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ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
THE SHIP OF THOUGHT
Essays on Psychoanalysis and Learning
Edited by Duncan Barford
E N C Y C L O P A E D I A OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
4
The Ship of Thought
Essays on Psychoanalysis and Learning
edited by Duncan Barford
Karnac Books
First published in 2 0 0 2 by H. K a r n a c (Books) L t d , 118 Finchley R o a d , London N W 3 5 H T
© 2 0 0 2 Duncan Barford to the edited collection, and the individual authors to their contributions All rights reserved. N o part o f this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission o f the publisher. ISBN: 9 7 8 1 8 5 5 7 5 2 8 6 3 www.karnacbooks.com
P r i n t e d and b o u n d b y A n t o n y R o w e L t d , E a s t b o u r n e
The books that help y o u most are those which make you think the most. The hardest way of learning is that of easy reading; but a great book that comes from a great thinker is a ship of thought, deep freighted with truth and beauty. — Theodore Parker
CONTENTS
Foreword
7 9
Notes on Contributors 1 2
3
4 5
6 7 8
9
Introduction Duncan Barford
11
Psychoanalytic Research on L e a r n i n g : A n A p p r a i s a l a n d Some Suggestions Alison Hall
17
Is A n y t h i n g M o r e Interesting than Sex? The F r e u d i a n Perspective o n L e a r n i n g and Teaching Duncan Barford
41
L e a r n i n g : A Jungian Perspective Sylvia Cohen
64
O n ' L e a r n i n g ' a n d ' L e a r n i n g A b o u t ' : W.R. B i o n ' s Theory of T h i n k i n g a n d E d u c a t i o n a l Praxis Jean White
84
The H a z a r d s of C u r i o s i t y : A K l e i n i a n Perspective o n L e a r n i n g Linda Buckingham
106
The D o g ' s Temper: A n Essay o n the Vicissitudes of L e a r n i n g Kirsty Hall
136
F r o m the Desire for K n o w l e d g e to the Jouissance of Learning: A n A p p r o a c h to Lacan's Theory Teresa Celdran P s y c h o l o g i c a l Problems of Writer Identity: Towards a Horneyan Understanding Celia Hunt
10 W i n n i c o t t a n d E d u c a t i o n Val Richards
156
175 192
11 L i f e l o n g U n l e a r n i n g Trevor Pateman
212
Appendix: Quotations and Aphorisms
224
Bibliography
230
Index
240
FOREWORD T h e t i m e is s h o r t l y before C h r i s t m a s 1994 a n d three d r e a m e r s are e n s c o n c e d i n the c o m f o r t a b l e leather a r m c h a i r s of the staff b a r at U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , L o n d o n . T h e d r e a m e r s are K i r s t y H a l l , O l i v e r R a t h b o n e a n d S h a r o n M o r r i s . W e l i k e the i d e a of s t a r t i n g a p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n y . S i n g l e a u t h o r e d b o o k s , w e calculate, w i l l take three m o n t h s to p r o d u c e . E d i t e d c o l l e c t i o n s are a little m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , w e note, a n d so m i g h t take u p to s i x months... O u r abject i g n o r a n c e is a k i n d m i d w i f e to o u r project... Yet n o w o u r o r i g i n a l i d e a has f i n a l l y f l o w e r e d . The Encyclopaedia of Psychoanalysis has b e e n b o r n . A n d , despite a l l the d e l a y s a n d setbacks, o u r v i s i o n is s t i l l intact. S i n c e the e a r l y d a y s , R e b u s has n o w b e c o m e p a r t of a larger enter p r i s e , K a r n a c B o o k s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the s a m e i d e a l s are s t i l l b e i n g p u r s u e d . K a r n a c is a n o n - p a r t i s a n p u b l i s h i n g c o m p a n y W e a i m to b r i n g a r a n g e o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas to a w i d e r e a d e r s h i p , n a m e l y : the e x p e r i e n c e d p s y c h o a n a l y s t o r p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t ; the s t u d e n t , i n the g u i s e of either c l i n i c i a n or a c a d e m i c ; a n d , last b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t least, the inter ested p e r s o n i n the street. W e p o s e the q u e s t i o n : are the o r i g i n a l ideas w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s b r o u g h t to the w o r l d n o w d e a d , or are t h e y a l i v e a n d k i c k i n g i n the w o r k of s u b s e q u e n t w r i t e r s , w a i t i n g to be b r o u g h t f o r w a r d afresh a n d a n e w for each g e n e r a t i o n o f readers? I n t u r n , w e h o p e that t h r o u g h The Encyclopaedia of Psychoanalysis, K a r n a c w i l l s t i m ulate the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n to take u p the b a t o n a n d p r o d u c e further cre ative t h i n k i n g . The Encyclopaedia series does n o t set o u t to tell p e o p l e w h a t to t h i n k . It e n c o u r a g e s readers to be fascinated, l u r e d i n t o r e a d i n g 'just one m o r e c h a p t e r ' , to p u z z l e o v e r c o n f l i c t i n g p o i n t s o f v i e w a n d , o n o c c a s i o n , to g r a p p l e w i t h d i f f i c u l t a n d c o m p l e x ideas. W h y ? W e l l , i f p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s e n c o u n t e r the B y z a n t i n e c o m p l e x i t y of h u m a n s u f f e r i n g i n their d a i l y w o r k , t h e n o u r v i e w is that the p r a c t i t i o n e r w i l l f i n d assistance i n this s u p r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t task b y b e i n g g e n t l y h e l p e d to t h i n k for h i m or herself. B e i n g t o l d w h a t to t h i n k a n d w h a t to d o does n o t p r o d t i c e g o o d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s or g o o d p s y c h o t h e r a p y , a n d it seems there is far too m u c h ' i n s t r u c t i o n ' of this k i n d already i n circulation. I w i s h to t h a n k a l l o u r c o n t r i b u t o r s to the Encyclopaedia series—past, present a n d future. A s t h e y h a v e d i s c o v e r e d — o r , i n d e e d , w i l l d i s c o v e r i n d u e c o u r s e — t h i s series is u n i q u e . W e d o n o t settle for statements s u c h as: ' f o l l o w i n g M e l a n i e K l e i n it is clear that../ o r 'as Jacques L a c a n
h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d . . / W e insist o n
explanation,
wherever possible. A s a
result m a n y of the p e o p l e w h o h a v e w r i t t e n for this series h a v e h a d long,
passionate,
interesting, a n d — v e r y o c c a s i o n a l l y — a c r i m o n i o u s
d i s c u s s i o n s a b o u t their p a p e r s w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l editors of o u r b o o k s a n d w i t h m e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e r e ideas d o s e e m unclear, this is often b e c a u s e it is the i n t e n t i o n of the a u t h o r to l e a v e the reader i n d o u b t . D o u b t can be a p r o d u c t i v e p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h to c a r r y out a n a n a l y sis of o n e ' s o w n t h o u g h t , or a n assessment of one's o p i n i o n a b o u t a b o o k a n d — i n d e e d — i s r e g a r d e d b y s o m e as the o n l y v i a b l e p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h to c o n d u c t g o o d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s or p s y c h o t h e r a p y . . . T h e Encyclopaedia series has a consistent format. In m o s t of
the
b o o k s y o u w i l l f i n d p a p e r s w h i c h are i n f o r m e d b y F r e u d i a n , J u n g i a n , K l e i n i a n , L a c a n i a n a n d Object Relations p e r s p e c t i v e s . Y o u m a y also f i n d p a p e r s w h e r e the p e r s p e c t i v e of the a u t h o r is h a r d to p i n d o w n . . . G o o d ! K e e p the ' d o u b t / w o r k i n g ! In e a c h v o l u m e w e attempt to offer a w i d e r a n g e of o p i n i o n , a n d the m a j o r i t y of p a p e r s h a v e b e e n s p e c i a l l y c o m m i s s i o n e d a n d w r i t t e n for the series. In a f e w cases, w e h a v e p u b l i s h e d w o r k w h i c h has a l r e a d y a p p e a r e d elsewhere b u t p e r h a p s i n a f o r m a t w h i c h has n o t b e e n easily accessible. In s o m e instances a p a p e r has a p p e a r e d i n another l a n g u a g e , a n d has b e e n s p e c i a l l y translated for this series. T h e a i m of the Encyclopaedia is to present a coherent b o d y of ideas, yet w i t h i n a structure sufficiently loose to a l l o w the reader to interpret the p a p e r s for h i m or herself.
W e are h o p i n g a n d a i m i n g for a w i d e
r a n g i n g r e a c t i o n to the contents of these v o l u m e s . F e e d b a c k , c o n s t r u c tive c r i t i c i s m , ideas for future projects i n the series, possible p a p e r s for f u t u r e i n c l u s i o n — a l l of these a n d m o r e are m o s t w e l c o m e .
Kirsty Hall MA Commissioning Editor e-mail [email protected]
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
D U N C A N B A R F O R D s t u d i e d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a p o s t g r a d u a t e
stu
d e n t at the U n i v e r s i t y of K e n t , i n C a n t e r b u r y . H e has g a i n e d e x p e r i ence of t e a c h i n g f r o m w o r k i n g w i t h a w i d e range of a d u l t learners, a n d has l e c t u r e d i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s
at M i d d l e s e x U n i v e r s i t y , a n d i n the
C e n t r e for C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n at Sussex U n i v e r s i t y . LINDA
BUCKINGHAM
is
a
Consultant
Child
and
Adolescent
P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , w o r k i n g i n a n N H S clinic i n L e w i s h a m . She is a m e m ber of the A s s o c i a t i o n of C h i l d P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s , a n d of the G u i l d of Psychotherapists. which
informs
S h e has a n a c a d e m i c b a c k g r o u n d i n P h i l o s o p h y ,
her
understanding
of
the
philosophical
traditions
u n d e r l y i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories. TERESA C E L D R A N
is a Professor at the A u t o n o m a U n i v e r s i t y of
M a d r i d . H e r research interests i n c l u d e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories of g e n d e r a n d sexuality. S Y L V I A C O H E N started out her p r o f e s s i o n a l life as a p s y c h o l o g i s t
o r i g i n a l l y w o r k i n g i n p s y c h i a t r y . H a v i n g taught i n Junior, F u r t h e r , a n d A d u l t E d u c a t i o n she t r a i n e d as a n E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g i s t . working
for
ILEA
she
began
training
with
the
Whilst
Guild
of
P s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s , a n d is n o w i n f u l l - t i m e p r i v a t e practice, a n d a m e m ber of the G u i l d ' s T r a i n i n g C o m m i t t e e . ALISON
HALL
Psychoanalysis
is
Principal
Lecturer
in
Psychology
i n the S c h o o l of A p p l i e d Social Sciences
at
and Leeds
M e t r o p o l i t a n U n i v e r s i t y . She also w o r k s p r i v a t e l y as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t . She is c u r r e n t l y r e s e a r c h i n g g u i l t a n d gender. She c a n be c o n t a c t e d at [email protected]. K I R S T Y H A L L has b e e n o n the r e c e i v i n g e n d of s t r u c t u r e d l e a r n i n g experiences
i n the fields of business, careers g u i d a n c e a n d b o t h the
c l i n i c a l a n d theoretical m o d a l i t i e s
of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c
psychotherapy
a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . S h e is the M a n a g i n g D i r e c t o r of R e b u s Press, lec tures p a r t - t i m e at M i d d l e s e x U n i v e r s i t y , a n d has a p r i v a t e practice. She c a n be c o n t a c t e d at K . H a l l @ m d x . a c . u k
C E L I A H U N T is L e c t u r e r i n C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n at the U n i v e r s i t y of S u s s e x C e n t r e for C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n , w i t h s p e c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for creative w r i t i n g . S h e is also A s s o c i a t e
F e l l o w at the U n i v e r s i t y ' s
Institute of E d u c a t i o n , where she teaches a n M A i n C r e a t i v e W r i t i n g , the A r t s , a n d E d u c a t i o n . TREVOR
PATEMAN
(b. 1947)
was Reader
i n E d u c a t i o n at the
U n i v e r s i t y of Sussex f r o m 1985 to 2000, a n d is n o w at w w w . t r e v o r p a t e m a n . c o . u k . H e is the author of m a n y articles a n d s e v e r a l b o o k s ,
i n c l u d i n g Key Concepts: A Guide to Aesthetics, Education
Criticism
and the Arts in
(Falmer Press 1991).
V A L R I C H A R D S is a t r a i n i n g s u p e r v i s o r a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t i n p r i v a t e practice. She is a teacher a n d clinical s e m i n a r leader for v a r i o u s a n a l y t i c a l t r a i n i n g organisations a n d a f o r m e r A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r of the S q u i g g l e F o u n d a t i o n . She has e d i t e d t w o m o n o g r a p h s for
Winnicott
Studies a n d has a u t h o r e d n u m e r o u s p a p e r s a n d r e v i e w s . She is also the
i n a u g u r a t o r of the Winnicott
and Playworkers
Project.
J E A N W H I T E is a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , s u p e r v i s o r a n d lec turer. A f t e r w o r k i n g i n several e d u c a t i o n a l , N H S , a n d c o m m u n i t y b a s e d settings, for the last ten years she has w o r k e d p r i m a r i l y i n f u l l t i m e p r i v a t e practice i n L o n d o n .
INTRODUCTION
Duncan
Barford
L e a r n i n g is like p a y i n g a visit to the g y m . I b e l i e v e that l e a r n i n g is p r o b a b l y best c o n c e i v e d as s o m e t h i n g v e r y s i m i l a r to physical
fitness.
C e r t a i n l y , I d o n o t t h i n k w e a d v a n c e v e r y far
i f — a s t e a c h e r s — w e e n v i s a g e l e a r n i n g as s i m p l y the p a s s a g e of i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the h e a d of o n e p e r s o n into the h e a d of another.
Deep
d o w n w e k n o w i n s t i n c t i v e l y that there is m u c h m o r e to teaching t h a n this. A n d s h o u l d w e ever forget, it w i l l not be l o n g before w e
are
r e m i n d e d forcefully that t e a c h i n g is n o t a matter of s i m p l y telling
the
other p e r s o n w h a t w e w o u l d like t h e m to l e a r n . L e a r n i n g , like p h y s i c a l fitness, is not s o m e t h i n g w e c a n be s a i d to 'possess'. Sadly, w e c a n n o t ' p u t ' fitness into o u r b o d i e s . Instead, fitness is the n a t u r a l response of o u r b o d i e s to the c o n d i t i o n s (the a d v e r s e c o n ditions) to w h i c h w e subject ourselves w h e n w e exercise a n d l i v e a n d eat healthily. L i k e w i s e , l e a r n i n g is o u r response
to w h a t e v e r
happens
w h e n w e c o m e i n contact w i t h a teacher; it is not a discrete ' t h i n g ' w h i c h , it m i g h t be s a i d , the teacher c a n ' g i v e ' us. T h e best teachers p e r f o r m a role a k i n to that of a g o o d c o a c h or p e r s o n a l trainer. T h e best teachers are p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h facilitat i n g o u r i n c l i n a t i o n to l e a r n , w i t h s t i m u l a t i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g o u r interest a n d e n t h u s i a s m , rather t h a n w i t h ' t r a n s m i t t i n g ' their k n o w l e d g e to us. L e a r n i n g siiggests a n a n a l o g y w i t h 'fitness' not o n l y i n the e v e r y day
physiological
sense of
the
word,
but
also
i n its
D a r w i n i a n sense. T h e a d a p t a t i o n of l i v i n g creatures
specialised
to their
ever
c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s is the e m b o d i m e n t i n the l i v i n g w o r l d of a c o n stant, n a t u r a l ' l e a r n i n g process'. E v o l u t i o n b y n a t u r a l selection sees to it that l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s b e c o m e 'fitter', o t h e r w i s e they cease to be l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s . E v o l u t i o n offers the p o s s i b i l i t y that l i v i n g things m i g h t b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x , sophisticated, resilient. C o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d the i n g e n u i t y of the h u m a n intellect seem to b e the p r o d u c t s of this l e a r n i n g process inherent i n life itself, a l t h o u g h it m u s t be b o r n e i n m i n d that e v o l u t i o n a n d n a t u r a l selection operate ' b l i n d l y ' , w i t h n o p r e d e t e r m i n e d a i m , a n d that e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l is c o n s t r a i n e d b o t h b y a creature's e n v i r o n m e n t a n d its genetic inheritance.
12
Introduction T h e instinctive, aimless, a n d directionless nature o f this process, b y
w h i c h l i v i n g creatures nevertheless may b e c o m e fitter, o u g h t to r e m i n d us that a l t h o u g h ' r e a s o n ' a n d 'intelligence' are p o t e n t i a l o u t c o m e s of l e a r n i n g , the l e a r n i n g process itself (like e v o l u t i o n ) n e e d not b e r e g a r d e d as ' r a t i o n a l ' , o r as h a v i n g a l o g i c a l l y d i s c e r n i b l e m e a n i n g or l o n g term goal. T h i s is the p o i n t at w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s enters the debate o n the n a t u r e of l e a r n i n g . It o p e n s u p n e w perspectives o n w h a t l e a r n i n g is a n d o n w h a t teachers d o . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is able to d o this because, m o r e t h a n a n y other d i s c i p l i n e , it is w e l l - p l a c e d to r e m i n d us that w i l l i n g n e s s a n d ability to l e a r n are s h a p e d b y influences f a r - r e m o v e d f r o m conscious a n d rational motives.
** * M y o w n c o n t r i b u t i o n to this c o l l e c t i o n of essays o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d l e a r n i n g d e v e l o p e d f r o m s o m e research I u n d e r t o o k w h i l s t o n a c o u r s e to d e v e l o p m y o w n teaching skills. I w a s p u z z l e d b y the a p p a r e n t absence of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s f r o m the syllabuses o f the m a i n teacher t r a i n i n g courses i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m . T h e o r i e s of l e a r n i n g are p r e s e n t e d to trainee teachers as a debate b e t w e e n the c o m p e t i n g d i s c o u r s e s of behaviourism,
cognitivism
a n d humanism. It s e e m e d to m e that
the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h is quite distinct f r o m e a c h of these. I n m y p a p e r , t h e n , I t r y to a d d a f o u r t h c o r n e r to this f o r m e r l y t h r e e - s i d e d debate. I describe w h a t m i g h t be r e g a r d e d as the differences b e t w e e n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g a n d the other three d i s c o u r s e s , a n d p r o p o s e s o m e k e y a x i o m s for a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l e a r n i n g , d r a w i n g u p o n classical F r e u d i a n theory. I have been extremely lucky i n persuading some h i g h l y experienced teachers a n d c l i n i c i a n s to contribute to this collection, a n d I a m v e r y grateful to all of t h e m . I n d e e d , m a n y of the a u t h o r s w h o s e w o r k a p p e a r s i n these p a g e s h a v e e n j o y e d years of experience b o t h as teach ers a n d as p r a c t i s i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s t s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s . T h e ideas p r e s e n t e d here are the fruit of m a n y c o m b i n e d years of t e a c h i n g p r a c tice, g a i n e d across a l l sectors of e d u c a t i o n — f r o m schools, colleges a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s , to p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g organisations. A l i s o n H a l l o p e n s the b o o k w i t h a historical s u r v e y of the d e v e l o p m e n t of theories of l e a r n i n g , p r o v i d i n g a context w i t h i n w h i c h it is p o s sible to situate the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h . She offers a c r i t i q u e of s o m e c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e precepts ( p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n the u n i v e r s i t y
Duncan Bar ford
13
sector), a n d suggests h o w p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n be u s e d to o p e n u p s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l l y fresh p e r s p e c t i v e s o n the nature of l e a r n i n g . She also o u t l i n e s s o m e of the p o t e n t i a l l y d i s t u r b i n g consequences the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h m i g h t h a v e for c u r r e n t e d u c a t i o n a l praxis. T r u e to its i n c l u s i o n i n the Encyclopaedia
of Psychoanalysis,
this b o o k
also a i m s to p r o v i d e a r a n g e of c o n t r a s t i n g ideas f r o m across the m a n y strands of thought w i t h i n psychoanalysis. A l t h o u g h C a r l Jung wrote little e x p l i c i t l y o n the t o p i c of l e a r n i n g , S y l v i a C o h e n teases out f r o m his w r i t i n g s a w i d e r a n g e o f ideas, c o n s t r u c t i n g w h a t c a n be r e a d as a n i m p l i c i t l y J u n g i a n a p p r o a c h to o u r t h e m e . L i n d a B u c k i n g h a m a n d Jean W h i t e p e r f o r m a s i m i l a r service, w i t h respect to the w r i t i n g s of t w o other m a j o r p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h i n k e r s — M e l a n i e K l e i n a n d W i l f r e d B i o n . L i n d a presents s o m e e x t r e m e l y v i v i d case m a t e r i a l w h i c h p o w e r f u l l y i l l u m i n a t e s the K l e i n i a n a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g . S h e examines K l e i n ' s p r o p o s a l of a n innate ' e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l instinct', a n d illustrates setbacks to l e a r n i n g a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s for g r o w t h i n the lives a n d phantasies of her patients. Jean W h i t e , m e a n w h i l e , presents a n e x t r e m e l y l u c i d e x p o s i t i o n o f s o m e salient tenets of the w o r k of B i o n . A l t h o u g h B i o n ' s w o r k is less w e l l k n o w n t h a n — a n d d e e p l y i n d e b t e d t o — t h e w o r k o f K l e i n , Jean argues that B i o n ' s a p p r o a c h offers the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a truly r a d i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l p r a x i s , a n d she m a k e s s o m e s t i m u l a t i n g a n d p r o v o c a t i v e l i n k s b e t w e e n B i o n ' s ideas a n d the w r i t i n g s of P a o l o F r e i r e — a n a m e p e r h a p s m o r e i n s t a n t l y recognisable t h a n that of B i o n to those w o r k i n g i n a n e d u c a t i o n a l context. Teresa C e l d r a n a n d V a l R i c h a r d s are o u r a m b a s s a d o r s for two major figures of (respectively) F r e n c h a n d B r i t i s h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — J a c q u e s L a c a n a n d D o n a l d W i n n i c o t t . L a c a n ' s w o r k is f a m o u s for its c o m p l e x ity, for b e i n g ' d i f f i c u l t ' , Teresa, h o w e v e r , keeps her eye f i r m l y o n q u e s tions s u c h as: H o w is ' k n o w l e d g e ' constructed? W h a t is the role of desire i n l e a r n i n g ? W h a t m a k e s a n effective teacher? She s h o w s h o w L a c a n ' s insistence o n the centrality o f l a n g u a g e i n h u m a n affairs offers a d i s t i n c t a n d u n i q u e p e r s p e c t i v e o n these issues. W i n n i c o t t ' s relation to the f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n is p e r h a p s m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s . A m o n g the aspects o f his w o r k p r e s e n t e d b y V a l R i c h a r d s is his f a m o u s n o t i o n of 'the t r a n s i t i o n a l object', a n object w h i c h — f o r the i n f a n t — l i e s neither w h o l l y i n the external n o r the i n t e r n a l w o r l d . V a l demonstrates h o w W i n n i c o t t ' s w o r k offers the e d u c a t i o n a l practitioner tools for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the v i t a l role o f the l e a r n e r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n a n d creativity i n the e d u c a t i o n a l process, a n d the p a r t the teacher c a n p l a y i n m a x i m i s i n g the d e v e l o p m e n t o f these.
Introduction
14
T h r e e p a p e r s i n this b o o k a p p r o a c h the subject of l e a r n i n g f r o m out side m a i n s t r e a m p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , a d d r e s s i n g a m o r e s p e c i a l i s e d range of e d u c a t i o n a l themes. In o r d e r to a v o i d the trap of r e g a r d i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a d i s c i pline s o m e h o w 'above' educational
discourse, K i r s t y H a l l turns the
tables a n d c o n s i d e r s the sticky q u e s t i o n of h o w p s y c h o a n a l y s i s itself s h o u l d be taught to trainee analysts a n d therapists. Setting out s o m e of the p a r t i c u l a r difficulties c o n c e r n i n g the t r a n s m i s s i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t ic t h e o r y a n d practice, K i r s t y laments the current state of p s y c h o a n a lytic t r a i n i n g i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m a n d elsewhere. D r a w i n g o n the w o r k of d i v e r s e figures s u c h as L a c a n , K a r l P o p p e r , a n d R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s , she presents s o m e possible solutions. C e l i a H u n t , o n the other h a n d , d r a w s o n her extensive
experience
as a teacher of creative w r i t i n g , to explore the fascinating intersection of e d u c a t i o n a l a n d therapeutic issues c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n this f i e l d of w o r k . C e l i a engages w i t h the ideas of p i o n e e r p s y c h o a n a l y s t K a r e n H o r n e y , as a m e a n s of e x p l o r i n g p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d b y w r i t ers w h o are l e a r n i n g to ' f i n d their v o i c e ' . F i n a l l y , it falls to T r e v o r P a t e m a n to deconstruct the v e r y n o t i o n of l e a r n i n g . T r e v o r h i g h l i g h t s the p a r a d o x that m o s t o f w h a t w e
com
m o n l y r e g a r d as l e a r n i n g is i n fact ' u n l e a r n i n g ' of one k i n d or a n o t h e r — f o r instance, the forgetting or r e p u d i a t i o n of o l d ideas c a n h a v e u p o n us effects i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m the l e a r n i n g a n d a d o p t i o n o f n e w ideas. W i t h n o s m a l l degree of w i t , he sketches a t a x o n o m y of 'types
of
u n l e a r n i n g ' , w h i c h w r y l y satirises
many
contemporary
n o t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the v a l u e of e d u c a t i o n .
* if * T h i s b o o k takes its title f r o m a q u o t a t i o n attributed to T h e o d o r e Parker, a 19th c e n t u r y A m e r i c a n c l e r g y m a n a n d c a m p a i g n e r against slavery. I w a s struck b y the majestic i m a g e of 'the s h i p of t h o u g h t ' ,
weighed
d o w n w i t h its p r e c i o u s cargo of truth a n d beauty, a n d P a r k e r ' s i m p l i c it s u g g e s t i o n that l e a r n i n g is a v o y a g e — p o s s i b l y
p e r i l o u s , b u t also
potentially i m m e n s e l y rewarding. I w a s also i n t r i g u e d , h o w e v e r , b y the remarkable d e a r t h of s e n s u ous i m a g e r y w h i c h otherwise characterises the great m a j o r i t y of q u o tations a n d p r o v e r b s o n l e a r n i n g . (See the a p p e n d i x , i n w h i c h I h a v e a s s e m b l e d s o m e of the m o r e substantial quotations I encountered.) T h e faintly s h r i l l , m o r a l i s t i c tone of m a n y of these witticisms also attracted
Duncan
Bar ford
15
m y attention. It w a s as i f aphorists d o w n t h r o u g h the ages h a d c h o s e n to s h i r k the direct q u e s t i o n — ' w h a t is l e a r n i n g — a n d h a d o p t e d i n s t e a d for a cheaper, easier s w i p e at w h a t t h e y r e g a r d e d as ' l e a r n i n g for l e a r n i n g ' s s a k e ' , o r at a n y o n e w h o m i g h t d a r e to take s e r i o u s l y w h a t they believed they h a d learned. 7
I h o p e w e h a v e a v o i d e d these t w i n pitfalls i n this b o o k . A c o m m o n r e f r a i n i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e t w e e n m y s e l f a n d the c o n t r i b u t o r s w a s : 'I n e v e r r e a l i s e d just h o w hard it is to w r i t e about l e a r n i n g ' . I n d e e d , this has c e r t a i n l y b e e n m y experience. L e a r n i n g is the v e r y m e a n s b y w h i c h w h a t w e c a l l ' e x p e r i e n c e ' becomes w h a t w e call ' m i n d ' ; i t is the k e y process b y w h i c h w e b e c o m e w h o w e are. T h e r e a s o n for the lack or f a i l u r e o f i m a g e r y , w h e n it comes to w r i t i n g about l e a r n i n g , seems to m e the d i f f i c u l t y of f i n d i n g a m e t a p h o r large e n o u g h . W h a t i m a g e is there w h i c h is b o t h b i g a n d d e t a i l e d e n o u g h to e n c o m p a s s the v e r y n o t i o n of the m i n d a n d a l l its w o r k i n g s ? F a c e d w i t h the task of c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g the v e r y process b y w h i c h w e c o m e to c o n c e p t u a l i s e , it is i n d e e d easier to d o d g e the q u e s t i o n altogether, a n d i n s t e a d e x t o l — o r d e n i g r a t e — t h e v i r t u e s of ignorance. T h e p e r s o n w h o approaches the q u e s t i o n of l e a r n i n g f r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p e r s p e c t i v e is u n a b l e to let t h e m s e l v e s off the h o o k so eas ily. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s p r o v i d e s a l a n g u a g e (or a set of ' m e t a p h o r s ' , i f y o u l i k e ) for c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g the nature o f the m i n d a n d its w o r k i n g s . N o m a t t e r h o w one regards this c o n c e p t u a l l a n g u a g e — w h e t h e r it refers to entities w h i c h s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d s o m e h o w ' r e a l ' or m e r e l y ' v i r t u a l ' — t h e w a y of t a l k i n g a b o u t the m i n d offered b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is absolutely unique. A d o p t i n g a psychoanalytic approach, m i n d need n o t be o b s c u r e d b e h i n d a m i s t of a b s t r a c t i o n , n o r erased b y p l a c i n g the e m p h a s i s e n t i r e l y u p o n manifest b e h a v i o u r . There is c e r t a i n l y n o ' l a c k of i m a g e r y ' i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g . E q u a l l y , because it is a m e t h o d of e n q u i r y b a s e d u p o n p a y i n g care f u l a t t e n t i o n to h o w i n d i v i d u a l s express themselves, h o w p e o p l e s i t u ate t h e m s e l v e s i n the w o r l d w h i c h t h e y i n h a b i t , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s does n o t p r e s u m e to j u d g e ( i n a n y absolute sense) w h a t l e a r n i n g m i g h t be s a i d to be ' w o r t h ' . W i t h o u t d o u b t , l e a r n i n g is a p a r t of o u r constant, d a i l y s t r u g g l e to l i v e o u r l i v e s as c o n t e n t e d l y as p o s s i b l e . T h e a n s w e r to the q u e s t i o n ' w h a t is l e a r n i n g ' is, therefore, as v a r i a b l e a n d as c o m p l e x as the range of s o l u t i o n s p e o p l e h a v e f o u n d to the f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m of b e i n g h u m a n . T h e a n s w e r is r o o t e d i n the h i s t o r y of o u r e v e r y d a y l i v e s a n d i n o u r dreams.
16
Introduction
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS M o s t of a l l , m y t h a n k s are d u e to the contributors to this b o o k for all the h a r d w o r k that w e n t into the p r o d u c t i o n of their p a p e r s , a n d for their p a t i e n c e . I w o u l d also like to thank C e l i a H u n t a n d M i k e Boice, of the C e n t r e for C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n at the U n i v e r s i t y of Sussex, for their s u p e r v i s i o n a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t of the w o r k w h i c h l e d to m y o w n c o n t r i b u t i o n . T h a n k s also to K i r s t y H a l l , f o r p e r s u a d i n g m e that this b o o k w a s a g o o d i d e a , a n d to J u n e O l l i v e r — a t B r i g h t o n C o l l e g e of T e c h n o l o g y — b e c a u s e it's true: y o u never forget a g o o d teacher!
A NOTE O N TEXTS A l l references to F r e u d ' s w r i t i n g s are based o n The Standard the Complete
Psychological
Works of Sigmund
Freud
Edition
of
(24 v o l u m e s ) , trans
lated b y James Strachey, p u b l i s h e d b y H o g a r t h Press a n d the Institute of P s y c h o - A n a l y s i s (1961).
PSYCHOANALYTIC RESEARCH O N LEARNING: A N APPRAISAL A N D SOME SUGGESTIONS
Alison
Hall
I n this chapter I s h a l l argue that ideas f r o m different strands of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n p r o v i d e the basis for n e w k i n d s of research into l e a r n ing. A l t h o u g h I h a v e attempted to discuss ' l e a r n i n g ' i n a generic sense, m y o w n experience as a teacher lies i n the f i e l d of H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n . T h i s p r o b a b l y m e a n s that s o m e of the things I s a y a b o u t l e a r n i n g are m o r e relevant to the U n i v e r s i t y , a l t h o u g h I h o p e that m a n y of the p o i n t s I m a k e c a n be a p p l i e d m o r e generally.
Identifying
the problem
W h a t is learning? W h e n w e try to e x a m i n e this q u e s t i o n , the first t h i n g w e d i s c o v e r is that a lot w h i c h is w r i t t e n a b o u t l e a r n i n g d o e s n ' t tell us m u c h about l e a r n i n g as s u c h b u t addresses, i n s t e a d , a r a n g e of issues linked to l e a r n i n g . A l t h o u g h a v a s t a r r a y of literature p u r p o r t s to be a b o u t ' l e a r n i n g ' or a b o u t ' t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g ' , it r a r e l y attempts to g r a p p l e w i t h the n a t u r e or processes of l e a r n i n g . If w e l o o k c l o s e l y at the extensive lit e r a t u r e o n e d u c a t i o n , w e f i n d that the d i s c o u r s e s a r o u n d t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g are a c t u a l l y d o m i n a t e d b y p u r e l y t e c h n i c a l issues. D i s c u s s i o n has t e n d e d to centre o n the relative merits of m o r e or less n o v e l p e d a gogical styles—for
instance: l e a r n i n g i n g r o u p s , s t u d e n t - l e d
discus
s i o n , i n d e p e n d e n t project w o r k , l e a r n i n g contracts or w h a t e v e r
the
c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e t e c h n i q u e is. In e d u c a t i o n a l literature one r a r e l y finds a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g a d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h e x a m i n e s the actual process of l e a r n i n g . It seems, t h e n , that it is p e r f e c t l y possible for p e o p l e to l e a r n a n d to teach w i t h o u t h a v i n g a n a r t i c u l a t e d t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g , yet it strikes m e as c u r i o u s that so little attention is g i v e n to this p r o b l e m . O r p e r h a p s it is n o t so s u r p r i s i n g after a l l , because the m o r e I h a v e entered i n t o a n effort to t r y to u n d e r s t a n d t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g , the m o r e p e c u l i a r l y difficult a n d intractable the p r o b l e m s e e m s to be. If w e take a l o o k at the m a i n trends i n p e d a g o g i c a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g , w e c a n m a k e a p r e l i m i n a r y assessment of the extent to w h i c h
18
Psychoanalytic
Research on Learning
this q u e s t i o n o f l e a r n i n g as such is dealt w i t h . A s u r v e y o f c u r r e n t p e d a g o g i c a l research reveals a c o n c e r n p r i m a r i l y w i t h the conditions
under
w h i c h l e a r n i n g a p p e a r s to b e o p t i m i s e d o r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d — f o r instance, it a d d r e s s e s questions s u c h as: ' w h e r e are there g e n d e r differences i n l e a r n i n g ? ' , ' w h i c h m e t h o d o f teaching r e a d i n g w o r k s best?', ' w h i c h l e a r n i n g m e t h o d s d o students prefer?', ' d o e s active p a r t i c i p a t i o n w o r k better t h a n p a s s i v e a b s o r p t i o n ? ' T h i s is i n d e e d v e r y p r a c t i c a l a n d often v e r y v a l u a b l e research, a n d there is n o t h i n g w r o n g w i t h it, b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s — a s I h a v e a r g u e d — i t addresses technical questions a n d is n o t r e a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h how l e a r n i n g takes p l a c e .
A historical overview of theories of learning O f c o u r s e , there h a v e b e e n m o r e explicit theories o f l e a r n i n g . Plato's r e n d e r i n g o f t h e Socratic i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e t h o d , for instance, i n c o r p o rates a thesis o n the nature o f l e a r n i n g a n d teaching. T h e m e t h o d o p e r ates b y a s k i n g for definitions of f a m i l i a r concepts to elicit c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . It is b a s e d o n the i d e a that p e o p l e a c t u a l l y k n o w m o r e t h a n they t h i n k t h e y k n o w . B y teasing o u t responses, b y e n c o u r a g i n g r e s p o n d e n t s to e x p l o r e the i m p l i c a t i o n s of their a r g u m e n t s , i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o r absurdities w i l l b e c o m e a p p a r e n t a n d , i n this w a y , r e s p o n d e n t s w i l l l e a r n b o t h a content a n d — c o i n c i d e n t a l l y , b u t c r u c i a l l y — a n e w stance o f h u m i l i t y i n the face o f their o w n i g n o r a n c e . Ideas a b o u t e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n the Scholastic t r a d i t i o n w h i c h f o l l o w e d — a n d w h i c h , arguably, has h a d a significant i n f l u e n c e o n p e d a g o g i c a l practice u n t i l c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y — o w e d a great d e a l to the r e l i g i o u s context i n w h i c h t e a c h i n g o c c u r r e d . R o t e - l e a r n i n g i n p a r t i c u lar, w i t h its reliance u p o n repetition, c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d m e n t a l r i g o u r , e m p l o y e d m e t h o d s d e s i g n e d to s h i e l d the p o t e n t i a l s i n n e r f r o m m e n tal w a n d e r i n g . If w a n d e r i n g d i d occur, t h e n syllogistic
reasoning
w o u l d l e a d the w a n d e r e r b a c k to the right(eous) p a t h . Interpretation, i m a g i n a t i o n a n d creativity w e r e not e n c o u r a g e d . T h e q u a l i t y of l e a r n i n g w a s n o t i n q u e s t i o n ; rectitude, o b e d i e n c e a n d quantity
of learning
w e r e w h a t m a t t e r e d . H o w e v e r , f r o m the Scholastic t r a d i t i o n e m e r g e d a l s o the i d e a o f the ' n o v i t i a t e ' , w h o later b e c a m e the
apprentice.
T h e classical e d u c a t i o n o f the R e n a i s s a n c e — w i t h a h u m a n i s t rather t h a n a theist e m p h a s i s — p r o p o s e d a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f M a n , his d i g n i t y a n d ideals. F i c i n o ' s ' k n o w t h y s e l f , b a s e d o n a m i x t u r e o f r e v i v e d P l a t o n i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y , b e c a m e a central d i c t u m . T h i s w a s later e c h o e d b y A l e x a n d e r P o p e i n An Essay on Man:
Alison Hall
19
K n o w t h e n thyself, p r e s u m e n o t G o d to scan; T h e p r o p e r s t u d y of m a n k i n d is m a n . (Pope 1733-34: 516) D u r i n g the E n l i g h t e n m e n t , R o u s s e a u ' s n o v e l Emile p r o v e d h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l I n this w o r k R o u s s e a u presented a p i c t u r e of a n i d e a l e d u c a t i o n b a s e d far less o n f o r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n a n d c e n t r e d i n s t e a d o n l e a r n i n g b y experience i n a n a t u r a l a n d u n r e s t r i c t e d c h i l d h o o d e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s a p p r o a c h w a s w i d e l y a n d actively p u t into practice b y e n l i g h t e n e d ( a n d s o m e t i m e s R o m a n t i c ) parents, e s p e c i a l l y
between
1766 (the y e a r i n w h i c h R o u s s e a u c a m e to E n g l a n d ) a n d the 1830s. Rousseau's
ideas
were
further
developed
b y F r o e b e l i n his
Die
Menschenerziehitng (1826). It w a s F r o e b e l w h o o r i g i n a t e d the Kindergarten m o v e m e n t i n the e a r l y nineteenth century. J o h n L o c k e ' s t h e o r y of k n o w l e d g e p r o p o u n d e d i n the late s e v e n teenth c e n t u r y c e n t r e d o n the i d e a that the m i n d is a
tabula rasa or clean
slate. T h i s i d e a w a s further d e v e l o p e d b y H e l v e t i u s i n De VEsprit (1758) w h e r e h e a r g u e d that e v e r y t h i n g that a p e r s o n is p r o c e e d s f r o m the i n f l u e n c e s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n h e has b e e n subject t o — e d u c a t i o n alone is w h a t m a k e s the difference b e t w e e n o n e p e r s o n a n d another. H i s ideas w e r e f a m o u s l y p u t i n t o practice b y James M i l l i n the e d u c a t i o n of h i s s o n J o h n Stuart M i l l . T h i s e d u c a t i o n consisted i n intense i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m a v e r y y o u n g age a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e p r i v a t i o n of social a n d e m o t i o n a l contact, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h peers. J o h n Stuart M i l l w a s h a i l e d as a p r e c o c i o u s g e n i u s b u t suffered m e n t a l b r e a k d o w n a n d d e p r e s s i o n i n his twenties. H e d i d , h o w e v e r , recover a n d l e a d a v e r y p r o d u c t i v e life d u r i n g w h i c h h e h e l p e d p r o p a g a t e liberal ideas o n e d u c a t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g , i n the face of c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p o s i t i o n , a d v o c a t i n g e d u c a t i o n for women). T h e first a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y to l e a r n i n g b e g a n i n the 1880s, w i t h E b b i n g h a u s ' s tests o n the ability to m e m o r i s e lists of w o r d s a n d h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the efficacy of l e a r n i n g b y repetition. In 1916, h o w e v e r , J o h n D e w e y p r o p o s e d a p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h , w h i c h envisaged
l e a r n i n g as c o m p o s e d
of four c o m p o n e n t s :
'experience',
' d a t a for reflection', ' i d e a s ' a n d ' f i x i n g w h a t h a s b e e n l e a r n e d ' . It is D e w e y w h o m w e c a n t h a n k (or castigate) for the o r i g i n s o f 'process o r i e n t e d ' e d u c a t i o n (that is, as o p p o s e d to 'task' or ' c o n t e n t ' - o r i e n t e d e d u c a t i o n ) . A further alternative a p p r o a c h to m a i n s t r e a m t h i n k i n g o n l e a r n i n g w a s also d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d this time b y R u d o l f Steiner, w h o
20
Psychoanalytic Research on Learning
emphasised
the n e c e s s i t y — a s
he s a w i t — f o r a resuscitated s p i r i t u a l
dimension within education. I n contrast, the p e r i o d w h i c h f o l l o w e d w a s characterised b y increas ing
psychological
experimentation—in
E d u c a t i o n a l research w a s
epitomised
particular u p o n
b y studies
animals.
s u c h as those
by
P a v l o v u p o n dogs, b y T h o r n d i k e , W a t s o n , a n d L a s h l e y u p o n rats, cats a n d p i g e o n s , a n d b y K o h l e r u p o n c h i m p s . H o w e v e r , the p r o b l e m s p r e sented b y the s t u d y of h u m a n l e a r n i n g t u r n e d out to be m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n this t y p e of e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y h a d e n v i s a g e d a n d v e r y little of this w o r k enjoys a real, c o n t i n u i n g influence u p o n p e d a g o g i c a l theory a n d practice. I n d e e d , R o u s s e a u ' s p r o m o t i o n of l e a r n i n g as a f o r m of n a t u r a l g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t ,
w i t h the a d d i t i o n of
D e w e y ' s e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y — v a l u i n g practice a n d e m o t i o n a n d r e c o m m e n d i n g that l e a r n i n g takes place i n a real e n v i r o n m e n t a n d is b a s e d o n reflective t h i n k i n g — a r e m u c h m o r e easily discernible i n c u r rent t h i n k i n g . T h i s p o i n t is e m p h a s i s e d b y B r o c k b a n k a n d M c G i l l , w h o themselves
e x e m p l i f y the current, d o m i n a n t t r e n d i n t h i n k i n g about
learning in Higher Education. T h i s a p p r o a c h [the currently fashionable one] values the inter ests, rights a n d n e e d s of the learner. E x a m s a n d tests are less i m p o r t a n t , w i t h practice, l e a r n i n g b y d o i n g a n d the significance of e m o t i o n b e i n g e m p h a s i s e d . T h e teacher here is i d e n t i f i e d , not as a n expert, b u t as a d e v e l o p e r a n d facilitator of the n a t u r a l process of g r o w t h . (Brockbank & M c G i l l 1998:
24)
Contemporary approaches T h e w o r k of D o n a l d S c h o n o n reflective practice has also p r o v e d h u g e l y i n f l u e n t i a l i n recent years. It is focused u p o n the specific types of l e a r n i n g experience of p r a c t i s i n g professionals across a w i d e v a r i e t y of fields, a n d is often a d o p t e d as a n u n q u e s t i o n e d credo b y teachers i n the v o c a t i o n a l sector. S c h o n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h how 1
professionals
learn.
E v e n t h o u g h the t r a i n i n g of professionals m i g h t be v i e w e d as o n l y a v e r y p a r t i c u l a r f o r m of l e a r n i n g , the fact that S c h o n identifies the
how
of l e a r n i n g as a p r o b l e m makes h i m a n interesting a n d u n u s u a l c o m mentator:
Alison
21
Hall
W e are i n n e e d of i n q u i r y into the e p i s t e m o l o g y of practice. W h a t is the k i n d of k n o w i n g i n w h i c h c o m p e t e n t p r a c t i t i o n e r s engage? (Schon 1983:
8)
S c h o n goes o n to explore the w a y i n w h i c h artful professionals d e v e l o p their k n o w l e d g e . T h e processes b y w h i c h this is a c h i e v e d — h e s u g g e s t s — m a y be u n c o n s c i o u s , or m a y o c c u r so r a p i d l y that
'they
c o u l d n o t be a n a l y s e d b y the p e r s o n s i n w h o s e b r a i n t h e y take place' (Schon 1987: 52). S c h o n d e v e l o p s a thesis o n 'reflective p r a c t i c e ' w h i c h attempts to a c c o u n t , at the l e v e l of i n t r a p s y c h i c d y n a m i c s , for the w a y i n w h i c h l e a r n i n g takes place. A p a r t f r o m there b e i n g little e v i d e n c e to s u p p o r t S c h o n ' s rather l i m i t e d m o d e l of p s y c h i c a l life, h o w e v e r , the t y p e of l e a r n i n g h e explores i n e v i t a b l y leaves o u t of a c c o u n t the ques t i o n of the i n t e r v e n t i o n s m a d e b y a teacher. E v e n so, S c h o n ' s w o r k f o r m s p a r t of a m o r e general c u r r e n t trend t o w a r d s interest i n ' l e a r n i n g w h i l s t d o i n g ' . T h e r e has b e e n a r e v i v a l of interest i n a p p r e n t i c e s h i p a n d m e n t o r i n g — f o r instance, Jean L a v e a n d E t i e n n e W e n g e r ' s w o r k o n ' s i t u a t i n g l e a r n i n g i n c o m m u n i t i e s of p r a c tice' (1991) w h i c h w a s
developed
f r o m a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l studies
of
l e a r n i n g a trade or p r o f e s s i o n . T h e s e authors d e m o n s t r a t e h o w l e a r n i n g o c c u r s as a c o n s e q u e n c e of 'legitimate p e r i p h e r a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n ' — that is, i n v o l v e m e n t i n a s k i l l e d practice w h i c h begins as ' l o o k i n g o n ' a n d progresses t h r o u g h greater p a r t i c i p a t i o n , e n d i n g — h o p e f u l l y — i n f u l l acceptance of the learner as a s k i l l e d practitioner. B a s e d o n studies of practices as a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a r y as b u t c h e r y a n d m i d w i f e r y , they a r g u e that i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g transfer c a n o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d as ' s i t u a t e d social practices' ( L a v e & W e n g e r 1991). N e u r o p s y c h o l o g y u n d e r s t a n d s l e a r n i n g as a p r o b l e m of a) i n f o r m a t i o n storage, a n d b) varieties of n e u r o n a l c o n n e c t i o n . A t the l e v e l of b r a i n structure a n d chemistry, n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y p r o v i d e s a n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e set of m o d e l s a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d c o m p u t e r i m a g i n g for d e p i c t i n g n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l change. H o w e v e r k n o w i n g that b r a i n c h e m istry changes w h e n l e a r n i n g takes place d o e s n ' t p r o v i d e a n
explanation
of l e a r n i n g a n d — l i k e their predecessors, the a n i m a l e x p e r i m e n t e r s — n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i s t s operate w i t h v e r y l i m i t e d a n d s i m p l i s t i c c o n c e p tions of l e a r n i n g . A s m e n t i o n e d earlier, t e c h n i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d e d u c a t i o n a l research has c o n c e r n e d itself w i t h ( a m o n g other things) questions s u c h as that of gender
difference.
S o m e f e m i n i s t e d u c a t i o n a l research has
passed
b e y o n d the issues of technique i n o r d e r to e n g a g e w i t h questions c o n
Psychoanalytic Research on Learning
22
c e r n i n g the how
of e d u c a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g styles.
G i l l i g a n (1982), for e x a m p l e , h a s a r g u e d that b o y s a n d girls r e s p o n d differently to the s a m e material a n d that therefore, i n o r d e r to optimise their l e a r n i n g , m o r e gender-sensitive m e t h o d s of t e a c h i n g s h o u l d be e m p l o y e d . W h i l e this w o r k d o e s attempt to a d v a n c e k n o w l e d g e of the processes of l e a r n i n g , it still fails to really g r a p p l e w i t h the q u e s t i o n of h o w l e a r n i n g takes place. It is also, incidentally, criticised b y other f e m inists for a p p e a r i n g to rely u p o n essentialist n o t i o n s of gender. E v e n quite explicit attempts to theorise l e a r n i n g t u r n o u t , o n closer e x a m i n a t i o n , to d e a l instead w i t h a range of issues, b u t n o t w i t h theo ries of l e a r n i n g as s u c h . A s B r o c k b a n k a n d M c G i l l note, a p r o l i f e r a t i o n of t a x o n o m i e s w h i c h p u r p o r t to be about T e a m i n g ' are r e a l l y about: a)
Categories of learning.
T h e q u e s t i o n ' w h a t is l e a r n i n g ? ' is, i n
effect, r e p l a c e d w i t h ' w h a t appears to be h a v e b e e n l e a r n e d ? ' (cf. B r o c k b a n k & M c G i l l 1998: 34 )
Orientations to learning. Instead of l e a r n i n g , it is the p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d y of the motivation to l e a r n w h i c h is f o r e g r o u n d e d —
b)
for instance, the t a x o n o m y of interests a n d desires e l a b o r a t e d b y A b r a h a m M a s l o w (cf. B r o c k b a n k & M c G i l l 1998: c)
Learning strategies and approaches.
35)
Instead of w h a t l e a r n i n g is
a n d h o w it is b r o u g h t about, attention is f o c u s e d i n s t e a d o n the s u p p o s e d 'style' of l e a r n i n g m a n i f e s t e d — f o r instance, w h e t h e r s o m e o n e learns 'step b y step' ('serialist') or 'deals w i t h the over a l l v i e w ' ('holist'); or w h e t h e r s o m e o n e e n g a g e s i n ' d e e p ' or ' s u r face' l e a r n i n g (cf. B r o c k b a n k & M c G i l l 1998:
36)
A great d e a l h i n g e s u p o n the process of l e a r n i n g , yet it is a process w h i c h — I h o p e I h a v e s h o w n — n o b o d y seems to u n d e r s t a n d . 'There is little agreement a m o n g researchers about w h a t l e a r n i n g i s ' , c o n c l u d e B r o c k b a n k a n d M c G i l l (Brockbank & M c G i l l 1998: 32) In this respect, at least, l e a r n i n g a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s have m u c h i n c o m m o n .
Psychoanalysis and learning P s y c h o a n a l y s i s has b e e n l i n k e d to l e a r n i n g i n three w a y s . It has b e e n a p p l i e d to questions about (i) the m o d e of d e l i v e r y a n d reception of
Alison Hall
23
l e a r n i n g ; (ii) the learner h i m or herself; a n d (iii) the f u n c t i o n i n g of the class o r g r o u p . I s h a l l c o n s i d e r e a c h of these aspects i n t u r n .
(i) The mode of delivery and reception of learning V a r i o u s c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e e n t h u s e d to a greater or lesser extent o n the i n s i g h t p r o v i d e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s into the i n a d e q u a c y a n d s o m e times h a r m f u l effects of repressive a n d u n e n l i g h t e n e d m e t h o d s
of
i n s t r u c t i o n . F r e u d h i m s e l f w a r n e d of the p r o b l e m s c a u s e d b y p o o r e d u c a t i o n i n the f i e l d of sexuality, a n d called for m o r e approaches
( F r e u d 1907). H o w e v e r ,
Freud
does not
enlightened suggest
that
i m p r o v e d p e d a g o g i c a l practices w o u l d necessarily l e a d to a r e d u c t i o n i n levels o f n e u r o s i s , a l t h o u g h this w a s a r g u e d b y s o m e of his f o l l o w ers i n their e a r l y a n d s o m e t i m e s n a i v e e s p o u s a l of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas.
( C o n s i d e r , for e x a m p l e ,
F r i t z Wittels'
Set the Children Free!
[1932]). T h e y o u n g M e l a n i e K l e i n ' s early e n t h u s i a s m i n f l u e n c e d her w o r k w i t h her o w n s o n , E r i c h , w h o w a s effectively her first patient: She s o u g h t a b o v e all to protect h i m i n a d v a n c e f r o m all d a n g e r of
intellectual i n h i b i t i o n , g i v i n g h i m the k i n d of
education
w h i c h , f o l l o w i n g the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas of the p e r i o d , she b e l i e v e d w o u l d ensure the f u l l use of his intellectual faculties... she s o u g h t to liberate the c h i l d as m u c h as possible, a n d a b o v e all to free h i m f r o m the r e p r e s s i o n of sexual curiosity, c o n s i d e r e d to b e the source of all d e n i a l s of intelligence. (Petotl979: ix) K l e i n ' s a r c h r i v a l i n the field of c h i l d a n a l y s i s , A n n a F r e u d , t r a i n e d first as a teacher. She a r g u e d that teachers o u g h t to be a n a l y s e d : I h o l d w e are r i g h t i n d e m a n d i n g that the teacher or e d u c a t o r s h o u l d h a v e learnt to k n o w a n d to c o n t r o l his o w n
conflicts
before h e b e g i n s his e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k . If this is n o t so, the p u p i l s m e r e l y serve as m o r e or less suitable material o n w h i c h to abre act his o w n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d u n s o l v e d difficulties. (A. 1949:
Freud
107)
W h o — e i t h e r f r o m the p o s i t i o n of p u p i l or s t u d e n t — c a n n o t r e c o u n t s o m e e p i s o d e f r o m their e d u c a t i o n i n w h i c h , it a p p e a r e d , the teacher's ' o w n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d u n s o l v e d difficulties' p l a y e d a part. Yet it seems
Psychoanalytic Research on Learning
24
to m e that v e r y f e w teachers w o u l d be w i l l i n g to a c k n o w l e d g e this ten d e n c y i n their t e a c h i n g practice.
(ii) The learner O n e of better k n o w n contributions of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is its theories o n intellectual a n d creative i n h i b i t i o n . F r e u d p r o v i d e d the m o d e l for this, t h r o u g h his o w n self-analysis, a n d then his short analysis of the c o m p o s e r G u s t a v M a h l e r (Jones 1961). M a n y e a r l y p s y c h o a n a l y s t s
exam
i n e d the l i n k b e t w e e n p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y a n d creativity, w h i c h l e d to a t r e n d t o w a r d s ' p s y c h o b i o g r a p h y ' , p e r h a p s best e x e m p l i f i e d b y M a r i e B o n a p a r t e ' s s t u d y of E d g a r A l l a n P o e (Bonaparte 1949). M a n y of K l e i n ' s first cases w e r e c h i l d r e n w i t h l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s . K l e i n , b a s e d o n h e r experience w i t h E r i c h , f a v o u r e d c h i l d r e n u n d e r g o i n g a n a l y s i s as a p r e l u d e to e d u c a t i o n . In this w a y — s h e b e l i e v e d — c h i l d r e n c o u l d resolve their most p r i m i t i v e c o m p l e x e s a n d anxieties a n d t h e r e b y reach a p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h they w e r e able to take i n l e a r n i n g . D i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d to K l e i n , A n n a F r e u d b e l i e v e d c h i l d r e n s h o u l d receive analysis after e d u c a t i o n , because
psychoanalysis
...as a m e t h o d of practical treatment, i n the analysis of c h i l d r e n . . . e n d e a v o u r s to repair the injuries w h i c h are inflicted u p o n the c h i l d d u r i n g the process of e d u c a t i o n . ( F r e u d , A . 1949:
104)
W h a t A n n a F r e u d is referring to here is not just the ' f o r m a l process es' of e d u c a t i o n , b u t e v e r y f o r m of restraint p l a c e d o n the c h i l d ' s i n s t i n c t u a l life. F r e u d h i m s e l f s u g g e s t e d that curiosity w a s i n v a r i a b l y d e r i v e d f r o m i n f a n t i l e c u r i o s i t y about sexual matters, o r g a n i s e d a r o u n d certain basic q u e s t i o n s s u c h as ' W h e r e d o babies c o m e f r o m ? ' H e a r g u e d that the c h i l d ' s experiences w h i l s t p u r s u i n g these questions w o u l d p a v e the w a y for further intellectual e n d e a v o u r — o r not (Freud 1905a). O t h e r psychoanalysts ously
been
t o o k u p this theme, i n c l u d i n g those w h o h a d p r e v i
teachers—for
instance A n n a F r e u d a n d
Ella
Freeman
S h a r p e . T h i s classical v i e w of intellectual i n h i b i t i o n focused u p o n the i d e a that castration anxiety interfered w i t h the i n d i v i d u a l ' s capacity for s u b l i m a t i o n . M e l a n i e K l e i n d e v e l o p e d her ideas o n intellectual i n h i b i t i o n i n tan d e m w i t h her ideas o n s a d i s m . In 1931 she d i s c u s s e d the basis for i n t e l lectual inhibition i n men:
25
Alison Hall
...one c a n see c o n f i r m e d i n e v e r y m a n ' s a n a l y s i s , that his d r e a d of the w o m a n ' s b o d y as a p l a c e f u l l of d e s t r u c t i o n m i g h t be one of the m a i n causes of i m p a i r e d potency. T h i s anxiety is also, h o w e v e r , a basic factor i n i n h i b i t i o n s of the desire for k n o w l e d g e , since the i n s i d e of the m o t h e r ' s b o d y is the first object of this i m p u l s e ; i n p h a n t a s y it is e x p l o r e d a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d , as w e l l as a t t a c k e d w i t h a l l the sadistic a r m o u r y , i n c l u d i n g the p e n i s as a d a n g e r o u s offensive w e a p o n , a n d this is a n o t h e r cause of s u b s e q u e n t i m p o t e n c e i n m e n : p e n e t r a t i n g a n d e x p l o r i n g are to a great extent s y n o n y m o u s i n the u n c o n s c i o u s . ( K l e i n 1931:
240)
In 1935 K l e i n e x t e n d e d her a n a l y s i s of s a d i s m , p e r s e c u t o r y anxiety a n d e p i s t e m o p h i l i a to i n c l u d e the effects of d e p r e s s i o n a n d s u g g e s t e d that d e s p a i r a n d g u i l t o v e r d a m a g e d objects w e r e also a source of intel l e c t u a l i n h i b i t i o n . K l e i n — a n d , later, M e l i t t a S c h m i d e b e r g — p r o v i d e d a n e x t e n d e d a n d d e v e l o p e d theoretical f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l i n h i b i t i o n , a l o n g w i t h a w e a l t h of c l i n i c a l c a s e - s t u d y mate r i a l , i n c l u d i n g e l a b o r a t e d d i s c u s s i o n s of the o r a l significance of i n t e l l e c t u a l m a t e r i a l a n d its ' i n c o r p o r a t i o n ' (cf. S c h m i d e b e r g 1938). T h e nearest t h i n g w e h a v e to a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c attempt to
understand
learning came from Fenichel: It is this e m o t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c e of self-esteem that b e c o m e s the vehicle
of
all ' m o r e
subtle'
ways
of
education...
The
child
a c q u i r e s a readiness to sacrifice certain of h i s interests i n o r d e r to secure the s u p p l y of necessary affection. I n g e n e r a l , this is the p s y c h o l o g y of sacrifice w h i c h is a l w a y s a lesser e v i l a c c e p t e d v o l u n t a r i l y i n o r d e r to a v o i d a greater o n e . ( F e n i c h e l 1945: 284-5) F e n i c h e l identifies '...the three basic m e a n s of all e d u c a t i o n — d i r e c t threat, m o b i l i s a t i o n of the fear of l o s i n g l o v e , a n d the p r o m i s e of spe cial r e w a r d s ' .
He
provides
case m a t e r i a l
to
illustrate h i s
points
( F e n i c h e l 1945: 284). H e also argues that it is t h r o u g h the m e c h a n i s m of 'identification
7
that
l e a r n i n g c a n take p l a c e
( F e n i c h e l 1945:
286).
F e n i c h e l w e n t far further t h a n other p s y c h o a n a l y t i c contributors to this d i s c u s s i o n . Rather t h a n s i m p l y e x p o s t u l a t i n g o n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c fac tors a p p a r e n t l y associated w i t h l e a r n i n g , or c o n s i d e r i n g the potential theoretical relation o f e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , F e n i c h e l l o o k e d
26
Psychoanalytic Research on Learning
at w h a t p s y c h o a n a l y t i c concepts a n d m e t h o d s c o u l d be e m p l o y e d i n providing
explanations
of h o w l e a r n i n g c o u l d b e a c h i e v e d at a l l .
H o w e v e r , the m a i n p r o b l e m , f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of e d u c a t i o n , w i t h these k i n d s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas is that t h e y operate o n l y at the l e v e l of the i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s is the n o r m i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , b u t not i n e d u c a t i o n . M o s t teachers, for m o s t of the t i m e , h a v e to w o r k w i t h g r o u p s of students a n d so are severely h a n d i c a p p e d w h e n it c o m e s to r e l a t i n g to t h e m i n d i v i d u a l l y . M u c h current e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g p r o m o t e s a culture i n w h i c h stu dents themselves are e n c o u r a g e d to c o n s i d e r h o w best they l e a r n , a n d to evaluate w h e r e their p a r t i c u l a r strengths a n d difficulties m i g h t lie. T h i s is rather difficult to achieve to a n y m e a n i n g f u l degree o n one's o w n . It is e n c o u r a g e d — a t least i n p r i n c i p l e — b y m e t h o d s s u c h as k e e p i n g ' p e r s o n a l records of a c h i e v e m e n t ' , a n d b y i n v i t i n g students reflect o n their own
to
l e a r n i n g . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the d e c e i v i n g n a t u r e of the
ego u s u a l l y prevents p e o p l e f r o m seeing v e r y m u c h further t h a n the v e r s i o n of events w h i c h is m o s t p l e a s i n g to the ego. It w a s precisely b e c a u s e of the l i m i t s of self-analysis that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w a s d e v e l o p e d . T e a c h i n g m e t h o d s w h i c h rely o n s o m e k i n d of 'self-analysis' are l i k e l y to p r o v e s i m i l a r l y l i m i t e d .
(Hi) Focussing on the functioning of the class group T h e i d e a that the d y n a m i c s a n d f u n c t i o n i n g of h u m a n g r o u p s c a n be u n d e r s t o o d u s i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p r i n c i p l e s b e g a n w i t h F r e u d ' s Group
Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego
(1921). T h e i d e a that a g r o u p of
patients c a n b e treated p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y together w a s m u c h
more
c o n t e n t i o u s , a n d arose d u r i n g the S e c o n d W o r l d War, s p a w n e d specif i c a l l y b y the n e e d to f i n d a n efficient m e t h o d of treating large n u m b e r s of t r a u m a t i s e d soldiers. W i l f r e d B i o n , S . H . F o u l k e s a n d , later, D o r o t h y
Stock-Whitaker's
v a r i e d g r o u p therapeutic w o r k has i n f l u e n c e d e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g about
class-management
(Bion
1959;
Foulkes
1965;
Whitaker
&
L i e b e r m a n 1965). H o w e v e r , it is arguable to w h a t extent the w o r k , o n g r o u p s , of e a c h of these theorists is p s y c h o a n a l y t i c . It is also clear that their ideas b e c o m e m u c h m o d i f i e d i n practice a n d — a d d i t i o n a l l y — that, i n practice, they are frequently c o m b i n e d w i t h elements of n o n psychoanalytic 'encounter-group' psychology. Teachers' staff-room discussions frequently i n c l u d e o b s e r v a t i o n s o n the differences i n ' c h a r a c t e r ' b e t w e e n one c l a s s - g r o u p a n d another.
27
Alison Hall
Teachers are n o w expected to b e c o m e ' g r o u p facilitators'. W h e r e a s for m e r l y a trainee teacher s t r u g g l e d o n l y to l e a r n h o w to d e v e l o p
the
r e q u i r e d a u t h o r i t y a n d d i s c i p l i n e o v e r a class, n o w student teachers m u s t s h o w that they u n d e r s t a n d w h a t k i n d s of ' d y n a m i c s ' are operat i n g i n a c l a s s r o o m situation. A t the v e r y least, teachers m u s t h a v e 'ice b r e a k i n g ' techniques for e n c o u n t e r i n g n e w g r o u p s . S t u d e n t s ' e m o t i o n s h a v e b e c o m e m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d teachers are e n c o u r a g e d to articulate a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m . Recent w o r k has attempted to i m p o r t the c o n c e p t of 'transference' from
the
clinical setting into the
classroom
(cf.
E i f e r m a n n 1993).
A l t h o u g h this i n v o l v e s use of the t e r m 'transference' the r i c h a n d c o m p l e x issues i m p l i e d b y the term are r e d u c e d to c o m m o n - s e n s e p l a t i tudes a b o u t students b e i n g affected b y anxiety w h i c h i n t u r n m i g h t affect
their w o r k .
T h e title of a p a p e r b y
'Missverstandnisse
in
('Misunderstandings
in
der the
Steff
B o r n s t e i n (1937),
psychoanalytischen Application
of
Padagogik'
Psychoanalysis
to
P e d a g o g y ' ) , w o u l d suggest that I a m not the first to r e m a r k o n this phenomenon.
Suggestions for future research C a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s contribute a n y t h i n g further to d i s c u s s i o n of l e a r n i n g a n d teaching? A s I see it, p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c e r t a i n l y c a n frame s o m e of the p r o b l e m s of l e a r n i n g i n u s e f u l a n d p o t e n t i a l l y m o r e fruitful w a y s . I suggest here four strands of p o t e n t i a l research.
(i) Attuned learning T h e w o r k of D a n i e l S t e r n has p r o v i d e d a v o c a b u l a r y for t a l k i n g a b o u t i n t e r p e r s o n a l exchanges w h i c h , it s e e m s to m e , m a y be u s e f u l i n e x a m i n i n g certain issues of p e d a g o g y .
Stern's c o n c e r n is w i t h b r i n g i n g
together d a t a f r o m recent e x p e r i m e n t a l research i n t o the p s y c h o l o g y of infants a n d the insights he has g a i n e d i n the course of his clinical p r a c tice as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t . H e focuses o n 'the i n t e r p e r s o n a l w o r l d of the i n f a n t ' — a s the title of his b e s t - k n o w n w o r k (Stern 1985) m a k e s c l e a r — a n d , i n particular, o n the infant's g r o w i n g sense of self. H e d e v e l o p s a n u m b e r of h y p o t h e s e s about the d e v e l o p m e n t of a sense of self, i n p a r ticular, w h e r e this relates to the i n t e r p l a y of c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n , typically, the m o t h e r a n d infant. H o w e v e r , it is his i d e a of
'affect
28
Psychoanalytic Research on Learning
a t t u n e m e n t ' w h i c h is p a r t i c u l a r l y r a d i c a l a n d w h i c h p r o v o k e d a great d e a l of interest. S t e r n notes that w h e n babies reach the age of about n i n e m o n t h s , their m o t h e r s b e g i n to treat t h e m differently i n some v e r y specific w a y s . F o r instance, if a b a b y b a n g s a toy r h y t h m i c a l l y , t h e n the m o t h er r e s p o n d s to the b a b y b y m i m i c k i n g the r h y t h m . W h a t is notable after the n i n e - m o n t h w a t e r s h e d is that
the mother uses a different mode of
expression—for e x a m p l e , she m i g h t m a k e r h y t h m i c vocal s o u n d s . O r , to take a n e x a m p l e f r o m Stern: An
eight-and-one-half-month-old
beyond
reach. Silently, he
boy
stretches
reaches toward
for a toy it, l e a n i n g
just
and
e x t e n d i n g a r m s a n d fingers out fully. Still short of the toy, he
tenses his b o d y to squeeze o u t the extra i n c h he needs to reach it.
A t that m o m e n t , his m o t h e r says, " u u u u u h . . . u u u u u h ! " w i t h a
c r e s c e n d o of v o c a l effort, the e x p i r a t i o n of air p u s h i n g against
h e r tensed torso. T h e m o t h e r ' s effort matches 1985:
140)
accelerating v o c a l - r e s p i r a t o r y
the infant's accelerating p h y s i c a l effort.
(Stern
S t e r n p r o v i d e s a n u m b e r of s i m i l a r examples w h i c h
demonstrate
different k i n d s of matched actions—with b o t h m o t h e r a n d c h i l d u s i n g the r a n g e of actions w h i c h babies of this age c a n m a n a g e (or almost m a n a g e ) s u c h as expressive p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t s
like w a v i n g , c l a p
p i n g , s w a y i n g , n o d d i n g , d r u m m i n g or just tensing or e x t e n d i n g l i m b s , v o c a l a n d v e r b a l expressions, e x p i r a t o r y variations, a n d facial expres sions. H e e m p h a s i s e s that this s h o u l d not be c o n f u s e d w i t h m i m i c r y or i m i t a t i o n because
the m o t h e r ' s
i n t e r v e n t i o n switches
the
matched
a c t i o n into another mode. F o r e x a m p l e , if the c h i l d engages i n a p h y s i c a l a c t i o n the m o t h e r engages i n a v o c a l one; if the c h i l d b o u n c e s u p a n d d o w n i n a r h y t h m i c w a y the m o t h e r claps her h a n d s or taps her fingers to the s a m e beat. Stern's e x a m i n a t i o n of ' c r o s s - m o d a l e x c h a n g e s ' s u c h as these, b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d infant, p r o v i d e a v a l u a b l e basis u p o n w h i c h to pose s o m e questions c o n c e r n i n g l e a r n i n g . Stern's o w n d e f i n i t i o n of affect attunement is: T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of b e h a v i o u r s that express a q u a l i t y of feeling
of a shared affect state w i t h o u t i m i t a t i n g the exact b e h a v i o u r a l
e x p r e s s i o n of the i n n e r state. (Stern 1985:
142)
30
Psychoanalytic
Research on Learning
a n d h o w t h e y b e h a v e d . T h i s , of c o u r s e , is m e r e l y a m o r e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , m o r e d i r e c t e d a n d m o r e intense v e r s i o n of w h a t , a r g u a b l y , g o e s o n i n a n y h u m a n e n c o u n t e r . B u t it is p r e c i s e l y the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , d i r e c t i o n a n d i n t e n s i t y w h i c h o r g a n i s e a n d c o n s t r u c t it as p a r t o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l activity. T h e r e is a l o n g h i s t o r y to the p r o b l e m , i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , of the s p e c i f i c i t y of e a c h a n a l y s i s . I n d e e d , o n e c o u l d characterise a v e r y large p r o p o r t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r i s i n g as r e p e a t e d attempts to talk a b o u t w h i c h t h i n g s m a y b e c o m m o n to a l l a n a l y s e s — o r , at least, to cer tain t y p e s of a n a l y s e s (for instance, w i t h obsessives as o p p o s e d to h y s terics, o r w i t h p h o b i c s as o p p o s e d to m e l a n c h o l i e s ) — a n d w h i c h things are specific to e a c h a n a l y s i s . F r e u d (1912) a t t e m p t e d to d e a l w i t h this p r o b l e m b y describing h o w a n analyst might a p p r o a c h each patient b y t r y i n g to s u s p e n d , i n as m u c h as it is p o s s i b l e , a l l p r e v i o u s k n o w l e d g e . L a c a n t r i e d to t h i n k t h r o u g h a n d to f o r m a l i s e this i n his d i s c u s s i o n s of the p r a c t i c e of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d t h e scientificiry of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . H e c a m e to the c o n c l u s i o n that w h a t differentiates
psychoanalysis
f r o m o t h e r f o r m s o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y is its e m p h a s i s o n the subject as a ' o n e ' . H i s i d e a is that w h i l s t it is i n d e e d p o s s i b l e to articulate stages i n a n a n a l y s i s vis a vis a p a r t i c u l a r d i a g n o s i s , as w e l l as the g e n e r a l strat e g y to b e a d o p t e d a n d the p o s s i b l e tactics w h i c h m i g h t ' w o r k ' i n rela t i o n to this p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of case, e v e n so, the d e t e r m i n i n g factor i n the c o n d u c t of a n a n a l y s i s is e a c h n e w a n a l y s a n d . T h u s it is i m p o s s i b l e to s p e c i f y the t e c h n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a n y a n a l y s i s i n a d v a n c e ( L a c a n 1966: 323-362, 585-645), O t h e r p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s f r e q u e n t l y c l a i m to b e able to d o p r e c i s e l y this. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f this a n d other l i n k e d for m u l a t i o n s , L a c a n p o s i t s the i d e a o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a ' c o n j e c t u r a l s c i e n c e ' — b y w h i c h h e m e a n s that t h e m e t h o d o l o g y
of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s
p r o c e e d s v i a conjecture ( L a c a n 1989). It is this attempt to t h i n k t h r o u g h w h a t is the s a m e for a l l a n a l y s e s , or for e a c h t y p e o f a n a l y s i s , a n d w h a t is specific to the a n a l y s a n d that I f i n d u s e f u l for t h i n k i n g a b o u t t e a c h i n g . S o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g this w a y of t h i n k i n g c a n also b e f o u n d i n S c h o n ' s d i s c u s s i o n s o f the p r o c e d u r e s i n v o l v e d i n reflecting: A p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s reflection c a n s e r v e as a corrective to o v e r - l e a r n i n g . T h r o u g h reflection, h e c a n surface a n d criticise the tacit u n d e r s t a n d i n g s that h a v e g r o w n u p a r o u n d the repetitive e x p e riences of a s p e c i a l i s e d practice, a n d c a n m a k e n e w sense o f the
Alison Hall
29
S t e r n c o n s i d e r s that this b e h a v i o u r enacts a n e d u c a t i v e f u n c t i o n , a l t h o u g h he d o e s n ' t a c t u a l l y a d d v e r y m u c h b e y o n d this, because he is m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f e m o t i o n . H o w e v e r , a n e v i d e n t l y i m p o r t a n t feature of this e d u c a t i v e f u n c t i o n is that it i n t r o d u c e s a n d s u p p o r t s new f o r m s of r h y t h m i c a l i t y i n t o the life of the c h i l d . 2
W h a t h a p p e n s to this t y p e a n d l e v e l of b e h a v i o u r i n later l e a r n i n g ? S h o t i l d w e a s s u m e that because the loftier r e a l m s of l i n g u i s t i c c o m p e tence h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d that l e a r n i n g b e c o m e s s o l e l y a n d s i m p l y 'the a s s o c i a t i o n of i d e a s ' ? T h e f a c i l i t a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g b y m e a n s of c e r t a i n t y p e s o f e n c o u r a g i n g , s u p p o r t i n g o r i n d u c i n g b e h a v i o u r o n the p a r t of the teacher is a p r o m i s i n g f i e l d for research. T h e s t u d y of r h e t o r i c s h o w s that l a n g u a g e operates, at least i n part, v i a tropes d e s i g n e d to p e r s u a d e or i n d u c e change, a n d there m a y be u s e f u l p a r a l l e l s to this i n the ' c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ' of m o t h e r s w i t h t h e i r n i n e - m o n t h o l d c h i l d r e n . R e s e a r c h i n t o the n o n - l i n g u i s t i c m o d e s of p e r s u a s i o n or e n c o u r a g e m e n t o p e r a t i v e i n l e a r n i n g — f o r i n s t a n c e , the r o l e p l a y e d i n l e a r n i n g b y 'manipulation', 'inspiration', 'seduction', 'identification', 'love' and a h o s t o f o t h e r terms w h i c h m i g h t be u s e d to d e s c r i b e aspects of the m u l t i p l e x r e l a t i o n s w h i c h exist b e t w e e n teachers a n d s t u d e n t s — c o u l d fur n i s h u s w i t h a m u c h m o r e n u a n c e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l e a r n i n g process es. S o m e teachers, u s u a l l y the better ones, are a l r e a d y q u i t e w e l l a w a r e of these d i m e n s i o n s o f r e l a t i n g , a n d it i s u s u a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d that g o o d teachers are the ones w h o are able to generate a c e r t a i n k i n d of r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h their students. T h e r e has b e e n a great d e a l of d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t ' t e a c h i n g styles' i n recent debates, b u t , I w o u l d argue, this has b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n l i m i t e d a n d u s u a l l y s u p e r f i c i a l terms. I w o u l d s u g g e s t , h o w e v e r , that a r i c h s e a m o f research c o n c e r n i n g the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n teachers a n d students w o u l d b e o p e n e d u p b y a p p l y i n g S t e r n ' s w o r k w i t h infants to the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g . W h e n I reflect o n t e a c h i n g sessions I note t h a t — a l o n g s i d e , o r i n t a n d e m w i t h t h i n k i n g h a r d a b o u t the content o f s t u d e n t s ' w o r k — I e n g a g e i n a n o t h e r process, w h i c h s e e m s to m e e v e n m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l for the success of t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . T h i s process i n v o l v e s m e i n a c t i v e l y a s s u m i n g a n a c u t e l y p e r c e p t i v e state i n w h i c h I a m l o o k i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y for cues a n d clues a b o u t the students. These cues a n d c l u e s are of t w o m a i n types: (a) v e r b a l — w h a t the students said, w h a t the s t u d e n t s d i d not say, how the s t u d e n t s s a i d w h a t t h e y s a i d , a n d so o n . . . a n d (b) v i s u a l — w h a t I r e a d f r o m the s t u d e n t ' s b e h a v i o u r , their d e m e a n o u r , the resonance—or o t h e r w i s e — b e t w e e n w h a t t h e y s a i d
Alison
Hall
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s i t u a t i o n s of u n c e r t a i n t y or u n i q u e n e s s w h i c h h e m a y a l l o w h i m s e l f to experience. (Schon 1983: 61) And: In e a c h instance, the practitioner a l l o w s h i m s e l f to experience s u r p r i s e , p u z z l e m e n t , or c o n f u s i o n i n a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h he f i n d s u n c e r t a i n o r u n i q u e . (Schon 1983: 68) W h e t h e r it b e analysis or e d u c a t i o n , the subjectivity
of the p a r t i c i
p a n t s a l w a y s b r i n g s s o m e t h i n g u n i q u e to the e n c o u n t e r , s o m e t h i n g which
it is i m p o s s i b l e
to theorise
i n advance.
Consequently, an
u n k n o w n element, a n ' X ' , has to b e s o m e h o w a c c o m m o d a t e d i n the p r a c t i c e o f t e a c h i n g , a n d h a s to be a c c o u n t e d for i n theories of l e a r n i n g — e v e n if o n l y as a n u n s p e c i f i e d ' s o m e t h i n g ' a r o u n d w h i c h a l l else m u s t b e o r g a n i s e d . T h e r e is a n o n u s o n the teacher, like the analyst, to k n o w s o m e t h i n g of his or h e r o w n subjectivity, a n d the effects of h i s or her a c t i o n s a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s — e v e n at a m i c r o - l e v e l . H o w e v e r the s u b jectivity o f e a c h s t u d e n t w i l l a l w a y s b r i n g n e w a n d u n i q u e challenges to the w o r k . T h e r a n g e of tactics a n d strategies a d o p t e d i n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ses sions also offers a n interesting c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the c o n d u c t of teach i n g . F o r i n s t a n c e — a s I n o t e d a b o v e — I use v e r b a l a n d v i s u a l clues to a t t e m p t to m a k e s o m e reasonably w e l l - f o u n d e d j u d g e m e n t s about s t u dents. H o w e v e r , I c l e a r l y d o n o t engage i n a n y k i n d of f u l l - b l o w n p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f the student b u t s i m p l y try to m a k e r e a s o n a b l y i n f o r m e d assessments of the student's f r a m e of m i n d — f o r e x a m p l e , c o n c e r n i n g the student's level of c o n f i d e n c e a b o u t their w o r k . If I c a n m a k e reasonable j u d g e m e n t s m a k e better j u d g e m e n t s
about s t u d e n t s ' c o n f i d e n c e , I c a n
c o n c e r n i n g the extent to w h i c h I n e e d to
e n c o u r a g e t h e m i n relation to p a r t i c u l a r elements of their w o r k , o r — a l t e r n a t e l y — d e f l a t e their o v e r - c o n f i d e n c e if they are a t t e m p t i n g to d o s o m e t h i n g b e y o n d their current capabilities. C u r r e n t s t u d e n t - c e n t r e d t h i n k i n g e m p h a s i s e s the i m p o r t a n c e of the s t u d e n t i n the l e a r n i n g process. A central a s s u m p t i o n of this w a y of t h i n k i n g is that the q u a l i t y of l e a r n i n g o u t c o m e s d e p e n d s l a r g e l y o n the a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d b y the learner h i m or herself. T h i s , i n t u r n , is r e g a r d e d as d e p e n d e n t u p o n the c o n c e p t i o n o f l e a r n i n g h e l d b y the learner, w h a t he or she k n o w s about h i s or h e r o w n l e a r n i n g , a n d the strategies that she o r h e chooses to use (cf. M o r g a n 1993). Interestingly,
32
Psychoanalytic
Research on
Learning
this is sometimes referred to as a process i n w h i c h students' choice of h o w to d o their l e a r n i n g m a y be i n f o r m e d b y u n c o n s c i o u s p h e n o m e n a ( N i g h t i n g a l e & O ' N e i l 1994: 61). It seems f r o m this that s o m e w r i t e r s o n e d u c a t i o n are o p e n to the i d e a that ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' processes
may
p l a y a p a r t i n l e a r n i n g — t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is surely that if one w a n t s to u n d e r s t a n d m o r e a b o u t l e a r n i n g one w i l l have to attempt to u n d e r s t a n d m o r e about ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' p r o c e s s e s — w h i c h are, of course, the central c o n c e r n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . T h e issue raised above c o n c e r n i n g confidence is one w h i c h is c o m m o n across all students. T h e r e is a l w a y s a generic issue of getting the b a l a n c e r i g h t i n terms of degrees of criticism, e n c o u r a g e m e n t ,
defla
t i o n , a n d c o n f i d e n c e - b o o s t i n g . H o w e v e r , the specificity of the student's personality, the stage they are at i n the e d u c a t i o n process, a n d , i n d e e d , h o w w e l l or h o w b a d l y other aspects of their life are p r o c e e d i n g o n the p a r t i c u l a r d a y of the s e s s i o n — a s s u m i n g I h a v e access to this i n f o r m a t i o n — w i l l feed into the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process a n d w i l l i n f o r m h o w I act i n relation to the student's confidence. T h i s is o n l y one e x a m p l e of the k i n d of e v a l u a t i o n a n d strategising w h i c h I t h i n k needs
to be
e m p l o y e d i n t e a c h i n g ; a s i m i l a r process s h o u l d also be u s e d across a r a n g e of other a x e s — f o r instance: m a n a g i n g the b o u n d a r i e s a r o u n d the t e a c h i n g / l e a r n i n g relationship; negotiating intellectual a n d other c o n flicts; a c k n o w l e d g i n g the d i f f e r i n g ideas about teaching a n d l e a r n i n g a n d h o w to d o it h e l d b y the student a n d the teacher; a n d t a k i n g a c c o u n t of the strengths a n d limitations of b o t h student a n d teacher. In a p p r o a c h i n g a tutorial session I h a v e u s u a l l y received the s t u d e n t ' s w o r k i n a d v a n c e . I w i l l h a v e e x a m i n e d it a n d m a d e critical c o m m e n t s i n the m a r g i n s a n d o n the text. T h e actual content a n d style of these c o m m e n t s w i l l be i n f l u e n c e d b y m y experience of the s t u d e n t w h o w i l l receive t h e m . T h i s is another e x a m p l e w h e r e the specificity of the s t u d e n t is a factor. M y professional skill as a n educator has (at least) t w o strands. O n e of these is c o n c e r n e d w i t h m y relation to the m a t e r i a l — a r e the a p p r o p r i a t e ideas b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , a n d are they b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d i n fruitful w a y s ? A r e relevant m e t h o d s b e i n g e m p l o y e d , a n d are they b e i n g e m p l o y e d correctly? W h e r e are the contradictions, s l i p p a g e s , non
sequiturs i n the argument?
T h e s e c o n d s t r a n d concerns m y relation to the student. T h i s is h a r d l y a o n e - s i d e d affair. Students, generally, like to k n o w w h o w i l l be m a r k i n g their w o r k , so that they c a n try to second-guess w h i c h slant they s h o u l d p u t o n their w r i t i n g . A l l s c r i p t s — e v e n the m o s t arcane of a s s i g n m e n t s — a r e a d d r e s s e d to a reader, a n d m o s t are the p r o d u c t of a
Alison Hall self-conscious
author
who
has
tried—however
unreliable
33 the
p r o c e s s — t o c o n s i d e r w h o she or he is w r i t i n g for. M y p r o f e s s i o n a l concerns i n this f i e l d i n e v i t a b l y l e a d m e to think a b o u t m y u n c e r t a i n attempts at s o c i a l i s i n g m y t w o c h i l d r e n . A t least s o m e of the time I felt that I w a s t r y i n g to i n t r o d u c e certain constraints a n d c o n s e q u e n t frustrations into m y c h i l d r e n ' s lives, yet w i t h o u t w a n t i n g to cause t h e m to t u r n off so m u c h that they w o u l d be too d i s c o u r a g e d to try things a g a i n . So, for e x a m p l e , I w o u l d w a n t to p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m r u n n i n g i n t o the r o a d , b u t i n a w a y that w o u l d n o t d i s c o u r a g e t h e m f r o m e n j o y i n g r u n n i n g a r o u n d i n a safe e n v i r o n m e n t . E q u a l l y , I w o u l d w a n t to e n c o u r a g e t h e m to spell w o r d s p r o p e r l y , b u t w i t h o u t so d e s t r o y i n g their c o n f i d e n c e i n their infantile efforts that t h e y w o u l d be d i s i n c l i n e d to t r y w r i t i n g a g a i n . T h i s k i n d of d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f the potential effects of one's i n t e r v e n t i o n s leads us b a c k a g a i n to Stern's account of the processes operative i n the e d u c a tive f u n c t i o n of e a r l y m o t h e r h o o d . H i s ideas o n a t t u n e m e n t i m p l y that i n the early r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the m o t h e r a n d her infant, the m o t h e r is able
constantly
to a d a p t her b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d s
the c h i l d to
take
a c c o u n t of its d e v e l o p m e n t a l needs, a n d that the c o m m u n i c a t i o n o p e r a t i n g b e t w e e n m o t h e r s a n d infants i n v o l v e s a k i n d of i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p l e x n e g o t i a t i o n o n b o t h sides. T h i s f r a m e w o r k also places m u c h of the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , for m a n a g i n g the e n c o u n t e r w i t h the s t u d e n t , onto m e , as the ' p r o f e s s i o n a l / m o t h e r ' . H o w e v e r , if I s e r i o u s l y take into account the specificity of e a c h s t u d e n t , a n d act t o w a r d s e a c h student differently, t h e n this affects a n u m b e r of d o m i n a n t p o l i t i c a l a n d p e d a g o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d practices. F o r i n s t a n c e , r e s p o n d i n g to students differently as a c o n s e q u e n c e of m y p e r c e p t i o n that t h e y require different i n t e r v e n t i o n s f r o m m e sits a w k w a r d l y w i t h E q u a l O p p o r t u n i t i e s policy. I m a y d e c i d e that o n e student r e q u i r e s m a n y h o u r s of patient cajoling a n d e x p l a n a t i o n , w h i l s t a n o t h er requires his o r her pretensions p u n c t u r i n g to set t h e m o n a better c o u r s e of action. T h i s gives a n i n d i c a t i o n of w h y s o m e k i n d s of ' e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y ' i n the field of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s are so risible, a n d w h y the issue also n e e d s careful c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h i n e d u c a t i o n . A n o t h e r issue emerges f r o m this d i s c u s s i o n , c o n c e r n i n g ideas a b o u t m o t h e r i n g . M i g h t this m e a n that p e o p l e w i t h experience of m o t h e r i n g m a k e better teachers? O r that p e o p l e w i t h better a t t u n i n g antennae a n d s k i l l s — w h e t h e r or not they are m o t h e r s — m a k e better
teachers?
C l e a r l y , s o m e p e r s o n a l i t y traits a n d skills m a k e for better or w o r s e
Psychoanalytic Research on Learning
34
t e a c h i n g . T h i s is a n area w h e r e m u c h m o r e research is necessary a n d w h e r e ideas f r o m p s y c h o a n a l y s i s m a y p l a y a useful part.
(it) Metapsychology L a c a n ' s w o r k of the 1950s, o n the centrality of s p e e c h a n d l a n g u a g e for p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , i m p l i e s a certain stance o n ' l e a r n i n g ' . T h e w h o l e q u e s t i o n of ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' is a d e c e p t i o n of the ego because ' k n o w l e d g e ' exists o n l y i n the l a n g u a g e s y s t e m a n d the i d e a that p e o p l e h a v e or h o l d k n o w l e d g e is d e l u s o r y (cf. H a l l 1996). ' K n o w l e d g e ' is to be c o n trasted
with
'Knowledge'
' t r u t h ' ; the
latter
can
emerge
via
psychoanalysis.
a n d ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' — o n the other h a n d — a r e not
the
g o a l of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . If e d u c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g are i n d e e d functions of the c i r c u l a t i o n of signifiers, t h e n p e d a g o g i c a l research m i g h t be u n d e r t a k e n to d e m o n s t r a t e — t h r o u g h case s t u d i e s — h o w
the t r i g g e r i n g effect of signifiers
constitutes o r p r o d u c e s l e a r n i n g . H o w e v e r , if the signifier c a n i n d e e d be c o n c e i v e d of as m a k i n g all the m o v e s , as d o i n g all the t h i n k i n g a n d s p e a k i n g w h i l s t the subject is t h o u g h t a n d s p o k e n , then w e still require a t h e o r y of the relation b e t w e e n the subject a n d the signifier i n the e d u c a t i o n a l f i e l d . L a c a n ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n of a t a x o n o m y of social b o n d s — h i s t h e o r y of the ' f o u r discourses', w h i c h i n c l u d e s a ' d i s c o u r s e of
the
U n i v e r s i t y ' ( L a c a n 1991)—fails to d e l i v e r here because it is b a s e d o n the p r e m i s e that U n i v e r s i t i e s operate w i t h a n E n l i g h t e n m e n t c o n c e p t i o n of science, t h i n k i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e . M a n y p e o p l e w o r k i n g i n U n i v e r s i t i e s w i s h that this w a s the case. Instead, t o d a y ' s U n i v e r s i t i e s are d o m i n a t e d b y ideas l a r g e l y i m p o r t e d f r o m the business w o r l d . T h e q u e s t i o n of l o v e a n d its r e l a t i o n to k n o w l e d g e is p e r t i n e n t here. It is w i d e l y accepted that transference is l i n k e d to l o v e .
However,
L a c a n is at p a i n s to demonstrate that transference is transference to knowledge ( L a c a n , 1999: 67). L a c a n also states: ...what is i m p o r t a n t i n w h a t has b e e n r e v e a l e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y t ic d i s c o u r s e . . . is that k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h structures the b e i n g w h o s p e a k s o n the basis of a specific c o h a b i t a t i o n , is closely related to love.
All love
is b a s e d o n a certain relationship b e t w e e n
two
u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e s . ( L a c a n 1999: 144, m y e m p h a s i s ) P e r h a p s w e n e e d to g o further a n d suggest that l o v e is l o v e of k n o w l e d g e . C o n s i d e r : the w o r s t t h i n g that c a n h a p p e n i n a love rela
Alison
35
Hall
t i o n s h i p is that s o m e o n e leaves a n d y o u don't know w h y . T h e p a i n of n o t k n o w i n g w h y s o m e o n e left is, it seems, w o r s e t h a n the p a i n of k n o w i n g they left because they p r e f e r r e d s o m e o n e else. It is a p r o b l e m of k n o w l e d g e . If the search for k n o w l e d g e is l i n k e d to l o v e , w h a t m i g h t this i m p l y about l e a r n i n g ? W h i l e love p r o v i d e s o n e m e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l route to a s t u d y of l e a r n i n g , p a r a n o i a p r o v i d e s another. F r e u d m a k e s the f o l l o w i n g c o m m e n t w h e n c o m p a r i n g the operations of 'conscience' to features of paranoia: ...the activity of the m i n d w h i c h has t a k e n o v e r the f u n c t i o n of conscience
h a s also
placed
itself at the service
of i n t e r n a l
research, w h i c h furnishes p h i l o s o p h y w i t h the m a t e r i a l for its intellectual o p e r a t i o n s . T h i s m a y h a v e s o m e b e a r i n g o n the char acteristic t e n d e n c y of p a r a n o i a c s to construct s p e c u l a t i v e
sys
tems. ( F r e u d 1914: 96) C a n this 'characteristic t e n d e n c y ' of p a r a n o i a c s p r o v i d e s o m e clues a b o u t intellectual e x p l o r a t i o n i n general? F r e u d , a n d L a c a n after h i m , c e r t a i n l y t h o u g h t that there w a s a p a r a n o i a c t e n d e n c y i n the o r d i n a r y f u n c t i o n of the e g o . If this is the case, then the s t u d y of the c o n s t r u c t i o n of ' s p e c u l a t i v e s y s t e m s ' o n the p a r t of p a r a n o i a c s m i g h t p r o v i d e v a l u able clues as to the m e c h a n i s m s o p e r a t i n g i n intellectual w o r k . T h e ego's p e n c h a n t for false c o n n e c t i o n s , a n d the f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n ten d e n c y to fill p s y c h i c a l v a c u u m s — w h i c h w e c o u l d l i n k to the p r o b l e m of loss o f l o v e , a b o v e — m a y also h e l p to e x p l a i n aspects of the desire to 'take i n ' k n o w l e d g e a n d to construct n a r r a t i v e sequences, l o g i c a l struc tures a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l systems.
T h i s a g a i n offers r i c h potential i n
terms o f e x p l a i n i n g aspects of intellectual life a n d the processes of intellectual creativity w h i c h are l i n k e d to l e a r n i n g . T h e r e is a h u g e theoretical g a p i n the m e t a p s y c h o l o g y o f intellectu al life w h i c h c o g n i t i v e science is i l l - e q u i p p e d to fill. A n y d e v e l o p e d t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g m u s t itself rest u p o n a d e v e l o p e d t h e o r y of intellect. I h o p e I h a v e s h o w n here that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s offers s o m e r a d i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s for research into m e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l aspects of intellect a n d learning.
36
Psychoanalytic Research on Learning
(Hi) The 'experience' of learning M u c h recent p e d a g o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e r n s the ' e x p e r i e n c e ' of the learner. E m p h a s i s is p l a c e d o n the l e a r n e r ' s i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e , fears, d i s c o m f o r t s , sense of i n a d e q u a c y , lack of c o n f i d e n c e , w i l l i n g n e s s to s u s p e n d beliefs, to g o into a space of lack of c o n t r o l , or to a l l o w t h e m selves to be o p e n to influences, changes, etc. A
recent p s y c h o a n a l y t i c e x a m p l e of this is a n article b y Joanne
B r o w n a n d H e a t h e r P r i c e i n w h i c h they i n t r o d u c e a ' p s y c h o a n a l y t i c m o d e l of l e a r n i n g w h i c h e m p h a s i s e s the i m p o r t a n c e of l e a r n i n g f r o m e x p e r i e n c e ' ( B r o w n & Price 1999: 89). T h e y d r a w o n the w o r k of Isca S a l z b e r g e r - W i t t e n b e r g (1983) w h i c h , i n t u r n , is b a s e d o n a n e o - K l e i n i a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p s y c h i c a l life. B r o w n a n d P r i c e p o i n t o u t that e a r l y l e a r n i n g is u n d e r t a k e n i n the context of a m o t h e r - i n f a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n d refer us to the i d e a of ' m e m o r y i n f e e l i n g ' w h i c h they attribute to K l e i n , r e m i n d i n g u s that w e n e e d to c o n s i d e r the ' e m o t i o n a l aspects of l e a r n i n g ' . T h e y state: ...new l e a r n i n g situations c a n e v o k e p o w e r f u l m e m o r i e s (in feel ing) r e g a r d i n g o u r capacity to t h i n k , to be d e p e n d e n t , to k n o w , to be creative, to i n t r u d e , to steal or to v a n d a l i s e
knowledge.
L e a r n i n g f r o m experience, h o w e v e r , i n v o l v e s us b e i n g o p e n to these e m o t i o n a l or b o d i l y states a n d fantasies, w h i c h w e m i g h t f i n d easier to split off, repress, smother, etc. ( B r o w n & P r i c e 1999: 89) T h i s w a y of t h i n k i n g is b e c o m i n g m o r e i n f l u e n t i a l i n e d u c a t i o n a n d , l i k e the g r o u p - t h e r a p e u t i c t h i n k i n g to w h i c h it is closely related, its p s y c h o a n a l y t i c heritage often gets v e r y s e r i o u s l y lost. H o w e v e r this p o s t - K l e i n i a n a p p r o a c h — a r g u a b l y n o w o w i n g little to K l e i n ' s o w n i d e a s — i s far r e m o v e d f r o m the l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t as c o n c e i v e d i n the L a c a n i a n w o r l d . T h e p o s t - K l e i n i a n m o d e l is b a s e d o n g r o u p s n o t i c i n g a n d actively r e s p o n d i n g to m i n u t e v a r i a t i o n s i n a n x i ety levels a n d to a n y change i n m o o d . T h e L a c a n i a n s , m e a n w h i l e , d o n o t a l l o w that at the l e v e l of the c l a s s r o o m issues of ' g r o u p d y n a m i c s ' a n d ' a n x i e t y - l e v e l s ' are w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n . L a c a n i a n i n s t r u c t i o n (for that is w h a t it is) is based o n charismatic d i s p l a y s of e x c e l l e n c e — w h o c a n argue best, w h o c a n r e m e m b e r the obscure reference h e a v i l y d i s g u i s e d i n a n a s i d e i n the Ecrits, w h o k n o w s that at this p o i n t i n his w o r k L a c a n is (covertly) referring to C h r e t i e n de T r o y e s , A r i s t o t l e ' s
Alison
Hall
37
causes, or s o m e m a d g e n i u s m a t h e m a t i c i a n . . . It is a J o y c e a n g a m e of references a n d associations w h i c h one is i n v i t e d to j o i n , or, m o r e often, to w i t n e s s — l i k e b e i n g part of a p u l s a t i n g c r o s s - w o r d . In this setting n o t h i n g w h i c h m i g h t be c o n c e i v e d as the ' d y n a m i c s ' of l e a r n i n g is taken into account. S o m e o n e gives a ' b r i l l i a n t lecture' or a ' c l e v e r p e r f o r m a n c e ' ; there is a split b e t w e e n speaker a n d a u d i e n c e b a s e d o n h i e r a r c h y a n d d i d a c t i c i s m w h i c h p r o b a b l y o w e s its o r i g i n s p r i n c i p a l l y to the a n a c h r o n i s t i c e l i t i s m of the F r e n c h e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m . P e o p l e leave these s e r m o n s w i t h a sense that s o m e t h i n g clever a n d i n t e r e s t i n g has b e e n s a i d . ' U n d e r s t a n d i n g ' is not the g o a l here, because this is seen as antithetical to p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ; to leave the session w i t h m o r e questions t h a n a n s w e r s is m o r e the s o u g h t o u t c o m e . A transfer ence to a v e i l e d a n d e n i g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e is generated. In contrast, the p o s t - K l e i n i a n w o r l d is obsessed
with dynamics.
E v e r y sneeze a n d s t o m a c h r u m b l e is a m e a s u r e of the g r o u p ' s regres s i o n , its l e v e l of anxiety, or its phantasies. A s e m i n a r b a s e d a r o u n d a p a r t i c u l a r issue or text q u i c k l y b e c o m e s a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f w h i c h c o n cepts a n d f o r m u l a t i o n s generate w h i c h k i n d of anxiety a n d l i n k to w h i c h p r i m i t i v e feelings. T h e intellectual content of the ideas at stake is s o o n sacrificed at the altar of subjective
feeling-states.
W h a t I a m s u g g e s t i n g is that each of these a p p r o a c h e s lacks s o m e t h i n g that the other possesses. O n one l e v e l it is a b s u r d to suggest that there is a n y t h i n g i n L a c a n i a n i s m w h i c h c o u l d be ' s u p p l e m e n t e d '
by
p o s t - K l e i n i a n i s m , a n d v i c e v e r s a — b e c a u s e they operate w i t h s u c h dif ferent conceptions of m e n t a l life, phantasy, anxiety a n d so o n . E v e n so, i n a m o r e practical sense I t h i n k s o m e l e a r n i n g f r o m each other's p r a c tice c o u l d be v e r y fruitful. C o n s i d e r , for a m o m e n t , the p o s i t i v e c h a n g e w h i c h m i g h t c o m e about if L a c a n i a n s a t t e n d e d m o r e closely to the d y n a m i c s i n the c l a s s r o o m , a n d if p o s t - K l e i n i a n s took greater p a i n s to c o n s i d e r the intellectual content a n d heritage of ideas. Surely, p s y c h o analysis could only gain. T h e split b e t w e e n these t w o a p p r o a c h e s is s o m e w h a t r e m i n i s c e n t of a g e n d e r d i v i d e . L a c a n i a n i s m is often r e g a r d e d as u n h e l p f u l l y p a t r i a r c h a l , a n d K l e i n i a n i s m as t h r e a t e n i n g l y m a t r i a r c h a l . T h i s is certainly e v i d e n t i n the styles of t e a c h i n g they e m p l o y i n the t r a n s m i s s i o n of their i d e a s a n d practices. T h e s e styles s e e m to c o r r e s p o n d — o n the one h a n d — t o father's abstract, difficult to u n d e r s t a n d h e c t o r i n g , remote a n d distant, a n d — o n the other h a n d — t o m o t h e r ' s i n t r u s i o n into e v e r y c o r n e r of o u r i n t e r n a l w o r l d , p r o v i n g far too close for comfort.
38
Psychoanalytic
Research on Learning
T h e r e is a n a r g u m e n t here for a far-reaching r e - c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the r e l a t i v e lack o f intellectual r i g o u r of K l e i n i a n w o r k , a n d the relative l a c k o f self-consciousness i n L a c a n i a n w o r k . T h e a p p a r e n t g e n d e r split b e t w e e n t h e m also requires e x a m i n a t i o n . T h i s raises issues of p a r t i c u lar i m p o r t a n c e for those w i t h i n the field of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : it m i g h t be p o s s i b l e to a r r i v e at a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l e a r n i n g processes i n g e n e r a l if w e u n d e r s t o o d m o r e t h o r o u g h l y the peculiarities of the sys t e m s w e o u r s e l v e s rely o n for the t r a n s m i s s i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .
(iv) Intellectual
enjoyment
In 1905, F r e u d n o t e d that: ...it is a n u n m i s t a k a b l e fact that concentration o f the attention u p o n a n intellectual task a n d intellectual strain i n general p r o d u c e a c o n c o m i t a n t sexual excitation i n m a n y y o u n g p e o p l e as w e l l as a d u l t s . ( F r e u d 1905a: 204) T h i s s e x u a l excitation, l i n k e d to intellectual effort, f o r m s a basis for all m a n n e r of p s y c h o p a t h o l o g i e s , a l t h o u g h F r e u d h i m s e l f d i d n o t m a k e a specific s t u d y o f the forms this c o u l d take. F r e u d i n t r o d u c e s the c o n cept o f ' f o r e - p l e a s u r e ' s h o r t l y after the passage q u o t e d above ( F r e u d 1905a: 210-212). T h i s t e r m refers to a 'lesser f o r m o f p l e a s u r e ' w h i c h m a k e s p o s s i b l e a greater source of satisfaction. A l t h o u g h F r e u d does n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y l i n k fore-pleasure a n d intellectual w o r k , w e c o u l d hypothesise
that the m e c h a n i s m s
of fore-pleasure
c a n be u s e d to
e x p l a i n the l i b i d i n a l i s e d satisfactions associated w i t h intellectual w o r k . A t t h e s a m e time as h e w a s w r i t i n g Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(1905a) F r e u d w a s also at w o r k o n Jokes and Their Relation to
the Unconscious
(1905b) i n w h i c h h e elaborates o n the role o f f o r e - p l e a
sure i n r e l a t i o n to jokes. H o w e v e r , the o r i g i n a l G e r m a n title of this w o r k — D e r Witz been
translated
Und Seine Beziehung Zum more
f a i t h f u l l y as 'Wit
Unbewussten—could
have
a n d its r e l a t i o n to t h e
U n c o n s c i o u s ' . W i t , m o r e t h a n jokes, i m p l i e s a degree of intellectual w o r k . I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the m e c h a n i s m s associated w i t h the o p e r a t i o n o f w i t , F r e u d s h o w s h o w m u c h intellectual effort goes into a p p r e c i a t i n g a joke. Jokes, m o r e t h a n m o s t p h e n o m e n a , illustrate the w a y i n w h i c h a p s y c h i c a l content c a n b e a source o f b o d i l y sensation, i n the f o r m o f laughter. A research p r o g r a m m e w h i c h a i m e d to l o o k at the
Alison Hall
39
b o d i l y effects of intellectual w o r k c o u l d further o u r k n o w l e d g e of b o t h l e a r n i n g a n d the relation b e t w e e n b o d y a n d m i n d . E d w a r d L i s s d r e w attention to 'the p h e n o m e n o n of l e a r n i n g as a n erotic, s e n s u o u s e x p e r i e n c e (Liss 1941: 520). H e p r o v i d e d a selection of 7
c l i n i c a l vignettes d e m o n s t r a t i n g the extent to w h i c h he b e l i e v e d that sadistic a n d m a s o c h i s t i c i m p u l s e s p l a y a p a r t i n the p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y of i n d i v i d u a l subjects i n their r e l a t i o n to intellectual w o r k (Liss 1940). F o r s o m e students the i m p l i c a t i o n that the contents o f the l e a r n i n g process are s e x u a l , suffuses
that activity w i t h s u c h
taboo
i m p l i c a t i o n s that the a c q u i s i t i o n of facts is e n d o w e d w i t h i n o r d i nate g u i l t a n d u l t i m a t e l y accentuated anxiety. (Liss 1941: 520) L i s s discusses a t y p e of l e a r n i n g w h i c h h e designates
'essentially
o b s e s s i o n a l ' . T h i s t y p e of (non) l e a r n i n g , ...manifests itself i n a m e t i c u l o u s l y repetitive e v a l u a t i o n o f sen tence a n d w o r d contents, w i t h a s t e r e o t y p e d , c i r c u l a r intensive i n q u i r y w h i c h n e e d s repeated i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d , w h e n inter p r e t e d , leads to i n t e r m i n a b l e review. T h e obsessive a b s o r p t i o n of these y o u n g i n d i v i d u a l s i n their a c q u i s i t i o n o f factual m a t e r i a l , w i t h their i n t e r m i n a b l e insistence o n detail, e n d s i n a t i m e - c o n s u m i n g p r o c e d u r e w h i c h procrastinates t o m o r r o w ' s
task a n d
leaves t o d a y ' s task u n c o m p l e t e d . T h e s u m total w o r k f i n i s h e d is o u t of a l l p r o p o r t i o n to the effort a n d e n e r g y e x p e n d e d a n d the e n d result is a p r o n o u n c e d l a g i n the l e a r n i n g t e m p o , a b o g g i n g d o w n . . . T h e s e y o u n g p e o p l e are p o t e n t i a l p e d a n t s a n d one c a n a p p r e c i a t e t h r o u g h t h e m the m o r e clearly the genesis of certain aspects of s c h o l a s t i c i s m . (Liss 1941: 522) T h a t this m a y b e s y m p t o m a t i c o f obsessional neurosis is s u p p o r t e d b y the case s t u d y of the m o s t f a m o u s p r o c r a s t i n a t o r i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , F r e u d ' s ' R a t M a n ' , w h o , a m o n g s t other s y m p t o m s , h a d a n 'obsession for u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' w h i c h r e q u i r e d m e m b e r s
of h i s social circle to
e x p l a i n a g a i n a n d a g a i n w h a t h a d just b e e n s a i d a n d its exact m e a n i n g — m u c h to e v e r y o n e ' s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a n n o y a n c e ( F r e u d 1909:190). Freud's
commentary
o n the ' R a t M a n ' , a n d L i s s ' s
comments
on
s c h o l a s t i c i s m , serve to r e m i n d u s that 'intensive i n q u i r y ' m a y i n fact be p a t h o l o g i c a l , a n d m a y l e a d u s to c o n s i d e r carefully the degree of p s y c h o p a t h o l o g y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n a l l research or intellectual w o r k .
Psychoanalytic
40
Research
L a c a n ' s c o n c e p t of jouissance
on
Learning
c a n be b r o u g h t to bear o n this p r o b l e m .
A n e x p l o r a t i o n of the b o d i l y ' e n j o y m e n t ' associated w i t h , t r i g g e r i n g or t r i g g e r e d b y i n t e l l e c t u a l effort, m a y offer a m e a n s to theorise w h i c h k i n d s of i n t e l l e c t u a l e n g a g e m e n t generate
excitement
and
anxiety;
w h e r e a n d u n d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s w e recoil f r o m i d e a s that are too w a y w a r d o r d i s t u r b i n g ; h o w ideas a n d o u r u n c o n s c i o u s e n j o y m e n t of t h e m are p l a y e d out, i n a n d t h r o u g h the b o d y ; a n d w h a t the p a r a m e ters of these processes are.
*** A t t e m p t s to b r i n g p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas a n d l e a r n i n g together i n the p a s t h a v e b e e n q u i t e l i m i t e d a n d h a v e often r e l i e d o n w h a t are n o w rather o u t d a t e d ideas of l e a r n i n g or o n v e r y w a t e r e d - d o w n v e r s i o n s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c concepts. If a p r o b l e m as substantive a n d f u n d a m e n t a l as l e a r n i n g is n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d p e r h a p s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas c a n offer s o m e m e a n s for i n v e s t i g a t i n g it further. I h o p e that I h a v e s h o w n that there is n o short age of p o t e n t i a l a v e n u e s for research.
Notes
1 A lecturer i n N u r s i n g , a t t e n d i n g a m e e t i n g o n e d u c a t i o n a l research at w h i c h I w a s present, p r o c l a i m e d i n r e l a t i o n to her a n d her colleagues w o r k w i t h student nurses: ' S c h o n is o u r bible'! 2 T h e c h i l d ' s i n d u c t i o n i n t o a n d i n c r e a s i n g e x p l o r a t i o n of expressive r h y t h m i c a l i t y p r o v i d e s the basis for entry i n t o a s y m b o l i c a n d differentiated w o r l d — o n e i n w h i c h discrete u n i t s of s p e e c h (signifiers) c a n be e x c h a n g e d . T h e c r o s s - m o d a l exchanges s u p p o r t a crucial l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n — t h a t of the s u b s t i t u t i o n of one t h i n g for another (akin to m e t a p h o r ) . Persistent r h y t h m i c a c t i v i t y — f o r instance, r o c k i n g , as frequently encountered i n autistic c h i l d r e n — m a y be i n d i c a t i v e of a f a i l u r e i n c r o s s - m o d a l s u b s t i t u t i o n .
IS A N Y T H I N G M O R E I N T E R E S T I N G T H A N S E X ? T H E FREUDIAN PERSPECTIVE O N LEARNING A N D TEACHING
Duncan
Barford
'I a m a l w a y s r e a d y to l e a r n a l t h o u g h I d o not a l w a y s like b e i n g t a u g h t / —Winston Churchill A c c o r d i n g to F r e u d , w h e n it c o m e s to l e a r n i n g w e are all like W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l . W e are eager e n o u g h to take i n w h a t the w o r l d presents, b u t o n l y as l o n g as this meets u s o n o u r o w n terms. If instead the w o r l d d e m a n d s that w e c h a n g e o u r s e l v e s or alter o u r p r e c o n c e p t i o n s , then, p u g n a c i o u s to the v e r y e n d , the m i n d refuses to surrender. T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w of t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g is thus d e e p l y p r o b l e m a t i c , because the p i c t u r e of the m i n d p a i n t e d b y F r e u d s u g gests
that
human
nature
is f u n d a m e n t a l l y
at o d d s
w i t h reality.
E v e r y d a y c o n s c i o u s t h i n k i n g is c o n c e i v e d as a fragile superstructure rising
tenuously
from
origins
i n primitive, unconscious
mental
processes. T h e r e is n o n o t i o n i n F r e u d ' s p s y c h o l o g y of a learner w i t h a d i s i n t e r e s t e d c u r i o s i t y about reality for its o w n sake; rather, the h a l l m a r k of all p s y c h i c a l activity is u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, p r i m a r i l y of a self-centred a n d s e x u a l n a t u r e . T h i s raises s o m e c o n v o l u t e d questions. If l e a r n i n g is the r e c o g n i t i o n a n d acceptance of aspects of reality, of the ' n o n - s e l f ,
then h o w c a n
l e a r n i n g ever be s a i d to occur, g i v e n that this goes against the f u n d a m e n t a l i n c l i n a t i o n of m i n d ? C o n v e r s e l y , f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of the teacher, w h a t c o n d i t i o n s h a v e to be i n place to e n c o u r a g e the student to go against the n a t u r a l tendencies of m i n d a n d b e g i n to learn? M a r k T e n n a n t c o m m e n t s that: P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is n o t a b l y absent f r o m the literature o n a d u l t t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . T h i s is difficult to u n d e r s t a n d , especially g i v e n the i m p o r t a n c e a d u l t e d u c a t o r s attach to the e m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e of the c l a s s r o o m a n d the anxieties, fears a n d hopes of l e a r n ers. (Tennant 1988:
25)
B u t p e r h a p s it is not really so difficult to u n d e r s t a n d after a l l , c o n s i d e r i n g that the h y p o t h e s e s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a p p e a r so 'strange' to a d u l t e d u c a t o r s . T h e e m p h a s i s p l a c e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s u p o n the
7s Anything
42
More Interesting than Sex?
p r i m i t i v e a n d i r r a t i o n a l aspects of m e n t a l life d o e s i n d e e d a d d r e s s the issue of the ' e m o t i o n a l c l i m a t e ' of the c l a s s r o o m , but w i t h a n intensity that is p r o b a b l y u n c o m f o r t a b l e for the majority. T h e ' u n u s u a l ' n o t i o n of l e a r n i n g a d v a n c e d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s has h a d a n effect u p o n the literature o n the t h e m e of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d l e a r n i n g . Firstly, m a n y writers seem k e e n to p r o m o t e l i n k s b e t w e e n psychoanalytic views
of l e a r n i n g a n d m o r e
orthodox
approaches.
T h e s e w r i t e r s are d r i v e n b y a n e e d to ' d i l u t e ' the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c e m p h a s i s , or to l e n d it credence b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g its s i m i l a r i t y to m o r e e m p i r i c a l , o r t h o d o x a p p r o a c h e s (cf. Wolff 1960). Secondly, p s y c h o a n a lytic w r i t i n g o n l e a r n i n g tends to a d o p t a therapeutic, r e m e d i a l o r i e n tation. Less is m a d e of the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w of l e a r n i n g t h a n of the a p p l i c a t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s to l e a r n i n g situations. T h e p r i m a r y c o n 1
c e r n here is w i t h the use of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s as a clinical tool for over c o m i n g v a r i o u s k i n d s of l e a r n i n g difficulties. T h e first of these a p p r o a c h e s obscures the u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n m a k e to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l e a r n i n g , a n d the s e c o n d shifts the focus of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a w a y f r o m l e a r n i n g onto therapy. T h e existing
psychoanalytic
literature o n l e a r n i n g a p p e a r s
because it i m p l i e s that only psychoanalysts
daunting
c a n e m p l o y the necessary
techniques to a r r i v e at a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of l e a r n i n g sit uations. To trainee teachers, theories of l e a r n i n g are often p r e s e n t e d b e l o n g i n g to one of three b r o a d orientations—behaviourism, a n d humanism.
as
cognitivism
It is expected that teachers w i l l be able to i d e n t i f y a n d
use m e t h o d s f r o m e a c h of these traditions. H o w e v e r , the literature o n w h i c h these theories of l e a r n i n g are based does not q u e s t i o n the p r o fessional c o m p e t e n c e of the teacher to the s a m e extent as the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c literature. E d u c a t o r s d o not seem to s p e n d time w o r r y i n g over w h e t h e r they n e e d to be a ' q u a l i f i e d ' cognitive p s y c h o l o g i s t i n order to use
cognitive
teaching methods.
In contrast,
consider the
heavy
d e m a n d m a d e o n the professional capacity of the teacher i n the fol l o w i n g passage f r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c text: T h e task of the teacher m a y be thought of as r e s e m b l i n g the p a r e n t a l f u n c t i o n : that is, to act as a t e m p o r a r y container for the excessive anxiety of his students at points of stress. It w i l l m e a n that he w i l l experience i n h i m s e l f s o m e of the m e n t a l p a i n c o n n e c t e d w i t h l e a r n i n g , a n d yet set a n e x a m p l e of m a i n t a i n i n g c u r i o s i t y i n the face of chaos, love of truth i n the face of terror of
43
Duncan Barford the u n k n o w n , a n d h o p e i n the face of despair. If he is able to d o this h e is p r o v i d i n g the c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h w i l l foster i n the s t u d e n t a n a b i l i t y to tolerate the uncertainties c o n n e c t e d w i t h learn i n g . (Salzberger-Wittenberg
et a l . 1983:
60)
T h e a i m of the present s t u d y is to steer a p a t h b e t w e e n these ten d e n c i e s , a n d to concentrate u p o n w h a t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n contribute to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the nature of l e a r n i n g . A n attempt w i l l be m a d e to m a p out s o m e g e n e r a l outlines of a n a p p r o a c h w i t h i n classi cal p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s is a distinct b r a n c h of p s y c h o l o g y , w i t h a u n i q u e object of i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d m e t h o d s of i n q u i r y . A c c o r d i n g l y , a n attempt
w i l l be m a d e
to v i e w
the
psychoanalytic
a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g o n a p a r w i t h b e h a v i o u r i s t , cognitivist
and
h u m a n i s t a p p r o a c h e s , a n d to d r a w attention to s o m e significant s i m i larities a n d differences b e t w e e n the f o u r orientations.
It is n o t o n l y p s y c h o a n a l y s t s w h o a d v o c a t e that p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n m a k e a v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n to theories of l e a r n i n g . J e r o m e B r u n e r ' s classic c o g n i t i v i s t text, Toward a Theory of Instruction, contains a chapter e n t i t l e d ' O n C o p i n g a n d D e f e n d i n g ' . It explores a p a r t i c u l a r type of l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y i n c h i l d r e n , a n d is r e m a r k a b l e for its p s y c h o d y n a m ic t e r m i n o l o g y , a l t h o u g h B r u n e r stops short of e m p l o y i n g explicitly psychoanalytic hypotheses. B r u n e r suggests that at the root of s o m e l e a r n i n g difficulties is w h a t he terms a ' p r e - e m p t i v e m e t a p h o r ' . H e argues that e a r l y l e a r n i n g is d o m i n a t e d b y w a y s of a p p r e h e n d i n g the w o r l d w h i c h are not entirely effective i n s e p a r a t i n g k n o w l e d g e f r o m the e m o t i o n a l a n d m o t i v a t i o n al context i n w h i c h it is a c q u i r e d . A p r e - e m p t i v e m e t a p h o r is an o r g a n i s a t i o n of associated ideas i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y l i n k e d to a n affective c o n cept. B r u n e r gives the e x a m p l e of a b o y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the issue of ' t h i n g s that c a n h u r t m e ' . In m a t h s lessons, e v e n t h o u g h the subject matter p r e s e n t e d to the b o y w a s p u r e l y abstract a n d s y m b o l i c , it n e v ertheless s e r v e d as fuel to this u n d e r l y i n g e m o t i o n a l issue. T o the boy, fractions a s s u m e d the significance of m u t i l a t e d , c u t - u p n u m b e r s ; alge b r a i c c a n c e l l a t i o n m e a n t e r a d i c a t i o n a n d k i l l i n g . A s t u d e n t u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of the ' c a n c e r o u s g r o w t h of a p r e - e m p t i n g m e t a p h o r ' (Bruner 1966: 138) ceases to c o p e w i t h l e a r n i n g , a n d begins to d e f e n d against it. Instead of r e s p e c t i n g the d e m a n d s of p r o b l e m s , the learner begins to
Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?
44
fear t h e m , a n d begins to e m p l o y m e a n s of e s c a p i n g c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e m . T h i s is c o m m o n l y a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h d i s r u p t i v e b e h a v i o u r a n d a s e e m i n g ' i n a b i l i t y ' to l e a r n . I n v e s t i g a t i o n of b l o c k a g e s i n l e a r n i n g d r e w B r u n e r onto u n m i s t a k a b l y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c territory. T h e c h i l d d e s c r i b e d is p r e s u m e d
by
B r u n e r to be subject to p o w e r f u l unconscious phantasies. T h e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n threatens to b r i n g these i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s , so (as a s a f e g u a r d against this) the act of l e a r n i n g itself is subjected to repression. T h e ' l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y ' is, f r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of view, sympto
matic,
a n d possesses the structure of a neurosis. T h e c h i l d ' s d i f f i c u l t y
has n o t h i n g to d o w i t h a deficient I Q , b u t e v e r y t h i n g to d o
with
i n t r a p s y c h i c conflict. P r a g m a t i c a l l y , B r u n e r advocates ' t h e r a p y ' or a ' s u p p o r t i v e t u t o r i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p ' as a r e m e d y for this k i n d of difficulty. T h e tutor is a d v i s e d to a s s u m e a role w h i c h w i l l e n c o u r a g e the learner to i d e n t i f y w i t h h i m or her. I n this w a y , the tutor w i l l h a v e ' p r o v i d e d a n e w m o d e l of c o p i n g b y s h o w i n g that p r o b l e m s are b o t h s o l u b l e a n d n o t d a n g e r o u s — o r , w h e n not s o l u b l e , at least not the s o u r c e of either disaster or p u n i s h m e n t ' (Bruner 1966:
146).
So, despite a p p r o a c h i n g the issue f r o m a different theoretical start i n g - p o i n t , the c o g n i t i v e e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g i s t e n d s b y u s i n g a s i m ilar l a n g u a g e a n d a d v o c a t i n g the s a m e r e m e d i e s as the e x p l i c i t l y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of v i e w q u o t e d a b o v e (Bruner 1966: 42-3). T h e c o n c u r r e n c e of e d u c a t i o n a l i s t a n d analyst has m u c h to d o w i t h the t y p e of l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y that B r u n e r has i d e n t i f i e d . N e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s — t h e i n a b i l i t y to l e a r n as a defence against e m e r gence of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s i e s — a r e l e g i o n i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c lit erature o n l e a r n i n g . E x a m p l e s i n c l u d e : a b o y w h o s e o n l y c o n c e r n is w i t h the 'erotic' content of lessons d u e to p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h h i s father's s e x u a l life ( A n t h o n y 1989:
121); a g i r l u n a b l e to l e a r n h e r 8x
table b e c a u s e of the p h o n e t i c e q u i v a l e n c e of 'eight' a n d 'ate'; t w o c h i l d r e n u n a b l e to recognise the letter ' c ' because of its resemblance to a b i t i n g m o u t h ( C o h l e r 1989: 64); a b o y w h o b e c o m e s u n a b l e to r e a d a s t o r y w h i c h i n v o l v e s a d o g , because it is c o n n e c t e d i n his m i n d w i t h m e m o r i e s of a lost d o g , a lost teacher, a n d fears of l o s i n g his m o t h e r ( B l a n c h a r d 1946:
177).
W h e r e Bruner a n d psychoanalysis part company, however,
con
cerns the degree of significance a s s i g n e d to the u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s i e s w h i c h l e a d to n e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g difficulties. B r u n e r writes:
Duncan Barford
45
W h a t e v e r 'the u n c o n s c i o u s ' m e a n s , these c h i l d r e n w e r e o p e r a t i n g b y its d i r e c t i o n . In effect, it a m o u n t s , I s u p p o s e , to a set of c o g n i t i v e o p e r a t i o n s that p r e v a i l i n the absence of c o n s c i o u s c o n trols... it is the absence of the c o n s c i o u s or ' l o g i c a l ' c h e c k that p e r m i t s a d e f e n s i v e m e t a p h o r to g r o w b y a c a n c e r o u s metastasis. (Bruner 1966:
144)
T h o s e i n v e r t e d c o m m a s a r o u n d the w o r d ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' speak v o l u m e s . F o r B r u n e r , the ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' is m e r e l y a m o d e of t h i n k i n g w h i c h obtains i n the absence
of r a t i o n a l , c o n s c i o u s
thought. This
i m p l i e s that ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' is a p r o d u c t of the absence of c o n s c i o u s n e s s , rather t h a n a c o n s t a n t l y present a n d self-sufficient aspect of m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g . It also i m p l i e s that r a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s t h i n k i n g , or a ' l o g i cal c h e c k ' , is a l l that is r e q u i r e d to p u t the ' u n c o n s c i o u s ' to flight. B r u n e r c o n t i n u e s i n this v e i n : It is too often t a k e n for g r a n t e d that the processes that l e a d to effective c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g are m e r e extensions
of u n c o n
scious d r e a m w o r k a n d association. I d o not b e l i e v e this to be the case, a n d a close r e a d i n g of F r e u d c e r t a i n l y indicates that he d i d not b e l i e v e so. (Bruner 1966: 147-8) I believe it is difficult to d e f e n d this interpretation. F r e u d seems to be quite clear i n his o p i n i o n that r a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s t h o u g h t d e v e l o p s f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s m e n t a l processes, a n d cannot be c o n s i d e r e d as w h o l l y i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e m : T h i n k i n g . . . is essentially a n e x p e r i m e n t a l k i n d of acting... It is p r o b a b l e that t h i n k i n g w a s o r i g i n a l l y u n c o n s c i o u s . . . a n d that it d i d n o t a c q u i r e further qualities, perceptible to c o n s c i o u s n e s s , u n t i l it b e c a m e c o n n e c t e d w i t h v e r b a l residues. ( F r e u d 1911:
221)
F r e u d suggests that u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g o n l y b e c a m e split off f r o m c o n s c i o u s , r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d t h o u g h t as a result of e v o l u t i o n a r y p r e s s u r e s — t h a t is, it s o o n b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t to a p r i m i t i v e m i n d that p h a n t a s y a n d h a l l u c i n a t i o n t e n d not to p r o d u c e results a n d satisfaction to the s a m e degree as r a t i o n a l , r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d t h o u g h t a n d a c t i o n (cf. F r e u d 1911: 219). H o w e v e r , this does n o t i m p l y that l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g c o m p l e t e l y replaces u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g . T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c the o r y of m i n d rests v e r y m u c h o n the a s s u m p t i o n that u n c o n s c i o u s
46
Is Anything
More Interesting than Sex?
m o d e s of t h i n k i n g are constantly active w i t h i n u s , a n d constitute a l e v e l of c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g w h i c h is w o r t h y of attention e q u a l to c o n scious, l o g i c a l t h o u g h t . F o r the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y - i n f o r m e d educationalist, therefore, the k i n d of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g w h i c h gives rise to n e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g difficulties is w h o l l y consistent w i t h the nature of the h u m a n m i n d . It is n o t to b e v i e w e d — l i k e B r u n e r s u g g e s t s — a s a m o r b i d , ' c a n c e r o u s ' p r o l i f e r a t i o n of u n r e a s o n , a consequence of insufficient ' l o g i c a l checks'. A p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of w h a t the process o f l e a r n i n g m i g h t entail b e g i n s w i t h the i r r a t i o n a l phantasies of the learner.
T h e p r o b l e m of l e a r n i n g is n o t specifically a d d r e s s e d b y F r e u d . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l concerns of classical p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — d r e a m s , slips of the t o n g u e , screen m e m o r i e s , etc.—focus
m o r e u p o n the m i n d ' s refusal
a n d e v a s i o n of reality t h a n its a s s i m i l a t i o n . H o w e v e r , g i v e n the atten t i o n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s p a y s to the m i n d ' s ' n o n - l e a r n i n g ' , it is possible to trace the outlines of a converse process. B r u n e r a n d the p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h share the n o t i o n that a learner c a n b e c o m e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h a n u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, a n d that l e a r n i n g difficulties w i l l arise i f the learner reacts d e f e n s i v e l y to m a t e r i a l w h i c h threatens
to b r i n g the u n c o n s c i o u s
phantasy
into
awareness. T h e F r e u d i a n contention that the m i n d at its most f u n d a m e n t a l l e v e l is i r r a t i o n a l , i m p l i e s that all learners are p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies to a n extent. Therefore, learners experience difficulties not p r i m a r i l y d u e to the kind of p h a n t a s y to w h i c h they are subject, b u t a c c o r d i n g to the degree to w h i c h p h a n t a s y is able to exert an influence over thinking: Because e v e r y t h i n g w e experience evokes u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n tasies, e v e r y topic discussed... stirs u p images i n the depths of the m i n d . If these are p o w e r f u l l y present a n d of a d i s t u r b i n g n a t u r e , they w i l l t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y
interfere
with
l e a r n i n g . . . S o m e topics like v o l c a n o e s frequently arouse
great
excitement a n d considerable anxiety because they are closely associated w i t h phantasies about b o d y cavities a n d their d a n gerous contents. (Salzberger-Wittenberg
et al. 1983: 71)
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L e a r n i n g , f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , i n v o l v e s n e g o t i a t i o n a n d i n t e r c h a n g e b e t w e e n ' i n s i d e a n d ' o u t s i d e ' . A n aspect of the 7
self is p r e s u m e d to m e d i a t e b e t w e e n the u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies w i t h i n the learner, a n d messages f r o m the external w o r l d — b e t w e e n secret fears of ' d a n g e r o u s b o d y cavities' a n d a lecture o n ' v o l c a n o e s ' . In clas s i c a l p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , the ego is e n v i s a g e d as p e r f o r m i n g this f u n c t i o n .
2
A p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory of l e a r n i n g r e v o l v e s a r o u n d the nature of the ego. F r e u d p o s t u l a t e d that the m i n d f u n c t i o n e d i n its earliest stages a c c o r d i n g to the ' p r i m a r y process', p r o d u c i n g the t y p e of i r r a t i o n a l , p r e - l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g w h i c h is characteristic of u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy. U n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of the p r i m a r y process, a p a r t i c u l a r i d e a w i l l t e n d to g i v e w a y q u i c k l y a n d easily to other ideas w h i c h — f o r a n y r e a s o n — are associated w i t h it. If a n i d e a is associated w i t h a p r e v i o u s e x p e r i ence of p l e a s u r e or satisfaction, then it is especially l i k e l y to c o m e to m i n d if the o r g a n i s m is i n a state w h i c h calls for that satisfaction (cf. L a p l a n c h e & P o n t a l i s 1988:
339).
C o n s i d e r the e x a m p l e of a h u n g r y
b a b y w i s h i n g for the breast of its mother. In this i l l u s t r a t i o n the basic s u r v i v a l v a l u e of ' p r i m a r y process t h i n k i n g ' c a n be a p p r e c i a t e d , b u t also s o m e s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s . A s e n s a t i o n of h u n g e r m a y e v o k e i n the b a b y ' s m i n d the a p p r o p r i a t e i d e a of the breast, a n d m a y also initiate s u c k i n g actions, b u t the m e r e h a l l u c i n a t i o n of the breast a n d the i s o l a t e d a c t i o n of s u c k i n g cannot i n themselves p r o d u c e satisfaction w i t h o u t the presence of the breast i n reality. P r i m a r y p r o c e s s t h i n k i n g is a k i n d of ' s h o r t - c i r c u i t e d ' c o g n i t i o n . Ideas arise i n the m i n d , a n d are c o n n e c t e d creatively to one another, b u t n o t i n a g u i d e d or o r d e r e d f a s h i o n , a n d w i t h o u t t a k i n g reality i n t o account.
L o g i c a l , reality-oriented t h i n k i n g — o r 'secondary
process'
t h i n k i n g — d e v e l o p s later. P r i m a r y process t h i n k i n g initiates phantasies, w h i c h serve the f u n c t i o n of l i n k i n g n e e d s w i t h h a l l u c i n a t i o n s of satisfaction.
Secondary
process t h i n k i n g , o n the other h a n d , takes the d e m a n d s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s of r e a l i t y i n t o account. It is a m o r e i n h i b i t e d a n d d r a w n - o u t f o r m of c o g n i t i o n , w h i c h serves the f u n c t i o n of l i n k i n g n e e d s w i t h about h o w t h e y m i g h t be satisfied (cf. F r e u d 1900:
thoughts
602).
T h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m p r i m a r y process to s e c o n d a r y process occurs i n s y n c h r o n y w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of the ego. T h i s is h o w F r e u d first a t t e m p t e d to d e s c r i b e the b i r t h of the ego:
48
Is Anything More Interesting than Sex? ...an o r g a n i s a t i o n has b e e n f o r m e d i n * F w h o s e presence inter 3
feres w i t h passages [of quantity]... T h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n is called the 'ego'. It c a n easily b e d e p i c t e d i f w e c o n s i d e r that the r e g u l a r l y r e p e a t e d r e c e p t i o n of e n d o g e n o u s Qr\ [quantities]... a n d the facil itating effect p r o c e e d i n g thence w i l l p r o d u c e a g r o u p of n e u r o n e s w h i c h is constantly cathected... a n d thus c o r r e s p o n d s to the v e h i c l e of the store r e q u i r e d b y the s e c o n d a r y f u n c t i o n . . . T h u s the e g o is to b e d e f i n e d as the totality of *F cathexes at the g i v e n time; i n w h i c h a p e r m a n e n t c o m p o n e n t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a c h a n g i n g one. ( F r e u d 1950: 323) D e s p i t e the o p a q u e l a n g u a g e o f ' n e u r o n e s ' a n d 'quantities' that F r e u d uses i n this text, the ego is e n v i s a g e d as a s i m p l e o r g a n i s a t i o n i n terms of its structure a n d f u n c t i o n . F r e u d is p r o p o s i n g that associations w h i c h accrue b e t w e e n
ideas
a n d sensations of p a i n a n d pleasure ('repeated reception of e n d o g e n o u s quantities') f o r m e n d u r i n g c o n n e c t i o n s i n the m i n d . O n c e these are i n p l a c e , a n ' a r e a ' begins to d e v e l o p w h i c h possesses a h i g h e r d e g r e e of structure a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n t h a n its s u r r o u n d i n g , a n d w h i c h c a n m a i n t a i n itself i n response to s t i m u l i i n a m o r e consistent f a s h i o n . T h e s t i m u l i the ego has to d e a l w i t h m a y vary, a n d m a y i n t r o d u c e n e w c o n n e c t i o n s , b u t the d e v e l o p i n g structure w h i c h processes the s t i m u l i r e m a i n s essentially s t a b l e — h e n c e : ' a p e r m a n e n t c o m p o n e n t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a c h a n g i n g one'. T h e e g o , then, is i n essence a n aspect of the m i n d w h i c h is stable a n d consistent, i n relation to the rest. I n this v e r y f u n d a m e n t a l sense w e are able to describe the e g o as p o s s e s s i n g ' i d e n t i t y ' . F o r m e r l y the condition of
w a s d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g to i m p i n g e m e n t s m a d e u p o n
it b y the o u t s i d e w o r l d , or b y the i n t e r n a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e m a n d s o f the o r g a n i s m . B u t , as the f l e d g l i n g e g o p r o c e e d s to g r o w f r o m the c o n t i n u e d association of ideas w i t h sensations
of p a i n a n d pleasure, it
acquires the ability to act a c c o r d i n g to p r e v i o u s experience, rather t h a n reacting inconsistently to w h a t e v e r s t i m u l i present themselves. T h e ego b e c o m e s a specialised part of *F. Its stability rests u p o n its g r o w i n g ability to i n h i b i t s t i m u l i (internal a n d external) w i t h i n certain l i m i t s . F r o m this capacity emerges the p o t e n t i a l for s e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g (cf. L a p l a n c h e & Pontalis 1988: 339). T h e s e h i g h l y abstract f o r m u l a t i o n s c a n b e related to concrete e x p e rience. ' E g o ' m e a n s T ; the m o s t salient characteristic of the experience of T is quite e v i d e n t l y its 'stability' a n d ' c o n t i n u i t y ' . F o r e x a m p l e , i f I
Duncan
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49
leave o n e r o o m a n d go into another, e v e n t h o u g h m y p e r c e p t i o n s a n d o r i e n t a t i o n h a v e c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e d , there r e m a i n s the sense it is I w h o h a v e m a d e the transition. T h i s applies also to i n t e r n a l p h y s i o l o g ical c h a n g e s . If the w a y I feel changes d r a m a t i c a l l y , a l t h o u g h I feel c o m p l e t e l y u n l i k e h o w I w a s the m o m e n t before, there r e m a i n s the sense that it is the s a m e I w h i c h feels differently. T h e n o t i o n of the sta b i l i t y of ego, a n d its ability to i n h i b i t s t i m u l i i n o r d e r to m a i n t a i n its constancy, has s t r o n g roots i n the subjective e x p e r i e n c e of self.
4
* * *
T h r o u g h e x a m i n i n g the nature a n d d e v e l o p m e n t
of the ego w e c a n
c o n c l u d e that a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g recognises t w o k i n d s of c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g . O n the one h a n d there is p r i m a r y process p h a n t a s y i n g , a n d o n the other s e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g . T h e s e c o n d d e v e l o p s f r o m the first, as a c o n s e q u e n c e of the g r o w i n g c a p a c i t y of the ego
to stabilise a n d i n h i b i t the p r i m a r y process. Because it entails
o b s e r v a n c e of the d e m a n d s a n d limitations of reality, rather t h a n s i m p l y e x p r e s s i n g i m m e d i a t e n e e d s a n d desires of the o r g a n i s m ,
sec
o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g facilitates w h a t w e c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t a n d as 'learning'. H o w e v e r , a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g w i l l also a d h e r e to the n o t i o n that t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g c a n n e v e r escape the i n f l u e n c e of p r i m a r y process p h a n t a s y . It w o u l d also h o l d that it is not a desirable e d u c a t i o n a l objective to attempt to d o so. T h e o r g a n i s m a n d its m i n d are i n d i s s o l u b l y b o u n d . A l t h o u g h t h i n k i n g takes i n t o a c c o u n t
external
reality, a n d c a n p r o d u c e o b v i o u s r e w a r d s to the i n d i v i d u a l as a result, p h a n t a s y r e m a i n s the p r i m e representative of the i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n n e r life. T h e o v e r - e m p h a s i s
of t h o u g h t at the e x p e n s e of p h a n t a s y is a
d e f e n s i v e p o s t u r e . T h e e m o t i o n a l a n d p h y s i c a l d i m e n s i o n of existence 5
p r o d u c e s o u r m o s t t r a u m a t i c a n d u n s e t t l i n g experiences, yet it is also the m o s t i m m e d i a t e a n d authentic aspect of life, a n d the source of o u r m o s t p o w e r f u l pleasures a n d m o t i v a t i o n s . P h a n t a s y — a s another w o r d for the w o r k i n g s of the p r i m a r y p r o c e s s — i s the chief e m b o d i m e n t i n the m i n d of this s i d e of life. T h i r t y years after his o r i g i n a l f o r m u l a t i o n s F r e u d r e t u r n e d to these s a m e issues a n d cast a little m o r e light o n the w a y h u m a n l e a r n i n g i s — b y d e f i n i t i o n — s t a m p e d w i t h the h a l l m a r k of the p r i m a r y process. F r e u d t u r n e d h i s attention to h o w the ego, i n its e a r l y stages of d e v e l o p m e n t , m a k e s judgements c o n c e r n i n g the n a t u r e of p e r c e p t i o n s :
50
Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?
T h e f u n c t i o n of j u d g e m e n t is c o n c e r n e d i n the m a i n w i t h t w o sorts of d e c i s i o n s . It affirms or disaffirms the p o s s e s s i o n b y a t h i n g of a p a r t i c u l a r attribute; a n d it asserts or d i s p u t e s that a p r e s e n t a t i o n has a n existence i n reality. T h e attribute to be d e c i d e d about m a y o r i g i n a l l y h a v e been g o o d or b a d , useful or h a r m f u l . E x p r e s s e d i n the l a n g u a g e of the o l d e s t — t h e o r a l — i n s t i n c t u a l i m p u l s e s , the j u d g e m e n t is: T s h o u l d like to eat this', or 'I s h o u l d like to spit it out'; a n d , p u t m o r e generally: T s h o u l d like to take this into m y s e l f a n d to keep that out...' [T]he o r i g i n a l p l e a s u r e - e g o w a n t s to introject into itself e v e r y t h i n g that is g o o d a n d to eject f r o m itself e v e r y t h i n g that is b a d . W h a t is b a d , w h a t is a l i e n to the ego a n d w h a t is external are, to b e g i n w i t h , i d e n t i cal. ( F r e u d 1925: 236-7) T h i s i m p l i e s that the transition f r o m p h a n t a s y to t h o u g h t , f r o m ' p l e a s u r e - e g o ' to 'reality-ego', is a c c o m m o d a t e d b y the c a p a c i t y of the e g o to j u d g e presentations a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they are
real (rational good ( p h a n
t h o u g h t ) , as w e l l as s i m p l y a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they are
tasy). T o r e t u r n to the e x a m p l e of the h u n g r y b a b y w i s h i n g for the breast, it is n o t e n o u g h for the b a b y to ascertain that the breast is g o o d a n d to i m a g i n e its goodness, it m u s t also w o r k out w h e t h e r the breast is there i n the external w o r l d . T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o types of j u d g e m e n t is n o t u n i q u e to p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . D a v i d K o l b ' s use of the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n ' a p p r e h e n s i o n ' a n d ' c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' is a close p a r a l l e l . K o l b v i s u a l i s e s these t w o attitudes t o w a r d s the outside w o r l d as the two e n d - p o i n t s of a n axis, against w h i c h it is possible to plot a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s h a b i t u a l style of l e a r n i n g ( K o l b 1984:42). ' A p p r e h e n s i o n ' i m p l i e s a n attitude t o w a r d s t h i n g s w h i c h consists of a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e m for their o w n sake, a n d is b a s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y u p o n interest i n things rather t h a n a p r o p e n s i t y to evaluate t h e m . ' C o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , o n the other h a n d , is a m o r e reflec tive attitude t o w a r d s the w o r l d . To c o m p r e h e n d s o m e t h i n g is to criti cise it to a degree, to attempt to place it i n s o m e k i n d of context a n d estimate its ' v a l i d i t y ' ( K o l b 1984:103-4). T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h suggests that one of these capacities d e v e l o p s o u t of the o t h e r — t h a t c o m p r e h e n s i o n follows o n f r o m a p p r e h e n s i o n . If the b a b y is to j u d g e whether the breast exists i n the external w o r l d it c a n d o so o n l y because it already h a s a n i d e a of the breast, d u e to a p r i o r j u d g e m e n t that the breast was g o o d . Because the j u d g e m e n t s
Duncan Barford
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of the p l e a s u r e - e g o p r e c e d e those of the r e a l i t y - e g o , the p s y c h o a n a l y t ic a p p r o a c h suggests that w e c a n o n l y p a s s j u d g e m e n t s o n w h a t is real if w e h a v e a l r e a d y j u d g e d s o m e t h i n g as g o o d . W h a t is j u d g e d as b a d b y the p l e a s u r e - e g o i s — a s F r e u d p u t i t — ' s p a t o u t ' . It is n e v e r c o m p r e h e n d e d because it w a s n o t a p p r e h e n d e d . T h e true a i m of reality-testing or ' c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' i s — f r o m the p s y choanalytic point of v i e w — ' n o t b u t to
refind
to find
a n object i n real p e r c e p t i o n . . .
s u c h a n object, to c o n v i n c e oneself that it is still there'
( F r e u d 1925: 237-8). T h e b a b y m a y i n d e e d d i s c o v e r that the breast exists i n reality a n d is n o t just a n h a l l u c i n a t i o n created b y its o w n phantasy, b u t it w i l l h a v e b e e n m o t i v a t e d to l o o k because once before it h a d f o u n d that the b r e a s t — r e a l o r u n r e a l — w a s g o o d . P e r h a p s the b a b y l o o k s a n d d i s c o v e r s that the breast is n o t a v a i l a b l e i n reality. It m a y c o m e to accept a n d act o n the reality of this s i t u a t i o n also, but, once a g a i n , this r e c o g n i t i o n of reality w i l l h a v e c o m e about because the b a b y w a s s e e k i n g to r e - f i n d i n reality s o m e t h i n g it h a d a l r e a d y f o u n d to b e g o o d i n phantasy. T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g h o l d s that for a p r e s e n t a t i o n to g a i n a d m i s s i o n to the m i n d it m u s t first of all be p e r c e i v e d as g o o d , because all c o g n i t i o n d e v e l o p s out of the p r i m i t i v e activity of the e a r l y p l e a s u r e - e g o . I n o r d e r to o p e n oneself u p to experience a n d b e g i n l e a r n i n g i n a full, r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d f a s h i o n , the learner m u s t expect to r e f i n d i n the external w o r l d s o m e t h i n g that he o r she has once a l r e a d y f o u n d i n phantasy, a n d w h i c h p r o d u c e d satisfaction. It is for this reason, p e r h a p s , that the l a n g u a g e o f a c q u i r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n is also the l a n g u a g e of appetite, c o n s u m p t i o n a n d d i g e s t i o n . It seems n a t u r a l to speak of a n a u d i e n c e of learners T a p p i n g u p ' k n o w l e d g e , o r ' s w a l l o w i n g it w h o l e ' . A m o r e tentative a u d i e n c e m i g h t be s a i d to ' c h e w things o v e r ' . ' T o r u m i n a t e ' m e a n s 'to c h e w ' , b u t also 'to t h i n k ' , as if t h i n k i n g w e r e to l e a r n i n g as c h e w i n g is to s w a l l o w i n g . It is c o m m o n for s o m e o n e r e a d i n g to r e a c h a u t o m a t i c a l l y for s o m e t h i n g to eat, as i f i m b i b i n g f o o d facilitated the process of a s s i m i l a t i n g i n f o r m a tion. T h e f r e n z y of e a t i n g w h i c h often a c c o m p a n i e s ' t a k i n g i n a f i l m ' is often e v e n m o r e p r o n o u n c e d , p e r h a p s d u e to the b o u n d a r y - d i s s o l v i n g d a r k n e s s o f the c i n e m a , a n d the large size of the s c r e e n - i m a g e . A p p a r e n t l y , the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n l e a r n i n g a n d eating, o r b o d i l y i n c o r p o r a t i o n , is v e r y basic to the w a y w e v i s u a l i s e w h a t
happens
w h e n w e assimilate k n o w l e d g e . W h e t h e r it is s o m e h o w literally true that w e 'take s o m e t h i n g i n ' w h e n w e l e a r n is o p e n to q u e s t i o n . In fact, the i d e a that l e a r n i n g is l i k e e a t i n g is a phantasy—precisely the k i n d o f
52
7s Anything More Interesting than Sex?
p r i m a r y process p h a n t a s y w h i c h has b e e n u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , a n d w h i c h is l i k e l y to s t i m u l a t e a n d u n d e r p i n r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d l e a r n i n g . If the l e a r n e r u n c o n s c i o u s l y equates the attentive r e c e p t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h ' a g o o d f e e d ' , then this w i l l bolster m o t i v a t i o n a n d increase receptivity. 6
A n o t h e r p h a n t a s y w h i c h u n d e r p i n s l e a r n i n g is the n o t i o n o f l e a r n i n g as a k i n d of l o v i n g . L e a r n i n g tends to take p l a c e i n the context of a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n learner a n d teacher, a fertile a r e n a for a p h a n t a s y of c o u r t s h i p , a n i n t i m a t e process of g i v e a n d take b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e . T h i s a p p l i e s n o t o n l y to the c l a s s r o o m , b u t also to the s e l f - m o t i v a t e d l e a r n i n g o f the i n d e p e n d e n t scholar, w h e r e it is c o m m o n to t a l k of a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s ' p a s s i o n ' or ' o b s e s s i o n ' w i t h his or h e r subject-matter. T h e l a n g u a g e w e use to describe the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n teacher a n d learner, a n d b e t w e e n learner a n d subject, is also the l a n g u a g e o f part n e r s h i p , o f s e x u a l intercourse a n d the t o r r i d love-affair. 7
8
T h e l a n g u a g e of l e a r n i n g betrays the v a r i o u s u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n tasies b y w h i c h l e a r n i n g is u n d e r p i n n e d . A p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g s h o w s h o w these phantasies m a y f o r m the basis of a p o w e r f u l m o t i v a t i o n to l e a r n , o r — w h e r e the content of the p h a n t a s y is per c e i v e d as t h r e a t e n i n g b y the i n d i v i d u a l ego—a f o r c i b l e d i s i n c e n t i v e .
A t this p o i n t it seems i m p o r t a n t to address s o m e p o s s i b l e objections to a n d l i m i t a t i o n s of the ideas w h i c h h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d so far. T h e p a r a d o x i c a l n o t i o n that l e a r n i n g — t h e d i s c o v e r y a n d accep tance o f a p r e s e n t a t i o n i n r e a l i t y — i s a c t u a l l y the r e - d i s c o v e r y o f a pre s e n t a t i o n w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y p r o d u c e d satisfaction, raises a n u m b e r of questions. F i r s t l y , is ' a d m i s s i o n i n t o the m i n d o f a p r e s e n t a t i o n ' r e a l l y a n ade quate d e f i n i t i o n of l e a r n i n g ? W h e n w e c o n s i d e r the range of a c t i v i t y the t e r m ' l e a r n i n g ' c o v e r s — f o r e x a m p l e : a c q u i r i n g the c a p a c i t y to per f o r m a c t i o n s ; to appreciate the b e a u t y of w o r k s o f art; to criticise abstract s y s t e m s of t h o u g h t — t h e n the a n s w e r has to be ' n o ' . T h e process w e h a v e i d e n t i f i e d i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, b y w h i c h a p p e r c e p t i o n o f reality is facilitated t h r o u g h the exercise of u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, p e r h a p s deserves a n a m e s u c h as familiarisation rather t h a n ' l e a r n i n g ' . A t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g requires s o m e e l a b o r a t i o n o n the w a y the m i n d deals w i t h presentations once it has d e c i d e d to ' a d m i t ' t h e m . S e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g e v i d e n t l y entails a d i m e n
Duncan
Barford
53
s i o n o f ' t r u t h ' a n d ' v a l i d i t y ' , w h i c h this s t u d y has n o t a d d r e s s e d i n a n y depth. H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h ' f a m i l i a r i s a t i o n ' m a y n o t be s y n o n y m o u s w i t h the f u l l process of l e a r n i n g , the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c n o t i o n that l o g i c a l , d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t d e v e l o p s f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y i n g , dictates that this process is a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d i m p o r t a n t p a r t of a l l l e a r n i n g activity. A s p e c i a l c o n c e r n w i t h this aspect of the l e a r n i n g process—the e m o t i o n a l , ' i r r a t i o n a l ' e n d of the c o g n i t i v e s p e c t r u m — i s w h a t charac terises the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h . A n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y c o n c e r n s the n o t i o n of w h a t the j u d g e m e n t of a p r e s e n t a t i o n as ' g o o d ' m i g h t be s a i d to e n t a i l . E v i d e n t l y , w e are able to l e a r n a b o u t a l l m a n n e r o f u n p l e a s a n t t h i n g s w i t h little a p p a r e n t diffi culty. Therefore, w h a t is the j u s t i f i c a t i o n for this n o t i o n that things m u s t s e e m ' g o o d ' i n o r d e r for us to l e a r n them? A g a i n , this q u e s t i o n arises f r o m the p a r a d o x of l e a r n i n g v i e w e d as the re-finding o f a p r e s e n t a t i o n . A l t h o u g h the j u d g e m e n t s m a d e b y the p r i m i t i v e pleasure-ego r e v o l v e a r o u n d the g o o d n e s s of presentations, this d o e s n o t a p p l y d i r e c t l y to those m a d e later b y the reality-ego. P r i m a r y process t h i n k i n g entails that s o m e t h i n g m u s t be g o o d i n order to be c o g n i s e d ; s e c o n d a r y process t h i n k i n g a i m s to ascertain w h e t h e r that g o o d n e s s c a n be r e d i s c o v e r e d i n reality. S o m e t i m e s it c a n n o t — b u t this m e a n s o n l y that the i n v e s t i g a t i o n has r e a c h e d a negative conclusion, n o t that the i n v e s t i g a t i o n n e v e r t o o k p l a c e . I n a l l the e x a m p l e s of n e u r o t i c l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y that h a v e b e e n p u t f o r w a r d , p a r a d o x i c a l l y the l e a r n e r is r e f u s i n g to recognise s o m e t h i n g they already know i n the u n c o n s c i o u s . J u d g i n g that s o m e t h i n g is not g o o d i n s e c o n d a r y p r o c e s s t h i n k i n g , a n d t h e n c h o o s i n g n o t to a c k n o w l e d g e it (whether c o n s c i o u s l y or u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) , does not e n t a i l a cessation of c o g n i t i o n , m e r e l y its negation or repression. A t the m o r e p r i m i t i v e l e v e l of the pleasure-ego, h o w e v e r , there is n o r e c o g n i t i o n of the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the subjective a n d the real. C o g n i t i o n ( p h a n t a s y i n g ) occurs e n t i r e l y o n the basis of w h e t h e r s o m e t h i n g is g o o d or not. If s o m e t h i n g is j u d g e d as n o t g o o d at this l e v e l , t h e n c o g n i t i o n does i n d e e d cease altogether, for there is n o other register i n w h i c h it m i g h t c o n t i n u e . A n o t h e r w a y to a p p r o a c h this is f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of the p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r u i s m that d e p r i v a t i o n i n i n f a n c y leads to difficulties later i n life. W e h a v e seen h o w l e a r n i n g c a n be u n d e r p i n n e d b y basic p h a n tasies to d o w i t h e a t i n g a n d w i t h l o v i n g . T h e l e a r n e r w h o r e - d i s c o v e r s i n l e a r n i n g a close p a r a l l e l w i t h s a t i s f y i n g , e a r l y experiences of e a t i n g
54
Is Anything
More Interesting than Sex?
a n d l o v i n g , is l i k e l y to be w e l l - m o t i v a t e d a n d receptive. W h a t is r e - d i s c o v e r e d i n the subject matter of the l e a r n i n g is t h e n less l i k e l y to u n d e r m i n e this positive experience. H o w e v e r , the learner w h o has
been
d e p r i v e d of satisfying experiences of eating a n d l o v i n g is u n a b l e to r e d i s c o v e r t h e m i n the l e a r n i n g situation, a s — b e c a u s e they w e r e not good—they
were n e v e r i n c o r p o r a t e d b y the p l e a s u r e - e g o .
Another
t y p e of p h a n t a s y m u s t u n d e r p i n their l e a r n i n g (perhaps of a n aggres sive or p a r a n o i d type), or else l e a r n i n g cannot o c c u r .
9
It is possible to r e n o u n c e , negate or tolerate the loss of s o m e t h i n g w e o n c e possessed. T h e loss w h i c h is i m p o s s i b l e to s u r m o u n t is the loss of w h a t w e n e v e r possessed. T h e p e r s o n w i t h o u t p o s i t i v e p h a n tasies to u n d e r p i n l e a r n i n g can o n l y seek r e p e a t e d l y to a c h i e v e the basic satisfactions u p o n w h i c h those phantasies d e p e n d . A t this stage, g a i n i n g the experience of satisfaction is m o r e u r g e n t t h a n l e a r n i n g a b o u t reality. F o r those learners w i t h the ability to phantasy, the i d e a l of a g o o d n e s s they once possessed forms the subjective point-of-refer ence for a n e n c o u n t e r w i t h external r e a l i t y .
10
W h a t is then d i s c o v e r e d
m i g h t r e - a w a k e n a phantasy, or negate it, or h a v e n o b e a r i n g u p o n it. W h a t is significant is that all these r e a c t i o n s — i n contrast to the learner w i t h o u t p h a n t a s y — i m p l y a continuation
of c o g n i t i o n , w h e t h e r c o n
scious or u n c o n s c i o u s . It is as if the ability to p h a n t a s y kick-starts a process of c o g n i t i o n w h i c h is then d i f f i c u l t — i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e — t o halt c o m p l e t e l y . H o w e v e r useful it m i g h t be to e n v i s a g e t h o u g h t as o r i g i n a t i n g i n the experience of f i n d i n g s o m e t h i n g ' g o o d ' , a n d as b e i n g m a r k e d i r r e v o c a b l y b y these b e g i n n i n g s i n i n s t i n c t u a l s t r i v i n g , it is e v i d e n t t h a t — a s t h o u g h t d e v e l o p s — i t acquires the c a p a c i t y to tolerate a n d represent a m u c h w i d e r range of experience. A n o t h e r p o i n t of contention concerns the n a t u r e of the ego a n d its s u p p o s e d role i n the process of l e a r n i n g . T h e concept of the e g o has a long
and
controversial history
in psychoanalytic
thought
(see
L a p l a n c h e & Pontalis 1988: 130-43). F o r this reason, the v e r s i o n of the ego e m p l o y e d here is f r o m one of F r e u d ' s earliest, m o s t basic f o r m u l a t i o n s — ' a n organisation... w h o s e presence interferes w i t h passages [of q u a n t i t y ] ' ( F r e u d 1950:
323).
S o m e theorists v i e w the d e v e l o p m e n t of the ego as t e n d i n g t o w a r d s greater ' a u t o n o m y ' ,
a n d 'neutralisation of the d r i v e . . . [ w h i c h thus
a l l o w s ] the ego to b e c o m e a n o r g a n of l e a r n i n g ' ( A n t h o n y 1989: 108-9). O t h e r s a d o p t a r a d i c a l l y different perspective w h i c h v i e w s the
ego
itself as the net result of p r i m i t i v e phantasies of i n c o r p o r a t i o n a n d identification. Jacques L a c a n ' s t h e o r y of the ' m i r r o r stage'
proposes
Duncan Barford
55
that the basis of the ego is the infant's j u b i l a n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h its reflection. T h i s identification is p r o m p t e d b y g r a n d i o s e phantasies of m a s t e r y a n d w h o l e n e s s , w h i c h d i s g u i s e the fact of the c h i l d ' s essential helplessness
( L a c a n 1977: 4). B o t h p o i n t s o f v i e w f i n d s o m e e n d o r s e
m e n t i n F r e u d ' s o r i g i n a l theories. In s u p p o r t of the L a c a n i a n v i e w , there is a n interesting s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n F r e u d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the e g o a n d of the ego's m e a n s of j u d g i n g presentations. In the e g o ' a p e r m a n e n t c o m p o n e n t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a c h a n g i n g o n e ' ( F r e u d 1950: 323)—that is, a n u n d e r l y i n g stabili ty c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m the v a r i a b l e s t i m u l i w h i c h are p r o c e s s e d i n the e g o f r o m m o m e n t to m o m e n t . F r e u d t h e n goes o n to suggest that w h e n the e g o judges a presentation to see if it p r o m i s e s satisfaction, it breaks it d o w n into t w o aspects: 'the constant p e r c e p t u a l [neurone a] ... a n d the inconstant c o m p o n e n t
[neurone b]
component ... it [lan
g u a g e ] w i l l call n e u r o n e a the t h i n g a n d n e u r o n e b its activity or a t t r i b u t e — i n short its predicate'
( F r e u d 1950: 328).
A s J e a n L a p l a n c h e has n o t e d , this is 'to posit w i t h i n p e r c e p t i o n a structure a n a l o g o u s to that of the e g o ' ( L a p l a n c h e 1976: 65). It seems w e m u s t bear i n m i n d the p o s s i b i l i t y that the ego's a p p r e h e n s i o n of reality is characteristically distorted b y a self-referential circularity. L a p l a n c h e is s u g g e s t i n g that p e r c e p t i o n , f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t of the ego, is a k i n d o f constant ' m i r r o r stage', i n w h i c h the f o r m of the e g o a n d the p r e s e n t a t i o n are constantly, s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , r e - a f f i r m i n g o n e another. T h i s i d e a m i g h t f o r m the basis o f a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h y s o m e learners experience n e u r o t i c difficulties i n l e a r n i n g a n d others d o not. If the e g o is a n ' a u t o n o m o u s o r g a n of l e a r n i n g ' , t h e n this q u e s t i o n is h a r d to a n s w e r other t h a n i n genetic, d e v e l o p m e n t a l terms. If, h o w e v er, the l e a r n e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n is constantly s h a p e d a c c o r d i n g to the struc ture of their e g o , it b e c o m e s possible to u n d e r s t a n d w h y a learner m i g h t b e c o n s t a n t l y c o n f r o n t e d i n the l e a r n i n g situation w i t h their o w n u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies. F o r e x a m p l e , the b o y w h o i n s i s t e d o n seeing algebraic c a n c e l l a t i o n as ' m u r d e r ' : i n this situation the e g o is n o n e u tral ' w i n d o w of the m i n d ' onto reality, b u t is the e n d u r i n g L a c a n i a n infant, w h o m a k e s a m i r r o r of reality a n d sees h i s o w n phantasies, d e t e r m i n e d b y the structure of his o w n e g o , reflected b a c k f r o m it. As
a countermeasure,
approach:
R i v k a E i f e r m a n n proposes
the f o l l o w i n g
56
Is Anything
More Interesting than Sex?
W h e n t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . . . one is i n e v i t a b l y met w i t h p r e c o n c e p t i o n s , m i s c o n c e p t i o n s , h i g h expectations a n d h o p e s ,
as
w e l l as anxieties. T h e s e are neither altered n o r d i m i n i s h e d b y m e a n s of fore w a r n i n g s . . . I c o n t e n d that, as i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p r o c e s s itself, these c a n a n d s h o u l d be i n c o r p o r a t e d into the e n c o u n t e r rather t h a n be treated as difficulties interfering w i t h l e a r n i n g . . . ( E i f e r m a n n 1993:
1006)
T h e phantasies of the learner i n the l e a r n i n g situation are thus a s s i g n e d a p i v o t a l role. E i f e r m a n n ' s a p p r o a c h is a k i n d of ' p h a n t a s y management'.
E i f e r m a n n takes
advantage
of
the
'double-edged'
n a t u r e of p h a n t a s y . O n the one h a n d , its role i n l e a r n i n g difficulties is r e c o g n i s e d ; y e t — o n the other h a n d — E i f e r m a n n is a w a r e of its creative p o t e n t i a l . If p h a n t a s y c a n be ' i n c o r p o r a t e d into the e n c o u n t e r ' it c a n be u s e d to f o r m the basis of deeper m o t i v a t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n the learner. It m i g h t be a r g u e d that, because E i f e r m a n n is a t r a i n e d p s y c h o a n a lyst, t h e n this is not a n a p p r o p r i a t e a p p r o a c h for the majority of a d u l t e d u c a t o r s w h o l a c k s p e c i a l i s e d t r a i n i n g . H o w e v e r , the p o i n t s at w h i c h E i f e r m a n n ' s a p p r o a c h differs f r o m the a n a l y t i c a l situation s h o u l d also be b o r n e i n m i n d . T h e a p p r o a c h m a y sound like p e r s o n a l p s y c h o t h e r a py, b u t this is e v i d e n t l y not the case once w e c o n s i d e r that it is the p h a n t a s i e s of the w h o l e g r o u p of learners w h i c h are b e i n g a d d r e s s e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h the a i m of the p s y c h o a n a l y s t m a y be to inter pret the a n a l y s a n d ' s
phantasy, E i f e r m a n n quite clearly e s p o u s e s a
p u r e l y e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e — t o enable students to l e a r n . T h e a i m is not to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t phantasies m e a n i n the lives of i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t to c o m p r e h e n d t h e m i n the light of the l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n a n d of the topic u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .
* * itIt s e e m s to m e v e r y l i k e l y that m a n y a d u l t e d u c a t o r s — r e g a r d l e s s of their s u b j e c t - a r e a — a r e already, instinctively, u s i n g a p p r o a c h e s s i m i l a r to E i f e r m a n n ' s . T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to t e a c h i n g d e m a n d s the a d o p t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r attitude o n the p a r t of the tutor, a n d the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of this attitude into the d e s i g n of the c u r r i c u l u m . E a c h of the t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s to l e a r n i n g is b a s e d u p o n a f u n d a m e n t a l atti t u d e of this t y p e , a set of a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the nature of the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n tutor, learner, a n d k n o w l e d g e .
Duncan
Barford
57
A s a c o n s e q u e n c e of this, e a c h a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g is also strongly associated w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of l e a r n i n g , o r ' l e a r n i n g d o m a i n ' (Reece & W a l k e r 1994: 61). B e h a v i o u r i s t theory a n d t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s s e e m e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d to l e a r n i n g i n the psychomotor tivist m e t h o d s to the cognitive domain.
1 1
d o m a i n , cogni
d o m a i n , a n d h u m a n i s m to the
affective
T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g , h o w e v e r , does not fit
easily into this t a x o n o m y .
F r o m the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of view,
l e a r n i n g is a c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y
process,
b e t w e e n p h a n t a s y a n d r e a l i t y - o r i e n t e d t h i n k i n g . Because it assumes the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of rationality a n d p r i m i t i v e emotionality, the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g is g e a r e d t o w a r d s l e a r n i n g situations i n w h i c h ideas a n d feelings are i n d i s s o l u b l y l i n k e d a n d m u t u a l l y e v o c a tive. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g seems to p o i n t t o w a r d s a u n i q u e l e a r n i n g d o m a i n w h i c h is neither ' c o g n i t i v e ' n o r 'affective' b u t a c o m p o u n d of b o t h . R i c h a r d Jones argues for the u n i o n of e m o t i o n a n d t h o u g h t i n e d u c a t i o n , a n d p o i n t s o u t the benefits w h i c h this alliance c a n create: T h e p o w e r of e m o t i o n to generate interest a n d i n v o l v e m e n t i n subject matters that w o u l d otherwise f i n d . . . [learners] u n i n t e r ested a n d u n i n v o l v e d lies i n their d e e p p e r s o n a l f a m i l i a r i t y — s u c h f a m i l i a r i t y b e i n g a consequence
of e m o t i o n h a v i n g been
i n t e g r a l to e v e r y p h a s e of p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m i n f a n c y o n . T h e v a l u e of e m o t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n the l e a r n i n g process thus lies i n its p o t e n t i a l for a i d i n g a s s i m i l a t i o n of n e w or remote experiences... (Jones 1972:148) It m i g h t be a p p r o p r i a t e to call this u n i q u e d o m a i n of l e a r n i n g , w h e r e objective ideas a n d subjective e m o t i o n s are j o i n e d together, the imagined
d o m a i n (cf. W o o l 1989:
762).
T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory of
l e a r n i n g is e s p e c i a l l y geared t o w a r d s l e a r n i n g i n this i m a g i n a l d o m a i n , w h i c h i n v o l v e s the learner i n a n e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n subjective e x p e r i ence a n d the i d e a s w h i c h constitute w h a t w e call ' c u l t u r e ' .
12
Subjects
s u c h as p o l i t i c s , literature a n d p h i l o s o p h y — w h i c h are neither p r e d o m i n a n t l y ' c o g n i t i v e ' n o r 'affective'—are situated i n this d o m a i n . So too, of course, is p s y c h o a n a l y s i s itself, w h o s e chief c o n c e r n is w i t h the fragile interface b e t w e e n h u m a n subjectivity a n d reality. In the i m a g i n a l d o m a i n , t h i n k i n g a n d p h a n t a s y i n g enjoy a n espe c i a l l y i n t i m a t e alliance. C o n s i d e r the d i s c i p l i n e s listed a b o v e : a l t h o u g h e a c h has its authorities, traditions a n d r u l e s of t h i n k i n g , it is often dif
58
Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?
ficult to d e c i d e w h e r e the b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n ' t h e o r y ' a n d ' i m a g i n a t i o n ' m u s t be s a i d to be d r a w n . Excellence i n these d i s c i p l i n e s d e p e n d s u p o n a c o m b i n a t i o n of objective k n o w l e d g e a n d i n d i v i d u a l i m a g i n a tion. W h e n teaching i n the i m a g i n a l d o m a i n , the p r o v i s i o n of o p p o r t u nities for learners to p l a y a n d exercise their creativity is necessary for a m o r e c o m p l e t e i m m e r s i o n i n the nature of the subject. * * *
O n page
59 is a d i a g r a m w h i c h attempts to refine further the w a y s i n
w h i c h the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c v i e w of l e a r n i n g differs f r o m the t r a d i t i o n a l approaches. In the classical F r e u d i a n t h e o r y w e e n c o u n t e r e d the i d e a that the ego, i n o r d e r to j u d g e the nature of a presentation, splits it into t w o aspects (see a b o v e , p. 55). T h e s e are the object (or the ' i d e a ' ) , a n d its predicate (or its ' q u a l i t y ' ) . M u c h w a s m a d e of F r e u d ' s c o n t e n t i o n that the pleasure-ego, w h i c h operates o n the basis of p r i m a r y process p h a n tasy, concerns itself solely w i t h the predicate of the presentation, i n order to ascertain w h e t h e r the presentation is ' g o o d ' . In contrast the reality-ego, w h i c h operates o n the basis of s e c o n d a r y process, r a t i o n a l thought, focuses o n the
object
or the i d e a , i n order to ascertain w h e t h e r
it c a n be r e d i s c o v e r e d i n reality. T h i s 'object-predicate'
dichotomy
f o r m s the vertical axis of the d i a g r a m . A p p r o a c h e s to l e a r n i n g c a n be classified a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they s h o w a greater p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h the quality of the presentation m a d e to the learner b y the teacher, or w i t h the
intrinsic nature and structure
of the presentation itself.
B e h a v i o u r i s m a n d the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h share a special c o n c e r n w i t h the quality of w h a t is p r e s e n t e d to the learner. In b e h a v iourism,
conditioning—especially
involved—encourages 'good',
thus
the
where
positive
learner to perceive
f a c i l i t a t i n g its
acceptance.
reinforcement
is
the presentation
as
Negative
reinforcement
achieves the s a m e result i n a converse m a n n e r . If the presentation is not accepted b y the learner p u n i s h m e n t is a d m i n i s t e r e d . Therefore the p r e sentation is still m a d e to s e e m ' g o o d ' to the learner, b y contrasting it w i t h the p u n i s h m e n t w h i c h w i l l result if the presentation is accepted.
not
Duncan Barford
59
Fsydioa&aiytk
€ "^H H 11 OT* ' A c r o n i 11=10 d ft tic*
O r i w n U ^1 i 6M*c A ( T u r n 1 '3KK1& $1 in\
•of the Uiflect
of ih£ Predicate Means: by making t J »
Me. t i n s : % i a:fi km
Orientalism: Assimilation 0* the F ^ l i e a l e
ra»nprefrgm;ibift
•aCthe Ubpect >an$:fey m a k i n g the
M e a n s ; by m a k i n g the presEntaitofi
m a k i n g , lihe
attractive
D i a g r a m . Four approaches to
learning
13
W e m i g h t t e n d to a s s u m e that b e h a v i o u r i s m a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — with
their respective
emphases
u p o n behaviour
and psyche—are
w o r l d s a w a y f r o m o n e another. H o w e v e r , their s h a r e d c o n c e r n w i t h the q u a l i t y of presentations offered to the learner suggests s o m e inter e s t i n g lines of s i m i l a r i t y (cf. G i l l e t 1996).
14
F r e u d w a s a w a r e that the
w o r k o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c o u l d o n l y p r o c e e d w h e r e a comfortable r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the patient w a s established. T h i s a m o u n t s — i n
effect—to
a b e h a v i o u r i s t t e c h n i q u e : a g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the analyst is a p o s itive r e i n f o r c e m e n t of the p a i n f u l , difficult w o r k of analysis. A s i m i l a r p a r a d o x has b e e n n o t e d i n a d u l t e d u c a t i o n . A f r i e n d l y , l i b e r a l a t m o s p h e r e created b y the tutor w i t h i n the c l a s s r o o m , causes the students feel m o r e free a n d at ease, yet s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a l l o w s the tutor to exer cise m o r e c o n t r o l o v e r their b e h a v i o u r (cf. Jarvis 1995: 61). T h e h o r i z o n t a l axis o f the d i a g r a m c o n c e r n s w h a t effect the p r e s e n tation is i n t e n d e d to h a v e u p o n the e g o of the learner. ' A s s i m i l a t i o n '
60
Is Anything More Interesting than Sex?
a n d ' a c c o m m o d a t i o n ' are t w o concepts taken f r o m Piaget.
Assimilation
is the t e n d e n c y of the o r g a n i s m — o r , f r o m the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of view—the
ego
of
Accommodation,
the
organism—to
take i n a n d
absorb
an idea.
o n the other h a n d , refers to the c a p a c i t y of the o r g a n
i s m to c h a n g e a n d a d a p t its o w n structure i n response to a n i d e a , thus m a k i n g itself m o r e r e s p o n s i v e a n d o p e n to future experiences (cf. Wolff 1960: 23-4). T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory places e m p h a s i s u p o n a d d r e s s i n g the l e a r n e r ' s i n t e r n a l phantasies f r o m the outset, as a m e a n s of facilitating acceptance of the presentation. Therefore, accommodation takes prece d e n c e here, as it does i n c o g n i t i v i s m , w h e r e i m p o r t a n c e is attached to e q u i p p i n g the learner w i t h m e n t a l skills necessary for c o m p r e h e n d i n g the k n o w l e d g e o n offer.
15
Psychoanalysis a n d cognitivism both assume
that k n o w l e d g e is t a k e n i n b y the learner o n l y to the extent that the learner is able to adapt to the i n f o r m a t i o n o n offer i n the first i n s t a n c e .
16
H u m a n i s t i c l e a r n i n g , o n the other h a n d , is c o n c e i v e d as b e g i n n i n g w h e n the learner opens h i m or herself to experience. T h e h u m a n i s t i c tutor facilitates this process b y d e v i s i n g l e a r n i n g situations w h i c h take the learner as the m o d e l for the nature of the presentations w h i c h w i l l be o f f e r e d .
17
A s i n b e h a v i o u r i s m , techniques for g u a r a n t e e i n g the s i m
p l e r e c e p t i v i t y of the learner are the p r i m e c o n c e r n . T h i s c a n be a c h i e v e d either f o r c e f u l l y — t h r o u g h c o n d i t i o n i n g — o r m o r e easefully, t h r o u g h the s t u d e n t - c e n t r e d , experiential a p p r o a c h . In either a s s i m i l a t i o n is g i v e n precedence o v e r a c c o m m o d a t i o n .
case,
18
*** T h e o p p o s i t i o n i n the d i a g r a m b e t w e e n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a n d the h u m a n i s t a p p r o a c h e s raises s o m e interesting questions. Is the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h to l e a r n i n g opposed to the h u m a n i s t ethos? C a n a psychoanalytically-informed
curriculum
appropriately
incorporate
learner-centredness into its d e s i g n ? ' Y o u c a n trust the student', argues C a r l Rogers. ' Y o u c a n trust h i m to desire to l e a r n i n e v e r y w a y w h i c h w i l l m a i n t a i n or enhance self; y o u c a n trust h i m to m a k e use of resources w h i c h w i l l serve this e n d ; . . . y o u c a n trust h i m to g r o w p r o v i d e d the atmosphere for g r o w t h is available to h i m ' (Rogers 1965:
427).
T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h has n o e q u i v a l e n t to R o g e r s ' n o t i o n of ' s e l f . Instead, the aspect of the m i n d m o s t e v i d e n t i n the business of l e a r n i n g is the ego. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s h o l d s that the ego d e v e l o p e d out of
Duncan
Barford
61
the m o s t p r i m i t i v e k i n d of m e n t a l processes, a n d that it still bears the h a l l m a r k of these. W h e r e
the e g o e n c o u n t e r s s o m e t h i n g i n reality
w h i c h p r o m i s e s to threaten its integrity, it w i l l resort to d e f e n s i v e m e a sures. Therefore, w h a t a p p e a r s to ' e n h a n c e s e l f m a y , f r o m the p s y c h o analytic p e r s p e c t i v e , m e r e l y e n h a n c e ego. Because the ego is r e s p o n s i ble also for the refusal of l e a r n i n g , then ' e n h a n c i n g e g o ' c a n be tanta m o u n t to reducing the l e a r n e r ' s degree of contact w i t h reality. F r o m a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o i n t of v i e w , R o g e r s ' s trust i n the l e a r n e r ' s ego is f u n damentally misplaced. S o m e writers h a v e d e c i d e d that the a i m s of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d of t e a c h i n g i n g e n e r a l are f u n d a m e n t a l l y at o d d s w i t h o n e
another.
A m o n g t h e m , A l i s o n H a l l argues that: T h e a i m s of e d u c a t i o n r u n c o n t r a r y to those of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . E d u c a t i o n i m p l i c a t e s fixity of m e a n i n g a n d the i l l u s i o n of m a s tery associated w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g . . . E d u c a t i o n a l w a y s a i m s to fill a g a p a n d is f u n d a m e n t a l l y p r e d i c a t e d o n the a s s u m p t i o n that all g a p s are fillable, w h i l e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a i m s to h e l p y o u l i v e w i t h the i n e v i t a b l e g a p at the centre of y o u r existence. T h e b u i l t - i n d y n a m i c of the a n a l y s a n d ' s desire subverts the e d u c a tional project w h i l e the r e q u i r e m e n t for closure i n e d u c a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e forecloses desire. T h u s are they antithetical. ( H a l l 1996: 78) T h i s attitude f i n d s s o m e s u p p o r t i n F r e u d ' s p r o n o u n c e m e n t that e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s are b o t h ' i m p o s s i b l e p r o f e s s i o n s ' ( F r e u d 1937: 248). H o w e v e r , the v i e w that e d u c a t i o n necessarily i m p l i e s ' f i x i ty of m e a n i n g ' , a n d that the business of the teacher is s i m p l y to 'pass signifiers f r o m teacher to s t u d e n t ' (Verhaeghe 1996: 42) suggests a v e r y l i m i t e d m o d e l of l e a r n i n g . T h e r e seems to be a covert a s s u m p t i o n here that to teach is to lecture. F r e u d m a y h a v e v i e w e d t e a c h i n g as a n ' i m p o s s i b l e p r o f e s s i o n ' , b u t he also d e s c r i b e d the task of the teacher as steering a course b e t w e e n : 'the S c y l l a of n o n - i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d the C h a r y b d i s of f r u s t r a t i o n ' ( F r e u d 1933:
149).
This view
of
teaching as—necessarily—a
compromise
b e t w e e n the t w o m o n s t e r s of student-centredness a n d teacher-direct e d n e s s , c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d as a n i n j u n c t i o n u p o n the teacher to a d o p t a variety of roles a n d a p p r o a c h e s . T h i s m a y n o t be the perfect s o l u t i o n , b u t p e r h a p s it enables us to c o n t i n u e the o d y s s e y b y a v o i d i n g the evils of b o t h extremes.
Is Anything
62
More Interesting than Sex?
Notes For example: '[Psychoanalysis may be less relevant in understanding the development of
mechanisms of learning than in understanding the child's particular experience of going to
school, including sense of self-esteem and capacity to participate with zest in learning'
(Cohler 1989: 29).
1
2 [T]he ego is an agency of adaptation which differentiates itself from the id on contact with
external reality' (Laplanche & Pontalis 1988:130).
y
3 The Greek letter psi is used by Freud in this text as a label for the mind or psyche conceived
as a whole.
^ It is important to bear in mind, however, that ego cannot be taken for granted.
Psychoanalytic observation of psychotics draws on the notion that in psychosis primary
process thinking has reasserted its dominance, and consequently ego-identity is distorted.
Many other relatively common states of mind such as sleep, dreaming, and intoxication can
be described in similar terms.
5 On this theme see Corrigan & Gordon 1995.
6 The converse also seems to hold: 'Bettleheim... discussing the education of culturally dis
advantaged youngsters, notes the many problems these children encounter in having to learn
on an empty stomach, feeling hungry and depleted at a time when they are expected to learn
new material' (Cohler 1989: 64).
^ The teacher-student relationship establishes the requirements for a mutually satisfying
work experience. The relationship is based on love in the broadest sense of the word, which
includes natural antagonism and aspects of anger when the relationship proves unreward
ing' (Ekstein 1989: 86).
8 In classical Freudian terms, the phantasy of 'learning as loving'—compared with the phan
tasy of 'learning as eating'—represents a development from concern with instinctual satis
faction at the primitive oral stage, to the more developed genital stage.
9 Sandor Ferenczi offers some fascinating formulations which extend this line of thought
begun by Freud and highlights the possible role of the death-instinct in this process. See
Ferenczi 1926: 371.
10 This should not to be taken to imply that there are two types of 'people'—'learners' and
'non-learners'—but that phantasies, life-histories and learning situations interact in complex
combinations, to produce a spectrum of positions.
H This is, of course, tending towards over-simplification. The choice of teaching methods
rests upon a host of other factors besides the nature of the topic. For example: the size of the
group and the characteristics of learners within it. Nevertheless, the nature of the topic—psy
chomotor, cognitive, affective—will tend to push the tutor in the direction of the correspond
ing teaching methods.
1 2
Cf. the work of D.W. Winnicott, especially Winnicott 1953,1967.
13 'A person learns significantly only those things which he perceives as being involved in the main
tenance of, or enhancement of, the structure of self (Rogers 1956: 389). The basic assumption of
the humanist approach seems to be that a presentation is accepted to the extent it can be
made by the teacher to reflect the nature of the subject's own ego. 'To make the presentation
identifiable' (as the diagram expresses this) calls upon the teacher to make the presentation,
as far as possible, something with which the learner can identify, something in which he or
she can readily see their own ego. This is the very essence of the student-centred approach,
which entails setting up learning situations that reflect and address the specific needs and
characteristics of the learner. Rogers's emphasis upon 'significant learning' entails also that it
is with the intrinsic nature of ideas that the humanist teacher is primarily concerned. The prime
Duncan Barford
63
objective of the teacher is to make the presentation significant to the learner, rather than sim ply 'good . The psychoanalytic perspective opens up the possibility of a far-reaching critique of the humanist approach, which can only be touched upon here. 7
Gillet draws on more recent developments in behaviourism to argue that: 'Intrapsychic conflicts may be caused by Pavlovian conditioning' (Gillet 1996: 701). 1 4
'Bruner's [cognitivist approach] is the psychology of alloplastic development, of the forms in which knowledge can best be brought into the human mind' (Jones 1972: 93). 1 5
16 'Although the learner is seen to be active rather than passive, the activity itself is con trolled by the inherent structure of knowledge itself... teacher and learner are faced by some thing which is bigger than both of them, something to which they must adapt themselves' (Rogers 1996: 98). '[W]e permit the student... to be in real contact with the relevant problems of his existence, so that he perceives problems and issues which he wishes to resolve... [T]he task of the teacher is to create a facilitating classroom climate in which significant learning can take place' (Rogers 1967: 286-7). 1 7
All learning necessarily involves both assimilation and accommodation. It is a contrast in emplmsis between the theories which is being highlighted here.
LEARNING: A JUNGIAN PERSPECTIVE
Sylvia Cohen O n e m i g h t ask a b o u t the f u n c t i o n of l e a r n i n g — w h y w e bother, so to speak. E . J . A n t h o n y (1989), i n a p a p e r d i s c u s s i n g the relationship b e t w e e n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d l e a r n i n g , puts f o r w a r d t w o m o d e l s of the h u m a n b e i n g 'as a l e a r n e r ' . T h e first of these is that w e are passive i n the w o r l d , a n d w a i t for k n o w l e d g e to be p u t into us. In other w o r d s , w e are b o r n ' e m p t y ' , r e a d y to be ' f i l l e d ' . T h i s is a p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h it f o l l o w s l o g i c a l l y that infants, c h i l d r e n — a n d p e r h a p s e v e n a d u l t s — a r e f o r m e d b y the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s a p p r o a c h also i m p l i e s that l e a r n i n g is s o m e t h i n g thrust u p o n us, because w e
need
to learn certain things i n
o r d e r to s u r v i v e i n the w o r l d . L i k e a dose of bitter m e d i c i n e , l e a r n i n g is therefore ' g o o d ' for us. O u r m o t i v a t i o n to l e a r n , then, is p r e d i c a t e d o n the
need
for l o v e a n d a p p r o v a l , rather t h a n u p o n love a n d a p p r o v a l
for their o w n sakes. T h e r e is a n o p p o s i t e view, h o w e v e r , w h i c h h o l d s that w e are
active
rather t h a n p a s s i v e i n the w o r l d . C o n s e q u e n t l y w e are constantly scan n i n g events a n d things a r o u n d us for their o w n m e a n i n g s . T h i s v i e w
want to k n o w a n d to l e a r n . (What w e want to required to l e a r n m a y i n d e e d be i n conflict, b u t
i m p l i e s that w e a c t i v e l y l e a r n a n d w h a t w e are
that is a slightly different issue.) F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e it follows that m u c h of the time w e
apperceive rather t h a n perceive.
p u t s o m e t h i n g of ourselves into e v e r y t h i n g w e
In other w o r d s , w e
observe, w e
form
h y p o t h e s e s , a n d test t h e m out i n the real w o r l d , thus (if w e are o p e n to refutation) l e a r n i n g as w e go. T h e g a i n i n g of k n o w l e d g e , the w o r k i n g o u t of p u z z l e s or p r o b l e m s , is of interest i n itself, as w e l l as (possibly) e n a b l i n g us to take steps towards the a c h i e v e m e n t of d e s i r e d goals. T h e s e t w o perspectives are i n o p p o s i t i o n to one another, a n d w o u l d s e e m — o n the face of i t — t o be m u t u a l l y exclusive w a y s of v i e w i n g the h u m a n b e i n g . H o w e v e r , one of the most basic p a r a d i g m s of J u n g i a n t h o u g h t or a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y , is that of a 'dialectic b e t w e e n o p p o sites'. I n other w o r d s , w e s h o u l d consider that it m i g h t be possible to set u p a d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n conflicting theories, ideas, a n d emotions, a n d i n this w a y a r r i v e at a n o v e r - a r c h i n g d i m e n s i o n , b y exercising (as J u n g calls it) 'the transcendent f u n c t i o n ' (Jung 1916/60). T h i s m a y p r o v i d e a ' t h i r d w a y ' — a s o l u t i o n , p e r h a p s , or a different perspective.
Sylvia Cohen
65
Consequently, although analytical p s y c h o l o g y m i g h t propose a p a r ticular v i e w of the essence of h o w it is to b e h u m a n , there m a y yet b e w i t h i n the t h e o r y itself a w a y of a c c o m m o d a t i n g aspects of the o p p o site v i e w , if this seems u s e f u l or a p p r o p r i a t e . A n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y a b o u n d s w i t h p a r a d o x e s , a n d w e w i l l h a p p e n u p o n other levels of dialectical conflict as w e w e n d o u r w a y t h r o u g h the p l e t h o r a of c o m plex theories p r o d u c e d b y a n d since J u n g . It is i m p o r t a n t to bear i n m i n d t h r o u g h o u t this chapter that there is a l w a y s a p o s s i b i l i t y of d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n opposites. I w a n t to e m p h a s i s e the constant, p o t e n t i a l creativity o f conflict. To r e t u r n to w h a t w e m i g h t call the ' n a t u r e / n u r t u r e controversy, as 7
it
was presented
above,
analytical psychology
since
Jung
has
a d d r e s s e d this issue i n v a r i o u s w a y s , a n d has l a i d e m p h a s i s o n o n e or the other s i d e of the debate to d i f f e r i n g degrees. M i c h a e l F o r d h a m , for instance, has e l a b o r a t e d i n far m o r e detail t h a n J u n g h i m s e l f a t h e o r y of c h i l d h o o d d e v e l o p m e n t , i n w h i c h h e p a y s close attention to e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors ( F o r d h a m 1973). J u n g h i m s e l f f o u n d p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y a n d the s t o r y of c h i l d h o o d to b e of less i m p o r t a n c e t h a n the present, existential story. T h i s is n o t to say that h e d i s m i s s e d the former. I n d e e d , he f r e q u e n t l y a c k n o w l e d g e d the v a l u e of a n a l y s i s of p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y a n d of w h a t , i n h i s terms, h e called
the repressed,
'personal'
unconscious
(Jung
1931/54a).
H o w e v e r , h i s a p p r o a c h to the n a t u r e / n u r t u r e c o n t r o v e r s y l a i d m u c h m o r e e m p h a s i s o n the activity rather t h a n the receptive p a s s i v i t y o f the h u m a n being. F o r J u n g , w e are b o r n u n c o n s c i o u s , b u t i n c o r p o r a t i n g ...an a priori factor... n a m e l y , the i n b o r n , p r e c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n scious i n d i v i d u a l structure of the p s y c h e . T h e p r e c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e — f o r e x a m p l e , that of a n e w - b o r n i n f a n t — i s n o t a n e m p t y vessel i n t o w h i c h , u n d e r f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , p r a c t i c a l l y a n y t h i n g c a n b e p o u r e d . (Jung 1938/59: 151) H e goes o n to e m p h a s i s e the i n d i v i d u a l character of e v e n the first r u d i m e n t a r y signs of p s y c h i c life. T h e h u m a n b e i n g is n o t o n l y u n i q u e , of course, b u t also shares a c o m m o n a l i t y w i t h other h u m a n s . W e are collective a n d social b e i n g s , s t r u c t u r e d to p e r c e i v e the w o r l d i n h u m a n w a y s . T h e structures that i n c o r p o r a t e o u r h u m a n i t y J u n g n a m e d 'archetypes'. T h e s e are r e p r e sentations or f o r m s w h i c h
66
Learning: a Jungian Perspective
. . . m i g h t p e r h a p s be c o m p a r e d to the axial s y s t e m o f a c r y s t a l , w h i c h , as it w e r e , p r e f o r m s the crystalline structure i n the m o t h er l i q u i d , a l t h o u g h it has n o m a t e r i a l existence o f its o w n . (Jung 1 9 3 8 / 5 9 : 155) A r c h e t y p e s are 'fleshed o u t ' b y o u r experiences of the e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t affect o u r p e r c e p t i o n s , a n d thus the w a y w e d e a l w i t h the w o r l d . Consequently
a paradox
emerges: w e are b o t h
collective a n d
u n i q u e , g e n e r a l l y h u m a n yet especially i n d i v i d u a l , p r e y to the e n v i r o n m e n t b u t (potentially at least) able to affect it. J u n g , I t h i n k , begins to a d d r e s s the u n d e r l y i n g m e a n i n g of this p a r a d o x i n h i s t h i n k i n g o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of consciousness a n d the ego (Jung 1948/59). F o r J u n g , there is n o ego at the b e g i n n i n g , o n l y
unconsciousness
s t r u c t u r e d b y the archetypes, a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g d r i v e s w h i c h c o m p e l u s to r e a c h o u t to the e n v i r o n m e n t for satisfaction.
Consciousness
d e v e l o p s t h r o u g h clashes w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t , e n c o u n t e r s w i t h the real w o r l d , w h i c h shock us into awareness. A s these m o m e n t s of a w a r e n e s s coalesce, the e g o begins to f o r m — i n i t i a l l y w e a k , a n d p r e y to stronger, a d u l t e g o s — b u t it g r o w s i n strength t h r o u g h o u t c h i l d h o o d . Y o u n g c h i l d r e n , then, are i n d e e d to a degree p r e y to the e n v i r o n m e n t — often, J u n g suggests, to the p o i n t of c a r r y i n g i n themselves
symptoms
of a p o o r p a r e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r the u n f u l f i l l e d , u n c o n s c i o u s f a n tasies of the m o t h e r o r father (Jung 1931/54b). C h i l d r e n also c a r r y w i t h i n t h e m , h o w e v e r , the seeds o f their o w n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d w a y s of b e i n g , their o w n m e a n i n g , w h i c h J u n g calls 'the S e l f . T h i s process of g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t is also the process d e s c r i b e d b y J u n g as 'individuation',
namely
the o n g o i n g
attempt
to attain a
balance
b e t w e e n the d e m a n d s of the real w o r l d , a n d the d e m a n d s (not o n l y of the d r i v e s ) b u t of the Self; i n other w o r d s , f i n d i n g ' o n e ' s p a t h i n life'. H o w e v e r , at present w e w i l l c o n c e r n ourselves w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the e g o — a n i m p o r t a n t concept, as regards l e a r n i n g . M i c h a e l F o r d h a m (1973), t h r o u g h observations o f infants a n d y o u n g c h i l d r e n , locates e g o d e v e l o p m e n t m u c h earlier t h a n d i d J u n g . F o r d h a m bases h i s c o n c l u s i o n o n his c o n t e n t i o n that signs of p e r c e p t i o n , c o n t r o l l e d motility, a n d general responsiveness denote ego activity. H e posits a p r i m a r y u n c o n s c i o u s self w i t h w h i c h the infant is b o r n a n d f r o m w h i c h it reaches o u t — i n its o w n p a r t i c u l a r w a y — t o the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s ' r e a c h i n g o u t ' F o r d h a m terms m e t (or not) it
reintegrates
deintegration.
O n c e the infant's n e e d is
the part that reached o u t , i n o r d e r to absorb
Sylvia
Cohen
67
the e x p e r i e n c e a n d take i n a p a r t of the real w o r l d . T h i s constitutes a r u d i m e n t a r y process o f l e a r n i n g . I n m y o p i n i o n , F o r d h a m addresses i n a m o r e coherent f a s h i o n t h a n J u n g the p a r a d o x of the i n f a n t — t h a t is, the w a y i n w h i c h the infant is b o t h p r e - s t r u c t u r e d , yet nevertheless affected b y the responses of those a r o u n d h i m . It m i g h t h a v e s e e m e d that a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y , b y its nature, w a s s i m p l y b i a s e d t o w a r d s the 'active' t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g . H o w e v e r , not o n l y are w e — a s J u n g e m p h a s i s e d — m o v e d b y o u r a r c h e t y p a l structur i n g to m a k e h u m a n sense o f the w o r l d , b u t also, as F o r d h a m c l a i m s , f r o m the b e g i n n i n g w e p l a y a n active p a r t i n o u r interaction w i t h the e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d o u r d e v e l o p m e n t . Yet, b e a r i n g i n m i n d the w a y i n w h i c h a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y a b o u n d s w i t h p a r a d o x e s , w e s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d for the p o s s i b i l i t y that things are n o t quite so s i m p l e , a n d that w e m a y h a v e to recognise a further d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n these t w o a r g u ments.
** * It is difficult if n o t i m p o s s i b l e to start t h i n k i n g about l e a r n i n g w i t h o u t first o f all t h i n k i n g a b o u t
thinking.
J u n g distinguishes two kinds of thinking: 'directed' a n d 'undirect e d ' . It is the f o r m e r w h i c h , ostensibly, seems m o s t closely related to l e a r n i n g (Jung 1911-12/52). H o w e v e r , as I h o p e to d e m o n s t r a t e , this is n o t so s i m p l y the case. J u n g writes that d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g ...or l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g is r e a l i t y - t h i n k i n g , a t h i n k i n g that is a d a p t e d to reality, b y m e a n s of w h i c h w e imitate the successiveness of objectively real things, so that the i m a g e s i n s i d e o u r m i n d f o l l o w o n e another i n the same strictly c a u s a l sequence as the events t a k i n g place o u t s i d e it. (Jung 1911-12/52: 11). T h i s t h i n k i n g is b a s e d o n c o n s c i o u s n e s s — a n act of w i l l , i n a s e n s e — a n d because of this it is, as J u n g says, f a t i g u i n g . It leaves b e h i n d ' a cor r e s p o n d i n g state of e x h a u s t i o n , l i k e a n y other v i t a l a c h i e v e m e n t ' (Jung 1911-12/52: 11). T h u s , as w e c a n see, d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g (because of its r e l a t i o n s h i p to c o n s c i o u s effort) is d e p e n d e n t to a great degree o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the ego,
w h o s e f u n c t i o n it is to h e l p the g r o w i n g c h i l d a d a p t to the
d e m a n d s of the real w o r l d , a n d thus w h o s e j o b — f r o m the b e g i n n i n g — has m u c h to d o w i t h l e a r n i n g . T h e c h i l d , t h r o u g h its interaction w i t h
Learning:
68
a Jungian
Perspective
others, a n d t h r o u g h the responses of the e n v i r o n m e n t , learns w h a t is acceptable a n d h o w to c o m m u n i c a t e — i n essence, h o w to s u r v i v e i n the f a m i l y a n d society into w h i c h h e or she h a s b e e n b o r n . N o t o n l y i n e a r l y y e a r s is this the case, b u t , a c c o r d i n g to J u n g : T h e w h o l e l a b o r i ous a c h i e v e m e n t of o u r lives is a d a p t a t i o n to reality, p a r t o f w h i c h c o n sists i n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g ' (Jung 1911-12/52: 11). T h e r e is a n intricate relationship b e t w e e n d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t a n d lan guage,
a n d this has a p r i m a r y b e a r i n g u p o n the processes of l e a r n i n g .
J u n g quotes James M a r k B a l d w i n w h o describes the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h o u g h t as o c c u r r i n g t h r o u g h trial a n d error, t h r o u g h e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n with meaning. N o w the d e v e l o p m e n t of thought... is b y a m e t h o d essentially of trial a n d error, of e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , of the use of meanings more than they are as yet recognised
to be worth.
as
worth
The individual must
use h i s o l d t h o u g h t s , h i s established k n o w l e d g e , h i s g r o u n d e d j u d g e m e n t s , for the e m b o d i m e n t of his n e w i n v e n t i v e c o n s t r u c tions. H e erects h i s thought... ' s c h e m a t i c a l l y ' — . . . p r o j e c t i n g into the w o r l d a n o p i n i o n still p e r s o n a l to himself, as if it w e r e true. Thus all discovery
proceeds . . . B y this e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n b o t h t h o u g h t
a n d l a n g u a g e are together a d v a n c e d . . . M o s t of the t r a i n i n g of the self... [in] s o u n d j u d g e m e n t , comes t h r o u g h the u s e of s p e e c h . W h e n a c h i l d speaks, he lays before the w o r l d his s u g g e s t i o n for a g e n e r a l or c o m m o n m e a n i n g ; the reception it gets c o n f i r m s or refutes h i m . In either case h e is instructed. ( B a l d w i n , c i t e d i n J u n g 1911-12/52: 15). T h e d u a l i t y of o u r p r i v a t e a n d o u r c o l l e c t i v e — o r s o c i a l — e x i s t e n c e , to w h i c h J u n g refers m a n y times, parallels the d u a l i t y w h i c h B a l d w i n p r o p o s e s , b e t w e e n social a n d p r i v a t e m e a n i n g . I n b o t h cases there is a w o r k i n g - o u t o f the d u a l i t y , a r e s o l u t i o n , w h i c h is m e d i a t e d b y the e g o . F r o m the m o m e n t the c h i l d ' s c r y is m e t w i t h a response the e x p e r i m e n t of t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g proceeds. A s the e g o d e v e l o p s i n strength, it b e c o m e s n o t o n l y a m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n d r i v e s a n d the d e m a n d s o f the collective, b u t also a director or organiser of conscious t h i n k i n g , l a n g u a g e , a n d l e a r n i n g . P r o g r e s s i v e l y w e b e c o m e m o r e able n o t o n l y t o ' d e l a y g r a t i f i c a t i o n ' — l e t us s a y — b u t also to think
i n s t e a d of a c t i n g
( w h e n a p p r o p r i a t e ) . M o r e cogently, i n terms of l e a r n i n g w e b e c o m e m o r e able to assimilate further k n o w l e d g e , a n d to use o u r e g o - s t r e n g t h as a m e a n s o f f o c u s s i n g a n d d i r e c t i n g o u r t h i n k i n g .
Sylvia Cohen
69
D i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is not o n l y b o u n d to a n d m o d i f i e d b y c o n s e n s u a l m e a n i n g , b u t also affects it i n t u r n . J u n g a d d s yet another d i m e n s i o n to h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i n k i n g — t h e contrast b e t w e e n
'extraverted' a n d
' i n t r o v e r t e d ' t h i n k i n g . T h i s contrast is b a s e d o n J u n g ' s o w n theory of p s y c h o l o g i c a l types (Jung 1921). T h i s t y p o l o g y of p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r acteristics is too c o m p l e x to enter into m u c h detail here. It is also f r a u g h t w i t h d a n g e r s of s t e r e o t y p i n g a n d p i g e o n h o l i n g , if u s e d w i t h o u t d u e care a n d attention. H o w e v e r , J u n g ' s e x p o s i t i o n of the differ ence b e t w e e n e x t r a v e r s i o n a n d i n t r o v e r s i o n is of relevance to us. It is the real w o r l d , a n d the other p e o p l e w i t h i n it, w h i c h are of p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e to the extravert's relationships a n d h i s or her w a y of being.
He
towards
or she is
'turned outwards'—so
to s p e a k — i s
oriented
others a n d relies o n t h e m for c o n f i r m a t i o n a n d a p p r o v a l .
C o n v e r s e l y , the introvert is m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the ' i n n e r ' w o r l d , w i t h p s y c h i c a l reality, rather t h a n s e e k i n g to c o n f i r m h i m or herself t h r o u g h relations to other p e o p l e . T h e d i r e c t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p for the introvert is ' i n w a r d ' rather t h a n ' o u t w a r d ' . B u t h a v i n g s a i d this, it is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t w o things. T h e first is that w h a t w e face here is, a g a i n , a
dialectic,
and not two mutual
l y e x c l u s i v e w a y s of b e i n g . W h e r e J u n g refers to a ' t y p e ' , h e is p r o p o s i n g a predominant or preferred m o d e of b e i n g i n the w o r l d , rather t h a n r i g i d l y d e f i n i n g a p a r t i c u l a r 'category' of p e r s o n . O u r p o t e n t i a l for b e i n g extravert is i n constant d i a l o g u e w i t h o u r t e n d e n c y to be i n t r o v e r t (and
vice versa),
a n d either m a y c o m e to the fore i n different s i t u a
tions. T h e s e c o n d t h i n g to r e m e m b e r is that directed t h i n k i n g is a l w a y s c o m m u n i c a b l e a n d l a n g u a g e - r e l a t e d . T h u s , the extra v e r t e d / i n t r o v e r t e d axis, w h e n c o n s i d e r e d w i t h r e g a r d to t h i n k i n g , d o e s n o t necessarily d e s c r i b e the d i r e c t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n the w a y it tends to w h e n w e c o n s i d e r p e r s o n a l i t y types. Instead, i n t r o v e r s i o n a n d e x t r a v e r s i o n refer here to the criterion of judgement o n w h i c h the t h i n k i n g is b a s e d . A l t h o u g h there m a y be a t e n d e n c y i n e a c h of us to v e e r m o r e t o w a r d s o n e p o l e of the axis t h a n the other, J u n g e m p h a s i s e s a n e e d for a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n the t w o m o d e s , if d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is to be effective. E x t r a v e r t e d t h o u g h t is (as one m i g h t guess) t u r n e d o u t w a r d . It is reliant for its progress o n observable d a t a a n d , p e r h a p s m o r e i m p o r tantly, o n a g r e e d m e a n i n g s a r i s i n g f r o m the observations of those data. In other w o r d s , the criterion of j u d g e m e n t is collective a n d consensvi a l — i t is ' o u t s i d e ' of the p e r s o n ' s p s y c h e . T h e extraverted t h i n k e r m i g h t b e effective, for instance, w h e r e the structure of rules a n d p r o c e d u r e s
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Learning: a Jungian Perspective
are clear, a n d w h e r e
the t h i n k i n g c a n b e m o n i t o r e d a n d c h e c k e d
t h r o u g h a g r e e d criteria a n d c o m m o n l y r e c o g n i s e d facts. T h i s is a n i m p o r t a n t t y p e o f t h i n k i n g i n exercises s u c h as the classification of species, g i v i n g rise to a k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e that m i g h t t h e n be u s e d for further l e a r n i n g o r e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . I n t r o v e r t e d t h i n k i n g , o n the other h a n d , is t u r n e d i n w a r d s . A g a i n , I w a n t to e m p h a s i s e that this d o e s n o t m e a n that the p e r s o n t h i n k i n g a l o n g the i n t r o v e r t e d axis d o e s n o t w i s h to c o m m u n i c a t e his t h o u g h t s at s o m e p o i n t . T h e reference-point o f i n t r o v e r t e d t h o u g h t s is d e r i v e d f r o m criteria ' i n s i d e ' rather t h a n ' o u t s i d e ' the p s y c h e . W h a t p r e v a i l i n this m o d e o f t h i n k i n g are n e w ideas rather t h a n n e w facts. I n t r o v e r t e d t h i n k i n g f o r m u l a t e s questions a n d creates theories. I n terms of J u n g ' s structure o f the p s y c h e , the ideas a n d theories d e r i v e their p o w e r f r o m a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e s r i s i n g f r o m the collective u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h are then directed into logical, conscious thought. T h e i n t r o v e r t e d thinker, then, relies less o n agreed a n d c o n s e n s u a l m e a n i n g s o r v a l u e s t h a n u p o n o n his own r e c o g n i t i o n o f the l o g i c o f his t h o u g h t . It is n o t that this t h i n k i n g ignores data o r o b s e r v a t i o n s , b u t it d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y fall i n w i t h a g r e e d m e a n i n g s o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . I n d e e d , s u c h m a y b e the p o w e r of a n i d e a ' s ' i n t e r n a l ' l o g i c o r v a l i d i t y that o n c e it is c o m m u n i c a t e d a p r e v i o u s l y a g r e e d t h e o r y m a y w e l l b e altered b y i t — f o r instance, E i n s t e i n ' s t h e o r y o f relativity, a m o n g s t m a n y others. It s h o u l d b e clear f r o m this e x p o s i t i o n of the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the e g o a n d d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t that, for J u n g , l e a r n i n g is initiated p r e t t y m u c h at the v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f life. A s w e h a v e seen, the b a b y is b o r n s t r u c t u r e d b y archetypes w i t h the p o t e n t i a l to b e h u m a n , into a n e t w o r k of e x p e c tations a n d a c u l t u r e that is i n t u r n s t r u c t u r e d b y l a n g u a g e . T h e first m o m e n t s o f R e i n t e g r a t i o n ' for the b a b y are its r u d i m e n t a r y forays i n t o the w o r l d . T h e s e are d r i v e n b y its n e e d for satisfaction, b u t are n e v e r theless still ' f o r a y s ' . T h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t to the b a b y ' s e x p l o r a t i o n s b e g i n s to set u p m o d e s of interaction, the ' f l e s h i n g o u t ' o f a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e s . A k i n d o f feedback l o o p is therefore set u p b e t w e e n the a r c h e t y p a l ( w h i c h , w e s h o u l d r e m e m b e r , is i n i t i a l l y formless) a n d the e n v i r o n m e n t . E a c h affects the other. F o r instance, to the degree that the a r c h e t y p a l expectations s u r r o u n d i n g the m o t h e r are met, o r fail to be met, the i m a g e o f a ' g o o d ' o r ' b a d ' m o t h e r begins to b e f i l l e d i n . T h i s i m a g e w h i c h , b e i n g a r c h e t y p a l , is extreme, a n d i n i t i a l l y has little r e l a t i o n to the r e a l m o t h e r , b u t is d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y f r o m the c h i l d ' s a p p e r c e p t i o n , is projected o n t o the mother. It is as if the c h i l d sees the m o t h e r
Sylvia Cohen only
t h r o u g h glasses of a p a r t i c u l a r h u e .
However,
as
71
the
child
b e c o m e s able to experience the ' r e a l - m o t h e r ' s ' responses to h i s actions, the a r c h e t y p a l d i m e n s i o n d i m i n i s h e s , a n d she b e c o m e s m o r e h u m a n . * * *
T h i s r e c i p r o c i t y b e t w e e n c h i l d a n d e n v i r o n m e n t touches u p o n another i m p o r t a n t p a r a d i g m of J u n g i a n t h i n k i n g , w h i c h is a g a i n related to the n o t i o n o f dialectical opposites. J u n g p a y s v e r y little attention to d e v e l o p m e n t s
o c c u r r i n g i n the
e a r l y y e a r s of l i f e — b o t h i n his m o d e l of the h u m a n m i n d , a n d i n his e x p o s i t i o n s of the processes of t h e r a p y a n d the therapeutic encounter. E v e n w h e n he d o e s choose to c o n s i d e r it, i n m a r k e d contrast to the K l e i n i a n p o i n t of v i e w h e p a y s n o attention to i m a g e s of f e e d i n g , a n d n e v e r uses the l a n g u a g e of i n c o r p o r a t i o n a n d introjection. I n s t e a d , J u n g b a s e d his n o t i o n of the a n a l y t i c e n c o u n t e r o n the p r o c e s s e s of alchemy. H i s justification for this is that to u n d e r s t a n d the p r o c e s s of the p s y c h e o b s e r v i n g itself w e m u s t step outside of the time a n d p l a c e i n w h i c h w e f i n d ourselves: J u n g t h o u g h t that alchemy, l o o k e d at f r o m a s y m b o l i c a n d not a scientific eye, c o u l d be r e g a r d e d as one of the p r e c u r s o r s of m o d e r n s t u d y of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , of a n a l y t i c a l interest i n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of personality... the alchemists... h a d t w o interrelated a i m s , [one of w h i c h was] to alter or trans form
base
materials
into
something
more
valuable...
The
a l c h e m i s t w o u l d carefully choose elements o n the basis of a s c h e m a o r g a n i s e d i n terms of opposites. T h i s w a s because attraction
of
opposites
( S a m u e l s et a l . 1986:
led
to
their e v e n t u a l
the
conjunction...
12)
M o r e o v e r , the alchemist not o n l y b r o u g h t a b o u t the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the elements w i t h w h i c h he w o r k e d , b u t w a s h i m s e l f affected b o t h spiritually a n d emotionally b y his experiments. In analysis m u c h the same applies. T h e analyst, for J u n g , is not m e r e l y a n interpretative observer of the other, b u t is p a r t of w h a t is h a p p e n i n g i n the analysis. T h e d y n a m i c of transference a n d counter transference is a k i n to the 'coniunctio'
of elements i n alchemy. T h i s is a
t e r m a p p l i e d b y J u n g to describe the m e e t i n g of the m i n d s , p e r s o n a l i ties a n d souls of t w o p e o p l e , i n w h i c h e a c h is t r a n s f o r m e d a n d c h a n g e d
72
Learning: a Jungian
Perspective
b y the e n c o u n t e r (Jung 1946/54). T h e a n a l y s t is a s s u m e d to be the m o r e c o n s c i o u s of the t w o , to possess greater p s y c h o l o g i c a l h e a l t h , a n d to h a v e the p o t e n t i a l to facilitate greater c h a n g e t h a n he or she e x p e r i ences. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the analyst is c h a n g e d , albeit ever so s l i g h t l y Transference a n d counter-transference are i n p a r t a r e p l a y of e a r l y a n d c h i l d h o o d experiences w i t h parents, t h u s the n o t i o n of ' c o n i u n c t i o ' m u s t also a p p l y there too. A l t h o u g h parents u s u a l l y h a v e the e d g e w h e n it c o m e s to ego-strength a n d k n o w l e d g e , the c h i l d ' s h y p o t h e s e s p o t e n t i a l l y l e a d also to l e a r n i n g a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of ideas i n b o t h p a r t i e s . T h e p a r e n t s ' interaction w i t h their c h i l d i n e v i t a b l y has s o m e effect o n t h e m , e v e n if this entails o n l y that the parent learns s o m e t h i n g a b o u t his or her o w n responses or w a y of s e e i n g the w o r l d . It is, I t h i n k , a c o m m o n experience of a n y parent (and, i n d e e d , of a n y o n e w o r k i n g w i t h children) that s e e m i n g l y n a i v e or a m u s i n g q u e s tions c a n really m a k e us r e - t h i n k o u r a s s u m e d k n o w l e d g e , o u r r a t i o n a l e for b e h a v i o u r . A t a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d l e v e l , o l d e r c h i l d r e n a n d adolescents m i g h t offer u s — i f w e c a n accept the o p p o r t u n i t y to d o s o — a chance to re-evaluate o u r perspectives a n d to l e a r n a different w a y of t h i n k i n g a b o u t things. S o , a l t h o u g h — a s i n other p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r i e s — l e a r n i n g is f a c i l itated t h r o u g h r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n a l y t i c a l p s y c h o l o g y p a y s careful atten t i o n to the p o t e n t i a l of the learner as a teacher, a n d v i c e v e r s a , rather t h a n c o n c e n t r a t i n g e x c l u s i v e l y o n the a c t i v i t y of the learner. T h i s , to m y m i n d , b r i n g s into focus the p o t e n t i a l creativity of any r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n d t h u s — a l s o — t h e creative a n d i m a g i n a t i v e aspects of l e a r n i n g .
*** H a v i n g v i s i t e d s o m e aspects of early l e a r n i n g , a n d h a v i n g offered a p e r s p e c t i v e o n h o w the process of l e a r n i n g is established, I s h a l l n o w t u r n to w h a t
E J . A n t h o n y refers
to as
'meaningful
learning'.
He
d e s c r i b e s it as that w h i c h : ' i n v o l v e s a c o n s i d e r a b l e exercise of s u c h c o g n i t i v e processes
as j u d g e m e n t
and understanding' (Anthony
1989:
103). N o t o n l y is this v e r y clearly related to the d e v e l o p m e n t of d i r e c t e d t h o u g h t , b u t is a l s o — o n e a s s u m e s — t h e u l t i m a t e object of e d u c a t i o n , a l t h o u g h there m a y of course be steps a l o n g the w a y i n c o r p o r a t i n g 'rote l e a r n i n g ' or e v e n s i m p l e r k i n d s o f l e a r n i n g . Somewhat
a k i n to this, D a v i d K o l b defines
l e a r n i n g as:
'...the
p r o c e s s w h e r e b y k n o w l e d g e is created t h r o u g h the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of
Sylvia Cohen
73
e x p e r i e n c e . K n o w l e d g e results f r o m the c o m b i n a t i o n of g r a s p i n g expe rience a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g it' ( K o l b 1984:
41).
Consequently, K o l b distinguishes between two dimensions w i t h i n the process of l e a r n i n g : ' p r e h e n s i o n ' a n d ' t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ' . W i t h i n each of these are t w o
'dialectically opposed
modes'.
P r e h e n s i o n is
the
' g r a s p i n g ' of e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h w e c a r r y o u t either t h r o u g h ' a p p r e h e n s i o n ' or ' c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' . T h e f o r m e r m o d e entails direct concrete e x p e r i e n c e of the t h i n g to be l e a r n e d — a s is g a i n e d t h r o u g h a n a p p r e n ticeship, for instance. T h e latter, m e a n w h i l e , utilises ' s y m b o l i c repre sentations of e x p e r i e n c e ' — f o r instance, a c o u n t r y or area is c o m p r e h e n d e d b y creating a map to represent it. T r a n s f o r m a t i o n , o n the other h a n d , describes those instances i n w h i c h the k n o w l e d g e w e g a i n is u s e d to create m e a n i n g . T h i s is then a p p l i e d to other situations, or to b r i n g a b o u t a m o r e c o m p l e t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g . K o l b b o r r o w s terms f r o m logic i n o r d e r to n a m e the
two
m o d e s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n : ' i n t e n t i o n ' a n d ' e x t e n s i o n ' , w h i c h relate to abstract a n d concrete qualities respectively. T r a n s f o r m a t i o n , he argues, is not s i m p l y a process w e u n d e r g o ' i n t e r n a l l y ' , so to speak. It is i n s t e a d a process w h i c h utilises both extension into the real w o r l d , a n d also the i n t e n t i o n b y w h i c h w e t h i n k abstractly. A s K o l b p u t s it: W h a t I p r o p o s e here is that the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n processes
of
i n t e n t i o n a n d e x t e n s i o n c a n be a p p l i e d to o u r concrete a p p r e h e n s i o n s . W e l e a r n the m e a n i n g of o u r concrete i m m e d i a t e expe riences b y i n t e r n a l l y reflecting o n their p r e s y m b o l i c i m p a c t o n o u r feelings, a n d / o r b y a c t i n g o n o u r a p p r e h e n d e d experience a n d t h u s e x t e n d i n g it. T a k e , for e x a m p l e , the rose l y i n g o n m y desk. I t r a n s f o r m m y a p p r e h e n s i o n of the rose i n t e n t i o n a l l y b y d e p l o y i n g m y attention to its different aspects... a n d experience a blossoming
of b r i e f reminiscences. H e r e I c a n n o t resist the
i m p u l s e to t r a n s f o r m the experience extensionally, to p i c k u p the rose a n d h o l d it to m y nose... n e w e x t e n d e d a p p r e h e n s i o n f u r ther stimulates m y i n t e r n a l reflections... (Kolb 1984:
52)
K o l b is i l l u s t r a t i n g here a process of l e a r n i n g i n w h i c h b o t h ' c o n crete' a n d 'abstract' m o d e s of f u n c t i o n i n g are v i t a l , a n d h a v e a n e q u a l v a l u e . W h e n the t w o d i m e n s i o n s of l e a r n i n g are d i a l e c t i c a l l y o p p o s e d , together w i t h their m o d e s , a k i n d of ' m a p ' of types of l e a r n i n g c a n be s k e t c h e d , i n w h i c h different c o m b i n a t i o n s of m o d e a n d d i m e n s i o n are c o n c e i v a b l e . T h e s e different ' l e a r n i n g styles' are d e p e n d e n t u p o n a
74
Learning: a Jitngian
Perspective
n u m b e r o f variables: the tendencies a n d preferences o f the i n d i v i d u a l ; the context a n d content of w h a t is b e i n g l e a r n e d ; a n d the c u l t u r a l expe rience o f the i n d i v i d u a l . These m a k e for s o m e v e r y intricate a n d c o m plex interrelationships b u t , for the present, I w i l l concentrate u p o n a single aspect of the tendencies o f the i n d i v i d u a l . K o l b explicitly relates J u n g ' s t y p o l o g y to h i s o w n t h e o r y of m o d e s of l e a r n i n g — w i t h the caveat that neither the t y p o l o g y , n o r the d i m e n sions a n d m o d e s o f l e a r n i n g , are s i m p l e concepts. A s I h a v e already e m p h a s i s e d , the d i m e n s i o n s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d i n b o t h the p e r s o n a l i t y a n d i n l e a r n i n g are n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e , b u t i n dialectical o p p o s i t i o n — i n accordance w i t h J u n g ' s p a r a d i g m o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n o p p o s i t e s . In other w o r d s , the opposites 'engage i n d i a l o g u e ' , or enter into a r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h e a c h feeds the other, so that a w a y o f c o m b i n i n g b o t h approaches m a y b e f o u n d . F o r instance, s o m e o n e w h o prefers concrete experience as a w a y o f a p p r e h e n d i n g ( w h i c h w e m i g h t relate to the d i m e n s i o n o f extraversion), w i l l , i n o r d e r to t r a n s f o r m the experience for further l e a r n i n g or use, be r e q u i r e d at s o m e p o i n t to e m p l o y a m o r e abstract a n d ' i n n e r ' (or introverted) m o d e o f c o n c e p t u alisation. If s o m e t h i n g is not 'abstracted' f r o m the experience, then it w i l l b e o f n o further use. T h e style o f abstraction w i l l b e i n d i v i d u a l , h o w e v e r , a n d i n part a p r o d u c t o f the d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the opposites. O u r extravert, for instance, w h o prefers concrete experience as a m o d e of a p p r e h e n s i o n , m a y n e e d to r e l y h e a v i l y o n i m a g e r y i n order to abstract h i s experience a n d t r a n s f o r m it. T h e s e l e a r n i n g styles,
a l t h o u g h they utilise c o n s c i o u s , directed
t h i n k i n g are, i n part at least, d e t e r m i n e d b y unconscious
processes.
A c c o r d i n g to J u n g , the collective u n c o n s c i o u s is s t r u c t u r e d b y arche types w h i c h inter-react w i t h o u r e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e r e is a l w a y s a n u n c o n s c i o u s potential to be o t h e r w i s e . T h u s w e encounter yet another l e v e l o f dialectic, that b e t w e e n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d conscious d y n a m i c s . F o r J u n g , the u n c o n s c i o u s possesses a compensatory
f u n c t i o n ; it ' b a l
ances' conscious attitudes b y h o l d i n g w i t h i n itself the o p p o s i t e to t h e m . F o r instance, s o m e o n e w h o regards h i m o r herself as ever patient a n d tolerant m a y be u n c o n s c i o u s l y a n g r y a n d critical. T h e m o r e the u n c o n s c i o u s is s u p p r e s s e d , the m o r e l i k e l y it is to p o p o u t i n u n i n t e n d e d s p e e c h or action. F o r this reason it is f u n d a m e n t a l l y i m p o r tant to listen to 'messages' f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l s — w h e t h e r i n the f o r m of d r e a m s , images, or f a n t a s i e s — i n o r d e r to incorporate into awareness other aspects o f the personality.
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In terms o f l e a r n i n g — a n d cognitive processes g e n e r a l l y — t h e s a m e a p p l i e s . A l t h o u g h w e m a y be c o n s c i o u s of h a v i n g certain talents or abilities, there are i n the u n c o n s c i o u s the opposite potentials. T h e p e r s o n w h o t h i n k s a n d learns b y u s i n g h i g h l y f o c u s e d
r e a s o n i n g , for
i n s t a n c e , m a y h a v e a n u n c o n s c i o u s potential for m o r e lateral, i m a g i n a tive w a y s of a p p r o a c h i n g things. A d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the t w o m i g h t e n c o u r a g e a n d p r o d u c e s o m e v e r y creative l e a r n i n g a n d thought, i n w h i c h s o m e of the restrictions of logic m i g h t be released, a n d i m a g i n a t i o n — o r i n t u i t i o n , p e r h a p s — m i g h t be expressed w i t h i n a c o m m u n i c a ble a n d l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k . A t this p o i n t w e b e g i n at last to t o u c h u p o n that other m o d e of t h i n k i n g p r o p o s e d b y J u n g , w h i c h h e describes as ' n o n - d i r e c t e d ' , a n d w h i c h is: . . . i n the m a i n subjectively m o t i v a t e d , a n d n o t so m u c h b y c o n scious m o t i v e s a s — f a r m o r e — b y u n c o n s c i o u s ones. It certainly p r o d u c e s a w o r l d p i c t u r e v e r y different f r o m that of conscious, d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g . . . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s bases of d r e a m s a n d fan tasies are o n l y a p p a r e n t l y infantile reminiscences... w e are c o n cerned
with
primitive
or archaic
thought-forms,
based
on
instinct, w h i c h n a t u r a l l y emerge m o r e clearly i n c h i l d h o o d t h a n they d o later. B u t they are not i n themselves infantile, m u c h less p a t h o l o g i c a l . (Jung 1911-12/52: 37) Undirected
t h i n k i n g is a s s o c i a t i v e
rather
than
i m a g e r y a n d fantasy, f o l l o w i n g its o w n subjective
logical,
using
p a t h — w h i c h , of
c o u r s e , m a y l e a d to d i s t o r t e d p e r c e p t i o n i n 'real w o r l d '
terms—but
w h i c h , nevertheless, is also b a s e d o n sense perceptions. It is s i m p l y the case that u n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g does s o m e t h i n g different w i t h these p e r ceptions. W h e r e a s d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g seeks c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d the m a n i p u l a t i o n of ideas or objects i n the real w o r l d (thus e n a b l i n g tech n o l o g i c a l progress), u n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is less c o n c e r n e d w i t h this t h a n w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w h e t h e r that i n v o l v e s one's o w n p s y c h i c reality, or a m i x t u r e of b o t h this a n d the 'real w o r l d ' . Jung's comment
that this k i n d of t h i n k i n g , w i t h its u n c o n s c i o u s
basis, is neither infantile n o r p a t h o l o g i c a l addresses
the p r e v i o u s l y
p o p u l a r v i e w that associative t h i n k i n g is ' i n f e r i o r ' to l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g .
1
T h i s v i e w stems f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r a s s u m p t i o n about k n o w l e d g e a n d its f u n c t i o n — t h a t i s , t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s — w h i c h seems to h a v e g a i n e d a h o l d since the E n l i g h t e n m e n t . If k n o w l e d g e is a s s u m e d to be l i n e a r
Learning: a Jungian
76
Perspective
l y p r o g r e s s i v e — a s is the case i n m a n y s c i e n c e s — t h e n further l e a r n i n g tends to be r e g a r d e d as b u i l t l o g i c a l l y u p o n w h a t has g o n e before, a n d thus it is i n d e e d difficult to appreciate the p a r t that
unconscious
d y n a m i c s a n d fantasies m i g h t play. U n t i l r e c e n t l y w o r k o n cognitive processes
has b e e n i n f l u e n c e d
l a r g e l y b y the b e h a v i o u r i s t a p p r o a c h , a n d has concentrated exclusively Moraglia
on
conscious
processes.
However,
almost
i n a recent
(1991) cites research o n i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g
paper
(or
'IP')
w h i c h , h a v i n g established concepts s u c h as 'attention' a n d ' c o n s c i o u s ness' as scientifically v a l i d , has i n e v i t a b l y t u r n e d to a t t e m p t i n g
to
u n d e r s t a n d their opposites. In other w o r d s , n o n - c o n s c i o u s processes i n i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g are n o w b e i n g r e c o g n i s e d a n d a d d r e s s e d . It seems especially clear f r o m this w o r k that conscious f u n c t i o n i n g is o n l y a p a r t of the activities of the p s y c h e . M o r e o v e r , d u e to the l i m ited c a p a c i t y of the conscious system, w e process a great d e a l of i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h o u t conscious
awareness,
although conscious
precepts
m a y be affected b y this processing. M o r a g l i a notes a n agreement b e t w e e n the properties of n o n - c o n scious IP a n d of the u n c o n s c i o u s , as p u t f o r w a r d b y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s — essentially, that the activity a n d processes of b o t h differ m a r k e d l y f r o m c o n s c i o u s activities a n d processes. S o m e basic elements of the specifi 2
cally Jungian m o d e l
of the m i n d also f i n d c o r r o b o r a t i o n i n
this
research. F o r instance, the differentiation w i t h i n the field of IP b e t w e e n ' c o n scious' between
and
'unconscious
directed a n d
processes'
parallels Jung's
undirected thinking. The
distinction
former—as
Jung
r e m a r k e d — i s ' f a t i g u i n g ' or, i n IP terms, i n v o l v e s ' h i g h e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n ' , whereas the latter, b e i n g associative rather t h a n a n a l y t i c a l , uses far less energy. IP also appreciates the l i m i t e d capacity of the c o n scious s y s t e m to d e a l w i t h all the i n f o r m a t i o n the m i n d receives, a n d thus recognises the necessity of n o n - c o n s c i o u s p r o c e s s i n g . S i m i l a r l y , f r o m a J u n g i a n perspective, the p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s (repressed mate rial f r o m p e r s o n a l experience) is constituted p a r t l y because of the l i m i t e d c a p a c i t y of the conscious system. U n l i k e the collective u n c o n scious, the p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s derives largely f r o m the w o r l d of sen sation a n d experience, m u c h of w h i c h is not m e d i a t e d c o n s c i o u s l y H o w e v e r , the w a y i n w h i c h these data are nevertheless o r g a n i s e d b r i n g s us to the f u n c t i o n of the collective u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h is struc t u r e d — i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d — b y archetypes. Similarly, IP research s u g
Sylvia Cohen
77
gests that the structures w h i c h organise the u n c o n s c i o u s m a t e r i a l are n o t extraneous or e m p i r i c a l i n o r i g i n , b u t : ...resemble
more
d i r e c t l y innate, t r a n s p e r s o n a l c o n d i t i o n s o f
experience, i n a n a l o g y w i t h C h o m s k y ' s ideas of a genetically inherited
a n d unconscious
'deep
structure'
of
language.
( M o r a g l i a 1991: 31) In other w o r d s , archetypes m i g h t be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d as organisers of o u r p e r c e p t i o n s — w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y o n e aspect w h i c h J u n g attributed to t h e m . T h e ' m e a n i n g f u l l e a r n i n g ' to w h i c h I referred earlier i n v o l v e s b o t h a p p r e h e n s i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n — i n other w o r d s , a k i n d of i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g . If, then, u n c o n s c i o u s m e n t a l activity p l a y s as great a role i n l e a r n i n g as it d o e s i n IP, t h e n h o w m i g h t w e g a i n access to this u n c o n s c i o u s activity, a n d h o w m i g h t w e c o n c e p t u a l i s e w h a t it tells u s a b o u t the processes o f l e a r n i n g itself? T h e d y n a m i c s o f the u n c o n s c i o u s — w h e t h e r
'repressed/personal'
or ' c o l l e c t i v e ' — a r e o r g a n i s e d archetypally. H o w e v e r , i n themselves the archetypes c a n n o t b e k n o w n ; they are o n l y — a s it w e r e — ' p o t e n t i a l ' structures. U n c o n s c i o u s a c t i v i t y a n d contents m a y o n l y manifest t h e m selves t h r o u g h d r e a m s , fantasy, a n d i m a g e r y . T h e s e processes f o r m e r l y c o n t r i b u t e d to another m o d e of t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h w h i c h , since time i m m e m o r i a l , h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e s t r i v e n to m a k e sense of themselves a n d the w o r l d :
myth-making.
A l l the creative p o w e r that m o d e r n m a n p o u r s into science a n d technics the m a n of a n t i q u i t y d e v o t e d to h i s m y t h s . T h i s creative u r g e explains... the c o n t i n u a l r e j u v e n a t i o n of m y t h s i n G r e e k c u l ture... T h i s activity of the e a r l y classical m i n d w a s i n the highest degree artistic... (Jung 1911-12/52: 24) J u n g is at p a i n s to e m p h a s i s e the h u m a n i n e v i t a b i l i t y of fantasy a n d m y t h - m a k i n g , w h i c h s p r i n g f r o m the a r c h e t y p a l realms of the collec tive u n c o n s c i o u s . If w e w e r e n e v e r t o l d a m y t h or a story i n o u r entire lives, w e w o u l d i n v e n t o u r o w n . J u n g focuses o n the creative d r i v e t o w a r d s m y t h - m a k i n g , y e t this p r o c e s s — w h i c h , generally, relies u p o n associative rather t h a n l o g i c a l t h o u g h t — m a y also h a v e a b e a r i n g u p o n the process of l e a r n i n g .
78
Learning: a Jungian
Perspective
If there is i n h u m a n beings a n a r c h e t y p a l p r o p e n s i t y to w e a v e sto ries, this m i g h t also constitute part of the a r c h e t y p a l o r g a n i s a t i o n of o u r c a p a c i t y for i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g , as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e .
Myths
w e r e b a s e d o n u n i v e r s a l h u m a n themes, g i v e n f o r m b y a local culture, as attempts to u n d e r s t a n d a n d to l e a r n about the w o r l d i n w a y s w h i c h utilise h u m a n experience. M y t h s c a n themselves b e u n d e r s t o o d as a f o r m of analogy, p r o v i d i n g a means of ' a p p r e h e n d i n g t h r o u g h e x p e r i ence', as K o l b w o u l d p u t it. In K o l b ' s terms w e m o v e constantly f r o m p r e h e n s i o n to transfor m a t i o n i n o u r t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . H i s chief interest w a s i n the char acteristic styles b y w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s resolve this d i a l e c t i c — t h e differ ent w a y s i n w h i c h different p e o p l e learn. H o w e v e r , I a m s u g g e s t i n g that this dialectic (between p r e h e n s i o n a n d transformation) is i n part r e s o l v e d t h r o u g h a n o t h e r — t h a t b e t w e e n u n c o n s c i o u s a n d conscious d y n a m i c s , a n d , concomitantly, b e t w e e n associative a n d l o g i c a l t h i n k ing. O f c o u r s e , ancient m y t h s d o n o t i n themselves p r o v i d e explanations satisfactory i n m o d e r n scientific terms. T h e y d o n o t e n g e n d e r
testable
a n d refutable h y p o t h e s e s w h i c h c a n be tested o u t i n the real w o r l d . In the m a i n this is because the focus of m y t h is u p o n satisfactory e x p l a n a t i o n a n d subjective k n o w l e d g e , rather t h a n c o n t r o l of objects i n the real w o r l d . In the ancient w o r l d , control of events w a s u s u a l l y m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h the g o o d offices of d i v i n i t i e s , p l a c a t e d b y p r a y e r a n d sacri fice. H o w e v e r , once h u m a n s became interested i n t r y i n g to m a n i p u l a t e the w o r l d i n d e p e n d e n t l y of d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n , t h e n t h i n k i n g h a d to b e c o m e m o r e d i r e c t e d , a n d l e a r n i n g about the w o r l d h a d to b e c o m e m o r e closely related to the w a y things actually w o r k e d . T h e o l d m y t h s , w i t h their a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c t r i m m i n g s , were n o longer useful, i n that they w e r e u n a b l e to p r o v i d e the k i n d of e x p l a n a t i o n s that m i g h t l e a d to further l e a r n i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e n the m o s t r i g o r o u s l y scientific m e t h o d
depends
u p o n the w o r k i n g s of things w h i c h cannot b e seen, i n order to p r o v i d e theoretical m o d e l s . C o n t e m p o r a r y p h y s i c s , for instance, has entered a r e a l m i n w h i c h p h e n o m e n a a n d relationships are d e s c r i b e d m e t a p h y s ically. T o p u t this another way, w e invent stories that h e l p e x p l a i n the w o r l d to u s , a n d enable us to m a n i p u l a t e s o m e aspects of it. T h e s e sci entific stories are n o t the same as ancient m y t h s (they p r o v i d e either a l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n , or a technologically w o r k a b l e m o d e l ) yet they still w o r k o n the p r i n c i p l e of analogy. T h e m o d e l s t h r o u g h w h i c h w e n o w
Sylvia Cohen
79
u n d e r s t a n d the w o r l d are the p r o d u c t , I w o u l d say, o f the dialectic b e t w e e n associative a n d l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g ; b e t w e e n
the i m a g i n a t i o n
w h i c h creates story, a n d the a p p l i c a t i o n of a logic w h i c h tests o u t h y p o t h e s e s . O f course, i n either case, there m u s t b e a c o m m o n a i m of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . O n c e it is d e c i d e d that p r i v a t e thoughts are to be s h a r e d , they m u s t be translated into terms that utilise n o t o n l y p e r s o n al experience b u t also c o n s e n s u a l m e a n i n g . T h u s , flights of fancy, those leaps o f logic w e call i n t u i t i o n , fantasy a n d imagery, m i g h t b e b r o u g h t into the p u b l i c sphere i n a w a y that m a k e s sense to others. Because associative or n o n - d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g uses far less p s y c h i c energy, it is less t i r i n g a n d — i n that s e n s e — a m o r e ' p l e a s u r a b l e ' a c t i v i ty t h a n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g . T h i s , I t h i n k , b r i n g s us b a c k to m y initial question:
given
the h i g h degree
of will
a n d energy-expenditure
i n v o l v e d i n d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g , w h i c h is necessary for l e a r n i n g , w h y o n earth s h o u l d w e choose to d o it? T h e n o t i o n that h u m a n s are ' n a t u r a l l y ' c u r i o u s creatures does n o t c o m p l e t e l y a n s w e r this because, as I h o p e to h a v e s h o w n , w e are quite capable of satisfying o u r c u r i o s i t y s i m p l y t h r o u g h fantasy a n d i m a g e r y . To meander
a l o n g the h i g h w a y s
and by-ways
of n o n - d i r e c t e d
t h o u g h t is, h o w e v e r , a k i n to a p u l l t o w a r d s inertia. T h i s n o t i o n of ' i n e r tia' is p e r h a p s the closest J u n g c a m e to a v e r s i o n of 'the d e a t h d r i v e ' . F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e o n e m i g h t s a y that a p r e p o n d e r a n c e of fantasy a n d association is ' a n t i - l e a r n i n g ' . W e l o n g to r e t u r n to a sense of ' o n e n e s s ' w i t h the m o t h e r — h o w e v e r
i l l u s o r y this n o t i o n m i g h t b e — i n
w h i c h there is n o effort or conflict, a n d w e are sheltered f r o m the h a r s h v a g a r i e s of the r e a l w o r l d . H o w e v e r , the d i m e n s i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h w e f u l l y d e v e l o p o u r h u m a n p o t e n t i a l is c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
a n d this comes about
precisely
t h r o u g h s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the n u r t u r i n g mother, t h r o u g h the a g e n c y o f the father or ' p a t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e ' : T h i s is the... L o g o s , w h i c h eternally struggles to extricate itself f r o m the p r i m a l w a r m t h a n d p r i m a l d a r k n e s s of the m a t e r n a l w o m b ; i n a w o r d , f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Q u n g 1938/59: 178) It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that the f u n c t i o n s of m o t h e r a n d father d o n o t relate to a n y n e c e s s a r i l y f i x e d roles of the actual parents, b u t rather to a r c h e t y p a l representations o f u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s
('mother') a n d c o n
sciousness ('father') i n the p s y c h e (cf. J u n g 1938/59, 1934/54).
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Learning: a Jungian
Perspective
T h e m o v e m e n t t o w a r d s separation f r o m the m o t h e r is a n e m b r y o n ic stage i n the process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n — t h e l i f e l o n g activity of f i n d i n g o u r s e l v e s a n d o u r p a t h i n l i f e . W i t h the initial s e p a r a t i o n , a n d the c o n 3
c o m i t a n t n e e d for c o m m u n i c a t i o n , relationships w i t h others b e c o m e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h r o u g h these the c h i l d begins to please a n d to be p l e a s e d b y a d u l t s . T h i s e n v i r o n m e n t a l experience activates other a r c h e t y p a l potentials. T h e G a r d e n of E d e n m a y h a v e its place i n o u r e m o t i o n a l y e a r n i n g , b u t once the fruit of the tree of k n o w l e d g e has b e e n bitten, c u r i o s i t y c o m p e l s us to use o u r c o g n i t i o n to l e a r n about the w o r l d . W h a t w e m i g h t call a l e a r n i n g ego' is established, e n a b l i n g the neces s a r y d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n fantasy a n d directed t h i n k i n g to take place. W e n e v e r s i m p l y reach a p o i n t i n o u r d e v e l o p m e n t w h e r e w e w a n t o n l y to l e a r n ; the dialectic b e t w e e n associative a n d d i r e c t e d t h i n k i n g is c o n s t a n t l y r e - w o r k e d , as are the dialectics b e t w e e n the other pairs of opposites
we
have
touched
upon: extraversion/introversion,
con
s c i o u s / u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d concrete e x p e r i e n c e / a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n , for instance.
* ** T h e dialectic that m i g h t be d e s c r i b e d as the m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l to l e a r n i n g , a n d to o u r c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of e d u c a t i o n , is that b e t w e e n the p e r s o n a l a n d the collective. T h e r e is a t e n s i o n b e t w e e n o u r p r i v a t e needs, w a n t s , a n d interests, a n d w h a t w e m i g h t call 'the p u b l i c d e m a n d ' . W e m a y be c u r i o u s a n d e x p l o r a t o r y creatures, b u t there is a n e v i d e n t conflict b e t w e e n w h a t w e are c u r i o u s to l e a r n , a n d w h a t w e are called u p o n to learn. In other w o r d s , o u r l e a r n i n g is to a greater or lesser extent d e t e r m i n e d b y a c o n sensvis o n w h a t is ' v a l u a b l e ' , 'interesting', 'right' a n d ' i m p o r t a n t ' . T h e p r e - s c h o o l c h i l d , for instance, m a y be free to explore the e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d e x p e r i m e n t w i t h l a n g u a g e , paint, or clay, b u t h e or s h e — e v e n at this e a r l y s t a g e — s t i l l has to l e a r n to control his or h e r excretion, eat i n a p a r t i c u l a r w a y , sit i n a circle w h e n t o l d to d o so, a n d learn the l a n g u a g e w h i c h others speak. T h i s conflict is m o r e a p p a r e n t i n adults: the v o c a t i o n a l learner is clearly c o m p e l l e d to take i n things w h i c h d o not r e a l l y interest h i m or her, i n order to attain the r e q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e . T h e r e is a p r o b l e m inherent i n all f o r m s of f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h is precisely to d o w i t h a d d r e s s i n g the i n d i v i d u a l yet at the s a m e time c o n f o r m i n g to the collective consensus. Perhaps the g r o u p of learners m o s t v u l n e r a b l e to this tension b e t w e e n p e r s o n a l a n d collective is c h i l
Sylvia
Cohen
81
d r e n of c o m p u l s o r y s c h o o l - a g e . U n t i l sixteen, t h e y m u s t attend s c h o o l , or its e q u i v a l e n t , a n d are expected to l e a r n w h a t is p u t i n front of t h e m , a n d to l e a r n it (usually) i n quite large g r o u p s . O n e m i g h t a l m o s t s a y that the m e m b e r s of this g r o u p of learners n e e d a v e r y w e l l - d e v e l o p e d T e a m i n g e g o ' , p l u s the w i l l to direct a n d focus their t h i n k i n g , to a greater extent t h a n a n y other g r o u p of learners. I t h i n k that there are t w o aspects of J u n g i a n t h i n k i n g w h i c h m i g h t p r o v e h e l p f u l i n b e g i n n i n g to a d d r e s s this difficulty. In the first place, the a r c h e t y p a l d i m e n s i o n to c u r i o s i t y m i g h t be t a k e n as a n i n d i c a t i o n that h u m a n b e i n g s are resilient to the b o r e d o m of collective d e m a n d s as l o n g as they receive a decent a d m i x t u r e of w h a t they really w a n t . This
fundamental
curiosity w i l l
also
p r o b a b l y be best
captured
t h r o u g h effective p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l — c e r t a i n l y b y presentation w h i c h a l l o w s for as m u c h e x p l o r a t i o n as possible. S e c o n d l y , c o n n e c t e d to the a b o v e , the J u n g i a n p a r a d i g m of the coni unctio
a s s u m e s that l e a r n i n g is a n interactive
process. T h i s m a k e s , I
t h i n k , for a m o d e l w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e s rather m o r e d e m o c r a c y t h a n is i m p l i e d b y the n o t i o n of a teacher w h o m e r e l y a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y 'teaches'. T h e i d e a of coniunctio
i m p l i e s i n s t e a d a place of l e a r n i n g a n d
interaction, b o t h w i t h the m a t e r i a l , a n d w i t h the self of the teacher. T h e i n t e r a c t i o n a n d dialectic b e t w e e n
teacher a n d student m i r r o r s the
' i n n e r ' dialectics the student w i l l u s e i n o r d e r to a p p r e h e n d a n d trans f o r m m a t e r i a l i n h i s or h e r o w n u n i q u e way. W e m i g h t s a y that the s t u d e n t 'learns h o w to l e a r n ' t h r o u g h this interaction, d u e to the w a y that d i a l o g u e o r c o n v e r s a t i o n , h o w e v e r s i m p l e o r basic, reveals the t h o u g h t processes of both parties. I w o u l d prefer to e n v i s a g e a process w h e r e b y the d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n b o t h parties activates a n e q u i v a l e n t process i n the s t u d e n t , e n a b l i n g t h e m to d i s c o v e r their strengths a n d weaknesses, a n d their o w n p r e f e r r e d m o d e s o f l e a r n i n g . T h i s s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n to m e a n that the teacher m u s t address every c h i l d i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d i n great d e p t h — a feat that w o u l d be w e l l n i g h i m p o s s i b l e i n a c l a s s r o o m of thirty c h i l d r e n . It does m e a n , h o w ever, that face-to-face interaction b e t w e e n teacher a n d p u p i l s , e v e n i n large g r o u p s , is v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t . T o s o m e extent, of course, c h i l d r e n a n d other learners h a v e to f i n d their o w n w a y of l e a r n i n g within
the
collective setting, a n d h a v e to a d a p t to the collective. If not, w e b e c o m e a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s , rather t h a n the social beings u p o n w h i c h J u n g i a n t h e o r y insists. H o w e v e r , there are s o m e further points to b e m a d e here. T h e first touches u p o n a n aspect of learning
difficulty—a
theme w h i c h I d o n o t
82
Learning:
a Jungian
Perspective
h a v e space to d e a l w i t h p r o p e r l y , b u t w h i c h nevertheless
demands
attention. A c h i l d w h o s e ego cannot mediate effectively b e t w e e n the desires of the p e r s o n a l a n d the d e m a n d s of the collective m a y w e l l h a v e d i f f i c u l t y i n l e a r n i n g . A n ' o v e r - a d a p t e d ego',
which
enforces
c o m p l i a n c e w i t h a u t h o r i t y or w i t h 'the n o r m ' , m i g h t i n h i b i t e x p l o r a t i o n a n d creativity. In extreme cases, o d d l y e n o u g h , a n ego w h i c h seems ' s t r o n g ' m i g h t actually i n h i b i t m e a n i n g f u l l e a r n i n g . T h e c h i l d m i g h t b e u n a b l e to realise his or her o w n u n i q u e l e a r n i n g style, w h i c h is necessary i n o r d e r for that c h i l d to a p p r e h e n d a n d t r a n s f o r m data i n a w a y w h i c h is u s e f u l a n d m e a n i n g f u l . O n the other h a n d , a n ego w h i c h finds i n h i b i t i o n of i m p u l s e s diffi cult to m a n a g e w i l l disable the c h i l d i n a different w a y . A s w e h a v e seen,
l e a r n i n g calls for qualities s u c h as w i l l ,
concentration,
and
d e l a y e d gratification. A n ego w h i c h cannot a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l i m p u l s es or the desire for i m m e d i a t e gratification w i l l manifest itself i n resis tance to l e a r n i n g . In b o t h c a s e s — o f over- a n d u n d e r - a d a p t a t i o n — t h e dialectic b e t w e e n opposites is unable to be c o n d u c t e d further to a n y effect. The
f i n a l issue
I would
like to raise concerns
how
collective
d e m a n d s , if not k e p t w i t h i n certain b o u n d s , c a n b e c o m e o v e r b e a r i n g a n d i n h i b i t i n g . T h e p r i n c i p l e of a N a t i o n a l C u r r i c u l u m m i g h t
effec
t i v e l y e n s u r e a n e q u i v a l e n c e of standards across the country, a n d c o n sole us w i t h the a s s u m p t i o n that w e k n o w w h a t o u r c h i l d r e n are l e a r n i n g , b u t it has its pitfalls. S t a n d a r d s m i g h t degenerate i n t o ' s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n ' , w h i c h takes little account of i n d i v i d u a l , social, or r e g i o n a l dif ferences. C h i l d r e n w h o are e n c o u r a g e d to b e c o m e too c o n s c i o u s of c o l lective d e m a n d s lose a n y chance of d e v e l o p i n g a l o n g their o w n i n d i v i d u a l l i n e s , a n d m a y lose all capacity for creative t h o u g h t . A N a t i o n a l C t i r r i c u l u m presents a constant d a n g e r of b e c o m i n g too d e t a i l e d a n d p r e s c r i p t i v e , b o t h i n terms of m e t h o d s a n d of content. It might
try to teach things
absorbed—through
that cannot really be taught,
but
only
o b s e r v a t i o n , interaction, a n d e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . F o r
instance: social r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c i t i z e n s h i p , ethical b e h a v i o u r , a n d so o n , are n o t so m u c h subjects to be l e a r n e d (as the G o v e r n m e n t has recent l y suggested) as qualities w h i c h c a n be e n g e n d e r e d t h r o u g h relation s h i p s w i t h adults i n the e n v i r o n m e n t . In other w o r d s , a c u r r i c u l u m that is too a n x i o u s to teach c a n destroy l e a r n i n g , a n d can negate the f u n d a m e n t a l p u r p o s e of e d u c a t i o n i n its o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g — t o l e a d out, to facilitate, a n d to proffer the o p p o r t u n i t y of l e a r n i n g .
Sylvia
Cohen
83
Notes
1
Both Kolb (1984) Whitmont E (1969) present this view and a critique of it.
2
He cites Shevrin & Dickman 1980.
3 There is in fact an intricate relationship between individuation and learning—one cannot
happen without the other, but they are not the same. We might say that each is a special
instance of the other. Meaningful learning cannot take place without separation from moth
er—there would be no need to learn anything if this did not occur. On the other hand, indi
viduation involves learning about oneself.
O N 'LEARNING' A N D'LEARNING ABOUT':
W.R.BION'S
T H E O R Y O F T H I N K I N G A N D E D U C A T I O N A L PRAXIS
Jean White W . R . B i o n (1897-1972) w a s a r g u a b l y the m o s t p r o f o u n d l y r a d i c a l p s y c h o a n a l y t i c thinker since F r e u d a n d K l e i n . A f t e r h i s p i o n e e r i n g w o r k o n g r o u p s , he a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f to the s t u d y of t h i n k i n g a n d of w h a t he t e r m e d the evolution of m i n d . A l t h o u g h m o s t of this w o r k is d e r i v e d f r o m h i s analysis of t h o u g h t d i s o r d e r s i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c consult i n g - r o o m , it has c o n s i d e r a b l e relevance to the nature of l e a r n i n g a n d w h a t facilitates l e a r n i n g i n e d u c a t i o n a l settings. To m y k n o w l e d g e , the e d u c a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of B i o n ' s theories h a v e n e v e r b e e n e x p l o r e d , a l t h o u g h B i o n h i m s e l f p o i n t e d o u t the l i n k b e t w e e n his w o r k a n d the ories of k n o w l e d g e . (Bion 1984a: 1). T h i s chapter w i l l s h o w h o w s o m e of B i o n ' s k e y concepts are p r o f o u n d l y g e r m a n e to b o t h the attitude a n d technique of the teacher, a n d to the p r o v i s i o n of a facilitative setting for l e a r n i n g i n the c l a s s r o o m or s e m i n a r r o o m . I s h a l l d r a w p r i m a r i l y u p o n the central p e r i o d of B i o n ' s
Learning from Experience (1984a), Elements of Psychoanalysis (1984b), Transformation (1984c), Second Thoughts (1984d), a n d Attention and Interpretation
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c w r i t i n g s . T h i s w o r k is p u b l i s h e d as:
(19846). B i o n ' s w r i t i n g style is, unfortunately, not p a r t i c u l a r l y l u c i d , 1
a n d often dense a n d inaccessible e v e n to the e x p e r i e n c e d p s y c h o a n a lytic reader. T h i s d o e s n o t i n a n y w a y detract f r o m the r a d i c a l i s m a n d p r o f u n d i t y of his t h i n k i n g , b u t it m a y s o m e t i m e s deter the u n p r e p a r e d . A f t e r the central p e r i o d of h i s w o r k o n t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g , B i o n b e c a m e m o r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the nature of transcendent or ultimate reality. A l t h o u g h these later w r i t i n g s are b o t h fascinating a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g , they h a v e less i m m e d i a t e relevance to e d u c a t i o n . I w i l l , h o w ever, briefly explore s o m e of the l i n k s b e t w e e n B i o n ' s ideas a n d those of P a o l o Freire, the great educationalist w h o s e t h o u g h t w a s s h a p e d b y his i n v o l v e m e n t i n literacy c a m p a i g n s i n the ' T h i r d W o r l d / . I w i l l also l o o k i n s o m e detail at w h a t the c o m b i n e d a p p l i c a t i o n of B i o n ' s a n d Freire's ideas m i g h t l o o k like i n practice, d r a w n f r o m m y experience of t e a c h i n g a s e m i n a r series i n the f i n a l year o f a u n i v e r s i t y - b a s e d p o s t graduate training course o n psychoanalytic psychotherapy.
Jean White A radical psychoanalytic
85
paradigm?
B i o n w a s t r a i n e d as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t w i t h i n the F r e u d i a n a n d K l e i n i a n t r a d i t i o n s . A l t h o u g h h e retained a n d gave fresh m e a n i n g to m a n y of the c e n t r a l concepts f r o m these traditions, h i s t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g also d r a w s u p o n p h i l o s o p h i c a l , scientific, a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l sources, a n d c a n u l t i m a t e l y s t a n d o n its o w n as a n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s y s t e m . F o r the sake of clarity, I w i l l first p r o v i d e a n o v e r v i e w o f those p r i m a r y c o n cepts i n B i o n ' s w r i t i n g s w h i c h are relevant to e d u c a t i o n . B i o n ' s t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g rests o n the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t h e t e r m e d 'beta elements' a n d ' a l p h a f u n c t i o n ' . H e d e l i b e r a t e l y u s e d n o n d e s c r i p t i v e , abstract, often m a t h e m a t i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y as a w a y of d r a w i n g attention to the fact that these are i n t e n d e d to b e empty cate g o r i e s , u s e f u l o n l y for p u r p o s e s of n o t a t i o n , a n d c o m p l e t e l y m e t a p h o r i c a l w i t h o u t a n y i n t e n d e d o r i m p l i e d reference to ' a c t u a l ' or ' r e a l ' processes, w h a t e v e r those m i g h t b e (Bion 1984a: 3). 'Beta e l e m e n t s ' represent those particles of r a w experience, sensa t i o n , o r i m p r e s s i o n w h i c h m u s t b e e v a c u a t e d f r o m the m i n d if they c a n n o t b e p r o c e s s e d into thought- T h e p r i m a r y routes or m e a n s of e v a c u a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g to B i o n , are h a l l u c i n a t i o n , m i n d l e s s activity, 'act i n g o u t ' or a c t i n g o n i m p u l s e , m i n d l e s s chatter, m i n d l e s s g r o u p or h e r d b e h a v i o u r , o r s o m a t i s a t i o n (Bion 1984a: 6-7). A l l of these B i o n d e e m e d 'psychotic'
or 'soma-psychotic'
phenomena,
a n d therefore
anti
t h o u g h t a n d d a m a g i n g to the m i n d . ' A l p h a f u n c t i o n ' , i n contrast, represents the process w h e r e b y these e l e m e n t a r y particles of experience are t r a n s f o r m e d into t h o u g h t (Bion 1984a: 8). T h i s takes place firstly b y m e a n s of the v i s u a l , a u d i t o r y , or sensual
image,
w h i c h c a n be d r e a m t
( B i o n 1984a: 26), a n d then
p r o c e s s e d into ever m o r e sophisticated f o r m s o f t h o u g h t , represented i n the l e f t - h a n d c o l u m n of the d i a g r a m B i o n referred to as 'the G r i d ' ( B i o n 1984a: 55; see figure overleaf). T h e G r i d represents B i o n ' s theory of t h i n k i n g i n a n extremely c o n d e n s e d f o r m . It merits a c h a p t e r — i n d e e d a w h o l e b o o k — a l l to itself, a n d I can o n l y g i v e a n i n d i c a t i o n of its m e a n i n g i n this chapter. E a c h o f the G r i d ' s t w o axes p r o v i d e s a p e r s p e c t i v e o n the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h o u g h t . T h e vertical axis, f r o m t o p to b o t t o m , d e g r e e s o f evolution
a n d abstraction
represents
of t h o u g h t s . T h e h o r i z o n t a l , f r o m
left to r i g h t , demonstrates the application
o r uses of the different d i s
tinctions o r levels of t h o u g h t , as represented i n the vertical axes. T h e p o i n t s o f intersection b e t w e e n the axes enable the d r a w i n g of v e r y fine
86
On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'
T H E GR I D
Jean White distinctions between
types of thoughts, b o t h i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e
psychoanalytic consulting r o o m .
87 the
2
O t h e r k e y concepts i n B i o n ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y are: •
the contact b a r r i e r
•
the selected fact
•
Ps*-»D
•
c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d (or:
•
m u l t i p l e vertices
•
transformations
)
I w i l l b r i e f l y describe a n d clarify these terms.
The contact barrier T h e c o n c e p t of the contact barrier is v e r y closely l i n k e d to the e v o l u t i o n of m i n d . T h e contact barrier is created b y the m e t a p h o r i c a l streams of t h o u g h t w h i c h result f r o m the w o r k i n g s of a l p h a f u n c t i o n ( B i o n 1984a: 17). T h e barrier separates c o n s c i o u s f r o m u n c o n s c i o u s
mind,
a n d t h e r e b y protects relations w i t h external reality ( B i o n 1984a: 22). A n e x a m p l e of this process i n action m i g h t be ' t h i n k i n g a b o u t a d r e a m a n d its m e a n i n g ' . In the process of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n manifest
and
latent content, a n d i n reflecting o n the i m p l i c a t i o n s of the m a t e r i a l released t h r o u g h free association, the
external reality
distinction between internal and
is r e i n f o r c e d i n the m i n d of dreamer. A s a result, there is
far less d a n g e r of c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n i n t e r n a l a n d external reality t h a n if the d r e a m h a d s i m p l y b e e n d r e a m t a n d h a d not b e e n subject to f u r ther m e n t a t i o n . T h e contact barrier, therefore, also r e n d e r s the m i n d less p e r m e a b l e to c o n t a m i n a t i o n , o r to the i n f l u x of projective i d e n t i f i c a t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m p s y c h o t i c processes i n o t h e r s — f o r e x a m p l e , i n 3
the case of a h i g h l y - c h a r g e d g r o u p s i t u a t i o n , i n w h i c h there m a y
be
e n o r m o u s p r e s s u r e to act or speak a c c o r d i n g to the p r e v a l e n t m o o d or climate of the majority. In this situation, the i n d i v i d u a l w h o c a n s t a n d b a c k a n d ' t h i n k u n d e r fire' is less l i k e l y to be c a u g h t u p i n p o w e r f u l and unthinking group dynamics. O n e of the m a n y e x c i t i n g i n n o v a t i o n s i n B i o n ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y is his insight t h a t — d u e to the o p e r a t i o n of a l p h a f u n c t i o n , the contact b a r r i er, a n d all the different stages of t h o u g h t o u t l i n e d i n the G r i d — t h e e v o l u t i o n of the m i n d is p o t e n t i a l l y endless or infinite. A s l o n g as o n e is
88
On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'
c a p a b l e of t h o u g h t a n d t r u t h , the m i n d c a n c o n t i n u e to e v o l v e or 4
d e v e l o p , far b e y o n d the dictates of e a r l y e n v i r o n m e n t a l influences.
The selected fact, and Ps In B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g , the notions of the 'selected fact' a n d 'Ps c l o s e l y interconnected (Bion 1984a: 72).
B i o n posits
D are
a continual—
a l m o s t m o m e n t b y m o m e n t — m o v e m e n t w i t h i n the m i n d , a constant i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the ' p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d ' (Ps) a n d ' d e p r e s s i v e ' (D) p o s i t i o n s . P u t s i m p l y , the ' p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d p o s i t i o n ' represents the earliest p h a s e of d e v e l o p m e n t of the infant's m i n d , i n w h i c h g o o d a n d b a d experiences a n d objects are k e p t separate a n d , because of the w o r k i n g s of projective identification, p e r s e c u t o r y or p a r a n o i d a n x i eties p r e d o m i n a t e . T h e p r i m a r y defence u s e d i n this state of m i n d is
splitting,
hence the t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s f r a g m e n t a t i o n , d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ,
a n d relative chaos. T h e 'depressive p o s i t i o n ' , m e a n w h i l e , represents a step t o w a r d s coherence a n d cohesiveness, as the m i n d b e c o m e s g r a d u a l l y c a p a b l e of tolerating frustration a n d a m b i v a l e n c e . In i n f a n c y this is b r o u g h t about w h e n the y o u n g c h i l d realises that the m o t h e r is the s o u r c e of
both
satisfying
and
gratifying
and
frustrating
and
depriving
experiences. T h u s the c h i l d b e c o m e s able to conceive of the m o t h e r as a w h o l e c o m p l e x p e r s o n i n external reality. A l o n g w i t h this, the c h i l d b e c o m e s able to experience concern for the other as separate f r o m the self, a n d reparative i m p u l s e s replace u n c o n s c i o u s sadistic or projective assaults. A l l of us revert to p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d processes u n d e r stress, a n d s o m e of us n e v e r e m e r g e v e r y far f r o m t h e m i n the first p l a c e . In B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g , h o w e v e r , i n h e a l t h a n d i n t h o u g h t , there is a necessary f l u c t u a t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o positions or states of m i n d . W e
need
to regress
t e m p o r a r i l y to the relative chaos a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n of the p a r a n o i d s c h i z o i d p o s i t i o n as a sort of
reculer pour mieux sauter
('a recoil neces
s a r y to a leap further f o r w a r d ' ) t h r o u g h w h i c h the emergence of a idea m a y b e c o m e possible. T h i s fleeting regressive m o v e m e n t does n o t nec essarily i n v o l v e a great sense of p e r s e c u t i o n ( B i o n 1984a: 92), a l t h o u g h a sense of pressure m a y be felt. It m i g h t feel, for e x a m p l e , as if the m i n d is d a r t i n g about i n a chaotic fashion, or i n t o l e r a b l y b l a n k a n d e m p t y a n d u n a b l e to t h i n k . T h e r e m a y be a sensation of s o m e t h i n g p u s h i n g o n it f r o m b e h i n d , before the relief of a n e w t h o u g h t s p r i n g s out of this inchoate state.
Jean White
89
T h e 'selected fact', o n the other h a n d , represents a n e m o t i o n or i d e a that l e n d s coherence to w h a t is d i s p e r s e d , i n t r o d u c i n g o r d e r into d i s o r d e r ( B i o n 1984a: 73). It c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d as a n i n t u i t i o n or a d i v i n a t i o n — a n ' o h . . . ' — w h i c h m a k e s the b e g i n n i n g of a t h o u g h t possible, a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y incites a m o v e m e n t
i n t o the d e p r e s s i v e
(cf. G r i n b e r g et a l . 1975: 51). C h r i s t o p h e r B o l l a s , i n
position
Cracking Up
(1995),
describes a s i m i l a r m o v e m e n t as the basic r h y t h m of l i v i n g a n d t h i n k i n g . H e argues that to benefit a n d g a i n n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m the richness a n d w i s d o m o f o u r u n c o n s c i o u s lives, there m u s t b e a constant, d u a l m o v e m e n t . C o h e r e n t t h o u g h t introduces o r d e r a n d c o n d e n s e s ,
whilst
' d i s p e r s a l ' or free association, b y b r e a k i n g u p that w h i c h c o u l d other w i s e b e i n d a n g e r of b e c o m i n g over-coherent, gives u s access to other unconscious
communications.
Container/contained
)
T h e c o n c e p t ' c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d ' (* fundamental
) is closely tied u p i n B i o n ' s
Weltanshauung w i t h a c o u p l e — t h a t is, the m o t h e r a n d
infant, or analyst a n d patient (Bion 1984a: 90). T h i s t e r m a n d its s y m b o l are a n e x t r e m e l y s h o r t h a n d m e a n s o f c o n v e y i n g h i s n o t i o n that t h i n k i n g is essentially not
a o n e - p e r s o n activity. T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e is
d e r i v e d f r o m B i o n ' s ideas o n ' m a t e r n a l r e v e r i e ' a n d
benign
projective
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . P u t s i m p l y , B i o n postulates that the infant projects h i s terror, anxiety, o r 'nameless
d r e a d ' into a receptive m a t e r n a l
mind
w h i c h is able to c o n t a i n or h o l d that anxiety u n t i l it c a n b e r e t u r n e d to the infant i n a tolerable, p r o c e s s e d
f o r m . In this w a y , a n i n t e r n a l
d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h t h o u g h t is possible is introjected, a n d b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d c o m p l e x as it e v o l v e s . B i o n d e s c r i b e d c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d as: ' a n e m o t i o n a l
realisation
associated w i t h l e a r n i n g that b e c o m e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y m o r e c o m p l e x as it constantly recurs t h r o u g h o u t m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t ' ( B i o n 1984a: 93), a n d as: 'the m a t i n g of p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h s e n s e - i m p r e s s i o n s
to p r o
d u c e a c o n c e p t i o n ' (Bion 1984a: 91). S u b s e q u e n t analysts h a v e e x t e n d e d a n d d e v e l o p e d the ' m a t i n g ' n o t i o n to i n c l u d e m o r e d e t a i l e d i n t e r n a l m o d e l s of the p a r e n t a l c o u p l e as a p a r a d i g m a t i c f o r m o f c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d (cf. B r i t t o n et a l . 1989). T h e u n c o n s c i o u s f o r m a s s u m e d b y the p a r e n t a l c o u p l e i n the c h i l d ' s m i n d d e t e r m i n e s the w a y i n w h i c h m e n t a l l i n k s are m a d e , o r e v a d e d . F o r e x a m p l e , i f the u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y of p a r e n t a l intercourse is i n t r u s i v e a n d aggressive,
fraught
90
On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'
w i t h danger, then the p e r s o n m a y to a n extent be able to a l l o w things to c o m e together i n his or her m i n d , b u t o n l y w i t h great anxiety a n d i n t e r n a l evasions a n d d e n i a l s . It is n o w w i d e l y accepted a m o n g s t p s y 5
c h o a n a l y t i c theorists that the level of t r i a n g u l a t i o n m a d e possible b y the successful resolution of the O e d i p u s C o m p l e x p r o v i d e s a n internal m o d e l o n w h i c h insight is b a s e d . A g r o w i n g , s t r e n g t h e n i n g c o n t a i n e r / 6
c o n t a i n e d , m a d e possible t h r o u g h e v o l u t i o n of t h o u g h t a n d interaction w i t h other t h o u g h t f u l m i n d s , a n d w h i c h r e m a i n s flexible a n d a d a p t able, p r o v i d e s the basis for c o n t i n u i n g l e a r n i n g f r o m experience ( B i o n 1984a: 92; 1984e: 72-82).
Midtiple vertices T h e t e r m V e r t e x ' i m p l i e s a perspective or p o i n t of v i e w . B i o n suggest e d that h e a l t h a n d thought enable the p o s s i b i l i t y of ' b i n o c u l a r v i s i o n ' or ' m u l t i p l e v e r t i c e s ' — t h a t is to say, the c a p a c i t y to h o l d i n m i n d dif f e r i n g perspectives o n the same issue or possibility. T h i s p r o v i d e s a p o w e r f u l f o r m of reality-testing. W h e n m u l t i p l e vertices f r o m different p e o p l e or g r o u p s of p e o p l e converge to f o r m a consensus, then a p i c ture or p a r a d i g m of external reality emerges, w h i c h B i o n d u b s ' c o m m o n sense'. T h i s further u n d e r l i n e s the n o t i o n that t h o u g h t proceeds f r o m i n t e r n a l a n d external
relationships.
Transformations A l l the p r e c e d i n g c o n c e p t s — a l p h a f u n c t i o n , the contact barrier, c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d , vertex a n d m u l t i p l e v e r t i c e s — a r e related to B i o n ' s use of his concept of transformations. T h o u g h t , i n the B i o n i a n sense, is a c o n t i n u a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of e m o t i o n a n d experience, w h i c h i r r e v o c a b l y transforms the thinker a n d his o r her perceptions of internal a n d external reality. T h o u g h t s are also i n themselves thereby
capable of g r o w i n g a n d a c q u i r i n g further m e a n i n g , a n d
inevitably promoting
further p e r s o n a l
development
and
change. Different p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories c a n themselves be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d as g r o u p s of transformations, as c a n the poetic, artistic, scientific, p h i l o s o p h i c a l , a n d e d u c a t i o n a l fields of k n o w l e d g e . E a c h of these intel lectual or c u l t u r a l p a r a d i g m s is the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , i n s o m e o n e ' s m i n d , of
the
primary unknowable
Progressive
cycles
of
reality—which Bion
transformation
occur.
designated
'O'.
However—apparently
Jean White
91
p a r a d o x i c a l l y — t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n ' K ' (see b e l o w , p.93) m a y result i n closer a p p r o x i m a t i o n s to ' b e c o m i n g O ' or ' a t - o n e - m e n t w i t h O ' . I w i l l r e t u r n to this c o n c e p t w h e n l o o k i n g at s o m e of the l i n k s b e t w e e n B i o n ' s ideas a n d those of P a o l o Freire.
Psychoanalytic and philosophical contexts B i o n broke away f r o m both F r e u d i a n a n d K l e i n i a n theory i n m a n y fun d a m e n t a l areas. T h e r e r e m a i n s n o trace of F r e u d i a n mechanistics or the s t r u c t u r a l m o d e l of the m i n d i n B i o n ' s w o r k . P a r t h e n o p e B i o n T a l a m o , B i o n ' s daughter, tells a n a m u s i n g anecdote c o n c e r n i n g B i o n ' s response to h e r q u e r y a b o u t w h a t the ego w a s . H i s r e p l y — ' a f i g m e n t of p s y c h o a n a l y s t s ' i m a g i n a t i o n s ' — i s p e r h a p s m o r e of a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of a j o k i n g l y affectionate f a t h e r - d a u g h t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a n of a t r u l y cavalier atti t u d e (Talamo 1997: 52). N o n e t h e l e s s , it m a y b y n o w h a v e b e c o m e clear t h a n his m o d e l of m i n d is r a d i c a l i n that it constitutes essentially a
process m o d e l . T h e m i n d is c o n t i n u a l l y e v o l v i n g or d e v e l o p i n g t h r o u g h the w o r k i n g s of thought, o r else d e t e r i o r a t i n g , t h r o u g h the o p e r a t i o n of w h a t B i o n t e r m e d lies—the e v a s i o n of frustration a n d reality t h r o u g h p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y o m n i p o t e n t m e c h a n i s m s . In B i o n ' s w o r k , a n d i n that of some
other
p o s t - K l e i n i a n theorists,
omnipotence
or
omniscience
d e s c r i b e s a state of m i n d i n w h i c h tolerance of frustration is so l i m i t e d that the i g n o r a n c e w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e be tolerated u n t i l a t h o u g h t c o u l d e m e r g e is i n s t e a d d e n i e d t h r o u g h p r e m a t u r e ' k n o w l e d g e ' . A n e x a m p l e m i g h t b e the patient w h o ' k n o w s ' w h a t his analyst is t h i n k i n g , i n preference to tolerating the n o t - k n o w i n g w h i c h m i g h t a l l o w a n e w a n d c h a l l e n g i n g v i e w p o i n t to be c o n s i d e r e d . B i o n d e e m e d this k i n d of e v a s i o n to be d a m a g i n g to the m i n d a n d v i e w e d it as a n t i development. In B i o n ' s c a n o n , t r u t h a n d the reality p r i n c i p l e are m o t i v a t i o n a l forces of e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e to the F r e u d i a n pleasure p r i n c i p l e ( B i o n 1984a: 31); it is e m o t i o n a l g r o w t h w h i c h p r o v i d e s a m o r e p o w e r f u l l y e n e r g i s i n g p r i n c i p l e t h a n s e x u a l l i b i d o (cf. S y m i n g t o n & S y m i n g t o n 1996: 7). F o r F r e u d , a d r e a m is a h i d d e n desire p r e s e n t e d i n d i s g u i s e d f o r m , whereas for B i o n it is the first stage i n the synthesis a n d repre s e n t a t i o n of u n o r g a n i s e d aspects of experience. F o r F r e u d , the f u n c t i o n of t h o u g h t is to decrease tension; for B i o n , its p u r p o s e is the manage
ment
of t e n s i o n — b e a r i n g p a i n is a n essential prerequisite to the d e v e l
o p m e n t of a c a p a c i t y for t h o u g h t ( B i o n 1984a: 29). B i o n w o u l d also
92
On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'
a p p e a r to h a v e r e p u d i a t e d F r e u d ' s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of the role of ' p r i m a r y ' a n d ' s e c o n d a r y processes' i n t h i n k i n g , a n d to h a v e r e p l a c e d these w i t h the p r o c e s s i n g of beta elements t h r o u g h a l p h a f u n c t i o n a n d the contact b a r r i e r (Bion 1984a: 22, 54). I n d e e d , B i o n ' s d a u g h t e r has a r g u e d that F r e u d ' s t h e o r y of consciousness, a n d B i o n ' s t h e o r y of a l p h a f u n c t i o n possess a v e r y s i m i l a r status, as '...heuristic t o o l s — m o d e l s — e n a b l i n g us to conceptualise a n d c o m m u n i c a t e w h a t w e t h i n k w i t h greater ease a n d clarity' (Talamo 1997: 52). D e s p i t e B i o n ' s great respect for F r e u d , a n d his a c k n o w l e d g e d i n d e b t e d n e s s , h e constituted a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of m i n d a n d m e n t a l m e c h a n i s m s a c c o r d i n g to a n essentially different p a r a d i g m . Nevertheless, he retained m a n y c o r p o real m e t a p h o r s for m e n t a l processes—for e x a m p l e , his use of the a l i m e n t a r y s y s t e m as a m o d e l for the processes of t h o u g h t . T h i s is c o n sistent w i t h his v i e w that p s y c h e a n d s o m a are f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n s e p a r a b l e — s i m i l a r to the F r e u d i a n n o t i o n of a ' b o d y e g o ' ( F r e u d 1923:
26).
spirit of K l e i n i a n t h e o r y i n personal meaning as a g o a l . H i s
B i o n ' s w o r k c o n t r a d i c t e d m u c h of the that he e m p h a s i s e d the i m p o r t a n c e of
later w o r k , o n ultimate or transcendent reality, w h i c h m i g h t be r e g a r d e d as b e l o n g i n g quite c o m f o r t a b l y to the m y s t i c a l t r a d i t i o n , w a s total l y u n a c c e p t a b l e to m a n y K l e i n i a n s . Nonetheless he r e t a i n e d , assimilat e d , a n d m a d e fresh use of m a n y core K l e i n i a n c o n c e p t s — i n p a r t i c u l a r projective identification, splitting, envy, a n d the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d a n d d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , as J. a n d N . S y m i n g t o n p o i n t out, he u s e d t h e m i n the service of ' a different m e t a p s y c h o l o g y ' ( S y m i n g t o n & S y m i n g t o n 1996:
11). M e l a n i e K l e i n w a s the first to posit a n 'episte
m o p h i l i c instinct' as a central d r i v e i n d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h b e c a m e the p r i m a r y force i n B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n . B i o n w a s , therefore, a p s y c h o a n a lytic r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n the w a y that (to use his o w n terms) he b r o u g h t ' n e w vertices' to bear o n m a n y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c shibboleths. H e d r e w w i d e l y f r o m m a n y other intellectual d i s c i p l i n e s : f r o m mathematics [Bion
1984a:
(for instance, the 'selected fact' c o m e s f r o m P o i n c a r e 72]);
from
philosophy
(especially
Plato, Kant
and
Wittgenstein); a n d f r o m d i v i n i t y (the G n o s t i c s , J u l i a n of N o r w i c h , a n d St.
Augustine).
His
t h i n k i n g bears
comparison
with
that
of
G i a m b a t t i s t a V i c o (1668-1744), a l t h o u g h this is not a p h i l o s o p h e r to w h o m h e ever referred. V i c o ' s a x i o m that ' M e n at first feel w i t h o u t p e r c e i v i n g , then they perceive w i t h a t r o u b l e d a n d agitated spirit, f i n a l l y they reflect w i t h a clear m i n d ' (Vico 1984: 218) c o u l d almost serve as a p a r a p h r a s e of B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n of the m e n t a l processes i n v o l v e d i n thinking.
Jean White
93
V i c o a n d B i o n reject C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m a l t h o u g h , as A n d r e G r e e n has p o i n t e d out, a c c o r d i n g to a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ( G r e e n 1998), B i o n w a s nevertheless v e r y m u c h i n f l u e n c e d b y Descartes. B o t h V i c o a n d B i o n focus o n ' k n o w l e d g e f r o m the i n s i d e ' , a n d e m p h a s i s e the role of e m o t i o n as central to the d e v e l o p m e n t of t h o u g h t . U l t i m a t e l y b o t h a w a r d v e r y h i g h status to the v a l u e of intuition i n the process of l e a r n i n g . I n d e e d , it is p r o b a b l y o n e of the h a l l m a r k s of B i o n ' s greatness that it is r e l a t i v e l y easy to d r a w parallels b e t w e e n his w o r k a n d that of g r o u n d - b r e a k i n g p h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m other e p o c h s .
The meaning of learning So, n o w w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d h i s ideas i n s o m e detail, w h a t does this c u r i o u s p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p o l y m a t h offer those of us for w h o m the arts of teaching a n d l e a r n i n g are p r i m a r y p r e o c c u p a t i o n s ? B i o n d e v e l o p e d his t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g as a m e a n s to b r e a k free of the constraints i m p o s e d b y the latent r e d u c t i o n i s m of m u c h p s y c h o a n alytic theory. H i s m o d e l of m i n d , a l t h o u g h f i r m l y r o o t e d i n somatic a n d e m o t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n s , enables u s to concentrate o n w h a t is essen tially ' h u m a n ' i n h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t — n a m e l y , the a b i l i t y to think one's w a y into c h a n g e a n d c h a n g e d p e r c e p t i o n s of 'reality'. B i o n e m p h a s i s e d the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t he c a l l e d ' l e a r n i n g ' a n d ' l e a r n i n g a b o u t ' ( w h i c h is also related to the d i s t i n c t i o n he d r e w b e t w e e n ' e v o l u t i o n ' a n d ' m e m o r y ' ) . In his n o t a t i o n a l m o d e l , l e a r n i n g is represented b y the ' K ' l i n k . K , a c c o r d i n g to B i o n : ...does n o t c o n v e y a sense of finality, that is to say, a m e a n i n g that x is i n p o s s e s s i o n of a piece of k n o w l e d g e c a l l e d y, b u t rather that x is i n the state of getting to k n o w y a n d y is i n a state of getting to be k n o w n b y x. ( B i o n 1984a: 47) R e a l k n o w l e d g e , a c c o r d i n g to B i o n , i n v o l v e s e m o t i o n at its core, a n d t r u t h is a n e m o t i o n a l experience. ' L e a r n i n g about', i n contrast, is exteriorised, a n d occurs i n a w a y w h i c h d o e s n o t change or challenge the f o u n d a t i o n s of a p e r s o n ' s b e i n g ; it i s — a c c o r d i n g to B i o n — s i m p l y memory. A l l of this, then, begs the d e e p l y p o l i t i c a l a n d u l t i m a t e l y p h i l o s o p h ical q u e s t i o n :
what is learning for?
F o r the p u r p o s e s of this chapter, I a m c h o o s i n g to prioritise the s a m e k i n d of l e a r n i n g as B i o n . T h i s l e a r n i n g is a n integral p a r t of p e r
94
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About'
s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t — i t m a k e s use of the student's e x p e r i e n c e o f life so far, a n d it changes the student's v i e w of the w o r l d for ever. T h i s k i n d of l e a r n i n g c a n be i n t e r n a l i s e d as a resource a n d a s o u r c e o f strength a n d authority, a n d m a y , ultimately, require the p e r s o n to act u p o n their e n v i r o n m e n t . It w a s this w h i c h B i o n c a l l e d ' e v o l u t i o n ' . Y o u m a y h a v e n o t i c e d that ' A c t i o n ' is the sixth a n d p e n u l t i m a t e d e v e l o p m e n t a l o n g the t o p r o w of the G r i d . B y a c t i o n , B i o n m e a n t a deeply thought-through
decision—the
p o l a r o p p o s i t e of m i n d l e s s action,
a c t i n g o n i m p u l s e , o r acting as a m e a n s of a v o i d i n g t h o u g h t . T h e r e are, therefore, v e r y great similarities b e t w e e n B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f the u l t i mate o u t c o m e s of t h o u g h t , a n d P a o l o Freire's n o t i o n o f ' cao\
F r e i r e ' s t e r m integrates
the process
of b e c o m i n g
conscientiza subjectively
h u m a n , l e a r n i n g to p e r c e i v e i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of a n a u t h e n t i c subjectivity, a n d e n g a g i n g i n p o l i t i c a l p r a x i s b a s e d o n those p e r c e p t i o n s . H e d r e w these c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s of a d u l t literacy c a m p a i g n s i n S o u t h A m e r i c a , i n w h i c h h e s a w that l e a r n i n g to r e a d a n d w r i t e w a s inseparable f r o m l e a r n i n g to t h i n k . A n d once o n e c a n t h i n k o n e ' s o w n t h o u g h t s , it b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e to act u p o n the w o r l d , rather t h a n be acted o n b y it. E d u c a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e — i n Freire's t e r m s — i s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y activity. T h i n k i n g , for B i o n , is also a r e v o l u t i o n a r y activity, a l b e i t — i n B i o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n — r e s t r i c t e d to c h a n g i n g the thinker. B i o n w a s n o t at a l l p o l i t i c a l , i n the sense of p o s s e s s i n g a n i n f o r m e d a n d a p p l i e d awareness of the w o r l d ' s inequalities a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y driven power
relationships. N o r were
any of his writings
overtly
a i m e d at a n e d u c a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e . B u t e v e n s o , h e n e v e r s h i r k e d f r o m a l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n , a n d w o u l d — I t h i n k — h a v e a p p r o v e d of the a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i s w o r k o n t h o u g h t , t h i n k i n g , a n d l e a r n i n g to the field o f education. Bion in the
classroom
B i o n ' s w o r k c a n b e a p p l i e d m o s t p a r t i c u l a r l y to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the attitude
of the teacher, a n d — t o a lesser e x t e n t — t o suggest specific
techniques a n d m e t h o d o l o g i e s . M y a s s u m p t i o n — d e r i v e d f r o m B i o n ' s a r g u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g u n c o n s c i o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d the relational n a t u r e o f l e a r n i n g — i s that the state o f m i n d of the teacher, lecturer, o r s e m i n a r leader w i l l h a v e the m o s t p r o f o u n d i m p a c t o n the s t u d e n t s ' c a p a c i t y to l e a r n .
Jean White My
arguments
are d e v e l o p e d
f r o m experiences
95
w i t h relatively
s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t u d e n t s — e i t h e r late adolescent or a d u l t — w i t h r e g a r d to w h o m management
control, a n d d i s c i p l i n e are n o t significant issues.
H o w e v e r , the ideas d i s c u s s e d here m a y h a v e s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n to w o r k with children. In a n i n f l u e n t i a l short p a p e r entitled ' N o t e s o n M e m o r y a n d D e s i r e ' (in B i o n 1984d) a n d , later, i n Attention
and Interpretation
(1984e: 41),
B i o n a d v o c a t e s that the p s y c h o a n a l y s t , i n o r d e r to p r o m o t e the evolu tion of m i n d i n h i s patient, s h o u l d i n h i b i t b o t h c o n s c i o u s m e m o r y a n d desire for i m p r o v e m e n t , u n d e r s t a n d i n g or cure. S i m p l y h a v i n g a bad m e m o r y w i l l n o t suffice, notes B i o n , because forgetting, i n this o r d i n a r y sense, m e r e l y ties the m i n d to the s e n s u a l or concrete, a n d does n o t facilitate the i n t u i t i v e because it does n o t p r o m o t e the necessarily r e c e p t i v e state o f m i n d . A d i s c i p l i n e d d e n i a l of m e m o r y a n d desire, o n the other h a n d , p r o m o t e s w h a t B i o n calls a n 'act of f a i t h ' , a state of m i n d w h i c h h e referred to elsewhere as ' r e v e r i e ' , i n w h i c h a n intuitive, d e e p a n d new i n s i g h t o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n d e v e l o p i n s u c h a w a y as to c h a n g e or a d v a n c e a n d enlarge the m i n d a n d its a p p e r c e p t i o n s . B i o n also d e f i n e d reverie as that w h i c h Keats t e r m e d
'negative
c a p a b i l i t y ' — ' w h e n a m a n is capable of b e i n g i n uncertainties, m y s t e r ies, d o u b t s , w i t h o u t a n y irritable r e a c h i n g after fact a n d r e a s o n ' (Keats, cited i n B i o n 1984e: 125). It is a state of m i n d w h i c h is b o t h necessarily r e c e p t i v e , a n d y e t i n a state of s u s p e n d e d a n i m a t i o n , for this is h o w a n e w i d e a or i n t u i t i o n c a n enter consciousness. It is the state of m i n d i n w h i c h the m o t h e r receives the b a b y ' s n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d transforms
t h e m into t h o u g h t , i n order to m a k e
the b a b y ' s
over
w h e l m i n g e m o t i o n a l experiences bearable. It w a s also A r c h i m e d e s ' state of m i n d i n his f a m o u s b a t h . It is n o t a s t r i v i n g after a n y t h i n g i n particular, n o r a l o g i c a l or c o n s c i o u s effort to p u t t w o a n d t w o togeth er. Instead, i n this state of m i n d , the m a x i m u m f r e e d o m of m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d a n d the d e p r e s s i v e positions is p o s s i ble. A p a r t i a l regression to a n unformed state takes place, a n d y e t the m i n d is still alert a n d alive, a n d r e a d y to take h o l d of b a r e l y f o r m e d e m e r g e n t t h o u g h t s , taking t h e m as far as i n s p i r a t i o n w i l l allow. I n this state o f m i n d a 'selected f a c t ' — i n the f o r m of a n i d e a p u t f o r w a r d b y a s t u d e n t , for e x a m p l e — c a n be g r a s p e d i n s u c h a w a y as to facilitate m a x i m u m e x p l o r a t i o n of its ramifications a n d associations. T h r o u g h the teacher's state of reverie students c a n be greatly e n a b l e d to t h i n k , a n d e n c o u r a g e d to s u s p e n d t e m p o r a r i l y their ' g i v e n s ' a n d ' k n o w n s ' i n
96
On 'Learning' and 'Learning
About'
f a v o u r o f the r i s k y activity (or m a y b e e v e n passivity) of a l l o w i n g n e w t h o u g h t s to enter consciousness. T h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y interactive process c a n be e n h a n c e d b y a p p r o p r i a t e a n d i n f o r m e d varieties o f c o n t a i n m e n t . B i o n ' s c o n c e p t o f c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d c a n be a p p l i e d to the c l a s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n i n b o t h its m o t h e r / i n f a n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n , a n d that o f the parental c o u p l e . In m o t h e r / i n f a n t f o r m , the teacher contains the u n f o r m e d t h o u g h t s a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f h i s or her students t h r o u g h a w i l l i n g n e s s to h o l d t h e m i n m i n d w i t h o u t p r e m a t u r e f o r c i n g of r a t i o n a l c o n c l u s i o n s . S h e or h e m u s t h a v e the receptive c a p a c i t y to tolerate h a l f - d e v e l o p e d
thoughts
a n d creative m e a n d e r i n g s , u n t i l either the student, o r a g r o u p o f s t u dents—with
or without
the t e a c h e r — c a n a l l o w these t h o u g h t s to
e v o l v e i n t o f u l l y e m e r g e n t ideas, w h i c h c a n t h e n be tested b y r a t i o n a l processes a n d b y exposure to other ideas i n the s a m e i n t e l l e c t u a l arena. C o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d i n its parental a n d coital f o r m is less o b v i o u s l y a p p l i c a b l e to the c l a s s r o o m , b u t is still a n extremely u s e f u l concept. In its c l i n i c a l u s a g e , the u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y of the p a r e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n represent i n s y m b o l i c f o r m v a r i o u s disturbances o r difficulties i n t h i n k i n g , o r it c a n illustrate h o w m e n t a l connections are m a d e o r a v o i d e d . F o r instance, the p e r s o n w h o c a n n o t quite a l l o w his o r h e r parents to c o m e together i n a sexual f o r m i n h i s or h e r m i n d m a y h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g difficulty w i t h a l l o w i n g t w o ideas to connect. T h e result m i g h t b e s o m e o n e w h o m w e c o m m o n l y describe as V a g u e ' . A l t h o u g h h e o r she sort of has ideas, they r e m a i n i n d e f i n i t e , lack i m p a c t , a n d n e v e r quite c o m e to the p o i n t . In contrast, active p e n e t r a tive i n t e r c o u r s e is a potent s y m b o l for the c o n j u n c t i o n of t h o u g h t , a n d i n t u r n p r o v i d e s a m o r e active, v i g o r o u s m o d e l o f c o n t a i n m e n t . O n e e x a m p l e o f this m i g h t be a n i m p r o m p t u lecture. T h e r e c a n be s o m e t h i n g quite different about the q u a l i t y of t h i n k i n g that takes p l a c e i n a m o r e or less s p o n t a n e o u s lecture, rather t h a n s i m p l y r e a d i n g f r o m a p a p e r o r notes. A s the teacher speaks, h e o r she is t h i n k i n g . S h e o r he m a y d e v e l o p n e w ideas o r strands of t h o u g h t i n the course o f the d e l i v ery. T h i s is often m o r e interesting a n d exciting to listen to; the process of t h i n k i n g itself c a n i m p a c t p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y o n the students, s t i m u l a t i n g a n d p r o v o k i n g a m o r e active, t h o u g h t f u l response. It facilitates p a r ticipative l e a r n i n g , i n other w o r d s , because the students are p a r t y to the t h o u g h t - p r o c e s s e s of the teacher as they occur, a n d are t h u s e n c o u r a g e d to t h i n k themselves. A n o t h e r f o r m of active c o n t a i n m e n t m i g h t be the facilitation o f d i s c u s s i o n , t h r o u g h techniques
w h i c h require a n d p r o v o k e
thinking.
Jean White
97
T h e s e m i g h t i n c l u d e the setting of p r o b l e m s to w h i c h the teacher h a s n o a b s o l u t e l y p r e d e t e r m i n e d answers. O r , alternatively, o n e m i g h t e n c o u r a g e the students to g i v e their o w n presentations, b u t w i t h the p r e s e n c e of the teacher as a n active, c o n t a i n i n g force, s u p p o r t i n g a n d — where
n e c e s s a r y — p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the a r g u m e n t s
a n d dilemmas
p o s e d . O r o n e m i g h t incite t h o u g h t t h r o u g h m o r e deliberate i n t r o d u c tion of paradoxes or contradictions. T h e s e ideas are less a p p l i c a b l e to the t e a c h i n g of facts
t h a n to the
e n c o u r a g e m e n t of interpretations, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d the generation of m e a n i n g . T h e s e m e t h o d s
also m a k e certain a s s u m p t i o n s
about
k n o w l e d g e : that it is a c o m p l e x entity, a l w a y s u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t ; that there m a y b e several v a l i d p o i n t s o f v i e w w h i c h it is p o s s i b l e to bear i n m i n d at the s a m e t i m e ; a n d that e v e r y intellectual p a r a d i g m e m b o d i e s o n l y a p a r t i a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t r u t h or o f reality (whatever that m i g h t b e , a n d w h e t h e r w e c a n ever a p p r e h e n d a n y t h i n g close to it...). In B i o n ' s terms, t r u t h is a process, a n d the toleration of d o u b t is a neces sity for l e a r n i n g . T h e search f o r m u l t i p l e vertices c a n also b e a p o w e r f u l m e a n s of g e n e r a t i n g debate a n d d i v e r g e n c e of o p i n i o n , w i t h o u t a destructive l e v e l o f conflict o r factionalism. M u l t i p l e vertices c a n demonstrate how—psychically
speaking—diverse
perspectives
throw
different
l i g h t o n a p r o b l e m o r a n issue, a n d d i s c o u r a g e the h o l d i n g of fixed p o s i t i o n s . M u l t i p l e vertices enable m e n t a l flexibility a n d agility, a n d — p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y — a r e a m e a n s o f c o n s t a n t l y c a l l i n g into q u e s t i o n the issue u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . F i n a l l y , the B i o n i a n n o t i o n of l e a r n i n g — o r 'the K a c t i v i t y ' — r e p r e sents s o m e t h i n g that is m u c h closer to the sense of ' g e t t i n g to k n o w ' t h a n to h o l d i n g o r ' h a v i n g ' a p a r t i c u l a r p i e c e of k n o w l e d g e . In this sense k n o w i n g a n d k n o w l e d g e are, therefore, f u n d a m e n t a l a n d q u i n tessentially h u m a n processes, as o p p o s e d to h a v i n g a n y t h i n g to d o w i t h p o s s e s s i n g a piece of k n o w l e d g e . T h i s latter m i g h t b e d u b b e d the 'sta tus' o r ' o w n e r s h i p ' m o d e l o f k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h c o m p a r e s interesting l y w i t h Freire's critique of 'the b a n k i n g c o n c e p t of e d u c a t i o n ' (Freire 1970: 53-4). In terms
of Bion's G r i d ,
i n c r e a s i n g abstractions.
knowledge
p r o c e e d s b y w a y of ever
W i t h i n c r e a s i n g specificity, k n o w l e d g e p r o c e e d s
to e x p l o r e the relationships
b e t w e e n elements rather t h a n the elements
t h e m s e l v e s . T h i s process negates the concrete a n d p a r t i c u l a r ; the m o r e s u c c e s s f u l the abstraction o r theorisation
o f the c o m m o n o r l i n k i n g r e l a
98
On 'Learning' and 'Learning About'
t i o n s h i p , the m o r e u n i v e r s a l a n d true the k n o w i n g or l e a r n i n g (cf. G r e e n 1998). In this w a y , ...the success of abstraction c a n be m e a s u r e d b y the a m o u n t of ' c o n f i d e n c e ' created, a f e e l i n g a n a l o g o u s to the feeling created b y the fact of k n o w i n g that sense i m p r e s s i o n s c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h other
senses
Confidence
or s h a r e d w i t h other is
strengthened
when
people the
(common
representation
sense). corre
s p o n d s not o n l y to the e m o t i o n a l experience f r o m w h i c h it w a s abstracted, b u t also to other realisations n o t k n o w n at the p o i n t of abstraction. ( B l e a n d o n u 1994:
161)
In terms of the c l a s s r o o m , the v a l u e s d e r i v e d f r o m this w a y
of
t h i n k i n g a b o u t l e a r n i n g a n d the a c h i e v e m e n t of k n o w l e d g e p r i v i l e g e s h a r e d reflection, d e e p t h o u g h t , a n d intellectual d i s c o v e r y . T h e y rele gate to second-class c i t i z e n s h i p a n y k i n d of ' l e a r n i n g b y rote', ' m e m o r i s i n g ' or ' k n o w i n g about'. Instead, the B i o n i a n a p p r o a c h constitutes essentially a n a d v e n t u r e m o d e l of l e a r n i n g , rather t h a n a m e r c h a n d i s i n g a c q u i s i t i o n of 'facts' a n d ' l i n k a g e s ' . I s h a l l n o w e x p l o r e i n m o r e d e t a i l a n a c t u a l e x a m p l e f r o m the class r o o m , a n d d r a w s o m e m o r e substantial p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n B i o n a n d the r a d i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g of P a o l o Freire.
Experiences in learning A b o u t a y e a r a g o I w a s i n v i t e d to teach a series of c l i n i c a l s e m i n a r s — e l e v e n i n a l l — w i t h a g r o u p of students o n the f i n a l y e a r of a u n i v e r s i t y - b a s e d p o s t g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g course i n p s y c h o t h e r a p y . T h i s c o u r s e c o m b i n e d academic rigour w i t h a clinical apprenticeship system. T h e s t u d e n t s w e r e r e q u i r e d to sit e x a m i n a t i o n s i n d i v e r s e strands of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y a n d to w r i t e a theoretical thesis, a n d at the s a m e time to d e v e l o p their skills, experience, a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g as p s y chotherapeutic
p r a c t i t i o n e r s . U n s u r p r i s i n g l y , therefore,
a
major
e m p h a s i s of the course w a s the c o m b i n a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e o r y a n d practice. A t the p o i n t I a r r i v e d , i n the s e c o n d t e r m of the t h i r d year, this w a s p r e c i s e l y w h a t the students felt they c o u l d not d o . T h e y felt d e - s k i l l e d i n b o t h areas, h a r b o u r e d m a j o r anxieties a b o u t their a b i l i t y to practice as c l i n i c i a n s , a n d near-catastrophic anxieties c o n c e r n i n g their i m p e n d i n g theoretical e x a m i n a t i o n s . T h e y w e r e a n extremely interesting a n d
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u n u s u a l g r o u p o f students. T h e i r c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s r a n g e d across J e w i s h , N i g e r i a n , A f r o - C a r i b b e a n , Irish, W e l s h , A r m e n i a n , I n d i a n a n d I r a n i a n . M a n y w e r e i n v o l v e d i n w o r k i n g w i t h refugees, a n d several c a m e f r o m refugee b a c k g r o u n d s . S o m e h a d experience of p o l i t i c a l i m p r i s o n m e n t . I n d e e d , the extremity o f the experiences s o m e o f the students h a d u n d e r g o n e , a n d their w i d e l y d i v e r g e n t c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s , w e r e b o t h critical factors i n their a b i l i t y to l e a r n — a s I shall demonstrate. V e r y creatively, t h e y d e c i d e d to m a k e use o f m e to tackle s o m e o f their p r e d o m i n a n t anxieties, a n d I d e c i d e d to a l l o w t h e m to e m p l o y m e i n this constructive fashion. F r o m the p r i v i l e g e o f w o r k i n g as their teacher I learnt a h u g e a m o u n t a b o u t the i n t e g r a t i o n o f theory a n d practice i n the c l a s s r o o m , a n d a b o u t l e a r n i n g a n d p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , I l e a r n e d t h r o u g h a c t i o n h o w the p e r s o n a l i s a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g — i n this case, the d e e p a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e o r y to p e r s o n al u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e — c a n o p e n the d o o r to theoretical d e v e l o p m e n t . For, as time w e n t o n , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that s o m e of the students w e r e u n d e r g o i n g the sort o f p r o f o u n d p e r s o n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e s deep l e a r n i n g , a n d also b e g i n n i n g to g a i n real clinical confidence. Initially, I h a d b e e n a s k e d to use the s t u d e n t s ' c l i n i c a l presentations to illustrate different aspects of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, a n d thus enable t h e m to d e v e l o p their theoretical u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h i s is a fairly stan dard
teaching
format
within psychoanalytic
a n d psychodynamic
courses. H o w e v e r , I s o o n d i s c o v e r e d that the students w e r e j a d e d a n d j a u n d i c e d b y s t a n d a r d teaching m e t h o d s . T h e y r e s p e c t f u l l y insisted that t h e y w a n t e d to b e taught, p e r h a p s p r e c i s e l y because the s t a n d a r d t e a c h i n g formats w e r e not e n a b l i n g t h e m to l e a r n f r o m their o w n expe rience. M u c h to m y b e m u s e m e n t
a n d i n i t i a l bafflement,
they
were
a b s o l u t e l y insistent o n this. B u t s u b s e q u e n t l y I realised that w h a t they w e r e a c t u a l l y i n s i s t i n g u p o n w a s , i n fact, their desire to learn. Together, i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h e a c h other, students a n d teacher, w e i d e n t i f i e d w h a t the students felt to b e the m o s t salient g a p s i n their c o n c e p t u a l a n d c l i n i c a l grasp o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory. Together, w e o r g a n i s e d these areas into a series o f c l e a r l y d e f i n e d subjects. W e a g r e e d that for each s e m i n a r w e w o u l d p o o l suggestions for r e a d i n g . I w o u l d p r o v i d e a b r i e f i m p r o m p t u o v e r v i e w o f the subject, a n d the s t u dents w o u l d b r i n g clinical e x a m p l e s o r issues p u z z l i n g t h e m . A n d s o w e e m b a r k e d o n w h a t h a d b e g u n to feel l i k e a n extremely exciting v e n t u r e , because the p r o g r a m m e w e h a d d e v i s e d tallied i n its format
100
On 'Learning' and 'Learning
About'
p r e c i s e l y w i t h w h a t the students h a d i d e n t i f i e d as their o w n l e a r n i n g needs. T h e risk p r o v e d w o r t h t a k i n g . T h e students felt that the s e m i n a r s w e r e theirs. If they w e r e not l e a r n i n g w h a t t h e y w a n t e d i n the w a y they w a n t e d , then they n o w felt they h a d the liberty to change the t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g format. T h i s m e a n t that they w e r e t h i n k i n g c o n s t a n t l y — w i t h , at times, furious
concentration. T h e i r a l i e n a t i o n h a v i n g greatly
d i m i n i s h e d , they f o u n d that they w e r e l e a r n i n g w i t h p a s s i o n , i n t e n s i ty, a n d intimacy. It w a s a n experience of a m e e t i n g of m i n d s w h i c h c o u l d p r o b a b l y o n l y be m a t c h e d i n the c o n s u l t i n g - r o o m o r w i t h i n a n i n t i m a t e relationship or great f r i e n d s h i p . A s their experiences of l e a r n i n g freed t h e m , so they were able to speak m o r e f r a n k l y f r o m the heart. In this w a y , experiences were expressed a n d l e a r n e d f r o m w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d too p a i n f u l o r difficult for the class r o o m . A s it t u r n e d o u t , the theory w a s n o t just ' a p p l i e d ' , b u t instead absolutely
k n i t t e d into the s t u d e n t s '
o w n experiences,
a n d thus
b e c a m e i n d i s s o l u b l y a part of t h e m . T h e experience w a s far m o r e p r o f o u n d than l e a r n i n g for a n e x a m i n a t i o n , a l t h o u g h they w e r e i n d e e d l e a r n i n g for examinations. T h e w a y i n w h i c h w e h a d c o n s t r u c t e d the s e m i n a r s , a n d the fact that w e h a d s h a r e d the experience of s t r u g g l i n g to f i n d a w a y to p r o m o t e the deepest l e v e l of l e a r n i n g , acted b o t h as a f r a m e a n d as a safe container for the p r o c e s s i n g of experiences w h i c h m i g h t otherwise h a v e f u n c t i o n e d as a b a r r i e r to l e a r n i n g . M o r e o v e r , s u r p r i s i n g l y , as time w e n t o n , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that w i t h i n this constructed frame of s h a r e d l e a r n i n g the use of p s y c h o a n alytic theory itself w a s s e r v i n g as a container a n d as a n a i d e to p r o c e s s i n g the students' experiences. T h e f u n c t i o n of theory w a s d e m o n strated as a n integral part of practice; t h o u g h t w a s not dissociated f r o m experience. T h e students c h a n g e d a n d w e r e c h a n g e d ; there w a s n o n e e d to t r y to remember. T h e fact that these students c a m e f r o m w i d e l y diverse c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s , a n d h a d extremely different experiences of life, w a s of m a t e r i a l consequence c o n c e r n i n g their c a p a c i t y to construct a setting i n w h i c h they c o u l d l e a r n w i t h s u c h p a s s i o n , intensity, a n d s p e e d . T o b e g i n w i t h , it entailed that w e h a d n o o p t i o n b u t to engage w i t h m u l tiple v e r t i c e s — i n w h a t e v e r aspect of theory o r field of e n q u i r y w e f o c u s s e d o n . Because there w a s so little s h a r e d a s s u m p t i o n , e v e r y t h i n g w e l o o k e d at w a s c o n t i n u a l l y c a l l e d into q u e s t i o n f r o m a r a d i c a l l y dif ferent perspective.
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Because the students h a d a l r e a d y u n d e r g o n e a r d u o u s experiences at the l i m i t s of h u m a n e n d u r a n c e , there w a s n o p o s s i b i l i t y that a n atti t u d e of n a i v e faith or trust c o u l d be a s s u m e d i n o u r s e m i n a r s . T h e trust w h i c h w a s e v e n t u a l l y established b e t w e e n the s t u d e n t s , a n d b e t w e e n the
students
a n d myself,
was meticulously
built a n d challenged
repeatedly, b u t , for a l l that, r e m a i n e d d u r a b l e a n d r o b u s t l o n g after the seminars h a d ended. T h i s r e m i n d s m e of a p o i n t B i o n m a k e s a b o u t the growing er/contained
s t r u c t u r e as a n a p p a r a t u s
'Learning depends
or vehicle
contain
for l e a r n i n g :
o n the c a p a c i t y for the g r o w i n g c o n t a i n e r / c o n
t a i n e d to r e m a i n integrated a n d yet lose r i g i d i t y ' (Bion 1984a: 93). In other w o r d s , the testing a n d v i g o r o u s usage o f the container for l e a r n i n g (in this e x a m p l e : myself, the s e m i n a r s , a n d their format) w a s a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e aspect of o u r h a v i n g b e e n able to d e v e l o p a setting for l e a r n i n g that c o u l d f u n c t i o n at a h i g h l y sophisticated level. Bion and Freire—transformative
praxis
W i t h o u t b e i n g a w a r e of it the students a n d I h a d b e e n e n g a g e d i n w h a t Freire d e s c r i b e d as ' d i a l o g u e ' . In Freire's terms, w e h a d b e e n s t r i v i n g to f i n d the 'true w o r d ' w h i c h unites reflection a n d action i n e d u c a t i o n al p r a x i s . T h i s b r i n g s m e to the final part of this chapter, i n w h i c h I s h a l l d r a w s o m e m o r e explicit parallels b e t w e e n the t h i n k i n g of B i o n a n d Freire. I s h a l l n o t focus o n the politics of Freire's d i s c o u r s e , n o r o n his p e d agogic m e t h o d o l o g y for literacy. W h a t I h o p e to d o , h o w e v e r , b y l i n k i n g a n d s h o w i n g the similarities b e t w e e n s o m e of the core ideas of B i o n a n d Freire, is to u n d e r l i n e the transformative p o t e n t i a l of b o t h sets of i d e a s , a n d to s h o w h o w they c o m p l e m e n t each other. B i o n w a s a p s y c h o a n a l y s t w h o w a s essentially a p h i l o s o p h e r . H i s t h e o r y o f t h i n k i n g a n d l e a r n i n g penetrates d e e p l y into the n a t u r e a n d structure o f m i n d . Freire w a s a n educationalist w h o w a s , essentially, a p o l i t i c a l r a d i c a l . H i s t h e o r y penetrates
d e e p l y into the nature a n d
structure of social a n d p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e . T h e i r start- a n d e n d - p o i n t s are t h u s the p o l a r opposites o f the i n t e r n a l a n d the external w o r l d , b u t they are b o t h great theorists of h o w p e o p l e change. C o n s i d e r i n g that they n e v e r m e t , a n d that it is e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y they read o n e a n o t h e r ' s w o r k , the l e v e l o f s y n c h r o n i c i t y a n d s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g is h i g h l y s t r i k i n g . D r a w i n g o u t the f u n d a m e n t a l tenets a n d e m p h a s e s they
102
On 'Learning' and 'Learning
About'
h a v e i n c o m m o n enables us to i d e n t i f y the u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s a n d v a l u e s o f a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e p r a x i s of e d u c a t i o n . F o r instance, b o t h w e r e d e e p l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h p r o b l e m s of s u b jectivity a n d authenticity. Freire's 'true w o r d ' h a s a n a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l p e n u m b r a o f m e a n i n g to B i o n ' s ' t r u t h ' . F o r B i o n , truth is the o u t c o m e of b e a r i n g p a i n a n d frustration to a sufficient degree to m a k e p o s s i b l e the p r o c e s s i n g o f e m o t i o n a l experience t h r o u g h a l p h a - f u n c t i o n ; it is the antithesis o f the m e a n i n g l e s s discharge o f w o r d s t h r o u g h beta ele m e n t s . T o u s e w o r d s truthfully, therefore, o n e m u s t b o t h m e a n s o m e t h i n g a n d d e v e l o p oneself i n the process. In Freire's terms, the 'true w o r d ' is that w h i c h unites reflection a n d a c t i o n . W i t h o u t the d i m e n s i o n of action, w e r u n the risk of verbalism: ...the w o r d is c h a n g e d into i d l e chatter, into a n a l i e n a t e d a n d a l i e n a t i n g " b l a h " . It b e c o m e s a n e m p t y w o r d , o n e w h i c h c a n n o t d e n o u n c e the w o r l d , for d e n u n c i a t i o n is i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t a c o m m i t m e n t to t r a n s f o r m , a n d there is n o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h out a c t i o n . (Freire 1970: 68) Yet w i t h o u t the d i m e n s i o n of reflection, w e r u n the risk o f activism, w h i c h negates true praxis a n d m a k e s d i a l o g u e i m p o s s i b l e : E i t h e r d i c h o t o m y , b y creating u n a u t h e n t i c f o r m s of existence, creates also u n a u t h e n t i c forms o f t h o u g h t , w h i c h reinforce the o r i g i n a l d i c h o t o m y . . . T o exist, h u m a n l y , is to name the w o r l d , to c h a n g e it... [S]aying that w o r d is n o t the p r i v i l e g e of s o m e f e w p e r s o n s , b u t the r i g h t of e v e r y o n e . . . [I]f it is i n s p e a k i n g their w o r d that p e o p l e , b y n a m i n g the w o r l d , t r a n s f o r m it, d i a l o g u e i m p o s e s itself as the w a y b y w h i c h they achieve significance as h u m a n beings.
Dialogue
is thus an existential
necessity.
(Freire
1970: 69, m y italics) F r e i r e ' s d i a l o g i i e , then, is a k i n to B i o n ' s evolution;
it is n o less t h a n
that w h i c h m a k e s h u m a n beings a u t h e n t i c a l l y h u m a n . B i o n ' s e v o l u t i o n o f m i n d d e p e n d s o n the g r o w t h o f the i n t e r n a l c o n t a i n e r / c o n t a i n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p , s u c h that the m i n d b e c o m e s ever m o r e
flexible,
robust,
complex
resilient, a n d capable
of t h i n k i n g i n i n c r e a s i n g l y
f o r m s . Freire's d i a l o g u e — m e a n w h i l e — i s
the t r a n s p o s i t i o n of B i o n ' s
e v o l u t i o n a r y i n t e r n a l process onto the external w o r l d . H u m a n s are 'beings i n the process o f b e c o m i n g ' . Because, i n Freire's v i s i o n , p e o p l e
Jean White
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b e c o m e h u m a n i n the act of n a m i n g the w o r l d , it is the social f o r u m s i n w h i c h d i a l o g u e is p o s s i b l e — w i t h i n p o l i t i c a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , c o m m u n i ty o r c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s — w h i c h are the h u m a n i s i n g forces i n society. A p p l i e d to a specifically e d u c a t i o n a l context, d i a l o g u e is w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s ' b a n k i n g ' e d u c a t i o n ( m e m o r i s i n g that w h i c h is g i v e n ; ' d o m e s t i c a t i n g ' students) f r o m p r o b l e m - p o s i n g
e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h offers
a
s e a r c h for k n o w l e d g e i n the B i o n i a n sense of the w o r d . Teacher a n d s t u d e n t s d e v e l o p ' c o - i n t e n t i o n a l i t y ' . T h i s m a k e s the process of s t u d y (and
its c o n c l u s i o n s )
collectively
owned.
Co-intentionality
begins
w h e n the teacher presents a p r o b l e m for i n q u i r y related to a k e y aspect of s t u d e n t experience, so that students recognise their t h o u g h t a n d l a n g u a g e (their subjectivity) i n the study. ' K n o w i n g ' , for Freire, m e a n s b e i n g a n active subject w h o questions a n d transforms. T o l e a r n is to recreate the w a y w e r e g a r d ourselves, o u r e d u c a t i o n , a n d o u r society. T h e r e are s i m i l a r affinities b e t w e e n Freire's c o n c e p t of
conscientiza
cao a n d B i o n ' s use of the w o r d ' t h i n k i n g ' — p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t w h e n w e c o n s i d e r B i o n ' s G r i d . F o r Freire, t h o u g h t or t h i n k i n g is the f u n c t i o n a l basis of d i a l o g u e : ...true d i a l o g u e c a n n o t exist unless the d i a l o g u e r s engage i n crit ical t h i n k i n g — t h i n k i n g w h i c h discerns a n i n d i v i s i b l e s o l i d a r i t y b e t w e e n the w o r l d a n d the p e o p l e a n d a d m i t s of n o d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n t h e m — t h i n k i n g w h i c h perceives reality as process, as t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , rather t h a n as a static e n t i t y — t h i n k i n g w h i c h d o e s n o t separate itself f r o m a c t i o n , b u t constantly
immerses
itself i n t e m p o r a l i t y w i t h o u t fear o f the risks i n v o l v e d . (Freire 1970: 73) In the process o f conscientizacao, n a i v e t h i n k i n g . Conscientizacao,
critical t h i n k i n g c o m e s to replace
for Freire, represents the q u a n t u m shift
that takes place as a p e r s o n c o m e s to base their p e r c e p t i o n s of external reality o n a n authentic self w h i c h has l e a r n e d f r o m its o w n e x p e r i ences. W h e r e a s , for B i o n , the p e r s o n b e c o m e s c a p a b l e of i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y abstract levels o f t h o u g h t , for Freire the e m p h a s i s is a l w a y s o n the p e r c e p t i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of p o w e r relationships i n external reality: C o n s c i e n t i s a t i o n changes one's p e r c e p t i o n of the facts, b a s e d o n a critical u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e m . A p e r s o n w h o h a s r e a c h e d c o n scientisation is capable of clearly p e r c e i v i n g h u n g e r as m o r e t h a n
104
On 'Learning and 'Learning About' 7
just not eating, as the manifestation of a p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d social reality of deep injustice... T h e p e r s o n w h o has
reached
conscientisation is able to connect facts a n d p r o b l e m s a n d to u n d e r s t a n d the connections between h u n g e r a n d f o o d p r o d u c tion, food production and agrarian reform, agrarian reform and reactions against it, h u n g e r a n d e c o n o m i c p o l i c y , h u n g e r
and
v i o l e n c e a n d h u n g e r as violence... A p e r s o n w h o has r e a c h e d conscientisation has a different u n d e r s t a n d i n g of h i s t o r y a n d of his or her role i n it. (Freire 1996:182-3) Freire's m o d e l of e d u c a t i o n , a n d B i o n ' s m o d e l of l e a r n i n g , are b o t h i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m the process of b e c o m i n g authentically h u m a n , f r o m d e v e l o p i n g as a h u m a n b e i n g . So, a l t h o u g h Freire alone
emphasises
the necessarily c h a n g e d perceptions a n d relations w i t h r e g a r d to exter n a l reality, ultimately, i n neither v i s i o n c a n l e a r n i n g be d i v o r c e d f r o m the w a y the learner relates to the w o r l d . T o s u m m a r i s e briefly, m a n y of Freire's k e y concepts are c o m p a r a b l e a n d d e p e n d u p o n s i m i l a r v a l u e s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s to those of B i o n . T h e process of conscientizacao is a k i n to that of the G r i d . Freire's v e r b a l i s m a n d a c t i v i s m are v e r y like B i o n ' s 'discharge of beta elements'; the 'true w o r d ' has m a n y similarities to ' a l p h a f u n c t i o n ' ; a n d F r e i r e a n ' d i a l o g u e ' a n d B i o n i a n ' e v o l u t i o n ' b o t h p r o c e e d w i t h i n relationships, a l t h o u g h B i o n emphasises the internal d i m e n s i o n a n d Freire the external. B u t m o r e i m p o r t a n t than the coincidence of their basic concepts is the d e e p affinity o f their general outlook. B o t h created
a language ofpos
sibility. B o t h w e r e p r o f o u n d l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the constitution of a u t h e n t i c subjectivity, a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t a l potential i n h e r e n t i n it. Freire concentrated o n m a k i n g history, a n d B i o n o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of self, b u t — i n m y o p i n i o n — t h e s e are m e r e l y differences of
emphasis.
T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g for e d u c a t i o n h a v e m u c h
reso
n a n c e a n d affinity w i t h the F r e i r e a n m e t h o d . F i n a l l y , to r e t u r n to m y students, they w e r e e n g a g e d i n a struggle to t r a n s f o r m d e g r a d i n g a n d d e h u m a n i s i n g experiences into
manageable
entities w h i c h c o u l d be thought about, p l a c e d w i t h i n specific contexts, u n d e r s t o o d , a n d u l t i m a t e l y u s e d to i n f o r m h u m a n e practices as c l i n i cians. F o r this enterprise deep theoretical l e a r n i n g was also necessary. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n of Freire's t h i n k i n g to this k i n d of e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m is self-evident, a n d n e e d not be spelt out. H o w e v e r , it m a y c o m e as a s u r p r i s e that B i o n ' s t h i n k i n g also p r o v i d e s sage a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g assis tance w i t h the p r o b l e m s of integrated l e a r n i n g .
Jean White
105
Notes The original dates of publication for these works are as follows: Learning from Experience (1962), Elements of Psychoanalysis (1963), Transformations (1965), Second Thoughts (1967), and Attention and Interpretation (1970). 1
2 Readers interested in further study of The Grid should read Bion's Elements of Psychoanalysis (1963) . 3 The term 'projective identification' refers to the way in which undigested or disowned aspects of experience can be expelled or projected into the minds of others. Readers interested in exploring this concept more fully should refer to Hinshelwood's Dictionary of Kleinian Thought (1989: 179-208). The term 'truth', for Bion, entails the capacity to tolerate pain and frustration until such a time as an authentic transformation of experience into mental form, through alpha function, can be brought about. Further reflections on the implications of Bion's notion of 'truth' are presented throughout this chapter.
4
5 There is another example of a faulty internal parental model of container-contained below, p.96 (the 'vague' person).
6 For further elaboration of this intriguing concept, see Britton et al. 1989: 7-8.
T H E H A Z A R D S O F CURIOSITY: A KLEINIAN PERSPECTIVE ON
LEARNING
Linda
Buckingham
P s y c h o a n a l y s t s v a r y i n their e x p l a n a t i o n s of failure to learn. F r e u d , for instance, l i n k e d the stifling of sexual c u r i o s i t y i n c h i l d r e n , b y parents, to later difficulties i n l e a r n i n g . If a c h i l d is m a d e to feel g u i l t y for b e i n g c u r i o u s a b o u t the f u n d a m e n t a l sexual facts of life, t h e n other questions m a y feel too d a n g e r o u s to ask. O t h e r p s y c h o a n a l y s t s — s u c h as F a i r b a i r n a n d W i n n i c o t t — s t r e s s the p s y c h i c injuries w h i c h parents inflict o n c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h c o n t e m p t , c r u e l t y a n d neglect, r e s u l t i n g i n different k i n d s of d e f e n s i v e ' s t u p i d i ty'. T h e u n e a r t h i n g of w i d e s p r e a d s e x u a l abuse, often f a m i l i a l a n d e n d u r i n g for generations, has lead to the r e c o g n i t i o n that severe l e a r n i n g difficulties m a y be defensive a n d self-protective, the result of t r a u m a rather t h a n d u e to innate c o n d i t i o n s . O n the w h o l e , p s y c h o a n a l y s t s of different schools are u n i t e d i n c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n the
unconscious
effects o n the c h i l d of maltreatment o r neglect. T h e K l e i n i a n a p p r o a c h differs f r o m these i n that it ascribes l e a r n i n g difficulties, at least i n part, to the infant's i n h e r e n t aggression. F o r K l e i n , f o l l o w i n g F r e u d , o u r p s y c h i c qualities are s u b s u m e d u n d e r the t w o d o m i n a n t instincts: the life a n d d e a t h instincts. L o v e a n d hate are r e g a r d e d as inherent feelings i n c h i l d r e n w h i c h , f r o m the v e r y first, interact w i t h the c h i l d ' s objects—firstly, part-objects
( p r i m a r i l y the
breast) a n d later w h o l e objects: the mother, father a n d siblings. M a n y K l e i n i a n s b e l i e v e i n the existence of a d e a t h instinct, s o m e s i m p l y i n innate a g g r e s s i o n (a less o v e r w h e l m i n g concept), b u t the e m p h a s i s is f i r m l y o n the c h i l d ' s i n t e r n a l w o r l d a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the external w o r l d — t h a t is, o n the i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y a n d the experience of external p e o p l e a n d situations. T h e c h i l d ' s u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies a b o u t its objects w i l l , f r o m the first, c o l o u r his or h e r perceptions of these objects a n d thus his or her r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e m . T h e r e is a c o n t i n u o u s , c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n of unconscious
a n d a c t u a l experience of others, e a c h i n f l u e n c i n g the
other. In g o o d circumstances, actual experience w i l l m o d i f y the terrors of the i n t e r n a l w o r l d a n d the c h i l d ' s p e r c e p t i o n w i l l be m o r e i n line w i t h reality. In b a d circumstances, the c h i l d ' s f r i g h t e n i n g phantasies w i l l b e a f f i r m e d a n d thus strengthened; real p e r s e c u t i o n
enhances
Linda
Buckingham
107
p a r a n o i a a n d character d i s t u r b a n c e sets i n . W h e r e K l e i n a n d the postK l e i n i a n s differ f r o m other schools of p s y c h o - a n a l y s i s is i n their a s c r i p t i o n o f o v e r w h e l m i n g sadistic i m p u l s e s to certain infants, e v e n u n d e r g o o d external circumstances. Infants w i t h a n i n h e r e n t l y l o w tolerance of f r u s t r a t i o n are l i k e l y to h a v e phantasies of a b a d , d e n y i n g breast a n d w i l l e x p e r i e n c e sadistic, attacking i m p u l s e s t o w a r d s it. T h i s sets i n t r a i n a n e g a t i v e cycle: fears of r e t r i b u t i o n , introjection of a b a d , d a m a g e d breast, feelings of p e r s e c u t i o n w h i c h are then projected back onto the breast, a n d so o n . E a r l y d i s j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d b a b y c a n set i n , e v e n if the m o t h e r is d o i n g her best to counteract the b a b y ' s anx iety. A n o t h e r baby, w i t h a h i g h tolerance of frustration, m a y thus fare better u n d e r w o r s e external circumstances, a l t h o u g h a n y b a b y w h o s e m o t h e r is n o t i n t o u c h w i t h its n e e d s w i l l suffer. It is w i t h this e m p h a s i s o n the infant's o w n personality, u p o n h i s or her o w n l o v i n g or sadistic i m p u l s e s , that I w i l l describe the K l e i n i a n t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g a n d i n h i b i t i o n s i n l e a r n i n g . In a n early w o r k , ' T h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f T h e C h i l d ' (1921), K l e i n offers a F r e u d i a n e x p l a n a t i o n for i n h i b i t i o n s of all k i n d s , i n c l u d i n g i n h i b i t i o n s of c u r i o s i t y a n d l e a r n i n g . B a s i n g h e r c o n c l u s i o n s o n the analysis of a y o u n g b o y (this w a s her o w n s o n , unfortunately, a l t h o u g h s h e d i d not p u b l i c i s e this fact at the time) she stressed the i m p o r t a n c e of not stifling the c u r i o s i t y of children,
especially
their c u r i o s i t y about
the b o d y
a n d sexuality.
C h i l d r e n ' s questions, K l e i n b e l i e v e d , s h o u l d be a n s w e r e d openly. T h e c r u s h i n g of this c u r i o s i t y b y parents w o u l d l e a d to its b e i n g repressed, w h i c h i n t u r n w o u l d l e a d to n e u r o t i c illness a n d to i n h i b i t i o n s i n l e a r n i n g . A g l i m m e r of her later t h i n k i n g , h o w e v e r , is a l r e a d y present i n this p a p e r w h e r e she refers to the infant's u r g e to u n d e r s t a n d a n d to k n o w . T h i s f o r e s h a d o w s K l e i n ' s ' e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct' w h i c h is p r e s u m e d to exist e v e n before the infant c a n s p e a k a n d w h i c h c a n l e a d to e x p e r i ences o f h u g e frustration. T h i s i d e a is e x p a n d e d i n a later paper, ' E a r l y Stages of the O e d i p u s C o n f l i c t ' (1928). H e r e K l e i n discusses the infant's w i s h to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t is b e i n g s a i d a r o u n d h i m , h i s consequent frustration a n d , u l t i mately, h i s rage a n d h a t r e d i n response: O n e of the m o s t bitter grievances w h i c h w e c o m e u p o n i n the u n c o n s c i o u s is that this t r e m e n d o u s q u e s t i o n i n g i m p u l s e , w h i c h is a p p a r e n t l y o n l y p a r t l y c o n s c i o u s a n d e v e n so far as it is c a n n o t yet b e expressed i n w o r d s , r e m a i n s u n a n s w e r e d . A n o t h e r r e p r o a c h f o l l o w s h a r d u p o n this, n a m e l y that the c h i l d c o u l d n o t
The Hazards of
108
Curiosity
u n d e r s t a n d w o r d s a n d s p e e c h . T h u s his first q u e s t i o n s g o b a c k b e y o n d the b e g i n n i n g s of his u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s p e e c h . ( K l e i n 1928:
188)
If the feelings of rage a n d f r u s t r a t i o n are severe, certain i n h i b i t i o n s m a y d e v e l o p i n later life, s u c h as the i n a b i l i t y to l e a r n a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e , or a h a t r e d for p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s , races, o r c o u n t r i e s . (I i m a g i n e that s t u t t e r i n g a n d speech d e l a y m a y h a v e s i m i l a r causes.) O n c e s p e e c h is a c h i e v e d , h o w e v e r , other frustrations of the episte m o p h i l i c instinct m a y occur. C h i l d r e n f r o m t w o o n w a r d s , before they h a v e a c q u i r e d definite k n o w l e d g e of sexual matters for certain, h a v e o n l y v a g u e l y f o r m e d ideas about t h e m , c o u p l e d w i t h a n intense u r g e to k n o w : T h e c h i l d . . . feels this frustration the m o r e a c u t e l y b e c a u s e he knows nothing
d e f i n i t e a b o u t s e x u a l processes' ( K l e i n 1928:
188).
This,
too, is h i g h l y f r u s t r a t i n g . Interestingly, this contradicts to s o m e extent K l e i n ' s c o n t e n t i o n that m a l e a n d female infants h a v e s t r o n g genital s e n s a t i o n s — p e n i l e a n d v a g i n a l — w h i c h g i v e rise to u n c o n s c i o u s ideas of h e t e r o s e x u a l g e n i t a l c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y . She refers to the 'first stir r i n g s of the genital i m p u l s e s ' a n d believes that 'the o r a l , receptive a i m of the [girl's] g e n i t a l exercises a d e t e r m i n i n g i n f l u e n c e i n the g i r l ' s t u r n i n g to the f a t h e r ' ( K l e i n 1928:
192). She also discusses the g i r l ' s
' u n c o n s c i o u s a w a r e n e s s of the v a g i n a ' a n d of 'sensations i n that o r g a n a n d the rest of the genital a p p a r a t u s ' , a l t h o u g h she d o e s not n a m e the clitoris. I t h i n k that if c h i l d r e n d i d h a v e this u n c o n s c i o u s
knowledge
t h e n their s e x u a l q u e s t i o n s , i n this area at least, w o u l d a l r e a d y be p a r t i a l l y satisfied. I t h i n k F r e u d is m o r e accurate i n this respect w h e n he describes the b i z a r r e c o n s c i o u s fantasies c h i l d r e n express a b o u t sexuality a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n — e . g . that babies are b o r n f r o m the m o t h e r ' s b o t t o m or f r o m her navel. F r e u d
d i d not b e l i e v e
that c h i l d r e n h a v e
unconscious
' k n o w l e d g e ' ( w h a t e v e r that is) of these things, b u t t h o u g h t i n s t e a d that y o u n g c h i l d r e n pass t h r o u g h a p h a s e of ' p o l y m o r p h o u s p e r v e r s i t y ' i n w h i c h first the o r a l t h e n the a n a l zones are erotised, a l o n g w i t h other p a r t s a n d surfaces of the b o d y ( F r e u d 1905a: 183ff). A c t i v i t i e s c a n also b e c o m e e r o t i s e d , s u c h as ' w a t c h i n g ' or ' b e i n g w a t c h e d ' ( F r e u d 1905a: 169). Later, u n d e r the d o m i n a n c e of the genital p h a s e , these z o n e s a n d p l e a s u r e s a s s u m e a lesser i m p o r t a n c e . F o r F r e u d , the s e x u a l d r i v e s are n o t i n h e r e n t l y l i n k e d to a n y object, so that object choice is the o u t c o m e of the c h i l d ' s a c t u a l experiences of their parents a n d siblings. C e r t a i n e x p e r i e n c e s m i g h t l e a d c h i l d r e n to t u r n i n d i s a p p o i n t m e n t f r o m one
Linda Buckingham
109
p a r e n t a n d attach themselves to the other, or to i d e n t i f y w i t h one a n d c o u r t the other. F o r K l e i n , i n contrast, heterosexuality is b a s e d o n innate m a t c h i n g , whereby
the sensations
i n the infant's sexual organs
(omitting
any
m e n t i o n of the clitoris) dictate a n u n c o n s c i o u s i d e a of c o m p l e m e n t a r i ty: p e n i s —> v a g i n a . O n the other h a n d , K l e i n ' s d e t a i l e d descriptions o f object-relating a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y o p e n u p a m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d p i c t u r e of sexuality. H e r t h e o r y of the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d a n d d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n s offer i l l u m i n a t i n g accounts of the h a z a r d o u s j o u r ney
of
infancy
Progress'—the
On
this
journey—a
kind
b a b y faces m a n y obstacles
of
infant's
'Pilgrims
a n d frustrations. It d e a l s
w i t h these a c c o r d i n g to its personality, w i t h the h e l p or h i n d r a n c e of its parents. A s far as i n h i b i t i o n s of l e a r n i n g are c o n c e r n e d , it is i m p o r t a n t to focus i n p a r t i c u l a r o n the p e r i o d c o v e r i n g the a n a l sadistic stage a n d the s u b s e q u e n t ' f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e ' , t h r o u g h w h i c h b o t h b o y s a n d g i r l s m u s t pass, as o u t l i n e d i n ' E a r l y Stages of the O e d i p u s C o n f l i c t ' (1928). T h i s p a p e r is a m i n e of interesting, c h a l l e n g i n g ideas, s o m e of w h i c h K l e i n n e v e r really e x p a n d e d , b u t u p o n w h i c h w e c a n b u i l d .
* ** Before c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n these ideas, I s h a l l give a short account K l e i n ' s t h e o r y of infant a n d c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t ,
of
i n t e n d e d for those
readers not closely familiar w i t h K l e i n ' s w r i t i n g s . A c c o r d i n g to K l e i n , the infant is b o r n r e a d y to relate to a s a t i s f y i n g object. U n l i k e F r e u d , she d i d not believe i n a phase of p r i m a r y n a r c i s s i s m , a n d — u n l i k e W i n n i c o t t — s h e d i d n o t think there w a s a p h a s e of ' i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ' d u r i n g w h i c h the infant is u n a w a r e of its separate ness f r o m the mother. F r o m the b e g i n n i n g , K l e i n b e l i e v e d , the infant reaches out for a n d experiences a n object—the m o t h e r ' s breast
(com
b i n e d w i t h her s m e l l , voice, t o u c h , m o o d ) . She t h o u g h t that the infant possesses f r o m the b e g i n n i n g a l o o s e l y f o r m e d ego, c a l l e d into b e i n g b y the b a b y ' s n e e d to d e f e n d itself against the i n t e r n a l force of the d e a t h instinct. In other w o r d s ,
the ego
is p r e c i p i t a t e d b y
the
life
instinct. W h e t h e r o r n o t o n e agrees w i t h this as a n a d e q u a t e — o r e v e n l o g i c a l — e x p l a n a t i o n of the b i r t h of the e g o , it is e v i d e n t that s o m e e a r l y f o r m of self is p e r f o r m i n g a f u n d a m e n t a l , tripartite p s y c h i c task f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of life: i.e. s p l i t t i n g , p r o j e c t i n g , introjecting. S p l i t t i n g a n d projection are d e f e n s i v e measures t a k e n b y the infant as w a y s of r e d i i c
110
The Hazards of Curiosity
i n g extreme anxiety. W h e n the b a b y has a g o o d f e e d , is n o u r i s h e d a n d c o m f o r t e d , it w i l l p e r c e i v e the breast as g o o d . W h i l s t d r i n k i n g the g o o d m i l k the b a b y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y introjects a n idea o f a g o o d ,
generous
breast. H o w e v e r , i f the b a b y h a s a n unsatisfactory e x p e r i e n c e of the breast, d u e to frustration or the q u a l i t y of the feed, it w i l l introject a n i d e a of a b a d breast w h i c h frustrates o r denies. T h i s is the basis of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y a n d the i n t e r n a l w o r l d of the c h i l d , w h i c h is e x p e r i e n c e d concretely as c o n t a i n i n g a host o f objects i n v a r i o u s states of g o o d a n d b a d h e a l t h , e n d o w e d w i t h either l o v i n g o r m a l i g n atti tudes. T h e b a b y w i l l project its i d e a of the breast onto the b r e a s t so that it w i l l b e p e r c e i v e d as either g o o d or b a d . N a t u r a l l y , n o b a b y has exclu sively g o o d experiences of f e e d i n g , w h i l e b a d experiences v a r y f r o m b a b y to baby. B u t i n either case the infant's ego is too fragile to e n c o m pass the i d e a that the breast c a n b e both g o o d a n d b a d . T h e b a d n e s s threatens to o v e r w h e l m the g o o d a n d the b a b y feels it w i l l fall to bits. In r e s p o n s e it splits the i d e a o f the g o o d breast f r o m that o f the b a d , i n o r d e r to p r e s e r v e the sense of g o o d n e s s a n d the fragile i n t e g r i t y o f the e a r l y ego. T h e g o o d a n d the b a d breast, t h e n , o w e their characters i n the infant's m i n d n o t just to the infant's actual e x p e r i e n c e o f f e e d i n g b u t also to the phantasies w h i c h a c c o m p a n y this. A g o o d feed stimulates l o v i n g i m p u l s e s w h i c h l e a d to i d e a l i s a t i o n of the breast. A b a d e x p e r i ence stimulates c r u e l , aggressive i m p u l s e s w h i c h injure the breast i n the infant's phantasy. A b a d , attacked a n d i n j u r e d breast, w h e n r e introjected b y the baby, leads to fears o f retaliation a n d p e r s e c u t i o n . It is v i t a l to the b a b y ' s sanity, t h e n , to feel that the g o o d breast is u n c o n t a m i n a t e d b y the b a d . In g o o d circumstances, the b a b y ' s p l e a s u r a b l e experiences o f the breast w i l l o u t w e i g h the b a d ones a n d w i l l lessen the a w f u l n e s s of f r i g h t e n i n g phantasies. W h e n the b a b y reaches four m o n t h s , its e x p e rience of the m o t h e r b e g i n s to shift f r o m a part-object to a w h o l e - o b j e c t e x p e r i e n c e . N o t o n l y d o the g o o d a n d b a d breast m o v e closer together i n the c h i l d ' s m i n d as s p l i t t i n g decreases, b u t the m o t h e r b e g i n s to b e e x p e r i e n c e d as p e r s o n . T h i s is the t h r e s h o l d o f the d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n . From
the p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d perspective,
mustering
all possible
defences to protect itself f r o m b a d n e s s , the infant shifts to the p e r s p e c tive o f s e e i n g further t h a n itself. H o w e v e r , the r e c o g n i t i o n that the l o v e d m o t h e r is the s a m e p e r s o n w h o w a s h a t e d a n d attacked i n p h a n
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tasy l e a d s to guilt. T h e w a y the infant deals w i t h this g u i l t is of crucial i m p o r t a n c e for its further character d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e i n f a n t d o m i n a t e d b y p a r a n o i d feelings w i l l f i n d this guilt i n t o l erable. H e w i l l a s s u m e that the m o t h e r is n o t o n l y i n j u r e d but also a n g r y a n d s e e k i n g to retaliate or injure h i m . In this narcissistic, p a r a n o i d state, the b a b y w i l l attempt p r i m a r i l y to d e f e n d h i m s e l f f r o m the p e r s e c u t o r y g u i l t a n d splits off a n y feelings
of c o n c e r n a n d
love.
C o n c e r n w i t h p r e s e r v a t i o n of the self w i l l be u p p e r m o s t i n the infant's m i n d a n d d e v e l o p m e n t w i l l p r o c e e d a l o n g narcissistic lines. T h e infant w i t h p r e d o m i n a n t l y l o v i n g feelings secure
internal good
object w i l l e x p e r i e n c e
a n d a relatively
his g u i l t as
shocking,
p a i n f u l , d e p r e s s i n g , b u t not intolerable. W h i l s t this b a b y w i l l suffer s o m e p e r s e c u t o r y feelings a n d fear r e v e n g e f r o m the mother, he w i l l also h a v e reparative urges a n d w i l l try to m a k e g o o d the d a m a g e he has d o n e i n phantasy. M o r e o v e r , he w i l l be a c t i n g o u t of gratitude for the g o o d n e s s his m o t h e r has g i v e n h i m , n o t just out of g u i l t (cf. K l e i n 1957). F r o m f o u r m o n t h s , u n t i l the infant is a b o u t t w o , he or she w i l l be g r a p p l i n g w i t h the challenges of the d e p r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n . T h e r e w i l l be f r e q u e n t shifts b e t w e e n d e p r e s s i v e c o n c e r n a n d p a r a n o i d fears—that is, b e t w e e n the d e p r e s s i v e a n d p a r a n o i d - s c h i z o i d positions—as
the p e r
s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p s either i n a narcissistic f a s h i o n or i n a w a y
more
f o c u s e d o n l o v e a n d c o n c e r n for the other. O e d i p a l feelings, h a v i n g started at four, five or six m o n t h s , w i l l be w e l l - d e v e l o p e d b y t w o years. T h e father, or m o t h e r ' s partner, w i l l f i g u r e i n v a r i o u s significant w a y s : as l o v e d p a r e n t , r i v a l , e n e m y , a d m i r e d f i g u r e , a n d so o n , a n d siblings w i l l also f i g u r e largely. The Femininity
Complex
K l e i n is n o t too clear o n her d a t i n g of the a l l - i m p o r t a n t ' f e m i n i n i t y c o m p l e x ' , b u t this seems to o c c u r at a r o u n d t w o years a n d its reper c u s s i o n s f a n o u t into the d e v e l o p i n g O e d i p u s c o m p l e x . F o r K l e i n , all r o a d s l e a d b a c k to the mother. B y the t i m e the father is taken into a c c o u n t , his d i s t i n g u i s h i n g sexual feature, the p e n i s , is seen m a i n l y i n r e l a t i o n to the m o t h e r as s o m e t h i n g she enjoys a n d is able to keep w i t h i n h e r b o d y . If the p e n i s is attacked i n p h a n t a s y at this e a r l y stage, then it is n o t as part of the father per se b u t as p a r t of h i m w h i c h the m o t h e r has i n s i d e her. A s the c h i l d d e v e l o p s , the f a t h e r — a n d h i s g e n i t a l i a — i s seen m o r e o n his o w n a c c o u n t a n d as a n alternative love-object to the
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The Hazards of
Curiosity
m o t h e r . H o w e v e r , it is the m a t e r n a l ' i m a g o ' w h i c h d o m i n a t e s e a r l y c h i l d h o o d . It is i n the p e r i o d before the f u l l t h r e e - p e r s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p of the O e d i p u s c o m p l e x that the ' f e m i n i n i t y c o m p l e x ' o c c u r s . B o t h the b o y a n d the g i r l e n v y a n d a d m i r e the m o t h e r ' s p h y s i c a l a n d s e x u a l a t t r i b u t e s — h e r breasts w h i c h give m i l k , h e r w o m b w h i c h p r o d u c e s babies, h e r beauty. F o r the b o y a n d the g i r l , the courses r u n b y this c o m p l e x are similar, t h o u g h their o u t c o m e s w i l l often differ a c c o r d i n g to gender. F o r b o t h sexes, the desire to possess the m o t h e r ' s p h y s i c a l a n d sex u a l attributes can l e a d to e n v i o u s , destructive attacks i n phantasy. T h e s e result i n fears of r e t r i b u t i o n — f e a r s that the c h i l d ' s o w n insides w i l l b e r o b b e d , s c o o p e d out, bitten u p , d e s t r o y e d . T h e g i r l m a y fear that h e r i n s i d e s are p e r m a n e n t l y d a m a g e d a n d that she w i l l be u n a b l e to h a v e babies of her o w n . (I i m a g i n e she m a y also fear that she herself is too d a n g e r o u s to be a mother.) She m a y later be p r o n e to h y p o c h o n d r i a c a l anxieties. T h e b o y m a y also fear that h i s i n s i d e s w i l l be d e s t r o y e d , b u t as w e l l as this he w i l l h a v e a n acute fear of castration b y the mother. T h i s is a n o t h e r d e p a r t u r e f r o m F r e u d , w h o r e g a r d e d the father as castrator. F o r K l e i n , b y the time the b o y fears castration b y the father for the s i n of d e s i r i n g his mother, he has a l r e a d y suffered fear of castration b y the m o t h e r . T h i s is all the m o r e l i k e l y if, i n phantasy, his p e n i s has b e e n u s e d against the m o t h e r as a n i n t r u s i v e , a t t a c k i n g w e a p o n . In later life he m a y be s e x u a l l y i m p o t e n t . T h a t is, his p e n i s m a y be r e g a r d e d as so p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s that it has to be r e n d e r e d ineffective. A n o t h e r o u t c o m e of a b o y ' s a d m i r a t i o n a n d e n v y of the m o t h e r m a y be a n act i n g - o u t i n reality of the sadistic sexual phantasies of infancy. T h e b o y m a y c o u n t e r his e n v y b y d e v e l o p i n g c o n t e m p t a n d h a t r e d of w o m e n , b y o v e r - v a l u i n g his p e n i s a n d his m a s c u l i n e p h y s i c a l a n d intellectual ability. A t its m o s t d a n g e r o u s a n d least subtle this attitude is expressed i n s e x u a l attacks, r a p e a n d m u r d e r . I a m r e m i n d e d here of R i p p e r - t y p e m u r d e r s i n w h i c h the b u t c h e r y is c o n c e n t r a t e d o n the breasts, w o m b a n d genitalia. * * * If o n e accepts these ideas o n the f e m i n i n i t y phase, it is n o t h a r d to see that it is at this p o i n t l e a r n i n g difficulties are m o s t l i k e l y to set i n . T h e e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct of the v e r y y o u n g c h i l d is p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h b o d i l y questions a b o u t his or her o w n b o d y , the m o t h e r ' s b o d y ,
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113
the f a t h e r ' s b o d y . S o m e of the m o s t urgent c u r i o s i t y is directed t o w a r d the m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s : W h a t goes o n i n there? D o e s she secretly keep m i l k f o r herself? A r e there babies g r o w i n g i n there? Is father's p e n i s i n there? Is it a b e a u t i f u l sanctuary o r a m o n s t e r - i n f e s t e d forest? T h e c h i l d m a y c o m e u p w i t h s o m e bizarre theories before his or her c u r i o s i t y b e g i n s to be satisfied. T h e e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct c a n f o u n d e r if it is too s t r o n g l y l i n k e d w i t h i n t r u s i v e , sadistic feelings, if w a n t i n g to k n o w about the m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s a n d h e r m i n d is l i n k e d w i t h the w i s h to c o n t r o l , to possess, to p u n i s h . C h i l d r e n ' s c u r i o s i t y is u s u a l l y c o l o u r e d b y s a d i s m to s o m e d e g r e e a n d this has v a r i o u s r a m i f i c a t i o n s . T h e c h i l d m a y successfully p u r s u e k n o w l e d g e t h r o u g h o u t his o r her life i n a w a y w h i c h i n v o l v e s e x e r t i n g p o w e r a n d control o v e r others. In a d u l t h o o d this t e n d e n c y m a y b e c o m e a p p a r e n t i n the w o r k p l a c e or i n p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , or it m a y r e m a i n c a r e f u l l y d i s g u i s e d . F o r instance, g y n a e c o l o g y , p s y c h i a t r y a n d the p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s are professions i n w h i c h the desire to k n o w c o u l d e a s i l y be i n t r u s i v e l y a n d sadistically m o t i v a t e d . T h e y are p r o f e s s i o n s w h i c h c a n l e n d themselves to p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s of m i s u s e , their objects b e i n g the w o m b
a n d the m i n d . H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d be
b o r n e i n m i n d that a n y p r o f e s s i o n c a n be m i s u s e d . The
epistemophilic
instinct/impulse
can r u n a more
ordinary
c o u r s e if it is less a l l i e d to i n t r u s i v e , sadistic i m p u l s e s . It c a n also be e m p l o y e d g e n e r o u s l y a n d w i t h l o v e , a l t h o u g h I suspect the desire to k n o w is n e v e r e n t i r e l y free of the w i s h to possess a n d c o n t r o l . A n o t h e r o u t c o m e is inhibition of l e a r n i n g . T h i s m a y be s p e c i f i c — e . g . a n i n a b i l i t y to d o m a t h s or to s p e a k a foreign l a n g u a g e — o r it m a y be g l o b a l . I d o n o t w i s h to m a k e generalisations r e g a r d i n g l e a r n i n g diffi culties. S o m e h a v e p h y s i c a l causes, whereas s o m e , l i k e d y s l e x i a , w h i c h has n o t yet b e e n a s c r i b e d a p h y s i c a l or a genetic cause, s e e m to h o v e r o n the b o r d e r b e t w e e n the p h y s i c a l a n d the p s y c h o l o g i c a l . I s h a l l o n l y concentrate
here o n the K l e i n i a n v i e w
of p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n h i b i t i o n
w h i c h has its root i n guilt a n d anxiety. If the c h i l d , d u r i n g the ' f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e ' , d o e s n o t s i m p l y a d m i r e h i s or h e r m o t h e r ' s f e m i n i n e qualities, b u t is i n s t e a d e x t r e m e l y e n v i o u s of t h e m , a n d if h e o r she is n o t s i m p l y c u r i o u s a b o u t her m i n d a n d the contents of h e r w o m b b u t is s a d i s t i c a l l y a n d d e s t r u c t i v e l y interested, t h e n h e or she m a y w i t h d r a w f r o m a n y further c u r i o s i t y a b o u t the m o t h e r . T h a t is, the g u i l t e x p e r i e n c e d for h a r b o u r i n g sadistic c u r i o s i t y a n d c a r r y i n g o u t sadistic attacks i n p h a n t a s y m a y l e a d , n o t to r e p a r a t i o n b u t to severe i n h i b i t i o n .
114
The Hazards of Cariosity
A c c o r d i n g to K l e i n , o r d i n a r y ' s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n is itself based o n the e p i s t e m o p h i l i c urge to k n o w about the m o t h e r ' s insides. T h i s urge w i l l a l w a y s cause a certain a m o u n t of a n x i e t y because c u r i o s i t y at this stage is i n e v i t a b l y t i n g e d w i t h s a d i s m . I n ' T h e I m p o r t a n c e of S y m b o l F o r m u l a t i o n i n the D e v e l o p m e n t of the E g o ' (1930), K l e i n w r i t e s about the p r e g e n i t a l phase, w h e n g e n i t a l trends b e g i n to exercise a n i n f l u ence. T h i s is the b e g i n n i n g of O e d i p a l conflict a n d s a d i s m p r e d o m i nates. A l o n g s i d e of the infants' l i b i d i n a l interest i n his parent's b o d i e s , e s p e c i a l l y his m o t h e r ' s , the a n x i e t y a r i s i n g i n this phase 7
...sets g o i n g the m e c h a n i s m o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Since the c h i l d desires to d e s t r o y the organs (penis, v a g i n a , breast) w h i c h stand for the objects, he conceives a d r e a d o f the latter. T h i s a n x i e t y c o n t r i b u t e s to m a k e h i m equate the organs i n q u e s t i o n w i t h o t h e r things; o w i n g to this e q u a t i o n these i n their t u r n become objects of anxiety, a n d so he is i m p e l l e d c o n s t a n t l y to m a k e other a n d n e w equations, w h i c h f o r m the basis of h i s interest i n the n e w objects a n d of s y m b o l i s m . ( K l e i n 1930: 220) In other w o r d s , this anxiety p r o m p t s the c h i l d to d i v e r t his or her c u r i o s i t y a w a y f r o m the m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s a n d onto a s y m b o l i c e q u i v a lent, s u c h as a t o y or a d o l l w h i c h w i l l then be u s e d a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h interest. If this object also arouses a n x i e t y because of the s a d i s m s t i l l attached to the c h i l d ' s c u r i o s i t y , then another s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t w i l l be chosen, a n d so o n . I n the process, a n x i e t y is m a s t e r e d a n d the c h i l d ' s interest i n objects b e c o m e s m o r e p l e a s u r a b l e . A t the same t i m e l a n g u a g e is d e v e l o p i n g — a s y s t e m of signifiers w h i c h represents t h i n g s , actions, feelings, b u t w h i c h is n o n e of these t h i n g s itself If a n x i e t y a n d g u i l t p r o v e o v e r w h e l m i n g , the e a r l y process of choos i n g s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t s is s t o p p e d i n its tracks. I n its severe forms this i n h i b i t i o n prevents p l a y ( w h i c h is a m e a n s of testing one's grasp of the w o r l d ) a n d e v e n the d e v e l o p m e n t of speech. T h e c h i l d w i l l feel that the t o y t r a i n or d o l l is the d a m a g e d a n d persecuted mother. The toy w i l l be cast aside, a v o i d e d , a n d the i m p u l s e of c u r i o s i t y w i l l be c h e c k e d , d a m p e n e d . S p e e c h c a n suffer a s i m i l a r fate. T h e c h i l d m a y m i s t a k e w o r d s for things, so that l a n g u a g e w i l l be a v o i d e d a n d there b y i m p e d e d . W e see the s a m e process i n the p s y c h o t i c b r e a k d o w n of a d u l t s w h e n w o r d s are e x p e r i e n c e d as concrete objects. S i m i l a r l y , ideas a n d objects c o l l a p s e i n t o their s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t s . I n h e r p a p e r o n s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n , H a n n a S e g a l g i v e s the e x a m p l e of a concert v i o l i n
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ist w h o w a s u n a b l e to p e r f o r m because he e q u a t e d p l a y i n g the v i o l i n w i t h m a s t u r b a t i n g o n stage (Segal 1986). A v e r y clear c l i n i c a l e x a m p l e o f the a r r e s t i n g effect of episte m o p h i l i c a n x i e t y is p r o v i d e d b y K l e i n i n T h e I m p o r t a n c e of S y m b o l F o r m a t i o n i n the D e v e l o p m e n t o f the E g o ' (1930). I n this p a p e r she pre sents a f o u r - y e a r - o l d b o y D i c k , w h o s e v o c a b u l a r y a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t a i n m e n t w e r e at the l e v e l of a fifteen to e i g h t e e n - m o n t h - o l d . H e w a s s e v e r e l y l a c k i n g i n h i s a d a p t a t i o n to r e a l i t y a n d to e m o t i o n a l relations. H e w a s l a r g e l y d e v o i d of affects a n d indifferent to the presence or absence of h i s m o t h e r a n d n u r s e . H e d i s p l a y e d v e r y little a p p a r e n t anxiety, h a d a l m o s t n o interests a n d d i d n o t play. W h e n he s p o k e he u s e d w o r d s incorrectly, b u t for the m o s t p a r t s t r u n g s o u n d s together i n a m e a n i n g l e s s w a y a n d c o n s t a n t l y repeated c e r t a i n noises. H e s e e m e d to h a v e n o w i s h to c o m m u n i c a t e , w a s antagonistic to his mother, a n d often d i d the o p p o s i t e of w h a t w a s e x p e c t e d of h i m . H o w e v e r , b o t h his o p p o s i t i o n a n d h i s o b e d i e n c e l a c k e d b o t h affect a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g . W h e n h e h u r t h i m s e l f he w a s l a r g e l y i n s e n s i t i v e to p a i n a n d h a d n o desire to be c o m f o r t e d . H e w a s p h y s i c a l l y a w k w a r d , c o u l d n o t g r i p k n i v e s or scissors, b u t c o u l d use the s p o o n w i t h w h i c h he ate q u i t e n o r mally. N o w a d a y s , i f D i c k h a d seen a p s y c h o l o g i s t o r a p s y c h i a t r i s t , he w o u l d m o s t l i k e l y h a v e b e e n d i a g n o s e d as b e i n g o n the autistic spec t r u m , a n d w o u l d h a v e r e c e i v e d b e h a v i o u r a l treatment. A c h i l d p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t m i g h t c o n c e i v a b l y m a k e the s a m e d i a g n o s i s b u t w o u l d probably recommend psychotherapy. K l e i n believed Dick was schizo p h r e n i c a n d p r o c e e d e d u n d a u n t e d w i t h p s y c h o a n a l y t i c treatment. O n h i s first v i s i t to M r s . K l e i n , D i c k a l l o w e d h i s n u r s e to leave w i t h o u t a n y e m o t i o n , a n d f o l l o w e d K l e i n i n t o her r o o m w i t h c o m p l e t e indifference. H e r a n a r o u n d a i m l e s s l y a n d s h o w e d n o interest i n a n y t h i n g w i t h i n the r o o m , i n c l u d i n g K l e i n herself. D i c k ' s i n f a n c y w a s v e r y d i s t r e s s i n g . H e w a s n o t able to s u c k p r o p e r l y a n d , despite h i s m o t h e r ' s a t t e m p t s to n u r s e h i m , n e a r l y d i e d of s t a r v a t i o n . A r t i f i c i a l foods w e r e resorted to a n d , at s e v e n - m o n t h s - o l d , a w e t - n u r s e w a s f o u n d for h i m b u t b y t h e n h e c o u l d n o t t h r i v e o n breast-feeding. H e suffered f r o m i n d i g e s t i o n a n d h a e m o r r h o i d s . M o r e significantly, p e r h a p s , a l t h o u g h he w a s p h y s i c a l l y cared for, ' n o real l o v e w a s l a v i s h e d o n h i m , h i s m o t h e r ' s f e e l i n g for h i m b e i n g f r o m the v e r y b e g i n n i n g c o l d ' ( K l e i n 1930). B y the e n d of D i c k ' s first y e a r his m o t h e r d e c i d e d he w a s a b n o r m a l a n d her attitude t o w a r d s h i m w o r s e n e d . N e i t h e r h i s father n o r h i s n u r s e gave h i m a n y tenderness, so he
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started life i n a n u n u s u a l l y loveless e n v i r o n m e n t . W h e n he w a s two he h a d a n e w n u r s e w h o w a s k i n d a n d affectionate t o w a r d s h i m , then he s t a y e d for s o m e time w i t h his g r a n d m o t h e r w h o w a s also v e r y l o v i n g . H i s d e v e l o p m e n t i m p r o v e d s o m e w h a t , a l t h o u g h his n u r s e ' s p r o h i b i t i o n o n m a s t u r b a t i o n gave rise to a sense of guilt. H i s f e e d i n g p r o b l e m s p e r s i s t e d . W i t h the w e t n u r s e h e h a d s h o w n n o desire to s u c k , then h e w o u l d n o t d r i n k f r o m a bottle. W h e n he w a s offered s o l i d f o o d , he r e f u s e d to bite it u p , a n d rejected a n y t h i n g that w a s not the consisten cy
of
pap.
respects—for
T h o u g h his k i n d l y n u r s e h a d h e l p e d
him
i n certain
e x a m p l e , b y h e l p i n g h i m d e v e l o p a s l i g h t l y increased
interest i n f o o d — h i s
f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m s r e m a i n e d . W i t h her, as
w i t h e v e r y o n e else, i n c l u d i n g his g r a n d m o t h e r , D i c k failed to establish f r i e n d l y contact. D i c k ' s p r e m a t u r e genital a c t i v i t y created a n exaggerated i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h the objects he attacked (his p a r e n t s ' genitals), t r i b u t e d to a n e a r l y defence
and con
against s a d i s m . C o n s e q u e n t l y he h a d
ceased to d e v e l o p a p h a n t a s y life, a n d his contact w i t h reality w a s e x t r e m e l y w e a k . A f t e r a feeble b e g i n n i n g , his s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n h a d c o m e to a standstill. H e was indifferent to the objects a n d toys a r o u n d h i m , w i t h s o m e l i m i t e d exceptions: trains, stations, d o o r - h a n d l e s , a n d the o p e n i n g a n d s h u t t i n g of d o o r s . H o w e v e r , i s o l a t e d a n d u n r e l a t e d to his c o n s c i o u s life, these were u n a b l e to f o r m the basis for further s u b limations. T h r o u g h h e r analysis of D i c k , K l e i n d i s c o v e r e d that these things a n d actions h a d a single s o u r c e — t h e p h a n t a s y of p e n e t r a t i o n into the mother's body: D o o r s a n d l o c k s s t o o d for w a y s i n a n d o u t of her b o d y , w h i l s t the d o o r - h a n d l e s represented the father's p e n i s a n d his o w n . T h u s w h a t h a d b r o u g h t s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n to a standstill w a s the d r e a d of w h a t w o u l d be d o n e to h i m (particularly b y the father's penis) after h e h a d p e n e t r a t e d into the m o t h e r ' s b o d y . ( K l e i n 1930) D i c k ' s defences against his destructive i m p u l s e s w e r e thus a f u n d a m e n t a l i m p e d i m e n t to his d e v e l o p m e n t . H e w a s i n c a p a b l e of a n y act of a g g r e s s i o n . A s w e h a v e seen, as a b a b y he w o u l d not bite a n d c h e w f o o d , a n d b y f o u r h e c o u l d not h o l d scissors, k n i v e s or tools. A l t h o u g h K l e i n d o e s not s p e l l this out, D i c k ' s sadistic i m p u l s e s t o w a r d s
his
m o t h e r ' s b o d y w o u l d h a v e arisen d u r i n g the f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e . O n c e
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these i m p u l s e s w e r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h g e n i t a l p h a n t a s i e s of p e n e t r a t i o n , t h e y h a d to be s t y m i e d a n d s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n ceased. K l e i n , c o n f r o n t e d b y D i c k ' s total l a c k o f interest i n her, the r o o m a n d the toys she s h o w e d h i m , h a d a flash o f i n t u i t i o n , p e r h a p s p r o m p t e d b y the k n o w l e d g e that h e w a s interested i n trains. S h e p l a c e d a b i g t r a i n b e s i d e a s m a l l e r o n e a n d called t h e m ' D a d d y - t r a i n ' a n d ' D i c k t r a i n ' . H e p i c k e d u p the t r a i n she called ' D i c k ' , r o l l e d it to the w i n d o w , a n d said 'station'. F e e l i n g m o r e sure o f herself t h a n m i g h t m a n y c h i l d p s y c h o t h e r a pists, K l e i n r e s p o n d e d : T h e station i s M u m m y ; D i c k is g o i n g into M u m m y ' ( K l e i n 1930). A t this h e r a n i n t o the space b e t w e e n the outer a n d i n n e r d o o r s o f the r o o m , s h u t h i m s e l f i n , s a i d ' D a r k ' , a n d r a n o u t a g a i n . H e d i d this s e v e r a l times, a n d K l e i n e x p l a i n e d to h i m : 'It is d a r k i n s i d e M u m m y . D i c k is i n s i d e d a r k M u m m y ' ( K l e i n 1930). A l t h o u g h h e h a d left his n u r s e at the start o f the session w i t h o u t s h o w i n g a n y e m o t i o n , h e n o w said ' N u r s e ? ' twice a n d K l e i n a s s u r e d h i m the n u r s e w o u l d c o m e s o o n . In the next t w o sessions h e b e h a v e d i n the s a m e w a y , b u t i n the t h i r d h e r a n b e h i n d a chest of d r a w e r s w h e r e h e w a s s e i z e d w i t h anxiety, a n d c a l l e d M r s . K l e i n to h i m . W h e n the session w a s o v e r h e greeted his n u r s e w i t h u n u s u a l delight. W i t h the a p p e a r a n c e o f anxiety, t h e n , there also e m e r g e d a sense of depen dence, o n b o t h K l e i n a n d the n u r s e . G r a d u a l l y h e b e g a n to s h o w interest i n the w o r d s K l e i n vised a n d i n the toys she s h o w e d h i m . H i s a g g r e s s i o n b e c a m e e v i d e n t i m m e d i a t e l y i n h i s play, w a n t i n g K l e i n to cut u p toys o n his behalf, a n d r u n n i n g i n t o the space b e t w e e n the d o o r s a n d s c r a t c h i n g t h e m w i t h h i s nails. H e t h e n crept i n t o a c u p b o a r d . A t the b e g i n n i n g o f h i s f o u r t h session h e cried w h e n h i s n u r s e left h i m , b u t s o o n b e c a m e interested i n the toys. H e p u s h e d aside a little cart h e h a d a s k e d K l e i n to d a m a g e i n the p r e v i o u s session. W h e n she s a i d the cart s t o o d for h i s mother, h e p u t it i n the space b e t w e e n the d o o r s , i n d i c a t i n g a n e x p u l s i o n o f b o t h the d a m a g e d object a n d o f h i s o w n s a d i s m . T h e w a s h - b a s i n i n the r o o m c a m e to s y m b o l i s e h i s m o t h e r ' s b o d y , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y he d i s p l a y e d a d r e a d of b e i n g w e t t e d w i t h water. H e s h o w e d the s a m e anxiety w h e n u r i n a t i n g . U r i n e a n d faeces r e p r e s e n t e d to h i m h a r m f u l , d a n g e r o u s substances. T h e s e , a l o n g w i t h the p e n i s , s t o o d , i n D i c k ' s phantasy, for objects w i t h w h i c h to attack the m o t h e r ' s b o d y . T o the extent that t h e y m i g h t p r o m p t retaliation f r o m his m o t h e r , they w e r e also a source o f i n j u r y to h i m s e l f . H e therefore
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h a d a d r e a d of the i n s i d e of his m o t h e r ' s b o d y a n d of his father's p e n i s , w h i c h h e i m a g i n e d to be i n there. T h e introjection of these p a r e n t a l i m a g e s r e s u l t e d i n a h a r m - i n f l i c t i n g super-ego. A l o n g s i d e Dick's premature genital development i n c a p a c i t y for tolerating anxiety w a s a h i g h d e g r e e of empathy
and
w i t h his
objects- T h i s e m p a t h y w a s ...a d e c i s i v e factor i n his w a r d i n g - o f f of all d e s t r u c t i v e i m p u l s e s . D i c k c u t h i m s e l f off f r o m reality a n d b r o u g h t h i s p h a n t a s y life to a s t a n d s t i l l b y t a k i n g refuge i n the phantasies of a d a r k , e m p t y , v a g u e w o m b . ( K l e i n 1930: D i c k thus m a n a g e d
227)
to w i t h d r a w his attention f r o m m o s t of the
objects i n the o u t s i d e w o r l d w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d the contents of his m o t h e r ' s w o m b a n d his o w n d a n g e r o u s p e n i s a n d excreta. K l e i n m a n a g e d , i n D i c k ' s a n a l y s i s , to get i n t o u c h w i t h the r u d i m e n t s of p h a n t a s y life a n d s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n w h i c h he still d i s p l a y e d . H e became more consciously anxious, a n d established a symbolic rela t i o n to p e o p l e a n d objects w h i c h w a s g r a d u a l l y m o r e i n q u i r i n g a n d a g g r e s s i v e . W h e n he b e c a m e too a n x i o u s , he w o u l d t u r n his attention a w a y to s o m e extent f r o m the things w i t h w h i c h h e h a d established a n 'affective r e l a t i o n ' , a n d w o u l d concentrate o n n e w objects. Later, h o w ever, h e w a s able to direct his c u r i o s i t y back to the things h e h a d g i v e n u p earlier, a n d so a c h a i n of m e a n i n g a n d s y m b o l i s a t i o n w a s c a u t i o u s l y e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n objects a n d b e t w e e n activities. A s his interests developed,
he
enlarged
his v o c a b u l a r y
and
become
emotionally
a t t a c h e d to the significant p e o p l e i n his l i f e — h i s parents, h i s n u r s e , Mrs. Klein. In h e r c o m m e n t s o n this patient, w h o m she h a d b e e n s e e i n g for six m o n t h s at the time of w r i t i n g , K l e i n e m p h a s i s e d that she d i d n o t g e n e r a l l y i n t e r p r e t a c h i l d ' s m a t e r i a l so s o o n . H o w e v e r , D i c k ' s c a p a c i t y to c o m m u n i c a t e w a s so m e a g r e that K l e i n m a d e h e r interpretations o n the basis of h e r g e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e a b o u t h i m . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the a n a l y s i s s h o w e d her to h a v e b e e n pretty accurate.
*** F o r the c h i l d , as for the a d u l t , successful analysis of the sadistic i n t r u sive p h a n t a s i e s a n d the r e s u l t i n g guilt w i l l free the e p i s t e m o p h i l i c i m p u l s e a n d w i l l enable l e a r n i n g to take p l a c e . T h e d i s t o r t i n g g r i p of
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p e r s e c u t o r y phantasies w i l l be lessened a n d the ability to p e r c e i v e c l e a r l y w i l l b e i m p r o v e d . S y m b o l i c objects w i l l n o l o n g e r b e seen as their e q u i v a l e n t s — e . g . the v i o l i n w i l l n o t b e e x p e r i e n c e d as the v i o l i n ist's o w n p e n i s , a n d w o r d s w i l l n o longer be e x p e r i e n c e d as concrete objects o r real actions. A w i d e s p e c t r u m of i n h i b i t i o n s results f r o m e a r l y c u r i o s i t y a n d its a t t e n d a n t anxieties. I w i l l n o w try to describe a few of t h e m , taken f r o m m y c l i n i c a l experience a n d , i n the last e x a m p l e , the p e r s o n a l experience of a n a c q u a i n t a n c e . Stuart S t u a r t w a s referred for intensive p s y c h o t h e r a p y w h e n he w a s almost f i v e . T h e r e w e r e factors i n h i s f a m i l y situation w h i c h e x p l a i n e d a lot of his agitated b e h a v i o u r , h i s i n a b i l i t y to concentrate i n class, a n d h i s anx i o u s b u t aggressive attachment to his mother. H o w e v e r , h i s d i s p o s i t i o n w a s g e n e r a l l y excitable a n d aggressive a n d he d e m o n s t r a t e d i n h i s p l a y a n d his d r a w i n g s a h i g h degree of c o n t e m p t for h i s m o t h e r a n d females. H e h a d a v i e w of m e n as i n h e r e n t l y i n t r u s i v e a n d sadistic. Stuart w a s b r i g h t a n d intelligent so his l e a r n i n g w a s n o t i n h i b i t e d i n a s t u p e f y i n g w a y . Rather, h e w a s so restless a n d d i s t r a c t e d that h e c o u l d rarely settle to lessons. H e w a s a c h i e v i n g far b e l o w h i s ability, e x c e p t i n art, w h e r e h e excelled. N o w a d a y s h e m i g h t h a v e r e c e i v e d a n i n i t i a l d i a g n o s i s o f ' A t t e n t i o n Deficit H y p e r a c t i v i t y D i s o r d e r ' before f i n d i n g h i s w a y to p s y c h o t h e r a p y . H i s l e a r n i n g w a s certainly i m p e d e d . T h e c u r i o s i t y he could
express e m e r g e d i n his d r a w i n g s ( w h i c h h e
m a n a g e d to concentrate o n i n calmer m o m e n t s ) or t h r o u g h a b u s i v e treatment o f other c h i l d r e n , h i s mother, o r m e . ' C u r i o s i t y ' is p e r h a p s the w r o n g w o r d for w h a t Stuart m a n i f e s t e d . It w a s , rather, a c o n c e n t r a t e d stream of p r o j e c t i o n s — m o s t l y negative a n d u g l y — o n t o p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g m e . S o m e of this b e h a v i o u r c o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d for b y his h o m e situation. H i s m o t h e r w a s a
defeated
w o m a n w h o w o u l d either y e l l at h i m , g i v e i n to h i m , or ignore h i m . H i s father w a s a d i s t u r b e d a n d sadistic m a n , w h o s e sense of reality w a s h i g h l y d i s t o r t e d , a n d to w h o m his m o t h e r w a s i n thrall. Stuart's father w o u l d l i v e at h o m e for a w h i l e a n d then leave, a n d Stuart w a s d i s c e r n i b l y c a l m e r d u r i n g h i s father's l o n g e r absences. Stuart's p s y c h o t h e r a p y started off fairly a m i c a b l y as he s i z e d m e u p , b u t h e w a s restless a n d agitated. I s o o n b e c a m e the object of h i s h o s t i l i t y i n a w a y that w a s m a r k e d l y sadistic a n d m i s o g y n o u s . T h e c l i
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m a t e of the sessions b e g a n to v a r y w i d e l y . H e c o u l d be p l a y f u l , c o n v e r s a t i o n a l , creative, t h o u g h always s o m e w h a t gruff a n d w a r y .
He
w o u l d create elaborate b o a r d games f r o m the materials i n his box, a n d w e w o u l d p l a y t h e m c o m p a n i o n a b l y u n t i l s o m e upset o c c u r r e d a n d h i s a g g r e s s i o n a n d a n g u i s h w o u l d w e l l u p o u t of h i m like a geyser. A t other times h e w o u l d be engrossed i n d r a w i n g a n d i n telling m e the story-lines b e h i n d his p i c t u r e s , w h i c h w e r e often sinister, s o m e t i m e s m o n s t r o u s . T h e themes of g o o d a n d e v i l w e r e t y p i c a l of c h i l d r e n his age, b u t the g o o d characters never m a i n t a i n e d their integrity. Badness u s u a l l y s e e m e d m o r e i n v i t i n g to h i m . H e w a s fascinated w i t h d a n g e r ous
interiors—caves,
tunnels,
dungeons—within
which
dragons,
snakes, m o n s t e r s , s p i d e r s w o u l d be b u s y at their e v i l w o r k , a l o n g s i d e skeletons a n d corpses. T h e r e w a s a lot of p e r v e r s i t y i n his play. G o o d a n d b a d w e r e n o t just c o n f u s e d , b u t b a d n e s s w a s often a d o p t e d as the best choice. H e w a s d r i v e n to destroy, time after time, the sense that I c o u l d d o h i m g o o d , that s o m e w h e r e there w a s a g o o d m o t h e r or p a r ent he c o u l d reach out to. W e k n o w that early d e p r i v a t i o n a n d c r u e l t y often results i n a c h i l d ' s t u r n i n g a w a y g o o d
treatment, because
it
r e m i n d s h i m , unbearably, of w h a t was not available before a n d e m p h a sises p a r e n t a l failure. I h a v e treated s u c h c h i l d r e n , b u t there w a s m o r e to Stuart's n e g a t i v i t y t h a n this. Phases of h o p e o n m y p a r t w o u l d be abruptly, c r u e l l y e c l i p s e d . O n e d a y the s e s s i o n h a d b e e n p r o g r e s s i n g relatively c a l m l y a n d he d e c i d e d to m a k e a ' m e a l ' . H e constructed a n d c o l o u r e d s o m e p i n k ' i c e - c r e a m ' o u t of p a p e r , t h e n p l a c e d it o n the floor w h e r e he w a s sitting a n d e x c l a i m e d h a p p i l y : ' T h i s is m y M u m m y ' s l o v e l y f o o d ! ' I w a s still s m i l i n g b e n i g n l y w h e n he s u d d e n l y h a w k e d u p a gob of p h l e g m a n d spat it out o n the floor beside the 'ice c r e a m ' . H e c r i e d t r i u m p h a n t l y : ' A n d this is m y f o o d a n d I like it best!', m a k i n g l i p - s m a c k i n g s o u n d s . T h e i m p a c t o n m e w a s s h o c k i n g i n its p e r v e r s i t y — a c h i l d ' s a v o w a l of ' E v i l be t h o u m y g o o d ' . A t other times he w o u l d attack m e directly, k i c k i n g , h i t t i n g , s p i t t i n g a n d a b u s i n g m e i n a desperate, excited j u m b l e of w o r d s . I often h a d to restrain h i m p h y s i c a l l y , a n d these sessions w o u l d leave m e filled w i t h i m p o t e n t r a g e a n d despair. H i s v e r b a l attacks o n m e w e r e directed against the m o t h e r ' s insides a n d her sexuality. H e w o u l d y e l l that I w a s a b i t c h , c h a n t about a m u m m y a n d a d a d d y f u c k i n g u p a tree, s i n g ' M y m u m m y licks m y p u s s y ' , or ' L i c k y o u r m o t h e r ' s p u s s y ! ' , a n d rant d e n i g r a t i n g l y a b o u t r i c h m e n a n d t r a m p w i v e s . O n c e , i n the m i d s t of t h r o w i n g t h i n g s about a n d y e l l i n g out the w i n d o w , h e d r e w a p i c t u r e
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of a s n a k e b e i n g t o r n apart b y a ' g o o d ' monster. T h e m o n s t e r started e a t i n g the s n a k e , s a y i n g : ' I ' d f u c k i n g d i e for a f u c k i n g j u i c y snake g o i n g a r o u n d a n d a r o u n d i n m y t u m m y ! ' W h e n I said that this w a s m e a n t to be a M u m m y a n d a D a d d y h a v i n g v e r y b a d sex together h e e x c l a i m e d : 'Sex! Y u k ! If y o u d o n ' t like the d r a w i n g I'll tear it u p ' . I t o l d h i m I w o u l d keep it here a l o n g w i t h a l l h i s other d r a w i n g s a n d , for s a f e - k e e p i n g , I p u t it i n m y p o c k e t . H e w a s c u r i o u s a b o u t m y pockets a n d I s a i d h e w a n t e d to k n o w w h a t w a s g o i n g o n i n s i d e m e . ' M a y b e y o u t h i n k I've got a b a d D a d d y snake i n s i d e m e . ' ' Y o u p r o b a b l y d o ' , he r e p l i e d . ' Y o u s h o u l d check e v e r y m o r n i n g to see.' H e started d r a w i n g a p i n e tree a n d s i n g i n g ' H a p p y B i r t h d a y to M u m m y ' . I t o o k this u p as h i s w i s h to h a n g o n t o the i d e a of m e as a good
mummy
person,
though
this w a s r e a l l y d i f f i c u l t for h i m .
O c c a s i o n a l a n g u i s h e d screams w o u l d w e l l o u t of h i m , as t h o u g h a tor t u r e d c h i l d i n s i d e h i m w a s m o m e n t a r i l y u n g a g g e d . T h e tone of the b i r t h d a y s o n g w o u l d c h a n g e f r o m sincere to m o c k i n g , t h e n back a g a i n . L a t e r i n the session he w a s a g a i n c h a n t i n g ' L i c k y o u r
Mummy's
pussy!' a n d giggling mockingly. H e w a n t e d m e to w i n d h i m i n the c u r t a i n a n d k e e p h i m sealed i n there. N o t u n d e r s t a n d i n g his c o m m u n i c a t i o n I i n t e r p r e t e d that h e w a n t e d to t h i n k I w o u l d let h i m get r i g h t i n s i d e m e . H e started t h r o w i n g t h i n g s at m e , r u b b i n g h i s p e n i s p r o v o c a t i v e l y s p i t t i n g at m e . I w a s u n a b l e to s t e m this attack so I e n d e d the s e s s i o n e a r l y a n d took h i m to the w a i t i n g - r o o m w h e r e I sat w i t h h i m w h i l e h e c a l m e d d o w n , r o c k i n g o n the r o c k i n g - h o r s e . In retrospect I feel sure that w h a t I s a i d w a s the o p p o s i t e of w h a t h e w a s feeling. I t h i n k h e w a n t e d to be w o u n d i n the c u r t a i n to b e k e p t f r o m i n t r u d i n g i n t o m e a n d d a m a g i n g m e . M y inter p r e t a t i o n therefore p r o v o k e d h i m into the v e r y activity f r o m w h i c h h e w a n t e d to b e restrained a n d protected. In
another
session
he was c h a n t i n g yet again
about
licking
M u m m y ' s pussy, r u b b i n g it u p a n d d o w n , D a d d y f u c k i n g daughter, h i s w i l l y getting stuck a n d sore. ' I ' l l n e v e r d o that a g a i n ! ' I s a i d that h e w a s s i n g i n g about parents a n d c h i l d r e n h a v i n g sex, a n d that p e r h a p s h e w o n d e r e d i f I w a s that k i n d of M u m m y , o r if I w a s just interested i n h i m a n d h i s m i n d . 'If y o u are that k i n d o f M u m m y ' , h e r e p l i e d , T i l k i c k y o u u p the arse!' My
questions
to h i m — w h i c h I p u t f r o m
time
to
time—about
w h e t h e r a n y t h i n g like this w a s h a p p e n i n g at h o m e w e r e m e t w i t h c o n t e m p t , as t h o u g h I w a s d i r t y - m i n d e d or m a d . I h a v e n o d o u b t that his
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of
Curiosity
h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t w a s perverse, b u t w h e t h e r he w a s a c t u a l l y s e x u a l l y a b u s e d has n o t b e e n d e t e r m i n e d so far b y his s u b s e q u e n t therapists. In another session he attacked m e relentlessly for m e n t i o n i n g his b a b y self. It w a s there i n the material, b u t he f o u n d it u n b e a r a b l e to lis ten. H e w a s k i c k i n g m e , so I took off his shoes a n d p u t t h e m o u t s i d e . T h e n he threw a h e a v y chair at m e , so this too w e n t o u t s i d e . T h e n he w a s r u s h i n g at m e a n d spitting. I caught h o l d of h i m a n d w r a p p e d h i m tightly i n h i s r u g . H e p r o m i s e d to c a l m d o w n , b u t was s o o n a t t a c k i n g a n d spitting a g a i n , t r y i n g to w i p e snot o n m e (his nose w a s
always
r u n n y ) a n d threatening to bite m e . I w r a p p e d h i m u p s e v e r a l m o r e times yet the s p i t t i n g w e n t o n . I finally gave u p o n the b l a n k e t a n d his attacks b e c a m e less v i r u l e n t . H e e v e n t u a l l y s a i d he w o u l d not spit a n y m o r e , a n d m a n a g e d this. I s a i d that s o m e t h i n g better w a s h a p p e n i n g i n h i m ; he w a s t r y i n g to h a n g o n to s o m e g o o d feelings t o w a r d s m e . H e s a i d he d i d feel better n o w , a n d started p u t t i n g things to rights i n the r o o m . H e a s k e d for his shoes b a c k so I gave t h e m to h i m a n d tied u p his laces. H e w a s catching bits of floating d u s t i n his m o u t h , t h e n s p r i n k l i n g the c r u m b l i n g stuffing f r o m a chair into his m o u t h . I s a i d that a l t h o u g h he w a s t r y i n g to feel better he was f e e d i n g h i m s e l f d i r t rather t h a n g o o d t h e r a p y f o o d . ' Y o u never feed m e ' , he s a i d . B u t i n another shift of m o o d he searched for a b e a d (there w a s often the o d d b e a d l y i n g a b o u t the r o o m ) . I s a i d he d i d not n e e d to d o that to be g o o d ; get t i n g h o l d of g o o d feelings w a s e n o u g h . (I w a s , h o w e v e r , i g n o r i n g the concrete
i m p o r t a n c e of reparation.) H e presented m e w i t h a b e a d , a p i n
a n d a seed. O n c e he w a s i n a state of near d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . H e w a s c r a w l i n g a r o u n d the floor, g r u n t i n g , s l o b b e r i n g — a l m o s t f o a m i n g at the m o u t h . I h a d another patient w h o u s e d to collect t i n y c o l o u r e d b e a d s w h i c h s o m e t i m e s got scattered. Stuart h a d a k n a c k of f i n d i n g t h e m
and
r e g a r d e d t h e m as p r e c i o u s . O n this o c c a s i o n he w a s o n his s t o m a c h , p r o p e l l i n g h i m s e l f a r o u n d the edges of the r o o m like a g r u b , his m o u t h s u c k i n g at the base of the s k i r t i n g b o a r d w h e r e there w a s a tiny, c o n t i n u o u s g a p , h o o v e r i n g u p d u s t a n d t i n y bits of detritus. W h i l s t c h o o s i n g to ingest d i r t as his best f e e d i n g o p t i o n h e m a y also h a v e b e e n h o p i n g to v a c u u m u p a p r e c i o u s b e a d . W e w e r e b o t h extremely s u r p r i s e d w h e n he s u d d e n l y j u m p e d u p , g r i m a c i n g , w i t h a long-lost e a r r i n g of m i n e , silver a n d amethyst, d a n g l i n g f r o m the gap b e t w e e n his front teeth. I e x c l a i m e d i n joy as he h a n d e d it to m e a n d g r a s p e d his h a n d to shake it. H e w a s b e m u s e d b u t let m e shake his h a n d i n thanks, t h e n l o o k e d at it w o n d e r i n g l y . T h e rest of the session he w a s m u c h calmer.
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B r i g h t spots l i k e this h a d a s p e c i a l p o i g n a n c y a m i d s t the dross a n d a w f u l n e s s of m o s t of his c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . W h e n I f i n a l l y s t o p p e d see i n g h i m a n d ' h a n d e d h i m o v e r ' to the p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t at his special s c h o o l , I felt p r o f o u n d l y s a d a n d also v e r y d i s a p p o i n t e d that I h a d not m a n a g e d to shift his perversity. It is h i g h l y l i k e l y that this b o y h a d b e e n s e x u a l l y a b u s e d , or w i t n e s s e d a d u l t sexual activity, or h a d w a t c h e d v i o l e n t a n d p o r n o g r a p h i c v i d e o s — o r all of these things. I w a s e x t r e m e l y w o r r i e d about his h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c o n v e n e d several meetings w i t h S o c i a l Services, b u t d e s p i t e the m a s s i v e a m o u n t of p e r v e r s e sexual m a t e r i a l i n his sessions a n d h i s t e n d e n c y to degenerate w h e n his father w a s at h o m e , this was n o t seen as substantial e n o t i g h e v i d e n c e to m e r i t investigation. After t r a n s f e r r i n g to the s c h o o l p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , Stuart w a s able to talk about m e w i t h s o m e nostalgia. H e w a s later p l a c e d i n a therapeutic b o a r d i n g c o m m u n i t y w h e r e he has b e e n m o r e settled a n d w h e r e the staff are e n c o u r a g i n g h i m to attend art college. Stuart's case is not a clear-cut e x a m p l e of K l e i n ' s theory of l e a r n i n g i n h i b i t i o n s , g i v e n the chaotic a n d p e r v e r s e influences of his h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , it is i n d i c a t i v e of the w a y i n w h i c h c h i l d r e n differ i n t e m p e r a m e n t , a n d of h o w s o m e are m o r e aggressive f r o m a n early age t h a n others. In g o o d c i r c u m s t a n c e s , Stuart w o u l d h a v e b e e n bright, energetic, c u r i o u s , n o d o u b t quite a h a n d f u l , b u t the s a d i s m inherent i n his e p i s t e m o p h i l i c i m p u l s e s m a y w e l l not h a v e o v e r w h e l m e d h i m w i t h hostile feelings a n d h a v e i m p e d e d his p r o g r e s s at s c h o o l . In his case, the lethal m i x t u r e of p e r s o n a l a g g r e s s i o n a n d s a d i s m w i t h a chaotic, anti-social h o m e - l i f e m e a n t that h e c o u l d r a r e l y c o n t a i n h i m s e l f for l o n g a n d refrain f r o m destructive outbursts of rage. H e h a d o n l y a tiny, s h i f t i n g place of safety w i t h i n himself. W i t h g o o d p a r e n t i n g his aggres s i o n a n d sexual s a d i s m w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e easily s u b l i m a t e d , i n s t e a d of o p e n l y expressed. W i t h his c u r i o s i t y u n c o n t a m i n a t e d b y too m u c h hostility h e m a y h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d quite w e l l at s c h o o l a n d m a y e v e n h a v e a c h i e v e d a b o v e the average.
Tracey M y next clinical e x a m p l e is a m o r e clear-cut i l l u s t r a t i o n of the role w h i c h a c h i l d ' s d i s p o s i t i o n p l a y s i n early d e v e l o p m e n t . T r a c e y w a s b o r n into a f a m i l y of females, h e r father h a v i n g left s o o n after h e r b i r t h . F o r Tracey, her b i r t h a n d her father's desertion were fatefully l i n k e d .
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T r a c e y w a s ' b o r n w i t h her fists c l e n c h e d a n d r e a d y to fight', as her m o t h e r once t o l d m e w i t h p r i d e . F r o m the b e g i n n i n g T r a c e y ' s m o t h e r h a l f - c o n s c i o u s l y e n c o u r a g e d her aggression as w e l l as resenting it. P e r h a p s , r e s i g n i n g herself to desertion, she delegated her liveliness a n d h o s t i l i t y to h e r daughter. F r o m a n e a r l y age T r a c e y retained her faeces, frustrating her m o t h e r ' s attempts to toilet-train her. T r a c e y w o u l d h a n g onto her m o t i o n s a n d t h e n e x p e l t h e m at i n a p p r o p r i a t e times, setting the t r e n d for a h i s t o r y of s o i l i n g w h i c h , as she got o l d e r w a s n o longer i n v o l u n t a r y or w h o l l y u n c o n s c i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d , b u t w a s deliberately a i m e d at d e n i g r a t i n g her mother. Tracey o n l y d i d this at h o m e , a n d r e g a r d e d it as her m o t h e r ' s task to clear it u p . T r a c e y h a d n o t b e e n neglected o r p h y s i c a l l y or e m o t i o n a l l y a b u s e d . S h e w a s l o v e d a n d c h e r i s h e d , w i t h all her p h y s i c a l a n d m a t e r i a l w a n t s catered for. H o w e v e r , her sights h a d a l w a y s b e e n set i n the ' w r o n g ' p l a c e a n d f o c u s e d o n the ' w r o n g ' objects. Rather than h a v i n g a c h i l d ' s h u n g e r for care, l o v e a n d attention i n reasonable q u a n t i t i e s — a h u n g e r w h i c h c o u l d be s a t i s f i e d — s h e h a d , f r o m early o n , a g r e e d for u n c o n d i t i o n a l attention, s e r v i t u d e , f o o d , toys. A s she grew o l d e r she
was
h e a p e d w i t h clothes, trainers, gadgets, C D s , a n d so o n . E v e r y t h i n g w a s s w a l l o w e d u p a n d rarely s a v o u r e d , so that experiences a n d objects s o o n lost their v a l u e . A t one time T r a c e y h a d s e v e n T a m a g o t c h i cyber pets r u n n i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . W h e n I h e a r d of this she t o l d m e tri u m p h a n t l y that she h a d let t h e m a l l die, a n i n d i c a t i o n of h e r attitude t o w a r d s other babies, since cyber-pets d e p e n d u p o n their o w n e r s for survival. T r a c e y w a s b r o u g h t to therapy, a g e d n i n e , b y her desperate m o t h e r w h o s e e m e d to g r o w thinner d a i l y w h i l e T r a c e y g r e w larger. M o t h e r c o m p l a i n e d of Tracey's t y r a n n i c a l attitude, her r u d e n e s s at h o m e a n d i n p u b l i c , h e r constant d e m a n d s . I w a s seeing Tracey once a w e e k a n d h e r m o t h e r w a s seen once e v e r y few w e e k s b y another w o r k e r , to s u p p o r t the therapy. W h i l s t Tracey's awareness of her t y r a n n y a n d her c o n c e r n a b o u t its consequences increased o v e r time, her f u n d a m e n t a l attitude d i d n o t shift. T h i s is p a r t l y d u e to the fact that the d y n a m i c s b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d daughter, set i n train at b i r t h , are c l u n g to b y b o t h of t h e m . Sessions w i t h Tracey, w h i l s t c o n t a i n i n g c o m p a n i o n a b l e
moments,
h a v e l a r g e l y consisted of her relentless attempts to boss m e a r o u n d . I o n c e e x c l a i m e d to her that things d i d n o t h a v e to be this way, that it w a s p o s s i b l e for her to s h o w a different side of herself, one that w a s
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m o r e o r d i n a r y , less c o n t r o l l i n g . To m y s u r p r i s e , she b e h a v e d i n a n entirely n e w w a y for the w h o l e session, u n t i l the v e r y e n d . She q u i e t l y t a p e d s o m e large sheets of p a p e r together a n d d r e w a m o t o r w a y l e a d i n g f r o m L o n d o n to a sea-side resort. T w o b i g brothers a n d a smaller brother w e n t o n h o l i d a y to the resort. T h e little b r o t h e r was
bossed
a b o u t a n d told off a lot a n d fell off a p i e r twice, b u t he h a d f u n . T h e r e w a s also a little sister w h o w a s kept at h o m e , e x c l u d e d f r o m the a d v e n ture. W h e n I c o m m e n t e d that the g i r l , like the y o u n g p a r t of herself, w a s b e i n g kept out of the story, the brothers p i c k e d her u p , let her j o i n i n a n d w e r e quite protective of her. ' H o w d o y o u like m y
world?'
Tracey a s k e d . I s a i d it w a s v e r y interesting to be able to see it i n this w a y (i.e. i n s t e a d of b e i n g d r a g g e d into games, s h o u t e d out, insulted). A t the e n d I c o m m e n t e d that she h a d s h o w n she c o u l d d o s o m e t h i n g different a n d that a p a r t of her, like the little g i r l i n the g a m e , h a d b e e n a l l o w e d to j o i n i n . A c l o u d settled o n h e r face a n d she started to p u n c h m e quite h a r d ( w h i c h w a s fairly u n u s u a l ) so that I h a d to f e n d her off. I h a d b e e n e x p e c t i n g too m u c h a n d h a d i n t r u d e d o n h e r n e w - f o u n d spontaneity. T r a c e y ' s sadistic i m p u l s e s
towards
her m o t h e r ' s
sexuality
and
r e p r o d u c t i v e capacity h a v e h a d c r i p p l i n g consequences. H e r early p r o jective i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a bossy, c o n t r o l l i n g p e n i s , a n d her m o t h e r ' s c o l l u s i o n i n this, h a v e resulted i n a n e n t a n g l e d , a n x i o u s
attachment
b e t w e e n t h e m . M o t h e r ' s c o n t i n u a l g i v i n g - i n to T r a c e y ' s d e m a n d s has the f l a v o u r of s o m e o n e t r y i n g to placate a d a n g e r o u s enemy. Tracey's early retention of her faeces m a y h a v e b e e n a w a y of k e e p i n g her m o t h er o n tenterhooks a n d n o t a l l o w i n g h e r the satisfaction of successful m o t h e r i n g . W h a t e v e r the nature of its o r i g i n s , her use of her faeces has d e v e l o p e d into s o m e t h i n g sadistic, d e n i g r a t i n g , a i m e d specifically at her m o t h e r , the servant w h o has to clear u p her mess a n d w h o s e insides T r a c e y is u n c o n s c i o u s l y attacking. M i x e d i n w i t h this is p o s s i b l y a n a l a r m s y s t e m (also u n c o n s c i o u s ) directed at a m o t h e r w h o has n e v e r a d e q u a t e l y c o n t a i n e d h e r — h e n c e Tracey's feeling of constant n e e d , constant o v e r s p i l l . T r a c e y has b e e n a l l o w e d to o c c u p y her m o t h e r ' s internal p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l space, i n a s h a r e d u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy. T h e r e is n o space for a p o t e n t i a l partner for mother, for a real p e n i s , or e v e n for m o t h e r herself. T h a t is, M o t h e r is not a l l o w e d her o w n integrity, her peace of m i n d , her o w n t h o u g h t s a n d decisions. Tracey's e a r l y curiosity a b o u t her m o t h e r ' s insides w a s h e a v i l y c o l o u r e d b y a n attitude of o w n e r s h i p , a p p r o p r i a t i o n . Rather t h a n o r d i n a r y curiosity, or e v e n c u r i o s i t y w i t h a
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of
Curiosity
sadistic tinge, her attitude w a s i n v a s i v e a n d c o n t r o l l i n g . J u d g i n g f r o m the feelings she expresses i n therapy, she w a n t e d to eradicate possible other babies f r o m the territory she w a s o c c u p y i n g i n m o t h e r ' s
womb.
O n o n e o c c a s i o n , she a n d her m o t h e r w e r e sitting i n the w a i t i n g - r o o m next to a m o t h e r a n d baby. T h e b a b y ' s foot t o u c h e d Tracey's m o t h e r ' s a r m , a n d Tracey l o o k e d v e r y i n d i g n a n t . In the session she r a n t e d about d i s g u s t i n g babies a n d h o w they h a d n o right to t o u c h her mother. T h e y w o u l d c o n t a m i n a t e h e r ; that b a b y d e s e r v e d to d i e . I n a m e d Tracey's s t r o n g w i s h for h e r m o t h e r to h a v e n o m o r e babies, a n d she a g r e e d noisily. A s for her o w n attitude t o w a r d s babies, she w o u l d n e v e r h a v e one: t h e y ' r e d i s g u s t i n g a n d m e s s y ; t h e y ' r e idiots. I r e m i n d e d her that she w a s a b a b y o n c e , a n d that she still leaves mess for her m o t h e r to c l e a n u p . I d o not recall her response at that time, b u t m o r e recently, w h e n I h a v e b r o u g h t u p h e r ill-treatment of her mother, she
has
a s s u r e d m e that she n o w treats her m o t h e r w e l l . T h i s is u n t r u e , b u t p e r h a p s it demonstrates a m o d i c u m of guilt. A t a n u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l her g u i l t felt p e r s e c u t i n g a n d unbearable. T r a c e y ' s m a l i g n feelings e x t e n d t o w a r d s b o t h sexes: b o y s are 'brainless i d i o t s ' , t h o u g h i n clothes a n d m a n n e r she m o s t resembles a b o y ; girls are u s u a l l y too ' g i r l y ' for her. She despises their l o v e of d o l l s a n d the w a y t h e y tart t h e m s e l v e s u p . T h e fact that, i n her u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a sy, she is the p e n i s , p r e v e n t s her f r o m a n y a d m i r a t i o n of m a s c u l i n i t y as other.
S h e has e n v i o u s l y a p p r o p r i a t e d , b y projective i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ,
w h a t she regards as m a s c u l i n i t y . A t the same time, her forced o c c u p a t i o n of h e r m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s — p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l — p r e v e n t s her f r o m a d m i r i n g h e r m o t h e r ' s f e m i n i n e a n d m a t e r n a l qualities. Instead, her i n t r u s i v e relationship to her m o t h e r has resulted i n d e n i g r a t i o n a n d s e e i n g h e r as a servant. W h a t n e e d e d to h a p p e n b e t w e e n Tracey a n d her m o t h e r was, clearly, a process of i n d i v i d u a t i o n w h i c h freed t h e m b o t h f r o m this s y m b i o s i s . T h i s w a s n o s m a l l task! T r a c e y ' s early history, b o t h p e r s o n a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l , set the scene for perverse character d e v e l o p m e n t . A t p r i m a r y s c h o o l , T r a c e y m a n a g e d a c a d e m i c d e m a n d s , a l t h o u g h peer relationships w e r e a p r o b l e m . S h e got o n best w i t h the y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , w h o m
she c o u l d
o r g a n i s e . She w o u l d also take u n d e r her w i n g c h i l d r e n w i t h a p h y s i c a l disability, b e s t o w i n g o n t h e m the care she d e n i e d her v u l n e r a b l e self. On
transferring to s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l her difficulties escalated.
She
c o u l d n o t m a n a g e p e e r relationships a n d f o u n d the pressure to be m o r e m a t u r e a n d r e s p o n s i b l e i m p o s s i b l e to d e a l w i t h . She c o u l d n o t concentrate o n lessons, c o u l d not m a n a g e a n y t h i n g w h i c h w a s a c h a l
Linda Buckingham
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l e n g e — e s p e c i a l l y m a t h e m a t i c s . A n y tasks or lessons she h a d to s t r u g gle w i t h w e r e ' c r a p ' . P e r h a p s her difficulties w i t h m a t h s were tied i n w i t h her symbiosis
w i t h her mother, so that n u m b e r s
are h a r d to
m a n i p u l a t e — t o d i v i d e , m u l t i p l y , subtract. ( M y final case i n this p a p e r illustrates this k i n d of p r o b l e m . ) T r a c e y ' s i n t r u s i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her mother, her identification w i t h a c o n t r o l l i n g p e n i s , her infantile greed a n d e n v y are all factors w h i c h distract her f r o m clarity of thought, f r o m peace of m i n d a n d f r o m o r d i n a r y e m o t i o n a l a n d intellectual d e v e l o p m e n t . W h e r e T r a c e y ' s guilt e m e r g e d , h o w e v e r , w a s w h e n e v e r her mother h a d bouts of illness. T r a c e y t h e n b e c a m e fearful, a n x i o u s , a n d tried to b e considerate. T h i s m a y h a v e h a d several c o m p o n e n t s : d r e a d that she h a d w o r n her m o t h e r d o w n a n d e n d a n g e r e d h e r life, or w o r r y that the o n l y object she c o u l d t r u l y control w o u l d expire a n d leave her w i t h o u t her f a m i l i a r p s y c h i c e n v i r o n m e n t . W h i l s t creating a ' r o d for her o w n b a c k ' , T r a c e y ' s m o t h e r d i d not create her d a u g h t e r ' s d i s p o s i t i o n . Inserted f r o m b i r t h into the p o s i t i o n of a p h a l l i c object for her mother, Tracey took to this l i k e a fish to water. It seems that Tracey's p o w e r f u l infant p e r s o n a l i t y f e d into
mother's
n e e d s a n d that the interaction of t y r a n t - b a b y a n d v i c t i m - m o t h e r g e l l e d f r o m the start. O n e w o u l d n e e d to h a v e f o l l o w e d their d y n a m i c s i n d e t a i l to u n d e r s t a n d this e v o l u t i o n clearly, so to s o m e extent m y v i e w is retrospective a n d relies u p o n the m o t h e r ' s a c c o u n t of Tracey's i n f a n cy a n d m y r e l a t i o n s h i p to T r a c e y i n the transference. T h e r e is h o p e i n this p i c t u r e . Tracey c o u l d be e n g a g i n g ,
humorous
a n d v e r y p e r c e p t i v e , b u t the i n d i v i d u a t i o n f r o m h e r mother, w h i c h w o u l d a l l o w these qualities to f l o u r i s h , h a d yet to be a c h i e v e d at the time of the p r e m a t u r e e n d i n g of her therapy.
Lucy M y final case is that of a n a d u l t acquaintance w h o has
generously
a l l o w e d m e to use s o m e of her life events to illustrate m y h y p o t h e s i s . L u c y w a s the y o u n g e s t of three c h i l d r e n . H e r m o t h e r b e c a m e ill w i t h a fatal, b u t l i n g e r i n g , disease after her b i r t h . She b e c a m e serious l y i l l w h e n L u c y w a s n i n e a n d d i e d w h e n she w a s fifteen. L u c y w a s f a v o u r e d b y h e r m o t h e r w h o took out her h o s t i l i t y o n L u c y ' s elder sis ter. T h e subtext of L u c y ' s e a r l y life w a s her m o t h e r ' s illness. H e r father a t t e m p t e d to placate his w i f e a n d to neutralise a n y conflict i n the f a m ily. T h u s L u c y ' l e a r n e d ' f r o m a n early age that anger a n d s a d i s m w e r e
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Curiosity
too d a n g e r o u s to express. T h a t is, anger w o u l d d e s t r o y mother. W h e n h o s t i l i t y d i d arise (unless it was
mother's),
father w o u l d declare:
' T h e r e is n o s u c h t h i n g as hate'. H i s o w n rage against his wife for b e i n g ill w a s n o t a d m i t t e d . H e w a s u n a b l e to grasp his wife's a n g r y projec tions a n d give t h e m life i n his m i n d . L u c y w a s a b r i g h t g i r l , g o o d at all subjects. She f o u n d n u m b e r s fas c i n a t i n g a n d e n j o y e d arithmetic. A f t e r her m o t h e r ' s h e a l t h deteriorat e d her father c o u l d not m a n a g e the three c h i l d r e n , so L u c y w a s f a r m e d out to relatives. She h a t e d this b u t d i d not tell her father, for fear of u p s e t t i n g h i m . W h e n she r e t u r n e d h o m e she c a r e d for her m o t h e r a n d w a s m o r e like father's c o m p a n i o n t h a n h i s daughter. W h i l e m a n a g i n g m o s t of her subjects w e l l at s c h o o l , L u c y started to h a v e severe difficulty w i t h m a t h s . She c o u l d a d d b u t not d i v i d e or s u b tract. L o n g d i v i s i o n w a s a n i g h t m a r e . L u c y has b e e n i n analysis for sev eral y e a r s a n d has b e e n able to m a k e sense of s o m e of this. N u r s i n g her m o t h e r gave her a sense of identity, of usefulness a n d f u l f i l l e d her s t r o n g r e p a r a t i v e i m p u l s e s . T h e t h o u g h t of her m o t h e r ' s d e a t h w a s d e v a s t a t i n g a n d left her w i t h the feeling of n o t h i n g n e s s , b o t h i n t e r n a l l y a n d externally. Terrified that her m o t h e r w o u l d be ' t a k e n a w a y ' , she w a s u n a b l e to subtract n u m b e r s f r o m one another. T h i s l i n k w a s not c o n s c i o u s , of course. D i v i s i o n m e a n t an i n t e r r u p t i o n of w h o l e n e s s , the wholeness
of her m o t h e r a n d of her relationship w i t h her m o t h e r ,
w h i c h w a s a k i n d f u s i o n . Fractions a n d ratios m a d e her feel she w a s f a l l i n g apart a n d l e d her i n t o a sick p a n i c . L u c y t a l k e d early, r e a d early, w a s v e r y articulate. H e r facility i n this area r e m a i n e d unaffected. H o w e v e r , maths represented not o n l y the fact of loss (subtraction), f r a g m e n t a t i o n (fractions), a n d s e p a r a t i o n ( d i v i s i o n ) , it also represented connectedness.
L u c y spent her e a r l y
teens a v o i d i n g t h i n k i n g of connections w i t h i n her f a m i l y b e c a u s e it w a s so d y s f u n c t i o n a l . H o w d i d all the parts l i n k u p to m a k e the w h o l e ? H e r fear of the a n s w e r to this l e d her to believe that things a n d p e o p l e w e r e safer c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y — a s isolated n u m b e r s , separate p e o p l e , n o d a n g e r o u s connectedness. In fact, w h a t L u c y felt to be w h o l e w a s actually the result of s p l i t t i n g ; she w a s the ' g o o d d a u g h t e r ' of a ' g o o d m o t h e r ' , a m o t h e r w h o w a s u n a b l e to take o n the ' b a d ' aspects of L u c y , i n c l u d i n g her b a d feel ings. In this case, then, neither c o u l d accept the other as b a d , o n l y as g o o d , w h o l l y g o o d . H e r father h a d o p t e d out of the e q u a t i o n . L u c y w a s clearly v e r y e n t a n g l e d w i t h her mother. E a c h s a f e g u a r d ed
the o t h e r ' s
g o o d n e s s a n d aliveness. T h e m o t h e r projected
her
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h a t r e d , anger, a n d bitterness i n t o the rest of the family. A n a l y s i s has h e l p e d L u c y m a k e the c o n n e c t i o n s that w e r e too p a i n f u l to c o n t e m plate before. B e i n g m o r e i n t o u c h w i t h h e r anger a n d s a d i s m , she can now
think more
i n terms of n u m b e r s ,
although mathematics
still
r e m a i n s f r i g h t e n i n g territory. S h e n o w realises that, as a c h i l d , she felt so m u c h u n c o n s c i o u s hostility t o w a r d s her m o t h e r that she feared a n y e x p r e s s i o n of it w o u l d d e s t r o y her. A s for L u c y ' s early c u r i o s i t y a b o u t her m o t h e r ' s i n s i d e s , this w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y fear f r o m the v e r y start because her m o t h e r w a s i n fact i l l . H e r n e g a t i v e feelings w e r e then c o m p e n s a t e d for b y o v e r - c o n c e r n a n d g u i l t . T h e s a d i s m m i x e d w i t h h e r e p i s t e m o p h i l i c i m p u l s e s w a s felt as p o t e n t i a l l y d e v a s t a t i n g . She s o u g h t solace i n active r e p a r a t i o n b y c a r i n g for her mother. Because she i n t e r n a l i s e d a n i l l m o t h e r , this felt p e r s e c u t o r y , so the b a d , v e n g e f u l m o t h e r h a d to be w i d e l y split off f r o m the g o o d , b e n i g n m o t h e r . E q u a l l y , L u c y ' s o w n v u l n e r a b i l i t y h a d to r e m a i n i n check, because her m o t h e r w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n able to tolerate it, a n d neither w o u l d her father a n d s i b l i n g s . Fortunately, L u c y suffered o n l y a specific l e a r n i n g b l o c k a n d has d e v e l o p e d w i t h her sense o f self a n d h e r w o m a n l i n e s s m o s t l y intact. Conclusion I a m a w a r e that, f r o m the e x a m p l e s offered, it c o u l d be a r g u e d that e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors w e r e h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l : i n Stuart's case, his p e r verse f a m i l y ; i n T r a c e y ' s case, her r e s i g n e d m o t h e r a n d the lack of a n y real f i r m n e s s i n her u p b r i n g i n g ; i n L u c y ' s case, the t r a g e d y of a s l o w l y d y i n g m o t h e r . H o w e v e r , it seems to m e that, i n all these cases, the p e r s o n a l i t y of the c h i l d p l a y e d its p a r t a n d that s a d i s m , w h i c h K l e i n b e l i e v e d is c a u g h t u p w i t h the e p i s t e m o p h i l i c instinct, w a s a v i t a l ele m e n t i n the e a r l y lives of these c h i l d r e n . In Stuart's case, his a g g r e s s i o n r e p e a t e d l y o v e r w h e l m e d h i m a n d s p i l l e d i n t o those a r o u n d h i m . H i s a g g r e s s i o n h a d a v e r y s t r o n g s e x u al e l e m e n t a n d i n his sessions it w a s u s u a l l y the m o t h e r , p e r s o n i f i e d b y m e , w h o w a s b o t h the subject a n d the object of s e x u a l d e g r a d a t i o n . F o r Tracey, h e r relentless t y r a n n y a n d l a c k of c o m p a s s i o n t o w a r d s
her
objects (internal a n d external) d i v e r t e d her f r o m a n y real peace of m i n d . H e r e n v y of b o t h m a s c u l i n i t y a n d f e m i n i n i t y l e d her to d e v a l u e b o t h sexes, a n d left her w i t h a n i m p o v e r i s h e d i n n e r w o r l d . In contrast, L u c y ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of h o w m u c h she c u r b e d her infantile s a d i s m has h e l p e d her a p p r o a c h n u m b e r s i n a less p e r s e c u t e d w a y .
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F o r those of us w o r k i n g a n d t h i n k i n g w i t h i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c tra d i t i o n , the n a t u r e / n u r t u r e debate is n o w v i e w e d as w r o n g l y p o s e d . I d o n o t t h i n k that a n y s c h o o l of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s d e n i e s the existence of all i n n a t e qualities n o r the role of the e n v i r o n m e n t . Intergenerational patterns, i n p a r t i c u l a r , are n o w w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d — e . g . the r e p e t i t i o n , o v e r g e n e r a t i o n s , of s e x u a l abuse w i t h i n families, r e p e t i t i o n w h i c h c o n t i n u e s u n t i l it is b r o u g h t to light a n d u n d e r s t o o d . H o w e v e r , there is a s t r o n g s c h o o l of t h o u g h t , p r o b a b l y best e x e m p l i f i e d b y W . R . D . F a i r b a i r n , that a g g r e s s i o n is reactive, that the c h i l d has a c a p a c i t y for a g g r e s s i o n b u t d o e s n o t e x p e r i e n c e the feeling unless p r o v o k e d . K l e i n , of c o u r s e , w h i l s t a c k n o w l e d g i n g that e x t e r n a l factors c o u l d exacerbate anger, r e g a r d e d a g g r e s s i o n as a c o n s t a n t l y a v a i l a b l e e m o t i o n i n the infant, not as a capacity. W h a t also d i s t i n g u i s h e s K l e i n i n this area is h e r belief that all i n s t i n c t u a l i m p u l s e s are u n d e r p i n n e d b y u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies, w h i c h b e c o m e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d tied i n t o l a n g u a g e as the c h i l d d e v e l o p s , b u t w h i c h o c c u r i n p r i m i t i v e f o r m f r o m b i r t h (as i m a g e s l i n k e d to feelings). F o r K l e i n it is the i n t e r a c t i o n of a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e , d i s p o s i t i o n a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y
which
d e t e r m i n e s character d e v e l o p m e n t a n d w h i c h also e x p l a i n s w h y these processes are so e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d to d e c i p h e r a n d to follow. Postscript: philosophical
trends in Kleinian thought
T h e r e are t w o p h i l o s o p h i c a l tendencies i n K l e i n ' s w o r k . O n e is Realist a n d E m p i r i c i s t , the other is P l a t o n i c a n d Idealist. H e r Realist line of t h o u g h t is f o c u s s e d
o n the necessity for the i n f a n t — o v e r
time—to
t h i n k a b o u t a n d p e r c e i v e reality ( c o m p r i s e d , p r i m a r i l y , of significant others) objectively rather t h a n b e c o m i n g c o n f u s e d b y d i s t o r t i n g p h a n tasies. F r o m this p o i n t of v i e w the a i m of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , b o t h w i t h c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s , is to lessen the distortions a n d exaggerations, b o t h p o s i t i v e a n d negative, of u n c o n s c i o u s phantasy, so that the p a t i e n t sees h i m or herself a n d others as they r e a l l y are. C o n s e q u e n t l y , a l t h o u g h the K l e i n i a n focuses o n the subjective w o r l d of u n c o n s c i o u s p h a n t a s y , this is n o t a Subjectivist, Relativist p o s i t i o n . O n the contrary, K l e i n r e c o g n i s e d p s y c h i c reality a n d stressed
that it has to be m o d i f i e d
and
b r o u g h t i n l i n e w i t h external reality, i n o r d e r for sanity to p r e v a i l . A R e l a t i v i s t p o s i t i o n o n t r u t h w i l l n o t h e l p a patient w h o s e p e r c e p t i o n is d i s t o r t e d . It w i l l n o t h e l p a c h i l d , for instance, to b e t o l d : T c a n see that y o u t h i n k y o u r m o t h e r is t r y i n g to p o i s o n y o u , a n d that she changes into a w i t c h at n i g h t , a n d since that is y o u r " t r u t h " , I w i l l respect that'.
Linda Buckingham
131
Rather, w h i l s t a c k n o w l e d g i n g the strength of the c h i l d ' s phantasy, w e s h o u l d recognise that it is a phantasy, a n d s h o u l d w o r k i n the transfer ence to m o d i f y it. If the m o t h e r is, i n d e e d , a sadist this w i l l b e c o m e a p p a r e n t d u r i n g treatment. In ' M o u r n i n g a n d Its R e l a t i o n to M a n i c - D e p r e s s i v e States' (1940) K l e i n writes a b o u t the process of i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n a n d the struggle the i n f a n t has i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n i n n e r a n d outer reality: T h e r e is a constant interaction b e t w e e n anxieties r e l a t i n g to the ' e x t e r n a l ' mother... a n d those relating to the ' i n t e r n a l ' m o t h e r ' . . . In the b a b y ' s m i n d , the ' i n t e r n a l ' m o t h e r is b o u n d u p w i t h the ' e x t e r n a l ' o n e , o f w h o m she is a ' d o u b l e ' , t h o u g h o n e w h i c h at once u n d e r g o e s alterations i n his m i n d t h r o u g h the v e r y process o f i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n ; that is to say, her i m a g e is i n f l u e n c e d b y his phantasies, a n d b y i n t e r n a l s t i m u l i a n d external experiences of a l l k i n d s . . . T h e s a m e t h i n g h a p p e n s w h e n external situations a n d things are i n t e r n a l i s e d . T h e phantastic nature of the i n n e r w o r l d exerts a p o w e r f u l effect o n the c h i l d , o n the w a y h e t h i n k s a n d feels a b o u t p e o p l e a n d situations. T h e d o u b t , uncertainties a n d anxieties that m a y arise because of this act as a c o n t i n u o u s i n c e n tive to the y o u n g c h i l d to observe a n d m a k e sure about the exter n a l object w o r l d , f r o m w h i c h this i n n e r w o r l d s p r i n g s , a n d b y these m e a n s to u n d e r s t a n d the i n t e r n a l o n e better. T h e visible m o t h e r thus p r o v i d e s c o n t i n u o u s p r o o f s of w h a t the ' i n t e r n a l ' mother
is l i k e , w h e t h e r
she is l o v i n g or angry, h e l p f u l o r
r e v e n g e f u l . T h e extent to w h i c h external reality is able to d i s p r o v e anxieties a n d s o r r o w r e l a t i n g to the internal reality varies w i t h e a c h i n d i v i d u a l , b u t c o u l d be t a k e n as o n e of the criteria for n o r m a l i t y . I n c h i l d r e n w h o are so m u c h d o m i n a t e d b y their inter n a l w o r l d that their anxieties c a n n o t b e sufficiently d i s p r o v e d a n d c o u n t e r a c t e d e v e n b y the pleasant aspects of their relation s h i p s w i t h p e o p l e , severe m e n t a l difficulties are u n a v o i d a b l e . ( K l e i n 1940) This
Empiricist view
contrasts
w i t h another
strand
of K l e i n ' s
t h o u g h t , h e r i d e a s o n u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e . I earlier referred to K l e i n ' s debatable t h e o r y that infants of b o t h sexes h a v e a n ' u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e ' of the v a g i n a a n d the p e n i s . B y the time she c a m e to w r i t e ' T h e O e d i p u s C o m p l e x i n the L i g h t of E a r l y A n x i e t i e s ' (1945) K l e i n ' s ideas o n infant sexuality h a d n a r r o w e d s o m e w h a t . T h e r e is less
132
The Hazards
of
Curiosity
e m p h a s i s i n this p a p e r o n the ' f e m i n i n i t y p h a s e ' , a b o u t w h i c h she h a d w r i t t e n so i n t e r e s t i n g l y a l m o s t t w e n t y y e a r s earlier. Instead she lays o u t a m o r e r i g i d f o r m u l a c o n c e r n i n g object-directed i m p u l s e s . In this s c h e m e , the g i r l has a n u n c o n s c i o u s awareness of h e r v a g i n a a n d often m a s t u r b a t e s v a g i n a l l y . She is aware, u n c o n s c i o u s l y , of the receptive ' f u n c t i o n ' of the v a g i n a , so that her . . . o r a l desires for her father's p e n i s m i n g l e w i t h h e r first genital desires to receive that p e n i s . These g e n i t a l desires i m p l y the w i s h to receive c h i l d r e n f r o m h e r father. ( K l e i n 1945) K l e i n d r a m a t i c a l l y d o w n - p l a y s the s e n s i t i v i t y of the clitoris a n d d i s agrees w i t h F r e u d c o n c e r n i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of the ' p h a l l i c p h a s e ' for the g i r l , s t r e s s i n g that, i n h e r v i e w , p e n i s e n v y is b a s e d o n e n v y of the m o t h e r w h o is s u p p o s e d to c o n t a i n the father's p e n i s w h i c h the g i r l herself w i s h e s to receive. E a r l y g e n i t a l desires, as w e l l as o r a l ones, are d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s m o t h e r a n d father. T h i s is i n line w i t h the a s s u m p t i o n that i n b o t h sexes there is a n inherent u n c o n s c i o u s k n o w l e d g e of the existence of the p e n i s as w e l l as the v a g i n a . In the m a l e infant, g e n i t a l sensations are the basis for the e x p e c t a t i o n that h i s father possesses a p e n i s w h i c h the b o y desires a c c o r d i n g to the e q u a t i o n 'breast = p e n i s ' . A t the s a m e t i m e , his genital sensations a n d i m p u l s e s also i m p l y the search for a n o p e n i n g i n t o w h i c h to insert h i s p e n i s , i.e. t h e y are d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s h i s mother. T h e infant
g i r l ' s genital sensations
correspondingly prepare
the
desire to receive her father's p e n i s i n t o h e r v a g i n a . It a p p e a r s therefore that the g e n i t a l desires for the p e n i s of the father, w h i c h m i n g l e w i t h o r a l desires, are at the root of the g i r l ' s p o s i t i v e a n d of the b o y ' s i n v e r t e d O e d i p u s c o m p l e x . ( K l e i n 1945) T h e r e are m a n y p r o b l e m s w i t h this t h e o r y — e . g . the role of the a n u s as a p o t e n t i a l l y receptive o r g a n i n b o t h sexes; the role of the clitoris for the g i r l ; the i n f l u e n c e of actual experiences w i t h b o t h parents w h i c h w i l l i n f l u e n c e b o t h i d e n t i t y a n d object choice. B u t w h a t I w i s h to h i g h l i g h t here is the t y p e of t h e o r y of k n o w l e d g e u p o n w h i c h these ideas are b a s e d , h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i.e. a P l a t o n i c theory of i n n a t e i d e a s m i x e d w i t h a d o s e of b i o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n i s m . She w r i t e s s i m i l a r l y a b o u t the 'innate factors' u n d e r l y i n g the infant's relation to
Linda
133
Buckingham
the breast, w h i c h 'is i n s t i n c t i v e l y felt to be the source of n o u r i s h m e n t , i n a d e e p e r sense of life itself. T h i s m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l closeness to the g r a t i f y i n g breast i n s o m e m e a s u r e restores, if things g o w e l l , the lost p r e n a t a l u n i t y w i t h the m o t h e r a n d the f e e l i n g of security that goes w i t h it' ( K l e i n 1957). I n another p a p e r , ' O u r A d u l t W o r l d a n d Its Roots i n I n f a n c y ' (1959), K l e i n writes that the infant has a n ...innate u n c o n s c i o u s awareness of the existence o f the mother. W e k n o w that y o u n g a n i m a l s at once t u r n to the m o t h e r a n d f i n d their f o o d f r o m her. T h e h u m a n a n i m a l is n o t different i n that respect,
a n d this i n s t i n c t u a l k n o w l e d g e
is the basis
for the
infant's p r i m a l r e l a t i o n to h i s mother. ( K l e i n 1959) O n e m i g h t p r o c e e d a l o n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l lines f r o m these state m e n t s , a n d argue s i m p l y that a h u n g r y n e w - b o r n b a b y w i l l w e l c o m e a feed a n d b e c o m e attached to the f e e d i n g - s o u r c e (the breast) as a c o n sequence.
However,
Klein's arguments
for 'innateness'
have
been
t a k e n u p b y m a n y s u b s e q u e n t K l e i n i a n s . W i l f r e d B i o n w a s the first post-Kleinian psychoanalyst
to e x t e n d
the P l a t o n i c possibilities of
K l e i n ' s t h e o r y of e a r l y object relations. H e f o r m u l a t e d a s o p h i s t i c a t e d t h e o r y of innate i d e a s w h i c h h e set o u t i n ' A T h e o r y of T h i n k i n g ' (1962). In this w o r k h e traces w h a t h e c o n s i d e r s to be the infant's e a r l i est efforts a n d defences i n the area o f object relations. B i o n sees t h i n k ing
as ' a d e v e l o p m e n t
forced
o n the p s y c h e
b y the pressure of
t h o u g h t s ' (Bion 1962) a n d h e classifies these thoughts a c c o r d i n g to their d e v e l o p m e n t a l h i s t o r y : firstly, p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s , t h e n c o n c e p t i o n s , a n d , finally, concepts. C o n c e p t s are n a m e d , f i x e d thoughts. T h e c o n c e p t i o n is i n i t i a t e d b y the c o n j u n c t i o n of a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h a realisation. T h e p r e - c o n c e p t i o n m a y b e r e g a r d e d as the a n a l o g u e i n p s y c h o - a n a l y s i s o f K a n t ' s concept of
'empty
t h o u g h t s ' . P s y c h o - a n a l y t i c a l l y the t h e o r y that the infant has a n i n b o r n d i s p o s i t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a n expectation of a breast m a y b e u s e d to s u p p l y a m o d e l . W h e n the p r e - c o n c e p t i o n is b r o u g h t into contact w i t h a realisation that a p p r o x i m a t e s to it, the m e n t a l o u t c o m e is a c o n c e p t i o n . P u t i n another w a y , the p r e c o n c e p t i o n (the i n b o r n e x p e c t a t i o n of a breast, the p r i o r k n o w l e d g e of a breast, the ' e m p t y t h o u g h t ' ) w h e n the infant is b r o u g h t i n t o contact w i t h the breast itself, mates w i t h awareness of the realisation a n d is s y n c h r o n o u s w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of a c o n
134
The Hazards of Curiosity
c e p t i o n . T h i s m o d e l w i l l serve for the t h e o r y that e v e r y j u n c t i o n of a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h its realisation p r o d u c e s a c o n c e p t i o n . C o n c e p t i o n s therefore w i l l b e expected
to b e c o n s t a n t l y c o n
j o i n e d w i t h a n e m o t i o n a l experience of satisfaction. ( B i o n
1962:
111) B i o n l i m i t s the t e r m ' t h o u g h t ' , at this e a r l y p o i n t of d e v e l o p m e n t , to the m a t i n g of a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n w i t h a frustration. T h e m o d e l he uses is that of a n infant w h o s e expectation of a breast is m a t e d w i t h a realisa t i o n of a ' n o breast' available. T h e experience, t h e n , is of a 'no-breast' i n s i d e . T h e next step taken b y the infant d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r the infant tries to e v a d e f r u s t r a t i o n or to m o d i f y it. A s I see it, there are t w o p r o b l e m s w i t h this a p p r o a c h . Firstly, a need, be it p h y s i c a l , e m o t i o n a l , or b o t h , is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y the s a m e as a p r e - c o n c e p t i o n or as ' a p r i o r i ' k n o w l e d g e . A c o n c e p t i o n c a n arise i n s t e a d f r o m the satisfaction of a n e e d . F o r instance, the c o n c e p t i o n of a breast m i g h t b e s a i d to arise f r o m the experience of satis f a c t i o n of h u n g e r at the breast. W e c o u l d say, t h e n , that a c o n c e p t i o n is p r o d u c e d b y the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of a n e e d a n d the realisation of a n object w h i c h satisfies that n e e d . T h e r e is n o n e e d to i m p o r t a P l a t o n i c o r K a n t i a n t h e o r y of 'Innate Ideas' to u n d e r p i n this process. S e c o n d l y , the infant c o u l d o n l y be left w i t h the experience of a ' n o breast' i n s i d e if it a l r e a d y h a d a c o n c e p t i o n of a breast. It m a k e s perfect sense that a c o n c e p t i o n of the breast can be m a t e d w i t h the realisation of a no-breast, b u t it m a k e s n o sense to s a y that a n e m p t y t h o u g h t , if f r u s t r a t e d , c a n p r o d u c e a f u l l t h o u g h t — a 'no-breast'. In other w o r d s , to get to ' n o breast' y o u m u s t a l r e a d y h a v e got to 'breast'. A n infant w h o has n o t yet e s t a b l i s h e d the c o n c e p t i o n (the i m a g e , the experience) o f the breast a n d w h o s e h u n g e r is frustrated, w i l l be left w i t h d i s c o m f o r t a n d distress a n d p e r h a p s , if one really stretches this d u b i o u s p o i n t , a ' n o - t h i n g ' i n s i d e . B u t b y i m p o r t i n g the t h e o r y of 'innate i d e a s ' a n d ' a p r i o r i ' k n o w l e d g e , B i o n is j u m p i n g the g u n a n d i n s e r t i n g the c o n c e p t i o n of the breast i n t o the p r e - c o n c e p t i o n stage. B i o n p r o c e e d s to say that, if the infant c a n tolerate f r u s t r a t i o n , the ' n o breast' i n s i d e b e c o m e s a t h o u g h t a n d t h i n k i n g d e v e l o p s . T h e g u l f of f r u s t r a t i o n c a n t h e n b e b r i d g e d b e t w e e n the m o m e n t o f w a n t a n d the m o m e n t of satisfaction. If a n i n f a n t c a n n o t tolerate frustration he w i l l t e n d to e v a d e it. W h a t s h o u l d be a t h o u g h t , a p r o d u c t of the j u x t a p o s i t i o n of p r e - c o n c e p t i o n a n d n e g a t i v e realisation, b e c o m e s a bad object, fit o n l y for e v a c u a t i o n , a
135
Linda Buckingham
thing-in-itself. A g a i n , I t h i n k it m a k e s m o r e sense to s p e a k of infants w h o h a v e a c o n c e p t i o n , a n d expectation, of the breast b u t c a n n o t tol erate its n o n - a p p e a r a n c e a n d so t u r n it bad i n their m i n d s . If w e are talk i n g of a n infant w h o has not yet f o r m e d a c o n c e p t i o n of the breast, then the infant, w h e n its n e e d is frustrated, w i l l h a v e the experience of d i s c o m f o r t , agitation a n d p e r h a p s the presence of s o m e t h i n g b a d . T o h a v e a n experience of a ' n o breast' w o u l d be too s o p h i s t i c a t e d . T h e b a b y w o u l d n o t h a v e got there yet. W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of his s e c t i o n o n p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s , B i o n ' s theory is i n v a l u a b l e as a d e s c r i p t i o n of the ability to t h i n k a n d to tolerate e m o t i o n a l life. I w i l l n o t s u m m a r i s e the rest of this t h e o r y since it is d i s c u s s e d i n the p r e v i o u s chapter. H o w e v e r , I s h o u l d e m p h a s i s e that the substance of B i o n ' s t h e o r y is a d e s c r i p t i o n of the different m e n t a l states c o n s e q u e n t u p o n w h e t h e r the infant m a n a g e s , i n v a r i o u s w a y s , to tol erate p s y c h i c p a i n or opts to e v a d e i t — e . g . t h r o u g h d e n i a l or o m n i p o tence. I t h i n k it is t i m e l y to q u e s t i o n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theories b y e x a m i n i n g their p h i l o s o p h i c a l u n d e r p i n n i n g s a n d to d e c i d e
w h i c h ideas
we
b e l i e v e to be true or, at the v e r y least, to be a w a r e of w h y w e are d r a w n to certain theories. A s far as B i o n is c o n c e r n e d I d o n o t believe it is useful to graft c o m p l i c a t e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r y onto the b a b y ' s experience. I w o u l d be inclined
to d i t c h the t h e o r y
of p r e - c o n c e p t i o n s
a n d take
a
more
E m p i r i c i s t , M a t e r i a l i s t line b y f o l l o w i n g the b a b y ' s actual experience. I n his ' T h e o r y of T h i n k i n g ' B i o n ' s e a r l y p r o p o s i t i o n s are suffused w i t h the p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r y of innate ideas a n d ' a p r i o r i ' k n o w l e d g e . H i s later p r o p o s i t i o n s , f r o m the d e s c r i p t i o n s of ' c o n c e p t i o n s ' o n w a r d s , are m o r e Realist a n d E m p i r i c i s t . It is clearly a t h e o r y of t h i n k i n g w h i c h is itself i n f l u e n c e d b y theories of k n o w l e d g e a n d l e a r n i n g . S i m i l a r l y , as I h a v e s h o w n , K l e i n ' s t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g has
both
P l a t o n i c (innate ideas) a n d Realist, E m p i r i c i s t strands. H e r statements a b o u t the infant's u n c o n s c i o u s , innate k n o w l e d g e of s e x u a l functions contrast w i t h her d e s c r i p t i o n s of h o w the infant g r a d u a l l y m a n a g e s to d i s t i n g u i s h p h a n t a s y f r o m reality. I n b o t h K l e i n a n d B i o n ' s w o r k the d i v e r s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l tastes of readers
a n d students
are
therefore
catered for b u t there has n o t yet b e e n a n y s u s t a i n e d debate as to w h i c h of their p r o p o s i t i o n s are a c t u a l l y true. T h e o r i e s t e n d to be
either
e s p o u s e d or s h u n n e d i n total, w h e r e a s a critical analysis of a theory w h i c h teases o u t its different strands w i l l s u r e l y h e l p its u s e f u l ele m e n t s to s u r v i v e as s p r i n g b o a r d s to further k n o w l e d g e .
T H E D O G ' S TEMPER: A N ESSAY O N T H E VICISSITUDES O F LEARNING
Kirsty
Hall
T h e m i n d s o f m o r t a l s are so different a n d bent o n s u c h d i v e r s e j o u r n e y s that it m a y at first a p p e a r i m p o s s i b l e for a n y c o m m o n taste a n d f e l l o w s h i p to exist b e t w e e n t w o o r three u n d e r these s u p p o s i t i o n s . It is h o w e v e r quite the contrary. M i n d s
would
l e a v e e a c h other i n c o n t r a r y directions, traverse e a c h other i n n u m b e r l e s s p o i n t s , a n d at last greet e a c h other at the j o u r n e y ' s e n d . A n o l d m a n a n d a c h i l d w o u l d talk together a n d the o l d m a n b e l e d o n h i s p a t h a n d the c h i l d left t h i n k i n g . — J o h n K e a t s , letter to R e y n o l d s (Keats 1960:102) 'Try another Subtraction s u m . Take a bone f r o m a d o g : what remains?' A l i c e c o n s i d e r e d . ' T h e b o n e w o u l d n ' t r e m a i n , of c o u r s e , if I t o o k it - a n d the d o g w o u l d n ' t r e m a i n : it w o u l d c o m e to bite m e - a n d I ' m sure I s h o u l d n ' t r e m a i n ! ' ' T h e n y o u t h i n k n o t h i n g w o u l d r e m a i n ? ' s a i d the R e d Q u e e n . T t h i n k that's the a n s w e r / ' W r o n g , as u s u a l , ' s a i d the R e d Q u e e n : ' T h e d o g ' s
temper
w o u l d r e m a i n . ' ( C a r r o l l 1872: 174-5) T h e s e are t w o v e r y different scenarios, each of w h i c h c o u l d b e t e r m e d a ' l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e ' . T h e p u r p o s e o f this p a p e r is n o t to e x a m i n e the h i g h w a y s a n d b y e w a y s of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a n d other theories of l e a r n i n g . O t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s to this b o o k h a v e a l r e a d y t a c k l e d this p r o b l e m . Instead I a m e x p l o r i n g o n e p a r t i c u l a r p a t h , the v i c i s s i t u d e s o f the p a t h that l e a d s a p e r s o n to l e a r n to b e c o m e a p s y c h o a n a l y s t o r p s y c h o a n a lytic p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t . T h i s p a p e r l o o k s at the q u a l i t y of l e a r n i n g expe 1
riences s u c h p e o p l e g o t h r o u g h . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y are often attacked. T h e y are a t t a c k e d i n the m e d i a for b e i n g e x p e n s i v e , l o n g - w i n d e d , a n d ineffec tive. C o u n s e l l o r s are q u i c k e r a n d cheaper. S o m e t i m e s , their services are free, b e c a u s e e v e n f u l l y - t r a i n e d c o u n s e l l o r s are p r e p a r e d to g a i n experience
as v o l u n t e e r s .
E v e n cheaper
a n d even
more
effective,
a p p a r e n t l y , is a self-help g r o u p . A n o t h e r n o t c h u p (or is it d o w n ? ) o n
Kirshj Hall
137
the s a m e scale is the self-help b o o k a n d the internet site. T h e f i n a l n o t c h (the last straw?) is the n e w s p a p e r article, i n w h i c h s o m e o n e claims: T s o l v e d m y p r o b l e m b y t a k i n g s u c h - a n d - s u c h a tablet; there's no need to s p e n d lots of time a n d m o n e y b a r i n g o n e ' s s o u l to s o m e o n e else'. T h e p a r a d o x d e s c r i b e d here is that p s y c h o t h e r a p y h o l d s o u t the p r o s p e c t of b e i n g too p a i n f u l to c o n t e m p l a t e , w h i l s t at the s a m e time offering a n o p p o r t u n i t y to relieve the v e r y s a m e p a i n — y e t p e o p l e p r e fer the i m p e r s o n a l i t y of a p i l l . M e a n w h i l e there is a n a p p a r e n t l y inexhaustible interest i n a n d c o n c e r n a b o u t the quality of o u r lives: H o w s h o u l d w e c o p e w i t h loss, w i t h tragedy, w i t h disaster? C a n w e f i n d w a y s to d e a l w i t h o u r p h o b i a s , w i t h a d d i c t i o n to a l c o h o l or d r u g s ? C a n w e ever be h a p p y ? W h a t k i n d of sex-life m i g h t w e h a v e ? Is it the s a m e as that of other p e o p l e ? C a n w e c o p e w i t h the strains a n d stresses of w o r k ? S h o u l d we stay i n o u r present difficult r e l a t i o n s h i p or not? D e s p i t e the o p p r o b r i u m frequent l y h e a p e d u p o n the h e l p i n g professions, f r o m p s y c h o a n a l y s t s to social w o r k e r s , there is, apparently, n o shortage of p e o p l e q u e u i n g u p for h e l p w i t h these a n d m a n y other questions. P e o p l e d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d to talk to s o m e o n e b u t , at the same t i m e , this is the last t h i n g they w a n t to d o . If y o u d o choose s i m p l y to take the tablets, y o u a v o i d the p r o b lems b u t also the pleasures of b u i l d i n g a relationship w i t h s o m e o n e else, w h e t h e r it is a f r i e n d or a therapist. T h e twenty-first c e n t u r y is a time i n w h i c h loneliness is e n d e m i c w i t h i n m a n y cultures. S i m i l a r l y there is a p l e t h o r a of o p p o r t u n i t i e s to l e a r n all k i n d s of things f r o m all k i n d s of m e d i a — p o p u l a r n o v e l s , soaps,
newspaper
articles, T V p r o g r a m m e s , s u r f i n g the internet a n d so o n . T h e i n f o r m a tion o b t a i n e d , w h e t h e r it is about c o o k i n g , D I Y or f i x i n g y o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p , is often e n t e r t a i n i n g a n d i n f o r m a t i v e . H o w e v e r , the often-regur gitated collective v i e w of large n u m b e r s
of p e o p l e , a l t h o u g h
often
s u p e r f i c i a l l y v e r y attractive, can be less t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g a n d less enjoyable t h a n r e a d i n g the o r i g i n a l v i e w s of a single author. T o i l l u s trate the p r o b l e m of r e d u c i n g ideas to their l o w e s t c o m m o n
denomi
nator, I r e c o m m e n d a D i s n e y r i d e at the E p c o t centre i n F l o r i d a . Y o u c a n sit i n a g o n d o l a a n d take a r i d e t h r o u g h a n artificial starry n i g h t , l e a r n i n g about the h i s t o r y of the w o r l d i n five m i n u t e s . Y o u pass b y a tableau of ' A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s ' , f o l l o w e d
b y a t a b l e a u of
'Ancient
R o m a n s ' . . . Incidentally, I a m referring here to the h i s t o r y of the h u m a n race; interestingly, d i n o s a u r s m e r i t a separate s h o w s o m e fifteen m i n utes longer. E v e n quite y o u n g c h i l d r e n f o u n d the tableaux rather b o r i n g — p e r h a p s because it w a s too s i m p l e for 'the u n d e r tens'?
138
The Dog's Temper S o , are these a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x e s — t h e p a i n a n d p l e a s u r e of l e a r n
i n g , a n d the p a i n a n d pleasure of p s y c h o t h e r a p y — i n a n y w a y related? T h i s p a p e r w i l l a r g u e that i n d e e d t h e y are. In the case of p s y c h o t h e r a p y p e o p l e w a n t relief f r o m their suffering w i t h o u t h a v i n g to e x a m i n e w h a t m a d e t h e m suffer i n the first place. In the case of l e a r n i n g , they w a n t to f i n d o u t a b o u t s o m e t h i n g w i t h o u t g o i n g t h r o u g h the g r i n d of h a v i n g to a c q u i r e a large b o d y of k n o w l e d g e . T h e r e seems to be a n i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the degree of p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t , c o m m i t m e n t , a n d self-exposure r e q u i r e d , a n d the p o p u l a r i t y of the treat m e n t or p r o c e s s , w h e t h e r it is p s y c h o t h e r a p y or l e a r n i n g .
*** P e r h a p s w e s h o u l d l o o k for the cause of this d i l e m m a i n the n a t u r e of l e a r n i n g itself a n d i n the nature of the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n t e r a c t i o n . T h e quotations
at the b e g i n n i n g of this p a p e r illustrate t w o
differing
aspects of the p r o b l e m . T h e first is K e a t s ' h o p e f u l a n d l i f e - g i v i n g affir m a t i o n that i n spite of a l l the difficulties, at least s o m e t i m e s , m i n d s do m e e t . T h e o p t i m i s t i c r e a d i n g of K e a t s is, therefore, that the e x p e r i e n c e of l e a r n i n g a n d — i n d e e d — o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s too c a n be l i f e - a f f i r m i n g a n d e n h a n c i n g . H o w e v e r , Alice Through the Looking Glass perfectly s u m marises a fundamental h u m a n d i l e m m a : w h e n we think w e ' v e learned s o m e t h i n g , it m a y be perfectly correct i n one sense yet
completely
w r o n g i n another. It d e p e n d s o n the a s s u m p t i o n s w e m a k e . A l i c e ' s e n c o u n t e r w i t h the R e d Q u e e n also m a k e s it clear that i n s o m e cir c u m s t a n c e s l e a r n i n g c a n be a n e x t r e m e l y u n p l e a s a n t experience. T h e s e p o i n t s are the m e a t o n the b o n e I w a n t to c h e w over. L e a r n i n g - c e n t r e d p r o b l e m s are, after a l l , issues w h i c h c o n c e r n the v e r y n u t s a n d bolts of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . H o w e v e r w r o n g - h e a d e d a n d incorrect p e o p l e m a y a p p e a r to be, t h e y d o i n d e e d m a k e j u d g e m e n t s , a c q u i r e ' i n f o r m a t i o n ' about themselves a n d c h a n g e their lives o v e r a p e r i o d of t i m e — i n short, they learn. O n e of the settings w h i c h c a n be u s e d for this process is the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c setting. In a sense, t h e n , p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n be b o t h a n o p p o r t u n i t y for e x p l o r i n g T h e
'Alice
T h r o u g h the L o o k i n g G l a s s ' w o r l d of m i s g u i d e d a s s u m p t i o n s
and
e r r o r s of j u d g e m e n t a b o u t o u r s e l v e s , a n d also a p l a c e w h e r e w e
may
e x p e r i e n c e the relief of b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d — a m e e t i n g of m i n d s i n the s p i r i t of K e a t s . H a v i n g h i g h l i g h t e d s o m e of the d i l e m m a s i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g , w h i c h produce ambivalence towards psychoanalysis a n d psychother
Kirsty
139
Hall
a p y i n all their v a r i o u s f o r m s , I w a n t to t u r n the spotlight u p o n the p a t h I p i c k e d o u t at the b e g i n n i n g of this chapter: the p a t h of l e a r n i n g w h i c h leads to q u a l i f i c a t i o n as a p s y c h o a n a l y s t or p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t . H o w is the practice of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s p a s s e d o n f r o m one generation to another, a n d h o w d o students or trainees learn? If it is difficult for those o n the r e c e i v i n g e n d to c o m e i n t o p s y c h o t h e r a p y , h o w
much
m o r e difficult is it to train p e o p l e to b e c o m e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s a n d p s y chotherapists? D o w e e q u i p p e o p l e to operate i n a p a r a d o x i c a l w o r l d w h e r e o u r clients b o t h d o a n d d o not w a n t us to w o r k w i t h t h e m , a n d i n w h i c h there is outright s u s p i c i o n of w h a t w e h a v e to offer? T a l k i n g of s u s p i c i o n — d o w e let trainees loose w i t h the a r g u m e n t s for a n d against p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , a n d for a n d against c o m p e t i n g theories of c l i n i c a l practice, a l l o w i n g t h e m to participate freely a n d to offer their o w n p o i n t of v i e w , o r w o u l d this i n v o l v e too m u c h risk? In the process of e x p l o r i n g theories of l e a r n i n g as they a p p l y to the p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , I w a n t to relate this i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e of l e a r n i n g to the w i d e r p s y c h o a n a l y t i c c u l t u r e a n d to s h o w h o w , c o n t r a r y to the c o m m o n l y h e l d c o n v i c t i o n of m a n y analysts a n d therapists, changes i n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory, p a r t i c u l a r l y o v e r the last forty years, h a v e p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e d c l i n i c a l practice,
e v e n if this
i n f l u e n c e has n o t b e e n w e l l r e c o g n i s e d or a c k n o w l e d g e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n of the process of l e a r n i n g to b e c o m e a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t or p s y c h o a n a l y s t is f a i r l y t y p i c a l : •
T r a i n i n g is p r e d i c a t e d u p o n y o u r o w n p e r s o n a l analysis or t h e r a p y ( k n o w n i n the field as a ' t r a i n i n g analysis'), s o m e clinical e x p e r i ence, a n often c u r s o r y r e a d i n g of selected texts w h i c h c o n f o r m to the p r e j u d i c e s of the o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h w h i c h y o u train, a n d listen i n g to a p p a r e n t l y endless n u m b e r s of s o - c a l l e d ' c l i n i c a l ' p a p e r s .
•
E v e n t u a l l y , p r o v i d e d y o u h a v e a v o i d e d t r e a d i n g o n too m a n y of the traditionalists' toes (in the guise of the m e m b e r s
of the t r a i n i n g
c o m m i t t e e ) , y o u e m e r g e f r o m the other e n d of the s a u s a g e - m a c h i n e e x h a u s t e d a n d penniless but, nevertheless, a q u a l i f i e d , registered, p s y c h o a n a l y t i c p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t o r p s y c h o a n a l y s t , a p p a r e n t l y fit to practice a n a c q u i r e d ' s k i l l ' o n the u n s u s p e c t i n g p u b l i c . U n f o r t u n a t e l y this is i n m a n y cases a s k i l l w h i c h has b e e n a c q u i r e d without
any
apparent need
to u n d e r s t a n d — e v e n
in rudimentary
f o r m — m a n y of the f u n d a m e n t a l ideas w h i c h u n d e r p i n the d a y - t o - d a y
140
The Dog's Temper
practice of p s y c h o t h e r a p y , a n d w h i c h h a v e b e e n the c o m m o n c u r r e n c y of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c d i s c o u r s e d u r i n g the first h a l f o f the t w e n t i e t h c e n tury. T h i s l a c k of k n o w l e d g e is e v i d e n t f r o m a n y t r a w l t h r o u g h the c u r rent literature, i n w h i c h it is the n o r m rather t h a n the e x c e p t i o n to w r i t e ' c l i n i c a l ' p a p e r s for p u b l i c a t i o n . In these p a p e r s a n attempt to d e r i v e s o m e t h e o r y f r o m three o r four clinical e x a m p l e s is m a d e , regardless o f the fact that, i n the vast m a j o r i t y of cases, there is n o g o o d
reason
a d d u c e d for a d h e r i n g to o n e t h e o r y rather t h a n another. M u c h u s e f u l k n o w l e d g e relevant to the topic u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n — b u t n o t d e e m e d to be ' p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l ' — i s s i m p l y i g n o r e d . T h i s is i n stark contrast to the p a p e r s w r i t t e n i n the first half o f the t w e n t i e t h century, w h e r e the a u t h o r s began w i t h theory, a n d i l l u s t r a t e d the issues w i t h c l i n i c a l e x a m ples.
2
T h e p e r c e p t i o n that there is a p r o b l e m i n t r a i n i n g p e o p l e to b e c o m e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s is n o t n e w , n o r is it restricted to B r i t a i n . In 1996, O t t o K e r n b e r g published a highly entertaining, tongue-in-cheek paper enti tled:
'Thirty Methods
to D e s t r o y
the C r e a t i v i t y of P s y c h o a n a l y t i c
C a n d i d a t e s ' . A brief extract c o n v e y s the f l a v o u r : T h e f o l l o w i n g list of w a y s to i n h i b i t the creativity of p s y c h o a n a lytic c a n d i d a t e s is n o t expected to be e x h a u s t i v e , a l t h o u g h I h o p e it covers d o m i n a n t p r o b l e m s . . . N a t u r a l l y , a v o i d s t i m u l a t i n g c a n d i d a t e s to p u t a n y n e w , o r i g i n a l i d e a o f their o w n into w r i t i n g : w r i t i n g s h o u l d be a chore, a n o b l i g a t i o n , n e v e r a p l e a s u r e , a n e a r l y source of p r i d e i n c o n t r i b u t i n g to the science of p s y c h o analysis w h i l e still b e i n g a student. ( K e r n b e r g 1996)
3
T h e c o n n e c t i o n w h i c h K e r n b e r g m a k e s b e t w e e n l e a r n i n g a n d cre ativity is d e m o n s t r a t e d b u t n o t e x p l o r e d b y h i m . Yet it is here I t h i n k that w e n e e d to start o u r search: W h e r e is the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c u r rent p s y c h o a n a l y t i c practice a n d l e a r n i n g to b e c o m e a p s y c h o a n a l y s t ? P s y c h o a n a l y s i s , as p r a c t i s e d b y s o m e , offers the o p p o r t u n i t y of m a k i n g subtle b u t i m p o r t a n t distinctions b e t w e e n those w h o are n e u r o t i c (less d i s t u r b e d ) a n d those w h o are p s y c h o t i c (severely d i s t u r b e d ) ; i n other w o r d s , b e t w e e n those for w h o m p s y c h o a n a l y s i s m a y i n d e e d b e ' t h e t a l k i n g c u r e ' , a n d others to w h o m w e c a n offer o n l y v e r y l i m i t e d h e l p . P s y c h o a n a l y s i s h a s c o n t r i b u t e d m u c h to theories of r e m e m b e r i n g a n d forgetting, a n d it h a s c o n n e c t e d these to t r a u m a . It h a s i n f l u e n c e d d i s course theory, a n d h a s b r o u g h t to the f o r e g r o u n d the v a l u e of the
Kirsty Hall
141
h u m a n subject a n d the subjective. O u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s o m e of the c o m p l e x i t i e s o f h u m a n s e x u a l i t y w o u l d be e v e n m o r e w o e f u l l y i n a d e quate w i t h o u t the c o n t r i b u t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c i n s i g h t s , a n d ambivalences
the
of h u m a n m o t i v a t i o n a n d causality are i n e x p l i c a b l e
w i t h o u t s o m e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c k n o w l e d g e . I h a v e selected just a few of the areas i n w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s has m u c h to c o n t r i b u t e , b u t it is m y p e r c e p t i o n that v e r y few practitioners of a n y p e r s u a s i o n c o u l d a c t u a l l y d i s c u s s these theories w i t h a n y degree of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . O f t e n , they are c o m p l e t e l y u n a w a r e that their c l i n i c a l practice c o u l d be e n h a n c e d b y a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the theoretical concerns a l l u d e d to above. So the q u e s t i o n remains: W h y
d o n ' t w e use p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory
to
i m p r o v e o u r practice, i n s t e a d of s h y i n g a w a y f r o m it w i t h excuses s u c h as b e i n g too b u s y or e x h a u s t e d to r e a d , o r else s l i p p i n g i n t o the tired o l d v i e w that a c a d e m i c p s y c h o a n a l y s i s has n o t h i n g to offer the p r a c t i tioner? In the v a s t majority of trainings it is i m p o r t a n t that m i n d s are seen to m e e t , i.e. that y o u r m i n d is seen to be i n agreement w i t h those w h o h a v e t r a i n e d y o u . H o w e v e r , p u b l i c l y v o i c e d o p i n i o n s are often
not
r e a l l y o p i n i o n s at a l l , rather they are ' u n e a s y a g r e e m e n t s ' — n o t , I t h i n k , quite w h a t K e a t s h a d i n m i n d . It is c o m m o n p l a c e for s o m e p s y c h o a n alysts to a r g u e that ' t r a d i t i o n ' m u s t s i m p l y be a c c e p t e d . T r a d i t i o n s e e m s to i n c l u d e a t r e a d m i l l of ' c l i n i c a l ' p a p e r s : s o m e of these p a p e r s h a v e a n e m p i r i c a l scientific basis, a l t h o u g h the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the ' s c i e n c e ' a n d the client i n the c o n s u l t i n g - r o o m is often left u n c l e a r ; others are of the v a r i e t y i n w h i c h phrases like ' m y patient's persistent a c t i n g - o u t of her u n c o n s c i o u s e n v y m a d e m e u n a b l e to t h i n k ' a b o u n d . M u c h o f the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c w o r l d seems to p r e s u m e that e x a m i n i n g y o u r own
state of m i n d is: (a) one of the m a i n tools of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ,
a n d (b) that it is a reliable g u i d e to the state of m i n d of the patient. O f t e n t h e s e — a n d o n l y t h e s e — k i n d s of p a p e r s are d e e m e d suitable to f o r m the research projects of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . A n o t h e r frequent experience is for p e o p l e to train a l m o s t entirely w i t h i n a single n a r r o w t r a d i t i o n , w h e r e one analyst's w o r k is p r e s u m e d i n v a r i a b l y to lead to the 'correct' p a t h of t h i n k i n g . A g a i n , K e a t s ' v i s i o n of a c r o s s i n g of paths cannot h a p p e n if e v e r y o n e is b l i n d l y t r e a d i n g i n the footsteps of the p e r s o n a h e a d . H o w e v e r , this rather critical v i e w of current t r a i n i n g s m u s t
be
e x a m i n e d m o r e closely. If I a m to suggest that the t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d of t r a i n i n g p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s n e e d s to be c h a n g e d
142
The Dogs Temper
t h e n , to b e fair, w e s h o u l d l o o k at w h a t the attractions a n d a d v a n t a g e s of the c u r r e n t t r a d i t i o n are. S o , w h a t is the other side of the coin? T h e reassurance offered b y t r a d i t i o n is v i v i d l y illustrated i n a t r a d i t i o n a l C h r i s t m a s carol, the f o u r t h verse o f G o o d K i n g Wenceslas: 'Sire the n i g h t is d a r k e r n o w , a n d the w i n d b l o w s stronger; Fails m y heart I k n o w n o t how, I c a n g o n o longer.' ' M a r k m y footsteps, g o o d m y Page; Tread thou i n them boldly: T h o u shalt f i n d the w i n t e r ' s rage F r e e z e t h y b l o o d less c o l d l y . ' I w o n d e r a b o u t the s e n t i m e n t of this verse. I a m n o t c o n c e r n e d here, i n c i d e n t a l l y , w i t h the r e l i g i o u s aspect o f the carol, b u t rather w i t h the s t o r y that it tells. T h e P a g e h a s to h e l p the K i n g d i s t r i b u t e gifts to the p o o r . H o w e v e r the P a g e , i n t u r n , needs h e l p to c a r r y o u t this task. W h y s h o u l d p l o d d i n g after s o m e o n e else be s o reassuring? First o f a l l , at o n e l e v e l it w o r k s v e r y efficiently; the P a g e gets d o n e the job of d e l i v e r i n g a l m s to the peasant. T h e p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t 'learns' to b e c o m e a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , s o w h e r e ' s the p r o b l e m ? M y i m p r e s s i o n is that m a n y practitioners are i n the p o s i t i o n of the P a g e f r o m ' G o o d K i n g Wenceslas' rather t h a n i n that of the c h i l d f r o m the letter b y K e a t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , w h a t t h e y fear m o s t is b e i n g p u t i n the p o s i t i o n o f A l i c e i n Through the Looking Glass. It feels safer to f o l l o w w e l l - t r o d d e n p a t h s , a n d e v e n to r e m a i n u n a w a r e of the often v i t r i o l i c a r g u m e n t s w h i c h are i n f u l l f l o w i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , w h e t h e r they c o n c e r n h o w m a n y sessions a w e e k a patient s h o u l d b e seen, the p r o s a n d cons of the u s e o f the counter-transference, o r the s o - c a l l e d ' s h o r t ' ses sion. A C h r i s t m a s carol p r o b a b l y changes a little o v e r the years, b u t n o t v e r y m u c h , a n d the debates i n the p s y c h o t h e r a p y f i e l d h a v e c h a n g e d a little o v e r the years, b u t n o t m u c h . T h e tasks o f the P a g e are m a n y a n d v a r i e d , b u t also l i m i t e d i n s c o p e . S t u d e n t s a n d trainees are r a r e l y a s k e d to w o r k t h r o u g h r i v a l r e a d i n g s of the O e d i p u s c o m p l e x for e x a m p l e , o r specifically to relate t h e o r y to practice. T h e y are often expected to d e r i v e t h e o r y f r o m practice rather t h a n vice versa. It is n o t a n t i c i p a t e d that they w i l l b e critical of w h a t
Kirsty
143
Hall
t h e y r e a d , a n d t h e y are c e r t a i n l y n o t e n c o u r a g e d to use w h a t they h a v e r e a d to criticise c l i n i c a l practice. It is also f r e q u e n t l y the case that students are not e x p e c t e d to read w h o l e b o o k s — p e r h a p s this m i g h t l e a d to d i s a g r e e m e n t . In the same v e i n , I a m often a s k e d if I can s u g g e s t cribs for the w o r k of w e l l - k n o w n p s y c h o a n a l y s t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y that of L a c a n ; b u t I h a v e also b e e n asked for a M e l a n i e K l e i n crib a n d a F r e u d crib i n m y time. W h y ? Because it a p p e a r s to the s t u d e n t that they w i l l save s o m e of that p r e c i o u s c o m m o d i t y , time. H o w e v e r , I t h i n k t h e y m i g h t i n s t e a d be t a k i n g a n e v e n larger r i s k — t h e y m a y w e l l h a v e b e c o m e b o r e d s i l l y l o n g before they h a v e f i n i s h e d r e a d i n g the c r i b — t h e ' D i s n e y l a n d ' s y n d r o m e !
Many
cribs c o n t a i n statements w h i c h differ s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m those of the o r i g i n a l author. S o m e t i m e s t h e y are e v e n d o w n r i g h t w r o n g . A crib is r e a l l y o n l y h e l p f u l if it is u s e d i n the o r i g i n a l sense of a c r i b , i.e. y o u h a v e the o r i g i n a l text a l o n g s i d e a n d r e a d b o t h alternately. I disagree w i t h the a x i o m that 'less is m o r e ' — t h i s m a y be true, i n s o m e cases, w h e r e m a k i n g interpretations of a patient's w o r d s is c o n c e r n e d , b u t i n the case of r e a d i n g p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , less is quite s i m p l y less.
Pages
d o n ' t n e e d to k n o w as m u c h as K i n g s so that t h e y w o n ' t h a v e to w o r r y a b o u t b e i n g w r o n g , like A l i c e . Teachers also c o n s p i r e i n the b u s i n e s s of r e a d i n g less. E v e r y w h e r e I go, I a m t o l d that trainees are ' t o o b u s y ' to r e a d , often c o m b i n i n g f u l l t i m e w o r k a n d y o u n g families. It has e v e n b e e n s u g g e s t e d to m e that t e a c h i n g the t h e o r y of o n l y one p s y c h o a n a l y t i c s c h o o l m e a n s that the s t u d e n t c a n t h e n save v a l u a b l e time. O f c o u r s e , this is s i m p l y a m e a n s b y w h i c h the status q u o c a n be u p h e l d — t h e Pages w o n ' t ever k n o w that there are other m e t h o d s of g o v e r n m e n t o u t there. B u t w o u l d w e accept these s a m e a r g u m e n t s i n the t r a i n i n g of doctors or l a w y e r s ? S t u d e n t s are r a r e l y g i v e n the o p p o r t u n i t y to argue w i t h their teach ers o r to l e a r n f r o m other students, except i n the l i m i t e d sense of m i x i n g w i t h p e o p l e f r o m the s a m e year. S t u d e n t g r o u p s are often v e r y s m a l l , b u t this d o e s n o t s e e m to l e a d to i n d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n — i t just k e e p s the range of debate as n a r r o w as p o s s i b l e . T e a c h i n g o n n e a r l y all courses is d i d a c t i c , m a k e s use of little i n the w a y of t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i n v e n t i o n s s u c h as tapes, o v e r h e a d projectors, f i l m s , T V p r o g r a m m e s , d i a g r a m s , f l o w charts, a n d so o n . I c a n t h i n k of instances w h e r e these are e m p l o y e d , b u t they are few a n d far b e t w e e n . O v e r a l l , this t r a i n i n g format d o e s not s e e m to h a v e c h a n g e d m u c h since the 1950s. S t u d e n t s i n m o s t o r g a n i s a t i o n s are d i v i d e d into y e a r g r o u p s , a practice a d o p t e d i n B r i t a i n b y the B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l
144
The Dog's Temper
S o c i e t y after the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s . T h e theoretical t r a i n i n g p a r t l y consists of teaching the w o r k s of w h o e v e r are c o n c e i v e d to be the m a j o r
theorists b y the t r a i n i n g b o d y i n q u e s t i o n — x weeks o n
F r e u d , y w e e k s o n J u n g , z w e e k s s t u d y i n g B i o n etc. T h e biggest change since the 1950s is p r o b a b l y t e a c h i n g a c c o r d i n g to w h a t e v e r are the c u r r e n t l y ' p o l i t i c a l l y correct' h e a d i n g s — x w e e k s o n f e m i n i s m , r a c i s m , a n d the i m p l i c a t i o n s of sexual abuse. It is interesting to o b s e r v e that, i n u n i v e r s i t i e s , it is often courses w h i c h discuss issues s u c h as f e m i n i s m , r a c i s m , c u l t u r e a n d g e n d e r w h i c h m a k e u s e of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c ideas, a n d p r o d u c e o r i g i n a l t h i n k i n g i n this area. It does n o t s e e m to be the c l i n i c a l trainings l e a d i n g the w a y , as a result of research c o n d u c t e d w i t h patients. W h y is there s u c h a n i n v e s t m e n t i n e n s u r i n g that b o t h the content a n d process of teaching p s y c h o a n a l y s i s r e m a i n s largely static, w h i l s t the w o r l d o u t s i d e is c h a n g i n g ever m o r e r a p i d l y ? I n m a n y countries, p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is r e c o g n i s e d as a d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h is d e e p l y e n g a g e d i n a r g u m e n t a n d debate w i t h p s y c h i a t r y , p h i l o s o p h y ,
anthropology
a n d s o c i o l o g y ; whereas i n m a n y other c o u n t r i e s , it seems, these inter actions are d e e m e d to be b o t h too difficult a n d too d a n g e r o u s , if n o t i m p o s s i b l e . E v e n i n countries s u c h as F r a n c e o r A r g e n t i n a , w h e r e p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is a m u c h m o r e m a i n s t r e a m a c t i v i t y t h a n the U K , the f e w w h o d a r e to disagree w i t h the ' s c h o o l o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s ' to w h i c h their t r a i n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n o w e s allegiance c o u r t the p o s s i b i l i t y o f o p p r o b r i u m , i n s u l t s , a n d e x p u l s i o n , a l l too r e m i n i s c e n t of the fate of e a r l y p i o neers s u c h as S a n d o r F e r e n c z i or W i l h e l m R e i c h . Is the s t u d y of p s y choanalysis
always
doomed
to l e a d
to s p l i t s
and
dissension?
P e r h a p s — s a d l y — i t is. E v e n if o n e accepts L a c a n ' s v i e w that s p l i t t i n g a n d d i s s e n s i o n are a n essential process, the o n l y w a y to p r e v e n t u s f r o m b e c o m i n g e m b e d d e d e v e r m o r e s o l i d l y i n the comforts a n d l i m i tations of t r a d i t i o n , the experience of splits a n d d i s s e n s i o n c a n be ago n i s i n g l y p a i n f u l as close f r i e n d s t u r n i n t o d e a d l y enemies. T h e c o n s e r v a t i v e style of t r a i n i n g I h a v e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e of course p r o d u c e s results. T h e Pages l e a r n to tread i n the footsteps of the K i n g . P e o p l e b e c o m e Pages, a n d b e c o m e w e l l m a n n e r e d . T h e y k n o w h o w to b e h a v e i n C o u r t . T h e p r e v a i l i n g culture i n B r i t a i n a n d , I suspect, i n many
other countries, is that p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s
of all p e r s u a s i o n s
i n c r e a s i n g l y invest i n p o r t r a y i n g themselves as ultra-respectable m e m b e r s o f society w h o c o n f o r m to ever m o r e t i g h t l y - d r a w n codes of b e h a v i o u r a n d clinical p r a c t i c e . Pages d o n ' t disagree w i t h K i n g s ; t h e y 4
d o n ' t say: ' W o u l d n ' t be better i f w e c a l l e d it a d a y for n o w a n d set o u t
Kirsty Hall
145
t o m o r r o w , w h e n the w i n d has d r o p p e d ? ' or: I f w e p a i d the peasants a bit m o r e , w e w o u l d n ' t n e e d to m a k e this j o u r n e y ' . In the p r e v a i l i n g a t m o s p h e r e it b e c o m e s difficult to l e a r n anything
- let alone p r o p o s e
s o m e t h i n g fresh a n d new. T h e Page doesn't w a n t to c o m e to a sticky e n d at the h a n d s of the K i n g , o r at the h a n d s of his o r her colleagues, o r — t o m i x m y q u o t a t i o n s — b e the object of the d o g ' s temper. T h u s , I suggest, t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d s of teaching p r o d u c e a strangle h o l d o n creative l e a r n i n g . W e p r o d u c e competent Pages, b u t v e r y f e w K i n g s w h o m i g h t a d v a n c e the cause of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s .
** * T h e next step i n the a n a l y s i s of w h a t l e a r n i n g to b e c o m e a p s y c h o a n a lyst o r p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t i n v o l v e s e x p l o r i n g w h a t is m e a n t b y the w o r d ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' , w h i c h I h a v e u s e d m a n y times i n m y d e s c r i p t i o n of the c u r r e n t situation. W h e r e does ' t r a d i t i o n ' fit i n a t h e o r y o f learning? I w a n t to m a k e use o f R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s ' d e f i n i t i o n o f ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n his b o o k Keywords—A
Vocabulary
of Culture and Society (1976). T h e root
w o r d i n L a t i n has the f o l l o w i n g m e a n i n g s : (i) d e l i v e r y , (ii) h a n d i n g d o w n k n o w l e d g e , (iii) p a s s i n g o n a d o c trine, (iv) s u r r e n d e r o r b e t r a y a l . (Williams 1976: 318-9) Williams comments: W h e n w e l o o k at the d e t a i l e d processes of a n y o f these t r a d i tions, i n d e e d w h e n w e realise that there are traditions... a n d that o n l y s o m e of t h e m o r parts of t h e m h a v e b e e n selected for o u r respect a n d d u t y , w e c a n see h o w difficult t r a d i t i o n r e a l l y is, i n a n abstract o r e x h o r t a t o r y or, as s o often, r a t i f y i n g use. It is s o m e t i m e s o b s e r v e d , b y those w h o h a v e l o o k e d into partic u l a r traditions that it o n l y takes t w o generations to m a k e a n y t h i n g t r a d i t i o n a l : n a t u r a l l y e n o u g h , since that is the sense of tra d i t i o n as active process. B u t the w o r d tends to m o v e
towards
a g e - o l d a n d t o w a r d s ceremony, d u t y a n d respect. C o n s i d e r i n g o n l y h o w m u c h has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n to u s , a n d h o w v a r i o u s it a c t u a l l y is, this, i n its o w n w a y , is b o t h a b e t r a y a l a n d s u r r e n der. ( W i l l i a m s 1976: 319)
146
The Dog's Temper
T h i s d e f i n i t i o n a n d d e s c r i p t i o n of the o p e r a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n , i n a l l the senses g i v e n a b o v e , seems to m e to describe v e r y accurately the current position of m u c h of psychoanalysis a n d psychotherapy. I a l l u d e d a b o v e to the fact that trainees were d i v i d e d into y e a r grovips i n the 1950s. T h i s is i n d e e d the p e r i o d i n w h i c h m a n y of the tra ditions I h a v e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e w e r e l a i d d o w n . Before this time t h e o r y a n d practice s e e m to h a v e b e e n m u c h m o r e f l u i d l y i n t e r t w i n e d — l i k e the c o n t r a r y directions a n d n u m b e r l e s s p o i n t s of K e a t s ' letter. T h i s d i d n o t p r e v e n t the u n p l e a s a n t critical experiences of Alice Looking Glass—quite
the reverse. The Freud-Klein
( K i n g & Steiner 1991) d o c u m e n t s
Through
Controversies
the
1941-45
the b l i s t e r i n g debate w i t h i n the
B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l Society about w h o w a s to b e c o m e T h e G o o d Q u e e n W e n c e s l a s ' of British p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : w a s it to be A n n a F r e u d or M e l a n i e K l e i n ? I w i l l describe this a r g u m e n t at s o m e l e n g t h , because I t h i n k it out lines v e r y c l e a r l y the reasons w h y s u b s e q u e n t l y i n B r i t a i n w e h a v e concentrated
o n p r o d u c i n g Pages
rather t h a n K i n g s
or Q u e e n s .
A l t h o u g h this m a y s e e m p a r o c h i a l , the internecine struggles
between
K a r e n H o r n e y a n d the A m e r i c a n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c establishment, a n d the sequence of events w h i c h l e d to the d e p a r t u r e of L a c a n f r o m the I n t e r n a t i o n a l P s y c h o a n a l y t i c A s s o c i a t i o n , p o i n t to w h a t m a y b e a u n i v e r s a l u n d e r l y i n g t e n s i o n b e t w e e n c l i n i c a l t h e o r y a n d practice, w h i c h I s h a l l g o o n to discuss later. T h e C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s c a n be c o n c e p t u a l i s e d i n t r a d i t i o n a l B r i t i s h terms as a cricket m a t c h , w i t h M e l a n i e K l e i n , S u s a n Isaacs, J o a n R i v i e r e a n d C o . b a t t i n g for the K l e i n i a n s , a n d A n n a F r e u d , E d w a r d G l o v e r , M e l i t t a S c h m i d e b e r g a n d the 'Viennese g r o u p ' i n general bat t i n g for the F r e u d i a n s . I n fact, as y o u m i g h t expect, it w a s m u c h m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d n o t at a l l gentlemanly. First of a l l , there w a s also a g r o u p of p e o p l e w h o w e r e n ' t a l i g n e d w i t h either of these factions, a n d w h o s e ideas w e r e n ' t necessarily f o r m e d into a coherent b o d y of o p i n i o n . T h i s g r o u p a c q u i r e d a series of ideas d u r i n g a n d after this p e r i o d , i n a rather p i e c e m e a l fashion, later b e c o m i n g the I n d e p e n d e n t g r o u p of the B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l Society, S o m e of the p l a y e r s i n v o l v e d s w i t c h e d s i d e s — f o r e x a m p l e G l o v e r started as a s u p p o r t e r of M e l a n i e K l e i n , b u t later b e c a m e o n e of her p r i n c i p a l critics. A
second
complicating
factor
w a s that
the C o n t r o v e r s i a l
D i s c u s s i o n s w e r e , to use a F r e u d i a n t e r m , ' o v e r - d e t e r m i n e d ' . T h e f o l l o w i n g is a list of the ' d e t e r m i n a n t s ' o f the debate, a l t h o u g h I a m sure it is n o t c o m p r e h e n s i v e :
Kirsty
•
147
Hall
T h e C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s w e r e not just a b o u t theory, they were also c o n c e r n e d w i t h t e c h n i q u e . ( A t that time it w a s still a s s u m e d i n B r i t a i n that t h e o r y a n d t e c h n i q u e w e r e related to practice albeit, of course, i n a c o m p l i c a t e d manner.)
•
T h e debate
was
groupings—about
also a struggle who
for p o w e r b e t w e e n
actually controlled
the
competing
British
Psycho-
A n a l y t i c a l Society. (For t h i r t y years E d w a r d G l o v e r a n d Ernest Jones h a d o c c u p i e d k e y p o s i t i o n s o n the m o s t influential c o m m i t tees of the Society a n d , not s u r p r i s i n g l y , m a n y m e m b e r s thought it w a s time for a change.) •
T h e D i s c u s s i o n s c a n also be c o n s t r u e d i n B o w l b y i t e terms
(since
B o w l b y h i m s e l f w a s a n i m p o r t a n t participant) as a grief reaction to F r e u d ' s d e a t h i n 1939. T h e s u b s e q u e n t 'attachment p r o b l e m s ' of the B r i t i s h s c h o o l of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s are still g o i n g o n today. •
P r e s u m a b l y , also, it is n o accident that the Society w a s at w a r d u r i n g the S e c o n d W o r l d War. P a s s i o n s r a n so h i g h that one debate c o n t i n u e d i n the m i d s t of a n air r a i d . It is i m p o s s i b l e i n the space of a chapter to g i v e m o r e t h a n a taste of
these p r o c e e d i n g s . H o w e v e r I h a v e selected a brief excerpt f r o m one of the less w e l l k n o w n b u t , at the s a m e time (as B o w l b y comments) p r o b a b l y the m o s t intellectually acute p a r t i c i p a n t , M a r j o r i e B r i e r l e y : T h e r i g h t ideas are n o t easy to c o m e by. A b s t r a c t t h i n k i n g is a dif ficult a n d p r e c a r i o u s activity. It is c o n t i n u a l l y m o u l d e d , d i r e c t e d , a n d o t h e r w i s e i n f l u e n c e d b y u n c o n s c i o u s phantasies a n d p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . A r c h a i c habits of t h o u g h t i n t r u d e at e v e r y turn. N e v e r t h e l e s s it is the o n l y i n s t r u m e n t w e h a v e for p e n e t r a t i n g b e y o n d the experience of l i v i n g to the l a w s g o v e r n i n g e x p e r i ence a n d so to its m o r e a d e q u a t e control. A l l theoretical f o r m u lations r u n the risk of d e g e n e r a t i n g into restatements of archaic beliefs. A s the e x a m p l e of J u n g s h o w s , there is a n a r r o w m a r g i n of safety b e t w e e n creating a n e w m y t h o l o g y a n d m a k i n g a v a l i d c o n t r i b u t i o n to k n o w l e d g e . K e e p i n g one's f o o t i n g is a matter of trial a n d error. B u t h u m a n n a r c i s s i s m is a l w a y s l o o k i n g for a h a b i t a t i o n a n d has b e e n c h i v v i e d out of one place after another.
The Dog's Temper
148
W e m u s t be v e r y careful i n d e e d that w e d o n o t a l l o w it to f i n d a last refuge i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l reality or i n the o m n i p o t e n c e of f a n tasy. ( K i n g & Steiner 1991:
333)
B e r n a r d B u r g o y n e has c o n v i n c i n g l y a r g u e d that B r i e r l e y ' s c o n c e p t i o n of the relationship b e t w e e n t h e o r y a n d practice is d e e p l y f l a w e d ( B u r g o y n e 2000). H o w e v e r , I w a n t to concentrate here o n her a s s u m p t i o n that t h e o r y matters at all T h i s a s s u m p t i o n has, o v e r the years, b e e n q u i e t l y d o w n g r a d e d . F o r e x a m p l e , to b e c o m e a m e m b e r of the B r i t i s h P s y c h o - A n a l y t i c a l Society, y o u n o l o n g e r h a v e to w r i t e a q u a l i f y i n g p a p e r . M a n y other trainings require a p a p e r as part of the q u a l i f i c a t i o n process b u t often insist that it s h o u l d be a clinical p a p e r , there b y i m p l i c i t l y o p p o s i n g theory to clinical practice. T h e p a i n f u l n e s s of the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s , for all w h o took part,
is v i v i d l y c o n v e y e d
i n the
transcripts. T h e
Controversial
D i s c u s s i o n s illustrate that if the fear of b e i n g e x c l u d e d c a n be faced, t h e n t h i n k i n g of a v e r y h i g h order is p r o d u c e d . K e y p a p e r s i n the lit erature w e r e w r i t t e n at this time, n o t o n l y b y w e l l - k n o w n l u m i n a r i e s s u c h as K l e i n , Isaacs a n d R i v i e r e , b u t also b y half-forgotten
figures
s u c h as G l o v e r a n d S h a r p e . D u r i n g these d i s c u s s i o n s the protagonists 5
f a c e d n o t one b u t t w o sources of pain—the fear of exclusion (the reality of this fear is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y G l o v e r ' s d e c i s i o n to p l a y n o further active p a r t i n the Society's activities after 1945) a n d the fear of indepen dent
thinking.
6
T h u s I a m e m p h a s i s i n g here that n o t one b u t t w o sources of anxiety are b e i n g c o n f r o n t e d . If the anxiety c o n c e r n i n g either or b o t h cannot be f a c e d , t h e n p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s t s experience relentless p r e s s u r e to c o n f o r m a n d b e c o m e Pages. T h e p l o t is s c r i p t e d i n the same w a y , regardless of w h e t h e r the participants are L a c a n i a n factions i n F r a n c e , organisations i n different countries w h o s e m e m b e r s b e l o n g to the
International P s y c h o a n a l y t i c A s s o c i a t i o n ,
or—in
Britain—rival
o r g a n i s a t i o n s s u c h as the U n i t e d K i n g d o m C o u n c i l for P s y c h o t h e r a p y a n d the B r i t i s h C o n f e d e r a t i o n of Psychotherapists, or e v e n a n t a g o n i s tic a c a d e m i c s i n the universities.
*** H a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d the traditional aspect of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g , a n d h a v i n g i n d i c a t e d s o m e of the reasons for the f o r m u l a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n , I t h i n k it is time to t u r n to the f u n d a m e n t a l issue of the nature of
Kirsty Hall
149
l e a r n i n g . A t this stage I a m g o i n g to m a k e use of K a r l P o p p e r ' s theory of l e a r n i n g since it offers t w o useful insights ( P o p p e r 1974: 45). T h e first is its a n a l y s i s of the cause of the s t e a d y decline f r o m p a i n f u l b u t v i b r a n t l e a r n i n g (The C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s ) t h r o u g h d o g m a
to
t r a d i t i o n ; the s e c o n d is its attempt to p r o v i d e a n e x p l a n a t i o n for the progress (or lack of it) of the Page. P o p p e r ' s t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g goes as follows: •
A t first the student is p r e s e n t e d w i t h a situation w h i c h she or he does n o t u n d e r s t a n d at a l l or w h i c h is new. (For instance: T h e Page is a s k e d a b o u t the peasant w h o lives ' a g o o d league hence'.)
•
If all goes w e l l , the s t u d e n t then progresses to a p r e l i m i n a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the m a t e r i a l , d e m o n s t r a t e d b y b e i n g able to imitate the text. (The P a g e treads i n the footsteps of the K i n g . )
•
T h e next stage is the c a p a c i t y to describe the ideas in one's own words. (The P a g e carries o u t the task of t a k i n g f o o d , w i n e a n d logs to the peasant).
•
F i n a l l y the s t u d e n t is i n a p o s i t i o n w h e r e they h a v e the ability to criticise a text. (The Page n e v e r gets this far, because the decisions of the K i n g are n e v e r questioned). P o p p e r ' s t h e o r y operates over a p e r i o d of time. I n d e e d if one w e r e
to d r a w it g r a p h i c a l l y , t h e n time w o u l d m o s t l i k e l y f o r m one of d i a g r a m ' s axes. It p r o p o s e s b y i m p l i c a t i o n that n o i d e a is fixed since e v e r y i d e a is a l w a y s criticisable. If w e a p p l y P o p p e r ' s theory to the t e a c h i n g of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , it suggests that the anxiety i n d u c e d i n the Page b y the t r a i n i n g experience is so great that v e r y few w i s h e v e n to c o n s i d e r c h a l l e n g i n g the K i n g , rejecting the v i e w s of the R e d Q u e e n , or d e p a r t i n g f r o m other m i n d s i n c o n t r a r y directions. It is interesting to c o n s i d e r i n this c o n n e c t i o n the w o r k of s o m e B r i t i s h w r i t e r s r e g a r d e d as s t a n d a r d references i n the context of p s y choanalysis
a n d l e a r n i n g . The
Emotional
Experience
of
Learning,
S a l z b e r g e r - W i t t e n b e r g , O s b o r n e a n d W i l l i a m s (1983), presents
by
exam
ples f r o m w o r k w i t h g r o u p s of teachers b u t , noticeably, there is n o d i s c u s s i o n i n the b o o k of h o w the a u t h o r s ' theories m i g h t a p p l y to their o w n p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a i n i n g . T h e r e are also several b o o k s a l o n g the s a m e lines as On Learning from the Patient b y Patrick C a s e m e n t (1985),
150
The Dog's Temper
i n w h i c h it is a s s u m e d that analysts ' l e a r n ' f r o m patients. Precisely w h a t is l e a r n e d is d e f i n e d i n terms of m a k i n g a c l i n i c a l experience 'fit' a t h e o r y w h i c h the w r i t e r assumes
exists. F o r e x a m p l e ,
Casement's
c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d ' T h e K e y D y n a m i c s of C o n t a i n m e n t ' m a k e s
several
a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h g o u n q u e s t i o n e d i n the text, n a m e l y : (i) that one p e r s o n c a n ' c o n t a i n ' a n o t h e r ' s feelings; (ii) that c o n t a i n i n g feelings is s o m e t h i n g w h i c h it is the analyst's job to do; (iii) that feelings c a n be separated f r o m w o r d s , since i n e a c h of the c l i n ical vignettes
discussed
i n the
chapter, the patients'
feelings
are
d e d u c e d b y the a u t h o r f r o m the w o r d s u s e d b y the patient. In other w o r d s , the feelings that the writer describes are p r e s u m e d to be the s a m e as those w h i c h the patient experiences. T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s
may
be justifiable, b u t the a u t h o r e v i d e n t l y does not feel it necessary to p r o v i d e justification (cf. C a s e m e n t 1985: 132-154), It w o u l d be interesting to ask a g r o u p of students w h a t they a c t u a l l y l e a r n f r o m texts s u c h as these. 'Sitting b y N e l l y ' — i . e . , w a t c h i n g s o m e o n e else c a r r y i n g o u t a s k i l l e d task or, i n this case, r e a d i n g a b o u t s o m e o n e d o i n g t h i s — i s c o n s i d e r e d of v e r y l i m i t e d p r a c t i c a l use i n other p r o f e s s i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , s o m e o n e training to be a s u r g e o n m a y w a t c h s o m e o n e else c a r r y out a n o p e r a t i o n , b u t n o b o d y w o u l d d r e a m of s u g g e s t i n g that o n l y this m e t h o d of t r a i n i n g be u s e d . Instead, a m e d ical s t u d e n t s p e n d s s e v e r a l years f i n d i n g out h o w the h u m a n b o d y w o r k s theoretically, uses m o d e l s o n w h i c h to practice, a n d so o n . It s e e m s to m e that the reason w h y p s y c h o a n a l y s i s is so difficult to teach lies i n the n a t u r e of the anxiety p r o d u c e d i n the teachers as w e l l as i n the learners. A safe w a y to l e a r n is to c o p y s o m e o n e else. A n y other m e t h o d p r o d u c e s w h a t is feared to be a n u n b e a r a b l e anxiety that the teacher m a y t u r n o n the p u p i l , like the R e d Q u e e n . T h i s state of affairs is exacerbated b y the s i m u l t a n e o u s process of u n d e r g o i n g a n analysis w i t h a n a n a l y s t .
7
W h e n this s a m e analyst, i n t u r n , has l e a r n e d o n l y b y i m i t a t i o n , then d o g m a is p r o d u c e d , a n d the w h o l e d i s c i p l i n e is infected b y a p l e t h o r a of t r a i n i n g s w h e r e w h a t is p a s s e d o n is d o g m a . L a c a n offers a g o o d e x p l a n a t i o n for w h y this s h o u l d be so. H e proposes four different p o s i
Kirsty Hall
151
tions w i t h respect to k n o w l e d g e . T h e p o s i t i o n of the M a s t e r (i.e. G o o d K i n g Wenceslas or tradition) is represented as f o l l o w s :
S
> S
$
a
In this d i a g r a m S is the signifier of the master: the signifier of 'he o r x
she w h o d e m a n d s to be o b e y e d ' . S is 'the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n ' , the w o r k 2
i n g s of h u m a n discourse. $ is the h u m a n subject, split b e t w e e n c o n scious a n d u n c o n s c i o u s . A n d a is the object,
possession
of w h i c h
i m p l i e s enjoyment. (For a f u l l e x p o s i t i o n of the m e a n i n g of these terms see F i n k 1995:
129-131). T h e t e r m s w h i c h a p p e a r above the h o r i z o n t a l
bars are s u p p o s e d to be r e a d as acting as the representatives of the c o r r e s p o n d i n g terms b e l o w the b a r s . It is also possible to r e a d the terms a b o v e the b a r as ' c o n s c i o u s ' , a n d those b e l o w the b a r as 'repressed'. So, i n the case of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c trainings, if w e start w i t h ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n the place of the master signifier ( w h i c h , as I h a v e a r g u e d , is u s u a l l y the case these days), t h e n I t h i n k this leads to a state of affairs s u c h as the f o l l o w i n g :
tradition
• psychoanalytic theory
British psychoanalyst / psychotherapist
truth
N o t a v e r y h a p p y picture! T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of this s c h e m a are that if p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s place ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n the role of master, then the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n ( p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory) b e c o m e s ever m o r e restricted. T o p l a c e ' t r a d i t i o n ' i n this p o s i t i o n , rather t h a n a n y of the others, entails that the object ('truth') is r e p r e s s e d , a n d the h u m a n subject (in this instance the analyst or therapist) is effectively b a r r e d f r o m k n o w l e d g e altogether. A d d to this R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s ' p r o p o s i t i o n that it takes t w o generations to f o r m a t r a d i t i o n ( p r e s u m a b l y because the restrictive practices i n v o l v e d i n f o r m i n g a t r a d i t i o n n e e d time to take h o l d ) , t h e n you
have
an
explanation
here
of
the
reasons
why,
since
the
C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s , the p o s i t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c theory w i t h respect to clinical practice has r e a c h e d its present state.
152
The Dog's Temper
P e r h a p s there is also a w a r n i n g for L a c a n i a n s themselves i n this for m u l a t i o n . A t the m o m e n t L a c a n i a n practice is, possibly, s a f e g u a r d e d b y the fact that L a c a n ' s central project w a s to r e t u r n to F r e u d ' s o r i g i n a l ideas a n d to rescue h i m f r o m the m i s c o n c e p t i o n s w h i c h t r a d i t i o n h a d l a i d u p o n h i s w o r k . H o w e v e r , n e a r l y t w e n t y years after L a c a n ' s d e a t h , L a c a n ' s o w n ideas are n o w a p p e a r i n g i n a m u c h m o r e f o r m u l a i c (tra ditional) f o r m a t .
8
I h a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y c h o s e n to illustrate this p r o b l e m u s i n g L a c a n ' s ' D i s c o u r s e of the M a s t e r ' rather than his ' D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y ' . In the D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y it is S
2
(the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n , h u m a n
discourse) w h i c h o c c u p i e s the d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n (see F i n k 1995:
132
3). T h i s m i g h t legitimately be u s e d to illustrate the g o i n g s - o n of the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s , b u t seems i n a p p r o p r i a t e to describe the scene i n B r i t a i n at the m o m e n t . M a n y p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s are expected to r e a d so little that they s k i p past the r a t i o n a l i s i n g a n d intellectual n i t p i c k i n g of the D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y , a n d choose i n s t e a d u n c r i t i cal acceptance of the M a s t e r D i s c o u r s e f r o m the o r g a n i s a t i o n w i t h w h i c h they trained. A c c o r d i n g to L a c a n , discourse a l w a y s takes place i n the u n e a s y space b e t w e e n irresistible force a n d i m m o v a b l e object—or, to use his o w n terms, b e t w e e n i m p o t e n c e a n d impossibility. U s i n g this theory, t h e n , it b e c o m e s clear that l e a r n i n g is a l w a y s i n c o m p l e t e . L e a r n i n g m a y i n d e e d take place as a process, b u t its results c a n n o t necessarily be categorised or a s c e r t a i n e d — t h a t w o u l d be ' c o n d i t i o n i n g ' . L e a r n i n g a p p e a r s as a n effect i n the r e a l — h e n c e the feeling of u n r e a c h a b i l i t y a n d h o p e l e s s n e s s w h i c h , i n a m y s t e r i o u s w a y , is part a n d p a r c e l of the j o y of
the search i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g s o m e t h i n g new.
For
example,
e n c o u n t e r i n g the w o r k of L a c a n p r o d u c e s a n anxiety that I can n e v e r r e a d e n o u g h of his w o r k to feel that I h a v e sufficiently u n d e r s t o o d the c o m p l e x i t y of his t h o u g h t . So w h a t c a n w e d o i n the face of this anxiety? I t h i n k that R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s offers u s a p o i n t e r i n his q u a l i f y i n g r e m a r k : ' C o n s i d e r i n g o n l y h o w m u c h has b e e n h a n d e d d o w n to u s , a n d h o w v a r i o u s it a c t u a l l y is...' ( W i l l i a m s 1976: 319). P e r h a p s w e s h o u l d l o o k at that p a r t of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c h i s t o r y that does not f o r m part of t o d a y ' s t r a d i t i o n a l teaching of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y . I p r o p o s e w e d i p into the c a p a c i o u s d u s t b i n of B r i t i s h p s y c h o a n a l y t i c history, because there, I t h i n k , are s o m e interesting p i c k i n g s . F o r instance, i n the section of the C o n t r o v e r s i a l D i s c u s s i o n s d e v o t e d to t e c h n i q u e , E l l a S h a r p e has this to say about ' c u r e ' :
Kirsty Hall
153
T w e n t y - t w o y e a r s ago I w a s n e v e r d o m i n a t e d b y the desire to c u r e , o n l y to u n d e r s t a n d . C u r e w a s for m e a n a c c o m p a n i m e n t of r e v e a l i n g the h i d d e n causes of illness. Interpretations w e r e s i m p l e a n d w e n t n o further t h a n m y direct u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the bit of w o r k I w a s e n g a g e d u p o n . I r e g a r d e d transference as the m e e t i n g p l a c e of present a n d past e m o t i o n a l fixations a n d the e x p r e s s i o n of hostile transference e v e n m o r e l i b e r a t i n g to the p s y c h e t h a n the infantile p o s i t i v e one. Transference w a s to be u s e d for one p u r p o s e o n l y the l e v e r i n g of the r e p r e s s e d into c o n s c i o u s n e s s , o n e h a d n o other use for it. I b e l i e v e d i n r e a l parents, as w e l l as i m a g o s , i n real events as w e l l as i m a g i n a r y ones. I b e l i e v e d , as I still d o , that phantasy, h o w e v e r h o r r i f i c , m u s t be easier for the p e r s o n r i d d e n b y phantasy, t h a n r e a l i t y I h a d to u n d e r s t a n d w h y a n d w h e r e a n d h o w the t w o w e r e associated i n a space-time w o r l d . I b e l i e v e d a n d still b e l i e v e i n F r e u d ' s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n that the a n a l y s t s h o u l d content h i m s e l f w i t h the m o t t o of a n o l d s u r g e o n : 'Je le p a n s a i , D i e u le g u e r i t ' . [I c a r e d for h i m , G o d c u r e d h i m . ] T h e r e is s o m e t h i n g not d u e to us, h o w e v e r s k i l f u l w e m a y be, w h e n a patient achieves a cure, a n d w e m u s t b o w to reality a n d a c k n o w l e d g e there are illnesses that c a n n o t be c u r e d . A n analyst of o u r Society s a i d to m e quite s e r i o u s l y not l o n g a g o , ' O n l y the l i m i t a t i o n s of t i m e p r e v e n t s the cure of all p s y c h i c a l d i s o r d e r s ' . T h a t belief is n o t c o n s o n a n t w i t h reality, its reference is to eterni ty. ( K i n g & Steiner 1991:
642)
M a n y p r a c t i t i o n e r s m a y f i n d m u c h to disagree w i t h i n this state m e n t , n o t a b l y p e r h a p s its u n q u e s t i o n i n g use of the w o r d s ' r e a l ' a n d ' r e a l i t y ' . H o w e v e r , w h a t I f i n d s t r i k i n g is E l l a S h a r p e ' s v e r y realistic (if I d a r e use the t e r m here) a p p r o a c h to w h a t she thinks p s y c h o a n a l y s i s c a n d o a n d w h a t is b e y o n d it. T h i s is a r e a l i s m b o r n e of a n a p p r e c i a t i o n of the l i m i t a t i o n s of k n o w l e d g e — t h e k n o w l e d g e of the subject, about the subject, a n d — e q u a l l y — o f the analyst a n d his or her p a r t i c u l a r the o r y o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s . E l l a S h a r p e d o e s n o t strike m e as a w o m a n w h o w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y appreciate L a c a n ' s d i s c o u r s e t h e o r y B u t then a g a i n , p e r h a p s she m i g h t , c o n s i d e r i n g that, after t w e n t y - t w o years, she still refuses to b e l i e v e that the analyst s h o u l d o c c u p y the p o s i t i o n of the Master.
154
The Dogs Temper
T o r e t u r n to the state o f B r i t i s h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s : h a v e n ' t w e all taken o u r collective eyes off the ball? P s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y are attempts to r e s p o n d to h u m a n suffering. S o m e k i n d of t h e o r y i n f o r m s the m a n y a n d v a r i e d a p p r o a c h e s to these practices. C o m p e t i n g theo ries often p r o p o s e c o m p l e t e l y different a p p r o a c h e s to the s a m e k i n d of p r o b l e m ; the l a n g u a g e u s e d to o u t l i n e a t h e o r y often v a r i e s w i l d l y f r o m that o f a n o t h e r ' a n d , frequently, t h e o r y is i m p l i c i t rather t h a n explicit. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n spite o f these often h u g e differences, there i s , I t h i n k , a c o m m o n a l i t y of p u r p o s e . W e n e e d K i n g s a n d Q u e e n s as w e l l as P a g e s — o r p e r h a p s w e n e e d a d e m o c r a c y of s o m e k i n d — a n a t m o s p h e r e w h e r e t h e o r y p l a y s a n active role i n the e d u c a t i o n of p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s , w h e r e d i s c u s s i o n , a r g u m e n t a n d e v e n c r i t i c i s m leaves a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t thinking (rather t h a n bitten b y L e w i s C a r r o l l ' s d o g ) . If the t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n o f analysts a n d therapists c o n t i n u e s i n its p r e s e n t d i r e c t i o n , t h e n the d e m i s e o f p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o t h e r a p y is a possibility. T h e y w i l l b e r e p l a c e d b y p i l l s , o r — p e r h a p s — g e n e t h e r a p y rather t h a n p s y c h o - t h e r a p y . B u t sadly, I t h i n k , h u m a n suffer i n g i n its m y r i a d f o r m s w i l l persist. Notes Throughout this chapter all references to psychoanalysts and psychoanalysis should be taken to include psychoanalytic psychotherapists and psychoanalytic psychotherapy and vice versa. There are, of course, many arguments about the distinguishing features of these terms, but these are not within the purview of this paper. 1
2 To illustrate my point the reader might profitably compare two books published in 1999. The first is Female Sexuality: the Early Psychoanalytic Controversies (Grigg 1999) which contains a collection of papers, all written prior to the Second World War. The second is Psychoanalytic Understanding of Violence and Suicide (Josef Perelberg 1999) in which all the papers were writ ten during the 1990s. There is no coherent attempt in the latter to delineate the link between violence to another person and violence to oneself. This is simply assumed. Equally, there is no attempt to understand the sociology of suicide using psychoanalytic tools, for example: why there has been an increase in the rate of suicide among young men. On the other hand, in the former book, the issue of defining the psychoanalytic meanings of 'castration', and the implications of this for female sexuality, for malejfemale relationships and clinical practice, is at the very heart of the book. 3 I have chosen this extract partly to indicate how universal the debate about psychoanalyt ic training has become, since Kernberg acknowledges here that he is echoing the views of the British psychoanalyst, Ronald Britton (1994). 4 The most vivid example which comes to mind is the unpleasant scrap going on between the rival registration bodies in Britain. The British Confederation of Psychotherapists is prepared to argue that their registrants are 'better' because, they allege, they see their patients more times a week than their rivals in the United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy. One does not need to turn to a philosopher or a psychoanalyst for a convincing demonstration of the futility of this argument. George Orwell expresses it most succinctly near the end of Animal
Kirsty
Hall
155
Farm when the pigs stand on their hind legs and chant: Tour legs good, two legs better' (Orwell 1989).
5 I have in mind such papers as The Nature and Function of Phantasy' by Susan Isaacs
(1943), and 'The Therapeutic Effect of Inexact Interpretation: A Contribution to the Theory of
Suggestion', by Edward Glover (1955).
6 A careful examination of any part of the debates concerning the papers written for the
Controversial Discussions reveals subtle as well as extreme differences of opinion between
those who took part. It is striking that few of the contributors are content to play the role of
the Page. Very little was taken for granted during the discussions, and each participant was
willing to take the risk of being criticised as well as criticising. A good example is the pro
longed series of debates which followed Susan Isaacs' paper The Nature and Function o f
Fantasy' (see King & Steiner 1991:322-475), although it should be noted that Isaacs' paper is
also available in other, significantly different versions (see Isaacs 1948, and Klein et al 1952).
^ This paper does not seek to challenge the notion that a training analysis is an essential part
of learning to be a psychoanalyst. It would seem it is indeed essential to have first-hand expe
rience of that which one seeks to pass on to others.
^ Bruce Fink's book A Clinical Introduction to Lacanian Theory and Practice (1997) is excellent in
many respects but has begun to show signs of tradition creeping in with the telltale use o f
words such as 'must', 'ought' and 'should'.
F R O M T H E DESIRE F O R K N O W L E D G E T O T H E
JOUISSANCE OF LEARNING: A N APPROACH T O
LACAN'S
THEORY
1
Teresa Celdran N o matter h o w m a n y times w e go a r o u n d the matter, i n the e n d l e a r n i n g is n o m o r e t h a n a w a n t i n g to k n o w s o m e t h i n g m o r e a b o u t oneself. W e n e v e r e m e r g e f r o m n a r c i s s i s m — t h a t w o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e — b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s there is 'the s o c i a l ' , 'the c o m m u n i t y ' . T h e r e is also love, for e x a m p l e . A n d this is just as w e l l . . . T h e 'extra s o m e t h i n g ' , this a d d i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e of b e i n g w h i c h , once p u t into w o r d s 'for i t s e l f , is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a k n o w l e d g e 'for u s ' , 'for the c o m m u n i t y ' , to the extent that the subject f o r m s p a r t of the ' w e ' as w e l l as of the ' o n e ' . T h e o n e w h i c h articulates the message i n a ' s a y i n g ' , then, states s o m e t h i n g of the t r u t h a b o u t itself, s o m e t h i n g definite a b o u t the t r u t h of its desire. In other w o r d s , it says s o m e t h i n g a b o u t that w h i c h it k n o w s . T h i s ' s a y i n g ' , structured t h r o u g h the s y s t e m of l a n g u a g e , therefore becomes intelligible—or
intelligent.
W e m a y b e t a l k i n g n o n s e n s e here,
b u t at the s a m e time the n o n s e n s e b e c o m e s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , c o n c e i v able for those others w h o m — b y a p a r a d o x of l a n g u a g e — w e d e n o t e as s i m i l a r , as o u r f e l l o w creatures. H o w e v e r i n this d i s c o u r s e o n the t r u t h o f its desire, the subject b e c o m e s a l i e n a t e d f r o m itself. T h e subject a p p e a r s a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r s a l o n g the p a t h w a y s of l a n g u a g e , like a r i v e r r u n n i n g a l o n g its s o l i d b e d , o n l y to lose itself b e l o w g r o u n d . T h i s is h o w w o r d s w o r k : the s u b ject is filtered through t h e m , a n d i n the process eludes itself, is w i t h d r a w n f r o m itself. H o w m a n y times w e say s o m e t h i n g different f r o m w h a t w e w a n t e d to say, o r else s o m e t h i n g m o r e — o r l e s s — t h a n w e h a d b e e n t h i n k i n g ! It is so difficult to say the r i g h t t h i n g , to f i n d the right w o r d . T o s a y the right w o r d w o u l d be to assert, to e n u n c i a t e : it w o u l d be a n act. Its consequence. A creation. C r e a t i o n i n w h a t e v e r f o r m , a p p e a r s as a n effect of a t r u t h of the s u b ject. It is the re-encounter of the subject w i t h itself i n s o m e t h i n g it h a d lost. C o n s i d e r : to l e a r n is to
investigate.
It is to circle a r o u n d , getting
closer a n d closer to the lost object, u n t i l w e a p p r e h e n d it, seize it, a n d t h e n — o n l y once it has b e e n g r a s p e d ; i n d e e d , precisely t h e n — t o realise that, once a g a i n , it w a s n o t quite w h a t w e w e r e l o o k i n g for.
Teresa Celdran To l e a r n is to invent.
157
It is to i n v e n t a p r o c e d u r e for ' c o m i n g to realise'
s o m e t h i n g that h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n u n s a i d . B u t w h e n one arrives at that p o i n t , after the s u r p r i s e of the d i s c o v e r y is it n o t a l w a y s the case that there h a d b e e n s o m e t h i n g of that k n o w l e d g e already
there before
h a n d ? S o m e t h i n g w h i c h connects the h i s t o r y of the siibject w i t h a n O t h e r t h i n g , a n a l i e n O t h e r w h i c h is at the s a m e t i m e the subject's o w n ? It w o u l d s e e m , t h e n , that all k n o w l e d g e is i n s c r i b e d i n a d o u b l e d i m e n s i o n , b o t h h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y , w h i c h connects the i n d i v i d u a l w i t h m y t h a n d w i t h science, f r o m time i m m e m o r i a l . If to l e a r n is to realise this k n o w l e d g e , t h e n to t e a c h is to 'transfer', to ' g i v e a n a c c o u n t ' of that k n o w l e d g e . T o teach is to tell w h a t one k n o w s , so that it passes f r o m one to the other. H o w e v e r , not e v e r y t h i n g that is k n o w n is transferred. T h e object of transfer(ence) is o n l y that part of subjective k n o w l e d g e w h i c h , as p a r t of the t r u t h about oneself, goes b e y o n d the frontiers of subjectivity a n d arrives at the other i n the f o r m of a message. T h e message, that w h i c h c o m e s f r o m the other, f r o m w h a t h e says, reaches us a n d is a l w a y s the result of a d e c i p h e r e d code. T h e transfer(ence) creates k n o w l e d g e . T h e s o l u t i o n to one s u b ject's e n i g m a then e n g e n d e r s a n o t h e r ' s (the other's) s o l u t i o n . T h e y are different, b u t are c o n n e c t e d , since they originate f r o m a c o m m o n place. S o m e t h i n g like this h a p p e n s i n the case of m y t h s , l e g e n d s , a n d p o p ular tales w h i c h h a v e b e e n transmitted f r o m g e n e r a t i o n to g e n e r a t i o n d o w n the centuries. T h e s e tales s u r v i v e , i n o r a l o r w r i t t e n traditions, n o t so m u c h because their (hi)story has c o n t e m p o r a r y interest, b u t because it has a value.
T h e y are a n e c h o of a n i n n e r v o i c e f r o m the
d e p t h s of time w h i c h p a r t i a l l y lifts the v e i l s that c o v e r the t r u t h l o c k e d u p i n the h u m a n heart. M o d e r n times h a v e created another f o r m of h o p e a n d i l l u s i o n : the ' r a t i o n a l subject'. T h e activity of this subject of k n o w l e d g e has s u p p l a n t e d the 'authentic subject' as s u c h b y m e a n s of R e a s o n . T h i s s p e a k i n g - b e i n g (parletre)
legislates the t r u t h of t h i n g s — e v e n the t r u t h of the
subject itself. H a v i n g a s s u m e d the task of p r o d u c i n g these ' t r u e ' state m e n t s , the r a t i o n a l subject has elevated itself to the d i g n i t y of the epis temological
subject, w h i c h decrees b y a n d for itself ( a n d not for another)
w h a t is ' p r o p e r ' to true k n o w l e d g e . H o w e v e r , this r a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e , this d i s c o u r s e of r e a s o n , w h i c h achieves its greatest e x p r e s s i o n i n s c i entific d i s c o u r s e , t u r n s out instead to be the m o s t perfect instance of those i m a g i n i n g s of the 'ego', w o r k i n g i n the service of a n Ideal a n d u s u r p i n g the place of the 'authentic e g o ' of the subject.
158
From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning
L a c a n d e s c r i b e d this scientific r a t i o n a l i s m as 'the D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y ' (see F i n k 1995: 132-3). F r o m its p e r s p e c t i v e of s u p p o s e d l y a b s o l u t e k n o w l e d g e , it reaches its p o i n t of greatest suture w i t h its p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o n 'the truth of the subject' a n d o n 'authentic k n o w l e d g e ' . T h e D i s c o u r s e of the U n i v e r s i t y is a ' g a g ' o n s c i e n c e — t h a t is, o n the k n o w l e d g e of the O n e , w h i c h , s t r u c t u r e d b y the d i s c o u r s e of l a n g u a g e , is transferred to another b y the truth o f the message. In other w o r d s , for L a c a n , the ' t r u t h ' c a n o n l y be h a l f - s a i d . F o r h i m ' a b s o l u t e k n o w l e d g e ' is s o m e t h i n g w h i c h , b y d e f i n i t i o n , is lost for ever. T h i s is a k e y ; a reference to the u n c o n s c i o u s . . . In a desperate effort to d e n y that p o i n t of the emptiness of reason, w h i c h constitutes the true essence o f knowledge,
scientific discourse
generates
instead
an
unrestrained
d a n c e of theories w h i c h , i n e v e r - w i d e n i n g c o n c e n t r i c circles, distances the subject f r o m the roots of its history. C o n t r o l o v e r k n o w l e d g e , a n d the a c c u m u l a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e as a c o n s u m e r i t e m , is w h a t c o m e s to constitute the i n h e r i t a n c e of k n o w l e d g e , a n d is e x p r e s s e d as a k i n d o f
greed.
R a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e cut off f r o m its u n c o n s c i o u s roots b e c o m e s
d i s t o r t e d to the p o i n t of charade, a n d m a l i g n a n t to the p o i n t of i m p o s ture. Farcically, the subject, alienated i n a c h a i n of ' s a y i n g s ' , represents itself t r y i n g to i g n o r e the u n c o n s c i o u s o r i g i n of its desire a n d the puis
sances
(or 'enjoyments') w h i c h s u r r o u n d it.
*** T h e three g r a n d p r i n c i p l e s at the basis of the o r i g i n a l i t y a n d scope of F r e u d ' s discoveries w e r e r e f o r m u l a t e d b y L a c a n as the three d i m e n s i o n s w h i c h structure subjectivity:
desire, language,
and
the unconscious.
F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , questions c o n c e r n i n g l e a r n i n g , a n d its conse q u e n t c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n as a p r o b l e m p e r t a i n i n g to the t r a n s m i s s i o n of k n o w l e d g e , c a n be u n d e r s t o o d i n terms of the e n e r g y and. i n t e r a c t i o n of these three d i m e n s i o n s . It w a s f r o m structuralist t h e o r y that L a c a n a d o p t e d the p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h m i g h t define a n d e x p l a i n the c o n d i t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l as s p e a k i n g - b e i n g . It is l a n g u a g e w h i c h constitutes the s t r u c t u r a l differ ence of the s p e a k i n g b e i n g f r o m a l l other l i v i n g creatures. T h e struc turalist attitude p r e s u p p o s e s a different strategy for t h i n k i n g a b o u t objects, w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y reveals r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n those objects that m i g h t n o t be i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s . It entails the a b a n d o n m e n t of a ' r a t i o n a l ' or ' p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l '
d e s c r i p t i o n of the n a t u r e of
the
objects, their properties a n d their qualities, i n f a v o u r of u n c o v e r i n g the
Teresa Celdran
159
a p p a r e n t l y d i s g u i s e d relations that exist between t h e m , or b e t w e e n their elements. Jean Piaget d e f i n e d 'structure' as a l a w - g o v e r n e d s y s t e m of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , w h i c h is p r e s e r v e d a n d e n r i c h e d b y the v e r y p l a y of those t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , b u t w h i c h does not, h o w e v e r , extend b e y o n d its o w n b o u n d a r i e s o r refer to n o v e l or external elements (Piaget 1973). A s t r u c ture h a s three m a i n characteristics: totality, transformation,
a n d self-reg
ulation. A c c o r d i n g to Piaget, the totality of a structure p r e s u p p o s e s that t h e u n i o n o f elements is n o t e q u i v a l e n t to their s u m . T h e n o t i o n of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , m e a n w h i l e , i m p l i e s the existence a n d o p e r a t i o n of internal l a w s . F i n a l l y , self-regulation, w h i c h is the essential characteristic of the structure, a s s u m e s m a i n t e n a n c e of these internal l a w s o v e r a n d a b o v e those transformations a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h i n the s y s t e m , s u c h that a n y e l e m e n t r e s u l t i n g f r o m the c o m b i n a t i o n of p r e v i o u s elements w i l l c o n stitute a further, integrated element o f the selfsame s y s t e m ,
adapted
t o — i n d e e d , subjected t o — t h e l a w s b y w h i c h it operates. In other w o r d s , the structure is a stable s y s t e m , a n effect of a n e l e m e n t a r y order, w h i c h b y the o p e r a t i o n of certain l a w s functions so as to achieve a f o r m a l result. T h i s d e f i n i t i o n of structure, w h i c h has s p r e a d t h r o u g h e v e r y s c i e n tific f i e l d i n the course of its c o n c e p t u a l itinerary, has its roots i n m a t h e m a t i c a l logic. Gestalt P s y c h o l o g y is a subsequent echo of it. T h e w o r k c a r r i e d o u t b y F e r d i n a n d d e Saussure (1983) i n the f i e l d of s t r u c t u r a l l i n g u i s t i c s b e c a m e extremely useful i n the s t u d y of l a n g u a g e as t h e basis of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . L a c a n a d o p t e d certain elements f r o m this w o r k i n o r d e r to articulate the relationship b e t w e e n the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d l a n g u a g e — t h a t is, to say s o m e t h i n g a b o u t the structure o f the s u b ject itself. L a n g u a g e is articulated a l o n g t w o axes; o n e m i g h t also s a y that l a n g u a g e is ' d i v i d e d ' a c c o r d i n g to these axes. T h e syntagmatic
axis r e p r e
sents the d i a c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n of l a n g u a g e , its historicity a n d u n f o l d i n g o v e r t i m e (Saussure 1983: 121ff). T h i s is the axis of s p e e c h
(parole),
w h i c h is b a s e d o n a n a r t i c u l a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c unities that s u c c e e d o n e another i n a c o m b i n a t o r y order. F r o m this aspect of l a n g u a g e is b o r n w h a t L a c a n refers to as ' t h e s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n ' ( L a c a n 1977: 153), if w e u n d e r s t a n d b y this a p h o n e m i c c h a i n i n a t e m p o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g concept w i t h i n d i s c o u r s e of this s y n t a g m a t i c axis of l a n g u a g e is the o p e r a t i o n of metonymy
( L a c a n 1977:
156-7,164).
160 The
From the Desire for Knowledge to the fouissance of Learning paradigmatic axis,
o n the other h a n d , represents the s y n c h r o n i c
aspect of l a n g u a g e : its state taken as a w h o l e i n the present (Saussure 1983: 87ff). It is the axis of l a n g u a g e
(langue)
moment
w h o s e basis is
the s i g n . It enables the selection of l i n g u i s t i c unities a c c o r d i n g to a r e l a t i o n of s i m i l a r i t y or resemblance, w h i c h gives rise to the processes of
metaphor
a n d to their c o r r e s p o n d i n g role i n s i g n i f i c a t i o n ( L a c a n
1977:
156-7, 164). D i s c o u r s e d e v e l o p s effectively t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h these types of operation—metaphor a n d metonymy. T h e f o r m e r
comprises
s e m a n t i c ' c o n d e n s a t i o n s ' of terms a c c o r d i n g to s i m i l a r i t y — ' t h e g o l d of y o u r h a i r ' , for instance, w h e r e the s i m i l a r h u e of the p r e c i o u s m e t a l a n d the tresses of the b e l o v e d facilitates a ' c o n d e n s a t i o n ' of the t w o terms. T h e latter c o m p r i s e s linguistic ' d i s p l a c e m e n t s ' , b a s e d o n c o n t i g u i t y — f o r e x a m p l e , 'a glass of s h e r r y ' , w h e r e the d r i n k is referred to i n terms of the vessel w h i c h contains it. L a n g u a g e is thus the result of a n articulation between
langue
and
parole.
A n act w h i c h is a c o n s e q u e n c e
of the o p e r a t i o n of a structure. It is the act of a subject, the subject of
parole, of s p e e c h ; the act of the s p e a k i n g - b e i n g . H o w e v e r , this interpretation of h u m a n l a n g u a g e as constituted b y signifiers a n d signifieds is n o t as s i m p l e as it m i g h t first appear. T h a t w h i c h w e call ' r e a s o n ' c o n t i n u a l l y escapes f r o m it. T h e r a t i o n a l m o d e l , the r e a s o n a b l e m o d e l , w o u l d — i d e a l l y — b e that of a l e x i c o n . T h e i d e a l of p s y c h o l o g y , l i k e w i s e , is that one d a y it m i g h t b e c o m e master of that strange v a r i a b l e 'the u n c o n s c i o u s ' , a n d c h a i n it to the a c a d e m i c order. I n d e e d , A l d o u s H u x l e y d r e a m e d of s o m e t h i n g l i k e this i n Brave New World (1994), b u t d i d n o t go quite so far as to s p e l l it out. P e r h a p s he lost h o p e o n the r o a d of reflection, o r p e r h a p s he w a s not quite so blind. L a c a n , i n contrast, d e p l o y e d the structuralist strategy w i t h i n the f i e l d of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s i n o r d e r to t r y a n d e x p l a i n the m e a n i n g of l a n g u a g e , a n d its consequences. T h e results of his w o r k i n c l u d e d a r a d i c a l shift w i t h i n m e t a p s y c h o l o g i c a l
epistemology.
S a u s s u r e ' s o r i g i n a l structural a l g o r i t h m w a s b a s e d o n a transfor m a t i o n of the n o t i o n of the linguistic s i g n . H e p r o p o s e d that the s i g n j o i n e d a concept w i t h a sound-image a n d n o t — a s h a d b e e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h o u g h t — a ' t h i n g ' w i t h a ' w o r d ' (Saussure
1983:
66), F u r t h e r m o r e ,
a c c o r d i n g to Saussure, the s o u n d - i m a g e is not the 'trace of the m a t e r i al s o u n d ' , as Piaget w a s to c l a i m (cf. T r a n - T h o n g 1967), b u t rather its
psychical
trace: it is the
mental
representation of the t h i n g . It is a testi
m o n y to o u r senses, a sensory i m a g e — o r , better still, a n interpretation.
Teresa Celdran
161
T h e l i n g u i s t i c s i g n is thus p r e s e n t e d b y Saussure as a p s y c h i c entity that relates a concept to a s o u n d - i m a g e . G i v e n that the latter is n o l o n g e r s o m e t h i n g p u r e l y m a t e r i a l — ' t h e s o u n d i t s e l f — b u t instead its representation, S a u s s u r e c h a n g e d its d e s i g n a t i o n to ' s i g n i f i e r ' , w h i c h c o u l d b e t a k e n to m e a n 'that w h i c h carries the content of s i g n i f i c a t i o n ' . F o r the s a m e r e a s o n , its c o u n t e r p a r t , the ' s i g n i f i e d ' , w a s also d i l u t e d into a less precise c o n f i g u r a t i o n , to the extent that it m i g h t b e taken to refer to ' a n e v o c a t i o n of the object', rather t h a n to the object i n itself. T h e e v o l u t i o n o f the s c h e m a S a u s s u r e p r o p o s e d is as f o l l o w s :
Concept
Word
Sound-image
T h i s relationship of o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o elements reveals a p r o p e r t y of the s i g n w h i c h L a c a n d e s c r i b e d as 'the a u t o n o m y of the signifier w i t h respect to the s i g n i f i e d ' . T h e relationship is not f i x e d b e f o r e h a n d b y a n y d i c t i o n a r y or l e x i c o n , b u t is instead variable
rather
than pre-established. T h e s e t w o p r o p e r t i e s of l a n g u a g e — f i r s t l y , its s t r u c t u r a l d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y as p r i n c i p l e s of c o n s t r u c t i o n ; a n d , secondly, the v a l u e of the s i g n — l e a d to a f u n d a m e n t a l p o i n t i n L a c a n ' s theory, n a m e l y the p r i m a c y o f the signifier over the s i g n i f i e d , a n d the attendant consequences
of this for the f o r m a t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s
( L a c a n 1968). In other w o r d s , the f u n d a m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n
psychology
a n d the c o n c e p t i o n of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w h i c h L a c a n p r o p o s e d , lies p r e cisely i n the significance p l a c e d o n the s p o k e n c h a i n . F r o m a p u r e l y r a t i o n a l p o i n t of v i e w , Saussure's t h e o r y w o u l d l e a d us to a c o n c e p t i o n of l a n g u a g e as a ' d o u b l e c h a i n ' — o f concepts a n d of s o u n d - i m a g e s — s u c h that a n y cut i n the c h a i n of s o u n d - i m a g e s w o u l d b e taken to c o r r e s p o n d exactly w i t h a s u b s e q u e n t cut i n the c h a i n of concepts, o n the basis of the p r i n c i p l e of a o n e - t o - o n e relationship b e t w e e n signifier a n d s i g n i f i e d . I n d e e d , S a u s s u r e ' s v e r y n o t i o n of the l i n g u i s t i c s i g n w o u l d s e e m to l e a d to this s a m e i d e a (cf. S a u s s u r e l 9 8 3 : 110-1). I n effect, if w e c o n s i d e r the s i g n as s o m e t h i n g w h i c h e v o k e s the i d e a of another t h i n g i n o n e ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e n w e m i g h t i m a g i n e that e v e r y time w e e n c o u n t e r a signifier, S , i n the s p o k e n c h a i n , then this signifier is n e c 1
essarily c o n n e c t e d to a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n i f i e d , s . T h i s w o u l d g u a r 1
antee a significance for the s i g n i n itself, w h o s e v a l u e w o u l d then c o n
From the Desire for Knozvledge to the Jouissance of Learning
162
sist i n g r a n t i n g a signification as a c o n s e q u e n c e
of the r e l a t i o n s h i p
i n v o l v e d b e t w e e n the t w o terms. B u t w e all k n o w that this is not h o w things h a p p e n . L i n g u i s t i c c o m p r e h e n s i o n d e p e n d s c r u c i a l l y o n context. T o s a y this reveals that the l i n guistic s i g n exists o n l y as a f u n c t i o n of other signs, o r — t o p u t it a n o t h er w a y — t h a t the linguistic s i g n o n l y assumes v a l u e w i t h i n a s t r u c t u r e d e n s e m b l e o f other signs. O n l y i n this context c a n it establish m e a n i n g a n d offer a signification. T h e character o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p established b y the s i g n w i t h a l l these other signs d e p e n d s o n its contextual p o s i t i o n . I n this sense, a s i g n is o p p o s e d to all the others as a differentiated e l e m e n t , b u t at the same time is also subject to the rules w h i c h o r d e r the s p o k e n c h a i n . T h u s , l a n g u a g e c a n o n l y b e u n d e r s t o o d as a struc t u r a l s y s t e m w h i c h emerges f r o m a series o f d i v i s i o n s i n t r o d u c e d b y the s i g n into the a m o r p h o u s mass o f the p h o n e m i c c h a i n . T h e s e d i v i s i o n s constitute a cut; it is the v e r y structure of the linguistic s i g n that gives f o r m t o — w h i c h cuts a n d l i m i t s — t h e m a s s of l a n g u a g e . F r o m this cut the signifier is b o r n a n d , w i t h it, words. In the m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of l a n g u a g e f r o m w h i c h w e all suffer f r o m t i m e to time {only ' f r o m t i m e to time'?) w e c a n see reflected the c r u c i a l role of the context a n d v a l u e of the s i g n w h e n it c o m e s to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p r o b l e m s of c o m m u n i cation. W e all k n o w that t w o different signifiers c a n b e l i n k e d to a s i n gle s o u n d i m a g e , w h o s e signification c a n o n l y be c i r c u m s c r i b e d b y the s i g n — ' m u l e ' a n d ' m e w l ' , for instance. A l l o f this has to b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n a context, w h i c h is the site w i t h i n w h i c h l a n g u a g e operates a n d the c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h it operates. H e r e , precisely, is the p o i n t at w h i c h p s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d p s y c h o l o g y d i v e r g e irreparably. T h e i r w a y s o f r e a d i n g the context a n d the v a l u e a s c r i b e d to the s i g n o r i g i n a t e — q u i t e l i t e r a l l y — f r o m d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d places. D e s p i t e the fact that p s y c h o l o g y a n d p s y c h o a n a l y s i s use the s a m e terms to describe their objects, w h a t is s a i d is so v e r y dif ferent that the m e t h o d s a n d the objectives of their respective ethical a p p r o a c h e s are also r a d i c a l l y divergent. P s y c h o l o g y starts f r o m a f r a m e w o r k w h i c h deals w i t h w h a t is ' r a t i o n a l ' . R e a s o n is the p r i n c i p l e w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s its m e t h o d a n d its c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n o f the p r o b l e m s of b e h a v i o u r . Its p h i l o s o p h y is b a s e d o n control—control
over variables, the f i l i n g of d a t a , the e v a l u a t i o n o f
results, a n d so o n . T h i s is reflected i n its s o - c a l l e d 'scientific m e t h o d ' , w h i c h is b a s e d o n the i d e a l o f b e i n g able to s a y e v e r y t h i n g a n d to u n d e r s t a n d e v e r y t h i n g about b e i n g h u m a n , a n d thus ('thus'?) to a d a p t man
to its a i m s , w h i c h i n c l u d e control over its object.
However,
163
Teresa Celdran
because the u n c o n s c i o u s is at the basis of all the processes of l e a r n i n g , p s y c h o l o g y is l e d into a c u l d e sac b y this a p p r o a c h . W i t h o u t w i s h i n g to d e m e a n the w o r k of n u m e r o u s a u t h o r s , espe c i a l l y those b e l o n g i n g to the R u s s i a n a n d G e n e v a Schools of p s y c h o l o gy, s u c h as Piaget, W a l l o n , V y g o t s k y , L e o n t i e v , L u r i a , P a v l o v , et a l . , all of w h o m h a v e m a d e serious c o n t r i b u t i o n s to d e t e r m i n e d a n d system atic s t u d i e s of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r , nevertheless I t h i n k it is true to say that the general a p p r o a c h of c o n t e m p o r a r y p s y c h o l o g y is c o n s p i c u o u s l y u n a b l e to a n s w e r the
f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n : ' W h a t is M a n ?
7
It is
e q u a l l y u n a b l e to g i v e a n a c c o u n t of h u m a n particularities, s i m p l y because
it cannot s e e — o r d o e s n o t w a n t
to u n d e r s t a n d — t h a t
the
m e a n i n g of b e h a v i o u r cannot be d e c i p h e r e d b y a r a t i o n a l interpreta t i o n of the s i g n , w h i c h conflates the terms ' s i g n i f i c a n c e ' a n d 'behav iour'. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the teaching of p s y c h o l o g y a n d its a p p l i c a t i o n leave the subject i n a state of a l i e n a t i o n f r o m itself. W h a t is essential to the structure of p s y c h o l o g y a c t u a l l y lies o u t s i d e it, a n d — w h a t is m o r e — d i s t u r b s the d i s c i p l i n e b y e s c a p i n g its c o n t r o l , so that p s y c h o l o g y is l e d to d e n y it, or to attempt to m a k e it d i s a p p e a r . T h i s m e r e l y a d d s one m o r e p r o b l e m to a n a l r e a d y essential p r o b l e m : it resolves n o t h i n g . In certain cases, this objective b e c o m e s a n i m p e r i o u s n e e d w h i c h comes close to b e i n g c o m i c a l . I c a n n o t resist the t e m p t a t i o n to quote several sections of a text b y C l a r e n c e B r o w n a n d E d w i n G i s e l l i , w h o were p r o fessors at the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a at Berkeley. T h e i r thesis is that n o s t u d e n t of p s y c h o l o g y s h o u l d d o u b t that the a p p l i c a t i o n of scientific m e t h o d w i l l h e l p to e l i m i n a t e all the 'false' a p p r o a c h e s to the s t u d y of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . Since I c o n s i d e r m y s e l f to be i n s o m e sense a ' s t u d e n t of p s y c h o l o g y ' , I w a s o n c e i n c l u d e d a m o n g those w h o were p r e s u m a b l y g o i n g to be r e s c u e d f r o m i g n o r a n c e a n d i n s t a l l e d i n the truth of science. I p r o m i s e d m y s e l f that I w o u l d r e a d the b o o k , a n d h a r b o u r e d the secret h o p e that a l l of p s y c h o l o g y ' s p r o b l e m s w o u l d be e l i m i n a t e d once a n d for a l l , a n d — w i t h t h e m , i n c i d e n t a l l y — a l l of m y o w n . In this b o o k w a s the r e c i p e , t h e n , h e a d e d w i t h j u i c y subtitles s u c h as: ' C o n t e m p o r a r y false theories of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r ' , 'Scientific s p i r its', ' C o m p a r i s o n of scientific spirits w i t h n o n - s c i e n t i f i c spirits': M o d e r n m a n has not freed h i m s e l f f r o m the use of i m a g i n a r y entities i n his attempts
to e x p l a i n his b e h a v i o u r . B u t m o d e r n
spirits are not a l w a y s p e r s o n i f i e d a n d h a v e a m o r e
abstract
n a t u r e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , they are still the p r o d u c t of the i m a g i n a
164
From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning
t i o n , c o n s t r u c t e d so as to g i v e easy a n s w e r s to difficult q u e s t i o n s
a n d are often e m p l o y e d i n the s a m e w a y that o u r
predecessors
u s e d spirits. F o r m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s , these m o d e r n spirits e x p l a i n
behaviour
satisfactorily,
a n d after
a l l , that is their
function.
( B r o w n & G i s e l l i 1965)
W e t h e n p a s s onto a n e n u m e r a t i o n of these ' s p i r i t s ' : ...destiny... chance... nature [!!]
...instinct, is another s p i r i t that is
a l r e a d y t i r e d a n d w o r n . . . inheritance... the e n v i r o n m e n t . . .
the
u n c o n s c i o u s , is a n o t h e r m o d e r n spirit of questionable r e p u t a t i o n
[I agree w i t h the adjective!], a p p a r e n t l y g r a n t e d all the functions
that the i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n b e i n g possesses... [likewise, I agree]
It is interesting to note that the spirits of the m a n of science a n d those of the l a y m a n are s i m i l a r i n one respect. T h e y are b o t h b o r n f r o m the i m a g i n a t i o n . . . H e e m p l o y s constructions that d o n o t refer to t h i n g s w h i c h are
really observable...
that is to s a y they
are b e y o n d s e n s o r y representation... In a s i m i l a r m a n n e r the l a y p e r s o n uses his i m a g i n a t i o n to postulate ghosts, spirits, elves or magical powers. ...the spirits of the scientist differ f r o m those of the n o n - s c i e n tist [what l u c k ! ] . T o b e g i n w i t h , scientific theories are not p e r s o n i f i e d . T h e y d o not consist of i m a g i n a r y p e r s o n s ,
great
or
They do not have the characteristics of human beings. They do not have desires. They do not experience emotions no do they have intentions. T h e y d o not h a v e to be p l a c a t e d l i k e the
s m a l l , g o o d or b a d .
g o d s of p r i m i t i v e tribes. Scientific theories are n o t reified concepts. T h e y d o not c o m e to life. F o r e x a m p l e , i n the h a n d s of s o m e p s y c h o a n a l y s t s
the
It is no longer a sim ple rational idea which helps to explain human behaviour. It is c o n c e p t of the u n c o n s c i o u s has b e e n reified.
d e s c r i b e d as t h o u g h it w e r e another p e r s o n e x i s t i n g i n s i d e the individual,
a person with desires
a n d a m b i t i o n s w h i c h differ f r o m
those of the i n d i v i d u a l . S u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is n o t far a w a y f r o m one w h i c h s u p p o s e s
the existence of spirits a n d
demons.
( B r o w n & G i s e l l i 1965, italics mine) If o n e l o o k s closely at this text, it says m o r e t h a n it a p p e a r s to say, e s p e c i a l l y w h e r e the
jouissance
of the w r i t e r is c o n c e r n e d . T a k e n f u r
ther, it c o u l d also serve to e x e m p l i f y s o m e t h i n g of L a c a n ' s n o t i o n of
Teresa Celdran
165
'the p r i m a c y of the s i g n i f i e r ' . In effect, if w e i n v e r t the s i g n , or take it o u t of the context i n w h i c h it is i n s c r i b e d , it c a n be r e a d against the g r a i n as a defence of p s y c h o a n a l y s i s , b y m e a n s of a critique of scientific m e t h o d . T h e signifieds are s u b o r d i n a t e to the signifier b y v i r t u e of the type of relation b e t w e e n the t w o w h i c h obtains w i t h i n the s i g n . T h e m e a n i n g of the text, h o w e v e r , is r e v e a l e d at that p o i n t w h e r e the 'cut' a p p e a r s — w h i c h L a c a n also d e s c r i b e d b y the t e r m
'point de caption',
or
' q u i l t i n g p o i n t ' ( L a c a n 1977:154). In other w o r d s , this is the place of the message. L a c a n u s e d this n o t i o n of the
'point de caption'
to
reformulate
S a u s s u r e ' s thesis a n d d e m o n s t r a t e that the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n signifier a n d s i g n i f i e d is established a posteriori, at the p o i n t of s i g n i f i c a t i o n , a n d that it is this w h i c h gives us the k e y to the message. In a d d i t i o n , this c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a l w a y s takes place i n d e p e n d e n t l y f r o m its d e c i p h e r m e n t . E v e r y d i s c o u r s e emits a message. It is n e v e r indifferent. T h u s i n o u r e x a m p l e , the text c o n t i n u e s to r u n t h r o u g h a n e q u i v o cal c o u r s e , i n the guise of a s a y i n g w h i c h does not k n o w itself, a n d w i t h a k n o w l e d g e that is u n s a i d . It is l i k e a fantasy w i t h o u t its o w n b e i n g — a spirit, p e r h a p s — i n the ineffable i n n o c e n c e of its o w n s t u p i d ity. H o w e v e r ,
at one
point, towards
the e n d
of
the
chapter,
the
m e d i o c r e tone of the d i s c o u r s e is i n t e r r u p t e d a n d r e p l a c e d b y a m u c h m o r e precise f o r m u l a t i o n : T h e scientist controls h i s theory. H e keeps it i n the service of his o w n problems a n d aims, and
makes it work for him.
(Brown &
G i s e l l i 1965, italics m i n e ) H e r e is the
'point de caption',
clearly stated. T h e theory of the scien
tist is n o t i n the service of the p r o b l e m s w h i c h the object poses, n o r i n the service of the scientific a i m s of a d v a n c e s the scientist's own
the i n v e s t i g a t i o n , but rather
a i m to m a k e another w o r k for h i m . A t this
p o i n t of the d i s c o u r s e , the little ' s p i r i t s ' h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , to
be
r e p l a c e d b y a m u c h m o r e a w e s o m e a n d d a n g e r o u s figure: the Master, L a c a n ' s ' d i s c o u r s e of the u n i v e r s i t y ' , w h i c h secures the k n o w l e d g e of science f r o m the m o u t h of a 'subject s u p p o s e d to k n o w ' , c a n u n d e r g o a twist t o w a r d s w h a t L a c a n calls the ' d i s c o u r s e of the m a s t e r ' (see F i n k 1995: 130-1). T h i s entails a n attitude w h i c h guarantees the enslavement of the other alienated b y its i g n o r a n c e ; the M a s t e r pontificates s h a m e lessly o n e v e r y t h i n g he misrecognises, or k n o w s n o t h i n g about, for the v e r y r e a s o n that it escapes his control. I n d e e d , H e g e T s dialectic of the
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From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning
m a s t e r a n d slave reveals that i n order to ensure the existence of his b e i n g , the m a s t e r ' s
d i s c o u r s e m u s t d e g r a d e or destroy e v e r y t h i n g
w h i c h w i l l not s u b m i t to h i m . W i t h these w o r d s , then, B r o w n a n d G i s e l l i close their chapter a n d s e n d their message: ...the F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s t has his o w n w h i m s to satisfy a n d h i s b e h a v i o u r cannot be anticipated. B e i n g u n p r e d i c t a b l e , those spirits
provide no sort of control...
their f u n c t i o n consists of
placing
obstacles in the way of thought or channelling it, so that it becomes easier to accept stereotypes a n d one is d i s c o u r a g e d f r o m t a k i n g o n b o a r d a n d c o n s i d e r i n g n e w ideas. ( B r o w n & G i s e l l i 1965)
T h e s u b v e r t e d message of this text opens u p for us the q u e s t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h L a c a n construes as ' s t r u c t u r e d like a l a n g u a g e ' ( L a c a n 1979: 149). T h i s l a n g u a g e , i n its current, s y n c h r o n i c aspect, is f o r m e d o n the basis of operations of metaphor. M e t a p h o r , a c c o r d i n g to l i n g u i s t i c s , is a c o n d e n s a t i o n , the d e s i g n a t i o n of s o m e t h i n g b y m e a n s of another t h i n g . F o r L a c a n , m e t a p h o r is n o t h i n g b u t the s u b s t i t u t i o n of signifiers; a matter of one signifier b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y another. T h e process of m e t a p h o r therefore p r o d u c e s m e a n i n g w i t h i n d i s c o u r s e precisely b y v i r t u e of b e i n g w h e r e it o u g h t not to be.
A
m e t a p h o r is the a p p e a r a n c e of a signifier w h e r e it is not e x p e c t e d ; the m e t a p h o r i c signifier substitutes for another, w h i c h is t h e n s u b v e r t e d . In m e t a p h o r the true, literal signifier b e c o m e s lost i n the s p o k e n c h a i n . T h e m e t a p h o r locks u p the e n i g m a — o f the O t h e r — a n d , once it has itself b e c o m e
present, says s o m e t h i n g about this O t h e r . M e t a p h o r
therefore reveals s o m e t h i n g about the p r i m o r d i a l character of the s i g n i f i e r — n o t o n l y w i t h respect to the s i g n i f i e d , b u t also w i t h respect to the subject w h i c h it d e t e r m i n e s — a n d substitutes f o r — w i t h o u t the s u b ject k n o w i n g . T h e s e c o n d o r d e r of operations, w h i c h structure l a n g u a g e i n its d i a c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n , are those of m e t o n y m y . These are e v i d e n t i n a transfer(ence) of d e n o m i n a t i o n , b y w h i c h a n object is d e s i g n a t e d b y a t e r m different to that w h i c h is c o m m o n l y its o w n . M e t o n y m y is a d i s placement,
based
o n certain connections b e t w e e n
the
two
terms.
Metonymy
is also a s u b s t i t u t i o n of signifiers, b u t — i n contrast
to
m e t a p h o r — i n this case it is manifest. W h a t is s u b v e r t e d is n o t the s i g
nifier b u t the value of the signifier. In m e t o n y m y it is signification that is
Teresa Celdran
167
lost. M e t o n y m y a l w a y s appears as a n a b s u r d i t y i n a d i s c o u r s e w h i c h acquires its m e a n i n g t h r o u g h a process of association. L a c a n ' s thesis, b a s e d o n his r e a d i n g of F r e u d , h o l d s that the struc ture of the subject is d e t e r m i n e d b y l a n g u a g e . T h e subject e x i s t s — p r i o r to b e i n g — t h r o u g h speech. F o r instance: one talks about a c h i l d before it is b o r n . T h e subject is c o n c e i v e d b y m e a n s of speech a n d exists w i t h i n it e v e n before it d o e s so i n its o w n b o d y . But, because l a n g u a g e is a c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h operates b y m e a n s of m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y , a p a r t of the d i s c o u r s e of the subject is w i t h d r a w n f r o m consciousness, p r e c i s e l y because of those losses of m e a n i n g — o r of the s i g n i f i e d — w h i c h take p l a c e i n the course of these operations. T h e n o t i o n s of m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y
are t w o k e y pieces of
L a c a n ' s structural c o n c e p t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s process. In effect, if the processes of m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y are as present i n the d i s c o u r s e of the subject as i n the w o r k i n g s of the p r i m a r y process, then this m e a n s , o n the one h a n d , that the u n c o n s c i o u s is at the basis of e v e r y c o m p o n e n t of l a n g u a g e a n d , o n the other h a n d — o r , at least, this is L a c a n ' s p r o p o s a l — t h a t 'the u n c o n s c i o u s is structured like a l a n guage'. T h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s lead to a r a d i c a l l y different a p p r o a c h to the s t u d y of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r . If it is l a n g u a g e w h i c h creates the s u b j e c t — a n d n o t the r e v e r s e — t h e n w e c a n assert that the structure of the s u b ject is that of its d i s c o u r s e . T h e h u m a n b e i n g c a n o n l y be s u c h as a sub ject of language, a n d f r o m this it d e r i v e s its subjectivity. B u t at the same t i m e as l a n g u a g e generates the subject w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of a struc ture c o m p r i s e d of the rules of d i s c o u r s e , it also takes possession of that subject a n d i m p r i s o n s it w i t h i n the s p o k e n c h a i n , b y m e a n s of a n u n f o l d i n g t h r o u g h m e t a p h o r a n d m e t o n y m y i n w h i c h the subject loses itself. In this w a y the s p e a k i n g b e i n g r e m a i n s attached to the l a n g u a g e w h i c h creates it, yet is alienated w i t h i n it as the subject of l a n g u a g e . L e a r n i n g , t h e n , s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d t h e n as the consequence of a process of m e t o n y m y w h i c h achieves its m e a n i n g i n a m e t a p h o r of a realisation. T h e c h a i n of m e t o n y m i c associations is p u t into m o t i o n w h e n the n e w l y b o r n c h i l d arrives i n the w o r l d . T h e c h a i n operates o n the real b y f o r m i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l constructs. T h e s e constitute the s u c cessful creation of k n o w l e d g e w h i c h w e call ' l e a r n i n g ' . T h i s ' w a v e of e m i s s i o n ' , w h i c h travels b e a r i n g the message of k n o w l e d g e , has as its o r i g i n the subject's o w n desire to solve the e n i g m a of his o w n subjec tivity. W h a t is l e a r n e d o n l y acquires m e a n i n g to the extent that it r e p resents s o m e t h i n g real w h i c h has b e e n lost. W h a t is l e a r n e d , then,
168
From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning
b e c o m e s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h , b y v i r t u e of a lack, fills a v o i d . L e a r n i n g is a
jouissance
w h i c h represents a m e t a p h o r for s o m e t h i n g that cannot be
s a i d . T h i s s o m e t h i n g is the essential T a c k of b e i n g ' w i t h i n the s p e a k i n g being. T h e d i v i s i o n that l a n g u a g e p r o d u c e s i n the subject is a c o n s e q u e n c e of the s y m b o l i c o r d e r of the s i g n i f i e s w h i c h possesses the s i n g u l a r p r o p e r t y of r e p r e s e n t i n g the presence of s o m e t h i n g real b y m e a n s of a n absence. A s L a c a n ' s a p h o r i s m has it: T h e t h i n g m u s t be lost i n o r d e r for it to b e r e p r e s e n t e d ' ( L a c a n 1997). In other w o r d s , w h a t w e are d o i n g w h e n w e s p e a k is to n a m e that w h i c h w e are s p e a k i n g about, but w i t h o u t it i n reality b e i n g present i n o u r d i s c o u r s e as s u c h . Instead, that of w h i c h w e s p e a k is m a d e present o n l y t h r o u g h the s y m b o l i c r e p resentation w h i c h the signifiers m a k e of it. T h e subject itself is lost i n d i s c o u r s e , loses itself i n d i s c o u r s e , d i s a p p e a r s f r o m itself, i n o r d e r to be n a m e d b y the signifiers that designate the subject (such as T , ' y o u ' , ' m e ' , 'he'). To s u m u p : the r e l a t i o n s h i p to the c h a i n of d i s c o u r s e i s — a b o v e a l l — o n e of a l i e n a t i o n f r o m the signifier b y v i r t u e of the s i g n i f i e s a n d the fate of the s i g n i f i e d is s e c o n d a r y to this. F r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of the u n c o n s c i o u s (such as w e observe its w o r k i n g s i n dreams) o n l y the substitutions of signifiers are decisive for the s t r u c t u r a t i o n of the subject. P r o o f of this is the a l i e n a t i o n of the t r u t h of the subject's desire i n the o r d e r of d i s c o u r s e — t h e difficulty w e h a v e i n s a y i n g w h a t w e w a n t to say, i n s a y i n g w h a t w e m e a n . A d o p t i n g this a p p r o a c h , a n y s t u d y of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r , a n d — i n p a r t i c u l a r — a n y s t u d y of the t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d a c q u i s i t i o n of k n o w l e d g e , r e m a i n s tied to the structure f r o m w h i c h it derives a n d m u s t operate i n the l i g h t of it. In other w o r d s , w h a t is l e a r n e d , the a c q u i s i t i o n of k n o w l e d g e i n its w i d e s t sense, is not a consequence of a n expe rience of the real, since the real ' i n i t s e l f cannot be a p p r e h e n d e d other t h a n b y subjectivation. T h i s is the c u l de sac of p s y c h o l o g y — a n d p s y c h o l o g i s t s k n o w it. Instead, l e a r n i n g c a n be v i e w e d as a consequence of l a n g u a g e , w h i c h operates t h r o u g h the i m a g i n a r y trace left b y its s y m b o l i c representative. W h a t w e call 'reality' is o n l y a n imaginary objectivation of t h a t — t h e r e a l — w h i c h c a n o n l y be c a p t u r e d b y m e a n s of a representation. E v e n p s y c h o l o g y recognises that sensory experience is i r r e d e e m a b l y p r i v a t e , a n d — f r o m K o f f k a to L e o n t i e v — h a s s p o k e n of itself as 'the science of p s y c h i c p h e n o m e n a as functions of a b r a i n w h i c h reflects reality' (Pinillos 1975). A n y act of sensation, s u c h as see i n g or h e a r i n g , e n d s u p b e i n g a n inner experience:
169
Teresa Celdran P a r a d o x i c a l l y expressed, if e v e r y o n e o n l y h a d the reactions that others c o u l d observe, n o b o d y w o u l d observe a n y t h i n g . (Koffka 1999)
T h e p r o b l e m , then, lies i n the fact that the b r a i n does not reflect the real b u t interprets it, a n d d o e s so i n a v e r y p a r t i c u l a r way. Reality does n o t exist b u t , like art, is a creation of the subject. E v e r y k n o w l e d g e is s u b j e c t i v e — i t p r o c e e d s f r o m s u b j e c t i v i t y — a n d is s u b o r d i n a t e d to a desire that d e r i v e s f r o m the u n c o n s c i o u s order. T h i s k n o w l e d g e
is
o p e n e d to experience t h r o u g h a jouissance, a n d is transmitted as the effect of a transfer(ence).
Transfer(ence)
is a k n o w l e d g e
concerning
t r u t h , the t r u t h of e v e r y o n e c o n c e r n i n g their desire, w h i c h c a n be o r d e r e d a n d transmitted. T h i s is w h a t constitutes teaching: it is the t r a n s m i s s i o n of a k n o w l e d g e w h i c h says s o m e t h i n g about the t r u t h of the subject. W h e n this k n o w l e d g e is t r a n s f o r m e d into a p r o d u c t , t h e n art a n d the sciences are b o r n . C r e a t i o n is the result of a w i l l to s p e a k to the other, for the other. T h e r e is n o u n i q u e truth of science, or of art. T r u t h is not ' u n i q u e , b u t 7
is, i n s t e a d , one:
t r u t h is the truth of the desire of e a c h subject. B u t if
t r u t h w e r e o n l y a p u r e l y a n d u n i q u e l y subjective matter, then teaching w o u l d n o t be v i a b l e . H o w c o u l d a truth w h i c h is o n l y one's o w n be transmitted? C a n e d u c a t i o n be r e g a r d e d as a n y t h i n g other t h a n a p a r a d o x ? I n d e e d , this seems to be the case. E d u c a t i o n is one of the three things w h i c h F r e u d i a n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s posits as i m p o s s i b l e
(Freud
1937: 248). T h i s is for the s i m p l e reason that w h a t w e call ' c o m m u n i c a t i o n ' b e l o n g s to the register of the i m a g i n a r y . F o r e v e r y subject the s a m e signifier c a n offer different signifieds, a c c o r d i n g to the discourse w i t h i n w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l operates, a n d — a t the s a m e t i m e — s i g n i f i c a t i o n c a n n e v e r be m a d e b y two subjects i n precisely the s a m e way. T h i s fact b e c o m e s p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n the structure of the g r o u p . O n o n e o c c a s i o n , a g r o u p of students w a s a s k e d to write d o w n the c o l o u r of the shirt w o r n b y a friend i n the lecture h a l l , a n d then after w a r d s to say a l o u d w h a t the c o l o u r w a s . T h i s a p p a r e n t l y straightfor w a r d task p r o d u c e d s u c h a v a r i e t y of responses that it b e c a m e i m p o s sible to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h c o l o u r w a s actually meant. O n e c o u l d w o r k out
approximately what
terms—'blue',
colour was
for e x a m p l e .
involved by
B u t , thereafter,
the
excluding
range
of
other
possible
c o l o u r s r a n f r o m ' b r o w n ' to ' y e l l o w ' , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h ' o r a n g e ' , ' m u s t a r d ' , ' o l i v e ' , a n d m a n y m o r e besides. F u r t h e r m o r e , the students w e r e s u r p r i s e d to hear other replies so at o d d s w i t h their o w n . T h i s m a d e
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From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning
t h e m l a u g h , since e v e r y o n e ' s colour, w i t h o u t b e i n g precise, n e v e r t h e less d e s c r i b e d s o m e shade w h i c h c o u l d be r e g a r d e d as 'accurate'. T h e j o k e - l i k e effect p r o d u c e d b y the d i s p a r i t y w a s a p r o d u c t of a m e t a p h o r ical c o n d e n s a t i o n , t h r o u g h w h i c h e a c h of the terms h a d a m e a n i n g w i t h o u t n e e d of e x p l a n a t i o n . H o w e v e r , i n a d d i t i o n , they a l l h a d s o m e t h i n g i n c o m m o n , o w i n g to a m e t o n y m i c concatenation, w h i c h i n the e n d p r o v i d e d a certain signification. T h i s degree of signification, f r o m a c o m m o n m e a n i n g , is w h a t a l l o w s to us to a r r i v e at c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b u t w h i c h is n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n consensus i n s p e e c h . F r o m this c o n s e n s u s — t h a t is, f r o m the ' d e m o c r a t i s a t i o n ' of l a n g u a g e — a r e b o r n those s o c i a l agreements w h i c h place limits o n the i m p o s s i b l e , a n d a m o n g w h i c h are i n c l u d e d the e d u c a t i o n a l project itself. T h e v a l u e of this e x a m p l e is that it demonstrates h o w c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n s p e a k i n g - b e i n g s o n l y s e e m i n g l y operates at the r a t i o n a l l e v e l . C o n s e n s u s i n l a n g u a g e is a n i m a g i n a r y objectivation, a tacit a g r e e m e n t to say w h e r e s a y i n g is i m p o s s i b l e . It is a n agreement that i n a common
place—the
dictionary, the l e x i c o n — s o m e t h i n g
w h i c h is
strictly i n d i v i d u a l a n d subjective w i l l be w o r k e d o n . In reality, true c o m m u n i c a t i o n , that w h i c h gives m e a n i n g a n d significance to w o r d s , d o e s n o t lie i n a rational f o r m of d i s c o u r s e , n o r i n the 'content' of w o r d s themselves, b u t rather i n the s u b v e r t e d m e s s a g e w h i c h leaves a m e t a p h o r i c effect a n d a m e t o n y m i c trace. T h i s process of ' e n u n c i a t i o n ' — a s L a c a n describes it ( L a c a n
1966:
193)—liberates, b y m e a n s of a s i g n i f y i n g cut, that first l a n g u a g e
of
u n c o n s c i o u s desire w h i c h is articulated i n the s a y i n g . If, t h e n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n u n d e r its r a t i o n a l f o r m is actually a n o p e r a t i o n of the u n c o n s c i o u s , t h e n i n w h a t sense c a n w e speak of ' e d u c a t i o n ' a n d ' l e a r n i n g ' ? If the s a i d is o u t s i d e the s a y i n g , a n d the s a y i n g is n o t i n 'the s a y i n g s ' , then w h a t is really t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n , a n d o n w h a t are e d u c a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s based? A s w e h a v e seen, e d u c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g , as c o n c e i v e d u n d e r the n o t i o n of r a t i o n a l control b y the subject, f o r m a n i l l u s o r y i d e a , for the s i m p l e reason that this m e t h o d is absolutely d i s c o r d a n t w i t h the nature of the material w i t h w h i c h t h e y w o r k — t h a t is, w i t h
individual
subjects, one-to-one. Science
f u n c t i o n s ' b a c k w a r d s ' here: firstly it i n v e n t s a subject a d a p t e d to its s y s t e m , a n d then submits the subject to the control of its m e t h o d , i n o r d e r to o b t a i n a r e s u l t — ' r a t i o n a l m a n ' . B u t , because h u m a n nature is n o t s t r u c t u r e d a r o u n d reason, b u t is rather a n effect of u n c o n s c i o u s desire, this s u p p o s e d subject of science c o n t i n u a l l y breaks out of the s y s t e m a n d escapes its control. H e r e w e h a v e the b e g i n n i n g of that
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farce i n w h i c h e d u c a t i o n fails, w h e t h e r it is re-enacted i n the limitless d i s p l a c e m e n t s of the s y m p t o m a t o l o g y
of the p s y c h i a t r i c clinic, or i n
failures i n s c h o o l . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s is not n o r m a l l y subject to reason, a n d e v e n w h e n it b e c o m e s so, it is u s u a l l y b y routes other t h a n e d u c a tion. T h e u n c o n s c i o u s is not n a i v e , a n d is m u c h stronger a n d m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n reason. N e v e r t h e l e s s , scientific d i s c o u r s e c o n t i n u a l l y d o w n - p l a y s the s t u d y of w h a t constitutes the m a i n p i l l a r of the speak i n g b e i n g : the u n c o n s c i o u s d i m e n s i o n of l a n g u a g e . T h i s b l i n d n e s s , w i l f u l or a c c i d e n t a l , o n the p a r t o f scientific d i s c o u r s e , is b a s e d o n a d e n i a l of the e v i d e n c e , a n d i n v a r i a b l y leads to a s t a n c e — a p o s e — o f
the
m a n i p u l a t i o n of subjects, s u p p o s e d l y 'the subjects of science'. T h i s c u l minates i n a n 'impasse',
a circuit w i t h n o w a y out, w h e r e all w e
e n c o u n t e r is the d e a d l y signifier of repetition. It is precisely here, w h e r e the subject ' s u p p o s e d to k n o w ' fails, that it gives w a y to the repressed, w h i c h i n one w a y or another a l w a y s returns, as F r e u d h i m s e l f s a i d ( F r e u d 1919). E d u c a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g are, then, the effects of a
transfer(ence).
B o t h p r o c e e d f r o m a k n o w l e d g e of u n c o n s c i o u s desire. O n l y w h e n this knowledge
is i n s c r i b e d a c c o r d i n g to the o r d e r of l a n g u a g e does it
a c q u i r e m e a n i n g a n d signification. M e a n i n g a n d s i g n i f i c a t i o n are ele m e n t s w h i c h structure the l o g i c of k n o w l e d g e a n d are bearers of the act of t r a n s m i s s i o n . In reality, h o w e v e r , it is not k n o w l e d g e w h i c h is t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h the transfer(ence),
'in itself
b u t o n l y its logic.
T e a c h i n g c a n o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d the act of transfer(ence) of this l o g i c — a n e n u n c i a t i o n — o f w h i c h its statements p r o v i d e a n account. T h e truth-effect generated b y teaching u n f o l d s i n the
knowledge
that it p r e s e n t s — a n offering to the other w h i c h recognises it as s u c h . L e a r n i n g w o u l d t h e n consist i n the r e c o g n i t i o n of the t r u t h — o f the o t h e r — t h r o u g h the t e a c h i n g of k n o w l e d g e . L e a r n i n g is the a c k n o w l e d g e d effect of a t r u t h w h i c h , like that of teaching, concerns desire. T h i s is seen m o s t clearly i n practice: teaching is d e s c r i b e d as a ' v o c a t i o n ' , a c a l l i n g , a ' w i l l to s a y ' , a n d is m o s t e v i d e n t i n those of us w h o r e m e m b e r h a v i n g l e a r n e d s o m e t h i n g ourselves. T h e s e v o c a t i o n a l s u b jects—our
true
teachers—leave
a r e m a i n d e r w h i c h goes
beyond
i n s t r u c t i o n a n d their o w n k n o w l e d g e . W h a t they leave us, o n top of a n y r e c o g n i t i o n of their k n o w l e d g e , is s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e g e n u i n e a n d authentic: the m a r k of subjectivity. It is precisely this p e r s o n a l trace left b y e v e r y professor o n his or her k n o w l e d g e w h i c h attracts d i s c i p l e s , w h i c h energises l e a r n i n g , a n d w h i c h creates a s c h o o l . T h a t i m p r i n t is w h a t , w i t h o u t b e i n g e n u n c i a t e d c o m p l e t e l y (because b y def
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From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning
i n i t i o n it c a n n o t be) calls the other to k n o w l e d g e
of himself.
The
teacher is the e x a m p l e , the one w h o enunciates his or her k n o w l e d g e t h r o u g h the result. Therefore there d o e s n o t exist a t r u t h of science for the s u b j e c t — e v e n t h o u g h this w o u l d n o d o u b t a v o i d a certain d i s c o n t e n t — b u t i n s t e a d there d o e s exist a t r u t h of the subject for science, w i t h w h i c h o n e a n s w e r s the q u e s t i o n 'Che
Vuoi? ' ('What d o y o u desire?),
a c c o r d i n g to the f o r m u l a t i o n L a c a n b o r r o w e d f r o m C a z o t t e ' s n o v e l ,
The Devil in Love
(see D o r 1986).
T h i s t e a c h i n g w h i c h goes b e y o n d i n s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h serves as a n e x a m p l e , is w h a t constitutes the e d u c a t i o n a l process. E d u c a t i o n has to d o w i t h the n o r m , w i t h the i n t e r n a l i s a t i o n of the r u l e , w i t h the a d v e n t of that d i s c o r d a n t t h i r d p e r s o n — t h e f a t h e r — a s representative of the law. E d u c a t i o n transmits a k n o w l e d g e f r o m ' o n e ' to ' a n o t h e r ' . T h e i n c l u s i o n of this t h i r d element offers the subject a m e a n s of e n t r y i n t o reality. E d u c a t i o n is the l a w of spirit. F r o m a p a t e r n a l referent—the s y m b o l i c l a w — i t f o r m s , l i m i t s , a n d t r i m s one's p a s s i o n s for another. B u t e d u c a t i o n itself, as o n e of F r e u d ' s three i m p o s s i b i l i t i e s , is o n l y p o s sible if o n e takes into account that the u n c o n s c i o u s is present i n a l l the processes of l e a r n i n g . If t e a c h i n g is a n effect of a transfer(ence), t h e n l e a r n i n g is the effect of a jouissance, a n d the c o n s e q u e n c e of a desire. W h e n a c h i l d learns s o m e t h i n g , w e s h o u l d ask ourselves why
does he d o it? F o r w h o m , or
w h a t ? W h a t m o t i v e is at w o r k ? A n d w h a t m a k e s the task easy or d i f f i cult for h i m ? T h e real m e a n i n g of the p r o b l e m a t i c of desire, as related to n e e d a n d d e m a n d , a n d as f o r m u l a t e d b y L a c a n , c a n o n l y be e l u c i d a t e d if w e start f r o m F r e u d ' s c o n c e p t i o n of the first experiences of satisfaction ( F r e u d 1915), T h i s first experience of the c h i l d after b e i n g b o r n , breast f e e d i n g , c o m e s as a s u r p r i s e . T h e c h i l d ' s c r y is a call o u t of o r g a n i c n e e d , b u t h e d o e s not k n o w w h a t to expect i n response to his call. In reality, the c h i l d is not ' a s k i n g f o r ' a n y t h i n g , b u t is m e r e l y e x p r e s s i n g his u n p l e a s u r e at a state of tension that results f r o m a lack. W h e n the m o t h e r i n t e r v e n e s , so as to r e d u c e this t e n s i o n w i t h the n o u r i s h m e n t that she offers, she i n a u g u r a t e s the p r o c e s s of desire i n the c h i l d . T h e m n e s i c trace of this first s a t i s f a c t i o n — t h e pleasure of s u c k i n g — t r a n s f o r m s the b o d y ' s organic n e e d into a
drive,
the d e m a n d of a desire, a n d
it does this r i g h t f r o m the b e g i n n i n g a n d for a l l time. In effect, f r o m this m o m e n t o n , n e e d is a l r e a d y attached to the r e p resentation of the p e r c e p t i o n of the object w h i c h offers satisfaction (the breast), at the s a m e time that the o r g a n i c tension is d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s a n
Teresa Celdran
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a i m : the r e d u c t i o n of that n e e d . W h e n this process is repeated, the n e e d t r i g g e r e d b y l a c k is t r a n s f o r m e d into a d r i v e j o i n e d to a d e m a n d for satisfaction. B u t the m n e s i c trace w i t h w h i c h it is a s s o c i a t e d — i t s ' p s y chic r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ' — i s c h a r g e d w i t h tension b y the d r i v e . T h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l effect of this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n the n e w l y - b o r n c h i l d a m o u n t s to a n h a l l u c i n a t o r y a n t i c i p a t i o n , since it is i m p o s s i b l e for the c h i l d to distinguish
between
the
real
and
its
representation.
The
very
d y n a m i s m of this process constitutes the essence of desire, a n d b y its v e r y n a t u r e it c a n n o t be satisfied i n reality, since its realisation is not i n o r g a n i c satisfaction (the 'feed'), b u t instead i n the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the scene. T h i s u n e x p e c t e d pleasure, w i t h its effect of s u r p r i s e , inscribes the c h i l d i n his t u r n i n the register of the m o t h e r ' s desire, w h o i n r e a l ity
interprets
the c h i l d ' s n e e d s a n d r e s p o n d s to his d e m a n d . T h e m o t h
er, t h e n , as bearer of a signification, is c o n v e r t e d into a p s y c h i c r e p r e sentative for the c h i l d of his o w n n e e d s — t h a t is, into the p r i m o r d i a l signifier of his desire. M o r e o v e r , w h e n the m o t h e r a c c o m p a n i e s h e r response w i t h l o v i n g words
a n d gestures,
demand
b e y o n d itself, w h e r e the l o v i n g
is i n s c r i b e d i n desire as
jouissance w h i c h
something
the m o t h e r p r o v i d e s is
also a d d e d to the satisfaction of n e e d . H o w e v e r , the m o s t p r o f o u n d d i m e n s i o n of desire, b o r n f r o m the relation w i t h the O t h e r — t h e m o t h e r — i n her q u a l i t y as signifier, cannot be f u l l y satisfied b y a n y object, b u t o n l y b y the v e r y presence of that O t h e r itself, w h i c h constitutes the basis of the s y m b o l i c statute b y w h i c h the c h i l d w i l l pass f r o m object to subject. It is because of this state of affairs that desire c a n n o t h a v e a n object i n reality, a n d therefore appears i n t r i n s i c a l l y tied forever to a lack. W h a t is l a c k i n g constitutes the m e t o n y m y of desire i n the h i s t o r y of the subject, w h i c h grants m e a n i n g to its subjectivity b y m e a n s of its s y m b o l i c realisations. The
puissances
of the b o d y w h i c h constitute its p r i m o r d i a l l a n g u a g e
a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h the c h i l d is o p e n e d u p to the w o r l d w i l l be p r o g r e s s i v e l y d i s p l a c e d b y other objects. T h e pleasures of l e a r n i n g a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g k n o w l e d g e represent a s e c o n d a r y source of
'symbolic
n o u r i s h m e n t ' , t h r o u g h w h i c h the subject reconstitutes the lost object. Acquired knowledge
a n d p a r t i c u l a r skills h a v e a l w a y s
to d o w i t h
l a c k — ' t h e lack of b e i n g ' , as L a c a n p u t s i t — o f s o m e t h i n g lost forever i n the t i m e p r i o r to s p e e c h , w h i c h has to be r e c o n s t r u c t e d , d i s c o v e r e d a n e w t h r o u g h i n v e n t i o n , the creative act at the basis of a n y a n d all knowledge.
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From the Desire for Knowledge to the Jouissance of Learning
T h e r e are three passions w h i c h s u r r o u n d a n d d e l i m i t desire: l o v e , hate a n d i g n o r a n c e . T h e first t w o — L a c a n tells u s — u n d e r
different
p o l a r i t i e s create a n object b y extraction f r o m a desire to k n o w . T h e t h i r d , b y contrast, is a p a s s i o n 'not to k n o w ' , to k n o w n o t h i n g a b o u t oneself, n o r a b o u t the u n c o n s c i o u s w h i c h presides o v e r a l l o u r actions. F r o m this h a t r e d of k n o w l e d g e are b o r n the evils that p l a g u e o u r s o c i ety: stress, b o r e d o m , the t e d i u m of the inescapable existential v o i d w h i c h the subject of i g n o r a n c e sees o p e n e d u p . D a n g e r lies m o r e often i n the d e n i a l of k n o w l e d g e t h a n i n d i s c o v e r y . T h e u n c o n s c i o u s w i l l c a r r y o n b e i n g there w h e t h e r w e w a n t to k n o w or not. A s the S p a n i s h s i n g e r J. M . Serrat p u t it: ' T r u t h is n e v e r s a d : there is n o r e m e d y for it'. T h e risks w h i c h this p a s s i o n for i g n o r a n c e carry w i t h it lie i n the effects t h e y h a v e o n the e d u c a t i o n a l process; i n this case, e d u c a t i o n seems a n i m p o s s i b i l i t y . H o w e v e r , h u m a n creativity consists p r e c i s e l y i n the p l a c i n g of l i m i t s o n the i m p o s s i b l e , limits w h i c h are constituted as the effect of a l a w b u t are the p r o d u c t of l o v e . 1
Translated from Spanish by Philip Derbyshire
P S Y C H O L O G I C A L PROBLEMS OF WRITER IDENTITY:
T O W A R D S A H O R N E Y A N U N D E R S T A N D I N G
Celia Hunt M y e x p e r i e n c e as a tutor of creative w r i t i n g of l o n g - s t a n d i n g leads m e to the v i e w that there are t w o m a i n areas of l e a r n i n g i n v o l v e d i n cre ative w r i t i n g : f i r s t l e a r n i n g to master the craft of w r i t i n g a n d , s e c o n d , l e a r n i n g to f i n d a ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' or ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' . T h e first, l e a r n i n g to m a s t e r the craft of w r i t i n g , is o b v i o u s ; i n the case of fiction, w i t h w h i c h I a m p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d , it w i l l i n v o l v e the a c q u i s i t i o n a n d p r a c t i c e of a repertoire of n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h as characterisa t i o n , d i a l o g u e , setting, p o i n t of v i e w , as w e l l as p l o t t i n g a n d structur i n g . T h e s e c o n d , l e a r n i n g to f i n d a w r i t i n g v o i c e or w r i t i n g identity, is m u c h less o b v i o u s , a n d I w i l l discuss it i n d e t a i l i n this chapter. M y research w i t h students of creative w r i t i n g over the past four y e a r s i n t o the benefits of w r i t i n g fictional a u t o b i o g r a p h y as a first stage in a 'writing apprenticeship'
1
reveals that a significant p r o p o r t i o n of
a p p r e n t i c e writers experience difficulties i n the s e c o n d of these t w o areas of l e a r n i n g . In a t t e m p t i n g to u n d e r s t a n d these difficulties I h a v e f o u n d p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l the ideas of the G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n p s y c h o analyst K a r e n Horney.
Learning to find a 'writing voice' or 'writing identity' It is u s e f u l , w h e n t h i n k i n g about the n o t i o n of ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' , to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the r e a d e r ' s a n d the w r i t e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e . A reader e n g a g e d w i t h a n o v e l w i l l be able to identify a p a r t i c u l a r style or tone i n the w r i t i n g . If she is familiar w i t h other n o v e l s b y the s a m e author, she m i g h t notice that certain themes or certain t u r n s of p h r a s e recur r e g u l a r l y . T h e s e c o u l d be s a i d to constitute the ' v o i c e ' of the n o v e l or the ' v o i c e ' of a p a r t i c u l a r author w h i c h recurs t h r o u g h o u t his or her
oeuvre . 2
F r o m the w r i t e r ' s perspective the t e r m ' v o i c e ' w i l l h a v e differ
ent c o n n o t a t i o n s . O n the one h a n d , a w r i t e r m a y struggle to f i n d the r i g h t n a r r a t i v e ' v o i c e ' for a p a r t i c u l a r character o r for a first p e r s o n n a r rator o f a n o v e l or story. O n the other, she m a y feel that, i n a m o r e g e n eral sense, she has ' f o u n d her v o i c e ' , w h i c h m a k e s her relationship w i t h h e r w r i t i n g m o r e fluid a n d comfortable. F i n d i n g a ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' i n this latter, i n t e r n a l sense, or f i n d i n g a ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' , as it m i g h t
176
Psychological Problems of Writer Identity
a l s o be c a l l e d , i s , i n m y v i e w , c r u c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i f a w r i t e r is to h a v e a w o r k a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h her w r i t i n g a n d to be able to l e a r n h o w to a d o p t m a n y different n a r r a t i v e voices, S e a m u s H e a n e y ' s d e f i n i t i o n of ' w r i t i n g v o i c e ' c o m e s closest to w h a t I m e a n here: ' F i n d i n g a v o i c e m e a n s that y o u c a n get y o u r o w n f e e l i n g i n t o y o u r o w n w o r d s a n d that y o u r w o r d s h a v e the feel o f y o u a b o u t t h e m ' ( H e a n e y 1980: 43). T h i s entails a n a b i l i t y to d e l v e i n t o the i n n e r w o r l d , i n o r d e r to create w r i t i n g w h i c h , w h i l s t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l i n the strict sense, is d e e p l y p e r s o n a l , i n that it d r a w s o n the w r i t e r ' s feelings a n d e m o t i o n s . P e o p l e n e w to w r i t i n g — a n d s o m e t i m e s also p e o p l e w h o h a v e b e e n w r i t i n g for s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e — d o n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y m a k e this ( i n m y v i e w ) necessary c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n w r i t i n g a n d the i n n e r life. T h e i r w r i t i n g m a y be t e c h n i c a l l y w e l l craft e d b u t , l a c k i n g feelings a n d e m o t i o n s , it d o e s n o t c o m e a l i v e o n the page. M y course ' A u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d I m a g i n a t i o n ' , w h i c h n o w forms the first of a three course Certificate i n C r e a t i v e W r i t i n g , w a s s p e c i f i c a l l y d e v i s e d to h e l p students f i n d their w r i t i n g v o i c e or w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y i n the i n t e r n a l sense o u t l i n e d above, b y e n c o u r a g i n g t h e m to engage m o r e c l o s e l y w i t h their feelings a n d e m o t i o n s . O v e r the ten w e e k s o f the course they engage i n free w r i t i n g , g e t t i n g i n t o u c h w i t h s p o n t a n e o u s i m a g e r y a r i s i n g f r o m the u n c o n s c i o u s ; they e x p l o r e e a r l y m e m o r i e s , t h i n k i n g t h e m s e l v e s b a c k i n t o the e x p e r i e n c e of the past t h r o u g h s e n s o r y i m a g e r y a n d e x p a n d i n g those m e m o r i e s t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i o n ; t h e y w r i t e f r o m p h o t o g r a p h s of t h e m s e l v e s w h e n t h e y w e r e y o u n g , t r y i n g to f i n d a p p r o p r i a t e v o i c e s for t h e m s e l v e s at different ages; t h e y c o n s i d e r the w a y s that places they h a v e l i v e d i n or v i s i t e d h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d to their o w n i n t e r i o r l a n d s c a p e s ; t h e y w r i t e a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s f r o m different p o i n t s of v i e w , p l a c i n g t h e m s e l v e s as n a r r a t o r s i n fanta s y o r h i s t o r i c a l settings, l e a r n i n g about the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s as a u t h o r a n d the roles they i n h a b i t o n the page; t h e y d r a m a t i s e m o m e n t s f r o m their l i v e s t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e ; t h e y p l o t t h e i r l i v e s u s i n g a t i m e l i n e , i d e n t i f y i n g s i g n i f i c a n t m o m e n t s a n d p e o p l e a n d places i n t h e i r l i v e s , a n d a l l t h r o u g h o u t this w o r k t h e y are e n c o u r a g e d to engage w i t h the feeling tone of their w r i t i n g , to m o v e b e y o n d the surface to the felt i n t e r i o r . 3
T h i s intense focus o n themselves a n d their e x p e r i e n c e often b r i n g s a b o u t p r o f o u n d changes i n s t u d e n t s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p to their w r i t i n g . L o r n a , for e x a m p l e , h a d b e e n w r i t i n g for m a n y years a n d w a s p r o d u c i n g w r i t i n g w h i c h she d e s c r i b e d as ' t e c h n i c a l l y p r o f i c i e n t ' , b u t she 'felt 4
Celia Hunt
177
there w a s s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g at the heart of it'. E x p l o r i n g herself i m a g i n a t i v e l y for several m o n t h s e n a b l e d h e r 'to i d e n t i f y that I h a v e b e e n too d e t a c h e d f r o m m y w r i t i n g , w r i t i n g o n l y w i t h m y h e a d a n d not m y heart. T h e free w r i t i n g technique has h e l p e d w i t h [this] p r o b l e m . I a m n o w u s i n g [it] r e g u l a r l y as a m e a n s of freeing u p m y i m a g i n a t i o n a n d c a n see the w a y m y w r i t i n g has progressed as a result'. P h i l , w h o w a s accustomed
to w r i t i n g n o n - f i c t i o n , r e g a r d e d his fiction w r i t i n g as
'well-written, but uninteresting—too dry'. Writing autobiographically l e d to a b r e a k t h r o u g h , i n w h i c h he opened up to a n experience he w a s t r y i n g to w r i t e about, so that instead of w r i t i n g i n his f o r m e r rather impersonal style—writing from a distance—he
was
now
inside the
w r i t i n g . A n d r e a , w h o w a s c o m p l e t e l y n e w to w r i t i n g , s a i d that f i c t i o n a l i s i n g herself h a d p r o v i d e d her w i t h a s o l i d g r o u n d f r o m w h i c h to fic tionalise b e y o n d her o w n experience. A s another student p u t it, ' . . . w r i t i n g f r o m experience [gives] one a s o l i d base a n d t h e n [lets] the i m a g i n a t i o n s o a r ' . These students h a d l e a r n e d to h a v e confidence i n their 5
own
material
and
confidence
in engaging
with
their o w n
inner
processes for the p u r p o s e of w r i t i n g . T h i s gave t h e m a stronger sense of rootedness i n themselves, a l l o w i n g t h e m to g a i n the necessary d i s tance f r o m w h i c h to explore their o w n material i m a g i n a t i v e l y . In other w o r d s they h a d d e v e l o p e d a ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' w h i c h e n a b l e d a flexi ble, w o r k a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p , i n their w r i t i n g , b e t w e e n f r e e d o m a n d c o n trol. Mechanisms
of artistic
creation
M a n y p s y c h o a n a l y t i c writers discuss this flexible, w o r k a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p s y c h i c f r e e d o m a n d control i n artistic creation. B o t h F r e u d a n d J u n g , for e x a m p l e , r e g a r d it as a special gift of the artist.
6
M a r i o n M i l n e r identifies t w o different m o d e s of attention i n the artis tic process: the b e a m - l i k e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the m i n d o n external objects w h i c h is characteristic of conscious t h i n k i n g , a n d the b r o a d h o v e r i n g attention w i t h the b o d y ( M i l n e r 1989: 29-40). T h i s latter m o d e of atten tion, w h i c h she likens to a d o m e , as o p p o s e d to the s h a r p - p o i n t e d n e s s of the f o r m e r , is c r u c i a l , she believes, for the contact one n e e d s w i t h the inner ' w o m b - s p a c e '
w h e r e a k i n d of d r e a m i n g goes o n ( M i l n e r
37). It is i n this i n t e r n a l s p a c e — W i n n i c o t t ' s
'transitional
1989:
space'—that
the i m a g i n a t i o n c a n w o r k o n the r a w m a t e r i a l of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d b e g i n the process of t r a n s f o r m i n g it into art.
178
Psychological Problems of Writer Identity
E n g a g i n g w i t h this internal space i n v o l v e s the artist i n a ' t e m p o r a r y g i v i n g u p of the d i s c r i m i n a t i n g ego, w h i c h stands apart a n d tries to see things objectively a n d rationally a n d w i t h o u t e m o t i o n a l c o l o u r i n g ' , a n d m e r g i n g i n a n 'aesthetic m o m e n t ' w i t h the object one is creating ( M i l n e r 1993:
27). In l e a r n i n g h o w to engage i n artistic creation, the
artist has to cultivate the 'internal gesture' ( M i l n e r 1952:
72), as she
describes this inner ' s t a n d i n g apart' or s h e l v i n g of the ego or critical faculty, w h i c h allows the u n c o n s c i o u s contents to be accessed v i a the i m a g i n a t i o n . O n l y w h e n this has o c c u r r e d d o e s the critical faculty c o m e b a c k into p l a y to d e v e l o p the m a t e r i a l into its final artistic f o r m . T h e F r e n c h feminist, H e l e n e C i x o u s , refers to the process of s h e l v i n g the critical faculty as ' d e - e g o i s a t i o n ' ; it is 'this state of w i t h o u t - m e , of d i s p o s s e s s i o n of m e , that w i l l m a k e the
possession
the characters p o s s i b l e ' ( C i x o u s , i n Sellers 1996:
of the a u t h o r b y
xiv). She is r e f e r r i n g
here s p e c i f i c a l l y to the w r i t i n g of stage d r a m a , b u t a s i m i l a r p o i n t a p p l i e s to the w r i t i n g of fiction a n d c a n also b e a p p l i e d i n a m o r e g e n eral w a y to the process of f i n d i n g m a t e r i a l for one's w r i t i n g , of 'step p i n g b a c k ' a n d a l l o w i n g oneself to be p o s s e s s e d b y one's s p o n t a n e o u s l y a r i s i n g ideas. T h i s state of ' w i t h o u t - m e '
is precisely
what
M i l n e r calls 'the i m a g i n a t i v e b o d y ' , a n aspect of the m i n d w h i c h feels like a b o d y , ' i n that its essential q u a l i t y is a sense of extension i n s p a c e ' ( M i l n e r 1971: 36). She discusses this i n relation to her attempts to b r i n g her d r a w i n g s of objects to life, to g i v e t h e m action, to c o n v e y o n the p a p e r w h a t she calls their ' s p i r i t u a l life'. She d i s c o v e r e d that:
'My
w h o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h other p e o p l e as w e l l as objects, w o r k s of art, n a t u r e , m u s i c c o u l d d e p e n d u p o n w h a t I d i d w i t h this i m a g i n a t i v e body
rather t h a n w i t h m y
1971:
36). W h a t M i l n e r is t a l k i n g a b o u t here s o u n d s v e r y s i m i l a r to
concentrated intellectual m i n d ' ( M i l n e r
w h a t F r e n c h feminists call ' w r i t i n g w i t h the b o d y ' (Jones 1991), w h i c h they i d e n t i f y as a specifically f e m i n i n e attribute, a l t h o u g h it is a v a i l able to b o t h w o m e n a n d m e n . I a m n o t sure that w e n e e d to i d e n t i f y it as s p e c i f i c a l l y f e m i n i n e , a l t h o u g h w h e n M i l n e r refers to the t w o differ ent m o d e s of attention as the s h a r p - p o i n t e d b e a m - l i k e c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h the m i n d a n d the b r o a d , h o v e r i n g , d o m e - l i k e attention w i t h the b o d y , o n e c a n see the o r i g i n of the f e m i n i n e / m a s c u l i n e associations. I w o u l d prefer to say that ' w r i t i n g w i t h the i m a g i n a t i v e b o d y ' is o n e side of the t w o f o l d process of e n g a g i n g i n creative w r i t i n g : the i n t u i t i v e , creative f a c u l t y rather t h a n the critical f a c u l t y g o v e r n e d b y the e g o . T h e m a i n difficulty w i t h the process of s h e l v i n g the critical f a c u l t y is that it i n v o l v e s the artist i n a ' t e m p o r a r y loss of the sense of s e l f
Celia Hunt ( M i l n e r 1993:
179
17) a n d exposes h i m to the chaos of his i n n e r w o r l d . A n
a r t i s t therefore, n e e d s to h a v e a strong e n o u g h sense of self, so that h e c a n 'accept chaos as a t e m p o r a r y stage' ( M i l n e r 1971:
76). W h a t I a m
c a l l i n g a ' w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y ' , t h e n , i n the i n t e r n a l sense d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , is a s t r o n g e n o u g h sense of self to facilitate 'the i n t e r n a l gesture', the mechanism
of s h e l v i n g the critical faculty, w h i c h a l l o w s
'positive
r e g r e s s i o n ' into the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d the h o l d i n g o p e n of the ' i n t e r n a l s p a c e ' w h e r e the i m a g i n a t i o n sets to w o r k o n the r a w m a t e r i a l of the u n c o n s c i o u s a n d transforms it into art.
Psychological
blocks to learning to find a writing
identity
F o r s o m e p e o p l e , l e a r n i n g to 'shelve the critical f a c u l t y ' i n o r d e r to give their f i c t i o n a l narrators a n d characters a life of their o w n is relatively s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . F o r others there are p r o b l e m s w i t h this process.
My
o w n e x p e r i e n c e p r o v i d e s a g o o d e x a m p l e . In the e a r l y 1980s I b e g a n w r i t i n g a n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l called Stages. T h i s w a s a first p e r s o n a c c o u n t of a p e r i o d i n m y life i n the 1970s w h e n I w a s
travelling
a r o u n d A u s t r a l i a a n d the East w i t h a y o u n g A u s t r i a n m a n , ' K l a u s ' , w h o s e n o m a d i c w a y of life a n d ' o u t s i d e r ' stance t o w a r d s the o r g a n i s e d w o r l d I h a d a d o p t e d . I w a s i n m y e a r l y 20s, h a d a b a n d o n e d m y h a p hazard and unhappy
attempts
at l e a r n i n g , h a v i n g p a s s e d
up
the
o p p o r t u n i t y to go to u n i v e r s i t y , a n d h a d not f o u n d a n y satisfactions i n the secretarial w o r k w h i c h I h a d u n d e r t a k e n after l e a v i n g s c h o o l . I w a n t e d n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n to r e m o v e m y s e l f f r o m the w o r l d of w o r k , to lose m y s e l f a n d m y i n a b i l i t y to f i n d f u l f i l m e n t i n m y life, i n the vast ness of A u s t r a l i a ' s h i n t e r l a n d . T h e story w a s t o l d f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of a ' f r a m e w o r k n a r r a t o r ' , representing m y s e l f at the time of w r i t i n g , s o m e t e n years after the events, w h e n I w a s back i n E n g l a n d , m a r r i e d to a m u c h o l d e r m a n , ' H u g o ' , a n d , as I l i k e d to t h i n k then, m u c h m o r e m a t u r e , self-assured, a n d i n d e p e n d e n t , a n d c e r t a i n l y free of the p r o b l e m s w h i c h h a d afflicted m e i n m y twenties. I n d e e d , m y c o n s c i o u s i n t e n t i o n for the n o v e l w a s to s h o w h o w I h a d m a n a g e d to o v e r c o m e the p r o b l e m s of the earlier p e r i o d of m y life a n d h a d started d o i n g s o m e t h i n g c o n s t r u c t i v e a n d f u l f i l l i n g ; i n other w o r d s h o w I h a d m a d e the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m one stage of m y life to the next, as the title of the novel implied. I took extracts of the d e v e l o p i n g n o v e l to a creative w r i t i n g class a n d s h o w e d t h e m to the tutor. She w a s quite c o m p l i m e n t a r y , b u t n o t e d that there w e r e ' t w o voices i n the n a r r a t i v e ' . T h i s w a s greatly p e r t u r b
180
Psychological Problems of Writer Identity
i n g . W h i l s t I t h o u g h t I h a d o n e n a r r a t o r telling the s t o r y of the past f r o m the perspective of the present, i n fact I h a d t w o quite different first p e r s o n narrators representing m y s e l f at different p o i n t s i n m y life, a n d this m a d e the n a r r a t i v e inconsistent a n d c o n f u s i n g . I w o r k e d h a r d at t r y i n g to integrate the t w o v o i c e s o n the page, b u t w i t h o u t
success.
A f t e r m u c h struggle, I d i v i d e d the n o v e l i n t o t w o separate n a r r a t i v e s , so that I h a d a first p e r s o n past tense n a r r a t i v e f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of m y 70s narrator, a n d first p e r s o n p r e s e n t tense d i a r y entries f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of m y 80s narrator. W h e n , after a l o n g a n d p a i n f u l five y e a r s , the n o v e l w a s c o m p l e t e d , it w a s o v e r 500 p a g e s i n l e n g t h a n d rather u n w i e l d y . It w a s , nevertheless, t a k e n o n b y a L o n d o n literary agent, w h o s u g g e s t e d that I s h o u l d r e m o v e the present tense d i a r y entries, l e a v i n g the past tense n a r r a t i v e i n the v o i c e of the 70s narrator. T h i s I d i d , b u t w i t h m i s g i v i n g s , as it left c o m p l e t e l y o u t of a c c o u n t h o w the n a r r a t o r h a d m a n a g e d to o v e r c o m e h e r earlier p r o b l e m s a n d thus u n d e r m i n e d w h a t I s a w as the m a i n p o i n t of the n o v e l . N e e d l e s s to say, the n o v e l d i d not f i n d a publisher, a n d it w a s w i t h relief that I f i n a l l y p u t it a w a y i n a d r a w e r . It w a s s o m e time later that I realised that the p r o b l e m w i t h the n o v e l s t e m m e d f r o m the fact that the 80s narrator, i.e. m y s e l f at the time of w r i t i n g , h a d clearly not m o v e d o n i n terms of h e r i n d e p e n d e n c e
and
a b i l i t y to fulfil herself. She was still as d e p e n d e n t a n d n a i v e as she h a d b e e n i n the 70s. In the s a m e w a y that she h a d attached herself to K l a u s a n d t a k e n o n his i d e n t i t y a n d his Tife s o l u t i o n ' , she h a d s i m p l y t a k e n 7
on Hugo's
i d e n t i t y a n d was
s i m i l a r l y t r y i n g to l i v e t h r o u g h h i m .
C l e a r l y , there were i m p l i c a t i o n s for m y sense of i d e n t i t y at the time of w r i t i n g w h i c h I d i d not w a n t to see. I h a d h a d to k e e p strict c o n t r o l o v e r m y ' f r a m e w o r k n a r r a t o r ' i n o r d e r to ensure that she c o r r e s p o n d e d to the w a y I s a w myself. In other w o r d s , I was i m p o s i n g a n i d e n t i ty o n h e r w h i c h w a s at o d d s w i t h the w a y she w o u l d h a v e b e e n if I h a d b e e n able to 'shelve the critical faculty' a n d g i v e h e r a s p o n t a n e o u s life of her o w n . T h u s , there was a conflict b e t w e e n the rhetoric of the n o v e l a n d m y ' f r a m e w o r k n a r r a t o r ' , s u c h that the n o v e l p r o v e d
extremely
d i f f i c u l t to write. O n e c o u l d p e r h a p s describe this as t r y i n g to d r i v e a car w i t h the h a n d - b r a k e o n .
8
S o m e of the students w h o took p a r t i n m y research suffered f r o m s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s of w r i t i n g identity w h i c h were i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h their w r i t i n g of a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l l y b a s e d fiction. ' S a r a h ' , for e x a m p l e , c a m e 9
to m y creative w r i t i n g course w i t h the i n t e n t i o n of w r i t i n g a n o v e l b a s e d o n a p e r i o d of her past i n G r e e c e i n the 1960s w h i c h w o u l d
Celia Hunt ' s h o w the e m o t i o n s , sensations a n d feelings' of that t i m e .
1 0
181
Early on in
the c o u r s e she g a v e m e a section of the draft to r e a d . T h e piece w a s n a r r a t e d i n the first p e r s o n b y a y o u n g w o m a n o n h o l i d a y i n Greece w h o , w h i l s t f e e l i n g a l i e n a t e d f r o m the r e m a i n d e r of her party, meets b y c h a n c e i n the h o t e l w h e r e they are s t a y i n g a G r e e k m a n , a n d they b e c o m e l o v e r s . T h e w r i t i n g w a s v i s u a l l y s t r o n g b u t the e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p r o a c h u s e d , m i n g l i n g past a n d present i n a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y f i l m i c style, w a s o n l y p a r t l y successful. T h e m a i n p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r ,
was
that, w h i l s t the piece w a s w r i t t e n i n the first p e r s o n , it d i d not reveal v e r y m u c h at all a b o u t the narrator, a n d this m a d e the text v a g u e a n d c o n f u s i n g . T h i s , it t r a n s p i r e d , w a s not a n e w p r o b l e m for S a r a h ; p e o p l e w h o h a d r e a d h e r w r i t i n g s h a d often o b s e r v e d that she w a s not present i n h e r fictions. S h e d e s c r i b e d her m e t h o d of w o r k i n g as follows: 'First I w r i t e the p i e c e , t h e n I stuff m y s e l f into it'. So a l t h o u g h Sarah's w i s h w a s to ' s h o w the e m o t i o n s , sensations a n d feelings of that p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t ' , there w a s clearly a p r o b l e m for her i n e n g a g i n g e m o t i o n a l l y w i t h h e r n a r r a t o r w h o w a s to serve as a v e h i c l e for her
own
feelings.
T h e r e s e e m e d to b e a difficulty i n r e v e a l i n g herself o n the p a g e to o t h ers, or p e r h a p s m o r e significantly (in a w a y s i m i l a r to m y o w n e x p e r i ence) of r e v e a l i n g herself to herself. T h e w r i t i n g S a r a h d i d w h i l s t a t t e n d i n g the creative w r i t i n g c o u r s e p r o v e d v e r y h e l p f u l for this p r o b l e m , a l t h o u g h it w a s n o t w i t h o u t its t r a u m a s . She f o u n d p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l the exercise I call 'objectifying the s e l f , w h i c h requires students first to w r i t e about themselves i n the t h i r d p e r s o n e n g a g i n g i n a n e v e r y d a y p u r s u i t a n d , t h e n , to place the character they h a v e n o w created out of themselves i n a fictional setting i n w h i c h t h e y b e c o m e the first p e r s o n n a r r a t o r of s o m e o n e else's story. T h u s t h e y create a narrator w h o is still themselves b u t at s e v e r a l fic tional removes. O u t of this exercise S a r a h created a fictional n a r r a t o r / c h a r a c t e r w h o e n c a p s u l a t e d a n aspect of herself w h i c h she h a d c l e a r l y b e e n at p a i n s to k e e p h i d d e n . S h e d e s c r i b e d it as the 'bossy, d o m i n e e r i n g ' p a r t of h e r self, a n d it w a s n o t altogether to her l i k i n g , a l t h o u g h she also 'felt like c e l e b r a t i n g it'. T h e clarification of this p a r t of h e r i d e n t i t y e n a b l e d S a r a h to feel m o r e confident i n b e i n g present o n the p a g e i n her fic tions, a n d she w a s t h e n able to g o o n to f i n d a v o i c e for the first p e r s o n n a r r a t o r of h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l w h i c h c o n v e y e d 'the e m o t i o n s , sensations a n d feelings' of her 60s self. L i k e m e , S a r a h h a d b e e n u n a b l e to s u s p e n d the critical faculty a n d a l l o w a n a r r a t o r / c h a r a c t e r b a s e d o n herself to d e v e l o p a life of her o w n ; she h a d h a d to control
the n a r r a
182
Psychological Problems of Writer Identity
tive, because she d i d not w a n t aspects o f herself o f w h i c h she d i s a p p r o v e d to e m e r g e o n the p a g e .
The theoretical writings of Karen Homey K a r e n H o r n e y O s theoretical w r i t i n g s enable us to u n d e r s t a n d these p r o b l e m s of l e a r n i n g to f i n d a w r i t i n g identity. K a r e n H o r n e y (1885 1952) w a s a s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n F r e u d i a n w h o left h e r native G e r m a n y i n the e a r l y 1930s a n d m a d e h e r career i n A m e r i c a , first i n C h i c a g o under
Franz Alexander,
then
as
a member
of
the N e w
York
P s y c h o a n a l y t i c Institute. S h e s u b s e q u e n t l y set u p h e r o w n institute i n N e w Y o r k , w h i c h continues to operate. S h e is the a u t h o r of five m a j o r books
( H o r n e y 1937, 1939a, 1942, 1946, 1951) a n d m a n y
separately
p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s . H e r v i e w s u n d e r w e n t s e v e r a l significant c h a n g e s d u r i n g h e r lifetime. She is best k n o w n for h e r e a r l y p a p e r s o n the p s y c h o l o g y of w o m e n ( H o r n e y 1967), w h i c h w e r e the first to take s e r i o u s issue w i t h F r e u d ' s ideas o n female sexuality ( G a r r i s o n 1981: 673). H o w e v e r , she q u i c k l y m o v e d a w a y f r o m h e r feminist c o n c e r n s
11
to
focus o n i n t e r p e r s o n a l factors i n the f o r m a t i o n o f personality, a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r o n the role of social a n d c u l t u r a l factors ( H o r n e y 1937). T h e late p h a s e of h e r w o r k , w h i c h B e r n a r d Paris calls h e r ' m a t u r e t h e o r y ' (Paris 1994), concentrates o n b o t h i n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d i n t r a p s y c h i c fac tors i n p e r s o n a l i t y d i s o r d e r ( H o r n e y 1951). F u n d a m e n t a l to H o r n e y ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t is the n o t i o n that there is a 'real s e l f . She w a s the first p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h i n k e r to use this t e r m ( H o r n e y 1939b: 130), a n d it is this m o r e t h a n a n y other aspect of h e r w o r k w h i c h m a k e s h e r t h e o r y p r o b l e m a t i c a l i n the p o s t - m o d e r n w o r l d . ' R e a l s e l f is n o w r e g a r d e d as a n o u t m o d e d essentialist n o t i o n , i m p l y i n g a fixed u n i t a r y substance
which
will
' u n f o l d i n definite, innate stages t o w a r d s its " n a t u r a l e n d " o r p u r p o s e (adult m a t u r i t y / h e a l t h ) ' (Flax 1993: 99). T h i s , h o w e v e r , is to m i s u n d e r s t a n d H o r n e y O s i d e a . W h i l s t there are certainly m o m e n t s i n H o r n e y ' s w r i t i n g s w h e n it does s o u n d l i k e a n essentialist n o t i o n , she stresses that real self is n o t a fixed entity b u t a set of ' i n t r i n s i c potentialities', the ' " o r i g i n a l " force t o w a r d i n d i v i d u a l g r o w t h a n d f u l f i l m e n t ' , a ' p o s s i b l e s e l f , felt rather t h a n seen ( H o r n e y 1951: 17, 158). W h i l s t these ' i n t r i n sic potentialities' are the c o n s e q u e n c e of o u r genetic m a k e - u p , they c a n o n l y b e actualised t h r o u g h i n t e r p e r s o n a l relationships i n the o u t s i d e w o r l d . T h u s , the w a y p e o p l e ' s potentialities d e v e l o p is v e r y
much
d e p e n d e n t o n the w a y they interact w i t h the social a n d c u l t u r a l e n v i
Celia Hunt
183
r o n m e n t , a n d the d o m i n a n t narratives therein. ' R e a l s e l f , then, o n H o r n e y ' s v i e w , is b o t h innate a n d the p r o d u c t of a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s expe rience w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r social w o r l d . H o r n e y does n o t discuss the n o t i o n of ' r e a l s e l f i n great detail i n her w r i t i n g s ; her m a i n focus is o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p s y c h i c processes 1 2
w h i c h ensue w h e n a p e r s o n loses t o u c h w i t h 'real s e l f or b e c o m e s self alienated
( H o r n e y 1951: 13). N e u r o s i s ,
1 3
for H o r n e y , is the consequence,
i n the first instance, of difficult i n t e r p e r s o n a l relations i n c h i l d h o o d . L i k e C a r l R o g e r s , she is of the v i e w that h e a l t h y p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t requires a n e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h the c h i l d receives u n c o n d i t i o n a l p o s i t i v e r e g a r d f r o m its parents, a n d thus d e v e l o p s a feeling of safety a n d b e l o n g i n g . In s u c h c o n d i t i o n s of g o o d object relating, the c h i l d w i l l be able to d e v e l o p its potentialities, a l t h o u g h , as I h a v e s a i d , the e n v i r o n m e n t w i l l p l a y a significant role i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h potentialities d e v e l o p a n d the f o r m they take. In the absence of s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , the c h i l d is l i k e l y to b e c o m e a n x i o u s a n d feel 'isolated a n d helpless i n a p o t e n t i a l l y hostile w o r l d ' ( H o r n e y 1946: anxiety
41). T h i s basic
causes the c h i l d to a b a n d o n its innate d r i v e to d e v e l o p
its
p o t e n t i a l a n d i n s t e a d to f i n d ' w a y s to c o p e w i t h this m e n a c i n g w o r l d ' ( H o r n e y 1946: 42). E c h o i n g the e m e r g e n c y r e a c t i o n of fight, flight a n d s t i b m i s s i o n i n a n i m a l b e h a v i o u r , H o r n e y suggests that the c h i l d w i l l m o v e against
people a n d b e c o m e hostile, away from
d e t a c h e d , or toward
people a n d b e c o m e
people a n d b e c o m e d e p e n d e n t ( H o r n e y 1946:
42).
Social a n d c u l t u r a l factors w i l l p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t role here i n d e t e r m i n i n g the choice of one defence over another, so that girls w i l l t e n d to m o v e t o w a r d s p e o p l e a n d o v e r v a l u e l o v e , w h i l s t b o y s w i l l t e n d to m o v e against p e o p l e a n d o v e r v a l u e p o w e r . U n l e s s f a v o u r a b l e life circumstances i n t e r v e n e , then b y the time the c h i l d has b e c o m e a n a d u l t these defensive c h i l d h o o d strategies w i l l h a v e d e v e l o p e d into w h a t H o r n e y calls life solutions. three m a i n k i n d s , w h i c h she regards as ' d i r e c t i o n s of rather t h a n clear-cut 'types': self-effacing, expansiveness arrogant-vindictive
expansive
b e i n g d i v i d e d into the narcissistic,
S h e identifies development'
a n d resigned,
with
perfectionistic
and
( H o r n e y 1946: 187-290, 191). E a c h of these solutions
i n v o l v e s w h a t P a r i s calls a ' b a r g a i n w i t h fate' (1991), a k i n d of d e v i l ' s pact, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the s o l u t i o n is a d h e r e d to r i g i d l y i n e x c h a n g e for certain benefits. F o r e x a m p l e , a w o m a n w h o a d o p t s the
self-effac
i n g s o l u t i o n w i l l try to g a i n safety, l o v e a n d esteem t h r o u g h d e p e n dency, h u m i l i t y a n d self-sacrificing ' g o o d n e s s ' . H e r ' b a r g a i n ' w i l l r u n : 'If I a m h e l p f u l a n d s u b m i s s i v e a n d d o n o t seek m y o w n g a i n or glory,
184
Psychological Problems of Writer Identity
I w i l l be treated w e l l b y fate a n d other p e o p l e ' .
1 4
T h e a d o p t i o n of a s i n
gle life s o l u t i o n , s u c h as self-effacement, c a n b r i n g a b o u t a certain free d o m f r o m the i n n e r conflicts r e s u l t i n g f r o m a l i e n a t i o n f r o m self, a n d this c a n p r o v i d e a sense of i d e n t i t y a n d a degree of security. H o w e v e r , as a l l three life solutions t e n d to be present s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , this a p p a r ent
stability is illusory, for
the other solutions
w h i c h have
been
r e p r e s s e d i n t o the u n c o n s c i o u s s i m p l y generate n e w conflicts, w h i c h i n t u r n r e q u i r e further r e m e d i e s . T h i s intrapsychic d e v e l o p m e n t , o r i g i n a l l y set i n m o t i o n b y the inter personal difficulties i n c h i l d h o o d , H o r n e y regards as c r u c i a l i n c o n s o l i d a t i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g the c h o s e n life s o l u t i o n , a n d this c o n c e p t i o n f o r m s the core of her later w o r k . She calls it the
search for glory
(Horney
1946:17-39). Because a p e r s o n has m o v e d a w a y f r o m the centre of h i m self,
15
h a s b e c o m e self-alienated, his ' i n n e r strength a n d coherence' are
severely
i m p a i r e d a n d h e cannot d e v e l o p
self-confidence
(Horney
1946: 20). H e therefore feels inferior to other p e o p l e a n d needs a m e a n s of l i f t i n g h i m s e l f above t h e m . H e does this t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i o n , b y c r e a t i n g w h a t H o r n e y calls a n idealised image of h i m s e l f ( H o r n e y
1946:
22). T h e elements w h i c h go to m a k e u p the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e are n o t a r b i t r a r y ; t h e y d e r i v e f r o m 'the materials of his o w n s p e c i a l e x p e r i ences, his earlier fantasies, his p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s , a n d also his g i v e n fac u l t i e s ' ( H o r n e y 1946: 22), a n d they w i l l b e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y h i s c h o s e n s o l u t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a w o m a n w h o a d o p t s the
self-effacing
s o l u t i o n m a y create a n i d e a l i s e d i m a g e of herself as the perfect w i f e a n d m o t h e r ; i n her b e h a v i o u r she w i l l t r y to please others a n d to be e x q u i s i t e l y sensitive to their needs, a n d w i l l a v o i d e x p r e s s i n g direct hostility. W h e n successful, this w i l l enable her to d e r i v e a substitute self-esteem. B e c a u s e the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e is a p o t e n t i a l source of substitute self e s t e e m , the d r i v e to realise this i m a g e i n reality, to b e c o m e the idealised self, is v e r y s t r o n g . T h u s , the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e generates w h a t H o r n e y calls
the pride system
function
( H o r n e y 1946: 111), a series of m e c h a n i s m s w h o s e
it is to b l u d g e o n
the p e r s o n
to
achieve
the
impossible
d e m a n d s of the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e . First, it gives rise to intense p r i d e i n the
characteristics of
the
idealised image,
ers.
Neurotic claims
( H o r n e y 1946:
this neurotic pride neurotic claims o n o t h
and
( H o r n e y 1946: 86-109) justifies the n e e d to m a k e
40-63) are w i s h e s or needs t u r n e d
o u t w a r d s . T h e y ' a s s u m e a right, a title' to special treatment b y other p e o p l e , b y institutions a n d b y life i n g e n e r a l , a title ' w h i c h i n reality d o e s n o t exist' ( H o r n e y 1946: 42), b u t w h i c h a p e r s o n feels is d u e to
185
Celia Hunt
h i m b y v i r t u e of h i s s u p e r i o r status. Internally, there is a s i m i l a r l y coer cive r e g i m e : w h a t H o r n e y calls shoulds ( H o r n e y 1946: 64-85) are a c o n stant battery of i n n e r dictates w h i c h d e m a n d that a p e r s o n
should
b e c o m e the s u p r e m e b e i n g of his i m a g i n a t i o n , w i t h utter d i s r e g a r d for ' w h a t he c a n feel or d o as he is at p r e s e n t ' ( H o r n e y 1946:
67).
F a i l u r e to l i v e u p to the i n n e r dictates leads to a n i n n e r t u r n i n g against oneself or, as H o r n e y calls it, the f o r m i n g of the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e ' s c o u n t e r p a r t , the
despised image.
T h e r e s u l t i n g self-hate a n d self
c o n t e m p t l e a d to self-belittling a n d self-frustrating m e c h a n i s m s , a n d — i n extreme c a s e s — t o self-destructiveness, of b o t h gross or subtle k i n d s ( H o r n e y 1946: 110-154). T h e w h o l e p i c t u r e is m a d e e v e n m o r e c o m p l e x b y the s i m u l t a n e o u s existence of different life s o l u t i o n s , so that not o n l y are there conflicts w i t h i n e a c h i n d i v i d u a l life s o l u t i o n b e t w e e n i d e a l i s e d a n d d e s p i s e d i m a g e s , b u t conflicts b e t w e e n s o l u t i o n s themselves. F o r e x a m p l e , a w o m a n w h o is p r e d o m i n a n t l y self-effacing w i l l be d r i v e n to be s u b s e r v i e n t to others a n d w i l l f i n d it a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e to be e x p a n s i v e . S h e w i l l thus t e n d to a v o i d a n y situations w h i c h i n v o l v e assertiveness or c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s . H o w e v e r , if she has repressed the e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n , then she w i l l b e d r i v e n i n the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , to exercise p o w e r a n d c o n t r o l o v e r others, a n d to excel i n e v e r y t h i n g she does. This internal tug-of-war
between
o p p o s i n g aspects of herself
will
r e s u l t i n a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e w h a t e v e r she does is w r o n g , a n d thus she w i l l feel e n d l e s s l y t o r m e n t e d . A p e r s o n c a u g h t u p i n s u c h a conflict m a y w e l l m o v e i n s t i n c t i v e l y t o w a r d s the d e t a c h e d s o l u t i o n w h i c h , H o r n e y says, often serves to k e e p the conflict b e t w e e n
self-effacement
a n d e x p a n s i v e n e s s o u t of awareness. T h e task of therapy, for H o r n e y , is to d i s m a n t l e this c o m p l e x i n t r a p s y c h i c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d to re-estab l i s h contact w i t h the real self, thus setting h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t i n motion again.
1 6
Towards a Horneyan understanding of problems of writer identity T h e r e are three m a i n , interrelated factors w h i c h are central to u n d e r standing problems
of w r i t e r i d e n t i t y f r o m the H o r n e y a n p o i n t of
v i e w : the i n h e r e n t r i g i d i t y of the defensive character s t r u c t u r e — 1 7
because of the conflicts b e t w e e n the different life solutions a n d the ten d e n c y to b e c o m e e n t r a p p e d i n o n e d o m i n a n t s o l u t i o n ( H o r n e y
1951:
310-311); the lack of self-confidence r e s u l t i n g f r o m a l i e n a t i o n f r o m real self ( H o r n e y 1951: 310); a n d the threat f r o m the ' i n n e r t y r a n n y ' r e p r e
Psychological
186
Problems of Writer Identity
s e n t e d b y the p r i d e s y s t e m ( H o r n e y 1951:118). I shall take e a c h of these in turn. A s I h a v e s a i d a b o v e , the defensive character structure c o m e s into b e i n g i n the first instance to d e f e n d the c h i l d against basic a n x i e t y w h i c h has b e e n a r o u s e d b y a n e n v i r o n m e n t that threatens the e m e r g e n c e of its i n d i v i d u a l i t y A s the defensive character structure d e v e l o p s a n d i n t r a p s y c h i c factors c o m e into p l a y , its f u n c t i o n b r o a d e n s , to provide
also
the
defences n e e d e d
to
protect
the
adult
i n c r e a s e d a n x i e t y a n d p a i n of i n n e r conflicts, a n d the
from
the
destructive
effects of the p r i d e s y s t e m ( H o r n e y 1951: 297). T h e r e c a n be little flexi b i l i t y w i t h i n s u c h a defensive structure: ' R i g i d c o n t r o l t h r o u g h w i l l p o w e r a n d r e a s o n i n g is... [a] ... s t r e n u o u s m e a n s of a t t e m p t i n g to b i n d together all the d i s c o n n e c t e d parts of the p e r s o n a l i t y ' ( H o r n e y
1951:
172). W h e r e a p a r t i c u l a r life s o l u t i o n has b e c o m e d o m i n a n t , it w i l l be r i g i d l y a d h e r e d to. L o o s e n i n g c o n t r o l m e a n s r u n n i n g the risk of b e i n g p l u n g e d into self-torment, or of s w i t c h i n g i n t o one of the other life solutions. Instead of the central o r g a n i s i n g a g e n c y of the p s y c h e b e i n g d e r i v e d f r o m r e a l self, it w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d b y the defensive character struc ture a n d the c o m p u l s o r y narrative of s h o u l d s a p p r o p r i a t e to the d o m i n a n t life s o l u t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , if a m a n ' s e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n d e m a n d s of h i m that he s h o u l d be p o w e r f u l a n d c o n t r o l l i n g i n a l l situations, t h e n h e w i l l h a v e difficulty b r i n g i n g to life o n the p a g e a character b a s e d o n h i m s e l f w h o is w e a k a n d v u l n e r a b l e a n d a l l o w s h i m s e l f to be o p p r e s s e d b y others. H e cannot a l l o w his d o m i n a n t i m a g e of h i m s e l f to be s u s p e n d e d or s h e l v e d . S i m i l a r l y if a w o m a n ' s d o m i n a n t n a r r a t i v e of s h o u l d s tells h e r that she m u s t be g o o d , t h e n r e p r e s e n t i n g herself o n the p a g e as less t h a n g o o d contravenes the rules of her s o l u t i o n a n d w i l l arouse anxiety. O r a character r e p r e s e n t i n g repressed
tendencies
c a n be p o r t r a y e d accurately b u t c o n d e m n e d b y the rhetoric. A d o m i n a n t s o l u t i o n h a s to be a d h e r e d to r i g i d l y , because it p r o v i d e s a m u c h n e e d e d sense of i d e n t i t y a n d a p s e u d o - s e l f - e s t e e m
w h i c h c a n , to a n
extent, s u s t a i n a p e r s o n , i n the absence of g e n u i n e self-esteem ( H o r n e y 1951:
23).
In m y o w n case, the d o m i n a n c e of a self-effacing s o l u t i o n m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e , w i t h o u t great struggle, to represent m y s e l f o n the p a g e i n a n y other w a y . W h i l s t i n the rhetoric of the n o v e l I w a n t e d to s h o w that m y 70s self h a d m o v e d o n a n d b e c o m e m o r e e x p a n s i v e , the 80s n a r r a tor c o u l d not c o u n t e n a n c e this, as it c o n t r a v e n e d the i n t e g r i t y of m y d o m i n a n t self-effacing s o l u t i o n . In spite of this, today, w h e n I r e a d the
187
Celia Hunt
n o v e l , I c a n see, w i t h the benefit of h i n d s i g h t , that there is a subtle e x p a n s i v e n e s s r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the v o i c e a n d actions of the 70s n a r r a tor w h i c h has e s c a p e d the c e n s o r s h i p of the 80s narrator. T h e n o v e l s e e m s to represent the struggle b e t w e e n the self-effacing a n d e x p a n sive s o l u t i o n s , a struggle w h i c h b o t h narrators h a v e tried to r e s o l v e t h r o u g h different f o r m s of d e p e n d e n t d e t a c h m e n t . F o r S a r a h , o n the other h a n d , her d o m i n a n t e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n , w h i c h itself w a s l a r g e l y k e p t out of awareness, p r e v e n t e d her f r o m r e p r e s e n t i n g herself i n h e r n o v e l i n the guise of a v u l n e r a b l e
young
w o m a n w h o fell v i c t i m to a rather u n s c r u p u l o u s o l d e r m a n . T h i s is b e c a u s e , i n the e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n , w e a k n e s s a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y are not allowed. T h e l a c k of self-confidence r e s u l t i n g f r o m a l i e n a t i o n f r o m real self is a
serious
problem
i n a person's
a b i l i t y to
engage
in learning.
T h r o u g h o u t the w h o l e of h e r theory, H o r n e y differentiates b e t w e e n a h e a l t h y a n d a n u n h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t of self. In a h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t , r e a l s e l f — w h i c h at the outset is u n k n o w n , p o t e n t i a l — g r o w s a n d d e v e l o p s t h r o u g h g o o d object-relating. T h e c h i l d f i n d s p e o p l e , s i t u a tions a n d experiences w h i c h h e l p it to d e v e l o p its potential. T h i s p r o v i d e s the c h i l d w i t h a sense of its o w n w o r t h , w i t h a feeling of s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , a n d a n i n c r e a s e d a b i l i t y to m a k e choices. In a n u n h e a l t h y d e v e l o p m e n t the s i t u a t i o n is m u c h m o r e c o m p l i cated. R e a l self d i s a p p e a r s f r o m v i e w , so that self-esteem d o e s not develop
naturally. In its absence,
emergency
measures
h a v e to
be
taken. S e l f - i d e a l i s a t i o n o c c u r s , a n d this has to be protected b e c a u s e , if it is u n d e r m i n e d , its o p p o s i t e p o l e — s e l f - h a t e — w i l l be e v o k e d ( H o r n e y 1951:
112). T h e m i d d l e g r o u n d , w h e r e real s e l f - w o r t h a n d self-esteem
w o u l d n o r m a l l y reside, is m i s s i n g , thus a l l o w i n g this see-saw to o p e r ate. O n e c o u l d say that a l i e n a t i o n f r o m self leaves a h o l e i n the m i d d l e of the p s y c h e . It is '...the subjective feeling of...being r e m o v e d
from
[oneself]' ( H o r n e y 1951: 160). T h e self is d e - c e n t r e d , m o v e s a w a y f r o m its heart. R a t h e r t h a n a 'space for the i m a g i n a t i o n ' , a safe h o l d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t i n h a b i t e d b y b e n i g n presence, there is absence, or it m a y be f i l l e d w i t h anxiety or be e x p e r i e n c e d as t h r e a t e n i n g a n d p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous.
1 8
A s T r e v o r P a t e m a n says,
I m a g i n a t i o n f r e q u e n t l y fails us w h e n the space w h i c h w e
are
g i v e n i n w h i c h to exercise it... creates a sense of anxiety rather t h a n a sense of o p p o r t u n i t y . ( P a t e m a n 1997:
4)
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Psychological Problems of Writer Identity
S t u d e n t s often refer to a sense of d a n g e r or d i s c o m f o r t w h e n t r y i n g to w r i t e . A p o w e r f u l critic i n the h e a d is constantly l o o k i n g o v e r their s h o u l d e r a n d f i n d i n g fault w i t h e v e r y t h i n g t h e y w r i t e ; ' T h e critical eye b r e a t h i n g d o w n the creative n e c k ' , as one s t u d e n t p u t it. T h i s w a s cer t a i n l y m y o w n p r o b l e m w h e n I started to w r i t e f i c t i o n . W h e n I tried to get i n t o u c h w i t h m y ' i n n e r v i s i o n ' , I felt that i n o r d e r to k e e p the i n n e r space o p e n I h a d to p r i s e it apart b y sheer effort of w i l l , as if I w e r e h a v i n g c o n s t a n t l y to l e a n against a h e a v y s w i n g d o o r w h i c h , i f I l o o s e n e d m y g r i p , w o u l d s w i n g b a c k a n d s l a m shut. N e e d l e s s to say, this w a s a n e x h a u s t i n g process w h i c h m a d e w r i t i n g a t i r i n g a n d d i s p i r i t i n g u n d e r t a k i n g . T h e space w i t h i n w h i c h m y i n n e r v i s i o n l i v e d w a s t h r e a t e n i n g , f i l l e d w i t h anxiety, a n d often I p r e f e r r e d n o t to g o there, e v e n t h o u g h I h a d a s t r o n g desire to w r i t e . T h i s sense of i n n e r d a n g e r is a direct c o n s e q u e n c e of the p r i d e sys t e m ' s c a p a c i t y to inflict p u n i s h m e n t for c o n t r a v e n t i o n of its rules, the f a i l u r e to l i v e u p to the unrealistic expectations of the i d e a l i s e d i m a g e ( H o r n e y 1951:118). T h u s , the space w h e r e creativity o c c u r s a n d w h e r e contact is m a d e w i t h the d e v e l o p i n g self ( M i l n e r 1989: 37) b e c o m e s dif ficult to enter, or m a y be c o m p l e t e l y b l o c k e d off. T h e d e s i r e to create has to b e r e p r e s s e d : ' H e does n o t e m b a r k o n a n y serious p u r s u i t s c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h his gifts lest he fail to be a b r i l l i a n t success. H e w o u l d like to w r i t e or to p a i n t a n d does not d a r e to start' ( H o r n e y 1951:
107).
O r if it is n o t r e p r e s s e d , attempts to create w i l l b e w r a c k e d w i t h a n x i ety or h a m p e r e d b y self-torment: ...a w r i t e r is i n h i b i t e d i n d o i n g creative w o r k because of s e v e r a l factors w i t h i n h i m s e l f w h i c h m a k e w r i t i n g a n o r d e a l . H i s w o r k therefore p r o c e e d s s l o w l y ; h e f i d d l e s a r o u n d or d o e s i r r e l e v a n t t h i n g s . Instead of b e i n g s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h h i m s e l f for this afflic t i o n , a n d e x a m i n i n g it, h e calls h i m s e l f a l a z y g o o d - f o r - n o t h i n g o r a f r a u d w h o is n o t really interested i n his w o r k . ( H o r n e y
1951:
124-5) F o r c r e a t i v i t y to occur, there n e e d s to be a c a p a c i t y to be a l o n e w i t h the s p a c e w i t h i n oneself (Winnicott 1965), a n d this c a n be d o n e m u c h m o r e e a s i l y if that space is b e n i g n , if there is a sense that o n e is present to o n e s e l f i n that space. S h e l v i n g the critical f a c u l t y c a n n o t e a s i l y o c c u r if the s p a c e for the i m a g i n a t i o n is threatening.
189
Celia Hunt
The role offictionalautobiography in learning to find a writing identity In m y w o r k w i t h students of creative w r i t i n g I h a v e f o u n d that e n c o u r a g i n g t h e m to fictionalise themselves
a n d their experience can h e l p
those w i t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l blocks to l e a r n i n g to o v e r c o m e s o m e of their w r i t i n g difficulties. T h i s k i n d of w r i t i n g seems to p r o v o k e a confronta t i o n w i t h self w h i c h c a n h e l p t h e m to i d e n t i f y the p r o b l e m s a n d s o m e times to w o r k t h e m t h r o u g h . In m y o w n case it forced m e to see that w h i l s t I t h o u g h t I h a d m o v e d b e y o n d m y d o m i n a n t self-effacing s o l u t i o n — a s represented b y m y 70s n a r r a t o r — I w a s still l o c k e d into it. W h i l s t I n o w felt m u c h m o r e c o n f i d e n t a n d e x p a n s i v e , I c o u l d o n l y be so because I h a d attached m y s e l f to a n e x p a n s i v e p a r t n e r a n d w a s able to c h a n n e l m y o w n expansiveness t h r o u g h h i m . T h i s clarification of m y s e l f h e l p e d m e , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h p s y c h o t h e r a p y , to f i n d a m o r e s o l i d sense of m y o w n identity, a n d this i n t u r n e n a b l e d m e to o v e r c o m e m y p r o b l e m s w i t h l e a r n i n g a n d to e m b a r k o n u n i v e r s i t y studies. In S a r a h ' s case, w r i t i n g fictional a u t o b i o g r a p h y h e l p e d her to clarify her d o m i n a n t expansiveness a n d to see its negative as w e l l as its p o s i tive effects. T h i s e n a b l e d her not o n l y to f i n d the v o i c e for her a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o v e l , b u t to m a k e p o s i t i v e major changes at w o r k , w h e r e her e x p a n s i v e s o l u t i o n a n d the c o n t r o l she t e n d e d to exercise over o t h ers h a d b e e n a s o m e t i m e s d a m a g i n g feature of her relationships. It is the m e t a p h o r i c a l nature of f i c t i o n w h i c h facilitates insights a n d subsequent
changes. A s I h a v e s a i d elsewhere
1998a, 1998c), fiction d e m a n d s
the skills of ' s h o w i n g '
these (Hunt
as w e l l
as
' t e l l i n g ' . In order to animate the w r i t i n g , the writer has to efface herself a n d to a l l o w h e r characters a n d narrators to c o n v e y their o w n feelings a n d e m o t i o n s t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e a n d action (Booth 1991). W h e n
we
w r i t e fictional a u t o b i o g r a p h y , w e are forced to engage w i t h our
own
feelings a n d e m o t i o n s i n a w a y w h i c h w e m a y not be able to d o so eas i l y i n the n o r m a l course of o u r lives. F i c t i o n also allows the writer, rather t h a n h a v i n g to confront herself h e a d - o n , to create instead p l a y f u l m e t a p h o r s for self, as S a r a h d i d , w h i c h c a n be d e e p l y r e v e a l i n g a n d s u b v e r t internal defences,
thus l o o s e n i n g the h o l d of r i g i d i n t e r n a l
structures. N o t only, t h e n , d o e s this enable writers to l e a r n h o w
to
d e v e l o p a stronger w r i t i n g i d e n t i t y — w h i c h m a y h e l p t h e m engage m o r e freely i n the i n n e r dialectic b e t w e e n the critical faculty a n d the u n c o n s c i o u s contents, a n d thus increase the p o s s i b i l i t y of their creating m o r e effective f i c t i o n — t h e y are also b e i n g e n a b l e d to d e v e l o p as p e o ple.
190
Psychological
Problems of Writer Identity
T h e r e are, o f c o u r s e , risks i n v o l v e d i n u n d e r t a k i n g this k i n d of w o r k i n the c l a s s r o o m . E n c o u r a g i n g p e o p l e to e n g a g e m o r e closely w i t h their i n n e r lives s o m e t i m e s m e a n s that they w i l l h a v e to confront diffi cult o r p a i n f u l p e r s o n a l issues i n the course of their w r i t i n g . S u r e l y , one m i g h t say, this is the d o m a i n of t h e r a p y rather t h a n e d u c a t i o n . M y e x p e r i e n c e leads m e to believe that a lot of g o o d ' t h e r a p e u t i c ' w o r k can be d o n e i n the c l a s s r o o m , as l o n g as one creates a ' h o l d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t ' w i t h i n w h i c h students c a n feel sufficiently safe to a l l o w their s o m e t i m e s difficult material to e m e r g e .
19
Notes 1
To be published as Therapeutic Dimensions of Autobiography in Creative Writing (Hunt 2000).
2 I am using the term 'voice here in a similar way to Foucault's notion of 'author-function'
(cf. Foucault 1977).
7
3 For a more detailed outline of my course see Hunt 1995,
4 90% of the students (a sample of 50) who completed questionnaires for my research report
ed that the course had helped them to develop as writers. 74% reported that writing fiction al autobiography had helped them to overcome problems with their writing. 51 am grateful to the students mentioned for allowing me to quote from questionnaires com pleted as part of my research. 6 Leader 1991 contains a very useful summary. 7 This is a term used by Karen Horney, which I discuss below. 8 On the conflict between rhetoric and character in fiction, see Paris 1997 and Hunt 1998b. 9 I have discussed the case of 'Sarah' in more detail in Hunt 1998a. 10 The quotations are from Sarah's essay written at the end of the course and from the inter views undertaken as part of my research. I am very grateful to Sarah for allowing me to quote from these documents. 1 1
Paris (1994: 92-96, 232-238) discusses possible reasons for this.
Christopher BollasO elaboration of Winnicott's notion of 'true self6 (Bollas 1987, 1989) provides a useful extension of Horney's notion of 'real self. 1 2
13 Horney's definition of neurosis changed and developed over time, along with her views as a whole. The major features of neurosis which she identifies are basic anxiety and alien ation from self, leading to disturbances in relations with self and others, in particular 'a cer tain rigidity in reaction and a discrepancy between potentialities and accomplishments' (Horney 1937: 22). 14 Horney's 'life solutionsO can usefully be thought of as 'self-conceptsd, which contain a narrative, including a powerful narrative of 'shoulds' which determines how a person should behave, what she should be doing with her life, what sort of relationships she should be engaging in, etc. This is discussed below. 15 Horney uses the male pronoun throughout her books, except when discussing specific case studies. 16 See Paris 1994, Part V, for a full account of Horney's mature theory. l ^ Whilst Horney does not discuss problems of creative writing or writer's block as such, her chapter 'Neurotic Disturbances in Work', in Neurosis and Human Growth, focuses specifically
Celia Hunt
191
on 'creative work in the broadest sense of the word' (Horney 1951; 310), and some of the examples she uses are of creative writers. 18 Milner's discussion of the space for the imagination as inhabited by monsters is relevant here (Milner 1971: 35-44). 19 These topics are discussed in greater detail in Hunt 2000.
WINNICOTT A N D EDUCATION
Val Richards Introduction W i n n i c o t t ' s w r i t i n g s b r i n g together a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the m i n d a n d a n existential v i s i o n of h u m a n life. H e offers a s t r i k i n g l y i n t e r p e r s o n a l , a n d social p e r s p e c t i v e o n h o w l e a r n i n g o c c u r s . T h e ideas w h i c h s h a p e d W i n n i c o t t ' s v i s i o n i n c l u d e a s t r o n g i n f u s i o n of N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y R o m a n t i c i s m . T h i s is a n essentialist stance, w h i c h bears little r e l a t i o n to the m o d e r n i s t n o t i o n of the self as a n 'absent centre'. H o w e v e r , t h r o u g h his i m m e n s e
clinical experience,
W i n n i c o t t a r r i v e d at a v i e w of the self w h i c h — e v e n t h o u g h t it is r e g a r d e d as ' a n e n t i t y ' — i s nevertheless p r o b l e m a t i c a l a n d u l t i m a t e l y unresolved: T h e r e is m u c h u n c e r t a i n t y i n m y o w n m i n d about the m e a n i n g of ' S e l f . . . F o r m e the self, w h i c h is not the ego, is the p e r s o n w h o is m e , w h o is o n l y m e , w h o has a totality b a s e d o n the o p e r a t i o n of the m a t u r a t i o n a l process. A t the s a m e time the self has p a r t s , a n d i n fact is constituted of these parts. (Winnicott 1989:
271)
In the first part of this chapter, I w i l l focus o n W i n n i c o t t ' s ideas o n e a r l y i n f a n t n e e d s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . In the s e c o n d , I g o o n to e x p l o r e h o w these concepts m i g h t be a p p l i e d — b o t h to the fostering of creative a n d effective l e a r n i n g , a n d to the d i s c o v e r y a n d r e c o v e r y of d i s t u r b e d creativity.
I A t the heart of W i n n i c o t t ' s t h o u g h t is his insistence that the infant's self—its c o n t i n u i t y of b e i n g i n time a n d s p a c e — i s at first held b y the mother,
1
b o t h literally a n d f i g u r a t i v e l y T h e s u p r e m e i m p o r t a n c e of
this 'facilitating e n v i r o n m e n t ' i n W i n n i c o t t ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a l m o d e l is e p i t o m i s e d b y his o b s e r v a t i o n that: ' T h e r e ' s n o s u c h t h i n g as a b a b y ' (Winnicott 1960a: 39). T h i s w a s uttered as a c h a l l e n g i n g corrective to w h a t h e s a w (perhaps a little unfairly) as the near a u t o n o m y of the infant i n M e l a n i e K l e i n ' s v i e w s o n the c h i l d ' s internal w o r l d . W h a t is
Vol Richards
193
c r u c i a l i n W i n n i c o t t ' s a p h o r i s m , h o w e v e r , is the w a y it refers not o n l y to the o b v i o u s p h y s i c a l care of the b a b y — o n w h i c h it is, of course, a b s o l u t e l y d e p e n d e n t — b u t also to the p e r h a p s less o b v i o u s belief that at first the b a b y cannot thrive w i t h o u t e m o t i o n a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l holding. A central feature of parental h o l d i n g is the p a r t p l a y e d b y m a t e r n a l ' m i r r o r i n g ' . F o r W i n n i c o t t ' s infant, the reflection it perceives of itself is t o t a l l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n the i m a g e of another p e r s o n , u p o n the expres
sion on its mother's face.
W i n n i c o t t writes:
W h a t does the b a b y see w h e n he or she l o o k s at the m o t h e r ' s face? I a m s u g g e s t i n g that, o r d i n a r i l y , w h a t the b a b y sees is h i m self or herself. In other w o r d s the m o t h e r is l o o k i n g at the b a b y and 1990:
what she looks like is related to what she sees there.
(Winnicott
112)
W i n n i c o t t suggests, then, that for the b a b y to experience full narcis sistic c o n f i r m a t i o n of itself, its o w n self-image has to be m e d i a t e d b y another. T h e infant's i m a g e of itself is contingent u p o n the m o t h e r ' s g i v i n g b a c k the infant's i m a g e
to her c h i l d . T h i s suggests, then, not
o n l y the f u n d a m e n t a l l y interactional nature of f a v o u r a b l e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , b u t also the d e p e n d e n c e of the learner o n the other for the i n i t i a t i o n of e d u c a t i v e processes. M i r r o r i n g is a v e r y c o m p l e x process w h i c h is s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the factor of time. A l t h o u g h the process occurs m o r e or less s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , there is nevertheless a
sequence i n v o l v e d : firstly, the
mother must
see the c h i l d , a n d t h e n r e s p o n d to w h a t she sees, so that the c h i l d m i g h t t h e n l o o k at the mother, a n d f i n a l l y see (or apperceive) himself. It is a k i n d of b e n i g n cycle i n w h i c h the m o t h e r is r e p e a t e d l y g i v i n g the i n f a n t b a c k to h i m s e l f . T h r o u g h s u c h affirmation a n d c o n f i r m a t i o n the c h i l d ' s i n n e r self, his integration, is g r a d u a l l y b u i l t u p . T h e c h i l d ' s e a r l y l e a r n i n g is t h u s situated s q u a r e l y i n a n i n t e r p e r s o n a l process, a n d is totally d e p e n d e n t o n the reflection of the o t h e r .
2
W i n n i c o t t p a r a p h r a s e s the s i t u a t i o n of the infant as f o l l o w s : W h e n I l o o k I a m seen, so I exist. I c a n n o w afford to l o o k a n d see. I n o w l o o k creatively a n d w h a t I a p p e r c e i v e I also perceive. In fact I take care not to see w h a t is n o t there to be seen (unless I a m tired). (Winnicott 1990:
114)
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Winnicott and Education
H o w e v e r , this early, absolute d e p e n d e n c e
o n the m o t h e r for its
' g o i n g - o n - b e i n g ' is b a l a n c e d b y W i n n i c o t t ' s n o t i o n of the infant's o w n self. T h i s self d e r i v e s u l t i m a t e l y f r o m the infant's o w n earliest ' s p o n t a n e o u s g e s t u r e ' — t h a t is,
its own instinctual expression within the security
of being held. A l l later creativity a n d l e a r n i n g is v i e w e d b y W i n n i c o t t as i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m this p r i m a r y root. C r e a t i v i t y is thus p o s i t e d as a ' p r i m i t i v e a l i v e n e s s ' rather t h a n — a s i n the classical t h e o r i e s — a s a sec o n d a r y process or c o m p e n s a t o r y d i s p l a c e m e n t . In a d d i t i o n , f o r m i n g a v i t a l b o o s t to this process of i n d i v i d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t , W i n n i c o t t places a s t r o n g e m p h a s i s o n the part p l a y e d b y hate. In the n u r s e r y , the hate a n d a m b i v a l e n c e e x p e r i e n c e d b y a m o t h e r t o w a r d s her infant serves as a n i n v o l u n t a r y b u t c r u c i a l element i n the process of differentiation b e t w e e n t h e m , facilitating the b a b y ' s
own
c a p a c i t y for l o v e a n d hate. T h i s d y n a m i c also a p p l i e s to w h a t h a p p e n s i n the c l a s s r o o m a n d i n the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p . W i n n i c o t t ' s assertion that ' T h e m o t h e r hates her b a b y f r o m the w o r d g o ' (Winnicott 1949:
201) is a robust corrective to the s e e m i n g d e l i c a c y of m a t e r n a l
m i r r o r i n g . T h e c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g of hate a n d aggression w i t h the motifs of h o l d i n g a n d m i r r o r i n g h i g h l i g h t s h o w W i n n i c o t t ' s ideas are d e c i s i v e l y r o o t e d i n the real w o r l d of the i n t e r p e r s o n a l , as w e l l as i n the intrapsychic w o r l d .
*** F r o m h o l d i n g a n d m i r r o r i n g — w h i c h are t i n g e d w i t h a h e a l t h y a n d necessary
degree
of h a t e — d e v e l o p s
the ability to p l a y , a n d
what
W i n n i c o t t f a m o u s l y d e s c r i b e d as 'transitional p h e n o m e n a ' . T h e latter, a c c o r d i n g to W i n n i c o t t , arise f r o m that p o i n t of d e v e l o p m e n t at w h i c h the baby, a l t h o u g h still essentially a part of its m o t h e r , is also b e g i n n i n g to r e g a r d her as a separate p e r s o n . W i n n i c o t t there fore pictures a n intermediate state, b e t w e e n a b a b y ' s i n a b i l i t y and
his
g r o w i n g a b i l i t y to recognise a n d accept reality. U l t i m a t e l y the c h i l d w i l l b e c o m e able to enjoy the o v e r l a p b e t w e e n the two areas of d e p e n d e n c e a n d s e p a r a t i o n , able to initiate p l a y and
to r e s p o n d to his m o t h
e r ' s s t i m u l u s . T h i s transition f r o m d e p e n d e n c e to s e p a r a t i o n enables the c o n c e p t i o n of a series of tensions, e a c h h e l d i n a dialectic r e l a t i o n s h i p . A r o u n d the p r i m a r y t e n s i o n b e t w e e n ' i n n e r a n d o u t e r ' r e v o l v e other o p p o s i t i o n s s u c h as ' m e a n d not m e ' , ' l o v e a n d hate', ' i l l u s i o n
Val Richards
195
a n d r e a l i t y ' , 'concrete a n d s y m b o l i c ' , a n d — a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of the lat ter—'meaning and non-meaning'. T h e o v e r r i d i n g q u e s t i o n w h i c h W i n n i c o t t addresses here is: h o w is m e a n i n g m a d e a n d u n - m a d e b y each i n d i v i d u a l ? F r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of l e a r n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n , W i n n i c o t t ' s e m p h a s i s o n the i m p o r t a n c e of transitional p h e n o m e n a indicates h o w l e a r n i n g o c c u r s n o t p r i m a r i l y f r o m a ' t a k i n g i n ' of the outside, n o r p r i m a r i l y f r o m a ' p u t t i n g i n ' b y s o m e o n e o n the o u t s i d e . Rather it occurs p r e c i s e l y t h r o u g h a n inter m i n g l i n g i n the space between i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e . T h e c h i l d ' s first use of s y m b o l s d e p e n d s o n his or her p e r c e p t i o n that o n e t h i n g c a n stand for another, as if it w e r e that other. T h i s c u l m i nates i n the s u p r e m e a c h i e v e m e n t of v e r b a l representation. T h e s h a k y 'as
if
factor
i n this process
is the
h a l l m a r k of
the
transitional.
T h r o u g h o u t his w r i t i n g s o n the crucial t r a n s i t i o n f r o m ' m e ' to 'not m e ' , f r o m the concrete to the s y m b o l i c , W i n n i c o t t r e p e a t e d l y e v o k e s the p r e cariousness a n d f l u i d i t y of the relationship b e t w e e n i n n e r a n d outer, i l l u s i o n a n d reality, a n d — s u p r e m e l y — b e t w e e n me a n d not me. In these o p p o s i t i o n s , 'as i f is a l w a y s i n d a n g e r of s l i p p i n g into 'is the s a m e a s ' — t h a t is, the s y m b o l , s i g n , or w o r d , is a l w a y s i n d a n g e r of b e c o m i n g m o r e real t h a n its referent. T h e space i n w h i c h i l l u s i o n m i g h t b e c o m e e q u a t e d w i t h reality is the p a r t i c u l a r source a n d p r o v i n c e of all f o r m s of p l a y i n g a n d c r e a t i v i t y — b u t also of m a d n e s s : I a m s t a k i n g here a c l a i m for a n i n t e r m e d i a t e state b e t w e e n a b a b y ' s i n a b i l i t y a n d his g r o w i n g ability to recognise a n d accept reality. I a m therefore s t u d y i n g the substance of illusion, that w h i c h is a l l o w e d to the infant, a n d w h i c h i n a d u l t life is inherent i n art a n d r e l i g i o n , a n d yet b e c o m e s the h a l l m a r k of
madness
w h e n a n a d u l t p u t s too p o w e r f u l a c l a i m o n the c r e d u l i t y of o t h ers, f o r c i n g t h e m to a c k n o w l e d g e a s h a r i n g of i l l u s i o n that is not their o w n . (Winnicott 1990:
3)
W h a t characterises the transitional stage or state is, t h e n — p r i m a r i l y — t h e f r a g i l i t y of the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality. If the ten s i o n b e t w e e n the t w o b e c o m e s too great or the l i n k s n a p s , then w h a t was
transitional
becomes
instead
'the
hallmark
of
madness'.
W i n n i c o t t ' s a l m o s t c a s u a l w a r n i n g that this w i l l o c c u r ' w h e r e a n a d u l t puts too great a c l a i m o n the c r e d u l i t y of others' a l l u d e s to the t y r a n n i c a l effects of a p e r s o n ' s p a r a n o i d o r p s y c h o t i c o m n i p o t e n t fantasies. P e r h a p s w e m i g h t extend this w a r n i n g to the c l a s s r o o m , a n d take it as
196
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a reference to the effects o n c h i l d r e n a n d students of a n y p o w e r f u l f i g ure w h o seeks to i n d o c t r i n a t e or b r a i n w a s h , b y d e s t r o y i n g t r a n s i t i o n a l phenomena. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the precariousness of the transitional, h o w e v e r , a n d 'the necessity of i l l u s i o n ' , W i n n i c o t t further asserts that: n o h u m a n b e i n g is free f r o m the s t r a i n of relating i n n e r a n d outer reality, a n d that relief f r o m this s t r a i n is p r o v i d e d b y a n i n t e r m e d i a t e area of experience... w h i c h is n o t c h a l l e n g e d . 1990:
(Winnicott
13)
T h i s f i n d s s u p p o r t i n M a r i o n M i l n e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i l l u s i o n : Moments
of
i l l u s i o n are
necessary
for
symbol
formation,
m o m e n t s w h e n the m e not m e d o not h a v e to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . M o m e n t s w h e n the i n n e r a n d outer s e e m to c o i n c i d e , n e e d e d for r e s t o r i n g b r o k e n l i n k s , b r i d g e s , to the outer w o r l d , as w e l l as f o r m i n g the first b r i d g e s . A s necessary for h e a l t h y l i v i n g as n i g h t d r e a m s s e e m to b e — a n d as p l a y i n g is. ( M i l n e r 1969:
417)
T h u s , i n a n i m p o r t a n t sense, w h e r e v e r transitional c o n d i t i o n s are recreated o r recur a m o n g s t a n d w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s , w h a t takes p l a c e i m p l i e s a b u i l t - i n 'regressive' element, w h i c h necessarily b l u r s the o r i g i n a l l y h a r d - w o n d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality, b e t w e e n concrete a n d s y m b o l i c . B u t it is p r e c i s e l y this
blurring
the
w h i c h affords a
'relief f r o m the s t r a i n ' . T h e participants i n m o m e n t s of i l l u s i o n b e c o m e automatically more open and more childlike, more omnipotent
and
m o r e v u l n e r a b l e , i n a w i l l i n g a n d i n v o l u n t a r y s u s p e n s i o n of disbelief. F o r instance, the t o d d l e r w h o p o u r s out p r e t e n d c u p s of tea, offer i n g t h e m to y o u a n d to h e r i n v i s i b l e friends, is far f r o m m a d .
She
k n o w s t h e y are not real. B u t i n o r d e r to enjoy the satisfaction a n d i n n e r e n r i c h m e n t of p l a y the t o d d l e r — a n d , i n d e e d , c h i l d r e n a n d adults of a l l a g e s — w i l l i n g l y s u s p e n d their disbelief, i n o r d e r to r e v e l i n the b l u r r i n g b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality, the h a l l m a r k of the transitional. T h e i m p l i c i t m o d e l of l e a r n i n g o n offer here, t h e n , is neither that of 'teacher a n d taught as separate i n d i v i d u a l s ' , n o r of a n o m n i p o t e n t l y m e r g e d p a i r or m a s s . It is, rather, a dance of separateness a n d together ness, a m o v i n g i n a n d out of m e r g i n g , the ' p o t e n t i a l ' space c o n s t a n t l y o p e n i n g a n d c l o s i n g . In contrast to K l e i n i a n a n d F r e u d i a n t h o u g h t , i n w h i c h the infant's f o r b i d d e n desire for the b o d i e s of its parents is c o n
197
Val Richards
stantly d i s p l a c e d o n t o objects i n the o u t s i d e w o r l d , i n W i n n i c o t t a n d M i l n e r w e e n c o u n t e r i n s t e a d a n alternation b e t w e e n f u s i o n a n d apart ness.
For Klein,
there
is a s e v e r a n c e
between
baby
a n d breast.
W i n n i c o t t ' s c o n c e p t o f the t r a n s i t i o n a l , h o w e v e r , i m p l i e s that g r a d u a t i o n t o w a r d s the s y m b o l i c rests n o t o n the d i s p l a c e m e n t o f a n object w h i c h i s i r r e c o v e r a b l y lost, b u t — i n s t e a d — o n the loss of the
fusion
b e t w e e n the breast a n d the infant's m o u t h . M i l n e r a d d s to this her s u g gestion that the p e r p e t u a l tensions of the t r a n s i t i o n a l are best e n v i s a g e d i n the p h a n t a s y o f a c o n t i n u i n g relationship b e t w e e n m o u t h a n d breast. P a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s — t h o s e i n w h i c h transactions d e p e n d o n a p a r ticular k i n d o f relational contract u n d e r s p e c i a l i s e d c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as theatre, for instance, o r p s y c h o t h e r a p y — e m p l o y the creative pressure w h i c h arises f r o m the p r e c a r i o u s balance b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality. A p h a n t a s y o f relating is also central to e a c h of these situations. T h i s has b e e n d e s c r i b e d v i v i d l y b y the c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n H u i z i n g a : T h e a r e n a , the c a r d - t a b l e , the m a g i c circle, the t e m p l e , the stage, the screen, the t e n n i s - c o u r t , the court o f justice, etc. are a l l i n f o r m a n d f u n c t i o n p l a y - g r o u n d s — t h a t i s , f o r b i d d e n spots, iso lated, h e d g e d
round, hallowed,
within which
special
rules
o b t a i n . . . A l l are t e m p o r a r y w o r l d s w i t h i n the o r d i n a r y w o r l d d e d i c a t e d to the p e r f o r m a n c e o f a n act apart. ( H u i z i n g a , i n F a r h i 1991: 10) T h i s c l o s e l y echoes W i n n i c o t t ' s s u g g e s t i o n that: playing
has a place a n d a t i m e . It is n o t inside b y a n y u s e of the
w o r d . . . N o r is it outside, that is to say, it is n o t p a r t of the r e p u d i ated w o r l d , the n o t - m e , that w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l has d e c i d e d to recognise ( w i t h w h a t e v e r d i f f i c u l t y a n d e v e n p a i n ) as t r u l y exter n a l , w h i c h is o u t s i d e m a g i c a l control. (Winnicott 1990: 41) I m p l i c i t i n these d e s c r i p t i o n s of p l a y i n g p o s s e s s i n g ' a place a n d a t i m e ' is the w h o l e d i m e n s i o n of semiotics. T h i s is a d i s c i p l i n e i n w h i c h a n a l y s i s of the ' c o d e s ' w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r setting demonstrates the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of the elements w i t h i n the setting, a n d the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t i n the m a k i n g o f m e a n i n g . U n d e r the h e i g h t e n e d c o n d i t i o n s p r o d u c e d b y the s e t t i n g — w h e t h e r this is the theatre, therapy, o r the c l a s s r o o m — t h e
p l a y o f signs w i t h i n the d e s i g n a t e d
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Winnicott and Education
s t r u c t u r e causes certain elements to leap out, p r o d u c i n g h u g e e x p l o s i o n s of m e a n i n g for the p a r t i c i p a n t s — a s K e i r E l a m p u t it:
'all that is on
the stage is a sign' (Elam 1983: 7). T o c o n t i n u e w i t h the theatre as a n e x a m p l e , b e s i d e s the s u p r e m a c y of s p o k e n (or s u n g ) w o r d s , these ' s i g n s ' w o u l d i n c l u d e a l l the p r o p s of l i g h t i n g , s o u n d , c o s t u m e a n d scenery. T h e i m a g i n a t i o n is u n l e a s h e d when,
i n s t i n c t i v e l y , the
participants
(audience
and
performers)
attribute a s p e c i a l significance to all the f o r m s of p l a y i n g w h i c h o c c u r w i t h i n the c o r d o n e d - o f f place a n d time. O n c e c o n s e q u e n c e of this is a r e v e r s i o n to o r i g i n a l , m o r e p r i m i t i v e m o d e s of s y m b o l i s a t i o n
and
m e a n i n g - m a k i n g . T h e s e c a n b o r d e r u p o n ' s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n ' — t h a t is, the p r e c a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h the s y m b o l , the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , the n a m e a l o n e , snatches the properties of the t h i n g s y m b o l i s e d . H o w e v e r , as I h o p e I h a v e e m p h a s i s e d a b o v e , it is this bordering on w i t h o u t q u i t e t o p p l i n g i n t o s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n , w h i c h is the s o u r c e of t r a n s f o r m i n g i m a g i n a t i v e activity. R e g r e s s i v e states c a n b e either fruitful or fateful. T h e y are facilitated b y the ' p l a c e a n d t i m e ' b u t a l s o — a b o v e a l l — b y the r e l a t i o n s h i p to the significant i n v e s t e d figure(s),
whose words
and
silence are e n d o w e d w i t h a m u l t i t u d e of m e a n i n g s a n d i n t e n t i o n s . T h i s process c a n also be o b s e r v e d i n therapy, as i n the f o l l o w i n g illustration: A p a t i e n t i n a l o n g a n d s o m e t i m e s s t o r m y a n a l y s i s , reacted s t r o n g l y to signs of sleepiness i n the n o r m a l l y attentive therapist. T h e p a t i e n t h a d b e e n r e l a t i n g matters of v i t a l m o m e n t . H e r a n g e r at the therapist p e r s i s t e d into the next session, e v e n t h o u g h , to her s u r p r i s e , the t h e r a pist demonstrated
complete
recall of the p r e v i o u s d a y ' s
material,
d e s p i t e the a p p a r e n t inattentiveness. A s the p a t i e n t d e s c e n d e d stairs after the session, which—she
the
h o w e v e r , she h e a r d w h a t s o u n d e d l i k e a click,
realised—always
s o u n d e d as she c a m e a n d w e n t .
She
b e c a m e i n s t a n t l y c o n v i n c e d that her sessions w e r e t a p e - r e c o r d e d , i r r a t i o n a l l y a s s u m i n g that w h a t the therapist c o u l d n o t listen to ' l i v e ' c o u l d — a n d w a s — p l a y e d b a c k later. A f t e r a sleepless n i g h t s p e n t f u m i n g at the therapist's p e r f i d y , a tiny c h i n k a p p e a r e d i n the patient's cer tainty a n d , b y the time she reached h e r session, the c o n v i c t i o n h a d n o w s h r u n k to a fantasy, w h i c h she d i s c l o s e d to the therapist. T h e latter d r o p p e d the analytic stance, e x p r e s s i n g bafflement
c o n c e r n i n g the
' c l i c k ' , a n d i n v i t e d the patient to p o i n t o u t the next time it o c c u r r e d . Instead of the sinister s w i t c h of a tape recorder, it p r o v e d to be the s m o k e a l a r m , a n d the patient's s u s p i c i o n s s u b s i d e d .
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T h i s is a clear e x a m p l e of h o w , w i t h i n a sealed s i g n i f y i n g structure, b o t h patients b e c a m e i n v o l v e d i n a s t r a i n i n g of the b a l a n c e
between
i l l u s i o n a n d r e a l i t y r e s u l t i n g i n a b e n d i n g of the a n a l y t i c frame. T h e patient's shakiness a n d v u l n e r a b i l i t y c a u s e d her to m i s t r u s t a n d to rise u p i n r e a c t i o n against the analyst's u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s l e e p y response. T h e tangle of actions a n d reactions, projections a n d introjections, resulted i n the p a r a n o i d f o r e g r o u n d i n g of a single i n n o c u o u s element i n the total setting: the m i s r e c o g n i s e d s o u n d of a s m o k e a l a r m . E v e r y t h i n g w i t h i n this s p a c e — ' o n the s t a g e ' — i s i n d e e d a s i g n , a n d the o v e r l o a d i n g of one p a r t i c u l a r signifier exposes the thinness of the 'as i f w h i c h , o n this o c c a s i o n , h a d to be b r e a c h e d b y the therapist as w e l l as the patient. F u r t h e r m o r e , the e x a m p l e also illustrates h o w a l l elements i n the setting are e x p e r i e n c e d as a n extension of the analyst a n d , p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , the w a y i n w h i c h u n c o n s c i o u s , p r i m i t i v e anxiety triggers a n inextricable c o m b i n a t i o n of h e i g h t e n e d m e n t a l activity a n d emotions.
T h i s i n s e p a r a b i l i t y of i m a g i n a t i o n a n d the a t t r i b u t i o n of
m e a n i n g is w e l l - i l l u s t r a t e d b y a n e x a m p l e f r o m one of Brecht's p l a y s , i n w h i c h he s o u g h t to d e m o n s t r a t e c o o l l y a n d c l i n i c a l l y m a n ' s i n h u m a n i t y to m a n . Instead of a h u m a n figure, Brecht chose to represent the v i c t i m b y a s a w d u s t - f i l l e d c l o w n . Yet e v e n at the sight of a s a w d u s t m a n n i k i n h a v i n g its leg ' a m p u t a t e d ' , s o m e spectators i n the a u d i e n c e fainted a w a y ( R e d m o n d 1981).
*** T h e s i m u l t a n e o u s h e i g h t e n i n g of m e a n i n g - m a k i n g a n d of e m o t i o n is associated, at the transitional stage, w i t h the c h i l d ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p to a special p o s s e s s i o n or b e l o n g i n g , a ' t r a n s i t i o n a l o b j e c t ' — s u c h as a t e d d y b e a r — w h i c h b e c o m e s the central feature of the transitional area. It is the r e l a t i o n s h i p to this object w h i c h affords a g r a d u a t i o n (rather t h a n a single, giant leap) a w a y f r o m m e r g e r w i t h the
mother towards
the
c a p a c i t y to use s y m b o l s . T h e transitional object assists the c h i l d i n p e r c e i v i n g itself a n d its m o t h e r
as separate b e i n g s , e v e n w h i l s t
they
r e m a i n interrelated. T h e o r i g i n a l i t y of W i n n i c o t t ' s t h o u g h t appears p a r t i c u l a r l y i n his
insistence that the transitional object is, l i k e the breast, created b y the
child:
Of the transitional object it can be said that it is a matter of agreement betiueen us and the baby that we will never ask the question : 'Did you
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conceive of this or was it presented to you from without?' The impor tant point is that no decision on that point is expected. The question not to he formulated. (Winnicott 1990: 12) T h e f u n c t i o n of a transitional o b j e c t — s u c h as the f a m i l i a r t e d d y — c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d i n three p r i n c i p a l senses, w h i c h a l l h a v e a b e a r i n g u p o n the t h e o r y a n d practice of l e a r n i n g a n d the d e v e l o p m e n t of s y m b o l f o r m a t i o n . Firstly, it stands p a r t l y for the m o t h e r (breast, bottle); s e c o n d l y , p a r t l y for the c h i l d ' s o w n self; a n d , t h i r d l y — b u t of
the
u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e — i t exists as a n actual object i n the w o r l d . W i n n i c o t t writes: It is t r u e that the p i e c e of b l a n k e t (or w h a t e v e r it is) is s y m b o l i
c a l of s o m e part-object, s u c h as the breast. N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
the
p o i n t of it is n o t its s y m b o l i c v a l u e so m u c h as its actuality. Its n o t
b e i n g the breast (or the mother), a l t h o u g h real, is as i m p o r t a n t as
the fact that it stands for the breast (or m o t h e r ) . ( W i n n i c o t t
1990:
6).
B e c a u s e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d infant occurs f r o m the
very
beginning, and because—during
omnipotence—the
the
phase
of
infantile
infant has n o i d e a that this m o t h e r is other, the
i n f a n t g r o w s a c c u s t o m e d to w h a t it takes to be p e r p e t u a l
self c o m m u
n i c a t i o n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h a p r e s u m e d p a r t of itself. H e n c e the t r a n s i t i o n a l stage, w i t h the b e g i n n i n g s of s e p a r a t i o n , m u s t i n c l u d e s o m e sense of l o s s of self, as w e l l as loss of m o t h e r . T h e t e d d y bear h e l p s c o m p e n s a t e for this s e e m i n g loss of ' m e ' , as m o t h e r b e c o m e s ' y o u ' or ' o t h e r ' . T h e b e a r comes to represent n o t o n l y the mother, b u t a l s o the ' m e o u t there', thus b e c o m i n g the first of the n u m b e r l e s s series of ' o t h e r s i n f u s e d b y the s e l f i n a l l areas of experience. T h e n e e d to h a v e p a r t of oneself outside is a major i m p e t u s for the c o n f e r m e n t of i m a g i n a t i v e life a n d i m a g i n a t i v e qualities onto the object, a n d for s u p p l y i n g the object w i t h the f u n c t i o n of a c o m m u n i c a t i n g alter
ego,
w h i c h the infant o n c e took for g r a n t e d i n the f o r m of the mother. T h i s is c a p t u r e d p o w e r f u l l y i n the f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n b y the c h i l d h e r o ine of W i l l i a m M a y n e ' s novel,
Cuddy:
A t that m o m e n t she b e c a m e certain that B e o w u l f w a s not o n l y a
b e a r she h a d k n o w n f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of h e r life, b u t a p e r s o n
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i n his o w n r i g h t , i n his o w n way, d e p e n d i n g o n her to m a k e the w o r l d u n d e r s t a n d h i m . ( M a y n e 1998: 83) T h u s , for W i n n i c o t t , the e a r l y relationship to the t e d d y bear inspires creative activity w i t h materials f r o m the o u t s i d e w o r l d just as m u c h as the infant's o r i g i n a l p o s s e s s i o n of the m o t h e r ' s b o d y . I m m e r s i o n of the self i n p a i n t , p l a s t i c i n e , s a n d or m u s i c a l s o u n d , revives the transitional state of b o t h creating s o m e t h i n g that is not self, a n d e x p e r i e n c i n g a sen s u a l satisfaction a k i n to the o r i g i n a l transitional r e l a t i o n s h i p of m o t h e r - i n f a n t - t e d d y bear. It to the relationship w i t h the transitional object that w e c a n trace the source o f the t r a n s f o r m i n g properties of the i m a g i n a t i o n , for i n the transitional object appears the first l i b e r a t i o n of the i m a g i n a t i o n b y m e a n s of a s y m b o l , a n d the first experiences of i m a g i n a t i v e interaction. T h i s i n f u s i o n o f the transitional object w i t h the self prepares the g r o u n d for w h a t W i n n i c o t t regards as later identifications
w i t h key fig
ures, b o t h real a n d i n fantasy. T h e s e identifications are the basis o f e m p a t h y a n d of the i n v e n t i o n of fictional, i m a g i n a r y characters, n o u r i s h e d b y pleasure i n h e a r i n g , telling, a n d — e v e n t u a l l y — w r i t i n g stories. T h e s e possibilities d e v e l o p once the c h i l d sees the m o t h e r / o t h e r as a real p e r s o n . It is b y e n t e r i n g into the d o m a i n of the s y m b o l i c that the self, h a v i n g a c h i e v e d a degree o f separateness, p r o c e e d s ,
consciously
a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y , to aspire t o w a r d s b e c o m i n g either like or unlike oth ers o r a n o t h e r — t o identify, behaviour experienced
that is, w i t h k e y figures a n d patterns of
i n the c h i l d ' s life. T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n arises
u n c o n s c i o u s l y as w e l l as consciously, b o t h b y i m i t a t i o n a n d r e p u d i a t i o n , a n d i n v o l v e s a v i t a l a c t i n g - o u t i n p l a y for the establishment of p e r s o n a l identity. T h e transitional object exists for the c h i l d to p l a y w i t h , to i d e n t i f y w i t h as a p r o j e c t i o n o f the self, to use, to d o things to, a n d — m o s t
essen
t i a l — t o destroy i n fantasy, e v e n to hate. It is these p r i m i t i v e yet v i t a l emotions
w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to W i n n i c o t t , h e l p p r o p e l the c h i l d into
e x t e r n a l i t y — t h e reality of separateness. I n d e e d , the f u n c t i o n o f the transitional object as a genuine
piece of
external reality has p e r h a p s b e e n under-stressed. In this c a p a c i t y a b o v e all others it serves as a p a r a d i g m o f the dialectic b e t w e e n the concrete a n d s y m b o l i c , b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality, w h i c h motivates all l e a r n i n g . F o r i n c o n c e d i n g the existence of the bear for its o w n sake a n d i n its o w n right, the c h i l d — a s w e l l as e n g a g i n g i n m e a n i n g - m a k i n g a n d a d a p t a t i o n to external r e a l i t y — i s also p u l l i n g against the s y m b o l i c , b y
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r e a l i s i n g that ' a bear is a bear is a b e a r ' . F o r the c h i l d , w h a t also counts a n d matters a b o u t the b e a r — a p a r t f r o m its s y m b o l i c c o n n o t a t i o n s — i s its v e r y 'thereness' or 'Bearness'. T h e r e is v a l u e i n the v e r y concrete ness a n d s i n g u l a r i t y of the object. T h i s d i m e n s i o n of ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' confers status u p o n the manifest, the surface, the concrete, i n contrast to the ' d e e p e r ' or the ' h i d d e n ' . N o n - m e a n i n g allows for the p o s s i b i l i t y of r a n d o m n e s s , a n d subverts the urge t o w a r d s constant p a t t e r n i n g a n d m e a n i n g - m a k i n g . T h e 'thisness' of the c h i l d ' s first p o s s e s s i o n obstructs the u n i v e r s a l d r i v e to insist that 'reality' a l w a y s possesses m e a n i n g b e y o n d the i m m e d i a t e a n d g i v e n . 'Bearness' invites i m m e r s i o n i n the i m m e d i a t e , for its own
sake.
T h e transitional object also a c c o m m o d a t e s , therefore, the v a l u e of the thing-in-itself. It liberates patient a n d analyst, teacher a n d p u p i l , to accept—when
a p p r o p r i a t e — t h e absence of c o n n e c t i n g l i n k s , or
to
reject interpretations a n d explanations. It p r o v i d e s a m e a n s of f a c i n g the p o s s i b l e r a n d o m n e s s of things, w h i c h so outrages o u r o m n i p o t e n t a s s u m p t i o n of p a t t e r n a n d m e a n i n g . II ...the patient... m u s t be a l l o w e d to c o m m u n i c a t e a s u c c e s s i o n of ideas,
thoughts,
impulses,
sensations
that are n o t
linked...
[T]here is r o o m for the i d e a of u n r e l a t e d t h o u g h t sequences w h i c h the analyst w i l l d o w e l l to accept as s u c h , n o t a s s u m i n g the existence of a significant thread. (Winnicott 1 9 9 0 : 55) W i n n i c o t t ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of the n e e d to conceptualise ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' is e n s h r i n e d b o t h i n his concept of the transitional object a n d i n his a n a lytic w o r k — i n c o m m e n t s s u c h as the above, i n w h i c h h e w a r n s that the analyst's insistence o n c l e v e r l y d i s c o v e r i n g a coherent theme m a y be f a i l i n g the patient's p r i m a r y n e e d to be free to ' c o m m u n i c a t e n o n sense'. T h i s is i m p o r t a n t l y elaborated b y Bollas, i n his attempt to define the w a y i n w h i c h W i n n i c o t t ( a m o n g others) represents a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e f r o m m o r e o r t h o d o x practice: Each
of
the
authors
[from
the
Independent
Group
of
P s y c h o a n a l y s t s ] believes that the success of a n analysis rests not s i m p l y o n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of u n c o n s c i o u s conflicts into c o n scious awareness, b u t also o n f u n d a m e n t a l l y n e w p s y c h i c expe
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riences generated b y the analytic situation, i n particular, those s p o n s o r e d b y transference states. N a t u r a l l y , s o m e transference experiences are interpreted a n d cease to be u n c o n s c i o u s , b u t cer t a i n uses the a n a l y s a n d m a k e s of the analyst are of a different c a t e g o r y of m e a n i n g f r o m that represented b y the concept of r e p r e s s e d u n c o n s c i o u s conflict. W h e n W i n n i c o t t i n t r o d u c e d the t e r m 'true self' to s t a n d for i n h e r i t e d potential that f o u n d its e x p r e s s i o n i n s p o n t a n e o u s action, I t h i n k he c o n c e p t u a l i s e d a feature of the analytical r e l a t i o n s h i p (and of life) that h a d hereto fore b e e n u n t h e o r i s e d . (Bollas 1989: 8) T h i s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n is n o t h i n g less t h a n the realisation that for p s y c h i c , e m o t i o n a l r e c o v e r y — a n d for the d e v e l o p m e n t of the capacity for m e n t a l a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g intellectual p r o g r e s s — i t m a y at times be m o r e effective to a l l o w a p a r t i c u l a r experience to operate u p o n the senses, e m o t i o n s a n d i m a g i n a t i o n , entirely u n m e d i a t e d b y analytic e n d e a v o u r . T h i s , I suggest, c o m p l e t e l y b y p a s s e s the analyst's attempt to
render
'conscious'
h i d d e n disturbances,
but—instead—strikes
d i r e c t l y at the u n c o n s c i o u s , the o r i g i n a l 'true s e l f . In terms of the relationship b e t w e e n
teacher a n d student, this
a p p r o a c h b y p a s s e s the teacher's n e e d to extract m e a n i n g f r o m the stu d e n t , or i m p o s e it o n h i m or her. It is instead the total
experience—like
the theatrical s i t u a t i o n m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r — r a t h e r t h a n i n the single e l e m e n t of explicit interpretation ( a l t h o u g h this is i m p o r t a n t ) w h i c h reaches, h e a l s — a n d teaches. A s C o l e r i d g e p u t it: T h e I m a g i n a t i o n is the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g characteristic of m a n as a p r o g r e s s i v e b e i n g ; a n d . . . it o u g h t to be carefully g u i d e d a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d as the i n d i s p e n s i b l e m e a n s a n d i n s t r u m e n t of a m e l i o r a t i o n a n d refinement. ( C o l e r i d g e , q u o t e d i n W a l s h 1960:
23-4)
W a l s h c o m m e n t s that ' I m a g i n a t i o n is the air i n w h i c h n e w k n o w l e d g e breathes, as it is the salt p r e s e r v i n g the s a v o u r of the o l d . Knowledge
d o e s not keep
a n y better t h a n f i s h ' (Walsh 1960:
24).
I n d e e d , as is often p o i n t e d o u t , scientific d i s c o v e r i e s s p r i n g f r o m a p r i o r i m a g i n a t i v e v i s i o n , w h i c h leads to a h y p o t h e s i s , so that the n e w discovery becomes
the c o n s u m m a t i o n
of
an original imaginative
gleam. In terms of W i n n i c o t t ' s theories o n transitional p h e n o m e n a , then, the s t u d e n t s h o u l d 'create' for h i m or herself w h a t is l y i n g there to be
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f o u n d . T h e s t u d e n t — g i v e n the s k i l f u l p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n of the t e a c h e r — i s t h e n m o r e l i k e l y to ' p l a y ' , to l e a r n t h r o u g h b e i n g r e c e p t i v e to the m a t e r i a l ( w h i c h b e c o m e s the e d u c a t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t of a n a n a l y t i c interpretation). T h i s , h o w e v e r , is i n stark contrast w i t h h o w generations of c h i l d r e n — i n c l u d i n g e v e n the m o s t g i f t e d — h a v e d e v e l o p e d the c o n v i c t i o n that k n o w l e d g e b e l o n g s n o t to the s h a r e d ' i n t e r m e d i a t e ' area of m i n g l e d i l l u s i o n a n d r e a l i t y w h i c h is 'neither i n s i d e n o r o u t s i d e ' , b u t i n s t e a d to b l o c k s of facts, w h i c h are to be t a k e n ' i n ' f r o m ' o u t there'. B y w a y of a n i l l u s t r a t i o n , c o n s i d e r — f o r i n s t a n c e — t h e experience of r e a d i n g 'The Sick Rose' b y W i l l i a m Blake: O Rose, t h o u art sick. T h e invisible w o r m T h a t flies i n the n i g h t In the h o w l i n g s t o r m H a s f o u n d out t h y b e d O f c r i m s o n joy, A n d his d a r k secret l o v e D o e s t h y life destroy. (Blake 1983:
39)
B y m e a n s of a false b u t frequent d i c h o t o m y , readers t e n d to b e d r a w n p r i m a r i l y to the s y m b o l i c levels of the p o e m , to its meanings a n d a m b i g u i t i e s , w h i c h m a y t o u c h o n sexual c o r r u p t i o n ,
possessiveness,
f e m a l e helplessness, r a p e , a n d so o n . It is as if matters s u c h as these w e r e s o m e h o w of m o r e a c c o u n t t h a n the p o r t r a y a l a n d s e n s u a l e x p e r i e n c e of the manifest scene, a n d the a u r a l satisfaction i n the w a y the r h y m e m i r r o r s the m o v e m e n t of the d r a m a t o w a r d s its d a r k c o n s u m m a t i o n . W h o is to say that the ' w e i g h t i e r ' , s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g s of the p o e m possess greater i m p o r t a n c e t h a n its m o r e direct effects? T h i s false d i c h o t o m y , w h i c h d i s p l a c e s a p o t e n t i a l l y u n i f i e d response to the p o e m , s u r e l y parallels the e x c l u s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i t h i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s u p o n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n contrast to Bollas's d e s c r i p t i o n of W i n n i c o t t ' s w a y of w o r k i n g . W i n n i c o t t ' s s u g g e s t i o n that the patient needs to be free to ' c o m m u nicate n o n s e n s e ' o c c u r s i n the context of a p o r t r a y a l of the k i n d s of e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h p r o m o t e d i s c o v e r y , recovery, a n d creative l i v i n g . D e s p i t e the celebration of h e a l t h t h r o u g h o u t his w r i t i n g s , W i n n i c o t t ' s m a i n c o n c e r n is w i t h the effects of loss. I n d e e d , h e
distinguishes
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b e t w e e n t w o degrees o f loss. O n e type of loss is that w h i c h concerns a h a l f - r e m e m b e r e d d e p r i v a t i o n , o c c u r r i n g at a p o i n t at w h i c h there is s o m e m e a s u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l separateness, a n d a d e v e l o p i n g capacity for s y m b o l i s a t i o n . H o w e v e r , loss m a y also b e l o n g to a m o r e p r o f o u n d d i s t u r b a n c e i n the i n d i v i d u a l ' s v e r y c o n t i n u i t y of b e i n g , p r i o r to a n y sense o f the m o t h e r as other. C l i n i c a l l y , b o t h types of loss m a y manifest themselves as tendencies t o w a r d s feeling u n r e a l , f r a g m e n t e d , or d i s s o ciated, because the patient has b e e n cut adrift i n time a n d space. It w a s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , W i n n i c o t t ' s w o r k w i t h regressed a d u l t s w h i c h e x p o s e d these areas of earliest infant d i s t u r b a n c e . H e r e g a r d e d these as m o m e n t s of i m p i n g e m e n t w h i c h h a d resulted i n a ' s p l i t t i n g ' o f the self into a 'true s e l f — t h a t h i d e s away, for s a f e t y — a n d a c o m p l i a n t 'false s e l f , w h i c h protects the p e r s o n a l i t y f r o m further d i s r u p t i o n , b u t at the e x p e n s e of s p o n t a n e i t y a n d a u t o n o m y : In analysis o f a False Personality, the fact m u s t b e r e c o g n i s e d that the analyst c a n o n l y talk to the False Self o f the patient a b o u t the patient's T r u e Self. It is as if a n u r s e brings a c h i l d a n d at first the analyst discusses
the c h i l d ' s p r o b l e m s ,
a n d the c h i l d is not
d i r e c t l y contacted. A n a l y s i s d o e s n o t start u n t i l the n u r s e h a s left the c h i l d w i t h the analyst, a n d the c h i l d has b e c o m e
able to
r e m a i n alone w i t h the analyst a n d has started to play. (Winnicott 1960b:151) H e r e , W i n n i c o t t describes a d i v i d e d p e r s o n a l i t y w h i c h lacks a n y access to a centred, integrated self capable of p l a y i n g — a n d , therefore, of l e a r n i n g . T h e c h i l d , the o n e w h o m i g h t p l a y (but w h o , at first, m i g h t be m i s t a k e n for the ' n u r s e ' ) , is m e r e l y a 'false s e l f , a s t a n d - i n , f e n d i n g off a n y fullness of contact. C o n s e q u e n t l y , o r t h o d o x interpretations, w h i c h seek to ' t e l l ' or 'teach' are entirely u n h e l p f u l because they c a n n o t r e a c h the m o s t v i t a l yet dissociated core o f the self, the ' c h i l d ' w h o m the ' n u r s e ' h a s b r o u g h t . Instead, for the n u r s e to leave the c h i l d w i t h the analyst, a n d for the c h i l d to b e c o m e able to r e m a i n alone w i t h the analyst a n d start to play, w h a t is n e e d e d is a ' n e w experience i n a s p e c i a l k i n d of setting'. T h e o r t h o d o x a n a l y t i c task of m a k i n g conscious the u n c o n s c i o u s , p r i m a r i l y b y m e a n s of interpretation, m u s t g i v e w a y to the p r o v i s i o n of a n u r t u r i n g e n v i r o n m e n t — a little a k i n to the o r i g i n a l m o t h e r a n d infant r e l a t i o n s h i p . H e r e , the quest for conscious m e a n i n g is s u s p e n d e d i n o r d e r to a l l o w a phase of ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' , w h i l s t the g r o u n d for
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206
' p l a y i n g ' is p r e p a r e d . T h r o u g h the d e v e l o p i n g transference relation s h i p , a n y p a i n w h i c h has b e e n split-off m a y be actualised a n d inte g r a t e d w i t h i n the analytic setting. T h e r e is a r e n e w e d — p o s s i b l y e v e n a b r a n d - n e w — o p p o r t u n i t y for a relaxation of those defences activated b y earlier pressures o n the personality. T h e patient is t h e n freed for p r i m i t i v e experiences of h e i g h t e n e d m e a n i n g - m a k i n g , t h r o u g h s y m bolic equation: T h e c o u c h a n d the p i l l o w s are there for the patient's use. T h e y w i l l a p p e a r i n ideas a n d d r e a m s a n d then w i l l stand for the a n a lyst's b o d y , breast, arms, h a n d s etc., i n a n infinite v a r i e t y of w a y s . In so far as the patient is regressed (for a m o m e n t or for a n h o u r or o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d of time) the c o u c h is the analyst, the p i l l o w s are breasts, the analyst is the m o t h e r at a certain past era. I n the extreme it is n o l o n g e r true to say of the c o u c h that the c o u c h represents the analyst; the c o u c h is the analyst. (Winnicott 1954:
288)
T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of these analytic ideas a n d experiences for v i e w s o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of l e a r n i n g entail the r e c o g n i t i o n that compliance a child
or s t u d e n t — w h i c h w a s
pathologised
in
a n d i d e n t i f i e d as a
defence b y W i n n i c o t t , but is too often p r i z e d b y teachers a n d p a r e n t s — m a y b e a s i g n of sickness rather t h a n health. C o m p l i a n c e c a n often b e u n d e r s t o o d as a reactive rather t h a n a n a u t o n o m o u s response, a r i s i n g f r o m a d i s s o c i a t e d part of the personality, the 'false s e l f . A b s o r p t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n i n d u l l obedience c a n easily b e c o m e a substitute for v i t a l learning;
imitation
too
often
replaces
creative
identification.
W i n n i c o t t ' s a p p r o a c h , i n contrast, focuses o n the i n d i v i d u a l ' s o w n d i s c o v e r y of m e a n i n g , rather t h a n the analyst or teacher's i m p o s i t i o n of m e a n i n g . W i n n i c o t t also insists o n p r o v i d i n g a place for the p o s s i b i l i t y of ' n o n - m e a n i n g ' . R e a d i n g W i n n i c o t t , w e also encounter the s u g g e s t i o n that l e a r n i n g is m o r e effective if, i n the presence of the teacher, the i m a g i n a t i o n , the u n c o n s c i o u s d e p t h s of the self are accessed, e n a b l i n g the m a t e r i a l of the l e s s o n to be g r a s p e d a n d p o s s e s s e d from within. dents to realise—in
T h i s enables s t u
the fullest sense of the w o r d .
R e g r e s s i o n w h i c h borders o n a s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n , d u r i n g w h i c h the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality is all b u t lost, c a n , i n a c o n t a i n e d therapeutic s i t u a t i o n , p r o v e creative a n d h e a l i n g . H o w e v e r , i n s o m e schools of p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h o u g h t a s y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n is taken p r i
Val Richards
207
m a r i l y as a n i n d i c a t i o n of p a t h o l o g y a n d p s y c h o s i s . In contrast, f r o m W i n n i c o t t ' s perspective, the recognition of the dialectic b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality also encompasses the possibility of its t e m p o r a r y c o l lapse. A collapse m a y i n d e e d occur at certain d e v e l o p m e n t a l stages a n d i n certain h e i g h t e n e d states, whether of disturbance or of ecstasy In these instances the hierarchical relationship b e t w e e n s y m b o l a n d representation is r e v e r s e d ; the s y m b o l itself is n o longer the represen tation of a reality b u t actually replaces that reality. It b e c o m e s m o r e w e i g h e d d o w n w i t h m e a n i n g than is ' a p p r o p r i a t e ' . A s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of this it is possible to cite the results of tests b y p s y c h o l o g i s t s s u c h as Piaget a n d Vygotsky. E v e n t h o u g h the n a m e of a t h i n g d o e s not reflect—or h a v e a n y intrinsic relationship t o — t h e p r o p erties of that t h i n g , y o u n g c h i l d r e n tend to a s s u m e otherwise.
In
r e s p o n s e to questions s u c h as ' W h y is a c o w called a c o w ? ' , they r e p l i e d : 'Because it has h o r n s ' ; a n d to ' W h y is i n k called i n k ? ' they a n s w e r e d : 'Because it is u s e d for w r i t i n g ' ( V y g o t s k y 1962: 128-9). It m i g h t be a r g u e d that, here, m o r e m e a n i n g than is w a r r a n t e d is b e i n g attached b y the c h i l d r e n to the s y m b o l , the w o r d , the n a m e . B u t this extends also into n o r m a l a d u l t life, w h e r e the m e a n i n g of a p o e m , a s a y i n g , a n artefact, is s o u g h t t h r o u g h its possible ' f u r t h e r ' or ' d e e p e r ' m e a n i n g s , rather than in itself—as w e e x p l o r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h B l a k e ' s ' T h e Sick Rose'. T h e patient's regression to a m o r e p r i m i t i v e state of m i n d a n d feel i n g — t h r o u g h o u t w h i c h the analyst acts as a mirror, ' g i v i n g b a c k to the patient w h a t the patient has c o m m u n i c a t e d ' — l e a d s to a f o r m a t i o n of 'the basis of a sense of s e l f , a n d to a n e x p r e s s i o n of T A M , I a m alive, I a m m y s e l f (Winnicott 1990: 56). O n l y f r o m s u c h a sense of self can the activity o f l e a r n i n g b e c o m e p r o p e r l y integrated into the personality, w i t h o u t the k i n d of 'split-off intellect' w h i c h tends to characterise cer tain s c h i z o i d or 'false s e l f academics.
*** H o w e v e r , w h i l e transient regression to these m o r e p r i m i t i v e e m o t i o n al a n d m e n t a l states m a y b e h e a l i n g , W i n n i c o t t w a r n s that i n the l o n g t e r m d i s r u p t i o n o f the balance b e t w e e n s y m b o l a n d object has serious consequences: T h e ' d e p r i v e d c h i l d ' is n o t o r i o u s l y restless a n d u n a b l e to play, a n d has a n i m p o v e r i s h m e n t of capacity to experience i n the c u l
208
Winnicott
and Education
t u r a l f i e l d . . . [A] s t u d y of the effects of loss at a n y e a r l y stage i n v o l v e s us i n l o o k i n g at this i n t e r m e d i a t e area, or p o t e n t i a l space b e t w e e n subject a n d object. F a i l u r e of d e p e n d a b i l i t y or loss of object m e a n s to the c h i l d a loss of the p l a y area, a n d loss of m e a n i n g f u l s y m b o l . (Winnicott 1990: 101-2) T h e s e o m i n o u s w o r d s refer less to the ' infant ' i n the a d u l t , b u t m o r e to the actual flesh a n d b l o o d c h i l d , w h o m a y e v e n h a v e reached a m e a s u r e of separateness
p r i o r to d e p r i v a t i o n . T h e l o s s of the p l a y
a r e a ' a n d of ' m e a n i n g f u l s y m b o l ' refers to the f a d i n g of the internal object or mother, a n d to the s i m u l t a n e o u s f a d i n g of the 'as i f faculty d e r i v e d f r o m the tension b e t w e e n i l l u s i o n a n d reality. T h e r e is a d i m m i n g of the p e r c e p t i o n that a is like b or is unlike b. Instead, a becomes
the same as, or more important than b. S y m b o l i c e q u a t i o n w h i c h , i n the short t e r m , enables the k i n d of b e n i g n regression suggested b y W i n n i c o t t ' s a c c o u n t of the
regressed
a d u l t patient, c a n , i n the l o n g t e r m , lead to e m o t i o n a l p a r a l y s i s a n d the s t u n t i n g of the life of the m i n d . T h e capacity to create a s y m b o l i c w o r l d — p r i m a r i l y f r o m w o r d s , b u t also f r o m other c u l t u r a l f o r m s — i s i n t e r r u p t e d . T h e ' p l a y area', the space that keeps object a n d s y m b o l a p a r t , is closed. Winnicott's
account
of the loss of
'meaningful
symbol',
whilst
f o c u s e d specifically u p o n e m o t i o n a l a n d m a t e r n a l d e p r i v a t i o n , i m p l i c i t l y recognises
that a d e p r i v i n g m o t h e r is o n l y a first l i n k — a l b e i t
v i t a l — i n a vast c h a i n of e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d social factors, w h i c h h a v e f o r g e d the m o t h e r herself. A l s o chief a m o n g these elements is the p a r e n t i n g that the m o t h e r herself o r i g i n a l l y r e c e i v e d . It is, t h e n , for a w h o l e tangle of reasons that d e p r i v e d c h i l d r e n , w h o are ' n o t o r i o u s l y restless a n d u n a b l e to p l a y ' , suffer a deficit i n e x p e r i ence of the c u l t u r a l field. T h e i r ' p l a y i n g ' expresses itself
generally
t h r o u g h physical action a n d monosyllabic communication. T h e y func t i o n m o r e b y acting-out or b y w i t h d r a w a l t h a n b y e n t e r i n g that arena w h e r e entire s h a r e d edifices arise, b u i l t entirely u p o n the exchange of w o r d s a n d other s y m b o l s — h o u s e s
of cards, i n the best possible sense.
F r o m the w h o l e range of possible v e r b a l constructions, the s y m b o l i c a l l y d e p r i v e d i n d i v i d u a l is c o n f i n e d to f o u r m a i n f o r m s :
assertion,
n a r r a t i o n , attack a n d interrogation, all of w h i c h are b o u n d largely to the present tense. These f o r m s
of e x p r e s s i o n e x c l u d e the potential
e n r i c h m e n t of s p e c u l a t i o n , the l i b e r a t i o n of the c o n d i t i o n a l tense; they e x c l u d e p l a n n i n g a n d a m b i t i o n , e x p a n s i o n of the self t h r o u g h concepts
209
Vol Richards
of ' t o m o r r o w ' ; a n d t h e y exclude r e m i n i s c e n c e , the past that l e n d s s u b stance a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n to identity. T h e y also e x c l u d e the necessary sadness of f o r m u l a t i n g w h a t ' m i g h t h a v e b e e n ' . T h e entire d i m e n s i o n of i m a g i n a t i v e p l a y i n g a n d s h a r e d abstract t h o u g h t , w h i c h , u n d e r the right c o n d i t i o n s , b e g i n s v e r y e a r l y o n , d e p e n d s o n the capacity to r o a m a n d r o v e b e t w e e n t e m p o r a l phases, between
the real a n d the i m a g i n a r y U n f o r t u n a t e l y , then, i n those
w h o s e c o n t i n u i t y of b e i n g is i n t e r r u p t e d , a n d i n the s y m b o l i c a l l y d e p r i v e d , this basic tool for l e a r n i n g is d a m a g e d . Patently, for c h i l d r e n i n this p o s i t i o n , the w h o l e business o f teaching a n d l e a r n i n g o n l y serves to stultify a n d frustrate f u r t h e r — l i k e b e i n g o r d e r e d to p l a y chess w i t h a chess b o a r d , b u t n o pieces. F o r W i n n i c o t t , the chief h a l l m a r k o f lack a n d loss w a s — f r e q u e n t l y — d i s s o c i a t i o n a n d d e p e r s o n a l i s a t i o n . I n those w h o suffer d e p r i v a t i o n at the later stage, w h e n the self has benefited a l r e a d y f r o m a g o o d e n o u g h e a r l y e n v i r o n m e n t , these s y m p t o m s
m a y b e allied to a n t i
social tendencies, a n d e v e n to feeling real o n l y t h r o u g h s o m e v i o l e n t act. N e v e r t h e l e s s , W i n n i c o t t argues, s u c h manifestations of v i o l e n c e c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as a n S . O . S . , as the e x p r e s s i o n of s o m e k i n d o f h o p e for the restoration of that lost g o o d . I d e a l l y this occurs i n the f o r m of a r e c o v e r e d or b r a n d n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p , o r else i n the p r o v i s i o n of a secure, c o n t a i n i n g f r a m e w o r k i n a g o o d residential h o m e . A t this p o i n t , t h e n , w e m i g h t f i n d o u r s e l v e s c o n s i d e r i n g the i m p o r tance of the ' a r c h e t y p a l father', a s t r o n g - e n o u g h c o n t a i n i n g figure w h o — w h e t h e r parent, teacher, or a n a l y s t — i s capable o f s u r v i v i n g the c h i l d ' s d e s t r u c t i o n or v i o l e n c e . N o t o n l y is this father a s t r o n g - e n o u g h figure,
h e also p r o v i d e s a s t r o n g - e n o u g h structure.
W h e n the father
interposes b e t w e e n m o t h e r a n d c h i l d , f a m i l y l o v e u n d e r g o e s n o t a c o n traction b u t a n e x p a n s i o n into a space a n d a f r a m e w o r k , for w h i c h ' h o m e ' is b o t h the literal n a m e , a n d also s y m b o l i c of the e q u i v a l e n t e x p a n d i n g internal space. F r o m here, the c h i l d b e g i n s to t h i n k a n d l i n k a n d to 'challenge the p a r e n t s ' l a n g u a g e , to b e , o n e m i g h t say, a b a d e n o u g h c h i l d ' (Wright 1984: 99). A s W i n n i c o t t avers: If the h o m e c a n s t a n d u p to all the c h i l d c a n d o to d i s r u p t , h e set tles d o w n to p l a y B u t first, the test m u s t be m a d e . T h e c h i l d needs to b e c o n s c i o u s of a f r a m e w o r k if h e is to feel (Winnicott 1992: 115)
free.
Winnicott
210
and
Education
T h i s c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n of the father, as the t o u g h barrier w h i c h c o m p l e m e n t s the features of the m a t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , represents
also
those aspects of l e a r n i n g w h i c h d e p e n d o n r i g o u r , c o n t a i n m e n t a n d c o n t r o l . If the m a t e r n a l stands for i m a g i n a t i v e f r e e d o m , the p a t e r n a l e m b o d i e s the i m p o r t a n c e of rules a n d d i s c i p l i n e , of a constructive use for rote l e a r n i n g , of f u r n i s h i n g the m i n d i n a n o r g a n i s e d way. If, i n W i n n i c o t t , the transitional object is the h a r b i n g e r of the s y m b o l i c , at its m o s t e m b r y o n i c a n d f l u i d , then w i t h the father the s y m b o l i c arrives f u l l y f l e d g e d . If, i n the d o m a i n of the transitional, w i t h m o t h e r a n d t e d d y bear, the m a k i n g of m e a n i n g is f l u i d a n d p r o v i s i o n a l , w i t h the a r r i v a l of the father the steel links of the s i g n i f y i n g c h a i n are f o r g e d . H o w e v e r , W i n n i c o t t d o e s not elaborate o n the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e a n d the p a t e r n a l i n his w r i t i n g s . T h e degree to w h i c h the paternal is a n essential part of the role of the teacher, therapist or carer, is suggested i n the f o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n . A y o u n g p l a y m a n a g e r d e s c r i b e d his abortive attempt to r u n a n e x p e r i e n t i a l g r o u p , at the request of s o m e adolescent b o y s . It l o o k e d p r o m i s i n g , because the initiative h a d c o m e f r o m the b o y s
themselves.
Yet w h i l s t e l e v e n of the twelve y o u t h s were c o - o p e r a t i v e , it t o o k o n l y one to w r e c k the w h o l e venture. A l l he d i d to cause chaos to d e s c e n d w a s m e s s a r o u n d w i t h a telephone. ' W h a t c o u l d I h a v e d o n e to p r e v e n t the
spread
of
chaos?
7
pleaded
the
facilitator. I n e v i t a b l y
he
was
s w a m p e d w i t h suggestions, i n c l u d i n g trenchant interpretations of the w a y w a r d y o u t h ' s u n c o n s c i o u s n e e d — a s s i g n a l l e d b y his p h o n e p l a y — for a less e x p o s e d f o r m of contact t h a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a live g r o u p . Insisting that he h a d a l r e a d y tried m o s t of these ideas, the p l a y - w o r k er at last realised that his p r i o r u n c o n s c i o u s v i s i o n of h i m s e l f as g r o u p l e a d e r h a d b e e n of a tender, n u r t u r i n g , entirely ' m a t e r n a l ' figure. However,
exploring
Winnicott's
conceptualisation
of
the
father
a l l o w e d h i m to i n c o r p o r a t e other, ' p a t e r n a l ' qualities, w h i c h h e l p e d t o u g h e n his relationship w i t h the y o u n g s t e r s . T h r o u g h d r a w i n g o n a stronger, m o r e ' p a t e r n a l ' part of himself, the b o y s e x p e r i e n c e d a m o r e satisfactory c o n t a i n m e n t . If there is a failure i n the structure of this s t r o n g - e n o u g h i n t e r n a l ' h o m e ' , W i n n i c o t t suggests, then: C h i l d r e n d e p r i v e d of h o m e life m u s t either be p r o v i d e d w i t h s o m e t h i n g p e r s o n a l a n d stable w h e n they are yet y o u n g e n o u g h to m a k e use of it to s o m e extent, or else they m u s t force u s later to p r o v i d e stability i n the shape of a n a p p r o v e d s c h o o l or i n the
Val Richards 211 last resort four walls i n the shape o f a p r i s o n cell. (Winnicott 1992: 119) T h i s inexorable trajectory t o w a r d s the four w a l l s of a p r i s o n cell, as a b e t t e r - t h a n - n o t h i n g ' h o m e ' for d i s t u r b e d youngsters, h i g h l i g h t s the tenacious n e e d i n all of us for our e n v i r o n m e n t to reflect elements of b o t h the o r i g i n a l m a t e r n a l h o l d i n g — a s i n W i n n i c o t t ' s picture of the regressed adult p a t i e n t — a n d of the t o u g h - e n o u g h paternal f r a m e w o r k , w h i c h w i l l w i t h s t a n d the i n d i v i d u a l ' s attempts to w r e c k the w o r k i n h a n d , a n d i n d e e d the w h o l e e n v i r o n m e n t itself. T h u s , u p o n the educator, is p l a c e d the challenge of b e c o m i n g a facil itator, w h o b o t h h o l d s a n d contains, a n d w h o also continues the p r i v i l e g e d task of m e d i a t i n g that reality first e x p e r i e n c e d b y the i n d i v i d u a l i n its m o t h e r ' s arms: T h e w o r l d , the w h o l e e n v i r o n m e n t , nature a n d society, ' e d u cates' the h u m a n b e i n g : it d r a w s out his p o w e r s , a n d makes h i m grasp a n d penetrate its objections. W h a t w e t e r m e d u c a t i o n , c o n
scious a n d w i l l e d , means a selection by man of the effective world w h i c h is concentrated a n d manifested i n the educator.
(Buber,
q u o t e d i n Britton 1962)
Notes 1 'Mother' here such be taken to imply also any number of mother 'stand-ins', which might
indeed include the father.
2 This is in opposition to the more self-sufficient infant in Freudian and Lacanian theory.
LIFELONG
UNLEARNING
Trevor
Pateman
I M y U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y contains h u n d r e d s of m o d e r n
books—mostly
s h e l v e d as ' P s y c h o l o g y ' — w h i c h h a v e the w o r d ' L e a r n i n g ' i n their titles. It h a s just o n e b o o k w h i c h uses the w o r d ' U n l e a r n i n g ' : Julia P e n e l o p e ' s Speaking
Freely:
Unlearning
the Lies of the Fathers'
Tongues
(1990). T h i s is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g . P e o p l e w h o live i n acquisitive societies w i l l t e n d to write b o o k s about h o w to acquire things, n o t h o w to get r i d of t h e m , a n d this is w h a t a c a d e m i c psychologists h a v e also d o n e — as a matter of the routines of their d i s c i p l i n e , of course, n o t of c o n scious i d e o l o g y T h a t s a i d , i n order to a v o i d the trap of c o n s p i r a c y the ory, the rhetoric of l e a r n i n g p s y c h o l o g y is often transparent e n o u g h to facilitate i d e o l o g i c a l d e c o n s t r u c t i o n . L e a r n i n g theorists, for e x a m p l e , c o n c e r n themselves w i t h things they call acquisition n e v e r w i t h giving
away o r
a n d retention,
but
expulsion.
L e a r n i n g theorists are hoarders rather t h a n wasters. N e v e r t h e l e s s there are b o o k s i n the l i b r a r y — e v e n m o d e m w h i c h are i n fact, if n o t i n title, about unlearning.
books—
T h e y are s h e l v e d
u n d e r ' P s y c h o a n a l y s i s ' a n d ' R e l i g i o n ' , yet w e r e n o t i n t e n d e d as c o n frontations w i t h theories of l e a r n i n g or w i t h the i d e o l o g y of l e a r n i n g theory W h a t I w o u l d like to d o i n this essay is to set o u t s o m e o f the w a y s i n w h i c h w e u n l e a r n t h i n g s , a n d to stress the p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e of the fact that w e d o u n l e a r n . M y a i m is to m a k e a start at r e s t r a i n i n g the i m p e r i a l a m b i t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g theory, w h o s e designs o n c o l o n i s i n g the mind
are s u c c i n c t l y
expressed
i n the c u r r e n t p h r a s e
'Lifelong
L e a r n i n g ' . T h i s , to m e , seems a classic case of ' P r o d u c e r C a p t u r e ' . T h o s e w i t h a v e s t e d interest i n L e a r n i n g ( p r i n c i p a l l y teachers)
have
e n c o u r a g e d u s to forget U n l e a r n i n g as the other half of the dialectic of c o g n i t i v e life.
213
Trevor Pateman II
T h e essays I w r i t e are sometimes rejected b y a c a d e m i c journals o n the g r o u n d s that they read too m u c h l i k e the texts of i n f o r m a l talks. T h i s is h i g h p r a i s e to m e , b u t since it is n o t so to others I w i l l b e g i n this p a p e r w i t h s o m e t h i n g s u i t a b l y f o r m a l . It is a i m e d at b r i n g i n g the d o m a i n of l e a r n i n g theories a n d the d o m a i n of u n l e a r n i n g t h e o r y ( w h i c h still r e m a i n s to b e constructed) into a strictly s y m m e t r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . A l e a r n i n g theory is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the w a y s — f o r ,
presumably,
there are m o r e than o n e — i n w h i c h a p e r s o n or subject, S, w h o at a p o i n t i n t i m e does n o t k n o w h o w to d o s o m e t h i n g , x, o r that s o m e t h i n g , p, is the case, arrives at a state later i n time w h e r e they d o k n o w h o w to x o r that p is the case. So S m o v e s , for e x a m p l e , f r o m n o t k n o w i n g h o w to speak a first or a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e to k n o w i n g h o w to d o so, or S m o v e s f r o m n o t k n o w i n g the K i n g s a n d Q u e e n s of E n g l a n d to k n o w i n g that t h i n g . A t h e o r y o f u n l e a r n i n g , o n the other h a n d , is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the w a y s i n w h i c h a p e r s o n or subject, S, w h o at a p o i n t i n time does k n o w h o w to d o x o r that p is the case arrives at a state later i n t i m e w h e n they d o n o t k n o w h o w to x o r that p. S o S m o v e s f r o m k n o w i n g h o w to s p e a k a l a n g u a g e to not k n o w i n g h o w to d o so, o r f r o m k n o w i n g the K i n g s a n d Q u e e n s of E n g l a n d to n o l o n g e r k n o w i n g that t h i n g . H o w e v e r , before a n y o n e k n o w s w h a t is h a p p e n i n g p h i l o s o p h e r s — at this p o i n t — w i l l h a v e i n d i c a t e d that the w o r d ' k n o w ' is b e i n g u s e d h e r e generically, to s u b s u m e 'believe' (or v i c e versa), a n d so I a m n o w i n d i c a t i n g p r e c i s e l y this o n their behalf. Ill
Y o u m a y w e l l h a v e u n d e r s t o o d this little b i t of f o r m a l i s m — w h i c h is n o w o v e r a n d d o n e w i t h — b y g e n e r a t i n g for y o u r s e l f a n e x a m p l e of a w a y i n w h i c h u n l e a r n i n g occurs, a n d I w o u l d not b e s u r p r i s e d if the e x a m p l e y o u c a m e u p w i t h w a s that oi forgetting.
In any, case,
forgetting
is m y o w n o p e n i n g e x a m p l e of a w a y i n w h i c h w e u n l e a r n s o m e t h i n g . T h e r e is a l o t to b e s a i d about it, a n d here I a i m to b e n o m o r e t h a n i n f o r m a l a n d suggestive. Teachers ( a n d those w h o , like p o l i t i c i a n s , t h i n k f o r teachers) are p l e a s e d w h e n y o u l e a r n s o m e t h i n g v e r y w e l l . A n d h a v i n g learnt s o m e t h i n g v e r y w e l l is e v i d e n c e d b y n o t forgetting i t — i d e a l l y , n o t forget t i n g it ever. If w e taught c h i l d r e n their tables properly t h e n they w o u l d
214
Lifelong Unlearning
never—barring
n a t u r a l disasters s u c h as A l z h e i m e r ' s
Disease—forget
t h e m . A n d they w o u l d h a v e a teacher to t h i n k for that. L e a r n i n g is g o o d , a n d s h o u l d a l l o w us to feel g o o d ; f o r g e t t i n g — o n the other h a n d — i s b a d , a n d o u g h t to m a k e us feel b a d . I w a n t to say, h o w e v e r , that this attitude is i r r a t i o n a l , e v e n i n the d o m a i n o f w h a t w e l e a r n at school. C o n s i d e r , for e x a m p l e , w h y it is that metric m e a s u r e m e n t is m a k i n g s u c h s l o w progress i n the U n i t e d K i n g d o m . It is s i m p l y that p e o p l e k n o w their I m p e r i a l m e a s u r e m e n t s so w e l l that they w i l l n o t a n d c a n not forget them. T h e y are p r o u d of w h a t they k n o w , a n d are able to use it f a i r l y effortlessly. A s a result E u r o c o m p u t a t i o n is still a lot further off t h a n a single E u r o p e a n currency. It w i l l h a v e to w a i t for the l o n g r u n w h e n w e are a l l d e a d . B u t h a d o u r s c h o o l s y s t e m b e e n less g o o d at i n s t i l l i n g i n us o u r c r a z y m e a s u r e m e n t s y s t e m , w e w o u l d h a v e b e e n able to forget it m o r e readily, a n d to m o v e o n to d e p l o y
something
m o r e u s e f u l . A s it is, w e l i v e i n a society full of p e o p l e w h o are p r o u d of k n o w i n g h o w m a n y f u r l o n g s there are i n a m i l e , a n d w h o are total l y u n w i l l i n g to forget it. Interestingly, w h e n it c o m e s to the c o n d u c t of o u r p e r s o n a l l i v e s , the v i r t u e s o f forgetting are m u c h m o r e frequently c o m m e n d e d , a n d the fact that forgetting is r o o t e d i n attitude m u c h m o r e w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d . W e c a n choose to forget things, a n d are often e n c o u r a g e d to d o so: T o r g e t it!' is s t a n d a r d a d v i c e to the a g g r i e v e d . I m a g i n e t r y i n g that line o n p e o p l e c o m m i t t e d to m a i n t a i n i n g that there are f o u r t e e n p o u n d s i n a stone... In o u r p e r s o n a l lives it is a fault to refuse to f o r g i v e a n d forget. I n o u r p o l i t i c a l lives, too, w e are aware that it is m e m o r y w h i c h m a i n t a i n s c o n f l i c t s — l i k e those i n N o r t h e r n I r e l a n d — w e l l b e y o n d their r a t i o n a l duration. L i k e w i s e , i n o u r c o g n i t i v e lives o u r m e m o r i e s (or zohat we know) often p r o v e a n obstacle to e n g a g i n g p r o p e r l y w i t h the w o r l d a r o u n d us. It is a c o m m o n p l a c e that w h a t w e see is often i n f l u e n c e d b y w h a t w e t h i n k there is to see, w h i c h m i g h t be taken as a n a r g u m e n t for t h i n k i n g less a n d w i t h less c o n v i c t i o n . W e s h o u l d p e r h a p s c a r r y o u r k n o w l e d g e lightly, a n d a l w a y s be r e a d y to let g o of it. S u c h ideas h a v e h a d at least one p e d a g o g i c a l e m b o d i m e n t , i n the practices of m o d e r n i s t v i s u a l arts e d u c a t i o n — b r o a d l y , i n that p r a c t i s e d or i n s p i r e d b y the B a u h a u s . If, for e x a m p l e , y o u force r i g h t - h a n d e d s t u dents to d r a w w i t h their left, y o u d e n y t h e m the h a b i t of f a l l i n g b a c k o n w h a t they a l r e a d y k n o w . C o m i n g f r o m a v e r y different b a c k g r o u n d ,
Trevor Pateman
215
the c o g n i t i v e scientist D a v i d M a r r (1982) a r g u e d that the serious w o r k of v i s u a l artists i n v o l v e s t h e m i n u n l e a r n i n g the routines of h a b i t u a l i s e d seeing, a n d regressing f r o m 3 - D to w h a t h e c a l l e d ' t w o a n d a half D ' v i s i o n . T h i s w a s w h a t C e z a n n e w a s t r y i n g to achieve t h r o u g h his e n d l e s s r e p a i n t i n g of M o n t St V i c t o i r e ; l e a r n i n g i n order to forget, a n d f o r g e t t i n g i n o r d e r to l e a r n . IV F o r g e t t i n g is o n e of the w a y s i n w h i c h w e e n d u p not k n o w i n g w h a t o n c e w e d i d k n o w . It is a t e r m w h i c h covers b o t h the m e a n s e m p l o y e d a n d the result: b y ' d o i n g forgetting' (as the e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i s t s
might
p u t it) w e e n d u p h a v i n g forgotten. W h e n w h a t w e k n o w has a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n t e x t — a s w i t h r e l i g i o u s or p o l i t i c a l b e l i e f s — f o r g e t t i n g often takes the f o r m of lapsing. W e b e c o m e a l a p s e d C a t h o l i c , or l a p s e d m e m ber of the L a b o u r Party. In these cases a loss o f interest ('a w i t h d r a w a l of l i b i d i n a l energy') i n i t i a l l y disconnects us f r o m certain r o u t i n e p r a c tices, s u c h as g o i n g to C h u r c h or p a r t y meetings, a n d m a y e v e n t u a l l y result i n o u r forgetting the doctrines to w h i c h w e were
committed—
forgetting, p e r h a p s , i n n o t so v e r y different a w a y f r o m w h i c h w e m i g h t forget a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e
as a result of never p r a c t i s i n g it.
L a p s i n g s e e m s , t o b e t e m p o r a l l y b o u n d e d : w h e n e n o u g h years h a v e p a s s e d , y o u cease to b e a l a p s e d m e m b e r of the L a b o u r P a r t y a n d b e c o m e instead s o m e o n e w h o was once a m e m b e r of the L a b o u r P a r t y T h i s l i n g u i s t i c a l l y m a r k e d shift recognises that a real c h a n g e i n the state o f one's relations to the object h a s o c c u r r e d . D i s e n c h a n t m e n t , loss of f a s c i n a t i o n , d i s i n v e s t m e n t , are processes w h i c h e n d i n f u l l s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the object. O u t s i d e s u c h o b v i o u s l y institutional contexts as c h u r c h e s a n d parties, there are other k i n d s of l a p s i n g . O n e ' s r e a d i n g i n a p a r t i c u l a r subject or of a p a r t i c u l a r a u t h o r c a n lapse. T h i s is often d e s c r i b e d negatively, as w h e n w e regret ' n o t k e e p i n g u p w i t h ' the lit erature i n s u c h - a n d - s u c h a field. B u t e v e n here l a p s i n g c a n h a v e its o w n p o s i t i v e d y n a m i c . I n d e e d , m y sense o f w h a t it is to l e a d a n i n t e l l e c t u a l life p r o v o k e s m e to suggest that this o u g h t to i n v o l v e a great deal of lapsing. H o w e v e r , this c l a i m requires s o m e contextualisation a n d justifica tion. T h o u g h I a m quite c o n v e n t i o n a l l y a d m i r i n g of those w h o r e m a i n monogamous
t h r o u g h o u t l o n g m a r i t a l relationships, I d e s p a i r o v e r
p e o p l e w h o r e m a i n w i t h the s a m e ideas, the s a m e theories, the s a m e
Lifelong
216
Unlearning
subjects, t h r o u g h o u t their intellectual lives. O f t e n e n o u g h , it seems that t h e y are l i v i n g off w h a t they b a n k e d i n their a c a d e m i c y o u t h . T h e y are f a i l i n g to m o v e o n w a r d s a n d o u t w a r d s . Yet moving
out
is w h a t the
i n t e l l e c t u a l life is all about; it is w h a t m a k e s it a n a d v e n t u r e rather t h a n a n e n t r e n c h m e n t . T h i s is n o t ( t h o u g h it c o u l d be) a n a p o l o g y for d i l e t t a n t i s m — f o r w h a t the U t o p i a n socialist C h a r l e s F o u r i e r c a l l e d 'the b u t terfly p a s s i o n ' . A n artist d o e s not start o u t w i t h a style, n o r d o e s a w r i t e r start o u t w i t h a voice. Rather, they h a v e to achieve these things. S i m i l a r l y , a n intellectual life does not start w i t h a v i s i o n , b u t has to a c h i e v e one. A n d it is achievable o n l y t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t , not t h r o u g h the reiteration of w h a t one r e a d i n one's y o t i t h . ( O n c e , for e x a m p l e , I d i d k n o w ' W h a t M a r x S a i d ' , because I r e a d it fairly conscientiously. N o w I h a v e l a p s e d a n d I n o longer k n o w . T h i s is h o w it s h o u l d be.) W h a t is p o t e n t i a l l y s h o c k i n g i n this, I s u p p o s e , is the lack of reverence it d i s p l a y s . B u t a l t h o u g h one s h o u l d p e r h a p s be careful i n one's treat m e n t of p e o p l e , one's treatment of ideas, theories, b o o k s , o u g h t to be careless. T h e y are there for use, that's all. T h e r e is n o h a r m i n l a p s i n g , n o h a r m i n n o t k e e p i n g u p w i t h e v e r y last jot a n d tittle that s o - a n d - s o wrote.
V B u t relatively painless forgetting a n d l a p s i n g are not a l w a y s p o s s i b l e . S o m e things c a n o n l y be got r i d of b y m o r e o b v i o u s l y e x p u l s i v e a c t s — those of rejection a n d repudiation.
P e o p l e leave churches a n d parties b y
s t o r m i n g o u t o n t h e m , t u r n i n g a n g r i l y o n t h e m , k i c k i n g u p a great d e a l of d u s t w h i c h r o u t i n e l y finds its w a y onto p u b l i s h e r s ' lists for a season o r t w o . S o m e t i m e s , y o u c a n only, get r i d of s o m e t h i n g b y p u r g i n g y o u r s e l f . T h i s is a traumatic w a y of u n l e a r n i n g f r o m w h i c h there are n o i m m e d i a t e gains: n o n e w k n o w l e d g e a u t o m a t i c a l l y replaces that w h i c h is r e p u d i a t e d a n d m o r e or less r a p i d l y u n l e a r n t . Rejection
and
r e p u d i a t i o n often
enough
leave
w h e t h e r u n l e a r n i n g has really o c c u r r e d i n s o m e o n e .
us
wondering
Sometimes
it
s e e m s that the p e r s o n r e m a i n s attached, at s o m e l e v e l , to the ideas or the i n d i v i d u a l s t h e y h a v e superficially, rejected. T h i s s u s p i c i o n is c o n f i r m e d w h e n p e o p l e r e t u r n to the f o l d or r e t u r n to their partners. In other w o r d s , s o m e rejections a n d r e p u d i a t i o n s are cases of w h a t F r e u d c a l l e d ' n e g a t i o n ' (Die
Verneinung).
N e g a t i o n is n o t a f o r m of u n l e a r n
i n g ; it is s i m p l y a d e n i a l of w h a t one k n o w s a n d feels (cf. F r e u d
1925:
235-6). H o w e v e r , it m a y be i n t e n d e d to b r i n g about u n l e a r n i n g — t h a t
Trevor Pateman
217
is, to b r i n g about a state i n w h i c h one really does not k n o w or feel the thing denied. VI
In s o m e w a y s
less traumatic t h a n rejection a n d r e p u d i a t i o n is the
m u c h - s t u d i e d p h e n o m e n o n of conversion, i n w h i c h one m o v e s r a p i d l y f r o m k n o w i n g o n e set of things to k n o w i n g another b u t i n c o m p a t i b l e set, w i t h o u t a n y o b v i o u s i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d or process of u n l e a r n i n g . In o u r p e r s o n a l lives, a n e q u i v a l e n t to c o n v e r s i o n m i g h t be the e x a m p l e of a p e r s o n w h o m o v e s easily a n d q u i c k l y out of one h a p p y or u n h a p p y r e l a t i o n s h i p into a n o t h e r — e q u a l l y h a p p y or u n h a p p y — b u t w i t h a different p e r s o n . T h i s defies o u r sense that, b e t w e e n
the
t w o , there o u g h t to be a p e r i o d of m o u r n i n g — a p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h one l o o s e n s the o l d attachment before g o i n g o n to f o r m the n e w one. (cf. F r e u d 1917: 243-5). O u r n o t i o n that m o u r n i n g o u g h t to intercede g i v e s us s o m e i n s i g h t into the nature of c o n v e r s i o n . F o r if the p e r s o n w h o m o v e s out of one r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d straight into another is s o m e t i m e s accurately d e s c r i b e d as incapable of m o u r n i n g , t h e n the same m i g h t be s a i d of the enthusiastic convert. Just as the f o r m e r lacks the a b i l i t y to be w i t h o u t a partner, so the latter lacks the ability to be w i t h o u t a set of g u i d i n g beliefs. Just as one cannot tolerate b e i n g alone, the o t h e r c a n n o t tolerate b e i n g i g n o r a n t . In m y v i e w , the ability to be alone a n d the ability to be i g n o r a n t are absolutely f u n d a m e n t a l not o n l y to o n e ' s p e r s o n a l life, b u t also to intellectual l i f e — a thesis a r g u e d at l e n g t h i n A n t h o n y S t o r r ' s interesting b o o k Solitude.
As
a mode
of
u n l e a r n i n g , I g i v e c o n v e r s i o n l o w m a r k s , a n d I c o m m e n d those (start i n g i n the West w i t h Socrates—see P a t e m a n 1999) w h o h a v e s h o w n us the v a l u e of the state of n o t - k n o w i n g , the v a l u e of i g n o r a n c e . VII—EXCURSUS I g n o r a n c e m i g h t also be characterised as a state of o p e n n e s s to n e w i n s i g h t s , to n e w k n o w l e d g e . It is a resistance to closure. W h a t i n the W e s t has c o m e to b e called ' m e t a p h y s i c s ' is n o w o n l y d o - a b l e w i t h i n a space m a r k e d o u t b y s u c h resistance. 1 w i l l elaborate a bit o n this... A
fairly c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w
has it that the
domain
of
science
(physics) c o m p r i s e s e v e r y t h i n g c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h it is fairly clear w h a t the questions are, h o w to go a b o u t a n s w e r i n g t h e m (the q u e s t i o n of m e t h o d ) , a n d w h a t counts as a (good) answer. W h e n F r e u d c l a i m e d i n
218
Lifelong
Unlearning
The Interpretation
of Dreams that d r e a m s w e r e the ' r o y a l r o a d ' to the
u n c o n s c i o u s he w a s , a m o n g other things, strengthening h i s c l a i m to b r i n g the vinconscious m i n d into the d o m a i n o f science, b y i d e n t i f y i n g a s o u n d m e t h o d for a n s w e r i n g the questions w e m i g h t h a v e about it. A c c o r d i n g , t h e n , to this c o n v e n t i o n a l v i e w , the d o m a i n of meta p h y s i c s c o m p r i s e s e v e r y t h i n g o n w h i c h w e are unclear w h a t the ques tions are, h o w to a n s w e r t h e m , a n d w h a t o n earth is to c o u n t as a g o o d a n s w e r . A r t i s t s a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s of art h a v e often e n o u g h m a d e the c l a i m that art c a n p r o v i d e a m e t h o d for m e t a p h y s i c s , w h i c h is p e r h a p s m o r e a s s u r e d t h a n the p r a y e r a n d m e d i t a t i o n historically p r i v i l e g e d a m o n g the major religions. W h i l s t d i f f e r i n g f r o m o n e another i n this w a y , artists a n d believers m i g h t a g r e e — a n d , I think, w o u l d b e right to a g r e e — t h a t the success of their m e t h o d s c a n n o t be w i l l e d , a n y m o r e t h a n y o u c a n w i l l cleverness o r originality. It is a matter of luck o r grace—depending
o n w h e t h e r y o u r v i s i o n is secular o r r e l i g i o u s —
w h e t h e r , t h r o u g h art or p r a y e r o r m e d i t a t i o n , y o u c o m e u p w i t h s o m e t h i n g w h i c h begins to focus a m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n or begins to p r o v i d e the g l i m m e r i n g s of a m e t a p h y s i c a l answer. T h e results cannot b e g u a r a n t e e d a n d , if s o u g h t for too h a r d , m a y e l u d e u s e v e n m o r e d e c i sively. Y o u c a n n o t — a c c o r d i n g to this v i e w — s i t d o w n to w r i t e 'meta p h y s i c a l p o e m s ' . T h a t w o u l d b e to confuse m e t h o d a n d result. Y o u c a n o n l y sit d o w n to write p o e m s , a n d it is n o t for y o u as their author to d e c l a r e that they are s o m e m e t a p h y s i c a l lager i l l u m i n a t i n g the parts w h i c h other arts cannot reach. T h a t is for y o u r readers a n d for poster i t y to feel a n d j u d g e . T h e a i m s of m e t a p h y s i c s are, b y d e f i n i t i o n , seek i n g to g a i n s o m e h o l d o n ultimate questions a n d answers. But those s a m e a i m s c o m p e l it to h u m i l i t y i n its m e t h o d s . T h e w i l l to p o w e r — m a n i f e s t i n the e x a m p l e I h a v e g i v e n as the d r i v e to c o n t r o l the results of o n e ' s artistic efforts—is a n i n s u p e r a b l e obstacle to a c h i e v i n g the out c o m e s d e s i r e d . If art is i n d e e d the m e t h o d of m e t a p h y s i c s , then a suc cessful
poem
w i l l i l l u m i n a t e some d a r k corner of o u r existence,
w h e t h e r w e w i l l it o r not. Poetry, u n l i k e r h u b a r b , cannot b e forced. A n d w h e n it is forced the p o e m itself is d r o w n e d out b y the h i s t r i o n ics, the sophistry, of the poet. W e f i n d o u r s e l v e s l i s t e n i n g to the poet's n e u r o s i s a n d n o t to i n t i m a t i o n s of the u n c o n s c i o u s o r the d i v i n e . T h a n k s i n large measure to Plato's Socrates, the W e s t e r n intellectu al t r a d i t i o n is a n t i - s o p h i s t i c a l . F r e u d b e l o n g s to that t r a d i t i o n insofar as h e r e c o g n i s e d a n d insisted that i n neurosis it is often e n o u g h b y o u r o w n s o p h i s t r y that w e d e c e i v e ourselves. W e thereby d e p r i v e o u r selves of s u c h insights as are actually w i t h i n o u r o r d i n a r y h u m a n
Trevor Pateman
219
capacities to achieve. Instead, w e are b l i n d e d b y the rhetoric o f e m p t y words . VIII C l o s e l y related to c o n v e r s i o n , b u t actually distinct, is the
epiphany,
w h i c h is c a u s a l l y effective i n s w i t c h i n g u s f r o m o n e set of beliefs to another. H o w e v e r , the e p i p h a n y is effective o n l y because s o m e inner p r e p a r a t i o n o r w o r k h a s already b e e n d o n e — s o m e d o u b t or dissatis faction a l r e a d y exists, s o m e i n k l i n g that w e are l o o k i n g at things or g o i n g at things the w r o n g way. Sometimes there m a y be n o m o r e than a sense o f ' s o m e t h i n g m i s s i n g ' . E p i p h a n i e s are s o m e t i m e s b i g events i n p e o p l e ' s lives, t r a n s p o r t i n g a b e l i e v e r f r o m o n e r e l i g i o n to another, or s w i t c h i n g a scientist f r o m one t h e o r y to another. E q u a l l y , they c a n be quite m o d e s t events, the k i n d of t h i n g teachers m a y h a v e r e a d about i n r o m a n t i c e d u c a t i o n a l theory, a n d c a n h o p e for i n the c l a s s r o o m : events w h i c h s u d d e n l y c a p ture a c h i l d ' s interest a n d l e a d the c h i l d into a s u s t a i n e d e n g a g e m e n t w i t h s o m e t h i n g quite new. E p i p h a n i e s c o u l d be better u n d e r s t o o d , b u t they t e n d to b e neglect e d o u t s i d e of w r i t i n g s o n religion, p e r h a p s because they c a n neither be p r e d i c t e d n o r c o n t r o l l e d . A teacher c a n h o p e for t h e m , b u t c a n n o t e n g i neer
them.
They
enable
fast-track
unlearning a n d learning, and
because of this w e s h o u l d be m o r e grateful a n d m o r e interested i n t h e m t h a n w e are. T h a t I h a v e u s e d the w o r d ' s w i t c h i n g ' to describe e p i p h a n i e s s u g gests that they m a y also have s o m e t h i n g i n c o m m o n w i t h the switches s t u d i e d i n Gestalt p s y c h o l o g y
T h e s e s h o u l d n o t be t h o u g h t of as
a p p l y i n g o n l y to t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l d r a w i n g s — t h e i r m o s t t y p i c a l e x e m plar. F o r instance, a s w i t c h is often i n v o l v e d i n s o l v i n g l o w - l e v e l p r a c tical p r o b l e m s . W h e n I w a s a c h i l d , b o t h raspberries a n d strawberries c o u l d b e h u l l e d — t h a t is, the central p l u g c o u l d be p u l l e d o u t b y p u l l i n g o n the stalk. F o r strawberries, h o w e v e r , this is n o l o n g e r true: m o d e m varieties are g r o w n for l o n g e r shelf-life a n d a n o n - p u l l a b l e p l u g assists this. P u l l i n g o n the stalk, y o u s i m p l y m a k e a mess, b u t for a l o n g time that is w h a t I d i d . T h e n I realised that the t h i n g to d o is to treat a m o d e r n s t r a w b e r r y like a carrot: y o u h a v e to slice off the top... T h i s is h a r d l y a n e p i p h a n y , b u t it is a s w i t c h , i n w h i c h a n o l d w a y of g o i n g a b o u t things h a d to be unlearnt.
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Unlearning
IX T h e r e is also a sort of opposite to the e p i p h a n y , w h i c h consists i n u n p i c k i n g one's cognitive route u n t i l one locates the source of a n error. L i k e A r i a d n e , w e j o u r n e y b a c k a l o n g the w a y w e h a v e t r a v e l l e d . It is a c o m m o n e n o u g h w a y of f i n d i n g a mistake i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n , b u t occurs m o r e widely. It is o b v i o u s l y less d r a m a t i c i n its m a n i festations t h a n c o n v e r s i o n or e p i p h a n y , but o u g h t n o t — f o r all t h a t — b e n e g l e c t e d as a m e a n s of u n l e a r n i n g . There is n o t h i n g w h i c h says a pri ori that u n l e a r n i n g has to be a n u n m e t h o d i c a l business, e v e n if, as a matter of fact, it often is. A lot o f psychotherapists w o u l d be h a p p y to say that their w o r k consists i n assisting p e o p l e to u n l e a r n h a b i t u a l w a y s of g o i n g about t h i n g s , a n d that this i n v o l v e s g o i n g over real-life examples of p e r s o n a l history, a l m o s t as if they were mathematical p r o b l e m s i n w h i c h a m i s take has s o m e w h e r e
been m a d e . Sometimes part of the therapist's
w o r k is to give a n a m e to the defective strategy b e i n g u s e d b y the client. E r i c Berne's p o p u l a r b o o k
Games People
Play (1968)
names
d o z e n s of s u c h strategies. C o m m o n sense h a d already n a m e d m a n y of these: ' C u t t i n g off one's nose to spite one's face'; ' D o g i n a m a n g e r ' ; ' C r y i n g W o l f ! ' , a n d so o n a n d so forth. In other w o r d s , o n e m i g h t s a y that the m e t h o d of A r i a d n e is o n e w h i c h a i m s at d i a g n o s i s as w e l l as cure. If w e are asked ' W h e r e d o y o u t h i n k y o u w e n t w r o n g ? ' , the q u e s t i o n d e m a n d s reflexive attention to a precise step-by-step d e s c r i p t i o n of w h a t w e d i d w h i c h e n d e d u p w i t h u s getting it w r o n g . T h e q u e s t i o n is m o t i v a t e d b y the belief that the w a y w e w e n t w r o n g w i l l itself p r o v e to be s i g n i f i c a n t — p a r t of a repet itive p a t t e r n , p e r h a p s , whether i n the w a y w e d o maths, or i n the w a y w e l e a d o u r lives. S o if w e say (for example): ' W e l l , I went w r o n g w h e n I c o n c e d e d rather t h a n h o l d i n g m y g r o u n d ' , it is easy for the therapist to f o l l o w w i t h the question: ' D o y o u often d o t h a t ? ' — w h i c h almost s e e m s to p r o v o k e a n affirmative response. T h e therapeutic task is t h e n c o n c e i v e d as i n s o m e sense l a y i n g bare the m i s g u i d e d character of the patient's h a b i t u a l strategy, a n d i n f i n d i n g a w a y to enable t h e m , i n f u t u r e , to a v o i d t y i n g the knot i n w h i c h they h a v e h a b i t u a l l y tied t h e m selves. T h e therapeutic a i m is to b r i n g about a certain k i n d of u n l e a r n i n g b y m e a n s o f careful u n r a v e l l i n g .
Trevor Pateman
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X T h e gentleness of A r i a d n e ' s m e t h o d o f u n l e a r n i n g m a y s e e m s o m e times t o o cautious, too liable to result i n m e r e l y p i e c e m e a l repairs o f c o g n i t i v e structures. It does n o t g o to the root o f t h i n g s ; does n o t tear u p a n d start over a g a i n . T h e r e is a m o r e r a d i c a l m e t h o d w h i c h asserts the v a l u e of the b l a n k sheet, the v a l u e of s w e e p i n g a w a y the past, a n d s t a r t i n g o v e r f r o m the g r o u n d u p w a r d s — i n a s l o g a n : I destroy and I
build (Destruam et Aedificabo). T h e w o r l d s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d p s y c h o l o g y , as w e l l as of politics a n d r e l i g i o n , h a v e a l w a y s k n o w n radicals w h o w a n t to k n o c k y o u (or it) d o w n before they b u i l d y o u (or it) u p again. A n d n o t a l l o f t h e m are m a d megalomaniacs, though some have been. A m o n g the p s y c h o t h e r a p i e s , there are those w h i c h tell the therapist n o t to b e satisfied u n t i l y o u h a v e c r i e d o r s c r e a m e d or a d m i t t e d to d e p r a v e d lusts. T h i s seems to be c o m m o n e n o u g h k n o w l e d g e for it to h a v e m a d e its w a y into a recent f i l m , Good Will Hunting,
w i t h its d e p i c
t i o n of a therapist w h o s e coup de theatre is to m a k e h i s patient cry. O n c e he has d o n e that, h i s job is all b u t over. W o u l d that it w e r e that s i m p l e . . . T h e p a r a d i g m , h o w e v e r , for the ' d e s t r o y a n d b u i l d ' a p p r o a c h m a y w e l l b e to p u t s o m e o n e t h r o u g h ' C o l d T u r k e y ' . I n the case of a d d i c t i o n , this m a y b e the m o s t e f f e c t i v e — p e r h a p s the o n l y e f f e c t i v e — a p p r o a c h to u n l e a r n i n g , a n a p p r o a c h w h i c h a i m s at w h a t o n e m i g h t call total unlearning. T h e inherent danger, h o w e v e r , is that the patient goes totally to pieces, c o n s e q u e n t l y C o l d T u r k e y is a route to u n l e a r n i n g o n w h i c h o n e m u s t be m a s s i v e l y s u p p o r t e d . H e n c e , the structure of s u c h o r g a n isations as A l c o h o l i c s A n o n y m o u s . XI C o l d T u r k e y , as a process v o l u n t a r i l y u n d e r t a k e n as a cure, is another t r a u m a t i c f o r m o f u n l e a r n i n g , o f w h i c h yet a n o t h e r v a r i a n t r e m a i n s to b e listed a n d b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d . T h i s is the u n l e a r n i n g b r o u g h t about u n d e r c o m p u l s i o n , b y the i m p o s i t i o n o f sanctions w h i c h m a y escalate a l l the w a y to b o d i l y torture. T h i s is the m u c h - s t u d i e d p h e n o m e n o n o f
brainwashing. T h e o r i g i n o f a l l p u n i s h m e n t - i n d u c e d u n l e a r n i n g is to be f o u n d i n s c h o o l s w h i c h , w o r l d - w i d e , for m o s t o f their existence, h a v e o p e r a t e d o n the p r i n c i p l e that error c a n b e beaten o u t o f c h i l d r e n . A v e r s i o n ther
Lifelong
222
Unlearning
a p i e s are m e r e l y a m i n o r v a r i a n t o n this venerable t r a d i t i o n , o f w h i c h P a v l o v p r o v i d e s the m o s t o b v i o u s m o d e m avatar. H o w e v e r , it is a tra d i t i o n w h i c h raises issues far too large a n d c o m p l e x for m e to e x p l o r e i n this s h o r t study. I s h a l l s i m p l y list p u n i s h m e n t - i n d u c e d u n l e a r n i n g as a t y p e w h i c h s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n a n y c o m p l e t e c o v e r a g e of m y topic. XII B y w a y of c o n c l u s i o n , I w a n t to b r i n g into focus t w o r e c u r r e n t motifs of this essay. First of a l l , I h a v e i n m a n y places i n d i c a t e d that w e a l w a y s s t a n d i n a n e m o t i o n a l relationship to w h a t w e
know
or
believe.
K n o w l e d g e a n d belief are n e v e r ' c o l d ' . T h i s m e a n s that o u r feelings c a n act to enable or frustrate b o t h o u r l e a r n i n g a n d o u r u n l e a r n i n g . T h e p s y c h o l o g i s t ' s c h a p t e r o n ' M o t i v a t i o n ' c o u l d be greatly e n r i c h e d — i n d e e d , replaced—by
the m a n y chapters i n p s y c h o a n a l y s i s o n o u r affec
tive relations to o u r objects, i n c l u d i n g s u c h i n a n i m a t e objects as o u r k n o w l e d g e , ideas, theories, beliefs, h u n c h e s , c o m m i t m e n t s a n d v a l u e s . A l r e a d y , c o m m o n sense p r o v i d e s us w i t h a n e n t r y into u n d e r s t a n d i n g this affective r e l a t i o n s h i p to o u r k n o w l e d g e b y a l l o w i n g us to s p e a k of b e i n g p r o u d of o u r l e a r n i n g , jealous of o u r k n o w l e d g e , i n s e c u r e i n o u r beliefs, tired of o u r o w n ideas, confident of o u r Tightness, u n w i l l i n g to c o n c e d e w e m i g h t b e w r o n g , k e e n to k n o w m o r e , hesitant i n a p p l y i n g w h a t w e k n o w . T h i s list is r e a d i l y e x p a n d e d . S e c o n d l y , I h a v e at v a r i o u s p o i n t s l i k e n e d o u r relationship to ideas to o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h p e o p l e . E v e r y d a y m e t a p h o r s r e c o g n i s e this p a r a l l e l i s m also: w e c a n be w e d d e d to o u r ideas, be intellectual b u l l y b o y s , h a v e a love-affair w i t h F r e u d , a n d so o n . Insofar as p s y c h o a n a l y sis h a s v a s t l y e x t e n d e d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , it c o u l d also e x t e n d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of o u r c o g n i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . We m i g h t t h e n be able to see, for e x a m p l e , that the l u r e of a c c u m u l a t i n g e d u c a t i o n a l qualifications is n o t so v e r y different f r o m a n i n v i t a t i o n to m a r r y s o m e o n e for their m o n e y — e x c e p t , of course, that the m o n e y i n this instance is o u r o w n . I n terms of its content, this essay is about d i s p o s i n g of q u a l i f i c a t i o n s rather t h a n about g a i n i n g t h e m . It is about w h a t w e once k n e w b u t n o w k n o w n o longer. It has offered a t y p o l o g y of the w a y s i n w h i c h w e may
cease to k n o w
a n d believe, sometimes finding s o m e t h i n g
to
r e p l a c e w h a t is g i v e n u p (as i n conversion), s o m e t i m e s n o t (as i n for getting). It has also s u g g e s t e d s o m e m e r i t i n w h a t , a p p r o p r i a t i n g a
223
Trevor Pateman p h r a s e , w e m i g h t call, generically, losing
it. T h e architect M i e s v a n der
R o h e once c a m e u p w i t h the m e m o r a b l e s l o g a n 'Less is m o r e ' 1980:
(Hughes
168). M y p r o p o s a l is that s u c h m i n i m a l i s m has a p a r t to p l a y i n
o u r c o g n i t i v e life. W e s h o u l d n ' t w o r r y t o o m u c h about feeling that w e k n o w less t h a n w e once d i d , or about l o n g p e r i o d s o f d o u b t a n d u n c e r tainty i n w h i c h w e feel i g n o r a n t a n d u n a b l e to c o m e u p w i t h q u i c k answers. T h e painter M a r k R o t h k o l i k e d to remark: 'Silence is so a c c u rate' (Breslin 1993: 306). I t h i n k this is a phrase w o r t h
remembering
w h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the b r a s h p o l i t i c i a n or the e v e n brasher a c a d e m i c w h o c a n p u t a s p i n o n e v e r y t h i n g , w h o has a n instant d i a g n o s i s a n d a cure for all ills. S u c h q u a c k doctors s h o u l d r e m i n d us a l w a y s to p r a y for a f u l l w o r d a n d a cautious t o n g u e .
This
paper
was first
Sussex Institute
presented
for Education,
Barf or d and Robin Morris
at a Faculty November
Seminar
of the University
1998.1 would like to thank
for their encouragement
and
help.
of
Duncan
APPENDIX: QUOTATIONS A N DA P H O R I S M S
T h e f o l l o w i n g list of quotations o n the theme of l e a r n i n g w a s a s s e m b l e d w h i l s t s e a r c h i n g for the title of this book. Because the great major i t y o f the f o l l o w i n g w e r e h a r v e s t e d f r o m the internet, n o c l a i m s are m a d e as to their a c c u r a c y o r a u t h e n t i c i t y
** * It is a m o n g the c o m m o n p l a c e s of e d u c a t i o n that w e often first c u t off the l i v i n g root a n d t h e n t r y to replace its n a t u r a l f u n c t i o n s b y artificial m e a n s . T h u s w e s u p p r e s s the c h i l d ' s c u r i o s i t y a n d t h e n w h e n h e lacks a n a t u r a l interest i n l e a r n i n g he is offered special c o a c h i n g for his scholastic c o a c h i n g for h i s scholastic difficulties. — A l i c e Duer Miller B y l e a r n i n g y o u w i l l teach, b y teaching y o u w i l l l e a r n . — L a t i n Proverb C r e a t i v i t y is a type of l e a r n i n g process w h e r e the teacher a n d p u p i l are l o c a t e d i n the s a m e i n d i v i d u a l . — A r t h u r Koestler C u r i o s i t y is the w i c k i n the candle of l e a r n i n g . — W i l l i a m A . W a r d (1921-1994), U S C o l l e g e A d m i n i s t r a t o r . D o n o t confine y o u r c h i l d r e n to y o u r o w n l e a r n i n g , for they w e r e b o r n i n a n o t h e r time. — C h i n e s e Proverb E d u c a t i o n is l e a r n i n g w h a t y o u d i d n ' t e v e n k n o w y o u d i d n ' t k n o w . — D a n i e l B o o r s t i n (b.1914), U S H i s t o r i a n . E d u c a t i o n is not f i l l i n g a bucket, b u t l i g h t i n g a fire. — W i l l i a m Yeats E v e n a thief takes t e n years to l e a r n h i s trade. —Japanese Proverb
Appendix
225
H e w h o is a f r a i d to ask is a s h a m e d of l e a r n i n g . — D a n i s h Proverb H e w h o is n o t satisfied w i t h h i m s e l f w i l l g r o w ; h e w h o is n o t sure of his o w n correctness w i l l l e a r n m a n y things. — C h i n e s e Proverb H o w is it that so often... I get the feeling I've w o r k e d h a r d to l e a r n s o m e t h i n g I a l r e a d y k n o w , or k n e w , once. — L i n d a E l l e r b e e (b.1944) U S Broadcast Journalist I h a v e l e a r n e d t h r o u g h o u t m y life as a c o m p o s e r chiefly t h r o u g h m y m i s t a k e s a n d p u r s u i t s of false a s s u m p t i o n s , n o t m y e x p o s u r e to founts of w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e . — I g o r Stravinsky I h a v e n e v e r i n m y life l e a r n e d a n y t h i n g f r o m a n y m a n w h o agreed with me. — D u d l e y Field Malone I h a v e n e v e r m e t a m a n so i g n o r a n t that I c o u l d n ' t l e a r n s o m e t h i n g from him. —Galileo I've
k n o w n countless
people
w h o were
reservoirs of l e a r n i n g , yet
never h a d a thought. — W i l s o n M i z n e r (1876-1933) U S P l a y w r i g h t a n d A u t h o r If a m a n w i l l b e g i n w i t h certainties, he s h a l l e n d i n d o u b t s , b u t if he w i l l b e content to b e g i n w i t h d o u b t s , he s h a l l e n d i n certainties. — F r a n c i s B a c o n (1561-1626) In a time of drastic c h a n g e it is the learners w h o inherit the future. T h e l e a r n e d u s u a l l y f i n d themselves
e q u i p p e d to l i v e i n a w o r l d that n o
l o n g e r exists. — E r i c H o f f e r (1902-1983) U S W r i t e r a n d P h i l o s o p h e r It is a l w a y s the season for the o l d to learn. —Aeschylus
226
Appendix
I r r e g u l a r i t y a n d w a n t of m e t h o d are o n l y s u p p o r t a b l e i n m e n of great
l e a r n i n g o r g e n i u s , w h o are often too f u l l to b e exact, a n d therefore they
c h o o s e to t h r o w d o w n their pearls i n h e a p s before the reader, rather
t h a n b e at the p a i n s of s t r i n g i n g t h e m .
— J o s e p h A d d i s o n (1672-1719) Essayist a n d P l a y w r i g h t
It is p a r a d o x i c a l that m a n y educators a n d parents still
differentiate
b e t w e e n a time for l e a r n i n g a n d a time for p l a y w i t h o u t seeing the v i t a l
connection between them.
— L e o B u s c a g l i a (1925-1998) U S A u t h o r a n d E d u c a t o r
It is w h a t w e t h i n k w e k n o w
already that often p r e v e n t s u s f r o m
learning.
— C l a u d e B e r n a r d (1813-1878) F r e n c h P h y s i o l o g i s t
T o b e p r o u d o f l e a r n i n g is the greatest i g n o r a n c e .
— J e r e m y Taylor
T h e r e is n o t a f l o w e r or b i r d i n sight, o n l y a s m a l l screen o n w h i c h lines
are m o v i n g , w h i l e the c h i l d sits almost m o t i o n l e s s , p u s h i n g at the k e y
b o a r d w i t h o n e finger. A s a l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t , it m a y b e m e n t a l l y
r i c h , b u t it is p e r c e p t u a l l y extremely i m p o v e r i s h e d . N o smells o r tastes,
n o w i n d or b i r d s o n g (unless the c o m p u t e r is p r o g r a m m e d to p r o d u c e
electronic tweets), n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s o i l , water, s u n l i g h t , w a r m t h ,
the actual l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t is a l m o s t autistic i n quality, i m p o v e r
i s h e d sensually, emotionally, a n d socially.
—John Davy
T i l l a m a n c a n j u d g e w h e t h e r they be truths o r n o t , his u n d e r s t a n d i n g
is b u t little i m p r o v e d , a n d t h u s m e n of m u c h r e a d i n g , t h o u g h greatly
l e a r n e d , b u t m a y be little k n o w i n g .
— J o h n Locke
L e a r n of the s k i l f u l ; h e that teaches himself, h a s a fool for h i s master.
—Benjamin Franklin
L e a r n to u n l e a r n .
— B e n j a m i n Disraeli
Appendix L e a r n i n g . . . s h o u l d b e a j o y a n d full of excitement. It is life's
227 greatest
a d v e n t u r e ; it is a n illustrated e x c u r s i o n i n t o the m i n d of n o b l e a n d l e a r n e d m e n , n o t a c o n d u c t e d tour t h r o u g h a jail. — T a y l o r C a l d w e l l (1900-1985) E n g l i s h N o v e l i s t L e a r n i n g a n d sex u n t i l r i g o r mortis. — M a g g i e K u h n (1905-1995) U S A c t i v i s t a n d S o c i a l W o r k e r L e a r n i n g carries w i t h i n itself certain d a n g e r s because o u t of necessity o n e has to l e a r n f r o m one's enemies. — L e o n Trotsky L e a r n i n g is w h a t m o s t adults w i l l d o for a l i v i n g i n the 21st century. —Perelman L e a r n i n g m a k e s the w i s e wiser a n d the fool m o r e f o o l i s h , — J o h n R a y (1627-1705) E n g l i s h N a t u r a l i s t L E A R N I N G , n . T h e k i n d of i g n o r a n c e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the s t u d i o u s . — A m b r o s e Bierce, The Devils
Dictionary.
L o v e of l e a r n i n g is a pleasant a n d u n i v e r s a l b o n d , since it deals w i t h w h a t o n e is a n d n o t w h a t o n e h a s . — F r e y a Stark, F r e n c h - E n g l i s h T r a v e l Writer M a n is the o n l y creature that dares to light a fire a n d l i v e w i t h it. T h e reason? Because h e alone has l e a r n e d h o w to p u t it o u t . — H e n r y J a c k s o n V a n d y k e , Jr. (1852-1933) U S C l e r g y m a n a n d A u t h o r T e a c h i n g is m o r e difficult that l e a r n i n g because w h a t t e a c h i n g calls for is this: to let l e a r n . T h e real teacher, i n fact, let n o t h i n g else b e l e a r n e d t h a n l e a r n i n g . H i s c o n d u c t , therefore, often p r o d u c e s the i m p r e s s i o n that w e p r o p e r l y l e a r n n o t h i n g f r o m h i m , i f b y l e a r n i n g w e n o w s u d d e n l y u n d e r s t a n d m e r e l y the p r o c u r e m e n t of u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n . — M a r t i n Heidegger M e n l e a r n w h i l e t h e y teach. —Seneca
228
Appendix
M o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n l e a r n i n g h o w to recall things is f i n d i n g w a y s to forget things that are cluttering the m i n d . — E r i c Butterworth N e v e r l e a r n to d o a n y t h i n g ; if y o u d o n ' t l e a r n , y o u ' l l a l w a y s
find
s o m e o n e else to d o it for y o u . — M a r k Twain N o c h i l d o n earth w a s ever m e a n t to b e o r d i n a r y a n d y o u c a n see it i n t h e m , a n d they k n o w it, too, b u t then the times get to t h e m , a n d they w e a r o u t their brains l e a r n i n g w h a t folks expect,
a n d spend
their
s t r e n g t h t r y i n g to rise o v e r those s a m e folks. — A n n i e D i l l a r d (b.1945) U S A u t h o r O n e p o u n d of l e a r n i n g requires ten p o u n d s of c o m m o n sense to a p p l y it — P e r s i a n Proverb I g n o r a n c e of a l l things is a n e v i l neither terrible n o r excessive, n o r y e t the greatest o f a l l ; b u t great cleverness a n d m u c h l e a r n i n g , if they be a c c o m p a n i e d b y a b a d t r a i n i n g , are a m u c h greater m i s f o r t u n e . —Plato T e a c h i n g is the r o y a l r o a d to l e a r n i n g . — J e s s a m y n West (1902-1984) U S A u t h o r T h a t is w h a t l e a r n i n g is. Y o u s u d d e n l y u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g
you've
u n d e r s t o o d all y o u r life, b u t i n a n e w w a y . — D o r i s Lessing T h e b o o k w r i t t e n against fame a n d l e a r n i n g has the a u t h o r ' s n a m e o n the title-page. — R a l p h Waldo Emerson T h e chief object of e d u c a t i o n is n o t to l e a r n things b u t to u n l e a r n things. — G . K . Chesterton
Appendix
229
T h e eagle n e v e r lost so m u c h time as w h e n he s u b m i t t e d to l e a r n f r o m
the crow.
— W i l l i a m Blake
T h e l e a r n i n g process is s o m e t h i n g y o u can incite, literally incite, like a
riot.
— A u d r e L o r d e (1934-1992) U S Poet a n d F e m i n i s t
T h e m a n w h o is too o l d to l e a r n w a s p r o b a b l y a l w a y s too o l d to learn.
— H e n r y S. H a s k i n s
T h e p u r p o s e of l e a r n i n g is g r o w t h , a n d o u r m i n d s , u n l i k e o u r bodies,
c a n c o n t i n u e g r o w i n g as w e continue to live.
— M o r t i m e r A d l e r (b.1902) U S P h i l o s o p h e r , E d u c a t o r a n d E d i t o r
T h e real object of e d u c a t i o n is to h a v e a m a n i n the c o n d i t i o n of c o n
t i n u a l l y a s k i n g questions.
— B i s h o p Creighton
T h e trouble w i t h l e a r n i n g f r o m experience is that y o u never graduate.
— D o u g Larson
T h e w i s e are i n s t r u c t e d b y reason, average m i n d s b y experience, the
s t u p i d b y necessity a n d the brute b y instinct.
— M a r c u s Tullius Cicero
T h e r e is n o s u c h w h e t s t o n e , to s h a r p e n a g o o d w i t a n d e n c o u r a g e a
w i l l to l e a r n i n g , as is praise.
— R o g e r A s c h a m (1515-1568)
T h e r e is o n l y o n e t h i n g m o r e p a i n f u l than l e a r n i n g f r o m a n d that is n o t l e a r n i n g f r o m experience.
—Archibald McLeish
W e l e a r n g e o l o g y the m o r n i n g after the earthquake.
— R a l p h W a l d o E m e r s o n (1803-1882)
W h o dares to teach m u s t n e v e r cease to learn.
— J o h n Cotton Dana
experience
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240
Index
INDEX abstract 37, 43, 48, 52, 73, 74, 80, 85,103,
145, 147, 163, 209
abstraction(s) 15, 74, 85, 97, 98
accommodation 60, 63
acquisition 39, 98,168,175, 212
acting 45, 68, 73, 85,94, 99, 111, 112,141,
151, 201, 208
action(s) 28, 31, 33, 45, 47, 53, 71, 74, 87, 94,
99, 101-103,114,116,119,174,178,187,
189, 199, 203, 208
addiction 137, 221
adults, regressed 205
affective relation 118
aggressive 54, 89,110,118,119,123
Alcoholics Anonymous 221
Alexander, Franz 19,182
alpha function 85, 87, 90, 92,104, 105
analytical psychology 64, 65, 57, 70
Anthony E.J. 44, 54, 64, 72, 217
anthropology 144
anus 132
anxiety(ies) 24, 25, 27, 36, 37, 39-42, 46, 56,
88-90, 98, 99,107,110,112-115,117-119,
131, 148-150,152,181,186-188,190,199
basic 183, 186,191
apprehension(s) 50, 55, 73, 74, 77
archetypes 65, 66, 70, 74, 76, 77
Ariadne 220, 221
Aristotle 36
assimilation 46, 57, 59, 60, 63
attachment 119,125,147, 217
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
119
attitude(s) 50, 56, 61, 74, 84, 91, 94,101,110,
112, 115, 124-126, 158,165, 214
attuning antennae 33
audience 37, 51, 94, 198,199
autistic children 40
autistic spectrum 115
autobiography 175,176,189,190
Bleandonu 98
blurring 196
body 25, 28, 39, 40, 46, 47, 92,107, 108,111 113,116-118, 138,144,146,150, 167,172,
173, 177,178, 201, 206
Bollas, Christopher 89,190, 202-204
Bonaparte, Marie 24
Bornstein, Steff 27
Bowlby 147
breast 47, 50, 51,106,107,109, 110,114,
132-135,172, 197,199, 200, 206
bad 107,110
good 50,110
Brierley, Marjorie 147,148
British Confederation of Psychotherapists,
The 148,154
British Psycho-Analytical Society 143, 146 148
Brockbank 20, 22,
Brown, Joanne 36
Bruner, Jerome 43-46
business world 34
castration 24, 112,154
children 23, 24, 29, 33, 40, 43-45, 62, 64, 66,
72, 80-82, 95,106-108,113, 119-121, 123,
126-132, 137, 196, 204, 207-210, 212, 220
Chomsky 77
Churchill, Winston 41
Cixous, Helene 178
classical psychoanalysis 46, 47
clinical practice 27,139, 141,143,144,148,
151,154
clitoris 108,109,132
clues 29, 35
verbal 29, 31
visual 29, 31
cognition 47, 51, 53, 54, 80
cognitive psychologist 42
cognitive science 35
cognitivism 12, 42, 60
cognitivist 43, 57, 63
cold turkey 221
collective unconscious 70, 74, 76, 77
comprehension 50, 51, 73,162
Baldwin, James Mark 68
compulsory narrative 186
behaviourism 12, 42, 58-60, 63
concepts 18, 26, 37, 40, 60, 74, 76, 84, 85, 87,
behaviourist 43, 57, 59, 70
90, 92, 104, 133, 161,164,192, 208
belief 130,153,193, 220
concern and love 111
believe 11, 45,106,108,109,128,135,153,
concrete 48, 73, 74, 80, 95, 97,114,119,122,
190, 213, 222
195, 196, 201, 203
Berne, Eric 220
beta elements 85, 92,102,104
condensation 160,166,170
Bion, Wilfred 13, 26, 84, 85, 87-98,101-105,
conditioning 58, 60, 63
133-135, 144
Index coniunctio 71, 72, 81
conscientizacao 94,103,104
conscious 12, 30, 45, 46, 54, 67, 70, 72, 74-78,
80, 82, 87, 95,107, 108, 114, 126, 151,
179, 202, 203, 205, 209, 211, 212
conscious system 76
conscious thinking 41, 45, 68,177
consensus 80, 90,170
contact barrier, the 87, 90, 92
container/contained 89, 90, 96,101,102,105
container/contained (or M,F) 87, 89
containment 96,150, 210
control 23, 26, 59, 78, 80, 82, 95,113,127,
147,158, 162, 163, 165, 166,170, 177,
180,181,185,186,189,197, 210, 218
Controversial Discussions, the 144,146-149,
151,152,155
conversion 217, 219, 220, 222,
counter-transference 71, 72,142
creation 156,167, 169,177, 178
creative 36, 56, 72, 75, 77, 82, 96,120,145,
173,178, 188, 191, 192, 197, 201, 204, 206
creativity 13,18, 24, 35, 58, 65, 72, 82, 140,
174,186,188,192,194,195
crib 143
criterion of judgment 69
critical faculty 178-181,188, 189
cross-modal exchanges 28, 40
culture 26, 57, 70, 77, 78,139, 144, 145
cure 95, 140, 152, 153, 220, 221, 223
curiosity 23, 24, 41, 42, 79-81, 106, 107, 113,
114,118, 119, 123, 125, 129
241
directed thinking 67-69, 74-76, 79, 80,
Discourse of the University 34,152,158,165
Discourse of the Master 152,165
discourse theory 140, 153
disintegration 88,122,
displacement(s) 160, 166, 171,194,197
double chain 161
dreams 45, 46, 74, 77, 87, 91,150,168,196,
296, 218
dynamics 21, 26, 27, 36, 37, 74, 77, 78, 87,
124,127,150
eating 51, 53, 54, 62, 104, 121
Ebbinghaus 19
education 12-14,17-20, 23-26, 31-34, 36, 37,
57, 59, 61, 62, 72, 80, 84, 85, 94, 97,
102-104,154,169-172,174,190,195, 211,
214, 221, 223
educationalist 44, 46, 84, 101
educators 41, 42, 56
ego 26, 34, 35, 47-50, 52, 54, 55, 58-62, 66-68,
70, 82, 91, 109, 110, 114, 115, 118, 157,
178,192
authentic 157
body 92
deceiving nature of the 26
discriminating 178
learning 80, 81
over adapted 82
pleasure 50, 51, 53, 54, 58
reality 50, 51, 53, 58
ego-strength 68, 72
fimile 19
daddy 117,120,121
emotions 27, 57, 64,162,176,181,189,199,
death drive 79
201, 202
death instinct 62, 106, 109
empathy 118, 201
de-egoisation 178
Empiricist 130,131, 133
deintegration 66, 70
enlightenment 19, 34, 75
depressive 111, 131
enunciation 170,171
envy 92,112,127,129,132,141
depressive position 88, 89, 92, 95,109-111
epiphany 219, 220
Descartes 93
desire(s) 13, 25, 35, 60, 61, 82, 91, 95, 99,112, epistemology of practice 21
113, 116, 132, 153, 156, 158, 167-174, 188, epistemophilic instinct 92,107, 108,112, 113,
196
129
essentialist 22, 182,192
despised image 185
evolution 11,12, 84, 85, 87, 90, 93-95, 102,
destroy and build 221
104, 127, 161
Dewey, John 19, 20
expansive 183,185-187,189
dialogue 64-66, 69, 74, 75, 80, 85,101-104,
expulsion 117, 144, 212
175, 176, 189
extravert 69, 74
Dick 115-118
Die Verneinung 216
faeces 117,125
direct threat 25
Fairbairn, W.R.D. 106, 130
directed (thinking) 53, 68, 70, 72, 79
242
Index
False Personality 205
false self 205-207
familiarisation 52, 53
fantasy(ies) 36, 66, 74-79, 84,108,155,165,
176,184,195,198, 201
father 37, 77-79, 91, 106, 108, 111-113, 115,
116, 118, 119, 123,127-129, 132, 172,
209-211
fear of exclusion, the 148
fear of independent thinking, the 148
feeling tone 176
feelings 37, 57, 73,106-108, 111, 113,114,
122,123,126, 128-130,150 176,181,189,
222
femininity phase 109,112,113, 116, 132
feminism 144
Fenichel 25
Ferenczi, Sandor 62,144
Ficino 18
fiction 175,177-180, 188-190
fictional autobiography 174, 189,190
fictional narrator/character 179,181
figure(s) 13,14, 85, 111, 148,165,196,198,
199, 201, 209, 210
find 14,17, 26, 30, 36, 51, 55, 57, 71, 76, 81,
100,101, 111, 133,137,142,148,153,156,
175, 179-183, 185,189, 209, 218
fitness 11
fitness, physical 11
fixed thoughts 133
Fordham, Michael 65-67
forgetting 14, 95,140, 213-216, 222
Foulkes, S.H. 26
Four Discourses 34
framework narrator 179,180
freedom 95, 177, 184, 210
Freire, Paolo 13, 84, 91, 94, 97, 98,101-104
Freud, Sigmund 13, 24, 26, 30, 35, 38, 39, 41,
45-51, 54, 55, 58-60, 62, 84, 91, 92,106,
108, 109, 112, 132,143, 144,146,147,152,
153, 158,167, 169, 171, 172,177,182,
216-218, 222
Freud, Anna 23, 24, 146
Froebel 19
gap 35, 59, 122
gender 18, 21, 22, 37, 38, 112, 144
genital impulses 108
Gestalt Psychology 159, 219
Gilligan 22
giving away 212
Glover, Edward 146-148, 155
Gnostics, The 92
Green, Andre 93, 98
Grigg 154
group facilitators 27
groups 17, 24, 26, 27, 36, 81, 82, 90,143, 146,
149
guilt 25, 39, 111, 113,114,116,118, 124, 127,
129
hate 106,128, 174, 185, 186, 194, 201
heterosexuality 109
Horney, Karen 14,146,173,182-188,190,
191
human behaviour 159, 163,164, 167,168
humanism 12, 42, 57
humanist 18, 43, 60, 62, 63
Huxley, Aldous 160
idea(s) 12,15,16,18,19, 24, 26-28, 32, 34, 36,
37, 47, 50, 51, 55, 56, 60, 68, 79, 88, 89,
95, 107, 109, 110, 121, 140, 149, 161,164,
170,182, 200, 202
idealised image 184,185,188
idealist 130
identification 25, 29, 54, 55, 88, 89, 92,105,
114,116,125-127, 201, 206
identity 48, 62, 128,132, 175-177, 179-182,
184-186, 189, 201, 209
illusion 61,157,194-197,199, 201, 204,
206-208
images 46, 67, 70, 71, 74,118,130, 161, 185
imaginary characters 201
imaginary, the 169, 209
imaginary trace 168
imagination 13, 18, 58, 75, 79, 164, 176-179,
184,185,187,188,191,198, 199, 201,
203, 206
imaginative body 178
imaginative playing 209
imitate 67,149
imitation 28, 50, 201, 206
impossibility 152, 174
impossible profession 61
impotence 25,152
inertia 79
Information Processing/IP 76, 77
innate aggression 106
inner vision 188
inspiration 29, 95
intellectual enjoyment 38
intellectual inhibition 23-25
intelligence 12, 23
intentions 164, 198
interior 176
Index
243
Laplanche & Pontalis 47, 48, 54, 62
Lashley 20
Lave, Jean 21
learn, desire to 60, 99
learning 20, 22, 27, 36, 42-44, 53, 54, 57, 60,
67, 78, 81, 83, 93, 100, 109, 136,137
about 54, 78, 83, 93,137
active theory of 67
attuned 27
barrier to 100
blockages in 44
categories of 22
difficulty 43, 44, 53, 81
experience 20,136
Isaacs, Susan 146, 148,155 inhibition of 109
orientations to 22
jokes 38
situations 36, 42, 57, 60
Jones, Ernest 24,147
strategies and approaches 22
legitimate peripheral participation 21
jouissance 40,164,168,169,172,173
less is more 143, 223
judgment(s) 31, 49 - 51, 53, 68, 69, 72,138
Julian of Norwich 92
lies 13,17, 57, 91,150, 161,163,169,174, 212
life solutions 183-186
Jung, Carl 13, 64-72, 74-77, 79, 144,147,177
life, psychical 21, 36
K 91, 93, 97
Liss, Edward 39
K activity, the 97
Locke, John 19
Kant 92, 133
Kernberg, Otto 140, 154
love 29, 34, 42, 52, 62, 64, 106, 111, 113, 115,
Klein, Erich 24
124, 126, 156,172,174,183,194, 204,
209, 222
Klein, Melanie 13, 23-25, 36, 84, 92,106-109,
111, 112,114-118,123,129-133,135,143, love, fear of losing 25
146, 148, 152, 192, 197
loving 52-54, 62, 107, 110, 111, 116, 131, 173
know 11,18,19, 23, 31, 32, 35, 36, 53, 64, 82,
madness 195
93, 97, 107, 108, 113, 114, 120, 121, 123,
133, 142-144, 154, 162, 163, 165, 168, 171, Mahler, Gustav 24
manipulation 29, 75, 171
172, 174, 213-217, 222, 223
knowing 21, 35, 91, 97, 98, 103, 166, 213-215, Master 151-153, 160,165,166
master signifier 131
217
matched actions 28
knowledge 11,15, 19, 21, 22, 25, 30, 34-37,
matriarchal 37
39, 43, 51, 56, 58, 60, 63, 64, 68, 70, 72,
McGill 20, 22
73, 75, 78, 80, 94, 90, 91, 93, 95, 97, 98,
103, 108, 113, 117, 118, 131-136, 140, 141, meaning(s) 12, 24,39, 61, 64, 66, 68-70, 72,
145, 147,151,153,156-158,165,167-169,
73, 75, 77, 82, 83, 85, 87, 90, 92, 93, 95,
171-174, 203, 204, 214, 216, 217, 221, 222
102, 115, 118, 145, 151, 154, 160, 162, 163,
165-167, 170-173, 192, 195, 197-199,
Kohler 20
201-208
memory 36, 93, 95, 214
Lacan, Jacques 13,14, 30, 32, 34-36, 40, 54,
mental pain 42
55, 143, 144, 146, 150,152,153, 158-161,
mental representation 160
164-168,170, 172-174
mental space 125
lack of being 168
language 13,15, 29, 34, 40, 44, 48, 50, 51, 52, metaphysics 217, 218
55, 68-70, 77, 80, 103, 104,108, 113, 114, metaphors 15, 92, 189, 222
130, 154,156, 158-162, 166-168,170,171, metonymy 159-161,166,167,173
Mill, James 19
173, 209, 210, 213, 215
Mill, John Stuart 19
Langue 160
internal space 177 - 79, 209
International Psycho-Analytic Association
146,148
interpretation(s) 18, 39, 45, 70, 84, 95, 97,
105, 118, 1121, 143, 153, 155, 160, 163,
164, 196, 202-205, 210, 218
intrinsic potentialities 182
introjecting 109
introvert 69
introverted thinking 70
intuition 75, 79, 89, 93, 95, 117
investigation 19, 29, 42 = 44, 53,123,173
IQ 44
244
Index
Milner 177 - 180, 188, 191,196, 197
mimicry 28
mirror 55, 207
mirror stage 54, 55
mirroring 193,194
modernist 192, 214
modes of functioning 73
Moraglia 76, 77
mother 25, 27, 28, 33, 36, 37, 44, 47, 66, 70,
71, 79, 80, 83, 88, 89, 95, 96,106-120,
124-129, 131-133, 172, 173, 184, 192-194,
199-201, 205, 206, 208-211
motherhood 33
mothering 33,125
mother's insides 113,114,120,125-127
motivation 22, 52, 56, 64,141, 222
mourning 131, 217
moving out 216
multiple vertices 87, 90, 97,100
mummy 117,120,121
myth-making 77
myths 77, 78, 157
paradigmatic axis 160
paradoxes 65, 67, 97, 138
paranoia 35,105
paranoid-schizoid 88
paranoid-schizoid perspective 110
paranoid-schizoid position 88, 92, 95, 109,
111
Parker, Theodore 14
parole 159,160
patriarchal 37
Pavlov 20,163, 222
penis 25, 109,111-114, 116-119, 121, 125-127,
131, 132
perceptions 49, 66, 75, 77, 90, 91, 94,103,
104,106
Perelberg, Josef 154
personal records of achievement 26
personality, divided 205
perversity 108,120,123
phallic phase 132
phantasy(ies) 13, 25, 37, 45-47, 49-58, 60, 62,
89, 106, 107,110-113, 116-119, 125, 126,
130,131,135,153,155, 197
narcissism 109,147, 156
phantasy management 56
narrators 176, 179, 180, 187, 189
phenomena 32, 38, 78, 85,168, 194-196, 203
National curriculum 82
phobia(s) 137
nature/nurture 65,130
Piaget, Jean 60, 159, 160,163, 207
negation 53, 216
Plato 18, 92, 218
negative capability 95
Platonic 130. 132 - 135
pleasure(s) 38, 47-50,108,137, 138, 140,172,
negative reinforcement 58
173, 201
neurones 48
pleasure principle 91
neuropsychology 21
point de caption 165
neurotic 44, 46, 53, 55,107,140,184,190
polymorphous perversity 108
neurotic claims 184
Pope, Alexander 18,19
no-breast 134
Popper, Karl 14, 149
nursing 40, 128
possession 50, 93,151, 167,178,199, 201,
202
O 90, 91
object 13, 25, 43, 51, 58, 72,108-111,114,119, post-Kleinian approach 36
127,131-134,145,151,152,156,157,161, post-Kleinian model 36
162, 165,166,170,172-174,178,183,197, preconscious 65
200, 202, 207, 208, 215
predicate 55, 58
choice 108,132
pre-emptive metaphor 43
damaged 117
prehension 73, 78
transitional 13,199-202, 210
Price, Heather 36
object-relating 109, 187
primary process 47, 49, 52, 58, 167
obsessional 39
primary process thinking 47, 53, 62
Oedipus Complex 90, 111, 112,131,132,142 primitive aliveness 194
Other, the 166, 173
process model 91
over-determined 146
projecting 68, 109
projections 119,128,199
pain 35, 42, 48, 91,102,103,115,135,137,
projective identification 87-89, 92,105, 125,
148, 187, 197, 206
126
paradigm 71, 74, 81, 85, 88, 92, 97, 201, 221
Ps D 87, 88
Index psychiatry 113, 144
psychical trace 160
psychoanalysis 12-15,17, 22-27, 30, 32-35,
37-39, 41-44, 46, 47, 50, 57, 59-61, 64, 76,
84, 105, 130,136,138-147,149,150,
152-154, 160-162, 165, 169, 204, 210, 222
psychoanalytic 12,13,15, 23, 25, 26, 30, 31,
34, 36, 40-42, 44, 46, 50-54, 56-58, 60-63,
84, 87, 90, 92, 93, 99,115,130,136,
138-141, 143-145, 151, 152, 154, 176, 182,
192, 206
interaction 138
theory 12,14, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 52, 57, 60,
72, 90, 93, 98-100,135,136,139,141,151
psychology 19, 20, 25-27, 39, 41, 63-67, 72,
159-163, 168,180, 210, 219, 221
psychotherapy 30, 56, 84, 98, 115, 119,
136-140,142,146, 148,152,154,189,197
psychotic 85,114,140, 195
psychotic processes 87
245
rejection 216, 217
relationships 69, 78, 80, 90, 94,97,104,113,
126, 131,154,158, 182,189,190, 214, 222
repetition 18,19,130,171
representation 91, 92, 98, 160, 161, 164, 168,
172, 173,195, 198, 207
repressed 65, 76, 77,107,151,171,184-186,
188, 203
repression 23, 44, 53
repudiation 14, 201, 216, 217
resigned 129,183
resistance 82, 217
retained her faeces 124
retention 125, 212
reverie 89, 95
Riviere, Joan 146,148
Rogers, Carl 60-62, 182
rote-learning 18, 72, 210
Rousseau 19, 20
sacrifice 25, 78
sadism 24, 25,113,114,116,117,123,127,
129
sadistic impulses 107,113, 116,125
Salzberger-Wittenberg, Isca 36, 43, 46,149
Saussure 159-161,165
schizophrenic 115
Schmideberg, Melitta 25,146
racism 144
Schon, Donald 20, 21, 30, 31, 40
radicals 221
science 30, 34, 35, 77,140, 141, 157,158,
Rat Man 39
163-165,168-172, 217, 218
real 15, 20, 50, 51, 53, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69-71,
scientific method 78, 162, 163, 165
73, 75, 78, 79, 85, 93, 99, 106,115, 119,
125, 129, 153, 167, 168, 184, 194-196, 200, Second World War 26,147,154
secondary process 47, 57, 58
201, 209, 215, 220
secondary process thinking 47-49, 52, 53,
real self 182, 183,185-187,190
194
real, the 152, 167-169, 172, 173, 209
Realist 130,135
security 133,194
reality 41, 45-47, 49, 50-55, 57, 58, 61, 67-69, seduction 29
75, 84, 90-93, 97, 103,104, 106, 112, 115, Segal, Hanna 114,115
116,119,130,131,135,148,153,168,169, selected fact, the 87-89, 92, 95
171-173, 184, 194-197, 199, 201, 202, 204, self 27, 47, 49, 60-62, 66, 68, 81, 88, 102, 104,
206-209
109, 111, 122, 126,129, 178,181, 184-194,
200, 201, 205-209
external 62, 87, 88, 90,103,104, 130, 131,
201
analysis 24, 26
internal 131
confidence 184,187
reality principle 91
effacement 184,185
reality-testing 51, 90
effacing 183-187, 189
reason 12,15, 45, 140, 150, 157, 158, 160,162,
regulation 159
semiotics 197
170, 171
sessions 29, 31,117, 120, 123, 124, 129, 142,
refind 51
198
reflective practice 20, 21
sex 23, 106, 108, 121, 130, 137,144
regression 37, 95,179, 206-208
abuse 106, 130,144
Reich, Wilhelm 144
qualifications 222
quality 18, 28, 31, 58, 59, 96, 110, 136, 137,
172, 178
quantities 45, 71, 80, 82, 106,113,126,127,
130,158, 200, 210
246
Index
sexual curiosity 23,106
life 137
processes 108
sexuality 23, 38, 107-109, 120,15, 131,141,
154,182
sexually abused 122,123
Sharpe, Ella Freeman 24,148,152,153
short sessions 142
short-circuited cognition 47
sign 160-163,165,195,198,199, 206
significance 20, 25, 43, 44,102,161,163, 170,
198
signification 160-162,165,166,169-171,173
signified 161,165 - 168
signifier(s) 34, 40, 61,114,151,160-162,165,
166, 168, 169, 171, 173,199
silence 198, 223
skills 19, 33, 60, 98,173,189
sociology 144,154
Socrates 217, 218
soma-psychotic 85
sound-image(s) 160,161
speaker 37
special rewards 25
speculative systems 35
speech 34, 40, 68, 74, 108, 114, 159, 160, 167,
170,173
spiritual life 178
splitting 88, 92,109,110, 126,144, 205
St Augustine 92
Steiner, Rudolf 19,146, 148,153,154
Stern, Daniel 27-29
Stock-Whitaker, Dorothy 26
subject 11,14,19, 30, 34, 46, 52, 54, 57, 58,
62, 87, 99,129,153,177, 215
subject (in the context of a person) 44, 103,
141,151, 157, 166-174, 208, 215
surface 22, 30,176, 202
switching,186, 219
symbol formation 114-118, 196, 200
symbol, meaningful 208
symbolic
equation 198, 206, 208
meanings 204
representation 73,168
symbolic, the 168, 172, 173,195, 197, 201,
206, 210
symbolisation 118,198, 205
symbols 195, 199, 208
Symington, J. 91, 92
Symington, N. 91, 92
talking cure 140
teacher 11-15,17, 20, 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 32,
41, 42, 44, 52, 58, 61-63, 72, 81, 84, 94-97,
99,103,150,172,196, 202-204, 206, 209,
210, 214, 219
teaching 9,10, 12,17, 18, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29 32, 24, 26, 41, 42, 56-58, 61, 62, 84, 93, 97,
99, 100, 143-145, 149, 152, 163, 169, 171,
172, 209
teaching, adult 41
technique 17, 21, 59, 84,147, 152, 177
Tennant, Mark 41
The Grid/Grid 85, 87, 94, 97,101,104,105
theory 12,17,19, 34, 35, 38, 43, 52, 54, 57, 58,
65, 69, 70, 74, 81, 85, 91-93, 98-101,107,
109, 123, 131-135, 139, 140, 142, 143, 145,
155, 158, 161,165, 182, 187, 190, 200,
211-213, 219
thinking 17,19, 26, 29-31, 34, 36, 41, 45-49,
52, 53, 57, 60, 66-72, 74-80, 82, 84, 85,
87-89, 91-94, 96, 98,100-104,107,130,
133-136, 141,142, 147, 148, 154, 156, 158,
175-177, 214
Thorndike 20
totality 48,159,190
tradition 18, 92,130,141, 142,144-146, 148,
149,151,152,155, 218, 222
training analysis 139,154, 155
training experience 149
transference 27, 34, 35, 71, 72, 127, 131,153,
203, 206
transformation(s) 71-73, 75, 78, 84, 87, 90,
91, 99, 102,103, 105, 159, 160, 202
transitional 13,177,194-197,199-203, 210
transitional space 177
trauma 106,140
Troyes, Chretien de 36
true self 203, 205
true word 101,102,104
truth 14, 34, 42, 53, 88, 91, 93, 97, 102, 105,
130,151,156-158,163,168,169,171, 172,
174
unconscious contents 178,189
unconscious knowledge 108, 131,132
unconscious phantasy(ies) 41, 44, 46, 47, 52,
55, 89, 96, 106,109, 110, 125, 126,130,
147
unconscious, the 25, 38, 44, 45, 53, 71, 74-77,
89, 104, 107, 158-161, 163 164, 166-172,
174,176-179,184,189, 202, 205, 206, 218
understanding 12,13, 24, 27, 29, 34, 36-39, 42, 43, 46, 55, 56, 61, 62, 72, 73, 75, 94, 95, 97-99,101,103,104,108,115,121, 141,149,153,154,161,162,182,183, 185,192, 202 undirected (thinking) 67, 75, 76 United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy 148, 154 unlearning 14, 212, 213, 215-217, 219-222 vagina 108,109,114,131,132 vertex 90 Vico, Giambattista 92, 93 voice 14,109,157,175,176,180,181, 187, 190, 216 Watson 20 Wenger, Etienne 21 Williams, Raymond 14,144, 149,152 Winnicott, Donald 10,13, 62,106,109,177, 188,190,192-197, 199-211 wit 14, 38 without-me 178 Wittels, Franz 23 Wittgenstein 93 Wolff 42, 60 womb-space 177 world, external 47, 50, 51, 101, 102,106 world, internal 13, 37, 106, 110, 131,192 words 19, 33,102,107,108,114,115,117, 119, 120, 1440,, 143, 149,150, 153,155, 156, 162,166, 170, 173, 176, 198, 208, 219 writing 15, 32, 33, 38,42, 84,120,140, 175-181,188-190, 201, 207
creative 14, 175, 176, 178-181, 189, 190
free 176, 177
identity 175-77,179,180,182,189
voice 175, 176
with the body 178
writing course, creative 180,181
Learning is the most basic means by which we can change ourselves. Of all the activities of the mind, learning is perhaps the most fundamental, yet one of the most provocative and difficult to understand. This book contains ten new essays by educationalists, psychotherapists and academics, who confront the many problems associated with the mystery of learning. What is learning? How are ideas 'transmitted from one mind to another? What makes a good teacher? 1
Chapters are devoted to theories of learning implicit in the work of Freud, Jung, Klein, Bion, Winnicott, and Lacan. Other topics explored in this comprehensive and thought-provoking collection include how to teach 'psychoanalytically'; the links between learning and 'writer's block'; and the problems inherent in teaching psychoanalysis itself. Cover design and image by Julia Ingle
KARNAC BOOKS 6 PEMBROKE BUILDINGS LONDON NWIO 6RE PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN ISBN I 85575 286 7