The Law of War (LSE Monographs in International Studies)

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THE LAW OF WAR SECOND EDITION

This second edition of Ingrid Detter's authoritative work explores the changing legal context of modern warfare in the light of events over the last decade, especially in Kosovo, East Timor, and Rwanda. Detter reviews the status of international forces and the role and responsibilities of organisations including the United Nations, the European Union and the Red Cross. This new edition covers the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, the Landmine Conven­ tion (1987) and the Laser Protocol. It considers the aftermath of NATO's military action against the former Yugoslavia and its humanitarian justification, an action which illustrates the dimin­ ished 'reserved domain' over which a State has exclusive rights. New topics include compensation for war crimes, information warfare, space weapons, war crimes tribunals, sanctions and interventions. This updated edition of The Law of War will be of use to interna­ tional lawyers and to students of international law, international relations and politics. Review of the first edition T h e author should be congratulated on this production, which I recommend unreservedly, not only to international lawyers, but to students of international relations and strategic studies as well.'

South African Yearbook of International Law

I N G R I D D E T T E R is Professor Emeritus of International Law at Stockholm University, Senior Member of St Antony's College, Oxford, Advisor to H.H. John Paul II, and Barrister-at-Law of the Middle Temple and Lincoln's Inn, London.

T H E LAW O F W A R SECOND

EDITION

INGRID DETTER U N I V E R S I T Y OF OXFORD

CAMBRIDGE U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS

P U B L I S H E D BY T H E P R E S S S Y N D I C A T E O F T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F C A M B R I D G E

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcbn, 13,28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org (D Ingrid Detter 2000 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1987 Reprinted 1989 Second edition 2000 Fourth printing 2005 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typeset in Minion 10.5/14pt [VN] A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication

data

Detter, Ingrid The law of war / Ingrid Detter. - 2 n d edn p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0 521 78256 2(hardback) - ISBN 0 521 78775 0 (paperback) 1. War (International law) I. Title. KZ6385.D48 2000 341.6-dc21 99-086452 ISBN 0 521 78256 2 hardback ISBN 0 521 78775 0 paperback

To my son Nicholas

CONTENTS

Preface to the first edition

page xvii

Preface to the second edition

xix

List of abbreviations

PART I

1

xxiii

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

The concept of war

3

A The nature of war

3

B The definition of war

5

i Traditional views ii Relevance of a declaration of war iii Distinctions between war and other hostilities a War and armed conflict b War, raids and expeditionary forces c War and terrorism ( 1 ) State terrorism and State-sponsored terrorism (2) Group terrorism (3) Prevention of terrorism (4) Definition of terrorism d A specific definition of war C Changes in international society

6 9 17 17 20 21 22 22 23 23 25 27

i

Démocratisation of international society

27

ii

The cross-effects of practices in different wars

36

D Types of war i

ii

38

Geographical wars a Inter-State wars b Civil war c Internal war d Internationalised war Programmatic wars a Liberation wars

38 38 39 44 46 49 50 vii

viii

CONTENTS

(1) General characteristics (2) Political affiliations of liberation wars (3) Participation of liberation movements in certain international conferences b Resistance or partisan wars c Revolutionary war d Separatist or secessionist wars e Preemptive war iii Unequal wars iv Methodological war: guerrilla war

2

53 56 56 56 57 57 58

Prohibition of war

62

A Limitation of the use of force

62

i Rules prohibiting war ii Rules prohibiting aggression iii Rules prohibiting certain intervention a The relative notion of intervention b Assisting the government in internal conflict c Assistance to insurgents in internal disputes d Assistance to groups in other non-State conflicts e The effect of providing assistance to either party

B Legitimising factors i Recovery ii Hot pursuit iii Self-defence a General rules b Anticipatory self-defence iv Reprisals v The consent of a State vi Conflict with jus cogens vii Non-responsibility viii Humanitarian intervention ix Preemptive intervention x Punitive intervention xi Patronising intervention xii Self-determination: revival of'just war* theories

3

50 53

62 65 70 70 75 77 78 79

82 82 84 85 85 86 87 88 90 91 92 95 96 96 100

Prevention of war

104

A Double nature of relevant factors

104

B Undermining factors

104

i ii

Lack of condemnation Failure of the international judicial system

105 106

CONTENTS

C Stabilising factors i Alliances ii Coordination of foreign policy iii Disarmament a Early attempts b The contemporary position (1) Nuclear disarmament (2) Conventional disarmament (3) Verification problems iv Diffusion of tensions by talks v Confidence and security building measures (CSBMs) vi Restraint of arms trade vii Stability pacts viii Accommodation of internal needs ix Peaceful settlement of disputes x Pacts against war xi Interaction by trade and loans xii Institutional factors 4

107 108 108 109 109 110 111 115 115 116 117 118 123 123 124 126 127 127

The war-waging machinery

131

A The resources of States

131

B Belligerents and combatants

132

C The notion of'combatant*

135

i

The principle of distinction

135

ii

Qualifications for combatant status a Potential combatants (1) Regular forces (2) Irregular forces (i) The special position of volunteers (ii) Levee en masse (iii) Problems relating to the Geneva requirements (iv) Guerrillas and the new combatant status (3) Mercenaries

135 135 135 138 138 140 140 141 147

(4) Spies D Legal effects of combatant status 5

ix

148 148

The nature of the Law of War

151

A The historical background

151

B The function of the Law of War

154

i Force supplements unsatisfactory law ii The international element iii The element of complexity

154 155 156

CONTENTS

C The contents of the Law of War i

156

Jus ad bellum and jus in bello

156

ii The law of The Hague and the law of Geneva iii Identification of the Law of War a Rules on weapons b Rules on methods c Humanitarian rules (1) 'Humanitarian law* and'human rights' (2) Operation of human rights in war iv Bodies participating in drafting the Law of War v General principles of the ethics of warfare

158 159 159 160 160 160 161 163 164

Spatial application of the Law of War

168

A Traditional spatial application

168

i

Delimitation of territory

168

ii iii iv v vi vii viii

Regions of war and the theatre of war Neutrals and neutralised areas Demilitarised areas Denuclearised zones Areas under occupation Positive and negative zones War zones

169 169 172 178 181 182 183

ix Distinction between application in zones and inside States B Extended application in zones a n d internal conflicts

184 185

i

Application in internationalised conflicts a Declarations of adherence b Express provisions on applicability to liberation movements c Informal adherence of liberation movements d Formal adherence of liberation movements e Recognition of statehood

185 185 187 189 189 192

ii

Direct application of the Law of War in the internal sphere of States a Variability of constitutional provisions b The uncertain nature of case law c The rationale behind applicability and non-applicability d The attitude of the ICRC e Article 4A of Geneva Convention III f Common article 3 of the Geneva Conventions g Analysis of provisions of Protocol II of 1977

193 194 195 197 199 199 200 202

(1) General background (2) The ambit of article 1

202 205

CONTENTS

PART

7

II

RULES

ON

xi

BELLIGERENCE

Restrictions on weapons

211

A The ambit o f relevant rules

211

i

Weapons and methods

211

ii

The historical background

211

B Conventional w e a p o n s i ii

The meaning of conventional weapons The 1981 Weaponry Convention a The Lucerne and Lugano Conferences b The structure of the Convention c The mechanism of indirect obligation d Protocol I on Fragmentation Weapons e Protocol II on Treacherous Weapons (1) General provisions (2) Remotely delivered mines (3) Booby-traps (4) Delayed action devices (5) Recording of minefields (6) Remnants of mines f Protocol III on Incendiary Weapons

(1) General provisions (2) The jungle exception g Protocol IV on Blinding Laser Weapons iii The Land Mine Convention of 1997 iv Naval mines v Small calibre weapons

214 214 214 214 215 215 216 218 219 220 221 222 222 222 223 225 226 226 227 229 231

vi Other questionable weapons

232

C W e a p o n s o f mass destruction

233

i

General rules a Definition of weapons of mass destruction b Identification of weapons of mass destruction

233 234 236

ii

Nuclear weapons a The special case of nuclear weapons b Reduction of hazards? c Criteria for legality (1) Basic restrictions (2) Narrowing down the criteria (3) Criteria applied to nuclear weapons d Nuclear weapons and recent developments in the Law of War

239 239 239 241 241 242 243 247

D Radiological w e a p o n s

250

xii

CONTENTS

E Biological and chemical weapons i

ii

CBW: the common background a The historical background b Modern times c The question of gas ( 1 ) The application of early rules (2) The Geneva Gas Protocol (3) Efforts of disarmament bodies Biological weapons (BWs) a Provisions of the 1972 Convention b The Review Conference mechanism

iii Chemical weapons (CWs) a Separate treatment of chemical and biological weapons (CBW) b Regulation by special treaties c Various drafts d The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) F Environmental weapons

263 263 263 263 264 267

i

Specific prohibitions in general treaties

267

ii

The En-Mod Convention of 1977

268

iii Environmental obligations under general international law

8

251 251 252 252 253 253 255 259 259 259 262

272

G Information warfare

272

H Space weapons

274

Prohibited methods of warfare

276

A General rules for all warfare

276

i ii

The doctrine of illegitimate objectives Identification of immune objectives a Zones b Open towns c Military and civilian objectives distinguished

276 277 277 278 280

(1) The notion of military targets (2) The enumerative approach (3) Relevant criteria iii Consequential protection a Prohibition of area bombing b Specific exemptions from attack (1) Civilians and persons hors de combat (2) Parachutists (3) Parlamentaires (4) Food supplies and crops (5) Civilian ships (6) Hospitals, hospital ships and medical units

280 280 282 284 284 285 285 288 289 290 290 292

xiii

CONTENTS

(7) Attacks on dangerous installations (8) Government buildings (9) Cultural property (i) Provisions for international wars and for liberation wars (ii) Provisions for internal warfare (10) Places for religious worship (11) Civil defence iv Specifically prohibited methods a 'No quarter' b Starvation c Reprisals d Perfidy ( 1 ) General rules (2) Specific practices (3) The legal effects of perfidy

308

i The special case of warfare at sea ii Submarine warfare iii Blockade

308 310 312

Humanitarian rules

315

A The realistic meaning

315

B Specific rules

316

i Treatment of civilians ii The treatment of the wounded, the sick and the shipwrecked iii Specially protected groups a Women and children b Journalists c Civil defence personnel d Medical personnel e Religious personnel f Prisoners of war g Detainees

PART

10

294 295 296 296 297 297 297 299 303 303 303 307

B Specific rules for naval warfare

9

293 293 294

III

CONSEQUENTIAL

ASPECTS

OF T H E

LAW

316 320 322 322 323 323 324 326 326 336

OF

WAR

Effects of the state of war

343

A The time-span of war

343

i ii

Inception of war The end of war

343 343

xiv

CONTENTS

B Effects on communications

344

C Legal effects

346

i

Entry into force of the rules of war

ii The effect of war on treaties iii Private law effects a The effects of war on property (1) Booty (2) Prize and confiscation of contraband (3) Requisition (4) Angary (5) The uneven right of taking b The effect of war on contracts

11

Execution of the Law of War

367

A Methods of implementation

367

i ii

The Weapons Conventions Treaties on methods and humanitarian rules a Protective power system b Fact-finding commissions c Mediation d The role of individuals e Dissemination

B Methods of peace keeping i ii

12

346 346 349 349 350 351 358 360 362 362

UN Peace Keeping Forces Other forces

367 369 370 371 372 374 377 378 378 385

Suspension of the Law of War

391

A Denunciation

391

B Breach

393

i

ii

Grounds for deviations a Military necessity b Anterior breach c Repression of breaches The problem of reciprocity a General principles b Application to third parties c Application to non-States d A general or a contractual basis of obligation?

C Sanctions and responsibility for breaches i

393 393 398 399 400 400 404 405 409 413

State responsibility and sanctions

413

a Condemnation

414

CONTENTS

ii

b Embargo and economic sanctions c Compensation d Military action e Legal action Individual responsibility a Identification of war crimes b Right of prosecution for war crimes (1) War crimes tribunals (2) National jurisdiction c The doctrine of respondeat superior

XV

415 416 417 417 419 419 423 423 425 427

Conclusions: an evaluation of the contemporary Law of War

431

Select bibliography

443

Index

493

PREFACE TO THE FIRST E D I T I O N

The cosmic dust. . . changes the colours of the sky. . . colours the sunlight with a bloody line . . . penetrates our dwellings and our lungs . . . [and] acts injuriously upon living organisms.

This is not a description of any nuclear holocaust. The words are those of an author, writing 87 years ago, about the nature of the 'wish for war' which pervades the mind of statesmen like 'penetrating cosmic dust'.

1

The known horrors of war do not have to be described; but one should remember that they are the implementation of an at least oblique wish for war, or, since many wars are generated spontaneously and may appear 'unavoidable', a wish to allow war. Others hold that wars have ceased to exist, now that they are theoretically outlawed. Whatever disturbances that now occur must, they say, therefore be given another name, such as armed conflicts. But conflicts that are factually very similar to traditional war still occur in the international society. It is important to regulate the behaviour of parties to any such conflict. Efforts have been made to this effect in various fields. Numerous treaties and conventions have been concluded and certain general and specific rules can be discerned. There is no modern treatise on these rules. Older works cannot be used by simple updating as the very nature of war has changed, especially in view of the increased n u m b e r of internal conflicts. The present work attempts to fill that gap. However, the work covers an immense area of problems and must necessarily balance the importance of different subjects by stringent selection. The title of this work, 'The Law of War', using a singular rather than the more c o m m o n term 'laws of war', is intended to indicate that there is now a homogeneous body of rules applicable to the m o d e r n state of war. The 1

I. S. Bloch, Modern Weapons and Modern War, London, 1900, p. lxiii.

xvii

xviii

P R E F A C E TO THE FIRST

EDITION

term 'laws of w a r \ as applied to the subject as a whole, tends to convey an image of fragmentary regulation of matters of diverging nature and importance. The 'Law of War* comprises such different matters and pro­ vides the framework inside which problems and rules can be systematically ordered. However, the expression 'laws of war' will also be used in this work, but to refer to the various components of the law, for example the various legal instruments, declarations and treaties which form part of the legal system devised for war. The contents and the ambit of the Law of War have changed drastically in modern times, particularly in the last few decades. Matters which were once at the centre of attention in warfare are now of less pertinence. For example, blockade was always assumed to be of paramount importance to naval warfare but, in recent naval conflicts, few close or long-distance blockades have been imposed and the strategy of blockades has fallen into disuse. Furthermore, the law of prize represents another area of declining importance in m o d e r n warfare, and can perhaps now, along with angary, be more conveniently viewed as a derogation from the protection that property might otherwise enjoy in hostilities, rather than a practice specially pertinent to naval warfare. Because of this change, this work has devoted proportionally less space to relevant rules in fields such as these than earlier textbooks and sought to deal more with problems of modern importance. Some topical problems concern the extension of the application of the Law of War to internal disputes which will be discussed in detail in various contexts throughout the book. For the reader to be aware of the place of such modern problems in a coherent system of law, this book will, albeit briefly, set out the conceptual framework of the law of prohibition of force in general in international society in Part I. Rules on belligerence and humanitarian rules will be analysed in Part II and Part III is devoted to the effects of war and various methods of securing, or avoiding, the application of the Law of War. The present book attempts, in its conclusions, to evaluate the contemporary Law of War in legal and political terms.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND

EDITION

When this book was first published, at the end of 1987, the world was still governed by the rule of bipolarity. There was little to indicate - whatever scholars now claim to have foreseen - that c o m m u n i s m would fall and the political pattern would change. In a way, the divided world was accepted and perhaps even supported by the western political leaders, as a stable system, albeit suffering from tension. At the time of publication, the theme of this book was highly original among titles on international law and international relations: no book had been published on the Law of War since 1952. War was, according to many of my colleagues at the time, thought to be a non-subject since war was technically outlawed; the war in Vietnam was over and the Falklands War was seen as a minor affair; war was of little topical interest. W h a t was m o r e studied at this stage by international relations scholars was deterrence and various aspects of the arms race, the Strategic Defence Initiative, and its implications. And international lawyers were devoting most of their inter­ est to the Law of the Sea or, possibly, to problems of investment in the Third World. The ink in my book was barely dry when the Gulf War broke out. Six months later Croatia and Slovenia had to fight a war of independence and another year after that, Bosnia became the war theatre of major battles. The transition from c o m m u n i s m was not without bloodshed; what was shock­ ing was the indifference of the world to a war in a region less than two hours' flight from London. Then war flared u p again, in Cambodia. In Africa there were n u m e r o u s conflicts: in Somalia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Angola and the Congo; in 1999, twenty of the forty-five sub-Saharan States were involved in war. New armed conflicts followed in Ethiopia and Eritrea, Kosovo and East Timor. War suddenly became of major political importance. However, it is not only that wars have become m o r e frequent since the xix

XX

P R E F A C E TO THE S E C O N D

EDITION

first edition of this book. There have been other drastic changes. Ten years ago most wars were 'liberation wars' of nations seeking independence from m o r e or less oppressive 'colonial' regimes. There were also a number of 'vicarious' conflicts between the then superpowers, where the United States and the former Soviet Union supported different sides in local wars in Africa, Asia and Central America. Since the demise of the bipolar system, wars tend more to concern attempted secession from larger federations, like the wars in Chechnya in Russia, and in the constituent States of former Yugoslavia. Other new types of war appear to be fuelled by uncontrolled ethnic tension, often in the aftermath of the fall of c o m m u n i s m which left a n u m b e r of countries economically destitute. This second edition is highly topical in the light of the military action taken by N A T O against Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), a sovereign State which had not invited such action, in an unprecedented attempt to stifle humanitarian cruelties. This is a dramatic change from the Statecentred paradigm of earlier decades with ensuing reduction of the 'reserved domain', that is to say the internal area over which a State has exclusive rights. This development forms part of the Law of War: action by military force can only be effectively studied and analysed in the context of rules for the waging of war and of rules concerning legitimate defence. The Law of War and its branches of laws on weaponry and humanitarian law are of major importance to mankind. It is clearly vital to produce this second edition to cover the additions to the Law of War that now can be made in the light of the developments during the last decade. There are also some new problems, for example the status of international forces and the responsibility of organisations. Major international organisations like the United Nations, the European Union and the Red Cross have been subjec­ ted to biting criticism for bureaucratic and operational mistakes in certain wars and appear to be in need of adaptation. In the last few years there has been a flood of books on war, both on legal and political aspects. However, it is still correct to claim that there is no other treatise that deals with the major legal aspects in a systematic manner. At the turn of the Millennium, we note that, unfortunately, wars and armed conflicts still occur. Unless international law sets firm limits and clarifies rules that apply in such situations, warring factions may resort to formless and lawless behaviour, including excesses and atrocities. Con­ versely, if clear rules are crystallised in a homogeneous and systematic analysis, setting out also sanctions which may follow deviations from such

PREFACE TO T H E S E C O N D

EDITION

xxi

rules, States and groups may consider other options than armed force to voice their differences. It is the aspiration of this work precisely to contrib­ ute to such clarification of relevant rules of the Law of War. Ingrid Detter de Lupis Frankopan St Antony's College, Oxford, Easter, 2000

ABBREVIATIONS

AC ACJG AD AFDI AJCL AJIL AR ARSK ASDI/SJIR ASIL AV AVR BFSP BGH BYIL C CanYIL CBM CD CECA CEE CEEA CERN CICR CIS CIVPOL CL CLJ CLP CMLR

Appeal Cases Acta Scandinavia Juris Gentium Annual Digest Annuaire français de droit international American Journal of Comparative Law American Journal of International Law United Nations Repertory of Arbitration Awards Krajina Serb Army Annuaire suisse de droit international/Schweizerisches Jahrbuch für internationales Recht American Society of International Law Archiv des Völkerrechts Archiv für Völkerrecht British and Foreign State Papers Bundesgerichtshof British Yearbook of International Law Clunet Canadian Yearbook of International Law Confidence building measures United Nations Conference on Disarmament Communauté européenne du charbon et de l'acier Communauté économique européenne Communauté européenne de l'énergie atomique Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire Comité international de la Croix Rouge Commonwealth of Independent States United Nations Civilian Police Current Law Cambridge Law Journal Current Law Problems Common Market Law Review xxiii

xxiv ColLR CSCE D DGVR DÖV EBRD ECOSOC ECTS EHRR ESA EU FAO GA GATT Gl GJIL GP GYIL HAFSE HarvILJ HV IAEA IAPF IBS IC ICAO ICFY ICJ ICLQ ICRC IFOR IHEI IISL IISS ILA ILC ILO ILR IMF IMO

LIST OF

ABBREVIATIONS

Columbia Law Review Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe Dalloz Deutsche Gesellschaft für Völkerrecht Die öffentliche Verwaltung European Bank for Reconstruction and Development Economic and Social Council United Kingdom European Community Treaty Series European Human Rights Reports European Space Agency European Union Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations General Assembly General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Giurisprudenzia italiana Georgia Journal of International Law Gazette du Palais German Yearbook of International Law Headquarters of Allied Forces (Southern Europe) Harvard International Law Journal Croatian Army International Atomic Energy Agency Inter-American Peace Force International Boundary Series International Conciliation International Civil Aviation Organisation International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia International Court of Justice International and Comparative Law Quarterly International Committee of the Red Cross Implementation Force Institut des Hautes Etudes Internationales International Institute for Space Law International Institute for Strategic Studies International Law Association International Law Commission International Labour Organisation International Law Reports International Monetary Fund International Maritime Organisation

LIST OF

IndJIL Institut IPTF IRRC IS ITU ItYBIL IYHR JCP JDI JIR JNA JO JZ KFOR KK LJ LNOJ LNTS LQ LQR LR MICIVIH MilLR MINUGUA MINURSO MINUSAL MLR MNF NATO NedTIR NGO NJ NJW NordTIR NRGT NYUJIL NYU LR

ABBREVIATIONS

Indian Journal of International Law Institut de droit international United Nations International Police Task Force International Review of the Red Cross International Studies International Telecommunications Union Italian Yearbook of International Law Israeli Handbook of Human Rights Jurisclasseurs Périodiques Journal du droit international Jahrbuch für internationales Recht Yugoslav People's Army Journal Officiel de l'Union Européenne Juristenzeitung International Force in Kosovo (NATO Command) Kunglig kungörelse Law Journal League of Nations Official Journal League of Nations Treaty Series Law Quarterly Law Quarterly Review Law Review International Civilian Mission in Haiti Military Law Review United Nations Mission on the Use of Human Rights in Guatemala United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara United Nations Mission in El Salvador Modern Law Review multinational force North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Nederlandse Tijdschrift voor Internationaal Recht non-governmental organisation Nederlandse Jurisprudentie Neue Juristische Wochenschrift Nordisk Tidskrift for International Ret Nouveau recueil général de traités New York University Journal of International Law New York University Law Review

XXV

xxvi NZWR OAS OAU OBL OECD OJ ÖJZ ONUC ONUMOZ ONUSAL ONUVEH ONUVEN OPEX ÖZöR PB

peu PLO RBDI RCADI RDG RDI RDILC RDIPrivé RDP RDPC RDPMDG REDI RGDIP RGSt RGZ RH RHDI RIAA RICR RIIA RILC

LIST OF

ABBREVIATIONS

Neue Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht Organisation of American States Organisation of African Unity Oberlandesgericht Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Official Journal of the European Communities Österreichische Juristenzeitung United Nations Operation in the Congo United Nations Operation in Mozambique United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador United Nations Observer Group for the Verification of the Elections in Haiti United Nations Observer Group for the Verification of the Elections in Nicaragua Provision of Operational, Executive and Administrative Personnel Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht Pasicrisie beige Permanent Court of International Justice Palestine Liberation Organisation Revue beige de droit international Recueil des Cours de VAcadémie de droit international de la Haye Revue de droit général Revue de droit international Revue de droit international et du droit comparé Revue critique de droit international privé Revue de droit public Revue de droit pénal et de criminologie Revue de droit pénal militaire et de droit de la guerre Revista espagnol de derecho internacional Revue générale de droit international public Reichsgericht in Strafsachen Reichsgericht in Zivilsachen Revue hellénique de droit international Revue hellénique de droit international United Nations Reports of International Arbitral Awards Revue international de la Croix Rouge Royal Institute of International Affairs Revue international de législation comparée

LIST OF

RivDI RRF RSCDPC S SARP SAYIL SC SFDI SFOR SFS SOU TAB TIAS UKTS UN UNAMIC UNAMIR UNASOG UNAVEM UNCED UNCIO UNCIP UNCIVPOL UNCLOS UNCRO UNCTAD UNDOF UNDP UNEF UNESCO UNFICYP UNGOMAP UNHCR UNICEF UNIFIL UNIKOM

ABBREVIATIONS

xxvii

Rivista di diritto internazionale Rapid Reaction Force Revue de science criminelle et de droit pénal comparée Sirey Standards and Recommended Practices South African Year Book of International Law Security Council Société française pour le droit international Stabilisation Force (NATO Command) Svensk Fôrfattningssamling Statens offentliga utredningar Technical Assistance Board United States Treaties and other International Acts United Kingdom Treaty Series United Nations United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda United Nations Aouzou Strip Observer Group United Nations Angola Verification Mission United Nations Conference on Environment and Development United Nations Conference on International Organization United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan United Nations Civilian Police United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia United Nations Conference on Trade and Development United Nations Disengagement Observer Force United Nations Development Programme United Nations Emergency Force United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Peace-Keeping Force in Cyprus United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund United Nations Interim Force in the Lebanon United Nations Iran-Kuwait Observation Mission

xxviii UNIMOG UNIPOM UNITA UNITAF UNLOB UNMIBH UNMIH UNMO UNMOGIP UNMOP UNMOT UNOCHA UNOGIL UNOHAC UNOMIG UNOMIL UNOMUR UNOSOM UN PA UNPF UNPREDEP UNPROFOR UNREO UNRRA UNRWA UNSF UNTAC UNTAES UNTAG UNTEA UNTS UNTSO UNYB UNYOM

LIST OF

ABBREVIATIONS

United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group United Nations India-Pakistan Observation Mission Uniao nacional para a independencia total de Angola United Task Force United Nations Liaison Office in Beirut United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina United Nations Mission in Haiti United Nations military observers United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan United Nations Mission of Observers in Prelavka United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan United Nations Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan United Nations Observation Group in the Lebanon United Nations Office for Humanitarian Assistance Coordination United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia United Nations Observer Mission in Uganda-Rwanda United Nations Operation in Somalia United Nations Protected Area United Nations Peace Forces United Nations Preventive Deployment Force United Nations Protection Force United Nations Rwanda Emergency Office United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Agency United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East United Nations Security Force in West New Guinea (West Irian) United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and West Sirmium United Nations Transition Assistance Group United Nations Temporary Executive Authority United Nations Treaty Series United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation United Nations Year Book United Nations Yemen Observation Mission

L I S T OF A B B R E V I A T I O N S

UPU USTS VirLJ VirLR WHA WHO WMO YaleJIL YHR YWA ZaöRVR ZLW ZVR (Ö

XXIX

Universal Postal Union US Treaties and Other International Agreements Virginia Law Journal Virginia Law Review World Health Assembly World Health Organisation World Meteorological Organisation Yale Journal of International Law Yearbook of Human Rights Yearbook of World Affairs Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht Zeitschrift für Luft und Weltraumrecht Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht see above under O)

PART I

General Principles

1 The concept of war

A. The nature of war Is war a dispute between men rather than between States? The question has often been asked with regard to traditional wars between States, as wars are fought by individuals. There is no other area where greater duties are imposed on individuals and no other activity in which they are exposed to more personal suffering. Many traditional inter-State wars may have been fought by men filled with patriotic ardour; in others, individuals have not had such firm belief in any cause; other wars, again, have been fought by professional mercenaries whose allegiance could be bought. One may detect a different pattern of c o m m i t m e n t in civil wars, internal conflicts and other disputes where one party is not a State, insofar as members of at least one party in such armed conflicts, usually the non-State party, almost by definition fight for a cause, whereas members of the other party sometimes lack this motivation. Contrary to what Ulpian claimed 1

when he said there are no real enemies in civil wars, internal wars and similar disputes are probably more fiercely fought than inter-state wars, even in the case where citizens take u p arms against fellow citizens. In such wars individuals may thus be more directly confronted. Traditional inter-state wars are sometimes held to be waged between States whereas individuals are only 'incidentally' enemies. During the time of the consolidation of national sovereignty one could expect writers to underline that war is a relationship between States, especially in the light of 2

Bodin's theory of internal and external sovereignty. With the entrench­ ment of the idea of sovereignty such attitudes were perpetuated. Rousseau 1

2

Dig.L, XLIX, t.xv, I, xxi: 'In civilibus dissentionibus, quamvis saepe per eas respublica laedatur, non est tamen in exitium discedat, vice hostium non sunt eorum inter quos jura captivatum aut post liminorum fuerint.' Six livres de la ripublique> 1577; for comments on the double and sub-aspects of sovereignty, see my International Law and the Independent State, London, 1973, 2nd edn, 1987, 3fT.

3

GENERAL

4

PRINCIPLES

considered that war is not a matter of a relation ' m a n to m a n ' but only between 'State and State', as individuals are only enemies by accident, not as men, not even as citizens b u t as soldiers; not as members of the 3

4

fatherland but as its defenders. But Vattel claimed that when the Head of State, the sovereign, declares war against another sovereign, it is the whole nation which declares war on another nation, for the sovereign acts on behalf of the whole society. This view seems to indicate that it is really the individuals w h o are at war. This passage has often been quoted in English 5

6

cases and courts in other countries have taken similar views. In one case the Supreme Court of the United States underlines that 'war between 7

nations is war between their citizens'. But, when courts affirm the view of Vattel, it is not because they disagree with Rousseau's idealistic view of men being forced to be enemies, b u t because they are concerned precisely with the relationship in law between individuals, the effects of war on their contracts, property or other rights. Inter-State wars and non-State wars are, 8

as will be demonstrated, indistinguishable in this respect: both affect legal relationships of individuals elsewhere and both are, in the final analysis, fought by individuals. W h y then should, as m a n y suggest, different rules apply in the two types of conflict? Is it the exaggerated sovereignty view that a State has the right to 9

any 'police action' in its own territory? It will be investigated later to what extent various laws of war are applicable inside the internal sphere of States. But at this stage it may be remarked that already Vattel suggested that 10

similar rules ought to apply in the two types of conflict. This applies, in the first place, to all rules of warfare including humanitarian law. For the laws of war are for the benefit of the individuals. Secondly, for the sake of equality in unequal conflicts, similar rules of warfare ought to apply. 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

J. J. Rousseau, Du contrat social i> c.4: 'La guerre est done point une relation d'homme à homme, main une relation d'état à état, dans laquelle les particuliers ne sont ennemies qu'accidentellement, non point comme hommes, ni même comme citoyens, mais comme soldats; non point comme membre de la patrie, mais comme ses défenseurs.' Vattel, Droit des gens, 1758, iii c.5. s.70. E.g. Janson v. Driefontein Consolidated Mines, (1901) AC 493. For United States courts see, e.g., The Benito Estenger, 176 US 568. Sutherland, Alien Property Custodian v. Mayer (1926), 271 US 372. See below Ch. 10, C iii on the effects of the state of war. This attitude was seriously challenged in the Kosovo War; see below Ch. 6, B ii on spatial application of the Law of War. Vattel, Droit des gens, iii 3 c. 5, s.70: 'Mais toutes les fois qu'un parti nombreux se croit en droit de résister au souverain, et se voit en état de venir aux armes, la guerre doit se faire entre eux de la même manière qu'entre deux nations différentes' (emphasis added).

T H E C O N C E P T OF WAR

5

This does not preclude that the State is the normal war-waging machin­ ery.

11

Nor will the application of rules of the Law of W a r to individuals

lessen or erode the State's sovereignty. There are n u m e r o u s clauses in many relevant documents to the effect that provisions granting rights to individ­ 12

uals or to 'peoples' will not affect the sovereignty of States. And Protocol 13

II of 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 adds that its provisions do not affect the sovereignty of States, nor its 'legitimate means to maintain or re-establish law and order in the State or to defend national unity or territorial integration of the State'.

14

War is thus essentially a relationship by armed force between individuals, subjected in varying degree

15

to the Law of War. It must now be inves­

tigated what other characteristics contemporary war presents in order to arrive at a tentative definition.

B. The definition of war To prevent war one must analyse the war p h e n o m e n o n .

16

Furthermore, as

war entails certain legal consequences it is important to ascertain when a state of war has become effective. If, for example, a legal state of war existed between the United States and North Vietnam, a blockade of Haiphong would be a belligerent right; but if there was no war a blockade would be of 17

'doubtful legality'. In this way, the state of war determines the legitimacy of counter-measures.

18

A state of war is also relevant to the question whether treaties have been abrogated or suspended. It will also be important to establish whether contracts of individuals have been affected by frustration or impossibility and whether insurance policies or export finance policies are effective. 11

12

13

15

16

17

18

See below Ch. 4 on the war-waging machinery. See below in this Chapter C i for documents on self-determination. But for the decline of the State paradigm in international law, see my Concept of International Law* 1987, 2nd edn, 1993, 4fT. See further below Ch. 6, B ii g. Article 3( 1). See below Ch. 4, C on the notion of'combatant'. G. Bouthoul, La guerre. Elements de polemologie, 6th edn, Paris, 1978. G. E. Carlisle, 'The interrelationship of international and United States Naval Operations in South East Asia', 22 JAG Journal of US Navy, 1967, 11, stating that there was no state of war. On the change of attitude in 1972 when a blockade was imposed, see D. O'Connell, Influence of Law on Sea Power, Manchester, 1975,94; and below Ch. 8, B iii on prohibited methods of warfare. It may be different in the case of counter-measures of the United Nations: amidst protestations that the NATO intervention with regard to Kosovo did not constitute a 'war' but 'merely' an intervention (see below, Ch. 2, B viii), the UN authorised a blockade of Yugoslavia in 1999, measures whose legality was not questioned (see below, Ch. 12, C i b). 14

6

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

W h e n there is a situation of war other highly detailed rules also enter into operation: for example rules concerning the behaviour of belligerents such as rules on permissible weapons, targets and means of warfare, methods of combat as well as humanitarian rules. Other rules which apply in tradi­ tional state of war situations concern the prohibition of trade with the enemy. i. Traditional views Clausewitz's statement that war is an act of force to compel our enemy to 19

do our will concerns the motive of war, answering the question why a war is waged, assuming that there is a 'will' with which another State does not comply voluntarily. The 'definition' does not provide criteria for when war actually exists. Equally, his statement that war as an instrument of policy implies the 'continuation of political intercourse with the addition of other 20

m e a n s ' concerns the function of war, addressing the question of how war is waged, assuming that a foreign policy cannot be implemented in any ordinary way but has to be supplemented by special forceful means. Some call war 'the state of force between States with suspension of 21

peaceful relations'. Sometimes it has been held that all peaceful relations must have been severed for there to exist a war: it has been claimed that the distinction between war, even if now supposedly outlawed, and peace is that only peaceful situations, or at least situations of non-war, including situations of acute international tension and perhaps even armed conflict, are 'legal'. The distinction, in turn, between war and peace is that in war all peaceful relations are disrupted.

22

That is to say, States can engage in

hostilities of warlike dimensions but as long as they preserve or display the intention of preserving some rudimentary peaceful relations. By this rea19

2 0

21

22

C. v. Clausewitz, Vom Kriege, 1834, 18th edn, Bonn, 1972, Bk. I, ch. I, 75; English edition On War, ed. M. Howard and P. Paret, Princeton, 1976. For other definitions see, for example, H. Rettich, Zur Theorie und Geschichte des Rechts zum Kriege, Stuttgart, 1888, 14. Ibid., 605; cf. 88. A. v. Verdross, Volkerrecht, 5th edn, Vienna, 1964,432: 'Zwischenstaatlichen Gewaltstand unter Abbruch der friedlichen Beziehungen'. For Grotius' view, see De jure belli ac pads, 1625, edn, London 1923,1, ch. I 2; at apparent variance with earlier commentators, Grotius held that war was a condition rather than an activity. O. Grob, The Relativity of War and Peace, New Haven, 1949,81 considers Grotius' definition to be a 'mistake*. Cf. A. D. McNair, 'The legal meaning of war and the right to reprisals', 11 TransGrotSoc 1926,29; see C. Eagleton, 'The attempt to define war', IC, 1933, 235. Dalmia Cement Ltd v. National Bank of Pakistan, ICC Arbitral Award, (1976) by Professor Pierre Lalive, 67 ILR 751.

T H E C O N C E P T OF WAR

7

soning Arbitrator Lalive held that there was n o war between India and Pakistan during the hostilities in 1965.

23

Others require the suspension of the law of peace, rather than of peaceful 24

relations, for a state of war to exist, thus importing, as a condition for the existence of war, one of its potential legal effects. Similarly, rupture of diplomatic relations is also a consequence rather than a criterion for any state of war.

25

Some call war 'a contention between two or more States through their armed forces, for the purpose of overpowering each other and imposing such 26

conditions of peace as the victor pleases'. But the last few words alone may indicate that such a definition must be obsolete: a victor is no longer entitled to impose whatever conditions he wishes. And furthermore, the concept of war cannot depend on its own consequences. The same writer adopts unacceptable views when he contends that wars are not, not even nowadays, 27

necessarily designed to correct a suffered w r o n g . W a r has also been called 'a legal condition of things in which rights are or m a y b e prosecuted by force'.

28

But if this definition is accepted, there can be wars without hostilities as, for example, if the option of prosecution is not exercised. O r would this be denned as a 'potential war'? Some wars have, in the past, been declared and not fought, as was the case with the Latin American States during the Second 29

World War, for example. Some States which have sought to take part in a war by declaring war and attempting to join hostilities have still not qualified as belligerents because they did not fully participate in the war action or because the hostilities did not imply sufficient force.

30

In other cases there

have been considerable hostilities without there being a war, at least 31

according to the parties. And in other situations it has been held that since not all peaceful relations were suspended, there was n o war. 23

25

2 6

27

2 8

2 9

3 0

31

32

2 4

32

Ibid. F. Berber, 2 Lehrbuch des Völkerrechts, Kriegsrecht, Munich, 1969, 3. Cf. Ch. Rousseau, Le droit des conflits armes, Paris, 1983, 35. Oppenheim, 2 International Law, War and Neutrality, 7th edn, ed. H. Lauterpacht, London, 1952, 202. Contra, Vattel, 3 Droit des gens 1, whom he criticises alleging that States may have been 'driven' into war for political reasons 'only', Oppenheim, International Law. 7 Moore 1907, 153. See H. W. Briggs, The Law of Nations, 2nd edn, London, 1953,972, n. 16. On expeditionary forces sent by Brazil during the Second World War, see A. A. Cancado Trindade, Repertorio pratica brasileira do direito international, Brasilia, 1984, 329. On the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 see 3 Hyde 1687; on the Vietnam War, see Carlisle, 'International and United States naval operations' and O'Connell, Influence of Law on Sea Power, 93fT. See above on the Dalmia Cement Case, note 22.

8

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES 33

Some States have often denied that they are at 'war', and preferred to call a conflict something different. Thus, the United Kingdom underlined in the 4

Korean War t h a t W e are not engaged in a war but in an action of the United Nations Forces in lawfully resisting aggression under the United Nations Charter/

34

There have also been situations when States, or international

organisations, involved in a conflict wish to minimise the scale of military operations and deny that 'war* exists: this was the attitude of the United 35

States for a considerable time with regard to Vietnam. During the NATO action against Yugoslavia in 1999, an action to force that State to cease the ethnic cleansing of Albanians in Kosovo, it was emphasised, for example by 4

the United Kingdom, that there was no state of w a r ' 37

36

but only forceful

38

military a c t i o n during the the intervention in Kosovo. Yet, the media, and indeed all factual circumstances, indicated that the scale of hostilities did a m o u n t to 'war', although there had been n o declaration(s) of war by NATO or its members. There is indeed a fine line between NATO's action, in a war-like situation, and action constituting humanitarian intervention, or the imposition of sanctions by military force in peacetime. There is, perhaps, a distinction to be made between 'war' and the unilateral use of 39

force, for example by intervention by military m e a n s , and between 'war' and measures designed to bring a State into line with its obligations under international law to respect basic h u m a n rights by means of preemptive and/or punitive sanctions.

40

Furthermore, States participating in the Action 'Allied Force' by NATO (except for the UK), admitted that a state of war existed against Yugoslavia. Even the question as to which State organ is competent to declare war was 41

discussed in France. The Constitution of 1958 states that a declaration of war must be authorised by the Parliament. This was not done when French troops were committed to the NATO action against Serbia and Montenegro. 3 3

3 4

3 5

3 6

3 7

3 9

On a similar position with regard to declaration of war, see above in this Chapter. Cf. The Foreign Secretary's Statement in the House of Commons, 11 June 1952, Hansard, col. 202: 'We are not engaged in a war with the Republic of North Korea because we do not admit that there is such a State. What we are engaged in is an action of the United Nations Forces.' See further below. For example, Statement of the British Foreign Secretary Mr Robin Cook on 25 April 1999; but note that in UK media the conflict was usually referred to as the 'Balkans War'; in Nordic countries it was called the 'War about Kosovo' whereas, playing it down, neighbouring countries almost invariably referred to the conflict as the 'Kosovo Crisis'. Some also called the conflict 'a duel of politics' or a 'duel of wills', see A. Glucksmann, 'Ceci est bien une guerre', Le Monde, 18 May 1999. See below in Ch. 2, B vii on humanitarian intervention. See Ch. 2, B ii on intervention. Below, Ch. 2, B vii. Below, Ch. 11, B. Article 35. 3 8

4 0

41

T H E C O N C E P T O F WAR

9

Under the French Constitution it is the President who is the head of the armed forces and it is the government which 'disposes' of these forces;

42

furthermore, it is the Prime Minister who is solely responsible for national defence.

43

It was suggested that it is not possible to be responsible for the

armed forces without being head of the armed forces and, in turn, that it is not possible to be head of the armed forces, responsible for national defence, without being competent to declare w a r .

44

Thus, declarations of war, and

their constitutional implications, are still not obsolete. Furthermore, in the Kosovo conflict it may be that a series of'warnings' issued by the U N Security Council, as well as by NATO and by individual States, of military action if not heeded, may represent a m o d e r n form of'declarations of war'. There are also cases where 'war' is used as a figure of speech. The 'wars of assassination'

45

merely denote a unilateral method to dispose of political

enemies. Colonialism has been called a 'frozen war' to denote hostile policies and unilateral resentment. And, of course, the 'Cold W a r ' implied a war of 46

minds, without physical hostilities. There are situations when it is said that 'war is declared' when this expression is used as a euphemism for saying that there are severe differences and considerable hostility between the parties.

47

ii. Relevance of a declaration of war In spite of the diverging attitudes illustrated above, it is often assumed that there is little uncertainty as to whether or not a state of war exists. The question arises whether a declaration of war, as some claim, is relevant to the existence of a state of war. 4 2

4 4

4 5

4 6

4 7

4 3

Article 20. Article 21. Article under the initials D. A., Professor at the Law Faculties of Paris, in Figaro, 18 May 1999. Note that under article 50 of the Constitution of Year VIII, in 1799, declarations of war had to be promulgated as laws, that is to say with approval of the Legislative Assembly. It was for a violation of this article that Napoleon was impeached by the Senate on 3 April 1814, ibid. The Charters of 1814 and 1830 empowered the Head of State, i.e. the monarch, to declare war. The Constitution of 1848 specified that the head of the Republic was in charge of the defence of the State but that he could not declare war without the consent of the Legislative Assembly; the Constitution of 1875 adopted the same formula, adding the need for the consent of both chambers of the Assembly, ibid. J. F. Murphy, The United Nations and Control of International Violence, Manchester, 1983, 175. On 'frozen war', see A. A. Masrui, T h e contemporary case for violence and the international system', 81 Adelphi Papers, 1971,18. Some claim there was in the 1980s a 'second' Cold War: see F. Halliday, The Making of the Second Cold War, London, 2nd edn, 1986. For example, a US Senator, Mr Jesse Helms, stated in 1995 that 'Three years ago, the Bosnian Serbs declared war on the nation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Last week, the Serbs declared war on the world.' Wall Street journal 8 June 1995.

GENERAL

10

PRINCIPLES

Grotius claimed that such a declaration was a necessary condition which must be fulfilled before war could exist. Grotius' rule was intended to preclude treacherous attacks by one State on another in cases where there had been n o preceding conflict of any proportion and where the attacked State had n o means of preparing itself; it was above all necessary to ensure that war was waged by the clear decision of b o t h parties.

48

49

It was fully accepted in the d o c t r i n e that war might well start, and often did, without any formal declaration. Sometimes a declaration of war was useful as a final threat which itself was helpful to prevent an actual outbreak 50

of hostilities. But, in the opinion of international lawyers, there was no 51

general obligation to make such a declaration. And in practice there were many occasions where such a declaration was not made, especially if there had already been demands for a m e n d s .

52

However, since an attack with m o d e r n weapons could be executed with greater speed than before, at around the t u r n of the century

53

there was a

body of opinion that declarations of war should be made obligatory, as 54

swift attacks were almost synonymous with treacherous attacks. There­ fore, a conclusive declaration of war was needed by one of the parties, and war would exist as soon as such a declaration had been issued. The Hague Convention III of 1907 included an obligation to make declarations of war. This Convention prescribed that hostilities must not commence without 'previous and explicit warning' in the form of a declar­ ation of war or of an u l t i m a t u m .

55

The inclusion of this rule was mainly

due to the widespread disapproval of the use of torpedo boats by Japan to attack Russian warships without a declaration of war in 1904, although there had been some earlier trends to require declarations of war.

56

As

declarations of war became required by law there were even specific rules 48

4 9

51

5 2

5 3

5 4

5 5

5 6

De jure belli ac pads, Bk. Ill ch. iii. V and XI, Oxford edn., at 171. Grotius divided wars into declared wars (that were legal) and undeclared wars (that were not necessarily illegal). The law of nations would neither support nor oppose the latter category. E.g. Bynkershoek, Quaestiones Juris Publia, i, c.2. Vattel, Droit, iii, 3. G. F. Martens, Précis du droit des gens moderne de l'Europe, 1789, 274. For example, Gustavus II Adolphus' note to Emperor Ferdinand II; Zouche, Juris et juridicii feciales sine jure inter gentes et questionum et eodem explicatio, 171. But still in Janson v. Driefontein Consolidated Mines (1902) AC 484, 497, it was held that as long as a State 'abstains from declaring or making war, there is peace*. Cf. Institut de droit international 21 Annuaire 1906, 283. Hague Convention III Relative to the Opening of Hostilities, 1907,3 NRGT, 3 série, 437, article 1. On earlier practice see L. J. D. Féraud-Giraud, 'Des hostilités sans déclaration de guerre', RILC, 1885,19; A. de la Pradelle, 'Des hostilités sans déclaration de guerre', RDP, 1904,846; and L. de Sainte-Croix, La déclaration de guerre et ses effets immédiats, Paris, 1892. 5 0

11

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

on their form.

57

an ultimatum.

There were also settled rules on the function and form of

58

A declaration of war, even a unilateral one, was usually sufficient evi­ dence that a state of war existed. Such a declaration was held to be an instrument with definite legal consequences and n o 'mere challenge' which 59

could be 'accepted or refused at pleasure'. But in a world of unequal States such declarations were sometimes ignored by a more powerful State even if there were continuing hostilities.

60

On the other hand, formal requirements of declarations of war were soon relaxed to include also conclusive behaviour from which an animus

bei-

ligerendi, i.e. an intention to wage war, could be inferred. A type of act which suggested such an animus existed was, for example, a d e m a n d on third States to observe the laws of neutrality.

61

According to many writers, a State had a certain liberty to decide whether war existed: if a State was attacked by armed force it could either treat the attack as war or respond with force outside the ambit of w a r .

62

Some

suggested a State could 'elect' to treat acts as thus having brought about 'a state of war', almost by analogy to attitude to breach in the English law of 63

64

contract. Declarations could even be retroactive, and thus introduce the legal effects of war with retrospective effect. At the root of the rules on declarations of war was the 'state of war' doctrine, i.e. the doctrine of 'de jure war' or the doctrine o f ' w a r in the legal sense'. This doctrine linked the state of war to the intention of the parties to the conflict concerned, or at least to the intention of one of t h e m . doctrine is obviously 'absurd',

66

65

Such a

but it was adopted by statesmen. The

doctrine makes the existence of war depend on the mere subjective will of a party who may admit, or not admit, that war exists irrespective of objective circumstances. Any such doctrine is designed to be misused by States which 57

5 8

59

6 0

61

6 2

6 3

M

6 6

H. Steinlein, Die Form der Kriegserklärung, 1917; C. Eagleton, 'The Form and Function of the Declaration of War', AJIL, 1938. H. Johann, Begriff und Bedeutung des Ultimatums im Völkerrecht, Berlin, 1967. The Eliza Ann (1813), 1 Dodson 244. For example, the United States claimed in 1914 that a state of war with Mexico did not exist although the Mexican Foreign Minister had stated that he regarded his country to be at war with the United States because of the hostilities, US For. Rel. 1914, 493. J. Brierly, 'International law and the resort to armed force', 4 Cambridge LJ, 1932, 308, 311-12. A. D. McNair, 'The legal meaning of war and the right to reprisals', 11 TransGrotSoc, 1926, 29, 38. Brierly, 'Resort to armed force', 311. L. Delbez, 'La notion etique de la guerre', 57 RGDIP 1952-3, 193. 7 Moore 153. I. Brownlie, International Law and the Use of Force by States, Oxford, 1963, 26. 6 5

12

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

may avoid the use of the term 'war' either to avoid time-consuming constitutional procedures imposed in time of'war', or simply in order not to offend pacific feelings of some of their citizens; there was often political advantage in applying armed force against another State without upgrading this action to ' w a r ' .

67

68

Later, as war became outlawed in the international society, declarations of war became politically awkward. H o w could a State, bound by the Covenant of the League of Nations or by the Briand-Kellogg Pact of 1928,

69

make any declaration of war when it was illegal to wage war? The reluctance 70

to use the term 'war* dates from around this t i m e . But conflicts and war still occurred and States turned again to commencing war without declar­ ations. And States now saw great merit in treacherous attacks as they would take the enemy unguarded.

71

But even after the first steps of outlawing war many still claimed that States could decide that war existed (or did not exist) by the subjective test, perhaps coupled with a test as to whether a state of war was 'recognised' by third States.

72

It was thus accepted for a long time that it was the intention of States rather than the nature of their acts that decided whether a state of war existed.

73

But the provisions of the Covenant forbidding its Members to

resort to w a r

74

were at least occasionally interpreted in practice to imply

that war should be assessed in the objective sense, i.e. regardless of the views of the parties involved. This was, for example, the case when Italy invaded 6 7

6 8

6 9

7 0

71

7 2

7 3

7 4

Cf. ibid., 27. On the use in this work of the term 'international society' in preference to 'international community', see my Concept, 2nd edn, 24-5: the term community should in law, as it is in the terminology of international relations, be reserved for groupings of States with defined common goals, with a high degree of integration. On prohibition of war, see further below Ch. 2. However, some writers emphasised that war was still allowed in certain circumstances when one should speak of'war' rather than of'use of force', 0. Unden, Om begreppet anfallskrig, Uppsala, 1930, 11. The invasion of Abyssinia by Italy in 1935 took place without any declaration of war, see further below in Chapter 2, as did the German invasion of Poland in 1939 and the Japanese attack on the United States at Pearl Harbour in 1941. Note that Mussolini, on the other hand, made most formal declarations of war on United Kingdom and France in June 1940, delivering notes to the respective ambassadors and making a specific announcement in Piazza Venezia in Rome that war had been declared on these two States the following day. Q. Wright, 'When does war exist?', 26 AJIL, 1932, 362. On the subjective test see also J. Fischer Williams, 'The Covenant of the League of Nations', in Some Aspects of the Covenant of the League of Nations, London, 1934, 298. See, for example, the Secretary General of the League of Nations, Doc. 14, 1927, V.4, 83. Article 12. But the article did not prohibit the use of force in general, see below in Chapter 2.

13

THE C O N C E P T OF WAR

Abyssinia in 1936 and the parties to the conflict both denied that a state of war existed between them. But the Council of the League qualified Italy's actions as having started a 'war'.

75

On the other hand, there were n u m e r o u s other situations when the Council of the League of Nations allowed the subjective notion of war to prevail. In the Sino-Japanese conflict, for example, the Council held that n o 76

state of war existed between the parties in 1933. N u m e r o u s other conflicts were also held not to a m o u n t to any state of w a r .

77

Later, during the time of the United Nations, it has often been denied that 'war' exists. As set out above the United States denied for a considerable time that there was a 'war' in Vietnam, in Korea or in Kosovo.

78

In earlier days, declarations of war, depending as they did on the subjective will of States, made clear that war 'in a formal sense' existed, i.e. war existed in the 'opinion' of one or more of the parties to a conflict. But the formal dichotomy of state of war in a formal sense, relying on subjective criteria, and actual war in the material sense, is now probably obsolete.

79

Thus war will no longer exist merely because of the subjective will of one of the parties to the conflict. In spite of this development, in doctrine and in practice the subjective view is still occasionally put forward and it is claimed that war subsists only if there is an armed conflict between two or more States and at least one of them considers itself at w a r . sl

In the Dalmia Cement Case one party has an animus

80

it was held that it is necessary that at least

bellegerendi but the Arbitrator relaxed other

criteria. Certain other statements also indicate that declarations of war have become irrelevant.

82

On the other hand, a declaration of war may clarify

that war exists if there are accompanying actual hostilities to warrant this assessment. Arbitrator Lalive examined all circumstances together with a declaration of war in the form of a broadcast by Ayub K h a n . 7 5

7 7

78

7 9

8 0

81

8 2

8 3

7 6

83

The

League of Nations, 1935 Doc. No. C. 411. LOMJ, 1933, Spec,. Suppl. 122. 22. On fighting between Japan and China in 1937, see Brownlie, Force, 387-8; and between Colombian and Peruvian 'bands', see ibid., and below in this Chapter, iii a. See above, in the previous section. Cf. E. Castren, The Present Law of War and Neutrality, Helsinki, 1954. Sweden, Krigets Lagar, SOU: 1984,48; cf. J. Spiropoulos, 'Sur l'existence de l'état de guerre entre la Grèce et l'Albanie', 1 RHDI, 1948, 375. (1967) 67 ILR 751 and above. See, for example, Resolution XI of 21st ICRC Conference, Istanbul, 1969, which referred to 'parties to a conflict' without mentioning declarations of war as relevant, nor indicating that parties have to be 'recognised' units. On this see further above.

GENERAL

14

PRINCIPLES

Arbitrator found that the 'declaration' was not a communication by one State to another. Nor were there other circumstances to corroborate the existence of w a r .

84

There is an apparent subjective view in the Geneva 85

Conventions of 1949 where article 2 provides that the Conventions 'apply to all cases of declared war or any other armed conflict which may arise between two or more of the High Contracting Parties, even if the state of war is not recognised by one of them'. This wording could lead to a conclusion that the Conventions would not apply if both (or all) parties deny the existence of war. But most admit that there was a drafting error,

86

and that there must be an objective test. Later instruments bearing on rights of individuals deviate more em­ phatically from subjective opinions of States or other parties to a conflict. The Draft Code of Offences Against the Peace and Security of M a n k i n d

87

thus refers, for its ambit of application, to situations of armed conflict even if recognised by 'one or m o r e ' of the parties, a wording which has also been adopted by the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property.

88

There is no reason why this should not be assessed regardless of the attitudes of the parties to the dispute, for example by third States.

89

The

position now appears to be that war may well exist although there has been no declaration of war. That this is now the case is also amply demonstrated by the increase of internationalised

wars i.e. wars which started as internal y

conflicts but which, as new States emerge, became wars on the world scene in the sphere regulated by international law. It is obviously desirable to devise objective, rather than subjective criteria, as a guide to whether there is a state of war or armed conflict. But subjective criteria will always be relevant, albeit in different stages and layers, and can, it is submitted, never be completely eliminated, at least not until some impartial, possibly judicial, body is entrusted with the task of identifying the existence of armed conflict. Even the assessment of third States cannot be wholly independent of their subjective opinions and will 8 4

8 6

8 7

8 9

8 5

See the Dalmia Cement Case, 751. Misc. No. 4, 1950, Cmd. 8033. ICRC, 1 Commentary 32 and 3 ibid., 23. The drafting history of the article shows that the original proposed words were 'by parties concerned', ICRC, Report on 1947 Conference, 272. Cf. D. Bindschedler-Robert, A Reconsideration of the Law of Armed Conflict, Geneva 1969, 49; J. Gutteridge, 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', 26 BYIL, 1949, 298. Brownlie is led to the conclusion that the article clearly dispenses with subjective tests by relying on an inaccurate text where 'one of them' has been replaced by 'any of them', Force, 394 n.2. ILC, 1 Yearbook 1951, 73, 224; 2 ibid., 136. 249 UNTS 240. Brownlie, Force, 401; E. Borchard, 'War and peace', 27 AJIL 1933, 114-17. 8 8

15

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

inevitably depend on information available to them as well as on their political attitudes. It will also often remain a matter of subjective assertion to establish the scale at which skirmishes transgress from the field of'intermittent disturb­ ances' over the threshold and into the realm of 'war' or 'armed conflict'. Although some contend that to define war one would have to resort to organic, psychological and teleologic material,

90

there is probably greater

merit in allowing for a c o m m o n sense meaning. Such a m e t h o d could be used to decide the effect on contracts of private parties by examining what the parties understood by the reference to war,

91

and it could be extended

to other situations when certain objective elements are present.

92

There are good reasons why one should condone a variety of definitions of war or armed conflict to enable such definitions to be used for different purposes,

93

for example to allow rules of war protecting individuals the

widest possible application. Geneva Convention III on Prisoners of W a r

94

95

specifies that there need be no fighting for the Convention to apply: it is sufficient for persons to be captured.

96

Sometimes the term 'war' has been construed to have a narrow meaning, depending, still, on a formal declaration of war which, in the event, enabled an administratrix of a deceased employee of the United States Navy to 97

98

recover a fine. In other cases bearing on insurance it was held that 'time of war' is an expression which must be held 'against' the insurance com­ pany and thus be construed to give m a x i m u m benefit to the insured. Consequently, the Court held that there was no 'war' in Vietnam and double indemnity payment was d u e .

99

Other cases too, have construed

'war' in a wide sense for the purpose of payment of insurance m o n i e s . 9 0

91

9 2

9 3

94

9 5

9 6

97

98

9 9

100

100

xxx, 'La notion juridique de la guerre, Le criterion de la guerre', 57 RGDIP, 1953, 177. Cf. L. Kotsch, The Concept of War in Contemporary History and International Law, London, 1956. Cf. Kawasaki Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha of Kobe v. Bantham Steamship Co., (1939), 2 KB 544. Cf. Re Al-fin Corporation Patent (1970), Ch. 160 on the United Kingdom being 'at war' with North Korea, a 'non-recognised entity'. Thus F. Grob, The Relativity of War and Peace, A Study in Law, History and Politics, New Haven, 1949, 177. Cf. A.C. Gialdino, Gli effetti della guerra sui trattati, Milan, 1959, 251, and below Ch. 10, C on the effect of war on treaties and contracts. See below on humanitarian rules, in particular, Ch. 9, B iii f, concerning prisoners of war. Article 4. Cf. E. David, Mercenaires et volontaires international en droit des gens, Brussels, 1977, 370. Robb v. United States (1972) 456 F 2nd 768. Hammond v. National Life and Accident Insurance Co., (1971) La. App. 243, SO. 2nd 902. The Court might have been influenced also by the fact that there had been no accident in action: the deceased had been killed by a fire on his ship started by carelessness by his own crew. E.g., Western Reserve Life Insurance Co. v. Meadown (1953), 20 ILR 578.

16

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

But in cases turning on military discipline the attitude of Courts has been different. Here, Courts have normally construed war' to cover precisely what a soldier might have understood himself to be involved in for the purpose of discipline, for example with regard to desertion.

101

Courts have

then underlined that 'war* for the purpose of 'military law' must include also de facto war where there has been no declaration of war by the competent b o d y .

102

It may be suggested that Courts to some extent have been guided by the effect a specific definition of 'war' would have on the rights and duties of the parties in the particular litigation. In particular there appears to be a sharp distinction between the potential impact on the rights of civilians and on the duties of members of the armed forces; in the latter case it is not unlikely that the question of the example of military discipline and general preventive aspects may have influenced the Courts. The definition of war became even more complex when the incidence of civil wars or internal wars, i.e. non-State wars, increased. Units that are not States are not competent to make declarations of war so the issue of such declarations was not relevant. Bearing in m i n d the complexities of internal war and, in particular, the hazy area when a territorial unit or population group emerges from the grasp of the sovereignty of one State to form its own independent entity, it can now be said that in such situations declar­ ations of war are also obsolete. There is still, in inter-state as well as in internal relations, a need for fair warning before attacks lest such attacks appear treacherous. O n the other hand, the whole essence of guerilla warfare is based on terrorist tactics and surprise attacks which are the only ways rebels can outweigh the structural power supremacy of the organised State. However, the treacherous hazards to the established State of such warfare are to some extent compensated by the fact that at least once the first attack has occurred, the State has as m u c h fair warning of future attacks as a declaration of war would have implied. Parties which engage in war d o not have to be recognised as States by their enemy. A country, nation or group can be a belligerent in spite of non-recognition. 101

102

103

103

Conversely, the application of the treaties of the Law of

Broussard v. Patton, (1972) 566 F 2nd 816. Cf. United States v. Bancroft (1953) 20 ILR 586. See Broussars v. Patton above where there had been no declaration of war by Congress in the Vietnam War. The Fjeld, Prize Court of Alexandria, 17 ILR 1950 345. Diah v. Attorney General Supreme Court of Israel, 19 ILR 1952 550.

17

T H E C O N C E P T OF WAR

War such as, for example, the Geneva Conventions, does not imply any 'recognition'

104

of a party to a dispute as a 'State'. This is often made

abundantly clear by forceful pronouncements of States, for example by General Gowon when he agreed to apply the Geneva Conventions in Nigeria's war with Biafra: such action did certainly not imply any recogni­ tion of Biafra.

105

Decisions in the United Nations on, for example, Palestine and Korea indicate that conflicts either involving a newly organised territorial unit, or between two distinct territorial units, which can be expected to be 'rela­ tively permanent' are 'to be treated as conflicts between established States'.

106

Similar attitudes were apparent in the case of V i e t n a m .

107

A new

situation arose with regard to the NATO action against Yugoslavia in 1999: here, the intervention

108

concerned Kosovo, a province of Yugoslavia which

does not even necessarily wish to be an independent State b u t which sought, and deserved, the greater degree of a u t o n o m y which it had enjoyed until stripped of it by Serbia in 1989; and which sought greater protection of the ethnic Albanian population. The armed conflict here should possibly be conceived to be between NATO and Yugoslavia, and thus albeit indirect­ ly, a 'conflict between established States'.

109

iii. Distinctions between w a r a n d o t h e r hostilities a. War and armed

conflict

It has been said that between war and peace there is ' n o t h i n g ' . apparently correct in legal t e r m s crisis verging upon w a r .

112

111

110

This is

although there may, of course, be a

There is now a trend to prefer the term 'armed

conflict' to that of 'war', almost as if it were a third category. 104

105

106

107

108

1 , 0

111

112

See further below Ch. 6, B i e, on recognition of statehood. ICRC, 1967, 37 and below in this Chapter, D i b on civil wars. M. S. McDougal and L. Feliciano, Minimum World Public Order, Princeton, 1961, 221. J. N. Moore, 'The lawfulness of military association to the Republic of Vietnam', 61 AJIL 1967, Iff. See further below in Ch. 2 on various types of such measures. See below, Ch. 12, C e. Grotius, Dejure belli ac pads, Bk. III., Ch. xxi, 1, i. A. D. McNair and D. V. Watts, The Legal Effects of War, 4th edn, Cambridge, 1966, 45: this is also the position in English law: Janson v. Driefontein Consolidated Mines (1902) AC 484 at 497. The 'status mixtus' suggested by G. Schwarzenberger, The Frontiers of International Law, London, 1962, 242, probably obscures rather than clarifies by introducing an unnecessary category: Brownlie, Force, 401 n.3. R. N. Lebow, Between Peace and War, The Nature of International Crisis, Baltimore, 1981. 1 0 9

18

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

Some writers have chosen to use the term 'armed conflict' in preference to the m o r e traditional 'formal w a r ' . certainly many eminent a u t h o r s

114

113

It may be convenient - and there are

who prefer to take this line - to avoid

using the term 'war' and include internal wars under 'armed conflict' so as to explain the extension of the Law of W a r to such internal conflicts. But it is equally, and possibly more, convenient to extend the notion of 'war' to include also non-State armed conflict. After all, scholars may define terms as they wish, provided they are clear and consistent; and there is little merit in the term 'armed conflict' per se> especially if the results of translating this term into German and Scandinavian languages, for example, are somewhat unwieldy.

115

Furthermore, since Clausewitz has already prescribed 'an act

of force to compel our enemy to do our w i l l '

116

as the main criterion of war

it may seem adequate to use the term 'war' for the problems dealt with in this w o r k .

117

But Clausewitz's requirement of force by a sovereign power has to be discarded for the purpose of the m o d e r n regulation of war; further, new treaties on the Law of War even recognise the status of rebels and several instruments envisage such groups as parties to treaties.

118

A further, probably erroneous reason for a distinction between war and armed conflict is the claim that only States can wage wars. One can no longer say that only States are 'entitled' to engage in wars since they are not so legally empowered. But to many, some remnants of the privilege States used to enjoy remain: wars are, to them, by definition inter-state wars. Entities which are not States may be engaged in qualified wars such as civil wars and armed conflicts b u t not in wars properly so called. These views are probably due to the traditional and increasingly inaccurate notion of the State as the only war-waging m a c h i n e .

119

In n u m e r o u s recent hostilities, belligerents

have often been units other than States. In certain of these cases, the belligerent may have been a republic, forming part of a larger federation and breaking away from a federal structure to become an independent State. This was so in the case of Slovenia and Croatia, which emerged as sovereign States in 1991. In these hostilities, the Serb-dominated Yugoslav Federal Army 113

1 , 4

115

116

1 . 7

1 . 8

1 . 9

Bindschedler-Robert, Reconsideration, 5ff. See Bindschedler-Robert and Rousseau, Conflits armes. For example, 'bewaffnete Konflikten in German and 'beviipnade konflikter* in Swedish. Clausewitz, Vom Kriege, Bk. 1, Ch. 1, 75. Especially as Clausewitz qualified 'force' by requiring it to be 'physical', thus eliminating economic warfare, which is not dealt with in the present work. See below Ch. 4, on the war-waging machinery. See below Ch. 4, B on belligerents and combatants.

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

19

sought to prevent the independence of these two countries. In the hiatus between being constituent republics of a federation and independent States, it is clear that the Law of War applied: subsequent trials before the International War Crimes T r i b u n a l

120

in the Hague show that there are

compelling rules of warfare even before actual independence and statehood are achieved.

121

This is a similar situation to that where a civil or internal war

transforms itself into an international or an 'internationalised' w a r .

122

It is

striking that the United Nations Security Council has recently refrained from making a distinction between them, in particular with regard to rules on war crimes applicable in international or in internal conflicts.

123

If we were to admit that units other than States can wage wars, then certain other criteria for war mentioned above would fall: it serves little purpose to distinguish war from armed conflict by assessing whether or not the parties have broken off all peaceful relations or whether one of the belligerents is not a State. A rebel unit cannot, by definition, have had peaceful relations, or any other 'official' relations, with its opponent. It may wish to establish such peaceful relations once its goal has been won and it represents its own State, but until such time there will not have existed any peaceful relations which can be partially or totally broken. A further confusion has also been created by the new use of the new term 'armed conflict'. Which is the larger concept: 'war' or 'armed conflict'? The Institut de droit international

has considered whether 'armed conflict' falls

short of war or includes w a r . concept larger than ' w a r ' . war?

126

125

124

Others consider that 'armed conflict' is a

Is 'aggression' short of war or does it include

And is aggression an act of war or is war a type of aggression?

Many members of the Institut objected to any attempts to exaggerate the importance of definitions.

127

It may be questioned whether discussions on

the meaning of terms like these are fruitful in the absence of any obvious logic or of c o m m o n agreement on the contents of a term. It may indeed appear better to allow for some flexibility of m e a n i n g .

128

Most writers and commentators u p to the 1990s appear to use the term

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

See below, Ch. 12,Cii. See further Ch. 12 on responsibilities for breaches. Cf. below under D i a-d. Cf. E. David, Principes de droit des conflits armés, Brussels, 1994, 555. Cl Annuaire, 1981,204. At least if the concept is understood latu sensw, see David, Conflits armés, 63ff. See below Ch. 2, A ii on aggression. See Verosta, ibid., 254; McDougal, ibid., 251. Contra, Zourek, ibid., 258. Cf. David, Conflits armés, 66.

20

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

'armed conflict' to denote something less than war, assuming thus that war is the larger concept implying a more intense or full-scale situation than armed conflict, but later, practice varies.

129

For the purpose of this work, the general term 'war' has been chosen to include certain armed conflict of certain d i m e n s i o n s .

130

Naturally not all

armed conflicts a m o u n t to war, so armed conflict may or may not be war. Since the subjective meaning of 'war' has been a b a n d o n e d ,

131

there is a

similar problem with regard to 'conflict': a conflict may be war or it may not be war. But nothing will be solved by preferring a particular term to another as both concepts require a certain definitional threshold if they are to apply according to contemporary practice. Ultimately, attempting to make a distinction between war and armed conflict is not really fruitful since it is not a question of type but one of scale and degree.

b. War, raids and expeditionary

forces

There must, however, obviously exist a de minimis rule to distinguish war and other forms of armed conflict from raids. Sporadic operations fall outside the concept of 'armed a t t a c k '

132

unless 'powerful bands of irregu­

lars' are involved in a 'coordinated and general c a m p a i g n ' .

133

It will be a considerable problem to decide in casu whether the required 'intensity of c o e r c i o n '

134

has come about for actual armed conflict to have

taken place. All might agree that for this to happen the dispute must be of a certain ' m a g n i t u d e '

135

but decisions will have to be made in each individual

case before the relevant line can be drawn. W h a t is clear, again in principle rather than by the application of detailed criteria, is that no international conflict will exist if raids are carried out by expeditionary forces which do not represent their government, other units for which a State is not responsible, 1 2 9

130

132

134

135

136

137

137

136

or by

or for which it declares

Discussion on this point has become somewhat academic: bodies established to investigate crimes in Yugoslavia and Rwanda are both called 'War Crimes Tribunals' and not 'Tribunals for Crimes in Armed Conflict'. Later, few writers have argued about the artificiality of the terminology and have less problems speaking of 'war'. See above on the definition of war. See above on this question. Brownlie, Force, 278. Ibid., 279. Instituí de droit international, Annuaire, 1981, 251, comments by McDougal. Cf. ibid., 258, comments by Zourek. Eastern Carrying Insurance Co. v. National Benefit Life and Property Insurance Co. (1919) 35 TLR; Pesquerías v. Beer, (1947) 80 Lloyd's Rep. 318. E.g. the incursions by Jameson and his 800 men into Transvaal in 1895-6, N. Gelsvik, 'Militaert forsvar eller civil vern?', Syn og Segn, Oslo, 1930, 4. 131

133

21

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

that it is not responsible, and for which n o other State assumes responsibil­ ity.

138

In cases where it is clear that one State is responsible for such r a i d s

139

there may still be no international armed conflict if fighting is not ext­ ended. But in such a case a war of another type may exist between the group responsible for the incursions and the attacked State, provided, again, that hostilities do not fall within the de minimis rule. But nothing prevents individual v o l u n t e e r s provided they are not mercenaries.

141

140

from joining other forces,

Furthermore, neutral powers do not

incur any responsibility if persons on their territory cross the frontier to offer their services to one of the belligerents.

142

O n the other hand, State-encouraged or State-sponsored participation may be prohibited as assisting strife in another country; the limits and implications of such assistance will be discussed l a t e r .

143

Yet, unless incursions by groups sponsored by a State or self-sponsored groups are of a prolonged and intensive nature, they will fall under de minimis rule and will not constitute war.

c. War and

terrorism

Many writers suggest that 'terrorism* has something to d o with the reign of terror during the French Revolution.

144

But the suppression by a State

of its own subjects in its own territory on a scale a m o u n t i n g to 'terror', which has existed from the dawn of history, is better referred to by other terms.

145

Terrorism, on the contrary, necessarily implies to most ob­

servers acts against the State (or against citizens) rather than acts by the State, 138

139

1 4 0

142

143

144

145

On Pakistani raids into Kashmir in 1965, see UNYB 1965, 159; on Indonesian raids into Malaysia, in 1964-5, see 5 IRRC1965, 71. On, e.g., the United States' raid at the Bay of Pigs into Cuba see 10 Digest of International Law, 236. See below Ch. 4, C ii (2) (i) on volunteers. See below Ch. 4, C ii (3) on mercenaries. Hague Convention V 1907 on Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in War on Land, 3 NRGT 3 serie, 504, article 6; Hague Convention XIII 1907 on Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Maritime War, ibid., 713, article 8. See below Ch. 2 A iii b on assistance to governments and groups in times of conflict. R. Friedlander, 'Terrorism and international law: what is being done', Rutgers Camden Law Journal 1977,41; J. J. Paust, 'Non-protected persons or things' in A. E. Evans and J. F. Murphy, Legal Aspects of Terrorism, Lexington, 1978, 341 on a 'system of general terrorisation' in Belgium during the Second World War. Geneva Convention IV on Civilians also uses 'terrorism' to signify measures taken by a State. Thus 'collective penalties' (against the civilian population) and likewise all measures of intimidation or of terrorism are prohibited, see article 33. 141

GENERAL

22

PRINCIPLES

There is no convenient definition of terrorism and it may be useful to attempt to define the concept for the purpose of then drawing a line between terrorism and war, a line which initially may not be too clear. (1) State terrorism and State-sponsored

terrorism One type of terrorism is

perpetrated by the State, not against its own subjects in its own territory as discussed above, but against other States and other citizens in furtherance of its own interests.

146

Such State terrorism may be divided into two

groups. One of these concerns assassination missions against undesirable persons in other States, for example the elimination of certain subjects resident in other c o u n t r i e s .

147

Another group concerns acts of a more

r a n d o m character against targets in some way representing or connected with a 'hostile* or disliked country. An example is the attack in 1986 on a West German disco used by American soldiers. This attack was first attributed to Libyan agents and later to Syrian involvement. Another example is the attack on an Israeli jet plane at Heathrow, also in 1986, presumably by Syrians. The terrorist attack on the aeroplane which crashed at Lockerbie in Scotland in 1990 led to a case in the International Court of Justice concerning as to w h o m this act was attributable and who should bear international responsibility.

148

(2) Group terrorism The more c o m m o n kind of terrorism is not perpet­ rated by States but precisely directed against it. It may be carried out either by groups of the State's own subjects like the Baader Meinhof Gang, and later the Red Brigade, in Germany, or by groups whose political head­ quarters are based in another country, like the IRA in Ireland, or, on a different scale, the Tamils taking action in Sri Lanka and India. The 'causes' for which such groups may take action are usually political, but may cover a wide spectrum, ranging from the declared objective of 'anarchy', as in the case of the Baader Meinhof Gang, to the quest of a province for selfdetermination or the reunification with another State, as in the case of the 146

147

148

Note the change of policy by United States Congress in the 1960s after the debacle of the Bay of Pigs expedition against Cuba. On wars of assassination see above in this Chapter. ICJ, Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States), pending in 1999. A case against two persons suspected of this crime to be tried under Scottish law, the lex loci delicti, was lodged with the Special Tribunal in The Hague.

23

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

IRA, or for greater a u t o n o m y without necessarily claiming independence, like the Tamils in Sri Lanka or the ethnic Albanians in Kosovo. Sometimes the 'cause' concerns general dissatisfaction with the political and economic structure of a country and action is taken from within against specific targets who are thought to be representative of this structure. As one example of this pattern one may mention the activities of Action Directe in France. (3) Prevention of terrorism There is a series of international conventions to suppress various types of international terrorism, such as hijacking, kidnapping of diplomats, for e x a m p l e . have also been concluded,

151

150

or the

Some other general Conventions

but none of them contain any useful definition

of terrorism; nor does the current literature on t e r r o r i s m clarification.

149

152

provide m u c h

153

(4) Definition of terrorism What are the hallmarks of the first type of terrorism, the type people commonly have in m i n d when they speak of terrorist activities? It appears that terrorism invariably implies a d e m a n d that certain acts are taken by someone else. The d e m a n d may be clearly expressed or merely assumed to be understood by whoever is empowered to take the acts requested. Terrorism is thus basically 'extortionate' as its 149

150

151

152

153

The Tokyo Convention of Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, 704 UNTS 219; The Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, 1970, TIAS 7192; the Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation 1971, 10 ILM 1151. The OAS Convention to Prevent and Punish Terrorism Taking the Form of Crimes Against Persons and Related Extortions that are of International Significance 1971, TIAS 8413; 65 AJIL 898; the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons Including Diplomatic Agents 1973, TIAS 8532; 13 ILM 41; The UN Convention Against the Taking of Hostages 1979, 18 ILM 1456. The Strasburg Convention (Council of Europe) 1977 on Suppression of Terrorism, 15 ILM 1979 1972; The Dublin (EEC) Convention on Suppression of Terrorism, 19 ILM 1980 325; cf. the Bonn Declaration on International Terrorism 1978, 17 ILM 1285. For works on terrorism, see Y. Alexander and J. M. Gleason, Behavioural and Quantitative Perspectives on Terrorism, Oxford, 1981; M. H. Livingston, L. B. Kress and M. G. Wanck, (eds.), International Terrorism in the Contemporary World, London, 1978; Y. Alexander et al., (eds.) Terrorism: Theory and Practice, Westview, 1979; J. Lodge, (ed.) Terrorism: A Challenge to the State, Oxford, 1981; C. Rozakis, Terrorism and the internationally protected persons in the light of the ILC's Draft Articles', ICLQ, 1974; L. A. Sobel, Political Terrorism, vol. 1, New York 1975; vol. 2, New York, 1979; A. Evans and J. F. Murphy, Legal Aspects of International Terrorism, Lexington, 1978; Y. Alexander and A. O'Day, Terrorism in Ireland, London 1984; G. Guillaume, 'Terrorisme et le droit international', RCADI, 1989, iii, 289 ff; C. Touret, Le piraterie au xxe siecle, Paris, 1992; J. T. Choi, Aviation Terrorism, London 1994. But see G. Guillaume, 'Terrorisme et le droit international', 289fT.

GENERAL

24

PRINCIPLES

perpetrators seek to obtain certain ends by force. Normally there will be political demands; but there is very little difference in technique between this type of political extortionate terrorism and that used for private ends.

154

But the second hallmark, which is seldom sufficiently underlined by commentators, is that the force or the threat of force applied by terrorists is not normally against the persons who can grant the wishes of the terrorists b u t against some other person(s) or authority. For example, terrorists may hijack an aeroplane or kidnap an ambassador to apply force against a State to release certain persons from custody; or terrorists may plant bombs which kill or m a i m innocent citizens in a large city, thereby applying force against their government to grant certain claims to independence. If the demands are m a d e by persons in one State against others in that same State for acts to be performed in the same territory, this still does not mean that this type of terrorism is intra-State and non-international. It must first be established if the demands made concern the granting of independence, for if they do the action may still be described as interna­ tional terrorism. The terrorists wish to set u p their own State and the situation is thus potentially international. Secondly, the outside support that, in one form or another, is often present in these cases is another aspect which may internationalise an otherwise national situation.

155

Thirdly, even

in situations which do take place at the national level, whether acts of terrorists or the treatment of terrorists by the authorities, may cease to be a matter for domestic jurisdiction alone if, for example, there is a Convention restricting the power of the territorial S t a t e , cases when acts grossly violate h u m a n r i g h t s .

156

157

and perhaps also in other

The way terrorists carry out

their acts often implies attacks directed against either important and valuable assets such as aircraft or, as in The Achille Lauro incident in 1985, a ship; or against persons who, as representatives of their government are particularly Valuable', such as diplomats, as in the attack against the West German Ambassador in Guatemala in 1973; or against other instrumentali­ ties of the attacked State, the armed forces, as in the IRA's attacks on the 1 5 4

155

1 5 6

157

For example, the type whereby an individual is kidnapped and a demand for money is made to a bank which employs him. See on such assistance, below, Ch. 2, A iii. As, for example, under the European Convention of Human Rights, e.g. the Ireland v. United Kingdom Case, (1978) European Court of Human Rights, Pleadings, vol. 23, 1 and 2. On the power of a State as limited in its own territory, see my International Law and the Independent State, 2nd edn, London, 1987, passim.

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

25

Guards in Hyde Park and Regent's Park in London in 1983; or finally - and this is the type of terrorism that leads most often to public outrage and which furthermore may be the least 'effective' - against completely uncon­ nected and innocent members of the civilian population, as in the b o m b attack on Harrods in London on 17 December 1984. The intermittent time factor is another typical feature of terrorism. There is often a lull in the activities of terrorists so that the next attack is gauged to occur when no one expects it: this forms the backbone of one of terrorism's most distinctive features: treacherous attacks by surprise. The aim of terrorists may be to create chaos so that repressive measures introduced by a State's government to combat terrorism will make its population inclined to accept revolutionary change, when a terrorist move­ ment may become a guerilla m o v e m e n t .

158

But these last remarks may also

indicate that terrorism is conceptually to be conceived as a preliminary step towards unconventional warfare.

159

In spite of the obvious problems, a definition m a y b e ventured to cover a somewhat hazy area: International terrorism implies the intermittent use or threat of force against person(s) to obtain certain political objectives of international relevance from a third party.

But at the same time the intermittent factor, which is a hallmark of terrorism, excludes it from constituting war per se. But as will be shown, terrorist tactics may be adopted in w a r

160

for the purposes of guerilla

warfare.

d. A specific definition

of war

It may be realistic to admit the following: war still occurs; the belligerents are often non-States; and that the distinction between war and armed conflict can only be used loosely to indicate the scale of hostilities. All types of war are fought by individuals with different allegiance to different entities and these entities are not always States. W a r remains essentially a sustained struggle between individuals by armed force. In a war, individuals will be organised to pursue their hostile or defensive acts for a group, either the traditional nation State, or for another unit such as a 158

See further R. Clutterbuck, Guerillas and Terrorists, London, 1977.

159

See below in this Chapter, D iv on guerilla warfare.

1 6 0

See below in this Chapter, D iv.

26

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

'people* of ethnic, religious, cultural or political unity and/or for an organisation with specified goals, usually including the realisation of its own statehood. But not every group can be belligerent; and not every type of fighting constitutes war. With regard to the organisation of a group there must be certain requirements regarding its structure to warrant the status of bel­ ligerent. Similar rules are those which apply under recent conventions,

161

for the status of combatant can be adopted. It should thus be required that members of the relevant group wear uniform and that they are subjected to military discipline. If such criteria are adopted we evade the illogical situation of which many now approve, at least by acquiescence, namely that there are combat­ ants who are recognised as such by international conventions,

162

but who

do not fight on behalf of a belligerent as, according to these authors, only States can wage wars. It may be impossible to answer with absolute certainty which acts bring about a state of w a r ,

163

but at some given point

which, a priori, it may not be possible to define, the scale of hostilities may reach a point when it may be reasonable to describe them as of war. With regard to the intensity of hostilities, fighting must surpass a certain threshold in order to constitute war, according to the de minimis

rule.

There will almost be some latitude for uncertainty in this respect and a certain reliance on subjective criteria is inevitable. War is thus a sustained struggle by armed force of a certain intensity between groups of a certain size, consisting of individuals who are armed, who wear distinctive insignia and who are subjected to military discipline under responsible command.

Such a definition is the natural consequence of the concept of combat­ ant.

164

For i f ' c o m b a t a n t ' is defined as someone who distinguishes himself

from the civilian population, carries arms openly

1 6 5

and is subjected to an

internal disciplinary system, he must also act on behalf of a belligerent. That belligerent, a State or another party, is thus a party to war. Hence, war must be a conflict between groups of combatants, as those have been defined in contemporary Law of W a r . 161

163

, M

166

See below Ch. 4, P. Guggenheim, See below Ch. 4, See below Ch. 4,

166

162

B on belligerents. See below Ch. 4, B. Traite du droit international public, Geneva, 1952, 350. C on combatant status. See below Ch. 4, C. C for details on the requirements of combatancy. 165

27

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

C. Changes in international society i. Démocratisation of international society The right of unrecognised groups to wage war is the result of a sudden and intense development in the international society, a development which probably started around the end of the First World War. The change has first of all to do with the territorial context. The State is the prime geographical and political unit. But in recent practice, increased attention has been focused on other ethnographic concepts than States. For example, the Peace Treaties after the First World W a r offered options for the choice of nationality by individuals based on ethnic rather than on geographical criteria,

167

coupled with protection for minorities - in all a

development showing the loosening of the State from its territorial b a s e

168

or at least a loosening of the ethnic groups from the framework of the territorial State. On the other hand there was a marked trend, inter alia in the practice of y

the United States to require popular support for a government before it was recognised: conditions of plebiscites were often made before recognition was forthcoming.

169

This is another way of placing individuals in the

foreground and it marks an important, and not often analysed, change in international relations. The concern for minorities, on the one hand, and the requirement for popular consent, on the other, marks the advent of démocratisation of the international society. The majority of international lawyers insist that only States, and perhaps international organisations, are 'subjects' of international law, i.e. are capable of assuming international rights and duties. The system they present is increasingly incoherent and illogical as they refuse to accept that, at least in modern times, the individual and certain groups of individuals also can be direct bearers of such rights and d u t i e s .

170

New ideas in other

fields, such as in politics and in international relations studies have, how­ ever, had their impact on the system of international society although few theorists of law have seen any reason to adapt their static view that the system, as they see it, essentially applies only between States. 167

168

170

See e.g., the Versailles Treaty on 'Czechs' and 'Poles' o f German nationality'; see also articles 85 and 91 respectively, AJIL, 1919, Suppl., 193 and 200. Cf. W. Schàtzel, 3 Internationales Recht, Bonn 1962, 180-6. 1 Hackworth 30. For a new theory on the role of subjects/creators/actors in international law and on the formation of rules, see my Concept, 2nd edn, passim. 1 6 9

28

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

The attitude of refusing individuals their status in international society as capable of directly assuming rights and obligations is aggravated by the insistence, in countries like France, Spain and Italy, that there is a sharp distinction between public and private law. After all, a legal system exists for the convenience of its subjects and, if it is n o longer realistic to insist that international law only binds States - and intergovernmental organisations - we might as well dispense with the tag 'public' international law. This system also binds individuals by imposing clear obligations on individuals, amply shown by the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials, Hague and Arusha Trials;

172

171

as well as by the

conversely, the system of international law also

confers rights on individuals, as shown by rules regulating h u m a n rights, refugees and nationality. Thus, it is clearly a truly international

system,

covering both private and public aspects. It is unfortunate that some law faculties still insist that public and private international law are taught separately. Private international law rests also, to a very large extent on commonly adopted universal rules and is only in a formal sense part of national law. It is far m o r e fruitful to discuss and analyse all rules affecting international contacts without preconceived ideas that they are different in origin, character and legal force.

173

As is now the case in many countries,

some subjects are never studied at all as they fall between the so-called public and private disciplines. Multinationals, refugees and questions of duties of soldiers o n the battlefield are thus often left out as they do not readily fall under the 'public' or the 'private' field of law. However, new ideas in other fields, such as politics and international relations studies, have had their impact o n the legal system of international society, although few theorists of law have seen any reason to adapt their static view that the system, as they see it, essentially applies between States and that individuals can only benefit from rights or be b o u n d by obliga­ tions if the States so decide in inter-State agreements. Ultra-positivists and voluntarists,

171

1 7 3

174

175

175

174

fearing almost religious overtones in any shade of

172

See below, Ch. 12,Cii. Ibid. See my International Legal Order, London and New York, 1994, passim. Those who consider that all legal rules must be clearly laid down in treaties, legislation, or in nebulous 'customary law'. For criticism, see my International Legal Order, Ch. Ill, E iv; cf. my Concept, 2nd edn, 37. Those who only consider States to be bound by rules to which they have given their express consent. For criticism, see my International Legal Order Ch. Ill, E iv.

29

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

'natural' l a w

176

refuse to accept, with embarrassing fanaticism, that political

realities do not match their antiquated theories. One idea, taken u p by writers on international relations as well as by the United Nations and by certain statesmen, especially those representing the Third World, is that of 'democracy' as a new imperative rule in interna­ tional society rather than merely representing an alternative form of gov­ ernment. It appears that it is no longer possible for States to argue that the way they organise their internal affairs is merely a concern for themselves. One result that flows from this new idea of'compulsory' democracy is that of self-determination. Self-determination means that individuals have the right to determine the social rules that are to bind t h e m .

177

Self-government to some would

mean 'moral consensus' and would rely on m a n y ideas of, for example, Rousseau.

178

But problems arise when assessing which individuals shall

have such right of self-determination. Some take the extreme view that it is literally a question of the right of single individuals.

179

Marxists used to

argue that the right belongs to a 'class' of people. Others claim that it is a right enjoyed by a 'people'. A President of the United States even used those two terms as interchangeable when he stated, at the time of the Russian Revolution, that 'No people must be forced under sovereignty under which it does not wish to live.'

180

In recent days the problem of self-determination has attracted consider­ able attention by scholars and by statesmen. From a modest concern for the protection of minorities,

181

it is now claimed that certain liberation move­

ments, whether or not representing such minorities, should have the right of self-determination. There were early Resolutions on self-determination in the United Nations

182

culminating in 1960, at the beginning of the massive decolonisa­

tion phase, in Resolution 1514 (XV) on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. The Resolution was later supplemented 176

178

179

180

181

182

177

See my International Legal Order Ch. III. J. Lively. Democrat Oxford, 1980, 136. For criticism, see A. Cobban, Rousseau and the Modern State, 2nd edn, London, 1964, 47. Cf. Rameau, Contrat social et discourses, 1947, 12. D. Rowen, The Quest for Self-Determination, New Haven, 1979, 54-5. Message from President Woodrow Wilson on 16 May 1917 to Lenin, see S. B. Baker and W. E. Dodd, War and Peace, Presidential Messages, Addresses and Public Papers 1917-1924 of Woodrow Wilson, New York, 1927, i, 50. See Capotorti, in UN E/CN.4. Sub.2, 384 and Adds. 1-7. GA Res. 421 D (V), 1950; 545 (VI) 1952; 637 A (VII) 1952.

30

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

with a supervisory mechanism to e n s u r e

183

implementation.

184

Numerous

specific resolutions emphasised the importance of the right of self-determi­ nation in specific territories.

185

O n the other hand, there was little en­

couraging support for the aspirations of non-Third World countries to attain independence, and efforts by the Ukraine, Kazakhstan and other constituent republics of the USSR, and those of Slovenia and Croatia, part of Yugoslavia, were largely i g n o r e d .

186

The General Assembly Resolution on Friendly Relations and Cooper­ ation of States in 1 9 7 0

187

specified the modes of implementing the right of

self-determination, inter alia, to establish a sovereign and independent State, associate or integrate with another, or to merge into 'any other political status freely determined by a people' with a corresponding duty of States to 'refrain from any forcible action' which would deprive peoples of such a right. But the Resolution contains a caveat that it must not be construed to authorise or encourage any action which would dismember or impair the territorial integrity, or political unity, of a sovereign State if that State has complied with the principle of equal rights and and if that State has a government

self-determination

representing the whole people. The

Resolution thus states that the right of self-determination does not include 183

This implies, from the point of the theory of international institutions, an interesting control of the execution of a technically unbinding Resolution; but cf. the 'sanctioned recommendations' in EFTA: see my 'Aspects institutionnels de l'Association Européenne de Libre Echange', AFDI, 1960.

184

See Resolutions 1654 (XVI) 1961 on the creation of a Special Committee charged with special duties with regard to implementation; 1810 (XVII) 1962, on its membership; 1815,1817 (XVII) 1962 and 1970 (XVIII) 1963 on its functions; 35/118 1980 on a Plan of Action for Full Implementation; 36/52 and 37/82 on further implementation. For Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, see GA Res. 1747 (XVI) 1962; 2024 (XX) 1965;2151 (XXI) 1966; 2262 (XXII) 1967; 2383 (XXIII) 1968; 2505 (XXIV) 1969; 2652 (XXV) 1970; 2769 (XXVI) 1971; 2945 and 2946 (XXVII) 1972; 3115 and 3116 (XXVIII) 1973; 3297 and 3298 (XXIX) 1974; 3396 and 3397 (XXX) 1975; 31/154 A and B 1976; 32/116 1977; 33/38 A and B 1978; 34/192; Cf. SC 216 and 217 1965; 221 and 232 1966; 253 1968; 277 and 288 1970; 314,318 and 320 1973; 388 1976, 403, 406, 409, 415 1977; 423, 437 1978; 445, 448 and 460 1979; and 463 1980. For Namibia, see GA Res. 65 (I) 1946; 2145 (XXI) 1966; 2248 S-V 1967; 31/147 1976; 34/92 A 1979; 35/227 1981; 30/121 C 1981; 37/233 C 1982; 37/233 C 1982 (continuing); cf. SC 245 and 246 1968; 264 and 269 1969; 276,283 and 284 1970; 301 1971; 309,310,319 and 332 1972; 342 1973; 366 1974; 385 1976; 431, 432, 435 and 439 1978; 447 1979; 475 1980 (continuing). For Palestine see GA Res. 2535 B (XXIV) 1969,2628 and 2672 (XXV) 1970 (on equal rights and self-determination), 2787 and 2792 (XXVI) 1971; 2963 (XXVII) 1972; 3236 and 3237 (XXIX) 1974; 3376 (XXX) 1975 on the establishment of a Committee on Self-determination, to 37/86 A 1982 (continu­ ing); cf. SC 446 1979. On East Timor see GA Res. 37/30 1982. On Western Sahara see G A Res. 34/37 1979 and 37/28 1982.

185

186

187

See below, in this Chapter, i c-d, ii a and d. Resolution 2625 (XXV). See further, my International Law and the Independent State, 2nd edn, London, 1987, 8ff.

31

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

any right of secession from a parent State which has safeguarded the rights of all and which has a democratically elected government. O n the one hand, that part of the Resolution has been largely discarded by many liberation movements which claim that the p a r a m o u n t objective of their work is precisely to establish their own State, in order to safeguard rights which they claim were never respected by the former parent State. On the other hand, the Resolution in all its parts was flagrantly violated in numerous conflicts, inter alia by Russia with regard to Chechnya and Dagestan, both oil-rich countries, and the Yugoslav federal government in Belgrade with regard to Slovenia and Croatia, which were refused per­ mission to secede in 1990. Even after independence and international recognition, military action has been taken against seceding countries, for example in East Timor in 1999, where there had been a democratic election monitored by the UN; but Indonesia and its 'integrist* sympathisers would not let go of East Timor. In Yugoslavia, it was the Federal Army, and some t

private units, the chetniks\ that in alliance with this army sought to reverse the independence of Slovenia and Croatia. These countries had the right under the Constitution to demand i n d e p e n d e n c e

188

but the government in

Belgrade - like the government in Moscow with regard to Byelorussia and the Ukraine - had little reason to think these countries would ever execute this right. The federal government, as well as the army and the diplomatic corps, were heavily controlled by Serbs; the government did not represent 'the whole people', and equal rights had not been secured, while there was little freedom of speech or assembly and, especially, n o freedom of relig­ ion.

189

It is clearly important to distinguish between movements which are hoping to establish their own State, or to join with another State than the one where they are present, and movements which seek to enhance the protection of the minorities which they represent. The liberation move­ ments aiming for their own new States must also be distinguished from movements like, for example, certain action groups in Brazil, which merely seek to improve their social conditions but which do not seek to secede from any State. It may be that a State which respects the social and equality needs of all its nationals, and which provides adequate safeguards for minorities, may prevent a movement, initially social in character, from developing into 188

189

See my International Legal Order, Ch. 1. Catholic teaching was forbidden in schools and universities in Croatia and Slovenia between 1946 and 1991.

32

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

a political force which may eventually cause the fragmentation of a State. For example, Belgium is seeking to accommodate internal needs to avoid splitting the State. Breaking off from a State is thus the last resort if political accommodation has failed.

190

Occasionally, it may be incorrect to put all

blame on what has been called 'ethnic tensions'. In Rwanda certain political observers noted that the internal conflict was partly due not so much to 'ethnic* rivalry as to political ambitions of would-be leaders.

191

The Resolution on Friendly Relations clarifies that an entity may not necessarily exercise its self-determination on its own by forming its own independent State b u t may wish to merge with another State. This implies also that an entity may prefer to stay with a parent country. For example, the United Kingdom argued in the Falklands War that the right of the Falklanders to stay under British rule was an expression of the principles of self-determination.

192

In other situations it has been found that the 'ties'

between one State and a certain people were not sufficiently strong to bring the rule of self-determination into application for the purpose of affiliating that people to that S t a t e .

193

The rule of self-determination has now been

said to be a 'strong' rule, ousting competing claims based on other legal ties with a p e o p l e .

194

But in other examples, especially in earlier practice, the

right of self-determination was denied, and, in spite of entrenched and undisputed ties with a State, a people could be denied the right to merge with that country. That this could happen and be endorsed by other States as well as by a world organisation, then the League of Nations, was amply illustrated in the Aland Island referendum.

195

However, there is now a

marked change of attitude. The rules of self-determination and democracy have been accorded such priority that they are often held to be more important than individual rights. It has been inserted as article 1 of the United Nations Covenants on H u m a n Rights of 1966.

196

Some claim that

the whole doctrine is the result of an ideological intrusion of a notion invented by or for the Third World and supported by the then Soviet Union.

197

But as has been shown above there is in practice ample evidence

that the bringing into focus of the notion of 'popular support' for a 1 9 0

191

192

193

195

1 9 7

See below, Ch. 3, C viii on accommodating internal needs as a war-preventing mechanism. See S. R. Feild, Preventing Genocide; How Early Use of Force might have succeeded in Rwanda, ed. by the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1998, 3. Cf. J. F. Murphy, The United Nations, 71. Western Sahara Case, ICJ, Advisory Opinion, Reports, 1975,68. Ibid. See my Independent State, 2nd edn, 183ff. 6 ILM 360; 6 ILM 368. A. Kohl, Der Menschenrechtskatalog der Volkerrechtgemeinschaft, 1968, 46. 194

1 9 6

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

33

government is the result of a long period of development, not least supported and encouraged by the United States, and it is this, m o r e than anything else, which is at the root of the rule of self-determination. Another implication of the rule of self-determination is, of course, that indigenous populations, separated from a colonial country by great distance, are allowed to obtain self-rule and independence. Most of the process of decolonisation, carried out on a grand scale through the 1960s, is now complete. But there are still some territories left of which European powers have not wished to rid themselves. French attitudes in this respect have occasionally been said to be incompatible with the rule of self-determination.

198

But on the other hand, it has been claimed that it is precisely

the exaggerated views expressed in the United Nations with regard to self-determination that have contributed to the growth of undesirable liberation w a r s .

199

Individuals may have n u m e r o u s rights and duties under international law. However, to join international society and be able to act as a unit vis-à-vis other States, conclude treaties with them and fully act as spokesman for its members, a liberation movement must establish itself as a State. The State-centric paradigm may have been briefly abandoned in certain international relations theory but, in practice, as international relations scholars soon realised, the State still remains a most important focus of imputation and a most important power structure. Even those who see States as mere 'clusters of systems and parts of systems within geographical areas controlled and integrated in some degree by politically created administrative s y s t e m s '

200

accept that new members

admitted to international society are units called States. But within those States self-determination must be granted to certain groups and units so that they, in turn, can become 'States'. Difficult problems of definition arise. W h a t is a people or a nation? Surely any fragmentation into m i n u t e units cannot be c o n d o n e d ?

201

How-

ever, it is possible to distinguish certain liberation movements which appear to represent a considerable part of the population in a State and which, according to now accepted ideas, then ought to have a right of 198

199

2 0 0

201

A. Oraison, 'Quelques reflexions critiques sur la concession française du droit des peuples à disposer d'eux-mêmes à la lumière du différend franco-comorien sur l'île de Mayotte', RBDI, 1983, 655ff. Cf. L. C. Green, 'The legitimation of terrorism' in Alexander, (éd.), Terrorism, 175ff. J. W. Burton, Systems, States, Diplomacy and Rules, 1968, 27. See my Independent State, 2nd edn, 17; cf. 13fT.

34

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

secession from the central g o v e r n m e n t .

202

Even if there is agreement as to

the required constituent hallmarks of a State it is also admitted that there are units in the contemporary system which lack some of these features and which are yet allowed very m u c h the same prerogatives of a State: there are liberation movements which have become so consolidated that they are accepted, by States and by international organisations, as full-scale partici­ pants in international society. They send 'representatives', if not ambassa­ dors;

203

they conclude agreements which are certainly akin to treaties; they

'adhere' to State treaties;

204

and they even wage war, traditionally the

monopoly of the State. There is a considerable problem of reconciling the modern attitude vis-a-vis aspiring nations and liberation movements and the rules of the reserved domain. Under traditional international law, especially as entren­ ched in article 2(7) of the United Nations Charter, no other State, and no international organisation may scrutinise what is happening inside a State except with the full consent of the territorial State. These attitudes are nowadays most vehemently p u t forward in the context of verification techniques where, naturally, States are most jealous of their territorial integrity. However, in other fields, there has certainly been some relaxation of this firm rule: there is virtually universal agreement that any maltreat­ m e n t of citizens is a matter in which other States and organisations may take legitimate interest and even stipulate a changed course of action, possibly sanctioned by severe economic m e a s u r e s .

205

For example, only a changed

view of the reserved domain, with regard to democracy and h u m a n rights, can explain how it was possible, and legitimate, to put pressure on Rho­ desia, a State by any of the traditional tests of international law, to change its minority rule policy or on South Africa to change its apartheid policy; or on certain Latin American States to restore 'democracy'. An example of the limits of State power within its own territory with regard to the treatment of citizens is the situation in Kosovo in the federal State of Yugoslavia in 1999 when the maltreatment of Kosovars, amounting to genocide, brought a punitive military action by N A T O . 2 0 2

2 0 3

2 0 6

206

See General Assembly Resolutions 637(VII) of 1952 on self-determination, 1514(XV) of 1960 on Independence of Colonial Countries and Peoples and 2625 (XXV) of 1970 on Friendly Relations and Cooperation Among States which states that a territory of a colony or other 'non-self governing territory' has, under the Charter a 'status separate and distinct from the territory administrating it'; cf. article 21 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights; article 1 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and on Civil and Political Rights. Cf. further, my Independent State, 2nd edn, 13ff. Below in this Chapter, D ii (3). Below, Ch. 6, B i d. See below, Ch. 12. See below in Ch. 2, B vii; cf. Ch. 12 on sanctions. 2 0 4

2 0 5

T H E C O N C E P T OF WAR

35

Self-determination is thus the main field of focus when it comes to assessing the 'démocratie' rights of peoples in other States, but, as has been shown, there are also other incidental rights, which one may only be able to describe as negative rights: such negative rights include the right not to be subjected to apartheid, not to be subjected to slavery, not be tortured and not to be raped. These rights are now lifted u p to the level of international rights, that is to a level of international and not merely of national concern, in all cases where such rights are violated on a systematic scale, and 207

especially if part of a military campaign.

The right to avoid genocide, even

in the absence of treaties, in war, as in peace, is even more entrenched in international law and is certainly no longer a matter for the territorial State alone. There is another aspect of the démocratisation of international society. Not only is there a firm trend to allow groups in other States to be granted their independence, and to seek the international protection of certain vulnerable groups even if those groups do not wish their independence. There is also a trend to allow more States from under-represented areas of the world into international society. It is thus normally admitted that the 'démocratisation of foreign policy' implies the admission into international society of more Third World States.

208

Démocratisation of international society thus means several different things. For example, it describes how international law, especially rules on democracy, h u m a n rights and humanitarian law operate inside States. Furthermore, the notion implies that the way a State organises its society is no longer a purely internal matter: the fundamental rights of individuals must, at all times, be respected. It also indicates that a government may n o longer be legitimate if it does not have popular support. The concept furthermore indicates that, within States, new units may have the right to split from the parent State if there is considerable popular support for a liberation movement. Finally, démocratisation of international society also 2 0 7

2 0 8

Those who claim that grave violations of human rights or humanitarian law include murder or kidnapping (as, for example, do C. and A. Enache-Brown in 'Universal crime; jurisdiction and duty: the duty of out dedere aut punire, NicGill Law Journal, October 1998, 632) may be going too far. International society will not be served by having the national jurisdiction duplicated by international competence which would result if murder, except for genocide, kidnapping and rape, unless systematically organised, are no longer the sole concern of individual States. The situation is different if such crimes form part of military strategy, for example, by special sexual exploitation of women captured under Japanese occupation in the Second World War, or rape camps such as those established by the Serbs in Bosnia in the 1990s. Such crimes come under international jurisdiction. J. W. Burton, International Relations, A General Theory, 1965, 109ff.

36

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

implies that States of the Third World should have more influence in international affairs than the traditional pattern has admitted and be the equals of older or more developed States. These aspects have never been systematically studied or analysed by international lawyers who tradition­ ally consider international law as a system only concerned with the relation­ ship between States and, possibly, international organisations.

209

In the context of this work on the Law of War the most relevant aspect of démocratisation of international society is the increased application of rules pertaining to this system inside States and to other units than States, and to 'States' in the making.

ii. T h e cross-effects of practices in different wars Because States have recently had to adapt to warfare by insurgents, freedom fighters and guerillas, they have adopted new methods themselves, and developed new weapons, which have been carried over into the realm of inter-State wars. There have already been many examples of this develop­ ment. O n e may note that it is not only the State involved in guerilla warfare that modifies its contingent arsenals for potential inter-State wars. In addition, other States have studied, observed and learnt from the strategy and adaptation of methods of more 'experienced' States and may have adopted similar modifications, often entailing the deterioration of the ethics of w a r .

210

The United States changed to completely new methods to combat the North Vietnamese guerillas who were m u c h helped by the nature of the local environment, the jungle. From the point of view of method, the United States resorted to a more flexible and more mobile style of warfare. It was decided to employ airborne troops: not parachutists as had been the practice during the Second World War, but helicopter airborne troops who could be landed and picked u p with the speed required by the new quick, mobile style of anti-guerilla warfare.

211

With regard to weapons the United States resorted to new types, many of questionable legality, such as n a p a l m , ating chemical. 2 0 9

2 . 0

2 . 1

2 1 2

2 , 3

2 M

212

gas

213

and Agent Orange, a defoli­

214

See On On See See See

above for criticism; see also my Concept, 2nd edn, 18ff. the concept, see below Ch. 5, C v. guerilla tactics, see below in this Chapter, D iv. below Ch. 7, A ii f on the legality of incendiary weapons. below Ch. 7, D on the legality of biological weapons. below, Ch. 7, E on the legality of environmental weapons.

T H E C O N C E P T OF WAR

37

In the Iran-Iraq War, an inter-State war, there were persistent reports of the use of g a s .

215

Such weapons were used in the First World War but not in

the Second World War - at least there was n o evidence of such practices. It may perhaps be assumed that recent warfare, in certain internal wars, has lowered the standard of ethics with regard to the use of biological and chemical w e a p o n s .

216

Chemical and biological weapons appear to have

been used in the Gulf W a r

2 1 7

while in various attacks in the 1990s, the

Yugoslav Army used plastic l a n d m i n e s

218

which cannot be detected by

conventional means. Conversely, the adoption of new or outlawed weapons by States in their inter-State disputes carries with it a danger that the use of such weapons may be carried over - and back - into the realm of internal conflicts, especially if it can be argued that non-States are not b o u n d by prohibition treaties concluded by States.

219

Guerillas are also often obliged to resort to

primitive weapons and methods, many of which are c r u e l ,

220

because of

their lack of access to more 'sophisticated' weapons. As a result, counterguerilla tactics, sometimes using similar means, have been developed. Apart from such cross-over effects in the use of weapons and methods, there is also a fundamental connection between inter-State and internal war. It may be argued that the whole situation of inter-State war will encourage a spiral of internal wars by their very existence and their impact and by the production of tensions inside States.

221

O n the other hand,

internal war situations may, in turn, increase the likelihood of international war.

222

What is of paramount importance, and what is becoming increasingly recognised during the last decade, is that similar rules of law apply both in international and in internal w a r s :

223

a State can thus n o longer hide behind

the concept of the 'reserved d o m a i n ' as the meaning and implications of article 2(7) which provides for such exclusive competence in a State's own territory has undergone drastic modifications during the last half c e n t u r y .

224

On the other hand, an aspiring 'nation', 'liberation movement' or a group 2 1 5

See Report by the Secretary General of a Mission, S/1985, 19 February 1985.

2 1 6

See below Ch. 7, D on these weapons and recent prohibitions by treaty. See below, Ch. 7. See below, Ch. 7. See below Ch. 6, B i on that argument. Below, in this Chapter, D iv. For example, the external wars of Russia contributed to the October Revolution in 1917; cf. J. N. Rosenau, International Aspects of Civil Strife, Princeton, 1964, 49-50. Cf. L. B. Miller, World Order and Local Disorder, The United Nations and Internal Conflict, Princeton 1967, 35 on internal disputes caused by Cold War tension. Cf. R. Rosecrance, International Relations: Peace or War, New York, 1973, 1964, 11. Cf. David, Conflits armes, 555. See further below in Ch. 5, C v.

2 , 7

2 2 0

221

2 2 2

2 2 3

2 , B

2 , 9

2 2 4

GENERAL

38

PRINCIPLES

engaged in ethnic warfare, cannot claim to be exempt from the rules on belligerence: all are b o u n d by the Law of War.

D. Types of war i. Geographical wars Wars can be classified according to their geographical ambit and they thus fall into two broad groups: inter-State wars and civil wars; and other wars which are 'internal' to a State.

a. Inter-State

wars

The traditional inter-State war is the war par excellence, and is governed by a wealth of refined detailed rules that only history can provide in an area where violence has so often rewarded State interests. There is a vast literature on traditional inter-state war and on classical warfare.

225

But in the contemporary world such wars are but one, and

perhaps no longer the most c o m m o n , type of war. Yet, as the State remains the main war-waging m a c h i n e

226

the characteristics of inter-State wars are

important. It may be sufficient here, in an area of prolific writings in international law and politics, to mention but a few areas where inter-State war has changed. The main changes in inter-State war concern new tactics and strategies adopted initially to combat guerillas,

227

practices which are likely to be

adopted in inter-State wars. Another recent change in inter-State warfare concerns the potential use of indiscriminate w e a p o n s , by definition, attacks on illegitimate t a r g e t s

229

228

involving, almost

and other swift or compre­

hensive types of attack, eliminating the earlier distinction between the theatre or region of war and areas outside the battle z o n e .

230

The pattern of other wars has not always followed the strategies and idiosyncrasies of State war, which sometimes itself has had to renew its methods because of development in modern w e a p o n s to tactics deployed by guerillas. 2 2 5

2 2 6

2 2 7

2 2 8

2 3 2

232

231

and in response

Conversely, aspiring nations may be

For some of these works, see above, in this Chapter, under B on the definition of war. Above, in this Chapter, B iii a and below Ch. 4, C ii (2) (iv). Above on cross-effects of practices in different wars and below, in this Chapter, D iv, on guerilla warfare. Below, Ch. 5, C v. Below, Ch. 8 . Below, Ch. 8, A. Below, Ch. 6, A ii. Below in this Chapter, D iv. 2 2 9

2 3 0

231

THE C O N C E P T OF WAR

39

deprived of weapons for economic reasons or by international em­ bargo.

233

b. Civil war The traditional notion of a war as only an inter-State conflict is no longer prevalent. Nowadays, wars frequently occur 'within the national layer of society, with or without external participation'.

234

This is said as if civil war

was something new. It may be that there has been a period of relatively few such wars but the development must be seen in the accurate historical light. It was because there were so many civil wars, or perhaps one

bellum

omnium contra omnes in the Middle Ages that the rise of the nation State in y

the 16th and 17th centuries came about, precisely to put an end to such strife.

235

Thus, the very reason for the State, which is now seeing its

monopoly of war-waging encroached u p o n by civil wars (and other inter­ nal w a r s ) ,

236

was the extent of civil unrest and civil disturbances of clear

warlike dimensions earlier in history. It is in this historical context that we must see modern internal wars. It is not sufficient to dismiss the Staatsraison as 'pathological'.

237

One

may as well, for the sense of equality, dismiss 'guerilla raison' as equally 'pathological'. For it is the guerillas who, when their demands for selfdetermination or other rights are not met, resort to arms against the State and the State then takes violent counter-measures to suppress them where­ upon a full-scale war often ensues. The 'fault' often lies with the State for not having given some leeway to the demands of the internal movements. But the violence nearly always starts on the side of the insurgents. For the more traditional category of internal war, usually termed 'civil war', specific rules developed once such wars started again within the 2 3 3

2 3 4

2 3 5

2 3 6

See below, Ch. 1 2 , C i b . G. Modelsky, Principles of World Politics, New York, 1972, 304. G. Weill, Théories sur le pouvoir royal en France pendant les guerres de religion, Paris, 1892; F. Meinecke, Die Idée der Staatsraison in der Geschichte, 4th edn, Berlin, 1957; C. J. Friedrich, Constitutional Reason of State, Providence, R.I., 1957; G. Botero, Delia raggione di stato, Turin, 1948; A. J. M. Cornelissen, De strijd om de moderne staatsidée, Nijmwegen, 1946; G. Müller, 'Zur Grundlegung von der Lehre von der Staatsallmacht in der politischen Theorie des 17. Jahrhun­ derts', in Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, GWU, 3, 1952; H. J. Laski, The Foundation of Sovereignty and Other Essays, New York, 1921; B. de Jouvenel, De la souverainté, Paris, 1955; F. A. v. d. Heydte, Die Geburtsstunde des souveränen Staates, Frankfurt, 1952; K. Kraus, 'Die absolute Monarchie und die Grundlegung des modernen Staates' in Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, GWU, 8, 1957. On earlier 'private wars' or Faustrecht see E. Nys, Le droit de la guerre et les précurseurs de Grotius, Brussels, 1882 54ff. Below, Ch. 4, C. E. KrippendorfT, Staat und Krieg, Frankfurt, 1985, 16ff. 2 3 7

40

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

consolidated nation-State. In these wars citizens of one State become belligerents against their own State. Because of the limited geographical scope of civil wars, and often because of their limited impact, such wars 1

have been called Kleinkriege

y

i.e. 'small wars', in G e r m a n .

238

By tradition,

the status of insurgents has been subjected to a n u m b e r of formal rules, for example the rules on recognition.

240

239

Thus, it has been claimed, even in

m o d e r n textbooks, that the legal situation changes fundamentally once insurgents have been recognised. For example, There is no d o u b t that a foreign State commits an international delinquency by assisting insurgents in spite of being at peace with the legitimate Government. But matters are different after recognition. The insurgents are then a Belligerent Power and the civil war is then a real war. Foreign States can either b e c o m e a party to the war or remain n e u t r a l . . .

241

Thus, insurgency can be distinguished, it is said, from belligerency.

242

According to classical theory and practice, the Law of War can only apply once a State has, by its discretionary decision, recognised the insurgents as belligerents. Only then would the Law of War, or whatever part thereof the State considered appropriate, become applicable to the situation.

243

Explicit declarations were rare, one of the few examples being the declaration of the American Congress of 4 July 1861 that a State of war existed between the Union and eleven Southern States.

244

The Nigerian

Government's Declaration of war against Biafra on 12 August 1967 is another e x a m p l e .

245

Perhaps also the declarations of blockade by Madrid in

July 1936 of Spanish Morocco and the Canary Islands can be counted in this category but there are diverging views on the effect of this declaration. 2 3 8

2 3 9

2 4 0

241

2 4 2

2 4 3

246

Cf. below in this Chapter, under D iv on the meaning of'guerilla'. On the historical aspects, see R. R. Oglesby, Internal War and the Search for Normative Order, The Hague, 1971. See, H. Lauterpacht, Recognition in International Law, Cambridge, 1948, 270. 2 Oppenheim 660. See below, Ch. 2, on assistance to the legitimate government and on assistance to rebels. E.g. W. W. Wilson, 'Recognition of insurgency and belligerency', AJIL, 1937 (ASIL) 136. E. Castrén, Civil War, Helsinki, 1966, 135, 139. Cf. F. Castberg, 'Folkerettslige spörsmal omkring den spanske borgerkrig, Nord TIR, 1938, 162: there was only a 'rebellion' against the lawful government, ibid., 165; recognition of the 'government' of the insurgents would even violate international law, ibid., 165.

2 4 4

24

Cf. C. Zorgbibe, 'De la théorie classique de la reconnaissance de belligerence à l'article 3 des Conventions de Genève', in Centre Henri Rolin (ed.), Droif humanitaire et conflits armés, Brussels, 1970, 84. * Ibid. Cf. ibid., 325. 24ft

41

T H E C O N C E P T OF WAR

There can also be other forms of implicit recognition of insurgents. Third States can also explicitly

248

or by i m p l i c a t i o n

249

247

recognise insurgents

in civil war as belligerents. Such implicit recognition may have been given by NATO to the Kosovo Liberation Army, the KLA, during

Operation

Allied Force, an action taken in 1999 against Yugoslavia, a State of which Kosovo is a province. The KLA would thus seem to have been 'recognised' as a belligerent by NATO, without supporting any quest the KLA may have had for independence of Kosovo. If such recognition, explicit or implicit, were effective, the Law of War in its entirety would become applicable. Indeed, some claim that the whole dispute automatically becomes 'international' and therefore the laws of war become operative.

250

This is particularly evident, it is claimed, as article

2(3) of the 1949 Geneva Conventions provides for the applicability of the Conventions to non-parties; this did not, some claimed, necessarily mean third States, but would also cover recognised belligerents in civil w a r .

251

Others argue that only c o m m o n article 3 becomes operative in civil w a r .

252

Many cling to the exclusive State paradigm, asserting that even 'recognised insurgents' are no subjects of international law: only States, they say, can have that quality.

253

But it must be admitted that recognised belliger-

ents, for example, in the Spanish Civil War, necessarily had some rights and duties under international l a w .

254

In earlier days, recognition was a traditional requirement for the application of the Law of War in a civil war. Recognition thus had constitutive effects for entities which were not States, and which even after recognition were not States. Of course, recognition of belligerence must be distin2 4 7

R. J. Wilhelm, 'Problèmes relatifs à la protection de la personne humain par le droit international dans des conflits internes ne présentant pas un caractère international', 137 RCADI1972, iii, 330; Castrén, Civil War, 86, 153.

2 4 8

See, for example, recognition by the United Kingdom of the belligerency of the American Confederate States in 1861,51 BFSP 165; for recognition by United Kingdom, France, Italy and the United States of the belligerency of Czechoslovaks, see A. Hobza, 'Questions de droit international concernant les religions', 29 RCADI 1922, iv, 387. See, for example, recognition by conduct by the United Kingdom in the Spanish Civil War in H. A. Smith, 'The problems of the Spanish Civil War', 18 BYIL, 1937, 22fT. 2 Oppenheim 370-l. Ibid., 371. This would only imply the application of some basic rules. On the meaning and ambit of common article 3, see below, Ch. 6, B e and Ch. 12, C ii b ( 1 ). See CICR, Rapport d'une commission d'experts, (Rapport Pinto) 1962. For criticism of the traditional theory of subjects, see my International Legal Order, Ch. 1, and my Concept, 2nd edn, passim. Most other authors admit only States, and, after the Reparation for Injuries Case, ICJ, Reports, 1949, international organisations, as subjects of international law, i.e. as bearers of direct international rights and duties. Cf. Zorgbibe, 'De la théorie', 93, 86.

2 4 9

2 5 0

2 5 2

2 5 3

2 5 4

2 5 1

42

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

guished from recognition of statehood or g o v e r n m e n t .

255

Adherence by the

insurgents to the Geneva Conventions or to other parts of the laws of war did not either imply that they had become, or were on the way to becoming, States.

256

O n the other hand, recognition of insurgents by other States had a

retroactive effect insofar as acts taken within their own territory were concerned. N u m e r o u s cases after the Russian Revolution authorised, as it were, ex post facto, acts taken by the Revolutionary Government, from a date before other States had given actual recognition. Courts in these countries treated transactions as having certain legal effect in the light of such retroactivity.

257

The constitutive effects could be abolished, retroac-

tively even, in case the insurgents did not succeed in their task.

258

For example, the Nigerian Government recognised Biafra as a belligerent

259

but since Biafra eventually lost its fight for self-determination, the

constitutive elements of recognition were abrogated retroactively, or by an alternative analysis, the constitutive elements only operated for a limited function, that of belligerency. A requirement of recognition means that the legal personality of insurgents fluctuates during the dispute, contrary to an international dispute where the two parties in fact and in law remain the s a m e .

260

Some distinguish between recognition of belligerency and recognition of insurgency. If hostilities inside a State reach such proportions that circumstances cannot be regarded as 'mere' insurgency, the relationship between the parties to a dispute becomes like that between two disputing States.

261

In other words, recognition of belligerency 'internationalises' the dispute.

262

The consolidation of insurgents into 'belligerents' seems a reason-

able criterion for the entry into application of the laws of w a r ,

263

but what

was not clear was how there could be such a marked difference between the position of recognised insurgents and unrecognised insurgents when there 2 5 5

2 5 7

2 5 8

2 5 9

2 6 0

2 6 1

2 5 6

2 Oppenheim 212 n.2 . See below Ch. 6, B e. But retroactive effects would only be allowed for acts of the recognised entity in its own territory: Lehigh Valley Railway Com. v. Russia, (1927) 21 F 2d 396. But monies collected for an unsuccessful revolutionary government do not necessarily devolve on a subsequent de jure government: Irish Free State et al. v. Guaranty Safe Deposit Co. et al. (1927), 222 NYS 182. On the question of which constitutes a de jure or a de facto Government is a question for the Courts: Lehigh Valley Railway Com. v. Russia (1927), 21 F 2d 396. See above. J. Siotis, Le droit de la guerre et les conflits armés d'un caractère non-international, Paris, 1958,23: 'la personnalité juridique du partie insurge change constemment à partir du moment où son existence est consacrée par le droit positif, tandis que celle des deux parties dans un conflit international reste toujours le même'. McNair, Legal Effects, 32-3. 2 Oppenheim 370 n. 1 . See below Ch. 4, B. 2 6 2

2 6 3

T H E C O N C E P T OF WAR

43

was no duty to recognise them. Recognition was often withheld, not least as it was often interpreted as a 'sign of weakness* indicating that the govern­ ment was inclined to give way to the claims by the insurgents; recognition was thus seen as the first 'concession' to insurgents of perhaps many to come.

264

It was long claimed that recognition of belligerency was indispensable for the application of the Law of War and that recognition of insurgents was essential for the application even of m i n i m u m humanitarian r u l e s .

265

The act of recognition places insurgents in a category distinct from other rebels and is a theory for long defended by m a n y .

266

But Courts have not

been too concerned with whether insurgents have been recognised or not when dealing with disputes between individuals. Even if no recognition of belligerency has come forth by the parent State or by other States, Courts may apply rules and regulations of insurgent governments insofar as they are 'just and equitable' and if the 'morality of the proceedings s a t i s f i e s . . . a Court of Equity'.

267

These ideas on recognition of belligerents have now been abandoned. Nowadays, it appears that n u m e r o u s rules of the Law of War enter into effect automatically once there is a civil war, or indeed other form of internal conflict, of the relevant type and scale. It shall be investigated later whether the threshold of intensity required for such upgrading from dispute to war can be identified and to what extent the Law of W a r becomes applicable in such internal situations. Some writers still consider civil war as being m o r e comprehensive or more intense than other internal conflicts.

268

But 'civil war' is not a term of

art. It could possibly be defined as the traditional type of conflict when insurgents have been 'recognised' as belligerents.

269

W h a t purpose does

such a definition serve when such recognition rarely is forthcoming in modern practice? The term 'civil war' is even thought to reflect occurrences in the past, above all referring to the Spanish Civil W a r or the American 2 6 4

2 6 5

2 6 6

267

2 6 9

M. Greenspan, The Modern Law of Land Warfare, London, 1959, 19. McNair, Legal Effects, 32-3 on application of article 3 of the Geneva Conventions and below, Ch. 8, A. Castren, Civil War, 135. Cf. A. Rosas, The Legal Status of Prisoners of War, Helsinki, 1976,244. But contra, see Chen, Ti-Chiang, The International Law of Recognition, 1951, 303; A. Ross, Laerebog i folkeret, 4th edn, Copenhagen, 1961, 141; F. Seyersted, United Forces in the Law of Peace and War, Oslo, 1966; H. Blix, 'Contemporary aspects of recognition', 130 RCADI1970, ii, 615. Fred S. James & Co v. Rossia Ins. Co. of America, (1928) 160 N.E. 364. See above.

2 6 8

E.g. 1 Hyde 253.

GENERAL

44

PRINCIPLES

Civil War. The term was used in the Nigerian-Biafran conflict but it is rarely used today. Instead, 'internal conflicts' and 'liberation wars' have been given more prominence. But it may be underlined in this context that, conceptually, 'internal armed conflicts' and 'internal war' include, for the purposes of this work, also the 'traditional' type of civil war. Internal war is thus a wider term. O n the other hand, most reverted in the 1990s to the term 'civil' war and thus speak of the 'civil war' in Rwanda and other war-torn countries. Sometimes the terminology is altered for jurisdictional convenience.

270

In other cases a State has sought to create the impression of

a civil war to disguise the effects of unilateral oppression: this was done in East Timor in 1999 by Indonesian sympathisers who used 'scorched earth' tactics to create a scenario of a two-sided civil w a r .

271

The expression 'civil war' still conveys a need for the elaborate rules on recognition, on clear consolidation and other characteristics that are not always present in modern conflicts. However, there are few examples of civil wars with explicit recognition of belligerency along the traditional lines.

c. Internal

war

From the end of the Second World War until the late 1980s, it was c o m m o n to speak of 'internal war' rather than 'civil war' when referring to armed conflicts, all of them in the Third World. As mentioned above, many have lately reverted to the earlier terminology. Some commentators claimed in the 1980s that the rules of war do not apply in modern internal unrecognised conflicts.

272

It seemed to follow

from the assertion that only States are b o u n d by international law and that, therefore, n o one is b o u n d by the Law of War in internal conflict. If no one is b o u n d , it was claimed, there cannot be any violations in internal war. This seems, indeed, to be a spurious argument. It is important to examine this claim as the most serious violations of the Law of War are often committed in internal, not in international, wars. There are also a large 2 7 0

See the arguments of Yugoslavia before the ICJ in the Case Concerning the Application of the Genocide Convention, Preliminary Objections, (1993), ICJ, Reports, 1993, 23, that the war in Bosnia was a 'civil war' which excluded the existence of a legal 'dispute between States ; the existence of such a 'dispute between States' was a condition for the jurisdictional competence of the Court under its Statute. The Times, 17 September 1999. On scorched earth tactics see below, Ch. 8. Siotis, Le droit de la guerre, 13. 1

271

2 7 2

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

45

number of these internal wars, many of them affecting the Third World: of 147 armed conflicts after the Second World War over ninety involved developing countries.

273

The parties to armed conflicts since 1945 in intra-State situations n u m b ­ ered at least 120 in the period from 1945 to 1976, been well over 150 such conflicts.

275

274

and by 1985 there had

After the fall of c o m m u n i s m , war came

to Europe and flared up in the Third World. An important and trouble­ some war was the internal war in Russia in Chechnya and, even m o r e complex in its ramifications, the war in Kosovo in Yugoslavia.

276

One new type of entity which appears to be able to wage war is the unrecognised but organised liberation movement or

freedom-fighting

group. The terms given to these groups vary and are not uninfluenced by political attitudes; by their own side they are likely to be called freedom fighters whereas the enemy side may be more inclined to refer to them as rebels, insurgents or terrorists.

277

The right of these bodies to be belligerents

is evidenced in contemporary political reality. The present practice is in sharp contrast with the o u t m o d e d techniques for civil war and, in spite of earlier insistence on recognition of belligerency,

278

this now appears as

obsolete formality. Many observers claimed the Korean War was internal. So it appeared to the then Soviet Union as there was only one legitimate g o v e r n m e n t .

279

Whatever may be said about the legality of the international enforcement action, or its nature as a UN a c t i o n ,

280

it would seem clear that the Korean

conflict implied a war and a war of some dimension. The Vietnam War was for long also held to be 'internal'.

281

W e may either,

like the Korean War, call it an internal major war with outside participation or an international war fought within the territory of one particular S t a t e . 2 n

2 7 4

2 7 5

2 7 6

2 7 7

2 7 9

281

2 8 2

282

Lugano Report, 39. J. Kunde, Peace Research, 1978, reprinted in A. Eide and M. Thee, Problems of Contemporary Militarism, New York, 1980, 261. Study of Secretary General on Conventional Disarmament, A/39/348, 1985. For a study of certain rebellions, see D. E. H. Russell, Rebellion, Revolution and Armed Force, London, 2974. For United Nations attitudes to and actions in internal conflicts, see O. Schachter, T h e United Nations and Internal Conflict' in J. N. Moore, (ed.), Law and Civil War in the Modern World, Baltimore and London, 422fT. See below, Ch. 2, A iii, B viii and Ch. 4, A. Cf. above in this Chapter, B iii c, and below, Ch. 4, C ii iv. See above. Siotis, Le droit de la guerre, 29. Cf. also above. See below Ch. 2, B vi. See further below and cf. above, in this Chapter. At least before the division of the country. On international and internal wars see above under D. 2 7 8

2 8 0

46

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

But it becomes artificial and constrained to view such major outbreaks as the Korean and Vietnam wars as 'internal' war, however modified. In many cases courts did not hesitate to name these disputes ' w a r s ' .

283

There were considerable efforts to call the war in Slovenia and Croatia 'internal'. Initially, the war was certainly ' i n t e r n a l '

284

but once Slovenia and

Croatia had established themselves as independent units, and certainly from the date of their declaration of independence, of recognition

286

285

and/or from the date

by a n u m b e r of other States, the war was 'international',

or 'internationalised'.

d. Internationalised

war

But the traditional distinction between inter-State wars and civil or internal wars no longer suffices. Some internal wars will 'count' as international wars; they are so to speak 'internationalised' internal wars, a heavy but realistic expression. The question arises whether internal war in a State should be qualified as 'international' in case there is outside support from other States. If such support is given the conflict will inevitably intensify and there will be international repercussions. It is well known that the Spanish Civil War would not have escalated to its actual level unless Italian legionaries and the German C o n d o r division had assisted Franco, and numerous volunteers had come to the assistance of the government. Some claim, that because of this outside involvement, the Spanish Civil War, and also the revolt in East Pakistan where India gave military support to the rebels, were 'international w a r s ' .

287

The United States funded openly,

but by what was termed 'covert aid', guerillas in Afghanistan and 'contras' in Nicaragua.

288

Writers have sought to establish criteria which will assist in the identifi­ cation of an 'international' as opposed to a 'non-international dispute'.

Above, in this Chapter, B ii and below, Ch. 10, C iii (2). See above in the previous section. 20 June 1991. Note that the EU took the extraordinary step of requesting Slovenia and Croatia to delay their independence by six months, a request unparalleled in diplomatic history. The European Union and a number of countries recognised Slovenia and Croatia on 20 January 1992. Sweden and the Vatican were among the first States to recognise these two States. T. WulfT, Handbok ifolkratt under krig, neutralitet och ockupation Stockholm, 1980, 74-5. Below, in this Chapter, D ii (3). y

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

47

For example, it has been suggested that assistance given by another State to


the government side would internationalise a conflict.

289

Others suggest

that any substantial assistance to either side internationalises an armed conflict.

290

And some even visualise different sets of rules applying as

between the government and the insurgents and between an intervening State and the insurgents; only the latter relationship would bring in international law.

291

The question is complicated by the fact that most apparently 'internal' wars do, in fact, receive some kind of outside support. Insurgents usually need some outside support to obtain weapons and a m m u n i t i o n . The question then arises whether a distinction should be made between outside military support and outside financial support, or indeed, political encouragement. There will always be considerable difficulty in proving what support has been given by outside sources. It may be that certain types of conflict, defined by a teleological criterion, i.e. what, in this work, is called p r o g r a m m a t i c ,

292

are to be considered as

'international'. This is what has been done according to a statement by the General Assembly in the case of'liberation w a r s ' .

293

Even if these types are

now largely historical there will be others that will be 'internationalised' because of outside s u p p o r t .

294

Which conflicts will cease to be internal and

merit being described as 'internationalised' does not merely depend o n any geographical implications. It is rather a question of the intensity and degree of outside participation and the ensuing spread of the causes and effects of the war. The question may also be asked with regard to what type of intervention will entail such 'internationalisation' but this question is impossible to answer a priori. As often in international relations there is a question of scaling measures into differentiated types of acts, and these types can then be used for different situations. In other words, various types of intervention can engender consequences which render an internal war 'international'. 2 8 9

2 9 0

291

2 9 2

2 9 4

Zorgbibe, 'De la théorie', 50; cf. E. Suy, in Centre Henri Rolin, Droit humanitaire et conflits armés, 53. Cf. Wilhelm, 'Problèmes relatifs à la protection de la personne humaine', 358. E.g., Centre Henri Rolin, S. McBride, in Droit humanitaire et conflits armés, 49; T. Farer, 'The humanitarian laws of war in civil strife towards a definition of "international armed conflict'", in ibid., 53. The NATO action against Yugoslavia with regard to Kosovo in 1999 certainly 'internationalised' the conflict. H. Meyrowitz, 'Le droit de la guerre dans le conflit vietnamien', AFDI, 1967, 156. See further below, in this Chapter, D ii. GA Res. 3103 (XXIII) 1973. On the effect of assistance, see below Ch. 2, A iii e. 2 9 3

4

8

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

The two sides to a conflict may have different views on whether or not the conflict is international. The views of outside observers (or supporters and objectors) may differ as well, as, for example, in the Korean War when the Soviet Union claimed there was an internal war as there was only one legitimate government, and the Western powers took a different line.

295

O n e involved government side may even have two different attitudes with regard to the conflict, depending on whether they focus their attention on outside support or on the nationality of the rebels. For example, in the Yemen conflict of 1962-1970 the royalists considered the conflict interna­ tional in relation to Egyptian forces and internal vis-a-vis the rebels.

296

A State may insist that a conflict is 'internal' in order to benefit from the protection under article 2(7) of the Charter that the affair falls within the reserved d o m a i n .

297

It may even be that other States, or organisations, take

this view to encourage countries to stay within an established federation structure: recent examples of internationalised war are the wars in Slovenia and Croatia. As mentioned earlier, after declarations of independence and/or after recognition, these wars were 'internationalised'.

298

Some voi­

ces claimed that the problem was 'internal' and should be dealt with by the federal government in Belgrade.

299

A specific reason for such statements

was sometimes that such an attitude would enable a (forced) reunification of the 'secessionist' republics. The war was therefore often tendentiously described by commentators as 'between factions' or 'between ethnic groups' to minimise the character of gradually established States. United Kingdom and France did not at first, when the troubles started in 1990, wish to incur c o m m i t m e n t s to maintain States which did not appear viable. The gradual realisation of the brutality of the Belgrade regime combined with the determined m o o d of the citizens of Slovenia and Croatia enabled these countries to secede from Yugoslavia in 1991. International society recognised the importance of the will of citizens in a democratic world and it was this factor that was particularly relevant to attain independence and, in turn, to classify the wars as 'international' wars. A war can thus be, at its inception, 'internal', for example when a constituent republic or a province is dissatisfied with the way a central 2 9 5

2 9 6

Cf. Siotis, Le droit de la guerre, 29. But the forces in the Korean war were probably 'collective' units of the participating States rather than UN forces, see my Law Making by International Organisations, Stockholm, 1965, 60-1. K. Boals, 'The relation of international law to the internal war in Yemen', in R. A. Falk, (ed.) The International Law of Civil War, Baltimore, 1971, 306. See above in this Chapter, C i. Cf. above, D a-c. On the embargo imposed see Ch. 12, C i b. 2 9 7

2 9 8

2 9 9

T H E C O N C E P T OF WAR

49

government is handling its affairs or, indeed, the way the government treats its citizens in a specific province. This was the situation in Kosovo which was stripped of its modest a u t o n o m y in 1989. During the 1990s the Belgrade government so seriously violated its obligations under interna­ tional law that one could speak of the 'genocide' of the ethnic Albanians who formed more than 80 per cent of the population in Kosovo. It was then that NATO intervened war,

301

300

to turn this conflict into an 'internationalised'

although this war still concerned an internal situation and Kosovo

remained within the Yugoslav federation.

302

It is difficult to lay down objective criteria to distinguish international wars and internal wars and it must be undesirable to have discriminatory regulation of rules of the Law of War for the two types of conflict.

ii. P r o g r a m m a t i c wars Wars can also be classified according to a teleological criterion, i.e. accord­ ing to the purpose of the war. Such a criterion is not always congruent with the geographical extension of a war. Thus, one type of war for a 'purpose', or 'programmatic' war is the liberation war. Some such wars of national liberation may be internal and perhaps this is most often the case. But sometimes liberation wars are not so localised, as for example the wars in which the Palestine Liberation Front (PLO) has been involved. It is not internal to any one State and has little but the broad basis of its p r o g r a m m e in c o m m o n with other liberation movements. Thus, the geographical classification of wars tells us little about their scope except in a purely territorial way. A 'civil' or 'internal' war may or may not be a liberation war. It certainly has a 'purpose' or it would not be waged; but one does not know, even by presumption, what that purpose may b e .

303

But programmatic wars indicate the purpose for which they are

waged. Another important observation must be made. Inter-State wars might occasionally have been programmatic in the days when aggressive 10

11

12

L1

Action commenced on 25 March 1999. On intervention, see below in Ch. 2, A iii. See below in the next section. This situation shows that genocide, torture and other gross violations of Human Rights are not protected by the 'reserved domain' under UN Charter article 2(7). See further on this point, my International Legal Order, 2nd edn, 396ff. But note R. Higham, (ed.), Civil Wars in the Twentieth Century, Lexington, 1972, who in his introduction claims that civil wars are 'the work of right-wing reactionaries', thus imputing, without much foundation, a programmatic nature to civil wars.

50

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

war was permitted. Many suffer from an obsession that this is still the case although they express themselves in a rather more cumbersome way by explaining war as 'a continuation of foreign policy by other means'. This phrase they have borrowed from Clausewitz,

304

who no doubt was justified

in referring to such wars in the days when military force of States was unrestrained. But the point is that such wars are extremely rare among States in m o d e r n times, and perhaps even earlier, as war often results from a host of different factors

305

which, by coincidental juxtaposition and

timing, favour the outbreak of war. Yet, some insist that inter-State war results from ' r a t i o n a l '

306

or even ' c o l d '

307

decisions.

The only programmatic type of war today is likely to be the non-State war. The non-State groups may not have a 'foreign policy', in its traditional form, to extend into war. But this is nevertheless what seems to happen: it is the guerillas and rebels who fight for a ' c a u s e '

308

and who are motivated to

attain it. These groups are perhaps too small to fall victim to 'accidental' wars, the wars into which States have drifted in the past by being overwhel­ med by the complexity of predisposing coincidental. The wars waged by insurgents and guerillas do appear as programmatic in the sense described and, because they lack the coherence to have a foreign policy like States, it may be useful to adopt a new adjective to denote the specific type of certain of these wars. a. Liberation

wars

(1) General characteristics Liberation wars have, by a gradual development in international society, come to constitute a category distinct from civil war and other internal conflict. There has been a series of Resolutions in the General Assembly of the United Nations on the legal character of liberation wars stating that national liberation wars, for the 'struggle against colonial and alien domi­ nation, and against racist regimes, 304

3 0 5

3 0 6

3 0 7

3 0 8

3 0 9

309

are 'to be regarded as international

VomKriege, 605. Cf. M. Howard, 'Reflections on the First World War', in M. Howard, (ed.), Studies in War and Peace, London, 1970, 109. J. Bernard, 'The sociological study of conflict', in J. Bernard, I.H. Pear and R. Aron, (eds.), The Nature of Conflict: Studies of the Sociological Aspects of International Tensions, Paris, 1957, 40. R. E. Osgood and R. W. Tucker, Force, Order and Justice, Baltimore, 1967, 9. See above in this Chapter, under A. See the wording e.g. in article 1(4) in Protocol I of 1977 and below Ch. 6 B e. Such criteria are probably not cumulative.

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

51

armed conflicts in the sense of the 1949 Geneva C o n v e n t i o n s ' .

310

Some

Declarations of the General Assembly carry great weight although techni­ cally speaking they are devoid of binding force.

311

The view that liberation

wars are international conflicts, a qualification which will lead to increased protection for those involved in such wars, has not been adopted by Protocol I of 1977 to the Geneva Conventions in its m u c h discussed article 1(4). The war initially waged by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) against their Serb overlords was escalated by the NATO action started on 25 March 1999 into an international war about an internal matter, i.e. the genocide of ethnic Albanians in Kosovo. Although there were several pronouncements that the KLA did not seek independence but only greater autonomy, their action and strategy were similar to that of other 'liberation' movements. There are grounds for suggesting that the protection afforded by the Geneva Conventions and by the Protocols should still be afforded to liberation movements with limited aspirations for greater a u t o n o m y but which do not seek outright independence. Article 1(4) of Protocol I expressly states that the Protocol shall apply to 'armed conflict in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes in the exercise of their right to self-determination'.

312

The reference to national liberation war

implies, by the cross-reference to article 2 of the Geneva Conventions, that liberation wars are to be put on an equal footing with war or other armed conflict between States.

313

However, Protocol I does not expressly say that

liberation wars are 'international' although the conclusion of the reading of the articles is that liberation wars are 'equated' with full-scale interna­ tional conflict for the purpose of the application of the Protocol. However, some delegates considered the effect of article 1(4) to be very much the same as that of the above-mentioned Resolutions of the General Assembly 3 . 0

3 . 1

3 1 2

3 1 3

Resolution 3103 (XXVIII) of 1973; cf. Resolution 2592 (XXIV) of 1960. Much of the wording of this Resolution was incorporated in article 1(4) of Protocol I of 1977; see below Ch. 6, B i e. Cf. earlier Resolutions of the General Assembly, e.g. on Independence of Colonies 1514 (XV) 1960; on Racial Discrimination 1965; (on separate personality) 2446 (XVIII) 1968; 2625 (XXV) 1970 on Friendly Relations; cf. above in this Chapter, C i. See my Law Making, 207-13 and, in greater detail, my International Legal Order, 2nd edn, Ch. IV. The article then refers to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations and to the Resolution on Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States: see above. Article 1(4) read together with 1(3) of Protocol I and common article 2 of the Geneva Conventions.

GENERAL

52

PRINCIPLES

and, that since the resolutions are not binding, article 1(4) would create 'new l a w ' .

314

To consider liberation wars as being of an 'international character' had become something of an 'idée fixe of the Third World, but only with regard to war fought against colonial regimes and not within socialist or Third World States themselves.

315

By a simple unilateral declaration formally adhere to Protocol I of 1 9 7 7

316

317

a liberation movement can now to the Geneva Conventions of 1949

as well as to the Conventional Weapons Conventions of 1 9 8 1 ,

318

and in

these important respects liberation movements are put on the very same footing as States. The extended notion of international conflict, comprising armed conflicts involving liberation movements, has also been adopted in the Convention on Limitation of Certain Conventional Weapons which Cause Traumatic Effects.

319

Some claim that the cross-reference in this Conven-

tion to Protocol I may create problems for States which wish to ratify the 1981 Convention but which have not accepted the Protocol, as there are no provisions for reservations in the C o n v e n t i o n .

320

The fact there are no

provisions for reservations, however, does not necessarily mean that reservations cannot be m a d e

321

as long as the reservations are in line with the

general objectives of the C o n v e n t i o n .

322

Naturally, it is desirable for hu-

manitarian conventions not to include reservations as such Conventions are designed to ensure homogenous application of a protective regime. Occasionally 'reservations' to such instruments do not constitute 'true' reservations in the sense that they restrict the application of a treaty, but contain political announcements, e.g. that ratification of a treaty does not imply any recognition that another State 'exists'

323

or that a treaty-making

party has competence to conclude international agreements. 3 . 4

3 . 5

3 1 7

3 , 9

3 2 0

321

322

3 2 3

3 2 4

324

If reserva-

United Kingdom CDDH/1/SR.46; France, ibid., 49. G. Best, Humanity in Warfare, London, 1980, 321. Under article 96(3). Below, Ch. 6, B i d. Under article 7(b); see further below Ch. 6, B i d. Article 1, see below, Ch. 7, A 2. Cf. Ph. Bretton, 'La Convention du 10 avril 1981 sur l'interdiction ou la limitation d'emploi de certaines armes classiques qui peuvent être considérées comme produisant des effets traumatiques excessifs ou comme frappant sans discriminations', AFDI, 1981, 127. E.g., my Essays on the Law of Treaties, London, 1967, 62ff. Genocide Case, Advisory Opinion, ( 1951 ) ICJ Reports, 25. E.g., reservations to the Protocols of 1977 by Oman, 29 March 1984; by Israel, 2 August 1984; by Syria, 14 November 1983; by Israel, 4 January 1984. E.g. the challenge of the competence of the United Nations to conclude treaties with respect to Namibia, see the reservation of 24 February 1984 by South Africa to the Geneva Conventions and Protocols. 3 , 6

3 , 8

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

53

tions actually extend the protection afforded by the instrument, n o objec­ tions can be made by those who wish to p r o m o t e humanitarian law. For example, the former Eastern bloc made 'reservations' to the Genocide Convention

325

and some of these reservations extended the application of

the Convention to non self-governing territories. These 'reservations' can be seen as a part of the trend, albeit not always implemented by their authors, to grant 'international' status to liberation movements in n o n self-governing territories and subject them to the protection of interna­ tional instruments. (2) Political affiliations

of liberation

wars Some liberation movements

were, in the world of bipolarity, firmly linked to East or West. The 'Contras' in Nicaragua and the guerillas in Afghanistan were openly supported by the United States.

326

The liberation movement AZAPO in South Africa, being

'anti-capitalistic', was supported by the then c o m m u n i s t Eastern b l o c .

327

In conflicts in Africa in the 1980s, China and the Soviet Union sup­ ported different factions. China sided with ZANU against ZAPU, with UNIA and GRAE against MPLA; and with SWANU against ANC; while in all these cases the Soviet Union supported the other s i d e .

328

O n e liberation

movement may support another such movement in another geographical area; thus AZAPO in South Africa supported the P L O .

329

In such a case a

certain solidarity is shown between movements as if they share the same objectives and goals. Similar solidarity has been shown when liberation movements attend international conferences, especially if such conferen­ ces negotiate treaties which will bear upon the rights of liberation move­ ments. (3) Participation of liberation movements in certain

international

conferences Liberation movements are often able to attend international conferences on a very similar footing to States, provided the conference is thought to 'concern' them. Thus, even before it was a self-governing territory, the PLO became a non-State member of the G r o u p of 7 7

3 3 0

and

has taken part in General Assembly meetings and in the sessions of many other organisations. 3 2 5

327

3 2 8

329

331

331

3 2 6

See 78 UNTS 278. Cf. above this Chapter, under D i d. Sunday Times, 13 January 1985. W. Lacqueur, Guerilla, A Historical and Critical Study, London, 1977, 373. Sunday Times, 13 January 1985. K. P. Sauvant, The Group of 77, New York, 1981, 3. C. Lazarus, 'Le statut des mouvements des liberation nationale a TONU', AFDI, 1974, 173. 3 3 0

GENERAL

54

PRINCIPLES

W h e n the Protocols to the 1949 Red Cross Conventions were negotiated in 1977, there were eleven liberation movements which took part in the Diplomatic Conference elaborating the Additional Protocols.

332

This par­

ticipation caused n u m e r o u s States to make 'declarations' as to the presence of these movements which were not 'States'. Some said that it was only because of the humanitarian character of the instruments to be drafted that it could be conceded that liberation movements could a t t e n d .

333

Others said

that the participation might lead to 'greater respect for law and concern for basic principles of humanity in the conduct of the armed conflicts in which these movements are taking p a r t ' ,

334

thereby indicating that the improve­

ment of humanitarian standards must also be respected by the liberation movements themselves.

335

Some Third World countries insisted that only

'recognised' liberation movements should be allowed to take part and in particular only those which had been 'recognised' by respective regional organisations, such as the Organisation for African Unity or the League of Arab States.

336

In fact, failure to support such 'recognised' liberation

movements may well, according to other Third World countries be 'tanta­ m o u n t to encouraging slavery and r a c i s m ' .

337

However, liberation move­

ments were admitted as observers at n u m e r o u s occasions in the past, even before the General Assembly declared, in 1974, that there must be an opportunity for those movements to express their views and to propose changes so as to ensure that new rules 'meet the needs of the t i m e ' .

338

The Diplomatic Conference on the reaffirmation and Development of Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflict decided at its First Session in 1974 not to invite the Revolutionary Republic of South Vietnam and, in response to a questionnaire for attitudes of governments to be indicated, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) decided not to amend the Rules of Procedure to allow for the participation. There was m u c h criticism of this decision, especially as the Revolutionary govern­ ment was a party to the Geneva Conventions at this time. Some delegates also underlined that the decision was contrary to the Paris Agreement and the Final Act of the International Conference on V i e t n a m . 3 3 2

3 3 3

3 3 4

3 3 5

3 3 7

339

339

At the

However, only PLO and SWAPO took part in all four sessions, see M. Bothe, K.). Partsch and W. A. Solf, New Rules on Victims of War, The Hague, 1982, 8. E.g. statement by Germany, CDDH/54, vol. 5, 251. Cf. France, ibid., 25. United States, ibid., 260; cf. Spain, ibid., 256. See further below under reciprocity, Ch. 12, B ii. Indonesia, CDDH/54, vol. 6, 62-3. Madagascar, ibid., 190. PLO Observer, A/C.6/37/SR.19,5,18. Lucerne Report, 1975, Iff. 3 3 6

3 3 8

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

55

Lucerne Conference there were several liberation movements, for example the PLO, the Seychelles Peoples United Party (SPUP), South Africa's African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan African Congress of Azania (PAC); the Zimbabwe African Peoples' Union (ZAPU); and the South West African Peoples' Organisation of Namibia (SWAPO). These move­ ments all appear in the list of 'experts' attending the Conference.

340

During the Conference on the 1977 Protocols to the Geneva Conventions there was some question as to whether liberation movements would be allowed to attend. The General Assembly insisted in Resolution 3102 (XXVIII) that liberation movements be invited to attend. Although it is questionable whether the General Assembly has power even to r e c o m m e n d who attends a State conference, the Rules of Procedure of the Conference were eventually amended to allow for the presence of liberation movements, although it was emphasised that only States would have the right to v o t e .

341

Liberation movements also attended the final Conference on Conven­ tional Weapons of 1 9 8 1 ,

342

not only as observers but as future potential

parties to the Treaty, which, like Protocol I of 1 9 7 7 possibility of accession by liberation m o v e m e n t s .

343

provided for the

344

But the attendance of liberation movements is often accompanied by a series of protests from States who do not support their cause, similar to those declarations which are usually lodged to object to the attendance of an unrecognised State. Complaints can focus on the mere form of address for a party invited to attend a Conference. An invitation by the ICRC to the Conference in Delhi in 1956 was addressed to the 'Government of Taiwan'. That country protested and was strongly supported by the United States in its attempts to allow for the 'official name'. W h e n the a m e n d m e n t had duly been carried out by a special resolution, thirty other delegates, including the Indian host representatives, walked out in p r o t e s t .

345

Attendance at conferences or even adherence to treaties does not mean that an entity is recognised as a 'State'. But by being allowed to accede to treaties, now specifically foreseen by the Law of W a r , 340

341

3 4 4

345

3 4 6

346

certain non-State

Lucerne Report, 1975, 94-5. On the other hand, during the second session of the Conventional Arms Conference in Lugano in 1976 no liberation movement attended. The League of Arab States, which had not been at the Lucerne Conference, sent a representative: see, Lugano Report, 225. CDDH/22, 1.3.1974, SR 7 . See further below Ch. 7, A ii. Below, Ch. 6, B i b. Below, Ch. 6, B i d. J. A. Joyce, Red Cross International and the Strategy to Peace, New York, 1959, 210-11. On express provisions to this effect in the Weaponry Convention, see below. 3 4 2

3 4 3

GENERAL

56

PRINCIPLES

groups are gradually being given very similar rights and duties as States with regard to treaty making.

b. Resistance or partisan

wars

A group of citizens may organise themselves to combat an invader from within an occupied territory. They may use guerilla tactics,

347

and may

sometimes call themselves guerillas, but the war waged is programmatic insofar as it is an inherent objective of the war to oust the occupying power and to force that party to give u p the territory. These wars are thus a special form of liberation war. Many resistance activities may fall short of war by the de minimis r u l e

348

by constituting merely sporadic and unilateral attacks. But other resistance, like the Partisan movement in Yugoslavia during the Second World War, led to full-scale and prolonged hostilities.

c. Revolutionary

war

Another type of programmatic war is revolutionary war. Revolutionary war denotes that the purpose of the war is to overthrow the existing government by force and replace it by another, led by the rebels. Most often revolutionary war is associated with Marxist-Leninist teachings, and revolutionary warfare is therefore essentially a class war in military t e r m s .

349

The prime example of

this type of conflict is the Russian Revolution of 1917. Other wars of this type will be anarchical wars, waged to abolish the State as such but without seeking to replace it with another authority; this was the ultimate aim of the Baader-Meinhof terrorists in Germany, active in the 1970s and 1980s.

d. Separatist or secessionist

wars

Dissident groups, or 'nations' may not wish to overthrow the government, as in revolutionary warfare, but may have a more limited aim, often with 3 4 7

3 4 9

3 4 8

See above under B iii c. Above, under B iii d on the definition of war. See, e.g., C. E. Black and T. Thornton, Communism and Revolution, Princeton, 1964; R. Thompson, Revolutionary War in World Strategy 1945-1969, New York, 1970; C. Johnson, Autopsy on People's War, London, 1973; idem, Revolution and the Social System, Stanford, 1964; idem, Revolutionary Change, London, 1966; C. Leiden and K. Schnitt, (eds.) The Politics of Violence: Revolution in the Modern World, New Jersey, 1968; T. Arnold, Der revolutionäre Krieg, Pfaffenhofen, 1961; C. Delmas, La guerre revolutionäre, Paris, 1959; G. Tanham, Communist Revolutionary Warfare, New York, 1961. Some have called typically revolutionary wars 'peasant wars': see E. Wolf, Peasant Wars in the Twentieth Century, London, 1971.

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

57

regard to the independence sought for a particular territory. In this latter type of conflict the groups acting against the government do not seek to challenge the authority of that government over the country as a whole but merely with regard to a portion of it to which they claim they have a better claim. Such separatist, or secessionist, wars are thus fought to obtain sover­ eignty over a part of the territory but not to question the powers of the legitimate government in their totality. Recent examples of secession after armed struggle are furnished by East Timor, Slovenia and Croatia.

e. Preemptive

war

Preemptive or preventive war takes an intermediate position as not being fully programmatic for the achievement of any positive aim but to preclude some other action being taken. Preemptive war has m u c h in c o m m o n with anticipatory b r e a c h

350

for it implies an assumption that another party is

about to resort to war. A war is thus started in the belief that, because of acute danger, action provides the only safe r o u t e .

351

It may be that this is an appropriate category for the Gulf War when military action was taken to force the Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein to withdraw from Kuwait which he had invaded. Here, there are other nuances: the military action of the Coalition Forces in January 1 9 9 0

352

against Iraq was essentially in order to force that State to withdraw from Kuwait; to some extent the action was also p u n i t i v e

353

in response to the

illegal invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. Later, the action can be perceived as preemptive in the sense that the attacking armies sought, on the basis of Security Council Resolution 688 of 1991 to bring about an end to the repression of civilian population, especially of the Kurds. It is a matter for discussion whether the military action in the Gulf, and especially the NATO action in Kosovo in Yugoslavia, is to be classified as preemptive war or as a form of military intervention.

354

iii. U n e q u a l wars Wars can also be classified according to the relative strength or standing of the belligerents. Not that States, or other parties, to a war can ever be 3 5 0

3 5 2

3 5 3

351

Cf. below Ch. 2, B ii. J. Stracey, On the Prevention of War, London, 1962, 78. Authorised by SC Res. 678 (1990). Cf. SC Resolutions 660, 661, 662, 664, 677 all of 1990. Cf. below, Ch. 2, B viii on 'punitive' intervention. See below, Ch. 2, A and B. 3 5 4

GENERAL

5» equal.

355

PRINCIPLES

But a war waged by a group which is not a State against the

traditional war-waging machinery of the State is possibly, of its nature, an unequal war. It is not only the resources that differ on the two sides and the fact that only the State is likely to have warships, aeroplanes or nuclear weapons. But the whole structure of international society based on the State as the accepted geographical and political unit will place the non-State party in a war in a particularly unequal situation, caused by its lack of standing in international society. There are important trends that are beginning to erode the differences between warfare between States and warfare involving g r o u p s .

356

A particu­

larly important development is to allow groups to adhere to treaties on the Law of W a r

3 5 7

and it is important to abolish the unequal idiosyncrasy: that

States are b o u n d by obligations under the Law of War by treaties but groups, because of their inequality, are not.

iv. Methodological war: guerilla war Some wars can be classified according to the methods which they employ. Guerilla w a r

358

is characterised by certain tactics not often used in other

forms of warfare, and is characterised by small units, great mobility and often rudimentary organisation. The natural environment often sets the limits and provides the means by which guerillas can operate, either as partisans in the hills, or as units in the jungle. Guerilla warfare

359

has often been thought to involve particularly perfidi­

ous methods of warfare. 3 5 5

3 5 6

3 5 8

3 5 9

3 6 0

360

Observers c o m m e n t that cruel practices invari-

On the distinction between political equality and forensic equality, see my article on 'The problem of unequal treaties', ICLQ, 1962,1086; on unequal treaties, see my Independent State, 2ndedn, 194-223. Above in this Chapter, under C, on democratisation. See in detail, below Ch. 6, B d. The term is technically a tautology but has been adopted in common use: guerilla means 'small war'; cf. above in this Chapter, under D i b, on 'Kleinkrieg; the persons fighting such a war are 'guerrilleros', a word nowadays rarely used. Also the term 'guerilla' seems to have fallen into disuse in the last decade. D. Veuthey, Guerilla et droit humanitaire, 2nd edn, Geneva, 1983. P. W. Barrett and L. Norick, 'Legality of guerilla forces under the laws of war', AJIL, 1949, 563; I. P. Trainin, 'Questions of guerilla warfare in the law of war', AJIL, 1946, 534; G. I. A. D. Draper, 'The Status of non-combatants and the question of guerilla warfare', BYIL, 1971,173; C. Atala and F. Groffier, Terrorisme et guerilla, Ottawa, 1973. According to Roberts' definition, guerilla units operate in a 'concealed or semi-concealed way' with the aim of harassing the opponent and wearing him down slowly, rather than openly confronting large concentrations of his military force, A. Roberts, Nations in Arms, 2nd edn, London, 1986, 35. Note that he includes in guerilla war what we have called 'programmatic' wars, for example, revolutionary wars and partisan wars as well as 'insurgency' and 'irregular warfare', ibid. 36. 3 5 7

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

ably accompany guerilla warfare.

361

59

Guerillas have had to compensate for

their lack of sophisticated weapons by devising and improvising methods to combat forces stronger and better equipped than themselves. But these methods, which perhaps originally were not that cruel or i n h u m a n , soon made the State parties take c o u n t e r - m e a s u r e s

362

to overpower guerillas in

their natural habitat, in the jungle or in the hills. Such measures often involved defoliating w e a p o n s weapons,

365

363

or other c h e m i c a l

364

or biological

so that this type of warfare escalated to proportions u n k n o w n

even in the Second World War. In their motivation some guerillas are influenced by Marxist-Leninist thinking and this sometimes put an imprint on their warfare t e c h n i q u e s .

366

Some guerillas are associated with previous anti-colonialist m o v e m e n t s ,

367

and others with more limited activities.

368

Certain types of guerilla operation are confined to prewar situations: 'urban' guerillas

369

thus carry out activities similar to those of t e r r o r i s t s

370

but may, after successful rebellion, expand their activities into full-scale guerilla warfare.

371

Mao Tse Tung visualised guerilla warfare as an intermediate position and a provisional way of deploying armed forces. The characteristics of guerilla warfare are, he says, irregularity, i.e. decentralisation, lack of uniformity, absence of strict discipline and simple methods of w o r k . 361

3 6 2

3 6 3

3 6 5

3 6 6

3 6 7

3 6 8

3 6 9

3 7 0

371

3 7 2

372

Che Guevara's

P. C. Mayer-Tasch, Guerillakrieg und Völkerrecht, Baden-Baden, 1972,21; W. Hahlweg, Guerilla Krieg ohne Fronten, Stuttgart, 1968, 47; cf. Rigg, 'Catalogue of Vietcong violence', 42 MLR, No. 12, 1962, 23. See, on counter-tactics, J. J. McCuen, The Art of Counter-revolutionary War, Harrisburg, 1966. Cf. above in this Chapter under C ii and below Ch. 7, D iii. Ibid. Cf. above in this Chapter under C ii and below, Ch. 7, D ii. Laqueur, Guerilla, 326ff; 357rT; 374ff and 341. On more or less adept attempts to justify partisan and guerilla warfare by Marxist doctrine, see, E. Tomaon, Kriegsbegriff und Kriegsrecht der Sowjetunion, Berlin, 1979, 154ff. Rousseau, Conflits, 78-9. J. Niezing, (ed.), Urban Guerilla Studies on the Theory, Strategy and Practice of Political Violence in Modern Societies, Rotterdam, 1974. R. Moss, Urban Guerillas, London, 1972. See above in this Chapter, under B iii c on terrorism. D. E. H. Russell, Rebellion; Revolution and Armed Force, London, 1974, 103. But such features must ultimately be eliminated if the armed forces are to reach 'higher stages' when they must become more centralised, more unified, more disciplined and more thorough in their work, for the guerilla features of an armed force stem from its 'infancy' stage and hence are no longer appropriate. The other hallmark of guerillas, mobility, will on the other hand often still be useful. Other advice is limited to strategic exhortations such as 'Do not hit out in all directions', recommendations on finding success by 'joining with minority nationalities' or calls to keep up production in guerilla zones in intervals between fighting. People's Publishing House (ed.) 1 Selected Works of Mao Tse Tung, Peking, 1977,35, 200flf, 243, 247, 248; Mao Tse Tung, 'Mobile Warfare, Guerilla Warfare and Positional Warfare', 2 ibid., 170. The following 3 6 4

GENERAL

6o

PRINCIPLES

writings, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , are of a m o r e practical n a t u r e for the individ­ ual guerilla fighter. H e r e t h e r e are clear instructions o n h o w to survive, to m a k e improvised w e a p o n s , t o organise small g r o u p s a n d to avoid detection by t h e e n e m y from t h e a i r .

3 7 3

S W A P O m a d e a s t a t e m e n t at a C o l l o q u i u m in Brussels in 1970 t o the effect that:

One of the aspects of this war is the difference in attitude to military ethics between us and our enemy. The South African Government . . . treat [guerilla fighters] as ordinary prisoners . . . Our guerillas are under instruc­ tion not to attack the civilian population in any given area except in case of self-defence, not to attack churches and missionary establishments . . . and not to attack or in any other way harm defenceless women and children . . . With regards to the treatment of prisoners of war, SWAPO adheres strictly to the Geneva Conventions of 1 9 4 9 .

374

So guerillas emphasise that they abide by t h e rules of the Law of W a r and t h a t it is their e n e m y w h o violates t h e m . clearly b o u n d by t h e Law of W a r

3 7 6

3 7 5

As will be s h o w n , guerillas are

a n d s o m e t h i n g might be gained by further

d i s s e m i n a t i o n of knowledge as t o their obligation u n d e r this legal system. T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t guerillas have developed their own tactics and style of c o m b a t , largely by improvisation using t h e m e a n s at their disposal. In this sense, their warfare is w h a t m i g h t be called 'methodological', b u t t h e r e m a y be n o o b v i o u s political c o n t e n t in their warfare. These tactics, known throughout

t h e history of warfare, were developed in

days in t h e partisan w a r f a r e

377

modern

in the Second W o r l d W a r , w h e n small

writings, many of them included in the Selected Works, are particularly relevant: Mao on People's War, Peking, 1967; Mao Tse Tung, Concentrate on Superior Force to Destroy the Enemy Forces One by One, Peking, 1968; Mao, The Concept of Operation for the Huiai-Hai Campaign, Peking, 1969; Mao, The Concept of Operation on the Peiping-Tientsin Campaign, Peking, 1969; Mao, Problems of Strategy in Chinas Revolutionary War, 2nd edn, Peking, 1965; cf. M. Rejai, (ed.) Mao on Revolution and War, Garden City, 1969; cf. also ). Ch'en, Mao Papers, London 1970. 3 7 3

3 7 4

3 7 5

3 7 7

But at the same time there is some concern for innocent lives and special attention is drawn to the difference between terrorism and sabotage. Whereas the latter activity can be useful to guerillas, the former 'often makes victims of innocent lives that would be valuable to the revolution'. Terrorism, says Che Guevara, must only be used to 'put to death some noted leader of the oppressing forces'. Che Guevara, Guerilla Warfare, London, 1969, 26; see the original version, La guerra de guerrillos, Havana, 1960; cf. Passajes de la guerra revolucionaria, Mexico, 1969; V. Ortiz (transl.), Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War, London, 1968. Centre Henri Rolin (ed.), Droit humanitaire et conflits armis, Brussels, 1970, 251-2. Below, Ch. 9, B iii g, in fine. See below, Ch. 12, B ii d. See e.g., C. Loverdo, Les macquis rouges des Balkans 1941-1945, Paris, 1967. 3 7 6

T H E C O N C E P T OF W A R

61

units sought the protection of the natural environment to give them an advantage in combat. Later, other guerillas, in Latin America and in Vietnam, adopted similar techniques. But guerilla warfare is not necessar­ ily, although it often is, linked to communist aims. Similar techniques were adopted by the 'Contras' in Nicaragua and by the 'resistance move­ ments' in Afghanistan. The situations in which guerilla wars are waged range from sustained attempts to fight an invading or occupying p o w e r

378

to military activities

designed to oust a colonial regime or a legitimate government. 3 7 8

Above, in this Chapter, D ii b.

2 Prohibition of war

A. Limitation of the use of force i. Rules p r o h i b i t i n g war Rules restraining war and the use of force in international society are usually coupled with a positive duty to solve disputes by peaceful means. Such positive duties preceded the complete prohibition of war. The Hague 1

Convention I of 1899 on Pacific Settlement of Disputes and the similar 2

Convention I of 1907 obliged the parties to seek a peaceful solution to their disputes before resorting to hostilities. The Treaties for the Advancement of Peace, the so-called Bryan Treaties of 1913-14, prohibited declarations of war or the opening of hostilities until an arbitral commission had examined the merits of the dispute.

3

By article 10 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, members of the League pledged that they would 'respect and preserve, as against any external aggression; the territorial integrity and existing political indepen­ dence' of other States. This implied a system of guarantees to which some of the Great Powers, like the United Kingdom, have taken exception in the 4

drafting of the Covenant. But the obscure article 10 was coupled with the articles 12-15 which prescribed certain procedures for the pacific settle­ ment of disputes. Above all, article 12 prescribed a cooling-off period of three m o n t h s after an arbitral award attempting to regulate the dispute; but after that war could be commenced. War was thus not outlawed by the Covenant of the League of Nations. The Covenant thus introduced a distinction between legal and illegal wars; the latter category comprising conflicts where the formal procedure laid down had not been followed. 2

' 26 NRGT 2 série, 920. 3 NRGT 3 série, 360. See, for example, the Treaty with Italy, AJIL, 1916, Suppl., 288; 33 AJIL, 1939, Suppl., 86. Numerous treaties were concluded: see Brownlie, Force, 23ff and 57. F. S. Northedge, The League of Nations; its Life and Times 1920-1926, Leicester 1986, 43.

3

4

62

63

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

However, not even aggression was completely forbidden by article 10 as that article was subordinate to some of the subsequent articles, in particular article 15(7) which allowed certain wars to enforce legal rights. Therefore, an invasion could take place in the context of a 'legal' war under article 15 and then not violate article 10.

5

Article 12 of the Covenant thus restricted the right of members of the organisation to resort to war. The League of Nations condemned the Italian 6

aggression against Abyssinia in 1935 as well as the operations of Soviet 7

forces in Finland in 1939 before the Winter W a r , as violations of article 12. But article 12 only prohibited 'war' before a certain time had elapsed, which gave rise to problems if there was any doubt as to whether hostilities amounted to such a state of affairs. The way war was defined at the t i m e

8

left considerable scope for belligerents to avoid disputes being classified as 'wars' by their own will, regardless of objective circumstances. Further­ more, once article 12 restrained the right to war there was another reason for not admitting that war existed in order for States to avoid being criticised for taking illegal action. Until The Hague Convention II of 1907 on Limitation of the Employ­ 9

ment of Force for the Recovery of Contract Debts came into force, it had not been unusual for States to recover payment of money by armed force or to take reprisals. For example, when France failed to pay instalments on the spoliation claims under a Treaty of 4 July 1931, President Jackson stated on I December 1834 that the United States should insist u p o n p r o m p t execu­ tion of the Treaty and in the case of refusal 'take redress into their own 10

h a n d s ' . Article 10 of the Covenant of the League of Nations restrained the use of force to a certain extent in a limited area. There was also some tentative regulation of the use of force in the Draft Treaty of Mutual 11

12

Assistance of 1923, the Geneva Protocol of 1924 and the Locarno Treaty of 1925.

13

But the comprehensive regulation of war and the use of force was still to come. The Briand-Kellogg Pact in 1928 5

6

9

II

14

14

finally outlawed not only aggres-

Cf. D. H. Miller. 1 The Drafting of the Covenant, New York, 1928, 170. For different interpreta­ tions see Brownlie, Force, 63. On the other hand, the Covenant did not outlaw war against a State which was abiding by an arbitral award, see article 13(4); on the contradiction between this article and article 12, see Northedge, The League, 56. LNOJ 1935, 1223-6 and above, Ch. 1, B ii. LNOJ 1939, 539. Above, Ch. 1, B. 3 NRGT3 serie, 414. Richardson's Messages III 97 106, and ibid., 147, 152-61. LNO/1923, Spec. Suppl. 16. 188 LNTS 53. 154 LNTS 290. 94 LNTS 57. 7

8

10

12

13

6

GENERAL

4

PRINCIPLES

sive war but all types of war 'for the solution of international controversies' or 'as an instrument of national policy'.

15

The prohibition of war was

coupled with a corresponding duty to settle disputes by peaceful means. O n e m e t h o d of reinforcing the prohibition in the Briand-Kellogg Pact was by the doctrine and practice of non-recognition as put forward in the Stimson doctrine of 1932.

16

According to this statement on behalf the

United States, situations created by force would not be recognised by the United States.

17

Other landmarks in the prohibition of war and the use of force in the international society were a series of Latin American Treaties, e.g., the Treaty to Avoid or Prevent Conflicts between the American States of 1929

18

and the Treaty of Non-Aggression and Conciliation of 1933, the SavedraLamas Pact.

19

Some of these treaties were not limited only to American 20

States but were ratified by a n u m b e r of European States as well. A number of bilateral treaties of friendship built up a further network of obligations to renounce war and the use of force.

21

With the establishment of the United Nations, the prohibition of the use of force, and the threat thereof, became entrenched in the Charter's article 2(4). The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, the Rio Pact, of 22

1947 also reiterated the prohibition of the use of force and the threat of force. Much has been written about the ambit of article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter;

23

there is above all an area of doubt as to whether the

article covers economic force.

24

However, there is certainly no doubt that

15

But some dismissed the Pact as being 'without value' in international law: see 0 . Unden, 'Iden om krigets kriminalisering', Uppsala Universitets Arsskrift, 1929, 22.

16

See, in detail, Q. Wright, T h e Stimson Note of January 7, 1932', 26 AJIL 1932, 22. Cf. the Chaco Declaration by the League of Nations Assembly of the same year, 1932, with similar contents, signed by nineteen American States, and 6 Hackworth 45. 33 LNTS 26. 163 LNTS 393. This Treaty was replaced as between the American States by the Treaty of Bogota of 1948 which established the Organisation of American States, 30 UNTS 55. See the Savedra-Lamas Pact which was ratified by Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Spain and Yugoslavia, as well as by a series of Latin American States. See, further, Brownlie, Force, 101-5. 21 UNTS77. See, e.g., C. M. H. Waldock, 'The regulation of the use of force by individuals states and international law', RCADI, 1952, ii, 455. M. P. Doxey, Economic Sanctions and International Enforcement, Oxford, 1971. Cf. E. Sciso, 'Laggressione indiretta nella definizione dell'Assemblea Generale delle Nazioni Unite', RivDI, 1983, 253. On a similar discussion bearing on the use of force, including economic force, and treaties, see my Independent State, 2nd edn, 145-63; D. Leyton-Browne; The Utility of Interna­ tional Economic Sanctions, London, 1986.

17

18

19

2 0

21

2 3

2 4

2 2

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

65

any form of armed force is forbidden under the Charter, if it is directed against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State or if it is inconsistent with the purposes of the United N a t i o n s .

25

But there are

legitimising elements, factors which undermine the general prohibition.

26

The Agreement on Prevention of Nuclear War Between the United States 27

and the former Soviet Union in 1973, a treaty concluded for 'unlimited 28

duration', provides in Article I that the 'Parties agree they will act in such a manner as to prevent the development of situations capable of causing a dangerous exacerbation of their relations, as to avoid military confronta­ tion and as to exclude the outbreak of nuclear war between them and between either of the Parties and other countries'. Article II provides that 'each Party will refrain from threat or use of force against the other Party, against Allies of the other Party and against other countries in circumstan­ ces which may endanger international peace and security'. Such a treaty, essentially reiterating obligations already existing under the Charter, poss­ ibly reinforces the duty to refrain from the use of force. Specific acts of force are forbidden, inter alia acts that were earlier often referred to as 'acts of war'. The prohibition of aggression and interven­ tion, highly relevant to the status or existence of war, will be examined briefly.

ii. Rules p r o h i b i t i n g aggression 'Aggression' did not always have negative connotations. There was a time when the concept also covered 'defensive aggression',

29

although this

seems a contradiction in terms, now that 'aggression' has acquired such a pejorative meaning. Some commentators claim that aggression is specific to international society as municipal law never uses aggression as a basic concept or any 30

other notions of'that character'. But the whole of municipal criminal law, in most legal systems, rests on restraints of force and violence between citizens. Such restraints regulate 'attacks' or 'assaults' by citizen on citizen, which is surely a similar behaviour to that of a State attacking another State. But then it is not so clear in the voluminous international discussion on a 25

27

3,1

2 6

G. Tunkin, Sila i mezhdunarodnoe pravo, Moscow, 1983. Below, in this Chapter, B vi. 917 UNTS 86. Article VII. Brownlie, Force, 351. J. Stone, Aggression and World Order, Critique of United Nations Theories of Aggression, London, 1958, 119. 2 8

2 9

66

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

definition of aggression that aggression merely implies 'attacks' although this surely would be the c o m m o n sense approach. N u m e r o u s attempts to define aggression have been made, not only by writers but, above all, by statesmen in declarations or conventions and by the General Assembly of the United Nations. There have been considerable difficulties in defining aggression and one may wonder why this task, carried out as it has been in such intricate detail, has been thought so important. Some acts may well be 'typical' of aggression and such 'typical acts' may include armed attack, invasion, occupation, annexation and blockade; such acts would also constitute what was often previously called 'acts of war'.

31

But it is questionable whether one can progress further than

providing some illustrative examples to describe a concept of which we, a priori, can only have a general notion but which in casu, may be classed as illegal. These difficulties, are on the whole, the same as if we set out to define 'force'. The first attempt at definition of any significance may have been the Agreement for Pacific Settlement of Disputes, the Geneva Protocol, in 32

1924. Later, the more elaborate Soviet Declaration of Aggression followed 33

in 1933. There were other attempts to define aggression as, for example, in the Convention for the Definition of Aggression the same year, Buenos Aires Convention of 1936,

35

34

the

36

the

the Saafabad Pact of 1937, 37

Harvard Draft Convention on Rights and Duties of States, and a series of bilateral agreements, including the treaties in the 1930s between the Soviet Union and Finland,

38

between the Soviet Union and Poland in 1932

between the Soviet Union and C h i n a .

40

39

and

But the value of these definitions,

often relying on enumerative examples as they d o ,

41

may be limited.

The Security Council of the United Nations is empowered under article 39 of the Charter to identify an aggressor in the international society. 31

3 2

3 3

34

3 6

3 8

41

4 2

42

E. Aroneanu, La definition de I'agression, Expose objectify Paris, 1958, 85fT. C. G. Westman, Kring GeneveprotokolleU Stockholm, 1924; Eagleton, T h e attempt to define war', 599ff; cf. R. Erich, Nagra folkrattsliga synpunkter Mnforande sig till santionsproblemeU Uppsala, 1936; 0 . Unden, 'Quelques observations sur la notion de guerre degression', RD1LQ 1931,5. League of Nations for Reductions and Limitations of Armaments, Series B, 2, 236. 147 LNTS 71. 6 Hudson 361. 190 LNTS 21, between Afghanistan, Iraq and Turkey. 33 AJIL 1939 Suppl., 821. 157 LNTS 395. 136 LNTS 38. 181 LNTS 102. See further Brownlie, Force, 359fT. The General Assembly may acquire similar powers if the Security Council remains inactive and there is a threat to the peace: see the Uniting for Peace Resolution 377 (V) 1950; cf. my Law Making, 38fT. 3 5

37

3 9

4 0

67

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

Such action presupposes a clear general notion of what aggression implies. Attempts within the United Nations to define the notion of aggression date 43

back to the early 1950s when it was thought important for the application, inter alia of article 39, to have a definition of what aggression means. The then Soviet Union proposed a Draft Resolution in 1950 in the First Committee,

44

which the General Assembly referred to the International

Law Commission (ILC) for c o m m e n t .

45

The ILC produced n o definition

but after the Sixth Committee considered its Report, several States volun­ 46

teered definitions, usually enumerative, but occasionally attempting gen­ eral definitions.

47

General Assembly Resolution 599 (VI) of 1952 further emphasised the 48

desirability of a definition and a series of Special Committees was set u p .

4 9

50

The fourth Special C o m m i t t e e held seven sessions and produced a Report which it submitted to the General Assembly, proposing a definition of aggression. O n the basis of this Report the Sixth Committee approved a Draft Resolution which it recommended the General Assembly should accept. 51

But a definition may, in the opinion of many States, be inappropriate: it is still for the Security Council to determine in casu whether aggression has taken place.

52

Many have argued that the Charter is deliberately silent to

allow leeway for the exercise of this discretionary power of the Security Council

53

and it must be noted that Resolution 3314 (XXIX) of 1974 54

indicates that nothing within the adopted definition shall affect the scope of the powers of the United Nations organs under the Charter. A definition of aggression is certainly riddled with difficulty. The United Kingdom delegation had pointed out that the 'desirability' of a definition 4 3

44

4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

51

52

54

See further B. B. Ferencs, Defining International Aggression, The Search for World Peace, A Documentary History and Analysis, New York, 1975, for chronological data and on the extensive literature. USSR, A/C.l/608. GA Res. 378 B (V) 1950. USSR, A/C.6/1.208. Bolivia, A/C.6./L.211. On comments by the Sixth Committee, see Stone, Aggression, 54ff. A Special Committee was set up by General Assembly resolution 688 (VII) of 1952 and given the mandate to define aggression; a second Special Committee, established by General Assembly Resolution 895 (IX) in 1954 then took over; a third Special Committee was formed under General Assembly resolution 1181 (XII) 1957; and finally a fourth Special Committee by General Assembly Resolution 2330 (XXII) in 1967. For reference, see the previous note. For example, for the United States, see the statement by Truman, Whiteman Digest, 740. Cf. Sixth Committee views in 1952, A/C.6/L.206. See Murphy, The United Nations, 85. See the fourth Preamble paragraph. 4 5

4 6

5 3

GENERAL

68

PRINCIPLES

depended on whether such a definition is at all possible.

55

But the great

difficulty is n o t to phrase a definition b u t to apply that definition to facts.

56

In 1974 the General Assembly took Resolution 3314 (XXIX), which had adopted the proposed wording. T h e Resolution provides a definition of aggression, based largely on a m e t h o d enumerating certain acts, which together or by themselves would a m o u n t to aggression. T h e Resolution defines aggression as the use of a r m e d force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another State, or in any other m a n n e r inconsist­ ent with the Charter of the United Nations, as set o u t in this Definition.

57

The text then goes on to exemplify certain typical acts of aggression (a) T h e invasion o r attack by the a r m e d forces of a State of the territory of another State, o r any military occupation, however temporary, resulting from such invasion o r attack, o r any annexation by the use of force of the territory of another State o r part thereof; (b) b o m b a r d m e n t by the a r m e d forces of a State against the territory of another State o r the use of any weapons by a State against the territory of another State; (c) t h e blockade of t h e ports o r coasts of a State by the armed forces of another State. (d) t h e attack by t h e a r m e d forces of a State o n the land, sea or air forces, or marine a n d air fleets of another State; (e) the use of a r m e d forces of o n e State which are within the territory of another State with the agreement of the receiving State, in contravention of the conditions provided for in the agreement or any extension of their presence in such territory beyond the termination of the agreement; (f) t h e action of a State in allowing its territory, which it has placed at the disposal of another State, to be used by that other State for perpetrating an act of aggression against a third State; (g) the sending by o r o n behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry o u t acts of a r m e d force against another State of such gravity as t o a m o u n t to the acts listed above, o r its substantial involve­ m e n t therein.

58

Paragraph (a) is probably the core of what most c o m m e n t a t o r s consider to be 'typical' aggression. It is in such an alleged situation that the Congo took 5 5

5 6

5 7

A/AC.77/SR.7, 8. For early comments along these lines see League of Nations, Commentary on the Definition of a Case of Aggression, LNOJ, Spec. Suppl. 16. Article 1. Article 3. 5 8

6

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

9

action in 1999 in the International Court of Justice against three neigh­ bouring States.

59

60

The Resolution suggests that there is a certain type of anticipatory force which is not in violation of the Charter. The text provides that the first use of armed force by a State, in contravention of the Charter, shall constitute prima facie evidence of aggression. However, the Security Council may take certain 'relevant circumstances' into account to find anticipatory force devoid of features of aggression. Thus the first use of armed force by a State may be legitimised by the opinion of the Security Council, a method which surely undermines even the general prohibition of force in article 2(4) of the Charter. Another controversial passage deals with assistance by 'armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries which carry out acts of armed force' as it is highly uncertain as to what level of 'involvement' shall entail State responsibility under this heading.

61

The assistance in internal strife, to

which this article clearly applies, is one of the most important areas for 62

regulation and it would have been desirable had the Resolution contained some more detailed criteria. The Resolution of 1974 may have some value in drawing attention for example to the nature of acts of assistance to belligerents as some such acts will also be held to constitute aggression, for example by sending of armed bands.

63

The value of the attempt at definition may be questioned. The Statecentric view, which is entrenched in the Resolution, limits the scope of the definition considerably for only States can commit aggression. The notion of aggression needs to be reconsidered in the light of contem­ porary warfare which often involves guerilla warfare movements whose members are recognised by n u m e r o u s international conventions as 'com­ 64

batants' and therefore, logically, as belligerents.

65

But because of the way that the prohibition of aggression is phrased in international documents such as the Resolution of 1974 on Aggression, wars waged by groups and acts of aggression carried out by groups are not 59

6 0

61

6 2

6 4

Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Burundi; (same title . . .) Congo v. Rwanda; (same title . . .), Congo v. Uganda, ICJ, Reports, 1999. Article 2. Sciso, 'L'aggressione indiretta', RivDl, 1984, 253. Cf. Y. N. Rybakov, Voorozhennaya agressia, tiagchaishe mezhdunarodnnoe prestuplennye, Moscow, 1980, 63ff. Below, in this Chapter, A iii b, c and d. Below, in this Chapter, A iii d. See below, Ch. 3, C ii. See below, Ch. 4, B. 6 3

6 5

GENERAL

70

PRINCIPLES

covered. Nor does the Resolution cover acts by international organisations which excludes, for example, any argument that NATO, unless justified, could commit aggression by bombing Yugoslavia.

66

Even if this limited

ambit of the Resolution is justified in the view of many, it will be inves­ tigated whether and to what extent the Law of War applies to groups and entities which are not States.

iii. Rules p r o h i b i t i n g certain intervention a. The relative notion of

intervention

Intervention is a loose term which has been used in a number of ways. It may mean virtually any type of'interference' in the affairs of another State, 67

through acts ranging from those similar to aggression, to milder acts such as exerting political

68

or economic pressure.

ence of warships offshore

70

69

Sometimes the mere pres­

or the mere discussion of the affairs of another 71

State in, for example, the United Nations, has been thought to constitute intervention. The purpose of intervention is usually to make a State do something it would not otherwise d o .

72

A State can be 'made' to do this forcibly or not,

directly or not, or openly or n o t .

73

As intervention presupposes an act

against the will of the State, the term cannot be used for UN action in a 74

territory, unless enforcement action is taken under Chapter VII in a State which opposes such action. As for aggression, it may not be appropriate, or even possible, to provide a definition of intervention, especially in view of 75

ideological differences. But it may be that certain 'intervening' acts which infringe the sovereignty of States can be discerned. 6 6

6 8

6 9

7 0

71

7 2

7 3

7 4

7 5

6 7

On the Kosovo Cases, see below, Ch. 12, C e. Above, in this Chapter, A ii. For example, the practice of propaganda, below, Ch. 8, A iv d (2). See above in this Chapter, A ii and note 24. Cf., R. Higgins, 'Intervention and international law' in H. Bull, (ed.), Intervention in World Politics, New York, 1984, 30. P. Calvocoressi, World Order and New States, London, 1962, 17. For protests regarding discussions of Human Rights, see, R. J. Vincent, Non-intervention and International Legal Order, Princeton, 1974, 15. C. C. Hyde, International Law, Boston, 1922, para. 69; cf. S. Hoffman, 'The problem of intervention' in Bull, Intervention, 160. Bull, Intervention, 1. E. Luard, 'Collective intervention' in Bull, Intervention, 160. To such action the States have already given what I have called their 'abstract consent'; see my Law Making, 322. See C. Thomas, New States, Sovereignty and Intervention, London, 1985,9. Of course Hoffman is right when he says that 'In its widest sense, to be sure, every act of State constitutes intervention': Hoffman, 'The problem of intervention', 8. For a wide concept of intervention, see, J. N. Rosenau, International Politics and Foreign Policy, New York, 1969, 161.

71

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

The basis for the protected area into which other States may not inter­ vene is found in article 2(7) of the Charter of the United Nations which deals with what has become known as the 'reserved d o m a i n '

76

and which

specifies that States have a certain sphere of'domestic jurisdiction'. States b o u n d by the C h a r t e r

78

77

would, to some extent, have renounced

from their exclusive domestic jurisdiction as for example in the case of a threat to the peace and would, in such rare cases, have to abide by possible enforcement action. This would, in the eyes of a few, mean that United Nations action would be 'illegal' if it concerned a n o n - m e m b e r State of the 79

United Nations, for such a State would have preserved the totality of its 80

domestic jurisdiction. However, even in such cases it would seem likely 81

that the United Nations could extend its actions to a third State. In this context it is also relevant to ascertain for which reasons an intervention takes place. All States, even if they are not members of the UN, are b o u n d by 82

peremptory rules of jus cogens

prohibiting gross violations of h u m a n

rights such as, for example, genocide. If intervention takes place to prevent, or force the cessation of, such violations such action can be justified under international law;

83

if this were not so rules developed, for example, at

Nuremberg, would mean nothing. Recent events, such as NATO's action in Kosovo would seem to underline such considerations. Among other acts of political pressure, the practice of non-recognition may be mentioned as one which has often been referred to as intervention. For example, Senor Guardia, Special Agent of President Tinoco of Costa 7 6

7 7

7 8

7 9

8 0

81

8 2

8 3

E.g. M. S. Rajan, United Nations and Domestic Jurisdiction, 2nd edn, London, 1961. Cf. the Declaration on the Inadmissibility of Intervention in the Domestic Affairs of States and the Protection of the Independence and Sovereignty, GA Res. 2131 (XX) 1966. By virtue of their 'abstract consent, see my Law Making, 322ff, note 74 above, and below in this Chapter, B v. A. V. Thomas and A. J. Thomas, Non-Intervention, Dallas, 1956, 226. Ironically, Yugoslavia could possibly have preserved an argument that it enjoyed a wider reserved domain than other States by not being a Member of the UN. Yugoslavia, the Respon­ dent before the ICJ in another case, Bosnia-Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), itself accused of genocide, brought an action against ten NATO Members in 1999 in the ICJ, claiming, inter alia, that NATO States were committing genocide in Yugoslavia by bombing raids. See, ICJ, Application for Provisional Measures (Yugoslavia v. Belgium; Yugoslavia v. Canada; Yugoslavia v. France; Yugoslavia v. Germany; Yugoslavia v. Italy; Yugoslavia v. Nether­ lands; Yugoslavia v. Portugal; Yugoslavia v. Spain; Yugoslavia v. United Kingdom; Yugoslavia v. United States), ICJ Reports, 1999, the so-called Kosovo Cases. The cases against Spain and against the United States were dismissed for lack of jurisdiction under their reservation clauses to the Statute of the ICJ. Cf. my Essays on the Law of Treaties, lOOfT. on effect of treaties on third parties. See my International Legal Order, 197ff and 303ff. Certain conditions must be fulfilled, see below in this Chapter, B vii on humanitarian interven­ tion.

GENERAL

72

PRINCIPLES

Rica stated in Washington in 1917 when the United States had refused to recognise his government that 'the fact that the Washington Government refuses to recognise the legally constituted Government of Costa Rica, and seeks to justify its refusal by invoking a principle that is no part of international law (that of popular will freely expressed), will probably be interpreted as unjustified i n t e r v e n t i o n \

84

Many thus focus on the object, the type of affair in which interference takes place. They thus classify as intervention any activity which affects the 'domestic affairs' of another State.

85

But the prohibition of intervention

becomes meaningless if intervention is understood to consist in any form of involvement or interference.

86

Some writers concentrate more on the

aspect of coercion, that is the act of interference itself. But the two elements, coercion and involvement in domestic affairs, operate together. Some writers have thus suggested that any activity which 'interferes coercively in the 'domestic affairs of another State' constitutes intervention.

87

This

definition, even though slightly circular, at least limits intervention to action taken by force. Some commentators have suggested that intervention is only permissible if another State has already illegally intervened. Thus, John Stuart Mill, writing on internal disturbances and insurgency, said that 'Though it be a mistake to give freedom to a people who do not value the boon, it cannot but be right to insist that if they do value it, they shall not be hindered from 88

the pursuit by foreign coercion.' Thus, if, during the 1898 revolutions, the Russians had sought to stop the Hungarian insurgency by lending support 8 4

8 5

8 6

8 7

8 8

1 Hackworth 235. For example, 'covert' intervention to influence the internal affairs of other nations. For a discussion of this definition (allegedly of the CIA), see ASIL, 1975,192. The element 'domestic' will, of course, always be essential to an act of 'intervention', 10; 'Intervention' should be restricted to acts 'which try to affect not the external activities but the domestic affairs of a State'. Vincent, Non-intervention and International Order, 13. On the relevance of'power' relationships in intervention situations, see H. J. Morgenthau, 'To intervene or not to intervene', 45 Foreign Affairs 1967, 425: on 'coercion' in intervention see M. Beloff, 'Reflection on intervention', Journal of International Affairs, 1968, 198; Strupp-Schlochauer, 2 Wörterbuch, 145. But some claim that the coercion must not amount to 'war' as intervention can take place only in peacetime: they claim that the requirement of peace is an 'element in the definition of intervention', Thomas and Thomas, Non-intervention, 73. Such restrictive terminology becomes awkward: there are many occasions in recent armed conflicts when there has been a hiatus in a 'war' situation and yet no 'peace'; certain acts of other States (or organisations) would still be perceived as 'intervention' at such times, for example, in Croatia, 1990-2 or in Bosnia, 1993-5. A. Piradow-Starncheko, 'Das Prinzip der Nichteinmischung im modernen Völkerrecht' in Gegenwartsprobleme des Völkerrecht, Berlin, 1962. John Stuart Mill, 'A few words on non-intervention', Fräsers Magazine, 1859.

P R O H I B I T I O N OF WAR

73

to Austria, England would have been entitled to intervene too, to assist the Hungarian insurgents. That would, said Mill, be construed as 'intervention to enforce non-intervention' and that was always 'lawful' although it was more questionable whether first action could be t a k e n .

89

But any extended

right to 'counter-intervention' or subsequent intervention, in response to earlier i n t e r v e n t i o n a l action, is b o u n d to escalate any conflict and must be viewed with extreme caution. Many commentators have argued that intervention in an internal con­ flict is always unlawful. The Vietnam War was, for a considerable t i m e ,

90

classified as an 'internal conflict' and some considered that because of this nature, there was no right of other States to interfere by collective selfdefence under general international law or under the Charter of the United Nations.

91

This was also the argument of Yugoslavia (Serbia and M o n ­

tenegro) in the action brought in the International Court of Justice against ten Member States of NATO in 1999: here, the applicants argued that these Member States had resorted to the illegal use of force against Yugoslavia in what it considered to be an internal m a t t e r .

92

Conversely, the conflict in former Yugoslavia in 1991-95 was also, for a long time, regarded as 'internal', entitling other States and organisations to be 'passive' in order to preserve, or restore, as many wished, the status quo ante. In this scenario, some then argued that intervention was a duty and that States had an obligation to take action, especially by 'humanitarian 93

intervention'. However, that aid, in a war situation, especially in the form of food, may help an attacking side:

94

feeding an invading army and

effectively prolonging a conflict, complicates the issue of a 'duty' of inter­ vention.

95

This work is concerned with the use of armed force and we shall therefore limit our attention to two main types of intervention, namely intervention by direct armed force and secondly, intervention by offering assistance to another State, or to non-State groups in another State, in an armed conflict. There is a clear conceptual connection between intervention and war. For if intervention is an act by force to make a State do what it would 8 9

91

9 2

9 3

9 0

Ibid. Above, Ch. l , D i d . J. N. Moore, 'The Lawfulness of Assistance to the Republic of Vietnam', 61 AJIL> 1967, 1. See below; Ch. 12, C e, on the so-called Kosovo Cases). M. Bettati and B. Kouchner, (eds.), Le devoir d'ingirence Paris, 1987. See below, in this Chapter, iii e and Ch. 11, C on misused humanitarian aid. See below in this Chapter, B vii on humanitarian intervention. y

9 4

9 5

GENERAL

74

PRINCIPLES

otherwise not do, war is a magnification of this situation whereby a State seeks to force an enemy to do its will.

96

Intervention may have become a synonym for violence, force and even egoism.

97

It is indeed intervention, and not the principle of non-interven­ 98

tion, that needs explanation. But insofar as it involves direct military force there is n o question that it has been outlawed and similar remarks may be made with respect to this type of intervention as were made in respect of war and the use of force in general. Instruments forbidding the use of force often specifically mention intervention as a prohibited act.

99

Even in the

case of instruments which do not specifically mention intervention, such acts can normally be subsumed under the prohibition of the use of force. Other instruments focus on intervention and introduce further prohib­ itions,

100

but such agreements in turn often also refer to a general prohib­

ition of the use of force as well. Intervention by direct military action is thus merely a specific method of employing armed force against another State. The alleged cases for permis­ sible intervention of this type, humanitarian intervention and what in this book is called 'patronising intervention', will be discussed later.

101

The second type of intervention, which implies the assistance to a State or group involved in a conflict, can be sub-divided into two main groups: intervention which assists a State engaged in a traditional inter-State war and intervention which assists a State, or groups within that State, when there is a war of a non-State character. In the first case, assistance may often be given to a State under some defence pact or alliance treaty and such treaties will furnish sufficient title for the legitimate intervention by mili­ tary troops or by financial or other aid. The treaties which furnish the competence for such intervention can be replaced, in casu by the more or y

less formal ad hoc consent of a State.

102

Apart from such intervention in war a State may assist another State 9 6

Clausewitz, Vom Kriege 75. P. A. Massourides, Le principle de non-intervention en droit international moderne, Athens, 1968, 83. R. Little, Intervention, Involvement in Civil War, London 1975, 32. See in particular, The United Nations Charter, article 2(4) and 2(7). For example, the Montevideo Convention on Rights and Duties of States 1933, 165 LNTS 19; the Buenos Aires Convention for the Maintenance, Preservation and Re-Establishment of Peace with Additional Protocol Relative to Non-intervention, 1936, 188 LNTS 9; and the Bogota Charter of OAS 1948, 30 UNTS 55. Below, in this chapter, under B viii and ix. On the relevance of consent, see my Independent State, 2nd edn, 197. y

9 7

9 8

9 9

1 0 0

101

102

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

75

involved in a non-State conflict in a third State. Furthermore, assistance may be given to a State, or to groups within that State, in an internal conflict. It is the last-mentioned type which creates the greatest difficulty in practice from the point of view of assessing legitimacy: when is it 'right' to assist a government to suppress groups seeking self-determination and when is it 'right' to assist insurgents who are rising against the legitimate government?

b. Assisting the government

in internal

conflict

Intervention has been condemned as a form of aggression by the General Assembly if it leads to 'fomenting civil strife'.

103

Some writers have ques­

tioned whether it is ever permissible for a State to request or receive outside military assistance in internal conflicts. Nations Definition on Aggression

105

104

But the section of the United

forbids assistance in the form of

bands, groups or irregulars who will carry out acts of armed force against another State. Thus, 'the sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another State of such gravity as to a m o u n t to the acts listed above (such as invasion, b o m b a r d m e n t , blockade) or its substantial involvement therein'

106

will a m o u n t to aggression. Can one then, by an e contrario

deduction, conclude that assistance in another form to another govern­ ment is permissible? In other words, even if it is not allowed to dispatch, for example, irregulars, can a State send official forces? There are some indications that it may no longer be permissible to lend any assistance, whether in the form of irregular or regular forces, to governments in such situations and some support for this contention may be found in the UN General Assembly Resolution on Friendly Relations

107

which forbids 'organising, instigating, assisting or participating in acts of civil strife or terrorist acts in another State or acquiescing in organised activities within its territory, directed towards the commission of such acts, when the acts referred to in the present paragraph involve a threat or use of force.' It has been claimed that the Friendly Relations Resolution of 1970 which gives a wider scope to the prohibition of intervention is an 103

, o s

106

107

104

GA Res. 380 (V) 1950. 1 Hyde 182, 253. Res. 3314 (XXIX) of 1974; above, in this Chapter, A ii. Article 3(g), for comments see 2 Ferencz, Defining International 'L'aggressione', 253. Res. 2526 (XXV) 1970.

Aggression,

39; and Sciso,

76

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

'authoritative' interpretation of article 2(4) of the C h a r t e r .

108

This may not

be accurate, as the General Assembly does not have the power to make such 'authoritative' interpretations.

109

Yet it may be correct to state that there is

a presumption of illegality of intervention. But, in spite of presumptions of illegality in general, military assistance by regular forces may be offered to a government under the provisions of a treaty. For example, the Havana Treaty of 1928 provides specifically that arms may be provided to a requesting government until belligerency is recognised.

110

The Batista government of Cuba complained when the

United States ceased arms supplies and demanded further assistance under this Treaty.

111

The general provisions of the Rio Treaty of 1947 on Inter-

American Reciprocal Assistance

112

also appear to have room for such

assistance. Military assistance may also be given in individual cases under informal security arrangements with allied governments, even if there is no specific treaty on the matter. Some writers claim that, if such agreements with, for example, the United States are to remain 'credible', the United States must at least maintain a 'viable and perceivable capability to intervene'.

113

There may even be assistance provided by intervention in order to save the operations of a treaty. For example, the Customs Receivership Conven­ tion between the United States and the Dominican Republic of 1907

114

was

jeopardised by a revolution in 1913. The Secretary of State of the United States, through the Minister in Santo Domingo, informed the new govern­ ment that, above all, the Dominican Republic was not allowed to increase its debt by costs for a revolution under the aforementioned Convention without the consent of the United States. Subsequently, the United States sent 'advisers' to the Dominican Republic to bring about the election of another President; a candidate was approved and recognised by the United States the following y e a r .

115

The United States took similar action in the Dominican Republic in 1965 1 0 8

1 , 0

111

1 . 2

1 . 3

1 . 4

I w

Above, in this Chapter, A i. UN Study on the Naval Arms Race, 26 July 1985, 85. Above, Ch. 1, D i b. On recognition of belligerency in civil war, see below, Ch. 4, B. E. E. T. Smith, The Fourth Floor, New York, 1962, 91. Article 6; for reference see 21 UNTS 77. J. R. Picket, 'Airlift and military intervention* in E. P. Stern, (ed.), The Limits of Military Intervention, Beverly Hills, 1977, 137. Specific consent may also be given in casu, see below, in this Chapter, B v on legitimising factors and cf. my Law Making, 64 and 74 on specific consent to United Nations operations in the Congo. Cf. L. Doswald-Beck, 'The legal validity of military intervention with the invitation of the government', BYIL 1985, 189. lMalloy418. 1 Hackworth 240-1. 1 , 5

P R O H I B I T I O N OF WAR

77

to ensure that the President favoured by the United States was elected.

116

In

this action the United States was m u c h assisted by the Organisation of American States (OAS), by an Inter-American Peace Force (IAPF), and by the Representative of the UN Secretary General in the Dominican Republic (DOMREP).

117

In the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s, the United Nations and the European Community, now the European Union (EU), took forceful action to give considerable political support to the federal government in Belgrade, in spite of calls for respect for the democratic will. Many 'deplored' the dissolution of the federation and the U N imposed an arms embargo which, for a while, paralysed efforts of countries within the Federation to achieve independence.

118

In the case of Haiti in 1991, it was a deposed President that the United States supported. President Aristide had been deposed in a coup d'etat and gone into exile; but he was still considered by the United States as represen­ ting the legitimate government. Again, the United Nations took the same view and despatched the UN Mission in Haiti ( U N M I H ) to 'restore' constitutional o r d e r .

119

The OAS took part in this incident too as well as in

the decision to ' c o n d e m n ' the replacement of President Aristide 'ille­ gally'.

120

But one wonders what has become of the right of individual States

to self-determination if other States and organisations have to support and approve of the election of the Heads of those States.

c. Assistance to insurgents in internal

disputes

There have been statements to the effect that assistance to insurgents, especially if furnished by the export of arms by individuals rather than by direct State support, is not illegal under international law. The United States emphasised that duties of neutrality do not necessarily imply that arms exports, to either government or insurgents, have to be prohibited, espe­ cially if legislation has to operate extraterritorially in order to be effective. When the Mexican Government asked the United States to prevent arms supplies from Texas to rebels in Mexico, the United States Government replied initially that the arms supplies were not illegal under United States 1 . 6

1 . 7

1 , 9

120

S/6313, S/6991, (1965) and S/7338, Add. 5, (1966). On UN forces and 'peace' missions, see below, Ch. 11, B. See further below, Ch. 11. GA Res. 47/20 (1992) 'demanding' the restoration of President Aristide. OAS, SG/SM/4627. 118

GENERAL

7«

PRINCIPLES

law. W h e n subsequently a joint Resolution of Congress was passed to enable the President to prohibit arms exports if and when he identified, in any American country, 'conditions of domestic violence . . . which is promoted by the use of arms or munitions of war procured from the United States'

121

it was emphasised by the Secretary of State, in a note to

Mexico, that This action was taken not because of any obligation so to do resting upon the Government by reason of the rules and principles of International Law, which obligations were already far more than met by the existing so-called neutral status of the United States, but solely from a sincere desire to promote the return of peace to Mexico and the welfare of a neighbouring nation.

122

Assistance in the form of military support to insurgents appears now to be outlawed by the instruments mentioned above and by the General Assem­ bly Resolution 3314(XXIX) of 1974 as well as by the earlier Resolution 2625 (XXV) of 1975, which reflect general international law on these issues.

123

However, assistance is not usually given in the form of overt military support b u t more often by financing guerilla or resistance operations or revolutionary warfare. Figures and data are obviously not easily accessible in this sector but certain assistance has been given quite openly. Thus the State Department of the United States announced in 1984 that it had set aside 'aid' of some $280 million for Afghan guerillas for 1985 and $21 million to support the Nicaraguan ' C o n t r a s ' .

124

In spite of the openness of

the support given to forces opposing the government, the United States classified such support as 'covert a i d ' .

d. Assistance

125

to groups in other non-State

conflicts

With regard to assistance to non-State parties in liberation wars, similar comments may be made as with regard to assistance to insurgents and other belligerents in internal wars. In the case of a non-State party, physi­ cally present and organised with headquarters or military installations in 121

1 2 3

124

122

1 Hackworth 29-30. Ibid., 30. On the effect of General Assembly Resolutions, see my Law Making, 207ff. It is also highly questionable whether aid in the form of 'Energy for Democracy' is compatible with interna­ tional law: this scheme was initiated in 1999 by the EU to offer aid to the opponents of President Milosevic in Yugoslavia, see The Times 11 October 1999; Le Monde 11 October 1999. Sunday Times, 30 December 1984. Ibid. 125

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

79

the territory of another State, it would seem, however, that any assistance to that body would have to have the consent of the territorial State. Such general rules might be relevant to assistance, for example to the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), previously engaged in a war which was neither an inter-State war, nor an internal w a r .

126

For example,

the situation in the Middle East is highly complex and it is at times unclear which State or group is a belligerent. But it is fairly settled that the PLO was a belligerent, alone or in conjunction with other parties. As has been shown above,

127

the PLO was engaged in one of the few disputes that could be

classified as liberation wars. For the purposes of n u m e r o u s Conventions, such wars are to be held to be 'international', but since the PLO had no territorial base, even now it cannot be considered a State, and the armed conflict was therefore, technically, a non-State war. O n the other hand, it was not an internal war for it is not fought by citizens against their own government.

e. The effect of providing

assistance to either

party

At the root of the problem is that, if assistance from outside is stopped, the conflict may cease. For example, there are obligations under the Havana Convention on the Duties and Rights of States in the Event of Civil Strife, 1929128 f

or

those States b o u n d by the Convention to prevent persons on

their territory, whether nationals or aliens, from crossing the border to start or promote civil strife. States have only occasionally agreed to refrain from assisting either side in internal wars. One example of this rare practice was that during the Spanish Civil War specific non-intervention agreements were concluded involving parallel instruments to diplomatic, consular and naval authorities in Spain. The parties to these agreements were the United Kingdom, the United States and a number of European powers. The United Kingdom had taken the initiative in an agreement with G e r m a n y

129

and invited others to j o i n .

130

United Kingdom and France exchanged notes on non-intervention and 27 other States made 'similar' declarations.

126

129

130

131

127

131

128

Cf. above, Ch. 1, D i c. See above, Ch. 1, D ii a (3). 33 LNTS 26. 65 BFSP 769. N. Padelford, International Law and Diplomacy in the Spanish Civil Strife, New York, 1939, 54fif. Ibid., 57.

8o

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

Non-intervention in these agreements and declarations implied initially the prohibition of arms exports coupled with a system of information on implementation of this obligation. In 1936 a Non-intervention Commit­ tee was created and prohibitions were gradually introduced for the re­ cruitment of volunteers and other restrictive measures through further agreement between the members of the Committee. An Observation Scheme was started in 1937 r o u n d the frontiers of Spanish territory to verify that the Agreement was being observed. Eight international agencies were established to supervise and administer the obligation of non­ intervention.

132

The Evacuation Plan of the Powers in 1938 received consent by both sides in the war; earlier there had been certain protests that observation officers usurped the sovereign rights of S p a i n .

133

Different States supporting a government and others supporting the insurgents

134

certainly widens a conflict and may result in Vicarious

wars': in Vietnam the United States supported South Vietnam while, less overtly, China and the then USSR supported the Vietcong. In Afghanis­ tan, the Soviet Union supported the 'puppet' government in Kabul, elec­ ted by its various measures, while the United States supported the rebels. In Nicaragua, the United States supported the 'Contras' and the USSR the Sandinista government. After the demise of the bipolar system a similar pattern, with different allegiances, can be observed, again fuelling an armed conflict. Thus, Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad and Sudan now support the Democratic Republic of the Congo, involved in major wars with insurgents, and Rwanda and Uganda support the rebels.

135

There are good reasons why the earlier practice of non-intervention should be applied in other internal conflicts and why individual States, the United Nations and other organisations, should make efforts to further prohibit such involvement. The obligation to refrain from lending assist­ ance in internal wars is not very different from the duties that flow from the status of neutrality in inter-State wars. In such wars, third parties readily accept that they must be 'impartial'; they furthermore readily undertake to 132

133

135

Apart from the International Non-intervention itself, these were the International Board for Non-intervention, two Chief Administrators, the Group of Administrators and Deputies, the Corps of Observation officers, the Naval Patrol, the International Fund, and the Accounts Officer. The implementation of the tasks carried out by these groups was funded (apart from the patrol) by a common pool of participating States. Padelford, Spanish Civil Strife, 79fT. Ibid., 113, 115. See, in this Chapter, next section. See Strategic Survey, 1998-9, 235. 134

81

P R O H I B I T I O N OF WAR

punish those of their nationals who in any way breach a blockade or carry contraband.

136

Why should not similar duties accrue to third States and their nationals in the event of internal war? We have adopted a wider concept of war than many other writers, mainly to avoid the artificialities of the ambiguous concept o f ' a r m e d conflict'.

137

However, it is not the case that any armed

conflict or disturbance will constitute internal war and there are therefore ample guarantees that third States and their citizens will not be in any real doubt as to whether war exists. Insurance companies are not, as we shall see, guided by any technical difference between inter-State or internal war: the question is whether there is a 'war-risk a r e a ' .

138

The consequences of accepting the wider notion of war, which also covers internal war, will not have any substantial negative repercussions for third States. What must be emphasised is that without outside assistance the strife might well die out. Even in Vietnam there was this possibility, before the intervention of the United States.

139

One almost certain consequence of providing 'help' in a conflict, espe­ cially in the form of well-intended food, and other 'humanitarian', aid is that the armed conflict is p r o l o n g e d .

140

The change of United Nations policy in

recent conflicts has not necessarily helped to solve or calm down armed conflicts.

141

Before 'humanitarian' involvement became added to or even

substituted the main aim of UN peace-keeping troops, such U N missions were given clearly specified short-term goals, excluding any form

of'humani­

tarian ' assistance. These goals were also, in most cases, viable in the sense that the mandate could be undertaken and completed within a limited t i m e .

142

This change from the previous strategy has probably not strengthened respect for the United Nations activities in the world: U N Blue Helmets were evacuated from war zones in Bosnia as such areas were considered 'too dangerous' for the UN troops, leaving civilians to be overrun by attacking soldiers. The UN found it impossible to deliver food aid, but this, after all, cannot have been the primary aim of the UN's action. As such food aid easily 136

139

140

141

142

137

1 3 8

2 Oppenheim 673ff. Above, in Ch. 1, B iii. Below, Ch. 10, C iii b. Q. Wright, 'Legal aspects of the Vietnam situation', 60 AJIL 1966, 750. See below, Ch. 11, B i. See the declared aims of Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali in Agenda for Peace, New York, 1992, A/47/277-S/24111; Agenda for Peace, 2nd edn, 1995, A/50/60-S/1995/1; cf. UN, Dept. for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, An Inventory of Post-Conflict Peace-Building Activities, New York, 1996, ST/ESA/246. There are, of course, numerous exceptions to this rule: UN Forces have been stationed in the Lebanon and in Cyprus for several decades.

82

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

becomes diverted to benefit attacking armies, it is questionable whether it should not be ruled out as a form of inappropriate assistance, best handled by other agencies once the U N forces have re-established the situation.

143

The asymmetry which always exists in a non-State conflict will be exaggerated if assistance to governments, but not to insurgents, is allowed. Assistance in any form given to States or to groups in internal disputes or other non-State wars may, on the other hand, internationalise the dispute and, in this way, give it other d i m e n s i o n s .

144

If this happens, the once

'internal dispute' may be reclassified as an 'international', with all the repercussions this may have for the application of certain international conventions and other legal rules. However, the ground rule is that no assistance should be provided to either side, only political condemnation of all forms of violence.

B. Legitimising factors The question whether an act implies illegal use of force, aggression or intervention is often a question of fact. There are limited opportunities for assessing a situation by an impartial entity and, even in cases where such examination is available by, for example, the International Court of Justice, political reasoning may override legal arguments. This situation is amply 145

illustrated in the United States v. Nicaragua Case.

The United States had

previously accepted the Court's Jurisdiction by the Optional Clause of the Court's S t a t u t e

146

albeit with reservations.

147

But in the Nicaragua Case the

United States decided not to continue its attendance before the Court. There are a n u m b e r of factors which, at least in the opinion of the acting State, may legitimise forceful behaviour which, if it were not for these factors, would be clearly illegal under international law.

i. Recovery It has been said that article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter which forbids force would be inapplicable if a State 'recovers' territory under 143

145

146

147

144

See below, Ch. 11, B on UN Peace Keeping Forces. See Ch. 1, D b-d. (1984) and (1986), ICJ Reports, 1984, and 1986. On the Optional Clause, see C. H. M. Waldock, 'The decline of the Optional Clause', 32 BYIL 1956, 244. On the United States reservation, see H. M. G. Waldock, 'Reservations to the acceptance of compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice', 93 RCADI, 1958, 229.

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

»3

foreign 'illegal' domination. Arguments like these were u s e d with respect to Goa in 1 9 6 1 War in 1982.

150

149

148

by India

and by Argentina in the case of the Falklands

Conversely, the justification of 'recovery' was also put

forward by the United Kingdom when the Falkland Islands were 'retaken' the same year. It is not necessarily imperative that the State claiming sovereignty carries out the recovery action: this State may have allies acting together with it or, as in the Gulf War in 1990, may carry out most of the action: through operation Desert Storm, Western powers retook Kuwait which had been annexed by Iraq.

151

Borders are often disputed and the very notion of aggression or other types of force then become even more relative.

152

But some borders are

more entrenched than others: for example some borders are 'internation­ ally recognised'. A Draft of the UN Resolution on Aggression

153

had

suggested that any use of force to alter an 'internationally agreed line of demarcation' should be specifically p r o h i b i t e d .

154

This Draft was not a d o p ­

ted. However, there are indications that international borders that have obtained recognition, either by express agreement or by long-standing practice, are specially protected from alterations by force. For example, the General Assembly Resolution on Friendly Relations

155

also forbids the use

of force or threat to violate international lines of demarcation. A certain elasticity of the rule indicates that it can be applied, mutatis mutandis,

to

internal borders of a federal State after the dissolution of a federation. Such application of the rule has been accepted by the international c o m m u n i t y for the Ukraine and for other States disengaged from the former Soviet 148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

Cf. O. Schachter, 'General course in public international law', 178 RCADI1982 v, 142. 16UNSCOR987. GA, A/37/PV, 51 (1982). J. F. Gavelle, 'The Falkland (Malvinas) Islands: An international law analysis of the dispute between Argentina and Great Britain', 107 MilLR, 1985, 5ff. J. N. Moore, Crisis in the Gulf, New York, 1992; S. El Sayegh, La crisedu Golfe, Paris 1992; R. M. Moura Ramos, (ed.) A crise do Golfo e 0 direito international, Porto, 1993; P. Tavernier, (ed.), Nouvel ordre mondial et droits de Vhomme: les guerre du Golfe, Paris, 1993; M. Weller, Iraq and Kuwait: The Hostilities and Their Aftermath, Cambridge, 1991; B. Stern, Guerre du Golfe, Paris, 1991; D. Bethlehem, The Kuwait Crisis: Sanctions and Their Economic Consequences, 2 vols., Cambridge, 1991; Meyrowitz, 'La guerre du Golfe et le droit des conflits armes', RGDIP, 1992, 55Iff; U. Villani, Lezioni su rONUe la crisi del Golfo, Bari, 1991; P. M. Dupuy, 'Apres la guerre du Golfe', RGDIP, 1991,621ff; P. Bretton, Remarques sur le jus in hello, AFDI, 1991, 139fT; M. Merle, 'La crise du Golfe et le nouvel ordre international Paris, 1991; J. Verhoeven, 'Etats allies ou Nations Unies: l'ONU face au conflit entre Irak et le Kuweit', AFDI, 1990, 145ff. J. Stone, 'Hope and loopholes in 1974 definition of aggression', AJIL, 1977, 226. Resolution 3314 1974 and above, in this Chapter, A ii. Article 4(2) of the Six-Power Draft, A/AC. 134/L. 17. Resolution 2625 1970, and above, Ch. 1, C ii. On the role of prescription as the main function of the otherwise vague notion 'customary law', see my Concept, 2nd edn, 60, 63, 104.

8

GENERAL

4

PRINCIPLES

Union, as well as for those seceding from the former Socialist Federation of Yugoslavia. In all these cases, the constituent republics were treated (at least nominally) as separate units in the federal constitutions. Exceptional rules may be allowed in situations where borders have been wrongly assessed and territorial control must be corrected.

156

But, since

self-help is prohibited in international law, as it is in most national legal systems, a State cannot therefore resort to violence to 'take' territory unless it has a judgment issued by the International Court of Justice, or another international tribunal, or the consent of the UN Security Council, allowing it to do so. In the Falklands War such consent may have been 'presumed'. O n the other hand, it must be emphasised that the danger of a border dispute which is not regulated by international judicial process, or by UN negotiations, or other formal talks, may easily grow into a war. Such a dispute between Ethiopia and Eritrea flared up into full-scale war in 1999.

157

ii. H o t p u r s u i t Raids will not constitute hostile acts which, even if intense,

158

a m o u n t to

acts of war if they are carried out in hot pursuit. There are numerous historical examples to illustrate this rule which applies equally to land, air and s e a .

159

For example, General Jackson followed Indians into Spanish

Florida when they had attacked American positions in Georgia

160

and

Pancho Vilas was pursued into Mexico after he and his men had made incursions into American territory.

161

Hot pursuit, as a legal category, often comes close to self-defence or even anticipatory force. O n e example of this that may be mentioned is the incident in 1919 when the United States sent armed forces to put an end to the shooting from rebels in Ciudad Juarez into American territory.

156

157

1 5 9

160

162

For a discussion, see Temple ofVihar Case, ICJ, Reports, 1962,6. Strategic Survey, 1998-9,242. On the intensity criterion, above, Ch. 1, B iii b. Cf. N. Poulantzas, The Right of Hot Pursuit in International Law, Leiden, 1969; not all agree that the maritime notion of hot pursuit can be applied analogously to land and air situations; but the notion is derived from neighbour law and there is good ground to allow its extensive application especially in view of State practice. For the historical background see Institut de Droit International; 13 Annuaire 1894, 330; 34 Annuaire 1928, 759. 2 Moore, para. 215. 2 Hackworth 291. 2 Hackworth 299. 158

161

162

85

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

iii. Self-defence

a. General rules As self-defence is authorised in article 51 of the Charter it follows that it will also constitute a legitimising factor for certain acts of force which otherwise would be forbidden. There is a question whether article 51 limits the right of self-defence in two respects. First, it appears to limit a wider right of self-defence under international law by referring to an 'armed attack'. understood to be a wider c o n c e p t .

164

163

But 'armed attack' is probably now

It has been suggested that the right of

self-defence may exist even in cases where there has been n o previous use of force

165

although the normal functioning of self-defence is obviously to

repel by force another act of force.

166

Secondly, article 51 appears to restrict the right of self-defence under general international law by introducing a time element: States only have the right to resort to force until the Security Council has had an opportunity to consider the matter. There was a question, for example, in the Falklands War about when and if a time limit for action by the Security Council expires and therefore when a State can take action on its own without waiting for the decisions of the Security C o u n c i l .

167

Some writers point out that the fact that

the Security Council has a matter under its jurisdiction does not preclude the exercise of the right of self-defence under article 51. Consequently, Resol­ ution 502 of the Security Council in the Falklands War was not necessary as authorisation for British action, as it is clear that a State retains the right to defend itself regardless of such formalistic criteria concerning the handling of a situation by UN organs. If States did not retain that freedom they would soon be reluctant to refer any matter to the Security C o u n c i l . 163

164

165

166

167

, 6 a

168

S. C. Khare, Use of Force under UN Charter, New Delhi, 1985, 83, 123. On earlier meaning of 'armed attack', see Brownlie, Force, 365-8. Cf. my 'Foreign Warships and Immunity for Espionage', AJIL, 1984, 72; cf. Khare, Force, 85ff. R. Taoka, The Right of Self-Defence in International Law, Osaka, 1978, 173. See, in detail, D. W. Bowett, Self-defence in International Law, 1958, passim and on the rule vim vi repeliere omnia jure permittunt, at 3; cf. H. Kelsen, 'Unrecht und Unrechtsfolge im Völkerrecht', ZaöRVR 1932, 270 and H. Kelsen, Law of the United Nations, New York, 1964, 269ff; C. W. M. Waldock, 'The regulation of the use of force by modern states in international law', RCADI, 1952, ii, 455fT. On older law under the Covenant of the League of Nations, see E. Giraud, 'La théorie de la légitime défense', RCADI, 1934, iii, 858; Gallus, 'Des amendements au Pacte de la Société des Nations en vue de le mettre en harmonie avec le Pacte de Paris', RGDIP, 1930, 30. For the Falklands War, see below, in this Chapter, B v, on the consent of a State. For a discussion, see J. F. Murphy, The United Nations, Manchester, 1983,69-70.

86

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

As in the case of all situations involving what has here been called 'legitimising factors' m u c h will turn on the facts. But the argument of self-defence has been used in n u m e r o u s recent conflicts even when the nature of the action seemed unlikely to warrant such qualification and when it could perhaps even have been justified under another heading. In some cases the right of self-defence may even come near that of necessity.

169

Vietnam argued before the Security Council that its invasion of Kampuchea in 1978 was an 'action in self-defence after border skirmishes started by the Pol Pot c l i q u e ' .

170

171

when it shelled

172

A US-registered

Again, the United States cited the right of self-defence Iranian off-shore oil platforms used for Iranian g u n b o a t s .

tanker had been hit in Kuwaiti waters by an Iranian missile and the United States considered it imperative to preempt further attacks on ships in neutral areas.

173

As the first attack had already happened, the US action could hardly

be construed as self-defence properly so called but rather as a form of anticipatory action.

b. Anticipatory

self-defence

The special problem of anticipatory self-defence is notoriously difficult to tackle. It is a field riddled with relative concepts where proportion and questions of fact may, in certain cases, legitimise forceful action intended to preempt a concrete and overhanging threat of aggression. But since the notion has been resorted to in a n u m b e r of conflicts as a cloak for drastic incursions, b o m b a r d m e n t s and attacks on alleged 'guerilla strongholds' in the territory of other States, it must be emphasised that anticipatory force falls under the prohibition of force in article 2(4) of the Charter, entailing a presumption

that it is illegal. A mere threat of attack does thus not

warrant military action; but a State may consider itself seriously threatened.

174

It may be questioned under what circumstances a right to such action subsists. If it does exist in some form as a right, it also appears that it is a 169

1 7 0

171

1 7 2

1 7 3

174

R. Y. Jennings, 'The Caroline and McLeod Case', A//L, 1938, 85. SC Resolution 511(1982); 512 (1982). Cf. below in this Chapter, B vii on humanitarian intervention and Ch. 4, C ii (2) (i) on the status of volunteers. Rather than reprisals; see the next section. See R. Leckow, 'The Iran-Iraq conflict in the Gulf, /CIQ, 1988, 643. Cf; Lloyds List; 17, 18 and 20 October 1987. Cf. bombardment by Israel of Hezbollah in the Exclusion Zone in the Lebanon.

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

87

right which can be forfeited: a State which itself does not have 'clean h a n d s ' cannot take such actions. For example, the Security Council condemned South African raids into Angola during the time of apartheid, even though Angola had allowed SWAPO considerable freedom to use its territory for guerilla attacks into N a m i b i a .

175

Anticipatory force has in recent years become m o r e acceptable in prac­ tice and few appear to have raised the question whether its use advances the stability of the international legal order, or whether its use is indeed legal and compatible with international law. Israel has repeatedly attacked tar­ gets outside its territory which it considers as 'threatening' and the United Nations and NATO have repeatedly planned or announced armed attacks against Iraq on the assumption that Iraq is capable of using, or about to use, forbidden weapons.

iv. Reprisals According to traditional notions, reprisals

176

provide a legitimate ground

for applying force against another State. This right presupposes a previous violation of the rights of a State followed by a refusal on the part of the violating State to make amends. The offended State is then entitled to take 'proportionate' reprisals.

177

Frozen Assets Affair in 1980,

As illustrated in the litigation concerning the 178

the right of reprisal subsists almost as a right

to impose economic measures to force another State to comply with international law. W h e n American diplomats and other personnel had been taken into custody by Iran, the United States froze Iranian assets in all American banks to bring about the release of the hostages. It is, however, questionable whether, after the establishment of the United Nations, the right to take reprisals still exists: the right of self175

176

177

178

SC Res. 454 (1979). On the current confusion between reprisals against States and reprisals against individuals, see below, Ch. 8, A iv c. Naulilaa Arbitration (1928), 2 RIAA 1013; Air Services Agreement Arbitration (1963), 16 RIAA 5; cf. J. Stone, Legal Controls of International Conflict, Sydney, 1954, 2nd edn, New York 1973; A. E. Hindmarsh, Force in Peace, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1933. This case, which was prepared in the High Court in London and settled out of court in 1991, concerned the blocking of Iranian assets in London following a Decree of President Carter freezing all such assets in all American banks. The United Kingdom gave extraterritorial effect to this by international comity rather than by any international obligation, (see my International Legal Order, pp. 14ff and 427ff). Seven American banks were sued in London by Iran which sought to have the assets released. The case, hardly reported in the press or in academic journals, was settled out of court when the hostages were released by Iran.

88

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

defence probably does not include the right of reprisals

179

and it may be

that all claims should be channelled through the United Nations to be legitimate. O n the other hand, if that organisation is slow to act, as it was in the Iranian and the Falklands affairs, as well as in Kosovo, or if the UN is not 'effective' as in the Bosnian conflicts, an at least temporary right of action may revert to the m e m b e r States.

v. T h e consent of a State The traditional view is that n o international conflict will exist because of an attack if the territorial government has given its consent to a particular act of force. Some even claim that the difference between intervention and war is precisely that an intervening State has the 'acquiescence' of the other State.

180

That is, of course, not necessarily true as there are numerous cases

of interventions where the 'other' State did not consent or acquiesce but, nevertheless, the situation did not escalate into w a r .

181

But the consent of a

State, if freely and properly given, can legitimise an intervention which otherwise would have been unlawful. Thus, assistance by the United States to Mexico to suppress raids of bandits and revolutionaries in Texas be­ tween 1911 and 1914 was probably made lawful by the consent of the government of M e x i c o .

182

Consent is certainly at the root of many rights States enjoy and, converse­ ly, of many burdens a State may suffer in international society. Different degrees of consent may even be required for certain situations as, for example, where a State allows another State the right to act in its terri­ tory.

183

Consent may thus deprive an action of its illegality by the rule

volenti non fit injuria. Consent may be given in casu in the event of, for example, raids, b u t also in some general form in a d v a n c e

184

as, for example,

in a Treaty allowing for intervention in certain circumstances. It may be added that one Treaty which does allow for such right of intervention is the United Nations Charter under which it may, for example, under article 41 179

R. Higgins, The Development of International Law through the Political Organs of the United Nations, London 1963,217; cf. D. Bowett, 'Reprisals involving recourse to armed force ,66 AJIL 1972, 1. Thomas and Thomas, Non-intervention, 73. On the threshold, above, Ch. 1, B iii b. 2 Hackworth 282. For a theory of a requirement of what I have called 'continuous consent' for any territorial infringement, e.g. for military bases, see my Independent State, 197fT. For my theory of 'abstract consent by a previous authorising Treaty, see my Law Making, 322ff. 1

1 8 0

1 8 2

1 8 1

1 8 4

181

8

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

9

have the right to intervene in the internal affairs of another State. In most cases, States have to give their express consent for UN troops to be present in their territory,

185

but in certain cases, notably when there is a situation

endangering international peace and security, the U N can take action even against the will of a certain State. However, even in this case, an act of consent by the State concerned can be found at the root of the situation. 1

6

By using what we have called a theory of 'abstract consent' *

we may

explain that the authorisation of the United Nations - which could have constituted a separate legitimising factor - can conveniently be subsumed under the present sub-heading: the parties to the Charter, and those who later have acceded to it, have agreed, beforehand and in the abstract, to certain actions by the UN, such actions including, for example, s a n c t i o n s

187

which may involve military action, possibly by UN forces; because of the 'abstract consent' such action cannot be held to be in contravention of any rules prohibiting force. There is instead an overriding presumption that the UN action is compatible with international law. It may be argued that States, by the mere fact that they form part of international society, have given their consent to the enforcement of 188

m i n i m u m rules of jus

cogens.

But individual States who apply force to another State have to accept a different presumption: that of deviating from a compelling rule prohibiting force unless they can show, inter alia, clear consent on the part of the State they 'assist* by military force. Sometimes, formal consent by the government is not sufficient if that government, for example, has no 'popular s u p p o r t ' .

189

Thus, assistance lent to a 'puppet' government, or to a government controlled by the intervenor (or by some other State) will always be illegal.

190

The rule on democratic consent demands that the 'people' wish

for assistance. In theory, this is quite clear. In practice, there are often insurmountable problems in assessing the evidence on which legality de­ pends. Soviet writers claimed that the former USSR was requested in Afghanistan to 'assist' the legitimate government; 185

186

188

189

190

191

191

similarly, the United

Note, for example, the unwillingness of Croatia to prolong the mandate of UNPROFOR. Cf. further below, Ch. 11 B. See note 184 above. Under articles 38, 41 and 42. See above on the NATO action in Kosovo to prevent further genocide, and further below, Ch. 11, C; cf. the action of INTERFET in East Timor in 1999, ibid. Cf. above, Ch. 1, C 1 on démocratisation of international society and below, in this Chapter, B viii, under what I have termed 'patronising intervention'; cf. 1 Hackworth. See above, in this Chapter, A iii e, on effects of assistance to either party in an armed conflict. Rybakov, Agresia, 147. 187

90

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

States claimed that 'assistance' was sought by Nicaragua, if not by the government, at least by a faction, the 'Contras', that should have formed the g o v e r n m e n t .

192

In both these cases the intervening State seems not to

have discharged a duty of showing international society that the interven­ tion had popular support. In neither case had the intervenor rebutted the strong presumption that, on the face of it at least, the intervenor had committed a violation of the rule of international law which protects territorial integrity. It has been argued that the outside support of Russian Federation of Socialist Republics (RFSR), later the USSR, in Mongolia and in Manchuria in the 1920s to suppress counter-revolutionaries was in 1929 held to be legitimate as it had obtained the consent of the Soviet U n i o n .

193

A similar

situation was that of British assistance by b o m b a r d m e n t following attacks of armed bands on A d e n ,

194

although in this case the assistance was given in

the light of a more obvious self-interest. But the situation is m o r e complex if one considers the effect of consent, or lack thereof, in the case of assistance given or offered to insurgents.

195

This is an area where problems bearing on intervention, recognition, and the effect of consent of the legitimate government converge. It could validly be argued that the requirement of consent of the legit­ imate government is irrelevant and, per se, a legal and factual impossibility in respect of any act offered to assist insurgents. It has been claimed that matters radically change after recognition, parties to the w a r .

197

196

when new States may become

But it has also been d e m o n s t r a t e d

198

that this is

probably not correct in view of contemporary State practice which rejects the formalistic notion of war in favour of a functional criterion based on whether substantial hostilities actually take p l a c e .

199

vi. Conflict with Jus cogens It is possible that one should view as reprisals

200

NATO's action against

Serbia and Montenegro in 1999. Here, the action had, however, a twofold purpose: to reprimand the Belgrade regime for the suppression of the 192

193

194

196

199

Nicaragua v. United States Case (1984) and (1986); ICJ Reports, 1984 and 1986. I. Brownlie, 'Armed Bands', 732. On assistance to government in internal disputes, see above, in this Chapter, A iii b. Ibid., 725. On assistance to insurgents in general, see above, in this Chapter, B iii. See above, Ch. 1, D i b. So 2 Oppenheim 660. See above, Ch. 1, B ii. See above, Ch. 1, B iii d. Above, in this Chapter, B iv. 195

197

2 0 0

198

91

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

Albanians in Kosovo by reprisals properly so called; but also, and m o r e importantly, to force Yugoslavia to cease such action. The legitimising ground for such intervention is thus that Yugoslavia had violated a m a n ­ datory peremptory n o r m of international law, thus a rule of jus

201

cogens,

regarding the duty of States to refrain from genocide and gross violations of h u m a n rights. It may be that protecting individuals from genocide provides a new ground for legitimising intervention and the use of force against a State. The United Nations should, it may be recalled, have provided authorisation for such action. However, since the United Nations was slow to a c t ,

202

there is argument to support the action by

NATO, as the lives of so many individuals were at stake. O n the other hand, international law does not condone any self-assessed violation

oijus

cogens to interfere in the internal affairs of a State. It is, indeed, uncertain what the contents and limits of jus cogens may b e ;

203

but, on the other

hand, there is widespread support for the view that it must, at least, include genocide.

204

vii. Non-responsibility A State has a duty to suppress injurious acts against foreign States and a particular duty to prevent any hostile military expeditions. This is an old rule in international l a w .

205

For a long time, a distinction has existed with

regard to the fitting out of military expeditions and the venture of indi­ viduals. The former, but not the latter, was prohibited by the Hague Convention V in 1 9 0 7 Acts.

206

and by many preceding national legislative

207

There were many borderline cases between fitting out expeditions and the expeditions of volunteers as, for example, in the Spanish Civil War when volunteers left en masse. Other cases difficult to categorise were the expeditions of volunteers of the People's Republic of China in K o r e a .

208

Some had raised the argument that volunteers, for w h o m a State is not See my International Legal Order, 174flf and 197ff. See also above, in the previous section on self-defence in this Chapter. See my International Legal Order, 17'4fT. Ibid. Curtis, T h e law of hostile military expeditions as applied by the United States', AJIL, 1914, 1. For reference see above, Ch. 1, note 120. E.g. the UK 1870 Foreign Enlistment Act, 33 & 34 Vict. c. 90, applied in R. v. Sandoval, (1887), 56 LTR 526 and in R. v. Jameson (1896) 2 QB 425. GAOR, 5th sess., 1st Committee, 1950, 401. 2 0 4

92

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

responsible under international law, could never be allowed to act in a situation when the United Nations was taking 'enforcement action'. But the situation was complicated by a n u m b e r of uncertain issues, above all concerning whether there was really a United Nations 'enforcement action' in Korea. There were clear indications that it had only been a collective security action of certain States, as there was n o actual UN authorisation for the a c t i o n .

209

States have often sought to justify the use of force against another territory by claiming that attacks or incursions were carried out by units of volunteers for which the State was not 'responsible'.

210

Sometimes a State

would claim that it had simply ' n o knowledge' of the expedition.

211

In

recent times this line was taken by Vietnam, in conjunction with other arguments,

212

to justify their invasion of Kampuchea in 1978.

213

Today, when the use of force and aggression have been outlawed the duty to prevent any military incursions by persons into foreign territory is enhanced. Whereas formerly the only duty of this kind existed vis-a-vis 'friendly n a t i o n s ' ,

214

it is now extended to all nations thus, it may be

assumed, imposing a d e m a n d for even greater control by the State even of the activities of volunteers.

215

viii. H u m a n i t a r i a n intervention States have often claimed that they have resorted to humanitarian interven­ tion and that therefore their actions are compatible with international law. Even in the most implausible situations such defences have been put forward. There was little to substantiate any such legitimising circumstan­ ces in the Grenada invasion,

216

apart from the fact that even if there had

been, there was lack of proportion between the need for action and its size and intensity. It is difficult to find a 'pure' case of humanitarian intervention. In the

2 0 9

2 . 0

2 . 1

2 1 2

2 , 3

2 1 4

2 1 5

2 , 6

S. Bastid, Cours de droit international public, Paris, 1951-2, 340; cf. my Law Making, 60. Cf. above, Ch. 1, B iii c and this Chapter, A iii. See St Albans Claim, 4 Moore, 4042, on a secret mission sent from Canada to the United States. Below, in the next section on humanitarian intervention. Cf. Murphy, The United Nations, 61; cf. SC resolutions 611 (1982) and 512 (1982). Cf. The Alabama, United States v. United Kingdom, 7 Moore, 1059; but even then there was a question of special duties under a treaty: the Treaty of Washington of 8 May 1871. Cf. below, Ch. 4, C ii (2) on the status of volunteers in war, and C ii (3) on mercenaries. See, on the Granada Invasion, W. Gilmore, The Grenada Invasion, London, 1984.

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

93

complex situation of military intervention, however, it may be that hu­ manitarian motives can be pleaded in mitigation.

217

Humanitarian intervention provided the basis of legitimacy for Tan­ zania's invasion of Uganda in 1979. In spite of some such claims, this action could hardly be construed as self-defence in response to armed border incursions by the troops of Idi Amin, Uganda's ruler, as Tanzania's re­ sponse in that case was grossly d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e .

218

But the incident raises

an interesting question: does the attacking State have to declare that it takes humanitarian intervention? Tanzania had not d o n e so and yet, because of the nature of Amin's rule in Uganda, no voices were raised against the invasion. Until the end of the 1990s, most cases of humanitarian intervention had concerned nationals of an intervening S t a t e ,

219

for example, Israeli citizens

saved by Israel's raid against Uganda at E n t e b b e ,

220

or the rescue of

American diplomatic and consular staff trapped at the US's Teheran Embassy in that country's foiled Teheran intervention a t t e m p t .

221

The most spectacular case of humanitarian intervention, however, con­ cerned non-nationals and was for several reasons both atypical and highly controversial. This intervention occurred in 1999 when NATO decided to b o m b Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) to force the Belgrade regime to cease the ethnic cleansing of Albanians in Kosovo. The b o m b i n g started on 24 March 1999 and continued until 10 June. It was directed primarily against Serb military targets in Kosovo but also against other military targets in Serbia and, to a much lesser extent, in Montenegro. There was collateral damage and civilian deaths caused by the NATO campaign and a mistaken bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade. However, it halted the brutal actions of the Belgrade regime in Kosovo. 2 1 7

2 . 8

2 . 9

2 2 0

221

T. Schweisfurth, 'Operation to rescue nationals in third States involving the use of force in relation to the protection of human rights', 23 GYIL 1980, 159; T. E. Behuniak, 'The law of humanitarian intervention by armed force, a legal survey', Military Law Review, 1978, 157; B. Simma, 'Zur bilateralen Durchsetzung verträglich verankerte Menschenrechte', in C. Schreuer, (ed.), Auktorität und internationale Ordnung, 1979,129; H. S. Fairley, 'State actors, humanitar­ ian intervention and international law: re-opening Pandora's box', 10 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, 1980, 29; T. Franck and N. Rodley, 'After Bangladesh: the law of humanitarian intervention by military force', AJIL, 1973,275; I. Brownlie, 'Humanitarian intervention' in J. N. Moore, (ed.) Law and Civil War in the Modern World, London, 1974,217. On proportionality in self-defence, see above, in this Chapter, B iv. D'Angelo, 'Resort to force to protect nationals', VirLJ 1980-1,485flf. See, for example, Strebel, 'Nochmals zur Geiselbefreiung in Entebbe', ZaöRVR, 1977, 213ff. Folz, 'Bemerkungen zur völkerrechtlichen Beurteilung der Vorgänge um die amerikanischen Geiseln in Iran', Festschrift Schlochauer, 1983, 271.

GENERAL

94

PRINCIPLES

O n the other hand, the action certainly poses difficult questions of legality as the United Nations had not authorised the NATO move although approving resolutions were forthcoming when the bombing cam­ paign had ceased, possibly ratifying the action although belatedly. To the surprise of some commentators, the UN did not itself take any action. The system of'warnings' which the UN uses to deter aggression no longer seems to suffice in a n u m b e r of situations in the contemporary world: stronger action is warranted as 'warnings' are often not taken seriously.

222

It is true

that China and, to some extent, Russia blocked m u c h action in the Security Council but it is conceivable that the U N could have taken some other action to alleviate the persecution of Albanians in Kosovo. O n the other hand, their plight was to some extent undeniably worsened by the bombing which made them flee their homeland to endure extremely difficult condi­ tions in over-crowded camps in Macedonia and Albania. Some claim that there are certain situations, such as the one in point, when there may even be a duty to intervene.

223

To others the action was 'illegal': Yugoslavia

rapidly asked the International Court of Justice to issue interim measures to stop NATO's bombing campaign and further, although itself accused of genocide in n u m e r o u s situations,

224

accused NATO o f ' g e n o c i d e ' .

225

W h a t authority did NATO have to act? There was an important Security Council Resolution

226

calling for an end of atrocities (and of terrorist acts)

and for free access to humanitarian aid in Kosovo, a Resolution ignored by the Belgrade regime, but which could conceivably be interpreted as enabling or authorising further action. This instance may prove that the reserved domain has diminished in the sense that if a State commits gross violations of h u m a n rights and/or humanitarian law, including the law of warfare, another State, group of States or organisation, may be entitled to intervene 2 2 2

2 2 3

2 2 4

2 2 5

2 2 6

A. L. George and J. E. Holl, The Warning-Response: Problems and Missed Opportunities in Preventive Diplomacy, ed. by Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1997, 13. M. Bettati and B. Kouchner, (eds.), Le devoir d'ingérence, Paris, 1987; O. Corten and P. Klein, Droit d'ingérence ou obligations de réaction, Brussels, 1992; M. Bettati, Le droit d'ingérence, Paris, 1996; M. J. Domestici-Met, 'Aspects juridiques récents de l'assistance humanitaire', AFDJ, 1989, 117ff. For example, in Bosnia, see the Genocide Case (Bosnia-Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), (1993), Preliminary Measures, ICJ, Reports, 1993 and continuing on the Merits. See also the Vukovar massacre of 297 patients in the Vukovar Hospital in 1991, allegedly by 'Arkan', the Serb soldier wanted for war crimes by the Hague Tribunal, assassinated in December 1999. See below, Ch. 12, C e on the Kosovo Cases. SC Res. 1199/98. As in the case of other Resolutions touching on the reserved domain and sovereign rights, China abstained.

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

95

to ensure that such atrocities cease. It is to be noted that it does not appear to be any defence of a State resorting to such gross violations that there are terrorist movements that must be quelled within the sovereign area of the State. Even if the State is entitled to restore order within its territory, it is never thus entitled to commit excesses in the way it deals with its own citizens or other persons who are present in the State. this is the case in w a r t i m e

228

as well as in p e a c e

229

227

It is evident that

in a civilised international

society where the fate of the citizens of one State is not the concern of that State alone but of humanity at large. There is obviously a requirement that the gross violations which may entitle other States or organisations to resort to humanitarian intervention must be of considerable proportions;

the

notion of a protected reserved domain for internal matters of a State is also of major importance for the stability of international society. Thus it is clear that humanitarian intervention must be allowed rarely and with caution. In the past there was m u c h misuse of this concept for unlawful intervention and as a cloak for a n u m b e r of unrelated activities. On the other hand, there must be cases where the unilateral use of force is 'less wrong than to turn aside'. O n e possible such case might have been the Vietnamese invasion of Kampuchea after Pol Pot's reign of t e r r o r .

230

ix. Preemptive intervention In recent times we may discern a new model of intervention. This became apparent, first in the NATO action against Yugoslavia where one of the declared aims was to make Yugoslavia, and in the first instance, Serbia,

231

cease repression of ethnic Albanians in Kosovo, a province of Serbia. The intervention was thus undertaken in order to prevent the situation from becoming even worse and to mitigate the effects of the brutal policies the Belgrade goverment had been adopting with regard to ethnic Albanians in their territory. 2 2 7

2 2 8

2 2 9

2 3 0

231

Cf. above in this Chapter, A iii. This is so even in the absence of international conventions: see the Nuremberg Trials and the Tokyo Trials and below Ch. 12. On torture and acts which, although they do not amount to torture, constitute 'inhuman acts', see Ireland v. UK, (1978), 3 ECt of HR, Series A. This action was taken within the framework of a treaty, the European Convention on Human Rights; however, it is now clear that the most fundamental Human Rights are protected even in the absence of international conventions, see my International Legal Order, 303ff. Murphy, The United Nations, 63-4. Montenegro was much less involved in the repressive policies of Belgrade.

9

6

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

x. Punitive intervention There appears to be a punitive element in some situations when States or organisations have intervened in a State. In the Gulf War, the coalition forces in Operation Desert Storm forced Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait by air and ground campaigns, but there was also a displayed intention to punish Iraq for the illegal invasion of another State and for its repression of certain minorities, especially the K u r d s .

232

This punitive element might be

particularly evident in strategies which no longer sought the withdrawal of Iraqi forces but which have as their objective the limiting of Iraq's military power in general terms. The same can be said of NATO's prolonged b o m b i n g campaign against Serbia and Montenegro in 1999,

233

where the

punitive element was brought in to force a definite settlement in the region.

xi. Patronising intervention There is a type of intervention, practised by major powers, which could perhaps be conveniently termed 'patronising

intervention . This is the type

of intervention which is most affected by political attitudes and particularly by the doctrine of 'spheres of influence' which, contrary to what many claim, is not at all o u t m o d e d in State practice. Although not always carried out by military means, this type of intervention is often accompanied by forceful action which the acting States claim is legitimate, albeit having its roots in an exaggerated view of what may legally follow from a geographi­ cal/political concept such as the 'sphere of influence'. This is thus not a new type of intervention.

234

It may be new to call it

patronising; such a term would seem to sum up best the action when certain States intervene to bring about 'what is best' for another State. 2 3 2

2 3 4

2 3 3

E.g. SC Res. 688 ( 1991 ). Cf. below, Ch. 12, C, e on the Kosovo Cases and on sanctions. Cf. The Monroe Doctrine 're-applied' for Cuba, Q. Wright, 'The Cuban Quarantine', 57 AJIL, 1963, 546; M. S. McDougal, 'The Cuban Quarantine and self-defence', ibid., 597; E. Giraud, 'L'interdiction du recours à la force, la théorie et la pratique des Nations Unies', 67 RGDIP, 1963,503; and on the 'Eisenhower doctrine', announced 9 March 1957, on the Lebanon, see, for a critique, J. Delivanis, La legitime défense en droit international moderne, Paris, 1971,131-2; for the Truman and Nixon doctrines on a firm stand by the United States against 'communist aggression' and on Soviet views in response to 'imperialist aggression', see C. Albert, Du droit de se faire justice dans la société internationale depuis 1945, Paris 1985, 321, 336, 363ff; for the Brezhnev doctrine see e.g. D. Frenzke, Die Rechtsnatur des Sowjetblocks, Berlin, 1981, 204.

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

97

Sometimes a State may refer to its action as being legitimised for reasons of 'State security\ 'State interests' or some other such vague term which, at least in international law, confers n o legitimising effect at all although, in political terms, it may explain the desirability of an action. W h e n the world was divided between communist and 'Western' style States, ideological stances played a significant part in the use of 'patronising intervention' intended to 'convert' a targeted country, and to bring it within the hege­ mony of a major power. After the fall of c o m m u n i s m , however, there is still evidence that the practice of 'patronising intervention' continues, some­ times for economic reasons. Sometimes, a State may refer to self-defence or collective self-defence

235

as a justification for its action, although its whole tenure would be m o r e readily explained by a concept such as 'patronising intervention'.When asked whether States have a right to 'destabilise' the constitutionally elected government of another country, President Gerald Ford stated in 1974 that 'It is a recognised fact that historically as well as presently such actions are taken in the best interests of the countries c o n c e r n e d ' .

236

The most striking case of patronising intervention in the 1980s was the action of the United States to mine the ports of Nicaragua and to take other 'para-military' action against that State. The United States claimed that 'United States actions are in the exercise of the right, indeed the duty, to engage in collective self-defence with the other Central American States in response to Nicaragua's a c t s . '

237

The International Court of

Justice decided by an injunction in 1984 that the United States should cease such activities,

238

but the United States claimed that it was entitled

to pursue certain other measures. The United States then decided to withdraw from the Court proceedings and discontinued its acceptance of the Optional Clause.

239

However, even if a State claims to be entitled to

take action by force in the interest of another State, such interference violates not only the rule prohibiting force, b u t also the State's right of self-determination.

240

Another example of patronising intervention in recent times is the intervention of n u m e r o u s international bodies and major powers in 1991 2 3 5

2 3 6

2 3 7

2 3 9

Cf. above, in this Chapter, B iii. Statement 16 September 1974; R. Falk, 'An alternative to covert intervention', Proceedings ASIL, 1975, 195. Cf. Fatouros, 'Remarks on covert intervention and international law', ibid., 192. ICJ, Verbatim Record, CR/84/17, 74. ICJ, Reports, 1984, 169 on the interim measures. ICJ, Reports, 1986, 15 and cf. above, in this Chapter, B v. See my Independent State, 3ff. 2 3 8

2 4 0

9

8

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

insisting that it would be 'best' for the constituent States of the Socialist Federation of Yugoslavia if the (communist) Federation was kept to­ gether, whatever wishes Slovenia and Croatia had expressed to distance themselves from c o m m u n i s m through achieving their own indepen­ dence.

241

In this case it became apparent that international organisations

may also commit what may be illicit interference in internal affairs. For a considerable time after the declarations of independence by Croatia and Slovenia there were strenuous efforts by the United Nations to bring them back into a federation with Serbia and Montenegro. Similar efforts were made by the European C o m m u n i t y (EC), now the European Union (EU), and by the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), now the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Few government officials and even fewer academics asked for references as to how these organisations could claim the power of intervention, let alone the power to take binding decisions in relevant matters. In many instances, organisations such as the EU merely claimed the right of intervention whereas it is difficult to see under what constitu­ tional provisions of the basic instruments of the EU such a right would subsist. The same is the case with the OSCE which does not even have the power to take decisions binding on its own member States, and even less to enforce decisions against non-members. In the aftermath of c o m m u ­ nism, however, many States - and indeed many statesmen - were used to accepting forceful c o m m a n d s and few had advisers on international law to inform them that certain organisations clearly overstepped their com­ petence. It is clear that the U N has a right of intervention, either (as with other organisations) with the consent of the territorial government concerned, or under Chapter VII of the Charter on the basis of a Security Council resolution. It is uncertain, however, whether the UN has the right to decide that a country should not gain independence. The UN has not, of course, taken formal action on such matters but its stand has often been interpreted by observers as a reflection of the personal ideas of its Secre­ tary General. For example, Boutros Boutros Ghali appeared to have cer­ tain ideas as to the possibility of 'reuniting Yugoslavia even after three of its constituent Republics had seceded. 241

See below in the next section in this Chapter.

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

99

Another example of when the U N appeared to have considered it 'right' for a nation to abstain from independence is the case of Abkhaz. This country, was 'made* to accept that it must remain p a r t

242

of a

'federated' Georgia, after events closely supervised by the Russian Feder­ ation.

243

UN t r o o p s

244

were then deployed to 'monitor' the peace agree­

ment, effectively preempting any further claims to independence. In Tajikistan things went differently. Tajikistan had made its declaration of independence exactly a year later than Abkhaz, in September 1991. Only six months later Tajikistan became a m e m b e r of the UN. Here, U N troops were despatched to 'help' the newly independent S t a t e .

245

The OSCE (then

the CSCE) was heavily involved in both the Abkhaz and the Tajikistan affairs. Conversely, West Irian, again under heavy U N presence, had to accept that it should stay under Indonesian r u l e .

246

And through passivity, per­

haps another form of 'negative patronising', East T i m o r had to suffer for twenty-five years before the UN took belated action on its behalf.

247

It may be that some of these countries genuinely wished for such things but unless they are able to express such wishes through democratic means in the absence of military coercion, it is difficult to accept that their decisions truly reflect their own will. The terms of deployment of U N forces have sometimes exceeded the missions for which they were designed. They have sometimes been sent to preserve the status quo against the democratic will of the population. In this way, the deployment of U N forces has, on occasion, prevented the rightful wishes of the population to attain indepen­ dence; if such independence had already been declared, the very presence of UN troops has prevented or slowed down the consolidation of indepen­ dence. If States may then, occasionally, go too far by acts of 'patronising intervention' to support a faltering government or to restore a deposed president, it would be reasonable to assume that an international orga­ nisation, taking similar actions, may also be guilty of such acts. The frenzy with which many UN forces were despatched to all corners of the world 2 4 2

2 4 3

2 4 4

2 4 5

2 4 7

Abkhaz had made its declaration of independence in August 1990. The cease-fire agreement was signed in Moscow on 3 September 1992 by the leaders of Georgia, Abkhaz and the CIS. UN Observer Mission in Georgia, (UNOMIG), established by SC Res. 858 (1993). UN Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT). E.g., A/7723, annex 1 (1969). Below, Chapter 11, C. 2 4 6

GENERAL

100

PRINCIPLES

to, inter alia, 'monitor* internal politics,

248

begs the question whether the

U N , together with other organisations like the EU, the OAS and the OSCE, are not also sometimes guilty of what we may describe as 'patronis­ ing i n t e r v e n t i o n \

249

xii. Self-determination: revival of 'just war* theories There is no shortage of commentaries on the medieval and post-medieval theories of 'just w a r ' .

250

This century, and in particular during the last few

decades, there has been a noticeable revival of'just war' theories, not only to justify wars for the pursuit of just causes in religious t e r m s

251

legal justification for 'liberation' wars against 'domineering

but to find larger or

stronger States. Even those early writers who condemned inter-State wars still saw justification for wars of international liberation, insisting that they must be more 'just' and legitimate than any international w a r .

252

According to

Marxist writers, a war against 'suppressors' and 'enslavers' is often said to be lawful within a capitalist society.

253

determination' is, they say, permissible

Thus, use of force to attain 'self254

and hence, it is claimed, liber­

ation wars by 'dominated' small or new States d o not violate any legal rules. The rule of self-determination has been used as a justification for measures of coercion. It has been argued that it could not be 'wrong' or 'illegal' to start wars for national liberation on the basis of such a rule of self-determination. Some Soviet writers held that 'nations' who are not States can resort to national liberation w a r s .

255

Other Soviet writers denied that 'nations' whose

'personality' is just emerging, could participate in inter-State relations. this way, the 'new' concept of liberation wars as 'international'

257

256

In

is logically

difficult to reconcile with the view that liberation movements are separate

2 4 8

See below, Ch. 11, B. See also above, in this Chapter, B viii. M. Keen, The Laws of War in the Later Middle Ages, Oxford, 1965, 63 et seq.\ F. H. Russell, The Just War in the Middle Ages, Cambridge, 1975; J. T. Johnson, Just War and the Restraint of War: a Moral and Historical Inquiry, Princeton, 1981. For example, the activities of Hezbollah soldiers in the Lebanon; and cf. on 'jihad' in the Moslem world, A. Rechid, 'L'Islam et le droit des gens', RCADI1937, ii, 375; cf. also below, Ch. 5, C i on alleged jus ad helium. A. Rougier, Les guerres civiles et le droit des gens, Paris, 1903, 160. Cf. Lenin; 8 Works, Berlin éd., 1958, 568. " Tunkin, Sila, 40. N. A. Ushakov, Soviet Yearbook of International Law, 1964-5, 74. * Lukachuk, 2 Mezdunaronogopravo, Kiev, 1968, 9. See above, Ch. 1,1) i d.

2 4 9

2 5 0

251

2 5 2

2 5 3

4

2 5 5

25

2 5 7

101

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

from any inter-State relations. But then liberation wars are not necessarily conducted on such an inter-State footing but are concerned m o r e immedi­ ately with the attainment of self-determination. The desire to defend liberation movements and their goals has led to a 4

condemnation of any repressive' force applied by the lawful government against any such m o v e m e n t s .

258

The few who sought to apply the principle

of self-determination without any corollary of a 'right to fight' at the Conference on Conventional Weapons made their suggestions in v a i n .

259

There has been an increasing body of opinion suggesting that war waged by liberation movements would have special features and would constitute a 'just war'. At least according to views put forward by the Third World itself, 'emancipation wars' would have this s t a t u s .

260

It is

useful to recall that the concept of the 'just war' p r o p o u n d e d by St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas was introduced to reduce the occur­ rence of w a r .

261

At the Diplomatic Conference elaborating the 1977 Protocols it was also suggested, for example by the Chinese delegation, that national liberation wars are just and should therefore be 'supported' by all countries that uphold justice. concept.

263

262

But some representatives rebutted this idea as an 'archaic'

Some insisted that the right to wage wars need not follow from

the rule of self-determination. The then 'West' Germany objected at the 1980 Conference on Conventional Weapons that it would be inappropriate to include a reference in the Preamble to the 'right to fight for national liberation' but suggested instead that a reference to the right of self-deter­ mination be a d o p t e d .

264

Some individuals have sought to benefit from the concept of just war by claiming that they would be exempt from any duty to fight in any venture which is not 'just'.

265

Even if the Third World occasionally attempts to revive obsolete theories of the just war, which may be conceptually and practically unacceptable in these days when all war has been outlawed, it must be emphasised that such 2 5 8

2 5 9

2 6 0

261

2 6 4

N. Ronzitti, 'Resort to force and wars of national liberation', in Cassese, (ed.), Current Problems of International Law, Milan, 1975, 320. A/CONF.95/8, Annex II, Appendix B and C (Germany). E.g., H. Meyrowitz, Le principe d'égalité des belligérants devant le droit de la guerre, Paris, 1970, 100. Cf. H. Weber, Der Vietnam Konflikt - Bellum Legale?, Die Rechtspflichten der Staaten unter dem Gewaltgebot der VN-Charta, Hamburg, 1970; J. T. Johnson, Can Modem Wars be Just?, London, 1984; M. Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars, London, 1978. See below, Ch. 9. CDDH/SR.12, vol. 5, 120. Ibid., 123. A/CONF.95/8, Annex II, Appendixes B and C. US v. Mitchell, (1967), 386 US 972. 2 h 2

2 6 3

2 6 5

GENERAL

102

theories lack any legal basis.

266

PRINCIPLES

Yet, even if a war is 'just' in eyes of some

developing countries the warfare must still be subjected to stringent laws of warfare and humanitarian rules and in this sense, the Law of War will uplift any armed conflict to a higher 'civilised' standard, whether or not it is claimed that the conflict or war is 'just'.

267

Those who instigate liberation wars may violate the jus ad helium which no longer exists

268

but States must still not exempt belligerents of liberation

movements from the jus in hello. For there is often a temptation for States 1

supposant à un violateur du jus ad helium de vouloir soumettre ce belligérant

illégal à un régime discriminatoire

269

sur le plan du jus in bello\

Just war

theories are defunct and aspiring nations and liberation movements must seek other means of attaining statehood for their people. The normal legitimising factor is then the rule of self-determination which undoubt­ edly furnishes a legal title for resisting (but not for starting to employ) the use of force in contemporary international society. Naturally, it is difficult to determine when and who 'starts' to use force. But, a 'clear' question of 'second' use may be legitimised under m o d e r n international law, not as self-defence but under the heading of self-determination. This may be illustrated by the wars waged by Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia, with limited military means, to attain independence after massive attacks of the Federal Yugoslav Army in 1991-95 designed to halt their quest for self-determina­ tion. Once an armed conflict has developed, there must be safeguards to ensure that certain m i n i m u m rules of the Law of War are respected by all sides in a conflict. Both liberation movements and seceding States are undoubtedly b o u n d by the Law of War. The rules of self-determination are particularly relevant to questions of legality of resistance and of partisan or guerilla war, especially when a country is occupied by a foreign State. There is necessarily a conflict between the 'rights' of an occupying power and the 'rights' of resistance. Some have claimed that resistance against an occupying force is illegal by an e contrario conclusion of what follows from the right of a levée en 2 6 6

2 6 7

2 6 8

2 7 0

270

masse,

Cf. the Moslem jihad which often has merely ambition to 'influence'. Cf. J. C. Blutschli, Das moderne Kriegsrechts der zivilisierten Staaten, 2nd edn, 1874, para. 519: 'Das Kriegsrecht zivilisiert den gerechten und den unrechten Krieg ganz gleichmàssig'. Below, Ch. 5, C i. Meyrowitz, Le principe, 401. F. Castberg, Soldater, partisaner og franktirorer, Oslo, 1954, 16; J. Andersen, 'Var hjemmefrontens kamp folkerettsstridig?', Festskrift J.H. Andersen, Oslo, 1948, 6; R. R. Baxter, 'The duty of obedience to the belligerent occupant', 27 BYIL 1950, 266. 2 6 9

P R O H I B I T I O N OF W A R

103

whereas others consider all populations to have asserted a right to resis­ tance if an occupation is not 'effective',

271

although it is not clear who is to

assess the 'effectiveness' of that occupation. Certain cases also indicate that a right to rise against an occupier exists; at least against an occupier who himself does not respect the Law of W a r . 271

272

272

F. Bauer, Krigsförbrytarna inför domstol, Stockholm, 1944; H. Brandweiner, 'Das Partisanen­ problem und die Genfer Konventionenen' vom 12. August 1949, 72 Juristische Blätter, 1950, 263, speaking of a jus insurrectionis. The Flesch Case, (1948) Norwegian Supreme Court, Retstidene, 1948, 80. Cf. a similar right which exists against a suppressive government: cf. the tacit support of KLA by NATO against the Belgrade terror in Kosovo.

3 Prevention of war

A. Double nature of relevant factors Treaties on restraining force and/or providing for pacific settlements of disputes constitute complimentary negative and positive obligations which lessen the danger of actual war. Apart from such conventional obligations, certain factors also reduce or 1

increase the likelihood of war. Conversely, favourable social conditions may entrench security and prevent war. 2

It is a formidable task to indicate the causes of war, as these are often found in complex interrelationships of immediate goal-settings; structural imbalances and c o i n c i d e n t a l . For example, social conditions may give rise 3

to conflicts and become the origins of a dispute. The quest for indepen­ dence has given rise in the last decade to n u m e r o u s secessionist wars.

4

The present work will indicate but a few reasons for waging war, and conversely, for refraining from resorting to force.

B. Undermining factors Experts in the field of sociology and psychology analyse other reasons for 5

tensions and conflict in the international society. In the syllabus for 1

2

3

5

'Conventional* is here used to denote that the source of obligation derives from a convention; this adjective is common in the terminology of international law but must, of course, be distinguished from 'conventional' (implying 'traditional') warfare as opposed to guerilla warfare; see above Ch. 1, D iv; and from 'conventional' (meaning non-nuclear) weapons as opposed to nuclear weapons; below Ch. 7, A ii. The leading work is M. Howard, The Causes of War and Other Essays, London, 1983. Cf. Glainey, The Causes of War, London, 1973; J. G. Stoessinger, Why Nations Go to War, New York, 1978. For works on causes of specific wars, see H. W. Koch, (ed.), The Origins of the First World War, 2nd edn, London, 1984; E. Robertson, The Origins of the Second World War, London, 1971; J. R. Gainsbourough, The Arab—Israeli Conflict, London, 1986,129fTon the causes of the Six Day War. See, above Ch. 1, D ii c, on revolutionary war. See above, Ch. 1, D ii d, on separatist war. See numerous studies by SIPRI, the Stockholm for Peace Research Institute. 4

104

P R E V E N T I O N OF WAR

105

students of Peace Studies at Columbia University there is even literature on 6

the aggressive behaviour of animals. Many circumstances which contrib­ ute to increased risk of conflict such as, for example, militarism and 7

militarisation, are largely unquantifiable. There are problems even in identifying exact causes of a specific war and it is still more difficult to 8

suggest general causes of war. Naturally, territorial ambitions, claims to * Lebensraum

9

or to territory which has been wrongfully lost always play a

part. Ideological aspirations, sometimes disguised as measures necessary to 'national security' to protect a socio-economic system, are increasingly important. Economic ambitions are also relevant although economic fac­ tors are thought to be relatively u n i m p o r t a n t by some c o m m e n t a t o r s .

10

The

last decade before the new Millennium may prove otherwise: the creation of local war economies, linked to international trading networks, fuelled violence in numerous situations.

11

The risk of war is increased and prolonged if there is general 'hostility' towards another country, either on a neighbour scale, in terms of political affiliations or in terms of North-South economic discrepancy. Among neighbours there may be even a divergence of'culture' which makes States, like brothers, more hostile to those that are near than to those much further away. Between free countries and the few remaining c o m m u n i s t States there is an entrenched ideological gap where mutual suspicion and preju­ dice play a considerable part in exacerbating tension.

i. Lack of c o n d e m n a t i o n In addition to other causes of war, the lack of its condemnation may furnish a further reason to start hostilities, or prolong armed conflicts. States may resort to force, or continue to use force, if there is n o outright condemnation of it by other States. Declarations by the United Nations 6

7

8

9

10

11

For 'biosociopsychological' bases of war, see Hamburg's article on 'aggressive behaviour of chimpanzees and baboons in natural habitat', 8 Journal of Psychiatric Research 385. A. Eide, and M. Thee, Problems of Contemporary Militarism, London, 1980. Factors are also often interpreted differently by different commentators, occasionally protagon­ ists of political ideologies, which may dim the real causes of conflict. See above, Ch. 2, B i. Chronology is important: it was not necessarily 'wrong' or contrary to international law to reclaim lost territory before the general prohibition of the use of force in the Charter of the United Nations; this is why the retaking of the Falkland Islands in 1982 by Argentina was condemned contrary to the earlier taking of those islands by the British. Q. Wright, Study on War, 2nd edn, Chicago, 1965,1293; this was also Hitler's view, Mein Kampf, Berlin, 1939, 199. D. Keen, The Economic Function of Violence in Civil Wars, Adelphi Paper 320, 1998, 1 Iff.

io6

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

are n o substitute for clear positions taken by individual States in this respect. W h e n , on 22 September 1980, Iraq started invading Iran, both the United Kingdom and France remained 'neutral' and did not speak up against the war. The reason for this silence was heavy investment by both United Kingdom and France in both the belligerent countries and this was thought to be a sensitive question.

12

As a result, the Security Council -

whose action would anyway not have been any substitute for pronounce­ ment by States - did little.

13

Again, in 1991, when the Yugoslav Federal Army shelled the Dalmatian coast of Croatia, including the city of Dubrovnik which had long been included on UNESCO's list of the world's cultural heritage and which, in any event was an undefended 'open t o w n ' ,

14

there was no outright con­

demnation by any State or organisation. Nor was there any clear condem­ nation

15

16

of the Vukovar massacre. The silence in the face of such a crisis

caused the impression that, in the eyes of international society, attacks were neither necessarily 'wrong' nor 'illegal'. Equally, the population of East T i m o r endured twenty-five years of suffering under Indonesian op­ pression before its voice was heard in 1999 after virtual genocide. The lack of forceful condemnation at an early stage certainly prolonged these con­ flicts.

ii. Failure of the international judicial system Another important cause of war, or of the extension of hostilities, is the failure of the judicial system. 17

The United States argued in the Nicaragua Case

that the International

Court of Justice (ICJ) is not able to consider matters reserved for the ]S

Security Council. However, it was clear in the Iranian Hostage Case

that

the United States considered the Court to have precisely that function.

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Cf. J. F. Murphy, The United Nations, 65. But see the Draft Resolution on control of the Shatt el Arab waterway, ibid., 65. See below, Ch. 8, A ii b. Although some Paris students repainted the signs of a metro station to read 'Vukovar*. The victims were not even accused of any wrongdoing; there was no hearing or trial. See below, Ch. 8, A iii (6). Nicaragua v. United States, (Jurisdiction), (1984), ICJ, Verbatim Records&4/\&, 64; cf. Nicaragua v. United States, (Merits), (1986), ICJ, Reports, 1986. United States v. Iran, (1979), ICJ Reports, 1979, 7 and 1980, 3.

P R E V E N T I O N OF WAR

The Corfu Channel

107

9

Case* had also clearly showed that the Court is

competent to consider questions bearing on the use of force. And the 20

Expenses Case

had indicated that the Court can also consider 'political'

issues. But rules restraining force will naturally be undermined if a State con­ siders that the ICJ lacks the competence to consider the legality of coercive measures, potentially involving war, or giving rise to actual war. In the Iranian Hostage Case it was evident that Iran thought little of the ICJ, not presenting itself before it, and ignoring the Interim Order. In the Nicaragua Case it has been obvious that the United States, when it comes to own national interests, will not have m u c h respect for the Court's authority either: the United States abandoned the proceedings midway. One may not criticise a 'bland' Advisory Opinion of the ICJ as a 'failure' but many regretted the vague wordings in the Case 21

Legality of Nuclear Weapons

Concerning

A forceful p r o n o u n c e m e n t by the Court in

such a matter might have strengthened respect for restraint in armed conflict; conversely, a weak Opinion will probably have an undermining effect.

C. Stabilising factors It is, of course, impossible to provide any detailed indication of factors which preserve peace. This is not because this work is not the appropriate place for a lengthy analysis but rather that such factors escape identifica­ tion, except by large patterns, as it is not the factors individually that are important as much as their juxtaposition with other factors. Any develop­ ment which links States together is likely to contribute to peace if acts are carried out universally. In other words, worldwide attempts to p r o m o t e , for example, trade or cultural exchanges is likely to lessen the danger of war. 22

Restrictions of trade in arms will also reduce the possibility of w a r . At the regional level there is always a danger of bloc-building and hence eventual antagonism between groups. But generally speaking, certain formations will assist in the peace keeping effort.

19

21

22

2 0

ICJ Reports, 1949, 4. ICJ Reports, 1962, 246. ICJ, Reports, 1996. See further below, Ch. 7, b ii c. See, e.g., J. C. Martinez, 'Le droit international et le commerce des armes\ in Colloque de Montpellier, Le droit international et les armes, Paris, 1982, 93ff.

io8

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

i. Alliances Alliances, according to traditional theory, stabilise the balance of power,

23

24

restrain violence between the members of that particular p a c t but may, on the other hand, contribute to tension vis-à-vis another powerful alliance, or with regard to the 'outside'. Polarisation may be mitigated by special negotiations between blocs, like, for example, the earlier multilateral negoti­ 25

ations on nuclear d i s a r m a m e n t or other talks specifically between military alliances, like the previous Mutual Balanced Forces reduction talks between 26

N A T O and the then Warsaw Pact States. At present, there is little stability as N A T O has expanded to include several of the former Warsaw Pact States 27

but not Russia - and there is n o clear counter-balance. Until consolidated new alliances exist, there is a possible danger of a highly volatile period.

ii. C o o r d i n a t i o n of foreign policy The harmonisation of foreign policy may be inherent in alliances. Beyond the realm of military alliances, there is also considerable scope for coor­ dination as a result of similar political ideologies. Occasionally such simi­ larities are only evident when confronted with another major bloc, inspired by different ideas. Thus, in spite of diverging foreign policies in Western Europe, such policies are sufficiently homogeneous to form the subject matter of a Treaty on Coordinated Foreign Policy, concluded on 3 Decem­ ber 1985 within the framework of the European Economic Community (EEC), now the E U .

28

But then again, if the majority of European States

have coordinated their foreign policy, one may ask towards which bloc such policies are aimed: neither Russia nor China appear in focus while their relations with, for example, the EU and the United States, concern mainly trade or financial matters. 2 3

2 4

2 5

2 7

2 8

Cf. I. Claude, Power and International Relations, New York, 1962; M. Wight, 'The balance of power', in H. Butterfield and M. Wight, (eds.), Diplomatic Investigations: Essays in the Theory of International Politics, London, 1966; A. Wolfers, Discord and Collaborators, Essays on Interna­ tional Politics, Baltimore, 1962. S. Serosta, Theorie und Realität von Bündnissen, 1897-1914, Vienna, 1971; P. Barendon, System der politische Staatsverträge seit 1918, 1937, 211; J. R. De Orue y Arregui, 'Le régionalisme dans l'organisation internationale', 53 RCADI, 1935, iii, 1. But note the rift in NATO when Greece and Turkey supported different communities in the hostilities of 1974. See below in this Chapter, C iii b ( 1 ). Below, in this Chapter, C iii a ( 1 ). But there is an Agreement of Cooperation of 1998. EEC, News Release, 3 December 1985. 2 6

P R E V E N T I O N OF WAR

109

iii. D i s a r m a m e n t It is important to assess briefly the role of disarmament in the context of stabilisation.

29

A sharp, albeit often unwarranted, distinction is often made between arms limitation or arms control, disarmament and the Law of War. By arms limitation or arms control one normally understands any measure of restraint of testing, manufacturing, possessing or deploying a specific type of weapon. Disarmament, on the other hand, implies a reduction in, or renunciation of, a type of weapon. But 'arms limitation' may obviously imply far-reaching rules which inevitably entail the 'reduction' or 'renunciation', at least with regard to certain types, of weapons, or certain types of weapon usage. Conversely, disarmament may involve specified control of the use of a weapon, as in the En-Mod Convention.

30

Treaties of either of these categories have been

thought so irrelevant to the Law of War that they are not even included in the ordinary collection of texts on the Law of War. Yet, there is little difference in structure and function between, for example, the En-Mod Convention and the Geneva Gas Protocol, or between the Biological Weapons Convention and the 1868 St Petersburg Declaration. It appears unjustified to group texts of clear relevance to the conduct of modern war in different groups. All texts concerning disarmament are of essential importance to the Law of War. There is a close link between disarmament and the restriction or prohib­ ition of weapons: if weapons are outlawed, and inspection,

32

31

and removed by verification

disarmament in this field has been achieved by prohib­

ition rather than by disarmament procedures.

a. Early

attempts

There were some early attempts at disarmament, such as the Treaty between Argentina and Chile in 1902 whereby the parties undertook to cancel orders for the construction of warships and to notify each other of any new constructions. The Washington Conference on the Limitation of 29

30

There is a vast literature on disarmament. For some important studies, see N. Sims, Approach to Disarmament, 2nd edn, 1979; and L. Freedman, Arms Control in Europe, London, 1981; for UN Studies, see The Relationship between Disarmament and International Security, 1982, E.82, ix. 4; UN, Study on All Aspects of Regional Disarmament, 1981, A/35/416. Cf. UN, Comprehensive Study on Confidence Building Measures, 1982, A/36/474. See below Ch. 7, E ii. Below, Ch. 7. Below, Ch. 11, B. 31

3 2

GENERAL

110

PRINCIPLES

Armaments in 1921-22 introduced some restrictions on large warships in the final Treaty.

33

Some measures were quantitative and constituted 'the

most direct means of limiting and reducing the competitive accumulation 34

of a r m s ' . Others were qualitative and gave rise to problems as technologi­ cal improvements were difficult to verify.

35

Other restrictions, again in other treaties

36

implied 'geographic* or

'mission* restraints. Others concerned the limitation of certain types of naval deployment, for example prohibiting permanent stationing of arms on the high seas.

37

Furthermore, the London Treaty of 1930 introduced

similar restrictions on warships.

38

Plans by the former Soviet Union for a complete disarmament Treaty (CDT), were presented to the Geneva Conference in 1962. The United States responded to this proposal by plans for staged elimination. The 10th Special Session of the General Assembly in 1978 (SSD) was devoted to the disarmament question. The first session on disarmament set out a 'dis­ 39

a r m a m e n t strategy', discussed further in a second session in 1982.

b. The contemporary

position

There is some hope of achieving partial disarmament in certain specific areas. Talks were carried out in the 1980s at different levels between the 40

major powers at intermittent meetings, and on a multilateral level at the Disarmament Conference in Geneva. After the fall of communism, the disarmament scene has radically changed. The instability of the 1990s has led to a highly dangerous period which will precede any shift of States into new alliances. But, although highly relevant as a war preventing mechan­ ism, disarmament has been demoted to a side-issue. The Geneva Disarma­ m e n t Conference, once a prestigious posting for special full-time ambassa­ dors with considerable staff, has been reduced in importance whereby 3 3

3 4

3 5

3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

Treaty of Washington of 6 February 1922, below, Ch. 8, B iii. There was a freeze on the manufacturing, on numbers and on the introduction of new systems: UN Study on the Naval Arms Race, 141. Ibid., 142. For example, the Rush Bagot Treaty of 1817; and the Montreux Convention 1936 in the demilitarisation of areas; cf. below, Ch. 7, E. Ibid., 144; cf. the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention, below, Ch. 6, A iv. Treaty of 22 April 1930. GA Res. 5-10/2, 3 United Nations Disarmament Yearbook, 1978. On measures 'collateral' to general disarmament, see A. Hotlieb, Disarmament and International Law, Toronto, 1965, 44fT. Such talks in Stockholm and Vienna led to little apart from the adoption of a 'Document', cf. CDE, 19 September 1986.

111

P R E V E N T I O N OF WAR

States' ambassadors to the UN in Geneva double up as delegates to the Conference. The meagre output of Conference documents in recent years, compared to earlier highly impressive analyses, also evidences the Confer­ ence's present lack of activity. On the other hand, certain disarmament issues have been brought to the attention of the general public by private initiatives. For example, the land­ mine problem was highlighted by Diana, Princess of Wales, with public pressure resulting in a new Convention. Other questions of disarmament such as the actual use of chemical and biological weapons by Saddam Hussein, the leader of Iraq, for example, led to swift action by the United States and the United Kingdom in the form of Operation Desert Fox. Not only has such action been retaliatory, as in the Gulf War, but also anticipa­ tory, as when Iraq was b o m b e d in 1998, although Iraq's use of weapons was not actual; rather States feared such weapons would be used. The fall of c o m m u n i s m caused considerable security problems with regard to certain arms and special measures were taken to minimise the dangers.

41

Even if there are few comprehensive agreements, there may be practical 42

constraints, at least for certain types of w e a p o n s . Advances on disarma­ ment depend on negotiations as well as on other factors such as budgetary restraints and, above all, on political will. There is also a considerable 43

reluctance in the arms industry, and the arms t r a d e , usually supported by governments, to accept far-reaching disarmament. (I) Nuclear disarmament

Nuclear weapons attracted early attention in the

disarmament negotiations after the Second World W a r . 41

4 2

4 3

4 4

44

There has also

For example, ihe Cooperative Threat Reduction Programme of the United States aiming at reducing risks associated with the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The CTR Programme provides financial and technical assistance for the conversion of arms to civilian use and for the destruction of, for example, chemical weapons. The United States Congress deleted allocations for further chemical weapons from the defence budget of 1983 and, in spite of certain pressure from the Reagan administration, did not reallocate funds. For a commentary, see N. Sims, 'Chemical weapons, control or chaos', Faraday Discussion Paper No. 1, London, 1964, 14. Cf. below, in the next section. Note efforts by the Commission for Conventional Disarmament 1946-52; The Disarmament Commission (for both nuclear and conventional weapons) 1953-7, with an important fivePower Sub-Committee; the Ten Nations Disarmament Committee (TNDC), expanded into an eighteen-Power Committee (ENDC) in 1962; the Committee of the Conference of Disarma­ ment (CCD), an even larger body, 1969-79, in turn transformed and amplified into the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in 1979.

GENERAL

112

PRINCIPLES

been, and still is, m u c h discussion on the legality of such weapons.

45

A

presumption of the illegality of nuclear weapons is clearly conducive to further advances in nuclear d i s a r m a m e n t .

46

N u m e r o u s multilateral treaties play an important part in strengthening the operation of the bilateral treaty network between the United States and 47

the former Soviet U n i o n . After the fall of c o m m u n i s m and the disintegra­ 48

tion of the USSR, these multilateral conventions are of enhanced import­ ance. Public fears of hazards from nuclear pollution were probably one of the reasons for the Partial Test Ban Treaty ( P T B )

49

50

in 1963. The important

factor of public opinion probably induced France to make a unilateral declaration to cease testing nuclear weapons after having been taken to the International Court of lustice by Australia and New Zealand.

51

However,

France resumed testing in the 1990s amid new worldwide protests.

52

Certain preventive treaties were concluded between the former super­ powers in the form of bilateral treaties, such as the ABM Treaty of 1972.

53

There were certain disputes in the 1980s between the United States and the former Soviet Union on the compatibility of the Strategic Defence Initiat­ 54

ive (SDI), or 'Star Wars' with the ABM Treaty. Renewed disputes revived the problem, in another form, and concern the permissibility of advancecapability treaty-missile defence (TMD) systems, disputes which finally were at least partially resolved by a 'demarcation agreement' in 1997.

55

Other agreements on disarmament in this field are the SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation) Interim Agreement, 4 5

4 7

4 8

4 9

51

5 2

5 3

5 4

5 5

5 6

56

the Agreement on Basic Rela-

4 6

Below, Ch. 7, B ii. See below, Ch. 7, on legality of nuclear weapons. See Draft Comprehensive Programme on Disarmament, 1986, CD/731, 131; cf. Arms Race in Outer Space, ibid., at 107; and on Nuclear Weapons, ibid., at 18. There were efforts to combine the dissolution of the Soviet Union with aid for conversion to civilian use of certain weapons, see above; note, in the field of nuclear energy, also the Reactor Conversion Agreement of 1997, SIPRI Yearbook, 1998, 427fT, providing for the conversion of reactors ADE-2, 4 and 5 which will no longer produce plutonium. 480 UNTS 43. Brandt Commission Papers, 1981, 373. Nuclear Test Cases, (1974), IC), Reports, 1974,253. On the Case on Legality of Nuclear Weapons, see below, Ch. 7, B ii. See below, Ch. 7. 1978,11 ILM 784, amended by a Protocol of 1974. The Anti-Ballistic Missile Agreement restricts missile defences to two sites (later one site) with 100 missiles allowed at each site. See below, Ch. 6, A iv. 5 0

Agreement reached in the Standing Consultative Commission of the ABM Treaty, and signed by United States, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan on 26 September 1997, together with the signature of START II; cf. below. 1972, Interim Agreement on Certain Measures with Respect to the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Weapons, 11 ILM 897. The Agreement limits the number of ICBM and SLBM launchers; it lapsed in 1977 but was extended by mutual consent.

P R E V E N T I O N OF WAR

tions,

57

H3

the Agreement on Basic Principles of Negotiation on the Further

Limitation of Strategic Offensive A r m s , Nuclear W a r ,

59

58

the Agreement on Prevention of

and the Treaty on Underground Nuclear Explosions.

60

A

series of bilateral agreements on warning systems were also concluded 61

between the United States and the then USSR. In 1988 the then USSR and the United States concluded an agreement on notification, made twentyfour hours in advance, of launches of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).

62

The Agreements on the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (START) are also highly relevant. START I was concluded in 1991, after negotiations over a ten-year period. The Lisbon Protocol of 1992 extends the application of the Treaty to the Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakh­ stan. The Treaty lays down obligations to make phased reductions in strategic offensive nuclear facilities over seven years. Arms dismantling has proceeded, ahead of the time-table laid down in the Treaty. START II, signed in 1993, provides for a second phase and stipulates that by 2 0 0 3

63

not more than 3,500 strategic nuclear heads may be deployed by the parties. Outlines of a START III Treaty have been negotiated. Other relevant treaties were negotiated on a bilateral basis between the United States and the USSR but resulted in multilateral instruments to which also other States acceded. This was the case with the Non-Prolifer64

ation Treaty of 1968 ( N P T ) , given indefinite duration at the N P T Review and Extension Conference in 1995. This Treaty imposes restrictions on non-nuclear States (not to acquire nuclear weapons), but not on the United States and on the former Soviet Union. It also obliges States to negotiate in 'good faith' for further disarmament;

65

failure to d o this and, further, to

actually build up greater arms arsenals, would seem to breach at least the spirit of the Treaty. The Treaty is occasionally referred to as the Treaty of the 'haves' and the 'have-nots', or the nuclear weapons States (NWS) and the non-nuclear weapons States (NNWS). However, non-adherents to the Treaty, like India and Pakistan, have become, if they have unsafeguarded 57

58

1972, 1 1 ILM 756. 1973, 12 ILM 897. See below on the START Treaties. 1973, 12 ILM 903. 1976, 15 ILM 891. Memorandum on a Direct Communication Link, 1963, 2 ILM 793 (the Hot Line Agreement); Agreement on Measures to Reduce the Risk of Outbreak of Nuclear War, 1971, 10 ILM 1173; and the Agreement on the Prevention of Incidents on and over the High Seas, 1972,11 ILM 778.

59

6 0

61

6 2

The Agreement came into effect on signature by the Foreign Minister, Mr Shevardnadze, and by the US Secretary of State, Mr Schultz. On the practice of non-ratification, see my Essays, 15fT. The time limit was extended by a Protocol signed in 1997, SIPRI, Yearbook, 1998, 41 Iff. 729 UNTS 161. * See below, Ch. 7, C ii on the ICI case on legality of nuclear weapons.

6 3

6 4

5

GENERAL

114

PRINCIPLES 66

nuclear facilities, politically more Visible' which may put some pressure on t h e m to adopt another stance. The Sea-Bed Treaty of 1971 also introduced certain limitations for the 67

emplacement of nuclear w e a p o n s but its ambit of application is not quite 68

clear. Other relevant treaties are, for example, the Outer Space Treaty of 69

70

1967, the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, and several treaties on other denu­ clearised zones.

71

72

The En-Mod Convention of 1977 prohibits the use of

nuclear weapons for modification of the environment. The Threshold Test-Ban Treaty ( T T B T )

73

was of great importance.

However, the most significant development in the field of testing is the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) concluded in 1996 for unlimited duration. The Treaty seeks to constrain the development and qualitative improvement of nuclear weapons; to end the development of the advanced type of nuclear weapons; to contribute to the prevention of nuclear prolif­ eration and the process of nuclear disarmament; and to strengthen interna­ tional peace and security. A Protocol to the Convention deals with an 74

75

International Monitoring System (IMS), on-site inspections and Confi­ dence Building Measures (CBMs). The Treaty bans all nuclear explosions in accordance with President Clinton's true zero yield target of 1995. A new Organisation,

The Comprehensive

(CTBTO), has been formed.

76

Nuclear Test

Ban

Organisation,

However, the Treaty has not yet come into

force and its entry into effect would seem fairly distant: in order to come into force, the Treaty requires the ratification of all 44 States listed in Annex 2 to the Treaty. The Treaty has now the signature of 154 States and is ratified by 45 States; but not by the 'right' States. Only 21 of the 44 nuclear weapons States (NWS) have so far ratified. China, Russia and the United States have all signed but this is of little legal significance. 6 6

67

6 8

7 0

7 3

74

7 5

7 6

7 7

77

SIPRI, Yearbook 1996, 13 UKTS 1973 13; TIAS 7337; cf. endorsement by the UN General Assembly in Resolution 2660 (XXV) 1970. See below, Ch. 7, A iii, on naval mines. 610 UNTS 205 and below, Ch. 6, A v. 402 UNTS 71 and below, Ch. 6, A iv. See below, Ch. 6, A v. Below, Ch. 7, E. 1974, Treaty on the Limitation of Underground Nuclear Tests, 13 ILM 906. By seismological, radionuclide, hydroacoustic and infrasound technology, including national means. These must be approved by 30 members of the Executive Council (which has 51 members). The Council must act within 96 hours after receiving a request for inspection. Currently being established by the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Organisation (CTBTO PrepCom) in Vienna. See my Essays, 15ff. Suggestions that some 'intermediate' obligations appear on signature must be dismissed as endangering the security and foreseeability of the international legal system. 6 9

71

7 2

P R E V E N T I O N OF W A R

(2) Conventional disarmament

115

Some progress has been made by the out­ 78

lawing of conventional weapons by the 1981 Convention. Other weapons, the use of which conflicts with the basic principles of the Law of W a r ,

79

may

be tainted by illegality. Such a state of affairs may p r o m p t the adoption of further agreements, which may confirm such illegality.

80

Attention has also been focused on massive scientific research and development research (R 8c D) programmes which could be directed to either civil or military application. Attempts are being made to prohibit weapons development at the research stage so that the use of prohibited weapons will be made even more unlikely.

81

The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) between 16 NATO States and the Group of Six, Members of the former Warsaw Pact, was concluded in 1990 and entered into force in 1992. It is a Treaty of unlimited duration. At the Lisbon Meeting in 1996, conducted under the auspices of OSCE, it was decided to adapt the Treaty to new political and military conditions, strengthening the mechanisms of verification and exchange of information. The Treaty has a threefold purpose: to promote security through verifiable lower levels of conventional armed forces; to eliminate disparities; and to reduce States' capability for launching surprise attacks and initiating large-scale offensives. There are obligations to phase out national 'treaty-limited equipment' (TLE) over three years and there are detailed provisions concerning on-site inspections. (3) Verification problems Verification,

82

in itself a vast problem which has

83

given rise to a considerable literature, is usually seen as a 'slowing down' problem factor in disarmament. Naturally, States are reluctant to allow, for example, on-site inspections by national or international bodies to verify compliance with agreements on disarmament or arms control. Only a few conventions mentioned above on nuclear disarmament contain provisions 7 8

8 0

81

8 2

8 3

7 9

Below, Ch. 7, A ii. Below, Ch. 7, passim. On the creation of rules by 'recognition' or 'adoption', in agreements or otherwise, see my Concept, 2ndedn, 11 Off. See United Nations, Study by the Secretary General on Conventional Disarmament, New York, 1985, A/39/348, 25. See further below, Ch. 11, B. E.g., K. Tsipis, D. W. Hafemeister, and P. Janeway, (eds.), Arms Control Verification, the Technologies that Make it Possible, Oxford, 1986; I. Bellaly and C. D. Blacker, (eds.), The Verification of Arms Control Agreements, London 1983; cf. A. McKnight, Atomic Safeguards: A Study in International Verification, New York, 1971; A. S. Krass, Verification: How Much is Enough?, London (SIPRI), 1983.

GENERAL

116

PRINCIPLES

on verification and on-site inspection, the Protocol to the NPT and the CTBTO (not yet in force) are examples.

84

However, there were signs from 1986 onwards of increased willingness to allow such procedures, spearheaded by obligations contained in the new 85

Chemical Weapons C o n v e n t i o n . By 1998 it was clear that forceful action by military means could be taken against a State failing to comply with its obligation not to use certain weapons.

86

Sophisticated reconnaissance defence systems fulfil a monitoring role, at least for some weapons. For some fifteen years, some extensive photo87

reconnaissance programmes have been in operation, supported by infor­ mation provided by electronic reconnaissance

88

and early warning satel­

89

lites while certain arms control agreements are now linked to rudimen­ tary verification rules.

90

iv. Diffusion of tensions by talks Negotiations, either within the framework of the United Nations, or outside in other forms, contribute to the diffusion of tensions between States, especially between blocs. The United Nations provides a useful forum for discussion even when specific conventions are being negoti­ ated. The possibility of a direct communication link under the 'Hot Line' Agreement

91

may also, to some extent, eliminate the chances of war

breaking out 'by accident*. The entrenchment of lengthy negotiations in a permanent body of the United Nations, for specific purposes, also tends to enhance the diffusion of tension. This has, for example, been the effect of the negotiations in the Conference of Disarmament (CD) as well as in its predecessors C C D and E C D C . 8 4

8 5

8 6

8 7

8 8

8 9

91

92

The CD has important feed-

Above, under C iii b (1). E.g., Statement by President Gorbachev, 15 January 1987, TASS, 'Press release on chemical weapons', and, on the Convention, below, Ch. 7, D iii c. The declared aim of the bombing raids against Iraq in December 1998 was said to be in response to the refusal of Saddam Hussein to allow United Nations weapons inspectors to verify the existence of certain biological and chemical weapons sites. See below, Ch. 12, C i d. Extensive programmes exist, inter alia, in the United States, the USSR and Japan; France operates its SAMRO (Satellite Militaire de Reconnaissance Optique) based on the civilian SPOT (Systeme Probatoire d'Observation de la Terre) system. Like the earlier US ELINT Cosmos satellites, launched from the 'Big Bird' photoreconnaissance satellite, which monitored missile test signals; or the US EORSAT (Ocean Surveillance Satellites) and the USSR's RORSAT (Robot Ocean Surveillance Satellites). Like the US Test Ruby infra-red sensors. See below, Ch. 7. See above, in the previous section. See above, in this Chapter. 9 0

9 2

P R E V E N T I O N OF WAR

"7

backs to and from the General Assembly and transfers its functions, complete with national delegations to the sessions of the General Assem­ bly every October.

93

Unfortunately, States have not fully appreciated the

benefits of discussion in the CD, whose activities are now severely cur­ tailed. Sometimes 'talks' take the form of mediation, not to prevent war but to seek a solution to an armed conflict which has already started.

94

v. Confidence a n d security building m e a s u r e s (CSBMs) During the time of the bipolar world order, negotiations between the East and West in Europe were of some importance for the diffusion of tension. Other important talks were held in Stockholm and Vienna on a multilateral basis on confidence building measures in the 1980s. The Stockholm C o n ­ ference on Security Building Measures and Disarmament in Europe (CDE), later the CSCE and now the OSCE, established under the Helsinki Accords in 1975 held important talks, which were of particular relevance for the diffusion of tension between East and West. Discussions within the Confer­ ence for European Security (CSCE), now the OSCE, under the Helsinki 95

Accords on 1975, led to the adoption of a 'Document* on d i s a r m a m e n t ,

96

97

often thought to lack legal force but the British Foreign Office regards at least one provision as 'binding':

98

that is, the stipulation that military

manoeuvres involving more than 25,000 men shall be notified.

99

There were also Negotiations on Mutual Reductions of Forces and Armaments and Associated Measures in Central Europe between N A T O and the then Warsaw Pact States, held in Vienna. The 'associated measures' provided for in these talks were so-called 'confidence and security building measures' and verification. Problems are sometimes caused by lack of data regarding the actual strength and n u m b e r of forces and arms on the 9 3

9 4

9 5

%

9 7

9 8

9 9

But, as mentioned earlier in this Chapter, the role of CD was drastically reduced in the 1990s. See below, Ch. 11, A ii c. Cf. subsequent discussions at follow-up meetings. There were attempts to revive the Act during the outbreak of war between the Yugoslav Federal Army and Slovenia and Croatia in 1991 and there were attempts by Britain to instigate talks, without much success, under the Helsinki Accords. Above, under b and below, under v on CSBMs. See my Concept, 2nd edn, 103. FCO, Defence and Disarmament Issues, No. 17, July 1985, p.a. The provision does not apply to the 'western-most' 250 kilometres of the area of the former Soviet Union.

n8

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

opposite side as well as by problems on verification. Measures were thus discussed which will reduce these uncertainties. To the Western Powers there was m o r e interest in commencing talks on the reduction of forces rather than armaments but both matters were included. The talks were usually referred to as discussions on Mutual and Balanced Forced Reduc­ tions (MBFR) which was a Western acronym and not the official name; the former USSR had preferred the term 'equal' reductions. These talks showed little progress but may provide a model for future negotiations on disarma­ ment and security. Talks of this kind attempt to discuss reduction of the size of armed forces and conventional armaments and may have contrib­ uted to maintenance of peace by their very protraction. The term 'confidence and security building measures', however cumber­ some, gained some popularity and was included in a number of subsequent treaties,

100

b u t it may be seriously questioned whether it is a mechanism of

any real significance given that the term CSBMs, which never appear to have any sanctions attached to them in law, means little more than attempts to use 'best endeavours' or implies a pactum de contrahendo. This may be an example of a situation when States use expressions in interna­ tional negotiations more to confuse the core issue than to lay down clear and unequivocal obligations.

vi. Restraint of a r m s trade Restricting trade in weapons has a clear effect on the number of parties of war-waging capability. W h e n on 2 December 1939 the United States President condemned the b o m b i n g of civilians from the air,

101

he added that he hoped that Ameri­

can manufacturers and exporters of aeroplanes, aeronautical equipment and materials 'would bear this in mind before negotiating contracts for export of such articles to nations obviously guilty of unprovoked bom­ bing'.

102

Restraint of the arms trade reduces the likelihood of certain local

armed disputes. Conversely, the more ready access States or other parties have to arms supplies, the more likely it is that they will resort to using them in time of conflict. Against this, many argue that States have a definite interest in purchasing arms for legitimate defence interests and it is not for other States to c o m m e n t on those purchases. Much equipment is needed for defence purposes and it is impossible to distinguish between 100

1 0 2

See above and also below on, for example, the Dayton Agreement. Ibid.

101

6 Hackworth 267.

119

P R E V E N T I O N OF W A R

what is purchased for legitimate defence purposes and what exceeds such needs. There is also concern about the potential conversion of nuclear ma­ terial

103

and technologies from peaceful to military use and also about

overall standards in the nuclear industry. In spite of IAEA efforts to promote safeguards for nuclear activities, materials which could be trans­ formed into non-peaceful use are often exported without m u c h control. In 1983, the NPT Review Conference urged countries exporting nuclear material or technology to d e m a n d that the importing State ensured ad­ equate operational safeguards.

104

But Argentina accepted an offer for a

nuclear reactor from Germany with no safeguard conditions rather than a cheaper alternative from Canada which demanded full safeguards.

105

After

the demise of the Soviet Union, nuclear weapons and fissile material found their way into numerous Third World countries through arms deals with­ out any safety c o n d i t i o n s .

106

There has also been some concern about trade

in space weapon components and launch p a d s .

107

As far as other types of weapon are concerned, it may be noted that some biological and chemical w e a p o n s

108

are not expensive to produce: some

relatively poor countries can produce such weapons themselves, avoiding the international arms t r a d e .

109

The hazards of the mere possession of such

weapons were amply demonstrated in the disarming attacks that the United States and the United Kingdom considered it necessary to make against Iraq at the end of 1998. The trade in conventional arms presents different problems from the trade in nuclear material, or in biological and chemical weapons. It is probably only in conventional weapons that States have a clearly legit­ imate interest in purchasing arms for defence interests. It may no longer be possible to arrive at international treaties which restrict access to arms in certain regions 103

104

105

106

110

Cf above, in this Chapter, B iii c. On the legality of nuclear weapons, see below, Ch. 7, B. Even in high technology countries like Japan nuclear accidents may occur, as in the explosion that occurred in October 1999, The Times, 2 October 1999. New Scientist, 3 October 1985, 26. Some developing States may also become self-sufficient in the production of nuclear weapons. For new enrichment methods facilitating nuclear arms production, see A. S. Krass, P. Boskma, B. Elzen and W. A. Smit, Uranium Enrichment and Nuclear Weapon Proliferation, London (SIPRI), 1986. Cf. below, Ch. 7, F. On the prohibition of such weapons by international conventions, see below, Ch. 7, D. Many such sites are still largely unsupervised by international organisations; the plant for such weapons in Titograd in Yugoslavia never attracted any UN attention during the wars in the region. See below on the Ayacucho Agreement in Latin America. 107

108

109

1 , 0

or impose other conditions for the acquisition of

GENERAL

120

arms.

111

PRINCIPLES

It is largely forgotten that there were earlier attempts to provide

for international regulation of the trade in conventional a r m s .

112

Conven­

tional weapons still form the bulk of the international arms trade. Here, there is often a dichotomy between the interests of arms manufacturers, together with the economic interests of their h o m e State in the developed world, and the obvious hazards of Third World countries importing large quantities of such weapons. Developed countries have a vested interest in selling weapons 'to secure employment* and are often disproportionately pleased to a n n o u n c e that they have secured large orders for their arms industry, even if those weapons may eventually be used against their own soldiers, as was the case in the Gulf War. Thus, when arms are sold to the Third World, industrialised States are often content that such arms sales will bring in foreign exchange and enhance employment. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) surveys transfers to the Third World of 'major* weapons such as aircraft, missiles, armoured vehicles and ships, for e x a m p l e .

113

But there is a clear connection between

the arms trade and the risk of armed conflict in areas to which arms have been i m p o r t e d .

114

France, the United Kingdom, Russia and Sweden have

all been accused in recent years of fomenting strife in countries like Rwanda, Serbia, Sierra Leone, East Timor and Angola by the supply of arms. 111

1 , 2

113

114

115

115

As for costs, it may be that a country as a whole is 'poor* in terms

On suggestions that arms transfers should be conditional on training in the Law of War, see discussion on the Lieber Group in ASIL, 'The responsibility for training foreign military personnel', ASIL, 1984, 1. E.g., the 1890 Brussels Act prohibited imports of certain firearms into certain areas of Africa; the 1906 Act of Algeciras prohibited the import of firearms into Morocco; the 1919 St Germain Draft Convention on Control of Arms Trade, the 1925 Geneva Draft Convention on Arms Trade, and the 1929 Draft Convention in International Supervision of Arms Manufacturing laid down rules for export licences for arms and other restraining rules; none of the latter Draft Conventions came into force. But it became impossible to follow the dispersal of, for example, the ex-Soviet weapons arsenal after the demise in 1991 of the USSR. Cf. the activities of the US Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA). For trade in conventional weapons see J. Turner, Arms in the '80s, Stockholm, (SIPRI), 1986, and R. Yakemchouk, 'Le transit international des armes de guerre', RGDIP, 1979, 350. But other problems arise as arms production in developing countries increases; many States will not then rely on arms imports: see M. Brzoska and T. Ohlson, Arms Production in the Third World, London (SIPRI), 1985. Or, as in the case of Sweden, 'servicing' previously supplied arms systems, like the Bofors land-to-air gun positioned on Velebit mountain above Split, 'modified' for use by the Yugoslav Federal Army in 1991 by two engineers for land-to-land use, which would necessarily mean that the gun would be targeted against civilians below; the engineers were arrested but subsequently released without trial as Croatia achieved independence and regained full control over the Split area.

P R E V E N T I O N OF W A R

121

of the living conditions of its population, as is Angola, for example, but that its government has access to vast deposits of natural resources, like diamonds or oil, which facilitate large purchases of sophisticated and costly conventional arms. Not only States, but also m a n y political factions and movements, have no financial problems in purchasing large quantities of conventional arms. International society has an interest in ensuring that the arms trade does not extend into furnishing too many breakaway groups with ready access to arms. However, there is, as yet, little State control of the arms trade and one might say that there is even strong State support for such trade. Even when sanctions are imposed on the supply of all goods to a particular country, as was the case with Rhodesia, arms still find their way into those countries, often via several third parties ostensibly constituting the ultimate destina­ tion of those arms, as indicated on relevant letters of credit and bills of lading and other title documents. Alternatively, as happened in South Africa during the apartheid era, sanctions merely encourage a country to start their own weapons production, gradually even exporting arms and thereby even expanding the international arms trade. States may forbid the export of arms if there is a risk that these arms may be used to suppress the civilian population or for other illicit p u r p o s e s .

116

The President of the United States received a blanket authorisation from Congress to issue such an order if he were able to identify, in any 'Ameri­ can* country, conditions of domestic violence p r o m o t e d by arms imported from the United States. This authorisation was, as mentioned a b o v e ,

117

used to prevent arms trade with Mexico. Then, the Secretary of State emphasised that the arms sales were stopped, not because of any 'obliga­ tions' under international law but merely because the United States wished to 'promote the return of peace to M e x i c o ' .

118

Recently, however, it has

been the Security Council of the United Nations which has ordered an arms embargo, forbidding all States (and their citizens) to export arms to a specific c o u n t r y .

119

There is indeed a fine line between what is required for the legitimate defence of a State, or of a seceding nation with the right to secede,

120

and

what can be used for unlawful purposes as, for example, in violation of 116

1 , 9

120

1 , 7

118

See below, Ch. 12, C i b on embargo. Ch. 2, A iii c. Ibid. See, for example SC Res. 713 (1991) and below, Ch. 12 on embargo. Cf. also below, Ch. 8, A iii b and Ch. 9, B iii. Croatia and Slovenia enjoyed such a right under the Federal Constitution of former Yugoslavia.

122

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

humanitarian rules or of h u m a n rights. There was much discussion in the United Kingdom in January 1999 when it was shown that arms exported from England had been used in Sierra Leone against the civilian popula­ tion, in East Timor by the Indonesian army, causing numerous deaths a m o n g civilians, and even in Iraq which was b o m b e d that same month by the United Kingdom (and the United States). Some seriously questioned the ethics of arms production and e x p o r t s

121

and queried whether objec­

tions to arms exports could easily be relegated to misguided 'pacifism'.

122

Others, often representing arms manufacturers, more predictably rejected any propositions that the arms trade should be limited.

123

It is unquestionably ironic that there should be, on the one hand, national pride when large arms export orders are secured, and on the other, general outrage if those arms are ever used. Serious limitation of arms exports could not fail to minimise the risk of armed conflict in the world. Governments have therefore some serious obligations under international law to oversee the arms exports from public and private arms manufacturers, and from the n u m e r o u s 'middle men', in their countries and perhaps to introduce proper verification systems for the final use of exported weapons. If States were to comply with such obligations, they may, ultimately be held responsible

124

for

those violations of h u m a n rights and humanitarian law that result from their passivity or from their lack of verification of facts given for export licences.

125

However, there is, as yet, little State control of the arms trade. Sanctions, as we have seen, can be ineffective. Some collective undertakings such as the Ayacucho Agreement of 1974, for example,

126

concern the limitation of the

arms trade and provide for an end to the acquisition of arms for offensive purposes on a regional basis. But the agreement concerns only the supply of arms that exceeds what is needed for a State's defence purposes and hence poses many problems of identification. 121

122

m

124

123

126

127

127

Matthew Parris, The Times, 16 January 1999. Lord Alton of Liverpool, The Times, 28 January 1998, drawing attention to the fact that the Indonesian military attache in London, Colonel Halim, had confirmed that UK-manufactured military equipment was used in East Timor; there an estimated 200,000 died at the hands of the Indonesian army. N. Prest, The President of Alvis, pic, The Times, 21 January 1999. It may be that the new Tribunal for War Crimes, founded by a Treaty of Rome of July 1998, may be given competence for such actions. Note, for example, more stringent measures adopted by Switzerland, Ordinance on Reporting Requirements for Specific Weapons of War, Federal Gazette, 1995, 1. Between eight Latin American countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Equador, Para­ guay, Peru and Venezuela. See above, in this section.

P R E V E N T I O N OF WAR

123

What is required of arms producers and of those who trade in arms is a new frame of mind. Legitimate defence requirements are negligible in comparison with the volume of the current arms trade: arms sales in 1998 from OECD countries and developing countries a m o u n t e d to some $156 billion.

128

There must be a way to turn this sometimes highly sophisticated

industry and trade to the benefit of the world rather than to its destruction.

vii. Stability pacts On the face of it, a 'stability pact* is intended to diffuse tension in a specific area and may be more or less effective in preventing war, possibly depend­ ing on whether it is coupled with disarmament measures. The intention in the case of the Dayton Accord and its Annex IB on 'Regional Stabilisation* was precisely to eliminate regional polarities. However, unless there is some form of democratic accession to such an Agreement by the population of the area, rather than merely a formal acceptance by its government, there is considerable risk that an agreement on 'stability* will be perceived as an imposed or 'patronising*

129

measure, which will in t u r n produce major

tension vis-a-vis the major powers, or organisations, which proposed the Agreement.

130

In other words, stability pacts must be construed with a

certain sensitivity to local perceptions if tension a m o n g neighbours is not to be replaced by tension between other States or organisations.

viii. A c c o m m o d a t i o n of internal needs It may be trite to suggest that a State that is just and fair in its own territory will not have problems with seceding groups or 'nations*. Many of today's wars are, however, secessionist w a r s

131

fuelled by the need to avoid sup­

pression or by other forms of suffering. Once the heavy lid of repression was removed from communist federations such as the Soviet Union or Yugoslavia, there was an exodus from those federations of new nations who preferred their own independence. Other forms of suppression, such as oppressive economic measures, or reluctance to allow shared participation in governmental activities, will also make groups and 'nations' look for new 128

130

131

129

OECD, Report, 1998. Cf. above, Ch. 2, B xi. The OSCE, which itself lacks any power of decision, was requested under the Agreement to 'assist* the parties in their negotiations; in practice, this has been presented in the form of most mandatory statements. Above, Ch. l , D i i d .

GENERAL

124

PRINCIPLES

ways to form their own States. Although one should always heed the democratic will, which has not always been respected,

132

it must be under-

lined that it is expensive and often unnecessary to establish new States, with all the necessarily attendant ministries, armed forces and diplomatic service. States should thus rather attend to demands made by nations or ethnic groups and allow them to find a solution for their grievances lest such groups secede. Tension has been growing in South A s i a

133

for some time. The flare-up in

East Timor in 1999, which may be only one of many such secessions to come, could conceivably have been prevented if the Jakarta government had adopted m o r e reasonable policies towards local and regional demands.

ix. Peaceful settlement of disputes Direct negotiations are often the most effective way of solving a d i s p u t e ,

134

especially by preventing the escalation of problems through tackling issues as they arise. If a dispute assumes significant proportions a third State or the Secretary 135

General of the United Nations may offer their bona officio

to assist the

reaching of an agreement, normally by approaching each party separately to discuss a potential solution to the problem. The third party may also assist by consulting with the two parties and proposing solutions to negotiating parties; such assistance is usually referred to as ' m e d i a t i o n ' .

136

The two methods can be combined, as in the

border war between Kenya and Somalia in 1967 when President Nyerere of Tanzania provided a venue for talks in Arusha through his good offices and President Kaunda of Zambia mediated. Other efforts at mediation have been made by a succession of American Presidents in the disputes between 132

Above, Ch. 2, A iii b. See R. G. T. Thomas, 'Secessionist movements in South Asia', Survival, Summer 1994, 92ff. Cf. S. L. Kass, 'Obligatory negotiation in international organisations', CanYIL, 1965, 36fif; cf. F. C. Icle, How Nations Negotiate, New York, 1964. 135 y Pechota, The Quiet Approach. A Study of the Good Offices Exercised by the United Nations Secretary General in the Cause of Peace, New York, 1972; D. Bindschedler-Robert, 'Les bons offices dans la politique étrangère de la Suisse', in Handbuch der Schweizerischen Aussenpolitik, 1975, 670. W. Schücking, Das völkerrechtliche Institut der Vermittlung, Kristiania, 1925; N. Politis, 'L'avenir de la médiation', RGDIP, 1920, 130; L. L. Randolph, Third Party Settlement of Disputes in Theory and Practice, New York, 1973; D. R. Young, The Intermediaries, Third Parties in International Crises, Princeton, 1967; cf. J. Burton, Conflict and Communication in international Relations, New York, 1969. See below, Ch. 11, A ii c on mediation for the purposes of ensuring implementation of treaties on the Law of War. 133

134

1 3 6

P R E V E N T I O N OF W A R

125

Israel and the Palestinians, including providing a venue in C a m p David and offering suggested points of agreement. The Dayton Accord of 1996 concerning Bosnia-Herzegovina was reached by similar, albeit considerably more 'authoritative' mediation by the United States.

137

A more institutionalised system of investigation is also used. W h e n the dispute is about questions of fact, a fact-finding commission may be useful to ascertain the background objectively.

138

Sometimes such commissions

are entrusted both with the task of fact-finding and with mediation and thus perform what is commonly called a conciliation service. The Hague Convention I of both 1 8 9 9

140

and 1907

141

139

provided for the

solution of disputes by bona officio and mediation and the parties agreed to attempt such solution before resorting to any armed force. Contracting parties also agreed that efforts by third parties to settle their disputes by such negotiation would not be regarded as any unlawful intervention. The Convention of 1907 also provided for assistance by fact-finding commissions, without placing the parties, however, under any obligation to refer disputes to such bodies. A n u m b e r of bodies have been established for conciliation purposes as, for example, under the Bryan T r e a t i e s League of N a t i o n s .

143

142

and under the auspices of the

The Charter of the United Nations provides ample

provisions for the peaceful settlement of d i s p u t e s .

137

138

139

140

143

144

144

Above, C vii. See, e.g., W. J. Shore, Fact-Finding in the Maintenance of Peace, 1970; N. Politis, 'Les commissions internationales d'enquête', RGDIP, 1912, 149; T. Bensalah, L'enquête international dans le règlement des conflits, Paris, 1976. J. P. Cot, La conciliation internationale, Paris, 1968; H. Wehberg, 'Die Vergleichkommissionen im modernen Völkerrecht', in Festgabe Makarov, Stuttgart, 1958, 551; G. Revel, 'Rôle et caractère des commissions de conciliation', RGDIP, 1931, 564; J. Efremoff, 'Organisation de la Conciliation comme moyen de prévenir la guerre', 59 RCADI, 1937, i, 103; F. S. Hamzeh, International Conciliation, Amsterdam, 1965; D. Schindler, Die Schiedsgerichtbarkeit seit 1914, Zurich, 1938,176ff.; F. M. van Asbeck, 'La tâche et l'action d'une commission de conciliation', NedTIR, 1956, 1; F. Castberg, Mellemfolkelig Rettspleie, Oslo, 1925, 86; E. Hambro, Folkerettspleie, 1956,68; C. C. Hyde, 'The place of commissions of inquiry and conciliation treaties in the peaceful settlement of international disputes', BYIL, 1929, 96. 26 NRGT, 2 série, 920. 2 NRGT, 3 série, 360. AJIL, 1939, suppl., 861. But note that many 'conciliation' commissions set up under Peace treaties are really concerned with claims, for example regarding property; on such commissions, with quite different functions, see 14 RIAA 1965 13 (Anglo-Italian Commission); ibid., 67 (US-Italian); 16 ibid., 1969 183 (French-Italian) and ibid., 228, 300 (Netherlands-Italian) and cf. D. Vignes, 'La commission de conciliation franco-italienne', AFDI 1955, 212. Articles 24, 35-7 for the Security Council; articles 11,12 and 14 for the General Assembly. See Stone, Legal Controls 185fT; A. S. Lall, International Negotiations, New York, 1966; Jimenez de Arechaga, Voting and Handling of Disputes in the Security Council, Montevideo, 1950. 141

142

126

GENERAL

Arbitration

145

and judicial settlement, as encouraged by the Hague Con­

ventions of 1899 and 1 9 0 7 , peacefully

147

PRINCIPLES

146

are other normal ways of settling disputes

which have grown in importance in modern times. Arbitra­

tion has developed into a much-used method of resolving disputes.

148

There are obvious reasons for referring disputes to the International Court of Justice,

149

although some lack of respect for the Orders and Judgments of

the ICJ has given cause for c o n c e r n .

150

x. Pacts against war The n u m e r o u s treaties which forbid the use of force and bind parties not to resort to w a r

151

also play their part in the peace-preserving process. By

making war illegitimate, such treaties will restrain some State action. But conventions o n prohibitions of force will assist little in the reduction of internal war: the non-State party is not b o u n d by any of the agreements forbidding war and cannot conceive its behaviour as illegitimate under international law since the traditional version of this system normally

152

does not recognise insurgent groups as 'international persons' capable of directly assuming rights and obligations. 145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

153

See, e.g., A. M. Stuyt, Survey of International Arbitrations 1794-1970,1972; J. L. Simpson and H. Fox, International Arbitration: Law and Practice, London, 1959; K. S. Carlston, The Process of International Arbitration, New York, 1946; P. Chapal, L'arbitrabilité des différends inter­ nationaux, Paris, 1967; L. B. Sohn, 'The function of international arbitration today', 108 RCADI 1963, i, 1. Above, in this Chapter, this section. L. Delbez, Les principes généraux du contentieux international, Paris, 1962; H. J. Hallier, Internationale Gerichte und Schiedsgerichte, Cologne, 1961; see also the European Convention for Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, 320 UNTS 243, which widens the scope of reference to the ICJ. For example, the numerous cases Iran and the United States currently dealt with by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the Hague. See, e.g., S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court, Leiden and New York, 2 vols., 1965. Above, Ch. 2, B on the Hostages in Teheran Case (in which Iran withdrew from the Court), and the Nicaragua Case (in which the United States withdrew from the proceedings). Above, Ch. 2, A. But see below, Ch. 6, B i c on obligations of liberation movements. See my Concept, 2nd edn, Ch. 1, and my International Legal Order, 126fT, on my own theory of non-State parties as direct subjects of international law. Few academic scholars of international law share my views on this point but it is the only theory which can be reconciled with actual contemporary State practice and which is also confirmed by case law of national and interna­ tional courts. It would, for example, be impossible to punish individuals as war criminals as was done in the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials, and as is now done in the War Crimes Trial Tribunals of former Yugoslavia and of Rwanda, and the International Criminal Court (ICC), (see below, Ch. 12, C) if individuals were not directly bound by international law.

P R E V E N T I O N OF W A R

127

xi. Interaction b y trade a n d loans Strong economic interdependence may not be a guarantee against w a r

154

but normally has a stabilising effect. Much could be said about the intricate effects of international trade and concessional finance as peace-preserving factors. For example, trade is, at least in the West, usually perceived as the primus motor of détente and conducive to prevailing concerns of peaceful activities. As regards the relationship between States, it may be sufficient to point to the activities of GATT and W T O , Fund ( I M F ) ,

156

and the World B a n k

157

1 5 5

the International Monetary

at the global level. At the regional

level, customs unions and free trade areas also contribute to link States together by t r a d e .

158

Many of these organisations also fulfil a function by

institutionalising cooperation.

159

But m u c h is achieved through general

world trade although new trends of 'economic nationalism* may have a negative effect.

160

Investment finance mechanisms and supplementing

machinery for the solution of investment disputes are also important factors in the peace-preserving effort.

161

xii. Institutional factors The United Nations may play a role in different ways in international armed conflicts, using one or several of the mechanisms mentioned above. It has been suggested that the UN is particularly useful for: opening u p issues by public debate; for assisting by 'quiet diplomacy', good offices and conciliation; offering inquiries and reports; ascertaining the 'will of the people'; carrying out on-the-spot observation and surveillance; contributing to consensual peace-keeping and policing; offering economic assistance and 154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

E.g., between Germany and other European States in 1939; some famous scholars assumed economic factors would be more important than they proved to be in the event: see J. M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of Peace, New York, 1920, 17. K. W. Dam, The GATT Law and International Economic Organisation, Chicago, 1970; T. Flory, Le GATT, droit international et commerce mondial, Paris, 1968; J. H. Jackson, World Trade and the Law of GATT, Indianapolis, 1969. See, e.g., D. Carreau, Souverainté et coopération monétaire internationale, Paris, 1970. See, e.g., A. Broches, 'International legal aspects of the World Bank', 98 RCADÏ, 1959, 301. For a survey, see my Ekonomisk integrationsràtt, Uppsala, 1973. See below, in this Chapter, next section. J. Mayall, 'Reflections on the "new economic nationalism"', 10 Review of International Studies, 1984,313. See my Finance and Protection of Investments in Developing Countries, 2nd edn, London, 1987, 133flf.

GENERAL

128

PRINCIPLES

technical cooperation; determining which governments are entitled to be represented in the United Nations; taking sanctions and enforcement measures; and elaborating n o r m s and criteria of c o n d u c t .

162

The only item on this useful list which does not quite square with our problem concerning liberation wars and internal wars is perhaps that concerning the representation of governments in the United Nations; for in view of the participation of non-State bodies in treaties on the Law of War,

163

and in view of their part in the warfare itself, the exclusive partici­

pation of'States' rather than emerging 'nations' in the World organisation was, in the 1980s, perceived as an anomaly. There appeared to be little h a r m that liberation movements could do were they to take part in debates. O n the contrary, they might, it was thought, derive some benefit themselves and become m o r e aware of the obligations which are incum­ bent u p o n them. But the world was too worried to give liberation move­ ments any 'standing' or any particular 'status', almost forgetting that, in reality, certain movements already behaved very much like State entities and often, so far, without the entailing d u t i e s .

164

In the 1990s, national

ambitions of 'new' or 'revived' States overshadowed the debate about the status of liberation movements as n u m e r o u s such States joined the UN with some speed. Some international organisations were created precisely to constitute stabilising factors to ensure peace, in a more technical, more precise and probably m o r e effective way than the general methods of the United Nations. This was the case with the European C o m m u n i t y for Coal and Steel

165

although this is often forgotten in the maze of contemporary

economic regulations. This organisation was established to create a c o m m o n market, with free circulation of goods, manpower and capital, for the then two main base industries of war. coal and steel. N o member of the C o m m u n i t y could start armaments manufacture without the knowledge of the other parties. The second objective of the C o m m u n i t y was to create a balancing factor between the two Superpowers of the 1950s and to introduce Europe as that balancing factor, along the lines suggested by Immanuel Kant and Abbé de St. P i e r r e . 162

163

165

166

166

Later, when nuclear power was thought viable and

O. Schachter, 'The United Nations and internal conflict', in J. N. Moore, Law and Civil War in the Modern World, Princeton, 1974, 409. Below, Ch. 6, B i c. Below, Ch. 6, B ii c. P. Reuter, La Communauté européenne du Charbon et de l'Acier, Paris, 1952. On these theories, and for references, see my article on 'The problem of unequal treaties', ICLQ, 1966, 1086. 164

129

P R E V E N T I O N OF W A R

important as another base industry for war, the European C o m m u n i t y for Atomic Energy was formed in 1957, creating a c o m m o n market for fissile material.

167

The general c o m m o n market, the European Economic C o m m u ­

nity, supplemented the other two through the deep economic integration of its member States. This customs union, later transformed into the European Union merging the three Communities, has external tariffs to third States and, to some extent, similar foreign policy to third parties. As a consolidated and integrated structure, the European Union may effectively reduce risks of war between the members themselves. As with any other alliance,

168

tension

with outside parties may be enhanced in proportion to the professed loyalty between members themselves. Tensions with the outside world, on the other hand, may be expressed in economic terms - as, for example, when the United States refers to the EU as 'fortress Europe* - or, indeed, in terms of political hostility. In spite of questionable constitutional rights of action in disputes outside its territory, the EU did not hesitate to intervene, even with Russian and Czech 'advisors' in the wars between the Yugoslav Federal Army and its various neighbours. In this situation the EU acted through some ill-chosen emissaries who showed more or less inappropriate judgment which, in turn, almost certainly prolonged the wars. However, as a rule, international organisations may be most important for reducing the risk of armed conflict. Certain technical arrangements probably contribute most to the prevention of violence and ensuing war and yet play a much underrated role in this respect. States are interlinked and deeply interdependent on technical cooperation through organisations such as the specialised agencies of the United Nations, particularly the Universal Postal Union (UPU), the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), the World Health Organisation ( W H O ) the World Meteoro­ logical Organisation ( W M O ) and the International Civil Aviation Orga­ nisation (ICAO). States are inhibited from resorting to violence if it implies the disruption of all activities of these organisations with regard to their country. It is awkward to be outside the postal or telecommunication networks (under UPU and ITU), or without cooperation in health matters (under W H O ) , and it will be hazardous to continue civil aviation operations (under I C A O ) . 167

168

169

169

On the vast literature on the origins of the Communities, see my Bibliography of International law, 1976, 523fT. Above, in this Chapter, C i. On the activities and powers of these organisations, see my Law Making, 217-329.

130

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

Another peace-preserving factor is the vertical displacement of represen­ tatives of States in organisations: it is not normally a State's Foreign Ministry that sends delegates to the technical organisations, but rather its Post Office, Telecommunications Department, Health Ministry and Meteorological Departments. This means that the integrating network ties together State administrations lower down than the normal level of exter­ nal contacts, i.e. lower down than the niveau of Foreign Ministries. A consequence of this is the integration on a wider administrative basis within Member States of organisations. Seen together with c o m m o n rules of simple majority votes, or 'contracting-out' procedures dispensing with any further form of State a p p r o v a l ,

170

the new law of organisations repre­

sents substantial technical peace-preserving guarantees. However, in order to fulfil the function for which it was created, the UN and its various specialised agencies must be purged of their unwieldy bureaucracy. This failure, though still remediable, is clearly more serious in the U N than in the more technical organisations as the UN is entrusted with keeping world peace and security. The United Nations has suffered m u c h justified criticism for its action and inaction in armed conflicts,

171

but could still be adapted to better cater for needs in armed conflicts without any revision of the Charter. Some specialised agencies have also an almost scandalous record with regard to assistance in armed conflict: the World Health Organisation ( W H O ) has headquarters staff of over 6,000 in Geneva but sent nine officials to Somalia, a country torn by armed conflict, disease and famine; the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) with some 3,500 employees at its headquarters in Rome sent two officials.

172

It is clear that the UN and

its specialised agencies will do little of their own accord: Member States must impose heavy rationalising measures, avoiding the internal political scene. 170

For a detailed analysis of these rules and State practice, see ibid., passim.

171

Below, Ch. 11, C i . A. E. Smithson, 'Implementing the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)\ Survival, Spring 1994, who is wary of the possible bureaucratisation of the Organisation for Chemical Weapons (OPCW), provides this information citing R. C. Longworth, 'UN relief agencies put paperwork first', Chicago Tribunal, 14 September 1993.

172

4 The war-waging machinery

A. The resources of States States have permanent forces and assets which are put at their disposal in war. Other belligerents lack these resources and this explains why, for example, guerilla wars are fought on land, and not at sea or in the air; for guerillas do not have warships or aeroplanes. 1

States use their forces, military aeroplanes and other transport and equipment. It is particularly important to set out what a warship implies as such ships form an important part of the war-waging machinery. There is, with regard to ships, a problem similar to that of making a 2

distinction between civilians and combatants. Ships operated by navies are of two kinds. First, there are fighting ships, including auxiliary cruisers and converted merchantmen. Secondly, there are auxiliary ships of all descrip­ tions. These ships are public ships. Each is c o m m a n d e d by a commissioned officer of the fighting fleet, manned by a crew subject to military discipline, bears external marks distinguishing its nationality, is listed in the list of warships of the belligerent nations and, finally, observes the laws and customs of the Law of War.

3

Merchantmen can be converted into warships on the condition that they 4

comply with all the characteristics of fighting ships. Conversion can, 5

according to the French doctrine, take place on the high seas although this 6

has been contested elsewhere. By being absorbed in the navy of a State, 1

2

3

4

On the importance of identification markings, see my 'Foreign warships and immunity for espionage', A//L, 1984, 65. Below, in this Chapter, C. Cf. Convention 1982 on the Law of the Sea, article 29. See further on the status of warships, my 'Foreign warships', 60fT. Hague VII 1907, articles 1-6; The Kronprinz Wilhelm, AD 1929-30, 510. Rousseau, Conflits armes, 223. On the conversion of the Russian merchantmen The Smolensk and The Petersburg in the Red Sea in the Russian-Japanese War see 'Chronique, communication de F. Rey\ RGDIP, 1909, 509. y

5

6

131

GENERAL

132

PRINCIPLES

converted ships are in a different class from privateering ships, which under special lettres de marque, had formerly been authorised to attack enemy 7

merchant vessels. A third group of ships often employed by navies are merchant ships under charter which carry out services, such as carrying provisions and supplies, for a limited time. Such ships are usually held to remain private ships.

8

Merchantmen may carry defensive armament but, in order not to be classified as converted vessels, such armaments must only be light.

9

However, in earlier German doctrine any armed ship is considered as a warship

10

opinion.

although it is held that this is contrary to generally accepted

11

B. Belligerents and c o m b a t a n t s 12

The State is, say some, the sole source of the 'right' to use violence. It is certainly the traditional war-waging m a c h i n e .

13

If war is defined as a state of armed conflict between States it follows, to those who accept this definition, that the 'subjects' of belligerence can only be States.

14

But even traditionalists admit, on reflection, that groups of

citizens, for example those recognised as belligerents in civil war,

15

can

wage war. Even other groups, if they have some consolidated structure,

16

can be classified as belligerents, as is amply demonstrated in contemporary warfare, for example, in Korea, in Vietnam, the Middle East, Rwanda, Somalia and Kosovo. International organisations can also be belligerents. Some have held that it is somehow incompatible with the tasks of the United Nations to claim that it is involved in a w a r . 7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

,A

17

17

But the peace-keeping efforts of the United

Privateering was forbidden by the Declaration of 1856, below, Ch. 8, B i. On the practice see Wilson, 'Conversion of merchant ships into warships', 2 AJIL, 1908, 271. The Princess Alice, 6 Hackworth 447; 23 AJIL 673; but The Locksun, a collier ship, was held not to be a merchantman, ibid. Cf. Scott, 'The execution of Captain Fryatt', 10 AJIL, 1916, 865. Strupp-Schlochauer, Wörterbuch des Völkerrecht, 1920, 503. Rousseau, Conflits armes, 226. M. Weber, 'Legitimacy, politics and the state', in H. Gerth and C. W. Mills, (eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, New York, 1958, 77, reprinted in W. E. Connolly, (ed.), Legitimacy and the State, 1984, 33. Above, Ch. 1, D i a and further below, in this section. F. Berber, 3 Lehrbuch des Völkerrechts, Kriegsrecht, 5. Above, Ch. 1, D i a. On the threshold, see above, Ch. 1, B iii b. A. D. McNair and D. V. Watts, The Legal Effects of Wars, 4th edn, Cambridge, 1966, 45. 15

THE WAR-WAGING

Nations

18

MACHINERY

133

do not alter the factual situation in which the United Nations

intervenes and it would indeed seem illogical to impute any special charac­ ter to a conflict because of an intervention by the UN when that situation already exists. On the other hand, there might be wars in which the United Nations only appeared to intervene but where it was not really a belligerent. This was, for example, the case in Korea where the UN, without m u c h authorisation, acted as an umbrella organisation for collective State action.

19

The troops

operating under the aegis of the United Nations in Korea may not have been forces of the United Nations as the decision to take action had been taken without the vote of the former Soviet Union, a permanent m e m b e r of 20

the UN Security Council. The units were probably troops of the collective operation of the Western powers, but as such, detached from their respect­ ive h o m e States and placed under a collective c o m m a n d which, at least on an ad hoc basis, functioned as an international organisation. There have been other cases where it is sometimes difficult to make a distinction between collective action and action by an organisation. For example, the Inter-American Peace Force in the Dominican conflict in 1965 consisted of units from different States and was probably a collective body for intervention purposes.

21

Some claim that international organisations in general lack the compet­ ence to wage wars, with the notable exception of the United N a t i o n s .

22

The

reason for this exception would be that article 42 of the Charter expressly foresees forceful action by the Security Council which might involve the use of armed forces of the Organisation.

23

There is no reason why other organisations could not be belligerents and no a priori reason why such entities should be excluded as subjects of the Law of War. For example, the planned European Defence Organisation was 24

to have had an army of its o w n . The European Union, n o w negotiating for 18

19

2 0

21

24

On the earlier UN Peace Keeping Forces, see R. Higgins, United Nations Peace Keeping Forces, 4 vols., Oxford, 1976-81; D. W. Bowett, United Nations Forces: A Legal Study of UN Practice, London, 1964; cf. F. Seyerstcd, United Nations Forces in the Law of Peace and War, Oslo, 1972. See S. Bastid, Cours de droit international, Paris; 1951-2,340; R. R. Baxter, 'Constitutional forms and some legal problems of international military command', 29 BYIL 1952, 335; and my Law Making, 60fif; cf. Alibert, Du droit de se faire justice, 62-8. The USSR had left the meeting and the decision was taken, in spite of the chaise vide, in its absence. 5 IRRC 1965, 303. Ibid. Ibid. See G. Edwards and B. Burrows, The Defence of Western Europe, London, 1982; cf. R. Aron and D. Lerner, La querelle de la CED, Paris, 1956. 2 2

2 3

GENERAL

134

PRINCIPLES

a 'defence a r m \ plans at least a rudimentary structure for its own 'army', necessarily b o u n d by the rules of the Law of War. The forces of NATO, deployed in actual war in Kosovo in 1999, are also subjected to such rules. The forces of N A T O may be recruited on a collective basis from the participating member States but the organisation has its own 'international personality'.

25

The most important newcomer a m o n g belligerents are the internal groups, liberation movements, aspiring 'nations' and other non-State con­ glomerates. Insurgents may always have existed and there may always have been rules for their treatment: they would in many States be tried for treason for their acts against the State. Later, some rudimentary rules for their 26

protection evolved through the rules of'recognised belligerency'. There is no doubt that the present-day evolution of internal warfare has brought about considerable changes, both in the substance of the law and in its ambit. The rise of the nation State in the 16th century may originally have put an 27

end to n u m e r o u s civil wars, but today it may be that the unwillingness of many States to grant equal rights to all citizens, or to allow consolidated ethnic groups their own territory, actually contributes to an increase in the incidence and intensity of civil strife. Although a practice of recognition of 28

belligerents has existed, it was later accepted that entities which have not received such formal recognition may also qualify as belligerents: nonrecognition of groups, fronts or entities has not affected their status as belligerents nor the ensuing status of their soldiers as combatants.

29

It is thus indisputable that today not only States can be war-waging machines: internal groupings and non-State entities have acquired this quality. For m o r e obvious peace-preserving objectives, the United Nations can also take part in war as might other organisations, whether in their own name or as an umbrella for collective State action. In inter-State wars the belligerents will be States and the combatants the members of their armed forces. Other entities described above are also potential 'belligerents' and the members of their armed forces are potential 'combatants'. Thus, it is the combatants who fight on behalf of a belliger­ ent. But even if the members of the armed forces of the various entities are 'potential combatants' they do not become 'actual combatants' for the 2 5

2 8

29

2 6

2 7

See further below, Ch. 12, C e. See above, in this section. Above, Ch. 1, C i. See above, Ch. 1, D i a. The Fjeld, (1952) (Prize Court of Alexandria), 17 ILR 1950, 345; Diah v. AG, (1952), (Supreme Court of Israel), 19 ILR 1952, 550.

THE WAR-WAGING

135

MACHINERY

purposes of the application of the Law of War unless there are hostilities of a certain intensity. It is, for the ambit of the Law of War, of principal importance to have a clear notion of who is, and who is not, a combatant.

9

C. The notion of 'combatant i. T h e principle of distinction

It is important to have clear criteria to distinguish the civilian population 30

from combatants. Any confusion of the division between the two groups will inevitably endanger protection granted under the Law of War. National manuals on warfare rely on the distinction as an important n o t i o n .

31

ii. Qualifications for c o m b a t a n t status a. Potential (1) Regular forces troops,

32

combatants

O n e distinguishes traditionally between regular 33

whether or not including militia c o r p s , and other forces. The

regular troops form the core of the 'lawful combatants'. W o m e n may form part of such regular troops, having the same obligations and enjoying equal 34

privileges. The regular forces may also include soldiers of foreign nation35

ality. An ambiguous provision in article 3 of the Regulations provided that armed forces may consist of combatants as well as non-combatants. 3 0

31

32

33

34

3 5

On the principles of distinction, see E. Rosenblad, International Humanitarian Law of Armed Conflict, Some Aspects of the Principle of Distinction and Related Problems, Geneva, 1979, 6 Iff. E.g., United Kingdom, Manual of Military Law, The Law of War on Land, pt. 3, article 284; United States, Laws of Warfare, 1956, paras. 39-42; France, Règlement de discipline générale dans les forces armées, ch. 4, article 34; ch. 2 article 5; Federal Republic of Germany, Verordnung, 1961, paras, 64,68; Switzerland, Manual des lois et coutumes de la guerre, 1963, Chapitre 2, article 25. See Greenspan, Modem Law of Land Warfare, 68; McDougal and Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order, 544. As for example in Switzerland. The question of the composition of regular troops is a matter for municipal law: Hague Regulations article 1(2); cf. 2 Oppenheim 255. The British Home Guard was probably to be considered as part of the regular troops: Stone, Legal Controls, 568. If a State incorporates semi-military organisations or police forces into its regular troops it must inform other parties to a 'conflict': Protocol 1 Article 43(3). On civil defence personnel, see below, Ch. 8, A iii 11. Cf. Sweden, Committee on International Law, Folkràtten i krig, Ràttsregler under vàpnade konflikter - tolkning, tillâmpning och undervisning, Sveriges offentliga utredningar (SOU) 1984: 56, 76. Yet national conditions can only supplement and not override requirements of international law. ii Berber, 143. On the question whether foreign nationals can be forcibly called up, as in the United States during the Vietnam War, see Rousseau, Conflits armés, 71.

GENERAL

l6 3

PRINCIPLES

The latter group consists of members of the armed forces not taking direct 36

part in hostilities. Article 4(A) 1 of 1949 Geneva Convention II eliminates this ambiguity by referring only to 'armed f o r c e s \

37

The Hague Regulations provide that: The laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to armies, but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the following conditions: 1. To be commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates; 2. To have a fixed distinctive emblem recognisable at a distance; 3. To carry arms openly; 4. To conduct operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war.

38

The 1949 Geneva Conventions deal also with certain criteria which distinguish civilians from combatants. Thus, to be a combatant, a person would have to be: (a) commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates; (b) having a fixed distinctive sign recognisable at a distance; (c) carrying arms openly; (d) conducting their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war.

39

The same requirements as apply to irregular forces are presumably also 40

valid for members of regular u n i t s . However, this is not clearly spelt out: there is no textual support for the idea that members of regular armed forces should wear uniform. O n the other hand, there is ample evidence that this is a rule of law which has been applied to a n u m b e r of situations to ascertain the status of a person.

41

Any regular soldier who commits acts

pertaining to belligerence in civilian clothes loses his privileges and is no longer a lawful c o m b a t a n t . 3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

41

42

'Unlawful' combatants may thus be either

On the distinction in the Hague Regulations, article 3, between combatants and non-combatants as part of armed forces, see S.E. Nahlik, 'L'extension du Statut de combattant à la lumière du Protocole I de Genève de 1977', 164, RCADI1979 iii, 171; Ibid., 201. Article 1, 3 NRGT, 3 série, 464. Cf. the 1907 Regulations and the 1929 Geneva Convention. Article 13 of Geneva Convention I; cf. article 13 of Geneva Convention II, article 4 of Geneva Convention III, and articles 4, 13, 27-34 of Geneva Convention IV. Similar requirements to those in the Geneva Convention are found in national war manuals for regular forces, e.g. 3 British Manual of Military Law, The Law of Land Warfare, 1958, para. 94; US Army, FM 27-10, Law of Land Warfare, 1956, 27-28. Cf. below, in this Chapter, C ii (2) (iii). See my 'Foreign warships', 61ff. 4 2

THE WAR-WAGING

137

MACHINERY

members of the regular forces or members of resistance or guerilla move­ ments who do not fulfil the conditions of lawful c o m b a t a n t s .

43

Regular forces of belligerents may include 'militia or volunteer corps'; 44

the Hague Regulations as well as the Geneva C o n v e n t i o n s

45

all recognise

that such units may be incorporated in the regular forces. 46

Protocol I of 1977 to the Geneva Conventions, on the other hand does not rely on 'understood' criteria for regular forces b u t stipulates that all combatants are obliged to distinguish themselves from the civilian popula­ tion while in preparation for or engaged in an attack; even in situations where owing to the nature of the combat an armed combatant cannot distinguish himself, he shall retain his status as a combatant, provided that, in such situations, he carries his arms openly: (a) during each military engagement, and (b) during such time as he is visible to the adversary while he is engaged in a military deployment preceding the launching of an attack in which he is to participate.

47

The Protocol phrases these difficult criteria operations of liberation m o v e m e n t s ,

49

48

mainly in order to cover

b u t it enlarges, o n the other hand,

the notion of'regular' forces. It thus defines the 'armed forces' of a Party to a conflict as: all organised armed forces, groups and units which are under the command responsible to that Party for the conduct of its subordinates, even if that Party is represented by a government or an authority not recognised by an adverse Party. Such armed forces shall be subject to an internal disciplinary system which, inter alia, shall enforce compliance with the rules of interna­ tional law in armed conflict.

50

Members of such forces are combatants a n d 'have the right to participate 51

directly in hostilities'. Although the language is more flexible than that of the 1949 Conventions, the requirements for combatancy remain, in spite of what other commentators have suggested,

52

at least if the various parts of

the text in the Protocol are read in context. 4 3

44

4 5

4 6

4 7

4 9

52

See Baxter, 'So-called unprivileged belligerency: spies, guerillas and saboteurs', BYIL, 1951 322. Hague Regulations article 1 in fine. Geneva Convention I article 13(1); Geneva II article 13(1); Geneva III article 4(1). See Schindler and Toman, Documents, 2nd edn, 619; cf. A. Roberts and R. Guelff, Documents on the Laws of War, Oxford, 3rd edn 1999, 387. For background to the Protocols, see K. Suter, An International Law of Guerilla Warfare, London, 1984. Article 44. See below in the next section on interpretation. Below, in this Chapter, (iv). Article 43(1). Article 43(2). Above, in this Chapter, B. 4 8

5 0

51

GENERAL

138

PRINCIPLES

(2) Irregular forces International law has gradually allowed for the grant­ ing of combatant status to those who are not members of the regular forces. Under the Geneva Conventions of 1949 regular forces are thus supple­ mented by irregular forces, such as other militia or volunteer corps not forming part of regular t r o o p s ,

53

as well as members of resistance move­

ments, which will be considered lawful provided their members meet certain requirements. These requirements have shifted through history but may today be of greater importance than before, given the nature of contemporary warfare. (i) The special position of volunteers As has been shown, militia and volunteers may form part of the regular army and are thus part of the regular forces. In other, perhaps more c o m m o n , situations militia and volunteers are separated from the regular forces and form the core of what is called 'irregular forces'. 54

The Hague Regulations recognised the extension qualification of'regu­ 55

lar' belligerents to cover also militia and volunteers. As has been shown, the main characteristics of a 'combatant', which have been applied to members of the regular forces as well, were initially designed precisely to cover certain irregular forces which merited inclusion under the ambit of the Law of 56

W a r . There were conditions, however, that their actions would be connec­ ted with their own State and, furthermore, they had to be headed by a responsible leader, fight openly, carry a distinctive sign and observe the Law of War. But there was little certainty as to the necessary size of units of volunteers and whether, in an actual case, a 'volunteer' would be considered as a 'combatant' or as a 'war criminal'.

57

'Clandestine' movements, including volunteers, would, in earlier prac­ tice, not qualify as combatants under the Law of War. But citizens who take u p arms in a levee en masse may so qualify.

58

Under the Armistice Agree­ 59

ment between France and Germany concluded in 1940 the French Gov­ ernment undertook to forbid all Frenchmen to fight against Germany on 5 3

5 6

5 7

5 4

5 8

5 9

S 5

See above, in this Chapter, C ii a (1). Article 1. See above, in this Chapter, B. See above, in this Chapter on relevant provisions of the Hague Regulations, and on the Geneva Conventions. In the List Case, (1948), US Military Tribunal, AD, 1948,640, the Nuremberg Military Tribunal held that a civilian who takes part in hostilities is guilty of a crime against the laws of war and is a 'war criminal'. See further, below, in the next section. The Agreement of 22 June 1940; see Rousseau, Conflits armes, 73.

THE WAR-WAGING

MACHINERY

139

the side of any of Germany's enemies. Those who did not obey this 60

provision would be punished as illegal militia {'franc-tireurs).

But other

risings against an occupier or invader have been held to be 'legal' and, at times, the persons acting in such events have been considered as combat­ ants if they fulfilled the requirements of the Hague Regulations. Geneva Convention III confirmed the four traditional requirements for combatant status, already adopted, as mentioned above, in the Hague Regulations. But it became apparent that 'partisans' and resistance move­ ments would also qualify as belligerents. The new rules were m u c h criticised as they would put an occupying power 'under considerable 61

strain'. But many emphasised that the conditions of the Geneva Conven­ tion were adequate as only 'secret and disguised' forces present any threat to occupying powers.

62

On the other hand, the fourth requirement was

clearly 'discriminatory' in the sense that a regular soldier, if captured, enjoys the status of a prisoner of war, whereas volunteers, if taken by the enemy, also achieve such status if they have observed 'the laws and customs 63

of war'. This required new additional regulation. Protocol I of 1977 to the Geneva Conventions altered the ambit of the category previously considered as 'irregular' by widening the notion of regular forces or, alternatively, by eliminating the distinction between the 64

two concepts. Whether or not the traditional criteria for a combatant, or the new rules, are applied it is still difficult in practice to establish precisely who is, and who is not, a lawful volunteer. National case law confirms that certain resistance movements are con­ 65

sidered as regular t r o o p s . But it is uncertain as to what distinction subsists between such movements and other types of guerilla group. The former category, for example the French Second World W a r resistance move­ ments, all involve a certain degree of organisation but some such as the maquisy for example, are not associated with 'open' activities as required for 66

regular combatants. O n the other hand, certain groups were thought to be so consolidated and of such a nature that they were not even classified as 6 0

61

6 3

6 4

65

6 6

On the meaning of 'franc-tireur', see ibid., 75. F. Castberg, Soldater, partisaner og franctirdrer> 73. 2 Oppenheim 215. Cf. E. David, Principes de droit des conflit armes, Brussels, 1994, 356. Above, in this Chapter, C ii a (1). The Brum Case, (1946), Norway, Eidsivating Lagmannsrett, 13 AD 1946 391. The case empha­ sised two of the traditional conditions for such status, i.e. the forces would be held to be regular provided they act openly and obey the Law of War. Above, in this Chapter, C ii a (1). 6 2

GENERAL

140

PRINCIPLES

regular troops. Apart from certain incidences, some involving serious violations of international law, the members of Free French Forces (Forces françaises libres: FFL) were treated as regular belligerents during the Second World War. And, in spite of its undoubtedly clandestine work, some commentators have also placed the maquis, the French Interior Forces (Forces françaises de Vinterieure. FFI), or other types of highly organised partisan movements in a similar category.

67

(ii) Levée en masse O n e group which has traditionally been held to be exempt from any requirements imposed on other forces is the civilian 6

population when it rises against an invader as a levée en masse. * If the population rises spontaneously there is no need to be organised or to wear emblems although it is required of civilians in such a levée that they carry arms openly and comply with the laws of war. Yet, if they do, they should not be treated as marauders or criminals, for all they have done has been to 69

spring to the defence of their country. Except for the situation of a levée en masse, civilians are considered as non-combatants. They are not entitled to take part in the belligerency or to use arms, even in self-defence, against the enemy. In return they enjoy protection under international law. The spontaneous rising against the enemy has less importance in modern war where the gradual taking of villages, towns and land is not the predominant pattern. But even in traditional situations the right is very limited: the Hague Regulations

70

indicate that it can be exercised only

before occupation; while some commentators even claim that citizens must use their right before an invasion.

71

The right has even been called an

'anomaly' in m o d e r n international law.

72

Yet, the right to levée en masse

undoubtedly still exists and may be considered as an expression of the patriotism of the ordinary citizen to repel the enemy. (Hi) Problems relating to the Geneva requirements

73

During the prepara­

tory work of the Geneva Conventions it was not indicated which were the weapons that had to be carried openly and commentators have assumed 6 7

6 8

6 9

71

7 3

Rousseau, Conflits armés, 74-5. See article 2 of the Hague Convention IV; Geneva I article 13(6); Geneva II, article 13(d); Geneva III, article 4A(b). For historical example, and for the special type where the levée is ordered by the government, see Rousseau, Conflits armés, 72-3. Hague Regulations 1(2). Cf. British Manual, paragraph 95. Article 1. 2 Oppenheim 258. Baxter, 'Spies', 335. F. Bauer, Krigsforbrytarna infor domstol, Stockholm, 1944, 1. 7 0

7 2

THE WAR-WAGING

MACHINERY

that the requirement concerned personal hand w e a p o n s .

141 74

But the condi­

tions imply several relative concepts: at what distance must the weapons be visible? And how far must the 'distance' measure at which distinctive 75

emblems can be seen? In the List Case

the Soviet star in a cap was not

considered sufficiently visible at a distance. Naturally, the criteria would, in practice, cause considerable problems. Scarcely any of the Second World War resistance movements would have qualified as combatants under the four stringent criteria of the Geneva Conventions.

76

After all, the hallmark of any resistance movement is

concealment. It is probably only in peacetime that there is a clear distinc­ 77

tion between civilian and military forces. Yet, the principle of distinction between combatant and civilian is at the root of the Law of W a r . (iv) Guerillas and the new combatant

78

status There are two separate

questions to be considered in the context of internal war. O n e is whether it is legal under international law to conduct war against the established government, as may be the case against an occupier. The second question concerns whether, or under what conditions, the participants in such wars, the insurgents themselves, deserve to be treated as 'combatants' and en­ titled to any rights as such under international law. With regard to the first question, we have touched u p o n relevant p r o b ­ lems of legitimacy in a section on revolutionary and resistance wars.

79

It

remains to investigate whether individual members of resistance or insur­ gent forces are 'combatants' under modern international law. The principle of distinction

80

is of importance. If a person fulfils the

requirements for combatant status he is entitled to the 'rights' of a soldier, notably to enjoy prisoner of war status if captured; if he does not fulfil these requirements, he is an 'unlawful combatant' and may be shot. A third 74

7 6

77

7 8

7 9

7 5

Sweden, Folkràtten i krig, 82. 8 Trials of Major War Criminals, Nuremberg, 1947, 55-9. Cf. Pictet, 'The new Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims', 45 AJIL, 1951,462 at 472. Cf. Baxter, 'Spies', 323. Colombia, CDDH/SR.41, vol. 6, 180. Cf. E. Rosenblad, Humanitarian Law, 61; cf. Resolutions by the General Assembly of the United Nations 2444(XXIII), and of the Vienna Conference of the ICRC 1963, Resolution XXCIII, 3rd principle. For comments on earlier practice, see L. Nurick, 'The distinction between combatant and non-combatant in the law of war', AJIL, 1945, 680; G. I. A. D. Draper, 'Combatant status, the historical perspective', 2 RDPMDG 1972, 135fT; M. Veuthey, 'Comportment et statut des combattants', 12 ibid., 1973, 47; on recent changes in the notion of combatant, see W. T. Mallinson and S. V. Mallinson, 'The juridical status of privileged combatant under the Geneva Protocol of 1977', 42 Law and Contemporary Problems, 1978, 4; S. E. Nahlik, 'L'extension', 171. Chapter 1, D ii b, c and d. Above, in this Chapter, C i. 8 0

142

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

position has even been suggested in case law: resistance fighters may, if they do not wear uniform or carry their arms openly, be 'lawful', provided that they do not use forbidden weapons and that they act in accordance with the Law of War. But it has been suggested that, although their activity is permitted by international law, they may not be entitled to any rights as 'soldiers' and may therefore be shot if captured.

81

In view of such anomal­

ous repercussions, it is of little comfort to the resistance fighter to know that his activity is 'lawful'. During the Vietnam conflict it was argued that the conditions for combatants ought to be changed so that the Force de liberation

nationale

(FLN) guerilla could more easily comply with the requirements for com­ batants: as the rules stood they were unable to follow them and therefore 'lost' their potential protection under international law.

82

According to a

83

suggestion made in 1970, one method which could be chosen for allowing combatant status to guerillas would imply the use of relevant criteria for levee en masse** This was not the path chosen; instead the problem was tackled in the 1977 Protocols. 85

Protocol I of 1977 recognises insurgents as belligerents provided they act under responsible c o m m a n d and are subject to discipline which enfor­ ces relevant rules of international law. Protocol I of 1977 even recognises that it is not always possible for guerillas to distinguish themselves from the civilian population and provides that they will still retain the status of combatants provided they carry arms openly during each military engage­ m e n t and during such time as they are visible to the adversary while engaged in military operation preceding an attack.

86

But Protocol I does not really

reduce the four conditions in the Geneva Conventions

87

but rephrases

them. The requirement of a distinctive military sign is still applicable; to wear some rudimentary form of u n i f o r m

88

has, by tradition, been a hall­

89

mark and a condition of combatant s t a t u s and for prisoner of war status. 81

8 2

8 3

Norway, The Brum Case, (1946) Eidsivating lagmansrett, 13 AD, 1946, 391, in this part not reversed on appeal; the Supreme Court did not comment on this curious reasoning. Sweden, Folkratten i krig, 80. G. I. A. D. Draper, 'The legal classification of belligerent individuals', in Centre Henri Rolin (ed.), Le droit humanitaire et conflits armes Brussels, 1970, 149. See above, in this Chapter, C ii (2)(ii). Articles 43( 1) and 44(3). Article 44(3). Above, in this Chapter, C ii a. But a star in a cap is not sufficient: see above. On the transformation of a reconnaissance soldier without a uniform into a common spy see my 'Foreign warships and espionage', 60fT. Koi v. DPP, (1968) 2 WLR 723 (PC); AH v. DPP, (1968) 3 All ER 488 (PC). Cf. R. Baxter, 'The Privy Council on the qualification of belligerents', AJIL 1969, 290; S. Elman, 'Prisoners of war under the Geneva Conventions', 18 /CLQ, 1969, 178. y

8 4

8 7

8 9

90

90

8 5

8 8

8 6

THE WAR-WAGING

MACHINERY

143

Only in exceptional circumstances may a combatant not distinguish himself from the civilian population. He is unlikely to blend in and is, in any event, subjected to internal discipline under a military c o m m a n d structure. Due to the difficulties caused by the application of the Geneva Convention with respect to the requirement of 'openly* carried a r m s ,

91

this condition has

now been revised to imply that arms must be carried openly during actual fighting. Although hailed, and criticised, as an innovation, this is not an unusual role in the Law of War: warships have often been thought to have 92

the right to use a false flag until they engage in action. The suspension of the duty of distinction applies to combatants only in extreme cases; whereas permission to allow warships to fly a false flag was the normal rule. But some question these rules and claim that marks of insignia and a duty to carry arms openly are obligations which put the guerilla fighter in a worse fighting position. Besides, the very nature of partisan warfare is against such practice.

93

The Protocols have not been ratified by an overwhelming n u m b e r of 94

States and a number of militarily important States are missing from the list of those which are b o u n d . However, the Protocols may in many respects reflect what the existing law already is and then, in those parts, be binding, not by virtue of the obligation of the Protocols as treaties, but by virtue of the underlying obligations enshrined in previously accepted rules.

95

But

with regard to the new combatant status it is to be questioned whether the requirements have actually been relaxed by Protocol I. It is submitted that similar rules to those of the Geneva conditions still apply for the status of a combatant and, correspondingly, for prisoner of war status. The combatant still has to be subjected to internal discipline under a system which applies the rules of war. Some writers claim that guerillas must act under some 'responsible quasi-governmental authority' in order to enjoy protection under Protocol I . 91

9 2

9 1

94

9 5

9 6

96

Naturally, the application of these

Above, in this Chapter, C ii (ii)(iii). See below, Ch. 8, B, also for criticism of this type of warfare. I. P. Trainin, 'Voprosy partizanskoi voiny v meshdunarodnom prave', in Izvestijam Akademii Nauk SSSRy 1945, 4, 1; Trainin, 'Questions of guerilla warfare in the law of war', 40 AJ1L 1946, 534; F. I. Koshevnikov and V. A. Romanov, Mezhdunarodnoe pravo, Moscow, 1966, 614. But note that Yugoslavia, with the previously fourth largest army in Europe, was among the first countries to ratify Protocol I and II, although both Protocols were later flagrantly violated: see below, in fine and Ch. 12, C. See my Concept, 99 and, in greater detail, my International Legal Order, 230ff as well as my Essays, London, 1967, 117, on the underlying basis of obligation. Y. Dinstein, 'The new Geneva Protocols: a step forward or backward?', YHR, 1979, 267.

GENERAL

144

PRINCIPLES

rules will inevitably cause n u m e r o u s problems in practice. There is, for example, little in Protocol I which prevents guerillas from living as civil­ 97

ians. The ICRC itself had argued that 'openness' must be a conditio sine qua non for privileged belligerency, i.e. unless guerillas behave 'openly' they cannot enjoy privileges of c o m b a t a n t s .

98

Some commentators have sup­

ported this view, dismissing any alternative regulation.

99

It is a specific feature of guerilla warfare that the members of guerilla groups merge, intermittently, with the civilian p o p u l a t i o n .

100

As late as

during the Nuremberg Trials, it was thought that guerillas and resistance movements would not be privileged as members of resistance forces 'must accept the increased risks involved in this m o d e of

101

fighting'. Germany

sought to deny the status of combatants to de Gaulle's Free French Forces and claimed that they were n o more than a camouflage to overthrow the legitimate government of Marshal P e t a i n .

102

It may be correct to assume that the protection of the civilian population must be undermined if there is no clear distinction between civilians and combatants. However, guerilla movements have often in the past acted in a way to safeguard the civilian population, with w h o m they often have a c o m m o n cause, by, for example, staying away from a village to save inhabitants from victimisation.

103

Occasionally they have considered such

tactics to the extent that their operations are not related to any inhabited area.

104

There has been a gradual erosion of the concepts of resistance, freedom fighter, guerilla and terrorist movements. The choice of term sometimes merely indicates the attitudes of the beholder. What is important to assert, however, is that the Protocols of 1977 afford protection to both resistance movements and to guerilla action insofar as members of both these types of force will have the status of lawful belligerents, on certain conditions and 9 7

9 8

9 9

100

101

102

104

See my 'Foreign warships', 62. Ironically, the ICRC (a body specially protected by the Law of War: see below, Ch. 9, B iii d), was itself much criticised for its lack of 'openness' during the conflict in Croatia and Slovenia in 1991. Dinstein, 'Another step in codifying the law', 285. See F. O. Miksche, Secret Forces, The Technique of Underground Movement, London, 1950, Ch. 2. US v. List, 8 Trials of Major War Criminals, 1949, 34, 58. Cf. R. Miller, The Law of War, Lexington, 1975, 31. Ibid. P. Boissier, Histoire du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge de Solferino á Tsoushima, Paris, 1963, 116. 103

THE WAR-WAGING

MACHINERY

145

therefore qualify for, inter alia, prisoner of war status. It appears possible to comply with the provisions on combatant status under Protocols of 1977 without significantly reducing the protection of civilians.

105

Protocol I of 1977 affords no protection for terrorists,

106

nor does it

authorise soldiers to conduct military operations disguised as civilians. In practice it is obviously difficult to identify terrorists and distinguish them from lawful combatants: surely members of resistance and guerilla move­ ments often use terrorist tactics and could easily be subsumed under a terrorist concept by their adversary. However, Protocol I does give m e m ­ bers of forces operating in occupied territory an 'incentive' to distinguish themselves from civilians when preparing to carry out an attack.

107

The French delegation wished to extend the protection to resistance movements even beyond the actual limits of Protocol I, and claimed during the Diplomatic Conference that even such resistance members who are not ever distinguishable from the civilian population, the true ' u n d e r g r o u n d ' workers, should be protected too and not only the m o r e established l

maquis\

'partisan' or resistance m o v e m e n t s .

108

Some have forcefully criticised the provisions on guerillas of Protocol I, claiming that 'Giving quarter to a handful of guerilleros who camouflage themselves as civilians may have its merits, but the outcome will be counterproductive from a humanitarian standpoint if, as a result, a multi­ tude of civilians be subjected to the rigours of total w a r . '

109

Yet, the

provisions on guerilla warfare in Protocol I must be seen in the context both of the extremely limited ambit of article 1(4) to which the Protocols apply

110

and in relation to the increased protection the civilian population

enjoys, in any event, against reprisals.

111

Protocol II, which has as its particular focus internal conflicts, appears to adopt even fewer criteria for combatant status. The Protocol applies to conflict between the armed forces of a contracting party and 'dissident armed forces or other organised armed groups which, under responsible command exercise such control over a part of its territory as to enable them to carry out sustained and concerted military operations and to implement 105

108

ur9

110

1 0 6

107

United States, CDDH/SR.41, vol. 6, 149. Above, Ch. 1, B iii c. Ibid. CDDH/III/SR.33-36, Annex, vol.14, 537. The statement is ironic in view of France's final conclusion that Protocol I violates a State's right to self-determination, see further below, Ch. 7, Bii b. Dinstein, 'Another step in codifying the laws of war', 1974, 284-5. See below, Ch. 6, B i e. Below, Ch. 8, A iv c. 111

GENERAL

146

this P r o t o c o l . '

112

PRINCIPLES

The question of the threshold of application of Protocol II

will be dealt with later,

113

but at this stage one may note that the result of the

action of a dissident army, such as the control of territory and the ability to carry out sustained military operations, does not indicate what criteria shall be applied to combatant status. In the absence of specific requirements one is either obliged to revert to the basic conditions of the 1949 Conventions or, by analogy, to apply the provisions in Protocol I. Even if the more liberal rules of Protocol I were to be applied for guerillas to qualify as combatants there would, in practice, be considerable prob­ lems. O n balance, therefore, the protection of guerillas would increase the overall level of humanitarian law. There is no doubt that the new definition in Protocol I of 1977 will remedy a defective l a w .

114

It was unsatisfactory to have a lack of symmetry,

for example, between the concept 'prisoner of war' and 'combatant': for example, Geneva Convention I I I

115

defined the former concept without

referring to the latter. O n the other hand, the criteria for establishing combatant status are still vague and difficult to apply in practice. There is no doubt that there is still confusion as to who is a combatant and who is a civilian as a result of the lack of stringent criteria for qualification as a c o m b a t a n t .

116

Another reason for the erosion of the important and fundamental rule of distinction is the emergence of weapons of mass destruction, which assume that everyone is a target and is thus involved in the w a r ,

117

and which are

not able to distinguish between, for example, combatants and civilians. For rather than allowing such weapons to change the concept of distinction, the presumption should be that such weapons are incompatible with interna­ tional l a w .

118

The requirement of uniform, or some form of military insignia, as required by earlier and contemporary practice, is essential for combatant status in conjunction with other requirements retained by the 1977 Proto­ cols.

119

It may be that the open carrying of certain weapons may replace the need for 'insignia' in certain extreme situations, as, for example, in the genocidal wars in Rwanda or East Timor. In these conflicts, and in many others, there 1 , 2

114

1 , 5

117

119

1 , 3

Article 1(1). See below, Ch. 6, B ii g. G. Abi-Saab, 'Les mécanismes de mise en oeuvre du droit humanitaire', 82 RGD1P 1978, 177. Article 4. Cf. M. F. Furet, La guerre et le droit, Paris, 1979, 129fT. Rousseau, Conflits armés, 81. Below, Ch. 7, B i. See comments, above, Ch. 4, C ii (2)(iv); cf. definition of war, above, Ch. 1, B iii d. 1 , 6

1 , 8

THE WAR-WAGING

147

MACHINERY

has been an erosion of the distinction between combatants and civilians. The situation has often been unequal in that armed bands have attacked civilians, accusing them of belonging to one or another political or ethnic faction. There must be a heavy presumption that women and children are protected civilians, but as children and women are recruited as soldiers, even this basic exclusion was tragically ignored in those cases. (3) Mercenaries Another category which is exempt from protection is that of mercenaries.

120

However, the definition of such mercenaries is so narrow

that many will fall outside its ambit. For example, only those who, having been recruited in another country, join military forces for 'personal gain' are held to be mercenaries. But who will decide what motivates a man? Ironically, the sort of trained person who previously sought 'adventure', as well as 'personal gain' as a mercenary, may now be the typical volunteer for service, not with the French Foreign Legion, but with the United Nations 'peace keeping' forces. However, there are certainly still today those who join armies of other countries as 'mercenaries', attracted in the same ways as were the Scots who volunteered for service in the Swedish army during the Thirty Years' War in Europe in the seventeenth century. During the negotiations of the 1977 Protocols, many Third World States felt strongly that mercenaries should, if possible, be prohibited 'throughout the world'.

121

Many such States held the text should have been made

'stronger', obliging States also to forbid the recruitment and training of mercenaries.

122

Angola even made a special Declaration on ratification that,

in the opinion of that State, anyone who trains or recruits mercenaries will be considered as a mercenary criminal, as will States which allow such activities to take place in the territory under their jurisdiction.

123

O n e should remem­

ber 'the historical experience of many peoples bears witness to the fact that mercenaries violate all international laws concerning h u m a n rights.'

124

During these negotiations, a few States emphasised that even mercena­ ries should enjoy some protection under the P r o t o c o l .

125

Later, other

commentators have also pointed out that it is hardly compatible with the 120

122

123

124

121

Article 47. Afghanistan, CDDH/SR/41. vol. 6, 175. Cf. USSR, ibid., 203. Senegal, ibid., 177; cf. Mozambique, ibid., 193 referring to the Angola Trials in 1976 which 'shed new light on the scope and the criminal nature of the system of mercenaries'. See the Declaration on ratification, 20 September 1984, appended to the Depository of the Swiss Government (unpublished), Annex III. It may be noted that in 1999 a considerable number of mercenaries still work for UNIT A in Angola. Libya, ibid., 199. Australia, ibid., 175. 125

148

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

rules of the Law of W a r to single out a group like mercenaries, who after all constitute a category taking part in traditional warfare, for unequal and unprotected t r e a t m e n t .

126

Presumably mercenaries are entitled under

the fundamental rights of the P r o t o c o l

127

to, for example, fair judicial

process. To exempt them, however, from all substantive provisions, for example concerning prisoner of war status, does appear to be contrary to the demands of m o d e r n humanitarian law. On the other hand, the cat­ egory as defined by the Protocol is so narrow that many will, in practice, still fall into protected categories as their motivation cannot be assessed by other men. There is, however, a danger that parties to conflicts will assume that a soldier is motivated, for example, by 'personal gain', when he is not, and therefore exempt an entitled person for due protection under the Protocol. (4) Spies Another group exempted from the category of prisoner of war is that of spies,

128

whether or not they have acted as combatants. Tradition­

ally, international law attaches decisive importance to whether or not a person is wearing a u n i f o r m .

129

A soldier who is not wearing uniform runs

the risk of being treated as a s p y .

130

A new distinction is made in Protocol I of 1977 between spies and those members of the armed forces who gather information in occupied territory where they are resident. Such persons will not be considered as spies provided they do not employ false pretences or act through clandestine means.

131

It appears that even spies may claim certain fundamental guaran­

tees under the Protocol such as due process of l a w .

132

D. Legal effects of combatant status The main effect of being a lawful combatant is entitlement to prisoner of war s t a t u s .

133

Unlawful combatants, on the other hand, though they are a

legitimate target for any belligerent action, are not, if captured, entitled to any prisoner of war status. They are also personally responsible for any action they have taken and may thus be prosecuted and convicted for m u r d e r if they have killed an enemy soldier. They are often summarily tried and enjoy no protection under international l a w . 1 2 6

127

131

131

134

P. de la Pradelle, 'Le droit humanitaire des conflits armes', RGDIP, 1978, 28. Article 75. Article 46(1). See my 'Foreign warships', 53. Ibid. Article 46(2). Article 75. See further below, Ch. 9, B iii f. See my 'Foreign warships', 62. 128

129

132

130

133

THE WAR-WAGING

149

MACHINERY

Combatants are entitled to privileged status even if they belong to a State which has not been recognised.

135

During the Conferences in 1907 it

was argued by the Great Powers that there was only need for one distinc­ tion: that between regular forces and civilians. Regular forces would be entitled to far-reaching privileges under international law but resistance movements and guerilla movements are not protected. This naturally leads to weaker resistance in countries under occupation. Smaller States claimed at the Conferences that civil defence units and resistance move­ ments also play an important role in the defence of States and that they, too, ought to be considered as c o m b a t a n t s .

136

But as has been s h o w n ,

137

State practice recognised certain irregular soldiers during the Second World War. After the amendments and clarification of the law in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and in the 1977 Protocols, it is now fairly established that guerillas, under certain conditions, may also acquire com­ batant status. However, as long as ratifications of Protocol II are not forthcoming in any n u m b e r and from any major States, it is not clear to what extent guerillas 'or detainees' when captured, may acquire prisoner of war status.

138

However, it is not the n u m b e r or quality of such ratifica­

tions that determine what is a rule of law but rather what is necessary for a reasonable application of the general rules of the Law of W a r .

139

Humani­

tarian aspects would seem to prevail if there is any degree of doubt as to how a person should be treated in an armed conflict even if the parties involved have not ratified international agreements. Conversely, some States which did ratify Protocol II have not obeyed its rules. For example, Yugoslavia violated n u m e r o u s provisions of that agreement in the 1990s by neither giving captured soldiers prisoner of war status, nor affording detainee treatment to captured soldiers and by establishing rape camps for captured w o m e n .

140

It may be that new categories are emerging. In the 1980s one spoke, with some tinge of condemnation, of 'guerillas', often assuming that they would have acted, with some considerable cruelty and in contravention of the normal rules of the Law of War, against some 'legitimate government'. In the 1990s there were a n u m b e r of different situations when whole nations stood up against communist federations, as did all the Baltic States, 135

136

137

139

140

Geneva Convention III article 4A (3). See below, on prisoners of liberation movements, Ch. 9, B iiif. T. Wulf, Handbok ifolkrdtt under krig, neutralitet och ockupation, 1980, 77. Above, Ch. 4, C ii (1); Ch. 9, B iii f. See my Concept, 37 and, in detail, my International Legal Order, 197-211. See above, note 94 and below, Ch. 9, B iii f-g. 138

150

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia and nearly all the constituent republics of Yugoslavia as well. Other States, such as the Ukraine, Byelorussia (now Belarus), together with a string of other ex-Soviet republics left the former Soviet Union, seceded from federations that had themselves already dis­ carded c o m m u n i s m . Slovakia, in a more gentle fashion, managed to extri­ cate itself from a n o longer communist federal government in Prague. In the case of the Yugoslav situation, hostilities amounted to full-scale war. However, here we can n o longer speak of 'guerillas' or 'freedom fighters'. Seceding nations, then, also form an important part of the war-waging machinery. Here, it is a question of nations which could perhaps be said to have enjoyed a 'dormant'

sovereignty

141

which their

citizens were allowed to resume at will. In essence and in law, the situation was not that different from the crumbling of the former Soviet empire. The events of the 1990s serve a useful reminder to States, federations or unions that their unity and efficacy depend ultimately on the will of their citizens. If these citizens seek another order it is for the central government to obey as the ultimate voice is that of the citizen for whose convenience the State or the federation is f o r m e d .

142

In any event, all those who take part in

an armed conflict are subjected to the Law of War; but they also enjoy the ensuing rights which that consolidated set of rules affords. It is the nature of the Law of W a r that its rules are imperative

and can therefore not be

negotiated away or be displaced by the decision of a government. 141

142

143

143

See my 'Unequal treaties', 1077. See my Concept, 54: once the equilibrium is lost of the functions of the State for the benefit of its citizens, the State returns to 'dust'. Cf. my International Legal Order, 197fT, 230ff; cf. 152ffand 281fT.

5 The nature of the Law of War

A. The historical background There is evidence that some ancient civilisations prohibited certain methods of warfare: agreements on the treatment of prisoners of war were concluded 1

in Egypt around 1400 BC. The M a n u laws in India prohibited, a r o u n d 500 2

BC, the use of poisoned and other i n h u m a n e weapons. But elsewhere barbaric practices often accompanied a victory in war. The maxim vae victis implied that a vanquished nation could expect little mercy. There was, for example, a practice in Abyssinia to cut off the right hand and the left foot to 3

show who had lost a battle. The influence of religion on the regulation of 4

warfare is readily recognised in modern times. Philosophers like St August­ 5

6

ine and St Thomas Aquinas, had considerable influence on the historical development of h u m a n e warfare, as did certain specific Edicts such as the prohibition of certain weapons by Innocent II in 1139 during the Second Lateran Council, and the prescription by Alexander III for h u m a n e treat­ 7

ment of prisoners of war in 1179 during the Third Lateran Council. There were early secular attempts as evidenced by rules issued in the fourteenth 8

century by Casimir the Great of Poland and by Richard II of England.

1

9

A Swedish Working Group Study, Conventional Weapons, Their Deployment and Effects from Humanitarian Aspects, Recommendations for the Modernisation of International Law, Stockholm, 1973, 11. Ibid. But Europeans could usually avoid such a fate by special treaties which secured sums of money for the treatment of European prisoners of war. G. W. Gorg, The Standard of Civilisation in International Society, Oxford, 1984, 122-3. ' Ibid. E.g. Quaestiones in Heptateuchum, vi, 10b. Summa Teologica, II, ii, 40. Cf. M. A. Marin, 'The evolution and present status of the laws of war', 92 RCADI, 1957, ii, 656; H. Coursier, 'L'évolution du droit internationale humanitaire', 99 RCADI, 1960, i, 380. A. Gorbiel, T h e protection of war victims under Polish legislation, up to the end of the eighteenth century', IRRC, 1975, 273. J. F. C. Fuller, Armament and History. A Study of the Influence of Armaments on History from the Dawn of Classical Warfare to the Second World War, London, 1946, 62; Marin, 'Evolution', 656.

2

3

5

6

7

8

9

151

152

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

10

The rules of chivalry governed armed conflicts between knights but probably only because they considered themselves as equals.

11

If taken

prisoner they were often released for ransom; the ordinary foot soldier had, on the other hand, n o such favourable treatment.

12

The captor could initially keep the ransom for himself but slowly a new system developed which implied that if the captive was a person of some consequence, the State, the King or Prince would consider him his own 13

'property'. Later, officers but not privates received privileged treatment by being released against ransom whereas the ordinary soldier did n o t .

14

The

discrimination in treatment between officers and men could, however, be inverted as it was during the French Revolution. Thus, a French Decree of 1792 allowed reprisals only against enemy officers as these would be 'class enemies' but not against c o m m o n soldiers who may defect to join the revolutionary cause.

15

Some treaties during the seventeenth century showed some concern for non-combatants and provided that, for example, women and children, 16

including boys under 12, would be released without r a n s o m . Unilateral regulations for armed forces also contributed to increased humanity in war.

17

Developments in philosophy during the age of enlightenment also

had a mitigating effect on the cruel practices of war. Montesquieu wrote, for 10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

See A. Nussbaum, A Concise History of the Law of Nations, 1961, 18; j . F. Thomson, Economic and Social History of Europe in the Later Middle Ages, New York, 1960, 3; Fuller, Armament, 60; some claim that chivalry reappeared in the First World War, 'at least in air combat', J. M. Spaight, Air Power and War Rights, London, 1933, 107. For example, when Richard the Lionheart's horse had been killed, Sultan Saladin is said to have provided him with another one before they resumed fighting; cf. statement by France, CDDH, Ill/Sr. 33-6, Annex V, vol. 14, 537. A. Gardot, 'Le droit de la guerre dans l'oeuvre des capitains français du XVIe siècle', 72 RCADI, 1948, i, 493. See, in general, Marin, 'Evolution', 655; A. Vagts, A History of Militarism, London, 1959; M. Locker, Das Kriegsgefangenrecht inbesondere nach römischen und heutigen Recht, diss., Breslau, 1913. J. M. Spaight, War Rights on Land, London, 1911, 264. E.g., W. E. S. Flory, Prisoners of War, A Study in the Development of International Law, Washington, 1942, 55. There was a price list of various grades of officers: C. Parry, 19 The Consolidated Treaty Series 79-93; see further H. P. Tuscher, Die völkerrechtliche Regelung des Loses des Kriegsopfer vor dem Abschluss der Genfer Konvention von ¡964, Zurich, 1969, 77. The system of ransom survived until well into the nineteenth century; G. F. Martens, Précis du droit des gens, Paris 1864, 241; H. Wheaton, Elements of International Law, London 1866, (ed. 1936) 361 ff. R. J. Phillimore, Commentaries on International Law, London, 1885, 164. 1 NRGT 363; cf. ]. Basdevant, La révolution française et droit de guerre continentale, Paris, 1901. See the Treaties between France and The Netherlands 1673, C. Parry, 12 The Consolidated Treaty Series, 457-61 and and of 1675, ibid., 13, 379. Cf. articles 23-4 of the Treaty between the United States and Prussia of 1785, Parry, ibid., 49, 349-52. For example, article 7 of the instructions issued in 1778 by Catherine the Great of Russia stipulating that Turkish prisoners of war must be treated with humanity, see G. Butler and S. Maccoby, The Development of International Law, London, 1929.

153

T H E N A T U R E OF T H E LAW OF W A R

example, that international law rests on the principle that nations 'doivent se faire dans la paix le plus grand bien et dans la guerre le moins de mal qu'il est 1

possible sans nuire à leur véritables

intérêts' *

Later theorists on war argued that since war is only a means of obtaining an objective, that of forcing the enemy into submission, any unnecessary or revengeful destruction of life is not lawful. Plundering and devastation was thus condemned as barbarous and uncivilised, especially since such practi19

ces inflict little harm on the government but merely on the citizens. States began, around the middle of the last century, to issue codes for conduct in 20

war reflecting more humanitarian ideas. The United States provided in its instruction for the Army that 'unnecessary or revengeful destruction of life is 21

22

not lawful' and France issued similar rules. The St Petersburg Declaration 23

was concluded as a Treaty in 1868 and in 1899 a prohibition of d u m - d u m 24

bullets was introduced by another Convention. In 1907 the comprehensive Hague Conventions were concluded on various aspects of warfare.

25

Later

developments have included n u m e r o u s treaties on the prohibitions of 26

specific weapons. All these rules are supplemented by special rules protecting the h u m a n person, both by exempting them from being targets of 27

attack and by the assured provision of relief and assistance when in need. The International Red Cross was created in 1870 to alleviate suffering in 28

war. A forerunner of the Red Cross which had existed in Spain since 2 May 1808, the date of the insurrection of the Spaniards against the French, bore the name of the Society of the Holy Cross of 2 May. This Organisation was still effective during the Second Carlist War in Spain in 1872-6 and lent its support to the official sections of the Spanish Red Cross which had been created in various parts of the country since 1870. 18

19

2 0

21

22

2 3

24

2 5

2 8

2 9

29

L'esprit des lois, 4 i, Ch. III. Numerous writers who refer to this quotation leave out the last nine words which introduce an important qualification to the statement. Clausewitz, Worn Kriege, 1834, Bk 1, Ch.l, 3; Bk V, Ch. 3, 13. Cf. Q. Wright, A Study of War, 2nd edn, Chicago 1965, 332. Article 68 of the so called 'Lieber' Code for Armies in the Field, 1863, named after the statesman and thinker, Lieber. A similar code was adopted in 1899. Règlement 6.5.1859, Journal militaire officiel, No. 17, 243. On similar regulations issued by Russia, see Romberg, Les belligérants et des prisonniers de guerre, Paris, 1894, 288. 18 NRGT 474; below, in this Chapter, C v. Hague Convention 1899, 26 NRGT 2 série 1002 and below, Chapter 7, A i. 26 NRGT 2 série 920; 3 NRGT 3 série 1002. Below, Ch. 7. Below, Ch. 8. P. Boissier, Histoire du Comité International de la Croix-Rouge, De Solferino à Tsoushima, Paris, 1963. ICRC Bulletin, No/4, July 1970, 173; See further, J. Moreillon, Le comité international de la Croix Rouge et la protection des détenus politiques, Les activités du CICR en faveur des personnes incarcérées dans leur propres pays à l'occasion de troubles ou de tensions internes, Lausanne, 1973, 14. 2 6

2 7

GENERAL

154

PRINCIPLES

By the 1980s the ICRC was held to be a highly important organisation in 30

warfare situations, assisting and alleviating h u m a n suffering and contributing, by strict observance of confidentiality,

31

to the development of

humanitarian law. It was also thought to be an important catalyst in observing the Law of War, especially as it was an independent nongovernmental organisation, and did not depend on any State funding. Nowadays, however, a large portion of the I C R C s budget is made up of contributions from governments which, through this budgetary change, means that it may have less autonomy.

B. The function of the Law of War i. Force s u p p l e m e n t s unsatisfactory law When Machiavelli advocates force in international society it is, inter alia, because the laws are not sufficient or satisfactory.

32

The 'laws', in this

context, are those laws which fail to provide justice, or to provide what is required by one State, above what may be just. We may assume that it signifies 'laws' in general, as Machiavelli explains the behaviour of State by analogy to the behaviour of individuals when the 'laws' fail to satisfy their interests. W h a t Machiavelli says illustrates that if laws are sufficient for the interests which they serve, the risk of resorting to war will be lessened.

33

By

analogy, one may also infer that if the laws of war are adequate for the interests to be protected, then the risk of excessive force and cruelty may be avoided. There may be occasions when humanitarian rules are prescribed by instinct. Certain African tribes have, it is said, respected occasional rules on non-combatants with respect to those who are wounded or to women and 34

children. But then in other situations they have not. For it is often cruelty, M

31

3 2

33

34

A. Durand, Histoire du Comité International de la Croix Rouge, De Sarajevo à Hiroshima, Geneva, 1978; M. Huber, The Red Cross, Principles and Problems, Geneva, n.d.; cf. H. Haug, Rotes Kreuz, Stuttgart, 1966; and on specific activities, e.g., J. Moreillon, Le Comité, 123. Below, Ch. 11, A i i c . Machiavelli, // Principe, 5XVIII (ed. Vertelli, Minal, 1960), p. 72: "Dovete adunque sapere como sono dua generazione di combattere: Vuno con le leggi, Valtro con laforza: quel primo è proprio dello uomo, quel secondo délie bestie: ma perché il primo moite volte non basta, conviene recorrere al secondo\ Although, as illustrated in // Principe, some may wish for more than is justified. E. G. Bello, African Customary Humanitarian Law, Geneva, 1980, 34ff.

t h e

n a t u r e

of

t h e

l a w

o f

w a r

155

rather than restraint, that comes naturally to man. It is thus desirable that behaviour is governed by reason rather than by impulse. As Clausewitz remarked, it may well be a fallacy to think that one can defeat an enemy without much bloodshed but then, as he added, 'war is such a dangerous business that the mistakes that come from kindness are the very worst'.

35

But, he continues, wars between 'civilised' nations are governed by the mind, not like the wars between savages which are ruled by passion. If then, prisoners of war are not put to death 'it is because intelligence plays a larger part in [the] method of warfare (of civilised nations) and has taught them more effective ways of using force than the crude expression of instinct.'

36

The Law of War must thus be adequate to safeguard the interests of its subjects; and it must be the expression of reason rather than of impulse.

ii. T h e international element The Law of War is even more international than the law of peace. In the case of the Law of War, as, for example, case law on prize shows, there is n o doubt that, even when they appear before municipal courts, issues must be dealt with by 'the Law of Nations' and not by the municipal law of any particular country.

37

Occasionally the Law of War is adapted to local

38

customs but for the most part rules are of universal application. On the other hand, each set of rules need not be applicable in toto for all interested parties. Treaties may often claim that there is n o such right of 'separability'. For example, the Declaration of London of 1909

39

prescribed

that its provisions must be treated as a 'whole' and could not be separated. Such a provision is usually inserted in view of the fact that parties have 40

made concessions in consideration of o t h e r s and it would therefore not be satisfactory if one State could make a reservation

41

concerning a provision

to which another contracting power attached considerable significance. 35

37

38

39

4 0

41

36

Clausewitz, Vom Kriege, Bk. 1, Ch. 1. Ibid., 76. Le Laux v. Eden (1781) 2 Dougl. 594, 610, per Buller J. For application of International Law in prize cases see, The Elsebe (1804) 5 C.Rob, 174, 180; The Recovery (1897) 6 ibid., 341,348; The Odessa (1915) P. 52, 61; The H&kan (1916), P. 266; The Zamora (1916) AC 77, 91 (PC); cf. The Consul Corfitzon (1917) AC 550; cf. The Sudenmark (1917) AC 620. Cf. reference above, in the previous section, note 33, and M. Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam, Baltimore, 1955; S. V. Viswanatha, International Law in Ancient India, Bombay, 1925. See further below, Ch. 8, B i, on the substance of the agreement. Like the modern 'package deal 557' technique used, inter alia, with regard to the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention. On the problems of fragmentation caused by reservations, a particularly unsatisfactory effect for law-making treaties, see my Concept, 104 and my Essays, 117fT.

i 6

GENERAL

5

PRINCIPLES

However, in spite of such provisions, practice shows that a treaty may be applied with regard to certain rules only. This is often the case when a treaty has not come into force, either because of a time element or because it has not received the necessary support. Then certain rules may be selected and applied by States; one example, again, is the 1909 London Declaration.

42

But one might suggest that it is not really rules of a treaty that are applied: it may be that those rules merely reflect other rules which are binding anyway.

43

iii. T h e element of complexity Even if the Law of W a r is thus 'international' and not fragmented by various national systems, it has become increasingly complex. It contains rules, some of which are highly technical, susceptible to different legal interpretations and embodied in a complicated inter-woven network of conventions as well as entrenched in general international law. It has now even been suggested that 'adviser positions' should be established for all armed forces to ensure that the military c o m m a n d e r is able to avail himself of the necessary expertise to secure compliance with the law.

44

C. The contents of the Law of War i. Jus ad bellum a n d jus in hello A distinction has traditionally been made between the right to wage war and the rights and duties which operate once a war has started. The unlimited right to start war, the jus ad bellum, has gradually been restricted in State practice. Only certain wars would be allowed: if the war was 'just' it could be waged but otherwise a State could not resort to war under international law. Theories soon flourished as to what precisely bellum justum

implied. The various 'just war' theories had considerable flaws,

above all concerning who was to assess whether or not a war was just. Since there could be few objective criteria it appeared that the test, in the final 4 2

4 3

4 4

Cf. the application of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention, which has not entered into force, by the International Court of Justice, in the Libya v. Tunisia Case, ICJ Reports, 1984, 18, and the Libya v. Malta Case, ICJ Reports, 1985, 13. On the underlying basis of obligation in such cases, see my Essays, 116-17, and my International Legal Order, 197fT, 230fT. Obligations to ensure the presence of such advisers are assumed by the Contracting Parties under article 82 of the Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions.

THE NATURE

OF T H E

LAW OF

WAR

157

analysis, must be a subjective one. The just war theories, largely based on 45

46

the teachings of St Augustine and St Thomas A q u i n a s certainly had the beneficial effect of restricting unlimited rights of war, especially after the rise of the nation states in Europe. But the theories also led to difficulties insofar as two enemy States sometimes both argued that they were fighting 47

a just war. But some were more concerned with the morale of the soldiers: they would fight better if they were engaged in a just war for they would be less likely to be afraid of anything if they knew they had justice on their side.

48

The right to wage aggressive war has now been abolished, largely by the Briand-Kellogg Pact of 1928

49

and by the United Nations Charter.

50

No

aggressive war can thus be justified under modern international law but the right to self-defensive war remains, for example under article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations. N o w that aggressive war has been outlawed one would expect the 'just war' theories to be of little more than historical interest. Yet, some Third World countries have claimed that certain liber­ ation wars are 'just wars'.

51

Islamic concept of just war,

Ayatollah Khomeni claimed that jihad, the 52

entitled him to authorise certain acts of

violence. Similar language has been used by both Colonel Gadaffi of Libya and Saddam Hussein of Iraq. Against a different set of values, it may be argued that the attack by NATO on Yugoslavia in 1999 to limit genocide in Kosovo was a 'just attack'.

53

The fact that a war is not a just war or that it is in violation of a treaty has been invoked as a reason for a suspension of any duty to be called u p to take part in such a war.

54

But in this respect States preserve their competence to

recruit members of armed forces. 55

Distinguishable from the thus largely obsolete jus ad bellum

are the

rules on warfare and the humanitarian rules that apply within a war, the 45

47

48

4 9

51

52

53

54

55

4 6

E.g. Quaestiones in Heptateuchum, vi, 10b. Summa Teologica, II, ii, 40. Suarez, De Caritate, disp. xiii, vi, 1-4. Jean de Bueil, Le Jouvencel, 1466, ii c. (ed. Favre and Lecestres, Paris, 1887), 20. 94 LNTS 57 and above, Ch. 2, A i. Above, Ch. 2, A i. See further above, Ch. 1, D ii. On this concept, see, inter alia, A. Rechid, L'Islam et le droit des gens, 60 RCADI, 1937, ii, 375; M. Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam, Baltimore, 1955, 51. See above, Ch. 2, B iii and below, Ch. 12, C e. US v. Mitchell (1967) 386 US 972, concerning the Vietnam War. Unless restrictively understood as meaning only the right to wage aggressive war, jus ad bellum can be conveniently used as meaning the right to resort to force under contemporary interna­ tional law: Rousseau, Conflit armes, 25; G. Scelle, 'Jus ad bellum, 6 NordTIR 1959 292; Ph. Bretton, Le droit de la guerre, Paris, 1970, 8. 5 0

GENERAL

158

PRINCIPLES

jus in bello. It may appear that since the right to war has been abolished there would not be any need for rules in war. However, it is clear that given the n u m b e r of and intensity of present-day conflicts, both interna­ tional and internal, there is a great need for the regulation of the humani­ tarian issues. The Law of War lessens the threat to survival of our civilisation and may ensure the survival of m a n k i n d .

56

Some visualise the humanitarian law

applied in internal wars as a third t y p e

57

but as we shall see,

humanitarian rules may now, certainly de lege ferenda,

58

similar

apply in both

international and internal wars. To the extent that they do not, de lege lata, they should at least be conceptually understood as part of the same complex of rules.

ii. T h e law of T h e H a g u e a n d the law of Geneva The treatment of individuals in times of armed conflict is closely related to the field of h u m a n rights; considerable attempts have, however, been made, both earlier and in recent times to distinguish the 'law of Geneva' and 'the law of The Hague'. The latter 'law' concerns the behaviour of belligerents in war and neutrality and, in the terms of traditionalists in international law, regulates primarily the behaviour of States whereas the 'law of Geneva' concerns the protection of the p e r s o n .

59

However, it would seem indisputable that any regulation of the behav­ iour of belligerents in armed conflict will have inevitable effects on the individuals affected by a dispute: restrictions of certain types of arms, as in, 60

for example, the St Petersburg Declaration of 1868, commonly held to form part of the 'law of the H a g u e '

61

forbidding certain types of bullets,

would seem to have an immediate beneficiary effect on individuals and conceptually to be in a similar category to rules alleviating suffering of the wounded under the Convention of 1864 on the Treatment of Wounded Persons in W a r .

5 6

57

58

5 9

6 0

61

62

B. V. A. Róling, 'The significance of the laws of war', in Cassese (ed.), Current Problems of International Law, Milan, 1975,155. R. R. Baxter, 'Jus in bello interno, the present and future law', in J. N. Moore (ed.), Law and Civil War in the Modern World, Baltimore, 1974. Below, Ch. 9. E.g., S. Nahlik, 'Droit dit "de Geneve" et droit dit "de la Haye": unite ou dualité', AFDI, 1978, 9-10. 18 NRGT, 1 serie, 474. 1 AJIL 1907, Suppl. 95. E.g. Nahlik, 'Droit dit "de Geneve" et droit dit "de la Haye'". NRGT 1 serie, 612. 6 2

THE NATURE

159

OF T H E LAW OF W A R

Yet, it was by many thought necessary to distinguish rules applying between belligerents in armed conflict a n d rules which concern the vic­ tims of that conflict. The coincidental fact that the major conventions on methods of warfare were concluded at The Hague and the major conven­ tions on protection of victims of warfare were concluded in Geneva contributed to entrenching the division between the two sets of rules. Rules on victims cannot be separated from rules o n warfare, as is shown in Protocol I of 1977.

63

N o r can rules o n disarmament, to the

extent that they exist, be completely separated from laws of warfare and weaponry. Some claim that disarmament questions are basically distinct from the Law of War, as disarmament eliminates certain weapons. But occasionally treaties on disarmament only forbid certain uses of a specific weapon and, to the extent that this is the case, the regulation is, of course, highly relevant to the application of the Law of War: the parties to a conflict are then in very much the same position as when they are b o u n d by any other treaty on weaponry. Besides, the line between disarmament and arms control is, on close analysis, arbitrary and subjective. T h e com­ plex interaction between disarmament and weaponry issues is illustrated, for example, by the operation of the Conventional Weapons Conven­ tion,

64

tion.

66

the En-Mod Convention,

65

or the Biological Weapons Conven­

iii. Identification of the Law of W a r As indicated earlier in this work, the 'Law of War' signifies the body of rules which govern relationships in war.

67

This body of law consists of different

sets of rules which are, albeit interlinked, of different substance. The rules applicable to war as understood in this work thus comprise rules on weapons; rules on warfare, including rules o n permissible tactics and strategies and on illegitimate targets; and humanitarian rules.

a. Rules on weapons Rules on weapons are those which abolish, restrict or regulate specific weapons or their use in war. Some of these rules have been discussed in connection with disarmament a n d with demilitarised zones. 6 3

6 5

6 8

6 4

68

So has the

Cf. comments in the Lugano Report, 28 and below, Ch. 9, A. Below, Ch. 7, A ii. Ibid., E i. Ibid., D i. See above, the Preface to the first edition. Above, Ch. 3, C iii. 6 6

6 7

i6o

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

question of legality of certain weapons, particularly of nuclear weapons. Other questions to be analysed are those of legality and restrictions of conventional weapons and of biological and chemical weapons.

b. Rules on

methods

Rules on methods concern primarily the question of what may be the target of combatants in war. Rules on legitimate and illegitimate targets are supplemented by provisions on certain permissible or forbidden strategies, tactics and practices of war.

c. Humanitarian (1) 'Humanitarian

law'and'human

rules

rights' 'Humanitarian law'is a branch 69

of law which has been 'contaminated' by ethics and idealism and consti­ tutes 'that considerable portion of international public law which owes its inspiration to a feeling for h u m a n i t y and which is centered on the protec­ tion of the individual [which] appears to combine two ideas of a different 70

character, the one legal, the other m o r a l ' . The humanitarian law concerns primarily the protection of individuals in war or in armed conflict and probably also some rules of refugee law.

71

However, in this work we have

adopted a more narrow definition of humanitarian law by insisting

72

that

rules protecting individuals from being attacked are conceptually part of the rules of methods of warfare. Yet, it is important to clarify whether there is any overlap between rules protecting individuals under the Law of War and in other instruments dealing with h u m a n rights. The Secretary General of the United Nations was asked to submit reports to the General Assembly from 1969 onwards on ' h u m a n rights in Armed Conflicts' which made some writers question whether the right terms were 73

being used. ' H u m a n rights' concern, some say, a different 'regime'

74

and

the two areas should not be confused. The two sets of rules certainly have a 6 9

7 0

71

72

7 3

74

J. Pictet, International Humanitarian Law, Geneva, 1985, 3. J. Pictet, Humanitarian Law and the Protection of War Victims, Leyden, 1975, 11. Cf. J. Pictet, Développement et principes du droit international humanitaire, Geneva, 1983, 4. Cf. O. Kimminich, Humanitäres Völkerrecht - Humanitäre Aktion, Munich 1972, 77 ff. Below, Ch. 9, A. E.g. G. I. A. D. Draper, 'The relationship between the human rights regime and the law of armed conflict', 1 YHR, 1971, p. 193; cf. K. D. Suter, 'An inquiry into the meaning of the phrase "human rights in armed conflicts'", 15 RDPMDG, 1976, 393. On the usefulness of the concept, see my Concept, 29.

THE NATURE

OF T H E

LAW OF

161

WAR

different history and often a different field of application, both

ratione

personae and ratione temporis. H u m a n rights thus apply to all people and humanitarian law applies to certain groups of persons (for example, to the wounded, to prisoners or war, to civilians) and, furthermore, humanitarian law applies only in times of armed conflict.

75

O n the other hand, ' h u m a n

rights' and 'humanitarian law' regulate, ratione materiae, similar rights at least insofar that they all intend to increase the protection of individuals, alleviate pain and suffering and secure the m i n i m u m s t a n d a r d

76

of persons

in various situations. One may perhaps say that ' h u m a n rights' is the genus of which ' h u m a n i ­ tarian law' is a species

77

but it seems desirable to retain a horizontal

distinction, rather than to introduce a new, hierarchical one, as ' h u m a n 79,

rights' really concern rights enjoyed by all at all times,

but essentially in

peacetime, whereas 'humanitarian rules' concern rights protecting individ­ uals in armed conflicts. It would appear appropriate, therefore, to view 'human rights' and 'humanitarian law' as ratione materiae

interrelated

fields, both raising the level of behaviour towards individuals and both concerned with the rights and protection of individuals. (2) Operation of human rights in war Most documents on h u m a n rights have safeguards which exclude their application, or at least the application of certain provisions, in times of war and armed conflict. Thus, the United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966

79

provides that

States bound by the Covenant may derogate from it during times of emergency if such emergency is on such a scale that it 'threatens the life of the nation'. The measures taken must correspond to the demands of the emergency which appears to express a condition of proportionality. Fur­ thermore, the measures must not, in any event, be taken with any discrimi­ natory distinction. Equally, the European Convention on h u m a n rights provides

80

that in

time of war or other public emergency, again 'threatening the life of the 75

76

77

78

79

See, below, Ch. 6, B ii g (1) on the problem of establishing whether armed conflict exists. On the point concerning minimum standard as part of natural law, see my International Legal Order, 288; cf. A. S. Calogerospoulos-Stratis, Droit humanitaire de droits de VHomme, La Protection de la personne en periode de conflit arme, Geneva, 1980, 139. A. H. Robertson, 'Human rights as the basis of international humanitarian law', Acte du congres international de droit, San Remo, 1970, 174. On suspension of instruments on human rights in times of armed conflict, see below, in this Chapter, next section. Article 4. Article 15. R0

GENERAL

162

PRINCIPLES

nation', contracting parties may derogate from the provisions, on the condition of similar rules of proportionality as laid down in the UN Covenant. The American Convention on h u m a n rights also allows

81

such dero­

gations 'in time of war, public danger or other emergency which threatens the independence or security of a party'. There is a condition on propor­ tionality similar to that in the Covenant. The latitude of action is certainly greater with regard to the American Convention which introduces the rather more flexible criterion concerning the threatened security and independence of the State. But the derogation rules cannot be read in isolation. All three documents also refer to provisions from which States must not derogate under any circumstances. Thus, provisions on the right to life, from torture, i n h u m a n and degrading treatment,

83

82

the duty to refrain 84

and slavery. There are

n u m e r o u s other provisions in the three documents from which no dero­ 85

gation must be made, for example on retroactive criminal legislation, but in the finer details the three Conventions then diverge along slightly different p a t h s .

86

The question arises as to how these conventions, and the Universal Declaration on h u m a n rights,

87

can be implemented, with regard to the

protection of the right to life, in case of armed conflict. W h e n the Universal Declaration was drafted the French representative René Cassin emphasised that, had there been a similar document during the Second World War proclaiming the right to life, States might have taken some action to intervene instead of asking themselves whether they had any right to do so.

88

Such an attitude may also now justify the NATO intervention in

Kosovo in 1999. It would seem that the right to life, which is not suspended during armed conflict, implies that attempts must be made, even in times of such conflicts, to save life. Armed conflicts which are defensive and compatible with the provisions of the Charter may cause loss of life but, it has been 81

8 2

8 3

8 4

8 5

8 6

8 7

Article 27(1). Covenant article 6; European Convention, article 2; American Convention, article 4. Covenant, article 7; European Convention, article 3; American Convention, article 5. Covenant, article 8; European Convention, article 4( 1); American Convention, article 6. Covenant, article 15; European Convention, article 7; American Convention, article 9. Compelling provisions, apart from those referred to in the Covenant, are articles 11, 16 and 18; in the European Convention, there are no further such articles; in the American Convention, articles 3, 12, 17, 18, 19 and 20 apply. Article 3 proclaims the right to life. E/CN.4/SR.13. 8 8

THE NATURE

OF T H E

LAW OF

claimed, this would not be done 'illegally'.

89

WAR

16

3

Within the rights enjoyed

under the Law of War, there is internal hierarchy: some such rights are more important than others and may not be suspended in emergencies; whereas there may, in specific circumstances, be derogation from others. Article 75 of Protocol I and article 4 of Protocol II provide 'absolute' protection which must not be suspended even in times of emergency.

90

It is important to emphasise that the provisions securing the right to life in the three above-mentioned documents on h u m a n rights, and in the Universal Declaration, protect all persons whether or not they are nationals of a party. In this sense these Conventions go further than, for example, Geneva Convention IV on Civilians which does not protect nationals of a State which has not ratified it.

91

The Geneva Conventions and its Protocols are not capable of safeguard­ ing the right to life to the same extent as the Conventions on h u m a n rights as the former are all instruments of the Law of War, designed to apply in times of armed conflict when, by definition, the right to life is diminished. On the other hand, the protection afforded by the h u m a n rights Conven­ tions may be more detailed in certain aspects of life which are important in everyday life, such as the freedom of religion, the freedom of expression snd assembly. But the Geneva Conventions and the Protocols regulate, in greater detail, the specific situations occuring in armed conflicts and attempts to secure further protection to n u m e r o u s individuals affected by such conflicts. To the extent that the provisions of the h u m a n rights Conventions are not suspended during armed conflict, individuals would seem to be en­ titled to cumulative treatment. But the adherence of certain States to the h u m a n rights Covenants could not dispense further adherence to the Protocols which cover a ground which sometimes overlaps but generally is distinct from that regulated by the h u m a n rights Conventions.

iv. Bodies participating in drafting the Law of W a r Present-day rules on warfare and humanitarian law are formed by constant feedback between various bodies. Particularly, various organs of the United 89

9 0

91

See discussion in the General Assembly, A/C.3/SR/ 810, para. 18 flf. Cf. G. Herczegh, 'State of emergency and humanitarian law, on article 75 of Additional Protocol I\ 1RRQ 1984 272. See further below, Ch. 6, B ii g. On the development of the Convention into declaratory law, however, see, below, Ch. 12, B ii d.

GENERAL

164

PRINCIPLES

Nations, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) have been involved, as well as specialist groups of experts. N u m e r o u s Resolutions of the General Assembly have thus 'endorsed* resolutions of the ICRC. For example, General Assembly Resolution 2444 (XXIII) of 1968 specifically approved of Resolution XXVIII of the XXth International Conference of the Red Cross in Vienna in 1965 which had reemphasised that the right to adopt means of injuring the enemy is not 92

unlimited; that n o attacks must be launched on civilian population; that at all times distinction

94

93

and

must be made between those taking part in

hostilities and the civilian population in order to spare the latter 'as much as possible'. General Assembly Resolution 2597 (XXIV) of 1969 further­ m o r e endorsed the Resolution of the XXIst Conference of the Red Cross in Teheran in 1966 on protection of civilians and combatants in conflicts arising from struggles for liberation.

95

General Assembly Resolution 2676

(XXV) of 1970 similarly endorsed the preceding ICRC resolution on prisoners of w a r .

96

The ICRC was also involved with the preparatory phase of the Conven­ tional Weapons Conventions, later transferred to the aegis of the United Nations.

97

Other important links have been established between various bodies concerned with the Law of War. The cooperation between the Disarma­ ment Conference (CD), still technically an inter-governmental State Con­ ference, and the United Nations has developed into semi-organic contacts, whereby there is a constant cross-fertilisation between the discussions in the General Assembly and other U N organs and the CD. National delega­ tions to the Conference, dangerously reduced in size during the 1990s, still transfer their work from Geneva to New York during the sessions of the General Assembly to facilitate such contacts.

v. General principles of the ethics of warfare It may seem that war, as the ultimate type of violence, cannot be restrained by specific rules. Yet, there is a body of jus in hello which operates during warfare. The substratum of these rules consists of rules on 'ethics' or 'humanity', forbidding in particular certain weapons and attacks against 9 2

9 5

9 3

9 4

Below, in this Chapter, next section. Below, Ch. 8, A i. Below, Ch. 8, A ii c. Cf. above, Ch. 1, D ii a (1). Below, Ch. 9, B iii f. Below, Ch. 7, A i. 9 6

9 7

THE NATURE

OF T H E

LAW OF

16

WAR

5

98

certain targets. It has long been accepted that there are certain basic rules which must be respected. Perhaps helped by mechanisms like reciprocity,

99

certain such rules have emerged. The St Petersburg Declaration

100

indicated that since 'it is sufficient to

disable the greatest possible n u m b e r of m e n ' to defeat the enemy, it is not allowed to use 'arms which uselessly aggravate the sufferings of disabled men, or render their death inevitable'. Article 22 of the Hague Regulations

101

emphasised that 'the right of

belligerents to adopt means of injuring the enemy is not unlimited'. Article 23 (e) of the Regulation introduced a complete prohibition of 'arms, projectiles or material calculated to cause unnecessary suffering'. The English version of the Regulations speak of prohibition of arms, projectiles and material which cause unnecessary suffering whereas the 1

French text refers to 'maux superflus , which in English would have been better translated as 'excessive injuries'. 'Unnecessary suffering' which was adopted for the official English translation introduces a different subjective element, not present in the French text. The clause came up for discussion during the 1973 Lucerne Conference on Conventional W e a p o n s

102

and it

was then thought 'unthinkable' that the Conference should 'remove this subjective element . . . from the body of international law' simply by preferring another translation of the original French t e x t .

103

The incom­

patibility of the two versions was also questioned by delegates to the Conference on the Additional Protocols of 1977 to the Geneva Conven­ tions.

104

On the other hand, the other qualification, which in English was

rendered 'calculated to cause' as opposed to the French version 'propres à causer implied, in the English version a m o r e subjective assessment than y

the rather more objective French expression. The French qualification might, in this respect, be wider and cover situations even when there is n o intention of causing 'unnecessary suffering' or 'maux superflus', but this is the inevitable effect of the type of weapon. In such cases, the less restrictive, French, notion should prevail in case of any d o u b t . 9 8

9 9

102

104

105

On the historical background, see C. Calvo, 4 Le droit international, théorie et pratique, Paris, 1888, for an early example of the prohibition of poisoned weapons, or, later, of guns firing two bullets (at 171-2) or on the medieval restriction of the use of cannon against city walls but prohibited in field battle (at 148-9). Below, Ch. 12, B ii a. 18 NRGT 474. 3 NRGT3 série 464. Below, Ch. 7, A ii b. Lucerne Report, 1974, 8. E.g. Australia, CDDH/IV/SR.l., vol. 16, 16. Lucerne Report, 8. 100

101

103

105

166

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

Protocol I of 1977 uses a juxtaposition of the two expressions in its prohibition of use of any weapons which are o f ' a nature to cause superflu­ ous injury or unnecessary suffering\

106

'Suffering' may be something which is difficult to measure and quantify objectively as different people experience pain differently. There was dis­ cussion at the Lucerne Conference whether psychological damage should be taken into a c c o u n t .

107

Such suffering would be even more difficult to

quantify. But there is, grosso modo, some agreement of what type of suffering is envisaged by the relevant prohibitions. The general rules mentioned above limit the right of belligerents in two ways. First, parties to a conflict must not choose weapons which have the effect of causing unnecessary suffering. Secondly, they must not use other permissible weapons in a way which causes such suffering, or employ tactics or practices which have such effect. Furthermore, the use of weapons is always subjected to the rules of necessity and proportionality.

108

With regard to weapons, it may then first be said that weapons which inevitably

cause unnecessary suffering are prohibited.

109

All experts at

Lucerne furthermore agreed that 'indiscriminate attacks' are forbidden

110

from which it can be deduced that 'indiscriminate weapons' which inevi­ tably cause 'indiscriminate attacks' must also be forbidden.

111

Further­

more, 'treacherous' weapons, already forbidden by the Hague Regula­ tions

112

or any weapons used 'with perfidy'

113

should also be forbidden.

114

Here, however, the Lucerne Conference crossed the area from weaponry to methods, as it is perfidy, or the way the weapon is used in the event, which warranted the prohibition. The limits of weapons and methods under the Law of War apply even in the absence of conventions and treaties. That this is so is patently clear from the proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunals.

115

The ethics of warfare thus

form an important part of natural international law which, after much

106

109

1,1

112

1 , 3

107

108

Article 35(2). Lucerne Report, 8. Below, Ch. 7, A. Cf. British Report at Lucerne, Lucerne Report, 9. Lucerne Report, 10. Not all agreed at the Lucerne Conference that 'indiscriminate weapons' were prohibited, see Lucerne Report, 10, although this seems a logical conclusion from the first agreement on 'indiscriminate attacks'. On prohibition of attacks on the civilian population and the import­ ance of discrimination, see GA Res. 2444 (XXIII) of 1968, and 106 fif., 232 ff. Article 23 (b). Cf. below, Ch. 7, A ii b, on treacherous weapons regulated in Protocol II to the Weaponry Convention of 1981. Cf. 1977 Protocol I, article 37. Lucerne Report, 11. Below, Ch. 12, C ii b. 1 , 0

114

115

THE NATURE

scorn by the positivist school,

116

OF T H E

LAW OF

WAR

167

has been revitalised during the last decade,

not so much by the writing of academics as by the clear practice of States. And it is the behaviour of States that ultimately proves the contents of international law and of the Law of War. We shall examine what type of weapons and methods of warfare are outlawed in the contemporary international society, retaining the basic limitations introduced by the universally accepted basic rules of ethics of warfare as set out above. 1 , 6

For example, Lundstedt, Le droit des gens: danger de mort pour les peuples, Paris, 1937; Lundstedt, Superstition or Rationality in Action for Peace, London, 1925.

6

Spatial application of the Law of War

A. Traditional spatial application i. Delimitation of territory Spatial notions are relevant in several ways to the application of the Law of War. It is often by examining whether an incursion has been made into the territory of a State that it can be established that the territorial rights of a State have been violated, activating the Law of War. It is thus important to ascertain the actual territory of a State and be clear about its land, water and air boundaries. N u m e r o u s disputes have been caused by disputes regarding 1

borders, alleged incursions into a State's territory, violations of the water 2

margin or the national air space. Territorial disputes can lead to conflict and even war. Obvious geographical criteria that apply in peace-time establish the spatial limits of the belligerents themselves, in war. Geographical delimita­ tion of third States becomes of primary importance: incursions into neutral States are particularly serious violations of the Law of War.

3

Apart from notions bearing on the geographical limitations of States, there is, in war, a need to establish the geographical region affected. It has often been thought important to distinguish certain areas where war itself would be enacted and such areas have usually been referred to as the 'theatre' or 'regions' of war.

1

2

5

Above, Ch. 3, B. See, on various incidents, my 'Foreign warships', 56. On right of passage see my International Law and the Independent State, 2nd edn, 29-90. E.g., E. Castrén, 'La neutralité aérienne', ZaôRVR, 1951, 120. 168

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E L A W OF

I69

WAR

ii. Regions of war a n d the theatre of war A distinction has traditionally been made between the region of war and the theatre of war: the region is the larger notion within which the theatre is 4

contained; the theatre is where hostilities actually take place. It is not altogether clear what purpose this distinction serves apart from stating the obvious that certain geographical areas are affected or involved in the war as forming part of the territories of the belligerents whereas hostilities are limited to smaller areas where the fighting takes place. First, the laws of war apply with equal force and to equal extent within both areas - a region or a theatre of war - although humanitarian law, for example, will be more likely to become more intensely relevant in the theatre of war. Secondly, the distinction is no longer warranted in view of the nature of modern war. The distinction may have been once valid when wars were primarily fought between armies, or navies, lined up against each other with some symmetry. However, the distinction has now lost its importance as modern warfare makes no distinction between regions included in the war and the actual theatres of war. The enemy can strike anywhere within the region of war; thus the territory of belligerents, with the exception listed below, form part of the theatre of war. Modern weapons have made the distinction superfluous. It is naturally true that a war m a y b e geographically limited: but in law there is no distinction between the region and the theatre of war. Aerial warfare is thus not confined to any location but comprises the whole of the sky.

5

iii. Neutrals a n d neutralised areas Some commentators claim that neutrality presupposes the existence of 6

'war'. But neutrality in m o d e r n times is often used to signify an alliancefree policy in peace as well. W h e n there is a war, however, duties and rights of neutral States intensify. In particular, belligerents must respect the land and sea territory of neutral States where acts of war must not take place.

7

Rules on rights and duties of neutrals are laid down in Hague Convention

4

5

6

7

2 Oppenheim para. 70ff and 237. Cour d'appel Montpellier, 20.6.1945, Gaz. Palais 18.9.1945: 'la zone de combat. . . embrasse la totalité du ciel'. F. Castberg, Neutralités n.p., n.d., 275. T. Gihl, 'Svensk neutralitetsràttslig praxis under de bâda vàrldskrigen', Jus Gentium, 1949, 1.

170

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

8

V of 1907. But the provisions of the Convention are the result of the 'United States view\ Scandinavian views on armed neutrality are considerably stricter. Belligerents may have access to courts under 'neutrality législation' of 9

neutral States, and innocent passage may be enjoyed through the terri­ torial waters of a neutral State. But restrictions to any such rights may be 10

imposed by special regulation of neutral States. And further restrictions follow u p o n violations by belligerents.

11

Certain areas are exempt from being brought into the hostilities in war. First, in peace-time certain areas or countries may be used to denote areas as 'neutral* and are consequently exempt from attack or involvement in future war. Such protection is sometimes afforded by a State's neutrality being entrenched in a treaty

12

or by a spécifie declaration.

13

A whole State

may also be excluded from normal war regions by its entrenched neutrality: thus Switzerland is permanently

14

neutral.

15

Secondly, other areas may obtain similar protection by specific treaties which withdraw a certain territory from wars and their effect, by declared 16

neutralisation. A whole State may be neutralised in this way, as is Austria 17

by the 1955 State Treaty. Under the Lateran treaty the Vatican State is also neutralised.

18

Neutralisation can also apply to a part of a country. For

example, borderline territory may be neutralised. 8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

19

See above, Ch. 2, A iii on neutrality and intervention; and further, below, Ch. 10, C iii, on the effects on trade. Sweden promulgated such legislation in 1912, SFS 1912: 436 and in 1938, SFS 1938: 187. The attitude to neutrality in Sweden is, after joining the EU, being revised. E.g. Swedish regulation during the First World War, KK 29 November 1915 and 19 July 1916, on the inner territorial waters, followed by protests by the European powers that the regulations violated the 'exhortation* in the Preamble in Hague Convention XIII of 1907 not to alter neutrality legislation during the course of a war. Cf. further Swedish restrictions under the 1938 regulations by KK 12 April 1940 after the German invasion of Denmark and Norway; cf. also KK 28 June 1941 on outer territorial waters. As in the case of Austria under the State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955, AJIL, 1955, Suppl. 162; 217UNTS 223. As in the case of Sweden during the Second World War, see the preceding notes. On the notion of permanent neutrality, see, S. Verosta, Die dauernde Neutralität, Vienna, 1967. Bindschedler, 'Die Neutralität im modernen Völkerrecht', 17 ZaöRVR 1956-7, 1. L. Delbez, 'Le concept d'internationalisation', RGDIP, 1967, 13: 'La neutralisation consiste à soustraire par traité d'une façon durable et juridiquement obligatoire un territoire déterminé à la guerre et à ses effets'. For reference, see footnote 12 above. See, further, e.g. M. Motter, Die dauernde Neutralität, Berlin, 1981. Cf. Bindschedler,'Die Neutralität', 29, 30. 1 Oppenheim, para. 106 and H. Wright, 'The status of the "Vatican City'", AJIL, 1944, 452. E.g. Convention between Sweden and Norway on Demilitarisation, 1905, demilitarising all land in the southern part of the border, SOFM, 1905.

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E L A W OF

WAR

20

171 21

Other neutralised areas are the Aland Islands, Spitzbergen, the Magel­ 22

lan Strait and the islands of Corfu and P a x o .

23

Important waterways are

often neutralised, as was the Suez Canal under the 1888 Convention and the Panama Canal under the Treaty of 1903.

24

Outer Space has been

neutralised under the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, a regime which is coupled with its demilitarisation.

25

Neutralised zones may be used to denote areas designed to treat the wounded or civilians. Such zones may be established by special agreement as, for example, under Geneva Convention I V

26

or by unilateral declar­

27

ations under Protocol II of 1977. These areas are specifically treated as 'undefended' and are, as such, illegitimate targets for attack.

28

Neutralisation and neutral status entail by tradition n u m e r o u s legal 29

effects with regard to rights and duties. The rights of neutrals to avoid the immediate effect of war are balanced by their duties to remain passive in a conflict. The disregard by neutrals for their duties will suspend their rights. Thus, only 'effective' neutrality must be respected by third States, i.e. the type of neutrality which actually abides by the rule of passivity.

30

It appears logical to assume that similar rights and duties devolve on States which have sovereignty and control over neutralised territories. Furthermore, the duty of passivity is also activated in the case where neutrality has not yet been declared in the event of war between other parties. Until States have taken position in a dispute they will be assumed to be neutral with ensuing rights and duties.

2 0

21

22

23

24

25

26

2 9

30

Convention 1921 between Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Germany, Denmark, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Estonia, Latvia and Poland. 23 UKTS 1924 Cmd. 2203. See, further, my Indepen­ dent State, 185fT. Convention 1920 between Norway, United States, Denmark, Sweden, France, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, UKTS 1924 Cmd. 2092. Treaty between Chile and Argentine of 1881, 12 NRGT2 serie, 491. Treaty of London 1864 on neutralisation of the Ionian Islands, 18 NRGT 55, 63; cf. H. Rettich, Zur Theorie und Geschichte des Rechts zum Kriege; völkerrechtliche Untersuchungen, Stuttgart, 1888. On the regime in general, see my Independent State, 43, 165-6, 182-3, 214-17. Below, in the next section and see also my 'Demilitarisation of Outer Space', Symposium on Space Law, Rome, 1994, passim. Article 15. Cf. Geneva Convention I, article 23. Article 59. Below, Ch. 8. E.g. no acts of hostilities must take place in neutral States: Hague V, article 1; no troops or convoys of either munitions of war or supplies must be moved through neutral territories, ibid., article 2; all hostilities in territorial waters of neutral States are forbidden: Hague XIII, article 2. The Tinos Case (1917) before the French Conseil des prises, RGDIP 1918, shows that ships captured in Greek neutral waters had been validly taken as Greece had allowed numerous hostile acts. See further Rousseau, Conflits armes, 218. 2 7

2 8

172

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

31

As has been discussed above, this duty of passivity also covers situations where there is internal war in another country. O n the other hand, as neutralisation means that an area is exempt from being a target of belligerents, it does not limit the application of the laws of war. Thus, in the event of war (or civil war) in a neutralised State, the laws of war apply with equal force as in any other war situation.

iv. Demilitarised areas N o fixed military installations may be placed in demilitarised areas; but, contrary to neutralised zones, there may be war action within these areas. Demilitarisation, however, does not preclude defence measures.

32

There are n u m e r o u s examples of demilitarised areas in State practice.

33

The Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817 on naval forces on the North American lakes demilitarised the frontier between the United States and Canada.

34

The Paris Peace Conference of 1856 demilitarised the Black Sea and closed the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles to warships; this regime was abrogated by the London Treaty of 1 8 7 1 1923,

36

35

but reaffirmed in the Lausanne Treaty of

in t u r n replaced by the Montreux Convention in 1936, which

provided for discriminatory treatment of Black Sea States. ington Treaty of 1922

38

37

The Wash-

prohibits new fortifications of naval bases on

islands in the Pacific, except as specified. The Antarctic Treaty of 1959

39

introduced complete demilitarisation of a whole region. The sea bed is also demilitarised as regards certain weapons. partially demilitarised.

40

Outer Space is neutralised and

41

42

The m o o n is demilitarised by the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 but there is 31

3 2

3 3

34

36

3 9

4 0

41

4 2

Above, Ch. 2, A iii b. See on the revision of the 1921 Aland Convention, A. Croneborg, 'Utrikesutskottet vid 1939 ârs riksdag', Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift, 1939, 262; cf. my Independent State, 184. On earlier regimes like those of Danzig and Tangier, see Ch. Rousseau, Traité du droit international public, 323tï.; cf. R. Erich, 'La question des zones démilitarisées', RCADI, 1929, i, 591. United Nations, Study on the Naval Arms Race, 8. AJIL, 1907, Suppl., 89. AJIL, 1924, Suppl., 53. AJIL, 1907, Suppl., 89, article 11. AJIL, 1922, Suppl., 40. 402 UNTS7\. Treaty for the Prohibition of Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Sea Bed and the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil thereof, 1971, JIM 1971 145, UKTS 1973 13; TIAS 7337; cf. above, Ch. 3, C iii b (1) and below, Ch. 7, B ii d. Outer Space Treaty, 610 UNTS 205. See my 'Demilitarisation of Outer Space', and below, Ch. 7, Bii. 610 UNTS 205. 35

3 7

38

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

173

only partial demilitarisation of Outer Space in general. A USSR Draft of 1983 suggested a widening of the prohibitions of space objects in orbit,

43

but as

often in similar contexts, verification presents considerable p r o b l e m s . The Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963

45

44

and the Outer Space Treaty of

46

1967 forbid the testing and use of nuclear weapons in space but are both silent on the illegality of use of other weapons in Outer Space. There is also a differentiated regime for celestial bodies and for Outer Space in the 1979 47

Moon Treaty: celestial bodies are thus completely demilitarised. Further­ more, in Outer Space in general it is prohibited only to place nuclear weapons, or other weapons of mass destruction, in orbit or in location in space,

4 8

but nuclear weapons could conceivably be used in other ways.

Thus the treaty does not preclude all use of nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction, nor does it prohibit the use of weapons which are not weapons of mass destruction. O n the contrary, they are usually devised to eliminate identifiable specific and limited targets. Space should, according to n u m e r o u s provisions in relevant treaties, be used for 'peaceful purposes'.

49

But it has seriously been argued by the

United States that 'peaceful' means non-aggressive and therefore that other military activities are allowed in Outer Space. The former Soviet Union 50

claimed that 'peaceful' means 'non-military' and this view is supported by many writers.

51

Special problems are caused by the placing of weapons in space, for example under the previous Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) of the United States, the so called 'Star Wars' plan. Although this plan came to nothing after the collapse of c o m m u n i s m , it may well be that similar systems may be put into operation at a later date, perhaps by other States. Even at the time of the Star Wars Plan of the United States there was unconfirmed information that the former Soviet Union had copied and installed a similar system to protect Moscow. 4 3

44

45

48

4 9

50

51

For comments, see B. Jasani and C. Lee, Countdown to Space War, London, 1984, 89. France suggested in 1978 that a special Intersatellite Moon Agency (ISMA) should be estab­ lished; other suggestions have been to make use of already existing regional agencies, for example the European Space Agency (ESA) in Paris, ibid., 91. 480 UNTS 43. 610 UNTS 205. Article 3. Article 4( 1) of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty; article III of the Moon Treaty. Article 1 of the Outer Space Treaty; article III of the Moon Treaty. E.g., G.P. Zhukov, 'Practical problems of space law', 9 (Soviet) International Affairs, Moscow, 1963, 27. E.g., C. Guiterres Espada, 'What is the law on military use of Outer Space?' in Proceedings of the 28th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, Stockholm, 1985, 32. 4 6

4 7

174

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

Even though few writers now discuss the implications of the placing and the use of weapons in Outer Space, it is important to set out the legal rules; it may be that the elimination of tension between East and West after the fall of c o m m u n i s m may be replaced by other conflicts once States have regrouped in new alliances and counter-alliances. Space will always be a preeminent area for military control of the world.

52

It is thus important to understand the principles governing this defens­ ive/aggressive space system. The plans, developed in the 1980s, were de­ signed to position space weapons above the United States as a 'shield' averting missile attacks by non-nuclear weapons comprising, inter alia, laser, particle beam and kinetic energy weapons. Direct energy weapons depend on a stream of charged particles (protons, electrons and ions) accelerated to high energy and projected towards a target. These weapons can destroy targets at great distance but may have problems transmitting through the atmosphere and are therefore more designed to attack objects in space, such as missiles or satellites. The Star Wars system would, at a cost of $1,000 billion 'or more', use difference 'phases' for destroying enemy missiles, whether the latter are rising from silos, mid-flight or in their terminal a p p r o a c h .

53

Satellites would perform essential functions under

SDL Passive satellites may be activated to function as battle stations using particularly laser and particle beam weapons. It would be the use of satellites which would have enabled Star Wars to turn into an offensive, rather than a defensive, system.

54

Outer Space is, as mentioned above, only partially demilitarised and there has, at times, been intense negotiation as to whether there could not further be established a 'demilitarised sanctuary' in space to prevent space turning into a battlefield between space-based systems.

55

56

The En-Mod Convention of 1977 prohibits the hostile use of environ­ mental modification techniques to alter the dynamics, composition or structure of the earth or Outer Space. But it is not such techniques which are of primary interest for defensive or attacking systems like Star Wars. It is, first of all, whether a similar system is compatible with the ABM Treaty. O n e pertinent question concerns whether the ABM Treaty of 1972 52

5 3

54

55

56

See the Preface to the second edition of this book. E. P. Thompson, Star Wars, Harmondsworth, 1985, 72. L. F. Martinez, 'Telecommunications as space activity for weapons of mass destruction', Proceedings of the 28th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space, Stockholm, 1985, 94. See, for example, Statement by France in CD 1983 to this effect, CD/375, p. 1. Below, Ch. 7, E ii.

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

175

forbids the establishment of a weapon system like Star Wars. The Treaty 57

provides that the 'Parties undertake not to develop, test or deploy ABM systems or components which are sea-based, air-based, space-based or mobile land-based\ An 'Agreed Statement* D, appended to the Treaty, stipulates further that the 'Parties agree that in the event ABM systems based on other physical principles and including components capable of substitu­ ting for ABM interceptor missiles, ABM launchers, or ABM radars are created in the future, specific limitations on such systems and other c o m p o ­ nents would be subject to discussion in accordance with Article XIII or Article XIV of the Treaty' (emphasis added). The two articles referred to deal with implementation of rules and with revision; it is clear in any event that agreement by the other party is necessary for any new space weapons using 'new principles', as does the Star Wars system; furthermore, under the ABM treaty, even land- or sea-based systems, prohibited under the Conven­ tion would make 'military use' of Outer Space during trajectory flights.

58

The United States initially accepted that n o new weapons should be developed in Outer Space. But by 1985 the position had changed. O n e statement underlines that although deterrence 'based on threat of offensive nuclear retaliation' had formed the basis of United States security policy for the then foreseeable future, the United States 'should not be content to confine [itself] to that in perpetuity'.

59

The problem concerns basically whether any 'development' - by itself forbidden by the ABM treaty - could be allowed if forming part of 'research'. There is argument that 'research' would allow some 'testing' and that certain 'testing' would not be confined to laboratories. The position of the United States is that the Treaty is at least 'ambiguous' and allows for 60

development of and experiments with new space w e a p o n s . It may be that 'positions' of countries may shift as and when there is revival of plans of weapons in space. However, one may question why the United States, taking the position it has so far, does not prefer to denounce the ABM Treaty rather than stretching an interpretation of the agreement which must deviate consider57

58

59

M

Article V. Other relevant Conventions regulating the use of Outer Space are the 1968 Agreement for Rescue of Astronauts; the 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects and the 1975 Convention on registration of Objects Launched in Space. P. H. Nitze, T h e ADI and the ABM Treaty', United States, Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Current Policy, No. 711,2, 30 May 1985. Statement by A.D. Sofaer, ibid., No. 755, 22 October 1985.

GENERAL

176

ably from its wording. denunciation,

62

61

PRINCIPLES

But although the ABM treaty does allow for

there have to be 'extraordinary events' relating to the

subject matter of the Treaty which have 'jeopardised the supreme interest' of the Party wishing to denounce the agreement. Any notification of withdrawal must be accompanied by a statement of such alleged 'extraordinary events'. It is understandable that it may be difficult, for political reasons, to phrase such a statement of denunciation. However, even apart from possible contingent use of satellites and space weapons under the Star Wars programme, Outer Space is already heavily 'militarised' by satellites. The n u m b e r of satellites in orbit is ever increasing and although they are used for allegedly 'peaceful' information purposes, such as telecommunications or maritime information, they all have possible military uses. It may be impossible to distinguish peaceful, military and aggressive activities in space: all activities in Outer Space are inevitably of military i m p o r t a n c e .

63

Certain areas which are neutralised under a treaty are also demilitarised. This is the case with Spitsbergen, Islands,

66

64

the Magellan Straits,

65

the Aland

and the Southern border area between Sweden and Norway.

Similar regimes apply to Rhodes and other Greek islands, 69

68

67

as well as to 70

certain islands off the Tunisian coast, and to Sicily and Sardinia. In more recent practice, there has been demilitarisation of the Kuwait-Saudi Neutral Sector. 61

6 2

6 3

6 4

6 5

6 6

67

6 8

6 9

71

71

E.g., H. Thierry, in Anglo-French Colloquium on Outer Space, University College, London, 2 December 1986. Article XV requiring six months' notice. H. Lay, and H. J. Taubenfeld, The Law Relating to Activities of Man in Space, Chicago, 1970, 100. Cf. plans of the United States in 2000 for the 'Son of Star Wars'. See Treaty of Paris 9 February 1920, article 9; cf. C. Piccioni 'Le Spitzberg et la Convention du 9.2. 1920', RGDIP, 1923, 1041T. See Convention 23 July 1881, 12 NRGT2 serie, 491. Geneva Convention 20 October 1921; 12 NRGT, 3 serie, 65; Finlands Överenskommelser med Främmande Makter, 1922, No.l; cf. the Treaty of Paris 1856, and the Finland Peace Treaty 1947, article 5. See my Independent State, 183rT; F. DeVisscher, 'La Convention relative á la nonfortification et á la neutrality des lies d'Aland', RDILC, 1921, 568fT. SOU 1984, and Sweden, Folkrätten i krig. Italian Peace Treaty, 1947, article 14. See L. Leontiades, 'Die Neutralität Griechenlands während des Weltkrieges', ZaöRVR, 1930, 130. Ibid., article 49 on Lampedusa, Lampione and Linosa. Ibid., article 50. See the Convention of Uquaie, 133 BSFP, ii, 726 and Treaty 7 July 1965,60 AJIL, 1966,744; M. El Ghoneimy, 'The Legal Status of Saudi-Arabia-Kuwait Neutral Zone', ¡CLQ, 1966 690. There is some uncertainty whether 'neutral' has any meaning under this Treaty in 'military' terms or refers only to 'common territory': M. Hosni, 'The partition of the Neutral Zone', AJIL, 1986, 635. 7 0

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

177

Any territory can, ad hoc, be demilitarised by parties to a conflict.

72

'Safety zones', an old Red Cross idea, can also be used for such exception 73

purposes. The doctrine of'non-defended localities', e.g. 'open towns', can also be conceived as a system of demilitarisation. This doctrine was codified 74

in the Hague Regulations of 1907; Protocol I of 1977 developed the Hague regime by allowing for agreement on further localities. Such agreement is in any event possible but the Protocol offers a convenient framework for further extending areas. It is sad to observe the fragility of the rules on 'safety zones' and 'open towns' in recent conflicts. Not only did the Serb-dominated army of Federal Yugoslavia totally ignore such rules in the case of the 'safety zone' declared by the United Nations in Srbrenica in Bosnia but, further, there were very few protests against the Serb action from international organisa­ tions, or from statesmen and governments in the world. Even m o r e sur­ prising was the lack of condemnation at the b o m b i n g of Dubrovnik by the Serb navy in 1991: Dubrovnik was not only specially protected as an 'open town' but was also inscribed on UNESCO's world heritage list, as well as being specially protected as a town of cultural m o n u m e n t s under the 75

Hague Convention of 1984. Yet, it was possible for a warring party to attack such a target without much reaction from the world. The attack on Dubrovnik, formerly Ragusa, represents, however, one of the most perti­ nent breaches of the Law of War in recent times; not even during the Second World War was there displayed such arrogance with regard to cultural m o n u m e n t s .

76

There are obligations under the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention to use 77

the high seas only for 'peaceful purposes'. This statement may be seen in relation to UN General Assembly Resolutions to use the ' c o m m o n heritage of mankind' for peaceful purposes only. 72

74

76

77

78

7 3

78

But it is questionable as to what

Cf. article 60 of Protocol I of 1977. Cf., articles 14-15 of Geneva Convention IV. Article 59. Below, Ch. 8, A ii b. The attack on the monastery of Monte Cassino, by an erroneous lack of judgment or on the basis of false information, by the Americans, assuming this was a German stronghold, caused numerous casualties, many by 'friendly fire', and the loss of some of the most important medieval manuscript collections in the world. The attack on Dresden by the United Kingdom, in retaliation for the bombing of Coventry, caused the total destruction of one of the most important cities in Europe, together with the Meissen porcelain works. But otherwise, the cultural heritage of Europe was spared: neither Rome nor Paris was bombed. 21 ILM 1261. See article 301 for the general rule and articles 88 on the high seas; 58 on EEZ; 131 and 155 on the 'area'; 141 on the sea bed; 147 on installations; 143(1), 240(a), 242(1) and 246(3) on marine research. See General Assembly Resolution 2749 (XXV) 1970. 75

i 8

GENERAL

7

PRINCIPLES

79

'peaceful implies'. It may be an exhortation to refrain from force but it is doubtful that the rules, which probably reflect general international law, 80

establish any form of demilitarisation. O n the other hand, the provisions dealing with innocent passage in the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention

81

enumerate military or quasi-military activities which are to be regarded as 'non-innocent'.

82

v. Denuclearised zones Nuclear disarmament will, to the extent it is successful, eliminate certain nuclear weapons or certain use of such weapons.

83

At the present stage of

development, however, there are few such treaties. Even outer space is only 84

partially denuclearised under the Outer Space Treaty. And, in spite of the provisions of the Sea Bed Treaty,

85

certain nuclear mines are conceivably

86

'legal'. O n the other hand there is a trend to limit the geographical area within which nuclear weapons, or their testing, is allowed. Such objectives are carried out by the establishment of nuclear-free zones. N u m e r o u s declarations of intent have been made by regional bodies to establish similar such zones, for example by the Conference for the Security 87

and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) which made declarations in 1973 and 1975 o n the denuclearisation of the Mediterranean.

88

Other such declar­

ations are the 1964 Cairo Declaration of Organisation of African Unity on the denuclearisation of Africa,

89

the Lusaka Declaration on Non-Aligned

Countries 1970 on the Indian Ocean as a 'Zone of Peace',

90

the ASEAN

Declaration of 1971 o n South East Asia as a 'Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality' ( Z O P F A N ) ,

91

and the Tuvalu Declaration of 1984 of the South

Pacific forum on the South Pacific nuclear-free zone. 7 9

8 0

81

8 3

8 4

8 5

8 8

8 9

9 0

91

9 2

92

See article 301. The Sea Bed Treaty, on the other hand, introduced a denuclearised regime: see below, in the next section. 21 ILM 1261. Articles 19; cf. 35(c), 311 (3); 53(3). Above, in this Chapter, in the previous section. Above, in the previous section and B. Cheng, 'Le Traité du 1967 sur l'Espace', Journal de droit international 1968, 598. Above, Ch. 3, C b ( 1 ). Below, Ch. 7, A iii. Above, Ch. 3, C iii (3). UN, Study of the Naval Arms Race, Geneva, 26 July 1985, 121. Cf., General Assembly Resolutions 36/102, 1981, 37/118, 1982, 38/189, 1983, and 39/153, 1984. The declaration was endorsed by General Assembly Resolution 2033 (XX) of 1965; cf. GA Res. 1652 (XVI) 1961 and 1911 (XVIII) 1963. Ibid., 119. Cf. General Assembly Resolutions encouraging negotiations of a nuclear free zone comprising the Indian subcontinent, e.g. 3265 (XXIX) 1974; 36/88 1981; 36/88 1981. Ibid., 120. Declaration by Australia, New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Fiji, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western Samoa; ibid. 122. 8 2

8 6

8 7

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

179

Some of these declarations have been turned into binding agreements. In this way, a new type of zone in which a specific type of weapons is prohibited has appeared. This is the denuclearised zone where nuclear weapons

93

are prohibited. One such zone was established by the Treaty of 94

Tlatelolco of 1967 and provided for the 'military denuclearisation of Latin America'. This Treaty was based on an earlier declaration, in the form of a pactum

de contrahendo

of 14 February 1963. Such statements are an

important step towards possible future regulation forbidding nuclear weapons or tests in specified areas. Another declaration of intent that has come to fruition is the Rarotonga 95

Treaty concluded on 7 August 1985. This Treaty provides a regime sui generis where the banning of nuclear tests and weapons in a specific area in East Asia, in a somewhat contradictory way, is combined with the express provisions for passage of nuclear ships.

96

The Treaty of Pelindaba of 1995 establishes a nuclear-free zone in Southern Africa

97

and the Treaty of Bangkok, also of 1995, provides for a

denuclearised zone in South East Asia.

98

An individual State may also be denuclearised by treaty; this is the case of 99

Austria under the State Treaty of 1955 which forbids the emplacement of nuclear weapons in Austria. Other States may be b o u n d manufacture or develop nuclear w e a p o n s

101

1 0 0

not to possess,

but such provisions do not

prevent the stationing of nuclear weapons in the area if such weapons were 9 3

9 4

9 5

97

9 9

100

101

But see the Treaty of Rarotonga, 1985 and below, later in this section, on a sui generis regime. 634 UNTS 326. The Treaty enables States of two types outside the region to adhere to its provisions: first, States which have responsibility for territories in the area, and secondly, States possessing nuclear weapons. Thus the United Kingdom (1969) which has responsibility for Belize, the Falkland Islands and certain islands in the Caribbean; and United States ( 1983) for Guantanamo Bay, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, have both signed the Protocol whereas France considers itself to have constitutional difficulties in signing this Protocol: see H. Gros Espiel, 'La signature du Traité de Tlatelolco par la Chine et la France', AFDI, 1973, 13; Gros Espiel, 'La signature par la France du Protocol I du Traité du Tlatelolco', AFDI, 1979, 806ff.; United Kingdom (1969), United States (1971), France (1974), China (1974) and USSR (1978) have all signed Protocol II. 9 6

/LM 1442. Article 5(2). SFDI, Le droit international des armes nucléaires, Paris, 1998, 46ff. Ibid., 51. 217 UNTS 223, article 13. E.g., Peace Treaty on Germany, 23 October 1954, Dept. of State Publ. 5659, International Organisations and Conferences, Series II, 5; Peace Treaties with Finland, article 17, 42 AJIL, Suppl., 204; Bulgaria, article 13, ibid., 190; Romania, article 14, ibid., 262; Hungary, article 15, ibid., 239. Furthermore, the prohibition only concerns the manufacturing of weapons; Germany is a major exporter of nuclear reactors. One reactor was sold to Brazil in 1984 and one to the Argentine in 1985: New Scientist, 3 October 1985. 9 8

i8o

GENERAL

manufactured elsewhere.

102

PRINCIPLES

Korea is denuclearised by a joint 'Declaration'

of the United States and the Republic of North Korea in 1992,

103

a

document which for all intents and purposes have the characteristics of a treaty.

104

Other efforts

105

have been delayed by an unwillingness even to adopt

declarations of intent as for example in the Middle East. The UN General Assembly had encouraged projects for this important a r e a

106

but attempts

to achieve an agreement were foiled by Israel's attack on Iraqi nuclear installations in 1 9 8 1 .

107

Unilateral efforts to proclaim individual States nuclear free have also been made, for example, by Romania for a Balkan Nuclear Free Z o n e . Other efforts include Sweden in the Unden Plan in 1 9 6 1 the Kekkonen Plan in 1 9 6 3 .

110

109

108

and Finland in

These two efforts were clearly mere propo­

sals. Discussions on a Nordic Nuclear Free Z o n e , comprising at least Sweden and Finland,

112

111

or a 'mini zone'

have been going on for some

time and are clearly of p a r a m o u n t interest to the nordic States.

113

On the

other hand, the declaration by France to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the Pacific during the Nuclear Test Cases before the Interna­ tional Court of Justice,

114

was a binding unilateral declaration.

115

Negative

security assurances, that is, pledges by States that they will not use nuclear weapons against States that do not have such weapons themselves, have been made within the Disarmament Conference in Geneva by some of the major nuclear p o w e r s .

102

103

104

, o s

106

107

108

, ( N

112

1 , 3

114

115

116

116

Cf. J. Queneudec, 'Les zones denuclearisees', in Colloque de Montpellier (ed.), Le droit international des armes, Montpellier, 1982. Ibid., 45fif. South Korea was already bound by the Test Ban Treaty. See my International Legal Order, 191fT. Cf. United Nations Study of Nuclear Weapons Free Zones, revised edn, New York, 1984. See General Assembly Resolutions 3263 (XXIX) 1974; 36/82 A-B 1981. Cf. General Assembly Resolution 38/98 1981. R. Rydell, T h e Balkans, a nuclear weapons free zone', Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, May 1982. ENDC/C. 1.246. Ibid. Cf. Svenska Dagbladet, 25 July 1983. Cf. Hufvudstadsbladet, 19 May 1983, 9 August 1983; such a zone would have been much less favoured by the former Soviet Union. R. Ekeus, Nuclear Disengagement in Europe, SIPRI, Stockholm, 1983. ICJ Reports, 1974, 253, 267. On the legal effects of unilateral undertakings, see my International Legal Order, 19Iff.; my Concept, 97 ft and my Law Making, passim. Declarations by France, China, the former USSR, the United Kingdom and the United States, Arms Control Reporter, 1 September 1983, 860-4. 1 , 0

1,1

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E LAW OF

l8l

WAR

vi. Areas u n d e r o c c u p a t i o n The Law of War applies fully in occupied areas and specific rules have been designed to regulate precisely the relationship between occupying forces and the taken territory.

117

Most of these rules concern the rights and duties

of the occupying party with regard to movable and immovable property in the area and will be discussed in conjunction with other relevant rules bearing on p r o p e r t y .

118

A basic rule for wartime occupations stipulates that title to or sovereignty of the territory does not pass to the occupying p o w e r .

119

But certain

quasi-sovereign powers in the occupied territory, such as legislative administrative

121

120

and

powers, for example, will be exercised by the occupier. O n

the other hand, it is less certain whether an occupying power can exercise jurisdictional powers in the captured territory.

122

Nowadays arguments

cannot be put forward that a territory has been ' a n n e x e d '

123

by force as

conquest and annexation no longer afford legitimate title in international law. The specific duties of the occupying power are laid down in Geneva Convention IV of 1949 which regulates in great detail the treatment that must be afforded to the population in the territory. There is an obligation to keep economic and social conditions as they are in occupied territories. But such rules may be suspended by alleged 117

118

1 , 9

120

121

122

123

G. v. Glahn, The Occupation of Enemy Territory: a Commentary on the Law and Practice of Belligerent Occupation, London, 1957; on the historical background, see D. A. Graber, The Development of Belligerent Occupation 1863-1914; a Historical Survey, New York, 1949. Below, Ch. 1 0 , C i i i b . Hague Regulations, article 43; Affaire de la Dette Ottomane, RIAA, 1925, 525; Great War Criminals Case, IMT Nuremberg, 13 AD 1946, 202; Cmnd. 6964, 1946; for France see the Naoum Case, Gaz. Palais, 1970, 1. 62; and see Rousseau, Conflits armes, 137 for further examples in French and continental practice. E.g. Reidar Haaland Case (1945) Norway, Höyesterett, AD 1943-5, 444. But, in principle, the occupied State retains power to legislate on matters which do not concern occupation: Belgium, AD, 1919-22, no. 311; ibid., no. 310; Latvia, ibid., no. 321; Poland, ibid., 1927-28, no. 380; but contra, Greece, ibid., 1929-30, no. 292. On the Allied occupation of Germany exceeding powers of belligerent occupation see W. Friedmann, The Allied Military Government of Germany, London, 1947; cf. A. Robert, 'What is military occupation?', BYIL, 1984, 268-71. The Lighthouses Arbitration (1956), PCA, 23 ILR 659. E.g. Cass, beige, 4.12.1919, Pasicrisie 1920.1 and Rousseau, Conflits armes, 139. But see Geneva IV, articles 68, 70-3. See K. Marek, Identity and Continuity of States in Public International Law, 1954; U. Scheuner, 'Die Annexion im modernen Völkerrecht', 49 Friedenswarte, 1949, 81; W. Schätzel, 'Die Annexion', 1 AVR, 1980, 1; G. Zimmer, Gewaltsame territorielle Veränderungen und ihre völkerrechtliche Legitimation, Berlin, 1971.

182

GENERAL

legitimising factors

124

PRINCIPLES

as is the case, for example, with territories that are

not occupied but 'retaken', thus forming an integral part of another State. This is the argument put forward by Israel with regard to any part of Palestine to explain that the Geneva Convention on Civilians does not apply in this a r e a .

125

O n the other hand, this argument cannot be valid for

other occupied territories, for example with regard to the Golan Heights, where the Convention at any rate must a p p l y .

126

The essential protection afforded to persons in occupied territories is designed to ensure respect for their lives. be u s e d

128

127

N o methods of coercion must

and, in particular, persons must not be subjected to murder,

torture, corporal punishment, mutilation or medical experiments. must they be subjected to forced l a b o u r . detentions is limited.

130

129

Nor

Power to order administrative

131

Persons in occupied territories must not be d e p o r t e d necessary, be evacuated to another r e g i o n .

132

but may, if

133

A particular question during occupation concerns the controversial right lM

to resistance, which some see as a jus insurrectionis\ exists.

135

others deny that it

The duty of 'obedience' to an established 'effective' occupier

136

would at least cease in the case of an occupier who has himself committed substantial violations of international l a w .

137

vii. Positive a n d negative zones The areas described above which are neutralised, demilitarised or denuc­ learised are all exempt from some effects of war by being enclosed in zones into which war activities, perhaps of a certain kind, are not to extend. Such 124

125

126

127

129

131

132

133

135

137

Cf. above, Ch. 2, B. M. Shamgar, T h e observance of international law in the administered territories', 1 IYHR, 1971,263. A. Boyd, T h e applicability of international law to the occupied territories', 1 IYHR, 1971,260; Y. Dinstein, 'Belligerent occupation and human rights', 8 IYHR 107. Similar claims were previously made with respect to Sinai. In Lebanon, Israel claims that it has only set up special units for civilian assistance; Report of the International Commission to Enquire into Reported Violations of International Law by Israel During its Invasion of the Lebanon, Geneva, 1983, 114. Hague Regulations, article 46; Geneva IV, article 27. Geneva IV, article 31. Article 32. Cf. below, Ch. 9. Hague Regulations, article 52; Geneva IV, article 51. Geneva IV, article 78. Geneva IV, article 49. See A. de Zayas, international law and mass population transfers', 16 HarvILJ 1975 207. Ibid. Above, Ch. 1, D ii b and iv in relation to resistance and guerilla warfare. Above, Ch. 2, B ix. Ibid. The Flesch Case, Gestapo Chief in Norway, (1948), Retstidene, 1948, 80. 128

1 3 0

134

136

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E L A W OF

WAR

183

zones are therefore negative in the sense that they prohibit war activity within a certain area. Other zones may be positive in character, meaning that they establish areas inside which war activities are to take place and into which, for example, neutrals must not enter; or if they enter, they d o so at their own peril for there is a presumption that anyone and anything inside a positive zone will be attacked. The distinction between positive and negative zones has perhaps not been made in the literature. But it is a convenient conceptual way to explain the existence of war zones in the context of spatial application of the Law of War.

viii. W a r zones As has been shown, territories may be withdrawn from the potential effect of war by treaty or by declared status of neutrality. The effect of such regulation is that it limits the geographical effect of war. But it does not result in the exemption from the Law of War: the territories in question will still be subject to the Law of W a r with regard to neutral rights and duties and, by a different construction, it could be said that their very status of being neutral or neutralised, is itself part of the Law of War. It has been suggested that theatre and regions of war are obsolete concepts.

138

O n the other hand, there are special zones proclaimed by a

belligerent, especially at sea, which serve as a special warning to neutrals: if they enter such a specific zone they d o so at their own peril. This was the practice in the Second World War when Germany proclaimed as special zones large areas where neutral ships had to resort to specified lanes to avoid emplaced minefields.

139

War zones are allowed if they are defensive and if they d o not extend more than twelve miles offshore; they must also be effectively supervised.

140

'Offensive' zones, in which merchant ships are sunk, are illegal even if warnings are provided.

141

War zones were claimed in the Falklands W a r in 1982. The 'maritime exclusion zone' of 200 miles operated initially as a war zone in which Argentine warships or naval auxiliaries would be 'treated as hostile'.

142

From 30 April 1982 the zone was amplified to a 'total exclusion zone' which 138

140

141

139

Above, Ch. 6, A ii. See e.g. Stone, Legal Controls, 572. J. Schmitt, Die Zulassigkeit von Sperrgebieten im Seekrieg, Hamburg, 1966, 135. Ibid., 122. Cf. GA Res. 2749 (XXV) 1970. HC, Hansard, 7 April 1982, col. 1045. 142

184

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

covered 'all ships and aircraft, whether military or civilian, operating in support of the illegal occupation of the Falkland Islands'. zone conflicted with territorial limits claims by Argentina, zone came well within the limits of Argentine waters.

145

143

144

The British

as the British

Argentina declared

a 'counter-zone', a fire-free zone, also comprising 200 miles around the islands.

146

The sinking of The General Belgrano, with the loss of several

hundred lives of Argentines, took place some thirty-six miles outside the total exclusion zone, on 2 May 1982. It is highly questionable whether the sinking was compatible with international law, especially as The General Belgrano was heading for its h o m e base and posed no threat to the British armed forces. The nature of war zones entails the presumption that not only is the Law of War applicable fully within such a zone but also that actual hostilities will take place and that any neutral subject, ship or aircraft enters such a zone at its own risk. State practice allows for such zones although some commentators question the legality of 'offensive' war zones in which ships are sunk after w a r n i n g .

147

ix. Distinction between application in zones a n d inside States Attention on application of war in geographical terms was earlier focused on the 'theatre' or 'region' of w a r .

148

The distinction between those two

concepts has certainly been blurred by the development and use of modern weapons. But the other geographical rules of application, established by positive or negative zones, represents but a partial picture of the problem of spatial application. Furthermore, as has been indicated,

149

the spatial connotations of vari­

ous zones concern more the limitation, albeit by legal regulation, of the physical effects of war; but the application of the Law of War itself in such zones is not restricted but applies in full and even lends legitimacy to the very establishment and regulation of such zones. 143

144

145

146

147

148

Ibid., 28 April, col. 980. Under Law No. 17,094 of 29 December 1966, Boletin oficial 10.1.1967, Argentina claims a 'nautical zone' with full sovereignty of 200 miles offshore. On 28 July 1982, after the end of the hostilities, Britain still insisted on a 150 mile zone around the islands; this zone was called a 'Protection Zone'. A. R. Coll and A. C. Arend, The Falklands War, Winchester, Mass., 1985, 97. Schmitt, Die Zulassigkeit, 122. This did happen in the Iraqi zone; see Leckow, 'The Iran-Iraq conflict in the Gulf, 643. Above, Ch. 6, A ii. Above, Ch. 6, viii. 149

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E

LAW OF

185

WAR

Nowadays the main difficulty is to establish whether and to what extent the Law of War is applicable to non-States and inside States as well as 'between' them.

B. Extended application in z o n e s a n d internal conflicts i. Application in internationalised conflicts a. Declarations

of

adherence

In the first section we will consider the question of the application of the Law of War to liberation movements. This problem may initially seem not to concern a 'spatial' application. Yet, liberation movements will be present on some State's territory and we are therefore faced, in the final analysis, with a question of application in the internal sphere of States. In the Spanish Civil War there were early declarations, by both sides, that they would respect the Geneva Convention of 1929.

150

It must be in the

humanitarian interest to allow as extensive an application as possible of such Conventions. The 1949 Geneva Conventions now provide a much more comprehensive regulation than the earlier 1929 Convention, and it is even clearer that their application would enhance humanitarian interests. However, because of their lack of statehood, n u m e r o u s liberation move­ ments could not adhere to these Conventions, nor could they enjoy protec­ tion thereunder. Liberation movements have sometimes sought to apply the Conventions mutatis mutandis. For example, in Algeria the provisional government in exile in Cairo made a Declaration of Accession to the Geneva Conventions in June 1960 to Switzerland, the appointed deposi­ tory. However, Switzerland issued a declaration declining to regard the accession as effective as the provisional government had not been formally recognised.

151

On the other hand, liberation movements can accede if and when they are successful for then they have themselves attained s t a t e h o o d .

152

But 'declarations' that the Conventions 'apply' can be made. However, such declarations are not directed to the depository, who would probably 150

151

152

Declaration by Madrid, 3 September 1936; by Burgos, 15 September 1936; ICRC, General Report, 1934-38, 131. M. Bedjaoui, Law and the Algerian Revolution, Brussels, 1961, 183, 189. Cf. accession by Guinea Bissau in 1974, Notification to the Swiss Federal Department, 26 February 1974.

186

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

not accept them in the absence of recognition, but are instead redirected to the ICRC. For example, Algeria made such a declaration when the instru­ ment of accession had been rejected by the depository.

153

A considerable practice has evolved to notify ICRC that a group involved in war will 'apply* the Geneva Conventions. Thus, in Hungary, in 1956, the National Committee of Gyor was swift to make a declaration of adherence to the C o n v e n t i o n s .

154

N u m e r o u s declarations were made by, for example,

the African National Congress ( A N C ) ,

155

SWAPO,

rean Peoples' Liberations Front (EPLF), l'indépendance totale d'Angola ANLF,

160

HESLIISLAMI

161

the Philippines ( M N L F ) .

158

(UNITA),

and ISA,

162

156

the P L O ,

157

the Erit-

the Union national pour 159

by the Afghan

groups

and by the Moro National Front in

163

Declarations were also made in major wars, some of which were unsuc­ cessful for a secessionist movement, as was the case for Biafra in Nigeria,

164

and in those where a new State did emerge after the originally 'internal' war, as with Bangladesh.

165

In the Congo crises all parties agreed that the

Geneva Conventions applied.

166

Other liberation movements have made

statements that they would 'respect' the Geneva Conventions. For example, FRELIMO made such a declaration in 1 9 6 8 .

167

In the Vietnam War all parties allegedly 'recognised' the Geneva Conven­ tions.

168

In Vietnam the ICRC appealed to the belligerents to apply the

Geneva C o n v e n t i o n s .

169

The United States did not make clear whether it

considered itself b o u n d but affirmed the Conventions would be applied.

170

The Saigon government declared itself willing to apply the 'Geneva Ac­ cords'

171

which leaves some doubt as to which instruments they had in

mind. The NLF stated that for its part they were not bound by the , S 3

Bedjaoui, Law and the Algerian Revolution, 215. ICRC, Report on Relief Action in Hungary 1956-7. Declaration to the ICRC, 29 November 1980. Ibid., 25 August 1981. On numerous occasions, for example, ibid., 7 June 1982. Ibid., 25 February 1977. » Ibid., 25 July 1980. Ibid., 24 December 1981. Ibid., 7 September 1980. Ibid., 6 January 1982. Ibid., 18 May 1981. Declarations by both sides, ICRC, Report, 1967, 37. Declaration by the popular Republic of Bangladesh to ICRC, 4 April 1972. At the time Bangladesh was only recognised by India and Bhutan. CICR, Rapport annuel d'activités, 1961,48. See A. Rosas, The Legal Status of Prisoners of War, Helsinki, 1976, 161. See, further, E. Mondlande, The Struggle for Mozambique, London, 1969. 5 IRRC 1965,477, 636. RICR 1965, 385. Ibid., 1965,441; 1966, 130, 360. Ibid., 165, 442.

154

155

156

157

IS

162

158

160

161

163

164

165

166

167

168

171

169

170

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E LAW OF

187

WAR

Conventions. As it had not succeeded to the Conventions formally,

172

the

NLF held that it was not b o u n d by the accession of the Bao Dai government although the ICRC claimed that it w a s .

173

However, the NLF declared it

would, in any event, 'follow a h u m a n e and charitable policy' towards prisoners of w a r .

174

The ICRC insisted that the 1949 Conventions applied in Vietnam, at least after the escalation that had taken place by 1 9 6 5 .

b. Express provisions on applicability

175

to liberation

movements

Article 1(4) of Protocol I of 1977 extends the application of the Protocol to all armed conflicts to: all armed conflicts in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes in the exercise of their right of self-determination, as enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations and the declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.

The Conference took long over discussions of this particular paragraph and it may well be the most important one of the whole First Protocol as it extends the application to liberation movements. The so-called Martens C l a u s e

176

which had been included in the Pre­

amble of the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions, has been given a higher status in the 1977 Protocol I by being included in the main text of article l.

177

The Clause provides that in situations not covered by the Protocol or

by other international agreements 'civilians and combatants remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international law derived from established custom, from the principles of humanity and from the dictates of public conscience.' The Martens Clause is of the greatest importance in m o d e r n international

172

173

175

176

177

The Democratic Republic of Vietnam had formally acceded to the Conventions in 1957. D. Schindler and J. Toman, The Law of Armed Conflict: a Collection of Conventions, Resolutions and Other Documents, Leiden 1973, 482. 5 IRRC 1965, 477,636. Ibid., 360. CICR, Rapport annuel d'activités, 1965, 8; RICR, 1965, 385. Named after the Russian delegate at the first Hague Conferences. Article 1(2); in Protocol II, however, the Martens clause is again moved to the Preamble. 174

188

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

law, especially to rebut any suggestions that States are free to behave as they wish within their own territory, a consequence of the extreme emphasis of sovereignty usually encountered in the Eastern bloc and even more in Scandinavia. Extreme positivist views may gradually be mitigated by the insistence that the 'public conscience' can, at times, be relied on to assess what is right or wrong. At the Diplomatic Conference it was suggested the term 'public con­ science' should be replaced by the expression universal conscience'

178

but it

may be that such a global reference may make it more difficult to ascertain its contents. It is important to underline the implications of the Martens Clause that it is really the conscience of individuals, or of a group of individuals, perhaps a large body of individuals, that, in the last resort, will be relevant since States themselves have no such conscience. World opinion would, in this respect, play an important role. The condemnation by such opinion of certain practices of liberation movements and States alike will contribute to the development of humanitarian law. By the inclusion of the Martens Clause in article 1, Protocol I extends the application of the clause specifically to the armed conflicts referred to in 1(4), i.e. also to all types of liberation wars. The implication of the Martens Clause is thus that it fills a supplementary function in cases when there are n o clear rules. The discussions on article 1(4) took up the most part of the first session of the Diplomatic Conference. There were naturally many problems of definition. If the article included 'armed conflicts in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes' it is obviously important to establish to what level the 'armed conflict' must have developed. The delegation of the United King­ d o m made it clear that, in their view, 'armed conflict' implies a certain level of intensity of military operations which must be present before the Conventions or the Protocol are to apply to any given situation, and that this level of intensity cannot be less than that required for the application of Protocol II, by virtue of Article 1 of that P r o t o c o l ' .

179

By this cross-reference

the United Kingdom indicated that 'armed conflict', for the purposes of Protocol I, must have reached the level where a faction of dissident forces was organised under responsible c o m m a n d and in control of a part of the 178

CDDH/SR.36, vol. 6, 62.

179

Declaration made upon signature by the United Kingdom.

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E L A W OF

189

WAR

territory to enable them to carry out sustained and concerted military operations.

180

There were numerous objections at the Conference with regard to the terms of article 1(4) and many delegations claimed that concepts like 'colonial domination', 'alien occupation' and 'racist regimes' lend them­ selves to arbitrary, subjective and politically motivated interpretation. c. Informal

adherence of liberation

181

movements

The legal implications of declarations of adherence by, e.g., liberation movements have not been analysed by international lawyers. Since liber­ ation movements are not adhering formally, they do not become parties to the Conventions. Do their undertakings have any legal effect? It is submitted here that it is a valid unilateral undertaking, binding on the groups making it, provided that the group fulfils the condition of being a belligerent.

182

This

is the only possible effect in law which is compatible with contemporary political realities. The reluctance to allow legal effect of unilateral rules and promises and the urge to construe undertakings as 'treaties' is still noticeable in international l a w .

183

But such strained constructions become even more

untenable when, on the one hand, jurists maintain that groups cannot, in any event conclude 'treaties'. The more flexible notion of unilateral under­ taking, which, after all, carries significance in most internal legal systems, must be accepted if it is clear that, for example, a group wishes to enter into a binding arrangement. To deny any legal obligation of such undertakings would eventually damage the interests of States too - apart from limiting the effect of the instruments - since a lopsided situation would result in which States, but not guerillas, are b o u n d by the Law of W a r . d. Formal adherence of liberation

184

movements

The idea that liberation movements are international brings them, for many purposes, near the ambit of the 1949 Geneva C o n v e n t i o n s . 180

181

182

183

184

185

But

See article 1 of Protocol II and further below, in this Chapter, B ii g. Federal Republic of Germany, CDDH/SR.36, vol. 6, 61; cf. New Zealand, ibid., 63 and Spain, ibid., 64; cf. the statement by the United Kingdom that the language of article 1 (4) is 'political' rather than 'legal', ibid., 46. Above, Ch. 4, C. For theories refuting such constructions, see my Law Making, passim, my Concept, passim and my International Legal Order, passim. See, below, Ch. 12, B ii on reciprocity. Common article 2. 185

190

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

since these Conventions apply only in armed conflict between the High Contracting Parties and liberation movements are not able to accede to the instruments, a formalisation must take place to extend the application of rules of the Law of War beyond what was possible under c o m m o n article

3 186 The formalisation process has been carried out by the Protocol I of 1977 with regard to armed conflicts involving liberation movements fighting against colonial domination, alien occupation and racist regimes. By formal declaration under article 96 liberation movements can accede to Protocol I of 1 9 7 7 Arms C o n v e n t i o n .

188

187

and, by a similar process, to the Conventional

Other conflicts are still considered as internal and

therefore only regulated by c o m m o n article 3. For such conflicts Protocol II of 1977 ensures additional safeguards for the respect of specific rules of war. The Conferences elaborating the two Protocols between 1974 and 1977 made a considerable distinction between liberation wars and other internal conflict although it is clear that the factual situation in the two types of conflict may be extremely similar which, in turn, would warrant a uniform application of internal r u l e s .

189

Arguments were put forward during the

1980 Conference on Conventional W e a p o n s should not only bind States ation

192

191

190

that rules on weapons

but also apply to wars of national liber­

and thus coincide with the ambit of the new 1977 Protocols to the

1949 Geneva C o n v e n t i o n s .

193

It would be consistent with political realities

if the application of the Conventional Weapons Convention extended to liberation movements. The latter view was eventually accepted at the Conference but it was agreed to provide special conditions for the applica­ tion of the Convention to liberation w a r s .

194

Consequently, the Convention p r o v i d e s

195

that, in cases where a party to

the Convention is also b o u n d by Protocol I of 1977, the provisions of the Conventional Arms Convention, and those of its annexed Protocols, will apply to a conflict with an 'authority' if that 'authority has made a 186

188

189

190

192

194

187

Below, in this Chapter, B ii e. Above, Ch. 1, D ii b and below, in this Chapter, e. Below, Ch. 7, B ii c. The Swiss Federal Department published in 1977 a seventeen volume series on the Conferences and it is this publication which is quoted below in the context of statements made during the Conferences. For a commentary see, M. Bothe, K. J. Partsch and W. A. Solf, New Rules on Victims of War, The Hague, 1982, which, however, does not refer to the volumes. Below, Ch. 7, A ii c. As the Western bloc claimed, A/CONF.95/WG/L.1. As argued by non-aligned and socialist States, ibid. Below, Ch. 7, A i. A/CONF.95/15 and below, Ch. 7, A ii c. Article 7(4)(a). 191

193

195

SPATIAL APPLICATION

declaration under Protocol I of 1977,

196

OF T H E LAW OF W A R

191

provided the 'authority' has under­

taken to apply the Weaponry Convention. Even if a State is not a party to Protocol I of 1977, the Conventional Arms Convention will a p p l y ,

197

'authority' declares it will apply the Geneva Conventions and

if an the

Weaponry Convention. It is interesting to note that in that case, an insurgent group for example would be b o u n d by the Geneva Convention and by the Weaponry Convention, with Protocols, but not necessarily by Protocol I of 1977 which is not mentioned by the article. A much-discussed question was whether 'any' liberation movement could enhance its own standing to that worthy of protection under article 1(4) by a mere notification under article 96(3). This article provides that 'the authority' leading a liberation movement 'may undertake to apply the Conventions and this Protocol in relation to the conflict by means of a unilateral declaration addressed to the depositary' and that such a declar­ ation will have the effect that the Conventions and the Protocols are brought immediately into force to protect the members of the movement. Some commentators objected strongly that to confer 'belligerent status on all liberation movements despite the absence of recognition and heed­ less of the actual dimension [of the conflict is] palpably a b s u r d ' .

198

However, article 96(3) seems to indicate that at least the liberation movement must have an 'authority' to represent it and this, in itself, would indicate a certain level of organisation. Furthermore, the article speaks of the authority, and not an authority, which appears to exclude a plurality of liberation m o v e m e n t s .

199

On balance, however, it appears that most of the alleged problems caused by the inclusion of liberation wars in article 1(4) were grossly exaggerated. The wording may be rightly criticised for having a focus on short-term political problems and is, for this reason, perhaps not suitable to be included in a legal instrument intended to be of long-term v a l u e .

200

But, on

the other hand, such a formulation of the article must also reduce any objections to the extended ambit of its application as such extension would, in practice, be a mere transitory phase: there are, for example, few colonial regimes left. The Holy See expressed the view that article 1(4) 'clearly reflects a particular historical situation undergoing rapid development'.

201

On the other hand, if both Protocols were adopted the chances of achieving , %

198

2 0 0

197

Article 96(3) and below, Ch. 7, A ii c. Under article 7(4)(b). Dinstein, 'The New Geneva Protocols', 267. Cf. Bretton, he droit de la guerre, 134. E.g. statement by Germany, CDDH/SR.36, vol. 6, 61. CDDH/SR.36, vol. 6, 62. 199

201

192

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

the application of a uniform humanitarian law in all conflicts would be greatly e n h a n c e d .

202

Some commentators claim that the actual ambit of article 1(4) is ex­ tremely narrow: it is argued that it applied only to the peoples of South Africa and now to Palestine.

203

However, the article seems to have much

wider scope in its general formulation. O n the other hand, the extension of the application of humanitarian rules to liberation movements by article 1 (4) is not as far-reaching as has been alleged. For those who wish to extend humanitarian rules to a uniform network applicable in all armed conflicts, the article does not go far enough, but is, on the other hand, supplemented by Protocol II. Yet the article could not be held to be excessively demanding by those w h o question the rights and status of liberation movements as such movements could always claim, in law if not always in fact, a certain standard of humanitarian t r e a t m e n t .

e. Recognition

204

of statehood

It has been shown that recognition of belligerency in internal war does not a m o u n t to recognition of s t a t e h o o d . ces,

206

205

Similarly, attendance at conferen­

adherence to the Geneva Conventions, or declarations to adhere to

their principles, do not imply recognition of statehood. N o r does application of c o m m o n article 3 of the Geneva Conventions imply the recognition of a party as State, or as an 'emerging* State: article 3(4) provides specifically that its application will 'not affect the legal status of the parties to the conflict'. Declarations under article 96 of Protocol I or under article 7 of the Weaponry Convention do not imply recognition of statehood, as has been indicated a b o v e .

207

O n the other hand, this does not mean that all these

situations and acts are devoid of all implications for statehood. For example, liberation movements may not be recognised as States, but they are, as far as the application of the Law of War is concerned, increasingly treated as similar. It has occasionally been suggested that recognition by the ICRC would be 2 0 2

2 0 3

2 0 4

2 0 5

Ibid. F. Kalshoven, T h e reaffirmation and development of international humanitarian law appli­ cable in armed conflicts; the Diplomatic Conference Geneva 1974-7', 8 NedTIR 1977, 122. Cf. the assessment by Bothe, Partsch and Solf, New Rules on Victims of War, 52. See below, in this Chapter, B ii e, on common article 3 of the Geneva Convention. Above, Ch. 1, D i c. Above, Ch. 1, D ii b. Above, Ch. 1, D ii b. 2 0 6

2 0 7

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E L A W OF

WAR

193

of some significance in the recognition of statehood and it may be useful to place such recognition too in its proper legal and factual context to clarify the political repercussions of recognition by the ICRC. The ICRC certainly treats States as 'important' u n i t s

208

and, it must be

emphasised, the treatment the ICRC may afford to non-States by no means indicates that these units are in the opinion of ICRC approaching state­ hood: the ICRC, as a humanitarian agency, is not competent to p r o n o u n c e itself on such issues. Nor does recognition by the ICRC of specific Red Cross Societies in various territories indicate that there are any implications for statehood of such areas. O n the contrary, in many cases the ICRC has acknowledged the existence and functioning of Red Cross Societies in countries which were not commonly recognised as States at the time of the ICRC action. For example, it was the Red China Red Cross Society, not that of Taiwan, that was recognised before the Peoples' Republic of China had been accepted as a State in the United N a t i o n s .

209

The ICRC has furthermore sometimes refrained from recognising a Red Cross Society if that society represented and supported the views of a government whose views appeared to be contrary to the spirit of h u m a n i ­ tarian law. Thus, ICRC did not recognise a society in Burundi as the ICRC did not wish to associate itself with an organisation whose views were as pro-Tutsi and anti-Hutu as those of government itself.

210

Similarly, in

Bangladesh the ICRC did not wish to recognise a society intent on further­ ing Bengali majority views as this would not have been in the interest of the Bihari minority.

211

ii. Direct application of the Law of W a r in the internal sphere of States The general problem of the effectiveness of rules of international law inside States concerns the relationship of different legal orders, the international system and internal legal systems. Many are led to believe that these are entirely separate and the prevailing view of writers is certainly that the areas of these systems are distinct and different. While it is certainly true that international law and internal war emanate from different sources, and are 2 0 8

2 0 9

2 , 0

D. P. Forsythe, Humanitarian Politics, The ICRC, Baltimore, 1977, 45. G. I. A. D. Draper, 'The Peoples' Republic of China and the Red Cross', in A. Cohen, (ed.), China's Practice of International Law: Some Case Studies, Cambridge, Mass., 1972. Forsythe, Humanitarian Politics, 16—17. Ibid. 211

GENERAL

194

PRINCIPLES

applied, primarily, between different subjects, it is certainly clear that, in a n u m b e r of cases, rules of international law are directly effective in the internal legal systems. If they were not - without any intervention of the 'host' government - it would be impossible to explain why individuals are b o u n d by obligations in the field of h u m a n rights and humanitarian law and, conversely, why they enjoy rights in these two fields. It would be even more difficult to determine how international society can proceed to try, convict and punish 'war criminals', who, as in the case of war-time Germany, may even have scrupulously followed and obeyed national legislation. The prohibition of force as laid down in the United Nations Charter can also be viewed as breaking through the national wall of a State. In numer­ ous situations it has been clear that a State cannot escape the consequences of prohibition of force by, for example, refusing to recognise another 'territory' as a State.

212

For example, the international rules on self-determi­

nation of Croatia and Slovenia prevailed in 1991 over the national legisla­ tion of the federal government of former Yugoslavia. And the right of selfdetermination prevailed equally in East Timor in 1999 over the edicts of Jakarta. The distinction between international and national legal rules, some­ times dismissed by writers as a 'theoretical' problem of 'monism' and 'dualism', is thus of immense practical importance, often ignored by academics as well as by statesmen.

a. Variability

213

of constitutional

provisions

The traditional attitude of international lawyers is that international law does not operate inside States unless the constitutional machinery allows for such direct application. In England general rules of international law but not treaties - are immediately applicable,

214

and certain treaties con­

cluded by the United States are 'self-executing' and, as such, directly applicable in the internal legal sphere. In France, every ratified and duly published treaty forms part of French law and in the Netherlands any published treaty even takes precedence over both previous and later nation­ al legislation. 2 . 2

2 . 3

214

2 , 5

215

Bowett, Self-Defence, 134. For further discussion of the practical implication of these views, see my Concept, 1-5, and my International Legal Order, 165-74. Trendtex Trading Corporation v. the Central Bank of Nigeria, (1977) 1 QB 529 (CA). On these and other examples, see my Law Making, 274-85.

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E L A W OF

195

WAR

The position thus varies from country to country but it can be said, grosso modo that general rules of international law and/or treaties are either y

automatically incorporated in the internal system of a State, or, which is more c o m m o n , they have to be 'converted' or 'transformed' into internal law.

216

Some commentators claim that completely different rules apply in inter­ national and in internal conflicts (or other non-State d i s p u t e s )

217

and, in

view of the above position of the operation of rules of international law, one may understand such consequences of the entrenched State para­ digm.

218

So, most writers claim that individuals are not 'subjects' of international law

219

and are never 'directly' b o u n d by any rules of the system. However,

in the Law of War it is evident that the rules are primarily aimed precisely at individuals and thus provide guidance to the soldier on how to behave in the field and to his commanders on how to, for example, deal with prisoners of war or on which methods and weapons to use in a campaign. Few commentators appear to have commented on the aspect of the direct application of the Law of War in the municipal sphere, although these issues are essential.

b. The uncertain

nature of case law

The position of the relationship between international law and internal law is, say many writers, clear in case law. But a case before a court presupposes that someone brought it there. There are n u m e r o u s disputes which are solved in other ways and never come before courts. There are also n u m e r ­ ous situations which do not even grow into disputes. Furthermore, the textbooks are full of references to case law in countries which use languages which are easily accessible in Europe whereas there is little information on court cases in China, Japan, or Russia, for example, probably because international law is dominated by Western scholars who sometimes read 2 . 6

2 . 7

2 . 8

2 1 9

There are then numerous subsidiary questions on examples concerning the 'overriding' effect of later international rules or treaties or of subsequent internal legislation; on lex posteriori derogant, for example, see my Law Making, 274fT. Above, Ch. l , D i b . But it is argued by some that the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Protocols of 1977 are 'self-executing' and need only be ratified in most States, F. de Mulinen, 'Law of war and armed forces', Société international de droit pénal militaire et droit de la guerre, Forces armées et développement du droit de la guerre, Brussels, 1982. See further my International Legal Order, 165-76.

196

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

only English. Another aspect of the constant references to English and Commonwealth cases in books on international law is, obviously, that these countries have legal systems based on case law whereas different weight is given to cases in civil law countries like France and Germany. For all these reasons, pronouncements of courts often give little guidance on what the law is, at least in the field of international law. This radical statement is at strong variance with the unquestioning attitudes of Anglo-Saxon lawyers who have been taught to rely heavily on case law. But pronouncements of courts can only state the law with respect to types of cases which have come before such judicial bodies, and since there is a wide area where courts have no jurisdiction, especially in interna­ tional situations, it may well be that the general law is different from isolated case law, however 'settled' this case law appears to some. Thus, the fact that municipal courts, under the particular constitutional rules of their own country, have taken a specific line on the applicability of international law in the internal sphere of States is n o firm guide to whether there is such applicability. It appears that the system of international law as presented by most has difficulties explaining why, for example, h u m a n rights are applicable in the municipal sphere as individuals are, say nearly all international lawyers, not 'subjects' of international law; but if they are not subjects of the international order, n o h u m a n rights that have not been 'transformed' by national legislation can protect them. But we know that this is not the case in political realities; whenever there is abuse or neglect of h u m a n rights in a country, there are international repercussions, such as the introduction of sanctions and condemnation of other States. However, there has been little discussion of the application of the Law of War in the municipal sphere, although similar issues exist with regard to this body of law as well as to h u m a n rights. N o r has there been m u c h debate on the direct application of the Law of War to individuals: courts in n u m e r o u s jurisdictions have had little difficulty applying rules of the Law of W a r directly when war crimes are considered; and the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials did not rely on treaties or specific legislation. Yet, there is clear reaction when there are violations of humani­ tarian law or of other rules of the Law of War in the internal sphere of a specific country and there is outright condemnation of individual war criminals such as 'Arkan', wherever he might have b e e n .

220

When Saddam

See below, Ch. 12, C. Arkan was assassinated in December 1999.

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E

LAW OF

WAR

197

Hussein of Iraq wishes to stock, or employ, forbidden weapons, there is immediate reaction in the form of condemnation, or economic sanctions.

221

It is therefore futile to insist in textbooks for students that international law has no force in the internal law of States, or to claim that it does not apply directly to individuals, as this is not borne out by political realities.

c. The rationale behind applicability

and

non-applicability

Is there then anything which the Law of War contains that is so controver­ sial that States would have reason to dispute its applicability in their internal spheres? As we have seen,

222

the Law of War consists largely of rules

on weapons, rules on methods and targets of warfare and humanitarian rules. The first two sets are normally phrased as a series of restraints whereas the last set of rules, on humanitarian issues, involve both restraints (to refrain from attacking or harming) and positive duties of action (to assist and help). Such rules seem to deserve the widest application by all individuals and groups on a State's territory, especially if the State itself is bound by them after having acceded to a specific convention. If we examine the sets of rules in turn we shall find that certain rules on weapons, in the first set, is most likely to apply to internal groups if a State has adhered to a weaponry convention, at least in cases where weapons have been abolished or destroyed, or otherwise been made unavailable in the particular State.

223

But the situation would be different in case of certain

types of conventional weapons, like, for example, booby traps. Such weapons have been gradually forbidden by international agreements, under, for example, Protocol II to the Conventional Arms Convention of 1981,

224

effects.

225

as many cause unnecessary suffering or have indiscriminate But a liberation movement or dissident group would still find it

easy to produce some such weapons. It is stipulated that application of the Weaponry Convention will entail equal rights and duties for the authority as those assumed by State p a r t i e s . The mechanism for adherence to the Weaponry C o n v e n t i o n ,

227

226

by which

liberation movements can be formally found by an instrument of the Law of 221

2 2 2

2 2 5

2 2 7

On the preemptive military sanctions, like the bombing of certain sites by the United States and by the United Kingdom in December 1998, see above, Ch. 2, B iii and below, Ch. 7, D. On sanctions, see below, Ch. 12, C. Above, Ch. 5, C. Below, Ch. 7, A ii e, on different conventions. Ibid. Above, Ch. 5, C v and below, Ch. 7, B i b. Article 7(4)(b)(ii). Above, in this Chapter, B i e, and below, Ch. 7, A ii e. 2 2 J

2 2 4

2 2 6

198

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

War, is an important step on the way to allow for application, in a State's own interest, of prohibitive rules in the internal municipal sphere. But the wording only covers 'liberation movements' which is thought to be a less wide title, applicable to only a few groups. It may be in a State's interest to allow prohibitive rules on weapons to apply to other guerilla units, as well as to citizens in general. The second group of rules of the Law of War, concerning methods and targets of warfare would, for example, if insurgent warfare is considered, imply more benefits than drawbacks for the State, if such rules were applied by insurgents, or freedom fighters. O n the other hand, however, it must be admitted that there may be situations where a State would wish to apply forceful methods which are not allowed under the Law of War. Therefore, by claiming that 'there is no war' or that the Law of War does not apply in the internal sphere in internal situations, the State can take coercive action 'to quell a rebellion' and apply measures that would not be allowed under the Law of War. O n the other hand, a n u m b e r of prohibitions of warfare methods, restrictions which could only benefit the State, do not, according to many writers,

228

apply to non-State groups engaged in war. For example, the

taking of hostages is a prohibition of Geneva Convention IV on Civilians which only applies to States.

229

230

With regard to the third group, it would, again, seem advantageous to a State if internal fighting groups were b o u n d to respect such rules. Yet, why is it that States have been extremely reluctant to allow any application of any part of the Law of War to other than State entities? The answer is probably that there is one area, and one area alone, where a State will not let go of its prerogatives: that of treating detainees as they wish. Such treatment follows from the sensitive question whether captured persons are 'rebels' against the established legal order of the State or 'freedom fighters' striving for a specific 'cause', usually independence or a u t o n o m y for their ' p e o p l e ' .

231

But whether a captured person is consid­

ered to fall into one of these categories should not necessarily exclude the h u m a n e treatment to which perhaps all have a basic right. The turning point in the development of the Law of War in recent years is precisely the hotly disputed question of whether detainees are entitled to prisoner of war status. In Northern Ireland other complications enter the 2 2 8

2 2 9

231

See, for example, H. Lauterpacht, Recognition in International Law, London, 1947, 246. Article 34. M. Greenspan, The Modern Law of Land Warfare, 413. Cf. above, Ch. 1, A and D ii. 2 3 0

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E L A W OF

199

WAR

field, the United Kingdom being b o u n d by the European Convention on H u m a n Rights to afford prisoners of all kinds, even political prisoners, certain treatment.

232

d. The attitude

of the ICRC

The International Committee of the Red Cross does not make any distinc­ tion between the two types of strife as there may be suffering in either case warranting assistance. This has been the attitude since the relief given to Argentine in 1890.

233

The ICRC has assisted in n u m e r o u s internal wars and often applied the same rules for such disputes as for international wars. It offered assistance in 1872, largely through the national society, in the Second Carlist W a r in Spain between 1872 and 1876. In 1865 the ICRC gave direct relief help in Herzegovina during the revolt against the Turks and to the refugees from that country in Montenegro at the request of the sovereign. Later followed help to the victims in the internal wars in a n u m b e r of States.

e. Article 4A of Geneva Convention

234

III

Geneva Convention II on Prisoners of War contains a provision which suggests that the drafters of the Convention might have had in mind the application to combatants of non-States. Article 4A(3) thus provides that 'members of the regular armed forces who profess allegiance to a Govern­ ment or an authority not recognised by the Detaining Power* will be given prisoner of war s t a t u s .

235

Some commentators have deduced from

this provision that the Convention II on Prisoners of War applies to internal w a r s .

236

However, the drafters of the article probably had the Free

France against Germany situation during the Second World War in 2 3 2

2 3 3

2 3 4

2 3 5

2 3 6

European Court of Human Rights, Ireland v. United Kingdom, Judgment, 1977. J. Moreillon, Le comité international de la Croix Rouge et la protection des detenus politiques. Les activités du CICR en faveur des personnes incarcérées dans leur propres pays à l'occasion de troubles ou des tensions internes, Lausanne, 1993, 31. Thus, during 1880, 1890, 1893 and 1895 the ICRC gave assistance in Argentine; in 1890 in the Transvaal; in 1882 in Bosnia; in 1885 in Peru; in 1894 in Brazil; in 1895,1897 and 1912 in Cuba; in 1896 in Rhodesia; in 1897, 1903 and 1904 in Uruguay; in 1903 in Macedonia; in 1909 in Armenia; in 1909 in Spain again; and in 1911 in China (ibid., 24-39). The ICRC has also assisted in all later wars, international or internal (above, Ch. 5, A and below, Ch. 11, A ii b). On such status, see below, Ch. 5, B iii f and above, Ch. 4, D. R. Falk, Legal Order in a Violent World, Princeton, 1968, 123; Seyersted, United Nations Forces, 200; T. J. Farer, 'The humanitarian laws of war in civil strife: towards a definition of interna­ tional armed conflict', 7 RBDI, 1971, 29.

200

GENERAL

mind,

237

PRINCIPLES

and it is likely that the Convention was not to apply to internal

situations in general under this article. O n the other hand, article 4A(2) may cover resistance movements under certain c o n d i t i o n s .

238

The article may also extend, at least according to

literary interpretation construed regardless of the intention of the drafters, to two types of internal warfare, both to consolidated resistance move­ ments and to guerillas.

/

Common

article 3 of the Geneva

Conventions

The broadening of the notion 'international conflict'

239

is obviously one

way to achieve the application of all the provisions of the Geneva Conven­ tion; but as things stand, at least c o m m o n article 3 covers internal con­ 240

flicts.

Article 3, which is included in all four Geneva Conventions and

therefore usually referred to as ' c o m m o n article 3 \ provides that certain basic humanitarian rules must be respected in internal disputes. The article provides, inter alia, that those who have laid down their arms and others hors de combat must not be subjected to: (a) violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutilations, cruel treatment and torture; (b) taking of hostages; (c) outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating treatment; (d) the passing of sentences and the carrying out of executions without previous judgment pronounced by a regularly constituted court, affording all the judicial guarantees which are recognised as indispensable by civilised peoples.

This article has proved a useful provision and has been applied and supplied authority for action by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in, for example, Guatemala in 1954 and in Algeria after 1954.

241

The effectiveness of this article is not entirely dependent merely on

the goodwill of States since it will, if violated, affect their international responsibility.

2 3 7

2 3 9

2 4 0

241

2 4 2

242

2 3 8

Rosas, The Legal Status of Prisoners of War, 256. See footnote 231. Cf. above, Ch. 1, D i d on internationalised conflicts. Cf. Farer, 'Humanitarian laws of war in civil strife', 17. Cf. Siotis, Le droit de la guerre, 209-12. Ibid., 219; on responsibility see further below, Ch. 12, D.

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E

LAW OF

201

WAR

The attitudes of the delegations of various States at the Conference where the Geneva Conventions were negotiated illustrate the complex problems involved. On the one hand, it was argued forcefully by the United States that every State has the right to put down rebellion and punish insurgents according to the law. Furthermore, said the United States, it is well known that premature recognition of insurgents is a 'tortious act* against the lawful government and constitutes a breach of international l a w .

243

Never­

theless, stated the United States, the Conventions should be applied to internal conflicts which a m o u n t to war under international law, that is conflicts which are waged by entities with the characteristics of a State, i.e., which have de facto authority over defined territory; which have forces under organised military authority and subjected to the Law of War; and where the insurgent civil authority agrees to be b o u n d by the provisions of the Conventions.

244

The other delegates, however, were more in favour of a compromise clause and it is this that was adopted. This clause was so plain and so 'innocuous* that it merely b o u n d the parties to be n o n - c o m b a t a n t s

245

and

to undertake not to do 'certain things, none of which any civilised State would be expected to d o anyway',

246

for example, murder, torture and the

mutilation of prisoners and of non-combatants. As a result the basic and elementary safeguards of c o m m o n article 3 are applicable to internal conflict when such a conflict has reached certain p r o p o r t i o n s .

247

In spite of the modest ambitions of c o m m o n article 3 States have still attempted to evade application of this article, claiming that a conflict did not fall within its ambit but instead constitutes a mere 'police action*. This was, for a time the position with regard to Algeria,

248

although the ICRC

held that, by allowing Red Cross missions to visit Algeria, France had agreed that article 3 was applicable.

249

In situations where it has not been clear, at least not to all parties, as to whether there was an international situation in which the Geneva Conven­ tions, as a whole, applied to a contracting party, article 3 has retained its 2 4 3

244

2 4 5

2 4 6

2 4 7

2 4 9

Cf. above, Ch. l , D i a . Joint Committee, Report to the Plenary Assembly, Final Record, ii, B. 128. Cf. above, Ch. 4, C, on qualifications for combatants. Common article 3 was drafted at a time when the criteria for combatant status were more stringent and the expression 'non-combat­ ant', possibly covering guerilla forces, must be interpreted in that light. R. T. Yingling and R. W. Ginnane, 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', 46 A//L, 1952, 393. Cf. ibid., 395-6. Farer, 'The humanitarian laws of war in civil strife', 30. ICRC, ICRC and the Algerian Conflict, 1962, 4. 2 4 8

GENERAL

202

PRINCIPLES

importance. For example, in the Congo Leopoldville made declarations of succession to the 1949 Geneva Conventions in February 1 9 6 1 ,

250

but it

regarded Katanga forces as rebels. But the central government was still obliged to apply article 3. Katanga, on the other hand, did not apply to accede to the Geneva Conventions at that stage but declared itself willing to adhere to principles recognised by all countries, presumably covering similar ground as c o m m o n article 3 .

2 5 1

In m a n y cases the U N General Assembly appealed for a certain standard of treatment for those involved in liberation wars to ensure that they were given some protection above the rudimentary provisions of c o m m o n article 3. The General Assembly thus asked France to give the status of 'political prisoners' to Algerian captives in France as they were not entitled to prisoner of war status under the Geneva Conventions.

252

The concern of the United

Nations for the victims of war was such that repeated calls on all parties to give prisoner of war status to freedom fighters have been made by the General Assembly.

253

Similar calls have been made on Israel but this State

still refuses to give prisoner of war status to captured PLO combatants.

254

g. Analysis of provisions of Protocol II of 1977 (1) General background

At the Conference for negotiation of the 1977

Protocols there was m u c h discussion about which rules should apply in internal conflict. An ambitious project to adopt an extensive, detailed set of rules for governing internal conflicts which are not liberation wars covered by Protocol I of 1977 failed, largely due to a swift intervention by Pakistan.

255

Pakistan had been 'concerned' about a lengthy text which

ventured into the reserved domain of States. Other Third World States soon became convinced that any such regulation of internal conflicts inside their national territories would infringe their rights of sovereignty and self-determination. The developing States were quite content to have liberation wars sub­ sumed under Protocol I but felt that any other internal conflicts should not 2 5 0

2 5 2

2 5 3

2 5 4

2 5 5

251

Schindler and Toman, Documents, 479. 43 RICR 1961, 140. Res. 1650 (XVI) of 1961. Cf. Resolutions 2395(XXIII) 1968; 2547 A (XXIV) 1969; 2207 (XXV) 1970; 2795 (XXVI) 1971; 2918 (XXVII) 1972 and 3113 (XXVIII) of 1973. Resolutions 2395 (XXIII); 2547 (XXIV) of 1969; 2270 (XXV) of 1970; 2795 (XXVI) of 1971; 2918 (XXVII) of 1972 and 3113 (XXVIII) of 1973. E.g., PLO Observer. A/C.6/37/SR, 195, para. 18. CDDH/427 and Corr. 1; Cf. CDDH/I/SR.23, 58, vol. 8, 225.

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E L A W OF

203

WAR

be regulated by any international documents, at least not in any detail, for any such regime would be 'tantamount to interference with sovereign rights\

256

Some even claimed that it is a 'sovereign right' of every State 'to

deal with rebel movements within its territories in any m a n n e r it deems 257

fit'.

Not all Third World States were hostile to Protocol I I

258

but they were

certainly in a great majority. All such countries may have unstable govern­ ments which need consolidation and they appeared worried that Protocol II, in spite of its reassurances that it does not affect the rules on n o n ­ intervention,

259

would entitle other States to interfere in their domestic

affairs. They would, in this context, care little about the treatment of individuals in their territories. O n the other hand, European States who had suffered the plight of civil wars became the staunchest supporters of Protocol I I .

260

However, the discussion at the Conference shows that the developing countries, largely under pressure from Pakistan

261

and I n d i a ,

262

found that

many humanitarian rules of the proposed Protocol II were unacceptable to them as the implementation of such rules would be in direct conflict with their right of self-determination, in the sense of a right to behave as they wish within their own territory. Many States claimed that the legislation of States is so advanced that any protection under Protocol II would be 'unnecessary*. Thus, the Indian delegate claimed that 'the Indian delegation does not need any lessons or lectures in humanitarianism from anyone. In fact, all provisions of Proto­ col II are, in one form or the other, embodied in the national laws of [India]'. The Protocol would be unacceptable also because it interfered with the reserved domain. Thus, 'the provisions of Protocol II will only militate against the sovereignty of States and will interfere in their domestic affairs. The internal law and order situations are the sole concern of sovereign States and these problems are to be dealt with according to the domestic laws of the c o u n t r y . ' 2 5 6

2 5 7

2 5 8

2 5 9

2 6 0

261

2 6 3

263

India went on to explain that newly

India, CDDH/I/SR.23.48, vol. 8, 224. Philippines, CDDH/SR.56, Annex 11, vol. 7, 243. See, e.g., Guatemala, ibid., 241. Cf. Egypt which spoke of'selective humanitarianism', CDDH/I/ SR.24, 26 vol. 234. Article 3. Cf., Egypt, CDDH/I/SR.24, vol. 8, 234. Cf. D. P. Forsythe, 'Legal management of internal war', 72 AJIL 1978, 294-5. CDDG/427 and Corr. 1. CDDH/SR.49, vol. 7, 80-1. India, CDDH/SR.49, vol. 7, 78. 2 6 2

204

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

independent countries which are endeavouring to consolidate their sover­ eignty are 'jealous of their sovereignty and will guard against any action which might constitute an interference in their internal affairs under whatever form or guise' particularly as developing countries, to some extent, are vulnerable victims of pressure by the superpowers. Third World countries 'are aware of the powerful means of communication and propa­ ganda which the powerful countries of the world possess. The developing countries cannot rule out the possible misuse of Protocol II in this ideologi­ cally divided w o r l d ' .

264

Some claimed that 'it is incongruous for the inter­

national c o m m u n i t y to play on internal dissensions of sovereign States' and that the Protocol would, in fact, provide 'opportunity for misinterpretation in countries endeavouring to consolidate their political and territorial sovereignty and this would accentuate such dissensions'.

265

In this context

it may be important to underline that attitudes to intervention have changed in recent years, at least with regard to humanitarian intervention. It may be that the 'illegal area' has become increasingly smaller and that now only interventions to assist unrepresentative rebels or unrepresen­ tative governments, or just to preserve one territorial unit of a State, are prohibited.

266

Those categorically against unilateral intervention are now in

a pronounced m i n o r i t y

267

while others claim that the international legal

system, in this respect, has c h a n g e d . It has been d e m o n s t r a t e d with a i d .

270

269

268

that intervention often furnishes rebel forces

For these reasons, one must be wary of any misuse of such

intervention. However, it is quite possible to support the uniform humanitarian regulation of internal armed conflicts without condoning any such inter­ vention efforts by third States. There are obvious and compelling reasons for affording similar protec­ tion to victims of international armed conflicts, liberation wars and inter­ nal conflicts such as civil war. There is certainly no logical reason for the introduction of a differentiated humanitarian regime for the two types of 2 6 4

2 6 6

2 6 7

2 6 6

2 6 9

2 6 5

Ibid., 81. Ghana, CDDH/SR.49, vol. 7, 80. R. Higgins, 'International law and civil conflict', in E. Luard, (ed.), International Regulation of Civil Wars, London, 1972, and in C. Black and R. Falk, (eds.), The Future of the International Legal Order, Princeton, 1971, 81. I. Brownlie, 'Humanitarian intervention', in J. N. Moore, (ed.), Civil War in the Modern World, Baltimore, 1974,217. R. B. Lillich, 'A reply to Ian Brownlie and a plea for constructive alternatives', ibid., 229. Above, Ch. 2, A iii c. See above, Ch. 2, A iii e. 2 7 0

SPATIAL APPLICATION

OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

205

conflict covered by the Protocols, for liberation wars (and international armed conflicts) covered by Protocol I and for armed conflict and civil wars covered by Protocol I I .

271

H o w could humanitarian rules be denied

to one type of conflict? Some thought that 'Public opinion would be astonished at such d i s c r i m i n a t i o n /

272

(2) The ambit of article 1 According to article 1(1) of Protocol II the few humanitarian rules that remain in the final version will apply to conflicts in the territories of the contracting parties between the armed forces of such parties and 'dissident armed forces or other organised armed groups which, under responsible c o m m a n d , exercise such control over a part of its territory as to enable them to carry out sustained and concerted military operations and to implement this Protocol/ Such a text naturally evokes many problems of interpretation, as does Protocol I with its references to liberation w a r s .

273

One problem is how to distinguish internal conflicts

covered by Protocol II from those covered by Protocol I. O n e would at least have expected an exclusion clause in the second Protocol, referring to the conflicts covered by Protocol I, to avoid duplication of rules for liberation movements.

274

The distinction is important as substantially higher protec­

tion is enjoyed under Protocol I. A further problem in Protocol II is to determine, m o r e particularly, when riots, tensions and 'sporadic acts of violence* exempted from the field of application of the second section of article 1, have developed so as to constitute armed conflicts under the first part of the article. Third World States, supported by the socialist bloc, were responsible for raising the threshold of application of the Protocol. The Protocol is thus not activated until dissident forces control a part of the territory. But such a notion is relative

275

and it is therefore not clear when the Protocol will enter

into force in a particular conflict. Some even understood the requirement of territorial control to imply an encouragement to further fighting: such a requirement would be 'dangerous* as such determination is likely to heighten the risks and suffering of the p o p u l a t i o n .

276

Other concepts are also hazy: who will determine whether forces are 'under responsible command* or what constitutes 'sustained* military 271

274

2 7 5

2 7 6

2 7 2

2 7 3

Cf. Austria, CDDH/I/SR.23, vol. 8, 216. Ibid. Australia, CDDH/I/SR.23, vol. 8, 219. Cf. Forsythe, 'The legal management of internal war', 286. United Republic of Cameroon, CDDH/SR.49, vol. 7, 84.

Above, Ch. 6, B i b.

206

GENERAL

operations?

277

PRINCIPLES

Some suggested that the government side should expressly

re-accept the Protocol in any concrete situation.

278

Numerous States

claimed that only the State in whose territory the conflict takes place can decide on whether the conditions mentioned in article 1(1) are fulfilled.

279

Many States were thus concerned that the actual application of Protocol II would not be entirely in their hands but automatically enter into application; such automatic activation of the Protocol could not be toler­ ated in the opinion of these States. For example, Argentina sponsored article 1(4) of Protocol I

2 8 0

which, it stated, recognised the 'final liquida­

tion' of the colonial era, emphasising that international society has a 'duty' to protect those who take part in liberation struggles by applying humani­ tarian rules of the 1949 Conventions and the Protocol.

281

However, when it

came to Protocol II Argentina could not support the regulation as the Protocol provided n o safeguard clause providing for, in each case, whether the conditions for application have been m e t .

282

Others were worried about

whether conditions would not be assessed by government or dissident forces but by third States and in this way violate the principle of non­ intervention.

283

Some delegates considered that the level at which the Protocol would enter into effect would be related to the level of organisation at which the dissident forces were able to implement the Protocol on their p a r t .

284

However, such a reference would seem only to complicate matters further: the Protocol would appear apt to be implemented by anyone at any time, provided the factual situation had arisen which warranted a decision on how to treat individuals covered by the Protocol. The threshold of application, especially with regard to control of terri­ tory, may well be unrealistic in view of the tactics of modern guerilla warfare which involves great mobility which means that there is continuous change of territorial c o n t r o l .

285

Some delegates found that because of the

way the text was phrased, Protocol II would really only apply to full-scale civil w a r .

286

However, many lower levels of violence would be excluded

although terrorist attacks and kidnapping, which often form part of the 2 7 7

2 7 9

2 8 0

2 8 3

2 8 5

2 7 8

Colombia, CDDH/SR.49, vol. 7, 78. See Brazil, CDDH/I/SR.29, vol. 8, 286. E.g. Chile, CDDH/SR.47, vol. 7, 232; Colombia, ibid., 77-8; Ecuador, ibid., 79; Philippines, ibid., 83; Tanzania, ibid., 84. Above, Ch. 6, B i e. CDDH/SR.36, vol. 6, 50. CDDH/SR.49, vol. 7, 75. Brazil, CDDH/SR.49, vol. 7, 76. Canada, CDDH/SR.49, vol. 7, 77. Cf. Egypt, CDDH/I/SR.24, vol. 8, 235. Australia, CDDH/I/SR.23, 22, vol. 8, 219. 281

2 8 2

2 8 4

2 8 6

SPATIAL APPLICATION

pattern of certain warfare,

287

OF T H E L A W

OF

WAR

207

are specifically prohibited by the P r o t o c o l .

288

Such prohibitions are of importance as they often save civilians who are not taking part in hostilities

289

and they also constitute an important limit to a

special type of warfare. But it is not only the acts which should not be perpetrated by insurgents that are relevant for the application of Protocol II but also, and perhaps more so, the treatment of individuals once they are taken by the other s i d e .

290

The ambit of article 1 thus raises n u m e r o u s questions, many of which are not possible to answer in objective terms, but which, on the other hand, may be fairly self-evident in practical terms in each individual case. 2 8 7

2 8 9

2 8 8

Cf. Forsythe, 'Legal management of internal war', 293. Article 4. See below, Ch. 9, B i. See further below, Ch. 9, B iii g on detainees. 2 9 0

P A R T II

Rules on Belligerence

7

Restrictions on weapons

A. The ambit of relevant rules i. W e a p o n s a n d m e t h o d s Suffering in war can be reduced by prohibiting certain weapons or regula­ ting their use and, secondly, by forbidding certain ways weapons are used and prohibiting specific methods of warfare. In this section we shall deal with prohibitions with regard to weapons. Later, we shall consider restric­ tions of methods.

ii. T h e historical b a c k g r o u n d Treaties on weapons have developed in the light of the basic ethical 1

2

principles of warfare. Thus, the St Petersburg Declaration of 1868 forbid­ ding certain types of a m m u n i t i o n was primarily designed to avoid unnec­ essary suffering. It was followed by other instruments recognising similar 3

4

principles, such as the Declaration of 1874. This Declaration states that 'the laws of war do not recognise to belligerents an unlimited power in the adopting of means of injuring the enemy.' The 1899 Hague Conventions further emphasised this principle. The first of the 1899 Conventions sought to encourage States not to resort to 5

war. A 'Declaration', fulfilling all the characteristics of a treaty, was also enacted at the 1899 Conference. By this document contracting Parties undertook, on the understanding that the provisions would only apply in 1

3

4

5

2

Above Ch. 5, A and C v. 18 NRGT 474. 4 NRGT 2 série 219; BFSP 1873^1, 4 1005; cf. 'The laws of war on land', Institut de droit international, Annuaire, 1881-2, 156 (the Oxford Manual). Article 12. International Convention I for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, 26 NRGT, 2 série, 920; but Hague Convention II regulates the very conduct of war. International Convention II with Respect to the Laws and Conduct of War by Land, 26 NRGT, 2 série, 949. 211

212

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

wars in which all the participants were contracting parties, to refrain from 6

the use of certain gases and certain ammunition, so-called ' d u m - d u m ' bullets.

7

8

The Hague Conventions of 1907 were also inspired by the thought that it was important to prevent unnecessary suffering in war. Most of 9

the 1907 Conventions regulate methods of warfare and have been, or will be, discussed in other contexts. But at least two Conventions of 1907 have m o r e weapons in mind. Thus, Convention VIII Relative to the Laying of Contact M i n e s

10

regulates the use of naval mines. Furthermore,

Hague XIV Prohibiting the Discharge of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons

11

at least attempted to regulate the use of bombs discharged

from the air.

12

The rules laid down in Convention VIII on Naval Mines

are still applicable today and probably enunciate general rules of interna­ tional law.

13

Rules on b o m b a r d m e n t , on the other hand, are more akin

to other rules on methods and will be discussed in that context.

14

Con­

ventional types of b o m b are not forbidden as weapons by international law, but they can still be used in a prohibited manner, for example by area b o m b i n g .

15

The Washington Conference of 1922 on Limitation of Armaments drafted rules for a Treaty Relating to the Use of Submarine and Noxious 16

Gases in Warfare, but the Treaty never came into force. However, important new rules o n the use of noxious gases were included 17

in the 1925 Geneva Gas Protocol. This Protocol, caused by the practices of the First World War, is an effort to prohibit further certain types of warfare and was invoked in the Iran-Iraq war, as both States were b o u n d by the Protocol.

18

A series of studies was made in the United Nations and two special Conferences on Conventional Weapons were held in Lucerne and Lugano in 1974 and 1976, a further Convention o n Excessively Injurious Conven6

7

8

12

13

15

16

17

18

Declaration I Prohibiting the Use of Asphyxiating Gases, 26 NRGT, 2 série, 998. Declaration II Prohibiting the Use of Expanding Bullets, ibid., 1002. Above, Ch. 5, A. Below, Ch. 8, A ii. NRGT, 3 série, 580. Ibid., 745. See also Hague IX Respecting Bombardments by Naval Forces in Time of War, ibid., 604. Below, in this Chapter, A iii. Below, Ch. 8, A ii. Below, Ch. 8, A iii a. On prohibited unconventional bombs, see below, this Chapter, C ii c. 25 LNTS 202; see further below, in this Chapter, E ii, on biological weapons. Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating Poisonous and Other Gases and of Bacteriological Weapons of Warfare, 94 LNTS 65; it entered into force on 8 February 1928. See further below, in this Chapter, E i c (2). Iran acceded on 5 November 1929 and Iraq on 8 September 1931. 9

10

14

11

RESTRICTIONS

ON

213

WEAPONS

tional Weapons being concluded in 1981.

19

There have been attempts to

draw up further treaties prohibiting certain chemical and bacteriological weapons,

20

and n u m e r o u s declarations in the General Assembly showing 21

concern for 'biological* w e a p o n s and for weapons o f ' m a s s destruction'.

22

Some attempts have resulted in the 1977 Convention on the Prohibition of 23

Environmental Techniques. The basic principle of the Law of War, which provides that the choice of methods or weapons of warfare is not unlimited, 24

is a rule which has been reinforced by Protocol I of 1977, as have the rules which forbid weapons which are of a nature to cause superfluous suffer25

ing. The Protocol also prohibits weapons which may cause 'widespread, long-term and severe damage' to the natural e n v i r o n m e n t .

26

Apart from obligations arising under specific treaties reducing or controlling the use of certain weapons, parties to Protocol I of 1977 are b o u n d by a general undertaking to verify whether any new weapon and its use will be compatible with the provisions of the 1949 Geneva Conventions and 27

with the Protocol. Some writers have commented that this is a surprising provision in the Protocol in the context of its other articles, as the obligation to consider the use of certain weapons is more to be expected in a disarmament treaty.

28

But surely rules on weapons cannot be separated 29

from what many call 'humanitarian' rules; both sets of rules are designed to improve the conditions of individuals in war. At all times the use of weapons is subjected to the compelling principle of ethics in warfare.

19

2 0

21

22

2 3

24

2 6

28

2 9

3 0

30

Convention on Prohibitions on Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which may be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects, 19 JLM, 1523; the Convention, and its Protocols, prohibit certain weapons which cause non-detectable fragments (Protocol II) or which are incendiary, (Protocol III). Another Protocol deals with certain prohibited mines and booby-traps (Protocol III). See in extenso, below, in this Chapter, Bi. See Report by the Secretary General, 1969, A/7575 Rev. 1, S/9292 Rev. 1, and the Conferences in Lucerne and Lugano, see below, in this Chapter, B i. E.g. Resolution 3465(XXX) and 2936 (XXVII). Cf. Report by the Secretary General A/7575 Rev. 1, S/9292, Rev. 1, 1969. E.g. Res. 3479 (XXX). See further, below, in this Chapter, B i. Convention on the Prohibition of Military and Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, ILM, 1977, 88. Article 35. Article 35(2). Cf. above, Ch. 5, C v. Article 35(3) and above, Ch.3, C iii a. Article 36. P. Bretton, 'Le problème des "méthodes et moyens de guerre ou de combat" dans les Protocols additionels aux Convention de Genève du 12 août 1949', RGDIP, 1978,61. See below, Ch. 9, A, on the meaning of the term 'humanitarian rules' and above, Ch. 3, C iii on the questionable distinction between arms control, disarmament and the Law of War. Above, Ch. 5, C v. 25

2 7

RULES ON

214

BELLIGERENCE

B. Conventional w e a p o n s i. T h e m e a n i n g of conventional weapons 'Conventional'

31

weapons have been said to be all weapons which are not

'dealt' with in 'other contexts', i.e. they do not include nuclear, chemical and biological weapons, radiological weapons and other weapons of mass 32

destruction. The Resolution of the United Commission for Conventional Disarmament stated to the Security Council that the Commission would cover 'all a r m a m e n t and armed forces, except atomic weapons and weapons of mass destruction'.

33

Such definitions are obviously unsatisfactory, relying as they do on non-areas which are in t u r n unclear. For the Aristotelian method of defining A by reference to non-A obviously only works if non-A is fairly clear. Yet, there is a hazy area of weapons of 'mass destruction'

34

against

which conventional weapons can be set, at least as a working hypothesis. 'New' weapons need not necessarily be weapons of'mass destruction'. For example, laser-guided, particle beam or other directed energy weapons are considered, by relevant expert bodies, as 'conventional weapons'.

35

ii. T h e 1981 W e a p o n r y C o n v e n t i o n a. The Lucerne and Lugano

Conferences

The General Assembly of the United Nations requested the Secretary General in 1972 by Resolution 3032 (XXVII) to make a specific survey of existing rules on the restrictions of specific weapons. The R e p o r t some basis for further discussions among experts.

36

formed

37

Following the International Conference o n Reaffirmation and Develop­ ment of International Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflict in 1972, two important specialist Conferences were held to consider the use of certain conventional weapons. At the request of Resolution XIV of the XXth International Conference of the ICRC in Teheran in 1976, a Conference of Government Experts was held in Lucerne in 1974 on Weapons that May Cause Unnecessary Suffering or Have Indiscriminate Effects. A second 31

Cf. note 1 to Ch. 3, above, for the various meanings of the term and the significance attributed to it in the Law of War.

3 2

UN, Group of Experts, A/39/349, 1985, 6. S/C3/32/Rev.l, 1948. Below, in this Chapter, C. United Nations, Group of Experts, A/39/349, 1985, 7. A/9215, vols. 1 and 2. Cf. General Assembly Resolution 3319 (XXIX) 1974.

34

36

3 3

3 5

37

RESTRICTIONS

ON

215

WEAPONS

Conference of Government Experts was convened by the ICRC under the decision on follow-up of the Lucerne Conference

38

and was specifically

endorsed by the ad hoc Committee of the Second Session of the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International H u ­ 39

manitarian Law in Armed Conflict in 1975. The second Conference of Government Experts was held in Lugano in 1976. The General Assembly of the United Nations decided on a follow-up of the Diplomatic Conference of 1977 and agreed by Resolution 32/152 to convene a Conference in 1979 on Conventional Weapons and, in advance of delegates meeting, a Preparatory Conference. Following the main Conference which produced the 1981 Conventional Weapons Conventions, there has been great interest on the part of the General Assembly in promoting further research in the conventional arms area.

40

h. The structure of the

Convention

A Convention on Prohibition and Restriction of the Use of Certain Con­ ventional Weapons that Cause Unnecessary Suffering or Have Indiscrimi­ nate Effects, together with three Protocols, was eventually concluded in 1981.

41

The Convention itself is of a formal character and contains only

provisions on entry into force, dissolution and review Conferences, whereas substantive provisions are relegated to the three separate Protocols. The Conventional Weapons Convention, normally called the Weaponry Con­ vention, provides for an interesting mechanism of indirect obligation.

c. The mechanism

of indirect

obligation

The commentary to the Convention suggests that the principle of reciproc­ ity has been adopted in the provisions. Thus, a State is only b o u n d vis-a-vis 42

another party which accepts and applies the Convention. But the wording adopted does not provide for such reciprocity. 38

4 0

41

43

3 9

43

The question of factual

lucerne Report, 1975, Para. 282, p. 79. CDDH, 2nd sess/220 Rev.l, para. 56ff. See Res. 36/97 A 1981 on the establishment of a special Group of Experts on Conventional Weapons; cf. Res. 35/156 1980; see also Res. 38/188 A 1983 whereby the General Assembly requested the Group to continue its study; cf. United Nations, Guidelines for the Study of Conventional Disarmament, GAORT, 12th Spec, sess., Suppl. No.3, A/S-12/3. Annex III, 1982; Group of Experts, A/39/348, 1985. 19 JIM 1523. A/AC.206/10, p. 22; cf. article 7(2) and 7(4). See further below, Ch. 12, B ii. 4 2

216

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

application will add some vagueness to the obligations as it is difficult to ascertain implementation in casu of such rules. It would even seem that if a third party enters the conflict the original disputing parties will be bound between themselves even if the third party is not b o u n d .

44

In this area the

Convention itself is of great importance and presents a great landmark in international law. The mechanism by which a party is b o u n d is not only the 45

traditional signature and/or ratification p r o c e d u r e but by what we call in this work 'indirect obligation': if a State is not a party to Protocol I of 1977 and an 'authority' (for example, a liberation movement or a 'nation' forming part of an established State)

46

'accepts' and 'applies' the obliga­

tions of the Geneva Conventions and the Weaponry Convention, then the Geneva Convention and the Weaponry Convention, together with the 'relevant' Protocols, are brought into force at o n c e .

47

There is not even a

provision that the relevant State should itself be a party to the Geneva Conventions. N o r is there any provision that all Protocols have been adhered to by that State: by the wording any relevant Protocol will come into effect by the declaration of the liberation movement, 'nation' or other 'authority'. Furthermore, according to the literal wording of the Convention,

48

the

Geneva Conventions and the Weaponry Convention (with 'relevant' Pro­ tocols) comes into force for all parties to a dispute which means that even third States will be b o u n d in this indirect way.

d. Protocol I on Fragmentation

Weapons

Fragmentation weapons usually produce a symmetrical pattern of frag­ ments, with high velocity impact, around the bursting munition, or some­ times along a linear trajectory, especially in the case of anti-personnel mines.

49

The prohibitions of the Protocol are aimed at those weapons

which produce fragments which are not detectable by X-ray, thus making medical assistance difficult, or those which create fragments which contain toxic substances such as u r a n i u m or zinc. 4 4

4

Article 7(1). * See further, my International Legal Order, 197fT, my Essays, 15fT and, on an acte condition, my Concept, 2nd edn, 82ff. As under Protocol I of 1977, article 96(3); above, Ch. 6, B i d. Article 7(4)(b)(i) and above, Ch. 6, B i d; cf. below on reciprocity, Ch. 12, B ii. Article 7(4)(b)(iii). SIPRI, The Law of War and Dubious Weapons, Stockholm, 1976, 70-1.

4 6

4 7

4 8

4 9

l

RESTRICTIONS

ON

217

WEAPONS

It is questionable whether military necessity

50

is ever great enough to

outweigh the suffering caused by fragmentation weapons. Many military manuals also prohibit these weapons, for example projectiles filled with glass.

51

A proposal at the Diplomatic Conference was remitted to the Second Conference of Government Experts in Lugano in 1976. Following further negotiations leading u p to the Weaponry Convention in 1981, it was agreed to include a comprehensive prohibition. It was decided to adopt Protocol I, annexed to the Convention, forbidding all weapons whose 'primary' effect it is to injure by fragments which cannot be detected in the h u m a n body, that is to say largely those made of plastic or other material not containing any detectable metal parts. It may be noted that the prohibition in Protocol I to the 1981 Conven­ tion only covers fragmentation weapons 'designed' to cause injury by undetectable fragments but not those which contain fragments, and which, on an incidental basis, may contribute to such fragments entering the h u m a n body. It is, for example, not u n c o m m o n for mines to have plastic casings in order to evade location by metal-seeking mine detectors.

52

Although mines are thus often made nowadays with plastic components or casings, they are not covered by the Protocol.

53

Nor does the Protocol cover fragmentation weapons whose fragmenta­ tions are detectable, such as steel fléchette weapons.

54

Fléchettes, small

arrows or needles, also hit their target with high velocity and d o not kill but cause multiple injuries and a very high degree of pain. Some of these weapons are constructed with cluster warheads or other devices with many bomblets.

55

Such weapons tend to be indiscriminate in their effect over a

large area and they also tend to cause m u c h unnecessary suffering by dispersal of tiny fragments.

56

'Fléchettes' can be used in a m m u n i t i o n for

rifles but are more c o m m o n in warheads.

50

53

54

55

56

51

52

Cf. below, Ch. 12, B i a. Lugano Report, 204. A/AC.206/10, 1981, 4. Report of the Diplomatic Conference, vol. 16, 526. But see below, in this Chapter, iii, on the 1997 Landmine Convention. Cf. GAOR, 33rd sess., Suppl. no. 44, A/33/44, Annex, ss. F and G. On cluster bombs with numerous bomblets, BLU (bomb live units), see M. Krepon, 'Weapons potentially inhuman: the case of cluster bombs', in R. Falk, (ed.) 4 The Vietnam War and International Law, Princeton, 1976, 266. Lugano Report, 204; cf. Lucerne Report, 49-61.

218

r u l e s

o n

b e l l i g e r e n c e

e. Protocol II on Treacherous

Weapons

There was considerable interest in landmines in the 1960s and 1970s due to the fact that booby-traps and similar contraptions constitute a favourite weapon of terrorists.

57

There is n o doubt that these terrorist practices

explain why Protocol II to the 1981 Convention was adopted.

58

Landmines have, until the last decade, been held to be permissible under the Law of War as a defensive weapon. As an offensive weapon, the landmine has long been considered indiscriminate, liable to kill civilians and other protected persons as well as combatants and therefore might be prohibited as weapons for use by advancing forces. The main reason for condemning certain mines is, indeed, that they are indiscriminate by nature. If a house is mined or booby-trapped by a retiring army, the victims may not necessarily be enemy forces but the returning inhabitants.

59

Thus, the basic criterion for the legality of mines is that of

discrimination. If mines can be designed to be aimed at the enemy, distinguishing between the enemy and civilians, as between enemy war­ ships and merchantmen, for example, then there is no reason why mines should not be allowed as m u c h as other conventional weapons which target soldiers. New rules for landmines had been proposed as early as the ICRC Draft 60

Rules of 1956. There had been further interest in them by the ICRC.

61

At the end of the 1980s, States became, with some notable exceptions, less concerned with terrorists than with the increasing number of muti­ lated civilians in the aftermath of wars and armed conflicts, especially in the Third World. A changed perception of the importance of sparing civilians and especially children in armed conflicts, coupled with an enor­ mous increase in the use of anti-personnel landmines (APMs), contrib­ uted to the insistence that the use of landmines was outlawed. Attempts to limit the use of landmines through the revision of Protocol II on Treacherous Weapons of the 1981 Convention proved politically difficult and failed to produce any substantive progress. However, at the Review 57

58

s v

6 0

61

Cf. above, Ch. 1, B iii c on terrorism, and D iv on terrorist warfare. B. M. Carnahan, T h e law of land mine warfare, Protocol II to the UN Convention', 105 MilLR, 1984, 73 at 75. Greenspan, The Modern Law of Land Warfare, 367. Articles 14-15. Draft Rules for the Limitation of the Dangers Incurred by the Civilian Popula­ tion in Time of War, Schindler and Toman, Documents, 2nd edn, 1981,187. See Res. XIII at the Istanbul Conference of 1969; cf. Res. XIV at the Teheran Conference in 1973.

RESTRICTIONS

ON

219

WEAPONS

Conference in 1995, there proved to be widespread support for a total ban on anti-personnel landmines.

62

The Protocol was then amended to in­

clude internal war in its prohibitions. Furthermore, the revised Protocol now stipulates that all mines must be made detectable and fitted with selfdestructive and self de-activating mechanisms and that there must be an indication of the precise location of remotely controlled m i n e s .

63

However, as the Mine Protocol was still considered to be not sufficiently far-reaching, as there it contained no outright ban o n the production or transfer of landmines, a n u m b e r of States and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), largely led by the Canadian government, spear­ headed work on a separate Convention, the Ottawa Convention of 1997, which will be discussed later.

64

(1) General provisions Protocol II to the 1981 Weaponry Convention defines mines as 'munitions placed under, on or near the ground or other surface area and designed to be detonated or exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a person or vehicle'; and a 'remotely delivered mine' is defined as any mine so delivered by artillery, rocket, mortar or similar means or dropped from an aircraft'.

65

This definition covers only

landmines; the Protocol specifically excludes anti-ship mines laid at sea or in inland waterways.

66

The Mine Protocol attempts to protect 'civilians', including UN mission 67

and peace-keeping forces, but does not define this term. Some c o m m e n ­ 68

tators assume an automatic reference to Protocol I of 1977 where 'civil­ ians' are defined

69

as anyone who is not a m e m b e r of the armed forces. But

in view of the considerable difficulties of defining precisely the term 'member of the armed forces' we are not any wiser even if such crossreference is allowed by implication. The notion of 'combatants' is, as has been demonstrated

70

a highly controversial and fluctuating term, as con­

versely, is the concept of 'civilians'. Bearing in mind the recurring problems of the notions 'combatants' and 'civilians', the ambit of Protocol II to the Weaponry Convention provides certain restrictions on landmine warfare. 62

6 3

6 4

6 7

6 9

Final Report of the Review Conference, 1995. In 'all disturbances'. See the separate negotiations for amendment of Protocol II, Final Report of the Review Conference, 1996. See below in this Chapter, in the next section iii. Article 2. Article 1. Cf. above, Ch. 3, C vii. Carnahan, 'Land mine warfare', at 76. See Protocol I of 1977, article 50. Above, Ch. 4, C. 6 5

6 8

7 0

6 6

220

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

As has been mentioned, the use of anti-personnel mines is a c o m m o n way of impeding the advances of an enemy in specific territory. The Protocol stipulates that n o mines or booby traps may be used against civilians.

71

However, it is clear that mines cannot distinguish between

invading soldiers and children and other civilians approaching a mine­ field. The Protocol prohibits the indiscriminate use of mines and defines 'indiscriminate use' as any placing of weapons which is not directed against a military objective; or which uses a method of delivery which cannot be directed against a specific military target; or which may be effected to cause incidental loss of life of civilians, or injury to civilians

72

or damage of

civilian property or a combination thereof, provided finally that such injury (or damage) is excessive in relation to the direct military advantage anticipated.

73

The article thus introduces several subjective tests whether conjunctive or successive. W h o is to decide whether there is 'direct* military advantage? First, the opinions of the attacker and of the attacked in this matter may not necessarily coincide. Secondly, it is not even the imminent military advan­ tage which is regarded as material, but only the 'anticipated' military advantage. Are there any time limits or any organic connection of any other form linking the subjective assessment of'military advantage' to a point in time near to action or can it also cover advantage which will accrue later? These questions appear to be pertinent but do not seem to have attracted m u c h attention either at the Conference or by writers. (2) Remotely delivered mines At the Lucerne Conference it had been sug­ gested that what were then called 'scatterable' mines would be covered by a future Convention. Such mines were later renamed 'remotely delivered mines', i.e. those which are delivered at long range by aircraft, guns, rockets or m o r t a r .

74

Indiscriminate injuries to civilians may be caused by

remotely delivered mines, which are often laid in very large numbers by aircraft. There are several hazards connected with such a practice: the limits of the minefield will be uncertain for n o actual soldiers will have been there to demarcate it. Furthermore, there will inevitably be indis­ criminate injuries to civilians and combatants alike if the mines remain

71

7 3

Article 3(2). Article 3(4).

7 2

74

Note that UN forces are specially protected under the Protocol: see article 8. Lugano Report, 50.

RESTRICTIONS

ON

221

WEAPONS

after the end of hostilities and are not equipped with self-destruction devices. At the Lugano Conference it was suggested

75

that all minefields

with more than twenty mines should be recorded as was already the case in most armies with regard to manually delivered mines. The final compromise understanding reached at the Weaponry Confer­ ence between those who wanted to forbid remotely delivered mines and those who advocated their permissibility, was that the general restrictions on warfare should apply to such m i n e s .

76

This meant that the provisions

of Protocol I of 1977 would, mutatis mutandis,

apply for example, with

respect to advance warning of attacks that might affect civilians.

77

It is

indicated that 'long range' means a distance greater than 2,000 metres; mines within that distance are equated to 'manually' delivered m i n e s .

78

The conditions which make such mines permissible are that they are fitted with neutralising devices or they are delivered within a distinctly 79

marked field.

But the provisions in Protocol II to the Weaponry C o n v e n t i o n

80

that

remotely delivered mines may not be used in towns or other places of civilian population is limited by the clause providing for an exception concerning imminent ground combat. Another exception, which also undermines the legal content of the Protocol, concerns the authorised use of mines if a party finds itself in 'close vicinity' of a military objective of the other party. Finally, a third exception is designed to cover the case where civilians have been adequately 'warned'. (3) Booby-traps

81

Booby-traps are defined as 'any device or material which

is designed, constructed or adapted to kill or injure and which functions unexpectedly when a person distributes or approaches an apparent h a r m ­ 82

less object or performs an apparently safe act'. It may not always be easy to distinguish between booby-traps and other mines b u t the Protocol p r o ­ vides, however, for special and 'unconditional' prohibition of certain so called 'perfidious' booby-traps. By such booby-traps one usually under75

76

77

78

79

8 0

Lugano Report, 50. Report of the Committee of the Whole, A/CONF/95/11, 1980/2; cf. Lugano Report, 20. See article 37(2) of Protocol I of 1977 and below, Ch. 8, A iii (1). Protocol II, articles 2( 1), 3, 5. Lugano Report, 50-1; see COLU/203 on the distinction between anti-tank and anti-personnel mine-fields. Articled Article4(2)(b). Article 2. 81

8 2

222

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

stands explosive devices concealed in innocuous objects like children's toys or in connection with protective emblems.

83

Many such devices may

already be forbidden under article 23 of the Hague Regulations.

84

Protocol II distinguishes between booby-traps which are specifically 85

treacherous or perfidious and those which are designed to cause superflu­ ous injury or unnecessary suffering.

86

The first group is subdivided into

devices which are 'prefabricated' and encased in harmless objects and those which are attached or associated with protective emblems, signs or sig­ 87

nals. Other types of booby-traps are only allowed if 'due precautions are taken to protect civilians' as such devices expose civilians to particular risks.

88

(4) Delayed action devices Other devices which are remotely or automati­ cally detonated by delayed action pose special dangers to civilians and are prohibited by the Protocol unless special provisions are taken to safeguard civilians from their effects. (5) Recording of minefields

89

The Protocol provides that all 'preplanned'

mine-fields are to be recorded

90

and parties must 'attempt' to record other

mine-fields as well. But the term 'preplanned' is not defined. (6) Remnants

91

of mines General Assembly Resolution 36/71 emphasised

the hazards posed by 'material remnants' of war, especially by mines. Libya proposed this Resolution in the Assembly as that country had had the experience of n u m e r o u s casualties caused by mines left after the Second World W a r .

92

Protocol II of 1981 consequently incorporates a provision for

such cases. The Protocol provides for agreements after hostilities with other States and with organisations for information and technical assistance to

8 3

8 4

8 7

8 8

8 9

9 0

91

9 2

See the list of examples in Protocol II to the 1981 Weaponry Convention, article 6(1 )(b); cf. Annex I of Protocol I of 1977, for a list of protective signs and signals. Article 23(e); cf. below, Ch. 8, A iv d on ruses. Article 6( 1). Article 6(2). Cf. article 35(2) of Protocol I of 1977 and below, Ch. 8, A iv d on perfidy. Articles 6, 3 and 4. See, Lugano Report, 51 and COLU/ 203, 214-5, 219; cf. COLU/206 on a proposal to forbid the camouflage of devices among the civilian population. Article 4. Cf. Lugano Report, 51. Cf. COLU/213 and CDDH/IV/201 proposing a total ban. Article 7(1). It is uncertain whether the term 'preplanned' implies any more planning than the word 'planned': T. Glynn, 'Land Mine Warfare', Lecture at British Institute of International Law, 27 July 1985. Working Group, 1980,6. 8 5

8 6

RESTRICTIONS

ON

223

WEAPONS

remove or neutralise mines and booby-traps emplaced during a conflict. This is already c o m m o n practice and there have been n u m e r o u s agree­ 93

ments to dispose or reduce the risks of m i n e s . The Protocol provides for information to be pooled to the Secretary General of the United N a t i o n s

94

and this may be a useful coordinating system to safeguard all persons after the end of hostilities. The obligation to supply information is the only substantive provision in this part of the Protocol for agreements 'to be made' are naturally not more than pacta de contrahendo and the Protocol does nothing more in that respect than encouraging, and perhaps provid­ ing a framework for, such agreements. But the provision on information gave rise to ample discussion as the Protocol, in that part, entailed a legal duty. Under the original p r o p o s a l

95

an occupied, but not an occupying, force would be required to supply information although mine-fields laid by the occupied party might have 1

constituted the only defensive means of'counterbalancing the occupation. The final text provides that disclosure of information is mandatory only in cases where the forces of neither party are in the territory of the adverse party.

96

There is a technical Annex to Protocol II on Treacherous Weapons with guidelines. However, this Annex is merely explanatory and non-binding and entails no legal obligations.

/

Protocol III on Incendiary

Weapons

There were some early attempts to outlaw certain incendiary weapons. Flame-throwers were partially forbidden in several Peace Treaties after the First World W a r ,

97

but were used extensively in the Second World War.

The Geneva Conference in 1932-3 provided for the prohibition of 98

incendiary weapons along with chemical and biological w e a p o n s in plans for qualitative disarmament.

99

In more recent times, especially in connection with the Vietnam War, there has been further evidence that the massive spread of fire by incendiary weapons is indiscriminate in its effects. Furthermore, injuries resulting 9 3

94

9 7

9 8

E.g. Korea Armistice Treaty, 1953, 4 UNTS 234, article 2; Vietnam Treaty, 1973, 24 UNTS 148, article 5; Egypt-Israel Treaty, 1979, 18 ILM 362, article 6(4) Annex. Article 7(3)(a). A/ASC.206/10, 1981,6. Article 7(3)(a). See the Treaty of St Germain, article 135; Neuilly, article 82; Trianon, article 119 and Sevres, article 176, prohibiting Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary and Turkey from using such weapons. Below, in this Chapter, E. SIPR1, Law of War, 65. 9 5

9 6

9 9

RULES ON

224

BELLIGERENCE

from either direct use of the weapons or from fire caused by them, are intensely painful, requiring assistance by medical resources far beyond the means of most c o u n t r i e s . repeatedly c o n d e m n e d .

101

100

The use of napalm in particular has been

Another new type of incendiary weapon relies on

the release of a thickened pyrophoric agent. The ICRC included prohibition of incendiary weapons in its Draft Rules of 1956 for the Limitation of the Dangers Incurred by Civilian Population in Time of W a r .

102

The ICRC gave the question of these weapons further

attention at several of its Conferences.

103

The International H u m a n Rights

Conference in Teheran in 1968 also gave the matter attention.

104

Incendiary weapons have been defined as those which depend for their effects on the action of incendiary agents; such agents are substances which act through flame and/or heat derived from exothermic chemical reactions, inter alia, normally combustion reactions.

105

There are four broad catego­

ries: metal incendiaries (e.g., magnesium); pyrotechnic (e.g. those igniting when exposed to air); and the oil-based types (e.g. napalm). All weapons based on these types are indiscriminate in their effects and cause injuries which require exceptional medical resources for t r e a t m e n t .

106

At the first session of the Diplomatic Conference in Geneva in 1974 the question of incendiary weapons was discussed in an ad hoc Committee. A proposal by one group of States others.

108

These efforts

109

107

was expanded and supported by

were later supplemented by detailed analysis by

the two Conferences of Government Experts on the use of Certain Conven­ tional Weapons. 1 0 0

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

,0H

109

United Nations, Report by the Secretary General on Napalm and Other Incendiary Weapons and All Aspects of their Possible Use, UN, 1972, A/8803 and E.73.1.3; cf. Replies from Governments, 1972, A/9207. E.g. A/9215; A/9207 Corr.l and Add.l; cf. A/8803/Rev.l, Report of the Secretary General; see also United Nations Secretariat, Report on Existing Rules of International Law Concerning the Prohibition or Restriction of Specific Weapons, A/9215, vols. 1 and 2. Cf. General Assembly Resolutions on incendiary weapons, Resolutions 2444 (XXIII) 1968; 2852 (XXVI) 1971; 2932 A (XXVII), 1972; 3076 (XXVIII) 1973 urging the Diplomatic Conference to reach agreement to forbid napalm; 3255 A-B (XXIX), 1974; 3464(XXX) 1975; 31/64 1976; 33/70 1977; 34/82 1978; 35/153 1979. ICRC, Draft Rules, Geneva, 1956, article 14. See, e.g., Resolution XVII at XXth Conference 1965. See Resolution XXIII of the Conference. United Nations, Report by the Secretary General on Napalm and Other Incendiary Weapons and All Aspects of their Possible Use, 1973. SIPRI, Law of War, 64-5. Austria, Egypt, Mexico, Norway, Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland and Yugoslavia. Algeria, Iran, Ivory Coast, Lebanon, Lesotho, Mali, Mauritania, New Zealand, Tunisia, Tan­ zania, Venezuela and Zaire. CDDH-DT, 1975.

RESTRICTIONS

ON

225

WEAPONS

The Expert Conferences both at L u c e r n e

110

and at L u g a n o

111

suggested

the prohibition of incendiary weapons. (1) General provisions The definition, as suggested by the Lugano Confer­ ence, and adopted by the Protocol, excludes munitions which have second­ ary, or incidental, incendiary effects, such as illuminants, tracers, smoke or signalling systems, for example.

112

Prohibitions, on the other hand, include

those which combine incendiary effect with other destructive effects, inter alia, a 'shaped-charge' effect designed, for example, to pierce a r m o u r or as defence against aircraft.

113

The Protocol thus affects most incendiary

weapons in most circumstances.

114

The Protocol states that it is forbidden, in all circumstances, to make the civilian population per se the object of attacks by incendiary w e a p o n s

115

or

to attack any military objective located within a concentration of civil­ ians.

116

Such attacks may already be forbidden under international l a w

117

but the Protocol usefully goes on to define what 'concentration of civilians' signifies. Such a concept is said to be the permanent or temporary concen­ tration in inhabited parts or cities, towns or villages, camps or columns of refugees or evacuees or groups of nomads. The wording was chosen to convey a 'word picture' rather than exact mathematical criteria.

118

The

definition as phrased seem to cover a wider sphere than normally sub­ sumed under 'civilian population', for other references to a concentration of civilians usually rely on its more static nature whereas Protocol III especially mentions those who are o n the move, either as refugees, evacuees or nomads. 'Military' and 'civilian' objectives are, on the other hand, defined by the traditional provisions contained in the 1949 Geneva Conventions and in the 1977 Protocols.

119

The Protocol forbids attacks not only on civilian

populations by incendiary w e a p o n s

120

but also on military targets within a

concentration of civilians, as defined above, by all air-delivered incendiary weapons.

121

Furthermore, other than air-delivered incendiary weapons

may only be used against military objectives within any concentration of 1 . 0

1.1

1 , 3

1 , 6

,lfl

120

121

Lucerne Report, 15-35. Lugano Report, 44-9, 128-9, 176, 193-8, 192-4 and 202. Lugano Report, 203. Lugano Report, 203. Ibid. Article 2(1) of Protocol III to the 1981 Convention. Article 2(3). Below, Ch. 8, A ii on targets. 5 United Nations Disarmament Yearbook 1980, 320. Cf. below, Ch. 8, A ii. Article 3(1). Article 3(2). There was a last-minute compromise on this point by the United States and the other parties, A/AC.206/10, 16. 1 , 2

1 , 4

1 , 5

1 , 7

119

RULES ON

226

BELLIGERENCE

civilians if military targets are separable from civilian objectives and all precautions have been taken to save civilians from attack.

122

(2) The jungle exception By article 2(4) of Protocol III to the Weaponry Convention it is forbidden to attack forests or 'other kind of plant cover' except if such 'natural elements' are used to cover, conceal or camouflage combatants or other military objectives, or are themselves military objec­ tives. This means that a State naturally covered by jungle vegetation will not have any protection under the Protocol against attacks by, for example, napalm weapons. N o r will any civilian target be protected for an attacker cannot know whether or not the jungle conceals a 'military' or 'civilian' objective. This surprising clause, which we may name the 'jungle exception' as that expression conveys the type of territory the negotiators primarily had in mind, is designed to u n d e r m i n e the functioning of Protocol III in a number of countries with dense tropical vegetation. It is clear that the clause was devised to cater for such situations as that encountered by the United States in Vietnam when fighting the Viet Cong was hampered by the tropical vegetation which concealed soldiers and arms. Under Protocol III as it now stands it would seem that it would not be illegal for a State to use a defoliant such as Agent Orange, for example, in such a battle situation. There is every reason to encourage a revision of this Protocol in view of recent knowledge of the environmental and genetic damage caused by such chemical w e a p o n s .

123

g. Protocol IV on Blinding Laser

Weapons

The legality of laser weapons has been discussed for some twenty-five years.

124

A new Protocol IV was adopted at the Review Conference in

1995 on so-called 'blinding' laser weapons. Such weapons are defined as those which are designed to cause 'permanent blindness to unenhanced vision, that is to the naked eye or to the eye with corrective eyesight devices'. The Protocol prohibits the use and the transfer weapons,

125

of such

and admonishes States to take care that their laser systems do

not cause permanent blindness. However, the Protocol does not prohibit 122

124

123

Article 3. See further, below, in this Chapter, D. Lucerne Report, 73; Lugano Report, 1980-1. Article 1 of the Protocol. 125

RESTRICTIONS

ON

WEAPONS

227

the production of weapons specifically designed to cause such blind­ ness.

126

iii. T h e Land M i n e C o n v e n t i o n of 1997 There are, in 1999, more than 110 million landmines scattered in the world in some sixty-three countries, killing or maiming at least 26,000 persons every year; more than 90 per cent of these victims are civilians, many of them children.

127

There are as many as ten million landmines in Afghanis­

tan, and some eight to ten million landmines in Cambodia. Other countries also riddled with landmines after recent armed conflicts are Mozambique, Angola, Nicaragua and Bosnia. As mentioned a b o v e ,

129

128

landmines have, for a long time, been accepted as

legitimate defence weapons. Concerns about anti-humanitarian aspects of their use, reflected in the Ottawa process described below, were largely superseded in the United States by the legitimate necessity to use sophisti­ cated mines, so called 'smart mines', with self-destructing devices, in Korea.

130

Russia and China were also reluctant to ban landmines, useful as

they are to defend long borders and to provide early warning of attacks and incursions. As has been shown above, Protocol II to the 1981 Convention does contribute to some restrictions in the use of landmines, but is not adequate for preventing civilians, especially children, from being killed and maimed by landmines. Obtaining general agreement for a revision of Protocol II to enlarge and deepen the prohibition proved difficult and little progress was made in the Disarmament Conference (CD) where the United States would have preferred to negotiate new restrictions. In view of this passivity,

131

a movement later to win the Peace Nobel Prize, was started: the

International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL). Other NGOs joined forces as well as some noted individuals, a m o n g them Princess Diana, who did much to raise the awareness of the tragedies that followed the use of landmines. 126

127

128

129

131

Article 3 furthermore provides that 'Blinding as a collateral effect of the legitimate military employment of laser systems . . . is not covered . . . by the Protocol. SIPRI, Yearbook 1997,495flf. Canada, Banning Landmines: The Indiscriminate Killers, 1999, 9fT. In this Chapter, ii e. US, Defence News, 30 June-6 July 1997, 11. However, the United States announced in 1997 that it would observe a permanent ban on the export and transfer of APMs and initiated new negotiations in CD aimed at banning the use, production, stockpiling and transfer of APMs. 130

228

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

Through the initiative of the Canadian government, the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of AntiPersonnel Mines and Their Destruction, was signed in Ottawa in December 1997. The signature of 122 States marked the end of a negotiated multilateral convention in record time: after an intial meeting in Vienna in February 1997, attended by 111 States, some ninety-seven countries indicated their support for a Convention for a total ban in the Brussels Declaration. Final negotiations took place in September 1997 and the Convention was ready for signature three m o n t h s later. Ratified by a large n u m b e r of States, the Convention came into force on 1 March 1999. In May 1999, there was a follow-up meeting in Maputo, Mozambique, although this country, with a major landmine problem, still has not ratified the Convention. The Convention provides that contracting parties will ban the use, transfer and stockpiling of anti-personnel mines (APMs), destroy existing stockpiles, clear mine-fields and cooperate with a compliance regime. The time limits for destruction of all stockpiles is set at four years after the entry into force, i.e. 2003, at the latest. States have ten years from the entry into force, or until 2009, to clear all mine-fields. An APM is defined by the Convention as a mine 'designed to be exploded by the presence, proximity or contact of a person and that will incapacitate, or injure one or m o r e p e r s o n s ' .

132

This definition thus excludes anti-tank

and other anti-vehicle mines. The greatest problem is obviously mine clearance, given that maps of mine-fields are rarely available, or rarely established. It is also a very costly exercise which countries in the Third World can rarely undertake without major assistance from international agencies. However, through various U N Agencies, coordinated by the United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS), progress has been made: some 23 per cent of landmines in Cambodia and some 64 per cent in Afghanistan have been cleared.

133

United Nations Mine Action Service also manages the Voluntary Fund for Assistance in Mine Clearance, helping in schemes in n u m e r o u s countries. The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assist­ ance to Afghanistan ( U N O C H A ) has devised a programme for developing mine awareness a m o n g civilians, especially children, and has contributed to mine clearance. 132

133

Article 2. UN, Fighting Landmines, First Meeting of States to the Convention Banning Landmines, 3-7 May 1999, Maputo, 2.

RESTRICTIONS

ON

229

WEAPONS

Canada has provided much financial assistance as well as expert help for mine clearance and has established a Canadian Land-mine Fund and special Canadian Land-mine Action Programmes for n u m e r o u s countries. The whole process of the Ottawa Convention, instigated by Canada, shows that individual initiatives from a single government can snowball support from NGOs and individuals, as well as from other States, enabling inter­ national society to deal with a difficult weapons problem which so far had escaped effective regulation.

134

iv. Naval m i n e s The Mines Protocol to the 1981 Convention covers only landmines but not mines at sea.

135

With regard to naval warfare, it may be noted that the 1907

Hague Convention VIII on the Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines

136

forbids unanchored mines unless they are made harmless one

hour after control over them has been relinquished.

137

It is furthermore

prohibited to anchor mines, unless they are neutralised if they break loose from their m o o r i n g .

138

The same guidelines as apply for legality of land­

mines are relevant to mines at sea: it is the security of non-combatants and of civilians that is at the core of p r o h i b i t i o n s .

139

But different problems are raised by naval mines than by land-mines: at sea, mines often pose enhanced risks to neutrals, both if they interfere with the freedom of the high seas and if they are moved, by currents or wind, to a place away from where they were e m p l a c e d .

140

Therefore, Hague Conven­

tion VIII provides that security of 'peaceful shipping* must always be safeguarded whenever automatic contact mines are emplaced.

141

O n the

other hand, Hague Convention VIII reflects the view that naval mines are not, per se, illegal, but that their use has to be regulated. Yet the regulation of Hague Convention VIII was, in the opinion of a n u m b e r of States, so unsatisfactory that the United Kingdom made a specific reservation 134

135

136

139

140

142

142

to

This may be an example of 'international democracy' in full play when numerous persons in numerous States, as well as their governments, perceive a situation which must be condemned as intrinsically 'wrong'. See, on such other situations as, for example, the condemnation of apartheid in my International Legal Order, under Natural Law, 197-212. See below, in this Chapter, C ii, for rules on nuclear mines at sea. On landmines, see above, B ii e and B iii. For reference, see, NRGT, 3 série, 580; 2 AJIL 1908, 138. Article 1. Ibid. Cf. I. Bock, Die Entwicklung des Minenrechts von 1900-1960, Hamburg, 1963, passim. Cf. Institut de droit international, Annuaire, Paris, 1910. Article 3. Schindler and Toman, Documents, 720; Parliamentary Papers, Misc. No. 5, 1909. 137

141

138

230

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

the effect that it reserved the view of the legitimacy of practice not pro­ hibited by the C o n v e n t i o n .

143

The United Kingdom thus sought to restrict

mines to the territorial sea and to prohibit mines on the high seas alto­ gether.

144

The problem of discrimination is, as stated above, of primary import­ ance to naval mines. The reason for regulating the use of contact mines in Hague Convention VIII was precisely that such mines do not, by definition, distinguish between ships and would pose particular hazards to neutral shipping. But other types of mine known at the time of the Hague Conven­ tion such as c o m m a n d mines, for example, were not forbidden by the Convention in 1907. Nowadays, highly sophisticated mines have been developed, sometimes with discriminatory sensors, which can distinguish between different types of ship. Mines may be magnetic, acoustic or rely on a pressure effect or a combination thereof. They can usually be operated at a distance and with great accuracy and have a high reliability factor. However, the provisions of the Hague Convention VIII of 1907 on neutralising m e c h a n i s m s

145

and information on danger z o n e s

146

could

form a foundation of useful concepts for the further regulation of mine warfare at s e a .

147

But the compatibility of some modern mines with treaties other than the Hague Conventions may be questioned. For example, the tethered conti­ nental shelf mine with a nuclear rocket-propelled warhead has sensors for anti-submarine warfare p u r p o s e s .

148

If new discriminatory mines are de­

signed their legality may be judged differently from the old contact type of mine. It would be highly questionable to consider the tethered nuclear continental shelf mine compatible with the the provisions of the Sea-Bed Treaty

149

but writers have suggested that, since it is not anchored or

emplaced but 'suspended', it might escape the prohibition of the Sea Bed Treaty.

150

Authors who take this line are usually also influenced by the

factor that the continental shelf mine is not a weapon of'mass destruction' 143

144

145

147

148

150

Such a measure is not a reservation properly so called as it does not restrict, but possibly extends, obligations assumed under a treaty: see my Essays, 50. A. G. Y. Thorpe, 'Mine warfare at sea: some legal aspects for the future', Lecture at the British Institute of International Law, 17 July 1985, MS, 5. Article 1. Article 3. United Nations, Study of the Naval Arms Race, Geneva, 27 July 1985, 63. Thorpe, 'Mine warfare', at 20. Above, Ch. 6, A v. The Treaty refers to 'emplantation' or 'emplacement' on the sea bed which leaves it open whether mobile or suspended mines are permissible. The tethered shelf mine has a rocketpropelled nuclear warhead. 146

149

RESTRICTIONS

ON

231

WEAPONS

but only designed for anti-submarine warfare and claim that, for this additional reason, it is not prohibited under the Sea Bed Treaty.

151

Yet, as

we shall see, weapons may be illegal under international law for reasons other than being weapons of mass destruction so that, for other reasons, mines for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) may thus be incompatible with international law. The importance of any obligation to notify neutral shipping of any 152

minefield was made obvious in the Corfu Channel Case.

Today's duty to

warn neutral ships derives both from The Hague Convention VIII and from the Geneva Convention 1958 on the High S e a s the Sea Convention, international l a w .

154

153

and the 1982 Law of

all of which lay down already existing rules of

155

But even if shipping of third parties must be safeguarded in a dispute, there remains a possibility for the use of mines on the high seas for defensive purposes.

156

Mines at sea are not made illegal by the Conventional Weapons Conven­ tion of 1 9 8 1 .

157

However, certain principles contained in the Mine Protocol

to that Convention lay down general rules which, mutatis mutandis, apply at sea.

also

158

v. Small calibre w e a p o n s Weapons research has developed lighter weapons, with lighter a m m u n i ­ tion of higher velocity, some of such high velocity that projectiles disinte­ grate on impact. Some of such high velocity projectiles disintegrate on impact. Due to their high velocity, small calibre bullets tumble on impact in the h u m a n body and therefore present a broad face to tissues. The passage of such bullets also creates intense hydro-dynamic shock waves which cause severe injury and mutilation of tissue outside its actual trajec­ tories.

159

The only early regulation by treaty of shape and function of

munitions is the prohibition of bullets weighing less than 468 grammes 151

152

155

156

157

, s v

D. P. O'Connell, Influence of Law on Seapower, Manchester, 1975, 157. The Treaty does not apply to the sea bed beneath territorial waters. ICJ Reports, 1949, 71. Article 15. Article 24. See above, Ch. 6, A v and vi on provisions of these instruments on the use of the high seas for peaceful purposes. Cf. C. Q. Christol and C. R. Davies, 'Maritime quarantine: the naval interdiction of offensive weapons and associated material to Cuba, 1962', 57 A/JL, 1963, 525. Above, in this Chapter, A ii. Below, Ch. 8, B. Lucerne Report, 37^17; Lugano Report, 61-9, 116-19, 194-5 and 205-6. 153

154

158

232

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

contained in the St Petersburg Declaration of 1 8 6 8 bullets in the Hague Declaration 1899.

160

and of d u m - d u m

161

Field manuals of some major countries go further than the Hague Declaration and forbid 'irregular shaped bullets'.

162

Effective prohibition

should, said the Lugano Conference, aim at all small calibre projectiles which cause injuries beyond those necessary to disable the enemy, whether such excessive injuries are due to the flattening, expansion, velocity or tumbling of bullets.

163

The regulation of small calibre weapons did not form part of the 1981 Weaponry Convention or its Protocols. However, the Conference pro­ duced a special Declaration, 'appealing' to States to exercise 'care' in developing such systems and encouraging further research in this area.

164

However, the Weaponry Convention of 1981 provides a useful frame­ work in which a further Protocol on small calibre weapons can be in­ cluded.

vi. O t h e r questionable w e a p o n s Parties to Protocol I of 1977 are under an obligation to consider whether the use of 'new' weapons is compatible with the Protocol and with gen­ eral international l a w .

165

Naturally, even non-parties are obliged to con­

sider whether the employment, or even possession, of any new weapon is prohibited by any rule of general international law, although the wording of the relevant article in the Protocol indicates that rules may not bind all States but that certain prohibitive rules might affect only a certain party. Certain relatively n e w

166

weapons such as fuel explosive weapons, for

example, kill by air shock-waves. Fuel-air explosives cause extensive dam­ age and painful injury by the detonation of gaseous hydrocarbons.

167

But

the Conference which elaborated the 1981 Convention was not able even to take a resolution with respect to fuel-air explosives, in spite of insistence by Sweden, Switzerland and M e x i c o . 160

163

164

165

167

168

161

168

162

18 NRGT 474. 26 NRGT, 2 série, 1002. Lugano Report, 205. Lugano Report, 205. Resolution adopted by the Conference, 7th Plenary meeting, 23 September 1979, Appendix E to Convention 1980. Article 36. Developed in the 1970s and 'refined* during the following decade. Cf. B. Blomqvist, 'Fuel air explosives', Atomnytt, 1976. GAOR, 33rd sess., Suppl. no. 44, A/33, Annex E. 166

RESTRICTIONS

ON

233

WEAPONS

Some weapons, known as 'flame blast' munitions, combine the explosive effect of a fuel-air mixture with radiation in chemical fireball m u n i t i o n s . Other chemical fireball munitions produce thermic r a d i a t i o n . Not only laser w e a p o n s blindness.

173

171

but also light-flash devices

172

cause b u r n s and

Directed-energy weapons rely on laser systems.

sity microwave radiation causes internal b u r n s .

175

169

170

174

High-inten­

Infrasound devices,

alone or in combination with stroboscopic light flashes, cause damage to the central nervous system.

176

One may deplore the scientists who use their talents and knowledge to develop such weapons, and, even more, the companies and States which encourage them to do so. However, the use of any of these or similar weapons is clearly incompatible with the basic principles of the ethics of warfare,

177

with individual responsibility for war crimes ensuing for those

who employ such weapons in combat and for their s u p e r i o r s .

178

C. W e a p o n s of m a s s destruction i. General rules One of the first institutional decisions taken by the General Assembly was to establish a Commission for, inter alia, the 'elimination of major weapons adaptible to mass destruction'.

179

Interest in prohibiting these

weapons has been maintained, and has considerably intensified, over the years. In 1980 the Disarmament Commission considered the question of weapons of mass destruction and recommended the negotiation of agree­ ments for their prohibition as a priority for the Second Disarmament Decade.

180

There have also been discussions in the Committee o n Dis­

armament, Assembly.

169

171

172

173

174

175

179

180

181

183

181

in the Conference for D i s a r m a m e n t

182

and in the General

183

170

Lugano Report, 82. Ibid. See above, ii g, on the Proctocol on Blinding Laser Weapons. Some milder stroboscopic types are already used for riot control: see Lucerne Report, 75. Lucerne Report, 73; Lugano Report, 1980-1. E. A. Fessler, Directed Energy Weapons, a Juridical Analysis, New York, 1979. 'Laser' stands for 'light amplification by simulated emission of radiation'. Lucerne Report, 75. Ibid. 74. Above, Ch. 5, C v. Below, Ch. 12, C. GA Res. 1(1) of 24 January 1946. A/CN.10/PV.25-40; GAOR, 35th sess., Suppl.42, A/35/42, para.19, sect. C, para. 14. GAOR, ibid., Suppl. No.27, A/35/27, para. 57 fT. CD/732, 1986, iii ff. GAOR, 35th sess., Plenary mtgs, 4-33rd mtg, 94th mtg and First Committee 4-38th mtg. 176

177

178

182

RULES ON

234

a. Definition

BELLIGERENCE

of weapons of mass

destruction

In 1948, the Commission for Conventional Armaments, in considering its own mandate, defined weapons of mass destruction as including 'atomic explosive weapons, radioactive material weapons, certain "lethal" chemical and biological weapons; any weapons developed in the future with similar destructive effects; any weapon developed in the future with characteristics comparable in destructive effect to those of the atomic b o m b or other weapons mentioned a b o v e . '

184

The General Asssembly has reiterated this

expanded notion of weapons of mass destruction, defining such weapons as 'atomic explosive weapons, radioactive material weapons, lethal chemi­ cal and biological weapons, any weapons developed in the future with similar destructive effects to those of the atomic b o m b or other weapons mentioned a b o v e . '

185

The General Assembly expressed repeated concern for the use of these weapons.

186

Nuclear weapons are certainly the main type of weapons of mass destruc­ tion. The Sea Bed Treaty clearly implies that nuclear weapons are weapons of mass destruction by referring to and prohibiting the emplacement of 'any nuclear weapons or any other types of weapons of mass destruction'.

187

There are also other weapons of mass destruction which are not nuclear weapons. Which are they and what are their hallmarks? The United Nations Commission for Conventional Disarmament char­ acterised weapons of mass destruction both in terms of certain physical characteristics on which such weapons are based and in terms of the scale of their destructive effect.

188

But this does not mean that new weapons of mass

destruction, based on other physical principles, could not be invented, nor that any weapons of mass destruction hitherto classified as weapons of mass destruction could not be reclassified as 'conventional', e.g. by being made smaller. The fact that some new conventional 'area' weapons, such as 184

185

186

187

188

UN, S/C 3/32/Rev.l; cf. UN Study on Conventional Disarmament, New York, 1985,6-7. Res. 32/84 B 1977. See, for example, GA Resolutions 3479(XXX), 1975, 31/74, 1976; 32/84A, 1977, 33/66B, 1978, 34/79 1979; 35/149 1980; 36/89, 1981; 37/77, 1982, requesting CCD and CD respectively to intensify negotiations for an agreement to stop development and manufacturing of such weapons. Cf. GA Resolution 32/84 B, 1977 urging States to cease developing new weapons of mass destruction. Article 1. See further above, Ch. 6, A v, and below, in this Chapter, C ii d. S/C.3/32/Rev. 1, 1948.

RESTRICTIONS

cluster b o m b s ,

189

fuel-air explosives

ON 190

235

WEAPONS

and incendiaries

191

might cause

greater damage than 'small' nuclear weapons 'should not be permitted to blur the fundamental qualitative distinction between weapons of mass destruction and other types of w e a p o n s . '

192

With such a static view one is compelled to ask why weapons should be grouped in a way that a priori excludes any future reclassification. Criteria must surely be identified for a group called 'weapons of mass destruction' so that when weapons no longer fulfil those criteria, they should either be declassified, or the essential criteria should be redefined. What then are the intrinsic features of weapons of mass destruction? It may be desirable to interpret text as it stands, using words in their normal context.

193

A text, like for example, the Outer Space Treaty,

194

refer to

the prohibition of weapons of 'mass destruction'. 'Weapons of mass de­ struction' clearly mean 'weapons designed to destroy masses'.

195

Thus, such

weapons are designed not to destroy one combatant at a time, or even groups of them, but a great part of the (or the entire) population in an area. The reason for the patent illegality of these weapons is the absence of discrimination and the lack of use of the basic rule of distinction.

196

It must

be these considerations that render weapons of mass destruction 'different' from other weapons which are aimed at the enemy, perhaps as individual soldiers or as battalions, but not aimed at and able to wipe out entire towns,

197

provinces or countries. O n the other hand, the physical criteria of

such weapons adopted by the above definition

198

are not necessarily help­

ful. If nuclear weapons could be modified so that they have an impact which could be directed at a single combatant there is legally n o reason why such a weapon should be prohibited, unless it causes any unnecessary suffering. But it is, at present, unthinkable that nuclear weapons could have such limited effect and it is their indiscriminate effect rather than the physical principles on which they are founded that must form the basis of their illegality. 189

192

193

194

195

196

198

190

191

See the previous section. Ibid. Ibid. United Nations, Group of Experts, A/39/349, 1985, p. 6. Cf. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, article 31, on interpretation. Above, Chapter 6, A v. A. W. Thomas and A. J. Thomas, Legal Limits on the Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons, Dallas, 1970, 118, suggest that if 'mass' means 'people' weapons of mass destruction cannot include chemical weapons, 118. The basis for this reasoning seems ill-founded. On this, above, Ch. 4, C. On bombardment, see below, Ch. 8, A iii a. For example, the definitions adopted by the General Assembly, see above, in this section. 197

2 6

RULES ON

3

BELLIGERENCE

If indiscriminate attacks are forbidden under international law, it may be readily deduced that the indiscriminate weapons which cause precisely such attacks must also be forbidden. But such a conclusion, however justified it may seem to the student of logic, has not, in general, been accepted.

199

The British view at the Lucerne Conference in 1974 was that

indiscriminate weapons should mean those which 'cannot* be accurately directed against military targets but should not necessarily include those which, in the past, had been used indiscriminately. However, the ICRC experts held that both those weapons which 'by nature' are indiscriminate and those whose normal and typical use has indiscriminate effects should be forbidden.

200

Others argued that 'area weapons' may not necessarily be indiscriminate and that conventional weapons could be designed to be indiscriminate unless following a r a n d o m course but, that on the other hand, all weapons could be used, to some extent, indiscriminately.

b.

Identification

201

of weapons of mass

destruction

The decision as to whether or not a specific weapon is to be classified as a weapon of mass destruction depends entirely on how that group is defined. But if the above suggestions are accepted, that such weapons are designed to destroy or are capable of destroying parts of or whole populations, or other large groups in certain areas, the following weapons must also be included in this group. First, nuclear weapons are included, for they are all at their current stage of development capable of such destruction as is the continen­ tal shelf m i n e ,

202

also perhaps nuclear ' h a n d ' weapons as well. chemical and biological weapons are included.

204

Geophysical and environmental warfare is indiscriminate by implication.

205

Furthermore, ' l e t h a l '

203

Radiological weapons, being akin to nuclear weapons, are included and probably, infra-sound weapons. 199

2 0 0

201

2 0 3

2 0 4

205

On indiscriminate weapons, cf. Institut de droit international, 52 Annuaire, 1967, Report by F. A. v. d. Heydte; cf. Lucerne Report, 1974, 10: all experts agreed on the prohibition of indiscriminate attacks but not on the prohibition of indiscriminate weapons. ICRC, Weapons That may Cause Unnecessary Suffering or Have Indiscriminate Effects, 1973, para. 27, 244. Lucerne Report, 10-1 1. Above in this Chapter, B i v and below, C ii d. On the relevant degree, see in this Chapter, section D. The United Nations Commission for Conventional Armaments suggested this in 1948, see, United Nations and Disarmament 1945-1970, No. 70, ix. 1, Ch. 1. Lucerne Report, 75-6; cf. below, F. 2 0 2

RESTRICTIONS

ON WEAPONS

237

The 1977 CCD session considered a USSR Draft C o n v e n t i o n

206

which

provided for an umbrella arrangement whereby a general prohibition of weapons of mass destruction could be supplemented by special agree­ ments on prohibition of specific weapons. The Draft contained a list of weapons to be prohibited and also special provisions for the a m e n d m e n t of the list. But the United States has traditionally preferred specific rather than general prohibitions. The United Kingdom has also emphasised that gen­ eral treaties dealing with hypothetical weapons cannot provide for verifi­ cation.

207

O n the other hand, in the past arms control treaties have often

dealt with areas of future concern as did the Outer Space T r e a t y .

208

The former communist States in Eastern Europe submitted a Draft Convention to the CCD in 1978 on nuclear neutron weapons as particu­ larly inhumane weapons of mass destruction.

209

Poland suggested in the

First Committee that such weapons should be prohibited, if not generally, a least on a 'contractual b a s i s ' .

210

But the United States considered neu­

tron weapons or others involving enhanced radiation as nuclear weapons which should be dealt with separately in the context of nuclear disarma­ ment.

211

It may be futile to group weapons in different types and reserve a special category for 'weapons of mass destruction' unless such classification has some legal consequences. The point which must be made is thus that weapons of 'mass destruction' are prima facie illegal under international law and any State, or party, that uses such weapons is guilty of war crimes, with ensuing individual and collective responsibility.

212

It is important to retain the distinction, on the one hand, between conventional weapons, 'non-lethal' chemical and biological weapons, which together with radiological weapons form another group, and envi­ ronmental weapons, which, again are of a different type, and, on the other hand, weapons of mass destruction. Weapons of mass destruction may be weapons from any of these groups but do not necessarily have that charac­ ter. Classifying a weapon as one of mass destruction is thus more indica­ tive of the way these weapons will be used. Not all nuclear weapons are 2 0 6

2 0 7

2 0 8

2 0 9

2 . 0

2 . 1

CCD/511, Rev.l and GAOR, 32nd sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/32/27/vol.ii. CCD, 1980, GAOR, 35th sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/35/27.63. Above, Ch. 6, A iv and v, and GA Resolution 2222 (XXI), 1966. CCD/559, and GAOR, 33rd sess., Suppl. No. 4, A-S-10/4, 111, para. 77. GAOR, 35th sess., 1980, First Committee, 4-38th mtg. See GA Resolution 33/66 A 8c B 1978. Below, Ch. 12, C. 2 , 2

238

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

necessarily weapons of mass destruction if we consider hand-held tactical weapons. But atomic b o m b s certainly fall within the category of weapons of mass destruction. The same can be said for all other types of weapon which may be used in a way which eliminates the quality of distinction, that is to say when the weapon can no longer distinguish between military and non-military targets. O n e may also speak of weapons with 213

effects.

uncontrollable

Thus, some weapons, such as the atom b o m b , are

always

weapons of mass destruction whereas biological and chemical weapons may have such a quality. We should thus distinguish between weapons such as the atom b o m b which are intrinsically unable to distinguish, and other weapons which may be capable of such distinction, depending on their use. In law, it may be that this second type of weapon is illegal not because they are weapons of mass destruction, but on other

214

grounds.

In the late 1990s it became fashionable, even among experts, to blur these distinctions. Thus the chemical and biological weapons of Saddam Hussein of Iraq, which international society was anxious to 'eliminate' following the reports of the U N arms inspectors, were repeatedly referred to as 'arms of mass destruction'. It is clear that some of the chemical and biological weapons held by Iraq are such weapons of mass destruction, i.e. those which are 'lethal* while, as discussed, others may be regarded as illegal o n other grounds. O n the other hand, States must not outlaw weapons for one party unless they are prepared to face similar consequences for their own use of such weapons; there were reports that tactical nuclear weapons were used by the Western powers in the Gulf War and there is ample evidence that most Western powers have chemical and biological weapons of at least the 'non-lethal' type. For these reasons, it is useful to retain the distinct categories referred to above.

2 , 3

2 1 4

The ICRC considered weapons with 'uncontrollable effects' in connection with their 1956 Draft Rules for Limitation of Dangers incurred by the Civilian Population in Time of War, article 14. Below, D.

RESTRICTIONS

ON

239

WEAPONS

ii. Nuclear w e a p o n s a. The special case of nuclear

weapons

There is no shortage of evidence of the disastrous effect of nuclear weapons on h e a l t h

215

and on the e n v i r o n m e n t .

216

The destructive power of nuclear

armouries, even as early as in 1967, far exceeded all the conventional explosives used since the discovery of g u n p o w d e r .

b. Reduction

217

of hazards?

Actual use presupposes the possession of such weapons and the network of treaties prohibiting production and possession of nuclear w e a p o n s

218

therefore reduces the n u m b e r of parties who can develop such weapons. Other treaties, like the Non-Proliferation T r e a t y ,

219

restrict the n u m b e r

of States which can obtain nuclear weapons, while other agreements, such as the Test Ban Treaty, Treaty,

222

220

the Outer Space Treaty of 1 9 6 7

221

the Antarctic

restrict the use of nuclear weapons in certain geographical areas.

According to the introduction to the Draft Protocol to the Geneva Conventions,

223

which became Protocol I of 1977, the Protocol was never

intended to deal with nuclear, bacteriological or chemical warfare. In spite of this clarification, certain States felt obliged to make specific statements 2 , 5

2 1 6

2 1 7

2 , 8

2 1 9

2 2 0

221

2 2 2

For example, WHO, Effect of Nuclear War on Health and Health Services, 1984; E. and A. Chiviam (eds.), Last Aid, The Medical Dimension of Nuclear War, San Francisco, 1982; S. Glasstone and P. J. Doland (eds.), The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, 3rd edn, Washington, 1977. For example, SIPRI, Weapons of Mass Destruction and the Environment, Stockholm, 1977 with extensive bibliography. J. London and G. White, (eds.) The Environmental Effects of Nuclear War, Washington, 1984. United Nations, Effects of the Possible Use of Nuclear Weapons and the Security and Economic Implications for States of the Acquisition and Further Development of these Weapons, Report by the Secretary General, 1967, republished in United Nations, Basic Problems of Disarmament, 1970, 70.1.14, 79. Such as the Peace Treaties with Finland, Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania and Italy in 1947; (the obligation on Italy in this respect was annulled by the Allies in 1951 ); The Paris Agreement with Germany of 1954; The Austrian State Treaty of 1955, see above, Ch. 6, A iv; and the Treaty of Tlatelolco, above, ibid. 729 UNTS 161 and above, Ch. 3, C iii b (1); SIPRI, (éd.), Internationalisation to Prevent the Spread of Nuclear Weapons, London, 1980. Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water, 1963, 480 UNTS 43 and above, ibid. 610 UNTS 161 and above, ibid. Cf. GA Res. 2222 (XXI) 1966 endorsing the Draft Treaty; cf. GA Res. (XVIII) 1962 on nuclear activities in Outer Space. Above, ibid. ICRC, 1973, 2. 2 2 3

240

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

during the negotiations to emphasise that the Protocol must not impair their right of 'sovereignty' with regard to nuclear weapons. France, for example, argued that Protocol I merges humanitarian l a w

224

with the Law

of War in a way which is 'not without dangers'. Any instrument which sets out to govern the conduct of warfare must, said France, take scrupulous care to respect the sovereignty of States and their inalienable right to self-defence in case of aggression. Some provisions of Protocol I might well, insisted France, impair that r i g h t .

225

One such provision concerned the

protection of civilians against hostilities;

226

another was related to the

principle of distinction between military targets and civilian objectives.

227

Both such provisions would have been prejudicial to the exercise of France's national right of legitimate defence and, as a result, France made a specific declaration when acceding to Protocol II that it had found itself unable to ratify Protocol I as this instrument ostensibly impaired France's right to use nuclear weapons, whether in defence or as a deterrent. However, Protocol I of 1977 does not explicitly forbid the use of nuclear weapons. But since such weapons are by nature indiscriminate and have effects which cannot be isolated from the civilian population in an attacked territory, nuclear weapons are indirectly prohibited by the Protocol's provisions of indiscriminate or area attacks.

228

Other States also made statements to similar effect, considering that ratification of Protocol I of 1977 would not be possible if it in any way restricted their right to use nuclear w e a p o n s .

229

There may be a network of treaties and conventions today which all further reduce the field of who may use nuclear weapons and where such nuclear weapons may be used. But these agreements do not necessarily reduce the likelihood of such weapons being used, especially in the light of the pronouncements by States of their 'sovereign' right to nuclear weapons. It may well be that the risk of nuclear conflict actually escalates in propor­ tion to the reduction of the nuclear arsenal of the now few nuclear States. The strategic situation was arguably more stable during the time of the polarisation of the two superpowers. After the disintegration of the Soviet 2 2 4

2 2 5

2 2 6

2 2 7

2 2 9

On the meaning of the term see below, Ch. 9. A/C.6/37/SR.18.3; France CDDH/Sr.41, vol. 6, 186. Cf. Article 43 of the Draft and article 48 of the Final Protocol. Draft article 47, adopted as article 52 of Protocol I. Below, in this Chapter, B ii d. For the text of the United States' declaration on signature, see Schindler and Toman, Docu­ ments, 636: for a declaration by the United Kingdom, see ibid., 634. On the nature of such declarations which do not constitute 'reservations', see my Essays, 47ff. 2 2 8

RESTRICTIONS

ON

241

WEAPONS

Union and the demise of c o m m u n i s m , it may be that the risk of nuclear attacks has increased as certain weapons and fissile material has been passed to States, often in the Third World, which might not consider themselves bound by the restrictions of the Law of War in the field of nuclear weapons. Such attitudes, however, will not release them from responsibility for war crimes should such weapons ever be u s e d .

230

On the other hand; it is precisely the magnitude and long-term damage which virtually excludes effective responsibility ex post facto; n o one is served by compensation for damage that cannot even be quantified. It is imperative to lay down the rules for legality before any State resorts to the use of the modern type of nuclear weapons.

c. Criteria for It has been shown earlier

231

legality

that the question of nuclear arms and war is

normally discussed in the context of disarmament negotiations. There have been several treaties restricting the actual use of nuclear weapons and such prohibitions will, especially if combined with actual reduction of the arms supplies, affect the war-waging capability of a S t a t e .

232

There is a further

question of great importance which goes to the core of the use of nuclear arms: that is, the question of their alleged inherent illegality under interna­ tional law. The test for the legality of weapons has been said to be that they 'must not cause a destruction of value which is disproportionate to the military advantage gained through its u s e . '

233

That criterion alone would

seem to support the contention that the use of nuclear weapons is always illegal. (1) Basic restrictions The use of nuclear weapons - and all other weapons is subject to three basic principles: the necessity of using them; the propor­ tionality of their use; and the obligation not to cause unnecessary suffer­ ing.

234

But it has been suggested that these principles only regulate the use

of weapons and that nuclear weapons are legal in the absence of any customary rule of international law or any convention restricting their 2 3 0

2 3 3

2 3 4

231

2 3 2

Below, Ch. 12, C. Above, Ch. 3, C iii b. Above, Ch. 4. See below, Ch. 12, B i a on military necessity. Legality cannot depend on the wording of treaties. Cf. R. Falk, R. Meyrowitz and J. Sanderson, Nuclear Weapons and International Law, Princeton, 1981, 22. Cf. W. Mallinson and S. Mallinson, Studies in the international Humanitarian Law of Armed Conflict, New York, 1978, 157. Cf. United States Field Manual 27-10, TheLawofLand Warfare, 1956, para. 3(a), 41, 35.

242

RULES ON

employment.

235

BELLIGERENCE

But any reference to 'customary law' in this context invari­

ably leads to the same difficulty, also in this context, as occurs in the Law of War in general: one would have to rely on an unacceptable fiction of 'negative c u s t o m ' .

236

The first time an atom b o m b was used in war all these 7

principles were violated as was shown in the Shimoda CaseP

In this case,

the District Court of Tokyo emphasised that if the use of a weapon is contrary to the customs of civilised countries and the principles of interna­ tional law, its use must be prohibited even if there is no express provision to this effect.

238

But then, some claim that the aforementioned principles cannot be applied 'strictly' in view of political 'realities'. that any condemnation of nuclear w e a p o n s

240

239

Others have been worried

may lead to a new tradition

of 'nuclear pacifism' which could present a serious challenge, for example, to the armed forces of the United States by making recruitment less attractive.

241

(2) Narrowing down the criteria Because of the moral implications of the use of nuclear weapons there is a danger that one may confuse what appears to be desirable in international society de legeferenda, with what is actually prohibited or outlawed, that is to say with what exists de lege lata. As General Assembly Resolution 1653 ( X V I )

242

reminds us, nuclear

weapons cause indiscriminate suffering and destruction and as such their use is therefore 'contrary to the rules of international law and to the laws of humanity'. Such weapons cannot be directed only against the enemy but are aimed at mankind in general. Third parties not involved in a war would be subjected to all the consequences of using nuclear weapons. Writers, too, have deduced that nuclear weapons are of questionable

2 3 5

2 3 6

2 3 7

2 3 8

2 3 9

24(1

241

Ibid., para. 35. For a rejection of the notion of customary law in its traditional form, see my Concept, 107fT and my International Legal Order, 185fT. See the Case of Shimoda v. Japan, 1963, 8 Japanese Annual of International Law, 1964-5, 212. Ibid. M. E. E. McGrath, 'Nuclear weapons, a crisis of conscience', 107 MilLR, 1985, 205. Like the one by American Roman Catholic Bishops in a Pastoral Letter of 1983, Challenge to Peace: God's Promise and Our Response, 19 May 1985. The letter states that States have a right to defend their territory but not by nuclear weapons: l.C.1,9; deterrence based on balance of forces of nuclear stocks can only be morally acceptable if it remains a step in progressive disarmament, II.A.14; II.D.2,17-18; III A.3.21. McGrath, 'Nuclear weapons', at 231. Above, in this Chapter, B i a. 242

RESTRICTIONS

ON

WEAPONS

legality as they are 'different* from conventional w e a p o n s .

243 243

But it has not

been adequately established exactly what criteria lead to such illegality. Nuclear radiation may, according to some, come under the prohibition of the Hague Regulations Geneva P r o t o c o l

245

244

which forbid poisonous weapons, or of the

under the additional phrase forbidding 'all analogous

liquids, materials and devices'.

246

Even if the o u t p u t of nuclear weapons is

technically not a gas, radioactivity should 'as a poisonous weapon' be prohibited by inference or analogy on the basis of the principles contained in the Geneva Protocol.

247

Another ground for illegality has been found

under the Genocide C o n v e n t i o n ,

248

as nuclear weapons are inevitably

directed against large groups of the population. One element relevant for the assessment of illegality is obviously the indiscriminate nature of nuclear w e a p o n s , c o m m o n to all weapons of mass destruction.

250

249

a characteristic that is

Weapons of such range and

intensity cannot, and are not designed to, distinguish between military and civilian objectives. This is a major argument in the assessment of illegality of nuclear weapons. But, on the other hand, it may undermine the validity of some other arguments, as, for example, their alleged illegality under the Genocide Convention.

251

For violation of that Convention entails the

singling out of groups, whereas the employment of nuclear weapons intrinsically does not distinguish between anyone or anything within, and outside, the impact area. Furthermore, the hallmark of the use of nuclear weapons is their effect: the extent, durability and irreparability of the damage and injury they c a u s e .

252

(3) Criteria applied to nuclear weapons To assess the illegality of the use of a weapon it must first be asserted what precisely is alleged to be illegal: is it the possession, the placing, the first use or any use of a nuclear weapon? The answer as to what is illegal would seem to differ according to the relevant category. I. Brownlie, 'Some legal aspects of the use of nuclear weapons', 14 ICLQ, 1965, 437. Article 23(a) on poisonous weapons, see above, in Ch. 5, A. Cf. N. Singh, Nuclear Weapons and International Law, London, 1959. Below, this Chapter, E i c (2). See Brownlie, 'Some legal aspects of nuclear weapons', at 442. Greenspan, The Modern Law of Land Warfare, 372-3. Ibid., 373. Brownlie, Legal Aspects, 443. Cf. Institut de droit international, Annuaire, 1969, 48ff, 358ff; 2 ibid. 1967, Iff and 527fT. Cf. below, Ch. 8, A iii. 78 UNTS 278. " Cf. above, in the previous section. 2 4 7

251

2

244

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

There were, in the 1970s and 1980s, intense discussions of the legality of nuclear weapons in the d o c t r i n e .

253

After the Second World War there

were, on the one hand, some commentators who claimed that, in legal and moral terms, the atom b o m b had been a 'good thing' and, had, in a way, saved countless lives by ending the war quickly.

254

But, on the other hand,

in later years most writers would question the legality of nuclear weapons for offensive p u r p o s e s

255

and claim that even for defensive p u r p o s e s

256

the

use of such weapons is not compatible with international law. Drastic statements by politicians sometimes distort the contents of international law. Thus, a Minister of State in the then West German Foreign Ministry claimed in 1983 that not even first use of nuclear weapons is banned by international l a w .

257

But there is overwhelming agreement that prohib-

itions exist in the international legal system against first u s e .

258

Legality of

use in self-defence, however, is more problematic. O n the one hand, there is considerable support for the view that such use is 'different' from first use, which may entail devastating effects; augmenting those caused by first user, and perhaps, precisely in juxtaposition with the first attack, cause the feared climatic changes that would result in the advent of a 'nuclear winter'. The legality of counter-attack must then, considering duties to neutrals, other uninvolved countries, and perhaps to international society as a w h o l e ,

259

depend on the scale and nature of nuclear force used. If we further consider the alleged illegality of the use of nuclear weapons, there is considerable agreement that the use of such weapons against an aggressor who has not himself used them, i.e. first use of nuclear weapons, 2 5 3

2 5 4

E. C. Stowell, 'The laws of war and the atomic bomb', 39 AJIL 1945, 784, 786. See G. A. I. D. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions, London, 1958, 99 for a view that the use of nuclear weapons is not legal against an aggressor who has not himself used them. But see G. Schwarzenberger, The Legality of Nuclear Weapons, London, 1958, who considers defensive use 'legal'. " Institute of Defence and Disarmament Studies, The Arms Control Reporter, 403 B, 189, Statement by Mr Alois Mertes, 14 October 1983. E.g., F. Blackaby, J. Goldblat, and S. Lodgaars, No First Use, London, (SIPRI), 1984, and above in the previous section. See my Concept, 37fTand 12Iff.

2 5 5

2 5 6

2

A. Miatello, La responsabilité international encourue en raison des activités liées à Vutilisation de Vénergie nucléaire, Geneva, 1985; R. Falk, 'Toward a legal regime for nuclear weapons' in A. S. Millerand and M. Feinrider, (eds.) Nuclear Weapons and Law, Westport 1984, 107fT; H. H. Almond, 'Deterrence and a policy oriented on the legality of nuclear weapons', in ibid. 57fT; C. A. Dunshee de Abranches, Prosericao das armas nucleares, Rio de Janeiro, 1964; F. Menzel, Legalität oder Illegalität der Anwendung von Atomwaffen, Tübingen. 1960; M. Metalvad, 'Nuclear weapons and international law', Indian Journal of International Law, 1963, 383. On the problems of neutron weapons, see H. Meyrowitz, 'Problemès juridiques relatifs à l'arme à neutron', AFDI, 1981, 1978, 87.

2 5 8

2 5 9

RESTRICTIONS

is illegal.

260

ON

245

WEAPONS

There is furthermore a growing body of opinion suggesting that

the second use, i.e. use in self-defence against a nuclear attack, is also illegal. One reason for such a standpoint is that the use of nuclear weapons is never part of rational war a i m .

261

The General Assembly has also warned against

the dangers of'catastrophe' that may be caused by any such new doctrine of limited or partial use of nuclear warfare. There is ostensibly no rational war a i m

262

2 6 3

and the use of nuclear weapons

would prevent obedience to further rules concerning the conduct of hostil­ ities

264

and undermine respect for neutrals.

265

The General Assembly has

emphasised that any use of nuclear weapons would a m o u n t to a violation of the Charter as against 'laws of humanity and constituting a crime against mankind and civilisation'.

266

This important Resolution, named the Dec­

laration on the Prohibition of the Use of Nuclear and Thermonuclear Weapons, states that the use of such weapons is contrary to the 'spirit, letter and aims' of the United Nations and that their use would 'exceed even the scope of war'. Later, the General Assembly referred to the use of nuclear weapons as being under a 'permanent prohibition' indicating that such weapons are forbidden in any circumstances, including self-defence.

267

In this Resol­

ution the use of nuclear weapons was related to the use of force as outlawed by the Charter. N u m e r o u s subsequent Resolutions refer to the need for further safeguards.

268

The illegality of the use of nuclear weapons may not, according to some,

269

make deterrence unlawful. Possession of such weapons may con­

stitute a lawful deterrence although they are possessed only to be potentially used. 2 6 0

261

270

But since their subsequent use is an inevitable and non-excluded

So Draper, The Red Cross Conventions, 99. H. E. Fried, 'International law prohibits the first use of nuclear weapons', RBDI, 1981-2,1,33 at 35. GARes. 35/152 B 1980. Fried, 'International law prohibits the first use of nuclear weapons', 33. Ibid. 37. Ibid., 42. Res. 1653(XVI) 1961. Res. 2936 (XXVII) 1972. Cf. Res. 1909 (XVIII) 1963. See, Nagendra Singh, Nuclear Weapons and International Law, London, 1959; R. E. Charlier, 'Questions soulevées pour l'évolution de la science atomique', 91 RCADI1957 i, 213, 350; Brownlie, Legal Aspects, 437. E.g., Res. 34/83 J 1979; 34/85 1979. Brownlie, Legal Aspects, AAA, who states that it is at least 'not clear if use only or also deterrence (is] illegal'. Brownlie also states that 'the provision [on genocide] must create a presumption of the illegality of resort to nuclear weapons as part of a policy of deterrence', ibid. Presumably the 'illegality' refers to 'use' rather than (also] to 'policy of deterrence'. See, on deterrence, e.g. S. E. Miller, Strategy and Nuclear Deterrence, Princeton, 1984; D. M. Snow, Nuclear Strategy in a Dynamic World, Univ. of Alabama, 1981; cf. R. Jervis, The Illogic of American Nuclear Strategy, Ithaka, 1984. 2 6 2

2 6 3

2 6 5

2 6 7

2 6 8

2 6 9

2 7 0

2 6 4

2 6 6

246

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

contingency it could be argued that even 'passive' possession is of question­ able legality. Yet the trend in the 1980s was to view possession in terms of security and to allow the possession of a negotiated number of nuclear weapons for deterrence purposes. The placing of nuclear weapons evoked considerable discussion during the last decade of a bipolar world, i.e. from 1981 to 1991. Much was couched in political terms. Tunkin, for example, asserted that the placing of American missiles in Europe is contrary to international law. However, he did not specify which rules of international law such action would violate apart from indicating that there would be a breach of 'good faith': the positioning of those missiles would, says Tunkin, be contrary to the 'good faith' of the arms talk negotiations;

271

but these are vague obligations, if

indeed they are obligations at all. By implication he claimed that there is a lack of symmetry: the United States could place missiles near the USSR frontiers whereas the USSR could not do the same with regard to the United States.

272

With regard to the placing of missiles in the territory of other States one may discern the following legal criteria. There must be the full consent of the territorial State;

273

while such agreement should, if one applies the rules

insisted u p o n by the major powers, not only have the approval of the government but also of the democratic majority consent of the people in that territory.

274

It may be noted that in the United Kingdom there is little

evidence of debate in Parliament of agreements concerning the placing of United States missiles in the United K i n g d o m .

275

Agreements on the stationing of foreign missiles, belonging to the group of treaties which restrict the exercise of the sovereignty of a State in its own territory, are probably only valid as long as the territorial State so wishes under the doctrine we have called 'continuous c o n s e n t ' .

271

2 7 2

2 7 3

2 7 4

2 7 5

2 7 6

276

G. Tounkine, 'L'installation des missiles américains en Europe viole le droit international', in Les conséquences juridiques de Vinstallation éventuelle de missiles cruises et pershing en Europe, Acte du Colloque, Bruxelles, 1-2 octobre 1982, Brussels, 1984, 107. Cf. above Ch. 2, B viii on spheres of influence and on the Cuban Quarantine. See my Independent State, 197ff. Ibid., and above, Ch. 1, C i on démocratisation of the international society and on consent to territorial restrictions. The only published treaties concern the stationing of visiting United States forces; on such agreements see my 'Foreign warships', 54. Such treaties imply the reduction of a State's power in its own territory and thus belong to a special category subjected to special rules on consent, see further on this theory, my Indepen­ dent State, 197ff.

RESTRICTIONS

ON

WEAPONS

247

d. Nuclear weapons and recent developments in the Law of War There is no doubt that the Law of War applies to nuclear w e a p o n s .

277

The

use of such weapons is subject to specific agreements on arms control and disarmament

278

and there have been further attempts to 'regulate' the use

of such weapons. The ICRC suggested a special prohibition of nuclear weapons in the 1956 Draft R u l e s

279

and the 1973 Draft P r o t o c o l s

280

referred

to such weapons as being 'subject to international agreement or negoti­ ations', circumstances which would make it impossible to regulate the use of nuclear weapons in the planned Additional P r o t o c o l s

281

to the 1949

Geneva Conventions. During the Diplomatic Conference for the negotiation of the Additional Protocols the United States,

282

the United K i n g d o m

283

and F r a n c e

284

all

made statements, repeated (with the exception of France) at the time of signature,

285

to the effect that they assumed the Protocols were only to

regulate conventional warfare as special agreements were needed on nu­ clear weapons. According to the Introduction to the Draft P r o t o c o l 1977 to the 1949 Geneva C o n v e n t i o n s

287

286

the Protocol of

was never intended to deal with

nuclear, bacteriological or chemical warfare. In spite of such clarification, certain States felt its provisions would impair their right of national policy with regard to the use of nuclear weapons. France, for example, argued that Protocol I merges humanitarian law with the Law of War in a way which is 'not without dangers'. Any instrument which sets out to govern the con­ duct of warfare must, said France, take scrupulous care to respect the sovereignty of States and their inalienable right of self-determination in case of aggression. Some provisions in Protocol I may well, in the opinion of France, impair that r i g h t .

288

The question of the Protocol's application to nuclear arms was raised in the context of provisions concerning protection of the civilian population during the Conference. France claimed that a p r o v i s i o n 277

2 7 9

281

2 8 4

2 8 5

2 8 6

2 8 7

2 8 9

2 7 8

289

which is con-

Res. XXVIII of the 20th Red Cross Conference in Vienna in 1965. Above, Ch. 2, C. Article 14, cf. above, in this Chapter, A ii e. See, later, in this section. See above, Ch. 6, B i b. CDDH/SR.56, para. 82 . Ibid., para. 114. Ibid., para. 3. See below, later in this section. The statements made at the time of signature were not in the form of reservations: see my Essays, 47ff. See ICRC, Draft Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, 1973, 2. Above, Ch. 6, B i b. A/C.6/37/SR.18.3. Article 43 of the Draft now article 48 in the final version of the Protocol. 2 8 0

2 8 2

2 8 8

2 8 3

248

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

cerned with the general protection of the civilian population against the effect of hostilities went beyond the specific context of humanitarian law for regulating the laws of war. Although the provision might have been drafted with a humanitarian purpose in view, it had, claimed France, direct implications as regards a State's organisation and conduct and defence against an invader.

290

The French delegation, although not having opposed

the adoption of such rules, made it clear that if it had been put to the vote, France would have abstained.

291

Furthermore, France stated in relation to the provisions dealing with the distinction between military and civilian t a r g e t s

292

that it is difficult in

many situations of armed conflict, if not impossible, to determine precisely what constitutes a military objective, especially in large towns and in wooded areas, either of which might harbour enemy military forces and groups of civilians more or less closely mixed together. France, therefore, could not 'accept' such a prohibition as included in the Protocol although intended to benefit the civilian population as the prohibition was too categorical and likely to be prejudicial to the exercise of France's national right of legitimate defence.

293

For the said reasons, France made a declar­

ation when acceding to Protocol I I

2 9 4

that it found itself unable to ratify

Protocol I as it ostensibly impaired France's right to use nuclear weapons in defence or as a d e t e r r e n t .

295

It may be c o m m e n t e d that Protocol I does not explicitly forbid the use of nuclear weapons or any particular type of conventional weapons. Some such weapons are, however, by their nature indiscriminate and have effects which cannot be isolated from civilian population in an attacked territory, and hence in this respect forbidden by Protocol I's provisions on indis­ criminate or area attacks.

296

O n the other hand, it is indisputable that

restrictions on the use of indiscriminate weapons by the Protocol will p r o m o t e humanitarian interests that must prevail over the right States may claim they have to defend themselves by 'any' means. The effect in law of the statements of France and other States at the 2 9 0

291

2 9 2

2 9 5

2 9 6

France, CDDH/SR.41, vol.6, 186. Ibid. Such incidents represent cogent proof that rules do not come into force in international society ipso facto by abstentions, see, in extenso, my International Legal Order, Chapters III and IV. Draft article 47, adopted as article 52 . Ibid. Above, Ch. 6, B ii g. See declaration on ratification of Protocol II by France to the depository; 24 February 1984 (unpublished). See below Ch. 8, A iii. 2 9 3

2 9 4

RESTRICTIONS

ON

WEAPONS

249

Conference for the 1977 Protocols regarding the national liberty to nuclear weapons

297

is doubtful. N o n e of these States have ratified the Protocol.

However, the Protocol will remain in force even in nuclear armed conflict and the Contracting Parties are b o u n d by assumed obligations. But also here there might be obligations which are binding on third parties: the obligations under the Protocol support further the argument that the use of nuclear weapons is not compatible with international law. The clarification on this point by the Protocol may indicate rules that exist outside the Protocol in general international l a w .

298

Similar arguments may be ad­

vanced to show that use of nuclear weapons is always illegal. The illegality of nuclear m i n e s

299

under the Sea Bed Treaty is not clear.

The Treaty refers to 'emplantation' or 'emplacement' on the sea bed which leaves it open whether mobile or suspended mines are permissible. The tethered continental shelf mine, which has a rocket-propelled nuclear warhead, is one such type of mine which is not clearly illegal. It has also been suggested that the Treaty is designed to prohibit the use of weapons of mass destruction and therefore that mines designed for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) might be permissible.

300

Discussion of the legality of nuclear weapons has faded with the transition from the bipolar world. Danger of nuclear war appears reduced on a world-wide basis while there is considerable concern about use of nuclear weapons in the Third World, for example, on the Indian sub­ continent. Unfortunately, the august body that is the International Court of Justice (the ICJ) did not live up to its task when it had the opportunity to clarify the position in international law with regard to the legality of nuclear weapons. The World Health Organisation ( W H O ) had asked for an Advis­ ory Opinion on this matter, inter alia, as such weapons appeared to be contrary to the W H O Constitution. The ICJ, in giving a most evasive Opinion,

301

did not come down squarely on either side and its Opinion

clarifies little. The C o u r t

302

could not find 'any comprehensive and univer­

sal prohibition' in international law of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. 2 9 7

298

2 9 9

3 0 0

301

302

Above, in this Chapter, B ii. On the overlap of underlying obligations, see above and my Essays, 116ff. On naval mines, see above, in this Chapter, B ii, iv. O'Connell, Influence of Law on Sea Power, 157. Advisory Opinion on the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict, ICJ, Reports, 1996, 66. But see separate opinion by Judge Higgins. With three Judges dissenting: Judges Koroma, Shahabuddeen and Weeramantry.

250

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

O n the other hand, it conceded that the use of force by nuclear weapons, contrary to article 2(4) a n d incompatible with article 51 (on self-defence), is illegal; but then any use of force contrary to 2(4) is illegal if it fails to meet the requirements of article 51. To confuse the issue the Court added that the threat of use of nuclear weapons would 'generally be contrary to the rules of international law' b u t the Court could not bring itself to pronounce 'definitely' on the legality of use in 'extreme circumstances of self-defence in which the very survival of the State [was] at stake.' O n the other hand, the public outcry in the 1990s when France re-started testing nuclear devices and when India and Pakistan conducted their own tests may indicate that it is only a question of (perhaps a short) time before nuclear weapons are declared illegal by a worldwide convention. These recent nuclear tests have been commented on in the most condemnatory terms and the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) stated in 1998 that 'Although the international norm against nuclear testing em­ bodied in the CTBT is now universally accepted. . . India's steadfast refusal to sign the treaty continued to cast doubt on whether it would enter into full legal force' [emphasis a d d e d ] .

303

D . Radiological w e a p o n s The United Nations a n d the Disarmament Bodies

304

have for some time

taken an interest in limiting or prohibiting the use of radiological weapons. By General Assembly Resolution 2602 C (XXIV) in 1969

305

the

General Assembly invited the Committee on the Conference of Disarma­ ment (CCD) to consider radiological weapons. But the CCD at that time had other priorities and did not proceed with a study. The General Assem­ bly requested the C C D further ence ( C D )

3 0 7

306

and later also the Disarmament Confer­

to proceed to work on an agreement to prohibit new

weapons of mass destruction including, inter alia, radiological weapons. The Disarmament Conference has placed the item on the agenda for future negotiation.

308

Essentially, radiological warfare may be conducted by two methods. First, such warfare may imply the use of 'dirty' nuclear weapons which 303

3 0 5

3 0 6

307

3 0 4

SIPRI, Yearbook 1998, 429. On the CTBT see above, Ch. 3, C iii. Above, Ch. 3, C iii. Cf. GA Resolution 3479(XXX) 1975; 34/87A 1979; 35/156 G 1980. Resolutions 31/74 1976; 32/84 A 1977; 33/66B 1978; 34/79 1979. Res. 35/149 1980. See Ch. 3, C iii. CD/732, 111 and CD/722, 1986. 3 0 8

RESTRICTIONS

ON

WEAPONS

251

maximise radioactive effects by increasing radioactive fallout. Secondly, separate radioactive agents independent of nuclear explosions can be used as special weapons. It is the second type of warfare or weapons that the General Assembly has invited CCD/CD to consider so that work could be initiated for the purpose of establishing a 'prohibitive r e g i m e ' .

309

Sweden insisted that

'dirty' nuclear weapons should also be included in the mandate, as well as particle beam weapons which have not always come within the ambit of the term 'nuclear explosive device' as used in C C D / C D Groups,

310

Working

but a decision limiting the scope of interest as indicated was

preferred.

E. Biological a n d chemical w e a p o n s i. CBW: the c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d Biological and chemical weapons are usually referred to in the reverse order as CBW, an abbreviation dating from the time when it was not known that agreement would be reached on biological weapons long before there was any ad idem on chemical weapons. Initially the two types of weapon had a similar history in the evolution of their prohibition and were treated together in negotiations. These weapons are 'different' from others and perhaps 'stand in a class of their own as armaments which exercise their effect solely on living m a t t e r ' .

311

They are 'aimed' at destroying large groups

rather than individual soldier(s).

312

The two types of weapons have formed

the subject of numerous lengthy negotiations in recent years. The main reason that it has become important to reach agreement on the limitation of these weapons is that they have been developed and used extensively in modern conflicts by 'scientific' warfare;

313

such weapons have also been

increasingly used in recent wars, such as in the Iran-Iraq War, the Gulf War and in numerous wars in Africa.

3 0 9

3 1 0

3 . 1

3 . 2

3 . 3

Cf. Netherlands, WP, CCD/291; Joint US-USSR Proposal, 1979, GAOR, 34th Sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/34/27 and Corr. 1, Appendix III; CD/53 and Corr.l, vol. II; CD/31 and CD/32; Joint US-USSR Draft Resolution 1979; and GA Res. 34/87 A 1979. See, e.g., Report of Working Group, GAOR, 35th sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/35/27, para. 61. United Nations, Chemical Bacteriological, Biological Weapons and the Effects of their Possible Use, 1969, S.69.1.24. Cf. above, in this Chapter on weapons of mass destruction. A. Beaufre, La guerre revolutionnaire, Paris, 1972, 237.

252

RULES ON

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a. The historical

background

The use of poisoned weapons, or the poisoning of the enemy's water supply, is not new. There are known instances of, for example, water poisoning dating from a r o u n d 600 BC when Solon of Athens poisoned the water in Pleistos; and Frederick Barbarossa took Tortona in 1155 by a similar strategy. Akin practices include throwing plague victims over city walls to spread disease, as the Tartars did in Caffa in 1343.

314

In the

sixteenth century, Europeans gave or sold infected utensils to poison the indigenous population of A m e r i c a

315

and many States resorted to such

weapons in their colonialisation processes.

316

After the establishment of colonies it became c o m m o n to use CBW against insurgents, for example to drive them out of caves or hiding places, as did the French in Algeria in the middle of last century. doubt the British used gas in the Boer W a r .

b. Modern

317

There is no

318

times

The Hague Regulations of 1899 and 1907 p r o h i b i t

319

'poison or poisoned

weapons'. This is the first clear prohibition of CBW and it is clear that it covers weapons deliberately contaminated with germs or poisonous agents. But it is unclear whether this prohibition covers gas. Some have interpreted the prohibition to mean only the actual use of poisonous agents, alone or applied to w e a p o n s ,

320

whereas others have held that the prohibition, by

implication, also covers g a s .

3 . 4

3 . 5

3 . 6

3 . 7

3 1 8

3 2 0

321

321

It has been claimed the Great Plague started in this way. For a list of early uses of CBW, see D. Riche, La guerre chimique et biologique, Paris, 1982, 305. See also background examples in SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, a Study on the Historical, Technical, Military, Legal and Political Aspects of CBW and Possible Disarmament Measures, Stockholm 1971-8, 6 vols. S. Rose, (ed.) Chemical and Biological Warfare, Boston, 1969, 49. Cf. J. A. Farrer, Military Manners and Customs, London, 1885, 173. P. J. Proudhon, La guerre et la paix. Recherches sur le principle et la constitution du droit des gens, Paris, 1927, 241. J. B. Kelly, 'Gas warfare in international law', MilLR, 1960, 5. By article 23(e). McDougal and Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Order, 1961,663. H. Kelsen, Principles of International Law, 2nd edn, 1966, 97. 3 , 9

RESTRICTIONS

ON

253

WEAPONS

c. The question of gas (1) The application of early rules The question of whether or not gas was prohibited under various regulations became, over the years, a most fre­ quently discussed and controversial question. In the Vietnam War, for example, the question of the prohibition of gas and other similar chemical and biological weapons was at the core of legal discussions on CWB. The use of CBWs was alleged in both World Wars; in the war in Abyssinia;

322

in the Chinese-Japanese W a r ;

Iran-Iraq W a r .

323

in V i e t n a m ;

324

and in the

325

There was some doubt whether the Gas Declaration of 1899 implied only actually 'lethal* gas or other 'control agents' like tear gas and herbicides as well.

326

The Hague Regulations of 1 8 9 9

opinion of many cover chemical warfare.

327

329

and of 1 9 0 7

328

d o not in the

But others have looked m o r e to

the spirit than to the letter of the Regulations and held that chemical weapons are covered by the provisions.

330

Different interpretations depend largely on whether or not a 'policy' prohibition was intended by the Hague Regulations, that is whether it sought to prohibit chemical and biological warfare, an attempt which at the time was envisaged as practically feasible.

331

Another line would be to

inquire whether one could rely on the analogy between, for example, creating a contaminated water supply and the use of g a s .

322

4

332

A third position

Ch. Rousseau, Le conflit italo-ethiopien', RGDIP, 1937, 692. See LJOJ, 19th session, 1938, Plenary Meeting, Spec. Suppl., 136,307; for League Resolution see 378. W. D. Verwey, Riot Control Agents and Herbicides in War, Leiden, 1977. E.g. UN, CD/PV 130, 1981, 29; the Security Council condemned the use of CBW and urged belligerents to abstain from resorting to such weapons without alleging that such use had occurred. Note that both belligerents are bound by the Geneva Protocol: Iran acceded on 5 November 1929 and Iraq on 8 September 1931. For allegations on the use of mustard gas and tabun by Iraq, see CD 1315, 16 April 1985. 326 Verwey, Riot, 224-5. Article 23(a), Convention II. Article 23(a), Convention IV. E.g. McDougal and Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order, 663. Greenspan, The Modern Law of Land Warfare, 359. M. Bothe, Das völkerrechtliche Verbot des Einsatzes chemischer und bakteriologischer Waffen, Cologne, 1973; Kelsen, Principles, 117; W. G. M. van Eysinga, 'La guerre chimique et le movement pour sa repression', 16 RCADI1927, i, 347. Greenspan, The Modern Law of Land Warfare, 359. Cf. Neinast, 'United States use of biological warfare', 24 MilLR, 1964, 27. Stone, Legal Controls, 557.

323

324

3 2 5

3 2 7

3 2 8

3 2 9

3 3 0

331

332

254

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

would be to hold that only specific weapons, as indicated by the wording of the Regulations, were p r o h i b i t e d .

333

In connection with the prohibition of d u m - d u m bullets by the Hague Declaration in 1 8 9 9

334

there was another Declaration to 'Abstain from the

Use of Projectiles the Sole Object of Which is the Diffusion of Asphyxiating or Deleterious G a s e s ' .

335

The question of'sole object* was to be assessed by

comparing the proportions of the gas and splinter effects of a projectile; but the Declaration was open as to the 'gases' to which it applied.

336

Certain States interpreted the Declaration literally and, since it pro­ hibited dispersion of gas by projectiles, saw themselves as legally entitled to disperse it from stationary cylinders. Germany, for example, resorted to this practice in the First World War, relying on the actual wording, rather than the spirit, of the Declaration.

337

O n the other hand, it was claimed by analogy with the 1868 St Petersburg Declaration

338

that there was already a prohibition on all chemical and

biological w e a p o n s .

339

It may be questionable whether one could stretch the

wording of the St Petersburg Declaration that f a r

340

but it could be argued,

on the other hand, that such an analogy could be drawn with the prohib­ itions contained in the Hague Regulations.

341

The Versailles Treaty concluded after the First World War stated that 'the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and all analogous liquids, materials or devices being prohibited, their manufacture and importation are strictly forbidden in G e r m a n y . '

342

The wording suggests that the 'use' of

gas and 'analogous' substances would be prohibited previously everywhere for military purposes. The language chosen by the Draft Treaty of Wash­ ington of 1 9 2 2

343

suggests a similar attitude of mind in its provisions on

this point. The Treaty provides that: The use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and all analogous liquids, material and devices, having been justly condemnedby 3 3 3

334

3 3 5

3 3 6

3 3 9

3 4 0

341

3 4 2

3 4 3

the general opinion of

J. L. Kunz, Gaskrieg und Völkerrecht, 1927, 26. Above, in this Chapter, B v on small calibre weapons. Declaration IV (2) 1899, Concerning Asphyxiating Gases, 26 NRGT, 2 serie, 1002; 1 AJIL 1907, Suppl., 155. Like the other Hague Declaration, above, there were clear undertakings in the form of a treaty. Most military powers were bound by this treaty; United Kingdom ratified it in 1907. Kunz, Gaskrieg, 81. Cf. Stone, Legal Controls, 556. Above, in this Chapter, B v. Greenspan, The Modern Law of Land Warfare, 360. Cf. Castren, The Present Law of War and Neutrality, 1954, 190. Above, and article 23(e). Article 171; cf. the Treaties of St. Germain, article 135; Neuilly, article 82; Trianon, article 119. 16 AJIL 1922, Suppl. 57. 3 3 7

3 3 8

RESTRICTIONS

ON

255

WEAPONS

the civilised world and a prohibition of such use having been declared in Treaties to which a majority of the civilised Powers are parties, the Signatory Powers, to the end that this prohibition shall be accepted as a part of International Law binding alike on the conscience a n d practice of nations, declare their assent to such prohibition, and agree to be b o u n d thereby as between themselves and invite all other civilised nations to adhere thereto [emphasis a d d e d ] .

344

On the one hand, the statement seems to indicate that the drafters refer to a previous condemnation of the use of gas (and analogous substances). Some find it questionable whether general international law had, at that time, condemned the use of g a s .

345

But which are the Treaties to which the

statement refers? The Peace Treaties, which had used a similar wording, or the 1899-1907 Regulations? Additionally, the reference to the intention to 'invite' others to 'accept' the prohibition probably contradicts the earlier half of the statement. This pronouncement, however, even if only in the form of a Draft Treaty, is possibly indicative of attitudes, and appears to have some legal signification in that respect, especially as the wording is reiterated by the subsequent Geneva Protocol. (2) The Geneva Gas Protocol By the Geneva Gas Protocol of 1 9 2 5 ,

346

the

parties refer to a similar but, chronologically earlier condemnation of the use of gas and similar agents. The Protocol provides that 'Whereas the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases and of all analogous liquids, material or devices, has been justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilised world; and Whereas the prohibition of such use has been declared in Treaties to which the majority of the Powers of the World are Parties'.

347

The reference to a condemnation from sources outside the

ambit of the P r o t o c o l

348

as to 'treaties' is, especially when read in conjunc­

tion with earlier statements,

349

a most important element in assessing the

scope of the prohibition and/or in interpreting what the underlying 'treaties', presumably the Hague Regulations, in the opinion of the Con­ tracting Parties to the Geneva Protocol, implied. The text of the Protocol is very short and consists in a Declaration to the effect that the Parties 'accept' insofar as they are not already b o u n d to do so, the (already existing) 'prohibition' (of the use of gas etc.) and 'agree 344

347

3 4 9

3 4 5

3 4 6

Article 5. Thomas and Thomas. Legal Limits, 66. 94 LNTS (1929) 65. Preamble of the Protocol. Cf. comments above, Ch. 5, C v on the ethics of warfare. Cf. Draft Treaty of Washington, 1922, above, Ch. 3, C iii a. 3 4 8

256

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

to extend this prohibition to 'the use of bacteriological methods of war­ fare'. The text thus indicates first, that the clause outlawing certain weapons in the Hague Regulations is to be interpreted, in the opinion of Contract­ ing Parties, as also covering gas and associated substances. The Contract­ ing Parties to the Geneva Protocol include all the major military powers who were b o u n d by the Hague Convention of 1907 and by the Hague Regulations. Secondly, the wording indicates that, since the prohibition is reiterated and strengthened, the abuse of using stationary gas dispensers, or other use of gas, as took place in the First World W a r

3 5 0

will discontinue.

The Protocol regime is riddled with a network of reservations.

351

Most

of the reservations are modelled on that made by France to the effect that application of the prohibitions will be on the basis of strict reciprocity,

352

such reciprocity implying that a party is released from its obligations under the Protocol the m o m e n t another party to a conflict ceases to respect its obligations. It is clear that such a system undermines the legal regulation of the Protocol. There are different interpretations of the Geneva Protocol, especially as to whether it covers herbicides and tear gas, i.e. agents which are not lethal to m a n . A semantic element has been of importance when assessing whether the Protocol covers tear gas and other riot agents. The English version of the Protocol indicates that the Protocol prohibits 'asphyxiating, poisonous and other gases', whereas the French text forbids 'gaz as­ phyxiants,

toxiques ou similaires\

The 'other' in the English version is

probably wider than the 'ou similaires in the French text.

353

But even the French text could be interpreted as extending the applica­ tion of the Protocol to include, for example, chemical agents which are not normally lethal to man: if the word 'similaires' had n o such extending function it would be superfluous.

354

The usefulness of the Geneva P r o t o c o l 3 5 0

351

3 5 2

3 5 3

3 5 4

3 5 5

355

was greatly undermined by the

But the Red Cross was less convinced that use of gas would cease. The ICRC reminded States signatories of the Geneva Convention of 1864 as revised in 1906 that protection of civilians against 'chemical war' was a 'national matter'. National committees of the Red Cross should consider suitable protective equipment against gas attacks, R1CR, 1930, 15. For a fragmentation of obligations, see my Essays, 117. See below, Ch. 12, B ii. J. Miramanoff, La Croix Rouge et les armes biologiques et chimiques, Geneva, 1970, 344. Cf. H. Meyrowitz, 'Les armes psychochimiques et le droit international', AFDI1964, 94. Cf. R. Baxter and T. Buergenthal, 'Legal aspects of the Geneva Protocol of 1925', A//L, 1970,853.

RESTRICTIONS

ON

WEAPONS

257

absence of the United States from the ratifying parties. The United States did not adhere to the Protocol until 1975; and even then, its adherence was marred by a reservation which exempts tear gas and herbicides from the application of the P r o t o c o l ,

356

a clear reminder of their use in the

Vietnam War. Both the British and the French governments agreed at the 1930 Disarmanent Conference gas.

358

357

that the Protocol covered, for example, tear

However, the United States disagreed stating that, since tear gas is

legal in peacetime for riot control, it must also be legal in w a r .

359

The United States has held that the use of chemical and biological weapons is a matter of 'national policy'.

360

T h r o u g h o u t the Vietnam War

the United States emphasised that it is not a party to any treaty which prohibits the use of toxic or non-toxic gases or the destruction of crops by chemicals 'harmless to m a n ' .

361

But the United States undoubtedly re-

sorted to the use of anti-personnel gas in V i e t n a m .

362

The United Kingdom, although more interested in having tear gas allowed than herbicides, took a similar position long after its adherence to the Protocol. Although it made n o formal reservation to this effect the United Kingdom claimed that it was not b o u n d by any prohibitions on the use of tear gas. This change of attitude by the United Kingdom was due to its need to use tear gas to control u n r e s t ,

363

mainly in Northern

Ireland. The reason for the alleged legality of this gas is, it was claimed, that 'modern' tear gas is so 'mild' that there is n o reason why it should be prohibited. It does, for example, not come under any prohibition in the Geneva Protocol which was drafted when tear gas implied something different from t o d a y . 3 5 6

357

358

3 5 9

3 6 0

361

362

3 6 3

364

364

14 ILM 1975,49. Cf. J. N. Moore, 'Ratification of the Geneva Protocol on gas and bacteriological warfare; a legal and political analysis', 3 VirLR, 1972, 419. On the Conference, above, Ch. 3, C iii. League of Nations, Preparatory Commission, Disarmament Conference, 1931, X, 6th sess., 311. Ibid., 312. US, Dept of the Army, FM 3-10, Employment of Chemical and Biological Agents, 1966, 4. US, Dept of the Army, FM 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare, 1965, 18; United States Congress, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Chemical and Biological Warfare: United States Policies and International Effects, Washington D.C., 1970; US Congress, Committee on Foreign Relations, The Geneva Protocol of ¡925, Hearing Before 92nd Congress 1st sess., Washington DC, 1972. For a list of types authorised to General Westmoreland in 1965, see H. Weiler, Vietnam, Montreux, 1969, 250-1. The UK government has always emphasised that the use is limited to 'internal' affairs, in its own country. Statement by the Foreign Secretary, 795 HC, 1970 col. 18.

2 8

RULES ON

5

BELLIGERENCE

An extensive interpretation of the Geneva Protocol is, by some, founded on the alleged existence of rules outside the Protocol prohibiting all biochemical weapons. This view appears reasonable.

365

Such a wide inter­

pretation has been endorsed by Resolutions of the UN General Assem­ bly,

366

some of which have specifically referred to the ambit of the Geneva

Protocol as covering gas which affects not only h u m a n beings but plants.

367

The Resolution thus prohibits:

(a) any chemical agent of warfare - chemical substances, whether gaseous, liquid or solid - which might be employed because of their direct toxic effect on man, animals or plants; (b) any biological agents of warfare - living organisms, whatever their nature, or infective material derived from them - which are intended to cause disease or death in man, animals or plants and which depend for their effects on their ability to multiply in the person, animal or plant attacked, [emphasis added].

There were serious drafting ambiguities. Thus, 'intention' is required for biological weapons but not under (a) for chemical weapons. Furthermore, the threshold of injury confusingly appears to be higher for biological weapons than for chemical weapons: 'toxic effects' are surely less drastic than 'disease and death'. But in spite of drafting technicalities, the Resolution is an important expression of the attitude of a n u m b e r of States on the ambit of the Geneva Protocol which must carry some weight as far as the interpretation of its provisions is concerned. There was m u c h interest within the United Nations in encouraging further research into the use of CBW with a view to prohibiting such weapons through a Convention. The Secretary General carried out a study on the subject

368

and there were a great n u m b e r of Resolutions on the

subject by the General Assembly. 3 6 5

3 6 6

3 6 7

368

3 6 9

369

There have also been a number of

Cf. Y. Sandoz, Des armes interdites en droit de la guerre, Geneva, 1975,88; G. Fischer, 'Les armes chimiques et bactériologiques', AFDI1969, 127; cf. the view of the Secretary General. For example, Res. 2162 B (XXI) 1966; 2454 A (XXIII) 1968. For example, the 21 Power Resolution 2601 A(XXIV) 1969 emphasised that the Geneva Protocol embodies the generally recognised rules of international law prohibiting the use in international armed conflicts of all biological and chemical methods of warfare, regardless of any technical development. Report by the Secretary General on Chemical and Bacteriological (Biological) Weapons and the Effects of Their Potential Use, 1969, E.69.1.24. GA Res. 2262 (XXV) 1970; 2827 A (XXVI) 1971; 2933 (XXVII) 1972; 3077 (XXVIII) 1973; 3256 (XXIX) 1974; 3465 (XXX) 1975; 31/65 1976; 32/77 1977; S-10/2. 33/71 A and 33/71 H 1978, 34/72 1979; 35/144 A.B, C 1980; 37/98 1982; 38/187 1983.

RESTRICTIONS

ON

259

WEAPONS

relevant resolutions and comprehensive studies in the specialised agencies, such as the World Health Organisation. (3) Efforts of disarmament ference ( E N C D )

371

370

bodies The Eighteen Power Disarmament Con­

considered prohibiting CBWs. The USSR Draft Treaty

on General and Complete Disarmament covered, inter alia, such weapons, as did the more limited United States Draft Basic Provisions. Committee of the Conference of Disarmament ( C C D ) United Kingdom Draft submitted in 1 9 6 9

374

373

372

Later the

considered a

and a Draft Convention

proposed by the then 'East European', i.e. communist, c o u n t r i e s .

375

It soon

became apparent that the treatment of the two types of weapon should be separated as there seemed to be good reason to suppose that agreement could more easily be reached on biological than on chemical weapons.

ii. Biological w e a p o n s (BWs) a. Provisions of the 1972

Convention

The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and Their Destruction (BWC) was concluded in 1972.

376

By this Convention, States

undertake not to develop, produce or stockpile certain weapons, i.e. microbial or other biological agents, or toxins, whatever their origin or method of production, of types or in quantities that have n o justification for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes; and weapons, equipment or means of delivery designed to use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed conflict. It is to be noted that toxins are included in the BWC together with biological agents although, strictly speaking, they are chemicals.

377

All parties undertake to destroy, not later

than nine months after the entry into force of the Convention, all such agents, weapons or equipment. 3 7 0

371

372

373

3 7 5

3 7 6

377

WHA, Resolutions, 2054.1967; 22.58.1969; 23.53.1970; Exe. Res.EB45.R17 s.d.; see, WHO, Public Health and Chemical and Biological Weapons, 1970. Above, Ch. 3, C iii. DCOR, Suppl. 1961, Docs DC/203, Annex I, Sect.C; ENDC/2 and F; ENDC/30, DC 205, Annex 1, Sect.D; ENDC/2/Add.l and E and F; ENDC/30/Add.l and 2. Above, Ch. 3, C iii. DCOR, Suppl. 1969, Doc. ENDC/225. GAOR, 24th sess., item 104, A/7655. Cf. GA Res. 2826 (XXVI) 1971. The Convention entered into force on 23 March 1975. Cf., for background, Report by Secretary General, 1969, A/7575, Rev.l, S/9292, Rev. 1. N. Sims, 'Biological and toxic weapons issues in the 1986 Review Conference', Faraday Discussion Paper No. 7, London, 1986, 6. 374

260

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

Some have called this Convention the 'first' disarmament C o n v e n t i o n

378

but it may be questioned whether such qualification adds much to its impact: since States are only obliged to destroy biological agents above a certain quantitative limit, a limit at which stock levels are deemed to indicate non-peaceful purposes, the agents will still exist and hence consti­ tute 'potential weapons', if States have sufficient time to grow their peace­ time stocks of such agents. The Convention prohibits the transfer, or assistance to other States, or groups of States or to international organisations of biological agents.

379

But the Convention is silent on the transfer of those agents to individuals, groups of individuals or, for example, to liberation movements or guerilla groups. The Convention thus does not appear to prohibit the export of any biological agent such as herbicide, for example, in any quantities or to any individual, group or body. The States Parties to the Convention u n d e r t a k e

380

to implement the

provisions of the Convention in their respective territories according to their constitutional provisions

381

but there is no obligation restraining a

State from transferring agents and toxins, weapons or equipment covered by the Convention to individuals or a group of individuals elsewhere if they buy from different sources. And what if they, in turn, transfer these agents to other States? But the 'use' of biological weapons is not prohibited, despite successive United Kingdom Drafts urging such extension. Yet, if a biological weapon is 'used', a prior violation of article a (on developing, possessing and stockpiling) can be inferred from such ' u s e ' .

382

Similar comments may be

made with respect to transferring an agent for someone else's 'use'. Parties are also under some duty to 'facilitate' technical information for peaceful purposes and they have, under the Convention, also a right to participate in such information. A vague obligation on cooperation in this respect is laid down in the C o n v e n t i o n

383

but a more specific duty exists

with regard to developing nations: the Convention shall be 'implemented' in a m a n n e r designed to 'avoid hampering' the economic or technological development of parties to the Convention. A considerable weakness of the Convention is the lack of verification 3 7 8

3 8 1

3 8 2

3 8 3

3 7 9

3 8 0

Rosas, The Legal Status of Prisoners of War, 32. Article III. Article IV. On transformation, see above, Ch. 6, B ii. N. Sims, 'Reform of the 1972 Convention on Biological and Toxin Weapons', Issues Arising for the Second Review Conference, MS, 1985, 14. Article X(l).

RESTRICTIONS

methods.

384

ON

26l

WEAPONS

States only bind themselves to cooperate and consult to solve

any arising p r o b l e m .

385

It has been questioned whether 'clarification' of

Article V could ever be widened to include institutions to assess alleged violations or reciprocal on-site inspections.

386

But here there are two distinct problems which entail different solutions. By the theory of 'implied powers' and/or the theory of 'competence of competence' as understood and developed by some w r i t e r s ,

387

institutions

can always be created to safeguard and implement the objectives of a treaty. Powers to 'assess' violations would certainly come within that scope. But the notion of on-site inspections, implying territorial access to a State, widens the framework of powers granted under a treaty. Further consent by States is therefore required for such an enlargement of p o w e r s .

388

If States

give their consent, such inspections can be allowed o n a reciprocal or wider basis and this would, at least from the point of the theory of treaties, be 9

construed as a de facto revision?*

unless action is taken by the Security

Council under Chapter VII of the C h a r t e r .

390

This weakness in the field of verification was, to some extent, remedied after the Third Review Conference in 1991 which set u p VEREX, an ad hoc body of governmental experts who were requested to examine potential verification measures from a scientific and technical s t a n d p o i n t .

391

State

parties decided in 1994 to establish a 'Group', open to all parties, to consider further appropriate measures to strengthen the Convention. There is an interesting duty to uphold the rules of the Convention to assist another State Party whose rights under the Convention have been violated, provided the violated State requests assistance and the Security Council has pronounced itself to the effect that there has been a violation.

392

But by an important additional agreement of 26 September 1986 the United States, the then Soviet Union and 101 other States agreed to strengthen the implementation of the 1972 Treaty. Parties have now as­ sumed an obligation to call p r o m p t meetings to examine alleged violations, to initiate action under the United Nations, or to request assistance by the specialised agencies.

393

An inquiry into alleged violations, as, for example, in the claim by Iran 384

3 8 5

387

3 8 9

3 9 0

391

But a special Verification Protocol is being negotiated: see Review Conference, 1996. Article V. Sims, 'Reform of the 1972 Convention', 19. See my Law Making, 29fT. See my Independent State, 197. See my Law Making, 37flf and my Essays, 7Iff. For example the UNSCOM mission; see below, Ch. 11, B. VEREX held meetings in 1992-3. Article VII. BWX/CONF.II/11, 1986. 3 8 6

3 8 8

3 9 2

3 9 3

262

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

that Iraq has used biological weapons in the Jofeir area and on the Madjn o u m Islands, resulted in the condemnation of the use of those weapons, even before any assertion of guilt of the belligerents.

394

There is an interesting duty to uphold the rules of the Convention to assist another State party whose rights under the Convention have been violated, provided the violated State requests assistance and the Security Council has pronounced itself to the effect that there has been a viol­ ation.

395

In other words, it is for the Security Council to decide whether

violations have taken place, at least if they are to engender what may be called 'solidarity assistance' by other Parties. Secondly, it is rare to find a provision in treaty law by which innocent Parties are under a duty to assist another innocent Party, whose treaty rights have been violated. Such assistance increases the substantive obli­ gations of other Parties although it must be queried as to how, and in what form, and in what circumstances such assistance would actually be given. It is often wrongly assumed that the Convention prohibits research on toxins; but there is n o provision in the Convention to this effect.

396

This

is a general limitation of the Convention's impact as research and devel­ o p m e n t are invariably interlinked. Even if verification is difficult with regard to research, a ban would have enhanced the effectiveness of the Convention.

b. The Review Conference

mechanism

The Convention provides for the convening of Review Conferences

397

to

analyse the operation of the Convention, especially in the light of new scientific and technical developments. Thus the First Review Conference in 1980 considered the ebola, lassa and marburg viruses as well as the legionella bacterium, all of which had been identified by medical research since the conclusion of the 1972 C o n v e n t i o n .

398

But there was no need to

revise the Convention. Subsequent Review Conferences were held in 1991 and in 1996.

3 9 5

Report by a Delegation Sent by the Secretary General S/l 6433, 1984. Article VII. The United Kingdom Working Paper had proposed such prohibition. See Sims, 'Reform of the 1972 Convention', 5-6. Article XII. Sims, 'Reform of the 1972 Convention', 30. 3 9 8

RESTRICTIONS

ON

263

WEAPONS

iii. Chemical w e a p o n s ( C W s ) a. Separate treatment

of chemical and biological weapons

(CBW)

The reason for treating biological and chemical weapons separately was mainly that some States were more optimistic about reaching an agreement on biological weapons. But a special article was inserted in the Biological Weapons Convention when that treaty was concluded to the effect that the 399

Committee on Disarmament (as it then w a s ) was urged to continue negotiations for a Chemical Weapons Convention. Thirteen years later there has still not been any agreement on such weapons.

b. Regulation

by special

treaties

Some chemical weapons are forbidden in other treaties. Thus, the Hague Regulations

400

and the Geneva Gas P r o t o c o l

401

clearly cover some ground.

Furthermore, toxins have been forbidden by the Biological Weapons Con­ vention,

402

although technically speaking they are chemical, not biological,

weapons.

c. Various

drafts

In 1972 a Draft Convention on chemical weapons was submitted to C C D , proposing a comprehensive approach based on a 'purpose criterion' which would establish whether or not the production of chemicals of certain types or in certain quantities had any peaceful justification.

403

Another proposal

which was put forward the following year by ten non-aligned States elabor­ ated proposals for verification by, for example (as suggested by Sweden), involving the simultaneous application of different verification methods to enhance compliance with the substantive obligations.

404

Another Draft Convention, presented by Japan in 1974, was based on the 'purpose criterion', providing for a gradual elimination of chemical weapons; 3 9 9

401

4 0 3

4 0 5

4 0 6

405

numerous Working Papers were also p r o d u c e d . 4 0 0

406

See above, Ch. 3, C iii, on the disarmament bodies. Above, Ch. 5, A. Above, in this Chapter, D i C (2). Above, in this Chapter, D ii. CDOR, 1972, CCD/361. CCD/400,1973 and GAOR, 28th sess., Suppl. No. 31, A/9141. CCD/420 1974, and GAOR 29th sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/9627. See modifications proposed by Japan, CCD/483 1976 and GAOR, 31st sess., Suppl. 27, A/31/27, Annex III. See Working Papers by Canada, Finland, Federal Republic of Germany and Sweden, GAOR 29th sess., Suppl No. 27, A/10027 Annex II. 4 0 2

4 0 4

RULES ON

264

BELLIGERENCE

A Draft Convention was produced by the United Kingdom in 1976 as an attempt to combine constructive elements of earlier drafts with new sug­ gestions for the initial stages of implementation. The Draft prohibits all lethal chemical agents and toxic chemical agents that might cause longterm physical effects. Proposals for on-site verification would, as the United Kingdom delegation suggested, be subject to separate negotiations.

407

A Joint Report by the then USSR and the United States was elaborated in 1979408

o

n

t

h

e

D a s

i

s

0

f

a

n

earlier understanding between the two Powers in

1974409 a t the most dangerous lethal chemical weapons must be outlawed t n

by a convention. A further Joint Report was elaborated in 1980.

410

A further

Draft Convention was submitted to CD by the United States in 1984.

411

The

United States Draft includes verification procedures which envisage inspec­ tion of all military or government-owned 'localities and facilities'. Such a formula may appear both too broad, by including government-owned establishments which have no connection with chemical weapons, and too narrow, by excluding the private sector of chemical industry.

d. The 1993 Chemical A Draft, elaborated in 1 9 8 5 ,

413

Weapons Convention

412

(CWC)

was, after n u m e r o u s amendments, finally

adopted as a Convention in 1993 and entered into force in 1996. It is based, as n u m e r o u s earlier proposals, on distinguishing between the level of toxicity of certain chemicals. It also introduces some new categories in this respect. Thus, it makes a distinction between 'super-toxic' chemicals, 'other lethal chemicals', and 'other harmful' chemicals.

414

Under the C W C , each State Party undertakes not to develop, produce, acquire, stockpile, retain or transfer any chemical weapons (CWs); nor will they use, or prepare to use, such weapons and they also bind themselves not to assist or encourage others to engage in any activity prohibited by the Convention. Parties will destroy CWs, as well as its CW production facilities, in all areas under their jurisdiction, or which they have left in the territory of another State. 4 0 7

4 0 9

4 M

4 . 2

4 . 3

4 0 8

CCD/512 1976. CD 53 and Corr. 1 and CD/48 1979. CCD/431, GAOR 29th sess., Suppl. No. 27, A.9627, Annex II. CD/112 1980. CD/500 1984. Sims, 'Chemical weapons, control or chaos', 8; see further, in detail, J. P. P. Robinson, Disarmament and other Options for Western Policy Making on Chemical Warfare, (NATO), 1985. CD/636, 1985. CD/636, 1985, Draft, Article 2(a), (b) and (c). 4 , 0

4 , 4

RESTRICTIONS

ON

26

WEAPONS

5

The formulation raises several important legal questions. H o w will destruction of CWs in another State be made without violating article 2(7) of the Charter on the 'reserved domain* where a sovereign State has exclusive control except for gross violations of h u m a n rights and other excesses?

415

How can a State like Sweden, which claims 'universal jurisdic­ 416

tion' for all crimes committed everywhere

delimit the areas where CWs

must be destroyed? Presumably, the 'areas under jurisdiction' merely means the geographical areas of States. Yet, considering that the Conven­ tion was negotiated over some ten years, the terminology could have been clearer. It was not so difficult to reach agreement on the super-toxic chemicals,

417

which were prohibited outright. However, there was m o r e hesitation with regard to whether those of a lower toxicity may be allowed for 'non-hostile' purposes, such as industrial and agricultural research, and medical pur­ poses as well as for 'domestic law enforcement p u r p o s e s ' .

418

The Convention also considers 'binary weapons' which have attracted much attention in recent years. Such weapons rely on substances which per se are not of any toxic significance but which, combined on delivery or impact, generate an extremely toxic substance.

419

The Convention uses the term 'precursors' to mean chemical agents which take part in the production of a toxic chemical and 'key precursors' to mean those precursors which pose a significant risk to the objectives of the Convention by virtue of their importance in the production of a toxic chemical.

420

The notion of 'precursors' can conveniently be used to de­

scribe both general CWs and certain binary weapons which will be p r o ­ hibited. Problems with regard to non-lethal chemical weapons still remain. Several types of non-lethal chemical are used in war. These uses are either 421

(as in the case of tear g a s ) to control the movements of the enemy; or (as in the case of smoke and incendiary devices) for other strategic reasons; or (in the case of LSD) to reduce the enemy's capabilities; 4 , 5

4 , 7

4 1 8

4 , v

4 2 2

4 2 3

4 , 6

423

422

or (in the

See below, Ch. 9 and 12, C. See my International Legal Order, 413ff. See the suggestion in the Draft Convention submitted by Japan in 1974, CCD 420 1974. Cf. ibid., article 3 which defines 'permitted purposes' or 'non-hostile purposes'. Ibid., article 11 ( 1). Article II 4 (a). CD/636. Above, in this Chapter, D i c. Thomas and Thomas, Legal Limits, 3. On policies advocating first use of CWs as 'legal', see J. P. Robinson, 'Disarmament and other options', International Affairs, 1986/7, 69; see further Robinson, Chemical Warfare Arms Control. Meyrowitz, 'Les armes psychochimiques', 81. 4 2 0

421

266

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

case of herbicides) to 'attack* vegetation rather than the enemy forces themselves.

424

Great attention has been focused on the degree of lethal effect of chemi­ cal weapons. There has been little agreement on the above-mentioned types of non-lethal chemical weapon which many States consider essential to warfare. Another problem is that States often consider certain such weapons useful for riot control in peace-time and therefore insist on having certain such weapons for 'peaceful purposes'. Secondly, chemicals like herbicides are necessary for agricultural pur­ poses and it will be difficult for any future Convention to regulate or restrict the use of herbicides as a means of warfare. The last comment may illustrate the particular difficulties of verification in this area. Yet, there has been a recent proposal to the effect that 'each State Party undertakes not to use herbicides as a method of warfare' and that 'such a prohibition should not preclude other use of herbicides'.

425

Legal regulation of chemical weapons means little unless it is coupled with stringent verification procedures. The main advance of the C W C is that, as the first weapons Convention, it provides an intricate and farreaching verification mechanism with on-site inspections. A special or­ ganisation, the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons ( O P C W ) , charged with controlling the implementation of the Convention, has been established in the Hague. The C W C does provide for effective verification, but years of negotiation preceded the willingness of States to allow inspection. The former Soviet Union agreed, in 1986, that it would be willing to allow on-site inspection of production sites.

426

This was a turning point in the development of the

regulation of CWs: until then many States normally referred to sites of possession alone. However, any reference to the on-site inspection of production plants is ambiguous: if the complete destruction of the State's industrial base has taken place in accordance with international undertak­ ings, there will be n o 'site' to inspect.

Above, in this Chapter, B ii f (2). Proposal by the Chairman of the 'Open-Ended Consultation', CD/836, 1985, Appendix I, 2, note. TASS Statement, 15 January 1986.

RESTRICTIONS

ON

26

WEAPONS

F. Environmental w e a p o n s

7

4 2 7

i. Specific p r o h i b i t i o n s in general treaties There has been a marked trend in recent years to consider the importance of the h u m a n e n v i r o n m e n t .

428

For example, 'material remnants' of war

pose a threat to the e n v i r o n m e n t

429

and formed the subject of special

regulation in the 1981 Weaponry C o n v e n t i o n .

430

Other harmful acts to the

environment were prohibited by Protocol I of 1977 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. The Protocol stipulates that it is prohibited 'to employ methods or means of warfare which are intended, or may be expected, to cause widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environ­ ment'.

431

This provision is slightly duplicated by a later article which

provides that: 1. Care shall be taken in warfare to protect the natural environment against wide-spread, long-term and severe damage. This protection includes a pro­ hibition of the use of methods or means of warfare which are intended or may be expected to cause such damage to the natural environment and thereby to prejudice the health or survival of the population. 2. Attacks against the natural environment by way of reprisals are pro­ hibited.

432

A further relevant provision in Protocol I of 1977, II

434

433

repeated in Protocol

is the prohibition against attacks on 'dangerous installations'.

435

These

are, for example, dams and dykes which when attacked can release danger­ ous forces (water) to the detriment of the environment and to the civilian 4 2 7

4 2 8

4 2 9

4 3 0

4 3 2

4 3 5

See below, Ch. 8, A on the relationship between weapons and methods. See e.g. the UN General Assembly Resolution on the Environment 2849 (XXVI) 1971 on the importance of the environment to mankind; the Declaration of the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment in 1972; on this see my article on 'The UN Special Conference on the Environment', in P. Taylor and J. Groom, (eds.) UN Special Conferences, London, 1987; later Resolutions of the General Assembly, e.g., 3154 (XXVIII) 1973 on the responsibility of the international society to preserve and enhance the natural environment; 3264 (XXIX) 1974, deploring pollution by ionising radiation from testing nuclear weapons. Study by United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), UNEP/G.C./INF./5; and GA Resolution 3435 (XXX) 1975 and Resolution IV of the Lima Conference of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Non-Aligned Countries, 1975, on Hazards of Material Remnants of War and Aggression; cf. G. Herczegh, 'La protection de l'environment et le droit humanitaire', in Etudes et essaies sur le droit humanitaire et sur les principes de la Croix Rouge en honneur de Jean Pictet, 1984, 725. Above, Ch. 7, A ii. Article 35(3). Article 55 on 'Protection of the Natural Environment'. Article 56. Article 15. Cf. below, Chapter 8, A iii b (7). 431

4 3 3

4 3 4

268

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

population. Of particular significance are attacks against nuclear installa­ tions which can cause considerable environmental damage. Attacks against such targets are prohibited by the 1977 P r o t o c o l s

436

and had been at the

recent attention of the Conference for Disarmament for further regula­ tion.

437

The 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea is also relevant to environ­ mental warfare: even if there are n o explicit provisions on protection of the marine environment against consequences of armed attacks, it is necessary to assume such p r o t e c t i o n

438

in the context of the provisions of the

Convention with regard to p o l l u t i o n .

439

Events in the Gulf War amply

illustrate hazards to the marine e n v i r o n m e n t .

440

But it is above all warfare on land that has contributed to the urgent need for a comprehensive Convention on environmental techniques. Defoliant action in V i e t n a m ,

441

although intended to have an impact on vegetation,

not only harmed combatants by chemical contamination but also had an extremely detrimental effect on the civilian population, both by exposing them to health hazards and by depriving them of crops and other means of survival.

ii. T h e E n - M o d C o n v e n t i o n of 1977 There has been special concern about influencing the environment, for example, by artificial rainfall or droughts, possibly leading to the disruption of the water and heat balance in a region and to the destruction of the ozone layer which protects the earth from the sun's ultra-violet rays. During discussions in the Conference of the Committee on Disarma­ ment (CCD) in 1 9 7 4

442

meteorological warfare. a Joint S t a t e m e n t

444

Sweden emphasised the importance of preventing 443

The United States and the former USSR urged in

that effective measures should be taken to prevent

environmental modification for military or 'other' hostile use. The United Nations General Assembly took resolution 3664 (XXIX) in 1974445 requesting CCD to adopt a Convention on the matter. New draft conventions, separate b u t identical, were submitted by the United States 4 3 6

4 3 8

4 4 1

4 4 3

4 4 5

4 3 7

Ibid. See CD, Report, 1985. Cf. SIPRI, The Law of War, 63. UN, Study of the Naval Arms Race, 153. Part XII. Ibid. Above, this Chapter, A ii f (2). GAOR, 29th sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/9627, paras. 157 ff. A/9698, Annex 4. A/9627, paras. 158 ff. On the basis of a revised USSR Draft Resolution and Convention, endorsed by 23 States; cf. A/C.l/1,675 and Rev.l. 4 3 9

4 4 2

4 4 4

4 4 0

RESTRICTIONS

and by the then USSR in 1 9 7 5 .

446

ON

269

WEAPONS

The text was discussed and revised

447

both

after discussion in CCD and in the First Committee of the General Assem­ bly.

448

In 1976 Mexico had emphasised, in the form of a draft r e s o l u t i o n

449

in

the First Committee of the General Assembly, that article 1 of the Draft Convention only prohibited En-Mod techniques (see below) which had widespread, long-lasting or severe effects; this limitation indicated that there techniques of lesser ambit would be permissible. The final Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, normally referred to as the En-Mod Convention, was adopted in 1 9 7 7 . was, when opened for signature,

451

450

The Convention

signed by 34 States, including all the

major military Powers, except France. The Convention consists of a pre­ amble, six substantive articles and another four formal articles on the application (of unlimited temporal duration) of review conferences, ratifi­ cation procedures, depositories and on the authenticity of texts. Article I deals with the area in which most problems have been encountered and which goes to the root of the whole Convention; for article I controls its ambit of application. The final Convention adopted the unsatisfactory article 1 and thus prohibits environmental warfare which has 'widespread, longlasting or severe* effects. The threshold of application of article 1 of the Convention is now at the centre of attention of further discussions. The main problem concerns further prohibition of environmental techniques which do not have widespread, long-lasting or severe effects. For there is clearly a large category of permissible environmental weapons subsumed under the wide formula of article 1 as it stands. Secondly, as is always the case with concepts involving latitudes, there is a further problem as to who is to assess whether the relevant threshold has been crossed, i.e. whether environmental damage, in a specific case, is 'widespread', 'long-lasting' or 'severe'. 4 4 6

4 4 7

4 4 8

4 4 9

4 5 0

451

452

CCD/471 and CCD/472; GAOR 30th sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/10027, para. 45. See, e.g., Working Paper by Canada, CCD/463, GAOR, 30th sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/10027, Annex II; by Sweden CCD/465 and GAOR 31st sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/31/27, para. 277 for revisions, and paras. 91-370 on text. Cf. GA Resolution 3475 (XXX) requesting CCD to agree on a text. The Resolution was sponsored by eleven Latin American States and by Haiti and Cyprus, A/C.1/31/L.4, and, for comments, GAOR 31st sess. A/31/27, para. 297-333; GAOR 37th sess., First Committee, 45th mtg. (Mexico and Argentina) reiterating the need for a resolution. The Convention entered into force on 5 October 1978. Most States of military significance are parties except China, France and Israel. See GA Resolution 31/72 1977. On similar subjective tests, see above, Ch. 5, C v. 4 5 2

270

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

An interesting technique for interpretative 'understandings', separated from the main text, has been adopted. Thus, CCD reached an 'understanding' that, for the purposes of the Convention, 'widespread' would mean encompassing an area of the scale of several hundred square kilometres; 'long-lasting' would imply a period of m o n t h s or approximately a season; and that 'severe' would mean serious or significant disruption or harm to h u m a n life, natural and economic resources or other assets.

453

Such 'under-

standings' are clearly relevant to the interpretation of the treaty, especially as they form the part, in this particular case of the travaux préparatoires, of it which always guides the interpretation of a text in the absence of clear wordings.

454

But if on the one hand, such 'understandings' indicate the

ambit of article 1 of the En-Mod Convention in a fairly conclusive way, they hollow out, on the other hand, the actual scope of the Convention. Article II defines 'En-Mod techniques' as 'any technique for changing through the deliberate manipulation of natural processes - the dynamics, composition or structure of the earth, including its biota, lithosphère, phydrosphere and atmosphere, or of outer space'. A list of examples that had figured in earlier drafts was deleted but there was another 'understanding'

455

that the following examples were illustrative of phenomena that

could be caused by En-Mod techniques: earthquakes, tsunamis, upsets in ecological balance, changes in weather or climate pattern, of ocean currents or of the ozone layer or of the ionosphere. There was also a presumption that such p h e n o m e n a would be, as required by Article I for the application of the Convention, of 'widespread, long-lasting or severe' effect.

456

In accordance with the original mandate of the General Assembly to the Committee on D i s a r m a m e n t

457

to keep any further development of En-

M o d techniques under review, in conjunction with the provisions of the Convention itself,

458

the En-Mod Convention is now subject to periodic

Review Conferences. The First Review Conference, held in 1984, dealt above all with the recurrent problems caused by the very limited scope of article I .

459

Article III provides, by an additional clause inserted late in the

negotiations, to the effect that the Convention will be without prejudice to

GAOR, 31st Sess., 1976 Suppl. No. 27, A/31/27, paras. 297-333. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1961, article 32. Cf. comments earlier in this section. GAOR, 37th sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/31/27, paras. 334-43. GAOR 10th Spec, sess., Suppl No. 4, A/S-10/4, 1978. Article VIII. See above in this section. 4 5 8

RESTRICTIONS

ON

271

WEAPONS

generally recognised rules of international law concerning En-Mod tech­ niques. There is a stipulation, in connection with this provision, that the Convention shall not hinder En-Mod techniques for peaceful purposes. The Article also provides, in a second paragraph, for the fullest possible exchange of information on En-Mod techniques for peaceful purposes, although there was strong pressure at the Conference from the former USSR to delete such alleged duty of cooperation in a field which was not germane to the C o n v e n t i o n .

460

By Article V, States undertake to cooperate in areas relevant to the Convention either directly or - as was added by a late revision of the draft Convention - through the United Nations. But there are only vague provisions on verification. A procedure for convening a Consultative Committee of Experts to which information can be transmitted by States is set out in the article. In practice, this provision has been supplemented by other methods; for the Review Conference in 1984 information was also transmitted

461

to the Preparatory Committee for the Conference, estab­

lished but not named, under Article VIII of the C o n v e n t i o n .

462

In the case

of suspected breach of the Convention, a State may lodge a complaint with the Security Council; while contracting States undertake to 'cooperate* in any investigation by the Security C o u n c i l . what we have called 'solidarity assistance'.

463

This is thus another type of

464

Article IV provides for the transformation into national l a w

465

of the

provisions of the Convention and provides that national rules shall incor­ porate necessary prohibitions and preventions. A Review Conference was convened in 1984 under article VIII of the Convention.

466

The Conference m a d e a Final Declaration whereby States

reaffirmed their interest in preventing En-Mod techniques for military or any other hostile use. The Conference noted that article I had been 'faith­ fully observed' by the State p a r t i e s . under article V I I I .

467

There had not been any complaints

468

Although there had been considerable discussion on the threshold of application of the Convention under article 1 there was n o a m e n d m e n t of this article. Other articles were 'affirmed'. The main concern of the Review Conference was the defects of Article 1 4 6 0

461

4 6 2

4 6 4

4 6 6

GAOR, 3lst Sess., Suppl. No. 27, A/31/27, paras. 344 ff. For such information see En-Mod, CONF.1/4, 1984. Cf. my Law Making, Ch. 1, on implied powers. Article VIII(3)(4). See my Concept, 121 ff. On such techniques, see above, Ch. 6, B ii. GA Resolution 37/99 I, 1982. En-Mod/Conf. 1.1/11, p. 6. Ibid., 6-7. 4 6 3

4 6 5

4 6 7

4 6 8

272

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

which by its wording provides that environmental modifications on a smaller scale are not covered by the C o n v e n t i o n .

469

Proposals were made,

again by Mexico, to widen the scope of the Convention; but, after much discussion, the Review Conference refrained from taking any decision.

iii. E n v i r o n m e n t a l obligations u n d e r general international law The environment can be used as means of warfare by, for example, setting alight oil wells, causing serious pollution. Serious environmental damage was inflicted by Iraq during Operation Desert Storm which liberated Kuwait from Iraqi occupation in 1 9 9 1 .

470

Iraq was held internationally

responsible for this damage and was obliged to pay compensation.

471

The

Security Council had reminded Iraq even before the hostilities came to an end

4 7 2

that all damage, including environmental damage, would have to be

compensated. This is one of the first instances since The Trail 473

Arbitration

Smelter

when environmental damage has given rise to obligations to

make compensation under general international law. There is, however, a considerable difference in that the trans-boundary pollution emitted by the Trail smelter in Canada was the result of an accident, and perhaps of negligence, whereas the environmental damage in the Gulf War was inten­ tional. The fact that Iraq was held responsible under general international law

474

shows that there is an obligation not to use the environment as a

means of warfare under general international law.

G. Information warfare The rapid technological advances in information technology have intro­ duced a novel form of warfare, and, in a sense, a new type of weapon. These are not those which h a r m individuals in any physical sense but tools which may incapacitate defence capabilities and, in that way, destroy an enemy without even approaching a battlefield. Categories of 'questionable weapons' described above concern those which are thought to be in varying degree 'unethical', that is to say designed to produce suffering for the sake of suffering rather than to be effective for 4 6 9

4 7 0

4 7 2

4 7 4

En-Mod/CONF.l/4.1984,4. For the extent of the damage, see the Farah Report, UN S/535. SC Res. 687 (1991). SC Res. 686. (1938) 3 RIAA 1905. See further my International Legal Order, Ch. V, s. vi. See below, Chapter 12 and cf. S. Boelart-Souminen, 'Iraqi war reparations and the laws of war', ZadRVR, 1996, 225fif. 4 7 1

4 7 3

RESTRICTIONS

ON

WEAPONS

273

>

the 'war effort . Information weapons or information warfare, on the other hand, may not cause physical h a r m to soldiers or civilians in any direct way but, by dismantling or by making defence mechanisms inactive, they may conceivably cause considerable damage to defenceless civilians by indirect effects. The problem has not been approached in any systematic way although numerous institutions and governments have expressed concern about the problem. The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) organised a Conference o n the matter in 1995 and the IISS discussed the problem at the 1999 Conference. However, there has been little, if any, academic comment. Today, many homes have a computer of greater capability than that which was used to launch the first satellites into space. The concern about computer network attacks (CNA) on military information infrastructure is therefore highly topical. 'Hackers' have already accessed many highpowered information networks and, although most intrusions have been carried out by technology 'amateurs' motivated by the intellectual chal­ lenge of hacking rather than by any malign intentions, it is not too far-fetched to conceive of the possibility of a State (even a very small one), a group of terrorists, or even a single individual, disarming the defences of a major State by a CNA. Naturally, any attack on e-commerce or other financial structure may be most damaging; certain key economic targets such as oil, gas, water, electric power and telecommunications, banking and finance, have traditionally played a great role in warfare. However, what is most to be feared today is computer access to weapons systems. Defence systems, including early warning satellites,

475

may be immobilised by such

unauthorised action and, perhaps even more seriously, offensive systems may also be activated by them. States have taken steps to instai advanced and sophisticated protective systems.

476

Some such efforts still concentrate on threats to economic

systems,

477

whereas other attempts have been made to institutionalise

threat assessment. 4 7 5

4 7 6

4 7 7

4 7 8

478

Military aspects of information warfare (IW) are

See below in the next section on space weapons. For example, see the Report of the Presidential Commission on Critical Infrastructure, US, Critical Foundations: Protecting America's Infrastructure, Washington, 1997. Such as the US Critical Infrastructure Co-ordinating Group (CIAO) which is established in the Commerce Department. For example, the US National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) in the Department of Justice.

274

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

currently under review in n u m e r o u s countries, especially in those such as Sweden and Switzerland, for example, with high-level technology and an emphasis on defensive but 'neutral' systems.

H. Space w e a p o n s There has, in recent times, been little interest in space weapons although such weapons pose considerable threat to national security. Since the end of the Cold War(s) States appear to have resigned themselves to the fact that Outer Space is denuclearised

479

and, at least partly, demilitarised.

480

Yet, it is quite possible to 'take out' satellites, with m i n i m u m equipment, and thus to immobilise military systems or information or communication satellites which, of course, are of paramount military importance. The European Space Agency is designed to take interest only in the peaceful uses of space. But since space will always have military implica­ tions, of great importance, it is also necessary to take space weapon technology into account. Few textbooks on space law even mention weaponry in Outer Space.

481

The question of anti-satellites was on the agenda of CD in the 1980s

482

especially since the former Soviet Union, more than the United States, had developed viable, albeit heavy, anti-satellite weapons. However, interest in this field waned after the disintegration of the USSR. In the bipolar scenario, all possible military use of space had been a constant serious concern. Possibly because of foresight as to consequences for space of new infor­ mation technology,

483

the question of space weapons was, in the spring of

1999, brought back to the agenda of CD, at the request of China. It is clear that anti-satellite weapons may cause considerable or total damage to satellites merely by kinetic energy, or in other very inexpensive ways, in a devised collision. However, nowadays it may not even be necessary to organise such attacks; computer technology could be used to access the c o m m a n d centres of satellites. Such attacks by information technology may concern not only satellites that are 'near' the Earth in the geostationary orbit, but also those that are far afield in, for example, elliptical courses. 4 7 9

4 8 1

4 8 2

4 8 4

4 8 0

484

Above, Ch. 6, A v. See above, Ch. 6, A iv. But see my Space Law (forthcoming), Ch 2; cf. N. Jasentuliyana, International Space Law and the United Nations, 1999. CD, General Reports, 1981-1986. See IISS, Report of the San Diego Conference, 1999. See my Space Law (forthcoming). 4 8 3

RESTRICTIONS

ON

WEAPONS

275

It is a question of definition whether weapons or tools to manoeuvre in space to attack satellites, or to attack the Earth, should be called space weapons or whether that term should be reserved for weapons or devices that are actually placed, or moving, in Outer Space. If one were to include information technology in such weapons one would clearly extend the notion by its function rather than by emplacement. O n the other hand, the dangers of attacks on satellites, or platforms, in Outer Space are so grave that the discussion of the problems, in their widest sense, may take preced­ ence over definitional demarcations. These are still highly sensitive ques­ tions, especially in relation to developing capabilities o f ' r o g u e States'.

8

Prohibited methods of warfare

A. General rules for all warfare So far, certain general rules and rules pertaining to weapons in warfare have been discussed. Weapons have been thought to be the primary 'means' of warfare and rules relating to their prohibition or regulated use are at the core of the Law of War; for without weapons few wars would be fought. W e shall now seek to discern relevant rules for the methods of warfare as opposed to the means. The difference between means and methods in warfare is relative and not easy to maintain. Often weapons are used in a specific way which is in violation of the Law of War. Is violation then a question of an illegitimate method or an illegitimate use of a weapon? This preliminary provocative question is only raised in this context so that the reader can bear in m i n d the interwoven character of the rules of the Law of War on means and methods. O n the whole, one can often distinguish whole sets of problems that pertain more to ' m e t h o d ' than to 'means'; and the distinction between what is a practice rather than use resulting from the intrinsic characteristics of a weapon is fairly clear. Methods, as well as the 1

use of weapons, are subjected to the general ethics of warfare: belligerents and combatants must all follow the same basic rules. However, one question of method is more fundamental than others: that is the question of targets, i.e. the targets against which permissible weapons may be directed.

i. T h e d o c t r i n e of illegitimate objectives The question of targets goes to the root of the Law of War, just as much as 2

the distinction between combatants and civilians. In fact and in law, the two questions are two sides of the same problem: the problem of distinc1

2

Above, Ch. 5, C v. 276

Above, Ch. 4, C ii.

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

277

tion. A combatant must distinguish himself from the civilian population

3

so that the war is kept between combatants themselves. The combatant 4

will, if he is captured, be treated as a prisoner or w a r provided he has complied with the rudimentary rules of distinction. The civilian, in turn, will not be attacked by the enemy combatant. He is, as it were, i m m u n e from attack; and that is precisely the link between the question of distinc­ tion between combatants and civilians and the question of targets. For the rule of distinction applies here too. It is military targets that may be 5

attacked in war whereas civilian objectives are, so to speak i m m u n e from attack. These are the principles. In actual warfare things may be different. But in all recent wars belligerents have been aware of the limits and rules in this respect and have been eager to explain that damage or injury in the ' i m m u n e ' sector was 'inevitable* or justified by military necessity.

6

ii. Identification of i m m u n e objectives It is important to clarify which objectives are i m m u n e under the m o d e r n Law of War. The places and areas which are i m m u n e from attack should possibly be called i m m u n e 'objectives' and not i m m u n e 'targets', as the very notion 'target' implies something which is aimed at and it is this action, this 'aiming', which is prohibited.

a.

Zones

First, one may refer to the demilitarised and neutralised areas, and if relevant, the denuclearised zones discussed earlier in connection with 7

spatial notions. Additional Protocol I of 1977 specifically recognises 8

that such zones are exempt from attack. Other areas which are placed on 9

the same footing as such zones, as indicated above, include neutral coun­ tries, which by presumption include all third States, until they join hostil­ ities.

3

5

6

9

10

4

On criteria, see above, Ch. 4, B. Below, Ch. 9, B iii g. The word 'immune' is naturally not used here in its accepted legal sense which means 'exempt from jurisdiction', see my 'Foreign warships', 55. See below, Ch. 12, B i a. See above, Ch. 6, A. Article 60 of Protocol I. Above, Ch. 6, A vii-viii. Cf. above, Ch. 1, B ii, on the irrelevance of declarations of war. 7

10

8

278

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

b. Open

towns

A second category are so-called 'undefended towns' or 'open towns'. This term has not been defined in treaties but there is much guidance in the doctrine o n the requirements that must be met if a town is to be regarded as undefended.

11

The rules on open towns were laid d o w n 1874,

13

12

in the Brussels Declaration of

readopted in the Hague Regulations.

14

A similar rule was also

included in Hague Convention IX of 1907 on Naval Bombardment.

15

There

are detailed contingency rules. Protection by, for example, submarine contact mines does not alter a port's undefended status; but military or naval installations and weapons or a m m u n i t i o n are military targets and may be 16

attacked even if inside an open t o w n . If required, the undefended port has a duty to provide supplies, proportionate to local resources and against 17

payment, to the naval forces in its proximity; should it refuse to do so, the naval forces may b o m b a r d the town. Obviously such rules lead to problems: who will be able to independently assess whether the port has supplies?

18

But the Draft Hague Rules on Aerial Warfare abandoned the notion of 'open towns' and instead, distinguished in more general terms between military and civilian objectives. A t t e m p t s

19

to prohibit all bombardment

from the air had long since been abandoned as unrealistic. Even the duty to warn civilians of an imminent attack attacks law. 11

12

13

15

16

18

19

2 0

21

2 2

21

20

was thought not to apply to air

although there may be some indications to the contrary in case

22

See, above all, R. Y. Jennings, 'Open towns', 22 BYIL 1945, 258; cf. W. Born, Die offene Stadt, Schutzzonen und Guerillakämpfer, 1978; A. M. Zayas, 'Open towns', in 4 Encyclopedia of Public International Law, 69; J. Tromm, 'Open Steden', 59 Militair-rechtelijk tijdschrift 1966, 321; E. Schmitz, 'Die offene Stadt im geltenden Kriegsrecht', 10 ZaöRVR, 1940-1,618. See, on details of history, Rousseau, Conflits armes, 128-9. Declaration 27 August 1974, article 15. Article 25. Article 1. For reference, see above, Ch. 7, A ii. See, H. Hartig, Die Beschiessung durch Seestreit­ kräfte im Kriegszeiten, Berlin, 1911. Ibid., article 2. Ibid., article 3. Cf. above, Ch. 5, C v, and below, in this Chapter, A ii c, on subjective criteria. For example, by the 1899 Declaration Prohibiting the Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons, 26 NRGT 2 serie, 994; and the Hague Convention XIV with the Declaration Prohibiting the Discharge of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons, 1 AJIL 1907, Suppl., 157. Hague Regulations, article 26. D. Fleck, 'Die rechtliche Garantien des Verbots von unmittelbaren Kampfhandlungen gegen Zivilpersonen', RDPMDG, 1966, 97-8. E.g., Greek-German Mixed Commission, in Coenca v. Germany, (1927), 7 RIAA 183; Kiriadolou v. Germany, 1930, 10 ibid., 100. 14

17

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

279

The reason why the Hague Draft Rules on Aerial Warfare abandoned the notion o f ' o p e n towns' explains the difficulty of the concept in relation to the question of bombardment. The idea of undefended open towns was designed for conditions of land, or possibly naval, warfare but is totally remote from the context of aerial warfare where attack necessarily will be subject to a much lesser degree of distinction. Furthermore, there had been numerous attacks on open towns as, for example, in the ItalianEthiopian War, the Spanish Civil W a r , Second World W a r .

24

23

the Sino-Japanese W a r and the

In the Korean War in 1952, and even m o r e in the

Vietnam War from 1965 to 1972, the protection that open towns should have under the Law of War was largely disregarded.

25

Additionally, the

rules on the protection of open towns from naval b o m b a r d m e n t were violated, for example, by the bombing of Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War, by the attack on Hai-phong by the French navy in 1946 and on Inchon and Chongjin in Korea by British and American ships.

26

The

prohibition was also violated by the Yugoslav Army, which used artillery to b o m b the Croatian town of Dubrovnik in 1990. As this last action was mainly carried out by land warfare, it was clearly in contravention of the prohibition under the Brussels Declaration. The action was illegal as Dubrovnik was specially protected under UNESCO as part of the Heritage of Mankind

and, furthermore, protected under the 1954 Hague Conven­

27

tion. The prohibition of attack still applies; violation of this rule consti­ tutes a war crime.

28

For example, the British Manual

of Military

Law

emphasises that the distinction between defended and undefended locali­ ties is not obliterated by the 'great destructive power of m o d e r n artillery and guided missiles.'

29

Protocol I of 1977 uses the new term 'non-defended locality' to de­ scribe an open town. To be exempt from attack such a place must be free of combatants and mobile weapons, and its fixed military installations must not be used for any hostile purpose; nor must any other type of hostile act, or act to assist military operations, be committed by the 23

24

25

27

28

It was the horror of the attack on an undefended town on 27 April 1937 that Picasso described in his painting 'Guernica'. For example, the raids on London 7 September-3 December 1940; the attacks on Rotterdam, 14 May 1940, and Warsaw, from 1 September 1939. Paris and Rome were both treated as open towns in 1940 and 1943 respectively and the rules on hostile acts by inhabitants were largely respected; this was not the case in Manila in 1941. T. Wulf, Handbok ifolkrdtt under krig, 95. Rousseau, Conflits armes, 365-7. Ibid., 238-9. Below, in this Chapter, A iii b (9) on the Hague Convention on Cultural Property. See Below, Ch. 12, C ii. 1958, article 290; cf. article 284. 2 6

2 9

28o

r u l e s

o n

authorities or by the p o p u l a t i o n .

b e l l i g e r e n c e

30

Under the Protocol a place may be

'declared a non-defended locality provided no hostile acts will be com­ mitted against the enemy by fixed military installations, or by the authori­ ties or population, and provided there are no acts supporting military operations/

31

Although the notion of an open town is still accepted as forming part of binding rules of warfare today, as is indicated by the reaffirmation of the 32

principle in Protocol I of 1977, it is now used only as a supplementary concept to that concerning military objective. There is a requirement of 33

reasonable proportionality between damage and military gain, so that any 'strategy of devastation' will be in violation of this rule.

c. Militaty

and civilian objectives

34

distinguished

(1) The notion of military targets It is vital to establish what a belligerent and its combatants must not use as a target for its military action. The concept of 'military target' is used to indicate that it is one which it is legitimate to attack. Thus, what is not such a target is a civilian objective and hence exempt from attack. 35

(2) The enumerative approach The Hague Draft Rules of 1923 prescribed that attacks from the air would only be permitted if directed against a military objective, the total or partial destruction of which presented a 'distinct military advantage' to the attacker. The level of the operative words may have been slightly less demanding in the French version which K

refers to un avantage militaire

36

nef.

The Rules go on to enumerate such military objectives, as 'military forces; military works; military establishments or depots; factories con­ stituting important and well-known centres engaged in the manufacturing of arms, a m m u n i t i o n or distinctively military supplies; lines of c o m m u n i ­ cation or transport used for military purposes.'

37

The German version omits the equivalent to the word 'distinctively' in 38

relation to military supplies. The French text speaks of fournitures

mili-

taires caractérisés' which possibly conveys the impression that, to be of a 3 0

33

31

3 2

Article 59. Ibid. Article 59. H. Meyrowitz, 'The Law of War in the Vietnamese Conflict' in Falk, 2 The Vietnam War 55. Ibid. AJIU 1923, Suppl., 245; Schindler, 2nd edn, 147. Article 24( 1). Article 24(2). The German version simply refers to 'militärische Ausrüstungsgegenstände'. y

34

36

38

3 5

37

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

28l

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military nature, the supplies must have been characterised as such by some authority. If this is so, this raises the question whether such subjective classification overrides the objective nature of such supplies. In other words, could one, under the French text classify anything

as military

supplies? Secondly, if this is so how would information of such classifica­ tion reach the enemy? Furthermore, the German text covers more clearly than the English text, radio stations and other news media, not too obviously included in the English expression 'lines of c o m m u n i c a t i o n ' .

39

The enumeration in article 24(2) has been held to be an 'exhaustive' list which, even though the Draft Rules never entered into force, provides a guide to the position of international law on the subject, especially, it is claimed, since there is little disagreement in the doctrine on the subject.

40

But, as has been shown above, the discrepancies between the various texts in different languages would seem by themselves to indicate some uncer­ tainty on the subject. Some have claimed that it would follow from the Hague Rules of 1923 that 'military persons' do not include those who, for example, contribute to the war effort, or the so-called quasi-combatants; that industries, even those of the extracting type such as coal mines, or of the refining type such as oil, are not included as military works as they are not 'purely military'; nor are those involved in the transportation or storage of such material; and, finally, that government buildings are not included a m o n g military targets.

41

But others emphasise that it is m o r e important to examine

whether installations are put to predominantly civilian or military u s e .

42

The International Law Association (ILA) devoted some attention to the subject during its Conference in Stockholm in 1924. The Conference adopted the definition of military targets in the Hague Rules of 1923.

43

In

1938 the ILA extended the definition of 'belligerent establishments' to include 'military, naval or air establishments, or barracks, arsenals, m u n i ­ tion stores of factories, aerodromes or aeroplane workshops, or ships of war, naval dockyards, forts or fortifications for defensive or offensive purposes or entrenchments'. 39

4 0

41

4 2

43

44

A further illustrating list was included in

The German text uses the words 'Nachrichten und Verkehrsmittel. A. Euler, Die Atomwaffe im Luftkriegsrecht, Cologne, 1960, 47. A. Meyer, Völkerrechtliche Schutz friedlicher Personen und Sachen gegen Luftangriffe, Königsberg, 1935, 99. J. M. Spaight, Air Power and the Cities, London, 1930, 208. 33 Report, ILA, Stockholm 1924. 40 Report, ILA, Amsterdam 1938. 4 4

282

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property of 1954 which indicates that property will only be protected under the Conven­ tion

45

provided it is situated away from military objectives like 'any large

industrial centre or from any important military objective, constituting a vulnerable point, such as, for example, an aerodrome, broadcasting sta­ tion, establishment engaged upon work of national defence, a port or a railway station of relative importance or a main line of communica­ tion'.

46

With regard to some of these examples, such as a broadcasting station for example, it may be observed that such an objective would not, unless there were clear intelligence reports to support the contention, be identi­ fiable from the air as such. The reference to 'ports' of at least some 'importance' seems to exclude the protection some ports would enjoy under the open town doctrine.

47

The insistence that only military targets

may be attacked in war is again found in the Mine Protocol of 1980 which expressly provides that mines (and other devices) may be used only against areas which are themselves military objectives or which contain military objectives. The importance of protecting non-military targets, above all civilians,

48

from attack also lies behind the reasons why the Landmine Convention

49

was adopted and also accounts for the speed with which the Convention was prepared. In 1999 the Security Council decided to prioritise the protection of civilians in armed conflict.

50

Another important develop­

ment is that it has been clarified that the U N Peace Keeping Forces can never be considered as a legitimate military target. This results from the 1994 Convention on Protection of UN Personnel.

51

(3) Relevant criteria Some writers insist that military objectives cannot be denned in vacuo but must relate to a purpose for which they can be employed.

52

Other writers have elaborated theories of'adequate causation'

and suggest that only objectives which stand in such relation to the war effort qualify as military objectives. 4 5

4 6

4 8

5 0

51

53

53

See further below, in this Chapter, A iii (9). Hague Convention 1954, 249 UNTS 240, article 8( 1 )(a). Above, in this Chapter, A i. See below, in this Chapter, iii b (1). See above, Ch. 7, B iii. SC Res. 1265 (1999); cf. Reports by the Secretary General, S/1999/957. For comments, see SIPRI, Yearbook, 1995. Spaight, Air Power, 215. A. Meyer, Völkerrechtlicher Schutz, 1930,83. 4 7

4 9

5 2

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

283

WARFARE

But such suggestions offend against the basic principle of foreseeability and knowledge of the enemy: how is he expected to know the planned use of any particular installation? Surely objective criteria must be preferred rather than those which presuppose a detailed knowledge of the enemy military 54

strategies. It is almost better to resort to large presumption of use and thus to classify all industrial centres as military objectives.

55

Protocol I provides rules on military and non-military objectives, for 56

example as enumerated in the Hague Rules of 1923, against which it is not clear where to draw the line between military and civilian targets. Earlier attempts to regulate air warfare often relied on a list of'legitimate* military 57

objectives, for example, as enumerated in the Hague Rules of 1923 against which b o m b a r d m e n t had to be exclusively directed. Protocol I refrains from providing such an enumerating list b u t it is questionable whether much is lost by a loose and abstract reference to 'military* targets in view of the largely accepted criteria such targets must fulfil. Certain civilian objects enjoy enhanced protection under the Protocol beyond that already granted by the 1954 Hague Convention,

58

which, in

turn, expanded the rudimentary protection provided by the Hague Rules 59

of 1907. Protocol I of 1977 defines military objectives as those objects which by their nature, location, purpose or use make effective contribu­ tion to military action as well as those 'whose total or partial destruction, capture or neutralisation, in the circumstances at the time, offers a definite military advantage'.

60

The second part of the provision thus brings back 61

the unfortunate subjective criteria, which are so likely to cause problems in practice. The Protocol defines 'military' and 'non-military' objectives, as distinct from civilian objectives, in abstract terms and without the traditional reference to typical examples.

54

55

5 6

58

59

6 0

62

1958, article 290; cf. article 284. Ming-Min-Peng, 'Les bombardement aérien et la population civile depuis la second guerre mondiale', Revue général de Vair, 1952, 302ff. For example, articles 48, 51, 52 and 56. Above, in this Chapter, A ii. 249 UNTS 240. Article 27, Hague Regulations to Convention II of 1899, 26 NRGT, 2 série, 949; 1 AJIL 1907, Suppl. 129; Cf. Hague Regulations to Convention IV of 1907, 3 NRGT, 2 série, 464; 1 AJIL, Suppl. 129. Article 52. Above, in this Chapter, ii c. Article 42. 5 7

61

6 2

284

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

iii. Consequential protection From the distinction made above between military and civilian objectives certain rules follow, exempting certain objectives from attack. Many of these rules are codified in Protocol I of 1977. It must be noted that the scope of the Protocol covers inter-State wars as well as liberation wars 63

which are equated to 'international wars'. Protocol II of 1977 covers many facets of internal wars which d o not constitute liberation wars. a. Prohibition

of area

64

bombing

Rules o n b o m b a r d m e n t are often discussed by writers under a separate heading on aerial warfare; but the prohibition rules in this respect apply to b o m b a r d m e n t from air, sea or land. In view of modern reliance on, for example, land-based missiles, or on those launched from submarines, it appears more appropriate to deal with b o m b a r d m e n t in connection with rules applicable to all warfare. It is universally accepted that b o m b a r d m e n t exclusively directed against a civilian population is prohibited. Such rules form the basis of the Hague Draft Rules of 1923 and have been regarded both in doctrine and in practice as a binding rule. 65

In Coenca frères v. Germany

the Tribunal held that warnings to civilians,

a rule which has long been compulsory in land warfare, also applied to b o m b a r d m e n t . Lack of such warning may entitle citizens to a right of compensation for damage to property. Another case, Kiradoulou v. Ger66

many,

emphasised the need for giving warning of aerial b o m b a r d m e n t to

civilians and added that the waging of chemical warfare by aeroplanes is particularly forbidden. O n e indication of the binding nature of this obligation is the efforts States have also made to 'justify', in terms of military necessity,

67

any attacks which have affected the civilian population.

68

The

obligation has been reaffirmed in many U N General Assembly Resolutions

69

The theory of 'strategic b o m b i n g ' was elaborated and adopted as a method of warfare by the United States and United Kingdom High Comm a n d in Casablanca on 21 January 1943. The plan to use this method was mainly implemented by zone b o m b a r d m e n t , or target area bombing, by which n u m e r o u s aeroplanes attacked several military targets between which 6 3

6 7

6 9

6 4

6 5

6 6

Above, Ch. 1, D c-d. Above, Ch. 6, B ii g. 7 RIIA 683. Below, Ch. 12, B i a. Below, in this Chapter, iii b ( 1 ). For example, Resolution 2444 (XXIII), reaffirmed in Protocol I of 1977. 6 8

10 RUA 100.

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

285

WARFARE

there were pockets of civilian population. As a result of this strategy some 593,000 German civilians were killed as against 60,500 in the United Kingdom and some 60,000 in France.

70

The attack by atom b o m b s on

Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 must also be conceived as deliber­ ate area bombing.

71

Yet area bombing is in sharp contradiction to the Declaration on 27 September 1937 by US Secretary of State Corden Hull stating that any general bombing of areas where there are large civilian populations is contrary to the principles of international law and of h u m a n i t y .

72

But the

strategy of area bombing was, m u c h later in Vietnam, even expanded and applied systematically.

73

Protocol I of 1977 is the first agreement in treaty form to prohibit area bombing. The Protocol prohibits indiscriminate attacks and area b o m b i n g is one of the prime forms of such attacks. According to the Protocol there must be no indiscriminate attacks of any form. Such attacks are, for example, b o m b a r d m e n t which is not directed against a specific military objective or one which employs methods which cannot be directed against such a target or other means which cannot be limited to their effect.

74

The prohibition is not limited to air warfare but

such bombardment from planes is the obvious m e t h o d for such attacks. One specific form of such 'indiscriminate' b o m b a r d m e n t , often called 'area bombing' has now been specifically prohibited under Protocol I by a further provision forbidding b o m b a r d m e n t 'by any methods or means', or treating as a single military objective several distinct military targets located, for example, in a city where there is 'similar' concentration of civilian popula­ tion. Furthermore, any attack which may be expected to cause incidental loss among civilians, or civilian objects, is prohibited unless outweighed by concrete and direct military advantage.

75

b. Specific exemptions

from

attack

(1) Civilians and persons hors de combat If the distinction between military and civilian objectives is difficult to draw in practice, it is still clear that the civilian population as such is the primary group on which attacks must not 70

71

72

75

Rousseau, Conflits armis, 131. On the questioned legality of nuclear weapons and on the lack of discrimination of such weapons, see above, Ch. 7, C i and ii. Idem, 81. Ch. Rousseau, RGDIP, 1973, 826. Article 51(1). Article 51 (5)(g). See further on military necessity, Ch. 12, B i a. 7 3

74

286

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

be launched. This obvious statement has not, in general terms, been entrenched in treaty law until recently. From the prohibition of attacks on civilian objectives it follows that civilians, as groups or as individuals, may not be attacked. Alternatively, one could deduce the prohibition of attacks on civilian targets precisely from the protection that individual civilians enjoy as being non-combat­ ants

76

and as such exempt from the war.

But history shows that civilians, in spite of this protective regime, are increasingly at risk in war. In the First World War some 5 per cent of the victims were civilians; in the Second World War this figure had risen to 48 per cent, escalating in the Korean War to 84 per cent and in the Vietnam 77

War to 90 per cent. In later conflicts the average level of civilian casualties, many of them children, has remained at 90 per cent. Not all increases in this proportion can be explained by difficulties of distinguishing between com­ batants and civilians.

78

The protection of civilians is, from the humanitarian point of view, the most important task of any legislative effort on warfare as such persons include the weakest members of the c o m m u n i t y most in need of protection, such as women, children and the aged. Another reason for their specific protection is that civilians must normally be assumed to have wished to abstain from any involvement in the conflict. Even if numeric explanations are not always relevant, it is furthermore important to consider that the civilian population is normally m u c h larger as a group than the combatants. Civilians received some rudimentary protection under the Hague Con­ 79

ventions of 1899 and 1907 and also, in a much more comprehensive way, under the Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 which did not seek to abrogate the earlier Hague Conventions but expressly attempted to supplement them. The Fourth Convention, for example, extends rules relating to the treatment of alien enemies 'in the light of recent practices of civilised nations'.

80

Before the time of Grotius, civilians enjoyed little or no protection and 81

women and children were in n o way i m m u n e from attack, although there 7 6

7 9

8 0

81

7 7

78

Above, Ch. 4, C ii. Wulf, Handbok ifolkrâtt under krig, 102. Above, Ch. 4, C i. For references, see above, Ch. 5, A. R. Yingling and R. W. Ginnane, T h e Geneva Conventions of 1949', AJIL, 1952, 411. E. Nys, Les origines du droit international 1894,205; Nys, Le droit de la guerre et les précurseurs de Grotius, 118. But for statements that civilians did enjoy certain protection and that it is 'wrong' to imprison old or blind persons or men, women and children who took no part in the war, see H. Bonet, L'arbre des batailles, Paris or Avignon, 1387, ed. and transi, by G. W. Coopeland, as The Tree of Battles, Liverpool 1949, Ch. 94-5, pp. 184-5; cf. Ch. 48.

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

287

WARFARE

were isolated attempts at regulation, such as those of Henry V of England in 1515 and of the Holy Roman Empire in 1442 and 1570, whereby women, children, priests, monks and nuns were i m m u n e from attack.

82

The Fourth Geneva Convention also introduced, for the first time, criteria 83

for distinguishing between civilians and c o m b a t a n t s . But if'civilian* means 84

someone who is not a c o m b a t a n t , this also means that problems connected with the identification of 'combatants' are carried over to the field of protection of'civilians'. A further question is that the distinction is eroded by actual or threatened use of weapons of mass destruction.

85

Protocol I of 1977 extends the protection of civilians considerably, especially by a paramount presumption that anyone who is not proved to 86

be a combatant has civilian status. The Protocol extends the protection of the Fourth Geneva Convention by prohibiting any attacks on the civilian populations either to gain military advantage or to take reprisals.

87

Civil-

ians comprise two distinct groups: those who have taken n o part in the hostilities and who form part of the normal civilian population; and those who were combatants but are hors de combat and n o longer participate in the hostilities, perhaps because they are wounded or because they have, for other reasons, rejoined the permanently civilian p o p u l a t i o n .

88

The protec-

tion of the civilian population, which may even be the main aim of Protocol I of 1977,

89

is achieved by the prohibition of certain methods

of warfare as well as by some mandatory provisions on the treatment of victims of war. The rules on belligerency obviously primarily concern the 90

combatants, but will have as their objective, and as an inevitable result, an 8 2

8 3

84

85

8 6

87

88

8 9

9 0

Nys, Les origines, 125. See further M. Keen, The Laws of War in the Later Middle Ages, Oxford, 1965,190-1, 196. For the Decree of Sigismund the Elder in Poland in 1530, see A. Gorbiel 'The protection of war victims under Polish legislation up to the end of the eighteenth century', IRRC, 1975, 274. A Diplomatic Conference of 1929 had recommended a further Convention for the Protection of Civilians. The ICRC prepared Draft Rules at the Tokyo Conference in 1934 but these Rules were never considered by the Diplomatic Conference because of the intervening Second World War. On the principle of distinction, see further above. Above, Ch. 4, C i. Rousseau, Conflits armés, 81 and above, Ch. 7, C. Article 50. Such status is only refused if the 'civilian' takes direct part in the hostilities, see article 51. Article 51(2) of Protocol I; cf., article 13(2) of Protocol II. P. Bretton, 'Le problème des méthodes et moyens de guerre dans les Protocols additionnels de 1977 aux Conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949', RGDIP, 43. E.g., CDDH/SR.5, 81, vol. 7, 136. On alleged difficulties caused by the 'vagueness' of the law, making interpretation by members of the armed forces difficult, see R. Lapidoth, 'Qui a droit au statut de prisonnier de guerre?' RGDIP, 1978, 210; cf. below, Ch. 9, B iii f and above, Ch. 4, C i.

288

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

improved level of protection of civilians. Other rules envisage more directly the treatment of civilians or combatants hors de combat, such as the w o u n d e d and prisoners of war. The fusion of rules previously found in the instruments o n the law of the Hague with those in documents on the law of Geneva has, as some commentators point o u t ,

91

upset the traditional

division between the two sets of rules, a division which perhaps was never well founded.

92

Protocol I codifies, for the first time, the established rule that civilians 93

must not form the object of attack. Furthermore, acts which are intended to spread terror a m o n g the civilian population are prohibited.

94

Such acts

may, for example, include area b o m b a r d m e n t , such as the Blitz of London in the Second World W a r .

95

Civilians are also specifically protected in Protocol II of 1977. Though Protocol II is very short in its final truncated form,

96

it contains some

important provisions which represent an innovation in the rules of warfare. O n e such new provision is the prohibition of attacks on civilians. Although c o m m o n article 3 had secured a certain level of treatment of non-combatants it had not clearly precluded military operation directed against civilians or against civilian targets. Protocol II of 1977 includes such clear prohibition.

97

In the Iran-Iraq War, the Iraqi Air Force carried out indiscriminate b o m b i n g attacks o n Iranian built-up areas, causing considerable destruc­ tion of purely civilian property with ensuing loss of life and personal 98

injuries to civilians. But severe criticism by the United Nations Secretary General o n 9 June 1984 resulted in a special undertaking by both Iran and Iraq to cease military attacks on purely civilian population centres in either country from 0001 G M T , 12 June 1984.

99

Swift condemnation by

leaders and organs of world society may indicate that, even if the special rule is violated, it is nevertheless a fundamental rule of the Law of War. (2) Parachutists

Parachutists are equated to persons hors de combat under

Protocol I of 1977. Aeroplanes of the enemy are, of course, an obvious

91

9 3

9 5

9 8

99

9 2

Siotis, Le droit de la guerre, 226. Cf. above, The 1922 Draft Rules on Air Warfare were never ratified. Article 51(2). Above, this Chapter, A iii a. Above, this Chapter, A iii b (1). Article 13. ICRC, 2nd Memorandum to Governments Participating in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 on the Conflict between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Republic of Iraq, 10 February 1984. United Nations Weekly News Summary, 13 June 1984. 9 4

9 6

9 7

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

289

WARFARE

target for a belligerent, both for defensive and offensive purposes. How­ ever, it has been argued that parachutists j u m p i n g from aeroplanes would not be legitimate targets as they are, as it were, n o t combatants in action until they reach the ground. Whether or n o t this is a proved fact or n o t may be disputed. However, Protocol I of 1977 has introduced certain specific rules o n this topic prescribing, inter alia, that parachutists j u m p i n g from an air­ craft in distress must not be attacked and, that if they land in enemy territory, they must be given an opportunity to s u r r e n d e r . in such situations can be compared with the shipwrecked as it were, 'shipwrecked in the a i r ' .

102

100

101

Parachutists for they are,

T h e question was raised whether

parachutists should enjoy protection only if they descend into enemycontrolled territory where they could easily be rendered hors de combat, or whether their protection in unqualified.

103

Naturally, humanitarian

considerations d o not present themselves with the same intensity if a parachutist lands in friendly territory. The Arab group at the Conference argued that in such situations airmen should n o t be p r o t e c t e d .

104

After

the ICRC Vice-President Pictet had indicated his reservations concerning adoption of a text authorising the killing of parachutists descending from aircraft in distress, the Conference adopted an article affording protec­ tion without qualification.

105

The provisions of the protocol are import­

ant because of their practical applications in m o d e r n day armed conflict. The Israeli air raid against Arab territory in 1967 a n d 1973 a n d the American actions in Vietnam induced the Conference drafting the 1977 Protocols to adopt a proviso exempting from protection any 'airborne troops'.

106

(3) Parlamentaires Parlamentaires a n d other messengers authorised to negotiate with the enemy must n o t be attacked.

107

T h e root of this inviola­

bility is the same as the one for diplomats a n d envoys. It forms part of the oldest part of international law a n d is reinforced by tradition a n d reciproc­ ity. 100

101

103

106

107

Article 42(1 )(2). This regulation may codify earlier law. Cf. J. M. Spaight, Air Power and War Rights, 3rd edn, London, 1947, 152 ff. CDDH/III/SR/47, 51, 79. ICRC, M. Pictet, CDDH/SR.39, 88. CDDH/III/SR/47 at 51, 79. CDDH/414. CDDH/SR.39, 110. Article 43(3). Hague Regulations, article 32; a parlamentaire would normally display a white flag, cf. above; immunity extends to interpreters who accompany him. 1 0 2

1 0 4

1 0 5

290

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

(4) Food supplies and crops Objects necessary for the survival of the civil­ ian population, e.g. foodstuffs, livestock and drinking-water installations, are protected from attack.

108

It has been shown above that such supplies

must not be attacked by chemical, fare.

111

109

biological

110

or environmental war­

Protocol I of 1977 extends this protection by specifying that such

objects are illegitimate targets, both as strategy for starving the civilian population area.

113

112

or as means of forcing civilians to move away from an

But a belligerent may, on the other hand, destroy its own food

supply in certain circumstances.

114

(5) Civilian ships 'Civilian ships' may be an unusual expression but it seems to cover ships including, for example, both merchantmen and other non-warships that may not be attacked in warfare. There are certain accepted guidelines on the criteria necessary for a ship to qualify as a warship: it must be c o m m a n d e d by a naval officer, have a crew subject to his authority, and it must normally be entered in the list of warships in the flag S t a t e .

115

It has long been accepted that merchant ships, for example, are not legitimate targets. Their cargo may assist the enemy and it is often import­ ant to intercept merchantmen carrying valuable supplies to the enemy. But this must be done by capturing such vessels as p r i z e

116

and not by attacking

or sinking them. Ships that are not subjected to the law of prize always constitute illegal targets, e.g. hospital s h i p s , supplies or of the w o u n d e d , and postal s h i p s .

117

118

ships used for the transport of medical cartel ships used to carry prisoners of w a r

119

120

There is thus a certain relationship between the law of prize and the position of certain ships with regard to their legitimacy as targets. How­ ever, the ambit of the law of prize is wider than that of illegal targets in that enemy merchantmen may be taken as prize but they may not be 108

109

112

114

115

1 , 7

n 8

120

See also below, in this Chapter, A iv b, on starvation. Food distributed as humanitarian aid is often diverted, see below, Ch. 11, C. See above, Ch. 7, E i. ' See above, Ch.7, E ii. See above, Ch.7, F. See, below, in this Chapter, A iv b, on starvation and on siege. Article 54. See, below, in this Chapter, on the 'scorched earth policy'. See my 'Foreign Warships', 61. Below, Ch. 10, C iii a (2). Hague 1907 XI, article 3; Geneva II, articles 22, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 43; cf. articles 34-5. Geneva IV, article 21; Protocol I of 1977, article 23. Below, Ch. 9, B iii f. Below, Ch. 10, B. 10

1,1

113

1 , 6

1 , 9

PROHIBITED

attacked.

121

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

291

But, as has just been pointed out, from the other point of

view the scope of the law of prize is narrower in the sense that ships that are i m m u n e from military attack may also be i m m u n e to capture as prize. It was sometimes argued that the privilege of merchantmen of being exempt from attack would be forfeited if merchant ships accompanied warships in a c o n v o y .

122

Special rules regulate protection from attack by submarines. However, since submarine warfare is specific to warfare at sea, relevant questions will be discussed in connection with naval w a r .

123

Submarines are highly

vulnerable from attacks by even lightly armed merchant vessels. There has been some uncertainty with regard to the question of whether sub­ marines which are threatened by armed merchantmen have any right to attack.

124

But it must be emphasised that the unequal strength is such

that no 'threat' by merchantmen can entitle submarines to attack them.

125

There are some early basic rules that civilians at sea must not be attacked. However, such rules are often undermined by other rules o n naval warfare. The Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armaments of 1930,

126

together with the Protocol of 1 9 3 6

127

allowed warships to sink

merchant vessels provided passengers and crew were removed to a place of safety. If a merchant vessel refused to stop or to be subjected to visit and search, the vessel could be sunk without such precautionary measures. The new protection of Protocol I of 1977 concerning the presumption of civilian status also extends to naval warfare and increases the protection of civilians on board merchant vessels.

121

122

123

125

127

,2R

128

See, below, under B, on the sinking of merchantmen from which passengers and crew are evacuated; but prize proceedings must still follow, cf. below, Ch. 10, C iii a (2); cf. P. Higgins, 'Submarine warfare', 1 BYIL, 1920, 149, 152ff. Cf. the Washington Draft Treaty of 1922, article 22 and below, B, on naval warfare. E.g. The Dbnitz and Raeder Cases before the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, 1 Nuremberg 1947, 331; 41 AJIL 1947, 172, 303. Cf. D. P. O'Connell, 'International law and contemporary naval operations', 44 BYIL, 1970, 19, 51, on the right of submarines to attack merchant ships if there is an imminent air attack. Below, in this Chapter, B. O'Connell, Influence of Law on Sea Power, 146. Below, in this Chapter, B ii. Cmnd. 3548. 29 UKTS 1936; AJIL, 1937, Suppl., 137. Cf. United Kingdom, CDDH/III/SR. 3, vol. 14, 21. 124

126

292

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

(6) Hospitals, hospital ships and medical units Hospitals must not be at­ tacked

129

nor must medical units, whether military or civilian, be subjec­

ted to any military offensive o p e r a t i o n s .

130

The obligation to exempt

hospitals from attack has been entrenched as a higher duty: the Conven­ tion states that hospitals 'may in n o circumstances' be the object of attack.

131

132

Hospital s h i p s

are protected and must not be attacked; and

sick-bays on board warships must not form part of attacks but be 'spared as m u c h as possible'.

133

Hospital t r a i n s

134

are furthermore specially pro­

tected and protection also applies to mobile military u n i t s .

135

This protection is clearly accepted as binding parts of international law in doctrine and in practice.

136

Any breaches of this rule, such as those commit­

ted by the Yugoslav Army against Red Cross vehicles in the independence wars in the 1990s, and in particular its attack on Vukovar hospital in which 297 patients were executed, a m o u n t to very serious war crimes.

137

Since

such protection exists there arises, on the part of the authorities in charge of medical hospitals and units, a twofold duty. O n the one hand there is a duty o n the part of a belligerent to keep medical units away from military targets

138

implying, for example, that medical units must not be used to

conceal or shield military objectives; such methods would amount to prohibited ruses of w a r .

139

Secondly, the authorities, and/or the medical

units themselves, must ensure that there is a clear marking of these units by a sign notified to the e n e m y

140

or by a Red Cross m a r k .

141

Ever since the establishment of the Red Cross Organisation,

142

the

emblem of the Red Cross has been universally recognised and respected, also in non-Christian countries like J a p a n , Moslem c o u n t r i e s .

144

143

Siam (now Thailand) and the

During the 1907 Hague Conferences there was dis­

cussion whether other signs, such as the red sun for Persia and the red 129

130

Hague Regulations, article 27; Geneva Convention IV, article 19; Article 18 of Geneva IV and article 12 of Protocol I of 1977 extend protection to all civilian hospitals. Protocol I 1977, article 12. Geneva IV, article 18. 131

132

Geneva I, article 20, and below, in this Chapter, B, on naval warfare.

133

Geneva II, article 28; cf. articles 34-5. Geneva I, article 21. For a wide definition of'medical unit', see Protocol I of 1977, article 8. E.g. Rousseau, Conflits armts, 109. Below Ch. 12, C ii a. Hague Regulations, article 27; Geneva I, article 19; Geneva IV, article 18; Protocol I of 1977, article 12. See further, below, in this Chapter, A iv d, on perfidy. Hague Regulations, article 27. Geneva I, articles 38 and 42; Geneva IV, articles 18 and 21; Protocol I of 1977, article 18, and Annex, articles 3-4. Above, Ch. 5, A. F. Bugnion, The Emblem of the Red Cross, Geneva, 1977, 22. F. Bugnion, The Emblem, 22.

135

136

138

1 3 9

141

142

144

134

137

140

143

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

293

WARFARE

crescent for Turkey should not also be allowed. But since neither of these two countries ratified the Hague Conventions the question lapsed. Renewed discussions were instigated during the negotiations for the 1929 Convention on the W o u n d e d

145

when it was agreed that the alternatives, the red

crescent and the red lion would be allowed, mainly to satisfy demands by Turkey and Persia, as well as the special sign of the red sun for Japan. Some were unhappy not to have the unity of one sign and regarded the novel signs as regrettable deviations.

146

Efforts to obtain the right to use other signs have

been rejected, for example the proposals by Israel for the red Star of D a v i d

147

as well as demands for signs without religious significance, such as the red heart for Ethiopia

148

or a reverse red swastika for Sri L a n k a .

149

It is probably desirable to avoid confusion by too m a n y unrecognised signs. Apart from being universally recognised, and immediately connected with certain protected status, the emblem of the Red Cross has also, because of its colour and simplicity, the obvious advantage of being more readily recognised from the air, than most other signs. (7) Attacks on dangerous installations

Methods of warfare which will en-

danger certain installations containing dangerous forces, such as dams, dykes and nuclear electrical generating stations, are also p r o h i b i t e d .

150

Protocol II of 1977 also prohibits attacks o n installations containing dangerous forces, such as dams, dykes or nuclear electrical generating stations.

151

Attacks against such installations pose particular threats to the safety of civilians by releasing dangerous forces. The protection of these installations from attack came into the focus of attention of the Disarmament Conference in the 1980s because of the considerable danger posed by such attacks on, for example, nuclear installations when considerable radiation could be released affecting whole regions. (8) Government buildings Government administration buildings are not, it is often claimed, permissible targets in warfare. 145

146

147

150

151

152

152

But in many conflicts,

108 LNTS, 343. De Gouttes, 'La Convention de Genève pour l'Amélioration du Sort des Blessés et Malades dans les Armes en Campagne, du 27 juillet 1929', in CICR, Commentaire, 1930, 44 and 35. Buignon, The Emblem, 41, 56. Buignon, The Emblem, 55. Ibid., 70. Article 56. These installations are also vulnerable targets of terrorist attacks, above, Ch. 1, B iii c. Article 15. J. W. Gardner, 'La réglementation de la guerre aérienne', RGDIP, 1923, 386. 148

149

RULES ON

294

BELLIGERENCE

for example in the Vietnam War, there is a problem whether a target constitutes a 'government' building if the authority using that building is not recognised as a 'government'. Furthermore, political realities indicate that the heart of the govenment constitutes not an exempt but a prime target for attack, as shown, for example, in NATO's Operation Allied Force against Yugoslavia in 1999. It is questionable whether government build­ ings are excluded under any clear rule of law from enemy attack. (9) Cultural

property

(i) Provisions for international shown,

153

wars and for liberation wars As has been

liberation wars are equated with international wars for the

purpose of the application of the Law of War. Rules on the protection of property follow this pattern and grant, therefore, protection which is different from other 'internal' wars. The Hague Convention of 1 9 5 4

154

affords special protection to 'cultural

property' which is stated to be property of'great importance to the cultural heritage', e.g. m o n u m e n t s , architectural sites, works of art, museums, manuscripts and books of artistic, historical or archaeological interest and libraries and archives, provided such property is clearly marked by a blue and white sign. Special protection can be afforded to certain property provided it is located away from major military targets.

155

Furthermore, in

order to enjoy such enhanced protection, the relevant type of property must be registered with UNESCO in peacetime.

156

But there are wide

escape clauses for military necessity undermining protection granted by the Convention.

157

The Hague Convention 1954 was primarily intended to protect cultural buildings and m o n u m e n t s . N u m e r o u s places of worship would un­ doubtedly come within this category. Protocol I widens this protection to all places of worship and other civilian objects and buildings, whether or not they are of the quality demanded by the Hague Convention. However, there were some objections to the protection of, for example, churches as the Diplomatic Conference held that 'church steeples make excellent obser­ vation p o s t s ' .

158

At the Conference it was thus questioned whether all

churches were protected or merely those which form part of the 'cultural heritage'. 153

156

158

159

The way the article was finally drafted, it could, albeit against 154

155

Above, Ch. 1, D i c-d. 249 UNTS 240. Article 8. Regulations to the Convention, article 12. Below, Ch. 12, B i a. Cf. Bothe et al., 331. CDDH/III/17, Rev. 1, XV OR 213. 157

159

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

295

the spirit of both the 1954 Hague Convention and the 1977 Protocol, be read to imply a more limited p r o t e c t i o n .

160

In the context of civilian objects the Protocol adopts the system of presumptions with regard to civilian persons; if there is any doubt as to whether or not an object is civilian, it must be presumed to be civilian and thus protected under the Protocol. Furthermore, foodstuffs and objects indispensable for the survival of the civilian population are i m m u n e from attack.

161

(ii) Provisions for internal warfare Protocol II of 1977 adds the protec­ tion of certain civilian objects, such as cultural objects and places of worship.

162

An article further strengthening the protection and inviolability

of civilian property was deleted. Some Islamic states supported the deletion as 'obviously a dejure State would never try to exterminate its nationals or damage the environment*.

163

In any event, it was claimed, national legislation is often sufficient to protect such interests. Islamic legislation, stated the Saudi Arabian delegate, was 'generally opposed to war as such . . . In Islamic society war is always defensive, merciful and humanitarian, and its sole aim is to repel aggres­ sors, without exposing either civilians, cultural objects or the environment, to danger.*

164

As a superfluous repetition, the proposed provisions had no

place in Protocol II. Not only did the Islamic States reject any inclusion of this type in the Protocol: United Kingdom also voted against the adoption of the extending article

165

on the ground that it would be wrong to preserve

protection for objects when so many articles on individuals had been deleted. Finland, too, found that any extended protection of property would 'unbalance* the P r o t o c o l .

166

It is difficult to see why the protection of such property had to be sacrificed to satisfy an artificial symmetrical balance of interests. Surely, it would not help individuals if protection of their property is reduced. O n e State representative pointed out that even if h u m a n life is obviously more precious than buildings, certain such property may be 'repositories of culture and spiritual life* and, as such, worthy of protection against the vandalism of w a r .

167

161

Cf. Bothe et al., 332. ICRC, Mme Bindschedler-Robert, CDDH III/SR.14, vol. 14, 109. Article 16. Saudi Arabia, CDDH/SR.51. vol. 7, 123. Saudi Arabia, CDDH/SR.51. vol. 7, 123. Draft article 20. For the UK see ibid., 163. Ibid., 157. Ibid., 157. 163

166

167

296

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

With hindsight, it is also clear that environmental damage caused, for example, by oil wells set alight, can have catastrophic effects on the life of individuals as well as on the environment. This was amply demonstrated in the Gulf W a r and it must be questioned whether a clear prohibition in the Protocol might not have had a certain influence to restrain the behaviour of a belligerent. (10) Places for religious worship There is special protection for buildings for religious worship and any attacks on such places are held to be illegitimate.

168

But protection is only afforded if such buildings are clearly

indicated to be places of religious worship and if they are not used for military p u r p o s e s .

169

Some such buildings may also be specifically pro­

tected under the Hague Convention for Cultural Property of 1954.

170

The

action taken by the Yugoslav Army against a n u m b e r of Catholic churches in 1991-5 constitutes unprecedented

171

war crimes, as their destruction was

not, as in many other conflicts, in any way caused by military necessity but deliberately designed.

172

173

(11) Civil defence Civil defence activities can be defined as certain hu­ manitarian assistance to the civilian population in armed conflict, such as the establishment and operation of warning systems, and arrangements for fire-fighting, evacuation and shelters.

174

Permanent civil defence personnel, including military persons on special, exclusive and permanent assignment,

175

come under the ambit of new

protection rules introduced under Protocol I of 1977. But others connected with civil defence are also protected, for example those which respond to calls by the authorities for civil defence a c t i o n .

176

Civil defence personnel, buildings and assets clearly indicated as such by a distinctive sign, are i m m u n e from attack under Protocol I of 1977. 168

169

171

172

173

174

175

176

177

A

Hague Regulations, article 27; Protocol I of 1977, article 53. Cf. below, in this Chapter, A iv d, on ruses. Above, in this Chapter, iii b (9). Except for the destruction of churches in the Russian Civil War following the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917. Below, Ch. 12, B i a . See Catholic Bishop Conference (ed.), Ranjeva Crkva Hrvatskoj, Zagreb, 1995 and ibid., The Wounded Church in Croatia, Zagreb, 1996. Cf. Protocol I of 1977, article 61. Assigned military personnel may only perform civil defence duties in their own country but not in occupied territory, see article 67. Articles 62-7. Article 62. 170

177

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

297

blue triangle on an orange background has been adopted as a 'distinctive sign* while for further identification purposes, all civil defence personnel are to be equipped with a special identity card which must be carried if they are in the combat z o n e .

178

iv. Specifically p r o h i b i t e d m e t h o d s a. 'No

9

quarter

It has long been held that any ' n o quarter* order is i n h u m a n e and should not be allowed as a permissible method of warfare. This implies an order that, for example, when a city is stormed, n o survivors must be left. Protocol I of 1977 provides a specific prohibition of orders concerning 'no quarter*.

179

There is some uncertainty as to whether the prohibition extends to combatants or merely to civilians as the provision is included in a section concerning n o n - c o m b a t a n t s .

180

However, considering the often illogical

arrangement of provisions and sections in the Protocol, one may assume that the drafters intended to protect both groups.

b.

Starvation

Siege is one example of 'attacks* on civilians

181

by exposing t h e m to

starvation and hardship, by which a belligerent could seek to conquer his enemy.

182

The rules on 'open towns*

183

did not always suffice to protect

the civilian population when the town did not qualify as undefended. In the case of a defended town, all the attacker had to do, once he had encircled the area and cut off further supplies of a m m u n i t i o n and food, was to wait. The method by which the civilian population is subjected to starvation as 178

180

181

182

183

179

Ibid., article 66 and Annex I, articles 14-15. Article 40. Cf. Bretton, RGDIP, 41. There is, as yet, no prohibition on starving an encircled enemy army; most of the German 6th Army in the Kessel in Stalingrad perished largely through starvation: see A. Beevor, Stalingrad, London, 1999, 374ff. Cf. Nurick, 'The distinction betwen combatant and non-combatant in the Law of War', 39 AJILy 1945, 680 at 686. The encirclement of Leningrad by the Germans in the Second World War, with ensuing famine, may be an example; cf. similar methods used against Dubrovnik by the Yugoslav army in 1991. Above, in this Chapter, A ii b.

298

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

a strategic way of defeating the enemy had been somewhat restrained by the Hague Regulations of 1907,

184

at least insofar as foodstuffs and necessities

for survival were considered as 'the enemy's property' which could not be destroyed unless demanded by the 'necessities of w a r ' .

185

There were also

some other rudimentary rules to the effect that medical stores were allowed through a besieged a r e a .

186

These vague rules of protection for the benefit of

the civilian population have been greatly improved by Protocol I of 1977. This recent attempt is intended to prohibit that starvation is used as a method of warfare;

187

such regulation thus prohibits siege in the old

meaning and function of the t e r m .

188

The ICRC had, in its initial draft, visualised only an indirect prohibition of starvation as a m e t h o d of warfare.

189

However, an amendment proposed

by the United Kingdom and Belgium provoked a more detailed treatment which resulted in the more definite prohibition in the text of Protocol I . The prohibition is not intended to alter the rules on naval blockade

191

190

but

even if they do not have this effect, the new rules will be of great benefit to the civilian population. Protocol I of 1977 further grants special protection to relief actions and to persons involved in such activities.

192

The Protocol extends the fairly

limited protection previously enjoyed by certain relief personnel under the Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949.

193

Starvation as a means of internal warfare is also specifically pro­ hibited.

194

The article on starvation only 'survived' as a result of what some

have termed an 'energetic'

195

and others an ' e l o q u e n t '

196

intervention of

the representative of the Holy See at the Conference. The article had been due for deletion, together with n u m e r o u s others cut from the initial text, when, after a forceful intervention which created considerable debate, it was decided to retain the article. In the final discussion, even the former 184

186

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

185

Article 23 (g). On military necessity, see further below, Ch. 12, B i a. Geneva IV, article 23. Protocol I of 1977, article 54( 1). Article 54( 1). CDDH/III/SR.15, vol. 14, 119 and 139. Cf. Bretton, RGDIP, 45. Article 54. On Protocol II, see below. Article 49(3) and CDDH/215, Rev.l, 73, vol. 15, 322. Cf. Bretton, RGDIP. Articles 68-70. Under articles 23, 55 and 59flf. See further O. Kimminich, Schutz der Menschen in bewaffneten Konflikten: Zur Fortentwicklung des humanitärischen Völkerrechts, Munich, 1979, 186 ff; cf. M. Bothe, 'Rechtsprobleme humanitärischer Hilfsaktionen zugunsten der Zivilbevölkerung bei bewaffneten Konflikten*, in P. Fleck, Beiträge zur Weiterentwicklung des humanitärischen Völkerrechts für bewaffnete Konflikte, Hamburg, 1973, 45 et seq. Protocol II of 1977, article 14. Cf. comments to article 54 of Protocol I, above. Bretton, RGDIP, 1978, 45. Bothe et al., 681. 187

188

196

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

299

Soviet Union had rallied to the support of the Holy See to retain the article.

197

There have been a n u m b e r of illegal sieges in recent conflicts; for example, by the Yugoslav Army alone there were sieges in the 1990s of Dubrovnik, Vukovar and U N 'safe havens* such as Srebrenica.

c.

198

Reprisals

There has for some time been confusion in the doctrine on the nature and the right of reprisals. Most writers have somehow sought to reconcile belligerent reprisals with the traditional notion of general reprisals in international law. The traditional concept implies the right of a State, in response to a violation of international law by another State, to resort to force against that State, or to take other counter-measures. The degree of force and the nature of other acts may be such that the acts would themselves have amounted to violations of international law unless they were 'legitimised* as a justified response to the initial violation.

199

Such reprisals are legitimate provided they are proportionate to the violation and, above all, provided there was an actual violation in the first place by the other State.

200

There are clear limits to the right of reprisals

and the law has been fairly settled since the leading Naulilaa 1928.

201

Case in

202

But belligerent reprisals are completely different: they are not used to retaliate against a State for what that State has done in violation of international law. In a large majority of cases, it is individuals w h o have committed an act of hostility, perhaps in violation of the Law of W a r by using civilian status, town,

204

203

or by abusing the protective status of an open

and the reprisals are taken against other innocent individuals,

usually civilians. 197

198

199

2 0 0

201

2 0 2

2H3

CDDH/SR.52, vol. 7. This was under special protection of the UN, see below, Ch. 11, B i. Cf. above, Ch. 2, B, on legitimising elements for the use of force. On a chain of economic 'reprisals' when it became difficult to discern where the line had started, see my Finance and Investment in Developing Countries, London, 2nd edn, 1986, 76-8. See, e.g., C. Dominicé, 'Observations sur les droits de l'Etat victime d'un fait internationalement illicite', in IHEI (éd.), 2 Droit international, Paris, 1981-2. (1928) 2 RIIA 1012; on proportionality, cf. Vm Alone, (1929), 3 RUA 1609 and the Case Concerning the Air Services Agreement of 27 March ¡946, Arbitral Award, 9 December 1978, 54 /LM 304. See above, Ch. 4, C. Above, this Chapter, A ii b. 2 0 4

300

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

Such action, lying as it does on the plane between individuals, or at least between individuals, as civilians, on the one side and the belligerent forces on the other, is, in nature and function, quite different from traditional State reprisals. Belligerent reprisals can thus not be denned in the same way as State reprisals although some insist that they are acts against an occupied 'State'.

205

But belligerent reprisals could perhaps be better defined as:

Acts of victimisation or vengeance by a belligerent directed against groups of civilians, prisoners-of-war or other persons hors de combat, in response to an attack by persons of unprivileged status or by persons not immediately connected with the regular forces of the enemy.

For example, when a lorry carrying German military personnel was attacked in Rome in Via Rasella in March 1944, orders were given by Hitler that ten Italian soldiers were to be shot for every German soldier killed in the attack. Consequently, 335 prisoners were taken from prisons in Rome to the Catacombs and s h o t .

206

Another example which will also

illustrate the definition we have adopted above of belligerent reprisals, was when some German soldiers were shot by Greek guerillas outside the village of Klissura in Greece in 1944. Under the commander, General Felmy, 215 men, w o m e n and children in the village were s h o t .

207

It is this

type of reprisal that is typical of i n h u m a n e warfare and which is undesir­ able. It is reprisals against persons protected by the Geneva Conventions which are prohibited, not reprisals in general.

208

State reprisals, on the other hand, like the reprisals by Germany in attacking London by b o m b a r d m e n t in response to similar attacks on German cities, lie on another plane and merit different considerations.

209

They too may be unlawful under the Law of War, but then not because they involve reprisals but because they imply indiscriminate attacks, inevitably affecting civilian objectives. The regulation of reprisals in war by international conventions also seems to correspond to the definition adopted above and concern primarily 2 0 5

2 0 6

2 0 8

2 0 9

F. Karlshoven, Belligerent Reprisals, 1971, 37, who defines belligerent reprisals as 'coercive measures taken by one State against another and motivated by an international wrong committed by the latter to the prejudice of the former State', at 22; cf. 33. Wulf, Handbok ifolkr&tt under krig, 65. Ibid. Cf. H. Meyrowits, 'The Law of War in the Vietnamese conflict', in Falk, (ed.), 2 The Vietnam War, 567 n.120. But, for a different view, defining reprisals as including State reprisals, see Kalshoven, Belligerent Reprisals, 37. For example, see above, in this Chapter, A iii a, on area bombing. 2 0 7

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

301

WARFARE

the protection of civilians and of prisoners of war from acts of reprisals. The Hague Conventions did not prohibit the military use of reprisals apart from granting some basic protection to prisoners of w a r .

210

Other

instruments had largely been silent on this question. The Geneva Convention of 1929 restricted the right of reprisals.

211

Still, during the Second

World War, reprisals against protected persons were used as a means of warfare.

212

But, as was shown in the Nuremberg Trials, such practices

were forbidden by the Law of War and the belligerents were b o u n d by a duty not to resort to reprisals by maltreatment or by the taking of hostages.

213

The right of reprisals against civilians was restricted by rules laid down in the judgments of the Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. The Tribunal emphasised that reprisals must at least be limited geographically to one area, mainly as actions against persons in one area could have little deterrent effect on people in other areas. If there was not such geographical connection a 'functional' link might be acceptable as limiting the right of reprisals: there had thus to be some connection between the reprisals and the civilians against w h o m action was t a k e n .

214

The Tribunal furthermore

ruled out reprisals for which certain ethnic, religious or political groups had been selected.

215

Reprisals as a means of warfare were forbidden by the Four Geneva Conventions,

216

but not in any particular detail.

Protocol I of 1977 widens the protection enjoyed previously.

217

In this

part the new rules have been criticised by commentators as, indeed, were the Geneva rules themselves. The original protection contained in, for example, the Fourth Geneva Convention, had been questioned as some claimed it would lead to fragmentation and resistance, 2 1 0

2 . 2

2 . 3

2 . 4

2 1 5

2 . 6

2 . 7

2 1 8

2 , 1

218

since such rules

Hague Regulations, article 4 ff; cf. below, Ch. 9, B iii f. Article 2(3). ICRC, 1 Report on Activities During the Second World War, 1949, 365, 522; J. Hinz, Das Kriegsgefangenenrecht, Berlin, 1955, 58; Kalshoven, Reprisals, 193. Cf. The Great War Criminal Cases, AD 1946, 26; The List Case, AD 1948, 632. For example, Re Kappler, AD, 1948,480; such 'functional connection' could be that of an office or works. See the von Mackesen Case, 8 War Crimes Report, 1945, 2. Convention I, article 46; Convention III, article 47; Convention III, article 13 and Convention IV, article 33. Cf. S. Nahlik, 'Le problème des représailles à la lumière des travaux de la Conférence diplomatique sur le droit humanitaire', RGDIP, 1978, 130 flf. See Krafft, 'The present position of the Red Cross Geneva Conventions', 37 TransGrotSoc, 1951, 146.

302

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

protecting persons against reprisals cannot easily be reconciled with the idea of war. Some claimed that the rules would favour resistance and 'as no belligerent will keep the rules if his very existence is threatened' the new rules (of the Geneva Conventions) would 'only contribute to more anger, more accusation, more reprisals, more deviation from valid law'.

219

The protection granted by the Fourth Geneva Convention to civilians has been supplemented by further protection under the 1954 Hague Con­ vention with regard to property which must not form the object of reprisals under the C o n v e n t i o n .

220

Protocol I improves the protection against re­

prisals and the regulation of the matter forbids any reprisals against the civilian p o p u l a t i o n

221

and against civilian objects.

222

During the Conference some delegations argued that reprisals have a function in war as 'a reprisal is a sanction to deter further violations of the law. It is not an act of vengeance. The availability of this sanction may persuade an adversary not to commit violations of the law in the first place.'

223

Others

claimed that the protection given by Protocol I of 1977 with regard to reprisals was so extended that the rules risk becoming a dead letter.

224

Yet it cannot be denied that, in the light of experiences of the Second World W a r and of n u m e r o u s recent armed conflicts, a general prohibition of reprisals as that afforded by Protocol I can only further improve the level of treatment given to civilians in times of armed conflict. But what about reprisals in internal war? Are those not equally contrary to the basic tenets of the Law of War? There were attempts during the negotiation of Protocol II of 1977 to include an article on reprisals.

225

But

Nigeria made a forceful protest to the inclusion of the article in the final Convention and said that such an article dealt with reprisals and, as such, it had no place in an instrument on internal conflict. Reprisals, said Nigeria, belong to inter-State r e l a t i o n s

226

and further:

it is not inconceivable that in the course of an internal conflict, rebels . . . deliberately commit acts to which the normal reaction would be in the nature of reprisal, but because of a prohibition such as this, governments would feel bound to fold their arms while dissident groups go on a rampage killing and maiming innocent civilians and burning dwellings and food crops. 2 , 9

Roling, 'The law of war and national jurisdiction since 1945, 100 RCADI 1960, 428, 445. Above, in this Chapter, A iii (9). Articles 51(6) and 75. Article 53. Australia, CDDH/SR.41, vol. 6, 176. Y. Dinstein, 'Another step in codifying the laws of war', YBWA, 1974, 288. Article 10 bis of the Draft. CDDG/SR.51, vol. 7, 122. Cf. above, on State reprisals. Ibid. y

2 2 0

2 2 3

2 2 4

2 2 5

2 2 7

227

221

2 2 6

2 2 2

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

303

But it is not against such acts that the provisions were designed to function but they were intended to protect civilians. Again, it may have been the confused notion of belligerent reprisals as being undefined and mistaken for having characteristics and legal effects similar to those of State re­ prisals

228

which was responsible for the failure to incorporate reprisals in

Protocol II on internal war.

d.

Perfidy

(1) General rules Force and fraud may be cardinal virtues in w a r . although all warfare may be based on d e c e p t i o n ,

230

229

But

a strict distinction must

be drawn between deception or ruses (stratagems or Kriegslist) and perfidy. Treachery, perfidy and impermissible ruses are practices within a war. A whole war cannot be 'treacherous' although the prosecution sought to allege this in the Tokyo Trials. Military necessity

232

231

is said to warrant the use of 'deception' for military

ends but does not allow the use of perfidy. The Lieber Code acknowledged this basic tenet of the Law of W a r . commonly called r u s e s

234

233

The Hague Regulations allow what is

and it is this term which is commonly used to

denote deception as opposed to perfidy or treachery and which is p r o ­ hibited under the Law of W a r . of 1977

236

235

The prohibition is reaffirmed in Protocol I

and there is ample evidence

237

that these rules form part of the

Law of War whether or not a party has adhered to a treaty as these rules reflect what is binding on the basis of general international l a w .

238

(2) Specific practices Permissible ruses include the use of camouflage, decoys, mock operations and a m b u s h .

239

False signals

240

are allowed,

including the jamming of communications.

2 2 8

2 2 9

2 3 0

231

2 3 2

2 3 5

2 3 7

2 3 8

2 3 9

CDDG/SR.51, vol. 7. See above, Ch. 2, B iv on State reprisals. Hobbes, Leviathan, 1 ch. 13. Sun Tse, The Art of War (ed. and transi, by S. B. Griffiths), Oxford, 1963, 66; cf. H. D. Becker, Die Dreizehn Gebote der Kriegskunst, Munich, 1972, 50. See, for criticism of this standpoint, Judge Pal, in B. V. A. Rôling and C. F. Ruter, (eds.), The Tokyo Trials, Amsterdam, 1971, 626. Below, Ch. 12, B i a. Article 16. Article 24. Hague Regulations, article 23(b). Article 37. E.g. D. Fleck, 'Ruses of war and prohibition of perfidy', RDG, 1974, 269; R. Bourdoncle, De l'influence des ruses sur l'évolution du droit de la guerre, Paris, 1958. On the underlying obligation, see my Essays. Greenspan, The Modern Law, 319. Ibid. 2 3 3

2 3 4

2 3 6

2 4 0

RULES ON

304

BELLIGERENCE

Improper use of a white flag constitutes treachery

241

as does feigning

surrender in other ways or pretending to have wounded or civilian status.

242

Once capitulations have been agreed, they must also be observed,

and it is treachery for soldiers who have surrendered to take up arms and attack the e n e m y . enemy

244

243

It also constitutes perfidy to use the uniforms of the

or of neutral States.

245

Similar abuse of the Red Cross sign, or of

equivalent emblems is also expressly forbidden.

246

The law of land warfare has, for a long time, prohibited the use of the enemy's

247

flag

but, contrary to these rules, it has been claimed that

warships are entitled to fly a false flag, even the flag of the enemy, or to be disguised as the merchant ships of their enemy or of a neutral State.

248

At

least, such buses' should be allowed, it is claimed, before a ship goes into action. It has certainly been c o m m o n practice for a ship to hoist its own flag before going into hostilities but some ships have not disclosed their ident­ ity, like The Graf Spee which sailed under false flag even during action.

249

y

However, the rather curious practice of using a false flag has not gone unchallenged. The Institut

de droit international

questioned in 1913

whether this practice was compatible with the Law of W a r .

250

It could be

argued that the swift nature of m o d e r n naval warfare has made the use of different rules from land warfare obsolete. In State practice there is also ample evidence that neutral powers whose flags were often abused during the Second World War certainly did not consider this practice to be lawful and made serious protests. There have also been attempts to outlaw, on a partial basis at least, the practice of false flag at sea. Thus, under article 2 of the Havana Convention on Rights and Duties of States in the Event of Civil Strife of 241

2 4 2

2 4 4

2 4 5

2 4 6

2 4 7

2 4 8

Hague Regulations, article 23(f); article 37, Protocol I of 1977. Protocol I of 1977, article 37. Hague Regulations, article 35. Hague Regulations, article 23(f); Protocol I of 1977, article 39; cf. Jobst, 'Is the wearing of the enemy's uniform a violation of the laws of war?', 35 AJIL 1941, 435; on the relevance of the wearing of uniform, see also my 'Foreign warships', 61. But the wearing of the enemy's uniform has not always led to condemnation or loss of POW status: see the Skorzeny Case, 9 Nuremberg 90 and 95, where the prohibition was held to concern only the time of'actual fighting' but not to any earlier time. Protocol I of 1977, articles 37 and 39. Geneva I, article 44; Geneva II, article 44; Protocol I of 1977, article 38. Cf. Hague Regulations, article 23(f). Hague Regulations, article 23(f); Protocol I of 1977, article 37. C. J. Colombos, International Law of the Sea London, 1962, 496-8. Rousseau, Conflits armes 237. Institut de droit international, Annuaire 1913; cf. the Oxford Manual, 5 Annuaire, 1881-2,156, 1913. 2 4 3

y

2 4 9

y

2 5 0

y

PROHIBITED

1928

251

METHODS

OF

305

WARFARE

any insurgent vessel, whether warship or merchantman, which flies

the flag of a foreign country to shield its action may be captured and 'tried* by the State the flag of which it has adopted. This provision raises several interesting points. First, the term 'tried* in relation to a ship, must indicate that it can be taken, together with its cargo, as p r i z e .

252

Secondly, the

jurisdiction granted to the 'abused* flag State is reminiscent of some recent hijacking treaties which give jurisdiction to a State over a crime committed away from its territory, regardless of the actual nationality of the perpetrators of that crime. It may be argued that the prohibition in the Havana Convention reflects the law in general as it stands today. O n e reason in support of this contention is that air warfare has adopted the same rule as applies on land and which therefore prohibits the use of false external identification marks on aircraft.

253

A consequence of using false, or no external marks on

aeroplanes is that the plane will be considered as having been used for espionage and its pilot will not be entitled to prisoner-of-war status but will be tried as a c o m m o n s p y .

254

O n the other hand, it is lawful to use

reconnaissance scouts in w a r

255

and espionage, or the 'gathering of infor-

mation* by such scouts, is not perfidious or in violation with the Law of War.

256

It has been questioned whether warfare by submarines, by nature 'perfidious* vessels, amounts to treachery. There were attempts to outlaw such warfare or, at least, to restrict its u s e .

257

But m o d e r n warfare undoubtedly

allows submarines which, however, like all warships, are under strict duty not to attack merchant vessels.

258

A 'scorched earth strategy* is not a treacherous practice and is specifically allowed by Protocol I of 1977.

259

This provision allows the destruction of

foodstuffs and crops in derogation of the general r u l e ,

260

if such action is

indispensable for the defence of the State against invasion. This is thus a provision subjected to military necessity. 251

254

255

2 5 6

257

2 6 0

261

2 5 2

261

2 5 3

35 LNTS 1932, 187. Below, Ch. 11, C iii a (2). Hague Regulations, article 19. See my 'Foreign warships', on the Gary Powers Case and other incidents; cf. above, Ch. 4, C ii (4) on spies, and below, Ch. 9, B iii f, on prisoners of war. The Flesche Case, (1949), Dutch Court of Cassation, 16 ILR, 266; and my 'Foreign warships'; and above Ch. 4, C ii (4) on spies. But, again, the relevant criterion whether the scout is to be granted POW status or be executed as a common spy, is the wearing of uniform: see above, footnote 233. Below, in this Chapter, B ii. See above, in this Chapter, iii b (5). Article 54. See above, in this Chapter, iv b, on starvation. See United States Military Tribunal, Hostages Trial, (1948), 15 ¡LR 632 and below, Ch. 12, B i a. 2 5 8

2 5 9

306

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

It is a particularly serious violation of the Law of War to shield military targets from attack by placing or moving them to densely populated areas or to move civilians near military targets to protect such targets from attack.

262

N o r must medical u n i t s

263

or places for religious w o r s h i p

264

be

used to shield military targets from attack. Such prohibition also extends to cultural p r o p e r t y

265

and, by analogy, to civil defence property.

266

It may be questioned whether hostile propaganda is permissible as a ruse of war or whether it a m o u n t s to treachery. The better view is probably that it is not unlawful under the Law of War. Such propaganda in times of war is usually dispersed by an enemy government and may contain disinforma­ tion and misleading facts. To the extent that propaganda is broadcast by individuals it may be noted that States are rarely under any obligation to suppress propaganda directed against another State even if such propa­ ganda incites rebellion against the internal o r d e r .

267

The position in demo­

cratic countries is usually a clear conflict, in such cases, between the relevant propaganda and the right of free speech.

268

territorial States to prevent subversive p r o p a g a n d a ,

269

There is no duty of although some have

asserted that there is a duty to suppress revolutionary activities against another S t a t e .

270

Production and distribution of counterfeited enemy

money, which in peacetime have been said to constitute veritable delicta 271

juris gentium,

probably also constitute permissible ruses; belligerents

may abstain from these only by the knowledge that retaliation may follow on the basis of reciprocity. 2 6 2

2 6 3

2 6 4

2 6 6

2 6 7

2 6 8

2 6 9

2 7 0

271

2 7 2

272

Geneva IV, article 28; Protocol I of 1977, article 51(7); cf. ibid., article 58. Protocol I of 1977, article 12; cf. Geneva I, article 19; cf. also Hague Regulations article 27. Protocol I of 1977, article 53. Hague Convention 1954, articles 4 and 8. Protocol I of 1977, article 65. But see the Convention Concerning the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace, 1936, 5 Hudson 409; and the South American Convention on Radio Communications, 1935,7 Hudson 47. See, for example, the notification of the United States Secretary of State to the Mexican Ambassador on 7 June 1911 to the effect that the United States could not interfere with hostile propaganda directed against Mexico because of the constitutional right of freedom of speech in the United States, 2 Hackworth 142; on the defamation of the Mexican Government by the Hearst newspaper group, see E. D. Dickinson, 'Defamation of foreign government', A/JL, 1928, 840. See L. Preuss, 'International reponsibility for hostile propaganda against foreign states', A//L, 1934, 649. Cf. above, Ch. 2, A iii, on intervention, and cf. A. K. Kuhn, 'The complaint of Yugoslavia against Hungary with reference to the assassination of King Alexander', A//L, 1935 87. Harvard Draft Convention 1929, 23 AJIL 1929, Suppl. 478. For regulations in peacetime, see, for example, the Convention for the Suppression of Counter­ feiting Currency (1929), 4 Hudson 2692; cf. United States v. Arjona (1887) 120 US 479; Emperor of Austria v. Day and Kossuth, (1861) 30 L/, ch. 690. 2 6 5

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

307

The rules of Protocol I of 1977 extend the earlier provisions in the Hague Regulations, which merely mentioned treachery,

273

to forbid killing by

perfidy and give a more precise meaning to this t e r m practices of guerillas.

274

in view of recent

275

(3) The legal effects of perfidy Exemption from the rules on t a r g e t s protection under humanitarian r u l e s

277

276

or

can be suspended by acts of perfidy.

Even if there is no intention to deceive the enemy, any link between protected objectives or persons and military activities may cause the dis­ ruption of the protective regime. Thus, protection of, for example, medical u n i t s

278

is forfeited if acts

harmful to the enemy are committed in violation of the conditions for protection, by or through medical units. However, only quite considerable involvement with military efforts will lead to this result. For example, the mere carrying of weapons for self-defence, or for the defence of the sick and wounded, is not such an a c t escorts,

280

279

nor is the establishment of guards or

nor does the presence of military persons for medical reasons,

lead to that protection being forfeited.

281

The presence of civilian sick and

wounded in a military unit does not lay such civilians open to a t t a c k

282

and

is not to be considered to be a link of such intensity that protection is forfeited. Similar rules apply to other objectives which are exempt from being targets and/or which are specifically protected. For example, civil defence personnel and buildings will lose their immunity if they are used for military purposes. But acts that benefit those who are hors de combat do not lead to such results, nor does the fact that this personnel is carrying light weapons for personal self-defence, or to 'maintain o r d e r ' ,

283

or action

under or in cooperation with military authorities or along military lines. By the application of similar rules, a parlamentaire

loses his p r o t e c t i o n

he abuses his position to commit an act of treachery.

286

285

284

if

However, with

regard to this last example, it must be added that here the q u a n t u m of proof required is possibly increased: the immunity of a parlamentaire 273

276

2 7 8

2 7 9

281

2 8 3

284

2 7 4

2 7 5

or other

Article 23( 1 )(b). Protocol I of 1977, article 44(3). Above, Ch. 1, D iv. Above, in this Chapter, A i and ii. Below, Ch. 9. Above, in this Chapter, A iii 6 and below, Ch. 9, B iii d. Geneva I, article 22; Protocol I of 1977, article 13 ( 2). Ibid. Geneva IV, article 19. Geneva I, article 22. But in the combat zone only hand guns are allowed. Protocol I of 1977, article 65. Ibid. Above, in this Chapter, iii b (3). Hague Regulations, article 34. 2 7 7

2 8 0

2 8 2

2 8 5

2 8 6

308

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

envoy is a 'strong' rule and it must be proved beyond doubt that he took u n d u e advantage of this situation.

B. Specific rules for naval warfare i. T h e special case of warfare at sea Certain prohibited methods of warfare relating to all types of warfare have been discussed and described above. The regulation of naval warfare differs insofar as there are a n u m b e r of traditional practices which are only pertinent to warfare at sea. However, some of these practices, such as the law of prize, are better discussed in relation with other interference with property

287

as is the unusual practice of angary.

288

Furthermore, a few

questions relating to submarine warfare have been dealt with in connection with perfidy.

289

There remains, however, a need to comment in this section

on the use of submarines and blockade as methods of naval warfare. First, some general comments may be made. The Law of War has, by tradition, included certain practices which are particular to war on the seas and has recognised and regulated these practices, some of which are in decline. However, the general rules described earlier in this work also apply to naval warfare. For example, rules on the nature of the high sea imply, as has been s h o w n ,

290

that hostilities must not take place on the high seas

291

which must only be used for peaceful purposes. Such general rules, as well as the establishment of positive and negative z o n e s ,

292

will have an impact

on the location of naval warfare. Next, it must considered that naval warfare is different in nature to land warfare since land warfare has as its objective to take over and occupy the enemy's territory. At sea, war is often about 'maritime superiority' and naval warfare implies the use of the sea for its own purpose rather than to occupy and annex any specific areas. O n the other hand, superiority at sea is not any aim in itself but a means of achieving 'national survival' or victory on l a n d .

293

Land warfare thus aims at victory over the enemy who, after his territory has been taken, cannot escape; war at sea implies also a war against the 2 8 7

2 8 9

291

2 9 2

2 8 8

See below, Ch. 10, C iii a. Below, Ch. 10, C iii a (4). See above, in the previous section. Above, Ch. 6, A iv. D. P. O'Connell, 'Contemporary naval operations', 44 BYIL 1970, 27. Above, Ch. 6, A viii. United Nations, Study on the Naval Arms Race, Geneva, 30. 2 9 0

2 9 3

PROHIBITED

enemy's t r a d e .

294

METHODS

OF

309

WARFARE

But the trend towards 'total war' in the Second World

War has erased this sharp distinction: all types of war involve attacks on commerce.

295

In the Second World War special ministries for 'economic

warfare' were created to plan strategies to strangle the enemy's trade. At sea this type of warfare is important. British ships, for example, adopted the practice of exercising their power of visit and search of neutral ships on the high seas and issued special navigation certificates if the examination of cargo and ship's paper warranted such 'approval'. This method, the socalled 'Navicert System', became an important m e t h o d of economic war­ fare.

296

The system of intercepting merchant vessels carrying goods that might be destined for enemy u s e

297

was still used, for example, in the Iran-Iraq

War, where this method of warfare had been thought essential to under­ mine the enemy's economy in general as well as to stem the flow of war supplies. The nature of naval warfare has changed considerably over the last fifty years.

298

Now, both the 'blue-water' navy and the coastal navy are all

highly specialised and technically alien to earlier navies. After the 'nuclear revolution', which commenced with the USS Nautilus sioned as a nuclear-powered ship in 1952,

299

being commis­

and the 'electronic revol­

ution', which led to drastic changes in weapons systems, there is little in modern navies which resembles traditional equipment. For example, traditional guns would today only be used against minor or undefended targets. For other targets 'fire-and-forget' missiles, whose trajectory can­ not be corrected, were considered in the 1980s as useful;

300

nowadays,

smart missiles can change their trajectory coordinates seconds before impact. Other technical developments, such as the closed cycle combus­ tion system, will allow submarines to be submerged for a week rather than days. 294

2 9 5

2 9 6

2 9 7

2 9 8

2 9 9

301

301

H. Wehberg, Seekriegsrecht, Stuttgart, 1915, 3-4; J. Schmitt, Die Zulassigkeit von Sperrgebieten im Seekriegy Hamburg, 1966, 48. Stone, Legal Controls, 457. See, D. Steinecke, Das Navicertsystem, 2 vols, Hamburg, 1966. Cf. above, Ch. 6, A viii, on modern information warfare targeting economic systems. Cf. below, Ch. 10, C iii a (2), on contraband. On earlier developments, see P. Reuter, 'Le droit de la guerre maritime et les juridictions internationales temporaires issues des Traites de paix de la grande guerre', RDI, 1934, 375. United Nations, Study on the Naval Arms Race, 33-4, 41-2. Ibid., 47-8. Ibid., 49. 3 0 0

3io

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

The relevant treaties regulating naval warfare fall into two broad groups. The first group includes a n u m b e r of treaties which restrict the use of force at sea and provide rules on self-defence or collective security at sea; this group has been largely discussed in relation to the use of force.

302

The

second group includes those which regulate typical naval strategies such as the blockade or submarine warfare. Among these treaties are the Declar­ ation of Paris of 1856,

303

seven of the 1907 Hague Conventions,

Treaty of London of 1909,

305

Protocol of London of 1936,

307

the Treaty of London of 1930

306

304

the

and the

both on, inter alia, submarine warfare, and,

finally the Geneva Convention I I

308

o n the shipwrecked.

The rules in these Conventions are accepted by all the maritime nations but they have often justified deviations from these rules by arguments on military necessity,

309

accepting that the rules, per se, were binding but

inapplicable in the specific event because of overriding factors.

310

ii. S u b m a r i n e warfare W h e n submarines were first used, the British attitude was that submarines,


perfidious by nature, were designed precisely to attack merchantmen and

of less importance to fight warships: submarines should therefore be prohibited. Furthermore, submarines could not treat merchantmen as conventional warships, by subjecting such merchant vessels to visit and search and taking cargo as prize. Such views were strongly opposed by the German view that 'military necessity'

311

demanded attacks by submarines

o n merchant vessels. The French intermediate position advocated 'regu­ lated use* of submarines, dismissing both the British and German extreme positions. The German view was not compatible with the Law of War, and the British view, said the French, confused perfidy and ruses, ignoring the effect of submarine attacks on warships as well as the extensive French case law on prize taken by s u b m a r i n e s .

312

The Declaration of London of 1909 was not ratified by, for example, the United Kingdom and never entered into force. Yet, since it codified existing 3 0 2

3 0 5

3 0 7

3 0 8

3 0 9

3 1 2

3 0 3

3 0 4

Above, Ch. 2. 1 AJIL 1907, Suppl., 89. For a list see above, Ch. 5, A. 104 BFSP1911, 242; 3 AJIL 1909, 179 and above. 25 AJIL 1931, Suppl. 63 and above. 31 A//L 1937, 137. 75 UNTS 85; cf. above, in this Chapter, A iii (1) and below, Ch. 9, B ii. Below, Ch. 12, B i a. Ibid. Below, Ch. 12, B i a. Rousseau, Conflits armes, 245-7. 3 0 6

3 1 0

311

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

311

rules its substantive regulation was still effective in terms of binding obligations

313

arising and the United Kingdom itself applied the Conven­

tion in the First World W a r .

314

The Declaration of London, however, was

an attempt to codify 'acknowledged principles of international l a w ' .

315

Courts also applied it as, in their opinion, it embodied general interna­ tional l a w

316

even though a Maritime Rights O r d e r - i n - C o u n c i l

317

had

expressly revoked the Declaration. Germany's unlimited submarine warfare, proclaimed in 1917, involved attacks also on neutral ships in certain z o n e s

318

and, in spite of dubious

legality, such strategies were repeated during the Second World War. The Washington Treaty on the Use of Submarines, the so-called 'Root Resolution',

319

prohibited surprise attacks on merchant vessels and p r o ­

vided for 'standards' for submarine warfare as an 'established part of international law'. But the Treaty never entered into force.

320

The Draft

Treaty had sought to prohibit submarine warfare against merchantmen. At the Conference there had even been suggestions, inter alia, by the United Kingdom, that submarines should be forbidden altogether.

321

Although the

Treaty of Washington never entered into force it was, by article 22 of the London Treaty of 22 April 1930, incorporated as 'declaratory' of interna­ tional law. When the 1930 Treaty expired in 1936, this article 22 was, in turn, incorporated in the London Protocol of 6 November 1936.

322

U p to

this point, the 1922 rules on submarine warfare had been regarded by the large maritime nations as declaratory of international law. The explicit 1936 Protocol was prompted merely by the fact that the last paragraph of article 22 'invited' all other Powers to express their assent to the rules, on, for example, surprise attack;

323

but it was thought to add little to already

existing rules on submarine warfare. The Treaty of London imposed a duty on submarines not to attack merchantmen, unless such ships had refused visit and search. But there are doubts as to whether 'merchant ships', as a term, covers those which are armed.

324

It has been suggested more recently that submarines are vulnerable to 313

3 1 4

3 , 6

3 , 8

321

324

On underlying obligations, see my International Legal Order, 230 ff. Rousseau, Conflits artnes, 214. C. J. Colombos, Prize Law, London, 1926, 342. The Hdkan, (1918) AC 148, 152. Order-in-Council, 7 July 1916. Above, Ch. 6 A. 16 AJIL 1922, Suppl., 57. Above, in this Chapter, A iii b (1). Ibid., 252. 31 AJIL 1937, 137. UN, Study on the Naval Arms Race, 11. Rousseau, Conflits armts, 253. 3 1 5

3 , 7

3 , 9

3 2 2

3 2 0

3 2 3

312

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

attacks by even only lightly armed merchant vessels.

325

But even if this is so,

submarines undoubtedly pose a greater threat to merchantmen than to which they are themselves exposed; therefore, submarines must strictly adhere to rules on exempt targets.

326

iii. Blockade O n e of the earliest treaties on the Law of W a r in modern times, the Declaration of Paris of 1856,

327

deals with the regulation of the blockade.

But the treaty contains no definition of the term. Blockade implies the cutting off of the enemy's coastline by forceful measures so that supplies carried to and from the enemy by sea are restricted. Blockading must thus not be confused with the mere policing of a coastline for limited purposes, for example to prevent rebels from reaching a specific p o r t . be confused with the closure of p o r t s .

328

Nor must it

329

A blockade, in order to be recognised as such by third parties, for example, by neutral States, must be effective.

330

This rule was probably

accepted by international society long before the Declaration. cannot be effectively maintained by m i n i n g submarines.

333

332

331

A blockade

and probably not only by

O n the other hand, today's modern weapons can probably

make even long-distance blockades effective. There are other conditions which must be met if the legality of a naval blockade in war is to be recognised; for example, it must be limited to the coast of the e n e m y .

334

The blockade must also be declared and notified in

order to be recognised. Knowledge of the blockade on the part of the ship's master is not a condition of legality, unless it is clear that he did not have, and could not have had, actual or presumptive knowledge of the blockade. 3 2 5

3 2 7

3 2 9

3 3 0

331

3 3 3

334

335

335

3 2 6

O'Connell, Influence of Law on Sea Power, 41. Above, in this Chapter, A i. 1 AJIL 1907, Suppl. 89. Rousseau, Conflits armés, 259-60. Ibid., 259-60 and e.g. the Portendinck Affair, 1 RIAA 512. Declaration of Paris, 15 NRGT, 1 série, 791; 1 AJIL 1907, Suppl. 89. Declaration of London on the Laws of Naval War, 1909, 3 AJIL 1909, Suppl. 179. The Betsey (1798) 1 C. Rob. 93. Ibid.; cf. Hague Convention VIII 1907, article VIII. 2 Oppenheim 780. Declaration of London 1909, article 1; cf. articles 18-19 on forbidden blockades of neutral ports. The Franziska, (1855) Spinks, 287, 298. Cf. Declaration of London 1909, article 8-11. Knowl­ edge is presumed if a neutral vessel left port subsequent to the notification of the blockade to the port authorities at that port, ibid., article 12. On French and other continental views on requirements of knowledge, see Rousseau, Conflits armés, 270-1. 3 2 8

3 3 2

PROHIBITED

METHODS

OF

WARFARE

313

Certain rules thus limit the geographical application of a blockade to the enemy's coastline.

336

This area is further restricted to exclude straits or part

of straits, which must not be subjected to blockades.

337

Similar prohibitions

are inserted in treaties regulating international canals as, for example, in the Constantinople Convention of 1888 on the Suez C a n a l .

338

There has been an increasing decline in the use of the blockade as a method of naval warfare. In the First World War some ten blockades were imposed. In the Second World War they were even rarer, so one can perhaps only point at the Soviet blockade of Finland during the Winter War in 1939 and at the Japanese blockades of H o n g Kong in 1941 and of Java in 1942.

339

In recent years, blockade has fallen into even greater disuse.

The measures applied by the United States to stifle the supply of arms to Cuba probably constituted a 'peaceful blockade' although the United States insisted on calling it a 'Quarantine' to avoid the connotations of a block­ ade.

340

But in the Cuban crisis there was n o armed conflict and therefore

the rules on naval blockade in war would not have been relevant. N o r was there any war in which the United Nations and Rhodesia, or the United Kingdom and Rhodesia,

341

were involved when the Security Council

authorised the United Kingdom to impose a blockade on Rhodesia to prevent oil tankers from reaching the port of U m t a l i .

342

One of the few blockades imposed in wartime after the Second World 3 3 7

Above, Ch. 6, A. 2 Oppenheim 773. 3 AJIL 1909, Suppl., 123. But interception of contraband has been carried out: T. D. Brown, 'Prize law applied in a limited war situation', 58 Minnesota LR, 1965-6, 842; L. Gross, 'Passage through the Suez Canal of Israeli-bound cargo and Israeli ships', 51 AJIL 1957, 530; R. Lapidoth, 'The reopened Suez Canal in international law', 4 Syracuse Law Journal of Interna­ tional Law and Commerce, 1976, 37. See, further J. F. McNulty, 'Blockade, evolution and expectation', in US Naval War College, (ed.), International Law Situations, Newport, 1980, 172. Q. Wright, 'The Cuban quarantine', 57 AJIL 1963, 546. M. S. McDougal, 'The Soviet Cuban quarantine and self-defence', 57 AJIL 1963,597; A. L. Kolodkin, 'Morskaya blokada i sovremennoe mezhdunarodnoe pravo', Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, Moscow, 1963, No. 4, 92; M. A. D'Estefano, 'La Curantena y el derecho internacional', Politica Internacional, No. 4, Havana, 1963; Christol and Davies, 'Maritime Quarantine', 57 AJIL, 1963, 525; L. Meeker, 'Defensive quarantine and the law', ibid., 515; C. G. Fenwick, 'The quarantine against Cuba, legal or illegal?', ibid., 588; W. T. Mallinson, 'Limited naval blockade or quarantine interdiction', ibid., 592. See above, Ch. 1 on international or internal war. SC 221 1966. Cf. A. D. McNair, The Legal Effects of War, 6th edn, 1966, 20fT, on formal measures short of war, e.g. - apart from blockade - embargo; this concept initially implied the taking of ships, usually in territorial waters, coupled with later restitution without compensa­ tion; later, this concept came to mean prohibition of exports without any necessary maritime connection, see ibid.

314

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

War was the United States blockade of Hai-Phong in Vietnam in 1972.

343

A

blockade might also have been briefly applied in the India-Pakistan War in 1 9 7 1 .

344

There was also a blockade of the small coastline of Serbia-

Montenegro in the 1990s.

345

There is a school of thought that no blockade can be declared unless there exists a state of war; at least a blockade imposed in other situations may not be 'recognised' by third parties as 'effective'. Since the United States insisted, in 1967, that there was n o war with Vietnam, the United States was inhibited from declaring a blockade of any part of that country. Any blockade in that situation would, it was said, be of 'doubtful legal­ ity'.

346

But by 1972 the attitude had changed and the United States imposed

a blockade to stem the flow of arms into Hai-Phong in V i e t n a m .

347

The

Hai-Phong blockade consisted of time-delayed mines which would become active after three d a y s ,

348

to enable a warning to be given to neutral ships to

depart. But even these measures may not have amounted to a traditional naval blockade as the system mainly relied on mines: one of the basic rules of blockades is that they cannot be imposed by mines a l o n e . 1977 explicitly exempts blockade from regulation.

350

349

Protocol I of

However, it is difficult

to reconcile this exemption with the Protocol's own prohibition of starvation as a m e t h o d of warfare, outlawing of sieges in land w a r . 3 4 3

3 4 5

3 4 7

3 4 8

3 4 9

351

351

a prohibition which has led to the

352

3 4 4

O'Connell, The Influence of Sea Power, 129-30. Ibid. See below, Ch. 11 on embargo. Carlisle, 'The interrelationship', 8. O'Connell, The Influence of Sea Power, 95. Not three hours as indicated in O'Connell, 2 Law of the Sea, Oxford, 1984, 1139. Above, in this Chapter and in Ch. 7, B iv. See Preamble to the Protocol. Article 54(1). Above, in this Chapter, A iv b. 3 4 6

3 5 0

3 5 2

9

Humanitarian rules

A. The realistic m e a n i n g The nature and function of humanitarian rules have already been explored in this work.

1

In this context the substance of the basic rules will be

described. However, at all times it must be borne in m i n d that the h u m a n i ­ tarian rules supplement those analysed above and which deal with restric­ 2

tion of weapons and regulation of methods of warfare.

3

Furthermore,

humanitarian rules must be seen and interpreted against the background of 4

the general ethics in war, especially the rules which relate to unnecessary suffering and which go to the root of the Law of War. Many subsume under humanitarian law also rules which exempt civil­ ians or other non-combatants from being targets of warfare. However, such rules are very similar in character to those which exempt non-military targets in general; the difference is one of quantity rather than quality. In other words, the rules which stipulate that a village inhabited by 5,000 civilians, without military installations, must not be stormed or b o m b e d is akin to the rule saying that one unarmed civilian must not be attacked. Therefore, in this work the term 'humanitarian' law has been reserved mainly for those rules which protect the h u m a n person, but go beyond rules concerning attack or exempting persons from constituting targets.

5

Rules on weapons and methods in war inevitably present a negative 6

element, insofar as they restrain the way force is used. Some humanitarian rules, especially those concerning prisoners of war, involve both negative restraint provisions as well as rules for positive measures. However, most humanitarian rules are basically positive, demanding specific action on the

1

5

6

2

3

4

Above, Ch. 5, C iii c. Above, Ch. 7. Above, Ch. 8. Above, Ch. 5, C v. Protection of property and equipment may be ancillary to the protection of individuals. Cf. above, Ch. 8, A i and ii. 315

316

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

part of belligerents and combatants. This restricted notion of humanitarian rules will be more realistic and, by being less hazy, perhaps more easily subsumed under a viable Law of War. It is not in the interest of consolidation of the Law of War if humanitar­ ian rules include heterogenous rules, such as rules on targets for attack, as they are more akin to other rules on methods of warfare. To separate these rules on targets, when they involve, for example, civilians, from the Law of War and insert them in a conglomeration of rules on the specific protection of children, or care of the wounded, or treatment of prisoners of war, will not enhance their value in practical terms. Such rules risk floating away in an undefined mass of vague h u m a n rights. O n the contrary, it is only by a stringent division of rules on methods of warfare, including strict prohib­ itions of attacks on, for example, civilians, that humanitarian values will be protected. This will not be achieved by separating rules concerning individ­ uals, regardless of the contents of the rules, to form part of an anomalous 'humanitarian law* marked only by its vagueness. Thus, by restricting the very meaning of humanitarian law by a narrower definition and by dealing with other rules o n individuals, for example targets, in their organic context, may the interests of individuals, by a clearer synthesis of rules, be advanced.

B. Specific rules i. T r e a t m e n t of civilians As all rules in warfare, humanitarian rules turn on the question of distinc­ 7

tion; in the field of humanitarian law, the impact of the application of this principle is perhaps at its most acute. O n the other hand, it is really only in peacetime that it is possible to make 8

a clear distinction between civilians and military forces. But the network of conventions and treaties which seek to improve the situation of noncombatants in war is naturally limited to basing the increased protection it grants on the status of persons, as determined by the principle of distinc­ tion. This, however, will occasionally lead to some undeserving group being treated better in practice than they should be under the Law of War and some deserving persons being denied protection, because of the hazy distinctions between new forms of combatants and civilians. 7

Above, Ch. 4, C.

8

Cf. CDDH/SR.41., vol. 6, 180.

9

9

Above, Ch. 4, C i.

HUMANITARIAN

3V

RULES

Civilians comprise two distinct groups: those who never took part in the hostilities and who form part of the normal civilian population and those who were combatants but are, at some stage, hors de combat and n o longer take part in the hostilities, perhaps because they are wounded or because they have, for other reasons, rejoined the permanently civilian population.

10

The protection of civilians is, from the humanitarian point of view, the most important task of any legislative effort on warfare as such persons include the weakest members of the c o m m u n i t y most in need of protection, such as women, children and the aged. Another reason for their specific protection is that civilians must normally be assumed to have wished to abstain from any involvement in the conflict. Even if numeric reasons are not always relevant, it is furthermore important to consider that the civilian population normally represents a m u c h larger n u m b e r of people than the combatants. Civilians received some protection under the Hague Conventions of 11

1899 and 1907 and also, in a m u c h more comprehensive way, under the 12

Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949. Protection of civilians and combatants alike was extended by the 1948 Genocide C o n v e n t i o n , other h u m a n rights instruments

14

13

as well as by

such as the Universal Declaration o n

15

H u m a n Rights; the 1966 United Nations Covenants on H u m a n Rights;

16

17

the 1950 European Convention on H u m a n Rights; and the Latin Ameri18

can Convention on H u m a n Rights of 1969, but only to the extent that 19

they are not suspended during armed conflicts. Other relevant treaties are the 1966 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimi20

nation; the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees;

21

and its

22

1967 Protocol. But the most specific rules for the Law of War are found in the Geneva Conventions and their Protocols of 1977. Contrary to earlier Conventions the 1949 Geneva Conventions deal with civilians as well as with combatants. The earlier 1929 Geneva Conference which negotiated the Convention on Prisoners of W a r of the same year recommended a convention on civilians and the ICRC elaborated a 10

c

Cf. P. Bretton, Le problème des "méthodes et moyens de guerre ou de combat" dans les Protocols additionnels aux Conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949', RGDIP, 1978, 43. " Above, Ch. 5, C. Above, Ch. 8, A iii b (1). 78 UNTS 277. See above, Ch. 5, C iii c ( 1 ) on suspension in war. GA Res. A/811, (1948). Annex to General Assembly Resolution 2200(XXX); 6 ILM 360 and 368. 213 UNTS 221. 9 ILM 673. Above, Ch. 5, C iii c (2). 60 UNTS 195. 189 UNTS 150. 606 UNTS 267. 12

13

14

15

16

17

18

21

22

19

2 0

318

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

Draft for the Tokyo Conference in 1934. But the Second World War intervened and the Diplomatic Conference planned for this earlier convention did not take place. The Fourth Geneva Convention thus introduced, in 1949, the most comprehensive regulation of civilians in wartime; it also introduced, for the first time, criteria for distinction between civilians and combatants.

23

It may be difficult to ensure that civilians are adequately protected in the case of total w a r

24

but a belligerent cannot escape liability for serious

violations of these rights. Most of the protection that civilians enjoy is based on the system laid down in the Geneva Convention IV of 1949 on Civilians. This Convention ensures rights which are so firm that they cannot be denounced by individual civilians or a group of t h e m .

25

The

rights laid down in the Geneva Convention IV are now extensively supplemented by the provisions of Protocols I and II of 1977.

26

Protocol I of 1977 expands the protection of the civilian population considerably, especially by a paramount presumption that anyone who is 27

not proved to be a belligerent has civilian status. The Protocol extends the protection of the Fourth Geneva Convention to include specific protection 28

on civilians. Protocol I codifies, for the first time, the established rule that civilians must not form the object of attack.

29

Furthermore, acts which are

intended to spread terror a m o n g the civilian population are prohibited.

30

The protection of the civilian population may even be the main aim of 31

Protocol I of 1977, and is achieved by the prohibition of certain methods of warfare as well as by some mandatory provisions on the treatment of 32

victims of w a r . Specific rules envisage directly the treatment of civilians or combatants hors de combat, such as the wounded and prisoners of war. The fusion of rules previously found in the instruments on the law of the Hague with those in documents on the law of Geneva has, as some commentators point o u t , 2 3

2 5

2 7

28

2 9

3 0

3 2

33

33

upset the traditional division between the two sets of rules, a 24

Above, Ch. 4, C i. Cie. d'assurance le Soleil v. Français, RGDIP, 1947, 259. Geneva IV, article 8. Protocol I, article 51(1); Protocol II, article 13. Article 50. Such status is only refused if the 'civilian' takes direct part in the hostilities; see article 51. Article 51(2) of Protocol I; cf. article 13(2) of Protocol II; above, Ch. 5, C iii c. However, Geneva IV, as analysed above at Ch. 8, A iii b ( 1 ) prohibits attacks on the civilian population either to gain military advantage or to take reprisal. The 1922 Draft Rules on Air Warfare, which prohibited attacks from the air on civilians, were never ratified. Article 51(2). Cf. CDDH/SR.5, 81, vol. 7, 136. The rules on belligerency obviously concern the combatants in the first place but will have as their objective and inevitable result an improved protection of civilians. Siotis, Le droit de la guerre et les conflits armés d'un caractère non-international. 2 6

31

HUMANITARIAN

319

RULES

division which perhaps was never well-founded.

34

Another valuable contri­

bution of the Protocols is that they include a catalogue of forbidden practices to which civilians a n d persons hors de combat

must not be

subjected. Under Protocol I, these forbidden practices include: (a) violence to the life, health, or physical or mental well-being of persons, in particular: (i)

murder;

(ii)

torture of all kinds, whether physical or mental;

(iii)

corporal punishment; and

(iv)

mutilation;

(b) outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment, enforced prostitution and any form of indecent assault; (c) the taking of hostages; (d) collective punishments; and (e) threats to commit any of the foregoing acts.

35

Protocol II contains a similar catalogue of prohibited practices: (a) violence to life, health and physical or mental well-being of persons, in particular murder as well as cruel treatment such as torture, mutilation or any form of corporal punishment; (b) collective punishments; (c) taking of hostages; (d) acts of terrorism; (e) outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment, rape, enforced prostitution and any form of indecent assault; (f) slavery and the slave trade in all their forms; (g) pillage; (h) threats to commit any of the foregoing acts.

36

Civilians must thus not be subjected to m u r d e r or mass executions.

37

Nor

must they be subjected to torture or any other action which causes physical suffering or intimidation. Such acts are particularly prohibited if they are

34

37

3 5

3 6

Cf. above, Ch. 5, C ii. Protocol I, article 75. Protocol II, article 15. The execution of 297 Croatian patients at the Vukovar Hospital by the JNA Army on 19 November 1991 would fall in this category, if it is claimed that they were civilians; it would be a crime against the rules ensuring protection of prisoners of war if they were first taken prisoners (see below, in this Chapter, B ii f); this war crime is compounded by the fact that the attack was made in a hospital, a protected target (see above, Ch. 8, A iii (6)); and it would be a gross violation of the protection of wounded, sick and shipwrecked if they were wounded combatants (see below, in this Chapter, B ii); see further UN Report of the Exhumation at Oftara, 1998.

RULES ON

320

designed to obtain information.

38

and n o hostages must be taken.

BELLIGERENCE

There must be no collective penalties 40

39

Civilians must not be transferred to 41

protect a place from being a military target. They must not be deprived of their food by the requisitions of an occupying Power.

42

If civilians are interned they must be given adequate clothes, light and heating.

43

They must not be subjected to forced mass transfers.

44

The

prohibition concerns transfers organised by State authorities and not merely migration due to the conduct of war. Relief for the civilian population must be allowed t h r o u g h ,

45

and

those who accompany such consignment of relief goods must also enjoy protection.

ii. T h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e w o u n d e d , the sick a n d the shipwrecked The major improvement in m o d e r n times with regard to the condition of the wounded, sick and shipwrecked, of prisoners of war, and of civilians, was m a d e by the 1949 Conventions, the four so-called Red Cross Conven­ tions.

46

The First Red Cross Convention expanded the protection of the

wounded and sick in the field while the Second Convention increased the protection afforded to the wounded, the sick and those shipwrecked at sea. It is a great advance of Protocol I of 1977 that it supplies a definition of the terms 'wounded', 'sick' and 'shipwrecked'.

47

The Geneva Conventions

were deficient insofar as they failed to specify relevant definitions of such categories of persons. The wounded, the sick and the shipwrecked enjoy, like everyone in­ volved in armed conflict, the fundamental h u m a n rights enounced by the 3 8

4 0

4 2

4 3

4 5

4 6

4 7

39

Hague Regulations, article 44; Geneva IV, articles 31, 33. Geneva IV, article 33. Geneva IV, article 34. Geneva IV, article 28. Above, Ch. 8, A iii b (1). Hague Regulations, article 52(1); Geneva IV, articles 36, 55; Protocol I of 1977, article 54(1); Protocol II of 1977, article 14; cf. below, Ch. 10, C iii a (3) on requisitions; and above, Ch. 8, A iv b, on starvation as a prohibited method of warfare. Geneva IV, articles 90 and 85. A. De Zayas, 'Population transfers', 207. Protocol I of 1977, articles 68-71, supplementing Geneva IV, article 23, 55 and 59; O. Kimminich, Schutz der Menschen in bewaffneten Konflikten, 186fT; cf. M. Bothe, 'Rechtsprobleme humanitarischer Hilfsaktionen', 45ff. Convention I For the Protection of War Victims Concerning the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 75 UNTS 31; Convention II for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, ibid., 85; Convention III Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, ibid., 135; Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, ibid., 287. Article 8. 41

4 4

HUMANITARIAN

321

RULES

48

Protocol, as well as specific protection due to their c o n d i t i o n .

49

If they are

taken prisoners of war they enjoy the cumulative protections of such provisions.

50

The Protocol provides further that protected persons must

not be subjected to mutilations, transplants or to any medical experi­ ments.

51

The Protocol affords protection beyond that under the 1949

Conventions by including all wounded, sick and shipwrecked in its ambit, not merely those in the power of the adversary party. Under the first two Geneva Conventions, the category of wounded, sick and shipwrecked comprises members of a belligerent's forces that fulfil the 52

requirements for combatant status. This category is extended by Protocol 53

I of 1977. Protection of the wounded, sick and shipwrecked extends to all who qualify as c o m b a t a n t s

54

on the condition that they abstain from any

55

hostile activity. The protected persons shall be respected, treated h u m a n e ­ ly and there must be no attempts on their lives or violence to their persons. In particular, they must not be subjected to m u r d e r , biological experiment.

56

torture, or any

57

Positive obligations include the duty to search and collect enemy wounded, sick and shipwrecked and to give them adequate care.

58

The

military c o m m a n d has the right to 'appeal to the charity of the civilian population in the relevant territory to voluntarily collect and care for the sick and w o u n d e d ,

59

and of commanders of neutral merchant vessels,

yachts or other craft, to take on board and care for wounded, sick and shipwrecked persons.

60

In the case of shipwrecked, the military authori­

ties may also ask for assistance to collect the dead.

61

O n the other hand,

civilians who respond to the calls for charitable assistance must not subsequently be held responsible for having aided the enemy or for other acts relating to their care; nor must they be molested for having lent assistance.

62

C o m m a n d e r s of other vessels who assist in a similar

way must not be captured on account of their transporting protected persons but remain liable to capture for other acts implying violations of neutrality. 4 8

50

51

54

56

58

6 0

6 3

63

4 9

Article 75. Cf. below, in this Chapter, B iii g. Article 8. See below, in this Chapter, B iii f. Article 11. Above, Ch. 4, B. Above, Ch. 4, C. Above, Ch. 4, B, on requirements. Cf. above, Ch. 8, A iv d on perfidy. See footnote 37 above. Geneva I and II, article 12. Geneva I, article 15; Geneva II, article 18. Geneva I, article 18. Geneva II, article 21. Geneva II, article 21(1). Geneva I, article 18. Geneva II, article 21(3); cf. below, in this Chapter, B iii f on capture. 52

53

55

57

5 9

61

6 2

322

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

The identity of all sick, wounded and shipwrecked, as well as of the dead, must be ascertained and relevant information transmitted to the Informa­ 64

tion Bureau of the ICRC in Geneva. They must also be protected against pillage and ill-treatment.

65

Special agreements may be concluded by bel­

ligerents for the removal or exchange of sick, wounded and shipwrecked from a besieged or encircled area or to allow the passage of relief aid.

66

Protected persons who remain in the hands of the enemy shall qualify as prisoners of war and be guaranteed further protection as such.

67

Warships

of belligerents have the right to demand the transfer of their sick, wounded and shipwrecked from other vessels, except neutral warships, who have lent 68

assistance, provided the protected persons are in a fit state to be moved, and provided the warship can provide adequate care.

69

If the protected

persons are on board a neutral warship, the flag State must ensure that the protected persons take no further part in the hostilities and shall be 'guarded' to that effect.

70

iii. Specially protected g r o u p s Certain rules increase previous protection afforded to certain groups of persons, above that granted to all civilians.

a. Women and

children

W o m e n received some protection under Geneva Convention IV which prescribed that w o m e n must not be subjected to attacks on their honour, rape, enforced prostitution, or any form of indecent assault.

71

Under the

same Convention, particular duties were imposed on the parties to ensure the safety of children under fifteen, and those who are orphaned or 6 4

6 5

6 6

6 7

6 8

71

Geneva I, article 16; Geneva II, article 19. An Information Bureau was to be established under article 122 of Geneva III to process information on the dead, sick, wounded and the shipwrecked as well as on prisoners of war. The services of the ICRC have been used in practice for this purpose. Geneva I, article 15; Geneva II, article 18. Ibid., and below, in this Chapter, A iii f on relief aid. Geneva I, article 14; Geneva II, article 16; cf. below, in this Chapter, A iii f on prisoner of war status. Above, Ch. 6, A iii. Geneva II, article 14. Geneva II, articles 15-17. Geneva IV, article 27(2). Rape has often occurred in war but rarely in any systematic form. However, the Japanese were guilty during the Second World War of organising 'comfort' women for their troops and the Yugoslav authorities organised, partly as a revenge measure, special 'rape camps' in Bosnia. 6 9

7 0

HUMANITARIAN

RULES

323

separated from their families as a result of war, so that they are not left to their own resources.

72

Protocol I of 1977 extends the protection of w o m e n by specifying certain mandatory rules in their favour and granting enhanced protection to the most vulnerable group, that of pregnant mothers or mothers with depend­ ant infants.

73

Children receive special protection by detailed provision 74

dealing both with their safety and with their evacuation in case of need.

b.

75

Journalists

War correspondents received some protection under the 1949 Conventions insofar as they were to be given prisoner-of-war status if captured.

76

It may

be surprising that one category singled out for further protection by Protocol I of 1977 was that of journalists. However, considering that journalists are extremely useful as part of the machinery which ensures the implementation of the rules of war when most other means of enforcement are lacking, such protection is most important. It is often through the reports of journalists that i n h u m a n practices in wars are m a d e known to the rest of the world and their function of transmitting news to those outside a particular conflict may often be conducive to the condem­ nation by world opinion of certain methods of warfare or a certain state of affairs. As journalists are essential to the spreading of knowledge of i n h u m a n practices and war crimes to the world at large, they have become increas­ ingly vulnerable as it became important to some authorities to 'silence' negative information: n u m e r o u s journalists were killed in the 1990s in the Yugoslav wars as well as in Rwanda and in East Timor.

c. Civil defence

personnel

Under Geneva Convention IV there is a tentative regulation of protection of civil defence organisations during occupation.

77

Such entities are en­

sured the right to continue their work 'subject to temporary and excep­ tional measures imposed for urgent reasons of s e c u r i t y . 72

73

74

78

78

The rationale of

Ibid., article 24. Protocol I of 1977, article 76. See further Y. Khushlana, Dignity and Honour of Women and Basic Fundamental Human Rights, The Hague, 1982, 63-5, 69-73. Article 77. Article 78. Convention III, article 4 (A)(4). Article 63. On military necessity, see below, Ch. 12, B i a. 7 5

7 6

7 7

324

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

any protection of civil defence units is that they protect civilians from attack.

79

Protocol I of 1977 recognises that civil defence personnel should be protected as they d o not form part of the ordinary armed forces. Ancillary protection should also be granted to certain e q u i p m e n t . is entirely novel in international law.

80

Such protection

81

During the Conference some delegations expressed the opinion that civil defence personnel ought to have been given a status similar to that of medical personnel and thus be protected from being taken as prisoners of 82

war. Yet, even if the final articles were a compromise of conflicting views, as indeed were many other articles of the Protocol, the innovating protec­ tion of civil defence personnel and equipment is another step in the development of the laws of warfare.

d. Medical As has been described above,

83

personnel

hospitals and medical units are protected

from attack. They are also ensured special treatment by the Geneva Con­ 84

ventions. 'Medical personnel' include hospital administrators, of the armed forces assigned to medical u n i t s ,

86

85

members

members of Red Cross

87

Organisations and other volunteers as well as, by an extension of Protocol 88

I of 1977, all civilian medical personnel. If medical personnel are captured they must normally not be m a d e prisoners of war but may be kept in prisoner of war (POW) camps to give medical assistance, provided the 89

n u m b e r of prisoners require such h e l p . There are specific rules by which medical personnel will carry out their duties, giving priority to their own sick and wounded, and they are guaranteed certain facilities to ensure this work can be carried o u t .

90

Medical personnel at sea who fall into enemy

hands shall be 'respected and protected' and may continue to carry on their medical duties for as long as is necessary. They shall be sent 'back' when the 7 9

8 0

N. Gelsvik, 'Militaert forsvar eller civilt vaern', Syn og Segn Oslo, 1930. See B. Jakovljevic, New International Status of Civil Defence as an Instrument the Protection of Human Rights* The Hague, 1982, 32 ff. E.g., Switzerland, CDDH/SR.43, vol. 6, 276. Above, Ch. 8, A iii b (6). Geneva I, article 24; Geneva IV, article 20; on identification, see above, Ch. Geneva I, article 40; Protocol I of 1977, article 18(3) and its Annex. Geneva I, article 24. Geneva I, article 25 and above, Ch. 8, A iii b (6). Geneva I, article 26. Protocol I, articles 8 and 15; cf. above, Ch. 8, A iii Geneva I, article 28. Geneva I, articles 28, 30, 31. y

81

8 2

8 4

8 5

8 7

8 9

Articles 61-7. for Strengthening

8 3

8, A iii b (6) and

8 6

8 8

9 0

b (6).

HUMANITARIAN

RULES

325

enemy Commander-in-Chief under whose authority they find themselves considers it practicable.

91

Fixed medical installations and medical transport units are protected under the rules on methods of warfare, exempting t h e m from being targets.

92

The Protocol of 1977 extends protection previously granted to

medical personnel under the Geneva Conventions to civilians who care for the sick and w o u n d e d .

93

Problems related to medical transport by air were

not solved by the 1929 C o n v e n t i o n tions. The Protocols

95

94

nor by the 1949 Red Cross Conven-

on the other hand, 'Ont un immense

mérite: ils

tiennent largement compte des exigences de la médecine et des réalités opérationnelles et techniques de Vaéronautique dans le temps où nous

96

vivons'.

Protocol I adopts a varied system for overflight by medical transport, attempting to establish a balance between humanitarian demands and the legitimate fear of parties to armed conflicts that any overflights might have a military purpose. The Geneva Convention had required prior agreement for all medical flights.

97

Such authorisation in advance is not always

compatible with speedy medical assistance. Protocol I still requires consent, however, for flights over enemy or neutral territory.

98

Under the new

Protocol there are also extended possibilities for third parties to provide medical assistance.

99

The Protocol extends protection to certain small

medical craft at sea even though no notification may have been g i v e n

100

as

previously required by the Geneva Convention on the Sick and W o u n d e d and Shipwrecked.

101

The Protocol also remedies the deficiencies in this

Geneva Convention by prescribing that protection applies at sea or in any other waters,

102

thereby including rivers and lakes under the ambit of the

Protocol. The Protocol furthermore provides m o r e detailed and specific rules for the identification of medical t r a n s p o r t .

91

94

9 6

97

9 9

100

103

9 2

103

9 3

Geneva II, article 37. Above, Ch. 8, A iii b (6). Article 8 and 15. 108 LNTS 343. For Protocol II, see below, in this Chapter, B iii g. 'The Protocols are of immense merit: they take into account requirements of medicine and operational and technical realities of aeronautics in the time in which we live.' E. Evrard, 'Le nouveau statut protecteur des transports sanitaires par voie aérienne en temps de conflit armé', RGDIP, 1978, 234. Convention I, article 36 and Convention II, article 39. Articles 27 and 31. Articles 9(2) and 22(2); cf. comments by Bothe, Partsch and Soif, New Rules on Victims of War, 145. Article 22. Convention II article 27. Article 23. Articles 8, 18, 24 and Annex I, Schindler and Toman, Documents, 2nd edn, 609. 9 5

9 8

101

102

326

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

e. Religious

personnel

Military religious personnel, such as military priests, enjoyed protection under the Geneva C o n v e n t i o n s .

104

civilian religious personnel as well.

Protocol I extends this protection to

105

Military

106

and civilian

107

priests must

not be made prisoners of war but must be treated in a similar way as medical personnel and therefore be 'respected' and retained only to carry out their ordinary duties.

/

Prisoners of war

Some victims of war, for example prisoners of war, had received rudimentary protection under the 1864 Geneva Convention on the Treatment of Wounded.

108

Ratifications of the Conventions did not come forth but, with

some success, the newly founded International Committee of the Red Cross sought to p r o m p t governments to accede to the Convention. In 1866 Prussia opened hostilities against Austria and the Convention received its first test. Austria had, when the hostilities opened, not yet ratified the Convention but Prussia notified the Committee of the Red Cross that it would apply the Convention regardless of Austria's non-ratification.

109

This Convention was extended by the Third Hague Convention 1899

110

to

cover the wounded and shipwrecked at sea as well, including protection for hospital ships. The 1906 Geneva Convention on the W o u n d e d and Sick

111

expanded the Third Hague Convention of 1899. Prisoners of war were the subject of declaratory rules laid down by the Institut de droit international in the so-called Oxford Manual of 1888; the 1 8 9 9

113

112

some rules adopted were reflected in

and the 1907 Hague C o n v e n t i o n s

114

and prisoners of war

(POWs) also receive some protection under the annexed Hague Regula­ tions.

104

107

108

109

1 1 0

115

Important advances to protect prisoners of war were made in 1929,

105

1 , 2

114

106

Articles 24 and 28 of Convention I. Article 15(5). Geneva I, articles 24, 28. Protocol I of 1977, article 15. 19 NRGT, 1 série, 607. The Additional Articles of 1868 were never ratified but the 1864 Convention remained an important instrument until it was replaced, between certain parties, by the 1929 Convention. P. Boissier, Histoire du Comité de la Croix-Rouge, 236. International Convention III for Adapting to Maritime Warfare the Principles of the Geneva Convention of 22 August 1864, 26 NRGT 979. 1 AJIL 1907, Suppl. 201. 5 Annuaire, 1881-2, 156. 26 NRGT, 2 série, 976. 3 NRGT, 3 série, 630. Below, in this section. 1 , 5

113

HUMANITARIAN

327

RULES

when a new Convention on Prisoners of War was a d o p t e d .

116

The situation of prisoners of war was greatly improved by the con­ clusion in 1929 of the new Convention on Prisoners of W a r .

117

Another

Convention of 1929 improved the treatment conditions of the wounded and the sick in armed conflict.

118

This Convention replaced, as between

contracting parties, the 1864 Geneva Convention and supplemented the rudimentary protection afforded by the 1907 Hague Regulations. They were themselves replaced, again as between contracting parties, by the First and Third 1949 Geneva Conventions. The essence of the treatment of prisoners of war is that it must not constitute a sanction but a set of precautionary m e a s u r e s .

119

It is as a

consequence of such considerations that it appears reasonable that prisoners of war are humanely treated. The Hague Regulations of 1899 included provisions intended to prevent any harsh interrogation of prisoners of w a r .

120

The 1907 Hague Regulations

provided a very much more detailed regulation of the required treatment of prisoners of war.

121

Geneva Convention III had improved o n the treatment

of prisoners of war under the 1929 Convention by specifying the categories of persons who would be entitled to protection. Convention III divides these persons into broad categories: those who had fallen into the enemy's hands, including a new category of civilian crew members of military aircraft; and those in occupied or non-belligerent territories who should, largely in the light of the experience of the Second World War, be treated as prisoners of war. Entitlement to prisoner of war status under the Geneva Conventions is restricted to those who can show that they fulfil the four conditions necessary to acquire the status of ' c o m b a t a n t s ' .

122

The Geneva

Convention extended privileged prisoner-of-war treatment to resistance movements operating in occupied territory.

123

Another category, possibly

not identical to the aforementioned group, but still qualifying for prisoner of war status, includes members of armed forces who profess allegiance to a government or an 'authority' not recognised by the detaining power. Such members would, in any event, fight 'on behalf of a party to a conflict. 1 . 6

1 . 7

108 LNTS 343. 108 LNTS 343. The Convention was the result of certain draft rules drawn up by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and contained certain innovations with regard to restriction of the right to reprisals (article 2(3)) and with regard to functions of Protective Powers (articles 86-7). Ibid., 303. Cf. Rousseau, Conflits armés, 90. Below, in this section. Articles 4-20. See above, Ch. 4, C ii. Article 4A(2). 1 , 8

1 , 9

122

120

123

121

328

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

There is some uncertainty as to what link is required between independent forces such as resistance movements and parties to the Convention.

124

By changing the required conditions for combatants Protocol I of 1977 widens the protection of prisoners of war: since the conditions are re­ duced

125

a person may now qualify as a prisoner of war although he would

not have enjoyed protection under the Third Geneva Convention. This extension will prove to be more useful than the presumption clause in the Geneva Convention that protection of a prisoner of war will continue until any question concerning his status has been settled by a competent Tribunal.

126

In practice even persons who do not fulfil the conditions of combatancy have been given prisoner of war status. To encourage the surrender of guerillas and spies, commanders have sometimes asked the political organs of their h o m e State for special permission to treat unprivileged combatants as prisoners of war. Such practice developed, for example, in the Malaysian conflict to distinguish between 'captured enemy personnel' (CEP) and 'surrendered enemy personnel' (SEP), whereby the latter group would also be treated as prisoners of w a r .

127

The all-important question for prisoner of

war status is whether there is war. If a State can argue that there is no such conflict it may also attempt to evade all obligations incumbent on it relating to the specific treatment of prisoners of war. It is clear that non-recognition of an entity as a State does not necessarily lead to non-combatant status of persons.

128

China refused to admit that there was a war in Korea and denied

United States pilots, for that reason, the status of prisoners of war. They were instead treated as 'spies' captured overflying China's territory.

129

By

claiming that the hostilities in Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia were of an 'internal' character and therefore constituted, if a war at all, a 'civil w a r ' ,

130

the government in Belgrade sought to justify brutal practices against 'detainees'. The stand of the federal government of former Yugoslavia was 124

125

126

128

129

130

Cf. above, Ch. 4, B. Some writers claim that the 'authority' to which members of armed forces may profess allegiance may even be the United Nations, see T. J. Farer, 'The humanitarian laws of war in civil strife towards a definition of armed conflict', 7 RBDI 1971, 29; cf. G. I. A. D. Draper, 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', 114 RCADl 1965, i 114. See above, Ch. 4, C i i a ( l ) . Geneva III, article 5(2). R. I. Miller, The Law of War, 258 flf. The Fjeld, (1950) Prize Court of Alexandria, 17 ILR 1950, 345; Diab v. AG, (1952) Supreme Court of Israel, 19 ILR 1952, 550. Cf., GA Res. 906 (IX) 1954 condemning the treatment as contrary to the Korean Armistice Agreement at Panmunjom on 25 September 1953. Above, Ch. 1, D i b, c and d for relevant criteria. 127

HUMANITARIAN

329

RULES

facilitated by the European Community, now the European Union (EU), which repeatedly, and for a considerable time, referred to the hostilities as a 'civil war\ However, it was clear, at least after the declarations of indepen­ dence by constituent States of the federation, and especially after their recognition, also by the EU, that the hostilities constituted an international war, and for some time before independence was achieved probably an 'internationalised' w a r .

131

Objections to claims that an international war

exists make the qualification of a conflict as 'war* according to objective rather than subjective criteria

132

even more pertinent.

Some claim that intelligence forces have no right to be treated as prisoners of w a r uniform.

134

133

but this is probably only true for spies w h o are not in

There is no evidence that reconnaissance soldiers would be

deprived of protection as prisoners of w a r .

135

Furthermore, the most severe acts such as torture are forbidden, even if applied to those who do not qualify for combatant status: they may be liable to execution but they must not be t o r t u r e d .

136

Defectors are said not to qualify for prisoner of war status as they have not 'fallen into the hands' of the e n e m y .

137

Consequently, there is legally n o

duty to hand over defectors. But it is not always easy to draw a distinction between defectors and deserters. It could perhaps be said that defectors change allegiance and deserters only seek to avoid military service, is not always easy to establish the subjective motives of a p e r s o n .

138

but it

139

Protocol I of 1977 effectively extends the qualitative treatment of prisoners of war by subjecting them, along with other persons, to certain fundamental guarantees.

140

Although other persons are also protected under this provi­

sion, it is to prisoners of war that these guarantees will be particularly important as it is they who by definition find themselves in the hands of the enemy. The guarantees imply that, inter alia, a prisoner of war must not be subjected to any act included in the catalogue of prohibited practices.

141

But the ambit of the protection of prisoners of war is still uncertain. There are specific provisions in Geneva Convention III to the effect that persons who have been prosecuted for acts prior to capture will retain the 131

133

135

137

138

139

132

Above, Ch. 1, D i d. Above, Ch. 1, B iii. Rosas, TheLegal Status, 233; cf. 231. Above, Ch. 4, C ii a (1). See my'Foreign warships', 67. Norwegian Supreme Court, AD 1946, 391. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions, 53. A. J. Esgain and W. A. Solf, 'The 1949 Geneva Conventions relative to the treatment of prisoners of war', 41 North Carolina LR, 1963, 555. Cf. on mercenaries, above, Ch. 4, C ii a (3). Article 75. Above, in this Chapter. 134

136

140

141

330

RULES ON

benefits of the C o n v e n t i o n . nal,

143

142

BELLIGERENCE

In other words, if a person is a war crimi­

he still qualifies for prisoner of war status. The former communist

States in Eastern Europe made significant reservations to this article. The former Soviet Union said in its reservation that it would not: consider itself bound by the obligation, which follows from article 85, to extend the application of the Convention to prisoners of war who have been convicted under the law of the Detaining Power, in accordance with the principles of the Nuremberg Trial, for war crimes and crimes against human­ ity, it being understood that persons convicted of such crimes must be subject to the conditions obtaining in the country in question for those who undergo their punishment.

144

The other then socialist States made similar reservations although they did not all refer to 'convicted' but to 'prosecuted and convicted' persons, thus indicating that there would have had to be a 'trial'.

145

But the United

Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand made protests against the reserva­ tions as a breach of the C o n v e n t i o n .

146

The Democratic Republic of Viet­

n a m (DRV) considered raids made by the United States on the DRV as war crimes and stated therefore that captured pilots would be liable for judg­ ment as war criminals and would not enjoy prisoner of war status.

147

Other

incidents, such as that in Kashmir in 1965 when Pakistan forces crossed the border into India, show that prisoner of war status may be denied to persons who do not wear uniform and who may therefore be suspected of 148

being infiltrators or 'freedom

fighters'.

Although Italy had made no reservation to article 85, Italian courts have held that article 85 of the Prisoner of W a r Convention of 1949 must be interpreted to 'exclude' extending the benefits of the Convention to prisoners of war who have committed war c r i m e s .

149

Even safeguards on

court procedure in article 87 only concern civilians during captivity and are 'inoperative' with regard to war crimes committed previously. Some assert that the rules concerning the required treatment of prisoners 142

144

146

147

148

149

143

Ibid., article 85. Below, Ch. 12, C ii a. For text see 3 Commentaire 449. Democratic Republic of Vietnam, ibid. Schindler and Toman, Documents, 2nd edn, 485. 5 ICRC 1965 528. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam added that captured pilots were 'well treated'. 6 IRRC 1966 19; UN Yearbook, 1965, 161; below, in this Chapter, B iii g. Tribunale Supremo Militare, 25 October 1952, Rivista, 1953,193 and note by Ago. In the event the crime consisted in reprisals against the civilian population for attacks on German soldiers by Italian non-combatants. Cf. below, in this Chapter, B iii g. 145

HUMANITARIAN

331

RULES

of war during captivity or repatriation are unchallenged by States although the rules concerning, for example, reprisals

150

are less clear.

151

There have

been numerous allegations of violations of the rights of prisoners of war, especially as regards t o r t u r e .

152

The specific rights of prisoners of war imply that they must be humanely treated.

153

The rights to which prisoners of war are entitled are fairly well

consolidated, but certain ancillary rights may be suspended or modified by local custom and t r a d i t i o n .

154

Summary executions are strictly forbidden. be subjected to biological e x p e r i m e n t s torture.

157

156

155

Prisoners of war must not

nor must they be subjected to

Prisoners of war must not be the object of reprisals.

158

The former

Soviet Union declared expressly in 1942 that reprisals would not be taken against German prisoners of war despite the flagrant violations of the Law of War that these had s h o w n .

159

This statement affirms that the p r o ­

hibition of reprisals against prisoners of war is rooted in general inter­ national law: the USSR was not b o u n d by the Geneva Convention of 1929.

160

Prisoners of war must not be subjected to interrogation. All 'illegal' methods of obtaining information are prohibited.

161

Prisoners of war are

entitled not to disclose anything but their name, rank and serial n u m ­ ber.

162

This limitation of the Law of War, not too clearly in the interest of

other individuals who might have fallen victim to the earlier acts of a captured person, was illustrated in the Astiz Affair during the Falklands 150

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

162

151

Above, Ch. 2, B iv. Rosas, The Legal Status, 101. See, for example, Pakistan's allegations of the torture of prisoners of war by India, S/10560, 10579 and 10589, 1973; International Observer Team in Nigeria 1968, Report, Sverige och konflikten i Nigeria, 1970,212, 243; allegations of Israeli violations, S/9614; allegations of Syrian violations, S/9621; allegations of violations in the Iran-Iraq war, Report by a Mission Dispatched by the Secretary General, S/16962,1985; on allegations considered by a court, see the Weizacker Case, AD 1949 351; the Malzer Case, AD 1946 289; on bad treatment both by camp authorities and by civilians, see the Heyer Case, AD 1946 287; in Algeria torture was even defended. J. Massu, La vraie bataille d'Algers, Evreux, 1971, 165 ff; cf. GA Resolutions 3059 (XXVIII), 1973; 3218 (XXIX) 1974; 3452 and 3453 (XXX) 1975. Hague Regulations, article 4; Geneva Convention 1929, article 48; Geneva III, articles 13-14. Miller, The Law of War, 107 ff. On Vukovar, see above in this Chapter, B i; see also earlier incidents, for example The Wielen Case, AD, 1946, 292; cf. Rousseau, Conflits armes, 100, on other case law. The Brandt Case, AD, 1947, 296. See above, in this Chapter, B ii, and Geneva II, article 3(1 )(a); Protocol I of 1977, article 75(2). Geneva Convention 1929, article 2(3); Geneva III 1949, article 13(3) and above, Ch. 2, B iv. USSR Academy (ed.), International Law, Moscow, 1960, 418. Below, Ch. 12, B i on breach and B ii on reciprocity. Killinger Case, AD, 1946, 290. Geneva III, article 17. 161

332

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

War. Here, an Argentine officer, a Captain Astiz, who was very likely to have committed atrocities was released after the end of hostilities, having merely been asked to identify himself.

163

There were n u m e r o u s reservations to the clause in the 1899 Regulations securing prisoners of war from interrogation.

164

The 1929 C o n v e n t i o n

165

improved the protection of prisoners of war with regard to questioning but since many States did not ratify this Convention, nor the 1907 Conven­ tions,

166

there was n o satisfactory regulation until the Geneva Conventions

of 1 9 4 9 .

167

Protocol I of 1977 now extends such protection to all who qualify

as combatants under the m o r e generous conditions of the Protocol. Prisoners of war must be given sufficient f o o d ,

169

168

a rule which necessarily

depends on its availability in a war situation. In the 1990s the rule was violated by the Yugoslav authorities in, for example, the Omarska Camp in Bosnia, where some P O W s - although there was no shortage of supplies starved to d e a t h .

170

and health c a r e .

Prisoners of war must also be provided with clothing

172

171

There must be adequate standards of hygiene in

prisoner-of-war c a m p s .

173

Prisoners of war may be evacuated

174

or transfer­

red to other areas, b u t only in circumstances that are apt for their condi­ tion.

175

They must not be interned in areas where conditions are injurious

to their h e a l t h .

176

This provision is different from the earlier regulation in

the 1929 Convention under which prisoners of war originating from temperate climates should be transferred from unhealthy localities where

163

, M

165

166

167

168

169

1 7 0

171

174

Ch. Rousseau, 'Chronique des faits internationaux', RGDIP, 1982, No. 4, 763. See reservations to article 44 by Austria, Germany, Japan and Russia. 108 LNTS 343, article 5; cf. article 31. For example, certain Latin American States, like Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Para­ guay, Uruguay and Venezuela as well as some European powers such as Italy, Greece and Spain. These countries were, for a considerable time, all through the First World War, only bound by the 1899 Conventions in this respect. See articles 17 and 50 of Convention III. For illustration of the problems involved in shifting the allegiance of prisoners of war by requesting them to carry out certain work, see US v. Krupp, 9 Trials of War Criminals, 1395. French prisoners of war could not be allowed to work in German armaments factories; even if there had been an agreement to this effect between Germany and the Vichy Government, such an agreement would be contra bonos mores and void under international law. Protocol I of 1977, article 44. Geneva III, article 26. There was deliberate starvation of the prisoners in Serb-controlled POW camps in Bosnia in 1995. Cf. V. V. Jankovic, 'Ethnic cleansing in Bosnia', in L. Freedman, (ed.), War, 1994,63ff. Ibid., article 27. Ibid., articles 25-27. Ibid., articles 29-32. Ibid., article 20. Ibid., articles 46-8. Ibid., article 25(1). 172

175

173

176

HUMANITARIAN

they had been c a p t u r e d .

177

333

RULES

Such obligations were often difficult to carry out

and it was not always justifiable to segregate treatment according to country of origin. Prisoners of war must not be confined to quarters not lit by daylight.

178

They must not be transferred to prisons or other places of close confine­ ment.

179

If they try to escape they may be disciplined but not p u n i s h e d .

There have, however, been frequent violations of this r u l e .

181

180

There must be

a fair trial if judicial action is taken for crimes committed by prisoners of war.

182

The disciplinary power of the camp c o m m a n d e r cannot be del­

egated to another prisoner of w a r .

183

Prisoners of war had already been relieved under the 1899 Hague C o n ­ ventions of any duty to take part in military service against their own country.

184

This exemption was reiterated in the 1907 Hague C o n v e n t i o n

185

and then coupled with a rule that a prisoner of war should not be required to disclose any information about his own army or about the means of defence of his own c o u n t r y .

186

A prisoner of war who is an officer must not be compelled to work; non-commissioned officers may only be required to supervise w o r k

187

and

are not obliged to carry out any work that could be detrimental to their home State.

188

The Geneva Convention of 1929 prohibits prisoners of war

from carrying out work which has a direct connection with the h o m e State

189

but there have been frequent abuses of this r u l e .

190

Geneva Con­

vention III of 1949 does not incorporate this provision but specifies 177

179

180

181

182

183

185

187

188

189

190

178

Geneva Convention 1929, article 9. Ibid., article 25(3). Geneva Convention 1929, article 48; Geneva III, article 21. Hague Regulations, article 8(2); Geneva III, articles 92, 91, 89; cf. article 90 of Geneva III; for a list of permissible types of disciplinary penalties, see Geneva III, article 89; on the difficult distinction between disciplinary and penal action, see the Campbell Case before the European Commission of Human Rights, (1985) 7 EURR 165; cf. the Engel Case, Reports of the European Court of Human Rights, 1976. See German Order of 1942 imposing the death penalty for escape attempts, see D. 1942 L. 87; and Rousseau, Conflits armis, 97. Geneva Convention 1929, articles 50ff.; Geneva III 1949, article 84. Geneva III, article 96(3). Article 44 of the Hague Regulations of 1899. Article 23 (h) of the 1907 Hague Regulations. Article 44 of the Regulations. Geneva III, article 49; ICRC, Commentaire, 259; Greenspan, The Modern Law, 118; Esgain and Solf, 'Geneva Conventions', 571. Hague Regulations, article 6(1). This provision was flagrantly violated by the Japanese in the Second World War, for example by forcing POWs to build bridges of strategic importance. Geneva Convention 1929, article 31. The Leeb Case, AD, 1948, 394; The Lewinsky Case, AD, 1949, 515; The Student Case, AD, 1946, 296; The Milch Case, 17/4/1947, Nuremberg. 184

186

RULES ON

334

BELLIGERENCE

certain activities in which prisoners of war shall be allowed to work.

191

Such activities include work in the administration, installation and main­ tenance of the prisoner of war camp, as well as in agriculture, in the production of raw material and in the manufacturing industries, except the metallurgical, heavy machinery and chemical industries; public works and building works without military character; the transport and handling of non-military stores; commercial business; domestic service and public utility services having n o military character or p u r p o s e .

192

Prisoners of war

must not be asked to do dangerous work such as removing mines or unhealthy or degrading w o r k . monthly allowance.

193

Prisoners of war are to be given a

194

There must be certain facilities for prisoners of war to contact the outside world. They shall, for example, be allowed to send out a 'capture card' to the Prisoner of W a r Agency

195

and they must be allowed to send two letters

and four postcards every m o n t h .

196

There are also certain provisions to

ensure that relief shipments are distributed to prisoners of w a r .

197

Prisoners of war must be repatriated at the end of hostilities; times such delivery of prisoners marks the end of war itself.

199

198

some­

Seriously

wounded persons have the right to be repatriated during hostilities,

200

although there may, of course, be serious practical problems for the belligerent party that holds the prisoner. There may also be difficult decisions whether transport would endanger a wounded prisoner of war and how transport would be carried out without jeopardising both the prisoner and those who take him through enemy lines. Repatriation by force during hostilities, however, is forbidden, although it is questionable what constitutes 'force* against a seriously wounded person. As a general rule, the ICRC assists in repatriation unless there are serious reasons for fearing that prisoners of war will be subjected to 'unjust measures', especially on grounds of race, class or political views, in which case repatriation may be 'contrary to general principles of international law

192

193

Geneva III 1949, article 50. Ibid. Geneva III, article 52. Geneva III, articles 58-68, on financial arrangements and accounts. Ibid., article 69. Ibid., article 71. Ibid., articles 73-5. 'As soon as possible after the end of hostilities', Hague Regulations, article 20; 'as soon as possible', Geneva Convention 1929, article 75(1); 'without delay', Geneva III 1949, article 118(1); for detailed rules see ibid., articles 118-21 on release from belligerents; articles 109-10 on release from neutral parties. Below, Ch. 10, A ii. Geneva III, article 109(3). 196

197

2 0 0

HUMANITARIAN

for the protection of the h u m a n being'. apply force

202

201

335

RULES

There is a general rule not to

and the United Nations General Assembly stressed in Resol­

ution 610 (VII) 1952 that force must not be used against prisoners of war to prevent or effect their return to their homeland. Provisions on choice relating to where a prisoner may wish to go were rejected by the Confer­ ence.

203

But a conflict arises if a prisoner of war does not wish to return to

his State. The armistice in Korea was delayed until 1953, partly due to disagreements on the repatriation of prisoners of war. The rights of prisoners of war cannot be denounced and are thus 'inalienable'.

204

This provision has occasionally been interpreted to the

detriment of prisoners of war, implying that they cannot refuse to be repatriated. After the Second World War, before the Geneva Conventions came into effect, there were several problems relating to the repatriation of prisoners of war. The most notable case became the one concerning the repatriation to the Soviet Union of soldiers from the Baltic States who had served in the German Army. There was no support in international law for their repatriation to the Soviet Union: even their citizenship was, in many cases, questionable until international society at large had recognised the incorporation of the Baltic republics into the Soviet U n i o n .

205

Finland was

probably not required under the Peace Treaty to extradite the Baltic soldiers and Sweden had, in spite of a legally and morally questionable decision to hand over prisoners,

206

even less reason to grant extradition.

There were some highly questionable transfers of P O W s to regimes where they were all certain to meet immediate d e a t h .

207

Similar incidents arose during the Korean conflict. 201

2 0 2

203

2 0 4

2 0 5

2 0 6

2 0 7

2 0 8

208

Prisoners of war

ICRC, Commentaire, 546. R. Baxter, 'Asylum to prisoners of war', 30 BYIL 1953 489; J. Charmatz, and H. M. Wit, 'Repatriation of prisoners of war and the 1948 Geneva Conventions', 62 Yale L] 1953, 391; J. Gutteridge, 'The repatriation of prisoners of war', 2 /CLQ, 1953, 207; Esgain and Solf, 'Geneva Conventions', 592; M. R. Garcia-Mora, International Law and Asylum as a Human Right, Washington, DC, 1956, 112; M. Flory, 'Vers une nouvelle conception du prisonier de guerre', 59 RGDIP 1954, 67; O. Kimmenich, Asylrecht, Berlin, 1968, 39; J. Mayda, 'The Korean repatriation problem and international law', 47 AJIL 1953,414. Rosas, The Legal Status of Prisoners of War, 480. Geneva III, article 7. H. Granfelt, 'Finland och baltflyktingarna', Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift, 1948, 60. Ibid., 61. For example, Cossacks were handed back to Stalin and anti-communist Croats to Tito. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions, 69; Mayda, 'The Korean repatriation problem', 414; Charmatz and Wit, 'Repatriation', 391; Baxter, 'Asylum to prisoners of war', 489; cf. 10 Whiteman 1968, 203, 257 and 503.

336

RULES ON

BELLIGERENCE

certainly have a right to refuse repatriation.

209

Considerable difficulties

would arise if there were not such a right especially considering the difficulty of distinguishing between defectors, deserters and those who may have changed their attitudes during captivity. The problem turns mainly on a concern that the prisoner of war is himself allowed to make his decision freely. The privileges of prisoners of war are coupled with important duties. The right to protection as prisoner of war can be forfeited if illegitimate acts are committed. O n e such act is to carry arms; this would formerly have led to execution,

210

but would now be punished in other ways.

211

There is some

evidence to the effect that officers who themselves had perpetrated crimes by, for example, ordering the execution of United States c o m m a n d o troops in the Second World W a r were themselves executed as war criminals.

g.

212

Detainees

In internal conflicts, rebels are still citizens and subjected to the laws of the country. They are, therefore, under most municipal laws, liable for treason if hostile acts are directed against the State. Modern internal warfare deviates from the civil war pattern and traditional acts such as recognition of belligerency have fallen into disuse.

213

In the contemporary world there

are, however, several full-scale internal wars where the insurgents or 'nations' have crossed the t h r e s h o l d

214

from being rebellious subjects to

being consolidated belligerents which the State must fight as it fights other States. It is as if, at a given stage, the State has lost its power to quell a rebellion and to try the perpetrators for treason. There is, indeed, a fine line between the right of a State to punish and halt 'insurgents' and its duty to recognise their legitimate and democratic claims for autonomy and independence. Once the insurgents have reached this stage they are very much akin to traditional recognised belligerents and they too, may take prisoners of war; 2 0 9

2 . 0

2 . 1

2 . 2

2 1 3

Cf. Note, 'The right of non-repatriation of prisoners of war captured by the United States', Yale I], 1973, 358; cf. Versailles Treaty, article 220(2); Brest Litovsk Treaty 1918, article 17( 1). See German note, through the Swiss legation in charge of German interests in the United States, September 1918, 6 Hackworth 271-2. Above, Ch. 8, A iv d. The Dostler Case, AD, 1946, 280; cf. The Falkenhorst Case, AD, 1946, 282; The Bauer Case, AD, 1946 305. Above, Ch. 5, C v. Above, Ch. 1, B iii b and D ii a, b, c and d. 2 , 4

HUMANITARIAN

337

RULES

and members of their own forces, if captured by the other side, have prisoner of war status. Naturally, the State has a problem in establishing at what stage it is willing to treat its own subjects as anything equal to prisoners of war. Freedom fighters, when captured, are usually called 'detainees' to indicate that they have a status different from ordinary prisoners of war. But the treatment to be afforded to captured persons under Protocol II of 1977 is not so demanding that it could not easily be compatible with basic stan­ dards in a country respecting the rule of law, or a State which is what is known as a Rechtsstaat. The problem arises in internal armed conflict as to whether detainees have any right to special consideration. If the conflict is international or a liberation war such persons would enjoy prisoner of war status under Protocol I of 1977. But because internal conflicts are still treated differently, such persons, even those in uniform and members of organised forces, are merely 'detainees' under Protocol II and, as such, exempt from any favour­ able treatment under the Law of W a r .

215

O n the other hand, the General

Assembly called on parties to give prisoner of war status to all freedom fighters.

216

Detained persons have the right under Protocol II of 1977 to food, drinking water and medical relief.

217

to take part in religious practices.

They are specifically assured of a right 218

If they are wounded, sick or ship­

wrecked they have the same rights as civilians in these c o n d i t i o n s .

219

Three provisions that would have been important to the treatment of detainees were deleted from the Protocol. O n e provision concerned the prohibition of reprisals.

220

It was held that such rules did not have any place

in an instrument on internal conflicts as reprisals, it was claimed, belong to the inter-State field.

221

Reprisals against rebels were defended as:

it is not inconceivable that in the course of internal conflict, rebels . . . deliberately commit acts to which the normal reaction would be in the nature of reprisals, but because of a prohibiting article such as this, govern­ ments feel bound to fold their arms while dissident groups go on a rampage,

2 . 5

2 . 6

2 . 7

2 2 0

But see above, Ch. 5, C iii c on human rights under certain treaties. E.g. Resolutions 2395 (XXIII) 1968; 2547 (XXIV) 1969; 2207 (XXV) 1970; 2795 (XXVI) 1971; 2918(XXVII) 1972; 3113 (XXVIII) 1973. Article 5(1 )(b) and (c). « Article 5(1 )(d). Article 5(1 )(a) and article 7. Draft article 10 (bis). Cf. above, Ch. 2, B iv on the legal nature of reprisals and Ch. 8, A iv c, on reprisals in the context of Protocol I. Nigerian CDDH/SR.51, vol. 7, 122. 2,

2 , 9

221

RULES ON

33»

BELLIGERENCE

killing and maiming innocent civilians and burning dwellings and foodcrops. 222

But some voted in favour of the article precisely because it forbade reprisals and, as such, would increase humanitarian protection.

223

It is difficult to conceive why offending rebels could not have been subjected to due process of law rather than remaining a legitimate target for reprisals. Such reprisals are often directed against persons who did not themselves perpetrate acts of violence and who perhaps are civilians. Reprisals, which no doubt have a deterrent effect, would appear to expose innocent persons to arbitrary actions. A provision concerning preferential treatment of a prosecuted person who could show that he had abided by the rules of Protocol II was deleted. Nigeria had found such a rule an 'intrusion* in internal affairs and, besides, ample guarantees were already in the Constitution and in internal legisla­ tion.

224

By this deletion, an important fundamental principle of humanitar­

ian law was set aside, as was remarked by some delegates.

225

Another provision which would have afforded further

protection,

especially to detainees, concerned the deferment of the death penalty until the end of hostilities.

226

There had been a 'gentlemen's agreement' among

some Third World States 'not to press' for the inclusion of this article. that was left were some judicial guarantees

228

227

All

to secure due process of law.

Even these may not be implemented in practice since they are, in some countries, somewhat unrealistic when applied to detainees in civil armed conflict. However, it is important to retain at least some level of judicial protection, not only as a target but as actual binding obligations, even if States could not agree to defer death penalties until the end of the hostil­ ities.

229

But detainees are still subject to certain 'fundamental guarantees' under Protocol II similar to those that apply in the case of Protocol I .

230

Protocol

II thus provides that anyone who does not take part in hostilities, or has ceased to do so, must not be subjected to the practices forbidden in the

2 2 2

2 2 3

2 2 4

2 2 7

2 2 9

2 3 0

Article 44 of the Hague Regulations of 1899. Ibid., 120. CDDH/SR. 50, vol. 7, 108. Ibid., 99. Draft Article 10(5). E.g., Iraq, CDDH/SR.50, vol. 7, 108. Article 6(2). Cf. the present plans in the United Nations to adopt a Convention Forbidding the Death Penalty. Above, in this Chapter, B i. 2 2 5

2 2 6

2 2 8

HUMANITARIAN

catalogue.

231

RULES

339

The standards imposed by these rules would not be too lofty

for any State. But, what is often not sufficiently emphasised, freedom fighters are b o u n d by these rules as well and must also refrain from such acts against persons in their p o w e r . 231

Above, in this Chapter, B i.

2 3 2

232

Cf. below, Ch. 12, B ii on reciprocity.

PART III

Consequential Aspects of the Law of War

10 Effects of the state of war

A. The time-span of war i. Inception of war This work has discussed in some detail the question of when war starts

1

2

and whether or not a declaration of war is necessary for war to exist. It is fairly clear that objective elements now guide the question of whether war has started although there will remain an area of doubt as to whether the relevant threshold between intermittent hostilities and war has been 3

crossed. The time-span of war thus stretches from the point when hostil­ ities intensify into a sustained pattern of action.

4

ii. T h e e n d of war Hostilities may often end by the conclusion of an armistice agreement, in writing or orally, with general or local application. An armistice agreement implies only the provisional suspension of hostilities and constitutes, contrary to the final peace, only a brief cessation of fighting on the battlefield. It must be of a certain duration or it must concern a definitive 5

and final ending of hostilities, which is historically often the case. Some­ 6

times - but not always - a formal peace treaty will follow. W a r may - or should - also end by the formal recognition o f ' n a t i o n s ' which have gained

1

4

5

6

2

3

Above, Ch. 1, B iii. Above, Ch., 1, B ii. Above, Ch. 1, B iii b. Above, Ch. 1, B iii d on the definition of war. A. Klawkowski, 'Les formes de cessation de l'état de guerre en droit international', RCADI, 1976, i, 217. Cf. Rousseau, Conflits armés, 188-91. G. H. Hackworth, 6 Digest of International Law, Washington DC, 1943. On historical examples, cf., C. Phillipson, Termination of War and Treaties of Peace, London, 1916, 55fT.

343

CONSEQUENTIAL

344

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

their own independence; but this rule was largely ignored both in the Yugoslav wars in 1991-5 and in East Timor in 1999. The fervent objections to the existence of war without a declaration of 7

war is not coupled with a similar concern for when war ends. For if it is denied that a state of war existed initially, whatever the objective circum­ stances seemed to indicate, there is no need to acknowledge the end of something which allegedly never existed. If, on the other hand, the initi­ ation of war without a declaration is allowed, as current practice and law 8

seems to indicate, such concession to formlessness leads to a natural disposition to accept that war ends when actual hostilities have ceased. Occasionally, treaties d o not come into operation until a date after the actual end of hostilities, at a point such as the repatriation of prisoners of 9

war, or the cessation of the functions of U N forces. But it may be assumed that such dates do not mark the end of war but instead follow the legally recognised end of war. Special national announcements often clarify when war will no longer affect private law transactions of individuals.

10

For example, it is usually

specifically announced that, after a certain date, trade with the former enemy may resume.

11

Again, such announcements may follow later

than the legal end of war and are repercussions of the effects of such an end. For war must have ended when hostilities have finally ceased, for it is this definite end of war that gives rise to n u m e r o u s obligations on the part of belligerents, above all with respect to repatriation of prisoners of war.

12

B. Effects o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s Communications in war will, of course, often be disrupted by the physical effects of warfare which, for example, prevent mail from being forwarded and railways from being used. Apart from such practical effects, there will also, by special national legislation, be further severance of communica­ tions. Letters and other communications to the enemy may be more damaging to the war effort on one side than the supply of arms and a m m u n i t i o n . 7

10

13

8

9

Above, Ch. 1, B ii. Above, Ch. 1, B ii. See, below, in this Chapter, C i. Above, Ch. 1, B ii. " 6 Hackworth 330-1; 431. Above, Ch. 9, B iii f. Cf. A. Pearce Higgins, 'The treatment of mail in time of war', BYIL, 1928, 31. 12

13

By

E F F E C T S OF T H E S T A T E OF

clear powers of the eminent d o m a i n

14

345

WAR

belligerents may therefore, to secure

their war effort, subject any agency of communication to immediate control when public safety so d e m a n d s .

15

C o m m o n orders include the

prohibition of any kind of mail from being transmitted to enemy States during hostilities, or to any other countries if any transit through enemy 16

territory is required. Other usual measures include censorship of varying degree.

17

The Conventions of the Universal Postal Union ( U P U )

18

are not termin­

19

ated, but belligerents may suspend their execution insofar as they them­ 20

selves are concerned. O n the other hand, the U P U Conventions on closed mail probably apply in war.

21

As a result of vigorous suggestions by some

negotiators at the 1907 Hague Conferences

22

it was held that international

law, as it then stood, lacked effective guarantees for the transportation of postal correspondence in war, particularly at sea. It was therefore agreed that Hague Convention XI would include specific rules to guarantee the inviolability of the correspondence both of belligerents and of neutrals.

23

The mail found on board a captured ship, a neutral ship, or even an enemy ship, was to be forwarded without delay by the captor, except to a blockaded

24

port.

25

Furthermore, neutral merchant ships carrying mail 26

were to be exempted from search except if such a measure was 'absolutely 27

necessary'. During the First World War it was often clear that belligerents did consider the exercise of the power of search necessary.

28

Other means of communications, for example by radio, remain regu­ lated by the rules of the International Telecommunications Union ( I T U )

29

although States will exercise far-going measures to restrict any trans­ missions emanating from persons within their jurisdiction and, further, will also often proceed to implement j a m m i n g techniques. 14

15

16

17

18

19

21

2 2

24

27

29

30

On the concept, see my Finance, 61. E.g. United States, Trading with the Enemy Act, 1917, para. 3(d) on the powers of the President to 'cause to be censored' any communication by mail, cable or radio; cf. 3 Hyde 1719. E.g. United States, Order by the Postmaster General, 1918, For. Rel. Suppl. 2, 412; 6 Hackworth 316. On British censorship in South Africa, see 10 AJ1L 1966, Suppl, 413, 416. On relevant rules see my Law Making, 217ff. Cf. below, in this Chapter, ii on suspension of treaties. 2 Oppenheim 304. Pearce Higgins, 'Treatment', 38. E.g. by M. Henri Fromageot; see Pearce Higgins, 'Treatment', 31. Articles 1 and 2. Above, Ch. 8, B iii. Hague XI, article 1. Below, in this Chapter, C iii a (2) See below, Ch. 12, B i a on military necessity. Pearce Higgins, 'Treatment', 33-4, 38-9. On relevant rules, see my Law Making, 223fT. Above, Ch. 8, B i. 2 0

2 3

25

26

2 8

3 0

346

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

C. Legal effects Some of the effects of war described above include certain 'legal' effects insofar as the situation of individuals, in law, may be affected. But there are some more general effects of this type which should be mentioned.

i. Entry into force of the rules of war The most immediate effect of a state of war is that it activates the Law of War itself. This may be a simple way of expressing things; for from the point of view of logic, it is by the force of the Law of War itself that we can establish that a war has commenced. But if we discard this correct, but practically unhelpful, argument it is clear that the network of the rules of warfare will apply only when and if there is a war. This, at least, is the traditional position and this attitude also explains why some writers still avoid speaking of'war' 31

and prefer the term 'armed conflict', as if there were a block of rules which would complicate the lives of States and individuals if they entered into force prematurely or without a good foundation. But a close scrutiny of the Law of W a r seems to indicate that the rules can conceptually be conceived as latently present, providing rights and duties, and there are few real compli­ cations, either for States or for individuals, as to when the rules are activated. States will apply the rules of neutrality and will respect blockades when there are objective demands for them to do so; individuals will be m u c h guided in their approach to overseas trade or business by instructions flowing from their own government.

ii. T h e effect of war o n treaties There is considerable controversy whether the state of war has any effect on 32

treaties and, if so, which type of treaties are affected. The Institut de droit 31

32

Above, Ch. 1, B iii. As judicial tribunals have now been named as dealing with 'war crimes' rather than with 'crimes in armed conflicts' the discussion on terminology has become largely academic: more and more writers accept the shorter form of 'war*. W. Schàtzel, DerKrieg als Endingungsgrund von Vertrdgen, Berlin, 1911; D. Anzilotti, 'Effeti della guerra sui trattati internazionale', Rivista, 1918, 53; A. D. McNair, 'Les effets de la guerre sur les traités', 49 RCADI 1937, i; 527; G. Scelle 'De l'influence de l'état de guerre sur le droit conventionnel', /DJ, 1950, 26; R. Monaco, 'La sospenzione délie norme giuridiche inter­ nazionale in tempo di guerra', Jus 1941, 236; F. Capotorti, 'L'extinction et la suspension des traités', 134 RCADI 1971, iii, 554-5; F. Klein, 'Kriegsausbruch und Staatsvertràgen', 3 JIR, 1954, 30; C. Hurst, 'The effect of war on treaties', BYIL 1921-2,37ff; R. Rànk, Einwirkung des Krieges aufdie nicht-politischen Staatsvertràge Uppsala, 1949, 24. y

y

y

y

E F F E C T S OF T H E S T A T E OF

international

347

WAR

has been considering the question of the effect of war on

multilateral treaties.

33

Some of its members have provided examples of 34

treaties to show that some had, and others had not, been affected by w a r . A Draft Resolution was put forward in 1981, by which treaties between belligerents and third States would remain in force in their mutual relations, whereas multilateral treaties binding parties to an armed conflict would be Suspended if there is such a fundamental change of circumstances that the performance of the treaty would be unduly h a m p e r e d ' .

35

Furthermore, the

existence of an armed conflict between some of the parties to a treaty establishing an international organisation would not 'in itself affect the operation' of the treaty, unless, again, performance were unduly 'hampered*. This Draft was, however, not adopted and another revised Draft Resol­ ution was put forward, entirely different from the first one, eliminating references to criteria such as 'unduly h a m p e r e d ' .

36

In 1985, the

Institut

discussed the revised Draft and produced a final Resolution. In this Resol­ ution

37

the Institute dispenses with the unfortunate expression of 'unduly

hampers' and declares, instead, that the outbreak of war does not, ipso facto, suspend any treaties (whether bilateral or multilateral) between the bel­ 38

ligerents; or bilateral treaties between a belligerent and a third party; multilateral treaties to which some belligerents are parties.

40

establishing an international organisation is not at all affected.

41

39

or

A treaty Treaties

may only be suspended in the exercise of self-defence in accordance with the Charter

42

or to ensure compliance with a Security Council Resolution 43

with respect to 'the peace, breaches of the peace or acts of aggression'. The Resolution, as it stands, offers little guidance on the effect of war o n treaties. But there are presumptions and there are distinctions. For example, treaties relating to restrictions of territorial sovereignty of a belligerent in favour of another belligerent are invariably suspended in time of armed 44

conflict. For a belligerent could not allow restrictions on the exercise of its sovereignty in its own territory in case of war, in favour of another belliger­ ent. 33

34

35

38

4 3

44

4 5

45

Other treaties that always cease to have effect are those which

59 Annuairei 1981, 1. Ibid., ii, 267 (Schindler); see further, Reports, i, 201-93 and Debates, ii, 175-244. Ibid., 276. 61 Annuaire 1985 i 2. Resolution 28 August 1985, unpublished. Ibid., article 2. Article 5( 1). Article 5(2). Article 6. Article 7. Article 8. This may even be the case if a State changes its foreign policy: see my Independent State, 218. Ibid., on my doctrine of 'continuous consent', and above, Ch. 2, B v on my doctrine of 'abstract consent'. 3 6

37

39

4 0

41

4 2

348

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

establish alliances with another belligerent, or which ensure the provision of assistance, guarantees or subsidies to such a State. Could one envisage an armed conflict between two powers of a defence alliance without such a treaty being suspended between the belligerents? At the very least, the treaty would be, if not temporarily suspended, of 'temporary irrelevance' if a situation developed at variance with the contin­ gency provisions of the treaty. For other treaties there are other fairly clear presumptions. Courts have emphasised that States have the power to suspend treaties which have a purpose incompatible with war. For example, treaties on immunity of State-owned ships can thus be suspended.

46

Other treaties may grant

nationality status to aliens; an example is the Treaty of 1795 between the United States and the United Kingdom, under which all United States citizens who held land in the United Kingdom on 28 November 1795, and their heirs and assigns, are considered as UK citizens. But such a treaty has a purpose which would be incompatible with war between the two parties and would be suspended by such an occurrence.

47

Other treaties, again,

which would invariably be suspended are those which restrict territorial sovereignty in one State in favour of the e n e m y .

48

Furthermore, treaties

under which individuals claim rights are usually not suspended by war. For example, the Madrid Convention of 1891 on the Registration of Trade Marks was not suspended as it belonged, said a court, to 'that category' of treaties.

49

50

It is not a question of rights acquired under a treaty but a question of a framework for claims of which a person would be deprived were the relevant treaty to be considered as suspended or terminated. Thus, a treaty of 1928 on the right of workmen to make claims for compensation was held to be in force so that claims could be presented by individuals.

51

The Brazilian Foreign Ministry went into great detail on this point in the 46

4 8

49

5 0

51

4 7

The Christina, (1937) 4 All 313. Sutton v. Sutton, (1830) 1 R & M 663. On military base agreements and my theory of continuous consent, see my Independent State, 141fT. The Trade Mark Registration Case, German Federal Patent Court, 6 Pontes juris gentium 1966-70, A II, 262; 59 ILR 480. For criticism of the theory of acquired rights, see my Finance, 2nd edn, 105. The Miletich Case (1946) 12 AD 1943-5 456 on a Convention on compensation between Argentine and Yugoslavia of 1928. For similar views that individual rights are in a special category, see A. C. Gialdino, Gli effetti delta guerra sui trattati, Milan, 1959, 251; cf. A. de la Pradelle, 'The effect of war on private law treaties', ICLQ, 1948-9, 570.

E F F E C T S OF T H E S T A T E OF

349

WAR

context of the question of the Havana Convention of 1928, incorporated 52

into the laws of Brazil in 1929. The internal legislation of Brazil dealt with the termination of treaties but did not specify rules for the contingency of war or armed conflict. The Brazilian Foreign Ministry stated that the 'absolute' theory of abrogation, depriving treaties in general of effect in war, cannot be accepted. O n the other hand, certain treaties which d o cease to have effect are political treaties with other belligerents, particularly those assuring alliance, for such treaties will have been abrogated by action. Another group of treaties which are suspended are those the interpretation of which gave rise to the dispute.

53

Again, could one envisage an armed

conflict about a border treaty where that treaty was not suspended between the belligerents? It was fortunate that the Institute exempted treaties which establish international organisations from any suspension under the criterion of 'unduly hampered'; but the Institute should have added that there is a presumption that regulations incidental to the treaties establishing international organisations also retain their force in w a r .

54

It is often these

regulations which are of real practical importance, for example those implementing the rules of the Universal Postal Union (UPU) and the International Telecommunications Union ( I T U ) .

55

But since these rules

56

usually have a unilateral character, they presumably fall outside the scope of the Institute's Resolution on treaties.

iii. Private law effects a. The effects of war on

property

It has been shown above that certain State property, for example that forming part of the cultural assets of a country, are specially protected under the Law of W a r .

57

Other State property, as well as certain private

property, may often be entitled to special protection as belonging to the 52

53

54

57

Decree 18.956 of 22 October 1929. Pareceros dos Consultores jurídicos do Ministerio das Relações Exteriore, 1935—45, Dept. de Imprensa Nacional 1961,599, reproduced in Caneado Trindade, Repertorio pratica brasileña do direito internacional Brasilia, 1984, 338; cf. Lafayette, 2 Prinápios de direito internacional para. 317; Clóvis Beviláqua, Direito publico internacional VII para. 179; H. Accioly, 2 Tratado de direito internacional publico. No. 1548. Above, in this Chapter, B. See my Law Making, 217fT. Ibid., passim. Above, Ch. 8, A iii b (9). 55

5 6

350

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

civilian population and, as such, forming part of non-military objectives of bombardment.

58

Furthermore, the Hague Regulations had already pro-

hibited destruction or seizure of public or private enemy property, unless such acts were demanded by the necessities of war.

59

O n the other hand, there are n u m e r o u s situations when public and private property will be subjected to the hazardous destruction of war and there are few remedies individuals have to obtain compensation. However, in one m u c h overlooked case it was held that any party to a war who was unable to keep its destructive effects to military targets was liable for compensation to a private citizen who had suffered injury and damage due to the inability of a 60

pilot to avoid destroying private property. This case furnishes new dimensions to the problem of indiscriminate weapons,

61

and it also throws some

light on the position of civilian property in a war situation. Apart from the factual destruction caused by war, there are special situations when public or private property may be taken by the enemy. These areas are of decreasing size as the power to take enemy property is gradually diminished. (1) Booty According to traditional rules of war title to property taken on the battlefield or in the war area passes to the taking State without the necessity for any court o r d e r .

62

In the past, all movable property could be

taken provided it is owned by the enemy State. Property passes to the taking State without any court o r d e r .

63

However, the Hague Regulations introduced new prohibitions in order to protect private property. Such property could not, for example, be confiscated by an occupying Power, 5 8

60

61

6 2

6 3

6 4

6 5

59

64

nor would pillage be allowed.

65

Above, Ch. 8, A Hi b (1). Below, Ch. 12, B i a. The Zeppelin Case, Coenca Frères v. Germany, 7 RIAA 683; cf. above, Ch. 8, A iii a. Above, Ch. 5, C v and Ch. 7, B. See, W. G. Downey, 'Captured enemy property, booty of war and seized enemy property', 44 AJIL, 1950,488; A. V. Freeman, 'General note on the law of war booty', AJIL, 1946, 795. See, W. G. Downey, 'Captured property, booty of war and seized enemy property', 44 AJIL, 1950, 488; A. V. Freeman, 'General note on the law of war booty', AJIL, 1946, 795. Article 46. Article 47; cf. A. V. Freeman, 'Responsibility of states for unlawful acts of their armed forces', 88 RCADI1955, ii, 325. According to a proposal of the Institut de droit international of 1880, private property should be protected as the purpose of war is only to weaken the military strength of the enemy. On the principle that the less possible damage to private property should be caused and for a commentary of discussion in the Institute; see N. Bentwich, The Law of Private Property in War, London, 1907, 27fT. On protection of private property see below, in the next section.

EFFECTS

OF T H E S T A T E OF

WAR

351

Under the Hague Regulations, cultural property of the State or of municipalities would, however, be 'treated as private property' Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural P r o p e r t y

67

6 6

U n d e r the

all forms of

taking or damaging cultural property by the enemy are categorically outlawed.

68

Such regulation has, it appears, put a stop to the traditional wide rules on booty and restricts the former rights of a belligerent considerably. But an area of possible booty remains in the case of State property which is not subsumed under the category of cultural property. Private property, on the other hand, is outside the ambit of booty. The taking of such property from civilians or from enemy soldiers constitutes pillage, expressly forbidden in n u m e r o u s treaties.

69

Claims to treasure

troves are not normally allowed in war. A claim to $150,000 found in a cave in Vietnam was thus refused and it was held that the money constituted public property of the h o m e State of the soldier who had found it.

70

(2) Prize and confiscation of contraband

Enemy merchant ships may be

taken by warships as 'prize'. The capture is confirmed by well-settled rules in civil prize proceedings in special prize courts. When war has broken o u t

72

71

all enemy merchant vessels are liable to

capture. Even aeroplanes have been held subjected to such law of p r i z e

73

and several States have promulgated legislation to allow for the seizure of 6 6

67

6 8

6 9

70

71

72

73

Article 56. Above, Ch. 8, A iii b (9). There is, as yet, a defective control system. Numerous Graeco-Roman items and various medieval paintings and statues were taken from churches in Croatia and later offered on the international antique market in the 1990s. Article 4(3). But see, below, Ch. 12, B i a on military necessity. Hague Regulations, article 28 for assault situations; article 47 for occupation; Hague IX, article 5; Geneva I, article 15; Geneva II, article 18; Geneva III, article 33; Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property 1954, article 4(3). Morrison v. United States (1974), US Court of Claims, 422 F. 2nd, 1219. See P. Reuter, Etude de la règle 'toute prise doit être jugée', diss., Nancy, 1933; L. Sico, Toute prise doit être jugée, Il giudizio delle prede nel diritto internazionale, Naples, 1971. But the idea that private property, for example merchant ships, may be taken as prize constitutes an exception to the rule that private property is 'inviolable'. See C. de Boeck, De la propriété privée ennemie sous pavillon ennemi, Paris, 1982, 493. Cf. ibid., 493-513 on the work of the Institut de droit international to bring about a new prize regime. Cf. B. Ranft, 'Restraint of war at sea before 1945', in M. Howard, (ed.), Restraints of War, Oxford, 1979, 43ff. Above, Ch. 1, B ii and iii. See UK Prize Act 1939, 2 & 3 Geo. 6 ch. 65, s. 1 ( 1 ) and The Yankee Clipper Case (1945) AC.

CONSEQUENTIAL

352

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

74

WAR

75

aircraft as prize. Enemy warships, the natural target for attack at sea, are not, however, subject to the law of prize but may be taken outright by the enemy.

76

Most countries have clear and detailed rules on prize proceedings.

77

Jurisdiction for prize has existed in England at least since the fourteenth century.

78

The details of a body of law developed over the centuries and

become more or less uniformly settled by all major maritime States, usually through the special Prize C o u r t s .

79

These courts and their jurisdiction

present a wealth of interesting problems to the international lawyer but have recently attracted little attention. O n e reason for this is undoubtedly that the practice of prize has dwindled as a type of maritime strategy, and it is this dislocation from naval warfare that makes it more suitable to include rules on prize in the section of this work which deals specifically with the effect of war o n property. For it is as such that the law of prize must be conceived, implying as it does, the right to interfere with and take, without compensation, public and private property, contrary to other trends in international law to protect at least certain such property. The law of prize is different from other parts of international law in its very 'international essence'. Other sections of international law are often deflected by national or regional preferences, applying their stamp on the very substance of rules. But Prize Courts use, unquestioningly, uniform 80

international law. Furthermore, they d o so without any such rules having 81

been converted into national rules. The rules of prize therefore show the most immediate impact of international law in the internal law of States and on municipal courts. It is as if the writers who claim that there is a complete separation between international and internal law

82

had never

studied the precedents of prize law. 7 4

7 5

7 6

77

7 8

7 9

80

8 2

Italian Decree 8 July 1938, articles 239-40, 256; UK Prize Act 1939, s. 1; cf. Dutch Prize Regulations, Rousseau, Conflits armes, 361. For definition, above, Ch. 4, B. See, Pearce Higgins, 'Ships of war as prize', 6 BYIL, 1925, 103. C. J. Colombos, A Treatise on the Law of Prize, London 1926; J. Kunz, 'British prize law', Law Quarterly Review, 1945,49; Kunz, ibid., 1946,237; P. Parfond, Le droit de prise et son application dans la marine française, Paris, 1955; A. Gervais, 'La jurisprudence italienne des prises maritimes durant la seconde guerre mondiale', RGDIP, 1950, 25Iff, 433flf; Gervais, 'La jurisprudence allemande des prises maritimes durant la second guerre mondiale', RGDIP, 1951, 48Iff; on the procedural burden of proof in various prize jurisdictions, see Colombos, Prize, 184ff. Colombos, Law of Prize, 1. Ibid., 38ff. For subsidiary rules on recapture see Rousseau, Conflits armes, 313. TheZamora, (1916) 2 AC 77, 91, 550. Above, Ch. 6, B ii. For example, H. Trieplel, 'Les rapports entre le droit international et le droit interne', 23 RCADl 1923, i, 77. 81

E F F E C T S OF T H E S T A T E OF

353

WAR

The areas where prizes may be taken are the high seas or enemy waters. Prizes must not be taken in neutral territorial waters.

83

Such rules also

indicate how important it is to have clear knowledge of the width of territorial waters ured.

85

84

and of the methods by which these extents are meas­

Nor may prizes be taken in internal waters, in rivers, ports, river

basins, or lakes.

86

The type of vessel that must not be taken includes hospital s h i p s

87

and

those used for the carrying or transport of the wounded or of medical supplies.

88

89

Fishing vessels are not subject to p r i z e provided they are only engaged in coastal shipping

90

and provided they do not take part in hostilities.

Vessels engaged in small-scale local trade are also e x e m p t , condition that they d o not join in hostilities.

93

92

91

again o n

Ships used for religious

purposes are also protected on analogy with hospital ships.

94

There are

95

special rules for ships under construction. Neutral ships are not subject to 96

prize as laid down in the Declaration of Paris of 1856. In this respect the Declaration clarified and entrenched a controversial rule.

97

According to

the same Declaration, neutral property on board enemy ships is also i m m u n e from prize.

98

The Declaration of Paris was soon regarded as

codifying the law of nations.

99

Does the law of prize apply only to private ships? There is naturally a problem of imbalance in case the ' i n t e r n a t i o n a l '

100

law of prize cannot be

applied to all political systems equally. The law of prize passed through a period of some seventy years in the twentieth century when, in the 8J

M

85

8 6

87

8 8

89

90

9 2

9 3

95

9 6

9 9

100

E.g. The VrowAnna Catharina (1805), 6 C. Rob. 45. For the relevance to prize law, see Colombos, Law of Prize, 110. D. P. O'Connell, 'The juridical nature of the territorial sea\ BY1L, 1971, 303. For cases, see Rousseau, Conflits armes, 284-5. Hague X, article 3; cf. Geneva II, articles 22 and 24; cf. articles 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 35 and 48; Protocol I of 1977, article 22; The Ophelia (1915) P. 129; Colombos, The Law of Prize, 145ff; for violations, see Rousseau, Conflits armis, 295. Geneva II, article 38; Geneva IV, article 21; Protocol I of 1977, article 23. The Young Jacob and Johanna (1798) 1 C. Rob. 19.a. The Stoer (1916) 5 LRPC 18; The Paquete Habana, The Lola. Hague XI, article 3(2). Hague XI, article 3( 1). But tugs and lighters are not protected: The Atlas (1916) 2 B 8c CPC 470. Hague XI, article 3(2). Hague XI, article 4; The Paklat (1915) 1 B 8c CPC 515. The Hermes, Schiffahrt Treuhand and Others v. H.M. Procurator General (1953) AC 232. Article 2. Colombos, The Law of Prize, 164. Article 3. E.g., The Marie Glaeser( 1914) P. 218, 233; cf. The Kronprinsessan Margareta (1921) 1 AC 486, 503; TheSchlesien(\9\4) 1 B & C P C 13; TheMiramichi(1915) P. 71; TheBatavier(1918) P.66; The Roumanian (1916) AC 124. Above, in this section. 91

9 4

9 7

9 8

CONSEQUENTIAL

354

ASPECTS

OF T H E L A W OF

WAR

so-called socialist States, there were n o 'private' ships. Nowadays there are only a handful of States left which deny the right of private property and which have exclusively State-owned s h i p s .

101

It is suggested that the

law of prize applies to all merchant ships which are not warships, even those which are State-owned. Such rules would be consistent with new attitudes on loss of immunity of States for commercial activities.

102

But

State practice is somewhat hesitant as the interception of the Soviet ships Selenga and Vladimir

Mayakowski

in 1940 may show. These ships were

transferred to the French authorities for 'administrative reasons' and then released.

103

Enemy character domicile, tion

107

105

104

is usually assessed in the Anglo-Saxon world by the

and elsewhere by the nationality.

or enemy c o n t r o l

108

106

For companies, registra­

is usually decisive.

In the case of ships, the normal rule of attaching enemy character is the 109

flag,

but such rules are probably supplemented to cater for the case of

flags of convenience.

110

The possible enemy nature of the cargo is assessed

by the domicile of the o w n e r ,

111

or by his nationality, supplemented by a

rule on inherent enemy character of all produce of enemy soil.

112

There

is also a presumption for enemy character of the cargo of an enemy merchant s h i p .

113

There are temporal limitations to the right of capture. There are some­ times days of grace for neutral ships in the port of a belligerent at the 101

102

104

106

107

108

109

1 , 0

111

112

Many of these are virtually land-locked, but others have a large number of vessels. See my 'Foreign warships', 57-60. Rousseau, Conflits armés, 289-90. Above, Ch. 4, B. The Anglo-Mexican, ( 1918), AC 422. The nationality principle is adopted and applied by all States of Western and Eastern Europe except for the United Kingdom. Only in case of'formal' nationality will exceptions be made to this general rule: Désirée v. Withold Szwabowics (1956) NJA 337. The Poona (1915) 1 B & CPC 275; cf. The Tommi (1914) P. 251; for the United States, see Fritz Schuls Co. v. Raimes & Co., (1917) 164 NTS 454, 458. Continental Tyre & Rubber Co. Ltd. v. Daimler Co. Ltd. (1916) 2 AC 307. The Vrow Elizabeth (1803) 5 C. Rob. 2; The Unitas (1950) AC 536 (PC); The Hamborn, AD 1919-22, 425. Rousseau, Conflits armés, 298-9 on other criteria. There are special rules for the effects of change of flag, see Declaration of London, 1909, articles 55-6, involving similar precautions as in bankruptcy and tax cases on presumptions and time-limits: thus transfers may be held valid if they take place more than sixty days before opening of hostilities; later transfers are only valid if certain presumptions of illegality are not rebutted: Dacia, 'Conseil des prises français', RGDIP, 1915, 83; ibid., 1917, 45. The William Bagaley (1866) 5 Wall. 377,408; cf. Lewis, 'Domicile as a test of enemy character', 4 BYIL, 1923-4,60, 62. The Phoenix (1803), 5 C. Rob. 20, 21; cf. Declaration of London 1903, article 58, 3 AJIL, 1909, Suppl. 186. Cf. Declaration of London 1909, article 59. 103

105

1 , 3

EFFECTS

OF T H E S T A T E OF

time of commencement of w a r .

114

355

WAR

If a merchant ship is in enemy port at

the outbreak of hostilities it will either be allowed to depart at once or after some interval, or, alternatively, ordered to remain in port until hostilities have ended when it must be released. The port State retains a requisitioning power, against adequate compensation, but has n o right of capture.

115

According to most authorities, the right of capture is sus­

pended during armistice. Yet German doctrine claims that the right still exists.

116

A neutral vessel can lose its privilege of not being subjected to prize if it is carrying contraband or performing other 'unneutral services' of a direct or indirect nature. Among such services is the carrying of information and despatches or transmitting such information by telegraphy ing military personnel, however small the n u m b e r .

117

or by carry­

118

Neutral merchant vessels are subjected to a belligerent's right of visit and search so that the nature of its cargo can be established.

119

After inspection

of the cargo and the ship's papers, a neutral m e r c h a n t m a n must be allowed to sail. Enemy cargo may always be taken as prize together with the ship or independently of the ship. But cargo on a neutral ship may only be captured if it constitutes c o n t r a b a n d .

120

This applies to cargo owned by the

enemy, at least as far as private goods are concerned. even extended to ancillary depots in p o r t .

122

121

The right of prize is

Types of contraband that will

make neutral vessels and neutral cargo liable to seizure were intially classified as either 'absolute' or 'conditional' contraband. Types of absolute contraband are, according to the London Declaration of 1909,

123

goods

such as weapons and a m m u n i t i o n and other articles designed for war. 1 , 4

116

117

1 . 8

1 . 9

120

121

122

123

1 , 5

Colombos, Law of Prize, 12 Iff. Hague VI, articles 1-2. The Goulfar, II, Hamburg Prisengericht, 19.12.1940; The Leontios Tergazos and The Paolina Perla, AD, 1943-5, 141, 167, 466; 1969, 414. RGDIP, 1950, 301. E. Kappelhoff-Wulff, Die Zulässigkeit der Ausübung des Prisenrechts während eines Waffenstillstandes-, Hamburg, 1973. The Edna, (1921) AC 735, 745. The Orozembo( 1807) 6 C.Rob. 430,434; French Conseil des prises, TheFederico, 10.5.1915, JO, 1915, 2995; ibid. 17. 8. 1916, /O7505. The Marianne Flora, (1826) 11 Wheaton 3; Colombos, Law of Prize, 711; Pearce Higgins, 'Visit, search and detention', 7 BYIL, 1926, 3. Cf. Declaration of Paris of 1856, article 2, 1 AJIL 1907, Suppl. 89. On public goods, see H. A. Smith, 'The Declaration of Paris in modern war', 55 Law Quarterly Review, 1939, 237. Roumanian, AD, 1919-42 299; Anichab, AD, 1942, 483; Salmonpool, AD, 1943-5, 471; Kanto Maru, ibid., 496. Article 22; the list was elaborated by the Fourth Committee at the 1907 Hague Conference.

356

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E

LAW OF

WAR

Conditional contraband is what may be used either for war or for peaceful purposes.

124

According to the London Declaration,

125

certain raw material

can never be considered as contraband. However, in practice this sharp division between different types of contraband has been difficult to m a i n t a i n

126

and often other criteria than

the adaptability for war use have been thought relevant. The condition that contraband must be susceptible to belligerent use has gradually been abandoned as any goods can be useful to the enemy. The identification of contraband was widened during the First World War by the operation of n u m e r o u s presumptions of belligerent use, for example, in case goods were destined for the use of an enemy government or its administra­ tion,

127

or if they were destined for an enemy port. Such considerations of

belligerent use applied even to foodstuffs

128

as food for the civilian popu­

lation might indirectly raise the rations of food given to the armed for­ ces.

129

It could be questioned whether such reasoning is compatible with the new prohibitions on starvation methods of w a r . not affect blockade,

131

130

The prohibition may

but capture by prize would have very much the same

effect if such capture concerned sufficient quantities of foodstuffs. The theory of'infection' - that innocent goods lose their quality of being innocent if they are shipped together with contraband - was first laid down in the Declaration of London of 1909; this widened considerably the right of capture by prize. The theory depended, in its practical application, on the relative proportion of contraband in relation to the whole c a r g o was widely applied,

133

London Declaration.

132

and

although States were not technically bound by the

134

The theory was usually applied by objective criteria, with the personal culpa or knowledge of the owner or master irrelevant, 124

126

127

1 2 9

130

132

133

134

125

135

or knowledge

Ibid., article 24. Ibid., articles 28-9. J. W. Garner, 'Violation of maritime law by the Allied powers during the World War', 25 AJIL 1931,26, 33. 77ieKim,(1915) P. 215. The H&kan, (1918) AC 148, 151. Similar arguments were put forward during the massive humanitarian aid effort from UN and numerous aid agencies in Bosnia in 1993-5, much of which largely assisted the Serb army rather than the civilian population for whom the aid was intended. Above, Ch. 8, A iv b on starvation as a method of warfare. Above, Ch. 8, B iii. The H&kan, (1916) P. 284. The Frederic, French Conseil des prises, 19.5.1922, JO, 1922, 5277; The Kyzicos, Italian Corte di prede, 24.5.1916, Gazz. Uff., 1916. Above, Ch. 8, B i. 128

131

E F F E C T S OF T H E S T A T E OF

WAR

357

would be 'inferred' from the quantity of carried c o n t r a b a n d .

136

But in later

decisions at least English courts have required the shipowner's knowledge of the nature of the cargo before a ship could be forfeited.

137

This applies

even if the ship is under charter, when knowledge of the charterers does not dispense with the shipowner's knowledge.

138

In conjunction with the cri­

terion of susceptibility to belligerent use, the actual enemy destination has been decisive and the assessment of such destination includes transit and trans-shipment. This area of law is still of topical importance, as is shown in n u m e r o u s cases relating to goods b o u n d for Israel. At one stage, Egypt intercepted goods b o u n d for Israel in the Suez C a n a l ,

139

but the Security Council has

held that this is an abuse of the right of visit, search and seizure at s e a .

140

The ultimate destination is objectively assessed, independently of the intention of shipper or master, construed 'continuous voyage'. types of c o n t r a b a n d

143

141

142

and is subject to the doctrine of a This doctrine has been applied to all

but does not apply to blockades.

144

Any shipment by an endorsable bill of lading creates a presumption of hostile destination.

145

The same applies in the case of blacklisted con­

signors and consignees

146

in what have been called 'statistical' c a s e s

147

where the presumption of hostile destination is enhanced by a sudden and disproportionate increase in imports to a neutral country: by the sheer quantity of goods one may assume that some goods are 'likely' to be re-exported to the e n e m y . 135

136

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

148

148

There is even a constructive enemy

TheKronprinsessan Margareta, (\92\) 1 AC 486, 505; The Lorenzo, (1914) 1 B 8c CPC 226; but for earlier views on the relevance of subjective criteria see, The Ringende Jacob, (1798) 1 C. Rob. 89. TheH&kan (1916) P. 266. The Zamora, (1921) 1 AC 810. The Ran, (1919) P. 317. On Suez traffic, see Brown, 'World prize law applied in a limited war situation', 849; M. Cross, 'Passage through the Suez Canal of Israel-bound cargo and Israeli ships', 51 AJIL, 1957, 530. E.g., SC, S/2322, 1951. Cf. R. Lapidoth, 'The reopened Suez Canal in international law', Syracuse Journal of International Law and Commerce, 1976, 37. The Norden, Hamburg Prisengericht, (1917), 1 Grotius Annuaire International, 1917, 272; The Pacific, (1920), 5 Lloyd's 103, 106. The Balto, (1917) P. 79: there are stringent requirements for breaks in the chain; The Kim, (1915), P. 215, 249. TheKyzicos, Italian Cortedi prede, (1916), Gaz. Uff., 24.5.1916, No. 122; Cf. article 19 of the Declaration of London 1909. The Louisiana, (1918) AC 261; The Kim, (1915) P. 215; French Conseil des prises; The Fortuna, 14.6.1915, JO, 3903; ibid., 27.4.1917, JO, 1917, 3362; The Stanton, (1917) AC 380. Colombos, The Law of Prize, 195. The Baron Stjernblad, (1918) AC 173. 137

147

358

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

destination if neutral territory is used by the enemy for supplies ,

State is under 'strong influence of one of the belligerents.

149

or if a

150

The rules on contraband, developed in detail for the law of prize, have been analogously applied to justify confiscation of contraband elsewhere than at sea. Here, too, criteria of likely belligerent use have often been held to be decisive. Thus, in considering when 'oil' constitutes 'munitions of war* courts have attached importance to the fact that it had to be refined before it could be put to military use and that therefore, if it had not undergone relevant refining processes, it did not constitute contra­ band.

151

(3) Requisition

There are provisions for the protection of private

property, and of certain State property, during assault and during occu­ pation.

152

However, an occupying power has a right to levy taxes pro­

vided this is done, as far as possible, in accordance with the rules of assessment in force.

153

An occupying power has also a far-reaching power

of requisition for the 'needs' of the army of occupation. Such requisitions must be in proportion to the resources of the occupied country.

154

thermore, there must be a real military necessity for the taking.

155

Fur­ The

occupying power may only take what belongs to the occupied State or its citizens. Ownership of property to be taken should be verified before seizure.

156

There is a provision that the occupying Power shall pay for

requisitions 'as far as possible in c a s h ' .

157

If this is not possible, a receipt

shall be given and 'the payment of the a m o u n t due shall be made as soon as possible'. 149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

158

French Conseil des prises, 21.5.1918, JO, 1918, 4464. The Blommersdijk, (1917) Hamburg Prisengericht, 1 Grotius Annuaire International 1917,245. NV de Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Others v. War Damage Commission, (1956) Singapore Court of Appeal, 23 ILR 810. Above, Ch. 6, A vi. Hague Regulations, article 48; The Lighthouse Case, (1956), French-Greek Arbitration Tribu­ nal, RGDIP, 1959, 282. Ibid., article 52(1); W. M. Franklin, 'Municipal property under belligerent occupation', AJIL, 1944, 383; P. Jessup, 'A belligerent occupant's power over property', AJIL, 1944, 457; L. H. Woolsey, 'The forced transfer of property in enemy occupied territory', AJIL, 1943, 282. Cf. The Beth-El Case, (1978), Supreme Court of Israel, reported in M. Shamgar, Military Government in the Territories Administered by Israel 1967-80, Jerusalem, 1982, 371; cf. The Matityahu Case, (1979), ibid., 398. Cf. C. Dominice, La notion de caractere ennemi des biens prives dans la guerre sur terre, diss., Geneva, 1961. Ibid., article 52(3); cf. Austria, BGH (1951) ILR 1951, 694. Hague Regulations, article 52(3).

E F F E C T S OF T H E S T A T E OF

WAR

359

The power in occupation may take possession of cash and all other movable State property as well as appliances for the transmission of news or adapted for transport and other 'munitions' of war, even if owned by private individuals.

159

This constitutes what might be called 'vital' property

for the war effort and here slightly different rules apply with regard to promptness of compensation. All vital property must be returned after the end of war when compensation must be fixed if not already assessed and paid.

160

However, there have been cases where property was confiscated

without compensation.

161

Requisitions of private property without com­

pensation in violation of these rules are equivalent to theft.

162

Even heirs

can sue for compensation if property has been wrongly t a k e n .

163

If property

is taken without compensation, the extra-territorial effect of the transfer may also be d e n i e d .

164

There are, however, exceptions: restitution of property must be seen in the context of other rules of international law. The case of the taking and retaking in Krajina in Croatia in 1991-5 is a case in point. N u m e r o u s houses belonged to Serbs in this province. However, in 1991 the Serbs ousted all non-Serb people from this area and refused, even after the independence of Croatia in 1991, to give back any property. The Croats, with American help, recaptured the province in 1995. Considerable inter­ national pressure was then put on Croatia to restitute property to Serbs who, by then, had left the province. In this case, restitution is b o u n d u p with security aspects and the right of return of refugees. Croatia had pledged, under the Dayton Accords, to allow refugees back and this may well be a normal and binding rule of the Law of War. However, further pressure was put on Croatia not even to be allowed to check the identity of returning Serbs (as in many cases there was an obvious abuse of the right of return by different persons). But under clear rules of international law a State is not obliged to accept an influx of different persons who may pose 159

161

162

163

164

160

Ibid., article 53(1) and (2). Ibid., article 53(2). Cf. The Interhandel Case, ICLQ, 1961, 495. Rosenberg v. Fischer, (1948) Swiss BGH, AD 1948 467. See The French Company Compensation Case, ( 1966), Federal Supreme Court of Germany, AD 1966 454, where the German administration had taken property in 1940 and transferred it to a French-German partnership; compensation was due by the heirs of the German partner to the heirs of the French partner. E.g. United Bank v. Cosmis International Incorporated, ( 1976) 542 2d 868, on nationalisation in Bangladesh without compensation; effects were denied in the United States as far as debts in that country were concerned; Tran Qui Than v. Blumenthal, (1979) US District Court, Northern District California, 469 F. Supp. 1202.

36o

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

problems of safety to other parts of the population. Furthermore, a State is not obliged to restitute, as shown by ample practice of the Allies after the Second World War, any property if its owners had previously been combat­ ants in an enemy army. It may be difficult for persons to retrieve property or obtain compensa­ tion by sueing in foreign courts as States often are granted immunity for requisitions.

165

The right of requisition may also exist vis-d-vis neutrals but full compen­ sation must be p a i d . 167

ium

166

However, remedies under the rules of

postlimin­

might assist a rightful owner after occupation has ceased to retrieve

requisitioned goods which were taken from h i m .

168

There is also a right over enemy property situated in the territory of a belligerent.

169

Thus, private enemy assets in a country which is not

occupied may be taken. Sometimes such assets are used to indemnify a State's own nationals for war damage. This was the case with regard to taken enemy assets in the United States under the War Claims Act of 1962.

170

(4) Angary Angary implies the right to take foreign merchant ships for use against compensation. The property at risk under such a right is thus the property of non-belligerents, and very often the property of neutrals.

171

Established rules of naval warfare stipulate that such seizure may only take place in territorial w a t e r s . emergencies 165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

173

172

The right of angary is mainly designed for

and can only be exercised in cases of clear 'necessity'.

174

The

See Ministry of Foreign Affairs v. Federici and Japanese State (1968) Trib. of Rome, 65 ILR 275, 279; cf. NV Exploitatie Maatschappij Benkalis v. Bank of Indonesia (1963) 65 ILR 348; cf. also The Oder-Neisse Expropriation Case (1975) Oberlandesgericht Munich, N/W1975 2144; 65 ILR 127. Norwegian Shipowners Claim, (1922) 11 RIAA 237. F. Castberg, Postliminium, Uppsala, 1944, 28. E.g., Poland, AD, 1919-22, No. 342; Belgium, ibid., no. 343; Italy, ibid., 1927-8, no. 384. Cf. E. Turlington, 'Treatment of enemy property in the United States before the World War', AJIL 1928, 270; J. A. Gathings, International Law and American Treatment of Alien Enemy Property, Washington, 1940. M. Domke, 'The War Claims Act of 1962', AJIL, 1963, 354. E. Albrecht, 'Requisitionen von neutralen Privateigentum inbesondere von Schiffen', 6 ZaöRVR, Suppl., 1912. A. H. Schröder, Das Angarienrecht, Die Beschlagnahme von Handelsschiffen im Kriege, Kiel, 1965, 21; for a discussion of definitions, see, R. Arnsberg, Das Angarienrecht, diss., Greifswald, 1922, 49. Arnsberg, Das Angarienrecht, loc. civ, G. Pallien, 3 Diritto internazionale pubblico, La guerra, Padua, 1946,403; 1 Dahm, Völkerrecht 638: angary is 'ein Notstandrecht\ 3 Phillimore 84 speaks of'overriding necessity'; cf. 3 Calvo 138 of'nécessité d'ordre supérieur . 1

E F F E C T S OF T H E S T A T E OF

361

WAR

existence of a state of necessity comes near usual arguments on military necessity

175

and some have linked the two c o n c e p t s .

176

The nature of angary is different from requistions. Angary leaves right of ownership unaltered and, therefore, there is a clear distinction between angary and requisitions or forms of expropriation.

177

But the right of angary has often been abused. This shows yet another instance when 'military necessity* distorts, rather than adapts, the Law of War.

178

The leading case is said to be the Duclair Case, when German

troops sank six, possibly seven, British coalships to block the passage of the Seine in 1871 during the Franco-Prussian War. Bismarck suggested that this was permissible under the Law of W a r as the action was caused 179

by necessity and the action taken formed part of jus angariae.

Bismarck

even claimed that France should pay compensation for the neutral coalships but, to avoid British intervention in the war, Germany eventually offered to pay compensation. It is remarkable that there were n o protests from the United Kingdom with regard to the legitimacy of the action and to the claims that such measures would form part of the right of angary.

180

The right of angary is, if it is ever legitimate, explained as interference with property, against compensation, for the war effort. It is not, on the other hand, meant to deprive the owner of assets of his property as in the case of requisition or expropriation but, as ownership remains, to use the property on some limited time basis. The property may, subjected as it will be to the hazards of war, be destroyed, but that is a contingency to be taken into account when compensation is assessed and does not form part of any original intention. Some have defended the Duclair Case as actually illustrating the right of angary, rather than the illegitimate interference with neutral goods as the incident rather seems to suggest. Such writers have argued that it is merely the time limit which is different in the case of typical angary and in the event of that case: if there had been a time gap between the taking and the destruction of the ships it would have constituted a normal case of angary; 175

176

177

178

180

Below, Ch. 1 2 , B i a . J. C. Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht, Nordlingen, 1878,795; J. C. den Beer Poortugael, Het internationaal maritiem recht, Breda, 1888, 413. J. S. Constantinides, La requisition des navires étrangers, Marseilles, 1942; cf. 4 Moore 3791. Cf. below, Ch. 12, B i a. 21 Staatsarchiv, Urkunden, 4498. See letter from Lord Granville, ibid., 4505; cf. J. E. Hartley, 'The law of angary', 13 AJIL, 1919, 290. 179

362

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

even though there was n o such time gap the taking comes under the same heading.

181

The use of angary has sharply declined and few modern examples can be furnished.

182

There has also been a tendency to preclude the use of any such

right by prohibition by treaty.

183

(5) The uneven right of taking The right to capture ships as prize is a right of States. Any attempt by a resistance movement or guerilla group to take a ship of any k i n d

184

would, in peacetime, be classified as hijacking, terrorism

or theft, or, in some cases, piracy; in war it will only be legitimate if it concerns enemy warships. But the right to requisition has been thought also to be a right of resistance forces who, in this respect, are put on an equal footing with a State. However, only resistance movements of considerable consolidation in emergency situations in wartime have been held to be entitled to requisition p r o p e r t y .

185

b. The effect of war on contracts Contracts between citizens of a belligerent and alien enemies are normally not allowed and are therefore, in the Anglo-Saxon world, often regarded as ipso facto dissolved and terminated. Earlier contracts will be suspended if necessary.

186

The Peace Treaties after the First World W a r

Second World W a r

1 8 8

1 8 7

and after the

followed the Anglo-Saxon practice of holding private

contracts concluded with the enemy as void. Courts in France had similar attitudes

189

even earlier and will now normally consider contracts with the

enemy null and void as being contrary to public policy.

190

Although

national legislation often existed on the prohibition on payment, practice in Germany did not regard any such contracts ipso facto as dissolved but 181

182

183

185

J. Le Gere, Les mesures coércitives sur les navires de commerce étrangers, Angarie-Embargo, Paris, 1940. But see, Greek-Bulgarian Arbitration Commission (1926), AD, 1925-6, 456; The Zamora, (1915) (PC); Tribunal de Commerce de Marseille (1945), AD, 1946, 238. See Schroder, Das Angarienrecht, 40ff. E.g. the taking of The Achille Lauro in 1985. For France, The Herzog Case, Conseil d'Etat, 15.6.1951, RGDIP/RDP, 1953, 1131; Italy, Turin, 11.7.1947, AD, 1948, 428; Rousseau, Conflits armés, 77 ff. AD, 1919-22, 394. Treaty of Versailles, e.g. article 299. E.g. Peace Treaty with Italy, 1947, Annex 16. M. Markovitch, Des effets de la guerre sur les contracts entre particuliers, Paris, 1912. Rousseau, Conflits armés, 52. 184

r

186

188

189

190

187

E F F E C T S OF T H E S T A T E OF

WAR

363

decided in casu whether there had been impossibility, as in any private contract situation.

191

Contracts are regarded as frustrated

192

or affected by impossibility

least as far as regards certain executory contracts. even revived after peace.

194

193

at

Such contracts are not

195

The rationale of this rule is that no contract must benefit the enemy. Consequently, contracts between enemy aliens, both resident and in an­ other State, may be u p h e l d .

196

In a similar vein, specific performance may

be obtained for a contract under which the plaintiff had taken possession of the relevant property when war broke out and there was n o gain accruing to the enemy by the execution of a d e e d .

197

Conversely, a contract with a 'loyal citizen' in enemy country will be prohibited if, as a result of his actions, resources will be furnished to the e n e m y .

198

It is not the war which prevents the performance of a

contract but acts done in furtherance of actual war. A contract, in the event a charterparty, was not automatically frustrated by the Iran-Iraq war.

199

A contract may come to an end because it a m o u n t s to 'trading

with the e n e m y ' .

200

But apart from that doctrine, a court will consider

first, whether a contract is affected by the war and, secondly, whether the duration of the war will cause the factual impossibility of performance. 191

192

193

2 Berber 205. But, for example, only actual seizure of cargo may frustrate a contract, see Kuwait Supply Co. v. Oyster Marine Management Inc. ('The Safeer'), (1993), QB, Lloyds LR, 1994, 627. McNair, Legal Effects, 4th edn, 133. See Royal Boskalis Westminster N. V. v. Mountain and Others, (1997) CA, WLR 1998, 538; Sidhu v. British Airways pic, (1997), AC 430; Tarrant v. Ramage (The 'Salvital') (1997), QB, Lloyds LR, 1998, 185; Gulf Bank K.S.C v. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd., (1994), CA, Lloyd's LR, 1994, 145; Kuwait Petroleum Corp. v.I&D Oil Carriers {The 'Houda'), 1994, CA, Lloyd's LR, 1994, 541; Ellis Shipping Corp. v. Voeat Intertrading (The Lefhero), (1991), QB, Lloyd's LR, 1991,599. See previous note and, further, 2nd Russian Insurance Co. v. Miller, Alien Custodian, (1924), 297 Fed. 407, (1925), affd 268 US 552; Heidner v. St Paul & Tacoma Lumber Company of New York, (1923), 124 Wash. 652. Neumond v. Farmers Feed Co. of NY, (1926), 244 Fed. 202. Kannengiesser v. Israelowitz, (1919), 107 Misc. 349, 176 NY Suppl. 535. Hoshang and Others v. Eddie Barucha and Others, (1966) High Court of Pakistan, PLD Karachi 752; 53 ILR 607. Sutherland (Alien Property Custodian) v. Mayer, (1926) 271 US 272. FinelvetAG v. Vienna Shipping Co. Ltd., The Chysalis, 1983,2 Lloyds LR 658 per Mustill J.; cf. AS Nord-Ostersjo Rederiet v. E. A. Casper Edgar & Co. Ltd., (1923), 14 Lloyds LR 203. Cf. Geipel v. Smith, (1872), LR 7 QB 404 on difficulties of performing during the French-German war; and Horlockv. Beal, (1916) 1 AC 486 on contracts being affected by acts during the First World War. Above, in this section. AS Nord-Ostersjo Rederiet v. E. A. Casper Edgar & Co. (1923) 14 Lloyds LR 203 at 207 per Lord Sumner. l

194

195

196

197

198

199

2 0 0

201

201

364

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

The projected length of war will be decisive to a court's attitude as to whether performance is realistically possible.

202

In contract, it is thus

mainly a question of delay of performance, a delay which, if it is likely to be substantial, will lead to frustration of the contract. If the cause of the delay is 'co-terminous' with the war itself, or with an act in the further­ ance of war, such as, for example, blockade, a presumption arises that the contract is frustrated.

203

An executory contract which is to be considered abrogated must either 'involve intercourse [with the enemy], or its continued existence must in some way [be] against public policy as that has been laid down in decided cases.'

204

If a contract does not require execution by transactions with the en­ emy, it will normally not be t e r m i n a t e d . rights'

206

205

Furthermore, 'acquired

are not affected according to some authorities, often by asserting

that the transaction is of n o benefit to the e n e m y .

207

Some executory contracts relating to rights of property, especially be­ tween landlord and tenant, are not avoided by w a r .

208

Interest may also be

payable on a debt as 'incidental' to another transaction.

209

Occasionally an alien may be disallowed to inherit under the national laws,

210

but in other cases it has been held that such private rights, es­

pecially if entrenched by treaty, are unaffected by w a r , tion was made to a resident in enemy c o u n t r y , come within Trading With the Enemy A c t s .

212

211

even if a disposi­

as such taking did not

213

An enemy alien is often deprived of the power to sue in local courts. 202

2 0 3

204

2 0 5

2 0 6

2 0 7

2 0 8

209

2 . 0

2 . 1

2 . 2

Kodros Shipping Corp. v. Empresa Cubana de Fleta, The Evia, (1982) 3 All ER 350. Cf., for example, Bank Line Ltd. v. Arthur CapeU (1919) AC 435; Denny Mott & Dickson Ltd. v. James B. Eraser & Co, (1944) 1 All ER 678 AC. R. G. McElroy and G. L. Williams, Impossibility of Performance, Cambridge, 1941, 176. Ertel Bieber & Co. v. Rio Tinto Co. Ltd. (1918) AC 260, 269. For a secondary 'viable' contract arising out of a previous terminated one, see Ottoman v. Jebara, (1928) AC 269 per Viscount Dunedin. But for a criticism of the doctrine of acquired rights, see my Finance, 2nd edn, 105fT, E.g. Tingley v. Muller, (1917) 2 Ch. 144. E.g. Halsey v. Lowenfeld, (1916) 2 KB 707, 716 where a contract concerning rent due to an alien enemy was not avoided by war; Tingley v. Muller (1917)2 Ch. 144 on a viable contract to buy a leasehold. Hicks (Alien Property Custodian) v. Guiness, (1925) 269 US 71. Techt v. Hughes (1920) 229 NY 222. Goos v. Brocks, (1929), 117 Nebr. 750; In Roeck's Estate, (1922) 119 Misc. 190, 195 NY Supp. 505. Gregg's Estate, (1920) 266 Pa. 189, 109 Atl. 777. Above, in this section. 2 1 3

E F F E C T S OF T H E S T A T E OF

The normal rule is that an enemy alien cannot s u e defend himself.

215

365

WAR

214

b u t has the right to

Trading With the Enemy Acts often contain provisions

to deprive enemy aliens of certain judicial r e m e d i e s .

216

Such restrictions

sometimes only affect those who owe allegiance to an enemy c o u n t r y .

217

In

other cases, courts have inferred enemy character from residence or from the 'likely gain' to the enemy if the suit is allowed.

218

Identification of 'enemy alien* status in a Trading with the Enemy Act may depend solely on residence so that aliens not so classified may continue their business and trade unhampered and 'without the slightest govern­ mental supervision'.

219

Other courts have held that 'mere' residence does

not lead to enemy character.

220

The question of when a company is of enemy character is complex. Such character has been held to attach if the company was under 'enemy control'.

221

Apart from the effect that war has on contracts with the enemy, there are also problems relating to contracts concluded between citizens in any one country, for example, with regard to insurance of goods or transactions affected by a war. For example, in the Iran-Iraq War a group of London underwriters decided, some six m o n t h s before the outbreak of war, that rates for the area of the Gulf west and north of the Straits of H o r m u z were to be increased. As for land, war risks have not been written since the Spanish Civil War, when, in 1937, it was decided by a consensus of underwriters, that such insurance was no longer p r u d e n t .

222

War risk now covers only marine insurance. Rates are increased from the normal war risk of 0.025 per cent to about 0.05 in time of actual war. Underwriters are not concerned whether there is an inter-State or internal war and whether war has been declared or not: they will assess 2 , 4

215

2 . 6

2 . 7

2 . 8

2 . 9

220

221

222

Ass. Cement Cos. Ltd. v. Pakistan, (1972), Pakistan PLD Lahore 201; Guru Das Saha v. Deputy Custodian of Enemy Property, (1969) PLD Dacca 841. Province of East Pakistan v. Allahbad Bank Ltd., (1968) PLD Dacca 1; Haji Mohiuddin v. Sirajul Alam Chowdhury, (1967) PLD Dacca 515. E.g., (UK) Trading with the Enemy Act, 1917, article 7(b), 40 Stat. 411, 417. Ozbolt v. Lumbermen's Indemnity Exchange (1918) 204 SW 252. Re Ref. No. 1 of 1965, (1966) High Court of Pakistan, PLD Karachi 160; 53 ILR 613. Tortoriello v. Seghorn (1918) 103 Atl. 393. S. A. Latifv. J. B. Dubash (1970), Karachi PLD 220. Daimler Co. Ltd. v. Continental Rubber Co. (GB) Ltd. (1916) AC 307, 345. For detailed rules see McNair, The Legal Effects of War, 3rd edn, 1948, 44-69; for new rules that may be relevant in war situation as well, see Barcelona Traction Case, ICJ, Reports, 1970, 42. D. W. Gibb., Lloyds of London, 1957, 231.

366

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF W A R

factual risks according to objective circumstances as reported to them. In the Falklands W a r o n e substantial claim under a war risk policy was made to Lloyds for a United States tanker hit in the area. This vessel had been well outside the Protection Z o n e .

223

H a d it been inside the Zone it

would have entered at its own peril or possibly been guilty of non­ disclosure of its planned course which must be reported to the insurance brokers for accurate assessment of the rate of premium. 2 2 3

Above, Ch. 6, A viii.

11 Execution of the Law of War

Execution of an international convention implies the implementation of its provisions in practice. Without such execution the document's value in practical terms will be much reduced, even if it may still have important guiding functions for the behaviour of parties. The shortage of rules on execution in conventions is notorious. Often States can unilaterally denounce treaties and then mechanisms for execu­ tion become demoted even further; for if a State is allowed to rid itself of its obligations under a treaty, it may prefer to do so rather than to subject itself to any apparently 'compulsory' procedure of implementation. O n the other hand, there is a growing body of opinion in many States that certain treaties cannot be denounced, especially those in the field of h u m a n rights or of the Law of War, as such treaties often lay down basic rights that are 1

either valid already under international law or under respective national constitutions.

2

A. M e t h o d s of i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i. T h e W e a p o n s C o n v e n t i o n s The considerable problems of verification

of compliance with

Weapons Conventions have been discussed earlier.

3

the

These problems, 4

which have given rise to considerable literature on the subject, have been more prominent than legal problems concerning breaches. For most 1

2

3

4

See, above, Ch. 5, C v on the underlying obligation. See, for example, the French Constitution of 1958, embodying in its Preamble numerous human rights; it might even be that international law derived certain formulae on human rights from this Constitution. Above, Ch. 3 , C i i i b ( 3 ) . See further, for example, K. Tsipis, D. W. Hafenmeister and P. Janeway, (eds.), Arms Control Verification.

367

368

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E

LAW OF

WAR

verification procedures seek to ensure compliance with a treaty whereas provisions on breaches only become relevant once a breach has been verified. Verification has normally a twofold purpose: by various inspec­ tion methods and by the very existence of certain mechanisms, verification is intended to preclude that any breaches occur; and, secondly, by the same methods or mechanisms verification will furnish actual evidence and prove that there have been certain breaches of the obligations under a conven­ tion. The highly sophisticated verification procedures in the Chemical 5

Weapons Convention of 1993 ( C W C ) may inspire further improvements in the field of verification in other agreements. Verification has also taken on a new dimension after having been adopted as a means of forcing a State to dismantle certain weapons systems that pose a threat to interna­ tional security.

6

Apart from the verification procedures, which in themselves are weak 7

and rudimentary in m a n y weapons conventions, there are generally no specific provisions for breaches in these treaties and the rules on legal 8

effects of breaches are left to general international law. In one treaty, the En-Mod Convention, which stands halfway between weapons agreements 9

and treaties on warfare methods, there is no clause on denunciation. On the contrary, the Treaty is said to be for 'unlimited d u r a t i o n ' .

10

However,

such a stipulation would not normally preclude the denunciation of a treaty.

11

O n the other hand, there are specific provisions on revision

12

although such a right of a m e n d m e n t exists, without special authorisation, under the general law of treaties.

13

The En-Mod Convention also has a

reporting system for breaches which implies that a party which has 'reason to believe' that there has been a breach may lodge a complaint with the Security Council. This provision is accompanied by a curious statement that a complaint must include 'all relevant information as well as all 14

possible evidence to support its validity'. Any 'evidence' will surely come under the heading of 'relevant information' and it would therefore have been clearer if the provision had used the word 'including' instead of the misleading expression 'as well as'. The State parties undertake to cooperate in any investigation which the 5

7

8

9

13

6

Above, Ch. 7, E iii. See below, Ch. 12, C i a, on UNSCOM. But note the trend to introduce more stringent verification mechanisms, above, Ch. 7. See below, Ch. 12, B, and, on the effect of breach in general, R.P. Mazzeschi, Risoluzione e sospensione dei trattati per inadempimento, Milan, 1984. Above, Ch. 7, F. Article VII. See my Essays, 89fT. Article VI. See my Essays, 7Iff. Article V(3). 10

11

14

12

EXECUTION

OF T H E L A W OF

369

WAR

Security Council may initiate in accordance with the Charter.

15

There are

thus no sanctions for breaches in the Convention itself. O n the other hand, when relevant information is brought to the notice of the Security Council it may proceed to other powers it has under the Charter and determine, ex officio, that there is a threat to the peace warranting enforcement action. In this indirect way, therefore, one could possibly say that there are sanctions for certain breaches of this particular Convention.

ii. Treaties o n m e t h o d s a n d h u m a n i t a r i a n rules In the field of rules on warfare methods and humanitarian issues the position is different. Here, it is not the lack of provisions for implementa­ tion but the difficulty in applying t h e m in practice which has given rise to problems. Thus, the Geneva Conventions have been difficult to implement although they have provisions dealing with execution.

16

There have been

numerous armed conflicts when the Geneva Conventions have been ap­ 17

plied only through the mediation of the Red Cross. Protocol I of 1977, but not Protocol II, includes provisions to ensure its execution. There is stipulation that both the High Contracting Parties and the parties to the conflict shall take all necessary measures to implement their obligations under the Protocol.

18

For its execution, Protocol I thus relies on the

assistance of groups which are not States. The elaboration of new humanitarian obligations would be a hollow and futile exercise if there are no effective means of bringing about compliance with assumed obligations.

19

However, when it came to ensure that the

Protocols were coupled with adequate enforcement mechanisms most States at the Conference refrained from action. Virtually all States present 'were responsible for the failure to include enforcement m e c h a n i s m ' .

20

Protocol I provides that all parties shall, without delay take all necessary measures for the execution of their obligations under the Protocol.

21

Such

measures are more comprehensive than the provisions of the Hague Regu­ lations which only referred to orders to the land forces 15

16

17

19

20

22

22

or to the Geneva

Article V(4). Convention I articles 49-50; Convention II, article 50; Convention III, articles 126-8; Conven­ tion IV, articles 142-7. Cf. above, Ch. 6, B ii d and below, in this Chapter, c on mediation. Article 80. Cf. United States, A/C.6/37/SR.19.5, para. 16. D. P. Forsythe, 'Legal management of internal war', A//L, 1978, 294. Article 80. Article 1 and above, Ch. 4, C ii. 18

21

370

CONSEQUENTIAL

Conventions.

23

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

Under article 84 all legislative and other measures must be

communicated to the other parties of the Protocol.

a. Protective power

24

system

The Geneva Conventions have adopted another system for the implemen­ tation of humanitarian rules. These Conventions rely on a protective power 25

system but the system has not been a success in practice. It had only been used twice, in the Suez and the Goa affairs of 1956 and 1971 respectively.

26

In the 1971 Bangladesh crisis Switzerland was nominated as a protective power but this nomination was not accepted by India.

27

Protocol I mentions protective powers in various contexts

28

and it is

clear that a system similar to that of the Geneva Conventions has been adopted. By the definitions in the Protocol

29

it is clear that a neutral State,

or a State not party to the conflict, may be appointed as Protecting Power 1

and carry out functions under the Protocol. An 'impartial body can presumably also undertake this task if the parties so agree.

30

At the Conference there was a specific offer by the Sovereign Order of Malta to this effect and its representative underlined that the Order would be glad to cooperate with the ICRC, a body which, of course, is of great importance in this context. There had been an attempt to secure an automatic appointment of the ICRC if other protective powers failed to be nominated. of States in the ICRC was repeatedly assured

32

31

The confidence

but the article failed to be

adopted.

2 3

24

2 5

26

27

2 8

3 0

31

Above, Ch. l , B i i . Article 84. See, further, Abi-Saab, 'Le mécanisme de mise en oeuvre du droit humanitaire', 177. See Convention I, articles 8-11; Convention II, articles 8 and 11; Convention II, articles 8 and 11, and Convention IV articles 9 and 12. Also before the Geneva Conventions there had been problems in appointing an ad hoc protective power, for example to supervise the treatment of prisoners of war in enemy territory. For example, a request for such appointment by Finland in the Winter War was refused by the Soviet Union: see, Wulf, Handbok i folkràtt under krig, 241. On the traditional right of belligerents to select a protecting power to safeguard their interests when diplomatic relations have been suspended, see Rousseau, Conflits armés, 36-52. See Forsythe, Humanitarian Politics, 166. Articles 2, 5, 6(1), 11, 33, 45, 60(2), 78(1) and 84. Article 2(c). Cf. resolutions of the Institut de droit international, on Conditions of Application of Humanitar­ ian Rules of Armed Conflict to Hostilities in which the United Nations Forces may be Engaged, and Bindschedler-Robert, Reconsideration. E.g. Greece, CDDH/SR.37, vol. 6, 78. E.g. Belgium, CDDH/SR.47, vol. 6, 76. 2 9

32

EXECUTION

OF T H E L A W OF

WAR

371

The Protocol 'missed the opportunity of making an advance in the system of implementation of humanitarian law* by not making an offer to act as protective power compulsory.

33

However, it was made clear that other organisations would also be prepared to assist as protective powers if so requested; the Organisation of African States, for example, would be useful in this respect.

b. Fact-finding

34

commissions

The 1929 Convention on the W o u n d e d and the Sick

35

provided for en­

quiries to be instituted in the case of alleged violations of the Convention. The ICRC was called on, in this context, in the Italo-Abyssinian War in 1936 and in connection with the Katyn affair in 1943.

36

The Geneva Conventions also include some provisions on inquiries.

37

Although called upon under the relevant articles to inquire into alleged use of bacteriological weapons in the Korean War in 1952, the ICRC showed reluctance to carry out any investigation as it 'would be the first step of a judicial procedure which does not lie within its purview. More­ over, by assuming that role [of a body responsible for inquiries] the ICRC would find its neutrality called in question by at least one of the parties, to the detriment of the unquestionably useful humanitarian ac­ tivities carried out on that party's territory'.

38

The United Nations Secre­

tariat sometimes despatches an inquiry team to verify compliance with the Law of War. Thus, a mission of the Secretary General was requested in 1985 to report on the treatment of prisoners of war in the Iran-Iraq War.

39

The ICRC had suspended its protection activities in Iran as a

result of continuing difficulties due to which the ICRC found itself un­ able to fulfil its obligations under the Geneva Convention.

40

States have

also refused to allow international inspection teams claiming that such efforts constitute unlawful 'intervention'; thus, Yugoslavia refused to allow ICRC officials to inspect prison camps in the Bosnian War of 33

36

37

38

40

34

35

Egypt, ibid., 77. Nigeria, ibid., 80. Above, Ch. 9, B ii. ICRC, Action by the ICRC in the Event of Breaches of International Humanitarian Law, Geneva, 1981,5. Geneva I, article 52; II, article 53; III, article 132, and IV, article 149. ICRC, Action by the ICRQ 5. S/16962, 19 February 1985. ICRC, Second Memorandum of the ICRC to State Members Parties to the Geneva Convention of 1949 Concerning the Conflict between the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Republic of Iraq, 10 February 1984; cf. CICR, Appel 7 May 1983. 3 9

372

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

1995-8 while Saddam Hussein refused verification by UNSCOM after 1998.

41

Under Protocol I of 1977 an International Fact Finding Commission will 42

be established if not less than twenty States accept its competence. Only if States make an Optional Declaration, modelled on the Optional Clause of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, will they be b o u n d by the findings of the Commission. This compromise was reached after some discussion and may show how sensitive States still are about allowing inspection groups in their territory. It must also be noted that the prospec­ tive Commission was not even granted any powers of decision but can only make recommendations. The Commission, once established, will have the power to 'make en­ quiries' into alleged grave breaches of Protocol I and restore, through its good offices, respect for humanitarian values.

43

Its Chambers may invite

parties to a conflict to produce evidence and it will 'seek' other evidence as 44

it finds appropriate. All evidence will be disclosed to the parties but will not be made public.

45

The Commission will, to some extent, be institutionalised, by having special administrative facilities granted by Switzerland financed by State contributions.

46

and will be

47

The working of the Commission may well prove to be valuable and more effective than the 'condemning' practice of the General Assembly of the United N a t i o n s .

48

c.

Mediation

Mediation may prove a useful method of settling an armed conflict once it has c o m m e n c e d .

49

The ICRC has played an important role in mediation. 50

This study has often referred to the role of the I C R C and the functions of the ICRC may be underlined further in the context of mediation in armed conflicts as such mediation provides a means of ensuring the application of humanitarian rules. In a paradoxical statement one commentator summed up the role of the ICRC by stating that 'The ICRC is too weak to be feared and that is the source of its strength'. 41

4 5

4 8

50

4 2

51

The ICRC may prove valuable as a

4 3

44

Below, B. Article 90(1 )(b). Article 90(2)c ii. Article 90(4)(b). Article 90(5)(c). Article 90(1 )(f). Article 90(7). See Kalshoven, 'Reaffirmation and development', 122. Above, Ch. 3, C iv. For example, above, Ch. 5, A. Forsythe, Humanitarian Politics, 248. 4 6

4 7

4 9

Sl

EXECUTION

OF T H E

LAW OF

373

WAR

mediator to ensure the application of Protocol I and may also unofficially contribute as mediator for Protocol II. It has mediated in n u m e r o u s hijacking and kidnapping incidents.

52

It has also mediated in Indochina

(later Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos), both during French h e g e m o n y during the American military action.

54

It also mediated in Algeria.

53

and

55

The reason for the success of the services of the ICRC in wars is undoubtedly that it is considered to be 'above the battle'. It was, for example, the only relief organisation able to assist in the Hungarian 56

Revolution in 1956. It was also the ICRC which, after the Suez debacle in 1956, provided the first airliner between Israel and Egypt since the begin­ ning of the war in Palestine in 1948.

57

The ICRC is empowered under its own Statutes to take 'cognizance' of complaints regarding alleged breaches of the humanitarian Conventions,

58

59

but has also in practice intervened on its own initiative. There is perhaps a distinction to be made between intervention of the ICRC in response to reports of violations and cases where the ICRC m o r e clearly sets out to mediate between the parties to a conflict. But both types of action can be subsumed under a wide heading of mediation if this is construed to include all efforts to achieve compliance with the humanitarian Conventions. One advantage of the ICRC mechanisms is the 'discretion' principle, which reassures States that no evidence will be disclosed to the outside world. The ICRC has often shown that it would not communicate any facts on alleged violations of the European Convention on H u m a n Rights to the 60

Council of Europe, for example in the Greek Cases,

although p r o m p t e d to

61

do so by the Scandinavian States. There may have been, in that instance, a formal agreement between the ICRC and the Greek G o v e r n m e n t ,

62

but

even if there had been n o such understanding, States could rely on the discretion of the ICRC. The ICRC is not always able to visit detainees and prisoners of war when 63

it wishes but may contribute towards solutions of problems through its good offices if allowed to engage in full discussions. The recognition by the ICRC of certain national Red Cross groups has 52

56

57

60

61

6 3

53

54

55

Ibid., 29. Ibid., 144ff. Ibid., 152fT. Ibid., 47ff. Joyce, Red Cross International and the Strategy of Peace, New York, 1959, 167. Ibid., 148. Article 6(4). ICRC, Action by the ICRC, 2-3. Denmark v. Greece, 3321/67; Norway v. Greece, 3322/67; Sweden v. Greece, 3323/67; The Netherlands v. Greece, 3344/67. Ibid., 43. Ibid. On the difficulties to visit Palestinian prisoners, see PLO Observer, A/C.6/37/SR.19,6, para. 19. 58

6 2

5 9

CONSEQUENTIAL

374

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

great importance for the claimed statehood of certain factions

64

but this

issue must not be confused with its potential function to mediate between established States and liberation movements under Protocol I. For a considerable time, Red Cross officials certainly proved impartial in 65

practice and devoid of any allegiance to certain States. However, from the m o m e n t in time when the ICRC ceased to be independently funded but started to receive heavy State contributions, there have been a number of 66

incidents when the impartiality of the ICRC has been put in d o u b t . It may be that, from that m o m e n t on, the ICRC was no longer 'too weak to be feared'.

67

Any role of NGOs in mediation was largely surpassed in the 1990s when Heads of State and senior politicians took over: President Clinton, in particular, made forceful efforts of mediation in the Middle East peace process. He also mediated with regard to problems related to former Yugoslavia. It was on his insistence that the Dayton Agreement was con­ 68

cluded in 1995, dealing with n u m e r o u s aspects of legal consequences of the dissolution of the former federation. Other mediation efforts by States using emissaries such as former politi­ cians, have largely failed to put an end to armed conflicts. The 'Contact G r o u p ' for former Yugoslavia possibly aggravated the situation by prop­ osing that sanctions against President Milosevic should be lifted in return for his 'influencing' M r Karadzic, the leader of the Bosnian Serbs, to accept the m a p of division drawn up by the G r o u p .

69

It is highly question­

able whether the G r o u p had the power to hold out such a promise to Mr Milosevic; and after both Milosevic and Karadzic had been indicted for serious war crimes,

70

the action of the G r o u p reflects rather questionable

judgment.

d. The role of

individuals

Various treaties on the Law of War grant rights and protection to individ­ uals. Certain duties are also imposed in that rebels, too, must wage only 6 4

6 5

6 6

6 9

See further, ibid., 16ff. Some officials carry a Swiss passport in addition to the Red Cross laissez passer. See, further, Boissier, De Solferimo a Tschoushima, Histoiredu Comite International de la Croix Rouge, Huber, The Red Cross, Principles and Problem?, H. G. Knitel, Les Delegation du CIRC, IHEI, Geneva, 1967. Above, Ch. 9, hi. Above, in this section. S/1031/95. IISS, Strategic Survey, 194-5, 199. Below, Ch. 12, C ii. 6 7

6 8

7 0

EXECUTION

OF T H E L A W OF

WAR

375

certain type of warfare and grant combatants and civilians the level of treatment stipulated. O n the other hand, mechanisms for the execution of certain instruments of the Law of War, especially the Geneva Conventions and the Protocols of 1977, also depend on the assistance of individuals, as is expressly acknowledged by these treaties. The Martens Clause figured in the Preamble to the 1899 Conventions and to the Fourth Hague Convention of 1907. The Clause, named after the Russian negotiator at the Hague Conferences, is highly illustrative of the differences between the Law of War and other parts of international law. The clause has a supplementing function: Until a more complete code of the laws of war has been issued, the High Contracting Parties deem it expedient to declare that in cases not included in the Regulations adopted by them, the inhabitants and the belligerents remain under the protection and the rule of the principles of the law of nations, as they result from the usages established among civilized peoples, from the laws of humanity, and the dictates of public conscience.

Thus, the Clause would supply the necessary n o r m s in cases where there is no textual support in the Convention or the annexed Regulations. But the Convention and the Regulations were only concerned with land warfare and the other Conventions concluded at the Hague in 1907

71

on, for

example, naval warfare did not contain the Clause. However, it was soon recognised that the Clause covered all types of warfare and that it would supply valuable guidance in unregulated cases. The Martens Clause was upgraded in Protocol I of 1977 to form part of the substantive text. It is inserted among basic obligations,

72

such as the

duty not to mutilate prisoners of war or to carry out medical experiments on such persons or civilians. The substance of the Martens Clause provides that, in cases not covered by international agreements, civilians and com­ batants 'remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international law derived from established custom, from the principles of 73

humanity and from the dictates of public conscience.' It has been sugges­ ted that the essence of the Martens Clause rests on four principles: necess­ ity, discretion, proportionality and h u m a n i t y .

74

Others claim that the

Clause could be used for new developments in the sense of supplementing 71

74

7 2

7 3

Above, Ch. 3, C iv. Article 11. Protocol I 1977, article 1(2). R. Falk, 'Law and responsibility in warfare, the Vietnam experience', in P. D. Trooboff, (ed.), Law and Responsibility in Warfare, the Vietnam Experience, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1975, 103ff.

CONSEQUENTIAL

376

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

the law. The Clause could be used for any change in, for example, combat­ ant status.

75

It may be simpler than that. The Martens Clause covers the most basic rights, even if these have not been incorporated or clearly spelt out in the texts. In this way, the Clause provides a counterweight to literally interpreted law. The Martens Clause explains the existence of legal rules which underlie the Geneva Conventions. This means that the impact of these rules goes beyond the circle of the contracting parties. For if the legal rules which can be discerned through the Martens Clause exist behind the textual world of treaties, it may be that an underlying obliga­ tion is derived from international law in general.

76

In that case States not

b o u n d by treaties in question might well be bound, albeit on another ground, by another mechanism or by another source of obligation, that which is entrenched in general international law. This is the line that certain courts have taken in trials concerning the treatment of persons in war. In one case, for example, it was held that the rules on the treatment of prisoners of war in the Hague Regulations applied to Germany, even in the absence of the ratification of those Regulations by Germany, as such rules form part of international law.

77

In another case it was

considered 'irrelevant' whether or not the Soviet Union had adhered to the Geneva Convention of 1920; its provisions were binding in any event.

78

W h a t then is this conscience? States do not have a conscience, nor do groups. W h o does? Individuals, combatants and those who actually fight the wars do. Is it not reasonable to think that it is they who in the unregulated cases will have to do their best to assess what the law might be, assuming at all times that the law must itself be reasonable? Members of some armed forces are often instructed on the limits of their mission set in relation to the law. For example, British soldiers are issued with yellow cards setting out both their precise mandate and the limits of the law. By making the level of the mandate considerably more limited than the law allows, the British soldier is allowed latitude for making personal errors of judgment. But cases may arise in which he is unguided if he 7 5

7 6

7 7

78

Draper, T h e legal classification of belligerent individuals', 149. Cf. above, Ch. 5, C v on the underlying obligations and on the ethics of warfare. See, Prisoner of War (Germany) Case, (1919), AD 1919-22, 433 (before the Leipzig Supreme Court). The Great War Criminals Case, IMT, 1.10.1946.

EXECUTION

OF T H E

LAW OF

377

WAR

decides to act. Is he then not best equipped himself to decide what he must do? It seems that the Martens Clause is merely an application of the rule of c o m m o n sense in a practical situation. In a sense, then, individuals are direct subjects of this limited part of international law which, sometimes requires their assistance for its appli­ cation.

79

There was considerable discussion at the Diplomatic Conference on the ICRC Draft of 1973 as this Draft referred to the principles of humanity and the dictates of public conscience as a source outside international law.

80

The Martens Clause was adopted in the final versions in its original form which indicates that such principles and dictates now form part of interna­ tional law. On the other hand, some decisions are expected to be so difficult for individuals involved in the execution of the Protocols that legal advisers will be on hand to guide military leaders on the 'appropriate level of application' of relevant rules.

81

e.

Dissemination

New rules cannot be implemented unless they are known. The Geneva Conventions and the Protocols provide that their contents are dis­ 82

seminated. States have been urged by the Secretary General of the United Nations and by the ICRC to organise reunions to enable them better to understand and learn the contents of humanitarian rules.

83

In spite of their above-mentioned c o m m i t m e n t s under treaties to dis­ seminate knowledge of the Law of War, many States fail to instruct their military commanders and their soldiers in the contents of the Law of War. States also fail to encourage or request universities in their territory to teach the Law of War. It may be noted that the Law of War forms part of courses on international law in very few universities; and the Law of W a r is not included in most modern standard textbooks on international law. The result of this double failure on the part of universities and of States can only contribute to further brutalisation in armed conflict. 79

80

82

J. Pictet, Humanitarian Law and the Protection of War Victims, 1975, 22; J. H. Schmid, Die völkerrechtliche Stellung Partisanen im Kriege, Zurich, 1956, 82. On the Draft see above, Ch. 6, B i c. Article 82. Protocol I, article 83; Protocol II, article 19. See AFD1, 1982, 686. 81

8 3

378

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E

LAW OF

WAR

B. M e t h o d s of peace keeping i. U N Peace Keeping Forces United Nations Forces were first deployed under a decision of the General Assembly during a temporary paralysis of the Security Council in the Suez crisis in 1956.

84

All subsequent forces, however, were established by the

Security Council. The first such force was despatched to the Congo in I960.

85

From 1960 until 1978, fourteen such forces were formed and

deployed, whereas during a mere eight years, 1988 to 1996, another twentyeight came into being, largely during the time of office of Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali. At such a rate of increase, Member States are entitled to question whether the massive cost of such operations is reflected in the efficient reduction of armed conflicts.

86

There is growing political

opposition to open-ended commitments to inefficient 'peace-keeping' by the United N a t i o n s .

87

In the last decade the shortcomings of the UN system of peace-keeping forces have become a p p a r e n t

88

and there has been much criticism of

misguided interference, on the one hand, and, on the other, of a lack of resolve to assist victims and civilians. There is, by now, a vast literature on 84

8 3

M

R7

KH

On the UN Emergency Force (UNEF), see my Law Making, 62-73; technically, UNEF was a subsidiary organ of the General Assembly. On the Uniting for Peace Resolution under which the General Assembly can act if the Security Council remains inactive, see ibid., 38-9. Note that the USSR contested the legality of this Resolution in 1950 but not when it was applied to establish UNEF in 1956, ibid., 39. See my Law Making, 73-6. The UN Force in the Congo (ONUC) must be conceived as a subsidiary organ of the Security Council, as the SC has such right to form necessary organs for its functioning, ibid, and on implied powers, 29-42. My view of the character of UNEF and ONUC as subsidiary organs of the UN was confirmed in Certain Expenses Case, ICJ (1962), Advisory Opinion, Reports, 1962, 151. In Certain Expenses Case, ICJ (1962), Advisory Opinion, Reports, 1962, 151, certain members questioned their duty to contribute to the budget of UNEF and ONUC. The Court made it clear that such costs must be defrayed by members of the UN. However, with the quantitative increase and qualitative decline of UN peace keeping forces, members may be entitled to put this question again to the ICJ on the basis of fundamental change of underlying facts; mem­ bers of an international organisation cannot be expected to defray expenses if the organisation fails in its duty of economy, efficiency and reasonable action: cf. the refusal of the United States and the United Kingdom to contribute to the budget of UNESCO during a time when that organisation had misappropriated funds for, for example, a penthouse in Paris for a director. There is no question of similar mismanagement of funds of the peace keeping forces for private purposes but perhaps for certain activities which contribute little or nothing to peace. E.g., M. Berdal, 'Fateful encounter: The United States and UN peacekeeping', IISS, Survival, Spring 1994, 39ff. A. Roberts, 'The crisis in UN peacekeeping', IISS, Survival, Autumn 1994, 93ff.

EXECUTION

the UN Peace Keeping Forces.

OF T H E LAW OF

89

WAR

379

Acronyms and abbreviations a b o u n d .

90

Many forces have been despatched to the Middle East including Cyprus 91

92

and Iran/Iraq, and many to Africa whereas relatively few have been sent to Central America

93

or to Asia, including India, Pakistan, and some

republics of the former Soviet Union, such as Georgia and Tajikistan.

94

But the quality of the result of some of these massive efforts may be questioned. 8 9

9 0

91

See my Bibliography on International Law, New York, 1976; see, in particular, UN, The Blue Helmets, A Review of United Nations Peace Keeping, 3rd edn, 1996; R. Higgins, United Nations Peace Keeping, Documents and Commentary, 4 vols., 1969-81; D. Bowett, United Nations Forces, 1964; McCoubray and White, The Blue Helmets: Legal Regulation of the United Nations Military Operations, 1996; Ratner, The New UN Peace Keeeping, 1995. On UNTSO, UNEF I and II, ONUC, UNOGIL, UNIFIL, UNYOM, UNFICYP, UNDOF, UNIMOG, UNIKOM, UNMOGIP, UNYOM, UNFICYP, DOMREP, UNIPOM, UNDOF, UNGOMAP, UNIMOG, UNAVEM I, II and III, UNTAG, ONUCA, UNIKOM, ONUSAL, MINURSO, UNPROFOR, UNOSOM I and II, ONUMOZ, UNOMUR, UNOMIG, UNOMIL, UNMIH, UNAMIR, UNASOG, UNMOT, UNCRO, UNPREDEP, UNMIBH, UNMOP, see the following notes and accompanying text. The UN itself attributes also North Africa to the Middle East: see the next note. On forces deployed, see UN Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO), June 1948-; First UN Emergency Force (UNEF I), November 1956-June 1967; Second UN Emergency Force (UNEF II), October 1973-July 1979; UN Observer Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL), June 1958-December 1958; UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), March 1978-; UN Yemen Observation Team (UNYOM), July 1963-September 1964; UN Peace Keeping Forces in Cyprus (UNFICYP), March 1964-; UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF), June 1974—; UN Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group (UNIMOG), August 1988-February 1991; UN Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM), April 1991-.

9 2

Excluding North Africa which the UN considers part of the Middle East, see The Blue Helmets, ix. UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC), June 1960-June 1964; UN Angola Verification Mission I (UNAVEM I), January 1989-May 1991; UN Angola Verification Mission II (UNAVEM II), May 1991-February 1995; UN Angola Verification Mission III (UNAVEM III), February 1995-; UN Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG), April 1989-March 1990; UN Mission for the Referen­ dum in Western Sahara (MINURSO), April 1991-; UN Operation in Somalia I (UNOSOM I), April 1992-March 1993; UN Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II), March 1993-March 1995; UN Operation in Mozambique (ONUMOZ), December 1992-December 1994; UN Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda (UNOMUR), June 1993-September 1994; UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), October 1993-March 1996; UN Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL), September 1993-; UN Aouzou Strip Observer Group (UNASOG) May 1994-June 1994.

9 3

Mission of the Secretary General in the Dominican Republic (DOMREP), May 1965-October 1966; on this force, cf. above, Ch. 2, A iii c and d, on intervention; UN Observer Group in Central America (ONUCA), November 1989-January 1992; UN Observer Group in Central America (ONUCA), November 1989-January 1992; UN Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL), July 1991-April 1995; UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH), September 1993-June 1996. UN Security Forces in West New Guinea West Irian (UNSF), October 1962-April 1963; UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission (UNIPOM), September 1965-March 1966; UN Good Offices Missions in Afghanistan and Pakistan (UNGOMAP), May 1988-February 1991; UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), March 1992-September 1993; UN Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG), June 1993-September 1994; UN Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT), December 1994-.

94

38o

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

In recent years a massive deployment of various UN forces

95

has taken

place in the Republics of the former Yugoslavia, both in Croatia and in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Most of these missions have essentially failed. Some­ times they have even aggravated the situation.

96

Surprisingly enough no

U N mission was ever sent to Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) itself; here, not a single shot was ever fired - until NATO took action in 1999 although it was from Serbia that repressive action was orchestrated. The United Nations conveyed a n u m b e r of 'final warnings' against this repres­ sion, particularly with regard to the ethnic cleansing of Albanians in Kosovo. Yet, the Belgrade regime did not respond to these 'warnings' and insisted that Kosovo, where the Serbs had lost a battle in 1376, was the 'birthplace' of the Serbian nation and should therefore be freed from all Albanian influence; Albanians were thus forbidden to use their mother tongue at school and many were finally driven from their homes. It was then that N A T O took over, without much support in its Charter,

97

and commenced forceful military action against Yugoslavia on 25 March 1999, as the United Nations proved powerless. The inadequacies of the U N peace-keeping system have become what some observers call 'painfully obvious' as the n u m b e r of deployments has 98

m o r e than doubled since 1989. From a solid and promising start in the 99

Suez crisis, and later in the C o n g o ,

100

UN peace-keeping forces have faced

a serious decline with regard to efficiency in deployment. the deployment

of U N

forces appeared

101

to perpetuate

In C y p r u s ,

a division

of the island; in Somalia, UN efforts proved to have little result 9 5

9 9

100

101

102

103

103

and in

UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR), March 1992-December 1995; UNPROFOR was replaced under SC Res. 981 1995 by UN Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia (UNCRO), March 1995-January 1996, with a mandate to monitor the Cease-fire Agreement of 29 March 1994 and to monitor the crossing of military personnel and equipment between Croatia, BosniaHerzegovina and Yugoslavia; by Resolution SC 983 1995 the Security Council decided that within Macedonia UNPROFOR would be known as the UN Preventive Deployment Force (UNPREDEP) March 1995-; other missions have been the UN Mission in Bosnia and Her­ zegovina (UNMIBH), December 1995-; the UN Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES), January 1996-; and the UN Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP), January 1996-. See further below. See below. 9 6

9 8

102

97

A. J. Goodfaster, When Diplomacy is not Enough: Managing Multinational Military Interventions, ed. by Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1996, 17. On the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) see UN Secretary General Report on UNEF, 1958, UN Doc. A/3943, GAOR, 13 sess., Annexes, agenda, 65; see my Law Making, 60-70. On U N Forces in the Congo (ONUC), see my Law Making, 70-81. A. Roberts, 'The crisis in UN peacekeeping', IISS, Survival, Autumn 1994, 93ff. E.g. Stegenga, The United Nations Forces in Cyprus, 1968. UNOSOM II. On the conditions in Somalia, see Somalia v. Woodhouse Drake & Carey Suisse S.A., [1993] QB 54.

EXECUTION

former Yugoslavia

104

OF T H E

LAW OF

WAR

381

the UN forces proved to have an inappropriate

mandate: their work was coupled with humanitarian aid, easily diverted to attacking troops, and the UN forces proved to be embarrassingly incapable of protecting civilians. The problem of recent UN forces has been the formulation of their mandate: whereas the success of earlier peace-keeping operations was secured by a brief and precise mandate that could reasonably be fulfilled within a certain limited period of time, recently despatched U N forces have been given vague orders to 'keep the peace', without any possibility of fulfilling this task within a specific time. In addition to this unfortunate lack of precision as to their instructions, UN forces have also encountered additional difficulties by the recent decision to couple UN 'peace missions' with humanitarian aid. This was largely the idea of Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali who presented 105

an ambitious Agenda for Peace, 106

flaws.

which however had serious conceptual

Most often, the well-intended humanitarian aid only served to

prolong hostilities and, on n u m e r o u s occasions, the aid intended for civilians fell into the hands of an attacking army. Such aid, often diverted in war, has, in many armed conflicts, fuelled further violence and has been used to suppress civilians; this occurred in Ethiopia, Guatemala, Sudan and East Timor, as well as in former Yugoslavia.

107

The error in the recent deployment of U N forces has been the oftenrepeated assertion that they are 'peace-keepers' and not 'peace-makers' or 'peace-enforcers'.

108

This has become an excuse for passivity and inaction

even though no 'peace' can be 'kept' in an armed conflict situation unless positive steps are taken to restore that peace. If no action is taken the conflict can only be prolonged. 104

105

106

107

108

UNPROFOR; see SC Res. 770 and 776; cf. Res. 713, 757, 787, 816 and 819. An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peacekeeping, New York, United Nations, 1992; also A/47/277-S/24111 (1992) and Agenda for Peace, 2nd edn, New York 1995. The combination of the peace keeping operations with humanitarian aid missions resulted in 'tangle of objectives and tactical measures'. One criticism is that the paper failed to distinguish between conflict, in the sense of a dispute between parties, and armed conflict, see T. Finlay, 'Multilateral conflict prevention, management and resolution', SIPRI Yearbook, 1994, 16. Keen, 'The economic function of violence in civil war', 59. The International Institute of Strategic Studies (IISS) perceived some slight improvement in this respect in Bosnia in 1993 when UN was assisted by NATO; four Serbian planes that had been bombing Bosnian government territory were shot down 'ending a period of many months during which unchallenged violations of UN-established no-fly zones had taken place', Sfrategic Survey, 1993-4, 99. But the UK, in particular, resisted any 'slide from peace-keeping to peace-making' and resisted, in 1993-4, any NATO involvement in the area, ibid., 101.

382

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E L A W OF

WAR

Even in cases when atrocities could have been avoided, as in the war in Burundi in the spring of 1995, the UN was unable to raise a force that might have halted the massacre. O n n u m e r o u s occasions the UN 'blue helmets' have totally failed to protect and aid civilians

109

and the decision-makers in New York have often

preferred to evacuate well-armed UN soldiers, when the situation has become 'dangerous' for them, whereas hundreds of civilians were left to die. The 'safe areas', or 'safe havens', proposed by Secretary General Boutros G h a l i ,

110

in Bosnia fell without any effort by the UN troops to

defend them, and the people who had taken refuge there in the belief that 11

they would be 'safer' than elsewhere were slaughtered. ' The United Nations may even be responsible for some considerable bloodshed caused by its hesitation to take forceful a c t i o n .

112

In Croatia and Bosnia, the UN

Secretary General was m o r e preoccupied with the plight of elderly Serbs returning from Krajina than with mass m u r d e r in the UN 'safe havens' and with the Serbian concentration camps for rape, where the UN troops could conceivably have intervened to save civilian victims.

113

In Georgia the UN

forces, U N O M I G , were heavily criticised for failing to prevent soldiers and weapons from entering the 'security zone' protected by the U N .

114

As a result of serious misjudgments, the UN peace-keepers lost much respect in the w o r l d .

115

In some cases, the shortcomings of UN forces have

not been a result of their inefficiency or their inadequate leadership but due to the nature of their mission. In some cases the UN would seem to have 109

110

m

1 . 2

1 . 3

1.4

1 . 5

Cf. J. MacKinlay, 'Improving multifunctional forces', IISS, Survival Autumn 1994,149ff; cf. C. Dobbie, 'A concept for post-cold war peacekeeping', ibid., 121ff. S/PRST/1994/71. See also above, Ch. 6, A iv on 'safe zones', an old Red Cross concept. See Report by Mr Tadeusz Mazowiecki, former Prime Minister of Poland, the UN Special Rapporteur on the human rights situation in former Yugoslavia from 1992, see UN Commis­ sion on Human Rights, res. 1992/S-l/l, until 27 July 1995 when he resigned; see A/50/441-S/ 1995/801 annex, after the fall of Srebrenica. See, S. R. Feild, Preventing Genocide: How Early Use of Force Might Have Succeeded in Rwanda, ed. by the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, 1998, 2, who suggests that inertia was caused by the UN debacle in Somalia. UNPROFOR had been authorised by the Security Council in June 1993 to use force to protect the safe havens and humanitarian convoys but no such force was ever used; the UK, in particular, was 'sceptical about the value of air strikes' against the Serbs, IISS, Strategic Survey, 1993-4, 101. For war crimes committed in the safe havens, see below, Ch. 12, C. The Blue Helmets, 581. Both the Croats and the Bosnians claim that the arms embargo deprived them of the right of self-defence at the time when the UN and its 'protection' force afforded no protection at all; cf., A. Roberts, 'The crisis in UN peacekeeping', IISS, Survival Autumn 1994, 93ff.

EXECUTION

OF T H E L A W OF

383

WAR

violated article 2(7) of its own Charter and intervened in the internal affairs of a State. This may have been a case when the International Civilian Mission in Haiti (MICIVIH) was created by an agreement between the U N Secretary General, Mr Boutros Boutros Ghali, the Organisation of Ameri­ can States (OAS), and Haiti's deposed President Aristide. Council adopted a Resolution

117

116

The Security

imposing an oil and arms embargo on

Haiti to restore constitutional rule. However, the President of the Council emphasised that the resolution was warranted by the 'exceptional' situation in Haiti and should not be regarded as a 'precedent'. Council imposed further s a n c t i o n s

119

118

The Security

and the 'Provisional President' of

Haiti declared the MICIVIH undesirable whereupon the mission left the island in July 1994. MIH)

121

120

The following year, the UN mission in Haiti (UN-

was despatched by the Security Council to facilitate the departure

of the country's military leadership and, in particular, secure the return of President Aristide.

122

Aristide returned to Haiti on 15 November 1994 and

immediately recalled the M I C I V I H .

123

The following year U N M I H took

over from the multinational force, supervising Haiti's return to 'constitu­ tional rule'. At the end 1996 Aristide's Prime Minister was elected Presi­ dent; U N M I H provided extensive technical assistance and 'necessary' logis­ tical support for these elections.

124

The Secretary General recommended

that U N M I H stayed on until June 1996 to 'consolidate the gains achieved'.

125

Sometimes States have urged the withdrawal of UN assistance missions in the face of a faltering peace process. This was the case in Rwanda where Belgium formally requested the withdrawal of the United Nations Assist­ ance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) after ten Belgian members of the force were murdered during their mission to protect the Prime Minister.

126

Rwanda may also be an example where more resolute action using military 116

1 , 7

119

120

122

124

125

The Mission was despatched in 1993. One of its objectives was to restructure the Haitian police force and army; it was also to monitor violations of human rights under a Head of Mission appointed jointly by the UN and the OAS. S/Res. 841 (1993). S/PV.3238. S/Res. 875 (1993); S/Res. 917 (1994); by S/Res. 861 (1993) sanctions had been briefly suspended in 1993. S/1994/765. Created by the Security Council under S/Res. 867 (1993). S/Res. 933 (1994); S/Res. 940 (1994). A/49/689. A failed campaign had sought to discount the time of Aristide's exile so that he could be re-elected for another three years. S/Res./1048 (1996). S/430/1994, 13 April 1994. 1 , 8

121

123

126

384

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

force might have saved many lives; the C o m m a n d e r of the force, General Dallaire, condemned, in very strong terms, the delays and the hesitation of the U N .

1 2 7

W h e n the contingents of the force arrived in Rwanda, only the

Belgians were properly equipped; other troops were inadequately prepared and not even properly informed about the task in hand. But the UN was then disproportionately concerned about infringing the sovereignty of a State than about saving lives in a genocide situation.

128

However, it must be

clear that gross violations of h u m a n rights or of humanitarian rules lead to the forfeiture of the privilege of sovereignty and that other States or organisations accordingly acquire the right of intervention in such situ­ ations to save civilian lives.

129

Delays cost tens of thousands of lives in

Rwanda where it was patently obvious that it would be absurd to await 'permission' from those who, for the main part, were carrying out the slaughter. But it is not only the organisation,

130

preparation

131

and logistics

132

of the

U N forces that has been criticised. Another major cause of its ineffective operation has been the composition of the UN forces. In some cases this has been the result of bad soldier material which may not always have been foreseeable at the selection stage. Many UN forces have, of course, included some first-class soldiers and indeed some first-class commanders. How­ ever, there have also been some less adequate members serving with the UN forces. In Cambodia, the Bulgarians, Ghanaians, Tunisians and In­ donesians are 'widely regarded as having done far more damage than good to the UNTAC c a u s e ' .

133

Colonel Loginov, C o m m a n d e r of the Russian

battalion deployed with U N P R O F O R in Sector East in Croatia, was found 127

128

130

131

132

133

R. Dallaire, Preventing Genocide: How the Early Use of Force Might Have Succeeded in Rwanda, Report to the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, New York, 1998, 22. Ibid., 23ff. See above, Ch. 2. The Commander of UNPROFOR arrived on 9 March 1992 in Croatia but the forces of some 14,000 soldiers only arrived five months later, Berdal, 'Whither UN Peacekeeping?', 35. Several battalions arrived in Cambodia without any knowledge of either French or English, giving rise to serious communications problems in UNTAC; few members of UNAVEM could speak Portuguese although they were supposed to monitor elections in Angola in 1992, ibid., 41. There was a 'near-complete failure' of the UN to deal with landmines in Cambodia when UNTAC arrived, ibid., 37; in Angola there was no military engineering support for UNAVEM, ibid. In Bosnia some Bangladeshi soldiers froze to death because they had no warm winter clothing and no way to escape a Serb siege. In Somalia, vehicles were not available to rescue trapped US rangers: see A. J. Goodpastor, When Diplomacy is not Enough: Managing Multina­ tional Military Interventions a Report to the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, New York, 1996, 38 n. 14. M. Berdal, Whither UN Peacekeeping, IISS, Adelphi Paper 281, 46. 129

EXECUTION

OF T H E

LAW OF

385

WAR

to be heavily involved with illegal arms and fuel d e a l s .

134

Several members

of the Nigerian battalion of UNPROFOR were found to be involved with drug dealing and some Ukrainians were caught selling U N fuel to the Serbs.

135

There were other problems: AIDS, which was virtually u n k n o w n

in Cambodia before the arrival of the UN troops to serve with UNTAC, 'exploded' during the period when the U N were p r e s e n t .

136

And the

construction and purchase b o o m which often accompanies the deploy­ ment of UN forces attracted, in Cambodia, an influx of ethnic Vietnamese which produced further t e n s i o n .

137

In many cases problems encountered were caused by the inadequate and inappropriate recruitment of personnel to UN forces. Misjudgment and insensitivity as to which nationals could conceivably serve with appropriate objectivity may have been responsible for a n u m b e r of problems; in other cases soldiers were recruited through sheer p a t r o n a g e .

138

O n e may ask

why so many Indonesian battalions have been selected, for so many peace­ keeping o p e r a t i o n s

139

when Indonesia itself has been heavily criticised

in the UN for its actions in East Timor. H o w could it be appropriate to post Nepalese soldiers, however brave, to serve in a country like Croatia where the cultural differences are so considerable that their selection as peace 'monitors' was b o u n d to cause some difficulty? It is even harder to understand why Yugoslav battalions, during the time their own country was subjected to UN sanctions for invading their neighbours, and for committing serious war crimes and gross violations of h u m a n rights, were despatched to be 'peace-keepers' in Angola.

140

Serious efforts to improve matters were made by the new Secretary General Mr Kofi Annan, but m u c h was too late to remedy; the trust and respect for UN troops had been seriously damaged.

ii. O t h e r forces In the face of poor results of UN Peace Keeping Forces, other organisations have stepped in to halt an aggressor, to restore peace and, in some cases, to save unprotected civilians. The Organisation of American States (OAS) has on some occasions set up an a r m y 1 , 4

139

140

141

136

141

but actions have probably a m o u n t e d

137

138

Ibid., 47. '"Ibid. Ibid., 46. Ibid. Cf., ibid., 48. For example, for UNOMIG, UNPROFOR, UNCRO, UNMIBH, UNMOP and UNIMOG. See the lists of participating battalions for different missions in UN, The Blue Helmets. See above, in the previous section on the Dominican Republic and Haiti and, further, above, Ch. 2, A iii c and d on intervention.

386

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

more to unlawful intervention rather than to peace-keeping or peace­ making efforts.

142

Major success may, however, be attributed to NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, which has been called in for strategic and tactical missions when little else seemed to work: it was NATO which shot down some Serbian planes which, with impunity, had been bombing Bosnian territory.

143

And it was NATO which in February 1994,

144

by threatened

air strikes, eliminated the heavy artillery sites on the hills around Sarajevo from where the Serbs shelled civilian objectives; Serb bombardment had even killed a n u m b e r of people in the market square and this during the deployment of U N forces in the a r e a .

145

In a series of air strikes after 30

August 1995, NATO planes flew over 3,100 sorties against Serb military targets. The Bosnian Peace Agreement was signed in Paris on 14 Decem­ ber 1995 after negotiation in Dayton, Ohio, and became known as the Dayton Agreement. Under a UN Security Council Resolution taken the same m o n t h ,

146

N A T O was given a mandate to implement the military

aspects of the Agreement and established IFOR, the Implementation Force, for this purpose. W h e n IFOR's mandate expired, after some success in restoring peace, it was replaced in December 1996 by a NATO Stabilisa­ tion Force, SFOR, which was to secure the maintenance of peace in Bosnia-Herzegovina. This force was empowered by a Security Council Resolution of December 1 9 9 6

147

to implement the military aspects of the

Dayton Agreement. Gradually it became clear that the NATO-led oper­ ations were very much more efficient and successful than the previous UN efforts. Again, it was NATO, rather than the U N ,

1 4 8

which finally took military

action against Yugoslavia to make that country cease its relentless sup­ pression and ethnic cleansing of Albanians in Kosovo. On 24 March 1999 N A T O started b o m b i n g raids against Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) with the main intention to make President Milosevic cease his brutal 142

144

145

148

143

Ibid. Strategic Survey, 1993-4, 99 and above, in the previous section. A month earlier NATO leaders approved a new command-and-control concept known as Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF), a method which had proved highly effective in the Gulf War. See, C. Barry, 'NATO's Combined Joint Task Forces in theory and practice', Survival, Spring 1996, 8Iff. See, on UNPROFOR, in the previous section. SC 1031/95. SC 1088/96. But the Security Council 'condemned' the excessive and indiscriminate use of force and suppression of civilians in Kosovo by Serbian security forces and the Yugoslav Army, see, for example, SC Res. 1199/98 of 23 September 1998. 146

147

EXECUTION

OF T H E

LAW OF

387

WAR

persecution of ethnic Albanians in Kosovo, a campaign which he had recently stepped u p in spite of severe protests by the Allies. In particular, President Milosevic had showed his bad faith by not signing the Rambouillet Agreement brokered by the Foreign Ministers of the United Kingdom and France. In this case, NATO started military action against a State which had not attacked one of its own members and thus in a scenario different from that foreseen by its own C h a r t e r .

149

However, it is inaccurate, and politically unrealistic, to assume that NATO needs authorisation from the UN to a c t . pact, with a right of self-defence,

151

150

It may be a defence

but self-defence may also be construed

widely to include a right to take preemptive a c t i o n .

152

Nor is it necessarily

in the interest of NATO, an efficient military alliance, to always work in some more or less strained 'partnership' with the U N .

1 5 3

If N A T O may

appear to be viable without the UN, the reverse is not the case: N A T O does not depend on the U N but the U N is often powerless without resolute action by NATO. Just as the General Assembly can take action in the case of inaction of the Security C o u n c i l ,

154

so it would seem reasonable

to claim that NATO can act if the U N proves inactive, even in the absence of any 'authorisation'. Alternatively, one may construe the action of NATO to be subsumed under the authorisation provided by the Dayton Accords, Force. 149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

155

extended to include not only SFOR but also Operation Allied

156

But see NATO Military Committee, Doc. 327 on 'non-article 5 operations'; cf. R. H. Palin, Multinational Military Forces: Problems and Prospects, Adelphi Paper 294, 1995, 7. Contra, McCoubrey and White, International Organisations and Civil Wars, 247. Article 5. Such a right was formalised in the decision of NATO in 1994 to adopt a command-and-control concept known as Combined Joint Task Forces (CJTF), the method so successfully used in the Gulf War. The CJTF is precisely designed to give NATO's forces mobility and flexibility better suited for crisis response, see IISS, C. Barry, 'Combined Joint Task Forces in theory and practice', Survival, Spring 1996, 8Iff. In earlier action NATO did act under UN resolutions, for example Resolution 816 of the Security Council to enforce the no-fly zone in 1993 and acted also 'in response' to a request of the Secretary General to issue an ultimatum for the withdrawal of heavy Serb artillery around Sarajevo: see above, in this section. Differently, International Task Force on the Enforcement of the UN Security Council Resol­ utions, Words to Deeds: Strengthening the UN's Enforcement Capabilities, Final Report, Decem­ ber 1997, 44-5. Above, in the previous section; and notes, on the UN Uniting for Peace Resolution. See above on this Agreement. It must be noted that Russian forces joined SFOR in January 1996 and Russia continues to contribute to SFOR. On the other hand, Russia has taken exception to the Operation Allied Force against Yugoslavia and made numerous protests in March and April 1999.

388

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

Practice would seem to confirm the view that the power to preserve and restore peace and make failing States fall into line with lawful behaviour with regard to h u m a n rights has shifted from the United Nations to NATO. The success of the NATO-led forces IFOR and, later, SFOR in Bosnia, and KFOR in K o s o v o ,

158

compared to the U N P R O F O R

159

157

and UNCRO

debacle, would seem to confirm that NATO, with firm support by the United States, is better placed than the UN to resolve armed conflicts and p r o m o t e peace. Disappointment with the lack of effectiveness of previous UN forces may also have led the Security Council in September 1999 to despatch an 'international force',

160

rather than a UN force,

161

to East Timor. The

International Force for East Timor (INTERFET), is placed under Austra­ lian c o m m a n d , seeks to prevent further genocide of civilians, most of them Christians, by the 'integrist' militia. Other forces have contributed to rapid changes of armed conflict when the UN has proved impotent. For example, national armies have some­ times not accepted the inactivity of the UN forces and taken action themselves: it was thus through military advice and logistic support by the United States that Croatia could retake Western Slavonia in Operation Flash in July 1995 and the whole of Krajina by Operation Storm in August 1995. The European Union has, contrary to some ambitious claim, n o consti­ tutional right to intervene in armed conflicts.

162

The European Union's

C o m m o n Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 'aspires to do more than simply provide a place for consultation . . . [but] has achieved a great deal less.'

163

It is indeed surprising that parties to conflicts have accepted the EU

as a negotiator since, as an integrated customs union, it is singularly ill-equipped to deal with military matters. This may change if and when the 'defence a r m ' of the EU comes into b e i n g . 157

158

160

161

164

The EU sometimes claims to

IISS, The Military Balance, 1997-8, 28: the strength of the force was only half the strength of its predecessor IFOR. The Security Council authorised Member States by Resolution 1031 (1995) of 15 December 1995 to establish an Implementation Force (IFOR) under unified command, taking over from UNPROFOR. IFOR was shortlived and was replaced in 1996 by the Stabilisa­ tion Force (SFOR), led by NATO. SC Res. /99. Often referred to by the Croats as SERBPROFOR, for alleged bias. SCRes. 1264/99. Media still refer to the 'UN Forces' but they are presumably referring to UNAMET, the UN Mission to East Timor, which was sent for civilian duties, mainly to monitor the elections in the Spring of 1999. Above, Ch. 2, A iii b, c and d on intervention. P. Zelikow, 'The Masque of Institutions', Survival, Spring 1996,9. Note the negotiations between EU and the West European Union, which also lacks own troops. 159

162

163

164

EXECUTION

OF T H E LAW OF W A R

be acting under the authority of the O S C E

165

389

but few seem to emphasise

that the OSCE has itself n o power to take binding decisions.

166

There was a

time when some thought that the OSCE would replace both N A T O and the Warsaw Pact and provide a European security institution. But the time for such a truly 'quixotic' idea has long passed.

167

The OSCE lacks both

authority and infrastructure and would not be suitable to provide any multinational forces.

168

It surprised some commentators that OSCE was

given some power of monitoring elections under the Dayton Accords as the new-born organisation had little experience of such matters. Failing confidence in the United Nations is another reason for alternative multinational forces.

169

Certain limited collective forces have, on some

occasions, taken on peace-keeping functions. Thus, the Russian Federation assembled a force to 'monitor* peace in Georgia.

170

A trilateral contingent

(Russian-Dniestr-Moldovan) was established to restore peace in Mol­ dova. 1992

171

172

There were plans for other CIS forces under the Kiev Agreement of and at the Bishet CIS Summit the same year. A Russian-CIS

peace-keeping action also took place in Tajikistan in 1993, in Georgia, and in the Ingush-Ossetian conflict.

173

National forces may also supplement international initiatives. Naturally, such one-sided efforts may easily lead to bias and assist one side in a conflict in a way reminiscent of intervention by a State to help insurgents or the government in an armed conflict.

174

Furthermore, national efforts,

even when they take avenues through international organisations, like the US military and political initiative channelled through NATO in SouthEast Europe, often depend on personalities: once Richard Holbrook 165

Formerly known as the Helsinki Accords (of 1975) or the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). It is now renamed the Organisation for Security and Cooper­ ation in Europe (OSCE). Its main value has been some cooperation in the field of Human Rights and in the duty of warning of military manoeuvres during the time of the Cold War; see further my International Legal Order, 2nd edn, 301.

166

The OSCE was given some tasks under Annex IB to the Dayton Agreement to provide confidence-building measures but has had limited success in this respect. Ibid., 11. On the failed negotiations for a European army, see my Bibliography. Moldova, ignorant of practical possibilities, asked the CSCE (now the OSCE) for a peace-keeping force, see D. Shashenko, 'Russian peace-keeping forces in the "Near-Abroad'", Survival, Autumn 1994, 53. A. J. Goodpastor, When Diplomacy is not Enough, 27. S/1996/5 and above, 12 on UNOMIG. Shashenko, 'Russian peace-keeping forces in the "Near-Abroad"', 53. Ibid., 51 on the Agreement on Military Observers and Collective Peace Keeping in the CIS. Ibid., 59. Above, Ch. 2, A iii c, d and e.

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

390

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

stepped down as US Assistant Secretary of State in early 1996, his leadership of national efforts was never effectively reestablished.

175

In 1993 the European Union established Eurocorps as a European armed force to be placed at the disposal of the EU and of NATO. However, this force has no fixed n u m b e r of soldiers and little experience. It has only had one m i n o r mandate involving 150 men. In November 1999 the EU sugges­ ted that Eurocorps should take over the c o m m a n d of KFOR from NATO but there has been little response to this suggestion. 175

D. E. Lute. Improving National Capacity to Respond to Complex Emergencies, A Report to the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, New York, 1998, 16.

12 Suspension of the Law of War

A. D e n u n c i a t i o n The weapons conventions contain drastic rights for denunciation. The 1

Biological Weapons Convention of 1972 thus provides that 'Each State Party to the Convention shall in exercising its national sovereignty have the right to withdraw from the Convention if it decides that extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of the Convention, have jeopardised 2

the supreme interests of its country'. Such a provision clearly leaves great 3

latitude to States in deciding subjectively what are their 'supreme inter­ ests'. However, the adjectives 'extraordinary' and 'supreme' both convey some heightened obligation of States to show that objective circumstances warrant their subjective assessment. The provision appears to be an escape clause which leaves a loophole for States in case unusual action has to be taken. The way the clause reads also suggests that it may have to be a question of some emergency caused by some overhanging and immediate threat. But considering that the Convention mainly deals with the destruc­ 4

tion of biological weapons stocks, it is difficult to foresee a situation in which States would be justified in safeguarding their 'supreme interests' by taking up further production of biological weapons. Yet, the organisation of production of new biological weapons would involve some time and it would be difficult to reconcile this time element with an implied situation of emergency. Similar clauses of denunciation were included in the 1998 Chemical 5

Weapons Convention. Earlier discussion and the two major Drafts of the Convention reflect the reluctance of States to risk their national interests. Thus, the United Kingdom's Draft of 1976 referred to denunciation for 'supreme' national interests and the United States' 1984 Draft referred to a 1

4

2

3

Above, Ch. 7, E. Article XIII(2). Cf. above, Ch. 8, A ii c on subjective criteria. See further above, Ch. 7, E. * Above, Ch. 7, E iii. 391

392

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E L A W OF

WAR

right of a State to withdraw from the Convention 'if it decides that extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of the Convention, have 6

jeopardised the supreme interests of its country'. The State would have to notify other States and the Security Council of the United Nations what such extraordinary events involve.

7

8

The Conventional Weapons Convention of 1981 lays down a time limit for denunciation, a m e t h o d which is not u n c o m m o n in treaty technique,

9

b u t which has a special significance to a weaponry treaty. The treaty allows 10

specifically that it may be denounced by a p a r t y but it also stipulates that such denunciation will only take effect one year after receipt of notification of the denunciation.

11

Furthermore, the Convention will continue to apply 12

to any war or armed conflict, including liberation wars, in which a party is 'engaged' at the expiry of the one-year period. The obligation to be bound by the Convention continues: until the end of the armed conflict or occupation and, in any case, until the termination of operations connected with the final release, repatriation or re-establishment of the person protected by the rules of International Law applicable in armed conflict, and in the case of any annexed Protocol containing provisions concerning situations in which peace-keeping, obser­ vation or similar functions are performed by United Nations forces or missions in the area concerned, until the termination of those functions.

13

The application of the Convention is thus lengthened to make it difficult for States to denounce the Convention because of any actual involvement in war. The State would remain b o u n d until the end of that war. It is to be 14

noted that the Convention applies both to wars and to liberation w a r s and it may be suggested that the only time when a State would find it politically expedient and legally possible to denounce the Convention because of actual armed conflict would be in the situation of an internal war which did not qualify as a liberation war. It is interesting that the Weaponry Convention prolongs its own applica­ tion after denunciation even u p to the stage of repatriation of prisoners of 15

war, which usually takes place after the end of hostilities. But if hostilities have ceased the need for weapons will also have discontinued and the regulation of their use seems chronologically unwarranted. It may be that 6

10

14

7

8

9

Article XVI(2). Ibid. Above, Ch. 7, B. See my Essays, 87. Article 9(1). " Article 9(2). Above, Ch. 7, A ii. Article 9(2). Above, Ch. 6, B i b. Above, Ch. 10, A ii. 12

15

13

SUSPENSION

OF T H E

LAW OF

WAR

393

the phrase'repatriation' was chosen to indicate what is normally held to be the final phase of termination of w a r .

16

Another matter which should be clarified is the ambiguous reference in the denunciation clause to the forces or missions of the United Nations. The way the article reads suggests that these forces or missions have been given specific functions under the Protocols and that such functions also could lengthen the application of the Convention. But this is not so. The only Protocol that refers at all to the UN forces and missions is Protocol II on Treacherous W e a p o n s

17

which provides for enhanced protection of

such forces and missions in a mined or booby-trapped area: the reason for the presence of such missions and forces lies outside the Protocol. But indirectly this means that it is ultimately the Security Council, or in exceptional cases, the General Assembly,

18

that will have the power to

decide that the Conventional Arms Convention will continue to apply in a war after the engaged State party has denounced the treaty, by prolonging the mandate of the United Nations forces or missions in the area. The Geneva Conventions, as well as the Protocols of 1977, can be denounced by mere unilateral declarations.

19

B. Breach Reasons for violating the rules of war are often put forward as 'justifica­ tions' of breaches.

i. G r o u n d s for deviations a. Military

necessity

The existence of military necessity was recognised in treaty law as far back 20

as the St Petersburg Declaration of 1868 which established that there are 'technical limits at which military necessities ought to yield to the require­ ments of humanity'. By implication, there are thus cases when such limits will not yield. On the other hand, the defence plea of military necessity has sometimes been rejected completely as one 'condemned by the civilised 16

18

19

20

17

Above, Ch. 10, A ii. Above, Ch. 7, B ii e. Under the Uniting for Peace Resolution, see my Law Making, 38-9. Geneva I, article 63; Geneva II, article 62; Geneva III, article 142; Geneva IV, article 158; Protocol I, article 95; Protocol II, article 25. 18 NRGT1 serie 474 and above, Ch. 3, C v.

394 world'.

CONSEQUENTIAL

21

A S P E C T S OF T H E

LAW OF

WAR

There is n o need to emphasise that this is a dangerous and

harmful doctrine,

22

providing as it does a loophole, an excuse, for every

conceivable situation. There are endless cases where the defence plea has been raised to justify the suspension of virtually every rule of the Law of War. The concept is usually known as 'military necessity' but the terms 23

'Kriegsraison

or 'military security'

24

have also been used to cover similar

ground. Military necessity suspends the criminal character of certain war 'crimes' and converts t h e m into legitimate acts. But 'military necessity' is a vague concept, often relying o n a presumption that the principle of vae victis will preempt investigations as to justifications of the acts of the victor in a war that take place after the end of hostilities. There is great difficulty in reconciling any humanitarian rules of warfare with 'military necessity'. A State already engaged in a war is doing its utmost to win the war but may find it easier to attain its objective by resorting to i n h u m a n e methods of warfare. The elusive blanket phrase 'military necessity' may u n d e r m i n e any advances made in the humanitar­ ian field since, again, it is a matter for the subjective assessment of the State whether such necessity exists. Yet, there appeared to exist a core of identifi­ able needs which determined whether a belligerent may take certain action and which made it possible to ascertain at least drastic excesses.

25

The question of military necessity becomes most acute if there is a question of shortening the war as a whole. Some have mentioned Churchill's 'abhorrence' of the proposal to liquidate German officers on a large scale 26

even if doing so would have shortened the w a r . Some may, at the same time, defend the dropping of the atom b o m b on Japan during the Second World War on the ground that the decision was taken 'in acute tension'.

27

In terms of the Law of War, the decision to use the Hiroshima-Nagasaki atom b o m b , with its disastrous effects on the largely civilian population, appears to be questionable even if it was 'effective' in the sense that it shortened the war. With regard to the 'tension' in which the decision­ makers found themselves, a sharp distinction must be made between such a deliberate act, relatively slow to put into effect, involving the cooperation of 21

2 2

2 3

25

26

The Rauter Case, (1948), AD, 1949, 543. W. G. Downey, 'The law of war and military necessity', 47 AJIL 1953, 251. Above, Ch. 1, D i. E.g. The Mannstein Case, (1949), AD, 1949, 509. Cf. the allegation at the Nuremberg Trials that some German generals had confused military necessity with convenience, e.g., United States v. List et al, XI Nuremberg Trials of War Criminals, 1252-5. K. J. Holsti, International Politics, A Framework for Analysis, 4th edn, 1983, 381. Ibid. 2 4

27

SUSPENSION

OF T H E LAW OF

395

WAR

numerous persons, possibly whole governments, and the overwhelming necessity that hallmarks any right to self-defence, or legitimate acts of necessity. There arises, in any armed conflict, a question of balance between principles of humanity and demands of military necessity. Already at the Hague Conferences in 1907 there were arguments suggesting that too strict application of the Law of War would lead to military disadvantage, particu­ larly with regard to stringent rules for treatment of prisoners of w a r .

28

Equally, retreats from a campaign often entailed, for military reasons, the burning of civilian property, which the withdrawing forces would set alight to safeguard themselves. At sea, it is often difficult for a vessel engaged in strategic operations to abandon its planned pursuits in order to rescue shipwrecked people. The Hague Conventions recognised the conflict between military necess­ ity and the strict application of humanitarian rules and admitted certain 29

exceptions to the Conventions. Hague Convention I V thus stipulates that 'it is especially forbidden . . . (g) to destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necess­ ities of war.' The 1929 Convention on Prisoners of War also contained provisions which recognised military necessity as a means of mitigating a strict application of the rules of the Convention. Thus the Convention allows derogations due to military necessity until a taken person has reached a prisoners of war c a m p .

30

The Geneva Conventions of 1949 contain several limitations such as 'The Party to the conflict which is compelled to abandon wounded or sick to the enemy shall, as far as military considerations permit, leave them with a part of its medical personnel and material to assist in their care'.

31

There are

32

numerous other examples in the Geneva Conventions and Convention IV 28

29

32

Cf. the reservations to the 1907 Conventions with regard to interrogation of prisoners of war, above, Ch. 9, B iii f. Article 23. Article 1. Geneva Convention I, article 12. Convention I, article 42 concerning obligations to make emblems of medical units visible to the enemy; (similar rules on identification are contained in Convention IV article 18 on civilian hospitals; Convention III, article 8(3) on duty of Protecting Powers to take into account such necessity; article 23 on prisoner of war camps; article 76(3) on rights of correspondence; article 126(2) on visits to prisoners; Convention IV, article 83 on camps of internments; Convention IV, article 49 on mass forcible transfers; ibid., article 78 on 'assigned residence' and internment of civilians; Convention III, article 126 concerning restrictions of visits of Protection Powers to prisoner of war camps; Convention IV, article 55 on verification of the state of food and medical supplies by Protecting Powers; ibid., article 16 concerning search for the killed and wounded. 3 0

31

396

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

even contains an escape clause wide enough to exempt all protected persons under its aegis. The Convention thus prescribes that '. . . the Parties to the conflict may take such measures of control and security in regard to protected persons as may be necessary as a result of w a r \

33

Military necessity may also justify, in terms of the Geneva Conventions, destruction of civilian property,

34

and a similar exception clause was

inserted in the Hague Convention of 1954 on the Protection of Cultural Property.

35

Cultural property, in general, may be attacked in case of 36

37

military necessity and even specially protected property may be attacked in case of 'unavoidable' military necessity. Geneva Convention IV on Civilians also permits derogations from the rights of Protecting Power over food supplies and medicines.

38

The escape clauses in the Geneva Conventions even made some writers doubt whether 'the equipoise thus sought to be established between the principles of military necessity and humanity is realistically a durable one'.

39

It may be that any derogation from the Conventions must be

substantiated as a compelling military necessity as no one can be held to do the impossible.

40

However, at the root of the difficulty is probably the

uncertainty as to what exactly military necessity implies: it cannot be the global aim of'overpowering the enemy', to be useless.

41

which is a definition so wide as

42

Any wide definition of necessity would wholly undermine the network of the Law of War. Indeed, the equation of military necessity and the purpose of war reiterates the c o n d e m n e d

43

German theory of primacy of Kriegs-

raison over Kriegsmanier, i.e. the doctrine that any 'reason' or 'necessity' of war displaces provisions on the customs of w a r .

44

Thus, even the military

success of an individual operation may be subsumed under such a wide definition.

45

Such a wide concept of military necessity is no longer accepted as is 33

3 6

39

4 0

41

4 2

4 3

4 4

4 5

3 4

35

Article 27, in fine. Convention IV, article 53. 249 UNTS 240, article 4(2). Article 4. Above, Ch. 8, A iii b (9). Article 55. M. S. McDougal and F. P. Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order, New Haven, 1961, 684. Cf. ICRC, Report on 1947 Conference of Government Experts, 114, and Diplomatic Conference, II a, 323, and II B, 280. Oppenheim thus equates military necessity with the purpose of war, 2 Oppenheim, 1952, 232. McDougal and Feliciano, Law and Minimum World Public Order, 1038-9. See, Stone, Legal Controls, 353. 2 Oppenheim, 1952, 232, argues in the same vein that the Law of War is not suspended, merely its usages. 2 Meurer, Kriegsrecht, 1907, 14. 37

38

SUSPENSION

OF T H E

LAW OF

397

WAR

amply shown in case law. In the Peleus Case it was emphasised that the proper way for a submarine to avoid detection after sinking another ship is to depart as quickly as possible rather than to shoot all survivors under a 46

cloak of military necessity. Thus, if there is an alternative course of action the plea will not be accepted; and there will usually be some such course, albeit affording less effective and immediate military advantage. These restrictive rules also apply to any plea of military necessity to help the war effort, such as when Speer, the Armament Minister, ordered civilians from occupied territories to work in munition factories during the Second World War. Similarly, the use of anticipatory force to destroy property in an occupied State to prevent incursions by enemy forces has been c o n d e m n e d .

47

During

the Second World War, General Jodl ordered the destruction of real property in Northern Norway to make the advance of Soviet troops more difficult. The Court held that such destruction could not be warranted by any military necessity as the Soviet troops had not yet crossed the border. Thus, military necessity cannot afford protection in cases where the immi­ nent danger of attack has not yet materialised. The Protocols of 1977 mark an advance on the previous pattern of exception clauses insofar as there are comparatively few such clauses. However, if there is 'imperative military >

necessity a party to a conflict may be entitled under Protocol I, for example to destroy foodstuffs or agricultural areas although these may be 'indispens­ able to the survival of the civilian population'.

48

Such a provision was

included to enable a party to use the 'scorched earth' technique of with­ drawing forces to defend their own national territory from attack. There were protests at the anti-humanitarian formulation but it was the 'most 49

demanding standard that would be acceptable' to States. Activities of relief 50

personnel may be limited in case of imperative military necessity and for similar reasons civil defence personnel may be restrained in their tasks.

51

The denunciation clauses in the weapons conventions can also be thought to be an expression of the military necessity doctrine. Here, it is not the actual necessity in combat which suspends the treaties but the general overall political or military threat to State 'security'. In any oper­ ation to bring about the suspension of otherwise valid treaties, the doctrine 4 6

47

4 8

4 9

5 0

1 War Crimes Report, 1946, 1. The Jodl Case, UK, Trial of Major German War Criminals, London, 1948, 415. Article 54(5) and 54(2). CDDH/407/Rev. 1, 51 and Bothe, Partsch and Solf, New Rules on Victims of War, 342. Article 71(3) of Protocol I. Article 62(1). 51

398

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

52

of military necessity and the theory of necessity of State come near each other. It is not only treaties and conventions that may be suspended in their application by dubious claims of military necessity but also general uncodi­ fied rules on methods, including rules on targets, and humanitarian rules. The legal position today, after a considerable body of case law has develop­ ed, appears to be that rules of the Law of War must only be suspended in case of 'clear' military necessity; that the burden of proof is increased for the suspension of any rules exempting targets from attack; and an especially enhanced burden of proof applies in the case of suspension from humani­ tarian rules. The degree of military necessity is also increased in proportion to the violation of these three groups; the presumption exists that no military necessity can justify violations of rules of the Law of War. It is symptomatic of changing trends that few leaders of military cam­ paigns in the last decade have resorted to justification of military necessity.

b. Anterior

breach

Most treaties can be denounced if there is a substantial breach on the part 53

of one of the Co-Contracting parties. The rules in this respect, followed for a very long time indeed, were codified in the Vienna Convention on the 54

Law of Treaties of 1969. However, a curious exception is made for treaties of a 'humanitarian' character: a breach by another party would, according to the Vienna Convention, not entitle a party to denounce a 'humanitarian' Convention.

55

Which are these 'humanitarian' Conventions? Are they all

the treaties bearing on the Law of War? If that is so, how is the loss of right to 'denounce' a treaty for breach compatible with the right to 'denounce' for even less than that, without there having been a breach, a right entrenched in most of the Conventions on the Law of W a r ?

56

Do different

rules apply to the effect of a breach of a treaty on weapons or methods of war and to the effect of violations of conventions on humanitarian law? Not everyone will accept that there is a set of n o r m s regarding binding stan­ dards irrespective of specific adherence and irrespective of reciprocity. It does seem difficult to reconcile these two positions and serious questions arise as to the nature of the legal obligation of the treaties of the Law of War and the problem of reciprocity.

5 2

5 5

57

5 3

54

Above, Ch. 10, C iii a (3) on requisition. See my Essays, 91. Article 60. Article 60(5). Above, in this Chapter, A. Below, in this Chapter, B ii a. 5 6

57

SUSPENSION

OF T H E

LAW OF

399

WAR

c. Repression of breaches The Geneva Conventions provide rules as to what a party may do when there is alleged breach of the Convention.

58

There is n o existing framework

for the solution of disputes on breaches but States have undertaken to proceed to in casu settlement. If such discussions do not lead to an amicable 59

understanding the parties shall appoint arbitrators. There are few under­ takings by contracting parties to repress breaches of the weapons conven­ 60

tions by internal legislation. O n the other hand, the Geneva Conventions have a detailed network of rules for the duties of contracting parties, both to implement relevant rules in national legislation and to 'search' for persons who have committed violations of substantive provisions.

61

Special

provisions are made for the punishment of certain 'grave' breaches.

62

The Contracting Parties bind themselves to repress breaches of the Geneva Conventions,

63

Protocol I ,

64

but not of Protocol II. Certain

breaches shall, under Protocol I, be considered as 'grave'

65

and, as such,

warrant special repression. Among such 'grave' breaches are violations of the rights which figure in the catalogue of fundamental rights in the two Protocols.

66

Although not systematically presented as such it appears that Protocol I relies on the aut dedere aut punire method adopted by the hijacking 67

Conventions. But the system relies on an assumption that it is individuals under the control of a State who are guilty and who must be found and prosecuted. There is a real possibility that it is the State itself, or rather, persons in charge of the State, for example members of the government, who may be guilty and, for such cases, the Conventions and the Protocols do not offer any mechanisms for complaints. With regard to the individual responsibility of persons covered by the Protocols it appears that Protocol I recognises the possibility of such 68

personal responsibility. Until the Second World W a r only States had been 58

59

Geneva I, article 52; Geneva II, article 53; Geneva III, article 132; and Geneva IV, article 149. Cf. J. Patrogic, 'Control of the application of humanitarian conventions', RDPMDG 1966,405. On general problems of transformation, above, Ch. 6, B ii. Geneva I, articles 49-51; Geneva II, articles 50-2; Geneva III, articles 129-31; Geneva IV, articles 142-8. Ibid. Geneva I, articles 49-51; Geneva II, articles 50-2; Geneva III, articles 129-31; Geneva IV, articles 142-8. Article 85. Article 85(3). Above, Ch. 9, Hi. The Hague Convention, 1970,860 UNTS 105; cf. the Montreal Convention, 1973,10 ILM1151. It was held to go beyond the limits of present international law to impose personal responsibil­ ity, for example for apartheid, and to equate such acts, at any level, with war crimes. Yet, some developing countries sought to include apartheid among the grave breaches of the Protocol. y

6 0

61

6 2

6 3

6 4

67

6 8

6 5

6 6

400

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

held responsible under international law but due to the growth of rights accruing to individuals under this system, symmetric duties also developed. Thus, individuals are protected but they have also duties not to infringe the rights which they themselves enjoy. Protocol I states emphatically that a soldier may not avail himself of the respondeat superior defence.

69

O n the other hand, the responsibility of

superior authorities may also be engaged, to the extent they had knowledge, or constructive knowledge, of any breaches of the Protocol. There will therefore be cases of double responsibility under Protocol I. Such double responsibility is rare under international law and should probably only cover proper 'war crimes'.

70

A provision on compensation which is a normal consequence of respon­ sibility is somewhat dislocated in an article organically separated from 71

other rules on responsibility. Under this article only a 'party' to a conflict may be required to pay compensation. In other words, individual responsi­ bility cannot be coupled with any obligation to pay such compensation. On the other hand, a liberation movement may conceivably be liable for such compensation as it, and a State, may be party to an armed conflict.

ii. T h e p r o b l e m of reciprocity The requirements for combatant and belligerent status have been discussed at length earlier in this w o r k .

72

Certain questions are incidental to such

status and concern the nature of the legal obligation; some of these questions are specific to the nature of the Law of War and present problems which are not acute in other parts of international law.

a. General

principles 73

Reciprocity is at the root of the international legal system itself, although it is a notion which cannot explain the existence of all rules. It is a concept 6 9

7 0

71

7 3

Article 86(2) and see further, below, C ii c. See my 'Foreign warships', 70. In the case of Captain Powers, pilot of a U2 reconnaissance plane shot down over the then Soviet Union, there was such double reponsibility: Powers was sentenced to ten years in prison in the USSR as a spy although President Eisenhower also claimed responsibility for the pilot's actions, ibid. Article 91. Above, Ch. 4, B and C. Cf. A. Verdross and B. Simma, Universelles Völkerrecht, Theorie und Praxis, Berlin, 1967,63; M. Virally, 'Le principe de réciprocité dans le droit international contemporain', 122 RCADI1969. 7 2

SUSPENSION

OF T H E LAW OF

401

WAR

which is particularly important to the Law of War. Reciprocity affects the Law of War in many ways. In one sense a war-waging party must always consider what effects his actions will have and what reciprocal actions his adversary may take once he is in a position to counteract. Such actions may be delayed until peacetime and may not themselves violate international law but merely represent the resentment created by the practices in a previous war.

74

In this sense reciprocity will always be important to the behaviour of parties in armed conflicts. But reciprocity can be used in another sense, that of explaining whether a mutual element of obligation is necessary for States to be b o u n d by any particular rules. Some still view the restriction of war and the rules of behaviour in armed conflicts as based o n reci­ procity,

75

principle.

whereas others claim that such rules do not rest on any such 76

There has certainly long been, and perhaps still is, a reluctance to allow the existence of any obligations without strict reciprocity. This is, some claim, true as far as regards explanations for the basis of obligation of international law as a whole.

77

It is also often true as regards a substantive

quid pro quo which a party to a treaty claims to be the reason for adhering to a convention.

78

It is even true for the way international acts are construed:

for example, even decisions by international organisations have been claimed to constitute 'disguised' treaties and attempts to explain the activ­ ity as a unilateral regulatory function are not c o m m o n .

79

There is in any treaty a presumption of such reciprocity and the violation of one party of substantive provisions is normally a ground for denunci­ ation for breach. 74

75

76

77

78

79

One could even suggest that reservations to treaties

Cf. I. Kant, Zum ewigen Frieden, Königsberg, 1795, sec. 1, art. 6: 'Es soll sich kein Staat im Kriege mit einem anderen solche Feindseeligkeiten erlauben, welche das wechselseitige Zutrauen im künftigen Frieden unmöglich machen müssen.' E.g., Rosas, The Legal Status of Prisoners of War, 17, 52. E.g. M. Bothe, 'Conflits armés et droit international humanitaire', RGDIP, 1978, 93. See, for example, Verdross and Simma, Universelles Völkerrecht, 63; Virally, 'Le principe de réciprocité dans le droit international contemporain'; see also my International Legal Order, Ch. IX and my Concept, Part IV, for a detailed discussion on reciprocity as one of several bases of obligation in international law. On unequal treaties, see, my Independent State, 2nd edn, 195 and my 'Unequal treaties', 1069. But see my Law Making, passim, my International Legal Order, 2nd edn, Ch. IV and my Concept, 2nd edn, Part IV: it is preferable to admit the possibility of States binding themselves by unilateral decisions of an organisation for which they have given, what I have called, their 'abstract consent in advance in the Charter of the relevant organisation. Cf. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1961, UNTS, article 60(5); Cf. GAOR, 1st sess., 1968, 354-60; ibid., 1969, 112-15; cf. E. Schwelb, in Archiv des Völkerrechts, 1973, 14-27. 1

8 0

80

402

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

regarding reciprocity, i.e. stipulating that the treaty will only apply on such basis, are unnecessary. The legal obligation is not as clear as one may first assume. The 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions are multilateral conventions with relatively few reservations.

81

The Conventions stipulate that they only apply to the

parties and also contain the si omnes clause, implying that they apply only if all parties to a conflict are b o u n d by the Conventions.

82

But

sometimes strict reciprocity is factually impossible, as was the case with Serbia which had ratified the maritime Conventions although it had no sea border. But such factual circumstances, of which the Contracting Parties had been well aware, could not influence the application of the Conventions.

83

The violation of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 by Germany during the Second World W a r raised the question whether such substantial 84

breaches did not release other belligerents from their obligations. It may be that flagrant violations, construed as repudiation, give rise to a right to accept that repudiation. But unless that acceptance is coupled with a certain behaviour, the relevant Convention will still be binding and a party will not be released from its obligations under the instrument.

85

The n u m e r o u s reservations of this type made to the Geneva Gas Proto­ col

86

only restrict the application of the treaty regime.

87

But they cannot

affect rules which already form part of international law. If that Protocol only states what is already binding in international law,

88

reservations

cannot affect the ambit of such rules. Yet reservations to the Geneva Protocol provide that a State will consider itself released from its obligations if there are violations by the enemy.

89

On

the other hand, some of the States making such reservations assumed, at the same time, that provisions of the Protocol were binding on third parties by virtue of forming part of general international law. But these two legal attitudes are incompatible: either the obligations are binding between parties alone, on the basis of reciprocity, or, if third parties are bound this indicates that the root of obligation is not to be found in the treaty, but in 81

8 3

85

8 6

8 7

8 9

8 2

But see above, Ch. 9, B iii f. Below, in this Chapter, B ii d. Cf. The Blonde, (1922) AC 313. Colombos, Law of Prize, 8. The Blonde, (1915) P. 129, 176; The Germania, (1916) P. 5. See for list, Schindler and Toman, Documents, 2nd edn, 115ff. See my Essays, 49. Above, Ch. 5, C v, on ethics. E.g. reservation by France; cf. H. Meyrowitz. Les armes biologiques et le droit international, Paris, 1968, 64. 84

8 8

SUSPENSION

OF T H E

LAW OF

403

WAR

general international law, in which case the ambit of the rules is beyond amendment by a single State. In the field of weapons restrictions there have been efforts to dispense with reciprocity. The Conventional Weapons C o n v e n t i o n

90

thus stipu-

91

lates that 'when one of the parties to a conflict is not b o u n d by an annexed Protocol, the parties b o u n d by this Convention and that annexed Protocol shall remain b o u n d by them in their mutual relations' and thus suggests that a State is only b o u n d on the basis of strict reciprocity. Weaponry Convention of 1981, leased

94

93

92

Under the

a State could thus consider itself re-

from any obligations under the Convention as soon as, for

example, a liberation movement in the conflict ceases to apply the Geneva Convention and/or the Weaponry Convention.

95

Reliance on c o m m o n rules would, say some, explain the difficult question of why a rebel movement can be legally b o u n d by the assumption of 96

certain obligations by the State which the movement opposes. It has been said that when States adhere to the Geneva Conventions their undertakings do not concern the 'interchange of benefits' which may be normal in treaty relations, but lay down 'guarantees to which every h u m a n being is entitled'.

97

known,

A unilateral undertaking to apply certain rules may not be un98

but the whole system of a set of rules to which States adhere

without any requirement of reciprocity is new. It has been claimed that everyone must apply the rules as binding regardless of reciprocity even that the rules would a m o u n t to jus

99

and

100

cogens.

Some statements have suggested emphatically that this is not s o .

101

Others have widened the issue and claimed that rules intended in general 9 0

94

9 5

9 6

97

9 8

9 9

100

101

91

9 2

9 3

Above, Ch. 7, B ii. Article 7( 1 ). Above, Ch. 7, B ii c. Above, Ch. 7, B ii. Under article 7(4)(b). See above, Ch. 7, B ii c on the system of indirect obligation of this Convention. j . A. Roach, 'Certain conventional weapons conventions: arms control or humanitarian law?', 105 MilLR, 1984, 3 at 26. Cf. ICRC, CDDH/I/SR, 59, vol. 9, 239. Cf. Forsythe, Humanitarian Politics, 156. 13 IRRC 1973, 640. For example, Japan had undertaken to apply the 1929 Convention on Prisoners of War mutatis mutandis although it was not a party to the Convention: see ICRC, Report on Activities During the Second World War, 1948, vol. 1, 229. Pictet, Humanitarian Law and the Protection of War Victims, 19; cf. Pictet in the 1983 and 1985 editions. A. de la Pradelle, 18 Annales de droit international medical, 1968,9; cf. R. J. Wilhelm, 'Problèmes relatifs à la protection de la personne humaine par le droit international dans les conflits armés ne présentant pas un caractère international', 137 RCADI iii, 1972, 367. On jus cogens, see my International Legal Order, Chapter III. Rosas, Legal Stat us, 17,52.

404

c o n s e q u e n t i a l

a s p e c t s

o f

t h e

l a w

o f

w a r

for the protection of persons in war do not rest o n any strict principle of reciprocity.

102

But when the principle of reciprocity is refuted it is done in

terms of arbitrary practical considerations, rather than by a more obvious reasoning based on treaty technique. The statement in the Geneva Conven­ tions that the obligations assumed under them will be binding 'in all circumstances' is not necessarily any indication that the condition of reciprocity is abandoned. Any treaty may stipulate that its provisions will be binding 'in all circumstances' but this does not necessarily mean that conditions of reciprocity are abandoned. The Nuremberg Tribunal acknowledged that the Hague Conventions of 1907 apply to non-signatories, and that Czechoslovakia, for example, was b o u n d although it had never ratified.

103

Even those who hold that parties to

a conflict can agree to 'keep the situation outside the application of the Geneva C o n v e n t i o n '

104

in certain limited military operations would agree

that, if the situation escalates and constitutes an armed conflict in a 'sociological and objective way', the relevant Geneva Convention will become operative even for parties to a conflict who have not adhered to the Convention in question. The reason that this is so is because it can be deduced from the obligation to refrain from reducing rights under the Convention

105

by special agreement; such further agreement must not

'adversely affect' rights granted by the Convention. The 1977 Protocols are even less dependent on such reciprocity in non-international conflicts as it is 'a question of respecting, with regard to one's own nationals, a few basic humanitarian r u l e s ' .

b. Application

to third

106

parties

First of all, contracting parties to a treaty cannot make that treaty bind third States. To such third States the treaty is not binding legally for it is a transaction between others, a res inter alios

107

acta.

Secondly, we have seen that some guerilla groups will be b o u n d by the 102

103

104

105

106

107

Bothe, 'Les conflits', RGDIP, 1978, 93. Judgment 1 October 1946, IMT, vol. 54. Cf. the Military Tribunal for the Far East, in the Hirota Case, (1948), AD, 1948, 365. Rosas, Legal Status, 233. The Geneva Convention in the event was Convention III. In the event of prisoners of war, ibid., 234. ICRC, CDDH/I/SR.59, vol. 9, 240. But see below, in the next section, on the interpretation of article 96 by certain authorities. See my Essays, lOOfT.

SUSPENSION

OF T H E LAW OF

405

WAR

provisions of a treaty by the fact that the treaty so p r o v i d e s .

108

Other

guerilla groups may be b o u n d on the basis of equality if they are combatants in a w a r .

109

Thirdly, nationals of a State may well be b o u n d by virtue of the internal application of the Law of W a r .

110

There may also be rights enjoyed by

nationals under a treaty, at least as far as some protection of the person is concerned. The United States clarified at the Diplomatic Conference for the 1977 Additional Protocols that persons protected under Protocol I include a State's own nationals.

111

But the matters under discussion in that context

concerned the most basic rights, such as the right not to be subjected to mutilation or medical experiments.

112

There were some proposals on

application of the Conventional Weapons Convention to third p a r t i e s .

113

But who are these third parties? Are they other States or are they guerilla groups? Or are they even individuals inside the territory of a State?

c. Application

to

non-States

With regard to the 'intra-State' Protocol II of 1977 where is the basis of obligation? How can an insurgent group be b o u n d by the acts of its own government against which it has risen in a r m s ?

114

Some suggest that

ratification by a State also binds emerging subjects o n its territory at least 'provisionally'.

115

Some commentators have questioned whether rebels will respect the rules of the Law of W a r .

116

However, the instruments on the Law of War, of

which the 1977 Protocols and the Conventional Weapons Convention accord special status to rebels, are more designed to stimulate rather than to preclude such respect. Must both parties apply c o m m o n article 3 of the Geneva Conventions? Reciprocity may not have been made an express condition for the 108

109

1 , 0

1 . 3

1 . 4

115

1 , 6

Like the Conventional Weapons Convention in certain circumstances, see above, Ch. 7, B ii c; or the Protocols of 1977, above, Ch. 6, B ii. Above, Ch. 1, B on equality and Ch. 4, C on requirements for combatant status. Above, Ch. 6, B ii. CDDH/SR.37, vol. 6, 81. Ibid., and Protocol I, article 11. A/CONF.95/WG/L.9 (1979) (Netherlands). Cf. ibid., L/6. Cf. Bothe, 'Conflits armés', RGDIP, 1978, 92. Ph. Bretton, 'La Convention du 10 avril 1981 sur l'interdiction ou la limitation d'emploi de certaines armes classiques qui peuvent être considérées comme produisant des effets traumatiques excessifs ou comme frappant sans discrimination', AFDI, 1981, 92; cf., E. Lattmann, Schutz Kulturgüter bei bewaffneten Konflikten, Zurich, 1974, 96 for similar construction of the 1954 Hague Convention on Cultural Property; cf. above, Ch. 8, A iii b (9). Dinstein, 'The New Geneva Protocols', 268. m

1 , 2

406

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

application of the standards of this article.

117

WAR

Some claim that a party is

released from certain obligations under the Geneva Convention if an adversary has violated their provisions.

118

Yet, in practice considerations of

reciprocity may still be decisive. The question which concerns the standing of non-State belligerents leads, on the one hand, to that such units today may be recognised as belligerents.

119

But if these non-States do not, at the same time, assume

duties under the Law of War, the State will still be unilaterally bound vis-à-vis belligerent insurgents or guerilla groups, even though the nonState party to the conflict will not be b o u n d . This is so, say some, because only States, and possibly certain international organisations, can be sub­ ject to international law and only States and such organisations can there­ fore be parties to treaties. This may be true for international law in general and is specifically entrenched in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969, supplemented by the Convention on Treaties by Interna­ tional Organisations, drafted by the International Law Commission.

120

But there has, in some quarters, been unrest for some time about this classification and especially about the fact that non-State entities conclude agreements of very similar substance, and with very similar effects, to traditional treaties.

121

It has already been shown that ample provisions

exist in the field of the Law of War today by which also non-States can adhere to treaties.

122

This is true not only for rules on warfare methods or

humanitarian rules under which individuals derive certain specific bene­ fits. But there are also a n u m b e r of treaties, as there are many general uncodified rules, under which individuals assume considerable duties of behaviour. Are non-State parties also b o u n d even though they have not been able to accede to treaties as State parties? Not so long ago, dissident forces in the Spanish Civil War were denied the status of belligerents and were therefore deprived of the protection afforded by the application of the Law of W a r .

123

On the other hand, in

other situations, resistance movements have been recognised as being able to enjoy rights under the Law of War even though they did not even fulfil 117

1 , 9

121

123

118

Zorgbibe, 'De la théorie', 91-2. Cf. Draper, The Red Cross Conventions, 12. Above, Ch. 1, D i a. See especially, P. Reuter, 'Report', ILC Yearbook, 1985. See my Law Making, 319fT. Above, Ch. 6, B i c and d. See, R. J. Padelford, International Law and Diplomacy in the Spanish Civil Strife, New York, 1939, 18; Ch. Rousseau, La non-intervention en Espagne, Paris, 1939, 511. 120

122

SUSPENSION

OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

407

the requirements for combatant status at the time in question. For example, in the Rauter Case bought before a Special Criminal Court in the Hague in 1948 it was held that members of the Dutch resistance movement would be recognised as legitimate combatants, even though they had operated clan­ destinely, as Germany, the occupying power, was in flagrant violation of international l a w .

124

In other words, the violation of law by an adverse party

can improve the standing of a group as combatants. Now insurgents and liberation movements are capable of adhering as Contracting Parties to several international treaties. But the actual applica­ tion of rules of the Law of War by guerillas in both international and internal conflicts has become a real problem. Protocol I and II enhance the possibility of such application. The ICRC had already proposed at the Stockholm Conference in 1948 that resistance movements should 'act in obedience to the laws and cus­ toms of warfare; and in particular that they should treat nationals of the occupying Power who may have fallen into their hands according to the provisions of the [Geneva] C o n v e n t i o n ' .

125

But the formula was aban­

doned at the 1949 Conference for the Geneva Conventions as the Confer­ ence decided to adopt a c o m m o n formula for resistance movements, independent militia and volunteer corps and to restate in this formula the four traditional c o n d i t i o n s Regulations.

126

of the Brussels Declarations and the Hague

127

Normally only States can take full part in Diplomatic Conferences and only States can sign the official text of treaties.

128

At the same time, it is

claimed that non-State parties to conflict have n o rights or standing under treaties and no corresponding duties. But how can the notion of reciprocity explain the lop-sided situation when different rights accrue on both sides? If, on the one hand, guerilla groups are considered to be belligerents, they too should be b o u n d by the Law of War. But this cannot be achieved on the basis of reciprocity as such reciprocity cannot be entrenched in treaties to which only States are parties. The General Assembly has repeatedly argued that captured combatants 124

125

126

127

128

AD 1949, 530; cf. Sansolini v. Bentivegna, RivDI, 1958, 129; ILR 1959, 986. ICRC, Projects on the Revised or New Conventions, Geneva 1948, 54; ICRC, Report on the 1947 Conference of Government Experts, Geneva 1947, 108. Above, Ch. 4, C ii. Federal Political Department of Switzerland, Final Record of the Diplomatic Conference, vol. 2 A, 414, 465, 477. CDDH.SR.57, vol. 7, 278 (Spain).

408

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E

LAW OF

o n both sides should be given prisoner-of-war s t a t u s .

129

WAR

It is obviously a

crucial question whether rebels will obey similar rules to those binding the State.

130

Both anti-governmental and governmental forces need protection;

it must not always be assumed that government forces are superior in war.

131

It is this lack of reciprocity in standing that is the reason for a sharp distinction that many writers make between the law of the Hague and the law of Geneva insofar as they state that the former set of rules is really for 132

the subjects of international law who have a jus bellandi.

But one might

also suggest that it is precisely the circle of the subjects entitled to jus bellandi that has c h a n g e d

133

and that, therefore, the difference between the

two 'laws' remains hazy, as does the distinction in the requirement of reciprocity of standing. It was quite understandable that delegations at the Conference for negotiation of the 1977 Protocols were anxious to ensure that if the government forces were prepared to abide by certain rules vis-a-vis guerillas, so should the dissident forces.

134

It would appear reasonable to argue that rebels are also bound by the provisions in, for example, the Additional Protocols of 1977 since they also derive benefits from them. Many delegates at the Diplomatic Conference emphasised that rebels are b o u n d as well as State parties.

135

The Weaponry Convention, too, will be applied to all parties, even to non-State parties, by the novel technique of indirect application.

136

Article

96 of Protocol I indicates that it is only applicable between those parties which accept and apply the instrument. In relation to a third party a State has only to apply general international law. Some have deduced a farreaching principle of reciprocity and claim that a party would no longer be legally obliged to apply such general international law if the other party does not respect those r u l e s .

137

But this also leads to the conclusion that the

non-State party, which most international lawyers insist is not a subject of international law, is not b o u n d to apply any specific rules vis-d-vis a third party. This attitude certainly undermines the very concept of humanitarian 129

130

132

133

134

135

136

GAOR, 13th sess., 1st Committee, 1022 mtg, 374. Dinstein, T h e new Geneva Protocols', 278. Cf. CDDH/II/SR.33, vol. 11, 341 (USSR). Bindschedler-Robert, Reconsideration; cf. Bindschedler-Robert, Cours introductif, IHEI, Geneva 1975-6, 15. Above, Ch. 5, C i and ii. E.g. USSR, CDDH/11/SR. 33, vol. 11, 341: both sides need protection; Federal Republic of Germany, CDDH/I/SR.23, vol. 8, 220. CDDH/I/SR.23, vol. 8, 220 (West Germany); cf. CDDG/SR.36, vol. 6,63 (New Zealand). Above, Ch. 7, B ii c. SOU 1984: 56, 68; cf. 20, and 54. 131

137

SUSPENSION

OF T H E

LAW OF

409

WAR

law and it is of little consequence that such statements are coupled with comments to the effect that such suspension of general rules will not be t

recommended\

138

One cannot on the one hand maintain a criterion of reciprocity in internal war, and on the other hand deny that groups may be subject, in limited respects, to the same rules. But if one abandons the condition of reciprocity there is little remedy for a State party to a conflict if the insurgent group resorts to practices which violate the Law of W a r .

139

It is not reciprocity on which the obligation relies. It is equality. It may be right to question whether it is just to place an aggressor on the same footing as his v i c t i m

140

but this need affects what could be called 'forensic equality,

i.e. the capacity to assume rights and obligations. belligerents are e q u a l .

142

141

In this sense all

And, therefore, the obligations under both the

Weapons Conventions, the Geneva Conventions and the Protocols of 1977, are in their essence binding upon both parties to a conflict. Either the non-State party has to be recognised, and then placed under similar obligations, as the State party or, if it is not given that right, it cannot be bound by any duties under these instruments.

d. A general or a contractual

basis of

obligation?

The 1899 Conventions were only binding between the Contracting States in wars between two or more of these Parties. 1899 c o n t a i n e d

144

143

The Hague Conventions of

a provision that the obligations of the Conventions

would only be binding between contracting parties in wars between two or more of them. The 1907 Hague Conventions contained an even m o r e limiting formula, stipulating that the Conventions would only apply to the contracting parties in a war between them, and then only if all the belligerents were parties to the Conventions. 138

139

140

141

143

145

145

This a m o u n t s to a clausula si omnes stipula-

SOU 1984:56, 20; cf. 70. The Swedish Committee on the International Law of War suggested even that vis-a-vis a State which has ratified the Protocol application would depend on 'actual' implementation by the other side: for a while therefore a State would be entitled to delay or suspend application until it has been verified whether the adversary complies with the rules. See above, Ch. 1, D iv on guerilla warfare. Bindschedler-Robert, Reconsideration, Ch. V. See my article 'The problem of unequal treaties', 1090. Rousseau, Conflits armes, 24-6. For reference see above, Ch. 5, A. Article 2(5). Hague IV, article 2; Hague V, article 20; Hague VI, article 6; Hague VII, article 7; Hague VIII, article 8; Hague IX, article 8; Hague X, article 18; Hague XI, article 9; Hague XIII, article 28. 142

144

CONSEQUENTIAL

4io

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

ting that the provisions of the Conventions would only be activated if all the parties to the conflict were b o u n d by the Convention in question. Some suggest that the original element of reciprocity in the Hague Conventions has been gradually displaced as more and more rules from these instruments became absorbed in general international law.

146

The Geneva Conventions, for example, contain no clause on reciprocity and some claim this development breaks new ground as the Geneva Conventions are regarded as applicable, imposing, as it were, unilateral obligations without any requirement of reciprocity. C o m m o n Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions stipulates that the Con­ tracting Parties 'undertake to respect and to ensure respect for the present Convention in all circumstances'. This provision makes, say m a n y ,

147

the

whole Convention mandatory without any condition of reciprocity. At the Diplomatic Conference of the Additional Protocols it was also emphasised that article 1 of the Geneva Conventions had 'broken new ground' in 1949 by introducing the idea of a unilateral obligation not subject to reciproc­ ity.

148

The Geneva Gas Protocol 1925 also referred to prohibitions being

'universally accepted as a part of international law, binding alike the conscience and the practice of nations'. The Institut de droit international decided in a Resolution of 1971 that the Geneva Conventions have become part of general international law, bind­ ing on all, even in their details and even on non-contracting parties.

149

Some members had argued in their replies to a questionnaire from the Institute that only the principles, but not the details, of the Conventions had become part of general l a w .

150

But the Institute found that the Conven­

tions in toto had become incorporated in the system of international law. It would therefore bind even non-parties.

151

But it is only the most basic rights and duties that have been incorpor­ ated into general international law. That this is the case is shown also by the recurrent entrenchment of these very basic rights in other specific interna­ tional agreements on h u m a n rights. 146

147

148

150

151

152

152

Among the basic rights referred to in

SOU 1984:56, Folkràtten i Krig, 55. E.g., J. Hinz, Das Kriegsgefangenenrecht, 15; Pictet, Humanitarian Law and the Protection of War Victims, 21 ; Pictet, Développements et principes du droit international humanitaire, Geneva 1983; Pictet, International Humanitarian Law, 1985; cf. H. Coursier, Lessons on the Geneva Conven­ tions, Geneva, 1963, 25. CDDH/1/SR.4, para.35 (Nigeria). Resolution, 54 Annuaire 1971 ii 465. 54 Annuaire 1971 i, 113. Such non-parties may include United Nations forces, see ibid., ii 240 (Seyersted). Above, Ch. 5, C v. 149

SUSPENSION

OF T H E LAW OF

411

WAR

this context may be the 'alleviation of massive suffering' which, according to some writers is an implied goal of the Charter of the United N a t i o n s . This goal forms part of the protection of basic h u m a n r i g h t s right to protection against genocide,

155

154

153

and of the

but it has also its own, separate

justification as an objective of the United N a t i o n s .

156

The courts have often

stated that, since law is not to be interpreted literally, the defendants should have known that they were b o u n d by law as understood under the Martens clause. The Martens clause was relied on in the trials of war c r i m i n a l s

157

to

rebut any defence plea on nullum crimen sine lege. The Geneva Conventions contain special provisions to the effect that denunciation of the Conventions will not have effect only for the d e n o u n c ­ ing power. The Conventions then go on to stipulate that the denunciation 'shall in no way impair the obligations which the Parties to the conflict shall remain bound to fulfil by virtue of the principles of nations, as they result from the usages established a m o n g civilised people, from the laws of humanity and the dictates of public conscience'.

158

It is unclear whether

there is a disjunction between the first statement about the limited effect of a denunciation for the denouncing party alone, and the second statement which appears to apply to all parties to a conflict, even to the denouncing party. The 1977 Protocols have been interpreted both to provide general rules

159

and to include a degree of reciprocity.

160

Special problems arise in

connection with the 1977 Protocols although they really only concern the application of 'a few basic humanitarian rules' in non-international con­ flicts.

161

The standards imposed by the relevant Conventions, as supplemented by the Martens clause, also involve rights given to individuals which they are not able to validly r e n o u n c e .

162

Views on the basis of obligation will vary

according to the views on international ethics as a separate set of rules which can be assessed and determined. Could one argue that these very rules of international law must be suspended or adapted to the case when an adversary violates rules of 153

Schachter, 'The United Nations and internal conflict', 408ff.

154

Cf. above, Ch. 5, C iii c and v. Cf. above, Ch. 7, C ii c. Ibid., 408. E.g. Von Leeb Case, (1948), AD, 1948, 377, (before IMT); Rauter Case, (1949), AD, 1949, 542, (before a Dutch Special Court). Geneva I, article 63; Geneva II, article 62; Geneva III, article 142(4); and Geneva IV, article 158. Above, Ch. 6, B i and ii g. Above, in this Chapter, B ii a.

157

158

159

155

160

161

ICRC, CDDH/1/SR.59, vol. 9, 240 and above, Ch. 9, B.

162

E.g. Geneva III, articles 7, 78, 54(2), 68 and 109(3).

156

412

CONSEQUENTIAL

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LAW OF

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international law and, for example, resorts to unlawful w e a p o n s unlawful use of w e a p o n s ?

163

or

164

The issue centres o n two problems: one concerns the right to resort to countermeasures such as reprisals

165

when rules are violated; the other

question concerns the very standing of non-state belligerents. This is the problem of reciprocity. To c o m m e n t o n the first question first, it is clear that Geneva Conven­ tion III expressly forbids reprisals tion.

167

166

as did the earlier 1929 Geneva Conven­

Does this mean that whatever measures a belligerent may decide to

take, they must not include reprisals? Or is a belligerent free from all obligations under the Geneva Convention so that reprisals can be used even against innocent civilians? But the victims of the retaliation will not even have the same i d e n t i t y

168

as the perpetrators of the violations. Therefore, it

would seem reasonable to refuse this p r o p o s i t i o n .

169

Some have claimed that international ethics will be violated in case of any serious infringement of the Universal Declaration of H u m a n Rights.

170

Ethics, or similar concepts, may well be a useful bridge between theological and secular spheres and between divergent cultural traditions provided they are understood as sufficiently broad to cover, and sufficiently specific to identify, c o m m o n values across b o u n d a r i e s .

171

It may be that some rules

in international society are of such essential importance that they must be upheld.

172

But there are still considerable problems. Some still argue that, by the mechanism of article 2(3), a State can prevent the Geneva Convention from 'becoming applicable'.

173

However, to the extent that rules form part of

'general ethics' and to the extent they are identified by 'conscience' they 163

1 6 6

168

169

170

171

172

173

164

165

Above, Ch. 7. Above, Ch. 8. Above, Ch. 2, B iv and Ch. 8, A iv c. Article 13(3). Article 2(3). Cf. the situation in terrorism when threat or force is applied against a third party, above, Ch. 1, B iii c. But Egypt considered a similar provision in Protocol I of 1977, article 20, to be binding only on the basis of reciprocity: CDDH.SR.37, vol. 6, 77. J. Castaneda, 'La valeur juridique des resolutions des Nations Unies', 129 RCADI, 1970, 205. Cf. J. Turner-Johnson, Just War Tradition and the Restraint of War, A Moral and Historical Inquiry, Princeton, 1981, 117-18. On the nature of what I have called 'prophylactic rules' see my Concept, 2nd edn, Part II and my International Legal Order, Chapter V. See, also, ibid., on jus cogens and on 'fundamental rules of international law', see, ICJ, Barcelona Traction Case, Second Phase, (1970), ICJ, Reports, 1970,3 at 32; Hostages in Teheran Case, (1980), ICJ, Reports, 1980, 26; Advisory Opinion on Namibia, (1971), ICJ, Reports, 1971,52. Rosas, The Legal Status of Prisoners of War, 242; cf. 101. 167

SUSPENSION

OF T H E

cannot be subject to d e n u n c i a t i o n

174

LAW OF

WAR

413

either unilaterally or after anterior

breach. But suspension of various rules of the Law of War is envisaged by certain specific provisions in relevant treaties that lay down rules for this law. Thus, civilians in general and medical units will forfeit their privileges if they resort to perfidy by shielding military targets.

175

This means that the

effect of certain rules can be suspended by previous breach. But there seem to be other rules which must never be violated. These concern the most fundamental rights of individuals to evade indiscriminate attack, torture or other inhuman treatment. There thus appear to be several layers of rules pertaining to the rules of war, some of which are subjected to the ordinary requirement of reciprocity and others, of a rather more fundamental type, which are exempt from denunciation and which do not seem to be subject to reciprocity.

C. Sanctions and responsibility for breaches i. State responsibility a n d sanctions Violations of the Law of War engage the international responsibility of a State.

176

Yet, war crimes perpetrated at a higher level, by the high com­

mand or by politicians may only lead to trials by a victor State at the end of a war.

177

There is certainly a clear application of the vae victis principle in

the field of war crimes. Some have questioned the lack of symmetry that arose after the end of the Second World W a r when n o officers of the Allies were prosecuted for acts amounting to war c r i m e s .

178

Furthermore, this

imbalance has been further criticised in view of the fact that the war crimes courts at Nuremberg and Tokyo were flawed by procedural inadequa­ cies. 174

176

177

178

179

179

But it is probably better that a victorious State apply rudimentary 175

Above, in this Chapter, A. Above, Ch. 8, A iv d on perfidy. Hague Regulations, article 3; Protocol I of 1977, article 9. See, Verdross, Die volkerrechtwidrige Kriegshandlung, and J. W. Garner, 'Punishment of offenders against the laws and customs of war', AJIL, 1920, 70. On responsibility in general see the ILC Yearbook, 1963 onwards. On the importance of the notion of imputation see my Concept, 2nd edn, 54; contra, Brownlie, Responsibility, 35. Cf. K. Zemanek, 'Das Kriegs- und Humanitarrecht', in Handbuch des Volkerrechts, Vienna, 1983, No. 2129 at 394. R. A. Falk, G. Kolko and R. J. Litton, Crimes of War, Legal, Political-Documentary and Psychological Inquiry into the Responsibility of Leaders, Citizens and Soldiers for Criminal Acts in War, New York, 1971, 141; A. M. de Zayas, Die Wehrmachtuntersuchungsstelle, Deutsche Ermittlungen iiber Alliierten Volkerrechtverletzungen im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Munich, 1980, passim. Cf. R. H. Minear, Victor's Justice, the Tokyo War Crimes Trial Princeton, 1971. On the right to a 'fair* trial, see the High Command Case, 12 Nuremberg Trials, 63.

414

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

sanctions than that war criminals feel themselves exempt from any future prosecution.

180

There may have been a time when there was no clear demarcation between the responsibility of States, military leaders and soldiers. However, no statesman or soldier can nowadays claim to be ignorant as to the consequences, for a State, or for a person individually, of violations of the Law of War. Interesting questions are raised by the status of liberation movements and guerilla groups. Do they have collective responsibility, as States do, or is it, in their case, always a question of individual responsibility? The answer may be that, should they not win their fight, they will, as a group be dissolved by the State and in this sense there will remain no bearer of collective responsibility; then, in all likelihood, the individuals concerned will be prosecuted for their part in any crimes.

181

And if they do win their

fight; they will emerge as States; although they would then be able to assume collective responsibility under international law, they are, as vic­ tors, likely to escape such responsibility. The reaction of international society to a breach of international law is often that of imposing sanctions on an offending State.

182

Individuals may

also have to answer to specific courts for war crimes. In the realm of the Law of War we may thus perceive certain specific applications of sanctions, both against States and groups, and against individuals.

a.

Condemnation

World opinion may occasionally sway a State in breach of the Law of War to cease unlawful behaviour. Condemnation may precede formal resol­ utions of the United Nations or decisions specifying concrete sanctions. Sometimes such condemnation by, for example, the Security Council, may be coupled with a specific mandate of verification that certain weapons systems are effectively dismantled. The United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), for the verifica­ tion of the destruction of n u m e r o u s weapons in Iraq, represents what may be a new method in international society. Iraq formally 'accepted' Resolution 687, b u t later often denied access to UNSCOM. Sanctions 180

182

181

Zemanek, 'Das Kriegs- und Humanitarrecht', 394. See below. On the definition of sanctions and the varied use of such measures, as preemptive or punitive, see my International Legal Order, Ch. IX iii.

SUSPENSION

OF T H E L A W OF

415

WAR

were introduced to remind Iraq of its accepted obligations.

183

The C o m ­

mission's work came to an abrupt end in 1998 when it was n o longer allowed to inspect Iraqi facilities. Nevertheless, the Commission achieved important results with regard to the inspection of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons plants. It is also symptomatic of how seriously other States reacted to Iraq's unwillingness to accommodate

UNSCOM's

mission in its final stages, that the United States and the United Kingdom immediately 'retaliated' with a bombing raid against Iraq in December 1998.

184

If lack of condemnation can be a factor which encourages w a r ,

185

positive

condemnation can bring about attitudes that certain war crimes must be punished. An example of this is the condemnation, albeit late, of the Vukovar massacre. This was an attack by the Yugoslav army in November 1991 on 297 patients in a hospital, an action that was doubly illegal as both hospitals and hors de combat personnel are illegitimate targets.

186

It may be

that condemnation was late in forthcoming because it had to be tied to the undisputed evidence revealed by exhumation of the b o d i e s .

b. Embargo and economic

187

sanctions

One of the most c o m m o n forms of sanctions during armed conflict has been a declaration of embargo on trade or, more pertinently, on the purchase of weapons. Embargo is one of the most forceful types of econ­ omic sanction. War;

189

188

Such measures were taken against Iraq during the Gulf

and against Yugoslavia in conjunction with the NATO operations

in 1999 in order to bring the regime of President Milosevic from violating humanitarian r u l e s .

190

More questionably, an embargo was imposed o n

Slovenia and Croatia by the U N in 1991 which effectively prevented these countries from defending themselves against Yugoslavia after their inde­ pendence. 183

184

185

187

188

189

190

191

For example, SC Res. 1134/97. SC Res. 687/91, laying down conditions for cease-fire in the Gulf War, establishing UNSCOM. A further agreement by Exchange of Letters between UN and Iraq stipulated that free access to inspect and verify was to be given to UNSCOM and IAEA as well as to certain officials of the specialised agencies. See above, Ch. 3, B i. Above, Ch. 8, A iii (6). The United Nations supervised the exhumation at Ofcara, see Vjesnik, 19 November 1998. See further my International Legal Order, Ch. IX. SC Res. 660/90; 661/90,665/90, 667/90; 678/90; 687/90; 1115/97; 1134/97. SC Res. 1160/98, 1199/98 and 1244/99. E.g. SC Res. 713/91. 186

191

416

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

Embargoes have been imposed in n u m e r o u s other situations and with considerable effect.

192

c.

Compensation

There have been cases when a State has been obliged to pay compensation, after having started a war or after having illegally annexed another country. The Versailles Treaty, for example, imposed a heavy duty of compensation on G e r m a n y .

193

The duty of compensation is, as a rule, imposed on a State

but the right of compensation may be enjoyed by individual beneficiaries. Civilian war victims thus have a right of c o m p e n s a t i o n .

194

Funds raised by the duty of compensation are normally paid into a central commission and then distributed to individual claimants. Such commissions may also be given the power to fix the a m o u n t payable.

195

Terms may vary from cash payments to taking over physical assets such as military equipment or various external assets.

196

In recent times this technique of administrating claims of compensation is illustrated by the founding of a commission and a fund for compensation after the Gulf War. Pecuniary penalties were imposed by the Security Council 192

193

194

195

196

197

197

on Iraq to compensate for 'any direct loss, damage, including

For example against Libya, SC Res. 748/92; 883/93; against Liberia, SC Res. 788/92; 823/93; 985/95; against Somalia, SC Res. 733/92; against Rwanda, SC Res. 918/94; 1011/95; against Angola, SC Res. 864/93; 1127/97; 1173/98; 1221/99; against Sudan, SC Res. 1054/96; against Sierra Leone, SC Res. 1132/97; 1171/97. Articles 231-63. L. T. Lee, 'The right of victims of war to compensation' in R. St. John Macdonald (ed.), Essays in Honour of Wang Tieya, 1994, 489; K. Parker and J. Crew, 'Compensation or Japan's Second World War war-rape victims', Hastings International and Comparative Law Review, 1994,497rT; S. Kodera, 'Compensation to civilian war victims on Okinawa', Japanese Annual of Interna­ tional Law, 1988, 58fT. A Reparation Commission was thus established by the Versailles Treaty for Germany to determine the amount of liability. The initial sum was set at 132 million German marks, later revised and lowered on account of the unrealistically high claim, 14 Allied Powers Reparation Payments, 1927. As was the case after the Second World War: see, 14 Dept of State Bulletin, 1946, 'The Paris Agreement on Reparations from Germany' 1023fT. Some scholars have questioned the legal right of the UN to impose a duty of compensation 'merely' on the basis of Iraq's aggression against Kuwait and questioned whether the Security Council did not exceed its powers under the Charter, see R. J. Zedalis, 'Gulf War compensation standard: concerns about the Charter', RBDI, 1993, 333ff. It is clear that earlier liability claims had been imposed by groups of States, for example the Allies after the First and Second World Wars. However, such a right is inferior, but complementary, to that of taking a binding decision to ensure international peace and security and must therefore be conceived as implicit or inherent: see my Law Making, Ch. 1.

SUSPENSION

OF T H E LAW OF

417

WAR

environmental damage and the depletion of natural resources, or injury to foreign Governments, nationals and corporations, as a result of Iraq's unlawful and illegal occupation of Kuwait'. sation Commission were set u p

1 9 9

198

A U N Fund and a C o m p e n -

to process c l a i m s .

200

The first payments

of nearly three million dollars to over 600 recipients in sixteen countries were made in 1994.

201

In the case of Iraq, the duty of compensation was

coupled with far-reaching obligations to respect boundaries, not acquire or retain certain weapons, and to return certain p r o p e r t y .

d. Military

202

action

Military action can be perceived as a form of sanction in certain cases when war crimes are perpetrated by a State. Thus is perhaps a useful way of classifying NATO's action against Yugoslavia in 1999 as this action was partly taken to force the government in Belgrade to discontinue ethnic cleansing and genocide in the province of K o s o v o .

203

e. Legal action Action may be taken against a State guilty of war crimes in an international tribunal such as the International Court of Justice (ICJ). This happened in the Genocide Case, brought by Bosnia-Herzegovina against Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) before the ICJ in 1993. The Genocide Convention applies naturally to situations both in war and in peace. However, as the acts complained of in the case concerned mainly acts carried out in war, 198

2 0 0

201

202

203

199

SC Res. 687 (1991). Ibid. Cf. S. Boelaert-Souminen, 'Iraqi war reparations', 23Iff; P. d'Argent, 'Le Fonds et la Commission de Compensation des Nations Unies', RBDI, 482fT; R. J. Bettauer, 'The UN Compensation Commission; developments since 1993', A//L, 1995, 416ff; D. ]. Bederman, 'The UN Compensation Commission and the tradition of international claims settlement', NYUJIL, 1994, Iff; J. R. Crook, 'The UN Compensation Commission: a new structure to enforce state responsibility', AJ1U 1993, 144ff; N. C. Ulmer, 'The Gulf claims institution', //A, 1993, 85fï; E. J. Garmise, 'The Iraqi claims process and the ghost of Versailles', NYULR, 1992, 840ff; G. Cotterau, 'De la responsibalité de l'Iraq selon la résolution 687 du Conseil de Sécurité', AFD/, 1991, 99ff. UN, Press Release, 8 June 1994. There were also obligations to provide statements of gold and foreign currency reserves and specific undertaking not to commit terrorist acts, ibid. The latter obligation is, of course, not dependent on the exhortation in the Security Council Resolution but is an obligation under general international law, reinforced by international conventions to which Iraq was already a party. In this part, therefore, the Resolution is pleonastic. Cf. my International Legal Order, Ch. IX. See above, Ch. 12,Cii.

4i8

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E L A W OF

WAR

it would seem appropriate to regard this case as one about war crimes. Other actions, m o r e or less justified,

205

204

also indicate that legal action may

be a method of attacking the war crimes of States. Conversely, questions on responsibility for genocide and other war crimes of an Applicant

might come u p for consideration in an action

brought before the International Court of Justice. Itself accused by Bos­ nia-Herzegovina of genocide in the aforementioned case, Yugoslavia took a surprising action against ten NATO States in 1999, accusing them of a n u m b e r of crimes, including genocide, in the coordinated Allied Force in M a r c h - J u n e 1999.

206

Operation

Kosovo had earlier enjoyed some

a u t o n o m y until this was stripped by Serbia, ignoring the needs of the Albanians who form a vast majority of over 90 per cent of the population in the province. W h e n Yugoslavia increased their brutal policies in Ko­ sovo, N A T O intervened

207

to make Belgrade cease the intense persecution

of Albanians. The question of responsibility is clearly of great importance.The armed conflict here should certainly be conceived to be between NATO and Yugoslavia; thus when Yugoslavia instigated an action in the International Court of Justice in 1999, action should rightly have been taken against NATO. It was perhaps surprising in the Kosovo Cases to note that Bel­ grade's complaints were directed at the Member States of NATO rather than the organisation itself. While it may be true that the forces of NATO may be recruited on a collective basis from the participating Member States, and that the troops that N A T O has at its disposal may gradually lose their national ties (as d o the national contingents of which UN forces are comprised) in favour of the allegiance to the unified c o m m a n d , this does not detract from the consolidated nature of the organisation under whose auspices they a c t .

208

However, there is no doubt that the organisation can be regarded as having an 'international personality', 2 0 4

2 0 5

2 0 6

2 0 7

2 0 9

209

even by the most stringent traditional

The case is still pending. Cf. Croatia v. Yugoslavia, also pending before the ICJ. Note the eight actions, called 'reckless' by some commentators, againt NATO States inter alia for genocide: see Yugoslavia v. Belgium; v. Canada; v. France; v. Germany; v. Italy; v. Nether­ lands; v. Portugal; and v. United Kingdom, in 1999. A further two actions, against Spain and the United States, were discontinued because of valid reservations to the Court's jurisdiction. See ICJ, Application for Provisional Measures (Yugoslavia v. Belgium; Yugoslavia v. Canada; Yugoslavia v. France; Yugoslavia v. Germany; Yugoslavia v. Italy; Yugoslavia v. Netherlands; Yugoslavia v. Portugal; Yugoslavia v. Spain; Yugoslavia v. United Kingdom; Yugoslavia v. United States), ICJ Reports, 1999 (the so-called Kosovo Cases). See above, Ch. 2, B viii on humanitarian intervention. See my Law Making, Ch. 1. See my Law Making, Ch. 1. Cf. above Ch. 2, and below, Ch. 11, C ii. 2 0 8

SUSPENSION

tests.

210

OF T H E LAW OF

419

WAR

Little attention has been paid to the question of personality of

organisations: none of the defence lawyers of the ten Member States of NATO appear even to have considered the question. It is indeed curious that not one of the respondent States raised the defence that the action in the Court should have been taken against NATO, an international organisation with its own consolidated international personality,

211

well suited to assume

rights and obligations under international law. If this had been argued before the ICJ, the Court would have had to declare itself incompetent as, under its Statute, only States may appear before the C o u r t .

212

The action certainly concerned a conflict between an organisation and a State and it was only indirectly, a 'conflict between established States'. Such States must have involved all members of NATO. But nor did any counsel insist that the action should, in the alternative, have been taken against all Member States of NATO, and not against a selection of participating States. No action was taken against Greece, for example, nor against Norway and Denmark. However, the Respondents in the case accepted, on dubious grounds, analogies with national company law and with other structures by which members can be jointly and severally responsible.

ii. Individual responsibility a. Identification

of war crimes

Above the collective responsibility of States, a normal consequence of any violation of international rules, there is also, in some cases individual responsibility for certain 'war crimes'. That such responsibility exists in certain circumstances was already shown in the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles at the end of the First World War declaring Kaiser Wilhelm guilty of crimes against 'international morals' and the 'sanctity of treaties',

213

and

furthermore stipulating that war criminals had to be surrendered by Ger­ many to the Allies. 2 . 0

2 . 1

2 1 2

2 , 3

214

New efforts in the field of individuals' responsibility

CLBV, 'La personality juridique de TOT AN', AFDI, 1955. The consolidation of an entity is decisive for its international personality, see my Treaty Making Power of International Organisa­ tions, diss. Oxford 1962, Ch. 1; on that score it is less certain that the Warsaw Pact had such 'personality'. See, L. Gelberg, Uklad Warszawaki, Studium prawno miedzynarodowe, Warsaw, 1957. Cf. my Law Making, Ch. I. Cf. above, Ch. 2, B viii and Ch. 12, C ii. Article 34. The Court may ask international organisations for 'information', article 34(2); and certain organisations can request Advisory Opinions from the Court, article 65(1). Article 227. Articles 228-30. 2 , 4

420

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

were made by the Declarations of London in 1942, of Moscow in 1943 and of Berlin in 1 9 4 5 .

215

But the substantial development of detailed rules in the

field of individual responsibility probably came with the Nuremberg Trials

216

and in the Tokyo Trials after the Second World W a r .

But war crimes still o c c u r .

218

217

The development of individual responsibil­

ity has been codified in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and in the Protocols of 1977. The Nuremberg Tribunals and the Tribunal for the Far East enumerated 'war crimes' in their C h a r t e r s adopted in the d o c t r i n e .

220

219

but this classification has not been entirely

Many consider that the notion 'crimes against

peace' is too vague to imply a war crime in the technical sense

221

and that

the Charters thus employed a notion of war crime that is too w i d e .

222

Some have suggested that the list of war crimes should be enlarged to include the use of nuclear w e a p o n s 2 1 5

2 1 6

2 1 7

2 , 8

2 1 9

2 2 0

221

2 2 2

2 2 3

2 2 4

223

as a new war c r i m e .

224

Others have

See, Rousseau, Conflits armés; cf. UN, History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development of the Law of War, London, 1948. R. Woetzel, The Nuremberg Trials with a Postlude on the Eichmann Trial 2nd edn, New York, 1962. See P. S. Dull and M. T. Unemura, The Tokyo Trials, Michigan, 1962; B. V. A. Rôling, 'The Tokyo trials and the development of international law', Indian LR 1953, 4. E.g. on My Lai see: Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives, 91st Congress, 2nd sess., Hearings of the Armed Services Investigating Subcommittee, Investigation of the My Lai Incident, 1976; W. Peers, The My Lai Inquiry, Washington, DC, 1979 and cf. The Peers Report, First Report of the Department of the Army Review of the Preliminary Investigation into the My Lai Incident, 1970; US v. Calley, (1973), 46 CMR 1131; cf. Koster v. US, (1982) 685 F 2d 407; cf. P. C. Warnke, 'Individual responsibility in warfare', in P. D. TroobofT, (ed.), Law and Responsibility in Warfare, The Vietnam Experience, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1975,187ff. On Shatila and Sabra, see W. D. Burnett, 'Command responsibility and a case study of the criminal responsibility of Israeli military commanders for the pogrom at Shatila and Sabra', 107 MilLR, 1985, 71. On the massacre at Kafr-Kassem in 1947, see RGDIP, 1959, 513; International Organisation for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ed.), Witness of War Crimes in Lebanon, Testimony Given to the Nordic Commission in Oslo, October 1982, London, 1983, 20 et seq., also on the Red Cross not being respected. On the numerous war crimes in Croatia and Bosnia, see Reports of the International Tribunal for former Yugoslavia and for war crimes in Rwanda, Reports of the Tribunal for Rwanda and infra. UN Doc. A/1316 1950; the relevant provisions are reproduced in my 'Foreign warships', at 68. See discussion in the International Law Commission for the 1954 Draft on Code of Offences Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, Yearbook ii, 1954, 149. Zemanek, Kriegs- und Humanitarrecht, No. 2129 at 394. Cf. P. R. Piccagallo, The Japanese on Trial, Allied War Crimes Operations in the East 1945-51, Texas, 1979,212. See above, Ch. 7, C ii c on legality of use. C. van den Wijngaert, 'Les euromissiles et le droit pénal international' in Actes du Colloque, Les conséquences juridiques de l'installation éventuelle de missiles cruises et pershing en Europe, Brussels, 1984, 111; A. Andries, 'L'emploie de l'arme nucléaire est un crime de guerre', La revue nouvelle, 1983, 315. On the importance of moral-legal condemnation of the use of nuclear weapons, see Bindschedler-Robert, Reconsideration, 11-12.

SUSPENSION

OF T H E LAW OF

421

WAR

assumed that misuse of conventional weapons, or the use of forbidden such weapons, will qualify as war crimes even though the Conventional Weapons Convention itself is silent on this p o i n t .

225

The traditional war crimes included from the earliest inception of rules on the Law of War probably concern illegitimate violations of the rights of prisoners of w a r .

226

The rules o n the treatment of prisoners of w a r

have fallen into some disrepute after the First World W a r .

228

227

may

However,

after the Second World War the i n h u m a n treatment of prisoners of war was clearly condemned as war c r i m e s .

229

Other typical offences would be

murder and devastation not justified by military necessity.

230

There has

been a gradual shift to consider crimes against civilians as the most serious of war crimes. N u m e r o u s convictions in the Nuremberg Trials thus concerned atrocities against civilians. For example, von Leeb was held personally responsible for partaking in the 'Barbarossa Order' to shoot civilians on mere suspicion for certain a c t s .

231

Additionally, war

crimes in the Far East Trials often concerned violations of rules protecting civilians as in the Case of Yamashita,

for example, which involved atroc­

ities against the civilian population in the Philippines.

232

Other war crimes

include the killing of enemy soldiers who have surrendered. This is a practice condemned in the early textbooks although it is there often coupled with exceptions for military necessity,

233

reprisals

234

or even for

the case where the surrendered soldier is himself guilty of a c r i m e .

235

The

last case is still catered for in the Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War.

236

Under this article persons in this category will still be exempt

from the privileges of being treated as a prisoner of w a r . 2 2 5

2 2 6

2 2 7

2 2 8

229

2 3 0

232

2 3 3

234

2 3 5

2 3 6

237

The effect of

J. A. Rauch, 'Certain Conventional Weapons Convention: arms control or humanitarian law?', 105Mi/LK, 1984, 58. E.g. Special Commission Established by the Peace Conference in 1919, A//L, 1920, 95. Above, Ch. 9, B iii f. C. Mullins, The Leipzig Trials, London, 1921; Rousseau, Conflits armes, 99. The Great War Criminals Case, AD, 1946, 216; The Hirota Case, Tribunal for the Far East (1949), AD, 1948, 366. Above, in this Chapter, B i a. The von Leeb Case, 11 Nuremberg 554, 560. The Yamashita Case, UN War Crimes Commission, 4 Law Reports of the Trials of War Criminals, 1948, 3. Above, in this Chapter, B i a. Cf. the allegations of Iraq that the burning of oil wells, causing considerable environmental damage, was caused by military necessity: see R. J. Zedalis, 'Military necessity and the Iraqi destruction of Kuwait Oil*, RBDI, 1992, 333ff. Above, Ch. 2, B iv and Ch. 8, A iv c. G. F. Martens, Precis du droit desgens moderne de VEurope, 2nd edn, 1864, Bk VIII, Ch. iv, para. 272 at 232. Geneva III, article 85 . Above, Ch. 9, B iii f. 231

2 3 7

422

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

this provision, however, may be mitigated by the extended provision granted by Protocol I of 1977.

238

However, the reservations to the relevant

article of Protocol I will bring it back m u c h to the level of the Third Geneva C o n v e n t i o n .

239

War crimes, especially certain practices of the Second World War, have been thought to be so abhorrent that they belong to a different class than other violations of international law. They are, for example, so serious that many suggest there should be n o limitation p e r i o d s ,

240

almost forgetting

that rules on limitation normally apply to secure the accuracy of evidence rather than necessarily reflecting the severity of crimes. Proceedings for war crimes still take place fifty-five years after the end of the Second World War. Many States have introduced special regulations to prolong the possibility of bringing prosecutions for war c r i m e s

241

years exceeds most provisions in national legislation

but a time of forty

242

on prosecution for

m u r d e r or other serious crimes. Some such extending provisions in na­ tional legislation were adopted as measures to implement a special Con­ vention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against H u m a n i t y concluded in 1968.

243

Some demands, like

the one for the Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie to be extradited from Bolivia,

244

resulted in a State finally being able to claim jurisdiction. There

were, for a long time, outstanding d e m a n d s

245

Nazi war criminals Mengele from Paraguay Brazil.

246

for the extradition of the and G. F. Wagner from

247

A most curious debate has indicated that some authorities do not accept that 'grave breaches' can occur in internal conflicts and that the prohibition of the Geneva Conventions of such acts does not extend to such matters. This highly unrealistic attitude, contrary to all trends in international law, was adopted by Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali in 1993,

248

squarely contradicted by the United States in its brief of amicus curiae in the Tadic Case before the Hague War Crimes Court (ITCY).

249

Under its

Constitution, ICTY can deal with 'grave breaches' of the Geneva Conven2 3 8

2 3 9

See above, Ch. 6, B i. See above, Ch. 9, B iii f. P. Mertens, 'L'impréscriptibilité des crimes des guerre et contre l'humanité,' in Université de Bruxelles, (éd.), Etude de droit international et de droit pénal comparé, Brussels, 1974, at 226: to allow limitation would be to normalise genocide. Ibid., 25ff. Note that not all countries have such statutory provisions. 8 /LM 68. RGDIP, Chronique, 1972, 135. See, further, Rousseau, Conflits armés, 182-3. RGDIP, 1980, 411. Ibid., 355. S/25704, Report Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 808 (1993), 1993, 47. 249 I T - 9 4 - L T , 1995, 35. See below, b (1). 2 4 0

241

2 4 3

2 4 5

248

2 4 2

244

2 4 6

247

SUSPENSION

tions

250

OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

423

but underlines in one of the few cases it has concluded that such

competence only relates to 'international conflicts'.

251

The Tribunal con­

siders that its competence for 'internal' conflicts concerns other m a t t e r s ,

252

largely other types of violations which can normally be carried out by groups rather than by individuals. The Tribunal also has competence for crimes like genocide

253

and what are often considered as fairly vague

categories referred to as crimes against h u m a n i t y .

254

The insistence that 'grave breaches' would be excluded implies that the Secretary General and the ICTY, at least in the Tadic Case, refused to allow an extension of c o m m o n article 3 of the Geneva Conventions to internal war.

255

This is more than a technicality: it shows that ICTY (and the former

UN Secretary General), have adopted o u t m o d e d interpretations of the rules of the Law of War, sadly appropriate for those in charge of analysing and punishing war crimes.

b. Right of prosecution for war crimes (1 ) War crimes tribunals There is now a permanent International Crimi­ nal Court, ( I C C ) ,

256

representing a great innovation in international l a w .

2 5 0

Article 2 of the Charter: mentioning crimes like (a) wilful killing; (b) torture and inhuman treatment; (c) wilfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health; (d) extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity; (e) compelling a prisoner of war or a civilian to serve in the forces of a hostile power; (f ) wilfully depriving a prisoner of war or a civilian of the rights of fair and regular trial; (g) unlawful deportation or transfer or unlawful confinement of a civilian; and (h) taking civilians as hostages. On 'international' and 'internal' wars, and the insistence that the same rules apply in all types of 'war', see above, Ch. 1, D i. " Article 3 of the Charter which speaks of violations such as (a) employment of poisonous weapons or other weapons calculated to cause unnecessary suffering; (b) wanton destruction of cities, towns or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity; (c) attack or bombardment, by whatever means, of undefended towns, villages, dwelling or buildings; (d) seizure of, destruction or wilful damage done to institutions dedicated to religion, charity or education, the arts and sciences, historic monuments and works of art and science; and (e) plunder of public or private property. Article 4. Article 5. Such crimes include (a) murder; (b) extermination; (c) enslavement; (d) deportation; (e) imprisonment; (f) torture; (g) rape; (h) persecutions on political, racial and religious grounds; and (i) other inhuman acts. But see the dissenting opinion by Judge Abi-Saab. The creation of such a Court has been studied and discussed in the UN since the signature of the Genocide Convention in 1948. In 1950 the International Law Commission was asked by the General Assembly to draw up a Statute; this task was completed forty-six years later in 1996 and the final Treaty was signed in Rome on 17 July 1998. For the travaux préparatoires see ILC Reports A/47/10, 141ff, A/48/10, 269ff and A/49/10, 31ff. For early proposals for such a Court, see E. Thorneycroft, Personal Responsibility and the Law of Nations, The Hague, 1961.

251

2

257

2 5 3

2 5 4

2 5 5

2 5 6

2 5 7

424

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

This Court will have jurisdiction for 'core crimes' against international law, i.e. genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. By providing such an institution, the rule of law in international society is secured; there were always doubts as to the legality of the judgments of the Second World War Tribunals at Nuremberg and Tokyo as those two courts were, as mentioned above, established after the crimes had been committed, with Charters indicating applicable law ex post facto. Some scholars pointed to a violation of the important legal maxim of nullum crimen sine lege (there can be no crime unless a law qualifies an act as a c r i m e ) .

258

Nowadays, this problem is

avoided on several counts: n o one can claim after the Second World War that they were unaware during a war that committing atrocities in war (or indeed in peacetime) is a crime under international law which engages the responsibility of the State and also of each individual who takes part in such acts;

259

furthermore, no one can claim that they did not know at the time

that there was an established Court which had jurisdiction over war crimes and that it had a Charter which clearly indicates which acts will be considered to be such crimes against humanity. There are also two functioning ad hoc Tribunals, for the former Yugos­ lavia and for Rwanda, established before the ICC. Both Tribunals are competent to deal with war crimes both in internal and in international armed conflicts. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, (ICTY), was established in the Hague in 1993.

260

The Tribunal

is competent to consider violations of the Geneva Conventions of 1949, of the laws and customs of war and acts of genocide or other crimes against humanity. Certain expressions and definitions in the Statute are taken from Hague Convention IV of 1907 and from the Nuremberg Statute without mentioning these instruments in the text. Such omissions may show that the crimes are violations of general international law and not dependent on conventional engagements. two appeal cases.

262

261

After seven years ICTY had concluded only

The Tribunal has issued more than 70 indictments and

had seven indictees in custody. Both Radovan Karadzic and General Ratko 2 5 8

2 5 9

2 6 0

261

262

For example, the Swedish scholar Lundstedt claimed that it is for every State to decide on applicable laws: there are no inherent rights or duties under international law, see A. Lundstedt, Law of Nations: Superstition of the Peoples, London, 1930. On respondeat superior, see below. SC Res. 808/93 and 827/93. For the Statute of the Tribunal see Annex to SC Res. 827/93; 32 ILM 1203. See above in the previous section. Cf. Nguyen Quoc Dinh, Droit international public, ed. by P. Dallier and A. Pellet, Paris, 1998, 685. Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, 7 May 1997 and Prosecutor v. Erdemovic, 7 Oct. 1997.

SUSPENSION

OF T H E LAW OF

425

WAR

Mladic were indicted and IFOR, SFOR and later N A T O ,

263

were m u c h

criticised by the Tribunal for not apprehending t h e m and other suspects. In 1999 Milosevic together with four other members of the Yugoslav Socialist Party were indicted for serious war c r i m e s .

264

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda was established in Arusha in Tanzania in 1 9 9 4

265

but has a poor work record: by 1999 only 25

indictments had been issued. The work of the Tribunal has been m a d e difficult as the Kenyan President, Daniel Arap Moi, threatened to arrest Court officials if they ventured into Kenya. The new Secretary General Kofi Annan resolutely reorganised the Tribunal, dismissing the deputy Prosecutor and the Registrar, and obtained a better relationship with Kenya, after which this country handed over several suspects. Three trials have now been held and numerous persons suspected of genocide are awaiting trial. A special Arbitral Tribunal was established by the Dayton A c c o r d s

266

in

1995 to monitor the situation in Brcko in Bosnia-Herzegovina; an award placed this area under international supervision. (2) National jurisdiction

For war crimes which do not fall under the two

specialised tribunals (or for which the International Criminal Court does not claim jurisdiction), each State undertakes to punish those who have violated the Law of War. Some commentators have suggested that flagrant disrespect for h u m a n rights gives rise to universal jurisdiction and that war criminals can therefore be tried anywhere.

267

Such acts would also give rise

to universal jurisdiction and allow any State, or as Robespierre said ' a l P

268

to take action against the party at fault. Such universal jurisdiction has always existed with regard to pirates, who are by tradition hostes gentium or the enemies of all. The system of such universal jurisdiction has also been adopted by the Geneva Conventions, based on the maxim aut dedere aut punire, i.e. a State must either extradite a war criminal or make sure that he is punished in its own criminal proceedings.

269

A similar system has been

adopted in later treaties on hijacking and other forms of t e r r o r i s m . 263

2 6 5

267

2 6 8

2 6 9

2 7 0

2 6 4

270

With

See above, Ch. 11. ICTY, Indictment 24 May 1999. SC Res. 955/94; cf. SC Res. 935/94. See above, Ch. 11. Robespierre, quoted by j. Basdevant, La revolution française et le droit de la guerre continentale, Paris, 1901, 165: 'Ceux qui font la guerre à un peuple pour arrêter les progrès de la liberté et aréantir les droits de l'homme doivent être poursuivis par tous, non comme des ennemies ordinaires mais comme des assassins et des brigands rebelles'. See quotation in the previous note. See Geneva I, article 49; Geneva II, article 50; Geneva III, article 129; and Geneva IV, article 146. Above, Ch. l . B i i i c . 2 6 6

426

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

regard to chronology, it may be added that the right to prosecute subsists for a considerable time period. This way of using national machinery for the implementation of rules of international law is an application of the doctrine of 'dédoublement

271

fonctionner

and indicates that national organs

in this way can provide the institutional machinery when the international legal system lacks adequate structural b o d i e s .

272

The Supreme Court of the Netherlands held that it was competent to deal with war crimes committed by non-nationals committed outside Dutch territory, in the event acts by a Bosnian S e r b .

273

French Courts have

also accepted jurisdiction for war crimes committed outside France, for example regarding the Serb-run P O W camp at Kozarac in Bosnia.

274

As an example of national machinery used to prosecute war criminals one may mention the early law of 1789, the Alien Tort Claims Act of the United States, which provides that 'The district courts shall have original jurisdiction of any civil action by an alien for a tort only; committed in violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the United States'.

275

Among

the most spectacular cases of evasion of justice for war crimes are the sought-after Serb leader Karadzic and the Serb General Mladic, indicted by the Hague Tribunal for former Yugoslavia

276

for serious war crimes

committed in the period 1990-6. Since little effort has been made to capture these two war criminals, an action was started against Karadzic in the United States under the aforementioned Alien Tort Claims Act. Karadzic had been invited by the U N for 'talks' and could therefore be served with a writ for the action in the United States. There is now a judgment of the US Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit showing that an individual

a non-State a c t o r ,

277

was responsible for war crimes

and other crimes against humanity. In a suit brought by Bosnian refu­ gees, the US Appeal Court held that, under modern international law, genocide and war crimes are universally condemned regardless of whether the perpetrator is the agent of a State or an independent nonState a c t o r . 271

2 7 2

2 7 3

2 7 5

2 7 7

278

278

A State actor may be liable for other acts as well, such as

G. Scelle, Traité de droit international, Paris, 1929. For the application, see, my Law Making, 117. Hoge Raad, Strafkamer, 11 November 1997. Tribunal de grande instance, 6.5, 1994. 28 USC para. 1350 (1994). See above, in this Chapter. Cf. my International Legal Order, Ch. II, iii, f. Kadic v. Karadzic, 70 F.3d 232, cert, denied, 64 USLW 3832 (18 June 1996), US Court of Appeals, 2nd Cir., 13 Oct. 1995. Karadzic pleaded, alternatively, that he enjoyed immunity as a Head of State, or as an invitee of the UN (dismissed by the Court), or that he, as a private person was not directly responsible under international law. 2 7 4

2 7 6

SUSPENSION

OF T H E LAW

torture and summary executions.

279

OF

WAR

427

Gradually, it has been suggested that

non-State actors should also be liable under international law, for example for certain, if not all, terrorist a c t s .

280

The problem with the

Alien Tort Claims Act is that it is necessary that the perpetrator of crimes against international law is served with a writ in the United States, as was possible both in the Filartiga and the Karadzic

cases. In the case of

Amerada Hess Shipping Corp. v. Argentine

2

1

Republic *

the situation was

different. Here, the Second Circuit held that the Foreign Sovereign Im­ munities Act (FSIA) did not preempt the Alien Tort Claims Act as the FSIA deals almost exclusively with commercial activities of foreign sover­ eigns and not with their violations of international law. But the Supreme Court reversed the decision, holding that the 'FSIA provides the sole basis for obtaining jurisdiction over a foreign State', thus casting doubt on the possibility of the Alien Tort Claims Act protecting violated h u m a n rights. But in the Karadzic Case the Court ignored the question whether the Srpska Republic was a de facto State and treated Karadzic as a n o n State actor, and thus avoided the question of FSIA and the problem of immunity. In this sense the Court held that individual non-State actors may be proper subjects of international law, liable for atrocities commit­ ted.

282

c. The doctrine of respondeat 2

3

The plea of respondeat superior *

superior

as a defence in proceedings concerning

responsibility is derived from the very organisation of the armed forces. These forces are highly stratified, depending at every level on order, disci­ pline and the accurate and speedy execution of orders. All military codes contain detailed regulations setting out the effects of disobeying orders, providing in many cases for proceedings by a court martial. They are often 2 7 9

280

281

282

2 8 3

For example in the case of torture or summary executions, see Filartiga v. Pena-Irala, 630 F.2d 876 (2d Cir. 1980) where the Court stated that official torture is clearly against the principles of international law. Tel-Oren v. Libyan Arab Republic, 726 F. 2d 774 5DC Cir. (1984) per Judge Edwards. 830 F.2d 421 (2d Cir. 1987) rev'd, 488 US 428 (1989). T. R. Posner, note on Kadic v. Karadzic, AJIL, 1996, 658. See, e.g. E. Muller-Rappard, L'ordre supérieur militaire et la responsabilité pénale du subordonné, Paris, 1965; C. Eustathiades, 'Quelques aspects de la jurisprudence concernant les criminels de guerre, l'exception des ordres reçus et autres moyens de defense similaire', in 2 Festschrift Laun, 1953, 395; L. C. Green, Superior Orders in National and International Law, Leyden, 1976; see also my 'Foreign warships', 70.

428

CONSEQUENTIAL

A S P E C T S OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

supplemented with emergency measures, some of which may even entitle the summary execution of members of the armed forces if orders are disobeyed in the face of the enemy. If, then, a m e m b e r of the armed forces is under such strict discipline in most of those armed forces, it is natural that only the responsibility of those giving the orders should be engaged. Therefore, the application of the doctrine respondeat superior can only be suspended in extreme situations. But the doctrine was not fully accepted for the trial of war crimes and it was thought suitable to allow its operation to mitigate a sentence but not to exclude responsibility. The Treaty of London of 8 August 1945

284

contained

a clause that 'The fact that the Defendant acted pursuant to order of his Government or of a superior shall not free him from responsibility but may be considered in mitigation of punishment, if the Tribunal determines that justice so requires.'

285

Yet, as a rule, and in view of the importance of military discipline and of the unquestioned execution of orders, the principle must probably operate to exclude responsibility except in exceptional circumstances. Such situ­ ations are those where the execution of an order would involve a grave breach of the Law of War, including all humanitarian rules. The Geneva Conventions exemplify such grave breaches by a list of examples. col I of 1977 makes this category of'grave' breaches even clearer.

286

287

Proto­ On the

other hand, the Protocol does not contain the article which had existed in the Draft, and which had provided that n o one would be punished for obeying orders, even if an act committed in the execution of such orders constituted a grave b r e a c h ,

288

unless the person executing the order knew

his act would constitute a grave b r e a c h .

289

Some had felt that combatants

will face a dilemma if they have to decide whether they should obey or question an order as contrary to international l a w .

290

But the final text of

the Protocol expressly excludes any defence under the doctrine.

291

In

practice it has also often been held that superior orders constitute no effective defence for certain grave violations of the Law of War, for example the sinking of a hospital ship, as was aptly illustrated in the

2 8 5

2 8 6

Llandovery

59 Stat 1544. Article 8. E.g., above, in this Chapter, B i c. Article 85(3)-(5). Article 77( 1 ) of the Draft, CDDH/SR/45, vol. 6, 334. Article 77(2) of the Draft, ibid. Ibid. But the United States considered that the draft article did not go far enough, ibid., 339. Cf. D. Matthei, 'Befehlserweigerung aus humanitären Gründen', RDPMDG, 1980, 257. Article 86(2). 2 8 8

SUSPENSION

292

Castle Case.

OF T H E

LAW OF

429

WAR

But the doctrine will still in all likelihood be applied by

courts in mitigation of a sentence if it does not altogether exclude liability; on the other hand, the doctrine may operate as a defence for all but the gravest of acts. A member of the armed forces may, if prosecuted for a war crime, resort to the usual defences, such as self-defence or necessity, for example, to exclude liability. A sentence may be mitigated if the defendant thought he was in greater danger than he actually was. However, other subjective defences, such as being ignorant of the contents of international l a w , no longer allowed, 295

nocet

294

bringing the traditional principle ignorantia

293

are juris

into full operation in international law. 296

That means that the defence nullum crimen sine lege,

will be defeated

since the lex contains rules of which n o one must be ignorant. But the argument that there had been no clear legal prohibition was certainly at the centre of pleadings on the part of the defence both in the W a r Crimes Trials and in national c o u r t s .

297

A superior officer is, as described, normally liable for war crimes com­ mitted by persons under his c o m m a n d , on the condition that he gave the relevant order, or that he knew of a planned act and refrained from preventing it being committed. The Genocide C o n v e n t i o n

298

failed to

regulate these matters but Protocol I of 1977 now clarifies the p o s i t i o n .

299

Similar rules were applied in the Nuremberg Trials where personal responsibility was incurred for subordinates, inaction.

301

293

2 9 4

2 9 5

2 9 6

2 9 7

2 9 8

300

301

302

including neglect of their

These rules were accepted in the doctrine as being an expres­

sion of general international l a w 292

300

302

and were also applied in the My Lai

Germany v. Dithmar & Boldt, in 1 L. Friedman, (ed.), The Law of War: A Documentary History, New York, 1972, 868. Cf. above, Ch. 11, A ii e in fine, on dissipation of knowledge and education of the armed forces. Zemanek, 'Kriegs- und Humanitarrecht', no. 2134 at 395. Ignorance of the law is harmful. There is no crime as there is no law, i.e. no one can be punished for an act which was not a crime under legal rules in existence when the act was committed. For Belgium, where the defence of nullum crimen sine lege was partly accepted in municipal cases, see Beirlaen, De vervolging van oorlogsmisdadigers in Belgie na de tweede Werldoorlog in de hestraffing van inbreuken tegen het oorlogs- en het humanitair recht, Brussels, 1980, 67. 78 UNTS 278. Protocol I, articles 86 and 87. The List Case, 11 Nuremberg 1259; cf. The Roques Case, ibid., 632; The Reinecke Case, ibid., 651; and The Woeler Case, ibid., 683. The Kuechler Case, 11 Nuremberg 565; The Salmuth Case, ibid., 617. W. H. Parks, 'Command responsibility for war crimes', 62 MHLR, 1963; R. Campbell, Military Command Liability for Grave Breaches of War and International Law: Absolute or Limited?, London,1974. 2 9 9

430

CONSEQUENTIAL

investigation,

303

ASPECTS

OF T H E LAW OF

WAR

relating to a massacre in Vietnam; here, it was held that

General Westmoreland had taken adequate precautions to prevent the shooting and should therefore be acquitted.

304

A c o m m a n d i n g officer may also be personally responsible after the event if he knew of a committed act and did not institute proceedings against the perpetrator.

305

In practice superior officers have been held

responsible for war crimes committed by persons they commanded al­ though the officers had not authorised the a c t s .

306

O n the other hand, it is abundantly clear that not only commanding officers are b o u n d by the Law of War but also subordinate soldiers. There may therefore be a triple-fold responsibility for such crimes: of the State, of the c o m m a n d i n g officer, and of the soldier who commits the act. In the case of gross violations of the Law of War, of h u m a n rights and of humanitarian law, both soldiers and civilians (as well as States) may be held responsible. 3 0 3

304

306

On sources, above, in this Chapter, C ii a in notes to the text on identification of war crimes. The Peers Report, 7. Protocol I, articles 86-7. In Re Yamashita, US 1945 672. In the documents of ICTY it is difficult to decipher in which situations a soldier was following orders: the Tribunal has understood its mandate to punish individuals in the sense that it is not clear from title pages to which military group an indicted person belonged. 3 0 5

Conclusions: an evaluation of the contemporary Law of War

War may be technically outlawed; but wars still occur. The practices in war have become even more cruel and indiscriminate now that States pretend that conflicts on their territories are a matter for their concern alone. It is important to show that far from being withdrawn from the rules of the Law of War, civil war and internal war are subjected to the Law of War, just as much as inter-State wars. During the colonial era, n u m e r o u s countries wished to become indepen­ dent and rid themselves of the oppressive yokes. W h e n the world became largely decolonised in the 1960s and 1970s, there was a tendency to split u p States further. Thus, after the independence of India in 1947, Pakistan broke off, followed by the secession of Bangladesh. In many countries, however, it was not easy to discontinue colonial domination. Various internal movements resorted to violence after a State had denied them the right of self-determination or other rights that they sought. When their claims were denied they took to arms. Existing States often took violent countermeasures and suppressed, or sought to suppress, insurgent or secessionist movements in their colonies and dependent territories. This was the time of the liberation movements. Then the pattern of war changed. During the time of bipolarity, a larger State was often called on for further help in such wars. These powerful outside States spread their activities in a sophisticated way into the area which they considered to come under their hegemony. And if they were not called upon to help the government, if that government was of a different political shade, they often intervened by supporting internal strife against the government of whose policies they did not approve. So wars spiralled by outside support and intervention from all sides. Yet, many still pre­ tended that conflicts were merely internal and the Law of W a r was irrelevant. But in the 1990s the pattern of war changed again. At the t u r n of the 43i

432

CONCLUSIONS

millennium there is a different scenario. Now, there is no polarity system; there is no longer any communist bloc. Germany is reunited, providing a stable economic force in the centre of Europe. Yet in a way, the present time is a dangerous phase: history shows that rearrangement of power struc­ tures, like the dismantlement of the former Soviet Union, and the collapse of its satellite system, will lead, within a short time, to new alliances, new power blocs and new tensions. Now, there seem to be mainly two new types of war. In the first place one may note that many aspiring nations now seek their own independence, often from a federal structure after the fall of c o m m u n i s m . Most wars in or near Europe appear to be of this type. Claims of aspiring new States inevitably encroach on the geographical territory of other established States. States are still worried about insurgents on their territory who seek to usurp power to the detriment of that State. There are numerous contenders for the power of States. Secondly, there are internal wars in the Third World which concern novel themes. The importance of liberation movements and the guerilla groups has, for a while, faded. Those who sought to achieve statehood by warfare in the 1980s largely reached their goal. There are exceptions, some with possible religious perspectives, like East Timor, a largely Christian country, which gained independence from its Indonesian Muslim over­ lords and their sympathisers, who sought to prevent, or reverse, this secession. Nowadays, however, Third World States often face not secess­ ionist b u t insurgent counter-movements, sometimes consisting of several forceful organisations, all of which seek to obtain control of the State. Thus, groups fighting in the Third World do not necessarily wish to have their own State: they are fighting about power in a given territorially defined area. In n u m e r o u s countries, for example in Africa, many conflicts are caused by minority problems largely due to former colonial administrative divisions which ignored the traditional ethnic boundaries so that numer­ ous States found themselves with minorities matched by a majority in a neighbouring State. Ethnic tensions, coupled with rivalries for power and leadership, account for most wars in the Third World. In a way, most wars are the result of certain larger States, lacking in viability, and not formed by democratic elections, like those under com­ munism, nor organised along proper ethnic divisions, like those in the Third World. These reasons for further secession were accentuated by the unmanageability of certain political structures, either by virtue of their size,

CONCLUSIONS

433

like the USSR, or because, in a federation structure such as the former Yugoslavia's, the federation was largely dominated by one of its constituent States. An increasing fragmentation of States has taken place, first by decolonisation under the rule of self-determination, but then by further splitting off by subsequent claims to autonomy. It could be questioned whether the world is on a path back towards the conditions in the fifteenth to the sixteenth century before the strong nation State arose to quell the constant civil wars. But situations are different today: now wars are fought within fairly consolidated States, which often merely provide a venue for a confrontation between two or more factions, often supported by outside States who furnish either side with financial or material support. Yet, anarchical trends that can be discerned undermine State power. There may be a reaction to this devel­ opment which could lead to the building of even stronger blocs or of a superstructural network. It is impossible to identify the reasons for war and it is impossible to prescribe methods for preventing armed conflict. The last decade has indicated that international organisations could play an important warpreventing role; but they have not always been successful in their tasks, often lacking diplomatic skills or hampered by bureaucratic procedures. The United Nations could still be the most important institution to preserve peace and prevent war. However, its structures and functions are in need of drastic overhaul, not necessarily by any a m e n d m e n t of its Charter but by more stringent adherence to what the Charter already provides. The Charter surely envisages an effective organisation. Thus, bureaucracy must be cut and nebulous 'sub-sub-committees' which do little effective work must be abolished. Selection and operation of UN troops must be left to the professionals rather than to the Secretariat and other civilian offices of the United Nations. The specialised agencies, which tie States together by technical inter­ relationships, are also essential in war-preventing structures. But they too must adapt to current needs and resort to less bureaucratic mechanisms to provide effective assistance in armed conflicts. The European Union could conceivably reduce cumbersome procedures and use less heavy-handed policies, with more carefully selected representa­ tives, for mediative efforts to prevent war or to achieve peace in conflicts that have already started. The EU is an organisation whose power is partly concentrated in the European Commission, a body which is neither d e m o -

434

CONCLUSIONS

cratically elected, nor accountable to the Member States. The central administration cannot be compared with regard to qualitative intake and rigorous training quality with, for example, the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office. It is not surprising therefore, that an organisation that considers itself apt to deal with 'pan-European' policy-making has been ineffective in preventing or reducing armed conflict in Europe. In­ deed, it has sometimes aggravated conflicts. The nature of the E l f s struc­ ture has caused serious problems, as it has sometimes overstepped its constitutional limits, with unfortunate results. In any event, the EU lacks competence, although it has often claimed extensive powers, to deal with wars in n o n - M e m b e r States; it is only able, and that with some elastic interpretation of its constituent instruments, to perhaps mediate in armed conflicts with the consent of relevant parties. The EU has, however, been stifled even in its modest efforts to mediate by other initiatives. The credibility of this organisation can only be restored if it is reformed in its essence, to be perceived, especially by non-members, as an organisation of integrity, objectiveness and technical effectiveness. Similar problems face the OSCE which was grudgingly given a remit for specific conflicts but which, per se has n o decisive power. Its acts are y

derived from a coalescence of interests of participating States and it is unfortunate that some governments involved in armed conflicts have been given the distorted impression that the OSCE has real authority. It is important to consider various other mechanisms and avenues which might prevent war. It is clear that disarmament, prohibition of certain weapons and reduction of the arms trade will contribute to minimise the risk of war. Some commentators claim that questions of disarmament do not form part of the Law of War. However, in practice, disarmament on a partial or limited basis operates to regulate wars: certain weapons are prohibited; others may not be used except in a specific way; others may only be used provided their effects are not of a prohibited nature. The trend to prohibit weapons at, or even before, the research stage, is important as it is more difficult to eliminate weapons which are manufactured and de­ ployed. Further detailed rules on weapons and methods of warfare, coupled with humanitarian rules, form the important body of the Law of War. A decade ago, weapons systems, missile systems as well as Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) were at the forefront of the debate on conflicts. The missile strategy of the 1980s reverted almost to the 'catapult* technique of the Romans. 'Deterrence' was considered to be of paramount import-

CONCLUSIONS

435

ance: and it seemed that the two superpowers adopted the maxim of the Romans qui desiderat pacem praeparet bellum} The distinction between the laws of warfare on land, in the air or at sea was eroded because of the overriding impact of missile warfare. The threat of missile warfare subsided later and has, for the m o m e n t , been reduced by the m o r e obvious threat of civil unrest. It is, however, certain that the time will come again when missile warfare between new power blocs will be the p a r a m o u n t concern. The Law of War may rely on a few basic and simple principles concerning weapons, methods and humanitarian treatment. With regard to weapons, concern about weapons of mass destruction has dominated the discussion, although the debate on nuclear war has subsided after the demise of the bipolar scenario. It is to be emphasised that missile weapons can rarely comply with some basic tenets of the Law of War: they do not discriminate between civilian population and military targets, and their force is rarely proportionate to the need. Such lack of discrimination, together with disproportionality, indicates the illegality of many such weapons, especially those of the nuclear type. Although there have been assertions to the contrary by the United States and France, the first as well as the second use of nuclear weapons must imply a necessary violation of international law as it is not possible to use such weapons without area b o m b i n g of civilians, who are illegitimate targets. Commentators speak no longer of this illegality as a matter de legeferenda but as if it were already accepted in international law as a binding rule, although the International Court of Justice, perhaps wrongly, hesitated to condemn nuclear weapons. There is no doubt that the use of any indiscriminate weapon is illegal as no weapon must be used that is not adequately aimed at military targets. There is no doubt that weapons that cause unnecessary suffering are forbidden. There is no doubt that the civilian population and all who are hors de combat must at all times be exempt from attack and given necessary medical assistance. In spite of some disagreement, particularly on the part of the United States with regard to incendiary weapons, the Weapons Conventions have already been treated, in large parts, as binding international law. The provisions they contain concern weapons whose legality is already ques­ tionable under international law. 1

'The one who desires peace prepares for war', Vegetius, De re militaria, ed. N. Schwebel, London, 1806, iii, prol.

436

CONCLUSIONS

The Biological Weapons Convention of 1972, the En-Mod Convention of 1979, the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993, the Weaponry Con­ ventions of 1981 and the Landmine Convention of 1997, together with the Protocols of 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, present a formidable network of rules which are clearly acceptable to States and individuals alike. The rules clarify several hazy areas and define many concepts, which provides a new focus of application of similar terms in older Conventions. The new instruments advance o n previous protection by including some hitherto unprotected groups. For these reasons, the conventions will also contribute to a clearer identification of rules applicable in armed conflicts both on the international and internal scale, even to parties which do not adhere to these treaties. The Chemical Weapons Convention, in particular, constitutes a new landmark in that it provides for far-reaching verification systems. It had long been wrongly presumed by some statesmen, as well as by scholars, that a majority of States would not accept such interference in their sovereign sphere; but the rapid conclusion and ensuing ratifications of the Conven­ tion, negotiated during a decade, proved otherwise. In the 1990s there was m u c h outrage at the arrogance of some rogue States to flaunt rules on weapons and to resort to chemical and biological warfare. But the attitude of the world to such States encouraged effective sanctions and, with ensuing trade problems, States will not lightly ignore weapon restrictions. There is an increased awareness of unethical weapons, i.e. those of mass destruction, those which cause disproportionate suffer­ ing, and those, like anti-personnel landmines, which largely harm civilians after a conflict has ended. There is also a gradual shift to criticise States who adopt such weapons. O n e may deplore the scientists who use their talents and knowledge to develop such weapons and, even more, the companies and States which encourage them to d o so. However, the use of unethical weapons is clearly incompatible with the basic principles of ethics of warfare, engaging the individual responsibility of those who employ such weapons in combat as well as for their superiors. Apart from specific concerns about illegal chemical and biological war­ fare, and the serious problems of landmines, there has been less debate about weapons: problems in the decade before the turn of the millennium have concerned more questions of methods, especially those affecting civilians, than questions of weapons. Even the discussion about landmines

CONCLUSIONS

437

concerned more the perhaps unintended effect such weapons have on civilians, than the weapons as such: it was again, m o r e a reflection on methods of warfare. Recent debate has thus increasingly focused on civil­ ians and on certain methods of war which appear unacceptable with regard to civilians. The interrelationship between weapons and methods is notice­ able in the discussion on landmines which international condemnation rapidly outlawed for anti-personnel purposes. Although some major States did not follow suit, the trend is clearly to further protect civilians who now form over 90 per cent of the victims of war. It appears correct to claim that the same Law of War is applicable in all wars, even those which are 'civil wars' or 'internal wars'. Protocol I of 1977 expressly covers liberation movements, thus extending the Law of War to liberation wars. The Protocol must, mutatis mutandis^ also cover aspiring nations and other movements and groups seeking independence, and all involved in such wars must abide by the rules of warfare. Belligerent movements have, alongside States, become important units in interna­ tional society, highlighting the fragile structure of States. New developments indicate that concern for civilians may be accom­ panied by a military will to stifle humanitarian cruelties by armed force, if an oppressive regime abuses the power of government and violates h u m a n rights of its citizens. This latest development in the Law of W a r would appear to show that there are clear limits to how a sovereign State may behave and that, if it proceeds to genocide, it may be subjected to heavy military reprisals by an organisation or by other States. Numerous trends thus indicate a shifting of focus in international society from States to groups and individuals, both insofar as protection of inter­ ests and rights is concerned and as regards obligations of such subjects. Thus, in the Law of War, increased concern about treatment of civilians, prisoners of war and detainees of regular or irregular forces, is coupled with increasing duties on the part of such individuals to comply, on their side, with the rules of the Law of War. By clinging to the State paradigm in a war situation, and by alleging that liberation movements are not 'subjects' of the system, one will only reach the result that States, but not insurgents and liberation movements, are b o u n d to respect rules of ethics and basic rules of warfare. The time has come to recognise that all parties in any war, whether States or not, are b o u n d by the basic tenets of the Law of War. In the field of protection of individuals from certain warfare methods

CONCLUSIONS

438

and in the field of humanitarian law there is considerable agreement that international law now incorporates n u m e r o u s provisions in unratified treaties. For example, a book devised for military commanders of various levels in Sweden to ascertain the applicable rules of international law in war includes references to rules o n personal protection under the Additional Protocols of 1977 as if they were already part of general international law.

2

This is probably the correct position, although there will be an area of doubt with regard to rules on certain indiscriminate weapons. The position in law will obviously be strengthened by further accession to the Protocols, especially in view of probable further adherence by States. The United Kingdom has recently ratified the Protocols. The Law of War is remarkably consolidated. It does not consist of any elusive 'customary' rules but rather more of universally evident rules on ethics, humanity and civilised standards, binding by c o m m o n recognition. The Law of War is well accepted to be binding on all belligerents and combatants and in great part rules are not subject to unilateral abrogation, as was shown in the War Crimes Trials. There are certain standards from which n o one must deviate and in this respect as well the Law of War presents different characteristics than international law in general. The Law of War has the individual as its exclusive focus and the rationale for all its rules is derived from a c o m m o n agreement to keep compulsory standards of behaviour. The Law of War has had considerable impact on the law of treaties, seriously questioning whether States and organisations are the only entities endowed with treaty-making power. New methods of warfare widen the circle of partners by allowing units such as liberation movements to deposit signatures and 'ratifications' to treaties. Other treaties, such as the Conven­ tional Weapons Convention, provide explicitly for the treaty-making power of liberation movements, peculiarly ignored by textbooks, although this development represents one of the most significant changes in interna­ tional society. States accept that rules of the Law of War bind all, even third parties; this is clear from the n u m e r o u s War Crimes Trials. States may seek, at the same time as they accept the rules of the Law of War as peremptory rules, to safeguard their national interests by clauses on denunciation. Such clauses, 2

Wulf, Handbok i folkrittt under krig, passim.

CONCLUSIONS

439

however, are incompatible with any claim that rules are 'generally binding' and are therefore probably ineffective: rules, which are found in everyone's 'conscience' cannot be denounced. There seems to be a constant contradic­ tion between the interests of States and the interests of the individual. But for the most part, there is an overwhelming presumption, well supported in case law, that States, groups and individuals, are b o u n d by the core of the Law of War in its totality and that they cannot denounce the general rules. When we say 'in its totality' n o doubt many will argue that there will always be refinements and details by which not all States can be b o u n d in the absence of specific consent. Yet, the core of the Law of War consists of less than that and it is only the totality of the 'core' by which parties are b o u n d . The basic rules are very simple: they are rules on exemptions from attacks on civilians and those hors de combat,

prohibition of indiscriminate

weapons, a rule which really only follows from the first; and rules on assistance to those who are wounded or in need of help, based on the rudimentary principle of reciprocity. But it is not only States which are b o u n d by the Law of War. By reason of equality of belligerence nations and movements fighting for independence are also bound. States have feared that any such admission would give such groups an undeserved 'standing' which could endanger the security of the State. But this is misconceived. It is the Law of W a r that would impose far-reaching duties on such belligerents as breakaway provinces, aspiring nations, liberation movements and guerillas, and it is in the interest of States to allow for the formalisation of accession to treaties on the Law of War. This has already been achieved in the field of the Conventional Weapons Convention and in Protocol I of 1977. That individuals are bound is clearly shown in the War Crimes Trials and in this field, too, there is a sharp contrast between real practical attitudes and practices in war and the theoretical presentation of international law in most textbooks. Con­ trary to what such books claim, individuals are clearly direct bearers of international rights and obligations under international law and, in the realm of the Law of War, this is particularly evident. The more rules are laid down and codified, the more they will crystallise a pattern of behaviour for States and groups. For example, at the time of their adoption, the Hague Regulations of 1907 may have represented a major advance on existing international law. But by 1939, that is to say within thirty-two years, they were held to have become binding u p o n all

CONCLUSIONS

440

members of international society, even of those which had not adhered to them, as they were 'declaratory of the laws and customs of war'.

3

The tendency to consider conventions on the Law of War as gradually being absorbed into 'general' international law, binding even on non­ parties to the treaties, is also reflected in the adoption of certain Resolutions of the General Assembly pronouncing on the state of law as it stands. Certainly, the basic tenets of the Law of War on discrimination between military and civilians, the rules of proportionality and the rule of humanity to victims of war form part of general international law, binding on States, liberation movements and individuals alike. The application of these prin­ ciples inevitably leads to questions of legality about the use of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction: such weapons violate all these time-honoured principles and, like the First World War gas methods, may even pose a danger to the attacking State in adverse wind conditions, even if there is n o counter-attack. The way that belligerent groups are treated in State practice and, in particular, with respect to the Law of War, raises serious misgivings as to whether the 'fundamental* principles on which international law, accord­ ing to most, is said to rest, are correct. A close scrutiny of the Law of W a r thus seems to suggest that it is not true that States (and inter­ governmental organisations) are the only subjects of international law: it is not true that only States (and organisations) conclude treaties; it is not true that only States wage wars; it is not true that international law does not apply, without transformation, in the internal sphere of States; and finally, 'customary law' which, in the field of Law of War is of a prevailing negative nature, relying as it does on non-action rather than action of belligerents, does not appear to furnish any valid legal foundation of relevant rules. Another area of great change in international law and international relations is the new impact of articles forbidding force in the UN Charter, particularly article 2(4). The Charter forbids the aggressive use of force, but only between States: force against or by insurgents is not prohibited under the Charter. There is a tentative development of international law, possibly extending the application of the prohibition of force, to restrain the use of force against insurgents on the basis of h u m a n rights. This development would, for example, explain certain attitudes to the events in South Africa 3

See the Statute of the Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, AJ1L 1947, 249.

CONCLUSIONS

441

before black majority rule. The démocratisation of international society has furthermore led to worldwide protests against genocidal and brutal practi­ ces in certain States: by fierce sanctions such oppressive regimes are grad­ ually forced into more law-abiding behaviour. There is a corresponding growth of sympathy for insurgents who have considerable popular support or represent a definable minority, or, indeed, majority. Such movements receive gradual protection under international law by h u m a n rights which restrain the type and intensity of force used against them, and by emerging rules of democracy which legitimise certain claims for autonomy if not for independence. There is also growing sympathy for groups or 'nations' which strive for greater a u t o n o m y and there is an outcry when such movements are stamped out or when gross h u m a n rights violations take place targeting such movements, as in Kosovo or in other repressed areas. There is equal international revulsion when former host States seek to reverse the newly acquired independence as in East Timor. Groups and individuals now enjoy direct protection under international law which demonstrates the respect all States must show all individuals, their own citizens - on whose consent the State is dependent as well as those of a former nation, previously within their borders, or, indeed, aliens present in their territory. Many violations of the Law of War are punished as war crimes. During the last decade it has become apparent that international society no longer will tolerate the barbaric behaviour of States or insurgents. Nor will the world stand by passively to witness a State suppressing movements for h u m a n rights or increased autonomy. The intervention by NATO in Kosovo, and of an international force in East Timor, furthermore shows that, should the United Nations prove itself unwilling or unable to act in such a situation, another grouping of States may take its place in order to proceed to forceful action. In such an instance NATO, essentially a defence alliance, widened its mandate to supplant the ailing United Nations by an informal revision of its own rules. In East Timor, the UN rapidly delegated the task of intervention to a force under Australian c o m m a n d . On the other hand, it is becoming clear that international society will allow and condone the shifting of the powers of the UN to other structures to uphold international peace and security, and, in particular, to prevent ongoing gross violations of h u m a n rights and of humanitarian law. This is a new and dramatic deviation from the State-centred paradigm of earlier decades: the reserved domain, that is to say the area over which a State has

442

CONCLUSIONS

exclusive rights, has been severely reduced and no longer allows any treatment the State sees appropriate for its own citizens: if the State oversteps the limits set by international law, repercussions may follow, if necessary by armed force. Sovereignty has thus been severely reduced and the notion of the 'reserved domain* has a new meaning. Many writers on international law accept that rules on warfare, humani­ tarian rules and h u m a n rights in general, are 'binding', even outside treaties and even on individuals, although they are sometimes at a loss to explain why. But there is ample evidence that individuals, both with regard to the Law of War as well as with regard to h u m a n rights, are, without any State as intermediary, direct subjects of international law. Individuals do have direct rights under international law but also corresponding obligations. If writers of textbooks on international law were to accept this simple obser­ vation of political reality, they would realise that the rules of the interna­ tional legal system and of the Law of War in particular have binding effect on all.

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443

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446

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448

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449

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450

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452

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Carlton, D., The Dynamics of the Arms Race, London, 1975 Carlton, D. and Schaerf, C. (eds.)> Reassessing Arms Control, London, 1985 Carnahan, B. M., 'The law of land mine warfare, Protocol II to the U N Convention', 105 MilLR, 1984, 73 'Lincoln, Lieber and the laws of war: the origins and limits of the principle of military necessity', AJIL, 1998, 213ff Carnegie, A. R., 'Jurisdiction over violations of the laws and customs of war', 29 BYIL, 1963 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (ed.), The Control of Chemical and Biological Weapons, New York, 1971 Chemical Weapons and Chemical Arms Control, New York, 1978 Carrillo Salcedo, J. A., 'Consideraciones sobre el fundamento, naturaleza y significado de la operaciones de la Naciones Unidas destinadas al mantenimiento de la paz', REDI, 1965 Casanovas la Rosa, O., 'La reglementacion internacional de los conflictos armados', in D. de Velasco (ed.), 1, Derecho internacional publico, n.p., 1980 Casas, V., 'El estatuto juridico-internacional de los mercenaries', 77 REDI, 1977, 143 Cassese, A., 'Means of warfare, the present and the emerging law', 12 RBDI, 1976, 143 'The prohibition of indiscriminate means of warfare', in R. J. Akkerman, P. J. van Kreiken and C. O. Pannenborg (eds.), Declarations on Principles, a Quest for Universal Peace, Leiden, 1977 'Mercenaries, lawful combatants or war criminals?' ZaöRVR, 1980, 1 Violence et droit dans un monde divisé, Paris, 1990 Castberg, F., Neutralitet,

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453

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456

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Leiden, 1965 'Belligerent occupation and human rights', 8 IYHR, 1971, 107 'Another step in codifying the laws of war', YHR, 1974, 288 'The new Geneva Protocols: a step forward or backward?' YHR, 1979, 267 War, Aggression and Self-Defence, 2nd edn, Cambridge, 1994 Dinstein, Y. (ed.), War Crimes in International Law, Leiden, 1996 Dixon, A. C. and Heilbrunn, O., Partisanen, Strategie und Taktik des Guerillakrieges, Frankfurt, 1956 Dobson, C , The Falklands Conflict, London, 1982 Dollot, R., 'Essai sur la neutralité permanente', 67 RCADI, 1939, i, 1 Dominicé, C , 'La notion de caractère ennemi des biens privés dans la guerre sur terre', diss., Geneva, 1961 'Observations sur les droits de l'Etat victime d'un fait internationalement illicite', in IHEI (ed.), 2 Droit international, Paris, 1981-2 'La personnalité juridique internationale du CICR', in Etudes Pictet, Geneva, 1984,663 Domestici-Met, M. J., 'Aspects juridiques récents de l'assistance humanitaire', AFDI, 1989, 117ff Domke, M., Trading with the Enemy in World War II, New York, 1943 Trading with the Enemy and the Control of Alien Property, New York, 1947 'The War Claims Act of 1962', AJIL, 1963, 354 Donelan, M., 'Grotius and the image of war', 12 Millennium, 3, Autumn 1983 Dorandeu, H., La fin de Vètat de guerre sans traité de paix, Montepellier, 1965 Dougherty, J. E., Arms Control and Disarmament,

the Critical Issues, 1966

Douglas, J. J., 'Counter-insurgency: a permitted intervention?' MilLR,

July

1964 Downey, W. G., 'Captured enemy property, booty of war and seized enemy

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457

property, 44 A//L, 1950, 488 'The law of war and military necessity', 47 AJIL, 1953, 251 Draper, G. I. A. D., The Red Cross Conventions, London, 1958 'Penitential discipline and public wars in the Middle Ages', 1 IRRC, 1961, 4 'The legal limitations upon the employment of weapons by the United Nations Force in the Congo', 12 ICLQ, 1963, 387 'The Geneva Conventions of 1949', 114 RCADI, 1965, i, 57 'The interaction of Christianity and chivalry in the historical development of the Law of War', 5 IRRC, 1965, 3 'The legal classification of belligerent individuals', in Centre Henri Rolin (éd.), Le droit humanitaire et conflits armés, Brussels, 1970, 149 'The relationship between the human rights regime and the law of armed conflict', 1 YHR, 1971, 193 'The status of combatants and the question of guerilla warfare', 45 BYIL, 1971, 173 'Combatant status, the historical perspective', 2 RDPMDG, 1972, 135 'The People's Republic of China and the Red Cross', in A. Cohen (ed.), China's Practice of International Law: Some Case Studies, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1972 'The implementation and enforcement of the Geneva Convention of 1949 and the two Additional Protocols of 1977', RCADI, 1979, 9 Dubner, B. H., The Law of International Sea Piracy, The Hague, 1980 Duculeco, V., 'Effet de la reconnaissance de l'état de belligérance par les tiers, y compris les organisations internationales, sur le statut juridique des conflits armés à caractère non international', 79 RGDIP, 1975, 125 Dull, P. S. and Unemura, M. T., The Tokyo Trials, University of Michigan, 1962 Dunbar, N. C. H , 'Military necessity in war crimes trials', BYIL, 1952, 442 Duner, B., Military Intervention in Civil Wars, Stockholm, 1985 Military Intervention in Civil Wars, the 1970 s, London, 1985 Dunshee de Abranches, C. A., Prosericao das armas nucleares, Rio de Janeiro, 1964 Dupaquier, J. F. (éd.), La justice international face au drame rwandais, Karthala, 1996 Dupuy, P. M., 'Après la guerre du Golfe', RGDIP, 1991, 62Iff Dupuy, R. J., 'Agression indirecte et intervention solicité à propos de l'affaire libanaise', AFDI, 1959, 431 Dupuy, R. J. and Leonetti, A., 'La notion de conflit armé à caractère non international', in A. Cassese (éd.), The New Humanitarian Law of Armed Conflict, Naples, 1979 Dupuy, T. N. and Hammerman, G. M. (eds.), A Documentary History of Arms Control and Disarmament, New York, 1973

45»

SELECT

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Durand, A., Histoire du Comité International

de la Croix Rouge, de Sarajevo à

Hiroshima, Geneva, 1978 Eagleton, C., T h e attempt to define war', IC, 1930, 599 T h e form and function of the declaration of war\ AJIL, 1938, 19 Egner, D. O., Shank, E. B., Wargovitch, M. J. and Tiedemann, A. F., A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Evaluation of Less Lethal Wars, Maryland, 1973 Ehrhardt, A., Kleinkrieg, geschichtliche Erfahrungen und künftige Mögligkeiten, Potsdam, 1935 Eide, A., 'Indre uroligheter og innblandning utenfra\ Tidskrift for

Retsvitenskap,

1965, 1 'Humanitet i vaepnet kamp? Krigets folkrerett under revisjon', Internasjonal Politikk, 1973, 341 Eide, A. and Marek, T., Problems of Contemporary Einhorn, R. J., Negotiation

Militarism, London, 1980

from Strength: Leverage in US-Soviet

Arms

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Negotiations, New York, 1985 El Hinnawi, E. E., Nuclear Energy and the Environment, Oxford, 1980 Ellis, J., A Short History of Guerilla Warfare, London, 1975 Elman, S., 'Prisoners-of-war under the Geneva Conventions, based on Public Prosecutor v; Koi and associated appeals', 18 ICLQ, 1969, 178 Enache-Brown, C. and Fried, A., 'Universal crime, jurisdiction and duty: the duty of aut dedere aut punirë,

McGill Law Journal, October 1998,613ff

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Erich, R., 'La question des zones demilitarises', RCADI, 1929, i, 591 Nägra folkrättsliga

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1936 Eroglu, La représentation internationale en vue de protéger les intérêts des belligérants, Neuchâtel, 1949 Esgain, A. and Soif, W. A., 'The 1949 Geneva Conventions relative to the treatment of prisoners-of-war', 41 North Carolina LR, 1963, 537 Eudes, D., Les Kopetanios, la guerre civile grecque 1943-1949, Paris, 1979 Euler, A., Die Atomwaffe im Luftkriegsrecht, Cologne, 1960 Eustathiades, C , 'Quelques aspects de la jurisprudence concernant les criminels de guerre, l'exception des ordres reçus et autres moyens de defense similaires', in 2 Festschrift Lawn, 1953, 395 'La définition de l'aggression adoptée aux Nations Unies et la legitime défense', Revue hellénique de droit international,

1975, 1

Evans, A. and Murphy, J. F., Legal Aspects of International

Terrorism, Lexington,

1978 Evrard, E., 'OMS: Médicin militaire et Conventions de Genève', RDPMDG, 1972, 15

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459

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46o

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Fischer, J. B., Incendiary Warfare, New York, 1945 Fitzmaurice, G., 'Some aspects of modern contraband control and the law of prize', BY IL, 1945, 73 'The juridical clauses of the Peace Treaties', 73 RCADI, 1948, ii, 255 Fleck, D., 'Die rechtliche Garantien des Verbots von unmittelbaren Kampf­ handlungen gegen Zivilpersonen', RDPMDG, (ed.), Beiträge zur Weiterentwicklung

1966, 9 7 - 8

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Washington, DC, 1942 Forlati Picchio, L., La sanzione nel diritto internazionale, Forndran, E., Rüstungskontrolle,

Milan, 1974

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rüstung, Bonn, 1977 Forsythe, D. P., 'The 1974 diplomatic conference on humanitarian law: some observations', 69 AJIL, 1975, 77

SELECT

46I

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Politics and the ICRQ Baltimore, 1977

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383 Freedman, L., 'Britain and the arms trade', International Affairs, July 1978 Britain and Nuclear Weapons, London, 1981 The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy, London, 1981 Arms Control, Management

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und gerichlichte Bestrafung von

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Vienna, 1948 Freymond, J., 'Aid to the victims in the civil war in Nigeria', 19 IRRC, 1970, 65 'Confronting total war, a "global" humanitarian policy', 67 AJIL, 1973, 672 Guerre, revolutions, Croix Rouge, reflexions sur le role du CICR, Geneva, 1976 Fried, H. E., 'International law prohibits the first use of nuclear weapons', RBDI, 1981-2, 1,33 Friedmann, L., The Law of War: a Documentary Frohwein, J., 'Völkerrechtliche

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462

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Garcia Arias, L., 'El concepto de guerra y la denominada guerra fria' and 'Sobre la legalidad de la guerra moderna', in Le guerra moderna y sa organización internaáonaU Madrid, 1962 Garcia, L. R., 'La población civil y la guerra moderna', REDI, 1953,325 Garcia-Mora, M. R., International Law and Asylum as a Human Right, Washington, DC, 1956 Garcia Robles, A., 'The Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America (Treaty of Tlatelolco)', SIPRI Yearbook, 1969/70, 218 Gardot, A., 'Le droit de la guerre dans l'oeuvre des capitaines français du XVIe siècle', 72 RCADI, 1948, i, 393 Garner, J. W., 'Some questions of international law in the European war, blockades', AHL, 1915 'Punishment of offenders against the laws and customs of war', AJIL, 1920, 70 International Law and the World War, 2 vols., London, 1929 'Violation of maritime law by the Allied Powers during the World War', 25 AJÍL, 1931,26 Garnett, J. (ed.), Theories of Peace and Security, London, 1970 Gasparini Alves, P. and Cipollone, C. B., Nuclear Weapon Free Zones in the 21st Century, Geneva, 1997 Gathings, J. A., International Law and American Treatment of Alien Enemy Property, Washington, DC, 1940 Gavelle, J. F., 'The Falkland (Malvinas) Islands: an international law analysis of the dispute between Argentina and Great Britain', 107 MilLR, 1985, 5 Genot, G., 'Quelques garantines nouvelles offertes au combattant capturé', 13 RBDI, 1977, 298 George, A. et al, The Limits of Coercive Diplomacy, Boston, 1971 George, A. Avoiding

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der

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593 Glass, H. B., 'The biology of nuclear war', in C. A. Barker (ed.), Problems of World Disarmament,

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Glasstone, S. and Doland, P. J. (eds.), The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, 3rd edn, Washington, DC, 1977 Glucksmann, A., Le discours de la guerre, Paris, 1979 Glueck,S., The Nuremberg Trial and Aggressive War, New York, 1946, reprint, 1966 Goldblat, J., Agreement for Arms Control, a Critical Survey, London, 1982 Essays on Arms Control, Oslo, 1994 Gompert, D. C. et al. (eds.), Nuclear Weapons and World Politics, New York, 1977 Gonsalves, E. L., 'De Protocollen van Geneve en de verbentende bescherming van gewonden, zicken en gemeeskundige diensten', 17 Militair

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464

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LJ, 1970, 37

Greenspan, M., Modern Law of Land Warfare, London, 1959 Grenander, D. K., Om de folkrättsliga villkoren för rätt att i krig betraktas som soldat, Stockholm, 1877 Grob, O., The Reliability of War and Peace: a Study in Law, History and Politics, New Haven, 1949 Das Recht der Kriegsgefangenen

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War, London, 1968

Guerilla Warfare, London, 1969 Pasajes de la guerra revolucionaria, Mexico, 1969 Guggenheim, P., 'La sécurité collective et le problème de la neutralité', ASDI, 1945 Guillaume, C. and Levasseur, G., Terrorisme international, Paris, 1977 Guillaume, G., 'Terrorisme et le droit international', RCADI, 1989, iii, 289fif Gurlt, E., Zur Geschichte der internationalen

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465

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1949 Hecht, B., Perfidy, New York, 1961 Herczegh, G., 'La protection de l'environnement et le droit humanitaire', in Pictet Etudes, Geneva, 1984, 725 Herczegh, T., 'Recent problems in international humanitarian law', in G. Harsatzi (ed.), Questions of International Law, Budapest, 1977 Herrioit, C. E., 'Biological warfare', in C. A. Barker (ed.), Problems of World Disarmament,

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Hersh, S. M., Chemical and Biological Warfare, New York, 1968 Herzog, J. B., 'Les principes juridiques de la répression des crimes de guerre', 60 Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Strafrecht 1946, 282 Heydte, A. v. d., Die Geburtsstunde des souveränen Staats, Frankfurt, 1952 'Atomare Kriegführung und Völkerrecht', 9 AVR, 1961-2, 162 'Grundbegriffe des modernen Kriegsrechts', 56 Die Friedenswarte, 1961-6, 333 'Le problème que pose l'existence des armes de destruction massive et la distinction entre objects militaires et non-militaires', Rapport in Institut de Droit International, 52 Annuaire, 1967, i 'Humanisierung des Kriegsrechtes? Kritische Bemerkungen zu den Genfer Vertragsentwurf von 1977', 26 Europäische Wehrkunde, 1977, 550 Heyns, H., Die Anwendung von militärischen Repressalien, Kiel, 1938 Hiebel, J. L., Les droits humains de l'assistance spirituelle dans les conflits armés, Strasbourg, 1976 Higgins, P. A., 'Submarine warfare', BYIL, 1920-1, 149

466

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in World

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Military Doctrines* Santa

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Inglis, D. R., 'Nuclear warfare', in C. A. Barker (ed.), Problems of World

Disarma­

ment, Boston, 1963 Institut Henri Dunant and UNESCO (ed.), Les dimensions internationales

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468

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469

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470

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1919 Leiden, C. and Schnitt, K. (eds.), The Politics of Violence: Revolution in the Modern World, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1968 Le Quang, G., Le guerre d'Indochine 1964-1973, Paris, 1973 Lescure, K., Le Tribunal pénal pour Yex-Yugoslavie, Paris, 1994 Levie, H. S., 'Employment of prisoners-of-war', 57 AJIL, 1963, 318 'Some major inadequacies in the existing law relating to the protection of individuals during armed conflict', in D. T. Fox (ed.), The Cambodian

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474

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475

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476

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SELECT

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486

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Staaten, Vienna, 1920 Verhoeven,)., 'Etats allies ou Nations Unies: l'ONU face au conflit entre Irak et le Kuweit', AFDI, 1990, 145ff Vernant, J. (ed.), Les refugies Vapres guerre, Geneva, 1951 Verri, P., 'Consideration sur l'application dans les conflits modernes des articles 3 et 4 des Conventions de Geneve de 1949', 11 RDPMDG,

1972, 93

Verwey, W. D., Riot Control Agents and Herbicides in War, Leiden, 1977

SELECT

489

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Verzijl, J. H., Le droit des prises de la grande guerre, Leiden, 1924 Veuthey, M., 'Règles et principes de droit international humanitaire applicable dans la guérilla\ 7 RBDI, 1971, 505 'Comportement et statut des combattants', 12 RDPMDG,

1973,47

'Guerre de libération et droit humanitaire', 7 RDH, 1974, 93 'Les conflits armés de caractère non international et le droit humanitaire', in A. Cassese (ed.), Current Problems of International Law, Milan, 1975 Guérilla et droit humanitaire, Geneva, 1976, 2nd edn, Geneva, 1983 Villani, U., Lezioni su VONUela

crisi del Golfo, Bari, 1991

Vinal Casas, A., 'La conferencia diplomática de Ginebra sobre reaffirmation y el desaroilo del derecho internacional humanitario aplicable en los conflictos armados', 19 REDI, 1976, 86 'El estatudo jurídico internacional de los mercenarios', REDI, 1977 Vincent, R. J., Non-intervention

and International

Order, Princeton, 1974

Violle, J., L'espionnage militaire en temps de guerre, Paris, 1903 Vitta, E., 'Le azioni internazionali di soccoro umanitario', Studi in onore di Balladori Pallien, Milan, 1978, 658 Waldock, C. H. H., 'The release of TheAltmark's

prisoners', BYIL, 1947, 216

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Wannow, M., Das Selbstbestimmungsrecht

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Weber, M., 'Legitimacy, politics and the state', in H. Gerth and C. W. Mills (eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, New York, 1958, 77; reprinted in W. E. Connolly (ed.), Legitimacy and the State, Oxford, 1984 Webster, C. and Frankland, N., The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany 1945, 4 vols., London, 1961 Wehberg, H , Seekriegsrecht, Stuttgart, 1915 'Guerre civil et droit international', in Crise mondiale, Zurich, 1938 'L'interdiction du recours à la force', 78 RCADI, 1951 i, Iff 'La guerre civile et le droit international', 63 RCADI, 1938, ii, 127

1939-

490

SELECT

BIBLIOGRAPHY

'König Gustav Adolf und das Problem der Annexion besetzten feindlichen Gebiete', Liber amicorum Algot Bagge, Stockholm, 1956 'Die Vergleichkommissionen im modernen Völkerrecht', in Festgabe Makarov, Stuttgart, 1958, 551 Weiler, H., Vietnam, Montreux, 1969 Weill, G., Théories sur le pouvoir royal en France pendant les guerres de religion, Paris, 1892 Weizsäcker, C. F. (ed.), Kriegsfolgen und Kriegsverhütung, n.p., 1971 Weller, J., Weapons and Tactics, London, 1966 Weller, M., Iraq and Kuwait: The Hostilities and Their Aftermath, Cambridge, 1991 Wells, D. A., War Crimes and Laws of War, New York, 1981; 2nd edn, Maryland, 1991 Werner, G., 'Les prisonniers de guerre', 21 RCADI, 1928, i, 1 Westing, A. H., Weapons of Mass Destruction and the Environment, London, 1977 Westmann, C. G., Folkrätten och den neutrala handeln, Stockholm, 1924 White, G. (ed.), The Environmental White, N.D., Keeping

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éventuelle

de missiles cruises et pershing en Europe, Brussels, 1984,111 Wilhelm, R. J., 'Problèmes relatifs à la protection de la personne humaine par le droit international dans les conflits armés ne présentant pas un caractère international', 137 RCADI, 1972, iii, 311 Williams, S., The International erty, a Comparative

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Wilson, H. A., International

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Liberation

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SELECT

491

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wright, Q., 'When does war exist?' 26 AJIL, 1932, 362 'The law of the Nuremberg trial', AJIL, 1947 'The outlawry of war and the Law of War', 47 AJIL, 1953, 38, 365 'The new law of war and neutrality', in Varia Juris Gentium Liber

Amicorum

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Roda Korset, Stockholm, 1984 XXX, 'La notion juridique de la guerre, le criterion de la guerre', 57 RGDIP, 1953, 177 Yakemchouk, R., Les transferts internationaux

d'armes de guerre, Paris, 1980

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Law in Honour of

Krishna Rao, Leiden, 1976 Zayas, A. M., Die Wehrmachtuntersuchungstelle, Völkerrechtverletzungen

Deutsche Ermittlungen über Alliirte

im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Munich, 1980

Zemanek, K., 'Das Kriegs- und Humanitärrecht', in Handbuch des

Völkerrechts,

Vienna, 1983, no. 2129 Zimmer, G., Gewaltsame territorielle Veränderungen und ihre völkerrechtliche Legitimation, Berlin, 1971 Zoller, E., Peacetime Unilateral Remedies, an Analysis of Countermeasures,

New

York, 1984 Zorgbibe, C , 'De la théorie classique de la reconnaissance de belligérance à l'article 3 des Conventions de Genève', in Centre Henri Rolin (ed.), Droit

humanitaire

et conflits armés, Brussels, 1970 Laguerra civil, Barcelona, 1975 La guerre civile, Paris, 1975 Le risque de guerre, Paris, 1981 Zorn, A., Das Kriegsrecht zu Lande in seiner neuesten Gestaltung, Berlin, 1966

492

SELECT

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Zourek, J., 'La définition de l'agression en le droit international, Développements récents de la question', 92 RCADU 1957, ii, 755 'Enfin une définition de l'agression', AFDJ, 1974, 9 Vinterdiction

de Vemploie de force en droit international

Leiden, 1974

'La lutte d'un peuple en vue de faire prévaloir son désir d'auto-détermination constitue-t-elle au regard du droit international un conflit interne ou un conflit de caractère international?' in 1 Studi in onore di Manlio Udina, Milan, 1975, 895

INDEX

Abkhaz, 99 ABM Treaty (1972), 112, 174-6 Abyssinia see Italy-Abyssinia conflict (1936) Achille Lauro incident (1985), 24 Additional Protocol I see Protocol I (1977) Additional Protocol II see Protocol II (1977) Aden, 90 aerial warfare bombing see bombing chemical weapons, 284 espionage, 305 Hague Draft Rules (1923), 278-9, 280-1, 283, 284 Afghanistan Geneva Conventions (1949), 186 landmines, 227,228 Soviet Union, 80, 89 United States, 46, 53, 78, 80 UNOCHA, 228 Africa, 53, 178, 179, 379 aggression border disputes, 83 defensive, 65 definition, 66-9 General Assembly, 66, 67 Geneva Protocol (1924), 66 International Law Commission (ILC), 67 prohibition of war, 65-70 Security Council, 66,67 United Nations Charter, 69, 157 United Nations Resolutions, 67-70, 75, 83 Agreement on Prevention of Nuclear War between the United States and the Soviet Union (1973), 65 Aland Islands, 32, 171, 176 Alexander III (Orlando Bandinelli), 151 Algeria, 185-6, 200, 201, 202 alliances, prevention of war, 108 American Civil War (1861-65), 40, 44 American Convention of Human Rights, 162 Amin Dada, Idi, 93 ammunition dum-dum bullets, 153, 212, 232, 254

Lugano Conference (1976), 232 angary, 308, 360-2 Angola landmines, 227 mercenaries, 147 Union national pour l'indépendance totale d'Angola (UNITA), 186 United Nations peace-keeping, 385 animus belligerendi, 11,13 Annan, Kofi, 385, 425 Antarctic Treaty (1959), 114, 172 anticipatory action, 86-7 application of law case law, 195-7 constitutional provisions, 194-5 direct, 193-207 extended, 185-207 internal sphere, 193-207 internationalised war, 185-93 liberation see liberation movements rationale, 197-9 spatial, 168-207 traditional, 168-85 arbitration, 126 Argentina 1977 Protocols, 206 Malvinas see Falklands War (1982) Aristide, Jean Bertrand, 77, 383 armed conflict concept of war, 17-20 de minimis, 20-1 Draft Code of Offences Against the Peace and Security of Mankind (1951), 14 expeditionary forces, 20-1 independence, 18-19 institutional failures, 130 internal see internal conflict meaning, 19-20, 81 raids, 20-1 self-defence see self-defence arms trade civilian targets, 121 conventional weapons, 119-20

493

494

INDEX

arms trade {cont.) East Timor, 120, 122 government support, 111, 121 Iraq, 122 national pride, 120, 122 nuclear materials, 119 restraint, 118-23 sanctions, 121, 122 Sierra Leone, 120, 122 Third World, 119, 120 Arusha Trials see International Criminal Tribunal (Rwanda) ASEAN Declaration (1971), 178 Austria, 170, 179 Ayacucho Agreement (1974), 122 Ayub Khan, 13 Baader Meinhof Gang, 22, 56 Balkan Nuclear Free Zone, 180 Bangladesh, 186, 193,431 Barbie, Klaus, 422 Belgium, 32, 383-4 belligerents animus belligerendi, 11, 13 insurgency, 142 internal conflict, 132 liberation movements, 134 recognition, 41, 42-3, 134, 192,406 resistance movements, 139 United Nations peace-keeping, 132-3, 134 Berlin Declaration (1945), 420 Biafran War (1967-70) declaration of war, 40 Geneva Conventions (1949), 17, 186 recognition, 17,42 terminology, 44 biological weapons common background, 251 Geneva Gas Protocol (1925), 256, 258 Gulf War (1990-91), 37 history, 252 Iran-Iraq War (1980-88), 261-2 lethal, 236 United Nations Resolutions, 258 Biological Weapons Convention (1972) arms control, 159,436 bacteria/viruses, 262 denunciation, 391 provisions, 259-62 research and development, 262 Review Conferences, 261, 262 Security Council, 262 separate treatment, 263 solidarity assistance, 262 use of weapons, 260 VEREX, 261 verification, 260-1, 262 Bismarck, Otto Eduard Leopold, 361

blockades, 5, 40,312-14 Bodin, Jean, 3 Boer War (1899-1902), 252 bombing see also aerial warfare area bombing, 284-5 Hague Convention XIV (1907), 212 Iran-Iraq War (1980-88), 288-9 Kosovo conflict (1999), 70, 93-4, 96, 386 military necessity, 284 open towns, 278-9 Protocol I (1977), 285 Vietnam War (1964-75), 285 warnings, 284 World War II (1939-45), 284-5, 288, 300 booby traps, 197,218, 220, 221-2, 223 booty, 350-1 borders see also territory international recognition, 83 Bosnian War (1991-95) see also Yugoslavia Dayton Accord (1996), 123, 125, 359, 374, 386, 387, 389, 425 detainees, 328 internal conflict, 73, 328 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 417-18 landmines, 37, 227 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), 386 places of worship, 296 prisoners of war, 328, 332, 371, 426 safety zones, 177, 299, 382 Srebrenica, 177, 299 United Nations peace-keeping, 81, 88, 382 Brazil, 31 breach of law anterior breach, 398, 413 compensation, 416-17 Germany, 402 grounds for deviations, 393-400 legal action, 417-19 military action, 417 necessity see military necessity repression of breaches, 399-400 respondeat superior, 400, 427-30 sanctions, 414, 415 state responsibility, 413-19 Briand-Kellogg Pact (1928), 12, 63-4, 157 Brussels Declaration (1874), 278, 407 Bryan Treaties (1913-14), 62, 125 Buenos Aires Convention (1936), 66 Burundi, 193, 382 Byelorussia, 31, 150 Cairo Declaration (1964), 178 Cambodia, 227, 384, 385 Canada, 228, 229, 272

INDEX

case law see also International Court of Justice (ICJ) judicial failure, 106-7 uncertainty, 195-7 Casimir III (the Great) (King of Poland), 151 Cassin, René, 162 causes of war condemnation lacking, 105-6, 415 international tensions, 104-5 judicial failure, 106-7 Chechnya, 31, 45 chemical weapons aerial warfare, 284 common background, 251 disarmament, 259 draft treaties, 263-4 Gulf War (1990-91), 37 Hague Regulations, 252, 253-4, 256, 263 herbicides, 253, 256, 257, 266 history, 252 Iran-Iraq War (1980-88), 37, 212, 253 lethal, 236, 253 non-lethal, 265, 266 Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), 266 poison gas: Boer War (1899-1902), 252; Declaration on asphyxiating gases (1899), 212, 253, 254; early rules, 253-9; Geneva Protocol see Geneva Gas Protocol (1925); Treaty of Washington (1922), 254-5; World War I (1914-18), 37, 254, 256, 440 tear gas, 253, 256, 257, 265 United Nations Resolutions, 258 Vietnam War (1964-75), 36, 253, 257, 268 Chemical Weapons Convention (1993) binary weapons, 265 denunciation, 391-2 precursors, 265 provisions, 264-6 Sweden, 265 verification, 116, 266, 368, 436 China Belgrade Embassy, 93 Japan conflict (1933), 13, 279, 253 Korean War (1950-53), 329 Kosovo conflict (1999), 93, 94 Red Cross, 193 Soviet Union, 66 Vietnam War (1964-75), 80 chivalry, 152 Churchill, Winston Spencer, 394 Ciudad Juarez, 84 civil defence, 296-7, 323-4, 397 civil war see internal conflict civilian targets arms trade, 121 casualty rates, 285, 286

495

exemptions from attack, 285-96 food see food supplies/crops Geneva Convention IV (1949), 163,181-2, 286-7 immunities, 277 incendiary weapons, 225 military objectives distinguished, 280-3 plunder/devastation, 153 Protocol I (1977), 219, 284, 287, 288 Protocol II (1977), 288 Security Council, 282 siege, 297 Tokyo Trials, 421 weapons of mass destruction, 146 Clausewitz, Carl von, 6, 18, 50, 155 Clinton, William Jefferson (Bill) (42nd President), 114, 374 colonies decolonisation, 29-30, 33, 431 France, 33 combatants clandestine movements, 138 definition, 26 guerilla warfare, 141-7, 149 hors de combat see HOTS de combat irregular forces, 138-47 levee en masse, 138, 140, 142 mercenaries, 21, 147-8 militia, 137, 138 notion, 135-48 parachutists, 288-9 partisans, 139 potential, 134, 135-48 POWs see prisoners of war principle of distinction, 135, 141, 146, 277, 287 Protocol 11 (1977), 145-6 regular forces, 135-7, 139 resistance see resistance movements spies see espionage status: legal effects, 148-50; qualifications, 135-48, 327 uniforms/insignia, 136, 141, 142, 143, 146, 148 unlawful, 136-7, 148 volunteers, 21, 137, 138-40 weapons carried openly, 136, 140-1, 142, 143 wounded see wounded Commission for Conventional Armaments, 234 Committee of the Conference on Disarmament (CCD) biological weapons, 263 chemical weapons, 259 environmental weapons, 268, 269, 270 tension diffusion, 116 weapons of mass destruction, 233

496

INDEX

communications effects of war, 344-5 International Telecommunications Union (ITU), 129, 345, 349 post see postal services compensation, breach of law, 416-17 complexity of law, 156 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) (1996), 114, 116, 250 computer network attacks (CNA), 273 concept of war armed conflict, 17-20 declaration see declaration of war definition, 5-26 international society, changes, 27-38 internationalised war, 46-9, 329 law of peace suspended, 7 liberation see liberation wars methodological war, 58-61 nature of war, 3-5 peaceful relations severed, 6 preemptive intervention, 57 programmatic wars, 49-57 secession see secession subjectivity, 13-14, 20, 329 terrorism, 21-5 traditional views, 6-9 types of war, 38-61 unequal wars, 57-8 condemnation General Assembly, 372 Iraq, 106, 288,414-15 lacking, 105-6,415 Conference for Disarmament environmental weapons, 268, 293 General Assembly, 116-17, 164 landmines, 227 nuclear weapons, 180 radiological weapons, 250-1 reduced importance, 110-11,117 space weapons, 274 weapons of mass destruction, 233 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 98, 99, 117, 178 Conferences on the Reaffirmation and Development of Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflict, 54,214,215 Congo, 80, 186, 202, 378, 380 consent abstract, 89 continuous, 246 jus cogens, 89 Security Council, 84 states, 88-90 United Nations peace-keeping, 89, 384 volenti non fit injuria, 88 Constantinople Convention (1888), 171, 313

content of law, 156-8 contraband absolute/conditional, 355-6 continuous voyage, 357 hostile destination, 357 knowledge, 356-7 law of prize, 355-8 oil, 358 World War I (1914-18), 356 contracts, effects of war, 362-6 Convention for the Definition of Aggression (1933), 66 Convention on Excessively Injurious Chem ical Weapons ( 1931 ), 212-13 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1966), 317 Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity (1968), 422 Convention on Treaties by International Organisations, 406 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951),317 conventional weapons arms trade, 119-20 disarmament, 115, 214, 234 Lucerne Conference see Lucerne Conferences Lugano Conference see Lugano Conference (1976) meaning, 214 restrictions, 214-33 small calibre weapons, 231-2 weapons of mass destruction, 214 Conventional Weapons Convention ( 1981 ) booby traps, 197, 218, 220, 221-2, 223 delayed action devices, 222 denunciation, 392-3 disarmament, 115, 159 environmental weapons, 267 indirect obligation, 215-16,408 insurgency, 191 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 164 international conference, 55, 101, 215 liberation movements, 52, 55, 101, 190-1, 197-8, 392, 438, 439 non-state parties, 408, 409 Protocol I, fragmentation weapons, 216-17 Protocol II, landmines see landmines Protocol III, incendiaries see incendiary weapons Protocol IV, blinding lasers, 226-7 reciprocity, 403 reservations, 52 Review Conference (1995), 219

INDEX

structure, 215 third parties, 405 treacherous weapons, 218-23, 393 United Nations peace-keeping, 392, 393 Corfu, 171 Costa Rica, 71-2 Croatia see also Yugoslavia cultural property, 106, 177, 279 Dubrovnik bombardment (1990), 106, 177, 279, 299 embargoes, 415 European Union, 98 internal conflict, 46, 328 internationalised war, 48 Krajina, 382, 388 refugees, 359 restitution, 359-60 secession, 18, 30, 31, 57, 98 self-determination, 194 United Nations, 98 United States, 388, 389 Western Slavonia, 388 Cuba, 76, 313 cultural property booty, 351 Croatia, 106, 177, 279 Hague Convention (1954), 14, 177, 282, 294-5, 296, 302, 351,396 internal conflict, 295-6 internationalised war, 294-5 liberation wars, 294-5 military necessity, 396 places of worship, 294, 296 Protocol I (1977), 294-5 Protocol 11 (1977), 295-6 reprisals, 302 UNESCO, 106, 177, 279, 294 customary law, nuclear weapons, 241-2 Dagestan, 31 Dallaire, General, 384 dangerous forces, 267-8, 293 Dayton Accord (1996), 123, 125, 359, 374, 386, 387, 389, 425 de Gaulle, Charles, 144 de minimis rule, 20-1, 26, 56 declaration of war American Civil War (1861-65), 40 animus belligerendi, 11, 13 Biafran War (1967-70), 40 Geneva Conventions (1949), 14 Hague Convention III (1907), 10 League of Nations Covenant, 12 relevance, 9-17 retrospective, 11 state of war, 11 subjectivity, 13-14

497

ultimatum, 10, 11 war not fought, 7 declarations, adherence, 185-7, 192 decolonisation, 29-30, 33, 431 defectors, 330 demilitarised areas Mediterranean, 176 open towns see open towns outer space, 172-6 research and development, 175 safety zones, 177, 299, 382 spatial application, 172-8 démocratisation international society, 27-36 intervention, 89 self-determination, 29-35 denuclearised zones, 178-80 denunciation Biological Weapons Convention (1972), 391 Chemical Weapons Convention (1993), 391-2 Conventional Weapons Convention ( 1981 ), 392-3 Geneva Conventions (1949), 411 human rights, 367, 398, 413 military necessity, 397 detainees, 328, 336-9 deterrence, 245, 435 Diana, Princess of Wales, 111, 227 disarmament CCD see Committee of the Conference on Disarmament chemical weapons, 259 contemporary position, 110-16 conventional weapons, 115, 214, 234 Document on disarmament, 117 early attempts, 109-10 ECDC, 116 ENCD, 259 General Assembly, 110, 117 Geneva conference see Conference for Disarmament Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR), 118 nuclear weapons, 111-14,241 prevention of war, 109-16 St Petersburg Declaration (1868), 109 Soviet Union, 110, 259 stabilisation, 109 treaty-limited equipment (TLE), 115 verification, 115-16 Disarmament Conference (1930), 257 Dominican conflict (1965), 76-7 Draft Code of Offences Against the Peace and Security of Mankind (1951), 14 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance ( 1923), 63

498

INDEX

drafting, participating bodies, 163-4 dum-dum bullets, 153, 212, 232, 254 East Timor arms trade, 120, 122 condemnation lacking, 106 humanitarian aid, 381 INTERFET, 388 journalists, 323 peace-keeping, 388, 441 scorched earth tactics, 44 secession, 31, 57, 124,432, 441 self-determination, 194, 344 United Nations, 99, 388, 441 economic warfare, World War II (1939-45), 309 effects of war communications, 344-5 contracts, 362-6 legal effects, 346-66 private law, 349-66 property, 349-62 requisition, 358-60 rules of war, entry into force, 346 treaties, 346-9 embargoes, 121, 415-16 entry into force, rules of war, 346 environmental damage Canada, 272 Gulf War (1990-91), 268, 272, 295-6, 416-17 nuclear installations, 268, 293 Environmental Modification Techniques Convention (1977) arms limitation, 109, 159, 213, 436 France, 269 nuclear weapons, 114 Outer Space, 174 provisions, 268-72 Review Conferences, 270-3 Security Council, 368-9 solidarity assistance, 271 unlimited duration, 368 verification, 368-9 environmental weapons dangerous forces, 267-8 defoliants, 268 international law, 272 meteorological warfare, 268 specific prohibitions, 267-8 equity, insurgency, 43 Eritrea, 84, 186 espionage aerial warfare, 305 intelligence forces, 329 prisoners of war, 328, 329 Protocol I (1977), 148 Estonia, 150

ethics general principles, 164-7, 213, 233, 412 jus in hello, 164 methods, 166 Ethiopia, 84, 381 ethnicity. 27, 32 European Atomic Energy Community, 129 European Coal and Steel Community, 128 European Community see European Union European Convention on Human Rights (1950), 161, 199,317, 373 European Defence Community, 133 European Union Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), 388 Croatia, 98 defence arm, 133-4 Eurocorps, 390 foreign policy, 108, 388, 433-4 peace-keeping, 388-9, 390 prevention of war, 128-9 Slovenia, 98 Yugoslavia, 77, 98, 129, 328-9 evaluation, Law of War, 431-42 fact-finding commissions, 371-2 Falklands War (1982) General Belgrano, 184 insurance cover, 366 prisoners of war, 331-2 recovery, 83, 84 Security Council, 84, 85 self-determination, 32 total exclusion zone, 183-4 Finland, 63, 66, 180 Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 130 food supplies/crops defoliation, 268 destruction, 290, 295, 305 scorched earth tactics, 44, 305, 395, 397 starvation see starvation forbidden weapons see also weapons asphyxiating gases, 212 blinding lasers, 226-7 booby traps, 197, 218, 220, 221-2, 223 Declaration (1874), 211 dum-dum bullets, 153, 212, 232, 254 fragmentation weapons, 216-17 Hague Regulations, 166 humanitarian rules, 213 incendiary weapons, 223-6 Iraq, 87, 111, 119, 197, 238 landmines see landmines Manu laws, 151

INDEX

resistance movements, 142 restrictions, 211-75 St Petersburg Declaration (1868), 153, 211, 231-2, 254 small calibre weapons, 231-2 treacherous weapons, 218-23, 393 treaties, 153,211 United Nations Resolutions, 213 war crimes, 421 force economic, 64 second use, 102 supplements unsatisfactory law, 154-5 United Nations Charter, 64-5, 194, 440 use limited, 62-82 Ford, Gerald Rudolph (39th President), 97 France Algeria, 202 army instructions, 153 colonies, 33 Environmental Modification Techniques Convention (1977), 269 Foreign Legion, 147 Geneva Gas Protocol ( 1925), 256 International Court of Justice (1CJ), 112, 180 nuclear weapons, 112, 180, 240, 247-8, 250 Protocol I (1977), 145, 240, 247-8 Protocol 11 (1977), 240 war crimes, 426 World War II (1939-45), 138-9, 1 3 9 ^ 0 , 144 Frederick I (Barbarossa), 252 FRELIMO, 186 French Revolution (1789), 21, 152 Gadaffi, Muammar, 157 gas see chemical weapons General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 127 General Assembly aggression, 66, 67 condemnation, 372 Conference for Disarmament conference, 116-17, 164 disarmament, 110, 117 liberation movements, 53, 54, 55, 337 liberation wars, 47, 51 Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), 53 prisoners of war, 202, 407-8 resolutions see United Nations Resolutions Geneva, law of, 158-9, 288, 318, 408 Geneva Conference (1932-33), 223 Geneva Convention (1864), 158, 326 Geneva Convention (1906), 326 Geneva Convention (1920), 376

499

Geneva Convention (1929) medical transport, 325 prisoners of war, 318, 326-7, 331-3 reprisals, 301 Spanish Civil War (1936-39), 185 Geneva Convention (1958), 231 Geneva Convention I (1949), 320, 327 Geneva Convention II (1949) armed forces, 136 shipwrecked, 310, 321, 325 Geneva Convention III (1949) combatants, 139 prisoners of war, 15, 146, 199-200, 327, 329-30, 333-4, 421-2 resistance movements, 199-200 Geneva Convention IV (1949) civil defence, 323 civilians, 163, 181-2, 286-7, 317, 318 hostages, 198 military necessity, 395-6 relief action, 298 reprisals, 301-2 women and children, 322-3 Geneva Conventions (1949) Additional Protocol I see Protocol I (1977) Additional Protocol II see Protocol II (1977) Algeria, 185-6 common article 3, 2 0 0 - 2 , 4 0 5 - 6 Congo, 186, 202 declaration of war, 14 denunciation, 411 implementation, 269-70 indirect obligation, 216 insurgency, 191 internal conflict, 17,41, 42, 200-2 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 186, 369 international conference, 201,407 irregular forces, 138 journalists, 323 liberation movements, 185, 189-90 liberation wars, 51-2 protective power system, 370 reciprocity, 403,404,410 recognition of states, 17, 192 regular forces, 136, 137 repression of breach, 399 right to life, 163 Vietnam War (1964-75), 186-7 Geneva Gas Protocol (1925) arms limitation, 109 biological weapons, 256, 258 chemical weapons, 212, 255-9, 263 France, 256 nuclear weapons, 243 reciprocity, 410

500

INDEX

Geneva Gas Protocol (1925) (com) reservations, 256,257, 402 United Kingdom, 257 United States, 256-7 Geneva Protocol ( 1924), 63,66 genocide international law, 34, 35,91 Kosovo conflict (1999), 34, 49, 51, 91, 94, 417,418 Genocide Convention (1948) application, 417 humanitarian rules, 317 liberation wars, 53 nuclear weapons, 243 reservations, 53 Georgia, 99, 379, 382, 389 Germany, 402,432 Ghali, Boutros Boutros, 98, 378, 381, 382, 383, 422 government buildings, 293-4 Gowon, Yakabu, 17 Grenada, 92 Grotius, Hugo, 10, 286 Group of 77, 53 Guatemala, 200, 381 guerilla warfare combatants, 141-7, 149 internal conflict, 39 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 144 Marxist-Leninism, 59 methodological war, 58-61 primitive methods, 37, 58-9 Protocol I (1977), 142, 143-5, 146 states, 37, 38 terrorism, 25, 59, 145 unlawful combatants, 137 urban,59 Vietnam War (1964-75), 36, 142 Gulf War (1990-91) biological weapons, 37 chemical weapons, 37 compensation, 416-17 embargoes, 415 environmental damage, 268, 272, 295-6, 416-17 preemptive intervention, 57 punitive intervention, 96 recovery, 83 Security Council, 57 Hague, law of The, 15&-9, 288, 318, 408 Hague Convention (1954), 14, 177, 282, 294-5, 296, 302, 351,396 Hague Convention I (1899), 62, 125,126,187, 375 Hague Convention III (1899), 326 Hague Convention I (1907), 62. 125, 126

Hague Convention II (1907), 63 Hague Convention III (1907), 10 Hague Convention IV (1907), 375, 395 Hague Convention V (1907), 91, 169-70 Hague Convention VIII (1907), 212, 229-30 Hague Convention IX (1907), 278 Hague Convention XI (1907), 345 Hague Convention XIV (1907), 212 Hague Draft Rules (1923) aerial warfare, 278-9, 280-1, 283, 284 military objectives, 280-1, 283 quasi-combatants, 281 Hague Regulations chemical/biological weapons, 252, 253-4, 256, 263 forbidden weapons, 166 irregular forces, 138, 139, 407 levee en masse, 140 nuclear weapons, 243 open towns, 278 perfidy, 303, 307 prisoners of war, 326, 327, 334, 376 property, 350, 358 regular forces, 135, 136, 137, 139 reservations, 332 ruses, 303 starvation, 298 unnecessary suffering, 165 Hague War Crimes Court (ICTY) see International Criminal Tribunal (Yugoslavia) Haiti, 77. 383 Harvard Draft Convention of the Rights and Duties of States (1939), 66 Havana Convention (1928), 76, 304-5, 349 Havana Convention on the Duties and Rights of States in the Event of Civil Strife (1929), 79 Helsinki Accords (1975), 117 Henry V (King of England), 287 Holbrook, Richard, 389 Holy See, 170, 191,298-9 hors de combat humanitarian rules, 288, 307, 317, 415,435, 439 parachutists, 289 Protocol I (1977), 287, 289, 318-19 hospital/medical units exemptions from attack, 290, 292-3, 324 hospital ships, 290, 292, 324, 353, 428-9 medical transport by air, 325 perfidy, 306, 307,413 personnel, 325 hostages, 198, 301 Hot Line Agreement (1971), 113, 116 hot pursuit, legitimising factors, 84 Hull, Cordell, 285

INDEX

human rights African Convention, 162 basic rights, 410-11 denunciation, 367, 398, 413 European Convention, 161, 199, 317, 373 international repercussions, 196 jus cogens, 71 Latin American Convention, 317 Northern Ireland, 198-9 Secretary General, 160 Teheran Conference (1968), 224 United Nations, 32, 162, 163, 317, 412 war-time, 161-3 humanitarian intervention illegal area, 204 legitimising factors, 92-5 United Nations, 81 United Nations peace-keeping, 381 humanitarian rules detainees, 336-9 forbidden weapons, 213 general principles, 160-3 hors de combat, 288, 307, 317, 415, 435, 439 implementation, 369-77 internal conflict, 200-2 liberation movements, 192 military necessity, 394 perfidy, 307 POWs see prisoners of war realistic meaning, 315-16 religious personnel, 326 self-determination, 203 shipwrecked, 310, 320-2, 325, 395 sick, 320-2, 326, 395 specially protected groups, 322-39 specific rules, 316-39 treatment of civilians, 316-20 women and children, 322-3 wounded see wounded Hungary Geneva Conventions (1949), 186 insurgency (1898), 72-3 uprising (1956), 373 Hussein, Saddam, 57, 111, 157, 196-7, 371-2 identification immune objectives, 277-83 Law of War, 159-63 war crimes, 419-23 weapons of mass destruction, 236-8 implementation dissemination, 377 fact-finding commissions, 371-2 humanitarian rules, 369-77 mandates, 376 mediation, 372-4 protective power system, 370-1 role of individuals, 374-7

501

verification see verification weapons conventions, 367-9 incendiary weapons air-delivered, 225-6 civilian targets, 225 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 224 jungle exception, 226 napalm, 36, 224 Protocol III: forbidden weapons, 223-6; general provisions, 225-6 Vietnam War (1964-75), 36, 223-4 independence see also self-determination armed conflict, 18-19 secession see secession Tajikistan, 99 United Nations Resolutions, 29-30 India Goa, 83 independence, 431 Manu laws, 151 nuclear weapons, 113-14, 250 Pakistan hostilities (1965), 7, 330 Protocol II (1977), 203 indiscriminate weapons landmines, 218, 220, 227 mass destruction, 235-6,435 individuals civilians see civilian targets implementation, 374-7 internal conflict, 3 international law, 27-8 POWs see prisoners of war responsibilities, 28, 420, 429 war crimes see war crimes Indonesia East Timor see East Timor UN peace-keeping forces, 384, 385 West Irian, 99 information warfare, 272-4 Innocent II (Gregory Parareschi), 151 Institut de droit international, 304, 326, 347, 410 insurance cover, 15, 81, 365-6 insurgency see also guerilla war assistance, 77-8 belligerents, 142 Conventional Weapons Convention (1981), 191 equity, 43 Geneva Conventions (1949), 191 internal conflict, 39,40, 4 1 , 4 2 international personality, 126 internationalised war, 47 Protocol I (1977), 142, 191 Protocol II (1977), 405

502

INDEX

insurgency (cont.) recognition, 40, 41, 42-3 states, 198 United Nations Resolutions, 78 United States, 201 Inter-American Peace Force (IAPF), 77, 133 inter-state war meaning, 38-9 programmatic wars, 49-50 internal conflict American Civil War (1861-65), 40, 44 assistance see under intervention belligerents, 132 Bosnian War (1991-95), 73, 328 civil war, 39-44 Congo, 80 Croatia, 46, 328 cultural property, 295-6 Geneva Conventions (1949), 17, 41, 42, 200-2 guerilla warfare, 39 humanitarian rules, 200-2 individual commitment, 3 insurgency see insurgency internal war, 44-6 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 199 Kleinkriege, 40 Korean War (1950-53), 45, 46,48, 328 middle ages, 39 Protocol II see Protocol II ( 1977) rules of law, 37 Slovenia, 46, 328 Spain see Spanish Civil War (1936-39) state of war, 16 terminology, 43-4 Third World, 44-5, 432 Vietnam War (1964-75), 45-6, 73 International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), 129 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) see also Red Cross Algeria, 200, 201 Conventional Weapons Convention ( 1981 ), 164 fact-finding commissions, 371 formation, 153 funding, 154, 374 Geneva Conventions (1949), 186, 369 Guatemala, 200 guerilla warfare, 144 impartiality, 154, 374 incendiary weapons, 224 indiscriminate weapons, 236 Information Bureau, 322 internal conflict, 199 international conferences, 54, 55, 214

Korean War (1950-53), 371 landmines, 218 mediation, 372-4 parachutists, 289 prisoners of war, 335, 373 protective power system, 370 recognition of states, 192-3, 374 resistance movements, 407 role, 154 starvation, 298 Taiwan, 55 United Nations Resolutions, 164 Vietnam War (1964-75), 186, 187 wounded, 326 international conferences International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 54, 55,214 liberation movements, 53-6 state parties, 407 Vietnam, 54-5 International Court of Justice (ICJ) Bosnian War (1991-95), 417-18 Fact Finding Commission, 372 France, 112, 180 Iran, 106, 107 Kosovo conflict (1999), 94, 418 Lockerbie bomb (1990), 22 Nicaragua, 82, 97, 106, 107 nuclear weapons, 107, 112, 247, 249-50, 435 peaceful settlements, 126 recovery, 84 United States, 82, 97, 106, 107 Yugoslavia, 73 International Criminal Court (ICC), 423-A, 425 International Criminal Tribunal (Rwanda) indictments, 425 individual responsibility, 28 International Criminal Tribunal (Yugoslavia) independence/statehood, 19 indictments, 424-5,426 individual responsibility, 28 internal conflict, 422-3 international element, Law of War, 155-6 International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), 273 international law case law, 195-7 environmental damage, 272 individuals see individuals private, 28 public, 28 reserved domain see reserved domain self-help, 84 Spanish Civil War (1936-39), 41 variability, constitutional provisions, 194-5

INDEX

International Law Association (ILA), 281 International Law Commission (ILC), 67, 406 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 127 international relations, 28-9 international society changes, 27-38 cross-effects, 36-8 démocratisation, 27-36 international relations, 28-9 tensions, 104-5 International Telecommunications Union (ITU), 129, 345, 349 internationalised war application of law, 185-93 concept of war, 46-9, 329 cultural property, 294-5 insurgency, 47 Korean War (1950-53), 48 Kosovo conflict (1999), 49 liberation wars, 48 meaning, 14 Slovenia, 48 Spanish Civil War (1936-39), 46 Yemen conflict (1962-70), 48 intervention acquiescence, 88 assistance: démocratisation, 89; effects, 79-82; governments, 75-7; insurgents, 77-8; non-state parties, 78-9 humanitarian see humanitarian intervention meaning, 70 military action, 74 patronising, 96-100 preemptive, 57,95, 387 presumption, illegality, 75-6 prohibition of war, 70-82 punitive, 96 purpose, 70 relative notion, 70-5 reserved domain, 71 Security Council, 98 United Nations Charter, 71, 73, 74-5, 88-9, 98 Iran International Court of Justice (ICJ), 106, 107 United States: frozen assets, 87; tanker war (1987), 86; Teheran Embassy, 87, 93 Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) biological weapons, 261-2 bombing, 288-9 chemical weapons, 37, 212, 253 condemnation, 106, 288 insurance cover, 365 naval warfare, 309 prisoners of war, 371

503

Security Council, 106 Iraq arms trade, 122 condemnation, 106, 288, 414-15 forbidden weapons, 87, 111, 119, 197, 238 Hussein, Saddam, 57, 111, 157, 196-7, 371-2 Iran see Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) Israel, 180 Kuwait see Gulf War (1990-91) UNSCOM, 372, 414-15 Irish Republican Army (IRA), 22-3, 24-5 Israel anticipatory action, 87 contraband, 357 Entebbe raid, 93 Geneva Convention IV (1949), 182 Iraq, 180 PLO see Palestine Liberation Organisation Italy-Abyssinia conflict (1936) chemical weapons, 253 fact-finding commissions, 371 League of Nations Council, 63 open towns, 279 state of war, 12-13 Jackson, Andrew (7th President), 63, 84 Japan China conflict (1933), 13, 279, 253 Hiroshima/Nagasaki bombing, 242, 244, 285,394 Russia see Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) war crimes see Tokyo Trials Jodl, Alfred, 397 jus ad bellum contents of Law of War, 156, 157 liberation wars, 102 jus cogens consent, 89 human rights, 71 Kosovo conflict (1999), 90-1 reciprocity, 403 jus in bello contents of Law of War, 158 ethics, 164 liberation wars, 102 just war, 100-3, 156-7 Kampuchea, Vietnam, 86, 92, 95 Kant, Immanuel, 128 Karadzic, Radovan, 374. 424, 426, 427 Katanga, 202 Kaunda, Kenneth David, 124 Kazakhstan, 30 Kekkonen Plan (1963), 180 Kenya, 124,425 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 157

504

INDEX

Kiev Agreement (1992), 389 Korea, denuclearised zones, 180 Korean War (1950-53) China, 328 civilian casualties, 286 internal conflict, 45, 46, 48, 328 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC),371 internationalised war, 48 landmines, 227 open towns, 279 prisoners of war, 328, 335 Soviet Union, 133 state of war, 8, 13 United Kingdom, 8 United Nations, 45, 92, 133 volunteer expeditions, 91 Kosovo conflict (1999) see also Yugoslavia bombing campaign, 70, 93-4, 96, 386 China, 93, 94 Chinese Embassy, 93 complexity, 45 conflict between established states, 17 embargoes, 415 ethnic cleansing, 380 genocide, 34,49, 51, 91,94, 417,418 government buildings, 294 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 94, 408 internationalised war, 49 jus cogens, 90-1 just war, 157 Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), 41,51 liberation wars, 51 preemptive intervention, 57, 95, 387 punitive intervention, 96 Rambouillet Agreement, 387 refugees, 94 Russia, 94 Security Council, 94 state of war, 8-9, 13 United Kingdom, 8-9 United Nations Resolutions, 94 Kuwait see Gulf War ( 1990-91 ) Lalive, Pierre, 7, 13 landmines Afghanistan, 227, 228 Angola, 227 anti-personnel (APM), 216, 218, 228, 436 Bosnian War (1991-95), 37, 227 Cambodia, 227 Canada, 228, 229 casualties, 227 Conference for Disarmament, 227 indiscriminate use, 218, 220,227 International Campaign to Ban Landmines

(1CBL), 227 International Committee of the Red Cross (1CRC),218 Korean War (1950-53), 227 Libya, 222 military advantage, 220 Mozambique, 227, 228 Nicaragua, 227 Ottawa Convention (1997), 219, 228-9, 282, 436 plastic components, 37, 217 private initiatives, 111, 227 Protocol I (1977), 221 Protocol II (1981): general provisions, 219-20, 227, 282; treacherous weapons, 218-23,393 recording, 219, 222 remnants, 222-3 remotely delivered, 220-1 Secretary General, 223 self-destruction, 219, 221, 227 terrorism, 218 United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS), 228 World War II (1939-45), 222 Yugoslavia, 37 Latin America Convention on Human Rights (1969), 317 denuclearised zones, 179 Rio Treaty on Inter-American Assistance (1947), 64, 76 Savedra-Lamas Pact, 64 Treaty of Non-Aggression and Conciliation (1933), 64 Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967), 179 Treaty to Avoid or Prevent Conflicts between the American States (1929), 64 World War II (1939-45), 7 Latvia, 150 Lausanne Treaty (1923), 172 law of Geneva, 158-9, 288, 318, 408 law of prize aircraft, 351-2 cargo, 355-8 contraband, 355-8 exemptions, 290, 353 fishing vessels, 353 flags: convenience, 354; false, 305 immunity from attack, 290-1 neutrality, 353, 354-5 Prize Courts, 351,352 state-owned vessels, 354 states, 362 submarines, 310 law of The Hague, 158-9, 288, 318, 408 Law of the Sea Convention (1982) environmental weapons, 268

INDEX

innocent passage, 178 naval mines, 231 peaceful purposes, 177 League of Arab States, 54 League of Nations Council, 13, 32, 63 Covenant, 12,62-3, 125 declaration of war, 12 Italy-Abyssinia conflict (1936), 63 peaceful settlements, 6 2 - 3 , 1 2 5 self-determination, 32 state of war, 13 legitimising factors anticipatory action, 86-7 hot pursuit, 84 humanitarian intervention, 92-5 non-responsibility, 91-2 patronising intervention, 96-100 preemptive intervention, 95 recovery, 82-4 reprisals, 87-8, 299 self-defence, 85-7 self-determination, 100-3 state consent, 88-90 war, 82-103 liberation movements belligerents, 134 collective responsibility, 414 Conventional Weapons Convention (1981), 52, 55, 101, 190-1, 197-8, 392, 438, 439 General Assembly, 53, 54, 55, 337 Geneva Conventions (1949), 185, 189-90 humanitarian rules, 192 international conferences, 53-6 Law of War: application, 187-9; formal adherence, 189-92; informal adherence, 189; unilateral declarations, 191 recognition, 54 Red Cross Conventions (1949), 54 reserved domain, 34, 37 right to fight, 101 secession, 31, 33-4 liberation wars Africa, 53 cultural property, 294-5 General Assembly, 47, 51 general characteristics, 50-3 Geneva Conventions (1949), 51-2 Genocide Convention (1948), 53 internationalised war, 48 jus ad helium, 102 jus in hello, 102 Kosovo conflict (1999), 51 Protocol I (1977), 51, 137, 187, 190-2, 437 United Nations, 47, 50-1 Libya, 222 Lieber Code (1863), 153, 303

505

Lithuania, 150 Locarno Treaty (1925), 63 Lockerbie bomb (1990), 22 London Declaration (1909), 155, 156, 310-11, 355-6 London Declaration (1942), 420 London Protocol (1936), 291, 310, 311 London Treaty (1871), 172 London Treaty (1930), 291, 310, 311 London Treaty (1945), 428 Lucerne Conferences conventional weapons, 165, 212, 214-15, 220 indiscriminate attacks, 166, 220 psychological damage, 166 remotely delivered mines, 220 Vietnam, 54-5 weapons of mass destruction, 236 Lugano Conference (1976) ammunition, 232 conventional weapons, 212,215,217,221, 225 fragmentation weapons, 217 incendiary weapons, 225 landmines, 221 Lusaka Declaration (1970), 178 Machiavelli, Niccolo (di Bernado dei), 154 Madrid Convention on Trade Marks (1928), 348 Magellan Straits, 171, 176 Mao Tse Tung (Mao Zedong), 59 Martens Clause, 187-8, 375-7, 411 Marxism, 59, 100 mass destruction see weapons of mass destruction mediation, 372-4 medical personnel, 324-5 Mediterranean, 176, 178 Mengele, Josef, 422 mercenaries, 21, 147-8 merchant shipping angary, 308, 360-2 civilian ships, 290-1 contraband see contraband convoys, 291 defensive armament, 132 mails, 290, 345 marine insurance, 365-6 prize see law of prize Protocol I (1977), 291 right of capture, 354-5 search, 309, 345, 355 submarines, 291, 311-12 warship conversion, 131-2 methods deception, 303 ethics, 166

506

INDEX

methods {cont.) general rules, 276-308 guerilla warfare, 37, 58-9 illegitimate objectives, 276-7 immune objectives: consequential protection, 284-97; enumeration, 280-3; exemptions from attack, 285-97; identification, 277-83; military/civilian objectives distinguished, 280-3; open towns see open towns; zones, 277 means contrasted, 276 no quarter, 297 perfidy see perfidy prohibited, 276-314 reprisals see reprisals ruses, 303, 306,310 specific prohibitions, 297-308 starvation, 297-9 targets, 160 treaty implementation, 369-77 Mexico, 77-8, 88, 121 military discipline respondeat superior, 400, 427-30 state of war, 16 military manuals ammunition, 232 fragmentation weapons, 217 Sweden,438 United Kingdom, 279 military necessity acute tension, 394 angary, 361 bombing, 284 burden of proof, 398 cultural property, 396 deception, 303 denunciation, 397 Geneva Convention IV (1949), 395-6 Hague Convention IV (1907), 395 humanitarian rules, 394 justification, 393-4 Kriegsraison, 394, 396 proportionality, nuclear weapons, 241 Protocol I (1977), 397 retreat, 395 St Petersburg Declaration (1868), 393 scorched earth tactics, 305, 395, 397 submarines, 397 vae victis, 394 war effort, 397 military objectives, civilian objectives distinguished, 282-3 Mill, John Stuart, 72. 73 Milosevic, Slobodan, 374, 386-7, 415, 425 mines anti-personnel see landmines sea see naval mines Mladic, Ratko, 424, 426

Moi, Daniel Arap, 425 Moldova, 389 Montesquieu, 152-3 Montreux Convention (1936), 172 Moon Treaty (1979), 173 Moro National Front (MNLF), 186 Moscow Declaration (1943), 420 Mozambique, 186, 227, 228 naval mines continental shelf, 230, 236, 249 Corfu Channel case, 107, 231 discrimination, 230 Hague Convention VIII (1907), 212, 229-30 Law of the Sea Convention (1982), 231 Nicaragua, 97 nuclear weapons, 178,230, 236, 249 open towns, 278 Protocol II (1981), 219, 229, 231 Sea-Bed Treaty (1971), 178, 230-1, 249 United Kingdom, 229-30 World War II (1939-45), 183 naval warfare see also warships blockades, 40,312-14 bombardment, open towns, 278, 279 civilian ships, 290-1 economic warfare, 309 fire-and-forget missiles, 309 hospital ships, 290, 292, 326, 353, 428-9 Iran-Iraq War (1980-88), 309 London Declaration (1909), 310-11 London Protocol (1936), 291, 310, 311 London Treaty (1930), 291, 310, 311 merchant ships see merchant shipping Navicert System, 309 prize see law of prize search, 309, 345, 355 ships see warships shipwrecked, 322, 395 sick and wounded, 322 special case, 308-10 specific rules, 308-14 Netherlands, 407,426 neutrality alliance free policy, 169 animus helligerendi, 11 Austria, 170 innocent passage, 170 law of prize, 353, 354-5 national legislation, 170 neutralised areas, 170-1 neutralised zones, 171 passivity, 171-2 rights and duties, 171 Scandinavia, 170 spatial application, 169-72

INDEX

Switzerland, 170 Vatican, 170 Nicaragua Contras: assistance sought, 90; bipolarity, 53,80; covert aid, 46, 78; guerilla warfare, 61 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 82, 97, 106, 107 landmines, 227 naval mines, 97 Sandinista government, 80 Soviet Union, 80 United States, 46, 53, 78, 80, 82, 97 Nigeria, Biafra see Biafran War (1967-70) no quarter, 297 Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) (1968), 113, 116, 239 non-state war see internal conflict North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) Bosnian War (1991-95), 386 IFOR, 386 international personality, 134,418-19 KFOR, 388, 390 Kosovo see Kosovo conflict (1999) peace-keeping, 386-8 SFOR, 386, 387, 388 Warsaw Pact, 108, 115, 117 Northern Ireland, 198-9, 257 nuclear installations, 268, 293 nuclear weapons see also weapons of mass destruction basic restrictions, 241-2 bilateral treaties, 112,113 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) (1996), 114, 116, 250 criteria applied, 243-6 customary law, 241-2 denuclearised zones, 178-80 deterrence, 245 dirty, 250-1 disarmament, 111-14, 241 first use, 244 France, 112, 180, 240, 247-8, 250 Geneva Gas Protocol (1925), 243 Genocide Convention (1948), 243 Hague Regulations, 243 India, 113-14, 250 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 107, 112, 247, 249-50, 435 legality criteria, 241-6 materials, exports, 119, 241 military necessity, 241 multilateral treaties, 112-14, 173, 174-6, 239-40 naval mines, 178, 230, 236, 249 neutron weapons, 237 Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) (1968), 113, 116, 239

nuclear winter, 244 Outer Space Treaty (1967), 114, 173, 178, 239 Pakistan, 113-14, 250 Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTB) (1963), 112, 173, 239 placing, 246 possession, 245-6 Protocol I (1977), 239-40, 247, 248-9 radiological weapons, 236, 250-1 recent developments, 247-50 restrictions, 239-50 Sea-Bed Treaty (1971), 114, 178,234, 249 second use, 245 self-defence, 244, 245 Soviet Union, 119,240-1 special case, 239 Third World, 241 Threshold Test-Ban Treaty (TTBT) (1974), 114 treaty-missile defence (TMD) systems, 112 United Nations Charter, 245 United Nations Resolutions, 242, 245 war crimes, 420 World War II (1939-45), 242, 244, 285, 394 Nuremberg Military Tribunal Barbarossa Order, 421 Charter, 420, 424 Hague Conventions, 404 hostages, 301 individual responsibility, 28,420,429 Law of War, 196 procedural flaws, 413, 424 reprisals, 301 Nyerere, Julius (Kambarage), 124 occupied areas protection, 182 resistance see resistance movements sovereignty, 181 open towns non-defended localities, 177, 279-80 treaty rules, 278-80, 297 violation of status, 299 Operation Allied Force see Kosovo conflict (1999) Operation Desert Fox (1998), 111,119 Operation Desert Storm see Gulf War (1990-91) Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 1 7 , 1 7 8 disarmament, 117 lack of authority, 389, 434 Lisbon Meeting (1996), 115 patronising intervention, 100 Yugoslavia, 98, 389

508

INDEX

Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), 266 Organisation of African Unity (OAU), 54, 178,371 Organisation of American States (OAS), 77, 100,385-6 Ottawa Convention (1997), 219, 228-9, 282, 436 Outer Space demilitarised areas, 172-6 Environmental Modification Techniques Convention (1977), 174 space weapons, 274-5 Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), 112, 173-6, 434 Outer Space Treaty (1967) future concern, 237 neutralised/demilitarised areas, 171, 172 nuclear weapons, 114, 173, 178, 239 weapons of mass destruction, 235 Oxford Manual (1888), 326 Pakistan independence, 431 India hostilities (1965), 7, 330 nuclear weapons, 113-14, 202, 203, 250 Protocol 11 (1977), 202, 203 Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) assistance, 79 General Assembly, 53 Geneva Conventions (1949), 186 Group of 77, 53 international conferences, 55 prisoners of war, 202 programmatic wars, 49 Panama Canal Treaty (1903), 171 parachutists, 288-9 Paris Declaration (1856), 310, 312, 353 parlamentaires, 289, 307 Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTB) (1963), 112, 173,239 patronising intervention legitimising factors, 96-100 meaning, 96 self-defence, 97 spheres of influence, 96 United Nations peace-keeping, 99-100 Paxo, 171 peace-keeping East Timor, 388, 441 European Union, 388-9, 390 multinational forces, 388, 389 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), 386-8 Organisation of American States (OAS), 385-6 U N see United Nations peace-keeping

peaceful settlements arbitration, 126 fact-finding commissions, 125 Hague Conventions, 62, 125, 126 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 126 League of Nations Covenant, 62-3, 125 prevention of war, 124-6 United Nations Charter, 125 perfidy general rules, 303, 413 humanitarian rules, 307 legal effects, 307-8 military targets shielded, 306,413 prohibited methods, 299-303 propaganda, 306 specific practices, 303-7 surrender, 304 Petain, Henri Philippe Omer (Marshal of France), 144 Philippines, 186 places of worship, 294, 296 plunder/devastation, 153 poison gas see chemical weapons Pol Pot (Saloth Sar), 95 Poland, 66 postal services Hague Convention XI (1907), 345 mail ships, 290, 345 prisoners of war, 334 Universal Postal Union (UPU), 129, 345, 349 preemptive intervention Gulf War (1990-91), 57 Kosovo conflict (1999), 57,95, 387 prevention of war alliances, 108 arms trade, restraint, 118-23 confidence and security building measures (CSBMs), 117-18 disarmament see disarmament European Union, 128-9 factors: double nature, 104; institutional, 127-30; stabilising, 107-30; undermining, 104-7 foreign policy coordination, 108 internal needs, accommodation, 123-4 pacts against war, 126 peaceful settlements, 124-6 stability pacts, 123 talks, tension diffusion, 116 trade and loans, 127 United Nations, 127-8, 130 prisoners of war ancient Egypt, 151 Bosnian War (1991-95), 328, 332, 371, 426 captured enemy personnel (CEP), 328 cartel ships, 290 defectors, 329

INDEX

espionage, 328, 329 executions, 329, 331,336 Falklands War (1982), 331-2 General Assembly, 202, 407-8 Geneva Convention (1864), 326 Geneva Convention (1929), 318, 326-7, 331,332, 333, 395 Geneva Convention I (1949), 327 Geneva Convention III (1949), 15, 146, 199-200, 327, 329, 3 3 3 ^ , 421-2 guarantees, 329 Hague Regulations, 326, 327, 334, 376 inalienable rights, 335 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 334, 373 interrogation, 331 Iran-Iraq War (1980-88), 371 journalists, 323 Korean War (1950-53), 328, 335 living conditions, 332-3 medical personnel, 324 Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), 202 postal services, 334 principle of distinction, 141, 277, 326 Prisoner of War Agency, 334 Protocol I (1977), 328, 329, 332, 422 repatriation, 334-5, 344,392-3 reprisals, 331 resistance movements, 327 Soviet Union, 330, 331,335 specific rights, 331-6 surrendered enemy personnel (SEP), 328 torture, 329, 331 United Nations Resolutions, 335 Vietnam War (1964-75), 330 war crimes, 330, 421 work, 333 World War I (1914-18), 421 World War II (1939-45), 331, 335, 421 prize see law of prize programmatic wars concept of war, 49-57 inter-state war, 49-50 liberation see liberation wars Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), 49 resistance/partisans, 56 revolutions, 56 secession see secession prohibition of war aggression, 65-70 intervention, 70-82 peaceful setdements, 62 rules prohibiting war, 62-5 use of force limited, 62-82 propaganda, 306 protective power system, 370-1

509

Protocol I (1977) Argentina, 206 blockades, 314 bombing, 285 civil defence, 2 9 6 - 7 , 3 2 3 - 4 , 397 civilian targets, 219,284, 287, 288 cultural property, 293-4 demilitarised/neutralised zones, 277 diplomatic conferences, 145, 165, 188, 190, 377 environmental weapons, 267, 268 espionage, 148 Fact Finding Commission, 372 food supplies/crops, 290, 295, 305 France, 145, 240, 247-8 guerilla warfare, 142, 143-5, 146 hors de combat, 287, 289, 318-19 human rights, 163 implementation, 369-70 indirect obligation, 216 insurgency, 142, 191 journalists, 323 landmines, 221 liberation wars, 51, 137, 187, 190-2. 437 Martens Clause, 187, 188, 375-7 medical personnel, 324 mercenaries, 147-8 merchant shipping, 291 military necessity, 397 military objectives, 283 no quarter, 297 nuclear weapons, 239-40, 247, 248-9 open towns, 177, 279-80 parachutists, 288-9 perfidy, 307 prisoners of war, 328, 329, 332,422 prohibited practices, 318-19, 428 protective power system, 370-1 ratification, 143 regular forces, 137, 139 relief action, 298, 320, 397 repression of breach, 399-400 reprisals, 301-2 reservations, 329,422 scorched earth tactics, 305, 397 starvation. 290, 298 terrorism, 145 unnecessary suffering, 165-6, 213 Vatican, 191, 298-9 verification, 213, 232 victims, 159 women and children, 323 wounded, 320-1 Protocol 11(1977) see also internal conflict analysis, 202-7 Argentina, 206 article 1, ambit, 205-7

5io

INDEX

Protocol II (1977) {cont.) background, 202-5 civilian targets, 288 combatants, 145-6 cultural property, 295-6 dangerous forces, 267-8, 293 detainees, 337-9 France, 240 human rights, 163 India, 203 insurgency, 405 Pakistan, 202, 203 prohibited practices, 319 ratification, 149 reprisals, 302-3 reserved domain, 203 sovereignty, 5 Third World, 202, 203, 205 radiological weapons, 236, 250-1 raids armed conflict, 20-1 Entebbe raid, 93 hot pursuit, 84 ransom, 152 reciprocity Conventional Weapons Convention ( 1981 ), 403 general principles, 400-4 general/contractual basis, 409-13 Geneva Conventions (1949), 403, 404, 410 Geneva Gas Protocol (1925), 410 jus cogens, 403 non-states, 405-9 presumption, 401 problem, 400-13 reprisals, 412 reservations, 401-2 third parties, 404-5 recognition belligerents, 41, 42-3, 134, 192, 406 Biafran War (1967-70), 17,42 insurgents, 40, 4 1 , 4 2 - 3 liberation movements, 54 recognition of states Costa Rica, 71-2 end of war, 344 Geneva Conventions (1949), 17, 192 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 192-3, 374 retroactivity, 42 Russian Revolution (1917), 42 United States, 2 7 , 7 1 - 2 unrecognised states, 16-17 recovery see also territory Falklands War (1982), 83, 84 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 84

legitimising factors, 82-4 Security Council, 84 United Nations Charter, 82-3 Red Brigade, 22 Red Cross see also International Committee of the Red Cross Bangladesh, 193 Burundi, 193 China, 193 Conventions (1949): liberation movements, 54; medical transport, 324-5 equivalent emblems, 292-3, 304 medical personnel, 324 safety zones, 177 refugees, 94,317, 359 relief action, 298, 320, 397 religion places of worship, 294, 296 regulation of warfare, 151 religious personnel, 326 repatriation, prisoners of war, 334-5, 344, 392-3 reprisals belligerent, 299-301 cultural property, 302 French Revolution (1789), 152 Geneva Convention IV (1949), 301-2 legitimising factors, 87-8, 299 prisoners of war, 331 prohibited methods, 299-303 Protocol I (1977), 301-2 Protocol 11 (1977), 302-3 rebels, 337 reciprocity, 412 United Nations, 87-8 World War II (1939-45), 300, 301 reservations Conventional Weapons Convention (1981), 52 Geneva Gas Protocol (1925), 256, 257, 402 Genocide Convention (1948), 53 Hague Regulations, 332 Protocol I (1977), 329,422 reciprocity, 401-2 reserved domain intervention, 71 liberation movements, 34, 37 Protocol 11(1977), 203 United Nations Charter, 34, 48, 71, 265 resistance movements belligerents, 139 forbidden weapons, 142 Geneva Convention III (1949), 199-200 Hague Conferences (1907), 149 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 407

INDEX

jus insurrectioms, 182 maquis, 139, 140 Netherlands, 407 prisoners of war, 327 unlawful combatants, 137, 406-7 World War II (1939-45), 139-40, 141, 144, 199, 407 revolutions French Revolution (1789), 21, 152 programmatic wars, 56 Russian Revolution (1917), 42, 56 Rhodes, 176 Rhodesia, 34, 121,313 Richard II (King of England), 151 Robespierre, Maximilien François Marie Isidore de, 425 Romania, 180 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 3-4, 29 Rush-Bagot Treaty (1817), 172 Russia see also Soviet Union Chechnya see Chechnya Dagestan, 31 Kazakhstan, 30 Kosovo conflict (1999), 94 Ukraine see Ukraine Russian Revolution (1917), 42, 56 Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), 10 Rwanda civil war, 44 ethnicity, 32 journalists, 323 United Nations peace-keeping, 383-4 war crimes see International Criminal Tribunal (Rwanda) Saafabad Pact (1937), 66 St Augustine, 101, 151, 157 St Petersburg Declaration (1868) disarmament, 109 forbidden weapons, 153, 211,231-2, 254 military necessity, 393 unnecessary suffering, 153,165,211 St Pierre, Abbé de, 128 St Thomas Aquinas, 101, 151, 157 SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation) Interim Agreement (1972), 112 sanctions arms trade, 121, 122 breach of law, 414, 415 Rhodesia, 121 South Africa, 121 Sardinia, 176 Scandinavia, 170, 180, 188 scorched earth tactics, 44, 305, 395, 397 sea 1982 Convention see Law of the Sea Convention (1982)

511

Geneva Convention (1958), 231 mines see naval mines shipping see merchant shipping shipwreck, 310, 320-2, 325, 395 warfare see naval warfare Sea-Bed Treaty (1971) naval mines, 178,230-1, 249 nuclear weapons, 114, 178, 234, 249 secession Byelorussia, 31, 150 Chechnya, 31 Croatia, 18, 3 0 , 3 1 , 5 7 , 98 East Timor, 31, 57, 124, 432, 441 grievances, 124 liberation movements, 31, 33-4 separatism, 56-7 Slovenia, 18, 3 0 , 3 1 , 5 7 , 98 war-waging machinery, 150 Secretary General chemical/biological weapons, 258 conventional weapons, 214 dissemination, 377 fact-finding, 371 human rights, 160 influence, 98 landmines, 223 Security Council aggression, 66, 67 anticipatory action, 87 arms embargo, 121 Biological Weapons Convention (1972), 262 civilian targets, 282 consent, 84 Environmental Modification Techniques Convention (1977), 368-9 Falklands War (1982), 84, 85 Gulf War (1990-91), 57 intervention, 98 Iran-Iraq War (1980-88), 106 Kosovo conflict (1999), 94 recovery, 84 self-defence, 85-6 United Nations Charter, 133 war crimes, 19 self-defence anticipatory action, 86-7 armed attack, 85 general rules, 85-6 legitimising factors, 85-7 nuclear weapons, 244, 245 patronising intervention, 97 Security Council, 85-6 United Nations Charter, 157 self-determination see also independence decolonisation, 29-30, 33, 431 démocratisation, 29-35

512

INDEX

self-determination {cont.) Falklands War (1982), 32 humanitarian rules, 203 just war, 100-3 legitimising factors, 100-3 negative rights, 35 second use of force, 102 United Nations Charter, 34-5 United Nations Resolutions, 29-31 separability, Law of War, 155-6 Seychelles Peoples United Party (SPUP), 55 shipwrecked, humanitarian rules, 310, 320-2, 325,395 Sicily, 176 sick see also wounded humanitarian rules, 320-2, 326 siege, civilian targets, 297 Sierra Leone, 120,122 Slovenia see also Yugoslavia embargoes, 415 European Union, 98 internal conflict, 46, 328 internationalised war, 48 secession, 18, 30, 31, 57, 98 self-determination, 194 United Nations, 98 Solon, 252 Somalia, 124, 380 South Africa African National Congress (ANC), 53, 55, 186 anticipatory action, 87 apartheid, 34, 441 AZAPO, 53 Pan African Congress of Azania (PAC), 55 sanctions, 121 South West African Peoples' Organisation of Namibia (SWAPO), 55, 60, 87, 186 Zimbabwe African Peoples' Union (ZAPU), 53, 55 South East Asia denuclearised zones, 178, 179 Treat of Bangkok (1995), 179 ZOPFAN(1971), 178 Sovereign Order of Malta, 379 sovereignty dormant, 150 nature of war, 3-5, 18 occupied areas, 181 Protocol II (1977), 5 Scandinavia, 188 Soviet Union see also Russia Afghanistan, 80, 89 China, 66

counter-revolutionaries, 90 Declaration of Aggression (1933), 66 disarmament, 110, 259 Finland, 63, 66 Korean War (1950-53), 133 Nicaragua, 80 nuclear weapons, 119, 240-1 Poland, 66 prisoners of war, 330, 331, 335 Vietnam War (1964-75), 80 weapons of mass destruction, 237 Spain, Red Cross, 153 Spanish Civil War (1936-39) blockades, 40 dissident forces, 406 Geneva Convention (1929), 185 international law, 41 internationalised war, 46 non-intervention, 79-80 terminology, 43 volunteer expeditions, 91 Speer, Albert, 397 spies see espionage Spitzbergen, 171, 176 Sri Lanka, Tamils, 22-3 stability pacts, prevention of war, 123 START treaties, 113 starvation see also food supplies/crops Hague Regulations, 298 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 298 methods, 290, 297-9 Protocol I (1977), 290, 298 Somalia, 130 state of war blockades, 5 China-Japan conflict (1933), 13 declaration of war, 11 effects see effects of war insurance cover, 15 internal conflict, 16 Italy/Abyssinia conflict (1936), 12-13 Korean War (1950-53), 8, 13 Kosovo conflict (1999), 8-9, 13 League of Nations Council, 13 legal consequences, 5-6 military discipline, 16 unrecognised states, 16-17 Vietnam War (1964-75), 8, 13, 15 states consent, 88-90 ethnicity, 27 guerilla warfare, 37, 38 independent see independence recognition see recognition of states reserved domain see reserved domain Stimson doctrine (1932), 64

INDEX

Stockholm Conference on Security Building Measures and Disarmament in Europe (CDE), 117 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 120. 250 Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), 112, 173-6, 434 submarines see also naval warfare law of prize, 310 merchant shipping, 291, 311-12 military necessity, 397 nuclear power, 309 Root Resolution (1922), 311 warfare, 310-12 Sudan, 381 Suez Canal Constantinople Convention (1888), 171, 313 crisis (1956), 373, 378, 380 suspension denunciation see denunciation law of peace, 7 Law of War, 391-430 Sweden, 180, 265, 438 Switzerland, 170 Tadic, Dusko, 422-3 Taiwan, 55 Tajikistan, 99, 379, 389 Tamils, group terrorism, 22-3 Tanzania, 93 territory border disputes, 83 delimitation, 168 demilitarised see demilitarised areas neutral see neutrality occupied areas, 181-2 recovery see recovery region of war, 169, 184 theatre of war, 169, 184 zones see zones terrorism assassination, 22 concept of war, 21-5 definition, 23-5 extortion, 23-4 group terrorism, 22-3 guerilla warfare, 25, 59, 145 landmines, 218 prevention, 23 Protocol I (1977), 145 random acts, 22 state sponsored, 22 theatre of war, 169, 184 third parties, reciprocity, 404-5 Third World arms trade, 119, 120

513

internal conflict, 4 4 - 5 , 4 3 2 nuclear weapons, 241 Protocol II (1977), 202, 203, 205 Threshold Test-Ban Treaty (TTBT) (1974), 114 Timor see East Timor Tinoco Granados, Federico, 71 Tokyo Trials Charter, 420, 424 civilian targets, 421 individual responsibilities, 28, 420 Law of War, 196 perfidy, 303 procedural flaws, 413, 424 treasure trove, 351 Treaty of Pelindaba (1995), 179 Treaty of Rarotonga (1985), 179 Treaty of Versailles (1919), 254,416, 419 Treaty of Washington (1922) chemical weapons, 254-5 Conference on the Limitation of Armaments (1922), 109-10, 212 submarines, 311 warships, 110 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) (1990), 115 Treaty on Coordinated Foreign Policy (1985), 108 Tribunal for the Far East see Tokyo Trials Tunkin, G., 246 Tuvalu Declaration (1984), 178 Uganda, 93 Ukraine, 3 0 , 3 1 , 8 3 , 150 Ulpian (Domitius Ulpianus), 3 Unden Plan (1961), 180 UNESCO, cultural property, 106, 177, 279, 294 United Kingdom 1795 Treaty, 348 Aden, 90 Falkland Islands see Falklands War (1982) Geneva Gas Protocol (1925), 257 Korean War (1950-53), 8 Kosovo conflict (1999), 8-9 military manuals, 279 naval mines, 229-30 United Nations bureaucracy, 130, 433 Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), 161,317 Croatia, 98 Disarmament Commission, 233, 234 Dominican conflict (1965), 77 East Timor, 99, 388,441 General Assembly see General Assembly Haiti, 77 human rights, 32, 162, 163, 317, 412

514

INDEX

United Nations {cont.) humanitarian intervention, 81 Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), 273 Korean War (1950-53), 45, 92, 133 liberation wars, 47, 50-1 prevention of war, 127-8, 130 reprisals, 87-8 resolutions see United Nations Resolutions Secretary General see Secretary General Security Council see Security Council Slovenia, 98 warnings, 94 Yugoslavia, 77, 98 United Nations Charter adherence, 433 aggression, 69, 157 anticipatory action, 86 economic force, 64 interpretation, 76 intervention, 71, 73, 74-5, 88-9, 98 nuclear weapons, 245 peaceful settlements, 125 recovery, 82-3 reserved domain, 34,48, 71, 265 Security Council, 133 self-defence, 157 self-determination, 34-5 use of force, 64-5, 194,440 United Nations peace-keeping Angola, 385 belligerents, 132-3, 134 Bosnian War (1991-95), 81, 88, 382 Cambodia, 384, 385 Congo, 378, 380 consent, 89, 384 Convention on Protection of UN Personnel (1994), 282 Conventional Weapons Convention (1981), 392, 393 expense, 378 humanitarian intervention, 381 illegal activities, 384-5 ineffectiveness, 380-5 mandates, 381 mercenaries, 147 patronising intervention, 99-100 personnel, 384-5 Rwanda, 383-4 short-term goals, 81 status quo preserved, 99 Suez crisis (1956), 378, 380 Yugoslavia, 380, 384-5 United Nations Resolutions aggression, 67-70, 75, 83 biological weapons, 258 chemical weapons, 258 environmental weapons, 268-9

forbidden weapons, 213 Friendly Relations (1970), 30-1, 32, 75-6, 83 independence, 29-30 insurgency, 78 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 164 Kosovo conflict (1999), 94 liberation wars, 50-1 nuclear weapons, 242, 245 prisoners of war, 335 radiological weapons, 250-1 self-determination, 29-31 weapons of mass destruction, 213, 234 United States 1795 Treaty, 348 Afghanistan, 46, 53, 78, 80 American Civil War (1861-65), 40, 44 army instructions, 153 Croatia, 388, 389 Cuba, 76,313 Dominican conflict (1965), 76-7 Geneva Gas Protocol (1925), 256-7 Grenada, 92 Haiti, 77 insurgency, 201 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 82, 97, 106,107 Iran see under Iran Mexico, 77-8, 88, 121 Nicaragua see Nicaragua recognition of states, 27, 71-2 Stimson doctrine (1932), 64 Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), 112, 173-6, 434 Vietnam see Vietnam War (1964-75) war crimes, 426-7 Universal Declaration on Human Rights, 162, 163,317,412 Universal Postal Union (UPU), 129, 345, 349 universities, 377 USSR see Soviet Union Vatican. 170, 191,298-9 Vattell, Emmerich de, 4 verification Biological Weapons Convention (1972), 260-1,262 Chemical Weapons Convention (1993), 116, 266, 368, 436 disarmament, 115-16 Environmental Modification Techniques Convention (1977), 368-9 Protocol I (1977), 213, 232 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969), 398,406 Vietnam, Kampuchea, 86, 92,95 Vietnam War (1964-75)

INDEX

Agent Orange, 36, 226 bombing, 285 chemical weapons, 36, 253, 257, 268 China, 80 civilian casualties, 286 Force de liberation nationale (FLN/NLF), 142, 187 Geneva Conventions (1949), 186-7 guerilla warfare, 36, 142 Hai-Phong blockade, 314 incendiary weapons, 36, 223-4 internal conflict, 45-6, 73 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 186, 187 My Lai massacre, 429-30 napalm, 36, 224 open towns, 279 prisoners of war, 330 Soviet Union, 80 state of war, 8, 13, 15 vicarious war, 80 Vilas, Pancho, 84 Wagner, G. F., 422 war civil see internal conflict concept see concept of war de jure war, 11 de minimis, 26, 56 declaration see declaration of war definition, 25-6, 63, 132 effects see effects of war end of war, 343-4 figures of speech, 9 geographical wars, 38-49 inception, 343 internationalised see internationalised war legitimacy see legitimising factors liberation see liberation wars methodological, 58-61 methods see methods preemptive see preemptive intervention prevention see prevention of war programmatic see programmatic wars prohibition see prohibition of war resistance/partisan, 56 revolution see revolutions state of war see state of war time span, 343-4 types, 38-61 unequal, 57-8 war crimes Arkan, 196 extradition, 422,425 forbidden weapons, 421 France, 426 genocide see genocide identification, 419-23

515

individual responsibilities, 28, 420, 429 Law of War, 196 Martens Clause, 411 Netherlands, 426 nuclear weapons, 420 nullum crimen sine lege, 411,424,429 prisoners of war, 330,421 respondeat superior, 400,427-30 right of prosecution, 423-7 Security Council, 19 tribunals: Arusha see International Criminal Tribunal (Rwanda); Far East see Tokyo Trials; Hague (ICTY) see International Criminal Tribunal (Yugoslavia); International Criminal Court (ICC), 423-4,425; national jurisdiction, 425-7; Nuremberg see Nuremberg Military Tribunal United States, 426-7 vae victis, 413 Vukovar massacre, 106, 292, 299,415 Yugoslavia see International War Crimes Tribunal (Yugoslavia) war-waging machinery belligerents see belligerents combatants see combatants secession, 150 state resources, 131-2 Warsaw Pact, 108,115, 117 warships see also naval warfare arms limitation, 109-10 auxiliaries, 131 Black Sea, 172 converted merchant vessels, 131-2 false flags, 143, 304-5 fighting ships, 131 General Belgrano, 184 Graf Spee, 304 submarines see submarines Washington Treaty see Treaty of Washington (1922) Weaponry Convention see Conventional Weapons Convention (1981) weapons biological see biological weapons carried openly, 136, 140-1, 142, 143 chemical see chemical weapons cluster bombs, 217, 235 conventional see conventional weapons disarmament see disarmament environmental see environmental weapons flame blast, 233 flechettes, 217 forbidden see forbidden weapons fuel-air explosives, 232, 235 general principles, 159-60

516

INDEX

weapons (cont.) infra-sound, 233,236 landmines see landmines lasers, 226-7, 233 light-flash devices, 233 mass destruction see weapons of mass destruction microwave, 233 nuclear see nuclear weapons questionable, 232-3, 272 radiological, 236, 250-1 relevant rules, 211-13 restrictions, 211-75 trade see arms trade weapons of mass destruction civilian targets, 146 Conference for Disarmament, 233 conventional weapons, 214 definition, 234-6 general rules, 233-8 identification, 236-8 indiscriminate damage, 235-6, 435 nuclear see nuclear weapons restrictions, 233-50 Soviet Union, 237 United Nations Resolutions, 213, 234 Westmoreland, William Childs, 430 Wilhelm II (Kaiser), 419 Wilson, Thomas Woodrow (28th President), 29 women and children, humanitarian rules, 322-3 World Bank, 127 World Health Organisation (WHO), 129, 130, 249, 259 World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), 129 World Trade Organisation (WTO), 127 World War I (1914-18) blockades, 313 chemical weapons, 37, 254, 256, 440 civilian casualties, 286 contraband, 356 prisoners of war, 421 submarines, 311 World War II (1939-45) Armistice Agreement (1940), 138 blockades, 313 bombing, 284-5, 288, 300 civilian casualties, 285, 286 economic warfare, 309

Forces françaises de l'intérieure (FFI), 140 Forces françaises libres (FFL), 140, 144 France, 138-9, 139-40, 144 landmines, 222 Latin America, 7 naval mines, 183 nuclear weapons, 242, 244, 285, 394 open towns, 279 prisoners of war, 331, 335,421 reprisals, 300, 301 resistance movements, 139-40, 141,144, 199, 407 submarines, 311 Yugoslavia, 56 wounded Geneva Convention (1864), 158, 326 Geneva Convention (1906), 326 Geneva Convention (1929), 327 humanitarian rules, 320-2, 395 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 326 Yemen conflict (1962-70), 48 Yugoslavia borders, 84 Bosnia see Bosnian War (1991-95) Contact Group, 374 Croatia see Croatia European Union, 77, 98, 129, 328-9 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 73 Kosovo see Kosovo conflict (1999) landmines, 37 Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), 98, 389 Slovenia see Slovenia United Nations, 77, 98 United Nations peace-keeping, 380, 384-5 Vukovar massacre, 106, 292, 299, 415 war crimes see International Criminal Tribunal (Yugoslavia) World War II (1939-45), 56 zones demilitarised, 177 denuclearised, 178-80 immune objectives, 277 neutralised zones, 171 positive/negative, 182-3, 308 safety, 177, 299, 382 total exclusion zone, 183-4 war, 183-4