstruation affects only a few days in a woman’s life, it is worthwhile to think of menopause more broadly, as the period of time during which women define themselves to be in the “change.” This refers to the period when social, physiological, or psychological changes are occurring—a phase that can last from a few months to more than a decade. The physiological changes include a series of hormonal and clinical alterations reflecting declining ovarian function. Gilligan suggests using the term the change, because “the change of life” implies women’s capacity for change during this period and suggests that this is the time when women learn to care for themselves after having always taken care of others [4]. The climacteric, the name of the transition period as a whole, is defined as the phase of the aging process during which a woman passes from the reproductive to the nonreproductive stage. Since medieval times the term climacteric was used to express the idea of a transition at midlife, making no distinction between men and women. The climacteric (derived from the Greek word for rung on a ladder) is usually the seven to ten years of physiological change in the reproductive system that culminates in the last menstrual period. Premenopause is the part

Menopause is a normal life event, not a disease. The Massachusetts Women’s Health Study—the largest and most comprehensive prospective, longitudinal study of middle-aged women, conducted between 1981 and 1986—demonstrates that the menopause is not a negative experience for most women [1]. Midlife, though, is a time of change. Only the multiple influences of biology, psychology, and sociocultural factors can explain many of the behavioral complaints that occur. The normalcy of the process cannot be overemphasized. Changes in menstrual function are not symbols of ominous change; understanding the physiologic reasons for these changes will do much to reinforce a healthy, normal attitude toward menopause [2]. For many decades the medicalization of menopause has caused Western society to perceive the cessation of menses in a very negative light, as a time of impending decline rather than a developmental milestone that promises a positive time of life with new opportunities. Many women with questions or concerns are told simply that they may either choose hormone therapy or not. There has been little opportunity for unfettered exchange of information and alternative therapies such as lifestyle modifications to reduce the symptoms and risk factors for diseases occurring decades after menopause.

Definitions Margaret Lock suggests that the term menopause should be restricted to the actual event—the end of 335

336

Part II Primary Care of Women

of the climacteric before the menopause occurs—the time during which the menstrual cycle is likely to be irregular and during which time women may experience climacteric symptoms such as hot flashes. Postmenopause is that phase after menopause with the end point not well defined—until symptoms disappear or until the end of life. Perimenopause is the term applied to the several years prior to and following the cessation of menses.

Age at Menopause In the Massachusetts Women’s Health Study, women who reported irregular menstrual periods were considered to be perimenopausal [5]. The authors found the median age for the onset of this time period was 47.5 years and the premenopausal period was approximately four years’ duration. The median age for menopause for this group of women was 51.3 years, with only current smoking found to be related to an earlier menopause (by 1.5 years). The range of menopause is between the ages of 48 and 55 for most women. Other authors also report the average age at which menopause occurs in the United States as 51 years [6, 7]. Approximately 1 percent of women will undergo menopause prior to age 40, when it is considered premature ovarian failure rather than menopause [8]. Women who have had an abdominal hysterectomy without oophorectomy may also be at risk for premature ovarian failure, presumably due to compromise of the ovarian vasculature [9]. Genetic inheritance is thought to play the most important role in the etiology of premature ovarian failure [10].

Adult Development, Society, and Menopause According to Neugarten and Kraines, reflection and self-evaluation become characteristic for both sexes during the fifth decade [11]. They report that men become more affiliative and nurturant, and increasingly abstract and cognitive, while women become more comfortable with aggressive and egocentric impulses and deal with the environment in increasingly affective and expressive terms. Neugarten was one of the first investigators of psychology of the menopause and its relationship to midlife. She and her coworkers found that biological events were

not necessarily the important events in understanding the psychology of adulthood. Menopause is symbolic because it is colored by two processes: (1) the change from reproductive to postreproductive life, and (2) aging [12]. The emphasis in the literature on menopause as loss has meant that the developmental context of midlife has been undervalued and consequently, underevaluated. Benedek [13] described menopause as a time of freeing of constructive energy, which is seen in the postmenopausal energy that supports many women’s activities. Menopause tends to be hardest for women who have defined themselves solely in terms of childbearing and who have been cut off from other options [14]. For those women with options, however, the menopause can be a time of renewed energy, new interests, and new definitions. If we conceptualize menopause as a deficiency disease, related to the estrogen effects on cardiovascular and bone health, then we are left with the problem of having no way to think of women’s functioning other than in reproductive terms [12]. Broadening the role of menopause and its interrelationships with such events as family development, the growth of the capacity to work, and physical and psychological changes, can lead to a deeper, and more functional view of menopause.

Medicalization of Menopause Symptoms, Signs, or Age-Related Change? What is normal and what is defined as disease, as well as the way individuals subjectively experience and report symptoms, vary through time and space [15]. Lifestyle transitions including birth and menopause have increasingly come under medical management and although it has sometimes resulted in the improved health and well-being of women, the focus has been mostly on pathology. While there is often room for improvement in any woman’s health, most women entering midlife are healthy. At the same time, most assumptions thought to be universal about menopause were drawn from research on small nonrepresentative samples in clinical settings—findings that were then extrapolated inappropriately to the population of women at large [16]. The normal midlife changes may not be a revolutionary transition at all [15, 17–20] but rather a time of changing hormones, relationships, and roles during which most women get along quite well.

Chapter 13 Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women

During the nineteenth century, the dominant view was that menopause was a physiological crisis leading to physical and psychological diseases such as tumors, depression, hysteria, and insanity [21]. Scientific explanations focused on women’s education, past attempts at contraception or abortion, undue sexual indulgence, insufficient devotion to husband or children, or advocacy of women’s suffrage [22]. In other words, a crisis occurred under certain conditions and the most important of these were social—a woman’s adherence to or departure from her prescribed social role [23]. Long after that era, the definition and meaning of menopause have been negotiated and renegotiated regularly; the challenges to this definition have come from both within and outside the medical community and continue to raise questions, such as what the symptoms of menopause are. Sociologists have begun to study the origins and consequences of defining and treating human experiences as medical problems (medicalization of menopause, pregnancy, homosexuality, alcoholism, hyperactivity etc.), drawing attention to the political and social elements of medicine [23]. In 1972, Zola warned that “medicine is becoming a major institution of social control . . . the new repository of truth, the place where absolute and often final judgments are made by supposedly morally neutral and objective experts” [24]. MacPherson [22] looks upon the medicalization of menopause as a social construct that has been adapted and changed over time and suggests that by conceptualizing menopause this way, medical researchers are in search of an intervention, hormonal or otherwise, to prevent or cure a health problem. After synthetic estrogen was developed in 1938, physicians agreed that menopausal women should be managed by physicians and that medical intervention was a given. Medicine thereby defined menopause as a disease, rather than as a cause of disease, which the physicians of the nineteenth century had believed. In 1966, Robert A. Wilson, author of Feminine Forever, suggested that readers “think of menopause as a deficiency disease . . . similar to diabetes: caused by a lack of insulin or estrogen” [25]. In 1975, papers in the New England Journal of Medicine linked estrogen use with endometrial cancer [26–28], causing a 40 percent decline in the number of estrogen prescriptions, which had risen since the publication of Feminine Forever. This decline led medical researchers and pharmaceutical companies to put forth an effort to “rehabilitate” es-

337

trogen therapy by demonstrating that the benefits of use outweighed the risks [29]. During the mid-1970s progestogen, a progesterone-like substance, was added to the therapeutic regime to combat the carcinogenic effects of estrogen on the endometrium. The term hormone replacement therapy (HRT) replaced estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) to designate the added protection against the problem of unopposed estrogen stimulating growth of the uterine lining. Since the 1980s, menopause has been investigated as a cause of chronic diseases formerly associated with aging [22]. Health researchers and physicians have rationalized use of hormone therapy as a prevention strategy for heart disease and osteoporosis. MacPherson suggests that, in contrast, nurses have maintained more distance from the medicalization of menopause as a social construct. She urges nurses to remain skeptical about the neutrality and objectivity of menopause research, which has commonly used clinical samples unrepresentative of healthy midlife women [22]. Today, medical institutions, pharmaceutical companies, and the mass media provide an abundance of information, both to health care providers and to women encountering the menopause transition. A blitz of input from scientific, technological and medical sources, however, may actually cut women off from traditional sources of information [30]. When women rely only on experts, they are left with no role models for dealing with life-stage transitions [31]. Under such conditions, women can become more vulnerable to messages from medical institutions or pharmaceutical companies whose main interest may be more in the profit margin than in women’s health and well-being. New forums need to be developed to allow women a place and time for sharing their midlife experiences and for passing these on to the next generation. The only universal “change” is the cessation of menstruation. This results from anovulation, which itself results from a depleted supply of follicles. Lock suggests that the assumption that menopause is a universal experience at any level should be subjected to serious questioning and that it is essential to allow women to define their own menopausal status [32]. She cautions that the definitions of climacteric symptoms are culturally determined to a great degree and generalizing from the experiences of one group of women to other groups can lead in unproductive directions and muddy understanding of the menopause transition. Until recently, it was

338

Part II Primary Care of Women

assumed that medical knowledge was culturally independent because of its scientific origin [3]. However, the extent to which biomedicine is a cultural product is now acknowledged [33]. Some authors define the changes accompanying menopause rather narrowly, to include only vasomotor symptoms and vaginal dryness, while others attribute many experiential, behavioral, and somatic problems as well as psychological symptoms to falling estrogen levels [3]. It has been claimed that because life expectancy has increased in the past 100 years, the existence of postmenopausal women is a recent observation. Thus the endocrine deficiency model has been developed for this new group of women who now live past menopause, leading to the prescription of hormone therapy as an immunization against heart disease and osteoporosis. In the past such diseases were ascribed to problems of aging rather than menopause. Contrary anthropologic evidence from 100,000 years ago, however, shows that many females who survived childhood and childbearing lived to well beyond menopause [34]. Menopause has not yet been subjected to the same medicalization as childbirth because most women do not seek medical help for this life change [35]. Health care providers must be wary of the attempt to define women as an expanding market for drugs, cosmetics, and plastic surgery. Care must be taken so that various populations of postmenopausal women are not considered equally at risk for heart disease, osteoporosis, or other late-onset chronic diseases. At this time recommendations for wholesale treatment of women with hormone replacement are not supported by current science. In contrast to clinical medical research literature, the social science and epidemiology research literature emphasize that most women go through menopause with little or no disturbance and usually do not seek help at this time [15]. The discrepancies between the social science literature and the medical literature can be explained in part by the use of two different populations. Clinical trials have for the most part used clinical populations. Social scientists like McKinlay and McKinlay in the Massachusetts Women’s Health Study, on the other hand, draw their samples from the whole population [5]. Lock [15] explains that these competing explanations of menopause contribute to the fragmentation of a complex and poorly understood event because the various arguments are rooted in certain unexamined assumptions and values. Symptoms must be placed in the context of a woman’s culture, and the inherent biases of the researchers must be recognized.

Hormone Therapy After 1975, standard postmenopausal treatment with hormones included the addition of progestins to offer protection against the risk of estrogen’s effects upon the endometrium. Pharmaceutical companies and the medical establishment began to shift their resources to the discovery and promotion of other benefits of exogenous hormones—for example, prevention of diseases such as osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease [31]. Prior to that time, women usually decided to use hormone therapy for short-term symptom relief of menopausal discomforts such as hot flashes or vaginal dryness. With new information about the protective effects of exogenous estrogen on the skeletal system in the prevention of osteoporosis and on the cardiac system, women were advised to use hormones as a prophylaxis against diseases, osteoporosis, and heart disease, which were formerly associated with aging, not menopause. During the 1980s and 1990s, women were advised to begin hormones at the onset of menopause to obtain protection for diseases that may or may not affect them many decades in the future. In 1994, the incidence of hormone use was estimated: 16 percent AfricanAmerican or Latina [36], 22 percent in premenopausal women [37], 32 percent in postmenopausal women [38], and 6 percent in women over the age of 65 [39]. The mean duration of use is less than one year [40, 41]. It is evident that women are not using HRT for the long run; women still consider short-term symptom control the main reason for hormone use [42]. Prior to results in July 2002 of the Women’s Health Initiative, women had been sometimes made to feel guilty or neglectful if they did not choose hormone therapy in order to protect themselves against osteoporosis and heart disease. This attitude is engendered by the fact that medical research and its scientific base are seen as universally correct. In fact, most research on hormone use in midlife women has been on clinical populations (i.e., women seeking care), which give biased results. Women in these studies frequently have been screened out prior to the trials if they have histories of cardiac disease or other factors that potentially confound the results. This can lead to study populations being generally healthier than control groups [43]. Women who have used HRT in the past have been found to be thinner and to have higher high-density lipoprotein (HDL), both of which can contribute to lower rates of heart disease [44]. In many cases, women who participate in clin-

Chapter 13 Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women

ical trials tend to interface with the medical establishment more than the general population and therefore are potentially either more symptomatic or have greater access to medical care when compared to women who are not studied. Thus the two groups can be very dissimilar, and generalizing from the study groups to the general population is not only useless, it can be harmful when potential side effects from medical interventions are not considered in equal light. Risk factors such as lifestyle, poverty, and chronic disease can put women at risk for heart disease to a greater degree than menopause or hormone status [45]. Furthermore, research funding is usually greater for studies that may lead to profits from intervention; studies on options such as making lifestyle changes often have to struggle for any funding whatsoever. The Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) is a randomized controlled primary prevention trial (planned duration, 8.5 years) in which 16,608 postmenopausal women age 50 to 79 with an intact uterus at baseline were recruited by 40 U.S. clinical centers between 1993 and 1998. In May 2002 the WHI was stopped because of unacceptable increased risks for breast cancer, coronary heart disease, stroke, and pulmonary embolism. The authors suggested that clinicians stop prescribing estrogen plus progestin for long-term prevention because of the increased risks. When menopause is defined as a “deficiency disease,” menopause as a disease legitimizes and condones the use of risk/benefit, usually used to assess risks versus harms in sick people, for well individuals [250]. When treating women with a disease, the risk-benefit ratio is changed because the risks become acceptable in light of the disease process. Just like the need to see pregnancy and birth as normal physiological processes, it is the role of the midwife to support women through a natural menopause without causing harm. The results from the WHI provide strong evidence that the risks do not justify use for long-term protection, even though the absolute risks are low [46]. Lifestyle changes have been undervalued by women and providers yet they can afford relief for short-term physical or psychosocial changes, provide protection against osteoporosis, and provide protection against cardiovascular disease. Midwives need to understand their own biases and prejudices for or against hormone therapy during the menopausal years. As with midwifery care for women of other ages, its provision during the climacteric needs to be individualized by the midwife. Women bring their own biases to health care

339

that must be acknowledged. Fears of breast cancer or of “unnatural” interventions are legitimate reasons for making health decisions. Prescriptions for menopausal hormone treatments often go unfilled at pharmacies because women’s worries, concerns, or questions have not been adequately addressed. The two most common reasons found for not filling prescriptions or for discontinuance of hormone use include fear of cancer and vaginal bleeding [47], both of which should be addressed prior to initiation of HRT.

Endocrinology From the standpoint of the ovary, menopause is not a sudden event. It is instead the cumulative result of many events, some of which begin in fetal life [48] and are followed by others that continue through adolescence, pregnancy, and menopause. The loss of follicles occurring at a steady rate until near menopause is primarily due to atresia, not ovulation, since most women start with 2 to 6 million follicles during fetal life but will ovulate only 480 times during their reproductive years [49]. When women are in their forties, anovulation becomes more characteristic [2]. Beginning six to seven years preceding this development, women often experience increasing menstrual cycle length [50]. The development of fewer follicles accompanies this phenomenon, until eventually the supply is depleted [49]. Menstrual cycle change is marked by elevated follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels and decreased levels of inhibin but normal levels of estradiol and luteinizing hormone (LH) [51]. Estradiol levels do not gradually wane in the perimenopause years but remain in the normal range until follicular growth and development halt [2]. Women can have elevated FSH levels of >30 mIU/L despite continued menstrual cycles, with occasional corpus luteum formation. Consequently, the perimenopausal woman still needs to protect herself from undesired pregnancy. As cycles become irregular, vaginal bleeding occurs at the end of an inadequate luteal phase or after a peak of estradiol without ovulation or corpus luteum development [2]. During the climacteric, several changes occur: (1) in the ovary itself, (2) in the endocrine milieu, (3) in receptor tissues throughout the body (for example, in the cardiovascular system or the skeletal system), and (4) in what the woman herself perceives,

340

Part II Primary Care of Women

both physically, such as hot flashes, or psychologically, such as new perspectives on her life. The ovaries and the endocrine system change over time. The number of follicles diminishes and the ovaries become more resistant to the action of FSH. The ovaries also produce decreased quantities of estrogen, androgen, and progesterone. Loss of the negative feedback from ovarian estrogen production means that gonadotropin production is no longer inhibited; hence FSH and LH rise markedly, with FSH higher than LH. Secretion of the ovarian glycoprotein inhibin (which selectively inhibits FSH) also decreases; the decrease eventually results in sustained elevation of FSH. Elevated levels stabilize at about 12 months for FSH and 6 months for LH. Although the ovary is considerably changed both in physical appearance and function after the menopause, functional cysts can occur up to ten years postmenopause. Perhaps more important is that despite the absence of functional follicles, both the remaining corticostromal cells and the hilar cells are steroidogenic—that is, they contribute to androgen production [52]. Thus the ovaries are far from inert and continue to provide significant amounts of androstenedione and testosterone for several years [53]. These hormones contribute to a woman’s muscle strength and sexual drive, making them important to the quality of life for postmenopausal women. There are three main human estrogens: (1) estriol, (2) estrone, and (3) estradiol. Estriol, a weak estrogen is secreted from the placenta and is also metabolized from estrone. Estradiol, the most potent of the three, makes up 95 percent of the circulatory estrogen in premenopausal women [54, 55]. It is excreted by the dominant follicle and the corpus luteum. Estrone, the estrogen associated with the postmenopause, is derived principally from the metabolism of estradiol and from the conversion of androstenedione in adipose tissue. It accounts for most of the circulating estrogen after menopause, and is derived with increasing efficiency with advancing years from the adrenal glands and fat cells. Postmenopausal women have serum estradiol levels below 15 pg/mL (pica grams/milliliter) and mean estrone levels between 30 and 70 pg/mL [56, 59]. Most of the estradiol and estrone in postmenopausal women is produced by the peripheral conversion of androstenedione to estrone rather than by direct secretion of estrone by the ovary or adrenal glands [60, 61]. Ninety-five percent of postmenopausal androstenedione production occurs in the adrenal gland and 5 percent in the ovaries. Yet

the ovarian stroma continue to produce androstenedione and testosterone under the influence of LH. These hormones along with androstenedione produced by the adrenal glands are converted to estrone in peripheral adipose tissue. Thus the body weight of the postmenopausal woman contributes to her postmenopausal estrogen level and increased conversion occurs with increasing weight [58, 62]. After menopause the circulating levels of androstenedione are about one-half that seen before menopause [58]. In contrast, testosterone levels do not fall, and furthermore, with the disappearance of follicles and estrogen production, the elevated gonadotropins, FSH and LH, drive the remaining stromal tissue in the ovary to a level of increased testosterone secretion [2]. However, the total amount of androgens produced is lower in the postmenopausal woman because of decreased conversion from androstenedione in adipose tissue. Despite the discontinuation of estrogen production by the ovaries, postmenopausal women can have significant estrogen levels as a result of conversion of androstenedione and testosterone to estrogen [2]. This correlates with body weight, probably due to the ability of fat to aromatize androgens. At the same time there is a decrease in the levels of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), which results in increased free estrogen concentrations. However, the marked change in the androgen/estrogen ratio secondary to the decline in estrogen productions causes mild hirsutism in some women.

Changes of Perimenopause and Aging Bleeding Pattern Changes Since the change in women from reproductive to postreproductive life is a gradual process spanning many years, changes in menstrual function change gradually as well. The most common pattern is a gradual decrease in both amount and duration of the menstrual flow, leading to spotting and then to cessation [63]. A few women will experience more frequent or heavier periods; this is usually a reflection of continued follicular estrogen production with or without ovulation. However, it may also be indicative of organic disease, such as atypical endometrial hyperplasia or endometrial carcinoma. Only 10 percent of women will have sudden amenorrhea [5]; 70 percent experience oligomenorrhea

Chapter 13 Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women

(intervals of 36 to 90 days) or hypomenorrhea (regular menses but decreased amounts); 18 percent report menorrhagia (bleeding irregularly between cycles), and hypermenorrhea (excessive bleeding) [64]. Consequently, women have little idea of what to expect as they approach the climacteric. Although midwives need to consider pathological conditions in their differential diagnoses, normal physiological changes must be considered with equal emphasis, since for most women menstrual changes are normal. However, only rarely will vaginal bleeding, reflecting ovarian follicular activity, recur after one year of amenorrhea. Uterine bleeding after prolonged amenorrhea (more than 12 months) is suggestive of organic disease and investigation of its cause is necessary. Hot Flashes In most Western countries, as well as the United States, the most common physical change that women describe is the “hot flash,” which is reported to occur in anywhere from 25 to 85 percent of the women passing through the climacteric [65]. Kronenberg defines hot flashes subjectively as recurrent, transient periods of flushing, sweating, and a sensation of heat, often accompanied by palpitations and a feeling of anxiety, and sometimes followed by chills. These symptoms are also variously called hot flushes, night sweats, and vasomotor symptoms. Women may experience hot flashes for short periods of time to many years. The highest prevalence is in the first two years post menopause. For some women, these occurrences can be persistent and disruptive problems. Women who have undergone surgically induced menopause have a higher incidence of hot flashes, at least for the first year, than do women having naturally occurring menopause [66, 67]. The frequency of hot flashes may vary from several per year to many a day although as many as 70 percent may experience daily hot flashes for some period of time [68]. In the Massachusetts Women’s Health Study, the incidence of hot flashes varied from 10 percent during the perimenopausal period to about 50 percent just after the menopause, waning to about 20 percent by four years after the end of menses [69]. The hot flash is not always related to changes in estrogen levels and can be associated with psychosomatic or other organic causes [2]. Suggestions for living with hot flashes include many common-sense means. Women who recognize precipitating factors—such as hot drinks or meals, alcohol, emotional upset, hot weather, or a hot

341

room—can more effectively manage the incidence or severity of hot flashes. Changes in lifestyle, including daily exercise and self-calming techniques such as yoga, meditation, or prayer, can also be helpful, as can maintaining ideal weight. Underweight women can suffer because of the association between low body mass and decreased endogenous estrogen production. Obese women can suffer heat intolerance due to extra layers of adipose tissue. Dressing in layers in breathable clothing such as cottons and keeping the thermostat down are also helpful coping options. Drugs including estrogen and progestin preparations are often prescribed for relief of hot flashes. For many women who choose not to use hormones or for whom they are contraindicated, other pharmaceutical preparations are available. Bellergal (a combination of phenobarbital, ergotamine, and belladonna) can cause side effects such as dry mouth, constipation, rapid pulse, and hypertension, and can be habit forming. Another preparation is Clonidine (Catapres), which is primarily used to treat hypertension. Side effects include dry mouth, hypotension, and sleepiness. Other products used to treat hot flashes include vitamin E (400 IU once or twice a day), ginseng tea, black cohosh, dong quai, and chaste tree [70]. Evidence from several human studies demonstrate that dietary phytoestrogens can produce mild estrogenic effects in postmenopausal women, including reduction in hot flashes and other signs of menopause. Over the past decade, however, it has become apparent that no single action can explain the many effects of phytoestrogens [71]. Dietary phytoestrogen supplementation may benefit some women in alleviating menopausal discomforts, but it is difficult to make recommendations to patients based on the conflicting research and unclear actions of phytoestrogens [72]. The main food sources for phytoestrogens include soybean products, cereals, grasses, legumes, fennel, anise, carrots, flaxseeds, sprouts, and many fruits and vegetables [73]. Black cohosh has been widely studied in Germany for use in the treatment of hot flashes [70]. It functions as an estrogen substitute and suppresses LH. It can be found in a standardized extract called Remifemin, which contains a specific amount of the active ingredient taken in 20 mg tablets, twice daily. Sleep Disturbances Endogenous estrogen supports sleep and temperature regulation and other central nervous system ef-

342

Part II Primary Care of Women

fects. Sleep problems associated with the menopause may be related to either hot flashes or a sleep-breathing disorder [74]. Sleep-breathing disorders are rare in premenopausal women and are found less frequently in women than men. The protection women have against sleep breathing disorders may be due to hormonal factors since these worsen after menopause. The menopausal woman with complaints of severe hot flashes is at risk for sleep disturbance, while the obese, loudly snoring or excessively sleepy menopausal woman is at risk for a sleep-breathing disorder. Other factors not specifically related to menopause are also liable to account for sleep disturbance in menopausal women [74]. Irregular sleep schedules can contribute to problems. Even though women who do not work and whose children are grown may not be obliged to get out of bed at a particular time, they should arise at the same time daily. Arising late in the morning may also prompt depression. Any naps should be taken at the same time. In-bed times should be governed by total sleep hours since longer in-bed times provoke broken, light sleep. Avoidance of substances that act on the central nervous system is important. Caffeine’s duration of action is 12–20 hours; alcohol increases middle-of-the-night waking; and nicotine lessens sleep quality. Other offenders include nasal decongestants, stimulating antidepressants, beta-blockers, antibronchospastics, chronic use of sedatives, and steroids [74]. Sleep problems that are accompanied by diminished enthusiasm and capacity to enjoy, energy loss, appetite disturbance, increased somatic complaints, and poorly diagnosable physical problems may be symptoms of major depression and may be wrongly attributed to the psychological meanings of loss in menopause [74]. Major depression must be considered as an alternative differential diagnosis. In fact, almost any chronic disease—e.g., hyperthyroidism, seizure disorders, and autoimmune disorders—has the potential to disrupt sleep and diminish sleep quality as does arthritic pain and medication side effects. Some women report that they awaken frequently with hot flashes, sweating, or feelings of panic or restlessness. These phenomena occur with varying frequency even in the same woman and can cause severe daytime fatigue, irritability, and inability to concentrate due to sleep deprivation. For some women, night sweats are the most problematic part of the menopausal transition. For a woman with severe sleep disruption, alteration in

psychological and mental functioning can occur, and she is likely to have trouble with daily activities the next day. Avoidance of caffeine, alcohol, and stressful activities prior to bedtime may help. Daily exercise, a regular bedtime, a warm bath in the evening, or having a glass of milk or yogurt just before sleep also can be helpful. Serotonin is synthesized from tryptophan, an essential amino acid that has been shown to promote restful sleep. Good sources of tryptophan are milk and chamomile tea. Valerian root is used in traditional medicine for hot flashes when related to sleep. Because of its bitter taste, it is more palatable when taken in capsule form. Estrogen therapy has also been found to greatly improve sleep patterns. Taking oral estrogen preparations at night can often lead to significant improvement in sleep disturbances and have a positive cascade effect on a woman’s subjective quality of life. Fortunately, most often, severe sleep changes resolve after a period of six to twelve months. Atrophic Changes Because estrogen functions as the major growth factor of the female reproductive tract, there are changes in the appearance of all the reproductive organs. Women demonstrate great variability in the degree of sensitivity to these changes [75]. Studies looking at the gynourinary system during the climacteric suffer from lack of defined variables [76]. For example, many women who claim to suffer with incontinence may experience it only at certain times such as when coughing with bronchitis. Incontinence is also related to parity, obesity, hysterectomy, and a family history of diabetes and may have only limited association with menopause itself. Long-term effects of decreased estrogen levels include thinning of the epithelium of the vagina and cervix; the capillary bed becomes more visible as diffuse or patchy reddening. In some women, local bacterial infection is likely to produce vaginal burning or pruritis and leukorrhea. Eventually, further atrophy of the epithelium leads to an increasingly sparse capillary bed leading to a smooth, shiny, pale surface. The cervix usually decreases in size with a reduction in mucus production that can lead to dyspareunia. Reduction of the uterine endometrium and myometrium leads to shrinkage in the size of small to moderate size myomas. Also, adenomyosis and endometriosis usually become asymptomatic after menopause. Once follicular activity is finished, hormonal stimulation of the endometrium also halts. The tissue becomes atrophic and inactive

Chapter 13 Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women

both inside the uterus and at endometrial sites outside of the uterus. Since the ovaries also become smaller in the postmenopausal woman, palpating them on bimanual exam becomes more difficult. If ovaries are palpated during the pelvic exam, an ovarian neoplasm must be ruled out [63]. The urinary tract also shows changes after menopause. Some women experience atrophic cystitis, characterized by urinary urgency, frequency, and incontinence usually without dysuria or pyuria. Most postmenopausal women experience some atrophic changes of the genitourinary tract. Symptoms can include dryness or itching of the vulva and vagina or dyspareunia. When symptoms are extreme, they can affect the woman’s quality of life. Cystocele, rectocele, or uterine prolapse are experienced by some women but are more related to parity, pelvic architecture, and aging than the result of reduced estrogen levels [2]. Use of hormone therapy, either topically or systemically, often affords relief of vulvar and vaginal pain or itching. Use of vaginal moisturizers (Replens) or water-based lubricants (Astroglide or A & D Ointment) can also be helpful. Since arousal time is slower with aging for both women and men, increased opportunity for foreplay is a helpful recommendation. Sexual activity itself improves blood supply to the pelvis and the vaginal tissues; consequently, sexually active older women often have less atrophy than other women. To relieve potential problems related to decreased moisture throughout the body (the skin, mucous membranes) as well as the reproductive system, women can humidify their homes and ensure that they drink at least eight glasses of fluid each day. Vitamin E liquid or suppositories might be used for additional lubrication. Water-based lubricants or moisturizing gels may also be helpful to relieve dryness, itching, or dyspareunia. Women should be reminded not to use oil-based products (such as baby oil or Vaseline), which can coat the vaginal lining and prevent release of endogenous secretions. These are different from vitamin E oil or massage oil, which are vegetable oil based, not petroleum based. Oil-based lubricants can, however, cause condom breakage and should be avoided entirely if condoms are being used. Other suggestions include avoidance of antihistamines and other over-the-counter drugs that might have a drying effect. Avoidance of douches, sprays, and colored or perfumed toilet paper and soaps can also have a significant positive effect in reducing itchiness or excessive dryness.

343

Whereas some of the changes occurring in the reproductive system are directly or indirectly related to the change in hormonal milieu, others are most likely related to the effects of aging than menopause. Two examples are loss of fat deposits and the loss of elastic tissue causing wrinkling in the vulvar area. Use of hormones will not reverse these changes. Psychophysiological Changes For many decades, menopause has been associated with psychological problems. Information on the psychological aspects of menopause has highlighted morbidity, pathology, and medical treatments [77]. Much of what were considered valid descriptions of menopause were found to rely upon reports from anecdotal situations or from care-seeking populations (i.e., women who present to clinics or practices). Findings from these women’s experiences are different from population-based studies such as the Massachusetts Women’s Health Study [78]. Patientbased samples can be biased in terms of education, socioeconomic status, and other health problems such as depression. Much of what has been reported has been considered to be the result of estrogen deprivation; these findings have been generalized to the larger population of healthy women as a whole. Longitudinal studies, on the other hand, indicate that the increase in symptom reporting and problems of middle age often reflect social and personal circumstances rather than endocrine changes of menopause [35, 79, 80]. Surveys of the general population, rather than of women attending menopause clinics, contradict assertions that menopause has a negative effect on mental health [81]. Women who seek medical help for menopausal symptoms differ in many ways from women of the same age and menopausal status who do not seek help, and are more likely to report distress [82, 83]. No increased incidence in major depression has been found to be associated with menopause [84], although McKinlay, McKinlay, and Brambilla [82], who also found no association between natural menopause and depression, did find an association between depression and surgical menopause. Dennerstein, Smith, and Morse conducted one of the few studies that addressed psychological well-being instead of using illness measures [77]. The authors found that menopausal status is not related to well-being in any of its dimensions. In contrast, endocrinologists postulate that ovarian hormones may be responsible for the difference in

344

Part II Primary Care of Women

rates of depression in women as compared to men [63]. The occurrence of depressive illness at times when there are extreme changes in the hormone levels—during the climacteric, after pregnancy, and in association with the ever-changing effects of the menstrual cycle—suggest that it is the change in the levels of hormones (probably the decline) that is more important, rather than the absolute values. Smith and Judd [63] assert that this hypothesis is further supported by the fact that women show relatively low incidences of depression at times of stable hormone levels—for example, during the high levels found in pregnancy or the low levels found in postmenopausal women [63]. Recent data imply that estrogens share many neuropharmacological actions in common with clinically effective antidepressants [85, 86]. However, antidepressants are more effective than treatment with estrogens for mood disorders, postpartum depression, premenstrual depression, and climacteric depression [84]. The triad of psychological symptoms often cited in connection with menopause—depressed mood, insomnia, and decreased sexual interest— has provided the basis for the attribution of a depressive syndrome in perimenopausal women [87]. Yet, there are differences between true insomnia and the sleep changes associated with severe night sweats. Loss of libido can be influenced by a number of factors, including increased depression or anxiety. Finally, many life factors can increase the risk of depressed mood. Examples include death or illness of family members, children leaving or returning home, health problems that include the onset of chronic disease, and the prospects of aging in a society which places little value in its elders. Many of the early reports of improvements in psychological symptoms as a result of estrogen therapy are attributed to the “domino effect” of treating hot flashes and what the reduction of hot flashes does to improve other symptoms. Weight Changes Menopause is often blamed for weight gain in middle-aged women. However, it should be remembered that both men and women have a tendency to gain weight in their middle years. Moreover, each woman has her own unique body shape and size and energy level, which Western women often fruitlessly try to change in an effort to adhere to society’s “ideal thinness.” Many women suffer from feeling overweight when they actually are not. Women benefit from attention paid to an excellent diet that is healthy and meets necessary require-

ments, rather than attempting to lose weight by avoiding healthful foods that are thought to be fattening. While still menstruating, women have the seesaw effect of the two hormones, estrogen in the follicular phase and progesterone in the luteal phase. If a woman experiences a weight gain of a few pounds prior to her menses from the progesterone effect, she looks forward to losing them again after its onset. After menopause, women lose the cyclic effect of the hormones and must balance food intake with exercise. This means eating wisely (whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and skim milk products and avoiding fats, sugars, refined flours, and rich meats) and actively walking, bending, and engaging in other forms of exercise. Weight gain during menopause is thought to be the norm; however, few studies have simultaneously considered both age and menopausal status in relation to weight gain. Longitudinal studies of weight suggest no relationship of change in weight with menopause after adjusting for age [88, 89]. In many societies, where healthy lifestyle practices are the norm, women are often thinner after menopause rather than fatter. Based on longitudinal studies, as women enter the menopausal transition, some body changes affecting fat deposits occur, including breast enlargement, thickening around the waist, fat deposits on the upper spine, and replacement of muscle tissue by fatty tissue. More studies are needed that take into account infrequently considered factors such as ethnicity, baseline weight, use of HRT, smoking behavior, and socioeconomic status. Since it takes less energy to maintain fat cells than muscle tissue, caloric intake should be reduced by 10 to 15 percent from age 20 to 60 just to maintain the same weight. Recommendations for increased exercise and a healthy diet that includes watching caloric and fat intake (if these are a problem) should be made to women as they grow older. Exercise has the added effects of increasing muscle tone, strengthening bone, stimulating metabolism, and relieving some mood alterations. Aside from not smoking, maintaining ideal weight is the most important health measure for reducing coronary heart disease [90]. Maintaining ideal weight helps lower the level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and increase the level of highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) [91]. Conversely, it is important to stress to women going through menopause and in their older years that they should avoid being excessively thin because of the possible

Chapter 13 Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women

increase in hot flashes and the increased risk of osteoporosis. Hypothyroidism plays no role in obesity; rather the weight gain associated with hypothyroidism is the result of the fluid accumulation of myxedema [92]. Skin Changes Most skin changes women notice at menopause are the result of photoaging (sun damage) and, secondarily, intrinsic aging [93]. Other changes include dryness, increased sweating, sagging, altered barrier function, thinning, and decreased wound healing, all of which may contribute to psychological distress or altered body image. Prevention of sun damage over the lifetime by the use of protective clothing or sunscreen with a sun protective factor (SPF) of at least 15 is the best prescription to ward off the affects of photoaging. Prescription preparations such as tretinoin cream (Avita, Renova, RetinA) offer some improvements to sun-damaged skin by reducing fine wrinkles, tactile roughness, and hyperpigmentation. Use of such preparations can cause dryness and peeling which can be managed with moisturizing creams or by using the preparations less frequently. Dry skin with accompanying pruritis is a common problem caused by the loss of an effective water barrier to prevent evaporation of water from the epidermis. Ordinarily, sebum provides protection from water loss but its production diminishes at menopause. Both the dryness and the resultant itching can be alleviated to some degree by controlling the humidity in the environment and use of mild soaps (Dove, Caress, Oil of Olay) and moisturizers. Emollients with 10 to 20 percent urea (Uremol) or lactic acid (Lachydrin) will do the most to hydrate the skin. For severe pruitis, symptomatic relief can be found by use of soothing (menthol or phenol) or antiinflammatory (hydrocortisone) agents. Antihistamines such as hydroxizine (Atarax) or Benadryl can be used in more problematic cases. Hair changes that are seen in the climacteric include graying, baldness, and increased facial hair. By age fifty, 50 percent of the population will have gray hair [93]. Balding, although much more rare, is cause for distress in the women who experience it. Women usually develop diffuse parietal thinning of scalp hair with retention of the frontal hairline. Topical minoxidil (Rogaine) is now approved for use in women with androgenic alopecia and is generally safe and well tolerated. For excessive facial hair, commercial preparations such as bleaches and chemical hair removers are available. Other options

345

include shaving, waxing, plucking, and electrolysis. Although electrolysis is considered permanent, regrowth can be as high as 60 percent after a single treatment [93]. Nail growth slows between early and late adulthood by 30 to 50 percent [94]. Brittle nails are the result of longitudinal ridging, separation of the distal nail plate, and loss of water content of the nail plates [95]. Treatment includes trauma prevention, avoidance of excessive use of nail polish, soaking in oil, and moisturizing phospholipid cream (Complex-15). Improvement in brittle nails with a daily oral dose of 2.5 mg of biotin has been reported [96]. Skin tags (fibroepitheliomas) are benign, soft, brown, pedunculated polyps usually found on eyelids and the neck. Other benign lesions commonly found include seborrheic keratosis, sharply defined, flat, light or dark brown papules usually found on the trunk; and DeMorgan’s spots (cherry angiomas), red dome-shaped papules found mainly on the trunk. Acne rosacea, an inflammatory condition of the sebaceous glands, has an increased incidence with age and can be treated with topical antibiotics such as benzoyl peroxide, erythromycin, and metronidazole (Metrogel). When examining the skin of a person of any age, malignancies must be considered in order to facilitate early diagnosis and treatment. Basal cell carcinoma, which accounts for more than 75 percent of all skin cancers, presents variously as a flesh colored papule, or a superficial erythematous plaque, or a pigmented or ulcerative papule, plaque, or nodule. This slow-growing cancer almost never metastasizes but can invade surrounding tissues and destroy bone and cartilage if left untreated [97]. Basal cell carcinoma usually develops on the face, ears, neck, scalp, hands, or arms. Squamous cell carcinoma, which has a 95 percent survival rate, accounts for another 20 percent of skin cancers. Individuals with a history of treatment for psoriasis or acne with ultraviolet light, as well as those with exposure to paraffin, tar, or coal are at increased risk. Women with albinism and vitiligo also are at higher risk [98]. Actinic keratoses are tan, scaly, erythematous, gritty lesions that can be a precursor to squamous cell carcinoma and should be examined for changes on a regular basis. All pigmented lesions should be examined with the consideration of possible melanoma. Suspicion should rise when a woman presents with a new mole or an existing one that has recently changed in size, shape, or color. Variegated color, irregularity

346

Part II Primary Care of Women

of the border, and/or inflammatory signs of a lesion should alert the midwife to the possibility of melanoma. Prognosis depends in large part on tumor thickness. Sexuality Satisfactory sexual functioning is an integral part of a woman’s health and well-being at any age. Myths abound about sex and aging. Stereotypes in Western culture often serve to limit useful communication about sex and take a toll upon the self-concept of women in sexual matters as they move through the menopausal transition. For many years, it was assumed that as women grew older their sexual interest and responsiveness waned. According to the Kinsey report in the early 1950s, women reach their sexual peak, in terms of both activity and enjoyment, about the age of 35 [99]. Nachtigall [100] reports, however, that although there is a decrease in sexual activity after age 35, it is either because of “burnout” or male disinterest. The majority of women who experience natural menopause do not report declines in sexual desire, erotic pleasure, or orgasm [101], and sexual potential declines less in women than men with aging [102]. The myth that older people are not interested in sex springs from the connections that are made in our society between attractiveness and youth, and of sexuality with romantic love or fertility [100, 103]. Sex can be enjoyed for a variety of reasons including feeling feminine, reducing tension, improving sleep, as an outlet for emotions, and for feelings of intimacy. A newer illusion to which many women and practitioners succumb is that since women have reduced estrogen levels it is to be expected that sexual activity will necessarily become uncomfortable, a burden, or at least unpleasant. This goes along with the idea that women once past their childbearing potential lose their desire and desirability. For many couples, sex continues to improve with aging and lifestyle changes for both men and women. With more leisure time, the children gone, and responsibilities changing, sex can become a wonderful adventure. Arousal time is increased for both women and men with aging. Increased time for foreplay is often required. Sexual responses have a similar “slowing” as do other physiological processes throughout the body. It is important to remind women and their partners that changes are not always catastrophes but, rather, can lead to unpredictable pleasures. There is extensive evidence that estrogen replacement can be beneficial for problems of post-

menopausal vaginal dryness and dyspareunia by reversing atrophic vaginitis [104]. Estrogen’s effect on libido is unclear [105]. Androgen therapy, however, is considered safe and effective for lowered libido when taken in appropriate dose levels for women undergoing a natural menopause [106]. The risks and benefits of using any hormone replacement must be discussed with each woman to develop an optimal plan for her. In order to provide a holistic and comprehensive approach to treating sexual changes during the climacteric, it is important to consider significant issues in a woman’s life, including her health status, physical and social environment, past experiences, expectations, and cultural milieu [107]. Consideration should also be given to the quality of each woman’s relationships, the sexual performance of her partner, and age-related changes in self-image [108]. For many women, the worst aspect of the climacteric is the lack of information and uncertainty about changes. Midwives can make an impact by supplying information, effective counseling around common changes, and offering personalized treatment options for women experiencing negative changes in their sexual lives. The majority of providers do not routinely ask questions regarding sexual health and women often do not feel comfortable initiating questions about the topic. A 1990 survey of more than 1000 primary care providers showed that only 10 percent routinely obtained a sexual history and only about 10 percent of patients were assertive enough to ask questions about their sexuality [109]. Many providers do not want to be too intrusive when asking personal questions, although 90 percent of patients feel that a sexual history is an entirely appropriate and necessary part of a health evaluation. Questions should address sexual adjustment, problems, and information needs. Open-ended questions about sex may lead to the woman’s interest in discussing her questions or problems in the sexual realm. She should be asked about vaginal changes, including moisture or dryness, itching or pain, as well as more direct questions about anything she wants to ask or discuss about her sex life or sexuality. If a woman has had a hysterectomy or mastectomy, she may have additional queries, and time must be taken to inquire about these in relation to sexual adjustment. Anxiety or depression can cause problems with arousal phase disorders. Medications such as antidepressants and antihypertensives may also contribute to sexual dysfunction.

Chapter 13 Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women

Another consideration for older women is the lack of available sexual partners due to divorce or death. For some women this means exploring other relationships with new partners or satisfying their sexual needs alone with masturbation or fantasy. In some circumstances, the lack of sexual partners means a life of a reduced level of sexual activity. Caring for women’s sexual concerns should include explaining the physiology of aging as it relates to sexuality and correcting problems when possible. It is helpful to explain the psychology of aging and its “norms”; and that women are capable of “different” and sometimes improved sexuality. Offering alternate, noncoital activities either with or without a partner is helpful. Referring women of any age for sex therapy when appropriate should be considered, especially when there is long-standing sexual dysfunction, current or past abuse, or an acute psychological event. Finally, it must be considered that for some women a decreased sexual interest may not be perceived as a problem at all so no intervention is necessary. Changes in Thyroid Function Thyroid dysfunction becomes more common as women age. While it is not cost effective to screen younger women for thyroid problems, it appears to be cost effective as women approach the age of 60 [110]. As many as 8 to 12 percent of older women have overt hypothyroidism [111]. Diagnosis of thyroid disease as women age may be complicated because of a lack of classic symptoms. Often women present with symptoms that mimic other chronic problems, such as depression, congestive heart failure, or early dementia [110]. For example, women with hyperthyroidism may complain of lethargy or confusion and may resemble women with hypothyroidism. Women with hypothyroidism may be ataxic or confused or present with hoarseness from thyroid enlargement. Medications may alter thyroid function as well. It is important for the midwife to have a high index of suspicion to diagnose and treat thyroid disease early in the older woman.

Breast Cancer Adenocarcinoma of the breast is the most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death among American women [112]. There is mounting evidence from epidemiologic studies indicating a positive relationship between (1) estrogen levels, (2)

347

markers of estrogen exposure such as early menarche and late menopause, and (3) the use of exogenous estrogens after menopause and an increased risk of breast cancer [113]. Experts suggest that estrogen plays an important role in the pathogenesis of breast cancer [114]. The period from menarche to menopause marks the lifetime exposure of women to significant levels of reproductive hormones. For every one-year increase in age at time of menopause, the risk of breast cancer increases by about 3 percent [115]. Timing of pregnancies also affects risk: late pregnancies are associated with increased risk, while early pregnancies are protective. It is theorized that a woman’s first pregnancy is associated with terminal differentiation of breast cells and that the cell cycle is longer after a woman’s first pregnancy, allowing more time for DNA repair [116]. Such reproductive milestones as markers of estrogen exposure are now thought to influence the rate of breast cell growth and the accumulation of DNA damage [113]. Seemingly, postmenopausal women with elevated estrogen levels have the highest risk of breast cancer [117, 118]. Obesity, for example, is positively related to hormone levels, reflecting the biologic function of fat cells to metabolize androgens to estrogens in postmenopausal women [119, 120]. Premenopausal obesity is also positively associated with increased risk of breast cancer mortality in most case-control and prospective studies [121]. The relationship between postmenopausal obesity and breast cancer is less clear. Body mass index (BMI) has been positively associated with postmenopausal breast cancer in case control studies [122, 123], but prospective studies generally show a relatively weak association, if any [124–126]. Conversely, thin women have both lower estrogen levels and lower age-specific risk for postmenopausal breast cancer [127]. Having a firstdegree relative (mother or sister) with breast cancer is also considered a risk factor for breast cancer and should be included in a health history. The association between hormone therapy and breast cancer concerns most women. Colditz and colleagues performed a review of the literature to determine the strength of the evidence suggesting that endogenous estrogen and postmenopausal replacement play a role in the development of breast cancer. A causal relationship was found based on the criteria of consistency, dose-response pattern, biologic plausibility, temporality, strength of association, and coherence [113]. The authors report the magnitude of the increase in breast cancer risk per year of hormone use to be comparable to that asso-

348

Part II Primary Care of Women

ciated with delaying menopause by a year. They theorize that hormones may act to promote the late stages of carcinogenesis and facilitate the proliferation of malignant cells [113]. Since all women are potentially at risk for breast cancer, midwives must consider carefully the possibility of the woman developing breast cancer when assisting her to make informed decisions about hormone therapy. When helping a woman along the decision-making path, risks such as cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis as well as factors such as severity of hot flashes or sleep loss must be considered and balanced with the risk of breast cancer. The risk of breast cancer for each year of replacement use increases 2.3 percent (95% confidence interval [CI]=1.1%–3.6%, p=.0002); the findings do not vary significantly between studies [128]. How varying formulations and prescribing regimens influence women’s risk remains uncertain. Additionally, many of the older studies that examined the association between breast cancer risk and hormone use were on “ever users” who generally used HRT for short-term relief of symptoms. The WHI was stopped primarily because of the increased risk of invasive breast cancer for women taking the combination of estrogen and progestin. This was the first randomized, controlled trial that confirmed that the combined HRT (CEE plus MPA) does increase the risk of breast cancer and to quantify the degree of risk [129]. There was a 26 percent increase observed in the estrogen plus progestin group for invasive breast cancer (hazard ratio [HR] 1.26, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.00–1.59). There was no difference between treatment and placebo groups for noninvasive (in situ) breast cancers. After an average follow-up of about five years, the adverse effect on breast cancer had crossed the predetermined safety boundary and the study was halted. Even before the WHI results were made public, Colditz proposed that risk for breast cancer has been underestimated due to methodologic biases of observational studies [113]. He suggests that women with menopause symptoms have lower estrogen levels at menopause than women without symptoms—that is, they are more likely to report hot flashes and thus choose to take HRT. Thus women who take hormones may be at lower risk of breast cancer at the time of menopause leading to an underestimation of true breast cancer risk with HRT. Colditz and others suggest that previous analyses have not controlled for age at menopause with sufficient rigor to remove bias in estimates of

risk of HRT use and breast cancer [128]. Women who enter menopause at a younger age are at substantially decreased risk of breast cancer, yet they are more likely to use HRT and to do so for a longer duration. Moreover, users of HRT are at lower risk on average of breast cancer at the start of menopause, than nonusers of the same age once other risk factors are controlled for. Many epidemiologic studies are confounded by factors including data showing that women taking hormones for longer duration will have had earlier menopause (and so be at lower risk for breast cancer) than the women taking hormones for a shorter duration. This may have led researchers and clinicians to underestimate the adverse effect of hormones on breast cancer risk [113]. Colditz suggests that the association is stronger between estrogen levels and the risk of breast cancer than that between cholesterol levels and heart disease. Conversely, other factors such as higher rates of mammography in women using HRT can lead to a higher reported incidence of breast cancer. Women who use hormones are often in higher socioeconomic circumstances and more likely to consume alcohol, both of which have increased association with breast cancer [43, 130]. Such factors may lead to overestimating the underlying relationship between hormone use and breast cancer [131]. Hormone Replacement and Risk of Breast Cancer Certain characteristics of women who use hormones are known. Women who experience symptoms at menopause have lower levels of circulating estradiol [132–134]. Thin women are more likely to use hormone therapy [132] and to report hot flashes [134]. Bone density is lower in women when they begin to take hormones than in women who choose not to use hormones [135]. All of these point to the fact that women at lower risk of breast cancer are more likely to use hormones [113]. Upon recalculation of the potential association of risk for breast cancer with HRT use, investigators in 1997 attributed a profound impact to incomplete analytic control for time since menopause in previous reports of epidemiologic data [128]. They noted an increase in the risk of breast cancer associated with duration of use was 0.8 percent per year (p = .10) if no correction was made, compared with an increase in risk of 2.3 percent per year (p = .0002) when full statistical control was used. In this reanalysis of 51 epidemiologic studies, of more than 52,000 women with breast cancer and more than 100,000 women without breast cancer, the authors estimated that

Chapter 13 Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women

for every 1000 women who begin to take postmenopausal hormones at age 50 and who take them for 10 years, there are six more cases of breast cancer than expected; for 15 years of use, there are 12 additional cases. In the mid-1970s progesterone was added to estrogen regimens to protect against endometrial cancer. It was proposed that progesterone offered similar protection against breast cancer [136]; however, accumulating evidence has not supported this view [128] and it is more likely that progesterone increases the breast cancer risk above that associated with estrogen alone [137, 138]. What is not known is whether sustained progestin levels with continuous administration of progestins as part of continuous, combined HRT (daily estrogen and daily progestin) may move breast cells into a phase of reduced division. The answer awaits more experience and trials of continuous combined HRT use. Continuous combined HRT has been used only in recent years. Data on risks for breast cancer with continuous combined HRT use is sparse, and longterm, prospective, controlled trials are needed before we can have clinical clarity. Breast Cancer Survivors and HRT It is assumed because of the relationship between estrogen and breast cancer that HRT will promote breast cancer, hasten recurrences, and increase metastases. Women who survive breast cancer are often left with debilitating symptoms of estrogen withdrawal or health problems such as osteoporosis, because of the consensus that HRT should be avoided in women with breast cancer. A challenging question to providers is how to alleviate menopause symptoms such as hot flashes when up to 60 percent of women undergoing adjuvant breast cancer therapy suffer these side effects [139–141]. At the present time, hormone therapy is by and large avoided for fear of stimulating disease recurrence. DeSaia and colleagues conducted a cohort study published in 1996 comparing breast cancer patients who received HRT with matched comparison patients who did not receive HRT [142]. The results showed no difference in survival time or disease-free time in the two groups. In 1999 Natrajan and colleagues followed 76 women with breast cancer, 50 who had used ERT for up to 32 years, some of whom had also used androgens, progestins, or tamoxifen [143]. The authors found no increase in recurrences or mortality rates and a possible decrease in recurrences with progestins. The study was retrospective and nonrandomized, the study

349

groups were small, and the HRT used was variable. Both studies point to the need for data from prospective randomized trials. Before recommending HRT for the patient having a history of breast cancer, a full explanation of risks, benefits, and controversies must be shared with the individual woman. No Consensus on the Breast Cancer Question Why had there been no consensus regarding HRT and breast cancer prior to the Women’s Health Initiative? Speroff points out that when the impact of an association is large, it is relatively easy to demonstrate an association with case-control studies or cohort (observational) studies [144]. In addition, observational studies cannot overcome their inherent biases and confounding factors unless the studied effect is large. Compounding the dilemma is the fact that most trials involving hormone replacement therapy were conducted when estrogen was used without progestins. While observational studies show little uniformity and consistency about the association between breast cancer and HRT, the results from the Women’s Health Initiative will likely influence the opinions of health care providers when it comes to prescribing HRT for long-term protection, particularly because of the confirmed risk of breast cancer with its use. In any event, instructions for breast self-examination, clinical breast assessment, and routine annual screening mammography should be part of the health care for all women over age 50. McCool reports that older women view breast self-examinations as difficult, despite the decrease in complexity of the breast (ending menstrual cycle changes, atrophy of the mammary glands and ducts, and decrease in fibrocystic structures), and also because of embarrassment, lack of confidence, and disbelief in the potential for detecting abnormal findings [145]. Midwives can make a profound difference in breast care in older women. Midwives should take advantage of every opportunity for breast health education—self-breast exam, and screening tests—mammography, and clinical breast exam. Some providers fail aging women, believing that such steps are not crucial to health care provision [145]. Yet midwives can make a difference by taking older women’s health needs seriously. Midlife women are very concerned about breast health and disease. It is often what brings them to seek care. Until a consensus is reached regarding the new information from the WHI, women will still need help to sift through the confusing information and recommendations to which they have been exposed.

350

Part II Primary Care of Women

When caring for a woman who is concerned about the relationship between hormone use and breast cancer, the midwife needs to help her to weigh the advantages and the risks of use. The midwife can ask her how frightened she is regarding any increase in breast cancer risk and if the benefits of hormone use for symptom control outweigh these risks. Whether her decision is made within the context of “scientific evidence” or her own ideas and feelings about breast cancer risk, it is a valid decision that must be honored.

Cardiovascular Disease Cardiovascular disease, including coronary heart disease, cerebral vascular disease, hypertension, and peripheral vascular disease, is the most common cause of death in the United States for both men and women, with some 500,000 women dying from it each year [146]. Risk factors for both men and women include hypertension, smoking, diabetes mellitus, and obesity. However, prior to menopause women enjoy protection against heart disease provided by estrogen; consequently they lag behind men in the incidence of coronary heart disease by ten years, and for myocardial infarction and sudden death, by twenty years [147]. Whether menopause per se is responsible for this increased risk which women experience as they pass through it is unclear [148] yet remains the most important question. Most studies on menopause in the literature focus on the biological process and exclude the broader psychosocial contexts of women’s lives [149]. Women who undergo early menopause or bilateral oophorectomy prior to menopause have been shown to have an increased risk of heart disease [147]. However, the most important risk factors for heart disease—diabetes, obesity, smoking, and high cholesterol—are often established well before menopause. Moreover, there is evidence that cardiovascular disease is present in terms of myocardial infarcts in women’s fourth and fifth decades before menopause [150]. Reported rates of cardiovascular disease mortality in women from many countries indicate smooth, exponential trends with age, similar to those in men. Longitudinal data from a population-based study suggests that agerelated factors such as body mass and exercise are much more strongly related to cardiovascular risk than is menopause status [151]. Risks may be related to a number of factors including changes in lipids and lipoproteins. Total

cholesterol, low-density (LDL) cholesterol, apolipoprotein A-I, apolipoprotein B, and triglycerides are significantly higher in postmenopausal than premenopausal women of similar age, whereas highdensity (HDL) cholesterol is decreased [152]. Postmenopausal women as well as men are also more prone to hypertension as they grow older. Since most studies on heart disease have been with male subjects, extrapolating results and making recommendations about treatment require caution. Postmenopausal hormone treatment is recommended as a legitimate component of preventive health care against heart disease for women, but this must be considered within the context of lifestyle factors such as smoking cessation, good diet, regular exercise, blood pressure reduction, and other interventions on which excellent epidemiologic data are available. There is a growing scientific basis that supports preventive medicine and health promotion efforts as a valuable component of effective health care; their value should be emphasized, not minimized. Much of the enthusiasm to recommend hormone use to women stems from the strong link from observational studies between menopause and an increased incidence of cardiovascular disease. Such studies suggest that postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy reduces cardiovascular disease risk by about half [153]. Estrogen use in women has been shown to be effective in lipid lowering which is believed to predict reductions in the risk of cardiovascular heart disease (CHD) so that lipid lowering can be used as a surrogate endpoint for CHD. Studies published in the last decade show positive effects of hormone therapy on cardiovascular risk factors as well [154, 155] but these need to be reexamined in light of the results of the Women’s Health Initiative. At the same time, there is growing evidence that thrombotic phenomena play an important role in acute coronary syndromes [156]. Both unopposed estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) increase the risk of venous thrombosis [157–161], but some studies also show that estrogen may slow the progression of existing coronary artery disease in postmenopausal women [162]. However, many of these studies suffer from the limitations of small patient numbers and demographic differences between treatment groups; women who take estrogen are on average better educated, have higher incomes, and better access to health care and are healthier prior to use [43, 163]. The conflicting evidence presented con-

Chapter 13 Health Care of Midlife and Aging Women

cerning the cardiovascular benefits of hormone use, along with increased risk of breast and endometrial cancer and venous thromboembolism, has created concern among health care providers about whether use of hormones is essentially beneficial or putting women at risk [164]. The Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) of 2763 women published in 1998 was the first large-scale randomized clinical trial in older postmenopausal women with established heart disease to test the efficacy and safety of hormone replacement therapy on clinical cardiovascular outcomes [157]. Participants were followed for 4.1 years for the main end point of nonfatal myocardial infarction (MI) or cardiovascular death. At the end of the study, no significant differences were seen between the two groups. The results revealed that, while the risk for coronary heart disease was reduced in the third through fifth years, the reduction was offset by an unexpected 50 percent increase in risk for CHD in the first year of use. This null effect has shaken the foundation on which recommendations for widespread use of estrogen replacement were built. HERS illustrates the importance of trials that use clinical end points to establish the overall effects of a treatment. Herrington points out that the HERS results demonstrate how incomplete our understanding of estrogen action and the pathogenesis of coronary heart disease remains [165]. The author suggests that HERS does not support initiation of conjugated equine estrogens (CEE) combined with medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) in older women with confirmed heart disease. For women with CHD already on ERT for a year or more, the consensus panel for the American Heart Association suggests that it is reasonable to continue therapy while awaiting the results of a HERS follow-up study and other ongoing trials of therapy with clinical end points [166]. The statement points out that while the results of the HERS trial pertain to women with established heart disease the results may not apply to women without underlying vascular disease. The epidemiologic study most often quoted by experts and the lay press, the Nurses’ Health Study, began in 1976 when 121,700 female nurses between the ages of 30 and 55 were mailed a questionnaire about use of hormone therapy and medical history, including cardiovascular disease and risk factors. These data were updated biannually and in 1980 questions on diet and physical activity were added. In 1996, a 16-year follow-up of

351

59,337 women was published and looked for the first time at any association between heart disease and adding progestins to hormone replacement. Current hormone users had a lower risk of death (relative risk, 0.631, 95% CI, 0.56–0.70) than nonusers. However, the apparent protection decreased with long-term use as the risk of breast cancer increased after more than ten years [167]. The authors concluded that the addition of progestin to estrogen does not appear to attenuate the protective effects of hormone therapy in relatively young postmenopausal women but must be evaluated within the context of possible risks such as breast cancer. Women who benefited the most from hormone use were those who had the most risk factors for heart disease, while those with few risk factors had little decrease in risk of heart disease with hormone use. This study found no increasing benefit with increasing duration of use; in contrast, the benefits were attenuated after ten or more years of current hormone use. At the same time the risk of breast cancer mortality in the hormone-using population was elevated by 43 percent after ten years of hormone use [167]. In the Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Intervention (PEPI) trial [168] published in 1995, 875 women were randomly assigned to receive placebo, oral estrogen alone, or one of three estrogen-progestin regimens [169]. HDL cholesterol levels were increased and LDL cholesterol levels were decreased in all the treatment groups. The decreases in LDL cholesterol levels were similar for all regimens but the HDL cholesterol levels were significantly less elevated in the women who took estrogen with medroxyprogesterone (MPA) compared to those who took estrogen alone. In a more recent analysis of the PEPI data, it was reported that conjugated equine estrogen (CEE) therapy with or without progestins leads to long-term stable average decreases in lipoproteins of 20 to 30 percent for women who adhere to its use [170]. Other studies have also shown an inverse association between estrogen plus progestin regimens and cardiovascular disease [171–174]. Stroke The association between hormone therapy and stroke had been unclear until the WHI results pointed to a significant increased risk with combined HRT. Previously, the Leisure World Study published in 1991 showed a relative risk of 0.3 among current estrogen users as compared with women who had never used estrogen (p100 mIU/mL in the postmenopause. FSH rises earlier after the menopause and to higher levels than LH. LH levels are typically 4–30 mIU/mL with pre-ovulatory surge to 100 mIU/mL in the reproductive years; >100 mIU/mL in the postmenopause. 2. Estrogens: Used to evaluate menopausal status and the effects of hormone therapy on circulating levels of estradiol. Estradiol levels are typically 50–350 pg/mL (picograms per milliliter) in the reproductive years and 5–25 pg/mL in the postmenopause. Since these latter levels do not overlap with premenopause levels, measurements of 35 years Balanced chromosome rearrangement Previous child with chromosome abnormality Low maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein Family history of birth defects and/or mental retardation Congenital heart disease Neural tube defect Cleft lip and/or palate Multiple congenital anomalies Mental retardation Family history of known or suspected Mendelian genetic disorder Cystic fibrosis Hemophilia A Hemophilia B Duchenne muscular dystrophy Becker muscular dystrophy Fragile X Carriers Ethnicity African population Sickle cell disease Trait carriers Mediterranean/Indian; Beta-thalassemia Jewish: Tay-Sachs disease Occurrence in Ashkenazi Jews Trait carriers—Ashkenazi Jews Occurrence—general population Trait carriers—general population Exposure to possible teratogens Alcohol Radiation Occupational chemical exposures Toxoplasmosis Rubella Cytomegalovirus Syphilis Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Epileptic disorder: drugs Patients with low or high MSAFP Fetal abnormalities diagnosed by ultrasonogram Consanguinity Multiple pregnancy losses, stillbirth, infertility Anxiety

Carrier Frequencies

Prenatal Diagnostic Methods US, AC, CVS

8/1000 1.5/1000 1/700

Echocardiography US, AC US US

1/2500 (whites) 1/17,000 (blacks) 1/10,000 males 1/1500–1/2000 males 1/4000 males

CVS

1/2000 males 1/4000 females 1/700 males 1/250 females

1/600 US blacks 1/12

FBS CVS, AC CVS, AC CVS, AC

CVS, AC CVS, AC CVS, AC CVS, AC

1/3600 1/30 1/360,000 1/300

CVS US US US US, FBS US, FBS US, FBS US US US, AC US, AC CVS, AC, and FBS US US US

US: ultrasound; AC: amniocentesis; FBS: fetal blood sampling; CVS: chorionic villus sampling. Source: From Bauman, P., and McFarlin, B., Prenatal diagnosis. J. Nurse-Midwifery 39(2 suppl.):37S. Copyright 1994 by the American College of Nurse-Midwives. Reprinted by permission of Elsevier Science Inc.

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

decreases with the receipt of normal results on follow-up diagnostic tests, but in some cases anxiety persists throughout pregnancy [9, 10]. These findings emphasize the importance of pretest teaching and of supportive counseling for women who receive abnormal results. Because the process of testing for fetal anomalies as well as concern about risks to her child may raise a woman’s anxiety [11], the midwife has an obligation to note signs of increased anxiety and negative attitudes about pregnancy. Assessment of a woman’s knowledge and fears allows the midwife to provide realistic reassurance and support as well as further education as needed. When genetic evaluation reveals an abnormal fetus, the family needs support and information to assist them in their decision-making regarding continuation or termination of the pregnancy. A small number of these identifiable conditions can be treated prenatally with medications or surgery. Others are amenable to carefully planned treatment after birth. In most cases, however, the woman and her family must face the diagnosis of an abnormal fetus. Most midwives find that a genetic counselor or pediatrician can help them explain the nature and possible severity of a fetus’s condition. In addition, support from a psychiatric counselor or social worker may be invaluable. It is the midwife’s obligation to assist the woman in understanding what tests are available to her and the relative value of a given test. One example of these tests is couple screening for cystic fibrosis, which can identify 72 percent of CF cases prenatally [12]. Both partners must agree to provide mouth rinse samples, which are checked for known cystic fibrosis alleles. This allows genetic diagnostic testing to be offered to couples at risk when both may be carrying a recessive trait. First Trimester Evaluation of Fetal Risks: Biochemical Markers First trimester screening for Down syndrome through measurement of hCG and pregnancy associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) is not yet widely available, but is being examined as a potentially effective replacement for second trimester screens. Fetuses with Down syndrome have been found to have an elevation of PAPP-A and a lower quantity of hCG. Taken together, they offer detection rates of approximately 60 percent, with false-positive rates of 5 percent. The benefits of early screening, if it matches the predictive value of current second trimester screens, are obvious. Among them are

627

greater patient privacy in decision-making and safer procedures for families electing to terminate an affected pregnancy. However, the increased risk of miscarriage associated with chorionic villus sampling, the increased costs associated with offering multiple testing schemes, and the fact that some affected fetuses will abort spontaneously before second trimester screening would have been done, may affect the desirability of these tests [13, 14]. Nuchal Translucency Screening Ultrasound is now being used to measure the neural tube at the level of the fetal neck. On ultrasound examination between 10 and 14 weeks of gestation, an increase in the sonolucent area at the back of the fetal neck to greater than 3 millimeters or the presence of cystic hygroma indicates an increased risk of fetal aneuploidy, including trisomies 21, 18, and 13, Turner syndrome (45, X), cardiac defects, and other anomalies [15–17]. An increase in the rate of fetal loss has also been reported, even in chromosomally normal fetuses [18]. When performed in skilled hands, sensitivity of this method approaches 80 percent. However, inaccuracies of measurement such as inclusion of the umbilical cord, poorly placed neck position during scanning, and fetal position near the unfused amniotic membrane, will yield false results [16]. The greatest benefit from nuchal translucency measurements will probably come from their inclusion in combined ultrasonographic and biochemical screens (see below).

Second Trimester Screening Alpha-Fetoprotein Testing Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a protein synthesized first by the yolk sac and then primarily by the fetal liver. The fetal AFP level increases until about 20 weeks and then declines to term. The normal AFP levels in maternal serum continue to rise until around 32 weeks [19]. Alterations in AFP levels in either amniotic fluid or maternal serum have multiple possible etiologies. In general, an increase in maternal serum AFP is due to “leaking” of fetal AFP through an opening in the fetal skin—that is, an open neural tube defect or an open ventral wall defect. Table 23-3 identifies the major reasons for maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP) elevations. Normative levels of MSAFP are dependent on many factors: gestational age, maternal age, race,

628

Part IV Antepartal Care

TABLE 23-3

Major Reasons for MSAFP Elevations

Underestimation of gestational age Multiple gestations Neural tube defects Ventral wall defects (omphalocele, gastroschisis) Renal anomalies (renal agenesis, urethral obstruction) Severe oligohydramnios Ectopic (including abdominal) pregnancy Fetal-maternal hemorrhage (may occur spontaneously or following CVS or amniocentesis) Underweight mother Black race Increased placental size Source: From Thomas, R. L., and Blakemore, K. J. Evaluation of elevations in maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein: A review. Obstet. Gynecol. Surv. 45(5):269–283, 1990. Reprinted with permission.

weight, and diabetes. Therefore, careful assessment of gestational age and accurate reporting of maternal factors to the lab play a part in getting accurate screening results. About 1 to 2 percent of all women who undergo AFP testing have positive test results [6]. Such testing identifies 80 to 90 percent of fetuses with anencephaly, spina bifida, and omphalocele, using a cutoff value of 2.5 multiples of the mean (MOM) adjusted for maternal age, weight, and race. Women with diabetes have a higher incidence of structural fetal anomalies, and, therefore, a cutoff of 2.0 MOM is used. Some labs have slight variations in these normative values. The midwife must be aware of the limits used in the reference laboratory. Identification of multiple pregnancy is also critical for accurate screening results, as more than one fetus will elevate the MSAFP result. Only about 1 in 15 women offered amniocentesis as a follow-up to MSAFP screening is found to be carrying a fetus with structural fetal defects. The number of false-positive screens is reduced as dating accuracy is improved. Therefore, women with uncertain dates or those with abnormal findings on examination need ultrasound confirmation of their gestational age [6]. As the quality of ultrasound anatomy assessment has improved, use of these scans has in large part replaced the use of amniocentesis as the evaluation following increased risk of open neural tube defects. The placenta also plays a role in elevated MSAFP levels. If the placenta is large or malpositioned, more AFP may cross into the maternal circulation; a placental defect may also allow an abnormal amount of fetal AFP to pass from the

fetal blood to the maternal serum. Many times when the MSAFP is elevated, the fetus is found to be structurally normal and the amniotic fluid AFP is also normal. An abnormal placenta or implantation site is a likely explanation for the increased risk of adverse pregnancy outcome with increased MSAFP when no obvious etiology is found [19]. Although MSAFP screening was initiated for identification of structural fetal anomalies, it has been found that there is a relationship between very low MSAFP levels and infants with Down syndrome. MSAFP alone identifies 25 percent of cases of Down syndrome among women younger than 35 [20]. Multiple Marker Screening Multiple marker screening (also often referred to as a triple screen) was introduced in the late 1980s and improves the percentage of chromosomal anomaly cases detected to 60 percent among women who are at a risk level of greater than 1:270 [21]. Multiple marker screening most commonly consists of MSAFP, hCG, and unconjugated estriol, and it has replaced MSAFP alone as the most common screening test for ONTD and fetal aneuploidy. Both trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) and Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) have increased detection rates with multiple marker screening. In trisomy 21, hCG levels are high, while estriol and AFP levels are relatively decreased. In trisomy 18, all three values are low. These tests are well demonstrated to increase the detection rates of chromosomal abnormalities, identifying about 60 percent of fetuses with trisomies 21 or 18 [22–24]. The same holds true for women over 35, who may in some cases be reluctant to undertake amniocentesis if their risk of anomaly is lower than their risk of procedurerelated loss [25]. However, false-positive rates (positive test results in an unaffected fetus) remain a concern which should be addressed as women are counseled. It is essential that women understand that these tests are done to identify a large group of women whose pregnancies deserve closer evaluation, not to diagnose disease. Since Down syndrome is by far the most common chromosomal abnormality in live-born children, most focus is placed on this condition. Table 23-4 illustrates the detection and false-positive rates for Down syndrome associated with various maternal ages [26]. When a sonographic gestational age using the biparietal diameter is available, it is the preferred value for use in establishing gestational age in multiple marker screening programs, since anencephaly, spina bi-

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

TABLE 23-4

Age (y) 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44

Age-Related Detection Rates and FalsePositive Rates for Women Ages 16 to 44 with Risk Cutoff of 1:300 Detection Rate of AFP, hCG, and Unconjugated Estriol

False-Positive Rate

44.3% 44.3% 44.7% 45.2% 46.5% 48.5% 51.6% 56.0% 62.0% 69.5% 78.0% 85.5% 91.6% 95.7% 98.1%

3.1% 3.1% 3.2% 3.2% 3.6% 4.1% 4.7% 6.1% 8.7% 12.5% 19.0% 28.6% 40.9% 55.3% 70.0%

Source: From Reynolds, T. M., Nix, A. B., Dunstan, F. D., and Dawson, A. J. Age-specific detection and false-positive rates: an aid to counseling in Down syndrome risk screening. Obstet. Gynecol. 81:449, 1993.

fida, and Down syndrome all may affect this measurement [27]. Reducing the false-positive rates for Down syndrome reduces the burden of amniocentesis in normal pregnancies, without affecting diagnosis rates negatively. It is important to recognize that elevated MSAFP screens and possibly abnormal hCG levels have been linked with an increase in poor perinatal outcomes even in the face of normal ultrasound and amniocentesis results. Specifically, an increased risk of stillbirth and preterm delivery has been identified [28, 29]. However, not all studies agree, and efforts to link second trimester biochemical markers to the prediction of preeclampsia have met with little success [30–32]. Modifications of screening programs are part of the continuing efforts to recognize pregnancy complications. Currently, the addition of inhibin A to second trimester screens, creating a quadruple test, is becoming available. When all four values are computed, the ability to identify cases of Down syndrome is raised to 80 to 85 percent with a falsepositive rate of 5 percent [33, 34]. Multiple marker screening should be offered between 15 and 20 weeks’ gestation. Earlier screening allows time for evaluation and management of abnormal results.

629

Integrated Screening Several authors now advocate various combinations of first or second trimester biochemical screens with nuchal translucency testing. Such combinations, because the measurements are independently variable, maximize the benefit to the family. That is, they give the highest possible sensitivity, while reducing the need for invasive diagnostic testing. Probably the most commonly available is nuchal translucency measurement plus second trimester multiple marker screening [34, 35]. Management of Abnormal Screening As a rule, abnormal AFPs should be tested again after confirmation of dates; thus, offering the test as close to 15 weeks as possible is important. An abnormal triple screen is generally not repeated but may be recalculated based on a new assessment of gestational age. When a triple screen is abnormal, the most common reason is miscalculation of gestational age. Therefore, an ultrasound examination is indicated to confirm dating as well as to rule out the presence of structural anomalies. Follow-up of abnormal findings should be performed in a timely manner to allow families to make decisions regarding genetic counseling and the possible need for more invasive testing. Triple screen dating criteria may be clarified at the same time as the 16- to 20week ultrasound anomaly screen. Genetic tests, biochemical evaluation, and ultrasound are used to make diagnoses following abnormal screens. Women with an increased risk for an open neural tube defect may be offered amniocentesis for amniotic fluid AFP, acetylcholinesterase testing, and karyotyping, in addition to a comprehensive ultrasound examination. In tertiary care centers, a comprehensive ultrasound examination is the preferred means of evaluation for neural tube or ventral wall defects. Because ultrasound performed by very skilled sonographers using high-resolution ultrasound equipment is a highly effective means of ruling out these specific anomalies, an amniocentesis may be considered unnecessary in these cases [36]. A combination of ultrasound and amniocentesis is necessary to diagnose chromosomal anomalies. Because extremely skilled sonographers and state-of-the-art high-resolution instrumentation are not widely available, the combination of amniocentesis and ultrasound remains the most common diagnostic approach in the United States for abnormal triple screen results. Women at increased risk for Down syndrome and other chromosomal anomalies are offered re-

630

Part IV Antepartal Care

ferral for genetic amniocentesis. Ultrasound evaluation for associated structural defects is also usually recommended. Multiple sonographic markers have been associated with Down syndrome and are thought to improve the identification of affected fetuses. Because reliance on ultrasound alone has not been proved to be diagnostic of Down syndrome, amniocentesis remains the definitive diagnostic tool [37]. The performance of invasive diagnostic tests for genetic disorders, such as CVS or amniocentesis, itself carries a risk of pregnancy injury or loss. These tests also require specialized training and equipment and are expensive to perform. Women should be informed regarding procedure-related risks and their options, including no testing at all. In addition, every woman should be advised that no individual test or combination of tests can guarantee the eventual well-being of her child.

Invasive Fetal Assessment Throughout Gestation Chorionic Villus Sampling In the first trimester of pregnancy, chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is used to identify genetic diseases that affect the fetus. This test offers the advantages of early diagnosis, opportunity to terminate an affected pregnancy during the first trimester, and greater privacy for the woman and her family. It has been suggested that CVS might also facilitate prenatal bonding by providing early reassurance of the fetus’s well-being [36]. CVS may be the test of choice for women who are more willing to terminate a pregnancy [38]. Rapid results for many of the common genetic abnormalities can now be obtained with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology in CVS specimens [39]. A disadvantage of CVS is that it carries a slightly increased risk of pregnancy loss compared to second trimester amniocentesis. After correction for the background rate of spontaneous abortion in the late first trimester, the increased risk of pregnancy loss amounts to approximately 0.8 percent [40]. Oligohydramnios, rupture of the amniotic membranes, and subchorionic hematoma have all been reported as sequelae of CVS. Another concern is the risk of limb reduction defects reported in some studies, particularly with CVS at 8 to 9 weeks’ gestation. There appears to be no increase in the risk of these defects when CVS is performed at or after 10 weeks’ gestation [19]. It is important to

know the experience of the individuals actually performing the procedure in order to have a true estimate of risk. Chorionic villus sampling is most often performed transcervically (Figure 23-2). In some cases, placental location, uterine position, cervical stenosis, or the woman’s discomfort may lead the physician to enter the uterus transabdominally (see Figure 23-3). Ultrasound is used to guide the placement of a flexible catheter through which placental villi are removed. Villi from the developing placenta are then karyotyped. Adequate tissue will be obtained in 97 to 98 percent of all CVS samples, which will then culture successfully. The tissue samples undergo both direct analysis (which gives results in 48 hours) and more accurate culture techniques (with results in 10 to 14 days). Because chromosomal mosaicism can be evident in the placenta but not the fetus, in rare instances abnormal results may require amniocentesis in the second trimester [36, 41]. Mosaicism would be noted by the geneticist and included in the report. Women who are Rh negative should receive Rh immune globulin (e.g., RhoGam) following invasive procedures. When a woman shows evidence of prior Rh sensitization, amniocentesis is preferred to CVS to delay any possible effects on the fetus [36, 40]. Women undergoing CVS should be advised that MSAFP testing for open neural tube defects is still

FIGURE 23-2 Transcervical chorionic villus sampling. Source: Reprinted from Gabbe, S. G., Niebyl, J. R., and Simpson, J. L. Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies, 4th ed. New York. p. 201. Copyright © 2001 with permission from Elsevier.

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

631

guidance to reduce the risk of piercing the fetus and to avoid the placenta whenever possible. If the placenta lies anteriorly and cannot be avoided by needle puncture, the clinician must make a decision regarding the safest place in the placenta to pass the needle through; in the case of Rh isoimmunization, the decision may be to reevaluate the risk-benefit ratio of the amniocentesis. About 99 percent of amniocenteses for genetic testing are successful. Results are commonly available within 2 to 3 weeks, although FISH technology can make rapid results available for common aneuploidies. Risks of amniocentesis include fetal loss in about 0.5 to 1.0 percent of all cases. There is a 0.1 percent risk of amnionitis; there have been rare reports of fetal injury. Maternal spotting or fluid leakage following the procedure is not usually associated with poor pregnancy outcomes. Rh negative mothers receive Rh immune globulin to prevent isoimmunization [36, 40].

FIGURE 23-3 Transabdominal chorionic villus sampling. Source: Reprinted from Gabbe, S. G., Niebyl, J. R., and Simpson, J. L. Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies, 4th ed. New York. p. 202. Copyright © 2001 with permission from Elsevier.

recommended. It is important to note, however, that because CVS may allow maternal-fetal blood exchange, there is the possibility that CVS may cause a falsely elevated MSAFP [19]. Ultrasound scans for anatomy and/or amniocentesis for AFP and acetylcholinesterase may be suggested when an abnormal MSAFP follows a normal CVS [41]. Amniocentesis When both procedures are available in her community, a woman can choose amniocentesis or CVS based on personal preference, gestational age at registration, and concerns about risk. Standard genetic amniocentesis is performed at 15 to 16 weeks’ gestation, when indicated. For women at risk for open neural tube defects, amniocentesis will provide specific measures of amniotic fluid alphafetoprotein and acetylcholinesterase, which CVS does not. The technique of amniocentesis for removal of fluid from the uterine cavity is a century old. In the last 40 years, its usefulness has expanded to encompass genetic and biochemical diagnosis, assessment of fetal disease, and evaluation for fetal maturity. The procedure is performed under direct ultrasound

Early Amniocentesis Prior to 15 weeks of gestation, a modified amniocentesis can be used as an alternative to CVS, if technical considerations preclude CVS. As with second trimester amniocentesis, neural tube defect identification is enhanced, but at this early gestation, fewer cells are available for detecting metabolic errors. The relative risk of this procedure probably exceeds that of either CVS or later amniocentesis. Reasons for this increased risk include incomplete fusion of the amnion and chorion prior to 13 weeks gestation and less total amniotic fluid [42]. Several reports of trials of early amniocentesis indicated a significantly increased risk of fetal loss, leakage of amniotic fluid, and an increased incidence of talipes equivarnus. [43–45]. However, not all studies do so; also, some spontaneous losses will occur during the time frame separating early and standard amniocenteses, partially explaining the difference in rates of fetal loss or morbidity following the two procedures. Amniocentesis After 20 Weeks As the fetus reaches viability, the primary use of amniocentesis changes from genetic diagnosis to monitoring of fetal lung maturity. It is more common to use CVS for rapid karyotyping late in pregnancy. Testing of amniotic fluid obtained through amniocentesis prior to scheduled cesarean deliveries and elective labor inductions, particularly those scheduled before 39 weeks, can assist in the pre-

632

Part IV Antepartal Care

vention of iatrogenic prematurity and respiratory distress syndrome. Lecithin/sphingomyelin ratios (L/S) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) tests can evaluate lung maturity. When PG is present in amniotic fluid, the risk of respiratory distress syndrome is minimal, even when the L/S ratio is less than 2 [40, 42]. The “shake” and “tap” tests and optical density assessments also utilize amniotic fluid samples. Pregnancies complicated by Rh isoimmunization can be monitored with optical density assessment based on the bilirubin content of the amniotic fluid [36]. Cordocentesis Cordocentesis, also known as percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS), is the most current method of directly sampling fetal blood. This process utilizes ultrasound visualization of the fetus and the cord in order to allow needle puncture of the fetal cord to withdraw a sample of the fetal blood. This method can also be used to transfuse or to medicate the fetus. The indications for cordocentesis are few and pertain to only a small number of very high-risk patients. The indications include the need for rapid karyotyping of the fetus by DNA, assessment and treatment of Rh isoimmunization, measurement of cord blood gases for severe intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), diagnosis of fetal infection such as cytomegalovirus (CMV) or toxoplasmosis, and treatment of fetal disorders (e.g., use of digitalis for fetal cardiac arrhythmias). Risks of the procedure include spontaneous abortion, rupture of membranes, preterm labor, infection, bleeding, fetal

FIGURE 23-4 (a) Transplacental and (b) transamniotic cordocentesis. Source: Reprinted from Obstetrics and Gynecology, 81, Chervenak, F. A., Isaacson, G. C., and Campbell, S., Ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology, 449, © 1993, with permission from the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecologists.

trauma, and isoimmunization [46]. Figure 23-4 shows two methods for approaching the cord at its insertion to the placenta, the preferred site of sampling because of its relative stability [47]. With research and experience, more applications for this procedure will most likely evolve. Clearly, this invasive procedure is outside of the scope of midwifery practice. Women under the care of a midwife may require referral for complications of their pregnancies that necessitate this approach. It is currently being utilized only in large tertiary settings and is best performed by trained professionals.

Third Trimester Fetal Assessment The purpose of fetal assessment in the third trimester is primarily the prevention of fetal death [48]. During the third trimester, assessment of fetal well-being is made by using nontechnological methods such as fetal movement counting (FMC) and the auscultated acceleration test (AAT) and/or technological methods of ultrasound and fetal monitoring, either independently or in combination. The midwife must be knowledgeable regarding the potential uses of each of these fetal assessment methods. Depending on the practice setting, midwives may be involved in performing and interpreting nonstress tests (NST), contraction stress tests (CST), the biophysical profile (BPP), amniotic fluid index (AFI), doppler velocimetry, or other limited ultrasound examinations. Fetal Movement Counting Fetal movement counting is by far the simplest of all fetal assessment techniques, and it is applicable to the largest group of women. Research has confirmed what mothers and midwives have known for centuries: fetal activity is reassuring and a dramatic decrease in fetal activity or cessation of movements is worrisome [48–51]. The total number of movements made by the fetus may be quite variable. The most important point is that a marked decrease in movement from a fetus’s usual pattern is cause for concern and cessation of movements is highly correlated with impending fetal death [48, 51, 52]. Perinatal deaths from cord accidents, placental abruption, and other causes cannot be totally prevented [61, 62], but women should be aware of the potential concerns associated with a decrease in fetal movement and be enabled to report any concerns in a timely fashion.

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

Fetal movement has many influences, including the time of day, gestational age, glucose loading, sound stimulus, fetal behavioral states, maternal smoking, and maternal use of certain medications as well as hypoxia and acidemia [51–59]. Maternal perception of fetal movement can be diminished by the presence of polyhydramnios or oligohydramnios as well as by an anterior placenta [59]. Maternal obesity, however, has been shown not to interfere with maternal perception of fetal movement. Babies are also affected by diurnal variations, with fetuses being most active late at night and least active in the morning hours between 2:00 a.m. and 8:00 a.m. [53]. As pregnancy nears term, there may be a slight decrease in the actual number of movements. The amplitude of fetal movement tends to diminish as the volume of amniotic fluid decreases. This decrease in fluid volume leaves less space for fetal limb excursion, thereby producing a decrease in maternal perception of fetal movement. Smoking only two cigarettes has been shown to decrease fetal activity for as long as 80 minutes [55]. Although it is ideal for pregnant women not to smoke, they should at least refrain from smoking for a 2-hour period before fetal movement counting or antepartum fetal testing in order to avoid falsepositive test results. Many methods of counting fetal movements have been proposed [50–52, 58, 60, 61], but none has been shown to be superior to another in predicting fetal outcome [48, 62]. The most important thing is that women be aware that consistent fetal movement patterns are important—they must report a decrease or cessation of fetal movement [54, 57, 61]. When selecting a fetal movement counting method, take the educational level of the woman into consideration. If your client is able to read and understand basic graphing procedures, the Countto-Ten method described in Table 23-5 [53] and the

TABLE 23-5

Count-to-Ten Movement Counting Method

1. Schedule one count session daily. 2. Schedule session for the same time each day—e.g., at

8:00 a.m., or select a time when you have the time to count and when the fetus is usually active. 3. Chart how long it takes to reach 10 movements. 4. There must be at least 10 movements identified in 10 hr. 5. If there are fewer than 10 movements in 10 hr, if it takes an increasing time to reach 10 movements, or if no movements are felt within 10 hr, call your midwife.

633

chart in Figure 23-5 will be satisfactory. The Countto-Ten method has the advantages of being simple to use, brief, and easy to interpret [53, 60]. If, however, graphing daily movement counts frustrates your client, then the documentation method must be changed. Use a time frame such as a 30-minute television program, during which the woman counts the baby’s movements, and have her simply write down the date and time of the counts. Another method would be to have the woman put ten pennies out on the kitchen table each morning. For each fetal movement she feels, she places one penny in a cup. If the pennies are not all in the cup by lunchtime, she is to call the clinic to report diminished fetal movement [61]. Ways to document movement are many, but using a consistent method with daily documentation is important. The message to all women should be clear: Fetal movement and their own report of it are very important. It can be empowering to women to be responsible for their own fetal surveillance [61]. Fetal movement counting should be started at 34 to 36 weeks for women at low risk for uteroplacental insufficiency. For those with identifiable risk factors, 28 weeks is a reasonable time to initiate formal fetal movement counting. When a woman reports decreased fetal movement, the midwife should follow the steps in Figure 23-6 [61]. History taking is a critical step. Women often report decreased fetal movement because they do not remember feeling activity for a period of time, but they may not have been paying close attention. Ask a woman to focus on fetal activity for a period of an hour, preferably when she is resting, well fed, and hydrated. If, during that hour, the woman feels at least three movements, reinforcement of fetal movement counting is all that is required. If, however, she reports only two or fewer movements, a nonstress test (NST) should be performed immediately. Often, the fetus has a reactive nonstress test, demonstrating adequate activity and fetal wellbeing. This can be a positive learning experience for mothers that reinforces them to be more aware of the sensation of fetal movement and to trust themselves to report even small moves that they previously may have thought insignificant. When the fetus has a reactive test, serial fetal assessment is not indicated. If fetal movement has been decreased in response to fetal compromise, there will be nonreassuring indicators, such as a nonreactive NST or a decreased biophysical profile score. It is then necessary to evaluate quickly for risk of fetal demise. A very small group of women do not perceive fetal movement. The fetuses of these women are

634

Part IV Antepartal Care

FIGURE 23-5 Fetal movement counting chart.

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

635

Report of no moves

History

Eat; rest one hour

+ Moves

< 3 Moves

Reinforce FM counts

NST

Reactive

Nonreactive

Reinforce FMC

Consult physician and evaluate AFV, BPP, other clinical info

No need for serial NSTs

FIGURE 23-6 Fetal movement assessment paradigm for response to a woman’s report of decreased fetal movement. Source: Reprinted from Journal of Nurse-Midwifery 36(3), Gegor, C. L., Paine, L.L., and Johnson, T. R. B., Antepartum fetal assessment: a nurse-midwifery perspective, 157, © 1991 American College of Nurse-Midwives, with permission from American College of Nurse-Midwives.

best evaluated by weekly nonstress testing, beginning at 34 to 36 weeks, to document fetal activity and heart rate accelerations [61]. Often these are women who have a history of previous stillborns or are very anxiety ridden for other reasons. The weekly NST can serve as an indicator of fetal wellbeing to both the provider and the mother. Auscultated Acceleration Tests For years, midwives and physicians used auscultation with a fetoscope to evaluate fetal status and in some cases to detect fetal heart rate (FHR) accelerations as reassurance of a healthy fetus [63–65]. Auscultation of the FHR with a fetoscope at or near 20 weeks’ gestation continues to be of recognized clinical value [66, 67]. In the 1960s, however, handheld electronic devices for the detection of the FHR precipitated a general decline in the use of the fetoscope during labor and other periods of gestation [61]. During the 1980s, Paine researched the use of auscultation of the FHR as a means of predicting fetal well-being during the antepartum period. From this work, a method of auscultation was proposed as a simple alternative to the nonstress test and as a formal method of auscultation for antepartum use [61, 65–70]. The resulting 6-minute auscultated acceleration test (AAT) has shown

promise as a predictor of both reactive and nonreactive NST results [65]. Table 23-6 is a description of the AAT procedure and interpretation [67]. The AAT graph shown in Figure 23-7 is used to document the FHR pattern [67]. Figure 23-8 illustrates a completed AAT and includes an inset of an NST completed simultaneously, for comparison. The AAT has been proposed for women beyond 34 weeks’ gestation with a single fetus. In general, use of the AAT may be of benefit for low-risk women who do not otherwise undergo antepartum testing by NST, particularly if combined with fetal movement counting. Anecdotal accounts indicate that use of both low-technology techniques has led TABLE 23-6

AAT Procedure and Interpretation

Procedure Use an Allen fetoscope. Auscultate the FHR for 6 min, counting during every other 5-sec interval. Document auscultated FHRs on AAT graph. Interpretation Identify the baseline FHR. An acceleration is present when the FHR is up by two grid points (2 beats per 5-sec period). A single FHR acceleration indicates reactivity.

636

Part IV Antepartal Care

Auscultated Fetal Heart Rate Graph FHR Min 5 Sec 20 240 19 228 18 216 17 204 16 192 15 180 14 168 13 156 12 144 11 132 10 120 09 108 08 96 07 84

= FHR = FM S = Shake

05 15 25 35 45 55 05 15 25 35 45 55 05 15 25 35 45 55 05 15 25 35 45 55 05 15 25 35 45 55 Seconds Seconds

FIGURE 23-7 The AAT graph used to document the FHR pattern. Source: Reprinted from Journal of Nurse-Midwifery, 31(2), Paine, L.L., Payton, R. G., and Johnson, T. R. B., Auscultated fetal heart rate and accelerations: Part I. Accuracy and documentation, 70, © 1986 American College of Nurse-Midwives, with permission from American College of NurseMidwives.

FIGURE 23-8 AAT with inset of an NST completed simultaneously. Source: Reprinted from Journal of Nurse-Midwifery, 31(2), Paine, L.L., Payton, R. G., and Johnson, T. R. B., Auscultated fetal heart rate and accelerations: Part I. Accuracy and documentation, 70, © 1986 American College of Nurse-Midwives, with permission from American College of NurseMidwives.

to appropriate management of compromised fetuses that would not otherwise have been identified as high risk by the usual criteria used in midwifery practice. Nonstress Test The most commonly used third trimester test of fetal well-being is the nonstress test (NST). The NST is performed using an external electronic fetal monitor. This test is indicated for women whose

pregnancies are complicated by or have increased risk for uteroplacental insufficiency (UPI). Table 23-7 lists the most common obstetric indications for conducting an NST as a component of antepartum testing, while Table 23-8 identifies maternal indications for testing. The method for performance of the NST is relatively standard and is outlined in Table 23-9. However, interpretation of the NST varies in the medical literature and in current clinical practice.

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

TABLE 23-7

Obstetric Indications for Antepartum Testing

Suspected intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) in this pregnancy History of IUGR in previous pregnancy Pregestational diabetes Gestational diabetes Chronic hypertension Pregnancy-induced hypertension Preeclampsia Multiple gestation Oligohydramnios Post dates Rh isoimmunization Preterm rupture of membranes (PROM) Decreased fetal movement Previous stillbirth

TABLE 23-8

Maternal Indications for Antepartum Testing

Antiphospholipid syndrome Hyperthyroidism (poorly controlled) Hemoglobinopathies (hemoglobin SS, SC, or S-thalassemia) Cyanotic heart disease Systemic lupus erythematosus Chronic renal disease Type I diabetes mellitus Hypertensive disorders

TABLE 23-9

Performance of the Nonstress Test (NST)

1. Place woman in a side-lying position (left or right

side). 2. Initiate external electronic fetal monitoring (both FHR

and contraction monitoring). 3. Identify the baseline FHR (minimum of 3 min). 4. Continue monitoring for a minimum of 20 min. Note: A fetal event marker is not required for performance of the NST. FHR accelerations are associated with fetal movement, and maternal perception of this movement is not required.

Midwives must be familiar with the criteria used in the practice setting where they order or interpret the NST. For the sake of consistency in this chapter, the interpretation criteria in Table 23-10 will be used. A reactive NST (Figure 23-9) is considered to be an excellent indicator of fetal well-being in the third trimester, because a fetus must receive ade-

TABLE 23-10

637

Interpretation Criteria for the Nonstress Test (NST)

Interpretation

Criteria

Reactive

At least two accelerations of the FHR within a 20-min period that are off the baseline for at least 15 sec and that have a minimum amplitude of 15 bpm FHR tracing that fails to demonstrate adequate number or amplitude of FHR accelerations within any 20-min period A tracing of FHR that is uninterpretable because of difficulty obtaining the EFM tracing, or a tracing that does not demonstrate an FHR baseline (common with very vigorous fetuses)

Nonreactive

Inconclusive

quate oxygen and other nutrients through the placenta and be neurologically not depressed in order to have accelerations of the fetal heart rate associated with fetal movement. FHR reactivity is a developmental milestone of the fetus that is usually achieved between 28 and 32 weeks’ gestation [71, 72]. A nonreactive NST in a term fetus is considered to be a nonreassuring finding, especially when reactivity has been previously demonstrated (Figure 2310). In the preterm fetus, however, a nonreactive NST may be appropriate because of the immaturity of the fetus [71–74]. When an NST is nonreactive, the midwife must gain additional information regarding this fetus before the woman can be discharged from the clinical setting. Additional testing may be indicated, such as prolonging the NST [73], performing a biophysical profile (BPP) [75, 76], or a contraction stress test (CST) [71]. Table 23-11 lists reasons why the NST may be nonreactive. Because a fetus experiences sleep states [77], continuing the NST for an additional 20 minutes may provide the fetus with adequate time to complete a prolonged sleep cycle and demonstrate reactivity. A preterm 28-week fetus may not be capable of demonstrating reactivity because of immaturity of its nervous system. Occasionally, a fetus will have an FHR pattern that has accelerations as well as multiple variable decelerations, which make interpretation of well-being difficult if not impossible [71, 74]. These multiple mild variable decelerations are generally believed to represent intermittent cord compression, and are often seen with fetal movement in the presence of oligohydramnios. If the

638

Part IV Antepartal Care

FIGURE 23-9 Reactive nonstress test.

FIGURE 23-10 Nonreactive nonstress test.

variables are mild, brief (less than 30 seconds), and nonrepetitive, they are not associated with poor pregnancy outcomes [48, 78]. If, however, the decelerations are more frequent than 3 in 20 minutes, or are of a duration greater than one minute, there

TABLE 23-11

Common Causes of Nonreactivity of the Nonstress Test (NST)

Fetal Causes

Maternal Causes

Gestational age (28–32 weeks) Deep sleep state Hypoxia Oligohydramnios CNS or cardiac anomalies Circadian rhythms

Disease (e.g., diabetes, hypertension) Medications (e.g., betablockers, CNS depressants, tocolytics, steroids) Illicit drug use Smoking Chorioamnionitis Dehydration

is an increased association with cesarean section and fetal demise [48, 78]. When an NST is nonreactive, regardless of the cause, some demonstration of fetal well-being must be obtained (e.g., BPP) before the woman is discharged from the care setting. Inconclusive NSTs are usually the result of difficulty in obtaining a legible EFM tracing. This difficulty may be the result of a very active fetus, maternal obesity, or polyhydramnios. Mechanical difficulties may also be encountered. Sometimes a tracing is easily obtained, but the fetus is constantly moving, thus demonstrating a long series of accelerations with inadequate return to baseline (Figure 23-11). In this case, the NST cannot be evaluated because a baseline FHR is not obtainable. Usually, the fetus will eventually come to rest, and then the strip will be interpretable. The maximum duration of NST evaluation is disputed in the literature, ranging from 40 minutes to 2 hours [61, 74]. This

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

639

FIGURE 23-11 Inconclusive nonstress test (active, awake fetus).

time frame may depend not only on the fetus but also on the availability of ultrasound for performing a biophysical profile. If ultrasound is readily available, it may be more time efficient to stop the NST at 40 minutes and perform the BPP. However, if the ultrasound location is a great distance from the NST site, appointment times are not readily available, or cost is prohibitive for the woman, then prolonged NST may be the best option. A CST may also be considered when the NST is nonreactive and ultrasound is not readily available to perform a BPP. Once serial testing is initiated, the frequency of testing will depend on the indication for testing, the severity of uteroplacental insufficiency (UPI), and the policies in each setting. As a test of fetal wellbeing, the NST should be done at least once a week. For women who have a particularly high risk of poor pregnancy outcome related to UPI, twiceweekly testing is often recommended. For women at home on bedrest, there are a growing number of services that will send nurses to perform the NST in the home; in some cases the woman herself can perform the test and send the data by phone [79]. The nurse or midwife may also elect to perform an AAT. It is well accepted that most fetuses with a nonreactive NST are actually healthy [80–84]. Many different methods have been tried to induce a nonreactive fetus to become reactive, including shaking the baby in utero—a practice that has overall proved to be futile [80–83]. Probably the most common method of attempting to “make” a baby reactive is maternal ingestion of juice as a source of glucose. However, the research to date shows rather

convincingly that a glucose load does not significantly change fetal movement or fetal heart rate reactivity [81, 83]. Other than vibroacoustic stimulation, the only intervention that increases the rate of reactivity is waiting for a longer time. Vibroacoustic Stimulation In an effort to decrease the number of nonreactive NSTs, vibroacoustic stimulation (VAS) was introduced [85–89]. VAS uses an artificial larynx to deliver both auditory and vibratory stimuli to the fetus. The fetus responds with a startle, activity, and FHR accelerations. Ease of use, rapidity of fetal response, low cost of equipment, and the perceived noninvasiveness of the procedure are additional reasons VAS gained popularity. VAS is performed by placing the vibroacoustic stimulator against the maternal abdomen directly above the fetal head and causing it to emit one or several brief stimuli. The most probable effect of VAS is to startle the fetus from a sleeping to an awake state [90]. The fetal response is commonly an acceleration of the FHR followed by reactivity. A fetal response of tachycardia (over 160 beats per minute), an abnormal heart rate pattern, is also common; this response requires that a woman continue fetal monitoring for a prolonged period until a normal baseline heart rate has been reestablished, often negating any time-saving benefits of VAS [91]. Several methods of interactive stimuli are currently being investigated, including maternal voice stimulation [82] and lesser degrees of vibration and sound than current VAS.

640

Part IV Antepartal Care

Interpretation of VAS FHR strips varies among authors. Most do not include the initial acceleration as an interpretive criterion but rely on subsequent accelerations of the FHR to meet basic NST criteria. The midwife must be aware of accepted interpretive criteria in the practice setting when using this method of fetal assessment. During the intrapartum period, VAS may be used to help elicit a response in order to differentiate between a fetus in a deep sleep state and a hypoxic fetus. In this case, a prolonged FHR tracing with minimal or no variability may make interpretation of fetal well-being difficult. VAS may be used in place of fetal scalp sampling in some cases (refer to Chapter 27 for more detail). Contraction Stress Test The contraction stress test was the first test to be widely used as a screening test for fetal well-being [71]. This test has now been mostly replaced by the NST and amniotic fluid index (AFI) or the BPP. However, the CST has two major advantages over the NST. First, the CST remains the most accurate predictor of uteroplacental insufficiency (UPI) [71, 74]. Second, the CST is a reliable test from 26 weeks until term. Disadvantages of the CST are that it has a high false-positive rate (about 30 percent of the positive results are for fetuses who are actually well), it is more expensive than the NST, takes more time, and is more invasive; in addition, women prefer the NST and/or the BPP. Women with an indication for the CST are those with UPI or who are at high risk to experience UPI during their pregnancies. Therefore, the indications for the CST are the same as those for the NST if it is being used as the primary screening test. Currently, the CST is used mostly for women who are known to have a fetus with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). When the NST is nonreactive and ultrasound is not readily available to perform a BPP, the CST is the most useful test to determine fetal well-being. Contraindications for the CST fall into two categories: absolute and relative. Absolute contraindications include clinical situations when labor would be dangerous—for example, women who have had a previous classical cesarean section or myomectomy entering the uterine cavity, those with placenta previa, or those who are at current risk for preterm labor. Relative contraindications include gestational age less than 37 weeks and multiple gestation. In the case of relative contraindications, a risk-benefit consideration is necessary, to weigh the

possible consequences of an unintended labor from contraction stimulation against the need for information regarding fetal status. The CST can be performed in two ways: the oxytocin challenge test (OCT) or nipple stimulation. Table 23-12 delineates these two procedures for inducing contractions; the criteria for choosing the procedure may be different from one practice site to another. Due to the potential for stimulation of labor and of late decelerations, it is advisable that the CST be performed in a hospital. This site may be the labor and delivery suite, a fetal assessment center, or the in-hospital obstetric clinic. Interpretation of the CST is highly standardized in the medical literature as well as in practice. Table 23-13 lists the interpretation criteria. It is important

TABLE 23-12

Procedures for Inducing Contractions for the Contraction Stress Test (CST)

Breast Stimulation Stimulation of one nipple, through the clothing 2 min stimulation 5 min resting Do not stimulate through a contraction If not successful within 45 min, perform OCT Oxytocin Challenge Test (OCT) Intravenous infusion, D5/0.2NS keep-vein-open rate Oxytocin solution: 10 units pitocin in 500 cc D%/0.2NS per infusion pump Titrate oxytocin from 1 mlU/min Increase 1 mlU/min every 15 min Continue until adequate contraction pattern or abnormal FHR patterns

TABLE 23-13

Contraction Stress Test (CST) Interpretation Criteria

Procedure Establish FHR baseline prior to initiation of CST. Prior to interpretation of FHR patterns, the EFM strip must demonstrate 3 contractions within 10 min. Minimum contraction duration is 40 sec off the baseline (unnecessary for the woman to perceive the contractions). Interpretation Negative (reassuring): FHR baseline stable, without evidence of late decelerations Positive (nonreassuring): Repetitive late decelerations Equivocal: Unable to obtain satisfactory tracing Hyperstimulation Nonrepetitive decelerations

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

to note that whether contractions are elicited by nipple stimulation, oxytocin challenge, or occur spontaneously, interpretation is the same and has the same predictive value. A positive CST (Figure 23-12) is a very strong predictor of uteroplacental insufficiency. As previously mentioned, the CST has about a 30 percent false-positive rate [74]. Therefore, nearly a third of women with a positive CST have a fetus that is actually normal. This is in contrast to a false-negative rate of less than 1 percent, meaning that it is rare for an affected fetus to have a negative CST. It is important to take results of the CST very seriously but also to interpret them in the context of the woman’s overall clinical situation. For example, if a woman has well-controlled

chronic hypertension and her pregnancy has progressed normally, with adequate fetal growth, and she then has a positive CST at 39 weeks, a falsepositive test must be considered. This CST would best be followed by a BPP or by a repeat CST within 24 hours. On the other hand, if a woman with a 32-week pregnancy complicated by diabetes and hypertension and a fetus with IUGR is found to have a positive CST, the result is more likely to be accurate, and immediate assessment of the pregnancy is imperative. A negative CST (Figure 23-13) is considered to be predictive for 7 days [71], thereby requiring no more than weekly retesting for the purpose of screening for UPI. If the negative CST also demon-

FIGURE 23-12 Positive contraction stress test. Note the presence of a late deceleration following each contraction.

FIGURE 23-13 Negative contraction stress test.

641

642

Part IV Antepartal Care

strates FHR accelerations that meet the NST criteria, then the woman has an added measure of reassurance [74]. Equivocal CST results occur when the tracing is inadequate because of fetal or maternal activity, maternal obesity, or polyhydramnios. A test may also be considered to be equivocal if the woman shows evidence of uterine hyperstimulation, which is defined as more than 5 contractions in a 10minute period or any single contraction lasting longer than 90 seconds. When hyperstimulation occurs, the FHR pattern cannot be evaluated to indicate uteroplacental insufficiency. The last reason for considering CST results as equivocal is when it shows nonrepetitive decelerations, suggestive of late decelerations. Because of the potential for uteroplacental insufficiency in the presence of an equivocal test, the woman must be continuously assessed in the hospital setting until more complete information is available. An equivocal CST may be repeated within 24 hours or a BPP may be performed [92, 93]. If the BPP results are reassuring, the CST need not be repeated. Biophysical Profile The biophysical profile utilizes both electronic fetal monitoring and ultrasound instrumentation. The BPP evaluates the fetus by combining observation of fetal behavior with the nonstress test and measurements of the volume of amniotic fluid. The BPP is based on the premise that when a fetus is fully oxygenated and neurologically intact, it has a variety of characteristics, including muscle tone, gross movement, and respiratory activity. In addition, the mature fetus will have a reactive NST. Because the amniotic fluid is primarily fetal urine in the third trimester, it is quantified as a measure of fetal renal function. When the fetus becomes hypoxic, the criteria observed by the BPP are diminished in reverse order of their developmental appearance. Figure 23-14 shows the effects of hypoxia on the fetus in utero [94]. Indications for the BPP include known or suspected IUGR, oligohydramnios, insulin-dependent diabetes, preeclampsia, postdates, nonreactive NST or positive CST, and multiple pregnancy. Weekly testing is the usual recommendation. For insulindependent diabetics and for pregnancies beyond 42 weeks’ gestation, a twice-weekly testing scheme is recommended [92]. In addition, any time there is a change in maternal status—e.g., rapid onset or labile hypertension—there may be need for repeated BPP. Testing is generally begun at the earliest gesta-

Fetal hypoxemia (asphyxia)

CNS cellular dysfunction

Aortic body chemoreceptor stimulation

Reflex late decelerations Hypotonia Absent fetal breathing Absent fetal movement Nonreactive nonstress test

Reflex redistribution of cardiac output

Increased blood flow to: Fetal brain (possible IVH) Adrenals Heart Placenta

Decreased blood flow to: Fetal kidneys (oliguria) Lung (RDS) Gut (necrotizing enterocolitis) Liver (IUGR) Carcass

FIGURE 23-14 Biophysical effects of hypoxia on the fetus. CNS: central nervous system; IUGR: intrauterine growth retardation; IVH: intraventricular hemorrhage; RDS: respiratory distress syndrome Source: From Druzin, M. L. Antepartum Fetal Assessment. Boston, MA: Blackwell Scientific, 1992, p. 30. Reprinted by permission of Blackwell Science, Inc.

tional age that the clinician would consider delivery if the results indicated an acidemic fetus [92]. Specific testing strategies are discussed in the section on antepartum complications in Chapter 24, when each specific clinical indication is reviewed. Fetuses with anomalies, especially of the genitourinary, respiratory, or central nervous systems may have decreased BPP scores due specifically to their anomalies. Evaluation of the BPP and the scoring of the examination are listed in Table 23-14 [92]. Management of the woman based on the BPP should always take the full clinical situation into consideration. If the BPP results seem not to reflect the clinical situation, then the woman must be carefully evaluated and tested again if appropriate. Table 23-15 describes the possible outcomes within 1 week of testing and identifies possible management for BPP scores with the Manning criteria [76]. A BPP score of 10/10 (read as 10 out of a possible 10), the possibility of fetal hypoxia is minimal and the fetus should do well for the following week. As noted in Table 23-15, the perinatal mortality (PMR) rate within 1 week with a score of 10/10 is < 1/1000. It is important to know that these are “adjusted” PMRs that reflect the deaths occurring due to uteroplacental insufficiency, after eliminating

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

TABLE 23-14

643

Manning Criteria for Biophysical Profile (BPP) Scoring

Biophysical Variable

Normal (Score = 2)

Abnormal (Score = 0)

Fetal tone

At least one episode of active extension with return to flexion of fetal limb(s) or trunk; opening and closing of hand considered normal tone Two or more discrete body/limb movements in 30 min (episodes of active continuous movement considered a single movement) At least one episode of ≥ 20 sec duration in 30 min observation At least two episodes of acceleration of ≥ 15 bpm and >15 sec duration in 20 min At least one pocket of amniotic fluid measuring ≥ 2 cm in vertical axis

Either slow extension with return to partial flexion or movement of limb in full extension or absent fetal movement, or partially open fetal hand Less than two episodes of body/limb movements in 30 min

Gross body movement

Fetal breathing movements Reactive fetal heart rate Amniotic fluid volume

No episode of ≥ 20 sec duration in 30 min One or no accelerations or acceleration < 15 bpm in 20 min Either no amniotic fluid pockets or a pocket < 2 cm in vertical axis

Source: From Manning, F. A. Fetal biophysical profile. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am. 26(4):560, 1999. Reprinted by permission.

TABLE 23-15

Obstetrical Management Based on Biophysical Profile (BPP) Results

BPP Score

Interpretation

Percent Risk of Asphyxia (umbilical venous blood pH Risk of Fetal Death 7.25) (per 1000/week)

10/10

Nonasphyxiated

0

0.565

8/10 (normal AFV)

Nonasphyxiated

0

0.565

8/8 (NST not done)

Nonasphyxiated

0

0.565

8/10 (decreased AFV)

Chronic compensated asphyxia

5–10

20–30

6/10 (normal AFV)

Possible acute asphyxia

0

50

6/10 (decreased AFV)

Chronic asphyxia w/possible acute asphyxia

>10

>50

4/10 (normal AFV)

Acute asphyxia likely

36

115

4/10 (decreased AFV) 2/10 (normal AFV)

Chronic asphyxia w/ acute asphyxia likely Acute asphyxia nearly certain Gross severe asphyxia

>36

>115

Conservative management Conservative management Conservative management If mature (> 37 wks), deliver; serial testing (twice weekly) in the immature fetus If mature (> 37 wks), deliver; repeat test in 24 hr in immature fetus; if < 6/10, deliver Factor in gestational age; if > 32 wks, deliver; if < 32 wks, test daily Factor in gestational age; if > 32 wks, deliver; if < 32 wks, test daily If > 26 wks, deliver

73

220

If > 26 wks, deliver

100

550

If > 26 wks, deliver

0/10

Recommended Management

Source: From Manning, F. A. Fetal biophysical profile. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am. 26(4):565, 1999. Reprinted by permission.

644

Part IV Antepartal Care

the perinatal deaths that would be considered unpredictable—for example, from cord accidents or congenital anomalies. A BPP score of 8/10 when the amniotic fluid volume (AFV) is normal is also predictive of a PMR < 1/1000 within 1 week. Therefore, if the NST is nonreactive, but the fetal tone, movement, breathing and amniotic fluid volume are all normal, the risk of stillbirth within 1 week is very low—the same risk as for the score of 10/10. It follows then that if the ultrasound component of the BPP is all normal—i.e., a score of 8/8 for tone, movement, breathing, and AFV—then there is no requirement to obtain a fetal heart rate tracing, as the predictive value of an 8/10 BPP with normal AFV is equivalent to a 10/10 [92]. If, however, any of the components of the ultrasound are abnormal, the nonstress test is a critical part of the fetal evaluation [92]. The role that oligohydramnios plays in the predictive value of the BPP is dramatic. As noted in Table 23-15, an 8/10 due to oligohydramnios has a perinatal mortality rate of 89/1000 within 1 week. This is based on Manning’s data using a single pocket of fluid measuring less than 2.0 cm. As the BPP score decreases to 6/10, the incidence of perinatal complications increases. If the AFV is normal, the score is equivocal, and requires careful evaluation of the individual mother and fetus. A preterm fetus may be normal with a nonreactive NST and absent fetal breathing. A term fetus, however, would be expected to earn full points for both reactivity and breathing and a score of 6/10 may be predicative of hypoxia. When the score is equivocal or does not seem to reflect the clinical picture, a repeat BPP in 12 to 24 hours may be indicated. In any event, the woman should not be discharged from the clinical setting until there is evidence of fetal well-being. A score of 4/10 or less from the BPP is highly predictive of perinatal asphyxia and may indicate the need for delivery for fetal indications [95]. The midwife must always consult with a physician whenever the scores are nonreassuring. Amniotic Fluid Volume Alterations in the volume of amniotic fluid are known to be associated with untoward outcomes of pregnancy. Both maternal and fetal characteristics are related to alterations in the amniotic fluid volume [96]. Oligohydramnios, an abnormally low quantity of amniotic fluid, is highly associated with uteroplacental insufficiency and fetal hypoxia [97, 98]. A

decrease in or absence of amniotic fluid may also be indicative of fetal genitourinary or lung anomalies [96]. In recent years, a significant decrease in AFV has been correlated with fetal distress in labor, poor Apgar scores, meconium-stained amniotic fluid, and meconium aspiration, as well as with postmaturity syndrome [97–100]. Polyhydramnios, an overaccumulation of amniotic fluid, is more frequently present with chromosomal disorders, structural anomalies such as tracheoesophageal fistulas, neural tube defects, and CNS malformations as well as maternal substance abuse and maternal diabetes [96]. A high percentage of polyhydramnios is of unknown etiology [101]. Measuring the AFV has been an ongoing challenge for ultrasonographers [102–109]. Until recently, the “eyeball-guesstimate” method has been the most reliable means of quantifying AFV. In more recent years, there have been several semiquantitative measurements of amniotic fluid volume introduced [75, 96, 105, 108, 109]. Most notable are the single pocket measurement, which has been suggested to be oligohydramnios if less than 1.0 centimeters or 2.0 centimeters [105–109]. Further studies have recommended use of the fourquadrant amniotic fluid index (AFI) [100–103]. The evaluation of AFV has been enhanced with the use of the amniotic fluid index (AFI), an assessment of the depth of the fluid pockets in each quadrant of the uterus [101–104]. The procedure for performing an AFI is shown in Table 23-16; Figure 2315 shows the four quadrants within which the amniotic fluid is measured [110]. Figure 23-16 shows a sonogram of the vertical axis measurements that are made in each of the four quadrants. The AFI has the advantage of offering a measurement of amniotic fluid that permits the midwife to determine whether the volume is within a normal range as well as how the volume is changing over time [111, 112]. According to Phelan, the AFI at term will normally range between 5.0 centimeters and 23.0 cen-

TABLE 23-16

Procedure for Performing an Amniotic Fluid Index (AFI)

1. Place woman in supine position with slight left tilt. 2. Identify four quadrants of maternal abdomen. 3. Scan with the transducer placed perpendicular to the

floor, aligned longitudinally with the maternal spine. 4. Measure vertical depth of largest clear pocket of amni-

otic fluid in each quadrant. Note: The AFI is equal to the sum of the four quadrants.

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

645

timeters [100, 101, 111]. Other authors have identified an AFI of 5.0 to 8.0 centimeters as borderline oligohydramnios [106]. There is disagreement in the literature regarding the appropriate management of a woman at term with oligohydramnios [107, 108]. It is important that each midwife be familiar with the accepted measurements of amniotic fluid volume and management practices in the specific clinical setting.

FIGURE 23-15 Schematic of the four quadrants of the maternal abdomen. Source: Reprinted from Gabbe, S. G., Niebyl, J. R., and Simpson, J. L. Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies, 4th ed. New York. p. 260. Copyright © 2001 with permission from Elsevier.

Modified Biophysical Profile: NST/AFI The modified biophysical profile represents a recent trend in antepartum testing, combining the nonstress test with the amniotic fluid volume in assessing fetal well-being. It has been shown to have a predictive value similar to that of a full biophysical profile when the NST is reactive and the AFI is greater than 5.0 centimeters [113–116]. This technique is being utilized to save time for both the woman and the provider and is a more cost-effective procedure than a full BPP. If the NST is nonreactive or if the AFI is less than 5.0 centimeters, a complete BPP should be performed. It should also

FIGURE 23-16 Sonogram of an amniotic fluid index (AFI). Note the verticle measurements in each quadrant, which are added together to total the AFI.

646

Part IV Antepartal Care

be noted that if the ultrasound components of the BPP are all reassuring, the NST is not necessary for confirmation of fetal well-being [48]. Doppler Velocimetry Through the use of Doppler ultrasound, we can gain insight to the developments taking place in the maternal, fetal, and uteroplacental circulations [117]. The blood vessels most usually evaluated are the fetal umbilical arteries. However, the fetal aorta, middle cerebral, and renal arteries can also be investigated. Maternal uterine arteries and some placental vasculature are possible sites for Doppler studies. Doppler ultrasound is used to determine the velocity of blood flow through the fetal umbilical artery to the placenta. Normally, the velocity of blood flow from the fetal heart “downstream” to the placenta is rapid, and even when the fetal heart is at rest, in diastole, the velocity of flow through an umbilical artery remains modest because the large vessels of the normal placenta have quite low resistance. In the placenta of a fetus with intrauterine growth restriction, however, these placental vessels are narrowed, and the ratio between systolic flow and diastolic flow increases [117–119]. In the case of severe IUGR, some blood still flows through the cord to the placenta during fetal systole. But in diastole, because of the severely narrowed sclerotic placental vessels, there is no longer any flow. The most severe (but rarely occurring) finding is when blood flow actually reverses direction in the cord during fetal diastole. Doppler studies are indicated when IUGR is present or highly suspected [117–125]. Once IUGR is identified by ultrasound measurements of the fetus and clinical assessment, Doppler velocimetry studies have been demonstrated to reduce the incidence of perinatal morbidity [48, 120, 125, 126]. An in-depth discussion of identification and management of IUGR is found in Chapter 25. The use of color flow Doppler demonstrates the direction of flow of blood in fetal blood vessels superimposed on the traditional sonogram image. “Color” Doppler is indicated specifically in the diagnosis of congenital cardiac anomalies. Currently, Doppler procedures are usually offered primarily in tertiary care centers. Ultrasound Diagnostic ultrasound has been used in obstetrics for nearly 50 years. During that time, the indications and usefulness of ultrasound have grown dra-

matically. Obstetrical ultrasound provides a “window” to the uterus and developing fetus and has offered an opportunity to learn a great deal about human growth and development as well as to understand far more regarding the pathophysiology of abnormal pregnancy. Management of pregnancy and its complications has been strongly affected. There are potential indications for the use of ultrasound in any trimester of pregnancy. For the midwife, ultrasound presents both advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include improvement in gestational age assessment and identification of fetal anomalies. Ultrasound is also an excellent means of assessing fetal growth if this is a concern, and it accurately identifies fetal demise, placental location, fetal position, and fetal number when deviations from normal are suspected. But the disadvantages of ultrasound are that it can give a false sense of fetal well-being and falsepositive diagnoses, and it can lead to overreliance on technology, not to mention an increase in health care costs. It is therefore critical that the midwife have an in-depth knowledge of the indications for ultrasound and the true value and limitations of this imaging methodology. In addition, the policies of the specific practice site must be understood. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) delineated indications for ultrasound during all trimesters of pregnancy during a consensus conference in 1984 (see Table 23-17) [127]. These indications remain the standard for care in the United States. Use of ultrasound for specific obstetric complications is discussed in Chapters 24 and 25. Whether ultrasound is indicated for use in normal pregnancy is discussed later in this chapter. Both the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG) [128] and the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine (AIUM) [129] offer guidelines for obstetrical ultrasound examinations. The most common criteria for components of the basic ultrasound examination are listed in Table 23-18. When ultrasound was first used clinically, there was only one “level” of obstetrical ultrasound examination. Over time, however, the improvement of imaging quality and the development of biochemical markers for identification of fetal anomalies led to structuring the obstetrical ultrasound examination based on risk status of the pregnancy. The language identifying scans as level 1 to indicate a screening examination and level 2 to indicate an indepth examination has changed. ACOG now recommends that a “basic” ultrasound consisting primarily of fetal measurements and a brief survey

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

TABLE 23-17

Indications for Obstetrical Ultrasound

Estimated gestational age for patients with uncertain clinical dates Evaluation of fetal growth Vaginal bleeding of undetermined etiology in pregnancy Determination of fetal presentation Suspected multiple gestation Adjunct to amniocentesis Significant uterine size/clinical dates discrepancy Pelvic mass Suspected hydatidiform mole Suspected ectopic pregnancy Adjunct to special procedures, e.g., fetoscopy, cordocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, in vitro fertilization, cervical cerclage placement Suspected fetal death Suspected uterine abnormality Localization of intrauterine contraceptive device Surveillance of ovarian follicle development Biophysical evaluation for fetal well-being Observation of intrapartum events, e.g., version/ extraction of second twin Manual removal of placenta Suspected polyhydramnios or oligohydramnios Suspected abruptio placentae Adjunct to external cephalic version Estimation of fetal weight Abnormal serum alpha-fetoprotein value Follow-up observation of identified fetal anomaly Follow-up evaluation of placental location for identified placenta previa History of previous congenital anomaly Serial evaluation of fetal growth in multiple gestation Evaluation of fetal condition in late registrants for prenatal care Source: National Institutes of Health. Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging in Pregnancy: Report of a Consensus Development Conference Sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (DHHS publication NIH 86-667). Washington, DC: NIH, 1984, pp. 3–13.

of fetal anatomy and maternal pelvic organs “suffices for most obstetric patients” [128]. A “comprehensive ultrasound” examination may be indicated for a woman who is suspected of carrying a physiologically or anatomically defective fetus, based on history, clinical evaluation, or prior ultrasound examination [128]. In addition to the complete basic or comprehensive studies, “in certain circumstances, a limited ultrasound examination may be appropriate and desirable” [128, p. 2]. Table 23-19 identifies the potential uses of a limited ultrasound exam. The activities on the list are often necessary during labor and delivery triage or for third trimester assessment of fetal well-being. As ultrasound equipment has

TABLE 23-18

647

Components of a Basic Obstetric Ultrasound Examination

First Trimester Sonography Scanning may be performed abdominally or vaginally, dependent on gestational age and information required. The following assessments should be made: Gestational sac location (intra- or extra-uterine) Identification of embryo Crown-rump length Presence or absence of fetal cardiac activity (identify rate when possible) Fetal number Evaluation of the uterus and adnexal structures for size, shape, and location Second and Third Trimester Sonography Unless technically impossible, the following aspects should be assessed during a basic ultrasound examination: Fetal number Fetal presentation Documentation of fetal cardiac activity Placental localization Amniotic fluid volume assessment (single pocket measurement or amniotic fluid index) Gestational age dating, using at least two fetal parameters (biparietal diameter, abdominal circumference, femur length) Detection and evaluation of maternal pelvic masses Survey of fetal anatomy for gross malformations (cerebral midline, 4-chamber heart, stomach, kidneys, bladder, and identification of all fetal limbs) TABLE 23-19

Indications for Limited Scans

A limited ultrasound examination may be appropriate and desirable in certain circumstances—for example, when specific information is required or the clinical situation is urgent. A limited examination may be useful for the following tasks: Assessment of amniotic fluid volume Conducting fetal biophysical profile Conducting ultrasound-guided amniocentesis Guidance of external cephalic version Confirmation of fetal life or death Localization of placenta Confirmation of fetal presentation Source: American College of Nurse-Midwives. Limited Obstetrical Ultrasound in the Third Trimester. Clinical Bulletin. Washington, DC: ACNM, 1996. Reprinted by permission.

become more portable and as more obstetrical providers have gained skill in scanning, the technology has become increasingly useful in bedside management decisions in clinical obstetrics. Ultrasound instrumentation is now available in many obstetri-

648

Part IV Antepartal Care

cal office practices. Few labor and delivery suites are without ultrasound equipment and some personnel trained in its use. Although midwives generally do not perform basic or comprehensive ultrasound examinations themselves, they must be knowledgeable regarding the scope and limitations of each study. Limited ultrasound scans are most appropriate for women who have previously had at least a basic scan in the second trimester or later. When the limited study occurs in an urgent care setting, a followup basic ultrasound examination should be completed in a reasonable time frame, if indicated by the clinical situation. Therefore, if a woman is coming for sequential BPP studies, she should have had a previous basic scan. This puts the responsibility for identification of anomalies and for gestational age assessment on the sonographer and sonologist performing and interpreting a complete study. If a basic scan has not been completed prior to an emergent event, it should be performed after the emergent situation is resolved, if it is clinically indicated. Prior to ACOG’s 1991 publication of a list of “circumstances . . . when it may be unnecessary to perform a full fetal survey” [130], ultrasound professionals strongly asserted that if a scan were to be performed, a complete study would be required. They argued that a complete study is important to decrease the chances of missing critical information in the pursuit of specific data. For example, it is unacceptable to determine fetal position by finding the head but to fail to identify twins, a central placenta previa, or a fetal demise. However, it is often very useful in management of pregnancy to have specific information, such as during an emergent situation or when information such as fetal biometry is not useful or even reliable—for example, when a woman presents in labor with an uncertain lie, a large amount of vaginal bleeding, or nonreassuring fetal heart rate. In order to bridge the gap between a complete basic ultrasound exam and the need for specific data, minimal components of a limited ultrasound examination must be determined. The demand for limited scanning has come primarily in the area of assessment of fetal well-being. A growing number of nurses and midwives are performing the limited studies of the BPP and the AFV [131, 132]. The ACOG’s list of exceptions to a full fetal scan [130] has become the basis of Nursing Practice Competencies and Educational Guidelines for Limited Ultrasound Examinations in Obstetric and

Gynecologic/Infertility Settings [133], written by the Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric, and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN, formerly NAACOG). This document establishes which limited ultrasound examinations it is appropriate for perinatal nurses to perform when they have had adequate lecture and clinical scanning education. It therefore follows that midwives may also rely on these guidelines as a basis for performing limited ultrasound studies. The guidelines clearly state the minimum components of the limited ultrasound exam. ACNM supports both AWHONN’s minimum components for limited studies and the performance and interpretation by midwives of limited ultrasound examinations for assessment of fetal well-being and for labor and delivery triage [134]. This means that just finding the fetal heartbeat or just finding the fetal head is not an appropriate use of ultrasound. Instead, if midwives choose to incorporate ultrasound skills into their practice, they must follow the guidelines of the ACNM Clinical Bulletin, Limited Obstetrical Ultrasound in the Third Trimester [134], for education and clinical competence, as well as perform the minimum components for each limited ultrasound examination. The ACNM Guidelines for Incorporating New Procedures into Nurse-Midwifery Practice [135] must also be followed. Table 23-20 lists the minimum components of limited scans in the second and third trimesters. Limited scanning in the first trimester carries the risk of missing an ectopic pregnancy, a potentially life-threatening entity. Therefore, before using ultrasound in the first trimester, it is necessary that the midwife have the skills to survey the entire pelvis, identify the maternal bladder, uterus, ovaries, and any other masses or fluid to identify clearly whether the pregnancy is in fact intrauterine and viable. Practitioners without the expertise to

TABLE 23-20

Minimum Components of Limited Obstetrical Ultrasound, Second and Third Trimester

Fetal number Fetal cardiac activity Fetal lie Placental location Biophysical profile parameters Amniotic fluid volume Source: American College of Nurse-Midwives. Limited Obstetrical Ultrasound in the Third Trimester. Clinical Bulletin. Washington, DC: ACNM, 1996. Reprinted by permission.

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

649

rule out an ectopic gestation should avoid limited scanning for identification of early pregnancy and fetal heart rates [132]. It is critical that midwives who are performing limited obstetrical ultrasound exams at any time in pregnancy have a practitioner qualified to perform complete studies available for consultation and follow-up. Ongoing competency assessment is also advisable.

there are no confirmed biologic effects on patients or sonographers caused by exposure at intensities typical of present diagnostic ultrasound instruments. Given the known benefits and recognized efficacy for medical diagnosis, current ultrasound data indicate that the benefits to the patient of the prudent use of diagnostic ultrasound outweigh the risks that may be present. [137, 138]

Bioeffects of Ultrasound The first commandment regarding clinical ultrasound is that the benefits to the patient must outweigh the risks of the exam [136]. The biologic effect of ultrasound on human tissue is a continuing concern for all obstetrical care providers. Studies conducted during at least 40 years of investigation have demonstrated no adverse bioeffects on the human embryo or fetus. This research includes, but is not limited to, studies evaluating fetal, neonatal, and childhood neurologic development; chromosomal anomalies; infections; abnormal hearing; visual acuity; malignancy; immunologic maturation; behavior; fetal growth; and cognitive function [136]. The 1984 National Institutes of Health (NIH) consensus conference stated that theoretically, diagnostic levels of ultrasound could cause two bioeffects: thermal effects and cavitation [127]. The actual thermal change in the fetal environment caused by ultrasound is difficult to quantify. One reason for the difficulty is that the amount of heat generated by ultrasound is so small that it is within the normal (1°C) range of fluctuation of body temperature. The American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine (AIUM) came to this conclusion regarding a thermal bioeffects mechanism: “Based solely on a thermal criterion, a diagnostic exposure that produces a maximum temperature rise of 1°C above normal physiological levels may be used in clinical examinations without reservation” [137]. Cavitation is the process whereby tiny gas bubbles in cells can be caused to expand and contract or to burst. Cavitation in human tissue caused by diagnostic levels of ultrasound is only a theoretical danger. After careful study of all available documented evidence, the NIH concluded that there is no evidence that ultrasound causes physical or genetic damage to human embryos or fetuses [127]. The official statement of AIUM on the clinical safety of diagnostic ultrasound is as follows:

None of this is to suggest that no effects will ever be substantiated; indeed, research on biologic effects is ongoing, which is particularly important as new technologic applications for ultrasound are developed that use higher power outputs. AIUM has indicated that each ultrasound operator has the responsibility to utilize ultrasound in a prudent manner and to “complete the examination using scan modes and power outputs which result in energy exposures which are ‘as low as reasonably achievable’ (ALARA)” [137]. Despite the lack of evidence of danger, many pregnant women and their partners are concerned about the bioeffects of obstetrical ultrasound. Some confuse ultrasound with ionizing radiation and unnecessarily avoid ultrasound examinations that may be advantageous. It is the responsibility of the midwife to assure a woman and her family that, when indications for ultrasound are present, any theoretical risk is overshadowed by the benefit of information that may assist in management of the pregnancy. One well-timed ultrasound exam can help lessen the need for other interventions later in pregnancy.

Diagnostic ultrasound has been in use since the late 1950s. Although the possibility exists that such biological effects may be identified in the future,

Routine Ultrasound Screening Few topics in the care of pregnant women arouse such emotion and differences of opinion as the question of routine ultrasound scanning. Ultrasound has added a great deal to the potential for identifying maternal and fetal anatomy and for broadening the knowledge base regarding pregnancy and fetal development. There is general agreement that ultrasound has value for women with indications for sonography during pregnancy, and the list of indications from NIH is the standard (see again Table 23-17). The question is whether women who are normal—at very low risk for poor pregnancy outcomes—and who do not have any specific indication for scanning have improved maternal or fetal outcomes with the routine performance of ultrasound. For midwives, long champions of nonintervention in normal pregnancy, this is an issue of special concern.

650

Part IV Antepartal Care

Over the past 20 years, numerous randomized controlled trials have been conducted throughout the world in an attempt to answer this question [139–143]. The majority of the trials were conducted in Europe and did not specifically differentiate between normal women and those with pregnancy-related complications [139–140, 143–145]. Each trial had slightly different outcomes; however, there are some common findings [144–145]. The primary common finding is that ultrasound is a very accurate means of assessing gestational age. During the first half of pregnancy, ultrasound predicts gestational age within 10 days. This accuracy is improved earlier in pregnancy and diminishes as pregnancy progresses. Therefore, when a woman has uncertain dates, her dates are not consistent with the clinical examination, or when she registers for care after the first trimester, ultrasound examination can improve the quality of pregnancy dating and affect the ongoing management of prenatal care [139–145]. In-depth discussion of assessment of gestational age is included in Chapter 25. Ultrasound has also been shown to improve identification of multiple pregnancy and to identify major congenital anomalies. Conflict does exist in the literature in this regard; there is wide discrepancy in the rate of identification of anomalies [139, 141, 143, 144, 147]. In the European trials, identification rates of major anomalies ranged between 21 and 84 percent [145]. In the Routine Antenatal Diagnostic Imaging with Ultrasound (RADIUS) trial conducted in the United States, only 17 percent of major anomalies were identified prior to 24 weeks in the routine screening group compared to 11 percent in the control group [141–143]. Some authors have used identification of anomalies as the justification for routine ultrasound screening [145, 146], a practice that the RADIUS trial makes questionable. An important point about anomaly identification that is not widely discussed is that, despite a higher identification of anomalies in the routine screening group than in the control group, there was no difference in perinatal mortality rates between the groups after controlling for elective terminations in the screening group and spontaneous losses from anomalies not consistent with life in the control group [139, 144, 147]. In fact, there has been no demonstrated improvement in the live birth rate, a rate that takes into consideration all pregnancy losses, including miscarriage, elective termination, and perinatal deaths [144]. Anomaly screening has two primary benefits for women: (1) It identifies many fetuses with major

structural anomalies early enough in pregnancy to allow for termination of the pregnancy if the woman elects to do so; (2) it gives the woman the opportunity to plan for the care of an abnormal fetus. In a few situations, the fetus may benefit from intrauterine treatment, and the future may well be promising in this regard. For most abnormal fetuses, a plan of delivery in a tertiary setting may improve the chances of survival and of well-being. In addition, an immeasurable potential benefit of anomaly screening is the opportunity for the parents and other family members to begin to accept the disability and to gain greater understanding of the possible range of care needed by the infant. Bucher and Schmidt, in their meta-analysis, state that women must be informed that ultrasound screening is being used as a means of prenatal diagnosis of congenital anomalies and that “if a woman does not consent to screening for malformations, . . . routine ultrasound scanning is not indicated” [144]. When referring women for obstetrical ultrasound examinations, it is important to know the experience of the ultrasound providers and the quality of their work. The quality of the information provided in the report is strongly based on the skill of the sonographer, the interpretive expertise of the interpreting physician, and the instrumentation used [143]. There is often a great difference between a community radiology group which offers a full range of scans with moderate range machines and a maternal-fetal medicine ultrasound expert using state of the art technology with extensive experience evaluating congenital anomalies and assessing fetal status. This difference in the scanning expertise of the sonographer is felt to be the reason for wide discrepancies in identification of anomalies between different studies [143]. If a woman has a history placing her at risk for anomalies or IUGR, or if a basic ultrasound has identified a problem, a scan done in a high-risk center may be indicated. The report on the 1984 NIH Consensus Conference on Diagnostic Ultrasound in Pregnancy asserts that there remains “no evidence that the routine use of ultrasound in all pregnancies improved the perinatal outcome or decreased perinatal mortality or morbidity” [127]. The conference called for the performance of large-scale randomized controlled trials in the United States to determine whether routine scanning of normal women was appropriate; the RADIUS trial was conducted in response to this call [141, 142]. This has been the largest trial of ultrasound outcomes in the world—

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

53,367 women were screened for the study. After meeting rigorous exclusionary criteria that identified theirs as normal pregnancies, 15,530 women were randomized into screening and control groups [141, 142]. Those in the screening group were placed on a routine scanning schedule of one scan for dating at 18 to 20 weeks (allowable range, 15 to 22 weeks) followed by a scan at 31 to 33 weeks (range, 31 to 35 weeks) for assessment of growth. The control group had ultrasound only as indicated, based on the clinical judgment of their obstetric providers. To summarize briefly the results of this study: There were no significant differences between the groups in the areas of fetal death, neonatal death, or moderate or severe neonatal morbidity [141]. In addition, there were no differences between the groups in the areas of maternal outcome measures, including rates of induced abortion, amniocentesis, tests of fetal well-being, external version, induction, cesarean section, and/or total hospital days [142]. The data from the RADIUS trials have been criticized because of the very low-risk population that was evaluated, but that was in fact the primary intent of the study [148–150]. It is important to keep this distinction in mind and not generalize the RADIUS results to a wider population of women. As if the controversy strictly within the medical community were not complex enough, other factors play a part in decisions regarding ultrasound screening. These include societal demands, potential psychological aspects, cost effectiveness, insurance coverage, and legal implications. Ultrasound has become ingrained in our society’s expectations of prenatal care. Today, most mothers-to-be want to “see” the baby and to ascertain its gender. Fewer women come to delivery not knowing the gender of the fetus. Levi states that parents have fears that their unborn child may have an abnormality, and therefore, “thirst for reassurance about the absence of fetal congenital anomalies” [151]. When ultrasound is not routinely offered or available, many women feel as if their care is second rate, that they are being denied an integral part of prenatal care. Little is actually known about the psychosocial effects of this technology on society and on how parents “bond” with their unborn children. Like other screening tools for congenital anomalies, ultrasound for diagnostic purposes has been implicated as a stressor in pregnancy. Women experience significant anxiety when presented with an unexpected risk to their pregnancies. Clear expla-

651

nations prior to the procedure and frequent feedback during the sonogram can help allay anxiety, as, of course, do normal results. Ultrasound has been demonstrated to be reassuring and potentially to improve bonding [152–154]. Some studies have found that use of ultrasound can reduce short-term use of tobacco and alcohol [154, 155]. These indirect, nonmedical benefits of ultrasound are additional considerations for midwives. In the RADIUS study, women in the screened population had an average of 2.2 scans per pregnancy, as opposed to those in the control group, who had only 0.6 scans per pregnancy [142]. This increase in scans for routine screening creates increased health care expense. But according to LeFevre, “this increase in the cost of care is associated with no apparent benefit” [142, p. 488]. The use of routine ultrasound is often difficult for midwives. As clinicians whose philosophy dictates the appropriate use of technology, they are responsible for educating women about the limitations, cost-benefit ratio, and risks of ultrasound. Women also need to understand how the clinicians’ choices about ultrasound are made. This holds particularly true for women whose pregnancies are low risk and well dated. At the same time, the ultrasound procedure is perceived as routine and, therefore, is expected by many women. The midwife must balance unregulated use of ultrasound with families’ needs and desires for obstetric technology. Skupski and Chervenak suggest the following model of informed consent to utilize in this debate: Shortly after the pregnancy is diagnosed, every pregnant woman should be provided with information about the actual and theoretical benefits and harms of obstetric ultrasound. Second, the woman should evaluate this information in terms of her own values, something every autonomous patient is qualified to do. Patients routinely make complex decisions in their personal lives. . . . The third stage in prenatal informed consent for sonogram (PICS) is for the woman to articulate her preference regarding the use of ultrasound in the management of her pregnancy. The fourth stage is for the physician to [make a] recommendation, if he or she has one. The fifth stage is a thoughtful and sensitive discussion of any disagreement that may emerge. Lastly, the woman makes her final decision. This decision should then determine the use of obstetric ultrasound for that woman. [148, p. 437]

652

Part IV Antepartal Care

A thorough review of issues with each woman and documentation of the woman’s choices will decrease the midwife’s liability if a poor outcome ensues. Practice settings may define patterns of referral for ultrasound and thereby limit the opportunity for complete informed consent and autonomy by the woman. However, the midwife must be well informed regarding the indications for ultrasound and its limitations, risks, and benefits and make every attempt to individualize care for the greatest benefit to each mother and baby.

References

11.

12.

13.

14.

1. Buster, J. E., and Carson, S. A. Endocrinology

2.

3.

4.

5. 6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

and diagnosis of pregnancy. In Gabbe, S. G., Niebyl, J. R., and Simpson, J. L. (Eds.) Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies, 4th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 2002, pp. 3–36. Guyton, A. C. Human Physiology and Mechanisms of Disease, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 1993, p. 643. Filly, R. A., Callen, P. W., and Goldstein, R. B. Alpha-fetoprotein screening programs: what every obstetric sonologist should know. In Callen, P. W. (Ed.) Ultrasonography in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 1994, pp. 24–34. Fossum G. T., Davajan V., and Kletzky, O. A. Early detection of pregnancy with transvaginal ultrasound. Fertil. Sterility 49:789, 1988. Alpha-fetoprotein. ACOG Technical Bulletin 154 (April) 1991. Simpson, J. L. Genetic counseling and prenatal diagnosis. In Gabbe, S. G., Niebyl, J. R., and Simpson, J. L. (Eds.) Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies, 4th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 2002, pp. 187–219. Haddow, J. E., Palomaki, G. E., Knight, G. J., et al. Prenatal screening for Down’s syndrome with use of maternal serum markers. N. Eng. J. Med. 327:588–593, 1992. Bauman, P., and McFarlin, B. Prenatal diagnosis. J. Nurse-Midwifery 39(suppl. 2):S35–51, 1994. Marteau, T. M., Cook, R., Kidd, J., et al. The psychological effects of false-positive results in prenatal screening for fetal abnormality: a prospective study. Prenat. Diagn. 12:205–214, 1992. Abuelo, D. N., Hopman, M. R., Barsel-Fauers, G., and Goldstein, A. Anxiety in women with

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

low maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein screening results. Prenat. Diagn. 11:381–385, 1991. Marteau, T. M., Kidd, J., Cook, R., et al. Psychological effects of having amniocentesis: Are these due to the procedure, the risk, or the behavior? Prenat. Diagn. 36:395–402, 1992. Livingstone, J., Axton, R. A., Gilfillan, A., et al. Antenatal screening for cystic fibrosis: a trial of the couple model. In Harper, P. S. (Ed.), Practical Genetic Counseling. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1988. Canick, J. A., and Kellner, L. H. First trimester screening for aneuploidy: serum biochemical markers. Semin. Perinatol. 23:359–368, 1999. Haddow, J. E., Palomaki, G. E., Knight, G. J., Williams, J., Miller, W. A., and Johnson, A. Screening of maternal serum for fetal Down’s syndrome in the first trimester. N. Eng. J. Med. 338:995–961, 1998. Taipale, P., Hiilesma, V., Salonen, R., and Ylostalo, P. Increased nuchal translucency as a marker for fetal chromosomal defects. N. Eng. J. Med. 337:1654–1658, 1997. Sherer, D. M., and Manning, F. A. Firsttrimester nuchal translucency screening for fetal aneuploidy. Am. J. Perinatol. 16:103–120, 1999. Jackson, M., and Rose, N. C. Diagnosis and management of fetal nuchal translucency. Semin. Roentgenology 33:333–338, 1998. Pandya, P. P., Kondylios, A., Hilbert, L., et al. Chromosomal defects and outcome in 1015 fetuses with increased nuchal translucency. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 5:15–19, 1995. Thomas, R. L., and Blakemore, K. J. Evaluation of elevations in maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein: a review. Obstet. Gynecol. Survey 45(5):269–283, 1990. Canick, J. A., and Knight, G. J. Multiple marker screening for fetal Down syndrome. Contemp. OB/GYN. Technology 25–42, 1992. Phillips, O. P., Elias, S., Schulman, L. P., Anderson, R. N., Morgan, C. D., and Leighton, J. L. Maternal serum screening for fetal Down syndrome in women less than 35 years of age using alpha-fetoprotein, hCG, and unconjugated estriol: a prospective 2-year study. Obstet. Gynecol. 80:353–358, 1992. Phillips, O. P., Elias, S., Schulman, L., Andersen, R. N., Morgan, C. D., and Simpson, J. L. Maternal serum screening for fetal Down syndrome in women less than 35 years of age using alpha-fetoprotein, hCG, and unconjugated estriol: a prospective 2-year study. Obstet. Gynecol. 80:353–358, 1992.

Chapter 23 Fetal Assessment

23. Kellner, L. H., Weiss, R. R., Weiner, Z., et al.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

The advantages of using triple-marker screening for chromosomal abnormalities. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 172:831–836, 1995. Palomaki, G. E., Haddow, J. E., Knight, G.J., et al. Risk-based prenatal screening for trisomy 18 using alpha-fetoprotein, unconjugated estriol, and human chorionic gonadotropin. Prenat. Diagn. 15:713–723, 1995. Haddow, J. E., Palomaki, G. E., Knight, G. J., Cunningham, G. C., Lustig, L. S., and Boyd, P. A. Reducing the need for amniocentesis in women 35 years of age or older with serum markers for screening. N. Eng. J. Med. 330:1114–1118, 1994. Reynolds, T. M., Nix, A. B., Dunstan, F. D., and Dawson, A. J. Age-specific detection and false-positive rates: an aid to counseling in Down syndrome risk screening. Obstet. Gynecol. 81:447–445, 1993. Benn, P. A., Borgida, A., Horne, D., Briganti, S., Collins, R., and Rodis, J. F. Down syndrome and neural tube defect screening: the value of using gestational age by sonography. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 176:1956–1961, 1997. Pergament, E., Stein, A. K., Fiddler, M., Cho, N. H., and Kupferminc, M. J. Adverse pregnancy outcome after a false-positive screen for Down syndrome using multiple markers. Obstet. Gynecol. 86:255–258, 1995. Spencer, K. Second-trimester prenatal screening for Down syndrome and the relationship of maternal serum biochemical markers to pregnancy complications with adverse outcome. Prenat. Diagn. 20:652–656, 2000. Walton, D. L., Norem, C. T., Schoen, E. J., Ray, G. T., and Colby, C. J. Second trimester serum chorionic gonadotropin concentrations and complications and outcome of pregnancy. N. Eng. J. Med. 341(27):2003–2038, 1999. Stamilio, D. M., Sehdev, H. M., Morgan, M. A., Propert, K., and Macones, G. A. Can antenatal clinical and biochemical markers predict the development of severe preeclampsia? Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 182:589–594, 2000. Lambert-Messerlian, G. M., Silver, H. M., Petraglia, F., et al. Second-trimester levels of maternal serum human chorionic gonadotropin and inhibin A as predictors of preeclampsia in the third trimester of pregnancy. J. Soc. Gynecol. Invest. 7:170–174, 2000. Debieve, F., Bouckaert, A., Hubinont, C., and Thomas, K. Multiple screening for fetal Down’s syndrome with the classic triple test,

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40. 41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

653

dimeric inhibin A, and ultrasound. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 49:221–226, 2000. Wald, N. J., Watt, H. C., and Hackshaw, A. K. Integrated screening for Down’s syndrome based on tests performed during the first and second trimesters. N. Eng. J. Med. 341:461–467, 1999. Herman, A., Weinraub, Z., Dreazen, E., at al. Combined first trimester nuchal translucency and second trimester biochemical screening tests among normal pregnancies. Prenat. Diagn. 20:781–784, 2000. Brumfield, C. G., and Atkinson, M. W. Invasive techniques for fetal evaluation and treatment. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 37:856–874, 1994. Smith-Bindman, R., Hosmer, W., and Feldstein, V. A. Second trimester ultrasound to detect fetuses with Down syndrome: a metaanalysis. JAMA 285:1044–1055, 2001. Burke, B. M., and Kolker, A. Clients undergoing chorionic villus sampling versus amniocentesis: contrasting attitudes toward pregnancy. Health Care Women Int. 14:193–200, 1993. Pertl, B., Kopp, S., Kroisel, P. M., Tului, L., Brambati, B., and Adinolfi, M. Rapid detection of chromosomal aneuploidies by quantitative fluorescence PCR: first application on 247 chorionic villus samples. J. Med. Genetics 36:300–303, 1999. D’Alton, M. E. Prenatal diagnostic procedures. Semin. Perinatol. 18:140–162, 1994. Donnenfeld, A. E., Librizzi, R. J., Dunn, L. K., Craparo, F., Godmilow, L., and Weiner, S. Chorionic villus sampling followed by amniocentesis in the same pregnancy. Am. J. Med. Genetics 45:361–364, 1993. Smidt-Jensen, S., and Sundberg, K. Early amniocentesis. Curr. Opinion Obstet. Gynecol. 7:117–121, 1995. Johnson, J. M., Wilson, R. D., Singer, J., et. al. Technical factors in early amniocentesis predict adverse outcome. Results of the Canadian Early (EA) versus Mid-trimester (MA) Amniocentesis Trial. Prenat. Diagn. 19:732–738, 1999. Saltvedt, S., and Almstrom, H. Fetal loss rate after second trimester amniocentesis at different gestational age. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 78:10–14, 1999. Brumfield, C. G., Lin, S., Conner, W., Cosper, P., Davis, R. O., and Owen, J. Pregnancy outcome following genetic amniocentesis at 11–14 versus 16–19 weeks’ gestation. Obstet. Gynecol. 88:114–118, 1996. Stringer, M., Librizzi, R., and Weiner, S. Establishing a prenatal genetic diagnosis: the nurse’s role. MCN 16:152–156, 1991.

654

Part IV Antepartal Care

47. Economides, D. L., and Nicolaides, K. H.

61. Gegor, C. L., Paine, L. L., and Johnson, T. R. B.

Cordocentesis in the investigation of fetal oxygenation and metabolism. In Chervenak, F. A., Isaacson, G. C., and Campbell, S. (Eds.) Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Vol 1. Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1993, pp. 433–446. Antepartum Fetal Surveillance. ACOG Practice Bulletin 9 (October) 1999. Neldam, S. Fetal movements as an indicator of fetal well-being. Lancet 1:1222–1234, 1980. Christensen, F. C., Rayburn, W. F. Fetal movement counts. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am. 26(4):607–621 (December) 1999. Sadovsky, E., and Yaffe, H. Daily fetal movement recording and fetal prognosis. Obstet. Gynecol. 41:845–850, 1973. Manning, F. A., Snijders, R., Harman, C. R., Nicolaides, K., Menticoglou, S., and Morrison, I. Fetal biophysical profile score. VI. Correlation with antepartum umbilical venous fetal pH. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 169:755–763, 1993. Pearson, J. F., and Weaver, J. B. Fetal activity and well-being. Br. Med. J. 1:1305, 1976. Moore, T., and Piacquadio, K. A prospective evaluation of fetal movement screening to reduce the incidence of antepartum fetal death. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 160:1075–1080, 1989. Davis, L. Daily fetal movement counting: a valuable assessment tool. J. Nurse-Midwifery 32(1):11–19, 1987. Kelly, J., Matthews, K. A., and O’Connor, M. Smoking in pregnancy: effects on mother and fetus. Br. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 91:111–117, 1984. Grace, L. M., Cardoso, C. G., Clode, N., and Calhaz-Jorge, C. Acute effects of maternal cigarette smoking on fetal heart rate and fetal body movements felt by the mother. J. Perinatol. Med. 19:385–390, 1991. Johnson, T. R. B., Besinger, R. E., and Thomas, R. L. New clues to fetal behavior and wellbeing. Contemp. OB/GYN 30:91–123 (May) 1988. Sherer, D.M., Spong, C.Y., Minior, V. K., and Salafia, C. M. Decreased amniotic fluid volume at 140 or >130 mg/dL), a 3-hour oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) is the diagnostic study that must be done. The exception to this is that, if the screening GCT glucose value is > 200 mg/dL, then the diagnosis of GDM is made without further testing. Procedure for an OGTT 1. Three days prior to the test, the daily intake of

carbohydrate must exceed 150 grams, and physical activity should be unrestricted. 2. Perform the test in the morning after an 8 to 14-hour fast (except water). 3. Administer the glucose mixture—to be ingested within 10 min. 4. There should be no eating or drinking (other than water) and no moderate or vigorous exercise or smoking for the duration of the test. Most laboratories have established their laboratory values on the basis of using 100 grams of the glucose solution for diagnosis in pregnancy. The criteria for normal values are based on work by O’Sullivan and Mahan, which has been modified by Carpenter and Coustan [47]. The upper limits of normal are listed in Table 24-16. Management The goal of management of GDM is to maintain a normal fasting blood sugar. Most women with gestational diabetes can control this condition with a combination of diet and exercise. The following is a summary of the American Diabetes Association’s Clinical Practice Recommendations for Gestational Diabetes [47]. Every woman with GDM should have a visit with a nutritionist or a nurse or midwife with detailed knowledge of medical nutritional therapy (MNT). This visit must include careful explanation of the exchange food list and the caloric intake necessary to meet the maternal and fetal nutritional needs, but avoid fasting and postprandial hyperglycemia, as well as ketonemia [49, 51]. Controversy exists in the literature and between organizational guidelines regarding the ideal division of calories between carbohydrate, fat, and protein sources as well as the required overall daily caloric intake. The ADA suggests that nutrition requirements during preg-

698

Part IV Antepartal Care

TABLE 24-16

Diagnostic Criteria for Gestational Diabetes

3-hr, 100 g OGTT Abnormal, or diagnostic for GDM: two or more of the following plasma glucose values are met or exceeded: Fasting 1 hr 2 hr 3 hr

95 mg/dl 180 mg/dl 155 mg/dl 140 mg/dl —OR—

2-hr, 75 g OGTT (an alternative diagnostic test) Abnormal, or diagnostic for GDM: two or more of the following plasma glucose values are met or exceeded: Fasting 1 hr 2 hr

95 mg/dl 180 mg/dl 155 mg/dl

—OR— If the screening GCT glucose value is > 200 mg/dl, then the diagnosis of GDM is made without a 2- or 3-hr OGTT. Note: When processing the serum samples, the vast majority of laboratories will spin the blood down and use the plasma for evaluation of the glucose levels. Therefore, the values used here reflect the norms for plasma. If the testing is done in an office setting using whole blood samples with a glucometer, the normative values should be approximately 15 percent lower than listed above for plasma samples. Source: American Diabetes Association. Gestational diabetes mellitus. Clinical Practice Recommendations 2002: Position Statement. Diabetes Care 25 (suppl.), 1:S95 (January) 2002.

nancy and lactation are the same for women with or without diabetes [49]. Home glucose monitoring by finger stick is widely available and has been shown to be an adequate measure of glycemic control. If possible, every woman with diabetes in pregnancy should have and be instructed in the use of a home glucose monitor. Daily self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) has been shown to be a better method of tracking blood sugar values than intermittent office monitoring of plasma glucose. If a glucometer is not available, or if the woman cannot handle doing SMBG, then monitoring in the office or laboratory is an acceptable alternative. It may be prudent to occasionally test a woman in the laboratory setting, particularly if she is not consistent with SMBG. The target blood glucose values for whole blood with a glucose monitor should be as follows: Fasting 1 hour postprandial 2 hour postprandial

80 –1/0 +1/+2 Soft Anterior

Source: Adapted from Bishop, E. H. Pelvic scoring for elective induction. Obstet. Gynecol. 24(2):267 (August) 1964.

function that is different from the rest of the uterus and that difference is evident histologically, anatomically, physiologically, and biochemically. In the case of childbirth, the cervix must change dramatically to allow expulsion of the fetus and placenta. While the uterine muscle is contracting and thickening during labor, the cervix is thinning and opening in response to the wedgelike effect of the presenting portion of the fetus, which is being driven toward the pelvic floor [41, 42]. Each contraction during labor shortens the uterine smooth muscle fiber, gradually reducing the volume of the uterus. If the smooth muscle fiber in the cervix responded in the same manner, the cervix would become tighter and smaller rather than looser and larger [44]. Because the condition of the cervix is the best predictor of successful induction of labor, it has been hypothesized that ripening the cervix would increase the likelihood of a vaginal delivery [44]. In fact, the cervix that does not spontaneously ripen is not like the cervix that does; furthermore the palpable cervix is akin to “the tip of the iceberg” in comparison to the cervical and lower uterine tissue that is inaccessible to the examiner [62]. The timing of events leading to successful delivery is also an issue [41]. For instance, is it necessary or even better if the cervix becomes favorable prior to the onset of regular painful uterine contractions, or can outcomes be equally satisfactory if uterine contractions precede cervical change? Circulating levels of oxytocin increase during labor and are released in a pulsatile fashion from the posterior pituitary [45]. Stimulation of the lower genital tract, cervix, and the breast also leads to oxytocin release and sensitivity of the uterine muscle to circulating levels of oxytocin increases toward term [44–49]. After the onset of labor, sensitivity of oxytocin receptors increases until the end of second stage, then decreases. This is consistent with the finding that higher doses of oxytocin are

Chapter 25 Complications of Gestational Age Assessment and the Postdate Pregnancy

required to induce labor than to augment labor. Thus, the effect of a specific dose of oxytocin will vary according to the sensitivity of receptors in the myometrium and decidua [44–46]. Oxytocin acts directly on uterine action through its effect on the oxytocin receptors in the uterus, and indirectly through its action in stimulating the release of prostaglandin from the decidua, which then encourages more uterine contraction—a spiraling effect that is necessary for successful vaginal delivery. The cervix has relatively few oxytocin receptors, which may explain why the unripe cervix is such an obstacle to induction of labor with standard oxytocin induction protocols [41, 44, 45]. As a consideration in the active management of postdate pregnancy, induction of labor will be addressed in the next section of this chapter.

Management Approach for the Postdate Pregnancy: Anticipatory Versus Active The two principal schools of thought are (1) anticipatory management—anticipation of fetal wellbeing with increased assessment and intervention only when indicated and (2) active management— induction of labor for all women who reach 42+ weeks. Either approach may be favored by the woman or by the midwife, and clinical practice guidelines for the postdate pregnancy should be reviewed with women and their families in the effort to reach consensus and prevent any misunderstanding. Many variations on anticipatory and active management are possible, and they include consideration of cervical readiness (Bishop score), estimated fetal weight (by Leopold’s maneuvers, sonogram, or both), fetal well-being, preference of the woman, amniotic fluid volume, prior obstetric history, maternal medical status, and method of induction under consideration. A heavily weighted variable is the gestational age of the fetus, with an increasing trend toward consideration of gestational age as a continuum rather than the discrete and mutually exclusive categories of “preterm, term, and postterm” [50–53]. Active versus anticipatory management of the postdate pregnancy will also be dependent upon reliability of the criteria used for assignment of gestational age. Clinicians have long recognized the need to effect birth when serious medical and obstetric conditions threaten either the mother or the fetus. Prior

723

to the development of acceptable methods for inducing labor, cesarean section was the only recourse in such cases. However, there are risks associated with the induction of labor as well as risks associated with prolonged pregnancy. The decision to initiate labor, or not, must always be made as a comparison of risks to benefits with either management decision. In general, methods of induction that are most effective in leading to active labor are those associated with increased frequency of fetal heart rate changes and uterine hyperstimulation [50–56]. Further information about each of the methods for induction of labor is summarized below. The question remains as to the appropriate role for induction of labor with the postdate pregnancy. While there is considerable consensus on the necessity of induction for selected obstetric and medical complications, the decision to induce labor in the uncomplicated postdate pregnancy carries potential for harm [50–56]. Induction of labor is associated with an increase in epidural anesthesia and cesarean delivery for the primigravid woman beyond 41 weeks whose infant’s birth weight is 3800 grams or greater [52], and the primigravid with an unripe cervix (Bishop score at or below 5) who is electively induced has a cesarean delivery rate as high as 50 percent [50–56]. When reliable dating information is not available, less reliable criteria for dating pregnancy must necessarily be considered in the assignment of gestational age. However, the clinician’s decision to actively intervene is difficult to justify on the basis of an unreliable database. Assessment and evaluation of fetal and maternal well-being would be a more prudent course in the event of a pregnancy dated with unreliable or missing menstrual dates (e.g., breastfeeding, spotting), last trimester ultrasound, quickening, or uterine size. Evidence of compromise to fetal well-being may encourage the decision to effect birth, but such a decision should be tempered with reasonable caution about fetal maturity. An unripe cervix (Bishop score less than 6) is more strongly associated with cesarean section in the primigravida than the multipara [50–56]. Cost remains an unresolved issue for many, and debate continues as to whether the cost of induction exceeds the cost of additional monitoring in the pregnancy that exceeds term [57–59]. Meta-analysis of clinical trials suggests that a minimum of 500 inductions would be needed to reveal any improvement in perinatal mortality, suggesting that clinically significant outcomes for induction of

724

Part IV Antepartal Care

labor versus anticipatory management in the postdate pregnancy are sufficiently small as to make either choice reasonable [1, 26–28, 50–56]. Before initiation of any management plan, women and their families or support persons need to understand the risks and benefits of cautious observation of normal processes and of intervention. It is important to review dating accuracy so that they realize that the baby is most likely not actually “late,” but this ambiguity is the result of not being able to determine absolute dating of the pregnancy. They also must understand that induction of labor is not as easy as it may sound or as it looks on television. That, in fact, there is no magic bullet or potion that will necessarily lead to a normal labor and subsequent vaginal birth. The fact that medical induction of labor carries with it an increased risk of fetal distress, cesarean section, infection, and hemorrhage is a great surprise to most laypersons. The midwife has the responsibility to inform women of their risks, and to document the discussion in the chart. Conversely, women should also know that truly prolonged pregnancies have an increased incidence of stillbirth, meconium-stained fluid, neonatal meconium aspiration syndrome, shoulder dystocia when the fetus is macrosomic [59–61], and fetal distress if the fetus is small for gestational age [35]. Each midwife must know the practice guidelines in the clinical setting and be able to interpret these to women in their care. It is important to know the obstetric and medical indications for induction and to explain to women that induction of labor without indication is poor practice. By 40 weeks of pregnancy, most women are tired and uncomfortable. They have difficulty sleeping and waiting becomes burdensome emotionally to the whole family. These are indicators for support, not for induction of labor. Indications for induction of labor include but are not limited to the following: 1. Nonreassuring fetal testing (low biophysical

profile score; see Chapter 23) TABLE 25-5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

2. Oligohydramnios 3. Worsening preeclampsia at term 4. Insulin-dependent diabetes 5. IUGR at term 6. History of a previous term stillbirth

In addition, there are some circumstances in which the convenience of induction may equate to safer care. An example would be the woman with a history of very rapid labors who presents at 40 weeks, completely effaced and 4 centimeters dilated, without labor. In order to avoid a precipitous labor away from supportive care, induction may be a reasonable choice [62]. However, scheduling induction of labor as a result of a busy office schedule or to have the baby on someone’s birthday is clearly elective, and introduces unnecessary risk. Table 25-5 offers a plan for anticipatory management of the uncomplicated pregnancy between 40 and 42 weeks; all items should be actively reviewed with the pregnant woman at each prenatal visit beginning at 40 weeks. (Refer to Chapter 23 for a review of antepartal fetal assessment methods to be initiated for care of the postdate pregnancy.) Anticipatory management for the postdate pregnancy may appropriately begin at term since approximately one in five pregnancies at 40 weeks will continue for at least another week. An important factor for the midwife to consider is the reliability of the estimated date of birth; the less reliable the EDB is, the more cautious the midwife should be with active intervention. Midwives should also be informed concerning local laws and regulations regarding their scope of practice, consistency with their own practice guidelines, and awareness of the local community’s standard of care for the postdate pregnancy. In addition, management decisions should be mutually agreeable to the woman, midwife, and physician consultant, and this should be well documented. When women are well informed about treatment options for management of postdates pregnancy and can make a well-informed

Anticipatory Management of a Woman with a Pregnancy Between 40 and 42 Weeks

Review EDB with woman as the midpoint in a 4-week range (40+ weeks). Review postdate management plan with woman; carefully document mutual acceptance of the plan (40+ weeks). Initiate nonstress test (NST) twice weekly, starting by 41 weeks, continuing until birth. Initiate amniotic fluid volume (AFV) twice weekly, starting by 41 weeks, continuing until birth. Initiate full biophysical profile and consult with a physician for nonreactive NST or low AFV. Consult with a physician (providing documentation) for any pregnancy reaching 42 weeks. If the pregnancy continues to 42 weeks and dates are reliable (see Table 25-2, items 1–5), begin active management per protocol.

Chapter 25 Complications of Gestational Age Assessment and the Postdate Pregnancy

choice, and fetal well-being is assured, it is reasonable to continue anticipatory management until 42 weeks or until there is an indication for delivery. The woman’s preference for management after term has been reached should be a heavily weighted and well-documented variable in management decisions, as should fetal well-being. A note of caution concerning suggested guidelines for management of the pregnancy exceeding 42 weeks is to keep in mind the poor quality of research supporting postdate pregnancy protocols. Evidence-based practice has no clear guidelines for the management of pregnancy after term has been reached. Multi-institutional, prospective, controlled clinical trials with double-blind random assignment to treatment or control group have simply not been done, and the barriers to such research are probably insurmountable. Clinical trials are flawed by patient (and provider) self-selection to group, lack of control regarding specific measurement of each variable, and lack of clinical consensus on appropriate outcome measures. Several authors quantify the patient’s self-selection bias, ranging from 20 to 34 percent, and others have addressed the impact of women’s requests for the induction of labor [61–66]. Differences in regional management protocols, changes in pharmaceutical recommendations, and technology for fetal assessment have changed so rapidly that multicenter clinical trials only a few years old are not readily generalizable to current debates. Analysis of clinical trials reveals that while there is no clear evidence that antepartum assessment (e.g., NST) reduces the incidence of morbidity and mortality in the postdate pregnancy, retrospective data analysis indicates a lower risk of morbidity for monitored women [60, 61, 67, 68]. It is not clear whether factors other than the gestational age were associated with the additional risk, but the fact remains that the NST is now firmly integrated into the care of women who are considered postdates [67–69]. Finally, the vast majority of research on induction of labor addresses comparison of one method to another rather than the underlying question of whether induction of labor at any particular gestational age improves outcomes for either mother or infant. Active Management of the Postdate Pregnancy: Induction of Labor In the 1970s there was a growing awareness of increased perinatal mortality with advanced gestational age. This awareness quickly led to the

725

hypothesis that reduction of the incidence of postdate pregnancy would improve outcomes. Some have objected to induction on the basis that induction of labor is unnecessary and unnatural, and potentially harmful. The lack of credible evidence-based criteria for induction of labor in the uncomplicated postdate pregnancy has led to localized management patterns that do not necessarily minimize risk or maximize the utilization of available resources for the care of women and infants. In spite of the arguments against induction of labor and the lack of standardized criteria, the practice of induction has increased markedly over the past decade [1, 11, 26–28, 36, 37]. According to the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the desired result of induction of labor is “to achieve vaginal delivery by stimulating uterine contractions before the spontaneous onset of labor” [69]. Although the methods for induction of labor are primarily directed at initiating uterine contractions, there is increasing recognition that cervical change plays an important role that is not entirely mediated by uterine activity. Pharmacologic initiation of labor has centered on the use of oxytocin since the 1960s [70] and prostaglandin compounds since the 1970s [49, 62]. Table 25-6 presents a summary of hormonal methods for induction of labor; nonhormonal methods of inducing labor are listed separately later in this

TABLE 25-6

Hormonal Methods for Induction of Labor

1. Oxytocin (Pitocin) administered intravenously (FDA

approved for induction of labor) 2. Prostaglandins a. Misoprostol (1) Brand name Cytotec: A synthetic PGE1 ana-

logue tablet administered intravaginally (FDA approved for peptic ulcer prevention, not induction) b. Dinoprostone (1) Brand name Cervidil: A synthetic PGE2 preparation available as controlled release 10-mg vaginal insert (FDA approved for induction of labor in 1995) (2) Brand name Prepidil: A synthetic PGE2 preparation available in 0.5-mg gel form and administered intracervically (FDA approved for induction of labor in 1993) 3. Mifepristone (RU 486, a progesterone receptor antagonist) (FDA approved as a first trimester abortifacient, not induction) available in 200 mg tablet to be taken orally

726

Part IV Antepartal Care

chapter in Table 25-7. Dosing, route, and timing of administration for all methods are still being actively researched; specific recommendations are given in the text if research supports them. In terms of effecting safe birth, successful induction of labor after cervical ripening with prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) may take place with oxytocin, and prostaglandins have proved to be more effective as a cervical ripening agent than oxytocin. Other methods of inducing labor (e.g., castor oil, breast stimulation, mechanical stretching of the cervix) have highly variable rates of success and/or little research to guide recommendations. Oxytocin Oxytocin is the most commonly administered intrapartal medication [45]. Discovery of its pharmacologic actions in 1906 led to research that has demonstrated usefulness in reducing uterine atony after cesarean or vaginal delivery and initiating or augmenting uterine contractions [46, 70]. Appropriate use of oxytocin has significantly reduced maternal and fetal mortality. However, inappropriate use of oxytocin has resulted in grave maternal and fetal consequences, spurring the development of protocols to guide clinicians with judicious use [69]. Use of the standard oxytocin protocol with the parturient who has an unripe cervix is unsuccessful in leading to a vaginal delivery in approximately one-half of the women who are induced by this method [50, 54–56]. The most serious limitation in using oxytocin for induction of labor is in fact for the woman with an unfavorable cervix. The problems known to be associated with labor induction for these woman have led to the suggestion that a very low dose oxytocin infusion (0.5 mu/min, doubled every 40 to 60 min to a maximum of 2–4 mu/min) over 12 to 18 hours can be used for ripening the unfavorable cervix, prior to the initiation of the protocol used for induction of labor [45, 46, 51, 52, 69]. Such infusions should necessarily be done only in cases when warranted, via continuous or pulsatile intravenous infusion piggybacked to an appropriate fluid, and with appropriate monitoring of maternal and fetal status. Oxytocin induction of labor for the woman whose cervical Bishop score is 6 or greater may begin with an initial dose of 2 mu/min, which is increased in increments of 1–2 mu/min at 30-minute intervals. Dosages, intervals for increase, and duration of administration of pitocin for the induction of labor are still actively debated, and should probably vary according to gestational age, parity and

cervical score, and response to the dosage of pitocin. Individual clinical settings will have a wide range of oxytocin protocols to which they adhere. Each midwife must be familiar with these protocols if managing an induction of labor. When oxytocin is used for induction of labor after the cervix is ripe, 30-minute incremental increases are found to be associated with fewer instances of fetal distress and a lower cesarean delivery rate than a 15-minute interval, although labors are longer [71]. The fact that the cervix has relatively few oxytocin receptors may explain why the unripe cervix is such an obstacle to induction of labor with standard oxytocin induction protocols [41, 44]. Many clinicians prefer to prepare the unripe cervix with administration of prostaglandin rather than intravenous oxytocin. Studies have shown that preparation of the unripe cervix with a prostaglandin gel or suppository can safely and effectively reduce the rate of failed induction and subsequent cesarean section [71–73]. The use of oxytocin as a means of ripening the cervix follows a different protocol than oxytocin used as a labor stimulant [69]. The high failure rate of oxytocin induction for women with a long closed cervix led to renewed efforts to find ways to ripen the cervix prior to induction efforts [66, 69, 71]. Intravenous administration of prostaglandins was investigated during the 1960s but sometimes severe side effects associated with systemic use led to trials with oral or local administration [71]. A meta-analysis of studies examining the use of prostaglandins for induction of labor led to the conclusion that such use reduced the incidence of failed induction, and thereby increased the likelihood of vaginal delivery [50]. Clinical trials have sought to determine the most appropriate dosages and route of administration; oral, intravenous, and intracervical and transvaginal preparations have all been evaluated [71, 72]. Oral administration is simpler and more acceptable to women, but it is much more difficult to avoid problems such as systemic side effects and hyperstimulation with oral doses [71–73, 77–80]. Many studies have compared prostaglandins to use of oxytocin or placebo for induction of labor, but if the prostaglandins are more physiologically suited to cervical ripening rather than active labor induction these comparisons may well be inappropriate. There is some evidence to suggest that the use of prostaglandins for cervical ripening is most ad-

Prostaglandins

Chapter 25 Complications of Gestational Age Assessment and the Postdate Pregnancy

vantageous for the woman with an unripe cervix, and, when the cervix is already favorable, outcomes are very similar for women who are induced via PGE2 or oxytocin infusion [26–28, 54]. Outcomes such as cervical change in points (Bishop score) or time to delivery are prostaglandin-dose related, and associated with gestational age, parity, and cervical status. Mechanical stretching of the cervix such as that which takes place with “stripping the membranes” releases prostaglandin F2-alpha [47, 48]. Dose-related responses to administration of prostaglandins include cervical ripening, fetal distress, hyperstimulation, cesarean section for fetal distress, and neonatal jaundice [53–56]. Vaginal gel administration is less likely than cervical administration to be associated with an increase in cesarean deliveries, but this route of administration is associated with compromised fetal and neonatal status on several outcome measures. Tachysystole and the rate of operative vaginal birth for abnormalities in the fetal heart rate are also more likely with administration of misoprostol than dinoprostone [53–56]. Ripening or dilatation of the cervix is not always associated with any improvement in the rate of vaginal birth [24, 35, 44, 47]. The cervix is more likely to ripen with vaginal administration of PGE2 than with endocervical, yet this difference was not associated with changes in other outcome measures—e.g., use of analgesia or cesarean section [50]. Meta-analysis was not able to determine any clear differences between intracervical and vaginal administration of prostaglandin gels [50]; many studies reflect dated management protocols as well as outmoded methods of establishing gestational age. Two prostaglandins have been the primary focus for use with labor induction; prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) and PGE2, which are both effective oxytocic agents [49]. Examples of these products are Cytotec (PGE1) and Cervidil and Prepidil (both PGE2). Misoprostol (Cytotec) is a tablet that is placed intravaginally by means of the examining hand. The tablet should be placed in the posterior fornix. It is not necessary to use a speculum for placement. Dosing should be done according to protocol in the clinical setting. ACOG recommends that a 25-mcg tablet be used for the initial dose, that doses should not be given more often than every 3 to 6 hours, and that oxytocin should not be given until at least 4 hours after the most recent misoprostol tablet [69, 73–77]. Safety of misoprostol (Cytotec) as a means of inducing labor is a concern. It is contraindicated for women with a

727

previous uterine scar and should always be used with caution. Recently G. D. Searle, the manufacturer of misoprostol, has made public a drug warning that states that misoprostol ought not be used in pregnant women, but this has been refuted by ACOG, which states that “given the current evidence, intravaginal misoprostol tablets appear effective in inducing labor in pregnant women who have unfavorable cervices” [74]. Cervidil is a prostaglandin preparation placed in a mesh insert, which should be positioned in the posterior fornix with just a few centimeters of the attached string visible outside the vagina. The insert absorbs secretions, enlarges, and releases dinoprostone at the rate of about 0.3 mg/hr for 12 hr, at which time it is removed. The woman is asked to stay in a recumbent position for at least 2 hours after insertion so that location of the drug is maintained [75, 76]. If oxytocin is used after Cervidil is removed, the midwife should wait at least 30 minutes prior to beginning oxytocin infusion. Cervidil should be removed if active labor, fetal distress, tachycardia, or hyperstimulation occurs. An advantage to the use of Cervidil is that it can be easily inserted without the use of a speculum, and quickly and easily removed in the event of hyperstimulation or active labor, making it more convenient and safer to use on an outpatient basis [75–79]. Prepidil is a gel usually administered via a prefilled syringe into the cervical canal just inside the internal os. The syringe contains 0.5 mg dinoprostone and is brought to room temperature just prior to insertion. Speculum insertion and visualization of the cervix are necessary in order to place the gel appropriately, which is a disadvantage to this preparation. The woman is asked to remain in the dorsal position for 10 to 15 minutes to minimize leakage. The maximum recommended dosage for a 24-hour period is 1.5 mg, or 3 doses [75–79]. Prepidil gel should be swept from the vagina if active labor, fetal distress, tachycardia, or uterine hyperstimulation (tachysystole) occurs. In addition, potential side effects include uterine contractile abnormality, gastrointestinal effects (nausea and diarrhea), back pain, warm feeling in the vagina, and fever [75–79]. Mifepristone (RU 486) is not recommended for cervical ripening or induction of labor. Oral medication for induction of labor has significant drawbacks due to difficulty in reversing the effect, and there are insufficient data to establish safety of this method. Mifepristone has not been approved by the FDA for induction of labor at term [80].

728

Part IV Antepartal Care

Nonhormonal Methods for Induction of Labor Several nonhormonal methods for induction of labor have been used with widely varying degrees of success. These methods are listed in Table 25-7. Membrane Stripping The procedure known as stripping or sweeping the membranes refers to the practice of attempting to separate amniotic membranes from the reachable portion of the cervix and lower uterine segment during a vaginal examination [81, 82]. With a gloved hand, the midwife examines the woman to determine cervical effacement, dilatation, and position in the usual fashion. Care is taken to be certain that the vertex is presenting. The examiner extends the index finger as far as possible through the internal os, rotating the distal end of the finger slowly between the lower uterine segment and the membranes. Several sweeps are usually sufficient to stimulate onset of regular contractions within 72 hours [81–84]. The mechanism of action is probably the release of prostaglandins into maternal circulation. Membrane stripping is apparently safe if done appropriately, and shortens the gestational period by an average of 2 to 5 days thereby reducing the frequency of postdate pregnancy [81–84]. Stripping of the membranes should not be performed if inadvertent rupture of the membranes would be considered unsafe for the mother and infant. Membrane stripping should not be considered in cases of cervicitis, low lying or placenta previa, unknown lie, or undiagnosed vaginal bleeding. Amniotomy Artificial rupture of the membranes (AROM) is another traditional method for induction or augmentation of labor [85]. As with membrane stripping, the midwife must do a careful vaginal examination to assess cervical effacement, dilatation, position, and the station of the presenting part. A nonvertex presentation is a contraindication to AROM, and other relative contraindications include an unengaged head, or small baby, as both condi-

TABLE 25-7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Nonhormonal Methods for Induction of Labor

Membrane stripping or sweeping Artificial rupture of the membranes (AROM) Breast pump or nipple stimulation Ingestion of castor oil Foley bulb or balloon catheter Sexual activity Herbal preparations

tions predispose to fetal cord prolapse. Precautions to weigh when AROM is considered include the commitment to birth (since the fetus is no longer in a sterile environment) and the increased likelihood of cord compression without hydraulic protection of the umbilical cord [85–87]. The usual method for AROM is bimanual examination with assessment for safety of the procedure, followed by insertion of an amnihook or similar instrument along the palmar surface of the examining hand. Early amniotomy (mean 2 centimeters dilatation) has been associated with more amnionitis, uterine hyperstimulation, and fetal distress than with later amniotomy (mean 5 centimeters dilatation) [85–87]. While amniotomy is used frequently to induce labor, there are no well-designed studies that prospectively randomize women to group for the purpose of evaluating this practice. It is not recommended that AROM be used alone to induce labor [69, 76, 85–87]. Few large studies have evaluated the safety and efficacy of breast stimulation as a method of inducing labor. However, the cumulative effect of many studies using the treatment of breast pump or manual nipple stimulation, combined with the physiologic basis for cervical change has led to an increased trend in recommendation of this relatively benign means to induce labor [88, 89]. Various treatments have included automatic electric breast pump, stimulating each breast for 15 minutes, interrupted by 15-minute rest periods; stimulation of breasts by gentle massage with a warm moist cloth for 1 hour, three times a day; breast stimulation for 45 minutes three times a day, and gentle massage of alternate breasts for a total of 3 hours a day [88, 89]. Weaknesses in the research include lack of compliance with the suggested intervention, small numbers in the groups, little control with critical variables such as gestational age, and inherent unreliability of the measure of the intervention. Not enough is known about the effect of breast or nipple stimulation to provide clear guidance regarding recommendation for use as either a means to soften the cervix or a method for induction of labor. Women who try this technique should be cautioned to limit nipple contact so that hyperstimulation of the uterus does not occur [88, 89]. (See Chapter 23 for the procedure for breast stimulation to induce a contraction stress test.) Breast Pump or Nipple Stimulation

The oral ingestion of 60 mg of castor oil mixed in apple or orange juice does appear to in-

Castor Oil

Chapter 25 Complications of Gestational Age Assessment and the Postdate Pregnancy

crease the incidence of spontaneous onset of labor when used in term pregnancy [90, 91]. The intervention appears to have few drawbacks, but very little research is available on the topic. The best timing for ingestion of castor oil used for induction of labor is after a good night’s sleep and 1 to 2 hours before the woman gets up for the day. Castor oil acts by stimulating the gut, which stimulates the vagal nerve, thereby stimulating the uterus [90, 91]. Onset of action is within 2 to 6 hours. Foley Bulb or Balloon Catheter The Foley catheter or bulb has several advantages as a mechanical device used to stretch the cervix [92, 93]. It is readily available to the midwife, relatively safe to use, inexpensive, easy to place, and easy to remove. Additionally, fetal monitoring is not necessary while the Foley is in place, as it is to at least some extent with the use of hormonal methods of cervical ripening. Most commonly, the 16-gauge Foley catheter is inserted through the cervical canal, and then the balloon is inflated to 25 to 50 milliliters to hold it in place. Small clinical trials have shown this to be a promising technique, and many of the subjects entered labor while the Foleys were in place [92, 93]. Similar effects have been noted with the use of laminaria and synthetic osmotic dilators [94]. Clinical trials have not been sufficient to make specific recommendations. Sexual Activity, Herbal Preparations Although there are some additional methods that have been used to ripen the cervix, initiate uterine contractions, or augment labor [95–97], there is little research to guide any specific recommendation. Nevertheless, many midwives have been routinely suggesting coitus and/or genital manipulation if the membranes are intact, nipple and breast stimulation, or herbal preparations as safe methods to hasten the onset of labor. The woman with an uncomplicated term pregnancy and intact membranes may be advised that lovemaking and breast stimulation are not contraindicated and could physiologically be associated with earlier onset of labor. Drinking herbal preparations such as evening primrose oil, black cohosh tincture, and blue cohosh tincture may be helpful, but a lack of research establishing dosage, safety, and efficacy guidelines hinders advisement. Acupuncture and homeopathy are additional venues for induction of labor that need further study [95–97]. If the midwife does conclude that active management of the postdate pregnancy is indicated, the

729

protocol in Table 25-8 presents a guide to recommendations regarding administration, timing, dosage, and precautions. As with anticipatory management, the midwife is advised to carefully document mutual acceptance of the management plan by the woman, consulting physician, and midwife. The midwife should be familiar with the local standard of care for the postdate pregnancy, as should the woman. The woman should be informed if there is any off-label status in prescription use, and the midwife must remain current with literature related to management of postdate pregnancy. The woman’s informed preference for timing of active management with postdate pregnancy should be a heavily weighted variable.

Summary The clinical problem has been threefold: (1) reliable diagnosis of postdate pregnancy remains a challenge, (2) there is no consensus on the clinically appropriate time to suspend anticipatory management in favor of an effort to initiate birth, and (3) there are no clear evidence-based guidelines for the induction of labor in the uncomplicated postdate pregnancy. While it is clear that there are maternal and fetal risks associated with pregnancy lasting longer than 41 weeks, it may be that some of those risks are a result of the management of that pregnancy rather than the prolongation of it. For example,

TABLE 25-8

Active Management of Postdate Pregnancy

1. Midwife follows Steps 1 through 6 in Table 25-5, as

needed. 2. Woman may self-administer castor oil after 40+ weeks

3. 4.

5.

6.

when the cervix is ripe, according to woman and midwife preference. Midwife may sweep membranes after 41+ weeks, according to woman and midwife preference. Midwife may administer prostaglandin gel (Prepidil) or insert (Cervidil) if cervix is unripe, in anticipation of induction, between 41 and 42 weeks. Midwife may schedule pitocin induction of labor if 42 weeks is reached, according to woman, midwife, and consulting physician preference. Midwife should not allow pregnancy to extend beyond 42 completed weeks (300 days) if dates are reliable.

Note: Prostaglandins and oxytocin are never administered simultaneously.

730

Part IV Antepartal Care

dysfunctional labor, fetal distress, and postpartum hemorrhage may be results of labor induction and augmentation, or they may be results of macrosomia. Knowledge of cervical readiness may be helpful for prediction of successful induction of labor, but information about fetal size apparently does not improve outcomes. The philosophy of the American College of Nurse Midwives (ACNM) includes language that supports the normalcy of childbirth and advocates nonintervention in normal processes. When there are deviations from normal, the ACNM “supports the use of appropriate technological interventions where the benefits of such technology outweigh the risks” [98]. This belief in the normalcy of childbirth challenges the growing practice of induction of labor, particularly when risks, benefits, indications, and criteria for induction have not been clearly delineated.

8. Nichols, C. Dating pregnancy: gathering and

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

References 1. Alexander, G. R., Tompkins, M. E., Peterson,

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

D. J., Hulsey, T. C., and Mor, J. Discordance between LMP-based and clinically estimated gestational age: implications for research, programs, and policy. Public Health Rep. 110(4):395–402, 1995. Kramer, M. S., McLean, F. H., Boyd, M. E., and Usher, R. H. The validity of gestational age estimates by menstrual dating in term, preterm, and postterm gestations. JAMA 260:3306–3308, 1988. Frank-Hermann, P., Greund, G., Baur, S., et al. Effectiveness and acceptability of the symptothermal method of natural family planning in Germany. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 165:2008–2011, 1991. Bricker, L., and Neilson, J. P. Routine Doppler ultrasound in pregnancy (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2000. Sacher, R. A., and McPherson, R. A. Widmann’s Clinical Interpretation of Laboratory Tests, 11th ed. Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis, 2000. Mittendorf, R., Williams, M. A., Berkey, C. S., et al. The length of uncomplicated human gestation. Obstet. Gynecol. 75(6):929–932, 1990. Bricker, L., and Neilson, J. P. Routine ultrasound in late pregnancy (after 24 weeks gestation) (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2000.

14.

15.

16.

17. 18.

19.

20.

21.

using a reliable data base. J. Nurse-Midwifery 32(4):195–204, 1987. Ventura, S. J., Martin, J. A., Curtin, S. C., et al. Births: Final data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Report, vol. 48, no. 3. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, 2000. Ahmed, A. I., and Versi, E. Prolonged pregnancy. Curr. Opinion Obstet. Gynecol. 5(5):669–674, 1993. Ewigman, B. G., Crane, J. P., Frigoletto, F. D., et al. Effect of prenatal ultrasound screening on perinatal outcome. N. Eng. J. Med. 329(12):821–827, 1993. Tunon, K., Eik-Nes, S. H., and Grottum, P. Fetal outcome in pregnancies defined as postterm according to the last menstrual period estimate, but not according to the ultrasound estimate. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 14(1):12–16, 1999. LeFevre, M. L., Eain, R. P., Ewigman, E. G., et al. A randomized trial of prenatal ultrasonographic screening: impact on maternal management and outcome. RADIUS (Routine Antenatal Diagnostic Imaging with Ultrasound) Study Group. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 169(3):483–489, 1993. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Routine Ultrasound in LowRisk Pregnancy. No. 5, 1997. Washington, DC: ACOG, 1997. Naegele, F. S. Erfahrung and Abhandlungen des Weiblichen Geschlechtes. Mannheim, Germany: Ben Lobias Loeffler, 1812. Nichols, C. W. Postdate pregnancy: Part I. A literature review. J. Nurse-Midwifery 30(4):222–239, 1985. Beazley, J., and Underhill, R. Fallacy of the fundal height. Br. Med. J. 4:404, 1997. Neilson, J. P. Symphysis-fundal height measurement in pregnancy (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2000. Engstrom, J. L., Sittler, C. P., and Swift, K. E. Fundal height measurement. Part 5: The effect of clinician bias on fundal height measurements. J. Nurse-Midwifery 39(3):130–141, 1994. Lurie, S., Zalel, Y., and Hagay, Z. J. The evaluation of accelerated fetal growth. Curr. Opinion Obstet. Gynecol. 7(6):477–481, 1995. Pollack, R. N., Rauer-Pollack, G., and Divon, M. Macrosomia in postdates pregnancies: the accuracy of routine ultrasonographic screening. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 167(1):7–11, 1992.

Chapter 25 Complications of Gestational Age Assessment and the Postdate Pregnancy

731

22. Chervenak, J. L. Macrosomia in the post-

35. Clausson, E., Cnattingius, S., and Axelsson, O.

dates pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 35(1):151–155, 1992. Chauhan, S. P., Sullivan, C. A., Magann, E. F., et al. Estimate of birthweight among post-term pregnancy: clinical versus sonographic. J. Maternal Fetal Med. 3(5):208–211, 1994. Irion, O., and Boulvain, M. Induction of labour for suspected fetal macrosomia (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 4. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2000. Ryo, E., Kozuma, S., Sultana, J., et al. Fetal size as a determinant of obstetrical outcome of post-term pregnancy. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 47(3):172–176, 1999. Hannah, M., Hannah, W., Hellman, J., Hewson, S., Milner, R., and Willan, A. Canadian Multicenter Post-Term Pregnancy Trial Group. Induction of labor as compared with serial antenatal monitoring in post-term pregnancy. N. Eng. J. Med. 326(24):1587–1592, 1992. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine. Trial of induction of labor versus expectant management in postterm pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 170(3):716–723, 1994. Gardosi, J., Vanner, T., and Francis, A. Gestational age and induction of labour for prolonged pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 104(7):792–797, 1997. Divon, M. Y., Haglund, B., Nisell, H., et al. Fetal and neonatal mortality in the postterm pregnancy: the impact of gestational age and fetal growth restriction. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 178(4):726–731, 1998. Campbell, M. K., Ostbye, T., and Irgens, L. M. Post-term birth: risk factors and outcomes in a 10-year cohort of Norwegian births. Obstet. Gynecol. 89(4):543–548, 1997. Fabre, E., Gonzalez de Aguero, R., de Agustin, J. L., et al. Perinatal mortality in term and postterm births. J. Perinatol. Med. 24(2):163–169, 1996. Abotalib, Z. M., Soltan, M. H., Chowdhury, N., and Adelusi, B. Obstetric outcome in uncomplicated prolonged pregnancy. Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet. 55(3):225–230, 1996. Griffiths, M. Stillbirths and rate of neonatal deaths in 76,761 postterm pregnancies in Sweden, 1982–1991; a register study. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 77(5):583–584, 1998. Alexander, J. M., Mclntire, D. D., and Leveno, K. J. Forty weeks and beyond: pregnancy outcomes by week of gestation. Obstet. Gynecol. 96(2):291–294, 2000.

Outcomes of post-term births: the role of fetal growth restriction and malformations. Obstet. Gynecol. 94(5, pt. 1):758–762, 1999. Hannah, M., Huh, C., Hewson, S., and Hannah, W. Postterm pregnancy: putting the merits of a policy of induction of labor into perspective. Birth 23(1):13–19, 1996. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. A clinical trial of induction of labor versus expectant management in postterm pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 170(3):716–723, 1994. Clausson, E., Cnattingius, S., Axelsson, O. Outcomes of post-term births: the role of fetal growth restriction and malformations. Obstet. Gynecol. 94(5, pt. 1):758–762, 1999. Clifford, S. R. Postmaturity—with placental dysfunction. J. Pediatr. 44(1):1–13, 1954. Divon, M., Marks, A., and Henderson, C. Longitudinal measurements of amniotic fluid index in postterm pregnancies and its association with fetal outcome. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 172(1):142–146, 1995. Leppert, P. C. Anatomy and physiology of cervical ripening. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 38(2):267–279, 1995. Fuentes, A., and Williams, M. Cervical assessment. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 38(2):224–231, 1995. Bishop, E. H. Pelvic scoring for elective induction. Obstet. Gynecol. 24:266–268, 1964. Brien, W. F. Cervical ripening and labor induction. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 38(2):221–223, 1995. Shyken, J. M., and Petrie, R. H. Oxytocin to induce labor. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 38(2):232–245, 1995 Crall, D. H., and Mattison, D. R. Oxytocin pharmacodynamics: effect of long infusions on uterine activity. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 31:17–22, 1991. Krammer, J., and O’Brien, W. F. Mechanical methods of cervical ripening. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 38(2):280–286, 1995. Summers, L. Methods of cervical ripening and labor induction. J. Nurse-Midwifery 42(2):71–85, 1997. Mastrogiannis, D. S., and Knuppel, R. A. Labor induced using methods that do not involve oxytocin. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 38(2):259–266, 1995. Keirse, M., and de Koning, H. J. Randomized comparison of the effects of endocervical and

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

36.

37.

38.

39. 40.

41.

42.

43. 44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

732

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

Part IV Antepartal Care

vaginal prostaglandin E2 gel in women with various degrees of cervical ripeness. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 173:1859–1864, 1995. Hofmeyr, G. J., Alfirevic, Z., Kelly, T., et al. Methods for cervical ripening and labour induction in late pregnancy (Cochrane Protocol). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2000. Kramer, R. L., Gilson, G. J., Morrison, D. S., Martin, D., Gonzales, J. L., and Qualls, C. R. A randomized trial of misoprostol and oxytocin for induction of labor: safety and efficacy. Obstet. Gynecol. 89(3):387–391, 1997. Hilder, L., Costeloe, K., and Thilaganathan, B. Prolonged pregnancy: evaluating gestation-specific risks of fetal and infant mortality. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 105(2):169–173, 1998. Yeast, L. L., Jones, A., and Poskin, M. Induction of labor and the relationship to cesarean delivery: a review of 7001 consecutive inductions. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 180(3, pt. 1):628–633, 1999. Scollo, P. Epidemiology of cesarean sections: prolonged pregnancy. Clin. Exp. Obstet. Gynecol. 26(1):22–26, 1999. Seyb, S. T., Berka, R. J., Socol, M. L., et al. Risk of cesarean delivery with elective induction of labor at term in nulliparous women. Obstet. Gynecol. 94(4):600–607, 1999. Goeree, R., Hannah, M., Hewson, S. Cost-effectiveness of induction of labor versus serial antenatal monitoring in the Canadian Multicenter Postterm Pregnancy trial. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 152(9):1445–1450, 1995. Bors-Koefoed, R., Zylstra, S., Resseguie, L. J., et al. A cost analysis of ambulatory antenatal testing in a tertiary care center. J. Maternal Fetal Invest. 2(1):5–9, 1993. Rouse, D. I., Owen, J., Goldenberg, R. L., et al. The effectiveness and costs of elective cesarean delivery for fetal macrosomia diagnosed by ultrasound. JAMA 276(18):1480–1486, 1996. Crowley, P. Interventions for preventing or improving the outcome of delivery at or beyond term (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 2. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2000. Bramadat, I. J. Induction of labor: an integrated review. Health Care Women Int. 15:135–148, 1994. Day, M. L., and Snell, B. J. Use of prostaglandins for induction of labor. J. NurseMidwifery 38(2):42s–48s, 1993. Prysak, M., and Castronova, F. C. Elective induction versus spontaneous labor: a case-con-

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

trol analysis of safety and efficacy. Obstet. Gynecol. 92:47–52, 1998. Roberts, L., and Young, K. The management of prolonged pregnancy: an analysis of women’s attitudes before and after term. Br. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 98:1102–1106, 1991. Roberts, C. L., Taylor, L., and HendersonSmart, D. Trends in births at and beyond term: evidence of a change? Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 106(9):937–942, 1999. Sharma, J. B., Smith, R. J., and Wilkin, D. J. Induction of labour at term. Women not for waiting. Br. Med. J. 306(6889):1413, 1993. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice patterns. Management of Postterm Pregnancy. No. 6, October 1997. Washington, DC: ACOG, 1995. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Antepartum Fetal Surveillance. Practice Bulletin No. 4. Washington, DC: ACOG, 1999. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Induction and Augmentation of Labor. ACOG Technical Bulletin No. 217. Washington, DC: ACOG, 1995. Speert, H. Some physiologic trailblazers. In American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obstetrics and Gynecology in America: A History. Baltimore, MD: Waverly Press, 75:757–761, 1990. Hourvitz, A., Alcalay, M., Korach, J., et al. A prospective study of high versus low dose oxytocin for induction of labor. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 75(7):636–641, 1996. Center for Reviews and Dissemination Reviewers. Misoprostol for cervical ripening and labor induction: a meta-analysis. Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effectiveness, No. 1, 2000. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Induction of Labor with Misoprostol. Committee Opinion 228. Washington, DC: ACOG, 1999. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Response to Searle’s Drug Warning on Misoprostol. Committee Opinion 228. Washington, DC: ACOG, 2000. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Monitoring During Induction of Labor with Dinoprostone. Committee Opinion 209. Washington, DC: ACOG, 1998. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Induction of Labor. Practice Bulletin No. 10. Washington, DC: ACOG, 1999.

Chapter 25 Complications of Gestational Age Assessment and the Postdate Pregnancy

77. Wing, D. A. Labor induction with misoprostol. 78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 181:339–340, 1999. Wing, D. A., Jones, M. M., Rahall, A., et al. A comparison of misoprostol and prostaglandin E2 gel for preinduction cervical ripening and labor induction. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 172(6):1804–1810, 1995. Alfirevic, Z., Howarth, G., and Gaussmann, A. Oral misoprostol for induction of labor (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 2. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2000. Lumbiganon, P., Laopaiboon, M., Kuchaisit, C., et al. Oral prostaglandins (excluding misoprostol) for cervical ripening and labour induction when the baby is alive (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 3. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2000. Boulvain, M., and Irion, O. Stripping/sweeping the membranes for inducing labour or preventing post-term pregnancy (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 2. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2001. Boulvain, M., Irion, O., Marcoux, S., et al. Sweeping of the membranes to prevent postterm pregnancy and to induce labour: a systematic review. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 106(5):481–485, 1999. Berghella, V., Rogers, R. A., Lescale, K., et al. Stripping of membranes as a safe method to reduce prolonged pregnancies. Obstet. Gynecol. 87(6):927–931, 1996. Idrisa, A., Obisesan, K. A., and Adeleye, I. A. Fetal membrane sweeping for stimulation of labour in prolonged pregnancy: a controlled study. Obstet. Gynaecol. 13(4):235–237, 1993. Mercer, B. M., McNanley, T., O’Brien, J. M., Randal, L., and Sibai, B. M. Early versus late amniotomy for labor induction: a randomized trial. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 173:1321–1325, 1995. Busowski, J. D., and Parsons, M. T. Amniotomy to induce labor. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol. 38(2):246–258, 1995. Moldin, P. G., and Sundell, G. Induction of labour: a randomized clinical trial of amniotomy

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

733

versus amniotomy with oxytocin infusion. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 103:306–312, 1996 Kadar, N., Tapp, A., and Wong, A. The influence of nipple stimulation at term on the duration of pregnancy. J. Perinatol. 10(2): 164–166, 1990. Tal, Z., Frankel, Z. N., Ballas, S., et al. Breast electrostimulation for the induction of labor. Obstet. Gynecol. 72(4):671–674, 1988. Garry, D., Figueroa, R., Guillaume, I., et al. Use of castor oil in pregnancies at term. Alternative Therapies Health Med. 6(1):77–79, 2000. Davis, L. The use of castor oil to stimulate labor in patients with premature rupture of membranes. J. Nurse-Midwifery 29(6):366–370, 1984. Sherman, L. L., Frenkel, E., and Pansky, M. Balloon cervical ripening with extra-amniotic infusion of saline or prostaglandin E2: a double-blind, randomized controlled study. Obstet. Gynecol. 97930:375–380, 2001. Sciscione, A. C., Nguyen, L., Manley, J., et al. A randomized comparison of transcervical Foley catheter to intravaginal misoprostol for preinduction cervical ripening. Obstet. Gynecol. 97:603–607, 2001. Alexander, L., Kupferminc, M., and Dooley, S. L. A randomized trial of extra-amniotic saline infusion versus laminaria for cervical ripening. Obstet. Gynecol. 86:545–549, 1995. Chez, R. A., and Jonas, W. E. Complementary and alternative medicine. Part I: Clinical studies in obstetrics. Obstet. Gynecol. Surv. 52(11):704–708, 1997. Dove, D., and Johnson, P. Oral evening primrose oil: its effect on length of pregnancy and selected intrapartum outcomes in low-risk nulliparous women. J. Nurse-Midwifery 44(3):320–324, 1999. Smith, C. A., and Crowther, C. A. Acupuncture for induction of labour (Cochrane Review). In The Cochrane Library, Issue 1. Oxford, England: Update Software, 2001. American College of Nurse Midwives. Statement of philosophy. Washington, DC: ACNM, 1989.

This page intentionally left blank

Intrapartal Care

P A R T

V

This page intentionally left blank

C H A P T E R

26 The Normal First Stage of Labor to lightening as “the baby has dropped.” She will experience a decrease in the pregnancy discomfort of shortness of breath she has had during the third trimester because lightening will give her more room in the upper abdomen for lung expansion. However, lightening will cause other discomforts because of the pressure of the presenting part on structures in the area of the true pelvis. See parts C and D of Figure 21-2 (page 548). Specifically, she will have the following:

Labor comprises those processes that result in the expulsion of the products of conception by the mother. It begins with true labor contractions, as evidenced by progressive cervical change, and ends with the delivery of the placenta. The cause of the onset of spontaneous labor is not known, although a number of interesting theories have been advanced and health care professionals know how to induce labor under certain conditions. The first stage of labor is defined as beginning with true labor contractions as evidenced by progressive cervical change, and ending with the cervix completely dilated (10 centimeters). It is known as the stage of cervical dilatation.

1. Frequency of urination, because the bladder is

under pressure and has less room for expansion 2. An uncomfortable feeling of generalized pelvic

pressure, which may make her feel awkward and produces the constant sensation that something needs to come out or that a bowel movement is needed 3. Leg cramps, which may be caused by the pressure of the presenting part on the nerves that course through the greater sciatic foramen and lead to the legs 4. Increased venous stasis producing dependent edema because the pressure of the presenting part in the true pelvis inhibits blood return from the lower extremities

Signs and Symptoms of Impending Labor There are a number of premonitory signs and symptoms that may alert you to a woman’s approaching labor. A woman may exhibit any, all, or none of these, but it is useful to keep them in mind when seeing a woman late in her pregnancy so you can provide appropriate anticipatory counseling and guidance. The signs and symptoms of impending labor are lightening, cervical changes, false labor, premature rupture of membranes, bloody show, energy spurt, and gastrointestinal upsets.

Lightening lowers the height of the fundus to a position similar to that of the eighth month of pregnancy, and you are no longer able to ballotte the previously movable head of the baby above the symphysis pubis during abdominal palpation. Your examining fingers will now diverge rather than converge during the fourth step of Leopold’s maneuvers. Since lightening usually occurs prior to labor only in primigravidas, it is probably the result of the increasing intensity of the Braxton Hicks contrac-

Lightening Lightening, which occurs approximately 2 weeks before labor, is the descent of the presenting part of the baby into the true pelvis. The baby’s head, if there is a cephalic presentation, usually is fixed or engaged afterwards. The woman frequently refers

737

738

Part V Intrapartal Care

tions combined with the good abdominal muscle tone more common to primigravidas. Knowing that lightening has occurred is of value in being able to reassure the woman of the normality of the bodily changes she is experiencing and explain why they are occurring. Lightening also provides a good opportunity to review with the woman her plans for labor. Moreover it provides an indication of the adequacy of the pelvic inlet. Because the length of time between lightening and true labor varies with individuals, it is of little use in predicting the onset of labor except in a most generalized fashion of a few days to a couple of weeks. However, lightening tends to encourage the woman that the long-awaited end of pregnancy is in sight. Cervical Changes As labor approaches, the cervix becomes “ripe.” In contrast to its closed, long, soft state during pregnancy, it becomes still softer, with the consistency of pudding, and evidences some degree of effacement and perhaps slight dilatation. Evaluation of ripeness is relative to the individual woman and her parity— for example, during pregnancy a grand multipara’s cervix may normally be 2 centimeters dilated as opposed to a primigravida’s normally closed cervix. It is thought that these cervical changes are brought about by the increasing intensity of the Braxton Hicks contractions. A cervix may be ripe for a variable period of time prior to labor. Ripeness indicates a readiness of the cervix for labor. Determining ripeness allows the midwife to assure the woman that she will go into labor with the onset of labor contractions and that the time of labor is relatively close at hand. It also allows you to assess the probable success of an indicated induction of labor. False Labor False labor consists of painful uterine contractions that have no measurable progressive effect on the cervix. False labor contractions are in actuality an exaggeration of the usually painless Braxton Hicks contractions, which have been been occurring since about 6 weeks’ gestation. False labor may occur for days or intermittently even 3 or 4 weeks before the onset of true labor. False labor is genuinely painful, and a woman may lose sleep and energy coping with it. She has no way of knowing for sure whether she is in true labor since this can be determined only by vaginal exam-

ination. The intermittent recurrence of false labor and trips back and forth to your office or the hospital are exhausting and frustrating to the woman and her family. This situation calls for a great degree of understanding, patience, support, reassurance, and many explanations on the part of all personnel who see the woman during her trips to your office or the hospital. False labor, however, does indicate the approach of labor. Premature Rupture of Membranes Normally the membranes rupture by the end of the first stage of labor. Rupture before the onset of labor is called premature rupture of the membranes and occurs in about 12 percent of women. Approximately 80 percent of near-term women with premature rupture of membranes begin labor spontaneously within 24 hours (see Chapter 29). Bloody Show A mucus plug, created by cervical secretions from proliferation of the glands of the cervical mucosa early in pregnancy, serves as a protective barrier and closes the cervical canal throughout pregnancy (Figure 26-1). Bloody show is the expulsion of this mucus plug. Bloody show is most often seen as a tenacious, blood-tinged mucus discharge that must be carefully differentiated from frank bleeding. Women often refer to the discharge as “seeing the sign.” Occasionally the entire mucus plug is expelled en masse; if the plug is expelled during labor and can be seen extruding from the woman’s vagina, inex-

FIGURE 26-1 Cervix in pregnancy. Note the elaboration of the mucosa into a honeycomblike structure, the meshes of which are filled with a tenacious mucus (the mucus plug). Source: From Pritchard, J. A., and MacDonald, P. C. Williams Obstetrics, 15th ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Croft, 1976. Reproduced by permission.

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

perienced obstetrical personnel may think the umbilical cord has prolapsed. More commonly it is expelled over 1 to 2 days. Bloody show is a sign of imminent labor, which usually takes place within 24 to 48 hours. However, bloody show is of no value as a sign of labor if a vaginal examination has been done within the past 48 hours, because a blood-tinged mucus discharge during this time may be only the effect of minor trauma to or disruption of the mucus plug during the examination. Energy Spurt Many women experience an energy spurt approximately 24 to 48 hours before the onset of labor. After days or weeks of feeling physically tired and tired of being pregnant, they get up one day to find themselves full of energy and vigor. Typically these women feel energetic for a period of a few hours, during which they do things like clean the house, wash and iron curtains, scrub floors, cook and freeze food, and perform a variety of other household tasks that they either have not had the energy to do or now feel the need to do before the baby’s arrival. Consequently they enter labor exhausted and often have long, difficult labors. There is no known explanation for this energy spurt other than it is nature’s way of giving a woman the energy she needs for the work of labor. Women should be informed of the possibility of their having this energy spurt and advised to deliberately refrain from expending it and instead to conserve it for use during labor. Gastrointestinal Upsets In the absence of any causative factors for the occurrence of diarrhea, indigestion, nausea, and vomiting, it is thought they might be indicative of impending labor although no explanation for this is known. Some women experience one or more of these signs.

Database for the First Stage of Labor Components of the data base for determining the well-being of the mother and the fetus during the first stage of labor are as follows: 1. Continuing evaluation of any significant find-

ings from the history, physical and pelvic examinations, and laboratory work done during the initial evaluation of the mother and fetus in labor

739

2. Evaluation of the progress of labor 3. Evaluation of the woman’s behavior and her re-

sponse to labor and her significant others 4. Continuing evaluation of the normality of the

fetal presentation, position, and variety and fetal adaptation to the pelvis 5. Evaluation of the fetal heart tones (see Chapter 27) 6. Evaluation of maternal physiologic changes 7. Continued screening for signs and symptoms of obstetrical complications and nonreassurance of fetal well-being (see Chapters 27, 29, and 30) In order to evaluate any of the components of the database, the midwife must know what the parameters of normal are for each of the specific pieces of information obtained for each component. Contractions Labor itself is an intricate interplay of physiologic and psychologic forces within the woman and the effect of these forces on the process of birth and on the baby. These forces result in the birth of the baby. The primary physiologic force during labor is that of uterine contractions. It is impossible to understand and evaluate labor progress, to understand the discomforts and pain of labor, to devise comfort measures, or to be aware of complications without a thorough comprehension of uterine contractions and their action. The uterine contractions of labor are unique as the only painful physiologic muscular contractions in the body. Furthermore, these contractions are involuntary, as they are under intrinsic nervous control. This means that the woman has no physiologic control over the frequency and duration of these contractions, because they are not regulated by any extrauterine neural process. Every midwife, however, can recount situations in which a woman’s psychological forces were such as to temporarily forestall or stop labor. Uterine contractions are intermittent, providing for a period of uterine relaxation between contractions. These periods of relaxation between contractions serve the following essential functions: 1. Provide rest to the uterine muscle 2. Provide rest to the woman 3. Maintain the welfare of the baby, since uterine

contractions constrict the placental blood vessels The duration of a uterine contraction varies considerably, depending on where the woman is in her labor. The contractions of active labor last from

740

Part V Intrapartal Care

45 to 90 seconds with an average of 60 seconds. In early labor the contractions may be only 15 to 20 seconds in duration. The frequency of contractions is determined by measuring the time from the beginning of one contraction to the beginning of the next contraction. The duration of the contraction is also noted; subtracting the duration from the frequency gives the length of the period of relaxation. For example, a woman who begins contractions at 5:05, 5:10, 5:15, 5:20, and 5:25, each lasting 60 seconds, is having contractions with a frequency of every 5 minutes and a duration of 60 seconds. The period of relaxation of 4 minutes between the end of one contraction and the beginning of the next is more than adequate for the welfare of baby, mother, and uterine muscle. An absolute critical point is reached when the contractions are more frequent than every 2 minutes and have durations longer than 90 seconds, because this does not allow for sufficient relaxation time. While more frequent contractions with longer durations beyond this critical point do not occur with normal spontaneous labor, they must be closely guarded against during pitocin induction or augmentation of labor. In evaluating the frequency and intensity of uterine contractions, it is important to know that each contraction has three phases: increment, acme, and decrement. The increment phase is longer than the other two phases combined. With experience, you can feel an oncoming contraction with your hand before the woman can feel it. Conversely, the woman may feel the contraction for several to many seconds after you no longer feel it with your hand. What the woman is feeling may be the aftermath of the pain just experienced. When you consider, in addition, the extreme variations in individual pain thresholds, it becomes apparent that to time contractions on the basis of the woman’s vocal or behavioral manifestations of pain is most inaccurate. This holds true also for evaluating the intensity of a contraction. A frightened woman who is unknowledgeable about what is happening to her and unprepared in the relaxation and breathing techniques that can help her cope with her contractions may cry out in pain and thrash about in her bed with the mildest of contractions. Conversely, the woman who has been prepared for her childbearing experience and is supported by her significant other or a professional prepared in labor support, or the woman who is a stoic, may never evince loss of control or cry out even with the most severe contractions. Intensity, therefore, can be evaluated only by

the indentability of the uterine wall by your fingers during the acme of the contraction or by the intrauterine pressure catheter of a fetal monitor. During a good, effective labor contraction, the uterine wall cannot be digitally indented and reaches a uterine pressure of more than 40 mm of mercury during the acme of the contraction. Contractions must be evaluated not only for frequency, duration, and intensity but also for the interplay of the three factors. Generally speaking, uterine contractions start as infrequent or irregular contractions (e.g., every 20 to 30 minutes) of short duration (15 to 20 seconds) and mild intensity; become more frequent, longer, and more intense as labor progresses; and are usually every 2 to 3 minutes, lasting 60 to 90 seconds, and of severe intensity by the end of the first stage of labor. However, there are infrequent variations of this pattern that also result in birth of the baby. If a woman starts with contractions with a frequency of every 5 minutes, lasting 60 seconds, and of moderately hard intensity, don’t expect them to become irregular, of short duration, and mild intensity before becoming more frequent, longer, and harder—unless she develops uterine dysfunction. Also, women have been known to deliver babies with 5- to 7- minute contractions lasting 30 to 40 seconds and of mild to moderate intensity. Normal uterine contractions also follow another pattern, known as the normal gradient pattern. This term refers to synchronous activity of the uterine muscle that causes a contraction to be stronger and longer in the fundal portion of the uterus, decreasing in the midportion, and minimal to nonexistent toward the cervix. This pattern is essential to dilatation of the cervix. The effect of contractions on the uterus is to differentiate it into two zones (Figure 26-2): (1) the upper, contracting zone, which thickens and expels the baby during labor, and (2) the lower passive zone, composed of the isthmus of the uterus (known during labor as the lower uterine segment) and the cervix. The lower zone does not contract but thins out into an expanded muscular tube through which the baby can pass. Differentiation of the uterus into two zones is accomplished through a mechanism of contraction in which the muscle does not return to its original length in the upper zone during relaxation, but stays relatively fixed at a shorter length. The upper zone is thus kept in constant contact with the intrauterine contents, and the uterine cavity becomes progressively smaller with each successive contraction. In order for this to occur, the uterine contents must decrease in volume in the upper zone, which is

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

741

FIGURE 26-2 Sequence of development of the segments and rings in the uterus in pregnant women at term and in labor. Note comparison between the uterus of a nonpregnant woman, the uterus at term, and the uterus during labor. The passive lower segment of the uterine body is derived from the isthmus; the physiological retraction ring develops at the junction of the upper and lower uterine segments. The pathological retraction ring develops from the physiological ring. Anat. Int. Os = anatomical internal os; Hist. Int. Os = histological internal os; PH.R.R. = physiological retraction ring; E.O. = external os. Source: From Cunningham, F. Gary, Gant, Norman F., Leveno, Kenneth J., Gilstrap, Larry C. III, Hauth, John C., Wenstrom, Katherine D. Williams Obstetrics, 21st Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001. Reproduced with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies.

accomplished by expansion of the musculature of the lower zone so that more of the intrauterine contents can distend its walls. The muscle fibers of the lower zone lengthen under the influence of upper-zone contractions and do not return to their shorter length during relaxation but remain relatively fixed at a longer length. The changes in the two zones complement each other: The upper zone thickens only to the extent that the lower zone expands and thins. If the uterus were to contract equally all over rather than in its normal gradient pattern, nothing would be accomplished. If the lower zone were to contract more than the upper zone, labor would be dysfunctional and cervical dilatation would not occur. Contractions have the additional effect of elongating the uterine ovoid by an estimated 5 to 10 centimeters with a corresponding decrease in the horizontal plane. This has the effect of straightening the fetal vertebral column, thereby bringing the upper pole of the fetus in solid direct contact with the contracting uterine fundus while the lower pole is directed downward and pushed into the pelvis. Known as fetal axis pressure, this also results in the exertion of pressure against the cervix and lower uterine segment, thereby additionally affecting cervical effacement and dilatation. Effacement and Dilatation Effacement and dilatation are the direct result of the contractions as described above. Effacement is the shortening of the cervical canal from its usual length of 2 to 3 centimeters to

the point where the cervical canal is obliterated, leaving only the external os as a circular orifice with thin edges. This shortening results from the lengthening of the muscular fibers around the internal os as they are taken up into the lower uterine segment. Effacement is facilitated by the cleftlike arrangement of the endocervix, which in effect unfolds like an accordion as it is stretched and taken up to become part of the lower uterine segment. The process of effacement is also facilitated by and is the cause of expulsion of the mucus plug. Effacement is clinically evaluated in terms of percentages, with no effacement being 0 percent and complete effacement being 100 percent. Dilatation is the enlargement of the external cervical os from an orifice of a few millimeters in diameter to an opening large enough for the baby to pass through. In addition to the primary action of the contractions, dilatation is facilitated by the hydrostatic action of the amniotic fluid under the influence of the contractions, which causes the membranes to serve as a dilating wedge in the area of least resistance in the uterus. Although intact membranes enable this hydrostatic action of the amniotic fluid and provide the most effective dilating wedge, if the membranes have ruptured, the pressure of the presenting part on the cervix and the lower uterine segment can also have a dilating effect depending on the presenting part and its position in relation to the cervix. Dilatation is clinically evaluated by measuring the diameter of the cervical opening in centimeters, with 0 centimeters being a closed external cervical

742

Part V Intrapartal Care

os and 10 centimeters being complete dilatation. The magic number of 10 centimeters is based on the fact that the suboccipital-bregmatic diameter of the fetal head, which is the widest diameter of the flexed head in the normal mechanisms of labor, is approximately 9.5 centimeters at term. Initial effacement and dilatation vary between a primigravida and a multigravida entering labor. A primigravida’s cervix is frequently 50 to 60 percent effaced and a fingertip to 1 centimeter dilated prior to labor as the result of the Braxton Hicks contractions before labor begins. Such early effacement and dilatation are part of the cervical changes that contribute to the “ripeness” of the cervix as a premonitory sign of labor. Progressive cervical change in a primigravida in labor is generally sequential, then simultaneous, with 50 to 100 percent effacement occurring first, followed by a combination of any remaining effacement and dilatation. A primigravida with a paper-thin cervix is on the verge of active labor. The cervix of a multigravida entering labor is frequently 1 to 2 centimeters dilated (or more, depending on parity) with little to no effacement. You can develop clinical judgment in your fingers for assessing centimeters of dilatation not only by practicing on cervical effacement and dilatation models but also by running your fingers around the edge of and across any circular object with which you come into contact (e.g., drinking glasses, telephone receivers, cups, vases, flat circular knobs on

machines), estimating its diameter in centimeters, and then checking its actual measurement with a centimeter measuring tape or ruler. Because it is difficult at times to distinguish between true and false labor contractions, the only indicator that enables one to diagnose labor accurately is progressive cervical change—that is, cervical effacement and dilatation. All information concerning the contractions, location of pain, and the premonitory signs of labor is useful in differentiating between early labor and false labor but is diagnostically adjunctive to assessment of the cervix. Station Station is the relationship of the lowermost part of the presenting part to an imaginary line drawn between the ischial spines of the woman’s pelvis. The lowermost part of the presenting part at the level of the ischial spines is called 0 station. Station is measured in terms of centimeters above or below the level of the ischial spines, with above being designated as –1, –2, –3, –4, and –5 station and below being designated as +1, +2, +3, +4, and +5 station. A –5 station is equivalent to a floating head and a +5 station is equivalent to a head at the vaginal orifice (see Figure 26-3). Frequently, a description of 0 station is given inaccurately as a definition of engagement. The reason

FIGURE 26-3 Station, or level of descent, of the head of the fetus through the pelvis. The location of the forward leading edge (lowest part of the head) is designated in centimeters above or below the plane of the interspinous line. Source: From Greenhill, J. P., and Friedman, E. A. Biological Principles and Modern Practice of Obstetrics. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1974. Reproduced by permission.

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

for this error is that, generally speaking, when the head is engaged the lowermost part of the presenting part is at the level of the ischial spines, because the distance from the pelvic inlet to the ischial spines is usually 5 centimeters and the distance from the biparietal diameter of the full-term fetal head to the occiput is 41/2 centimeters. This is not always true, however, inasmuch as pelvic structure varies with the individual woman and the size of the fetal head may alter this finding. For example, a preterm infant of 34 weeks’ gestation may well have its head engaged and be at a –1 station. Remember that engagement is defined as the point when the widest diameter of the presenting part (which, in a cephalic occipital presentation, is the biparietal diameter) has passed through the pelvic inlet. Station is at times difficult to ascertain if there has been considerable molding of the fetal skull and development of caput succedaneum. In a cephalic presentation, the actual lowermost part of the presenting part, which is the skull bones, may be a centimeter or so higher than the caput, which is what your fingers are feeling. This is important to remember if you are concerned about the adequacy of the midpelvis and are using station as an indication that the fetal head has maneuvered this portion of the pelvis. Status of Membranes Determination of whether the membranes have ruptured is essential and at times difficult. (See also Chapter 29.) This diagnosis is made difficult by a hazy history, false-positive results on the nitrazine paper test, and the fact that the membranes may have a high leak that has sealed over as a result of the pressure of the presenting part against the cervix and lower uterine segment. When a woman gives a history suggestive of ruptured membranes and she is not in active labor, a sterile speculum examination is indicated to observe the cervix for escaping amniotic fluid. Some clinicians believe a nitrazine test is also indicated. The nitrazine paper test is based on the fact that the usually dark yellow paper turns blue-green to deep blue when moistened with a substance with an alkaline pH. The pH of amniotic fluid is an alkaline 7.0 to 7.5. Unfortunately, blood, cervical mucus, and secretions produced by certain vaginal infections (bacterial vaginosis; trichomoniasis) are also alkaline and, if present, these may invalidate the test for rupture of the membranes. A nitrazine test is properly performed during the sterile speculum examination but not by hold-

743

ing a strip of nitrazine paper between gloved fingers and inserting them in the vagina or by clamping a strip of nitrazine paper with a ring forceps and placing it at the cervical os. Remember that the nitrazine paper is not sterile. The chance of an invalid nitrazine test is reduced, and sterility is maintained, by obtaining a specimen during the sterile speculum examination with a sterile cotton-tipped applicator in a pool of fluid in the posterior vaginal fornix, avoiding all structures while withdrawing the specimen, and then touching it to the nitrazine paper. (The emphasis on sterility is to reduce the chance of infection in the event the membranes are ruptured, especially if there is no labor.) However, the specimen is obtained from the same area where extrusion of the mucus plug occurs, and some minute bleeding accompanies its disruption. Also, it is possible for the collecting device to rub against the membranes, which would render the resulting positive nitrazine test invalid. An alternative method is to press a strip of nitrazine paper against the inside of the lower blade of the speculum after withdrawing the speculum from the vagina. Although the nitrazine test can be a helpful adjunct, it should not be relied on for making a definitive diagnosis of ruptured membranes. A specimen from the vaginal pool, if present, can be used for doing a fern test for detecting amniotic fluid in the secretions. This test is based on a fernlike crystallization of the sodium chloride in amniotic fluid, which can be observed microscopically when the specimen is dried (see Figure 29-1 on page 864). However, a moderate amount of bloody show or vaginal or cervical secretions caused by an infection can interfere with this test, rendering it invalid. Digital examination for rupture of the membranes is most helpful, especially if speculum findings are inconclusive and you are not concerned with premature rupture of the membranes and the development of chorioamnionitis. If you cannot easily feel the membranes bulging over the presenting part, it is helpful either to have the woman bear down or to apply fundal pressure, which may cause the membranes to bulge if they are there. Membranes in close contact with a head feel smooth and slick to the touch in contrast with the slightly irregular and comparatively more coarse feel of hair. A digital examination is not necessary for diagnosing ruptured membranes if findings during the speculum examination are definitive. Diagnosis is definitive for ruptured membranes (1) when you see amniotic fluid escaping from the cervical os and pooled in the vaginal vault during

744

Part V Intrapartal Care

speculum examination or (2) when you cannot feel the membranes over the presenting part at the cervical orifice. When you feel the membranes bulging against your examining fingers during vaginal examination of the cervix, other possibilities must be considered, including (1) unruptured membranes, (2) a high leak that is occluded by pressure from the presenting part, or (3) escape of fluid trapped between the membranes with rupture of the chorion only, and not the amnion. Progress of Labor The first stage of labor is divided into two sequential phases: latent and active. Midwives have long described a transitional phase of labor late in the active phase from approximately 8 to 10 centimeters of dilatation [1]. In 1955, Friedman [2] depicted the progress of labor as a sigmoid curve and subdivided the active phase into three sequential phases: acceleration, maximum slope, and deceleration. In 1970 Philpott and Castle [3] developed the partogram that described the active phases of labor as progressing in a straight line. Likewise, the work of Kilpatrick and Laros in 1989 [4] and of Albers, Schiff, and Gorwoda in 1996 [5] does not delineate subdivided phases within the active phase of labor when discussing the length of labor. This chapter provides the average length of time for the first stage of labor or cervical dilatation rate ascertained by these different authors and cites both the most recent data published by Albers in 1999 [6] and the long established limits dictated by the Friedman graph, which is widely used in obstetrics in the United States. The later data support the concept that normal labor may last longer than is generally acknowledged based on the Friedman curve. It is critically essential that the midwife not consider deviation from the Friedman curve as abnormal but as a signal that this woman needs to be carefully and comprehensively evaluated to assess whether she and her fetus indeed are still within the realm of normal and will remain so over time. The operative word is progress. If there is not progress in one area (e.g., dilatation), is there progress in another area (e.g., descent, working through any psychologic obstacle)? Is the progress sufficient for continuing maternal and fetal well-being? Each phase of labor is characterized by measurable physical changes and by psychological changes. The physical changes are used to evaluate progress in labor; the psychological changes are used to estimate where a woman is within a phase

of labor without resorting to a vaginal examination and to guide the midwife in devising appropriate support and comfort measures. Latent Phase The latent phase covers the period of time from the beginning of labor to the point when dilatation begins to progress actively. This generally is from the onset of regular contractions to 3 to 4 centimeters dilatation or to the beginning of the active phase. Little to no descent of the presenting part occurs during the latent phase. Contractions become established during the latent phase as they increase in frequency, duration, and intensity—from occurring every 10 to 20 minutes, lasting 15 to 20 seconds and being of mild intensity to contractions of moderate intensity (averaging 40 mm Hg at their acme from a baseline uterine tonus of 10 mm Hg) occurring approximately every 5 to 7 minutes and lasting 30 to 40 seconds. Accurate measurement of the length of the latent phase of the first stage of labor is impossible for a number of reasons: (1) the difficulty of differential diagnosis between latent phase and false labor, (2) not being able to objectively quantify the start of the latent phase and thereby having to rely on a report by the woman or whoever is with her as to when she became aware of her contractions and when they became “regular,” and (3) variations between women on cervical ripeness at the onset of labor. Vaginal examination during this period of time documents cervical changes, expecially effacement in primigravidas, and beginning dilatation. Usually during the latent phase of labor the woman experiences a mixture of emotions: she is excited, happy, and relieved that the end of pregnancy has come and the long period of waiting has ended, but she feels a sense of anticipation and some apprehension about what is yet to come. Generally, she is not too uncomfortable and copes well with her situation. However, for a woman who has had no preparation regarding what to expect, the latent phase of labor may be a time when she cries out as much in fear as with pain with the mildest contractions and does not seem able to cope until with increased frequency and intensity of the contractions it becomes obvious to her that she really is in labor. Often this coincides with entry into the active phase of labor and admission to the labor and birth unit, which she may perceive as a source of security and help—all of which will enable her to be less frightened and better able to cope. For a women who has been suffering from the general miseries of the end of pregnancy and false labor, the emotional response

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

to the latent phase of labor is at times dramatic: relief, relaxation, and increased coping ability regardless of the planned locale of birth. Even though tired, she knows she is at last actually in labor and what she is now experiencing is productive. Active Phase The active phase covers the period of time from the start of active progression of dilatation to the completion of dilatation and includes the transitional phase. This is generally from 3 to 4 centimeters (or the end of the latent phase) to 10 centimeters dilatation (or the end of the first stage of labor). Progressive descent of the presenting part occurs during the latter part of the active phase and during second stage. Contractions during the active phase become increasingly frequent, of longer duration, and of greater intensity. Effective contractions are those that have a normal triple gradient pattern, reach a uterine pressure of 40 to 50 millimeters of mercury during the acme of the contraction, and return to a resting uterine tonus of 10 millimeters of mercury. By the end of the active phase, contractions are usually coming every 2 to 3 minutes, lasting around 60 seconds, and reaching firm intensity (more than 40 mm Hg) with an average of about 55 millimeters of mercury. According to Freidman [7], the acceleration phase starts the active phase of labor and leads into the phase of maximum slope. The phase of maximum slope is the time when cervical dilatation is occurring most rapidly and increasing from 3 to 4 centimeters to about 8 centimeters. Normally the rate of dilatation is constant, averaging 3 centimeters per hour, with a minimum rate of not less than 1.2 centimeters per hour in nulliparas. In multiparas, the average rate of dilatation during the phase of maximum slope is 5.7 centimeters per hour, with a minimum rate of 1.5 centimeters per hour. The deceleration phase is the end of the active phase, during which the rate of dilatation slows and the cervix reaches a dilatation of from 8 to 10 centimeters while descent reaches its maximum rate. The average maximum rate of descent in nulliparas is 1.6 centimeters per hour and normally at least 1.0 centimeters per hour. In multiparas, the rate of descent averages 5.4 centimeters per hour, with a minimum rate of 2.1 centimeters per hour. Philpott and Castle [3] developed a single straight Alert Line based on a rate of 1 cm per hour for primigravidas, which they considered an acceptable limit in defining progress. They then established an Action Line that parallels the Alert Line, only it is 4 hours later. This arbitrarily chosen time was se-

745

lected as sufficient time, once a woman crossed the Alert Line, for her to transfer from rural areas in Rhodesia, Africa, to a central unit where interventions could be made. In their study of 624 consecutive primigravid patients published in 1972, 438 (70 percent) delivered inside the Alert Line and half of the remaining group delivered normally (without oxytocic stimulation or cesarean section) within the 4 hours between the Alert Line and the Action Line. Kilpatrick and Laros [4] determined a statistically significant difference in the length of the first stage of labor dependent on whether conduction anesthesia was used (see Table 28-1). The first stage of labor for nulliparas averaged 8.1 hours without conduction anesthesia and 10.2 hours with conduction anesthesia; multiparas averaged 5.7 hours without conduction anesthesia and 7.4 hours with conduction anesthesia. Perl and Hunter [8] found that of 505 consecutive singleton labors without a protocol in place for “slow” cervical dilatation, 105 progressed at an overall cervical dilatation rate of less than 1 centimeter per hour but that only those progressing at less than 0.5 centimeter per hour had a significant increase in cesarean sections. A study published in 1996 by Albers, Schiff, and Gorwoda [5] of 1473 low-risk women without either oxytocin or conduction anesthesia determined an average length of first stage labor as 7.7 hours for nulliparas and 5.7 hours for multiparas. A later study published by Albers in 1999 [6] of 2511 women without either oxytocin or conduction anesthesia found a mean length of first stage labor of 7.7 hours for nulliparas and 5.6 hours for multiparas. Concurring with others who raise the question of reassessing the length and definition of normal labor, Albers recommends that 0.5 centimeter per hour in the absence of other problems or symptoms be considered within the normal limits of progress for the first stage of labor. Tables 26-1 and 26-2 show the average and upper limit of normal active labor for nulliparas and multiparas, respectively, in four comparable studies [2, 4–6, 9, 10]. As labor progresses through the active phase, the woman may become increasingly apprehensive. As the contractions become harder, last longer, and occur more often, it becomes apparent to her that she cannot control them. With this realization she becomes more serious. She wants someone with her, as she is frightened of being left alone and of being unable to cope with the contractions. She experiences a number of ill-defined doubts and fears. She can tell you she is scared but is unable to tell you what she is scared of.

746

Part V Intrapartal Care

TABLE 26-1

Average and Upper Limit Length of Normal Active Labor for Nulliparas Mean Upper Limita (hours) (hours)

Author Friedman (1956; 1967) (Measured from 3–4 cm to 10 cm)

4.9

11.7

Kilpatrick and Laros (1989) (Measured from regular, painful contractions q 3–5 min by history to 10 cm) No conduction anesthesia 8.1 With conduction anesthesiab 10.2

16.6 19.0

Albers, Schiff, and Gorwoda (1996) (Measured from 4 cm to 10 cm)

7.7

19.4

Albers (1999) (Measured from 4 cm to 10 cm)

7.7

17.5

a b

Mean plus two standard deviations (95th percentile) Conduction anesthesia: 95% epidurals; 5% saddle blocks

TABLE 26-2

Average and Upper Limit Length of Normal Active Labor for Multiparas

Author Friedman (1956; 1967) (Measured from 3–4 cm to 10 cm)

Mean Upper Limita (hours) (hours) 2.2

5.2

Kilpatrick and Laros (1989) (Measured from regular, painful contractions q 3–5 min by history to 10 cm) No conduction anesthesia 5.7 With conduction anesthesiab 7.4

12.5 14.9

Albers, Schiff, and Gorwoda (1996) 5.7 (Measured from 4 cm to 10 cm)

13.7

Albers (1999) 5.6 (Measured from 4 cm to 10 cm)

13.8

a b

Mean plus two standard deviations (95th percentile) Conduction anesthesia: 95% epidurals; 5% saddle blocks

There are other observations you can make that indicate the woman’s progress in labor. These are based on the fact that descent of the fetus in the pelvis changes the location of findings elaborated from the fetus. The low back pain a woman experiences is caused by the pressure of the fetal head against her spine. This is not a generalized pain but rather pain that the woman can precisely pinpoint

for you. As the baby descends, the location of this back pain correspondingly moves down her lower spine. Also, the location of the fetal heart tones moves lower in her abdomen as descent occurs. During the transitional phase, the woman is ending the first stage of labor as she nears and prepares for the second stage of labor. A large number of signs and symptoms, including behavior changes, have been identified as indicative of this transition. The signs and symptoms are listed below; those occurring late in the transitional phase are known as the signs of impending second stage and are marked with an asterisk (*).

Transitional Phase

Beads of perspiration on the upper lip or brow Shaking legs Chattering teeth Cramps in the buttocks, thighs, or calves Hiccupping Belching and burping Thirst Anorexia Nausea and possibly vomiting Inability to breathe abdominally Irritable abdomen—increased tenderness to touch over the abdomen and back Marked restlessness Natural amnesia between contractions—appears exhausted and is difficult to rouse Difficulty in readily comprehending directions Contractions every 11/2 to 2 minutes, lasting 60 to 90 seconds, of severe intensity; seem almost continuous and are quite painful Toes curl with contractions Generalized discomfort Doesn’t want to be touched Bewildered, frustrated, and exasperated by the severity of the contractions Severe low backache Marked decrease in the sense of modesty Unable to cope with the contractions if left alone Irritable behavior Pulling or stretching sensation deep in the pelvis Rejection of those about her Quite apprehensive *Increase in bloody show *Rectal pressure, feeling of having to have a bowel movement, repeated requests for a bedpan or to go to the bathroom *Uncontrollable desire to bear down *Membranes rupture

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

(a)

(b)

747

(c)

FIGURE 26-4 Lies: (a) longitudinal; (b) transverse; (c) oblique.

*Rectal and perineal bulging and flattening *Expulsive grunt upon exhalation

breech presentations are further subdivided. A cephalic presentation can be either vertex, sincipital, brow, or face. A breech presentation can be either frank, full/complete, or footling (single or double). The attitude of the fetus is its characteristic posture. This is determined by the relationship of the fetal parts to each other and the effect this has on the fetal vertebral column. The attitude of the fetus varies according to its presentation. For example, a fetus in a vertex presentation has a well-flexed head, flexion of the extremities over the thorax and abdomen, and a convex curved back; the ramrod straight attitude of a fetus with a sinciput presentation has given it the name of a military attitude; and a fetus with a face presentation has a head that is acutely extended, flexion of the extremities on the thorax and abdomen, and a vertebral column that is arched to some degree (Figure 26-5). Position is the arbitrarily chosen point on the fetus for each presentation in relation to the left or right side of the mother’s pelvis. These are shown in Table 26-3. Position is commonly used to refer to the designations of left occipital anterior (LOA), right sacral transverse (RST), and so forth, and one of these is

Usually a woman exhibits a combination of several of these signs and symptoms during transition. It is not uncommon for a woman to exhibit all or nearly all of these signs and symptoms, particularly if she is a primigravida who has not had the benefits of preparation from childbearing classes.

Fetal Components Lie, Presentation, Position, and Variety Determination of the lie, presentation, position, and variety of the fetus is essential database information. These determinations require an understanding of the words used and of the anatomical landmarks of the fetal skull in relation to the maternal pelvis. Lie is the relationship of the long axis of the fetus to the long axis of the mother. There are three possible lies: longitudinal, transverse, and oblique (Figure 26-4). Presentation is determined by the presenting part, which is the first portion of the fetus to enter the pelvic inlet. There are three possible presentations: cephalic, breech, and shoulder. Cephalic and

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

FIGURE 26-5 Attitude of the fetus in (a) vertex, (b) sinciput, (c) brow, and (d) face presentations.

748

Part V Intrapartal Care

TABLE 26-3

Possible Fetal Relationships to the Maternal Pelvis for Each Lie and Presentation

Lie

Presentation

Arbitrarily Chosen Point on the Fetus

Longitudinal

Cephalic Vertex

Occiput

Sinciput Brow Face

Breech Frank

Transverse

Oblique

Sinciput (bregma, anterior fontanel) Brow Mentum (chin)

Designation for Position (left or right side) and Variety (anterior, transverse, or posterior portion of the mother’s pelvis) ROA LOA ROT LOT ROP LOP Sinciput and brow presentations usually convert to either a vertex or a face presentation. RMA RMT RMP

LMA LMT LMP

Sacrum

RSA LSA RST LST RSP LSP Full/Complete Sacrum Same as frank presentation Footling Sacrum Same as frank presentation Shoulder Acromion RAA LAA RAP LAP A transverse variety is not possible. With an oblique lie, the midwife will feel nothing at the inlet. There is no presentation, position, or variety associated with an oblique lie, which is usually a transitory condition.

the expected answer to the question “What is the position?” Technically such designations are not accurate, but they serve as shorthand, since such a designation gives not only the position and variety but also the lie and presentation. For example, the designation LOA tells you that the lie is longitudinal, the presentation is vertex, the position is the occiput in the left side of the mother’s pelvis, and the variety is the occiput in the anterior portion of the pelvis. Variety is the same arbitrarily chosen point on the fetus used in defining position in relation to the anterior, transverse, or posterior portion of the pelvis. Table 26-3 summarizes the possibilities. Transverse and oblique lies in labor are abnormal conditions. They require collaboration with your consulting physician and will most likely necessitate cesarean section. Approximately 0.5 percent of women enter labor with a shoulder presentation. Of the presentations associated with a longitudinal lie, the most common is the vertex cephalic presentation. It has an incidence of approximately 95 percent. Of these, approximately two-thirds will be positioned with the occiput in the left side of the mother’s pelvis (LOA, LOT, LOP) and one-third

with the occiput in the right side of the mother’s pelvis (ROA, ROT, ROP). Because the head usually enters the inlet with the occiput directed to the transverse portion of the mother’s pelvis, the most common position at the onset of labor is left occiput transverse (LOT). Figures 26-6 and 26-7 show left occipital positions.

FIGURE 26-6 Left occiput transverse (LOT).

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 26-7 Varieties of the cephalic left occipital position, view from below. (a) left occipital anterior (LOA); (b) left occipital transverse (LOT); (c) left occipital posterior (LOP).

Approximately 3.0 to 3.5 percent of women enter labor with a breech presentation and 0.5 percent with a face presentation. The midwife collaborates with a physician in the management of women with a breech or face presentation. (See Chapter 30.) It is thought that the reason the vast majority of presentations are cephalic at term is the interrelationship between the decreased amount of amniotic fluid and the piriform shape of the uterus, with the roomier portion being in the fundus. Although the breech of the fetus (podalic pole) is smaller than the fetal head (cephalic pole), the combination of the breech and the flexed lower extremities is bulkier, because the flexed upper extremities are not as close to the head as the lower extremities are to the breech. Prior to the thirty-second week of pregnancy, the bulkiness of the poles of the fetus is not a factor in fetal presentation because the amniotic cavity is large in relation to the total fetal mass. The incidence of breech presentation at this time may be as high as 50 percent. After the thirty-second week, the combination of fetal growth and the decrease in amniotic fluid causes the fetus to be constrained by the uterine walls. The fetus thus accommodates itself to the shape of the uterus so that the majority of the earlier breech presentations spontaneously convert to vertex presentations by term. Those that do not convert spontaneously may be responding to abnormal uterine shape, extension of the fetal vertebral column, placenta previa, hydrocephaly, or unknown influences. Hydrocephaly must be ruled out, because this condition makes the cephalic pole bulkier than the podalic pole. Accommodation by

749

the hydrocephalic fetus puts the larger cephalic pole in the fundus and accounts for the high incidence of breech presentation when the fetus is hydrocephalic. Vaginal examination during labor after the cervix has begun to dilate is invaluable for confirming abdominal findings as well as enabling more definitive diagnoses regarding the fetal presentation, position, and variety. This is because you will be able to feel the fetal suture lines and fontanels, or portions of the fetal face, or portions of the fetal breech or external genitalia, or the fetal extremities (hands or feet). Since the cephalic vertex presentations are by far the most common, it is vital to be well versed in the essential landmarks of the fetal skull as indicated in Table 26-4 and Figure 26-8. Position and variety of the vertex presentation, therefore, are determined vaginally by feeling the anterior or posterior fontanel (its shape and the sutures leading off the fontanel) and identifying which fontanel is in which side and portion of the maternal pelvis. In order to identify which part of the fetal skull you are feeling, it helps to remember that the sagittal suture is the only suture that has the anterior fontanel at one end and the posterior fontanel at the other end. Vaginal examination during labor also provides other information regarding the adaptation of the fetus to the pelvis, specifically, the synclitism or asynclitism of the fetal head and the extent of any molding and caput succedaneum.

Adaptation to the Pelvis

Synclitism/Asynclitism. Synclitism and asynclitism are

terms to describe the relationship of the sagittal suture of the fetal head to the symphysis pubis and the sacrum of the mother’s pelvis. This relationship is determined when the anteroposterior diameter of the fetal head is in alignment with the transverse diameter of the pelvic inlet, which is the usual case for entry into the pelvic inlet and engagement. This places the sagittal suture line of the fetal skull in the same line as the transverse diameter of the pelvic inlet and the occiput of the fetal head in the transverse portion of the mother’s pelvis. Synclitism is the term used when the sagittal suture is midway between the symphysis pubis and the sacral promontory. Asynclitism indicates that the sagittal suture is directed either toward the symphysis pubis or toward the sacral promontory (Figure 26-9). Determination of whether this is anterior asynclitism or posterior asynclitism is based not on which maternal pelvic structure the sagittal suture

750

Part V Intrapartal Care

TABLE 26-4

Essential Landmarks of the Fetal Skull

Anatomical Part

Description

Bones Frontal Parietal Occipital

There are 2 frontal bones. There are 2 parietal bones. There is 1 occipital bone.

Sutures Frontal Sagittal Coronal Lambdoid Fontanels Anterior

Posterior

The frontal suture is between the 2 frontal bones. The sagittal suture is between the 2 parietal bones. There are 2 coronal sutures, 1 each between the frontal and parietal bones on either side of the head. There are 2 lambdoid sutures, 1 each between the parietal bones and the upper margin of the occipital bone on either side of the head. Formed by the meeting of the frontal, sagittal, and 2 coronal sutures. The anterior fontanel is roughly the shape of a diamond (‡), and 4 sutures can be felt leading off the anterior fontanel in 4 directions as indicated by the points on the diamond. Formed by the meeting of the sagittal and the 2 lambdoid sutures. The posterior fontanel is roughly the shape of a triangle (—), and 3 sutures can be felt leading off the posterior fontanel in 3 directions as indicated by the points of the triangle. The occipital bone, which serves as the base of the triangle, can also be felt.

is closer to but instead on which parietal bone is dominant. Therefore, anterior asynclitism occurs when the anterior parietal bone (the one closest to the symphysis pubis) becomes the lowermost part of the presenting part, due to deflection of the head toward the sacral promontory, causing the sagittal suture to lie closer to the sacral promontory. Posterior asynclitism occurs when the posterior parietal bone (the one closest to the sacral promontory) becomes the lowermost part of the presenting

part as a result of deflection of the head toward the symphysis pubis, causing the sagittal suture to lie closer to the symphysis pubis. In normal labor, the head usually enters the pelvic inlet with a moderate degree of posterior asynclitism and then changes to anterior asynclitism as it descends further into the pelvis before the mechanism of internal rotation takes place. This sequential change from posterior to anterior asynclitism facilitates the mechanism of descent; it is an accommodation by the fetus to take

(a)

FIGURE 26-8 Fetal skull: Landmarks, bones, fontanels, sutures, and biparietal diameter.

(b)

FIGURE 26-9 Asynclitism: (a) anterior; (b) posterior.

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

advantage of the roomiest portions of the true pelvis. Molding and Caput Succedaneum. Both molding and caput succedaneum result from pressure exerted on the fetal head by the maternal structures of the birth canal. Molding is the change in the shape of the head as a result of the soft skull bones’ overriding, or overlapping, each other because they are not yet firmly united and movement is possible at the sutures. The shape the head becomes depends on the presentation, because this determines which parts of the skull are subjected to pressure. Because of the prevalence of occipital cephalic presentations, molding usually occurs as the overriding of the parietal bones over the occipital bone, which, in effect, obliterates the posterior fontanel and leaves a ridge. When the parietal bones overlap at the sagittal suture, which is not uncommon, the parietal bone that was anterior in the pelvis overlaps the “posterior” parietal bone, which was depressed because of pressure from the sacral promontory. Therefore, in an ROT position that rotates to ROA, the left parietal bone overrides the right parietal bone, and vice versa for an LOT position that rotates to LOA. In thinking about the overriding of the parietal bones, do not confuse the location of the left and right parietal bones (either anterior or posterior) with anterior and posterior asynclitism. Whether the left or right parietal bone is anterior is based solely on whether the occiput is to the left or right of the pelvis, which then determines which one lies closest to the symphysis pubis and which one lies closest to the sacrum. Molding involves the entire skull, with overlapping in one area being counterbalanced with movement elsewhere. This creates harmony between the base and the vertex of the skull in order to prevent destructive tension and possible rupture of the cranial membrane, the dura mater. Caput succedaneum is the formation of an edematous swelling over the most dependent portion of the presenting fetal head. Pressure around the presenting part by the cervical opening produces congestion and edema of the portion of the fetal head over the cervical opening. If the fetal membranes are ruptured and the fetal head (rather than the membranes) is functioning as the dilating wedge against the cervical opening, a greater amount of caput succedaneum will be formed. Caput succedaneum can be differentiated from cephalhematoma by the fact that caput succedaneum crosses suture

751

lines as a generalized swelling, whereas a cephalhematoma, which is bleeding beneath the periosteum, may occur over more than one cranial bone but is limited to each individual bone and does not cross any sutures. The formation of a few millimeters of caput succedaneum is not unusual or abnormal. A small caput succedaneum may be indicative of a somewhat prolonged labor resulting from uterine inertia with weak contractions. Formation of extensive caput succedaneum, which makes the identification of fetal sutures and fontanels impossible, combined with severe amounts of molding is usually seen only when the pressure has been great and labor prolonged; cephalopelvic disproportion must be suspected. A sizable caput may also be seen from positional pressure when the fetal position was occipitoposterior. Maternal Physiological Changes A number of normal maternal physiological changes take place during labor. It is important to know those that may be ascertained clinically in order to accurately interpret certain signs, symptoms, and physical and laboratory findings as normal or abnormal during the first stage of labor. These are detailed in Table 26-5, along with their significance in the management of care of the woman during labor. Maternal Psychological and Behavioral Changes The maternal psychological and behavioral changes that occur during the latent, active, and transitional phases of the first stage of labor were discussed earlier in this chapter. Unlike the physiological changes that are more general to the first stage of labor, but like the physical changes such as contractions and cervical changes, these psychological and behavioral changes are quite specific as labor goes on. They comprise a means of evaluation of a woman’s progress in labor and how she is coping with the demands being placed upon her by labor and the environment within which she is laboring. In addition to the specific changes, the overall psychology of a woman in labor will vary widely depending on the preparation and anticipatory guidance she has had prior to labor; the support she is receiving from her partner, significant others, family, and caretakers; the environment she is in; and whether this baby is a wanted baby. Many babies are not planned for but the majority of babies are wanted by the end of pregnancy. However, if the

752

Part V Intrapartal Care

TABLE 26-5

Significance of Maternal Physiological Changes Occurring During Labor

Physiological Change

Significance

Blood Pressure Rises during contractions with the systolic rising an average of 15 (10–20) mm Hg and the diastolic rising an average of 5–10 mm Hg Between contractions, the blood pressure returns to its prelabor levels. A shift of the woman from a supine to a lateral position eliminates the change in blood pressure during a contraction. Pain, fear, and apprehension may further raise the blood pressure.

To ascertain the true blood pressure, be sure to check it well between contractions, preferably with the woman in a sidelying position.

If a woman is extremely fearful or apprehensive, consider the possibility that her fear (rather than preeclampsia) is causing an elevated blood pressure. Check other parameters to rule out preeclampsia. Give supportive care and medications that will relax the woman before making a final diagnosis if preeclampsia is not readily evident.

Metabolism During labor, both aerobic and anaerobic carbohydrate metabolism steadily rises. These increases are due largely to anxiety and to skeletal muscle activity. The increased metabolic activity is reflected by an increase in body temperature, pulse, respirations, cardiac output, and fluid loss.

The increase in body temperature, pulse, and respirations is discussed below. The increase in cardiac output and fluid loss affects renal function and necessitates concern for and action to prevent the development of dehydration.

Temperature Slightly elevated throughout labor; highest during and immediately after delivery To be considered normal, this elevation should not exceed 1 to 2°F (0.5 to 1°C). It reflects the increase in metabolism that occurs during labor.

A slightly elevated temperature may be normal. If labor is prolonged, however, an elevated temperature may be indicative of dehydration, and other parameters should be checked. Also, if the membranes ruptured prematurely, an elevated temperature may be indicative of infection and cannot be considered normal in these circumstances.

Pulse (Cardiac Rate) Marked change during contractions with an increase during the increment, a decrease during the acme to a rate lower than that between contractions, and an increase during the decrement to the rate usual for the woman between contractions. The marked decrease during the acme of the uterine contraction does not occur if the woman is in a lateral rather than a supine position. The pulse rate between contractions is slightly higher than during the immediate prelabor period. This reflects the increase in metabolism that occurs during labor.

A slightly elevated pulse may be normal. Check other parameters to rule out an infectious process.

Respirations A slight increase in respiratory rate is normal during labor and reflects the increase in metabolism that is occurring.

Prolonged hyperventilation is abnormal and may result in alkalosis.

It is difficult to obtain accurate findings regarding respirations as their rate and rhythm are affected by excitement, pain, apprehension, and the utilization of breathing techniques. Observe the woman’s breathing and aid her in controlling it to avoid prolonged hyperventilation, which is evidenced by her feeling tingling in her extremities and feeling dizzy.

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

TABLE 26-5

753

Significance of Maternal Physiological Changes Occurring During Labor (continued)

Physiological Change

Significance

Renal Changes Polyuria is frequent during labor. It may be the result of a further increased cardiac output during labor and probable increase in glomerular filtration rate and renal plasma flow. Polyuria is less pronounced in the supine position, which has the effect of decreasing urine flow during pregnancy. Slight proteinuria (trace, 1+) is common in a third to half of women in labor. Proteinuria 2+ and above is abnormal

The bladder must be frequently evaluated (every 2 hr) for distention and emptied to prevent (1) obstruction of labor by a full bladder that prevents descent of the presenting part and (2) trauma to the bladder from prolonged pressure, which will cause hypotonia of the bladder and urinary retention during the immediate postpartal period. More frequent in women who are primiparas, or have anemia, or are in prolonged labor Indicative of preeclampsia

Gastrointestinal Changes Gastric motility and absorption of solid food are severely reduced. This, combined with a further decrease in the secretion of gastric juice during labor, brings digestion to a virtual standstill and yields a significantly prolonged gastric emptying time. Liquids are not affected and leave the stomach in the usual amount of time. Food ingested during the immediate prelabor period or the prodromal or latent phase of labor will most likely remain in the stomach throughout labor. Nausea and vomiting are not uncommon during the transition phase marking the end of the first stage of labor.

A full stomach may cause discomfort and general misery during transition. Women should therefore be instructed not to eat a big meal or drink excessive fluids but to drink and eat at will to maintain energy and hydration.

Oral medications are rendered ineffective during labor. Gastrointestinal changes are probably a response to one or a combination of the following factors: uterine contractions, pain, fear and apprehension, medications, or complications.

Hematologic Changes Hemoglobin increases an average of 1.2 gm/100 mL during labor, returning to prelabor levels the first postpartum day in the absence of abnormal blood loss. Blood coagulation time decreases and there is a further increase in plasma fibrinogen during labor. The white blood cell count progressively increases throughout the first stage of labor by about 5000 to an average total WBC count of 15,000 at the time of complete dilatation. There is no further increase after this. Blood sugar decreases during labor, dropping markedly in prolonged and difficult labors, most likely as a result of the increase in activity of the uterine and skeletal muscles.

baby is not wanted, the psychology of the mother may affect the course of labor. Preparation and anticipatory guidance vary widely depending on the philosophy and experience of the childbirth educator. There is childbirth education that is institution-based and may reflect the attitudes and practices of the institution; there is childbirth education that reflects a plan to birth in a birth center or at home; there is childbirth educa-

Don’t be falsely reassured that a woman is not anemic if the results of blood tests are borderline and thus be lulled into ignoring the increased risks of the anemic woman during the intrapartal period. These changes decrease the risk of postpartum hemorrhage in the normal woman. Increased white cell count is not necessarily indicative of an infectious process when at this level. If much above this level, check other parameters for an infectious process. Use of laboratory tests to screen a woman for diabetes during the intrapartum period would yield most inaccurate and unreliable results.

tion that gives knowledge of the process but still leaves the woman subordinate to the institution or the practitioner; there is childbirth education that gives knowledge of the process but uses it to empower the woman to own her body and birth; there is childbirth education that has a set curriculum outline; there is childbirth education that begins with what the participants want to know, discuss, or explore; there is childbirth education that

754

Part V Intrapartal Care

“teaches from the ‘outside,’ in other words, how it is perceived and managed by professionals” and there is childbirth education that “prepares a mother for birthing from within . . . what labor and birth will be like from her perspective” [11]. Each type of childbirth education deeply influences a woman’s psyche: her self-image, expectations, and self-confidence. The support that a woman does or does not receive in her birthing environment, including from those who are with her, profoundly affects her psychologically at a time when she may easily feel vulnerable as each contraction and its pain continues to come again and again. The freedom to be herself and to be able to “let go and go with the flow” is critical to her feeling of acceptance and sense of well-being. The support and comfort measures discussed later in this chapter communicate caring, compassion, and a sustaining human presence to a woman.

Management of Care During the First Stage of Labor Management of care during the first stage of labor includes responsibility for the following: 1. Differential diagnosis of labor 2. Management of false labor and of early labor 3. Initial evaluation of the mother and fetus in 4. 5. 6. 7.

labor The 12 basic management of care decisions Continuing evaluation of maternal and fetal well-being Continuing evaluation and facilitation of the progress of labor Bodily and supportive care of the mother and her significant other/family/friends

Many of the activities involved with each of these responsibilities may be going on simultaneously. Differential Diagnosis of Labor In making a diagnosis of labor, you must differentiate not only between true and false labor but also between labor and any discomforts or complications that masquerade or can be misinterpreted as labor. These most commonly include urinary tract infections and what may be called “the general miseries of the end of pregnancy,” which some women have to a rather severe degree. Abruptio placentae with a posterior placenta should also be considered (see Chapter 24).

A woman with false labor may be experiencing considerable discomfort and exhaustion from days of false labor contractions. Such contractions are differentiated from true labor contractions in that false labor contractions do not increase in frequency, duration, and intensity; they are irregular and of short duration; they are rarely intensified and may actually be relieved by walking; and they are usually felt in the lower abdomen and groin. True labor contractions may start as irregular and of short duration but then become regular with increased frequency, duration, and intensity; they are intensified by walking, and they are usually felt as radiating across the uterus and the lower back. At times, though, it is not easy to differentiate between false and true labor contractions. The actual diagnosis of false labor is based on the definition of labor as progressive cervical change. The fact that false labor contractions do not result in cervical effacement and dilatation leads to the diagnosis being made on the basis of a lack of cervical change. The suprapubic, flank, and back pain that may be associated with a urinary tract infection are frequently mistaken by both woman and examiner as symptomatic of labor. Added to this is the possibility of misinterpreting the frequency and urgency of urination associated with urinary tract infection as merely that experienced by the woman from pressure of the enlarged uterus on the bladder, especially if lightening has occurred. A urinary tract infection should be suspected in this situation in the absence of uterine contractions and cervical effacement and dilatation. This picture may be complicated in the presence of false labor contractions, and a diagnosis of urinary tract infection can be missed in the diagnosis of false labor. When you suspect a urinary tract infection, you should take a careful history of any previous urinary tract infections, fever, chills, nausea and vomiting, frequency, urgency, dysuria, suprapubic pain, flank pain, lower back pain, and hematuria; you should conduct a physical examination for temperature, suprapubic pain, and CVA tenderness; and you should collect a urine specimen for routine analysis, culture, and sensitivity. These steps provide the necessary database from which to confirm or rule out the infection. In the meantime, true labor is ruled out in the absence of cervical change and false labor is ruled out in the absence of irregular uterine contractions that are relieved by walking. The general miseries of the end of pregnancy are frequently seen in, but not limited to, women who have been having periodic episodes of false

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

labor. These women are terribly uncomfortable; have muscular aches and pains, particularly in the back, abdomen, and legs; walk and move with great lassitude and difficulty; haven’t been eating well; are somewhat emotionally depressed because they are tired of being pregnant; are physically tired; are not sleeping well; and generally “just don’t feel good.” Labor is absent, as is any causative disease process for these symptoms. Management of False Labor and of Early Labor The management of care of the woman with false labor and of the woman with the general miseries of the end of pregnancy is the same. Both require a large dose of patience, understanding, explanations, and tender, loving care. These requirements also extend into the home, and family members need to offer support and patience. Once fetal well-being is assured and labor is ruled out, send the woman home with some suggested comfort measures. Instruct her to soak in a tub of warm water, filled enough to cover her abdomen; then, after getting out of the tub, to drink a hot drink of her preference (tea, coffee, milk, chocolate) with sugar, or a glass of wine; and then to go to bed to sleep. (If a family member can give her a backrub before she sleeps, it will also help her feel more comfortable.) The tub bath relaxes and soothes her aching muscles by dilating the blood vessels, thus increasing blood flow and oxygenation to the area, and the motion of the water is psychologically soothing. She will need help from family members to get in and out of the tub. The hot drink, made for her by a family member, is the timehonored method for facilitating sleep. The addition of sugar to the drink provides needed calories and energy to the body’s cells. A glass of wine or sherry also is often used to promote relaxation. The back rub given by a family member again gives relief to aching muscles and bespeaks tender loving care. If a woman is unable to sleep with nonmedicinal methods, 25 to 50 mg of diphenhydramine (Benadryl), available over-the-counter, may be used to promote sleep. It is frequently difficult to differentiate between false labor and the early latent phase of labor. The management of care of such a woman, in the absence of any complications, will vary according to the setting in which she will labor and deliver. If she plans to deliver in a hospital, the plan will vary according to hospital policies and facilities, distance the woman lives from the hospital, availability of transportation, her and her family’s coping abilities,

755

and the woman’s preference. If, for example, the hospital has a unit for labor observation or early labor, admission to this unit is appropriate. If, however, the hospital does not have such a unit and has a policy that patients are not to be admitted to the labor and delivery suite until in active labor, unless the membranes are ruptured, or except with complications, then you must decide whether to keep the woman in the hospital emergency room or area where you examined her or to send her home until labor is more definitively established. In such a situation, a compromise is generally struck between realities and the philosophy that a woman will probably feel and cope better in the more pleasant, familiar surroundings of her home. Since walking may stimulate true labor or relieve false labor, the woman is usually asked to walk outside or in designated areas of the hospital and return to be rechecked in 1 to 2 hours. If no change in the cervix is noted during this repeat examination and if the woman lives nearby, has no transportation problems, and wants to go home, she is managed for false labor and sent home. If, however, the woman lives a great distance away and you are still unable to make a diagnosis of false labor or early latent phase labor, the woman may be asked to walk for another couple of hours and again be rechecked before a final decision is made to send her home. A woman who lives many miles from the hospital may prefer to walk for hours in the hospital until she is convinced that this is false labor rather than have the worry that she might not return in time and might deliver either at home or en route. A combination of lack of cervical progress and exhaustion will often make the woman decide to go home; she should be encouraged to follow the regimen for false labor so that she can get some much-needed rest. Management of the woman in the early latent phase of labor again varies according to the setting in which she will labor and give birth. If she plans to deliver in a hospital, the management of care varies according to hospital policies, hospital facilities, distance the woman lives from the hospital, availability of transportation, the coping abilities of the woman and her family, and the woman’s preference. If the hospital has an early labor unit, admission to it is appropriate. This enables the woman to undergo routine admission procedures and spend her early labor in a more homelike atmosphere. Comfortable chairs for her and her significant other; materials and personnel to explain the progress of labor and helpful breathing and re-

756

Part V Intrapartal Care

laxation techniques; diversions to help pass the time, such as playing cards, books, television, and magazines; and freedom to walk and move around are basics in such a unit. If the hospital does not have such a unit, a woman who lives nearby and has ready access to transportation may prefer to go home and return to the hospital when her labor is more active. A woman who lives some distance from the hospital may have friends or relatives with whom she would prefer to spend this period of early labor. Even if a hospital does not have a 4-centimeter dilatation admission requirement, some women who live too far away to return home for early labor prefer to walk outside or in designated areas of the hospital; the midwife may recommend that she visit the cafeteria or snack shop for tea or coffee with sugar or fruit juice before being admitted to the labor and delivery suite. Any time a woman in early labor who plans to deliver in the hospital enters the active phase of the first stage of labor, ruptures her membranes, or develops signs and symptoms of a complication, she is admitted to the labor and delivery suite. Admission When a woman is admitted to the labor and birth suite she undergoes an admission procedure. This procedure varies from hospital to hospital but generally includes the following: 1. Having the woman change from street clothing

to a hospital gown 2. Tagging and marking of the woman’s personal

belongings 3. Putting an identification band on the woman 4. Filling out of chart forms and signing of neces-

sary permission forms 5. Admission orders 6. Initial evaluation of the woman and fetus in

labor—history, physical and pelvic examinations, and laboratory tests The admission orders include not only the routine laboratory tests but also your initial management decisions. In an out-of-hospital setting the woman wears her own clothing and institutional procedures are unnecessary. In the home setting the word “admission” takes on a different meaning, as the woman and whomever she wants with her admit you into her environment. Initial Evaluation of the Mother and Fetus in Labor When a woman presents herself for examination thinking that she is in labor, you need to evaluate her

possible labor status, assess her well-being and that of the baby, screen for immediate complications, and, on the basis of these findings and other factors, make a decision as to whether the woman is in labor or needs any medical help or intervention. Labor status refers to just that information needed to determine where a woman is in the progress of her labor and to anticipate her continued progress. It has nothing to do with the wellbeing of either the mother or the baby. The items in Table 26-6 that pertain to evaluation of labor status are indicated with an asterisk (*). If you determine that the woman is in labor— whether at home, in a freestanding out-of-hospital birth center, an in-hospital birth center, or the labor and delivery suite of a hospital—a complete evaluation of her condition and the condition of her baby, including a history, physical and pelvic examinations, and laboratory tests, is conducted. This evaluation is more comprehensive when done in a hospital, where the midwife may not have seen the woman before or the woman may not have had any prenatal care. A woman in a home birth practice or an out-of-hospital birth center is more apt to have been closely followed antepartally by the midwife who is with her in labor. This woman would be well known to the midwife and would not require such an extensive history and examination, but the midwife should completely review the same information and evaluate her and her baby’s current condition and status of labor. The history is similar to the history outlined in Chapter 2, with the additions outlined for history in Chapter 22 and in Table 26-6. If the woman’s prenatal record is available, it is often used as the source of information for the history, with the exception of the labor history. Specifically, identifying information, present pregnancy history, past obstetric history, past medical and primary health care history, and family history can be reviewed from the woman’s prenatal record. This spares the woman from having to reiterate history she has given before, from being disturbed at a time when she is coping with the demands and stresses placed upon her by her labor condition and situation, and from being disrupted while concentrating on her breathing during contractions. However, a few critical items of history should be double-checked, specifically, the existence of any of the following: drug allergies, blood transfusions and reactions, and major obstetrical or medical complications.

History

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

TABLE 26-6

Database for Diagnosis of Labor and Initial Evaluation of the Mother and Fetus in Labor

Item

Significance

History *Age

*Gravida

and para

*Time of onset of contractions and the frequency and duration of the contractions from onset to present *Intensity of the contractions when lying down contrasted to when walking around *Descriptions

of the location of discomfort or pain felt with contractions Fetal movement *Length

757

of previous labor

AP, IP, PP complications during previous childbearing experiences Delivery method of previous deliveries Size of largest and smallest previous babies

EDB and present weeks of gestation *Absence, presence, or increase in bloody show

An age of under 16 or over 35 predisposes the woman to a number of complications. Under 16 increases the incidence of preeclampsia. Over 35 increases the incidence of chronic hypertension (which underlies an increased incidence of preeclampsia and abruptio placentae); Type II diabetes (which underlies an increased incidence of gestational diabetes as well as diagnosed Type II diabetes); prolonged nulliparous labor; cesarean section; preterm delivery; IUGR; chromosomal anomalies; and fetal death. Need explanation of gravida and para numbers for this woman to identify potential problems with this birth and postpartum. Parity has an effect both on the duration of labor and on the incidence of complications. A cervix that has been completely dilated in a previous labor offers less resistance to being dilated again, thereby shortening the length of labor. In addition, multiparas have more pronounced fundal dominance with their contractions and more relaxed pelvic floors, which offer less resistance to the passage of the baby and decrease the length of labor. However, the duration of labor in grand multiparas may progressively increase with greater numbers of babies, presumably as a result of changes in the uterine musculature—a condition that is often referred to as “exhaustion of the uterine muscle.” It is not uncommon to see a woman having a longer labor with her eighth fullterm baby than she had with her first baby. Increased parity increases the incidence of abruptio placentae, placenta previa, uterine hemorrhage, maternal mortality, and perinatal mortality. Double ovum twinning increases in Gravida 5 and above. This information is necessary in order to establish the start of labor, usually timed from when the contractions became regular, and to differentiate between true and false labor contractions. False labor contractions do not increase in frequency, duration, and intensity; are irregular; and are of short duration. True labor contractions may start as irregular and of short duration but then become regular with increased frequency, duration, and intensity. This information helps to differentiate between true and false labor contractions. True labor contractions are intensified by walking, whereas false labor contractions are rarely intensified by walking and may actually be relieved. This information also helps to differentiate between true and false labor contractions. False labor contractions are usually felt in the lower abdomen and groin. True labor contractions are usually felt as radiating across the uterus from the fundus to the back. To assess fetal well-being. The length of a previous labor is a good indication of the potential length of this labor, allowing for the differences between a primigravid and secundigravid labor and the labor of increasing great parity. To identify potential problems with this birth and postpartum.

To identify previous cesarean section or operative vaginal deliveries. The size of the largest baby delivered vaginally ensures the adequacy of the woman’s pelvis for up to that size baby. It also provides baseline information for anticipating possible complications when compared with the estimated fetal weight of this baby and is important for decision-making concerning the route of delivery in breech presentations. A woman who has a history of small babies by the same father will tend to have a small baby this time. This may, however, be affected by nutrition, hypertension, or diabetes. These are baseline data for evaluating gestational size, whether labor is at term or premature, and possible complications for the weeks of gestation. Bloody show is a premonitory sign of labor. An increase in bloody show is indicative of impending second stage of labor.

Starred items pertain to evaluation of labor status.

758

Part V Intrapartal Care

TABLE 26-6

Database for Diagnosis of Labor and Initial Evaluation of the Mother and Fetus in Labor (continued)

Item

Significance

Absence or presence of vaginal bleeding

Bleeding is abnormal. Since vaginal examination is almost always contraindicated in the presence of bleeding, the midwife must ask the woman if she has had any vaginal bleeding prior to doing a vaginal examination. Frank bleeding requires physician consultation and collaboration or referral. Ruptured membranes are a premonitory sign of labor. Because ruptured membranes predispose both mother and baby to increased risk of intrauterine infection, a history of ruptured membranes demands determining by examination whether they have indeed ruptured. Women are not always clear as to whether their membranes have ruptured because a slow leak can easily be confused with incontinence of urine. A report of a sudden gush of water that ran down her legs and filled her shoes and subsequently necessitated her wearing a sanitary pad, or of wetting of clothes, is a good indication that the membranes have ruptured. It is essential to screen the woman quickly for antepartal complications that may affect the intrapartal period (e.g., preeclampsia, anemia) or masquerade as signs of labor (e.g., urinary tract infection). Information will be wanted by anesthesiologist in the event of surgery. Also useful for assessing energy reserve and fluid status.

*Status

of membranes

Any prenatal problems

When she last ate Physical Examination Vital signs: BP, T, P, R

Weight FHT Fetal movement *Contraction

pattern

*Engagement

*Estimated

fetal weight and fundal height, and abdominal girth when indicated

*Lie, presentation, position, and variety

Abdominal scars Edema of the extremities

An elevated or lowered blood pressure is indicative of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy or shock, respectively. An elevated systolic but normal diastolic blood pressure may indicate anxiety or pain. An elevated temperature is indicative of an infectious process or dehydration. An elevated pulse may indicate infection, shock, anxiety, or dehydration. An elevated respiratory rate may indicate shock or anxiety. Weight is taken to obtain the total weight gain for pregnancy. To assess the status of the baby. A fetal heart rate below 120 or above 160 may be indicative of fetal distress and warrants immediate evaluation. To assess fetal well-being. The frequency, duration, and intensity of the contractions must be accurately assessed to determine labor status. Determined by abdominal palpation. An unengaged or unfixed head on a primigravida in labor is indicative of possible cephalopelvic disproportion. Such a finding requires repeating clinical pelvimetry during the vaginal examination and evaluation in relation to the estimated fetal weight. In relation to the weeks of gestation. A smaller than expected estimated fetal weight (EFW) and fundal height indicate either that the woman’s dates are in error, a small-for-dates baby, or oligohydramnios. A larger than expected EFW and fundal height indicate that the woman’s dates are in error, a large baby (indicative of diabetes), multiple gestation, or polyhydramnios. A large baby also forewarns you of (1) the possibility of postpartum uterine atony producing hemorrhage or (2) possible shoulder dystocia. An EFW 1 or more pounds larger than the woman’s preceding babies, even though not excessive in size, also alerts you to the possibility of difficulty with delivery of the shoulders. Abdominal girth is indicated if you suspect multiple gestation or polyhydramnios. To ascertain an abnormal lie (i.e., transverse), presentation (i.e., breech), or position (i.e., mentum, brow, sinciput). Also to determine variety, as a posterior variety may lengthen or increase the discomfort of the first stage of labor. A woman in even very early labor must be admitted to the hospital if she has a transverse lie. A primigravida with a breech presentation is at risk and should also be admitted. Obtain explanation to ascertain integrity of her uterus. This is one of the classic signs of preeclampsia. The midwife should check for and evaluate any ankle, pretibial, finger, or facial edema. Edema of the feet and ankles alone may simply be dependent edema resulting from the decrease in venous blood flow caused by pressure from the enlarged uterus.

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

TABLE 26-6

Database for Diagnosis of Labor and Initial Evaluation of the Mother and Fetus in Labor (continued)

Item

Significance

Reflexes and clonus

Hyperreflexia (3+, 4+) is one of the signs of severe preeclampsia. Clonus is usually seen with impending or actual eclampsia.

Pelvic Examination *Effacement and dilatation *Position *Bloody

of the cervix

show

*Station

Molding and caput succedaneum *Lie, presentation, position, and variety

Synclitism/Asynclitism *Status

759

of membranes

Vaginal orifice and perineal body Clinical pelvimetry

To determine whether progressive cervical change has occurred and diagnose labor. Also to determine what stage and phase of labor the woman is in, if in labor. The cervix is usually far back and directed posterior prior to labor. Movement of the cervix so it is directed forward in a midline position indicates readiness for, or entry into, labor. Increased bloody show is a sign of impending second stage. To determine descent of the fetal head. Descent of the fetal head is one of the mechanisms of labor and is indicative of progress and pelvic adequacy. To ascertain fetal adaptation to the mother’s pelvis. To confirm abdominal findings. Sometimes it is easier to obtain these findings on vaginal examination because the presenting part—suture lines, fontanels, skull bones (if a cephalic presentation), a hand, or a foot—can be felt directly. To ascertain fetal adaptation to the mother’s pelvis. To confirm or rule out a history of ruptured membranes or detect a rupture of membranes not reported for reasons stated under History. To evaluate thickness, length, and stretchability to ascertain possible need for an episiotomy. To assess pelvic adequacy.

If the woman is being admitted for a reason other than labor—such as premature rupture of the membranes, vaginal bleeding, or a medical complication—or if any finding during the examination is indicative of a complication, then the appropriate related history needs to be taken (see the section on Chief Complaint and History of Present Illness in Chapter 2). Physical and Pelvic Examination A screening physical examination is done on all women admitted to the hospital. This not only provides up-to-date baseline data but also screens for any infectious disease and for major medical problems that might affect a safe intrapartum period for the women. If the woman’s prenatal record is available, the physical examination that was done during her initial antepartal visit is reviewed for any medical abnormalities or disease (see Chapters 2 and 22). If the woman has been closely followed throughout her antepartal course by a consistent care provider, a repeat of the total gross screening physical examination is not necessary. If the woman entered the labor and birth suite in late active labor without prenatal care, an abbreviated gross screening examination is done and a more comprehensive review of

systems and physical examination can be performed postpartally. A finding indicative of a complication requires further physical examination pertaining to that complication. For example, an elevated blood pressure, with or without the presence of edema, is an indication for eliciting and evaluating deep tendon reflexes as well as taking a history for symptoms of preeclampsia. In addition to the screening physical examination, thorough abdominal and pelvic examinations are essential for evaluation of labor status and the well-being of the fetus. These are detailed in Table 26-6. Other vaginal findings may be ascertained while following a woman’s progress during labor. If, however, there is any reason to question the adequacy of a woman’s pelvis at this time—because of a larger baby than she previously had, or a large baby in a primigravida, or a small body frame, or an unengaged head in a primigrvida—now is the time to do clinical pelvimetry. It is easier to perform clinical pelvimetry with the woman on an examining table than in a bed. Laboratory Tests The laboratory tests ordered on a woman’s admission to a hospital may vary by pol-

760

Part V Intrapartal Care

icy from setting to setting, but generally include the following: Hematocrit—ordered or done stat by the midwife VDRL Urinalysis—minimum of dipstick test for protein, glucose, and acetone; in some settings a urine specimen is collected and sent to the laboratory for routine microscopic examination or done stat by the midwife. In addition, a type and antibody screen may be drawn, even, by hospital policy, as a repeat of prenatal determination, or if the woman had no prenatal care. A blood sample for cross-match may also be drawn and held for use if the woman’s clinical situation requires a blood transfusion. The blood for the laboratory tests may be drawn by the midwife (see Chapter 47). If the woman will be having an intravenous infusion, the blood specimens are obtained at the same time the IV is started (see Chapter 48). The woman’s prenatal record is reviewed for the results of the following laboratory tests and adjunctive studies done during pregnancy. Results are recorded in the admission note. Blood group (ABO) Rh factor Antibody screen Serology GC and chlamydia culture Hepatitis screen (HBsAg) HIV screen Pap smear Group B Streptococcus (GBS) status Last hemoglobin and hematocrit Last urinalysis Glucose screen Rubella titer Varicella antibody screen Sickle cell screen Tuberculin screen Any special tests The Twelve Basic Management of Care Decisions The 12 basic management decisions are the decisions that routinely may be made about each woman in labor and individualized for that woman. Some of these decisions are relevant only to a hospital setting and are not an issue if the woman is giving birth at home or in a freestanding out-of-

hospital birth center. Some of these decisions may be predetermined by existing policies in the particular hospital setting where labor and birth is taking place. Other management decisions besides these may need to be made, depending on the woman, her condition, her situation, and the setting. The following 12 decisions are the most common management decisions made in a hospital after a woman is admitted to the labor and delivery unit. Their applicability (if any) to the home or birth center settings is included in the discussion of each. 1. Whether the woman may have food or fluids by

mouth and, if so, precisely what is allowed 2. Whether the woman is to have IV access 3. Whether the woman has any position or ambu-

lation limitations and, if so, what these are 4. Whether to give the woman oral/IM/IV med-

ication and, if so, what, how much, and when 5. Whether the woman is to have epidural analge-

sia/anesthesia 6. The frequency with which the woman’s vital

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

signs (blood pressure, pulse, and temperature) are to be checked The frequency with which the fetal heart tones are to be checked and how this will be done The frequency with which vaginal examinations are done Identification of the woman’s significant others and their roles Whether to artificially rupture the membranes and, if so, when Determination of whether there is a need for physician consultation or collaboration When to prepare for birth

Many of these decisions are made over again several times during the course of labor as the woman’s condition changes and labor progresses. Each must be considered in relation to the individual woman at a given time. However, there are specific factors to consider in making each decision. The management decisions are made in the course of carrying out the various management responsibilities identified at the beginning of this section and depend on evaluation of the information in the database described at the beginning of this chapter. The first five decisions are discussed separately. Decisions 1 through 3 and 6 through 8 are usually included in the admission orders. Decisions 6 through 12 are discussed within the context of the management responsibilities for continuing evaluation of maternal and fetal well-being, continuing evaluation and facilitation of the progress of labor,

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

761

and bodily and supportive care of the mother and her significant other/family/friends. Foods and Fluids by Mouth The provision of foods and fluids by mouth during labor is a subject of long-standing controversy. The general standard for the past 40 or 50 years has been for the woman to have no food or fluids by mouth (NPO), the rationale being that having an empty stomach reduces the risk of aspiration pneumonia in the event of need for general anesthesia. There are several flaws in this thinking, however; the research it is based on is also flawed [12]. There has been some loosening of the NPO standard. The thinking promulgated by those brave enough to challenge the standard was that solid food was the real problem, as it would remain in the stomach throughout labor because of decreased gastric motility, gastric absorption, and secretion of gastric juice during labor, but that liquids were not affected and left the stomach in the usual amount of time. Liquids, therefore, were acceptable intake for women during labor in the hospital and the woman could have sips of water, tea with sugar (for energy), or athletic drinks. The liquids would supplement what few calories the woman could get from her carefully packed bag of hard candies (or lollipops to avoid aspiration). Eating and drinking have always been self-determined by women who labor and give birth at home and birth centers have always been less restrictive than hospitals. The facts are that fasting increases the concentration of hydrochloric acid, which is the dangerous substance in aspirate; women have more energy and are better hydrated when they have eaten; women who are in a situation in which they can eat as they wish, often eat early in labor but generally don’t want much other than liquids during active labor; the volume of stomach contents and gastric juice varies widely regardless of the interval since the last intake; when there is pulmonary aspiration there is likely to have been difficult or failed intubation; and the few statistics for anesthesia-related maternal morbidity and mortality are often not specific as to the cause [12–14]. Women having their babies at home eat at will. Freestanding out-of-hospital birth centers have kitchens for the woman and her family to use (see Figure 26-10). Providing sustenance during labor in the hospital is reasonable. A standard of eating and drinking at will for women in normal labor is warranted. Women need to be warned that excessive fluids may produce nausea and discomfort. Large

FIGURE 26-10 Kitchen in the Family Childbirth Center, New Haven, Connecticut.

quantities of chilled, sweetened fruit juices can produce gas and possibly cause nausea and vomiting. The purposes of intravenous access are twofold: (1) as a lifeline for medications, fluid, or blood in the event of an obstetric disaster and (2) as a means of maintaining maternal hydration. Intravenous access is mandatory if any of the following conditions are present; some of which require continuing infusion:

Intravenous Access

1. Gravida 5 or greater 2. An overdistended uterus for any reason, includ-

3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

ing a. multiple gestation b. polyhydramnios c. an excessively large baby (estimated at 9 pounds or more) A pitocin induction or augmentation History of previous postpartum hemorrhage History or presence of any other condition that predisposes the woman to immediate postpartal hemorrhage Maternal dehydration or exhaustion Positive maternal Group B Streptococcus status requiring IV antibiotics in labor

762

Part V Intrapartal Care

8. Maternal temperature greater than 100.4° F in

labor 9. Any obstetric or medical condition that is life threatening, such as abruptio placentae, placenta previa, ruptured uterus, preeclampsia, or eclampsia 10. Epidural analgesia/anesthesia The decision of whether to start an intravenous infusion on a woman other than one for whom it is mandatory becomes, in practice, largely a matter of what the individual clinician believes and is comfortable with in consultation with the woman. Some clinicians believe “it is better to be safe than sorry” and want all of their clients to have an IV. Most midwives believe it is unnecessary to subject all women to the pain, bother, and restrictions of an IV and want none of their clients to have an IV unless there is an indication for it. These midwives, however, reserve the right to start an IV in the event the woman’s condition changes such that either maternal hydration cannot be maintained with oral fluids (e.g., too much nausea and vomiting for retention of oral fluids) or complications are now an anticipated possibility. A compromise used by some midwives is to insert a “heparin lock” (a capped intravenous catheter). This may be used to draw the admission lab work and then left in the vein without attaching IV fluids and tubing. Thus, only a single needle stick needs to be done, minimizing discomfort for the woman. If there is no indication for IV hydration in labor, it does not interfere with the mother’s ability to move about. If IV antibiotics are needed, they can be administered over a brief period of time, after which the tubing is disconnected. If IV access becomes necessary, administration of fluids or blood can be done quickly with minimal discomfort to the woman and maximal efficiency for the midwife or nursing staff. The usual intravenous solution for a woman in labor consists of 1000 cc D5W or D5RL given at 125 cc per hour. This may vary if the woman is mildly dehydrated, in which case approximately 300 cc may be run in and then the IV slowed to 125 cc per hour. IVs for women in labor should always be started with an intravenous catheter (see Chapter 48). In contrast to a butterfly needle or a straight needle, an intravenous catheter permits the woman to more freely move her arm without trauma to the involved blood vessel and has the best chance of staying in the vein should she become physically active during labor. It also allows easier administration of large amounts of fluids or a blood transfusion.

A woman in labor should assume a position that is comfortable for her, provided that there are no contraindications to it. Positions may include supine (with the head of the bed at any angle of inclination, or flat), lateral recumbent, knee-chest, all-fours (hands-knees), sitting, standing, walking, and squatting. The position a woman assumes may aid the rotation of the fetus from a posterior position to an anterior position. Any position that directs the uterus forward (anterior) helps gravity bring the heavier back side of the fetus forward toward the lower side of the woman’s abdomen. Such positions include leaning forward over a birthing ball or, if in bed, over an overhead table; leaning forward against a support person while standing; the hands-knees position; and the knee-chest position. If a woman is in bed, lying in a left lateral recumbent/Sims’/semiprone position will help her fetus rotate anteriorly from a right occipital posterior position; lying in a right lateral recumbent/Sim’s/semiprone position will help her fetus rotate anteriorly from a left occipital posterior position. A woman in labor should be able to ambulate when and for as long as she desires, provided there are no contraindications. Walking in early labor may stimulate labor. Many women experience relief and cope with their labor better when they can walk. Being free to walk, sit in a chair, use the toilet, and so forth is certainly more conducive to a comfortable and progressive labor oriented to normal processes than is the sickness orientation of being confined to bed. There are, however, times when the woman should not be out of bed or ambulating, among them the following:

Position and Ambulation

1. When the membranes are ruptured and the

fetus is either small (under 2000 grams) and unengaged or in a footling or ill-fitting breech presentation, or in a transverse lie. In such events there is a risk of cord prolapse, which is increased if the woman is upright. Even a supine position with the head of the bed, including pillows, elevated higher than 20 to 30 degrees further increases the risk of prolapsed cord. The lateral recumbent position and the knee-chest position are good alternatives to the supine position in this situation. 2. When the woman has been medicated with any drug that might make her lightheaded, dizzy, or unsteady on her feet. 3. During rapidly progressive labor, late first stage labor in multiparas, or second stage labor in primigravidas, unless the woman and you have

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

planned for her to give birth squatting or standing. 4. When a woman has any obstetric or medical complications requiring that the woman remain in bed, (e.g., abruptio placentae, placenta previa, severe preeclampsia). The lateral recumbent position (Figure 26-11) has several beneficial effects: 1. Better coordination and greater efficiency of

uterine contractions because they are stronger and less frequent than when the woman is in a supine position 2. Facilitation of kidney function (urine flow is decreased in the supine position) 3. Facilitation of fetal rotation in posterior positions 4. Relief of uterine pressure on, and compression of, the major maternal blood vessels (the inferior vena cava and the aorta), which may result when the woman is supine

763

These beneficial effects can be used to good advantage and the woman should assume the lateral recumbent position in the following situations: 1. Maternal supine hypotensive syndrome 2. Fetal distress (to reduce uterine activity, relieve

pressure on the umbilical cord, or eliminate hypoxia resulting from maternal supine hypotensive syndrome) 3. ROP or LOP fetal positions if long arc rotation is slow; if the fetal position is ROP the woman should be on her right side, if the fetal position is LOP the woman should be on her left side 4. Severe preeclampsia (for best urine flow) 5. Mild uterine hypertonicity or ineffectual uterine contractions Medication (Oral, IM, IV) Commonly Used Drugs and Practices. Medication may be used during labor for

one or all of the following purposes: pain relief, decrease of anxiety and apprehension, sedation, and control of vomiting. The drugs most commonly used by midwives and the purposes they serve are listed in Table 26-7. The midwife must make several decisions regarding medication during labor: Whether to give a medication Which medication to give Dosage of the medication to be given Route to use in giving the medication, if there is a choice 5. When to give how much of what medication by what route 1. 2. 3. 4.

FIGURE 26-11 Father/husband supporting woman in active labor. The woman is in the left lateral recumbent position.

TABLE 26-7

This final decision summarizes the other decisions and emphasizes the importance of the timing in giving the medication in relation to the status and progress of labor. The midwife is not limited to a single dose of a single medication. She or he may mix drugs (adding them together), divide doses, and repeat doses in accord with the midwife’s prescriptive authority or

Medications Commonly Given During Labor

Trade Name (Generic Name)

Classification

Pain Relief

Demerol (meperidine) Nubain (nalbuphine) Phenergan (promethazine) Stadol (butorphanol) Vistaril (hydroxyzine) Seconal (secobarbital)

Narcotic analgesic Narcotic analgesic Ataractic Narcotic analgesic Ataractic Barbiturate sedative

X X

Decrease Anxiety and Apprehension

X X X X (mild)

Sedation X X X X X X

(mild) (mild) (moderate) (moderate) (moderate)

Antiemetic

X (moderate)

X (mild)

764

Part V Intrapartal Care

practice guidelines without consulting a physician. Remember that the ataractics (tranquilizers) potentiate the action of the narcotic analgesics. The most common medication practices of midwives are summarized in Table 26-8. Factors Affecting Medication Decisions. What the midwife decides to do regarding medications will be based on consideration of the following factors. Woman’s Desire for Medication. Some women want as much medication as they can get. Usually such women do not understand why you cannot give them enough to take the pain away, even after you explain several times. Generally such women are having a difficult time coping with their labor, are quite frightened, and have had little to no education or preparation regarding childbirth. In contrast are the women who have read extensively, attended preparation for childbirth classes, practiced breathing and muscle techniques for labor, and want to experience as much of the labor as they can without medication. Some of them are adamantly opposed to any medication. However, “prepared childbirth” means the woman’s knowledgeable, active participation in the natural, normal processes of childbearing—it does not mean childbirth without medication. Women who are natural childbirth devotees who have lost sight of the meaning of prepared childbirth and have distorted it to mean childbirth without med-

ication may suffer tremendous and damaging feelings of failure and guilt if they “succumb” and express a need for medication during labor. Such women need help in revising their definitions and expectations of themselves and in accepting their own behavior. Medication that takes the edge off the pain but leaves the woman fully aware and still able to participate actively in her experience not only can contribute to a successful birth experience but also is desirable for a woman who needs it, because it may be just what enables her to stay in control of herself and to continue coping with the demands of her condition and situation. The art of medication during labor comprises achieving a balance between the woman’s desire and need for medication and your own need, as her midwife, to facilitate her coping abilities within the parameters of safety. In order to do this you must know the woman’s viewpoints and preferences regarding medication during labor. Ideally the two of you have discussed this prior to labor as part of providing continuity of care; however, this is not always the situation. You must be careful not to assume or impose your own values and beliefs regarding medication. Ask the woman what she wants and then strive to practice the art of medication within the limits of safety and her desire. Labor Status. When the medication is given is vitally important. The midwife should observe the following principles: 1. Evaluate the progress of labor carefully and

TABLE 26-8

Drug Demerol Nubain Morphine

Phenergan Stadol Vistaril Seconal/ Nembutal

Common Practices in Medication Administration During Labor

Single Dose and Route

General Timing

50 mg IM Active labor 12.5–25 mg IV Active labor 10–20 mg SQ or IM Active labor or IV 10–15 mg IM or IV Prodromal labor or prolonged latent phase Hypertonic uterine dysfunction 25–50 mg IM or IV Early or active labor, or both 1–2 mg IM or IV Active labor 50 mg IM Early or active labor, or both 100 mg po False labor 100 mg IM Early labor

time the medication so it will not be at its peak action at the time the baby is born. Otherwise the baby might be sleepy and have some respiratory depression. This principle does not apply to very small doses of medication (e.g., 25 mg of Demerol) as long as this dose is not the last of a series of doses but is rather a single and only dose for the total of labor, as might occur if the woman arrives in the labor and delivery suite far advanced in labor. 2. Do not give a narcotic analgesic until the woman is in active labor. If given before the contractions are well established, as in the latent phase of labor, the drug will most likely render the contractions ineffectual by diminishing their frequency, duration, and intensity. In effect, although you have made the woman extremely comfortable, you have lengthened the total labor by several hours (for which she would probably not thank you if she knew). If the membranes are ruptured, lengthening labor could be dangerous. After the woman is in well-

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

established active labor, a narcotic analgesic will not affect the contraction pattern. 3. The ataractics do not affect uterine contractions and will not slow down or delay the progress of labor. In fact, because ataractics have a calming effect, progress of labor is often facilitated as the woman relaxes and begins to work with rather than against her labor. 4. Sedatives should be used in specific circumstances: a. when the woman is in false labor b. when the woman is in early labor and is exhausted and needs a rest c. as part of the treatment for hypertonic uterine dysfunction, to stop the present labor with its abnormal gradient contraction pattern Fetal Size. Because of developmental immaturity and a high risk of respiratory distress in a preterm (premature) or small-for-gestational-age fetus, all medications may be withheld during labor from a woman carrying a preterm or small baby, in order not to depress the baby. Unlike full-term babies, small or premature babies may not be able to tolerate depressing drugs crossing the placental barrier. Fetal Condition. If there is any evidence of fetal distress, regardless of fetal age or size, all medications are withheld from the woman in order not to further stress the fetus. Epidural analgesia/anesthesia may be the best maternal pain management option for a woman with a high-risk fetus. Continuous electronic fetal monitoring is always indicated for the high-risk fetus. For any fetus at risk—such as those of diabetic mothers, severely preeclamptic mothers, or those who are postterm—judicious, very small dosages might be tried and the fetus carefully monitored for the drug’s effect. Further medication is based on this trial and on the status of the condition that is placing the fetus at risk. In such cases internal fetal monitors will probably be used, permitting comprehensive monitoring of the fetal response. Maternal Size. The amount of medication is limited by the fact that the fetus cannot tolerate the levels it would take to totally alleviate the woman’s pain. Thus, if the woman is large, you cannot give additional medication in accord with her increased body size. On the other hand, you still need to consider the body size of the small, petite woman in determining the amount of medication within the limits imposed by the fetus.

765

Woman’s Response to Support in Labor. Support for women in labor is discussed in detail later in this chapter. It has been said that effective supportive care in labor is worth 100 to 200 mg of Demerol. If the woman is responding well to support, there is a corresponding decrease in the amount of medication she needs. This is typical of women who have undergone preparation for childbearing. It can also be true for unprepared women, depending on a number of variables, such as the woman’s pain threshold, how early in labor you establish contact with her, how much education and breathing preparation you can give her during early labor, the presence and help of her significant other, her previous experience and what she has heard from others regarding labor, and the amount of continuing constant supportive care that can be given her. There are circumstances, however, in which the woman is unable to cooperate with and respond well to the support; these women will need more medication, within the limits of safety. Need for Medication. The woman’s need for medication encompasses her desire or preference regarding medication, her labor status, and her response to support in labor. In addition to and underlying these factors is the amount of real pain she is feeling. This varies for each woman, depending on her pain threshold and on the amount of anxiety and tension she has and their effect on intensifying the amount of pain. It is not uncommon to see women in early normal labor complaining of great pain as evidenced by thrashing about, doubling up, and much vocal expression—yet you palpate only mild, brief contractions. You can bring about a dramatic change in behavior by paying attention to what the woman is feeling physically and experiencing psychologically. Most likely she is frightened. Supportive care alone or in conjunction with a little ataractic often changes her into a smiling, coping woman rapidly progressing into active labor who has no need for a narcotic analgesic at this time. On the other hand, in medicating a woman, you should always anticipate when she is really going to need it most—which is during transition— and plan accordingly. A woman’s pain in labor, as she is experiencing it, should never be scoffed at regardless of your findings—she is feeling it and her experience must be respected. Again, the art of medicating involves a total plan of supportive care, including medication, throughout labor, designed for each woman within the limits of safety.

766

Part V Intrapartal Care

Epidural Analgesia/Anesthesia Over the past three decades, the use of epidural analgesia/anesthesia for control of pain in labor, spontaneous vaginal births and operative births, has dramatically increased due to improvement in the techniques and access to the procedure. In addition, women are increasingly demanding use of epidurals to diminish the pain of childbirth. In the 1960s women demanded greater participation in the birth of their babies by avoiding mind altering drugs and interventive medical technology. A societal shift has occurred in which women seem more willing to relinquish control of their bodies in favor of decreasing pain. Technology is revered, and epidurals are perceived by many to be very safe. Midwives have long been the advocates of non-interventive means of labor and birth, and have worked hard to keep the use of technology, including epidurals to a minimum. Some midwives may still have limited use of epidurals in their practice. However, for those midwives who are serving women who will give birth in hospitals and who have midwifery care either for the supportive nature of midwifery or because they are the designated providers, epidurals may be commonplace. Midwives working in out-of-hospital birth sites and those who have a population of women who are seeking low tech, normal birth also must have an understanding of the use of epidurals as women in their care who develop complications may require more medicalized care and use of an epidural. It is important to remember that the goal of midwifery care is a safe, satisfying birth experience for each woman, based on her own perceptions of birth. As Burst stated in an editorial on “real” midwifery: If we believe that every woman has the right to receive care from a midwife [sic], then the practice of midwifery [sic] must encompass all women regardless of their normalcy or risk status, the setting in which they receive their care, or the practices within that setting. We must recognize that, as individuals, each of us differs in what we choose to do and that it is acceptable to differ. . . . Real midwifery is “with woman,” wherever she may be, in whatever circumstances she may be in, in whatever condition her pregnancy, in whatever health care system. [15]

wives shun women because of their preference for a medicalized birth. Indications and Contraindications. Relief of pain in labor

is the obvious indication for use of an epidural. Women come to the decision to rely on epidural when other means of coping with labor have been ineffective or because they are fearful of pain associated with childbirth. Some have experienced birth previously with or without medication and are basing decisions on their own experience, while many hear tales of birthing that lead them to decide that the pain is not manageable without the epidural. There are also women who do not wish to use analgesic methods for the birth of their baby, but due to medical complications, require anesthesia for abnormally painful labor or for operative births. Overall, epidurals provide the most complete relief of pain in labor and childbirth of any other method. Research has found that women using epidurals had lower pain scores and were more satisfied with their analgesia than women using parenteral opioids when simply evaluating the experience of pain [16, 17]. They are, however, the most invasive pain relief method. Nor can the positive sense of empowerment attained by women who labor and give birth without medical intervention be overestimated. In July 2002, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) released a Practice Bulletin in which the following statement was made: Labor results in severe pain for many women. There is no other circumstance where it is considered acceptable for a person to experience untreated severe pain, amenable to safe intervention, while under a physician’s care. In the absence of a medical contraindication, maternal request is a sufficient medical indication for pain relief during labor. [18]

Indications for the use of epidural anesthesia include the following: 1. Relief of pain in active labor and for sponta-

neous or operative vaginal birth 2. Cesarean section 3. Decreases need for general anesthesia for oper-

ative deliveries Using an epidural should not be considered an impediment to quality midwifery care. It should not keep women from midwifery care, nor should mid-

4. Need to diminish maternal expulsive efforts

(e.g., maternal cardiac or ophthalmologic disease)

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

767

5. Decreases fear of pain and birth for some

4. Preexisting tracheostomy

women 6. Provides opportunity for rest in the midst of a protracted, exhaustive labor

5. Preexisting neurologic or neuromuscular dis-

In some cases when an emergent cesarean birth may be required, an epidural may be recommended in order to avoid any loss of time if the emergency in fact occurs. This would be the situation when a “double set-up” is done for rupture of membranes with a floating head, for a vaginal breech birth or for a twin birth. It may also be the case when a forceps birth is to be attempted with strong anticipation of the need for a cesarean section. If a woman requires a forceps delivery and does not have an epidural, it may be initiated prior to the forceps delivery if there is time and the fetus is stable, in order to assist her in relaxation and to spare her the intense pain that can accompany forceps application and extraction. A less common but important consideration is for women with a history of sexual trauma. For some, labor brings great anxiety about painful stimuli in the vaginal/rectal area, flashbacks of the abusive events, and uncertainty about letting their baby pass through the vagina, which may have very negative connotations for them. Assurance of analgesia may be very helpful to abused women planning for their births. Many medical disorders can impact the choice of medications for pain relief and management of labor and birth. Evaluation of the woman for any medical risk factors that would be contraindications to an epidural or where special circumstances may be encountered is critical. Absolute contraindication to epidural or spinal anesthesia include the following: 1. Patient refusal or inability to cooperate 2. Skin or soft tissue infection at the site of needle

placement 3. Frank coagulopathy 4. Uncorrected maternal hypovolemia (e.g., hemorrhage) 5. Inadequate training or experience in the technique Under the following circumstances, women may be best served by a consultation with an anesthesiologist prior to labor: 1. Scoliosis, spina bifida, or other spinal column

abnormalities 2. Previous back surgery 3. Preexisting arthritides

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

ease (e.g., multiple sclerosis or muscular dystrophy) Preexisting cardiac disease Preexisting pulmonary disease other than mild asthma Low platelet counts (30 Suspected difficult airway Severe anxiety regarding regional analgesia

Anatomy/Physiology. During the first stage of labor,

pain is experienced from cervical dilatation and uterine contractions. The pain sensations travel via sympathetic nerves that enter the spinal cord through the posterior segments of thoracic spinal nerves 10, 11, and 12 [19]. During the second stage, pain primarily comes from distention of the pelvic floor, vagina, and perineum stimulating sensory fibers of the sacral nerves 2, 3, and 4 (pudendal nerve) [19]. Local anesthetics, deposited in the epidural space, interrupt sensations of pain, touch, movement, and temperature in the nerves as they enter and leave the spinal cord. The degree to which these sensations are blocked is related to the dose of medication. Epidural or intrathecal (spinal) opioids have a different mechanism of action than the local anesthetics. They do not “block” transmission of all sensation by the nerves. Instead, they work specifically to mediate pain and therefore do not cause muscle weakness. The combination of a local anesthetic and opioid injected into the epidural space is found to offer excellent pain relief with less of a motor block, and a smaller overall dose of medication. The duration of pain relief from a single dose of local anesthetic is one to two hours. If the epidural is being used for an operative procedure only—e.g., cesarean section or forceps delivery—one dose is all that may be needed. More commonly, the method is used for longer duration of pain relief. Additional medication can then be given through the epidural

768

Part V Intrapartal Care

catheter in intermittent boluses or “top-offs,” in a continuous small dose by pump, or it can be done by patient-controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA). Description of Lumbar Epidural Procedure. A lumbar epidural is placed by either a nurse anesthetist or an anesthesiologist. A 16- to 18-gauge needle is used to identify the epidural space (see Figure 26-12). Then, a catheter is threaded through the needle and left in the epidural space when the needle is removed. The external portion of the catheter is then stabilized by taping it to the mother’s back. Once the insertion and stabilization of the catheter are complete, a local anesthetic is injected through the catheter. A test dose of anesthetic is given to ensure that the catheter was not inadvertently placed in the spinal canal or in a blood vessel. With the catheter in place, additional anesthetic may be added by anesthesia personnel throughout the course of labor and birth. A segmental lumbar epidural, placed via the L2-3, L3-4, or L4-5 interspace, will allow the use of a dilute anesthetic solution that will block the sympathetic nerves that carry painful impulses in the first stage of labor. During this time, sensation and motor function of the perineum and lower extremities remain mostly intact [19]. With minimal doses of anesthetic, some centers will allow women to be ambulatory during this phase of the epidural. When the fetal head causes more pressure and stimuli in the perineal region, a larger and more concentrated dose of anesthetic may be given to provide perineal anesthesia for the birth and/or repair if necessary. This increased dose of medication will cause more of a motor block, and women will no longer be able to ambulate safely. A newer technique for management of labor pain is the use of intrathecal (spinal) opioids. This is usually done as a combined spinal/epidural procedure. Once the larger (16–18 gauge) epidural needle is placed, a small spinal needle (25–27 gauge) is introduced through the epidural needle, through the dura, and into the subarachnoid space. Very small doses of opioid (usually fentanyl or sufentanil) are needed and produce almost immediate relief of pain. The spinal needle is then removed, and the epidural catheter is threaded through the epidural needle. The epidural needle is then withdrawn and the catheter secured to the woman’s back. If the woman wishes to be ambulatory, this method can be used prior to injecting local anesthetic into the epidural space. The spinal analgesia has little or no interference with motor function [19], and it does

not have the side effect of hypotension [20]. The duration of the single spinal injection is limited to 1 to 2 hours. At that time, if the woman requires continued pain relief, the epidural route is available through the previously placed catheter. More commonly, the combined, spinal-epidural is used to provide rapid relief of labor pain while awaiting onset of the epidural block. Intrathecal opioids enhance the local anesthetic in addition to providing immediate pain relief and the ability to ambulate. With very small doses of opioids, the overall dose of local anesthetics can be decreased. The results with intrathecal opioids give bilateral relief and the chance of systemic drug toxicity is reduced, and the method is reversible with a narcotic antagonist [21]. Epidural/Spinal Associated Risks. There are potential side

effects related to each procedure and medication used. Most of the common side effects are not serious. Others are rare, but potentially severe or life threatening. Side effects related to local anesthetics include hypotension, bladder distension, and leg numbness and weakness, all caused by relaxation of muscle tone. Side effects related to performance of the procedure are postdural puncture headaches, back pain, and, very rarely, spinal cord injury. Hypotension (systolic blood pressure 100.4° F) has been demonstrated in women with epidurals [16, 22, 24, 27]. This has not, however, been associated with an increased incidence of infectious processes. Most likely, the cause of epidural-related fever is from thermoregulatory alterations [24, 28]. Unfortunately, during the course of labor it is not possible to distinguish fever of benign versus infectious origin. Therefore, an increased number of women receive intravenous antibiotics and more women have cesarean or instrumented vaginal deliveries with the potential risk of chorioamnionitis as an indication [24]. Infants of mothers with fever are more likely to be subjected to sepsis workups in the nursey. Neonatal outcomes of fetal heart rate abnormalities, intrapartum meconium, poor 5-minute Apgar scores, and low umbilical artery pH have not been shown to be significantly different between women using epidurals and those using IV opioids

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

or no medications [16, 24]. A meta-analysis comparing intrathecal opioids with traditional epidurals identified an increase in fetal bradycardia within one hour of dosing. This effect was transient, and it was not associated with an increase in cesarean, or operative vaginal birth, or poor neonatal outcomes [21, 29]. Maternal fever was increased with epidurals as was the incidence of infant sepsis workups; however, the incidence of neonatal sepsis was not increased in the infants of mothers with epidurals [16, 22, 24, 28, 30]. Neurological studies of epidural-exposed infants, opioid-exposed infants, and nonmedicated infants did not find large differences in performance between any of these groups [24]. Breastfeeding initiation and continuation through 6 weeks postpartum were shown not to be influenced by the method of analgesia [16]. Outcomes of Labor. Throughout the years that epidurals have been in use, there has been concern as well as disagreement regarding the adverse effects of epidurals on the course and outcomes of labor and birth for both mother and fetus. Leighton and Halpern published a meta-analysis of epidural effects on labor, and maternal and neonatal outcomes that evaluated four studies including a total of 4324 women [16]. Lieberman and O’Donoghue reviewed the literature regarding use of epidurals with lowrisk pregnant women and the unintended effects for the mother, fetus, and neonate [24]. Epidural analgesia side effects and co-interventions were reviewed by Mayberry et al. [22]. The findings of all of these studies demonstrate inconsistencies in the literature and difficulties encountered in attempting to identify specific outcomes of research with differing definitions of practice. Length of labor and the effects of epidural anesthesia are very difficult to determine due to many confounding variables. In general, it is felt that epidurals can slow the rate of cervical dilatation in the first stage of labor [24, 31], especially if it is given during the latent phase of labor [31]. Some studies have shown no difference in the length of first stage of labor, [16, 22]. This may have been affected by the increased use of oxytocin after initiation of analgesia in the women with epidurals. Conversely, some women have an accelerated course of labor following epidural analgesia [31]. This may be due to increased fundal dominance after epidural anesthesia [31]. In addition, it is not uncommon to see women relax with the relief of pain, to demonstrate a decreased sense of fear, and to progress rapidly to second stage and birth. All of

771

these factors must be taken into consideration when counseling women regarding the use of epidurals. “Prolonged duration of labor is often quoted as an adverse maternal event; however, duration alone is of little significance if labor pain is adequately controlled and fetal/neonatal well-being is preserved” [25]. Use of epidurals early in labor relaxes the pelvic floor and may contribute to malpositions before the fetal head is flexed into a normal position for descent and rotation. Subsequently, the rates of oxytocin use and instrumented vaginal deliveries is increased [32]. The second stage has been shown to be significantly lengthened in epidural study groups [4, 16, 20, 22, 24, 27, 31]. The incidence of operative vaginal deliveries is consistently higher with epidurals [16, 22, 33, 34]. This is very important as both forceps and vacuum-assisted births are associated with major perineal lacerations and neonatal birth injury [24]. When epidural blocks are very dense in the pelvic floor region, the normal mechanisms of labor may be interfered with. When the fetal head descends and hits the pelvic floor, there is normally strong muscle tone that guides the fetal head into the path for birth. However, when the pelvic floor is very relaxed, the head may remain in a posterior presentation or may be compacted into the posterior pelvis, resulting in asynclitism. At the least, the length of second stage is extended while the mother is unaware of the normal stimulus to push and the fetus may not rotate and extend its head in the usual fashion. Some practitioners have advocated cessation of epidural analgesia for the second stage to enable the woman to experience the urge to push and to be able to actively participate in expulsive efforts. For a few mothers, this is a successful approach, but for many, severe pain and anxiety ensue making this a traumatic event and often decreasing the woman’s ability to cooperate in pushing. According to Chestnut, the length of the second stage as well as the incidence of malpresentation and of instrumented deliveries can be reduced with the use of a more dilute solution of local anesthetic in the second stage [31]. “Maintenance of total anesthesia likely prolongs the second stage of labor, and it may increase the incidence of instrumental vaginal delivery” [31, p. 423]. Whether epidurals influence the cesarean birth rate is controversial. Cesarean delivery rates were not different between the study groups with epidural use and those with parenteral opioids or

772

Part V Intrapartal Care

no medication [16, 24, 27, 31]. Most studies found no increase in the rate of cesarean births for an indication of nonreassuring fetal status [22]. Some authors feel that there is a clinically significant, if not statistical, increase in the incidence of cesarean deliveries for women with epidurals [22, 24, 27, 31]. This may be due to a predisposition to abnormal presentation and asynclitism, or it may be related to the fact that women with dysfunctional labors have increased length of labor and increased intensity of pain, therefore increasing their likelihood of electing regional analgesia. Another factor that seems to contribute to increased cesarean rates is the arbitrary termination of the second stage. For women with regional analgesia, a 3-hour second stage can be considered normal if there is progressive descent of the presenting part [35]. If the fetal heart rate status is reassuring, and progress is continuing, there should be no arbitrary time to abandon vaginal birth for women with or without epidurals. Delaying the onset of pushing until the fetal head spontaneously descends has been suggested as a means of decreasing the cesarean rates with epidurals [36]. Medical risks are not the only consideration with epidural anesthesia [37]. Less measurable and often overlooked psychosocial side effects also must be considered. When a woman has an epidural, she is usually confined to bed. The aura of normalcy of the labor and birth process, strength and health of the woman, and the sense of a woman being in control of her body and its functioning are shifted to a “sick role” requiring specific medical attention. For the woman who is highly invested in an unmedicated birth but requires an epidural for pain management, there may be a strong sense of failure. Preparation prior to labor should help women to have realistic attitudes toward prepared childbirth, but this disappointment may occur in any event. Having an epidural does indeed relieve a woman of a great deal of the discomfort of labor and birth. However, many women are unprepared for the lack of control they feel physically. Some women are disconcerted by the extreme lack of sensation and inability to move their lower extremities, the lack of bladder control, and need for attachment to multiple machines and electrical and IV leads. Preparation of the Woman. All women requiring epidural analgesia/anesthesia will have intravenous fluids in order to ensure maternal hydration, manage hypotension, and administer medications such as ephedrine. Assessment of maternal vital signs

will allow for determination of baseline blood pressure and pulse prior to initiating medications that can alter these. Fetal assessment with continuous electronic fetal monitoring allows reassurance of fetal well-being or identification of a fetus who may not tolerate an episode of maternal hypotension. Asking the woman to empty her bladder prior to the start of an epidural ensures at least an initial period when the maternal bladder will not overdistend or require catheterization. The epidural catheter can be placed with the mother in either a side-lying position or sitting at the side of the bed. This will be determined by the anesthetist at the time of the procedure. In any case, the woman should be assisted with getting into the required position, and assisted with staying as still as possible in this position throughout the procedure. This is usually done by the L&D nurse but could also be done by the midwife. The woman should be informed about each step of the procedure as it is about to happen. Usually the nurse anesthetist or anesthesiologist will keep the woman informed, but this may become a nursing role. Her back will be cleansed with an antibacterial solution and covered with a sterile drape, and a local anesthetic will be injected at the site of the lumbar vertebrae to be used. Once local anesthesia is in effect, the epidural needle will be guided slowly through the vertebrae and into the epidural space. After ensuring the correct needle placement, the anesthetist will thread the epidural catheter into place, remove the needle, and secure the catheter to the mother’s back. At that time, the mother will be assisted to lie in a semi-Fowler’s position with the uterus laterally displaced with a towel roll or pillow under one hip. A test dose will be given followed by the full dosage of local anesthesia. Performance of frequent blood pressures is critical at this time and for the duration of the use of the epidural. Initially, blood pressures are taken every 5 minutes, then every 15 minutes until the epidural is discontinued. Particular attention should also be paid to the fetal response to the epidural immediately and over the 30 minutes following a dose of medication. Local anesthetics cause a relaxation of maternal musculature, including the vascular walls. This will result in lowering maternal blood pressure. Even when the maternal blood pressure remains within normal range, blood flow to the uterus and therefore placenta and fetus will be diminished at least transiently. This commonly results in a drop of the fetal heart rate 10 to 20 minutes after the local anesthetic is given. The usual fetal heart rate pat-

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

tern is variable deceleration (can be to the 80 bpm rate) for 1 to 3 minutes. Most of the time this is quickly resolved with an increase in maternal IV fluids, and turning the mother to her side. In rare cases, ephedrine is required to elevate maternal blood pressure and restore blood flow to the fetus. Informed Consent. Pain relief during labor is ideally discussed during prenatal care [30, 38, 39]. True informed consent is difficult to obtain by a woman in the throes of active labor or transition, or under the influence of intravenous narcotics. Women should be informed of the range of risks as well as benefits associated with epidural administration [39]. All midwives, regardless of their site of births, should have a firm knowledge of this frequently requested technology. Information can be shared verbally during pregnancy, and, ideally, a woman would be given written information regarding risks and benefits of all methods of pain relief including epidurals. A survey of women who used epidural analgesia in labor revealed very poor recall of the risks of epidural [38]. Participation in prenatal classes demonstrated an improvement of recall of risks, supporting the concept that the prenatal period is the most advantageous time to give women information regarding risks and benefits of pain relief methods. Documentation of this discussion is advised [38]. During the course of prenatal care, the midwife will explore with each woman what her anticipated choices for pain relief will be in labor. As in all other areas of childbirth, women should understand the full implications of their choices. This includes that having an epidural requires the use of other medical technology: IV fluids, frequent vital sign monitoring, usually with a blood pressure cuff and pulse oximeter attached for the duration of labor and birth, and continuous electronic fetal heart rate monitoring. It is important for women and midwives to understand that there will be a time delay between request for epidural analgesia and actual relief of pain. At least 30 minutes must be allowed to pass for the nurse anesthetist or anesthesiologist to come to the labor and delivery unit, to review the medical record and assess the woman, and to prepare equipment, scrub, position the woman, prepare a sterile field, and place the needle and catheter, and then another 10 minutes must be allowed for the local anesthetic to work effectively. The woman should also be aware that if she has a rapid or precipitous labor, an epidural may not be indicated or possible.

773

Midwifery Management. When midwives use epidurals

as a part of their management of labor and birth, there are a variety of logistical issues to consider. These include the availability of anesthesia personnel with the expertise to perform epidurals. In some hospitals, the consulting obstetrician is required to be “in house.” Clinical practice guidelines that are agreed upon by the midwife and the consulting physician should address use of epidurals, indications for their use, and what special circumstances require additional assistance, if any. When to initiate epidural analgesia is a common dilemma for the midwife. It has long been felt that epidurals given during the latent phase of labor were more highly associated with prolonged labor, need for oxytocin administration, and higher rates of operative births. Therefore, withholding epidurals until active labor is well established—at least 4 centimeters dilated and progressing—has become a more common practice. Use of relaxation, breathing and distraction techniques, water, and a birthing ball during this period is the most accepted approach for most women. Narcotic pain relief may also provide the relaxation needed to decrease the pain and fear cycle the mother is experiencing. The most important consideration is individualization of care. For some, latent phase labor is very painful, stressful, and exhausting. In this case, early epidural followed by rest may be the best approach. For those women who have decided prenatally to have an epidural but who are coping well through progressive labor, supportive methods and encouragement may be the best approach. Supportive care during labor is a hallmark of midwifery care. For women who give birth without epidural anesthesia, the supportive techniques and attitude of midwifery care cannot be too highly valued. But for those women who elect epidural anesthesia for their labor and birth experience, midwifery management has the same strong role. Attention to the personal needs of a woman and her family and focus on the woman and the birth remains the central point of care. Too often, technology is allowed to take center stage. Women are strapped into stirrups, draped as if they were having major surgery, and attached to automatic blood pressure monitors, pulse oximeters, continuous electronic fetal monitors, IV fluids, and sometimes pitocin pumps and even cardiac monitors. How easy it is to lose sight of the birth of a child and a family. The midwife’s role in de-emphasizing the technology and centering the focus of the birth environment on the mother cannot be understated.

774

Part V Intrapartal Care

Klein et al. found that practitioners who use fewer epidurals for their patients also are more likely to spend more time with women in labor and to use intermittent fetal monitoring than those practitioners who used epidurals for a higher percentage of women they cared for in labor. When using epidurals, the practitioners with the lowest use started epidurals at a more advanced cervical dilatation, had shorter labors, fewer forceps and cesarean births, and fewer admissions to newborn special care units [32]. While the mechanics of technology may be required when epidurals are used, it is not necessary to routinely use stirrups for birth. A semi-Fowler’s position with the mother grasping her knees or supported by her partner works very well. Draping is only necessary under the buttocks for the purpose of maintaining a clean field for the birth. A quiet, low-light environment can easily be created where the woman and the newborn are the focal point with the technology in the shadows. The midwife must set this tone with the nursing staff, anesthesia personnel, and other medical providers as well as with the woman and her family. Speaking in a low voice, dimming bright lights, and turning off the blaring television can all assist in setting the mood for birth. When the women you are serving have not sought out midwifery care and have not participated in shaping their own birth environment, the midwife has a special opportunity to make each birth experience one that shows respect for human birth, even in the midst of a highly medicalized system. Continuing Evaluation of Maternal and Fetal Well-Being Continuing evaluation of maternal and fetal wellbeing includes monitoring the following: Maternal 1. Vital signs a. blood pressure b. temperature c. pulse d. respirations 2. Bladder distention 3. Urine a. protein b. ketones 4. Hydration a. fluids b. nausea/vomiting

5. General condition a. fatigue and physical depletion b. behavior and response to labor c. pain and coping ability Fetal 1. Normality of the fetal lie, presentation, atti-

tude, position, and variety 2. Fetal adaptation to the pelvis 3. The fetal heart rate and pattern

An inherent part of this continuing evaluation is determination of your need to consult a physician in the event your evaluation reveals deviation from normal. The need for consultation with a physician is determined by the midwife while evaluating the normality of the woman, fetus, and progress of labor; screening for medical and obstetrical abnormality; and anticipating possible potential problems. The parameters of normal were covered earlier in this chapter. Screening for and disposition of complications, including when to consult with the physician, are covered in Chapters 29 and 30. Vital Signs. The parameters of normal and their significance for all the maternal vital signs were detailed earlier in this chapter in the discussion of the database for the first stage of labor (Table 26-6). All of the vital signs are checked every time the woman is seen for diagnosis of labor and again during the initial evaluation when she is in labor. Thereafter, the frequency with which vital signs are checked may vary with the setting. Hospitals and birth centers usually have a policy regarding the frequency with which vital signs should be checked to ensure adherence to a minimum standard. Any desired or indicated frequency greater or lesser than that stated by policy requires a specific order in the hospital. The following schedule for checking vital signs reflects generally accepted norms of frequency for a normal woman during the active phase of the first stage of labor, regardless of setting:

Maternal Well-Being

1. Blood pressure: every hour 2. Temperature, pulse, and respirations: a. every 2 hours (or every 4 hours) when the

temperature is normal and the membranes are intact b. every hour (or every 2 hours) after the membranes have ruptured Bladder. The woman’s bladder should be evaluated

for distention at least every 2 hours during the ac-

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

tive phase of the first stage of labor. The bladder needs this attention because it is a pelvic organ. With the descent of the fetal presenting part into the true pelvis, the bladder is compressed so that distention occurs with only approximately 100 cc of urine in the bladder. If the bladder is not carefully attended to and emptied, but instead allowed to become more distended, the following may result: 1. Obstructed labor: An overdistended bladder

2.

3.

4.

5.

can impede the progress of labor by preventing fetal descent. Discomfort: A distended bladder increases the discomfort or pain in the lower abdomen that women frequently experience during labor. Difficulty in management of shoulder dystocia: An overdistended bladder interferes with descent of the shoulders and decreases the amount of room in the true pelvis. Difficulty in management of an immediate postpartal hemorrhage resulting from uterine atony: An overdistended bladder displaces the postpartal uterus, thereby inhibiting its ability to contract and effect uterine hemostasis. Bladder hypotonicity, urine stasis, and infection during the postpartal period: This can result from trauma from pressure exerted on the distended bladder during labor

Routine assessment of the bladder is done every 2 hours to be sure distention does not go undetected. However, every time the woman’s abdomen is bared for abdominal examination or to take the fetal heart tones, the contour of her abdomen should be noted for bladder distention. A distended bladder appears as a bulge above the symphysis pubis and, in severe cases, may extend as high as the umbilicus. When the fetus is in a posterior position the contour of the woman’s abdomen may look as though she has a full bladder; distention must then be ruled out. In the event of bladder distention all measures must be taken to facilitate the woman’s efforts to urinate. The best method is for her to walk to the toilet if there are no contraindications to her ambulating. If she is unable to be out of bed and if the usual methods (having her listen to the sound of running water; running warm water over her perineum; applying light suprapubic pressure; and having her practice perineal relaxation) do not cause her to urinate, then the midwife must decide for or against catheterization. This decision is based on weighing the risk of infection from catheterization against the risk of postpartal infection plus the other possible problems and sequelae if the woman

775

is not catheterized. This latter risk is evaluated on the basis of the severity of the distention, the woman’s labor status, and her progress in labor. Urine. In addition to the initial specimen collected at

the time of admission for routine microscopic examination, the urine should be examined by dipstick for protein and ketones when a woman urinates during labor. The results of examination of the urine for protein should be evaluated in relation to the type of urine specimen it was and the contaminants it might have in it. This is important because the urine is examined for protein as a routine screening for one of the signs of preeclampsia. If there is protein in the specimen, it is vital to know whether the woman is evidencing proteinuria. If the specimen was a voided specimen and the woman has a copious amount of bloody show, the specimen will be contaminated with blood. The results are thereby rendered worthless because the positive protein results may be due to the contamination by blood protein. If, however, the specimen was obtained during catheterization, the results may be considered valid. The results from carefully collected clean-catch specimens under favorable conditions (i.e., without contamination from vaginal discharges) may also be considered valid. The urine is examined for ketones to screen the woman for maternal exhaustion and distress inclusive of dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, and nutritional deficiency during labor. Since most of the other signs and symptoms of maternal exhaustion and distress are difficult to differentiate from normal physiological changes and physical manifestations during labor, the presence or absence of ketonuria is essential for establishing a differential diagnosis and instituting corrective treatment (see Chapter 29). It is most important to use dipstick testing of the urine for ketones to evaluate the laboring woman for the adequacy of her oral intake of liquids for maintenance of hydration. Good oral fluid intake is not usually possible in prolonged labor or when there has been uterine inertia. Ketonuria would indicate the need for an IV. Hydration (see also pp. 761–762). The maintenance of

hydration throughout labor is essential for the woman’s well-being. The time span of labor does not lend itself to evaluation of hydration on the basis of such signs as skin turgor. On the other hand, signs of dehydration such as dry or cracked lips, a dry mouth, or a parched throat may not be

776

Part V Intrapartal Care

due to dehydration at all in a woman in labor but may instead be due to the type of breathing she is doing with her contractions. Evaluation thus is based on screening for ketonuria and on a knowledge of the woman’s fluid intake (by whatever route) and loss. Concentration of the urine should also be noted. Not only the woman’s fluid intake but also any loss of fluids affects the maintenance of hydration. Excessive nausea or vomiting in a woman without an IV will decrease her desire for fluids and her ability to take fluids by mouth. Excessive vomiting in a woman with an IV must be counterbalanced by an increase in her IV fluids. Although you need not keep a strict intake and output record on a normal laboring woman, her labor record should reflect her fluid intake, urinary output, and the amount of any emesis. General Condition. Evaluation of the well-being of the woman necessarily includes evaluation of several areas that interrelate and overlap: her state of fatigue and physical depletion, her behavior and responses to labor, and her perception of pain and ability to cope with labor. Her state of fatigue and physical depletion is affected by her state of fatigue on entering labor, maintenance of hydration during labor, length of labor, and her ability to cope with the demands placed upon her by her condition and situation. These may be part of a vicious cycle: a lack of ability to cope may increase fatigue and fatigue may decrease her ability to cope; or the longer the labor, the greater the fatigue, but fatigue may also cause labor to be longer. Occasionally a woman enters labor truly exhausted and dehydrated from days of the general miseries of the end of pregnancy or from false labor. A management plan for such a woman should include helping her rest during early labor with 100 mg of secobarbital (Seconal) intramuscularly while hydrating her with intravenous fluids. A woman’s behavior normally changes throughout labor, as described earlier in this chapter. These changes can be used in evaluating her response to labor. Her behavior is also affected by her degree of self-confidence, her anxiety and fear, and the amount of pain she is experiencing. In another cycle of interplay, these in turn affect her coping ability, and her ability to cope affects her self-confidence, anxieties, and fears. Intervention during labor is most effective with women who have been prepared for childbearing during pregnancy. With

or without this preparation, evaluation of behavior during labor will aid in determining a number of the support and comfort measures needed, including the need for medication. Fetal Well-Being Evaluation of the fetal lie, presentation, attitude, position, and variety is done first by abdominal palpation (see “Abdominal Palpation and Leopold’s Maneuvers” in Chapter 53) and confirmed by vaginal examination as discussed in detail earlier in this chapter. The first part of this chapter also discussed the information needed to evaluate fetal adaptation to the pelvis: synclitism/asynclitism, molding of the fetal skull, the formation of caput succedaneum, and the parameters of normal for each. All the information on fetal well-being is obtained whenever the woman is evaluated for diagnosis of labor, during the initial evaluation when she is in labor, and any other time a vaginal examination is done during labor, whether for purposes of updating this information or to evaluate the progress of labor by cervical change and fetal descent. One of the management decisions a midwife makes is to determine the frequency with which the fetal heart tones are to be checked and how this will be done. The frequency is standard regardless of setting; the how will vary by setting, as no homes and very few birth centers have electronic fetal monitors. In the hospital the possible methods include intermittent auscultation of the fetal heart; intermittent external fetal monitoring; continuous external fetal monitoring; and continuous internal fetal monitoring. This management decision should be based on indicated need. If the woman is healthy and has had an uncomplicated pregnancy, there is no need for electronic fetal monitoring. The fetal heart rate and pattern should be evaluated using auscultation with a fetoscope or an ultrasonic method (e.g., Doptone) every 30 minutes during active labor. In addition, the fetal heart is checked at other times during the course of a normal labor: 1. When the membranes rupture 2. After expulsion of an enema 3. Whenever there is any sudden change in the

contraction or labor pattern 4. After giving the woman medication and again at its peak action time 5. Whenever there is any indication that an obstetric or medical complication is developing

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

The methods of assessing the fetal heart rate and pattern, and the parameters of normal for the baseline fetal heart rate, irregularity, and periodic fetal heart rate changes are discussed in Chapter 27. See also “Location of Fetal Heart Tones” in Chapter 53.

Continuing Evaluation and Facilitation of the Progress of Labor Information on the following items is used in the continuing evaluation of the progress of labor: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Effacement Dilatation Station Contraction pattern a. frequency b. duration c. intensity Maternal behavior changes Signs and symptoms of transition and impending second stage Position of low back pain Position of location of maximum intensity of fetal heart tones

All eight of the above items were discussed and their parameters of normal for the phases of the first stage of labor were given earlier in this chapter. The findings obtained from examination and/or observation of these eight items are evaluated in relation to information obtained from the woman when she was initially evaluated for labor: Age Gravida and para Time of onset of true labor Length of previous labor Number of years since last baby Size of largest previous baby EDB and present week of gestation and in relation to the following information obtained in continuing evaluation of the fetus: Estimated fetal weight Presentation, position, and variety Synclitism/asynclitism Molding Caput succedaneum and in relation to the following information obtained in continuing evaluation of the woman:

777

Bladder status General condition including her state of hydration, fatigue, and physical depletion and, finally, in relation to whether the woman has had any medication, and if so, what, how much, by what route, and when. Management decisions relating to the continuing evaluation of progress in the first stage of labor include the following: 1. The frequency of vaginal examinations 2. Whether to artificially rupture the membranes 3. Management of an anterior cervical lip 4. When to prepare for birth 5. Whether the need to consult with the physician

is inherent in your evaluation and interpretation of findings The frequency with which vaginal examinations are done depends on the woman’s condition and on the midwife’s ability to use other parameters for evaluating progress in labor. It is not always necessary to do a vaginal examination in order to evaluate the progress of labor. The practice of vaginal examinations every 1 to 2 hours only subjects the woman to unnecessary discomfort, intrusion, and increased risk of infection. Astute observation of the woman (possible only if the observer stays in the room)— her behavior, contraction pattern, the signs and symptoms of transition, and changing location of back pain and fetal heart tones—should give the midwife a good idea of whether the woman’s labor is progressive. This does not negate performance of a vaginal examination either if there is a question of progress or if you are not sure of your observations and interpretation of them. For the normal intrapartal woman there are five times when a vaginal examination is indicated:

Frequency of Vaginal Examinations

1. On admission, to establish an informational

baseline 2. Before deciding on the kind, amount, and route

of any medication 3. To verify complete dilatation in order to either encourage or discourage maternal pushing effort 4. After spontaneous rupture of the membranes if a prolapsed cord is suspected or is a possibility 5. To check for a prolapsed cord when fetal heart rate decelerations are not improved with the usual maneuvers

778

Part V Intrapartal Care

Other than these five times, vaginal examinations serve no function in normally progressive labor other than to reassure the insecure clinician. If the membranes have ruptured prematurely, no vaginal examinations should be done except by permission of the person responsible for the obstetric management of the woman. This person may be you—and it is up to you to both restrict vaginal examinations and determine when one may be done. The restriction on vaginal examinations is imposed because of the increased risk of introducing contaminants and the development of intrauterine infection without the protective barrier of the membranes (see Chapter 29). If you determine that a vaginal examination is to be done for carefully considered, unavoidable, and urgent reasons (e.g., to check for a prolapsed cord), then it should be a sterile vaginal examination. A sterile vaginal examination involves cleaning the perineum (quickly) and using sterile examination gloves. Artificial Rupture of the Membranes (see also Chapter 25, page 728) Whether to artificially rupture the

membranes (perform an amniotomy) depends on the indications for amniotomy as weighed against possible undesirable effects and potential hazards of the procedure if conditions do not meet certain criteria. Indications for artificial rupture of the membranes include the following: 1. To attach an internal fetal monitor electrode 2. Baby about to be born with the membranes in-

tact at the time of birth 3. Need to stimulate labor—for example, in hypo-

tonic uterine dysfunction 4. To facilitate fetal descent and reduce the possi-

bility that the force of the pushing contractions will lead to sudden and vigorous rupture of the membranes that will cause the cord to prolapse Possible undesirable effects of artificial rupture of the membranes include the following: 1. Cord compression 2. Uneven head compression with more extensive

molding and caput succedaneum may increase the risk of intravascular hemorrhage, especially if membranes are ruptured early in labor Potential hazards include the following: 1. Potential prolapse of the umbilical cord if mem-

branes are ruptured with the fetal head unengaged or with a compound presentation, an ill-fitting breech presentation, or a small baby (less than 2000 grams)

2. Potential intrauterine infection if the mem-

branes are ruptured before labor is established and rupture of the membranes is prolonged Because of the potential hazards of amniotomy, midwives artificially rupture the membranes only if the following criteria are met: 1. The woman is in active labor with a well-estab-

lished contraction pattern and cervix dilated 4 to 5 centimeters. 2. The baby has a cephalic vertex presentation with the head engaged. Consultation with the physician is indicated if the midwife decides that the membranes need to be needled to facilitate descent of a floating fetal head. Artificial rupture of the membranes (AROM) in this situation is done either by the physician or by a highly experienced and skilled midwife who has extended her or his boundary of safety to include this. AROM in these circumstances is done between contractions to avoid a sudden rupture with a gush of fluid that might result if the membranes were torn by the force of a contraction. Such a sudden rupture may bring a prolapsed cord with the gush of fluid. In the past it was not uncommon management of a normal labor to rupture the membranes at 4 to 5 centimeters of dilatation, in order to “speed up labor” for no reason other than to shorten the whole process for the mother and the attendants. Now that possible undesirable effects on the fetus from early rupture of the membranes have been identified, most midwives will not perform an amniotomy on a normal woman until late in labor, and then only if there is an indication (even if criteria are met much earlier in labor). In performing an amniotomy the midwife should observe the following principles: 1. Do the amniotomy between contractions so that a. the force behind the rupture is reduced b. the membranes are not stretched tightly

against the fetal head (which leaves too little room in which to safely grasp the membranes in order to tear them) 2. Use an instrument that will be effective quickly and easily, such as an Allis clamp or various hooks manufactured for this purpose. An instrument that simply glides and slips along the membranes frustrates the clinician and prolongs the discomfort of a vaginal examination for the woman. 3. After rupturing the membranes, leave your fingers in the vagina through the next contraction in order to

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

779

a. evaluate the effect of the amniotomy on the

4. Continue to hold it in position and ask the

cervix (dilatation) and on the fetus (descent and rotation) b. assure that there was no prolapse of the umbilical cord 4. Have the fetal heart tones evaluated during and after artificial rupture of the membranes to assess the immediate effect of the amniotomy on the well-being of the fetus.

woman to push down during the next contraction. 5. Allow your fingers, but not the cervix, to be pushed downwards and out as the fetal head fills the space and presses against the inferior border of the symphysis pubis. 6. Do not remove your fingers from the vagina until you are sure that the cervical lip will remain in its new position both during and between contractions.

Sometimes progress at the end of the first stage of labor is impeded by the development of an anterior lip of cervix. In other words, the cervix may be completely dilated with the exception of this anterior lip, which may become increasingly edematous. Occasionally, an anterior lip of cervix starts developing earlier in the first stage of labor and may be felt when cervical dilatation is only 6 centimeters. If the cervical lip becomes extremely edematous it is a matter of concern not only because it impedes the progress of labor but also because there is greater potential for damage to the cervix as it is caught between the fetal head and the symphysis pubis. In extreme cases the cervical lip can become separated from the cervix, if the condition is ignored. An edematous anterior cervical lip rarely develops early in labor. Watchful waiting and noninterference are usually sufficient until dilatation reaches the point where the anterior lip is all that remains and it can be managed as described below. If the anterior cervical lip becomes so edematous before the end of dilatation that the condition is of serious concern and further waiting is questionable practice, the edema can be reduced by positioning the woman for a speculum examination, visualizing the cervix, and puncturing the edematous lip of the cervix multiple times and places with a needle [40]. Management of an anterior lip when dilatation is otherwise complete or nearly complete is as follows:

Management of an Anterior Cervical Lip

1. Do a vaginal examination and place your fin-

gers on the anterior lip where it touches the fetal head. 2. During a contraction, run your fingers back and forth the distance of the junction of the anterior cervical lip with the fetal head and push the cervical lip backwards until it slips over the fetal head and above the inferior border of the symphysis pubis. 3. Hold the cervical lip in this position while waiting for the next contraction.

The second stage of labor has now begun. You will need to examine the cervix for lacerations after delivery of the placenta. Preparation for Birth Preparation for birth varies considerably from setting to setting. In the home the woman may have prepared a special place where she wants to give birth. At home or in a birth center, women may give birth in a regular bed in a variety of possible positions or on a birthing stool, or squatting, or standing. Many hospitals have instituted birth rooms, in-hospital alternative birth centers, or combination labor/delivery/recovery (LDR) or labor/delivery/recovery/postpartum (LDRP) rooms. One outcome of this development is that women do not have to move from bed to table at the critical moment of giving birth. Since there often is now an option, the midwife in the hospital must make a management decision as to whether to move the woman to the delivery room. This decision, however, may be predetermined by a hospital policy that specifies who can give birth in a birth room and who must be delivered in the delivery room. These criteria are generally designed to take into account any developing or potential complications (e.g., meconium stained fluid, anticipated shoulder dystocia) or procedures that may need to be done (e.g., forceps delivery, newborn resuscitation). Some in-hospital birth rooms are designed so some procedures can take place in the birth room. Regardless of where birth takes place, a number of preparations for the birth must be properly timed or the midwife will not be ready. In all settings this involves getting out whatever instruments and supplies the midwife uses and making sure they are ready and accessible. (At a minimum a midwife uses sterile gloves, a bulb syringe, two clamps, a pair of scissors, a cord clamp or tie, something to catch the placenta in, a type of chux, 4 ¥ 4 gauze squares, a receiving blanket, and a head cover for the baby.) Experience in refining observations and a

780

Part V Intrapartal Care

sixth sense are required in order to achieve proper timing. However, there are a few cardinal generalities that are valid enough of the time to be useful in timing preparation for birth in any setting. 1. Primigravidas: Preparations for birth should

begin after complete dilatation, and, depending on the amount of descent, after some time of pushing or until the time-honored maxim of fifty cents—the size of a half-dollar—indicates the amount of fetal head visible at the vaginal introitus between contractions. 2. Multiparas: Preparations for birth should begin before complete dilatation, at approximately 8 centimeters during transition. If you wait longer you are inviting an uncontrolled delivery of the baby before you have finished preparations for the birth. 3. Progress of labor must be taken into account in making the decision of when to begin preparations. A rapidly progressive labor or a more desultory type of labor invalidates the above two statements and the timing of preparing for birth should be adjusted accordingly. The rapidity of second stage labor is also affected by the degree of relaxation, stretch, and give in the woman’s vagina and perineum as well as by her parity. Preparations for birth get more complex in the hospital, especially if the woman has to be moved to the delivery room. There are hospitals that still require that women be moved to the delivery room for birth. Deciding exactly when is the best time to do so is a refined art. Ideally the woman should be moved in an unrushed fashion. She should have time to move from her bed to the delivery room table between contractions. Preparations (getting legs into stirrups or being positioned for dorsal delivery, perineal cleansing, draping) should be done at a steady, quiet, nonfrantic pace; there should be time for procedures that have been selected as part of the management plan (e.g., pudendal block). Birth should immediately follow completion of all preparations, thereby keeping at a minimum the amount of time the woman’s legs are in stirrups. Again, ideally all this should be accomplished without having to tell the woman to pant in order to prevent her from pushing and having the baby before all is ready. What you want to avoid is a wild scene of a mad dash to the delivery room with personnel rushing around and yelling at the woman not to push while they don gloves and frantically pour some solution over her perineum so the delivery can be called “sterile.”

Whatever the setting, if you find that you have mistimed your preparations, it is far better to stop everything, put on gloves, and calmly assist the mother in the birth of her baby. Equipment and supplies can be obtained by others as needed. It is up to the midwife to direct everyone else in the situation in what to do to be helpful to the mother, to you, and to the baby when born. Bodily and Supportive Care of the Mother and Her Significant Other/Family/Friends Purpose of Supportive Care One of the hallmarks of a midwife is the constant care she or he gives the woman throughout labor. This does not mean remote control management of the woman but, rather, being an active and participating presence in the room both to manage the care of the woman obstetrically and to provide or facilitate the provision of indicated supportive care. Women’s horror stories of being left alone in fear and in pain without knowing what was going on, with only an hourly check of the blood pressure and fetal heart tone and a “mashing” of her abdomen for comfort and company, are anathema to the midwife. This sort of trauma experienced by a woman in labor may have a negative psychological effect on her for the rest of her life and on her relationship with the child, whom she may see as the cause of her trauma. In order to provide supportive care one must know how to do so. Otherwise the caretaker becomes frustrated by not knowing how to help the woman and uncomfortable with the woman’s suffering and ultimately removes herself or himself from the situation by leaving the room. From this scenario come the horror stories and the trauma experienced by women. Supportive care during labor miraculously changes this entire scenario. The dramatic effects relate not only to the woman’s psyche but also to the physiological effects on the fetus, who benefits from less medication and a naturally shorter labor. As mentioned earlier, effective supportive care is worth 100 to 200 milligrams of Demerol—it can shorten labor by 2 to 3 hours and provides uncountable psychological benefits. Lesser and Keane [41] identified five needs of a woman in labor: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Bodily or physical care Sustaining human presence Relief from pain Acceptance of attitudes and behavior Information and reassurance of a safe outcome for herself and her baby

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

The following discussion of support and comfort measures includes specific actions for meeting these five needs. By implementing these you become at least one sustaining human presence for the woman. The basis for deciding which support and comfort measures to implement, and when and where, is your observations of the woman, the agreement between you as to what might be helpful, and her description of the location of her discomfort or pain. Inherent throughout is the acceptance of the woman’s attitudes and behavior and the belief that whatever she is doing is the best she is capable of at that moment. Supportive care requires patience and understanding on your part and perseverance in your efforts to help her. She desperately needs positive input—not negative reactions—in order to continue coping with her condition and situation and to have a sense of satisfaction afterward. The support and comfort measures that emphasize explanations and teaching—meeting the woman’s need for information—are means of breaking the fear-tension-pain syndrome described by Dick-Read [42]. This vicious cycle occurs when fear causes both mental and muscular tension, which in turn causes pain, which in turn increases fear, and so forth. Dick-Read advocated breaking this cycle with education to reduce fear, combined with exercises geared toward further facilitating muscular relaxation. Subsequent natural psychoprophylactic methods of childbearing vary in the emphasis they place on preparatory muscular and breathing exercises, but all educate the woman about the processes occurring within her body and means of coping with them, thereby reducing fear. The support and comfort measures described in detail in the next section are the “what-to-dos.” Of equal importance is determining how to do the what-to-dos in terms of purpose, approach, implementation, and expectations of results. Five “howto-do” considerations are important: 1. The support and comfort measures that are

listed constitute an armamentarium from which to choose. Not all women need all of these measures. Some women will not respond to any of them. Some women will find some measures helpful and others irritating—and which are considered helpful and which irritating will vary from woman to woman. You can but try each that may be indicated and seek validation from the woman as to its helpfulness. Ask—do not go strictly on the woman’s behavior, especially if she is nonresponsive, as you can misinterpret her behavior. Ask her if a certain

781

measure is helping or not and if she wants you to continue it. Use your knowledge of labor processes, combine this with the woman’s needfor-help, learn from each experience with a laboring woman, and think up support and comfort measures other than those listed here. Do not be limited by books and articles; use your intelligence, ingenuity, and compassion. 2. Define your purpose—that is, what you are trying to accomplish with your support and comfort measures and care of a woman. One such statement of purpose would be to facilitate the efforts of the woman to cope effectively with, and function capably in response to, the demands being placed on her by her condition and situation. 3. How you talk with a woman in labor may determine your effectiveness. It does no good to give her instructions or coach her with her breathing if she can’t hear you. The advent of a contraction causes the woman to direct her total mental concentration toward her response to that contraction. For the unprepared woman in particular the response may be fear and bodily tension and pain. You will need to break through this mind set. To do so requires your speaking with a degree of authority and firmness with enough vocal timbre and projection to be heard. Whispering, unless it is directly into her ear (which most women find irritating), is useless. Soft-spoken instructions from a distance (i.e., across the room, from the foot of the bed) are also a waste of breath. This does not mean, however, that you should shout or yell at the woman. This is equally useless—it only heightens the woman’s sense of aloneness and pain and is not helpful. Shouting at a woman in labor is intolerable. 4. The key to success in supportive care is your own involvement. Involvement means facilitating others in their support as well as doing things yourself. There will be times when you are as exhausted, or more so, than the woman after the birth because you will have breathed, rubbed, and pushed with her throughout her labor in addition to carrying out all your other responsibilities. Supportive care demands your presence if you are the one giving it. You cannot simply make an hourly visit and then conduct supportive care from afar with a string of orders. This does not mean, however, that you are the only one capable of giving supportive care. Far from it. Use others—nursing staff and significant others (Figure 26-13). Involve them so that each feels the importance of his or her contribution to the care of the woman through childbirth.

782

Part V Intrapartal Care

her coping efforts as you manage her care for a safe outcome for herself and her baby. Positioning. A woman should assume whatever position brings her some comfort. This position may change, sometimes frequently, and may be in bed or out-of-bed, standing, walking, sitting, on or over a birthing ball, rocking, squatting, kneeling, hands and knees, knee-chest, or in the supine or lateral (left or right) positions (see pages xxx–xxx). Positioning in bed involves placing pillows, rolled blankets or towels, or a combination of these in strategic spots to promote relaxation, reduce muscle tension, and eliminate pressure points. This can be done in any position the woman assumes. At a minimum a laboring woman needs a pillow under her head. If there are no pillows, make one by stuffing two full sheets or two blankets into a pillow case. This pillow is more comfortable if the sheets or blankets are shaken out first rather than placed folded inside the pillow case. It takes only a few more seconds to do and the results are worth it. To promote generalized relaxation, encourage the woman to assume a side or elevated supine position if in bed. Figures 22-3 and 26-14 illustrate the position of the pillows and rolled blankets and towels for those two positions. Support and Comfort Measures

FIGURE 26-13 Partner providing OB back rub (fetus in a posterior position) while the midwife listens to the fetal heart tones. Source: Photo courtesy of the North Shore Birth Center, Beverly, Massachusetts.

5. Be realistic in your expectations of what you

can accomplish with your support and comfort measures. It is unrealistic to think you can take away all the woman’s discomfort and pain and make her fully capable and blissfully happy throughout her labor. Although it is true that some women, especially prepared women, cope effectively with their labor, are well in control of themselves and measures that relieve their discomfort, and respond with relief and gratitude to everything you do, there are other women, usually unprepared, who scream, thrash, and writhe their way painfully and miserably through labor and seem to get no relief from anything you do. Don’t feel you have failed. If you talk with such a woman about her experience the next day she probably will tell you that your perseverance and your sustaining human presence meant everything to her. Allow for individual attitudes and behavior. In some cultures women are supposed to scream during labor in order to atone for their sins. The more screaming there is, and the louder and longer the screaming, the more sins are atoned for. Other women try to be stoics when what they really need is to be encouraged to yell at the peak of hard contractions. Each woman comes into labor with her own expectations, fears, preparation, pain threshold, personality and behavioral makeup, and way of experiencing what is happening to her. You must adapt to her—not expect her to adapt to you—and quickly learn her individuality in order to facilitate

Relaxation Exercises. There are three relaxation exer-

cises that may help the woman in labor.

FIGURE 26-14 Midwife supporting woman in labor in elevated supine position.

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

1. Progressive relaxation: This type of relaxation

should be practiced during the antepartal period so that a woman can quickly will herself to relax her muscles and, if needed, to catch catnaps between contractions. The exercise involves deliberately tightening a single muscle group (e.g., hand, arm, leg, face) as tight as possible and then letting it go as limp as possible. Muscles are tightened sequentially and progressively from one end of the body to the other. The exercise promotes total body relaxation and rest or sleep. 2. Controlled relaxation: This type of relaxation also should be practiced during the antepartal period so that the woman can make effective use of it during labor. The exercise involves having one muscle group contracted while keeping other muscle groups relaxed. This is akin to labor, in which the uterus is tightly contracted and it is desirable not to tense other muscle groups in response. The woman practices the exercise by tightening one muscle group while relaxing its counterpart. For example, in order of increasing difficulty: Right arm tightened, left arm relaxed (and vice versa) Left leg tightened, right leg relaxed (and vice versa) Right arm and right leg tightened, left arm and left leg relaxed (and vice versa) Left arm and right leg tightened, right arm and left leg relaxed (and vice versa) 3. Deep breath and sigh after each contraction: This relaxation can be taught when a woman is in active labor if she doesn’t already know it. It consists simply of the woman’s taking a deep breath and letting it all out in “a big heavy sigh” after the contraction is over. This serves a double function. It not only promotes relaxation but also acts as a cleansing breath to counteract any possible hyperventilation during the contraction or to break a pattern of rapid breathing at this time. Relaxation is further promoted if you give the woman a mental image of how you want her to look and feel after her sigh. For example: “Let yourself sink into the bed and go loose like a rag doll” (or a wet dishrag or a limp noodle). Breathing Exercises. If you have not taught breathing exercises to the woman you are working with during labor, you must be knowledgeable about and able to adapt and facilitate her efforts in whatever breathing methodology she has learned and practiced and believes in. During labor is no time to

783

teach her your way of doing it or even to hint that her way is anything but the best. For her, her way is the best. If you are unfamiliar with her technique, ask her to teach you how you can best help her. If a woman enters active labor with no preparation in childbearing and no practice in breathing exercises, you are limited in what you will be able to teach her. If she is in active labor already, you probably will not be able to teach her the Lamaze breathing techniques and the Lamaze philosophy of active “working with” participation and concentration; this method requires training and practice. You might be able to teach her a basic pant-pantblow rhythm, which she can do faster or slower as you direct her. This gives her something to concentrate on other than the contraction and its pain. You might be able to teach her abdominal breathing; the advantage to this is that the woman feels relief when she is doing it. Abdominal breathing is effective for two reasons: Half of the benefit is psychological because the breathing provides distraction by giving her something else to concentrate on, and half of the benefit is physiological because the breathing lifts the abdominal wall up off the contracting uterus, thereby reducing pressure and thus reducing pain. However, during transition the woman is no longer able to do abdominal breathing, and you should teach her pant-pant-blow breathing or a superficial chest breathing to use at that time. Which of the above you teach may depend on what the individual woman responds to and is able to do. At times you may be happy just to get the woman to breathe. Some very frightened, unprepared women may simply hold their breath and not breathe throughout a contraction. This causes a certain degree of tissue hypoxia, which increases pain. Your instruction may be limited in such situations to nothing more than repeated authoritative urgings: “Breathe!” One essential form of breathing is panting. If the woman learns the panting technique during the antepartal period, she can do a controlled form of panting. However, panting in the form of a rapid, shallow, throat breathing, which you can demonstrate and describe as “panting like a dog” is a technique that a woman can learn instantly while in labor. It is used whenever you want to prevent the woman from pushing. It does no good to tell a woman “Don’t push” (no matter how loudly and forcibly you say it) without showing her how not to push. It is impossible for anyone to pant and push at the same time. Panting is, however, a very ex-

784

Part V Intrapartal Care

hausting type of breathing. Therefore, it should be used only when indicated, as in the following situations: 1. If the woman is pushing prior to complete di-

latation of the cervix. Constant pushing of the presenting part against an undilated cervix serves only to make the cervix edematous; if edema is severe enough it may impede labor or, at the very least, increase the chance of cervical laceration and hemorrhage as the congested cervix becomes friable. 2. In order to deliver the head of the baby between contractions. You may instruct a woman to pant through her contraction and then push without a contraction so the head will ease out without the combined force behind it of both the contraction and the push. 3. If you discover the cord wrapped tightly around the baby’s neck after the head is born and you decide to clamp and cut the cord immediately. You don’t want the mother to push until you have completed this action. The other essential form of breathing, the form used for the maternal pushing effort, is described in Chapter 67. In all teaching of breathing, you will get the idea across to the woman most quickly and effectively if you demonstrate it to her and then do it with her. If the woman does not learn a breathing exercise until she is in active labor and so has not previously practiced it, it may be necessary for you to breathe with her during every contraction. Prepared or unprepared, a woman needs reminding, encouragement, and positive reinforcement with each contraction. She will not remember what you say from contraction to contraction and will quickly exhaust herself if she has to rely on herself for coaching. You may think you sound like a broken record, but for her each contraction is a new experience to be coped with and gotten through. Prevention of Exhaustion and Provision for Rest. Prevention of exhaustion and provision for rest between contractions are other support and comfort measures. Useless exhaustion can be prevented in four ways, the latter three also providing for rest between contractions: 1. Having the woman use the proper breathing at

the proper time is basic to preventing useless exhaustion. As stated previously, panting is an exhausting type of breathing, to be used only when it is mandatory that the woman not push. Controlled types of breathing, whether Lamaze

or abdominal, are also tiring if used in early, latent-phase labor before they are really needed. Natural, normal breathing should be encouraged during this time. 2. Organization of necessary procedures. Plan procedures so that as many as possible are done sequentially in the shortest possible time (or number of intervals between contractions). It is exhausting to the woman when there is always something to be done after every contraction. 3. Control the environment in accord with what is

most restful to the individual woman (which may vary from your idea of what is restful). This includes controlling lighting, air, external noises, room arrangement, and so forth, as well as who is in the room doing and saying what. 4. Control of who is in the room doing and saying

what affects exhaustion and provision for rest. (The woman’s significant others and their involvement are discussed later in this chapter. The present discussion relates to professional and nonprofessional health care personnel.) All too frequently the people in the room talk (often over and across the woman in her bed) about subjects totally unrelated to her labor and not involving her. People may be so involved in the conversation that they do not notice the woman’s entry into her next contraction and they ignore her needs-for-help. This not only constitutes extreme rudeness and reflects a lack of respect but also illustrates a total misplacing of focus, which should be on the woman. The room of a woman in active labor is no place for constant chatter, either among health care personnel or of a social nature with the woman or her significant others. The old maxim “Silence is golden” is most apropos between contractions unless the woman evinces need for a social exchange (extremely unlikely during active labor) or there is need to communicate instructions or explanations. During a contraction a quiet, firm voice giving encouragement, instruction, and praise is ideal. Afterward, silence. This makes the room quiet, devoid of distractions, and conducive to rest. The focus should be on the woman and anything that will facilitate her efforts to cope and work with her labor. Assurance of Privacy and Prevention of Exposure. Assurance

of privacy and prevention of exposure are not issues in the woman’s home but are of particular importance in a teaching hospital. Professional faculty and staff in a teaching hospital often think that because a patient is in their hospital they can assume

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

the patient’s willing submission to the learning needs of a large variety of professional students. Often this is not the case. Most patients are in teaching hospitals (generally university medical centers) because of their medical condition, because of their finances, or because it is the local hospital. They are likely to have no comprehension of the bewildering array of students seemingly affronting pieces of their minds and bodies. Privacy refers not only to respecting the woman as a human being but also to respecting her body, which is her right as an individual. Imagine the shock a woman feels as she lifts up to push with a contraction, only to confront five to fifteen pairs of eyes all zeroed in on her perineum without her prior knowledge or informed permission! What a difference it would make to discuss this with her beforehand and to request her permission for any observers (much less an extraordinary number of observers). Furthermore, observers should be introduced to the woman personally, so that their first contact, if she grants permission, is person-to-person rather than eyes-to-body. Remember, it is the woman’s right to say no and to know that this is an acceptable response. If the woman is assured by your actions that there will be no surprises, relaxation is promoted. Privacy and prevention of exposure also pertain to respect for the woman’s sense of modesty. Ideas of modesty vary widely today. Women who are knowledgeable about and feel good about their bodies may not feel the need to be carefully draped to prevent exposure of external genitals. Some women may believe this connotes a traditional attitude of shame regarding these areas—an attitude with which they completely disagree—and they are as apt to be insulted if you drape them as the traditionally modest woman is apt to be acutely embarrassed if you do not drape her. It is best to ask the woman her preferences concerning draping. Explanation of the Process and Progress of Labor. Women who have been prepared for childbearing are knowledgeable about the processes of labor and want and need to be kept informed of their progress. Women who have not been prepared for childbearing usually want to know what is going on inside their bodies. If you are with an unprepared woman during the latent phase of labor, you will have the time and the woman’s undivided attention, if she is interested, to explain briefly the processes of labor and what she will be experiencing in relation to them (Figure 26-15). The labor plates in the

785

FIGURE 26-15 During early labor is a good time for a midwife to review the processes of labor with a woman. Source: Photograph by Patricia Urbanus, CNM.

Birth Atlas [43] published by Maternity Center Association are a useful teaching aid for this purpose. If the unprepared woman is already into active labor, then the midwife is limited to giving the briefest of explanations about the essence of labor progress, such as cervical effacement and dilatation. A quick and graphic way of explaining cervical effacement and dilatation is to use your hands to show 0 percent, 50 percent, and 100 percent effacement; and 1 centimeters, 5 centimeters, and 10 centimeters dilatation. You can explain that it takes longer to get from 0 to 5 centimeters than it does to get from 5 to 10 centimeters dilatation. It is most useful to explain effacement when differentiating between true and false labor and explaining why you want the woman to walk for a while. It is not necessary to explain effacement to a woman in active labor. Explanation of dilatation is useful at both times. In addition to their philosophical belief about the right of individuals to know what is occurring with their bodies, midwives explain the process and progress of labor in an effort to intervene in the aforementioned fear-tension-pain cycle. Explanation reduces fear of the unknown and alleviation of fear decreases the pain resulting from tension caused by fear.

786

Part V Intrapartal Care

Explanation of Procedures and Imposed Limitations. Each procedure should be explained and the woman’s agreement should be obtained prior to doing the procedure. In order to cope effectively with it, the woman needs to perceive the procedure as one that she needs and one that will be helpful to her. The woman also needs to understand why any imposed limits (e.g., no ambulation if the membranes are ruptured and the presenting part is breech, unengaged, or ill-fitting) are helpful or necessary. Keeping Clean and Dry. Cleanliness and dryness pro-

mote comfort and relaxation and decrease the risk of infection. A combination of bloody show, perspiration, amniotic fluid, solutions for vaginal examination, and feces can make a woman feel messy, uncomfortable, and generally miserable. A shower can change a woman’s entire outlook and feeling to one of well-being if there are no contraindications to ambulation and facilities are available. If a shower or tub bath is not possible, a sponge bath or a bed bath is also refreshing. Subsequent attention to perineal care and keeping dry continues the feeling of well-being. This is maintained by changing the woman’s gown or her clothes if what she has on becomes damp with perspiration; changing sheets if they become wet; giving perineal care to remove any solutions or discharges, using careful front-to-back technique; and frequently changing the absorbent pad beneath her buttocks. Emphasis on cleanliness of the perineum and anything that comes close to the perineum, as well as scrupulous attention to handwashing by both the woman and all in contact with her, decreases the chance of intrauterine infection developing from contamination at the vaginal introitus. Tub Bath. A tub bath can be the most relaxing and facilitative support and comfort measure you can give the woman. The tub needs to be deep enough for the water to cover her abdomen. This provides a form of hydrotherapy and buoyancy which are soothing and help her cope with the contractions. Better yet is a Jacuzzi or tubs designed for labor and birth. Midwives familiar with water labor and birth say that at first the water brings on relaxation and the cervix dilates quickly; but after a couple of hours the contractions may start to fade in frequency and intensity and the woman needs to get out of the tub to stimulate a return to active labor [44].

throat, and coated teeth, especially if she is in labor for a number of hours without oral fluids and without mouth care. These problems make the woman uncomfortable and they are unpleasant to those attending her. Some of this can be avoided if the woman is able to ingest liquids during her labor. Some of it results from mouth breathing, slight dehydration, lack of moisture in the mouth, or passage of time without mouth care. Mouth care consists of the following: 1. Brushing teeth. Women should be encouraged

2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

to bring their toothbrush and toothpaste with them to the hospital for use during labor. Mouthwash—diluted or undiluted according to the woman’s preference Glycerin swabs for the lips Vaseline for the lips Sips of water or clear liquids with sugar added for hydration and moistening of the mouth and throat if in a setting that restricts food and liquids during labor Hard candies or lollipops (to prevent aspiration) for moistening the mouth and throat. Women should be encouraged to bring these with them to the hospital. A moist washcloth is invaluable if the woman’s oral fluid intake is restricted. Wet a washcloth with cold water and squeeze out just the right amount of water so that when the woman chews and sucks on the cloth she will get enough moisture to moisten her mouth but not enough to swallow. As crude as this may sound, the vast majority of women in this situation find it one of the most helpful comfort measures.

Contrary to popular labor room practice, ice chips are not recommended because they have the opposite effect from that desired. Instead of providing moisture and relief, they actually have a drying effect. Use of ice chips simply increases the discomfort of a dry mouth and dry lips and causes an insatiable craving and need for more. Sips of water are far more satisfying and thirst quenching and also contribute to hydration. Better yet is unrestricted fluid intake. Usefulness of a Washcloth. If you are ever asked to select

one item to help you provide support and comfort to a woman in labor, a washcloth is the item to choose. A washcloth can be used in multitudinous ways. Here are a few examples:

Mouth Care. A woman in labor will develop bad

1. To refresh by cleansing/washing 2. To wipe away facial perspiration. Wet the cloth

breath, a dry mouth, dry or cracked lips, a parched

with cold water; if there is no cold water, wet it

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

and then cool it with air breezes like those created when used as a fan. (See “Fanning” below.) To serve as a moist warm or hot pack To serve as a cold compress To moisten dry lips and a dry mouth as described above To use as a fan To use as a “security blanket”—some women clutch their washcloths like Linus does his blanket.

Fanning. Women generate a lot of heat during labor.

Even in labor rooms with the best of temperature control, they will perspire and complain at times of being warm. If the environment is not air-conditioned in the summer the stickiness becomes miserable. If there are no fans you need to create means of fanning the woman. The following are three possibilities: 1. Use a washcloth as a fan: Hold the washcloth

by two adjacent corners with your two hands and then flip it around on itself, first going one way and then the other. It will flip more easily if it is damp. (However, this requires a lot of your energy to create only a little amount of breeze in a very circumscribed area.) 2. Better yet is the use of a glove package. This provides a fairly stiff expanse of paper which can be used as a fan with one hand. It has the advantage of mobility and can be directed at any part of the woman’s body. 3. The best method for cooling the woman’s upper body is simply to grasp the lower front hem of her gown, shirt, or dress; make sure it is loose from underneath the woman at the lower sides; and flap it. This creates a breeze over her entire body from the perineum up across her abdomen, breasts, and head. Hospital gowns are ideal for this. Back Rub. Two types of back rubs can provide support and comfort to a woman in labor. One is the usual generalized, overall back rub, which is used to promote relaxation. The second is called the OB back rub. Both express caring for the woman and ensure a sustaining human presence for as long as the back rub is given. Lotion or powder should be used to reduce friction and prevent skin irritation. The OB back rub consists of applying pressure to a specific spot on the woman’s lower spine. The woman can tell you precisely where this spot is because it is a localized pain caused by the pressure of

787

the fetal head against her spine. This pain is exaggerated if the fetus is in an occipital posterior position; thus low back pain is often the woman’s primary complaint. You will need to check with the woman frequently about the proper location of the pressure you are applying, as the pain will move downward as the fetal head descends. The application of external pressure on the spine counteracts the internal pressure on the spine by the fetal head and thus reduces the pain. You can massage the spot and adjacent area at the same time by moving your palm in a circle without lifting your palm or moving it off of the identified spot. The woman can also guide you as to the proper amount of pressure. Too much pressure is painful; too little pressure is ineffective. Bracing your elbow against your body or against the bed will enable you to achieve greater pressure if needed. It also will enable you to continue the back rub over a longer period of time because your muscles do not tire as easily if your arm is braced. The OB back rub generally is done only during contractions; this is usually when the woman experiences the greatest discomfort or pain in her lower back. Check with the woman before beginning an OB back rub. Some women don’t have this pain, and your energy could be better spent where she is feeling a need for help. It is difficult to do the OB back rub if the woman is in a supine position; it is hard for you to reach the right area and you have to lift up to apply pressure. If the woman is supine you can provide some degree of relief by folding a small towel and placing it at the specific spot so she lies on it; she can also lie on tennis balls, which provide counterpressure. Sterile Water Papules (SWP). Sterile water papules are

intradermal injections of sterile water administered in four places in the lower lumbosacral area of the back (see Chapter 63 for procedure). Women experience an intense stinging sensation for approximately 30 to 90 seconds during the injection and then many will experience immense relief from their back pain. The majority of women who have had SWP would use them again [45, 46]. Because of the pain of the SWP when first inserted, they should be offered after other methods (e.g., position changes, counterpressure such as the OB back rub, heat, cold) have been tried without relief, unless they are the first choice of a woman who has had them before. They are particularly effective for women with occiput posterior positions.

788

Part V Intrapartal Care

Heat/Cold to the Lower Back. Heat applied to the woman’s lower back in the area where the fetal head presses against the spine will decrease the pain. The heat increases circulation to the area, thereby combating tissue anoxia caused by the pressure. Apply heat carefully; it is easy to burn the woman not only by the temperature of the application but also by putting heat on an area to which creams or ointments have already been applied. Some midwives have found that the application of cold decreases the pain when heat does not. Supposedly the relief results from a numbing effect, probably due to superficial vasoconstriction. Some women find alternating heat and cold comforting. Birthing Ball. A physiotherapy ball is the right size and sturdiness to withstand weight and use. Generally a 65-centimeter ball is the right size for women over 5 feet 5 inches tall and a 55-centimeter ball is the right size for women less than 5 feet 5 inches tall. The ball is then adjusted to individual “fit” by adding or letting out air so that it is firm but gives to touch, rolls easily, and the woman’s legs are bent at a 90-degree angle when sitting on the ball. Women sit on the ball with their feet about two feet apart and flat on the floor. Good posture is necessary to maintain balance on the ball. This puts the woman in an upright position from which she can rotate her hips in a circular or figure-eight pattern that both relieves back pain and encourages fetal descent. A woman can also sit on the ball and lean forward or use a birthing ball to lean against either in a kneeling (ball on floor) or standing (ball on a bed or table) position. This supports the woman’s body and provides a position in which the mother can rest. It also aligns the long axis of the uterus and the fetus with the mother’s pelvis and facilitates occiput anterior positions. Abdominal Rub. The abdominal rub is a light rubbing (massage) of the entire abdomen usually done in a circular fashion and often concentrating twice as much rubbing in the lower abdominal area if the woman is feeling pain there. It differs from effleurage in its technique, in its rationale, and in who does it. It is done by an attendant (e.g., significant other, nurse, or midwife) using one hand while the other hand is doing something else, such as feeling the contraction, doing the OB back rub, or holding the woman’s hand. A stomach rub can be very comforting and familiar in a strange environment, and it expresses

caring to the woman. It also increases circulation to the area, thereby dilating blood vessels that have become constricted from contractions, causing tissue anoxia. The increased blood flow combats the tissue hypoxia and provides a physiological basis for a decrease in pain. Effleurage. Effleurage is a technique used in the Lamaze and other psychoprophylactic methods of childbearing. Effleurage means “feather touch,” which describes the amount of pressure to be used in doing it. It is usually done by the laboring woman, using both hands and following a definite pattern over primarily her lower abdomen (symphysis pubis to just above her umbilicus) as illustrated in Figure 26-16. Using all her fingers on both hands, with the fingers loosely separated, the woman covers the entire lower abdominal area with the two circular patterns: up and outward from her umbilicus, down and around, or in a reverse pattern. Its effectiveness is both psychological and physiological—psychological in that it is one more thing to concentrate on, along with her breathing, besides her discomfort, and physiological in that the action also increases circulation to the area, combating tissue hypoxia and thus decreasing pain. Heat to the Lower Abdomen. The application of moist

heat to the woman’s lower abdomen decreases pain by virtue of the resulting increased circulation that reduces tissue anoxia caused by contraction and tension. However, in order to get enough heat to be effective you need to use a hot pack of bath towels. When these are wet, even when wrung out, they are

FIGURE 26-16 Effleurage pattern.

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

789

often too heavy for the woman to tolerate. They are, however, just the right relief measure for some women.

Alternating relaxation with dorsiflexion of her foot increases the speed of the relief. The dorsiflexion should be forcibly exaggerated to effect relief.

Empty Bladder. In addition to the effect of a full bladder on the progress of labor and possible later effects on bladder hypotonicity, urine stasis, and bladder infection, there is the very real fact that a full bladder accentuates, and in part creates, a woman’s lower abdominal pain. This pain can be greatly relieved if the woman’s bladder is emptied.

Use of Physical Touch. Touching the woman (e.g., on

Medication. Medication was discussed as one of the

midwife’s management decisions earlier in this chapter. The judicious use of medication also constitutes a support and comfort measure. Cold Compresses. Some midwives have found that if all else seems ineffective, cold compresses to the axilla and groin bring relief and calm some women. Support During Vaginal Examinations. This subject is dis-

cussed in Chapter 56. You may not have time, or need, to go through all the components of support discussed there. At the very least, however, the following should be observed: 1. An empty bladder—desirable also for the other

reasons discussed in this chapter 2. Explanation of why you are doing the exami-

nation 3. Positioning of the woman’s arms beside her

body 4. Help with relaxation breathing and encourage-

ment throughout the examination 5. Super-gentle verbal and physical approach 6. Warning and explanation if what you are about

to do will hurt her

her leg, head, arm) for no other purpose than to touch her can convey caring, comfort, and understanding and can soothe, calm, dispel loneliness, and so forth. However, touching is effective only if you are comfortable touching others and if the woman is comfortable with being touched. Don’t force yourself to touch a woman in labor if it is uncomfortable for you. The woman will sense your discomfort and the action will be rendered ineffective. On the other hand, if you are “a toucher” you must be acutely sensitive to the woman’s response to your touch. If she withdraws or acts repelled, confirm her desire not to be touched and respect her wishes. Don’t force touch on her. Even women who do not like to be touched, however, may find your hand better to grasp than the cold metal siderails on a hospital bed—so be sure to ask her if she wants a hand to hold. Touching can be extremely effective when both the toucher and the touched are comfortable with it. Some women in labor are extreme touchers. Their use of touch is not the same as yours—it is more like a cry for help. Usually extreme touchers are extremely frightened younger girls, who may throw their arms around your neck and forcibly hang on to you during a contraction. It is imperative that you not reject the girl in this situation, even if you are a nontoucher. Hold her. Then, between contractions, ascertain the problems and location of pain and either find a significant other for her to hang on to or tell her you have to be free bodily to do other things to help her but that she can hang on to one of your hands.

7. Explanation of findings Alleviation of Leg Cramps. Leg cramps during labor usu-

ally are so acute they capture the woman’s total attention and demand immediate relief. Cramps probably are caused by pressure of the presenting part on the nerves to the extremities as they cross through the greater sciatic foramen in the pelvis. The woman’s legs must never be massaged because of the risk of unwittingly dislodging unknown thrombi developed during months of trouble with venous return and possible varicosities. There is a way of providing immediate relief for leg cramps without running this risk, which is to straighten the woman’s leg and dorsiflex her foot.

Significant Others. The presence of significant others is the most important of all support and comfort measures. Significant others are discussed last because you need to know the other support and comfort measures in order to guide the significant others in providing them for the woman. The first step is to identify the woman’s significant other(s), those she wants with her during the childbirth process—spouse, father of the baby, partner, parent, grandparent, sibling, friend, children, other relative. In many hospital settings the woman has to identify one person who is designated and accepted as the person who will be with her in the labor room, because many hospital labor rooms cannot

790

Part V Intrapartal Care

philosophically or physically accommodate more than one significant other at a time. The second step is to determine whether the significant other chosen by the woman wishes to be with her during labor. In a hospital setting the significant others may feel strange, frightened, intimidated, and insecure. They should be made to feel welcome and wanted in the labor room by the staff and viewed as important participants in the ongoing events. These persons should not be relegated to an outer corner of the room but should be given space by the side of the woman. Those significant others who are unprepared usually are glad to do anything you suggest and show them how to do. Those significant others who are prepared have probably planned beforehand with the woman what they will do. Inquire about their plans so you will facilitate rather than frustrate them. And what do the significant others do? They do anything within their capability that is agreeable to the woman, themselves, and you. The woman will respond to the person with whom she has practiced and on whom she relies for coaching. Unprepared partners, mothers, and grandmothers learn quickly and do well in coaching breathing. The significant other can help by wiping the woman’s face with a wet washcloth, hand holding, fanning, and abdominal rubbing. Men make the best back rubbers, especially for the OB back rub. It is helpful if you role model the support and comfort measures they are to provide. Lots of positive reinforcement is useful, particularly when they are learning and when labor goes on for a long period of time. You should also attend to the needs of the significant other(s) and discuss with them what would help them. You may need to suggest that they take breaks from their intense, emotionally involved supportive role. This enables them to continue to give the woman what she needs. The fact that the midwife must carry out a procedure does not mean that the significant other has to leave the room. The decision of whether to stay in the room and support the woman during a vaginal examination is up to the woman and the significant other. Husbands in particular frequently resent being sent out of the room at this time. On the other hand, some women prefer that their husbands not be there, and some husbands prefer to leave. Determine the wishes of the woman and her significant other. The most important thing in working with women and their significant others is to facilitate their relationship. Do not try to make yourself the most important person in the woman’s eyes but rather foster

FIGURE 26-17 Partner supporting woman with midwife facilitating efforts of both.

the importance of the significant other (Figure 26-17). You are a vital, but transient, person in the woman’s life. The relationship between the woman and her significant other involves a continuing commitment in daily life.

References 1. Wiedenbach, E. Family-Centered Maternity

Nursing. New York: G. P. Putnam, 1958. 2. Friedman, E. A. Primigravid labor: a graphico-

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

statistical analysis. Obstet. Gynecol. 6:567, 1955. Philpott, R. H., and Castle, W. M. Cervicographs in the management of labour in primigravidae: I. The alert line for detecting abnormal labour. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Common. 79:592–598 (July) 1972. Kilpatrick, S. J., and Laros, R. K. Characteristics of normal labor. Obstet. Gynecol. 74:85–87, 1989. Albers, L. L., Schiff, M., and Gorwoda, J. G. The length of active labor in normal pregnancies. Obstet. Gynecol. 87(3):355–359 (March) 1996. Albers, L. L., for the CNM Data Group, 1996. The duration of labor in healthy women. J. Perinatol. 19(2):114–119, 1999. Friedman, E. A. Labor: Clinical Evaluation and Management, 2nd ed. New York: Meredith, 1978. Perl, F. M., and Hunter, D. J. S. What cervical dilatation rate during active labour should be considered abnormal? Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 45:89–92, 1992.

Chapter 26 The Normal First Stage of Labor

9. Friedman, E. A. Labor in multiparas: a graph-

10.

11. 12.

13.

14.

15. 16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

icostatistical analysis. Obstet. Gynecol. 8(6): 691–703 (December) 1956. Friedman, E. A. Labor: Clinical Evaluation and Management. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts/Meredith Publishing, 1967. England, P., and Horowitz, R. Birthing from Within. Albuquerque, NM: Patera Press, 1998. Ludka, L. M., and Roberts, C. C. Eating and drinking in labor: a literature review. J. NurseMidwifery 38(4):199–207 (July/August) 1993. ACNM Clinical Bulletin No. 3—December 1998. Intrapartum nutrition. J. NurseMidwifery 44(2):124–128 (March/April) 1999. Hawkins, J. L., Koonin, L. M., Palmer, S. K., and Gibbs, C. P. Anesthesia-related deaths during obstetric delivery in the United States, 1979–1990. Anesthesiology 86(2):277–284 (February) 1997. Burst, H. V. “Real” midwifery. J. NurseMidwifery 35(4):189–191 (July/August) 1990. Leighton, B. L., and Halpern, S. H. The effects of epidural analgesia on labor, maternal, and neonatal outcomes: a systematic review. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 186:S69–77, 2002. Glosten, B. Epidural and spinal analgesia/anesthesia: local anesthetic techniques. In Chestnut, D. H. (ed.) Obstetric Anesthesia: Principles and Practice, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Mosby, 1999, pp. 360–381. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 36. Obstetric analgesia and anesthesia. Obstet. Gynecol. 100(1):177–191 (July) 2002. Hawkins, J. L., Chestnut, D. H., and Gibbs, C. P. Obstetric anesthesia. In Gabbe, S. G., Niebyl, J. R., and Simpson, J. L. Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies, 4th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 2002. Gatt, S. P., and Pybus, A. Hypertextbook of Regional Anesthesia for Obstetrics. Australia: Manbit Anesthesia Software, 1999. Accessed online at http://www.manbit.com. Arkoosh, V. A. Neuraxial analgesia techniques. In Norris, M. C. (ed.) Obstetric Anesthesia, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1999, pp. 317–330. Mayberry, L. J., Clemmens, D., and De, A. Epidural analgesia side effects, co-interventions, and care of women during childbirth: a systematic review, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 186(5, pt. 2):S081–93 (May) 2002. van de Velde, M., Teunkens, A., Hanssens, M., van Assche, F. A., and Vandermeersch, E. Postdural puncture headache following combined spinal epidural or epidural anesthesia in

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

791

obstetric patients. Anaesth. Intensive Care 29(6):595–599 (December) 2001. Lieberman, E., and O’Donoghue, C. Unintended effects of epidural analgesia during labor: a systematic review, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 186(5, pt. 2):S031–68, 2002. Thallon, A., and Shennan, A. Epidural and spinal analgesia and labour, Curr. Opinion Obstet. Gynecol. 13(6):583–587 (December) 2001. Howell, C. J., Kidd, C., Roberts, W., et al. A randomized controlled trial of epidural compared with non-epidural analgesics in labor. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 108:27–33, 2001. Eberle, R. L., and Norris, M. C. Effects on progress and outcome of labor. In Norris, M. C. (ed.) Obstetric Anesthesia, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1999. Yancey, M. K., Zhang, J., Schwarz, J., Dietrich, C. S. III, and Klebanoff, M. Labor, epidural analgesia, and intrapartum maternal hyperthermia. Obstet. Gynecol. 98(5, pt. 1):763–770 (November) 2001. Mardirosoff, C., Dumont, L., Boulvain, M., and Tramer, M. R. Fetal bradycardia due to intrathecal opioids for labour analgesia: a systematic review. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 109(3):274–281 (March) 2002. Goetzl, L., Cohen, A., Frigoletto, F. Jr., Ringe, S. A., Lang, J. M., and Lieberman, E. Maternal epidural use and neonatal sepsis evaluation in afebrile mothers. Pediatrics 108(5):1099–1102 (November) 2001. Chestnut, D. H. (ed.). Obstetric Anesthesia: Principles and Practice, 2nd ed. Baltimore, MD: Mosby, 1999. Klein, M. C., Grzybowski, S., Harris, S., et al. Epidural analgesia use as a marker for physician approach to birth: implications for maternal and newborn outcomes. Birth 28(4):243–248 (December) 2001. Howell, C. J. Epidural versus non-epidural analgesia for pain relief in labor. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2:CD000331, 2000. Murphy, D. J. Failure to progress in the second stage of labour. Curr. Opinion Obstet. Gynecol. 13(6):557–561 (December) 2001. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Operative Vaginal Delivery. Technical Bulletin No. 196. Washington, DC: ACOG, 1994. Fraser, W. D., Marcoux, S., Krauss, I., et al. Multicenter randomized, controlled trial of delayed pushing for nulliparous women in the sec-

792

37.

38.

39.

40. 41.

Part V Intrapartal Care

ond stage of labor with continuous epidural analgesia. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 182:1165–1172, 2000. King, T. Epidural anesthesia in labor: benefits versus risks. J. Nurse-Midwifery 42(5):377–388 (September/October) 1997. Swan, H. D., and Borshoff, D. C. Informed consent: recall of risk information following epidural analgesia in labour. Anesth. Intensive Care 22(2):139–141 (April) 1994. Mann, O. H., and Albers, L. L. Informed consent for epidural analgesia in labor. J. NurseMidwifery 42(5):389–392 (September/October) 1997. Cavero, C. Personal communication, 1969. Lesser, M. S., and Keane, V. R. Nurse-Patient Relationships in a Hospital Maternity Service. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1956.

42. Dick-Read, G. Childbirth Without Fear, 2nd

ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1959. 43. Dickinson, R. L., Belskie, A., and Hoffman, M.

Birth Atlas, 6th ed. New York: Maternity Center Association, 1968. 44. Bowman, T. A. Water babies. Advance for Nurses 1(1):12–14 (June 18) 2001. 45. Stensland, J. Sterile water papules for low back pain in labor. Accessed online at www2.coastalnet.com/~coyotemidwife/SWP_PAPE.htm. 46. Trolle, B., Moller, M., Kronborg, H., and Thomsen, S. The effect of sterile water blocks on low back labor pain. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 164(5, pt. 1):1277–1281 (May) 1991.

A bibliography is at the end of Chapter 28.

C H A P T E R

27 Fetal Assessment During Labor Introduction and History

sarean section, allowed a major improvement in the number of infants who were born alive and healthy. Recognition of the patterns of the fetal heart rate (FHR) in relationship to the uterine contractions led to a desire to record the heartbeat continuously through labor. Human rationale made it seem that if listening to the heart rate periodically could help identify babies who were stressed in utero, then listening through every minute of labor would clearly improve the potential to save unborn babies from hypoxia and asphyxia. During the 1960s, the electronic fetal monitor was introduced as a tool for use with high-risk pregnancy. As soon as this new technology was utilized, the cesarean section rate increased dramatically. A decrease in perinatal mortality and morbidity were anticipated, but in fact have not materialized [4]. What seemed like such good rationale led to an increased dependence on technology, an increased operative delivery rate, and an increase in medical malpractice—without an improvement in the outcomes for babies and mothers. Introduction of continuous electronic fetal monitoring (EFM) on a widespread basis prior to scientific evidence of its effectiveness led to several generations of physicians, nurses, and women and their families who have become dependent upon this technology despite its lack of benefit [7]. Midwives have maintained use of auscultation as a primary means of assessing the fetus throughout this overwhelming trend toward use of EFM for nearly all laboring women. With the apparent lack of impact by EFM, multiple randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have been performed to identify any differences in fetal and maternal outcomes related to the method of fetal

Throughout the course of labor and birth, the safe passage of the fetus is of paramount concern to all involved. Clearly, the goal of every parent and caregiver is to have a healthy newborn. Of question is what method is the most suited to assist in accomplishing this goal. Prior to methods of auscultation, assessment of fetal movement was the revered measurement of fetal well-being and was primarily the responsibility of the mother. Awareness of the fetal heart rate as a sign of fetal life and then of fetal well-being has been acknowledged for the past two centuries [1–5]. First heard by the listener’s ear resting on the maternal abdomen, this required “intimate” contact with the pregnant woman [1, 2]. Then, a hollow tube was found to be useful to actually hear the baby’s heartbeat and to allow the listener to maintain some distance from the woman’s skin. This tube was fashioned into a Pinard fetoscope, and was eventually improved with use of a stethoscope-like listening tool. From the mid-1800s through the 1900s, it was recognized that normal ranges of a fetal heart rate were between 120 and 160 beats per minute (bpm), and that extremes above or below it were worrisome. Auscultation remained the primary means of assessment of fetal status in labor until the 1960s [1–3, 6]. Along with the development of the means of hearing the heart rate and appreciating normal and abnormal patterns of the heart, were the improvements represented by the use of forceps and by cesarean sections, making it possible to expedite the birth if the fetal heart tones were concerning. These advances along with recognition of the means of preventing puerperal fever, especially following ce-

793

794

Part V Intrapartal Care

assessment used [8–13]. Neither these RCTs nor meta-analyses of many trials have demonstrated improved outcomes of one method of fetal heart rate assessment over the other [14–20]. Although one study indicated a decrease in neonatal seizures with EFM, there was no apparent difference in the childhood neurologic outcomes, making this difference questionable [8, 14, 17]. In 1995, ACOG published guidelines for intrapartum fetal assessment and issued the following statement: “Current data indicate that FHR monitoring is equally effective whether done electronically or by auscultation” [12]. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, in its 1996 evaluation of intrapartum electronic fetal monitoring, states that “electronic fetal monitoring for low-risk women in labor is not recommended. There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against intrapartum electronic fetal monitoring for high-risk pregnant women” [20]. Midwives in the twenty-first century must use evidence-based care in an environment that reveres technology and is mistrusting of traditional noninterventional approaches to care. Assessment of the well-being of the fetus is a critical component of intrapartum management and must be considered individually for each laboring woman. Through knowledge of the various means of documenting fetal heart rate patterns and of measuring the acidbase balance of the fetus when indicated, the midwife will be able to pair the means of assessment with the pregnant woman and her fetus. Regardless of the site of birth, the information and the principles of assessing the fetus and documenting that process are the same.

Physiology and Scope of Problem The goal of all fetal assessment in labor is to identify infants who are at risk for oxygen deprivation during labor and birth that would be significant enough to cause long-term neurologic damage to the child. Unfortunately, none of the fetal heart rate assessment tools in current use is able to give us this information directly. Thus, we use indicators that are known to be associated with untoward outcomes to guide our decision-making. Even the direct sampling of fetal blood from the scalp or cord blood is not an absolute predictor. It is thus important for clinicians to understand the incidence of intrapartum asphyxia, the major fetal and maternal

indicators for depression of the neonate, and intrapartum evidence of potential risk. Consistent use of terms referring to the degrees of oxygen deprivation and signs of nonreassuring FHR patterns is important in communicating well with one’s professional colleagues. Understanding the implications of decreased Apgar scores and cord pH and their relationship to neonatal outcome will help the midwife to understand the significance of an infant’s condition and to assist the parents in understanding as well. The term fetal distress is frequently used during the intrapartum period to describe anything from multiple mild variable decelerations through severe, prolonged bradycardia or persistent late decelerations with lack of variability. Unfortunately, this term has no specific correlation with fetal heart rate patterns or neonatal outcomes. It does, however, carry a negative connotation among staff and families, and certainly with lawyers. Therefore, the term should be avoided. Instead, specific description of the concerning changes in the fetal heart rate or specific pH values should be used. According to Low and colleagues, “potentially significant intrapartum fetal asphyxia occurs in approximately 20 per 1000 births. Moderate and severe fetal asphyxia with newborn morbidity occurs in 3 to 4 per 1000 births, with brain damage and subsequent disability in at least 1 per 1000 births” [21, p. 735]. Apgar scores of 7 or greater at 5 minutes and normal fetal heart rate baselines with accelerations are virtually never associated with perinatal asphyxia or long-term neurologic dysfunction [21–23]. When an infant is born in a depressed state, it is commonly felt that there is a high risk of poor neurologic outcomes. In fact, this is rarely the case. In a study of 37,000 births, term infants with an Apgar score of 0 to 3 at 5 minutes had only a 1 percent incidence of cerebral palsy if the Apgar score was greater than 3 by 10 minutes [23]. Nelson et al. identified 78 children with cerebral palsy who had undergone EFM during a twoyear period. Review of the fetal monitor strips found multiple late decelerations and decreased variability to have an association with an increased risk of cerebral palsy. However, the children who had late decelerations or diminished variability of the FHR “represented only 0.19 percent of singleton infants with birthweights of 2500 grams or more who had these fetal monitoring findings, for a false positive rate of 99.8 percent” [24].

Chapter 27 Fetal Assessment During Labor

Sampling of cord blood pH has been used widely to help identify acidotic fetuses. It has been strongly demonstrated that a cord pH >7.2 is invariably associated with well-being. The neonate with a cord pH 160 bpm) may be related to tocolytics, maternal fever, or maternal dehydration. As always, the complete clinical scenario must be considered when evaluating fetal heart rate patterns by either EFM or auscultation. Accelerations of the fetal heart rate, in association with fetal movement, are a developmental process. Each fetus matures at its own rate, but by 28 weeks approximately 80 percent of fetuses will have accelerations adequate to meet the standard nonstress test criteria of 15 beats in amplitude and at least 15 seconds off the baseline. Prior to 32 weeks, the amplitude of an acceleration may be only 10 bpm with a duration of 10 seconds [27], which satisfies the requirement for nonstress test reactivity in a preterm fetus. Baseline variability may be decreased in the very preterm fetus, but no standards have been determined in this regard. It is also important to note that the preterm fetus may not tolerate nonreassuring patterns for

796

Part V Intrapartal Care

the same duration as the term fetus. There can be a more rapid transition from reassuring to nonreassuring tracings in the preterm infant. Twenty percent of term fetuses with a nonreassuring tracing actually have low Apgars and cord blood gases [28]. The preterm fetus however, has a 70 to 80 percent chance of having these signs of depression with a nonreassuring FHR pattern. In the case of a preterm fetus with a nonreassuring pattern, physician consultation is strongly advised [26]. One of the limitations of both auscultation of the FHR and continuous EFM is the diversity of interpretation criteria in the scientific literature as well as between professional clinicians [4, 12 ]. In an attempt to standardize interpretation criteria and nomenclature regarding fetal heart rate assessment, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) staged a research planning workshop, reviewed a vast pool of literature, consulted current experts, and devised guidelines for the use and interpretation of intermittent auscultation and electronic fetal monitoring in future research [27]. These guidelines and those highlighted by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists in their clinical guidelines [12] will be the basis of criteria used in this chapter. It is critical that all midwives be aware of the guidelines being used in their own practice setting. Patient Education Information regarding the use and quality of auscultation is limited to the lay public. It is the responsibility of the midwife to see that women in their care understand auscultation to be an equal option for assessment of the fetus in labor. The associated freedom of position and movement, the decreased need for analgesia, and the lower rate of operative births should be explained to all women. Withholding (or not offering) information regarding intermittent auscultation deprives women of the opportunity to make this informed choice [29, 30]. Each woman must consider all the options—including the clinical situation, risk factors, personal preferences, hospital or birth center guidelines, and the knowledge of the nursing and midwifery staff. Open discussion and planning prior to the onset of labor will allow women and their families to question their alternatives and make wise choices for themselves. Intermittent Auscultation Until the 1970s, auscultation was the standard means of assessment of fetal well-being in labor. As

electronic fetal monitoring became more available and used more widely, auscultation diminished in use, nearly to its exclusion in many hospital settings. From the 1970s through the 1990s, nurses, physicians and midwives became less knowledgeable about intermittent auscultation (IA) and their skills with the fetoscope seriously decreased. In fact, today many obstetric providers have never seen or used a fetoscope, let alone learned to rely on the information obtained in managing the course of labor. Sometimes in life, the “good news” and the “bad news” are the same. In the case of auscultation, skeptics of the equivalency of auscultation and EFM will cite the need for one-to-one nursing care as a drawback [31]. However, constant nursing care has been shown to improve the outcomes of labor and birth: labors are shorter and require less medication, infants have fewer low Apgar scores, and women report that the quality of their experience is better [7, 13]. Is the expense of fetal monitors, central monitoring systems, constant certification courses, increased liability costs, increased surgical fees and more anesthetic-related costs really more expensive than nursing care? What about the cost of loss of compassionate, supportive nursing care? Auscultation of the fetal heart rate may be performed with a fetoscope, a Doppler device, or even the external ultrasound transducer of the fetal monitor. The use of a fetoscope produces quiet, muffled sounds of the fetal heart, analogous to using a stethoscope for cardiac auscultation. Fetal size, gestational age, position, quantity of amniotic fluid, uterine contractions, maternal habitus, and clinician experience and hearing are all factors involved in the potential for hearing fetal heart tones. The DeLee-Hillis and the Allen fetoscopes utilize bone conduction of the listener’s cranium in order to amplify the sounds of the FHR. Because all fetoscopes require close proximity of the examiner’s head to the pregnant abdomen, maternal position and activity may also be limitations to accurate assessment of the FHR with a fetoscope. In recent years, the use of Doppler auscultation devices has made this an easier and often more predictable task. Doppler ultrasound technology works by creating a sound signal related to the movement of the fetal heart. Thus the signal produced by the Doppler is not the actual sound of the fetal heart, but an electronically created sound. Auditory counting of the fetal heart rate by Doppler and by fetoscope has been demonstrated to be equivalent [15, 32, 33]. In addition, auscultation

Chapter 27 Fetal Assessment During Labor

with a Doppler device has close similarity with the FHR documented by EFM [15, 32, 33]. Handheld Doppler devices have been designed to be used easily in small spaces and with great flexibility to accommodate the variations in fetal position, maternal abdomens, and maternal position. Digital displays of the FHR make manual counting unnecessary, and some models can be safely used underwater, allowing for use during hydrotherapy in labor and birth. The external fetal heart monitor of the EFM machine is actually a Doppler device, and so the audible sounds are the same as those emitted from handheld Doppler devices. Further information regarding the physics and safety of Doppler ultrasound can be found in Chapter 23. Controversy exists regarding use of the EFM for intermittent documentation. Advocates find use of the EFM ultrasound transducer to be convenient, and with the associated tracing a hard copy can be made. Concern is raised, however, that when the recording is done by the EFM, data including not only the heart rate but the variability and possible accelerations or decelerations are recorded and then must be interpreted according to EFM guidelines [6, 15]. There is no standard in this regard, and the issue must be addressed by each institution and individual clinician. When you first approach a pregnant woman with the intent of auscultation, it is important to consider the fetal lie in order to optimize the quality of the heart sounds. Listening through the fetal back gives the clearest sound. Leopold maneuvers are quite useful in determining the fetal lie in order to make the best estimate of the placement for the fetoscope or Doppler (see Chapter 53). If using a DeLee-Hillis or Allen fetoscope, the bell must be placed tightly against the maternal abdomen to have a good air seal, and the headpiece against the listener’s forehead in order to utilize bone conduction. Similarly, the bell of a Pinard fetoscope is placed firmly on the mother’s skin, ensuring contact with the entire rim of the bell; the listener then places an ear firmly against the earpiece for best transmission of sound. Doppler devices require use of a gel between the face of the transducer and the maternal skin in order to ensure transmission of sound without air interference. Initial auscultation should be for a minimum of 1 minute, between contractions, to begin to determine the baseline heart rate and to listen for regularity of the rate. In order to determine a baseline heart rate, it is necessary to listen between contrac-

797

tions for several intervals within a 10-minute period to confirm consistency of the FHR and to identify the baseline. Then, the FHR should be auscultated following a contraction to determine if there is a significant change in the heart rate as a result of the contraction. Regularity of the rate should be listened for as well. Once a baseline regularity of the FHR and lack of significant decreases in the heart rate have been established, it is important to listen for at least 30 seconds during subsequent auscultation periods. If the woman is in active labor, the timing of auscultation should immediately follow a contraction. Auscultation has been shown to be able to identify baseline FHRs and changes in the rhythm of the heart rate and to appreciate accelerations of the heart rate [32–34, 37]. It cannot identify long- or short-term variability [6, 12, 31]. Decelerations can be identified as a decrease of the heart rate, but specific timing of the decelerations in relationship to uterine contractions cannot be determined with assurance [6], nor can the degree of decline of the heart rate, such as sudden with a variable deceleration or gradual with an early or late deceleration. Thus decelerations cannot be categorized as early, variable, or late in character. Instead, auscultation of decreases in the FHR can be described as brief or prolonged by the auscultated duration and by the slowest rate counted or registered on the Doppler device. The guidelines for minimal frequency of auscultation of the fetal heart arise from multiple research studies [8–10] as well as from the NICHD guidelines [27] and current ACOG guidelines [12]. Some authors advocate use of risk factors as a means of determining the frequency of auscultation [12]. Unfortunately, specific risk factors are not usually documented, and this area of the guidelines has been ambiguous. Risk factors should include any maternal or fetal indication of risk of decreased blood flow and oxygenation to the fetus during labor. This would include, but is not limited to, the following factors: maternal hypertension, insulindependent diabetes, IUGR, oligohydramnios, unexplained vaginal bleeding, multiple gestation, and oxytocin-induced labors. The suggested time frames for auscultation are noted in Table 27-1. When auscultation is used as an assessment technique, then the uterine contractions must be assessed by palpation as well as by observation of the mother. The frequency, duration, and intensity of the contractions must be identified [6, 35, 37]. The frequency of this assessment is not necessarily done

798

Part V Intrapartal Care

TABLE 27-1

Guidelines for Intermittent Auscultation

Minimum Frequency of Auscultation Without risk factors: q 30 min in active phase q 15 min in 2nd stage With risk factors: q 15 min in active phase after a contraction q 5 min in 2nd stage After establishment of a baseline and regular rhythm, listen for 30 sec minimum after a contraction. Also auscultate prior to: AROM ambulation immersion in water or shower administration of analgesics/anesthesia Assess and document FHR following: ROM recognition of abnormal uterine contraction patterns expulsion of an enema vaginal examination ambulation evaluation of analgesia and/or anesthesia

or documented with every episode of auscultation. The midwife and nurse or labor assistant may individualize this for each woman. (See Chapter 26 for a detailed discussion of assessing contractions in labor.) If changes in the baseline heart rate are identified, decelerations noted, or fetal arrhythmias heard, consideration must be given to closer assessment of the FHR pattern. A longer listening period may be initiated, or increased frequency of auscultation. If a deceleration is persistent, or the heart rate is bradycardic, the woman should be turned to her side and reevaluated, a different listening device may be used, or fetal scalp stimulation may be performed as a test of fetal oxygenation [6]. If a nonreassuring pattern persists, consultation should be sought, oxygen therapy considered, and intravenous fluids initiated or increased depending on the clinical situation. If concern for the fetus is such that delivery must be effected as soon as possible, frequent auscultation and documentation of results must continue while keeping the obstetric team apprised of the FHR pattern. In some cases, an EFM tracing may be initiated to confirm fetal status. Explain the concern and reasons for changing monitoring methods to the laboring woman and her support persons. If the EFM strip confirms an abnormal FHR pattern, clinical

management should progress as indicated. If, however, the strip is reassuring, then a return to auscultation may be considered. Documentation of the FHR findings as well as interpretation and management considerations are essential (see Figure 27-1). Tables 27-2 and 27-3 identify benefits and limitations of IA and EFM. Documentation of IA is critical in management of the course of labor as well as for retrospective review of the chart to evaluate care of the fetus in labor. As with other vital signs, IA must be documented after each episode of auscultation as there is no hard copy being recorded as there is with a fetal monitor strip [15]. The graph for documentation of IA should be simple and straightforward, allowing for little extra time to be wasted with excess documentation. However, one of the biggest problems from a medical-legal point of view is the lack of timely documentation of IA according to the guidelines of the birth site. Electronic Fetal Monitoring The electronic fetal monitor allows for display of the fetal heart rate pattern and the uterine contraction pattern. It can be used with either external or internal devices, dependent on the clinical situation. For external fetal heart rate monitoring, an ultrasound transducer is secured to the maternal abdomen, over the area of the fetal heart, by an elastic strap. A uterine pressure tocodynamometer (toco) can be similarly secured, resting on the maternal fundus. External fetal monitoring is appropriate for the majority of women. In most situations, with careful placement of the abdominal transducer and toco, the FHR and contractions will print out adequately for interpretation. The equipment and its electrical cords limit the distance a woman can move about. In addition, maternal movement can cause interference in the signal, sometimes obscuring or making unreadable the data being collected. In the event that the fetal heart rate or the contractions are not being adequately displayed, then internal monitoring of one or both components may be considered. Particularly if the fetal heart rate pattern is nonreassuring, an internal fetal electrode may be desirable in order to collect the most accurate information. With earlier fetal monitors (first generation), external monitoring displayed too much interference to allow accurate interpretation of baseline variability. External fetal monitoring with autocorrelation (all current instrumentation) can be used with nearly the same reliability as internal monitoring [27]. Therefore, only if there were minimal to

Chapter 27 Fetal Assessment During Labor

Birth Center USA

Name Date

Labor Flow Sheet Date

Time

FHR

Accel Rhythm Decel

799

Ctx Freq

Ctx Dur

Ctx Inten

Comments

FIGURE 27-1 Graph for Documentation of Intermittent Auscultation (IA).

absent variability would internal monitoring be indicated for the purpose of evaluating baseline variability. If the fetus is very active or the mother is obese or unable to remain relatively still, or if there are multiple decelerations rendering the strip difficult to interpret with external monitoring, then internal monitoring should be considered to optimize documentation of the data being interpreted. Internal monitoring can be accomplished, after rupture of the membranes, by means of a fetal scalp electrode, which is a curved wire that is placed on the fetal scalp and secured by twisting the electrode until the fetal scalp is pierced and the electrode is secured superficially under the skin (see Chapter 65). The wires extending from the electrode are en-

trapped in an electronic transmission device that is then secured to the maternal thigh with an elastic or Velcro belt. The fetal scalp electrode then transmits the fetal electrocardiogram to the monitor, which displays a digital signal of the FHR as well as a continuous graph of the heart rate. Documentation of contractions by the external tocodynamometer allows for the tracing to demonstrate the onset, peak, and resolution of contractions as well as the time between them. It also provides the information against which to determine the periodicity of any decelerations of the fetal heart rate. However, the external toco cannot determine the actual strength of contractions. Tightening the monitor straps or changing the posi-

800

Part V Intrapartal Care

TABLE 27-2

Benefits and Limitations of Intermittent Auscultation

Benefits Neonatal outcomes are comparable to those with EFM. Cesarean birth rates are lower. Technique is noninvasive. Woman’s freedom of movement is not impaired. The FHR can be assessed if the woman is immersed in water. The equipment is less costly than EFM equipment. Hands-on, individualized care must be provided. Limitations The use of a fetoscope may limit the ability to hear the FHR (e.g., in cases of maternal obesity or increased amniotic fluid). FHR variability cannot be detected. Periodicity of FHR decelerations (variable, late, early) cannot be determined. There is no permanent visual record of the data. There is a potential need to increase or to realign staff to meet the 1:1 nurse-to-patient ratio that is recommended based on RCTs that compare auscultation and EFM. Some women may feel auscultation is more intrusive.

TABLE 27-3

Benefits and Limitations of EFM

Benefits Recorded data provide for collaborative decision-making and education. Continuous recording is perceived by nursing administrators to decrease need for 1:1 nursing care. It is an excellent predictor of fetal well-being. Recorded strip demonstrates FHR and contractions simultaneously. Some women are reassured with use of high tech. May offer assistance with coaching to identify onset of contractions. Limitations Increased cesarean sections (which then includes increased rates of general anesthesia and infection). Interrater reliability is poor. Prevents normal movement, walking during labor. Creates false sense of security. There is no consensus on guidelines for interpretation of FHRs. There is no agreement regarding need for or timing of intervention. Terminology is varied and not precise. Cannot be used in water. There is increased operative vaginal delivery (forceps and vacuum assist). Uses expensive equipment. There is a high false-positive rate for suspected fetal compromise. Source: Adapted from Schmidt, J. V. History and development of fetal heart rate assessment: a composite. JOGGN 29(3):295–305 (May/June) 2000.

tion of the toco can show very different apparent intensity of contractions. Internal uterine monitoring is accomplished by placing an intrauterine pressure catheter (IUPC) through the cervix and into the uterine cavity (see Chapter 64). The IUPC has the advantage of providing specific information about the resting tone of the uterus, the actual pressure generated by the contractions, and very accurate timing of the onset, peak, and completion of the

contraction. In the event of induction of labor, especially if the progress of labor is slower than expected, an IUPC may be indicated. If amnioinfusion is needed, it will be done through the same catheter as the IUPC (see Chapter 64). The fetal monitor strip has an upper and lower display area on the paper. The upper portion will display the fetal heart rate pattern with increments of 10 bpm graphed on the vertical axis. The lower

Chapter 27 Fetal Assessment During Labor

portion displays the uterine contractions with gradations for 0 to 100 Montevideo units on the vertical axis (only for interpretation with an IUPC). The horizontal is marked into 10-second and 1-minute segments. Therefore, the FHR pattern, the contraction pattern, and the timing and relationship of each are displayed.

TABLE 27-4

801

Interpretation of a fetal monitor strip should progress in a predictable fashion, using standardized nomenclature. The definitions used in this chapter are from research guidelines for interpretation issued in 1997 by the NICHD [27] (see Table 27-4). A lack of standardized language, definitions, and interpretation has been identified as a major concern with EFM.

Definitions for Interpretation of Fetal Heart Rate Patterns

The individual components of the FHR patterns that are defined do not occur alone and generally evolve over time. Therefore a full description of FHR tracing requires a qualitative and quantitative description of the following: 1. Baseline rate 2. Baseline FHR variability 3. Presence of accelerations 4. Periodic or episodic decelerations 5. Changes or trends of FHR patterns over time Definitions of FHR Patterns Periodic patterns: Those patterns associated with uterine contractions. Episodic patterns: Those patterns not associated with uterine contractions. To determine uterine activity, a tocodynamometer tracing of good quality is required. Recurrent decelerations: Tentatively defined as those decelerations that occur with > or = to 50% of uterine contractions in any 20 minute segment. Baseline FHR: The approximate mean FHR rounded to increments of 5 beats per minute (bpm) during a 10 minute segment, excluding the following: 1. Periodic or episodic changes 2. Periods of marked FHR variability 3. Segments of the baseline that differ by >25 bpm In any 10 minute window, the minimum baseline duration must be at least 2 minutes or the baseline for that period is indeterminate. In this case it may be necessary to refer to the previous 10 minute segment(s) for determination of the baseline. If the baseline FHR is 160 bpm, it is termed tachycardia. Bradycardia and tachycardia are quantitated by the actual FHR in beats per minute, or the visually determined range if the FHR is not stable at one rate. Baseline FHR variability: Deemed as fluctuations in the baseline FHR of two cycles per minute or greater. These fluctuations are irregular in amplitude and frequency and are visually quantitated as the amplitude of the peak-to-trough in beats per minute as follows: 1. Amplitude range undetectable: absent FHR variability 2. Amplitude range > undetectable < or = to 5 bpm: minimal FHR variability 3. Amplitude range 6 to 25 bpm: moderate FHR variability 4. Amplitude range >25 bpm: marked FHR variability No distinction is made between short-term variability (or beat-to-beat variability or R-R wave period differences in the electrocardiogram) and long-term variability because in actual practice they are visually determined as a unit. Hence the definition of variability is based visually on the amplitude of the complexes, with exclusion of the regular, smooth sinusoidal pattern. Acceleration: A visually apparent abrupt increase (defined as onset of acceleration to peak in or = to 15 bpm above the baseline, and the acceleration lasts > or = to 15 seconds and or = to 10 bpm above the baseline and a duration of > or = to 10 seconds. Prolonged acceleration: More than or equal to 2 minutes and or = to 10 minutes is a baseline change.

802

Part V Intrapartal Care

TABLE 27-4

Definitions for Interpretation of Fetal Heart Rate Patterns (continued)

Late deceleration of the FHR: A visually apparent gradual (defined as onset of deceleration to nadir > or = to 30 seconds) decrease and return to baseline FHR associated with a uterine contraction. The decrease is calculated from the most recently determined portion of the baseline. The deceleration is delayed in timing, with the nadir of the deceleration occurring after the peak of the contraction. In most cases the onset, nadir, and recovery of the deceleration occur after the beginning, peak, and ending of the contraction, respectively. Early deceleration of the FHR: A visually apparent gradual decrease (defined as onset of deceleration to nadir > or = to 30 seconds) and return to baseline FHR associated with a uterine contraction. The decrease is calculated from the most recently determined portion of the baseline. It is coincident in timing, with the nadir of the deceleration occurring at the same time as the peak of the contraction. In most cases the onset, nadir, and recovery of the deceleration are coincident with the beginning, peak, and ending of the contraction, respectively. Variable deceleration of the FHR: A visually apparent abrupt decrease (defined as onset of deceleration to beginning of nadir or = to 15 bpm, lasting > or = to 15 seconds, and or = to 15 bpm, lasting > or = to 2 minutes, but or = to 10 minutes is a baseline change. Any deceleration is quantitated by the depth of the nadir in beats per minute below the baseline (excluding transient spikes or electronic artifact). The duration is quantitated in minutes and seconds from the beginning to the end of the deceleration. Accelerations are quantitated similarly. Source: From National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Research Planning Workshop. Electronic fetal heart rate monitoring: research guidelines for interpretation. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 77(6):1385–1390, 1997.

Fetal heart rate patterns are caused by or associated with many clinical situations. It is important for the midwife to understand the range of influences that can effect changes in the FHR. Identification of the cause of the abnormal FHR patterns, when possible, allows the midwife to implement corrective measures and further develop the management plan. In the term fetus, fetal tachycardia alone is not usually associated with poor outcomes. Fetal tachycardia—combined with either late decelerations or prolonged variable decelerations, and absent variability, with or without meconium—is indicative of fetal hypoxia. The preterm fetus, whose organ systems are immature, and the postterm fetus, in whom the placenta has begun aging, may not tolerate these changes as effectively as the term fetus. Every effort should be made to identify the cause of fetal tachycardia, alleviate the problem when possible, and obtain other measures of fetal well-being such as scalp stimulation or scalp blood sampling. Tachycardia without other fetal heart rate changes may indicate the following: 1. Prematurity (80 bpm, that is accompanied by adequate variability, is rarely associated with fetal acidemia. However, bradycardia without variability, in the presence of prolonged or late decelera-

Chapter 27 Fetal Assessment During Labor

tions is often related to hypoxia and metabolic acidosis. Bradycardias that result from severe hypoxia have absent variability and will not return to the baseline. Instead, they will progressively worsen with increasing acidosis and may be seen immediately prior to intrauterine fetal death. A low baseline FHR of 100 to 120 bpm alone may indicate the following: 1. Maternal hypothermia 2. Prolapsed cord: occult, complete, or intermit-

tent cord compression 3. Fetal hypoxemia or asphyxia (acute or chronic) 4. Vagal stimulation resulting from maternal

Valsalva, vaginal exam, rapid descent, or posterior or transverse position of the fetal head in a vertex presentation 5. Cardiac anomalies; sustained fetal bradycardia with positive fetal movement is associated with complete or incomplete atrioventricular heart block 6. Administration of drugs such as propranolol, local anesthetics In the presence of fetal bradycardia ( 90o

90o

60o

45o

30o

0o

Arm recoil 180o Popliteal angle

180o

140o–180o

160o

110o–140o

140o

90o–110o

120o

< 90o

100o

90o

< 90o

Scarf sign Heel to ear

PHYSICAL MATURITY Sticky, friable, transparent

Gelatinous, red, translucent

Smooth, pink, visible veins

Superficial peeling and/or rash, few veins

Cracking, pale areas, rare veins

Parchment, deep cracking, no vessels

Lanugo

None

Sparse

Abundant

Thinning

Bald areas

Mostly bald

Plantar surface

Heel-toe 40–50 mm: –1 < 40 mm: –2

> 50 mm, no crease

Faint red marks

Anterior tranverse crease only

Creases anterior two-thirds

Creases over entire sole

Breast

Imperceptible

Barely perceptible

Flat areola, no bud

Stippled areola, 1–2 mm bud

Raised areola, 3–4 mm bud

Full areola, 5–10 mm bud

Skin

Eye/Ear

Lids fused loosely: –1 tightly: –2

Lids open; pinna flat, stays folded

Slightly curved pinna, soft, slow recoil

Well-curved pinna, soft but ready recoil

Pinna formed and firm, instant recoil

Thick cartilage, ear stiff

Genitals (male)

Scrotum flat, smooth

Scrotum empty, faint rugae

Testes in upper canal, rare rugae

Testes descending, few rugae

Testes down, good rugae

Testes pendulous, deep rugae

Genitals (female)

Clitoris prominent, labia flat

Clitoris prominent, labia minora small

Clitoris prominent, labia minora enlarged

Labia majora and minora equally prominent

Labia majora large, labia minora small

Labia majora cover clitoris and labia minora

Leathery, cracked, wrinkled

MATURITY RATING Score

Weeks

–10

20

–5

22

0

24

5

26

10

28

15

30

20

32

25

34

30

36

35

38

40

40

45

42

50

44

FIGURE 39-1 The New Ballard Scale (NBS). Source: From Ballard, J. New Ballard Scale, expanded to include extremely premature infants. J. Pediatr. 119:417, 1991. Reproduced by permission.

The newborn will then be considered to be in one of the following categories [5]: 1. Preterm: gestational age of less than 38 weeks 2. Term: gestational age of 38 to 42 weeks 3. Postterm: gestational age of more than 42

weeks It is possible to estimate risk based on gestational age. However, a more sophisticated relation-

ship is that between gestational age and birth weight [6]. Within each of the three categories of gestational age there will be some newborns who are larger and some who are smaller. These patterns of accelerated or diminished growth are associated with certain newborn problems and predispositions. In order to establish the birth weight/gestational age relationship, the midwife must have ac-

1004

Part VI Newborn Care

cess to both an accurate birth weight and an accurate gestational age. It is important to note that birth weights vary in accord with altitude, race, country of origin, and socioeconomic class. Thus there is no international standard of birth weight. The older charts that graphed weight in relation to gestational age are limited because they determined gestational age based on the menstrual history alone. More recent studies have studied birth weight in comparison to a gestational age assigned by Ballard scores and ultrasound [7]. It is important that the midwife use a table that contains anthropomorphic data appropriate to her or his region. Having charted birth weight in relation to gestational age, the midwife will now characterize the newborn as being in one of three categories: 1. Small for gestational age (SGA) 2. Appropriate for gestational age (AGA) 3. Large for gestational age (LGA)

Combining the gestational age categories (preterm, term, and postterm) with the weight/gestational age categories, the midwife can then classify the newborn as being in one of the following nine categories: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Preterm, small for gestational age Preterm, average for gestational age Preterm, large for gestational age Term, small for gestational age Term, average for gestational age Term, large for gestational age Postterm, small for gestational age Postterm, average for gestational age Postterm, large for gestational age

After accurately categorizing the newborn, the midwife can develop a plan for potential problems related to that newborn’s birth weight and gestational age. The work done by Lubchenco in the 1960s (see Figure 39-2) expanded our horizons to include this type of newborn management [5, 6]. The midwife can expect that the term AGA newborn will experience the fewest neonatal problems. The immediate care of postterm, SGA, and LGA newborns is discussed in Chapter 41.

Physical Examination of the Newborn Basic Approach to the Exam During examination of the newborn, the midwife will utilize the four basic techniques of physical examination: (1) inspection, (2) palpation, (3) auscul-

Weight (g) LGA

4000 IDM

3500 Hypoglycemia

AGA

3000

2500

2000

1500 90% 1000

500

PPH Aspiration Polycythemia Asphyxia Anomalies Trisomies TTN Drugs Infections HMD Toxemia Apnea Altitude NEC Twin BPD SGA Hypertension IVH Hypoglycemia

10% 90+ 60 33 16

6

6

Approximate mortality (%)

0 24 28 Immature

32 36 Premature

40 Term

44 48 Postmature

Age (weeks)

FIGURE 39-2 Conditions associated with birth weight/ gestational age categories. Specific clinical conditions frequently encountered in the three major developmental channels: (1) large for gestational age (LGA); (2) appropriate for gestational age (AGA); (3) small for gestational age (SGA). Expected approximate overall mortality is indicated on the abscissa. IDM, Infant of a diabetic mother; IVH, intraventricular hemorrhage; BPD, bronchopulmonary dysplasia; NEC, necrotizing enterocolitis; HMD, hyaline membrane disease; TTN, transient tachypnea of the newborn; PPH, persistent pulmonary hypertension or persistent fetal circulation. Source: Battaglia, F., and Lubchenco, L. A practical classification of newborn infants by weight and gestational age. J. Pediatrics 71:159, 1967. Reproduced by permission.

tation, and (4) percussion. The value of observation has been discussed above. The complete examination will involve three types of evaluation: (1) anthropomorphic measurements, (2) evaluation of organ systems, and (3) neurological evaluation. The physical exam of the newborn is designed to screen for physical variations and malformations and the overall state of health of the newborn. There are many differences between components of an adult physical examination and that of a newborn. There are also many minor newborn physical and behavioral variations that are within normal. Chapter 80 includes an extensive guide to the content and findings of the newborn exam and discusses variations (both minor and serious).

Chapter 39 Examination of the Newborn

Learning how to conduct a newborn exam is somewhat like learning a foreign language. There are many unique terms and names, and many eponyms used in deference to the person who first described the finding. It is advisable to start with a medical dictionary. If a midwife is unfamiliar with the characteristics of normal newborns, extra observational experiences should be arranged. When writing notes, the midwife should properly name any variations present and avoid use of the nondescript phrase “within normal.” Most textbooks and physical examination records assume an exam that proceeds from head to toe. The midwife should feel free to modify this progression. If the newborn is quiet or sleeping, many examiners start their hands-on exam with auscultation of heart and bowel sounds and palpation of the femoral pulses. In an awake alert newborn, the examiner may check the red reflex first. A crying newborn presents the opportunity for inspection of the mouth and throat. The midwife should curb any nervous impulses that lead to excessive handling and thus overstimulation of the newborn. This is a common mistake, similar to the excessive touching by an inexperienced midwife performing a cervical exam. Many times the newborn can be calmed during an exam by being given a pacifier or finger to suck on. Anthropomorphic Measurements The midwife may be responsible for measuring the infant’s length and chest and head circumference. The newborn body has a unique appearance. Normally, the head circumference is larger than the chest circumference, the abdomen is protuberant, and the tone is flexed (Figure 39-3). Measurements must be done in a standardized fashion. The newborn length is most accurately assessed if the head of the newborn is flush against a firm surface. The legs can then be extended and a mark made on the examining table paper. After the newborn is moved, the midwife can then measure the distance in centimeters. The newborn head circumference is measured from the occiput around the head just above the eyebrows. This measurement may change in the first week of life as swelling from birth recedes (see Figure 39-4). Chest circumference is measured under the armpits and across the nipple line. The baby’s weight should be assessed on a scale with a drape between the newborn and the metal. The scale should be calibrated to account for the weight of the drape. This prevents heat loss and infection from cross-contamination.

1005

FIGURE 39-3 Normal newborn body proportions.

FIGURE 39-4 Swelling of newborn head caused by cephalohemotoma.

Table 39-3 lists mean birth weights, lengths, and head circumferences of term newborns (38–42 weeks) born in the United States. Dombrowski et al. established the means by studying 38,818 live infants (born between 1984 and 1991) whose gestational age was determined by obstetrical age and confirmed by ultrasound [7]. Assessment for Birth Defects and Genetic Disease The midwife who examines a newborn is in a unique position to note physical variations that may be indicative of more serious underlying problems. Although no caregiver wishes to bear bad news to parents, the midwife must make sure to let parents know about any potential problems and to refer them to a physician for more extensive evaluation. Many parents believe that a normal prenatal test provides assurance that their fetus is normal.

1006

Part VI Newborn Care

TABLE 39-3

Mean Birth Weights, Lengths, and Head Circumferences of Term Newborns

Gestational Age (weeks)

Weight (g)

Length (cm)

Head Circumference (cm)

38 39 40 41 42

3050 3225 3364 3501 3598

48.3 49.0 49.5 50.2 50.5

33.6 34.0 34.3 34.7 34.9

Source: Adapted from Dombrowski, M., Wolfe, H., Brans, Y., Saleh, A., and Sokol, R. Neonatal morphometry: relation to obstetric, pediatric and menstrual estimates of gestational age. Am. J. Dis. Children 146:852 (July) 1992. Reprinted by permission.

Unfortunately, all prenatal tests have limitations. Our ability to diagnose genetic disease prenatally remains limited to a few major chromosomal disorders. Ultrasound is valuable for major physical defects but is limited in its ability to reveal cardiac and musculoskeletal defects [8]. Variations in physical appearance may be due to inconsequential human variation or familial traits. However, the midwife should remember that many genetic disorders can be diagnosed based on the newborn’s physical appearance. Approximately 3 to 4 percent of live births involve some congenital defect—some serious, some minor. The presence of three minor malformations is suggestive of a major underlying malformation [9]. Among the common minor malformations are the following: Large fontanel Epicanthal folds Hair whorls Widow’s peak Low posterior hair line Preauricular tags and pits Minor ear anomalies: protruding, rotated, lowset Darwinian tubercle Digital anomalies: clinodactyly (curved finger); camptodactyly (bent finger); syndactyly (webbed finger) Transverse palmar crease Shawl scrotum Redundant umbilicus Widespread nipples Supernumerary nipples Early evaluation and intervention can help prevent serious sequelae of malformations, such as infec-

tion, intestinal perforation, spinal cord injury, or retardation. Table 39-4 provides a list of visual clues that the midwife may note during physical examination and the serious conditions that they may indicate. Newborns presenting with ambiguous genitalia are a particular challenge. These newborns present with external genital characteristics of both males and females. A midwife who examines a newborn and has doubts about the genitalia should consult with a neonatal team immediately. In some instances this finding is associated with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, a condition that will cause life-threatening dehydration shortly after birth. Families should be informed of the examiner’s concern and should be encouraged not to assign a sex to the newborn. Proper assessment of an infant with physical variations should be performed by a specialized team that includes a neonatologist, a geneticist, an endocrinologist, and a primary nurse. Unfortunately it may take weeks before genetic karyotypes are complete. Extensive additional testing will be necessary to evaluate the type and extent of the malformation. The midwife’s role is to support the anxious and grieving family. It is helpful if one or two midwives from a large practice accept the responsibility for staying in touch with the family during this time of testing and waiting. The Neurological Examination The procedure of assessing reflexes, cranial nerves, and special senses is integrated into the overall physical examination outlined in Chapter 80. However, it is important to reflect on the neurological exam as an indicator of the integrity of the nervous system. Both diminished (hypo) and accentuated (hyper) responses are cause for concern. Diminished response can result from a congenital absence of a nerve or damage to sensory or motor pathways. Diminished or accentuated response to stimulation can also reflect a central neurological deficit. During the neurological exam, the midwife will be making assessments of the newborn’s senses. Sight, hearing, and smell can all be evaluated in a newborn. Poor or absent response to stimulation may indicate damage to the nerve itself (optic, auditory, or olfactory). An absent or diminished response to an elicited reflex may mean a variety of things. Sometimes the reflex is partial or diminished because of newborn

Chapter 39 Examination of the Newborn

TABLE 39-4

1007

Visual Clues That Suggest Birth Defects and Genetic Conditions

Diagnosis

Visual Clues

Mendelian Inheritance 1. Autosomal Dominant (AD) Neurofibromatosis I Tuberous sclerosis Myotonic dystrophy Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia Waardenburg syndrome Peutz-Jehger syndrome Van der Woude syndrome Holt-Oram syndrome

Cafe au lait spots Ash leaf spot Myopathic facies Bumps at end of long bones White forelock Brown lip macules Lip pits Thumb anomaly

2. Autosomal Recessive (AR)

Tay-Sachs disease Galactosemia Cystic fibrosis Congenital adrenal hyperplasia Mucopolysaccharidoses Meckel-Gruber syndrome Rhizomelia chondrodysplasia

Cherry red spot Cataracts and neonatal jaundice Meconium ileus, rectal prolapse Ambiguous genitalia Corneal clouding, joint contracture Polydactyly, encephalocele Short proximal limbs, cataracts

3. X-Linked Recessive (X-LR)

Fragile-X syndrome Duchenne muscular dystrophy Menke Kinky Hair syndrome Usher syndrome Lesch-Nyhan syndrome

Large testes Large calf muscle Steel-wool like hair Retinitis pigmentosa Gravel urine, self-mutilation

4. X-Linked Dominant (X-LD)

Incontinentia pigmenti Rett syndrome Vitamin D resistant ricketts

Pigmented skin swirls Hand wringing Bowed legs

Non-Mendelian Inheritance 1. Mitochondrial

Kearns-Sayre Lebers disease MELAS MERRF

All associated with muscle weakness, ophthalmoplegia, and recurrent episodes of acidosis

2. Uniparental Disomy

Prader-Willi Angelman

Obesity, small hands and feet MR, recurrent bouts of laughter

3. Gonadal Mosaicism

Osteogenesis Imperfecta Teratogen Alcohol Dilantin Hyperpyrexia Tegretol Coumadin Accutane

Blue sclera, brittle bones

Microcephaly, short palpebral fissures Nail hypoplasia Neural tube defects (NTD) NTD Flat nasal bridge Facial and limb anomalies

1008

Part VI Newborn Care

TABLE 39-4

Visual Clues That Suggest Birth Defects and Genetic Conditions (continued)

Diagnosis Multifactorial Clubfoot Cleft lip/palate (CLP) NTD Dislocated hip Congenital heart Hypospadies

Visual Clues Same as diagnosis in each case

Chromosomal Trisomy 21 Trisomy 18 Trisomy 13 45 XO Klinefelter Cat-cry 5p(–)

Hypotonia, single palmar crease, prominent tongue Finger and joint contracture,webbed neck Polydactyly, CLP, scalp defects Short stature, webbed neck Small testes, gynecomastia Natal mewing

Sporadic Multiple Pattern Syndrome Cornelia de Lange Rubinstein-Taby Williams syndrome Sturge-Weber VATER ASSN

Synophrys, phocomelia Large thumbs and great toes Elfin facies Nevus flammeus TE-fistula

Congenital Defects Minor and Major Malformations Preauricular tags and sinus tracts Deafness and renal disease Nasal dermoids Nasal sinus tract to septum and to brain in some cases Lip pits Cleft lip and palate Bifid uvula Submucous cleft Enlarged tongue Hypothyroidism Two-vessel cord Renal disease Lumbar hair tuft Spinal cord lesions Source: Wardinsky, T. Visual clues to diagnosis of birth defects and genetic disease J. Pediatr. Health Care 8(2):63, 1994. Reprinted by permission.

depression secondary to medications. The response may not be optimal because the sensory pathway conducting the stimulation has been damaged, reflecting a spinal or central nervous system lesion. Sometimes a reflex cannot be elicited because of temporary motor nerve damage that prevents the muscles in the affected area to respond to a stimulation, as with a weak palmar grasp after a breech delivery or facial nerve paralysis after a forceps delivery (see Figure 39-5). Sometimes damage is permanent, as in some brachial plexus injuries and some spinal cord defects. The midwife’s role involves the elicitation of the following reflexes as part of the physical exam: 1. Eyes: Pupillary reflex, red reflex, doll’s eye re-

flex, blink reflex 2. Upper extremities: Palmar grasp reflex

FIGURE 39-5 Facial nerve paralysis.

Chapter 39 Examination of the Newborn

3. Lower extremities: Patellar reflex, plantar re-

flex, Babinski reflex 4. Torso: Anal wink, tonic neck reflex Elicitation of these reflexes (see Figures 39-6 and 39-7) is described in Chapter 80. Absent, markedly diminished, or accentuated reflexes should be noted on the physical exam form; asymmetrical reflexes should also be noted. The midwife should then consult with a pediatric provider about further testing and follow-up. The most commonly used evaluation of the neurological status of the newborn is the Moro reflex, or embracing reflex. In normal infants the response is symmetrical and disappears by 2 to 4 months. The Moro reflex consists predominantly of abduction and extension of the arms with hands open and the thumb and index finger semiflexed to form a C. Leg movements may occur, but they are not as uniform as the arm movements. With return

FIGURE 39-6 Plantar reflex.

1009

of the arms toward the body, the infant either relaxes or cries. The midwife must take care to elicit a Moro reflex and avoid “startles.” Acceptable ways to elicit a Moro reflex include the following: 1. Striking the examining table near the head of

the baby 2. Allowing a semi-sitting infant to fall backward

(onto the examiner’s open hand) from an angle of 30 degrees 3. Jarring the table suddenly 4. Making a loud noise or handclap Medical consultation is required if any of the following deviations is found with the Moro reflex test: 1. Absence of the reflex indicates possible in-

tracranial lesions. 2. Asymmetrical response may indicate birth in-

jury involving the brachial plexus, clavicle, or humerus. 3. Abnormal persistence of embrace gesture indicates hypertonicity. 4. Persistence of entire Moro reflex after 4 months indicates delay in neurological maturation. Becoming Confident at Newborn Physical Examination If you have little experience with the appearance and physical characteristics of newborns, it is important to increase your base of knowledge by observing as many newborns as possible and studying reference books that contain color pictures of newborn deviations [10, 11]. Observing other experienced caregivers, in person or on videotape, will help you develop that intuitive, confident recognition of normal that is the basis of midwifery practice.

References 1. Dubowitz, L., Dubowitz, V., and Goldberg, C.

FIGURE 39-7 Babinski reflex.

Clinical assessment of gestational age in the newborn infant. Pediatrics 77:1, 1970. 2. Ballard, J., Novak, K., and Driver, M. A simplified score for assessment of fetal maturation of newly born infants. J. Pediatr. 95(5):771, 1979. 3. Ballard, J., Khoury, J., Wedig, K., et al. New Ballard Scale, expanded to include extremely premature infants. J. Pediatr. 119:417, 1991.

1010

Part VI Newborn Care

4. Smith L. N., Dayal, V. H., and Monga, M.

Prior knowledge of obstetrical gestational age and possible bias of Ballard score. Obstet. Gynecol. 93(5):712–714, 1999. 5. Battaglia, F., and Lubchenco, L. A practical classification of newborn infants by weight and gestational age. J. Pediatr. 71:159, 1967. 6. Lubchenco, L., Hansman, C., and Boyd, E. Intrauterine growth in length and head circumference as estimated from live births at gestational ages from 26 to 42 weeks. Pediatrics 37:403, 1966. 7. Dombrowski, M., Wolfe, H., Brans, Y., Saleh, A., and Sokol, R. Neonatal morphometry: Relation to obstetric, pediatric and menstrual

8.

9.

10.

11.

estimates of gestational age. Am. J. Dis. Children 146:(8)52, 1992. Goncalves, L., Jeanty, P., and Piper, J. The accuracy of prenatal ultrasound in detecting congenital anomalies. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 171(6):1606, 1994. Wardinsky, T. Visual clues to the diagnosis of birth defects and genetic disease. J. Pediatr. Health Care 8(2):63, 1994. Zitelli, B., and Davis, H. Atlas of Pediatric Physical Diagnosis. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1987. Jones, K. Smith’s Recognizable Patterns of Human Malformation, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1988.

C H A P T E R

40 Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks MARY KATHLEEN MCHUGH, CNM, MSN

The Midwife’s Role in Neonatal Well-Child Care

center or hospital or before the midwife leaves the home after a home birth. The first exam is a screening exam that is conducted at birth, as discussed in Chapter 37. The second, more comprehensive, exam includes the gestational age assessment, as discussed in Chapter 39. If a newborn is discharged after a short stay (6 to 12 hours), most pediatric providers prefer to see the newborn again on the third to fifth day after birth. If the child was in-hospital for 48 hours, the first visit can be delayed until the baby is 10 to 14 days old. The purpose of this visit is to reexamine the newborn and to review teaching and anticipatory guidance with parents. If metabolic screening was not done prior to the infant’s discharge from the birth center or hospital, it should be done on this visit. All states currently require screening for congenital hypothyroidism and phenylketonuria (PKU). Some states require screening for other metabolic diseases [2]. It is the midwife’s responsibility to understand the screening requirements of the state in which she or he practices and to be prepared to take a proper blood specimen, usually from the heel. There are many incorrect techniques; most faulty samples either under- or over-sample the blood. The midwife should carefully read the instructions regarding the technique that will optimize results. The test for PKU is accurate after an infant has had at least 48 hours of feedings; until then the damaging phenylalanine has not accumulated. Therefore, drawing these tests before an early discharge, although sometimes required by law, is inadequate. A second test should be scheduled.

The role of the midwife during the newborn’s first month of life varies markedly. In some locales, the midwife has little formal role once the newborn leaves the birthing room. In other practices, usually multidisciplinary ones, the midwife will continue care of the mother and newborn throughout the first 6 weeks after birth. These midwives work in a collegial relationship with pediatric providers and the well-child care gradually shifts to pediatric or family health care providers. The American College of Nurse-Midwives expects nurse-midwives to be competent in the care of the well neonate. The Core Competencies for Basic Nurse-Midwifery Practice, revised in 2002, states that the nurse-midwife “independently manages the care of the newborn during the first 28 days of life” [1, sec. 6.2]. Regardless of the formal expectation regarding the role of the midwife, the reality is that many parents will call the midwife with questions related to the care and well-being of their newborn. The midwife, conscious of the exquisite connection between mother and child, promotes family well-being by her involvement in care and advice to both the mother and new child. Well-Child Surveillance: The First Four Weeks All newborns should have at least two physical examinations before being discharged from the birth

1011

1012

Part VI Newborn Care

The purpose of a well-child visit is threefold: (1) to identify symptoms of disease; (2) to offer screening measures; and (3) to educate and support parents [3]. When a parent brings a newborn in for a well-child visit, every effort should be made to keep the child from exposure to sick children in the waiting area. Whenever possible, the mother and father should be escorted into an exam room as soon as they arrive with their child. Sometimes the well-child visit is combined with the mother’s postpartum visit. The midwife should have a plan for the initial well-child visit, which should include the following: 1. Review maternal history, birth history, immedi-

ate neonatal course. 2. Observe parents and interview regarding family 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

adjustment. Take a newborn interval history: feeding, alertness, and crying, as well as bowel, bladder, and other problems. Measure weight, length, and head circumference. Perform physical exam. Review need for metabolic screening. Provide teaching and anticipatory guidance. Schedule visit in 6 to 8 weeks for further immunization and checkup. Review how to reach the pediatric provider for emergencies.

The visit starts with a brief interview of the mother or father. Particular attention should be paid to unresolved issues related to the labor and delivery experience or the immediate care of the baby following birth. Parents need to be able to discuss any memories or misinterpretations they may have of that time period. The midwife should assess the well-being of the mother and father and look for signs of depression or inability to cope with the demands of the new baby. Inquiries should be made about help in the home, sibling reaction to the new baby, and reaction of other relatives to the newborn. Questioning should move on to the behavior and characteristics of the newborn. Particular emphasis should be paid to feeding patterns, levels of alertness, bowel and bladder patterns, and crying patterns. The midwife should ask, “Do you have

any worries or concerns about the baby?” in order to elicit unspoken fears. Next the midwife conducts a complete physical exam and checks the baby’s reflexes. The physical exam should include a weight check and measurement of length and head circumference. Head circumference may measure slightly less than at birth if the newborn’s head was swollen at delivery. During the physical exam, the midwife is looking for evidence that the newborn is hydrated and well cared for. Particular attention should be paid to level of alertness, the heart sounds, and the abduction of the hips. Many metabolic diseases present a number of days after birth, with symptoms of hypotonia or irritability, and feeding problems. During the physical exam the midwife has an ideal chance to observe for signs of parental attachment to the newborn. This will be evidenced by the parents’ use of the newborn’s name and by appropriate efforts to protect and comfort the newborn. The midwife has a chance to observe whether the parents are at ease in handling the newborn. If there is an opportunity to observe a feeding, this can be particularly valuable. The greatest part of the initial well-child visit should be spent soliciting parental concerns and offering guidance and anticipatory advice. As with all teaching, the midwife must ascertain whether the parent is able to pay attention and really hear the guidance. Parents distracted by fatigue or worried about an emergent problem may hear and retain only certain pieces of information. Written instructions can be provided to the parent on common newborn issues. The second well-child visit usually takes place when the baby is between 6 and 8 weeks old. Parents can be told to expect that the immunization series (which began with the first hepatitis B immunization immediately after birth) will continue then [4]. Standard immunization recommendations are noted in Figure 40-1. Weight and measurement are measured again and another physical examination is conducted. Any midwife providing well-child care should have an explicit agreement with a pediatric provider for consultation and/or referral of any newborn presenting with signs of illness or disorders. This relationship should be clear to all concerned—the parents, the midwife, and the pediatric caregivers. Depending on state law, the midwife may need to state this relationship formally, in writing.

Chapter 40 Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks

range of recommended ages

Vaccine

Age Birth HepB #1

Hepatitis B1

1 mo

2 mos

4 mos

catch-up vaccination 6 mos

18 mos

24 mos

4-6 yrs

11-12 yrs

13-18 yrs

HepB series HepB #3

DTaP

DTaP

DTaP

Haemophilus influenzae Type b3

Hib

Hib

Hib

Inactivated Polio

IPV

IPV

Measles, Mumps, Rubella4

DTaP

PCV

PCV

PCV

Td

DTaP

Hib

IPV

IPV

MMR #1

MMR #2

Varicella

Varicella5 Pneumococcal6

15 mos

preadolescent assessment

only if mother HBsAg(-)

HepB #2

Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis2

12 mos

1013

PCV

MMR #2

Varicella PCV

PPV

Vaccines below this line are for selected populations

Hepatitis A7

Hepatitis A series

Influenza8

Influenza (yearly)

This schedule indicates the recommended ages for routine administration of currently licensed childhood vaccines, as of December 1, 2002, for children through age 18 years. Any dose not given at the recommended age should be given at any subsequent visit when indicated and feasible. Indicates age groups that warrant special effort to administer those vaccines not previously given. Additional vaccines may be licensed and recommended during the year. Licensed combination vaccines may be used whenever any components of the combination are indicated and the vaccine's other components are not contraindicated. Providers should consult the manufacturers' package inserts for detailed recommendations.

1. Hepatitis B vaccine (HepB). All infants should receive the first dose of hepatitis B vaccine soon after birth and before hospital discharge; the first dose may also be given by age 2 months if the infant’s mother is HBsAg-negative. Only monovalent HepB can be used for the birth dose. Monovalent or combination vaccine containing HepB may be used to complete the series. Four doses of vaccine may be administered when a birth dose is given. The second dose should be given at least 4 weeks after the first dose, except for combination vaccines which cannot be administered before age 6 weeks. The third dose should be given at least 16 weeks after the first dose and at least 8 weeks after the second dose. The last dose in the vaccination series (third or fourth dose) should not be administered before age 6 months. Infants born to HBsAg-positive mothers should receive HepB and 0.5 mL Hepatitis B Immune Globulin (HBIG) within 12 hours of birth at separate sites. The second dose is recommended at age 1–2 months. The last dose in the vaccination series should not be administered before age 6 months. These infants should be tested for HBsAg and anti-HBs at 9-15 months of age. Infants born to mothers whose HBsAg status is unknown should receive the first dose of the HepB series within 12 hours of birth. Maternal blood should be drawn as soon as possible to determine the mother’s HBsAg status; if the HBsAg test is positive, the infant should receive HBIG as soon as possible (no later than age 1 week). The second dose is recommended at age 1–2 months. The last dose in the vaccination series should not be administered before age 6 months. 2. Diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine (DTaP). The fourth dose of DTaP may be administered as early as age 12 months, provided 6 months have elapsed since the third dose and the child is unlikely to return at age 15–18 months. Tetanus and diphtheria toxoids (Td) are recommended at age 11–12 years if at least 5 years have elapsed since the last dose of tetanus and diphtheria toxoid-containing vaccine. Subsequent routine Td boosters are recommended every 10 years. 3. Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate vaccine. Three Hib conjugate vaccines are licensed for infant use. If PRP-OMP (PedvaxHIB® or ComVax® [Merck]) is administered at ages 2 and 4 months, a dose at age 6 months is not required. DTaP/Hib combination products should not be used for

primary immunization in infants at ages 2, 4, or 6 months, but can be used as boosters following any Hib vaccine. 4. Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine (MMR). The second dose of MMR is recommended routinely at age 4–6 years but may be administered during any visit, provided at least 4 weeks have elapsed since the first dose and that both doses are administered beginning at or after age 12 months. Those who have not previously received the second dose should complete the schedule by the 11–12-year-old visit. 5. Varicella vaccine. Varicella vaccine is recommended at any visit at or after age 12 months for susceptible children, i.e., those who lack a reliable history of chickenpox. Susceptible persons aged ≥13 years should receive two doses, given at least 4 weeks apart. 6. Pneumococcal vaccine. The heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) is recommended for all children age 2–23 months. It is also recommended for certain children age 24–59 months. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV) is recommended in addition to PCV for certain high-risk groups. See MMWR 2000;49(RR-9);1-38. 7. Hepatitis A vaccine. Hepatitis A vaccine is recommended for children and adolescents in selected states and regions, and for certain high-risk groups; consult your local public health authority. Children and adolescents in these states, regions, and high risk groups who have not been immunized against hepatitis A can begin the hepatitis A vaccination series during any visit. The two doses in the series should be administered at least 6 months apart. See MMWR 1999;48(RR-12);1-37. 8. Influenza vaccine. Influenza vaccine is recommended annually for children age ≥6 months with certain risk factors (including but not limited to asthma, cardiac disease, sickle cell disease, HIV, diabetes, and household members of persons in groups at high risk; see MMWR 2002;51(RR-3);1-31), and can be administered to all others wishing to obtain immunity. In addition, healthy children age 6–23 months are encouraged to receive influenza vaccine if feasible because children in this age group are at substantially increased risk for influenza-related hospitalizations. Children aged ≤ 12 years should receive vaccine in a dosage appropriate for their age (0.25 mL if age 6–35 months or 0.5 mL if aged ≥3 years). Children aged ≤ 8 years who are receiving influenza vaccine for the first time should receive two doses separated by at least 4 weeks.

For additional information about vaccines, including precautions and contraindications for immunization and vaccine shortages, please visit the National Immunization Program Web site at www.cdc.gov/nip or call the National Immunization Information Hotline at 800-232-2522 (English) or 800-232-0233 (Spanish). Approved by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (www.cdc.gov/nip/acip), the American Academy of Pediatrics (www.aap.org), and the American Academy of Family Physicians (www.aafp.org).

FIGURE 40-1 Recommended schedule for immunizations of infants and children. Source: American Academy of Pediatrics. Recommended childhood and adolescent immunization schedule—United States, 2003. Pediatrics 111(1):212 (January) 2003. Reprinted by permission.

1014

Part VI Newborn Care

Newborn Behavior Parents of newborns are particularly interested in the behavior and sensory capabilities of their children. The midwife can help the parents be realistic in their expectations during the first few weeks of life. Parents with exaggerated views of newborn abilities may become more easily frustrated. Newborn infants are in a period of behavioral instability. By the time parents figure out a pattern of newborn behavior, the pattern will have changed. A good rule of thumb for the first month of life is, “There is no pattern.” Sleep-Wake States Newborns have two major categories of behavior: periods of waking and periods of sleeping. Although many researchers have further characterized these two categories, Brazelton developed the most common classification scheme, noting six behavioral states of the newborn [5]. The waking states include crying, considerable motor activity, alert, and drowsy. The sleep states include active (light) sleep and deep sleep. Knowledge of infant behavioral states is helpful to both midwife and parent. The newborn’s abilities to feed and connect visually with the environment are most pronounced in the alert state. This is also the optimal time to check for some reflexes. However, term newborns spend only approximately 15 percent of their daytime hours in the alert state. The crying state is the most perturbing to parents. Parents of a newborn have not yet learned to decode the cries of their newborn. Midwives can help parents try to gauge whether the cry expresses a need to be fed, to be held, to be stimulated, to suck, or to sleep. Crying is inevitable, but prolonged and frequent crying has physiological sequelae that include increased heart rate and blood pressure, oxygen depletion, aerophagia, and increased cortisol levels [6]. The experienced midwife realizes that some of these physiological parameters also change in the stressed caregiver of the crying infant. Occasionally, crying expresses pain [7]. A newborn who cries excessively may cause a negative interaction with caregivers and can be the source of family conflict. Many parents are focused on not spoiling even very young infants. A discussion of the child’s primal needs may give parents the permission they need to spend time calming their newborn. The two types of sleep appear very different to the observer. In active (light) sleep the newborn may

exhibit varying depths and rates of respiration. The variation can concern parents. Motor movements are frequent and the infant can startle while sleeping. In deep sleep the infant has few motor movements. Respirations are deep and regular and the infant appears peaceful. During the first month of life the percentage of time spent in each of these states changes. Healthy newborns spend up to 60 percent of their time sleeping. However, much of this sleeping is in short naps. As the first month of life progresses, infants shift away from active (light) sleep and toward more deep sleep. Similarly, there is a shift in the waking states toward an increase in alertness. Infants who are crying begin to be able to remain alert to the environment while crying. Newborn Reflexes The newborn has two categories of reflexes: proprioceptive and exteroceptive. The exteroceptive reflexes are best evoked when the baby is quiet and alert, since they are stimulated by light touch. They include the rooting, grasping, plantar, and superficial abdominal reflexes. The proprioceptive reflexes include gross motor reflexes such as the Moro reflex. This can be checked at any time. Complete absence of any of these reflexes is a cause for alarm. However, there are frequent instances of an incomplete elicitation of a reflex. This condition can be caused by neurological depression secondary to medication. The loss of a previously strong reflex in the first month of life is a cause for alarm and should be reported to a pediatric provider. Parents can be involved in a discussion of the self-protecting nature of some reflexes. As they gain an appreciation of a newborn’s innate ability to root, suck, latch on to or withdraw from stimuli, and are shown evidence of prewalking behavior, they will come to appreciate their newborn as a competent person. Sensory Capabilities Research during the last 30 years has shown that the newborn’s ability to use the five senses is more highly developed than previously suspected [8]. Sensory capabilities are strongly related to gestational age. There are dramatic increases in the sensory stimulation just after birth that can lead to neonatal exhaustion, exhibited in fussiness or aversion. The midwife should teach the parents how to “read” the neurobehavioral clues of the newborn (see Table 40-1).

Chapter 40 Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks

TABLE 40-1

Infant Neurobehavioral Cues

Distress/ Disengagement Cues

Stability/ Engagement Cues

Bradycardia, apnea Rapid heart or respiration rate Grunting Stooling Mottled skin Dusky color Cyanosis Tremor Finger splay Fingers interlaced Arching Hyperalert face Facial grimace Limb extension Gaze aversion Eyes closed Slack jaw Open mouth Tongue thrusting Sighing Regurgitation Jittery Flaccid Vomiting Hand to ear Worried face Rapid state change Eyes floating Staring Hyperextension Glassy eyed Tongue protrusion Flushed Hiccough Startle Yawn Flaccidity Sneezing

Facial gaze Smiling Vocalization Feeding posture Flexion of arms and legs Eyes alert Stable heart rate Stable respiratory rate Smooth movements Hand to mouth Finger folding Smooth state transitions Sucking and mouthing Consolable “Ooh” face Alert Eye-to-eye contact Grasping

Source: From Blackburn, S. Maternal, Fetal and Neonatal Phsyiology. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 2003, p. 587. Reprinted by permission.

At term the newborn shows an ability to fix on and track objects visually. Many studies have shown a strong newborn preference for patterns of stripes. During the first month of life, newborns become preferentially interested in patterns with contours that resemble the human face. The ability to see in color is limited at first, so newborns prefer black and white patterns or strong colors like red.

1015

Newborns in the alert behavioral state will spend some minutes staring at patterns. Within the first two weeks, newborns also show an ability to mimic human facial expressions. The newborn has the ability to discriminate among distinctive odors. A newborn can discriminate the odor of its mother’s breast pad from the odors of the breast pads of other nursing women. Newborns react strongly to variations in taste and show a strong preference for sweet liquids. They suck longer and with an increase in heart rate when presented with a sweet liquid in a bottle. Newborns have acute hearing and are able to localize sound in the environment. They can discriminate finely among sounds and show a preference both for real voices as opposed to synthesized voices and for the mother’s voice. By the end of one month, newborns prefer sound with a pattern similar to speech. Prior to birth, the fetus experienced touch in the shifting of the amniotic fluid. At birth the newborn is dry for the first time and is subject to many and varied forms of touch. The ability of the newborn to respond to touch is well demonstrated with the elicitation of the various exteroceptive reflexes such as rooting, grasping, abdominal reflexes, and spinal curving. Regulation of Behavior Each infant shows a unique ability to react to stimulation presented by the environment and its own bodily functions. Infants vary in their ability to cope with these stimuli. Within a short period of time parents and caregivers characterize newborns as “quiet” or “active,” terms related to characteristics of behavior described by Brazelton [5]. The newborn learns best in the alert state. Therefore, the ability of the newborn to regulate itself so as to spend more time in the alert state is critical. At times, parental intervention in the form of rousing the baby or decreasing environmental stimuli may be essential if the newborn is to achieve the alert state. On occasion a midwife may recommend to parents that their newborn be given the full Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). This is especially indicated if the midwife is aware that the parents are having trouble coping with a newborn. This test is standardized and can only be reliably given by a trained examiner. However, every midwife should learn the components tested on the scale. The NBAS starts with the newborn in a sleeping state. Both behavioral and neurological

1016

Part VI Newborn Care

responses (reflexes) are tested. Repeated stimulations are offered and the examiner observes how the newborn adjusts to the stimuli. The behavioral parts of the NBAS assesses the infant’s ability to do the following tasks: 1. Organize behavioral states. 2. Decrease motor activity to cope with sensory

The Denver II is a growth chart of development, not a test that a child passes or fails. Findings of any significant developmental difference need to be weighed against other information such as previous developmental patterns and the degree of delay [9].

input. 3. Become alert and oriented to auditory and vi-

sual stimuli. 4. Interact with a caregiver through cuddling. 5. Able to console self. 6. Habituate to repeated stimulation. The abilities to quiet down and focus, to smile and cuddle with a caregiver, and to ignore extraneous stimulation are key to coping in the world. Midwives can utilize the results of an NBAS to work with parents who need to understand the unique features of their child. Testing that indicates the newborn has trouble calming, cuddling, or habituating to stimuli should be discussed with parents, with emphasis on the parents’ support of their newborn’s special needs.

Developmental Milestones in the First Six Weeks Term infants should reach certain developmental milestones during the first 6 weeks of life. Of the various methods of developmental screening available, only the Denver II is accurate in early infancy. The Denver II, a revision and restandardization of the Denver Developmental Screening Test, is based on more testing on various ethnic groups and population mixes. (The Denver II materials are available from DDM, Inc., PO Box 371075, Denver, CO, 80237-5075.) Within the first 2 months of life, term newborns should progress in all four areas tested on the Denver II. Personal-social skills should include spontaneous and responsive smiling and attentiveness to a face. Some infants will attend to their own hands. Fine motor movements will include visual following to midline and progress toward visual following past midline. In the language area infants will vocalize spontaneously and respond to a bell. Gross motor capabilities include symmetrical movements and lifting the head, occasionally to 45 degrees. Knowledge of these normal developmental milestones should shape the advice a midwife gives to new parents.

Psychological Tasks of Early Infancy During the first months after birth, a profound psychodynamic develops between the young infant and the principal caregiver (usually the mother). The infant is performing the psychological task of differentiation: seeing himself or herself as a separate being in relation to other beings. Human infancy and childhood, unlike that of other species, is lengthy and full of dependence. Young infants must be able to trigger their caregivers to feed, clothe, and shelter them—otherwise they will die. They trigger these protective reactions in adult humans by their sweet, curved physical appearance, their cuddliness, their cries, and their social smiles. A growing body of research implicates the maternal hormone oxytocin in the initiation and maintenance of human attachment behaviors [10, 11]. The brain is a target organ for oxytocin activity, known to contain oxytocin receptors. In animal research, nonpregnant animals given oxytocin suddenly initiate maternal behaviors including grooming, feeding, building nests, and defense of young animals [11]. As the first few months of life progress, the infant and mother form a psychological attachment to each other. First described by Ainsworth and Bowlby in the 1950s, attachment theory has profoundly shaped our knowledge of healthy caregiverchild interaction. Ideally the baby develops secure attachment, fostered by predictability on the part of the mother who responds to and accurately interprets the cues of the baby. The psychological dance of the mother-infant pair is a significant determinant of well-being later in childhood and establishes patterns that can influence attachments throughout life [12]. Infant attachment is best facilitated by caregiver sensitivity, which can be defined as (1) emotional availability, (2) sensitive responses and appropriate stimulation, and (3) consistency over time. Infants who form a secure attachment with the mother consider the mother as a secure base from which it is safe to foray into the greater world (see Figure 40-2). In the first year of life, secure infants

Chapter 40 Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks

FIGURE 40-2 Mother as secure base: Susan, Riley Clay, and Shelby Elizabeth (in utero). Source: Photo ©1982 Gabrielle Beasley; used with permission.

will venture out, crawling or toddling in a strange environment. They return often to the mother, usually for a quick nursing, a pat, or a cuddle. The mother is a safe harbor, predictable in her availability and response. Mothers and infants who do not form a secure attachment do form other types of attachment. Researchers have characterized two types: insecure attachment and avoidant attachment [13, 14]. In both, the key determinants are the inability of the mother to interpret infant cues successfully and to respond in a predictable way. Infants showing evidence of insecure attachment are anxious and cope poorly with changes or distance from the mother. Their behavior may show extremes of fussiness or other attention-getting behaviors. These infants seem to feel that mother’s attention is best gained by a negative display. The mother may be distracted, tired, or too young to know how to play well with an infant. She will, however, respond to screaming or other negative displays.

1017

Reinforcement, even negative attention, is enough to encourage the infant. Infants showing evidence of avoidant attachment seem detached from the mother—as though her lack of predictable response had caused them to shut down emotionally. Babies born to women with significant mental illness or substance abusers may show evidence of avoidant attachment. The effects of the substance abuse can change the mother’s personality unpredictably. One day the mother may be tense, one day stuporous, one day nervous from drug withdrawal. The infant receives inconsistent messages that cause emotional shutdown. The ability of mother and baby to form a secure attachment is key to preventing many other problems of childhood. Longitudinal studies begun when subjects were infants have shown a high correlation between insecure or avoidant attachment in infancy and patterns of school problems and delinquency [15]. The midwife can help the new parents understand the importance of forming this secure attachment. Some mothers need validation of their desire to spend time with their babies. The midwife can explain to both parents the critical importance of parental response to infant cues. This advice can help shape the parents’ response to crying and the infant’s attempts to communicate through smiling and eye contact. Mothering capability and desire to build this attachment can be undermined by failures at soothing or feeding. Mothers who perceive themselves as successful develop a feeling of confidence and competence. Midwives must take the time to talk with the mother about her perception of herself as a caregiver, and help to reframe expectations that may be unrealistic [16]. Although most of the literature discusses maternal-infant attachment, the midwife should be cognizant of other possible “secure bases” for infants, including fathers and grandmothers [17]. Some women never experienced quality mothering when they were children. They have no memory or imprint of a secure attachment. The task of mothering may seem overwhelming to these women and they are at high risk for frustration during the early months of motherhood. Whenever possible the midwife should attempt to refer these women to a counselor or parenting group during the weeks immediately after birth. Parents need to understand that to a young infant, the whole world is represented by the parent. If the infant is to learn the basic human emotion of trust, it is imperative that attempts to communicate receive an appropriate response.

1018

Part VI Newborn Care

Physical Care of the Newborn Parents have many concerns regarding the physical care of their newborn. Overall, they should be reassured that there is more than one right way to approach many physical aspects of their child’s care. An infant does not need a full bath daily. Newborns need to have their heads and diaper areas sponged whenever those areas are dirty. This “tops and tails” routine should be done with a mild, nondeodorized soap and the areas should be well dried. A full bath can be given occasionally when the parent has the time to make it a relaxing event for the newborn. Parents must be urged never to leave a newborn unattended in the bath. The soap, towels, shampoo, and clean clothes should all be organized before starting the bath. Slip-proof bath mats are inexpensive and help prevent the infant from slipping. Care of the umbilicus starts immediately after birth. As noted in Chapter 37, “dry care” of the umbilicus is sufficient. There is no need to ask the parents to use alcohol on the cord at home. The cord should continue to dry and will most likely fall off in 2 weeks. Cords with a strong odor can be cleansed with hydrogen peroxide. Parents should call the midwife if the cord oozes pus or red streaks appear on the abdomen near the umbilicus. Care of the skin covered by the diaper is essential if diaper rash is to be prevented. Skin care should start with regular diaper changes and a thorough cleansing of the skin with soap and water or a commercial diaper wipe. There is no need to use powder or cream on a regular basis. Use of a barrier cream containing zinc oxide (e.g., Desitin) can sometimes stop diaper rash at the earliest stages. Parents frequently have strong feelings about what type of diaper to use: paper disposable or cloth. Disposable diapers present environmental issues related to paper/plastic waste. On the other hand, commercial diaper services often use large amounts of bleach and the delivery trucks create pollution. A few parents will choose to wash their own diapers. They must carefully pre-soak diapers (in bleach and detergent) and wash them twice in very hot water in order to ensure that bacteria are destroyed. It is important that the washer not be overloaded so that adequate rinse water can circulate. Parents are frequently encouraged by family members to dress babies in excessive layers of clothing. A general rule of thumb is to clothe the infant with as many layers as other persons in the room

are wearing, plus one layer. Because babies cannot sweat effectively, symptoms of overheating are mainly a red skin color, irritability, and body warmth. Eventually the overheated infant will appear lethargic. Newborns also cannot cope well with cold winds. They will rapidly cool through inspired cold air. Infants taken outside on windy, cold days should have a nonrestrictive covering near their face while they are outdoors. From the earliest moments at home with a newborn, parents should be scanning for environmental hazards that present safety risks. In the first months of life these risks are mainly related to falling (from a changing table or baby seat) or getting stuck between crib bars. Parents using hand-me-down baby equipment need to check the reliability of safety straps and measure that the space between crib bars is less than 23/8 inches and that the mattress fits tightly into the crib. Parents of newborns should also think about hanging mobiles out of reach and removing soft pillows and toys that may lead to suffocation. There is strong evidence that infants should be positioned for sleep in the supine position (on their backs). This position helps to minimize the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). The American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Infant Sleep Position and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome first recommended the change from a prone to a supine sleep position in 1992. Since then, the deaths from SIDS have dramatically decreased (see Figure 40-3). Research continues on other factors that contribute to SIDS. Association has been noted with soft sleep surfaces, loose bedding, maternal smoking, bed sharing (especially with multiple family members), overheating, and preterm birth [18, 19]. The midwife is in an ideal position to speak with the family members about the sleeping arrangements, and to urge that no one smoke in the house where the baby resides. Current data do not support the widely held belief that newborns must be positioned on their abdomens in order to prevent aspiration of regurgitated food. Infants consistently placed in the supine position for sleep may have delays in reaching the developmental milestone of rolling over, previously expected by four months of age [20]. All parents using a car for transportation need to have a child safety seat. Small infants should be placed in the backseat of the car, facing the rear of the car. Some states have car seat loaner programs for indigent families. Parents who are buying a new seat should be encouraged to look for infant car seats that double as baby seats in the home. These

Chapter 40 Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks

1019

U.S. SIDS RATE vs Prone Prevalence 1.40

80 70

1.20 60

1.10 1.00

50

0.90

40

0.80 0.70

30

NCHS Data

0.60

Prone Prevalence (%)

SIDS Rate (per 1000 live births)

1.30

20

NICHO Survey

0.50 10

0.40 0.30

0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 AAP Recommendation

"Back to Sleep"

FIGURE 40-3 Change in incidence of SIDS since encouragement of the supine sleeping position. Source: American Academy of Pediatrics. Changing concepts of sudden infant death syndrome: implications for infant sleeping environment and sleep position (RE9946). Pediatrics 105(3):650–656 (March) 2000. Used with permission of the American Academy of Pediatrics.

will have the adequate harness that will prevent infant falls within the home.

The Circumcision Decision In the United States, circumcising male newborns became prevalent in the 1950s. A complex web of religious, cultural, and family traditions surrounds each family in this decision. Certain religious traditions (Jewish, Muslim) have practiced male circumcision for centuries. The procedure of circumcision involves the cutting of adhesions and retraction of the foreskin covering the glans of the penis. This procedure is customarily done in the hospital or during the first month of life as a religious ceremony. Complications from circumcision are unusual but can be serious. The most frequent complications are local infection and bleeding, seen in only 0.2 to 0.6 percent of infants [21]. Although the foreskin of newborns is rarely able to be retracted, by age 3 the foreskin can be retracted on 80 to 90 percent of male children. The contemporary medical rationale for circumcision is a source of controversy. Proponents of circumcision maintain that because the circumcised penis can be kept clean more easily, circumcised

males experience lower incidence of medical problems including cancer, urinary tract infection (UTI), and sexually transmitted disease (STD). Cancer of the penis is a rare cancer, especially in the cooler climates of the Northern Hemisphere. The relationship between circumcision and UTIs seems clear: all studies that have examined the association between UTI and circumcision status show an increased risk of UTI in uncircumcised males, with the greatest risk in infants younger than 1 year of age [22]. The relationship between circumcision and STDs remains complex. A number of studies have found a positive correlation between men who were uncircumcised and incidence of STDs, including HIV. However many other contributing factors such as socioeconomic class and sexual practices have clouded the association. Routinely circumcising newborns prevents the small percentage of men with phimosis (inability to retract the foreskin) from developing problems with edema and inflammation of the glans. Opponents of circumcision maintain that modern sanitary conditions in the United States eliminate the need for this procedure. They believe that the procedure is a painful violation of an unconsenting infant to get rid of a functional body part. The American Academy of Pediatrics makes the fol-

1020

Part VI Newborn Care

lowing statement: “Existing scientific evidence demonstrates potential medical benefits of newborn male circumcision; however, these data are not sufficient to recommend routine neonatal circumcision” [22]. The Academy further recommends that if circumcision is performed adequate analgesia be provided via a dorsal penile nerve block or an anesthetic cream [23]. Parents choosing not to circumcise should be taught the normal anatomy of the penis and its development. As the child matures, he should be taught to retract the foreskin gently while bathing in order to clear any collection of smegma. Parents must be urged not to retract a foreskin forcefully, since the resultant irritation and edema may cause further adhesions. In some areas, midwives have added circumcision to their practice [24]. Since this is not a core competency taught in midwifery educational programs, the midwife must utilize the ACNM Guidelines for the Incorporation of New Procedures into Nurse-Midwifery Practice. This is a procedure that must be carefully taught by an experienced preceptor who can observe the midwife as she or he learns the new skill. The technique of circumcision is described in Chapter 81. Whether midwives can add this skill to their clinical practices depends on state regulation regarding circumcision in midwifery practice. All midwives, regardless of their personal position on the subject, must be prepared to present the pros and cons of circumcision to parents.

Nonnutritive Sucking Each family will have its own preference regarding thumb sucking or the use of pacifiers with newborns. Developmentally, nonnutritive sucking serves many functions. Newborns use sucking as a calming activity and are better able to regulate to an alert state when they suck on a thumb or pacifier. There is some evidence that use of a pacifier is associated with a lower incidence of SIDS [18]. Some fetuses start sucking their thumb in utero and continue postnatally with this preference. Many families use pacifiers to help calm newborns. If parents choose to use a pacifier, they should be advised to clean it regularly and check for signs of dirt or mold. Most pacifiers today have a design that promotes proper development of the muscles of the mouth. Pacifiers should never be placed on a string around the baby’s neck because of the risk of strangulation. Some newborns never

accept a pacifier and parents must devise other methods to help the newborn become calm (walking the baby, distracting the baby, encouraging thumb sucking). When a baby is left sucking on a bottle for a prolonged period of time, the residual sugars from the milk or juice may contribute to childhood dental caries, or “baby bottle mouth.” The accumulation of milk in the back of the oropharynx may also lead to ear infections. Therefore, prolonged bottlefeeding should never be used to calm an infant.

Feeding The decision to bottle-feed or breastfeed a newborn is one full of emotion for many parents, especially mothers. Midwives are, by and large, strong advocates of breastfeeding. This choice and its attendant benefits and management are discussed in Chapter 43. Whenever possible, the midwife should express strong support for breastfeeding. However, there are some situations in which the decision to bottlefeed an infant is a logical, prudent choice. The decision to bottle-feed is logical when the woman’s preference is overwhelmingly in this direction. Some women or their significant others are repulsed by the process of breastfeeding. Other women, because of life demands, will share child rearing with other family members or partners and will not be available to breastfeed. Heavy smoking or substance abuse by the mother makes bottlefeeding a safer choice for the infant. Women experiencing certain infections such as HIV or women on certain medications may not safely choose breastfeeding. Commercial formula is usually heat-treated, nonfat cow’s milk to which vitamins, minerals, fats, and sugars have been added (see Table 40-2). Some formula preparations are based on soy products. All are protected by standards set by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Commercial formula preparations in the United States come in three types: ready-to-use, concentrated, and powdered. The midwife should become familiar with all three types. In most states only concentrated liquid formula can be purchased with the Women-Infant-Children (WIC) coupons. Parents must be instructed to pay attention to the difference in formula types. Newborns receiving overdiluted formula will fail to gain weight, and newborns fed undiluted formula will receive an osmolar load that will eventually be dangerous to the kidneys.

Chapter 40 Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks

TABLE 40-2

Comparison of Human Milk, Cow’s Milk, and Formula

Nutrient (Unit) Protein (g)2 Fat (g)3 Carbohydrate (g) Linoleic acid (mg) Vitamin A (IU) Vitamin D (IU) Vitamin E (IU)

Vitamin K (mg) Vitamin C (mg) Thiamin (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg) Vitamin B6 (mg) Folic acid (mg) Pantothenic acid (mg) Vitamin B12 (mg) Biotin (mg) Inositol (mg) Choline (mg) Calcium (mg) Phosphorus (mg) Magnesium (mg) Iron (mg) Iodine (mg) Copper (mg) Zinc (mg) Manganese (mg) Sodium (meq) Potassium (meq) Chloride (meq) Osmolarity (mosm) 1

1021

Minimum Level Recommended1

Mature Human Milk

1.8 3.3 — 300 250 40 0.3 0.7 1 4 8 40 60 250 15 4 300 0.15 1.5 4 7 5 25 6 1 5 60 0.5 5 0.9 2.1 1.6 —

1.3–1.6 5 10.3 560 250 3 0.3

FT LBW g linoleic

mg/g protein

Typical Commercial Formula 2.3 5.3 10.8 2300 300 63 2

2 7.8 25 60 250 15 4 300 0.15 1 20 13 50 25 6 0.1 4–9 25–60 0.1–.05 1.5 1 2.1 1.6 11.3

9 8.1 80 100 1200 63 10 450 0.25 2.5 5.5 10 75 65 8 1.5 in fortified 10 80 0.65 5–160 1.7 2.7 2.3 16–18.4

Cow’s Milk (Mean) 5.1 5.7 7.3 125 216 3 0.1

5 2.3 59 252 131 66 8 489 0.56 3.1 20 23 186 145 20 0.08 7 20 0.6 3 3.3 6 4.6 40

Committe on Nutrition, American Academy of Pediatrics Protein of nutritional quality equal to casein Includes 300 mg essential fatty acids

2 3

Source: From Hambridge, K., and Krebs, N. Normal childhood nutrition and its disorders. In Hay, W., et al. Current Pediatric Diagnosis and Treatment, 12th ed. Norwalk, CT: Appleton and Lange, 1995, p. 273. Reprinted by permission.

Parents who are unable to afford commercial formula may choose to make formula. They must be carefully instructed not to use plain cow’s milk for an infant younger than 1 year old. Cow’s milk has a very high protein content, mainly of hard-todigest casein. It also contains a high solute load that adds a renal burden and is inadequate in vitamins and iron. If the midwife learns that a family cannot afford commercial formula, the use of an evaporated milk formula may be helpful. Formula can be prepared as follows: 1. Measure 15 ounces of hot water into a pitcher.

2. Add 1 level tablespoon of table sugar. 3. Add 10 ounces of evaporated milk. (Wipe the

lid before opening the can.) 4. Yield is 25 ounces of formula at 20 calories/

ounce. The heating process in the preparation of evaporated milk helps to make the protein more digestible. Babies on evaporated milk formulas should receive a multivitamin with iron preparation daily; this can be given orally with a dropper. There is variable iron storage by the fetus. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that

1022

Part VI Newborn Care

infants who are not breastfed or are partially breastfed should receive an iron-fortified formula (containing between 4.0 and 12 mg/L of iron) from birth to 12 months [25]. Iron in fortified formula is inefficiently absorbed and is helpful only if the newborn receives it routinely. Many caregivers use the iron-fortified formula from birth onward. However, some fear gastrointestinal upset, including constipation from iron-fortified formula. The midwife needs to check with the family about any barriers to use of the iron-fortified formula, carefully explaining the benefits. Breast milk has very low concentrations of iron, calcium, and zinc. However, all of these elements are extremely bioavailable and, therefore, efficiently absorbed. Breastfed babies will not need iron supplementation until 4 to 6 months of age, when the prenatal stores are used up because of rapid growth. When using ready-to-use formula or when using unfluoridated water to prepare formula, it is recommended that fluoride supplement be given; the fluoride can be given orally by dropper. Fluoride is a trace element that strengthens the enamel of the tooth and makes it more resistant to acids. Although it is currently recommended that breastfed babies receive fluoride after 6 months of age, some dental caregivers believe that supplementation should start earlier. The introduction of fluoride into public drinking water has caused a dramatic decrease in dental caries in the United States. Each midwife should make inquiries regarding the availability of fluoridated water in her area of practice. Some families will give a baby water from time to time. This is unnecessary except in very hot weather. Any water given to an infant should be unsweetened. If, for cultural reasons, parents insist on sweetening the water, they may use 1/2 teaspoon of table sugar in 4 ounces of water. Parents should be urged never to use honey or corn syrup as sweeteners because of the risk of contamination with botulism spores of the bacillus Clostridium botulinum. In most areas of the United States there is no need for parents to sterilize bottles, nipples, or water for formula. Cleaning these items with a bottle brush and soapy hot water or in a dishwasher is adequate. However, parents using well water or any uncertain water supply may need to sterilize bottles and formula. This can be accomplished by setting cleaned bottles filled with formula in a large pot and boiling them for 25 minutes. The nipples and bottle caps should only be screwed on loosely during the boiling process. They can be tightened after the entire pot has cooled and is safe to touch.

The most important instruction for parents is to refrigerate formula promptly once it is mixed. Parents who are traveling can use powdered formula with peace of mind. Parents should be strongly encouraged to hold and cuddle a newborn during a feeding. One of the major benefits of breastfeeding is the comfort of being cuddled. Newborns who are fed from propped-up bottles cannot be observed properly for choking and the need to burp. They also are being deprived of several hours of visual, olfactory, and auditory stimulation each day. Newborns who are bottle-fed should be held in a position comfortable for both the infant and the mother. Some mothers prefer a semisitting position with the baby resting in the curve of the arm, as when breastfeeding. Stroking the baby’s lip with the nipple allows the baby to root for the nipple and grasp it, which is more relaxing than forcing the nipple into the mouth. The bottle should be held so that the milk is in the nipple and neck of the bottle (see Figure 40-4). This keeps the infant from swallowing any more air than necessary. An infant who has cried for a period of time before the feeding may have swallowed enough air to need burping prior to feeding or after taking a swallow or two of formula. Burping or bubbling can be done several ways and the mother should use the method most comfortable to her and the baby. She can place the baby over her shoulder, set the baby upright in her lap while supporting the chest and jaws with one hand, or lay the baby over her legs while patting or rubbing the back to bring up the bubble of air (see Figure 40-5).

FIGURE 40-4 Technique of bottle-feeding.

Chapter 40 Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks

1023

FIGURE 40-5 Methods of burping the newborn.

Hiccups are common and are more annoying to the mother than to the infant. They are due to spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm caused by irritation from regurgitation of gastric contents. Usually a few swallows of water to wash down the irritating material will help the contractions stop quickly. Some babies are more prone to hiccups than others. The average amount to feed a term infant during the first 2 weeks is 30 to 60 milliliters every 2 to 3 hours. During the first 2 weeks of life, the newborn should be wakened to feed at least every 4 hours. After that, if the infant is gaining weight, longer sleep periods (especially at night) can be allowed. There is no medical reason for a young infant to be fed anything other than breast milk or formula. Infants are developmentally ready to transfer food to the back of the tongue for swallowing at approximately 4 to 6 months of age. This coincides with an ability of the gastrointestinal tract to digest other foods. If parents insist on giving their infant another food before this age, they should restrict themselves to rice-based cereal in small amounts.

Common Variations in the First Six Weeks There are certain variations among infants that are of concern to parents and caregivers alike. In each case the midwife must stay alert for signs and symptoms that point to a more serious underlying problem.

Diaper Rash Most diaper rash is a reaction of the skin to the ammonia in urine and the bacterial contamination from fecal material. It is important to note the location and distribution of the problem and note whether there is generalized redness, a rash, or both. Simple diaper rash of the irritant variety presents as flat, reddened areas without too much skinfold involvement (Figure 40-6[a]). The affected skin should be cleaned with mild soap and tepid water. The infant will be in distress when the area is cleaned. Whenever possible, the diaper area should be left uncovered so that air can circulate. If diapers must be used, frequent diaper changes are necessary. Most diaper rash will rapidly clear up with this regimen. In the early stages of irritation a zinc oxide barrier cream (e.g., Desitin) may prevent further skin problems. Infants presenting with pronounced erythematous confluent lesions, skinfold involvement, and “satellite lesions” at some distance from the perineum and anus may have a fungal diaper rash caused by Candida albicans (Figure 40-6[b]). This is best treated with a topical antifungal preparation such as topical nystatin, miconazole, or clotrimazole; fungal diaper rash will resist most other treatments. Babies with fungal diaper rash will be in pain. A 1% hydrocortisone cream may help lessen the inflammation and can be used concurrently with the fungal preparation [26]. Frequent diaper changes and sponging with tepid water will also assist healing. A newborn must be evaluated if the parent reports peeling skin, vesicles, or an exudate. Sometimes

1024

Part VI Newborn Care

a. Irritative diaper dermatitis

b. Monilial diaper rash

FIGURE 40-6 Diaper dermatitis. Source: From Liptak, G. Diaper rash. In Hoekelman, R. A., Adam, H. M., Nelson, N. M., et al., Primary Pediatric Care, 4th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 2001, p. 1458. Reproduced by permission.

a simple diaper rash can be secondarily infected with staphylococcus or streptococcus, leading to impetigo. In rare cases, herpes simplex virus or histiocytosis—a seborrhea-like condition—can cause a diaper rash. When infants present with frequent diaper rash, the midwife should try to assess whether the parents are following hygienic practices. Parents on limited incomes may not change diapers often because of the cost of disposable diapers. Cradle Cap Some infants collect a seborrheic exudate on their scalp that becomes adherent. This cradle cap is only of cosmetic concern. It can be loosened by a gentle scalp massage with vegetable or olive oil and removed by shampooing and use of a very finetoothed comb. It usually does not return if shampooing is part of the bath. Mouth Thrush Parents who complain that their baby starts to eat but then pulls away from the breast or bottle while crying should be instructed to inspect the infant’s mouth. Infant thrush, caused by Candida albicans, appears as adherent white plaquelike clumps on the tongue, gums, and hard palate. These infants will need to be treated with an oral antifungal preparation or gentian violet. Occasionally, breastfeeding mothers will get a fungal infection of their nipples from an infected infant. Symptoms will include very itchy nipples. This problem can be treated with an antifungal cream used after breastfeeding. Noisy, Irregular Breathing Parents frequently are concerned about noises that infants make while breathing. This concern is usually intertwined with a concern about irregularities

in the respiratory pattern. Parents should be advised that the upper airways of infants are narrow and any slight nasal swelling can produce some noise. The common parental practice of frequent suctioning of the nares with a bulb syringe should be discouraged because it produces trauma and swelling, making the situation worse. If an infant seems to have a crusted nasal discharge, parents can purchase some saline drops and insert one or two drops into the nares to loosen the discharge. Routine use of a home humidifier is controversial because humidifiers are breeding grounds for fungus and molds that are then circulated in the air. The periodic breathing of the newborn must be distinguished from apnea. Direct observation of the newborn is critical in order to see the pattern of respiratory effort. Periodic breathing occurs most frequently during REM sleep and is defined as pauses in respiratory movement that last for up to 20 seconds alternating with breathing [27]. Pauses more frequent than that need to be evaluated, especially if they are accompanied by other signs of respiratory compromise like tachypnea (>60 breaths per minute), nasal flaring, retractions, color changes, or grunting. Periodic breathing should not be associated with a drop in heart rate. The Fussy Baby A frequent cause of parental desperation in the newborn’s first 2 months is the fussy, inconsolable baby—often known as “high-need” or colicky babies. The midwife needs to take a careful history of the crying and fussing patterns in order to help devise a plan of care. Parents should be interviewed regarding their expectations of the newborn’s sleep/wake patterns and ability to self-comfort. Occasionally, mothers who are depressed will com-

Chapter 40 Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks

plain about the newborn’s behavior while masking their own serious depression. Any discussion of the fussy baby must include questions about the mother’s well-being and her recent history. The reasons that some infants become fussy and cry excessively are not known. A baseline physical examination should be done to rule out infections, milk intolerance, and gastrointestinal blockage. During this visit, a weight check will be done. An organic cause for fussy behavior is rarely pinpointed. One theory regarding these babies is that they have a very low threshold for stimulation and frustration. They appear to get overwhelmed quickly and to rapidly cycle through various behavioral states to full crying. The approach currently in favor in pediatric circles involves education of the parents to a wide repertoire of calming techniques [28, 29]. Among the suggested ones are the following: 1. Try to feed the baby. 2. Hold the baby; try different holds that provide

abdominal support. 3. Swaddle the baby. 4. Give the baby a pacifier. 5. Talk to the baby face-to-face; use low, rhythmic

sounds. 6. Reduce sensory stimulation in the room. 7. Walk the baby around the room. 8. Take the baby outside for a walk or a car ride.

Parents are encouraged to go through the repertoire, trying each technique for only 5 minutes until the baby calms. A variety of holding positions can be utilized, including the cradle hold, flexion over the adult shoulder, football hold, or draping over the adult knee. Many of these positions have in common some firm support to the infant’s abdomen. Evaluation of crying is particularly difficult because of the lack of a standardized definition of excessive crying [30]. Parents can be urged to keep a record of their interventions and the time the baby actually spends crying. Modest successes can thus be highlighted and patterns identified. Any parental success should be framed by the midwife as examples of how well the parents are understanding and helping their high-need child. Most importantly, the midwife must urge the parents to discuss their frustration and anger at the situation. A very fussy baby can provoke violent responses from a sleepdeprived parent. Parents should get a clear message to call the midwife if they feel themselves getting out of control. They should also be reassured that

1025

most extremely fussy babies settle considerably by the third month of life.

Eating Patterns and Weight Gain Many parental anxieties are focused on weight gain and eating patterns in the first few weeks of life. Some of this is culturally determined in families who believe that maternal competence is reflected in infant weight gain. When a parent calls with concerns about intake, the midwife must set aside time to take an adequate history. Among the factors to be considered are history of the birth and immediate postnatal course, birth weight and length, current age, interval illness or problems, method of feeding, primary caregiver, and current family stress level. The parental level of comfort with infants and infant feeding should be assessed. The parents should be asked why they are concerned. Is there a specific reason they feel that the infant’s eating patterns are problematic? Most parents will express concerns about vomiting, amount of milk ingested, or the infant’s lack of interest in eating. The midwife presented with this problem during a phone call will need to decide whether the baby should be brought in for an office evaluation. Parents will be most reassured after a weight check; therefore it can be worthwhile to arrange an appointment. On occasion the midwife may be concerned enough by the history that she feels an immediate office visit is critical. The factors listed in Table 40-3 would warrant immediate evaluation. A midwife who is reassured by the absence of any critical indicators during her phone conversation with the parent can offer some information.

TABLE 40-3

Factors in Feeding History Requiring Immediate Evaluation

Regular projectile vomiting Bile-stained vomit No stools since birth No urination since birth Poor muscle tone—”spread-eagle posture” Inability to rouse infant Inability of infant to suck Rapid respirations over time (greater than 60 per minute) Marked color changes during eating Taut, swollen abdomen More than six stools per 24 hours Bloody or excessively watery stools

1026

Part VI Newborn Care

Healthy term newborns who were of average weight of gestational age can be expected to gain 1 ounce per day in the first 3 months. Breastfed babies may gain slightly less than 1 oz per day. Over the course of the first year, birth weight trebles and birth length doubles [31]. During the first 3 to 5 days of life, newborns may lose from 5 to 10 percent of their birth weight, with breastfed babies experiencing the larger weight loss. This weight should be regained by the tenth day of life. The weight and length of infants born in the United States are evaluated on growth charts. These national norms were recently revised by the CDC and more accurately reflect the diversity of the population and the weight gain patterns of breast-fed infants [32]. Nonetheless, the 2000 CDC charts compare a child to all the children in the United States—a heterogeneous population. It is possible that midwives working exclusively with certain ethnic groups might find slightly differing patterns of growth. Parents need to distinguish regurgitation from vomiting. Regurgitation (“spitting up”) is reflux of stomach contents through the immature lower esophageal sphincter and is normal in newborns. The amount is usually small and the spitting up is rarely forceful. Overfeeding with the bottle contributes to regurgitation. Regurgitation should not interfere with weight gain. Regurgitated milk will not be bile- or blood-stained. Babies who are being fed adequately will produce both urine and feces in a regular pattern. Anxious parents should be asked to check the diaper prior to a feed for evidence of urine. Superabsorbent disposable diapers may be hard to evaluate, so parents may need to diaper the baby in cloth in order to observe the presence of urination. Six voids a day indicate adequate hydration. Infant interest in feeding changes with time. During the first 48 hours of life infants may show minimal interest in feeding. Their intake may be only 1 ounce, but they should be offered a chance to feed regularly. Infants are usually hungry every 2 to 3 hours and during the first month feeding

TABLE 40-4

should be offered at least every 4 hours. As the first month continues, the infant’s stomach will enlarge and feedings of 2 to 4 oz will become the norm.

Physiological Jaundice Up to 50 percent of newborns become jaundiced to a level that is visible. Visible jaundice indicates a bilirubin level of at least 5 to 7 mg/dL. As discussed earlier, there are many physiological reasons for the development of jaundice during the first week after birth. Management of jaundice depends on whether the jaundice is determined to be within the norm for physiological jaundice or indicative of a pathophysiological process. The midwife should learn to distinguish these two processes (see Table 40-4) and should encourage infant care practices that enhance clearance of jaundice. Physiological jaundice is more common in some situations. Asian babies have a high incidence of jaundice and African-American babies a low incidence [33]. Breastfed babies have a higher incidence of physiological jaundice than bottle-fed babies. The criteria listed in Table 40-4 for possible pathological jaundice do not amount to a firm diagnosis. Other factors need to be considered, including the race and sex of the baby, method of feeding and gestational age. Because most U.S. newborns are discharged from the hospital early, there has been an increasing emphasis on predicting which neonates will experience excessive jaundice. Some hospitals are screening all newborns with serum total bilirubin (STB) levels at one day of age. A level less than 5 mg/dL is very predictive of infants who will not need treatment for subsequent severe jaundice. Higher levels indicate newborns who should be followed closely, even if discharged to home, for STB rising to pathological levels [34, 35].

Types of Jaundice

Physiological Jaundice

Possible Pathological Jaundice

Not visible in first 24 hours Rises slowly and peaks at day 3 or 4 of life Total bilirubin peaks at less than 13 mg/dL Lab tests reveal predominance of unconjugated bilirubin Not visible after 10 days

Visible during first 24 hours May rise quickly: >5mg/dL/24 hours Total bilirubin greater than 13 mg/dL Greater amounts of conjugated bilirubin Visible jaundice persists after one week

Chapter 40 Primary Care of the Newborn: The First Six Weeks

All parents should be given advice about the high frequency of jaundice in the newborn. They can be advised to feed the infant frequently during the first days of life in order to promote the passage of meconium. As discussed earlier, meconium has a high bilirubin content and delayed passage promotes reabsorption of bilirubin as part of the enterohepatic shunt. Parents can be taught to assess the newborn in a well-lighted room or near a sunny window by blanching the skin to reveal the underlying color. The icterus will start on the head and face and move downward to the trunk and extremities. If a home visit is planned the neonate can be evaluated with an icterometer or transcutaneous jaundice meter [36]. A newborn with pronounced physiological jaundice can be treated with phototherapy. The following symptoms may indicate that the jaundice is not physiological and the newborn needs a more extensive medical evaluation: vomiting, lethargy, poor feeding, hepatosplenomegaly, excessive weight loss, apnea, temperature instability, tachypnea, dark urine or urine positive for bilirubin, light-colored stools, persistent jaundice for more than 3 weeks [37]. Increasingly, phototherapy can be offered in the home and supervised by a pediatric provider. Home phototherapy is contraindicated when the bilirubin level is greater than 18 mg/dL or when pathology is suspected [38]. Many mothers prefer home phototherapy but some are too tired or nervous to accept the extra responsibility for monitoring the newborn [39]. Pathological jaundice is discussed in Chapter 41.

5. Brazelton, T. B. Neonatal Behavioral Assessment

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12. 13.

14.

15.

16.

References 1. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Core

Competencies for Basic Midwifery Practice. Washington, DC: ACNM, 2002. 2. Wallman, C., and Witt, C. L. Newborn Genetic Screening. Neonatal Network 17:(3)55–60, 1998. 3. Richardson, L., Selby-Harrington, M., Krowchuk, H. V., et al. Comprehensiveness of well child care for children receiving Medicaid: a pilot study. J. Pediatr. Health Care 8(5):212, 1994. 4. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Infectious Disease. Recommended childhood immunization schedule—United States, 2002. Pediatrics 109(1):162–164 (January) 2002.

1027

17.

18.

19.

20.

Scale, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, 1984. Ludington-Hoe, S. M., Cong, X., and Hashemi, F. Infant Crying: Nature, physiologic consequences, and select interventions. Neonatal Network 21(2):29–36 (March) 2002. Craig, K. D., and Badali, M. A. On knowing an infant’s pain. Neonatal Intensive Care 13(2):35–37 (March/April) 2000. Blackburn, S. Maternal, Fetal and Neonatal Physiology. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 2003, pp. 577–580. Frankenburg, W. K. Development surveillance and screening of infants and young children. Pediatrics 109(1):144–145 (June) 2002. Insel, T. R. Toward a neurobiology of attachment. Review of General Psychology 4(2):176–185 (June) 2000. Kennell, J. H., and McGrath, S. Commentary: What babies teach us: the essential link between baby’s behavior and mother’s biology. Birth 28(1):20–21 (March) 2001. Ainsworth, M. Attachments beyond infancy. Am. Psychol. 44(4):709–716, 1989. Pressler, J. Promoting attachment. In Craft, M., and Denehy, J. Nursing Interventions for Infants and Children. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 1990, p. 9. Bowlby, J. Attachment and loss: retrospect and prospect. Am. J. Orthopsych. 52(4):664–667, 1982. Lewis, M. Predicting psychopathology in six year olds from early social relations. Child Dev. 55:123, 1984. Leavitt, L. A. Research to practice: emotional development and maternal/infant attachment. J. Pediatr. Health Care 13(suppl.):S4–S6 (May/June) 1999. Patterson, D. L. Adolescent mothering: childgrandmother attachment. J. Pediatr. Nurs. 12(4):228–235 (August) 1997. American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Infant Sleep Position and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Changing concepts of sudden infant death syndrome: implications for infant sleeping environment and sleep position. Pediatrics 105(3):650–656 (March) 2000. Mitchell, E. A., Tuohy, P. G., Brunt, J. M., et al. Risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome following the prevention campaign in New Zealand: a prospective study. Pediatrics 100(5):835–839 (November) 1997. Jantz, J. W., Blosser, C. D., and Fruechting, L. A. A motor milestone change noted with a

1028

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

Part VI Newborn Care

change in sleep position. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 151(6):565–568 (June) 1997. American Academy of Pediatrics. Report of the task force on circumcision. Pediatrics 84(2):388, 1989. American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision. Circumcision policy statement (RE9850). Pediatrics 103(3):686–693, 1999. Alkalay, A. L., and Sola, A. Analgesia and local anesthesia for non-ritual circumcision in stable healthy newborns. Neonatal Intensive Care 13(2):19–22 (March/April) 2000. Gelbaum, I. Circumcision: to educate, not indoctrinate—a mandate for certified nurse-midwives. J. Nurse-Midwifery 37(2):97S, 1992. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. Iron fortification of infant formulas (RE9865). Pediatrics 104(1):119–123 (July) 1999. Liptak, G. Diaper rash. In Hoekelman, R.A., et al., Primary Pediatric Care, 4th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 2001, pp. 1457–1461. Rigato, H. Control of breathing in fetal life and onset and control of breathing in the newborn. In Polin, R. A., and Fox, W. W. (Eds.) Fetal and Neonatal Physiology, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 1998. Taubman, B. A new answer to the old question of colic. Contemp. Pediatr. 44:63 (November) 1991. Cervisi, J., Chapman, M., Niklas, B., and Yamaoka, C. Office management of the infant with colic. J. Pediatr. Health Care 5:184, 1991. Reijneveld, S. A., Brugman, E., and Hirasing, R. A. Excessive infant crying: the impact of varying definitions. Pediatrics 108(4):893–897 (October) 2001.

31. Racine, A. Failure to thrive. In Hoekelman, R.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

A., et al., Primary Pediatric Care, 4th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 2001, pp. 1072–1078. Ogden, C. L., Kuczmarski, R. J., Flegal, K. M., et al. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2000 Growth Chart for the United States: improvements to the 1977 National Center for Health Statistics version. Pediatrics 109(1):45–60 (January) 2002. Linn, S., Schoenbaum, S. C., and Monson, R. Epidemiology of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia. Pediatrics 75:770, 1985. Gale, R., Seidman, D. S., and Stevenson, D. K. Hyperbilirubinemia and early discharge. J. Perinatol. 21:40–43, 2001. Johnson, L., and Bhutani, V. K. Guidelines for management of the jaundiced term and nearterm infant. Clin. Perinatol. 25(3):555–571 (September) 1998. Respironics. Product case study: Solution for JCAHO recommendation. Testing newborns for neonatal jaundice. Neonatal Intensive Care 14(7):66 (November/December) 2001. American Academy of Pediatrics Provisional Committee for Quality Improvement and Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Practice guideline: management of hyperbilirubinemia in the healthy term newborn. Pediatrics 94(4) (October) 1994. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Home phototherapy. Pediatrics 94(1):558, 1994. Hannon, P., Willis, S., Scrimshaw, S. Persistence of maternal concerns surrounding neonatal jaundice: an exploratory study. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 155(12):1357–1363 (December) 2001.

C H A P T E R

41 Recognition and Immediate Care of Sick Newborns MARY KATHLEEN MCHUGH, CNM, MSN

The Midwife’s Roles and Responsibilities

tion of the pathophysiology or treatment of newborn illnesses or deviations. Frequently the midwife will be in the position of having to explain to worried parents that a certain sign or symptom is abnormal. This chapter will help support those explanations and guide the midwife in educating the parents of a newborn with abnormal signs and symptoms. This chapter is organized around signs and symptoms that may indicate newborn illness. Symptoms consist of subjective evidence of illness perceived by the patient or, in the case of a newborn, interpreted by the parent. One of the particular challenges in providing care to the newborn is the interpretation and validation of a parent’s reports of symptoms—subjective information. Signs of illness include objective evidence perceptible to the midwife during the physical exam of the newborn. Signs and symptoms can be corroborated by additional data gathered by the caregiver, such as laboratory results, vital signs, imaging studies, ultrasounds, etc. Final diagnosis will be based on the signs, symptoms, and additional data and will usually be made by the pediatric team. The chapter also discusses baseline validating data and describes midwifery management plans for certain newborn situations. It is important to emphasize that the midwife’s involvement will continue only until the newborn can be transferred into the care of the pediatric team. Thus, the management plans outlined here will emphasize stabilization and transfer of the newborn.

Occasionally the midwife is confronted with a newborn who exhibits signs and symptoms that may indicate a deviation from health. The role of the midwife includes recognition of abnormal signs and symptoms, provision of adequate supportive care, and parent education. The midwife’s early recognition and referral will be of key importance in the newborn’s recovery. The role of the midwife is limited but critical, consisting of either independent management or transfer to pediatric care. Midwives do not co-manage the care of sick newborns. Midwifery management roles are defined in Chapter 2. In order to be effective in verifying the normality of the newborn and consulting on abnormal findings, the midwife must be willing to accept the inevitable fact that not all newborns are healthy and normal. Faced with signs and symptoms that are abnormal, the midwife follows the steps of the management process related to data collection. The midwife also initiates a consultation with the pediatric team. As discussed in Chapter 38, each midwife establishes a relationship with pediatric providers who provide consultation and accept transfers. On occasion, the midwife may need to start basic supportive care while awaiting a transport team from the pediatric facility. This chapter is meant to supplement texts on pediatric medicine and will focus on recognition of possible illness and the appropriate midwifery response. It will not provide an exhaustive descrip-

1029

1030

Part VI Newborn Care

The Sick Newborn Overlapping Signs and Symptoms One of the great challenges facing the midwife caring for newborns is the nonspecificity of certain signs and symptoms in the newborn. It is critically important for the midwife to realize that some of the most common abnormal signs can represent a variety of illnesses or conditions. In particular, respiratory signs can denote many different types of illnesses that are nonrespiratory in nature. Differential diagnoses of common abnormal physical signs are outlined in Table 41-1. Because of the nonspecific nature of some of these signs and symptoms, the midwife must perform a careful history and physical exam (including vital signs) in order to gather the maximum amount of data to report to pediatric caregivers. Signs of Respiratory Disease Respiratory signs are the most common abnormal finding in newborns (Table 41-2). The cardinal TABLE 41-1

signs of respiratory compromise include tachypnea (more than 60 respirations per minute), nasal flaring, and retractions of the intercostal muscles located between the ribs. In severe cases of respiratory compromise there will be retraction of the sternum. If the lungs are wet, rales and rhonchi may be heard with auscultation of the lungs. If air is trapped within the lung, audible grunting is heard. The level of cyanosis noted will depend on the degree of hypoxia, although the visibility of cyanosis will be decreased by hypovolemic states. There are many pulmonary and nonpulmonary causes of respiratory compromise in the newborn (see Figure 41-1). They include sepsis and congenital anomalies that cause upper or lower airway obstruction or pulmonary obstruction. In preterm infants respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) is caused by the absence or deficiency of surfactant. Midwives are most likely to deliver term infants; the most common pulmonary causes of term neonatal respiratory distress are pneumothorax, aspiration of meconium, neonatal pneumonia, and transient tachypnea of the newborn.

Nonspecific Signs of Illness in the Newborn

Abnormal Physical Sign

Possible Etiology

Tachycardia (heart rate greater than 170 beats/min)

Overheating Infection Anemia Shock Cardiac defect Overheating Pulmonary disease Metabolic acidosis Cardiac disease Congenital defects of ribs, airway, lungs Cold stress Shock Anemia Infection (prenatal or postnatal) Hemolytic disease Congenital defects of liver, biliary tract Abdominal obstruction Central nervous system abnormalities Congenital defects of upper airway Hypoglycemia Hypocalcemia Drug withdrawal Normal variation Neuromuscular problems Infection Cardiac disease Respiratory disease Drug withdrawal

Tachypnea (respirations greater than 60/min after transition)

Pallor

Jaundice

Abnormal cry Jitteriness

Feeding difficulties

Chapter 41 Recognition and Immediate Care of Sick Newborns

TABLE 41-2

Signs of Respiratory Compromise

Visible Signs

Audible Signs

More than 60 respirations/ min Cyanosis around face and trunk Nasal flaring Retractions of the intercostal muscles Retractions of the sternum Apnea

Rales or rhonchi heard on auscultation Stridor heard with inspiration Grunting heard upon expiration

A pneumothorax occurs whenever air from the lung is pushed outward from the alveoli into an atypical place, usually the tissue of the interstitial space of the lung. The alveoli rupture as a result of overdistention. Although newborns who are mechanically ventilated are at high risk for pneumothorax, many spontaneous pneumothoraxes occur without an obvious antecedent event. Some pneumothoraxes are so small that there are few if any symptoms. With a larger pneumothorax, the midwife will note the signs of diminished breath sounds on one side, cyanosis, and perhaps overdistention

1031

of the chest on the affected side. A large pneumothorax can be a true emergency. The responsibilities of the midwife include emergent referral to a pediatric team and supportive respiratory care. Meconium aspiration can lead to a serious chain of events in which the chemical inflammation and the obstruction from meconium particles lead to pneumonitis, air trapping, hypoxia, air leaks, persistent fetal circulation, respiratory failure, and persistent pulmonary hypertension. These term newborns will rapidly decompensate in the first hours after birth and may need support from a respirator and occasionally ECMO (extracorporeal membrane oxygenation), a type of heart-lung bypass [1]. Signs of meconium aspiration syndrome include uneven breath sounds, a barrel-chested appearance, rales and rhonchi, and cyanosis. Pneumonia may be acquired in the intrauterine period or during the passage through the birth canal. Symptoms of pneumonia include the respiratory signs noted above plus hypothermia, color changes, and apnea. Infections can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or other organisms (chlamydia, fungi, and mycoplasma) and may vary in intensity. A more benign condition is transient tachypnea of the newborn (TTN). In transient tachypnea,

Neonate With Acute Respiratory Distress

Yes

Abnormal lungs by chest radiograph

No

Abnormalities in

Common

Uncommon

Respiratory distress syndrome Transient tachypnea Pneumonia Aspiration syndromes Pneumothorax and other air leaks Pulmonary edema Pleural effusion Pulmonary hemorrhage

Diaphragmatic hernia Tracheoesophageal fistula Cysts and tumors Congenital lobar emphysema Pulmonary hypoplasia Accessory or sequestered lobes Pulmonary lymphangiectasia Pulmonary arteriovenous fistula

Neuromuscular findings

Perfusion BP, HCT Anemia Polycythemia Hypotension Hypovolemia

Airway findings

Upper airway Laryngeal Lower airway

CVS findings or echo

Diaphragm or chest wall

Asphyxia Intracranial hemorrhage Neuromuscular disorders Drugs

Persistent fetal circulation Cyanotic congenital heart disease Congestive heart failure

Chest wall disorders Diaphragmatic disorders

Abdominal findings

Ascites Necrotizing enterocolitis Abdominal mass Omphalocele Gastroschisis

Other findings

Sepsis Acidosis Hypothermia, (cold stress) Hyperthermia Hypoglycemia Methemoglobinemia

FIGURE 41-1 Neonate with acute respiratory distress. Source: Reprinted from Kenner, C., Lott, J. W., and Flandermeyer, A. A., Comprehensive Neonatal Nursing: A Physiologic Perspective, 2nd ed., 258, © 1998 Elsevier Inc., with permission from Elsevier.

1032

Part VI Newborn Care

there is inadequate absorption of lung fluid after the birth. Newborns with TTN take longer than most newborns to make a transition from fluidfilled to air-filled lungs. Newborns born by cesarean section, especially elective surgery, are at particular risk for TTN. This is probably because of the lack of lung stimulation from prostaglandins during labor [2]. The principal signs of TTN include tachypnea, rales or rhonchi on auscultation, and sometimes nasal flaring or intercostal retractions. Transient tachypnea lasts only 48 to 72 hours. However, during that period the newborn may need assistance with feedings and extra oxygen. The Midwife’s Involvement The midwife caring for a newborn with signs of respiratory distress provides supportive care while awaiting the pediatric team. Central cyanosis (of the trunk, lips, tongue, and oral mucous membranes) is a sign of serious compromise of the neonate’s hemoglobin oxygen saturation. Care includes delivery of oxygen via hood (starting at 40 percent) to relieve cyanosis and to help decrease the work of obtaining oxygen. If cyanosis is not rapidly relieved, the midwife should increase the percentage of oxygen delivered. The midwife should carefully review the mother’s pre-

natal, intrapartum, and postpartum history for evidence of infections. The newborn should be continuously monitored for heart rate and respiratory rate. If possible, blood pressure is checked. Temperature is monitored and oral feedings are withheld because of the risk of aspiration and the extra oxygen demands of feeding. In a remote site the midwife may be asked to obtain a chest x-ray, CBC with differential, and a blood sugar while awaiting the pediatric team. The midwife practicing far from a pediatric inpatient facility should become familiar with techniques for starting a peripheral intravenous line in the neonate (see Figure 41-2). If the neonate’s condition deteriorates, it will be more difficult to find a vein. Therefore, if there will be any delay in transferring the neonate, the intravenous line should be started. Oxygen levels can be assessed with capillary blood obtained from a heel stick but this is frequently inaccurate, especially in a poorly perfused neonate. Most hospitals will have equipment available to monitor blood gas tensions noninvasively. There are two primary methods: transcutaneous measurement of partial pressure of oxygen and continuous pulse oximetry. In continuous pulse oxime-

FIGURE 41-2 Techniques for starting a peripheral intravenous line in the neonate. Source: Hoekelman, R. A., Adam, H. M., Nelson, N. M., et al. Primary Pediatric Care, 4th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 2001, p. 2077.

Chapter 41 Recognition and Immediate Care of Sick Newborns

try a small probe is attached to one of the neonate’s fingers or toes. This method computes arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2), with an acceptable level being 92 to 95 percent [2]. The use of continuous pulse oximetry is growing in popularity because, unlike transcutaneous monitoring of the partial pressure of oxygen, the continuous pulse technology does not need calibration, cannot cause skin damage from heat, does not need frequent position changes, and is accurate even in the presence of edema [3]. The midwife should become familiar with the type of equipment present in the practice environment.

Signs of Possible Infection Congenital Viral and Parasitic Infections The newborn who has acquired an intrauterine viral infection will present with signs that may include early jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly, petechiae, and palpable lymph nodes, and be small size for dates. Depending on the virus, there may also be cataracts, limb or cardiac defects, microcephaly, rash, or vesicles. Thrombocytopenia may be present on a complete blood count (CBC). The visible effects of infection will vary according to the severity of infection and the timing of fetal exposure. Newborns who acquire infection during labor will not have the same signs at birth as the fetus infected transplacentally. Midwifery actions may include the isolation of the newborn from other newborns and pregnant health care workers until the virus is identified. Cord blood should be saved for further testing. The presence of IgM antibodies in the cord blood will help to confirm a suspected viral infection. Bacterial Infections Bacterial infections in the newborn are commonly caused by Group B beta-hemolytic Streptococci or E. coli. Bacteria can be acquired in utero or during the birth process. Other infections are caused by Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis acquired in the hospital. Many infants who are colonized with bacteria from the mother do not become ill. Those who do become ill warrant immediate attention. If a mother has antenatal or intrapartal risk factors for early onset Group B Streptococcal disease, the currently accepted algorithm is to treat in labor with penicillin: two doses 4 hours apart. Some

1033

women will give birth prior to receipt of the two doses. In this situation the Centers for Disease Control recommends the following for newborns of greater than 35 weeks’ gestation: CBC with differential, blood culture, and chest x-ray (for any pulmonary symptoms) [4]. Early onset bacterial infection (birth to 6 days) can be severe and life threatening. Respiratory distress is common and signs may include tachypnea, labored breathing (nasal flaring and intercostal retractions), and poor color. There may be apneic episodes. Vital signs may indicate temperature instability (fever or hypothermia) and hypotension. The newborn will often not feed well. Midwifery actions include immediate consultation and provision of a supportive environment. The newborn is continuously monitored for respiratory rate and heart rate. If possible in the site, check the newborn’s blood pressure and conduct noninvasive oxygen monitoring. Warm, humidified oxygen is administered via hood at 40 percent or greater. These newborns should not be fed orally because of the risk of aspiration. In a remote setting, the midwife may be asked to obtain a chest xray, CBC, blood sugar, and cultures of the blood and urine. Intravenous access should be established. Signs of late-onset bacterial infection (7 days to 3 months) will become evident after the newborn has been discharged home. These signs include problems with feeding such as a disinterested suck, lethargy, color changes, occasional apnea, and temperature lability. The most important action the midwife can take with late onset bacterial infection is to acknowledge that there is a problem. This is a particular challenge if the symptoms are being reported by telephone. Denial or “wish management” may lead the midwife to give false reassurance to the parents with potentially serious sequelae for the untreated newborn. These newborns will need treatment as in-patients. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome A newborn can be infected with HIV transplacentally, during the birth process and after the birth. As discussed earlier, all pregnant women should be encouraged to be tested for HIV during pregnancy so aggressive antiretroviral therapy can be started during gestation and continued after birth for a number of weeks. Testing for HIV in the newborn needs to be repeated at least three times, up to 15 months of age. By then maternal antibodies are no longer present.

1034

Part VI Newborn Care

At birth, the HIV-infected neonate will not have any specific signs of illness. If the mother is found to be HIV positive during her intrapartum stay, the newborn can be treated with postexposure prophylaxis. Newborns of HIV-infected women should not be breastfed. Overall transmission of HIV from infected mother to a breastfed child can be as high as 25 percent, a rate recently confirmed with a multicenter meta-analysis [5]. Signs of Possible Heart Disease Cardiac problems in newborns result from a variety of causes. They mimic a number of other problems, especially respiratory disease and sepsis. Some newborns will quickly demonstrate signs of an underlying congenital defect. These are usually structural in nature and may affect the heart itself or major vessels leading to and from the heart. The primary signs of heart disease include central cyanosis and/or tachypnea and/or pallor. Depending on the defect, pulses may be bounding or diminished. Pulses can vary in intensity from upper to lower extremities. Depending on the defect, a loud murmur may be present at birth or may not be heard for 1 to 2 weeks after birth. The cyanosis of heart disease is seen over the entire body, and this differentiates it from the peripheral cyanosis of normal newborns. The most common heart defect in newborns is a ventricular septal defect, accounting for 30 to 50 percent of defects in various populations. If large enough, the defect involves left to right shunting whereby oxygenated blood crosses over the opening in the septum and recirculates through the lungs. Therefore this is not a cyanotic defect. The murmur may not be heard until two or more weeks of age as the compensatory measure of increased pulmonary vascular resistance diminishes and more blood flows from left to right. This is characteristic of a large defect and may be associated with a subtle onset of congestive heart failure evidenced by tachypnea, feeding problems, and failure to thrive. The midwife may elicit troubling symptoms during a postpartum visit with the mother or during calls about breastfeeding problems. In the smaller ventricular septal defects the systolic murmur is heard soon after birth but will not lead to congestive heart failure. Some newborns will not make the transition from intrauterine to extrauterine circulation. In some infants, the pulmonary resistance remains so high that blood flow through the newborn lungs is decreased. This results in persistent pulmonary hy-

pertension (formerly called persistent fetal circulation). Frequently, these are newborns who experienced significant asphyxia in utero (see Chapter 36). Signs include tachypnea, nasal flaring, and intercostal retractions. Because of the high level of resistance from the lungs, the ductus arteriosus and the foramen ovale may stay open to provide rightto-left shunting. In this case, peripheral pulses will be bounding, the precordium will be active, and a murmur will be heard. Midwifery management of newborns with acute signs of heart disease includes immediate consultation with the pediatric team and supportive care for the resulting respiratory distress. The newborn is constantly monitored for heart rate and respiratory rate. If possible in the site, the newborn’s blood pressure is checked and pulse oximetry is performed. If heart disease is suspected the blood arterial oxygen saturation of an upper extremity can be compared to a lower extremity. In persistent pulmonary hypertension the saturation is lower in the descending aorta [6]. Warm, humidified oxygen is provided via hood at high concentrations. When there is a cardiac problem even high concentrations of oxygen may not yield normal results. If the newborn is tachypneic, oral feedings are withheld. The metabolic demands of respiratory distress will predispose the newborn to hypoglycemia. Peripheral blood samples for glucose are obtained regularly, and an intravenous line should be placed.

Signs of Birth Injuries Most birth injuries occur during a long, protracted labor or a difficult birth. Birth injuries may occur in situations in which the fetus is large or the fetal presentation or position is abnormal. However, there are cases in which injury occurs in utero. Cephalhematomas and Skull Fractures Injuries to the head include cephalhematomas and skull fractures. A cephalhematoma is a collection of blood under the periosteum. Cephalhematomas may be singular or bilateral. The blood does not cross the suture lines of the newborn skull, because the bleeding is under the periosteum. Cephalhematomas may cause tenderness. Some cephalhematomas occur with linear skull fractures, most of which heal well. A clear sign of a skull fracture is a depressed area of fetal skull, particularly over the parietal bones. An

Chapter 41 Recognition and Immediate Care of Sick Newborns

area of skull depression increases the possibility that fragments of skull bone have penetrated through the dura, the covering of the brain. Midwifery care includes careful positioning of the newborn on the side opposite the affected area and consultation with the pediatric team, who will order imaging tests. Facial Palsy and Brachial Plexus Injuries Injuries to the face include bruising from forceps or facial palsy caused by either forceps or pressure from the maternal sacrum. The signs of facial palsy include asymmetry of the face. One eye may remain open. Midwifery actions may include consultation for the use of an eye patch and lubricating eye drops. The paralysis is temporary. Injuries to the brachial plexus may occur prenatally or during a birth when traction is applied to the neck. Such injuries can occur during breech births or births involving shoulder dystocia. The newborn with a brachial plexus injury may be fussy and in pain. The manifestations of the injury will depend on the nerve root that was injured and the degree of the injury. Nerve roots involved can include the cervical roots C5 and C6 (Erb-Duchenne paralysis), roots C8 and T1 (Klumpke’s paralysis), or both. The physical signs of Erb-Duchenne paralysis include a generalized loss of movement in the affected arm with an adduction of the lower part of the arm. This leads to the characteristic “waiter’s tip” sign involving an internal rotation of the lower portion of the arm with the finger and wrist flexed. The grasp reflex is intact but the Moro reflex is weak on the affected side. In Klumpke’s paralysis the grasp reflex is absent and the infant’s hand is kept in a clawlike posture. Midwifery management will include referral for splinting of the affected arm close to the body and consultation with the pediatric team. Parents should be encouraged to handle the affected extremity as little as possible for the first week because of the pain involved. Parents can be reassured that in the vast majority of cases paralysis disappears in 3 to 6 months, with initial improvement evident within a few weeks. Physical therapy is helpful after the first swelling subsides. Injuries to nerve roots higher in the brachial plexus (C3-C5) can lead to signs of significant respiratory compromise because of paralysis of the phrenic nerve and diaphragmatic compromise. Newborns with this type of nerve injury take very shallow breaths with limited respiratory excursion and need aggressive respiratory support at birth.

1035

Bone Fractures Pressure and manipulation during the birth process may lead to fractures of bones. Occasionally there are intrauterine fractures. The bones most frequently affected include the clavicles, the arms, and the legs. Signs of bone fracture include swelling, skin discoloration, lack of movement, abnormal positioning, and pain with movement. Crepitus can sometimes be elicited on palpation. The Moro reflex will be asymmetric. Midwifery management includes splinting of the arm if a clavicular or arm fracture is suspected; obtain pediatric consultation. Parents can be assured that newborn bones heal well and quickly.

Signs of Neurological Disease The most common sign of neurological compromise in the newborn period is seizure activity. The most frequent reason for seizures in the neonatal period is hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). The newborn who experienced distress in labor may have the cluster of criteria for the diagnosis of perinatal asphyxia: (1) cord blood pH 15 sec are abnormal; abdominal breathing

Abnormal

Significance

Dyspnea: accessory muscle retraction (substernal, supracostal, intercostal, supraclavicular); flared nostrils, stridor, or grunting

Respiratory distress or difficulty

Respiratory rate: 40–60 breaths per minute

Normal rate

Apnea lasting >15 sec and accompanied by duskiness, cyanosis, or respiratory rate >60 breaths per minute

Prematurity; respiratory difficulty; sepsis; tachypnea in C-section or in full-term infants may be transient (from retention of lung fluid)

Symmetrical excursion of thorax

Normal respiratory pattern

Asymmetry or unequal chest excursion

Diaphragmatic hernia; pneumothorax; phrenic nerve damage

Anteroposterior diameter normal

Normal respiratory pattern

Exaggerated anteroposterior diameter: ratio greater than 1:1, barrel chest; hyperinflation equal without exaggeration

Respiratory distress

Rales after first day; rhonchi; expiratory grunting; wheezing Unequal breath sounds

Lung congestion; respiratory distress; pulmonary edema; pneumonia Pneumothorax or diaphragmatic hernia

Bradycardia 160 beats per minute; murmur (usually heard at left sternal border or above apical pulse)

May be secondary to respiratory difficulty; increased workload on the heart; prematurity; sepsis; congenital heart defect with or without cyanosis

Bruit either in abdomen or cranium Displaced apical pulse

Arteriovenous malformation

Cardiopulmonary system: Auscultation Clear lung fields Clear breath sounds, equal bilaterally, anteriorly, and posteriorly; a few rales may be present the first few hours after birth because of residual fetal lung fluid; no color changes or cyanosis should accompany this finding Heart rate: 100–160 beats per minute; regular, without murmurs (initially may hear slight murmur until ductus arteriosus closes)

Normal cardiac rhythm without significant abnormalities

Cardiopulmonary system: Palpation No bruit in cranium or abNo arteriovenous malformadomen tion Apical pulse at fourth or Normal position of cardiac fifth intercostal space, midpulse; no shifting; without clavicular line, left anterior cardiomegaly chest (point of maximum impulse at fourth intercostal space just right of midclavicular line, may be shifted to the right during the first few hours of life)

May have cardiac defect or cardiomegaly

1298

Part VIII Skills

TABLE 80-1

Physical Examination of the Newborn (continued)

Normal

Significance

Cardiopulmonary system: Palpation (continued) No thrill No increased cardiac activity Blood pressure: average systolic rate 28–32 weeks: 52; 32–36 weeks: 56; full term: 63; BP equal in all four extremities

Normal cardiac output; good circulation; possibly no cardiac defect

Cardiopulmonary system: Percussion No increased tympany over Normal lung field borders lung fields Skin: Inspection Moist, warm to touch, no peeling

Normal, well hydrated

Abnormal

Significance

Thrill after first few hours of life

Increased cardiac activity

Decreased blood pressure

Shock or hypovolemia

Unequal blood pressure in the extremities, especially between upper and lower extremities

Cardiac defect: coarctation of the aorta

Increased tympany over lung fields

Hyperinflation of the lungs

Dry, peeling, cracked

Postmature infant

Wrinkled

Intrauterine growth retardation

Gelatinous with visible veins (transparent skin and visible veins disappear with increasing gestational age)

Prematurity

Vernix (thick, white cheesy material)

Increases with gestational age

No vernix

Prematurity

Scant lanugo (fine hair over body)

Full term; decreases with gestational age

Abundant lanugo

Prematurity

Milia

Blocked sebaceous glands (common in newborns)

Erythema toxicum

Newborn rash over body, usually on days 1–3

Nevus flammeus

Hyperpigmentation

Meconium staining

Fetal distress

Petechiae

Hematopoietic disorder

Edematous, shiny, taut skin

Kidney dysfunction, cardiac failure, and/or renal failure

Skin tags

Extra folds of skin, overgrowth of tissue; sometimes associated anomalies

May be normal reaction to immaturity of organ systems

Mottling

May be abnormal if associated with cold stress, color changes, bradycardia

Normal range

Cool (37°C)

Hyperthermia or fever

Mottling

Skin: Palpation Warm (axillary temperature 35.5–36.5°C)

Chapter 80 Physical Examination of the Newborn

TABLE 80-1

1299

Physical Examination of the Newborn (continued)

Normal Head: Inspection Normocephalic in proportion to body (head circumference for average full-term newborn is 32–38 cm)

Significance

Abnormal

Significance

Normal

Microcephalic

Congenital syndromes or decreased brain growth as with substance abuse

Hydrocephalic

Blockage of the passage of CSF such as in meningomyelocele; or excessive production of CSF

Anencephaly

Absent cerebral tissue and/or scant or absent skull

Encephalocele

Brain and spinal cord that have herniated

Bradycephalic

Premature closure of coronal suture line; AP diameter shortened and lateral growth increased

Craniosynostosis

Premature closure of suture lines

Molding: cranial distortion lasting 5–7 days

Excessive pressure on cranium during vaginal delivery

Overriding sutures

Excessive pressure on cranium during vaginal delivery

Caput succedaneum

Edematous region of scalp extending over suture lines, resulting from pressure on presenting part during vaginal delivery

Cephalhematoma

Trapping of blood in tissues not crossing the suture lines and lasting up to 8 weeks

Forceps marks; edematous or reddened areas

Forceps delivery

Head lag: not greater than 10 degrees in full term (pull newborn up, supporting the arms, from supine to sitting position; grade degree of head lag by position of head in relationship to trunk—part of gestational age exam)

Head lag: decreases with maturity

Head lag: greater than 10 degrees; little or no support of head

Hypotonia or prematurity

Hair distribution: over top of head, with single strands identifiable

Full term

Hair distribution: fine, fuzzy, may be over entire head

Prematurity

1300

Part VIII Skills

TABLE 80-1

Physical Examination of the Newborn (continued)

Normal

Significance

Abnormal

Significance

Head: Palpation Without masses or soft areas over skull bones

Normal

Masses or soft areas such as craniotabes over parietal bones

May be normal variation if no abnormality present

Normal

Bruit

Cerebral arteriovenous malformation

Craniosynostosis

Premature closure of suture lines may result from brain growth retardation

Bulging fontanelle; usually the anterior fontanelle

Increased intracranial pressure

Sunken fontanelle

Dehydration

Low-set ears; asymmetry of features

Congenital syndromes such as Down syndrome, or genetic defect

Wide-eyed, worried

Postmature; SGA; or intrauterine growth retardation

Hypertelorism >2.5 cm

Congenital syndrome: genetic disorders

Hypotelorism 0 degrees, may be up to 90 degrees in very premature

Prematurity

Popliteal angle: ≤ 90 degrees (flex newborn’s leg, then flex thigh; next release and extend leg; measure angle of knee)

Maturity

Popliteal angle: >90 degrees and ≤ 180 degrees in very immature infant

Prematurity

Heel-to-ear maneuver (gently pull leg to ear without forcing; heel will not reach ear but only near shoulder area in full-term infant)

Maturity

Heel-to-ear maneuver: heel reaches ear, or just short of the ear

Prematurity

Nails: extend to end of nailbed

Normal; maturity

Nails: do not extend to end of nailbed

Prematurity

Nailbeds: pink; brisk capillary refill (≤ 3 sec)

Good peripheral perfusion

Nailbeds: dusky, or slow capillary refill (>3 sec)

Poor peripheral perfusion

Pedal edema

Pressure due to fetal position, also can be associated with poor peripheral perfusion, syndromes such as Turner’s syndrome

Plantar creases: cover the sole of foot

Maturity

Plantar creases: few or only anterior third of sole of foot

Prematurity

Buttocks: creases symmetrical

Normal hips

Buttocks: creases asymmetrical

Congenital hip dysplasia

Lower extremities: Palpation (in the presence of a fracture may Fibula, tibia, trochanter, No fractures; bone formation and femur: present and normal equal bilaterally

produce crying or facial grimacing; observe infant’s response) Fibula, tibia, trochanter, Fractures or absence of and/or femur: absent or unbone, may be associated equal bilaterally with congenital syndromes

Tarsals and metatarsals present and equal bilaterally

No fractures; bone formation normal

Tarsals and/or metatarsals absent or unequal bilaterally

Fractures or absence of bone, may be associated with congenital syndromes

Full range of joint motion (includes abduction, adduction, internal, and external rotation, flexion and extension as applicable to respective joints of legs, knees, ankles, feet, toes)

Normal; maturity

Limited range of joint motion

Birth injury or trauma

Flexion of legs, knees, ankles, feet, toes is limited

Prematurity

Chapter 80 Physical Examination of the Newborn

TABLE 80-1

1311

Physical Examination of the Newborn (continued)

Normal

Significance

Lower extremities: Palpation (continued) Hips: without clicks and full Normal range of joint motion and no clicks range of joint motion (Ortolani’s maneuver: flex newborn’s hips and knees, then abduct and adduct hip to detect a slipping of the hip out of the acetabulum or an uneven motion unilaterally; Barlow’s maneuver: flex newborn’s hips and knees, then place finger on the femur and trochanter, put hip through full range of joint motion and listen for audible click)

Abnormal

Significance

Hips: limited range of motion or positive result of Ortolani’s or Barlow’s maneuvers

Congenital hip dysplasia

Knee jerk or patellar reflex: present, symmetrical

Normal; mature

Knee jerk or patellar reflex: absent, weak, or asymmetrical

Neurological deficit or prematurity

Plantar reflex: present and symmetrical

Normal; mature

Plantar reflex: absent, weak or asymmetrical

Neurological deficit or prematurity

Normal alignment

Spinal column: curved

Altered alignment that should gradually resolve if resulting from fetal positioning

Intact

Visible defects: mass, dimple, or bulge with or without a tuft of hair

Spina bifida

Open spinal defect or may be covered with tissue, involving the meninges and spinal cord or just spinal cord

Meningomyelocele

Sinus tracts present

Pilonidal cysts

Vertebrae with bulge, enlarged area, or pain

Mass, bulge, or cyst; fracture of a vertebrae; spina bifida; occult meningomyelocele or pilonidal cyst

Back: Inspection Spinal column: straight

No visible deviations or defects

Back: Palpation Vertebrae present, without enlargement or pain

Normal spinal column

Anus: see genitourinary tract Buttocks: see lower extremities Source: From Kenner, C., Lott, J. W., and Flandermeyer, A. A. Comprehensive Neonatal Nursing: A Physiological Perspective, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 1998, table 17-2, pp. 237–249.

This page intentionally left blank

C H A P T E R

81 Circumcision VIVIAN H. LOWENSTEIN, CNM, CRNP, MSN, CERTIFIED MOHELET

knowledge base. The decision to have a newborn son circumcised is sometimes a difficult one. Midwives can support the parent’s decision-making process by introducing current and accurate information and affording them time to come to a consensus whether to have it done or not. This information should be offered during prenatal care (at 28 weeks), early pregnancy, childbirth, and baby care classes. Information that should be included to help parents make a decision includes cultural and religious reasons, as well as medical research and recommendations. The informed consent for parents should include the risks and benefits, the current status of the methods of relieving pain during circumcision, how the procedure is done, common complications and post circumcision care. The American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force issued a new Circumcision Policy Statement in March 1999. The Task Force came to this conclusion:

Male circumcision is the removal of the foreskin of the penis. The decision to circumcise or not is made by the parents of the newborn baby. Circumcision is usually done on the first day of life by a licensed health provider or on the eighth day in a religious ceremony performed by a recognized attendant. Ritual circumcision of newborn males is practiced by the Jewish and Muslim religions. It symbolizes a covenant with God following the tradition of Abraham in Genesis Chapter 17. Male circumcision continues to generate a number of controversies. These include whether or not it should be done, the use of pain relief, and the role of the Certified Nurse-Midwife/Certified Midwife in offering this service. Some midwives have chosen to provide this service to parents, yet questions continue concerning whether this surgical procedure is within a CNM’s/CM’s scope of practice, can be included in clinical guidelines, and is covered by malpractice. Circumcision is considered within a midwife’s scope of practice when it has been determined that there is a need for providing this procedure to the clientele they serve. The midwife should follow the ACNM Guidelines for the Incorporation of New Procedures into NurseMidwifery Practice when initiating this procedure into practice [1]. Midwives performing newborn circumcision need to be aware of current state legislation in this area and attempt to clarify or change it when it restricts midwives from providing this service. Additionally, midwives should review the process of credentialing within institutional clinical guidelines to ensure it is included on the list of midwifery skills. Whether the midwife performs circumcisions or not, counseling and resources should be provided to parents in a nonbiased manner with an accurate

Existing scientific evidence demonstrates potential medical benefits of newborn male circumcision; however, these data are not sufficient to recommend routine neonatal circumcision. In the case of circumcision in which there are potential benefits and risks, yet the procedure is not essential to the child’s current well-being, parents should determine what is in the best interest of the child. To make an informed choice, parents of all male infants should be given accurate and unbiased information and be provided the opportunity to discuss this decision. It is legitimate for parents to take into account cultural, religious, and ethnic traditions, in addition to medical factors, when making this decision. Analgesia is safe and effective in reducing the procedural pain associated with circumcision; therefore, if a decision for circumcision is made,

1313

1314

Part VIII Skills

procedural analgesia should be provided. If circumcision is performed in the newborn period, it should only be done on infants who are stable and healthy. [2]

Circumcision is performed in the home, in birth centers, and in hospitals. It is considered a safe procedure given adequate training and experience. The incidence of complications, including bleeding and infection, is less than 1 percent [3, 4]. Other risks include cutting too much or too little of the foreskin, injury to the top of the penis, or side effects caused by local anesthesia (if it is used). Learning the skill of circumcision includes developing an understanding of male genital anatomy, observing an experienced skilled practitioner perform the procedure, being supervised while doing the first ten circumcisions, and having a means for evaluation/feedback. When beginning to learn the procedure of circumcision, the midwife should have the support of and the ability to collaborate with others who are experienced. In some situations a more experienced practitioner may need to assess the genitalia for abnormalities or help decide whether the circumcision should be postponed (e.g., for a preterm newborn). As with other technical procedures, the more practice the midwife acquires, the better her or his skill will be. The midwife will find that the safety of the procedure depends on being able to observe and learn techniques from others, on providing informed consent and parental counseling, and on the continued self-evaluation of her or his own practice. The practitioner that performs circumcisions must be respectful that this is a surgical procedure that is being done to a healthy newborn.

Relevant Male Genital Anatomy The delicate nature of newborn circumcision requires that the midwife be knowledgeable about and have a high regard for newborn male genitalia. The foreskin (prepuce) is the outer layer or fold of skin covering the glans of the penis (Figure 81-1). The foreskin is attached to the glans of the penis ventrally at the frenulum. A small blood vessel lies beneath the frenulum. During intrauterine development, the inner preputial epithelium begins to separate from the epithelium of the glans. Although retraction of the foreskin is minimal at birth, this normal physiological separation continues throughout childhood [2, 5]. The opening at the top of the

FIGURE 81-1 Anatomy of the penis.

prepuce is the preputial ring. Phimosis is a stenosis of the preputial ring; the prepuce cannot be retracted even though there may be complete separation of the foreskin and glans. The corona is the upper portion of the glans. The coronal sulcus is the boundary between the glans and the shaft of the penis. The correct excision of foreskin is at the level of the coronal sulcus [6]. The urethral opening (meatus) normally is located at the central top of the glans. When the urethral meatus is in the ventral or dorsal plane, the condition is known as hypospadias, and the circumcision should not be done.

Circumcision Instruments There are a variety of clamps available specifically for performing circumcisions. The most popular are the Gomco clamp (Figure 81-2) and the Mogen clamp (Figure 81-3). The advantages of the Gomco clamp are threefold: (1) it includes a bell that protects the glans; (2) it is associated with decreased bleeding and infection rates; and (3) it allows visualization of the glans to assess penile anomalies, since a dorsal slit is necessary for application of the bell. If an anomaly is noted the circumcision is not done. The dorsal slit can be approximated and sutured since the foreskin may be required for reconstructive surgery. The disadvantages of the Gomco are that it involves more parts, requires more steps in the procedure, and it takes more time. The Plastibell clamp is similar to the Gomco clamp. It has a small grooved plastic ring that remains on the penis after the circumcision has been done. The ring usually sloughs off within a week. The Plastibell has a higher incidence of infection [3].

Chapter 81 Circumcision

FIGURE 81-2 Gomco clamp.

FIGURE 81-3 Mogen clamp.

The Mogen clamp (often used by Mohelim to perform ritual circumcision) has the advantage of enabling the clinician to perform the procedure very quickly since there are fewer steps. Using a Mogen has the distinct disadvantage of making the circumcision a “blind” procedure. The glans of the penis cannot be seen and thus is at risk of being cut. Anomalies may not be discovered until after the circumcision. The midwife should observe the use of different clamps in order to be able to provide accurate information to parents and to choose the method that appears most safe and comfortable for use.

1315

given to the newborn before performing the procedure [2]. The methods of pain relief that have been investigated for circumcision include the subcutaneous ring block, dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB), topical anesthesia, and sucrose flavored pacifiers. The risk of the method of pain relief to the neonate must also be considered. The subcutaneous ring block is reported to be the most effective method of pain relief for neonatal circumcision [12]. First described by Broadman et al. [13] as postcircumcision analgesia, it is now used before performing a circumcision. The injection forms a circumferential ring at the shaft of the penis near the base [2, 12, 13, 15, 16], or at the midshaft [2, 14] (Figure 81-4). The subcutaneous injection is given at the midline in a lateral direction. A 26- or 27-gauge needle is used to inject 0.8 mL of 1% lidocaine (without epinephrine), after aspirating the syringe. The circumcision can then be performed after waiting 3 to 8 minutes. There have been no reports of complications for this method [2, 14]. The dorsal penile nerve block developed by Kirya and Werthmann [17] is a subcutaneous injection into the subpubic space where the dorsal nerves traverse. The dorsal nerve branches off of the pudendal nerve and extends to the corpora cavernosa, skin, glans, and frenulum of the penis [15]. The dor-

Base of shaft injection site Midshaft injection site

Pain Relief It is apparent through observation and clinical research that the procedure is painful to the newborn. The research has shown that there are physiologic changes in the neonate during the procedure, which includes changes in heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, and cortisol levels [7–11]. Yet in the past, neonatal circumcision was usually performed with no anesthesia. It is now recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics that analgesia be

FIGURE 81-4 Subcutaneous ring block at midshaft and base of shaft injection sites.

1316

Part VIII Skills

sal arteries run medially and close to the nerves (Figure 81-5). This makes aspirating the syringe important to prevent intravascular injection. A 27gauge needle is used to inject the 0.4 mL of 1% lidocaine (without epinephrine) at both the 10 and 2 o’clock positions at the base of the penis (Figure 816). The subcutaneous injection is directed laterally in a posterior direction, 3 to 5 millimeters on each side, until Buck’s fascia is entered. It is important to con-

Dorsal vein Buck’s fascia Dorsal penile arteries and nerves

FIGURE 81-5 Anatomy of the dorsal nerves, vein, and arteries.

Injection sites for dorsal penile nerve block

Coronal sites for local analgesia

FIGURE 81-6 Dorsal penile nerve block sites and local analgesia corona sites.

trol the direction and depth of the needle in order to avoid injury of underlying penile structures. After aspiration, the local anesthetic is injected. The anesthetic effect should occur within 3 to 5 minutes [2, 11, 14]. The most common complication is bruising [8, 18]. Other rare complications include hematoma and local skin necrosis [16]. Local analgesia, given at the corona, has been reported to be as effective as a DPNB [19]. At the level of the corona, after aspirating the syringe, an injection of 0.4 mL of 1% lidocaine (without epinephrine), is given at the 10 and 2 o’clock positions on each side of the foreskin [14, 19]. Topical or spray forms of local anesthetic may also be used prior to the circumcision. Studies have shown that topical 2% lidocaine or EMLA cream (a eutectic mixture of local anesthetics that contains 2.5% lidocaine and 2.5 percent prilocaine) will provide some relief [20, 21]. The dose of EMLA cream is 1 to 2 grams, applied to the distal area of the penis 60 to 90 minutes before the circumcision [2, 12, 14, 22]. The effect is superficial, since the anesthetic is applied only to the skin layer of the foreskin. When used prior to a DPNB, the topical local anesthetics were reported to decrease the neonate’s distress from the injection [22]. There is a risk of methemoglobinemia when using EMLA on a newborn, because prilocaine can oxidize hemoglobin to methemoglobin. This was found when the dose of EMLA was greater than 3 grams or when the newborn was given other drugs (sulfonamides or salicylates) which have the potential to cause methemoglobinemia [2, 12, 14]. Noninvasive interventions that have been studied include giving acetaminophen (Tylenol) and pacifiers. Plain and sucrose flavored pacifiers have been shown to be effective in reducing crying [23, 24]. The nipple is dipped in a 24 percent sucrose solution (1 packet of table sugar in 10 mL of tap water). This is similar to giving the baby gauze dipped in wine to suck on prior to ritual circumcision. Acetaminophen has been found to provide postoperative relief when given 2 hours prior to the circumcision and again 4 hours after the procedure. The dose of infant acetaminophen drops is 15 mg/kg (0.15 mL/kg) [14, 25]. It should be noted that babies’ distress often begins when they are put on a board and restrained. This distress might be reduced by swaddling the baby’s upper body and having an attendant hold the baby’s legs or minimizing the time the baby is restrained on a board. A restraint chair that is padded and physiologically adapted to the newborn has been found to decrease the baby’s distress [26].

Chapter 81 Circumcision

Procedure

1317

Rationale Preparation

1. Counseling should begin during prenatal care,

1. The decision to circumcise a newborn son re-

when parents should be provided with the information and resources to make a decision about circumcision if the child should be male. Informed consent is then required postpartum. The midwife should assess the parents’ need for information and provide it and assess the parents’ commitment to their decision to circumcise the newborn. The practitioner performing the circumcision is responsible for obtaining the informed consent. Counseling should cover what male circumcision is; medical research and recommendations [2]; religious and cultural beliefs; possible complications and risks; care of the uncircumcised and circumcised penis; signs and symptoms of complications; and whom to contact with questions or concerns. Before the procedure is done, talk to the parents about how long the procedure will take and when it will be done and give them the option of being present. Plan to do the circumcision before a feeding and tell the mother that after the circumcision the baby will feed well. 2. The circumcision can be performed 12 to 24 hours after the birth. Before the circumcision is performed, the following must be done to maintain safety.

quires information on cultural beliefs and medical benefits and risks and clarification of any misconceptions. The time available during prenatal care offers the parents the opportunity to consider their feelings and beliefs regarding circumcision. The midwife should be supportive of the parents and help them communicate with one another to decide what is best for their child. If the father of the baby is not available the woman should be encouraged to seek support from her family or others who can help her make the decision.

a. Review the mother’s prenatal and intrapartal

records, being alert for family history of blood dyscrasias, congenital anomalies, or perinatal complications that may have an effect on the health of the newborn (i.e., severe/chronic anemia, infections, birth trauma). It is recommended that the midwife also ask the parents for any health history that may not be documented in the records. b. The newborn record should be reviewed for a physical assessment (with attention to any documented abnormalities), laboratory tests (CBC, cultures) and feeding and voiding patterns. 3. Set up and check all equipment; the required sterile equipment includes the following: a. three straight mosquito hemostats b. a small blunt probe c. povidone-iodine (Betadine) solution d. cotton or small gauze pads e. a 2 ¥ 2 gauze pad with 1/2 teaspoon of Vaseline spread on it f. Vaseline gauze dressing

Parents are very concerned about the safety of their son. Acknowledging their feelings and concerns and telling them what to expect helps to comfort them. 2. The first 12 hours of life are transitional and

provide the opportunity for observation of the newborn. This time period also ensures that the baby has been given vitamin K to prevent bleeding problems. a. Review of the maternal and newborn records is necessary to screen for potential or existing problems. Any abnormalities should be discussed with the pediatrician involved in the care of the newborn.

b. This will screen for congenital anomalies,

bleeding abnormalities, or infections. Feeding and voiding patterns should indicate the functioning of the gastrointestinal and urinary systems. 3. When the midwife is systematic in setting up the equipment and knows that everything is in working order, the procedure can be done quickly, smoothly, and safely.

1318

Part VIII Skills

Procedure

Rationale

g. Gomco clamp: size 1.1 for a smaller penis

and 1.3 for a normal size; have both readily available h. a scalpel and blade i. small scissors with pointed end j. gloves k. three towels/drapes l. a small vial of 1:1000 epinephrine Required nonsterile equipment includes a board or wrapping to restrain the baby’s arms and legs and a pacifier or an assistant to soothe the baby. Have adequate lighting and a table that is at a comfortable height. 4. Check the baby’s ID name bands and the informed consent form. 5. Wash your hands. 6. Position and restrain the baby. Boards, cloth, or

4.

5. 6.

blanket restraints are available. 7. Check the baby’s ID bands one more time be-

fore starting the circumcision. 8. Put on sterile gloves and mask (wearing a gown or lab coat is at the discretion of the midwife). 9. Push the foreskin back gently to identify the opening of the urinary meatus and to assess the degree of adhesions that may be present. Also look at the foreskin and size of the penis to assess the size of the Gomco clamp to be used. Check for any abnormalities and estimate how much of the foreskin will be removed. Approximately two-thirds of the foreskin should be removed. 10. Put small sterile drapes around the genital area. Clean the genital area using the cotton balls soaked in povidone-iodine. Begin cleaning from the tip of the penis downward to the area surrounding the penis.

7.

The midwife must be able to have a clear view of the genitalia with minimal eye or back strain. This ensures proper identification and adequate documentation that the parents (or mother) acknowledge that they understand and agree to the performance of the circumcision. This decreases the risk of infection. The arms and legs of the baby thus will not interfere with the procedure. Reconfirm the identity of the neonate.

8. This maintains asepsis. 9. An initial assessment of the adhesions and size

of the penis allow you to determine the size of the Gomco clamp and whether the circumcision can be done. Do not perform the circumcision if the penis is too small or any abnormalities are noted. Excising too little or too much of the foreskin may result in complications that require additional surgery. 10. This sets up a sterile field and decreases the risk

of infection.

Removing Adhesions 11. Gently grasp the anterior foreskin with one

mosquito hemostat at the 11 o’clock position and another at the 1 o’clock position (Figure 81-7). Use the small blunt probe and separate the adhesions between the foreskin and the glans of the penis. To release remaining adhesions, place another mosquito hemostat between the foreskin and the glans, opening the hemostats gently anteriorly and then on each side. Adhesions should be removed to the level of the coronal sulcus. Be especially careful not to traumatize the posterior frenulum or the urethral meatus.

Chapter 81 Circumcision

1319

FIGURE 81-7 Removing adhesions (Step 11).

Procedure

Rationale

12. Using the same small hemostat, place it midline

12. The mark made by the hemostat is where the

on the anterior foreskin measuring slightly less than the amount of foreskin to be cut for the dorsal slit. The distance is approximately halfway between the preputial ring and the corona. Keep the tip of the hemostat pointed slightly upward. Lock the hemostat tightly, but gently, closing it one notch at a time. The baby will probably be crying at this time if he hasn’t already started. The midwife should focus on doing the procedure smoothly and quickly to minimize the amount of time the baby feels pain.

dorsal slit incision will be made. The dorsal slit is cut (Step 14) to provide room for putting the bell of the Gomco clamp over the glans (Step 16). The hemostat should be angled slightly upward to avoid trauma to the glans.

Gomco Clamp Technique 13. After approximately 1 minute remove the he-

mostat. The mark made by the hemostat should look blanched and very thin. 14. Hold the two mosquito hemostats in one hand. With the other hand pick up the small scissors and cut the mark made by the hemostats (to the apex of the mark) (Figure 81-8). 15. Gently push the foreskin downward and with the blunt probe remove any remaining adhesions anterior to the coronal sulcus. Pull the foreskin upward to its original position over the glans.

13. The hemostat should make the skin very thin

and provide an area of hemostasis. 14. The dorsal slit serves as a means for inserting

the bell of the Gomco clamp. The apex of the incision is also a guide for the placement of the base of the Gomco. 15. Adhesions should be removed prior to excising the foreskin. This will ensure proper healing.

1320

Part VIII Skills

FIGURE 81-8 Gomco technique (Step 14): Cutting the dorsal slit. FIGURE 81-9 Gomco technique (Step 16): Inserting the bell of the Gomco clamp inside the foreskin and over the glans of the penis.

Procedure

Rationale

16. Hold the two hemostats in one hand. Insert the

16. The bell of the Gomco clamp protects the glans

bell of the Gomco clamp over the glans of the penis, placing it first inside the anterior foreskin then inside the posterior foreskin (Figure 81-9). 17. One of two techniques can be used to slip the foreskin through the hole of the Gomco clamp. The midwife has the choice of using a hemostat or one stitch of silk suture. Either technique should enable the midwife to fit the Gomco clamp over the bell. a. Hemostat technique: With the mosquito hemostat, secure the two edges midway between the top and the bottom of the incision so the bell of the Gomco is held in place. Take the other two hemostats off the foreskin. Place the opening of the Gomco clamp over the tip of the penis. With another hemostat, grasp the two edges of the anterior foreskin (which is being held by the hemostat) through the opening of the clamp (Figure 81-10). Remove the lower hemostat before pulling the foreskin through the base plate. b. Suture technique: Using 1.0 or 2.0 silk suture, make one stitch on the anterior inner aspects on each side of the incision, so the bell of the Gomco is held in place. Tie a

of the penis from amputation. 17. Either technique holds the bell in place and also

facilitates pulling the foreskin through the hole of the Gomco clamp.

Chapter 81 Circumcision

1321

FIGURE 81-11 Gomco technique: (Step 19) Excising the foreskin. (Step 21) Removing the bell. (Step 22) The completed circumcision.

FIGURE 81-10 Gomco technique: (Step 17a) Hemostat technique of slipping the foreskin through the hole in the Gomco clamp. (Step 18) Securing the arms of the bell into the yoke of the top plate.

Procedure

loose knot. Place the opening of the Gomco clamp over the tip of the penis. With a hemostat, pull the silk suture (which is holding the incision of the foreskin) through the bevel opening of the clamp. 18. Set the base of the clamp in place by securing the arms of the bell into the yoke of the top plate (Figure 81-10) and the top plate in alignment with the notch in the base plate. The apex of the incision should be visible anteriorly at the front of the Gomco clamp. The base of the clamp should be angled slightly upward on the ventral side. Make sure that the foreskin above the base plate is even all around. When the clamp is in proper position, turn the screw on the clamp until it is as tight as possible. 19. Cut the foreskin from around the plate of the Gomco clamp (Figure 81-11). The blade of the scalpel should be above the base plate. Holding the scalpel securely, be attentive to the position of the blade. The cut should be made with a smooth technique that removes all of the foreskin above the base plate of the Gomco clamp.

Rationale

18. If the Gomco clamp is not correctly aligned,

there is risk of cutting the foreskin incorrectly and of the clamp slipping in the middle of the procedure. The ability to see the apex of the dorsal slit assures the midwife that the excision of the foreskin will be accurate. Angling the clamp ensures that less foreskin will be cut from the posterior aspect, which protects the frenulum and decreases the risk of bleeding. The tightness of the clamp will affect the degree of hemostasis. 19. The midwife should be focused and conscious of where the blade is in relation to the baby’s body to maintain safety. The skin incision should be smooth, with no irregular edges so that it will heal well.

1322

Part VIII Skills

Procedure

Rationale

20. Leave the Gomco clamp on for another minute.

20. This enhances hemostasis and also allows the

Hold the base of the clamp without moving it. If you note any bleeding, leave the clamp on for 2 more minutes. Have a 2 ¥ 2 gauze ready to apply pressure to the area if needed after the Gomco is removed. 21. Unscrew the clamp to release the base from the bell. Remove the base of the Gomco clamp and put it back on the sterile tray. To remove the foreskin from the bell, moisten a cotton ball with a small amount of povidone-iodine and gently push the foreskin away from the bell (Figure 81-11). 22. When the bell is removed, inspect the penis, especially the posterior area, for bleeding.

midwife to observe for bleeding. If any bleeding is noted, the midwife should be prepared to manage the situation in a timely manner.

a. If there is any active bleeding, apply pressure

to the area with a gauze pad. If the bleeding does not stop with a minute or two of pressure, put a small amount of epinephrine on a gauze pad and apply it with pressure to the area. b. The midwife should not hesitate to request assistance if the above measures do not stop the bleeding. A pediatrician or consulting doctor should be contacted if the bleeding continues.

21. The inner membrane of the foreskin may ad-

here to the bell, in which case pulling the bell off will hurt the baby.

22. There should not be any bleeding visible. The

glans of the penis will have a very reddened, raw appearance and the edges of the foreskin should fall just below the glans (Figure 81-11). a. Pressure to the area of bleeding affords time for the blood to clot. Epinephrine enhances the clotting of blood but also may have cardiovascular effects if absorbed [27]. b. Most bleeding is minor and can be stopped

by applying pressure or topical epinephrine. If the bleeding is significant, the midwife should consult to determine if any other treatment will be necessary.

When bleeding occurs it is usually related to (1) cutting too much foreskin from the posterior aspect of the penis (severing the frenulum or a blood vessel near it), or (2) the Gomco clamp’s not being tightened enough to attain hemostasis. Application of the Dressing 23. Wrap the Vaseline gauze loosely around the

glans and edges of skin. Put a 2 ¥ 2 gauze covered with a small amount of Vaseline (approximately 1/2 teaspoon) over the Vaseline gauze. Loosen the baby from any restraints and put on a clean diaper. 24. Hold the baby and soothe him with a gentle voice and rocking. When the baby appears calm, wrap him in a blanket and put him in a crib. The baby may be comforted by the parents, if they are present. 25. Put the scalpel blade and any needles used in a sharps disposal container and then separate all the equipment that needs sterilization. 26. Take the baby to the parents if they were not present for the circumcision. The following information should be offered to the parents orally and in writing: a. how the baby seemed to tolerate the procedure b. the appearance of the dressing and the penis

23. The Vaseline gauze enhances healing and pre-

vents irritation and infection. Urinary retention may be caused by a tightly wrapped dressing. The additional gauze helps to keep the area protected.

25. This prevents accidents, especially for nurses or

technicians who may be assisting in the cleaning and sterilizing of the equipment 26. When the midwife offers clear explanations and information, the parents will be able to understand it and will feel secure about caring for their newborn. A translator should be requested if the midwife does not speak the parents’ language. If written material is given to the parents, it should also be in a language they understand.

Chapter 81 Circumcision

Procedure

1323

Rationale

c. that the baby will probably need comfort in

the next 24 hours (swaddling and being held) and may feel discomfort during voiding or when the diaper is changed d. that the baby may need to suck more often after the circumcision but should have normal feeding patterns e. that even though it may take a while for the baby to urinate after the circumcision (4–6 hours) the baby should continue to have 6 to 8 wet diapers a day f. how and when to change the dressing (It’s very supportive to be present the first time the mother changes the diaper, so you can show her what the penis looks like and provide reinforcement for her ability to care for the baby.) g. procedure for bathing the baby h. normal healing and signs and symptoms of infection i. how to contact the midwife with any questions and/or concerns regarding the circumcision Answer any questions that the parents may have now and provide them with written information. 27. When the parents’ questions have been answered, write a note in the baby’s chart documenting the procedure, including an assessment of the genitalia, the size of the Gomco clamp used, how the baby tolerated the procedure, whether bleeding was present, what was done to stop any bleeding, the dressing used, and all teaching that was done with the parents. The midwife should sign her or his name and credentials legibly.

27. Documentation of the procedure communicates

to other health professionals what was done, the outcome, and the identity of the midwife who performed the circumcision. From a medical legal viewpoint, making the information in the note comprehensive provides a basis for review.

Follow-up 28. The midwife should talk to the mother 24 to 48

28. A visit or phone call supports the mother in

hours after the circumcision to assess how the baby is doing, how the circumcision looks, and how the mother is feeling about caring for the circumcision.

providing postcircumcision and normal newborn care. A postoperative assessment also decreases the risk of serious complications.

Postcircumcision Care and Parental Instruction The midwife should provide the parents with the information needed to help them care for the baby and to feel confident to know that the circumcision is healing well. This includes the length of time that it normally takes for the penis to heal, what it will look like, when to change the dressing, and how to bathe the baby.

After the circumcision, the glans of the penis appears to be reddened and the remaining foreskin is at the level of or just below the coronal sulcus. Within 24 hours there may be some edema of the foreskin and a small amount of serosanguinous drainage. Healing should be apparent after one to two days; by then the glans and edges of the skin are less reddened and most babies have much less discomfort when diapers are changed. It usually takes a week for healing to be complete. Let the

1324

Part VIII Skills

parents know that the baby may be irritable for the first 24 hours, especially when the diaper is changed. The baby may be soothed by wrapping him in a blanket (swaddling) and holding him. Parents should be reminded that hand washing before and after changing the diaper is necessary to decrease the risk of infection. The initial Vaseline gauze dressing should be left on for the first 24 hours. If it falls off or is soiled when the diaper is changed, the Vaseline gauze should be replaced. After 24 hours the Vaseline dressing from around the penis should be removed. Each time the diaper is changed, a clean 2 ¥ 2 gauze pad with approximately 1 teaspoon of Vaseline spread on it should be put over the penis. The dressing should stay moist to help the circumcision heal and to prevent it from sticking to the diaper. The midwife should make sure that the parents have all the supplies they need to change the dressings for one week (an extra Vaseline gauze dressing, 2 ¥ 2 gauze pads, and Vaseline). The midwife should explain to the parents that if they see any signs of infection or sense there is something wrong with the baby that may be related to the circumcision, they should call the midwife who performed the circumcision. If they are unable to contact the midwife, the baby’s pediatric nurse practitioner or pediatrician should be called. Signs and symptoms that may indicate an infection include redness, swelling, a pustular drainage from the penis, fever (over 101° F), lethargy, or not feeding or voiding as expected. The parents should be reassured that complications are rare, but they should call for any questions or concerns. If the parents call, the midwife needs to determine whether the baby needs to be seen or not. In most cases it is safe practice for the midwife to see the baby to determine if there is a complication or a need for consultation and to recognize the parents’ concern. In some situations, healing is slower than usual or there is more drainage than expected. Warm water gauze soaks on the penis twice a day or more frequent dressing changes may be needed to enhance healing. Sponge baths are recommended for the first two weeks and parents should be taught how to sponge bathe their baby. The parents should be told that for the first few days the circumcised penis should be cleansed with warm water only and kept dry. Nothing other than Vaseline or A & D ointment should be put on the penis, unless an antibiotic ointment is prescribed. They should avoid using soap or alcohol near the penis, since these are

especially irritating before the circumcision is fully healed. Tub baths can be done when the umbilical cord has fallen off and the circumcision is well healed. The last part of the instruction should include time for the parents to ask questions concerning the care of their newborn. Parents should be reassured that they will be able to provide the best of care to their baby, that if something is wrong they will know it, and not to hesitate to call if they have any questions or concerns. Review with them the support that is available through family, friends, and health care providers.

References 1. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Guidelines

2.

3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

for the Incorporation of New Procedures into Nurse-Midwifery Practice. In Standards for the Practice of Nurse-Midwifery. Washington, DC: ACNM, 1992. American Academy of Pediatrics, Task Force on Circumcision. Circumcision Policy Statement (RE9850), Pediatrics 103, (3), 686–693 (March) 1999. Gee, W. F., and Ansell, J. S. Neonatal circumcision: a ten-year overview, with comparison of the Gomco clamp and the plastibell device. Pediatrics 58(6):824–827, 1976. Wiswell, T. E. Circumcision circumspection. N. Eng. J. Med. 336(17):1244–1245, 1997. Niku, S. D., Stock, J. A., and Kaplan, G. W. Neonatal circumcision. Urol. Clin. North Am. 22(1):57–65 (February) 1995. Anderson, G. Circumcision. Pediatr. Ann. 18(3):205–213 (March) 1989. Schoen, E. J., and Fischell, A. A. Pain in neonatal circumcision. Clin. Pediatr. 30(7):429–432 (July) 1991. Stang, H. J., Gunnar, M. R., Snellman, L., et al. Local anesthesia for neonatal circumcision: effects on distress and cortisol response. JAMA 259(10):1507–1511 (March 11) 1988. Talbert, L. M., Kraybill, E. N., and Potter, H. D. Adrenal cortical response to circumcision in the neonate. Obstet. Gynecol. 48:208–210, 1976. Rawlings, D. J., Miller, P. A. and Engel, R. R. The effect of circumcision on transcutaneous PO2 in term infants. Am. J. Dis. Child 134:676–678, 1980. Williamson, P. S., and Williamson, M. L. Physiologic stress reduction by a local anes-

Chapter 81 Circumcision

12.

13.

14.

15. 16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

thetic during newborn circumcision. Pediatrics 71(1):36–40 (January) 1983. Lander, J., Brady-Fryer, B., Metcalfe, J. B., et al. Comparison of ring block, dorsal penile nerve block, and topical anesthesia for neonatal circumcision: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 278(4):2157–2162 (December) 1997. Broadman L. M., Hannallah, R. S., Belman, A. B., et al. Post-circumcision analgesia: a prospective evaluation of subcutaneous ring block of the penis. Anesthesiology 67(3):399–402 (September) 1987. Alkalay, A. L., and Sola, A. Analgesia and local anesthesia for nonritual circumcision in stable healthy newborns. Neonatal Intensive Care 132(2):19–22 (March/April) 2000. Miller, R. D. Anesthesia, 5th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 2000. Wilder, R. T. Local anesthetics for the pediatric patient. Pediat. Clin. North Am. 47(3):545–555 (June) 2000. Kirya, C., and Werthmann, M. W. Neonatal circumcision and dorsal penile nerve block—a painless procedure. J. Pediatrics 92:998–1000, 1978. Snellman, L.W., and Stang, H. J. Prospective evaluation of complications of dorsal penile nerve block for neonatal circumcision. Pediatrics 95(5) (May) 1995. Masciello, A. Anesthesia for neonatal circumcision: local anesthesia is better than dorsal penile nerve block. Obstet. Gynecol. 75(5):834–838 (May) 1990. Mudge, D., and Younger, J. The effects of topical lidocaine on infant response to circumcision. J. Nurse-Midwifery 34(6):335–340 (November/December) 1989. Benini, F., Johnston, C. C., Faucher, D., and Aranda, J. V. Topical anesthesia during circumcision in newborn infants. JAMA 270(7):850–853 (August 18) 1993. Taddio, A., Pollack, N., Gilbert-MacLeod, C., Ohlsson, K., and Koren, G. Combined analgesia and local anesthesia to minimize pain during circumcision. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 154:620–623 (June) 2000. Marchette, L., Main, R., Redick, E., et al. Pain reduction interventions during neonatal circumcision. Nurs. Res. 40(4):241–244 (July/August) 1991. Blass, E., and Hoppmeyer, L. Sucrose as an analgesic for newborn infants. Pediatrics 87(2):215–218 (February) 1991. Howard, C. R., Howard, F. M., and Weitzman, M. L. Acetaminophen analgesia in neonatal cir-

1325

cumcision: the effect on pain. Pediatrics 93:641–646, 1994. 26. Stang, H. J., Snellman, L. W., Condon, L. M., et al. Beyond dorsal penile nerve block: a more humane circumcision. Pediatrics 100(2)E3:1–6 (August) 1997. 27. Kaplan, G. W. Complications of circumcision. Urol. Clin. North Am. 10(3):543–549 (August) 1983.

Additional References Behrman, R. E., Kliegman, R. M., and Jenson, H. B. (Eds.) Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 16th ed. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders, 2000. Boyer, D. Routine circumcision of the newborn: reasonable precaution or unnecessary risk? J. NurseMidwifery 25(6):27–31 (November/December) 1980. Gelbaum, I. Circumcision: refining a traditional surgical technique. J. Nurse-Midwifery 38(2):18S–30S (March/April) 1993. Gelbaum, I. Circumcision: to educate, not indoctrinate—a mandate for Certified NurseMidwives. J. Nurse-Midwifery 37(2):97S–113S (March/April) 1992. Gray, H. Anatomy of the Human Body, 20th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1985. Grossman, E., and Posner, N. A. Surgical circumcision of neonates: a history of its development. Obstet. Gynecol. 58(2):241–246 (August) 1981. Houben, K. M. The Adoption of Medical Circumcision in the United States from 1870 to 1920. Master’s Thesis. New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Nursing, 1999. Kaweblum, Y. A., Press, S., Kogan, L., et al. Circumcision using the Mogen clamp. Clin. Pediatr. 23(12):679–682 (December) 1984. Marshall, R. Neonatal pain associated with caregiving procedures. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 36(4):885–903 (August) 1989. Netter, F. H. The CIBA Collection of Medical Illustrations, Vol. 2, Reproductive System. Summit, NJ: CIBA, 1977, pp. 9–26. Pelosi, M. A., and Appuzzio, J. Making circumcision safe and painless. Contemp. OB/GYN 42–53 (July) 1984. Schlosberg, C. Thirty years of ritual circumcisions. Clin. Pediatr. 10(4):205–209 (April) 1971.

1326

Part VIII Skills

Schoen, E. J. The status of circumcision of newborns. N. Eng. J. Med. 322(18):1308–1312 (May 3) 1990. Weiss, G. N. Local anesthesia for neonatal circumcision. JAMA 260(5):637–638 (August 5) 1988.

Wiswell, T. E. Risks from circumcision during the first month of life compared with those for uncircumcised boys. Pediatrics 83(6):1011–1015 (June) 1989.

C H A P T E R

82 Endometrial Biopsy WENDY GRUBE, CRNP, MSN WILLIAM F. MCCOOL, CNM, PhD

Endometrial biopsy (EMB) is a cost effective, safe, and simple method of collecting a histologic sample of the uterine endometrium. A variety of clinical circumstances require investigation of the endometrium (see Chapter 14), especially among women who experience unusual vaginal bleeding as well as those undergoing analysis of infertility. The diagnostic dilatation and curettage (D&C) is no longer considered the “gold standard” for this purpose [1], and the evolution of other sampling devices have allowed EMB to be easily accomplished in an office setting by midwives [2]. Devices currently available for EMB include Endocell, Pipelle, GynoSampler, Novak, and Tis-u-Trap curettes. Sensitivity and specificity have been noted at 95 to 100 percent for detection of endometrial carcinoma, but sensitivity for detection of other uterine pathology, such as polyps or submucosal fibroids, has been found to be relatively weak at 28 to 44.6 percent [3–5]. This limitation is primarily due to the small surface area of the uterine lining (4.5 to 15 percent) that is capable of being sampled using EMB devices [1]. Combining transvaginal ultrasonography and sonohysterography with EMB can assist with the identification of such structural abnormalities. However, EMB remains an effective method for sampling uterine endometrium for evidence of pathology.

Indications for Endometrial Biopsy

3. 4. 5.

6.

meters) found on transvaginal ultrasound to rule out hyperplasia. Evaluate abnormal or dysfunctional uterine bleeding. Discover luteal phase defects or other uterine pathology during infertility investigation. Assist in evaluation of atypical glandular cells or endometrial cells found in cervical cytology sampling in appropriate women. Assess the effect of hormonal replacement therapy or tamoxifen on the endometrium. (This indication is not considered necessary by some researchers and clinicians.)

Contraindications and Precautions

[2, 6–9]

Contraindications 1. Pregnancy 2. Known or suspected cervical cancer 3. Infection of the vagina, cervix, or uterus (re-

quires evaluation and treatment prior to procedure) Precautions 1. Blood dyscrasias, coagulation disorders, or the

use of medications that may alter clotting require consultation with a provider knowledgeable in hematological disorders 2. History of prosthetic heart valve (requires cardiologist consultation and probable antibiotic prophylaxis) 3. Fever (Temperature >100.4°F) at the time of procedure 4. Severe cervical stenosis, or atypical uterine anatomy (gynecologist consultation or referral)

[1, 2,

6–9] 1. Identify endometrial cancer or its precursors. 2. Examine thickened endometrium (≥5 milli-

1327

1328

Part VIII Skills

Potential Side Effects/Complications and Preventive Measures [2, 6–9] 1. Cramping, uterine spasm, vasovagal response;

can be prevented by a. prophylactic analgesia with 600–800 mg ibuprofen 60 minutes prior to procedure b. eating prior to procedure, thus avoiding hypoglycemic state 2. Uterine perforation; can be prevented by a. making sure uterus is nonpregnant or well

involuted postpartum b. performing thorough pelvic exam prior to

procedure to note uterine and cervical size, position and angulation, as well as any structural abnormalities c. use of a tenaculum to straighten utero-cervical angle if unable to insert the device into the uterine cavity easily 3. Uterine infection; can be prevented by identification and treatment of any existing genital infections

Procedure and Rationale Procedure

Rationale

1. Timing of appointment: schedule procedure for

1. Timing is critical when attempting to diagnose

day 22 or 23 of menstrual cycle if the purpose of the sample is confirmation of ovulation.

luteal phase defects. This is not important when sampling for the detection of cancer or its precursors. 2. Having all equipment prepared in advance prevents interruption in the flow of care at the time of the procedure.

2. Gather equipment needed for the procedure,

which includes informed consent, nonsterile and sterile gloves, vaginal speculum of appropriate size, ring forceps and cotton balls or large cotton swabs, antiseptic solution (such as Betadine or Hibiclens), 20 percent benzocaine gel (Hurricaine), scissors, labeled specimen containers with 10 percent formalin, endometrial sampling devices (make sure there are at least two available), and tenaculum. 3. Thoroughly review the health history, which includes date of last menses, contraception and possibility of pregnancy, risk of sexually transmitted infection, known bleeding disorder, medication or supplement use, and allergies. 4. Provide education and instruction regarding EMB, and obtain consent. Because this is an invasive procedure, the midwife should spend time with the woman explaining what she should expect. 5. Offer 600–800 mg ibuprofen 60 minutes before the procedure. 6. Place the woman in a lithotomy position and

3. This allows for identification of contraindica-

tions or need for further laboratory testing prior to the procedure. Such testing may include pregnancy test, STD diagnostic testing, wet mount, or CBC. 4. Informing the woman of the reason for the procedure, as well as the risks, side effects, and possible complications, allows her to give informed consent. 5. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease

6.

perform a bimanual and rectovaginal exam (if needed) for uterine and cervical position and structure (with nonsterile gloves). 7. Insert the appropriately sized speculum. 8. Apply antiseptic solution to the cervix with a

7. 8.

large swab or cotton ball. 9. Topical anesthetic may be applied to the anterior lip of the cervix and also into the os with a small cotton swab.

9.

cramping and uterine spasm associated with the procedure. Knowledge of the anatomic details of size, shape and utero-cervical angulation permits passage of the curette in the appropriate direction minimizing possible perforation of the uterine wall. This allows for adequate visualization. The use of an antiseptic solution decreases the risk of infection. Anesthetic application lessens pain and cramping associated with the use of the curette or tenaculum.

Chapter 82 Endometrial Biopsy

1329

Procedure

Rationale

10. After changing to sterile gloves, remove the

10. Maintaining sterile technique minimizes the

curette (the outer sheath and inner piston) from the sterile package as instructed on the package insert. With the piston fully inserted into the sheath, gently introduce the curette through the cervical os and into the uterine cavity until resistance is felt. (If strong resistance is encountered prior to reaching the fundus, stop the procedure.) If not already in place, a tenaculum placed on the anterior lip of the cervix may be used to straighten the utero-cervical angle. (See Chapter 19, page 503.) 11. If there is difficulty advancing the device through the inner os while using steady, moderate pressure, small cervical dilators can be helpful. Another option is the use of a 3 mm osmotic laminaria, which can be placed in the cervix on the morning of the day of the EMB and removed that afternoon prior to the actual procedure. 12. Once resistance is felt, note the distance the curette has entered the uterus, using the markings located on the sheath. With the tip of the device at the fundus, hold the curette securely and withdraw the inner piston as far as possible.

risk of infection. Gentle introduction of the sampling device, stopping if strong resistance is encountered, and the possible use of a tenaculum to straighten the utero-cervical angle, reduces the likelihood of uterine perforation.

13. Move the sheath of the device back and forth,

the tip moving from fundus to internal os, while simultaneously rolling it between the thumb and fingers. Avoid having the tip of the device slip back out the internal os into the cervical canal.

11. The use of graduated cervical dilators allows

access for sampling while preventing trauma or perforation from the use of force. Laminaria provide another means of gentle slow dilation of a stenotic inner cervical os.

12. Observing the distance the curette has entered

the uterus is useful information for determining that the curette has extended beyond the internal os of the cervix. On average, the length of the cervix from external to internal os is 2.5 centimeters, and the total distance from the external os to the wall of the fundus is approximately 6 to 9 centimeters [10–12]. Graduated markings on the sheath indicate insertion depth of the curette. This information can be recorded in any written note that follows the procedure. Withdrawal of the piston creates the suction, or negative pressure, at the tip needed to collect the tissue sample. 13. It is important to have a sample that is representative of any pathology existing in the uterus. Movement in all directions allows for collection of cells from the stratum functionalis, as well as stratum basalis of the endometrium.* Prematurely pulling the sheath back through the internal os will result in the loss of suction.

*

The endometrium is the mucosal lining of the uterus; it has two layers: (1) stratum functionalis, which is shed during menstruation, and (2) stratum basalis, which remains throughout the menstrual cycle and from which a new stratum functionalis is regenerated with each cycle. These layers are only millimeters thick, depending on timing in the menstrual cycle, and vary from the fundus through the corpus to the isthmus; therefore, movement of the curette in the manner described enables sampling of both endometrial layers.

1330

Part VIII Skills

Procedure

Rationale

14. Complete the simultaneous moving and rolling

14. It is essential to the procedure that endometrial

of the sheath maneuver until the sheath is filled. Both tissue and some blood should be visible. Remove the device. If only blood can be visibly identified within the sheath, after removing the entire curette, place the contents in formalin, and insert another curette into the uterus, sampling until tissue is obtained. 15. Once the tissue has been adequately collected, cut the distal tip from the device and place the tip in the labeled formalin container. Gently press the piston back into the sheath to expel the remaining specimen into the same labeled container.

tissue is actually collected, thus allowing for a meaningful histologic evaluation.

16. Remove the speculum (and tenaculum, if used),

but have the woman remain supine for a few minutes prior to getting up and dressed.

15. Cutting the tip from the device allows the sam-

ple to be removed intact, without sustaining cell breakup that can occur when it is forced through the tip. Placing the tip of the catheter in the specimen container ensures that any tissue collected in this portion of the device will be analyzed with the remainder of the specimen. 16. Lying quietly for a few minutes may prevent a vasovagal response from occurring and allows time for cramping to diminish.

FIGURE 82-1 Endometrial biopsy technique. (a) Insert the device until resistance is felt or the uterine fundus is reached (Step 10). (b) Withdraw the piston from the fully inserted device (Step 12). (c) Rotate the device through 360 degrees while moving it back and forth between the fundus and the internal cervical os. Insert the device until resistance is felt or the uterine fundus is reached. (a)

Piston withdrawal

Withdraw the piston from the fully inserted device. (b) Uterine fundus Internal os Rotate the device through 360 degrees while moving it back and forth between the fundus and the internal cervical os.

(c)

Chapter 82 Endometrial Biopsy

1331

Procedure

Rationale

17. Instruct the woman to expect some light spot-

17. Early identification of possible complications

ting during the next few days, but to contact the office if she develops bright red or excessive bleeding or clotting, fever, vaginal discharge with a foul odor, pelvic cramping, or pain. She should abstain from sexual intercourse for 2 to 3 days after the procedure. 18. Document procedure, including any analgesic or anesthetic given, any abnormal findings during examination or procedure, sampling device used, depth of insertion of curette, adequacy of specimen obtained, and the woman’s toleration of the procedure.

(such as endometritis) allows for rapid management and decreased risk of sequelae, such as bacteremia or endocarditis.

Results and Management Laboratory findings can vary in language and presentation depending on the laboratory reporting system. In general, the midwife will receive a histology report, which will offer information that can contribute to making a diagnosis regarding the health

TABLE 82-1

18. Documentation of any procedure is standard of

care.

of the woman’s uterine lining. In communicating the findings to the woman, the midwife should ensure that the client understands the results and the possible courses of action to follow. The most common histologic reports received, with suggestions for follow-up, are found in Table 82-1.

Endometrial Biopsy Findings with Probable Diagnoses and Suggested Management

Histology

Probable Diagnosis

Suggested Management

Need for Referral

Inactive endometrium

Hypoestrogenic state

Dependent on clinical indication for EMB

As per protocol for specific clinical indication

Proliferative (estrogen influenced preovulation) or Secretory (progesterone influenced postovulation)

1. Diagnoses traditionally

1(a) Transvaginal ultrasonog-

1(a) Women with an abnor-

labeled as abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) or dysfunctional uterine bleeding (DUB) (see Chapter 14) 2. Confirmation of ovulatory

cycle (as part of infertility assessment) Cystic or adenomatous hyperplasia

raphy (TVUS) to rule out structural pathology (b) Hormonal therapy such as low-dose oral contraceptives, or cyclic therapy 2. Continue with infertility assessment, as per protocol

mal TVUS (b) No response to hor-

monal therapy

2. Per infertility protocol

1. Infertility

1. Refer to fertility special-

1. See previous column

2. Peri- or postmenopausal

ist, who may suggest ovulation induction 2. Oral contraceptives or cycling with progestins; repeat EMB in 6 months

2. No response to hormonal

woman

therapy

Atypical adenomatous hyperplasia

Rule out endometrial carcinoma or precursor

Refer to specialist (e.g., collaborating physician or gynecologic oncologist)

See previous column

Suspicion of cancer

Rule out endometrial carcinoma

Refer to specialist (e.g., collaborating physician or gynecologic oncologist)

See previous column

1332

Part VIII Skills

References 1. Association of Professors of Gynecology and

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Obstetrics. Clinical Management of Abnormal Uterine Bleeding. APGO Educational Series on Women’s Health Issues. Crofton, MD: APGO, May 2002. American College of Nurse-Midwives. Endometrial Biopsy. Clinical Bulletin No. 5. J. Midwifery Womens Health 46:321–326 (September/October) 2001. Apgar, B. S., and Newkirk, G. R. Office procedures: endometrial biopsy. Primary Care 24:303–326 (June) 1997. Van den Bosch, T. Vandendael, A., Van Schoubroeck, D., et al. Combining vaginal ultrasonography and office endometrial sampling in the diagnosis of endometrial disease in postmenopausal women. Accessed online on December 16, 2002, at www.gyncph.suite.dk/ procedur/ref/gyn/post2v~1.htm. van Hoeven, K. H., Zaman, S. S., Deger, R. B., and Artymyshyn, R. L. Efficacy of the Endopap sampler in detecting endometrial lesions. Acta Cytologica 40:900–906, 1996. Endometrial biopsy. Family Practice Notebook.com. Accessed online on December 11, 2002, from http://aroundrtp.com/GYN129.htm. Mayeaux, E. J. Performing an endometrial aspiration biopsy (EMB). Accessed online on December 11, 2002, from Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Family Medicine Web site (http://lib-sh.lsumc.edu/ fammed/atlases/emb/emb.html). Schnare, S. Endometrial Biopsy (EMB). Paper presented at the Contraceptive Technology Conference, Washington, DC, March 2001. Zuber, T. Endometrial biopsy. Am. Fam. Physician (March 15) 2001. Accessed online on December 11, 2002, from www.aafp.org/ afp/20010315/1131.html.

10. Moore, K. L., and Dalley, A. F. Clinically

Oriented Anatomy, 4th ed., Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1999. 11. Hasson, H. Clinical studies of the Wing Sound II metrology device. In Zatuchni, G., Goldsmith, A., and Sciarra, J. (Eds.) Intrauterine Contraception: Advances and Future Prospects. Philadelphia, PA: Harper and Row, 1985, pp. 126–141. 12. Hasson, H. Differential uterine measurements recorded in vivo. Obstet. Gynecol. 43:400–412, 1974.

Additional References Ash, S. J., Farrell, S. A., and Flowerdew, G. Endometrial biopsy in DUB. J. Reprod. Med. 41:892–896, 1996. Mihm, L. M., Quick, V., Brumfield, J., et al. The accuracy of endometrial biopsy and saline sonohysterography in the determination of the cause of abnormal uterine bleeding. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 186:858–860 (May) 2002. National Cancer Institute. Screening for endometrial cancer. (n.d.) Accessed online on December 11, 2002, at www.nci.nih.gov/cancerinfo/pdq/ screening/endometrial/healthprofessional. O’Connell, L. P., Fries, M. H., Zeringue, E., and Brehm, W. Triage of abnormal postmenopausal bleeding: a comparison of endometrial biopsy and transvaginal sonohysterography versus fractional curettage with hysteroscopy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 178:956–961 (May) 1998. Weber, A. M., Belinson, J. L., Bradley, L. D., and Piedmonte, M. R. Vaginal ultrasonography versus endometrial biopsy in women with postmenopausal bleeding. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 177:924–929 (October) 1977.

Index A AA (Alcoholics Anonymous), 326 AAFP (American Academy of Family Physicians), 181 AANM (American Association of Nurse-Midwives ), 19–20, 21 AAP (American Academy of Pediatrics), 983, 1313–1314 AAPIs. See Asian American/Pacific Islander women “ABC’s of good health,” 123–124 Abdomen enlargement, in pregnancy, 547, 548f, 549 lower, heat application during labor, 788–789 palpation, 874, 890 physical examination, 43–44, 43f, 399–400 antepartum. See Antepartal/intrapartal abdomen examination diastasis, 1157–1159 postpartum, 1156–1159 quadrants, maternal, 645f “walking your fingers over,” 1154 wall, puerperal changes, 1044–1045 Abdominal cancer, 428 Abdominal circumference, 716 Abdominal fat, 113, 119 Abdominal girth measurement, 1149–1150 Abdominal muscles diastasis measurement, postpartum, 1157–1159 postpartum exercises, 218, 220 support for, 609 Abdominal pain acute, 397, 399, 401 assessment, 150–151, 397 benign ovarian cysts and, 406 chronic, 397, 402–404 history, 399 laboratory/screening/diagnostic tests, 400–401 overview, 396–397 physical examination, 399–400

Abdominal pregnancy, 667 Abdominal rub, during labor, 787 Abdominal striae, 1044–1045 Abdominal ultrasound, ovarian cancer, 426, 427 Abnormal glandular cells, 418 Abnormal uterine bleeding, 423, 425 Abortion fertility issues, 413 first trimester medical, 575–577, 576t surgical, 575 follow-up visit, 577 impending, 662 legalization of, 574–575 medical medications for, 575–576, 576t prerequisites for, 576–577 spontaneous. See Spontaneous abortion Abruptio placentae diagnosis, 704–705, 754 etiological factors, 703–704 hemorrhage, management of, 705, 705t hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and, 706 management, 705 maternal exercise and, 201 severity, 704t signs/symptoms, 704 sinusoidal fetal heart rate pattern and, 810 Abscess, breast, 1080 Abstinence, periodic, 463t, 464t Acanthosis nigricans, 406 ACC (ACNM Certification Council, Inc.), 4 Acceleration phase, of active labor phase, 745 Acetaminophen (Tylenol), 266, 1316 Acetylcholinesterase testing, 629 ACHI (Association of Childbirth at Home International), 17 Acid-base balance assessment, after neonatal resuscitation, 986

1333

fetal assessment, by umbilical cord blood gas analysis, 814–815, 814t maternal exercise and, 199 Acidemia, 633, 795 Acidosis definition, 795 metabolic, 795, 984, 986 respiratory, 986 ACL surgery (anterior cruciate ligament surgery), 191 Acne, in polycystic ovary syndrome, 406 Acne rosacea, 345 ACNM. See American College of Nurse-Midwives ACNM Certification Council, Inc. (ACC), 4 ACOG. See American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Acquired immunity, neonatal, 970t, 971 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). See HIV/AIDS Acrocyanosis, 1295t ACS (American Cancer Society), 415, 416, 417, 422 ACS-US (atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance), 418, 419t Actinomyces species, IUDs and, 421–422 Action Line, 745 Active phase, of labor, 745–746 acceleration phase, 745 deceleration phase, 745 phase of maximum slope, 745 Active transport, in placenta, 568 Activity domains, 224, 226f Actonel (risendronate), 355 Acupuncture for dysmenorrhea, 383 for labor induction, 729 for metrorrhagia, 390 Addiction, 313 Adenocarcinoma, breast, 347 Adenomas, toxic, 154 ADEs (adverse drug events), 255

1334

Index

Adhesions, 406 Adjunctive studies, 45 Adjustment, maternal-infant, 217 Adnexal area examination, 1188–1189 Adnexal enlargement/tenderness, in ectopic pregnancy, 401 Adnexal masses, 664, 1189 Adnexal motion tenderness, 403, 406 Adolescent girls eating disorders and, 119 exercise programs, 187 model for, 188–191, 192f, 193 periodical assessment, 193 referral for, 191, 193 gynecologic care for, 412 injury screening, 191 nutrition during, 118–119 oligomenorrhea and, 390–391 pregnancy exercise and, 201 exercise guidelines for, 214 risk factors, 191 Adoption, by lesbian parents, 305–306 Adrenal gland function, oligomenorrhea and, 391 Adrenal tumor, hirsutism and, 407 ADRs (adverse drug reactions), 255 Advanced maternal age, preconception risk and, 93 Adverse drug events (ADEs), 255 Adverse drug reactions (ADRs), 255 Adverse pregnancy outcomes, asthma and, 147 Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 181 Aerobic exercise conditioning, in fit pregnant women, 199 hormone replacement therapy and, 221 during pregnancy, 193, 194 prenatal, 207–208 weight-bearing metabolic equivalents, 228t–230t for perimenopausal women, 227, 230 Aerosol foam spermicidal preparations, 481–482 AFP (alpha-fetoprotein), 627–628, 628t African-American women cultural competent care for, 54–55 ethnic heritage of, 51 hip fracture risk, 222

midwives, 8 mortality, causes of, 51, 51t mortality rates of, 65–66 nurse-midwives, 19–20 sickle cell disease and, 140 Afterbirth pains, 1058–1059 AFV (amniotic fluid volume), 644–645, 644t, 645f, 722 AGA (appropriate-for-gestational age), 719, 1004 Age/aging exercise and, 220 gravity and, 223 gynecologic care and, 411, 412 maternal, 757t menopausal symptoms and, 336–338 paternal, 95 perimenopausal changes, 340–347 Agency for International Development, 14 Agonists, 249, 250t AHA (American Heart Association), 688, 983 AIDS. See HIV/AIDS AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). See HIV/AIDS AIUM (American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine), 646, 649 ALA (American Lung Association), 330–331 Albuterol (Proventil), 691 Alcock’s canal, 1235 Alcohol consumption abusive. See Alcoholism diseases associated with, 123 genital cancer and, 428 intake assessment, 123, 123t nutrition and, 123 sleep disturbances in menopause and, 342 teratogenicity of, 262t Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), 326 Alcoholism anemia and, 684 binge drinking, 326, 326f definition of, 326 fetal alcohol syndrome, 52, 326–327, 327f, 1038 historical perspective, 325 by lesbians, 307 neonatal exposure and, 1036–1039, 1037t during pregnancy, 326–328, 327f relapse, 326 treatment, 326 withdrawal symptoms, 326

women and, 325–326 Alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), 327 Alendronate (Fosamax), 355 Alert Line, 745 Allen fetoscope, 796 Alopecia androgenic, 345 in polycystic ovary syndrome, 406 Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), 627–628, 628t Alpha-hemolytic streptococcus, 681 ALT (serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase), 708t Alternative birthing center, 930 Altitude hematocrit and, 139, 139t hemoglobin and, 139, 139t Alzheimer’s disease, estrogen loss and, 221 Ambulatory care visits, reasons for, 135–136, 137t Amenorrhea adolescent girls and, 188, 191 athletic, 189 causes, 380 definition of, 383t diagnosis, 380–381 disorders associated with, 382t in ectopic pregnancy, 401 in polycystic ovary syndrome, 406 of pregnancy, 544 primary, 380 secondary, 380 American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP), 181 American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), 983, 1313–1314 American Association of NurseMidwives (AANM), 19–20, 21 American Cancer Society (ACS), 415, 416, 417, 422 American College of NurseMidwives (ACNM) ACNM Handbook: Home Birth Practice, 933 activities of, 22–23 annual meetings, first, 21 as an organization, 15, 21–22 Articles of Incorporation, 21–22 Board of Directors, 19 Certified Nurse-Midwives as Primary Care Providers, 29 clinical practice statement, 661–662 Committee on Organization, 20–21 Core Competencies for Basic Midwifery, 4

Index

credentialing mechanisms, 16 definition of Certified Midwife, 4 of Certified Nurse-Midwife, 4 of midwifery practice, 3 of referral, 31 Division of Accreditation, 18–19, 76 establishment of, 19–20 Guidelines for Establishing a Home Birth Service, 931 Guidelines for Establishing an Alternative Birth Center, 933 Guidelines for Incorporating New Procedures into NurseMidwifery Practice, 648, 1313 historical perspective, 21 ICM membership, 67 international activities, 74–75 membership of, 23 mission of, 19 normalcy of childbirth, belief in, 730 objectives of, 21–22 philosophy of, 4 position statement on breastfeeding, 1067 on CNM and CM as primary care providers, 135, 136f reproductive choices and, 575 seal of, 22, 22f Standards for the Practice of Midwifery, 34 American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) abortion and, 575, 576 clinical breast examination, 415 immunizations during pregnancy, 610 intrapartum fetal assessment guidelines, 794 labor pain relief, 766 official recognition of, 15 ultrasound guidelines, 646, 648 American Heart Association (AHA), 688, 983 American Indian/Alaska Native women ethnic heritage of, 52 mortality, causes of, 51t American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine (AIUM), 646, 649 American Lung Association (ALA), 330–331 American Nurses Association (ANA), 20–21 Amino acids, 102 Aminoglycosides for breastfeeding women, 270

ototoxicity, 264 teratogenicity, 91t Aminopterin, 91t Amnihook, 728 Amniocentesis after 20 weeks, 631–632 for congenital anomaly screening, 624 early, 631 for elevated MSAFP, 628 risks, 631 technique, 631 Amnioinfusion indications, 812 procedure, 1223–1225, 1225f rationale, 1223–1225, 1225f Amnionitis management, 868 organisms associated with, 867 signs/symptoms, 867–868 Amnioscope, 813 Amniotic fluid arborization (ferning), 864, 864f hydrostatic action, 741 meconium-stained, 953 amnioinfusion for, 812 decreased AFV and, 644 neonatal resuscitation and, 995–996 postdate pregnancy and, 722, 724 pH, 743 pooling in vaginal vault, 864 Amniotic fluid index (AFI), 640, 644–646, 644t, 645f Amniotic fluid volume (AFV), 644–645, 644t, 645f, 722 Amniotomy, 728, 778–779, 870 Amotivational syndrome, 325 Amphetamines, 329 ANA (American Nurses Association), 20–21 Anaerobic working capacity, in late gestation, 199 Analgesics for breastfeeding women, 270 for circumcision pain, 1316 epidural. See Epidural analgesia/anesthesia pharmacology, 266 postpartum, 1054 for second stage labor, 832–833 Anaphylactic shock, 458 Androgen insensitivity syndrome, 382t Androgen replacement, 365 Androgens, teratogenicity of, 262t Android obesity, 113

1335

Android pelvis, 1210–1211, 1210f Androstenedione, postmenopausal production, 340 Anemia classification of, 139 definition of, 139, 683 fetal, 802, 810 fibroids and, 405 of iron deficiency. See Iron deficiency anemia laboratory diagnosis, 686t–687t laboratory values in, 139, 139t macrocytic, 139, 684 management, 686t–687t menorrhagia and, 384 microcytic, 139, 684 normocytic, 139, 684 physiological, of pregnancy, 683 severe, 139 signs/symptoms, 138t, 684 Anencephaly, 628–629, 1299t Anergy, 177, 674 Anesthesia, for second stage labor, 832–833 Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, teratogenicity of, 262t Ankle-jerk reflex, 1164t. See also Deep tendon reflexes Anorectal junction examination, 1190 Anorexia nervosa amenorrhea in, 380 in athletic females, 189 diagnostic criteria, 120–121, 120t signs/symptoms, 121, 121t Anovulation in adolescents, 391 amenorrhea and, 381 obesity and, 118 in polycystic ovary syndrome, 406–407 Antabuse (disulfiram), 326 Antagonists, 249, 250t Antecubital venous pressure, 550 Antepartal hemorrhage abruptio placentae, 703–705, 704f management, 705, 705t placenta previa and, 702–703 Antepartal/intrapartal abdomen examination abdominal girth measurement, 1149–1150 components of, 581, 585 fetal heart tone location, 1156, 1156f, 1156t fundal height measurement, 1147–1149, 1148t, 1149f general, 1147

1336

Index

(Antepartal/intrapartal abdomen examination cont’d) Leopold’s maneuvers, 1150–1151, 1152f, 1153–1155, 1154f palpation, 1150–1151, 1151f Antepartum period. See also Antepartal/intrapartal abdomen examination anticipatory guidance and instruction, 608–612, 611f, 612f duration of, 543 initial examination, 577–587 case study, 587–589 history taking, 577–581 laboratory tests/studies, 583–584 pelvic examination, 582–583 physical examination, 581–582 management, 586–587 pregnancy management plan, case study, 587–591 revisits, 584 case study, 589–591 chart review, 584 history review, 584 laboratory tests/studies, 585–586 pelvic examination, 585 physical examination, 585 schedule for, 585 trimesters, 543 Anterior cervical lip, 779 Anterior cruciate ligament surgery (ACL surgery), 191 Anthropoid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 Anthropomorphic measurements, of newborn, 1005, 1005f, 1006t Antiabortion movement, 574 Antiandrogens, for male contraception, 468 Antibiotics for amnionitis, 868 for breastfeeding women, 269–270 for chorioamnionitis, 868 for endometritis, 1095 for mastitis, 1096 for premature rupture of membranes, 866 prophylactic for group B streptococcus, 868–869, 869f, 870f, 871t for mitral valve regurgitation, 688, 689f, 689t for respiratory infection treatment, 144t for urinary tract infections, 151, 682, 682t usage, 264–265 Antibodies, atypical, 702

Anticoagulants, 268 Anticonvulsants, 91t, 92, 260t, 261, 266–267 Antidepressants, 159–160, 159t, 267 Antiemetics, for hyperemesis gravidarum, 669 Antiepileptic drugs (anticonvulsants), 91t, 92, 260t, 261, 266–267 Antifungal preparations, for diaper rash, 1023 Antigravity exertion, 223 Antiretroviral drugs for genital herpes simplex virus, 454 for HIV/AIDS, 170–172, 171t Antithyroid drugs, teratogenicity of, 262t Anus examination, 1190 Anxiety, oligomenorrhea and, 391 Aortic compression, 918 Apgar score after neonatal resuscitation, 986 decreased AFV and, 644 for home or birth center infants, 929 interpretation, 974, 974t low, 794 maternal exercise and, 201 Aplastic anemia, 684 Apnea pathophysiology, 984–986, 985f primary, 984–985 secondary, 985 Appendicitis acute pain of, 150, 151, 397, 399, 401 differential diagnosis, 403, 667 during pregnancy, 151 Appropriate-for-gestational age (AGA), 719, 1004 Arborization (ferning), 864, 864f Areola in pregnancy, 544 size, 1071 Arginine vasopressin, during pregnancy, 552t Arm position, for second stage pushing, 1234 Arm recoil, in gestational age assessment, 1002, 1003f ARND (alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder), 327 AROM (artificial rupture of membranes), 728, 778–779 Aromatherapy, 386 Arrhythmias, fetal, 798

Artificial rupture of membranes (AROM), 728, 778–779 Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), 106t, 602, 685 Asherman’s syndrome, 382t Asian American/Pacific Islander women (AAPIs) ethnic heritage of, 52 mortality, causes of, 51t mortality rates, 66 Asphyxia definition, 795 fetal, conditions associated with, 987–988, 988t intrapartum, 794 neonatal, 1000 pathophysiology, 984–986, 985f perinatal, 794–795 diagnosis, 1035 ASPO, 931 Assisted reproductive technology (ART), 624 Association for Promotion and Standardization of Midwifery, 10–12, 11f Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric, and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN), 648 AST (serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase), 708t Asthma adverse pregnancy outcomes and, 147 classification, 145–146, 146t differential diagnosis, 146 during pregnancy, 690–691 treatment, 146–147 triggers, 146 Asynclitism, 749–751, 750f Atacand (cilexetil), 91t Ativan (lorazepam), 91t Atrophic changes, in menopause, 342–343 Atrovent (ipratropium bromide), 143–144 Attachment avoidant, 1017 early, 1044–1045 en face position and, 1046–1047, 1046f failure, 1101–1102 insecure, 1017 out-of-hospital births and, 946 oxytocin and, 1016 receiving infant after birth and, 1046–1047, 1046f rooming-in and, 1061–1062, 1062f secure, 1016–1017, 1017f

Index

Attachment theory, 1016 Attention, 200 Attitude, fetal, 747, 747f Atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ACS-US), 418, 419t Aura, migraine headache with, 157–158, 157t Auscultated acceleration test (AAT), 635–636, 635t, 636t AutoCyte Prep, 418 Autoimmune disorders, 198, 221 Autonomic nervous system, exercise and, 190 Autonomy, 188 Avapro (irbesartan), 91t AWHONN (Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric, and Neonatal Nurses), 648 Ayestin (norethindrone), 386 Ayre spatulas, 417 AZT (zidovudine), 171, 171t

B Babinski reflex, 1009f Baby blues, 1048 Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative, 1069–1070, 1069t Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccine (BCG), 175, 672 Back pain epidural analgesia/anesthesia and, 770 during labor back rub for, 787 heat/cold applications for, 787 intradermal sterile water injection for, 787, 1219–1221, 1220f low after IUD insertion, 508 relief measures for, 597, 597f postpartum, 217–218 upper, during pregnancy, 592 Back rub, during labor, 787 Bacteria, drug-resistant strains, 255–256 Bacterial endocarditis, antibiotic prophylaxis, 142 Bacterial infections, neonatal, 1033 Bacterial vaginosis (BV) diagnosis, 421, 446, 446f etiology, 445 preterm labor and, 857, 859 sexually transmitted disease and, 304 symptoms, 664 treatment, 442t, 446–447

wet smear slide, 1201–1202 Bacteriuria, asymptomatic, 681–682 Balance, physical, 200 Ballard Scale, 1002, 1040 Balloon catheter, for labor induction, 729 Ballottement, 549 Bandl’s retraction ring, 888 Barbituates, neonatal exposure, 1036–1039, 1037t Bard, Samuel, 6 Barrier contraceptive methods. See Cervical cap; Condom; Diaphragm Bartholin’s glands, examination, 1174–1175 Basal body temperature (BBT), 474–475, 544, 716 Basal cell carcinoma, 345 Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 118, 545 Basic Infertile Pattern (BIP), 474 Bathing, during pregnancy, 611 Battledore placenta, 1263 BayRho-D. See Rh(D)-immune globulin BBT (basal body temperature), 474–475, 544, 716 BCA (bichloroacetic acid), 456 BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccine), 175, 672 B12 deficiency, 684 Becker muscular dystrophy, 626t Bed dystocia, 884 Bedrest, deconditioning from, 195 Beliefs, midwifery, 4–5 Belladonna, 383 Bellevue School of Midwifery, New York City, 8 Bendectin, 592 Benzodiazepines, 91t Beta-adrenergic agonists. See also Magnesium sulfate fetal/neonatal side effects, 861, 861t maternal side effects, 860–861, 861t Beta-endorphins, 200 Beta-hemolytic streptococcus, 681 Beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (B-hCG). See Human chorionic gonadotropin, beta Betaimetics. See Beta-adrenergic agonists Betamethasone, for preterm labor, 862 Beta-thalassemia, 626t Bethesda Classification System, 418, 419t–420t, 421

1337

B-hCG. See Human chorionic gonadotropin, beta Biceps reflex. See also Deep tendon reflexes anatomy, 1164t eliciting, 1166 Bichloroacetic acid (BCA), 456 Bicornuate uterus, 407, 408, 408f, 666 Bilirubin, physiological jaundice and, 1026–1027, 1026t Billings Method, 472–474, 473f, 479–480 Bill of rights, for pregnant patient, 571–572 Bimanual compression, 928, 1273–1274, 1273f Bimanual examination bladder and, 1169 first trimester bleeding, 663, 664 observations/findings, 1183–1189, 1187f procedure, 1183–1189, 1187f rationale, 1183–1189 technical aspects, 1182 Biochemical screening. See also specific biochemical screening tests abnormal, management of, 629–630 integrated, 629 Biofeedback, 383 Biomechanics exercise during pregnancy and, 199–200 postpartum exercise and, 215–216, 216f Biophysical profile (BPP) in fetal hypoxia, 642f indications, 637, 642 interpretation, 642, 643t, 644 Manning criteria for, 643t, 866 modified, 645–646 PROM and, 866 results, obstetrical management and, 643t uterine activity and, 874 Biparietal diameter, 716, 823 Birth of baby’s head, 842–843, 842f breech presentation, 892–893, 899 hand maneuvers, 893f, 894t–899t, 895f, 896f, 898f mechanisms of labor, 893t–897t preparation for, 899 face presentation, 890–892, 891f, 892f hand maneuvers. See Hand maneuvers, for childbirth

1338

Index

(Birth cont’d) hands and knee position, maternal, hand maneuvers for, 1253–1255 of head, by flexion, 897t–899t, 898f indications, in preeclampsia, 709–710, 710t Leboyer method, 844–845, 845f location of, 838 management of, 841–845, 842f, 844f, 845f mother receiving infant after, 1046, 1046f multiple gestation, 899–901, 901f occipital anterior position, with mother in dorsal position, 1249–1252, 1250f positioning for, 839, 839f preparation for, 611–612, 611f preparations for, 779–780, 839–841 preterm, 856–863, 861t. See also Preterm labor perinatal mortality and, 856 readiness for, 88 resuscitation of newborn. See Resuscitation, neonatal of shoulders, 1245 face presentation, 892 in face presentation, 895f, 895t sibling preparation for, 612, 612f squatting/supported squat position, hand maneuvers for, 1257–1259 stress of, 197–198 umbilical cord clamping/cutting, 843 vaginal, blood loss from, 925 Birth assistants, 948. See also Traditional birth attendants Birth centers, 18 access to hospital-based care, 937–938 administration, 935 business issues, 955–956 changeover to hospital births, 930 characteristics, 933–936 clinical judgment, 948–950 combination practice models, 937 equipment, 948, 949t experience in, 945–946 family preparation for birth, 943–944 family supplies for birth, 944, 945t history of, 930–931, 932f, 933 informed consent, 941 management emergency clinical situations, 952–953

nonurgent clinical situations, 950–952 of unexpected situations, 953 personnel, 948 practice models, 936 preventive management, 950 problems, recognition of, 948–950 resources, 956–957 return visits for, 943 safety, 935, 942, 942t, 947, 953, 953f selection as birth site, 940–941, 940t transfer to hospital, 942, 942t, 953, 954–955, 954f transport/referral for neonatal resuscitation, 983 vs. home births, 935–936 Birth control. See Contraceptive methods Birth control pill. See Oral contraceptives Birth defects. See also Congenital anomalies; specific birth defects assessment of, 1005–1006, 1007t Birthing ball, 787 Birth injuries, 1034–1035 Birth mother, lesbian, 305, 306 Birth of head, face presentation, 891–892, 891f, 892f Birth outcome, maternal exercise and, 200–201 Birth plan, for out-of-hospital births, 944 Birth site, selection, 940–941, 940t Birth spacing, 88 Birth weight categories, 1004, 1004f gestational age and, 599, 1004, 1004t importance, 599 low disorders associated with, 599 malnutrition and, 600 perinatal mortality and, 600 maternal caffeine consumption and, 321 maternal exercise and, 196 Bisexuals, health issues, clinical research on, 300–302, 302t Bishop Scoring System, 720, 722, 722t, 723, 726, 727 Bisphosphonates, for osteoporosis, 355, 356 Black cohosh, 341, 383, 729 Black women. See African-American women Bladder abdominal palpation and, 1150

distention, 768, 770, 776, 1157 emptying, during labor, 789 examination, postpartal, 1157 hypotonicity, 776, 921 management, during second stage labor, 830 maternal, in first stage labor, 774–775 postpartum evaluation, 918, 921 postpartum examination, 1157 during pregnancy, 552t Blanket stitch, for episiotomy repair, 1282–1283, 1282f Blastocyst, 560 Bleeding. See also Hemorrhage cervical, 664 first trimester, 662–666 in first trimester, 624 vaginal. See Vaginal bleeding von Willebrand’s disease and, 141 Blessed thistle, 382 Blindness, in cultural competent continuum, 53, 53f Blood collection heel sticks, neonatal, 966–967, 967f, 978–979 venipuncture. See Venipuncture Blood flow in mouth, during pregnancy, 551 renal, during pregnancy, 552t Blood gas analysis normal, after birth, 987t umbilical cord blood, 814–815, 814t Blood group antibodies, atypical, screening for, 702 Blood loss, from vaginal delivery, 925 Blood pressure, maternal classification of, 142, 142t epidural analgesia/anesthesia and, 768 hormone replacement therapy and, 221 during labor, 758t first stage, 752t second stage, 827, 830 third stage, 906 measurement, 142 postpartum, 918, 920 puerperal changes, 1044 Blood transfusion reaction, 877–878 Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), 708t Blood volume, total, maternal, during pregnancy, 550 Bloody show, 738–739, 738f, 757t Blue cohosh, 382, 729 BMD. See Bone mineral density

Index

BMI. See Body Mass Index BMR (basal metabolic rate), 118, 545 Body image, adolescent, 412 Body Mass Index (BMI) calculation, 113, 114t, 115t postmenopausal breast cancer and, 347 pregnancy weight gain and, 602–603, 602t, 604t–605t Body mechanics, during pregnancy, 610 Bonding early attachment and, 1044–1045 family, 917, 917f, 921–922, 922f, 947 mother-infant, 946 Bone densitometry, 128 Bone fractures, neonatal, 1035 Bone-loading resistance training, for perimenopausal women, 227 Bone loss, female athlete triad and, 188 Bone mineral density (BMD) breastfeeding and, 1069 calcium and, 108 exercise and, 187, 222 fracture risk prediction, 354 postpartum, 215 resistance training and, 227 testing recommendations, 353 weight-bearing exercise and, 189 Bottle-feeding, 1087 burping or bubbling of newborn, 1022–1023, 1023f infant formulas for. See Infant formulas technique, 1022, 1022f vs. breastfeeding, 1020, 1021t Bowel obstruction, 399 BPP. See Biophysical profile Brachial artery blood pressure, 550 Brachial plexus injuries, neonatal, 1008, 1035 Brachioradialis reflex. See also Deep tendon reflexes anatomy, 1164t eliciting, 1166 Bradycardia, fetal transient, 196 uterine rupture and, 856 variability and, 802–803 Bradycephaly, 1299t Brain exercise and, 222–223, 232 fetal, development of, 558f–559f Brandt-Andrews maneuver, modified, 908, 908f

Braxton Hicks contractions, 547, 573, 737–738, 738, 742 BRCA1 gene mutations breast cancer and, 414–415, 416 ovarian cancer and, 426 BRCA2 gene mutations breast cancer and, 414–415, 416 ovarian cancer and, 426 Breast cancer adenocarcinoma, 347 African-American women and, 51, 51t BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes and, 414–415, 416 Depo-Provera and, 533 diagnosis, 416–417 dietary fat and, 116–117 mortality, 414 obesity and, 347 oral contraceptives and, 518t, 519 pathogenesis, estrogen and, 347 phytoestrogens and, 120 prevalence, 414 retraction mechanism, 1137, 1137f risk, 414, 414t after breastfeeding, 1069 exercise and, 190 hormone replacement therapy and, 347–350 screening, 303–304, 415–416 survivors, HRT and, 349 Breast cell hyperplasia, 120 Breast disease, benign family history, 1135 oral contraceptives and, 520 Breast examination abnormal findings, charting, 1142 clinical, 415–416 history, relevant, 1135–1136 lymph node palpation, 1136–1138 nipples epithelium, inspection of, 1138–1139 normal findings, charting, 1142 palpation of breasts, 1138–1142 hand position for, 1139, 1139f radial method for, 1139–1140, 1140f transversing method for, 1141–1142, 1141f wheel-spoke method for, 1140–1141, 1140f physical examination observations, 1137–1138, 1137f procedure, 1136 rationale, 1136 significance, 1137–1138, 1137f self-examination, 349, 415, 1144 variations

1339

in postpartum period, 1143 in pregnancy, 1142–1143 Breastfeeding ACNM position statement, 1067 after first year, 1083 after out-of-hospital birth, 944 antepartum preparation discussion of infant feeding plan, 1073–1074 history taking, 1072 physical assessment, 1072–10073 Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative, 1069–1070, 1069t, 1074–1076 birth practice effects on, 1074 breast milk. See Breast milk breast milk supply, sufficiency, indicators of, 1078 cocaine and, 329 comfort techniques, 1072 contraindications infant conditions, 1085–1086 maternal conditions, 1086 establishing, 919, 919f, 921, 947 during first year, 1083 frequency, 1078 initiation rates, 1074 intention rates, 1074 marijuana and, 325 maternal advantages, 1069 maternal drug therapy and, 268–272 medication use, guidelines for, 271t newborn behaviors and, 1076 night feedings, 1083 “nursing strike,” 1081 nutrition and, 124 oral contraceptives and, 521 outcomes, improvement efforts for, 1067–1068 outside home, 1085 ovarian cancer and, 425 positioning for, 1076–1078, 1076f, 1077f postpartum breast engorgement, 1059–1060, 1060f preparation, 942 problem prevention/management, 1078–1081 promotional efforts, 1067, 1067t, 1068t rates, 1068–1069, 1068f, 1069f return to work and, 1085 skin-to-skin contact, 1075 smoking and, 324 for special needs infant, 1083–1084 substance abuse and, 318

1340

Index

successful, Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding, 1069t, 1074–1076 supplementation medical indications, 1075, 1075t strategies for, 1082 support, 1078 timing, 1078 transmission, HIV/AIDS, 170 tuberculosis treatment and, 674 vs. bottle-feeding, 1020, 1021t weaning, 1072, 1085 Breast massage patient instructions, 1217 procedure, 1217–1218 rationale for, 1217 Breast milk composition, maternal exercise and, 215 donor banks, 1087 drug transfer into, 268–269, 292t–294t expression, 1084 insufficiency, perceived vs. actual, 1081 manual expression, 1217 production, 215, 217 storage, 1084–1085 sufficiency, indicators of, 1078 supply, 1081–1082 increasing, strategies for, 1081–1082 myths, 1081 synthesis, 1072 transmission of sexually transmitted diseases, 318 vs. infant formulas, 1020, 1021t, 1022 Breast milk pumps, 728, 1084 Breast-milk substitutes, 1075, 1086–1087 Breasts abscessed, 1080 accessory tissue, 1070, 1070f care, 609 clogged or caked, 1079 cracking, 1143 discomfort during breastfeeding, 1079–1080 engorgement, 1059–1060, 1060f, 1073, 1079, 1096 enlargement in pregnancy, 544 lactating, 1071, 1071f. See also Lactation mass, 1142 nipple discharge, 1135 pain, 1135 physical examination, 43

during pregnancy, 1072 pregnancy-induced changes, 1072 puerperal changes, 1043–1044 skin, 1071 support, 609 tenderness, 1135 tissue, types of, 1071 tumor, 1135 yeast infections, 1097 Breast self-examination (BSE), 349, 415, 1144 Breast stimulation, for labor induction, 726 Breath control, for maternal pushing, 1233 Breathing exercises, 612, 783–784 during labor, 783–784, 832, 836–837 neonatal, initiation of, 962–963, 962f Breckinridge, Mary, 9, 11 Breech presentation extraction, 694 hand maneuvers, 894t–899t Mauriceau-Smellie-Veit maneuver, 897t–898t, 898f Pinard maneuver, 893f, 893t, 894t mechanisms of labor, 893t–897t out-of-hospital birth, 952 preparation for delivery, 899 Bristol third stage trial, 907 Bromine vapor, male reproduction risks and, 95t Bronchitis, 144t, 145 Bronchodilators, 691 Brown fat, 563, 965 Brushfield’s spots, 1302t BSE (breast self-examination), 349, 415, 1144 Bulbocavernous muscle, 1276, 1277t Bulb suction, 990 Bulimia nervosa amenorrhea in, 380 diagnostic criteria, 120–122, 121t signs/symptoms, 121, 121t BUN (blood urea nitrogen), 708t Busulfan, 91t BV. See Bacterial vaginosis

C CA-125, 403–404 CAD (coronary artery disease), 221 Caffeine abuse, 320–321, 321t for breastfeeding women, 271

content, in foods/beverages, 320, 321t dependence, 320–321 effects of, 320 half-life, 266 pregnancy and, 321 sleep disturbances in menopause and, 342 Caffeine/nicotine mix, 315 CAGE Questionnaire, 123 Calcitonin (Calcimar; Miacalcin), 355–356 Calcium elemental, in supplements, 110t food sources, 108–109, 109t intake assessment of, 109–110 recommended, 108 iron absorption and, 112, 685 osteoporosis and, 108 RDAs, 107t supplementation, 108, 109, 110t for elderly women, 366 for osteoporosis prevention, 356–357 for PMS or PMDD, 396 Calcium channel blockers, for preterm labor, 861t, 862 Calendar method (rhythm method), 472 California, Madera County project, 13 Calorie intake in pregnancy, 601 requirements for pregnancy, determination of, 603, 606–607, 607t, 608t for weight-loss, 113, 115, 115t Canadian diet standard (CDS), 603, 606t Cancer breast. See Breast cancer cervical. See Cervical cancer exercise and, 187, 222 incidence, 413–414 nutrition and, 116–117 ovarian. See Ovarian cancer screenings, 414 breast, 415–416 for lesbians, 303–304 nongynecologic, 428 teaching, nongynecologic, 428 vaginal, 427–428 vulvar, 427–428 Candesartan, 91t Candida albicans. See also Candidiasis diaper rash, 1023–1024, 1024f

Index

identification, by wet smear slide, 1201–1202 mouth thrush, 1024 nipple infections, 1079 pseudohyphae and budding spores, 440, 441f Candida species, 421, 1201–1202 Candidiasis STD transmission and, 304 vulvovaginal diagnosis, 440–441, 441f treatment, 441, 442t, 445 Capillary tube, 1110, 1111 Captopril (Capoten), 91t Caput succedaneum, 743, 751, 1299t Carbamazepine, 91t, 262t Carbaryl (Sevin), 95t Carbohydrate absorption, neonatal, 968 Carbohydrates, 100, 102–103 Carbon dioxide, male reproduction risks and, 95t Carbon disulfide, preconception risks, 94t Cardiac compression, 991–992, 992f Cardiac disease. See Heart disease Cardiac disease risk factors, 141 Cardiac output, maternal, 258, 550 Cardiopulmonary system maternal, physical examination, 42–43 of newborn, 1297t–1298t Cardiovascular disease. See also specific cardiovascular diseases after menopause, 350–352 body fat and, 189 exercise and, 221–222 nutrition and, 115–116 polycystic ovary syndrome and, 407 primary care, 141–143, 141t–143t risk factors, 350 Cardiovascular system assessment, 141–142 conditioning metabolic equivalents, 228t–230t for perimenopausal women, 227, 230 prenatal exercise for, 207–208 disease. See Cardiovascular disease exercise benefits, 190 exercises, for pregnant adolescents, 214 fetal, maternal exercise and, 195–196 pharmacology, 250t

physiological changes, during pregnancy, 549–551 postpartum, exercise and, 215 during pregnancy, exercise and, 193–195 side effects, of oral contraceptives, 517, 518t Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), 156, 156f Case managers, 29 Castor oil, for labor induction, 726, 728–729, 729t Catapres (clonidine), 341 Cataracts, congenital varicella syndrome, 678 Catheterization, during second stage labor, 830 Catholic Maternity Institute School of Midwifery, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 12–13, 930 Catholic University of America, 12 CA-125 tumor antigen, ovarian cancer and, 426, 427 Cavitation, 649 CBC (complete blood count), 139 CBE (clinical breast examination), 415–416 CDC. See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CD4 cell (T-helper lymphocytes), 165 CDER (Center for Drug Evaluation and Research), 252 CD4 lymphocyte count, 165, 169 CDS (Canadian diet standard), 603, 606t CEE. See Conjugated equine estrogens Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), 252 Centering, 200, 207, 207f, 230–231 Center of gravity, 199, 215–216 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) HIV disease management guidelines, 170 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III, 112 post-exposure prophylaxis, HIV/AIDS, 167 preconception care, 85 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, 86 recommendations for CMV during pregnancy, 676t for toxoplasmosis during pregnancy, 678t universal precautions, 1107–1108

1341

Central nervous system in amenorrhea, 380 malformations, polyhydramnios and, 644 maternal assessment of, 44–45 Central wheel technique, for local infiltration, 1239–1240, 1240f Centrifuge, microhematocrit, 1127, 1128 Cephalic presentation fetal head diameters, 823, 824f fetal positional movements, 823–825 Cephalohematoma, 751, 1005, 1034–1035, 1299t Cephalopelvic disproportion (CPD) determination, 872–873 management, 873 predisposing factors, 872 shoulder dystocia and, 885 vaginal birth after cesarean section and, 855–856 Cephalosporins, 264–265, 458 Cerebral hemorrhage, 706 Cerebral palsy, fetal heart rate monitoring and, 794 Cerebral vasodilation, fetal, 196 Certification, 4 Certified Midwives (CMs) beliefs of, 4–5 definition of, 4 prescriptive authority, 253–254 role of, 379 Certified Nurse-Midwives (CNMs) beliefs of, 4–5 definition of, 4 number of, 18 prescriptive authority, 253–254 role of, 379 Certified Nurse-Midwives as Primary Care Providers, 29 Certified Professional Midwife (CPM), 19 Cervex brush, 417 Cervical biopsy, 418 Cervical bleeding, 664 Cervical brush, 1196 Cervical cancer diagnosis, 421–422 HPV infection and, 455 IUDs and, 500 screening, 303, 359 screening, Pap smear for, 417–418 Cervical cap characteristics of, 493–496 contraindications, 494 fitting, 494–495, 494f indications for, 494

1342

Index

(Cervical cap cont’d) odor, 494 with spermicide, 464t use/care instructions, 495–496 Cervical cerclage, 670, 858 Cervical collars, diethylstilbestrol and, 411 Cervical cytology reporting, Bethesda Classification System for, 418, 419t–420t smear. See Pap smear Cervical dysplasia, 664 Cervical infections, sexually transmitted. See Sexually transmitted disease Cervical lacerations, 670, 1181–1182 Cervical lesions, first trimester bleeding and, 662 Cervical lip, anterior, 779 Cervical motion tenderness (chandelier sign) in endometriosis, 403 in pelvic inflammatory disease, 457, 1185 in ruptured tubal pregnancy, 1185 Cervical mucus method (Billings method), 472–476, 473f, 479–480 Cervical os dilatation, 1182 incompetent internal, 669–670 patulous, 1182 size/shape, 1181 Cervical polyps, 388, 662, 664 Cervical pregnancy, 667 Cervical ripeness, 722, 722t Cervicitis first trimester bleeding and, 662 membrane stripping and, 728 metrorrhagia and, 387 on pelvic examination, 1180–1181 Cervicography, 420 Cervidil (dinoprostone), 725t, 726–727, 729t Cervigram, 420 Cervix anatomy, 722 changes during labor, 738, 738f in sympto-thermal method, 476 color, 1180 ectopy, 1181 episiotomy lacerations, repair of, 1291 eversion, 1181 friability, 1181, 6664 hypertrophied/large, 1180

incompetent, 858 inspection, postpartum period, 918, 919–920 length, 670, 858 mechanical stretching, for labor induction, 726 nulligravid, 1182 observations, on pelvic examination, 1180–1182 physiology, 722–723, 722t position, 1180 postpartum inspection, 918, 919–920 key points, 1267 procedure, 1267–1268 in premature rupture of membranes, 864 puerperal changes, 1043 ripening, 738, 742 oxytocin for, 725t, 726 prostaglandins for, 725t, 726–727 shortening, preterm labor and, 858 size/shape, 1180 small, 1180 trauma, puerperal infection from, 1095 unripe, 723 Cesarean section birth rates, for women transferred from home or birth center, 929 epidural analgesia/anesthesia and, 771–772 HIV transmission and, 172 incision, 217 postdate pregnancy and, 723 previous, 853–856 contraction stress test and, 640 database for, 855 prophylactic, 720 rates, 201, 793 repeat factors associated with, 855 risks of, 854 scheduled elective, 855 types, 854 unripe cervix and, 723 uterine incisions classical, 854, 855 low transverse, 854, 855 skin incisions and, 855 Chadwick’s sign, 547, 573, 1182 Chamomilla, 383, 386 Chancre, 451 Chandelier sign. See Cervical motion tenderness “Change of life,” 335. See also Menopause

Charting costovertebral angle tenderness, 1161 deep tendon reflexes, 1163, 1165f uterus examination findings, 1157 Chart review antepartum period, 584 early puerperium, 1052–1053 Chaste berry, 383 CHD (coronary heart disease), 115–116, 221 Chemotaxis, 971 Chemotherapy, 94t, 250t Chest, physical examination, 43 Chickenpox. See Varicella infection, maternal Chief complaint, 37 Child abuse/neglect, potential for, 1101–1102 Childbearing Center, of Maternity Center Association, 931, 932f Childbirth. See Birth Childbirth education classes, 944 importance of, 753–754 for pregnant adolescents, 214 teaching outline for, 609–612, 611f, 612f Children gynecologic care and, 411 presence, at home birth, 942 siblings. See Siblings Children’s Bureau, Washington D.C., 7 Chinese medicine, for metrorrhagia, 390 Chlamydial infections diagnosis, 448–449 diagnostic testing, specimen collection, 1199–1200 gonorrhea and, 450 pelvic inflammatory disease, 457 risk factors, for lesbians, 304 symptoms, 448, 664 treatment, 442t, 449 Chlamydia trachomatis infection, 448, 450, 457 Chloasma (mask of pregnancy), 544–545 Chlordiazepoxide (Librium), 91t Chlorpropamide, 91t Cholecystectomy, during pregnancy, 150–151 Cholecystitis, 150–151 Cholera immunization, during pregnancy, 620t Cholestasis, 669

Index

Cholesterol bad or low-density lipoprotein, 104, 143t cardiovascular disease and, 350 classification, 143, 143t dietary, 103, 104, 105t elevated, 143, 143t good. See High-density lipoprotein normal levels, 105t risk factors, 143 saturated fats and, 104 screening, 126 Chorioamnionitis abruptio placentae, 704 first stage labor, 743 management, 868 monitoring, 866 number of pelvic examinations and, 865 organisms associated with, 867 premature rupture of membranes and, 863 preterm labor and, 795 signs/symptoms, 866–868 Choriocarcinoma, hydatidiform mole and, 667 Chorionic frondosum, 565 Chorionic gonadotropin, in pregnancy, 544 Chorionic laeve (smooth chorion), 565 Chorionic plate, 566–567 Chorionic somatomammotropin (human placental lactogen), 544, 568, 696 Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) congenital anomalies and, 624 disadvantages/risks, 630 MSAFP testing and, 630–631 RhoGAM for, 630 transabdominal, 630, 631f Chorioretinitis, congenital varicella syndrome, 678 Chromosomal anomalies. See also Congenital anomalies; specific chromosomal anomalies polyhydramnios and, 644 risk of, 629–630 Cigarette smoking, male reproduction risks and, 95t Cilexetil (Atacand), 91t Cimetine (Tagamet), 271 Circumarginate placenta, 1263 Circumcision, female (genital mutilation), 78, 1291–1292 Circumcision, male AAP Task Force statement, 1313–1314

ACNM guidelines, 1313 anatomy, relevant, 1314, 1314f controversies, 1313 decision-making, 1019–1020 instruments, 1314–1315, 1315f opponents, 1019–1020 pain relief, 1315–1316, 1315f, 1316f parental instructions, 1323–1324 postcircumcision care, 1323–1324 preparation, 1317 procedure, 1019, 1317–1318 adhesion removal, 1318–1319, 1319f application of dressing, 1322–1323 follow-up, 1323 Gomco clamp technique, 1319–1322, 1320f, 1321f proponents, 1019 safety, 1314 Circumvallate placenta, 1263 Clear cell adenocarcinoma, diethylstilbestrol and, 411, 427 Cleavage, 560 Cleft lip/palate, 626t Cleocin (clindamycin), 447 Climacteric, 335 Clindamycin (Cleocin), 447 Clinical breast examination (CBE), 415–416 Clinical trials, 252, 252t Clitoral lacerations, repair of, 1290 Clitoris, inspection, 1173 Clonazepam (Klonopin), 91t Clonidine (Catapres), 341 Clonus, 1167 Clostridium botulinum, 1022 Clothing, maternity, 610 Clotrimazole (Gyne-Lotrimin), 447–448 Cluster headache, 157t, 158 Clutch or football position, for breastfeeding, 1077, 1077f, 1247 CMs. See Certified Midwives CMV. See Cytomegalovirus CNMs. See Certified NurseMidwives Coagulation studies. See also specific coagulation tests for missed abortion, 665 in preeclampsia, 708t Cobalamin (vitamin B12), 106t, 139, 139t Cocaine ingestion effects, 328–329 neonatal exposure, 1036–1039, 1037t withdrawal, 328

1343

Coccobacilli, 421 Coccyx anatomy, 1205–1206, 1206f broken, 217, 218f palpation, 1214 Codeine and meperidine (Demerol), 270, 763t, 764t Cognitive-behavioral therapy, for PMS or PMDD, 395 Cognitive function, exercise and, 232 Coitus interruptus, 466 Collaboration, 30 Collaborative management of care, 30–31, 34 Collagen, 232 Colorectal cancer, dietary risk factors, 117 Colostrum, 573, 1071, 1143, 1218 Colposcopy for DES daughters, 411 indications, 418, 420t screening, 420, 422, 428 Columbia University, Graduate Program in Maternity Nursing, 12, 13 Combination oral contraceptives, for breastfeeding women, 270 Commission for the Accreditation of Birth Centers, 931 Community-acquired pneumonia, 145 Comorbidity, psychiatric, with substance abuse, 314 Competence, in cultural competent continuum, 53, 53f Competitive environment, adolescent females and, 188 Complementary therapies, for PMS or PMDD, 396 Complete blood count (CBC), 139 Complex carbohydrates, 102 Complications. See also specific complications antepartal anemias. See Anemia asthma, 690–691 collaborative management of, 661 cytomegalovirus infection, 676–677, 676t first trimester bleeding, 662–666 heart disease, 688–689, 688t hemoglobinopathies. See Hemoglobinopathies hepatitis, 674 incompetent internal cervical os, 669–670 infections, 670

1344

Index

(Complications cont’d) oligohydramnios, 694–695 parvovirus B19, 680–681 polyhydramnios, 694 rubella, 674–676 thyroid disorders, 689, 690t toxoplasmosis, 677–678, 678t tuberculosis, 670–674, 672t, 673t urinary tract infections, 681–683, 682t varicella, 678–680, 679t antepartum, diabetes mellitus. See Diabetes mellitus obstetric previous, preconception risk and, 93 risk factors for, 86, 87f obstetrical, 853 preterm labor/birth, 856–863, 861t of pregnancy previous, 757t signs/symptoms, 609 signs/symptoms of, 33–34 previous cesarean section, 853–856 third stage of labor placenta accreta, 914–915 retained placenta, 913 uterine inversion, 915–916, 916f Conceptual age, terminology, 715t Conditioning, exercise test responses and, 199 Condom female, 486, 486f complaints with, 486–487 effectiveness of, 463t, 486 for HIV transmission prevention, 173 usage/management of, 486–487, 487f male characteristics of, 484, 484f complaints with, 484 effectiveness of, 463t, 464t, 484 for HIV transmission prevention, 173 leakage, 484–485 unexpected pregnancies and, 464t usage, instructions for, 485 Condylomata acuminata diagnosis, 456 etiology, 455 patient information, 456–457 treatment, 444t, 456–457 vulvar cancer and, 428 Condylomata lata, 451

Congenital anomalies assessment, history taking, 625 development, 562f fetal tachycardia and, 802 genetic counseling, 85, 95, 625, 626t, 627 maternal exercise and, 200–201 minimal/absent fetal heart rate variability and, 803 nonvisible defects, 1036 screening for, 624–625 size/date discrepancy, 720t visible defects, 1036 Congenital heart disease, 626t Congenital rubella syndrome (CRS), 674–675 Congenital syphilis, 450, 452 Congenital uterine anomalies, 407–408, 408f Congenital varicella syndrome, 678 Conjugata vara, 1207, 1207f Conjugated equine estrogens (CEE) commercial, types of, 362t osteoporosis and, 354 risks/benefits, 222, 351 spotting, 390 Constipation, 148, 593–594, 1061 Constructive rest position, 216, 216f Consultant relationships, midwives and, 938 Consultation, 30 Consumer awareness, of nurse-midwifery services, 14, 16 Continuous locked stitch, for episiotomy repair, 1282–1283, 1282f Continuous mattress stitch, for episiotomy repair, 1282f, 1283 Continuous pulse oximetry, 1032–1033 Continuous unlocked stitch, for episiotomy repair, 1282f, 1283 Contraceptive history, 39 Contraceptive methods definition of, 461 in diabetes mellitus, 153 effectiveness of, 465–466 folklore, 466–467 in future, 468 hormonal birth control pills. See Oral contraceptives emergency postcoital contraceptives, 528–531, 530t injectable, 531–534 progestin-only oral contraceptives, 527–528 subdermal implants, 534–536

transdermal patch, 537–539 vaginal ring, 536–537 metrorrhagia and, 388 nonhormonal, 481–496 cervical cap. See Cervical cap condom. See Condom diaphragm. See Diaphragm FemCap, 496 Lea’s shield, 496 spermicidal preparations, 481–484 selection criteria for, 462–463, 463t, 464t, 465 for HIV-infected women, 173 stopping, preconception, 88–89 Contractions. See Uterine contractions Contraction stress test (CST) contraindications, 640 equivocal, 642 false-negative results, 641 interpretation, 640–642, 640t negative, 641–642, 641f nonreactive NST and, 637 positive, 641, 641f procedure, 640, 640t Controlled relaxation, 783 Controlled Substance Act (CSA), 253 Controlled substances, classification of, 253, 254t Cool-down, for exercise during pregnancy, 194 Coombs’ test, direct, 978, 1055 Coparenting, by lesbians, 306 Copper T 380A (ParaGard), 499, 501–502, 507–508 Corbin, Hazel, 11, 12 Cord. See Umbilical cord Cord blood acid-base balance assessment, after neonatal resuscitation, 986 banking, 978 collection, 907 laboratory values, 967–968, 967t pH, 795 Cordocentesis, 632, 632f, 700 Core temperature, during pregnancy, 196 Corona, 1314, 1314f Coronary heart disease (CHD), 115–116, 221 Corpus luteum cysts, 406 of menstruation, 544 of pregnancy, 544 ruptured, 667

Index

Corticosteroid therapy, antenatal, 862 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 197, 198 Cosmeceutical, 250t, 251 Costovertebral angle (CVA) anatomy, 1161 tenderness charting, 1161 eliciting, procedure for, 1161–1162 rationale for examining, 1161–1162 significance, 663, 1161 Cotyledons, placental, 565 Coumadin (warfarin), 91t, 262t Counseling dietary, 684–685, 685t genetic, 85, 95, 625, 626t, 627 HIV/AIDS, 167–169 nutritional, 608 preconception, 88–89 for sterilization, 467–468 Count-to-Ten Movement Counting Method, 633, 633t Cow’s milk vs. breast milk, 1021t vs. infant formulas, 1020, 1021t CPD. See Cephalopelvic disproportion CPM (Certified Professional Midwife), 19 Crack cocaine, 328–329 Cradle cap, 1024 Cramping, after IUD insertion, 508 Craniosynostosis, 1299t Creams, spermicidal, 481, 483–484 Creatinine, serum, in preeclampsia, 708t Creatinine clearance, in preeclampsia, 708t Credentialing mechanisms, 16, 19 Creighton Model, 472–474, 473f, 479–480 CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone), 197, 198 Crohn’s disease, 148–149 Cross-cradle position, for breastfeeding, 1077, 1077f Crown-rump length, 716 Crown stitch, for episiotomy repair, 1283–1284, 1284f CRS (congenital rubella syndrome), 674–675 CSA (Controlled Substance Act), 253 CST. See Contraction stress test

Cultural competence continuum applications of, 53–55 description of, 52–53, 53f importance of, 49–50 stages of, 52–53, 53f Cultural differences, 428 Culturally competent practitioner, characteristics of, 55t Culture, 49–50 gynecologic care and, 412–413 “gynecologic self” and, 400 limitation of health care access and, 60–61 “normal” reference points and, 397 pelvic procedures and, 400 traditions, information resources, 78 Curl-down exercise, 212 Curve of Carus, 825, 892, 1245, 1251, 1252 Cushing’s syndrome, oligomenorrhea and, 391 CVA. See Costovertebral angle CVS. See Chorionic villus sampling Cyanosis, central, 1032 Cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors, for amenorrhea, 382–383, 382t Cyclophosphamide, 91t, 262t, 292t Cyclosporine, 292t Cystic fibrosis, 88, 626t, 627 Cystic teratoma, 406 Cystitis acute, 151–152, 151t, 152f asymptomatic, 681 laboratory findings, 682 symptoms, 151 Cystocele, 409, 1183 Cysts. See also Polycystic ovary syndrome blastocyst, 560 corpus luteum, 406 follicular, 406, 667 milk retention, 1080 ovarian, 406, 664, 667 ovarian, benign, 406 placental, 1262 Cytarabine, 91t Cytochrome P-450 pathway, 256 Cytomegalovirus (CMV) cordocentesis and, 632 diagnosis, 677 laboratory testing, 677 preconception risks, 93, 94t primary, during pregnancy, 676–677, 676t treatment, 677 Cytotec. See Misoprostol

1345

Cytotoxic drugs, transfer into breast milk, 292t Cytotrophoblast, 564

D Daily Reference Values (DRVs), 100, 101t, 102t Daily Values (DVs), 100 Danazol (Danocrine), 91t, 386, 404 D antigen, 699–700, 702 D&C. See Dilatation and curettage DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration), 253–254 Deaths, pregnancy-related in early twentieth century, 7 incidence, 60 maternal, 60–63 calculation/expression of, 61–62, 62t causes, in developing countries, 61 definition of, 61 direct obstetrical deaths, 61 indirect obstetrical deaths, 61 mortality rate, 61–62 mortality ratio, 62 puerperal, 1093–1094 three delays and, 61 in United States, 64–66, 65t neonatal. See Perinatal mortality Deceleration phase, of active labor phase, 745 Decent face presentation, 891, 891f occiput anterior position, 826, 826f Decidua basalis, 565, 1041 Decidua capsularis, 565 Decidual cast, 666 Decidual reaction, 565 Decidua parietalis, 565, 1041 Decidua vera, 565 Deconditioning, from bedrest, 195 Deep interrupted stitch, for episiotomy repair, 1282f, 1283 Deeply folded position, 212, 212f Deep tendon reflexes (DTRs) anatomy, 1163, 1164f charting, 1163, 1165f checking, procedure for, 1164–1167 evaluation scale for, 1163 hyperactive, 1163 hypoactive or absent, 1163 rationale for checking, 1164–1167 significance, 1163 Deep transverse arrest labor facilitation, 873–874

1346

Index

(Deep transverse arrest cont’d) management, 874 signs/symptoms, 873 Deep transverse perineal muscle, 1276, 1277t Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) hormone replacement therapy and, 352 raloxifene and, 355 Defibulation, repair of, 1291–1292 Dehiscence, atraumatic, 854 Dehydration, maternal, 669, 795, 802, 1093–1094 Delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction, anergy, 674 DeLee-Hillis fetoscope, 796 DeLee suction catheters, 990 Delivery. See Birth Delivery room, preparations for birth, 839–841 Demerol (codeine and meperidine), 270, 763t, 764t DeMorgan’s spots, 345 Dental care maternal, 610 preconception, 89 Denver Developmental Screening Test II (Denver II), 1016 Dependent edema, relief measures for, 594–595 Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DepoProvera; DMPA), 392 for breastfeeding women, 270 contraceptive usage, 531 benefits, 532–533 contraindications, 531–532 management of care, 533 side effects, 532 for menorrhagia, 386 oligomenorrhea and, 391 spotting, 390 Depression diagnostic criteria, 159 drug therapy, 267 incidence/prevalence, 158 major, 159 medications for, 159–160, 159t menopausal, 344 PMS and, 394 postpartum, 214, 1048 diagnosis, 1098–1099, 1099t–1100t hypothyroidism and, 155–156 prevention, 1101 premenstrual syndrome and, 392 prevention, exercise and, 187 Dermatitis, diaper. See Diaper rash Dermoid cyst, 406, 664

DES. See Diethylstilbestrol Descent cephalopelvic disproportion and, 872 progressive, detection of, 836 in second stage labor, 823, 824 Designer drugs, 314t Destructiveness, in cultural competent continuum, 53, 53f Detoxification, for alcohol abuse, 326 Detrusor instability, 410 Dexamethasone, for preterm labor, 862 Diabetes mellitus classification, 695 diagnostic criteria, 153, 153t dietary fiber and, 103 gestational, 695 history-taking, 697 incidence, 695 infants of diabetic mothers, 1039 maternal fetal anomalies and, 628 infants of, 1039 nutrition and, 117 obesity and, 152–154 physiology, 696 in polycystic ovary syndrome, 406, 407 pregestational, 695 risks with, 152 screening, 696–697 shoulder dystocia and, 885 symptoms, 153 treatment, 153–154, 695 type I or insulin-dependent, 153, 642, 695 in adolescent girls, 190 labor induction for, 724 medications for, 153 preconception risks, 90 type II or non-insulin-dependent, 127, 153, 719 body fat and, 189 management of, 153–154, 695–696 preconception risks, 90 prevention, 187 sedentary lifestyle and, 190 urinary incontinence and, 410 Diagnosis of pregnancy, 573–574 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) anorexia nervosa diagnostic criteria, 120, 120t bulimia nervosa diagnostic criteria, 120–121, 121t major depression diagnostic criteria, 159

premenstrual dysphoric disorder diagnostic criteria, 392, 393t Diagonal conjugate of pelvic inlet description of, 1207–1208, 1207f measuring, 1212–1213 Diaper rash, 1018, 1023–1024, 1024f Diapers, types of, 1018 Diaphragm, contraceptive arcing spring, 488, 490 care of, 492–493 coil spring, 488, 490 contraindications, 489 description of, 487–488 effectiveness of, 488, 489 efficacy of, 463t failure of, 488–489 fitting, 489–491 flat spring, 488, 489–490 insertion of, 488 return visits for, 492 side effects, 489 size, 490–491 with spermicide, 464t, 488, 489 teaching insertion, checking and removal, 491–492 usage instructions, 492–493 use, management plan for, 489 wide-seal rim, 488 Diaphragm, during pregnancy, 551 Diaphragmatic hernia, 995, 1036 Diarrhea, 147–148 Diastasis, 1157–1159 Diastasis recti, 217 Diazepam (Valium), 91t Dibromochloropropane, male reproduction risks and, 95t DIC (disseminated intravascular coagulation), 665, 706, 711 2,4-Dichlorphenoxy acetic acid, male reproduction risks and, 95t Didelphys uterus, 407, 408, 408f Diet adequacy, evaluation of, 608 assessment, 101 for osteoporosis prevention, 356–357 supplements, FDA regulation of, 257 weight-loss, 113, 115, 115t Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), 100–101 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA), 128, 257 Diethylstilbestrol (DES) clear cell adenocarcinoma and, 411, 427

Index

historical perspective, 265, 410–411 in-utero exposure, 265, 411, 670 teratogenicity of, 262t vaginal cancer and, 427 Diffusion facilitated, 567–568 simple, 567 Digital examination, of membrane rupture, 743 Dilatation cervical, 722t first stage labor, 741–742 Dilatation and curettage (D&C) for endometrial cancer diagnosis, 422, 423–424 for menorrhagia, 384, 387 for sarcoma, 425 suction, for pregnancy termination, 665 for uterine cancer, 424 Dilated cardiomyopathy, 90 Dinitrotoluene, male reproduction risks and, 95t Dinoprostone (Cervidil), 725t, 726–727, 729t Diptheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine (DTaP), 1013t Direct Coombs test, 978, 1055 Direct-entry midwives, 17, 19 Discharge cervical, 1180–1181 vaginal, 1182 Disease prevention, exercise and, 189–190 Disparities, health care, eliminating, 56. See also Cultural competence Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), 665, 706, 711 Disulfiram (Antabuse), 326 Diverticular disease, dietary fiber and, 103 DMPA. See Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate DNA amplification, 1199 DNA direct probe, 1199 DNA mutation, 256 Documentation intermittent auscultation, 798, 799f, 817 of newborn history, 1001 newborn resuscitation flow sheet, 996, 997f Domestic violence, 307, 611 Doppler auscultation devices, 796–797

Dorsal penile nerve block, for circumcision, 1315–1316, 1316f Double footling, 694 Douches, 466 Douching history, 39 Down syndrome biochemical markers, 627 breastfeeding and, 1083–1084 maternal age and, 625, 625t maternal alpha-fetoprotein and, 628 multiple marker screening, falsepositive rates, 628, 629t paternal age and, 95 risk, 629–630 Doxorubicin, 292t DRIs (Dietary Reference Intakes), 100–101 Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), 253–254 Drugs. See also specific drugs absorption, in pregnancy, 257–258 abuse of, 314t. See also Substance abuse addiction to, 313, 314t adverse drug events, 255 adverse drug reactions, 255 bioavailability, in pregnancy, 258–259, 258t for breastfeeding mothers, 268–269 cautionary medications, 294t compatible medications, 294t–297t food/environmental agents, 298t medications with unknown effects, 293t commonly prescribed, 264–266, 277t–288t controlled substances, classification of, 253, 254t costs of, 256–257 distribution, in pregnancy, 258–259, 258t drug-to-drug reactions, 256 elimination/clearance, in pregnancy, 259–260 ethnic variations in usage, 251 FDA regulation of, 252–254, 252t, 253f, 254t gateway, 314t, 315, 324–325. See also specific gateway drugs herbs and, 257 illicit, 266, 292t, 314t interactions, with oral contraceptives, 519–520 intravenous administration by IV infusion tubing, 1125–1126

1347

rationale for, 1125–1126 by venipuncture, 1125 during labor, 763–765, 763t, 764t fetal condition and, 765 fetal size and, 765 labor status and, 764–765 maternal size and, 765 need for, 765 woman’s desire for, 764 women’s response to support during, 765 lesbian usage of, 307 metabolism, in pregnancy, 259 misuse, 314t in modern society, 251–252 neonatal exposure, 1036–1039, 1037t for neonatal resuscitation, 994–995, 995f off-label usage, 253 over-the-counter, 251, 314t, 529 placental transfer, 258–259, 258t postpartum, 1054–1055 preconceptive risks, 89–90, 90t–92t during pregnancy, 257–264 causing fetal tachycardia, 802 for medical conditions, 266–268 minimal/absent fetal heart rate variability and, 803 prescriptions for, 254, 255f resistance to, 255–256 schedules, 253, 254f selection, for breastfeeding women, 269–272 teratogens, 260–261, 260t transfer into breastmilk, 292t–294t DRVs (Daily Reference Values), 100, 101t, 102t DSHEA (Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994), 128, 257 DSM-IV. See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DTaP (diptheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine), 1013t DTRs. See Deep tendon reflexes Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA), 353–354, 358 Dubowitz exam, 1002 Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 88, 626t Ducts, plugged, 1079 Ductus arteriosus, 963, 986 Due date, calculation, 943

1348

Index

Duncan mechanism, of placental expulsion, 906 DVT. See Deep vein thrombosis Dysfunctional labor, 730 Dysfunctional uterine bleeding, 383, 405. See also Menorrhagia Dyslipidemia, 143, 143t, 221 Dysmenorrhea after IUD insertion, 508 primary, 382 secondary, 382, 383 treatment, 382–383, 382t Dyspareunia causes, 402 endometriosis and, 403 during pregnancy, relief measures for, 595–596 Dyspnea, 199 Dysthymia, 159

E EAR (Estimated Average Requirement), 101, 102t Ears, physical examination, 41 Eating disorders, 188. See also Anorexia nervosa; Bulimia nervosa adolescents and, 119, 412 exercise and, 189 history of, 668 signs/symptoms, 121, 121t Echocardiogram, mitral valve prolapse, 142 Echopharmacology, 250t, 251 Eclampsia definition of, 706 diagnosis, 710 evaluation, maternal, 710–711 management, 710 Ecoderm, 561f Ecoestrogens, 251 Economic factors, in selecting contraceptive method, 462 Ecstasy, 329 Ectopic pregnancy abdominal, 667 acute pain of, 387, 399, 401 B-hCG quantitative analysis, 663–664 cervical, 667 congenital uterine anomalies and, 407 diagnosis, 666 diethylstilbestrol and, 411 differential diagnosis, 403, 666 first trimester bleeding and, 662 medical management, 666 ovarian, 667

ovarian cysts and, 406 predisposing factors, 666 progesterone, serum levels, 664 sites, 666 size/date discrepancy, 720t symptoms, 624, 666–667 tubal, 666–667 differential diagnosis, 666 ruptured, 1185 EDB (estimated date of birth), 578, 579, 716, 717 EDC (estimated date of confinement), 579 EDD (estimated date of delivery), 579–580 Education, childbirth. See Childbirth education Education, nurse-midwifery ACNM standards, 3–4 obstacles, 14 pathways, for international practice, 78–79 programs for direct-entry midwives, 19 first, 10–12, 11f long-distance learning, 18 physical assessment in, 35 in 1960s, 14 in 1970s, 14–16 in 1990s, 18 subsequent, 12 requirements, international, 76–77 Edward syndrome, 628 Efavirenz (Sustiva), 91t Effacement cervical, 722t first stage labor, 741–742 Effleurage, 788, 788f EFM. See Electronic fetal monitoring EFW (estimated fetal weight), 582 Elderly women discomforts, exercise in relieving, 232 gynecologic care for, 412 health issues for, 361 lesbians, 308 nutrition and, 120 Electronic fetal monitoring (EFM) benefits, 800t continuous, 796 external, 798–799 for nonstress test, 636 for very preterm fetus, 859–860 impact, 793–794 for intermittent documentation, 797 internal, 799

interpretation, 801–802, 801t introduction of, 793 limitations, 800t monitoring strip, 800–801 uterine contraction patterns, 798, 799–800 ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), 168, 546 EMB. See Endometrial biopsy Embryo assessment, B-hCG levels and, 624 bilaminar, 560 development, 556, 557f–559f, 560, 561f, 562f Embryonic period, end of, 560 Emergency contraceptive pills, 464t Emergency Maternity and Infant Care program, 930 Emergency obstetric care facilities, 63t Emergency postcoital contraceptives, 528–531, 530t Emergency situations. See also specific emergency situations appendicitis during pregnancy, 151 in out-of-hospital birth setting, 952–953 potential, identifying, 32 Enalapril (Vasotec), 91t Encephalocele, 1299t Encephalopathy, 795 Endocervical curettage, 418 Endocervicitis, 448 Endoderm, 561f Endometrial aspiration, 422 Endometrial biopsy (EMB) complications/side effects, 1328 contraindications, 1327 endometrial cancer diagnosis, 422–423 indications, 384, 422–423, 1327 limitations, 1327 management, 1331, 1331t perimenopausal, 358 precautions, 1327 procedure, 1328–1331, 1330f rationale, 1328–1331 results/findings, 1331, 1331t sarcoma diagnosis, 425 for screening, 422 sensitivity/specificity, 1327 side effects/complications, 1328 Endometrial cancer diagnosis, 422–424 incidence/prevalence, 422 oral contraceptives and, 520 risk factors, 423t screening, 303, 422

Index

Endometrial curettage, 384, 422 Endometrial hyperplasia, 340, 384, 422–423 Endometrial polyps, 384 Endometrial stripe, 384, 423 Endometrial thickness, 424 Endometriosis, 403–404, 406 Endometritis, 1095 Endometrium, anatomy, 1329 Endoscopy, 149 Endotracheal intubation, 990, 992–993, 993f, 993t, 994f Endurance, 188 Enema, for hypotonic uterine dysfunction, 875 Energy needs, exercise and, 198–199 before onset of labor, 739 En face position, attachment and, 1046–1047, 1046f Engagement cephalopelvic disproportion and, 872 definition of, 743, 824 face presentation, 891, 891f failure of, 836 occiput anterior position, 825–826, 826f station and, 742–743 Engorgement, breast, 1059–1060, 1060f, 1073, 1079, 1096 Enterocele, 1184 Enterococcus, 681 Environmental factors, affecting newborn, 1000 Environmental issues, preconception care, 93, 94t Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 168, 546 Epidural analgesia/anesthesia anatomy/physiology, relevant, 767–768, 769f contraindications, 767 double-up set, 767 historical aspects, 766 indications, 766–767 informed consent, 773 labor outcome, 771–772 lumbar procedure, 768, 769f midwife role in, 773–774 for postdate pregnancy, 723 preparation for, 772–773 risks, 768, 770–771 for women with sexual trauma history, 767 Epinephrine, for neonatal resuscitation, 994–995, 995f Episiotomy, 217, 918, 920

anatomy, relevant, 1275–1276, 1275f, 1277t, 1278f anterior, repair of, 1291–1292 cutting, 1279–1280, 1279f principles of, 1284–1287 hemostasis, 1286 indications, 834–835 knots, 1282 lacerations cervical, repair of, 1291 clitoral, repair of, 1290 first degree, repair of, 1289 fourth degree, repair of, 1290 periurethral, repair of, 1290 second degree, repair of, 1289 third degree, repair of, 1289–1290 mediolateral cutting procedure, 1279f, 1280 repair of, 1289 midline cutting procedure, 835, 1279–1280, 1279f repair of, 1287–1289 needle, 1281 needleholder, 1281 principles of, 1284–1287 pudendal block, 832–833 stitching, with curved needle, 1281–1282 sutures, 1281, 1286 suture stitches, 1282–1284, 1282f, 1284f vs. perineal tearing, 834–835 wound healing, 1280–1281 Epithelial ovarian cancer, 425 Epstein-Barr virus, 178 Erb-Duchenne paralysis, 1035 Ergot preparations (Ergotrate; Methergine), 386, 1041 ERT. See Estrogen replacement therapy Erythema infectiosum, 680–681 Erythroblastosis fetalis, 694, 700, 1055 Erythromycin, for breastfeeding women, 270 Escherichia coli, 147–148, 151, 681 Esophageal atresia, 1036 EST (exercise stress test), 224 Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), 101, 102t Estimated date of birth (EDB), 578, 579, 716, 717 Estimated date of confinement (EDC), 579 Estimated date of delivery (EDD), 579–580 Estimated fetal weight (EFW), 582

1349

Estrace, 390 Estradiol, 340, 363t perimenopausal levels, 358 salivary, 857 spotting, 390 unconjugated, 628 Estriol, 340 Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT), 221, 337 bone loss and, 108 dosage, 361–362 duration, 362 osteoporosis and, 354–355 ovarian cancer and, 425 with progestogen. See Hormone replacement therapy thrombosis and, 350 Estrogens. See also specific estrogens atrophic changes in menopause and, 342–343 blood flow in mouth and, 551 breast cancer pathogenesis and, 347 commercial products, types of, 362t–363t contraindications, 362, 364 ecoestrogens, 251 loss, in menopause, 221 maturation index and, 360–361 for metrorrhagia, 389 in oral contraceptives, 515t–516t potency of, 514, 514t side effects and, 517, 518t, 519 perimenopausal levels, 358 phytoestrogens, 119–120, 224, 341 placental production, 568 in pregnancy, breast changes and, 544 progesterone challenge and, 381 for sleep problems, 366 types of, 340 uterus enlargement in pregnancy and, 547 xenoestrogens, 251 Estrone, 340, 358 Ethinyl estradiol, 514 Ethnicity. See also specific ethnic groups breastfeeding and, 1074 breastfeeding rates and, 1068–1069, 1069f categories of, 51 congenital anomalies and, 626t drug usage and, 251 fibroids and, 404 healthcare quality and, 50 lesbianism and, 307–308

1350

Index

(Ethnicity cont’d) mortality rates and, 65–66 physiological jaundice and, 1026 preterm labor and, 857 smoking rates and, 321, 324t Ethylene glycol ethers, preconception risks, 94t, 95t Evening primrose oil, 729 Exercise activities, appropriate during pregnancy, 209, 210t–211t aerobic. See Aerobic exercise alleviation of nerve compression syndromes in pregnancy, 200 ballistic/high-impact, 206–207 benefits, 187–188 bone mineral density and, 119 cancer and, 222 cardiovascular disease and, 221–222 classifications, 190–191, 202 contraindications, 204 database, 190–191 in perimenopause, 223–224 postpartum period, 217–218, 219f, 220 during pregnancy, 201–202, 203f, 204 definition of, 187 disease prevention and, 187, 189–190 duration, 190 for dysmenorrhea, 383 eating disorders and, 189 for elderly women, 231–232 glucose metabolism and, 698 gravity and, 223 guidelines, for pregnant adolescents, 214 high-intensity, 191 history, 190–191 perimenopausal, 224 prenatal, 202, 203f intensity, 190 low-intensity, 191 management, 190 database for, 190–191 in older women, 232 in perimenopause, 223–224, 225f–226f, 227, 228f–230f, 230–231 in pospartum period, 217–218, 219f, 220 in pregnancy, 201–202, 203f, 204 for menopause, 220–223 mind and, 222–223 model, for adolescent girls, 188–191, 192f, 193

moderate-intensity, 191 mood and, 222–223 motivation during adolescence, 190 during pregnancy, 201–202 nutritional status and, during pregnancy, 204 osteoporosis and, 222 for osteoporosis prevention, 356 postpartum period, 214 benefits of, 214–217 negative impact of, 214–217 return to regular exercise, 219f, 220 during pregnancy, 193, 610 acid-base balance and, 199 adolescent, 201 benefits of, 193–200 biomechanics and, 199–200 cardiovascular system and, 193–195 energy needs and, 198–199 fetal responses, 195–196 immune system response, 198 metabolism and, 197–199 modifications for, 194 negative impact of, 193–200 nutrition and, 198–199 placental function and, 196 pregnancy/birth outcomes and, 200–201 psychophysiological responses, 200 recommendations for, 204, 206–207 relaxation and, 198 respiration and, 199 thermoregulation and, 196–197 uteroplacental blood flow and, 195 prenatal programs evaluating in relation to outcome, 213–214 periodic assessment of, 213 priorities, during pregnancy, 204 programs assessment, for perimenopausal women, 231 medical screening for, 204, 206f postpartum, assessment of, 220 prenatal, components, 207–209, 208f returning to, 219f, 220 recommendations for perimenopausal women, 227, 228f–230f, 230–231 postpartum, 218, 220 referrals, 191, 193 safety issues, 204, 212–213

special, for pregnancy, 212, 212f, 213f strenuous, preconception risks, 94t Exercise stress test (EST), 224 Exhaustion, maternal, 876 Extention, face presentation, 890–891 External anal sphincter, 1276, 1277t External rotation in face presentation, 892, 894t in second stage labor, 825 Extrauterine transition. See Transition period, neonatal Eyes, physical examination, 41

F Face presentation diagnosis, 890 labor mechanisms, 890–892, 891f, 892f management, 892 Facial nerve paralysis, 1008, 1008f Facial palsy, 1035 FAE (fetal alcohol effect), 1038 Fainting (vasovagal syncope), after IUD insertion, 507 Falls, accidental, 232 False labor contractions, 738 diagnosis, 754 intermittent, 738 management, 755–756 False pelvis, 1206, 1206f Family bonding, 917, 917f, 921–922, 922f configurations, lesbians and, 304–305, 305f of newborn, 1000 preparation, for home or birth center birth, 943–944 role in home birth, 944 Family Childbirth Center, New Haven, Connecticut, 937 Family history, 37–38 Family planning. See also Contraceptive methods “cafeteria approach,” 462 concepts, 461–462 definition of, 462 historical perspective, 461 issues in, 462 natural. See Natural family planning selection of contraceptive method, 462–463, 463t, 464t, 465 FAS (fetal alcohol syndrome), 52, 326–327, 327f, 1038 Fat, body. See also Obesity, maternal

Index

abdominal, 113, 119 brown fat, 563, 965 cardiovascular disease and, 189 diabetes mellitus and, 189 Fathers caretaking behaviors, early, 1047–1048 early attachment, 1044–1045 health status, pertinent to newborn, 973t relationship with newborn, 922, 922f response to newborn, 1044 Fatigue, during pregnancy, relief measures for, 592 Fats, dietary, 100, 103–104 breast cancer and, 116–117 high intake of, 143 intake, 126 recommended intake of, 104, 105t saturated, 104 FC (functional capacity), 194, 208t, 231 FDA. See Food and Drug Administration Federally funded nurse-midwifery projects, 14 Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO), 69, 73 Female athletes, nutrition and, 122 Female athlete triad, 188 Female condom. See Condom, female Female genital mutilation defibulation repair, 1291–1292 information resources, 78 Female sterilization efficacy of, 463t, 464t methods, 467 FemCap, 496 Feminism, 14 Femur length, 716 Ferguson’s reflex, 823, 832 Fern test (ferning), 743, 864, 864f Ferritin, serum, 687t Fertility awareness. See Natural family planning issues, 413 Fertility, nutrition and, 118 Fertilization alternative, for lesbians, 305 physiology, 543, 556, 557f, 560 Fetal age. See Gestational age Fetal alcohol effect (FAE), 1038 Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 52, 326–327, 327f, 1038 Fetal aneuploidy, 627, 628

Fetal assessment acid-base balance, 812 by fetal scalp blood sampling, 812, 813–814, 814f by umbilical cord blood gas analysis, 814–815, 814t history, 793–794 during labor, 758t electronic fetal monitoring. See Electronic fetal monitoring fetal oxygen saturation monitoring, 815–816, 815f goal of, 794 intermittent auscultation, 796–798, 798t management method, 817f medical legal aspects, 816–817, 817f physiology of, 794–795 preterm, 795–796 second stage, 827, 835–836 third trimester amniotic fluid volume, 644–645, 644t auscultated acceleration tests, 635–636, 635t, 636f biophysical profile, 642, 642f, 643f, 644 contraction stress test, 640–642, 640t, 641f Doppler velocimetry, 646 fetal movement counting, 632–633, 633t, 634f, 635 modified biophysical profile, 645–646 nonstress test, 636–639, 637t, 638f, 638t, 639f purpose of, 632 ultrasound. See Ultrasound vibroacoustic stimulation, 639–640 Fetal axis pressure, 741 Fetal death grief after, 1048–1052, 1049f, 1050f, 1051f parvovirus infection and, 681 signs/symptoms, 711 size/date discrepancy, 720t Fetal distress, 730, 794, 834 Fetal drug therapy, 268 Fetal electrocardiogram, 799 Fetal fibronectin (fFN), 857–858, 868 Fetal heart rate (FHR) abnormalities, maternal exercise and, 201 accelerations, 795, 801t, 803, 805f auscultated acceleration test, 635–636, 635t, 636t

1351

baseline, 797 low, 803 wandering, 810, 810f baseline rate, 801t decelerations, 797, 802t early, 802t, 803, 805f late, 802t, 804, 807–808, 807f midwife management of, 811–812 prolonged, 802t variable, 802t, 803–804, 806f epidural analgesia/anesthesia and, 770–771 for fetal assessment, 793 during labor, 776 maternal exercise and, 196 nonreassuring patterns, 798–799 fetal scalp blood sampling for, 812, 813–814, 814f midwife management of, 811–812 preterm fetus, 795–796 normal, 793 pattern definitions, 801t–802t prolonged accelerations, 801t sinusoidal pattern, 809–810, 809f trends over time, 801t variability, 801t baseline, 801t long-term, 797 minimal or absent, 803, 804f moderate or marked, 804f prolonged, 808–809, 808f short-term, 797 Fetal heart tone (FHT), 581, 1156, 1156f, 1156t Fetal hydrops, parvovirus infection and, 681 Fetal movement diurnal variation, 633 maternal perception of, 633 Fetal movements abruptio placentae and, 704 counting, 632–633, 633t, 634f, 635, 699 during labor, 758t maternal exercise and, 196 start of, 549 Fetal oxygen saturation monitoring (FSPO2), 815–816, 815f Fetal pulse oximeter, 815, 815f Fetal pulse oximetry, 815–816, 815f Fetal scalp blood sampling, 812, 813–814, 814f Fetal scalp electrode attachment procedure for, 1227–1229 rationale for, 1227–1229

1352

Index

(Fetal scalp electrode cont’d) indications, 799, 1227 parts/assembly of, 1228, 1228f Fetal scalp stimulation, 798, 812, 813f Feto-maternal hemorrhage, RhoGAM, 700, 701t, 702 Fetopelvic disproportion. See Cephalopelvic disproportion Fetoscope, 635, 796 Fetus. See also fetal entries adaptation to pelvis, 749–751, 750f assessment. See Fetal assessment attitude, 747, 747f behavioral states, 633 brain growth, maternal nutrition and, 599 caput succedaneum, 751 circulation, 567, 963 condition, medications during labor and, 765 extrauterine transition, 961. See also Transition period, neonatal in first stage labor, continuing evaluation of, 776–777 fontanels, 750t growth/development, 556, 562f in first trimester, 556, 557f–559f, 560, 561f, 562f, 563 in multiple pregnancy, 693 progressive uterine growth and, 718 in second/third trimester, 563–564 head birth of, 825, 825f control, at time of crowning, 834, 834f development of, 558f–559f diameters, 823, 824f heart, development of, 549, 560 infections, 632 invasive assessment, 630–632, 630f–632f lie, 747, 747f, 748t malpresentation, fibroids and, 405 oxygenation, assessment of, 815–816, 815f positional movements, 747–748, 748t for cephalic presentation, 823–825 occiput anterior, 825–827, 826f persistent posterior, 827, 828f presentation, 747 preterm, 795–796

response, to maternal exercise, 195–196 risks, biochemical markers, 627 size, medications during labor and, 765 skull landmarks of, 749, 750f, 750t molding of, 751 sleep cycles, 803 sutures, 750t varieties, 748, 748t, 749f weight, Varney’s predictive factor of, 885 well-being, evaluation of, 827 Fever maternal, from epidural analgesia/anesthesia, 770 postpartum, 918 fFN (fetal fibronectin), 857–858, 868 FHR. See Fetal heart rate FHT. See Fetal heart tone Fiber, dietary, 103, 148 Fibrinogen, in preeclampsia, 708t Fibroepitheliomas (skin tags), 345 Fibroids, 384, 664 diagnosis, 405 intramural, 404, 405f size/date discrepancy, 719, 720t submucosal, 404–405, 405f subserous, 404, 405f treatment, 405–406 urinary incontinence and, 410 Fifth disease, 680–681 FIGO (Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics), 69, 73 Financial management system, for out-of-hospital birth, 955 Finasteride, teratogenicity of, 262t Finger numbness (tingling), 598 Finger puncture procedure, 1109–1111, 1110f rationale, 1109–1111 First trimester assessment of pregnancy wellbeing, 623–625, 624f, 625t, 626t, 627 bleeding, 662–666 ectopic pregnancy. See Ectopic pregnancy fetal growth/development, 556, 557f–559f, 560, 561f, 562f, 563 psychological adjustment in, 553–554 Flagyl. See Metronidazole Flatulence, relief measures for, 593 Fleming, Nancy, 4–5 Flexibility exercises, during pregnancy, 208

Flexion, in second stage labor, 824 Flint-Goodridge School of Midwifery, New Orleans, Louisiana, 12 Fluconazole, 441 Fluids by mouth, during delivery, 761 Fluoride supplementation, of infant formulas, 1022 Fluoxetine (Sarafem; Prozac), 394, 396 FNS (Frontier Nursing Service), 9–10, 9f, 930 Folate deficiency, 684 Foley bulb, for labor induction, 729 Folic acid (folate), 106t, 112, 265 deficiency, laboratory values in, 139, 139t fortification, 112 supplementation, 602, 684 preconception, 89 for thalassemia, 140 Folic acid antagonists, 262t Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 513 assay, 381 menopause and, 339–340 perimenopausal levels, 358 Follicular cysts, 406, 667 Fontanels, fetal, 750t Food calcium sources, 108–109, 109t cravings, 610 during delivery, 761 folic acid-fortified, 112 high-iron, 684–685 iron sources, 111t phytoestrogen-rich, 119–120 proteins sources, 103t soy-based, 120 Food, vitamin sources, 106t–107t Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classification of controlled substances, 253, 254t clinical trials, 252, 252t dietary supplements, 257 drug labeling, 252–253 drug regulation, 252–253 labeling criteria for drugs during pregnancy, 90, 90t medical abortion regimen, 576 MedWatch, 252 pregnancy risk categories, 260–261, 260t U.S. Recommended Daily Allowances, 100 Web site, 261

Index

Food diary, 191, 204, 205f Food Pyramid of Dr. Walter Willet, 124, 125f USDA, 122, 123, 124, 124f Football or clutch position, for breastfeeding, 1077, 1077f, 1247 Foramen ovale, 963, 986 Forceps, 6 Forearm, veins, 1123f Foreign-born population, in United States, 50 Foreign countries, midwifery practice in, 76–77 Forepelvis, 1209 Foreskin (prepuce), 1314, 1314f Fosamax (alendronate), 355 Fractures, osteoporosis and, 352–353 Fragile X syndrome, 88, 626t Framingham Study, 354 Freebasing, 328 Friedman curve, 744–745 Frontal bone, fetal, 750t Frontier Graduate School of Midwifery, 10, 12 Frontier Nursing Service (FNS), 9–10, 9f, 930 FSH. See Follicle-stimulating hormone FSPO2 (fetal oxygen saturation monitoring), 815–816, 815f FTA-ABS (fluorescent treponemal antibody absorbed) test, 451 Functional capacity (FC), 194, 208t, 231 Functional foods, 250t, 251 Fundal height measurement, 1147–1149, 1148t, 1149f postpartum, 1157 during pregnancy, 1148t, 1149f puerperal changes, 1041–1043, 1042f significance, 582 size/date discrepancy, 718

G Galactoceles, 1080 Galactogogues, 271–272 Galactopoiesis, 1072 Galactorrhea, 381, 391–392 Galactosemia, 1085 Gallbladder, inflammation, 150–151 Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), 624 Gametogenesis, 556 Gastrocnemius-soleus reflex. See

also Deep tendon reflexes anatomy, 1164t eliciting, 1167 Gastroenteritis, 147–148 Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), 149, 149t Gastrointestinal diseases, primary care, 147–150, 149t Gastrointestinal drugs, for breastfeeding women, 271 Gastrointestinal system changes, in pregnancy, 551, 553 maternal changes in first stage of labor, 753t in second stage of labor, 828–829 in third stage of labor, 906 physical examination, 43–44, 43f postpartum, 918 puerperal changes, 1044 upsets, before onset of labor, 739 Gastroschisis, 1036 Gateway drugs, 314t, 315, 324–325. See also specific gateway drugs Gays, 299, 300–301. See also Lesbians GBS. See Group B streptococcus GCT (glucose challenge test), 697 GDM. See Gestational diabetes mellitus Genetic amniocentesis, 629–630 Genetic counseling, 85, 95, 625, 626t, 627 Genetic disease, neonatal, assessment of, 1005–1006, 1007t–1008t Genetic factors affecting newborn, 1000 in hydatidiform mole, 667 pertinent to newborn, 973t Genetic screening, preconception, 89, 624 Genital herpes. See Herpes simplex virus, genital Genital prolapse, 232 Genital warts. See Condylomata acuminata Genitourinary system physical examination, 44 problems, primary care, 151–152, 151t, 152f Gentamicin, 91t GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease), 149, 149t German Commission E, 257 German measles. See Rubella Germ cell cancer, 425 Gestational age

1353

determination, 715–718, 999, 1002–1004, 1003f application of, 1002–1004, 1004f basal body temperature, 716 criteria for, 715–716, 716t data for, 715–717 human chorionic gonadotropin and, 717 last menstrual period, 715, 717 less reliabile methods for, 78 range of accuracy, 716t ultrasound, 716–717, 716t equivalencies, 715t fundal height and, 1148t, 1149f length of third stage and, 913 terminology, 715, 715t Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), 695, 696, 718, 719 antepartal prevention, 950 diagnosis, 697, 698t exercise and, 197 management, 697–699 medical nutritional therapy, 697, 698 Gestational idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, 687–688 Gestational trophoblastic tumors, 387, 422, 424 GI cancer, 428 GIFT (gamete intrafallopian transfer), 624 Gigantomastia, 1072 Gingivitis, 551 Glomerular filtration rate (GFR), during pregnancy, 552t Glottis, as endotracheal intubation landmark, 992, 993t, 994f Glucophage (metformin), for polycystic ovary syndrome, 407 Glucose, blood maternal, 102 in diabetes mellitus, 153t fasting, 358, 697 postprandial, perimenopausal levels, 358 screening, 127 self-monitoring of, 698 neonatal, 975t regulation of, 966–967 testing, by heel stick, 978–979 Glucose, urinary, 698 Glucose challenge test (GCT), 697 Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PD deficiency), 88, 140–141, 682, 687 Glucose tolerance test, 153, 154, 697, 699

1354

Index

Glycosuria, 697 GnRH. See Gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists GnRH agonists (gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists), 406 GnRH agonists, for polycystic ovary syndrome, 407 Goiter, toxic multinodular, 154 Gomco clamp, 1314, 1315f Gomco clamp, for circumcision, 1319–1322, 1320f, 1321f Gonadal hormones, exercise and, 198 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists (GnRH agonists), 406 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists (GnRH) for endometriosis, 404 for menorrhagia, 386 Gonadotropins, pituitary, 358 Gonadotropin testing, in amenorrhea diagnosis, 381–382 Gonococcal disease, specimen collection, 1199–1200 Gonorrhea, 449–450 diagnosis, 450 risk factors, for lesbians, 304 symptoms, 664 treatment, 443t, 450 Goodell’s sign, 547, 573 Gossypol, 468 G6PD deficiency (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency), 88, 140–141, 682, 687 Graves’ disease (thyrotoxicosis), 154–155, 154t, 224, 381 Graves speculum, 1175–1176, 1176f Gravida, 577, 757t Gravida/Para system, 577–578 Grief process after maternity loss, 1048–1052, 1049f, 1050f, 1051f for intrauterine death, 711–712 resolution, 1050 shock and, 1049, 1049f for spontaneous abortion, 666 suffering and, 1049–1050, 1050f in third trimester, 556 Group B streptococcus (GBS), 864–865 antibiotic prophylaxis, intrapartal, 868–869, 869f, 870f, 871t colonization, specimen collection, 583–584 disorders associated with, 868 fetal fibronectin and, 868 positive mothers, 950–951

specimens, for culture, 867 vertical transmission, 868 Group fitness programs during pregnancy, 194 prenatal, 198 “Guarding the uterus,” 908 Gynecoid pelvis, 1209–1210, 1210f Gynecological history, 38–39 Gynecologic care, special considerations, 411–413 Gynecologic health care, 30 Gynecology visits for lesbians, 302 for perimenopausal women, 357–358 for postmenopausal women, 358–361 Gyne-Lotrimin (clotrimazole), 447–448

H HAART (highly active antiretroviral therapy), 170 Habitual abortion, 666 Haemophilus influenzae, 144, 145 Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine (Hib), 1013t Hair changes, menopausal, 345 physical examination of, 40 Half-life, 250t Hallucinogens, marijuana, 324–325 Hand, veins, 1123f Hand maneuvers, for childbirth, 842, 1241 breech presentation, 893f, 894t–899t, 895f, 896f, 898f for breech presentation, 894t–899t Mauriceau-Smellie-Veit maneuver, 897t–898t, 898f Pinard maneuver, 893f, 893t, 894t dorsal position, 1249–1252, 1250f procedure, 1249–1252, 1250f rationale, 1249–1252 hands and knee position, 1253–1255 lithotomy or modified lithotomy position, 842, 1241–1247, 1242f with fetal occipital anterior position, 1242f, 1243–1248 rationale for, 1243–1248 maternal hands and knees position, 1253–1255 for shoulder dystocia, 886–890, 887f, 888f, 889f squatting/supported squat position, 1257–1259

Hand washing, respiratory infection prevention and, 144 Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, 154, 154t, 155, 155t HAV vaccines, 178–179 HbeAG (hepatitis Be antigen), 179 HbsAG (hepatitis B surface antigen), 179 HbsAg, screening, for pregnant women, 181 HBV human hyperimmune globulin (HBIG), 180 HCS (human chorionic somatomammotropin), 197 HDL. See High-density lipoprotein Head fetal. See Fetus, head maternal, physical examination, 41 Headache assessment of, 156–157 causes, 156 characteristics, 156–157, 157t Health activity survey, 190–191, 192f Health care access cultural limitations and, 60–61 three delays and, 61 disparities in, 50 independent and collaborative management of, 30–31 newborn, 64t problems identification of, 31, 32 potential, identification of, 31, 32 Health care plan, comprehensive development of, 32–33 evaluation of, 33 implementation of, 33 Health care provider, referral, 225f Health care services heterosexist structure of, 300 for sexually transmitted diseases, 440t Health examination, database, identification of primary care problems, 137–138 Health insurance, for out-of-hospital birth, 955 Health promotion, exercise and, 187 Healthy People 2000, 85, 1068, 1068f Healthy People 2010, 85, 300–301 Heart fetal, development of, 558f maternal, during pregnancy, 550–551

Index

physical examination, 43 Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS), 351, 352, 354 Heartburn, relief measures for, 593 Heart disease maternal African-American women and, 51, 51t antepartal, 688–689, 688t, 689f deaths from, 414 dietary fiber and, 103 high-density lipoprotein and, 104 low-density lipoprotein and, 104 New York Heart Association classification of, 141, 141t preconception risks, 90, 92 prevention, 187 risk factors, 141 neonatal, 1034 Heart murmurs, assessment of, 141–142 The Heart of Midwifery (Fleming), 4–5 Heart rate fetal. See Fetal heart rate maternal, in first stage labor, 752t Heart sounds assessment of, 141–142 maternal, during pregnancy, 550–551 Heat, male reproduction risks and, 95t Heel sticks, neonatal, 966–967, 967f, 978–979 Heel-to-ear maneuver, in gestational age assessment, 1002, 1003f Hegar’s sign, 547, 573, 1188 Height measurement, perimenopausal, 357 Helicobacter pylori, 149–150 Hellman, Louis, 12 HELLP (Hemolyis-Elevated Liver enzymes-Low Platelets) syndrome, 706 Hemabate, 926–927 Hematocrit altitude adjustments, 139, 139t calculation, 1129 cord blood, 967, 967t menstrual blood loss determination and, 384 newborn, 975t in preeclampsia, 708t during pregnanacy, 550 procedure, 1127–1129 rationale, 1127–1129 screening, 128

of smokers, 139, 139t spin-down, 1127–1129 Hematologic system disorders. See also specific hematologic disorders primary care, 138–141, 138t, 139t maternal changes in first stage of labor, 753t puerperal, 1045 in second stage of labor, 829 Hematomas, puerperal, 1097–1098 Hematopoietic system, 45 Hematuria, 682 Heme iron, 110, 111t Hemodynamics fetal, maternal exercise and, 195–196 maternal, during pregnancy, 549–551 during pregnancy, exercise and, 193–195 Hemoglobin AS, 140 altitude adjustments, 139, 139t in anemia, 686t A1C, in diabetes mellitus, 153 cord blood, 967–968, 967t fetal or F, 967 menstrual blood loss determination and, 384 neonatal, umbilical cord clamping and, 967–968 in preeclampsia, 708t during pregnancy, 683 screening, 128 of smokers, 139, 139t SS, 140 Hemoglobin C disease, 685, 687 Hemoglobin electrophoresis, 687t Hemoglobinopathies. See also specific hemoglobinopathies sickle-C disease, 685, 687 sickle cell disease, 685, 687 von Willebrand’s disease, 688 Hemoglobin S disease, 685, 687 Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency, 140–141 Rh(D) isoimmunization and, 700 Hemolytic disorders, 684 Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), 687 Hemophilia, 88 Hemophilia A, 626t Hemophilia B, 626t Hemorrhage antepartal. See Antepartal hemorrhage

1355

cerebral, 706 definition, 925 maternal, hemoglobin and, 62 postpartum. See Postpartum hemorrhage third stage, labor, 914 Hemorrhoids examination, 1190 postpartum, 1061 relief measures for, 594 Hemosiderosis, 687 Hemschemeyer, Hattie, 11, 19, 21, 22 Henry Street Visiting Nurse Association, 8 Heparin lock, 761 Hepatic failure, 706 Hepatitis, 669, 674 B or serum hepatitis, 177, 677 diagnosis, 179 immunization, during pregnancy, 620t, 621t preconception risks, 94t pregnancy/lactation, 179–181 prevention, 181 progression, 179, 180f risk factors, 181 symptoms, 179 treatment, 179 C or non-A, non-B hepatitis, 181–182, 677 diagnosis, 181–182 pregnancy/lactation, 182 prevention, 182 signs/symptoms, 181 treatment, 182 D, 177–178 diagnosis, 182 E, 178 F, 178 G, 178 immunization, during pregnancy, 622t A or infectious hepatitis, 622t, 677 diagnosis, 178 pregnancy/lactation and, 178 prevention, 178–179 risk factors, 179 signs/symptoms, 178 treatment, 178 viral, 177–178 Hepatitis A vaccine, 1013t Hepatitis Be antigen (HbeAG), 179 Hepatitis B immunization, 979, 1012, 1013t Hepatitis B surface antigen (HbsAG), 179

1356

Index

Herbal preparations for amenorrhea, 382 drugs and, 257 for dysmenorrhea, 383 for labor induction, 729 for menorrhagia, 386 for metrorrhagia, 390 metrorrhagia and, 389 for PMS or PMDD, 396 Hernia, diaphragmatic, 995, 1036 Heroin, neonatal exposure, 1036–1039, 1037t Herpes simplex virus (HSV), 178, 421 genital, 453–455 diagnosis, 454 first episode, 453 management during pregnancy, 454–455 pertinent information, 455 preconception risks, 93 recurrent, 453–454 treatment, 443t–444t HSV-1, 453 HSV-2, 453 maternal, breastfeeding and, 1086 risk factors, for lesbians, 304 Herpesvirus group, 676 cytomegalovirus. See Cytomegalovirus Epstein-Barr virus, 178 herpes simplex virus. See Herpes simplex virus varicella-zoster virus, 94t Herpes zoster (shingles), 678 HERS (Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study), 351, 352, 354 Heterozygous SC disease, 140 HGH (human growth hormone), 696 HIE (hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy), 795, 1035 Higgins Intervention Method for Nutritional Rehabilitation During Pregnancy, 603, 606–608, 606t, 607t High-density lipoprotein (HDL), 104 classification, 143, 143t heart disease and, 116 hormone replacement therapy and, 338–339 High-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL), 418, 419t Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), 170 HIP (history of present illness), 37 Hip fracture, risk, 222

Hirschsprung’s disease, 1036 Hirsutism idiopathic, 407 in polycystic ovary syndrome, 406, 407 Hispanic/Latino women cultural competent care for, 55 ethnic heritage of, 51–52 mortality, causes of, 51t, 52 mortality rates of, 65–66 overweight, 112 Hiss/compress exercise, 212 History of midwifery in Bible, 3 in colonial America, 5 in eighteenth-century England, 6 in nineteenth-century America, 5–7 religious factors and, 5–7 in 1940s and 1950s, 12–13 in 1960s, 13–14 in 1970s, 14–17 in 1980s, 17–18 in 1990s, 18–19 in 2000s, 19 status of women and, 6–7 in twentieth-century America, 7–10 History of present illness (HIP), 37 History taking antepartum revisits, 584 assessment of structural/genetic abnormality, 625 breast examination, 1135–1136 early puerperium, 1053 genetic, 624 initial antepartum examination, 577–581 during initial visit with midwife, 943 for IUD return visits, 506 for newborn physical examination, 1000–1001, 1001t for perimenopausal visit, 357 for pregnancy diagnosis, 573 of present pregnancy, 580–581 principles of, 35–39, 36f prior to PPD testing, 175–176 questions for, 35 HIV/AIDS artificial insemination and, 305 breastfeeding and, 1086 counseling, 167–169 posttest, 168 reproductive, 169 diagnostic criteria, 166t genital herpes and, 453 HIV-positive women Pap smear testing, 173

sexually transmitted disease and, 173 human papilloma virus and, 173 laboratory test abnormalities, 170 medications, 170–172, 171t natural history, 165–166, 166f neonatal, 1033–1034 older women and, 173 preconception risks, 94t in pregnancy, 170 medications for, 170–172 support systems for, 172 progression, monitoring, 169 risk assessment, 167, 168t risk factors, for lesbians, 304 risk reduction plans, 167 stigma, 165, 167 with syphilis, 450–451 testing, 167–169, 168t inconclusive results, 168–169 methods for, 168–169 during pregnancy, 168 rapid, 168, 169 transmission, 166–167, 167f heterosexual, 166–167, 167f lesbians and, 304 mother-to-child, 170, 174, 174t route of birth and, 172 universal precautions, 1107–1108 viral resistance tests, 169–170 in women global aspects of, 174, 174t gynecological care for, 172–173 HIV PCR-RNA, 169 Homan’s sign, 1053 HOME (Home Oriented Maternity Experience), 17 Home birth access to hospital-based care, 937–938 characteristics, 933–936 clinical judgment, 948–950 combination practice models, 937 equipment, 948, 949t experience, 945–946, 946f family preparation for birth, 943–944 family supplies for, 944, 945t financial management, 955 informed consent, 941 initial visit for, 939–940 management emergency clinical situations, 952–953 nonurgent clinical situations, 950–952 of unexpected situations, 953 personnel, 948

Index

postpartum follow-up, early, 947, 947f practice models, 936–937 preventive management, 950 problems, recognition of, 948–950 resources, 956–957 return visits for, 943 safety, 933, 935, 942, 942t, 947, 953, 953f selection of, 940–941, 940t transfer to hospital, 942, 942t, 953, 954–955, 954f transport/referral for neonatal resuscitation, 983 vs. birth centers, 935–936 Homeless women, 52 Homeopathy for dysmenorrhea, 383 for labor induction, 729 for menorrhagia, 386 for metrorrhagia, 390 Home visits assessment of potential child abuse/neglect, 1101–1102 for postpartum follow-up, 1055–1057 Homophobia, 300, 305, 307 Homosexuals. See Gays; Lesbians Hormonal contraception. See Contraceptive methods, hormonal; specific hormonal contraceptive methods Hormone history, 39 Hormone injections, combined, 464t Hormone replacement therapy (HRT), 116, 119 administration methods, 362 bone loss and, 108 breast cancer risk and, 347–349 breast cancer survivors and, 349 cancer and, 222 cardiovascular disease and, 221–222 contraindications, 362, 364 dosage, 361–362 duration of, 362 endometrial biopsy for, 423 estrogen-only. See Estrogen replacement therapy estrogen products for, 362t–363t for menopause, 338–339 metrorrhagia and, 388 oral administration, 362 for osteoporosis fracture prevention, 354–355 progesterone in, 349 progestins, 364, 365t risk/benefit issue, 338–339

stroke and, 351–352 thrombosis and, 350 Hospital access, for home and birth center births, 937–938 admission, for labor and delivery, 756 delivery room, preparations for birth, 839–841 discharge gift bags for, 1070 planning, for newborn, 979–980, 980t–981t infrastructure, for neonatal resuscitation, 983 in-hospital breastfeeding rate, 1068, 1068f labor & delivery, admission to, 816–817, 817f neonatal plan of care, 977–979 rooming-in, 1061–1062, 1062f selection as birth site, 940–941, 940t short stay, 980t, 1011 transfers from home or birth center, 942, 942t, 953, 954–955, 954f Hot flashes, 222–223, 341 hPL (human placental lactogen), 544, 568, 696 HPO axis. See Hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis HPV. See Human papillomavirus H2 receptor antagonists, 149, 149t HRT. See Hormone replacement therapy HSIL (high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion), 418, 419t Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) beta, 424 gestational age determination, 716t quantitative analysis, 624, 663–664 gestational age determination, 717 placental production, 568 during pregnancy, 623–624, 624f pregnancy tests, 545–547, 546f subunits, 546 urine tests, sensitivity of, 623 Human chorionic somatomammotropin (HCS), 197 Human growth hormone (HGH), 696 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). See HIV/AIDS Human papillomavirus (HPV), 359, 1195

1357

cervical cancer and, 417 condylomata acuminata, 455–457 genital warts, treatment, 444t genotypes, 455 HIV disease and, 173 molecular testing, 420–421 risk factors, for lesbians, 304 types 16, 18, 420 vulvar or vaginal cancer and, 427–428 Human parvovirus, preconception risks, 94t Human placental lactogen (hPL), 544, 568, 696 Hunter, William, 6 HUS (hemolytic uremic syndrome), 687 Hydatidiform mole, 624, 662 choriocarcinoma and, 667 complete, 667 incidence, 668 location, 422, 424 metrorrhagia and, 387 partial, 667 signs/symptoms, 668 Hydramnios. See Polyhydramnios Hydration, maternal. See also Dehydration, maternal during exercise, 196–197 during labor, 775–776 during pregnancy, 204 Hydrocephaly, 749, 1299t Hydronephrosis, 551, 678 Hydrops fetalis, thalassemia major and, 140 Hydrostatic pressure, during pregnancy, 550 Hydrotherapy, for hypotonic uterine dysfunction, 875 Hydroureter, 551 Hydroxyzine (Vistaril), 763t, 764t Hypercholesterolemia, 143, 143t, 194 Hyperemesis gravidarum assessment, 669 asthma and, 691 history, 668 laboratory studies, 669 physical examination, 669 signs/symptoms, 668 treatment, 669 Hyperglycemia, 696 Hypermenorrhea, 383t. See also Menorrhagia Hyperprolactinemia, 381, 391–392 Hypertelorism, 1300t Hypertension asthma and, 691

1358

Index

(Hypertension cont’d) chronic, 706 classification, 142 definition, 706 diet/lifestyle modifications for, 142 drug therapy, 142–143 gestational, 706 heart disease risk factors and, 142 hyperuricemia, 706 preconceptive risks, 92 with preeclampsia, 706 pregnancy-induced, 201 during pregnancy, exercise and, 194–195 prevention, exercise and, 194 proteinuria, 706 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, 705–712, 808. See also specific hypertensive disorders definitions of, 706 eclampsia. See Eclampsia fetal morbidity/mortality, 706 maternal morbidity/mortality, 706 midwife role in, 706–707 preeclampsia. See Preeclampsia Hyperthermia maternal, 802 neonatal, 1000 Hyperthyroidism, 381, 392, 689, 690t after menopause, 347 causes, 154 diagnosis, 224 fetal tachycardia and, 802 preconception risks, 92 signs/symptoms, 155t subclinical, 154t treatment, 154–155 Hyperuricemia, hypertension and, 706 Hyperventilation, 199, 597–598, 752t Hypoestrogenic states, eating disorders and, 189 Hypoglycemia infants of diabetic mothers and, 1039 neonatal, 966–967, 967f, 1000 Hypoglycemic drugs, oral, 262t, 268 Hypomenorrhea, 383t, 390 Hypoplastic cervix, diethylstilbestrol and, 411 Hyperthyroidism, 689, 690t Hypospadias, 411 Hypotelorism, 1300t Hypotension maternal, prevention, during fetal scalp blood sampling, 813

supine hypotensive syndrome, 598 systemic, 550 tubal pregnancy and, 666 Hypotensive syndromes, detrimental, 194 Hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis (HPO axis) in amenorrhea, 380 disorders of, 388 in menorrhagia, 384 Hypothermia, neonatal, 965, 1000 Hypothyroidism, 155–156, 392, 684 after menopause, 347 causes, 155t congenital, 1011 metrorrhagia and, 388, 389 PMS and, 394 preconception risks, 92 signs/symptoms, 155t subclinical, 154t Hypoxemia, 795 Hypoxia definition, 795 fetal, 633 with acidosis, 810 biophysical effects of, 642, 642f, 644 fetal tachycardia and, 802 postdate pregnancy and, 722 umbilical cord prolapse and, 870 maternal, 809 Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), 795, 1035 Hysterectomy, 387, 405, 413, 467 Hysteroscopy, 424

I IBS (irritable bowel syndrome), 148–149 Ibuprofen, for menorrhagia, 386 IBW (Ideal Body Weight), 118 “Ice,” 329 ICEA (International Childbirth Education Association), 17, 931 Ice packs, for perineal pain, 1060 Ice sitz bath, for perineal pain, 1060–1061 ICM. See International Confederation of Midwives ICM/WHO/FIGO, International Definition of the Midwife, 78–79 Ideal Body Weight (IBW), 118 Identifying information, for patient, 36–37 Identity issues, for adolescent girls, 188–189 Idiokinesis, 209

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), 684, 687–688 IDM (infants of diabetic mothers), 1039 Ilium, 1205, 1206f Illicit drugs, 266, 292t, 314t Imagery, mental, during pregnancy, 209 Immune system neonatal, 969, 969t–970t, 971 response, to maternal exercise, 198 Immunizations, 265–266 adult recommendations, 137 for newborn, 1012, 1013t during pregnancy, 610, 619t–622t Immunotherapy, 250t Impact training, for perimenopausal women, 227 Imperforate anus, 1036 Implant, contraceptive, efficacy of, 463t Implantation bleeding, 387 IMU (International Midwives Union), 67 Inactive lifestyle. See Sedentary lifestyle Incapacity, in cultural competent continuum, 53, 53f Incompetent internal cervical os, 669–670 Incomplete abortion, 664, 665, 667 Indian Health Service, 14 Indomethacin, for preterm labor, 861–862, 861t Industrial Revolution Infant feeding breastfeeding. See Breastfeeding cues, 1075 equipment/supply resources, 1091–1092 with formula. See Bottle-feeding plan, antepartum discussion of, 1073–1074 professional resources, 1091 Infant formulas commercial, 1020, 1021t contamination of, 1022 evaporated milk, 1021 fluoride supplementation, 1022 iron-fortification of, 1021–1022 supplementation, 1074 vs. breast milk, 1020, 1021t vs. cow’s milk, 1020, 1021t Infants of diabetic mothers, 1039 mortality, in early twentieth century, 7 newborn. See Newborns

Index

previous, size of, 757t size, need for episiotomy and, 835 Infections. See also specific infections antepartal, 670 puerperal, 1094–1095 Infectious diseases, preconception risks, 92–93 Infertility advanced maternal age and, 93 congenital uterine anomalies and, 407 diethylstilbestrol and, 411 endometriosis and, 403 fibroids and, 405 grief from, 1048–1049 in polycystic ovary syndrome, 406, 407 risk, 191 Infibulation, 1291 Inflammatory response, postpartum exercise and, 215 Influenza, 143–144 Influenza vaccine, 620t, 1013t Informed consent, 941, 953 INH (isoniazid), 91t, 177 Inhibin, 468 Injectable contraceptive, efficacy of, 463t Injury screening, 191 Innocenti Declaration, 1070 Innominate bone, 1205, 1206f Insomnia, relief measures for, 596, 596f Institute of Medicine (IOM) Committee on Primary Care, 29 Dietary Reference Intakes, 100–101 health care disparities and, 50 Insulin, 117, 189, 695 Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. See Diabetes mellitus, type I or insulin-dependent Insulin resistance, 191, 406, 407 Insurance, for out-of-hospital birth, 955 Interconceptual health care, 16 Interim Registry Board (IRB), 18 Intermittent auscultation benefits, 800t documentation, 798, 799f, 817 guidelines, 797–798, 798t history of, 796 limitations, 800t methods, 796–797 patient education, 796 risk factors, 797–798 Internal rotation

face presentation, 891, 891f in face presentation, 895t in second stage of labor, 824–825, 825f International Childbirth Education Association (ICEA), 17, 931 International Code of Marketing Breast-milk Substitutes, 1070, 1075 International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) activities of, 3, 21, 60, 69–70 aims/objectives of, 67 Executive Committee, 68 goals of, 68 history of, 67 membership, 66, 79 midwifery practice in foreign countries, 76–77 mission of, 66 as nongovernmental organization, 66 organizational structure of, 67–68 publications, 70 Safe Motherhood Interagency Group and, 73 strategy documents, 68 vision statement, 68 web site, 70 International Council of Nurses (ICN), 70 International Day of the Midwife, 69, 70 International Definition of Midwife, 3–4, 67, 68–69 International Definition of the Midwife, 78–79 International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) activities, 3, 72–73 governance, 72 membership, 72 mission, 72 resources, 72–73 Save the Mothers Fund Project, 72 International midwifery consultation prerequisites, 77 educational requirements, 76–77 future trends, 79–80 International Midwifery, 70 International Midwives Union (IMU), 67 International Planned Parenthood Federation, Safe Motherhood Interagency Group and, 73 Interrupted stitches, for episiotomy repair, 1282f, 1283

1359

Interspinous diameter, 1208 Interstitial cystitis, chronic abdominal/pelvic pain, 402 Intervillous space, 565–566 Intradermal sterile water injection, for low back pain during labor method, 1219–1221, 1220f rationale, 787, 1219–1221, 1220f Intrauterine death, 711–712 Intrauterine devices (IUDs) for abnormal menstrual bleeding, 385 Actinomyces species and, 421–422 contraindications, 500–501 cost of, 499–500 description of, 499 dysmenorrhea and, 383 efficacy of, 463t, 464t, 499 for emergency postcoital contraception, 530 follow-up care, 505–506 insertion medications for, 502–503 procedure for, 503–505 safety features in procedure for, 505 timing of, 502 management plan, 501 mechanism of action, 499 menorrhagia and, 385 metrorrhagia and, 388–389 noncontraceptive benefits, 500 patient instructions, 505–506 return visits, 506–507 selection of, 501–502 side effects/complications, 501 cramping, 508 dysmenorrhea, 508 low back pain, 508 missing IUD strings, 509–510 pelvic inflammatory disease, 508–509 post-insertion spotting, 507–508 pregnancy, 508 removal procedure, 510 vasovagal syncope, 507 types of, 499 unexpected pregnancies and, 464t user response to, 500 Intrauterine exploration, fourth stage, 1271 Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) disorders associated with, 195, 632, 642, 706, 808 Doppler velocimetry, 646 infants of diabetic mothers and, 1039

1360

Index

(Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) cont’d) labor induction for, 724 maternal exercise and, 201 midwife’s involvement, 1040 in multiple pregnancy, 693 perinatal mortality risk, 721 size/date discrepancy, 720t, 721 type I diabetes and, 696 Intrauterine infection, 778 Intrauterine insemination, 624 Intrauterine pressure catheter (IUPC), 800 insertion procedure for, 1223–1225, 1225f rationale for, 1223–1225, 1225f purposes for, 1223 Intravenous access, for labor/delivery, 761–762 Intravenous catheter, insertion procedure, 1121–1124, 1122f, 1124f rationale, 1121–1124 Intravenous substance abuse, HIV/AIDS, 166–167 In vitro fertilization, 624 Involution, puerperal, 1041 Iodine, 91t, 107t IOM. See Institute of Medicine Ipratropium bromide (Atrovent), 143–144 IRB (Interim Registry Board), 18 Irbesartan (Avapro), 91t Iron, 107t, 112 absorption, 110, 684–685, 685t daily loss, normal, 138–139 depletion, 110. See also Iron deficiency anemia food sources, 111t fortification, of infant formulas, 1021–1022 serum, 687t supplementation, 110–111, 140, 601–602, 685, 685t Iron deficiency anemia, 683 antepartal prevention, 950 definition of, 139 dietary counseling, 684–685, 685t iron supplements for, 140 laboratory test values in, 110 laboratory values in, 139, 139t race and, 139 socioeconomic status and, 139 treatment, 685, 685t Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), 148–149 Ischial spine android pelvis, 1210f, 1211

anthropoid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 in gynecoid pelvis, 1210, 1210f palpation, 1212, 1236 platypelloid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 Ischiovavernosus muscle, 1276, 1277t Ischium, 1205, 1206f Isolation postpartum, 214 universal precautions, 1107–1108 Isoniazid (INH), 91t, 177 Isotretinoin (Accutane), 92t, 261, 265 ITP (idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura), 684, 687–688 IUDs. See Intrauterine devices IUGR. See Intrauterine growth restriction IUPC. See Intrauterine pressure catheter

J Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction, 452, 453 Jaundice physiological, 1026–1027, 1026t, 1295t prevention, 977 Jellies, spermicidal, 481, 483–484 Johns Hopkins University NurseMidwifery Program, 12, 13

K Kanamycin, 263t Karyotyping, 629 Kegel exercises, 212, 218, 409, 1054, 1061, 1184 Kepone, male reproduction risks and, 95t Kernicterus, 682 Ketoacidosis, 876 Ketoconazole, 441 Ketonemia, 668 Ketones, 696, 775 Ketosis, 696 Kidney maternal in first stage of labor, 753t during pregnancy, 551, 552t neonatal, 971 Klebsiella, 681 Kleihauer-Betke test, 702, 1055 Klumpke’s paralysis, 1035 Knee-jerk reflex. See also Deep tendon reflexes anatomy, 1164t eliciting, 1166–1167 KOH (potassium hydroxide), for wet prep, 441, 446, 1201

L Labia majora, 1172 Labia minora, 1173 Labor active management of, 907 for multiparas, 745, 746t for nulliparas, 745, 746t course of, 217 differential diagnosis, 754–755 dysfunctional by cephalopelvic disproportion, 873 fibroids and, 405 false. See False labor fetal assessment during. See Fetal assessment, during labor first stage admission to hospital, 756 ambulation during, 762–763 continuing maternal/fetal evaluation, 774–777 contractions in, 739–741, 741f database for, 739 dilatation, 741–742 effacement, 741–742 epidural analgesia/anesthesia, 766–768, 769f, 770–774 evaluation of mother/fetus, 756, 757t–759t fetal components, 747–751, 747f–750f, 748t, 750t fetal skull, landmarks of, 749, 750f, 750t fluids, 761 foods, 761 history taking, 756, 757t–758t intravenous access, 761–762 lengths of, 822t management decisions, 760–761 management of care, 754 maternal physiologic changes in, 751, 752t–753t, 753–754 medications, 763–765, 763t, 764t normal, signs/symptoms of, 737–739, 738f positioning, maternal, 762–763, 762f preparation for birth, 779–780 progress of, 744–747, 746t station, 742–743, 742f status of membranes, 743–744 transitional phase, 746–747 fourth stage database for, 917–919 midwife responsibilities in, 917

Index

monitoring physiological wellbeing, 920–921 induction amniotomy, 728 decision-making for, 723 desired result, 725 hormonal methods, 725–727, 725t indicators for, 724 nonhormonal methods, 728–729, 728t risks of, 723–724 latent phase, early, 755–756 low back pain, intradermal sterile water injection for, 1219–1221, 1220f management, in gestational diabetes mellitus, 699 mechanisms breech presentation, 893t–897t for face presentation, 890–892, 891f, 892f needs during, 780–781 outcome, epidural analgesia/anesthesia and, 771–772 pain nonpharmacologic relief, 950 pharmacologic relief, 950 pain relief, epidural analgesia/anesthesia. See Epidural analgesia/anesthesia positions, 946 precipitous, 724 premature. See Preterm labor premonitory signs/symptoms, 737–739, 738f previous, length of, 757t progress, 744–747, 746t active phase, 745–746 continued evaluation of, 776–780 evaluation of, 905–906 failure, 873 information on, 776 latent phase, 744–745 in second stage, 821–823, 822f, 822t second stage analgesia/anesthesia for, 832–833 bladder management, 830 database for, 821 duration of, 832 episiotomy for, 834–835 fetal well-being, evaluation of, 827, 835–836 hydration/general condition during, 830–831 lengths of, 822t

management of care, 829 maternal physiologic changes, 827–829 maternal well-being, evaluation of, 829–830 mechanisms of, 823–827, 825f, 826f perineal integrity, 833–834, 834f phases, 822–823 preparation for birth, 838–841 progress in, 821–823, 822f, 822t pushing efforts, maternal, 831–832, 831f supportive care during, 836–838, 837f, 838f vital signs, maternal, 830 stimulation, 950 supportive/comfort measures, 781, 782, 782f abdominal rub, 787 alleviation of leg cramps, 789 assurance of privacy, 784–785 back rub, 787 birthing ball, 787 breathing exercises, 783–784 for cleanliness, 786 cold compresses, 789 for dryness, 786 effleurage, 788, 788f emptying bladder, 789 explanation of labor process/progress, 785–786, 785f fanning, 787 heat/cold applications, 787 heat to lower abdomen, 788–789 medication, 789 mouth care, 786 physical touch, 789 positioning, 782, 782f prevention of exhaustion, 784 prevention of exposure, 784–785 provision for rest, 784 relaxation exercises, 782–783 significant others, presence of, 789–790, 790f sterile water papules, 787 during vaginal examinations, 789 washcloth, usefulness of, 786–787 third stage database for, 905–906 hemorrhage in, 914 management plan for, 907–910, 908f, 910f maternal evaluation, 906, 910 mismanagement of, 907 placenta accreta, 914–915

1361

progress evaluation, 905–906 retained placenta and, 913 uterine inversion and, 915–916, 916f VBAC and, 856 vaginal examinations, 749, 777–778 Labor admission tests (LATs), 816 Laboratory tests, 45. See also specific laboratory tests abnormalities, in HIV, 170 antepartum period revisits, 585–586 initial antepartum examination, 583–584 for IUD return visits, 507 during labor, 759–760 for perimenopausal women, 358 for pregnancy diagnosis, 573 Labor dystocia, 887–888 La Casita, Catholic Maternity Institute, 13, 931 Lacerations episiotomy cervical, repair of, 1291 clitoral, repair of, 1290 first degree, repair of, 1289 fourth degree, repair of, 1290 periurethral, repair of, 1290 second degree, repair of, 1289 third degree, repair of, 1289–1290 postpartum perineal, 918, 920 Lachesis, 386 Lactase deficiency, intestinal, 1085 Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), 708t Lactation, 1043–1044 anatomy/physiology, 1070–1072, 1070f hormones in, 1071–1072 induced, 1084 substance abuse and, 318 Lactational amenorrhea method (LAM), 270, 464t, 478, 521 Lactation specialist, 1073, 1081, 1082, 1083 Lactic acid, in postexercise breast milk, 215 Lactobicillus, 681 Lactogenesis, 1072 Lactose intolerance, calcium intake and, 109 La Leche League, 17, 612, 931, 1078, 1081 LAM (lactational amenorrhea method), 270, 464t, 478, 521 Laminaria, 729 Lanugo, 1002

1362

Index

Laparoscopy, 425, 467 Large for gestational age (LGA), 1004 Laryngoscope blade, 992, 993f, 993t Last menstrual period (LMP), 563, 578–579, 715, 717 Last normal menstrual period (LNMP), 578–579 Late decelerations, 640 Latent phase, of labor, 744–745 Lateral recumbent position, 550, 763, 763f Latex allergy, 402 Latina women. See Hispanic/Latino women LATs (labor admission tests), 816 Laws, regulating midwifery practice, 8 Laxatives, 148, 1054 Lay midwives, 17, 18 LDH (lactate dehydrogenase), 708t LDL (low-density lipoprotein), 104, 143t Lead exposure, assessing risk for, 93, 94t male reproduction risks and, 95t poisoning, 88, 93, 94t teratogenicity of, 262t Lea’s Shield, 496 Leboyer method, 844–845, 845f, 905 Lecithin/sphingomyelin ratio (L/S), 632 Left occipital anterior (LOA), 747–748, 748t, 749f Left occiput transverse (LOT), 748, 748t, 749f Legal factors, in selecting contraceptive method and, 462 Legal issues abortion rights, 574–575 status of nurse-midwives, 17–18 Leg cramps, 594, 737, 789 Leiomyomas. See Fibroids Leopold’s maneuvers, 582, 723, 797 first, 1152f, 1153 fourth, 890, 1152f, 1155 second, 1152f, 1153–1154 technical considerations, 1151 third, 890, 1152f, 1154, 1154f uterus position, 1153 uterus shape, 1151 Leptin, 197 Lesbians childbearing, 299 childbearing/parenting issues, 304–307, 305f

combating heterosexist attitudes, 300–301 coparenting, 306 data collection gynecological exam, 302 history/interview skills, 301–302, 302t definition of, 299 elderly, needs of, 308 health issues, 307–308 clinical research on, 300–301 management of, 302–304 health-seeking behaviors and, 299–300 identity, disclosure of, 299, 300 legal issues for, 306–307 parenthood options, 305–306 parenting configurations, 304–305, 305f resources, 310–311 safe sex practices, 303 sexual practices of, 299, 302–303 transgender, 308 visibility, public, 299 young, needs of, 308 Leukocytosis, puerperal, 1045 Leukorrhea, relief measures for, 592–593 Levonorgestrel implants. See Norplant system Levonorgestrel-releasing implants, 464t Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS/Mirena), 499, 502 LGA (large for gestational age), 1004 LH. See Luteinizing hormone LHRH (luteinizing hormone releasing hormone), 468 Libido loss, during menopause, 344 during pregnancy, 554, 555 Librium (chlordiazepoxide), 91t Licensing, of midwives, 8–9 Lichens planus, 403 Lichens sclerosus, 403 Licit drug, 314t Lidocaine, for pudendal block, 1235 Lie, fetal, 747, 747f, 748t Life expectancy, 359 Life-Saving Skills, 59, 61, 78 Life-Saving Skills Manual for Midwives, 74 Lifestyle active, 428 modification, for dyslipidemia, 143

sedentary, 188, 190, 191, 202 Life-Table Index, 464t, 465, 466 Lifetime risk of maternal death, 62, 62t Lightening, 737–738 Limbs fetal development, 559f, 560 hypoplasia, congenital varicella syndrome, 678 reduction defects, chorionic villus sampling and, 630 Linea terminalis, 1206, 1206f Lipid-lowering drugs, 143, 350 Lithium, 262t, 267 Lithotomy position, 1169, 1170f exaggerated, for McRoberts maneuver, 886–887, 887f hand maneuvers, occipital anterior position, 842, 1241–1247, 1242f perineal prep, 841 Litogen, 261 Liver function tests perimenopausal, 358 in preeclampsia, 708t LMP (last menstrual period), 563, 578–579, 715, 717 LNg 20 (Mirena), 385, 389 LNG-IUS, post-IUD insertion spotting, 507–508 LNMP (last normal menstrual period), 578–579 LOA (left occipital anterior), 747–748, 748t, 749f Loading dose, 250t Lobenstine, Dr. Ralph Waldo, 10, 11 Lobenstine Midwifery Clinic, 930 Lobenstine Midwifery School, 10–12, 11f Local infiltration after birth, 1240 before birth, 1239–1240, 1240f Lochia, 217, 921, 1043 Lochia alba, 1043 Lochia serosa, 1043 Lorazepam (Ativan), 91t LOT (left occiput transverse), 748, 748t, 749f Low back pain. See Back pain, low Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), 104, 143t Lower respiratory tract infections, 145 Low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL), 418, 419f L/S ratio, 632

Index

Lubricants, vaginal, 343 Lunelle, 533–534 Lung auscultation, postpartum, 1094 Lung cancer, 321, 322t, 414, 428 Lungs maternal, during pregnancy, 551 physical examination, 43 Lupron, for menorrhagia, 386 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 513 assay, 381 menopause and, 339–340 Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH), 468 Lymphadenompathy, 428 Lymphatic system, 45 Lymph nodes, palpation of, 1136–1138

M Macronutrients, 99–100 Macrophages, neonatal, 969t, 971 Macrosomia causes, 696, 719, 720, 730 infants of diabetic mothers and, 1039 postdate pregnancy and, 722, 724 Madonna position, for breastfeeding, 1076, 1076f Magnesium, iron absorption and, 112 Magnesium sulfate, 709 for preterm labor, 860, 861t side effects, 861, 861t Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) breast cancer screening, 416 ovarian cancer, 427 Making Pregnancy Safer program (MPS), 71–72 Male condom. See Condom, male Male contraceptive methods, 468 Male genitalia anatomy, 1314, 1314f circumcision procedure and. See Circumcision Male sterilization. See Sterilization, male Malnutrition gestational effects, 599–600 pregnancy outcome and, 599 Malpractice, medical, 816–817 Malpresentation, 582 Malrotation, 1036 Mammary tissue, accessory, 1070, 1070f Mammography, 416 Mammography Quality Standards Act, 416

Management process, for pregnancy, 31–33 Manhattan Midwifery School, New York City, 10, 12 Mantoux test. See Purified protein derivative test Manual expression of breast milk, 1217 patient instructions, 1217 procedure, 1218 rationale for, 1217 Marfan’s syndrome, 90 Marijuana ingestion effects, 324–325 neonatal exposure, 1036–1039, 1037t Mask of pregnancy (chloasma), 544–545 Massachusetts Women’s Health Study, 335, 336, 338, 341, 343, 358 Mastectomy, prophylactic, 416 Mastitis, 1079, 1080 antibiotic therapy, 1096 etiology, 1095–1096 interventions, 1096–1097 prevention, 1096 signs/symptoms, 1096 Maternal age, Down syndrome and, 625, 625t Maternal build, size/date discrepancy, 720t Maternal circulation, in placenta, 567 Maternal disease, 599 Maternal distress, 876 Maternal-fetal blood exchange, 631 Maternal hypotension syndrome, 808 Maternal-Infant Care (MIC), 14 Maternal-Infant Care nurse-midwifery program, New York City, 14 Maternal-infant relationship, adjustment, 217 Maternal mortality. See Deaths, pregnancy-related Maternal pushing, second stage, 1233–1234 Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP), 625 Maternity Center Association, New York City, 7–8, 18, 931, 932f Maternity Center Association School of Midwifery, 10–12, 11f, 931 Mattress stitch, for episiotomy repair, 1282f, 1283

1363

Maturation index (MI), 360–361 Mauriceau-Smellie-Veit maneuver, 897t–898t, 898f McBurney’s point, 151 MCH (mean corpuscular hemoglobin), 687t McRoberts maneuver, 886–887, 887f MCV (mean corpuscular volume), 687t MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine), 329 MEAC (Midwifery Education and Accreditation Council), 18, 19 Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), 687t Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), 687t Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine (MMR), 619t, 622t, 675, 1013t Meconium, 953, 977 in amniotic fluid. See Amniotic fluid, meconium-stained aspiration, 644, 1030, 1031 maternal exercise and, 201 Meconium aspiration pneumonia, postdate pregnancy and, 722 Meconium aspirator, 995 Median nerve, 156, 156f Medicaid, 256 Medical community, view of out-ofhospital birth, 956 Medical devices, FDA regulation of, 252 Medical history, past, 37 Medical legal aspects, of fetal monitoring, 816–817, 817f Medical screening for exercise program, during pregnancy, 204, 206f perimenopausal, 224, 227 postpartum, 217–218 Medicare, 256 Medications. See Drugs Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) DepoProvera. See Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate dosage/administration, 364, 365t for endometriosis, 404 indications, 351, 364 for menorrhagia, 386 for metrorhagia, 389 progesterone challenge, 381 MedWatch, 252 Mefenamic acid (Ponstel), for menorrhagia, 386

1364

Index

Melatonin, 468 Membranes, placental completeness of, 1265 high leak, 743 inspection, 1265 postpartum inspection, 918, 920 premature rupture. See Premature rupture of membranes prolonged rupture of, 950 retention of, 910 ruptured, 743–744 status, during labor, 743–744, 758t status of, first stage labor, 743–744 stripping, for labor induction, 727, 728 substance transport across, 568 sweep, 729t teasing out, 901f, 909–910 in twin pregnancy, 900, 901f Menarche, age at, exercise and, 190 Meningocele, 1036 Meningomyelocele, 1036 Menometorrhagia, 383t Menopause, 116 adult development and, 336 age at, 336 aging and, 220, 336 breast cancer and, 347–350 cardiovascular disease and, 350–352 as deficiency disease, 336, 338, 339 definition of, 335 endocrinology, 339–340 estrogen-progestogen replacement therapy for. See Hormone replacement therapy estrogen replacement therapy for. See Estrogen replacement therapy exercise and, 187, 220–223 gynecology visit, 357–358 health care opportunities for, 366 lesbians and, 308 lifestyle changes for, 339 medicalization of, 335, 336–339 normalcy of, 335 nutrition and, 119–120 osteoporosis and, 352–357 self-determination in, 361 signs/symptoms, 336–338 atrophic changes, 342–343 bleeding pattern changes, 340–341 hot flashes, 341 psychophysiological changes, 343–344

sexuality, 346–347 skin changes, 345–346 sleep disturbances, 341–342 thyroid function changes, 347 vasomotor, 222–223 weight changes, 344–345 theory of, 231 Menorrhagia causes, 384, 385t definition of, 383, 383t diagnosis, 384–385 physical/pelvic examination, 384 treatment, 385–387 Menorrhalgia. See Dysmenorrhea Menstrual age, terminology, 715t Menstrual calendar, 88 Menstrual history, 38 Menstrual migraine, 158 Menstruation abnormal patterns/bleeding, postIUD insertion, 507–508 blood flow assessment of, 138 perimenopausal changes in, 340–341 blood loss excessive. See Menorrhagia normal, 384 cessation of. See Menopause disorders amenorrhea, 379–382, 382t dysmenorrhea, 382–383, 382t menorrhagia, 383–387, 383t, 385t metorrhagia, 383t, 387–390 oligomenorrhea, 390–392 premenstrual syndrome, 392–396, 393t history, 1135–1136 nutrition and, 118 Mental focus, associative, for relaxation, 198 Mental handicaps, prenatal nutrition and, 600–601 Mental health, concerns, of lesbians, 307 Mental retardation, 626t, 678 Mentzer’s index, 140 Mercury, organic, teratogenicity of, 263t Mercury vapor, male reproduction risks and, 95t Mesoderm, 561f Mestranol, 514 Metabolic acidosis, 795, 984, 986 Metabolic energy requirements, maternal, 601 Metabolic equivalents (METs), 194, 228t–230t

Metabolism, maternal in first stage labor, 752t postpartum exercise and, 215 in second stage labor, 827–828 Metaproterenol (Alupent), 691 Metformin (Glucophage), for polycystic ovary syndrome, 407 Methadone, 330, 1036–1039, 1037t Methamphetamine, 329 Methergine (ergot preparation), 386, 1041, 1055 Methimazole, 92 Methotrexate, 91t, 292t, 666 2-Methoxyethanol, preconception risks, 94t Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 329 Methylergonovine maleate (Methergine), 926–927 15-Methyl prostaglandin F2 alpha, 926 Metoclopramide (Reglan), 271–272 Metorrhagia, 383t, 387–390 causes, 387, 387t definition of, 383t Metronidazole (Flagyl), 265, 857 for bacterial vaginosis, 446–447 for breastfeeding women, 270 for trichomoniasis, 447–448 Metropolitan Life Insurance tables, 112–113 Metrorrhagia, treatment, 388–389 METs (metabolic equivalents), 194, 228t–230t Miacalcin (calcitonin), 355–356 MIC (Maternal-Infant Care), 14 Microcapillary tube, 1110, 1111 Microcephaly, 678, 1299t Micromastia, 1072 Micronutrients, 99–100 Microscope care of, 1204 procedure for using, 1203–1204 rationale for using, 1203–1204 Mid-gut volvulus, 1036 Midlife changes, 335. See also Menopause “Midwife problem,” 8–9 Midwifery associations, policy development, 79 Midwifery Education and Accreditation Council (MEAC), 18, 19 Midwifery model of care, 4 Midwifery profession history of, 3 international recognition of, 3–4 Midwifery schools, 8–9

Index

Midwives. See also Practice, midwifery; specific aspects of midwifery characteristic beliefs of, 4–5 collaborative relationship with physician, 853 consultant relationships, 938 definition of, 3–4 hospital privileges, 938 initial visit with, 939–940 managment, of nonreassuring FHR patterns, 811–812 medications for neonatal resuscitation, 994–995, 995f partnership with mothers, 929 postpartum follow-up four- to six-week, 1057–1058 home visits, 1055–1057 two-week, 1055–1057 relationship, with clients, 938–939 return visits, 943 roles/responsibilities in early postpartum period, 917 in epidural analgesia/anesthesia, 773–774 for home/birth center birth, 941 in intrauterine growth restriction, 1040 in neonatal drug exposure, 1038–1039 in neonatal well-child care, 1011–1012, 1013t for sick newborn, 1029 skills, 1105–1106. See also specific midwife skills strengthening, WHA efforts for, 72 Midwives Alliance of North America (MANA), 18 Mifepristone (Mifeprex; RU-486) contraindications, 576t for emergency postcoital contraception, 530 for endometriosis, 404 for labor induction, 725t, 727 for medical abortion, 575–576 Migraine headache with aura, 157–158, 157t from oral contraceptives, 517, 518t, 519 without aura, 157–158, 157t Military radar, male reproduction risks and, 95t Milk lines, 1070, 1072 Milk plasma ratio (MPR), 269 Milk retention cysts, 1080 Millennium Development Declaration, 60 Mind, exercise and, 222–223

Minerals, 100, 118 Minipills. See Progestin-only contraceptives Minnesota Model, 317 Minorities, classification of, 51 Minoxidil, 91t Miscarriage. See Spontaneous abortion Misconceptions, about nurse-midwives, 14, 16 Misoprostol (Cytotec), 92t contraindications, 576t, 856 for labor induction, 725t, 726–727 for medical abortion, 575, 576 Misoprostol (mifepristone ; RU486), teratogenicity of, 263t Missed abortion, 665 size/date discrepancy, 720t Mitral valve, regurgitation, 688, 689f, 689t Mitral valve prolapse, 141, 142, 688 Mittelschmerz, 475 Mixed incontinence, 410 MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine), 619t, 622t, 675, 1013t Mogen clamp, 1314, 1315, 1315f Molar pregnancy, 664 Molding, 751 Molecular pharmacology, 250t Mongolian spots, 1295t Mononucleosis, infectious, 677 Monosaccharides, 102 Monounsaturated fats, 104 Mons pubis (mons veneris), 1172 Montgomery’s tubercles (follicles), 544, 573, 1071, 1072 Mood exercise and, 222–223 postpartum exercise and, 216–217 MORE (Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation), 355 Morning sickness excessive. See Hyperemesis gravidarum relief measures for, 591–592 Moro reflex, 1009, 1014, 1035 Morphine, during labor, 764t Mortality cancer-related, 116 pregnancy-related. See Deaths, pregnancy-related Morula, 560 Mother-child relationship, in second trimester, 554–555 Motherhood, as exercise barrier, 214 Mothering capability, 1017

1365

Mothers basal body temperature, 544 behavioral changes, in first stage labor, 751, 753–754 caretaking behaviors, early, 1047–1048 diabetic, infants of, 1039 evaluation database, 31, 32 exhaustion of, 876 in first stage labor, continuing evaluation of, 774–777 health status, pertinent to newborn, 973t hydration, during labor, 775–776 initial visit with midwife, 939–940 lesbian, 305–307, 305f medical factors, affecting newborn, 1000, 1001t non-biological lesbian, 306 physiologic changes in first stage labor, 751, 752t–753t, 753–754 in second stage labor, 827–829 postpartum behavioral changes, 1048 psychological changes after birth, 1048 in first stage labor, 751, 753–754 in prenatal period, 1046 relationship with midwife, 939 response to labor support, 765 responsibilities, for home/birth center birth, 941–942 size of, medications during labor and, 765 suppportive care, 780–790 vital signs, in first stage labor, 774 weight of. See Weight, maternal well-being, in first stage labor, 774–776 Mother-to-child transmission, HIV/AIDS, 170 Motor control, 188 Mouth fetal development, 559f, 560 physical examination, 42 MPA. See Medroxyprogesterone acetate MPR (milk plasma ratio), 269 MPS (Making Pregnancy Safer program), 71–72 MRI. See Magnetic resonance imaging MSAFP (maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein), 625 Mucus, bile-stained, 977 Mucus plug, expulsion, 738–739, 738f

1366

Index

Müllerian tube anomalies, 382t Multigravida, 577 Multiparas, preparation for birth, 780 Multiple gestation, 624, 642 abdominal girth measurement, 1149–1150 delivery, 899–901, 901f diagnosis, 692–693 management, 693–694 placentation, 692, 692f preterm labor and, 857 risks, 691 signs/symptoms, 691 size/date discrepancy, 719, 720t ultrasound monitoring, 693 Multiple marker screening (triple screen) false-positive rates, 628, 629t integrated, 629 management of, 629–630 Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation (MORE), 355 Mumps immunization, during pregnancy, 619t Murmurs, assessment of, 141–142 Murphy’s sign, 150 Muscular system enhancement, exercise and, 231–232 physical examination, 44 Musculoskeletal injury, as pelvic pain, 412 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 175, 671. See also Tuberculosis Myocardial perfusion scintigraphy, 224 Myomata, uterine. See Fibroids Myomectomy, 406

N NAACOG. See Association of Women’s Health, Obstetric, and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN) Nabothian cysts, infected, 1180 NACC (National Association of Childbearing Centers), 931 NACNM (National Association of Certified Professional Midwives), 19 Naegele’s rule, 579–580, 717 Nail growth, adult, 345 Naloxone (Narcan), for alcoholism treatment, 326 NALS (Neonatal Advanced Life Support), 952 Naproxene sodium, for menorrhagia, 386

NAPSAC (National Association of Parents and Professionals for Safe Alternatives in Childbirth), 17 Narcotics, 329–330 Nasal flaring, 1030 National Association of Certified Professional Midwives (NACNM), 19 National Association of Childbearing Centers (NACC), 931 National Birth Center Study (NBC), 933 National Cancer Institute (NCI), 416, 417, 422 National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), 257 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 112, 152 National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), 143, 143t National Institutes of Health (NIH), 104, 646 National League of Nursing (NLN), 20 National Organization of Public Health Nurses (NOPHN), 20 National Osteoporosis Foundation, 353 National Twilight Sleep Association, 930 Natural childbirth, promotion, 931 Natural family planning (NFP) basal body temperature method, 474–475 calendar or rhythm method, 472 client/couple instruction, 478 commitment to, 471 definition of, 471 effectiveness of, 472 efficacy of, 463t lactational amenorrhea method, 270, 464t, 478 ovulation method, 472–474, 473f, 479–480 resources, 479–480 sympto-thermal method, 475–476, 476f, 477f, 480 technology and, 478 Natural immunity, neonatal, 969t, 971 Natural killer cells, neonatal, 969t, 971 Nausea normal, in pregnancy, 545 relief measures for, 591–592

NBAS (Neonatal Behavioral Scale), 1015–1016 NBC (National Birth Center Study), 933 NBS (New Ballard Scale), 1002, 1003f, 1040 NCI (National Cancer Institute), 416, 417, 422 Neck, physical examination, 42 Neisseria gonorrheae, 449, 457 Neonatal abstinence syndrome, 1038 Neonatal Advanced Life Support (NALS), 952 Neonatal Behavioral Scale (NBAS), 1015–1016 Neonatal gonorrheal ophthalmia, 449 Neonatal hypoxic encephalopathy, fetal heart rate monitoring and, 816 Neonatal meconium aspiration syndrome, postdate pregnancy and, 724 Neonatal resuscitation, 948, 952 Neonatal Resuscitation Program (NRP), 983 Nerve blocks, for circumcision, 1315–1316, 1315f, 1316f Nerve compression syndromes, 200 Nettles, for menorrhagia, 386 Neural tube defects, 112, 626t, 627 folic acid supplementation, 89 polyhydramnios and, 644 screening for, 624 development, 558f, 560 Neurological disease, neonatal, 1035 Neurological examination, of newborn, 1006, 1008–1009, 1008f Neuropharmacology, 250t Neurosyphilis, 451, 452 New Ballard Scale (NBS), 1002, 1003f, 1040 Newborn monitoring form, 952f Newborns assessment at moment of birth, 973–974, 974t prior to birth, 973, 973t behavior, 1014–1016, 1015t breastfeeding and, 1076 neurobehavioral cues, 1014–1015, 1015t regulation of, 1015–1016 body proportions, 1005, 1005f bowel sounds, 975t

Index

breast tissue, 1002 breathing, noisy, irregular, 1024 burping or bubbling, 1022–1023, 1023f, 1063, 1063f care, 1018–1019, 1019f essentials of, 64t during transitional period, 974–976, 975f circulatory changes, 963, 964f circumcision, male. See Circumcision clothing for, 1018 of cocaine-addicted mothers, 328–329 colicky, 1080–1081 cord blood values, 967–968, 967t crying, 1024–1025 deaths of, 64 developmental milestones, 1016 of diabetic mothers, 1039 discomfort, during breastfeeding, 1080–1081 drug exposure in, 1036–1039, 1037t ear, pinna of, 1002 eating patterns, 1025–1026, 1025t emergencies, surgical, 1036 evaluation database, 31, 32 eye prophylaxis, 978 eyes, reflexes of, 1008 feeding, 1020–1023, 1021t breastfeeding. See Breastfeeding history, evaluation of, 1025–1026, 1025t gastrointestinal system, 968–969, 977 glucose, blood, 975t glucose regulation, 966–967 head birth of, 842–843, 842f circumference, 1012 heat loss, mechanisms of, 964, 965f heel sticks, 966–967, 967f hematocrit, 975t hip abduction, 1012 immediate care, 843–844, 844f immediately after birth, 906, 906f immune system changes, 969, 969t–970t, 971 immunizations, 979, 1012, 1013t loss, grief after, 1048–1052, 1049f, 1050f, 1051f lower extremity reflexes, 1009, 1009f maternal substance abuse effects, 318, 319t–320t metabolic screening, 1011

neurological disease, 1035 nonnutritive sucking, 1020 physical examination of. See Physical examination, of newborn physiological jaundice, 1026–1027, 1026t plan of care, 977–979 preparations for, 612 problems cradle cap, 1024 diaper rash, 1023–1024, 1024f fussiness, 1024–1025 periodic breathing, 1024 psychological tasks, 1016–1017, 1017f pulse, 975t reactivity first period of, 976, 976f second period of, 977 reflexes, 1014 regurgitation, 1026 relationships with family, establishing, 917, 917f, 921–922, 922f renal system, 971 respiration, 975t abnormal responses, 963t initiation of, 962–963, 962f normal responses, 963t respiration rate, 963 respiratory system, immediate extrauterine changes, 961–963, 962f, 963t resuscitation of. See Resuscitation, neonatal sensory capabilities, 1014–1015, 1015t sick birth injuries, 1034–1035 heart disease in, 1034 infections in, 1033–1034 respiratory disease, 1030–1033, 1031f, 1031t, 1032f signs/symptoms, 1029, 1030 sick, midwife’s roles/responsibilities, 1029 skin care, 977–978 sleep position, 1018 sleep-wake cycles, 1014 stools, meconium passage and, 977 temperature, 965–966, 975t thermoregulation, 964–966, 965f torso reflexes, 1009 transition period, written orders, 979 upper extremity reflexes, 1008 weight gain, 1025–1026, 1025t

1367

well-child surveillance, 1011–1012, 1013t New York City Bellevue School of Midwifery, 8 Manhattan Midwifery School, 10 maternal/infant mortality in 1906, 7 Maternity Center Association, 7–8 New York Heart Association (NYHA), cardiac status classification, 141, 141t, 688, 688t NFP. See Natural family planning NHLBI (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute), 143, 143t Nicardipine, for preterm labor, 861t, 862 Nicotine adverse health effects, 321, 322t teratogenicity of, 266 use, elimination of, 428 Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) ALA health education fact sheet, 330–331 during pregnancy, 323 for smoking cessation, 323 Nifedipine, for preterm labor, 861t, 862 Night sweats, in menopause, 341 NIH (National Institutes of Health), 104, 646 Nipple discharge, 1135, 1141 Nipple pore, 1071 Nipple rolling patient instructions, 1217 procedure, 1218 Nipples colostrum expression, 1143 cracked/fissured, 1096 enervated, 1073 epithelium, inspection of, 1138–1139 inverted, 1073 soreness, from breastfeeding, 1079 Nipple stimulation, 640, 728 Nitrazine paper test, 743, 864 Nitrosaminoketone (NNK), 323 NLN (National League of Nursing), 20 NMA (National Midwives Association), 17 NNK (nitrosaminoketone), 323 Nocturia, relief measures for, 596 Noncredentialed midwives, 17 Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. See Diabetes mellitus, type II or non-insulin-dependent Nonoxynol-9, 481 Nonshivering thermogenesis, 964–965

1368

Index

Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), 266 for amenorrhea, 382–383, 382t for menorrhagia, 386 teratogenicity of, 263t Nonstress test (NST) for fetal inactivity, 633, 635 inconclusive, 637–639, 639f indications, 636, 637t nonreactive, 637, 637t, 638f, 642 causes of, 637, 638t glucose load and, 639 NST/AFI, 645–646 performance, 636, 637t reactive, 637, 637t, 638f Nontreponema serologic tests, 451–452 Nonviable pregnancy, 663 NOPHN (National Organization of Public Health Nurses), 20 Norethindrone (Ayestin), 386 Norethindrone acetate, 364 Norplant system contraindications, 535–536 description of, 534–535 FDA approval of, 534–535 management of care, 536 mechanism of action, 535 postremoval instructions, 1133 removal, 1131–1133 pop-out method, 1132–1133 rationale for, 1131–1133 standard method, 1132 selection of, 535–536 side effects, 536 spotting, 390 North American Registry of Midwives (NARM), 18, 19 Nose fetal development, 559f, 560 physical examination, 41–42 Notochord, 560 NRP (Neonatal Resuscitation Program), 983 NRT. See Nicotine replacement therapy NSAIDs. See Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs NST. See Nonstress test Nubain, during labor, 763t, 764t Nuchal cord, management, 1244–1245 Nuchal translucency screening, 627 Nulligravida, 577 “Nurse-Midwifery Care to Vulnerable Populations,” 49 Nurse-Midwifery Practice Survey, 49 Nurse-Midwifery Service Directors

Network, 18 Nurse-midwives, movement into hospitals, 13 Nurses’ Health Study, 103, 108, 116 breast cancer and, 116 HRT, heart disease and, 351 HRT-stroke connection and, 352 Nursing, strengthening, WHA efforts for, 72 Nursing Mothers Counsel, 1078 “Nursing strike,” 1081 Nutriceuticals, 250t, 251 Nutrients. See also specific nutrients classes of, 99 intake, balance with energy expenditure, 189 Nutrition, 129. See also Diet alcohol and, 123 assessment, 118–119, 126, 127f diabetes mellitus and, 117 exercise and, 198–199 female athletes and, 122 fertility and, 118 guidelines, 123–126, 124f high-risk populations, 601 importance of, 598–601 intervention, for pregnancy, 603 during menopause, 119–120 menstrual cycle and, 118 needs, during pregnancy, 601–602 postmenopausal women and, 120 preconception, 89 premenstrual syndrome and, 395–396 principles of, 99–105, 101t–103t, 105t–107t, 108–112, 109t–111t recommended nutrient intake, 100–101, 101t status for exercise database, 191 menopause and, 224 during pregnancy, exercise and, 204 vegetarianism and, 122 Nutritional stress, 607 Nutrition counseling, 608 Nutrition status, preterm labor and, 857 NuvaRing, 536–537 NYHA (New York Heart Association), cardiac status classification, 141, 141t, 688, 688t Nystatin (Mycostatin), 441

O OB back rub, 787 Obesity, maternal, 143

amennorhea in, 380 android, 113 anovulation and, 118 breast cancer and, 347 diabetes and, 151 diseases and, 112 exercise and, 187 morbidity/mortality and, 99 nonstress test and, 638 in polycystic ovary syndrome, 406, 407 prevention, exercise and, 190 shoulder dystocia and, 885 treatment of, 113 upper-body, 113 weight gain during pregnancy and, 197 Observation, of newborn, 1001, 1002t Obstetric abdominal examination, 1147 antepartal/intrapartal. See Antepartal/intrapartal abdomen examination postpartal, 1156–1159 Obstetric care, levels of, 63t Obstetric conjugate of pelvic inlet, 1207–1208, 1207f Obstetric first aid, in community, 63t Obstetric history, 38 Obstetric practice, teaching, history of, 6 Obstetric team concept, efficacy of, 16 Occipital anterior fetal position, hand maneuvers for birth, 842 dorsal position, maternal, 1249–1252, 1250f lithotomy or modified lithotomy, 1241–1247, 1242f Occipital bone, fetal, 750t Occipitofrontal diameter, of fetal head, 823 Occipitomental diameter, of fetal head, 823 Occiput anterior fetal position, 825–827, 826f Occupational factors, in selecting contraceptive method, 462 OCT (oxytocin challenge test), 640, 640t OGTT (oral glucose tolerance test), 153t, 697, 699 “OLD CART” system, 398–399, 398t Oligohydramnios chorionic villus sampling and, 630

Index

fetal assessment for, 633, 637, 642, 644, 645, 718 labor induction for, 724 predisposing factors, 694 signs/symptoms, 694–695 size/date discrepancy, 718, 719, 720t ultrasound for, 864 Oligomenorrhea, 390–392 clinical evaluation, 391 definition of, 383t nonpathologic causes, 390–391 in polycystic ovary syndrome, 406 treatment, 389 Omega-3-fatty acids, 104 Oomphalocele, 1036 Open wall defect, 627 Opiate antagonists, for alcoholism treatment, 326 Opioids (opiates), 329–330 dependency, treatment of, 330 spinal or intrathecal procedure, 767–768 risks, 768, 770–771 withdrawal symptoms, 330 Opportunistic infections, HIV/AIDS and, 165 Opsonization, 971 Oral contraceptives combination benefits of, 520 benign breast disease and, 520 biphasic, 513 contraindications, 516–517 21-day pills, usage instructions for, 526 28-day pills, usage instructions for, 526–527 discontinuation of, 525 drug interactions, 519 effectiveness of, 516 for emergency postcoital contraception, 529, 530t endometrial cancer and, 520 for endometriosis, 404 estrogens in, 514, 514t, 515t–516t initiation of, 521, 524 management plan for, 520–521 mechanism of action, 513–514 for metrorrhagia, 389 metrorrhagia and, 388 missing, 525 monophasic, 513 off-label therapy, 520 ovarian cancer and, 425, 520 progestins in, 513, 514, 514t, 515t–516t

return visits, 524 selection of, 521, 522t, 523t, 524 side effects/complications, 517, 518t, 519, 524–525 with spermicide, 526 spotting, 390 steroids in, 513, 514 stopping, preconception, 88–89 switching to different pill, 524–525 triphasic, 513–514 usage instructions, 525–526, 525–527 withdrawal bleeding, 514 efficacy of, 463t, 464t progestin-only, 527–528 stopping, preconception, 88–89 Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), 153t, 697, 699 Oral hygiene, during labor, 786 Oral hypoglycemic agents, 90, 117, 695 Organization Bulletins of the Committee on Organization, 20, 21 Organization of Teratology Information Services (OTIS), 261 Organogenesis, poor glycemic control during, 696 Orgasm, uterine contractions and, 663t Ortho Evra/Evra, 537–539 Orthostatic hypotensive syndrome, 194 Osmotic dilators, synthetic, 729 Osteoporosis bone mineral density and, 119 calcium intake and, 108 diet and, 356–357 exercise and, 187, 222, 356 fractures and, 352–353 incidence of, 352 pharmacologic treatment, 354–356 risk factors, 352, 353 screening, 353 OTIS (Organization of Teratology Information Services), 261 Out-of-hospital childbirth centers. See Birth centers Ovarian cancer diagnosis, 426–427 mortality, 425 oral contraceptives and, 520 risk factors, 425–426, 425t screening, 303, 426 signs/symptoms, 425 urinary incontinence and, 410 Ovarian cysts, 406, 664, 667

1369

Ovarian follicle, development, 557f Ovarian hormones, 190 Ovarian pregnancy, 667 Ovarian torsion, 397, 399, 401, 406 Ovary enlargement, in endometriosis, 403 in menopause, 339–340 size, 1186 tenderness, 1186–1187 Overdistention, 32 Over-the-counter drugs, 314t, 529 Overweight, 112, 113 Ovulation, time of, 543, 544 Ovulation method, 472–474, 473f, 479–480 Ovulatory age, terminology, 715t Ovum implantation, 557f, 560, 564, 564f implantation site, 547 Oxalates, vulvadynia and, 403 Oxazepam (Serax), 91t Oxygen, neonatal assessment, 1032–1033 Oxygen saturation, arterial (SaO2), 1033 Oxytocic drugs. See also Oxytocin administration route, 927 dosage, 927 mechanism of action, 926–927 methylergonovine maleate (Methergine), 926 15-methyl prostaglandin F2 alpha, 926 for postpartum hemorrhage, 926–927 Oxytocin, 729t, 907 administration, at home or birth center, 950, 952–953 administration route, 927 attachment behavior and, 1016 for fourth stage intrauterine exploration, 1271 high-dose regimen, for hypotonic uterine dysfunction, 875–876 during labor, 722–723 for labor induction, 725t, 726 for labor induction/augmentation, in VBAC, 856 lactation and, 1072 Oxytocin challenge test (OCT), 640, 640t Oxytocin receptors, 723, 1016

P Pacifiers, 1020, 1075 Pain, 398–399. See also specific types of pain abdominal. See Abdominal pain

1370

Index

(Pain cont’d) aggravating factors, 398t, 399 character, 398, 398t duration, 398, 398t in first trimester, 624 location, 398, 398t low back. See Back pain onset, 398, 398t pelvic. See Pelvic pain perception, 200 relief. See also Analgesics for circumcision, 1315–1316, 1315f, 1316f factors in, 398t, 399 tolerance, exercise and, 200 triggering factors, 398t, 399 Palmar erythema, 545 Pancreatitis, 669 Papanicolaou, George, 417 Pap smear, 359, 418 cervical cancer diagnosis, 421–422 for cervical cancer screening, 417–418 for DES daughters, 411 for endometrial cancer diagnosis, 424 genital herpes simplex virus, 454 for HIV-infected women, 173 maturation index, 360–361 specimen collection, 1195–1197 procedure, 1195–1197 rationale for, 1195–1197 Trichomonas findings on, 421 Para, 577–578, 757t Paracervical anesthesia, 809 ParaGard (Copper T 380A), 499, 501–502 Paramethadione, teratogenicity of, 263t Parasitic infections, congenital, 1033 Parasympathetic nervous system, exercise and, 190 Parenchyma, breast, 1071 Parental notification, for gynecological care of adolescents, 412 Parenthood options, for lesbians, 305–306 Parietal bone, fetal, 750t Parity, ovarian cancer and, 425 Partial placenta accreta, 914–915 Partial pressure of oxygen, after neonatal resuscitation, 986 Partial prothrombin time (PPT), 708t Participatory learning activities (PLA), 80 Parvovirus B19, 680–681 Passive immunity, neonatal, 971 Pathogenic organisims, causing

puerperal infections, 1094–1095 Pawlik’s maneuvers or grip, 1152f, 1154, 1154f PBLAC (Pictorial Blood Loss Assessment Chart), 384 PCP, neonatal exposure, 1036–1039, 1037t PCV (pneumococcal conjugate vaccine), 1013t PDPI (Postpartum Depression Predictors Inventory), 1099, 1099t–1100t Peak flow meter, 146 Pearl Index, 465–466 Pederson speculum, 1176, 1176f Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trial Group (ACTG) 076 Trial, 170 Pelvic diaphragm, 1276, 1278f Pelvic examination, 400 antepartum, 585 of Bartholin’s glands, 1174–1175 bimanual examination. See Bimanual examination of children, 411 chorioamnionitis and, 865 of face presentation, 890 first, 1169 for incompetent internal cervical os, 670 initial antepartum examination, 582–583 for IUD return visits, 507 during labor, 759, 759t perimenopausal, 357 in pregnancy diagnosis, 573 premature rupture of membranes, 864 procedure, 1169–1174, 1170f rationale, 1169–1174 refusal, 582–583 retrovaginal examination, 1189–1192 of Skene’s glands, 1174–1175 with speculum, 1176–1182 of urethra, 1174–1175 36-week, 585 Pelvic floor exercises for, 232 muscle tone, loss of, 408–409 musculature, 1276, 1277t pain, 402 Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) Actinomyces species and, 421–422 after IUD insertion, 508–509 associated disorders, 383, 387, 397, 406, 448 cervical motion tenderness (chandelier sign), 1185

chronic abdominal/pelvic pain, 402 diagnosis, 457 etiology, 457 gonorrhea and, 449 IUDs and, 500 risk factors, 457 symptoms, 457 treatment, 443t, 457–458 Pelvic inlet android pelvis, 1210, 1210f anthropoid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 diameters of, 1207–1208, 1207f, 1207t in gynecoid pelvis, 1210, 1210f platypelloid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 Pelvic masses, fibroids, 404–406, 405f Pelvic pain acute, 397, 399, 401 assessment, 397 benign ovarian cysts and, 406 chronic, 398, 402–404 endometriosis and, 403 evaluation of, 398–401, 398t history, 399 laboratory/screening/diagnostic tests, 400–401 overview, 396–397 physical examination, 399–400 referred, 663 Pelvic relaxation, 217 Pelvic rest, for first trimester vaginal bleeding, 663t Pelvic rock/rotation, 212 Pelvic tilt, 212 Pelvic ultrasound, 384, 418 Pelvimetry clinical, 720 bimanual examination. See Bimanual examination evaluation of findings, 1215 procedure/rationale, 1211–1215, 1213f definition, 1205 x-ray, 1205 Pelvis adequacy, 872 anatomy, 1205–1209, 1206f, 1207f android, deep transverse arrest and, 873–874 bones, 1205–1206, 1206f diameters, 1207–1208, 1207f, 1207t false, 1206, 1206f fetal adaptation to, 749–751, 750f midplane, 1208

Index

outlet, 1208 planes, 1207f, 1208 platypelloid, deep transverse arrest and, 873–874 sidewalls android pelvis, 1210, 1210f angle of, 1209 anthropoid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 in gynecoid pelvis, 1210, 1210f palpation, 1212 platypelloid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 true, 1206, 1206f types, 1209 android or male, 1210–1211, 1210f anthropoid, 1210f, 1211 gynecoid or female, 1209–1210, 1210f platypelloid, 1210f, 1211 Penicillamine, 91t Penicillin G, for syphilis, 452 Penis anatomy, 1314, 1314f circumcision procedure. See Circumcision PEPI (Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Intervention), 351, 352 Peptic ulcers, 149–150 Perceived exertion, during pregnancy, 200 Perchloroethylene, male reproduction risks and, 95t Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling (PUBS), 632, 632f Perimenopause, 336 amennorhea in, 380 changes in, 340–347 exercise establishing database for, 223–224 management issues, 223–224, 225f–226f, 227, 228f–230f, 230–231 health care visit history-taking, 357 laboratory tests for, 358 physical examination, 357–358 medical screening, 224, 227 Perinatal factors affecting newborn, 1000, 1001t pertinent to newborn, 973t Perinatal mortality asthma and, 691 causes, 64, 632 grief after, 1048–1052, 1049f, 1050f, 1051f at home or birth center, 953, 953f

low-birth-weigh infants and, 600 preterm birth and, 856 rates, 642, 929 risk, 721 Perineal body, local inflitration of, 1239–1240, 1240f Perineal cleansing prep lithotomy position for, 841 procedure, 1231–1232 purpose, 1231 solutions for, 1231 Perineal massage, 833 Perineal tightening, 1061, 1184 Perineum bulging, in second stage of labor, 823, 823f central tendinous point, 1276, 1277t examination, 1172 inspection, postpartum period, 918, 919–920, 921 integrity, in second stage labor, 833–834, 834f muscles, 1275–1276, 1275f, 1277t pain, postpartum, 1060–1061 postpartum inspection, 918, 920 puerperal changes, 1043 trauma, puerperal infection from, 1095 Periodic abstinence. See Natural family planning Periodic breathing of newborn, 1024 Periodontal disease, 89 Peripheral intravenous line, starting in neonate, 1032, 1032f Periurethral lacerations, repair of, 1290 Persian heroin, 329 Persistent pulmonary hypertension (persistent fetal circulation), 1034 Personal trainers, 191 Perspiration excessive postpartal, 1059 during pregnancy, 196 Pessaries, 409, 410 Phalen test, 156 Pharmaceuticals. See Drugs Pharmacodynamics, definition of, 249, 250t Pharmacoeconomics, 250t, 251 Pharmacoepidemiology, 250t, 251 Pharmacogenetics, 250t Pharmacogenomics, 250t, 251 Pharmacokinetics definition of, 249, 250t in pregnancy, 257–260

1371

Pharmacology cardiovascular, 250t definition of, 249 glossary of, 250t Pharmacotherapeutics, 250t Pharmacovigilance, 250t Phase of maximum slope, in active labor phase, 745 Phencylcidine, 91t Phenergan, during labor, 763t, 764t Phenylalanine, 1011 Phenylketonuria (PKU), 1011 breastfeeding and, 1085, 1087 preconception risk, 93 Phenytoin, 91t, 263t Phosphatidylglycerol, 632 Phototherapy, for physiological jaundice, 1027 Physical activity. See Exercise Physical examination of mother abdomen, 43–44, 43f antepartum revisits, 585 for breastfeeding assessment, 1072–10073 breasts, 43 cardiorespiratory system, 42–43 database for, 35–45 early puerperium, 1053 ears, 41 eyes, 41 gastrointestinal system, 43–44, 43f genitourinary system, 44 hair, 40 head, 41 initial antepartum examination, 581–582 during initial visit with midwife, 943 for IUD return visits, 506 during labor, 758t–759t, 759 measurement for, 40 mouth, 42 muscular system, 44 neck, 42 nose, 41–42 postpartum, 1057–1058 in pregnancy diagnosis, 573 principles of, 39–40, 39f skeletal system, 44 skin, 40 throat, 42 vascular system, 44 of newborn abdomen/thorax, 1303t–1305t anthropomorphic measurements, 1005, 1005f, 1006t

1372

Index

(Physical examination cont’d) approach, basic, 1004–1005 approach for, 999–1000 back, 1311t birth defects, assessment of, 1005–1006, 1007t–1008t cardiopulmonary system, 1297t–1298t color, 1295t components of, 999 confidence in performing, 1009 ears, 1302t eyes, 1300t, 1301t–1302t fontanelles, 1300t general appearance, 1296t genetic disease, assessment of, 1005–1006, 1007t–1008t genitourinary tract, 1306t–1308t gestational age assessment, 1002–1004, 1003f head, 1299t–1300t history taking, 1000–1001, 1001t kidneys, 1306t liver, 1306t lower extremities, 1309t–1311t muscle tone, 1296t neck, 1302t–1303t neurological, 1006, 1008–1009, 1008f nose, 1301t observations, 1001, 1002t oral cavity, 1300t–1301t posture, 1296t reflexes, 1301t skin, 1298t spleen, 1306t techniques, 1004–1005 umbilical cord, 1304t upper extremities, 1308t–1309t Physical factors, in selecting contraceptive method and, 462 Physical fitness in adolescence, 188–191, 192, 192f prenatal level, 217 Physical handicaps, prenatal nutrition and, 600–601 Physicians, 6 collaboration with midwife, 853 consultation with, 34 nurse-midwives and, 17 Physiological jaundice, 977, 1026–1027, 1026t, 1295t Phytoestrogens, 119–120, 224, 341 Pica, 88, 610, 684 Pictorial Blood Loss Assessment Chart (PBLAC), 384

PID. See Pelvic inflammatory disease PIF (prolactin-inhibiting factor), 1071 PIH (pregancy-induced hypertension), 201 Pinard fetoscope, 793 Pinard maneuver, 893f, 893t, 894t Pinocytosis, in placenta, 568 Piskacek’s sign, 547, 573, 1186 Pitocin. See Oxytocin Pituitary gland, in amennorhea, 380 PKU. See Phenylketonuria Placenta circulation, 565–567, 566f defects, 628 degenerative changes, 1261–1262 development, 564–567, 564f draining, 907 edema, 1262 expulsion, 906, 909, 910f extrachorial, 1263 fetal surface, 1261, 1265, 1265f fragments, 928 functions, 196, 567–568 hormones, 544, 568 implantation, abnormal, 628 infections of, 568 inspection database for, 1261–1262 procedure, 1265–1266, 1265f, 1266f lobulated, 1262 malposition, 702–703, 702f maternal alpha-fetoprotein and, 628 maternal surface, 1261, 1265–1266, 1266f membranes. See Membranes, placental normal, 1261 partial separation of, 914 postpartum inspection, 918, 920 removal, manual, 913, 1269–1270, 1269f retained, 665, 913, 925 separation, 905–906 checking for, 908, 908f signs of, 906, 907 syphilitic, 1262 in twin pregnancy, 900, 901f umbilical cord insertion, 1262, 1263 variations/abnormalities, 1262–1263 weight, 1261 Placenta accreta, 914–915 Placenta circumvallata, 1263 Placenta increta, 914 Placental abruption, 632

Placental lactogen, 1071 Placental villi, 630, 667 Placenta marginata, 1263 Placenta percreta, 914 Placenta previa, 640 complete or central, 702, 702f diagnosis, 703 hemorrhage, management of, 705, 705t management, 703 marginal, 702, 702f membrane stripping and, 728 partial, 702, 702f predisposing risk factors, 703 size/date discrepancy, 719, 720t Placenta succenturiata, 1262–1263 Plague immunization, during pregnancy, 620t Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 529 Planned Parenthood-World Population, 461 Plantar reflex, 1009f Plasmids, 256 Plastibell clamp, 1314 Plastics manufacturing, male reproduction risks and, 95t Platelet counts neonatal, 968 in preeclampsia, 708t Platelets, 687t PMDD. See Premenstrual dysphoric disorder PMNs (polymorphonuclear neutrophils), 969t, 971 PMS. See Premenstrual syndrome Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV), 1013t Pneumococcal vaccine, 1013t Pneumococcus immunization, during pregnancy, 620t Pneumonia community-acquired, 145 neonatal, 1030, 1031 predisposing factors, 144 varicella, 679 Pneumothorax, 1030, 1031 Podophyllin, for condylomata acuminata, 456 Poliomyelitis immunization, during pregnancy, 619t Polycystic ovary syndrome (POS), 388, 391, 406–407 Polydrug use, 317–318 Polyhydramnios (hydramnios), 633, 638, 644, 694, 718 abdominal girth measurement, 1149–1150

Index

complications, 694 management, 699 predisposing factors, 694 signs/symptoms, 694 size/date discrepancy, 719, 720t Polymastia, 1072 Polymenorrhea, 383t, 387 Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs), 969t, 971 Polypharmacy, 314t, 315t Polyps cervical, 424 rectal, 1191 Polysaccharides, 102–103 Polyunsaturated fats, 104 Ponstel (mefenamic acid), 386 Popliteal angle, in gestational age assessment, 1002, 1003f Population Council, Safe Motherhood Interagency Group and, 73 Porter, Emily A., 10 POS (polycystic ovary syndrome), 388, 391, 406–407 Poscoital bleeding, first trimester bleeding and, 662 Positioning fetal, 747–748, 748t maternal for birth, 839, 839f dorsal, hand maneuvers for childbirth, 1249–1252, 1250f exercise during pregnancy and, 194 to facilitate second stage pushing, 832 hands and knees position, hand maneuvers for childbirth, 1253–1255 hands-knees, in shoulder dystocia situation, 890 for labor, 782, 782f lithotomy or modified lithotomy, hand maneuvers for childbirth, 842, 1241–1247, 1242f for pelvic examination, 1169, 1170f during pregnancy, 550 for second stage pushing, 1233–1234 newborn, for breastfeeding, 1076–1078, 1076f, 1077f Positive pressure ventilation (PPV), 989–991, 990t, 991f Pospartum period, exercise management, 217–218, 219f, 220 Postdate pregnancy, 642, 694 active management, 723, 725–729, 725t, 728t, 729t

anticipatory management, 723–725, 724t decreased AFV and, 644 definition of, 721 diagnostic criteria, 721 fetal risks, 724 labor induction, risks of, 723–724 risk factors, 722 shoulder dystocia and, 885 terminology, 715t Postdural puncture headache, 770 Postmaturity syndrome. See Postdate pregnancy Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Intervention (PEPI), 351, 352 Postmenopausal women, 336 abnormal uterine bleeding and, 423, 425 gynecologic care for, 412 gynecology visits for, 358–361 lesbians, 308 metrorrhagia and, 388, 389 nutrition and, 120 Pap smears for, 424 Postpartum blues. See Depression, postpartum Postpartum Depression Predictors Inventory (PDPI), 1099, 1099t–1100t Postpartum hemorrhage, 730, 952 definition, 925 emergency measures, 948 immediate, causes of, 925–926 late, 1098 management bimanual compression, 1273–1274, 1273f intrauterine exploration, 1271 management steps, 927–928 oxytocic drugs for, 926–927 predisposing factors, 926 prepatory measures, 926 Postpartum period abdominal examination, 1156–1159 diastasis, 1157–1159 anticipatory guidance/instruction, 1063–1064, 1063f breast examination variations, 1143 caretaking during, 1047–1048 discomforts, relief of, 1058–1061, 1060f episiotomy repair, 918 evaluation cervix, 918, 919–920 perineum, 918, 920 uterus, 917–918, 919

1373

vagina, 918, 919 exercise, 187, 214 benefits of, 214–217 negative impact of, 214–217 extended, 214 follow-up four- to six-week, 1057–1058 home visits, 1055–1057 two-week, 1055–1057 medications, 1054–1055 obstetric abdominal examination, 1156–1159 physiological changes, early, 918–919 physiological well-being, early monitoring of, 920–921 puerperium. See Puerperium Postpartum thyroiditis, 154, 155–156, 224 Postterm newborn, definition of, 1003 Postterm pregnancy. See Postdate pregnancy Posture antepartum changes, 199 in gestational age assessment, 1002, 1003f postpartum reeducation, 216 during pregnancy, 550 Post-World War II baby boom, 15–16 Potassium hydroxide (KOH), for wet prep, 441, 446, 1201 PPT (partial prothrombin time), 708t PPV (positive pressure ventilation), 989–990, 990t, 991f Practice, midwifery ACNM definition of, 29 clinical, 79 cultural competence in, 49–50 definition of, 3–4 essential competencies, statement of, 69 independent and collaborative management of care, 30–31 international/global focus, 59–60 limits of, 34 misconceptions of, 16 obstacles, 14 scope of, 29–30 settings for, 17–18 Practitioners, culturally competent, characteristics of, 55t PRAM (Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System), 86 Precompetence, in cultural competent continuum, 53, 53f

1374

Index

Preconception birth place selection, 96 classes, 96, 96t heath care access, 96 insurance issues, 96 interventions, 96–97 male reproductive hazards, 95–96, 95t risk factors, identification of, 85 Preconception care benefits, 86 counseling, 88–89 definition of, 85 dental, 89 environmental issues, 93, 94t genetic screening, 89 health and risk assessment, 87–88 importance of, 85 medical risk factors advanced maternal age, 93 cardiac disease, 90, 92 diabetes, 90 hypertension, 92 infectious diseases, 92–93 medications, 89–90, 90t phenylketonuria, 93 previous obstetric complications, 93 seizure disorders, 92 thyroid disorders, 92 nutrition, 89 workplace issues, 93, 94t Preconceptual counseling, for diabetes mellitus, 90 Preeclampsia, 642 asthma and, 691 with chronic hypertension, 706 definition, 706 diagnosis, 707, 708t, 709, 775 indications for delivery in, 709–710, 710t labor induction for, 724 management, 709–710 predisposing risk factors, 707 prevention, 707 severe, 706 signs/symptoms, 707 superimposed, 706, 707 Pregancy-induced hypertension (PIH), 201 Pregnancy after IUD insertion, 508 anatomical changes, uterine enlargement, 547, 548f, 549 breast examination variations, 1142–1143 complications. See Complications, obstetrical

dating. See Gestational age, determination diagnosis, 573–574 discomforts, relief measures for constipation, 593–594 dependent edema, 594–595 dyspareunia, 595–596 fatigue, 592 flatulence, 593 heartburn, 593 hemorrhoids, 594 hyperventilation, 597–598 insomnia, 596, 596f leg cramps, 594 leukorrhea, 592–593 low back pain, 597, 597f nausea, 591–592 nocturia, 596 numbness/tingling of fingers, 598 ptyalism, 592 round ligament pain, 596–597 shortness of breath, 597–598 supine hypotensive syndrome, 598 upper back ache, 592 urinary frequency, 593 varicosities, 595, 595f exercise and, 187 fetal growth/development, 556, 557f–559f, 560, 561f, 562f, 563–564 gastrointestinal changes in, 551, 553 history, 1136 hormonal changes in, 544–545 intervals between, 857 loss, causes of, 664–665 management plan, 571–573 antepartum period, 586–587 case study, 587–591 for early care, 574 maternal anatomical/physiological changes, 543–547, 546f, 548f, 549 maternal physiological changes, 549–552, 553t, 554 cardiovascular, 549–551 hemodynamic, 549–551 maternal psychological adjustment, 553–556 nutrition. See Nutrition outcome exercise program evaluation for, 213–214 maternal exercise and, 200–201 physiologic changes in, 544–545 placental development, circulation, functions, 564–568, 564f, 566f

positive signs, 544, 573 present, history of, 580–581 presumptive signs, 544, 573 probable signs, 544, 573 psychological adjustment to, 553–556 pulmonary changes in, 551 renal changes, maternal, 551, 552t signs, 573 skin pigmentation in, 544–545 structural stresses from, 217–218, 218f well-being, first trimester assessment, 623–625, 624f, 625t, 626t, 627 Pregnancy associated plasma protein A, 627 Pregnancy-induced hypertension, antepartal prevention, 950 Pregnancy Related Mortality Rate (PRMR), 66 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAM), 86 Pregnancy tests hCG urine, sensitivity of, 623 home tests, 546–547 hormonal, 545–547, 546f false-negative, 546 false-positive, 546 in menorrhagia, 384 urinary, 717 “The Pregnant Patient’s Bill of Rights,” 571–572 Premarin. See Conjugated equine estrogens Premature infants, breastfeeding, 1084 Premature labor. See Preterm labor Premature puberty, 190 Premature rupture of membranes (PROM), 195, 738, 864f definition of, 863 diagnosis, 863–865 incidence, 863 management options, 865–867 preterm, 863 risks, 863 Prematurity fetal heart rate variability and, 803 fetal tachycardia and, 802 Premenopause, 335–336 Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) diagnosis, 394–395 diagnostic criteria, 392, 393t symptoms, 392–393, 393t, 395 treatment, 395–396 Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

Index

diagnosis, 394–395 etiology, 394 symptoms, 392, 393t, 395 treatment, 395–396 Prenatal exercise, 188 Prenatal genetic diagnosis, 85 Prenatal period, maternal psychological processes in, 1046 Prentif Cavity Rim cervical cap, 493–496, 494f Preovulatory phase, prolonged, 716 Prepared childbirth, promotion, 931 Prepidil (dinoprostone), 725t, 726–727, 729t Prescribed drugs, 314t Prescriptions, 254, 255f Presentation breech. See Breech presentation cephalic, 749 fetal, 747 Preston Retreat Hospital, Philadelphia, 8–9, 12 Preterm birth, asthma and, 691 Preterm labor, 195 assessment, 859 care for, 858–859 diagnosis, 860 fibroids and, 405 follow-up, 862 history of, 857 home care, 860 management of care, 860, 862–863 risk factors, 856–857 signs/symptoms, 858 tocolysis for, 860–862, 861t Preterm newborn, definition of, 1003 Preven, 529 Primary care, 160 ACNM position statement on, 135, 136f attributes of, 29 cardiovascular disease, 141–143, 141t–143t carpal tunnel syndrome, 156, 156f definition of, 135 gastrointestinal diseases, 147–150, 149t genitourinary problems, 151–152, 151t, 152f headache, 156–158, 157t hematologic conditions, 138–141, 138t, 139t history, 37 IOM definition of, 29–30 respiratory diseases, 143–147, 144t, 146t

thyroid disease, 154–156, 154t USDHHS guidelines, 137, 138t visits, reasons for, 135–136, 137t Primary care providers midwives as, 135, 136f, 137f nurse-midwives as, 29 obstetrician-gynecologists as, 135–136 Primigravida, 577 Primigravidas, preparation for birth, 780 Primipara, 578 Primitive streak, 558f Prisoners, women, 52 Privacy, during labor, 784–785 Private-practice midwives, 16 PRMR (Pregnancy Related Mortality Rate), 66 Prodrome, 157–158 Proficiency, in cultural competent continuum, 53, 53f Progesterone, 199 from corpus luteum of pregnancy, 544 effect, on large intestine, 553 in hormone replacement therapy, 349 placental production, 568 in pregnancy, breast changes and, 544 serum levels, ectopic pregnancy, 664 uterus enlargement in pregnancy and, 547 Progesterone challenge, 381 Progesterone suppositories, 663t Progestin-androgen combinations, for male contraception, 468 Progestin challenge, 392 Progestin-only contraceptives (minipills), 527–528 for breastfeeding women, 270 emergency postcoital, 529 Progestins, 364, 365t contraceptive effects, 513 contraindications, 366 injections, 464t for male contraception, 468 for metrorrhagia, 389 in oral contraceptives, 515t–516t potency of, 514, 514t side effects and, 517, 518t, 519 Progressive relaxation, 782–783 Prolactin, 381, 391–392, 1071 Prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF), 1071 Prolactinoma, 392 Prolife movement, 574

1375

Prolonged pregnancy. See Postdate pregnancy Prolonged rupture of membranes, 863 PROM. See Premature rupture of membranes Prometrium, progesterone challenge, 381 Prophylactics. See Condom, male Propylthiouracil, 92, 92t, 267 Prostaglandins contraindications, 856 E1, 727 E2, 727, 963 F2a, 382 for labor induction, 725t, 726–727, 729t uterine rupture risk and, 854 Prostaglandin synthesis inhibitors (indomethacin), for preterm labor, 861–862, 861t Prostin, 927 Protein, 100 Daily Reference Value, 101t deficiency, 602 food sources, 103t intake, during pregnancy, 204 RDA, 102, 601 requirements for pregnancy, determination of, 603, 606–607, 607t, 608t urinary, in preeclampsia, 708t Protein-energy malnutrition, 123 Proteinuria, 683, 706 Proteus, 681 Prothrombin time (PT), 708t Proventil (albuterol), 691 Provera, for menorrhagia, 386 Prozac (fluoxetine), 394, 396 Pruritis, 345 Pseudocyesis (imaginary pregnancy), 544 Pseudomonas, 681 Psychiatric disorders, comorbidity with substance abuse, 314 Psychoactive drugs, 314t Psychological factors adjustment, to pregnancy, 553–556 in selecting contraceptive method and, 462 Psychopharmacology, 250t Psychophysiological changes, during menopause, 343–344 Psychophysiological interactions, postpartum exercise and, 216–217 PT (prothrombin time), 708t Ptyalism, 592, 668

1376

Index

Puberty, premature, 190 Pubic arch, 1208 android pelvis, 1210f, 1211 anthropoid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 in gynecoid pelvis, 1210, 1210f platypelloid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 Pubic pressure, in second stage pushing, 1234 Pubis, 1205, 1206f PUBS (percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling), 632, 632f Pudendal block advantages, 1235 anesthetic agents for, 1235 for episiotomy, 832–833 equipment for, 1235–1236, 1236f successful performance of, 1235 technique, 1235–1237, 1236f, 1237f Pudendal nerve, anatomy, 1235, 1236f Puerpera, 1041 Puerperium abdominal wall changes, 1044–1045 anatomical changes, 1041–1044, 1042f complications, 1093 attachment failure, 1101–1102 hematomas, 1097–1098 infection, 1094–1095 late postpartum hemorrhage, 1098 mastitis, 1095–1097 postpartum depression. See Depression, postpartum pulmonary embolism, 1097 subinvolution, 1098 thrombophlebitis, 1097 database, 1041 definition of, 1041 early evaluation of, 1052–1053 management of, 1053–1054 gastrointestinal system changes, 1044 hematologic changes, 1045 infection infectious organisms, 1094–1095 predisposing factors, 1094 signs/symptoms, 1095 sites, 1095 involution, 1041 managment plan, 1052 maternal responses, 1044–1052 medications, 1054–1055 morbidity, 1093–1094 paternal responses, 1044–1052

patient teaching, 1054 physiological/anatomic changes, 1093 physiological changes, 1041–1044, 1042f renal system changes, 1044 vital signs, 1044 Pulmonary embolism, 352, 1097 Pulmonary function tests, maternal, during pregnancy, 551 Pulmonary hypertension, 90 Pulmonary surfactant, 962, 963 Pulmonary system, maternal, during pregnancy, 551 Pulse maternal in first stage labor, 752t during labor, 758t premature rupture of membranes and, 866 puerperal changes, 1044 second stage labor, 830 in second stage labor, 828 third stage of labor, 906 newborn, 975t Pulse oximetry after neonatal resuscitation, 986 fetal, 815–816, 815f Purified protein derivative test (Mantoux test; PPD), 175–177, 176t contraindications, 671 interpretation of, 175–177, 176t tuberculin reaction, 671, 673t, 674 Pushing effort, maternal failure to progress and, 836 during second stage labor, 831–832, 831f in second stage labor, facilitation, positioning for, 832 supportive care for, 837, 837f Pyelonephritis, 152, 402, 663, 681, 683 Pyuria, 683

Q Quadriceps reflex anatomy, 1164t. See also Deep tendon reflexes eliciting, 1166–1167 Quality of life, in menopause, 220 Quickening, 1050 definition of, 549 gestational age and, 718 psychological adjustment and, 554, 555 Quinolones, 265, 270, 450

R Rabies immunization, during pregnancy, 620t, 622t Race breastfeeding and, 1074 categories of, 51 fibroids and, 404 healthcare quality and, 50 hip fracture risk and, 222 iron deficiency anemia and, 139 lesbianism and, 307–308 mortality rates and, 65–66, 66f smoking rates and, 321, 324t Radiation, accidental, male reproduction risks and, 95t Radioactive compounds, cessation, during breastfeeding, 292t Radioimmunoassay tests, hCG, 546 Radioreceptor assay, hCG, 546 RADIUS (Routine Antenatal Diagnostic Imaging with Ultrasound), 650–652 Raloxifene (Evista), 355 Range of motion, 188 Rape crisis center, 388 Rapid fibrinogen assay, 705, 705t Rapid plasmin reagin (RPR), 451–452 Raspberry leaf, 383 Rate of perceived exertion (RPE), 194, 208t RDAs (Recommended Dietary Allowances), 100, 101, 102t, 601 RDIs (Reference Daily Intakes), 100, 101t RDS (respiratory distress syndrome), 1030–1031, 1031f Rebound tenderness, 663 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), 100, 101, 102t, 601 Recreational drug use, 314t, 315. See also Substance abuse Rectal examination, 428 Rectal incontinence, 409 Rectal sphincter, examination, 1190–1191 Rectocele, 409, 1184 Rectovaginal musculature, 1191 Red blood cells, neonatal, 968 Red reflex, 1005 Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs), 100, 101t Referrals, 30–31 exercise, 191, 193 medical, 223–224 Reflexes, neonatal, 1008–1009, 1009f, 1301t Reglan (metoclopramide), 271–272

Index

Regurgitation, newborn, 1026 Relationship factors, in selecting contraceptive method and, 462 Relaxation, 230–231 exercise and, 188, 198 exercises, 612 for labor, 782–783 during pregnancy, 208–209 to relieve nerve compression syndromes, 200 techniques, 383 Religion “gynecologic self” and, 400 midwifery and, 5–7 “normal” reference points and, 397 selection of contraceptive method and, 462 Renal system clearance of drugs, in pregnancy, 259 maternal changes, in second stage labor, 829 postpartum, 918–919 puerperal changes, 1044 Renal tubular function, during pregnancy, 552t Renin-angiotensini-aldosterone system, during pregnancy, 552t Reproductive technology, 624 Reproductive tract cancers, dietary protective factors, 117 Resistance exercise, 223 Resources, midwifery, 69–70 Respiration maternal exercise and, 199 in first stage labor, 752t during labor, 758t postpartum exercise and, 215 puerperal changes, 1044 second stage labor, 830 in second stage labor, 828 third stage of labor, 906 newborn, 975t Respiratory acidosis, 986 Respiratory diseases. See also specific respiratory diseases neonatal midwife’s involvement in, 1032–1033, 1032f signs, 1030–1032, 1031t primary care, 143–147, 144t, 146t Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), 1030–1031, 1031f Respiratory system infections, antibiotics for, 144t maternal, during pregnancy, 551

Rest after exercise during pregnancy, 194 for first trimester vaginal bleeding, 663t during pregnancy, 610 Restitution, 825, 892 Resuscitation, neonatal, 952 algorithm, 989f care after, 986 decision-making, 987–990, 988t for diaphragmatic hernia, 995 equipment for, 983, 984t infrastructure for, 983 for meconium-exposed newborn, 995–996 newborn resucitation flow sheet, 996, 997f quality assurance, 996, 997f risk management, 996, 997f techniques cardiac compression, 991–992, 992f endotracheal intubation, 992–993, 993f, 993t, 994f establishing adequate respiration, 990–991, 991f medications by midwife, 994–995, 995f positive pressure ventilation, 989–991, 990t, 991f Reticulocyte count, 687t Retractions, 1030 Retrovaginal examination observations/findings, 1189–1192 procedure/rationale, 1189–1192 Retroverted uterus, 403 Retrovir (zidovudine; AZT), 171, 171t Review of systems (ROS) breasts, 43 cardiorespiratory system, 42 central nervous system, 44–45 ears, 41 eyes, 41 gastrointestinal system, 43 in general, 40 genitourinary system, 44 head, 41 mouth/throat, 42 muscular system, 44 neck, 42 nose, 41 with physical examination, 39 skeletal system, 44 skin/hair, 40 vascular system, 44 Rh(D)-immune globulin (RhoGAM;

1377

BayRho-D), 1054–1055 antibody screen, 28-week antipartum, 701 for chorionic villus sampling, 630 feto-maternal hemorrhage, 700, 701t spontaneous abortion and, 666 Rh isoimmunization amniocentesis and, 631 clinical considerations, 700–702 history, relevant, 700–701 physiology, 699–700 Rh(D)-negative, 699–700, 701 Rh(D)-positive, 699–700 Rh(D)-sensitization, 701 RhoGAM. See Rh(D)-immune globulin Rhythm method, 472 Rifamycin, 91t Rights, of pregnant patient, 571–572 Risendronate (Actonel), 355 Ritgen maneuver, 842–843, 842f Ritodrine, for preterm labor, 860, 861t Robert Wood Johnson-funded study, on care to vulnerable populations, 137 “Rock” (crack cocaine), 328–329 Rooming-in, 1061–1062, 1062f, 1075 ROS. See Review of systems Rose oil, 386 Round ligament pain, relief measures for, 596–597 Routine Antenatal Diagnostic Imaging with Ultrasound (RADIUS), 650–652 Rovsing’s sign, 151 RPE (rate of perceived exertion), 194, 208t RPR (rapid plasmin reagin), 451–452 RU-486. See Mifepristone Rubber ring, for perineal pain, 1061 Rubbers. See Condom, male Rubella (German measles), 674–676 diagnosis, 675 immunity, 675 preconception risks, 93, 94t prevention, 675–676 screening, in pregnancy, 675 Rubella vaccine postpartum, 1055 during pregnancy, 619t, 675 Rubin’s developmental stages for new mothers, 1054 Runners, pain perception and, 200

1378

Index

Running, during pregnancy, 193

S Sacral promontory, 1205, 1206f, 1213 Sacroccygeal symphysis, 1205, 1206, 1206f Sacroiliac dysfunction, postpartum, 218 Sacroiliac synchondroses, 1205, 1206, 1206f Sacrosciatic notch, 1209 android pelvis, 1210, 1210f anthropoid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 in gynecoid pelvis, 1210, 1210f palpation, 1212 platypelloid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 Sacrospinous ligament, palpation, 1236 Sacrum, 1205, 1206f android pelvis, 1210, 1210f anthropoid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 in gynecoid pelvis, 1210, 1210f inspection, 1212 platypelloid pelvis, 1210f, 1211 shapes, 1212, 1212f Safe Motherhood community-based approaches, 79–80 definition of, 75 information resources, 78 Safe Motherhood Initiative, 60, 63, 71, 73, 73t Safe Motherhood Initiative-USA, 75 Safe Motherhood Interagency Group activities of, 73–74, 73t aims/objectives of, 73 formation of, 73 Safe period. See Natural family planning Safes. See Condom, male Safe sex practices, for lesbians, 303 Salivation, excessive, relief measures for, 592 Salmonella, diarrhea and, 147 Salpingitis, 402, 448, 667 SANE (sexual assault nurse examiner), 388 Sanger, Margaret, 461 SaO2 (oxygen saturation, arterial), 1033 Sarafem (fluoxetine), 394, 396 Sarcomas, uterine, 422, 424–425 Saturated fats, 104 Save the Mothers Fund Project, 72 SBE (self-breast examination), 349, 415, 1144

Scarf sign, 1002, 1003f, 1308t School of the Association for Promotion and Standardization of Midwifery, 10–12, 11f Schultz mechanism, of placental expulsion, 906 Sciatica, 218 Scope of practice, 3 Screening examinations, 35 for abnormalities, 33–34 lipid, 126 nutrition-related bone densitometry, 128 hematocrit, 128 hemoglobin, 128 recommendations for ages 40-49, 359 for ages 50-59, 359 for ages 60-74, 359–360 for ages 75 and older, 360 Screw principle of Woods, 888–889, 888f Seconal (secobarbital), during labor, 763t, 764t Secondary villi, 565 Second parent adoption, 305–306 Second trimester fetal development, 563–564 psychological adjustment in, 554–555 screening, 627–630, 628t, 629t Secundigravida, 577 Sedation, during labor, 763–765, 763t, 764t Sedentary lifestyle, 188, 190, 191, 202 “Seeing the sign,” 738–739, 738f Seizures eclamptic, 710 neonatal, 1035 preconceptive risks, 92 Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) for osteoporosis, 355, 356 for PMS or PMDD, 394, 396 Self-breast examination (SBE), 349, 415, 1144 Self-care, for pregnant adolescents, 214 Self-determination, in menopause, 361 Self-esteem of adolescent girls, 188–189 premenstrual syndrome and, 395 Self-monitoring of blood glucose, 698 Semen coicus, 383 Senescence

definition of, 231 exercise and, 187 exercise during, 231–232 Seond stage pushing, 1233–1234 Serax (oxazepam), 91t SERMs. See Selective estrogen receptor modulators Serologic tests, for syphilis, 451–452 Serotonin, premenstrual syndrome and, 394 Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (AST; SGOT), 708t Serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (ALT; SGPT), 708t Serum total bilirubin, physiological jaundice and, 1026–1027, 1026t Settings, for midwife practice, 85–86 Sevin (carbaryl), 95t Sex, of fetus, 563 Sex cord-stromal ovarian cancer, 425 Sex determination, fetal, 556, 560 Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), 340 Sex hormones, 265, 270 Sexual abuse/assault, 388, 411, 413 Sexual activity cervical cancer screening and, 417 labor induction and, 729 pain related to, 403 during pregnancy, 554, 555 Sexual assault nurse examiner (SANE), 388 Sexual history, 38 Sexual intercourse causing vaginal bleeding, 664 during pregnancy, 611 Sexuality, after menopause, 346–347 Sexually transmitted disease (STD), 86, 387. See also specific sexually transmitted diseases circumcision and, 1019 differential diagnosis, 440 health care services for, 440t HIV-positive women, 173 pelvic examination, 400 preconception risks, 92–93 risk assessment, 439–440, 439t symptoms, 440 transmission, lesbians and, 304 vulnerability, 439 Sexual maturity, 188 Sexual orientation. See Lesbians Sexual well-being, 413 SGA (small-for-gestational age), 720–722, 721t, 1004 SGOT (serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase), 708t

Index

SGPT (serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase), 708t “Shake” and “tap” test, 632 Shaking, postpartum, 918, 921 Shakuyaku-kanzo-to, 383 SHBG (sex hormone binding globulin), 340 Sheaths. See Condom, male Shepherd’s purse, for menorrhagia, 386 Sheppard-Towner Act, 8, 12 Shingles (herpes zoster), 678 Shippen, William Jr., 6 Shivering, neonatal, 964 Shock, grief and, 1049, 1049f Shoemaker, Sister M. Theophane, 20 Shortage, of nurse-midwives, in 1970’s, 16–17 Shortness of breath, relief measures for, 597–598 Shoulder dystocia, 719 anticipated, management of, 885–886 birth injuries and, 1035 clinical picture, 884 definition of, 883 diagnosis, 883–884 emergency management, 886–890, 887f, 888f, 889f McRoberts maneuver, 886–887, 887f Woods screw principle, 888–889, 888f emergency measures, 948 fetal/neonatal complications, 885 incidence, 884–885 morbidity/mortality, 885 postdate pregnancy and, 724 Shoulders birth of, 825, 1245 posterior, delivery of, 889, 889f snug, 884, 885, 890 Siblings preparation for childbirth, 612, 612f presence during birth, 837–838, 838f role in home birth, 944 Sickle-C disease, 685, 687 Sickle-cell anemia, 88 Sickle cell disease, 140, 626t, 684, 685, 687 Sickle cell trait, 140 Sickle thalassemia, 140 Side bending exercise, 212 Side-lying position, 212 Sidelying position, for breastfeeding, 1077, 1077f

SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), 271, 1018–1019, 1019f Significant others presence during birth, 837–838, 837f, 838f presence of, during labor, 789–790, 790f Silent uterus, 711 Simple carbohydrates, 102 Sinusitis, 144–145, 144t Sitz bath, for perineal pain, 1060–1061 Size/date discrepancy, 716 database for, 718–719 overdiagnosis, 718 size greater than dates, 719–720, 720t size smaller than dates, 720–721, 720t Skeletal system, physical examination, 44 Skene’s glands, examination, 1174–1175 Skilled provider, vs. trained provider, 63 Skin menopausal changes, 345–346 of newborn, 1298t physical examination of, 40 pigmentation, in pregnancy, 544–545 Skin cancer, 345, 428 Skin tags (fibroepitheliomas), 345 Skull fractures, neonatal, 1034–1035 Sleep-breathing disorders, in menopause, 342 Sleep disturbances, in menopause, 341–342, 344 Sleep problems, of elderly women, 366 Small-for-gestational age (SGA), 720–722, 721t, 1004 Smellie, William, 6 Smoking cessation, 322–323, 323t, 721 hematocrit and, 139, 139t hemoglobin and, 139, 139t incidence/prevalence of, 321, 322t, 324t maternal, 610 fetal activity and, 633 size/date discrepancy, 718 passive, 321, 322 during pregnancy, 323–324 rates, 321 Snug shoulders, 884, 885, 890 Social factors, affecting newborn, 1000

1379

Social history, 37 Social issues, female substance abuse and, 313 Sociocultural factors, in selecting contraceptive method, 462 Socioeconomic status, iron deficiency anemia and, 139 Sociosexual questions, 302, 302t Somersault maneuver, 1244 Sonhysterography, 424 Soy-based foods, 120 Spaceflight, endocrine function during, 223 Spastic quadriplegic cerebral palsy, 795 Spectinomycin, 91t Speculum description, 1175 insertion, 1177, 1177f lubrication, 1176 pelvic examination with, 1176–1182, 1177f, 1178f placement, 1177–1178, 1177f, 1178f removal, 1179 types of, 1175–1176, 1176f Spermicidal preparations, 481–484 aerosol foam, 481–482 characteristics of, 481 complaints with, 483 creams, 481 with diaphragm, 488, 489 effectiveness of, 483 foam, usage instructions, 483–484 jellies, 481 management issues, 483 sponge and foam method, 482–483 suppositories, 482 usage instructions, 483–484 vaginal contraceptive film, 482 vaginal contraceptive sponge, 482 vaginal foam tablets, 482 Spermicides with combination oral contraceptive, 526 efficacy of, 463t, 464t Sphincter of the membranous urethra, 1276, 1277t Spina bifida, 89, 628–629 Spinal c-curve exercise, 212 Spinal cord injury, from epidural analgesia/anesthesia, 770 open defects, 1036 Spin-down hematocrit, 1127–1129 Sponge cervical, 464t vaginal contraceptive, 482

1380

Index

Sponge and foam method, 482–483 Spontaneous abortion, 624 alcohol abuse and, 327 caffeine consumption and, 321 causes, 664–665 chorionic villus sampling and, 630 congenital uterine anomalies and, 407 fertility issues, 413 fibroids and, 405 grief after, 1048–1052, 1049f, 1050f, 1051f habitual, 666 incomplete, vaginal bleeding in first trimester and, 665 inevitable, vaginal bleeding in first trimester and, 665 maternal exercise and, 200–201 missed, 665 previous, 662 smoking and, 323 threatened, vaginal bleeding in first trimester and, 665 vaginal bleeding in first trimester and, 664–665 Spontaneous preterm birth, risk, exercise and, 198 Sports, appropriate during pregnancy, 209, 210t–211t Spotting during implantation, first trimester bleeding and, 662 last menstrual period and, 717 post-IUD insertion, 507–508 Sputum culture, for tuberculosis diagnosis, 671 Squamous cell carcinoma, 345 Square window, in gestational age assessment, 1002, 1003f Squats, as exercise during pregnancy, 212, 213f Squatting/supported squat position, for childbirth, hand maneuvers for, 1257–1259 St. John’s wort, oral contraceptives and, 519 Stadol, during labor, 763t, 764t Standards for the Practice of Midwifery, 34 Staphylococcus aureus, 144, 145, 256 Staphylococcus epidermis, 681 Station, 722t Statistical analysis, for out-of-hospital birth, 955 STD. See Sexually transmitted disease

Steady state, 250t Stereotypes, of nurse-midwives, 14 Sterile water papules, for back pain relief, 787 Sterilization counseling for, 467–468 female efficacy of, 463t, 464t methods, 467 male, 464t efficacy of, 463t method, 467 Stillbirth gestational age and, 721 history of, 724 postdate pregnancy and, 724 Strachan, Marion, 12 “Strawberry cervix,” 447 “Strawberry patches,” 447 Strength, 188 Strength training, during pregnancy, 193–194, 208 Streptococcus pneumoniae, 143, 145 Streptococcus sp., 144 Streptomycin, 91t, 263t Stress of childbearing, 197–198 management/reduction, 189 activities, 230–231 exercise and, 188 exercise for, 197–198 oligomenorrhea and, 391 premenstrual syndrome and, 395 Stress incontinence, 410 Stretch marks, 544 Striae gravidarum, 544 Strictures, rectal, 1191 “Stripping the membranes,” 727, 728 Stroke, 115–116, 351–352 “Stroller aerobics,” 220 Stroma, breast, 1071 Subchorionic bleeding, 662, 664 Subcutaneous ring block, for circumcision, 1315, 1315f Subdermal contraceptive implants, 534–536 Subinvolution, 1098 Submucosal myomas, 424 Suboccipitobregmatic diameter, of fetal head, 823 Substance abuse alcohol. See Alcoholism amphetamines, 329 assessment of, 316–317, 316t attraction of, 315 biological variations in, 313–314

caffeine. See Caffeine cocaine, 328–329 definition of, 313, 314t lactation and, 318 by lesbians, 307 marijuana, 324–325 maternal overdose/withdrawal, 319t medical sequelae of, 314–315 narcotics/opiates, 329–330 neonatal implications, 318, 319t–320t polypharmacy interactions and, 315, 315t psychiatric comorbidity and, 314 recovery, motivation for, 317 tobacco. See Nicotine; Smoking treatment, during pregnancy, 317–318 women and, 313–315 Succenturiate placenta, 1262–1263 Sucking, nonnutritive, 1020 Suckling behavior, 922 Su Clinica Familiar, Texas, 931 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 271, 1018–1019, 1019f Suffering, grief and, 1049–1050, 1050f Sugars, 102 Suicide, lesbians and, 307, 308 Sulfonamides, 265 Superficial transverse perineal muscle, 1276, 1277t Supine hypotensive syndrome, 598 Supine position arterial hypotension and, 550 exercise during pregnancy and, 194 Supplementation, dietary, 128–129 Supportive care during second stage labor, 836–838, 837f, 838f for woman in labor, purpose of, 780–782 Suppositories, spermicidal, 482 Suprapubic pressure, 887 Surfactant, pulmonary, 1030 Surgical closure, slow-healing postpartum, 218 Surgical scrub, 840 Sustiva (efavirenz), 91t Sutures episiotomy, 1286 episiotomy repair, 1281 fetal, 750t stitches, for episiotomy repair, 1282–1284, 1282f, 1284f Swenson, Norma, 6–7

Index

Swimming, during pregnancy, 193 Sympathetic nervous system, exercise and, 190 Symphysis pubis, 1205, 1206f inclination, 1208, 1209f separation of, 217 Sympto-thermal method, 475–476, 476f, 477f, 480 Synclitism, 749–751, 750f Syncytiotrophoblast, 564–565 Syntocin. See Oxytocin Syphilis congenital, 450, 452 diagnosis, 451–452 latent, 451, 452 neurosyphilis, 451 primary, 451, 452 risk factors, for lesbians, 304 secondary, 451, 452 serologic testing diagnostic, 451–452 follow-up, 453 tertiary, 451, 452 treatment, 445t, 452–453 Systemic vascular resistance, after cord clamping, 963

T T3, 154, 154t T4, 154, 154t Tachycardia, fetal, 795, 802, 866 Tachypnea, 1030 Tachysystole, 727 Tactile stimulation, for neonatal respiration, 962–963 Tagamet (cimetine), 271 Talcum powder, ovarian cancer and, 426 TAMMSS acronym, for neonatal resuscitation, 987 Tamoxifen, 91t Tay-Sachs disease, 88, 626t TB. See Tuberculosis TBG (thyroid binding globulin), 154 Teaching, patient antepartal, 609–612, 611f, 612f breast self-examination, 1144 puerperal, 1054 Technology, 623 Telephone calls, for postpartum follow-up, 1055–1057 Temperature maternal elevation, caused by dehydration, 1093–1094 in first stage labor, 752t during labor, 758t postpartum, 918, 920–921

premature rupture of membranes and, 866 puerperal changes, 1044 second stage labor, 830 in second stage labor, 828 third stage of labor, 906 neonatal, 965–966, 975t Tension headache, 157t, 158 Teratogenic complications, 624 Teratogenic efects, 261, 264 Teratogens congenital anomalies and, 626t ex post facto, 261 FDA risk categories for, 260–261, 260t listing of, 262t–263t medications as, 88, 91t–92t, 1037 Teratology, information resources, 289–291 Terbutaline, for preterm labor, 860, 861t Terbutaline sulfate inhalation aerosol (Brethaire), 691 Term newborn, definition of, 1003 Testicular cancer, DES sons and, 411 Testicular feminization (androgen insensitivity syndrome), 382t Testosterone female sexuality and, 365 injections, for male contraception, 468 teratogenicity of, 262t Tetanus-diphtheria immunization, 621t, 1013t Tetanus immunization, during pregnancy, 622t Tetracycline, 91t, 263t, 270 Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), 325 Thalassemia, 88, 139, 139t, 140, 684, 687 Thalidomide, 92t, 261, 263t Thayer-Martin medium, 1200 THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), 325 T-helper lymphocytes (CD4 cells), 165 Thermoregulation maternal exercise and, 196–197 postpartum exercise and, 215 ThinPrep Pap Test, 418, 1195 Thiourea drugs, 154 Third trimester fetal assessment amniotic fluid volume, 644–645, 644t auscultated acceleration tests, 635–636, 635t, 636f biophysical profile, 642, 642f, 643f, 644

1381

contraction stress test, 640–642, 642t, 643f Doppler velocimetry, 646 fetal movement counting, 632–633, 633t, 634f, 635 modified biophysical profile, 645–646 nonstress test, 636–639, 637t, 638f, 638t, 639f purpose, 632 ultrasound. See Ultrasound vibroacoustic stimulation, 639–640 fetal development, 563–564 psychological adjustments in, 555–556 Thom’s pelvimeter, 1205, 1211, 1214 Threatened abortion, 387, 665, 667 Throat, physical examination, 42 Thrombocytopenia, 384, 687t Thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), 687 Thrombophlebitis, 1097 Thrombosis, hormone replacement therapy and, 350 Thrush, 1097 Thyroid binding globulin (TBG), 154 Thyroid cancer, 428 Thyroid gland disorders, 154–156, 154t, 689, 690t. See also Hyperthyroidism; Hypothyroidism diagnostic algorithm, 690f preconceptive risks, 92 functional changes after menopause, 347 oligomenorrhea and, 391 Thyroid hormones, 154, 154t Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 154, 154t, 381, 391 Thyroid testing, in pregnancy, 690t Thyrotoxicosis, 154–155, 154t TIBC (total iron-binding capacity), 687t Tight spots (tense areas), 200 Tinel’s sign, 156 Tobacco. See Nicotine; Smoking Tocodynamometer, 798 Tocolysis, for preterm labor, 860–862, 861t Tocolytics, 268, 703 Today Sponge, 482 Tolerable Upper Intake Level, 101, 102t Toluenediamine, male reproduction risks and, 95t

1382

Index

Total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), 687t Total parenteral nutrition (TPN), 669 Tourniquet, application for venipuncture, 1113–1114, 1114f Toxicology, 250t Toxoplasma gondii, 677 Toxoplasmosis, 632, 678t preconception risks, 93, 94t signs/symptoms, 677–678 TPN (total parenteral nutrition), 669 Trachelobregmatic diameter, of fetal head, 823 Tracheoesophageal fistulas, 644, 1036 Traditional birth attendants, 62–63, 78 Trained provider, vs. skilled provider, 63 Transabdominal ultrasound, 664 Transcutaneous measurement of partial pressure of oxygen, 1032 Transdermal contraceptive patch, 537–539 contraindications, 538 management of care, 538 side effects, 538 Trans-fatty acids, 104 Transfer of care, 31, 34 Transfers, to hospital from home or birth center, 953, 954–955, 954f Transfer summary form, 954, 954f Transgender lesbians, 300–301, 308 Transient tachypnea of the newborn (TTN), 962, 1030, 1031–1032 Transitional phase, of first stage labor, 746–747 Transition period, neonatal autonomic changes during, 974–975, 975f care during, 974–976, 975f hospital discharge planning, 979–980, 980t–981t immediate circulatory changes, 963, 964f glucose regulation, 966–967 respiratory changes, 961–963, 962f, 963t ongoing blood changes, 967–968, 967t gastrointestinal system, 968–969 immune system changes, 969, 969t–970t, 971 renal system changes, 971 plan of care, 977–979 reactivity

first period of, 976, 976f second period of, 977 stages, 975, 975t thermoregulation, 964–966, 965f unresponsive sleep, 976–977 written orders, 979, 981t Transplacental hemorrhage, 1055 Transvaginal ultrasonography, perimenopausal, 358 Transvaginal ultrasound, 422–424, 426, 427, 624 Transverse diameter of pelvic inlet, 1207t, 1208 Transversus perinei profundus, 1276, 1277t Transversus perinei superficialis, 1276, 1277t Travel, during pregnancy, 611 Trendelenburg shock position, 928 Treponemal tests, 452 Treponema pallidum, 450 Tretinoin (Retin-A), 92t Triceps reflex. See also Deep tendon reflexes anatomy, 1164t eliciting, 1166 Trichloroacetic acid, 456 Trichomonas vaginalis, 421, 446, 447. See also Trichomoniasis identification, by wet smear slide, 1201–1202 on pelvic examination, 1182 preterm labor and, 859 Trichomoniasis diagnosis, 447, 448f etiology, 447. See also Trichomonas vaginalis symptoms, 664 treatment, 442t, 447–448 Tricyclic antidepressants, 267 Triglycerides, 104, 105t, 126 Trimesters, 543 Trimethadione, 91t, 263t, 266–268 Triple screen (multiple marker screening), 628–629, 629f, 719 Tripterigium wilfordii, 468 Trisomy 18, 624, 627, 628 Trisomy 21, 624, 627, 628 Trophoblast, 564 Trophoblastic tissue, B-hCG and, 663 True pelvis, 1206, 1206f TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), 154, 154t, 381, 391 TTN (transient tachypnea of the newborn), 962, 1030, 1031–1032 TTP (thrombocytopenic purpura), 687

Tubal ligation, 401, 467 Tubal pregnancy. See Ectopic pregnancy, tubal Tubal rupture, 666 Tub bath, during labor, 786 Tuberculin reactions, classification of, 176–177, 176t Tuberculosis (TB) asymptomatic, 671 chest x-ray, 177 classification, 673t diagnosis, 671–672, 672t drug-resistant, 671 etiology, 175 history taking, 671 incidence, 670–671 latent, 175, 177 management, 177 preconception risks, 93 pregnancy and, 674 prophylaxis, for pregnant/breastfeeding women, 177 risk factors, 175, 175t screening tests, 671–672, 672t sputum culture, 177, 671 symptoms, 175, 176t testing, 175–177, 176t treatment, breastfeeding and, 674 Tumor necrosis factor alpha, 197 Turner syndrome, 627 “Turtle sign,” 884 Tuskegee School of NurseMidwifery, Tuskegee, Alabama, 12 TWEAK Questionnaire, 123, 316, 316t Twin pregnancy, demise of twin, 662 TWINRIX, 181 Twins delivery of, 899–901, 901f monozygotic, 900 placentation, 692, 692f pregnancy membranes in, 900, 901f placenta in, 900, 901f risks, 691 Tylenol (acetaminophen), 266, 1316 Typhoid immunization, during pregnancy, 621t

U Ulcerative colitis, 148–149 Ulcers, gastrointestinal, 149–150 Ultrasound advantages, 646 bioeffects, 649 for breast cancer screening, 416

Index

examinations components of, 647, 647t for first trimester bleeding, 664 gestational age determination, 716–717, 716t indications, 646, 647t, 649 limited scans, 647t, 648–649, 648t for oligohydramnios, 864 pelvic/abdominal, 400 placenta previa, 703 screening, routine, 649–652 transvaginal, 422–424, 426, 427, 624 Umbilical cord accidents, perinatal death from, 632 after placental separation, 907–908 blood gas analysis, 814–815, 814t blood vessels abnormal number of, 1263 counting procedure, 1264–1265, 1265f clamping, 843, 963 neonatal hemoglobin and, 967–968 timing of, 967–968 compression, 637, 778 amnioinfusion for, 812 postdate pregnancy and, 722 cutting, 843 development, 565 entanglement, maternal exercise and, 201 insertion, 1262 inspection of, 1265 velamentous, 1263 inspection procedure, 1264–1265, 1265f long, 1264 looping, 1264 normal, 1262 nuchal, management of, 1244–1245 physical examination, 1304t prolapse, 778, 811, 870–872 frank, 870 management, 871–872 occult, 870 precipitating factors, 870–871 short, 1263–1264 true knotting, 1264, 1264t variations/abnormalities, 1263–1264, 1264f vasa previa and, 1263 Umbilicus, care of, 1018 Underweight, assessment, 607 UNFPA, 73, 78

UNICEF, 78 Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative, 1069–1070, 1069t, 1074–1076 Safe Motherhood Interagency Group and, 73 Unicornuate uterus, 407–408, 408f Unintended pregnancy, 86, 464t United Nations, 59, 69 United Nations Fund for Women (UNIFEM), 78 United States cultural diversity of, 49 demographic shift in, 50–51 Department of Education, 18–19 Department of Health and Human Services, 65, 137, 138t, 1067, 1068t Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), 253–254 foreign-born population, 50 maternal mortality in, 64–66, 65t United States Breastfeeding Committee (USBC), 1067, 1067t United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), 422 cancer screenings, 415, 417 nutrition-related screenings, 126–128 Universal precautions, 167, 1107–1108, 1114 UPI. See Uteroplacental insufficiency Upper motor neuron disease, clonus and, 1167 Upper respiratory infections (URI), 143–144 Urethra examination, 1174–1175 Urethral diverticulum, 410 Urethral opening (meatus), male, 1314, 1314f Urethral orifice, inspection, 1173 Urethrocele, diagnosis, 1183 Urge incontinence, 410 Uric acid, serum, in preeclampsia, 708t Urinary frequency, relief measures for, 593 Urinary function tests, 410 Urinary incontinence assessment, 409 causes of, 409–410 diagnosis, 410 treatment, 410 Urinary tract, after menopause, 343 Urinary tract infections (UTIs), 410 antepartal, 681–683, 682t back pain, 754 chronic abdominal/pelvic pain, 402

1383

circumcision and, 1019 postpartum, 1094 treatment, 151–152, 151t, 152f Urine, maternal culture, 682 during labor, 776 Urogenital diaphragm, 1276 USBC (United States Breastfeeding Committee), 1067, 1067t USDA, Food Pyramid, 122, 123, 124, 124f USPSTF. See United States Preventive Services Task Force Uterine/adnexal tenderness, 457 Uterine artery embolization, 405 Uterine atony, immediate postpartum hemorrhage and, 925, 926 Uterine bleeding, abnormal, 423, 425 Uterine cancer, 424, 500 Uterine cavity, postpartum manual exploration, 856 Uterine contractions discomfort with, 757t duration, 739–740, 757t in first stage labor, 739–741, 741f frequency, 740, 757t home monitoring, 857 hypertonic, 808 intensity, 740, 757t normal gradient pattern, 740–741, 741f patterns, electronic fetal monitoring and, 798, 799–800 premature. See Preterm labor relaxation periods, 739 during second stage of labor, 822 time of onset, 757t Uterine dysfunction hypertonic, 876 hypotonic management options, 875–876 signs/symptoms, 874–875 Uterine enlargement, abruptio placentae and, 704 Uterine exploration, 910, 928 Uterine fibroids. See Fibroids Uterine fluid thrill, 694 Uterine hyperstimulation, 642, 723, 812 Uterine inversion management, 915–916, 916f predisposing factors, 915 Uterine myomata. See Fibroids Uterine prolapse, 409, 1183–1184 Uterine rupture atraumatic dehiscence, 854 catastrophic, 854 causes, 876–877

1384

Index

(Uterine rupture cont’d) dramatic, 877 fetal bradycardia and, 856 quiet, 877 risk, 877 prostaglandins and, 854 vaginal birth after cesarean section, 854 signs/symptoms, 877 Uterine sarcomas, 424–425 Uteroplacental blood flow, maternal exercise and, 195 Uteroplacental insufficiency (UPI), 633, 639 causes, 808 late fetal heart rate decelerations, 802t, 804, 807–808, 807f in multiple pregnancy, 693 nonstress test for, 636 oligohydramnios and, 644 postdate pregnancy and, 722 type I diabete and, 696 Uterotonins, 926. See also Oxytocic drugs; Oxytocin Uterus activity, measurement of, 874 afterbirth pains, 1058–1059 anteflexed, 1187, 1187f anteverted, 1187, 1187f bimanual compression, 1273–1274, 1273f bracing, during placental expulsion, 909 charting examination findings, 1157 consistency, postpartum, 1157 decidual lining, 666 elongation, 741, 741f enlargement, in pregnancy, 547, 548f, 549 examination, postpartal, 1157 firm, 1157 fundal height, postpartum, 1157 “guarding,” 908 incisions, in cesarean section, 854 location in pelvic examination, 1186–1188, 1187f postpartum, 1157 lower zone, 740–741 massage, 914, 921 military or midline, 1187–1188, 1187f pain/tenderness, 1188 postpartum evaluation/management, 917–918, 919, 1157 progressive growth, fetal growth and, 718

puerperal changes, 1041–1043, 1042f repositioning, 915–916, 916f resting tone, 800 retroflexed, 1187, 1187f retroverted, 1187, 1187f shape, 1151 soft, 1157 tone, postpartum, 921 T-shaped or hypoplastic, diethylstilbestrol and, 411 upper zone, 740–741 weight, 1042 “Uterus at the umbilicus,” 718 Uterus septus, 408, 408f Uterus subseptus, 408, 408f UTIs. See Urinary tract infections

V Vaccinations, 265–266 Vaccines, contraceptive, 468 Vagina blood in, 1182 color, 1182 discharge, 1182 growths/lesions, 1182 inflammation, 1182 inspection, postpartum period, 918, 919–920 observations, on pelvic examination, 1182 postpartum inspection, 918, 919 puerperal changes, 1043 trauma, puerperal infection from, 1095 Vaginal birth after cesarean section (VBAC) candidates, 855–856 cephalopelvic disproportion and, 855–856 management of care, 856 out-of-hospital setting for, 951–952 success, factors associated with, 854–855 uterine rupture risk, 854 Vaginal bleeding first trimester, 662–666 cervical/vaginal causes of, 664 database for, 662–664, 663t ectopic pregnancy. See Ectopic pregnancy hydatidiform mole, 667–668 hyperemesis gravidarum, 668–669 minor, patient instructions for, 662–663, 663t spontaneous abortion and, 664–665

in labor, 758t Vaginal cancer, 427–428 Vaginal cleansing agents, 466–467 Vaginal contraceptive film (VCF), 482 Vaginal contraceptive sponge, 482 Vaginal delivery, blood loss from, 925 Vaginal examination during labor, 777–778 support during, 789 for uterine activity, 874 Vaginal foam tablets, 482 Vaginal fornix, 1192 Vaginal introitus, 1173 Vaginal ring, contraceptive, 536–537 Vaginal septum, 666 Vaginal stimulation, for second stage pushing, 1234 Vaginal vault, postbirth inspection, 1267–1268 Vaginal yeast infections, 664 Vaginitis metrorrhagia and, 387 trichomonal. See Trichomoniasis vs. vaginosis, 445–446 Valium (diazepam), 91t Valproic acid, 91t, 263t Valsalva maneuver, 409, 832 Variable decelerations, 637, 695 Varicella immunization, during pregnancy, 622t Varicella infection, maternal diagnosis, 679–680 management, 679t pneumonia, 679 preconception risks, 93 during pregnancy, 678 signs/symptoms, 679 Varicella vaccine, 680, 1013t Varicella-zoster immune globulin (VZIG), 679t, 680 Varicella-zoster virus, preconception risks, 94t Varicosities, relief measures for, 595, 595f Variety, fetal, 748, 748t, 749f Varney’s predictive factor of fetal weight, 885 VAS (vibroacoustic stimulation), 639–640, 812 Vasa previa, 1263 Vascular spiders, 545 Vascular system, physical examination, 44 Vasectomy, 467 Vasomotor symptoms, in

Index

menopause, 222–223, 341 Vasotec (enalapril), 91t Vasovagal syncope, after IUD insertion, 507 VBAC. See Vaginal birth after cesarean section VCF (vaginal contraceptive film), 482 VDRL (Venereal Disease Research Laboratory), 451–452 Vegetarians calcium sources for, 109 nutrition and, 122 vegans, breastfeeding and, 1086 Veins in antecubital fossa, 1115f blood collection from. See Venipuncture of hand/forearm, 1123f selection, for venipuncture, 1114, 1115f Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL), 451–452 Venereal warts. See Condylomata acuminata Venipuncture for IV drug administration, 1125 procedure, 1113–1119, 1114f, 1115f, 1117f, 1118f rationale, 1113–1119, 1115f Venous stasis, 737 Ventricular septal defect, 1034 Veratrum album, 386 Vernix caseosa, 563, 564 Vertical transmission, group B streptococcus, 868 Vestibule, inspection, 1173 Vibroacoustic stimulation (VAS), 639–640, 812 Vietnamese women, cultural competent care for, 53–54 Violence, against women, information resources, 78 Viral gastroenteritis, 147 Viral infections. See also specific viral infections congenital, 1033 Viral load testing, 169 Vistaril (hydroxyzine), 763t, 764t Vital signs, maternal. See also specific vital signs in first stage labor, 774 postpartum, 918, 920–921 puerperal, 1044 second stage labor, 830 Vitamins, 100, 105, 108. See also specific vitamins A, 105, 106t

iron absorption and, 685 teratogenicity of, 263t, 265 B6, 106t B12, 106t, 139, 139t C, 106t, 602, 685 D, 106t, 356 E, 106t fat-soluble, 105, 105t intake, during adolescence, 118 K, 106t, 386, 977, 978 prenatal, 89 supplementation, 128–129 usage of, 251 water-soluble, 105, 105t Vocal cords, as endotracheal intubation landmark, 992, 993f, 993t, 994f Vomiting, normal, in pregnancy, 545 Von Willebrand’s disease bleeding abnormalities and, 141, 688 menorrhagia and, 384, 385 metrorrhagia and, 388 Vulnerable populations, care for, 49, 137 Vulva puerperal hematomas, 1097–1098 trauma, puerperal infection from, 1095 Vulvadynia, 402–403 Vulvar cancer, 427–428 Vulvar pain, 402–403 Vulvovaginal infections, sexually transmitted. See Sexually transmitted disease Vulvovaginitis, monilial diagnosis, 440–441, 441f treatment, 441, 442t, 445 VZIG (varicella-zoster immune globulin), 679t, 680

W Waist circumference, 113 Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), 113 Waiter’s tip sign, 1035 Wald, Lillian, 7 Walking postpartum, 220 to stimulate labor, 756, 762 Wall suction, 990 Warfarin (Coumadin), 91t, 262t Washcloth, use during labor, 786–787 Water, 100 Water birth, 838 Weight, maternal adolescent, 191 desirable, 112–113, 606t

1385

gain assessment of, 602–603, 602t, 604t–605t female adolescent, 606–607, 607t during menopause, 119 in multiple pregnancy, 693 postpartum, 214 during pregnancy, exercise and, 197 psychological adjustment to, 554 high, disorders associated with, 599 menopausal changes in, 344–345 overweight, 112. See also Obesity, maternal puerperal changes, 1044 Weight-bearing exercise, 223 Weight gain, newborn, 1025–1026. See also Birth weight Welding, male reproduction risks and, 95t Well-being, sense of, 188 Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, 123 Western blot, 182 Wet smear slide (wet prep) of vaginal secretions procedure, 1201–1202 rationale, 1201–1202 vulvovaginitis diagnosis, 440 WHA (World Health Assembly), 70, 72, 1070 Wharton’s jelly, 1262, 1264 WHI. See Women’s Health Initiative Whiff test, 446, 447 White blood cell count, PROM and, 866 White blood cells, neonatal, 968 White classification of diabetes mellitus, 695 White Ribbon Alliance (WRA), 59, 71–72, 76, 76f WHO. See World Health Organization WHR (waist-to-hip ratio), 113 Wide Neighborhoods (Breckinridge), 9 Wide-open latch position, for breastfeeding, 1077–1078, 1077f Willet, Dr. Walter, 124, 125f Wilson’s disease, 500 Withdrawal bleeding, oral contraceptives and, 514 Withdrawal method of contraception, 463t, 464t Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) HRT-breast cancer connection, 108, 338, 339, 348, 349 HRT-heart disease connection, 108, 116

1386

Index

(Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) cont’d) HRT-stroke connection and, 351–352 Women’s movement, 14 Women’s status, history of midwifery and, 6–7 Woods screw principle, 888–889, 888f Woodville, Lucille, 21 Work, during pregnancy, 610 Workplace issues male reproductive hazards, 95–96, 95t preconception care, 93, 94t World Bank, Safe Motherhood Interagency Group and, 73 World Health Assembly (WHA), 70, 72, 1070 World Health Organization (WHO) Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative, 1069–1070, 1069t, 1074–1076 Collaborating Centers in Nursing and Midwifery, 70 definition of maternal mortality, 61 of midwifery, 3

of natural family planning, 471 General Programme of Work 2002-2005, 71 goals/objectives of, 70 ICM and, 69 International Classification of Diseases, 62 Making Pregnancy Safer program, 71–72 midwifery and, 59, 69, 72 organization/structure, 70 pregnancy-related mortality, 60 resources, 78 Safe Motherhood Initiative, 71 Safe Motherhood Interagency Group and, 73 web site, 72 World Health Assembly, 70, 72 World Summit for Children, 60 World War II, Frontier Nursing Service and, 10 WRA (White Ribbon Alliance), 59, 71–72, 76, 76f

X X chromosome, 556, 560

Xenoestrogens, 251

Y Yale University, 12, 13 Yarrow, for menorrhagia, 386 Y chromosome, 556, 560 Yeast infections breast, 1097 vaginal, 664 vulvovaginal diagnosis, 440–441, 441f treatment, 441, 442t, 445 Yellow fever immunization, during pregnancy, 619t Yuzpe regimen, 529

Z Zavanelli maneuver, 889–890, 889f Zidovudine (AZT; Retrovir), 171, 171t Zinc, 107t Zona basalis, 565 Zona compacta, 565 Zona spongiosa, 565 Z score, 353 Zygote, 556, 557f