The Inner Kalacakratantra: A Buddhist Tantric View of the Individual

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

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The Inner Kalacakratantra A Buddhist Tantric View of the Individual

Vesna A. Wallace

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2OOI

OXJORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Oxford Ne w Yor k Athens Aucklan d Bangko k Bogot a Bueno s Aires Cap e Tow n Chennai Dar es Salaam Delh i Florenc e Hon g Kong Istanbu l Karach i Kolkata Kual a Lumpur Madri d Melbourn e Mexic o Cit y Mumba i Nairob i Pans Shangha i Singapor e Taipe i Toky o Toront o Warsa w and associated companie s i n Berlin Ibada n

Copyright © 2001 by Vesna A. Wallace Published by Oxford Universit y Press, Inc., 198 Madison Avenue , New York , New Yor k 1001 6 Oxford i s a registered trademark o f Oxford Universit y Press All rights reserved. No par t of this publication ma y be reproduced, stored i n a retrieval system, or transmitted, i n any form o r by any means , electronic, mechanical , photocopying , recording , or otherwise, without the prio r permission of Oxford Universit y Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Wallace, Vesn a A. The inne r kalacakratantr a . a Buddhist tantric vie w of the individua l / Vesn a A . Wallace . p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and inde x ISBN 0-19-512211-9 i. Tripioaka . S&trapioaka . Tantra. Kalacakratantra—Criticism, interpretation, etc . 2. Ma n (Buddhism ) 3 . Body , Human—Religious aspects—Buddhism. 4. Tantric Buddhism—Doctrines. I. Title. BQ2I77-W35 200 0 294-3'85—dc2i 00-022893

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

Printed i n the United State s o f America on acid-fre e paper

Preface

T

he Kalacakratantra an d it s commentarial literature are a rich textua l source for the stud y of diverse but mutually related fields of South Asian studies in general and of South Asia n Buddhism in particular. The work s that belong to the Kalacakra literary corpus warrant careful researc h for several reasons. They expres s the doctri nal and social theories an d the relevan t tantri c practice s that were characteristic of north Indian Buddhism in its final stages. A study of those theorie s and practices reveals the ways in which the Indian tantric Buddhists from the early eleventh century on interprete d an d further developed earlie r Buddhist idea s and thei r practica l ap plications. The Kalacakratantra literatur e also sheds light on the religiou s and social conditions o f eleventh-century Indi a in general an d on the socia l standing and role of Indian tantri c Buddhis m of that era in particular. For these reasons, a main focus o f this book i s on th e Kalacakr a tradition a s an Indian Buddhis t tradition . Althoug h th e Kalacakr a tradition has been a significant component o f Tibetan Buddhism to this day and has produced a large body of tantric literature i n Tibet, fo r a number o f reasons the intende d tas k of this book i s not t o provide a detailed analysi s of the Indo-Tibetan Kalacakra tradition a s a whole. Th e Kalacakra traditio n a s a whole include s a plurality of texts an d interpretativ e per spectives, some of which are not i n agreement wit h each other ; an d i t deals with a n extensive variety of topics, which deserv e separate scholarly analyses. Likewise, the diverse an d comple x historiographical , textual , an d philosophica l problem s sur rounding the Kalacakra literature of both India and Tibet, which should be addressed in great detail, require a collaborative effor t o f scholars who are willing to undertak e such a task. The centra l topi c o f this book is the Kdlacakratantra's vie w of the natur e o f the individual and one's place in the universe and society. Accordingly, a primary theme of the boo k is a textual, historical, and philosophical analysi s of the secon d chapte r of the Kalacakratantra, called the "Chapter on the Individual" (adhyatma'patala), an d its principal commentary, the Vimalaprabhd. However, since the Kalacakra tradition's theory of the human bein g permeates all the chapters of the Kalacakratantra, the sec-

vi

Preface

ond chapter o f the Kalacakratantm is intimately related to the other chapters o f this tantra. For example, the Kalacakratantra' s view of the individua l is inseparable from its view of the univers e as discussed in th e first chapter o f the tantra. Likewise, th e purpose of the Kalacakratantra's presentation of the individual' s psycho-physiology in the "Chapte r on the Individual " becomes clear only when examined i n light o f the tantric yogi c practices described in the third , fourth , and fifth chapters. Therefore , in this book th e topic s of the inne r Kdlacakratantra ar e dealt with i n their relation ship to the large r context o f the Kalacakratantra's theor y and practice . In accordance wit h the Kalacakratantra's theory of nonduality, this book analyzes the Kalacakr a tradition's view of the individua l in terms of the individua l as cosmos, society, gnosis, an d th e pat h o f spiritual transformation. Fo r this reason, th e mai n chapters of this book ar e entitled th e "Gnosti c Body, " the "Cosmi c Body, " the "So cial Body," and th e "Transformativ e Body." Santa Barbara, California V August 1999

. A. W .

Acknowledgments

I

owe a great debt o f gratitude t o th e Fetze r Institute, an d especiall y to th e forme r director o f the researc h program there, Professor Arthur Zajonc, for its generous financial support , which enable d m e to continue th e researc h an d writing that I initially started durin g my graduate studies at the Universit y of California i n Berkeley. My forme r professors and distinguishe d scholar s i n th e Departmen t o f South an d Southeast Asian Studies and in the Department of East Asian Languages an d Liter ature at the Universit y of California, Berkeley , prepared me for this work and facili tated my initial researc h an d writing of this book. I am very grateful t o Ms. Cynthi a Reed, editor at Oxford University Press , who believed i n me and in this project long before i t was finished. I also wish to express my appreciation t o the editor s at Oxford University Press , especiall y t o Mr . Robert Milk s and Mr . Theodore Calderara , fo r their meticulou s work and graciousness. I am also greatly indebted t o Mr . Calvin Smith for his patience an d enduranc e in the painstakin g tas k of proofreading the manuscrip t an d correcting th e awkward expressions to which I as a nonnative English speaker am prone. I thank him fo r all the hours tha t he spent in making an d adjusting th e graphic s i n the book. My sincere gratitude also goes to Mr . Brian Bailey for his professional help i n creating th e graphics for chapter 7 on th e "Cosmi c Body " and t o Mr . David Reigl e for his gen erosity in providing me with copie s of the Sanskri t manuscripts . I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my husband, Alan Wallace, for reading th e manuscrip t an d offerin g hi s usefu l comments , fo r supporting m e i n my work, and bringing light t o the darknes s of my ruminations. Finally , I wish to thank my daughter, Sarah, fo r her endurin g love that inspires all my worthy endeavors .

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Contents

Introduction 3 1 Th 2A

e Broade r Theoretical Framewor k of the Kalacakratantra

6

History of the sod-anga-jiog a of the Kalacakratantra and It s Relation to Other Religious Traditions of India 2 5

3 Th

e Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 3

4 Th

e Concep t of Science i n the Kalacakra Tradition 4

5 Th

e Cosmi c Body 5

6

6 Th

e Socia l Body 10

9

7 Th

e Gnosti c Bod y 14

8 Th

e Transformativ e Body 18

Conclusion 21 Notes 21

7

Bibliography 24 Index 26

5

1

5

3 2

1 3

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

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Introduction

nr-ihe Kalacakratantra is an early eleventh-century esoteri c treatise belonging to the 1 clas s of unexcelled yoga-tantras (anuttara-yoga'tantra). T o the best of our knowledge, it was the las t anuttara-yoga-tantra to appear in India. According to the Kalacakra tradition, the extant version of the Kdlacakratantra is an abridged version o f the large r original tantra, called th e Paramadibuddha, tha t was taugh t b y the Buddh a Sakyamuni t o Sucandra , th e kin g of Sambhala an d a n emanation o f Vajrapani, i n the Dhanyakatak a stupa, a notable cente r of Mahayana in th e vicinit y of the present-da y village of AmaravatI in Andhra Pradesh. Upon receiving instruction o n the Paramadibuddhatantra an d returning to Sambhala, King Sucandra wrote it down and propagated it throughout hi s kingdom. His six successors continued t o maintain th e inherite d tradition , an d th e eight h kin g of Sambhala, Manjusr T Yasas , compose d th e abridge d version o f the Paramadibuddhatantra, which i s handed dow n t o u s a s the Sovereig n Abridged Kdlacakratantra (Laghukdlacakratantrardja). I t i s traditionally taught tha t it is composed of 1,030 verses written in the sradghara meter. 1 However, various Sanskrit manuscript s and edition s of the Laghukdlacakratantra contain a somewhat larger number of verses, ranging from i ,037 to 1,04 7 verses. The ter m an "abridge d tantra" (laghu-tantra) ha s a specific meanin g in India n Buddhis t tantri c tradition . It s traditiona l interpretatio n i s give n i n Nadapada's (Naropa) Sekoddesatikd, whic h states that in every yoga, yogim, and other types of tantras, the concise , genera l explanations (uddesa) an d specific explanation s (nirdesa) mak e up a tantric discourse (tantra-samgift'), an d that discourse, which i s an exposition (uddesana) there , i s an entir e abridged tantra.2 The traditio n tells us that Manjusr T Yasas's successor Pundarika, who was an emanation o f Avalokitesvara, compose d a larg e commentary o n th e Kdlacakratantra, called the Stainles s Light (Vimalaprabhd), whic h became the mos t authoritative commentary on th e Kdlacakratantra an d served as the basi s for all subsequent commen tarial literatur e o f that literar y corpus. The plac e o f the Vimalaprabhd i n th e Kala cakra literar y corpu s i s o f grea t importance , fo r i n man y instances , withou t th e Vimalaprabhd, i t would be practically impossible to understand no t onl y the broader 3

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

implications o f the Kalacakratantra's crypti c verses and ofte n grammatically corrupt sentences bu t thei r basi c meanings . I t has been sai d that th e Kalacakratantra i s explicit with regar d t o the tantri c teachings that are often onl y implie d i n the other anuttara-yoga-tantras, bu t thi s explicitnes s i s actually far more characteristic o f th e Vimalaprabhd tha n of the Kalacakratantra itself . According t o Tibetan sources , the dcdrya Cilup a from Orissa , who lived i n th e second hal f of the tent h century, afte r readin g the Kalacakratantra i n the monaster y in Ratnagiri, undertook a journey to Sambhala i n order to receive oral teachings that would illuminate the text . Afte r his return to southern India , he initiall y had thre e students, one o f whom wa s the grea t pandita Pindo, who was originally from Bengal . The dcdrya Pind o becam e a teache r o f Kalacakrapad a the Senior , wh o wa s fro m northern Bengal (Varendra). After returning to eastern India, Kalacakrapada the Senior taught the Kalacakratantra to his disciples, th e most famous of whom was Kalacakrapada the Junior, who built the Kalacakra temple in Nalanda, believing that the propagation of the Kalacakratantra i n Magadha would facilitate its propagation i n all directions. I shall no t discus s here al l the variant s i n the account s give n b y the Tibetan Rwa and 'Bro traditions of the history of the Kalacakratantra in India, for these accounts have already been narrated in other readily available works by other Western scholars and in English translations of the Tibeta n sources. 3 One o f the reference s that seem s significant for establishing the perio d o f th e propagation o f the Kalacakratantra i n Indi a i s the referenc e i n th e Kalacakratantra (Ch. 2, v. 27) an d th e Vimalaprabhd t o th e en d o f the sexagenar y cycle that come s 403 years after the HijrT , or Islamic era (mlecchendra-varsa), o f 622 CE. Likewise, th e same texts asser t that the hundre d an d eighty-second yea r after th e Hijr T er a is the period o f th e elevent h Kalkl , th e kin g Aja , whic h i s corroborated b y th e Kolacakrdnusdriganita^ whic h state s furthe r tha t afte r th e tim e o f Kalki Aja , 22 1 years passed till the end of the sexagenary cycle. Thus, addin g 221 years to 182 , one arrives at the numbe r of 403 years after th e Hijr T era. In light of this, I agree with G. Orofin o in determinin g th e yea r to b e 102 6 CE , relying on th e India n syste m of reckonin g years, i n which 62 3 C E is included i n th e spa n o f 403 years. 5 This i s in contras t t o G. Gronbol d an d D . Schuh , wh o assume d without substantia l evidenc e tha t th e Kalacakra traditio n incorrectl y calculate d th e Hijr T er a a s beginning a t 64 2 C E and thus determined the yea r to be 102 7 CE by adding th e spa n of 403 years to the yea r of 624 CE.6

According t o the Vimalaprabhd commentary , the Paramddibuddhatantra wa s composed of twelve thousand verses , written in the anustubh meter.7 However, we cannot determin e now with certainty whether th e Paramddibuddhatantra eve r existed as a single text o r as a corpus of mutually related writings, since we know fro m th e Vi malaprabha8 tha t th e Sekoddesa, whic h circulate d a s an independen t tex t i n early eleventh-century India , ha s traditionall y bee n considere d t o b e a par t o f th e Paramddibuddhatantra. Nearly two hundred and ten verses from the Adibuddhatantra are cited throughou t th e fiv e chapter s o f the Vimalaprabha; an d som e verses attributed t o the Pararnddibuddhatantra ar e also scattered in other writings related to the Kalacakr a literary corpus, such as the Sekoddesatippam9 an d the Paramdrthasamgraha,10 which cites the vers e from th e Paramddibuddhatantra tha t coincide s wit h th e opening vers e of the Ddkinwajrapaniaratantra.1^ Likewise , some citations fro m the Paramddibuddhatantra ar e

Introduction 5

found i n the commentaria l literature on the Hevajmtantra, specifically—i n th e Hevajrapirddrthatikd12 an d i n the Vajrapadasdrasamgrahapanjikd.13' In additio n to these , ther e ar e other piece s of textual evidenc e foun d i n th e Abridged Kdlacakratantra an d i n the Vimalaprabhd, suc h as the repeate d references to the Hevajratantra, th e Guhyasamdjatantra, th e Cakrasanwaratantra, an d t o th e Manjusrindmasamgiti, whic h th e Vimalaprabhd identifie s a s the sixteent h chapte r of the Mdydjdlatantra. Thes e sugges t tha t th e Paramddibuddhatantra mus t have bee n composed afte r these tantric traditions o f the seventh and eighth centuries wer e already well established. The work s of the eminen t Indian Kdlacakratantra adepts, such as those of Darika, Anupamaraksita, an d Sadhuputra , which ar e preserved in th e differen t version s of the Tibetan Bsta n 'gyur, can be dated to the beginning of the elevent h century . The writings o f the Bengal i author Abhayakaragupta , wh o wa s a contemporar y o f th e Bengali king Ramapala, and the work s of RavisrTjnana from KasmTr , can be traced to the lat e eleventh and earl y twelfth centuries. Likewise, the writing s of the Bengal i author Vibhuticandr a who studied in Magadha, and the work s of the KasmT r autho r Sakyasnbhadra can be dated to the secon d half of the twelft h and the beginnin g of the thirteenth centuries . Some Tibetan authors indicate that although writing on the Kdlacakratantra migh t have ceased i n India with the Turkis h invasions of Bihar and Bengal a t the beginnin g of the thirteent h century , the Kalacakr a tradition di d not completely di e i n Indi a until th e fifteent h century. 14 I n hi s Histor y of Indian Buddhism,15 Taranath a mention s on e o f the las t o f the India n Buddhis t panditas, Va naratna, fro m eastern Bengal, who in 142 6 was the las t Indian pandita to reach Tibet through Nepal . Having reached Tibet, h e taugh t an d cotranslated severa l works of the Kalacakra corpus from Sanskri t int o Tibetan. According t o the Blue Annals, the best of the initiation s and precepts of the Kdlacakratantra came at that time from Vanaratna.16 Thus, i t seems that the doctrin e an d practice of the Kdlacakratantra were promulgated i n India fo r almost five centuries. It is difficult t o determine with certainty the parts of India in which the first authors o f the Kalacakr a traditio n resided . The Tibeta n accounts , however , indicat e that even thoug h th e Kalacakra tradition initiall y may have started i n south India, the Kdlacakratantra's spher e of influence in India wa s confined to Bengal, Magadha (Bihar), and KasmTr , wherefro m i t was transmitted to Nepal, Tibet, an d eventually to Mongolia, where Kalacakra was instituted as the protectiv e deity of the Mongo l nation.

I

The Broade r Theoretical Framework o f th e Kalacakratantra

T

he Kalacakratantra belongs t o th e clas s of the unexcelle d yoga-tantras (anuttarayoga-tantra); and together with its most authoritative Indian commentary, the Vimalaprabha, i t stands as the mos t comprehensiv e an d informativ e tantra of its class. According t o the Kalacakr a tradition itself , th e Kalacakratantra i s the mos t explici t tantra, which impart s it s teachin g b y revealing th e actua l meanings ; wherea s th e other anuttara-yoga-tantras, which are regarded a s secret, or concealed, tantras, con vey their meaning s in an implicit manner . Accordingly, the Vimalaprabha assert s that in every king of tantras (ra/a-tantra)— specifically, i n the metho d tantra s such as the Gu/vyasamojatantra, and in the wisdom tantras suc h a s the Calcrasanwaratantra—th e Buddh a taugh t th e blissfu l stat e tha t arises from sexua l union, bu t concealed it out of his great compassion fo r the sak e of the spiritual maturation o f simple-minded people. For those who seek understandin g of other anuttara-yoga'tantras, th e Kalacakratantr a i s of inestimabl e valu e for i t ex plains the meaning s in detail. 1 In the instance s i n which othe r system s of the anwt tara-^oga-tantras offer onl y scant information , the Kalacakratantra syste m explicates in detail. For example, th e Vimalaprabha point s out that unlike the other tantras of its class, which onl y suggest that the fourth initiation i s like the third, the Kalacakra tradition reveal s in full it s content and implications. 2 The Kalacakr a tradition als o gives the mos t elaborate presentation o f the human psycho-physiology and the individual's natural and social environments an d their relevanc e t o tantric practices . With regard to th e Kdlacakratantra's explici t and elaborat e manne r o f presenting it s topics, th e Vimalaprabha, jus t lik e the Sekoddesa, assert s that i n th e Adibuddhatantra, th e Buddh a illuminate d th e vajra-word b y means o f general exposition s (uddesa), detaile d description s (nirdesa), an d repeate d reference s (fn-atiniraesa). 3 In light of its explicitness, th e Kalacakratantra claim s superiority over al l other tantras i n the following manner: In every king of tantras, the Vajr i conceale d th e vajra-word, an d i n the Adibuddha, he taught it explicitly and in full for the sake of the liberation of living beings. Therefore, Sucandra, the splendi d Adibuddhatantra, a discourse of the suprem e lord of Ji-

6

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 7 nas, is the higher , mor e comprehensiv e an d complete tantra than the mundane and supramundane [tantras]. 4

According t o the Vimalaprabha commentar y o n thi s verse, the Buddh a Sakyamuni, wh o abide s in th e vajra o f indivisible gnosis, the inconceivabl e mind-rajra , concealed th e supreme , imperishable bliss (paramaksara-sukha) i n thos e yoginT an d yoga tantras, because otherwise the conceite d Buddhis t panditas i n th e lan d o f th e Aryas, who did not wish to listen to the spiritual mentor (guru), woul d read the book and claim that they understood the vfljra-word. Thus, they would not receive the initiation an d would go to hell, due to their self-graspin g (ahani'kdra). I n contrast, h e taught it explicitly in the Adibuddhatantra i n order to mature those who were born i n the lan d of Sambhala and whose minds were free o f self-grasping. On thes e grounds, the Vimalaprabha affirm s tha t the Adibuddhatantra, whic h i s the discours e of the in nate Sahajakaya , i s more comprehensive and higher than the kriyd an d yoga tantras. This is one wa y in which th e Kalacakratantra system substantiates its self-designation a s unexcelled (anuttara). Likewise , interpreting yoga as the union , or absorption, of bliss and emptiness, or of method an d wisdom, this tantric tradition presents itself a s a nondual (advaya) yoga'tantra, which i s ultimately neither a wisdom tantra nor a method tantra. It views its nonduality of wisdom and metho d a s an expression of nondual gnosis , without which Buddhahoo d coul d never occur. 5 The Kalacakr a tradition als o affirms it s unexcelled status by claiming that th e Adibuddhatantra doe s not com e from a succession of transmissions of spiritual mentors, nor i s it established by means of the spiritual mentor's authority (djnd).6 Th e Vimalaprabha state s tha t on e canno t achiev e omniscien t Buddhahoo d an d lordshi p over the thre e worlds by the mer e blessing and authority of a spiritual mentor.7 Th e Adibuddhatantra assert s the sam e in this manner : The perishabl e mind , whic h i s stained b y attachment and other mental afflictions, is the caus e o f transmigratory existence . I t i s pure due t o it s separation fro m thes e [impurities]. It i s pure and stainles s b y nature . None [o f the impurities ] can b e taken out no r throw n int o [th e mind ] b y the au thority of a spiritual mentor. The sublime , imperishable, pure reality (tattva) canno t be given or taken away. A spiritua l mentor i s neither a giver nor a remover o f the pur e reality. In the cas e of those who are devoid of the accumulation o f merit, the omniscient lor d himself [cannot giv e or remove the pure reality]. 8

In ligh t of this, th e Vimalaprabha disparage s the Saiv a tantric tradition , whic h claims tha t it s teachin g regardin g the suprem e Isvar a wh o bring s forth pleasur e (bhukti) an d liberatio n (mukti) i s handed dow n b y a successio n o f teacher s an d through the blessin g of the spiritua l mentor. I t warns against the danger s of following teachings tha t come in this way by deprecating the Saiva tantric teachers on the basis that they have trifling knowledge bu t have become th e spiritual mentors of the childish due t o showing a few limited siddhis. The y requir e trust from thei r deluded followers, who , thinking tha t their spiritual mentor i s liberated, do everything that he commands. They kill, speak falsehood, steal, drink liquor, and so on. In this way,

8

The Inner Kalacakratantra

they perform th e deeds of Maras and do not obtai n the bodil y siddhis b y the blessing and authority of the suprem e Isvara. At death , their bodies are either incinerated by fire or eaten by dogs and birds, and their consciousness does not becom e Siva. 9 According t o the Vimalaprabha, on e cannot teac h th e tantra without knowing first the lis t of the principle s of the Buddh a Dharma (dharma'samgraha) fo r one wh o does no t kno w i t teache s th e evi l path . On e become s a knowe r o f th e dharmasamgraha and a teacher of the three Vehicles—the Vehicles of the Sravakas, Pratyekabuddhas, an d Samyaksambuddhas—onl y b y accomplishing thes e two : (i ) gnosi s (inarm), whic h i s the apprehendin g min d (grdhaka-citta) an d wisdo m (prajna), an d (2) spac e (dkdsa), o r the empt y form (sunya-bimba), whic h is the apprehende d object (grahya) an d metho d (updya).10 The Vimalaprabha entreats those who desire to enter the Vajrayana to completely investigate a potential tantric teacher, and it points to the danger of practicing a distorted Dharm a and going to hell due to honoring a spiritual mentor who lacks th e necessary qualifications.11 The Kalacakratantra provides a list of the qualification s of a vajracarya, wh o must have tantri c pledge s (samaya). Thes e qualifications, according to the Vimalaprabha, ar e of two kinds—external and internal—and must be understood in terms of their definitive and provisional meanings. Likewise, the tantri c teacher i s expected to practice meditatio n on reality, and tha t meditation i s also of two kinds—one which accomplishe s mundane siddhis an d the other whic h accom plishes full an d perfect awakening (samyaksambodhi). H e mus t be free o f greed, no t grasping onto his sons, wife, his own body, or anything else. He must be devoid of all mental affliction s (klesa). H e i s to be patient, no t havin g an y expectations, an d h e must follow the pat h of full an d perfect awakening. The Kalacakratantra asserts that a spiritual mentor wh o has these qualification s is able to provide his disciples with the pat h an d t o remov e their fea r o f death, becaus e a s a "celibate" (brahmacarin), meaning, as one wh o has attained supreme, imperishable bliss (paramdksara-sukha), he is like a t>ajra-rod to the four classes of Maras.12 In contrast to the qualified tantric teacher, a corrupt spiritual mentor is said to be full of conceit, which is of many kinds: conceit in one's own learning, in one's own wealth, seeing others as beneath oneself , and so on. Hi s absence of humility is seen as an indication of his lack of compassion. Likewise, one i s advised to shun a tantric teache r who is overcome by anger, who is devoid of tantric pledges , and who publicly practices the secre t pledges that disgust the world. 13 Similarly, avajracarya wh o is greedy and attached to mundane pleasures, or who i s an uneducated fool , ignoran t o f the tru e path an d no t initiate d int o th e tantra, or who i s fond of liquor or sex, is to b e avoided , for he lead s his disciple s to hell.14 In light of this, the Vimalaprabha point s out that the well-known saying that one should look for the acarya's goo d qualities and never for his faults has been misunderstood in the past and will be in the futur e b y foolish people who have los t th e true path. I t suggests that sayings like this should be understood in terms of both ul timate and conventional truths , that is to say, in terms of their definitive and provisional meanings. In terms of the ultimate truth, an acdrya refers to the Buddha Sakyamuni, t o "th e omnipresen t an d omniscien t vajracarya, wh o practice s (acarati ) th e vajra-word i n order t o benefit sentient being s within the thre e realms. " Thus, th e aforementioned sayin g is to b e understood literall y only when examine d fro m thi s point o f view. Supporting th e Kalacakratantra^ positio n that before honoring a spir-

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 9

itual mentor one should investigate his faults and his good qualities, the Vimalaprabha cites the following verses from th e Gurupancasika, which support the Kalacakr a tradition's stan d on this issue. An intelligen t discipl e shoul d no t mak e hi m wh o i s devoid o f compassion, wh o is angry, cruel, stubborn, unrestrained , an d self-aggrandizing his spiritual mentor. [A qualified spiritual mentor ] i s steadfast, disciplined , intelligent , patient , sincere , honest, versed i n the tantri c practices o f mantras, compassionate, a knower o f th e sastras, Fully acquainted wit h the te n principles, 15 a knower o f the ar t of drawing mardalas, an dcarya wh o explains mantras, who is propitious and has subdued his senses.16

With regard to th e hierarch y of the vajracaryas, th e Kalacakr a tradition distinguishes the vajracarya wh o is an ordained monk as the highes t type of a vajracarya.11 It state s that ordaine d monks shoul d only mentall y revere the vajracarya wh o i s a householder i n order that they may be free of sloth and pride; but when there i s a t>ajra-holder who is an ordained monk , the n neither the monk s no r th e kin g shoul d honor a spiritual mentor who is a householder. The reaso n for this injunction is based on th e associatio n of the whit e garment, which i s generally worn by householders, with the Barbarian Dharma. The Vimalaprabha explicitl y states that the Buddhist system (bauddha'darsana) i s never associated with the whit e robe. It asserts that in th e land o f ManjusrI, whe n a monk o r a wandering ascetic is expelled fro m a Buddhist monastery due to committing a sin of immediate retribution, he i s allowed to leave the monastery only after he gives back his red robe and puts on a white robe. In light of this, th e autho r o f the Vimalaprabha abhor s th e possibilit y of a householder wh o wears a white robe being a spiritual mentor t o thos e wh o wear the re d robe or of a householder dwelling in a Buddhist monastery. He sees it as an insult to the Buddhist monastic community and as a great defect i n Buddhists' judgment.18 Likewise, it asserts that among men who are worthy of veneration, the vajracarya who is endowed with extrasensory perceptions (abhijna) an d has attained at least the first bodhisattva-bhumi is to be venerated for his knowledge. Such a man, be he an ordained mon k o r a householder, i s said to be equal to te n respectabl e monks. In th e absence of this kind of vajracarya, a monk who is an elder should be venerated for his asceticism by the monks whose ordination was later than his; and he should be venerated by tantric householders, since his initiation was prior to theirs. The third kind of venerable man i s said to be a learned partdita who can illuminat e the doctrin e an d tame the Maras who propound contrary doctrines.19 In contrast, a householder who is devoid of extrasensory perception i s not considere d worthy of veneration.20 Statements suc h a s these revea l the stron g monastic orientation o f the Kalacakr a tradition. With regar d to tantri c disciples , the Kalacakr a tradition distinguishe s thre e kinds of tantric trainees—the superior, the middling , and the inferior . The superior disciple is one who has his mind set on the dee p and profound Dharma that consists of wisdom and compassion, who delights in the te n virtues and has not violate d th e tantric precepts , who i s free o f attachment, wh o does not car e abou t th e mundan e

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

siddhis but desires a sadhana on the mahdmudr&'Siddhi, an d who does not associat e with evil people such as acdryas wh o are greedy householders and ascetic s who live off the temples and monasteries. Such a disciple is considered t o be qualified t o receive the first seven and the othe r fou r highe r initiations in order to meditate o n th e path of emptiness. The middlin g disciple is one who is endowed with mediocre qualities and who seeks a sadhana on th e mundan e siddhis, an d h e i s qualified t o receive only th e first seven initiations i n order to meditate on the mandala, mantras, mudras, and th e like. Lastly, the discipl e of inferior qualities who respects the spiritua l mentor i s said to be qualified to be a lay practitioner, and he may receive the five Buddhist precepts but not the initiations. 21 In ligh t o f this, th e Kalacakratantra classifie s th e Buddhis t community a t large into two groups—Sravakas and Anuttaras—each consisting of four types of Buddhist practitioners. The fou r categorie s of Sravakas are the Buddhis t nuns (bhiksum) an d monks (bhiksu) an d th e grea t female (mahopasikd) an d mal e (mahopasaka) la y disciples. The grou p of Anuttaras include s th e ;yoginJ s an d yogis wh o deligh t i n innat e bliss—that is to say, those who have receive d the highe r initiation s an d who practice the stage of completion—and the female (upasikd) an d male (updsaka) la y tantric practitioners, who have received the first seven initiations and who practice the stage of generation.22 The Kalacakratantra asserts the superio r quality of the Anuttara s on the groun d that there i s no monk or celibate who can equal one who has taken th e tantric vow s and precepts and wh o i s self-empowered b y means of mantras.23 The theoretica l principle s of the Kalacakratantra ar e imbedded in the concep tual context o f Vajrayana a s a whole. Therefore, i n order to understand the concep tual framework of the Kalacakra tradition in India, one needs to examine its own interpretation of Vajrayana. According to the Kalacakra tradition's explanation of the term Vajrayana, th e wor d vajra signifie s liberation (moksa), o r the indivisibl e omniscience that cannot b e destroyed by conceptualization;24 and th e wor d yana is understood a s a vehicle tha t i s of a dual nature. I t i s the mean s by which th e tantri c adept advance s toward liberation an d the ai m toward which the tantri c adep t progresses.25 The Vimalaprabhd als o identifies Vajrayana as Samyaksambuddhayana (the "Vehicle of a Fully Awakened One"), since it cannot b e damaged by the vehicle s of heterodox group s (tirthika), Sravakas , or Pratyekabuddhas. 26 The Kalacakr a traditio n als o interpret s Vajrayan a a s th e syste m o f mantras (mantra-naya) an d th e syste m o f perfection s (paramita-naya).21 A s th e syste m of mantras, it characterize s itself as the syste m that include s ideas pertaining to both mundane (laukika) an d supramundane (lokottara) truths . Teachings pertaining to the mundane trut h ar e said to b e discusse d from th e conventiona l point o f view, an d teachings pertaining to the supramundane truth are said to be discussed from the ultimate point of view. Moreover, the idea s that are taught from th e mundane, or conventional, poin t o f view are said to have a provisional meaning (neyartha); an d th e ideas that are taught fro m th e ultimat e point o f view are said to have th e definitiv e meaning (mtartha.). Likewise , the idea s that ar e discusse d from th e conventiona l point o f view ar e regarded as ideations (kalpand) o f one's ow n mind , which lea d t o the attainment o f mundane siddhis. They are said to be taught for mediocre Vajrayana students who seek nothing more than the accomplishment of mundane siddhis.28 The ideas that ar e imparted from th e ultimate point o f view are considered as clear man-

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kdlacakratantra

11

ifestations, or reflections (pratibhdsa), o f one's own mind, which ar e not o f the natur e of ideations. As such they are believed to lead to the achievemen t o f the supramundane siddhi, calle d th e mahdmudrd-siddhi, o r the attainmen t o f supreme an d imper ishable gnosis (paramaksara-jnana'siddhi); an d the y ar e said to be taught fo r superior Vajrayana students , who aspire to spiritual awakening. Likewise, the Vimalaprabhd view s Vajrayana as a unified syste m that consists of both the caus e and the result . Thus, the syste m of mantras is said to refer to compassion (kanma) an d is characterized as the result. 29 In this tantric system, as in the related systems of the anuttara-yoga-tantras, in addition to the standard Mahayana practices o f developing compassion , th e cultivatio n o f compassion als o entails semina l nonemission. I n thi s regard, compassion i s here als o referred t o a s the gnosi s of sublime bliss (mahd'Sukha-jfidna). Th e syste m of perfections, o n th e othe r hand , refer s to th e wisdo m (prajnd) tha t cognize s the emptines s (sunyatd) o f inherent existence . This wisdom is viewed as the caus e of the aforementione d result . Although th e Kalacakr a traditio n acknowledge s th e Madhyamik a vie w of emptiness as its primary theoretical foundation , i t has its own unique interpretatio n of emptiness, not onl y as a mere negation o f inherent existence (svabhdva), bu t also as the absenc e o f material constituents o f the individual' s body and mind . Hence , this emptiness , which i s also called th e "aspec t o f emptiness" (sunyatdkdra), o r th e "form o f emptiness" (sunyatd-bimba), i s a form tha t i s empty of both inheren t exis tence and physical particles. It is a form that is endowed with all the sign s and symbols of the Buddha . That form o f emptiness, also known as the "empt y form," is also regarded a s th e "animat e emptiness" (ajada-sunyata). Du e t o bein g animate , thi s emptiness is the cause of supreme and immutable bliss (paramdcala-sukha). Th e non duality of the caus e and effec t i s the essentia l teachin g o f this tantra, From that uniqu e view of emptiness stem the Kdlacakratantra's uniqu e goal and path to that goal. The Kdlacakratantra's mos t significant goal is the transformatio n of one's own gross physical bod y into a luminous form devoid o f both gross matter an d the subtl e body of pranas. The transformatio n of one's ow n mind int o the enlight ened min d of immutable bliss occurs in direct dependence upon that material transformation. The actualizatio n of that transformation is believed to be perfect and ful l Buddhahood i n th e for m o f Kalacakra, the Suprem e Primordia l Buddha (paramadibuddha), wh o is the omniscient , innat e Lor d of the Jinas, 30 the tru e nature o f one's own mind and body. Thus, accordin g to this tantric system , the supreme Adibuddha refers not onl y to the Buddha Sakyamuni, who is said to be the first to attain perfect awakening by means of the supreme , imperishable bliss,31 but also to the innat e na ture of the min d of every sentient being . This points to another uniqu e feature of the Kdlacakratantra's theory , namely, the assertion that all sentient beings are Buddhas, which will be discussed in greater detail i n chapter 7 on th e "Gnosti c Body". The Kalacakratantra's vie w of the ultimat e nature o f sentient being s and thei r environmen t a s blissful i s reflected in th e Kolacakratantra's explicit usage of sexual tantric practices on the spiritua l path. The gen eration of sexual bliss without emission of regenerative fluids is regarded in this tantra as the mos t direct method o f generating the mental blis s that refines the min d by diminishing conceptualization s an d thu s make s it fit for the realizatio n of the empt y nature of phenomena. On e who practices the generation of sexual bliss without emis-

12

The Inner Kalacakratantra

sion, whic h i s referred to a s sublime, imperishable bliss, i s considered t o b e lik e a young virgin . Such blis s is believed t o empowe r one' s mind , jus t a s the min d o f a young virgin, who has not experienced sexual bliss with emission, can be empowered by deitie s an d mantras tha t enabl e he r t o se e appearances i n a prognostic mirror . Thus, it is thought tha t the empowerment of the tantric adept' s mind , which enable s him to perceive the thre e worlds as mere appearances i n space, does not com e fro m some external sourc e such as the blessin g or permission of a spiritual mentor, just as a young virgin's ability to see appearances i n a prognostic mirror does not com e fro m the blessin g or permission of a spiritual mentor. To those adherent s o f the Brahmani c tradition wh o claim that man y nonceli bates wh o d o no t practic e sexua l blis s wit h nonemissio n demonstrat e isolator y knowledge (kaivalya-jnana) an d predict the future , th e Kalacakr a tradition respond s that their isolatory knowledge is nothing but a branch of astrology, which i s common to all people an d which enable s on e t o predict the futur e event s b y means of calculations.32 Likewise, i t i s believed i n thi s tantric tradition tha t th e five extrasensory per ceptions (abhijna) canno t arise without the practice of seminal nonemission. I t is said that those Bodhisattvas who have the five extrasensory perception s despite th e fact that they occasionall y practice d sexua l bliss with seminal emission, shoul d b e con sidered celibate, because their semina l emission i s an intentiona l emission , charac terized by the motivation t o reenter transmigrator y existence fo r the sake of helping others. According t o the Vimalaprabha, there are two types of seminal emission—one that is due to the powe r of wholesome an d unwholesome karma, and one that is due to the powe r of controlling th e mind . O f these two types of emission, the first one , which i s characteristic o f ordinar y huma n beings , i s for th e sak e o f wandering i n transmigratory existence, an d the othe r one, whic h i s characteristic of Bodhisattvas, is for the sak e of showing the pat h t o those wh o are driven by karma in the cycl e of transmigration.33

The Classificatio n of the Families in the Kalacakr a Tradition The Kalacakr a tradition, lik e the other tantric tradition s o f the anuttara-yoga class, categorizes th e famil y o f it s principa l deit y int o three , four , five , an d si x familie s (kula). Th e Kalacakr a tradition's classificatio n and interpretatio n o f the Kalacakr a family can be summarized in the followin g manner . In terms of the individual , the classificatio n int o three familie s correspond s t o the classificatio n of the body , speech, an d mind, or the left , right , and central nadirs; and in terms of the universe , the thre e familie s are the thre e realms—the realms of desire, form , an d formlessness . With regard t o ultimat e reality , however, th e thre e families are the thre e bodies of the Buddha—th e Nirmanakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Dharmakaya.34 In terms of the individual, the classification into four families corresponds to th e classification of uterine blood, semen, mind, and gnosis, or to the classification of the body, speech, mind, and gnosis, which accords with the classification of the four drops (bindu) an d with the fou r states of the mind—namely , waking, dreaming, deep sleep, and the fourth state. In terms of the universe, the four families are the familie s of the

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 1 3

sun, moon, Rahu, and Agni (Ketu) , and i n terms of society, they are the fou r castes . With regard to ultimate reality, the four families are the four bodies of the Buddha — the aforementioned thre e bodies and the Jnanakaya. With regard to the individual , the five families are the five psycho-physical aggregates (skandha), an d in terms of society, they are the four castes and the outcastes . With regard to ultimate reality, they are the five types of the Buddha' s gnosis manifesting as the five Buddhas—Aksobhya, Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi.35 In terms of the individual, the six families are the five psycho-physical aggregates and their emptiness ; and i n terms of society, they ar e the fou r caste s and the classes of Dombas and Candalas. With regard to ultimate reality, the si x families are the five aforementioned Buddha s and the Svabhavikakaya. 36

The Madhyamik a Critique o f Other Philosophical System s in the Kalacakratantra Although i t has man y unique features , as will be demonstrate d i n th e subsequen t chapters o f this book, th e Kalacakr a traditio n share s some of its fundamental idea s with other Buddhist systems. The Kalacakratantra summarizes its fundamental philosophical views in this single verse: Identitylessness, th e maturatio n o f karma, the thre e realms , th e si x states o f existence, the originatio n du e to the twelve-limbe d dependence, the Fou r Truths, th e eighteen unique qualitie s o f the Buddha , th e five psycho-physical aggregates , th e three bodies and the Sahajakaya, and animate emptiness . Th e [system ] in which these [tenets] are taught i s the clea r an d definit e instruction o f the Vajn. 37

Positioning itsel f i n th e above-mentione d philosophica l views , it criticizes all other philosophica l systems , including th e Buddhis t schools othe r tha n Madhayamaka. Althoug h th e Kalacakr a tradition' s refutatio n o f th e non-Buddhis t philo sophical system s is based o n th e standar d Madhyamik a arguments, at time s i t use s some new and interestin g examples in its logical analysis of other systems. It regards its critique of certain tenet s of other philosophical system s as a means of leading individuals of different menta l dispositions to some understanding of emptiness, which would be the foundatio n of their attainment o f mundane siddhis. The followin g brief summary of the Kalacakr a tradition's rebuttal o f the dogma s that in one wa y or another contradict th e view of the absence of inherent existence best demonstrates th e degree to whic h th e Kalacakr a tradition follow s th e Madhyamik a mode o f investigation. The Kalacakratantra critique s Visnuis m fo r it s vie w of th e Ved a a s being self existent, eternal, and similar to space. It refutes the notion of the Veda as self-existent and eternal o n the basi s that the wor d "Veda" signifies a referent that is produced by the activit y of the throat , palate, and the like . It further argues that the Ved a is also not identica l wit h the referent , since a word and its referent cannot be identical. If there were such an identity, then when one utters the word "fire," it would burn one's mouth. Likewise, it repudiates the notio n that the Ved a is similar to spac e on th e grounds that it is local i n usage and recited b y the mouth . I t also objects to the no -

14 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

tion that the Veda is a standard for learned and knowledgeable men, since low castes such as Sudras read and write.38 Furthermore, the Kalacakratantra critiques the Saiv a notion o f Isvara as the creator. The Kalacakratantr a argues that if one assert s Isvara as the creator , one implies that Isvara is one who experiences karma, since i t is never th e cas e that one person eats a salty cake and another person experiences the resul t and dies from thirst . A n agent is never established without karma. And i f he is not a n agent of karma, as Saivas claim, then i t implies that h e i s dependent o n anothe r agent , wh o i s his instigator. This, i t says, contradicts the ver y term "Isvara," which implies independence. Thus , according t o the Kalacakratantra, Isvara has never bee n the creator who bestows th e results of virtue and sin , disregarding the karma of living beings. Likewise, if the cre ator i s devoid of the atom s of the elements , then i n the absenc e o f matter, he does not creat e anything; and i f he i s devoid of the sense-objects , as Saivas say, then tha t creator has neither perceptua l nor inferential means of valid knowledge.39 In light of its view of dependent origination , the Kalacakratantra asserts that th e efficacy o f phenomena i s not cause d by anyone i n the tripl e world but that the origination of all phenomena take s place due to the conjunctio n o f things. Thus, due to the conjunctio n o f a moon-stone with moon-rays , wate r appear s fro m th e moon stone, an d due to the conjunctio n o f an iron-stic k with a lode-stone, th e iro n stick is set in motion, and so on. By means of these an d other examples, it tries to demonstrate that things never occu r by the wil l of the creator. 40 From the vantage point o f identitylessness, the Kalacakratantra critiques the no tion of the Sel f (atman) as being omnipresent and permanent. It argues that the Self cannot b e omnipresent , sinc e i t experience s suffering du e t o separatio n fro m rela tives. If it were omnipresent, it would exist as one an d would not suffe r du e to being separated fro m loved ones. Likewise, if the Self were omnipresent, then one sentient being would experience th e sufferin g o f all sentient beings . Moreover, it argues that one cannot say that there are many Selves, because that would imply that there is no omnipresence o f many Selves. It refutes th e notio n of the permanen t Self , pointin g to it s susceptibility to change, as in the cas e of falling i n love. 41 In light o f its refutation of the Self , the Kafocakratantr a assert s that there i s no one wh o depart s to liberation—ther e i s only a collection o f phenomena i n cessa tion—and yet there i s a departure to liberation. Likewise, there i s bondage for originated phenomena, but ther e i s no on e wh o is bound. Th e stat e o f the Buddh a is identical with existence an d nonexistence, an d it is without inherent existence , devoid o f conceptualizations and matter , an d fre e o f momentariness. Therefore, th e teachings of the Buddha , which are free of the demon s of conceptualizations, cannot be destroyed by the words of gods and nagas, which are accompanied b y demons, just like a wrestler who i s free o f demons cannot be killed by a wrestler who i s possessed by demons.42 The Kalacakratantra refutes the teaching s of Rahman, or the Dharm a of Tajikas, on the basis of their assertion tha t in this life th e individua l experience s th e resul t of actions that he performed earlier in this lifetime, an d that a person who dies experiences pleasure or suffering i n heaven or hell through another human form. It argues that if it is as the Tajika s teach, then one could not annihilat e one's own karma from on e birth t o another, an d consequently, on e could no t escap e transmigratory

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 1 5

existence o r ente r liberatio n eve n i n th e cours e o f a n immeasurabl e numbe r o f lives.43 It critique s th e doctrin e o f the Materialist s (Carvaka), whic h denie s th e existence of god and the maturatio n o f karma and claims that one experiences only th e amassment of atoms, arguin g that this Materialis t doctrin e destroy s the pat h of liberation fo r people. Th e Kalacakratantra argue s that if, just like the powe r of intoxicating drink , the witnessing mind arises due to configurations of the elements , the n trees would also have consciousness due to the agglomeratio n of the elements . Bu t if inanimate things lack the efficac y of living beings, the n the agglomeratio n o f the elements is inadequate fo r producing consciousness. 44 The Kalacakra tradition also repudiates the Jaina doctrine, specifically , the Jaina assertion of a permanent sou l (jfw) tha t has the siz e of the body , and the Jain a view of the permanenc e o f atoms. The Kalacakratantra argue s that if the sou l would have the siz e of the body , it would perish after the remova l of the arms and legs. Likewise, it argues that atoms are not permanent , sinc e they are liable to change, a s are gross and subtle bodies. The Vimalaprabha critique s the Jaina argument that the substance of the sou l is permanent, a s gold i s permanent, wherea s it s modes ar e impermanent , jus t as th e modes of gold such as earrings are impermanent. The Vimalaprabha reject s this argument as invalid, on the basis that if the substanc e an d its mode were identical, the n there would be no difference between the two; and if they were different, ther e could be no mode without the substance ; no r can one say that they ar e both identical and different, because of their mutual exclusion. Likewise, it refutes the Jaina notion that the thre e world s are permanent o n th e basi s that whatever i s made of atoms never remains permanent. I t also critiques the Jaina view that one soul acquires one body, such that plants an d grains are also living beings. It argue s against this view, stating that if a single soul is in a single body, then when one breaks the ste m of a sugar cane into pieces, there woul d not b e many pieces. But since there are many pieces, then the sou l must have entere d one of those pieces due to its karma. That does not stan d up t o logica l analysis, because a sprout arise s fro m eac h o f the piece s of sugar cane that are replanted in the earth.45 The Kalacakr a tradition also critiques the Vaibhasikas, Sautrantikas, an d Yogacarins a s simple-minded Buddhis t tirthikas who , graspin g onto their ow n dogmati c positions (paksa), gras p onto the dogmati c positions o f others and see the similarity or the contrariet y with this or that dogmatic position of others. The Kalacakratantra refutes th e Vaibhasikas' assertion of the reality of the perso n (pudgala) endowe d with a body at birth as the implicatio n of the inheren t existence of the pudgala. I t argues that the pudgala canno t be one's inheren t nature , because if the pudgala wer e of th e nature of cognition, then it would be impermanent, for the nature of cognition i s impermanent; and if the pudgala were of the natur e of noncognition, then it would be unaware of its happiness an d suffering . It critiques the Sautrantikas for asserting objects by means of conventional trut h and claims that for this reaso n the y conside r th e unknow n ultimat e trut h tha t ha s the Jnanakaya ("Gnosis-body") as nonexistent, lik e the so n of a barren woman. Explaining the basi s for the Kalacakratantra's critiqu e of Sautrantikas, th e Vimalaprabha cites the followin g verse from Aryadeva' s Jnanasarasamuccaya:

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Sautrantikas know this: mental factors (samskdras) ar e not inanimat e (jada), ther e is nothing that proceeds through the three times, and an unimpeded (apratigha) for m does not exist. 46 The Vimalaprabhd argues on the part of the Kalacakratantra that if the unimpeded form, tha t is , the Dharmakaya , does not exist , then the omniscien t on e would not exist either. I t asserts that nirvana is not th e sam e as the extinctio n of a lamp, that is to say, it is not th e sam e as the cessatio n o f all awareness. In the absenc e o f the fou r bodies, ther e woul d not b e Buddhahood wit h a localized body. Without the unim peded body , there woul d be no display s of the extraordinar y powers of all the form s of the Buddha . The Kalacakratantra refute s th e Yogacara' s assertion o f the inheren t realit y of consciousness and its classification of consciousness. I n light of this rejection, the Vimalaprabha ask s the following : If there is no for m of an externa l objec t othe r than consciousness, the n wh y does th e externa l for m o f visual consciousness a s the ap prehender manifes t itself as being of the nature of the apprehended ? It cannot be due to the power of the habitual propensities of spiritual ignorance, as the Yogacarins say, because spiritua l ignorance has the characteristic of the three realms, an d the three realms are mere consciousness. Thus , mer e consciousness i s of the natur e of spiritual ignorance, therefore , spiritual ignorance i s not th e disappearanc e o f consciousness ; but i f the thre e realm s are not mer e consciousness, then the Yogacarins' position has failed. Th e Vimalaprabha als o refute s th e Yogacara' s assertio n tha t self-knowin g awareness arises and ceases in an instant, resortin g to the standar d Madhyamika argument that the origination, cessation, an d duration of phenomena d o not occu r simultaneously, for if they were to exist in a single moment, the n due to the fac t that time i s a moment , birth , ol d age , an d deat h woul d be identical . Moreover , i f con sciousness were to aris e from a consciousness tha t has ceased, then it would be like the originatio n o f a flame from a flame that has ceased, and this makes no sense. But if another consciousness were to arise from a consciousness tha t has not ceased, then it would be lik e the originatio n o f a flame from a flame that has not ceased , whic h means that from originatio n to origination there woul d be a series of consciousness, like a series of flames. In this case, one cannot say that after th e cessatio n o f an earlier consciousness ther e i s an origination o f another consciousness , no r ca n on e say that there is an origination o f another consciousnes s fro m th e earlie r unceased con sciousness, nor fro m th e combinatio n o f the aforementione d tw o manners of origination, because of their mutual contradiction.47 However, the Kalacakratantra indicate s tha t the Madhyamika' s negation o f the inherent existenc e o f consciousness, whic h inspire d som e to sa y that the Buddha' s wisdom is not locate d anywhere , is a danger for those who , devoid of the self-aware gnosis of imperishable bliss, will grasp onto that emptiness and will thus fall into th e trap of a doctrinal view and attain nothing. 48 After refutin g th e precedin g tenet s o f th e India n system s of though t i n th e above-demonstrated ways , i n order t o assur e one o f the pur e motivation behin d its criticisms, the Kalacakratantra states that its assertion of the absenc e of inherent existence is free from mundane concerns an d intended t o be of service to others.49 Likewise, in order to establish one's confidence in the supremacy of the source of its teach-

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 1 7

ing and to bring one to final conversion, th e Kalacakratantra ends its critique of other philosophical system s with these word s of the Buddh a t o the king Sucandra : I a m Indra , th e spiritua l mento r o f thirty-thre e me n i n heaven , th e universa l monarch (cakravartin) o n the earth , the king of ndgas i n the underworld , revered by serpents. I am the highest , gnosis , the Buddha , th e lor d o f sages, the imperishable , supreme sovereign , th e yogi's vajra^yoga, th e Veda , self-awareness , an d th e purifie r (pavitra). O king, tak e refuge i n me with all your being.50

With regard to the criticism of one's own or other Buddhis t tantric systems, the Kalacakra tradition views this as the majo r cause of committing the sixt h of the four teen roo t downfall s (muldpatti), whic h i s specified i n th e Kalacakratantra (Ch . 3 , v. 102) an d th e Vimalaprabhd a s reviling th e siddhdntas o f th e syste m of perfections within th e mantra-system. The Vimalaprabhd indicate s that criticism of one's own or other Buddhist tantric systems is often an expression of one's own ignorance with regard t o th e relatio n betwee n th e subjec t an d predicat e i n Buddhis t tantras, and as such, it leads the faultfinde r t o hell.51

The Concep t of the Adibuddha in the Kalacakra Tantric System One o f the mos t important concept s i n the Kalacakr a system is that of the Adibuddha. Even though the concept of the Adibuddha is not unique to the Kalacakratantra, it is most emphasized and discussed in the Kalacakra literature. To the best of our knowledge, the earlies t reference to the Adibuddh a i s found in the Mahdydnasutrdlamkdra (Ch. 9 , v. 77), which refute s th e notio n of the Primordia l Buddha on th e ground s that there is no Buddhahood without the accumulations of metit (punya) an d knowledge (jndna). Late r references to the Adibuddha ar e found i n the Manjusrfnamasarngrt i (v. 100) , i n th e commentaria l literatur e o f th e Guhyasamdja corpus , an d i n th e yogim-tantras. The Kalacakr a tradition's interpretatio n o f the Adibuddh a i s primarily based on th e NamasamgTti' s exposition of Vajrasattva, wh o i s Vajradhara. According t o the Kalacakr a tradition, th e Adibuddh a i s called th e Primordia l Buddha because he was the first to obtain Buddhahoo d by means of the imperishabl e bliss characterized by perfect awakening i n a single moment.52 In connection with this interpretation , th e Vimalaprabhd assert s that according to the word s of the Buddha i n the Namosarngft i (v . 85), which praises Vajradhara as one wh o i s free o f mental obscurations, a person who is devoid of merit and knowledge does not i n any way become a Buddha. 53 Suc h a n interpretatio n doe s no t see m t o contradic t th e Mahaydndbhisamaydlamkdra's assertio n that ther e i s no Buddh a wh o ha s bee n en lightened sinc e beginningless time. On the other hand, the Vimalaprabhd interpret s the wor d ddi ("primordial") as meaning "without beginnin g or end," meaning, without th e originatio n an d cessation. 54 This interpretation o f the wor d ddi with regard to th e Buddh a i s reiterated b y Nadapada i n his Sekoddesatikd, whic h furthe r inter prets the Adibuddha's freedom from origination and cessation as omniscience.55 The Kalacakra tradition's interpretation o f the wor d is based on th e NarrMsamgTt! , v. 100, which begins with: "Without beginnin g or end, he is the Buddha, Adibuddha. . . ."56 This interpretation o f the wor d ddi appears to contradict th e aforementione d inter pretation o f the Primordial Buddha. However, analysis of the Kalacakra literature re-

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

veals that when th e Kalacakr a tradition speak s of the Adibuddh a i n the sens e o f a beginningless an d endles s Buddha , i t is referring to the innat e gnosi s that pervades the mind s of all sentient beings and stand s as the basi s of both samsara and nirvana. Whereas, whe n i t speaks of the Adibuddha a s the on e who first attained perfec t enlightenment by means of imperishable bliss, and when i t asserts the necessit y of acquiring merit and knowledge in order to attain perfect Buddhahood, i t is referring to the actual realization of one's own innate gnosis . Thus, one could say that in the Kalacakra tradition, Adibuddh a refer s t o th e ultimat e natur e o f one's own mind an d t o the on e who has realized the innat e nature o f one's ow n mind b y means of purificatory practices. The Kalacakratantra an d the ManjusrTnamasamgTt i The Kalacakr a tradition view s its essential topic , whic h i s the Jnanakaya , or Vajra sattva, a s indivisible fro m tha t of the NamasamgTti , which, accordin g t o the Vimaia prabhd, makes the Jnanakaya of Vajradhara evident. Th e Vimalaprabha remark s that in every king of tantras, the Buddh a described the vajra-word a s the imperishabl e bliss of yogis; an d i n them he designate d tha t wi/ra-wor d a s the Jnanakaya , which i s described b y th e NamasamgTti. 57 Accordingly , th e Kalacakratantra teaches tha t on e should meditat e ever y day on Kalacakra , the progenito r o f all the Buddhas , only after one "has take n apart," or investigated, this uajra-word. 58 The Vimalaprabha comment s tha t the pat h of purification that brings forth th e mahdmudrd'Siddhi wa s written explicitl y i n th e Paramddibuddhatantra onl y afte r th e Buddha mad e th e NamasamgTt i an authoritativ e scripture . Knowing that i n th e future sentient being s will be free o f doubts, th e Buddh a taugh t Vajrapan i the defini tive meaning o f all the tantric systems, in accordance wit h the NamasamgTti. In ligh t of this, it affirms that in order to know the NamasamgTti , one must know the Adibud' dhatantra. I f on e doe s no t kno w th e Namasamgiti, on e wil l b e ignoran t o f th e Jnanakaya of Vajradhara, and not knowing the Jnanakaya of Vajradhara, one will not know th e Mantrayana . Bein g ignorant o f the Mantrayana , on e will be devoid of the path of Vajradhara and remain i n transmigratory existence.59 In verses 12-13 , the Namasamgiti assert s its durability, claiming tha t th e Bud dhas o f the past , present , an d futur e hav e taugh t an d recite d th e Namasamgit i an d that innumerable Buddha s have praise d it. On th e basi s of these verses, the Vimalaprabhd affirms that it is due to Vajrapani requesting the Buddha to teach the NamosamgTti that all the Tathagatas taught th e Mantra Vehicle. 60 This statement ma y clarify just why it is that most Buddhis t tantri c tradition s mentio n Vajrapani as one who both requests th e teaching s an d compile s th e tantras suc h a s the Gufryasamoj a an d th e Adibuddha tantras. Similarly, according t o the Vimalaprabha, th e yoga that is the imperishabl e bliss, the sublim e goal (mahmtha) of the Kalacakratantra, has already been declare d i n th e NamasamgTti by fourteen verse s (28—36 ) i n praise of the mandala o f the vajra-dhatw . The Vimalaprabha remark s that th e full y awakene d one , wh o i s described b y those fourteen verses, is taught i n all the tantras, in accordance with the superior, middling, and inferio r dispositions of sentient beings. 61 In light of its view of the inseparability of the Kalacakratantra and the Namasamgiti,

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kdlacakratantra 1 9

throughout it s five chapters , th e Vimalaprabha altogethe r cite s sixty-five verse s from the Namasamgiti i n orde r t o explai n o r substantiat e th e Kalacakratantra' s views of Buddhahood an d the pat h of actualizing it. Thus, the Kalacakr a tradition's vie w of the omniscient Buddha , who stands at the extreme limit of transmigratory existenc e and i s superior to the Hind u god s such as Hari and Hara, who are born i n the real m of gods within cyclic existence, i s based on th e NamasamgTti's statemen t i n verse 54, which reads: Standing at the far limit of transmigratory existence, having his task accomplished , he rest s on th e shore . Havin g rejecte d isolator y knowledge, h e i s a cleaving sword of wisdom. 62

Likewise, the Kalacakratantra's interpretatio n o f the Jnanakaya as the fully awakened on e who i s imbued with nirvana without remainder (nirupadhi) an d transcend s the realit y o f consciousnes s (vijnana-oTiarrnata ) i s i n ful l accor d wit h tha t o f th e Namasamgfti (vs . 87, 99), according t o which, th e full y awakene d one, being free of all remainders , dwell s in th e pat h o f space , an d transcendin g th e realit y of con sciousness, is a spontaneous nondua l gnosis that i s free o f conceptualization . Furthermore, th e Kalacakratantra's interpretatio n o f enlightene d awarenes s as the mind that, though free of the habitual propensities of karma (karma-vasana), supports transmigrator y happiness an d sufferin g an d terminate s them , i s based on th e Namasamgzti's (v , 96) descriptio n o f the discriminatin g gnosis (pratyaveksaru-jnana) of the Buddh a as the min d that ends happiness an d suffering . Likewise , the Vimalaprabhd suggest s that th e Kalacakratantra' s interpretatio n o f the self-awarenes s tha t knows the natur e of all things has its basis in the Namasamgzti' s (v. 98) characterization of the Buddha' s gnosis as omniscient, fully awake , and wid e awake to itself. 63 The Kalacakra tradition also substantiates its exposition of Jnanakaya as devoid of form (riipa) o n th e basi s of the NamasamgTti' s (v. 73) description o f Vajrasattva a s on e whose hundred eye s and hair are blazing like a vajra; an d i t asserts that i t i s not th e Rupakaya o f the Buddh a tha t i s the subjec t of investigation i n th e Namosamgrt i bu t the Vajradharakay a o f Vajrapani.64 Likewise, it bases its argument that the Buddha' s body i s not a localized (pradesika) bod y on verses 61-63 °f tne Namasamgiti, whic h speak of the Buddh a as a torch o f gnosis that arises instantly in space, and so on.65 At times , th e Kalacakr a tradition offer s a n interpretatio n o f certain passage s from the Namasamgiti that radically differs fro m those found in the commentarial literature on the Namasamgiti. For example, it interprets the Namasamgiti's (v . 45) depiction of the Buddh a as having ten aspect s (dasakara) i n terms of the Vajrakaya that is the existenc e o f ten kind s of phenomena—namely, the body , gnosis, space, wind, fire, water , earth, th e inanimate , th e animate , an d the invisibl e deities of the form less realm.66 Whereas, Manjusrimitra' s Namasamgftiwtti (176 . i. 7) specifies the te n aspects as ten truths—provisional truth, conventional truth, and so on—whose words and meanings the Buddha intends t o teach;67 and Vilasavajra's Ndmasamgititika. (196. 5.5) interpret s th e te n aspect s as the te n type s of grasping onto the Self, 68 on th e grounds that the Buddh a himself should be understood as undesirable mental factors and as their antidotes. Thi s cryptic interpretation makes sense when examined in the light of the Kalacakra tradition's view of enlightened awarenes s as the support of both samsara and nirvana.

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

Similarly, the Kalacakra tradition gives its own interpretation of the Ndmasamgiti's ( - 133 ) descriptio n of the Buddh a as the referen t of the trut h tha t has twelv e aspects, and as one who knows the sixtee n aspects of reality and is fully awakened with twenty aspects. Accordin g t o th e Vimalaprabha, h e i s the referen t of the trut h wit h twelve aspects, because he has attained the twelve bodhisatwa-bhumis due to the cessation of the twelve zodiacs;69 and according t o the NdmasamgTtwrtti (182 . 5. i), he is the referent of the truth with twelve aspects, because he has the twelve sense-bases (dyatana), whic h are his aspects in terms of conventional truth. Although the Kala cakra tradition an d the NdmasamgTtwritti agre e that the sixtee n aspects of reality refer t o the sixtee n types of emptiness—to be discussed in chapter 7 on the "Gnosti c Body"—the Kalacakra tradition offers its own reason for the manifestation of the sixteen aspects: the cessatio n of the sixtee n digits of the moon . With regard to the ful l awakening with twenty aspects, the Kalacakra tradition als o departs from th e interpretation give n in the Namasamgitwrtti (182 . 5. 2). According t o the Vimalaprabha, the Buddh a has spiritual awakening with twenty aspects because he full y know s the five purified psycho-physica l aggregates, the five sense-faculties, the fiv e sense-ob jects, and the five types of consciousness, since they were purified i n the centra l nddl by means o f the six-phase d ^oga. According t o the Namasamgrtivrtt i (182 . 5. 3), o n the other hand, th e twenty aspects are the earlier mentioned sixteen aspects and the four type s of the Buddha' s gnosis. The Kalacakr a tradition also considers its exposition of Kalacakra as consisting of th e fou r families—specifically , th e fou r bodie s of the Buddha—t o accor d com pletely with the Ndmasamgiti's (v . 108) description of the Buddha as the sublime mind (mahd'dtta) o f all the Buddhas , as the desir e of the min d (mano-gati), a s the sublime body (maha-kaya) o f all the Buddhas , and as the speec h (sarasvatf ) o f the Buddhas. 70 Thus, it interprets the sublime mind of all the Buddhas as the Visuddhakaya, the desire o f th e min d a s the Dharmakaya , th e sublim e body o f al l th e Buddha s as th e Nirmanakaya, and the speech of all the Buddha s as the Dharmakaya. Likewise , th e Vimalaprabha suggest s that the Namasarngrtf s (v . 93) characterizatio n of the Buddh a as one who has five faces and five hair-knots is most relevant to the Kalacakr a tradition's presentation o f the Buddh a as one who, due to the classification of the five psycho-physical aggregates and elements, consists of the five families.71 Finally, it asserts that the Namasamglti's (v . 35) description of the Buddha Vajradhara as one who bears the sublim e illusions is taught there i n terms of the Kalacakr a tradition's classifica tions of the si x families and the hundred families. 72 The Ndmasamgiti's presentatio n o f Vajrasattva has also influenced certain form s of Kalacakratantra practice, whose goal is the actualizatio n of Vajrasattva a s he i s described i n th e Ndmasamgiti. Fo r example, verse 11 1 fro m th e Ndmasamglti, whic h states that the sublim e Vajradhara of the Buddh a bears all illusions, is considered t o be a theoretical basi s for the Kalacakratantra practice of the stage of generation, mor e specifically, fo r the practic e o f meditation on th e universa l form (visva-rupa) o f th e empty and blissful Buddh a that has many arms, legs, colors, and shapes. 73 Similarly, the Ndmasamgiti's (vs . 61-62) description o f the self-arise n Vajrasattva as the sublime fire of wisdom and gnosi s that has arisen from spac e and it s (v. 56) characteri zation of the Buddh a as one wh o has abandoned al l thoughts and i s free o f ideation are pointed ou t a s reasons why the Kalacakratantra practice o f the stag e of complev

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra

21

tion is to be practiced i n the for m of meditation tha t is free o f ideation.74 Moreover, the Vimalaprabha indicate s that the Namasamgiti's (v . 53) assertion that the Buddh a is free o f the sens e o f "I" an d "mine " i s the reaso n wh y a t th e stag e of completio n practice one shoul d no t practic e self-identificatio n wit h Vajrasattva but shoul d re sort to ultimate truth.75 The recitatio n o f certain verses from the Ndmasamgiti als o forms an integral part of Kalacakratantra practice. Thus , a t th e en d o f the stag e of generation practice , after the tantric adep t has meditated on the kalacakra'mandala an d on the enlightene d activities of the deities in the mandala, and after he has practiced sddhanas on the yoga of drops (bindu-yoga) an d the subtl e yoga (sufcsma-^yoga), he recites verse 158 from th e Ndmasamglti, wit h whic h h e expresse s his reverenc e fo r the enlightenmen t o f th e Buddha, whose essence is emptiness. B y reciting this verse, he establishes the appro priate attitude with which he i s able to purify his four drops within the fou r calcras by emanating the principal deities within thos e cakras. With regar d to th e Kalacakratantra initiation , th e Kalacakr a tradition' s inter pretation o f the Kalacakratantra's fou r higher initiation s as a symbolical passage from being a lay Buddhist practitioner t o being a wandering ascetic , a monk, an d a Buddha i s justified in the ligh t of the Namasarngiti (vs . 81, 51-52, 94-95), which describes the Buddh a as being a youth, an elder (sthavira), an d an old man, as a leader of the Pratyekabuddhas, an Arhat, a monk, and the progenitor (prajdpati), an d as one who has the grea t vow, great austerity, and so on. Likewise, the receivin g of diadem (patta) an d crow n (mauli) durin g the fou r higher initiation s is explained in terms of the Namasamgiti's (v . 93) description of the Buddh a as an ascetic with a crest of hair and diadem.76

A Brie f Analysis of the Inne r Kalacakratantra The entir e Kalacakratantra i s divided into five main chapters—the chapters o n th e world system (loka-dhatu), th e individua l (adhyatma), initiatio n (abhiseka), sadhana, and gnosis (jnana). Th e subject s of these five chapters delineate th e Kalacakr a tradition's visio n of the gradua l transformation fro m th e macrocosmi c an d microcosmic aspects of provisional reality to ultimate reality, culminating in gnosis. They also represent a unitary reality that manifests as the universe, the individual , the path of purification, an d it s result. The first chapter o f the Kalacakratantra begins with the word s of King Sucandra requesting the teachin g o n th e yoga of the Kalacakratantra fro m th e Buddh a Sakyamuni for the sake of the liberation of human beings who live in the kali'yuga; an d th e last chapter concludes with Sucandra's homage t o Kalacakra, who is the tantra, the presiding deity Vajrasattva, the union of wisdom and method (prajnopaya-yoga), an d the realit y (tattva) wit h sixteen aspects . Each o f the othe r four chapter s als o begins with Sucandra's request for teachings o n the mai n topi c o f the chapter , an d the remaining verses of each chapter contai n the Buddha's response to Sucandra's request. The inne r Kalacakratantra, or the "Chapter on the Individual, " begins with Sucandra's questio n t o th e Buddha : "Ho w ca n th e entir e thre e world s be within th e body?" It continues wit h the Buddha' s summary of how all phenomena i n the world are the thre e modes of the Buddha' s existence tha t are present i n the huma n body,

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all o f which shoul d be known b y means o f the classification s of emptiness. This is followed by a further exposition on the originatio n of the individual' s body, speech, and min d by means of the agglomeratio n of atoms and th e powe r of time. The de tailed description o f the conceptio n an d development of the fetu s i n the wom b indicates th e author' s familiarit y wit h embryology , as taught i n th e earlie r Buddhist writings such a s the Abhidammatasamgaha, Ahdrasutta, an d th e Ayusmannandagarbhdvakrdntinirdesasutra, i n tantric works such as the Vajragarbhatikd an d the Amrtahrdaydstdngaguhyopadesatantra, an d in the Buddhist medical treatises. For example, th e Kalacakratantra's descriptio n o f the condition s necessar y for conception, the char acteristics o f the fetus , an d it s growt h correspon d t o tha t i n th e Ayusrnannandagarbhdvakrdntinirdesasutra.71 Th e vie w of the si x tastes a s arising from th e si x elements i s common t o th e Kalacakratantra an d th e Vajragarbhatikd.78 Likewise , th e Kalacakratantra's statemen t tha t the marrow , bones, and ligaments of the fetu s arise from th e father' s semen, and the skin , blood, and flesh aris e from th e mother' s uterine bloo d correspond s t o a grea t degree wit h th e Amrtahrdaydstdhgaguhyopadesatantra's assertion that the bones , brain, and spinal cord of the fetu s arise from th e father's sperm , and th e muscles , blood, an d viscer a aris e from th e mother' s uterin e blood,79 Similarly , the Kalacakratantra's classificatio n of th e huma n lif e int o te n stages corresponds to that given in earlier works such as the Ayusparyantasiitra80 an d the Nandagarbhdvastha,81 Explaining the functions of each of the elements in the formation of the huma n being and of the condition s i n the mother' s womb , the autho r trie s t o demonstrat e the manne r i n which th e principle s of dependent originatio n (pratitya-samutpdda) apply to the originatio n o f the human psycho-physiology. This firs t sectio n o f the inne r Kalacakratantra continue s wit h a n expositio n of the preciousnes s o f human birt h an d continue s wit h a n explanation o f the way s i n which the four bodies of the Buddh a are present in the body of the individual . It represents the individua l i n the specifi c stages of life within and outsid e th e womb , as the provisiona l manifestations of each of the fou r bodies of the Buddha . It identifies the individua l with the fou r bodies of the Buddh a in accordance wit h the degre e of development of the individual's bodily, verbal, mental, and sexual capacities. It shows further th e manne r i n whic h th e elements , th e psycho-physica l aggregates, th e prdnas, and the mind support each other in the body of the individual; and it explains the relation among the sense-faculties and their corresponding sense-objects in terms of one typ e of element apprehendin g a different typ e of element. Fo r example, th e olfactory sense-faculty , which arises from th e water-element , apprehends taste as its sense-object, whic h arise s from th e fire-element . Explainin g thei r relatio n i n thi s way, the autho r tries to demonstrate tha t al l the constituent s o f the individua l and all his experiences arise due to the union of opposites, often referred to in this tantric system as the "differen t families. " He specifie s th e element s from whic h each o f th e psycho-physical aggregates , the prdnas, and the cakras aris e in order t o demonstrat e the materia l nature o f the transmigrator y body. The secon d sectio n o f the inne r Kdlacakratantra (vs . 27-47) specifie s th e loca tions of the fou r bodies of the Buddh a and of the si x families within the individual' s four cakras. It describes the manne r i n which menta l state s enter th e bod y and th e body enters mental states, and thus they become of the sam e taste. Likewise , it dis-

The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kalacakratantra 2

3

cusses the element s o f the bodil y constituents i n terms of wisdom and method, an d it suggest s tha t everythin g pertainin g t o th e bod y an d th e min d o f the individua l comes into existence due to the union of these two. In this way, it provides the reader with a description o f the kdlacakm-mandala. i n terms of the huma n being . I t further depicts th e way s in which th e presenc e of time and th e univers e is to be recognized in one's own body and shows the correspondences between the passage of time in the world and the passag e ofprdnas withi n the body . In this regard, this section als o discusses the differen t function s and location s o f the divers e types of the prcmas in th e body. The thir d sectio n o f the inne r Kalacakratantra (vs . 48-60) begin s with a description o f the current battl e betwee n th e universal monarch (cakravartin) an d th e lord o f the Barbarian s (mleccha) withi n the bod y of the individual , whic h will take place in the lan d of Mecca an d be between th e externa l manifestations of good and evil. I t als o discusse s th e way s i n whic h th e yoga an d yoginT tantras, suc h a s th e Mdydjala an d th e Guhyasamaja, an d th e tantri c familie s o f their deitie s ar e presen t within the individual and included in the kdlacakra'maridala. I n this regard, it furthe r describes the locatio n o f the male and female deities of the kdlacakra'mandala withi n the body of the individua l and identifies them with the nadis and the passage of time in the body. The fourt h section o f the "Chapte r on the Individual " (vs. 61-81) give s a detailed description o f the characteristic s of the unfavorabl e signs of death, beginnin g with description s o f the way s i n whic h on e ca n determin e th e numbe r o f the re maining days of life by examining the flo w o f the pranas in the nadis. For example, if the prana uninterruptedly flow s i n th e lef t nddi fo r a day and a night, the n one ha s one more year to live, and so on. It associates the unfavorable signs of untimely death with the gradual ceasing of the prams' flow in the individua l nadis of the navel-cakra . It als o describes the characteristic s o f timely death, whic h begin s with th e disinte gration of the nadis i n the navel-cakr a and progresses throughout th e bod y throug h the severanc e of the nadis within all the othe r cakras and bodily joints. I t compare s the process of death to the moon and the sun leaving their luna r and solar mansions. The gradua l severance o f the nadis i s said to manifes t for six days in th e acidit y of urine and in the pranas' departure from the sense-faculties. During the other six days, it i s said to manifest in the followin g symptoms: one perceive s the ti p of one's ow n nose as dangling down, one perceives the su n as being black and the ful l moon a s being yellow, and the planets as the spark s of fire, and a black lin e appears belo w one's tongue, and so on. The fift h sectio n o f the inne r Kalacakratantra (vs . 82-106) discusse s the kaia cakri", o r th e momen t o f seminal emission , i n term s o f conventional reality , as a n agent of the creatio n an d annihilatio n o f the individual . It als o points t o th e indi vidual's conceptualization s an d karma tha t i s contained i n th e gum s o f prakrti a s causes of transmigratory suffering an d happiness. It classifies the karm a of human be ings into three kinds: gross, subtle, and subtlest, in accordance wit h the classification of the body , speech, an d mind. I t also distinguishes a karma with regard to the indi vidual's grasping onto the agen t of action. When one thinks, " I am the agent, " thi s is a distinc t karma; whe n on e thinks , "Th e suprem e Isvar a i s the agent, " thi s i s a karma; bu t whe n on e thinks , "Neithe r I no r someon e els e devoi d o f prakrti i s th e

24

The Inner Kalacakmtantra

agent," this is not a karma. It further assert s that it is the min d of the delude d person that creates his own suffering an d happiness an d not th e Bhagava n Kalacakra, who is devoid of the gums and conceptualizations. I n light of this, it affirms tha t the mental state that characterizes the individual's mind at the time of death determines the state o f his next rebirth. The sixth section o f the "Chapter on the Individual" (vs. 107-160) is dedicated to the discussio n of the way s of guarding the bod y from illnes s and untimel y death. It first depicts various tantric yogi c practices an d practices ofprdndydma a s method s of eliminatin g malignan t illnesse s an d preventin g untimel y death . In additio n t o these practices , it also prescribes herbal medication , elixirs , and dietary regulations. It also gives guidance on storing medicinal herbs and spices and preparing their combinations, an d on preparin g and storin g rolls of incenses, unguents , an d fragrances. Additionally, i t discusses ritual tantri c method s o f protecting pregnan t wome n an d infants fro m disease s caused by malevolent spirits, and i t describes the symptom s of such diseases. The las t section o f the inne r Kdlacakratantra (vs . 161-180) discusses the Kolacakratantra's philosophica l view s and those of other Indian Buddhis t and non-Bud dhist systems of thought. After briefly expounding the fundamentals of its own philosophical tenets, the author presents the tenets of other systems , without offering any comment o n them. Upon givin g an overview of the other systems, he engage s in a critique of those tenet s tha t he finds contrary t o the Kdlacakratantra's philosophica l orientation.

2

A History of the sadahga-yoga of th e Kdlacakratantra an d It s Relation t o Other Religious Traditions of Indi a

A

close look at the Kalacakratantra's six-phased yoga reveals its correlation and historical connectio n t o earlie r forms o f the six-phase d 3>oga , foun d i n bot h Hin duism and Buddhism. Moreover, it also reveals the uniqu e character o f the practica l applications an d implication s of the Kalacakratantra' s six-phased yoga. To the bes t of my knowledge, the earliest reference to a six-phased yoga is found in the MaitrayarSya, or Maitn Upanisad, whic h belongs to the branch of the blac k Yajur Veda and i s considered to be the last of the classical Upanisads. The sad-anga-;yoga of the Maitrdyaruya Upanisad, Ch . 6 , v, 18, contains the following six phases: breath-control (f>raria;yarna) , retraction (prat^ahara) , meditative stabilizatio n (dhyana), concentratio n (dharana) , contemplative inquir y (tarka), an d samadhi.1 It is taught in this Upanisad as a method for achievin g unio n wit h th e suprem e Sel f (paramdtman). I f we accep t tha t th e MaitrdyanTya Upanisad predate s Patanjali , w e ca n assum e that thi s six-phase d yoga also predates the eight-phase d ;yog a (astanga-^oga) o f the classica l Yoga system. The fact tha t Patanjali never make s any reference to a six-phased yoga and tha t his Yo gasutra never mentions contemplativ e inquir y (tarka) is not sufficien t evidenc e to regard the six-phase d ;yoga as a later revision of the eight-phase d ;yoga, as Giinter Gronbold suggests. 2 Eve n i f th e sixt h chapte r o f th e Maitrdyaruya Upanisad, whic h incorporates a six-phased ;yoga, is a later interpolation, a s Mircea Eliade speculates,3 the antecedenc e o f the sixth-phase d yoga to th e yoga of Patanjali is still quite plausible. The phras e "for it is said elsewhere," which often occurs at the beginning of the verses of the sixt h chapter, indicate s that the Maitrayaruya Upanisad draw s its yogic elements from the earlier yogic sources. Even though we are unable to determine th e exact source s of the yogi c elements i n th e Maitrdyanya Upanisad, i t i s obvious that different form s of its six-phased ;yoga have very early origins in India. The six-phase d yoga was later modifie d int o diverse forms o f yoga with varying numbers of phases. 25

26

The Inner Kalacakratantra

For example, in one of the earlies t Puranas, the Vdyu Purdna, Ch. 10, v. 76,4 one en counters a five-phased yoga, whose fifth phase i s recollection (smarana), correspond ing in name to the fifth phase of the Kalacakratantra's six-phased yoga. In this Purana as i n th e Kalacakratantra, contemplative inquir y (tarka) i s replaced b y recollection . Considering tha t the Purana s underwent man y revisions afte r th e majorit y of their material was composed during the Gupta reign (c. 32o-c. 500 CE), it is extremely difficult to establish whethe r th e recollectio n phas e of yoga was established first in th e Puranic tradition or in the Buddhis t tradition, specifically , i n the Guhyasamdjatantra, which som e scholars dat e a s early as the fourt h centur y C E an d som e as late a s th e eighth centur y CE. Within later Hindu sources , a six-phased ;yog a is also mentioned in a number of texts belongin g to the Upanisad s of the Yog a class—specifically, i n the Amrtabindu Upanisad—and i n the Saiva Agamas, Saiva tantras, and some Dharma Sutras , wher e there is a slightly different order of phases than that found in the six-phase d yoga in the Maitrdyaniya Upanisad. Fo r example, i n th e Amrtabindu Upanisad, v . 6, th e si x phases of yoga are retraction (pratydharo), meditativ e stabilization (dhydna), breath control (prdnaydma), concentratio n (dhdrana), contemplativ e inquir y (tarka), an d samadhi. This particular sequenc e o f the phase s o f yoga is almost identical t o that of the Kalacakratantra. The differenc e between th e tw o lies in the designatio n of the fifth phas e of yoga as contemplative inquir y (tarka) instea d o f recollection (anusmrti).5 Even though contemplativ e inquir y is not explicitly mentioned amon g the six phases of the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d yoga as a separate member , i t i s not absen t fro m there. Rather, i t i s included within the phas e of meditative stabilizatio n (dhydna), along with wisdom (prajnd), analysi s (vicdra), jo y (rati) , and immutabl e bliss (acalasukha).6 Contemplativ e inquir y as a constituent of the phas e of meditative stabilization i s explained i n th e Vimalaprabhd a s the apprehensio n o f the phenomeno n o f empty form that is being observed or meditated upon during this phase.7 As such, i t is an indispensabl e elemen t i n the practic e o f the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d [yoga . Nevertheless, i t is not give n superiority over all other phases of the six-phase d yoga and their elements as it is in KasmTr Saivism—specifically, i n the Saivagama s and i n the work s o f Abhinavagupt a an d Jayaratha . Abhinavagupt a (975-1025 ) i n hi s Paratrisikavivarana asserts that "among al l the light s of the componen t parts of [yoga," contemplative inquiry (tarka) ha s already been determined in the earlier Mdlimvijaya "to be the brilliant sun by which one gets liberated and liberates others."8 When commenting o n Abhinavagupta' s Tantroloka , Jayarath a (thirteent h century ) i n hi s Tantralokaviveka mention s th e six-phase d yoga that ha s breath contro l (prdnaydma) as its first member and contemplative inquir y (tarka) a s its fifth member and exalts it as the highes t (uttama) phase. 9 Moreover, just as contemplative inquir y is included in the six-phase d yoga of the Kalacakratantra, even though i t is not regarde d as a separate phase, so too ar e meditative posture (asana ) an d restrain t (niyama) implicitl y included in this yoga. The vo/'ra-postur e (vajrdsana) i s often referred to as the postur e in which an adept of the Kalacakratantra does his meditative practice , whereas niyama is included in the observanc e of the Kalacakratantra's ethica l discipline, in the form of restraint fro m indulgin g in the five objects of desire and keepin g the twenty-fiv e tan trie precepts (vrata), whic h ar e deemed prerequisites for the successfu l outcome of the practic e of the six-phase d ;yoga.10 The Vimalaprabhd define s niyama as a Bud-

A History of the sad-ahga-yoga of the Kalacakratantra

27

dha's command (buddhanujna) wit h regard to the twenty-five precepts.11 Since these two prerequisites to th e Kalacakratantra's six-phase d yoga are present i n each phase of the yoga as qualifying conditions , the y ar e not considere d t o b e separate phases. Within later Hindu source s there are also those who speak of a six-phased yoga that doe s not includ e th e phas e o f contemplative inquir y but include s meditativ e posture (asana ) a s the first phase. Fo r example, some Yoga Upanisads—specifically , the Dhyanabindu {Jpanisad, v. 41 and th e Yogacuddmaru Upanisad, v . 2—several texts of the GoraJcs a corpus (c. twelfth century), an d the Netratantra, cited in Ksemaraja's Vimarsini (elevent h century ) commentary on the Siv a Sutra 6, contain the following list of the six phases: posture (asana), breath-control (pramyama), retractio n (pratyahara), meditative stabilizatio n (dhydna), concentratio n (dhdrana) , and samadhi. This for m of th e six-phase d yoga seems to b e later tha n that found in th e Guhyasamajatantra and later incorporated int o the Kalacakratantra. Thus, i t is most likely that the Buddhist six-phased yoga chronologically succeed s the six-phase d yogas containing con templative inquir y (tarka) a s the fift h phase , whic h continue d t o be i n practic e i n later times as well. However, it is more difficult t o determine with certainty whether the Buddhis t six-phase d yoga precedes th e six-phase d yoga o f Kasmir Saivis m that contains meditative posture (asana) as its first phase o r whether i t was contemporaneous with it. If one were to rely only on the extant Saiva texts that refer to the sixthphased yoga having meditative posture as its first member, it would seem that the Buddhist sixth-phased yoga preceded that particular yoga of KasmTr Saivism. Considering the incompletenes s o f textual and historica l information , it i s impossible to recon struct an accurate an d precise history of the six-phase d yoga in India. Therefore, I offer her e onl y a limited comparative tabl e o f the differen t type s of six-phased yogas that wer e cited i n specifi c Saiva , Vaisnava, an d Buddhis t texts. A s table 2.1 . indi cates, not onl y teacher s o f different religiou s traditions but als o various teachers of different school s withi n th e sam e tradition taugh t divers e forms o f the six-phase d yoga, according to their intended goals. Even though these diverse types of the sixphased yoga were couched withi n the differen t theoretica l an d practical framework s of disparate traditions, they all share some commonalities. The mos t salient point of commonality is that each form of the six-phase d yoga is viewed within its own tradition as inducive t o the accomplishmen t o f both limited, or mundane, an d supreme siddhis. There are also certain commonalitie s in th e mor e general interpretations of some phases o f the divers e types of six-phased yoga, despite the clea r divergence i n the manne r i n which particular phases are structured and practiced withi n th e different traditions . Fo r example, in both KasmTr Saivism and Buddhism, the phas e of breath-control (pranayama) involve s bringing the prdnas int o th e centra l nodi; th e phase of retraction (pratyahara) involve s the withdrawa l of the sense s from externa l objects; and meditativ e stabilizatio n (dhydna) implie s meditation o n a divine form , and so on. Their interpretations also coincide to a certain degree with Patanjali's definitions i n the Yog a Sutras. For the variant listing s of the si x members of the saA-ahgayoga within th e differen t school s o f the Hind u an d Buddhist traditions see table 2.1. Within th e India n Buddhis t tradition , teaching s o n th e six-phase d yoga ar e found withi n tw o Buddhis t tantric systems—th e Guhyasamajatantr a an d th e Kala cakratantra. Th e Hevajratantra (Ch . 8 , vs. 21-22) als o mentions a six-phased yoga, but it does not list its members nor does it elaborate on it. Even though the six-phased

28

The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 2.1 Th e Variant s of the Sadanga-yog a The Tark a class of the Sadanga-yog a Maitrdyamya Yog a Upanisads Upanisad, 16:1 8 Amrtandda, 6, etc. prdndydma pratydhdra pratydhdra dhyana dhyana. prdndydma dhdrand

dhdrand

tarka samddhi

tarka samddhi

The Anusmrt i class of the Sadanga-y o Guhyasamdjatantra, 18:14 0 pratydhdra dhyana prdndydma dhdrand anusmrti

samddhi The Asan a class of the Sadanga-yog a Netratantra (Mrtyujit) dsana prdndydma pratydhdra dhyana dhdrand samddhi

Visrtu Samhitd,

30:57-58 prdndydma pratydhdra dhdrand tarka samddhi

dhyana

Tantralokaviveka, 3 prdndydma

dhyana pratydhdra dhdrand tarka samddhi

Kalo£akratantra, 4:116 pratydhdra dhyana prdnaydma dhdrand anusmrti samddhi Goraksa Texts, Goraksasataka, 7, etc. dsana prdnaydma pratydhdra dhdrand dhydna samddhi

yogas of the Kalacakr a and Guhyasamaja systems accord in the name s and in the sequences o f thei r phases , the y diffe r i n thei r conten t an d practica l implications . Among the Indian sources of these two traditions, the majorit y of treatises and com' mentaries on the six-phased yoga belong to the Kalacakra corpus. According t o th e Blue Annals, the six-phase d yoga of the Kalacakratantra wa s initially taught b y Vajradhara i n th e for m o f Avadhutip a t o Anupamaraksit a (c . eleventh-twelft h cen turies), who passed it on t o his friend Sridhara. 12 Two works on the six-phase d yoga are traditionally attributed to Anupamaraksita: the Sadangayoga an d the Sadahgayogandma. The later Indian author Ravisrijnana (eleventh-twelft h centuries)—i n the introductions t o hi s Gunabhararn, a commentar y o n th e Sadangayoga an d t o hi s Sadahgayogatika, a commentary o n th e Sadahgayoganama—gives a brief account o f Anupamaraksita's revelatory experience.13 According t o th e account s recorde d i n the Gunabharara an d th e Sadangayogatikd, Anupamaraksit a studie d Buddhism and other Indian systems of thought. Under th e guidance of Srlkhasarpana, he practice d for twelv e years a meditation o n reality without an object and free o f conceptualizations, but was unable to gain a special insight. Depressed, he fell asleep, during which VajrayoginT appeared to him, instructing him to go to Vikramapura, where he would attain tha t specia l insight . Afte r arrivin g at midnigh t i n Vikramapura—accompa nied by his disciple, the grea t pandita Sridhara—Anupamaraksita received instruc tion o n th e six-phase d yoga directly from the Buddh a i n the for m o f Avadhuta. By

A Histor y of the sad-angO'yoga of the Kalacakratantra 2 9

merely receiving the instruction tha t confirmed, "This is reality," he entered samadhi; and upo n emergin g from hi s samadhi i n the earl y morning, Anupamaraksit a taugh t this knowledge t o Sridhara. With some variations, this story is repeated severa l times in later Tibetan chron icles o f Buddhism an d th e lineag e o f the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d ^oga. 14 Apart from Padm a dkar po, who mistook Vikramapura for Vikramaslla monastery in Bihar, none of the source s specif y th e locatio n o f Vikramapura no r th e plac e fro m whic h Anupamaraksita wen t t o Vikramapura . I t i s likely that th e Vikramapur a to whic h RavisrTjnana refers is VajrayoginT village in contemporary Dacca, located in east-central Bengal, which is also thought t o be the birthplace o f AtTsa.15 This is perhaps th e same Vikramapur a mentioned i n th e inscription s foun d i n nort h India . In th e in scriptions relate d t o the ruler s of the Varma n an d Vikramaditya dynasties of northern India, Vikramapura is mentioned as their capital during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Th e Varma n dynast y ruled easter n Benga l i n th e secon d quarte r o f th e eleventh century , an d thei r Vikramapur a was eventually overtake n b y Vijayasena , the greates t kin g o f the Sen a dynasty , in th e middl e o f the twelft h century . Thus , Ravisnjnana, who , accordin g t o Taranatha' s History of Buddhism in India, lived during the reign of the Sena dynasty, coul d have been referring to that Vikramapura.16 Some inscriptions mention Vikramapura as a capital founded by Vikramaditya VI (c. 1076-1126). His father, Somesvara I, reigned i n Magadha and easter n Bengal , an d he himsel f conquere d centra l Benga l shortly befor e 106 8 CE, afte r defeatin g Vigrahapala III . According t o Taranatha' s History of Buddhism in India, Anupamaraksit a lived during the perio d o f the Bhayapal a and Nayapala kings of the Pal a dynasty. 17 Nayapala, th e fathe r o f the mentione d Vigrahapala III , ascended th e thron e in th e early eleventh centur y and ruled the kingdom that extended o n the west up to Bihar and to the east to central Bengal. Taranatha's informatio n coincide s wit h 'Gos l o tsa ba gzhon nu dpal's assertion in the Blue Annals that Anupamaraksita could not hav e been later thanNaro (956-1040 CE), since Naro cites Anupamaraksita's teachin g i n his Sekkodesatika.16 Thus , whether Ravisnjnan a wa s referring to the Vikramapura of the Palas , Varmans , o r Vikaramadityas , accordin g t o Buddhis t tradition th e Kolacakratantra's six-phased yoga was first disseminated in Bengal. Anupamaraksita's name coul d have been easily related to the well-known Anu pama monaster y (vihara) i n KasmTr , whic h produce d BuddhasrTjnana , Sarvajna sriraksita, an d Sakyasrfbhadra , th e grea t early eleventh-century KasmT r scholars of the Kalacakratantra. His name also could have been related to Anupamapura, the seat of the tw o greatest Buddhis t center s o f learning i n KasmT r during the elevent h an d twelfth centuries—th e monasterie s of Ratnagupta an d Ratnarasmi . I n eithe r case , Anupamaraksita coul d have come t o Bengal from KasmTr . It is clear from the extant Indian an d Tibetan sources that there were several lineages of the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d yoga in India. As these source s indicate, th e most importan t amon g thos e lineage s was that of Anupamaraksita. I n the Gunabharan, RavisrTjnan a give s th e followin g lineage : Anupamaraksita 19—Srfdhara— Bhaskara—RavisrTjnana. Th e sam e lineage, bu t i n an extende d form , i s also give n in th e Blue Annals, th e fifteenth-centur y Tibetan chronicl e o f Buddhism in Tibet, which als o mentions th e famou s lineage s of Indian Buddhis t masters. According t o the Blue Annals, the mos t famous lineag e of the Kalacakratantra's six-phase d ;yoga in

30 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

India begins with Anupamaraksita and ends with the Bengali mahd-pandita, Vanaratna (1384-1468). Vanaratna received the transmissio n of the six-phase d yoga from th e mahd-siddha Savaripa , one o f the eighty-fou r legendary mahd-siddhas o f India, and h e taught i t extensively i n Tibet during the first half of the fifteent h century. 20 The extended lineag e i s given a s follows: Anupamaraksita—Srldharanandan a (Sadhupu tra)21—Bhaskaradeva—Ravisrljnana (Suryasn)—Dharmakarasanti—Ratnaraksita — Narendrabodhi—Muktipaksa—Sakyaraksita—Sujata—Buddhaghosa—Vanaratna. The exac t same lineage of Indian masters i s also mentioned in Padma dkar po's (sixteent h century ) Dpe med 'tsho'i lugs kyi rnal 'byor yan lag drug pa'i khrid rdo rje'i tshig 'byed.22 Earlier Tibeta n historian s o f Buddhism in Indi a an d Tibe t recorde d a shorte r branch of Anupamaraksita's lineage i n India . In hi s Dpe med 'tsho'i sbyor drug gi br gyudpa, include d i n the Gsang sngags rgyud sde bzhi'i gangs'bum,23 Bu ston offers th e following list for the India n masters following the lineag e of Anupamaraksita: Anu pamaraksita—Sndhara—Bhaskaradeva—Dharmakarasanti—Ravisnjnana— Ratnaraksita—Vibhuticandra. Thi s lin e o f India n Buddhis t master s end s wit h Vibhuticandra (twelfth-thirteent h centuries) . Accordin g t o Padm a ga r dbang, 24 Vibhuticandra received hi s Kalacakratantra initiatio n an d teaching s fro m thre e In dian scholars : Sakyasrlbhadra, th e maha-pandita o f Kasmir, 25 wh o was his principa l spiritual mentor, Vikhyatadeva , and Dharmadasa . In Nepal, he mastere d th e Kdlacakratantra under the guidance of Ratnaraksita, the Newari mahd-pandita, from whom he receive d the teaching s of the six-phase d yoga of the Kalacakratantra i n the tradition o f Anupamaraksita. During his stay in Nepal, Vibhuticandra becam e an exper t in the Kalacakratantra and in the practice of the six-phased yoga. According t o Padma gar dbang, 26 h e wrot e annotation s t o th e Kalacakratantra an d th e Vimalaprabhd, which influenced later Tibetan translators and commentators on the Kalacakratantra. As one of the India n mahd-panditas, Vibhuticandra visite d Tibet thre e times and became fluen t i n th e Tibeta n language . He himsel f translate d hi s Sadangayogandma (Rnal 'byor yan lagdrugpa)27 int o Tibetan. According to the Tibetan six-phased yoga tradition, the Sadangayogandma i s the direc t transmission of the six-phase d yoga practice tha t Vibhuticandr a receive d fro m Savarip a durin g hi s sta y a t Stha m Biha r monastery in Kathmandu, upon which he attained dhdrond, th e fourt h phase of this yoga. In subsequent centuries, this text became one o f the mos t importan t an d authoritative text s fo r the direc t transmission of the Kdlacakratantra's six-phase d yoga in Tibet, especially in the Jonangpa tradition. According t o Taranatha,28 the teach ings on the six-phase d yoga that Savaripa revealed to Vibhuticandra wer e based on the dohas o f Saraha, an d Saraha' s yogi c practice itself wa s based on th e six-phase d yoga. In th e Sbyor ba yan lag drug gi rdzogs rim gyi gnad bsdus pa, Tshong kha pa 29 (four teenth-fifteenth centuries) , followin g his teacher B u ston, cite s the India n lineag e of Anupamaraksit a i n thi s way : Anupamaraksita—Sndhara—Bhaskaradeva — Dharmakarasanti—RavisrTjnana—Ratnaraksita—Vibhuticandra.

3

The Natur e of Syncretism i n the Kdlacakratantra

R

eading the Kalacakratantra, one immediatel y notices it s prominent, syncretisti c character, but close examination of this tantra and its commentarial literature reveals that the Kalacakra tradition has preserved a distinctively Buddhist orientation, and that its affiliation wit h non-Buddhist Indian systems is in form rather than con tent. The syncretis m of this tantri c syste m is a self-conscious absorption, or appropriation, of the mode s of expression that are characteristic o f the riva l religious systems of India. This self-conscious syncretism variously permeates several areas of the Kalacakratantra, such as its theoretical system , language, medicine, and cosmology; and it is often inextricabl y relate d t o Buddhist tantric conversionar y efforts. Fo r this reason, the ter m syncretism does not quit e fit this tradition, whose rhetorical strategies and linguisti c divergences, though cleverl y disguised, are firmly rooted in Buddhist doctrine. The Kalacakr a tradition expressly justifies it s adaptive character a s a skillful mean s for leading individuals of diverse mental dispositions to spiritual maturation. Th e Paramddibuddhatantra assert s tha t "on e shoul d teach th e Dharm a i n whatever manner mature s sentient beings." 1 The conversionar y mission of the Kalacakratantra is not th e sol e basis of its syncretistic character. The growin g pluralism within the inner life of Indian Mahayan a communities could have been another contributing factor in the proliferation of syncretism, for the flourishin g o f religious pluralism often makes syncretism a necessity rather tha n jus t a possibility. The pluralis m that i s characteristic o f Indian tantri c Buddhism ca n b e described a s a self-conscious recognition tha t althoug h th e Bud dhist traditio n i s shared by all the member s of a specific Buddhis t community, th e way i t i s interpreted, analyzed , an d experience d differ s withi n tha t community . I t seems that the Kalacakra tradition trie d to find grounds for dialogue with other Buddhist and non-Buddhist system s without ignoring their differences; while at the same time, it was apprehensive abou t losing its own distinct identity . Its ambivalence with regard t o it s own syncretis m is evident throughou t th e Kdlacakratantra an d th e Vi malaprabhd. For example, while refuting th e particular views of the India n non-Buddhist an d the so-calle d Buddhist heterodox schools , th e Kalacakratantra states: 31

32

The Inner Kdlacakratantra Kalacakra impart s instruction on the earth for the sak e of this and other knowledg e of people who have dull, sharp, and other mental dispositions due to the powe r of their karmi c habitual propensities. 2

At th e sam e time, it warns against the danger s of grasping onto one's own dogmatic position o r falling under the influenc e of other teachings b y familiarizing oneself with those teachings i n order to refute them : Since the mind , lik e a crystal, i s colored by the color s of the object s i n it s proxim ity, the yog should no t criticiz e any teaching that belongs t o his own or to another family.3

The Vimalapmbhd justifie s th e Kalacakr a tradition' s syncretism , assertin g that the principl e (niyama) o f the Bhagava n Kalacakra i s that "whatever i s identical t o the word s of the Buddh a either i n terms of conventional or ultimate truth mus t not be criticized."4 In accordance wit h thi s principle, i t cites passages from th e writings of heterodox Buddhis t schools a t times—the Vaibhasikas, for example—in order to substantiate it s theory; an d a t other times , i t vehementl y criticize s other passage s from th e sam e writings that express views contrary t o those o f the Kalacakr a tradition. Likewise, on the one hand, th e Kdlacakratantra asserts that even when one's own mind is pure, one should not creat e discord among intelligent an d unintelligent peo ple, since they are all Buddhas;5 and on the other hand, i t states that one should no t use ferocious mantras to kill living beings but to terrify the host of Maras who are "the authors of the Smrti s and other murderou s heterodox group s (Srthika) wh o are fond of fighting." 6 Th e Vimalaprabha interpret s her e "Maras " a s proponents o f the Vedi c Dharma, and i t affirm s tha t a Bodhisattva should us e ferocious mantras to generat e fear in heterodox groups that their Dharma will be destroyed.7

The Theoretica l Syncretism o f the Kalacakratantra As mentioned earlier , the philosophica l positio n advocate d i n th e Kdlacakratantra and its related literature is that of the Madhyamikas, following the lin e of Nagarjuna. According t o th e Kdlacakratantra, onl y Madhyamika s who assert th e nondualit y of compassion an d emptiness avoid philosophical failure . Thus, adherin g t o the onto logical vie w of the Madhyamika s a s the onl y vali d one , th e Kdlacakratantra refute s the tenet s of all other Buddhis t an d non-Buddhis t systems . Although th e Vimalaprabhd acknowledge s divers e Buddhis t system s suc h a s Vaibhasika , Sautrantika , Yogacara, and Madhyamaka as equally authentic teaching s of the Buddha , it presents the Madhyamaka system as the pinnacle o f the Buddha's teaching, and it claims that the Madhyamika s are the onl y one s wh o ar e qualified t o attai n "th e non-abidin g (apratisthita) nirvana that i s without remainde r (upadhi-rahita), du e to th e cessatio n of causes an d results , an d tha t i s devoid o f the wakin g and dee p slee p state s and i s similar t o th e drea m an d th e fourt h state." 8 I t affirm s th e superiorit y o f the Mad hayamaka school ove r other Buddhis t schools o n the grounds that the Madhyamika treatises, unlike the scripture s of the aforementioned Buddhist schools, elucidat e ul timate reality. 9 The Vimalaprabha interpret s the differences among the four schools of Buddhism

The Nature of Syncretis m in the Kdlacakratantra 3

3

as the Buddha' s response to differen t menta l dispositions of sentient beings, some of whom have the fortune of being closer to enlightenment, while some are further fro m enlightenment. It als o views the differin g teaching s of the fou r Buddhis t schools as the Buddha' s response to the teachings of four differen t non-Buddhis t groups, that is, as his conversionary means. It asserts: Since beginningless time, all sentient being s have been heterodox ( firthika), devote d to th e Dharma s of gods, spirits (Wiuta) , an d asuras, deprived of the pat h o f omniscience, placin g themselve s into one o f the fou r castes , desirin g the pleasure s that are th e rewar d of heaven, an d assertin g [th e existenc e of ] a creato r an d th e Sel f (atman). Amon g them , thos e wh o rely on th e Dharma s o f gods and pretas ar e proponents o f "correct words " (sabda-vadin), Isvara , the Self , an d social discrimination (jdti'Vadin). Thos e who rel y on th e Dharma s of the Barbarian s (mleccha) an d asuras are proponents o f a creator and a soul (jlva) an d are devoid of the propagatio n of social discrimination. 10 Thus, according to th e Kalacakr a tradition, al l followers o f the fou r school s of Buddhism at som e tim e o r another belonge d t o th e heterodo x groups , an d a s they further pursue d the issue s related to the religiou s teachings they followed an d finall y settled with Buddhist answers to those issues, they converted to Buddhism. Thus, the Vaibhasikas are said t o be Buddhis t convert s who previosly followe d th e Barbaria n Dharma. The Sautrantikas are Buddhist converts who previously propagated the the ories of a creator, correct words, Isvara , an d clas s discrimination; and the Yogacarin s are Buddhis t converts who previously held the vie w of the permanen t Self an d th e creator; whereas, the Madhyamika s ar e the convert s who abandoned no t onl y th e aforementioned heterodo x views but als o the dogmati c positions and related meditative practices that are characteristic of the othe r three Buddhist schools. The Vimcdaprabha describe s the manne r o f their conversion to Buddhis m in the followin g

way:

Among thos e Barbarian s (mleccha) ther e ar e two types of grasping—grasping onto the agglomeratio n of atoms and graspin g onto the [trul y existent] person (pudgaia) who has origination. Their belief is: "If a person who has the originatio n an d dwells in the body that consists of the agglomeration of atoms does not exist, then who will take on another body after th e bod y that consists of the agglomeratio n of atoms has perished? Therefore, a spontaneously arisen person (upapdduka-pudgala) doe s exist. By meditating on this, the rewar d of heaven, o r the rewar d of nirvana, comes about . Apart from th e reward of heaven, ther e i s no other nirvana." At th e time when they sought the truth , knowin g th e thought s o f their minds , the Bhagavan who knows reality said: "There is a person who carries the burden , but I do not sa y that he [exists] permanently or impermanently." This is true, since according to the Bhagavan's words, it i s not possibl e to say that a person who i s [a manifestation of] mental ha bitual propensities in the dreamin g state i s permanent o r impermanent. Abandon ing the Dharm a of Barbarians due to this statement o f the Tathagata, they have become the Buddhis t Vaibhasikas. Moreover, some, hearing the highest Dharm a as it was being taugh t to the Bodhisattva s and abandoning the graspin g onto the [truly existent] person, resorted to the pat h o f the Samyaksambuddha . Furthermore, among the Sautrantikas, there is grasping onto the agglomeration of atoms. The belie f of these substantialists (artha-vadin) is : "If the animate and inan imate things tha t inhabi t spac e do not exist , then the tripl e world would not exis t

34 Th e Inner Kdlacakratantra either. I n the absence o f samsdra, there would be nonfavorable or unfavorable states of existence. Likewise, neither Buddhas nor Bodhisattvas would exist, nor would the supreme nirvana exist . One coul d no t se e the Bhagavan' s relics because o f the ab sence o f the substanc e presen t i n the matter. " A t th e tim e whe n the y sough t th e truth in this way, the Bhagavan, knowing the thoughts of their minds, said: "There is the final body [of the Bhagavan ] that consists of the agglomeratio n of atoms an d is endowed with thirty-two characteristics of the Great Man, by means of which th e state of the Samyaksambuddh a and th e sublim e parinirvdna com e int o existence. " This is true because of the appearanc e of the Bhagavan' s relics. Thus havin g hear d of the powe r of the bod y that consists of the agglomeratio n of atoms and abandon ing th e propagatio n o f social discrimination, correc t words , Isvara , an d a creator, they became the Buddhist Sautrantikas. Moreover, some, hearing the instruction on the supramundane Dharma to Bodhisattvas and abandoning th e grasping onto that substance (artha), resorte d t o the path o f the Samyaksambuddha. Among the Yogacarms, there is grasping onto consciousness. The belief of these proponents of consciousness is: "The entir e three worlds are consciousness only. The so-called atom does not exis t because it i s a division that consists of the si x constitutent parts . Just a s in th e dreamin g state th e thing s that are mere appearances of the min d engage in activities even thoug h ther e i s an absence of atomic matter, so too in the waking state a thing appear s by means of an unreal thing, lik e a hair-net or a golden conch appearing to the eye soiled with dark dirt." At the time when they sought th e trut h i n this way , the Bhagavan , knowing the thought s o f their minds, said: "The tripl e world is consciousness only . Apart fro m consciousness , there i s no other samsdra. The cessatio n o f the see d of cyclic existence i s due to th e cessatio n of mundane consciousnes s (laukika-vijiidna). Du e t o that , ther e i s nirvana." Thi s is true. The manifestatio n of suffering an d happiness arise s from th e animat e and no t from the inanimate. So-called sufferin g and happiness are samsdra, and their absenc e is nirvana. Thus, hearing th e Bhagavan' s word s and abandonin g th e theor y of th e creator an d the Self , the y became the Buddhis t Yogacarins. Moreover, some, hearing the instructio n o n the supramundan e Dharma to Bodhisattvas and abandoning the propagation of consciousness, resorted to the pat h of the Samyaksambuddha. 11 It further argue s that just as the Buddha taught different theorie s to the four types of Buddhists, so he taugh t them differen t meditativ e practices that were i n accor dance wit h thei r differin g views . For example, he taugh t meditation on th e imper manence o f a perso n t o th e Pudgalavadins , meditatio n o n th e krtsnas t o th e Arthavadins, meditatio n o n cognitio n onl y (w/napti-rnacra ) t o th e Vijnanavadins , and to the Madhyamikas , he taugh t meditation on the dreamlik e and imperishable gnosis.12 Thus, i n ligh t o f its view of the superiorit y o f the advance d Madhyamik a teachings an d practices, th e Kalacakr a traditio n associate s th e Madhyamika s wit h spiritually matur e Buddhist s who , abandonin g al l dogmati c position s an d relate d meditative practice s o f the other thre e Buddhis t schools , succee d i n reachin g th e highest spiritual goal. Nevertheless, the Kalacakra tradition argues that there is no distinction between the Madhyamika s an d th e heterodo x group s wit h regar d t o th e manne r i n whic h conventional reality appears. It regards the investigatio n of conventionally existent phenomena an d th e notion s of the conventiona l creator, mean s of action, and action a s common to all , Buddhist s an d non-Buddhist s alike. It affirm s tha t th e onl y major differenc e betwee n its philosophical views and thos e of the heterodo x groups

The Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 3 5

is in it s understanding of the natur e o f emptiness, whic h i s identitylessness of tw o kinds—personal identitylessness (pudgala-nairdtmya) an d phenomenal identitylessness (dharma-nairdtmya).13 That view of the commonalit y of the Madhyamika' s and the heterodox groups' speculative approache s t o conventiona l realit y facilitated the Kalacakratantra's im port of certain ideas and theoretical model s from other philosophical system s and induced it s theoretical syncretism . By incorporating the idea s characteristic o f other philosophical system s into it s own theoretica l framewor k an d b y attributing con ventional validit y to them , th e Kalacakratantra attempt s t o accomplis h tw o objectives: namely, to provide rational explanations pertaining to human psycho-physiology, and to convert heterodo x groups . Textual study of this tantric tradition reveals the following two goals of the Kalacakr a tradition's theoretical syncretism : the con version of heterodox groups , and th e modelin g of conventional realit y for meditational purposes. For example , the Samkhya' s qualitativ e dualism of consciousness (purusa) an d matter (prakrti ) is adopted by the Kalacakratantra a s a heuristic device for explaining the natur e o f the huma n bein g from th e conventiona l poin t o f view. However, th e Samkhya's concepts of purusa and prakrti, which permeate the theoretical framework of this tantra, are not take n literally from the Samkhya philosophical system. Rather, they are reinterpreted an d adapted t o the Kalacakratantra's ow n unique system. Thus, i n the contex t o f the Kalacakratantra, the twenty-fiv e principles of prakrti are the fiv e aggregate s (skandha), th e five elements (dhdtu), th e twelv e sense-bases (dyatana), intellec t (buddhi), self-graspin g (ahamkara), an d th e min d (manas). Th e prakrti of the huma n being is devoid of inherent natur e (svabhdva), an d from th e ul timate point o f view, it i s luminous. In contrast, i n th e Samkhy a philosophical system, the twenty-fou r principles of prakrti forming th e huma n bein g include the primordial prakrti (mula-prakni), whic h i s an independentl y existen t an d inherentl y generative phenomenon , an d it s twenty-three tempora l subdivisions . Likewise , in the Kalacakratantra, the aggregates , elements, and sense-bases form th e prakrti of th e transmigratory body, 14 and the five elements, intellect, self-grasping , an d the mind form the prakrti of the transmigrator y mind.15 In Samkhya, on the other hand, only the intellect, self-grasping , and the mind form the "inner organ" (antah-karana); an d when combined wit h the sense-facultie s (buddhindriya), facultie s o f action (Jcarmen driya), an d subtle elements (tanmdtra), the y form the subtle body (iinga-sarira), which is separable from th e gros s body and thu s capable of transmigrating through a series of gross bodies which ar e aggregations of the five gross elements . There is also a difference i n terms of the originatio n of the gros s and subtle elements. Accordin g t o Samkhya , the five gross elements are derivatives of the subtle elements beginning with sound, and so forth;16 wherea s in the Kalacakratantra, th e five gross elements are said to give rise to sound and other subtle elements.17 It i s not quit e clea r what i s meant i n th e Kalacakratantra b y the term s buddhi, manas, and ahamkara. The India n commentarial literatur e does not elucidat e thes e points, an d Tibeta n commentarie s understan d the m i n differen t ways . Fo r mKhas grub rje, the eigh t constituents o f the prakrti of the transmigrator y mind ar e eight of the twenty-fiv e principles of prakrti and purusa, as categorized by the Samkhy a philosophical system. mKhas grub rje does not mentio n whethe r or not w e should under-

36

The Inner Kalacakratantra

stand buddhi, manas, and ahamkdra i n the wa y in which Samkhy a interpret s them . He thu s leave s u s with a puzzl e an d roo m fo r speculation . B u ston's annotation s [438], on th e other hand, sugges t that buddhi her e refers to the five sensory faculties (buddhlndriya), tha t manas designates conceptualization (vikalpa), an d that ahamkdra refers t o th e defiled , o r afflicte d min d (klista-manas), referrin g to a subtle feeling of "I." This concept of an afflicted min d is characteristic of the Yogacara' s classification of the min d and not o f the Madhyamika . Bu ston's interpretatio n o f the ter m buddhi definitely differ s fro m that in Samkhya, whic h considers buddhi a part of the "inne r organ" that makes decisions, cognitively and ethically. 18 However, Bu ston's explanations of the term s manas an d ahamkara correspon d i n some ways to th e implica tions of those terms in Samkhya, which regards conceptualization as one of the func tions o f the manas,19 an d interpret s ahamkdra a s a par t o f the "inne r organ " tha t appropriates al l experience s t o itself . The fac t tha t th e Kalacakratantra use s these philosophical terms without clearly explaining their meaning is one more indicatio n of th e author' s consciou s attemp t t o incorporate th e Samkhy a system into it s universal model of conventional reality. 20 Likewise, despite some striking similarities between the Samkhya's and the Kflla cakratantra's interpretations of purusa, there ar e some basic differences wit h regard to the nature of the purusa and its relation to prakrti. In both systems , the purusa refers to consciousness which pervades prakrti but itsel f is neither prakrti nor it s derivative, and whic h i s free o f the thre e properties—namely , sattva, rajas, an d tamos—and is neither bound no r liberate d b y anything. However , whereas in the Samkhy a philosophical system , the purusa is an independentl y existen t reality , a contentless pres ence, or an inactive witness devoid of bliss, in the Kalacakratantra, the purusa is of the nature o f innat e gnosi s (sahaja-jnana), whic h i s blissful omniscience ; an d i t tran scends both samsara and nirvana, and yet is active in supporting both. For th e schematizatio n o f th e abov e mentione d difference s betwee n th e Samkhya's an d Kalacakratantra's interpretation s of purusa and prakrti, see table 3.1. Similarly, the Kalacakratantra's way of understanding the gunas of prakrti does not correspond i n every way to the Samkhya' s interpretation. In some instances, instea d of satwa, rajas, an d tamos, the Kalacakratantra specifies the five sense-objects—smell, sound, form, taste, and touch—as the gunas of prakrti.21 Being subject to originatio n and cessation, they are said to have the characteristics of conceptualizations and bind the individua l to the cycle of existence. I n other instances , th e thre e gunas—sattva, rajas, and tamas—correspond to the moral distinctions amon g sentient beings' mental dispositions tha t ar e induced b y their ow n karma.22 I n yet other instances , th e Kalacakra tradition refer s to the three gunas in ways that are open to multiple inter pretations. Fo r example, whe n i t speak s o f the gross , subtle, an d suprem e natures (prakrti) of the min d as being contained in the thre e gunas, it does not full y explai n the manne r i n which i t understands the thre e gunas in this particular context. The Vimalaprabha suggest s only that in the Kalacakratantra's classification of the natur e of awareness as gross, subtle, and supreme, the gros s nature of the transmigrator y mind, which apprehend s phenomena wit h the gros s sense-faculties, is characterized by the waking state. This state i s said to correspond t o sattva, that i s to say, to the daytime. The subtl e nature of the mind , which apprehend s menta l phenomena tha t are like an illusion, is characterized by the dreamin g state, which is said to correspond to ra-

The Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 3 7 TABLE 3.1 Purus a and Prakrt i in Sarnkhya and i n the Kalacakratantra

Samkhya

Kalacakratantra

Purusa contentless presence passive witness devoid of bliss

omniscience active support blissful

Prakrti primordial materiality (mulaprakrti) intellect (buddhi) self-grasping (ahamkdra) mind (manas)

intellect (buddhi) self-grasping (ahamkdra)

the five sense-faculties (buddhindriya) auditory faculty (s'rotra ) tactile faculty (tvac) visual faculty (caksu ) gustatory faculty (rasana) olfactory faculty (ghra.no.)

the si x sense-faculties (indriya ) auditory faculty tactile facult y visual facult y gustatory facult y olfactory facult y mental faculty

the five faculties o f action (karmendriya) speaking (vac) grasping (para) walking (pdda) excreting (pdyu) procreating (upastha)

the five psycho-physical aggregates (skandha.) the form-aggregat e (riipa-skandha) the feeling-aggregat e the discernment-aggregate the aggregat e of mental formations the aggregat e of consciousness

the five subtle elements (tanmatra ) sound (sabda) contact (sparsa) form (riipa) taste (rasa) smell (ganaTia )

the si x sense-objects (visaya) form (riipa) sound (sabda ) smell (ganaria ) taste (rasa) touch (sparfa) mental object (citta )

the five gross elements (mahd-bhuta) space (dkdsa) wind (vdyu) fire (tej'as ) water (ap) earth (prthivl)

the five elements (dhdtu) earth (prthivi) water (ap) fire (tejos ) wind (vdyu) space (dkdsa)

jos, or to twilight. Th e suprem e nature o f the mind , whic h discards al l phenomena, is characterized by the stat e of deep sleep, which i s thought t o correspond t o tamas, or to midnight. If not examine d within its own context and in light o f the Madhya maka vie w o f sattva, rajas, an d tamas, thi s threefol d classificatio n o f th e natur e (prakrti) o f the mind , related to sattva, rajas, an d tamas, may appear identical t o that of non-Buddhist tantric systems, particularly of the nondua l KasmT r Saivism. 23 It is quite plausible tha t the Kalacakratantra introduced tha t type of categorization o f the nature of awareness from Kasml r Saivism as a useful mode l to describ e the conven tional aspect s of the transmigrator y mind.24

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

In light of the fact that the Kalacakr a tradition explicitl y reaches ou t to a nonBuddhist audience, sattva, rajas, and tamas may be interpreted i n accordance wit h th e Sarnkhya philosophy. On th e othe r hand , ther e ar e some interna l indication s tha t for Buddhist s not committe d t o that interpretation , th e name s o f these thre e gurus can simpl y b e take n a s ciphers t o relat e th e thre e humor s i n th e body—phleg m (kapha), bil e (pitta), an d win d (vdyu)—to th e thre e nddls i n th e body— idd o n th e left, pingala on the right, and susumna in the center—and to specific physiological or mental processes o f three kinds, and so on.25 Likewise, i t i s plausible that the Kdlacakratantra's descriptio n o f the fourt h na ture of the min d come s originally from th e Saiv a tantros, for the classificatio n of the four type s of awareness was known in non-Buddhist Indian traditions since the tim e of the Upanisads . Within the contex t o f the Kalacakratantra, the fourt h state of the mind i s a state that supports the thre e aforementione d states . It i s characterized by the emissio n o f regenerative fluids. Comparativ e analysi s of the exposition s o f th e fourth stat e of the min d i n the Kalacakratantra an d i n Saiva tantras reveals striking similarities, and yet it shows some fundamental differences wit h regard to the natur e of that state. The y agre e that the fourt h state of the min d marks the blissfu l stat e of consciousness in which all conceptualizations disappear and any sense of duality vanishes. However, in Saiva tantras,26 the fourt h state of the min d is also a state of selfrealization, a state in which one becomes aware of one's undivided, essential Self, and consequently becomes free o f spiritual ignorance (avidya). I t is a condition by which one rise s t o th e fift h state , o r th e stat e o f liberation , withi n one' s lifetim e (jivanmukti). I n th e Kalacakratantra, o n th e other hand , th e fourt h typ e o f awareness , though nondua l a t the tim e of the emissio n of regenerative fluids, is still tainted with the habitual propensities of spiritual ignorance (avidyd'Vdsand) an d is thus embedded in the cycl e of existence . The aforementione d examples demonstrate some of the ways in which th e Kdlacakratantra endeavors t o simultaneously achiev e both its goals—to offer rational explanations concerning th e individual , and to convert Saivite s and other heterodo x groups adherin g t o th e Samkhya' s worl d view—without compromisin g it s funda mental tenets. Similarly, in order to attract th e Vaisnavas and to illustrate its view of the physical and mental development of the human being, the Kalacakratantra uses the model of th e te n avatdras o f Visnu as an analog y for the te n phase s of human life . B y so doing, it introduces it s own unique interpretation o f Visnu's avatdras. Thus, in th e Kalacakratantra,21 Visnu is also referred to as Visnu Vajradhara, the individual's mindvqjra. H e i s identified here wit h the gandharva being, or the bein g of the intermedi ate state (antar-bhdva), bein g conveived i n the womb and undergoing different stages in the differen t phase s of life insid e an d outsid e the womb . For example, a s a fetus, one assumes the forms of a fish, tortoise, and boar; at birth, one becomes a man-lion; in early childhood, on e i s in the dwarf-stage ; a t the tim e when th e first teeth grow until they fal l out , one i s in the stag e of Rama; in adolescence, on e experiences th e stage of Parasurama; from adolescenc e until the appearanc e of gray hair, one experiences the stag e of Krsna; in old age, one i s in the stag e of a Buddha, and o n the da y of death, on e attains the stag e of Kalkl. Interpreting Visnu's avatdras i n this manner , the Vimalaprabhd caution s agains t adoptin g th e standar d interpretatio n o f th e

The Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 3

9

Puranic teachings on the grounds that they are meaningless, lead to hell, and are devised by corrupt Brahmanas in order to deceive simple-minded people.28 This i s one o f many instances i n which the Kalacakratantra tradition contemp tuously disparages the Vaisnava tradition and its teachings. It frequently refers to the Brahmanic teachings, especiall y those o f the Puranas , as false teachings , devoi d of reasoning, creatin g confusio n amon g foolis h people , an d compose d b y corrup t Brahmanic sage s for the sak e of promoting thei r ow n social class. 29 One reaso n for such assertions wa s the overt animosity between the Buddhists and the adherents of the Brahmani c tradition i n the norther n Indi a of the lat e tenth an d eleventh cen turies. Thi s wa s a n er a i n whic h th e influenc e o f th e Purana s an d strengt h o f Brahmanism steadil y increased, and i n whic h orthodo x Brahmani c school s jointly stood i n opposition to Buddhist ideology, posing a threat t o the entir e Buddhist tradition. On e o f many examples of internal evidenc e o f the antagonis m between th e Brahmanic and Buddhist traditions of that time is their contention over the issu e of which Dharm a i s the bes t one. Th e Vimalaprabhd refute s th e Brahmani c claim that the Vedic Dharma is superior to the Buddh a Dharma because it is earlier and innat e (sahaja), wherea s the Buddhis t Dharma is later and fabricated (krtaka). I t argues that just as the earlier and innate ignoranc e i s not better than later knowledge, so too th e fact tha t the Vedi c Dharma is earlier and innate doe s not mea n that it is best. Even though i t is earlier and innate, i t does not illuminat e the path to omniscience, for it is characterized by the darknes s of ignorance. Therefore, the Vimalaprabhd states , the later Buddha Dharma was created in order to destroy the grea t darkness of the Vedic Dharma. Speaking from th e Buddhis t tantric point of view, the Vimalaprabhd argues that th e Buddhis t Dharma i s superior to th e Vedi c Dharma becaus e nirvana comes about only by means of a sddhana o n th e supreme , imperishable gnosis (paramdksarajndna) an d not b y means of the Vedi c Dharma, which consists of nothing but th e habitual propensit y of seminal emission.30 In addition to the aforementioned instance s in which the Kalacakratantra adopt s and redefine s concept s characteristi c o f non-Buddhist systems , i t als o incorporate s non-Buddhist cosmologica l views without reinterpretin g them . Fo r example, i n its classification o f the inferna l realms and it s description of the siz e of Meru, the Kala cakra tradition closel y parallels the Jain a cosmological view; an d it s description of the fou r cosmi c mandalas als o parallels those i n the Puranas. 31 The fact that the conversion o f heterodox groups was one of the motivations behind th e Kdlacakratantra's adoptio n o f specific non-Buddhis t idea s implies that it s teachings pertaining to the Kalacakra worldview were not kept secret from th e public; that is, they were not guarde d as secret teachings intended fo r an initiated elite . Moreover, th e Kalacakr a tradition' s preferenc e for explicitly presenting its specifi c tantric view s is a result of its openly professed conversionary endeavors.

The Syncretis m of Kalacakratantra Practic e There is clear evidence in the Kalacakra literature that even the teachings and practices pertainin g t o th e Kalacakr a initiation wer e accessibl e t o heterodo x groups , whether they were seeking only mundane siddhis or the realization of the supramundane gnosis. With regard to its initiation, th e Kalacakratantra32 assert s that whether

40 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

one i s a Buddhist , a Saiva, a Brahmana , a naked mendican t (nagna), a sndtaka ( a Brahmana beggar), a kapolf ( a follower of a Saiva sect, who wears a garland of human skulls and eat s and drink s fro m them) , a Jain a mendican t (lupta-kesa) , a hermi t (maum), o r a follower of the left-han d Saktism (kauli), on e will obtain purit y and all virtues by receiving the Kalacakr a initiation . I t substantiate s tha t assertio n o n th e grounds that through initiation into the kdlacakra-mandala, one becomes initiated int o all mandalas, including those o f the deitie s belonging t o those heterodox groups. 33 In it s attempt t o attrac t heterodo x groups , the Kalacakratantra include s i n it s mandala th e deitie s that were equally accepted b y Hindus, Jainas, and Buddhist s as objects of worship and meditation. In this way it introduced it s practical syncretism into th e practic e o f the stag e of generation. However , jus t a s the Kalacakmtantra's theoretical syncretis m often lend s itsel f to both Buddhis t an d non-Buddhist inter pretations, so too can these deities of the heterodox groups be viewed either as nonBuddhist deities or —as the Vimalaprabha34 suggest s —as symbolic representations of the divers e factors of Buddhahood.35 Th e Kalacakr a tradition i s the onl y Buddhist tantric tradition that fully discloses the symboli c representations o f its adopted non Buddhist deities. While the Kalacakratantra incorporates into its mandala the diverse deities that were worshippe d by both Buddhist s and non - Buddhists, th e Vimalaprabha admon ishes th e Buddhis t tantri c yogs wh o see k liberation and wis h to advanc e i n Kalacakratantra practic e b y meditatin g o n th e supramundan e siddhis no t t o perfor m sadhanas o n th e deitie s and mantras of the outsiders . Its rationale for this is that th e deities of the outsider s cause minor misfortunes, and even when the y are meditated upon, the y look for the fault s of the meditato r an d become his enemies. It points to the futilit y o f meditation o n non- Buddhist deities in this manner: Meditated upon , what will they, who are like poor men, give ? When meditated upon , they say: "Hey sadhaka, we will obey your every command." I f the sadhaka says, "Tie the kin g an d brin g hi m here, " then the y refuse , [saying] : "We are incompetent i n this matter." Likewise, th e insignifican t deitie s wh o are meditated upo n refus e [to help] with regard to omniscience. 36

Moreover, textua l stud y of the Kaiacakratantr a shows that receivin g th e cakratantra initiatio n di d no t entai l takin g refug e i n th e Buddha , Dharma , an d Sarigha. It i s clear that non-Buddhist recipient s o f the Kalacakr a initiatio n di d no t have to become Buddhists . However, the fact that the subsequent tantric practice of the stage of generation begins with taking refuge 37 implie s that thos e wishing to engage i n more advanced Kalacakra practices had t o commi t themselves t o the Buddhist path. Study of the fourt h chapter o f the Kalacakratantra, which describe s the practice o f the stage s of generation, suggest s that tha t mod e o f practice wa s introduced partly with the intention of accommodating new converts to this tantric path. Moreover, the Vimalaprabha38 assert s that the Kalacakr a sodhana is to be taught first as a dualistic practice, based on th e differentiatio n between th e visualize d deity as permanent (nitya) an d th e meditato r a s impermanent (anitya), fo r th e sak e o f th e mental purification and conversion of the foolish who have not yet realized that their visualized object is ultimately their own mind. The ter m "foolish" (bala) i s recurrently used in the Kalacakr a literature t o describe the member s of heterodox groups .

The Nature of Syncretism in the Kalacakratantra 4 1

The example s given above demonstrate tw o important facts. The firs t is that the Kalacakra tradition's reconciliatio n o f non-Buddhist views with its own i s primarily achieved throug h it s reinterpretation o f non-Buddhist ideas; and th e secon d fac t is that its conversionary effor t wa s the mos t important facto r in inducing it s theoreti cal and practical syncretism .

The Syncretis m of the Kalacakratantra's Language The Kalacakratantra's aforementione d expression s of syncretism are also reflected in its language . The y induc e th e specifi c types o f lexical an d semantica l syncretis m found in this tantra, which is characterized by a diverse mixture of Buddhist and non Buddhist terms. As we saw earlier, at time s the term s borrowed from non-Buddhis t systems convey the idea s characteristic o f those systems; at other times, they conve y traditional Buddhist ideas; and at yet other times, they designate new Buddhist ideas specific t o this tantric system. The Vimalaprabhd interpret s th e Kalacakratantra's linguisti c divergences a s its way of transcending the class discrimination of the rivaling Hindu groups, which prohibit the Vaisyas, Sudras, and other low classes from studying their scriptures, saying, "Here in the land of mortals, the Vaisyas, Sudras, and others born in degraded wombs, must not stud y the Veda s and must not tak e u p the mendicant' s lif e an d staff." 39 I t also view s th e Kalacakratantra's linguisti c syncretis m a s a wa y o f overcomin g th e alienation create d by conservative Buddhis t ways of institutionalizing th e languag e of the nort h Indian Buddhis t tradition, uphel d b y Buddhists who, "seeing th e arro gance o f the heterodo x panditas who propound th e prope r words, think: 'Just as the chosen deitie s o f th e Brahmanas , Vaisnavas , Saivas , an d others—Brahma , Hari , Hara, an d others—speak Sanskrit, so too our chosen deities, the Buddha s and Bodhisattvas, speak Sanskrit." '40 Another facet o f the Kalacakratantra's lexica l syncretism manifests in the usag e and reinterpretatio n o f Buddhist terms of different Buddhis t schools. Fo r example, the Kalacakratantra frequently employs the Yogacara' s term dlaya-'vijndna (repositor y consciousness) simply to designate vijndna (consciousness). Taking into account th e interpretation o f the Vimalaprabha commentary, which glosses alaya-viinana as vijnana and jiva, the Kalacakratantra's genera l view of the natur e of the mind , and its refutation o f the Yogacara' s classification of the mind , one ma y infer tha t the ter m akryovijnana i n this tantric tradition designate s not th e Yogacara's concept of an ethically neutral repositor y of the habitua l propensities o f karma, but a continuum o f mental consciousness. Thi s particula r typ e of lexica l syncretis m result s fro m the Kolacakratantra's effor t t o convert th e adherent s o f Buddhist schools othe r than Madhyamaka. The Vimalaprabha explicitl y refers to Yogacarins, Sautrantikas, and Vaibhasikas as simple-minded Buddhist heretics (bauddha-Grthika) .41 The Kalacakra tradition's conversionary endeavor s may also be traced t o yet another face t of its lexical syncretism, namely, the usag e of terms originating fro m In dian vernaculars . Fo r example , th e term s chandoha, upachandoha, melapaka, upamelapaka, and others, which designate the names of the specific bodily joints, do not have clea r Sankri t etymologies . Since th e autho r o f the tantra demonstrates his familiarity wit h th e Ayurvedi c medica l treatise s suc h a s th e Caraka an d Susruta

42

The Inner Kalacakratantra

Samhitds, which employ standard Sanskrit terms to designate those bodily parts, it is certain that the usag e of these term s was not accidental . In ligh t o f the precedin g discussions, one ma y draw several conclusions. First , the above-mentione d characteristic s o f th e Kdlacakratantra's pervasiv e syncretism demonstrate th e diversit y of that syncretism. Second, i t is the prevailing reinterpretative aspec t o f the Kdlacakratantra's syncretis m that ensures this tantra's coherenc e and give s it a distinctively Buddhist character. Third , th e differen t feature s o f th e Kdlacakratantra's syncretis m ar e incidental to the variou s immediat e goal s that this tantra attempts to accomplish by resorting to syncretism. As mentioned earlier , there are several reason s for the Kdlacakratantra's syncretism . The first is to enhance and enrich it s presentation o f conventional reality . The secon d i s its expresse d ai m of proselytism. In support of this claim, it is well to remember that during the late tenth and early eleventh centuries , northern India was subjected to frequent raids by th e Muslim chief AmTr of Ghazm an d hi s son Sultan Mahmud , whose force s too k ten s of thousands of slaves and plundered the country's treasures. In the mids t of this brutal invasion, the author of the Kalacakratantra may well have sought to form a united front o f heterodox group s and Buddhists , a new ecumenical movemen t tha t would stand up against this common foe, who exemplified the "Barbarians" (mleccha). Likewise, dangerous times like these often create a world of religious uncertainty that can sometimes be warded off by precarious theoretical an d practical forms of religious affirmations, which may be seen as heretical. The fac t that a conversionary mission is the mos t compelling factor in inducing the Kdlacakratantra's syncretis m brings us to a simple but pertinen t question : Wh y does the Kalacakratantra resort to syncretism in order to fulfill it s conversionary goals? The answe r may be threefold. First, by incorporating heterodo x theorie s and practices, i t makes its own system more accessible to thos e who m i t i s trying to attract . That is, by presenting its own views in terms that the heterodo x group s are steeped in and with which they ar e comfortable, i t makes it s own theory more readil y un derstandable t o them. Second , i t acknowledges aspirations already cherished b y its potential Buddhis t and non-Buddhist followers—suc h a s physical health, mundan e siddhis, immortality , and liberation—and shows them ho w to accomplish thes e aims by mean s o f Kalacakratantra practice . Third , b y mean s o f syncretism , i t trie s t o demonstrate tha t in terms of conventional realit y there is no fundamental difference between the views of the heterodox systems and the Kalacakratantra, and that no theory describes any purported inherent nature of the world . However, this assertion of the essential compatibility between the heterodox an d Kalacakratantra views appears to be contradictory, fo r the Kalacakr a tradition undeniabl y refutes an d reinterpret s others' views concerning th e conventional natur e of phenomena. Thi s dilemma may be a philosophical one which th e Kalacakr a tradition, du e to its adoptive strategies, cannot avoid ; but there may perhaps be a deeper justification that can be discovered through furthe r researc h int o this subject.

4

The Concep t of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition •yrr zhen the issue of science is raised within the context of Indian Buddhist thought, W ther e are no more advanced o r comprehensive matrice s of theory and practice than those presented in the literatur e of the Kalacakra tradition. A textual study of the Indian literar y sources of this tantric tradition reveals that when Brahmani c formal education i n eleventh-century Indi a was exclusively theological an d disdainfu l of technical knowledge, 1 north Indian Buddhist monastic education incorporate d training i n nontheologica l skill s tha t require d knowledg e o f medicine , alchemy , mathematics, artisanship , an d even weaponry. 2 The shar p split between theologica l and scientific education , which impaire d the Brahmani c educational system of that time, was absent in Buddhist monastic education due to the prevailing Buddhist view that theologica l knowledg e and technical an d scientific learning are not onl y compatible bu t complementar y a s well.3 The literatur e of the Kalacakr a tradition wit h its diverse and well-integrated topics and applications o f the divers e fields of knowledge best attest s t o that fact. The integratio n o f diverse fields o f knowledge by this tantric traditio n has its roots in the Buddhis t monastic, educationa l system. The stud y of the five fields of knowledge (panca-vidya)—linguistics, logic , inner science (metaphysic s and philosophy) , medicine, an d creativ e arts—wa s incorpo rated in Buddhist education a t the tim e of the emergenc e o f the Mahayan a Buddhist monastic universities. Mahayana monasteries were the first to offe r educationa l opportunities to both the monasti c an d lay Buddhist communities; and they were the first to provide them wit h religious and secular education as well. This is very significant i n light of the fac t tha t in the India n Buddhist world, educational opportuni ties did not exist apart from monasteries. In early Buddhism, Buddhist education was entirely monastic i n its content and available only to those who entered o r intende d to enter the Buddhis t monastic order. The origin of the Buddhist educational system was closely tie d to the inceptio n of the Buddhist monastic order. The Buddhis t edu cational syste m actually arose from th e need for instructing monastic novices . Eac h novice (sramanera) a t his ordination (pravrajya.) wa s placed unde r two senior monks, one calle d a preceptor (upadhyaya) an d the othe r a personal teacher (acarya). Fro m 43

44 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

the descriptio n give n in the earl y Buddhist Pali texts (Mahavagga, Ch . i.) , it seems that the upadhydya wa s responsible for instructing the novic e i n Buddhist texts and doctrine, wherea s the acdrya wa s responsible for training the novic e i n the prope r conduct o f a fully ordained monk. After th e novitiat e period was over, a novice aged twenty o r older underwen t a second ordinatio n (upasampadd). A s a fully ordaine d monk (bhiksu), on e received further training to become well versed in Buddhist scriptures and meditation. Tha t period was called nisraya, or "dependence," an d i t could be reduce d t o fiv e year s or extende d fo r a lifetime . Once tha t perio d was over, a trained mon k was allowed to teach younge r monks as an independent acarya. Thus, in early Buddhism the unit of the Buddhis t educational system was a young monk or a group of young monks living under the supervisio n of two elders who were responsible for their entire well-being . Many such group s of students an d teacher s reside d together withi n a single monastic institution . Thi s patter n o f collective lif e an d organization o f education carrie d ove r t o th e educationa l syste m of Mahayana Buddhism where it was further developed. However, unlike the Mahayana texts, the early Buddhist writings4 refer to the creative arts, craftsmanship, scribing, and similar field s of knowledge as vulgar fields of knowledge (tiracchana-vijjd), whic h ar e studied only by lay people. Likewise, in the earl y Buddhist period , th e Buddhist lait y had to seek other educational center s whe n the y neede d nonreligiou s education . Wit h the advent of Mahayana, there wa s greater emphasis on promotin g genera l educatio n for the entir e Buddhis t community. There were two main reasons fo r that shif t i n th e priorities. One reaso n was Mahayana's recognition o f the Buddhis t lay life as a viable way of life i n the pursuit of spiritual awakening, and the othe r reaso n lay in the Bodhisattva idea l and the idea l of perfect enlightenment characterize d by omniscience. Therefore, whereas in early Buddhism attention was given almost exclusively to th e elimination o f spiritual ignorance , Mahayan a Buddhis m wa s concerned wit h th e eradication of every kind of ignorance. As some Mahayana texts attest, a Bodhisattva was encouraged to gain proficiency in all kinds of knowledge in order to attain th e six perfections an d assis t others i n ever y way needed. Th e BodMcaryavatara, fo r instance, declares , "there is nothing tha t th e Childre n o f the Jina should not learn." 5 In thi s regard , in th e Mahayan a Buddhis t tradition , th e stud y of the five fields of knowledge wa s considered necessar y i n bot h pursuits—th e pursui t of one's pragmatic, mundan e end s an d th e pursui t o f spiritua l awakening . I t i s sai d i n th e Mahay dnasutrdlamkdra: An Ary a who does no t underg o trainin g i n the five fields o f knowledge i n no way attains omniscience. He train s in the m i n order t o defeat an d assis t others, an d i n order t o gain knowledge for himself. 6

The tex t further explains that by studying linguistics and logic one is able to defeat opponent s i n debate; by studying medicine, the creativ e arts, and similar disciplines, on e assist s those wh o desir e so ; and b y studying the inne r science , o r Buddhism proper, one gains knowledge for oneself. Likewise, master y of the fiv e field s o f knowledge was considered a s one o f th e characteristics o f Buddhahood itself . In th e Vydkhydyukti^ o r th e Sutravyakydyuk* tyupadesa, Vasubandh u state s tha t Buddha' s teachin g i s called comprehensiv e be cause i t demonstrates hi s proficiency i n every field of knowledge. In tantric litera -

The Concept of Scienc e in the Kalacakra Tradition 4

5

ture, specificall y in the Vajrapanjaratantra, a good vajracarya i s said to be completel y versed in all fields of knowledge. A s I will try to demonstrate throughou t thi s book , the Kalacakr a tradition support s this view of the Buddha' s omniscience a s inclusive of all forms of learning, and it accordingly integrates the divers e branches o f exoteric learning int o it s esoteri c theorie s an d practices . Th e fac t tha t th e entir e Kolacakratantra can be divided into two main parts—one dealing with diverse disciplines pertaining t o th e theoretica l knowledg e o f the worl d and th e othe r pertainin g t o meditation—indicates that the Kalacakra traditio n also agree s with the Mahayan a view that one i s unable to get the firm footing in Buddhist teachings and practice by study an d analysi s alone , withou t th e practic e o f meditation, o r wit h meditatio n alone, withou t study . In thi s way , it concord s wit h th e earlie r Mahayana vie w expressed by the followin g verse from th e Mahdyanasutralarnkdra: Meditation would be useles s if reality could be perceived throug h mere study ; and the teaching would be useless if one could practice meditation without having studied.8

The topic s o f the Kdlacakratantra's first two chapters—called respectively "Th e Universe" an d "Th e Individual"—dea l wit h th e investigatio n o f the univers e a s macrocosm and of the individual as its microcosm. The Kalacakratantra's inquir y into the nature o f the externa l worl d and the individua l as two facets of the phenomena l world—the externa l (bahya) an d interna l (adhyatma)—utilizes knowledg e o f th e various branches o f Buddhist science . Discipline s analogou s t o cosmology , astron omy, astrometry, chronometry, embryology, physiology, psycho-physiology, anatomy, medical therapeutics , pharmacology , alchemy, botany, psychology , an d philosoph y are either directly or indirectly incorporated int o the Kalacakratantra, especially into its first two chapters. Fo r this tantric tradition, those diverse scientific disciplines provide a systematic analysis of the natura l world , provisionally viewed as an objec t of purification, an d humans ' place an d interaction s i n that world . Thoroug h under standing of the structures and functions of conventional reality (sarnvrti-satya) i s considered here indispensabl e fo r the realizatio n of ultimate reality (paramartha'Satya), or Buddhahood . Since the earlies t period of Buddhism, Buddhists' investigatio n of the world has been base d on thei r understanding o f nature a s an orderl y system governed b y discernible causa l laws. This same theoretical basi s of investigation als o permeates th e discussions of the univers e and the individua l i n the Kalacakratantra, An analysi s of this tantra and its related literature indicates that the primary goal of the tantric Buddhist investigatio n o f the natura l worl d i s to discove r the causa l factors operating within the universe as macrocosm an d within th e individua l as microcosm. The sec ondary goal is to demonstrate th e correspondence betwee n the univers e and the in dividual by identifying th e propertie s of the externa l physica l universe i n the bod y of the individual. 9 This goal reflects the Kalacakra tradition's intent that its very presentation o f Buddhist scientifi c truths b e nondual, tha t is , without drawin g an absolute distinction betwee n subject and object. The tertiar y objective of the Buddhist tantric scientific investigation i s to ascertain the properties of the cosmos and the individual a s mer e appearance s invoke d b y th e powe r o f th e individual' s habitua l propensities. Finally , the ultimat e ai m i s to se e things a s they ar e (yatha*bhuta) b y

46

The Inner Kdacakratantra

means of acquiring direc t knowledg e of the natur e o f reality. Seeing thing s a s they are mean s perceivin g th e illusor y nature o f conventional realit y and realizin g th e nonduality of conventional an d ultimate realities. The natur e of this nonduality i s that conventional reality , although manifestin g as the universe , has the for m o f emptiness (simyatd-rupin), an d emptiness has the for m o f conventional realit y (samvrti'rupin).10 The realization of the fundamental nonduality of the conventional an d ultimate realities an d th e contemplativ e pat h t o tha t realizatio n are the chie f topic s o f the other thre e chapter s o f th e Kdlacakratantra, calle d respectivel y the "Initiation, " "Sadhana," and "Gnosis." An analysis of those three chapters indicates that this Buddhist tantri c pat h o f actualizin g Buddhahoo d i s structure d o n tw o theoretica l grounds. One i s a theory that the univers e is contained within th e bod y of the indi vidual as demonstrated b y the divers e disciplines o f Buddhist natural sciences ; an d the secon d i s that the natura l worl d as we experience i t and explai n it through scientific analysi s is already nirvana but need s to b e recognized as such. Thus, i n the context of Buddhist tantric soteriology , the prope r understandin g of the conventiona l worl d that is the objec t of purification, the genuin e practice of the Buddhis t tantric path that is the mean s of purification, an d the authenti c actu alization of Buddhahood, which is the resul t o f that purification, ar e directly con tingent upo n adequat e knowledge of the Buddhis t natural and social sciences . The concep t of science i n the Kdlacakratantra i s indicated by the Sanskri t wor d vidyd, meanin g "knowledge. " Alread y in some of the earl y Buddhist expositions o n vidya, th e ter m signifies mor e than knowledge regarding the Fou r Noble Truths. I n the Nettipakarana,n th e definitio n of vidya include s such concept s a s investigatio n (vicaya), scrutin y or observation (upaparikkhd), an d correct views or theories (sammdditthi). Thus, from early times, Indian Buddhists have recognized the relevance o f rational an d empirica l method s i n thei r studie s o f th e natura l worl d an d huma n thought an d relations . However , jus t a s the Wester n concept s o f religion and phi losophy do not clearl y apply to Buddhism as a whole, so too th e Wester n concep t of science does not directly correspond t o the phenomenon of Buddhist science. There are several critical reasons for that—namely, Buddhist science is characterized by widely known an d use d contemplative an d introspectiv e method s o f scientific investigation,12 its application of extrasensory perception as one of the mean s of scientific verification, th e difficult y o f demonstrating the knowledg e acquired by contemplativ e means, and its goal of progress toward, not unprecedented knowledge, but knowledge previously acquired by Buddha Sakyamuni and other Buddhist contemplatives. Nevertheless, I think the term "science" is justified here for several reasons. First, in Buddhist scienc e ther e ar e working hypotheses tha t ar e tested b y means of experience and that are capable, in principle, of being refuted experientially. Moreover, the con clusions drawn from experience ar e formulated as rational theorie s that are internally consistent an d make intelligible a wide range of phenomena . In light of the Kalacakratantra's classificatio n of reality into the provisiona l and ultimate, this tantric system speaks of two types of science (vidyd),13 Th e firs t type of scientific knowledg e i s knowledg e o f conventiona l reality , whic h i s acquire d b y means o f investigation. A s such , i t i s described a s perishable scientifi c knowledge (ksara-vidyd), sinc e i t i s provisional an d highl y subjective. 14 I t i s subjective i n th e sense that it i s affected by the habitua l propensities of samsdra, which ar e nothin g

The Concept of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition 4 7

other tha n th e measur e o f the habitua l propensitie s o f one's own mind . Scientifi c knowledge of conventional realit y is provisional also due to its being perceptual and conceptual. Th e verificatio n of provisional scientific truth s i s based on th e sensor y perceptions an d on inference based on perceptual experiences; but one's perception s and conceptions o f the world are said to depend o n the power of one's ow n merit, or virtue (puny a).l^ Scientifi c knowledge of conventional realit y is also provisional du e to it s being characterized b y a series of momentary cognitions tha t aris e and ceas e with the arising and ceasing of cognized impermanent phenomena. A transmigratory mind, which observes conventional reality , is momentary because to that mind phenomena appea r to arise, remain, and cease in separate, consecutive moments. Suc h a mind does not perceiv e the unity , or simultaneity, of the momen t o f the phenom ena's arising, remaining, and ceasing.16 Thus, as the mind perceives conventional re ality, it discriminates the moment s as one an d many, and consequently, i t discriminates al l other phenomena a s separate from on e another , sinc e they appea r to arise and cease i n their own separate times. This discriminatory, dualistic manner o f perceiving th e conventiona l worl d as a multiplicity of temporal phenomena i s seen as the mos t prominent characteristi c o f provisional scientifi c knowledge . The Vimaia prabhd asserts that this provisional scientifi c knowledg e i s inconsequential scientifi c knowledge to which th e human mind i s strongly attached.17 The Kalacakr a tradition affirm s tha t that which i s scientific knowledge (vidya) in terms of conventional realit y is ignorance (avidyd) wit h regard to the ultimat e nature of phenomena.18 Ignorance i s a habitual propensity of samsdra, and i t is knowledge accompanied by attachment tha t ofte n manifests in scientific inquir y as an expectation. Sinc e attachmen t give s rise t o aversio n an d aversio n i s of the natur e of delusion, provisional scientific knowledge of conventional realit y is fundamentally a mental affliction , whic h subjectivel y create s al l the world s in every single momen t and perceives the world in a biased manner. I n contrast, knowledge of ultimate reality, or as-it-is-ness, is viewed as ultimate and imperishabl e scientific knowledge, because it is not affecte d b y the habitua l propensities of samsara. It is a nonconceptual , unmediated knowledge, in which the distinction betwee n the perceiver and the perceived no longe r appears . Therefore, this type of scientific knowledge (vidya) i s said to b e devoid of an objec t (analambim).19 I t i s nonperceptual knowledge , because it is not acquire d through th e sense-facultie s or any conventional mean s of scientific investigation, nor is it acquire d even by means of meditation. It is free of momentariness, for it does not discriminat e moments a s one o r many. In this way, it dwells in th e absenc e o f origination an d cessation . Jus t a s samsdra i s the measur e of one's own mind, so too i s ultimate reality the measur e of one's ow n mind. Thus, ultimat e scientific knowledge is nothing othe r than self-knowledge, knowledge of the exten t of one' s ow n mind . However , even thoug h provisiona l scientifi c knowledge o f th e world is regarded as ultimately incorrect, i t is seen as indispensable for gaining eventual knowledge of ultimate reality, which i s omniscience, fo r it facilitates one's un derstanding of impermanence an d emptiness and thereby-indirectly brings about th e eradication of one's afflictive an d cognitive obscurations. Thus, provisional scientific knowledge is seen as an integra l part of ultimate scientific knowledge. A carefu l stud y of the Kalacakr a literature reveals that th e scop e of science i n tantric Buddhis m includes no t onl y a wide range o f natural science s but cognitiv e

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sciences a s well. Those divers e branches o f Buddhist scienc e presen t systematized knowledge of the natur e an d compositio n o f the natura l worl d and humans ' plac e and interactions i n that world. Adequate knowledg e of the Buddhis t scientific disciplines and its practical application in an integrated form on the tantric Buddhist path are viewed as highly relevan t for one's spiritual maturation an d liberation . Fo r that reason, i t i s thought tha t the Kalacakratantra practitioner shoul d acquir e and cultivate such knowledge and it s practical application s for the sak e of liberation an d for the sak e of temporary well-being as well. Thus, withi n the Kalacakr a system, all th e aspects of the natura l world become legitimate fields of Buddhists' scientific investigation, an d knowledg e of the variou s scientific fields becomes a significant component of the Buddhis t Dharma as the bod y of verifiable truths. 20 The Kalacakr a literatur e als o demonstrates the way s in which th e natura l sciences become integrate d with cognitive and social sciences on that Buddhist tantric path. Disciplines classified in the moder n world as history, philosophy, fine arts, and psychology ar e presented i n the Kalacakr a literature alongsid e astronomy, cosmology, physics, medicine, biology, pharmaceutics, and alchemy and are jointly utilized in the varie d modes of Kalacakratantra practice. The integratio n of different science s on this Buddhist tantric path is facilitated b y the earlie r mentioned tantric view of the nondualit y of the individua l and the individual' s environment. Tha t particular view implies that all psycho-physiological processes of the individua l correspond t o the physical and socio-historical processes occurring in the individual's environment. For example , th e passag e of days, seasons , an d year s correspond s t o th e passag e of pranas in the human body; and the individual' s spiritual battle with one's own mental afflictions has its external aspect in the religious war of Kalkl with the king of Barbarians in the lan d o f Mecca, and so forth.21 Thus , on e ma y say that in this tantri c system, the theme s addresse d in the Buddhis t natural sciences ar e analogous to th e themes of modern science . In all of the above-mentione d discipline s of Buddhist tantric science , th e veri fication o f the Buddhis t scientifi c truths appears to b e based on th e followin g fou r means: sensor y perceptions , menta l perceptions , extrasensor y perceptions, an d in ference. Sinc e earlies t times, extrasensor y perceptions hav e bee n regarde d i n th e Buddhist tradition a s a valid means of scientific verification. In its last two chapters, the Kalacakratantra presents rational psychologica l and physiological conditions for bringing abou t extrasensor y perceptions . Th e verificatio n o f Buddhis t scientifi c truths concerning the relative nature of the world, as expressed in natural causal laws, is based on al l the aforementione d mean s o f verification. Correspondingly, knowledge of relative scientific truths is viewed in this tantric system as perceptual and con ceptual an d a s provisional knowledge of the worl d as it appears to th e dualistic , biased mind. The verification of absolute scientific truth regarding the ultimate nature of the world , as expressed in emptiness , i s presented a s a form o f nondualistic con templative perception . Knowledg e of absolut e truth , however , is described a s th e nonconceptual (avikalpita), unmediate d knowledge of all things , i n whic h th e dis tinction between the perceiver and the perceived no longer appears.22 An important , commo n featur e of the aforementione d discipline s of Buddhist tantric science is their individual syncretism that permeates the theorie s and modes of their practical application. The syncretisti c nature of Buddhist tantric science , as

The Concept of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition 4 9

evidenced i n the Kalacakratantra, stems from th e Buddhis t tantric view of the com monality o f the Buddhists ' an d heterodo x groups' (tirthika) teaching s concernin g conventionally existen t phenomena . The Kalacakratantra contends tha t there is no distinction betwee n th e Buddhists and heterodox group s with regard to the manne r in which conventiona l reality appears . That view of the commonalit y o f the Bud dhists' an d heterodox groups ' approaches t o conventiona l realit y justifies th e Bud dhist tantric incorporation o f specific ideas from other Indian religious and scientific systems and resulted in the syncretis m of Buddhist tantric science . B y amalgamating the idea s characteristic o f non-Buddhist systems into its own theoretical framework , the Kalacakra tradition attempts to accomplish tw o objectives: to facilitate its modeling of conventional reality and to convert heterodo x groups . In this way, the Buddhist tantri c proselytizing efforts significantl y contributed t o th e comple x nature of most of the Buddhis t tantri c scientifi c disciplines. However, the syncretis m of Buddhist tantri c medicine appear s less related t o thos e efforts , fo r it stems chiefly fro m the distinctive Buddhis t tantric emphasis on the favorable effects o f physical health on one's spiritua l development . The Kalacakr a traditio n give s great importanc e t o th e preservatio n o f one' s health on the grounds that the achievements o f supernormal abilities and liberation are contingent upo n proper bodily functioning. Since its earliest stages, the Buddhist tradition ha s been concerned with medical knowledge and it s practical applicatio n as supplementary systems of Buddhist learning and religious practice. The favorable effects o f physical health on one's spiritual development ar e already indicated i n th e earliest Buddhist Pali literature. As recorded in the Majjhimanikdya,23 Buddh a Sakyamuni himself saw health as the individual' s finest possession and pointed ou t the difficulty o f reaching enlightenmen t wit h a n impaire d body. For that reason , under standing of the human body and knowledge of maintaining and restoring health hav e been give n soteriologica l significanc e i n al l o f India n Buddhism . However , i t i s within the context of tantric Buddhism that the preservation of one's health becomes of paramount importance . Th e Kalacakratantra give s the followin g reason fo r that: Firstly, a mantrl should preserve the entir e body of the Jina for the sak e of siddhis. I n the absenc e o f the body, neither any siddhi nor supreme bliss is attained i n this life. 24

Consequently, i n the Kalacakr a tradition a s in other relate d tantri c traditions , Buddhist medicine has been regarde d as a major facet of Buddhist Dharma . The earlies t records o f Buddhist theoretica l an d practical approaches t o medicine are already found in the Pal i Tipitaka. Thos e records reveal that the earl y Buddhists' understanding of human anatomy and physiology was generally in accord with that of classical Ayurveda, whose basic contents were already formed and well known throughout the Indian subcontinent. The earl y Buddhist materia medica was also similar to that o f the Ayurveda. Nevertheless, early Buddhist records frequently present the knowledge of illnesses and medicinal substances in a less systematic manner an d on a more popular level than i n the late r Ayurvedi c texts and later Buddhis t medical treatises . Also , th e Ayurvedi c concept o f the pra.ni a s a support of lif e i s only mentioned i n the Buddhist Pali Canon and not yet developed and medically utilized as it is in the Kalacakratantra. By th e tim e o f Mahayan a Buddhis m i n India , a rationa l syste m o f classica l

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Ayurvedic medicine was in general use among Buddhists , and i t strongly influenced the scientifi c framework of later Buddhis t medicine. 25 Severa l medica l treatises — such a s Yogasataka,26 Jwasutra, Avabhesajakalpa, Aryardjandrnavatika, an d Aryamulakosamahausadhdvali21—which th e Buddhis t traditio n ascribe s to a n autho r b y th e name o f Nagarjuna, contain systematized knowledge of selected collection s o f medicinal formulas , discussions o f physiological aspects of diseases, and medica l treat ments that accord with Ayurveda. The discipline s of alchemy an d magic developed alongsid e th e traditiona l an d empirico-rational syste m of Buddhist medicine. Accordin g t o a traditio n n o late r than the sevent h centur y CE , those discipline s were already in practice b y the tim e of Nagarjuna , th e alchemist , whos e nam e i s mentione d b y th e Chines e pilgri m Hsiian-tsang. The Rasamtndkara an d the Kaksaputa28 hav e been traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna, as his writings on alchemy and magic respectively. The Mahayana Buddhist tradition considere d Ayurvedi c medicine, alchemy , and magi c as separate but complementar y branche s o f knowledge. It resorted t o alchemica l preparations , recitation o f mantras, and drawin g of mandalas a s supplementary method s of healing. However, Buddhis t tantri c medica l treatise s and th e Kalacakratantra literatur e integrate classical Ayurvedic medicine , alchemy, an d magic even more strongly into a unique and comprehensive syste m of Buddhist tantric medicine. Th e broa d scop e of th e tantri c medica l system , evidenced i n th e Kalacakra literar y corpus , als o en compasses knowledge of preparing incenses an d perfumes use d for worshipping Buddhas an d Bodhisattva s durin g healin g rites . The Vimalaprabhd indicate s tha t th e Kalacakratantra's instruction s o n preparin g incenses an d perfume s are based on in formation containe d i n specialized treatises on the preparatio n o f perfumes an d in censes (gandha-sastra),29 Thus , the manuals on preparing perfumes and incenses for m a significant supplementary branch of Buddhist tantric medica l literature. As in the earlier Buddhist medical systems, so too in Buddhist tantric medicine , one ma y find distinctions betwee n magico-religiou s treatments an d rationa l thera peutics based on inductio n fro m observation . In Buddhist tantric medicine , th e determination o f a medical treatmen t i s contingent upo n determining the natur e o f a disease. Illnesses induced by malevolent spirit s (bhuta), also known as nonhuman diseases, an d snakebite s ar e commonly treate d b y means o f religious healing rite s and mantras.30 Mantras ar e also implemented a s the protective , o r preventive, method s of counteracting th e evil intentions o f nonhuman entities. 31 Likewise, carrying a precious stone o f the colo r red , which belong s t o th e clas s of the substance s that predominantly aris e from th e fire-element , i s believed t o preven t evi l spirits from en tering one's body, whereas gems that belong to the class of substances that are related to the space-elemen t ar e said to ward off the cas t o f an evil eye.32 The Kalacakratantra mentions diverse types of evils spirits and malicious Siddhas who are to be appeased by building specific mandalas outside a village, or under a tree, in a cemetery, in a temple, or at the confluenc e o f rivers, with offerings o f delicacies, incenses, perfumes , flowers , candles , praises , an d mantras?3 Th e ^aksas , grahas , raksasas, pisacas, sakinis, evil nagas, who delight in human blood, ddkinis, rupikds, vampire-ghouls feeding in cemeteries (kumbhanda), protector s of fields (ksetrapdla), ganapatis, pretas, goblins, the lord s of ddkinis wh o ar e accompanied b y epilepsy, and mali cious Siddhas ar e all considered t o be powerful entities that may cause both illnesse s

TJie Concept of Scienc e in the Kalacakra Tradition 5 1

and grea t well-being. Therefore, worshipin g the m i s seen a s beneficial for th e pa tient's saf e recovery. However, the Kalacakmtantra warns against the pacificatio n of malevolent spirits when the symptoms of irrevocable death appear, which cannot be warded off by gods, men, or nagos.34 It gives two reasons for this caution. 35 The first is that religiou s healing rite s are ineffective i n such a case, and th e secon d reaso n is that this situation may create temptatio n fo r the tantric yogi to perform the rites simply for the sak e of his own material gain, while knowing that the y will be of no ben efit t o the patient . Tantric healing rites also entail the drawing of yantras, the initiatio n o f a patient in a mandala, and ablutions . Fo r example, a yantra consisting o f thirty-four numbers placed within it s respective sections should be shown to a pregnant woman when her womb stiffens a t the time of childbirth.36 Children afflicted by grahas are bathed wit h the five ambrosias (amrta): water, milk, sour milk, ghee, honey, molasses, and fragran t water, that are contained withi n seve n unbaked vessels. 37 At times , certain herba l medications , empowere d by mantras, are administered to thos e possessed by malevolent spirit s in order to alleviate the symptom s of afflic tions. For instance, i n the cas e of a pregnant woman' s sharp uterine pain s caused by malevolent entities , th e pregnan t woma n i s to b e give n pounde d kustha, usfra, 38 kaseru grass, tagara,39 blue water-lilly (kesara), an d a filament of a lotus with cold water, all of which ar e consecrated b y mantras and vajras. 40 Thus, th e boundarie s betwee n magico-religiou s an d empirico-rationa l treat ments become far less noticeable i n Buddhist tantric medicine than in its precedents. In th e tantri c rite s o f healin g th e affliction s cause d b y nonhuma n entities , th e magico-religious and empiricio-rational approache s clearly concur. The empirico-rational approach involves diagnosing a disease based upon the observation of its symptoms and the occasions for their occurrence; i t establishes the causes of affliction an d determines th e treatment accordin g to those causes. For example, unpleasant symp toms such as bodily convulsions, sharp pains in the eyes , a yellowish color of the face , arms, and legs, a distinctively yellow color o f the urine , fever, vomiting, emaciation , and fainting are described as the symptom s characteristic o f a children's diseas e that are caused by the possessio n b y cruel spirits; and this can be treated b y a ritual obla tion o f the chil d i n th e mandala.^1 I n thi s way , the empirico-rationa l approach es sentially underlies the magico-religiou s healing rites. Furthermore, th e treatment s o f other ailment s provoked by the disequilibrium of th e thre e humors—win d (vata), bil e (pitta), an d phleg m (kapha)—external ac tions, poor hygiene, inadequate diet , and other similar factors predominantly follo w an empirico-rational approach . Thus, th e applicatio n of slightly warmed aksobhya i n the mout h i s administered in the cas e of an infection of the mouth ; anointing o f the neck wit h karkotf, 42 fangafr, 43 an d indV f 44 is applied in the cas e of the inflammatio n of th e gland s of the neck , an d s o on. 45 Nevertheless, meditation, visualizatio n of tantric deities, and the recitatio n o f mantras, which ar e the commo n healin g factor s in magico-religiou s healing rituals , often accompan y the administerin g of medicaments i n empirico-rational therapeutics . Fo r example, i n the cas e of the malignan t boils in the throat , one abiding in samadhi annihilate s stron g pains in the following way: whil e practicin g prdndydrna, on e visualize s i n th e heart-cakr a Visvamat a ap pearing as the stainless moon, with her hands i n the wish-granting posture and hold-

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The Inner Kdlacakratantra

ing a lotus, sitting on a lotus-seat in the vajra posture , and having one fac e an d tw o arms.46 Tantric medicina l mantras, mentioned i n th e Kalacakratantm ca n b e classifie d into three main categories: protective mantras, supplicatory mantras such as "omphre Visvamata, eliminate, eliminat e w/ra-like sharp and stingent pains, bring on my forbearance, brin g on swha," 47 and consecratory mantras such as "om ah hum take away, take awa y pains i n the wom b of such and suc h person st>aha." 48 In many instances, one mantra can perform more than one function. Thus, in treatments of malignant diseases that are accompanied b y fever an d pain i n the joints , the mantra "om phre vajra" i s said to simultaneously empower medicinal herbal ingredient s and to protec t the patient' s bodil y calcras.49 The recitatio n o f protective an d supplicatory mantras that induce a physiological chang e b y directly influencin g the patient' s prdnas ma y be regarde d a s an em pirico-rational treatment . Th e Kalacakr a tradition's definitio n o f pram, as the prin cipal deity of a mantra50 and it s view of the individual' s vajras, or capacities, of body, speech, mind, and gnosis as the sourc e (yani) o f mantras51 indicate a close and reciprocal influenc e between the mantras and the individual' s mind and body. In light of this view, one may infer that in the context of Buddhist tantric medicine, th e recitation of mantras i s utilized as a medical treatment o f both the mind 52 an d th e body . Although th e Vimalaprabhd acknowledge s that th e powe r o f mantras , medicina l herbs, gems, and other potent substances arises due to the transformation of the mind of the individua l who empowers them, i t emphasize s that neither mantras no r th e empowered substance s have limitles s powers, since they ar e not empowere d by the mind of the supreme , imperishable gnosis of the Buddha , but by the limite d mind of the tantric yogi.53 As it s rationa l method s o f cure, Buddhis t tantri c medicin e utilize s th e tech niques of hatha-yoga, particularly, the practice s of pranayama and differen t yogic postures (osana) . For instance, i n the Kalacakratantra, the vajra postur e (vo/rasana) 54 is recommended for the elimination of backache, the head-stand posture (sfrsosana) for the cur e of a disease induced by a disorder of phlegm, the vase technique (kumbhaka) of pranayama is recommended for the alleviatio n of abdominal ailments, leprosy, an d similar diseases. In the cas e of leprosy,55 the patien t is advised to practice th e kum bhaka for a period of six months, during which he should not emi t semen during sexual intercourse . Th e Kalacakratantra56 als o caution s tha t on e shoul d practic e prdndyama onl y until heat in the heart or pain i n the hea d occurs . If one continue s to practic e th e prdndydma afte r thos e symptom s occur, th e prdna congeal s i n th e navel-cakra, or i f unrestrained, it cause s death b y violently splitting the wsnfs a an d leaving the body. Sometimes, especiall y in the case s of the malignan t diseases , prdndydma i s recommended as an alternative therapy to the applicatio n o f medicaments. It is chiefly recommended to experience d Buddhist tantric ;yogf s wh o ar e capable o f developing profound meditativ e concentratio n (samddhi) an d who do not alway s have acces s to appropriate medication . Thus , t o yogis sufferin g fro m a malignan t diseas e o f th e throat whic h i s accompanied b y fever, pain s in th e joint s of the arms and legs , an d headache, th e followin g practic e o f pranayama i s recommended: havin g entere d a windowless house, th e yogi shoul d le t his arm s hang down toward the feet , a s far as

The Concept of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition 5 3

the thighs , an d he should practic e the kumbhaka for as long as he does not fal l on th e ground an d for as long as his fever does not diminish. 57 The mos t prevalent empirico-rationa l therapeutic s of Buddhist tantric medicin e encountered i n the Kalacakr a literature ar e dietary therapy, hydrotherapy, massage, and treatment s carrie d ou t b y means o f nasal inhalatio n an d ora l consumptio n o f drugs, fumigation , an d anointing . Fo r example, everythin g bitter , combine d wit h three myrobalan s (katuka),58 i s said to obliterate disorders of phlegm, so goat's milk, combined wit h th e thre e myrobalans , i s recommende d t o thos e sufferin g fro m phlegm-disorders. Sinc e swee t and astringen t substance s ar e believed t o eliminat e bile-disorders, buffalo-cow's mil k is administered t o those suffering fro m suc h an ailment. Camel's mil k i s administered t o thos e sufferin g fro m a disorder o f wind, be cause camel's milk , combined wit h roc k sal t (scdndhava), become s a n alkalin e flui d (ksarambu) tha t removes wind-disorders. Nasal inhalatio n of the aksobhya plan t o r nasal inhalatio n o f water in the mornin g i s prescribed as a cure for a headache.59 In the cas e of boils, pustules, and simila r skin disorders, fumigation with ghee and seasalt wrapped in a cloth an d anointin g wit h the sa p of arka60 are suggested as an effective therapy. 61 In the case of infections of the ear and eye, the application of warm urine i n th e ea r an d o f cold urin e i n th e ey e is recommended. I n th e cas e o f sunstroke, th e ora l ingestio n o f a decoction containin g a n equa l portio n o f dhatri, coriander, an d powde r of tamarind leave s for three nights i s suggested as an effectiv e cure. The curativ e efficac y o f the specifi c taste s tha t characterize divers e nutritional, herbal, an d minera l ingredient s o f medicinal preparation s i s thought t o ste m fro m the element s tha t give rise to the divers e tastes.62 Therefore, consumin g th e appro priate preparations, one supplements the lack of the particular elements i n the body that directly caused a disorder of one o f three humors. The aforementione d type s o f empirico-rationa l treatment s bes t illustrat e th e classical Ayurvedic an d earl y Buddhis t medical heritag e in Buddhist tantric medi cine. The Kalacakratantra's material medico, is also similar to that of Ayurveda and early Buddhist medicine. In addition t o herbal and other remedial substances that are wellknown fro m Ayurved a an d earlie r Buddhis t medica l treatises , th e Kalacakratantra mentions medicina l substances that are not specifie d i n Ayurvedic texts or in earlier Buddhist medical works. It is possible, however, that those medicina l substance s are known in Ayurvedic and earlier Buddhist writings by different names, since the Kolacakmtantra occasionally designates the medicina l herbs by terms that see m to be regional fol k names—suc h as "lion's urine " (sirnhamutra), "son' s hair " (putrakesa)63— instead o f by their generall y accepted names . Indian tantric Buddhists, concerned wit h the preservation of the body, expanded the alread y existent scienc e of rejuvenation and longevity and structured it as an additional branc h o f Buddhist tantri c medicine . Sinc e Buddhis t monasti c school s of the eleventh-centur y Indi a attracte d scholar s fro m other countrie s suc h a s China, Persia, and so forth, one may suspect that tantric Buddhis t methods of rejuvenation were influenced to some degree by Taoist and other methods for the prolongatio n of life. Tantric Buddhist s composed variou s tantric works that deal exclusively with diverse methods of rejuvenation and prolongation of life, which involv e the art s of extracting rejuvenatin g essences an d knowledg e o f performing rituals for longevity. 64

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

In its exposition of Buddhist tantric medicine, the Kalacakratantra indicates the following individual methods of rejuvenation: meditation (dhydna) tha t involves bringing the pranas into the centra l nddi (madhyama), practice s of pranayama, ingestion of the five combine d ambrosia s (amrta),65 ingestio n of life-givin g essence s extracte d from herb s an d foods , an d ingestio n o f elixirs produced b y mean s o f comple x al chemical processes. For example, the kumbhaka, accompanied b y the retention of regenerative fluids in sexual union, mentione d earlier with regard to the eliminatio n of leprosy, is also seen as having a rejuvenating power. It i s said that i f practiced fo r two years, it eradicates old age and it s symptoms. Also, the nasa l inhalation of uterine blood and the hone y of black bees (kesarajika), accompanie d with meditation, is suggested as a six-month therapy for rejuvenation. The Kalacakratantra also discusses intricate procedures for preparing tonics, elixirs, and gold, which ar e also called external elixir s (bdhya-rasdyana) an d ar e regarded by Buddhist tantric tradition as nutrients that induce the attainmen t of a divine body (dwya-deha) tha t is free o f wrinkles and gray hair. Thus, wit h respect to Buddhis t tantric therapeutics , one may draw th e follow ing conclusions. Buddhis t tantric therapeutic s establishes four aims , namely, to prevent an d cur e disease , t o secur e longevity , and t o brin g forth liberation . The first three goals are of a temporal nature. They are not mer e ends i n themselves but an cillary to the actualizatio n of the ultimat e goal, which is enlightenment. In order to actualize it s goals, Buddhist tantri c therapeutic s utiliz e th e syncretize d knowledge and practices of tantric yoga, hatha'yoga, Ayurveda , folk medicine , religious esoteric rites of healing an d exorcism , the scienc e o f distillation, and alchem y into it s distinctive Buddhis t tantric medica l theory and practice. Thus, th e immediat e objective of the syncretism of the Buddhis t tantric medicine is to utilize all available medical knowledge and t o provide all possible means of cure and disease-prevention in order to facilitate one's liberation . However, the syncretis m of the Buddhis t tantric medicine should not b e understood as a reconciliation of disparate views and practices but rathe r as their synthesis. The Kalacakratantra does not attemp t t o reinterpret diverse medical theories and practices; it pragmatically juxtaposes them. The Kalacakratantra's medica l therapeutics res t on severa l theoretical ground s that ar e characteristic o f Buddhist tantric medicine a s a whole. Th e primar y theoretical basis of Kalacakratantra medicin e is tantric Buddhist soteriology that focuse s on the intimate relationship among the mind, body, and liberation. On that foundation rests the Kalacakratantra's principa l medica l theory of the predominan t effect s of pranas on one's mental, physical, and spiritual condition. To that theory the Kalacakratantra adds the theoretica l framework o f the secula r system of Ayurvedic medicine, operating on th e presumptio n that goo d health i s maintained by the equilibrium o f th e thre e humors—wind , phlegm , an d bile . Th e fourt h elemen t o f thi s theoretical context is the principle s of hatha-yoga, which are based on th e vie w of a causal relationship among bodily postures, breathing exercises, and mental and physical health. Finally, the las t theoretical basi s of Buddhist tantric medica l therapeutics is the premises of folk medicine and occult beliefs concerning bewitchmen t an d spirit possession, according to which, spirits can possess and thereby influence an individual's mental and physical states. Likewise, the theoretica l syncretis m of Kalacakratantra medicin e yields a wide

The Concept of Science in the Kalacakra Tradition 5 5

variety of medical treatments . Amon g th e aforementione d medica l treatments, th e tantric yogic practices o f manipulating th e prams and retainin g regenerativ e fluid s are believed t o most directly affect th e accomplishmen t o f medical and soteriological ends. Thus, accordin g to the Kdlacakratantra, the yogic methods of actualizing supernormal powers (siddhi) ar e a part of the Buddhis t tantric medical theory and practice. The tantri c yogic practices of manipulating the flows of the prams an d retaining regenerative fluids during sexual intercourse have a dual purpose: spiritual and medical. When practiced b y yogis endowed with good health, the tantri c yogi c practices induce spiritual powers and liberation. To those facing premature death, that is, death prior to the ag e of one hundred, an d to those sufferin g fro m variou s diseases—such as abdominal ailments, 66 asthma , cough , eye-diseases , poisoning, dysuria , an d lep rosy—they serv e a s preventive an d curativ e therapeutics. Fo r example, when th e signs o f untimel y deat h occur , th e followin g yogic practice s ar e sequentiall y per formed. The first is the obstructio n of the pranas in the lef t an d right nddis; th e nex t phase entails bringing the pranas into the central channe l nddi an d making them circulate there for a day; the third phase involves filling one's arms, legs, and fingers with pranas; and the final phase involves visualizing the Buddhas' six female consorts with their hands in the protection-mwdra and standing within one's own six cakras. In the case of the abdominal and other diseases mentioned previously , one is advised to contract th e win d of apdna fro m belo w the nave l an d th e win d of prdrta fro m above . In this way, those tw o winds colide an d cause a strong digestive fire to arise and spread throughout th e entir e body. It i s said that after a month of practicing this yoga, one averts maladies of the liver , spleen, hemorrhoids, asthma , headache, cough , and so on.67 Lastly, th e syncretis m o f th e Kdlacakratantra's medica l theor y reduce d th e boundaries between magico-religiou s and empirico-rationa l therapeutics. The con currence o f magico-religious and empirico-rationa l treatment s i n individua l cases was invariably used for two purposes: simultaneously to alleviate the symptoms of the disease and to eliminate the caus e of the disease. These multiple aims and means of cure in Kdlacakratantra medicine required the incorporation of different sciences as additional branches of medicine. For example , the earlie r mentioned scienc e o f preparing perfumes an d incenses, the scienc e of extracting elixir s from food s an d herbs , th e scienc e o f alchemy, etc . becam e supplementary fields of medical study. In thi s way, the syncretis m of the Buddhis t tantri c medical theory an d practice broadened th e scop e of Indian Buddhis t medicine a s a whole, an d it extended th e Buddhis t tantric framewor k o f theory an d practice.

5

The Cosmi c Body

The Cosmos , the Individual , and the Cosmos as the Individua l

T

he Kalacakratantra's cosmolog y is structured on several theoretical models . In its interpretation o f th e conventiona l natur e o f th e cosmos , th e Kalacakratantra combines t o some degree the Vaibhasik a atomi c theory, the Samkhy a model of the twenty-five principles of the purusa and prakrti, and Jaina and Puranic cosmographies with it s own measurements o f the cosmo s (loka-dhatu)1 an d it s own theories of th e cosmos's natur e an d relation t o the individual . The Kalacakr a tradition intention ally uses this form of syncretism in order to provide a useful theoretica l mode l of th e Buddhist tantric view of the cosmo s that will accord with its interpretation of the in dividual an d wit h it s model of practice. A s alread y indicated i n chapte r 3 on syncretism, the Kalacakr a tradition itsel f justifies this syncretism in terms of its proselytizing efforts2 an d in terms of the multiplicity and relativity of conventional realities. According to this tantric tradition, knowledge of the constitution o f the cosmo s and of the manner i n which the cosmo s originates and dissolves is pertinent t o one' s spiritual maturation . Th e Vimalapmbha explicitl y state s that i n order t o full y com prehend th e thre e Vehicles , one mus t first know the originatio n an d dissolution of the cosmo s a s taught b y the Vaibhasikas , who assert the tru e existence o f the indi vidual (pudgala) an d o f the cosmos , which consist s of an agglomeratio n of atoms. 3 While supportin g the Madhyamak a view of phenomenal an d personal identityless ness, the Kalacakr a tradition affirm s th e conventiona l existenc e o f the cosmo s an d the individua l an d acknowledge s th e validit y an d usefulnes s o f th e Vaibhasikas ' atomic theor y of the evolutio n an d disintegratio n of the cosmos . Consequently, i t holds that within the context o f the Kalacakra system, one investigates the conven tional natur e of the cosmo s by way of the Vaibhasik a doctrine an d gains a thoroug h knowledge o f the thre e Vehicles, thereb y enhancin g one's understanding of the en tire Buddhist Dharma. Resorting to the Vaibhasika atomic theory, the Kalacakratantra asserts tha t al l inanimat e phenomen a tha t constitut e th e cosmo s originat e fro m atomic particles that evade sensory perception—namely, the atoms of the earth, wa56

The Cosmi c Bod;y 5

7

ter, fire , wind , an d spac e elements , whic h ar e pervade d b y th e spher e o f reality (dharma-dhatu) . 4 Likewise in the case of the individual , the atomic particles of earth, water, fire, wind, and space that form the father's seminal fluid and the mother's uter ine blood eventuall y become th e body of the individual. 5 Thus, th e inanimat e phe nomena i n the individual' s body and environment shar e th e sam e atomic structure and originate in a similar fashion by means of the agglomeratio n of atomic particles, which take s place due to the efficac y o f time. This is one way in which the Kalacakra tradition attempts to demonstrate that the individual and the individual's natural environment ar e identical no t onl y with regard to their ultimat e nature, but also with regard to their conventionally establishe d atomic structure and their manner of origination an d destruction .

The Originatio n an d Dissolution of the Cosmos and the Individual According t o th e Kalacakratantra,6 cycli c existenc e consist s o f th e immeasurabl e Buddha-fields (buddha-ksetra), whic h hav e limitles s qualities, an d o f th e fiv e ele ments. It is characterized by their origination, duration, and destruction. This entire cosmos is said to arise and dissolve because sentient being s are experiencing the re sults of their wholesome and unwholesome actions. The collectiv e karma of sentien t beings produces karmic winds, which mold and dissolve the cosmo s by amassing and disintegrating th e atomi c particles that constitut e th e cosmos . Thus , th e externa l karmic winds (karma-wta) accord with the characteristic qualities of sentient beings ' consciousness (vi/nana-dharma). The karmi c wind that produces the cosmos of a Buddha-field is considered to be of a dual nature, becaus e it produces tw o type s of cosmos: inanimat e an d animate . Like the heavenly constellations (naksatra) , the inanimat e cosmo s of a Buddha-field is stationary; whereas the animat e cosmo s is in motion, jus t as the circl e o f astrological houses (rasi-cakra ) move s in space. At th e tim e of the dissolutio n of the inani mate cosmos, the bodie s of all humans an d other livin g beings composed o f atoms also disintegrate. In this way, the destin y of the inanimat e cosmos , which i s due t o the action s of sentient beings, is also the destin y of the sentien t being s who inhabi t that cosmos . The limitles s karmic winds generate the numerous world-systems of the Buddhafields just as the karmi c winds of the pranas, which invariably accompany a transmigratory consciousness , generat e th e bod y o f a sentien t being . Just a s the interna l karmic winds of living beings induce bodily growth, the externa l karmic winds cause the growt h of inanimate things. 7 There are three types of external karmic winds: the holding (samdharana), churning (manthdna), an d shaping (samsthana) wind . The supportin g wind holds togethe r the atoms of the earth and the other elements in the same way that a rain-wind holds together th e atom s o f rain-water. Followin g that , th e churnin g win d churn s th e atoms to their ver y core unti l the element s becom e solidified. Just as salt crystallizes due to its exposure to the sun, the elements solidif y due to such churning. The churn ing wind makes the element s absor b each other into the agglomorat e in which th e atomic particles of one element becom e a predominant substance , while the atomi c

58

The Inner Kalacakntantra

particles of other elements becom e secondary substances. As in a human bod y so too in the cosmos, with regard to solidity, the atoms of the earth become primary and the other atoms secondary. Likewise , the water, fire, and wind elements become primary in terms of fluidity, heat, an d motility, respectively. In the cas e of space, however, all other atomic particles that are devoid of their own properties become primary.8 Once the agglomeration of the atomic particles of the elements takes place, the great shaping wind moves through th e entire Buddha-fiel d in the form of the ten winds.9 These ten karmi c winds that fashion the inanimat e cosmo s als o shape th e bod y of the in dividual, in which the y circulate and carry the habitua l propensities o f the individual's karma. Therefore, on e ca n sa y that for this tantric tradition , al l karma of sentient beings is stored in the atomic particles of the karmic winds. The Kalacakratantm itself assert s that "one's own karma i s contained i n th e gwna s o f prakrti,"10 whic h i s conventionally established a s physical. It also indicates that the te n karmi c winds , which fashio n th e inanimat e environmen t an d th e bod y o f the individual , them selves arise from th e five elements. The thre e winds of apdna aris e from the gnosis-element, an d the three winds of pram arise fro m th e space-element. Samana arise s from th e wind , uddna arise s fro m th e fire, vydna arise s from th e water , and ndga arises from the earth . These four— kurma, krkara, devadatta, an d dhanamja—arise respectivel y fro m th e wind , fire, water, an d earth.11

In the final analysis, this suggests that the karma of sentient beings, which man ifests in the form of atomic substances, is of a physical nature. In this regard, th e Kalacakmtantra's view of karma conforms to the Jaina theory of karma as subtle clusters of matter that constitute a karmic body. In the Kalacakr a tradition, however, this view of karma does not preclud e th e traditiona l Buddhist view of all actions a s being ultimately mental . Eve n whe n th e Kalacakr a tradition acknowledge s tha t one' s own transmigratory mind (samsara-citta ) i s a conventionally establishe d agen t o f all ac tions an d a fundamental cause of the originatio n an d destructio n o f the entir e cosmos, it specifies tha t the five elements ar e the materia l components o f the transmi gratory mind. It does so pointing t o the fac t that the agen t who is devoid of material substances neither acts nor creates anything.12 Thus, one may infer that karma is material, because th e transmigrator y min d tha t generates i t is itself material. Likewise, all cycli c existence , whic h manifest s due t o sentien t beings ' karma, is material because the karma that creates i t i s itself material. I surmise that this causa l relation ship amon g th e materia l nature o f the transmigrator y mind, karma, and th e envi ronment tha t on e perceive s i s implied i n th e KalacaJcratantra' s assertio n tha t th e cosmos that one perceives i s a mere manifestation of one's own mind . According t o this tantric tradition, a Buddha-field always comes int o existenc e accompanied b y a world-system, just as the originatio n of the individual' s body is always accompanied b y the seventy-tw o thousand nadfs. 13 At th e tim e of the origination of the cosmos , very subtle particles (arm), which ar e imperceptible to the sensefaculties, ar e said t o b e present i n th e for m of atomic particles (paramanu). Thes e atomic particles are of the five types: wind, fire, water, earth, an d space. Under th e influenc e o f time , th e wind-elemen t originate s firs t amon g thes e atomic particles. This origination begin s with the atomi c particles of wind adhering

The Cosmic Body 5

9

to each other. Then, owing to their adherence, a subtle fluttering motion take s place, and this we call "wind." Afte r that, the atom s of fire begin to adhere to one another , and lightning , accompanie d b y wind, comes forth a s fire. Following this, th e atom s of water adhere t o one other, an d rain, accompanied b y the wind and fire, comes into existence a s water. Lastly, the atomi c particle s of the earth-elemen t appear , an d a rainbow called "earth" arises in space. The atom s of space pervade all of the abovementioned elements . Upon the formation o f the five elements, th e seven continents, mountains, and oceans start to arise from the five elements du e to the conjunction o f the supporting, churning, and shaping winds.14 The seven mountains and the seven continents arise from th e earth-element , whic h i s solidity. The seve n ocean s aris e from th e water element, whic h i s fluidity. The fire of the sun , lightning, an d domestic fire originate from th e fire-element , whic h i s heat. The wind-elemen t i s motility, and th e space element i s the domai n that allows for movement an d growth. This is the manne r i n which th e entir e cosmos arises from th e atomi c particles of the five elements in order for sentient being s to experience th e result s of their actions . At th e tim e of the dissolutio n o f the cosmos , th e fire that burns the cosmo s to ashes (kdlagni), kindle d by the wind s of karma, melts the atomi c agglomerate s of the entire cosmos. Its function is comparable to the fire of gnosis (jnandgni), o r the fire of sexual desire (kamagni), whic h incinerate s th e materia l nature of the transmigratory body and consciousness durin g the completion-stag e o f Kalacakratantra practice. It is also worth noting that both fires—kdlagni and kamdgni—are identifie d in this tantric tradition a s two types of deities, namely, Kalagni and CandalT. 15 Their respective locations in the cosmos and the body of the individual are also comparable, since both dwell in the lowe r regions o f the cosmi c and individua l bodies, where they ca n become aroused or ignited. Kalagni dwells in the underworld, and CandalT abides in the navel of the human body. CandalT flames due to the constriction o f the winds of prdna, and i t i s therefore calle d "the fir e o f prdwydma."16 Similarly , kdlagni inflame s when the karmi c winds of the prdnas of the cosmi c body are extinguished. The tim e of the incineratio n o f the cosmo s is characterized not onl y by the destruction of the cosmo s but als o by its origination. At th e tim e of the disintegration of the cosmos , the atomi c particles of the earth-elemen t d o not perish ; they remain due t o thei r cohesio n wit h th e atomi c particle s of the wate r and othe r elements . When th e cosmo s dissolves , a karmic wind draws out th e atom s o f the eart h fro m their agglomerates, separating the individua l atoms from the mass of earth atoms and hurling them int o the mas s of the wate r atoms. Following this, i t draws them ou t of the water-elemen t an d hurls them into the fire-element. Then it draws them out of the fire-elemen t and hurls them int o the wind-element . Lastly , it draws them ou t of the atomic particles of the wind-element an d spreads them one by one into space. Upon th e destruction of the inanimat e cosmos, living beings go to another Buddhafield and to another cosmos, which ar e produced b y their karmic winds, in order to experience th e furthe r results of their actions . The manne r i n whic h th e inanimat e cosmo s originate s an d dissolve s corresponds to the manne r i n which a human being comes into existence an d dies. As in the inanimat e world , the huma n body , due to th e powe r of the te n karmi c winds, arises from th e agglomeration s of atomic particles of the earth , water, fire, wind, and

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

space elements. At the tim e of conception, the father' s semen and mother's uterin e blood, whic h ar e mad e o f the fiv e elements , ar e "devoured " by the consciousnes s which, accompanie d b y subtle pranas, enters the mother's womb . When conceptio n takes place due to the power of time, the seme n and uterine blood within th e womb slowly develop into the bod y of the individual . This occurs due to the spreadin g of pranas. The growin g fetus consumes food comprise d of six flavors—bitter, sour, salty, pungent, sweet , and astringent—an d thes e si x flavors originate fro m th e si x ele ments, sixth being gnosis. Consequently, th e bod y of a fetus becomes a gross physical body , composed o f the agglomerate s of the atomi c particles . The element s of the father' s semen give rise to the marrow , bones, nddis, and sinews of the fetus ; an d the element s of the mother' s uterine bloo d give rise to the skin , blood, an d flesh of the fetus . Thus, al l the element s and psycho-physical aggregate s that constitute the human being come into existence due to the union of the atomic agglomerates of the father's seme n an d mother's uterin e blood. Th e five elements o f the father' s semen and mother's uterin e bloo d facilitat e the growt h o f the fetus , jus t a s they facilitate the growth of a plant's seed in the natural environment. The earth-elemen t supports the semen that has entered th e womb, just as it holds a seed in the ground; and th e water-element makes it sprout from there. The fire-element makes it blossom and digest the six flavors that arise from th e six elements. The wind-elemen t stimulates its growth, an d th e space-elemen t provide s the roo m fo r growth. The earth-elemen t causes the body to become dense, and it gives rise to the bones and nails. The waterelement causes moisture in the body , giving rise to th e seve n kind s of bodily fluids. The fire-element induces the maturation of the fetus and gives rise to blood. The te n principal winds of pranas expand it s skin, and the space-elemen t become s the bodily apertures. On th e basi s of these similarities in atomic natur e o f the inanimat e worl d and the bod y of the individual , the Kalacakr a tradition identifie s the seve n mountains, continents, and oceans with the elements of solidity, softness, and fluidity in the body of th e individual . Tables 5 . i.a- c illustrat e the correspondence s amon g the seve n mountains, continents, and oceans and the specifi c constituents of the human body. After the moment of conception, th e semen and uterine blood grow in the womb for a month. Following this, the te n subtl e nddis aris e within th e hear t o f the fetus . Likewise, within th e navel , there aris e the sixty-fou r nddis tha t carry the dandas i n the bod y and th e twelv e subtle nddis tha t carr y the twelv e internal sola r mansions. Due to the pranas' power of spreading, all the nddis i n the navel gradually expand int o TABLE 5.i.A Th e Har d Earth-element in the Environmen t and i n the Body Seven mountains Th Vajra mountain s th Sita th Drona th Manikara th Nisadha th Mandara th Nilabha th

e har d elements of the body e nail s of the hand s and fee t e bones of the hands e bones of the forearm s e bone s of the uppe r arms e bone s of the leg s e bones of the shanks e uppe r bones

The Cosmic Body 6 1 TABLE 5.1.8 Th e Sof t Earth-elemen t in the Environmen t and i n the Bod y Seven continent s Th

e sof t element s of the body

Jambudvlpa with its twelve sections twelv Raudra fles Kraufica live Kimnara hear Kusa fa Sitabha unn Candra

t

h r t

e joints of the arm s and leg s

e nadis

the region s of the arms , legs, and face. After the secon d month , there are some indications o f arms, legs, and a face. At th e en d of the thir d month, the arms , legs, neck, and the whole head ar e clearly developed. Th e five fingers of each hand and the five toes o f eac h foo t aris e respectivel y fro m th e fiv e elements. 17 Durin g th e fourt h month, subtl e nadis spread into the hands , feet , face, an d neck, an d during the fifth month, thre e hundred an d sixty bones and joints begin to develop withi n th e flesh . At th e completio n of the sixt h month, the fetu s is endowed wit h fles h and blood , and i t begin s t o experienc e pleasur e an d pain . A t th e completio n o f the sevent h month, the bodil y hair, eyebrows , bodily apertures , and remainin g nadis com e int o existence. At th e end of the eighth month, the joints, bones, marrow, tongue, urine, and fece s are full y developed . Th e complet e bod y i s said to consis t o f 20.5 millio n constituents, fo r there are that many modifications of the five elements of the father's semen an d th e mother' s uterin e blood . Durin g th e nint h month, th e fetu s experi ences pain as if it were being baked in a potter's oven. At the completion o f the ninth month, one i s born, being squeezed by the womb and experiencing pain as if one were being crushed b y an anvil an d a hammer. Thus, propelled by the habitua l propensi ties of one's own karma, which ar e carried by the te n internal winds of prdnas, a human being enters the world that is likewise brought into existence b y his own karma, which, again , i s carried by the te n external winds of prams. Thus, th e cosmos and the individua l share a common materia l nature and common causes of origination an d destruction. The y als o originate in similar ways, with their respectiv e component s arisin g in the sam e sequence. Tabl e 5. 2 illustrates th e correspondences between the origination of the specifi c bodily parts and the various parts of the cosmos. 18 A classification of the differen t component s o f the human an d cosmic bodies int o th e sequentiall y arisin g sets of the four , five , six , four, five , an d TABLE 5.1.0 Th e Water-elemen t in the Environmen t and in the Bod y Seven oceans Th Salty ocean urin the ocea n o f wine swea the ocea n o f fresh water saliv the ocea n of milk women' the ocea n o f curd brai the ocea n butte r fat the ocea n of honey seme

e flui d elements of the body e t a s

n n

s milk and men's phlegm

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The Inner Kdlacakratantra

TABLE 5.2 A Classificatio n o f the Huma n and Cosmi c Bodies The bod y of the individua l

The cosmos

The fourfol d firs t se t at conception a transmigrating consciousness the father' s and mother's bliss uterine blood semen

Four heavenly bodies Rahu Kalagni the sun the moon

The fivefold second set the bones bile blood flesh an d ski n marrow

The five inandalas the earth-mandala the water-matidal a the fiK-manjaia the wmd-mawJala the space-mandala

The sixfol d thir d set the visua l sense-facult y the auditor y sense-facult y the gustator y sense-facult y the olfactor y sense-facult y the facult y of action the mental sense-facult y

Six planets Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn Ketu

The fourfol d fourt h se t the lef t hand the right hand the right foot the lef t foo t

The fou r island s of the Grea t Jambudvipa Purvavideha (easter n island) Small Jambudvipa (souther n island) Godamya (western island) Uttarakuru (norther n island)

The se t of the five fingers and toes a thumb/a big toe a forefinger/a secon d to e a middle finger/a middle toe a ring-finger/ th e fourt h to e a small finger/a small to e

The five external sense-object s smell taste form touch sound

The thre e knuckles of every finger/to e the first knuckle at the ti p of a finger the middle knuckle the las t knuckle

The three gunas sattva rajas tamas

three, as presented in tabl e 5.2 , is used in this tantri c tradition as a model for practicing a sadhana o n th e sequenc e (krama) of th e arisin g of the fiv e tantri c familie s (kula) withi n a larger bodily or cosmic family . Just a s a sequence o f the originatio n o f the divers e parts o f the cosmo s corre sponds to that of the individual , so too does the sequence o f the dissolution of the cosmos accord with that of the individual . In the process of the dissolution of the cosmos, the karmic winds that support the elements sequentiall y withdraw from th e agglomerates of the five elements i n th e fiv e cosmi c discs that mak e up the cosmos . Similarly, i n th e proces s o f dying , the wind s o f prdnas sequentiall y ceas e carryin g th e elements of earth, water, fire, wind, and space within the respective cakras of the navel , heart, throat , lalata, and usnsa.19

The Cosmic Body 6 3 According t o th e Kalacakr a tradition, one' s ow n body, which wa s produced by one's own karma from th e materia l particles of the father' s semen, als o dissolves due to the emissio n o f one's own semen. A t a human's death, semen, whic h consists of the fiv e elements , flowin g ou t o f the dea d bod y initiate s th e disintegratio n o f th e body. Several passage s on thi s topi c in the Kalacakr a literature sugges t that seme n leaves the bod y a t th e tim e o f death due to th e powe r of the individual' s habitual propensities o f semina l emissio n i n sexua l bliss. Th e habitua l propensitie s (cittavasana) o f the min d o f the huma n being , who consume s th e foo d o f the si x flavors that originate from the five elements, themselves consist of the five elements. Therefore, semen, which leave s the body during the experience of sexual bliss and at death, is composed o f the five elements. A t th e tim e of death, th e habitua l propensitie s of the mind, together with semen, upon leaving the dead body, make up the body of the habitual propensities (vasana'sarim) o f the mind . Even thoug h this body of the ha bitual propensities of the mind is made of fine atomic particles, it is similar to a dream body (svapna-sanra), i n th e sens e that i t i s devoid o f perceptible agglomeration s of atoms. The bod y of the habitua l propensities of karma does not ceas e at death. Du e to thi s remainin g bod y of habitual propensities , a transmigratory consciousness ac quires a new gros s body consisting o f atoms. As a transmigratory consciousness forsakes the habitua l propensities o f the forme r gros s body, the habitua l propensities of the new gross body arise in the mind. Consequently, th e adventitiou s psycho-physical aggregate s (dgantuka-skandha) aris e from th e empt y (sunya) psycho-physica l aggregates of the habitual propensities of the mind (citta-vasand'skandha). Likewise , the empty psycho-physical aggregates of the habitual propensities of the mind aris e from the adventitious psycho-physical aggregates. The atomi c particles of the former, dead body do not g o to another world, for after leavin g the earlie r psycho-physical aggregates, a transmigratory consciousness acquire s different atomi c particles. 20 This process of rebirth is said to be the same for other sentient being s of the thre e realms of cyclic existence. The onl y difference i s in the numbe r of the element s that constitute th e bodie s of the divers e classes of gods. Instead of having five elements, the bodies and semen of the gods in the desire-realm, form-realm, and formless realm consist o f four, three , an d on e element , respectively . This i s because gods consume food tha t consists o f five, four, o r one flavor . Fo r example, th e bodie s and seme n of the gods inhabiting th e si x types of desire-realm consist of the agglomeration s o f the elements o f water, fire, wind, and space . The bodie s of these gods are devoid of th e earth-element an d ar e therefore characterize d by lightness. Likewise , their menta l habitual propensitie s ar e devoi d o f smell a s the sense-objec t that arise s fro m th e earth-element. Th e bodie s an d seme n o f the sixtee n type s of gods dwelling in th e form-realm consis t o f the agglomeration s of the atom s of fire, wind, and space ; and their mental habitual propensities are endowed with taste, touch, an d sound as their sense-objects. The bodie s and semen o f the god s inhabiting th e formles s realm con sist o f the space-elemen t alone , an d thei r menta l habitua l propensitie s have onl y sound as their sense-object. 21 Thus, the bodies, mental habitual propensities, and experiences of different sentient beings are closely related to the nature of the elements contained i n the semen with which they undergo birth and death . According t o thi s tantri c system , a habitual propensity of transmigratory existence cannot arise from a single attribute of the element s but only from a n assembly

64 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

of attributes. In th e cas e o f all sentient being s dwellin g in the thre e realms , durin g sexual bliss and at death, semen—the elements o f which may be the five , four, three , or one in number—leaves the body under th e influence of the habitual propensities . In this way, seminal emission is instrumental in both the birth and death of sentient beings. For the Kalacakr a tradition, th e cycl e of birth and death doe s not tak e plac e in any other way. Thus, on e may say that for this tantric tradition, the entire cosmos , with al l of its inhabitants, manifest s and dissolve s due to th e powe r of the momen t of seminal emission.

The Configuratio n an d Measurements o f the Cosmos an d the Individua l Since th e entir e cosmo s come s int o existenc e du e t o th e efficac y o f the habitua l propensities of sentient beings ' minds , one ma y regard it as a cosmic replica of sentient beings ' bodies. Thus , th e configuratio n and measurement s o f the cosmo s are seen i n this tantric system as analogous an d correlativ e t o th e structur e an d mea surements of the individual' s body. Likewise, since the cosmo s arises and dissolves as a manifestation o f the individual' s mind, the Kalacakratantra considers the cosmo s as being fundamentally nondual from the individual. Due to their common materia l nature, the cosmo s and the individua l are viewed as mutually pervasive, even i n terms of their conventiona l existence ; an d due to their fundamenta l nonduality, th e cos mos and the individua l inevitably influence each other. In terms of conventional reality , the cosmo s an d the bod y of the individua l are nondual i n th e sens e tha t the y shar e a common natur e (prakrti) consistin g o f th e twenty-four principles (tattva), whic h are the object s of the individual' s (purusa) ex perience. Th e eigh t constituent s o f the primar y nature (prakrti) o f the individual — namely, th e fiv e elements , th e min d (manas) , intellec t (buddhi), an d self-grasping (ahamkdra)—are th e microcosmic correlates of the primary nature of the individual's environment. Likewise , the sixteen modifications (v ikrti) of the primary nature of the individual—specifically, th e five sense-faculties, the fiv e sense-object s i n th e body , the fiv e faculties of action, and the sexua l organ—evolve from the primary nature of the individua l in the same way that the five planets, five external sense objects, and six flavors evolv e from th e primar y nature o f the cosmos . Table 5.3 illustrates the exac t correspondences betwee n th e individua l and th e cosmos in terms of their primar y nature an d it s modifications. In terms of ultimate reality, the cosmo s and the individua l are also of the sam e nature, the natur e of gnosis (jnana), which manifest s in the for m of emptiness (siin;y at&'bimba). Those who are free of the afflictiv e and cognitive obscurations nonduall y perceive the worl d as the for m o f emptiness in a nondual manner ; that is, they perceive th e worl d as an inseparabl e unity of form an d emptiness. On th e other hand , ordinary sentient beings , whose perception i s influenced by the afflictiv e an d cogni tive obscurations , se e the worl d in a dual fashion, as something othe r tha n them selves. They see the world as an ordinary place inhabited b y ordinary sentient beings. But in reality, the entir e cosmos, with Mem i n its center, i s a cosmic body of the Jina, a cosmic imag e or reflection (pratimd) o f the Buddha , having th e natur e o f form. As such, i t is similar to the Nirmanakaya of the Buddha. 22 Therefore, accordin g t o this

The Cosmic Body 6

5

TABLE 5.3 Th e Correspondin g Element s o f the Huma n an d Cosmic Bodie s The individua l Th Eight Pralcrtis Eigh the earth-element th the water-element th the wind-element th the fire-elemen the space-element th

e cosmos

t th

the min d (rnanos) Rah the intellect (buMhi) th the self-graspin g (ahamkam) th Sixteen Vikrtis Sixtee the visua l faculty Mar gustatory faculty Venu olfactory facult y Jupite auditory faculty Ket mental faculty Satur the five sense-objects th the anu s salt the hands ho the fee t swee the larynx bitte the femal e sexua l organ astringen the mal e sexual organ sou

t Pralcrti s e earth-elemen t e water-element e wind-element e fire-elemen t e space-element u e sun e moo n n Vilcrtis s s r u n e five sense-objects y taste t tast e t r t r

tantric system , one should attend to this cosmic image of the Buddha , as one attend s to the statu e of the Buddha , create d fo r the sak e of worship. The immediat e aim of the Kalacakratantra's expositio n of the interrelatednes s o f the individua l and the cosmo s is not t o directly induce th e unmediate d experienc e of their nonduality by eradicating the afflictiv e an d cognitive obscurations , but to facilitate a thorough understandin g o f conventional reality. In thi s tantri c system , a proper understanding of the structur e and functions of conventional reality provides a theoretica l basi s for the realizatio n of ultimate reality . I see two mai n reason s for this. First, conventional realit y is the starting point fro m which a tantric practitioner ventures int o tantri c practices ; an d second , a thoroug h knowledg e o f the way s in which conventiona l realit y operate s facilitate s insigh t int o th e natur e o f conven tional reality , which i s fundamentally not differen t fro m ultimat e reality. Before on e can understand th e nondualit y o f conventional an d ultimate realities, one must first understand tha t a seemingly multiform conventional reality is itself unitary. This, I surmise, is one o f the reason s wh y the Kalacakratantra's initia l two chapters ar e dedicated to discussions of the ways in which th e cosmos and the individual correlate t o and pervade each other. "As i t i s outside s o it i s within th e body " (yathd bahye tatha dehe) i s one o f th e most frequently used phrases in the Kdlacakratantra an d its commentarial literature . This maxim underlies the pervading themes of the Kalacakratantra's chapter s o n th e cosmos an d th e individual . To the phras e "a s it i s outside s o it i s in the body, " th e

66

The Inner Kalacakratantra

Adibuddhatantra add s "as i t i s in th e bod y so i t i s elsewhere" (yatha dehe tathd tra), meaning, in the kalacakra-mariaala. 23 The cosmos, the human body, and the kolacakra-mandala ar e taught here i n terms of conventional trut h a s three mandalas representing the oute r (bahya), inne r (adhyatma), an d alternative (anya), o r sublimated, aspects o f a single reality . Therefore, thes e thre e mandalas ar e sai d to b e th e thre e abodes of the Buddha Kalacakra. Knowledge of how these three conventional aspect s of ultimat e realit y ar e interrelate d i s seen a s soteriologicall y significant, for suc h knowledge provide s an indispensable theoretica l framework for Kalacakratantra practice, which aim s at th e unmediate d experienc e of their fundamenta l unity. It i s for this reason that the Kalacakra literature frequently points out the correlations amon g the arrangement s and measurements of the cosmos , the huma n body , and the fcola cakra-mandala. There is sufficient textua l evidenc e i n the Kalacakra literature to indicat e tha t the Kalacakratantra refers to these three aspects of reality as circular mandalas, not because it considers a circular form to be their true form, but merely as a heuristic model for meditative purposes. In showing the parallels among the cosmos, the human body, and the kdlacakra'mandala, th e Kalacakra tradition uses various paradigms, which reflect th e divers e ways in which this tantric traditio n interpret s the cosmo s as a cosmic body of the individua l and o f enlightened awareness . All th e divers e models of the relation s betwee n th e cosmo s and th e individua l that th e Kalacakr a traditio n provides have a practical purpose: they serv e as devices for furthering one's under standing of the interconnectednes s o f all phenomena an d for training the min d t o perceive the world in a nondual fashion. Moreover, they are the contemplative models with which on e can diminis h th e habitua l propensitie s o f an ordinary, dualistic mind. The configuratio n an d measurement s of the cosmo s as described i n th e Kala cakratantra frequently differ fro m thos e given in the Abhidharmakosa. The Kalacakra tradition departs fro m th e Abhidharmakosa not onl y with regard to the arrangement and siz e of the cosmo s but als o in term s of the unit s of measurements.24 Neverthe less, the Kalacakr a tradition doe s not attemp t t o authenticat e it s own presentation of the arrangemen t an d measurement of the cosmo s over that give n in the Abhidharmakosa. The Vimalaprabhd25 assert s that i n terms of the ultimat e truth, th e cosmo s has no spatial dimensions. The conventionall y establishe d siz e of the cosmos appears differently t o differen t sentien t being s due to th e powe r of their virtu e (punya) an d sin (papa). Th e cosmo s is merely an insubstantial apparition of the mind , like a fivecubits wide cave inhabited b y a Sravaka or a Bodhisattva due to whose powers a universal monarch (cakravartin) an d his army can ente r th e cav e without th e cav e being extended an d without th e universal monarch's arm y being contracted. Similarly, the Kalacakratantra26 itsel f asserts that for the Buddha s and fo r knowledgeable people, the dimension s o f the cosmo s that were taught by the Buddha s are not it s true dimensions, sinc e for the Buddha , one cubit can be many cubits due to the power of the Sahajakaya. It also affirms that the Buddha reveals only the dimensions that corresponds to the perceptions of sentient beings, because if he were to say that the di mensions of the cosmo s which h e taugh t wer e in accordance wit h the inclination s of livin g beings dwelling in th e lan d o f karma (karma-bhumz) , then the god s would call him a nihilist (ndstika). Thus , th e Kalacakr a tradition implicitl y suggests that

The Cosmi c Body 6

7

both Buddhis t accounts o f the configuratio n and siz e o f the cosmos—thos e o f th e Abhi'dharmakosa an d th e Kalacakratantra—are ultimatel y invalid. Nevertheless, i t considers both accounts to be provisionally valid expressions of the Buddha' s skillful means. Justifyin g th e Kalacakratantra's accoun t o f the dimension s of the cosmo s i n terms of skillful means , the Vimalaprabha cite s the followin g verse s from th e Paramo,' dibuddhatantra: A falsehood tha t benefits sentien t beings causes an accumulation of merit. A trut h that harms others brings Avici and other hells. Miserly pretas perceive a homely dwelling as a mountain. Evil-doers perceive a home in the form of a needle-pointed mountain. Siddhas wh o have attained th e siddhi o f the underworl d perceiv e the soli d earth as full o f holes everywhere and visi t the cit y of celestial nymphs (apsaras).21 In a similar manner, the following verse from the abridged Kdlacakratantra28 expresses its view that one's perception o f one's own natural environment i s relative, for it is conditioned by the degre e of one's ow n virtue and sin . Wish-fulfilling trees , quicksilver , suprem e potions , othe r medicina l herbs , an d philosopher's stones, which eliminate all diseases, appeared on the earth along with atoms. However, sentient beings do not see them. They see ordinary grass, trees, water, dust , stones, and copper . Pretas perceive rivers as blazing fires, and me n i n hell perceive spears and other weapons. In thi s wa y the Kalacakr a traditio n interpret s th e disparitie s in th e measurements and arrangement of the cosmos within the two Buddhist traditions as evidence of the diversity of sentient beings' perceptions and experiences of the cosmos , which results from thei r diverse mental dispositions and actions. However, this same interpretative principle is not applied to the divergent measurement s of the cosmos give n in Hindu Siddhantas. The Vimalaprabha denie s even the conventional validit y of the Hindu vie w of the cosmo s as Brahma's egg (brahmdrtda), te n millio n leagues (yojana) in size. In light of its criticism of the Hind u Siddhantas, the Vimalaprabha claim s that the Kalacakratantra establishe s the siz e of the cosmo s using the zodiaca l circle (rasi gola) fo r the calculatio n o f planets i n orde r to abolis h th e Hind u measurement s of the cosmo s for the sak e of the spiritua l maturation of Buddhist sages.29 According to the Kalacakratantra, within every single world-system (loka-dhatu) there i s one grea t world system (cakravala), jus t as on ever y single body of a human being there are bodily hairs and skin. The world-syste m that is of the natur e of karma is i n th e cente r o f a Buddha-field , jus t a s the avadhuti i s in th e cente r o f the bod y among al l the nadls. Th e remainin g world-systems tha t ar e of the natur e of enjoy ment (bhoga) stan d in the same relation to the land of karma (karma-bhumi) a s do the other nadlf s t o th e avadhuti. These land s of enjoyment (bhoga-bhumi) brin g pleasure to the senses , as do the nadts i n the body . They are filled with jewels, as the nddis ar e filled with blood. Vajrasattva, the progenito r of the thre e worlds, dwells in space until the tim e of expansion o f the cosmos . But sentient beings do not witnes s the arisin g of the Buddha as long as they lack the accumulation s of merit and knowledge. During the tim e

68 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

when sentient beings lac k merit an d knowledge, Vajrasattv a resides i n space, abid ing in the Dharmakaya; and by means of the Jnanakaya, he perceives the entir e Buddha-field a s it trul y is, free o f karma and karmi c winds.30 It i s said that Vajrasattva, together wit h al l other Buddhas, abide s i n a single pure atom (suddhanu), whic h i s not o f the natur e o f an atomi c particl e (paramanu) bu t o f th e twelv e bodhisattvaWmmis.31 Thus, while ordinary sentient beings , endowed wit h afflictiv e an d cogni tive obscurations, hav e atomi c particle s as their material support , the Buddhas , fre e of all obscurations, have the twelv e bodhisatwa-bhumis a s their pure , immaterial support. In other words , that which i s perceived a s an agglomeration of atomic particle s by those wit h menta l obscuration s i s perceived a s pure gnosis by those without ob scurations. Even though th e Kdlacakratantra agrees to some extent with the Abhidharmakosa about the manne r i n which th e cosmo s evolves, its description o f the configuratio n and measurements of the cosmos differs significantly from that of the Abhidharmakosa. According t o the Kalacakra tradition, the cosmos measures twelve hundred thousan d leagues in circumference and four hundred thousand league s in diameter.32 It is composed o f the five mandalas, or the five discs (valaya)—namely, th e earth , water , fire, wind, and space mandalas—just a s the human body is composed of the five elements. These mandalas support one another i n the same sequence i n which the five elements support one another in the body. 33 Although each of the first four mandalas measures fifty thousan d league s in height, they vary in diameter and circumference. The earth mandala, measurin g one thousan d league s in diameter , or three hundre d thousan d leagues in circumference, rests on the water-mandala. The water-mardala , measuring two hundred thousan d league s in diameter, or six hundred thousan d league s in circumference, rest s o n th e fiK-mandala. Th e fire-maruiaia, measuring three hundre d thousand league s in diameter, o r nine hundre d thousan d league s in circumference, rests o n th e wind-mandala . Th e wind-mandala , measurin g fou r hundre d thousan d leagues in diameter, or twelve hundred thousan d league s in circumference, rests on the spher e of space (akasa-dhatu). Thus , spac e is the suppor t of all the mandalas, just as it is the suppor t o f all the element s i n the body. The fou r mandalas tha t rest in space not onl y correspond t o the mandalas of the four elements i n the human body, but they are also the cosmic representations o f particular bodily components. Withi n different contexts , th e Kalacakra tradition draws different correspondence s amon g the fou r mandalas of the cosmi c body and the com ponents of the human body. Here are several illustration s o f the way s in which th e Kalacakra tradition correlates th e fou r cosmi c mandalas with the bodil y parts. Table 5.4. 3 illustrates the identificatio n of the fou r mandalas with all the bodily TABLE 5-4-A Th e Commo n Features of the Fou r Cosmic Mandalas and Bodil y Part s The cosmos Th

e individua l

the earth-mardolo th the water-martWa th the fae-manhla bloo the wind-nutndtjk i ski

e sof t an d hard bodily parts e fluid bodily parts d n

The Cosmic Body 6

9

TABLE 5.4.8 Th e Fou r Cosmic Mandalas and th e Uppe r Bodily Parts The cosmo s Th

e individual

the earth-dis c a

half of the ches t

(50,000 leagues in radius from th e (1 center o f Meru to the oute r limit of the earth-disc)

2 finger breadths )

the water-dis c a

n upper arm

(50,000 leagues in radius from th e (1 outer limit of the earth-disc to th e outer limit of the water-disc)

2 finger breadths)

the fire-dis

forearm

ca

(50,000 leagues in radius from th e (1 outer limi t of the wate r disc to th e outer limit of the fire-disc)

2 finger breadths )

the wind-disc fro

m the wris t to the end of the han d

(50,000 leagues in radius from th e (1 outer limit of the fire-disc to the outer limit of the wind-disc)

2 finger breadths)

parts in terms of their qualitativ e characteristics. Tabl e 5-4. b demonstrates th e cor respondences amon g the fou r mandalas wit h the uppe r parts of the bod y in terms of their measurements; and table 5-4-c illustrates the identificatio n of the fou r mandalas with the fou r bodily cakras, which bea r the characteristic s o f the fou r elements . From the uppermos t mandala downward, each mandala is one hundred thousan d leagues smaller in diameter than the on e that supports it, and each mandala rests in the center of the one beneath it . In each of the first four mandalas there are two types of underworld s (pdtala), eac h measurin g twenty-fiv e thousan d league s i n height . Thus, ther e are altogether eigh t underworlds : seve n hells and the cit y of ndgas. Th e two underworlds contained in the earth-mandala are the City of nagas and the Grave l Water hell (sarkardmbhas), on e half of the cit y of ndgas being inhabited b y asuras, and the other by nagas.34 The tw o hells located i n the water-maruiala are the Sandy Water hell (vdlukdmbhas) and the Mudd y Water hell (pankambhas). The two hot hell s in the fire-mandala ar e the Intense Smoke hel l (tivradhumra) an d the Fire hell (agni). Lastly, th e tw o col d hell s locate d i n th e wind-mariaal a ar e th e Great Sever e hel l (mahdkharavdta) an d the Grea t Darkness hell (mahandhakdra). TABLE 5.4.0 Th e Fou r Cosmic Mandalas and th e Fou r Bodily Cakra s The cosmo s Th the earth-martia/a th the watet'manjala th the fire-maridai the wind-manrlala th

e individua l

a th

e navel-cakra e heart-cakra e throat-cakra e forehead-cakr a

7O

The Inner Kalacakratantra

As indicated i n chapter 3 on syncretism, the Vimalaprabha's accoun t o f the eight underworlds is remarkably similar to that given in the Jaina classic, the Tatwarthadhigamasutra, which i s traditionally ascribe d t o Umasvati , a prolific Jain a autho r o f th e second centur y C E who wa s equally accepted b y both Digambaras and Svetambaras . For example, the corresponding hells enumerated i n the Tattvarthadhigamasutra hav e the followin g sequence an d names : th e Jewel-hue d (ratna), Pebble-hue d (sarkara), Sand-hued (valuka), Mud-hue d (panka), Smoke-hue d (dhuma), Darkness-hue d (tamos), an d the Grea t darkness-hued (mahd-tamas) hells. 35 There are also certain similarities amon g th e hell s mentione d i n th e Vimalaprabhd an d thos e i n th e Tattvarthadhigamasutra wit h regard to the temperature an d sequential increas e i n the size of hells, bu t no t wit h regard to thei r shape an d specific measurements.36 Thus , the Vimalaprabha's classificatio n of the eigh t types of underworld and it s descriptio n of their location clearl y differ fro m thos e i n the Abhidharmakosa.31 It i s interesting tha t i n th e Vimalaprabha's accoun t o f the configuratio n of th e underworld there is no mention o f the Avici hell , eve n though the Adibuddhatantra and the Vimalaprabhd mak e references to Avici i n other contexts. 38 So far, I have not encountered a n explanation fo r this omission in any of the commentaria l literatur e on the Kalacakratantra, The onl y thing the Vimalaprabhd say s about hell i n general is that it i s "a state o f an inferna l being (narakatva), whic h originate s from th e habit ual propensitie s of the si x elements (sad'dhdtU'Vdsand), an d i s like a dream." 39 Bu t this intepretativ e principl e can also be applied to the othe r hell s and the rest of the universe. It is possible that the autho r of the Vimalaprabhd, bein g aware of other Buddhist classifications of hells, writes of Avici in terms of the broader Buddhist context. It i s also possible that Avici and som e of the othe r hell s described i n the Abhidharmakosa and other earlier Buddhist texts are implicitly included her e as subcategories of the variou s hells. Sinc e neither the Vimalaprabha no r th e Kalacakratantr a offers a more detailed descriptio n o f the content s of the hell s an d the natur e o f suffering i n them, it is difficult to determine with certainty the exten t to which the mentioned hells correspond to and differ fro m the hells described in the Abhidharmakosa and th e Tattvorthaihigamaswtra. I t i s clear, however , tha t th e Kalacakr a tradition find s th e Jaina classification of hells to be more applicable to its own schematization of the underworld, consisting of the fou r elemental mandalas than that of the earlie r Buddhist traditions.40 The name s o f the hell s reveal that eac h pair of hells is physically characterized by the elemen t o f the mandaki to which i t belongs. This fundamental fourfold classificatio n of the underworl d is obviously designed to conform closely to th e Kalacakratantra's fourfold classification s of the elementa l mandalas i n the bod y of the individual, th e fou r vajras o f the individual , th e fou r state s o f th e mind , th e fou r castes, four wjra-families , an d th e fou r bodie s of the Buddha . Th e configuratio n of the underworld , beginning wit h the cit y of the ndga s in the eaith-mandaki and end ing with the Great Darkness (mahdndhakdra) hel l in the wind-mandala, is structurally similar to the individual' s body at death. In the dyin g process, the earth-elemen t o f the individual' s body disintegrates first, followed by the respective elements of water, fire, and wind.41 See figure 5.1. Thus, the Kalacakr a tradition depart s from the Abhidharmakosa in terms of both the configuratio n and th e measuremen t o f the cosmos . According t o the Abhidhar makosa, th e cosmo s measure s 3,610,35 0 league s i n circumferenc e an d 1,203,45 0

The Cosmic Body 7

1

FIGURE 5.1 Th e univers e an d it s divisions

leagues i n diameter. 42 Th e huma n worl d i s supporte d b y thre e instea d o f fou r manhlas—the golden eatth-mandala, the water-maridala, and the wind-maniaia that rests i n space . The golde n earth-maridala, which measure s 1,203,450 league s i n diameter and 320,000 leagues in height, rests on the water-marekla, which is, in turn, i ,203,450 leagues in diameter and 800,000 leagues in height. The water-matxiala rests on the wmd-mandala, which is immeasurable in circumference and i ,600,000 leagues in height.43 The accoun t of the configuration of the surface of the earth-mandala in the Kalacakra tradition als o differs fro m tha t o f the Abhidharmakosa. According to the Kala cakra tradition , o n th e surfac e o f th e earth-maridai a ther e ar e seve n continent s (dvipa), includin g Great JambudvTp a (mahd'jambudvipa) a s th e seventh . Further more, there are seven mountains in addition to Mt. Meru, which is in the cente r of the earth-rnaretala ; and ther e ar e seven oceans , with th e water-mardal a a s the seventh.44 The si x continents—Candra, Sitabha, Varaparamakusa, Kimnara, Kraunca, and Raudra—are the land s of enjoyment (bhoga-bhumi), 45 while the sevent h conti nent, whic h i s the earth-mandaia , o r th e Grea t JambudvTpa , i s the lan d o f karma (karma'bhumi), inhabite d b y humans an d animals . O n th e surfac e o f Great JambudvTpa, th e si x oceans—the ocean s o f wine, fresh water , milk, curd, butter, an d honey—surround the si x continents. Th e seventh , th e salt ocean, surround s Great

72

The Inner Kalacakratantra

JambudvTpa,46 and fro m th e cente r o f Mt. Meru , the sal t ocean measure s one hun dred thousan d league s in al l directions. Seventy-tw o thousand river s flo w int o th e oceans,47 an d they correspond t o the seventy-tw o thousand nadis i n the body . Th e seven mountain s tha t surroun d th e seve n continent s i n concentri c circle s ar e Nilabha, Mandara, 48 Nisadha, 49 Manikara , Drona , Slta , an d th e vajra-mountain , Vadavagni, which is situated at the edg e of the salt ocean and the earth-mardala and beneath th e salt ocean . Mt. Mer u is at th e ver y center o f Great JambudvTpa , just as the spin e i s at th e center of the body. It is said to have the shap e of a bindu and is dark green in the cen ter, du e to the natur e of the space-mardala . Meru's four side s have four differen t col ors. I t is blue in the east, red in the south , yellow in the west, and white in the north due to the nature of the elements of wind, fire, earth, and water. In total, i t measures one hundred thousan d league s in height. 50 The heigh t o f its head i s fifty thousan d leagues, and it s neck an d immovable peak are each twenty-fiv e thousand league s in height. Its upper width i s fifty thousand leagues , and it s width on th e surfac e o f the earth-mandala is sixteen thousand leagues . Meru is the spin e and head of the cosmi c body; and as such, it is an external representation o f the individual' s head and spine, expanding from the buttocks up to the shoulders. Accordingly, its measurements correspond to those of the spin e and the hea d of the human body. Table 5.5 illustrates the metrical correspondences bewtee n Mt. Meru and the individual's spine and head, a s presented i n this tantric system . This measuremen t o f Mt . Mer u differ s fro m tha t describe d i n th e Abhidharmakosa, in which the height of Mt. Meru is said to be 1,600,000 leagues. Here again, the Kalacakratantra's measuremen t of Mt. Meru accords with that given in the Jaina commentarial literature on th e Tattvdrthadhigamasutra, i n which Mt. Meru is said t o be one hundred thousan d league s in height, wit h one thousand leagues being below the surfac e of the earth. 51 See figure 5.2. The circl e of astrological houses, togethe r with innumerabl e stellar constellations, revolve s day and nigh t aroun d Mt . Meru' s summit. In the eigh t direction s of Mt. Meru there are eight planets, just as around the spin e there ar e the sense-faculties and faculties of action. Th e su n and Mars are on the right ; Ketu and Saturn are in the front; the moon and Mercury are on the left ; and Venus and Jupiter are on the back. On the top of Mt. Meru there ar e five peaks that penetrate the earth. I n all diTABLE 5.5 Mt . Mer u and th e Huma n Body Mt. Meru Th

e bodily spine and the head

100,000 leagues in height from the 1 earth-marclala t o the to p of the peak botto

cubit in height from th e wais t to th e m of the neck

Mt. Meru' s neck is 25,000 leagues in th height heigh

e nec k i s 6 finger breadths in t

Mt. Meru's head i s 50,000 league s in th height th

e head from th e nec k to the en d of e lalata is 12 finger breadths in height

Mt. Meru' s immovable peak is 25,000 th leagues in height th

e to p of the head from th e lalat a to e usmsa is 6 finger breadths

The Cosmic Body 7 3

FIGURE 5.2 Dimension s of Mt. Meru

rections from Brahma' s abode in the lowe r region of the cente r o f Mt. Meru , ther e are eigh t thousan d league s in width . Al l aroun d Mt . Mer u i s a mountai n rang e (cakravada), whic h measures one thousand league s in breadth. Outsid e that mountain range, in the cavitie s in between the fou r peaks of Mt. Meru that penetrate th e earth, ther e ar e th e alternatin g disc s o f the si x continents with thei r ocean s an d mountains. Each of the si x continents, oceans , and mountains measures roughly 889 leagues in diameter, 52 thus measuring sixteen thousan d league s altogether. Outside all of this, in the eigh t directions of Mt. Meru , Great Jambudvlpa measures twentyfive thousand leagues. Outside Great Jambudvlpa is a disc of salty water, which measures fifty thousand leagues in all directions from th e oute r limit of Great Jambudvlpa to the en d of the water-mandala. In every direction from Brahma' s place in Meru to the oute r limit of the wind-maridala, there are two hundred thousand leagues. 53 In this way, the entire breadth of the cosmo s extends up to four hundre d thousan d league s in diameter, its size corresponding to the siz e of the human body measuring four cubits (hasta). However, when on e include s the space-maridal a i n the breadt h o f the cosmos , then th e

74 Th e Inner Kdlacakratantra

body of the cosmos measure five hundred thousan d league s from th e to p of Mt. Meru up to the end of space. With the reasoning that the cosmos pervades the body of the individual, the human body is said to measure five cubits up to the tips of the hair on the head . This typ e of arrangement o f Great JambudvTp a is not foun d i n th e Abhidharmakosa. The number s and the concentri c layou t of the seve n continent s an d seven oceans correspon d t o thos e mentione d i n the Puranas, 54 as do the shap e an d measurement of Great JambudvTpa.55 Although th e Kalacakra tradition accepts to a large extent th e Puranic representation of the configuration of the cosmos , it criticizes the Puranic account of the origination of the cosmos. With regard to the shapes and sizes of Grea t JambudvTp a an d th e sal t ocean, th e Kalacakr a tradition's accoun t corre sponds to that of the Jaina cosmology. According t o the Tattvarthadhigamasutra, Ch . 3, v. 9, and its earlier mentioned commentarial literature , Great Jambudvlpa has th e shape of a ring with a diameter of one hundred thousand leagues, and it is surrounded by the sal t ocean, whic h i s twice as wide as JambudvTpa.56 Although th e Kalacakratantra's accoun t o f th e configuratio n o f Grea t Jam budvTpa seem s to b e base d on tha t o f the Puranas , i t include s t o som e degree th e model o f th e fou r continent s foun d i n th e Abhidharmakosa an d othe r Buddhis t texts.57 Th e fou r continent s that ar e mentioned i n the Abhidharmakosa an d othe r earlier Buddhist literature are incorporated int o this larger picture of the cosmo s as the fou r island s that are located i n the fou r direction s of Great JambudvTpa . Thei r arrangement i n relation t o Mt. Mer u as depicted in the Kalacakr a literatur e corresponds t o that i n the Abhidharmakosa, but th e measurement s and shape s o f the islands in most cases differ . According t o th e Kalacakr a tradition, ther e ar e fou r island s o n Grea t Jam budvTpa. Each of the fou r island s is of the natur e o f one of the fou r elements—wind, fire, water, and earth. The natur e of each of the mentione d element s influence s th e shapes and colors of the islands. 58 Thus, i n the easter n side of Great Jambudvlpa, in front o f Mt. Meru, there i s the dar k blue Purvavideha, which i s semicircular in form , due to the nature o f the wind-mardala . It measures seven thousand leagues . On th e south o f Great JambudvTpa , t o th e righ t o f Mt. Meru , there i s Small Jambudvlpa, which i s red and triangula r in shape, due to th e natur e o f the fire-element . I t measures eight thousand leagues. 59 On the north of Great JambudvTpa, to the lef t of Mt. Meru, there i s the white Uttarakuru, which i s circular in shape, due to the nature of the water-mariclakj . I t measure s nine thousan d leagues . On th e wes t of Great JambudvTpa, facing the back of Mt. Meru, there is the golde n island Godamya, which is yellow an d quadrangula r in shape, due to the natur e o f the earth-element . I t measures ten thousan d leagues. 60 See figure 5.3. The formatio n of the fou r island s in relation t o Mt . Mer u and the characteris tics of their color s and shape s correspond t o th e fou r side s of the individual' s body, each o f which i s characterized by th e elementa l natur e o f one o f th e fou r bodily numdolas. Table 5.6 demonstrates the way in which the Kalacakra tradition correlates the fou r island s of Great JambudvTp a with the fou r side s of the individual' s body. The color s of the fou r island s correspond t o th e color s of the fou r side s of Mt. Meru. Likewise, their colors and formations on Great JambudvTp a correspond to the four face s o f the Buddh a Kalacakra in the kdlacakra-rnandala. The fou r faces of Kala-

The Cosmic Body 7

FIGURE 5.3 Grea t Jambudvipa

TABLE 5.6 Grea t Jambudvipa an d th e Huma n Body Great Jambudvipa

The individual

Purvavideha: the eastern, semicircula r island having th e nature of the wmd-maniala

The fron t part of the bod y having the natur e o f the wtnd-mandal a

Godamya: th e western , quadrangula r island having the natur e o f the earth-mandala

The bac k of the body having th e nature o f the earth-maridai a

Vttarakum: th e northern, circula r island having th e nature of the water-maruiala

The lef t sid e of the bod y having th e nature o f the water-mandal a

Small Jambudvipa: the southern , triangular island having th e natur e of the fire'Tnandaf a

The righ t side of the body having th e nature o f the fire-manaa! a

5

76

The Inner Kalacakratantra

cakra symboliz e the fou r aspect s i n whic h enlightene d awarenes s manifests itself . Thus, th e fou r island s of Great JambudvTp a and th e correspondin g side s of the hu man body are the geographica l and anatomical representations o f the fou r aspects of the Buddha' s mind. When these phenomena l aspect s of the Buddha' s mind become purified, the y manifest as the fou r bodies of the Buddha . Great JambudvTpa looks like a twelve-spoked wheel, for it is divided into twelve sections (khanda). Eac h of the sections measures twenty-five thousand leagues . In th e center o f the sectio n belongin g t o th e Smal l JambudvTpa there i s the mountai n Kailasa, surrounded by snow mountains. Together wit h the surrounding snow mountains, Kailasa occupies one-third o f that section. Outside that rang e there ar e twelve countries and districts in the twelv e subsections of Small JambudvTpa. 61 In eac h sectio n o f Grea t JambudvTp a ther e i s on e universa l monarc h (ca kravartm), who turns the Wheel of Dharma in his section. Thus, the twelv e sections of Great JambudvTpa have twelve universal monarchs, who are likened to twelve suns that dispel the darkness of ignorance by introducing the Buddhist Dharma. They are twelve i n number i n the sam e sense that one can speak of "twelve suns " due to th e classification o f the twelv e solar mansions. Thus, Great Jambudvlpa , together wit h its twelve sections, i s an earthly reflection of the circl e of solar mansions and o f th e twelve-spoked wheel of cyclic existence . Every eighteen hundre d human years, the universal monarch enter s one section of the earth-mardak, 62 moving progressively from on e section t o another, fro m th e front t o th e bac k o f Meru. He establishe s his Dharma in each sectio n tha t has entered the kali-yuga and thereby introduces the krta-yuga. Thus, the kali-yuga is always in front of him, and th e treta-yuga is behind him. 63 This belief that at different times , the universal monarch, visitin g and teachin g Dharma in th e twelv e sections of Great JambudvTpa, sanctifies each of the section s with his presence, is one of reasons that the Kalacakra tradition identifie s the twelve sections of the Great JambudvTpa as the twelv e group s of cosmic pilgrimage sites— namely, plthas, upaplthas, ksetras, upaksetras, chandohas, upachandohas, melapakas, upamelapakas, vesmas (pilavas), upavesmas (upapikwas), smasanas, upasmasanas. Each of the twelv e groups of sacred pilgrimage sites comprises a specific number of sites. Th e Kalacakra tradition classifie s an d subdivide s the twelv e classes of pilgrimage sites in various ways in order to demonstrate the multipl e models of interpreting the corre spondences between the cosmic body and the human body. One of the Kalacakratantra's goals in outlining th e correspondences and identities amon g the pilgrimage sites and the bodily components o f the individua l is to demonstrate th e pointlessness o f visiting the pilgrimag e sites, for they are already present within one's own body. Visits to the external pilgrimage sites lead neither t o spiritual awakening nor to mundane siddhis. The Vimalaprabha assert s that the pilgrimag e sites such as Jalandhara and oth ers are mentioned onl y for the benefi t of foolish people (bala) wh o wander about th e country.64 Thi s sam e statemen t als o appear s i n Naropa' s Vajrapadasarasamgraha, XVII, 3^ 2.65 In both cases, it suggests that foolish people, who lack understanding of nonduality, do not se e that th e place s of pilgrimage are omnipresent. The entir e cosmos i s a pilgrimage site, as is the individual . The Vimalaprabha state s that according to the Paramadibuddhatantra, due to th e pervasiveness of the earth-element , the externa l pilgrimag e sites are present als o in

The Cosmi c Body 7 7 Tibet, China , and other countries. Accordin g t o the abridge d Kalacakratantra, the y are als o present i n ever y city.66 In thi s way , the Kalacakr a tradition reject s the in herent sacredness of one place or one human bein g over another. It suggests that all regions o f the worl d and al l human bodie s are equally sacred. This vie w o f the hu man body as containing within itself all the pilgrimage sites is not unique to the Kalacakra tradition. I t is also found in other anuttara-yoga'tantras an d i n the literatur e of the Sahajayana . For example, the well-known SahajTya poet, Sarahapada, affirm s i n his Dohakosa that he ha s not see n another place o f pilgrimage as blissful a s his own body.67 With regard to the individual, the Kalacakra literature identifies the twelve categories of pilgrimage sites with the twelv e characteristics of transmigratory existenc e and enlightened existence . In terms of conventional reality, the Kalacakr a tradition identifies the twelv e categories of pilgrimage sites with the twelv e links of dependent origination an d th e twelv e sign s of the zodiac—startin g wit h spiritua l ignoranc e (avidyd) arisin g in Capricorn an d endin g with old ag e and deat h (jard-marana) aris ing in Sagittarius. I n term s of ultimate reality , the Kalacakratantra see s the twelv e categories of pilgrimage sites as the symboli c representations o f both th e twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis—which impede th e arisin g of the twelve links of dependent origination an d th e twelv e zodiacs—whic h ar e the tempora l basi s of the twelv e links of dependent origination . This identification o f the twelv e categories o f pilgrimage sites with th e twelv e bodhisatwa-bhumis i s equall y characteristi c o f othe r anuttara-yoga-tantras—specifically, the Cakrasamvara an d th e Hevajra tantras. However, th e Kalacakr a literatur e gives a more explicit explanation o f this type of identification. The Kalacakr a tradition identifies the twelv e types of pilgrimage sites with the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis on the groun d that throughout th e thre e times, the element s o f the Buddha' s purified psycho-physical aggregate s and sense-base s assume the for m of deities. These deities then arrive at and leave from these pilgrimage sites, and due to the prams' flow in the bodil y cakras, they arrive at and leav e from thos e cakras. Furthermore, a group of yoginis wh o roa m th e eart h fo r the benefi t of sentien t beings dwells in each of the eigh t directions of Mt. Meru, expanding as far as the en d of the wmd-mandala. These yogims also journey in the cosmi c mandalas of water, fire, wind, an d space , whic h ar e th e seat s of the cosmi c cakras, just as the prams mov e through th e cakra s of the invidivual' s body. Just as the huma n body has six cakras, so too does the body of the cosmos . The si x cakras of the cosmo s are the location s o f the cosmic pilgrimage sites. In the cente r o f the summi t of Mt. Meru, there is the inne r lotus (garbha-padma) o f the Bhagava n Kalacakra, which ha s sixteen petals and con stitutes the bliss-cakra (ananda-cakra) of the cosmi c body. 68 The gnosis-cakra , which has eight spokes, occupies two-thirds of the earth-marelala . The earth-cakr a is in one half o f the salt y ocean, an d th e water-cakr a i s in th e othe r half. Likewise , the firecakra is in one hal f of the fire-mandala, an d th e wind-cakr a is in the other half. Th e space-cakra is in one half of the wind-rrwriclala . In the space-manclal a there are sixteen pilgrimage sites of the smasdna type. Tables 5-7-a-h illustrate the specifi c locations o f the pilgrimag e sites within th e six cosmi c an d si x bodily cakras. They als o demonstrate th e manne r i n whic h th e Kalacakra tradition assert s that the cessatio n o f the twelv e zodiacs and twelv e links

78

The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 5-7- A Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimag e Site s Pilgrimage sites 1

four pit has Kamarupa Jalandhara Purnagin Oddiyana

The cosmos

The individual

in the four cardinal directions of the earth -

in the fou r cardinal directions of the cakra of the gnosis-elemen t due to the cessation s of Sagittarius and the twelfth lin k of dependent origination (jara-mararia)

m/xndala

1 The name s o f the fou r pithas correspon d t o thos e give n i n the Hevajratantra, Par t i , Ch. 7 , v. 13. According t o P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 27, the regio n of Kamarupa is marked by the rive r Karatoya and i s placed aroun d th e Gauhat i region of Assam. It was also known under the nam e Pragjyotisa. H H . Wilson i n his translation o f The Visrw Purana A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition, 2 vols., Delhi : Nag, 1989, vol. i . p. 263, fn. 6 , identifie s Kamarup a as the northeaster n part of Bengal and western portion of Assam. This seems to accord to some degree with Taranatha's account, 1990 , p. 330, which also places Kamarupa in northeastern India . According t o Bu ston [188], Kamarup a i s in eastern Indi a an d has the rive r Lohita in its center, whic h flows north t o south. P. Gupta identifie s Jalandhar a a s Jullundur, the headquarter s o f the sam e district i n Punjab . I n th e Padma Purana, Jalandhara i s mentioned a s the capita l of the grea t daitya kin g Jalandhara. B u ston [188 ] identifies Jalandhara as being northwest o f theGuge region in Tibet; and he places Purna to the north of Oddiyana. Taranatha, 1990 , pp. 91, 121, 274, associates Jalandhar a with the celebrate d kin g Kaniska of the first century CE and places it in northern India . Oddiyana wa s situated o n th e Subhavast u rive r (th e moder n Swa t river) . I t include s th e fou r moder n district s of Pangkora, Bijawar , Swat , and Bunir , and it s capital was Maiigala. According t o Fa-hien , who visited India i n the fift h century CE, it was a part of northern Indi a an d wa s situated north o f the Punja b alon g th e Subhavast u river. It was an important center o f Mahayana Buddhism.

TABLE 5.7.6 Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimag e Sites Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individual

four upapithas Godavari Ramesa Devikotta Malava

in the four intermediate directions of the eart h manckia

in the four intermediate directions of the cakra of the gnosis-element due to the cessation s of Scorpio and the elevent h lin k of dependent origination (jdti)

1

1 Godavari i s the name of the larges t and longest rive r m south India , which rise s from the Western Ghats. According to the Visnu Purana, Book 2, Ch. 2 , vs. 11-12, Godavari flows from th e Sahy a mountains. According to P Gupta , 1973 , p. 73 , there was a famous pilgrimage site at Govardhan-Gangapura on th e righ t bank of the river , about six miles west of Nasik. Th e Markandeya Purana, Ch . 57 , v . 34 , mention s th e rive r Godavar ! i n connectio n wit h a regio n wher e Govardhanapura stood . It i s possible that Ramesa refers t o Rames'vava , a sacred island i n th e Ba y of Bengal. However, accoidin g to B u ston [188], Ramesa i s a synonym for Ramesvara, or Nandesvara, located on th e shor e o f Sri Lanka. Taranatha, 1990 , p. 336, places Ramesvara at the extremit y of the ape x of the triangula r region of the south . Devikotta may be another name for DevTkota, or Devakota, the ancient capital of Kotivarsa in northein Bengal, which is often mentioned m the epigraphi c records of the Palas and Senas of Bengal. Howevet, there were several places in India under this name. H . H. Wilson, 1989 , vol. 2, p. 823, fn. i, identifies Devikota a s a synonym for Soniputra, correspondin g to th e moder n Devicott a i n th e Karnatic . The nam e Devikot a als o designates the capita l o f Munja i n Dekhm on th e banks of the Godavar T and the place in Assam near Goalpara . Malava wa s the countr y of the Malav a tribe s who settle d i n Punja b Th e locatio n o f the exac t territor y that the y occupied is difficult t o determine. Differen t authors locat e them i n different areas . Accoiding t o B. C Law , 1984, p. no, it seem s that th e Malava s eventuall y migrate d southward an d settle d m Rajaputan a a t th e tun e o f Samudragupta. Taranatha, 1990 , pp. 47, 49, 68, places the Malav a country i n western India and associate s it with the citie s of Kosambi and UjjayinT . Cf. the tievajratantra, Part i, Ch. 7 , v. 13, which mentions the following three upapithas; Malava , Sindhu, and Nagara.

The Cosmic Body 7 9 TABLE 5.7.0 Location s o f the Cosmi c an d Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individua l

fourfcsetras 1 Arbuda MunmunI Odra Karunyapataka

in the fou r cardina l directions of the inne r half of the water-manoal a

in the fou r cardina l directions of the eartlvcakr a due t o the cessation s of Libra and the tenth link of dependent origination (bhava)

four upaksetras2 Trisakuni Karmarapataka Kosala Ladadesa

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the inne r half of the vtater-maryjala

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the earth-cakr a due to the cessation s of Virgo and the ninth link of dependent origination (upadana)

1 B. C. Law, 1984 , p. 304, and P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 251, agree that Arbud a is the mountai n Ab u i n the souther n en d of the Aravalli range in the Siroh i state of Rajputana. Bu ston [188] places Arbuda and MunmunT in eastern India . According to B. C. Law, 1984, p. 178, Odra is the modern Onssa. According to Buston [189], Odra and Karunyapatak a are northwest o f Rajagrha, o n the souther n ban k o f Ganga in the countr y of Asoka Cf. the Hevajratantra, Par t i , Ch. 7 , v. 13: Karunyapataka, Devlkota, and Karmarapataka. 2 Bu ston [188] identifies Karmarapataka as a district of many blacksmiths, a part of Bhagala in eastern India . Bhagala is most likel y a synonym for Bhangala (Bengal), since Taranatha, 1990 , p. 121 , mentions Gauda as its capital. Ladadesa is, according t o Bu ston [188] , a region of Ruka in western India. Kosala was an importan t kingdom i n eastern Decca n a t th e tim e of early Buddhism. In th e Ahguttara Nikdya, 1958 , vol. 1, it is listed among the sixtee n Mahajanapadas of JambudvTpa. The capita l cities of Kosala were SravastT, where th e Buddha reportedly spent muc h time , and Saketa. Cf. the Hevajrataritra, Par t i , Ch. 7 , v. 14: Kulata, Arbuda, GodavarT, and Himadri.

TABLE 5.7.0 Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites Th 1

four chandohas i Kalinga direction Hankela hal Candradvlpa an Lampaka dependen

e cosmo s Th n the fou r cardina l i s of the oute r direction f of the water- mandala du

e individua l n the four cardinal s of the water-cakr a e to the cessation s of Leo d the eight h link of t origination (trsria )

1 Kahng a i s the seacoast , wes t o f the mouth s o f the Ganges , togethe r wit h th e uppe r par t of the Coromande l coast . According to Bu ston [188], Kalinga is in the southwest, sixty leagues from Vajrasana. Hankela wa s also an easter n country. According to B C . Law , 1984, p. 222, it was located west of the rive r Meghna, some forty leagues north of Tamrallpti. Some thin k that it was a coastal countr y between Samatata and Onssa, and some identify it with parts of Backerganj andNoakhah. For different opinion s on its exact location se e B. C. Law, pp. 221-222 According t o Bu ston [189], Hankela i s a district of Bhagala in the east . Candradvlpa was also located i n eastern India . According t o B. C. Law, p 215 , it i s mentioned m the Rampa l grant of Srlcandra as being Riled by the kin g Trailokyacandra in the tenth or eleventh centur y CE. According t o Bu ston [189] , it i s the islan d o f Bhagala. According to S. M. All, 1966 , p. 143, Lampaka was a territorial unit in the northern mountai n zon e of the Indus Basin, associated wit h the uppe r Kabul valley. The regio n i s the sam e as the Lambaga e of the Greek s and modern Lamghan. Cf. the Hevajratantra, Par t i, Ch. 7 , v. 15: Hankela, arising from the salt-ocean, Lampaka, Kanaka , and Saurastra.

8o

The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 5-7.E Location s o f the Cosmi c an d Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individua l

four upachtmdohas Kaftcl Konkanaka Himalaya Nepala

in the four intermediate directions of the oute r half of the water-matidaJ a

in the fou r intermediate directions of the water-calcr a due to the cessation s of Cancer and the seventh lin k of dependent origination (vedand)

four meldpakas2 Matrgrha Prayaga Kollagiri Grhadevata

in the fou r cardina l directions of the inne r half of the fire-immclai a

in the fou r cardina l directions of the fire-cakra due t o the cessation s of Gemini and the sixt h link of dependent origination (sparsa)

1

1 The cit y of Kanci was an important plac e of pilgrimage in southern Indi a since early times. It has been identifie d as Conjeevaram, the capital of Dravida or Cola on the Palar river, forty-three miles southwest of Madras. I t contains many Saiva, Vaisnava, and Jama temples. It was one of the well-know n centers of Buddhist learning. Bu ston [189 ] mention s Kanci as Dharmaknti's place. According t o Bu ston [188] , Konkanaka was a city in the southwest . Its borders were surrounded by rivers, and i t ha d seven divisions. Konkanaka is most likely Konkana, also mentioned b y Taranatha, 1990 , p. 325, as a region in the sout h of India, in which ther e was a famous Buddhis t shrine Mahabimba . Cf. the Hevajratantra, Par t 1 , Ch. 7 , v. 16: Kalinga, the Isl e of Gold, an d Kokana . 2 I have bee n unabl e to identif y Matrgrh a and Kollagiri. According t o the Chos kyi rnamgrangs , 1986 , pp. 457-458, Grhadevata i s in northwestern China . Prayag a i s modern Allahabad . Th e Mahdbhdrata, 85 . 79-83, mentions i t a s th e holiest place in the worl d Th e earl y Pali texts mention Prayag a as a pilgrimage site (tfrtha ) o r gltat on the rive r Ganges . According t o Huien-stang , thet e wei e onl y a fe w Buddhist establishment s i n Prayag a at th e tim e o f his visit . Th e Henajratantra doe s not lis t any site belonging to th e grou p of mdapakas o r upameldpakas.

of dependent originatio n i s causally related to th e transformatio n o f the si x cosmic and si x bodily cakras into the twelv e bodhisatwa-bhumis, or the twelv e groups of pilgrimage sites. These tables further sugges t that in the contex t o f the Kalacakratantra practice, the sequential attainment o f the twelve bodhisattva-bhumis is an internal pilgrimage to spiritual awakening. A tantric adept undertakes an internal pilgrimage by purifying th e bodil y cakras b y means o f the six-phase d yoga (sad-anga-yoga), which , in turn , purifies th e externa l cakras o f his environment . Thus , one ma y say that i n this tantric system , the pat h o f spiritual awakening is metaphorically seen as the ul timate pilgrimage. See tables 5-7.a-h for the correlations amon g the locations o f pilgrimage sites in the cosmo s and within th e bod y of the individual. According t o the schem a give n above, each of the twelv e categories of pilgrimage sites includes th e fou r pilgrimage sites. Thus, fo r this tantric tradition, ther e ar e altogether forty-eigh t pilgrimag e sites. 69 Th e numbe r o f th e subdivision s o f th e twelve pilgrimage sites and their names as given in the Kalacakra tradition diffe t fro m those given in other Buddhist tantri c systems. 70 This should not com e as a surprise, though, since one encounters variou s numberings even within each of the mentione d Buddhist tantric systems . The Vimalaprabha justifie s these contradictions a s the skillful mean s of liberating those with sharp mental faculties from grasping onto any physical place.71 A closer look at the illustrate d paradigms of the ways in which th e Kalacakra traditio n draw s th e correlation s amon g th e externa l pilgrimag e sites and th e

The Cosmic Body 8 1 TABLE 5-7-F Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individua l

four upamelapakas1 Saurastra KasmTra Suvarnadvipa Simhala

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the inne r half of the fire-rrwkiii a

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the fire-calcr a due to th e cessation s of Taurus and th e fifth link of dependent origination (si x ayatanas)

four smasanas2 Nagara Mahendrasaila Smdhudesa Kirataka

in the four cardina l directions of the oute r half of the (ae-mandala

in the fou r cardina l directions of the wmd-cakr a due t o the cessation s of Aries and the fourt h lin k of dependent origination (nama-rupa)

1 According t o S. M Ali , 1966 , p. 146 , the Mats^ a Purana identifie s Saurastr a as the regio n occupying the souther n half of the Kathlawa r peninsula. The Visnu Purana also mentions Saurastra as one o f the wester n regions of India. The Buddhist tradition considers it as the birthplac e of Santideva. SuvarnadvTpa could be a synonym for Suvarnabhumi {Lowe r Burm a and Mala y islands), mentioned i n the earl y Pal l text\ specifically , i n th e Majjhima an d Samyutta Ntkayas. Accordin g t o th e Chos kyi mam grangs, 1986 , pp . 457-458, SuvarnadvTpa designates Indonesia. Simhala is another nam e for Ceylon. 2 Mahendrasaila is perhaps Mahendragiri, or Mahendracata, the portio n of the easter n Ghats between the Godavar T and Mahanadl rivers. A portion of the eastern Ghat near Gan]am is still called the Mahendra hill. H. H Wilson , vol. i, p 259 , fn. 2 , specifies Mahendt a as the chai n o f hills that extend s from Oriss a and th e norther n Circa s to Gondwan a near Ganjam. According to Bu ston [189], Mahendrasaila is in the distric t of Dhanyakataka, the famous site of Mahayana Buddhism. According t o P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 17 , the ancien t Smdhudesa wa s to the wes t of the lower Indus. According to Bu ston [189], Smdhudesa designates the regio n in eastern India through which flows the grea t river Smdhu. Kirataka probably tefers to the country of Kiratas, which was in the Himalayas Klrata s were nomadic people according to Megasthenes. According to Ptolemy, they lived in the northern region of Uttarapatha. In the Bhdgavata Purana, II . 4, 18, they are mentioned a s people living outside the Arya n fold. Bu ston [189] only glosses Kirataka as the Kiratadesa . Cf. the Hevajratantra, Par t i, Ch. 7, v. 17: Caritra, Kosala, Vindhya, and Kaumarapaurika.

bodily parts reveals that th e divers e numberings of pilgrimage site s ar e not contra dictory or randomly arrange d bu t complementar y and carefull y designed . They exemplify th e multipl e way s i n whic h thi s tantri c syste m delineate s th e correspon dences it sees. As the given correspondences themselves vary, there are different way s of structurin g an d numbering . The divers e way s o f identifying th e pilgrimag e site s with the component s of the individual' s body have their specifi c role s in the differ ent phase s of the Kalacakratantra practice. For example, identifyin g th e twelv e group s of pilgrimage sites with the twelv e sections of Great JambudvTpa and with the twelv e j oints of the individual' s body, th e Kalacakra tradition attempts to demonstrate a close link among the purification s o f the twelv e bodily joint s and the attainment of the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis and th e purification o f th e twelv e section s o f Grea t JambudvTpa . A purificatio n o f bodil y joints implies here a cessation of the ordinar y body that is accompanied by afflictiv e and cognitive obscurations. Therefore, as the tantric adept gradually purifies his bod ily joints by means of the Kalacakratantra practice , he also eradicates the obscurations and attain s th e twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. Th e identificatio n o f the twelv e bodil y joints with the twelv e sections of Great JambudvTpa i s based on the Kalacakratantra's

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TABLE 5.7.0 Location s o f the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites four upasmasdnas Marudesa Gahvara Kulata Samala

1

four pilavas/vesmas2 Caritra Harikela Vindhya Kaumarikapuri

The cosmos

The individua l

in the four intermediate directions of the oute r half of the fae-mandala

in the fou r intermediat e directions of the wmd-ca/cr a due to the cessation s of Pisces and the thir d lin k of dependent origination (vijndna)

in the fou r cardina l directions of the inne r half of the wmd-manlala

in the fou r cardina l directions in the space-cakr a due to the cessation s of Aquarius and the second lin k of dependent origination (samskara)

1 Marudesa most likel y refers t o th e distric t of Mam, mentioned i n the Junagarh rock inscription . According t o P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 19 , Maru perhaps denoted th e territor y of Marwar i n Rajasthan. Taranatha, 1990 , p. 253, places Maru in western India. There i s a slight possibility that Gahvar a refer s t o th e mountain s extending fro m Kabu l to Barman , which provide numerous cave habitats. 2 B. C. Law , 1984 , p. 221, identifie s Harikela as an eastern country, on the basi s that th e Kdrpuraman]an mention s i t as such. Some have identifie d i t with Bengal, and som e suggest that i t occupied the part s of Backerganj an d Noakhal i districts. Tibetan translation reads Rana instead of Harikela. According t o Bu ston [189] , Vindhya mountains is a place where Dignaga practiced a sddhana, and Kaumankapuri is a place inhabited only by women.

view of their common relation to the elements of wind, fire, water, and earth,72 Thus, as one purifies the atomic nature of one's own body, one simultaneously purifie s one's own perceptio n o f th e twelv e sections o f Great JambudvTp a a s ordinary, physical places,73 Table 5.8 illustrates the aforementioned correspondences among the twelve pilgrimage sites in the cosmic and individual bodies, which are the phenomenal aspect s of the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. TABLE 5.7.1* Location s of the Cosmi c and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Pilgrimage sites Th four upapflavas/ i upavesmas1 direction Viraja hal Konka Capricor TripurT o Snhattaka

e cosmo s Th n the fou r intermediat e i s of the inne r direction f of the wind-mandala du

e individua l n the fou r cardina l s in the space-ca/cr a e to the cessation s of n and the first link f dependent origination (avidyd.)

1 Konka may be another nam e for Konkan, which, according to the Mdrkancleya Purdna, 25, lies on th e rive r Venva. P. Gupta, 1973 , p. 16 , refers to Tnpun (Tewar ) as a city in central India. B. C. Law, 1984, p. 196, mentions that the ninth century Ratnapur stone inscriptio n of Jajalladeva of the Ced i speaks of Tnpun as being ruled by one of the Ced i rulers, named Kokalla. According to Bu ston [189] , TripurT is on the Labd a island m the south . Snhattaka coul d be Srihatta in eastern India, or Sylhet, whic h i s identifie d by B. C. Law , p. 261, as the regio n that occupies the lowe r valley of the Surma river and which is surrounded by high hills. According t o Bu ston [189], Snhattak a is in the south o f India, the birthplac e of Arunagapo.

The Cosmi c Body 8

3

TABLE 5.8 Twelv e Cosmic and Bodil y Pilgrimage Sites Twelve pilgrimage sites Th

e cosmo s Th

pithas th

e four island s in the th four cardinal directions arm of the Grea t JambudvTpa

upapithas th

e fou r intermediat e directions of the Great JambudvTpa

ksetras an d upaksetms th

e inne r half of the salt ocean

chandohas an d th upachandohas sal

e oute r half of the t ocean

melapakas an d th upamelapakas fire-mardal

e inne r half of the a

vesmas and upavesmas th

e oute r half of th e

smasdnas an d th upasmasanas wind-mareial

e inne r half of the a

e individual e twelv e joints of the s and leg s

In some other contexts, the Kalacakra tradition classifies the twelve groups of pilgrimage sites into thirty-six subcategories. It presents thirty-six pilgrimage sites as the dwelling place s o f thirty-si x familie s o f yoginis, who ar e th e sublimate d aspect s o f thirty-six socia l classe s (jati) , thirty-si x bodily constituent s o f th e individual , an d thirty-six factor s o f spiritua l awakening (bodhi^paksika-dharnrui). A s tabl e 5. 9 illus trates, the Kalacakr a tradition identifie s these thirty-si x pilgrimage sites with thirty six components o f the cosmo s and the individual . This identification i s taught i n the "Chapter on Initiation," i n the context of tantric yogic practices performed durin g a tantric feas t (gam-cakra), i n which the thirty-six social classes of the Indian society of that time had to be represented.74 It exemplifies one of the ways in which this tantri c tradition identifie s the individua l with his social environment. Thi s particular manner o f identifying th e externa l and interna l pilgrimage sites as the abode s of yoginis is seen as relevant fo r the purificatio n of tantric pledges (samara). It is relevant because the purificatio n o f tantric pledges take s place only whe n the initiat e is cognizant o f the correspondence s give n below and applies them i n viewing his body and his natural and social environments as nondual and equally sacred. Bringing to mind the sublimated aspects of the participants in a tantric feast and viewing the parts of one's own body and th e cosmo s as their pur e abodes, one purifie s one' s ow n vision of the indi vidual, social, and cosmic bodies. By so doing, one transforms one's own body and th e cosmos into the sacred pilgrimage sites and brings forth a certain degree of purification. For the specifi c correlations amon g the pilgrimage sites and the constitutin g elements of the cosmos, individual, and kdlacakra'mandala, which a tantric practitioner must know i n order to purify his vision and attitude toward his natural environmen t and toward his own body, see table 5.9 .

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TABLE 5.9 Pilgrimag e Sites as the Cosmos , Individual, and Kalacakra-mandal a Pilgrimage sites

The cosmo s

The individua l

The Kalacakra-mandal a

four pithas

Kalagni moon sun Rahu Mars Mercury Jupiter Venus Saturn Ketu earth water fire wind the earth-bor n the water-bor n the fire-born the wind-born six taste s smell color sound touch

feces urine blood flesh ear nose eye tongue anus vulva pus phlegm louse worm saliva fat bodily hair hair of the head intestines bile bones marrow liver lungs nadis skin heart lymph the ear-secretio n nasal secretio n the eye-secretion gustatory secretio n uterine secretio n intestinal secretio n penile secretio n armpit secretion

the mansion s of Tara, etc .

six ksetras

eight chandohas

ten melapakas

eight smasanas

a decay of the fou r elements, colors, etc.

the mansion s of Rupavajra, etc .

the mansion s of Carcika, etc., bor n from bhutas

the mansion s of Jambhikasya, etc. , born fro m krodhas

the mansion s of Svanasya, etc., born fro m asuras

There are several other ways in which the Kalacakra tradition identifies th e pil grimage site s with the individual' s body , an d these are equally relevan t to the afore mentioned phas e o f th e Kalacakratantra practice . Th e followin g tw o model s ar e specifically relate d t o the practic e of the unificatio n o f the tantri c pledges (samayamelapaka), o r of the femal e and mal e consorts , during tantri c sexual yoga performed after a tantric feast. Identifyin g th e sacre d pilgrimag e site s with the variou s part s of the mal e an d female bod y durin g sexual tantri c yoga, a tantric practitioner sanctifie s a sexual act, whic h becomes a kind of bliss-generating pilgrimage . This type of identification als o suggests that the blis s and spiritua l benefits resulting fro m a single yogic sexual ac t equal those resulting from visiting te n kind s of pilgrimage sites .

The Cosmi c Body 8

5

TABLE 5.10 Te n Pilgrimag e Sites i n the Femal e and Mal e Bodies Ten pilgrimage site s Th

e individua l

pitha th

e femal e sexua l orga n

upapitha. th

e mal e sexua l orga n

ksetras th

e si x sense-bases (ayatemas) o f a woman

upaksetras th

e si x sense-bases of a man

chandohas th

e eigh t samdna-winds of a woman

upachanodhas th

e eigh t samam-winds of a ma n

meldpakas th

e te n facultie s o f action (karmendriya) of a woman

upamdapakas th

e te n facultie s of action of a man

smosanas a

discharge of secretions from th e nostrils, ears, eyes , mouth, an d anus of a woman

upasmosanas a

discharge of secretions from th e nostrils, ears, eyes , mouth, and anus of a man

Table 5.10 illustrates the manner i n which the Kalacakra tradition classifies te n pilgrimage sites into two main categories—those corresponding to te n part s of the female bod y and thos e correspondin g t o ten part s of the mal e body. Whereas tabl e 5.11 demonstrates the wa y in which eac h ofte n group s of pilgrimage sites is identified wit h the sam e male and female bodily parts. All o f the aforementione d classification s o f the pilgrimag e site s illustrat e th e Kalacakra tradition' s premis e that o n thi s tantri c pat h to spiritua l awakening, one transforms one' s own environment , o r more precisely, one's ow n experience o f th e environment, b y transforming one's own physical constituents .

The Thre e Realms of Cyclic Existenc e as the Individua l The Kalacakratantra's earlie r mentioned principle , whic h states that "as it is outside so it is within the body , and a s it i s within th e bod y so it i s elsewhere," also applies to its view of the interconnectednes s o f human being s with all other sentient beings . The Kalacakratantra suggest s that on e shoul d loo k a t th e tripl e worl d as similar to space an d a s unitary. 75 Th e Kalacakr a traditio n provide s a variety of methods fo r training th e min d t o perceiv e al l sentien t being s a s nondual fro m oneself . These methods ar e considered t o be applicable at any stage of the Kalacakratantra practice, for the y reinforc e the underlyin g premise and objectiv e of all Kalacakratantra practices, which ar e the nondualit y of all phenomena an d it s realization. The Kalacakra tradition points out that al l six states of transmigratory existence are already present withi n every individual. In the Kalacakratantra's view , the origi-

86

The Inner Kalacakratantra TABLE 5.11 Te n Pilgrimag e Sites as Ten Bodil y Parts of Men an d Wome n Ten pilgrimage sites Th

e individua l

pithas

the lef t side s of a woman's an d a man's body

upapnhas

the righ t sides of a woman's an d a man's body

ksetras

the lef t sense-facultie s (indriya) of a woman an d a man

upaksetras

the right sense-facultie s of a woman an d a man

chandohas

the kurma, krkara, devadatta, an d dhanamjaya pranas of a woman an d a man

upachandohas

the samana, uddna, vydna, an d naga pranas of a woman an d a ma n

melapakas

the lef t facultie s of action (karmendriya) of a woman an d a man

upamelapakas

the righ t faculties of action (karmendriya) of a woman an d a man

smasanas

a discharge o f secretions fro m th e left nostril , etc. , of a woman an d a man

upaimasdnas

a discharge of secretions fro m th e right nostril , etc. , of a woman an d a man

nation of a sentient being within a particular state of existence is directly influenced by one or the combination o f the three gunas—sattva, rajas, or tamos. The thre e gums of one's mind are, in turn, the direct result of sentient beings ' karma. Thus, th e existence as a god is caused by the sattva'guna, which, due to wholesome karma, gives rise to the peacefu l state of mind. Existence as a denizen of hell is caused by tamos, which due t o unwholesome karma, gives rise to the violen t stat e of mind. Existence as an animal is caused by rajas, which, due to the mediall y unwholesome karma, gives rise to the passionate state of mind. Finally, existence as a human is characterized by the combination of the three gunas. Similarly, the existences of asuras and pretas are characterized by a combination of two of the three gunas. Since human existence is caused by a combination of the thre e gunas, the individual' s mental states and experience s are often determine d by the prevalenc e of one o f the thre e gunas. Thus, du e t o th e prevalence of sattva, a person experiences happiness; due to the prevalence of rajas, one experiences suffering; an d due the prevalenc e of tamos, one experience s constant suffering. Becaus e the prevalenc e of the thre e gunas tends to alternate throughout one' s lifetime, a n ordinary person may experience the mental states that characterize all six states of existence.76 I n thi s way, the individua l who mentall y experiences differen t states of existence i n a single lifetime already embodies all six states of existence.

The Cosmic Body 8

7

TABLE 5.12 Commonalitie s among Living Beings and th e Huma n Body Living beings inhabiting the cosmo s Th and their origins being stationary beings th the egg'born beings lic

e bodil y constituents and sentient s inhabiting the body

the earth-origi n the wind-origin

e bodily hairs e on the head

the water-origin worms and others born from swea t worm

s and the like in the bod y

the womb-origin those born from wom b and semen bodil

y semen

apparitional beings subtl

the space-element

e living beings, living in th e body and having the for m o f an egg

One o f the Kalacakratantra's method s of training a tantric practitioner to view all sentien t being s as a part o f himself i s patterned o n th e fivefol d classificatio n of sentient beings , wh o hav e fiv e differen t origin s (yoni) o f birth. Th e fou r differen t classes of beings who originate from th e fou r respectiv e sources—namely, the earth , wind, water, and womb, and the self-arisen , or apparitional beings (upapaduka), wh o arise fro m th e elemen t o f space—inhabit both the cosmo s an d th e individual . O n this tantri c pat h of developing a nondual visio n o f the world , one shoul d recognize that one's own body , like th e bod y of the cosmos , i s the birthplac e fo r diverse sentient beings an d i s thereby most intimately connecte d with diverse forms of life. It is a microcosmi c representation o f the cosmo s an d it s inhabitants. Table 5.1 2 exem plifies th e wa y in which the Kalacakr a tradition correlate s th e five types of sentien t beings in the natural environment with the constituents o f the human body and living organisms that inhabit the body. 77 Similarly, to realize the nonduality of oneself and the triple world, one must train oneself to view the three realms of the cosmos—the realms of desire, form, and form lessness—as one' s ow n thre e vajras—namely, th e body , speech , an d min d vajras. Only the n ca n on e understand tha t th e divers e sentient being s withi n th e thre e realms of cyclic existence ar e nondual fro m one' s own mental, verbal , and bodily capacities. Differen t state s o f existence ar e simpl y the cosmi c manifestation s of one' s own body , speech , an d mind , whos e sublimate d aspect s ar e th e body , speech , an d mind mandalas o f the kdhcakra-mandala. Tables 5-i3.a-b illustrate th e specifi c correspondences among th e thre e realms of cyclic existenc e an d th e thre e vajras o f the individua l and thei r location s i n th e bodily cakras, as they ar e explained i n this tantric system. As tables 5.13.3—b demonstrate, the Kalacakra tradition, like other Buddhist systems, classifie s th e thre e realm s o f cyclic existence int o thirty-on e categories . Ac cording t o this tantric system, from amon g thes e thirty-on e categorie s o f cyclic existence, fou r belong t o the formless realm, sixteen t o the real m of form, an d eleven to the desire-realm . Her e again , on e encounter s som e departur e fro m th e Abhidhar-

88

The Inner Kalacakratantra TABLE 5-I3-A Th e Realm s of Formlessness and Form within the Huma n Body The cosmos Th The formles s realm (arupa-dhdtu) The fourfold Saudharmakalpa 4, The spher e o f neither perception no r nonperception 3. The spher e of nothing a t all 2. The spher e o f limitless consciousness 1. The spher e o f limitless space The form-realm (rupa-dhatu) The fourfold Brahmakalpa th 16. Akanistha 15. Sudarsana 14. Atap a 13. Avrha

e individua l The mind-vajra usmsa-cakra

The speech-vajra e lalata-cakra

The fourfold Brahmalokottarakalpa th 12. Brhatphala 11. Punyapravasa 10. Anabhr a 9. Subhakrtsna

e nos e

The fourfold Srfkalpa th 8. Apramanasubha chi 7. ParTttasubha 6. Abhasvara 5. Apramanabha

e are a beneath the nose up to th e n

The fourfold Svetakalpa th 4. Parltiibha 3. Mahabrahmana 2. Brahmapurohita i. Brahmakayika

e throat-cakra

makosa, according t o which, th e realm of form contains seventeen types of existence, and the desire-real m i s comprised o f ten. Th e Kalacakr a tradition omit s the clas s of Sudrsa god s o f the realm-for m and add s asuras a s the elevent h clas s o f beings be longing to the desire-realm. Likewise, the names of the heavens o f the realms of form and formlessnes s differ fro m those i n th e Abhidharmakosa and accor d wit h som e of the name s o f heavens listed in the Jain a Tatwarthddhigamasutra, Ch . 4 , v. 20. According t o the Kalacakra tradition, a t the top of the cosmos, abov e the thirty one type s of cyclic existence, in the cres t o f Mt. Meru's peak, abide s Kalacakra, th e indestructible Vajrakaya . H e i s accompanied b y all the Buddha s and surrounde d b y the guardians of the ten directions. 78 The locatio n of the three realms in the body of the cosmos correspond s t o their location in the body of the individual . Below Meru's usnsa, in the are a of its head, there are the four divisions of Saudharmakalpa, a heavenly abod e of the formles s realm.79 Those who hav e develope d a meditative con centration (samadhi) on the fou r type s of the space-krtsn a are born in the formles s

The Cosmic Body 8

9

TABLE 5.13.3 Th e Real m of Desire within the Huma n Body The cosmo s Th The desire-realm (kama-dhatu) Six types of gods th 6. Paranirmitavasavartin 5. Nirmanarati 4. Tusita 3. Yama 2. Trayastrimsa i. Caturmaharajakayika

e individual The body-vojra e body beneath the throat

Asuras Humans Animals Pretas

Denizens of eight hells

realm. The fou r heavens o f the form-real m are sequentially located i n the region s of Meru's lalata and nose, in the area beneath the nose that extends up to the chin, and in th e regio n o f Meru's throat. On e i s born withi n on e o f the fou r division s of th e form-realm b y developing a meditative concentration o n th e respectiv e wind, fire, water, and earth krtsnas and by the power of ethical discipline (slla). The desire-realm extends fro m th e botto m o f Meru's throat t o the botto m o f the wmd-mandala. Sen tient beings are born as gods of the desire-realm due to the power of generosity (dona) and due to the recitatio n of mantras. The remainin g types of existence i n the real m of desire are those o f asuras, humans, animals , pretas, and denizen s of hells. The ex istence of asuras comes about by the powe r of generosity. Human existence i s due t o the powe r of one's wholesome and unwholesom e actions. Anima l existenc e results from lesse r sins. The existenc e o f pretas is due to the powe r of middling sins, and th e existence o f the denizens of hell comes about through the power of the greatest sins. Tables 5.i4.a-b give a schematic presentatio n o f the lif e span s of the sentien t beings in the cyclic existence, a s taught i n the Kalacakra tradition.80 According t o thi s tantri c tradition , th e lif e span s of all sentient beings ar e related to and measured by the numbe r of their breaths . Within th e si x states of existence, breath s o f the differen t type s of sentient being s have different durations . For example, th e duratio n o f one breat h i n the huma n real m is one sola r day for an in sect, a duration o f thirty human breath s is one breat h fo r a preta, one huma n year is one breath of the gods in the Akanistha heaven, an d a hundred year s in the huma n realm is one breath o f the god s in the formles s realm. Thus, just as the cosmo s is perceived an d experience d differentl y b y differen t sentien t beings—relativ e t o thei r karma and state of existence—so too is time a relative phenomenon, experience d differently b y different sentien t beings. The Kalacakr a traditio n consider s the ag e of one hundre d year s as the ful l lif e span of the individual , which can decrease or increase in accordance wit h the indi -

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TABLE 5.14.A Th e Lif e Spans of Sentient Beings The realm s of formlessness and for m

The duratio n of life

The formles s realm The fourfol d Saudharmakalp a 4. The spher e of neither perceptio n nor nonperception 3. The spher e of nothing at all 2, The spher e of limitless consciousness 1. The spher e of limitless space

four great eons (maha'kalpa) three great eons two great eons one great eon

The form-realm The fourfol d Brahmakalp a 16. Akanistha 15. Sudarsana 14. Atapa 13. Avrha

sixteen eons fifteen eon s fourteen eon s thirteen eons

The fourfol d Brahmalokottarakalp a 12. Brhatphala 11. Punyapravasa 10. Anabhra 9. Subhakrtsna

twelve eons eleven eons ten eons nine eons

The fourfol d Srlkalp a 8. Apramanasubha 7. Panttasubha 6. Abhasvara 5. Apramanabha

eight eons seven eons six eons five eons

The fourfol d Svetakalpa 4. Parttabha 3. Mahabrahmana 2. Brahmapurohita i. Brahmakayika

four eons three eons two eons one eon

vidual's own Icarma. It increases for yogis and ascetic s who, by the powe r of their yoga and meditative concentration, exten d th e duratio n of a single breath fo r up to on e ghatika; and it decreases for evil people due to the powe r of their sins. Thus, th e du ration o f one's lif e i s directly related t o th e duratio n an d numbe r o f one's breaths, which, in turn, is directly related to one's mental states. As the mind becomes more afflicted an d agitated , one's breathing become s faster, breath s becom e shorter , an d thereby one's life becomes shorter. It is in the form of the breaths, minutes (pdrupalas), ghatikds, and sola r days that death take s its course in the body . As these measures of time gradually increase within th e righ t an d lef t nadis, death advance s i n the body, until the prana finally leave s the nodi's , which dissolv e and cause a bodily disintegration. The notion of the full human lif e span being one hundred year s goes back to the early Brahmanic period. In support of this notion, the Vimalaprabha cite s a line from the Aitareya Brahmcma, II. 17.4.19, which states that a person (purusa) ha s a life span of a hundred years. 81 The Vimalaprabha interpret s this statement i n terms of both its

The Cosmic Body 9 1

TABLE 5.14.8 The Lif e Spans of Sentient Beings The real m of desire

The duratio n of life

The desire-real m Six types of gods 6. Paranirrmtavasavartin 5. Nirmanarati 4. Tusita 3. Yama 2. Trayastrimsa i. Caturmaharajakayika

six short eon s five short eons four shor t eons three short eons two short eons one short eon

Asuros Humans

one hundred years

Animals Pretas Denizens o f the eigh t hell s nagas those in the second an d third hells those in the fourth an d fifth hells those in the sixth and seventh hells those in the eighth hel l

one short eon one medium eon (madhyama'kalpa) one extended eon (utkrsta'kalpa) one great eon till the dissolutio n of the cosmos

provisional and definitive meanings. In terms of a provisional meaning, a person has a life span of a hundred years , due to the increas e of the huma n lif e spa n during th e krta'yuga. I n term s of the definitiv e meaning, the wor d "person" (purusa) designate s here ever y solar day and every year. This implies that with regard to the individual, there ar e one hundred sola r days, and with regard to the cosmos, there ar e one hundred years. Thus, on e year in the individual' s environment correspond s to one solar day in the body of the individual , in accordance with the number of the individual's breaths. On the grounds that the individual takes twenty-one thousand and six hundred breaths each solar day, two hundred such solar days in a human bod y are said to equal 4,320,000 years in the environment, which make up four cosmic 3>wgas.82 Thus, with eac h round of 4,320,000 breaths, which the individua l take s in the cours e of two hundred sola r days, a cycle of four cosmi c yugas takes place in th e body . In thi s way, all temporal and physical changes tha t occu r i n the body of the cosmo s have already taken place in the bod y of the individual . A goa l of the Kalacakratantra practice i s to transmute thes e phenomenal bodie s of the cosmo s and th e individua l into th e transcenden t bod y of the Buddh a Kalacakra, into the Vajrasattva , wh o i s the indivisibl e unity of the thre e realms of cyclic existence. The proces s of their transmutation entail s their generatio n i n the for m of the kdlacakra-mandala b y means of the stag e of generation practice an d their dissolution by means of the stage of completion practice . At th e tim e of the transformation of the individual' s body into the transcenden t bod y of Kalacakra, the constituents of the phenomenal body manifest as the constituents of spiritual awakening. Thus , certain bodily components—bodily hair, skin, flesh, blood , water, bones, marrows, and

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the like—manifest as the bodhisattva-bhumis. The four great elements of the ordinar y body—earth, water , fire, and wind—manifes t a s th e fou r brahma-viharas—loving kindness (maitrf) , compassio n (karuna), sympatheti c jo y (mudita), an d equanimit y (upeksd). Th e fiv e ordinar y pshycho-physical aggregates, accompanied b y afflictiv e and cognitive obscurations, manifest as the five types of unobscured psycho-physical aggregates, or the five types of gnosis—the mirror-like gnosis (ddarsa-jnana), th e gno sis o f equality (samatd'jndna), th e discriminatin g gnosis (pratyaveksana-jnana), th e accomplishing gnosi s (krlydnusthdna-jnana), an d th e gnosi s of the spher e o f reality (dharrna'dhatU'jndna). Whe n the bodily constituents becom e free of obscurations and atomic matter , the y manifes t as the empt y form. Althoug h th e empt y form i s endowed wit h aspect s o f fire, earth, water , and th e like , due t o it s immateriality, it is neither a fire, nor i s it solid or liquid. Likewise, although appearing with various colors, i t ha s n o color . I t i s said to appea r lik e an illusor y city.83 The Kalacakratantra states that although th e empt y form i s endowed with all aspects (sarvdkara), "foolis h people are unable to see it anywhere, due to the power of their menta l obscurations , which are sustained by the flow of the pranas in the right and left nodis."84 Thus, eve n though th e entir e univers e is ultimately the omnipresent , empty form, i t is not per ceived a s such by those whose perception is obscured by their materiality .

The Whee l of Time, the Individual , and th e Wheel of Time as the Individua l In this tantric system , the ter m "wheel o f time" (kdla-cakra) designate s the dynami c and nondual nature of a single reality that manifests primarily in two ways—the conventional (sarrwrti) an d the ultimate (paramdrtha). Th e conventional realit y itself appears i n tw o ways—th e individua l (adhydtma) an d th e individual' s environmen t (bahya), th e macrocosmic and microcosmic aspects of that single reality. With regard to the externa l aspect of conventional reality , the ter m "wheel of time" refers to th e passage of days, month, an d years in the cycle of time. The Vimalaprabhd define s time (kola) a s a circle of twelve solar mansions or zodiacs (rasi-cakra). 85 The uni t day-andnight (aho-rdtra) i s also called "time." 86 With regard to the individual, the "wheel of time" denotes a circulation of prams within th e whee l o f the nddls i n th e body . In vie w of the clos e interrelatednes s o f these tw o aspects of conventional reality , the "whee l o f time" also designates a circulation (cakra) of twenty-one thousand and six hundred pairs of inhalations and exhalations, whic h take s place in the cours e of a day-and-night called "time. " Even though the cosmos ultimately neither arises nor ceases, conventionally, th e entire cosmos , with it s three worlds, is said t o aris e and ceas e due t o th e powe r of time. More specifically, thi s i s said to occur due to the unio n o f the tim e of origination an d the tim e of destruction. I t is stated in the Adibuddhatantra: Time brings forth phenomena, and time always destroys phenomena, for time i s the Bhagavan, vajri, wh o has the natur e o f a day and a night.87 In accordanc e with th e classificatio n of the mind , a day is the sun , uterin e blood , and vulva; a night is the moon , semen, an d male sexua l organ. Their union is Kalacakra, th e suprem e bliss

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3

Likewise, th e uni t day-and-nigh t i s interpreted a s "time," an d a circle o f solar mansions (rdsi'Cakra) i s seen a s its "wheel." I n term s of the individual , the uni t dayand-night i s also understood a s "time"; wherea s its "wheel," th e circl e of solar mansions, is understood a s the circl e of twelve nckjZs i n the navel-cakra , which i s the sea t of the transmigrator y mind. This internal circle of twelve zodiacs consists of twentyone thousand an d six hundred pairs of breaths and is characterized by the twelve links of dependent origination . Du e t o th e flo w o f the win d o f prdna throug h th e twelve internal zodiacs , a human bein g comes into existence, dies, and is born again. It is in this sense that the Kalacakra tradition view s time as the sole cause of the originatio n and cessation o f all living beings.89 In al l of cyclic existence, th e unio n of "time" an d it s "wheel" (kdln-cakra-yoga) has nirvana, or the gnosis-elemen t (indna-dhatu), a s its beginning an d th e earth-ele ment as its end. In between are the element s of space, wind, fire, and water, which are pervaded by the gnosis-element , o r nirvana, which itsel f is without attributes . Thus, the "whee l of time" is the nondualit y of the ultimat e and conventional realities . With regard to the ultimat e reality, the "whee l of time" indicates the nondual ity of two facets of a single reality—namely, wisdom (prajnd), o r emptiness (sunyatd), and method (updya), o r compassion (karund). Th e wor d "time" refers to the gnosi s of imperishable bliss (aksara-sukha-jnana), whic h i s a method consisting of compassion; and the word "wheel" designates wisdom consisting of emptiness.90 Their unity is the Buddha Kalacakra. As the purifie d aspect s o f time, emptines s an d compassio n are the ultimat e aspects of the su n and th e moon , o f a day and a night, an d of the dar k and bright lunar fortnight s (paksa). Sixtee n types of emptiness are the purifie d aspect s of the sixteen lunar days (tithi) o f a dark lunar fortnight, an d sixtee n types of compassion ar e the purified aspects of the sixteen lunar days of a bright lunar fortnight.91 Their union is Kalacakra. Tables 5.1 5 an d 5.1 6 illustrat e th e manne r i n whic h th e Kalacakr a traditio n identifies th e sixtee n types of emptiness and compassion with sixteen luna r days. TABLE 5.15 Tempora l Aspects of the Sixtee n Types of Emptiness Sixteen type s of emptiness

Sixteen luna r days

1. The fiv e type s of emptiness (sunyatd) the emptines s of the fiv e aggregates (skandha)

five lunar days of the dar k fortnight, beginning with the first lunar day (pratipad)

2. The five types of great emptines s (mahd'Silnyatd) the emptines s of the five elements (dhatu)

five lunar days of the dar k fortnight, beginning with the sixth lunar day

3. The fiv e type s of the emptines s of th e Ultimate Reality (paramdrtha-sunyatd) the emptines s of the five sense-faculties (mdriya)

five luna r days of the dar k fortnight, beginning with the elevent h lunar day (umd)

The sixteenth emptiness having all Aspects (sodasi sarvdkdrd sunyatd)

in between the en d of the fifteenth lunar day of the dar k fortnight and th e first lunar day of the bright fortnigh t

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TABLE 5.16 Tempora l Aspects o f the Sixtee n Types of Compassio n Sixteen type s of compassion

Sixteen luna r days

Compassion havin g sentient being s as its object (sattvavalambam karuna)

five lunar day s of the brigh t fortnight, beginning with the first lunar fortnight

Compassion havin g phenomena a s its object (dharmavalambani karuna.)

five lunar days of the brigh t fortnight, beginning with the sixth lunar day

Compassion withou t an object (anavalambam karura)

five lunar days of the brigh t fortnight , beginning with the eleventh lunar day

Sixteenth Compassion (sodaS karuna.)

in between the las t day of the brigh t lunar fortnight and th e firs t da y of th e dark lunar fortnight

Resorting t o th e Madhyamaka' s four-poin t analysi s (catus-koti), th e Kalacakr a tradition trie s t o demonstrate tha t from th e ultimat e point of view, the Sahajakay a of the Buddha s is neither compassion—a bright luna r fortnigh t (sukla-paksa)—nor wisdom—a dark luna r fortnigh t (krsna-paksa)—nor i s it both because o f their mu tual contradiction, no r is it without th e both. Thus, the Sahajakaya is neither female nor mal e but neuter (napumsaka). I t is the sixteent h digi t (kola), whic h i s characterized by emptiness an d purifie d throug h the four-poin t analysis. 92 In term s of the Buddha' s min d an d body , "time " refers t o th e Buddha' s mind , which i s the momen t o f supreme, indestructible blis s (paramaksara-sukha), i n whic h the momen t o f perishable bliss , or seminal emission , perishes forever. This moment is the vajra-gnosi s (vajra-jnana). Th e "wheel " indicates the Buddha' s body , which is brought fort h by that supreme blis s and i s comprised o f the aggregate s and element s that are free o f the afflictiv e an d cognitive obscurations . Thi s body, which has all aspects an d th e for m o f a bindu, is the unit y o f the thre e worlds, the objec t of knowledge (jneya).93 Th e Sekoddesatika interptet s it in a similar way, stating tha t the wor d "time" designates "the supreme , imperishable, moment of nonemission" (acyuta-ksana), which i s gnosis; and it s "wheel" is the whee l whose psycho-physical aggregates , elements, and sense-bases are free of obscurations. Tha t very wheel i s a "sublime mandala of the vajra-sphere" (vajra-dhatu-maha-mandab), the Bhagavan' s bod y that consists of wisdom an d method , tha t ha s al l aspect s an d al l sense-faculties an d hold s al l illusions.94 The Kalacakr a tradition also interpret s th e "whee l o f time" a s the unit y of th e Buddha's min d an d body , i n term s of the nondualit y of knowledge (jndna) an d th e object of knowledge (jneya). "Time " is the suprem e indestructible gnosi s (paramaksarajnana), the suprem e bliss, and the caus e of the eradicatio n o f all afflictive an d cogni tive obscurations. It s "wheel" is the tripl e world, which is characterized b y innumerable phenomena and i s the objec t of that knowledge. 95 Similarly, "time " i s a supreme , indestructibl e momen t (paramdksara*ksana) o f seminal nonemission , know n as the fajra-gnosis . This moment of seminal nonemis sion i s sometimes referred to a s the indestructibl e time (aksara'kala), a terminatio n of attachment (raga), o f the tim e of origination (utpdda'kdla), an d o f the tim e of cessation (nirodha-kala). It s "wheel"—the unobscured aggregate s and elements—is th e

The Cosmic Body 9 5 unity of the thre e worlds , which i s the objec t of knowledge that i s free o f obscurations. Tha t ver y "wheel" i s also calle d "th e suprem e mcmdala o f the wjra-sphere " (vajra'dhatu-mahd-mandala), whic h has all aspects, holds all illusions, and is the Buddha's body, which consist s of wisdom and compassion. 96 "Time" is also understood a s an image (murti) of wisdom and compassion, which has the for m of conventional realit y (sanwrti-rupin); an d its "wheel" i s the emptines s (sunyatd) o f that image. 97 As an image , "time" i s revered as an incomparabl e person (purusa)—omnipresent, fre e o f elaborations (nisprapanca), standin g a t th e fa r limit (kuta-stha), an d havin g th e ears , nose , mouth , eyes , body , arms , an d leg s a s it s "wheel." Ye t this Wheel of Time i s neither a purusa nor a prakrti, neither th e min d nor the sound , smell, taste, touch, or form. That Kalacakra is the en d of sentient beings and thei r lord . It i s the holder o f the thre e worlds , the caus e of causes (kdraram kdrdndm), ye t it is not a creator. I t is spiritual knowledge (vidyd), th e highes t stat e of bliss, which i s attainable throug h ;yoga. 98 In terms of the Kalacakratantra practice , th e "whee l of time" refers t o the inte gration o f the cause , result, and metho d of actualizing the unifie d mind, know n a s Kalacakra. The syllabl e kd designates the caus e (kdram), whic h is peace (sdnta). Th e syllable la signifies the absorptio n (laya) o f the unstead y min d (cala-citta), indicate d by the syllable ca, into that peace, which take s place due to the joinin g of the flow s (krama-bandha) o f drops. The joinin g of the flows , whic h i s denoted b y the syllable km, implie s the joinin g of the flow s of the drop s of the body , speech, mind , and gnosis by means of innate bliss.99 Thus, on e can say in conclusion tha t the "whee l o f time" signifie s not onl y th e manifestations o f the cycli c existence an d nirvana but thei r cause s as well. In thi s tantric system , the "whee l o f time" represent s a single, unified realit y that i s called by differen t names : Kalacakra , Vajra-yoga, Adibuddh a ("Primordia l Buddha"), Sa hajakaya ("Innate Body") , Jnanakaya ("Gnosis-body"), Visuddhakaya ("Pure Body"), Sahajananda ("Innat e Bliss") , and the like . When this single reality manifests itself in numerou s phenomena l forms , i t i s called cyclic existence. Accordin g t o th e Vi malaprabha's hermeneutica l explanatio n o f the ter m kdla-cakra, conventional realit y is a provisional meaning (neyartha) o f the ter m "wheel of time," whereas the ultimat e reality is the definitiv e meanin g (mtdrtha) o f the term . The identificatio n of time with the phenomenal and ultimate realities is neither invented b y nor i s unique to the Kalacakr a tradition. It s precursors can be found already i n the Vedas . In the earl y Vedic texts, the wor d "time" designate d both phe nomenal tim e an d suprem e being, th e sourc e o f livin g beings. Fo r example , th e Atharva Veda reads: "The min d is in time, the prdna is in time, and the nam e i s placed in time. . . . Time created living beings. In the beginning, time created Prajapati." 100 Likewise, some of the aforementione d definitions of the ter m kdla-cakra reveal striking similaritie s between th e Kdlacakratantra's interpretatio n o f Kalacakra an d th e early Brahmanic notion of Prajapati. Like the Kalacakratantra, the Brahmana s speak of Prajapati a s "time," which, by means of days and nights , brings forth an d destroys living beings. Like the bod y of Kalacakra, the bod y of Prajapati i s a year, consisting of days and nights, the cosmos, and sentient beings.101 Furthermore, some of the ways in whic h th e Kalacakratantra correlate s specifi c bodil y parts wit h th e digit s o f th e moon an d other tempora l phenomena strikingl y resemble the correlation s give n in

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the Brahmanas. 102 In the Sekoddesa one even encounters a reference to Kalacakra as Prajapati, th e progenitor o f all the Buddhas. 103 Similarly, th e Kalacakratantra's notio n of the "whee l o f time" as manifesting i n the for m o f the temporary , phenomenal world , in whic h i t i s characterized by th e movement o f the sun , and a s the timeless , unitary reality, whose form i s emptiness, shows some similarity to th e Upanisadi c notion of time. The Maitr f Upanisad iden tifies time with the tw o aspects of Brahma—the embodied and formless , temporar y and timeless. The formless , or timeless, aspect of Brahma precedes the su n and is indivisible; but time that is related to the movemen t o f the su n is a temporal aspect of Brahman, which manifests as a year, or Prajapati, by whose efficacy livin g beings originate, grow , and perish. 104 Likewise, the earlie r cited lin e from th e Adibuddhatantra, which state s tha t tim e brings forth phenomen a an d time alway s destroys phenom ena, als o resonates with the following line appearing i n the Mahdbharata an d in the Kurma Purdna, which reads : "Time creates beings, and time destroys people."105 Different passage s in the Mahabhdrata an d i n the Kurma an d Visn u Puranas also speak of tim e a s a conventiona l phenomeno n an d a s th e omnipresent , self-existent , supreme Isvara, who is without beginning and end, who is the Sel f (dtman) o f all.106 In the BhagavodgTta, Krsna speaks of himself as the imperishable time that brings forth the destruction of the worlds. 107 These similarities between the Kalacakratantra's in tepretation of the wheel of time and those of the aforementioned works of the Hind u tradition sugges t that it is likely that these non-Buddhis t interpretation s o f time inspired to some degree the Kalacakratantra's formulatio n of the "whee l o f time."

Time i n the Cosmo s and in the Individual According t o this tantric tradition , tim e in the human realm is externally measured according to the movement of planets and internally according to the number of the individual's breaths.108 The arrangement and movement o f the planets in the sky influence th e bod y of the individua l and correlate to the arrangemen t an d flow of the nadis i n the body . Thus, i n accordance wit h the sun' s passage s (sarnkrdnti) throug h the twelv e solar mansions, twelv e very subtle nadis originate in the navel , which is the seat of the transmigratory mind.109 Likewise, the sun's passing through the twelve signs o f the zodia c i n th e cours e o f a year correlates with the prana's dail y passin g through the twelv e petals, the interna l sign s of the zodiac , in the navel-cakra. 110 The manner in which the sun passes through the twelve zodiacs also corresponds to the manner i n which th e prana flows within the twelv e nadis of the navel . For example, one sola r passage occurs in th e cours e of eighteen hundre d dandas, jus t as a passage o f prana withi n a singl e peta l occur s i n th e cours e o f eightee n hundre d breaths. Likewise, within a single solar passage, the passing of the five mandalas takes place, just as within th e peta l of a single passage ofprdna, ther e are five localities — the west, north, south, east, and center—where the respective mandalas of earth, water, fire, wind, and spac e flow. Similarly, every single mandala within a solar passage passes in the course of three hundred and sixty dandas, just as a single passage of prana from on e nodi t o anothe r take s plac e i n three hundred an d sixt y exhalations. Th e cosmic mandalas of space and the other elements pass through the uneven solar mansions,111 just as in the body, the mandalas of space and the other elements flo w in th e

The Cosmi c Body 9 7 left nostril . The cosmi c mandalas o f earth an d th e other element s pas s through th e even solar mansions,1l2 in the same manner in which the bodily mandalas of the earth and the other elements flow in the right nostril. Furthermore, jus t as in the north, the moo n govern s Aries, Gemini, Leo, Libra, Sagittarius, and Aquarius, so the ele ment o f semen (bodhidtta-dhdtu) govern s the lef t nodi " in the bod y of the individual . Likewise, in the south , th e su n governs Taurus, Cancer, Virgo , Scorpio, an d Capri corn, jus t as the elemen t of uterine bloo d (rajo'dhatu) govern s the righ t nodi i n th e body.113 The sun and the moon in the sky and their manifestations in the body of the individual—semen an d uterin e blood—ar e equall y se t i n motio n b y th e powe r of prams. Just as the karmi c winds of pranas bring these constituent s of the cosmo s and the individua l int o manifestation , s o they kee p the m i n motio n unti l th e karmi c winds of pranas become exhausted an d deser t the m at th e tim e o f dissolution an d death. According t o thi s tantri c tradition , th e twelv e links of dependent originatio n arise due to the efficac y o f the sola r passages through the twelv e zodiacs and due t o the passing of the luna r fortnights (paksa) an d lunar days (tithi). I n this way, the daily coursing of the su n and th e moo n i n th e cosmi c body and th e dail y passing of th e prana in the righ t and lef t nadis within th e individual' s body perpetuate cyclic existence in the world and in the body. Therefore, both the external and internal circles of zodiacs are the temporal causes of transmigratory existence and the temporal manifestations o f the twelv e links of dependent origination . For this reason , the twelv e phases of the stag e of completion (sampanna-krama) practic e of the Kalacakratantra directly relate to the eradication of the twelv e internal an d external zodiacs. In terms of ultimate reality, however, the interna l an d external circles of zodiacs are the tempora l manifestations of the vajras o f the individual' s mind, speech, body, and gnosis, and of the fou r bodies of the Buddha , which are characterized by the cessation of the twelv e links of dependent origination . Therefore, i n the cours e of the Kalacakratantra practice, one starts to sublimate the twelv e signs of the zodia c by visualizing them a s the twelv e gates of the kalacakra'mandala, a s the bod y of the Bud dha Kalacakra, and as his twelve faces.114 The interna l circle of zodiacs within the navel-calcra, which correspond s to th e external circle of zodiacs and gives rise to the twelv e link s of dependent origination in the body , is of the natur e of causes and effects . Therefore , time, or transmigratory existence, ceases when these causes and effects cease. There are several ways in which the Kalacakr a tradition interprets the twelv e zodiacs and twelve links of dependent origination i n terms of causes and effects. Table 5.17 illustrates the manne r i n which this tantri c syste m explains th e interdependenc e o f the twelv e links of dependent origination an d o f the twelv e zodiacs, starting from Capricorn , th e mont h o f conception i n th e womb . Capricorn i s always considered as the mont h of conception , because after conception , th e prana begins to move from th e nodi of Capricorn int o the navel-cakr a of the fetus . Table 5.17 also illustrates th e cycle of existence (samsara-cakra), in which men tal afflictio n give s rise to karma, karma gives rise to suffering , an d sufferin g give s rise to mental affliction. Thus , each link of dependent originatio n is a cause and a result of another link . For this tantric tradition , th e ver y cycle of existence can be seen as

98 The Inner Kalacakratantra TABLE 5.17 Twelv e Zodiacs an d Link s of Dependent Origination Twelve zodiacs

Twelve link s of dependent originatio n

Causes an d effect s

Capricorn

spiritual ignorance (avidya)

mental afflictio n (kksa)

Aquarius

karmic formations (samskdm)

karma

Pisces

consciousness (vijnana)

suffering (duhkha)

Aries

the mmd'and-bod y (nama-rupa)

mental afflictio n

Taurus

six sense base s (sad'Hyatana)

karma

Gemini

sensory contac t (sparsa)

suffering

Cancer

feeling (vedand)

mental affliction

Leo

craving (trsria )

karma

Virgo

grasping onto existence (upadana)

suffering

Libra

becoming (bhava)

mental afflictio n

Scorpio

birth (jati)

karma

Sagittarius

old age and deat h (jara-maram)

suffering

a cause and the entir e worl d as its result. There ar e no othe r sentien t being s apart from thi s cycle of transmigratory existence, which consists of causes and effects . Du e to th e relatio n between th e caus e an d effec t an d the cycl e o f existence, this phe nomenal whee l of time ceases when thes e causes and effect s cease . The Kalacakr a tradition's classificatio n of the twelv e links of dependent orig ination into three categories—mental affliction, karma, and suffering—goes bac k to th e earlie r work s o f Abhidharm a an d Mahayana. 115 However , th e specifi c links of dependent originatio n that it includes in those three categorie s differ fro m the classification s o f th e earlie r Buddhis t systems . Fo r example , i n Nagarjuna' s Pratitysamutpadahrdayakarika,116 spiritua l ignoranc e (avidya), cravin g (trsnd), an d grasping ont o existenc e (upadana) belon g t o th e categor y o f menta l afflictions ; karmic formations (samskdra) an d becoming (bhava) belon g to the categor y of karma; and the remaining seven belong to the categor y of suffering. Table 5.18 illustrates yet another manner i n which th e Kalacakr a tradition relates the twelv e links of dependent originatio n t o the twelv e zodiacs and twelv e lunar months . I n thi s particula r scheme , th e thre e aforementione d aspect s o f th e twelve links of dependent originatio n are reduced t o two—caus e and effect . Thus , the first five links of dependent origination , which correspon d t o the first five zodiacs and luna r months, ar e interpreted as the causa l phenomena; an d the remaining seven are viewed as the resultant phenomena, characterize d by suffering.117 This particular manner o f classifying th e twelv e links of dependent originatio n int o th e tw o categories seems to be specific to the Kalacakr a tradition. Due to the power of this cycle of time within the body and outside the body, the twelve links of dependent originatio n constantly revolv e in the sequence of creation and destruction. Th e respectiv e links of dependent originatio n aris e and ceas e no t only when th e su n enters a zodiac and when th e da y of a new lunar month begins ,

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TABLE 5.18 Twelv e Zodiacs, Lunar Months, and Links of Dependen t Origination Twelve zodiac s

Twelve luna r months

Capricorn

beginning of Magha

Aquarius

beginning o f Phalguna

Pisces

beginning o f Caitr a

Aries

beginning o f Vaisakha

Taurus

beginning o f Jyestha

Gemini

beginning o f Asadha

Cancer

beginning o f Sravana

Leo

beginning o f Bhadrapada

Virgo

beginning o f Asvini

Libra

beginning of Karttika

Scorpio

beginning o f Margasirsa

Sagittarius

beginning o f Pusya

Twelve links o f dependent origination spiritual ignorance cause karmic formation s cause consciousness cause mind-and-body cause six sense bases cause sensory contact effect feelings effect craving effect grasping onto existenc e effect becoming effect birth effect old age and deat h effect

but also with the comin g and passing of every lunar day. For example, spiritual ignorance arise s on th e firs t luna r day of the mont h o f Pusya (in th e sig n of Sagittarius) during the brigh t lunar fortnight (sukla-paksa). Karmi c formations arise on th e sec ond day, and so on. During the brigh t lunar fortnight, the twelv e links of dependent origination aris e i n th e sequenc e o f creation. However , when spiritua l ignorance arises on the first lunar day of the dark lunar fortnight (krsr\a-paksa), the n the twelfth link arises on the secon d day , and so on. Thus, durin g the dar k lunar fortnight, th e twelve links of dependent originatio n arise i n th e sequenc e of destruction. As during the mont h o f Pusya, the twelv e links of dependent originatio n arise first in th e sequence of creation an d then in the sequenc e of destruction; an d this is due to th e classification o n the brigh t and dark lunar fortnights. Therefore, within the follow ing month o f Magha, they arise first in the sequence of destruction, starting with the second link , th e karmi c formations , and endin g wit h spiritua l ignoranc e a s th e twelfth. The sequence s of their arising alternate with each lunar month. I n this way, due to th e efficac y o f the brigh t an d dark lunar fortnights, a full cycl e of origination and destruction takes place in a single lunar month. Thus, a cycle of the twelve links of dependent originatio n of a solar year contains the twenty-fou r shorter cycles of dependent origination of the twelve lunar months. When the twelve links of a solar cycle of dependent origination are added to the twenty-fou r links of a lunar cycle of de-

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pendent origination , they make up thirty-six links of dependent origination , whic h correspond to the thirty-six padas ("stations") o f the sun and the moon in the sky and of the seme n and uterine blood i n the bod y of the individual . Likewise, if one mul tiplies the twenty-fou r lunar cycles of dependent origination by the twelv e links of a single solar cycle of dependent origination, one gets the number that corresponds t o the two hundred and eighty-eight padas of the sun and the moon, which ar e obtained by the multiplicatio n o f their thirty-si x padas b y the eigh t watche s of the da y (prahara). Similarly, every single day, the eigh t watches of the da y and th e fou r junctures (sandhya) o f the day make up together th e twelve links of dependent origination , th e twelve microcosmic zodiacs . In the body of the individual , each of these twelve links has eighteen hundre d flow s of pram, just as outside the body , each link of dependen t origination has eighteen hundred dandas i n the course of a lunar month. In this way, just as one sola r year consists of three hundred an d sixty days, so one luna r cycle of dependent originatio n consists of three hundred an d sixty daily cycles of dependent origination. Likewise , every tw o link s of dependent originatio n mak e u p a season (rtu), consistin g of two months, whic h ha s thirty-six hundred flows of prams i n th e body and thirty-six hundred dandas outside th e body. In this way, the si x seasons of a year also make up the twelv e links of dependent origination. 118 Thus, in the cosmic body and in the body of the individual , the multiple shorter cycles of dependent originatio n make up the successivel y larger cycles of dependen t origination, i n accordance wit h the divisio n of a solar year into th e smalle r units of time. This implies that each cycle of dependent origination , whic h comprise s progressively smaller cycles of dependent origination , arise s in dependence upo n other cycles of dependent originatio n an d i s therefore itself empty of inherent existence . This implie s further that even withi n on e lifetime , th e individua l is nothing othe r than the embodiment of the multiple cycles of dependent origination . Likewise, this analysis of time in terms of the successivel y smaller cycles of dependent originatio n suggests tha t tim e itsel f i s not a n inherentl y existen t phenomenon , sinc e ther e i s nothing withi n th e cycl e of time tha t ca n be established a s its ontological basis . In this manner , th e Kalacakratantra support s th e Nagarjuna' s positio n o n time , pre sented i n the nineteent h chapter o f the Mi^arnadhyamakakarika, whic h argue s that time is not an independent, inherentl y existen t phenomenon bu t a dependent se t of temporal relations. This analysis also suggests that the individua l is merely a cycle of transmigration (samsara'cakra), a wheel of time manifesting in human form. The Kalacakra tradition affirms tha t apart from thi s phenomenal whee l of time, there i s no other sentient be ing.119 This assertion reminds one of Nagarjuna's Bodhicittavivarana, v. 60, which states that there is no other sentien t bein g apart from the twelve-spoked wheel, which rolls along th e path of cyclic existence.120 This i s a way in which th e Kalacakr a tradition analyzes the emptines s of the inheren t existenc e of the phenomena existin g in time. By means of such analysis, it tries to demonstrate tha t since it is a wheel of time, th e body of the individua l and personal identitylessness (pudgala-nairatmya) ar e mutually pervasive and nondual . Thi s is one o f the Kalacakratantra's uniqu e ways of interpreting the earl y Madhyamaka's reconciliation o f the traditiona l Buddhis t theory o f the twelve-limbed dependen t originatio n wit h th e doctrin e o f emptiness, a s found i n

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1

TABLE 5.19 Unit s of Time and the Individua l Time

The individua l

360 solar days (21,600 ghatikas)

360 nadis of the 36 0 joints

30 lunar days (tithi)

30 nadis of the 3 0 joints of the fingers

15 lunar days of a bright fortnigh t (sukla.'paksa)

15 nadis of the 1 5 joints of the finger s o f the lef t hand, starting with the smal l finger and ending with the thumb, due to the classification o f space and other elements

15 lunar days of a dark fortnigh t (krsna-paksa)

15 nadis of the 1 5 joints of the finger s o f the right hand, starting with the thumb and ending with the little finger, due to the classification o f the earth and other elements

16 digits (kulu) o f the moo n the firs t the second the third the fourt h the fifth the sixth the seventh the eighth the ninth the tenth the eleventh the twelft h the thirteenth the fourteent h the fifteent h the sixteenth

1 6 bodily constituents fine hair long hair skin skin blood blood flesh flesh nadis nadis bones bones marrow marrow semen semen

Nagarjuna's Midarnadhyamakakarika121 an d Pratityasamutpadahrdayakarika. Identify ing phenomenal existenc e wit h emptiness , th e Kalacakr a tradition als o affirms th e old Mahayana assertion state d i n th e Prajndpdramitahrdayasutra tha t form i s emptiness and emptines s is form. The Kalacakr a traditio n present s th e huma n bod y as a wheel of time in a variety of ways. Table 5.19 demonstrates the manner i n which this tantric tradition identifies the sola r and lunar days and the digit s (kola) of the moo n with the specifi c nadis of the individual' s body. Tables 5-2o.a-b illustrate the manner i n which thi s tantric system sees the nadis of the si x bodily cakras a s the inne r supports , or seats, of the whee l of time. The whee l of time that is embodied i n the individua l is stirred by the te n winds ofprdnas i n sixteen hundred an d twent y bodily nadis, called "the nadis o f the whee l of time." As table 5.21 indicates, th e nadis of the whee l of time are one hundred an d sixty-two nadis, which are of ten kinds due to the circulation o f the ten kinds of pranas in each nodi". 122 These nadis of the wheel of time bring death to ordinary people, for in the cours e

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 5-2O.A Location s of the Inne r Pada s of the Moo n an d Constellation s Fourteen padas of the moo n the pada consisting of 5 ghatikas the pada consisting of 4 ghatikas the pada consisting of 3 ghatikas the pada consisting of 2 ghatikas the pada consisting of i ghatikas the pada consisting of 2 ghatikas the pada consisting of 3 ghatikas the pada consisting of 4 ghatikas the pada consisting of 5 ghatikas nothing Constellations twenty-eight constellations nothing

The lalata in the first, second, and third nadis in the fourt h nadl in the fifth nadl in the sixt h nadl in the sevent h and eighth nddls in the ninth nadl in the tent h nadl in the elevent h nadl in the twelfth , thirteenth , an d fourteenth nadis in the fifteent h an d sixteenth nadls The throat-cafcr a in twenty-eight nddls in the remainin g 4 nadls

of time the y becom e disturbe d by the element s o f phlegm (kapha), bil e (pitta) , an d wind (fata). 123 However, they are said to give bliss to those yogis who meditate upon them a s the nadls o f the Buddh a Kalacakra—the deities of the kdlacakra-mandala— and who protect the m in the bod y by means of the six-phase d yoga (sad-anga-yoga). Since the transmigrator y wheel of time is nondual fro m th e bod y of the cosmo s and th e bod y of the individual , it i s of the natur e o f the element s an d thei r modifi cations. Fo r example, Capricorn i s of the natur e o f the space-element an d th e ag gregate of consciousness (vijnana-skandha): Aquariu s is of the natur e o f the wind-element and the aggregate of mental factors (samskara'skandha); Pisce s is of the natur e of the fire-elemen t and the aggregat e of feelings (vedand-skandha); Arie s i s of the na TABLE 5.20.8 Location s of the Inne r Days, Ghatikas, and Digits of the Moo n Days of the week Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday the da y of Ketu's and Rahu's passing through kulikd

The Heart-calcr a in the easter n nadl in the southeastern nadl in the souther n nadl in the southwester n nadl in the wester n nadl in the northwestern nadl in the northern nadl in the northeastern nadl

Ghatikas 60 ghatikas nothing

The navel-cakra in 6 0 nddls in the remainin g 4 nddls

Digits o f the Moo n 16 digits of the brigh t lunar fortnight 16 digits of the dar k lunar fortnight

The secret-cakra in 32 nadis

The Cosmic Body 10 3 TABLE 5.21 Inne r Conveyers of the Whee l of Time Nadis of the Whee l o f Time (kdla'Cakra) 162 nddis of the six cakras i. 4 nadis in the usnlsa, which carry the 4 junctures of the day 2.16 nadis in the lalata, which carry 16 lunar days 3. 32 nadis i n the throat-cakra , which carry 28 constellations an d 4 dandas 4. 8 nadis of the.heart-cakra, which carr y the 8 watches of the day 5. 64 nadis of the navel-cakra , which carry 54 dandas 6. 32 nadis of the secre t cakra, which carry 32 elements 7. 6 other nddis laland, rasand, avadhuti, and th e thre e nddis carryin g feces, urine, and semen

ture of the water-elemen t and th e aggregat e of discernment (sarnjrui'skandha); Tau rus i s of the natur e o f the earth-elemen t an d th e aggregat e of form (rupa-skandha); Gemini i s of the natur e o f the gnosis-elemen t an d th e aggregat e of gnosis (jnana skandha); an d th e remainin g six zodiacs, beginning with Cancer, ar e of the sam e nature as the aforementione d six but i n reverse order.124 Likewise, the classificatio n of the unit s of time is due to the efficac y o f the si x elements. Fo r example, a s in the cas e o f the aforementione d si x solar mansions, th e classification of six months i s due to the classificatio n of the si x elements, the si x seasons alternating in accordance wit h the nature of the six elements. Among three seasons of six months, the first season i s characterized b y sattva, the secon d b y rajas, an d the thir d by tamas.125 Similarly, the followin g threefold classification in which a lunar fortnigh t i s of the natur e o f sattva, a lunar month is of the natur e of rajas, an d a season is of the natur e of tamas, is due t o the classificatio n of the thre e gunas.126 Thus, i n term s o f conventional reality , wherever ther e i s corporeality ther e is time, for everything material , which i s characterized b y the originatio n an d cessation, i s temporary. Therefore, a goal of Kdlacakratantra practic e is to transfor m this corporeal wheel of time into the transcenden t whee l of time, which i s devoid of matter and free o f origination an d cessation. Whe n the locall y embodied and temporary wheel of time becomes the omnipresen t and everlasting wheel of time, it is called the Buddha Kalacakra, the unit y of emptiness and bliss. The actualizatio n of the transcenden t whee l of time is charaterized by the trans formation o f the twelv e zodiacs into the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. Likewise, at th e time of this transformation, the thirty-tw o digits of the moon manifes t as the thirty two marks of a Great Man (mahd-purusa). Similarly , the moon becomes the supreme mind (maha-cz'tta ) o f th e Buddha , an d th e las t o f it s sixtee n digit s becomes th e supreme emptines s (maha-sunyata), th e suprem e body (maha-kaya) o f the Buddha . This sixteent h digi t of the moon, o r the suprem e emptiness, comes at the en d of the bright lunar fortnight, which is passion, or attachment (raga) ; and it comes at the beginning of the dark lunar fortnight, which is dispassion, or detachment (araga) . Thus, the suprem e emptiness of enlightened awarenes s is the cessatio n of the phenomena l aspects of the brigh t and dark lunar fortnights. It is the heart of all the Tathagatas in the sam e way that persona l identitylessnes s is the hear t o f dependent origination . This is the manne r i n which th e Kalacakr a tradition explains , in terms of the cessa-

IO4 Th e Inner Kalacakratantra

tion of phenomenal tim e an d it s causes, it s definition o f Buddhahood as the min d that has emptiness as its form (sunyata'bimba'dtta) an d transcends both attachmen t and detachment. Likewise , by transforming the atomi c natur e of the five elements that constitute th e internal moon, sun, and Rahu into the nature of gnosis, one transforms thes e heavenl y bodie s withi n onesel f an d outsid e onesel f int o th e differen t types o f gnosis , o r int o th e aggregate s tha t ar e fre e o f obscuration s (niravarana,' skandha). Th e moo n i n the sky, or semen in the body , becomes th e Buddha' s mirrorlike gnosis (adarsa'jnana), th e unobscure d form-aggregate (rupa'skandha), o r Vairocana. The su n in the sky, or uterine blood in the body, becomes the gnosis of equality (samata-jnana), th e unobscured aggregate of feeling, or Ratnasambhava. Rahu i n th e sky, or consciousness in the body , becomes th e discriminatin g gnosis (pratyaveksanajnana), th e unobscure d aggregat e of discernment, o r Amitabha. The unificatio n of these three in the win d of pram becomes th e accomplishin g gnosi s (krtydnusthanajnana), th e unobscure d aggregat e of mental formations , o r Amoghasiddhi . Whe n consciousness become s endowed with all the component s o f these fou r members , it transforms int o the gnosi s of the spher e of reality (dharrm-dhatu-jfiana), th e unob scured aggregate of consciousness, o r Aksobhya. Thus, due to the purificatio n of afflictive and cognitive obscurations, which ar e stored i n subtle atomi c particles, th e phenomenal whee l of time, which i s characterized by the twelv e limbs of dependen t origination, manifests as the transcenden t whee l of time, which i s characterized by the twelv e bodhisattva-bhumis. This transcendent whee l of time knows itself to be devoid of the past and future , and yet it sees the pas t and future. 127 Perceivin g that time is empty of inherent existence, i t knows itself to be of empty nature (sunya-svabhava).

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5

Appendix Table A.I outline s ye t anothe r wa y of seeing th e correspondence s amon g th e te n pilgrimage sites and the human limbs, joints, and nails.1 TABLE A. i Pilgrimag e Sites in the Huma n Body Pilgrimage sites Th pitha th upapitha th ksetras th upaksetras th chandohas th upachandohas th melapakas th upamelapakas th smasanas th upasmasdnas th

e individua l e lef t ar m e righ t ar m e joint of the lef t upper arm and the joint of the lef t thig h e join t of the righ t upper arm and the joint of the righ t thigh e joint o f the lef t forear m and th e joint of the lef t kne e e joint of the righ t forearm and the joint of the right kne e e joint s of the lef t hand and the lef t foo t e joints of the right hand and the right foo t e nail s o f the lef t finger s and toes e nail s of the righ t fingers an d toes

In the schema presented in table A.2 , th e twenty-fou r pilgrimag e sites , grouped int o ten mai n categorie s and subdivide d int o the group s o f two and four , correspond t o the joints in the bod y o f the individual. 2 TABLE A.2 Pilgrimag e Sites and th e Bodil y Joints Pilgrimage sites Th two ksetras tw two upaksetras tw two chandohas tw two upachandohas tw two meldpakas tw two upameldpakas tw two smasanas tw two upasmasdnas tw four mahdsmasanas th four upamahdsmasdnas th

e individua l o joints of the uppe r arms o joints of the thigh s o joints of the lowe r arms o joints of the knee s o joints of the wrist o joints of the fee t o joints of the palm s of the hand s o joints of the sole s of the fee t e joint s of the tw o thumbs e joint s of the tw o big toe s

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Table A-3 illustrates th e Kalacakr a tradition' s interpretation of different heavenly lights in terms of the nadis in the bod y of the individua l an d in terms of the differ ent type s of gnosis (jnana). TABLE A-3 Heavenl y Light s and th e Nadi s i n the Bod y The universe

The individua l

The white light in the north Rahu the moon Mercury Venus Ketu rain water

the lef t nadi (lalana)

The red light in the south Kalagm the sun Mars Jupiter Saturn lightening fire

the re d nadi (rasana)

The yellow light in the west dim stars bright star s rainbow earth of two types: soi l an d stone

the yello w nadi o f the flow of feces uddna-prdna ndga~prana krkara'prdna

The green light above

prdna in the nadi o f consciousness (vijndna-nddi )

The blue light below

apana i n th e nadi o f gnosis (jnana-nadi)

The black light in the east

samdna'prdna vydna'prdna kicrma-prdna devadatta'prdria dhanamjaya-prdrja

The Cosmi c Body 10

7

Table A-4 shows the manner in which the Kalacakra tradition sees the correspondences among the te n planets an d the individual' s bodily apertures . TABLE A.4 Planet s and th e Bodil y Apertures Ten planets Te

n bodily apertures

Moon th Sun th Kalagni th Rahu th Mars th Mercury th Jupiter th Venus th Saturn th Ketu th

e aperture of the anu s e urinary aperture e apertur e for semen e apertur e of the mout h e apertur e of the righ t eye e apertur e of the lef t eye e apertur e o f the right nostril e apertur e of the lef t nostri l e apertur e of the righ t ear e apertur e of the lef t ea r

Table A-5 demonstrates the Kalacakra tradition's interpretatio n of stellar constellation s as macrocosmic correlates o f the individual' s teeth. TABLE A.5 Constellation s and th e Individual' s Teeth Constellations Th

e individual

28 constellations (naksatra), Abhiji t 3 constellation, an d 4 darida constellation s located a t the fou r corners of the salaka constellation s

2 teet h

Table A.5 a illustrate s the Kalacakr a tradition's identificatio n of the meteorologica l phenomena wit h the bod y of the individual. TABLE A.5A Meteorologica l Phenomena within the Huma n Body Meteorological phenomen a Th ram saliv clouds intestine thunder heartbea rainbow excremen

e individual a

s t an d intestinal rumbling t

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

In table A.6 th e thre e realms of transmigratory existence ar e seen as corresponding to the thre e type s of bodily extremities. TABLE A.6 Th e Thre e Realms and th e Bodil y Extremitie s The universe Th heavenly world th the worl d of mortals th the underworl d th

e individua l e head and the throat e arm s e leg s

The correspondence s betwee n tim e i n th e individual' s body and tim e outsid e th e body are the following: i fortnight = 90 0 breaths 24 fortnights of a year = 21,60 0 breaths, making up a solar day i perio d (yuga-samaya)3 = 5,400 breath s four periods of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a solar day i tim e (kflla ) = 7,20 0 breaths three times of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a solar day 1 half a year = 10,80 0 breaths 2 halves of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a solar day i da y and a night (ahoratra) = 6 0 breaths 360 days and nights of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a solar day i lagna = 5 breaths 4,320 lagnas of a year = 21,60 0 breaths/a sola r day

6

The Socia l Body

The Individua l and Societ y

T

he Kalacakratantra's views of the individual' s place i n society and of the individ ual as society are closely interrelated. These provide a sociological framework for the traditiona l interpretation o f the Kalacakratantra's history , and for its eschatology and soteriology . The Kalacakr a tradition's interpretatio n o f social relations an d it s sharp criticism of caste divisions and social bias have multiple goals and practical applications. Som e o f them ar e unique to the Kalacakr a tradition, an d some are characteristic of all Indian Buddhis t systems. From its very inception, India n Buddhism prided itsel f on it s inclusiveness of all social classes and ethni c groups. Throughou t its history, it criticized the Brahmanica l views of the divin e origin of the fou r castes (vanna) an d th e hereditar y nature o f their moral and spiritua l qualities. I t censure d the Brahmanica l insistenc e o n the preservation o f the hierarchy o f the cast e system and the Brahmani c position o n the soteriologica l implication s o f one's socia l status and relations. 1 Even though India n Buddhist communities at times fell short o f Buddhist social ideals, Buddhist scriptures continually emphasize d the provisional nature of social differences, th e lac k o f any inherent , mora l qualities of any socia l class or ethnic group, and the equa l qualifications of all social classes for venturing onto th e Buddhist path of spiritual maturation and awakening . Buddhist scriptures often refer to the populace as the intende d audienc e of Buddhist teachings . The earl y Pali literature depicts Buddh a Sakyamun i as turning th e Wheel of Dharma for the benefi t and happines s o f the multitude s of people (bahujana-hita, bahu-jana'sukha); an d later Mahayana works portray the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas a s those wh o teac h th e Dharm a fo r the well-bein g of all sentient being s (sarva-sattvdrtha). Amon g th e renowne d mal e and female Arhats, Bodhisattvas , and Siddhas, man y ar e sai d t o hav e bee n bor n int o familie s o f barbers , fishermen , cowherds, hunters, courtesans, and outcasts. In one of the earliest Buddhist texts, the Suttanipata, the Buddh a teaches tha t human beings cannot b e divided into differen t species a s are animals an d plants . Rather , thei r difference s are determined onl y by 109

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The Inner Kalacakratantra

convention. Divers e social classes (jati) exis t by mere designation. Since there i s no real differenc e amon g socia l classes , one canno t spea k o f the fou r castes. 2 Conse quently, the moral superiority of the individua l does not li e in the caste, clan, or family into which one is born but in the individual' s spiritual achievements—specifi cally, i n freedo m fro m menta l affliction s (klesa) an d i n ethica l conduc t (sila). According t o the Vasettha Sutta, the Buddh a Sakyamuni stated th e following: I do not cal l a man a Brahmin because of his mother o r because of his breeding. Just because a ma n i s entitled t o b e called "Sir, " it doe s no t mea n tha t he i s free fro m habit and attachment. He who is free from attachment and he who is free from grasping is the person I call a Brahmin. When all the chain s ar e shattered, whe n ther e is no mor e agitation, an d a man has freed himself an d throw n of f his shackles—that is the perso n I call a Brahmin.3

According t o the Theragatha , the Buddh a said similar words to SunTta , an outcast, who was said to be revered by Indra and Brahma afte r attainin g Arhatship . By austerity, by living the religiou s life, by self-restraint and self-taming, by this one becomes a Brahmana; this is the suprem e state o f being a Brahmana.4

The Majjhimanikayatthakatha distinguishe s two types of sons of a noble family — one wh o i s a son of a noble famil y b y birth (jdti-kula'putta), referrin g to on e wh o is born int o th e famil y o f an uppe r social class, and th e othe r wh o i s a son of a nobl e family b y conduct (acdra-kula-putta), referrin g to a Buddhist monk. Thus, th e early Buddhists attempted t o transcend clas s discrimination in their communitie s by creating a socially integrated, monasti c community . In the earl y Buddhist canonical texts , the term s gotra and kula, meaning "family, clan, or lineage," have often been use d as synonyms for a Buddhist spiritual family or lineage. I n th e contex t o f Mahayana, the ter m kula, remained a general ter m designating a community of Mahayana practitioners, and the ter m gotra assumed an additional, technica l meaning , specifyin g one' s spiritual disposition o r inclination . Indian Buddhist tantras, on the other hand, conflated and expanded the meanings of these tw o terms beyond thei r meanings in the Mahayan a scriptures. The differenc e in the interpretation s o f these tw o terms is explained by the fac t tha t different the oretical and practical implications were attributed to the notion of a spiritual family or lineage by different Buddhist traditions an d schools. Even though th e interpreta tive difference s ar e obvious, they ar e historically related i n the sens e that th e late r interpretations ar e formulated on the basi s of the earlie r ones. In earl y Buddhism, the Pal i terms gotta and kula primarily signified a Buddhist monastic communit y of the spiritua l heirs of the Buddh a and secondarily a Buddhist lay community. A monastic community unified through social integration and shared beliefs, spiritual goals, and practices was seen as an ideal type of family. According t o the Mahdvagga o f the Anguttara Nikaya (XIX . 14), the Buddha taught that those who left home for homelessness in the Buddhis t Dharma and monastic discipline (vinaya) renounced thei r former lineages (nama-gotta) an d became members of the integrated, Buddhist monastic family . The tex t expresse s this point a s follows:

The Socia l Body 11 1 Monks, jus t a s grea t rivers—namely , Ganga , Yamuna , AciravatI, Sarabhu , an d Mahl—descending into the great ocean, los e their former names and are called th e great ocean , so, monks , thes e fou r castes—Ksatriyas , Brahmanas , Vaisyas , an d Sudras—having gone fro m home t o homelessness in the Dharm a and monastic discipline, which ar e taught by the Tathagata , renounc e thei r former lineages an d are called th e wanderin g ascetic s (samana) belongin g t o the so n of Sakyas.5

Likewise, in the Aggann a Sutta of the Digha Nikaya (III . 84. 9), the Buddh a asserts that a monk wh o has firmly rooted an d unshakable fait h in the Tathagat a ca n truly call himself "a Son of the Bhagavan , who is born of his mouth, born of Dharma, generated by Dharma, and who is an heir of Dharma, since the Tathagata is the Body of Dharma." This formula i s undoubtedly modeled on the exampl e of the Brahmani c claim to the mora l and spiritua l superiority of the Brahmi n caste, cited by the Buddha i n the Madhurd Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, which reads: "Master Kaccana, th e Brahmanas say thus: ' . . .Brahmanas alon e ar e th e son s o f Brahma, the offsprin g o f Brahma, born of his mouth, born of Brahma, created by Brahma, heirs of Brahma.'"6 Early Pali texts indicate that even a person who has not ye t become a Streamenterer bu t i s endowed wit h th e condition s conduciv e t o stream-entr y becomes of the lineag e (gotta-bhu ) o f Aryas, thereby surpassin g the inferio r lineag e of ordinary people (puthuj-jana) , 7 Even though he i s lacking experientia l insigh t (dassana) an d full confidenc e (saddha) i n th e Buddha' s teachings, b y becoming disillusione d with the worl d of desires and b y aspiring for nibbdna, a person becomes of the lineag e of Aryas and thereby becomes capable of clearly discerning the first Noble Truth.8 Thus, according to th e earl y Buddhist scriptures , a Buddhist spiritual family include s tw o main categorie s o f individuals: (i) thos e endowe d with spiritua l accomplishment s such as experiential insight into the Fou r Noble Truths and freedom from mental afflictions, an d (2 ) thos e showin g potential for attaining those accomplishments . These earl y Buddhist notion s o f a spiritua l family ar e th e precursor s to late r Mahayana theorie s o f the Buddha-family . Some India n Mahayan a author s continued to advocate a social integration o f the Buddhis t spiritual family, an d to some degree, they extended thi s social ideal to Buddhis t lay communities as well. Following the example of the earlie r Suttanipata, they denied any significant differences among social classes and explained social class as mere designation (sarnjna-matram), or convention (vyavahara). Reinterpretin g th e Vedi c Purusasukta in their rejectio n of the traditional Brahmani c interpretations of the origi n of the fou r castes , the y claimed that in this world there is only one , universa l social group (sdrndnya-jati), sinc e hu man being s d o no t diffe r amon g themselve s a s do differen t specie s o f animals an d plants.9 The Sdrdulakarndvaddna assert s the unit y of all social classes, declaring: "this all is one, an d one i s this all." 10 It tries to demonstrate that the Brahmani c accoun t of the originatio n o f the fou r socia l classes from th e fou r differen t part s of Brahma's body does not justif y socia l discrimination bu t proves instea d tha t al l the members of Indian society are of the same class and value by birth, since they all originate from the same source. The tex t argues this point, stating: "Since Brahma is one, therefor e his progeny belongs only to one social class (jatt)." 11 It supports this argument by affirming that i f all the member s of one socia l class originated fro m th e sam e part of the Brahma' s body, then:

ii2

The Inner Kalacakratantra Your sister would be your wife, and that is not appropriat e fo r a Brahmana . If this world was first generated by Brahma himself, then a Brahman! is a Brahmana's sister, a Ksatriya is a Ksatriya' s sister, a Vaisya i s a Vaisya's [sister] , and a Sudra i s a Sudra's [sister] . A siste r i s not suitabl e t o b e a wife, i f she i s generated b y Brahma. Sentien t being s are no t generate d b y Brahm a bu t ar e generate d b y thei r menta l affliction s an d karma.12

Asvaghosa, a renowned Mahayana scholar and poet belonging to approximately the sam e period as the SdrduJkarmvadana, pose s a similar argument in his Vajrasuci. Basing his argument s on th e authorit y of the Veda s and Smrtis , Asvaghosa argue s that neithe r th e sou l (jwa ) no r th e bod y make u p a Brahmana . The sou l is not a Brahmana because the god s Surya, Soma, an d Indr a were once animals. I f the bod y were a Brahmana , the n Ksatriyas , Vaisyas , an d Sudras , wh o ar e bor n fro m th e Brahma's body would also be Brahmanas. Asvaghosa argue s along th e sam e lines as the Suttanipata tha t human being s are not o f different classes , or species, just as the four sons of the sam e father cannot be of different race s and just as fruits o f the sam e tree cannot be of different species. 13 He states this i n the followin g manner: Some fruit s o f an udumbara o r a panasa [tree ] gro w on th e branches , som e o n th e trunk, som e at the branching parts of the stem , and some on the edges . There is no difference amon g the m as, "this is a Brahamana fruit, thi s is a Ksatriya fruit, this is a Vaisya fruit, and thi s is a Sudra fruit, " because the y have grown on the sam e tree. In the sam e way, there is no differenc e among human being s as well, because the y have originated fro m th e sam e Man (jjurusa). 14

Like the Sardulakamdvadana, Asvaghosa' s Vajrasuci point s to the followin g faul t of the Brahmani c postulation o f the origi n of class division: If a Brahmana i s born from th e mout h [of Brahma], wherefrom i s a BrahmanI born? If she is born from th e sam e mouth, alas, then you are having intercourse wit h your sisters! Thus, you do not conside r wha t is appropriate o r inappropriate sexua l inter course, and this is extremely repugnan t t o the world. 15

Although th e Mahayana tradition advocated the equality of all social classes and their solidarity, the ne w Mahayana idea l of a Buddhist spiritual family becam e that of the Mahayan a monasti c an d la y communities. Only thos e wh o ascended t o th e Mahayana Vehicl e (mahayane drudha) b y generatin g th e spiri t of awakening (bod' hicitta) ar e referre d t o a s the son s and daughter s of the nobl e famil y (kula-putra o r kula-duhitr). Likewise , the epithet s Jinaputra (" a son o f the Jina" ) an d Sugatasut a ("a child of the Sugata" ) apply to those who, in the word s of Nagarjuna, "drin k th e elixir of emptiness for themselves and others" and "who burnt the fue l o f mental afflictions wit h th e cognitiv e fir e o f emptines s (sunyata-jnandgni) ," 16 Th e spiri t of awakening (bodhicitta), "th e see d o f all the qualitie s of the Buddhas," 17 becam e a necessary qualification for spiritual birth int o the famil y o f the perfectl y awakened Buddha (samyaksambuddha'kula) , 18 Citing th e Ratnakarandasutra i n his Siksasamuccaya, Santidev a assert s that eve n a n ordinar y person (prthag'jana) ma y be a Bod hisattva.19 He substantiates thi s assettio n o n the basi s of the vie w expressed in th e

The Social Body 11

3

Vimalakirtinirdesa tha t the spiri t of awakening can aris e even i n a person whose belief in the tru e existence of the personality (satkaya-drsti) i s as massive as Mt. Sumeru. Thus, a prerequisite for the arisin g of the spiri t of awakening is not one' s philosoph ical orientation, bu t one's ability to be inspired and incited to generate the spiri t of awakening. A s the Dharmadasakasutra point s out , this particular abilit y i s the bodhisattva-gotra, or one's predilection for the Bodhisattva path.20 While som e Mahayana authors differentiated fiv e type s of gotras,21 others identifie d gotr a with the dharmadhatu and argue d against its divisibility, affirming it s beginningless an d endles s existence i n all sentient being s without exception. 22 However , according t o th e Kolacakratantra, it i s one wh o retain s his seme n (bodhidtta) b y the powe r of meditative concentration (samadhi) tha t become s a Bodhisattv a bor n int o th e famil y o f th e Jinas.23 The Vimalaprabha comment s tha t by being born into the famil y o f the Jina in thi s way , one increase s the lineag e of the Sugatas . For this ver y reason , Maras , Raksasas, an d other demon s stea l the emitte d seme n fro m thos e wh o ar e not well concentrated an d devour it on a daily basis. The holder s o f the Kalacakr a tradition i n Indi a furthe r develope d the earlie r Buddhist precursory notions of a socially integrated and inherentl y unifie d spiritua l family and attributed t o them new practical applications an d soteriological implica tions. Th e vajra-famil y emerge d a s a ne w mode l o f an idea l spiritua l family. Th e phrase "vajra-family, " whic h ma y be interprete d her e a s an "indestructibl e or indivisible family" (th e wor d "vajra" meanin g "indestructible , indivisible") , has diverse connotations and implications. First , it denotes a community of individuals initiated into the same Vajrayana tradition, a community that is indivisible and indestructible by virtue of its spiritual, social, and ethnic integration. As will be demonstrated later , in the contex t o f the Kdlacakratantra tradition , the emergenc e of this kind of vajrafamily has socio-political and soteriological significance. Second, the 'Vajra-family " designates the family of Bodhisattvas who by means of tantric practices have become vajra-sons (vajra-putra), bor n int o the famil y o f Vajrasattva, or Kalacakra, and wh o are endowed with an insignifican t degree of obscurations (amrana) regardin g their spirit of awakening (bodhidtta).24 The aforementione d argument s o f th e earlie r Buddhis t system s agains t Brahmanic social discrimination were also incorporated int o the social theory of the Buddhist tantras. There i s no doubt tha t those arguments circulated amon g the In dian Buddhis t communities for centuries, since the y als o reoccur i n th e Kalacakra tradition. Eve n though th e Kalacakr a tradition reiterate s those arguments , settin g them i n the contex t o f Buddhist tantric socia l theory and practice, it gives them a uniquely tantric application , which wil l be discussed later in this chapter. Th e following passage from th e Vimalaprabha illustrate s the Kalacakr a tradition's criticism of the Brahmani c social theory and demonstrates the stron g influence o f the earlier Buddhist social critiques on this tantric system. They say here that Brahma's mout h is the sourc e of Brahmanas, becaus e the y originated from there. Likewise, his two arms are the birthplace o f Ksatriyas... his two thighs are the birthplac e of Vaisyas, an d hi s tw o fee t ar e th e birthplac e o f Sudras. Thus, there are four castes. The fifth class of Candalas immediately follows these four. What is their birthplace? Tha t much Brahmanas do not know . Moreover, i s it true , as they say , that Brahmanas ar e born fro m th e Brahma' s head ? Hence, I ask: "Ar e

ii4 The Inner Kalacakratantra Brahmanls also born fro m there ? If they are, then they are their sisters, because they originated fro m the sam e source. Furthermore, d o Ksatriyas and others have marital relations wit h thei r sisters ? Why? If that happens , the n th e Barbarians ' (mleccha) Dharma become s prevalent . Whe n th e Barbarians ' Dharm a become s prevalent , then there is an end of social classes. Due to the destructio n o f social classes, there is hell. . .. It has been furthe r investigate d tha t i f there i s a single creato r o f living beings, then why are there four castes ? Just as four son s of one fathe r ar e not o f different castes , s o is this true o f castes. I f the differenc e is due t o th e divisio n o f th e Brahma's head an d othe r bodil y parts , that i s not logicall y possible . Why ? Just as there i s no difference between th e udumbara fruits growing at the lowest level, in the middle o r at th e top , s o is that th e cas e fo r castes. Sinc e one canno t perceive an y distinction [amon g castes] in terms of the classification of the white, red, yellow, and black color s nor in term s of the elements , sense-faculties , happiness, suffering , knowledge, sacre d scriptures, and th e like , therefor e i t has been establishe d tha t a caste i s impermanent.25 This passage from th e Vimalaprabhd parallel s a passage from th e Paramarthaseva, which is also traditionally attributed t o Pundarik a and include d i n th e literar y cor pus of the Kalacakra tradition. According to the Paramarthaseva, people are born into different socia l classes due to the natur e of their karma and not du e to their origination fro m th e particula r parts of Brahma's body. The followin g passag e o f the sam e text refute s th e Brahmanica l characterization of social classes in terms of their col ors and thei r inheren t predilections for their inherite d function s i n society , which were standardized by the author s of the India n Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. Just as the fruit s of an udumbara tree, growing from th e lowes t level, middle, and top , are of the sam e form, ingredients, texture, an d taste, so the regions of [the Brahma's ] mouth an d other parts are the same . Whoever i s born from his mouth i s not brigh t like moon-rays. Whoever is born fro m his arm s is not lik e the risin g sun. One wh o i s born from hi s thigh s i s not lik e yellow paint. Whoeve r i s born fro m hi s feet i s not lik e very dark eye-coloring . All Twice-born ar e not the class of knowledge, nor are they the princely class. Those born fro m th e Ksatriy a cast e ar e not [necessarily ] heroes. All Vaisya s ar e not en dowed with wealth. Sudras are not th e greates t workers in the world. The state s of happiness an d sufferin g ar e due to th e classificatio n of the elements . According t o the scripture s and reasoning, a s people are born du e to their accumu lations of virtue and sin , they experienc e th e world i n the sam e manner. Th e fou r castes of people originate i n this manner. 26 Like their predecessors, the holders of the Kalacakra tradition viewed conceited attachment to one's own caste and family as impediments to spiritual maturation and the actualization of Buddhahood. The literature of the Kalacakra tradition frequently warns against social and mora l discrimination, which is perpetuated by attachment to one' s own caste and it s regulations. By means of the differen t type s of analysis, i t tries to demonstrate the insubstantialit y of the reasons traditionally given in support of socia l discrimination . T o demonstrate th e untenabilit y o f social discrimination , the Kalacakratantra a t times uses a type of analysis that is similar to the one frequentl y

The Social Body 11

5

applied in Buddhist refutations of the independen t existenc e of a personal identity . The following vers e exemplifies one such method: There are earth, water, fire, wind, space, gums, mind (manas), intellect (buddhi), self grasping (ahamkdra), an d vital breath. There are the sense objects, form and the like , the sense-faculties , the eye, and so on; and there are the five faculties of action (karmendriya). Amon g thes e phenomen a tha t pervad e th e bodie s o f animals an d hu mans, whic h i s of the highes t caste, an d whic h i s of the lowest? 27

The Kalacakr a tradition often calls attention to the detrimenta l effects of social discrimination for one's progress on this tan trie path. It also views the absence of conceited attachmen t t o one' s socia l statu s and lineag e a s a prerequisite for receiving Buddhist tantric teaching s an d engaging in Buddhist tantric practices. The Vimalaprabhd confirm s th e assertio n o f th e earlie r Guhyasamajatantra tha t no t a singl e Tathagata between Dlpamkara and Sakyamuni taught the Mantrayana, because people during that era were not suitabl e to receive the teaching s o n the grea t secrets of Mantrayana.28 It interpret s thi s statemen t o f the Guhyasamajatantra i n term s of its own social theory, affirmin g tha t during that era, people i n the lan d o f Aryans were unsuitable for tantric teachings due to their prejudice concerning the four castes. Th e Kalacakra traditio n see s this sam e social prejudic e as the reaso n tha t th e Buddh a Sakyamuni did not initially teach the Paramddibuddhatantra t o the people of the lan d of Aryans but t o Sucandra, a king of Sambhala an d an emanation o f Vajrapani, wh o took i t with him t o Sambhala , wher e it was preserved for centuries before it was revealed to the peopl e of India. This Buddhis t tantri c syste m closely links the negativ e soteriologica l implications o f social prejudice to it s negative socio-political implications. Its eschatological teachings relate the demise of the "Barbarian Dharma, " or Islam, to the social and spiritual unificatio n o f th e vajra-family . I t see s a causa l relationshi p betwee n th e resurgence of the Barbaria n Dharma with the reoccurrence o f social segregation. According t o th e Vimalaprabha, th e Buddh a prophesie d i n th e Paramddibuddhatantra that Yasas , th e eight h kin g of Sambhala i n th e lin e o f Sucandra, a n emanatio n of Manjusri, will unite al l social classes into a single clan (kalka) b y means of initiation into the Kdlacakratantra. He foretold the following: Due to making the four castes into a single clan within the vo/ra-family and not making them into Brahma's family , Vagml Yasas, who has a vajra-family, wil l be Kalki.29

The ter m kalka, meaning, a "clan," is interpreted by the Vimalapmbhd a s a unification of the castes and noncastes, o r outcasts.30 Since tha t cla n will belong to King Yasas, he wil l be called kalki, meaning, "one who has a clan"; and his lineage (gotra) will be the lineag e of kalki.31 His son Pundarlka, who will write a commentary on th e abridged version of the Paramddibitddhatantra, will be the second kalki. He will be succeeded by twenty-three other kalkis, after whos e reign, Manjusri Yasa s will reappear as Raudra Cakr T and engage i n a fierce battle with a vicious kin g of the Barbarians. He wil l eliminat e th e Barbaria n Dharm a b y convertin g Barbarian s t o hi s ow n Dharma, thereby incorporatin g the m int o his vajra-family. A t tha t time , all human families will be fulfilled i n terms of the thre e pursuits of a human life : Dharma, pleasure (kdma), an d wealth (anha). Hi s two sons, Brahma and Suresa, who will rule the

116 Th e Inner Kdlacakratantra

northern an d souther n section s o f Small JambudvTpa , wil l als o practic e Dharma . However, upo n hi s departur e to th e stat e o f bliss, he wil l be succeede d b y his so n Brahma, and class segregation will reoccur within Brahma' s lineage. Consequently , many division s i n th e lineag e o f Brahma an d i n other lineage s will appear i n th e northern par t of the earth, and at the end of the kali-yuga, the Barbarian Dharma will be propagate d onc e agai n i n al l the region s o f the earth . Afte r eightee n hundre d years, the Barbaria n Dharma will be destroyed again, and the Buddhis t Dharma will prevail for another eightee n thousan d years. 32 This accoun t o f the Buddha's prophecy concerning th e role of Buddhist kalkis in the eliminatio n o f social segregation and th e subsequen t eradication o f the Barbar ian Dharma is a Buddhist response to the Puranic teachings, which identify th e Buddha and Kalkl as the ninth and tenth avataras of Visnu. The Vimalaprabha, urges the reader to consider the Puranas as nonsensical treatises, composed by corrupt sages for the sak e of establishing their own social class. 33 It asserts the historica l precedenc e of thes e Buddhis t prophecie s ove r thos e i n th e Purana s o n th e groun d tha t th e Puranic prophecies were composed by corrupt Brahmanas at the time of the Buddha's appearance and are not contained in the earlier Vedic texts. Sarcastically reiterating the Puranic interpretation of the Buddha' s identit y and his association with those of low social strata, it tries to demonstrate th e supremac y of Buddhist social ethics. I t is worth citing here the Vimalaprabhd's ful l account o f the Puranic interpretation o f the Buddha, since it also sheds some light on the centuries-long conflict between Hindu and Buddhist social and ethical theories . This Bhagavan Buddha i s the nint h avatara [o f Visnu], called Vasudeva; and Kalk l is the tenth . In the kali-yuga, the Buddh a will vitiate the sacrificial laws by means of a great , delusiv e deception . H e wil l abolish th e militar y laws , ancestral rites , th e propagation o f castes, killing , lying, stealing, sexua l misconduct, abusiv e language , slander, idl e talk , avarice , malice , fals e views , har m t o al l sentien t beings , th e dwelling o f one's own lineage, the dutie s of a Ksatriya, the instruction s o f the grea t sage Vyasa, the Bhdrata, th e teaching s o f the Gita, and th e teaching s o f the Vedas , which yiel d the frui t o f heaven. Thus, having abolishe d them , he wil l teach a perverted Dharm a t o Sudra s an d othe r lo w classes. Fo r example, Bodhisattva s mus t bring t o completion thes e te n perfections : th e perfectio n o f generosity, th e perfec tion of ethical discipline, th e perfectio n o f patience, the perfectio n o f zeal, the per fection o f meditation, th e perfectio n o f wisdom, th e perfectio n o f skillfu l mean s (upaya-paramita), th e perfectio n o f aspiration (prandhi-pdramitd), th e perfectio n of powers (bala'paramita), an d the perfection of gnosis (jnana~paramita). The y must cultivate th e spiri t of loving kindness toward al l sentient beings and the spiri t of compassion. The y must benefit all sentient beings, and they must not engag e in ten un wholesome actions—namely , killing , lying , stealing , sexua l misconduct , abusiv e language, slander, idl e talk, avarice , malice , and false views. After bringin g th e Sudra s an d othe r low classes t o understanding b y means of these perverted teaching s and shaving them, he will make them monks wearin g red robes. Becaus e thos e wh o formerly stoo d i n the arm y of Danava were not kille d i n battle by Vasudeva , and becaus e the y mus t go to hel l due to offendin g the Brahmanas, Visnu created thi s illusion o f the Buddh a s o that Sudras an d other low classes, who stand on the sid e of former demons, ma y go to hell.34

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The Vimalaprabhd als o object s t o th e Purani c interpretatio n o f Kalk l a s th e tenth avatara o f Visnu, wh o wil l be bor n a s a Brahmana, kil l th e Barbarians , and make the earth full of Brahmanas. It once again asserts that Kalki, who is none other than Manjusr i bor n int o the Ksatriy a famil y o f Sakyas, wil l make al l castes into a single caste, because in the past , thirty million Brahmana s i n the lan d of Sambhala demonstrated thei r inclinatio n toward the Vajrayana . I t als o bases its objection t o the Purani c interpretation o f Kalki on the readin g of the Kdlacakratantra (Ch . i , v. 26), which prophesie s bot h the appearanc e o f the kin g Yasas in Sambhala si x hundred years after th e yea r of the Buddha' s teaching o f the Paramadibuddhatantra an d the introductio n o f the Barbaria n Dharm a int o the lan d o f Mecca eigh t hundre d years afte r hi s appearance . Th e Vimalaprabhd argue s that i f Kalki i s a so n o f th e Brahmana Yasas , then he canno t be called Kalki , sinc e without a clan (kalka), h e cannot be one who has a clan (kalkf), just as without wealth, one cannot be a wealthy man. It also refutes the Purani c prophecy of Kalki killing the Barbarian s with his arrows made of darbha grass , claiming that kalkl Yasa s will not kil l them bu t wil l only eradicate their Dharma . Seein g th e extrem e wickednes s of Barbarians, he wil l emanate suprem e horse s b y mean s o f his "samadh i o n suprem e horses " (paramasvasamadhi) an d will thus melt the mind s of Barbarians an d establish them in his own Dharma. The Vimalaprabhd explain s the statemen t of the Kdlacakratantra (Ch . i , v. 161), which affirm s tha t kalkl Yasas will destroy the Barbarian s by way of the Kala cakratantra's proselytizing efforts. I t interprets this as the Kalocakratantra' s method of attracting th e evi l sages to thi s tantri c path , an d i t substantiates thi s proselytizing method on the basis that "spiritual awakening is not possible when the spirit of doubt arises first." 35 The aforementione d eschatologica l passages express the Kalacakr a tradition' s view of social segregation as causally related to the declin e o f Buddhism and the rise of Islam in India. They point t o social unification as a social condition necessar y for securing the mundan e an d spiritual prosperity of the country . These passages reflect legitimate concerns o f Buddhist communities in northern India during the tenth and eleventh centuries , which were provoked by the constant threa t of Sultan Mahmud's invasions and th e increasin g dominance of the Islami c faith . Th e word s o f Sultan Mahmud's secretary, Al-'Utbi, which indicat e tha t Isla m or death wa s the onl y alternative that Sulta n Mahmud placed before his people,36 attest to the political and religious crisis faced by Indian Buddhists of that period. The Kalacakr a tradition expresses the concern that due to the similarity between the Vedic and Barbarian Dharmas with regard to killing, future generation s of Brahmanical communities may well convert t o Islam, unless they join their Buddhist compatriots in the wjjra-family. Th e Vimalaprabhd's accoun t o f Manjusrl Yasas' s teaching o f the Kolacakratantr a to thirty five million Brahmanic sages in Sambhala attest s to that concern. According t o th e Vimalaprabhd, th e kin g Yasas was aware that Brahmanas in Sambhala were originally from differen t countrie s wit h contrar y custom s regardin g eatin g meat , drinkin g liquor, an d the like . Therefore, h e deemed i t necessary to unite the m int o a single wjra-family b y initiating them int o the kalacakra-rnancWa , which h e constructe d i n a sandalwood grove, south of the village of Kalapa. Before leading them into the kaiacakra-manlala and giving them tantric precepts, th e king Yasas provided the m wit h

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the followin g socio-politica l and soteriologica l reasons for consolidating the m int o the unifie d vajra-family : I must lea d you here into this mandala palac e o f the Bhagava n Kalacakra and giv e you mundan e (laukika) an d supramundan e (bkottara ) initiations . Moreover , yo u must eat, drink, and have marital relations with your vajra-family a s I command you . If you do not obe y my command, the n leave my nine hundred an d sixty million villages and go wherever you please. Otherwise, afte r eight hundred year s have passed, your descendants wil l engage in the Barbarians ' Dharma an d will teach the Barbarians' Dharma i n the ninety-six great countries o f Sambhala and eleswhere. With the mantra of the Barbarians ' deity , Vismillah , strikin g animals o n thei r necks with a cleaver, the y will eat the fles h of the animal s killed with the mantra of their own deity an d condem n th e eatin g o f th e fles h o f animal s tha t die d du e t o thei r ow n karma. . . . Ther e i s n o differenc e betwee n th e Barbarians ' Dharm a an d Vedi c Dharma wit h respec t t o killing . Therefore, th e descendant s o f your family, seein g the vigor of those Barbarian s and the manifestation of their deity Mara in battle, will become Barbarian s i n the future , afte r eigh t hundred year s have passed . Once the y join those Barbarian races, all the inhabitant s o f the nine hundred an d sixty million villages, the fou r caste s an d other social classes , will become Barbarians. . . . Thus, regarding th e Vedi c Dharm a a s authoritative , the y wil l adop t th e Barbarians ' Dharma. Fo r this reason, I have give n you precepts (niyama) so that the Barbarians ' Dharma ma y not ente r [here ] i n the future. 37

On th e basis of these passages, one may surmise that in the context o f the Kala cakra tradition, the vo/ra-famil y represents a society that cannot b e destroyed by foreign enemies and their religion, but i s able to preserve its distinct identit y because it is founded on th e religiou s theories an d practice s that radically differ fro m thos e of its adversary. Accordin g t o this tantric system, the reaso n wh y Buddhist teaching s have not yet disappeared is that the Tathagata, being free o f social prejudice, did no t dispense them to just some individuals on the basis of their high social class and hold them bac k from other s due to their low class. Rather, he taught the divers e systems of the Buddhist Dharma for the benefit of all, in accordance with their inclinations. 38 In light of the earlier mentioned concerns , th e Kalacakra tradition admonishes Buddhist practitioners not to admire the Vaisnava and Saiva Dharmas, on the ground that these Dharmas, characterized by the arroganc e of class prejudice (jati'vada) an d the absenc e of compassion fo r all sentient beings, produc e a false sense of self-identity (mithyahamkara) , 39 A false sense of self-identity implies here a sense of self-identity that is based on one's social status, and determined by one's own caste, its duties, and lineage. The Kalacakr a tradition, like other related Buddhist tantric traditions, distinguishes this false sense of self-identity from th e vali d sense of self-identity tha t the tantri c practitione r establishe s on his path o f actualizing Buddhahood. For example, a t th e tim e o f th e self-empowermen t on th e stag e o f generation (utpattikrama), th e tantri c adep t appropriate s his tru e self-identit y b y identifyin g himsel f with the body, speech, and mind of all the Tathagatas, with the vajra of gnosis (jndna) and emptines s (sunyatd), an d wit h th e purifie d dharma-dhatu. Appropriatin g this self-identity, h e maintain s i t i n al l of his activities. 40 Not onl y doe s he establis h this self-identity for himself, but he also regards all other beings as endowed with the same identity. Thus, on e ma y infer tha t in this tantri c system , a valid sense of per-

The Social Body 11 9 sonal identity empower s the individua l in his spiritual endeavors, thereb y yielding a profound sens e o f nonduality wit h al l livin g beings. This sens e of nonduality wit h one's natural and social environment, i n turn, facilitates religious and social unification, thereb y empowerin g the entir e societ y an d enablin g i t t o endur e i n perilous times. A fals e sens e o f personal identity , o n th e contrary , separate s the individua l from hi s natural and social environments an d disempowers both the individua l and the society. Consequenctly, a society that is disempowered by social and religious segregation is unable to endure in times of danger. The autho r o f the Vimalaprabhd declare s that his reason for elaborately describing th e characteristic s o f the kdlacakra'mandala i n th e abridge d Kdlacakratantra, a s they were taught b y Manjusri i n the Adibuddhatantra, i s to eliminat e th e self-grasp ing (ahamkdra) o f the sage s wh o propoun d clas s discrimination (jati-vadm). 41 Th e bearers o f the Kalacakr a tradition i n Indi a considere d clas s prejudice as most inti mately related t o th e Hind u doctrine s of a personal god and creato r (Isvara ) an d of an independent , inherentl y existen t Sel f (dtman). The y als o saw class prejudice as creating th e linguisti c bias of extolling th e excellenc e o f the Sanskri t languag e and showing disdai n fo r vernacula r languages. 42 The y wer e fully awar e of the way s i n which the Kdlacakratantra's theoretical , practical, and linguistic features contradicted the cultural , religious, and socia l norms o f the mainstrea m Brahmanica l tradition . The Kalacakr a literature interpret s thos e feature s not onl y in terms of their conver sionary activit y an d th e Kdlacakratantra soteriolog y but als o i n term s of the Kdki' cakratantra's socia l theory . I t explain s th e grammatica l inaccuracies an d lexica l syncretism of the Sanskri t languag e of the Kdlacakratantra a s a: (i) skillfu l mean s of eradicating the conceit of those attached t o their social class, knowledge, and proper words, and (2 ) skillful mean s of making the Buddhis t tantric teachings accessibl e to a diverse audience, whic h speak s different language s and dialects. The Vimalaprabhd affirms tha t individuals who are overcome b y a false sens e of self-identity grasp onto the "single , parochial Sanskrit language" an d teach, as attested by the Mahdbhdrata, 6, i, 84, that a single word well-pronounced yield s one's desire s in heaven. 43 I t accuses the Brahmani c sages of writing the Dharma s of the BhagavadgTta, Siddhantas , and Purana s in the Sanskri t language out of greed for material things. It asserts that Brahmanas wrote these scriptures in Sanskrit in order to prevent the Vaisyas , Sudras, and othe r lo w social classes from readin g thei r scripture s and gainin g knowledge of their Dharm a an d variou s sciences . Th e Vimalaprabhd state s furthe r tha t th e Brahmanic author o f these scripture s knew that i f lower classes were to gain knowledge, the y woul d sto p reverin g the Brahmana s fo r their specia l qualities. 44 I t con trasts the selfis h motivatio n o f the conceited Brahmanic sage s to the altruisti c motivation o f th e Buddha s an d Bodhisattvas , wh o ar e fre e o f graspin g ont o socia l discrimination and linguistic bias. The Buddha s and Bodhisattvas do not exclusively use the Sanskri t languag e to teach and redact th e Buddhis t teachings, fo r they als o resort t o th e "omniscien t language " (sarvajna-bhasd), usin g the expression s of vernaculars and languages of different countries. 45 Relying on the meaning of the teach ings, they us e different vernacular s an d differen t grammar s in order to brin g other s to spiritual awakening. Although this characterization o f the Buddhas' universal language is also found in the writing s of Mahayana,46 it is most emphasized in the Buddhist tantras.

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The Paramadibuddhatantra also advocates the usage of a lexically syncretized language that would benefit people of all social classes, ethnic groups, and menta l dis positions. According t o the Paramadibuddhatantra, the Buddha himself expressed this sentiment i n the following words: When one understands th e meanin g fro m regiona l words , what is the us e of technical terms? On th e earth, a jewel is called by different name s from countr y t o country, but there is no differenc e in the jewe l itself. Likewise, the variou s redactors o f my pure Dharma us e diverse terms i n accordance with the disposition s of sentient beings.47

In this tantric tradition, as in other related tantric systems, every stage of tantric practice i s either directl y or indirectly related t o its social theories. Eatin g the flesh of an animal that died due to natural causes or an accident, drinkin g liquor, and engaging in sexual relations with the member s of all social classes were prohibited for members of the Brahman a caste. The Kalacakratantra literature, however, ofte n presents thes e practice s a s tantric pledge s (samaya), whic h ar e designed t o counterac t grasping onto one's ow n social clas s and tradition. 48 The followin g verse from th e Paramadibuddhatantra demonstrate s thi s point : The Vajr l who perceives reality has prescribed food, drink, and unsuitable sexual intercourse i n order t o destroy attachment to one's own lineage. 49

This an d other explicit passages from th e Kalacakratantra literature specify tha t the eradication of attachment t o one's own social and spiritual lineage is a reason behind certai n practice s o f tantric pledges , and the y als o explain similar but les s explicit passages in other anuttara-yoga-tantras. The tantri c pledge s of all the anuttara yoga-tantras equall y involv e th e transgressio n o f socia l convention s an d cultura l boundaries in orde r to cultivat e a perception o f one's ow n social environment i n a nondual fashion. For example, one reads in the Hevajratantra tha t a person who has joined the vajra-famil y throug h initiatio n shoul d eat all kinds of meat, associate with all kinds of people, and keep the compan y of all kinds of women. One wh o engages in tantric yoga should interac t with all social groups and consider them as a unified, single caste, becaus e he draw s no distinction s amon g the variou s social classes. He may touch men of low castes and outcasts—Dombas, Candalas, Carmaras, Haddikas, Brahmanas, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras—a s readily as his own body. The tantri c yogis wh o hav e mastere d yoga shoul d neithe r favo r no r despis e other beings. 50 Likewise, th e Candamahdmsanatantra, whic h belong s t o th e literar y corpus of th e Guhyasamajatantra, admonishe s th e tantri c practitione r neve r t o thin k i n term s of edible and inedibl e food, suitabl e and unsuitable work, appropriate and inappropriate peopl e for sexual relations, nor thin k i n term s of sin an d virtue , or heaven an d liberation.51 The uniqu e approac h o f the Kalacakr a tradition t o these tantric prac tices is not i n its rendering of their soteriological importance but in placing them i n its own historical contex t an d givin g them historica l and politica l significance . Its distinctiveness with regard to these tantri c practices also lies in its interpretation of these practice s i n term s of mundane conventio n (loka'Vyavahara) an d i n term s of

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supramundane gnosis (lokottara-jnana), whic h may elucidate the observances of tantric pledges in other related tantras. The Kalacakratantra literature reveals that a vajracarya wa s expected to teach the required tantric pledges to tantric beginners only in terms of the mundane, conven tional truth , accordin g t o th e differin g custom s o f their ow n countrie s an d socia l groups. Just as certain practices with regard to eating, drinking, and sexual relations were prohibited i n one region an d for one socia l class and were allowed in another region or for another social class, so would the specifi c tantric pledges differ fro m on e tantric beginner to another. Fo r example, the Vimalaprabha inform s us that in accordance wit h the custom s of different countries , tantric beginners in specific countrie s should eat beef, horse meat, dog meat, elephant meat, pork, or even human flesh, and so on. Similarly, one should follow the custom s of one's own country and social class with regar d t o drinkin g liquor , a s i n specifi c countries , liquo r i s prescribe d t o Brahmanas, Sudras, or to the member s of all social classes. The sam e principle i s applied to one's sexual relations. In certain countries, when a husband dies , the mothe r becomes her son's wife; brother an d sister may marry; one may marry a maternal uncle; member s o f caste s ar e allowe d t o hav e sexua l relation s wit h outcasts ; o r Brahmanas ma y have sexual relations with low-caste courtesans. 52 The tantri c beginne r is advised to eat, drink, and have sexual relations according to the customs of his own country until he attains the mantra-siddhi o r the gnosissiddhi an d thereby becomes a tantric yog. The Kalacakr a tradition offer s severa l reasons why the tantri c beginne r should not transgres s the custom s of his country and social group for as long as he lack s the above-mentione d siddhis. First , i f the tantri c beginner, who has not attaine d those siddhis, eats the fles h of an animal that is a tutelary deity of his family an d thereb y offend s tha t deity and cause s it t o bring misfor tune t o his family, he will be unable to protect his family fro m calamity . Similarly, i f the tantri c beginner violates the customs of his country by eating the fles h of animals that are the tutelary deities of other families, and by having sexual relations with prohibited castes and outcasts, the people he offend s wil l harass him, since he lacks the siddhis an d realization s of a yogi. Furthermore, as in other related tantri c systems, so too in this tantric tradition, the tantric practitioner must be able to consume the substances o f tantric pledge s with a nonconceptual min d (nirvikalpa-citta); otherwise , they wil l not giv e him th e samaya-siddhi, b y means of which inedibl e poison can be transformed int o edible food, fou l smellin g feces ca n become sweet smelling, and so on. If the tantric beginner lack s the sarrurya-sidcihi , he will poison himself. Therefore, a 'vajracarya i s not t o giv e the precept s pertaining t o th e consumptio n o f these substances to thos e i n the communit y who do not meditat e on deities and mantras, for they will die as a result of eating the poisonou s substances. The Vimalaprabha warns that one' s pollutio n cause d by impure pledges may give rise to a disregard for th e world, out of which one may commit suicide and go to hell. In light of these dangers, the Kalacakratantra criticize s th e Saiv a traditio n fo r leading peopl e t o hel l b y in structing them to eat semen an d uterine bloo d i n order to attain the bliss of Siva.53 Therefore, in the Kalacakra tantric system, the substances that are generally regarded as impure and poisonous are not to be prescribed by a vajrdcarya to beginners but only to ^ogis, who are not ordinar y sentient beings (prakrta-satwa) an d who by the power of thei r mantras and meditativ e concentration ar e able to transmut e thes e poison s

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into ambrosias (amrta). B y the powe r of his mind , an extraordinar y yogi transforms liquor into milk, deadly poisons into elixirs of life (rasayana), th e bone s of an animal into flowers, teeth into pearls, urine into musk, uterine bloo d int o benzoin (sihlaka), semen into camphor, fece s into fragrant unguent, and so on. When these substance s are purified an d transformed into ambrosias, they do not harm the yogi's body but in duce great powers and facilitate the attainmen t o f Buddhahood. Fo r example, purified liquor , which represent s innate bliss (sahajananda), facilitate s the attainmen t of that bliss. The fiv e type s of meat symbolize the five sense-faculties; an d when purified, they facilitate the purification of the senses . The five ambrosias (amrta)—purified feces, semen, urine, uterine blood, and marrow—represent the five Buddhas, and their ritual consumption facilitate s the attainment o f the five types of gnosis, because by consuming the five ambrosias, one worships the five Buddhas.54 However, if these substances are not transformed into ambrosias and properly understood, they will not bring forth the qualities of Buddhahood t o the person who consumes them. Accord ing to the Vimalaprabha, thes e substances are also not to be given to conceited schol ars, "th e hypocrite s wh o crav e afte r th e propertie s o f th e Buddhis t temple s an d monasteries an d teac h th e meanin g of Buddhist tantras incorrectly." 55 Becaus e th e minds of the conceited scholar s are evil, even when the defile d substances are transformed int o ambrosias , they retai n thei r harmfu l qualities . However, onc e a tantri c adep t attain s th e mantra'siddhi o r th e gnosis-siddh i (jruma-siddhi), h e i s allowed to ea t an d drin k an d hav e sexua l relations not jus t according t o the custom s of his country an d social class but just as he pleases, because he has transcended the distinction betwee n the allowed and prohibited, the suitable and unsuitable, and no one is able to object or harass him.56 The supramundane gnosis (lokottara-jnana), whic h h e actualizes , does not gras p onto the edibl e and inedi ble, since for it, the edibl e and inedibl e onl y fill the bell y and are not gate s to liberation. Therefore, a tantric yogi is able to transform the nature of other substances int o himself. The aforementione d Kalacakr a tradition' s justificatio n for conforming t o th e customs of one's own country and family indicate s that one should behave i n accor dance wit h those custom s not out of attachement t o them or due to conceit in one' s own social clas s but fo r the sak e o f protecting onesel f an d one' s family . A s the ear lier-cited vers e from th e Pammadibuddhatantra attests , freedo m from attachmen t t o one's own caste an d family is posited i n this tantric syste m not onl y as a moral qualification fo r joining the unifie d vajra-family bu t als o as one o f the mai n goal s of th e Kalacakratantra practice. Thi s ha s both sociological an d soteriologica l significance . As indicate d earlier , the sociologica l efficac y o f detachment fro m one' s socia l class and family i s that it provides an indispensable condition fo r social and ethnic unifi cation an d th e resultan t prosperit y of society. The soteriologica l efficac y o f detachment fro m one' s spiritua l lineage an d famil y relation s i s that i t remove s obstacles , which, accordin g t o th e Pammadibuddhatantra, "Mar a create s i n form s o f the Bud dhas, Bodhisattvas , fathers , mothers , daughters , sisters, sons, brothers , an d chose n wives."57 This form of detachment i s also soteriologically significant in the sense that it enables one t o engage in the muc h commended ac t of generosity, namely, the offering o f sensual love (kama-dana). Offerin g one's ow n courtesan, wife , daughter , o r other femal e relativ e as a gif t o f sensual love t o Buddhis t tantric yogis o f all socia l

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classes, who see k the attainmen t o f mundane siddhis an d th e experienc e o f the im mutable bliss, is praised as a supreme act o f generosity. This form o f generosity is regarded a s the highes t for m o f generosity for several reasons. First , it provide s Buddhist yogs with an actual consort (karma-mudra) an d enables them t o attain various mundane siddhis, by means of which they can protect themselve s and others from en emies, malicious spirits, and othe r dangers . In time s of imminent foreig n invasion, mundane siddhis such as pacification, dominance, immobilizing , bewildering, and th e like may have had a special appeal for the India n Buddhist s of that period. Likewise, detachmen t t o one' s ow n famil y an d socia l class , expresse d i n th e kama-dana, becomes a gift o f Buddhahood t o others. A t th e sam e time, it becomes a gift of Buddhahood t o oneself, for it is said that one wh o gladly offers his wife as a gift of sensual love t o other s i s promised to swiftl y attai n th e te n perfection s (pdramita) in this ver y life . On the othe r hand, one who is attached to his wife goe s to hell. 58 The soteriologica l efficacy o f the gif t of sensual love seems to exceed that of all other forms of generosity, since it increases the donor' s stores of merit (punya) an d knowl edge (jnana) mor e than any other form of generosity. The Kdlacakratantra tells us that the Buddha s themselves resorted t o thi s for m o f generosity for the sak e of spiritual awakening. Long ago , fo r th e sak e o f Buddhahood , th e Buddha s gav e thei r land , elephants , horses, chariots , an d numerou s golde n objects . The y gav e eve n thei r ow n heads , blood, an d flesh. Because th e desire d Buddhahoo d di d not com e about , the y gav e the gif t o f sensual lov e (Jcama-dana) . This secret offerin g o f men bring s forth Bud dhahood in the famil y o f the progenito r o f Jinas.59

It also points to the salvifi c power of the meritorious nature of the kdma-ddna i n the followin g manner : Hatred an d othe r faults of the bes t o f men an d god s are due to attachment, due t o love for their chosen wives and others. For the sak e of uprooting that [attachment], the son s of all the Jina s have given he r i n the gif t o f sensual love. Therefore, rejoic ing i n generosit y bring s fort h th e rewar d o f immutable bliss . This produce d accu mulation o f merit i s a kinsman t o the thre e worlds who always removes the peoples ' fear of hell.60

The Vimalaprabhd als o affirms th e absolut e necessity of the kama-dana i n pursuing spiritual awakening on the tantric path, stating that within the system of mantras (mantra'naya), i t is impossible to attain th e mahdmudrd'siddhi withou t the gif t o f sensual love. 61 Fo r this reason , upo n receivin g th e initiation , th e initiate , whethe r a householder o r a monk, pledges to give one-sixth of all his possessions, including his consort, t o his spiritual mentor (guru) s o that he may not succum b to attachment t o his property and family. Giving one-sixth of a consort mean t offerin g one's own consort to the spiritual mentor for five days each month. According to the Paramodibuddhatantra,62 prior to the two higher initiation s (uttardbhiseka), th e secret and wisdom initiations, a householder wh o seek s liberation i s expected t o offe r te n attractiv e (rupin) consort s (mudrd) t o his spiritual mentor, namely, a sister's daughter, a daughter, a sister, the mother , th e mother-in-law , the maternal uncle's wife, th e wif e of the father's brother , a sister of the father , a sister of the mother , an d hi s own wife . Th e ten offere d consort s represen t the te n Vidyas , beginning with Tara and ending with

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DharmdhatubhaginT, who are the purifie d aspect s of women belonging t o ten socia l groups — specifically, SudrT, KsatrinT, BrahminI, VaisyT, Dombl, Kaivartl (fisherman' s wife), Natika (a dancer), Rajaki ( a washerwoman), Carmakari (the wife of a leather maker), and Candall. They are also the manifestations of the ten perfections (paramha), ten magica l powers (vasita), te n bodhisattva-bhumis, and te n power s (bala). Thus , by offering th e ten consorts to his spiritual mentor, a householder symbolically offers t o others the aforementioned spiritual achievements, which are the sublimated aspects of a unified society, and he himself becomes qualified to obtain them. A householder who, bein g protective o f his family , refuse s t o offe r the m t o hi s spiritua l mentor i s considered unqualifie d t o receiv e th e tw o higher initiations . Whe n a householde r refuses t o offer suc h consorts, the spiritua l mentor initiates Buddhist monks (bhiksu) and wandering ascetics (sramanera) int o the kdlacakra-mandala with other consorts of the lowe r social classes, SudrT and Candall. This indicates that monks an d wandering ascetics who wished to engage in the Kalacakratantra practices depended o n th e householder's generosit y in this way, in order to acquir e a consort wh o would be of good family , pleasin g manners , o r attractive appearance . Sinc e thi s generosit y was not alway s available, those who depended o n the generosity of the householder ha d to b e free o f social and othe r relate d biase s in order t o engag e in th e tantric , yogic practices. Just as the offerin g o f one's own consort i s considered soteriologically significant sinc e it provides one wit h an accumulatio n of merit (punya'Sambhara), s o is the respectfu l acceptance o f the consort s o f all social classes regarded a s soteriologically significant. Respect fo r the consor t involve s not onl y a disregard for the con sort's social status but also the nonemissio n o f semen during the sexua l act, which is viewed as a form of celibacy (brahmacarya) . Respect for the consor t i s a requirement for th e accumulatio n o f ethical disciplin e (sila'Sambhdra) , which, together wit h th e accumulation of merit, provides the basi s for the accumulatio n of knowledge (jnanasambhdra). Accordin g t o thi s tantri c tradition , complet e an d perfec t Buddhahoo d (samyaksambuddhatva) doe s not tak e place , except b y means o f these thre e type s of accumulation.63 The passag e from th e Paramddibuddhatantra tha t clearl y indicates tha t monk s and wandering ascetics are to be given the two higher initiations is supported by passages from th e Vimalaprabha, describin g the ritual offering o f a consort t o monks and wandering ascetics; but this seems to contradict the statement of Dlpamkara Srijnana (AtTsa) i n his Bodhipathapradlpa, whic h asserts the following: A celibate (brahmacarin) shoul d no t receive the secret an d wisdom initiations, since it is specifically prohibited i n the Adibuddha, th e suprem e tantra, If a celibat e practice s wha t i s prohibited upo n receivin g thos e initiations , the n a downfall from observing th e austerit y wil l occur. An asceti c will fall into a great sin and into an unfavorable stat e of existence, and men wil l never hav e the si c

Nowhere i n th e abridge d Kalacakratantra no r i n th e Vimalaprabha i s there any clear referenc e to th e statemen t i n the Adibuddhatantra tha t prohibits monks fro m receiving the two higher initiations . One passage in the Vimalaprabha. indicates only

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that a tantric initiat e ha d to tak e th e followin g vow (pranidhana) prio r to receiving the first seven Kalacakratantra initiations : "Fo r the sak e of the accumulatio n of ethical discipline (sila-sarnbhara), wit h regar d t o sexua l intercours e betwee n th e caste s and outcasts , I will clearly observe the vo w (sanwara) o f celibacy in the unio n wit h a lotus." 65 In the literatur e of this tantric tradition , celibacy is often interpreted no t as abstinence fro m engagin g in sexual tantric practice , but a s the practic e of retaining sexual fluids durin g sexual tantric practices . In th e tantri c feas t (gana-cakra) followin g the initiation , a woman of any caste and age, whether sh e was lovely or filthy, crippled or facially deformed, had to be worshipped by means o f sexual yoga for the sak e of spiritual awakening. The Kalacakr a tradition als o acknowledges that in order to carry out this tantric precept , on e must be a Bodhisattva wit h a compassionate heart , fre e o f all menta l affliction s an d at tachments, an d not involve d i n social conflicts. 66 Thus, o n the one hand, the Buddhist tantric yogis' impartialit y and lack of social prejudice had t o be developed out of practical necessity; and on the othe r hand, they ha d to be cultivated as expressions of compassion and wisdom by means of which one perceives all phenomena a s being of the sam e essence (sama-rasa), th e essenc e o f gnosis (jnana). Acceptin g wome n of despised social classes and professions and women who were socially rejected due to physical deformities as their rightfu l consort s and partners in their spiritual pursuits, Buddhist yogis mad e it possible for the mos t disempowere d and disdaine d members of Indian society to partake in Buddhist tantric practices and to pursue their own spiritual goals. At th e sam e time, their lack of social prejudice and impartiality to external appearances was seen as an indication o f their spiritual maturity, which qualifie d them for receiving the most advanced tantri c teachings and for engaging in the most advanced tantri c practices. The gatherin g o f a garia-cakra reveals yet another wa y in which th e Kalacakr a tradition envisioned a socially integrated vajra-family. The participants in the tantri c feast wer e either th e actua l or symbolic representatives of thirty-six social classes of India,67 whom a tantric practitioner ha d to view as one's own immediate family an d as manifestation s o f enlightene d awareness . Th e coupl e representin g th e lowes t Domba class had t o be perceived a s one's ow n mother an d father . The representa tives of the fou r main social classes became one's own brothers and sisters. The classes of braziers, flute-dancers, jewelers , well-diggers, weavers, liquor-makers, goldsmiths, and garland-makers became one's own sons and daughters; and all the remaining social group s became one' s ow n grandchildren. 68 This fajra-famil y o f the gana-cakra symbolizes no t onl y a well-integrated human famil y o r societ y but als o the unifie d nature of ultimate reality. As in the Cakrasamvaratantra, so too in this tantric system, the assembl y of thirty-six social classes represents thirty-si x pure families o f yoginis, who symbolize the thirty-seven factors of spiritual awakening (bodhi-paksika-dharma) . 69 This identification of thirty-six social classes with the factor s o f spiritual awakening implies that the entir e societ y is to be viewed on this tantric pat h a s the socia l body of the Buddha . The Vimalaprabhd assert s that apart fro m thes e familie s o f yoginis, there ar e n o other pur e families.70 The Kalacakratantra's identificatio n o f thirty-six social classes with the pur e families of yoginis explains why the acceptanc e o f qualified consort s of all social groups is interpreted her e a s a worship of the thirty-si x families of yoginis of

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the kMacakra-mandala. I t also explains why tantric practitioners, by engaging in sexual yoga with representative s o f the thirty-si x socia l classes, satisf y th e yogmis be longing to the thirty-si x families of the kdlacakra-mandala wit h sexual bliss. It i s said that when th e tantri c practitione r please s the ^oginf s i n thi s way , they protec t hi m from adversitie s by giving him th e mundan e siddhis. This form of worshiping the yogirus als o facilitate s th e yogis' attainmen t o f th e supramundan e siddhi. Embracin g qualified tantric consorts of all social classes with a proper attitude, the ;yogT s embrac e the represente d factor s o f spiritual awakening an d empowe r themselve s t o attai n them swiftly . The seatin g arrangemen t of the participant s of the tantri c feast reveal s yet an other wa y in which thi s tantri c traditio n i n India advocate d socia l integratio n an d envisioned th e mjra-family . Th e seat s of the representative s o f the thirty-si x social classes were arranged in accordanc e wit h th e place s of the thirty-si x families o f yo' gims in the kalacakra-manlala. The coupl e of the Domba class, which makes the gno sis-cakra and represents the Sahajakay a of the Buddh a and the gnosis-fajr a o f the in dividual, wa s seate d i n th e cente r o f th e huma n kdlacakra-mandala. I n th e fou r cardinal directions, around the Domba couple, were seated the representatives of the four main castes. The Sudra caste was in the east, the Ksatriya caste was in the south, the Brahman a caste was in the north, and the Vaisya caste was in the west . The sec ond circle of the gana-cakra, or the mind-cakra , which symbolizes the Dharmakay a of the Buddh a and the mind-vajra of the individual , includes the representatives of the following eight social classes: the class of braziers in the east, the class of flute-dancers in the south , the clas s of jewelers in the north , the clas s of well-diggers in the west, the class of weavers in the southeast, th e class of liquor-makers in the southwest, th e class of goldsmiths in th e northeast , an d th e clas s of garland-makers in the north west. The thir d circle , o r the speech-calcra , which symbolize s the Sambhogakay a of the Buddh a and the speech-vajr a o f the individual , includes an additional eight social classes: namely, the class of butchers in the east, the class of potters in the south east, the clas s of pillow-makers in the south , the clas s of courtesans in the southwest , the clas s of tailors in th e west , the clas s of fishermen in th e northwest , th e clas s of actors i n the north , and the clas s of washermen i n the northeast. Th e fourt h circle, or the body-cakra , which symbolize s the Nirmanakay a of the Buddh a and the bodyvajra o f the individual , consists of yet another eight social classes: the clas s of blacksmiths in the east , the clas s of lac-makers in the south , the clas s of scabbard-makers in the west, the class of oil-pressers in the north, the class of flute-makers in the southeast, the clas s of carpenters i n the southwest , th e clas s of cobblers in the northwest , and the clas s of barbers in the northeast . Finally , outside the body-cafera , i n the circle that represents a cemetery, which was always outside the town , ar e the represen tatives of the followin g outcasts and ethnic groups: Barbarians (mleccha) i n the east , Haddas, the sweepers , in the south , Matariga s in the west , Tapins in the north, Varvaras i n th e southeast , Pukkasa s in th e southwest , Bhillas i n th e northwest , an d Sabaras in the northeast. 71 Thus, th e entir e assembl y at the tantri c feas t represent s a unifie d society , th e vajra-famil y tha t consiste d o f th e divers e social an d ethni c groups that constituted India n society at that time. This mjra-family of the gana-cakra also represents the individual , whose unified capacities, or vajras o f the body , speech, mind, and gnosi s are understood as the interna l gana-cakra, or vajra-family. Likewise ,

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FIGURE 6. i Th e ganacakra-mardala

it symbolize s th e enlightene d uajra-family , o r th e mutua l pervasivenes s o f the fou r bodies of the Buddha . I n this manner, th e Kalacakr a tradition expresse s its view of the indivisibilit y of the vo/ra-famil y i n all its aspects: the individual , social, and ultimate. See figure 6.1 . As in the gana-cakra, so too in the kalacakra-manlala, the Domb a couple is identified wit h th e presidin g deitie s (adh.ide.vata) locate d a t th e cente r o f the mandala, whose nature i s the pure and omniscient gnosi s that emits and pervades all other in habitants o f the mandala. In this way, the social class that was generally treated as the lowest in the mundan e real m becomes here a symbol of the suprem e in the spiritual realm. The clas s whose living areas were restricted t o the outskirt s of towns an d villages is placed at the ver y center o f the gam-calcr a and th e kalacakra-mandala.72 By identifying the Buddh a Kalacakra with the Domb a class, the Kdlacakratantra conveys several messages. On th e one hand, if the Domba class pervades all other social classes, then not a single social class can claim to be pure and unmixed. On th e other hand, if the Domb a clas s is stainless, enlightene d awareness , which generate s all the Jinas, then even th e lowes t social class is ultimately pure, as are all the other

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classes that are permeated by it. This is one o f the way s in which the Kalacakr a tradition reinforce s it s position that all social classes are fundamentally of equal value and ultimately undifferentiated. Another reason for the Kdlacakratantra's identifica tion of Kalacakra and Visvamata with the Domb a class perhaps can be inferred fro m other anuttara-yoga'tantras, which als o identify thei r central deitie s with this particular class of outcasts. Fo r example, i t i s stated i n th e literatur e o f the Hevajratantra that Hevajra's consort Bhagavat I is called Dombi on the grounds that she is intangible, that is to say, outside the real m o f sensory experience. 73 It is very likely that th e Kalacakra tradition adopte d thi s idea of identifying the Domb a caste as its principal deity from th e earlie r Buddhist tantras, as it adopted many other similar ideas as well. A simila r apotheosi s o f Dombi als o characterizes the Buddhis t Sahajayana , whic h was contemporary with the Kalacakra tradition i n India. For instance, tw o Old Bengali songs (carydpada) o f Kanhapada (ca . th e elevent h centur y CE ) are addresse d t o Dombi, the goddess Nairatmya,74 who lives in the cottage outsid e the city—meaning, outside th e worl d of the sense-faculties—an d onl y touches th e Brahmana s and the shaven-headed bu t does not revea l herself to them.75 The unificatio n of all social classes into one famil y by means of a tantric initia tion i s not uniqu e t o th e Kalacakratantra an d other Buddhist tantric systems of the anuttara'yoga class . It is also characteristic o f some tantric Saiv a sects as well. For instance, Ramanuja i n his Sribhasya (II . 2. 35-37) criticizes the sec t o f the Kapalika s for their claim that even individuals belonging to the lowest classes can immediately attain th e statu s of a Brahmana and the highest stage of life (dsrama) b y means of initiatory rites. Similarly, a passage in the Kuldrtywatantra read s that the differentiatio n between th e Sudrahoo d o f a Sudra and the Brahmanahoo d o f a Brahmana has van ished for those who have received tantric initiation , sinc e those who are consecrate d by initiation d o not discriminat e amon g socia l classes. 76 The sam e text als o asserts that i n th e circl e o f worshi p (pujd-cakra), al l ar e equa l t o Siva. 77 However , th e Kuldrnavatantra and other Saiva sources give clear indications that the transcendence of social barriers within th e Saiv a traditio n too k plac e only i n a ritual context and did not extend to the everyday life. The denial an d reevaluation of social classes were valid only i n that circle during a secret gathering . Outsid e a secret gathering , eac h would resume his or her own social status and its prescribed rules of conduct an d duties. The Kularnavatantra indicate s tha t even th e differin g duration s of studentshi p in tantric Saivism were prescribed to the initiates accordin g to their social class. This does not seem to have been th e case in the Kalacakra tradition. Nowher e i n the literature of the Kalacakratantra corpus can one find indication s tha t the denial of class barriers was limited to the ritua l context. Th e Pammadibuddhatantra doe s stat e that certain kinds of individuals—namely, a householder wh o lives off a monastery, a servant, wh o is under the rul e of someone else, a ploughman, who kills sentient beings by ploughing the ground , a trader of weapons, a person who sells the Dharma , an d a mentally dul l person—are not suitabl e for the rol e o f a vajracarya. 78 However , thi s assertion does not refe r t o the incompatibilit y of their socia l class for the positio n of a vajrdcarya bu t t o th e incompatibilit y of their lifestyle s wit h th e responsibilitie s of the vajrdcdrya an d to their inadequat e mora l and mental capacities for that spiritual role. The Vimalaprabhd explicitl y states tha t suc h type s of activities ro b on e o f his duty (dharma) o f a vajrdcdrya.19 Th e Kalacakr a tradition differentiates vajracdryas a s

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superior, middling, and inferio r not o n the basi s of their social classes but accordin g to their religious status. Fo r example, an ordained vajracarya i s considered t o be superior; a vajracarya wh o lives as a wandering ascetic (§ramand) i s regarded as middling; and a vajrdcarya wh o is a householder is regarded as an inferior vajracarya, wh o should not b e honored b y an ordained vajrdcarya.80 Thi s type of classification reveals that the Kalacakr a tradition retaine d a strong, monastic orientation, whic h was characteristic of the earlier forms of Buddhism and which engendered a certain religious hierarchy. This often counteracte d clas s discrimination i n Buddhis t communities by giving higher honor and status to a monk of a lower social class than to a householder of a higher caste. The Kalacakr a tradition also classifies tantri c disciples as superior, middling, and inferior. Again, it does not make the classification on the basis of their social class and lineage but o n th e basi s of the spiritua l goals that they seek. Those intent on practicing the Dharma that consists of compassion and emptiness and seeking the supramundan e siddhi ar e regarded as superior disciples, who are eligible to receive al l eleven initiations . Thos e who desir e the mundan e siddhis ar e regarded as middling disciples , wh o ar e eligibl e t o receiv e onl y th e firs t seve n initiations . Whereas those who desire none of the siddhis but respect a spiritual mentor are characterized as inferior disciples, who do not qualif y for tantric initiations and are eligible to receive only the teaching s o n the five ethical precepts. 81 In th e contex t of the Kdlacakratantra, th e Buddh a Kalacakra, who i s identified with Domba , is portrayed as the progenito r of the fou r castes : Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya, an d Sudra . Th e fou r caste s originat e fro m th e fou r mouth s o f Kalacakra, which belon g to his four faces , which , in turn, symboliz e th e fou r aspect s in whic h enlightened awarenes s manifests in th e world—namely : th e meditative , peaceful , passionate, and wrathful aspects. 82 This interpretation of the four castes as the social manifestations of the fou r differen t expression s of enlightened awarenes s affirms th e Kdlacakratantra's vie w of the fundamenta l equality of all castes. It ca n b e construed as a Buddhist tantric counterpart of the Vedic Purusasukta, which affirms th e mout h of th e Primordia l Man (purusa) a s the birthplac e o f the cast e o f Brahmanas only . Thus, b y presenting the fou r caste s a s the way s in which ultimat e reality manifests itself in a human society, the Kalacakr a tradition suggest s that on this tantric path , one mus t reinterpret one's habituate d vie w of one's own social environment in order t o realiz e the nondualit y o f all the aspect s of phenomenal existence . Likewise , if one analyze s this interpretation o f the origi n and manifestatio n of the fou r castes in terms of the standar d Hindu view of the role s of the fou r castes in Indian society, other implication s o f this interpretatio n becom e clearer . When on e examines th e Kdlacakratantra's explanatio n o f th e fou r caste s i n ligh t o f th e expositio n o f th e Baudhdyanadharmasutra (I . 18 . 2-5)—whic h ascribe s the dutie s of preservation of the Vedi c tradition, protection of people and their properties, protection of domestic animals, and service to the other three caste s to the respective duties of the fou r castes, respectively 83—it suggests that th e socia l functions of the fou r above-men tioned aspect s of enlightened awarenes s are to preserve spiritual learning and to secure the physical and material well-being of the individua l and society. However, unlike the Hindu treatises that prescribe to the caste of Brahmanas the duty of preserving only the Vedic tradition, the Kalacakra tradition views Kalacakra as a depository and guardian of diverse religious systems. According t o the Kalacakra

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tradition, enlightene d awarenes s manifests not onl y as the socia l forms o f the Buddha but also as the religiou s body of the Buddha , which incorporates diverse Hind u and Buddhist systems of thought an d practice- Different religious systems and school s are also said to arise from th e four mouths of Kalacakra as their ultimate source. The Jnanakaya of Kalacakra, assuming the variou s forms of transmission, teaches diverse treatises, includin g th e Vedas . Thus, th e Buddh a Kalacakr a teaches th e Rg-Veda from hi s western mouth, th e Yajur-Veda fro m hi s northern mouth, the Sama-Ved a from hi s southern mouth , an d th e Atharva-Veda fro m hi s eastern mouth . H e als o teaches othe r religiou s systems with those same mouths. For example, he teache s the tantra of spirits (bhuta-tantra) an d th e Buddhis t yogdnuviddha, Madhyamaka , and the systems of Sthaviras with his western mouth. He teaches th e Hind u kaulatantras an d th e Buddhis t wisdom-tantra s (prajna-tantra) , th e Yogacar a an d Sarvastivada systems with his eastern mouth. With his northern mouth, he teache s the Hind u Siddhanta , the Buddhis t action-tantra (kriyd-tantra), an d the system s of the Vaibhasika s an d Mahasamghikas . Wit h hi s souther n mouth , h e teache s th e Dharma of Visnu, the Buddhis t yoga-tantm, Sutranta, and the syste m of SamitTyas.84 Thus, th e divers e religious systems are simply the manifestation s of different aspect s of the Buddha' s unifie d mind , o r integrated wisdom, takin g th e for m o f a religiou s body in accordance wit h the menta l disposition s of different people . This vie w of Kalacakra as the singl e source of the divers e religious systems implies the inherent value of the differen t religiou s traditions, and more importantly it provides a justification for the theoretical syncretism of the Kalacakratantra as its conversionary method. I t suggests that becoming a member of the wjra-famil y doe s no t involve completel y abandonin g one' s prio r religiou s tradition, bu t entail s onl y a hermeneutical shift with regard to the authoritative scriptures of that tradition. This ascription serves as a conceptual basis for the reinterpretation of non-Buddhist ideas that on e frequentl y encounters i n th e literatur e of the Kalacakratantra. I t als o explains th e Kalacakr a tradition's argument , alread y mentioned i n th e chapte r o n syncretism, that there is no distinction betwee n Buddhists and non-Buddhists wit h regard to the manne r i n which a conventional realit y appears; rather, th e onl y difference betwee n them i s in th e Buddhists ' understanding o f personal (pudgala) an d phenomenal (bhdva) identitylessnes s (nairdtmya),85 One exampl e o f th e Kalacakr a tradition' s reinterpretatio n o f non-Buddhis t teachings is related to the Kdlacakratantra's assertio n tha t the practice of offering th e kdma'ddna wa s also taught i n the Vedant a but that evil Brahmanas concealed i t for their ow n selfish reasons . The Kdlacakratantra reject s the traditiona l Brahmani c interpretation o f Vedic sacrifice an d interpret s i t in terms of the tantri c yog a of gnosis (jnana-yoga) i n the followin g manner: At the tim e of sacrifice, approac h the lord s of bulls, rhinoceroses, horses , and ele phants as the bodil y sense-objects an d sense-faculties . When your knif e i s purified, there is a cessation of those sense-objects an d sense-facultie s i n the ^og a of gnosis . The drin k o f th e initiated , whic h i s mixe d wit h bloo d an d somavalli, is i n th e cowhide. The necta r of semen (soma), gon e from the ti p [of sexual organ ] t o uterin e blood in vulva, i s of the natur e of the all-pervadin g bliss . Brahma i s the body , Hara is speech, and Hari i s the min d of living beings. They are three Vedas. The y are three letters, th e syllabl e aum. They are the moon , sun, an d

The Social Body 13

1

fire, or three nddis; and they are the [three ] gurus. An additiona l member of the fam ily (kaula) withi n the body , present i n the sense-object s an d gums, i s of the natur e of th e soun d (nada.) o f the fire-pries t (atharvan). Withi n that [body] , th e andhata, which is devoid of the sense-object s and gums, is the indestructible . In old times, Brahma told this secret to yogis in the Vedanta. The sages whose knowledge became lost in the cours e of time taught here the killin g of living beings. Humans' engagement i n that [sacrificia l killing ] for the sak e of heaven brings about a miserable hell as its result. Charcoal moistened here by the flow of milk nowhere becomes of the colo r of soma. People who are deceived by the words of the Vedas , which are incorrect and devoid of pledges (samara), guard their wives day and nigh t for the sak e of acquiring sons for themselves . Supposedly, a son gives an offerin g t o a father wh o has departed t o the worl d of the dead . Therefore, th e evi l Brahmanas concealed this gift o f sensual love (kdma-dana), whic h brings forth th e resul t of immutable bliss.86 I believe i t i s on th e basi s of this an d simila r interpretations o f the meanin g of the Vedi c traditio n an d Vedic sacrificia l rite s that the Kalacakratantra can attribut e the authorship of the Vedas to the Buddha Kalacakra withou t contradicting its main Buddhist principles . Thi s view of the origi n o f different religiou s systems explains i n part the previousl y discussed syncretism of the Kalacakratantra; an d i t is yet another way i n which thi s tantra advocates religiou s integratio n b y means o f conversion t o the Kalacakra tradition . In additio n t o it s social and religious aspects, the vajra-famil y reveal s itself also in its temporal and cosmic aspects. For the Kalacakratantra, the fou r yugas ("ages") of the worl d and th e si x types of cyclic existenc e (gati) ar e the particula r modes o f the four expression s of enlightened awareness . As such, the y ar e the tempora l an d cos mic correlates of the fou r castes. The social , religious, and temporal structure s of the conventional worl d ar e th e divers e an d mutuall y pervasiv e manifestation s o f th e same vajra-family , whic h manifest s itsel f i n thi s worl d a s a society , expresse s itself through th e religiou s systems of that society , and transform s it s social and religious aspects du e to it s own temporal power . Its social, religious, and tempora l manifesta tions are a display of its powers and enlightened activitie s that create an d destroy the phenomenal world . It is said that Kalacakra generates th e six types of cyclic existence from hi s fou r mouths . Likewise , he paralyzes , bewilders, pacifies , improves , domi nates, atttacts , destroys, and expel s this world by means o f the sam e four mouths. 87 Finally, one could sa y that Kalacakra's social, religious, and temporal bodies bear th e inseparable an d mutually pervasive features of the conventiona l and ultimate reali ties. Table 6 . i illustrate s the Kdlacakratantra's presentatio n o f the interrelationshi p among th e fou r mouths , o r aspects, of Kalacakra, the fou r castes , th e fou r group s of religious systems, the fou r yugas of the world , and th e si x types of cyclic existence . In conclusion, on e ma y say that it is chiefly on th e basi s of the aforementione d perspectives o n th e commonalit y o f the fundamenta l natur e an d sourc e o f differen t social classe s and religiou s systems that th e Kalacakratantra oppose s social discrimination an d reject s th e mainstrea m Brahmanica l interpretatio n o f the Hind u scrip tures. I t regards social discriminatio n an d th e interpretatio n o f scriptures that supports suc h discriminatio n a s detrimental t o bot h th e socio-political , material , and

132

The Inner Kalacakratantra

TABLE 6.1 Th e Manifol d Manifestations of the Fou r Aspects o f Kalacakra Western mouth of the yello w face

Northern mouth of the white fac e

Southern mouth of the re d face

Their Mental Aspects meditative

peaceful

passionate

Their Mental Powers paralyzing and bewildering

pacification an d prosperity

dominance and attraction

killing and expelling

Ksatriya

Sudra

Buddhist: Samitiya Sutranta yogd'tantras

Buddhist: Sarvastivada Yogacara wisdom-tantros (prajnd'tantra)

Hindu: Sama-Veda Vaisnava

Hindu: Atharva-Veda kauh'tantras

dvapara'yuga

kali'yuga

Their Social Manifestation s Vaiiiya Brahman

a

Their Religious Manifestation s Buddhist: Buddhist: Vaibhasika Sthavira Madhyamaka Mahasamghika action-tuntras yoganuviddha (kriyd-tantra) Hindu: Rg-Veda spirit-tantras (bhuta-umtra)

Hindu: Yajur-Veda Siddhanta

Their Temporal Manifestation s krta-yuga treta-yuga

Six Types of Cyclic Existence as Their Manifestation s animals denizen s of hells and god asuras

s and pretas

Eastern mouth of the dar k blue face athful

humans

spiritual welfar e o f society an d t o th e psychologica l an d physica l well-being of th e individual. Th e Kalacakratantra warn s agains t th e harm s o f the perniciou s Hind u practices tha t involv e suicid e an d other hurtfu l activitie s that resul t fro m graspin g onto social discrimination in the followin g manner : He wh o has a caste a s his standard, o king, has the Ved a a s his authority. He wh o has the Ved a as his authority, has sacrifice as his standard on the earth . H e who has a sacrifice a s his standard, has the slayin g of various animals and people as his sanc tion. Fo r him who has killing as his sanction, a sin causing the fea r o f death wil l be a measure.88 The monk , th e wanderin g ascetic, th e nake d mendicant , th e shaven-heade d one , and one wit h clotte d hair , who delight i n supreme bliss, and th e learne d on e who delights in listening and reading—they all, deprived of the path, create hardship by grasping onto the creator and the Self, by continually grasping here onto themselves and others , ont o their son s and wives , onto allowe d an d prohibite d food , an d by grasping onto delight i n [discriminating between] the nobl e and ignoble family and onto th e worth y and unworth y vessel [of receiving the teaching] .

The Social Body 13 3 Abandoning the entir e Buddha-field , which yield s the fruit of immutable bliss and has a body, speech, mind , and passion, the evil-minded seeks another lor d in a field, in a place of pilgrimage, and i n other place s by means of hundreds of vows and precepts, by means of fasting and jumping from cliffs. Attached to the pleasures of senseobjects, [on e seek s anothe r lord ] i n battl e an d i n th e eclipse d sun , b y mean s o f killings in fire and by means of numerous weapons. Long ago, Maras invented al l this in order to drink the blood of those wh o had died due to fasting in places of pilgrimage for the sake of heaven, or those who were killed in a battle, wh o died for the sak e of the liberatio n o f a bull an d th e sun , who died for th e sak e of their hom e an d wealth, or who died in the dut y of a Brahmana.89

The Kalacakratantra's view of all the objects of one's experience as inherently pure in nature and its underlying premise that everything within the provisional and ultimate realms of experience i s a part of the nondua l realit y (advaya-tattva) i s also characteristic of other anuttara-yoga-tantras. The Hevajmtantra expresse s it in these words: Whatever thing s there are , mobile and immobile , grass, shrubs, and creepers, they are regarded as the suprem e reality having the natur e that i s one's own nature.90 The Innat e (sahaja) is the entir e world. It is called own-form (sva-rupa). One's ownform itsel f is nirvana when th e min d i s in it s purified form. 91

Even though the notion that diverse religious systems and their tenets originate from a single, omniscient gnosis (jnana) i s suggested in other anuttara-yoga-tantras, it is developed a t greate r lengt h an d explicate d i n mor e detai l in th e India n literary sources of the Kalacakra tradition tha n in any other anuttara-yoga-tantra. One of the characteristics tha t is specific to th e Kalacakr a tradition i s its unique interpretatio n of the nature and origination o f society and the social classes, which directly pertains to it s soteriological path s an d goals . Likewise, the socio-political reason s for social and religious integration tha t the Kalacakra tradition offers seem to be unique to this Buddhist tantri c traditio n and its socio-political climate .

The Individua l as a Society For the Kalacakr a tradition, th e individua l is not merel y a member of the vajra-fam ily or the societ y but i s the wijra-famil y an d th e societ y itself. The individua l is the microcosmic manifestation o f the socia l and religious bodies of the Buddh a in both their phenomenal and ultimate aspects . Th e Kalacakra tradition interpret s th e indi vidual as the embodimen t of its society in various ways. While doin g so, it utilizes a conventional classificatio n and characterization o f the socia l classes of India at that time and reinterprets them i n the ligh t of its broader theory of the natur e an d com position o f the individual . It does so by addressing the following issues: (i) the tran scendent an d immanen t aspect s of a society, (2) th e way s in which a society manifests and functions within the individual, (3) the interrelatedness of the transcenden t and individual aspects of a society, and (4 ) their soteriologica l relevance an d practical applications o n the individual' s path o f purification.

134 Th e Inner Kalacakmtantra TABLE 6. 2 Caste s as the Individual' s Vajras an d th e Kaya s of the Buddh a The fou r castes and their color s Vaisya Brahman a Ksatriy yellow whit e re The individua l gnosis body gnosis-vajra body-vo/'r Kalacakra Jnanakaya Nirmanakay

a Sudr d blac

, semen speech a speech-vajr a Sambhogakay

a k

, uterine blood consciousnes a mind-vajr a Dharmakay

s

a a

The Kalacakratantra indirectl y correlates th e fou r caste s wit h th e fou r vajras o f the individual' s body, speech, min d an d gnosis and with the fou r bodies of the Buddha b y also interpreting Kalacakra's four face s an d thei r color s a s the symboli c representations o f the fou r vajras o f the individua l and th e Kalacakra' s fou r bodies . I n this way, it explains the fou r castes as the fou r social manifestations of the capacitie s of the individual' s body, speech, mind, and gnosis and as the socia l manifestations of the fou r bodies of the Buddha . Table 6.2 illustrates the manne r i n which th e Kalacakr a tradition classifie s an d identifies th e fou r caste s with their immanen t aspect s manifesting in the individua l and with their ultimat e aspect s manifesting in the fou r bodies of the Buddha . The Kalacakr a tradition als o identifie s th e earlie r mentione d thirty-si x socia l classes of Indian societ y with th e thirty-si x constituents o f the individual , namely: the si x element s (dhdtu), th e si x sense-facultie s (indriya), th e si x sense-object s (visaya), th e si x psycho-physica l aggregates (skandha), includin g th e aggregat e of gnosis as the sixth , the si x faculties of action (karmendriya), an d th e si x activities of the faculties of action. I t is the father's semen and mother's uterine blood, represented in the kalacakra-mandala by the white and red faces of Kalacakra, that give rise to th e six familie s o f the si x elements. Amon g thes e si x families, th e thre e families o f th e water, wind, and space elements are ascertained as the father's family, since they arise from semen and become th e body , speech, an d mind of a male. The thre e families of the earth , fire , an d gnosis elements ar e ascertained as the mother' s families , for they arise from uterin e blood an d become th e body, speech, an d mind o f a female. These six families o f the si x elements aris e within th e individua l at th e tim e of the origination o f the elemen t o f gnosis, at the ag e of twelve within th e femal e bod y and a t the ag e of sixteen within the mal e body. They ar e the si x families from which evolv e the si x sense-faculties (indriya), si x sense-objects (visaya), si x aggregates (skandha), six faculties of action (karmendriya), an d si x activities of the facultie s of action (fcar mendriya'kriyd) . 9Z Each o f thes e si x familie s i s comprised o f differen t bodil y con stituents representing six different socia l classes. The individual' s body, speech, an d mind develop and function only when the bodily constituents that belong to the father's an d mother's familie s embrace each other. Du e to their union , the y become of mixed social classes and become mutually indivisible. Thus, jus t as the thirty-si x social classes in India n societ y have developed fro m intermarriage s of the fou r caste s and outcasts, s o the aforementione d thirty-six members of the individual' s body de-

The Soda! Body 13 5 velop from the integration o f the six elements. The mutual interdependence an d pervasiveness of these thirty-si x members of the bodil y wjjra-famil y correspon d t o th e interdependence an d pervasivenes s of the member s of the social an d enlightene d vajra-families. The inne r yogi c practices by means of which th e tantri c adept unifie s his inter nal thirty-si x socia l group s int o a singl e wjra-famil y correspon d t o th e externa l tantric practice s by means of which th e externa l vo/ra-famil y socially and spiritually unifies itself. The mutua l pervasiveness of the diverse components o f the individual' s body, speech, and mind and the powers that result from thi s pervasiveness are the internal manifestations of the characteristic s o f the sociall y unified vajra-family. The six classes, which give rise to the thirty-six social classes, evolve due to thei r intermingling and ar e specified i n this tantric system as the si x main families (kula): Brahamana, Ksatriya, Viasya, Sudra, Domba, and Candala . I n term s of the individ ual, thes e si x families ar e th e earlier-mentione d si x elements; an d i n term s o f en lightened awareness , they are the si x Buddha families: namely, the familie s of Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi, Aksobhya, and Vajrasattva. These six Buddha familie s ar e also present within th e individual' s six cakras an d si x nodis. This exposition of the origination of the thirty-six social classes from the mutual pervasiveness of the si x families, which, i n turn, originate from a single source, is yet an other wa y in which th e Kalackar a tradition subtantiate s it s theories o f social equality an d th e nondualit y o f th e differen t aspect s o f th e phenomena l an d ultimat e realities. Just as the previously discussed unity of the four castes is symbolicaly represented in the kdlacakra-mandala b y the fou r faces of the Buddha , so the unit y of these six social classes is depicted by the si x faces o f the Buddha . The tw o lowest social classes, Domba and Candala, are said to originate fro m the additional tw o faces of Kalacakra, the uppe r and lowe r faces. In terms of enlightened awareness, three o f the si x families—the Vaisya, Ksatriya, and Candal a familie s o f Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, an d Vajrasattva—belong t o the body , speech, an d mind of the wisdo m aspect of enlightened awareness . Whereas th e othe r three—th e Brahmana, Sudra, and Domba families of Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi , an d Aksobhya—belong to the body , speech, an d mind of the compassion aspect of the sam e awareness. Owing to their mutual pervasiveness, they form a n indivisibl e and therefore indestructible unitary reality, which is the ultimat e vajra-family. Thi s ultimate m/ra-family i s the idea l family that brings about th e well-bein g of the world , for i t i s the indestructibl e union (•vajra^oga) o f wisdom and compassion . There ar e different way s in which the Kalacakra tradition describes the ultimate vajra-family, o r the spirituall y awakened "vajra-society, whic h manifest s as the socia l and th e individua l huma n bod y o f the Buddha . Table s 6-3-a- f illustrat e how th e Kalacakra tradition i n India interpreted the ^ajra-family , comprisin g thirty-six differ ent socia l groups, as it manifests in the human being, society, kalacakra'mandala, an d Buddha Kalacakra. With regard to the si x elements within th e individua l and the member s of the gana-cakra, the femal e members of Ratnasambhava's famil y embrac e the mal e members o f Amitabha's family , wherea s th e femal e member s of Amitabha's famil y em brace th e mal e members of Ratnasambhava's family . Likewise , the femal e members

TABLE 6.3.A Th e Famil y of Vairocana

The individua l

Color e

Kalacakra- Tast mcmdala Symbo

l

Social class

the formaggregate (rupa-skandha)

Vairocana yello

w salty wheel

Vaisya

the earth-element (pnhivi-dhatu)

Locana yello

w salty wheel

Vaisyi

skin

Viskambhi yello

w salty wheel

garland-maker

smell

Oandhavajra yello

w salty wheel

female garland-make r

the anu s

Stambhaka yello

w salty wheel

scabbard-maker

talking

Stambhl yello

w salty wheel

female scabbard-make r

The nodi of excrement The yello w navel-cakra

TABLE 6.3.6 Th e Famil y of Ratnasambhava

The individual

Color e

Kalacakra- Tast maryjala Symbo

l

Social class

the aggregat e of feeling (vedana~ skandha)

Ratnasambhava re

d hot jewel

Ksatriya

the fire-element (tejo-dhdtu)

Pandara re

d hot jewel

Ksatrim

an eye

Ksitigarbha re

d hot jewel

liquor-maker

taste

Rasavajra re

d hot jewel

female liquor-make r

the hands

Jambhaka re

d hot jewel

lac-maker

walking

Jambhl re

d hot jewel

female lac-make r

The nodi o f uterine blood The re d throat-cofcr a

136

TABLE 6.3.0 Th e Famil y of Amitabha

The individua l

Color Taste Symbol

Kalacakramcmdala

Social class

the aggregat e of discernment (samjna-skandha)

Amitabha

white sweet lotus

Brahmana

the water-elemen t (toyd'dhatu)

MamakT

white sweet lotus

Brahmanl

the tongu e

Lokesvara

white sweet lotus

goldsmith

form

Rupavajra

white sweet lotus

female goldsmit h

the feet

Manaka

white sweet lotus

oilman

taking

Manmi

white sweet lotus

oilwoman

The nodi o f semen The whit e laldta-cakra

TABLE 6.3.0 Th e Family of the Amoghasiddh i

The individua l

Color Taste Symbol

Kalacakramandala

Social class

the aggregat e of mental formation s (samskdra'skandha)

Amoghasiddhi

black bitter sword

Sudra

the wind-element (vayu-dhatu)

Tara

black bitter sword

Sudrl

the nos e

Khagarbha

black bitter sword

weaver

touch

Sparsavajra

black bitter sword

female weaver

the speech-faculty

Atibala

black bitter sword

blacksmith

the flo w o f feces

Atibala/Anantavirya

black bitter sword

female blacksmit h

The nod i of urine The blac k heart-coJcra

137

TABLE 6.3.E Th e Famil y of Aksobhy a

The individua l

Color Taste Symbol

Kalacakramari&ala

the aggregat e of consciousness (vijndna'skandha)

Aksobhya

the space-element (akdsa'dhdtu)

Vaj radhatvlsvarl

green astringent

Social clas s Domba

vajra

green astringent

Dombl

vajra

green astringent

the ear

Vajrapani

a mental objec t (dharma'dhatu)

Dharmadhatu vaj ra

the vulva

Usnlsa

jeweler

vajra

green astringent

female jeweler

vajra

green astringent

dancer

vajra

emission of seme n

Raudraksi

green astringent

female dance r

vajra

The nad i of consciousness (vijndna) The dar k green usnfsa-cokr a

TABLE 6.3.? Th e Famil y of Vajrasattva Color Taste Symbol

Kalacakra-

Social classes

The individua l

mandala

the aggregat e of gnosis (jmni'skandha)

Vajrasattva

blue sour cleaver

Candala

the gnosis-element (jndna-dhdtu)

Visvamata

blue sour cleaver

Candali

the min d

Samantabhadra

blue sour cleaver

brazier

sound

Sabdavajra

blue sour cleaver

female brazie r

the mal e sexual organ

Sumbharaja

blue sour cleaver

washerman

the flo w of urine

Atinlla

blue sour cleaver The nadi o f gnosis (jndna) The blue secret-cakra

138

washerwoman

The Social Body 13

9

of Amoghasiddhi's family embrace the mal e members of Vairocana's family ; and th e female members of Vairocana's famil y embrace the male members of Amoghasiddhi's family. Similarly, the femal e members of Aksobhya's family embrace the mal e members of Vajrasattva's family ; an d th e femal e members of Vajrasattva's famil y embrac e the male members of Aksobhya's family.93 Du e to their mutual embracing, or pervasion, the families belonging to the Buddha Kalacakra (father, compassion) and thos e belonging t o his consort Visvamata (mother , wisdom) become mutually indivisible. Thus, even with regard to ultimate reality, one may say that the body of the Buddha arises from th e mutua l pervasion, or unification, of the differen t factor s constitutin g Buddhahood. The nondual , absolut e reality , which i s devoid of conceptualizatio n and atomic matter , i s said to have all colors an d all aspects. This implies that in social terms, ultimate reality reveals itself in every individual, in every social group, and in their functions in society. On th e groun d that th e thirty-si x social classe s are present i n al l th e gurus of prakrti, the Kalacakra tradition sees the social body as nondual from the cosmic body. It even classifie s th e differen t type s of soil with which on e constructs th e kalacakramandala in terms of social classes, according to their colors, smells, and tastes. For example, white, red, yellow, and black soil represent the respective Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya, and Sudra castes, and green soil represents the Domb a outcast. 94 Thus, one may infe r that i n term s of conventional reality, the materia l body of the kalacakramandala itsel f is symbolically made of the mixtur e of castes and outcasts . I n this respect, i t is also a symbolic representation o f the sociall y integrated society . Likewise, the body of the Buddha Kalacakra visually depicted as the kdlacakra-mandala metaphor ically consist s o f a mixture of social classes. The whit e soi l o f the Brahman a cast e symbolizes the purity of the Buddha's body; the red soil of the Ksatriy a caste indicates the purit y of his speech ; th e yello w soil of the Vaisy a caste represent s the purit y of gnosis; the blac k soi l of the Sudr a caste represents the purit y of the Buddha' s mind; and th e gree n soi l of the Domb a clas s in th e cente r o f the mandala symbolize s th e source of these four types of purity.95 As in the gana-cakra, so in the kalacakra-martdala, the class of disdained outcasts is ironically indicated a s the source of all aspects of the individual's purification. Similarly , since the thirty-si x families of the ;yoginf s of th e kdlacakra-mandala represen t thirty-si x social classes, the yoginis ar e also said to be of mixed breed due to the efficac y o f the gunas of their prakrti.96 The thirty-si x social classes that form the social body manifest as the diverse colors, smells, and tastes of the bodie s of the individua l and the cosmos . Like the thre e previously mentioned bodie s o f the individual , society, and enlightene d awareness, the body of the cosmos is a cosmic manifestation of the vajra-family . The five mandalas of the cosmos and the lotus in the center o f Mt. Meru are the cosmic representation s of the si x social classes. Thus, the space -manhla on which this world-system rests is of the Domb a class, the wind-mandaki i s of the Sudr a caste, the water-maridaJ a is of th e Brahmana caste , th e fire-mandala i s of the Ksatriy a caste , th e earth-mandala i s of the Vaisy a caste, and th e lotu s in the cente r o f Sumeru is of the Candal a class. Th e nature of the si x families of the cosmo s corresponds t o the natur e of the si x families of the si x elements i n the body of the individual . Likewise, their arrangement i n th e cosmic body corresponds to their arrangement i n the individual' s body. In this way, the cosmi c and individua l bodies ar e the macrocosmi c an d microcosmi c features of

140

The Inner Kcdacakraumtra

TABLE 6-4-A Th e Indivual , Cosmic , and Sublimate d Aspect s of Social Classe s

The individual

Kalacakrama.nyia.la

Cosmos

Social class

The fou r elements and the fou r psycho-physica l aggregates

Four Vidyas and four Buddha s

The god s of the Brahma-world (bralimanda)

Four castes 1 Sudras (four types ) Ksatriyas (four types ) Vaisyas (three types ) Brahmanas (seven types )

The si x sense-object s and the si x sense-faculties

Six Vajras and Si x Bodhisattvas

Six types of gods dwelling in th e desire-realm

Six social group s braziers liquor-makers goldsmiths garland-makers weavers jewelers

The five faculties of action an d their activitie s

Ten male and female krodhas

The huma n world

Ten social groups lac-makers scabbard-makers oil-pressers blacksmiths shoe-makers carpenters barbers flute-makers well-diggers

The gnosi s and mind mandahs The gnosis and mind-wijras of the individu a

flute-dancers

The Visuddhakay a and the Dharmakay a 1 The Vimalatrrabhd commentar y on th e Kakicakratantra, Ch. 3 , v. 131, lists the followin g four types of Ksatriyas: footsoidiers, horsemen, elephant-riders , and charioteers . It specifies the thre e types of the Vaisy a caste as merchants (vanij), writers (kaya-stha), an d physicians (vaidya); an d it enumerates th e following seven types of the Brahman a caste: four types belonging t o th e branche s (sakha) o f th e Rg-Veda , Yajur-Veda , Sama-Veda , an d Atharva-Veda, forest-dweller s (vanaprastha), ascetics (yati), an d liberate d one s (rnukta).

the socia l body . Lik e other vo/ra-families , th e macrocosmi c wjjra-famil y arise s as a unitary cosmic body due to the unification of the six families. Thus, one may say that every body , o r every aspect of the rajra-family—whethe r individual , social , cosmi c or spiritual—stems from the union of the diverse classes that it embodies. I n this way, the Kalacakr a traditio n indirectly refutes th e disparagin g vie w expressed b y the au thoritative, legal treatises of the Hindu tradition toward som e mixed social classes i n India. Another way in which th e Kalacakr a traditio n explains th e nondualit y o f the phenomenal aspects of the Buddha' s socia l and cosmic bodies with the bod y o f the individual i s demonstrated b y tables 6-4.a-b.

The Social Body 14 1 TABLE 6.4.6 Th e Individual , Cosmic, an d Sublimate d Aspects o f Social Classe s The individual Eight nadis Eigh

Eight fingers and Eigh toes eigh

Kalacakramanjala t male and female pretas

t nagos and t praccmdas

Cosmos Socia The worl d of pretas Eigh

The underworl d Eigh (patala) groups

l classes t socia l group s butchers potters pillow-makers prostitutes sewers fishermen actors washermen t lowest social 1

barbarians sweepers Matangas Tapms Varvaras Pukkasas Bhillas Sabaras

The speec h an d body mcmdalas The speec h an d body vajras o f the individua l The Sambhogakaya and the Nirmanakaya 1 Matangas is another name for Candalas, the outcasts. Varvara s are members of one of the non-Aryan tribes in India. Bhillas are members of a wild tribe living in the Vmdhya hills, in the forests of Malawa, Mewar, Khandesha, and Deccan . Sabaras are the member s of a mountain tribe in south India .

In addition t o the alread y mentioned aspect s of the wjjra-family , th e vajra-fam ily also manifests in a temporal form. Specifically, it manifests as the "whee l of time," consisting of the diverse families of the diverse units of time. Likewise, the thre e years of the centra l nodi, during which a tantric ^ogf practices th e ;yog a of nadis on the stage of completion (sampatti-krama) b y joining the righ t and lef t nadis in the madhyamd, are also viewed in this tantric traditio n a s a wjra-family. Si x families of this tempo ral vajra-family ar e the si x periods of three years, each of which consist s of one hun dred an d eight y days . Its thirty-six familie s ar e th e thirty-si x month s o f the thre e years.97 Thus, th e unificatio n of the differen t units of time and the yogi c practice of unifying th e nadis correspond t o social unification. In this way, the Kalacakr a tradition indicates tha t in order to actualize the ultimate unification , or the ultimate rajrafamily, which is the state of nonduality, one must first conventionally understan d th e ways in which th e differen t phenomena l aspect s of the f ajra-family ar e already unified; and then by means o f tantric yoga, one mus t consolidate th e conventiona l «Jjra-families int o the singl e ultimate wjra-family, calle d Kalacakra, or gnosis (jnana). In conclusion, on e may say that in this tantric tradition, the interrelatedness and mutual pervasivenes s o f the variou s components o f the individual' s mind an d bod y represent th e social and ethnic integration o f a socially and ethnically mixed societ y

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through intermarriages . Likewise, the mutua l pervasiveness of the min d and body of the Buddh a an d th e interdependenc e of the thirty-seve n factor s of awakening rep resent th e ultimat e unit y of the society , whic h i s characterized b y the interdepen dence and pervasiveness of its thirty-six social classes. Similarly, the mutual relations and influences o f the individual , the cosmos , and tim e parallel those in the society . Thus, the organizatio n and functions of the differen t member s of the socia l body are nondual fro m th e structur e an d functions of the differen t member s of the bodie s of the individual , the cosmos , an d enlightene d awareness . By identifying Indian soci ety with th e individual , th e cosmos , time , an d ultimat e realit y in th e above-illus trated ways , the Kalacakr a tradition demonstrate s it s vision o f the idea l society and its potential, and i t provides it s rationale fo r that vision. Just as the transformatio n and unification of the various components of one's own mind and body on this tantri c path transform one's experience o f one's natura l environment , so it transforms one's experience o f one's social environment. Likewise , in this tantri c tradition , th e unifi cation of all the phenomena l an d ultimat e aspects o f the fo/Ya-family , whic h abol ishes all dualities, is nothing other than the stat e of self-knowing: the stat e o f knowing oneself a s the cosmos , society , individual, an d enlightene d awareness ; and tha t self-knowledge i s what i s meant b y omniscience (sarva-jnatd) i n the traditio n o f th e Kalacakratantra.

7

The Gnostic Body

The Kdlacakratantra a s a Buddhist Gnostic Syste m

T

he twentieth-centur y discoveries of the Na g Hammad i Codice s (Uppe r Egypt, 1945), and the Manichean text s of Inner Asia (Taklamakan desert, 1902-1914) have given rise to the contemporary view of gnosticism as a world religion rather than a mere heretical formulation of Christianity. This new awareness o f the temporal and geographical, a s well a s th e theoretica l an d practica l diversit y of gnosticism , ha s aroused great interest in that tradition amon g contemporary scholars of religions. At present, there i s a wide range of translations of gnostic texts and secondary literature on gnosticism. Fairly recent endeavors of Buddhist scholars in preparing new editions and de finitive translations of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tantras are bringing to light diverse and intriguing aspects of tan trie Buddhism. Some Buddhis t tantras, especially the tantras of the anuttara-yoga class , show a strong affinit y wit h the gnosti c view s of the indi vidual and the universe and striking similarities with practices of various non-Indian gnostic groups. Likewise, due to their strong emphasis o n the soteriologica l signifi cance o f realizing gnosis (jnana), th e unmediate d knowledge of absolute reality, th e anuttara-yoga-tantras can justifiabl y b e considered as religious treatises of a Buddhist gnostic traditio n i n India . Th e interpretatio n o f gnosi s a s intuitiv e knowledge , knowledge or a vision of oneself a s a spiritual reality, and the vie w of the univers e as the macrocos m o f that realit y are foun d equall y in Jewis h and Christia n form s of gnosticism, i n easter n Manicheism , an d i n th e anuttara-yoga'tantras. Similarly , the view of gnosis as distinct fro m reflective knowledge, namely, wisdom that is acquired through stud y and investigation , i s common t o th e aforementione d gnosti c traditions. I will attempt to demonstrate here tha t the Kalacakra traditio n i n India is an authentic gnostic tradition of Indian Buddhism and that gnosticism manifeste d itsel f in a greate r variet y o f form s an d localitie s tha n man y scholar s hav e originall y thought. While using the ter m "gnosticism" as a typological category, I am fully aware that 143

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this term i s a modern construc t tha t does not accuratel y define all of the tradition s and source s regularly classified a s "gnostic." The ter m "gnosticism" has ofte n bee n used as an umbrella term for various systems of belief an d multilayere d traditions of thought tha t wer e held togethe r b y gnosis. One o f the mos t renowne d scholar s of gnosticism, Hans Jonas, asserts that we can speak of gnostic schools, sects, and cults, of gnostic writings and teachings, o f gnostic myths and speculations in the sense that they share the followin g commo n features: ( i) the emphasi s on gnosis as the mean s for attainin g liberatio n o r as the for m o f liberation itself , an d (2 ) th e clai m t o th e possession o f gnosis.1 This broa d typologica l definition of gnosticism can mos t certainly be applied to the branc h o f tantric Buddhis m that is represented i n the Kolacakratantra and other anuttara'yoga-tantras. In th e Kalacakratantra, gnosis (jndna), whic h i s considered th e ultimat e reality, is the most crucial concept. As in other gnostic traditions, the main focus of the Kolacakratantra is on gnosis as the source of the individual' s aspiration for enlightenment , as the means leading to the fulfillmen t o f that aspiration, and as the fulfillment o f that aspiration. When thi s source of aspiration for spiritual awakening is brought forth , or mad e full y conscious , i t liberate s one fro m cycli c existence. Bu t whe n i t i s no t brought forth, o r remains unconscious , it destroys the individua l an d keeps hi m i n cyclic existence. Therefore , i t is said that gnosis is the source of both cyclic existence and nirvana. In this regard, the Kalacakratantra fully accords with the writings of other gnostic systems, which als o see gnosis as the sourc e of sublime power, the groun d of all being , an d th e potentia l fo r liberation or destruction, existin g in a latent stat e within the psych e of all people. The Gospel of Thomas expresse s it in this way: If you bring fort h wha t i s within you, what yo u bring forth wil l save you. If you d o not brin g forth what i s within you , what yo u do not brin g forth wil l destroy you. 2

Likewise, th e Kdlacakratantra's interpretatio n o f gnosis as the ultimat e support of th e conceptua l min d i n whic h i t expresse s itself b y means of thought resonate s with the followin g passage from th e Na g Hammadi text Trimorphic Protennoia: I a m perception an d knowledge , utterin g a Voice by means o f Thought. [I ] am th e real Voice. I cry out i n everyone, an d they kno w that the see d dwells within.3

Or in the poem that is included in the longe r version of the Apochryphon o f John, the Reveale r says the following : And I entered i n th e mids t o f their prison, tha t is , th e priso n o f their body. And I said, "You who hear, wake up from the heavy sleep!" And h e wept and poured fort h heavy tears, and then wiped them away and said, "Who i s it that is calling my name? And fro m wher e does this hope come , since I am in the chain s o f the prison?" 4

The Kalacakr a tradition's interpretatio n o f the presenc e o f pure and transcen dent gnosi s within ever y sentient bein g and withi n all things a s their nature , eve n when no t bein g yet realize d a s such, als o accords with interpretation s of gnosis in other gnosti c texts. Fo r example, in the Gospel of Thomas, Jesus says to his disciples who mistake salvation, or "Kingdom," for a future event , tha t the Kingdo m is inside them an d als o outside of them. H e say s further: "Wha t you look forwar d t o ha s already come, but you do not recogniz e it."5

The Gnostic Body 14

5

Furthermore, i n th e sam e way that som e Christian gnosti c text s identif y Jesu s the teache r simpl y with "knowledge of the truth," 6 so the Kalacakr a tradition iden tifies th e Buddh a Kalacakra with both knowledge (jndna) an d truth (tattva). Fo r the Kalacakra tradition as well as all other gnostic traditions, knowledge of the truth can be actualize d only b y looking within , fo r one's ow n gnosi s i s ultimately one's ow n teacher. Th e Kdlacakratantra expresse s this in the following manner: What mothe r o r father, wha t preciou s son s o r daughters o f yours, what brothe r o r sister, wha t wife , wha t maste r o r grou p o f friends, having abandone d th e pat h of truth, can remov e [your ] fear o f death?. . . 7

The Christian gnostic text the Testimony of Truth asserts that the gnosti c is a disciple of his own mind, "the fathe r of the truth." 8 Therefore, gnosi s is nothing other than self-knowledge, insight into the depths of one's own being. As for all other gnostic traditions, so too for the Kalacakra tradition, the individual who lacks this knowledge i s driven by impulses that he doe s not comprehend . On e suffer s du e t o igno rance regarding one's own divine nature. Therefore, ignorance of oneself i s a form of self-destruction. T o know oneself , one mus t first understand th e element s o f one's own natural environment and of one's own body. For this very reason, th e first two chapters of the Kdlacakratantra focus on the exposition of the elemental nature of the cosmos and the individua l and on the manne r o f their origination an d destruction . In this respect, the Kdlacakratantra also shows a great affinity wit h other gnostic writings. The followin g passage from th e Christia n gnosti c text the Dialogu e of the Savior perfectly accords with the Kalacakra tradition's way of understanding onesel f and th e world in which one live s in terms of conventional reality. . . . If one does not [understand ] ho w the fire came t o be, he will burn in it, becaus e he doe s not kno w hi s root. If one doe s no t first understand th e water , he doe s no t know anything. . . . If one does not understand ho w the wind that blows came to be, he will run with it . If one does not understan d ho w the body that he wears came t o be, he will perish wit h it . ... Whoeve r does no t understan d ho w he came wil l not understand ho w he will go. . . ?

Just a s i n th e contex t o f Christian gnosticism , whoever achieve s gnosi s is n o longer a Christian, bu t a Christ, s o for the Kalacakr a tradition, whoeve r actualize s gnosis i s no longe r a mer e tantri c Buddhist , bu t th e Buddh a Kalacakra . I n othe r words, in these gnostic traditions, one becomes the transcendent realit y that one perceives at th e tim e of spiritual transformation. Havin g perceived onesel f in this way, one perceive s and know s all thing s i n th e sam e way. Likewise, just as in th e Kolacakratantra, so too in some Christian gnosti c systems, the realization of gnosis entail s the transcendenc e o f all differentiations, or dualities, for it is the fina l integratio n of the knowe r and th e known . On e read s in the Gospel of Thomas: When you make th e tw o one, an d whe n yo u make th e insid e lik e the outsid e and the outsid e lik e th e inside , and th e abov e lik e th e below , and when yo u make th e male and the female one and the sam e . . . then you will enter [the Kingdom]. 10

The Kalacakratantra speak s of this nondual perceptio n o f the worl d in term s of seeing all things as being of the "sam e taste" (sama-rasa), th e tast e o f gnosis.

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There are many other "gnostic " feature s characterizing the Kalacakra tradition and other Buddhist tantric systems in India that ar e also characteristic o f other ancient gnostic systems. Some of their common, gnosti c characteristics ar e the follow ing: (i) an affinity for the nonliteral significance of language and for the usage of symbolic language, (2) the assertion that the ultimate is essentially indescribable but can be imagined as androgynous, a dyad consisting of masculine and feminine elements, the Father and Mother, (3) the claim to the possession of esoteric teachings that are not intende d for the general public bu t only for those who have proven themselves to be spiritually mature and qualified for receiving initiation, and (4) a subversive attitude with regard to the social hierarchy and the deconstruction o f established, cultural norms, which ca n be escaped through ritua l enactments.11 A certai n ambivalence wit h regar d to th e physica l body i s equally found i n variou s Nag Hammad i texts, i n the Kalacakratantra, an d i n other anuttara-yoga-tantras. On th e on e hand, these texts spea k of the physica l body as a "prison" an d a source of suffering du e t o its weakness and impermanence ; an d on th e other hand, the y presen t th e huma n body a s a domain i n which th e convergenc e o f the tw o realms—the utterl y pure, transcendent real m an d th e impure , material realm—takes place. Just as the Kala cakratantra sees the huma n body as a microcosmic image of the externa l world and spiritual reality and the univers e as the bod y of the Buddh a Kalacakra, so some Jewish and Christian gnosti c group s saw the huma n anatomy as a kind of a map of reality and the universe as a divine body. For example, according to Hippolytus, Nassenes interpreted th e biblica l description of the Garde n o f Eden and it s four river s as the brain and the fou r senses , whereas Simonians interprete d th e Garde n a s the womb, Eden as the placenta , an d the rive r that flows out of Eden as the navel , which i s divided int o four channels—tw o arteries and tw o veins. Simila r allegorical interpretation o f the huma n bod y and anatomica l interpretatio n o f the environmen t ar e characteristic of many Buddhist and non-Buddhist tantras. Likewise, for many gnostic systems , as for the Kalacakratantra tradition, a goal i s not onl y t o transfor m th e mind but also to transform the bod y itself. There are also some commonalities regarding the method s of achieving gnosis. Even thoug h mos t of the gnosti c texts discovered at Nag Hammadi do not explai n methods fo r realizing gnosis, the fe w texts that describe the practic e o f meditation and tona l recitations a s the mean s o f accessing inner gnosi s show correspondence s with the Kalacakra tradition and all other tantric systems. The "Final Document" o f the conference on gnosticism that was held in Messina, Italy, in 196 6 proposes a working definition of gnosticism, according to which, not ever y gnosis is Gnosticism, bu t only tha t which involve s i n this perspective th e idea of the divin e consubstantialit y o f the spar k that i s in need of being awakene d and re-integrated . Thi s gnosi s o f Gnosticis m involve s th e divin e identit y o f th e knouier (th e Gnostic), th e known (th e divin e substanc e o f one's transcendent self) , and the means by which one knows that gnosi s a s an implici t divin e facult y i s to b e awakened an d actualized. This gnosis is a revelation traditio n of a different type from the Biblica l and Islamic revelation tradition. 12 As th e aforementione d parallel s suggest , an d a s th e res t o f this chapte r wil l demonstrate, the above-give n definition of the gnosi s of gnosticism can easil y be ap-

The Gnostic Body 14

7

plied to the Kalacakratantra, even thoug h th e Kalacakra tradition doe s not cal l itself "gnostic." Nowhere i n the Kalacakra literature can one find explicit references to the tradition a s a Buddhist gnosticism and to it s adherents a s gnostics, but thi s does no t mean that this tantric tradition did not recognize its gnostic orientation. A s the early Buddhist Pali sources indicate, the earlies t disciples o f the Buddh a never referred to themselves as Buddhists (bauddha) but as disciples (savaka), monk s (bhikhu), novice s (samanera), mendicant s (paribdjjaka), an d s o on. Th e absenc e o f their self-designa tion as Buddhists by no means excludes their Buddhist self-identification. Moreover, one encounter s i n th e Vimalaprabhd a t leas t on e implici t referenc e t o th e Kolacakratantra as a gnostic system. Defining the Kalacakra tradition as the Vajrayana tradition tha t consist s o f th e system s o f mantras (mantra-naya) an d o f perfection s (paramitd-naya), th e Vimalaprabha interpret s mantra as gnosis in the followin g manner: "Mantr a i s gnosis because it protects th e mind." )3 In this way, the Vimalaprabha implicitly defines th e Kalacakratantra a s a gnostic system (jnana-rurya) . The absenc e o f the explici t self-designatio n "gnostic" i s characteristic o f most gnostic writings. Scholars o f gnosticism point ou t that in all original gnostic writings of differen t gnosti c traditions , the self-designatio n gnostikos nowher e appears . I t i s only i n th e work s of the earl y Christian heresiologists , specifically , Irenaeus , Hip polytus, and Epiphanius , tha t we read reports of the self-designatio n gnostikos. Th e contemporary America n schola r o f gnosticism Michael A. Williams asserts: "to th e extent tha t 'gnostic' was employed as a self-designation, it ordinarily, or perhaps always, denoted a quality rather tha n a sectarian or socio-traditional identity." 14 This also seems to be the manne r i n which th e Kalacakr a tradition i n Indi a understoo d its gnostic character . Some scholar s o f gnosticism, seeing the obviou s similarities between Buddhist and Judeo-Christia n gnosticism , have considere d th e possibilit y of Buddhist influ ence on gnostic communities i n Alexandria, where Buddhist missionaries had bee n proselytizing for generations a t th e tim e when trad e route s between th e Greco-Ro man worl d and Asi a were opening u p an d gnosticism flourishe d (8-20 0 CE). 15 Edward Conze also points to the possible influences of Buddhism on the Christian gnostic communitie s i n Sout h India , whos e authoritativ e scriptur e wa s th e Gospel of Thomas.16 However, for the tim e being, the lac k of conclusive evidence leaves us uncertain as to whether their commonalities ar e due to mutual influence s or whether they ar e expressions of the sam e issue s taking different form s a t differen t time s and in various regions. Likewise, the Kalacakratantra's evident gnosti c orientation an d affinit y wit h non Buddhist gnostic traditions led some German scholar s to suggest that Manicheism influenced the Kalacakr a tradition i n Indi a an d eve n tantri c Buddhis m as a whole.17 Their suggestions are not sufficientl y substantiated , however, and need further , thor ough investigation of all the relevant sources and a judicious and balanced treatmen t of th e difficul t issue s pertaining t o th e questio n o f the origin s and historica l devel opment o f the Kalacakr a tradition and Manicheism . The Manichea n text s do inform u s that after engagin g in missionary activities in the Persia n kingdom of the Sassanians , i n 240 or 241, Mani visited India and the adjacent regions, known toda y as Beluchistan, where he converted a Buddhist king, the Turan Shah. In the Kephalaia, 184 . 12 , Mani claim s that during his visit to the Indus

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valley, h e "move d th e whol e lan d o f India." 18 However , ther e i s no evidenc e tha t Manichean communities lasted in India for a long period of time or that Manicheism exerted a noticeable influenc e on Buddhism. On the contrary, Manichean texts , such as the Cologne Mani Codex, indicate that already in its earliest phase in the Parthia n East Iran, where Buddhism was well established, Mani's disciples made an attempt t o adopt Mahayan a Buddhist ideas . Hans Klimkei t points out that as one look s first at the Parthian an d then at the Sogdian and Turkish literature of Manicheism, one can observe th e increasin g adaptatio n of Eastern Manicheism to Buddhism. I n different areas o f th e world , Manicheis m freel y adopte d differen t symbols , myths, an d lan guages o f th e coexistin g tradition s i n thos e areas . Fo r example , th e Chines e Manichean sourc e th e Hymnscroll frequentl y speaks of the divin e spar k in man, or gnosis, as the "Buddha nature." As Mani claimed that the knowledge that he received from Go d embrace s al l wisdo m containe d i n earlie r religiou s traditions , th e Manichean churc h wa s allowed to embrac e al l earlier religious communities. Man i and his missionaries thought tha t it was necessary to appropriate symbols and ideas from othe r religiou s traditions i n order to ensure the proliferation of Manicheism in the world. Consequently, th e Manichean syncretis m systematically integrated itself into ne w cultural domains. Like the Kalacakr a tradition, it was self-consciously absorbent an d did not resor t to just disorganized and scattered cultural borrowings and reinterpretations. There i s a striking similarity between Manicheism an d the Kalacakra tradition wit h regard to their use of syncretism as a form of proselytism. In this regard, both traditions claimed their ow n universality and supremacy over other religious systems, on th e ground s that othe r system s are parochially tied t o particular places and cultures. Likewise, these two gnostic systems equally see the present stat e of the individua l as characterized by a mixture of good and evil , of gnosis and mat ter, which ar e in constant opposition to each other, with the individua l as their battlefield. The secon d chapter of the Kalacakratantra depicts the individua l as a battlefield, in which the war that will be waged between th e CakrI and the Barbarian s i n the lan d o f Mecca is already taking place within th e bod y of the individual . In that internal battlefield, Kalkl, who is the individual' s correct knowledge (samyag-jnana), with his army's four divisions 19—the four Immeasurables—wages battle with the vicious king of the Barbarians , Krnamati, who i s the evi l within one' s own body, th e path o f nonvirtue (akusala'patha). Krnamati' s fourfol d army , whic h consist s o f th e four classes of Maras in the body , is led by the genera l Asvatthama, wh o is one's own spiritual ignorance (avidya), Kalkl' s victory in this battle is the attainment o f the pat h of liberation (moksa-marga), an d within th e bod y the destructio n o f Asvatthama i s the eradication of the fear of cyclic existence. The establishe d lineages of Kalki's sons Brahma and Suresa are the pure Buddhas, who have become th e nature of one's psycho-physical aggregates, elements, an d sense-bases. 20 Similarly, the Kephalaia warns that there ar e many powers in the body, who are its magnates that cree p and walk in the body , wounding and destroying each other ; however , the Min d o f Light i n th e body acts like a soldier, releasing the bod y from sin s and generating a new body and a new sense of self.21 Just like the gnosi s of the Kalacakratantra, the Manichean Min d of Light functions as the protecto r o f the bod y and mind . The Kephalaia expresse s it in this way:

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9

Look, then, at how much th e strengt h an d diligence o f the Min d o f Light is upon all th e watchtower s of the body . He stand s before his camp. He shut s all the rea sonings of the bod y from th e attraction s of sin. H e limits them, scatters them, removes them by his will.22

Thus, i n the Kalacakra tradition and in Manicheism, the soteriological struggles in the external world are constantly being enacted i n exact mimesis within one's own body. The power s in the world and within the individua l are interrelated an d analogous. The analog y between the microcosm and macrocosm plays an important role in both traditions . Similarly, the liberatio n o f the min d involve s its freedom fro m their matter, which fetters the mind to sin. Therefore, th e holders of both traditions were equally concerned wit h their bodie s as with their minds . These an d other similarities between the Kdlacakratantra an d eastern Maniche ism do not constitut e sufficien t evidenc e for determining that the tw o traditions directly influence d each other . Rather, the y sugges t tha t thei r commonalitie s coul d have resulted from their independent reinterpretations of earlier Mahayana Buddhist concepts, which Manicheism liberally appropriated. To determin e th e specific , gnosti c orientatio n o f the Kalacakr a tradition, we must first understand th e way s in which thi s tantric syste m interprets gnosis and its functions an d delineates the practice s for actualizing it.

The Individual , Gnosis, and the Individua l as Gnosis As in the case of other anuttara-yoga-tantras, the Kalacakra tradition's interpretatio n of gnosis has an earlier precedent in the Mahayana's interpretation of the perfectio n of wisdom—specifically, i n the literatur e of the Prajndpdramitd corpus . The interna l evidence, however, indicates that it s closest precedent i s the ManjusrindmasamgTti's presentation o f the omniscien t an d innatel y pur e gnosis ( jndna). Th e Manjusrinamasamgiti and the Kdlacakratantra are intimately related in terms of their exposition s of the Jnanakaya. The Manjusrlndmasamgiti wa s traditionally included in the literary corpus of the Kalacakr a tradition. Its close connection t o th e Kalacakr a tradition is indicated by the Vimalaprabhd itself , which state s that the Kdlacakratantra "is embraced by the Ndmasamgiti, whic h clarifie s th e Jnanakaya , Vajradhara."23 I t assert s that the Tathagata, having extracted th e essenc e of the Bhagava n Vajradhara fro m all three Vehicles, illuminates the sublime , imperishable gnosis in the NamasamgTti. In thi s way , the Vimalaprabhd suggest s that th e essenc e o f the Vajrayan a teaching s lies at the heart of all Buddhist teachings. It also states that the Jnanakaya, which "is described by one hundred and sixty-two verses in the NdmasamgTti," i s "called the vajra-word in every king of tantras (tarUra-raja)"24—specifically, i n the Mdydjdla an d i n the Samdjd, whic h it oddly classifies a s the kriyd an d yoga-tantras.25 The ManjuMna masamgiti itself also hints a t it s affiliation wit h the Mdydjalatantra.26 The Vimalaprabhd frequentl y cite s such verses from th e Manjusrlndmasamgiti i n order t o suppor t an d elucidat e th e Kdlacakratantra's theor y o f gnosi s an d th e Jnanakaya. As the followin g analysis of the Kalacakr a tradition' s discussion of gnosis will demonstrate, the Kalacakr a tradition's explanations of gnosis in terms of ultimate reality coincide a t almost every point with the Majnusrmamasamgfti' s presen -

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tation of gnosis as the gnostic being (jnana-sattva), Vajrasattva , who is endowed with sublime bliss (mahd-sukha); a s Vajradhara, who i s self-arisen from spac e an d there fore simila r to space, eternal and nondual, wh o is thusness (tathatd), th e completely auspicious (samantabhadra), grea t mind o f the Buddhas , realit y (tattva); an d a s th e Adibuddha, wh o is without beginning o r end, th e sublim e breath (maha-svasa), es tablished withi n th e mind s o f al l sentien t beings , an d s o on. Likewise , both th e ManjusrmdmasamgTti an d the Adibuddhatantra make almost identical references to the Jnankaya as "the beginningles s and endless Buddha, Adibuddha," a s "the five-syllable grea t emptines s (maha-sunya) an d th e six-syllabl e drop-emptines s (bindusunya),"27 an d the like.

Gnosis as the All-Pervadin g Mind and as the Four Bodies of the Buddh a There ar e man y way s i n whic h gnosi s i s referred t o an d explaine d i n th e India n sources of the Kalacakratantra tradition. It is primarily interpreted as the min d (citta) that brings forth immutable bliss as the desired result, and as the min d that is the result itself , namely, the min d o f immutable bliss. 28 Thus, gnosis i s seen as the unit y (ekatva) o f two aspects of the mind , which are the caus e and result of spiritual awakening. Fro m that vantage point, gnosi s is also referred t o a s the suprem e and inde structible vajra-yoga consistin g of wisdom (prajna) an d method (updya), o r emptines s (sunyata) an d compassio n (kanma). Emptiness , whic h i s it s reflection , o r for m (bimbo), is the cause ; and compassion, which is indestructible bliss, is the result. Gnosis is the nondua l yoga of these two . As such, it is identified a s the unifie d min d that is free o f momentariness an d an y causal relation (niranvaya), an d lack s an inheren t existence (svabhava).Z9 I t is free o f momentariness i n the sens e that for gnosis there is no origination, duration, or cessation of any phenomenon, althoug h b y its efficac y all worlds and everythin g i n them aris e and cease. 30 It i s free o f causal relations i n the sens e tha t i t transcend s al l conceptual classifications . The Adibuddhatantra de scribes it in the followin g way: It has passed beyon d [th e designations: ] "It exists " an d "I t doe s no t exist. " It i s the cessation of existence an d non-existence . I t i s nondual. It i s the vajra-yog a tha t is non-differentiated fro m emptiness an d compassion . I t i s the suprem e bliss . It ha s transcende d th e realit y o f atoms. I t i s devoid o f empty dharmas. I t i s free o f eternity an d annihilation . It i s the vajra'yoga tha t is without causa l relations. 31

In the Kalacakr a literature, gnosis of the indivisible , supreme, and imperishabl e (aksara) blis s is given different name s in accordance with its qualities and functions. Thus, i t is called the "vajra," an d one who has it is refered to as a vajn ("on e who has a vajra"). Vajra i s characterized as indestructible (aksara) sinc e it i s imperishable an d does not g o anywhere. Therefore, i n the literar y corpus of the Kalacakratantra, th e word "imperishable" always designates supreme, imperishable bliss and gnosis of that bliss. Gnosis i s also called a mantra due t o its function o f protecting the mind . Likewise, i t i s called "spiritua l knowledge" (vidya) o f the individua l and th e "perfectio n

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of wisdom" (prajnd'paramitd). I t is termed the "th e grea t seal" (maha-mudrd), fo r it is believed tha t ther e i s nothing beyond it . Similarly , it i s referred t o a s the dharma dhatu, the Sahajakay a ("Th e Innat e Body"), the Jnanakaya ("Gnosis-body") , or the Visuddhakaya ("Pur e Body") . It i s identified as the couple , Vajrasattv a and Mata , which evade s the dependentl y arise n sense-faculties because i t has transcended th e reality of atoms (pararndnu-dharmata) an d because i t is like a dream or an imag e in a prognostic mirror . I t i s of th e natur e o f th e aggregate s (skandha) an d sense-base s (ayatana), whic h are free of obscurations (avarana) an d have become of the same taste (sama-rasa). O n that ground, they are called "supreme and indestructible" (paramak' sara). The supreme , indestructible is designated as the lette r a, the Samyaksambud dha, Vajrasattva, the androgynou s state, the Bhagava n Kalacakra. 32 Gnosis i s the mind , radiant b y nature an d devoi d of the impuritie s of habitual propensities (vdsana) o f transmigratory existence. Thi s pure mind i s not character ized by any form, for it i s devoid of atomic particles , nor i s it characterized by formlessness, for its "form" is emptiness.33 Thus, being devoid of both form an d formless ness, it is like a reflection in a prognostic mirror. Gnosis transcends the dualit y of subject and object, for it is simultaneously both knowledge (jnana) an d the objec t o f knowledge (jneya). A s the subjec t and the ob ject o f knowledge , i t i s fre e o f conceptualization s (vikalpa) an d atomi c matte r (pammanu'dravya). Althoug h gnosis is free o f conceptualizations, it i s not devoi d of mentation (tintana ) becaus e unlik e th e stat e o f dee p sleep , i t i s self-awar e (sva samvedya) ,34 Bu t it s self-awarenes s does no t preclud e th e fac t tha t gnosi s i s th e knowledge of the absenc e o f the inheren t existence of all phenomena. Moreover, it is precisely the self-awarenes s an d natural luminosity of the Tathagata' s gnosis that enable the Tathagat a t o teach Dharma i n accordance wit h the menta l disposition s of sentient beings . This self-awareness of the Tathagat a i s not affecte d b y the sense faculties, s o it i s partless, all-pervasive, free o f obscurations, and awar e of the natur e of all dharmas, which ar e themselves unconscious du e to lacking self-awareness. Th e independence o f self-awareness from the sense-facultie s implies that one does not requre a physical body in order to remove mental obscurations and experience the self awareness of the gnosi s of sublime, imperishabl e blis s due to the unificatio n o f one's own mind with the appearance s (pmtibhasa) o f that mind. According t o this tantric system, gnosis can becom e self-aware through th e min d alone, due to the efficac y of the adventitious (dgantuka), habitua l propensities of the mind (dtta-vasand]. Th e adventitious, habitua l propensitie s o f the min d ar e the so-calle d psycho-physical aggregates, elements, and sense-bases. Under their influence , feelings of happiness and suffering ente r the mind. Experiences in the dreaming state attest to the fact that the mind can become self-awar e i n the absenc e o f a physical body in the dream . In th e dreaming state, a dream body, which consists of the habitual propensities of the mind and i s devoid of agglomerations of atoms, suffers injur y or experiences great pleasure, and consequently, feelings of suffering or pleasure enter the mind of the dreamer , and self-awareness as knowledge of one's own suffering o r happiness take s place. Bu t this all occurs without the dreamer's actual body experiencing injury or pleasure. The Vi malaprabha refer s t o thi s abilit y of the min d a s a "grea t miracle, " which eve n th e learned cannot fathom. It comments that if this limited knowledge is difficult t o grasp for th e learned , then how muc h more difficult i t is for foolish people to understand

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"the completely auspicious (samantabhadra) gnosi s of sublime, imperishable bliss, the yogi's self-awareness, which arises from th e habitua l propensities that are free o f obscurations an d whic h transcend s th e habitua l propensitie s of transmigratory exis tence." To those who may assert that the mind' s ability for self-awareness entails the presence of a physical body, claiming that dreaming, waking, and deep sleep arise in dependence upo n th e inhalation s an d exhalation s i n th e body , the Vimalaprabha poses the followin g questions and arguments: If the dreaming state does not aris e in the mind without inhalations and exhalations , then how is it possible that without inhalation s and exhalations, th e appearanc e of the min d occur s up to one watch of the day in the unconsciou s stat e of death? How is it possible that the body , which i s being led to the cit y of Yama by the messenger s of Yama, in accordanc e wit h th e injunctio n o f king Yama , comes int o existence ? How i s it that king Yama also appears in th e cit y of Yama; and ho w i s it that Yama examines the sin s and virtues of the bod y that has been brought? Upon examinin g [the sin s an d virtues] , he says : "Because th e lif e o f this on e ha s no t ye t bee n ex hausted, swiftl y tak e thi s person t o th e worl d o f mortals s o that his body may no t perish! This is the task of Yama's messengers. In accordance wit h their task, the messengers of Yama throw that body into the worl d of mortals. Once it is thrown there , then due to the power of the habitual propensities of the mind, the inhalation s an d exhalations o f that body reoccur. Afterwards , due to th e efficac y o f a different habitual propensity, the waking state occurs. After the mind's awakening int o the waking state, tha t [person ] inform s his relatives abou t kin g Yama. Therefore, withou t the bod y an d without th e inhalation s an d exhalations , th e adventitious , habitua l propensities o f the min d aris e due to the powe r of rebirths, an d the y ar e not inher ent to sentient beings. . . . Thus, due to the power of the habitual propensities of the mind an d not du e to acquiring a body of atoms, the gnosi s of wisdom (prajnd'jndna) becomes self-awareness. 35

As the las t line of this passage indicates , i n this tantric tradition, the Buddha' s self-awareness i s also understood as the gnosi s (jnana), o r awareness, of his ow n wisdom (prajfia) tha t perceives the empt y nature of all phenomena . The Vimalaprabha als o criticizes those who argue that becaus e during the experience o f sexual bliss in a dream, it is the dreamer' s physical body that emit s semen and not th e drea m body, the self-awarenes s of the min d arises due to the capacit y of the physical body and not du e to the capacit y of the mind . It rebuts their argument by asserting that even formles s beings, whose bodies are composed of the space-element alone , als o emit semen (whic h consists of the space-element ) under the influ ence of the habitua l propensities of their minds . It argues that if the emissio n of semen could not occu r without a physical body, then formles s being s would not emi t semen, and thus would not b e subject to the cycl e of transmigration. Since formles s beings are subject to the cycl e of transmigration, they must experience the gnosi s of bliss and seminal emission, and thus, seminal emission must arise due to the capac ity of the min d and not th e physical body.36 For this tantric system , gnosis is Buddhahood, the ultimat e reality (paramdrtha) of the Buddhas , thusness (tathata), which is directly perceived37 and whose nature is supreme, immutabl e bliss. That reality is a life-principle, or a sublime prana (mahdprana), which pervades the entir e universe , manifesting itself i n different forms . A s

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such, it is said to be present within the hear t of every sentient being.38 As a sublime prdna, it is recognized as the sourc e of all utterances, even though i t is unutterable itself.' As the pervade r of everything, gnosis is recognized as the sixt h element, the el ement o f gnosis (jndna'dhdtu), o r dharma-dhatu, whic h exist s i n th e othe r fiv e ele ments—earth, water, fire, wind, and space—an d i s also their beginning (ddi). Th e Kalacakra traditio n view s th e gnosis-elemen t a s th e birthplac e (yoni) o f al l phe nomena on the groun d that it is primordially unoriginated. Thi s view has its precedent i n the Mahayan a view of the dharma-dhatu, as presented i n the Mahdydndbhidharmasutra, which reads: The beginningles s dhatu is the commo n basis of all phenomena. Because i t exists, there is every state o f existence and th e attainmen t of nirvana as well.39

The aforementione d explanatio n o f the gnosis-elemen t in the Kalacakr a tradition indicates that the wor d dhatu i n the compound s jndna-dhdtu an d dhamna-dhatu is understoo d i n thre e ways—a s th e ingredient , a s th e cause , an d a s th e locus ; whereas, in the Mahdydnabhidharmasutra, th e wor d dhatu seems to be understood i n just two ways—as the locus and as the cause. The gnosis-elemen t a s the component of phenomenal existenc e ha s two aspects : atempora l an d temporal . Althoug h th e gnosis-element a s the beginningles s source of phenomenal existenc e i s atemporal, it appears as temporal when i t arises in the impermanen t body of the individual . In its temporal appearance, th e gnosis-element, like the othe r five elements, originates in the bod y fro m on e o f the si x flavors—specifically from th e sou r flavor, provided b y the embryo's nourishment throug h the mother's food an d drink.40 From that temporal gnosis-element withi n th e bod y arise sexual bliss, which i s a phenomenal aspec t of gnosis, the individual' s menta l facult y (mano-indriya), an d soun d (sabda). Thes e three are identified with the gnosis-element fro m which the y originate. As the men tal faculty , th e gnosis-elemen t apprehend s th e dharma-dhdtu, whic h arises from th e space-element (dkdsa'dhdtu); an d a s sound, it i s apprehended b y the auditor y sensefaculty, whic h als o arises from th e space-element. 41 I n ligh t o f this, on e ma y infe r that within th e body of the individual , the gnosis-element , being the apprehendin g subject (grdhaka) o f the space-elemen t an d th e apprehende d objec t (grahya ) o f th e space-element, bears th e characteristic s of the space-element . Thus, being lik e th e space-element, gnosi s is indestructible an d eternal . However , one doe s not experience one's own gnosis-element as such until one's own "gnosis merges with the for m of emptiness (sunyatd'bimba)," meaning , until the mind as the apprehendin g subjec t (grdhaka) merge s into the appearance of the mind as the apprehended objec t (grahya) and "become s o f th e sam e tast e (sama-rasa)—imperishabl e an d eternal." 42 Th e merging of gnosis into space , which i s an empt y dharma fro m whic h al l phenomen a arise just as a sprout arises from a seed,43 is understood here as emptiness. This awareness of the ultimat e absence of the originatio n and cessation of all phenomena i s the appearance of one's own mind. It is gnosis, the indestructibl e bliss. Thus, whe n one' s own gnosis merges into its own appearance, which is nothing other than the absence of the originatio n an d cessation o f all phenomena, i t becomes of the sam e taste, due not t o a causal, or generative, relatio n wit h regard to its own reflection, but due to being unified i n the appearanc e o f one's ow n mind.44

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The Vimalaprabha interpret s the Kalacakratantra's characterizatio n of gnosis as eternal (sasvata) i n terms of its freedom from obscurations (niravarana).45 I n this way, it points t o th e lac k of contradiction o f this characterization of gnosis with the ear lier quoted statement from th e Adibuddhatantra, which defines gnosis as "free of eternity (sasvata) an d annihilatio n (uccheda)" i n terms of eluding any categorization. Gnosis also transcends all classifications with regard to its grounding, for it does not abid e in nirvana or samsara. A closer look at the Kalacakratantra's interpretatio n of gnosis reveals that for this tantri c tradition , gnosi s is not grounde d i n either on e of these tw o because in it s empty aspect, it is devoid of nirvana and i n it s blissful aspect, it transcends samsara. This interpetation of the manner in which gnosis abide s neither i n nirvana nor i n samsara i s also expressed by the followin g verse from th e Sekoddesa, whic h states : Its for m (bimba) i s devoid o f nirvana, and indestructibl e [bliss ] transcends samsara . The unio n o f thes e two , whic h i s devoi d o f eternalis m (sasvata) an d nihilis m (uccheda), i s nondual and withou t parallel. 46

The sam e text explains further tha t thi s interpretation doe s not impl y that th e form o f emptines s (sunyata-bimba) enter s samsara an d indestructibl e blis s enter s nirvana. Instead, these two aspects of gnosis are "mutually embraced and peaceful, th e supreme state of androgyny."47 Although gnosi s itself is not grounde d in samsara or nirvana, it is called samsara when it manifests as the universe with its atoms, stars, planets, mountains, rivers, sentient beings, and so forth; and it is called nirvana when it appears as complete knowledge (parijndna) o f cyclic existence. Th e complet e knowledg e of cyclic existence is the perceptio n o f the thre e realms—th e desire, form, an d formless realms—as they are within the three times: past, present, and future. 48 This vie w of gnosis as the omnipresen t min d of the Buddha , which simultane ously transcends th e cycl e of transmigration and i s immanent within it , is similar to panentheism, th e vie w that th e finite universe lies within God, wh o i s unbounded and infinite . However , the Kalacakr a traditio n goe s beyond panentheis m b y interpreting gnosis not only as being immanent within the inanimat e universe and within every sentient being, but also as manifested i n the for m of the phenomenal existence . It asserts that the thre e realm s of cyclic existence are the for m (rupa) o f Vajrasattva because gnosis dwells with great bliss within the nature o f all things.49 Likewise, the Vimalaprabha assert s that "conventional reality has the form of emptiness and emptiness has the for m of conventional reality," 50 since gnosis is free o f atoms and yet it is found in emptiness. This conviction that the entire cosmos is a manifestation of gnosis underlies the Kalacakratantra's theor y of the cosmo s as the macrocosmi c aspect of the individua l and its presence within th e body of the individual. One ma y ask here: I f gnosis is the sourc e and ontologica l realit y of everything, what are the implication s for Buddhist claims about identitylessness (nairatmya) an d emptiness (sunyata)! Th e Kdlacakratantra indirectly addresses this question in a number of ways, which wil l be indicate d later . Primarily, though, it addresse s this question by identifying gnosis with the blissfu l aspect of the mind , which i s nondual fro m the emptines s of inherent existenc e o f that mind , and i t thereby evades reiflcation. It assert s that ther e i s neither a Buddha nor enlightenment , sinc e "the entir e uni-

The Gnostic Bod} 15 5 verse is empty, devoid of reality and of the natur e of the appearance s o f things."51 In this way, the Kdlacakratantra's theor y o f gnosis as the realit y that transcends al l con ceptual constructs, includin g those of existence and nonexistence, i n no way contradicts th e Madhyamak a theme s o f identitylessnes s an d emptiness . Th e Vimalaprabhd explicitl y states that gnosis lacks inherent existenc e sinc e gnosi s is endowed with all aspects (sarvdkdra), jus t as it lacks shape and yet it gives rise to all manner s of shapes.52 Likewise, as in the Manjusrindmasamgiti, so in this tantric system , gnosis is interpreted a s the awarenes s that transcends th e realit y of consciousness (vijnana,' dharmatd), whic h i s ascertained b y the Yogacar a school.53 According t o thi s tantri c system , gnosis i s not onl y th e ontologica l realit y of everything ther e is, but i t is also "the suprem e goal" (mahartha) t o be realized by th e tantric adept. I t i s the Buddh a Kalacakra, 54 who i s seen a s both "the sel f (atman) o f one's own body, speech, mind, an d passion"55 and as "the supreme , immutabl e blis s characterized b y perfect awakenin g i n a single moment " (eka-ksanibhisambodhi),56 Perfect awakenin g i n a single moment i s interpreted her e as the min d that is free of momentary phenomena (ksaria-dharma) and is designated as "the lac k of inherent existence" (nihsvabhdva) .51 It i s gnosis called "reality " (tattva ) that is devoid o f one o r many moments. 58 As supreme, immutable bliss, gnosis is also the means by which the tantri c adep t realizes that goal. The tantri c adept attains perfect awakening in a single moment by bringing fort h 21,60 0 moment s o f supreme, immutabl e bliss . Fo r thi s reason , th e Kalacakra literature also defines gnosis as "the pat h of the Jina" 59 and as "the pat h of liberation, which, embraced by wisdom, or emptiness, i s one's own mind that has entered innat e bliss." 60 Furthermore, th e Kalacakr a traditio n present s gnosis not onl y a s the goa l to be attained an d as the path to that goal, but also as the discourse of the Kdlacakratantra and a s it s origina l teacher . Suc h a n interpretatio n o f gnosi s remind s on e o f Dignaga's explanatio n o f the perfectio n o f wisdom (prajnd'pdramitd), give n i n th e Prajndpdramitdpinddrtha. Accordin g t o Dignaga, the perfectio n of wisdom is nondual knowledge, the Tathagata, the text of the Prajndpdramitd sutras, and the path toward that nondual knowledge.61 The Kalacakra tradition's identification of gnosis with the perfection o f wisdo m indicate s tha t it s presentatio n o f gnosi s a s th e enlightene d teacher an d teaching is most intimatel y relate d to th e aforementione d Mahayana' s interpretation o f the perfectio n o f wisdom. In this tantric system , gnosis is described not onl y in terms of the min d but also in terms of the body . The Vimalaprabhd assert s that apart fro m th e body , there is no other Buddh a wh o i s the pervade r (vydpaka) an d th e bestowe r of liberation. The el ements of the body that are free of obscurations (nirdvarana) ar e the bestowers of Buddhahood an d liberation. 62 For this and other related tantric systems, due to the menta l disposition s of sentient beings , gnosis , the blis s of ultimate reality , manifests in sentien t being s bor n from a wom b a s th e fou r type s o f bliss—namely , blis s (dnanda), suprem e blis s (paramdrumda), extraordinar y bliss (viramdnanda), an d innat e bliss (sahajdnanda),63 Each o f these fou r type s of bliss has fou r aspects : a bodily, verbal, mental, an d gnos tic aspect . Fo r this reason , gnosi s manifests with sixtee n aspect s of bliss altogether . These sixtee n aspect s o f gnosis ar e none othe r tha n th e body , speech, mind , an d

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gnosis o f th e fou r bodie s o f th e Buddha : namely , th e Sahajakaya , Dharmakaya , Sambhogakaya, and Nirmanakaya. The sixtee n aspects of bliss are said to appea r i n these four bodies according t o the superior aspirations (adhimukti) o f sentient beings. Thus, th e aspec t in which thi s unified an d indivisible reality, named gnosis, will appear to the individua l is determined b y the individual' s own dispositions an d degree of spiritual maturation. Althoug h th e fou r bodie s of the Buddh a manifest and func tion in different ways , they ar e of the sam e nature and ar e mutually pervasive. The Kalacakr a tradition' s theor y o f the manifestatio n o f the sixtee n aspect s of gnosis in terms of both conventional (samvrti'Satya) an d ultimate realities (paramanhasatya) i s schematically presented i n table 7.1. The sixtee n facet s of the four bodies of the Buddha (listed in the second colum n of the following table) arise when the sixteen types of bliss that characterize the body of the individua l cease. Thus, th e sixtee n type s of bliss of the individua l are the im pure, o r perishable , aspect s o f the sixtee n facet s of the sublime , imperishable blis s (mahaksara-sukha) o f the Sahajakaya . The y become purifie d du e to th e cessatio n of bodily semen having sixtee n parts, which are the internal sixteen digits of the moon . Due to the purification of semen, one becomes the Buddh a Kalacakra, whom the Vimalaprabha characterizes i n this respect as "the stainless light o f the vajra-moon, " using the word s of the Manjusrinamasamgiti's eulog y of the gnosti c being , ManjusrT. 64 The Vimalaprabhd indicate s that this classification of the gnostic vajra o f the Buddha , which has sixteen types of bliss, has its precedent i n the Ndrnasamgiti's characteriza tion of Manjusrl as one who "knows the reality with sixteen aspects."65 However, as indicated i n th e introductor y chapter , th e NamasamgTtivrtti (182 . 5 . 2 ) interpret s these sixtee n aspect s of reality not i n terms of bliss but i n terms of emptiness. With regard to the spiritually awakened ones, the sixteen facets of the fou r bodies of the Buddh a are seen as the fou r types of unions (;yoga) , due to the classificatio n of the fou r bodies of the Buddha . I n terms of ordinary human beings , the aforementioned sixtee n types of bliss are also characterized as the fou r yogas—the yogas of th e body, speech, mind , an d gnosis—i n accordanc e wit h th e classificatio n o f the wak ing, dreaming, sleeping, and the fourt h state of the mind. 66 In order to understand th e Kalacakr a tradition's concep t of gnosis in terms of ultimate reality, one needs to look first at its most unmediated aspects and functions as expressed i n the fou r bodies of the Buddha . Emphasizin g the indestructibilit y o f the four bodie s of the Buddha , the Kalacakr a tradition ofte n depicts them as the fou r vajras—specifically, a s the gnosis-wjra , th e mind-vo/ra , speech-vajra, an d th e bodyvajra. Th e Kalacakratantra demarcates th e fou r vajras i n the followin g way: The body-vajr a of the Jina, which has all aspects, i s inconceivable in terms of senseobjects an d sense-faculties. The speech-wy'r a accomplishes Dharm a by means of utterances i n th e heart s of all sentient beings . Th e mind-vo/r a of the VajrT , whic h is the natur e of the mind s of sentient beings, i s present throughout th e entir e earth. That which, lik e a pure gem, apprehend s phenomen a is the gnosis-vajra. 67

On th e premis e that gnosis i s constantly presen t i n ever y sentient bein g bor n from the womb, the Kalacakratantra asserts that those four vajras ar e perpetually present i n all such sentient beings, but not i n a fully manifeste d form. Their presence i n every individual is attested b y one's capacities of the body , speech, mind, an d gnosis,

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TABLE 7.1 Th e Sixtee n Aspects (sodasakara) o f Gnosis (jnana) The sixtee n aspect s o f gnosis in terms of conventional realit y

The sixtee n aspects of gnosis in terms of the ultimat e reality

The Fou r Types of Bliss (arumda) the blis s of the min d (tittdnanda) the blis s of the bod y (teyarumda) the blis s of speech (vdg-dnanda) the blis s of gnosis ( jnandnanda)

The Fou r Aspects of the Sahajakay a the Sahaja-Bod y (sahaja'hdya) the Sahaja-Min d (sahaja-citta) the Sahaja-Speec h (sahaja-vdc) the Sahaja-Gnosi s (sahaja-jnana)

The Fou r Types o f Supreme Blis s (paramananda) the suprem e bliss of the body (kdya-paramdnanda) the suprem e bliss of the min d (citta'paramancmda) the suprem e bliss of speec h (vdc-paramdnanda) the suprem e bliss of gnosis (jnana'paramdnanda)

The Fou r Aspects of the Dharmakaya

The Fou r Types o f Extraordinary Bliss (viramdnanda) the extraordinar y bliss of the bod y (kdya'viramdnanda) the extraordinar y bliss of the min d (citta-vimmananda) the extraordinar y bliss of speech (vag'Viramdnanda) the extraordinar y bliss of gnosis

The Fou r Aspects of the Sambhogakay a

The Fou r Types of Innate Bliss (sahajdnanda) the innat e blis s of the bod y (kdya'Sahajdnanda) the innat e blis s of the min d (atta-sahajdnanda) the innat e bliss of speech (vdC'sahajdnanda) the innat e blis s of gnosis (jndnasahajdnanda)

The Fou r Aspects o f the Nirmanakay a

the Dharma-bod y (dharma'kdya) the Dharma-mm d (dharma'dtta) the Dharma-speec h (dharma-vdc) the Dharma-gnosi s (dharma-jnana)

the Sambhoga-bod y (sambhoga-kdya) the Sambhoga-mm d (sambhoga-citta) the Sambhoga-speec h (sambhoga-.2.5; (Dpan g Lo tsa ba Dpal Idan bio gros brtan pa's translation), vol. 47, #2102:274.3.7.-2S3.1.5. 20. Roerich , tr. , Blue Annals, p. 800 . 21. Severa l works belonging to the Kalacakr a corpus are ascribed to Sridharanandana, known als o a s Sadhuputra. See th e Derg e edition o f Tibetan Bsta n 'gyur, rgyud section : th e Sekoddes"at!ppanf, #1352 , the Srikdlacakrasadhanandma, #1356 , and th e Sfikdlacakramandalavidhi, # 1359 . 22. Collected Work s of Padma dkar po, vol. 1 7 (tsa) , 1974 , p. 213 . 23. Collected Work s ofBu ston, vol. 1 6 (ma), 1965, p. 4. 24. Padm a ga r dbang' s Zab chos sbas pa mig 'byed kyi chos bskor las pan che sha