The Science of Animal Agriculture, 4th Edition

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THE SCIENCE OF ANIMAL AGRICULTURE 4th EDITION

The Science of Animal Agriculture 4th Edition Ray V. Herren

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The Science of Animal Agriculture, 4th Edition Ray V. Herren Vice President, Editorial: Dave Garza Director of Learning Solutions: Matthew Kane Managing Editor: Marah Bellegarde

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2010941404 ISBN-13: 978-1-4354-8074-2 ISBN-10: 1-4354-8074-0 Delmar 5 Maxwell Drive Clifton Park, NY 12065-2919 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local office at: international.cengage.com/region Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Delmar, visit www.cengage.com/delmar Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com NOTICE TO THE READER Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with any of the product information contained herein. Publisher does not assume, and expressly disclaims, any obligation to obtain and include information other than that provided to it by the manufacturer. The reader is expressly warned to consider and adopt all safety precautions that might be indicated by the activities described herein and to avoid all potential hazards. By following the instructions contained herein, the reader willingly assumes all risks in connection with such instructions. The publisher makes no representations or warranties of any kind, including but not limited to, the warranties of fitness for particular purpose or merchantability, nor are any such representations implied with respect to the material set forth herein, and the publisher takes no responsibility with respect to such material. The publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material.

Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15 14 13 12 11

This book is dedicated to my father, the late Banks Herren who passed away before it was completed. He taught me in the best way a father can teach his son——by example.

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Contents

Preface

XII

About the Author

XIV

Acknowledgments Design Credits

CHAPTER 1

XV

XVI

Animal Agriculture as Science 2 Early Legislation 5 The Scientific Method 5 Advances in Production of Food from Animals 7 Animal Immunization 10 Refrigeration 10

CHAPTER 2

Artificial Insemination 11 Embryo Transfer 11 The Use of Computers 12 Summary 14 Review Exercises 15

The Classification of Agricultural Animals 18 Scientific Classification 20 Classification by Breeds 24 Classification According to Use 26

CHAPTER 3

The Beef Industry Beef in the American Diet 34 The Beef Industry in the United States 37 Breeds of Beef Cattle 39

Summary 29 Review Exercises

29

32 Segments of the Beef Industry Summary 46 Review Exercises 46

41

vii

viii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4

The Dairy Industry

Cheese Manufacturing Summary 61 Review Exercises 62

Feeding 51 Gestation 51 Milk Production 52 Dairy Goats and Sheep

CHAPTER 5

48

58

The Swine Industry

64

History of the Industry 67 Breeds of Swine 68 Production Methods 69

CHAPTER 6

Environmental Concerns Summary 73 Review Exercises 74

The Poultry Industry

The Sheep Industry The Wool Industry Summary 105

CHAPTER 8

Other Poultry 92 Summary 92 Review Exercises 93

96

100

The Goat Industry

Review Exercises

The Horse Industry Classification 129 Mules 130 Anatomy of the Horse

CHAPTER 10

132

Anatomy and Physiology 119 Management of Goats 120 Summary 123 Review Exercises 124

126 Raising Horses 134 Summary 136 Review Exercises 136

The Aquaculture Industry Fish Production 140 Sport Fishing 146 Bullfrogs 146 Crayfish 147

106

108

History 110 Goat Industry in the US 111 Production in the United States 113 Breeds of Goats 113

CHAPTER 9

73

76

The Broiler Industry 79 Broiler Production 81 The Layer Industry 88 The Turkey Industry 90

CHAPTER 7

60

138

Alligator Farming 148 Summary 149 Review Exercises 149

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11

The Small Animal Industry The History of Pets 155 Dogs 155 Cats 156 Exotic Animals as Pets 157 Reptiles 157 Health Benefits 157

CHAPTER 1 2

Alternative Animal Agriculture

The Honeybee Industry The Importance of Honeybees 184 Bees as Social Insects 185 Commercial Honey Production 190 Breeding Bees 193

CHAPTER 1 4

Animal Behavior

Production of Natural and Certified Animal Products 174 Hunting Preserves 178 Summary 179 Review Exercises 180

182 Producing New Queens 195 Diseases and Parasites 197 Summary 199 Review Exercises 199

Animal Communication Summary 215 Review Exercises 215

Animal Cells: The Building Blocks

Animal Genetics

218

Summary 232 Review Exercises

The Importance of Cells 220 Cell Reproduction 228 Animal Stem Cells 230

CHAPTER 1 6

166

202

Social Behavior 207 Sexual and Reproductive Behavior 209 Ingestive Behavior 210

CHAPTER 1 5

152

Service Animals 159 Pet Food 161 Animal Health 161 Summary 164 Review Exercises 164

Rabbit Production 168 Llama Production 171 Fish Bait Production 171 Large Game Animals 173 Laboratory Animal Production 173

CHAPTER 1 3

ix

232

234

Gene Transfer 236 The Determination of the Animal’s Sex 242 Using Genetics in the Selection Process 243

Performance Data 244 Summary 250 Review Exercises 250

212

x

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 7

The Scientific Selection of Agricultural Animals 254 The Selection of Swine 258 The Selection of Breeding Hogs 261 The Selection of Market Beef Animals 265 The Selection of Breeding Cattle 269 The Selection of Sheep 273 The Selection of Commercial or Western Ewes 273

CHAPTER 18

The Reproduction Process 282 Reproduction in Animals 284 The Male Reproductive System 287 The Female Reproductive System 288 Fertilization 291

CHAPTER 19

Cloning Animals

Differences in Clones 319 Summary 320 Review Exercises 320

Animal Growth and Development 322 Prenatal Growth 324 Postnatal Growth and Development 328 The Effects of Hormones on Growth 329

CHAPTER 21

Animal Nutrition Water 339 Protein 340 Carbohydrates Fats 344 Minerals 344

CHAPTER 22

Artificial Insemination 293 Embryo Transfer 299 Summary 304 Review Exercises 305

308

Reasons for Cloning 311 Development of the Cloning Process 314 Perfecting the Process 318 CHAPTER 20

The Selection of Breeding Ewes 274 The Selection of Rams 274 Judging Market Lambs 275 The Selection of Goats 277 Summary 279 Review Exercises 279

The Aging Process in Animals Summary 332 Review Exercises 333

336 Vitamins 345 The Digestion Process 348 Summary 352 Review Exercises 353

342

Meat Science

356

Meat Industry 358 The Slaughter Process 359 Grading 361 The Wholesale Cuts 363 Factors Affecting Palatability

Preservation and Storage of Meat 369 Summary 374 Review Exercises 375 363

331

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 23

Parasites of Agricultural Animals Internal Parasites 382 External Parasites 385 Parasite Control 387

CHAPTER 24

Animal Diseases

Summary 389 Review Exercises

Disease Prevention 406 Summary 407 Review Exercises 408

The Issue of Animal Welfare

Consumer Concerns

Careers in Animal Science Career Options 438 Developing Personal and Leadership Skills 442

Appendix Glossary

448 457

References Index

479

478

419

422

Country of Origin 426 Animal Medications 427 Hormones 428 Cholesterol 428 Genetic Engineering 429 Environmental Concerns 430 CHAPTER 27

410

Research 418 Summary 419 Review Exercises

Confinement Operations 413 The Use of Drugs 414 Management Practices 415 CHAPTER 26

389

392

Infectious Diseases 398 The Immune System 400 Noninfectious Diseases 404 Poisoning 405 CHAPTER 25

378

The Overgrazing of Public Lands 431 Global Warming 432 Summary 433 Review Exercises 433

436 Interview Preparation 443 Summary 445 Review Exercises 446

xi

Preface

The Science of Animal Agriculture is directed toward teaching the basic science concepts involved in the production of agricultural animals. This newly revised edition contains the latest up-to-date information regarding the scientific aspect of the agricultural industry. All facets of modern agriculture are based on science. From the most rudimentary cultural practices to the most complicated biotechnology techniques, scientific research has produced the phenomenon known as American agriculture. The science of agriculture has brought humans from the stage of wandering and gathering food to modern civilization. Much of what we know about how living organisms reproduce and grow has come about through our quest to be more efficient in the production of food and fiber. The Science of Animal Agriculture contains chapters dealing with the latest concepts in animal biotechnology. Topics include animal behavior, classification, consumer concerns, animal welfare, genetics, scientific selection, reproduction, cloning, growth and development, nutrition, meat science, parasites, and disease. In addition, the scientific basis for the production of the different types of agricultural animals is presented.

NEW TO THE FOURTH EDITION The fourth edition represents a substantial revision of the third edition. Throughout the new edition are updated illustrations that better represent information presented in the text as well as information noting the latest advancements in the field of animal science such as cellular biology. Modern cellular biology is the foundation of almost all of the advances in animal sciences; therefore it is essential that students have a firm understanding of cell functions. Also the new edition contains the latest updates on consumer concerns and new government regulations. These topics are increasingly more important as advancements are made in animal product production, preservation, and distribution. Also a chapter on the goat industry has been added to reflect the xii

PREFACE

increase in the number of goats produced in the US. Although compared to other aspects of the industry, goat production is minor; however the rapid increase in numbers merit inclusion in a discussion of animal production in the United States. Since The Science of Animal Agriculture emphasizes the scientific principles involved in animal production, the text is appropriate for agriculture courses that receive science credit. Each chapter begins with a listing of the student objectives in both basic science and agricultural science, along with the key terms used in the chapter. Although the two are difficult to separate, the student objectives in basic science are considered to be those concepts a student might be expected to learn before graduation. These concepts are presented in a contextual setting with photos, charts, diagrams, and figures to illustrate the concepts. The chapters are concluded with a variety of questions that may be used for reviewing the chapter. In addition, practical activities are described that will enhance the student’s grasp of the concepts presented in the chapter. The text is accompanied by a complete supplement package consisting of an Instructor’s Guide, Lab Manual, Lab Manual Instructor’s Guide, Lab Manual CD-ROM, ClassMaster CD-ROM and Classroom Interactivity CD-ROM. The Instructor’s Guide includes the terminal objective for each chapter, a list of both the basic science and agricultural science objectives and the answer key to the review exercises. The Lab Manual was designed to help students appreciate the interrelationship between science and agriculture. Each exercise relates directly to a specific chapter in The Science of Animal Agriculture and is designed to be hands-on. The Lab Manual Instructor’s Guide provides answers to the Results and Discussions sections of the lab manual. The Lab Manual CD-ROM provides instructors with the electronic files for each lab from the Student Lab Manual. This will allow users to print off as many copies as needed for their students for the life of the edition. Also included on the cd-rom is an electronic version of the Lab Manual Instructor’s Guide. The ClassMaster CD-ROM is an instructional tool containing valuable resources for teachers to simplify the planning and implementation of their instructional program. It includes a pdf of the instructor’s guide, a computerized testbank, instructor slides in PowerPoint, Student Worksheets, an image library, and a correlation guide to Delmar’s Introduction to Agriscience DVD Series. The Classroom Interactivity CD-ROM provides instructors the opportunity to create a dynamic learning environment while engaging their students in active participation. This CD-ROM contains four different “game-show-themed” applications to be run by the instructor. All questions are taken directly from the readings of the text and serve as great tools in reinforcing the main concepts of each unit.

xiii

About the Author

Ray V. Herren has been actively involved in the animal industry for most of his life. He grew up on a diversified farm where he played a major role in the production of livestock. He obtained a B.S. degree in Agricultural Education from Auburn University, a master’s degree in Agribusiness Education from Alabama A&M University, and a doctorate in Vocational Education (with an emphasis in Agricultural Education) from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Dr. Herren has taught agriculture at the high school level and has also taught animal science courses at the university level. As a faculty member in Agricultural Education at Oregon State University, he served as the coach of the University Livestock Judging team and taught several animal practicum courses. He served several years as Head of the Department of Agricultural Leadership Education and Communication at the University of Georgia. He currently is a Professor Emeritus in the department.

xiv

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges the following for their assistance in creating the fourth edition of this text: Dan Rollins, director of feed operations, Aviagen North America, for his technical advice on poultry; Dr. Joe Mauldin, Dr. Frank Flanders, Dr. Steve Stice, and Gary Farmer for their help with photographs; Branden Walker for his help in preparing the manuscript. The author and Delmar Learning would like to thank those individuals who reviewed the manuscript and offered suggestions, feedback, and assistance. Kyle Fiebig Montague High School, Michigan

Dawn Lantz Yelm Community Schools, Washington

Gwendolen Dolph DeForest High School, Wisconsin

James Horn Newton High School, Iowa

Andrea Waski Cambridge High School, Wisconsin

xv

Design Credits

COVER: Chickens in Poultry Farm: © Sandeep Subba 2012/iStockphoto Cows: © United States Department of Agriculture Bees: © Tischenko Irina. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Pig: © Sasha Radosavljevich. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Horses in Fog: © Eugene Berman 2012/iStockphoto

TITLE PAGE: Duckling: © Africa Studio. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Sheep: © Pichugin Dmitry. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Bee/Flower: © Murat Besler. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Young Black Cow: © Tish1. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Fish Farm: © jokerpro. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Horses at Trough: © AlexGul. Used under license from Shutterstock.com

FRONT MATTER AND BACK MATTER: Beehives: © aleks.k. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Pigs: © Anat-oli. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Tilapia: © Jan Kaliciak. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Horses at Trough: © AlexGul. Used under license from Shutterstock.com

CHAPTER OPENER SPREAD: Foal: © djgis. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Duckling: © Africa Studio. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Young Black Cow: © Tish1. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Sheep: © Pichugin Dmitry. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Pigs: © Anat-oli. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Fish Farm: © jokerpro. Used under license from Shutterstock.com Bee/Flower: © Murat Besler. Used under license from Shutterstock.com

xvi

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CHAPTER

Animal Agriculture as Science

KEY TERMS agriculture domesticated scientific method hypothesis experiment control group experimental group lactation

agricultural animals basic research hormones applied research omnivorous poultry broiler beef

veal vaccinating immunity serum vaccines environment genes offspring

artificial insemination sires semen dams gestation progeny pharmaceutical

1

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ define science. ■ explain how science has made the lives

of people better. ■ tell how humans first began to use

science. ■ describe the concept of the scientific

method.

■ distinguish between basic and applied

science. ■ cite scientific discoveries that have

made food better and less expensive for the consumer. ■ list the pharmaceuticals that are

derived from animals.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain why agriculture is a science. ■ describe what is meant by the land

grant concept. ■ trace the history of the land grant

institutions. ■ discuss the advances made by American

agriculture during the twenty-first century.

■ analyze how agricultural research has

benefited the consumer. ■ list the developments that have

revolutionized animal agriculture.

4

CHAPTER 1

cience, as defined by Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, is the study or theoretical explanation of natural phenomena. Nature has given us a wonderfully complex world in which to live. Our environment is governed by natural laws that control everything from gravity to the weather. These laws also control the way plants and animals live and grow on our planet. Through science, these laws are investigated and new ways are found to use them to make our lives easier and better. Americans enjoy one of the highest living standards in the world. Our per-capita income ranks near the very top among all the nations of the world. Most of our comforts and enjoyment have come about as a direct result of science. Agriculture is the oldest and most important of all sciences. Without a sound basis of agricultural knowledge, all humans would be struggling to find enough food, shelter, and clothing to survive. Because we have discovered so much about the world around us, our food, shelter, and clothing are produced so efficiently that only a small percentage of the population is required to produce these necessities. That leaves the rest of us to develop new knowledge in different areas that allow us to have better transportation, communications, and recreation. From the earliest time, humans studied the environment in which they lived. Their first thoughts were to survive, and this meant that first they had to find food. Early people ate the fruits, seeds, and animals they found in their environment. As these supplies of food became exhausted, the people were forced to leave the area and find a new place where plants and animals were more abundant. They undoubtedly observed the behavior patterns of animals and from these observations devised means to locate and kill them. As they continued to study patterns of animal movement and responses, people reasoned that if they could domesticate animals, the need for moving with the herds and hunting as a group could be eliminated. Close observation of the animals determined which would be best to tame. As animals were domesticated, people reasoned that they could use certain methods to raise the animals more efficiently. Through trial and error, they discovered the best ways of caring for the animals and passed these methods along to their children. Only relatively recently have people studied animals in a systematic way. Progressive scientific research began in the United States about the middle of the 1800s. At that time, universities in the United States taught a curriculum known as the Classics, in which the main subjects studied were Latin, Greek, History, Philosophy, and Mathematics. People began to realize a need for institutions of higher learning where students could study areas that had practical applications. The nation was emerging as an

S

ANIMAL AGRICULTURE AS SCIENCE

5

industrial- and agricultural-based economy. To achieve progress in these areas, young people needed to be taught how to produce food and manufacture goods more efficiently.

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD The scientific method is a systematic process of gaining knowledge through experimentation. This method is used to ensure that the results of an experimental study did not occur just by chance and that something caused the change. This process involves formulating a hypothesis, designing a study, collecting data, and drawing conclusions based on analysis of the data (see Figure 1–2). A scientist begins by identifying a problem that needs to be solved. He or she may have an idea or suspicion of what causes the problem or what might solve the problem. This suspicion, called a hypothesis, serves as the basis for investigating a problem.

Figure 1–1 Senator Justin Morrill of Vermont introduced a bill to provide land grant colleges.

Recognize a Problem

Develop Hypothesis

Design an Experiment

Conduct the Experiment

Collect Data

Analyze Data

Draw Conclusions

Make Recommendations

Figure 1–2 The scientific method requires several steps.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

In the late 1850s, a senator from Vermont, Justin Morrill, introduced a bill that would provide public land and funds for establishing universities to teach practical methods of manufacturing and producing food and fiber (Figure 1–1). The bill passed in 1862 and became known as the Land Grant Act, or the Morrill Act. During that same year, President Abraham Lincoln signed into law a bill that established the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Soon, almost all of the states in the country established land grant colleges. As the students enrolled and classes began, a severe problem was recognized: No one really knew anything about agriculture! Most of the knowledge about growing plants and animals had been passed from generation to generation and represented people’s beliefs rather than proven knowledge. To solve this problem, Congress passed the Hatch Act in 1872. This law authorized the establishment of experiment stations in different parts of the states that had land grant colleges. The purpose was to create new knowledge through a systematic process of scientific investigation. These experiment stations put to use what has come to be known as the scientific method of investigation. Later, in 1914, Congress passed the Smith-Lever Act, setting up the Cooperative Extension Service, which serves to disseminate information learned from new research to the population. This completed a system known as the land grant concept, which held that the purpose of a land grant university is to teach, conduct research, and carry the new information to the people in the state through the extension service. In 1917, the Smith-Hughes Act was passed. This law established Vocational Agriculture as a program in the public high schools as a means of teaching new methods of agriculture.

Courtesy of Library of Congress

EARLY LEGISLATION

CHAPTER 1

JGI/Getty Images

6

Figure 1–3 Basic research investigates why or how processes occur.

The hypothesis then is subjected to a test called an experiment, which attempts to isolate the problem in question and determine the solution. For instance, if a scientist wants to know whether milking cows twice a day would result in obtaining more milk than milking only once a day, he or she might milk a group of cows twice a day and record the results. Just milking twice a day and recording the results, however, would not prove much. The real question is whether milking twice a day produces more milk than milking only once a day. If two groups of cows were used—one group that is milked twice a day and one group that is milked only once a day—the results would be more meaningful. The cows milked once a day are called the control group, and the cows milked twice a day are called the experimental group. Other conditions also must be met to ensure that the data collected in the experiment are valid. The cows must be of the same breed, the same age, the same stage of their lactation cycle, and the same size. Also, each group should have enough cows so the differences in the cows would average out. When the cows are selected and the scientist thinks they are enough alike and of sufficient number, the treatment given to each group must be the same. This means that the cows will stay in the same type of environment, eat the same ration, consume the same amount of water, and be treated in the same manner. Then if the cows that are milked twice a day produce more milk, the scientist may conclude that milking cows twice a day results in more milk. The scientific method has been applied thousands of times to develop the methods that are used to produce agricultural animals. As more knowledge was gained, the experiments became more involved and complicated. Today, scientific research is classified into two broad areas: basic research and applied research. Basic research deals with the investigation of why or how processes occur in the bodies of the animals (Figure 1–3). For instance, basic research is used to discover the specific hormones that control growth in animals. Applied research deals with using the discoveries made in basic research to help in a practical manner (Figure 1–4). If basic research discovers the growth-regulating hormones, applied research uses this knowledge to develop ways of using natural or artificial hormones to increase the growth efficiency of agricultural animals. In a very real sense, agriculture is the application of almost all the research and knowledge associated with plants and animals. Aside from the field of medicine, about the only application of basic research in the life sciences is that of agriculture. Basic research carried through to application in animal science has benefited humans in many ways—the most obvious of which is food. Humans are omnivorous animals. This means that we eat both plants and animals. The production of animals

7

Courtesy of ARS

ANIMAL AGRICULTURE AS SCIENCE

Figure 1–4 Applied research investigates how basic research can be

put to use. provides people with a reliable, abundant source of high-quality food. Advances made through scientific research have resulted not only in an abundance of animals for food but also in relatively low prices for food. Better production methods result in higher efficiency in raising agricultural animals. This greater efficiency means a constant supply of affordable food.

As a result of scientific research and the application of the research findings, gigantic strides have been made in the efficient production of food from animals. The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology has compiled a list of some of the advances since 1925, as highlighted in the following paragraphs. Beef cattle liveweight marketed per breeding female increased from 220 pounds to 482 pounds. This means that for every cow raised, we now are selling more than twice the beef that we did in 1925 (Figure 1–5). These increases have come about as a result of the scientific selection of breeding animals, a better understanding of beef cattle nutrition, and better control of parasites and diseases. A better understanding of all phases of the lives of the animals has led to higher quality and less expensive beef for the consumer. The lower cost no doubt accounts to a large extent for the tremendous increase in the annual per-capita consumption of beef. Since 1925, consumption has doubled from 60 pounds of carcass weight equivalent to 120 pounds of carcass weight equivalent. Americans now have a more nutritious diet at less cost.

Don Farrall/Getty Images

ADVANCES IN PRODUCTION OF FOOD FROM ANIMALS

Figure 1–5 The weight of weaned calves has more than doubled since 1925.

8

CHAPTER 1

Figure 1–6 Research has brought about a 100 percent

increase in the weight of market lambs.

Courtesy of USDA

John Giustina/Getty Images

Sheep liveweight marketed per breeding female increased from 60 to 130 pounds. This represents an increase of 100 percent over the production in 1925 (Figure 1–6). Around the turn of the twentieth century, sheep were raised primarily for wool. Then, through research in selection, sheep began to be raised mainly for meat. Research efforts have concentrated on raising better meat-type animals. Since 1925, milk marketed per dairy cow increased from 4,189 to 20,625 pounds—an increase of five times the amount of milk marketed in 2008. Also in 1925, there were more than twice the number of cows as there are now (Figure 1–7). This means that half the number of cows now produce more than three times the amount of milk. This greater efficiency has resulted in quite a bargain for the consumer. A gallon of milk now costs quite a bit less than it would using the technology of the 1920s. In the same timeframe, swine liveweight marketed per breeding female increased from 1,600 to 2,850 pounds. Since 1950, the amount of feed required to produce a 200-pound market hog has been reduced by about 50 pounds. Also during this time, the average time to produce a 220-pound hog has been reduced from 170 to 157 days (Figure 1–8). Because pigs can be raised in a shorter time on less feed, the cost of production is lower. This savings is passed along to the consumer in less expensive pork. No other segment of agricultural industry has made more dramatic advance than that of the poultry industry. In 1925, producers required about 112 days to produce a market broiler. The broiler weighed about 21/2 pounds and required 4.7 pounds of feed to gain a pound. Currently, it only 47 days are needed to produce a broiler weighing 5.63 pounds. The amount of feed required to produce a pound of growth has been reduced to 1.92 pounds. This means that we now can produce a heavier

Figure 1–7 The same amount of milk is now produced by half the number of cows that it took in 1925.

Courtesy of ARS

Figure 1–8 Since 1950 the average time required to produce a 220-pound hog has been reduced from 170 to 157 days.

9

Courtesy of USDA

ANIMAL AGRICULTURE AS SCIENCE

Figure 1–9 Modern broilers are more than a pound heavier and are raised in half the time on half the amount of feed than in 1925.

broiler in half the time on less than half the feed than we could in 1925 (Figure 1–9). These gains in efficiency have resulted almost entirely from better genetics and better nutrition. This has come about through a tremendous amount of research. Consumers get a better broiler at much less cost, and also get a bird that is completely dressed and ready to cook. Since 1925, the annual production per laying hen tripled from 112 to around 300 eggs, and the feed required to produce a dozen eggs decreased from 8.0 to 4.0 pounds. Advances through scientific research have made possible the production of eggs in an enclosed building. This allows the hens to be much better managed because the producer can control the environment in which the eggs are produced. The weight of marketed turkeys increased from 13.0 to 18.4 pounds. This gain was achieved on less feed (from 5.5 to 3.1 pounds) and in about half the time (from 34 to 19 weeks). The countries in North and Central America, Europe, and Oceania (Australia, New Zealand) have only 29.9 percent of all the world’s cattle, yet these countries produce 68 percent of the world’s beef and veal. Similar statistics are true for the other areas of animal agriculture as well. These are countries where almost all of the scientific knowledge about raising agricultural animals has been discovered. The people in these areas are the best fed and enjoy the highest living standard of any people in the world as a result of the new knowledge acquired through basic and applied research. Before countries can develop and prosper, they must achieve a sound basis for producing food. Many of the poorer countries are attempting to imitate the agricultural systems of the more advanced countries. Through the years, many discoveries and developments have aided the advancement of animal agriculture. Some of the progress has been the result of many small discoveries that

10

CHAPTER 1

go together to provide greater efficiency in the production of animals. Other advances have come about as the result of great strides in scientific breakthroughs. The following are some of the milestones that have served to revolutionize animal agriculture.

ANIMAL IMMUNIZATION

Courtesy of ARS

Until the last half of the 1800s, diseases devastated herds of all types of agricultural animals all over the world. Once disease started in an area, all the animals in the surrounding countryside contracted the disease because there was no method of preventing the spread. During the 1870s and 1880s a French scientist named Louis Pasteur developed a means of vaccinating animals to make them immune to disease. Using the scientific method, Pasteur hypothesized that animals that had contracted a disease and survived must have built up immunity to the disease. Using the blood from sheep that had contracted and survived the deadly disease of anthrax, he developed a serum. Pasteur’s experiment used two groups of healthy sheep. One group was injected with the serum and was later injected with anthrax organisms; the other group received only an injection of the anthrax organisms. The group that had received the serum remained healthy; the group that had not received the serum died. Following Pasteur’s discovery, other scientists began to conduct research on other diseases. During the next century, numerous new vaccines were developed to control most of the diseases contracted by agricultural animals. Now, animals can be raised in a disease-free environment and at a much lower Figure 1–10 Through the use of vaccinations, animals can now cost and quite a bit less risk to the producer be raised disease-free. (Figure 1–10).

REFRIGERATION A problem that plagued the producers of animals since the time humans first began raising them was how to preserve the meat and other products. When a large animal was slaughtered, not all of the meat could be eaten at once. Particularly in the summer months, the meat spoiled very quickly, and if it wasn’t consumed quickly, most would go to waste. In colder climates, the animals were killed in the winter, and the freezing temperatures preserved the meat until the spring thaw. About the only other way of preserving the meat was by salting

11

or drying the meat. Both of these methods were time-consuming and did not produce a very palatable product. Another problem that occurred later was that of getting the meat to market. Until about the turn of the twentieth century, live animals had to be delivered to the population centers. This meant driving the animals to market or to a railhead where they could be transported live to the market, slaughtered, and sold as fresh meat. If the meat didn’t sell quickly, it was lost to spoilage. The first attempt at cooling meat was to Figure 1–11 The development of refrigeration has allowed the use ice that had been cut from frozen lakes preservation of meat in warm weather. during the winter and stored in icehouses. The ice blocks were suspended from the ceiling in meat storage rooms in an effort to keep the meat cool. This effort was not very successful. During the 1880s, mechanical refrigeration was developed and used in slaughterhouses to store meat. A few years later the refrigerated boxcar was invented, which allowed meat to be transported anywhere in the country at any time during the year (Figure 1–11). Now, not only could animals be slaughtered at any time of the year but the meat also could be stored for long periods of time. Because meat could be distributed to everyone in the country, a larger supply of meat was needed.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION Advances in the type of animal produced are brought about through the transfer of superior genes from parents to their offspring. With the advent of artificial insemination in the 1930s, the transfer of genes from superior sires was greatly multiplied. Through modern techniques of semen collection, storage, and distribution, almost any producer can access the best genes in the industry. This innovation is one reason for the phenomenal advancement of the dairy industry. Most of the dairy animals born in the United States are the results of artificial insemination.

EMBRYO TRANSFER Although artificial insemination increased access to superior sires, advances through the use of superior dams were slow because of the female’s gestation period. With the development of the embryo transfer process, one superior dam can produce many offspring in one year (Figure 1–12). Combined with artificial insemination, this allows producers to make extremely rapid gains in the quality of their herds at a relatively low cost.

Rim Light/PhotoLink/Getty Images

ANIMAL AGRICULTURE AS SCIENCE

CHAPTER 1

Delmar/Cengage Learning

12

Figure 1–12 With the development of the embryo transplant process, one superior

dam can produce many offspring in one year.

THE USE OF COMPUTERS

Courtesy of Dan Rollins

Computers were developed during the 1940s, but it was not until the 1980s that the use of the computer became such an integral part of our lives. The computer has had a profound effect on many aspects of the animal industry. For example, the computer has made all areas of research move more rapidly. Data that once took days and even weeks to analyze can now be computed in a matter of seconds. Computer-simulated experiments and models have helped decrease the cost and time involved in scientific research. The selection of superior dams and sires has become more convenient and accurate through computerized production records of progeny. Sires for artificial insemination can be matched with dams for embryo transfer through the use of computers. Many breed associations keep detailed records of all the animals in their registry on computer file. Feed formulation now is done by computer. This includes the balancing of feed rations and also controlling the mixing and regulation of ingredients in the feed (Figure 1–13). This allows much more accurate blending of the nutrients needed by animals. Perhaps the greatest impact of computers is in the area of information retrieval. Through Figure 1–13 Modern feed mills such as this use the Internet, producers can access an incredible computers to balance and mix feed rations. amount of information without leaving home.

This system connects the producer to information from all over the world. Producers obtain summations of the latest scientific research; find sources for feed, supplies, and breeding animals; locate markets; and even buy and sell animals on-line. New ideas on management practices and production can be gathered from other producers throughout the world. Decisions on buying and selling have become easier because the producer can obtain immediate price quotes and predictions over the Internet. In fact, all banking and financial transactions can be done electronically. In addition, most major breed associations place information on the Internet so Figure 1–14 The development of artificial insemination producers can have up-to-the-minute infortechniques has allowed a superior sire to sire hundreds of offspring. This equipment is used in the process. mation on events within the associations. Production and progeny records on the most valuable sires and dams are available to aid in decision making on breeding programs. Information on problems, such as disease outbreaks, can be instantly passed on to the producer over the Internet. Notices of sales, show schedules, and upcoming events can be placed on the Web for the use of the producers. Computers have brought the information of the world into the homes of the producers. Efficiency in the production of agricultural animals is not the only benefit derived from scientific research (Figure 1–14). Also, the lives of humans have been greatly enhanced by research dealing with animals through the development of pharmaceuticals from animal byproducts. A pharmaceutical is a substance that is used as a drug to make the life of a person better. Many of the drugs routinely prescribed by doctors are derived from animals (Figure 1–15). For instance, cortisone, which relieves the suffering of people with arthritis, is derived from the gallbladder of cattle. Until recently, when a synthetic form of cortisone was developed, the only source for this drug was cattle. As another example, a periodic intake of insulin is necessary for people who have diabetes. Before a synthetic form of insulin was developed, it was made from the pancreas of animals. Insulin from hogs is of particular value because this form most closely resembles human insulin. Some diabetics are allergic to synthetically produced insulin and can take only the form of insulin derived from hogs. Many of the hormones used to treat human disorders come from animals that have been slaughtered for food. When, for some reason, the human body does not produce enough hormones to control or stimulate a body function, the hormone must be supplied from an outside source. Without the ready supply of drugs

13

Courtesy of Frank Flanders

ANIMAL AGRICULTURE AS SCIENCE

CHAPTER 1

432 lbs. Retail Beef Steaks Roasts Ground beef

Inedible Byproducts Leather Sports equipment Surgical sutures Soap Cosmetics Buttons China Photographic film Sandpaper Violin strings "Camel hair" brushes Explosives Variety Meats Liver Kidneys Brains Tripe Tongue Sweetbreads Ox joints

1,000 lb. STEER

Pharmaceuticals Rennet Epinephrine Thrombin Insulin Heparin TSH ACTH Cholesterol Estrogen Thyroid extract

Edible Byproducts Oleo stock Oleo oil Gelatin Marshmallows Canned meat Candies Natural sausage casings

National Cattlemen's Beef Association

14

Figure 1–15 Animals provide much more to humans than just beef.

derived from animals, many people’s lives would be shortened and the quality of their lives would be lessened. Another result of scientific research is that animal parts can be used as replacements for human parts. Pigs have been particularly important in this regard. Heart valves from pigs have been used for about twenty years as replacements for faulty human heart valves. Pig heart valves are highly superior to mechanical valves because the mechanical valves tend to accumulate residue from the flow of blood. As a result, the mechanical valve sticks and the result can be fatal. In contrast, a pig heart valve does not accumulate as much residue because it came from a living, functioning animal. Although the valve is treated to make it into an inanimate object before it is placed in a human heart, the traits that allow its use are retained. Skins from pigs are now being used to treat humans who have incurred severe burns. The pig tissues are used as skin covers until the new human skin has had a chance to grow.

SUMMARY No branch of science touches our lives more than that of the science of agriculture. It has revolutionized every aspect of our lives. Although other countries are fierce competitors in electronics, automotives, and manufacturing, none even comes close to competing with American agriculture. Our research, combined with our free enterprise system, has made us the envy of the world in agricultural production.

ANIMAL AGRICULTURE AS SCIENCE

15

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Science is the study or theoretical explanation of natural phenomena. 2. The Land Grant Act, or Morrill Act, provided public land and funds for establishing universities that would teach practical methods of manufacturing and producing food and fiber. 3. The Cooperative Extension Service came into being with the Smith-Lever Act in 1914. 4. A hypothesis is a scientifically proven cause of a particular problem. 5. Basic research is used in every aspect of society; agriculture is only a small part. 6. Research and applied science have made it possible to raise more dairy cows on the same amount of land although the milk produced per cow has remained the same. 7. Before countries can develop and prosper, they must achieve a sound basis for producing food. 8. Almost all of the progress in research has come about through milestone breakthroughs. 9. Animals that can be raised in a disease-free environment can be raised at a much lower cost and at quite a bit less risk to the producer. 10. One of the old ways of preserving meat was to salt it, but this method was time-consuming and did not produce a very palatable product. 11. With the advent of artificial insemination in the 1930s, the transfer of genes from superior sires multiplied greatly. 12. Efficiency in the production of agricultural animals is the only benefit derived from scientific research. 13. A pharmaceutical is a substance used as a cosmetic to improve the life of a person. 14. Animal parts can be used as replacements for human body parts. 15. Although the United States is a leader in electronics, automotives, and manufacturing, it is behind many countries in the agriculture field.

Fill in the Blanks 1. As the patterns of animal ____________ and ____________ were studied, people reasoned that if they could ____________ animals, the need for moving with the ____________ and hunting as a group could be ____________. 2. To make progress in industry and agriculture, young people needed to be taught how to ____________ food and ____________ goods in a more ____________ manner. 3. The Hatch Act authorized the establishment of ____________ ____________ in different parts of all the states with ____________ ____________ ____________. 4. The scientific method has been used ____________ of times to ____________ the methods that are used to produce ____________ ____________.

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5. Basic research deals with the ____________ of why or ____________ events occur, and applied research deals with using the ____________ made in basic research to help in a ____________ manner. 6. Advances through scientific research have resulted in an ____________ of animals for ____________ and also relatively low ____________ to pay for ____________. 7. The increase of beef cattle liveweight has come about as a result of the scientific ____________ of ____________ animals, a better understanding of beef cattle ____________, and better control of ____________ and ____________. 8. Producers now can grow heavier broilers in ____________ the time on ____________ the feed than they could in ____________. 9. During the 1870s and 1880s, a French scientist named ____________ ____________ developed a means of ____________ animals to make them ____________ to ____________. 10. Refrigerated boxcars meant that not only could animals be ____________ any time of the year, but the meat also could be ____________ for a ____________ period of ____________. 11. Embryo transfer combined with artificial ____________ allows producers to make extremely rapid gains in the ____________ of their ____________ at a relatively low ____________. 12. Computer-simulated experiments and ____________ have helped decrease the ____________ and ____________ involved in scientific ____________. 13. Cortisone relieves the suffering of people with ____________ and is made from the ____________ bladder of ____________. 14. Heart valves from ____________ have been used for about ____________ years as replacements for faulty ____________ heart valves. 15. A pig heart valve does not accumulate as much ____________ as a mechanical valve does because it came from a living ____________ animal. Discussion Questions 1. Why is agriculture considered to be the oldest of the sciences? 2. How has strong knowledge about agriculture helped advances in other areas? 3. What five acts passed by Congress have helped make advances in agriculture? 4. What is the three-part purpose of the land grant institution? 5. What does the scientific method involve? 6. What advances have been made in the beef industry since 1925? in the sheep industry? in the dairy industry? in the swine industry? 7. List five developments that have had a great impact on animal agriculture. 8. What drugs are derived from animals? 9. Why are pig heart valves superior to mechanical valves in replacing faulty human heart valves?

ANIMAL AGRICULTURE AS SCIENCE

17

Student Learning Activities 1. Interview your parents (and, if possible, your grandparents). Make a list of the advances they perceive as having made their lives better since they were your age. Determine how many of these advances came about as a direct or indirect result of agriculture. 2. Interview a livestock producer. Ask him or her what improvements he or she has seen during the past five years. Also ask what problems he or she has that might be solved through scientific research. 3. Design a scientific experiment to solve a problem. Include your hypothesis, how you would conduct the experiment, and how you would use the results. 4. Go to your school computer lab and access the Internet. Locate a research study on animal science. Also locate four breed associations and print the information available.

CHAPTER

2

The Classification of Agricultural Animals

KEY TERMS organisms binomial nomenclature genus species kingdoms animalia plantae monera

protista fungi phyla phulon notochord classes orders cud

families polled breed breeding true underline selective breeding purebreds breed associations

blood typing meat animals work animal draft horses dual-purpose animals wether

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain the importance of scientifically

classifying animals. ■ define and explain the use of the

binomial system of classification. ■ list the five kingdoms that are used to

classify all living organisms.

■ explain the different categories used in

the scientific classification of animals. ■ list characteristics of animals that place

them in different classifications. ■ describe methods of classifying

animals by means other than scientific classification.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain how agricultural animals are

classified scientifically. ■ explain how breeds of livestock were

developed.

■ explain the purposes of breed

associations. ■ outline the classification of agricultural

animals according to use.

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here are millions of different types of animals and other living things in the world. Most of these organisms have been identified, grouped, and classified in an attempt to more effectively study them and communicate about them. Plants, animals, and other organisms are classified or grouped by characteristics they have in common. They may be characterized by their physical characteristics, by the uses that people make of them, or by other categories used to put similar animals together. Agricultural animals are classified in several ways. First, these animals are part of the overall population of animals in the world. Therefore agricultural animals are classified scientifically just as all other animals are. A big difference is that agricultural animals have been domesticated for some type of human use. These domesticated animals have been developed into breeds having distinctive characteristics and distinctive uses. Other ways of classifying and identifying animals are by breeds and by the uses of the various types of animals.

T

SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION

John Giustina/Getty Images

Animals are given names according to a scientific classification system, known as binomial nomenclature. Binomial means two names; nomenclature refers to the act of giving a name. This system was developed by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus, who grouped organisms according to similar characteristics. Linnaeus used two Latin names for identifying each individual organism: The first of the two names is the genus; the second part of the name denotes the species. At the time of Linnaeus, Latin was the international language of scholars. Many of the languages of the world are based on Latin, so people from many different countries who speak many different languages can recognize the scientific names. A Sus scrofa will be recognized as a domesticated pig by people who speak German as well as those who speak English (Figure 2–1). The two-name system also helps people from different areas of the same country accurately identify animals and other living things. Common names are often confusing and can be misleading. For instance, in Oregon a gopher is a burrowing animal having long claws and long teeth that eats insects and roots. In Alabama a gopher is a large rat that inhabits barns and other outbuildings. To people who live in Florida, a gopher is identified as a type of burrowing terrapin. Without a standard naming system, people from outside one of these areas would Figure 2–1 Scientists all over the world recognize this be confused about which of the three animals animal as Sus scrofa. was being referred to. However, if the gopher in

THE CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

Oregon is referred to as Thomomys species, if the gopher in Florida is referred to as Gopherus polyphemus, and if the gopher in Alabama is referred to as Rattus norevegicus, the identity of the animal is not in doubt. A scientific system of classification allows the exact identity of an animal to be recognized anywhere in the world. The scientific classification of all living things is an orderly and systematic approach to identification. Broad groups of animals are classified together in categories of common characteristics. Then each of these broad groups is broken down into categories of animals having similar characteristics. Each of these groups is further broken down into smaller categories. The process is repeated until the groups cannot be categorized into smaller groups. Following is an explanation of the system and how agricultural animals fit into the classification system. Kingdoms All living things are first classified into five broad categories called kingdoms. For many years, scientists recognized only two kingdoms: the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. As new discoveries were made and more organisms were classified, scientists realized that some animals could not be classified as either plant or animal; they didn’t fit into either of the two existing kingdoms. In revising the system, three new kingdoms were added. Scientists now recognize five kingdoms of living organisms: Animalia—all multicelled animals Plantae—multicellular plants that produce chlorophyll through photosynthesis ■ Monera—bacteria and blue-green algae ■ Protista—paramecia and amoebae ■ Fungi—mushrooms and other fungi ■ ■

Obviously, all agricultural animals are large multicellular animals and belong to the kingdom Animalia. The kingdom Animalia includes all animals ranging from a tiny gnat to the huge whales that inhabit our oceans. Because of this great diversity, the animals in the kingdom Animalia were placed into smaller groups known as phyla. Phyla The kingdom Animalia is divided into 27 different phyla (singular phylum) according to the animals’ characteristics. The word phylum comes from the Greek word phulon, meaning race or kind. Several of the phyla are divided into subphylas. Animals in phyla or subphylas are grouped by broad characteristics shared by the animals. For instance, the phylum Arthropoda consists of animals that have a hard external skeleton called an exoskeleton. This phylum includes insects, spiders, crayfish, crabs, centipedes, and so on. Another phylum, the Mollusca, includes the animals that

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have soft bodies protected by a hard shell—for example, starfish, snails, and clams. The segmented worms, such as the earthworm, belong to the phylum Annelida. All agricultural animals (with the exception of certain specialty animals such as earthworms and oysters) belong to the phylum Chordata. Animals in this phylum have a stringy, rodlike structure called a notochord, made of tough elastic tissue that is present in the embryo. This phylum is divided into subphylas, one of which is the subphylum Vertebrata. This subphylum includes animals with backbones. The jointed backbone that supports the animal is developed from the notochord of the embryo. The animals with backbones belong to the subphylum Vertebrata and include the animals generally found on farms and ranches. However, the subphylum Vertebrata comprises animals as diverse as sharks and monkeys. Classes The phyla and subphyla are further divided into classes. Examples of the classes in the subphylum Vertebrata are: Amphibia—includes frogs, toads, and salamanders Reptilia—includes turtles, snakes, and lizards ■ Aves—includes the birds ■ Mammalia—includes animals that have hair, nurse their young, and give live birth. ■ ■

Agricultural animals such as horses, cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, and dogs belong to the class Mammalia. This class is another expansive classification group, including mice, elephants, tigers, whales, and humans. Orders Classes are divided into smaller groups that categorize animals within a class that possess certain characteristics. These groups are called orders. The class Mammalia contains 18 different orders including Primates, to which humans belong. Cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs belong to the order Artiodactyla. Animals are placed in this order because they have an even number of toes. Sometimes referred to as hooves, the feet on these animals all have an even number of divisions (usually two). Within this order are three suborders: Suiformes—includes pigs and hippopotami ■ Tylopoda—includes camels and llamas ■ Ruminantia—includes deer, cattle, sheep, and goats. ■

Common characteristics of animals in the suborder Ruminantia are that they chew a cud and have several compartments to their digestive system, which allows them to eat grass, hay, and other roughages. Horses and donkeys have only one toe (hoof) and belong to the order Perissodactyla. Also in this order are zebras, tapirs, and rhinoceroses.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

23

Families

■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Cervidae—includes deer, elk, and moose Antilopinae—includes the antelopes Tragulidae—includes certain types of goats Giraffidae—includes the giraffe Bovidae—includes cattle, buffalo, sheep, and domestic goats.

Pat Powers & Cherryl Schafer/Getty Images

At this point in the classification system, the characteristics of the animals that are grouped together begin to narrow and the animals have much more in common. Still, there are considerable differences between a cow and a deer (both of which belong to the suborder Ruminantia) and between a rhino and a horse (both of which belong to the order Perissodactyla). Orders and suborders are broken down further into families. Each order and suborder contain many families. The suborder Ruminantia is divided into five families:

Figure 2–2 Goats belong to the same family (Bovidae) as cattle but are classified in a different subfamily.

However, sheep and goats are put in the subfamily Caprinus (Figure 2–2). Genus and Species

Common Name

Pigs

Cattle

Horses

Sheep

Chickens

Turkeys

Rabbits

Honeybees

Catfish

Kingdom

Animalia

Animalia

Animalia

Animalia

Animalia

Animalia

Animalia

Animalia

Animalia

Phylum

Chordata

Chordata

Chordata

Chordata

Chordata

Chordata

Chordata

Arthropoda

Chordata

Class

Mammalia

Mammalia

Mammalia

Mammalia

Aves

Aves

Mammalia

Insecta

Osteichthyes

Order

Artiodactyla Artiodactyla Perissodactyla Artiodactyla Galliformes

Galliformes

Lagomorpha Hymenoptera Siluriformes

Family

Suidae

Bovidae

Equidae

Bovidae

Phasianidae Meleagrididae Leporidae

Genus

Sus

Bos

Equus

Ovis

Gallus

Meleagris

Oryctolalgus Apis

Ictalurus

Species

scrofa

taurus, or indicus

caballus

aries

domesticus

gallopavo

cuniculus

Furcatus

Figure 2–3 Scientific classification of agricultural animals.

Apidae

mellifera

Ictaluridae

Delmar/Cengage Learning

The final categories of the scientific classification system are genus and species, which together comprise what is known as the scientific name. All identified animals have been given this two-part classification. Families are broken down into genera, and each genus is further divided into species. For instance, sheep are placed in the genus Ovis and goats are classified in the genus Capra. Domestic sheep are separated from the various types of wild sheep by species. The species of domestic sheep is aries. Within the family Bovidae, cattle are classified in the genus Bos, and are further separated by species. Cattle of European origin are classified as Bos taurus; cattle that originated in India are classified as Bos indicus. Figure 2–3 summarizes the scientific classification of agricultural animals.

CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION BY BREEDS Species of animals have many differences. For instance, a Great Dane and a Poodle are both classified as Canis familiaris. Just think of all the differences between these two breeds of dog! Breeds of agricultural animals can show almost as much difference within the species. Color patterns, size, horned or polled, and country of origin—all can be characteristics used to distinguish different breeds of cattle. A breed of animal is defined as a group of animals with a common ancestry and common characteristics that breed true. Breeding true means that the offspring almost always will look like the parents. For instance, the Hereford breed of cattle is characterized by being brownish red with a white face and white underline (Figure 2–4). If a male and a female Hereford are mated, the offspring are expected to be red and have the characteristic white face and white underline. Selective Breeding All breeds of hogs probably came from a common ancestor; and all breeds of sheep probably came from a common ancestor; all breeds of cattle probably came from a common ancestor. After the animals were domesticated, breeds were developed by the people who took care of the animals. The characteristics of the different breeds probably were developed because the people who raised them wanted those particular characteristics. Those animals showing the desired traits were kept for breeding, and the others were slaughtered and eaten. A group of producers may have liked the black color of some of their beef animals and therefore bred only those that were black. After a few generations of this selective breeding, only black

Courtesy of USDA

24

Figure 2–4 The Hereford is unique in that it is brownish red in color with a white

face and white underline.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

25

calves were produced. During this process, someone may have noticed that some of the calves did not develop horns. Subsequently, if only black cattle with no horns were used for breeding, after several generations a group of cattle developed that were always black and had no horns. From this group came the modern Angus breed of cattle. Purebreds Animals whose ancestors are of only one breed are referred to as purebreds. Breed associations have been developed to promote certain breeds of animals. These associations usually set the standards for animals that are allowed to be registered as a purebred animal of that particular breed. If breed associations did not set standards for their animals, the breed might disappear in a few years. For example, the American Duroc Association specifies that, for an animal to be registered as a Duroc, the animal must be red in color with no white on the body. By allowing only a certain type of animal to be registered as a purebred, the breed association is assured that the characteristics that designate the animals as a certain breed will continue.

Beyond physical characteristics used in breed identification, a process known as blood typing is also used to determine the ancestry of animals. Individual animals and humans have different types of blood known as blood groups. The blood of different types or groups has different characteristics that are passed on genetically from parents to their offspring. As the blood is analyzed, these differences show up. This process is useful in determining the parentage of a particular animal. Because the black color of Angus cattle is dominant, the sire of a black calf from an Angus cow would be difficult to determine just by looking at the calf. However, the blood type of a calf sired by an Angus bull would be different from the blood type of a calf sired by a bull of a different breed. The blood type of two Angus bulls might even be different. Determining the parentage of animals using blood typing is usually considered to be about 90 percent accurate. New breeds of animals are constantly being developed by combining animals of different breeds. The Brangus breed was developed by systematically breeding Brahman cattle and Angus cattle until the offspring had the desirable characteristics and bred true (Figure 2–5). Just as in Figure 2–5 The Brangus breed was developed by systematically earlier history, a breed was developed with the breeding Brahman and Angus cattle. characteristics that certain people wanted.

©iStockphoto/Mr_Jamsey

Blood Typing

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CHAPTER 2

Courtesy of American Brahman Breeders Association

Crossbreeding

Courtesy of Santa Gertrudis Breeders International

Figure 2–6 The Brahman is a species of cattle (Bos indicus) that developed in India.

Figure 2–7 The Santa Gertrudis was developed from the

Shorthorn and Brahman breeds.

Sometimes species can be successfully crossed to produce new breeds called crossbreeding. For example, the breeds of cattle developed in Europe are scientifically classified as Bos taurus. These cattle have characteristics that make them desirable as beef animals that do well in the climates of Europe. In the tropical climate of India, another species of cattle (Bos indicus) developed, with characteristics that made the animal useful in that part of the world (Figure 2–6). Cattle breeders in the subtropical regions of the United States (the Southwest and the Southeast) recognized the need for an animal that had characteristics of both the Bos taurus and the Bos indicus. One of the first successful breeds of this type was the Santa Gertrudis, which was developed by systematically crossing the Shorthorn breed of cattle (Bos taurus) with the Brahman breed of cattle (Bos indicus), Figure 2–7. This new breed of cattle combined the growth and carcass quality of the Bos taurus with the hardiness of the Bos indicus. Since that time, many other breeds have been developed using these two species. Another example is the mule, which was developed by breeding a mare (a female horse, Equus caballus) with a jack (a male donkey, Equus asinus). The resulting animal—the mule— combined the size and strength of the horse with the toughness and surefootedness of the donkey (Figure 2–8).

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE

Dick Luria/Getty Images

Breeds of domesticated animals are sometimes grouped together because of the uses that humans make of them. Agricultural animals are raised for several different reasons and, therefore, are classified by their uses.

Figure 2–8 The mule was developed by breeding a mare

with a jack.

Meat Animals Meat animals are raised primarily for slaughter and human consumption. For instance, with the exception of those raised as laboratory animals, almost all pigs are raised for pork and have little use otherwise. Sheep, however, may be raised

for various purposes. Breeds such as Rambouillet and Merinos are grown primarily for their wool; Suffolk and Hampshire breeds are grown primarily as meat animals; and other breeds are produced for their milk, which is used in such products as Roquefort cheese (Figure 2–9). Another example can be found in cattle. Hereford cattle are raised for beef because they produce a lot of muscle and only enough milk to feed their calves. Ayrshire cattle, in contrast, have considerably less muscle than Herefords but produce a tremendous amount of milk. Because of this, Ayrshires are raised for their milk and not for beef (Figure 2–10). Likewise, some breeds of chickens produce a lot of eggs but little meat, and these breeds are used as layers. Other breeds produce a lot of meat and are raised for slaughter.

27

Courtesy of U.S. Targhee Sheep Association

THE CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

Figure 2–9 Some sheep are raised for their wool, some for their meat, and some for their milk.

Another classification according to use is the work animal. In the past, work animals have been an essential part of agriculture. Even today in some parts of the world, animals are the primary means of transportation and tillage of the soil. Donkeys provide power to pull carts and are ridden. Camels provide means of bearing heavy loads. Oxen, camels, water buffaloes, and donkeys are all used to pull wagons and plows (Figure 2–11).

Courtesy of Arshire Breeders Association

Work Animals

Figure 2–10 Ayrshires were developed for milk production

John William Banagan/Getty Images

instead of meat production.

Figure 2–11 In some areas of the world, animals such as the water buffalo are still

a valuable source of power.

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CHAPTER 2

Horses

Courtesy of ARS

In the United States, animals are still used to assist humans in work. On farms and ranches in the United States, horses are still a valuable means of working cattle. In some instances, they are still used as draft animals. Other horses are used for recreational purposes. Given all of these uses for horses, it is easy to see that they are classified according to the type of work they do. Cutting horses, such as the American Quarter Horse, are used to herd and work cattle (Figure 2–12). Larger breeds, such as Belgians and Clydesdales, are used to pull wagons and heavy load, and are Figure 2–12 In the United States, horses are still used to classified as draft horses. Some breeds, such as the work cattle. Morgan, Tennessee Walker, and the American Saddlebred, are used for riding and are classified as saddle horses. Others, such as the Hackney and the Standardbred, are used for pulling sulkies or light carriages and are known as harness horses (Figure 2–13). Dogs Dogs also are used to herd cattle, hogs, and sheep. On a sheep ranch, a good sheepdog is quite a valuable asset. Not only are they used to round up and sort sheep, but they also protect sheep from predators (Figure 2–14).

John Kelly/Getty Images

Dual-Purpose Animals

Figure 2–13 Many horses work to

As animals were domesticated, many were developed to be dual-purpose animals. Cows, for example, could provide milk and also serve to pull plows, carts, or other implements. Also, the surplus young could be slaughtered and eaten. On most modern farms and ranches, agricultural animals are specialized, that is, they serve only one purpose. For instance, cattle are raised either

Geostock/Getty Images

provide people with recreation.

Figure 2–14 Dogs are classified as work animals when they are used to herd other

animals.

29

Peter Adams/Getty Images

THE CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

Figure 2–15 In the Middle East, camels are used for work, milk, and meat.

for milking or for beef but seldom for both. Exceptions do exist, however. Most sheep that are raised for meat are also shorn for their wool. Although the wool is not as high quality as that of sheep raised primarily for wool, the producer does obtain some income from the sale of the wool. Likewise, calves from dairy cattle often are slaughtered for veal or beef. In many parts of the world, dual-purpose animals still play a major part in the agricultural economy. For example, in the harsh deserts of the Middle East, camels provide a source of power for carrying or pulling loads and also are a source of milk and meat (Figure 2–15).

SUMMARY Animals can be classified in many ways, and agricultural animals are no exception. Whether they are classified according to size, use, color, or breed, the scientific classification system is an organized method of helping to identify types of animals. Without such a system, there would be much confusion surrounding the names and identification of animals.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Plants, animals, and other organisms are classified or grouped together according to characteristics they have in common. 2. Latin was used originally for scientific names, but the modern system uses English. 3. The five kingdoms now recognized by scientists are Animalia, Plantae, Monera, Protista, and Fungi. 4. The kingdom Animalia is divided into 27 different phyla according to the animals’ characteristics.

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5. Animals with backbones belong to the subphylum Vertebrata and include the animals generally found on farms and ranches. 6. The class Mammalia contains 18 different orders including Primates, which includes humans. 7. The common characteristics of animals in the suborder Ruminantia are that they have one toe, they have only one compartment in their digestive system, and they have no hair. 8. Families are broken down into genera; each genus is further divided into species. 9. Within species of animals there are very little distinguishing differences. 10. Animals whose ancestors are of only four or fewer breeds are referred to as purebred. 11. Determining the parentage of animals using blood typing is usually considered to be 40 to 50 percent accurate. 12. Breeds of domesticated animals are sometimes grouped together because of the uses humans make of them. 13. Holstein cattle are raised primarily for their meat. 14. Machinery has replaced the use of animals such as horses and buffaloes for transportation and tillage of the soil. 15. Cattle are raised either for milking or for beef, but seldom for both.

Fill in the Blanks 1. Binomial means two ____________, and nomenclature means the ____________ of giving a ____________. 2. A scientific system of classification allows the exact ____________ of an ____________ to be recognized anywhere in the ____________. 3. As new discoveries were made and more ____________ classified, scientists realized that some animals could not be classified as either ____________ or ____________ and did not fit into either of the two existing ____________. 4. All agricultural animals are large ____________ animals and belong to the kingdom ____________. 5. Animals in the phylum Chordata have in common a stringy ____________like structure called a ____________ that is made of tough ____________ tissue that is present in the ____________. 6. The class Mammalia includes animals that have ____________, ____________ their young, and give ____________ ____________. 7. The suborder Ruminantia is broken into ____________ families, two of which are the Cervidae, to which ____________, elk, and ____________ belong, and the Bovidae, which includes ____________, buffalo, ____________, and ____________ goats. 8. If male and female Hereford cattle are mated, their offspring would be expected to be ____________ and have the characteristic ____________ face and ____________ underline. 9. The characteristics of the different breeds were probably ____________ because the ____________ who raised them wanted those particular ____________. 10. Not only physical characteristics are used in breed identification. A process known as ____________ ____________ is also used to determine the ____________ of ____________.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

31

11. The Santa Gertrudis was developed by systematically crossing the ____________ ____________ breed of cattle (____________ ____________) with the ____________ breed of cattle (____________ ____________). 12. Hereford cattle are raised for ____________ because they produce a lot of ____________ and only enough ____________ to feed their ____________. 13. Sheepdogs are used to round up and ____________ sheep and to ____________ them from ____________. 14. As animals were domesticated, many served dual purposes; cows provided ____________, but they could also serve to pull ____________, ____________, or other ____________. 15. In the Middle East, camels provide a source of ____________ for carrying or ____________ loads, and a source of ____________ and ____________. Discussion Questions 1. What is the binomial nomenclature system of classification? 2. Why is the scientific classification of animals essential in studying and communicating about them? 3. List the five kingdoms, and describe the type of organisms included in each. 4. What are the scientific names for the following agricultural animals: cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, dogs? 5. Explain how and why breeds of animals were developed. 6. What are the purposes of breed associations? 7. How is blood grouping used to classify animals? 8. Give examples of two different species of animals that have been bred to produce a new breed or type of animal. 9. What are three classifications of animals according to their use? 10. What are three classifications of horses according to their use? 11. Explain the term “dual-purpose animal” and give some examples. Student Learning Activities 1. Choose a specific type of animal (a Hereford cow, a Duroc boar, a Suffolk wether). List all of the different ways this animal could be grouped or classified. Discuss your classification methods with others in your class. 2. Choose two types of agricultural animals (such as a sheep and a pig), and list all of their common characteristics you can think of. Also make a list of all the ways in which the animals are different. Compare your lists with others in the class. 3. Write to three breed associations and ask for information on the disqualifications of animals for those breeds. Compare the requirements of the different associations. As a class project, try to determine which breed associations are the most restrictive about their qualifications. 4. Talk to several purebred livestock producers to determine the characteristics they like best about the breeds they raise. Compare your findings with those of others in your class.

CHAPTER

The Beef Industry

KEY TERMS veal sire breeds dam breeds

exotic breeds purebred operations cow-calf operations

stocker operations feedlot operations seed stock cattle

stocker

3

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain the importance of beef in the

human diet. ■ explain how the environment helps

determine where animals are produced.

■ define ecological balance. ■ describe how cattle make use of

feedstuff that cannot be consumed by humans.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ specify the per-capita consumption of

products from beef animals grown in the United States. ■ explain the importance of the beef

industry to the economy of the United States.

■ justify the use of agricultural land to

produce beef. ■ describe the various segments of the

beef industry.

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CHAPTER 3

BEEF IN THE AMERICAN DIET mericans are a nation of beef eaters. Each year the average person in this country consumes 67.5 pounds of beef and veal. Each year we buy more beef than fresh poultry, pork, and seafood combined. In fact, beef accounts for about 6 percent of all supermarket sales (Figure 3–1). Over the past few years, the consumption of beef has been increasing both in supermarket sales and as meals in commercial restaurants. In addition to the large amount of beef consumed in the United States, almost a million metric tons of beef are exported each year, which represents a value of nearly $2.5 billion. Lean beef is very dense in nutrients. A pound of beef may equal or surpass the nutritive content of the feed consumed to produce the meat. Of all the foods that humans consume, meat is among the most nutritionally complete (Figure 3–2). Food from animals supplies about 88 percent of vitamin B12 in our diets because this nutrient is difficult to obtain from plant sources. In addition, meats and animal products provide 67 percent of the riboflavin, 65 percent of the protein and phosphorus, 57 percent of the vitamin B6, 48 percent of the fat, 43 percent of the niacin, 42 percent of the vitamin A, 37 percent of the iron, 36 percent of the thiamin, and 35 percent of the magnesium in our diets. Few nations in the world even come close to United States in the per-capita consumption of beef and other meats. To a large extent, this is an indication of the prosperity of the American people. In the past, livestock ownership has been a sign of prosperity, and in many cultures even today, a person’s wealth is measured by the number of cattle owned.

A

©iStockphoto/Sean Locke

Types of Beef

Figure 3–1 Beef accounts for about 6 percent of all

supermarket sales.

Included in the consumption of beef are various types of beef that meet the needs of different consumers. With such a diverse population, there are different likes and dislikes in almost every commodity produced, and beef is no exception. The following outlines some of the choices in beef offered to the American consumer. Veal According to the USDA veal is meat from a calf that weighs about 150 pounds. Calves that are mainly milk-fed usually are younger than

35

© iStockphoto/Mike Cherim

© lillisphotography/iStockphoto

THE BEEF INDUSTRY

Figure 3–2 Meat is among the most nutritionally complete foods that humans consume.

Figure 3–3 Baby beef is from young cattle weighing about

700 pounds that have been raised mainly on milk and grass.

3 months old. Veal is pale pink and contains more cholesterol than beef but is also very tender. Veal is often from dairy calves that are not raised as replacements.

Baby Beef The USDA defines “baby beef” and “calf” (two interchangeable terms) as beef from young cattle weighing about 700 pounds that have been raised mainly on milk and grass (Figure 3–3). The meat cuts from baby beef are smaller, and the meat is light red and contains less fat than beef. The fat may have a yellow tint as a result of the vitamin A in grass.

Grain-fed beef is the type of beef that is sold most often in the grocery store. This beef is from animals that have been fed a high-concentrate feed (a high percentage of grain such as corn) until achieving the desired grade. These animals may be as much as 3½ years old and weigh 1,000 pounds or more (Figure 3–4). As explained in Chapter 20, grain-fed beef is graded according to the degree of fat and the age of the animal at slaughter. Consumers prefer a Choice grade of beef, which is the second highest grade. The top grade of beef, Prime, generally goes to the better restaurants.

©Michael Zysman, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Grain-fed beef

Figure 3–4 Grain-fed beef comes from animals that may be around 3½ years old and weigh 1,000 pounds or more.

CHAPTER 3

Grass-fed beef A growing demand in the beef market is for grass-fed beef—from animals that are fed grass almost exclusively. Some people think this type is healthier but research has not yet confirmed a significant health benefit over grain-fed beef. However, grass-fed beef does contain less fat than grain-fed beef. The USDA has set the following standards for beef that is labeled as grass-fed: Grass and forage should make up the animal’s diet for its entire lifetime, with the exception of milk consumed prior to weaning. The diet shall be derived solely from forage and animals cannot be fed grain or grain byproducts and must have continuous access to pasture during the growing season. Because the animal must be fed grass or hay, the beef may be more expensive because the seasons may not allow year-round grazing (Figure 3–5). Also, grass-fed animals may take a longer time to reach maturity than animals fed grain in a feedlot. Natural Beef Beef is labeled “natural” if no artificial flavor, coloring, chemical preservent, or any other artificial or synthetic ingredient is added to the meat. “Naturally raised” beef is from animals that have never been given growth promotants (such as hormones), have never been given antibiotics, and were never fed animal byproducts. Certified Organic Beef Chapter 11 discusses the rules and regulations regarding the labeling of meat as “organic.” Grain-fed, grass-fed, and naturally

©Norma Cornes, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

36

Figure 3–5 Because the animal must be fed on grass or hay, grass-fed beef may be more expensive because the seasons may not allow year-round grazing.

THE BEEF INDUSTRY

37

raised beef may be labeled organic if additional requirements are met. The biggest difference is that the feed must be certified organic feed.

THE BEEF INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES

Item

Beef cattle ranching and farming (112111)

Cattle feedlots (112112)

Dairy cattle and milk production (11212)

Hog and pig farming (1122)

Poultry and egg production (1123)

Sheep and goat farming (1124)

Animal aquaculture and other animal production (1125, 1129)

Farms ............................... number percent

664,431 31.2

55,472 2.6

72,537 3.4

33,655 1.6

44,219 2.1

43,891 2.1

228,152 10.7

Land in farms ...................... acres Average size of farm ......... acres

419,821,930 632

25,984,434 468

27,351,777 377

8,317,127 247

6,153,409 139

17,910,791 408

44,633,545 196

Figure 3–6 Of the many producers of livestock in the United States, cattle producers are by far the most numerous.

Courtesy of Coperative Extension Service

In the United States’ history, the beef industry has played a prominent role in the development of its economy. Cattle have been in the New World almost as long as the European settlers. The animals were brought across the oceans to feed the settlers in their new homes. Until around the time of the Civil War, most beef was raised on family farms for the purpose of feeding the family. As the population became more urbanized, people had more difficulty raising their own meat. Also, they became more affluent and could afford to buy their food rather than raise it. The large, grassy areas of the West were being settled, and cattle were a natural product to raise on the vast plains of native grasses. Currently, more than 97,000,000 head of beef are being raised on about 800,000 farms and ranches in the United States (Figure 3–6). The number of operations far exceeds any other segment of animal agriculture, with the cattle industry accounting for the largest segment of all the agricultural industry in the United States. Most cattle are raised on family-owned farms and ranches. In fact, about 80 percent of all cattle businesses have been in the same family for the past 25 years. Annually, the United States produces nearly 25 percent of the world’s beef supply with less than 10 percent of the world’s cattle. The beef industry contributes more than $66 billion to the U.S. economy each year. The United States is well suited for the production of animals that supply beef. In the West, vast areas of land are used to graze cattle. Throughout the Midwest, millions of acres of corn are

38

CHAPTER 3

Courtesy of ARS

grown on some of the most productive farmland in the world. In the southern portion of the country, beef producers take advantage of the mild climate to produce grass and hay to help feed the millions of head of cattle raised there. When compared to the rest of the world, Americans spend only a small percentage of their annual income for food. This means that they can afford to buy the type of food they prefer— and they prefer meat. Critics of the beef industry contend that feeding several pounds of feed to animals in return for a pound of meat is wasteful. They say that the grains fed to animals could be better used to feed people, and 6 to 9 pounds of feed are required to produce a pound of beef. Beef producers counter the argument by saying that land used to graze agricultural animals would be of little use for other agricultural purposes. Almost half the land in the United States is classified as land that is not practical for growing cultivated, or row crops. Without the production of grazing animals, this land would be wasted instead of being used as a food-producing resource (Figure 3–7). Furthermore, beef producers point out that livestock are finished (fattened) using grains that are not considered good for human consumption. The better grades and types of grains are used for human to eat, while the lower grades of corn and grains such as grain sorghum are fed to livestock. Beef animals also make use of byproducts such as meal resulting from the cooking oil market. The harvested crops such as soybeans and cottonseed are pressed until most of the oil is removed, and the resulting cake is ground into feed for livestock.

Figure 3–7 Cattle can make use of land that is not suited for growing cultivated or row crops.

THE BEEF INDUSTRY

39

Also, byproducts such as beet pulp from the sugar industry and citrus pulp from the orange and grapefruit juice industry are fed to cattle. If not fed to livestock, these valuable byproducts might go to waste. As outlined in Chapter 1, other products are obtained from animals as well. Most of the hides from the animals are used in making pharmaceuticals, leather for belts, shoes, and other articles of clothing and upholstery materials.

More than three-quarters of the cash receipts for marketing meat animals comes from the sale of beef. These cattle are produced on almost a million farms and ranches across the United States. Contrary to popular belief, most of the beef animals do not originate from large ranches raising vast herds of thousands of cattle. The average size of the beef herds in this country is around 100 head. These producers represent a wide variety of different breeds and types of beef animals. In the United States, there are over 40 different breeds grown, besides all of the different combinations of crosses of these breeds. Livestock producers choose the breed to grow based on the type of market where the animals will be sold, the environmental conditions in which the animals will be produced, and the personal likes and dislikes of the individual producer. Some breeds are large and produce a large carcass; some mature at a smaller size and produce a smaller carcass. Both have a place in the market, and both are produced. Some breeds are better adapted to hot, humid climates, and some breeds tolerate cold and snow better than others. A producer may like the color pattern or the docile nature of a particular breed and prefer to produce that breed. Some breeds make excellent mothers, and other breeds grow rapidly and produce high-quality, meaty carcasses. Because of this, some breeds are referred to as sire breeds and some are referred to as dam breeds. A crossbreeding program helps producers take advantage of the good points of both types of animals. Three broad classifications of beef breeds are grown in the United States: the British breeds, the continental European breeds, and the Zebu breeds. The British breeds include the Angus, Hereford, and the Shorthorn (Figure 3–8). These animals are generally of a docile nature and produce highquality carcasses at a medium size. They were the first breeds brought to the United States, and Figure 3–8 The Shorthorn is classified as a British breed. there are more of this class than any other.

Courtesy of American Shorthorn Association

BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE

CHAPTER 3

Courtesy of American Chianina Association

Courtesy of North American Limousin Association

40

Figure 3–9 The Limousin is a good example of the large, meaty, continental breeds.

Figure 3–10 The Chianina are the largest of all the breeds

of cattle.

© iStockphoto/Sam Haddow

The continental European breeds include the Limousin (Figure 3–9), the Simmental, the Charolais, and the Chianina. These breeds, once known as the exotic breeds, were brought to this country because of their size and ability to grow. At maturity, most of the breeds in this class become quite large. The largest of the breeds, the Chianina, may reach the weight of 4,000 pounds for the bulls and 2,400 pounds for the cows (Figure 3–10). They are generally crossed with the British breeds. The Zebu breeds are those that are scientifically classified as Bos indicus, a separate species from the traditional Bos taurus of the other breeds. The most common Zebu type of cattle in the United States is the Brahman (Figure 3–11), characterized by a large, fleshy hump behind the shoulder and loose folds of skin. They tolerate heat and humidity quite well and are resistant to insects. These characteristics make them well suited to the hot, humid climate of the Southeastern part of the United States and the hot, dry climate of the Southwest. Brahmans have been used as the basis for developing several breeds such as the Santa Gertrudis, Brangus (Figure 3–12), Simbrah, and Beefmater. These developed breeds combine the ruggedness of the Bos indicus with the Figure 3–11 The Brahman is a type of Zebu cattle that is a carcass quality and docile nature of the different species from the British and continental breeds. Bos taurus.

41

Courtesy of International Brangus Breeders Association

©dcwcreations, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

THE BEEF INDUSTRY

Figure 3–12 The Brangus is an example of a breed

developed from Brahmans.

Figure 3–13 The purebred breeders produce animals that

will be used as dams and sires.

The beef industry has four major segments: purebred operations, cow-calf operations, stocker operations, and feedlot operations. Purebred cattle are produced in the first phase of the industry (Figure 3–13). The purpose is to produce what is known as the seed stock cattle. These represent the cattle that are to be used as the dams and sires of calves that will be grown out for market. As mentioned earlier, different breeds have different advantages, and the growing of purebred stock allows breeders to concentrate on improving and accentuating the advantages of a particular breed. Each year, at numerous shows across the nation, purebred cattle breeders compete with each other by displaying their animals in the show ring. Expert judges select the animals they consider to be the best type for that breed. Shows serve both as a means of education and as a way of implementing change in the industry as economic conditions change and new research reveals new insights into the type of animals that should be selected (Figure 3–14). The second phase is the cow-calf operations, where the calves are produced that eventually will be grown out and sent to market (Figure 3–15). Most of these calves are crossbred animals from purebred parents of different breeds. A large part of this industry is centered in the Southern and Western states. The mild winters of the South are ideal for calving in the winter. In most areas of the South, Figure 3–14 Cattle shows serve to educate breeders and to calves are born in January and February to make improvements in the cattle industry. take advantage of the weather that is too cold

Courtesy of USDA

SEGMENTS OF THE BEEF INDUSTRY

CHAPTER 3

Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

42

Figure 3–15 Beef cattle are grown all across the country.

Skip Nall/Getty Images

for flies and parasites but not too cold for the calves to thrive. In addition, the calves will be old enough to begin grazing in the spring when the grass begins to grow again. Cows are fed primarily roughage in the form of grass or hay. The ample rains and mild temperatures of the South provide ideal conditions to produce large amounts of green forage (Figure 3–16). Some grasses, such as fescue and rye, grow very well in the winter months and supply a good source of feed for cows as they gestate or produce milk for their young. Much of the cropland of the hill country of the South has been converted to pasture and forest. These lands were so susceptible to erosion that it was no longer practical to produce row crops and the growth of woodlands and pastures offered a way to make the land useful and productive. Although the largest numbers of cow-calf operations are in the South, cow-calf operations are found all across the country. In the West, producers can take advantage of the vast amounts of government lands that are open to grazing for a small fee. Often, cows are left on free range (not fenced in) to have their calves, which then are rounded up, weaned, and sold. Calves usually are sold upon weaning. They are weaned in the weight range of 300 to 500 pounds. Buyers prefer calves that have been castrated and vaccinated and are Figure 3–16 Climatic conditions in the South are ideal for in good enough condition to move to a new growing grass for cows and calves. environment.

THE BEEF INDUSTRY

Courtesy of USDA

The next phase of the industry is that of the stocker. Stocker operations provide a step between the weaning of the calves and their finishing (or fattening) prior to slaughter. For an animal to start depositing fat in the right places, the animal must be mature enough to have stopped growing. Weaned calves that weigh between 300 and 500 pounds are placed on pasture land and fed a ration designed to allow for skeletal and muscular growth. The stocker purchases the animals from the cow-calf producer and sells them to the feedlot operator. The stocker’s job is to provide a transition period for the calves between the time they are weaned from their mothers and before they are put in the feedlot. During this time, the animals are fed a relatively high roughage diet and supplied with the proper balance of protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals that will ensure that they make sufficient gains to be placed in the feedlot where they will be finished. It is not uncommon for feedlot owners to also be the operators of stocker operations. This arrangement is economical because fewer transportation costs are incurred if the two types of operations are close together. The trend in the industry has been away from the stocker industry since recent research has developed production methods that allow cows to wean heavier calves. A calf that is weaned weighing 700 pounds may well go directly into the feedlot without going through a stocker operation. The feedlot operation is the final phase before the animals are sent to slaughter (Figure 3–17). Here the animals are fed a high-concentrate ration designed to put on the proper amount of fat cover. The producers usually want their animals to be

Figure 3–17 Cattle are finished for market in feedlots.

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CHAPTER 3

Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

44

Figure 3–18 Feedlots are concentrated in the central part of the United States.

marketed when the cattle reach a sufficient fat cover to allow the animals to grade Low Choice. Many feedlots in the United States are situated in the Midwest (Figure 3–18). The reason is that this is the section of the country that produces the most grain and it is usually more economical to feed the animals there rather than ship the grain across country. An exception is the state of Texas; it has more feedlots than any other state. Some feedlots are located in other parts of the country to take advantage of byproduct feeds. For example, feedlots in Idaho take advantage of the potato industry and feed cattle byproducts from the processing of potatoes. Likewise, in Florida, cattle are fed citrus pulp that is left over from the processing of orange juice. Feedlots range in size from a hundred or fewer head to feedlots that feed thousands of cattle every year. Long bunker feeders are automatically filled by automated systems or from trucks (Figure 3–19). The animals are supplied with all the highquality feed they will ingest. They also are given medicines to prevent disease and to ward off both internal and external parasites. When the animals have reached the proper degree of finish, they are quickly moved from the feedlot to the slaughterhouse. When the animals are slaughtered, they are generally around 18 to 24 months in age and can weigh from 800 to 1,500 pounds (Figure 3–20). This age and size offer consumers the type of beef they prefer.

45

Courtesy of ARS

Courtesy of North American Limousin Association

THE BEEF INDUSTRY

Figure 3–19 Feedlot cattle are fed from a long trough

Figure 3–20 This is a properly finished steer that is ready

filled by a truck.

for market.

SUMMARY The beef industry represents a large part of our diet and our economy. The food that comes from cattle provides nutrients that are difficult to obtain from other foods. Our vast continent provides an ideal environment for the production of beef cattle. Often, these cattle make use of feedstuff that otherwise would go to waste. The many phases of the industry provide jobs for millions of people all over the country. The beef industry is a dynamic, growing sector of our country and should remain so for many years to come.

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CHAPTER 3

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Each year, Americans buy more beef than fresh poultry, pork, and seafood combined. 2. One disadvantage of beef is that it is low in Vitamin B12. 3. The average ranch in the United States runs about 1,000 head of cattle. 4. The three classifications of beef breeds are British, Continental, and Zebu. 5. The Chianina is an example of a Zebu breed. 6. In most areas of the South, calves are born in the late fall. 7. The largest number of cow-calf operations are located in the Midwest. 8. In a cow-calf operation, calves are usually sold at weaning. 9. Cattle buyers usually prefer calves that have been castrated and vaccinated and are in good enough condition to move to a new environment. 10. For an animal to start depositing fat in the right places, the animal must have matured or stopped growing.

Fill in the Blanks 1. Food from animals supplies about 88 percent of the ____________ in our diets because this nutrient is difficult to obtain from plant sources. 2. The British breeds include ____________, ____________, and ____________. 3. The Charolais and the Limousin are examples of ____________ breeds. 4. All Zebu breeds are scientifically classified as ____________, a separate species from the traditional Bos taurus of the other breeds. 5. Brahman cattle have been used as a basis for the development of several breeds such as ____________. 6. The beef industry is divided into four major segments: ____________, ____________, ____________, and ____________. 7. Cows in a cow-calf operation are fed primarily ____________. 8. Calves usually are weaned at a weight range of about ____________ pounds. 9. When cattle are slaughtered, they are generally around ____________ months of age and weigh about ____________ pounds. 10. The largest of the beef breeds, the ____________, can reach weights of up to 4,000 pounds.

Discussion Questions 1. Why is the United States an excellent location for raising livestock? 2. What are the reasons for using agricultural land to produce beef? 3. Discuss the nutritional value of beef in the diet.

THE BEEF INDUSTRY

47

4. List and describe the four major segments of the beef industry. 5. Why are most feedlots in the United States located in the Midwest? 6. How does the environment determine where animals are produced. 7. What is the difference between veal and baby beef? 8. Under what conditions may beef be labeled “natural?” 9. What is meant by a high-concentrate feed? 10. Why do we have a market for grass-fed beef? Student Learning Activities 1. For the period of one week, keep a list of the amounts of all the different meats that your family eats. Which type of meat does your family eat the most? Ask your parents to tell you the reasons why they buy the type of meat they do. 2. Determine which breed of cattle would be most appropriate for your area. Give several reasons for your choice. 3. If you become a cattle producer, what type of operation (feeder calves, stockers, feedlot, purebred, etc.) will you prefer? Give the reasons for your choice. 4. Conduct an Internet search for information on a breed of cattle. Report to the class.

CHAPTER

The Dairy Industry

KEY TERMS yogurt balanced ration silage linear evaluation heifers embryo transplant colostrum antibodies alveoli

prolactin lumen lobule tertiary ducts gland cistern sphincter muscle teat pituitary gland oxytocin

letdown process epinephrine milking parlors stanchion mastitis specific gravity homogenization homogenized milk pasteurization

starter culture fermentation enzyme rennet curd whey

4

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ describe the process by which milk is

produced. ■ identify the hormones that control

■ explain the process of pasteurization. ■ trace the biological processes used to

produce cheese.

lactation. ■ describe the composition of milk.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ identify the major areas of dairy

production in the United States. ■ explain how the producer uses the

reproductive process to maintain milk production. ■ trace the steps used to milk cows in the

modern dairy.

■ list the uses made of milk. ■ tell how milk is processed and

marketed. ■ explain how cheese is made.

CHAPTER 4

Figure 4–1 Cows produce milk as food for their young.

he dairy industry is a large component of American agriculture. The sales of dairy products account for about 13 percent of all receipts for farm commodities. The dairy industry is different from other segments of animal agriculture in that the product harvested is intended by nature for no other purpose than to be used as food. Cows are raised and cared for to obtain milk that is produced as food for young calves (Figure 4–1). As indicated in an earlier chapter, scientific research has advanced dairy cows to the point where they can produce many times more milk than is needed for calves. Milk is often described as nature’s most perfect food because of its nutritive value. Although milk is 87 percent water, the other 13 percent consists of solids that contain proteins, carbohydrates, and water-soluble vitamins and minerals. Because of the nutritive value and rich flavors, Americans consume large quantities of dairy products. Each year on the average we each consume 22.3 gallons of milk, 32.5 pounds of cheese, 14.4 pounds of ice cream, 4.7 pounds of butter, and 4.3 pounds of yogurt. This adds up to a lot of milk production. In addition, milk comes from the cow as a processed food and requires little additional processing. Milk is produced and processed in every state in this country. The five leading milk-producing states are Wisconsin, California, New York, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania (Figure 4–2). These five states produce more milk each year than all of the other states combined. Unlike the meat industry, the dairy industry relies

T

Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

C Sherburne/PhotoLink/Getty Images

50

Figure 4–2 Wisconsin is the leading milk-producing state.

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

51

© iStockphoto/Merijn van der Vliet

more on forage than grain to produce a product. These states produce a lot of forage. A high concentration of their population is in large cities. About 85–90 percent of dairy cattle in the United States are Holstein (Figure 4–3). These large, docile animals with the familiar black and white markings produce a larger amount of milk with a smaller amount of milk fat than other breeds. The lower milk fat was once considered to be a disadvantage but now is considered to be an advantage because of modern consumer demand for low-fat and skim milk. Figure 4–3 Most of the dairy cattle in the United States are

In the past, dairy cows usually were kept on pastures where they could make use of grass, which is converted into milk (Figure 4–4). However, the modern trend is for large dairies to keep cows in lots or barns and feed the animals a balanced ration. One of the main feeds of dairy cattle is silage (Figure 4–5), consisting of corn, grain sorghum, or other forage that is chopped—stalk and all—while the plant is green and growing. The chopped silage is placed in a silo or ground bunker, where it undergoes a fermenting process. This means that while the green chopped silage is stored, a chemical process takes place in which complex compounds in the forage are broken down into simpler compounds. This helps to preserve the feed and maintains the palatability, or eating quality, of the feed. The feeding of silage is timed so the milk from the cows will not have an off-flavor, which can occur if the silage is fed to the animals too close to the time they are milked.

© Phillip Minnis, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

FEEDING

Holstein.

Figure 4–4 In the past, almost all dairy cattle were kept on

pasture.

Milk is the food produced for feeding the young. To maintain the production of milk, the cows must go through the gestation process and give birth each year. Artificial insemination is widely used to breed dairy cows. Superior sires can be selected at minimal cost, and the producer does not have to maintain bulls for breeding. The Holstein Association conducts a program called linear evaluation. A representative of the association visits the operation and

Courtesy of ARS

GESTATION

Figure 4–5 The main feed of dairy cattle is silage.

CHAPTER 4

Accelerated Genetics Beef Sire EPDs Trait Stature Short Angularity Coarse Body Depth Shallow Strength Frail Rump Angle High Pins Rear Leg Set Posty Foot Angle Low Fore Udder Attachment Loose Teat Length Long Teat Placement Wide Rump Width Narrow Rear Udder Width Narrow Rear Udder Height Low Udder Depth Deep Udder Support Broken Rear Leg Rear View Close Milkout Slow Disposition Alert

3

2

1

0

1

2

3 Tall Sharp Deep Strong Sloped Sickle Steep Strong Short Close Wide Wide High Shallow Strong Wide Fast Docile

255 DAUS.

Sta 1.94 3.75 2.69 .89 .41 .95 2.15 .41 1.11 2.34 1.64 2.15 1.67 .42 3.15 .42 1.79 .40

128 HERDS

Figure 4–6 Accelerated Genetics Beef Sire EPDs

visually evaluates the cows. These representatives are highly trained, competent individuals who evaluate the animals thoroughly. Certain traits of each animal receive a score based on the ideal. A computerized system then can tell the producer which bull is best to use in breeding the cows (Figure 4–6). Through this system, a producer can make rapid gains in the production of the herd by using the offspring as replacement heifers. If a producer wishes to make even greater advances, the use of embryo transplant is an option. Once the calves are born, they are allowed to remain with the cow for one to two days and then are taken from the mother and raised separately. The female calves often are raised as replacements, and the male calves are raised and sold for slaughter. Milk from a cow that has just given birth is called colostrum. Colostrum is a milk containing a concentration of antibodies that are passed to the young from the mother. Because the young calf can absorb these antibodies only during the first 24 hours of life, it is important that the calf be allowed to suckle often during that period. Also, the milk is not generally considered fit for human consumption, so it is not allowed to enter the milk designated for market.

MILK PRODUCTION Milk is produced in the udder of the cow in small clusters of grapelike structures called alveoli. Blood from the cow circulates through the udder. The alveoli take raw materials from the bloodstream and synthesize these materials into milk (Figure 4–7). For every pound of milk produced, 300 to 500 pounds of blood are circulated through the udder.

Courtesy of Accelerated Genetics

52

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

53

Lumen

Blood vessels

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Alveolus

Tertiary ducts

Figure 4–7 The alveoli take elements manufactured in the bloodstream and synthesize them into milk.

When a cow nears the time of giving birth, a hormone called prolactin causes the alveoli to begin to secrete milk. As long as the cow is milked or the calf nurses, prolactin stimulates the alveoli to produce milk. The longer the period from birth, the less prolactin is produced. Over a period of time, milk production decreases, so the cow is bred again to restart the process. As milk is secreted by the alveoli, it is drained into the lumen (a hollow cavity) in the alveoli. The lumens (or lumina) are connected to the stem that connects the cluster of alveoli. This cluster is called the lobule. The lobule contains ducts—called the tertiary ducts—that drain into larger ducts, which carry the milk to an area called the gland cistern, where the milk is stored. A circular muscle called the sphincter muscle prevents the milk from leaking into the teat (Figure 4–8). Ligament

Fat

Ligament

Skin

The Letdown Process

Lobule Alveolar duct Collecting duct Sphincter muscle

Gland cistern Teat cavity Intermammary Streak canal groove

Figure 4–8 Cross-section of an udder.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

As the mother prepares to be milked or to nurse, the pituitary gland releases a hormone called oxytocin into the bloodstream. Oxytocin causes the alveoli to release milk into the ducts and cisterns, and it causes the sphincter muscle in the teat to relax. The teat is relatively hollow, allowing the milk to pass out as the calf sucks or the milking machine pulsates. The release of oxytocin is caused by stimuli such as a calf rubbing the cow, the washing of the udder prior to milking, or other pleasant stimuli associated with milking. This is called the letdown process (Figure 4–9).

Alveoli

54

CHAPTER 4

Nerve impulse

Spinal cord

Milking Parlors

Brain

Courtesy of ARS

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

If the animal becomes frightened or upset, a hormone called epinephrine is released that inhibits milk from being let down. For this reason, it is essential that the Pituitary gland (posterior lobe) milking area be clean and comfortable for the cows. Milkers must handle the cows Oxytocin (hormone) as gently as possible to prevent them carried by blood from becoming upset. Most milking areas, called milking parlors, are designed for easy handling of the cows and for the cows’ comfort (Figure 4–10). Milking parlors are designed so the cow can enter a stanchion, Figure 4–9 The hormone oxytocin stimulates the letdown process. where she stands while being milked. In some modern dairies, a computer chip in a tag around the cow’s neck activates the dumping of the cow’s ration into her trough as she enters a stall. The computer is programmed to recognize each individual cow by the chip around her neck, and it gives her the specific amount of ration designed for her. A common type of arrangement in the milking parlor is the herringbone design. In this design, the cattle stanchions are arranged side-by-side at an angle resembling the pattern of the rib bones on the skeleton of a herring fish (Figure 4–11). The milkers work in an area below the cows so they don’t have to bend to place the milkers on the cows’ udders. Modern parlors and lots where the cows are kept are designed with the cows’ comfort and safety in mind. They contain items such as mats for the cows to lie on and/or rubber feed bins that prevent injury to the cow. As the cow comes into the parlor and the feed is dropped into a trough in front of her, the milker

Figure 4–10 Milking parlors are designed for efficiency

Figure 4–11 The herringbone design is popular in milking

and for the cows’ comfort.

parlors.

55

Metal teat cup shell Outer chamber

Rubber liner or inflation Vacuum

Outer chamber

Air at atmospheric presssure

Pulsator air stroke

Pulsator vacuum stroke Milking Phase

Rest Phase

Figure 4–13 Milking is accomplished using a vacuum system that pulsates on the

udder.

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

manually milks a small amount of milk into a cup called a strip cup. This procedure serves two purposes. First, the milker can check for a disease called mastitis, which is caused by injuries to the udder. Symptoms of mastitis are lumps or blood that come out in the milk. If evidence of mastitis is found, the cow is moved aside, where she can be treated and her milk is not used. Second, stripping the first two or three squirts of milk removes milk that may have a high bacterial count because it is near the teat opening and more exposed to bacteria from the Figure 4–12 The udder is washed and dried prior to milking. outside world. The udder then is washed using a warm water solution, and is dried thoroughly (Figure 4–12). Washing and massaging the udder helps to start the letdown process in the cow. The teat cups then are attached and the milking begins. The cups are lined with a soft material attached to a tube. The teat cups fit snugly on the cow and pulsate by means of a vacuum on the lining of the cup to gently draw the milk from the teat (Figures 4–13 and 4–14). The milk is removed in 3 to 6 minutes, depending on the individual cow and the amount of milk she gives. Care is taken to leave the cups on for the proper amount of time. If they are left on for too little time, the udder will not be milked out; if they are left on for too much time, injury to the udder can result. The teats then are treated with a disinfectant, and the cows are released. The teat cups are kept clean to prevent the spread of disease.

Courtesy of Gary Farmer

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

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CHAPTER 4

Digital Vision/Getty Images

Courtesy of Gary Farmer

Good milkers time the operation so that as the first cow in the parlor is milked out, they will have just attached the teat cups to the last cow to enter the parlor. Then the milkers can remove the teat cups from the first cow, then the second, and so forth. A newer type of milking parlor is designed in a circular pattern that allows the cows to rotate in a circle. The cows enter the stations and are given feed while the milking machine is attached. The platform slowly rotates as the cows are milked. At the proper place, the rotation stops and Figure 4–14 The teat cups are placed on the cow’s teats. a cow that has been milked is let out and another comes in. This process allows the milkers to remain in one position and the cows are rotated to them (Figure 4–15). The milk is drawn through the lines and into a holding tank, where it is cooled rapidly to about 40°F to prevent the multiplication of bacteria and to prevent the milk from souring (Figure 4–16). After all the cows have been milked, the lines, teat cups, and other equipment are cleaned thoroughly. About every other day, the milk is picked up by a tanker truck and is hauled to the processing plant. At the plant, the milk is tested for the number of bacteria, drug residue, and the number of somatic cells (Figure 4–17). Somatic cells are white blood cells the cow produces to combat infection; their presence indicates that the cow has an infection. When the milk arrives at the processing plant, it is filtered thoroughly to remove any foreign particles. The milk is allowed to sit so the cream may be removed from milk that is to be sold as low-fat milk. As consumers are becoming more conscious of the amount of fat in their diet, they want milk that is lower in milk fat than whole milk. In recent years, sales of low-fat and skim milk have increased sharply. In lowfat milk, the percentage of milk fat is lowered to between .5 percent and 2 percent. Skim milk or nonfat milk contains less than .5 percent milk fat. The milk fat that is removed from the milk is used to make other products, such as ice cream and other cream products. Whole milk contains about 4 percent milk Figure 4–15 A modern type of milking parlor uses a rotating fat. The globules of fat make up the cream platform that turns slowly as the cows are milked. that floats to the top of raw, unprocessed milk.

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

Vacuum balance tank

Vacuum supply line

Air injector

Drain line Vacuum controllers

Vacuum pump motor In-line milk filter

Pulsator line

3-way valve

Vacuum pump

Stall cocks

Milk valves

Milk pump

Sanitary trap Alternate milk filtering Gravity milk filter and cooling system Wash manifold

Milk receiver

Recording thermometer Plate cooler

Milk tank

Milk line

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

Vacuum Exhaust pump filter Exhaust silencer line

57

Figure 4–17 At the plant, the milk is

tested for bacteria, drug residue, and the number of somatic cells.

Digital Vision/Getty Images

These globules are larger than the other molecules in the milk, and this size difference causes the cream to separate if the milk is left undisturbed for a few hours. Cream is said to have a lower specific gravity than the rest of the milk. Specific gravity refers to the density of a substance compared to the density of water. Substances with a lower specific gravity than water will float on water. Because cream has a lower specific gravity than milk, the cream floats to the top. In a process called homogenization, the large cream globules are forced through a screen at high pressure and are reduced to the size of the milk globules. The processed milk, called homogenized milk, will not separate out when left sitting. To kill any harmful organisms in the milk, the milk is heated and cooled in a process called pasteurization. One process of pasteurization raises the temperature of the milk to 145°F for not less than 30 minutes and then promptly cools the milk. An alternative method raises the temperature of the milk to 161°F for 15 seconds and then rapidly cools it. The time and temperature must be controlled precisely to protect the nutritive value and flavor of the milk. Milk is graded according to the dairy from which it came. Dairies that sell Grade A milk must pass rigid standards for milk production. These involve cleanliness and other conditions under which the milk is produced. Only Grade A milk can be used for milk that is sold as fluid or beverage milk (Figure 4–18). Milk that is graded as Grade B milk can be used only for processing manufactured dairy products. Because the production of Grade A milk far exceeds the demand for fluid milk, Grade A milk may be used in processing as well.

Hisham F Ibrahim/Getty Images

Figure 4–16 The milk is drawn through lines into a holding tank.

Figure 4–18 Only Grade A milk can

be sold for beverage milk.

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CHAPTER 4

To Make One Pound

Requires

Butter

21.2 pounds whole milk

Whole Milk Cheese

10.0 pounds whole milk

Evaporated Milk

2.1 pounds whole milk

Condensed Milk

2.3 pounds whole milk

Whole Milk Powder

7.4 pounds whole milk

Powdered Cream

13.5 pounds whole milk

Ice Cream (1 gal.)

12.0 pounds whole milk

Cottage Cheese

6.25 pounds skim milk

Nonfat Dry Milk

11.00 pounds skim milk

Figure 4–19 Milk processing requires a lot of fluid milk.

For pricing purposes, the milk is classified as Class I, II, or III. Class I is used for beverage consumption; Class II is used for manufacturing soft products such as ice cream, yogurt, and cottage cheese; Class III is used with Grade B milk in the processing of cheese, butter, and nonfat dry milk. Processing of milk into finished products such as cheese takes a lot of milk (Figure 4–19). Table 4-1 indicates the amount of whole milk required to produce various milk products.

DAIRY GOATS AND SHEEP

© Sebastian Knight, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

All mammals produce milk for their young. Various cultures throughout the world use different animals as a source of milk for food. For example, desert nomads use the milk of camels for food. These versatile animals provide meat and labor and also provide milk for the people. A camel can thrive and produce milk in the harsh desert environment where a milk cow could not survive. Likewise, the Mongolians use horse milk as a source of food. They make yogurt and a fermented drink from the milk of the mares they keep to ride and to do work. Other than milk cows, the animal that is used most widely to supply milk for human consumption is the milk goat (Figure 4–20). In Figure 4–20 In many parts of the world, goats are an poor and developing countries, dairy goats are important source of milk, and the Saanen is a popular breed. an important source of food. The animals can

Courtesy of USDA

(15 pounds when including butter and concentrated milks)

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

survive and produce milk on forage that is much lower in quality than the forage necessary to sustain dairy cows. Most of the world’s goat milk is produced in Africa and Asia. India is by far the world’s leading producer, with about 2.7 million tons of goat milk annually. There are more than 129,000 dairy goats in the United States (Figure 4–21). Some of these goats are in large herds, but most are in small herds owned by hobbyists, and most of the milk produced is for home consumption. Goat milk is highly nutritious and is comparable to cow’s milk. Some authorities claim that goat milk is easier to digest than cow’s milk. Cheese, yogurt, and cottage cheese are made from dairy goat milk. In many parts of the world, cakes of goat cheese made by the producers can be bought in the local markets. Sheep also are an important source of milk in many parts of the world; more than 100 million ewes are milked each year (Figure 4–22). Dairy sheep are milked in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Although there are a few sheep dairies in the United States, the milking of sheep is not a large industry in this country. Sheep milk is used mostly in making cheese. Ewe’s milk contains a much higher percentage of solids (18 percent) than does cow’s milk (13 percent). In addition, sheep’s milk has twice the fat content and 40 percent more protein than cow’s milk. This makes the manufacture of cheese and other products from ewe’s milk more efficient than from cow’s milk. In other words, more

Figure 4–21 Milk goats are found in almost every state of the United States.

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CHAPTER 4

Delmar/Cengage Learning

cheese can be made from a gallon of ewe’s milk than from a gallon of cow’s milk. Many of the world’s best-tasting cheeses are made from sheep’s milk. For instance, Roquefort cheese, a popular ingredient in salad dressings, is made from sheep’s milk.

CHEESE MANUFACTURING

Courtesy of Tillamook County Creamery Association

Of all the ways that humans process food, the processing of cheese is one of the oldest. This practice goes back thousands of years and was Figure 4–22 In some countries, sheep are milked for found in many ancient cultures. Legend has human use. it that cheese was discovered in the deserts of the Middle East when a nomad transported milk in a bag made from a calf’s stomach. The bag was thrown over a camel, and as the animal walked along, the milk sloshed and churned in the bag until the solids in the milk were separated from the liquids. This was a crude means of obtaining cheese. Today, the world consumption of cheese continues to grow and is a large part of the diet of people in many countries. In the United States, the yearly per-capita consumption of cheese is almost 25 pounds. The manufacture of cheese accounts for almost one-third of all the milk used. Cheese can be stored easily and is a highly nutritious food that is high in protein content. There are hundreds of different types of cheese. Although some differences may result from the different types of milk (cow, goat, and sheep), most are the result of variations in the processing. The process begins with processed milk that has been pasteurized to prevent the multiplication of harmful bacteria. The milk is placed in a large vat, where a bacteria culture is added (Figure 4–23). This culture is called a starter culture because it starts the process of fermentation. Fermentation is the process that changes sugars to acids. These acids cause the proteins in the milk to coagulate, or form a solid. To further the process, an enzyme (a substance that speeds up or stimulates a chemical process) called rennet (rennin) is added. Rennet is obtained from the stomachs of calves. (Remember—the discovery of cheese came Figure 4–23 Milk is placed in large vats and a starter about as a result of milk in a bag made from a culture is added. calf’s stomach.) During this step, large paddles

61

Courtesy of Tillamook County Creamery Association

Courtesy of Tillamook County Creamery Association

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

Figure 4–24 The solid mass that results when the liquid is

Figure 4–25 The final step in cheese making is the

drained off is called the curd.

wrapping and storage of the cheese.

turn the milk to ensure that the starter bacteria and the rennet are distributed evenly. The solid resulting from this step is called curd (Figure 4–24). The liquid that is drained off is called whey. The curd is cut into small cubes by stainless steel wire knives that are passed through the mass of the curd to increase the surface area of the curd and allow the whey to drain. After the whey is drained off, the curd sits until it forms a solid mass again. The curd then is heated, causing it to contract and further expel the whey. The amount of heat and the length of time the cheese is heated depend on the type of cheese being made. The cheese is salted and pressed into a metal form or a cloth bag. The final step in cheese making is the curing or ripening of the cheese. The cheese is placed in an environment that is controlled for temperature and humidity; the specific conditions vary with the type of cheese being made. During this time, enzymes produced from the starter bacteria bring about changes in the flavor, texture, and appearance of the cheese. The cheese is packaged in a coating of paraffin or is wrapped in cloth or plastic (Figure 4–25).

SUMMARY The dairy industry is almost as old as civilization. Milk and milk products have always been an important part of the human diet. Scientific research has brought about many changes in the production, processing, and storing of these products. Demand will almost certainly remain strong in the future for fluid milk, cheese, yogurt, ice cream, and all the other products made from milk.

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REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Scientific research has advanced dairy cows to the point where they can produce many times more milk than is needed to feed their calves. 2. The five leading milk-producing states produce more milk each year than all the other countries in the world. 3. Silage is considered to be a “safe” feed for dairy cows because it does not produce an offflavor in milk. 4. Milk from a cow that has just given birth usually is not fit for human consumption. 5. As long as the cow is milked or the calf nurses, prolactin stimulates the aveoli to produce milk. 6. A hormone called epinephrine stimulates the release, or letdown, process. 7. Washing and massaging the udder encourages the letdown process in the cow. 8. Milk is drawn from the cow to a holding tank where it is rapidly cooled, then frozen. 9. Pasteurization is the process of heating and cooling milk to kill any harmful organisms. 10. Both Grade A and Grade B milk can be used for fluid or beverage milk. 11. Milk cows are second only to goats in the production of milk for human consumption. 12. Sheep milk is used mainly in the making of cheese in the United States. 13. Cheese processing is a relatively recent development. 14. Most of the differences in cheese flavor and texture come about through variations in the processing. 15. An enzyme is a substance that slows down or stops a chemical process. Fill in the Blanks 1. Milk is ____________ water with 13 percent made up of ____________, ____________, and water-soluble ____________ and ____________. 2. Silage is ____________, grain ____________, or other ____________ that is chopped ____________ and all while the plant is green and ____________. 3. Artificial ____________ is widely used to breed ____________ cows because superior ____________ can be selected at a ____________ cost and the producer does not have to maintain ____________ for ____________. 4. Milk from a cow that has just given birth is called ____________ and contains a concentration of ____________ that are passed to the ____________ from the ____________. 5. Oxytocin causes the ____________ to release ____________ into the ducts and ____________ and causes the ____________ muscle in the ____________ to ____________. 6. In some modern dairies, a ____________ chip in a ____________ around the cow’s ____________ activates the dumping of the cow’s ration into her ____________ as she enters the ____________. 7. Mastitis symptoms include ____________ or ____________ that come out with the milk. 8. At the processing plant, milk is tested for the number of ____________, ____________ residue, and the number of ____________ cells (or ____________ blood cells). 9. Low-fat milk has between ____________ and ____________ milk fat, while skim or nonfat milk contains less than ____________ milk fat.

THE DAIRY INDUSTRY

63

10. In homogenized milk the large ____________ ____________ are forced through a ____________ at high ____________ and are reduced in ____________ to the size of the milk ____________. 11. Goats can survive and produce ____________ on ____________ that is much lower in ____________ than the forage necessary to sustain ____________ ____________. 12. Dairy sheep are milked in ____________, North ____________, the ____________ ____________, and ____________. 13. Ewe’s milk contains a higher percentage of solids (____________) than cow’s milk, twice the ____________ content, and ____________ more protein. 14. Fermentation is the process that changes ____________ to ____________ that cause the proteins in the milk to ____________ or to form into a ____________. 15. The amount of ____________ and the length of ____________ the cheese is ____________ depend on the ____________ of cheese being made. Discussion Questions 1. In what way is the dairy industry different from other segments of the animal industry? 2. What are the leading states in milk production? 3. Why does a cow have to produce a calf to be able to continue producing milk? 4. Why is it important that a calf receive the first milk after birth (colostrum)? 5. List the hormones that control milk production. 6. What is meant by the letdown process? 7. What is mastitis? What causes it? 8. Regarding fat content, what are three categories of milk? 9. What is meant by homogenization? pasteurization? 10. What is the difference between Grade A and Grade B milk? 11. Other than cows, what animals are used to produce milk for human consumption? 12. List the steps in cheese production. Student Learning Activities 1. Obtain a cow’s udder from a slaughterhouse. Using rubber gloves, dissect the udder and identify the alveoli, the lumen, the gland cistern, and the sphincter muscle. 2. Visit a large grocery store. From the dairy section make a list of all the products that are made from milk. List all the different types of cheese. 3. Prepare a list of all the processed foods in your home that contain milk. The ingredients should be listed on the food package.

CHAPTER

The Swine Industry

KEY TERMS rendered lard synthetic lines hybrid vigor or heterosis mother breeds

sire breeds farrowing operation growing operation finishing operation feeder pigs climate-controlled houses

castrated docking nursery confinement operation feed conversion ratio barrows

gilts amino acids finished carcass merit lagoons

5

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain why pork is more healthy to

eat than it once was.

■ list the different types of amino acids. ■ define hybrid vigor or heterosis.

■ tell why protein is important in the

diet of a growing pig.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain the importance of the swine

industry. ■ briefly describe the history of the swine

industry in the United States. ■ name the predominant breeds of

swine.

■ distinguish between a dam and a sire

breed. ■ describe the production methods

involved with raising swine. ■ explain the environmental impacts

of a large swine operation.

CHAPTER 5

he pork industry represents an important and dynamic component of the animal industry in the United States. In the past 30 years the number of swine operations in this country has decreased by almost 90 percent, yet the number of hogs slaughtered has actually increased. This is because producers are more efficient and because the size of the operations has increased dramatically. In 1970, there were more than 871,000 swine producers in this country; today there are just over 81,000 producers. More than half the pigs produced are from farms that raise at least 5,000 pigs per year. Each year, producers raise almost 100 million hogs, yielding more than 10 metric tons of pork. According to the American Pork Producer’s Council, this industry supports almost 600,000 jobs and is responsible for $72 billion or more in total economic activity. Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world. Worldwide, the United States ranks second only to China in the number of hogs produced annually. China is a huge country and produces about 50 million tons of pork per year, as opposed to production of about 10 million tons in the United States. In per-capita consumption, we rank twelfth, with 62.8 pounds of pork consumed per person each year. Denmark leads the world in pork consumption, with more than 142 pounds consumed per person each year. Bacon, ham, and pork chops have always been popular in the American diet; however, in recent years concern has been raised about the level of fats in pork products. The National Pork

T

Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

66

Figure 5–1 Most of the hogs are grown where corn is produced.

THE SWINE INDUSTRY

67

Producers Council has successfully educated consumers on the merits of pork. Although pork once was considered a fatty food, today’s leaner pigs produce pork that is relatively lower in fat content and is quite nutritious (Figure 5–1). In terms of meat, pork production and consumption rank second only to beef in this country. Pork consumption is distributed throughout the country, although certain populations, such as Moslems and Jewish people, do not eat pork for religious reasons.

Pork production has been a part of American agriculture since the earliest Europeans settled in this country (Figure 5–2). Columbus brought pigs on his first voyage to the New World, as food for the sailors. The first pigs were introduced by the Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto when he landed on the coast of Florida in 1539. It was reported that he brought only 13 head, but in a period of only three years, this small herd had grown to more than 700 head. Native Americans developed a taste for pork and began to hunt the pigs that escaped from captivity. These escaped pigs are the ancestors of the wild pigs that are prominent in many parts of the country today. As settlers moved west, they inevitably took pigs with them, as these animals easily adapted to differing environmental conditions. They could live off the land by eating acorns, roots, and wild plants, and they often were allowed to roam “free range” through the woods. As the settlements became more dense, the free range practice often caused problems with neighbors’ crops. Roaming pigs caused such a problem in the colony of Manhattan in New York that a wall was built to keep the pigs out. Even after all these years, the street along this wall is still called Wall Street! Pigs provided food for the settlers. They were proficient breeders, and each female could produce several offspring each year. When the weather turned cold, pigs were slaughtered and the meat was preserved by smoking and salting. People could eat all winter on the preserved meat. The fat from the animals was cut into chunks, placed into a large iron kettle, and rendered. This meant that the fat was heated until it melted and could be separated from the solid particles. The resulting fat, called lard, was kept for use in cooking and also as one of the central ingredients in making soap. Actually, until about 1950, the major reason for raising pigs was to obtain fat for lard. With the advent of vegetable oils, lard became less prominent in the American diet, and hogs began to be raised primarily for meat. At one time, most of the people who lived on farms in this country raised pigs. The animals required relatively little space and fit well into most enterprises as a sideline income. Hogs are

PhotoLink/Getty Images

HISTORY OF THE INDUSTRY

Figure 5–2 Today’s pork is much leaner than the pork produced in the past.

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CHAPTER 5

Image Source/Getty Images

said to have sent more farm youngsters to college than any other enterprise. Most of the feed was raised on the farm and little had to be bought. Today, many hog producers buy their feed already mixed and delivered to their farms ready to feed. Because the gestation period is short and each litter has several pigs, the time required to build up a herd of hogs is short compared to many other agricultural animals. For this reason, an operation can be built in a relatively brief time. Also, the type of pigs produced can be changed in less time than with Figure 5–3 Pigs have been a very important part of agriculture most agricultural animals. since the beginning of our country. For many years, most of the pork produced in the United States came from the Midwest in the states of Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, and Nebraska. These states produce a large amount of corn, the major grain fed to swine, and remain leaders in the production of pork (Figure 5–3). In recent years, however, larger numbers of pigs are being raised in the South, where mild winters help to lower the cost of production. In fact, the state of North Carolina is now second only to Iowa in the number of pigs produced.

BREEDS OF SWINE

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Although there are not as many breeds of hogs as breeds of cattle in this country, there are still several popular breeds of hogs. Modern swine are bred to be leaner and more efficient than the swine of several years ago. Being efficient means that they can grow faster, they mature at an earlier age on less feed, and they have more pigs per litter. Today, most pork producers raise one or more of nine major breeds: Yorkshire, Duroc, Hampshire, Landrace, Berkshire, Spotted, Chester White, Poland China, and Pietrain. Increasingly, producers are using what are called synthetic lines, derived by crossing these breeds. Several commercial breeding companies develop these lines for use as breeding animals. Almost all the pigs produced for slaughter in the United States are the result of crossbreeding of purebred or synthetic lines (Figure 5–4). Crossbreeding makes use of a biological phenomenon known as hybrid vigor or heterosis, which results Figure 5–4 Most pigs produced in the United States are in offspring that are superior to what might be the result of crossbreeding programs. expected of the parents.

Courtesy of American Yorkshire Club Inc

THE SWINE INDUSTRY

Figure 5–5 Yorkshires are considered to be a mother breed because of their large litters and their high level of milk production.

Breeds of swine are categorized as mother breeds or sire breeds. Mother breeds are superior in the number of pigs in a litter, the amount of milk they produce for their young, and their docile temperament. The mother breeds are white pigs that include Chester White, Landrace, and Yorkshire (Figure 5–5). The sire breeds, such as the Duroc and the Hampshire, characteristically grow rapidly and produce well-muscled, meaty carcasses. They also are durable and leaner.

PRODUCTION METHODS Pigs are unique animals. The popular perception, that they are dirty, stupid animals that constantly overeat, is erroneous and really opposite from the truth. Pigs got the reputation of being dirty animals because, if given the opportunity, they wallow in mud. The mud helps to keep them cool in hot weather and also helps to keep off parasites. If given the room, pigs will use only a certain part of their pens to drop wastes and will keep the rest of their area clean. Also, pigs are highly intelligent, ranking among the top of all agricultural animals in overall intelligence. In handling pigs, producers must understand how smart pigs are in order to move them and keep them in their pens. Pigs are one of the few agricultural animals that will not overeat. Given the proper type of feed, they will consume only the amount of feed they need. In contrast, cattle, horses, and other animals overeat to the point where they may become ill. This is not a problem with pigs. Scientists have studied the unique characteristics of pigs and have used the findings of these studies to design production methods to suit these animals’ needs. The type of buildings, health regimens, management procedures, and diets are all designed to help pigs live healthy, comfortable, and productive lives.

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Courtesy of USDA

Of all animals raised, pigs are the closest to humans in terms of digestive, circulatory, and other systems. Tissue from pig skin is used to replace human skin that has been badly burned. Valves from the hearts of pigs are used as replacements for human heart valves that have worn out or been damaged by disease. Also, pigs are used in many areas of research for products that eventually will be used by humans. Three phases of the industry are the farrowing operation, the growing operation, and the finishing Figure 5–6 Farrowing crates prevent the mother from operation. The three phases can be operated sepcrushing the piglets when she lies down. arately or together. Some producers prefer to raise only feeder pigs (pigs that are weaned and sold shortly after weaning), and some prefer to buy feeder pigs and finish them as their only operation. Most pigs are farrowed in climate-controlled houses where the mother is kept in a crate to prevent her from injuring the piglets when she lies down (Figure 5–6). Good producers make quite an effort to provide an environment that is clean, dry, and comfortable for both the mother and the piglets. At farrowing, the sow typically has 9 or 10 piglets. At birth, the piglets are dried off and their navel cords are dipped in iodine to prevent infection. Some pigs are born with long, sharp teeth called needle teeth. If left alone, these teeth may injure the sow’s teats or may injure other piglets. The producer clips off the teeth to prevent these injuries. Also, the newborns are given a shot of supplemental iron to help improve the oxygen-carrying capacity of their blood. Pigs that are born and raised on the ground usually get enough iron from the soil; however, most pigs are born on slatted, concrete, or raised deck floors and need the supplemental iron. The pigs usually are weaned from the mother at 3 to 4 weeks of age, although some producers wean the pigs at 6 weeks or as old as 8 weeks. At this time, the pigs usually weigh around 10–15 pounds and are placed in nurseries, which make use of a slotted floor that allows waste material to fall through. This helps to keep the floor cleaner and drier. The male (boar) pigs are castrated. In this procedure, the testicles are removed to prevent aggressiveness, avoid pregnant females, and prevent off-flavored meat when the pigs are slaughtered. All pigs have their tails removed, called docking. Pigs kept in confinement operations have a tendency to bite at each other’s tails. Removing the tails eliminates incidents of tail biting. In the nursery, the pigs are fed a scientifically balanced diet that provides the proper amount of nutrients that the animals

need at this stage of their growth (Figure 5–7). As the animals continue to grow, their diet is changed to fit the needs of that stage of growth. By the time the pigs are moved out of the nursery at 8 to 10 weeks of age, they may have been fed five different diets, consisting of grain, protein supplements, and milk products. The protein is supplied from a mixture of plant and animal sources, and the amount and type of protein required varies as the animals grow. After weaning, the pigs are conditioned in the nursery until they weigh 40–60 pounds Figure 5–7 In the nursery, the piglets are fed a and are then placed together with pigs of simiscientifically balanced diet that provides exactly the proper lar age, size, and sex in a confinement operation. amount of nutrients needed by the animals at a given stage This means that the hogs are kept in a pen of growth. together rather than running loose on a pasture. Sufficient space is allowed for the pigs to be comfortable and to grow at a fast rate. In this system, pigs are kept comfortable in climatecontrolled houses, where they are protected from heat, cold, and rain. Although these operations are quite expensive, less labor is needed to care for the pigs. The animals drink from automatic waterers that ensure a constant supply of clean water (Figure 5–8). Feed is supplied from automatic feeders where the animals obtain all the feed they want. In these houses, animals are less likely to pick up parasites or contract diseases. The pens are cleaned and disinfected periodically to help protect the Figure 5–8 Pigs learn to drink from automatic waterers animals’ health. that ensure a constant supply of clean water. Pigs are said to be more efficient than cattle. This means they put on a pound of body weight with less feed consumed. However, pigs cannot make use of large amounts of roughage as cattle do and must be fed on a ration of grain. On the average, pigs will gain a pound for about every 5 pounds of feed consumed, compared to about 9 pounds of feed per pound of gain for a beef animal. This is known as the feed conversion ratio. Scientists have developed different diets to be used in all phases of growth. As with the weaned pigs in the nursery, growing pigs receive different diets as their nutritional needs change in the maturation process. The pigs sometimes are segregated into barrows and gilts. Gilts are female pigs that have not had a litter of pigs, and barrows are males that have been castrated. By separating the pigs according to sex, the diets can be “fine-tuned” to provide even greater efficiency (Figure 5–9).

Courtesy of ARS

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Courtesy of National Pork Producers Council

THE SWINE INDUSTRY

CHAPTER 5

Figure 5–9 Pigs are finished for the market in confinement operations. By separating them according to sex, the diets can be fine-tuned to provide even greater efficiency.

Courtesy of ARS

Courtesy of USDA

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Figure 5–10 Packers like to buy pigs that weigh

220–260 pounds.

Pigs are fed a high-protein diet to promote their growth and muscle development. As the animals mature, the diet is switched to one with a lower protein content and a higher carbohydrate content. A ration that is rich in protein is needed in the early stages of growth, to build muscle and bones. Without the proper amount of protein, the muscles, bone, and internal tissues and organs will not develop properly. When the animals approach maturity, they need less protein and more carbohydrates because the carbohydrates help them develop fat as their skeletal and muscular systems mature. Some fat is required in the meat to produce the juiciness and flavor that consumers want. At one time, protein was calculated in terms of the percentage of protein needed in the diet. Today, the building blocks of protein, called amino acids, are used as the basis of balancing the feed diet. Amino acids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Swine need 10 types of essential amino acids from the feed they eat. Several other amino acids are synthesized by the animals’ bodies from the essential amino acids. The pigs should be finished (reach the proper market weight and condition) at about 20 weeks. Packers like to buy market hogs that weigh in the range of 220–260 pounds (Figure 5–10). Most pigs are marketed by directly selling them to the processor, although a few are still marketed through live auctions. When sold directly to the processor, hogs are often sold on carcass merit. This means that premium prices are paid for pigs with low amounts of fat and high amounts of muscle.

Courtesy of USDA

THE SWINE INDUSTRY

Figure 5–11 Waste from confinement operations is washed into lagoons.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS Strict federal, state, and local laws regulate how and where pigs are raised. Hogs in close confinement can cause problems with odor and manure disposal. The larger the operation, the greater is the problem. To dispose of the manure and odor, waste from the finishing pens is flushed into ponds called lagoons (Figure 5–11). Building and operating the lagoons are regulated to ensure that the waste material (manure) does not pose a threat to streams and water supplies. In the lagoons, bacteria help break down the waste materials into a slurry that does not have an odor as bad as untreated manure. Periodically, the waste material is pumped from the lagoons and is spread on pastures or cropland as fertilizer. This provides a means of disposing of the manure and also supplies a highquality, organic fertilizer for crops. This form of waste disposal is a type of recycling of nutrients that helps to protect the environment.

SUMMARY Pigs have been a part of American agriculture from the beginning and still hold a large portion of the agricultural industry. These are relatively efficient, highly intelligent animals that are often wrongly depicted. Modern pork production systems provide comfortable, clean facilities for all phases of the industry. Diets are scientifically balanced to give the animals the nutrients they need. The future of this industry is bright, and pigs will continue to play an important role in agriculture and the diet of Americans.

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REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. In the past 30 years, the number of hogs slaughtered has decreased. 2. The United States ranks second only to China worldwide in the number of hogs produced annually. 3. In terms of meat, pork consumption ranks second only to beef in the United States. 4. The first pigs were probably introduced to the United States by the Vikings. 5. Until about 1950, hogs were raised primarily for bacon. 6. An example of a mother breed of swine is the Yorkshire. 7. At farrowing, the sow usually delivers three or four piglets. 8. Packers like to buy market hogs that weigh in the range of 220–260 pounds. 9. A major problem with raising hogs is that they frequently overeat. 10. A gilt is a castrated male swine.

Fill in the Blanks 1. The country or ____________ ranks first in pork consumption. 2. The biological phenomenon known as ____________ results in offspring that are superior to the parents. 3. Three major mother breeds are the ____________, ____________, and the ____________. 4. The three phases of the swine industry are ____________, ____________, and ____________. 5. Pigs that are weaned and sold shortly after weaning are called ____________. 6. Some baby pigs are born with long sharp teeth called ____________ ____________. These teeth are clipped, and the newborn pigs are given a shot of supplemental ____________. 7. Pigs are said to be more ____________ than cattle, meaning that they put on a pound of body weight while consuming less feed. 8. A female that has not yet had a litter of pigs is referred to as a ____________. 9. Today, the building blocks of protein, called ____________ ____________, are used as a basis for balancing the swine diet. 10. To help alleviate environmental problems, waste from finishing pens is flushed into ponds called ____________.

Discussion Questions 1. What are the different characteristics of a sire breed and a mother breed? How can these characteristics be used in a crossbreeding program? 2. What are some of the popular misconceptions about hogs? Be sure to tell why these perceptions are untrue. 3. Why is pork considered to be healthier now than in the past?

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4. Why are pigs often used in medical research for products that eventually will be used for humans? 5. Describe the three phases of the pork industry. 6. List the advantages and disadvantages of a confinement operation as opposed to a free-range operation. Student Learning Activities 1. List all the pork products that your family consumes in a month. Be sure to include products such as sausage, bacon, bologna, and other processed meats. 2. Create a list of all the hog operations in your area. Define the type of operation (feeder pig, finishing, purebred), and determine which type is the most popular. Explain why this type is popular in your area. 3. Interview a purebred producer and determine why he or she grows that breed. 4. Do an Internet search and locate information on a specific breed of swine. Report to the class.

CHAPTER

The Poultry Industry

KEY TERMS broiler industry vertical integration cannibalism layers hybrid heterosis hybrid vigor pigmentation embryo

ovum ovary infundibulum magnum cells mucin albumen yolk chalazae

isthmus uterus shell gland incubation oxytocin cloaca fertilization sperm sperm nests

germinal disk cage operations metabolism pullets molting candling muscling

6

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ compare the process of egg

development in birds and mammals. ■ trace the biological processes involved

in the production of eggs in birds. ■ describe how the chick embryo

■ relate how nature protects eggs from

the environment. ■ describe the ideal conditions for the

production of bacteria. ■ tell how hatching chicks communicate.

develops in the egg.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ summarize why the poultry industry

is rapidly growing.

■ describe how modern hatcheries

operate.

■ define vertical integration.

■ discuss modern layer operations.

■ explain how broilers are produced in

■ describe modern turkey production.

modern operations.

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he poultry industry is one of the fastest growing segments of the animal industry. Worldwide consumption of poultry is increasing. Chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and other birds make up a large portion of the meat diet of people in most countries. In the United States, the per-capita consumption of broilers is over 100 pounds, which has almost doubled in the past 25 years (see Figure 6–1).

Year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 20052 20063 20073 2008

Beef 76.6 77.3 77.0 78.7 78.4 79.2 78.8 73.9 72.8 69.0 67.8 66.5 66.5 65.1 67.0 67.5 68.2 66.9 68.0 69.0 62.7 66.2 67.7 64.9 66.1 68.0 62.5 62.5 62.7

Pork 57.3 54.7 49.1 51.8 51.5 51.9 49.0 49.1 52.4 52.0 49.7 50.2 53.1 52.3 53.0 52.4 49.1 48.7 52.5 53.8 51.2 50.2 51.5 51.8 51.3 51.1 51.5 51.5 49.9

Total1 Red Meat 136.8 135.0 129.3 133.6 133.2 134.4 131.1 125.9 128.0 123.6 120.0 119.5 121.9 119.7 122.1 122.0 119.6 117.7 122.5 124.8 120.7 118.1 120.9 118.4 119.0 120.8 115.5 115.5 113.5

Chicken 48.0 49.4 49.6 49.8 51.6 53.1 54.3 57.4 57.5 59.3 61.5 64.0 67.8 70.3 71.1 70.4 71.3 72.4 72.9 77.5 77.9 77.6 81.9 83.0 85.4 87.4 89.1 90.6 84.4

Turkey 10.3 10.6 10.6 11.0 11.0 11.6 12.9 14.7 15.7 16.6 17.6 17.9 17.9 17.7 17.8 17.9 18.5 17.6 18.0 17.9 17.4 17.5 17.7 17.4 17.0 17.0 17.3 17.6 18.6

1

Includes beef/pork/veal, and mutton/lamb. Estimated by ERS/USDA. 3 Forecasted by National Chicken Council. 2

Figure 6–1 Per-capita consumption of poultry and livestock, 1980 to 2008.

Total Poultry 58.3 60.0 60.2 60.8 62.6 64.7 67.2 72.1 73.2 75.9 79.1 81.9 85.7 88.0 88.9 88.3 89.8 90.0 90.9 95.5 95.3 95.1 99.6 100.4 102.4 104.4 106.4 108.2 103.0

Commercial Fish/ Shellfish 12.5 12.7 12.5 13.4 14.2 15.1 15.5 16.2 158.2 15.6 15.0 14.9 14.8 15.0 15.2 15.0 14.8 14.6 14.9 15.0 15.6 15.5 15.6 15.6 15.6 15.5 15.4 15.4

Economic Research Service/USDA

T

THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

Unlike some meats, poultry is generally accepted by most cultures. For instance, the Moslem and Jewish cultures do not eat pork and Hindu culture does not allow the eating of beef. However, almost all cultures accept poultry as a wholesome meat for human consumption. Developing countries often begin to build a sound agricultural base with poultry because birds are efficient users of feed and are easily cared for in countries where human labor is readily available. The largest producers of poultry in the world are China, the countries of the former Soviet Union, and the United States.

THE BROILER INDUSTRY

Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

At one time in the history of our country, almost all families in rural areas had some type of poultry. Not only did chickens provide the family with fresh eggs but also with fresh meat. Today, almost all of the poultry is raised in large operations. The term broiler industry refers to the raising of chickens for meat. This industry is concentrated in the Southeast, where the mild winters provide an advantage to producers. The leading broiler-producing states are Arkansas, Georgia, and Alabama (Figure 6–2). A broiler is a bird that is grown out to about 7 or 8 weeks old and is dressed for market. The vast majority of broilers produced in this country are raised on contract. In a typical grow-out contract, the company agrees to provide the producer with chicks, feed, medications, vaccines, and other supplies. The company

Figure 6–2 Much of the broiler industry is centered in the southeastern part of the United States.

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also agrees to pay the producer a predetermined price per pound for the broilers produced, and sometimes gives an added payment to the producer as an incentive for more efficient production. The producer supplies the house, feeding and watering equipment, utilities, litter material, waste disposal, and labor. The company usually has a vertical integration, which means that the company owns the hatchery, feed mills, processing plants, and distribution centers. Broiler Houses Broilers are raised in large houses where the birds spend almost all of their lives. Broiler houses are designed to provide the birds with a clean, comfortable environment (Figure 6–3). The houses hold from 6,000 to 40,000 birds and are built to keep the animals warm in winter and cool in summer. The houses are insulated and have ventilators to help remove the heat. When the birds are small, heat is provided by brooders that are powered by gas or electricity. As all the birds grow larger in a well-insulated house, they usually generate ample body heat without the need for any artificial heat. The houses usually are lighted almost around the clock. Research has shown that by leaving the lights on, incidents of cannibalism—the attacking of birds by other birds in the flock— are greatly reduced. This can be quite a serious problem if it is not regulated. Lights are routinely turned out for one hour each night to help prevent the birds from becoming hyperactive if a power failure occurs at night.

Courtesy of USDA

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Figure 6–3 Broilers are raised in large houses that provide a clean, comfortable environment for the birds.

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The process of broiler production begins with the production of eggs to be hatched for young broilers. The parents are selected from breeds of chickens that grow rapidly and yield a large amount of breast meat. They are quite different in appearance from hens that are used only to produce eggs. Layers that produce eggs for consumption are selected for their egg-laying capacity—not for the amount of muscle they produce. Most broilers are hybrid birds. This means that they are the Figure 6–4 The bird on the left is the muscular type bred result of the mating different breeds of chickfor meat production; the bird on the right is of the type that ens to produce the type of meaty birds desired is bred for producing eggs. (Figure 6–4). Hens that lay eggs for hatching are bred either naturally or artificially. The resulting crossbred animals are generally healthier and grow faster than purebred animals. This is called heterosis or hybrid vigor. Almost all of the broilers produced are white. Birds that are dark in color have spots of color or pigmentation where the feathers were removed after slaughter. These spots do not lower the quality of the meat in any way, but consumers are reluctant to buy chicken with spots on the skin.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

BROILER PRODUCTION

Eggs produced by poultry serve the same purpose as eggs produced by other agricultural animals—reproduction. Unlike the eggs of most mammals, the eggs of poultry are produced in the body of the female and then expelled from the body. Development of the embryo takes place outside of the mother’s body. The eggs of most mammals are microscopic in size and unprotected, Empty follices whereas a chicken’s egg can weigh several ounces and Stalk of ovary is encased inside a hard shell. Small ova The egg production process begins as it does in Infundibulum mammals with the release of the ovum from the ovary. Ostium Neck of The follicle in the ovary ruptures and the ovum is infundibulum Mature released. The ovum falls into a funnel-shaped strucovum Stigma ture called the infundibulum that surrounds the ovum and holds it for about 20 minutes. Albumen-secreting If the hen has mated or has been artificially insemiregion Isthumus nated, the ovum will be fertilized here (Figure 6–5). The Uterus (with an egg then moves into a tubelike tract called the magnum. incomplete egg) Cells in the magnum secrete a substance called mucin that develops into the albumen (the white portion) of Rudimentary right oviduct the egg. This substance is high in protein content and Vagina Cloaca serves as nourishment for the developing ovum. The albumen (the white portion of the egg) surrounds the Figure 6–5 The reproductive system of a hen. ovum, which is the yolk, the yellow part of the egg.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Egg Production

CHAPTER 6

Here a ropelike substance, called chalazae, is formed. Later, as the egg is formed, these ropelike structures will serve to hold the yolk in position in the center of the egg. In a process that takes about 3 hours, the egg moves through the magnum (which is more than a foot long) and enters the isthmus. Here mineral salts are added and the inner and outer shell membranes are formed. These membranes lie just inside the hard shell of the completed egg. After remaining in the isthmus for about 1½ hours, the egg moves into the uterus, where the shell is formed around the egg (Figure 6–6). Because of this process, the uterus is sometimes called the shell gland. During this process, the shell may acquire brown or other colored pigments, depending on the breed of the hen. The shell, composed mainly of calcium and protein, serves to protect the embryo until the incubation process is complete and the chick hatches. Also, more water and minerals are passed into the egg white to fill out the egg, and a waxy substance is secreted that coats and seals the pores in the shell of the egg. In 18 to 22 hours the egg shell is completed, hardened, and moves through the vagina and out of the hen’s body. Eggs are oval-shaped, with one end smaller than the other end. In the process of development, the small end of the egg goes through the tract first. However, before the egg is laid, the ends are reversed and the large end emerges first. This turning helps the muscles of the tract to open and expel the egg. The process of laying is activated by a hormone called oxytocin. It causes the uterus to contract, forcing the egg through the vagina and out of the hen’s body through an opening called the cloaca. In about a half hour the process begins all over again with the release of a new ovum from the ovary.

LAYERS OF ALBUMEN Dense Outer liquid (albuminous sac) Inner liquid Chalaziferous

Ligamentum albuminis

Ligamentum albuminis Yolk

Air cell Egg membrane

Ligamentum albuminis

Ligamentum albuminis

Egg shell Chalazae

Shell membrane Structure of the egg

Figure 6–6 A cross-section of an egg.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

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THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

83

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

Unlike the production of eggs for consumption, eggs produced for hatching are laid by the hens in nest boxes. A lot of scientific research has gone into the design of the nest boxes to provide the type of environment the hens want. In making the hens most comfortable, the producers ensure more efficiency in the laying operation. The nests consist of boxes that have concave bottoms and are filled with bedding or artificial turf to make a comfortable nest for the hen (Figure 6–7). The hens naturally prefer nests that are Figure 6–7 The design of a nest box is based on research enclosed because this gives them a feeling of that determined what the hens prefer. Note the nest boxes security. This behavior perhaps is passed down along the wall. to the hens from their ancestors that lived in the wild and had to protect the nests from predators. Hens also prefer nests that are the gray color of galvanized metal. At one time, the nests were raised off the ground and had slatted floors that allowed manure to pass through to the ground, where it could be removed. However, in modern breeder hen operations, mechanical nests are now used. The eggs roll onto a conveyor belt, and an operator collects the eggs off the belt. Hatching eggs must be kept as clean as possible. Any bacteria or other contamination can cause disease in the newly hatched chicks. As the egg comes from the hen, the surface of the egg is quite clean, but as the egg comes into contact with the surface of the nest or other areas within the house, the surface of the egg can become dirty and contaminated. Even a small speck of foreign material on the shell can contain millions of microorganisms that can cause problems. Microorganisms must have an environment that allows their growth. Fecal Magnified cross-section material from the birds provides an excellent place for the organof an egg shell isms to grow because the manure contains moisture and material Pore that the microbes can feed on. Dirt or any foreign material that canals must be scrubbed from the eggs usually renders the eggs unfit for hatching. Washing or scrubbing the eggs removes their protective coating and presses the dirt into the pores of the eggs (Figure 6–8). Therefore, hatching eggs are not allowed to become wet. Before they leave the farm where they are produced, the hatching eggs are sorted to remove dirty, undersized, oversized, misshapen, cracked, or defective eggs. Then they are fumigated Shell Cuticle to kill harmful organisms on the surface of the eggs by a process membrane Spongy that is precisely regulated to prevent harm to the eggs. The eggs layer are never allowed to become chilled and are stored at 70°–80° F Mammillary layer until they are placed in the hatchery. The eggs are carefully placed on racks that fit into carts Figure 6–8 Dirt clogs the pores in designed to prevent damage to the eggs during transportathe shell of the egg. tion. The carts are then loaded into trucks for transportation to

Terekhov Igor, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Hatching Eggs

Figure 6–9 Eggs are loaded onto racks or trays for

© iStockphoto/Karel Ig

transportation to the hatchery.

Figure 6–11 In the hatchery, relative

humidity and temperature are carefully monitored.

©iStockphoto/Karel Ig

CHAPTER 6

Gila R. Todd, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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Figure 6–10 At the hatchery, the

eggs are removed from the carts and placed in the incubator on trays that periodically rotate from side to side.

the hatcher (Figure 6–9). The carts, trays, and trucks are all kept clean and sanitized to prevent contamination of the eggs. At the hatchery, the eggs are removed from the carts and placed in the incubator (Figure 6–10). The temperature of the eggs is never allowed to be lowered, and is gradually increased to prevent the eggs from sweating. Sweating, the condensing of water vapor on the surface of the eggs, occurs when the temperature of the eggs is raised too rapidly. Cold air holds more moisture than warm air does. As the temperature of the air is raised, the water vapor in the air begins to condense. If moisture is allowed to collect on the surface of the egg, it creates an environment that allows bacteria to grow and thrive. In a warm, moist environment, a single bacterium can reproduce into two bacteria every 20 minutes. If this is allowed to continue, the single bacterium can become 16 million bacteria in only 8 hours. Relative humidity is another factor that causes eggs to sweat. Relative humidity is the amount of moisture in the air relative to the amount of moisture possible at that temperature. The temperature and relative humidity are carefully controlled in the hatchery (Figure 6–11). Embryo Development The embryo begins to develop before the egg is laid. As noted earlier, fertilization occurs early in the formation of the completed egg. In contrast to most agricultural animals, sperm can

THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

Embryo Amnion

Yolk sac Yolk

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Allantois

Figure 6–12 This chick embryo is at

the fifth day of development.

Glowimages/Getty Images

remain viable in the hen’s body for as long as 32 days, but fertility is highest if insemination occurs at least once a week. Sperm are stored in pockets inside the oviducts called sperm nests. The yolk portion of the egg contains a spot called the germinal disk, which contains the genetic material from the female. The sperm fertilizes the egg within this germinal disk, and the embryo begins to develop. If a newly laid egg is broken open, the germinal disk is visible to the naked eye and appears as a white spot in the yolk. After the egg is laid, the embryo remains dormant until it is stimulated by heat to grow. In nature, this heat is generated by the hen’s body as she sits on the nest, but in modern operations the eggs are heated by artificial means in commercial incubators. Within 48 hours after incubation begins, the embryo has developed a circulatory system that sustains life by carrying nourishment from the yolk to the embryo. At the end of the third day of incubation, three layers of membranes have developed. The first—the tallantois—serves as a place to store the waste generated by the embryo. This membrane later merges with the second membrane—the chorion—to form a type of respiratory system until these organs are developed in the embryo. The third membrane—the amnion—is filled with the fluid that surrounds the embryo and protects the developing embryo from shock (Figure 6–12). To prevent the embryo from sticking to the outer membranes of the egg, the eggs must be turned several times a day. In nature, the hen turns the eggs in the nest. In the incubator, the eggs are either turned automatically by a time-controlled turning device or are turned by hand. At the end of the first week of incubation, the embryo is recognizable as a chick embryo. Most of the chick’s systems, such as the lungs, nervous system, muscles, and sensory systems, are developed. By the end of the second week, the chick is covered with down. At the end of three weeks, the chick is fully developed. When the first chicks in the incubator begin to hatch, they make clicking sounds as they break the egg shell. This signals the other chicks and stimulates them to begin hatching. This behavior is a carryover from the days in the wild when all the chicks had to hatch at the same time for survival. The producer can provide slow, clicking sounds mechanically to accelerate the hatching process. In commercial hatcheries the eggs are incubated in two separate rooms: the setting room and the hatching room. The eggs are placed in the setting room incubator and are monitored closely for temperature and relative humidity. The eggs are turned every day to ensure that a high percentage of eggs hatch. The eggs remain in the setting room incubator until one to two days before the eggs are ready to hatch. They are then placed in the hatching room, where the temperature is lowered slightly and the chicks hatch into chick holding trays (Figure 6–13).

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Figure 6–13 One to two days before

hatching, the eggs are placed in the hatching room.

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Courtesy of USDA

When the Chicks Hatch The chicks are removed from the incubator and are cleaned, dried, and placed in a warm, dry environment (Figure 6–14). The chicks are sexed by examining their feathers. If the hatchery is producing chicks that are to become laying hens, the females have to be separated from the males (Figure 6–15). At one day of age, the chicks are vaccinated and their beaks are trimmed to help prevent cannibalism. The procedure, which is done with an electric knife, causes the chicks no harm because only a small portion of their beaks is removed. A recent development is the use of a chemical that is applied to the tip of the chicks’ beaks. This process safely and painlessly dissolved the sharp end of the beak. The day-old chicks then are placed in ventilated cardboard or plastic boxes and are transported to the broiler houses (Figure 6–16).

Figure 6–14 Chicks are removed from the hatchery

trays and placed in a warm, dry environment.

At the Broiler House

Courtesy of USDA

Courtesy of Joe Mauldin/Poultry Science Department, University of Georgia

Prior to arrival of the chicks, the producer has cleaned, disinfected, and placed clean litter in the house. Litter is the material placed on the floor to absorb moisture and to keep the birds clean and dry. This material usually consists of shavings or sawdust obtained from a sawmill. Brooders are used to keep the chicks warm during the first days in the house. They are usually suspended from the ceiling and can be raised or lowered depending on the temperaFigure 6–15 The sex of a chick ture and the size of the chicks (Figure 6–17). is determined by examining the feathers; this chick is a male. Water is supplied by suspended waterers that the chicks quickly learn to use. They peck the nipple on the bottom of the waterer and obtain as much water as they need. Feed is given to the baby chicks by hand when they are small. But as they get older, they are fed through automatic feeders. The feed is brought to the birds by means of an auger in a tube that fills the feeders throughout the day and night to ensure that the birds always have plenty of feed, (Figure 6–18). Both the waterers and feeders are raised as the birds get larger. Every day the equipment and birds are continually checked to ensure that the equipment is functioning properly and that the birds are doing well. The birds commonly are kept in the broiler Figure 6–16 Chicks are transported to the broiler houses house from six to seven weeks. At this time, in cardboard or plastic boxes. they weigh about 5 pounds and are ready for

Figure 6–17 Young chicks are kept warm by brooders that are raised higher as

the chicks grow. The brooders are the round, cylinder-shaped objects suspended from the ceiling.

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Igor Terekhov, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

©iStockphoto/Igor Terekhov

THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

Figure 6–18 The broilers are fed

by automatic feeders that are filled by augers or chains that carry the food through the tube.

©iStockphoto/Michael Hieber

Terekhov Igor, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

market. They usually are caught at night when they are less active, and are put in cages and loaded on a truck for transportation to the processing plant. The producer then begins to get the house ready for the next batch of chicks. New litter consisting of sawdust or shavings is placed on the floor to absorb moisture from the manure (Figure 6–19). The litter must be removed periodically because it becomes filled with manure, and the disposal of the litter can be a large problem. A broiler house that holds 20 thousand broilers produces about 180 tons of litter per year. Because the manure in the litter has a high concentration of nitrogen and other elements necessary for plant growth, the litter is a valuable source of fertilizer (Figure 6–20).

Figure 6–19 When the broilers are sent to market, fresh

Figure 6–20 The manure in broiler litter is a valuable

litter is spread on the floor.

source of fertilizer.

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Courtesy of USDA

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Figure 6–21 Chickens may be cut up or packaged whole at the processing plant.

At the Processing Plant When the birds reach the processing plant, they are slaughtered and prepared for market. Some plants process the chickens to be sold whole, and some cut the broilers into parts, such as breasts, thighs, and drumsticks (Figure 6–21). Other plants process the chicken further into more complex prepared food such as chicken franks, chicken bologna, or complete frozen dinners.

THE LAYER INDUSTRY The per-capita egg consumption in the United States has decreased sharply over the past 30 years. The consumption of whole eggs in the shell has greatly decreased while the consumption of egg products has increased. This reflects changing dietary habits and consumer preference for processed foods. Even with the decrease in demand, the layer industry in this country is still quite large. Cage Operations More than 90 percent of eggs are produced by layers in cages. The hens live in the cages in groups of two to 12 hens, depending on the operation. The most common grouping is that of four hens per cage. The birds used for cage operations have been developed to tolerate the confinement operation and to produce eggs efficiently. As mentioned earlier, the type of hen used to produce eggs is quite different from the hens used to produce meat. The former are smaller and are much less muscular because the smaller, trimmer birds use a large portion of their metabolism in producing eggs instead of developing muscles and body size.

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Enrico Jose, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Courtesy of Joe Mauldin/Poultry Science Department, University of Georgia

Some layers produce brown eggs, and some produce white eggs. The vast majority of the eggs sold in the United States are white eggs because consumers simply prefer to buy white eggs. Modern cage operations are scientifically designed to provide the hens with adequate room, proper ventilation, correct temperature, plenty of food, and fresh water. In addition, lighting is carefully controlled. Hens naturally lay eggs in the spring and summer months. In the wild, the chicks would have a much greater chance of survival if the eggs were laid and hatched during the warmer months. As spring approaches, the days have more hours of light and fewer hours of dark. The longer periods of light stimulate the hen’s hormonal system into producing eggs. In a commercial cage operation, the lighting is carefully controlled to allow 14 to 15 hours of light every day. As the young hens, called pullets, reach maturity, the light is increased gradually until they have 15 hours of light per day. This causes the hens to be in full production. As the hens get older, they lay fewer eggs. Some producers sell the hens when production decreases; others submit the hens to a process called molting. In this process, feed is withheld, and no artificial light is used for a period of time. The lighting then is increased until reaching the normal 15 hours of light. The hens lose their old feathers, grow new ones, and seem to regain some of their youthful vitality. The hens are fed by means of an automated conveyor that carries the feed directly in front of them (Figure 6–22). Water is supplied through a narrow, free-running trough or a nipple waterer that the hens learn to peck to obtain water. As the eggs are laid, they roll onto a conveyor that periodically moves the eggs to a collection point, where a worker gathers them and places them in flats (Figure 6–23). The dirty eggs are separated out, and the clean eggs are refrigerated. At the processing and packing plant, the eggs receive a thin coat of light mineral oil to prevent carbon dioxide from escaping from within the egg. The eggs are graded according to shape

Figure 6–22 Hens are fed means of an automated

Figure 6–23 When laid, the eggs roll onto a

conveyor that carries the feed directly in front of them.

conveyor.

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and size and are checked for cracks and interior spots in a process called candling. The eggs are passed over an intense light in a dark room, where any blood spots or cracks in the shell will show up in the light (Figure 6–24). The eggs are packaged and sent to the retail market or are sent to a processing plant where they are broken and processed.

THE TURKEY INDUSTRY

Courtesy of USDA

Lisa Peardon/Getty Images

©iStockphoto/Simon Podgorsek

The production of turkeys for meat is a rapidly expanding segment of animal agriculture. The sale of turkeys is second only to that of chicken in the overall sale of poultry meat. Each year, Americans consume about 17 pounds of turkey per-capita (Figure 6–25). Turkey represents a high-quality, low-cost, nutritious source of food protein. Although one-third of all turkey is sold in the weeks surrounding the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays, the trend is toward steadier year-round sales. The turkeys that are produced in the United States are the descendants of wild turkeys native to the Americas. The wild turkey is a bronze-colored bird that lacks the broad breast and overall muscling of the commerFigure 6–24 The eggs pass over an intense light to cial turkey. Just as in broilers, most consumers demand reveal blood spots in the eggs or cracks in the shell. that the turkeys they buy be white. As mentioned in the discussion of broilers, a colored bird will have specks of pigmentation left in the skin when the feathers are removed, so the carcasses of white birds look a lot cleaner. The modern white turkey is the result of a mutation or accident of heredity that left out the gene for the feather and skin pigmentation (Figure 6–26).

Figure 6–25 Americans buy more than 4.5 billion

Figure 6–26 The modern white turkey is the

pounds of ready-to-cook turkey each year.

result of a mutation.

Figure 6–27 Turkeys are bred through artificial

insemination. This is a vial of turkey semen with an extender added.

Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

From the mutated white turkeys, a heavily muscled, broad-breasted bird was developed. A problem with this highly-developed bird, however, is that it is not an efficient breeder. The physical act of mating is difficult because of the heavy muscling, and the birds seem more reluctant to breed. This problem has been solved through artificial insemination (Figure 6–27). Semen is collected from the males, and an extender is used to allow the sperm to be viable for about 24 hours, when it is placed in the female’s reproductive tract. Most of the turkeys in the United States are grown in the western part of the northern Central region, the south Atlantic region, and the Pacific Region (Figure 6–28). Turkeys seem better able to tolerate cold weather than hot weather. Most are produced by small operations of 30 thousand or fewer birds. The two ways of growing turkeys are in confinement houses and on open ranges. Confinement houses offer the advantages of environmental control of temperature and humidity, and most turkeys are raised in confinement. Although the open range offers the advantage of being less expensive, few turkeys are raised this way. Turkeys on the range can stay outdoors completely, or they are provided with housing where the birds can get shelter whenever

Figure 6–28 The turkey production industry in the United States.

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Courtesy of Keith Weller/USDA/ARS

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© Mike Rodriguez 2011/iStockphoto

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Courtesy of USDA

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Figure 6–29 Many turkeys are raised on the

Figure 6–30 In the United States, most ducks and geese

range.

are raised by hobbyists.

they want (Figure 6–29). Producers usually move the range every three to four years to help keep down problems with disease and parasites.

OTHER POULTRY In some parts of the world, poultry such as ducks and geese make up a major portion of the total poultry output. In China and Southeast Asia, ducks and geese are a main part of the overall diet. These birds are hardier than chickens because they are not as susceptible to diseases and can forage for themselves better. Also, the feathers are used to make bedding and other goods. In the United States, most ducks and geese are raised in small flocks by hobbyists or by part-time producers (Figure 6–30). Most of the meat sold goes to the restaurant trade or gourmet food market. About the only other poultry production of any significance is that of growing quail and pheasant. Both of these birds are grown for the restaurant trade and the gourmet food market (Figure 6–31). In addition, they are raised for restocking wildlife areas. Each year, thousands of quail and pheasants are released in the wild to provide birds for hunting. This helps replenish the areas with game that is difficult to produce in the wild.

Courtesy of USDA

SUMMARY

Figure 6–31 Quail are grown for the restaurant

trade.

The poultry industry is one of the most dynamic industries in agriculture. Few areas have come close to the progress made in the growing of poultry and poultry products. Most of this progress is directly due to the discoveries found through scientific research. The amount

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of poultry eaten by humans is on the increase. It represents a relatively inexpensive, healthy alternative to other foods. This industry has made a gigantic contribution to our food supply system.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Poultry, although accepted as wholesome meat for human consumption in most countries, is not consumed to any great extent in China and Russia. 2. No matter how well a broiler house is insulated, the birds must be kept warm by gas or electric heaters. 3. The development of poultry embryos takes place outside the mother’s body. 4. Providing hens with a comfortable environment encourages them to lay eggs more efficiently. 5. Washing or scrubbing the eggs removes the protective coating and presses the dirt into the pores of the eggs. 6. Moisture on the surface of an egg allows bacteria to grow and thrive. 7. At the end of the first week of incubation, most of the chick’s systems—such as the lungs, nervous system, muscles, and sensory systems—are developed. 8. The eggs are placed in a setting room in commercial operations until one week before hatching, when they are removed to the hatching room. 9. Brooders are large pan-shaped heaters that are used to keep the birds warm during the latter stages of growth. 10. Chicken litter can be fed to cattle as a source of protein. 11. The consumption of whole eggs in the shell has decreased greatly, while the consumption of egg products has increased. 12. Shorter periods of light stimulate the hen’s hormonal system into producing eggs. 13. At the processing and packing plant, the eggs are coated with a thin coat of mineral oil to prevent cracking. 14. The turkeys produced in the United States are descendants of turkeys brought to this country by the early settlers. 15. Quail and pheasant are grown for the restaurant trade and the gourmet food market, as well as for restocking wildlife areas. Fill in the Blanks 1. A broiler is a ____________ that is ____________ ____________ to about six or seven ____________ of age, and is dressed for ____________. 2. Layers that produce eggs for ____________ are selected for their ____________ ____________ capacity and not for the amount of ____________ they produce. 3. Cells in the magnum secrete a ____________ called ____________ that develops into the ____________ or ____________ of the egg. 4. The shell of the egg is composed mainly of ____________ and ____________ and serves to ____________ the embryo until ____________ the process is complete and the chick ____________.

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5. Within 48 hours after the ____________ begins, the embryo has developed a ____________ system that sustains ____________ by carrying ____________ from the yolk to the ____________. 6. To prevent the ____________ from sticking to the ____________ membrane of the egg, the egg must be ____________ ____________ several times each ____________. 7. At one day of age the chicks are ____________ and their beaks are ____________ to help prevent ____________. 8. Every day the ____________ and the birds are continually checked to ensure that the ____________ is functioning ____________ and that the birds are doing ____________. 9. The manure in chicken litter has a very high concentration of ____________ and other ____________ necessary for plant ____________. It is a valuable source of ____________. 10. The smaller, ____________ birds use a large portion of their ____________ in producing eggs instead of developing ____________ and ____________ ____________. 11. Modern cage operations are ____________ designed to provide the hens with adequate ____________, proper ____________, correct ____________, plenty of ____________, and fresh ____________. 12. Candling is a process by which eggs are passed over an ____________ ____________ in a dark room and any ____________ ____________ in the eggs or ____________ in the shells will show up. 13. The majority of turkeys in the United States are grown in the ____________ part of the northern ____________ region, the ____________ Atlantic region, and the ____________ region. 14. Ducks and geese are hardier than chickens because they are not as susceptible to ____________ and can ____________ for themselves better. Discussion Questions 1. Why is poultry production so popular around the world? 2. What is a vertically integrated company? 3. How is cannibalism reduced in the broiler industry? 4. Why are white broilers preferred over colored broilers? 5. In what ways are the eggs of poultry different from the eggs of mammals? 6. List the parts of the egg-producing tract of the hen. 7. Describe the type of nests that laying hens prefer. 8. Explain why dirty eggs are not used for hatching. 9. Why is it important that hatching eggs not get wet? 10. Describe the characteristics of a chick embryo at the end of each week of incubation. 11. Indicate two uses for chicken litter. 12. What effect does light have on layers? 13. What is meant by the molting process? 14. Why are most domesticated turkeys produced through artificial insemination? 15. What are two methods used to produce turkeys?

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Student Learning Activities 1. Visit the meat counter in a large grocery store, and make a list of all the different ways in which poultry meat is offered for sale (e.g., whole fryers, cut-up fryers, breasts only, thighs only, processed, etc.). Interview the manager and determine which method of packaging and processing sells the best. 2. Break open some eggs, and locate the germinal disk. Also take note of the separation of the albumen and the yolk. 3. Using a small incubator, place eggs in the incubator for one, two, and three weeks. At the end of each day during the first week, open an egg and note the development. Write a detailed account of the differences from one day to the next. 4. During a two-week period, keep track of the type and amount of meat consumed by your family. Determine the percentage of poultry meat in the total amount. Discuss with your parents the economics of buying poultry as compared to other types of meat. Report to the class.

CHAPTER

The Sheep Industry

KEY TERMS lamb mutton ecological balance cuticle

cortex felting crimp suint

yolk grease wool scouring scoured wool

carding combing pelts mohair

7

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain why sheep have been

important to humans throughout history. ■ list the characteristics of sheep that

■ discuss the controversy over predators

of sheep. ■ explain the characteristics of wool that

make it useful to humans.

allow them to be good domesticated animals.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ discuss the importance of lamb and

mutton in the diets of Americans. ■ explain the importance of the sheep

industry to our economy. ■ list the ways in which humans

use wool.

■ list the uses for byproducts of wool. ■ discuss how wool is made into

clothing.

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umans have raised sheep for at least the past 10,000 years (Figure 7–1). During this time, sheep have supplied food, shelter, and clothing for human use. The meat from the carcasses and milk from the females have provided a protein-rich diet in even the poorest of societies. Because sheep can live and thrive in areas where other agricultural animals cannot, sheep have played an important role in feeding people all over the world. These animals eat plants ranging from grasses and legumes to brush. Often, they may even eat plants that are toxic to other animals. Compared to other agricultural animals, sheep are unique in that they are very docile and easy to handle. This may be because they were one of the first animals that were domesticated and have been raised and bred for human use continuously for the past 10,000 years. In fact, they are so tame that they are largely defenseless against predators. Compared to beef and pork, Americans eat relatively little lamb and mutton. Lamb refers to meat from sheep younger than a year; mutton is meat from sheep older than a year. In many parts of the world, lamb and mutton are a basic part of people’s diet. The per-capita consumption of mutton and lamb in the United States is only about 2½ pounds. Of this consumption, about 95 percent is lamb and only about 5 percent is mutton. Americans as a whole seem to have never developed a taste for the stronger flavored mutton. However, in certain areas of the country, lamb is a favored food. The large cities along the Eastern seaboard account for almost half of the market for lamb and mutton in this country. This presents a problem because most of the lambs are produced west of the Mississippi River (Figure 7–2). The leading states in sheep production are Texas, California, Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, and Oregon. Since modern refrigerated trucks and railroad cars helped to alleviate the spoilage problem, most of the remaining concern is the economics of transportation. One advantage of producing lambs for market is that good-quality lambs can be produced on grass and do not have to be fed a lot of expensive grain. Although an increasing number of lambs are being fed on grain in the feedlot, roughages still make up about 90 percent of all the feed consumed by sheep. In the Willamette Valley of Oregon, lamb production fits in well with the production of rye grass seed. Rye grass bunches and spreads better if it is closely grazed for a period at a certain time of the year. Lambs are used to graze the rich green grass down and, in turn, the animals are fattened by the nutrients in the grass (Figure 7–3). Most lambs are born in the early spring and are called spring lambs.

Medio Images/Getty Images

H

Figure 7–1 Humans have raised sheep for thousands of years.

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Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

THE SHEEP INDUSTRY

Figure 7–2 Most of the sheep produced in the United States are grown in the western states.

DC Productions/Getty Images

Courtesy of Calvin Alford/Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

Sheep also can make better use of lower quality forage than can cattle. For this reason, sheep can be grazed successfully on poorer grazing lands of the desert areas of the West. In addition, the drier climate reduces the parasites and diseases associated with sheep grown in the more humid areas. For example, very few large herds of sheep are grown in the Southeast because of problems with heat and humidity. Hot, humid weather makes a good environment for parasites and disease organisms such as foot rot; nevertheless, many lambs now are being raised in the Southeast as FFA and 4-H show animals (Figure 7–4). Sheep breeds are generally grouped according to use, determined by the type of wool the animals grow. The types of wool are broadly classified as fine wool, long wool, medium wool, hair,

Figure 7–3 Sheep are used to graze down grass raised

for seed.

Figure 7–4 Many lambs are now being raised in the Southeast as FFA and 4-H show animals.

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© Robyn Mackenzie, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

and fur. The medium-wool breeds are used most often to produce lambs for slaughter. Medium-wool breeds commonly used to produce slaughter lambs are Suffolk, Hampshire (Figure 7–5), Southdown, and Dorset. A large problem facing sheep producers is that of predators. Animals such as coyotes and both wild and domesticated dogs kill large numbers of sheep each year. Although precise data on losses from predators are difficult to obtain, research indicates that each year, around 4 to 8 percent of the lambs and 1.5 to 2.5 percent of the ewes in the western 17 states Figure 7–5 The Suffolk is a medium wool breed raised primarily for meat. are lost annually to predators. Some producers have reported losing as much as 29 percent of their lambs to predators in a year. In the past, sheep producers have used measures such as trapping and poisoning to rid the area of predators. Today, such measures are closely regulated because of the potential damage to the ecological balance of an area. The ecological balance refers to the balance nature has regarding the number of living things in a given area. Too many or too few of a given type of animal can upset the balance of nature. If too many animals that do not prey on sheep are killed, the balance of nature can be upset. Government programs now are in effect to help producers with losses incurred by wild predators. Guard dogs and improved fencing also have helped with the problem, but difficulties remain for sheepherders who raise animals on open government lands. The amount of control necessary to prevent predation is a subject of controversy between the environmentalists and the sheep producers. In remote areas, reintroduction of native animals such as the timber wolf and the mountain lion has prompted protest from producers who are concerned about further loss to predators.

Courtesy of USDA

THE WOOL INDUSTRY

Figure 7–6 Wool is the fiber from the hair coat of sheep.

Wool is made of the fibers from the hair coat of sheep and has been used as a material for making clothing for thousands of years (Figure 7–6). The spinning of wool is probably one of the oldest industries in which people have been engaged. In many places throughout the world, archaeologists have uncovered clothing made from wool that is well over 10,000 years old. Records of the ancient Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and Hebrews indicate that they used wool for clothing. Several accounts of the production and use of sheep are written in the Bible and other ancient writings.

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Sheep Industry Development Program

Throughout history, wool is mentioned as being the standard material from which cloth was made. The wool was grown by family-owned flocks of sheep and harvested periodically by shearing the animals. The thread was made by spinning the wool on a hand-operated machine. The thread then was woven into cloth on a hand loom that was operated in the home. This cloth, called homespun, was rather coarse and plain. Almost all of the poorer people wore clothing made from this cloth. Until the early- to mid-nineteenth century, almost all clothing was made from wool. During the first half of the 1800s, the cotton industry began to flourish in the southern portion of the United States, and it provided the world with a cheap alternative to wool clothing. In modern times, synthetic fibers from the petroleum industry have competed with both cotton and wool in the manufacture of textiles. Figure 7–7 During the Civil War, Even though wool is one of the oldest materials used for clothUnion and Confederate soldiers both ing, it is still popular today. Many of the finest, most expensive wore wool uniforms. garments worn today are made from wool, as are fine carpets and tapestries. Countries in the Middle East have always been famous for their beautiful carpets made from wool. Wool has certain characteristics that make it desirable over cotton and synthetics as a fabric. Wool can be worn in the winter or the summer. Because it can absorb up to 30 percent of its weight in moisture and still feel dry, the fabric makes a good insulator from both heat and cold. Wool is also very strong; a fiber of wool is stronger than a fiber of steel of the same size. This characteristic makes wool fabric durable, a desirable trait in the manufacture of both clothing and carpets. In the manufacture of woolens, the material takes and holds dye very well and, as a result, many beautiful patterns and colors can be made from wool. At one time, soldiers’ uniforms were made from wool because of its ability to shed water and provide insulation from heat and cold, and also its resistance to burning. During the Civil War, the Confederate and Union soldiers both wore wool clothing (Figure 7–7). The weapons used by the troops were mainly black powder rifles and artillery, and this type of gunpowder often propelled bits of burning embers when the guns were fired. If an ember landed on the soldier’s clothing, he might not be aware of it for a while. A cotton uniform would blaze up in a short time and cause a painful burn, whereas a wool uniform would only smolder and not burn. For safety reasons, then, even the soldiers of the South, who had a ready supply of the cheaper cotton, preferred wool for their uniforms. Wool fibers are made up of two distinct layers of cells: the cuticle on the outside and Close-up of Wool Fiber the cortex on the inside. The cuticle cells of the outer layer are arranged into scales that overlap Figure 7–8 Close-up of a cross-section of a wool fiber. much like the scales on a pine cone (Figure 7–8).

Courtesy of National Archives

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Courtesy of American Sheep Industry Association

Courtesy of American Wool Council

Because of this characteristic, the fibers of wool lock together and bond into a solid mass when they are put under pressure. The fibers form a strong, thick bond of solidly matted fibers (Figure 7–9). This process, called felting, is used to make things such as hats and other objects that require a thick layer of matting. The cortex layer that makes up the majority of the fiber gives it strength as well as elasticity. Elasticity is the ability to return to its original shape after being stretched. The fibers are never perfectly straight. In fact, most are quite wavy and may be stretched up to 50 percent of their length and then return to their original length. This effect is called crimp, and is used to help determine the quality of the wool. Usually, the more crimp (the wavier) and the more uniform the crimp, the higher is the quality of the wool. Wool Figure 7–9 A microscopic view of wool fibers. Note the is graded according to the diameter of the scales on the fibers. fiber, with the wool having the finer or smaller diameter receiving the highest grade. Higher quality wool is free of foreign material and is bright and white in color with no black or off-color fibers. Wool contains oils, grease, and the salts from the perspiration of the sheep, referred to as suint. The wool grease, called the yolk, helps to hold the scales on the outer layer of the fiber together and provides the fiber with the ability to shed water. It also helps the fibers from becoming matted together in the felting process. Wool as it comes from the sheep is called grease wool. The first step in wool processing is to remove the loose dirt and other particles from the fibers. This is done by a machine that Figure 7–10 The yolk, suint, and other materials are removed from the wool. opens up the fibers and dusts foreign particles from the wool (Figure 7–10). The second step is called scouring. In this process, the wool is gently washed in detergent to remove yolk, suint, and other materials not removed in the dusting process. Almost half the weight of grease wool is removed in scouring. After the fibers have been cleaned, the wool is called scoured wool (Figure 7–11). The water used in the scouring process is retained to remove the oils extracted from the wool. These oils are used to produce lanolin, an important ingredient in soaps and lotions.

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Figure 7–11 After the wool has been cleaned, it is

Figure 7–12 Wool dyed before spinning is called

called scoured wool.

stock-dyed wool.

After the wool is scoured, the wool is dried and treated to remove any remaining vegetable matter. This is done by mechanical or chemical means. Removing the matter by chemical means, called carbonizing, is the method used most often. This consists of treating the wool with acids or other chemicals to dissolve the vegetable matter. Once the wool is clean, it is blended. This means that wool fibers of different types are mixed together mechanically to achieve a particular type of fabric or product. It is estimated that wool fibers can be blended into 2,000 combinations to produce a wide assortment of products. At this stage, the wool can be dyed. If so, the wool is called stock-dyed wool (Figure 7–12). If the wool is dyed after it is spun into yarn, it is called yarn-dyed wool. Wool dyed after it is woven into cloth is called piece-dyed wool. The wool fibers are untangled and laid out parallel to each other in a process called carding. If the wool is to be made into a type of fabric called worsted wool, the fibers are further untangled and smoothed by combing (Figure 7–13) and carding. If the wool is to be made into woolen fabrics, the wool goes from carding to spinning. After the fibers are smoothed out and laid parallel to each other, they are processed into yarn by the spinning process, in which the fibers are spun around and twisted into a long, continuous thread that is used for weaving (Figure 7–14). The wool cloth is made by weaving the yarns together. The yarn can be woven together into a variety of patterns and designs that make Figure 7–13 In the combing process, the fibers are up the clothing or tapestries that are so popular untangled and smoothed. with consumers (Figure 7–15).

Courtesy of American Sheep Industry Association

Courtesy of American Sheep Industry Association

Courtesy of American Sheep Industry Association

THE SHEEP INDUSTRY

Courtesy of American Sheep Industry Association

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Courtesy of American Sheep Industry Association

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Figure 7–14 The spinning process creates long continuous

Figure 7–15 The weaving of yarn creates fabrics in

threads from the fibers.

many patterns and designs.

Courtesy of Mohair Council of America

Courtesy of American Karakul Sheep Registry

Each year, Americans use about one pound of wool per person. This means that about 100 million pounds of grease wool is used in the United States per year. Of this amount, about half is produced in this country and about half is imported. The countries exporting the most wool to this country are Australia and New Zealand. Fine wool comes from breeds of sheep such as the Merino, Debouillet, Delaine, and Rambouillet. Karakul sheep are raised for their pelts, which have a furlike quality (Figure 7–16). Pelts are the skins of the animals with the hair left on. Most of these sheep are raised in the countries that made up the former Soviet Union, Afghanistan, and Iraq; however, some of these sheep are raised in the United States. These high-quality pelts are valuable in making coats and jackets. Figure 7–16 Karakul sheep are Mohair is a fiber from the fleece of the Angora goat (Figure 7–17). grown for their furlike pelts. This fiber is used to make a fabric that is resistant to wrinkles, is soft and lustrous, and is unequaled in its ability to retain rich colors. This fiber differs from sheep wool in that the fibers are smooth and have less crimp. In addition, the fibers are long, often reaching a foot in length. This quality makes the fibers easier to weave and provides a wider range of usages. The United States produces about onethird of the world’s mohair, most of which is exported to England, where the fibers are processed into fabric. Most of the Angora goats raised in this country are produced in Figure 7–17 Mohair is the fiber from the fleece of Texas (Figure 7–18), where the goats make Angora goats. good use of the sparse browse found in

Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

THE SHEEP INDUSTRY

Figure 7–18 Texas is the largest producer of mohair in the United States.

the western part of the state. Much of the production of mohair comes from castrated males that are raised exclusively for their hair. The goats produce about an inch of hair per month and are sheared twice a year. The freshly shorn goats must be protected from the elements until their hair can grow out enough to protect them from the cold and rain.

SUMMARY Sheep are among the oldest animals domesticated for human use. In the United States, sheep are not raised as widely as some of the other agricultural animals. Much of our wool is imported from New Zealand and Australia; however, a significant industry does exist around the production of lamb and wool in this country. The popularity of wool continues to grow because of the unique characteristics of the fiber. Therefore, the production of wool will be with us for years to come.

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REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Compared to beef and pork, Americans consume less lamb and mutton. 2. The biggest market for lamb and mutton in the United States is along the West Coast. 3. Very few sheep are grown in the Southeast because of the heat and humidity. 4. The medium wool breeds are used most often for slaughter. 5. Americans eat more lamb than pork. 6. A fiber of wool is stronger than a fiber of steel that are the same size. 7. Usually, the wavier the crimp, the lower is the quality of the wool. 8. Wool as it comes from the sheep is called suint wool. 9. Most of the Angora goats raised in this country are raised in Florida and Georgia. 10. Most of the production of mohair comes from castrated males that are raised exclusively for their hair. Fill in the Blanks 1. The top three sheep-producing states are ____________, ____________, and ____________. 2. Meat from a sheep that is older than a year is referred to as ____________, whereas meat from a sheep that is over a year old is called ____________. 3. The sheep breeds are generally grouped according to ____________, which is determined by the type of ____________ the animals grow. 4. Medium wool breeds commonly used to produce lambs for slaughter are ____________, ____________, ____________, and ____________. 5. Sheep are naturally ____________ breeders, which means that breeding takes place during a certain time of the year. 6. Most lambs are born in the early ____________ and are called ____________ lambs. 7. Because it can absorb up to 30 percent of its weight in ____________, wool fabric makes a good insulator from both the ____________ and the ____________. 8. Wool fibers are made up of two distinct layers of cells, the ____________ on the outside and the ____________ on the inside. 9. Wool is graded according to the ____________ of the fiber, with the smaller receiving the highest grade. 10. The ability of wool fibers to return to their original shape after being stretched is called ____________. 11. Wool that is dyed after it is woven into cloth is called ____________. Discussion Questions 1. Explain why growing lambs and rye grass makes a good combination. 2. What are some characteristics of wool that make it more desirable than cotton and synthetics? Why did the soldiers in the Civil War prefer wool uniforms? 3. Why is the Southeast an undesirable place to raise sheep?

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4. What is yolk? What purpose does it serve? 5. Describe ecological balance. How does this affect sheep producers when dealing with predators? Student Learning Activities 1. Determine how many different materials in your house are made from wool. List the characteristics of wool that make it a good material for each item. 2. Conduct a survey among students in your school to determine how many of them ate lamb or mutton during the past month. Also ask how many have never eaten lamb or mutton, and why. 3. Go to the Internet and locate information about a particular breed of sheep. Report to the class.

CHAPTER

8

The Goat Industry

This chapter was contributed by Shannon R. Lawrence

KEY TERMS chevon cabrito lactase Cashmere

Angora billy nanny buck

doe wether doeling buckling

ruminant browse anthelmintics

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain why goat meat is healthier

than other meats. ■ explain the advantages of goat milk. ■ classify goats.

■ explain why goats are so susceptible

to parasites. ■ list and define the common diseases

affecting goats.

■ describe how the feeding habits of

goats differ from those of cattle.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ point out the significance of goats in

the United States. ■ discuss the products made from

goat milk. ■ describe the different breeds of goats.

■ explain the management practices used

in raising goats. ■ describe a prevention health plan for a

goat herd.

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HISTORY oats were among the first domesticated animals, around 10,000–11,000 years ago in Asia and Africa. Humans began keeping small herds of goats for milk, meat, fiber and used their hides for clothing and housing materials. Goats easily adapted to the nomadic lifestyle of tribal living and could survive on the sparse vegetation found in most arid areas (Figure 8–1). Since ancient times, goats have provided humans with food, fiber, and other products. Goat skins have been used for centuries as wine and water flasks (Figure 8–2). Goats were popular meat and dairy animals aboard trade ships. Often, these ships sailed for long periods of time away from land and the sailors had to carry food with them. The small size and good temperament of goats made them ideal for taking on long sea journeys. Because goats could provide both milk and meat they provided a dual source of sustenance. There were no goats in the Americas before the first settlers arrived. The first domesticated goats probably arrived when Christopher Columbus’ crew left behind in America the animals they did Figure 8–1 Goats were easy to adapt to the nomadic not need. From this small herd, goats began inhablifestyle of tribe living and could survive on the sparse iting the New World. There is documentation of vegetation found in most arid areas. goats being on the Mayflower’s journey to North America, as well as the many ships that brought settlers to the new world here (Figure 8–3). Today, there are millions of domesticated goats in the United States.

Figure 8–2 Goat skins have been used for centuries as wine and water flasks.

©iStockphoto.

©iStockphoto.

iStockphoto/Jean-Claude Gallard.

G

Figure 8–3 Goats came to America on the Mayflower and many other ships carrying settlers.

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More goat meat and milk are consumed than cow’s milk or beef in the worldwide marketplace. The small animals are much easier to keep and are a lot less expensive to maintain than cattle. Although the exact number is difficult to calculate, it is estimated that there are more than 300 million goats that are used for a variety of purposes. The goat industry is divided into three major categories depending on the purpose of the goat: meat goats, dairy goats, and fiber goats. There are some breeds of Figure 8–4 Goats are sometimes used to clear weeds goats that are considered dual-purpose breeds. and brush. For example, the Nubian breed is considered to be a dual-purpose breed because it can provide a family with milk and also provide a decent carcass for consumption. The meat goat industry in the United States is found largely in the Southwest, including Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, although other states have substantial numbers of goats as well. Goats are used today in a variety of ways, from clearing out brush and undergrowth in pastures and forests, to working for the government, helping to clear power lines (Figure 8–4).

©iStockphoto.

GOAT INDUSTRY IN THE US

Meat Goats Currently, compared to beef, swine, and poultry, the meat goat is not significant in the animal agriculture industry, although, because of the ever-changing face of America, its popularity is growing rapidly. Certain religions and cultures regard cattle as sacred, and they use meat goats as an alternative source of protein. Goat meat, called chevon in France and cabrito in Spanish cultures, is a good source of protein, and the goats produce a very lean carcass. Goat carcasses have been compared to deer meat in their lean-to-fat ratio. Goats do not deposit as much subcutaneous fat as do cattle and sheep, so their meat is lower in fat and cholesterol compared to beef, pork, mutton (sheep), and poultry (Figure 8–5).

As mentioned, goat milk is popular all over the world. The leading producer of goat milk is India, which produces almost 3 million tons of goat milk each year. In the US, there are over 1.5 million milk goats. In addition to people who enjoy the flavor of goat milk, it is a substitute for cow’s milk for those with lactose intolerance and allergies. These conditions are more frequent in infants, up to 3 years old, and in the elderly, who have digestive problems resulting from lack of the lactose-digesting

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

Dairy Goats

Figure 8–5 Goats produce a leaner carcass than sheep or beef animals.

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©iStockphoto/Daniel Mar.

Courtesy of PhotoAlto/Laurence Mouton/PhotoAlto Agency RF Collections/Getty Images

enzyme lactase. Goat milk is naturally homogenized and can be digested more easily than cow’s milk. The natural homogenization in goat milk results from the smaller fat globules compared to cow milk; smaller fat globules stay suspended in the solution. Another advantage to goat milk is its health benefits (Figure 8–6). Goat milk is a good source of calcium and is a complete protein, containing all the essential amino acids and without the heavy fat content of cow milk. Goat milk has more vitamin A as well as riboflavin and other vitamin Bs; however, cow milk is higher in B6 and B12. When fed to other animal species, goat milk has been shown to enhance metabolism of both iron and copper, especially for individuals who have problems absorbing minerals in the digestive tract because of compromised intestinal function. Goat milk can be used in the same ways as cow milk in cheeses, butter, ice cream, and other dairy products. Goat milk cheese is a highticket item in most grocery and specialty stores. Goat milk can also be used in other forms such Figure 8–6 Goat milk has many health advantages as soap and lotion. Ever since biblical times, over cow’s milk. the elite in Eastern societies have used goat milk in baths to holistically help maintain their beauty. Cleopatra routinely used goat milk to bathe to maintain her beauty. Goat milk soap is well known for its moisturizing properties. Handmade goat milk soap contains glycerin. Soap is made by combining a fat with an alkali. In a process called saponification, the fat turns into glycerin. In commercially made soaps, the glycerin is usually removed and put into other items that command a higher price, such as cosmetics and medicine. Natural goat milk soap keeps the beneficial glycerin, along with natural emollients, vitamins, and triglycerides, which moisturize the skin. Most goat milk soaps do not contain harsh chemicals that can irritate or leave the skin itchy and dry.

Figure 8–7 Angora goats such as this are a source of fine fabrics.

Fiber Goats Some of the finest fabrics in the world come from the Cashmere and Angora fiber goats (Figure 8–7). The most common breeds of fiber goats are the Cashmere, the Angora, and the Pygora. Because the Angoras lacked hardiness, they were crossbred with Pygmy goats to develop the Pygora.

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As their name suggests, each of the breeds produces a different kind of fiber. Some fibers are used in looming, and others are better adapted to hand-spinning and knitting. Various fibers come from the fiber goat industry, from short, coarser fibers to the long, softer fibers used to make clothing. These goats are also popular in more arid regions of the country. Another byproduct of the goat industry is goat leather. Goat hide is a popular leather material because of its strength and durability. Because it is thinner than cow hide, it is commonly used in making work and dress gloves and coats.

Production of market or meat goats is divided into two major groups: commercial and purebred producers. Commercial producers provide high-quality carcass animals for the meat industry (Figure 8–8). High-quality carcasses contain a low fat-to-lean ratio. Purebred producers provide commercial producers with high-quality herd sires and replacement does for breeding. These producers also help to improve the breed in carcass, reproduction, and weight gain. Large producers of market animals are found in the southwestern United States. These producers raise goats on the vast expanse of marginal land that the goat herd can utilize and cattle will not because goats can metabolize and utilize a lower quality of vegetation than cattle. The industry is further divided by hobby producers and full-time producers. Hobby producers are those who do not earn all their income from the production of goats; Figure 8–8 Commercial producers raise goats for the meat however, both types of producers contribute industry. to the overall market.

BREEDS OF GOATS There are more than 200 goat breeds throughout the world. In the United States, however, only a few of these breeds are significant. These breeds are broken down by purpose: dairy, meat, dual-purpose, or fiber. Market goats are the meat goats of the industry. Male goat, mature:

billy/billies

Female goat, mature:

nanny/nannies

Male, castrated:

wether

© iStockphoto/Andrew Park.

PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES

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Meat Goats Several breeds of meat goats are popular in the United States: the Boer, Kiko, Tennessee Fainting, Savanna, and Spanish goat. All of the meat breeds except the Spanish goat have national associations. Meat goat people use the following terminology when referring to meat goats. Boer Goats

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

Of the several different breeds of meat goats, the Boer is the most popular. Almost all of the market goats shown in junior shows are Boer or Boer crosses. The trademark colors of the Boer are the red head and white body, although Boer goats can be a combination of colors from solid black, to solid red, to a mixture of white plus tan, red, or black. Purebred Boer goats have a distinctive Roman nose and long, floppy ears (Figure 8–9). Boers are a horned breed of goat, and producers usually prefer to not remove the horns. Boers are doublemuscled meat animals, which gives them their stout appearance. Boer goats originated in South Africa, where the Dutch farmers developed the breed. (Boer means “farmer” in Dutch.) A full-blooded South African Boer buck can command $100,000 or more at auction. Herd improvements in the Boer breeding programs include artificial insemination and embryo transfer. Boer goats are known for their high fertility rates, docile nature, and rapid growth, and were first imported into the United States in 1993. Since that time, Boers have been used extensively to improve domestic herds of meat goats. Boers usually have large frames to support an ample covering of meat. These goats are highly adaptable to most climates. The breed associations recognize 100% Boer and 100% South African Boer, as well as Boer crosses. These crosses are registered as 50% Boer up to 100% Boer. Boer goats are commonly bred to Nubians, as well as Spanish type goats to produce heterosis in the females or nannies. Heterosis, or hybrid vigor, comes from the crossbreeding of two or more breeds to achieve the optimal animal. These crossbred nannies also are used for implantation of embryos from full-blood Boers. Producers use the cross-bred nannies because of their excellent milking abilities and forage capabilities.

Figure 8–9 Purebred Boer goats have a distinctive Roman nose and long, floppy ears.

Kiko Goats The Kiko goat is a fairly new breed of meat goat, developed in New Zealand as part of a government-funded project (Figure 8–10). In the 1970s, the native goat population in New Zealand was threatening crops, forests, and range land. As a result, the government paid

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Tennessee Fainting Goats

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

hunters to round up and kill the overpopulation. During this hunt, some of these goats were confined for breeding purposes. While in captivity, a company called Goatex Group, LLC noticed that the goats showed enhanced characteristics for growth and meat production. These goats were saved from the kill and bred with fiber goats to produce Kiko goats. The word Kiko means “meat” or “flesh” in Maori, a native language of New Zealand. The cross of the domestic goat and the dairy or Angora goat proved worthwhile, for their hardiness and high-quality meat carcass. Figure 8–10 Kiko goats are a fairly new breed of meat goats

developed in New Zealand as part of a government-funded project. Tennessee fainting goats are also known as Tennessee meat goats, myotonic goats, stifflegged goats, and other names. These goats gained fame (and their name) from fainting spells when they become nervous, although they are considered a meat goat. Fainting goats “faint” and fall over as a result of an epilepsytype condition that does not originate in the nervous system but, rather, causes a prolonged contraction in the muscular system when the animal is startled. The extent to which these goats “faint” varies from goat to goat, from severe stiffness lasting minutes in some goats to rare stiffness in others. The breed can be traced back to the 1880s, when a farmer moved into the Tennessee area from Nova Scotia, reportedly having four of the unusual goats with him. These goats became popular because they were less apt to climb out of fencing and they had a high reproductive rate and good muscular structure. The breed has enjoyed an increase in popularity recently. Savanna Goats

Dual-Purpose Goats Dual-purpose goats serve as both milk and meat animals. Breeds of dual-purpose goats include the Nubian, Kinder, Spanish, and Pygmy.

© iStockphoto/Simonovat

The Savanna goat breed is a fairly new meat goat breed to the United States. Like the Boer goats, Savanna goats originated from South Africa. Savanna goats are the same body type as Boer goats, having a heavy frame and being heavily muscled. Savanna goats are all-white with dark pigmented skin that helps to keep the goat from being sun-burned (Figure 8–11). These goats are rapidly gaining popularity in commercial breeding programs.

Figure 8–11 The dark pigmented skin of

Savanna goats helps to keep the goat from being sun-burned.

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©iStockphoto/Nancy Nehring.

Nubian Goats

Figure 8–12 Nubians were developed from

breeding English common goats with “exotic” bucks from India and Africa.

Although Nubians are used extensively in the meat goat industry, their registry is still with the dairy goat breeds. The American Dairy Goat Association (ADGA) registers Nubians along with other more traditional Swiss dairy breeds. Nubians were developed from breeding English common goats with “exotic” bucks from India and Africa (Figure 8–12). Nubians are expected to grow fast, and they have a large frame size. In the early days of breeding in Europe, the breed was used largely as draft animals. Nubians are used in the meat goat industry to crossbreed or for embryo transfer. The milk of Nubians has a high butterfat concentration, so their milk is more nutritious than that of purebred meat goats. This makes the nannies better adapted to raise healthier babies faster, with little, if any, supplemental feed.

©iStockphoto/JudyMcPhail.

Kinder Goats Kinder goats are new to the meat goat industry. They are a cross between the Nubian breed and the Pygmy breed (Figure 8–13). Because both the Nubian and the Pygmy are considered to be dual-purpose, their offspring are as well. Kinder goats are smaller than the large Nubians but still give a delicious rich milk, and they have a high feed conversion and superior fleshing ability. These goats are good for smaller acreages and backyard producers who want a source of both meat and milk.

Figure 8–13 Kinder goats are a cross between

the Nubian breed and the Pygmy breed.

Spanish Goats Spanish goats, also called common goats or scrub goats, are any in which the breeding is unknown. Most are a mixedbreed animal showing some traits of a different recognized breed. Spanish goats have no registration association.

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

Pygmy Goats

Figure 8–14 Pygmy goats are raised more

for hobby and show purposes than for meat or milk in the United States; in some underdeveloped countries; however, their small size allows people with limited space to use them for meat and milk.

The Pygmy goat originated from West Africa and also was called the Cameroon Dwarf goat. These goats were exported into Europe for use in zoos as exotic animals. Later, in 1959, they were exported into the United States. As their name indicates, Pygmies are a small breed or dwarf variety. Until recently, most considered this breed to be a dairy breed, but producers now are using them more for meat carcass than for milk. In the United States, Pygmies are raised more for hobby and show purposes than for meat or milk. In some underdeveloped countries, however, their small size allows people with limited space to use them for meat and milk (Figure 8–14).

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Although they are not as popular as their meat counterparts, dairy goats are gaining in popularity in the United States. The organic movement and the self-sufficient movement have spurred the rise in dairy goat numbers. Recent data indicate that more people throughout the world are using goats as their primary source of milk and meat. Although most meat goat producers choose to leave the horns on their animals, dairy goat breeders prefer to remove the horns or to breed for specific characteristics that produce a polled animal. Polled goats do not grow horns that have to be removed. Of the many different breeds of dairy goats, most have a specific heritage as Swiss goats. These include the Alpine, Saanen, Sable, Oberhasli, and Toggenburg breeds. The other breeds in the dairy goat world are the Nubian, discussed earlier, the LaMancha, and the Nigerian Dwarf. Following is the terminology used in the dairy goat industry. Mature male goat: Mature female goat: Castrated male goat: Young female: Young male:

buck doe wether doeling buckling

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

Dairy Goat Breeds

Figure 8–15 The Alpine dairy goat is a breed of Swiss origin.

Alpines are medium- to large-size animals with upright ears. Alpine Goats The Alpine dairy goat is a Swiss origin breed. Alpines are medium- to large-size animals with upright ears (Figure 8–15). They are extremely adaptable to any climate conditions. They come in a variety of colors. Size and production have been stressed in the development of this breed.

Saanen dairy goats are a breed of Swiss origin. The Saanen is an all-white goat. Any coloration of this breed is registered as a Sable dairy goat. This goat is one of the largest breeds of dairy goats. The goats tend to be calm and produce the most milk on average of any of the other breeds of dairy goat (Figure 8–16). Saanen milk is lower in butterfat than other dairy breeds.

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

Saanen and Sable Goats

Figure 8–16 The Saanen breed tends to be calm and

produces the most milk on average of any of the other breeds of dairy goat.

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Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

Oberhasli Goats Oberhasli dairy goats tend to be smaller than other breeds. They are known for their characteristic color pattern of reddish brown with a black dorsal stripe, legs, belly, and face, although sometimes solid black Oberhasli are born (Figure 8–17). This breed is also of Swiss origin. The breed is considered extremely hardy and thrifty, doing well on sub-standard pastures. Toggenburg Goats

Figure 8–17 Oberhasli dairy goats tend to be smaller than

The Toggenburg dairy goat is a Swiss breed. These goats are medium in size, are moderate in production, and have a relatively low butterfat content (Figure 8–18). This breed is highly specific in coloring: The body must be fawn to dark chocolate in color, with two white stripes down the face, white stockings on the legs, and a white triangle on either side of the tail.

other breeds. They are known for their characteristic color pattern of reddish brown with a black dorsal stripe, legs, belly, and face, although sometimes solid black Oberhasli are born.

LaMancha Goats

©iStockphoto/Jeroen Peys.

The LaMancha dairy goat is an original American breed and is known for its apparent lack of an external ear (Figure 8–19). The LaMancha breed is medium in size and generally calm, quiet, and gentle. These goats are extremely sturdy and can withstand a great deal of hardship and still produce. LaMancha Figure 8–18 Toggenburg dairy goats are a Swiss breed, milk is high in butterfat. All colors are acceptmedium in size, moderate in production, and have relatively able, and they have either gopher ears (little low butterfat content. external ear) or elf ears (a small amount of external ear). This breed is becoming more popular in the meat goat industry as an alternative to crossbreeding programs with Nubians. Nigerian Dwarf Goats The Nigerian Dwarf dairy goat originated in Africa, but the breed did not improve until after being imported into the United States. This breed is truly a miniature dairy goat (Figure 8–20). The goats are not dwarfed animals, which usually show compact, big bones. This breed is optimal for backyard breeders because, despite its small size, a goat can provide enough milk daily for a family of five. Nigerian Dwarfs can be any color except the traditional Toggenburg colors.

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Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

THE GOAT INDUSTRY

Figure 8–19 The LaMancha dairy goat is an original American

Figure 8–20 The Nigerian Dwarf dairy goat originated in

breed and is known for its apparent lack of an external ear.

Africa and is truly a miniature dairy goat.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Goats are well adapted to live in a variety of climates. They are members of the Bovidae family and are closely related to deer, antelope, and sheep. Goats and sheep are commonly grouped together, although they have some important differences. Kingdom: Phylum: Class: Order: Family: Subfamily: Genus: Species: Subspecies: Trinomial name:

Animalia Chordata Mammalia Artiodactyla Bovidae Caprinae Capra C. aegagrus C. a. hircus Capra aegagrus hircus

(Linnaeus, 1758)

As ruminant animals, goats can utilize forages like other ruminants including cows and sheep. They are agile and can maneuver well over rough terrain. This makes them a popular alternative in mountainous areas and rocky terrain where cattle won’t utilize forage materials. Goats prefer woody-type plants (over grass-type plants), such as briars, bushes, and weeds, for sustenance (Figure 8–21). Animals that browse for food, termed browsers, include goats and deer. Goats have lower incisors and both top and bottom molars, which help them to strip leaves and grass. Because they usually prefer plants that cattle and other livestock will not use, goats are good partners with cattle in mixed grazing operations.

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©iStockphoto/Oystein Lund Andersen.

Body Types

Figure 8–21 Goats prefer a woody type of plant for

sustenance, such as briars, bushes, and weeds.

Meat goats and dairy goats have different body types. The dairy goat should have a body shaped like a triangle when viewed from above. This gives the body more support for the production of milk in the udder. Meat goat producers breed meat goats to have more of a rectangular shape to their body. The rectangular shape supports the development of muscle throughout the carcass. Dairy goats should have thinner, flatter bone like dairy cattle; and meat goats should have ample bone size and structure to support their double muscling as in beef cattle.

MANAGEMENT OF GOATS Proper care and management of the goat herd is important to having healthy animals. Good record keeping helps producers track feed conversion, control parasites, conduct breeding, and control weight gain. This also helps producers with culling nonproductive and low-performing goats. Breeding

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

Goats are able to produce one to four offspring after a 5-month gestation period, although some goats have produced five or more kids in one gestational period (Figure 8–22). Goats are seasonal breeders but can be manipulated to come into season more than once a year. Some producers’ optimal goal is to have three sets of kids every 2 years, or as in other production livestock, a 100 percent kidding rate. A 100 percent kidding rate means that every doe will have at least one kid every breeding season. Females that do not produce a kid every season should be considered for culling. Purebred meat goat producers are using the latest in technology to produce improved stock faster. To obtain maximum results, producers use a variety of methods including artificial insemination, embryo transfer, and sonograms.

Figure 8–22 Goats are able to produce one to four offspring

after a 5-month gestation period, although some goats have produced five or more kids in one gestational period.

Nutrition Contrary to popular myths, goats do not eat tin cans, clothing, or any type of garbage if they are fed a well-balanced ration. The old tale about goats eating tin cans probably came from seeing undernourished goats eating

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Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

paper labels. In fact, goats are picky eaters and require nutritional standards based on performance like other forms of livestock. Commercial feeds are available for both meat production and milk production to both large and small producers, although some producers prefer to custom-blend their own feeds (Figure 8–23). Housing, Fencing, and Protection

Figure 8–23 Commercial feeds are available for both meat

production and milk production to both large and small producers.

©iStockphoto.

In the southwestern United States, goats usually do not have to be housed inside a building. They just need a shaded area to escape the sun and heat, especially in range-type situations. Boer goats, although they have white hair, have dark pigmented skin, so they normally do not get sun-burned. In other parts of the country, housing varies from lean-to structures to fully enclosed barn areas, depending on the climate and weather conditions. When housing is provided, it should be clean, dry, and well-ventilated to prevent infection from molds and bacteria (Figure 8–24). Good fencing for goats is important because goats are “escape artists” when dealing with fences. Some goats bend down fencing and may even jump over fencing. Fencing also keeps out predators such as mountain lions, coyotes, feral and neighborhood dogs, and wolves. Fencing options include electric fence, welded-wire panels, and welded-wire and knot-wire fencing (Figure 8–25). Meat goat producers most often leave horns on their herd animals to help them fend off predators, so getting stuck in the fence can be problematic. Goat producers often rely on livestock guardians for protection from predators. Some producers use donkeys, mules, llamas, and dogs to protect the goats (Figure 8–26). Factors affecting the selection of livestock guardians include the area, land conditions, climate, and predators in the area. Parasites Goats, like sheep, are susceptible to internal parasite or worm overload. Goats and sheep always have some internal parasites, but good management helps to control overpopulation

Figure 8–24 When housing is provided, it should be clean,

dry, and well-ventilated to prevent infection from molds and bacteria.

CHAPTER 8

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

Courtesy of Shannon Lawrence.

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Figure 8–25 Fencing options include electric fence,

Figure 8–26 Goat producers often rely on livestock

welded-wire panels, and welded-wire and knot-wire fencing.

guardians such as dogs to protect the goats from predators.

Figure 8–27 Goats are susceptible to internal parasites such as tape worms (left) and round worms (right).

©Medom Madsen, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock.

©3drenderings, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock.

of the internal parasites to a manageable level. Goats and sheep are more susceptible than other animals to internal parasites because of their grazing behavior and poor immunity. Goats that browse have fewer parasite problems, though woodland grazing may increase the risk of meningeal worm infection. Internal parasites are controlled effectively with good management practices and anthelmintics, or de-wormers. Every de-wormer is formulated for a specific internal parasite, so routine fecal checks of the herd should be done before giving any anthelmintics. Internal parasites that are common in goats include round worms, tape worms, barber pole worms, and others (Figure 8–27). Barber pole worms are the number-one concern in goat management.

Keith Weller/ USDA/ARS.

THE GOAT INDUSTRY

Figure 8–28 External parasites such as ticks can cause damage to goats.

Other parasites that can cause problems are external parasites, which include lice, mites, flies, and ticks (Figure 8–28). External parasites can cause production losses and can weaken the goat herd, making it susceptible to other health issues resulting in death.

SUMMARY The goat industry is not popular in the United States today, but because of the ever-changing population structure, this industry should grow in the future. Goats typically are divided into categories based on their purpose: fiber, meat, and dairy. Some goats are considered to be dual-purpose; they can provide both milk and meat to consumers.

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Goat milk can be a good alternative to cow milk in people who have allergies or lactose intolerance issues. Goats produce a lean carcass. Depending on the region, goats can survive with a variety of housing and fencing options, and they can use forage that other ruminants may not utilize.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. The goat industry is more popular than the sheep industry in the United States. 2. Goats serve only one purpose, giving milk, meat, or dairy. 3. Male goats in the meat industry are called bucks. 4. Saanen dairy goats can be a variety of colors. 5. Goats have a gestation period of 200 days. 6. Goats like to eat all kinds of garbage. 7. In some religions, the goat is sacred. 8. Goat meat is high in cholesterol. 9. The Spanish goat is a recognized breed. 10. Goats are modified ruminants. Fill in the Blanks 1. ____________ goats are the only true breed of miniature dairy goat. 2. ____________ are thought to have brought the first goats to North America. 3. Goat milk can be an alternative to ____________ milk. 4. The enzyme that is absent from people who can’t digest cow milk is ____________. 5. ____________ is the most popular meat goat breed in the United States. 6. Internal parasites can be controlled by using a ____________. 7. Housing goats is generally not needed in the ____________ part of the United States. 8. Goats are ____________ ____________ but can be manipulated to come into season more than once a year. 9. For sustenance, goats prefer a more ____________ ____________ of plant, such as briars, bushes, and weeds. 10. The LaMancha dairy goat breed originated in ____________. Discussion Questions 1. What are the three major categories of goats? 2. Discuss the advantages of goat milk. 3. What is meant by a browser? 4. Why do goats complement the grazing of cattle?

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5. Name four meat breeds of goat and the advantage of each one. 6. Choose a meat goat or a dairy goat project, and explain in detail why you chose this project. 7. Describe the teeth of goats. 8. Explain the history of goats in the United States. 9. Why is the goat industry expected to grow? 10. How many offspring can a goat have at a time? Student Learning Activities 1. Visit a meat goat operation and interview the owner/manager to learn of the management practices there. Report to the class. 2. Go to the Internet and research a breed of goat. Write a report including, the origin of the breed, its main purpose, and advantages, and disadvantages.

CHAPTER

The Horse Industry

KEY TERMS mules light horses draft horses

ponies perissodactyl cecum

pasture breeding hand breeding artificial insemination (AI)

colostrum gelding farrier

9

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain how the anatomy of the horse

makes it ideal for carrying and pulling loads.

■ describe the scientific classification

of the horse. ■ explain the process of mating horses.

■ discuss the different ways of classifying

horses. ■ tell how horse behavior affects

management practices.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ discuss the importance of the horse

industry. ■ list the various uses for horses in the

■ describe several advantages of mules

over horses. ■ explain how horses are raised.

United States.

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umans have used horses for transportation, work, and war from the beginning of recorded history. At one time, almost all civilizations relied on horses or donkeys to provide these services. Until about 60 years ago, military history was written around the horse. From the time the ancient Assyrians used horse-drawn chariots to transport soldiers until horses and mules were used to transport supplies and to pull artillery during World War II, horses and mules have been used to wage war. From the ancient Romans to our American Civil War, generals have used cavalry to increase the efficiency of their fighting forces. Only with the advent of modern weapons and self-powered machines have horses become obsolete in warfare. In the United States, much of our history has been built around power supplied by horses and mules (Figure 9–1). The very first explorers and settlers brought these animals to tend fields and to provide the power necessary to build an agricultural base. As settlers moved westward, horses and mules took them there and worked the farms once they were settled. The number of horses and mules in the United States grew until the 1920s, when the rapid increase in cars, trucks, and tractors caused a sharp decline in their numbers. From then until 1960, their numbers steadily declined. Since the 1960s, the numbers of horses and mules have both increased dramatically. Although they no longer serve as the basis of agricultural power and transportation, horses and mules have an important role in the agricultural sector of the country. In terms of world production, the United States is the second largest producer of

Courtesy of USDA

H

Courtesy of Bureau of the Census

Figure 9–1 Much of our history has been built around power supplied by horses and mules.

Figure 9–2 There are almost 2.5 million horses in the United States.

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horses, with 2.5 million head of horses (Figure 9–2). China leads the world with 11 million head, the majority of which are used as work animals.

Figure 9–3 In the United States, most horses are used for recreational purposes.

©iStockphoto/Mikhail Kondrashow

The horse belongs to the genus Equis. Within this genus are three groups of species. The domesticated horse belongs to the species E. caballus and includes the animals that we generally associate with working and riding. Another group of species includes the zebras, and yet another group includes the asses or donkeys. The only true wild horse is the E. przewalskii, which now exists only in parts of Mongolia. Wild horses in other parts of the world are descendants of the domestic horse (E. caballus) that have escaped into the wild. Most of the species of Equis will interbreed to some extent, some much more successfully than others. Although some horses and mules in the United States are used for work, most are used for recreational purposes (Figure 9–3). In modern times, horses are generally categorized into one of three classes; light horses, draft horses, and ponies. Light horses are animals that weigh 900 to 1,400 pounds. These horses are further divided according to use. Horses can be used for many events such as pleasure riding, trail riding, rodeos, racing, endurance riding, horse shows, fox hunting, dressage, combined training, polo, and driving. Although some breeds are better suited than others for certain events, the majority of horse breeds in the United States are versatile (Figure 9–4). Draft horses are breeds that weigh more than 1,400 pounds. At one time, these animals provided the power for pulling heavy loads such as wagons, plows, and other agricultural implements (Figure 9–5). Today, these animals are used in pulling competitions, shows, and parades. Ponies are breeds of horses that weigh 500 to 900 pounds. Although some are used to pull carriages and for show, the majority of ponies are used as horses for children. Altogether, the horse industry is a $15 billion industry in the United States. Surprisingly, horse racing ranks third behind baseball and auto

Courtesy of USDA

CLASSIFICATION

Figure 9–4 Gaited saddle horses such as the American Saddlebred are used for pleasure riding.

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Figure 9–5 Draft horses are bred to pull heavy

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130

Figure 9–6 Each year, millions of people attend thoroughbred races.

loads.

Courtesy of USDA

racing as the largest spectator sport in this country. Each year, more than 75 million people attend thoroughbred and harness races (Figure 9–6). Every year, there are around 7,000 horse shows in this country where young people and adults compete, with their horses in a variety of events. Many horses are owned as individual saddle horses that are used for recreation and are never raced or shown. There are more registered quarter horses than any other breed in the United States. The American Quarter Horse Association Figure 9–7 Horses are still used to work cattle. currently has 1.8 million registered quarter horses, compared to the next most numerous breed, the Arabians, with 620,000 head. Quarter horses are still used to help herd cattle (Figure 9–7). No mechanized substitute has been developed that is more effective in working cattle over the rough terrain of the open range. Personnel who work in remote wilderness areas rely on horses for transportation and for packing gear to areas that are inaccessible by car.

MULES Mules have been bred and raised since ancient times, when humans recognized the special characteristics that make them so valuable. By combining the size, speed, and strength of the horse with the patience, perseverance, toughness, and agility of the donkey, a unique animal was created. The mule is a true hybrid, a cross between a male ass (jack) and a female horse (mare) (Figure 9-8). Because of this, the mule rarely can reproduce (see the discussion of genetics, later).

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©iStockphoto/Deborah Cheramie

Rosemarie Colombraro, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

The mule owns a particular place in American history. Around the time of the Revolutionary War, mules began to be bred and raised in this country to work the farms and plantations. They were particularly popular in the South, where they adapted more easily than did horses to working in the hot, humid weather (Figure 9–9). Mules have several additional advantages over horses: They usually have sounder feet and legs than horses. This means that mules have fewer problems with lameness, split hooves, splints, and other leg problems that are associated with horses. In rocky, hilly terrain, mules are more sure-footed and less likely to stumble than horses. For this reason, mules are used for transporting people up and down rough trails such as those found in the Grand Canyon. Tourists who journey down to the bottom of the Grand Canyon usually travel on the back of a mule. If given the opportunity, horses will often eat so much grain that they harm themselves, but a mule will seldom overeat even if given free access to all the grain it wants. Although mules have a reputation for being stubborn, most of the stubbornness results from mules refusing to overwork themselves. When they become tired, they may balk and refuse to do any more until they are rested.

Figure 9–8 Mules are a hybrid cross between a male ass (jack) and a female horse (mare).

Figure 9–9 Mules were used in the South because they were better adapted to working in hot, humid areas.

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Mules are enjoying increased popularity. Each year, they are shown in various shows across the country. Mules are bred specifically for purposes such as pleasure riding, hunting, packing, and pulling wagons. Many parades in all parts of the country feature mule-drawn wagons as a part of the history of the United States.

ANATOMY OF THE HORSE The horse has certain anatomical features that make it suitable for use by humans (Figure 9–10). The skeletal system is composed of strong bones that are connected with ligaments, giving the horse a fluid, gliding movement that allows a rider to sit atop the horse in comfort. Long bones in the hip and legs aid in the long stride of the horse; these bones act somewhat like a lever in propelling the horse forward. The horse’s muscular system is well advanced and is adapted to carrying heavy loads. Massive muscles down the back, over the croup (hip area), and down the legs give the horse the ability to pull loads and to sustain hard work for long periods. Horses with a relatively short back are better equipped to carry heavy loads than are horses with a long back, because the muscles are concentrated in a shorter span. The feet of horses are especially well suited for carrying loads. The horse is classified as a perissodactyl, an animal with only a single toe on each of its four feet. The foot is enclosed within a tough, hornlike structure that protects the tender inner

ad He

Ears small Straight Well ribbed up: Deep through (not so important distance from ribs r in hunter or “chaser” to point of hip bone Eye large de Shoulders len as in flat racer) very short – s , oblique, long g 3 fingers lon ck e N Back sh ort Tail set on high up all sm

Gaskins very wide, muscular Hock well let down and big bone

Forearm wide, muscular Knee big flat bone Big bone

Forearm long

Very deep through

Nostril large Malar Lips long bone big and thin Narrow Bones, through muscles jaw, muzzle prominent

Cannon bone very short Pasterns long, sloping Hoofs small

Figure 9–10 The horse has certain anatomical features that make it suitable for

use by humans.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Long

Straight drop

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Cannon bone Sesamoid Long pastern bone

Fetlock

Ergot

Short pastern bone

Navicular bone Coronet Heel

Periople Coffin bone Hoof wall

Figure 9–11 The feet of horses are well designed to carry heavy loads.

Horse Conformation and Body Type Like any other species of agricultural animal, a horse should have the proper body type to perform the required tasks. How a horse is formed—its conformation—has a direct impact on how well the horse moves, functions, or performs. Animal scientists have spent untold hours studying the best conformation for horses, and have published many, many papers on the subject. Millions of dollars are spent each year buying, grooming, and showing horses that have good conformation. Although horses are used for a variety of reasons, certain characteristics are desirable in all types of horses. For example, a short back and a long, level croup are advantageous whether the animal is carrying a rider or pulling a heavy load. In addition, the neck should be long and slender to give the horse balance. Long, smooth muscles allow the animal to move freely and to work for long periods of time with less fatigue than an animal with short, “bunchy” muscles. A horse should be able to move freely on all its legs. For a horse to function properly, its feet and legs must be structurally sound. Many horses are born with defects that make the feet and legs less than perfect, and these defects can cause problems as the horse walks or runs. If the legs are too straight, the bones will be jarred as the animal moves and the rider will not have a smooth ride. If the legs have too much curve, this will place undue strain on the muscles of the legs and the stifle (a joint

Delmar/Cengage Learning

structure of the hoof. Inside the hoof wall on the very bottom of the foot is the sole, which further protects the inner portions of the foot. The heel provides a flexible weight-bearing structure that also serves as a shock absorber for the foot and leg (Figure 9–11). The digestive system of the horse is also highly specialized. Unlike many large animals, horses are nonruminants; they lack a rumen (which produces enzymes to digest fiber). An enlargement in the digestive tract called the cecum provides a repository for large amounts of microbes that break down fiber into a form that is digestible to the horse. The cecum allows the animal to consume and digest grass and hay.

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Long shoulders , Short back ng Lo

Level croup Long hip

ck ne r e nd sle

Tail set on high up

Very deep barrel Wide, muscular gaskins Straight drop

Long forearm

Big knees Big bones Very short cannon Small hooves

Figure 9–12 Desired horse traits.

in the hind leg). Figure 9–12 shows the proper placing of the legs and some common defects that should be avoided. Properly shaped and conformed bones and muscles allow the animal to function in the way it is expected to perform.

RAISING HORSES Horses are generally bred using one of two methods—pasture breeding or hand breeding. Pasture breeding simply means that stallions are turned into a pasture with mares and mating takes place naturally (Figure 9–13). The advantage of this method is that it is less labor-intensive and usually results in a greater percentage of pregnancies. The disadvantage is that mares sometimes get rough in the mating process, often kicking and biting, which may result in blemishes in the skin of the mare or stallion. Hand mating can be done under a variety of conditions. The stallion is usually brought to the mare, which is hobbled and restrained during mating. Another alternative is for the mare to be placed in a breeding chute, a rectangular box with short walls in the front and on both sides. Either method requires extreme caution to avoid injury to both humans and horses. This method has the advantage of certainty about the date of breeding, which allows closer estimation of foaling time. Many breed registries are now allowing the use of artificial insemination (AI) in the equine industry. When performing AI, only fresh semen or cooled, transported semen can be used; shipping frozen semen, as is common in the cattle industry, is not allowed. Embryo transfer, the process of removing an embryo from one

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©iStockphoto

©Melissa Dockstader, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

mare and transplanting it into another mare, is also becoming fairly common in the equine industry. Before deciding on either AI or embryo transfer, the breeder should contact the specific breed registry to obtain specific rules and regulations. Equine reproduction is dependent upon photoperiod and hormones. Horses are seasonal breeders; they are receptive to mating only during specific times of the year. Mares begin to cycle when the days become longer in the spring, and they stop cycling during the fall months. Mares can be placed under artificial light to induce follicular activity sooner. A mare requires approximately 60 days of artificial light before ovulation will occur. The light cycle should consist of 16 hours of daylight and 8 hours of darkness to obtain the correct artificial photoperiod. This concept is important for many breeds, as January 1 is the designated birthday for many foals. Because the gestation period is about 340 days, many breeders aim to get their mares pregnant as early as February. Having late-born foals can be a huge setback in many show and racing situations. After a long gestation period, the foal is born (Figure 9-14). Figure 9–13 Pasture breeding is less Following parturition, the navel cord is treated in a 10 percent labor intensive and results in a greater iodine solution, and the foal usually is given an enema of pregnancy rate. warm, soapy water to help the foal pass the fetal meconium. The foal should try to stand and nurse within a few minutes. If the foal does not try within one to two hours, it should be helped to its feet and guided toward the mare’s udder. As with all other mammals, the baby should receive the first milk, called colostrum, from the mother. This milk is rich in antibiotics and nutrients needed by the newly born animal. Foals are generally weaned between 4 and 6 months of age (Figure 9–15). Males may be castrated any time from birth to 2 years of age, to prevent the aggressive behavior of a mature intact male. A gelding (a castrated horse) is easier to handle and has a better disposition than a stallion.

©Eline Spek, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

THE HORSE INDUSTRY

Figure 9–14 After a gestation period of about

Figure 9–15 Foals are generally weaned between 4 and

340 days, the foal is born.

6 months of age.

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136

Training usually begins before the foals are weaned because very young horses are easier to handle and train. Training begins by teaching the foal to lead with a halter and accustoming it to humans. The age at which a horse is trained to accept the saddle and be ridden depends on the breed of horse and its intended use. Most horses are taught this at age 2, but some breeds are taught at a later age. The amount of training and the overall time it takes to train a horse depend on what the horse is going to be used for. Care and patience are required to train the animals to respond properly to humans. As with all other animals, many management practices must be observed when owning a horse. For example, horses have to be dewormed and vaccinated regularly. The services of both a veterinarian and a farrier are required periodically. A properly trained and well-managed horse will give many years of faithful service (Figure 9–16).

Figure 9–16 Horses require a lot of

management and service, including the feet.

SUMMARY Horses are a vital part of the history of the United States. Over the years they have served well as workers and companion animals. These animals are uniquely designed to provide service to human beings. Currently, the numbers of horses are on the increase for use as pleasure animals. This trend is likely to continue as more people become involved in the horse industry. Mules, a cross between a horse and a donkey, play an important role as draft animals. Like horses they are making a comeback as recreational animals.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Horses and mules have been relatively unimportant in the building of this country. 2. The number of horses and mules is increasing in the United States. 3. France leads the world in the number of horses. 4. Gaited horses are used primarily as draft animals. 5. As a spectator sport, horse racing is relatively minor compared to football. 6. Mules are generally incapable of reproducing. 7. Horses are much more intelligent than mules. 8. The gestation period for a horse is about 340 days. 9. Horses are seasonal breeders and can be bred only during the winter months. 10. The Arabian breed has the largest number of registered horses in the country. 11. The cecum is the digestive organ in the horse that allows for digestion of fiber.

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Fill in the Blanks 1. Horses have been used for ____________, ____________, and ____________ since the beginning of recorded history. 2. The horse belongs to the genus ____________. 3. Although some horses and mules are used for work in the United States, most are used for ____________ purposes. 4. ____________horses are those that weigh more than 1,400 pounds. 5. The mule is a cross between the ____________ and the ____________. 6. The horse is classified as a ____________, an animal with only a single toe on each of its four feet. 7. Horses generally are bred using one of two methods: ____________breeding or ____________ breeding. 8. It is important for foals to obtain ____________, which is present in the mare’s milk, to boost their immune system. 9. Foals are generally weaned between ____________ and ____________ months of age. 10. A castrated horse is called a ____________. Discussion Questions 1. Discuss some of the uses that humans have made of horses in the past. 2. What are the three classes of horses? 3. Explain why mules make such good work animals. 4. Discuss the anatomical features of the horse that make it suitable for use by humans. 5. List at least five ways that horses are used presently in the United States. 6. Explain why horses are able to digest roughage. 7. Explain the advantages of hand breeding over pasture breeding. 8. How are foals cared for at birth? 9. Why are male horses castrated? 10. When does the training of a horse usually begin? Student Learning Activities 1. Log onto the Internet and research a particular breed of horse. Find out about its origin, characteristics, uses, and popularity. Report your findings to the class. 2. Take a field trip to a horse show or training facility. Make notes on how the behavior and nature of the horses are used in the training. Report to the class. 3. Invite a veterinarian to visit the class to discuss good management procedures and basic first aid in caring for horses. 4. Go to the Agricultural Census site on the Internet and find out the number of horses in your state. How does your state compare to other states? Think of some reasons why there are relatively many or few horses in your state. Share your reasons with the class.

CHAPTER

The Aquaculture Industry

KEY TERMS aquaculture crustaceans steer

ectothermic cold-blooded photosynthesis

warm-water fish cold-water fish fry

fingerlings seines larvae

10

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain why fish gain more on less feed

than other animals. ■ discuss how fish obtain oxygen. ■ explain how oxygen is dissolved in

water.

■ distinguish between cool-water fish

and warm-water fish. ■ discuss the behavioral characteristics

of bullfrogs that make them difficult to raise.

■ explain how oxygen is depleted from

the water.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ list the reasons why aquaculture is a

rapidly growing industry. ■ give the advantages of fish over other

agricultural animals in a production operation. ■ discuss the problems associated with

fish production.

■ explain why catfish are the most

widely produced aquatic animal in the United States. ■ describe the methods used in the

production of various aquatic animals.

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quaculture is the growing of animals that normally live in water. This production includes freshwater and saltwater fin fish; crustaceans (shrimp, prawns, and crayfish); mollusks (clams and oysters); amphibians (bullfrogs), and reptiles (alligators). Throughout recorded history, humans have eaten fish and other animals that live in streams, lakes, ponds, and the ocean. A ready supply of high-quality, proteinrich food could be obtained by harvesting organisms from the waters. As with other agricultural animals, humans soon discovered that by producing their own aquatic animals, the supply would be more dependable and easier to harvest. Although it is difficult to determine just when aquaculture began, archaeologists know that people have raised fish for at least 3,000 years. The ancient Chinese and Egyptians kept fish in captivity for use as food. This is evidenced by the paintings and drawings on the walls of the tombs of the ancient Egyptians and by the writings of ancient Chinese scholars. Later, the Romans grew aquatic animals such as fish and eels. The commercial growing of fish has increased in recent years. Each year, more than 5 million tons of fish are produced by fish farmers throughout the world. Asian countries grow more tonnage of aquatic animals than any other region. Europe follows Asia in fish production, and North America ranks third. In the United States, fish culture is one of the fastest growing agricultural enterprises. The demand by consumers for seafood (a term for all the aquatic animals) has increased to almost 15 pounds per-capita. Although this is far behind countries such as Japan, where the per-capita consumption is 148 pounds, seafood still accounts for more than 12 percent of the meat consumed by Americans. Until a few years ago, the demand for fish and seafood had been easily met by the commercial fishing industry, which harvested wild fish from the sea and from freshwater sources. As the world demand increased along with the population increases, the commercial fishing industry had trouble meeting the demand because of overfishing in certain areas of the world. As a result of scientific research, aquatic animals are understood much better now than they were in the past. This allows producers to provide the type of environment that allows the animals to be produced efficiently and economically.

A

FISH PRODUCTION Fish have several advantages over other agricultural animals. Although it takes about 9 pounds of concentrated feed for a steer to gain a pound, a fish will gain a pound on about 2 pounds of feed. This is because fish are ectothermic, once called cold-blooded, animals that do not require a large portion of their nutrient

intake to go into maintaining body temperature. The bodies of ectothermic animals adjust to the temperature of their environment, so their body temperature is regulated by the surroundings. An endothermic animal—such as a mammal—regulates its own body temperature, and the internal temperature remains relatively constant. In addition, the natural buoyancy of their bodies in water helps fish move and supports their bodies; therefore, they use less energy to move about. Fish have a higher percentage of edible meat than other animals. Typically, only about 35–40 percent of a steer’s body weight is in edible meat. In contrast, a catfish is about 55 percent edible meat, and a trout may be as high as 85 percent edible meat. Thus, much more meat can be produced on an acre devoted to fish production than with any other agricultural animal. A wellmanaged pond can produce as much as 6,000 pounds of catfish per acre (Figure 10–1). With an ever-increasing world population, this could prove to be substantial in the future. Figure 10–1 A well-managed pond Fish producers face problems not encountered with the procan produce as much as 6,000 duction of other agricultural animals. The grower must make pounds of catfish per acre. sure that the dissolved oxygen level in the fish ponds is adequate for the fish. Like all other animals, fish must have oxygen to live. Whereas land animals obtain oxygen from the air they breathe, fish get oxygen from the water. Fish have gills that serve much the same Bony supports purpose as lungs in land animals. The lungs in air-breathing animals separate oxygen from the other gases in the air and pass the oxygen into the bloodstream. In Covering removed fish, the gills take oxygen from the water and pass the oxygen to the bloodstream (Figure 10–2). This oxygen is in the form of oxygen dissolved in water by green aquatic Gill filaments plants that release oxygen in the process Large blood vessels of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis occurs only when the sun is shining, so oxygen is Gill filaments released from these plants only during the daylight hours. Oxygen also passes into the water directly from the atmosphere through waves blown by the wind, ripples produced by moving streams, and waterfalls that allow water to Capillaries drop through the air. Most human-made Bony support ponds are static and do not have the movement we see in flowing streams or waterLarge falls. When the oxygen level of the water blood vessels is low because of atmospheric conditions, fish producers must rely on power-driven Figure 10–2 The gills of a fish take oxygen from the water. devices to fling the water into the air to

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Figure 10–3 Large, mechanically powered aerators are used to replace depleted

oxygen.

Courtesy of USDA

absorb oxygen. Calm, cloudy days combined with a high temperature may cause the oxygen level in the ponds to fall below the level that the fish need. Under these conditions, nights are particularly bad because aquatic plants are not undergoing the photosynthesis process that releases oxygen into the water. Without aeration, the entire population of a pond may die on a hot night. To prevent this from happening, the water is monitored periodically throughout the day and night using an oxygen meter that lets the operator know how much dissolved oxygen is in the water. When the oxygen falls below an acceptable level, large aerators are turned on, throwing the water high into the air to be able to absorb more oxygen (Figure 10–3). Shipping the fish presents another problem. After fish die, the meat spoils quickly; therefore, the fish have to reach the processing plant alive to produce the highest-quality product. Specially equipped tank trucks deliver the fish; they are equipped with gauges that monitor the water closely for temperature and oxygen levels (Figure 10–4). The fish are loaded and unloaded through large tubes that pump water containing fish to and from the truck tank (Figure 10–5). Because fish have to be monitored so closely in all phases of their production, the operations are said to be labor-intensive. This means that people have to spend a lot of time on the Figure 10–4 To deliver fish live to the processor, they are job to produce the fish. The operations also are transported in special trucks that monitor the oxygen.

considered to be relatively high-risk because the fish can be lost so rapidly. Commercially grown fish are grouped into two broad categories: warm-water fish and coldwater fish. Warm-water fish will not thrive in water temperatures below 60°F, and coldwater fish will not thrive in water warmer than 70°F. In the United States, the most popular commercially raised fish are catfish and tilapia (warm-water fish) and the trout and salmon (cold-water fish).

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Figure 10–5 The fish are loaded and unloaded through

large tubes.

The most widely grown fish in this country is the catfish. Each year, producers in the United States harvest and market almost 100,000 metric tons of catfish, amounting to a farm value of catfish that exceeds $380 million. These fish are gaining an increasingly wide market in all areas of the nation. Consumers are beginning to recognize farm-raised catfish as a tasty alternative to other forms of fish and seafood. Catfish are different from most freshwater fish in that they have a smooth skin with no scales (Figure 10–6). They are hardy fish that produce well in small ponds and survive with Figure 10–6 Catfish have a smooth skin with no scales. lower levels of oxygen than most other fish. Although there are many different varieties of catfish, the only variety of economic importance is the channel catfish. If left to grow for many years, these fish can grow to weigh more than a hundred pounds. Huge channel catfish are caught in large lake reservoirs every year in the deep South. Because these fish do best when the water temperature is around 85°F, most are produced in the South. Mississippi is the leading producer of catfish, with about 80 percent of production, followed by Arkansas and Alabama. Most catfish are grown in open ponds in not more than 6 feet of water. In Mississippi, the acreage of ponds can be quite large. Farms with 250 acres under water are commonly found, and a number of farms in that state have as many as 1,000 acres in ponds. Eggs are collected from female catfish by allowing them to lay in nests provided by the producers. The eggs then are collected and placed in tanks or jars in the hatchery. The eggs are moved back and forth gently by means of paddles in the tanks that slowly move the water in a wavelike action or the bottles containing the eggs are moved in a slow rocking action.

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Catfish Production

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Kang Khoon Seang, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Courtesy of USDA

Just as with bird eggs, catfish eggs have to be turned for the embryo to grow properly. The rocking motion involved in the turning provides the necessary turning for the embryos to develop. When the small fish, called fry, hatch, they are placed in a tank until they are about 2 inches long. These young fish, called fingerlings, then are placed in ponds or put in cages, where they will remain until they reach a weight of 1 to 2 pounds. The fish are fed a commercially processed food compressed into small pellets. The Figure 10–7 Catfish ponds are designed so the fish can fish are fed twice a day by spreading the pelbe caught using seines. lets on the water. In larger operations, labor is reduced by using a feed truck that drives to the edge of the pond and blows feed into the water. The ponds are constructed so the producers can move through the ponds with large nets called seines to harvest the fish. Several passes with the seines are usually necessary to get most of the fish out of the pond (Figure 10–7). The fish then are placed in holding tanks until they are pumped into trucks for transport to market. Salt is added to the water of the transport truck to keep the fish alive and well during the trip to the market. The salt water has a calming effect on the fish, lessening the stress. In another method, the fish are grown in cages that are submerged in water (Figure 10–8). This method has several advantages over growing fish in open ponds: The fish are kept in a confined area where they may be inspected more closely. Less feed is wasted because the feed is spread out only within the cage. Cage raising helps solve problems of predators—such as turtles, cranes, and herons—that feed on fish in an open pond. Also, fish raised in a cage are much easier to harvest (Figure 10–9).

Figure 10–8 Fish sometimes are raised in cages that are

submerged in the water.

Figure 10–9 Fish raised in cages are much easier to harvest.

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Tilapia Production Tilapia (Figure 10–10) are fish native to Africa that are grown commercially all over the world. These fish resemble our native sunfish, and they reproduce prolifically, grow rapidly, and are considered to be a good-quality food fish. They are very hardy fish that survive high temperatures, low oxygen levels, and overcrowded conditions. Tilapia are a widely cultured fish and are second only to carp worldwide. Tilapia have been raised in the United States only within the past few years, but they are gaining in importance. Fish biologists consider them to have high potential as a commercially raised food fish in the United States. Because it is a warm-water fish, it grows best in the southern region of the country. If the water temperature falls much below 50°F, tilapia cannot survive. Trout Production

PhotoDisc/Getty Images

EuToch, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Trout is considered to be among the best-tasting fish and is served in restaurants all across the country. It is highly desirable as a food fish, not only for its eating quality but also because such a high percentage of the body is edible meat. These fish are cold-water fish that cannot survive in climates where the water temperature rises above 75°F. Trout are raised in smaller quantities than are catfish and are produced in the northern part of the country. Most trout are raised in concrete raceways where the water is kept clean and moving (Figure 10–11). The moving water helps to keep the temperature low and oxygen in the water at an acceptable level. Diseases can be controlled more easily in concrete raceways, whereas disease organisms can be harbored in the soil of a regular pond. Harvesting in concrete spillways is much easier than in an open pond with an irregular bottom surface.

Figure 10–10 Tilapia are native to Africa and have

potential as a food fish in the United States.

Figure 10–11 Trout are raised in concrete raceways.

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Salmon Production Another cool-water fish that is gaining popularity as a cultured fish is the Atlantic salmon. In the coastal states of Washington and Maine, salmon are stocked in floating net cage enclosures anchored in coves and bays. The salmon are fed and cared for during an 18- to 24-month period. The fish then are harvested at around 9–11 pounds. These fish are meaty and have a flavorful taste. Although most of the salmon consumed in the United States come from ocean fishing or from Norway, many authorities think that the culture of salmon has a bright future in this country.

Courtesy of George Lewis, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

SPORT FISHING

Figure 10–12 Bullfrogs are raised

commercially in some parts of the world.

Fish also are grown for sport fishing. Hatcheries all over the country raise small fish to stock ponds, lakes, and streams for the benefit of sport fishers. Almost every state in the country has large human-made reservoirs that are kept stocked with game fish for recreational purposes. Many of the fish caught were hatched in commercially operated fish hatcheries or in government-run hatcheries. Each year, these hatcheries stock lakes and streams with bass, bream, crappie, muskie, trout, and several other species of fish. This use of taxpayers’ money can easily be justified because recreational fishing is a big industry in the United States. This agricultural enterprise spurs offshoot industries such as fishing tackle, boats, and guide services. People who run restaurants, hotels, and other stores all benefit from people who come to the lake to enjoy a weekend of fishing. Some people grow fish in their privately owned ponds and make money by charging people to fish. Charges are made by the day or by the pounds of fish caught. As in most of the other types of fish-production operations, the fish are hatched, cared for, and harvested for a profit.

BULLFROGS Frog legs are considered a gourmet food that is served in many restaurants. Although most of the frog supply comes from the wild, some cultivation of frogs occurs in Taiwan and Japan. In the United States, frogs have not been grown successfully in large numbers. Because the demand far exceeds the supply, however, small profits have been made as a sideline crop from fish ponds (Figure 10–12). The frogs are harvested much as they would be in the wild. In the United States, attempts have been made to produce frogs, but because of production problems, few have been successful. One of the major problems is that these animals are so

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territorial, which means that the animals claim a certain area and do not allow other frogs into their space. A second problem is that frogs will eat only food that is alive, so they cannot be fed processed feed. Their diet includes their own young, which can cause a real problem when frogs are raised in captivity. A third problem is predators. Almost all the predators that inhabit areas near water feed on frogs; these include raccoons, fish, herons, snakes, ducks, and cranes. As with the development of all the other agricultural animal industries, researchers will someday devise a way to raise bullfrogs profitably to meet market demand.

©Cerna Namoglu, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Crayfish (also known as crawfish and crawdads) are raised commercially in several states. The largest producing state is Louisiana, with more than 100 million pounds produced each year. Other states that produce crayfish include Oregon, California, Washington, Texas, and Mississippi. With proper management, more than 1,000 pounds per acre can be produced. Crayfish are grown in constructed earthen ponds that are no more than 2 feet in depth. Often, they are grown along with crops such as rice. Crayfish are omnivorous—they eat both plants and animals—but most of their diet is made up of decomposing plant material (Figure 10–13). Crops such as rice leave large amounts of stubble behind when they are harvested. As the stubble decays, it creates a lot of food for the crayfish. In addition to decomposing plant material, crayfish eat worms and insect larvae. Figure 10–13 Crayfish are produced in The crayfish are put in the ponds in the spring. The water is flooded rice fields. slowly drained off in the late summer. As the water is lost, the crayfish burrow into the bottom, where they reproduce. The adult females lay large numbers of eggs, which hatch during the summer and early fall. These young are the crayfish that provide the harvest. In the summer, a cover crop such as rice is planted and the pond is flooded. The crayfish are harvested in the late fall, winter, and early spring. Harvesting usually is done with a trap made from chicken wire that is closed on the bottom and has an inverted funnel at the top, (Figure 10–14). Canned dogfood, cottonseed cake, or chunks of fish are placed in the traps for bait. Trapping is more effec- Figure 10–14 Crayfish are harvested by catching them tive at night because the crayfish are searching in traps. more actively for food then. Once harvested,

©Chris Rawlins, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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the crayfish are packed into porous bags and shipped. As long as the bags are kept cool and wet, the crayfish will survive and reach the processing plant in good condition.

ALLIGATOR FARMING

Philippe Colombi/Getty Images

©iStockphoto

At one time, alligators were hunted to the point of extinction because of the high value of their hides. Today, because of extensive conservation efforts, the numbers in the wild have greatly multiplied until they are no longer endangered. As a result of the conservationists’ efforts, techniques for growing alligators were perfected. This technology now is used for commercial production of the animals on farms located primarily in Louisiana, Florida, and Georgia. Alligators can be harvested at about 26 months of age, when they have reached 5 to 6 feet in length (Figure 10–15). The hides are sold to make exotic leather goods such as bags, boots, shoes, and belts. The meat is tasty and is sold to the restaurant trade. Specialty items such as skulls and teeth also are sold. Brood alligators are obtained from other producers or from the wild. To use wild Figure 10–15 Alligators can be harvested at about alligators, producers have to secure a permit 26 months of age, when they reach a length of 5 to 6 feet. from the state game commission and agree to release back into the wild a predetermined number of alligators that are a year or older. The females build nests from vegetation and mud, lay around 40 eggs in the nest, and cover them. Producers remove the eggs from the nest as soon as they are laid because the eggs are a favorite food of several predators. As the eggs are removed, they are marked so the proper end will be placed in an upright position throughout incubation to ensure that the eggs hatch. The eggs then are wrapped in hay and are kept moist. The wet hay harbors bacteria that help to decompose the shell of the egg. A partially decomposed shell enables the young alligator to break through without much difficulty. The temperature during incubation is critical in determining the sex of the young animals. Temperatures lower than 86°F produce all-female broods; temperatures above 93°F produce allmale broods. If the temperature is held at about 88°F, the brood is mixed in gender. When trawlers harvest the sea, fish are brought up in the nets Figure 10–16 Alligators are fed that are not desirable for human consumption. These are the fish fish that are left from the trawling that producers use to feed alligators (Figure 10–16). Some animals industry. are fed byproducts from poultry-processing plants, even though

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research has shown that this diet is somewhat too high in fat content. Other sources of food include carcasses of animals that are raised and slaughtered for their fur.

SUMMARY Aquaculture is one of the newest components of animal agriculture. Because of the high efficiency of aquatic animals and the healthy, nutritious contribution they make to our diet, this area of animal agriculture is likely to grow in the future. The operations are highly labor-intensive and expensive to operate, but the demand for fish and other products from aquatic animals continues to grow as the oceans of the world cannot keep up with demand. Research will show us ultimately how to produce the animals more efficiently and at a lower cost.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Aquaculture can be traced back only 300 years to the mid-1600s. 2. In the United States, fish culture is one of the fastest growing agricultural enterprises. 3. A steer generally has only about 35–40 percent of body weight in edible meat, whereas fish range from 55–85 percent in edible meat. 4. The oxygen needed by fish is dissolved in the water by green aquatic plants that release oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. 5. On a hot night without aeration the entire population of a pond may die. 6. Fish-production operations need little labor and are low-risk. 7. Catfish are cold-water fish that do not produce well when the water temperature is above 70°F. 8. Eggs collected from female catfish are placed in tanks or jars in the hatchery. 9. Tilapia are hearty fish, but they cannot survive high temperatures, low oxygen levels, or overcrowded conditions. 10. Most of the salmon consumed in the United States comes from ocean fishing or from Norway; there is not much of a future in farming it here. 11. Taxpayers’ money is thrown away each year on hatcheries run by the government to produce fish for sport. 12. Crayfish are grown in constructed earthen ponds that are not deeper than 2 feet. 13. As long as the bags containing crayfish are kept cool and wet, the crayfish will survive and reach the processing plant in good condition. 14. Temperatures lower than 86°F during incubation of alligator eggs will produce all-female broods; temperatures above 93°F produce mostly males.

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Fill in the Blanks 1. Aquaculture is the growing of animals such as fresh and ____________ fin fish; crustaceans such as ____________, ____________, and crayfish; mollusks (____________ and ____________); and amphibians such as ____________; and reptiles (____________). 2. Until a few ____________ ago, the demand for fish and ____________ had been easily met by the ____________ fishing industry that harvested ____________ fish from the ____________ and from freshwater ____________. 3. While it takes about ____________ pounds of ____________ feed for a steer to put on a pound of gain, a fish will gain a pound on about ____________ pounds of feed. 4. Oxygen is passed into the water directly from the atmosphere through waves blown by the ____________, ripples produced by a moving ____________, and waterfalls that allow water to ____________ through the ____________. 5. To deliver fish, specially equipped ____________ trucks are used to closely monitor the ____________ for ____________ and ____________ levels. 6. Catfish are hardy fish that produce well in ____________ ponds and survive in ____________ levels of oxygen than most other fish. 7. Young catfish, called ____________, are placed in ponds or put in ____________, where they will remain until they reach a weight of ____________ to ____________ pounds. 8. Raising catfish in cages has several advantages: Fish can be ____________ more closely, less ____________ is wasted, there are fewer problems with ____________ such as herons, and the fish are more easily ____________. 9. Trout are highly desirable as a food fish not only for their ____________ quality but also because such a ____________ percentage of their body is ____________ meat. 10. In the coastal states of Washington and ____________, salmon are stocked in ____________ net cage enclosures that are ____________ in coves and ____________. 11. A difficulty in raising bullfrogs is their territorial nature. They claim a certain ____________ and do not allow other ____________ into their area. 12. Crayfish are omnivorous—they eat both ____________ and ____________ but most of their diet is made up of ____________ plant ____________. 13. Trapping crayfish is more effective at ____________ because they become more ____________ and are searching for ____________. 14. Alligators can be harvested at about ____________ months of age, when they have reached lengths of ____________ to ____________ feet. 15. Alligators are mainly fed fish caught in ____________ that are not fit for human ____________. Discussion Questions 1. For how long have people been engaged in aquaculture? How do we know this? 2. Why are fish more efficient users of feed than are traditional agricultural animals? 3. Name at least two significant problems associated with the production of fish. 4. Why are catfish so widely produced? 5. What are the characteristics of tilapia that give them such a high potential for production?

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6. What are the advantages of raising fish in cages? Why are trout and salmon raised in concrete raceways? 7. What are three problems that make bullfrogs difficult to raise? 8. Why are crayfish grown with crops such as rice? 9. What are the commercial uses for alligators? 10. What governmental regulations apply to the raising of alligators? Student Learning Activities 1. Visit a large grocery store that markets seafood. List all the types of food from aquatic animals that the store sells. Determine which of the aquatic animals were caught in the wild and which were produced in aquaculture operations. Record the differences in price for each category. 2. Locate and visit an aquaculture operation in your area. Determine the problems and solutions in running the operation. How are the animals marketed? 3. Talk with a local conservation officer about the types of fish that are released in lakes and streams in your area. Find out where the fish come from, the stocking rate, and plans for introducing different types of fish in the future.

CHAPTER

The Small Animal Industry

KEY TERMS companion animals exotic animals

exothermic service animals

assistance dogs hippotherapy

zoonoses

11

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ describe how humans first adopted

pets. ■ explain behavior characteristics that

make some animals good companions. ■ describe how different breeds were

■ list some diseases that may be

transmitted from pets to humans. ■ describe ways of preventing the

transmission of diseases from pets to humans.

developed. ■ analyze the health benefits of owning

pets.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ describe the importance of the pet

industry to the economy of the United States. ■ tell how companion animals were and

still are used in agriculture. ■ explain how dogs are classified

according to their use.

■ describe how byproducts are used in

the processing of pet food. ■ explain the regulations governing the

raising and importing of companion animals.

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he raising of and caring for pets is a large and rapidly growing animal industry. In the United States, almost two-thirds of households own pets. Americans spend over $4,520 billion a year on companion animals. Dog and cat food purchases alone account for about $8 billion of the total spent on pets. By comparison, people spend approximately $1 billion on baby food. Dogs and cats are the most common pets, and in recent years, cats have outnumbered dogs as the favorite pet in the United States. There are about 93 million cats and 77 million dogs in American households. Many cat owners have more than one cat, so, although cats are more numerous, dogs are found in more households (Figure 11–1). Other pets that people own include horses, rabbits, hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, and fish. There is a trend to own exotic animals such as pot-bellied pigs, reptiles, ferrets, fancy birds, and even tarantulas. This wide range of pets provides companionship for people of all ages. The popularity of dogs and cats as companions is a result of a combination of factors. Among these is the ability of dogs and cats to form lasting social bonds with humans, establishing a close relationship with their owners. These animals also can be house-trained fairly easily, whereas house training is impossible with many companion animals, such as horses. Dogs and cats have another advantage in being large enough for humans to interact with and play with, yet small enough to be kept in the house. Many of these pets are bred and raised in commercial operations that supply animals to be used for pets. A gigantic industry has grown up around the care of pets and companion animals. Americans spend almost $17 billion each year for pet food (Figure 11–2) and an additional $12 billion for veterinary services. As the affluence of the average person increases, the expenditures for pets and pet care likewise will increase.

Figure 11–1 Dogs are in more homes than any other pet.

Tanya Constantine/Blend Images/Getty Images

foaloce, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

T

Figure 11–2 Americans spend more than $17 billion

each year for pet food.

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THE HISTORY OF PETS Evidence of people keeping pets dates back several thousand years B.C. The first companion animals probably were domesticated from wild animals and served purposes other than strictly as pets. Dogs were used for hunting and herding animals, and they also served as watch animals, warning humans of wild animals or strange humans approaching.

DOGS

Figure 11–3 People discovered that dogs could be useful in herding animals.

Courtesy of Bryan Herren, Watkinsville, Georgia

©Dennis Albert Richardson 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Dogs have been associated with humans as far back as the Stone Age. All modern dogs developed from wild dogs that resembled wolves. Dogs are scavengers, and archaeologists think that dogs may have adopted humans rather than humans adopting dogs. The theory is that dogs began hanging around villages to scavenge leftover food of the humans. People probably discovered that the dogs could help in the hunts by tracking and herding animals, so they began to raise the animals for hunting (Figure 11–3). A characteristic of dogs is that there can be quite a mixture of traits in the animals born in the same litter due to genetic variation. As humans began to see traits they liked in certain dogs, they began to select animals with those characteristics and breed the males and females to produce the type animal they wanted. This is how different breeds of dogs developed. Within the dog family some breeds weigh scarcely 2 pounds and other breeds weigh more than 200 pounds. Dogs come in all sizes, shapes, colors, and temperaments. In fact, there are more than 400 recognized breeds of dogs in the world. Breeds of dogs are divided into seven major groups. The Sporting Group includes hunting dogs such as the Labrador Retriever, the Irish Setter, and the Brittany Spaniel (Figure 11–4).

Figure 11–4 The Brittany Spaniel

belongs to the Sporting Group of dogs.

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The Hound Group is used for tracking and treeing game and includes breeds such as Beagles, the Bloodhound, and the Black and Tan Coonhound. The Terrier Group consists of smaller dogs including the Fox Terrier, the Welch Terrier, and the Bull Terrier. The Working Dog Group was developed to provide service as sled dogs, guard dogs, and messenger dogs; examples of this group are the Alaskan Malamute, the Boxer, and the Doberman Pinscher. The Herding Dogs were bred to help in the raising of livestock by herding the animals and protecting them from predators; these include the Border Collie, the Old English Sheepdog, and the Australian Cattle Dog. The Toy Dog Group, the smallest of the dogs, include breeds such as the Chihuahua, the Pekinese, and the Pug. The last group is the Nonsporting Dogs, composed of a wide variety of dogs that are used primarily as companion animals; in this group are the Bulldog, the Poodle, and the Dalmatian.

©iStockphoto/Gregory Albertini

CATS

Figure 11–5 Cats are clean, quiet,

intelligent animals that make good companions.

Archaeologists were able to distinguish the remains of the first domestic cats from the wild species in their excavations of ancient Egypt; they say the cat was bred and worshipped in Egypt (1570– 1085 B.C.) to some extent. The popularity of the cat, however, may have stemmed—more than any other reason—from the protection they gave to granaries by killing mice and other rodents. The ancient Romans also valued cats for their service of ridding homes and grain storage areas from destructive vermin, as well as their use as companion animals. The Romans probably were the first people to take cats into Europe and other parts of the world. Today, cats inhabit almost every country in the world, both as wild and as domestic varieties. In the history of the United States, cats were used to rid homes of mice and other vermin; they could be found on farms and in homes all across the nation. Most times, these animals earned their keep by catching and consuming their own food, and they often lived in barns or grain storage buildings. Today, cats are popular even though they are not used as much to catch mice. They are excellent companion animals because they are clean, quiet, and intelligent. Cats provide enjoyment for millions of people (Figure 11–5). Unlike dogs, cats only relatively recently have been bred selectively, and the breeds have much less variation. Consequently, there are fewer breeds of cats than dogs. Most cat breeds can be traced back to the late nineteenth century, continuing to the present. Most of the breeds that are named after a region, such as the Persian and the Abyssinian, probably did not originate in these areas. Breeds of cats are generally divided into two groups: shorthair and longhair.

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EXOTIC ANIMALS AS PETS Many people prefer pets other than the traditional dogs, cats, and fish. A large industry has developed around raising and/or importing exotic animals. At one time, there was a thriving market for animals captured from the wild and imported for use as pets. Now, strict laws regulate the importation and sale of certain animals; it is illegal to import and sell most animals captured from the wild. Many endangered species are protected from sale to private individuals. These animals tend to make poor pets, and removing them from their natural habitat increases the risk of their extinction. The importation of animals also carries a risk of bringing disease into this country. A classic example is New Castle disease, a highly contagious viral disease that decimated much of the poultry industry in the United States. It is thought to have been brought in by a parrot smuggled into New England from Mexico. All animals brought into the United States must go through a quarantine period to check for disease and parasites.

The fastest growing category of pets in the United States today consists of reptiles. More than 7 million pet reptiles are living in homes in the United States (Figure 11–6). Because reptiles are cold-blooded, they traditionally have not been considered good pets. Through better education about the characteristics of these animals, their use as pets has increased. Snakes such as boas and pythons are common. Iguanas are the most popular pet among reptiles. These lizards are the size of a domestic cat when full-grown. They are clean, odorless, and Figure 11–6 The fastest growing category of the pet can be house-trained. Most are grown in Central industry consists of reptiles. and South America under unsanitary conditions, and salmonella poisoning is a danger when handling these pets. Owners should thoroughly wash their hands with antibacterial soap after handling these animals. Reptiles require special care, as they are exothermic animals, which means that their internal body temperature comes from the environment. They need lights and some source of heat, such as a heat rock, to keep them comfortable.

HEALTH BENEFITS Evidence is increasing that pets are more than just companions; they also are good for people’s health (Figure 11–7). Scientists are discovering that living with a pet contributes

Delmar/Cengage Learning

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Figure 11–7 Pets are more than

©Misha Shiyanov, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

companion animals; they are good for people’s health.

Figure 11–8 Under the right

circumstances, companion animals can have a good influence on children.

to both the physical and the mental well-being of humans. There is a need in humans to have a relationship with something living. Since earliest human history, there has been the need to be around and to have dealings with other human beings. Now, scientists say that, at least in part, the need for companionship can be supplied by companion animals. According to this theory, relationships with animal companions seem to be beneficial to humans because these relationships are uncomplicated. Animals are accepting, attentive, and responsive to affection. They are not judgmental; they don’t talk back; they don’t criticize or give orders. Pets give people something to be responsible for and make them feel special and needed. In the right circumstances, companion animals are a good influence on children of all ages because they help children develop a sense of security. Animals have been used to encourage shy or withdrawn children to open up (Figure 11–8). Children who are normally hyperactive often become much calmer around a companion animal. Caring for animals also helps them develop a sense of responsibility, which can be useful in all areas of life. Evidence of the beneficial effects of companion animals on human health is continually being discovered. We now understand that pets make people feel good, and a sick person who feels good mentally is likely to get better faster. People who have pets report fewer minor health problems such as colds and flu. Studies also have shown that petting a dog or a cat or watching fish in an aquarium can help lower a person’s blood pressure and heart rate. Companion animals can play an important role in the lives of older individuals. Because of the increasing mobility in today’s society, many elderly people no longer have family members living close by. Many of them would feel isolated and alone without the pets that provide them with companionship and a sense of being valued and needed. Older people may actually live longer, healthier lives because of their relationships with companion animals. Today, about half of nursing homes use animals in some capacity to aid in the care of the elderly and invalids. Bird aviaries and aquariums, as well as cats, rabbits, and guinea pigs are popular with nursing home residents. Some authorities do not recommend that dogs live in nursing homes full-time because they tend to be overfed by the residents, who can’t seem to resist feeding them cookies and treats. The dogs can become obese and health problems result. Today many volunteers take their dogs to visit the residents of nursing homes and hospitals in their community.

THE SMALL ANIMAL INDUSTRY

SERVICE ANIMALS

David Buffington/Getty Images

Many people in the United States and other parts of the world are challenged by some form of disability. Companion animals that are known as service animals have a tremendously valuable role in assisting with everyday aspects of life. Dogs serve as the eyes, ears, or legs for thousands of people who need assistance in moving about and tending to daily routines (Figure 11–9). A number of agencies in the United States train assistance dogs to give people with disabilities more independence and mobility. Training usually takes between 4 and 8 months, depending on the difficulty of

Figure 11–9 Dogs can serve as helpers to people who are physically challenged.

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© iStockphoto/Lisa Fletcher

160

Figure 11–10 Guide dogs must be

able to recognize dangers.

the tasks that must be learned and the dog’s aptitude. Although training assistance dogs can cost thousands of dollars, many agencies provide them at little or no cost to people who need them. The best known example of an assistance dog is the guide dog for the blind. The most commonly used breeds are German Shepherds and Labrador Retrievers. To work as a guide dog, the dog has to be exceptional. It has to be able to walk through crowds, climb stairs, take elevators, and ride on buses and in cars. Most important, the dog has to be able to think for itself (Figure 11–10). It must learn to disobey a command if it could bring harm to its master. Many of the organizations that train guide dogs have volunteers who raise the puppies during the first year. Some of the volunteer puppy raisers belong to the 4-H organization. The volunteers are not expected to train the puppies as guides but are required to follow some basic rules. The puppies must be exposed to many of the activities that they will have to handle with ease as a guide dog. The puppy raisers are encouraged to take the puppies to the mall, to the park, and to nursing homes, schools, and any other setting that involves the public. The puppies must be kept on a leash in public, and they must sleep next to the volunteer’s bed just as they will when serving as guides. The volunteers are warned not to play ball, tug-of-war, or other games with the puppies because these games could turn into bad habits when the dogs become guide dogs. The puppy raisers must not feed their pets human food, as guide dogs must not be tempted by the sight or odor of human food when they accompany their owners to restaurants, and they can’t be jumping up on tables begging for food. Only about half of the puppies raised to be guide dogs complete the training successfully. During training, the dogs learn to work in a harness, and they learn commands such as “Forward” and “Find the door.” The dogs are trained through repetition and praise. They learn to ignore crowds, noises, squirrels, and cats. The dog must imagine itself to be as wide and as high as a human so it can guide a person through doorways and buildings successfully. It also must be aware that obstructions it can walk around or under easily, such as awnings or branches, would impede its owner. A guide dog wearing a harness is on duty and should never by petted by other people; however, when the dog is out of the harness, it is like any other family pet. Hearing-ear dogs are trained to listen for those who cannot hear. Also called signal dogs, these animals can respond to more than 30 common household sounds including doorbells, telephones, alarm clocks, and fire alarms. They even can be trained to respond to a crying baby. The dogs alert their deaf or hardof-hearing owners by walking back and forth from the source of the noise to the owner. Signal dogs are taught not to bark when alerting their master, as the person would be unable to hear the barking. The dogs can also be trained to respond to sign

language commands. Because the size of the dog is not important, hearing-ear or signal dogs usually are mixed breeds and often are rescued from local animal shelters. Service dogs are trained to help people who use a wheelchair or have a spinal injury. These dogs are able to respond to more than 40 different commands. Service dogs can open doors, work light switches, pull emergency cords, and pull wheelchairs. Each dog may be trained a little differently to address the needs of the individual who will own the dog. Service dogs have to be large, and they often are retriever breeds. Another companion animal that has been beneficial to humans is the horse. Horses are used in programs of physical therapy for people with disabilities. This type of therapy, called hippotherapy, can be used with people of all ages but is especially helpful for physically challenged children (Figure 11–11). The gait of a horse simulates the motion of humans as we walk. When we walk, our bodies move from side to side and up and down. Riding a horse re-creates that sensation in people who are unable to walk unassisted. Through hippotherapy, physically challenged individuals improve their balance, posture, strength, coordination, and muscle flexibility. In addition to the physical benefits, the riders gain confidence. Hippotherapy can provide them with a whole new perspective and a sense of freedom. A horse can take its rider where no wheelchair could go. Volunteers are used in the care and maintenance of the horses, as well as for lessons; therefore, hippotherapy programs offer many opportunities to local agriculture programs and youth organizations.

PET FOOD The pet food industry utilizes many of the byproducts and surpluses of the human food industry. The main ingredient in dry dog foods is grain—corn, soybean meal, or wheat millings. The main ingredients in canned pet foods are meat byproducts, which may include the waste products of meat that was processed for human consumption. Also, carcasses declared unfit for human consumption may qualify for use as pet food. The composition of pet food is formulated carefully to meet the animal’s nutritional needs. Canned, semi-moist, and dry foods are equally nutritious, but the canned varieties generally contain a higher percentage of protein and fat.

ANIMAL HEALTH Americans spend more than $10 billion every year on the health care of their companion animals. There are approximately 40,000 veterinarians in the United States, and one-third of them treat small animals exclusively (Figure 11–12). Like all other veterinarians, those who specialize in the care of companion animals perform a wide variety of tasks. They treat animal injuries, set broken bones, immunize healthy animals against disease, and perform surgery.

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THE SMALL ANIMAL INDUSTRY

Figure 11–11 Horses can aid in

the recovery of physically challenged people.

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©iStockphoto.Mark Hatfield

Veterinarians today can perform hip replacements and kidney transplants on companion animals. They also have performed balloon angioplasty to open clogged arteries, openheart surgery, and dental surgery. In recent years, medical care for animals has become as highly technical as medical care for humans. New medical procedures have been perfected on animals to the extent that, in some instances, animals may get even more advanced care than humans. The costs of these health care advances, however, may be more than some Figure 11–12 Over one-third of veterinarians treat small pet owners are willing or able to bear. animals exclusively. Veterinarians stress preventive measures when they counsel pet owners. They encourage vaccination programs and regular dental exams in the pet’s health care plan. According to veterinarians, one of the most common problems they see in dogs and cats today is obesity. Half of American dogs and almost one-fourth of cats are obese. The animals suffer from overfeeding and lack of exercise. Some animals simply do not get enough attention. When animals get bored, they have a tendency to eat too much, just as people do (Figure 11–13). A sound diet and daily exercise routine should be part of the pet’s overall health care plan.

©iStockphoto/Monika Wisniewska

Diseases and Afflictions

Figure 11–13 Many animals have a tendency to overeat.

Unfortunately, pets can give us more than companionship. Each year, pets pass along infectious diseases to thousands of Americans. Approximately 30 varieties of pet-borne diseases and infections, called zoonoses, can be transmitted from animals to humans. These conditions can be contracted through direct contact with the animals or acquired indirectly through contact with animal feces or other contaminants. Most diseases passed from animals to humans are easy to avoid and are treatable. Good hygiene and safe handling procedures should always be practiced when working with animals. Cats and dogs are responsible for the majority of zoonoses, but birds, fish, and turtles also are culprits. Rabies is the best known and the most feared example of a zoonosis. It is contracted through the saliva of rabid animals. Although this disease is rare in pets, rabies is increasing in the wild animal population. When pets could come into contact with wild animals, they should be vaccinated against the disease.

THE SMALL ANIMAL INDUSTRY

The common round worm in dogs is a parasite that can infect humans. The parasite is transmitted through contact with the animal’s feces or with contaminated soil. Children playing in areas frequented by dogs are especially at risk. Dog owners should make sure their pets are dewormed regularly (Figure 11–14). Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease that can be caused by contact with cat feces. Toxoplasmosis is especially dangerous to pregnant women, so most veterinarians recommend that pregnant women do not clean cat litter boxes. Psittacosis, or parrot fever, is a disease transmitted by parrots, budgerigars, and other related caged birds. Humans can be infected by contact with the feces of contaminated birds. Those who handle birds and cages should use dust masks or protective face shields. Ringworm is not a worm; it is a fungus that results in skin aggravation in humans. It is passed to humans primarily by kittens and puppies. The animal appears to be unaffected because the fungus infects only the animal’s fur. It is passed to people when handling their pets. Ringworm is more common in children because adults seem to become more resistant with age. Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease are ticktransmitted diseases that can affect humans and animals alike. Ticks are found in grassy, wooded areas and can be brought into the house by dogs and cats that have been outside. Both diseases are treatable with antibiotics. Normal grooming of animals after they have been outside will help locate and eliminate ticks.

Infective larva crawls up and are picked up from the ground by people

Adult worms in digestive tract of hosts

Eggs passed in feces onto ground

Larva develops to infective stage

Young worm develops in egg in feces

Young worm or larva hatches

Figure 11–14 The common round worm can be transmitted by contact with

contaminated soil.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Life Cycle of Roundworm

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Infections from animal bites and scratches are another concern. The potential for infection varies. Less than 5 percent of dog bites become infected, but up to 50 percent of cat bites result in infections. Cat scratch fever is associated with cat scratches or bites. This disease is not serious and can be treated with antibiotics. Safe handling techniques are an important measure to prevent bites and scratches, as well as to prevent injury to the animal. Prompt and thorough washing of pet bites and scratches with soap and water is always recommended. Allergies are probably the most common afflictions that result from human contact with animals. Many people develop allergies to animal hair and their dander, or flaking skin. These allergies cause hay-feverlike symptoms in children and adults.

SUMMARY The pet industry in the United State is huge and growing. Americans like pets and are willing to spend a lot of money to own and care for companion animals. These pets serve many purposes, ranging from service animals to helping humans become better adjusted and content. Types of animals range widely, and, as the result of a demand for exotic pets, the importation of animals is regulated closely by the government. The business of pets will continue to be a large and growing part of our economy.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Americans spend more on pet food than they do on baby food. 2. There are more dogs than cats used for pets in the United States. 3. Expenditures for pets are influenced by affluence levels of the households who own them. 4. The first pets probably were wild animals that were tamed. 5. Dogs likely were first used as hunting dogs. 6. The most important reason that cats were tamed for pets is their affectionate nature. 7. Cats really are not very effective in controlling mice. 8. There are more breeds of dogs than breeds of cats. 9. In the right circumstances, pets can have a good influence on children. 10. No scientific evidence supports the premise that pets help to improve a person’s health. 11. Any dog can be trained for use as a service dog. 12. No diseases can be passed from pets to humans. 13. Parasites can be transmitted from pets to humans. 14. Allergies are uncommon in pet owners. 15. The pet industry is declining in size.

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Fill in the Blanks 1. Americans spend more than____________ a year on companion animals. 2. Evidence is increasing that pets are more than just companions; they are also good for people’s ____________. 3. All of the modern breeds of dogs were developed from ____________ ____________ that resembled ____________. 4. Within the dog family, some breeds weigh scarcely ____________ pounds and other breeds weigh more than ____________ pounds. 5. Three examples of dogs in the Hound Group are ___________, ___________, and ____________. 6. Archaeologists were able to distinguish the remains of the first domestic cats in their excavations of ____________ ____________. 7. Cats are ____________, ____________, and ____________ animals that provide enjoyment for humans. 8. Some authorities recommend that dogs not live in nursing homes because the residents tend to ____________ them. 9. The best example of an assistance dog is the ____________ dog for the ____________. 10. Reptiles need a heat rock because they are ____________ animals. Discussion Questions 1. What are the most popular animals used for pets? 2. Why did dogs and cats become important to early humans? 3. What are the benefits of owning pets? 4. Why are companion animals beneficial to elderly people? 5. Discuss how service animals are trained. 6. What is the concept of hippotherapy as it relates to horses and disabled humans? 7. List the groups to which all breeds of dogs belong. 8. Why are there more breeds of dogs than cats? 9. What byproducts are used in pet food? 10. What precautions should be observed in handling pets to prevent disease? 11. List some of the common zoonoses. Student Learning Activities 1. Choose a pet and list the characteristics of that particular animal that make it desirable as a pet. 2. Pick a breed of cat or dog and research the origin of the breed. Report to the class. 3. Conduct a survey of the members of your class to determine the number and types of pets owned. Have each person explain why they like that particular type of animal. 4. Take one or two well-behaved pets to a local nursing home and visit with elderly people. Be sure to check with the nursing home administrators before you go. Record the reactions of the people to your pets. Report to the class.

CHAPTER

12

Alternative Animal Agriculture

KEY TERMS alternative animal agriculture

hutches USDA

pH castings

laboratory animals genetic defects

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain the meaning of the pH scale.

■ define certified laboratory animal.

■ list the animals that are most often

used in scientific research.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ define alternative animal agriculture.

■ discuss the uses of llamas.

■ list the advantages of raising rabbits as

■ explain how fish bait is raised.

agricultural animals.

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lternative animal agriculture refers to the production of animals other than the traditional agricultural animals such as cattle, sheep, horses, and poultry. In modern times, producers have looked for animals beyond traditional livestock to raise for a profit. Alternative animal production is usually small in scale and provides a product for a specialty market. Producers may have alternative operations to supplement their traditional operations. People who work full-time in areas outside agriculture may produce alternative animals as a hobby or as a way to make a profit in a part-time operation.

A

RABBIT PRODUCTION

Courtesy of American Rabbit Breeders Association

People have raised rabbits for food for hundreds of years. The Romans produced rabbits as far back as 250 B.C., and rabbit meat was a substantial part of their diet. The Phoenicians were great sailors and trading people who are accredited with introducing domesticated rabbits throughout much of the known world as far back as 1100 B.C. Domesticated rabbits were brought into the United States around 1900 and were produced in large rabbitries in southern California. Since that time, the rabbit industry has grown all across the country. Although the majority of the rabbits are produced by parttime growers, there are several large commercial operations in this country (Figure 12–1). So many rabbits are produced in small, private rabbitries that it is difficult to determine the actual number, but an estimated 7 million to 10 million rabbits are produced each year in the United States, and Americans consume about 10 million to 13 million pounds of rabbit meat per year. Some of the meat consumed in this country is imported from Europe, where the rabbit industry is larger. France is the largest producer. The American Rabbit Breeders Association (ARBA) registers and promotes all the breeds of purebred rabbits grown in this country. The association currently has more than 36,000 members. Raising rabbits has several advantages over raising other agricultural animals. First, rabbits can be raised easily by anyone under almost any climactic condition. Most are raised indoors in cages called hutches (Figure 12–2), which consist of woven wire with boxes for the rabbits to sleep in and to bear their young. The facilities take up little space compared to other agricultural animals such as hogs or cattle. Rabbit houses usually are heated in the winter and cooled in the summer to provide comfort for the animals. In Figure 12–1 Domestic rabbits are raised in commercial areas where the climate is mild, however, an adeoperations. quately insulated house may provide the animals

Calories

Protein (grams)

Fat (grams)

Water (grams)

Rabbit

136

20.05

5.55

72.82

Lamb

267

16.88

21.59

60.70

Veal

144

19.35

6.77

72.84

Beef

291

17.32

24.05

57.26

Pork

398

13.35

37.83

47.86

Chicken

215

18.60

15.06

65.99

Turkey

160

20.42

8.02

70.04

Figure 12–3 Nutritional value of common meats (per 100 grams). Note that rabbit

meat is higher in protein and lower in fat than many other meats.

Courtesy of Human Nutrition Service, USDA

with a comfortable environment without artificial heating or cooling. This means that the producer can work with the animals in relative comfort as well. Rabbits gain weight on a relatively small amount of feed. The feed efficiency ratio for properly fed and managed rabbits is about 2.5 to 1. This means that for every 2-1/2 pounds of feed fed to the rabbit, the animal gains 1 pound in body weight. Also, rabbits can be fed a lower-quality feed than some other animals, as rabbits’ digestive system allows them to Figure 12–2 Rabbits are raised in wire cages called make use of roughage such as alfalfa and other hutches. fibrous plant material. This is quite an advantage over other agricultural animals because rabbits potentially can be raised at less expense per pound. The demand for rabbits is greater than the supply. As mentioned, rabbit meat is imported into the United States, so the potential exists for expansion of the rabbit industry in this country. Many restaurants now offer several dishes that are prepared using rabbit meat. The USDA points out that rabbit meat is one of the most nutritious meats available. Not only is it high in protein and low in fat and cholesterol, but it also is easily digested and flavorful (see Figure 12–3 for a comparison with other animals). In addition to the meat, rabbits are used for several other purposes. The fur is used in making coats, hats, liners for boots, and for toys. Scientists use the animals in experiments dealing with medical research. Manufacturers use rabbits for testing products. In addition, many rabbits are sold as pets because of their docile nature, clean habits, and cuddly fur.

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Courtesy of Dr. James McNitt, Center for Small Farm Research

ALTERNATIVE ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

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©iStockphoto

©iStockphoto/Marcin Gardychowski

Rabbits are prolific breeders. They produce their young 30 days after breeding and produce four or five litters per year consisting of up to eight young per litter. Over a one-year period, a pair of rabbits can produce a lot of meat, considering that some breeds reach sexual maturity (the ability to have young) at about 5 months of age. An example of how rapidly rabbits reproduce is that of the wild rabbit in Australia. Rabbits were first introduced there in 1859, when sailors released a pair of wild European rabbits. In only 30 years, more than 20 million rabbits inhabFigure 12–4 The female rabbit pulls fur from her body to ited the country. Since then, the animals have make a nest for her baby rabbits. become a serious pest in both Australia and New Zealand. Harsh measures have been taken to control the wild rabbit population. In domesticated production, the young are born in small nesting boxes that give the mother security and comfort and offer the young protection from outside stresses. The female will pull fur from her own body to make soft, warm bedding for the newborn rabbits (Figure 12–4). After weaning, the young rabbits are put into cages, where they are grown out to about eight weeks of age. This is considered the proper age for the animals to be slaughtered for meat. Rabbits offer potential as a food enterprise, especially in developing countries. Because rabbits can digest roughage such as alfalfa and other plants, the feed is low-cost compared to feed for other animals and the initial outlay in beginning production is less. Research has shown that rabbits can do well on feeds containing very little grain. Because many developing countries have an abundance of roughage that rabbits can eat, the animals can provide a relatively inexpensive food supply of much needed protein. Even though rabbits are a relatively inexpensive source of meat, Americans do not consume as much rabbit meat as do other peoples in the world. This reluctance on the part of Americans is a major drawback for the industry. While we accept the production and slaughter of cattle, hogs, and chickens, the thought of slaughtering Figure 12–5 A major drawback of raising rabbits for food cute, cuddly animals such as rabbits is repulsive production is that they are so cute and cuddly. to many (Figure 12–5).

ALTERNATIVE ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

171

Llamas are native to South America and belong to the same family as camels. Llamas have been raised in several countries in South America for hundreds of years. In Chile, Peru, and Bolivia, the ancient Incas and other peoples raised these animals for work animals. They are well adapted to the cool, thin mountain air of the Andes mountains but can adapt to most climactic conditions (Figure 12–6). During the past 15 years, llamas have developed into an animal industry in the United States, with an estimated 120,000 llamas and increasing in number. Llamas stand 3 to 4 feet high at the shoulder, weigh from 250 to 400 pounds when mature, and can carry heavy packs for long distances. Being related to the camel, llamas can last longer than many other animals between drinks of water and can subsist on low-quality forage. Their coats have two types of fiber: long guard hairs and short, fine fiber that helps to keep the animals warm. The fiber length may range from 3 to 10 inches. Because of these characteristics, raising llaFigure 12–6 Llamas are well adapted to thin, cool mas has gained popularity in the United States. mountain air. Most are produced in the western part of the country, where people use them to carry gear on hunting or camping trips into the mountains (Figure 12–7). They also are used to pull carts and are raised as pets. Their hair is used for a variety of crafts, such as making rope. A close relative, the alpaca, is raised for its high-quality wool, which is made into fine rugs and blankets.

©iStockphoto/Nicolas Raymond

LLAMA PRODUCTION

FISH BAIT PRODUCTION

©iStockphoto/William Britten

One of the great outdoor hobbies of Americans is fishing. Thousands of streams and lakes in our country are well stocked with game fish. People take advantage of these waters to catch fish and enjoy a leisurely outing. A popular way to catch fish is using natural, live bait. Fish bait is grown all across the country, largely by part-time producers. Earthworms Earthworms are grown in beds of loose, porous materials (Figure 12–8), which might include shredded newspaper, shredded cardboard, garden

Figure 12–7 In the United States, most llamas are used as

pack animals.

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Courtesy of World Health Organization

compost, grass clippings, straw, or well-decayed manure. Usually, peat moss is added to the mixture to keep the material loose and to help hold moisture. The pH of the bedding is monitored and is kept slightly acidic (pH 6.8) pH is the measure used to indicate how acidic or how alkaline a material is. On the pH scale, 7 is neutral (neither acid nor alkaline). A number less than 7 indicates an acid; the lower the number, the more acidic the material. A number greater than 7 indicates an alkaline; the higher the number, the more Figure 12–8 Earthworms are raised in beds of loose, alkaline the material. Because the material used porous materials. for bedding is usually acidic, limestone is added to help neutralize the acid. The beds are kept moist, and lights are used to prevent the worms from crawling out of their beds. Worms are sensitive to light and normally come out only at night. As long as the worms see light when they come to the top of the bedding, they will stay near the bottom. The worms are fed vegetable scraps and cornmeal. They mature at 1 to 2 months of age. They are packaged and marketed in small, round containers of approximately 100 worms per container for the smaller red wigglers and about 25 to 50 for the larger night crawlers. In mature worms, a broad, raised band encircles the body behind the head (Figure 12–9). An alternative marketing source is that of selling the worms to gardeners. Earthworms improve the quality of the soil by creating pores as they move through the soil, which allow better movement of air and water. Manure from the worms, called castings, enriches the soil.

©/iStockphoto/Viorika Prikhodko

Crickets

Figure 12–9 Mature earthworms have a broad,

raised band encircling their bodies just behind their heads.

Crickets are raised in wooden boxes covered with screens. The floors of the boxes are covered with sand in which the adults lay their eggs. The sand is covered with fine wood shavings or other shredded material. Heat lamps are used to keep the crickets warm and to keep the sand warm for hatching the eggs. When the young crickets hatch, they are fed grain mixtures in small trays. Small trays filled with water-saturated cotton provide the crickets with a ready drinking fountain. The crickets are placed in cages and shipped to bait outlets. There, they are sold to fishers, who put them in their own cricket cages.

ALTERNATIVE ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

173

A growing area of alternative animal agriculture is the commercial production of large game animals. By far the largest component of this industry is the production of elk. The growing of domesticated deer and elk goes back at least 5,000 years in China and other parts of the world. In the United States, elk have been grown commercially for the past 100 years. Currently, there are about 1,900 elk farms in North America, with around 68,000 animals in domestication. These large animals offer several advantages Figure 12–10 Americans consume approximately to traditional grazing animals. They convert feed 100 metric tons of deer and elk meat each year. more efficiently than cattle on the range; this means that they gain more weight on less feed than beef animals when raised under the same conditions. Also, elk can make use of lower-quality feedstuff such as browse. Americans consume approximately 100 metric tons of deer and elk meat per year, most of which is imported from New Zealand (Figure 12–10). The meat is relatively low in fat content, and many people prefer the flavor. In addition to the sale of the meat, producers market the antlers, which are used as ornaments, in the making of jewelry, and as an ingredient in herbal medicines.

Courtesy of North American Elk Breeders Association

LARGE GAME ANIMALS

Scientists need millions of animals each year in conducting research. Almost all materials that come in contact with humans—food, medicines, and cosmetics—have to be tested on animals to prove the effectiveness and safety of the products. Most of the advances in medicines have come about through the use of laboratory animals. As pointed out in Chapter 25, there is considerable controversy over the use of animals in experimentation, but no one can deny the benefits to humans brought about through the use of animals in research. These animals are produced by commercial and part-time producers. The animals most in demand for research are mice, rats, hamsters, guinea pigs, and rabbits. Other animals, such as primates, are used for highly specialized research [Figure 12–11]. Animals that are raised for use in laboratories have to be raised under strict conditions. Measures have to be taken to ensure that the animals have no genetic defects and are not harFigure 12–11 Rats and other small animals are used in boring disease organisms. Animals of this nature research studies. could very well cause an otherwise well-designed

Digital Vision/Getty Images

LABORATORY ANIMAL PRODUCTION

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research study to turn out wrong. The product being tested or the experiment being conducted could be tainted by a disease organism or a genetic defect that would cause the animal to react differently than a healthy animal. Most producers raise animals that are certified for laboratory use.

PRODUCTION OF NATURAL AND CERTIFIED ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Image Source/Getty Images

A rapidly growing niche market for agricultural animals is the production of natural or organic animal products. As discussed in Chapter 26, some people are worried about the use of antibiotics and hormones in the production of meat or dairy products. Even though there is no credible research indicating that conventionally produced meat is any less healthy than meat produced by “organic” means, some consumers still want meat they consider to be “pure.” There is a difference between “natural” and “organic” animal products. A good example is natural beef. “Natural” refers to beef that is produced without using feed additives such as medications or hormone implants. Usually the beef cattle are raised entirely on grass and not fed grain concentrates as are most of the cattle raised for slaughter. This type of beef is sometimes called grassfed beef, and until a short time ago was considered to be inferior to that of grain-fed beef (Figure 12–12). No standards have been set for what can be labeled as natural beef, and the labeling often is left to the producers or people who market the beef. Natural beef is usually a lower-quality beef than that coming from a feedlot. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) grades beef that is sold to the public. The quality grade is determined by the age and degree of fat content in the beef. USDA graders grade beef that is marketed through conventional markets such as grocery stores. However, the USDA does not have any set standards for natural beef, and it often is sold at the farm. Consumers buy a live beef animal directly from the producer and have it custom-processed. Under these conditions, the beef does not have to be USDA-inspected or graded. Organic animal products are those that are produced under strict requirements set by the USDA. For any meat or dairy product to be labeled organic, the producer must adhere to limitations and regulations specified by the USDA. These rules center on four main areas: origin of the livestock, livestock feed, livestock health care, and Figure 12–12 At one time grass fed beef was considered livestock living conditions. Following are some to be inferior to beef fattened in a feedlot. of the regulations published by the USDA.

ALTERNATIVE ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

175

Origin of Livestock (a) Livestock products that are to be sold, labeled, or represented as organic must be from livestock under continuous organic management from the last third of gestation or hatching. Poultry or edible poultry products must be from poultry that has been under continuous organic management beginning no later than the second day of life (Figure 12–13).

Dairy Animals

1. for the first nine months of the year, provide a minimum of 80 percent feed that is either organic or raised from land included in the organic system plan and managed in compliance with organic crop requirements. 2. Provide feed in compliance for the final three months. 3. Once an entire, distinct herd has been converted to organic production, all dairy animals shall be under organic management from the last third of gestation.

Courtesy of ARS

Milk or milk products must be from animals that have been under continuous organic management beginning no later than one year prior to the production of the milk or milk products that are to be sold, labeled, or represented as organic. When an entire, distinct herd is converted to organic production, the producer may

Figure 12–13 Poultry or edible

poultry products must be from poultry that has been under continuous organic management beginning no later than the second day of life.

Breeder Stock Livestock used as breeder stock may be brought from a nonorganic operation onto an organic operation at any time if such livestock are gestating and the offspring are to be raised as organic livestock. The breeder stock must be brought onto the facility no later than the last third of gestation. (b) The following are prohibited: 1. Livestock or edible livestock products that are removed from an organic operation and subsequently managed on a nonorganic operation may not be sold, labeled, or represented as organically produced. 2. Breeder or dairy stock that has not been under continuous organic management since the last third of gestation may not be sold, labeled, or represented as organic slaughter stock.

John Rowley/Getty Images

(c) The producer of an organic livestock operation must maintain records sufficient to preserve the identity of all organically managed animals and edible and nonedible animal products produced on the operation (Figure 12–14).

Livestock Feed (a) The producer of an organic livestock operation must provide livestock with a total feed ration composed of agricultural products, including pasture and forage, that are organically produced and, if applicable, organically handled. There are, however, certain nonsynthetic substances and synthetic substances allowed to be used as feed additives and supplements.

Figure 12–14 The producer of an organic livestock operation

must maintain records sufficient to preserve the identity of all organically managed animals and edible and nonedible animal products produced on the operation.

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(b) The producer of an organic operation must not 1. use animal drugs, including hormones, to promote growth. 2. provide feed supplements or additives in amounts above those needed for adequate nutrition and health maintenance for the species at its specific stage of life. 3. feed plastic pellets for roughage. 4. feed formulas containing urea or manure. 5. feed mammalian or poultry slaughter by-products to mammals or poultry. 6. use feed, feed additives, and feed supplements in violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.

Livestock Health Care Practice Standard (a) The producer must establish and maintain preventive livestock health care practices, including 1. selection of species and types of livestock with regard to suitability for sitespecific conditions and resistance to prevalent diseases and parasites. 2. provision of a feed ration sufficient to meet nutritional requirements, including vitamins, minerals, protein, and/or amino acids, fatty acids, energy sources, and fiber (ruminants). 3. establishment of appropriate housing, pasture conditions, and sanitation practices to minimize the occurrence and spread of diseases and parasites. 4. provision of conditions which allow for exercise, freedom of movement, and reduction of stress appropriate to the species (Figure 12–15). 5. performance of physical alterations as needed to promote the animal’s welfare and in a manner that minimizes pain and stress. 6. administration of vaccines and other veterinary biologics.

©iStockphoto/David Palmer

(b) When preventive practices and veterinary biologics are inadequate to prevent sickness, a producer may administer synthetic medications provided such medications are allowed under the USDA listings. Parasiticides allowed under the USDA listings may be used on

Figure 12–15 Organic producers must provide

conditions which allow for exercise, freedom of movement, and reduction of stress appropriate to the species.

1. breeder stock, when used prior to the last third of gestation, but not during lactation for progeny that are to be sold, labeled, or represented as organically produced. 2. dairy stock, when used a minimum of 90 days prior to the production of milk or milk products that are to be sold, labeled, or represented as organic. (c) The producer of an organic livestock operation must not 1. sell, label, or represent as organic any animal or edible product derived from any animal treated with antibiotics, any substance that contains a synthetic substance not allowed under the USDA listings, or any substance that contains a nonsynthetic substance prohibited under the USDA listings.

2. administer any animal drug, other than vaccinations, in the absence of illness. 3. administer hormones for growth promotion. 4. administer synthetic parasiticides on a routine basis. 5. administer synthetic parasiticides to slaughter stock. 6. administer animal drugs in violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. 7. withhold medical treatment from a sick animal in an effort to preserve its organic status. All appropriate medications must be used to restore an animal to health when methods acceptable to organic production fail. Livestock treated with a prohibited substance must be clearly identified and shall not be sold, labeled, or represented as organically produced.

Livestock Living Conditions (a) The producer of an organic livestock operation must establish and maintain livestock living conditions which accommodate the health and natural behavior of animals, including (Figure 12–16). 1. access to the outdoors, shade, shelter, exercise areas, fresh air, and direct sunlight suitable to the species, its stage of production, the climate, and the environment. 2. access to pasture for ruminants. 3. appropriate clean, dry bedding. If the bedding is typically consumed by the animal species, it must comply with the feed requirements as specified by the USDA. 4. shelter designed to allow for i. natural maintenance, comfort behaviors, and opportunity to exercise. ii. temperature level, ventilation, and air circulation suitable to the species. iii. reduction of potential for livestock injury. (b) The producer of an organic livestock operation may provide temporary confinement for an animal because of 1. inclement weather. 2. the animal’s stage of production. 3. conditions under which the health, safety, or well-being of the animal could be jeopardized. 4. risk to soil or water quality. (c) The producer of an organic livestock operation must manage manure in a manner that does not contribute to contamination of crops, soil, or water by plant nutrients, heavy metals, or pathogenic organisms and optimizes recycling of nutrients.

Record Keeping by Certified Operations For producers to be certified as organic producers, strict records must be kept and monitored. The USDA requirements for record keeping are outlined below. a. A certified operation must maintain records concerning the production, harvesting, and handling of agricultural products that are or that are intended to be sold, labeled, or represented as “100 percent organic,” “organic,” or “made with organic (specified ingredients or food group(s)).”

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ALTERNATIVE ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

Figure 12–16 The producer of an organic livestock operation must establish and maintain livestock living conditions which accommodate the health and natural behavior of animals.

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b. Such records must 1. be adapted to the particular business that the certified operation is conducting. 2. fully disclose all activities and transactions of the certified operation in sufficient detail as to be readily understood and audited. 3. be maintained for not less than five years beyond their creation. 4. be sufficient to demonstrate compliance with the act and the regulations in this part. c. The certified operation must make such records available for inspection and copying during normal business hours by authorized representatives of the secretary, the applicable state program’s governing state official, and the certifying agent.

HUNTING PRESERVES During the latter half of the twentieth century, wildlife numbers in the United States increased dramatically. The numbers of deer, turkey, and other game animals reached record populations. Although these animals can be considered pests, they also can be a valuable source of income. Many hunters live in urban or suburban areas with no access to hunting land (Figure 12–17). To be able to enjoy the sport, they must find landowners who will allow them to hunt on their property. Many producers have begun hunting management areas on their farms. They then sell the rights to hunt on the land to individuals or to hunt clubs. To have adequate wildlife for hunting, producers manage the populations of game on their lands. This means that they have to create conditions conducive to game animals living and producing

Chase Jarvis/Getty Images

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Figure 12–17 Many hunters live in urban or suburban areas with no access to

hunting land.

Jeremy Woodhouse/Getty Images

ALTERNATIVE ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

Figure 12–18 The producer or manager may also plant food plots of crops such as

rye, wheat, clover, or other legumes. on the land. Producers have to make sure that the habitat for the animals is maintained. The first consideration is that the animals have proper food. This means that the producer must create areas that will provide the type of food a particular game animal may require. For example, if the producer wants to maintain a huntable population of eastern whitetail deer, enough browse must be available. This may include plants such as blackberry vines, honeysuckle, or other foliar plants that are in reach of the deer. Also, deer like acorns and a thicket of white oaks can provide good feed for deer. The producer or manager may also plant food plots of crops such as rye, wheat, clover, or other legumes (Figure 12–18). Bird hunting for turkey, quail, and pheasants is also popular. The producer not only must provide food plots for the birds but also must make sure that other management techniques do not interfere with the life cycle of the birds. For example, if row crops are harvested and all land is plowed under, the birds may have no cover or food for the winter. A better management practice might be to leave some of the crops around the edge of the fields to provide food and shelter for the birds. Hedgerows along drainage ditches and fence rows can be left or be seeded with a crop that birds like to eat.

SUMMARY As the industry of animal agriculture grows, many new types of animals are added, each having a unique characteristic or quality that makes it valuable to humans. These animals now may be considered as animals seen normally in the wild; however, we must realize that at one time, all the animals we now grow were wild animals. As with other aspects of agriculture, research will find new uses for these animals and new and better ways of producing them.

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REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Most of the rabbits produced in this country are grown in large commercial rabbitries with between 500 and 10,000 head. 2. Most rabbits are raised indoors in cages called hutches, consisting of woven wire boxes for the rabbits to sleep in and to bear their young. 3. Rabbits are not very prolific breeders, and it is difficult to raise enough to make a profit. 4. Rabbits may be an excellent potential food enterprise in developing countries. 5. Most llamas are produced in the western part of the United States, where people use them to carry gear on hunting or camping trips into the mountains. 6. Not only are earthworms raised for bait, but they also are sold to gardeners to help improve the movement of air and water through the soil. 7. Crickets actually are collected from the wild and then placed in cages to be shipped to bait outlets. 8. Animals raised for research must not have genetic faults or disease organisms. 9. No research indicates that organically produced animal products are safer or healthier. 10. “Natural” and “organic” mean the same thing. 11. Natural beef is usually not regulated by the USDA. 12. Grass-fed beef typically grades higher than feedlot beef. 13. To be labeled “organic,” producers must keep strict records on most aspects of the production of the product. 14. Organic milk must be produced from animals that have been under continuous organic management for one year. 15. Producers always try to keep hunters off their land. 16. Almost all hunters live in rural areas. Fill in the Blanks 1. Alternative animal production is usually ____________ in scale and provides a ____________ for a ____________ market. 2. The feed efficiency ratio for rabbits is ____________ to ____________, which means that for every ____________ pounds of food fed to the rabbit, the animal gains ____________ in body ____________. 3. Not only is rabbit meat high in ____________ and low in ____________ and ____________, but it is easily ____________ and very ____________. 4. Being related to the ____________, the llama can go longer than many ____________ between drinks of ____________ and can subsist on ____________ ____________ forage. 5. Earthworms are grown in ____________ that have been built up using ____________, ____________ materials including shredded newspaper, shredded ____________, garden ____________, ____________ clippings, straw, or well-decayed ____________. 6. Almost all materials that come into contact with humans—food, ____________, and to be tested on ____________ to prove the effectiveness and ____________ of the ____________. 7. A rapidly growing niche market for agricultural animals is the production of ____________ or ____________ animal products.

ALTERNATIVE ANIMAL AGRICULTURE

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8. Natural refers to beef that is produced without using feed additives such as ____________ or the use of ____________ ____________. 9. Organic animal products are those that are produced under strict requirements set by the ____________. 10. Livestock products that are to be ____________, ____________, or ____________ as organic must be from livestock under continuous organic management from the last third of gestation or hatching. 11. Once an entire distinct herd has been converted to organic production, all dairy animals shall be under ____________ management from the last third of ____________. 12. The producer of an organic livestock operation must maintain ____________ sufficient to preserve the ____________ of all organically managed animals and edible and nonedible animal products produced on the operation. 13. The producer of an organic livestock operation must establish and maintain livestock living conditions that accommodate the ____________ and ____________ ____________ of animals. 14. During the latter half of the twentieth century, wildlife numbers in the United States ____________ ____________. 15. Many hunters live in ____________ or ____________ areas with no access to hunting ____________. Discussion Questions 1. What is meant by an alternative agricultural animal? 2. What advantages do rabbits have over other agricultural animals? 3. What is one major drawback in the production of rabbits? 4. What uses do people have for llamas? 5. What is meant by the pH of a material? 6. Why are lights used in the production of earthworms? 7. Why are elk raised as agricultural animals? 8. Why must laboratory animals be free of disease and genetic defects? 9. Why do some people want to buy natural or organic animal products? 10. Distinguish between natural and organic beef. 11. List four main areas of organic production that is regulated by the USDA. 12. List three things that organic producers cannot put in the feed of their animals. 13. What are three regulations regarding the design of shelters for organically produced animals? 14. Explain why managing hunting areas can be a source of income for producers. 15. What type of habitat do managers provide for deer? Student Learning Activities 1. Create a list of the alternative animal operations in your area. Choose one of these operations, and report to the class. How did the producer get started? What are the markets? What is the potential for expansion? 2. Think of an alternative animal enterprise that was not covered in this chapter. Give a report to the class on your ideas. How would these animals be raised? Where would the market be? Why are not more of these animals being raised?

CHAPTER

The Honeybee Industry

KEY TERMS apiary hives queen drone worker brood

brood cells worker bees queen cells royal jelly swarm honey comb

nursery bees scout bees guard bees pheromone bee space foundation comb

brood chamber queen excluder propolis

13

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ describe the characteristics of a

honeybee.

■ identify the types of bees in a colony

and the roles they play.

■ define social insect.

■ explain how bees communicate.

■ trace the life cycle of a honeybee.

■ discuss how parasites affect bees.

■ explain the role of bees in pollination.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain why honeybees are agricultural

animals. ■ discuss the importance of honeybees to

the agricultural economy. ■ describe how the modern hive was

developed. ■ explain how bees produce honey. ■ explain how beekeepers collect and

extract honey.

■ describe how producers grow and

package bees. ■ discuss how queen bees are produced

and installed. ■ list some of the problems encountered

in raising bees.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF HONEYBEES oneybees are classified as insects because they fit the characteristics of the insect class. They have three distinct body segments—a head, a thorax, and an abdomen—and also three pairs of legs. Even though the honeybee is an insect, it is still an animal, and it is an important agricultural animal. Each year Americans consume more than a pound of honey per person, consisting of honey produced in the United States as well as honey imported from countries such as Argentina, Canada, Mexico, and China (Figure 13–1). Although this might not seem like a lot of honey, consider that there are almost 300 million people in the United States. This adds up to a lot of honey. Honey comes from bees that are raised by more than 211,600 producers all across the country who tend to more than 3 million colonies each year. The vast majority of these producers are hobbyists with fewer than 25 hives. A group of hives is known as an apiary (Figure 13–2), a term derived from Apis mellifera, the scientific name of the honeybee. In order of their production, North Dakota, South Dakota, Florida, California, and Montana are the top honey-producing states in the nation. Considering the difference in climate between North Dakota and Florida, it is safe to say that the honeybee is adaptable to a wide range of weather conditions. The total value of annual honey production in the United States is around $200 million. In addition to honey production, beekeepers also produce a lot of beeswax. This wax comes from the combs produced by the bees and is used in a wide variety of products such as cosmetics, candles, and high-grade polishes. The greatest value of the honey industry, however, may be in another area. Bees, it could be argued, are the most important of all the agricultural animals because of their role in pollinating agricultural plants and crops. Research indicates that the total value of honeybees is more than $14 billion each year. Although the value of the services provided by bees each year is difficult to estimate, it is safe to say that many crops could not survive without help from bees (Figure 13–3). Most other agricultural animals eat plant-derived feed and rely on bees to pollinate the plants they eat. Bees assist in the pollination of flowering plants by scattering pollen from one flower to the next as they gather nectar and pollen. This is nature’s way of ensuring that the flowers are pollinated so they will produce seed. Often, the seed and/or the fruit surrounding the seed of a plant is a crop that producers raise. Honeybees are particularly adept at pollinating. Many insects work flowers, but most go from one flower to a different kind of flower. Bees, however, work a specific kind of flower for a period

Groesbeck/Uhl/Getty Images

H

Figure 13–1 Each year Americans

©iStockphoto/jolly

consume more than a pound of honey per person.

Figure 13–2 A group of hives is

©iStockphoto/James Brey

called an aviary.

Figure 13–3 Many crops could not

survive without help from bees.

Richard Thornton, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

THE HONEYBEE INDUSTRY

Figure 13–4 Fruit growers hire beekeepers to bring in truckloads of bees in the

spring when the trees are blooming.

of time. For example, honeybees may be working apple blossoms for several days until the flowers are gone and then go on to work a different type of flower. In doing this, they go from an apple blossom to another apple blossom and spread pollen from one apple blossom to another in that way. This process ensures that the blossoms are thoroughly pollinated. Fruit growers hire beekeepers to bring in truckloads of bees in the spring when the trees are blooming (Figure 13–4). The bees live in wooden boxlike structures called hives with a separate colony of bees in each hive. The hives are easy to handle and can be loaded on a truck with the bees still in the hive. The owner of the bees then can move the hives from orchard to orchard for a fee from the fruit or crop producer. In addition, the producer can harvest hundreds of pounds of honey each year that can be sold at a profit.

BEES AS SOCIAL INSECTS A characteristic of honeybees that sets them apart from many other types of insects is their social structure. They live in a highly ordered society in which each bee seems to have its job and works in concert with the rest of the bees in the hive. Within a colony of bees there are three types of bees: the queen, drones, and workers (Figure 13–5). The only reason the queen exists is to lay eggs for the hive. Even though this is a singular role, in her lifetime she lays thousands of eggs that hatch into workers that carry out the

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Queen

Drone

Worker

Figure 13–5 Within a colony of bees are three types of bees: the queen, drones,

and workers.

©iStockphoto

other tasks associated with perpetuating the hive and producing honey. A fertile queen may lay as many as 1,500 eggs per day and as many as 200,000 in a single year. Worker bees labor hard and live a short life of only about six weeks. Exceptions are bees that are hatched in the late fall that live all winter in a semidormant stage. For this reason, the continual producing and growing of brood by the queen and bees in the colony are essential. A hive whose queen has stopped laying or has slowed because of her age is not productive, and the entire colony may even die because there are not enough new bees to replace those that die. Throughout her life, she is truly treated as a queen. The other bees feed and care for all of the queen’s needs. The queen is recognizable from the rest of the bees, even in a colony of many thousands of bees, because she is much larger and more slender (Figure 13–6). The queen lays eggs in cells called brood cells, which are slightly larger than the cells used to store honey. A single egg is deposited inside and at the bottom of each brood cell. The eggs hatch into larvae that are fed and cared for by worker bees in the hive. The larvae develop into pupae and then into the adult stage, all while remaining in the cell (see Chapter 23, on parasites, for a discussion on the metamorphosis of insects). When the bee has reached the adult stage, Figure 13–6 Even within a colony of many thousands of bees, it emerges from the cell and assumes its role the queen is recognizable from the rest of the bees because she in the social structure. The entire metamoris much larger and is more slender. phosis takes about 3 weeks (Figure 13–7).

Delmar/Cengage Learning

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THE HONEYBEE INDUSTRY

Figure 13–7 In about 3 weeks the metamorphoses is complete and the bees

If the queen dies or the hive becomes too crowded, the bees will produce a new queen by drawing special large cells called queen cells. Larvae in these cells are fed a special substance called royal jelly that is secreted from the bees. This food causes the larvae to develop into queen bees. When the new queen emerges, the old queen usually leaves with a portion of the bees, called a swarm, to form a new colony. A suitable site for the new colony is located, and the swarm moves to the new place. In the meantime, the bees cluster around the queen on a limb, on a house, or on another object until locating a new home. Beekeepers often place these swarms into a new hive if the swarms are detected in time. Beekeepers do not want the colonies to swarm because this lowers the number of workers in the hive and lowers the amount of honey produced (Figure 13–8). Producers prevent swarming by making sure that the bees have plenty of room in the hive. As the bees fill the hive with honey, a new box or upper is added to the hive to give more room. The queen is not the only type of bee that has only a single job. Drones are the male bees whose sole purpose is to mate Figure 13–8 Beekeepers do not want the colonies to swarm with the queen. Although they are larger because this lowers the number of workers in the hive and than the worker bees, they do no work in the lowers the amount of honey produced. hive and do not even have stingers. When

©iStockphoto

emerge in the adult stage.

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©Stockphoto/Pradeep Kumar Saxena

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Figure 13–9 Most colonies contain around 50,000

Catalin Petolea, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

worker bees.

Figure 13–10 Pollen is attached to hairs on the bee’s body and is carried to the next flower. Note the yellow pollen on the bee’s rear leg.

a young queen emerges as the new queen for the hive, she goes on what is called her maiden flight, where she attracts drones with a unique scent. As many as a dozen drones may mate with a single queen, and the drones die as soon as they mate with the queen. The queen mates only once during her lifetime and retains enough sperm to fertilize her eggs for as long as 4 years. Drones that do not mate with queen are removed from the hive by the worker bees and are not allowed to overwinter in the hive. The next spring new drones will hatch. The worker bees are all sterile females and comprise by far the largest number of bees in the colony. Although the number of worker bees present in the hive at one time varies widely, most colonies contain around 50,000 worker bees (Figure 13–9). These bees are socially divided into groups with specific jobs. Most of them bring nectar and pollen to the hive from the field to be produced and stored as honey to eat during the winter months. Honey is made from the nectar that the bees gather from the flowers. Different flowers make honey that varies in color and strength of flavor depending on the source of the nectar. Bees go from flower to flower gathering nectar. A bee can visit as many as 50 to 100 flowers until it has enough nectar to return to the hive. This movement from flower to flower is the means by which bees pollinate plants. As a bee lands on the flower and extracts the nectar, pollen is attached to hairs on the bee’s body and is carried to the next flower (Figure 13–10). Both nectar and pollen are carried back to the hive and stored for use as food. A bee can fly with a load that is as heavy as its own body weight and may make as many as 10 trips per day. Nectar from about 5 million flowers is required to make a pint of honey. No wonder the bees wear out so soon! The bees store the nectar in six-sided cells that are joined together to create a honey comb. The cells are made from wax secreted from glands on the bees’ bodies. The bees work the wax particles loose from their bodies and use them to shape the cells into perfect hexagonal storage containers. The hexagonal (six-sided)

Courtesy of ARS

Figure 13–11 The bees work the wax particles loose from their bodies and use them to shape the cells into the perfect hexagonal storage containers.

Figure 13–12 Nursery bees keep the hive clean by removing

droppings, wax particles, dead bees, and other debris that may accumulate in the hive. Here they are removing a dead larva.

Gerry Ellis/Getty Images

shape of the cells creates the ideal storage space for the honey and pollen (Figure 13–11). Although the walls of the cells are very thin, they are strong enough to bear the weight of the honey or the developing brood. Once the bees have deposited the nectar in the cells, the bees begin to concentrate it into honey by using their wings to create air movement that evaporates the excess water in the nectar. Once the cells are full of honey, the bees mold wax across the top of the cells to cap and seal them. Some cells are filled with pollen that serves as a source of protein for the bees. Some workers, known as nursery bees, care for the queen and brood. These bees feed the young brood and the queen. In addition, they keep the hive at a constant temperature by flapping their wings to create a current of air that cools the hive to an even temperature of 95°F. Bees can move their wings more than 11,000 strokes per minute. This is what causes the distinctive buzzing or humming sound in a beehive. The wing movement also causes moisture to evaporate from the stored nectar, which helps to concentrate the nectar into the thick liquid we call honey. The concentration process may take several days to reach the proper consistency. Then the cells are capped with wax until the honey is needed. Pollen is stored in separate cells. Nursery bees also keep the hive clean by removing droppings, wax particles, dead bees, and other debris that may accumulate in the hive (Figure 13–12). Other bees scout the area for nectar. These scout bees seek the closest source and may travel more than a mile to obtain nectar. They fan out in all directions and locate plants that are flowering. Some flowers contain more nectar than others, and these make the best food source for the bees. After locating the flower sources, the scout bees must communicate with the nectar-gathering bees. Perhaps the most dramatic example of animal communication is that used by honeybees to tell other bees in the hive about nectar and pollen sources they have located. Through a series of elaborate moves and dances, the scout bees tell the worker bees the direction, distance, and amount of the nectar source (Figure 13–13). The scout bees bring back samples of the type of

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THE HONEYBEE INDUSTRY

Figure 13–13 Through a series of elaborate moves and

dances, the scout bees tell the workers the direction, distance, and amount of the nectar source. Note the bee in the center.

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©iStockphoto/Mary Schowe

190

Figure 13–14 If the guard bees

sense danger, they give off an alarm that sets the other bees into a defensive mode.

nectar they located. By smelling and tasting the nectar, the worker bees become aware of the type and quality of the nectar. Recent research has shown that the bees also use sound to communicate the distance to the food source. Scientists believe that the bees use the sun to orient their flight and that they communicate this orientation to the worker bees in the hive. Others worker bees serve as guard bees at the hive entrance. They regulate all the insects that enter the hive. Even bees that are not a part of the colony are attacked when they enter the hives. As each worker bee enters the hive, it touches antennas with a guard bee. Bees smell with their antennas and can distinguish between bees that belong to the hive and those that do not. This is accomplished by a pheromone secreted by each bee in the colony. Pheromones are chemicals that send messages by organisms to communicate. Guard bees generally are young worker bees that spend only about one to two days serving as a guard bee before going on to other duties. Not all worker bees serve as guards, and scientists have yet to determine why some workers become guards and others do not. If the guard bees sense danger, they give off an alarm that sets the other bees into a defensive mode (Figure 13–14). Usually, only a small percentage of the bees in a colony will sting an intruder. A sting is almost always lethal to the stinging bee because the stinger is barb-shaped. When it penetrates the skin of an animal, the barb catches and the end of the bee’s abdomen is pulled out when the bee tries to extract the stinger.

COMMERCIAL HONEY PRODUCTION Humans have used honey for food for thousands of years. As far back as recorded history goes, accounts have been written of people gathering honey and enjoying the sweet, high-energy food. Honey was first gathered from the wild. People probably watched for bees at flowers or water sources and followed them back to their hives. Later, humans began to keep bees and tend to them. The first hives were very crude by today’s standards. Often, a hive consisted of nothing more than a tree or a hollow log (Figure 13–15). Later on people began to build houselike structures for the bees. Early beehives ranged from simple boxes made of wood to domes made from straw and sticks. Some were even made of clay. One of the major problems with early hives was that the hive could not be taken apart to harvest the honey without destroying most of the interior. In the 1850s, this problem was solved by a Pennsylvania beekeeper, Lorenzo Langstroth. His hive uses removable frames inside a box for the bees to build comb. The frames are hung into boxes called supers (Figure 13–16). Several supers stacked together compose the hive, where as many as 80,000 bees may live during the peak of the honey season.

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Delmar/Cengage Learning

THE HONEYBEE INDUSTRY

Figure 13–16 The Langstroth hive

©Poznukhov Yriv, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

uses removable frames inside a box for the bees to build comb. The frames are hung into boxes called supers. Several supers stacked together compose the hive.

The space between the frames in the super is critical. If there is too much space, the bees will build across the frames and the frames will be difficult to remove. If there is too little space, the bees will fill only one side of the frame. This critical space, called bee space, is about 3/8” (Figure 13–17). This allows just enough room for two bees to work back-to-back on opposite frames. The beauty of this system is that the beekeeper can take the hive apart to inspect the bees or can take frames out for harvesting honey without disturbing the rest of the hive. The beekeeper places sheets of comb called foundation comb into frames in which the bees build comb to fill with honey (Figure 13–18). Foundation comb is made by rolling beeswax into thin sheets that have the imprint of the hexagonal cells. This causes the bees to begin building cells along the frames on the foundation. The queen is kept in the lower part of the hive, the

©iStockphoto/Johann Piber

Figure 13–15 At one time, bees were kept in crude hives such as this hollow log.

Figure 13–17 Bees are about 3/16

of an inch tall. The space between the frames is 3/8 of an inch apart, allowing the bees to work back-to-back.

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Vitor Costa, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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©iStockphoto/Dainis Derics

Figure 13–18 Foundation comb is installed in these frames.

Figure 13–19 Bees use propolis to stick hive

components together. The brown material on the side of this frame is propolis.

brood chamber, by means of a queen excluder, which consists of a screen with openings large enough for the workers but small enough to prevent the queen from passing. The queen excluder prevents the queen from laying eggs in the comb that the beekeeper will remove to extract honey. When all of the honey in a super is capped, the beekeeper removes the super and replaces it with an empty one. The keeper is always careful to leave enough honey for the bees to live on through the winter. The beekeeper uses smoke from a smoker to make the bees more docile. The bees think the hive is on fire and begin to gorge on honey in preparation for their departure from the hive. This seems to make the bees calmer and more docile. The smoke also serves to disorient the guard bees at the hive entrance before they can give an alarm to the rest of the hive. The beekeeper must pry the supers apart to remove them. The bees use a sticky gum called propolis to seal and glue the parts of the hive together. Propolis is made from the sap and gum of trees. It is harvested by the bees and brought back to the hive, and used to patch holes and cracks in the hive. It also strengthens the hive by sticking all the parts together with a strong bond (Figure 13–19).

BREEDING BEES

Figure 13–20 A honey extractor

revolves frames in the drum, and centrifugal force slings the honey from the comb without damaging the cells in the comb.

Figure 13–21 The most popular means of sale is that of Like most other agricultural animals, bees have packaging the bees in containers weighing 2 or 3 pounds. been bred selectively for a long time. To be highly productive, the bees must have certain characteristics that make them easy to keep and produce a lot of honey. One of the most important characteristics is that they must be docile. This means that they are not very prone to attacking and stinging. Although any breed or type of honeybee will sting, some are more aggressive than others. Bees also must not be prone to swarming, and some breeds swarm and split the colony more often than others. The beekeeper wants the hive to have a large quantity of bees to be able to produce large amounts of honey. If the bees have a tendency to swarm too often, large colonies will be difficult to achieve. Other desirable characteristics include resistance to disease and

Courtesy of Dr. Keith Delaplane, University of Georgia

After the supers have been removed, the frames are taken out and the caps cut from the top of the comb using a heated uncapping knife. The honey is removed from the comb using an extractor, which consists of a metal drum with racks for the frames. The racks containing the frames are revolved in the drum, and centrifugal force slings the honey from the comb without damaging the cells in the comb (Figure 13–20). The frames containing the empty cells are put back into the super and the super is put back on the hive for the bees to fill again. The honey then is processed by heating it gently to prevent the honey from granulating (turning to sugar). The honey now is ready to be packaged and sold. Beekeepers obtain their bees from producers who raise bees for sale. Many of these operations are located in the southern part of the country because of the mild winters and early spring there. This allows bees to be ready for shipment when the honey flow begins in the spring. The most popular way to sell bees is to package them in containers weighing 2 or 3 pounds (Figure 13–21). The bees are shaken from the frames into a large funnel, where they slide into an opening in the top of a box with screened sides. A queen is added, and the opening is closed with a can containing sugar water, which provides feed for the bees during shipping. A newer form of purchasing bees is the bee nucleus, often referred to as a “nuc.” This consists of selling four or five frames of brood along with the bees and queen that are clinging to the brood. The advantage of this method is that the queen is already accepted by the colony and there are young bees about to be hatched.

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Courtesy of Dr. Keith Delaplane, University of Georgia

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PhotoLiz, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

parasites, tolerance to cold weather, and the ability to raise large numbers of young bees. The most popular breeds of bees are described next. Italian Bees The Italian bee is by far the most common breed in the United States. These are gentle bees that produce large amounts of honey. Italian bees have a somewhat low tendency to swarm and are considered to be one of the best types of bees to raise (Figure 13–22). They are produced commercially all over the world. Carniolan Bees

Figure 13–22 Italian bees are one of

The Carniolan breed of bees originated in the country of Slovenia in the Alps. This dark-colored bee is one of the gentlest of all of the bee breeds and has a reputation for building up the colony quickly in the spring. This breed maintains small numbers over winter, generally needs less feeding than other breeds, and does well in cold climates.

the most widely produced breeds of bees in the world.

Caucasian Bees Caucasian bees are somewhat larger than the Italians and Carniolans. They are grayish in color and very gentle. This breed has a reputation for building up large amounts of propolis. German Bees German bees are smaller and very dark in color, so they sometimes are called German Black bees. This breed produces large amounts of honey but is too aggressive for most beekeepers. These bees are highly protective of their hive and they attack when threatened. They have been crossed with other bee breeds to produce gentler bees.

Courtesy of ARS

Russian Bees

Figure 13–23 African bees have

been referred to as “killer bees” because of their extremely aggressive nature. The bee on the left is an African bee.

The Russian bee is relatively new to the United States. Because of its resistance to parasites, bee researchers hope that the Russian bee will help solve some of the serious problems that producers have with parasitic mites. African Bees In recent years, a real concern for beekeepers has been the threat of invasion by the Africanized honeybee. These African bees have been referred to as “killer bees” because of their extremely aggressive nature (Figure 13–23).

THE HONEYBEE INDUSTRY

Honeybees are not native to the United States. Most of the bees in this country are descendants of bees that originated in Europe, introduced by European settlers to the New World. The European or yellow bees have a relatively docile nature and are easy to keep. In 1956, research scientists in Brazil imported bees from Africa to cross with the European bees. Their idea was to develop a new strain of hybrid bees that would be more productive than the pure European bees. Despite efforts to contain the African bees, they managed to escape into the wild. In 1990, these bees were reported as far north as southern Texas. The coming of “killer bees” created much attention in the media because of their tendency to attack humans and animals. It has been suggested that the African bees eventually could destroy the bee industry in the United States by replacing the more docile European bees. The African bees take over a colony by entering a colony of European bees, killing the queen and replacing her with an African queen. However, scientists tell us that the African bees are adapted to living in tropical areas and do not thrive in temperate climates. Problems with these bees have not been as severe as some people predicted. Even if bees with African traits do cause problems with the bee industry, the problems likely will be confined to the southernmost regions of the United States. Most scientists agree that the Africanized honeybee cannot live in areas where the weather turns cold and that their migration has progressed as far as it can.

PRODUCING NEW QUEENS Beekeepers periodically place new queens into the hives to ensure that each hive has a vigorous queen that will lay plenty of eggs. Queens are produced commercially in small hives known as “nukes.” Here, a small colony of bees is formed with no queen. As discussed earlier, when a colony does not have a queen, the worker bees create a new queen by feeding larvae on a substance known as royal jelly. The bees draw out an elongated cell called a queen cell, where the new queen is raised (Figure 13–24). Usually, several queen cells are produced in a colony. The first new queen to emerge from the cell may kill the other queens before they can emerge. The producer must be present when the new queens emerge to separate them from the nuke before all of the other new queens are killed. The new queens are artificially inseminated using semen that has been extracted from drones. This ensures that the queen will be fertilized by bees with the proper genetics (Figure 13–25). If the queen is allowed to take her maiden flight, she may mate with wild bees and the genetics may not produce the desired characteristics.

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Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

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Figure 13–24 The bees draw out an elongated cell called a queen cell, where the

Courtesy of USDA/ARS

Courtesy of USDA/ARS, photo by Stephen Ausmus

new queen is raised. Usually several queen cells are produced in a colony.

Figure 13–25 Semen is collected from the drone (left) and placed in the queen (right).

New queens are shipped to the beekeepers in small cages. Two or three worker bees are placed in the cage to feed the queen from a sugar cube stuck in the end of the queen cage. When the bees arrive, the producer takes the cork out of the opening that holds the sugar in place. Within a few days the worker bees will eat through the sugar and the new queen can emerge and begin her work in the new colony. The delay allows the bees in the hive to accept her. Some beekeepers replace their queens every year or every 2 years.

THE HONEYBEE INDUSTRY

DISEASES AND PARASITES Beekeepers have always been plagued with pests of honeybees. Like any other animal, bees are susceptible to a number of parasites and diseases that cause beekeepers to spend a lot of money and time trying to control the health of their hives. Further, within the past few years, new parasites have emerged that are having a dramatic effect on the bee industry. Scientists fear that if too many colonies of bees die, it will have devastating results on our crops. Without bees and other insects to pollinate flowers, fruit cannot be set on the plants. Parasites of Bees

Courtesy of USDA/ARS, photo by Lillia De Guzman

Two types of parasitic mites have threatened to wipe out the population of bees in this country. In 1984, tracheal mites were first discovered in U.S. beehives. These microscopic internal parasites lodge in the air passages of adult bees, restricting their ability to breathe. In addition to clogging the air passageways, the mites affect the bees’ ability to fly efficiently. These symptoms decrease the bees’ lifespan. The mites spend almost all of their lifecycles in the trachea of bees, where they reproduce (Figure 13–26). They come out only when they move to a new host bee. The mites attach to the interior of the trachea and feed on the bees’ body fluid. This is a serious problem for beekeepers because the treatment is difficult. Medications cannot be used in times during the honey flow because the medications can show up in the honey. The most effective means appears to be the breeding of mite resistant strains of bees.

Figure 13–26 Microscopic trachea mites spend almost all of their life cycle in the

trachea of bees.

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Courtesy of USDA

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Figure 13–27 The arrow indicates a varroa mite on the thorax of this worker bee.

In 1987, the presence of varroa mites was found (Figure 13–27). These mites feed on the blood of pupae and adult bees. Not only is the loss of blood a problem for the bees but the damage caused by the mites also makes the bees much more susceptible to diseases. At one time, these two serious pests accounted for as much as a 60 percent loss of commercial bees, and up to 90 percent of the wild bee population was wiped out. The combined loss of bee colonies from these two mites has had a far-reaching effect on the bee industry, as well as the pollination of many of our crops. Scientists have developed treatments for the parasites that include the use of medications in the fall and the spring to help prevent infestation. Also, new breeds of bees such as the Russian bee have introduced resistance to parasites into colonies. Beekeepers have to be vigilant and maintain strict management practices to prevent losses caused by parasites. Hive Collapse A phenomenon of recent years is the sudden death of entire beehives. Known as hive collapse or colony collapse, the problem has reached serious proportions as many thousands of hives mysteriously die within a short time. So far, scientists have not been able to isolate a single cause for the disorder. Many have concluded that hive collapse has a variety of causes such as pathogens, parasites, and environmental factors. Currently, a lot of research is being conducted on the problem.

THE HONEYBEE INDUSTRY

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SUMMARY Even though honeybees are the smallest of our agricultural animals, they may be the most important. Each year, bees are responsible for pollinating our crops. Without them, our entire plant industry would not be able to produce. These complex social insects are intriguing to study, and fun to keep as a hobby. The honey and wax they produce add a lot to our economy and food supply.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. All of the honey consumed in the United States is produced in this country. 2. Most of the honey production in the United States is by large operations with 250 or more hives. 3. Beeswax is a useful product of the honey industry. 4. The production of honey is the most valuable aspect of the honeybee industry. 5. Drones are larger than female bees and do more work than the females do. 6. Several queens live in a single hive. 7. Drones do not live through the winter. 8. The old queen usually leaves with a swarm. 9. Bees have no use for pollen. 10. Smoke has a calming effect on bees. 11. A bee can fly with a load as heavy as its own body. 12. Scientists know the causes of hive collapse. 13. A bee space is about 3/8 of an inch. 14. Honey is processed by gently heating it to prevent granulation. 15. Bees generally are not bothered by pests.

Fill in the Blanks 1. In order of their production, ____________, ____________, ____________, ____________, and ____________ are the top honey-producing states in the nation. 2. Bees assist in the ____________ of flowering plants by scattering pollen from one flower to the next as they gather ____________ and ____________. 3. A characteristic of honeybees that sets them apart from many other types of insects is their ____________ ____________. 4. The queen is recognizable from the rest of the bees because she is much ____________ and is more ____________. 5. Honey is made from ____________ the bees gather from the ____________.

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6. The bee may visit as many as ____________ to ____________ flowers until it has enough nectar to return to the hive. 7. The bees store nectar in six-sided cells joined together to create a ____________ ____________. 8. Scientist believe that the bees use the ____________ to orient their flight and ____________ this orientation to the worker bees in the hive. 9. Foundation comb is made by rolling ____________ into thin sheets that have the imprint of the ____________ cells. 10. The beekeeper uses ____________ from a ____________ to make the bees more docile. 11. Propolis is made from the ____________ and ____________ of trees. 12. The honey is removed from the comb by using a(n) ____________, which consists of a metal drum with racks for the ____________. 13. Like most other agricultural animals, bees have been ____________ ____________ for a long time. 14. The most popular breed of bee in the United States is the ____________ bee. 15. Queens are produced commercially in small hives known as ____________. Discussion Questions 1. Why is the honeybee considered to be one of our most important agricultural animals? 2. Explain how bees pollinate flowers. 3. Name the types of worker bees, and explain their jobs. 4. Why do bees swarm? 5. What is the role of the drone in the colony? 6. How do scout bees communicate? 7. What causes the characteristic humming heard in a beehive? 8. What were some of the materials used in making early beehives? 9. What improvement did Langstroth make in hives? 10. Explain the concept of bee space. 11. What function does a queen excluder play? 12. How do the bees use propolis? 13. Explain two ways in which producers buy bees. 14. How are queens raised for sale? 15. Why are varroa mites such a problem? 16. Explain the life cycle of the trachea mite and how it affects bees.

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Student Learning Activities 1. Conduct an Internet search, and determine what products use honey in their production. Hint: Look at sweet baked goods. What products are made from beeswax? 2. Conduct research on the various breeds of bees. Choose one you think would be good for your area. Explain to the class why you chose that breed. 3. Observe a number of different flowers for 15 minutes. Count the number of bees that visit the flower during that time. Which flowers are most popular with the bees? Why do you think these flowers are so popular? 4. Read the labels on honey jars in the grocery store. Where was the honey produced? From what flowers was the honey produced?

CHAPTER

Animal Behavior

KEY TERMS ethology instinct imprinting intelligence conditioning

docile indiscriminate breeders social behavior stallion estrus

ingestive behavior grubs ruminants dental pad cecum

colony scout bees

14

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ define ethology. ■ discuss the difference between

instinctive and learned behavior in animals. ■ explain the concept of animal

intelligence. ■ define conditioning. ■ discuss how animal behaviors are

■ describe the types of social behavior in

animals. ■ discuss the types of sexual and

reproductive behaviors in animals. ■ describe the types of ingestive

behaviors in animals. ■ explain how certain animals

communicate.

developed.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain how animal behavior is used

to protect sheep. ■ discuss the social behaviors of

agricultural animals. ■ describe the sexual and reproductive

behaviors of agricultural animals. ■ list the ingestive behaviors of

agricultural animals.

■ describe the methods that agricultural

animals use to communicate. ■ discuss how the natural behaviors of

agricultural animals can be used to provide the animals with a safer, more comfortable environment.

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or centuries, scientists have debated the intelligence levels of animals. Although animals doubtless can be trained to do tasks, there was (and still is) disagreement about the level of animals’ intelligence. Can animals reason? Solve problems? Think? Feel emotion? For many years, the answer to these questions was “no.” In recent years, scientists have begun to rethink the answer. For example, chimpanzees have been observed using tools such as sticks to collect grubs from decayed wood (Figure 14–1). Crows have been seen dropping nuts on the highway so cars will run over the shells and expose the edible parts of the nuts. A lot of research is ongoing in this area, and disagreements will continue. Still, we do know that all animals, whether wild or domesticated, act in certain ways. Scientists have long recognized that animals have behavior patterns. Many of these behaviors are predictable; animals usually will act in a certain way under specific conditions. The study of how animals behave in their natural habitat is called ethology. The habitat may be the natural area of wild animals or the pastures, pens, or facilities of domesticated animals. The behavior of animals in the wild has been an accepted branch of biological science for many years. Only recently has the science of ethology been used to research methods of producing agricultural animals. Ethology plays a significant role in the production scheme of the modern livestock industry because the way animals behave can be better understood and, in turn, be used to create a better growing environment for the animals. Different types of animals behave in different ways. Most animal behavior can be divided into two categories: instinctive and learned behavior. The most basic is instinct, the behavior that is set in an animal at birth and causes the animal to respond automatically to an environmental stimulus. This behavior is a result of genetics, and is not something the animal learns. As a good example, newly born and young animals are able to nurse, and most agricultural animals are able to stand and nurse only minutes after they are born (Figure 14–2). This behavior is not taught but, rather, is with the animals at birth. Other Figure 14–1 Chimpanzees have been observed using instinctual behaviors include breeding, eating, sticks to collect grubs. and drinking. ©iStockphoto

F

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©iStockphoto/Darrin Underwood

suel120502, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

Figure 14–2 Most agricultural animals are able to stand Figure 14–3 Dogs raised with sheep often act as guardians.

Animals also can learn behaviors. One of the most basic types of learning is imprinting. Imprinting means that an animal will attach itself to or adopt another animal or object as its companion or parent. This usually occurs shortly after the animal is born or hatched. For instance, if a hen sits on duck eggs, the resulting ducklings will accept the hen as their mother. Goslings (baby geese) have been known to adopt dogs or humans in this manner if the human or dog becomes a companion within the first 36 hours after hatching. Dogs also have been known to adopt other animals as “their own.” Some sheep producers make use of this behavior by placing very young pups with a flock of sheep. The dog is raised among the sheep and accepts the sheep (Figure 14–3). The dog then acts as guardian to its adoptive family and keeps predators away from the flock. Several species of fish, especially salmon, are imprinted as to that location when they hatch. After several years, the mature salmon return to spawn in the place where they were hatched. This drive in the fish is extremely strong, and they will go over and through severe obstacles on their journey to the place of their hatching. Different species of animals have differing abilities to learn. This is called intelligence. Obviously, the most intelligent animals are humans. Primates, such as chimpanzees, are next in order of intelligence, followed by ocean mammals such as dolphins and whales. Among agricultural animals, the pig is considered to be the most capable of learning and, therefore, the most intelligent. In fact, some Figure 14–4 Some scientists rank pigs just under chimpanzees scientists rank the pig just under chimpanzees and dolphins in intelligence. and dolphins in intelligence (Figure 14–4).

Courtesy of USDA

and nurse shortly after birth.

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©iStockphoto/Dan Brandenburg

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Figure 14–5 Some breeds of dogs

©iStockphoto/John Pitcher

have an instinct for herding animals.

Figure 14–6 Scientists say that

the instinct to herd comes from wolf ancestors.

Learning in animals comes about through several means. One is conditioning, which means that an animal learns by associating a certain response with a certain stimulus. A Russian scientist named Ivan Pavlov was famous for his theories of conditioned reflex. His experiments involved feeding meat to a group of dogs and ringing a bell as the animals were fed. The only time the bell was rung was when the animals were fed, so they associated the ringing of the bell with eating. After a time, the animals would begin to salivate when the bell was rung even if no food was in sight. Agricultural animals are conditioned to perform certain reflexes. For example, as cows enter the milking parlor, they let down their milk because they associate going into the milking parlor with being milked. Animal producers can apply this principle to teach animals to respond in a certain way. Animals also can learn on their own by trial and error. For example, a horse may learn to open a gate by tinkering with the latch mechanism until it learns the proper sequence to open the latch and get where it wants to go. A pig can learn that by lifting a lid, it can gain access to feed in a self-feeder, or it may be able to get water from a self-waterer by applying pressure in the correct location. Horses are trained by receiving positive rewards when the animals respond in a manner the trainer desires. Animal trainers use animals’ natural abilities and instincts to teach them to do tricks, perform work, or be more productive. Dogs with a natural instinct to herd animals are trained to herd sheep, hogs, and cattle (Figure 14–5). Scientists tell us that this instinct comes from the wolves that were ancestors of the herding dogs (Figure 14–6). Wolves in the wild work together in a pack, circling a group of animals until a vulnerable one is singled out for the kill. Breeds such as the Border Collie retain much of this instinct and can be trained to care for and move animals instead of herding them as prey. Other breeds, such as the Blue Tick Coonhound, are not trained as easily to herd animals, but they are easily trained to track animals and to tree them. Certain breeds of horses, such as the American Saddlebred, are trained for pleasure riding and for show. Other breeds, such as the Belgian, are trained as draft animals and are used less for pleasure riding. When humans first started domesticating animals, they discovered that not just any animal was suitable to be tamed for raising. Animals possessing certain natural characteristics made them more desirable for domestication. Animals were chosen that had some use, as food, as workers, or as companions. The animals also had to have certain behaviors that were conducive to domestication. For humans to raise them, the animals

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

B Drake/PhotoLink/Getty Images

had to be docile and easy to handle (Figure 14–7). The animals that were more docile were selected for breeding and eventually developed into animals that could be handled by humans. In addition, the animals had to be indiscriminate breeders. This meant that the animals could not be paired for life, but that any male would breed with any female. This allowed for selective breeding and development of the characteristics that producers deemed desirable. Livestock producers look for several types of behavior that ro make raising livestock easier, more efficient, safer, and more comfortable for the animals. These behaviors are based on the animals’ natural instincts, but they may have been developed or enhanced through years of selective breeding. At any rate, some patterns of behavior seem to run in all species of agricultural animals.

Figure 14–7 For humans to raise

them, animals have to be docile and easy to handle.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Alexander A. Kataytsev, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Social behavior refers to the manner in which animals interact with each other. Most farm animals are gregarious. This means that they tend to want to herd or flock together (Figure 14–8). Even in the wild, cattle, sheep, and horses tend to want to group together. This is the result of a natural instinct, for defense purposes. Young, old, and weak members of the herd or flock can be better protected if the animals remain together in a group. Animals seem to prefer a certain size of herd or group. In the 1830s, Charles Darwin wrote about large groups of cattle (10,000 to 15,000 head) breaking up into smaller groups. Even after being mixed together and stampeded, the cattle would come back into groups of 40 to 100 head. Many cattle producers today

Figure 14–8 Most farm animals are gregarious; they tend to herd together.

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Figure 14–9 Wild horses usually live in small groups.

©Joe Mauldin, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

divide their herds into this approximate size. Sheep will band together in much larger groups, some reaching several hundred in number. Pigs in the wild tend to band together in groups of about 10. Wild horses usually live in small groups consisting of a stallion and his harem of mares (Figure 14–9). Other males may live in a small group together with one of the stallions as the leader or dominant male. Producers have made use of this gregarious behavior by moving, feeding, and caring for animals as a group. As mentioned earlier, the animals can be moved and controlled more efficiently through the use of herding dogs. Without animals’ gregarious behavior, working dogs would not be nearly as efficient. Within each group of animals is a hierarchy, or order of social dominance. Some animals within the group are recognized by the other animals as having dominance, the ability to exert social influence or pressure over others in the group. In poultry, this is known as the pecking order (Figure 14–10). Certain chickens in the flock are allowed to have priority for space, food, water, and the like. Research has shown that there is a social dominance order in other agricultural animals, too. For instance, according to some research studies, baby pigs have been competitive about which teat they will nurse. The teats closer to the front seem to be preferred. Each piglet has a certain teat it will go to for nursing (Figure 14–11). Research has indicated that the social dominance established during nursing is carried over when the pigs are weaned. Dominant pigs are allowed to be Figure 14–10 Chickens establish a social order known as first to the feed trough, and they establish the pecking order. where they want to sleep in the pen.

Social dominance patterns also have been noted in most other agricultural animals. For example, if two or more males are in the same flock or herd, one will be the dominant male that will mate with most of the females. This dominance usually is established by fighting among the males, with the strongest and most vigorous emerging as the dominant male (Figure 14–12). This is nature’s way of ensuring that the heartiest animals are the ones that will breed and raise the next generation of the species. Producers must consider social dominance as they plan to grow their livestock. For example, males must be kept separate to prevent injury. If animals are on a limited ration, they must be separated or the dominant animals will get too much feed and the subordinate animals will get too little.

SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR All animals have certain behaviors associated Figure 14–11 Each piglet has a favored teat to which it will go. with mating and reproducing. (The process of reproduction is discussed in Chapter 18.) Most female agricultural animals come into estrus (heat) in preparation for mating. As this happens, the females engage in behavior that indicates their condition. Cows may bellow, mill around restlessly, allow other cows to mount, or mount other cows. Sows will mount other sows, appear restless, urinate frequently, and grunt loudly. Sheep and other female agricultural animals show signs of estrus in a similar manner. Males actively seek out females that are in estrus to complete the mating process (Figure 14–13). Often during mating, the males become more aggressive or belligerent toward other animals and Figure 14–12 Male animals often fight to establish humans. Some breeds of animals display a behavdominance. ior that differs from other breeds of the species. For example, Brahman cattle usually prefer to breed at night rather than in daylight. As the end of the gestation period approaches, females display behavior that indicates the approach of birth. Sows, if in open pasture, usually try to build a nest from grass, soil, or other materials they may find. Cows that are about to give birth generally appear nervous and isolate themselves from the herd. Sometimes they may even hide if there is enough cover from trees or

photobank.kiev.ua, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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Su Jianfei, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

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Ed Phillips, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

undergrowth in the pasture. A mare usually bites at her flanks, switches her tail, and lies down and gets back up repeatedly. After the offspring are born, the mothers’ behavior changes. They almost always become more aggressive and protective of their young. Even females that normally are docile can become belligerent after the birth of offspring. This is nature’s way of protecting the young from predators. Most mothers of agricultural animals recognize their own offspring and will allow only that individual to nurse. An exception is Figure 14–13 Males actively seek out females that are in pigs. A sow usually accepts orphan pigs if she estrus. has enough teats for all of the pigs to nurse. With cattle and sheep, it is more difficult to get them to accept young that are not their own. The cows or ewes recognize the scent of their newborns and will accept only that smell. Sometimes producers can fool the mothers into accepting an orphan by changing the way it smells. A cattle producer may rub both the mother’s calf and the orphan in a strong-smelling solution. Because the cow cannot distinguish which calf is hers, she may accept both calves. A sheep producer may take the skin from a dead lamb and cover an orphan with it to trick the ewe into thinking the orphan is indeed her lamb. After nursing begins, the ewe soon will accept the orphan.

INGESTIVE BEHAVIOR

©iStockphoto/Neil Gibbons

Ingestive behavior refers to the manner in which animals eat and drink. Different animals have different habits or ways in which they take food. Obviously, most of these differences reflect the way the animals are made—their digestive system and type of food they prefer. Pigs that run outside in a pasture or in a lot tend to root or dig in the ground for food (Figure 14–14). This is a carryover from the time before they were domesticated, when their diet consisted of roots, grubs, insects, seeds, and nuts. Even the most modern breeds of pigs will revert to the habit of digging in the ground with their snout. Their digestive system contains a simple stomach, and they are not capable of digesting large amounts of fiber as the ruminants do. Therefore, the type of food found by their rooting action is suited for their Figure 14–14 Pigs tend to root or dig in the ground for food. digestive system.

Figure 14–15 Pigs eat only what

Eric Isselee, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

they need and don’t make themselves sick by overeating.

Figure 14–16 Sheep and cattle have

©iStockphoto/Gary Martin

a dental pad instead of upper teeth.

Figure 14–17 Sheep graze by nipping

off grass between the dental pad and the teeth, cutting off the grass shorter than cattle do.

Sherjaca, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

People who are not familiar with agricultural animals think of pigs as animals that overeat. Expressions such as “eat like a pig,” “pig out,” and the like, suggest that pigs eat so much that they make themselves sick. Contrary to this belief, pigs will eat only what they need and do not make themselves sick by overeating (Figure 14–15). Actually, given the opportunity, pigs will eat the right amounts of given feeds and balance their own diet. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, pigs are among the most intelligent of agricultural animals. Ruminant animals, such as sheep, goats, and cattle, have digestive systems designed to handle large amounts of roughage such as grass or other plants. Even though ruminant agricultural animals eat basically the same type of food, they gather and ingest food in different ways. Cattle, goats, and sheep have no upper front teeth and must rely on a thick dental pad in the top of the mouth to tear off plants as they graze (Figure 14–16). Cattle wrap their tongue around the plants and tear them off between their lower teeth and upper dental pad. For this reason, cattle prefer to graze in forage at least 6 inches high. Sheep, in contrast, cut off the forage by nipping it with their teeth and dental pad and gathering it into their mouth with their lips. This is why sheep can graze much closer to the ground than cattle can (Figure 14–17). This behavior of sheep was the basic cause of the range wars of the late 1800s in our Western frontier. Sheep that were moved into cattle country grazed the land so close that in some areas the grass would not grow back. This angered the cattle ranchers because they thought that cattle grazing protected the land better. Later research revealed that a system of grazing sheep and cattle on the same ground could be beneficial if managed properly. Cattle prefer to eat grasses, and sheep prefer to eat plants that are leafy and coarser. If the two species are control-grazed on land that contains both types of plants, the cattle and the sheep both benefit. Cattle tend to graze for a longer period of time per day than sheep do. Cattle usually graze from 4 to 9 hours a day, whereas sheep graze from 9 to 11 hours per day (Figure 14–18). As ruminants graze, periods of eating are followed by periods of rest. This allows time for rumination, or digestion of the plants. During these periods, the animals regurgitate and chew the plant material they have swallowed. Although horses eat large amounts of plant material, they do not ruminate. Instead, their digestive system has a large section, called a cecum, which processes the roughage. Because horses have both upper and lower front teeth, they bite off the plants as they graze. They usually prefer pasture forage but will eat brushy plants if no other forage is available.

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Milos Jokic, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

Figure 14–18 Cattle typically graze

4 to 9 hours per day.

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ANIMAL COMMUNICATION

Figure 14–19 A horse will point its

ears forward when it is interested in something.

The ability to communicate means that animals are able to pass information from one to another. We as humans tend to think of communicating as being able to speak and express ourselves within the context of a broad and diverse vocabulary. Obviously, animals do not talk as we do, but, nonetheless, they do pass information between them. Their form of communication may be through body motions, through sounds they emit, or through smell. As pointed out in Chapter 13, perhaps the most dramatic example of animal communication is that used by honeybees to tell other bees in the hive about nectar and pollen sources they have located. Within the bee colony, certain bees serve the purpose of looking for food sources and for this reason are called scout bees. Through a series of elaborate moves and dances, the scout bees tell the workers the direction, distance, and amount of the nectar source. The scout bees also bring back samples of the type of nectar that they located. By smelling and tasting the nectar, the worker bees become aware of the smell and taste of that specific nectar. Recent research has shown that the bees also use sound in communicating the distance to the food source. Scientists believe that scout bees also use the sun to orient their flight and communicate this orientation to the worker bees in the hive. Other agricultural animals communicate as well. Through sounds, chickens call other chickens to feed. A mother hen uses a certain cluck to call her chicks. Different stances depict social standing within the flock. On the one hand, a chicken that stands in a crouch with unruffled feathers and tail feathers held close together indicates a submissive animal. On the other hand, a chicken that stands tall, head held high, tail feathers spread wide, and body feathers ruffled is a dominant chicken. The other chickens in the flock recognize this form of communication and act accordingly. When a sow lies on her side for the piglets to nurse, she grunts in a certain manner, This distinctive grunt calls the piglets to come and nurse. In addition, pigs emit specific sounds that warn the others of danger. In the wild or in the pasture, pigs may rub trees, stones, or other objects as a way of marking their territory. The rubbing leaves an odor that other pigs can detected. Horses communicate through several different means as well. For example, the direction the ears are pointed can transmit a horse’s mood. Anger is expressed by laying the ears straight back toward the neck. Ears that are pulled forward show that the horse is interested in something (Figure 14–19). Horses also communicate through the sounds they make. A neigh or whinny may

indicate that the horse is frightened or concerned. A snort may be used to warn other horses of approaching danger. A squeal may indicate that a horse is angry. Of course, people are able to communicate their commands to horses. Horses are trained to respond to verbal commands of riders, or they may respond to a tug of the halter or a nudge with the knee. Good riders or horses handlers are able to determine the mood or attitude of their horses. Cattle communicate by using their voice. A cow that is in estrus will bellow to find a mate. A cow communicates vocally with a calf to call it to her or to warn it of impending danger. Cows may even hide their calves in a wooded area. Cattle also use body stance to relay messages. A lowered head with the horns or the top of the head thrust forward indicates that the animal is ready to fight. A bull pawing the ground is a sign of aggression (Figure 14–20). Twisting or slinging the head issues a warning. A head held high with the back swayed and the tail head raised indicates that the animal is about to take flight. A good livestock producer recognizes animals’ communication and treats the animals accordingly. The best producers study the behavioral activities and requirements of agricultural animals and use their studies to provide safer and more comfortable environments for the animals. Producers adjust space requirements to provide the animals with the proper amount of room. The desirable space for all animals has been well researched. For example, research indicates that pigs like to be in contact Figure 14–20 A bull pawing the ground is a sign of aggression. with each other and that touching other pigs is important to them (Figure 14–21). Pigs raised in isolation do not do as well as those raised with other animals. And chickens are given enough space in cage operations to make them comfortable. Producers also can consider the instincts of animals when designing facilities. For instance, cattle and sheep urinate and defecate indiscriminately. These animals deposit waste materials any place within their living space. Horses and pigs, though, eliminate waste only in a certain part of their space. As facilities for these different animals are designed and constructed, the animals’ instincts have to be taken into Figure 14–21 Pigs like to be in contact with each other. consideration.

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Cattle have a natural tendency to follow a curved passageway and usually want to circle to the right. Therefore, handling facilities should be designed to accommodate this behavior. Cattle can be handled more effectively and safely in corrals and chutes that are completely opaque (the animals can’t see through them) and that circle to the right (Figure 14–22). Horses should not be kept in barbed wire fences because they have a tendency to cut themselves on the wire if they become spooked or excited. Cattle are kept well in barbed wire fences and seldom stampede into the fence. By keeping the nature of the animals in mind, modern producers can raise healthier, more productive animals at a more profitable rate.

Figure 14–22 Handling facilities are designed to take advantage of cattle’s tendency to follow a curved passageway.

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SUMMARY To a large extent, how animals behave determines their usefulness as agricultural animals. By studying how animals act in their environment, scientists can better understand how to keep the animals contented and safe. Also, this knowledge helps in designing production systems that can make the best use of the animal’s nature. By understanding animal behavior, producers are better equipped to provide for and produce animals.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Ethology is the study of how animals behave in their natural habitats. 2. Imprinting happens after the animal has reached adulthood. 3. Dogs do not have a natural instinct to herd animals and must be trained to do so. 4. Producers look for animal behaviors that make raising livestock easier. These behaviors usually are based on the natural instinct of the animal. 5. Within each group of animals there is a hierarchy, or an order of social dominance. 6. Although social dominance plays a part in breeding behavior, food is divided equally between dominant and subordinate members. 7. After offspring are born, the mother almost always becomes more aggressive and protective. 8. All ruminant animals gather and ingest food in the same manner. 9. Animals communicate with each other through body motions, through sounds they emit, or through smell. 10. Dominant chickens stand in a crouch, whereas submissive chickens stand tall. 11. The direction in which a horse’s ears are pointed can communicate its mood. 12. Even the best livestock producer cannot recognize animals’ means of communication. 13. Pigs need a lot of space and do not do well if raised in groups. 14. Producers can use the instincts of animals to help design facilities. 15. Horses can be kept in barbed wire fences, but cattle have a tendency to cut themselves. Fill in the Blanks 1. Most animal behavior can be divided into two ____________: ____________ and ____________ behavior. 2. Intelligence is the ability of an animal to ____________; humans are considered to be the ____________ intelligent. 3. Conditioning means an ____________ learns by ____________ a certain ____________ with a certain ____________. 4. Animals chosen for domestication were used as ____________, ____________, or as ____________.

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5. Most farm animals are gregarious; that is, they tend to want to ____________ or ____________ together. 6. Often, during mating, the males will become more ____________ or ____________ toward other ____________ and ____________. 7. A cattle producer may rub both the mother’s ____________ and the ____________ in a ____________-____________ solution to get her to accept them both. 8. Ingestive behavior means the ____________ in which animals ____________ and ____________. 9. During the rest period between grazing times, ruminants ____________ and chew the ____________ ____________ they have ____________. 10. In bee colonies, the scout bees tell the ____________ the direction, ____________, and ____________ of ____________ source through a series of elaborate ____________ and ____________. 11. Horses are trained to respond to a ____________ command of a rider, or they may respond to a ____________ of the ____________ or a ____________ with the knee. 12. A cow with head raised, back ____________, and tail ____________ indicates that it is about to take ____________. 13. The best producers study the ____________ activities and ____________ of agricultural animals and use their studies to provide a ____________ and more comfortable ____________ for the animals. 14. Cattle can be effectively and ____________ handled in corrals and ____________ that are completely ____________ and that circle to the ____________. 15. By keeping the ____________ of the animals in mind, modern producers can raise ____________, more ____________ animals at a more ____________ rate. Discussion Questions 1. Why is the study of animal behavior (ethology) important to producers of agricultural animals? 2. What is the difference between instinctive and learned behavior? 3. What is meant by imprinting? 4. How have producers used imprinting in raising animals? 5. Which of the agricultural animals are considered to be the most intelligent? 6. Give two examples of how conditioning is used in animal agriculture. 7. What were the characteristics of animals that early humans looked for in selecting animals to tame and raise? 8. What are some ways in which animals determine social dominance? 9. Briefly discuss at least two sexual and reproductive behaviors of agricultural animals that are important to producers. 10. What aspect of animal ingestive behavior caused range wars during the 1800s? 11. Explain how the differing ingestive behaviors of sheep and cattle make them beneficial to each other. 12. List some ways in which agricultural animals communicate. 13. Explain why cattle chutes should be built in a curving pattern.

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Student Learning Activities 1. Choose a herd or flock of agricultural animals to observe. During a period of several hours, list all of their behaviors. Decide which of the behaviors are learned and which are instinctive. Compare your list with others in the class. 2. Visit a livestock producer and obtain permission to tour the operation. Make a list of all of the aspects of the operation (facilities, work schedules, feeding times) that deal with animal behavior. 3. Choose one animal and observe it for several hours. Record all attempts by the animal to communicate with other animals. This communication might include the animal’s attempting to communicate with you! 4. Visit the local animal shelter and interview the workers. Determine what they have learned and observed about animal behavior. Report how they use the animals’ behavior in their work.

CHAPTER

15

Animal Cells: The Building Blocks

KEY TERMS cell prokaryotic cells eukaryotic cells nucleus chromosomes genes cytoplasm

organelles plasma membrane diffusion osmosis homeostasis mitochondria vacuoles

enzyme microfilaments golgi apparatus endoplasmatic reticulum lysosomes meiosis mitosis

centrioles cytokinesis cleavage blastula placenta

STUDENT OBJECTVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain the concept of cells as building

blocks. ■ describe the different types of cells. ■ name all the components of an

animal cell.

■ explain the process of meiosis. ■ explain the process of mitosis. ■ discuss the process of diffusion. ■ discuss the process of osmosis.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ describe how livestock producers work

with animal cells.

■ discuss why an understanding of

animal cells helps producers raise animals.

CHAPTER 15

THE IMPORTANCE OF CELLS ivestock producers, whether they realize it or not, work with animal cells. This is because most of the life processes that take place in an animal’s body, such as reproduction, growth, disease immunity, and nutrient utilization, take place at the cellular level (Figure 15–1). Cells are the building blocks of life and the basis for all animal and plant systems. When producers balance a feed ration, give a vaccination injection, or plan a breeding program, they actually are working at the cellular level because that is where the life processes begin and/or function. Literally hundreds of different types of cells perform different functions within the animal’s body. Cells that make up the skin are different from cells that make up bones and serve different functions. In animals, the cells start to differentiate as the fetus develops in the uterus. This means that cells grow and divide into different tissues such as muscle, bone, and nerves. Growth in all organisms comes about as a result of cell division. This chapter will discuss how cells operate and how they are similar and different.

L

Types of Cells Cells come in a wide variety of types and sizes (Figure 15–2). The smallest of cells are less than a micrometer (1 millionth of a meter) in diameter and require the use of the most powerful microscopes to be able to observe them. In contrast, some cells can weigh a couple of pounds. Just think of an ostrich egg! It’s

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Figure 15–1 Life process such as reproduction, growth, digestion, and disease

immunity take place at the cellular level.

ANIMAL CELLS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS

A

B

C

D

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E

Figure 15–2 Cells come in a wide variety of shapes

and sizes. A  nerve cell; B  blood cell; C  fat cell; D  bone cell; E  muscle cell.

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Figure 15–3 An ostrich egg is a large single cell.

a single cell (Figure 15–3). Cells may be round like a ball, square like a box, some long and thin like a string, and some are shaped like a plate. Within an animal, each type of cell has a specific role to play, and the shape of the cell is related to that role. Cells are broadly grouped into two types: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. The two types are similar in that they both contain genetic material and are filled with a watery substance called cytoplasm. Prokaryotic Cells One basic difference in the two types of cells is that the genetic material in a eukaryotic cell is contained within the confines of a membrane-enclosed nucleus. Prokaryotic cells contain genetic material, too, but this material is not confined to a nucleus. The genetic material (deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA) is contained within a single molecule and is in contact with the cytoplasm. Prokaryotic cells are the smallest of all cells and are generally considered to be neither plant nor animal. They include one-celled organisms such as bacteria and blue-green algae (Figure 15–4). Viruses are not generally considered cells because they lack the ability to reproduce on their own. They must become parasites to other cells in order to translate their genetic code. Viral cells also have simple internal structures surrounded by a stiff cell wall that shapes and protects the cell. Although prokaryotic cells are not part of animal systems, they play an important role in the life of animals. Other chapters discuss the role of bacteria in the digestive process, as well as in disease outbreaks.

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Figure 15–4 Bacteria are prokaryotic cells. The genetic material is not confined

to a nucleus.

All plants and animals are made up of eukaryotic cells. Even though plant and animal cells have many differences, they also have some similarities. All eukaryotic cells have a relatively large structure called a nucleus, composed primarily of nucleic acids, proteins, and enzymes (Figure 15–5). This structure serves as the control center for all activities of the cell, including reproduction. Most cells have only one nucleus; however, certain cells such as animal muscle cells may have many nuclei. In one of the most important roles of the nucleus, it contains the genetic material that translates a code to give an organism its characteristics. As mentioned in a previous chapter, this genetic code is contained in a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The molecules of DNA are arranged in threadlike strands called chromosomes. Segments of the chromosomes called genes are responsible for transferring the genetic code. Gene transfer is dealt with more completely in a subsequent chapter. Figure 15–5 This is an example of a eukaryotic Animal cells contain a thick, clear fluid that cell. The genetic material is contained in the surrounds the nucleus. This fluid, known as cytoplasm, nucleus. All plants and animals are made of this contains all the material the cell needs to conduct type of cell. life processes. Cytoplasm contains membrane-enclosed

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Eukaryotic Cells

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structures called organelles that perform specialized functions within the cell. Both the cytoplasm and the nucleus are contained within a cell membrane composed of proteins and lipids (fats). Eukaryotic Cell Components Eukaryotic cells have many components, all of which serve specific functions and must work in concert with all the other parts of the cell. The interactions of the cell parts are not only complex but also essential to the well-being of the entire organism. If one part of the cell does not function properly, the other parts cannot function properly. Obviously when this happens the organism cannot properly function. Cell Membranes Every eukaryotic cell contains a cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, which serves three purposes (Figure 15–6). First, it encloses and protects the cell’s contents from the external environment. Second, it regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell, such as the taking in of nutrients and the expelling of waste. Third, the cell membrane allows interaction with other cells. In animal cells, the membrane is known as a plasma membrane. Plasma is the liquid part of the cell. All material that passes into and out of the cell must pass through the cell membrane. The membrane is said to be selectively or semi-permeable, which means that it allows only certain

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Figure 15–6 These are animal fat cells. The enclosure around each cell is the cell

membrane.

ANIMAL CELLS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS

materials to go through; not all substances are allowed to pass through the membrane. The substances that are allowed through are usually small molecules and ions (charged molecules). This membrane serves the purpose of allowing material, such as water and other nutrients needed for the life processes, to pass through into the cell. It also gets rid of the waste materials left over from these processes that otherwise would accumulate and harm the cell. The materials pass through the membrane in a process called diffusion. In diffusion, molecules in solution pass through the membrane from a region of a higher concentration of molecules to a region of lower concentration of molecules (Figure 15–7). For example, in an animal’s cell there are fewer molecules of oxygen inside the cell than there are outside the cell. Also cells usually have more carbon dioxide molecules inside than there are outside. As the cell uses up oxygen molecules, more oxygen is allowed through the membrane because the molecules try to equalize the number without and within the cell. Likewise, the carbon dioxide cells move out of the cell to an area that is less concentrated with carbon dioxide molecules. Through diffusion, the cell constantly takes in needed molecules such as oxygen and expels unwanted molecules such as carbon dioxide. Water also is passed through the semi-permeable cell membrane in a process called osmosis (Figure 15–8). As in diffusion, the water moves from a region of high concentration of water to a region of low concentration, so the more material that is dissolved in water, the less it is concentrated. If the cell has

Molecules of dye

225

Membrane

Water

High concentration

Equilibrium Figure 15–7 In the process

Sugar molecule

known as diffusion, molecules in a solution pass through the cell membrane from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration of molecules.

Before Osmosis

Selectively permeable membrane

After Osmosis

Figure 15–8 Water is passed through the cell membrane in a process called

osmosis.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Water

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Low concentration

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relatively little water inside, the solution tends to “draw” water from outside into the cell through the cell membrane. The processes of diffusion and osmosis regulate the materials moving from one part of the cell to another and in and out of the cell. In all organisms this is essential because these processes allow the cell to remain constant even though conditions in the environment may change. The ability of an organism to remain stable when conditions around it are changing is called homeostasis. Organelles Within the cytoplasm of cells are small structures that serve different roles. In much the same way as the organs of a body support an animal, these structures, called organelles, support the cell (Figure 15–9). One of the most important of the organelles is the peanut-shaped mitochondria which functions to break down food nutrients and supply the cell with energy. Cells that use more energy contain more mitochondria than cells that are less active. For example, muscle cells contain more mitochondria than bone cells because bone cells require far less energy than muscle cells. This is simply because muscles provide movement for the animal and the bones provide the framework for the body. Vacuoles are organelles that serve as storage compartments for the cell. Consisting of a membrane that encloses water and other material, they store the nutrients and enzymes that animals need. An enzyme is a type of protein found in all living organisms that causes, speeds up, or slows down a chemical reaction. Also vacuoles provide a storage space for the waste materials that the cell gives off. Some cells contain organelles called microtubules. They are shaped like small, thin, hollow tubes, composed of protein, that act as the “bones” of the cell. These structures, found in animal cells, provide support to cells and give the cells their shape, and also assist in moving chromosomes during cell division. Microfilaments are fine, fiberlike structures composed of protein. These organelles help the cell to move by waving back and forth. Cells contain thousands of tiny structures called ribosomes. These organelles are the sites where protein molecules are assembled in the cell. All cells need proteins for growth and other important functions, and enzymes that regulate the chemical process in the cell are composed of protein molecules. The Golgi apparatus in the cell is an organelle that is shaped like a group of flat sacs bundled together. Its function is to remove water from the proteins and prepare them for export from the cell.

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Chloroplasts Cytoskeleton

Nucleus

Vacuole

Wall of adjoining cell Cell membrane

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Cell wall

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Ribosomes

Golgi complex Nucleolus

Figure 15–9 Animal cells have small structures called organelles, each of which serves a specific purpose.

The endoplasmatic reticulum is a large webbing or network of double membranes positioned throughout the cell. These organelles provide the means for transporting material throughout the cell. Lysosomes are organelles that are the digestive units of the cell, breaking down proteins, carbohydrates, and other molecules, as well as any foreign material such as bacteria that enters the cell. Also, as other cell parts become worn out and nonfunctional, lysosomes use their digestive enzymes to break down these parts. Products of the digestive actions are passed into the cytoplasm and out of the cell through the cell membrane.

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Mitochondria

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CELL REPRODUCTION Continuation of life depends on the reproduction of cells. Even in the higher-ordered animals, life begins with the uniting of cells known as gametes from each of two parents. Once these cells have united, the growth process begins, and cells multiply until an entire new animal is formed. The cells must divide throughout this process. Gametes, or sex cells, are formed in a process known as meiosis, which produces the sperm and egg that unite to form an embryo. When the gametes have merged through fertilization, the newly created cell begins to divide in a process known as mitosis, in which growth and cell replacement take place. Meiosis In meiosis, cells are divided into cells that contain only half of the chromosomes needed to form the young animal. Sperm cells are formed in the testicles of the male, and the eggs are formed in the ovaries of the female. When the gametes unite, the full number of chromosomes is accomplished by each parent contributing half. This process is discussed in detail in Chapter 18. Mitosis All of the growth within living organisms comes about as a result of cells’ increasing in size or numbers. Because cells are limited in size, by far the greatest amount of growth in organisms comes about as a result of cells’ reproducing or multiplying. Also, when an animal is injured, cells begin to reproduce to heal the wound. When a cell grows, it reaches a maximum size, at which time the cell divides into two cells. These cells in turn grow until they reach their maximum size and each divides into new cells. The original cell is called the parent cell, and the new cells are called daughter cells. When a plant or animal matures, it stops growing and cell division is used to heal wounds and to replace worn-out cells. Eukaryotic cells (cells that have nuclei) divide by a process called mitosis. As mentioned earlier, the entire genetic code for passing on traits of an organism is located in the nucleus of the cell. In mitosis, all of the genetic coding is duplicated and transferred to the new cells. Although the process of mitosis is continual, scientists have divided the events into the following four different phases for better understanding. Interphase The period when the cell is not actively dividing is called the interphase. This phase is not really a part of mitosis but, rather, is a time when the cell is carrying on processes such as synthesizing

ANIMAL CELLS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS

Interphase Cell membrane

229

Early Prophase Nuclear membrane

Late Prophase

Centriole

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Decondensed chromosomes

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Chromatid

Centromere

Figure 15–10 During interphase, the cell is carrying on

Figure 15–11 During the prophase, the nucleus disperses and a

processes such as synthesizing of materials.

new structure called the spindle is formed.

materials and moving them in and out of the cell (Figure 15–10). This is the time when the cell grows. As the cell reaches its maximum size, the DNA replicates and forms two complete sets of chromosomes. The threadlike molecules of DNA that make up the chromosomes, called chromatin, are spread throughout the nucleus. Animal cells have strands of genetic material outside the nucleus called centrioles. (Most plant cells do not contain centrioles.) At the end of the interphase, the cell is the correct size, the chromosomes are duplicated, and the cell is ready to divide. Prophase Spindle

Metaphase During the next phase, called the metaphase, the nucleus disappears and the chromatids move toward the center of the spindle (Figure 15–12). The center of the spindle is referred to as the equator (Figure 15–12). When they reach the center, the centromeres of the chromatids connect themselves to the fibers of the spindle.

Metaphase Figure 15–12 In the metaphase,

the nucleus disappears and the chromatids connect with the spindle.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

The first actual phase of mitosis is called the prophase. During this phase the chromatin appears in the form of distinct, shortened, rodlike structures. The chromosomes are formed with two strands called chromatids that are attached at the center by a structure known as a centromere. As this formation takes place, the nuclear membrane begins to dissolve and the entire nucleus begins to disperse (Figure 15–11). In place of the nucleus a new structure called the spindle is formed. The spindle is a structure shaped somewhat like a football and composed of microtubules. In animal cells, the centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell.

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Anaphase During the third stage of the process of mitosis, the anaphase, the pairs of chromatids separate into an equal number of chromosomes and the centromeres duplicate (Figure 15–13). After separating, the chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.

Anaphase

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Telophase

Figure 15–13 In the anaphase, the

chromotids separate into an equal number of chromosomes and the centromeres duplicate.

Telophase Figure 15–14 In the telophase,

the two new nuclei are formed.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Cytokinesis

In the final phase of mitosis, the telophase, the chromosomes continue to migrate to opposite sides of the cell (called poles). When they reach the poles, the remains of the spindle begin to disappear and new membranes are formed around the chromosomes. Two new nuclei are formed in this process (Figure 15–14). To complete the cell division, a process known as cytokinesis occurs that divides the cytoplasm in the cell. Since mitosis is involved with the division of the nucleus of the cell, cytokinesis is a separate process from mitosis. In animal cells, a crease called a cleavage furrow begins to form in the center of the cell. This crease continues to deepen until the cell membrane divides along with the cytoplasm. One nucleus goes with each divided cell membrane and cytoplasm, and the process of forming two new cells from the old cell is completed. After mitosis is complete, the new daughter cells are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell that divided to form them. After formation, the daughter cells go into interphase and the whole process of mitosis starts over. Through this continuous process, an organism grows and maintains its structure through the replacement of worn out and injured cells.

ANIMAL STEM CELLS Once fertilization has occurred, a complete cell has formed with all the genetic material necessary for developing into a complete organism. This cell, called a stem cell, is said to be a totipotent cell, meaning that the cell is capable of developing into any type of cells (Figure 15–15). Within a few hours, this cell divides into two totipotent cells, either of which could be implanted into a uterus and develop into a complete animal. Sometimes this happens naturally, resulting in identical twins. Soon the cells divide and group together to form a ball-shaped mass called the morula, where the cells divide and clump into a mass in a process called cleavage. As the cells of the morula begin to increase, they form a spherical shape called a blastula, with an outer layer and inner mass of cells. The outer layer of the blastula develops into the placenta, which attaches to the uterus and provides nutrients and other support for the fetus. The inner masses of cells form all of the different types of tissues in the body.

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ANIMAL CELLS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS

Figure 15–15 Stem cells can develop into different types of cells such as bone,

muscle, nerves, etc.

As the blastula begins to grow and develop, the cells begin to change and take on different characteristics. They begin to form different layers that later develop into the organs of the body. Like cells group together to form tissue, and the tissue that develops bone is different from the tissue that develops blood, the tissue from which muscles develop has its own unique characteristics, and so on. This process is called cell differentiation, and the cells that begin the differentiation process are called stem cells. Scientists still don’t fully understand what causes the cells and tissue to begin to differentiate. Apparently, some mechanism triggers the differentiation of cells at the proper stage of development. Scientists envision using stem cells to create new tissue to replace diseased or damaged human tissue. Growing new tissues for a specific organ could potentially cure many diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, heart disease, and other problems. If scientists are ever able to unlock the secret to the cell differentiation process, the possibilities are enormous. The use of human cell research is extremely controversial, and until issues surrounding the use of these cells are settled, the research cannot proceed unhindered.

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SUMMARY Cells are the building blocks of all life. Trillions of different cells work together to make up all of the systems comprising an animal’s body. Almost everything that happens in an animal begins at the cellular level, where all processes take place. By studying and understanding the structure, function, and reproduction of cells, you will have a better comprehension of how the systems in animal’s function.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Almost all life processes take place at the cellular level. 2. All animal cells are shaped basically the same. 3. All animal cells are microscopic. 4. Viruses are considered to be cells. 5. All animals are made up of eukaryotic cells. 6. The cell membrane encloses and protects the cell. 7. Mitochondria are not generally considered to be organelles. 8. Microfilaments are composed of protein. 9. Lysosomes provide the means for transporting material throughout the cell. 10. Growth is the result of a process called meiosis.

Fill in the Blanks 1. Cells are broadly grouped into two types: _____________ and ________________. 2. All eukaryotic cells have a relatively large structure called a ______________, composed primarily of __________, ___________, and _____________. 3. Plant and animal cells contain a thick clear liquid called _____________ that surrounds the nucleus. 4. Every eukaryotic cell contains a cell _______________, also known as the ____________ membrane. 5. Water passes through the semi-permeable membrane in a process called ____________. 6. The ability of an organism to remain stable when conditions around it change is known as __________. 7. ___________________ are organelles that serve as the storage compartments for the cell. 8. The _________________________________ is a large webbing of double membranes that transport material through the cell. 9. All growth that takes place in living organisms comes about as a result of cells increasing in ___________ or ___________.

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Discussion Questions 1. Why is understanding cells important to the producer? 2. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ? 3. Why is cytoplasm so important in the cell? 4. What is the difference between osmosis and diffusion? 5. Why is osmosis important? 6. Why is diffusion important? 7. Name four types of organelles and explain the function of each. 8. What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis? 9. List the phases of mitosis. 10. What is a stem cell? Student Learning Activities 1. Research and write a report on stem cell research. Explain why some scientists think stem cell research can help to cure some diseases. Discuss the controversy surrounding human stem cell research. 2. Research the structure of plant cells and explain how plant cells differ from animals cells. How are they alike?

CHAPTER

16

Animal Genetics

KEY TERMS fertilized egg phenotype genotype chromosomes deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) genes helix nucleotides ribonucleic acids (RNA)

differentiation allele homozygous heterozygous sow recessive codominant genes epistasis mutations

gamete zygote heritability ewe index weaning weight yearling weight most probable producing ability

growthability estimated breeding value siblings pedigree record expected progeny difference thurl sickle-hocked

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain the basic function of

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). ■ describe the function of ribonucleic

acid (RNA). ■ define allele. ■ describe how traits are passed from

parents to offspring through genetic transfer.

■ explain the concept of dominant genes

versus recessive genes. ■ discuss the concept of codominant

genes. ■ explain how computers are used to

predict genetic differences in animals. ■ explain how the sex of an animal is

determined.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ discuss how producers use the laws

of genetics to produce the type of livestock they want. ■ describe how the concept of

heritability is used in the selection of livestock. ■ tell how phenotypic and genotypic

characteristics differ.

■ explain how performance data are used

in the selection process. ■ describe how computers are used in the

modern selection process.

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f all the billions of animals in the world, no two are exactly alike. Even animals that originate from the same fertilized egg are not alike in every aspect. Although they have the same genetic makeup, one may be slightly taller, may be a little heavier, or may grow faster. Differences in animals are brought about by two groups of factors: genetic factors and environmental factors. One set of differences is the animal’s phenotype. Phenotypes are the physical appearance of the animal, such as color, size, shape, and other characteristics. The phenotype can be caused by the environmental conditions under which the animal is raised. For instance, the amount and type of feed an animal receives influence the way it looks. The amount of stress, climatic conditions, exposure to parasites, and diseases can all have an impact on the animal’s appearance and performance. Obviously, the producer has a lot of control over the animal’s environment. The other contributor to the animal’s phenotype is the genotype, or actual genetic makeup of the animal. Characteristics of individual animals are controlled by the animal’s genes, passed on by its parents (Figure 16–1). By controlling the type of animals used as breeding animals, the producer may (to some extent) also control the genotype. The phenotype is what the producer is able to observe and is used in the selection process. Through the application of the science of genetics and with the aid of computers, the producer is able to use the genotype in the process. Whatever methods the producer uses to select animals for breeding, the entire Figure 16–1 Characteristics of an animal are passed on from process is built around the concept of gene parent to offspring. transfer. Getty Images

O

GENE TRANSFER An animal’s characteristics are passed on to the animal by its parents. It gets half of its genetic makeup from each of its parents. The information about how the animal will be structured is passed along through the chromosomes contributed by each parent. Chromosomes are composed of long strands of molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is a very complex substance composed of large molecules that are capable of being put together in an almost unlimited number of ways. Segments of DNA, called genes, are connected and arranged on the chromosomes. Each segment or gene is responsible for developing a particular characteristic of the animal.

ANIMAL GENETICS

The code for how the animal is to be formed (all of its characteristics) is contained in the DNA that makes up the genes. The molecules forming the DNA have a spiral shape called a helix, which resembles a corkscrew (Figure 16–2). If this corkscrewshaped helix were to be straightened out, it would resemble a ladder with rungs where the segments fit together. The helix is composed of two halves that separate when the cell divides. At each point on the helix where the two halves are connected, different substances such as adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) are attached to each other. These substances, called nucleotides, are shaped so that each one can pair only with one specific nucleotide. Adenine (A) can pair only with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) can pair only with guanine (G). When the cell divides, the strands of DNA separate and each half replicates itself forming two strands, exactly alike. This process is called DNA replication (Figure 16–3). The messages encoded in the DNA are transferred to the rest of the cell by means of a messenger substance known as ribonucleic acids (RNA). RNA uses the model of the DNA molecule to transfer the pattern or blueprint for how the animal is to be constructed. In genetic engineering, segments of DNA are spliced into existing strands of DNA. This places new genetic information into the cell, producing characteristics that are different from what otherwise would be expected. As the embryo begins to grow and develop, the protein cells start to differentiate. This means that some of the cells begin to form muscle, some hair, some bone, some skin, and some internal organs (Figure 16–4). The process by which differentiation occurs is not fully understood.

G C

G

C

A C

G

G

C

C A

G

C

T

C A

A G

T C

G T

Thymine

C A

A G

T

G Hydrogen bonds

T

G G Guanine

T A G

C

Phosphate group A A Adenine

C

Complementary bases G

T

G

C C Cytosine

Figure 16–2 Molecules forming DNA are shaped like a spiral.

G

A

T

C

Deoxyribose sugar G

C

G

A

T

C

Delmar/Cengage Learning

C T

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Adenine

C Cytosine

Guanine

T Thymine

Deoxyribose

Phosphate

T

C

T

C

T

T

T

C

T

Delmar/Cengage Learning

C

Figure 16–3 When the two sides of the helix are separated, each side replicates

itself.

©iStockphoto

238

Figure 16–4 As the embryo begins to grow, cells differentiate into various tissues

such as hair, muscle, bone and nerves.

At conception, the chromosome halves from each parent are combined to form fully paired chromosomes, and the chromosomes from each parent are united to form the genetic code for the fertilized egg. The DNA molecules can be arranged in the gene in an almost infinite number of ways. The arrangement of molecules and how the molecules are paired at conception determine the makeup of the new animal. Every gene that comes from the male is paired with a gene of the same type from the female. For example, the gene that controls the color of the animal’s coat is made up of a pair of “coat color” genes—one from the father and one from the mother. A pair of genes that controls a specific characteristic is called an allele. If both of the genes are the same—that is, both call for a black coat or both call for a white coat—the genes are said to be homozygous and the animal will be the color the genes call for. But what happens if the gene from the father calls for a black coat and the gene from the mother calls for a white coat? In this case, the offspring’s genes are said to be heterozygous (Figure 16–5). The color of the offspring’s coat will be determined by the dominant gene; this means that one gene will override the effect of the other gene. If a white sow is mated to a black boar, the piglets probably will be black because the black gene is dominant. Each of the piglets, however, will carry a gene for white color and a gene for black color. If B represents the dominant black color and w represents the recessive white color, the pairing of the genes for the piglets will be Bw. Now suppose that the females from the litter are mated to a purebred black boar (all genes homozygous). Half of the genes from the females that control color will be B and half will be w. All of the genes from the boar will be B. Those genes from the male that match with the females’ B genes will result in a BB genotype. The offspring will be black, and they will possess genes for the black color only. Those genes from the male that match with the w female genes will result in a Bw genotype. The pigs also will be black, but they will possess genes for both the black color and the white color (Figure 16–6). If the Bw females are bred to a purebred white boar, the outcome will be different. Figure 16–5 If the offsprings’ coats are different from the Half of the female genes will be w and half parents, the offsprings’ genes are heterozygous. of the genes will be B. Because the male is a

239

©iStockphoto

ANIMAL GENETICS

CHAPTER 16

Homozygous Black BB

Heterozygous Black Bw

Bw Heterozygous Black

Bw Heterozygous Black

ww Homozygous White

Bw Heterozygous Black

ww Homozygous White

Homozygous Black Bw

BB Homozygous Black

Bw Heterozygous Black

B

ww Homozygous White

w

BB Homozygous Black

Bw Heterozygous Black

B

Bw Heterozygous Black

B

Homozygous Black BB

w

w

B

B

Heterozygous Black Bw

BB Homozygous Black

Bw Heterozygous Black

Figure 16–6 Black and white parents can produce a variety of genetic combinations.

purebred, all of his genes for color will be the same (ww). The w genes of the male that are matched with w genes of the female will result in white piglets. The B genes of the female that match with the w genes of the male will result in a Bw genotype and will produce black piglets. This is why both black pigs and white pigs can be born in the same litter. There are exceptions to the rule of dominance. Some pairs of genes may not have a gene that is dominant over the other. They are of equal power and are said to be codominant genes. A good example is found in Shorthorn cattle. Purebred Shorthorns may be red, white, or roan (Figure 16–7). Cattle that are completely red carry genes that call for red color only (RR); cattle that are completely white carry genes for white color only (WW); and cattle that are roan or spotted carry one gene for red and one for white (RW). In this case, neither the red (R) nor the (W) gene is dominant. The color of the animal will be a combination of red and white; the animal will be spotted or roan in color. These cattle can have a variety of color combinations and still be registered as purebred Shorthorn cattle.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Bw Heterozygous Black

w

Bw Heterozygous Black

w

w

Bw Heterozygous Black

B

Homozygous White ww

w

B

w

Homozygous White ww

B

Heterozygous Black Bw

240

Tusia, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

ANIMAL GENETICS

Figure 16–7 Purebred Shorthorn cattle may be all white, all red, or roan.

Color coding is a good example of how genes transfer traits. The same general principles can be applied to other traits, such as horned or polled, tall or short, and so on. However, the entire process of defining the characteristics of the animal by genetic makeup is much more complicated. For instance, genes that are not alleles (matched pairs that control a characteristic) may interact to cause an expression that is different from the coding on the genes. This interaction is called epistasis. Another factor in genetic transfer of characteristics is that of the additive expression of genes. This means that a number of different genes may be added together to produce a certain trait in an animal. For instance, the amount of milk the female produces is not controlled by a single pair of genes but, rather, by several pairs of genes. Different pairs of genes control the female’s size and body capacity, ability to produce the proper amounts of hormones, and mammary size and functioning ability. Yet, all of these factors contribute to the female’s overall ability to produce milk (Figure 16–8). The same thing may be said about the animal’s rate of gain or its ability to reproduce efficiently. Several genetically controlled factors, such as body size and structure, can affect the animal’s ability to grow rapidly and efficiently. A heifer’s pelvic size, shape of the genital tract, and output of sex hormones are all controlled by different genes, and are all factors in reproduction efficiency. Occasionally an accident will happen within the genetic material and traits are not passed on as intended. In this case, the animal will take on characteristics unlike the parents. For example, animals sometimes are born with extra legs or two heads. These are referred to as mutations. Sometimes mutations

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©iStockphoto/Dan Driedger

242

Courtesy of American Polled Hereford Association

Figure 16–8 A wide variety of genes control the amount of milk a mother produces.

Figure 16–9 The Polled Hereford breed was developed from

mutations.

can be used to introduce new kinds of animals. A good example is the Polled Hereford breed of cattle. Hereford cattle are naturally horned. Around the turn of the century, an Iowa Hereford breeder named Warren Gammon noticed that Hereford calves sometimes were born without horns. In these calves, the gene that transmitted the horned characteristic had failed. He began collecting these calves from other breeders, and he used these animals to begin the Polled Hereford breed (Figure 16–9).

THE DETERMINATION OF THE ANIMAL’S SEX

Whether a mammal is male or female is a factor controlled by the matching of chromosomes from the mother and father and is determined at conception. Each body cell contains one pair of chromosomes called the sex chromosomes. Each gamete (sex cell from the parent) contains one half of the sex chromosome from the parent. The female chromosome usually is referred to as XX. When the chromosome divides and half goes into the gamete (egg), both of the chromosome halves are the same (X) (Figure 16–10). The male chromosome is referred to as XY, and when divided into the gametes (sperm), contains either X or Y chromosome halves.

ANIMAL GENETICS

Sex Determination In Animals

XY

XX

Male Germ Cell

Female Germ Cell

Y

X

X

X

Y

XX Female Zygote

Y

X

X

Egg

Sperm

X

X

X

XY Male Zygote

Figure 16–10 The sex of an animal is determined by the combinations of X and Y chromosomes.

When the two halves (in the sperm and the egg) are united at conception, the zygote (fertilized egg) will be either XX or XY chromosomes. The zygotes containing the XX sex chromosome develop into females, and the zygotes containing the XY sex chromosome develop into males. For this reason, the number of male or female offspring is dependent on the male gamete.

USING GENETICS IN THE SELECTION PROCESS The selection of livestock by physical appearance is discussed in Chapter 17. The modern producer has a number of genetically based tools to use in the selection of livestock. One such measure is known as heritability. Heritability is the measure of how much of a trait was passed on to the offspring by genes—how much of a trait is inherited and how much is attributable to the environment in which the animal lives. Heritability measurement varies from zero to one. The higher the number, the stronger is the degree of heritability. Figure 16–11 lists the heritability estimates for traits in agricultural animals. Notice that the heritability for milking ability in sheep is .25. This means that the variation among different sheep in milking ability is caused by factors other than genetics. These factors might include environmental factors such as quantity and quality of feed available to the ewe and climatic conditions. Obviously, traits that are more highly heritable are the traits that the producer can use in selecting breeding stock.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

X

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HERITABILITY ESTIMATES FOR BEEF, SWINE, AND SHEEP BEEF SWINE SHEEP Heritability Heritability Heritability Estimates Trait Estimates Trait Estimates Trait Birth weight .40 Litter size (weaned) .12 Number born .13 Weaning weight .25 Weaning weight .15 Weaning weight .30 (3 weeks) (90 days) Yearling weight .40 Number of nipples .60 Yearling weight .40 Feedlot gain .45 Age at 220 lb. .30 Fleece weight .40 Efficiency of gain .40 Length at 220 lb. .60 Milking ability .25 Fat thickness .45 Backfat thickness at .50 Rib eye area .53 220 lb. Rib eye area .70 Percentage carcass .45 muscle Figure 16–11 Heritability estimates indicate the likelihood of a parent’s passing along a particular trait to its offspring.

PERFORMANCE DATA Through data collection and computer analysis, the records of how an animal has performed and the analysis of how the animal’s ancestry and progeny have performed can be a valuable tool in determining the animal’s use as a breeding animal. Following are some of the measures of performance that can be used in selecting breeding animals. Indexes An index is a measure of how well an animal has performed as compared to the animals raised with it. This can be a measure of the genetic differences in the animals because the animals presumably are raised under the same conditions and are treated alike. An index is measured based on a scale of 100, with 100 being the group average. The formula for calculating an index is Index 

Individual Animal Weight  100 Average Group Weight

For instance, if a group of calves are weaned when they are 205 days old and the average weight of the group is 583 pounds, an index of 100 is equal to 583 pounds. If one of the calves weighs 614 pounds, the calf is said to have a 205-day weaning weight index of 105.3 (Figure 16–12). This means that the animal has outperformed its peers. If a calf has a 205-day weaning index of 82, this means that the calf has performed only 82 percent as well as the other calves with which it was raised. Other indexes are used for comparing animals on yearling weight, birth weight, and other measures. Factors such as the age of the mother also can be figured into the formula

Delmar/Cengage Learning

244

©iStockphoto/Anthony Ladd

ANIMAL GENETICS

Figure 16–12 Weaning weights are used to compare calves within the same herd.

to give a more accurate comparison of the animal’s performance. Remember, though, that an index is good only for comparing animals within their own groups. Comparing indexes of animals that were raised in separate groups is of little value because the animals almost assuredly were raised under dissimilar conditions. Measurements of Mothering Ability One of the most valuable traits that a female agricultural animal can possess is being able to produce enough milk to feed her young. Mothers that produce a sufficient quantity of milk will wean young that are larger and faster growing than those from mothers that milk poorly. This is true for all agricultural animals whether sheep, cattle, or swine. The most probable producing ability (MPPA) is a measure of a cow’s ability to wean a superior calf. It is figured using the 205-day weaning weight index and the number of calves the cow has produced. MPPA is an indication not only of the cow’s ability to pass growthability on to her calf but also her ability to produce enough milk and to care for her calf well enough to wean a large calf. A similar measurement is used for pigs. This measure, called the Sow Productivity Index, takes into account factors such as the number of piglets born alive, the average for the other sows in the herd, and the 21-day litter weight (for both the sow and the herd). The term for this measurement in sheep is the Ewe Index, which takes into account the ewe’s ability to wean above-average lambs. The most probable producing ability (MPPA) for cows, the Sow Index for pigs, and the Ewe Index for sheep are all ways of putting the mothering ability of individual animals into numbers so they can be compared.

245

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Estimated Breeding Values Cattle breed associations use a measure referred to as the estimated breeding value, which is an estimate of the breeding value of an animal compared to other animals. It is computed through a complicated formula using the animal’s own performance data as well as that of the animal’s half brothers and half sisters. Through artificial insemination, a given animal can have a large number of siblings (brothers and sisters). Data on a large number of siblings can be useful in determining how well the desired characteristics are passed on by the animal’s ancestors. The larger the number of siblings and the larger the amount of data on both siblings and ancestors, the more accurate the estimated breeding value will be. The accuracy also is used to determine how much emphasis a producer will place on an animal’s estimated breeding value in the selection process. Measures of performance are summarized on the animal’s pedigree record, which is a part of the animal’s registration papers. Notice that all the types of data that have been discussed are on the record for the producer to use in evaluating the animal. Expected Progeny Difference (EPD) The expected progeny difference (EPD) is used to predict the differences that can be expected in the offspring of a given sire over those of other bulls used as a reference. The data for calculating EPDs are obtained from the performance data of the progeny from the bulls. This is another example of how artificial insemination is useful in determining the desirability of a sire because of the tremendous number of offspring made possible through artificial insemination (Figure 16–13). These data can be tremendously helpful to a producer who wishes to increase or improve certain traits in the calves produced. For example, if a bull has an EPD of 18, his offspring can be expected to have a weaning weight of 18 pounds more than the average bull of the same breed. Of course, the bull may have calves that are below average weight, but it should be expected that most of his offspring will have higher weaning weights than average for the breed. Linear Classification A modern tool that dairy producers use in selecting replacement animals is a process known as linear classification. This process combines the use of visual and genetic selection. Cows are evaluated and classified by assigning a value between 1 and 50 for certain traits that are considered to be of importance to the animal’s production ability. The Holstein-Friesian Association uses 17 functional traits for evaluation and assigns such a number to each trait (Figure 16–14). For instance, a wide pelvis (thurl) is related

ANIMAL GENETICS

247

Accelerated Genetics Linnear Profile EPD

C.E.H ACC.

EPD

C.EC ACC.

Birth Wt. EPD ACC.

Wean. Wt. EPD ACC.

Yearl Wt. EPD ACC.

Mat. C.E.H EPD ACC

Mat. C.E.C EPD ACC.

Mat. Wean. Wt. EPD ACC.

EPD

Mat. Milk ACC.

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Figure 16–13 Expected progeny differences (EPDs) are used in determining which sire to use in an artificial insemination

program.

to ease of calving, so a wide pelvis is desirable in an animal that is to be used as a replacement animal. An animal that is appraised as having an extremely narrow pelvis might be given a point score of 1 to 5 points, depending on how severely narrow the thurl is. A cow with an extremely wide pelvis (thurl) may be assigned 45–50 points. A score of 50 does not necessarily mean that the animal has the most desirable form of the particular trait, though. To be comfortable in walking and standing, an animal must have strong legs. The rear legs must have the proper curve, or set, to provide the most flex and cushion as the animal walks. However, a cow with too much set to the rear legs is not desirable because too much stress will be placed on the muscles and tendons of the legs. A post-legged cow (with straight, “posty” rear legs) will be given 1 to 5 points (Figure 16–15); a cow with an intermediate set to the rear legs will be given 25 points; and a cow with an extreme amount of set, called sickle-hocked, will be given 45–50 points. In this case, the most desirable condition is given the midpoint score of 25.

Courtesy of Accelerated Genetics

SIMMENTAL

Courtesy of Holstein-Friesian Association

248 Figure 16–14 The Holstein-Friesian Association considers 17 functional traits in evaluating animals.

©iStockphoto/Chris Elwell

ANIMAL GENETICS

Figure 16–15 An animal with legs that are too straight will be given a score of

1–5 points. This heifer is too straight on her rear legs.

The animals are scored periodically by a professional evaluator who has been trained by the breed association. These evaluators come to the dairy producer’s farm and evaluate each animal for a set fee. Information from the animals then is compiled, and the producer receives a data sheet on the linear classification of the animals. The producer can use this information to select bulls for artificially inseminating the cows. For instance, if the cows in the herd have problems with the structure of their feet and legs, a bull is selected that is known for siring daughters with strong and structurally correct legs. The offspring from the cows should have stronger feet and legs than their mothers and can be used as replacement heifers. The Holstein Association lists the following advantages of the linear classification system: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Provides unbiased and accurate evaluations of cows. Defines types of trait trends from one generation to another. Gives the producer a clear understanding of each animal’s strengths and weaknesses. Compares the producer’s herd type pattern to breed averages. Adds trait appraisals to official pedigrees. Provides a basis for mating services.

The selection process that modern producers use is truly based on science. Principles of genetics are used as well as the findings of research studies that have discovered physical characteristics

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of animals that indicate the potential of the animal. Computer technology has greatly enhanced the producer’s ability to predict how well an animal will perform, as well as the performance of the animal’s progeny.

SUMMARY Through an understanding of genetics, producers can better choose animals to use in a breeding program. Traits that are desirable are passed from generation to generation through gene transfer. By knowing which traits are dominant and which are recessive, producers can develop a program that will produce the type of animals that will pass along desired characteristics to their offspring. Although we know a lot about how genes are transferred, we still are a long way from understanding how the process works. When we unlock the mechanisms of gene transfer, the way we select and produce animals will be revolutionized.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Genotypical differences in animals are controlled by the animal’s genes passed on by its parents. 2. Chromosomes are composed of long strands of molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), composed of large molecules that are capable of an almost unlimited number of ways in which they can be put together. 3. If both genes are the same from the parent animals, they are called heterozygous; if they are different, the genes of the offspring are said to be homozygous. 4. Genetic dominance means that one gene will override the effects of the other gene. 5. Some pairs of genes do not have one gene that is dominant over the other; they are of equal power and are called codominant. 6. All animal characteristics, such as milk production, are controlled by only a single pair of genes. 7. Whether the animal is male or female is controlled by the matching of chromosomes from the mother and father and is determined three to five days after conception. 8. In heritability measurements, the lower the number (from zero to one), the stronger is the degree of heritability. 9. Indexes are used to compare common characteristics of animals in different regions. 10. Mothering ability has to do with the mother’s ability to protect her young, not with physical features such as milking ability. 11. The Most Probable Producing Ability (MPPA) for cows, the Sow Index for pigs, and the Ewe Index for sheep are all ways of putting the mothering ability of individual animals into numbers so they can be compared.

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12. Expected progeny difference records are used to evaluate bulls used for breeding, but not to evaluate cows. 13. Linear classification combines the use of visual and genetic selection. 14. In linear classification a score of 50 is the best. 15. Linear classifications are based entirely on the evaluation of an individual; computers are never used. Fill in the Blanks 1. Phenotypes are the ____________ appearance of the animal such as color, ____________, shape, and other ____________ and can be caused by the ____________ conditions under which the animal is ____________. 2. DNA replication happens when the cell divides and the ____________ of DNA separate and each half ____________ itself so that two strands, exactly ____________ ____________, are ____________. 3. At conception, the ____________ halves from each ____________ are combined to form fully ____________ chromosomes, and the chromosomes from each ____________ are ____________ to form the ____________ code for the fertilized egg. 4. In pig coat color, the B genes of the female that match with the w genes of the male will result in a ____________ gene and will produce pigs that are ____________. 5. Epistasis involves genes that are not ____________ (matched ____________ that control a ____________) that interact to cause an expression that is different from the ____________ on the ____________. 6. The zygotes containing the XX sex ____________ develop into ____________, and the zygotes containing the XY sex ____________ develop into ____________. 7. Heritability is the ____________ of how much of a ____________ was ____________ on to the ____________ by ____________. 8. Through data collection and ____________ analysis, the records of how an animal has performed and the ____________ of how the animal’s ancestry and ____________ have performed can be a valuable ____________ in determining the animal’s use as a ____________ animal. 9. The Sow Productivity Index takes into account factors such as the ____________ of piglets born ____________, the ____________ for the other sows in the herd, and the ____________-day litter ____________ (for both the ____________ and the ____________). 10. The estimated breeding value for cattle is computed through a complicated formula using the animal’s own ____________ ____________ data, as well as that of the animal’s half ____________ and half ____________. 11. Measures of performance are ____________ on the animal’s ____________ record, which is a part of the animal’s ____________ ____________. 12. EPDs are another example of how artificial ____________ is useful in the determination of the ____________ of a ____________ because of the tremendous number of ____________ made possible by using ____________ ____________.

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13. In linear classification, cows are ____________ and ____________ by assigning a value between 1 and ____________ for certain traits that are considered to be of importance to the animal’s ____________ ____________. 14. The producer can use the information from linear classification to select ____________ for use in ____________ ____________ the cows. 15. Principles of ____________ are used in selection processes as well as the findings of ____________ ____________ that have discovered ____________ characteristics of animals that indicate the ____________ of the animal.

Discussion Questions 1. What is the difference between an animal’s genotype and its phenotype? 2. What is DNA? What purpose does it serve? 3. What is a helix? 4. What part does RNA play in passing traits from parent to offspring? 5. What is meant by a dominant gene and a recessive gene? 6. Explain how a red Shorthorn bull mated with a white Shorthorn cow will produce a spotted or roan-colored calf. 7. If a male rabbit that is black in color (pure gene for the dominant black color BB) is bred to a white female rabbit that has the pure recessive gene WW for the white color, what percent of the young would you expect to be black? 8. If a black male rabbit with the gene Bw is bred to a white female rabbit (ww), what percent of the young would you expect to be black? What percent should be white? 9. How is the sex of an animal determined? 10. What does heritability measure? 11. If a calf has a weaning weight of 478 pounds and the other calves that were raised with it have an average weaning weight of 634 pounds, what will be the weaning weight index for the calf? 12. What measure of mothering ability is used for cows? for sheep? for swine? 13. What do the letters EBV stand for? How is this measure used? 14. What is meant by the expected progeny difference? 15. What is meant by linear evaluation? 16. Explain how the use of artificial insemination and the use of computers have greatly aided in the selection process.

Student Learning Activities 1. Choose a species of agricultural animal such as sheep, cattle, swine, or horses. List the physical characteristics you think are of economic importance to that type of animal. Decide whether these characteristics are influenced more by genetics or by environment.

ANIMAL GENETICS

2. Obtain copies of the pedigree papers of several animals of the same breed. Compare the animals based on their pedigrees and performance records. 3. Write to the American Breeders Society or to Select Sires to obtain a copy of their dairy cattle sire catalog. From a dairy producer, obtain copies of the linear classification data from the dairy’s herd. Using the data on the females from the records and the data on the different sires in the catalogs, choose the most desirable sires for the cows in that particular herd.

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The Scientific Selection of Agricultural Animals

KEY TERMS natural selection reproductive efficiency fertile growthability efficiency performance data Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS) PSE pork loin eye pin nipples blind nipples

inverted nipples gilts infantile vulva vulva testicles viable sheaths ligaments pasterns splayfooted pigeon-toed cow-hocked

cannon bone backfat rib eye frame size hip height retail cuts double muscling concentrate pelvic capacity sex character brisket cutability

carcass merit style soundness smoothness type balance muscling finish yearling ram conformation vacuum packaging

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain the concept of natural

selection. ■ explain how humans have influenced

the development of animals.

■ cite examples of how problems have

developed in animals because of the selection process controlled by humans.

■ illustrate how scientific research has

influenced the development of animals by humans.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ justify the selection of different animal

traits by the producer. ■ trace the stages of development in

modern swine. ■ describe problems associated with

overly muscled pigs. ■ interpret the reasoning behind the

selection for sex character.

■ rationalize the selection of animals for

structural soundness. ■ describe the physical characteristics

associated with growth in animals. ■ describe the modern beef and swine

animal.

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umans have always selected the type of animals they want to produce. As was discussed in Chapter 7, breeds were developed because humans chose to select animals with certain characteristics for use in breeding. As breeds developed and animals bred true for the characteristics of that breed, animals were selected for desirable traits within that breed (Figure 17–1). Throughout history, animal producers have selected animals based on the traits they thought would improve the next generation of animals and would be more profitable for the producer. Only in recent history has there been a truly scientific basis for the selection of animals. In the wild, animals developed traits that would help them survive in their environment. Animals having traits that aided them in survival stood a better chance of living and reproducing than did animals without those traits. For example, wild pigs that had the longest tusks, the thickest hide, and the fiercest nature had a better chance at survival than those with small tusks, a thin hide, and a docile nature (Figure 17–2). Wild cattle that could run fast for long distances and had long horns to defend themselves stood a better chance of evading or fighting off predators. Only the strongest animals survive in the wild, and they are the ones that breed and pass along their characteristics to the next generation. This process is known as natural selection. In domestication, animals no longer need many of the characteristics that increase their chance of survival in the wild. To the contrary, many of the traits that were essential for survival in the wild are a great disadvantage to animals in domestication. For instance, the fierce nature of a wild pig is far less desirable than the docile nature of the domesticated pig. Cattle no longer need to be able to run swiftly or to possess long horns for defense. These traits have been bred out of domesticated agricultural animals. Through selective breeding, humans have attempted to produce those animals that do well in a domesticated state. Obviously, the conditions under which the animals are to be raised (the environment) dictate the characteristics that an animal needs to thrive. For example, during the nineteenth century, the longhorn breed of cattle was developed in Texas. This breed needed to retain some of Figure 17–1 As breeds were developed, animals were the characteristics of wild animals such as selected for desirable characteristics. long horns for defense and the toughness to ©iStockphoto/Mike Dabell

H

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©iStockphoto/Tamara Strelnikova

survive under harsh conditions (Figure 17–3). During the time when range land was almost limitless and labor was in very short supply, this type of cattle met the requirements of producers very well. These animals could tolerate living on an open range and foraging for food with very little help from people. Indeed, longhorns still play a part in some cattle operations, but most situations in modern animal production call for a completely different operation. To meet the demands of the modern livestock industry, animals are selected based on what is desired by the people who produce them and by those who buy them. Of the animals raised for food, there are basically two categories of animals: those that are produced for slaughter and those that produce offspring to be raised for slaughter. Many considerations go into selection of the type of animals for these two categories. Consumers have to be pleased with the type of product they find at the meat counter. To make a profit, meat packers have to approve of the carcasses sent to the meat packing plant (Figure 17–4). The buyers want animals that will remain healthy until they reach the slaughterhouse. The growers want animals that can gain weight quickly at an acceptable cost and with a minimum of care. The breeders want an animal that can reproduce efficiently. All of these criteria make the selection of the modern animal a complicated process. There are three basic traits that are desirable in the modern agricultural animal: reproductive efficiency, growthability, and efficiency. Reproductive efficiency means that breeding animals must be selected that produce offspring at a regular rate. If animals are producing young at a steady rate, producers are more likely to make a profit than they would if the animals produced fewer young (Figure 17–5). This means that the males must be fertile (produce

Figure 17–2 Wild pigs have long

tusks for self-defense. Domestic pigs have no use for tusks.

Don Farrall/Getty Images

Figure 17–3 Nineteenth-century longhorns retained some of their wild animal

characteristics to be able to survive under harsh conditions.

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Adam Crowley/Getty Images

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Figure 17–4 Meat packers want carcasses that will make

©iStockphoto/Maurice van der Velden

a profit.

Figure 17–5 Animals must produce and raise young at

a steady rate.

sufficient numbers of healthy sperm); they must be healthy, aggressive breeders; and they must live a long, productive life. Females must be able to come into estrus regularly, conceive readily, produce an adequate number of healthy offspring, and produce enough milk to ensure that the young are weaned at an adequate size and weight. Growthability refers to an animal’s ability to grow rapidly. The faster an animal grows, the more likely the producer will be to make a profit from growing the animal. This trait is inherited from the parents and is influenced greatly by the type of care the producer offers. Efficiency is the animal’s ability to gain on the least amount of feed and other necessities. The producer sees that the animals are well cared for and fed properly. Animals that gain the most on the least amount of feed are the most desirable. If one steer can gain a pound for every 9 pounds of feed it consumes and another steer gains a pound of body weight for every 8½ pounds of feed it consumes, the steer that requires less feed per pound of gain is said to be more efficient. These characteristics have always been the important traits that producers have wanted. In years past, producers had a much more difficult time predicting which animals would possess these traits. Now, as a result of modern research, producers are able to predict with much more accuracy which animals will possess the desired traits. For example, research has shown that certain physical characteristics of animals will predict the reproductive capability of an animal. Breed associations have developed a bank of data on the performance of the offspring of a particular sire or dam. This has been brought about through the use of artificial insemination and embryo transfer. As discussed in the previous chapter, performance data have been compiled into values that indicate an animal’s usefulness as a breeding animal.

THE SELECTION OF SWINE Prior to the 1950s, swine were raised primarily for lard. People used the lard not only for frying and cooking food but also in the manufacture of cosmetics and lubricants. With the advent of cooking oils made from vegetable oils and cosmetics and lubricants made from petroleum-based synthetics, the demand for lard was reduced dramatically. Efforts then were directed toward developing a hog

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2. PSE pork. Pigs with extremely heavy muscle tend to produce lower-quality pork. Although they may have a large quantity of muscling, the meat has little or no intermuscle fat (marbling), is pale in color, and is soft and watery (exudative). These characteristics account for the name of the condition known as Pale, Soft, and Exudative (PSE) pork. Consumers reject this type of pork because the pale color is not appealing, and when cooked, the meat is dry and lacking in taste.

Figure 17–6 Selective breeding

has brought many changes to the form of the swine. Bottom: 1960s classic outline; Middle: In the 1970s, a different form was developed; Top: The modern swine is designed to be muscular and carry the proper amount of finish.

3. Reproductive efficiency is lessened. Heavily muscled, tightly wound boars have problems moving about and mounting females that are in heat. In addition, their sperm count is often very low. These conditions make them less desirable as herd sires. Females that are too heavily muscled are less fertile and have problems conceiving. Those that do become pregnant often have problems farrowing because the birth canal is bound so tightly with muscling that it cannot expand properly. Also, the number of piglets born tends to be fewer than those from lessmuscular females. In an effort to correct these problems, during the 1970s producers developed long, tall, flatmuscled pigs. The idea was to produce animals that could move freely and reproduce efficiently. The

Figure 17–7 This pig has Porcine Stress Syndrome. Note

the bulging muscles.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

1. Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS). Extremely heavy muscled pigs are associated with a condition known as Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS). Apparently this condition is genetic and is passed on to the offspring by the parents. Pigs suffering from PSS have very little tolerance to stress associated with hot weather, moving about, and some management practices. When put under such stress, animals with this condition have muscle tremors and twitching, red splotches develop on their underside, and they suffer sudden death (Figure 17–7). Obviously, this condition in hogs is not in the best interests of the pigs or the producer.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

to produce meat instead of lard. Pigs that were used for breeding were especially selected for their degree of muscling. The idea was to produce an animal with the maximum amount of meat and the minimum amount of fat. These efforts culminated in the late 1960s and early 1970s with what has been referred to as the “super pig” (Figure 17–6). Pigs were selected for huge, round, bulging hams and overall thickness of muscling. Although producers were successful in producing a very lean pig that had a lot of muscle, some problems arose with the highly muscled, extremely lean pigs. This type of pig failed to be the “ideal” type for three reasons:

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©iStockphoto/Barbara Sauder

market emphasis was on pigs that were extremely long and tall and could move freely. Pigs with extreme bulge and flare to their muscle pattern were highly discriminated against. The tall, flatmuscled pigs had greater resistance to stress and could reproduce more efficiently. Boars were more efficient breeders, and sows had larger litters. Although this type of pig improved reproductive efficiency, problems were encountered with carcass desirability. The amount of muscle on these animals did not suit the demands of Figure 17–8 Pork loins must be acceptable to consumers. the packers. Loin eye areas (an indication of the overall amount of muscle in the carcass) began to be unacceptably small. Consumers demand that loins be of an acceptable size (Figure 17–8). In addition, the growth rate and feed efficiency of these pigs were lower than the producers wanted. Market conditions also influenced the type of pig that was needed. Added production costs demanded that producers raise a more efficient pig. In modern swine operations, the three aspects of the swine production industry that make money for the producer are (1) reproductive efficiency, (2) growthability, and (3) carcass quality. Of these, carcass quality is third and least important. With this information in mind, it is easy to understand why the shift is toward the modern type of hog. Beginning in the 1980s, the emphasis on selection in pigs was on what was termed the “high-volume pig”: very wide down the top, especially at the shoulders. Producers wanted pigs that were deep and widely sprung at the ribs and deep in the flank and belly. The reason was that this type of pig had a lot of room in the body cavity for the internal organs such as the heart and lungs. An animal with larger internal organs seems to grow faster and remain healthier. Also, in a radical change from years past, pigs were selected that had large, loose bellies capable of holding large amounts of feed. These animals are more efficient in their intake of feed and in the conversion of feed to body weight. In addition, pigs with larger bellies will produce more bacon. A wide-topped, deep-sided animal has more capacity and internal volume for the internal organs such as the heart, lung, and digestive tract. This type of animal is a “better doing animal” in that it should have a higher rate of gain than a narrow-topped, shallow-sided animal. The modern market hog has many traits similar to those of the 1980s pig. In the 1990s, the trend was toward a leaner, more muscular pig. Emphasis was on leanness and pigs that had little wastage in the carcasses. Some of the same problems were encountered in the 1960s. Consumers complained that the sausages were too dry and some fat was needed to flavor the

Delmar/Cengage Learning

THE SCIENTIFIC SELECTION OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

Figure 17–9 The modern trend is toward pigs that are level-topped, have high

capacity, and carry some backfat. pork. Consequently, the modern trend is toward pigs that are level-topped, have high capacity, and carry some backfat. This type of pig also has greater reproductive potential (Figure 17–9).

THE SELECTION OF BREEDING HOGS As mentioned, earlier, the factors in swine that increase profitability in raising pigs are reproductive efficiency, growthiness, and carcass merit. Of these, reproductive efficiency and growthiness are by far the two most important. With these factors in mind, breeding hogs are evaluated for characteristics that best combine these factors. To be reproductively efficient, a female must be feminine—that is, she must look like a female. The same substances (hormones) that control the reproductive cycle also account for the development of sex characteristics. The sex characteristics, therefore, are an indication that the female is producing a large enough quantity of hormones to cause the female to conceive efficiently. A producer can use several indicators of femininity to select females that are reproductively efficient. The underline should be well defined—that is, the teats should be large and easily seen (Figure 17–10). There should be at least six pairs of prominent and evenly spaced teats. If the teats are too close together, there may not be enough surrounding mammary tissue for good milk production. Pin, blind, or inverted nipples should be avoided. Pin nipples are very tiny nipples that are much smaller than the other nipples on the underline. These may not function well enough to feed the young pigs. Blind nipples are nipples that fail to mature and have no opening. Obviously, they have little use, as they

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bierchen, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

262

Figure 17–10 The teats should be large and easily seen, and there should be at least six on each side.

are nonfunctional. Inverted nipples appear to have a crater in the center and are not functional. Usually, a female that is producing enough female hormones will have the proper underline to efficiently feed the young she bears. Gilts and sows should look like females—they should have a head shaped like a female’s and not like a boar’s. Although all pigs selected for breeding should have a large, broad head, gilts should not have the massive head that is characteristic of the boar. Another defect that adversely affects reproduction is an infantile vulva. This condition is characterized by a tiny vulva in a breeding-age gilt. This makes breeding very difficult, and conception rates usually are poor. A gilt with an infantile vulva should be culled from the herd. Gilts should be selected that have large, normally formed vulvas. Boars should appear massive, rugged, and masculine (Figure 17–11). The testicles should be large and well-developed inside a scrotum that is well-attached. Research has shown that the larger the male’s testicles, the more viable sperm he will produce and the more aggressive he will be in breeding. Large, pendulous, or swollen sheaths should be avoided, as these characteristics can lead to breeding problems.

Courtesy of ARS

Structural Soundness

Figure 17–11 Boars should appear massive, rugged, and

masculine.

Structural soundness refers to the skeletal system and how well the bones support the animal’s body. Bone growth, size, and shape can have quite an effect on the animal’s well-being. Animals that are structured well are more comfortable as they move about or stand in one place. Structural soundness

also may affect reproductive efficiency. Boars that have problems moving freely are less likely to be interested in breeding than boars that move freely and are comfortable. Also, boars that stand too straight on their legs will have problems mounting females in the mating process. The vast majority of today’s hogs are raised on concrete and should be selectively bred to be comfortable living on the hard surface. Concrete floors are much easier to keep clean and can be kept Figure 17–12 Structural defects are more sanitary than wood or dirt floors. Structural defects are ampliamplified by the effect of standing fied by the effect of standing and walking on concrete (Figure 17–12). and walking on concrete. This pig is Soreness, stiffness, and pain in moving greatly reduce reproductive too straight on his rear legs. ability. In addition, pigs that have problems standing and moving on concrete usually do not live as long and are not as productive as structurally correct pigs that are more comfortable on concrete. A skeletal structure that allows a pig to be comfortable on concrete will have a topline that is almost level. At one time, pigs were selected for a uniform arch down the topline; however, pigs with a strongly arched back usually have steep rumps and straight shoulders. As Figure 17–13A shows, the scapula and humerus (shoulder and front leg bone) are more vertical and provide less flex and cushion than the level-topped, more structurally correct pig in Figure 17–13B. Note the Aitch bone Scapula vertical position of the aitch bone and femur (hip and rear leg bones) of the pig in Figure 17–13A, as opposed to the same bones that are more nearly parallel to the ground in the pig in Figure 17–13B. Again, bones parallel to the ground add more cushion and flex as the animal walks. If these bones are closer Pastern Humerus to being vertical to the floor, the ends of the Cannon bones will jar when the animal walks. This will eventually cause discomfort to the aniA mal. On the other hand, if these bones are Aitch bone closer to being parallel with the floor, they Scapula will act more as a hinge. The ligaments of the joints will absorb more of the shock of walking, and walking will have less of a jarring effect to the bones. These animals will be more comfortable walking on concrete. Pasterns (ankle bones) that are too vertical cause too much of a jarring effect to Humerus the skeletal system as the animal walks. Cannon Conversely, the pasterns should not slope Pastern so much that they are weak. Bones should B be large in diameter rather than small and Figure 17–13 The skeletal structure of a high-arched pig refined. Larger-diameter bones are stronger, (A) is more vertical and provides less flex and cushion than the and research has shown that animals with level-topped pig (B). larger-diameter bones tend to grow faster.

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Anat-oli, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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Figure 17–14 This pig is splayfooted.

Also, note the unevenly shaped toes.

The toes of the animal’s feet should be of approximately the same size. Toes that are uneven (most commonly a small inside toe) indicate structural unsoundness. This inherited defect causes misalignment of the feet, weakens the pasterns, and causes an abnormal amount of weight to be placed on the outside toes. This understandably can cause a great deal of discomfort to the animal. Legs, both front and rear, should be placed squarely under the animal. Front feet that are turned out (splayfooted) (Figure 17-14) or turned in (pigeon-toed) should be avoided, as should rear feet that are splayed out (cow-hocked) (Figure 17–15) or turned in. The pig should move out with a long, easy stride. As the animal walks, the rear foot should be placed about where the front feet were placed. Pigs that take short, choppy steps (goose-stepping) are either structurally unsound, muscle-bound, or both.

Growthiness

Eric Isselee, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

In selecting the modern animal, a lot of emphasis is placed on capacity. Preference should be given to those animals that are wide down the top and deep in the side. The animal should be wide between the front legs and have a wide chest floor. The reasoning is that those animals that have greater dimensions in the side, down the top, and through the chest have more room for the vital organs such as the heart and lungs. In addition, pigs with a large, loose belly have a greater capacity for holding feed and, thus, gain more rapidly. The ribs should be long and well-arched. The rib cage should be rectangular; that is, the fore rib should be about as long as the rear rib. Again, this is an indication that the body cavity has adequate room to house the vital organs. Other growth indicators are length of cannon bone and length of neck. Research studies have shown that animals having longer cannon bones are later maturing and grow more rapidly. Also, the longer-necked animals have been shown to have more growth potential. Big-headed, broad-skulled pigs that have longer distances between their ears and between their eyes also have been found to be more efficient gainers.

Figure 17–15 This pig is cow-hocked.

Carcass As was pointed out earlier, in years past an overemphasis was placed on thickness and degree of muscling in hogs. Muscling in the modern pig should be smooth and loose. The best indicator of overall muscling is the amount of muscle in the hams. Remember—hams are three-dimensional; that is, they have length and width as well as thickness

THE SELECTION OF MARKET BEEF ANIMALS Consumers play an important role in deterFigure 17–16 The best indicator of overall muscling is the mining what type of beef animal is raised for amount of muscle in the hams. Total volume of muscle is slaughter. They usually want beef that is tenindicated by length, width, and depth. der, flavorful, and affordable (Figure 17–17). To produce this type of product, the right type of animal must be produced. Tenderness and taste are both related to the age of the animal. Most of the beef sold in the supermarket as retail cuts come from a Choice grade of beef. This means that the animal has reached a degree of maturity where it begins to deposit fat in the muscle. As animals grow and mature, fat is deposited differently. In young animals, most of the energy from feed goes into the growth of bone and muscle so the animal can grow larger. When the animal matures, growth of bones and muscles ceases and the animal begins to utilize energy from feed to deposit fat. Fat is first deposited in the body cavity of the animal. This serves to provide energy storage and also to help cushion the internal organs. As the body cavity reaches its peak in terms of fat deposit, the animal begins to deposit fat under the skin. When a certain level of backfat is reached, fat is deposited between the muscles and finally inside the muscles. These intermuscular fat deposits, called marbling, are what give the meat its flavor. Carcasses are graded largely on the amount of fat deposited in the muscles. If fed properly, cattle usually reach the proper stage of fatness or finish when they are about 2 years of age. At this age, the animals are generally still young enough to be tender. The consumer does not want cuts of meat that have a lot of excess fat, so the aim Figure 17–17 Consumers want beef that is tender, is to produce animals that will put marbling into flavorful, and affordable. the meat with minimum backfat on the carcass.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

(Figure 17–16). Pigs with short, thick, bulging hams should be avoided and preference given to pigs whose hams get their volume in length from tail head to hock and width across the rump. The smoother-muscled pigs move more freely and easily. In addition, gilts with this type of muscling will farrow easier than will females that are so muscle-bound that the pelvis cannot give enough to allow pigs to pass easily through the birth canal.

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Courtesy of Calvin Alford, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

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Figure 17–18 Rib eyes larger than

15 square inches may be too big for some consumers.

In addition, consumers are choosy about the size of the meat cuts. If the animal is too large when slaughtered, the carcass may yield cuts that are too large. Consumers seem to want steaks that one person can consume in one meal. This means that carcasses with a rib eye larger than 15 square inches may be too large for the average consumer (Figure 17–18). To be of the proper size at slaughter, animals have to be the proper size when they begin to mature and lay down fat within the muscles. The size of the animal at maturity depends on the frame size of the animal. Frame size refers to the skeletal size of an animal at a given age. Small-framed animals mature earlier than do large-framed animals, and they deposit fat in the muscle at a smaller size. A small-framed animal (frame score 1) will probably grade choice around 750–850 pounds, while a large-framed animal (frame score 7) will usually have to weigh 1,350 pounds or more to grade choice. The numerical score for frame size is determined by measuring the height of an animal at the hip at a certain age. Figure 17–19 is a table giving the classification of frame scores by hip height and age, for males and females. The base point is 45 inches hip height at 12 months of age for a frame score of 3. Allow 2 inches for each frame score at the same age. Allow 1 inch per month from 5 to 12 months of age, 0.50 inch per month from 12 to 18 months, and 0.25 inch up to 2 years. Commercial packers usually want a carcass that weighs between 600 and 700 pounds. Carcasses within this weight range are more easily managed in the cutting room, and they provide the size of cuts that the consumer wants (Figure 17–20). Frame size should be large enough for the animal to grade Choice at about 1,050–1,200 pounds to obtain the desired carcass weight and grade. This means that in selecting slaughter steers, preference should be given to the medium-framed steers that finish at 1,050–1,200 pounds. The purpose in producing market beef animals is to obtain muscles that can be cut into retail cuts of beef for the consumer. lt would seem that the more muscle there is on the animal, the more desirable that animal becomes. This is true only up to a point. Just as an animal can have too little muscling, it can also have too much. Selection for extreme muscling leads to the development of cattle with a condition known as double muscling. Double muscling is undesirable for the following reasons: 1. These animals are difficult to produce. If the goal of the producer is to select animals with double muscling, then breeding stock of the same type must be selected. Fertility in these animals is very poor and calving is much more difficult. 2. The meat tends to be coarse and void of intermuscular fat (marbling). Even though the animal may have a sufficient cover of fat, the marbling tends to be less than adequate. Thus, a large percentage of these animals grade Standard.

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Figure 17–19 Frame size table.

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©iStockphoto/Shawn Gearhart

3. Double-muscled calves are difficult to raise because they are more susceptible to disease. 4. Double-muscled feeder animals must be fed a higher proportion of concentrate in the ration to obtain enough marbling to grade Choice.

©iStockphoto/GaryMartin

These cattle can be recognized by their physical appearance. The rump is protruding and round with definite grooves or creases between the thigh muscles. The tail is short and is attached high Figure 17–20 Commercial packers usually want a beef and far forward on the rump (Figure 17–21). The carcass that weighs around 600–700 pounds. head of the animal is small and long and is carried lower than the top of the body. Animals that possess an adequate degree of long, smooth muscling should be selected over animals that are lightly muscled or have extremely tight-wound, excessive muscling. Smooth muscling—muscling that does not bulge too much—allows the animal to move freely and smoothly. To determine the amount of muscling in the animal, it should be viewed through the center of the round, as indicated in Figure 17–22. Notice that the steer on the left is light muscled and the steer on the right is thick-muscled.

Figure 17–21 Double-muscled animals can be recognized by the protruding

muscles, short tail, and low set head.

(B)

Figure 17–22 Notice that the steer on the left is lightly muscled and the steer on the right is thickly muscled.

THE SELECTION OF BREEDING CATTLE As mentioned earlier, frame size refers to the overall height of the animal at maturity; tall animals are larger-framed than short animals. The frame size can be determined when the animal is a young calf. The leading indicator of frame size is the length of the cannon bone (the bone between the ankle and the knee of the front leg). Research has shown that an animal with a longer length of cannon bone will be a taller animal at maturity than an animal with a shorter cannon bone. In fact, some breed associations request that the producer record the length of cannon at birth of any animals they wish to register. In heifers, consideration should be given to animals having a longer length between the hooks and pins and those that are wider apart at both hooks and pins. This is an indication of greater pelvic capacity. When a female gives birth, the pelvis must open enough to allow the calf to pass through the birth canal. If a heifer has a small pelvis, she probably will have problems delivering a calf (Figure 17–23).

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Figure 17–24 Breeding cattle should have adequate depth and width to provide room for the internal organs.

Courtesy of ARS

Alan and Sandy Carey/Getty Images

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Obviously, cattle that grow faster (have a greater average daily gain) are more desirable. Research has shown that there are other physical characteristics of cattle that are associated with growthiness. The length of an animal’s face (distance from eye to muzzle) and the length of the neck are both indicators of growth. The longer the neck, the faster the animal is likely to grow. Breeding cattle should have adequate body depth and width to provide adequate room for the internal organs. The larger the internal organs, such as the heart and lungs, the better the animal should do in terms of viability Figure 17–23 The heifer on the left has a greater pelvic and growth. Indicators of capacity are width capacity than the other two. through the chest floor; long, well-arched ribs; and depth in the side (Figure 17–24). Sex character simply means that a bull looks like a male and a heifer looks like a female. Because sex hormones control both the physical appearance of animals and their ability to reproduce, it stands to reason that an animal with more sex character should be more reproductively efficient. Sex character in a bull is determined by a broad, massive, bull-like head (Figure 17–25). The shoulders should be bold and well-muscled, but care should be taken that bulls with coarse, excessively thick shoulders are not selected as a herd bull. Since this characteristic is passed on to the offspring, calving difficulties can be encountered. One of the most important physical traits is that of testicle shape and size. A 2-year-old bull should have a scrotal circumference of at least 34 cm when measured at the largest part. Research has shown that the larger the testicles, the larger the number of valuable sperm that are produced. In addition, the scrotum

Figure 17–25 Bulls should be bold and masculine-

appearing.

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1

3

Figure 17–26 Testicles should be carried away from the

Courtesy of American International Charolais Association

body and have a definite neck. Bull 2 is the best choice.

Figure 17–27 A good breeding female should be clean and trim

through the brisket and middle, such as this Charolais.

SET OF LEGS AND FEET A Pin Bone

Correct

B Pin Bone

Post-Legged

C Pin Bone

Sickle-Hocked

Figure 17–28 (A) In a structurally sound animal, the legs fit

squarely on all four corners of the animal; (B) Common defect known as post-legged; (C) Common defect known as sicklehocked.

Courtesy of Vocational Materials Service, Texas A & M University

should extend to about hock level and have a definite neck. If the testicles are held too close to the body, the temperature will be too high for ideal sperm production. Bull 1 in Figure 17–26 has a straight-sided scrotum often associated with testicles of only moderate size, and the testicles are held too close to the body. Bull 2 shows the ideal testicle size and scrotal shape. Bull 3 has a tapered or pointed scrotum that usually is associated with undersized testicles that are too close to the body. The fertile female should be well-balanced and present a graceful feminine appearance. She should be long and clean in the face and throat. Her neck should be long and blend smoothly into smooth, sharp shoulders. She should be clean and trim through the brisket and middle. The pelvic area should be large and wide for easy calving (Figure 17–27). Distances should be wide from hook to hook and from pin to pin, and long from hooks to pins. Structural soundness refers to the correctness of the feet and legs of an animal. The legs should fit squarely on all four corners of the animal. The correct “set” to the back legs of a bull is shown in Figure 17–28A. If a plumb line is dropped from the pins to the ground, the line will intersect with the hock. The condition known as post-legged is shown in Figure 17–28B. The rear legs are too straight and do not provide enough cushion and flex as the animal walks. In bulls, this condition causes problems in mounting cows. The opposite condition, called sicklehocked (Figure 17–28C), also causes problems in mating. As the animal mounts, undue stress is placed on the stifle muscle, causing the animal to become stifled, that is, the ligament attaching the stifle muscle tears. This results in the animal being worthless as a herd bull. When viewed from the rear, the back legs should be straight. Figure 17–29 depicts animals that have structural problems as viewed from the rear. Figure 17–30 shows animals whose front legs are structurally incorrect. All cattle are slightly splayed in the front, but the front feet should not turn out very much. All animals should move out with a free, easy stride. The rear foot

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Correct

Out in the hocks

Cow hocked

Vocational Materials Service, Texas A & M University

COMPARISON OF CORRECT WITH DEFECTIVE HIND LEGS

Figure 17–29 Comparison of correct with defective hind legs.

COMPARISON OF CORRECT WITH DEFECTIVE FRONT LEGS

Correct

Correct

Splay footed

Calf kneed

Toed in

Buck kneed

Figure 17–30 Comparison of correct with defective front legs.

should be placed about where the front foot was picked up. Cattle that take short, choppy steps either have a muscle pattern that is wound too tightly or have problems in their skeletal makeup. Both conditions are objectionable. To feel their best and to grow and do their best, animals must be structurally correct.

Courtesy of Vocational Materials Service, Texas A & M University

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The selection of sheep has always been more complicated than the selection of either beef or hogs because two traits have been traditionally considered—meat and wool. Milk sometimes is considered to be a third trait. Shepherds had been selecting more productive sheep long before the principles of inheritance were outlined by Gregory Mendel. Prior to and during the 1950s, as much emphasis was placed on the production of wool as on the production of meat (Figure 17–31). When synthetic materials became more popular, the emphasis shifted from wool production to meat production within some breeds. During the 1960s, interest and research were concentrated on cutability, the percent of lean cuts that a lamb carcass would produce. Research studies placed more emphasis on the muscling and leanness of lamb carcasses than on the production of wool.

THE SELECTION OF COMMERCIAL OR WESTERN EWES Sheep are judged similarly to other species of livestock. Selection is based on type, balance, muscling, finish, carcass merit, style, soundness, and smoothness. However, sheep have another trait to consider besides meat production—wool production. Type is the general build of the animal. Desirable type changes over time and is influenced greatly by trends in the show ring. Desirable type, however, usually includes a thick, moderately deep-bodied animal that is smooth, has straight lines, and exhibits good balance. Balance refers to the general proportions in the structure of the animal. An animal should appear to fit together well. This means that the front end should be in proportion to the rear end. Muscling is the natural flesh of the animal, not including the fat. Modern lambs should have thick muscling. Meat is composed of muscling, and the more muscling on the carcass, the more value it has to the packer and the producer. A good portion of meat from the carcass is taken from the leg or round and loin. These areas are considered to be the high-value portion of the lamb. Finish is the amount of fat cover on the carcass. A smooth, uniform, thin layer of fat is desirable. The most important thing a livestock evaluator (especially a grader) has to be able to do is evaluate fat. The evaluator who can predict fat can usually predict muscling because the thickness of the animal is composed of fat, or muscle, or a combination of both. Thickness that does not come from fat is made up of muscle. Carcass merit is determined by carcass quality (Quality grade is a prediction of palatability or eating quality) and yield (Yield grade predicts the percent of boneless retail cuts from the leg or round, the loin, the rib or rack, and the chuck or shoulder).

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

THE SELECTION OF SHEEP

Figure 17–31 Unlike the other

major agricultural animals, sheep are selected by their fleece quality as well as conformation.

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A carcass of good merit will yield a large portion of the valuable cuts that are of sufficient quality while maintaining as much leanness as practical. Soundness refers to the structural soundness or skeletal system supporting the body so that the animal is comfortable and maintains reproductive efficiency. A more detailed discussion of structural soundness is given elsewhere in this chapter. The same structural correctness desired in other agricultural animals is desired in sheep as well. Smoothness refers to the lack of awkward bone structure and a smooth, even finish along the top and sides. Fat should be distributed evenly along the body of the animal. An uneven finish can indicate an animal that has been off its feed or an animal that is older.

THE SELECTION OF BREEDING EWES Breeding sheep should be sound, healthy, and productive. Ewes should be vigorous, with normal teeth, feet, legs, eyes, and udders. Ewe lambs or yearling ewes should be selected for breeding soundness and should be culled for reproductive problems. However, younger ewes will require more attention during their first lambing. Age is determined by the teeth located on the lower jaw. The correct type of ewe should exhibit the following traits: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Purebred ewes should show breed traits. Feminine appearance. Depth in the fore and rear flanks. Good chest capacity. Proportional length, depth, and width of body. Width and thickness throughout the loin. A strong, wide, long, and level rump with a wide dock. Straight legs with long, full muscling that provides width between the legs. Strong pasterns and feet with medium-size toes. Strong, wide back and crop with a tight shoulder that blends into the body. Balance and smoothness, with all parts blending well together. Wool should be indicative of the breed in fiber diameter, length, and quality.

THE SELECTION OF RAMS Great care should be given in selecting the ram since half the growth and wool-producing ability of every lamb is contributed by the ram. Generally the same traits listed for consideration in selecting ewes are used in selecting rams. However, rams should be selected with certain goals in mind. Consideration should be given to the strengths and weaknesses of the ewe flock. If the

Courtesy of American Hampshire Sheep Registry

THE SCIENTIFIC SELECTION OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

Figure 17–32 Modern rams are large and growthy.

ewes are lacking in a quality, a ram should be selected that will bring the desired traits into the flock. The rams to be used as terminal sires should be different from those chosen for purebred flocks. Rams should be selected for genetic capability—whether for growth rate, wool production, or increased lambing. Production records should aid in the selection of rams. Rams should have the traits of muscling and structural correctness that were listed for ewes. In addition, they should be rugged, muscular, and masculine (Figure 17–32). Rams should exhibit superior growth, structural soundness, and quality of fleshing. The testicles should be well-developed and pliable. A semen test should be obtained, or the ram guaranteed as reproductively sound. Finally, the ram’s semen should be retested just prior to breeding season.

JUDGING MARKET LAMBS The emphasis for judging market lambs and purebred sheep at livestock shows has changed and affected the industry over the years. In the 1950s and 1960s, the ideal lamb was short, fat, and extremely thick. These lambs produced carcasses that were small but thick because of combined muscle and fat. Many of these carcasses had prime conformation. Because carcasses were shipped in carcass form, the fat helped to reduce shrinkage and allowed the retailer to trim the carcass in order to produce good looking—but fat—retail cuts. During the late 1960s and 1970s, the wastefulness of the excess fat was taken into account and the trend was for producers to select a medium-size lamb that was much leaner. This was due in part to the introduction of vacuum packaging and the boxing of lamb carcasses and carcass parts. However, by the late 1970s and until the mid-1980s, show sheep were being selected for height, length, and stylishness, with little emphasis on carcass, except for finish (0.1 inch of backfat

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Figure 17–33 The ideal modern market lamb is lean and muscular.

was considered ideal). These animals were selected for the hind-saddle (leg, loin, rack) muscling without regard for chest capacity and natural fleshing needed by ewes for livability and reproduction. From the mid- to late- 1980s to the present, selection of show sheep has moderated. The following description reflects the modern type of show sheep (Figure 17–33). Size, muscle, structure, style, and balance are all factors that should be considered when selecting a market lamb at a livestock show. Champion lambs should be heavily muscled, nicely balanced, and correctly finished. Carcass merit should be kept in mind when evaluating the animal. The hind-saddle (leg, loin, and rack or rib area) makes up about 70 percent of the carcass value. However, capacity is also important, especially in the breeding animal, for livability and reproductive volume. Different breeds have a different frame size related to the correct market weight for each lamb. This makes judging large classes made up of different breeds more difficult. Muscling is shown by the thickness and width of the loin, thickness of muscling in the leg, and prominence of the stifle region. A long hind saddle is desirable, but it must have width and depth as well as length, to be of greater total volume. The lamb should have a wide, level rump that blends into a muscular leg. A heavily muscled lamb will stand wide—both front and rear—and exhibit a heavily muscled forearm. Muscling should be firm and smooth, but not too extreme or bulging. Finish on the carcass is measured 1½ inches from the middle of the backbone between the 12th and 13th ribs. Lamb carcasses with less than .1 inch fat tend to dry out, and shelf life is reduced. Lamb carcasses with more than .25 inch backfat simply require too much trimming to obtain acceptable retail cuts. The ideal amount of finish is about .15 inch or less. Live lamb finish is determined by handling the lamb over the ribs and backbone. This handling requires experience to accurately feel the amount

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© Amanda Rohde/iStockphoto

of finish. A good learning practice is to evaluate live lambs and then evaluate the carcass. Videos are especially useful for learning this practice. Knowing the amount of finish lets the evaluator know the amount of muscling (flesh – fat  muscling). Other indicators of fat on lambs are that they are heavy-fronted (breast), have fat deposits in the cod or udder region, have fat around the dock, and lack trimness in the middle and flanks. A correctly finished lamb should feel firm and have a trim underline. The judge must be able to compensate for the pelt (skin and fleece) in determining finish. This is especially important in lambs with thick hides and in lambs that are not slick-shorn. Most market lamb shows require that the lambs be slick-shorn. Bone is important because it relates to frame size and structural correctness. Muscles attach to bones, so sufficient muscle requires a sufficient diameter and length of bone. Structural correctness allows the animal to move in comfort and maintain productivity. It is not as important for market animals to be structurally correct as it is for breeding stock. However, structural correctness is a consideration in determining the overall style and balance of the market animal.

THE SELECTION OF GOATS As discussed in Chapter 8, goats are becoming increasingly important in the animal industry. Like any other agricultural animal, selection is an important tool to produce good animals. Any animals being considered for purchase should be selected from a reputable producer and should have complete medical records available for review. If selecting animals for a breeding program, different characteristics will have to be evaluated than selecting for market animals. The Selection of Market Goats Market goats should be selected for potential growth and structure. A market goat, when purchased young, should have ample bone to accommodate lots of muscle. No animal should be purchased that is not structurally sound and healthy. Lame or sickly animals can take months to become healthy enough to gain the appropriate amount of weight (Figure 17–34). Structural correctness includes a level topline and legs that are well set. This means that the animal should not stand post-legged or sickle-hocked (Figure 17–35). As in other animals, the pasterns should be well set and not slope too much. They should have a wide stance

Figure 17–34 Young goats should have ample bone,

be well muscled and structurally correct.

Level rump Wide, deep and long loin

Long trim neck

Level top

Trim barrel Well muscled leg

Smooth shoulders

Adequate bone Feet and legs set squarely under animal with correct set to hock

Figure 17–35 Ideal goat conformation

Strong straight pastern

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between both the front legs and the rear legs. As with heifers, there should be ample length between the hooks and pin bones in hip area. Growth potential is another important factor to consider. The market animal should be selected on its potential for muscle development. As with other meat animals, buyers are most interested in the more expensive meat cuts located in the loin and leg. Observe the animal when it is standing broadsided. Examine the length of the side to determine how long the animals is, as well as the frame size. The length of the canon bone and length of the face of the animal are indications of how well the animal will grow. If a goat is being purchased for show, the show rules should be consulted and followed. Some junior shows have rules that the goat cannot be over a certain age, so the goat should be bought in plenty of time for it to grow sufficiently for the show. Any animals purchased should be quarantined from other animals for at least 30 days to prevent any new disease from infecting the herd, even if medical records are presented. Goats new to the herd can bring in pathogens that can contaminate a whole herd that has not been previously exposed. Goats are herd animals, so when purchasing them, they should either be purchased in groups or be housed next to other animals during their quarantine period. The Selection of Breeding Meat Goats Breeding goats are selected according to a variety of characteristics including bloodlines and reproductive fitness. Nannies should have strong bone structure and be able to produce kids without any problems. Because goats normally produce more than one kid at each birth, some animals do have trouble giving birth. Multiple births increase the chance of something going wrong. The most common problems at birth are that the baby is too large or that the baby goat (or goats) is in an improper position. Herd sires or billies should not have any structural defects, should be of sufficient size, and should have ample muscling, because most of these features are passed on to their offspring in future generations. Bloodlines are also important for the herd sire if the producer is planning to sell the offspring for purebred replacements. Growth characteristics are taken into consideration, but not as heavily as reproductive capabilities. The Selection of Dairy Goats Dairy goats should have a structure different from meat goats. Remember—the goal for meat goats is to produce muscle, and the goal for dairy goats is to produce milk. When viewed over the topline, meat goats should be thicker and exhibit muscle, and dairy goats should be trimmer and have a more refined, wedge shape.

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Dairy goats should be selected based on their potential for milk production. The mammary system should be well attached to the body. If the udder sags or becomes pendulous, the productive life of the nanny will become shortened. Major faults with nannies include having more than two teats, having multiple orifices, and being round-boned rather than flat-boned. Meat animals have round bones, which can support more meat development. Dairy animals are flat-boned because muscle development is not the main concern. Bucks or billies pass on so much of their genetics to the offspring that they should be ideal animals based on breed standards. As with other animals, the male should look like a male. Remember—the reproductive hormones control all of the reproductive process as well as the physical characteristics of the male. The more the animal looks like a male, the more likely he is to produce sufficient amounts of the male reproductive hormones.

SUMMARY Ever since the beginning of the animal industry, selective breeding has been a cornerstone. Choosing the right animals to mate is essential in order to produce the type of offspring desired. Although the style and type of animal that producers want has changed over the years, some of the basics remain the same. The advent of embryo transplant and artificial insemination has greatly aided the selection process. The computer also has had an impact. Perhaps we are just on the brink of realizing how the computer can revolutionize the process.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Natural selection refers to the process that results in only the strongest and best-equipped animals in the wild breeding. 2. Growthability refers to an animal’s ability to grow rapidly. 3. Through the years, the basic physical types of agricultural animals (swine, beef cattle) have stayed the same. 4. A pig with a strongly arched back has a more vertical scapula and humerus that provide less flex and cushion than the level-topped, more structurally correct pig. 5. The carcass from double-muscled animals is the highest quality. 6. The testicles of a breeding bull should be pointed and close to the body. 7. Tenderness and taste are both related to the breed of animal. 8. Intermuscular fat is referred to as the leanness of the meat. 9. Small-framed animals mature earlier than do large-framed animals. 10. Sex character simply means that a bull looks like a female and a heifer looks like a male.

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11. Traits in sheep production that are considered most are meat and wool production, with milk sometimes being a third trait. 12. When synthetic materials became more popular, the emphasis shifted from wool production to meat production in some breeds. 13. The hind saddle makes up about 70 percent of the carcass value of a lamb. 14. Vacuum packaging had little effect on the trend toward leaner meat. 15. Judging different breeds of lambs is difficult because of different frame sizes. 16. Dairy goats and meat goats should be evaluated the same way. 17. More than two teats are a fault in dairy goats. Fill in the Blanks 1. To meet the demands of the modern livestock industry, animals are ____________ based on what is desired by the people who ____________ them and by those who ____________ them. 2. The three basic traits that are desirable in the modern agricultural animal are ____________, ____________, and efficiency. 3. In swine, front feet that are turned out (____________) or turned in (____________) should be avoided, as well as rear feet that are splayed out (____________) or turned in. 4. Frame size refers to the ____________ of an animal at ____________; ____________ animals are ____________ ____________ than short animals. 5. An animal with a long cannon bone will be a ____________ animal at ____________ than an animal with a ____________ cannon bone. 6. Consumers usually want beef that is ____________, tastes ____________, and is ____________. 7. Cattle that take short, ____________ steps are either too ____________ ____________ in their ____________ pattern or have problems in their ____________ makeup. 8. The purpose in producing market beef animals is to obtain ____________ that can be cut into ____________ cuts of beef for the ____________. 9. Animals that possess an adequate degree of ____________, ____________ muscling should be selected over animals that are ____________ muscled or have extremely ____________, ____________ muscling. 10. The length of an animal’s ____________ ____________ (distance from ____________ to ____________) and the length of the ____________ are both indicators of ____________. 11. Carcass merit in sheep is determined by carcass ____________ and ____________. 12. Structural soundness refers to the ____________ ____________ system supporting the body so the animal is ____________ and maintains ____________ efficiency. 13. In the 1950s and 1960s, the ideal lamb was ____________, ____________, and extremely ____________. 14. When selecting a market lamb at a livestock show, ____________, ____________, ____________, ____________ and balance are all factors that should be considered. 15. A ram should be selected for ____________ ____________ capability—whether it is ____________ rate, ____________ production, or ____________ ____________. 16. Market goats should be selected for potential ____________ and ____________.

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Discussion Questions 1. What is the process of natural selection? 2. Why did animals develop characteristics such as thick hides, long horns, and the ability to run fast? 3. Why are these characteristics not desirable in modern agricultural animals? 4. What is meant by selective breeding? 5. What are two basic categories of agricultural animals involved in the producer’s selection process? 6. In the selection of market animals, what does the consumer want? the packer? the producer? 7. Describe the type of hogs raised in the following eras: the period prior to the 1950s; the 1960s; the 1970s. 8. Describe the modern market hog, and tell why these characteristics are important. 9. What is Porcine Stress Syndrome? 10. What is meant by sex character, and why is it so important? 11. Why is it so important that animals be correct on their feet and legs? 12. Why should a hog have a level back rather than an arched back? 13. Define capacity. Why is it important? 14. How are beef carcasses graded? 15. In what sequence is fat deposited in a beef animal’s body? 16. Of what use is an animal’s frame size in the selection process? 17. What are double-muscled cattle? Explain why this type of cattle is undesirable. 18. Describe at least two traits that are desirable in breeding heifers. 19. Why are testicle size and scrotal shape important in selecting bulls? Student Learning Activities 1. Choose a breed of animal (swine, beef, or sheep). Using a set of pictures or viewing the animals live, list all of the animal’s physical traits. From the list, decide which of the characteristics are a result of natural selection and which are the result of selective breeding. 2. Go to the library and research the development of a breed of livestock. Include in your report the place where the animals originated, the traits for which they were selected, and changes in the breed over the years. 3. Visit with a producer in your area, and determine the traits the producer selects for when he or she selects replacement animals. 4. Visit a packing plant and determine the traits the packer likes in the animals that he or she buys for slaughter.

CHAPTER

18

The Reproduction Process

KEY TERMS asexual reproduction sexual reproduction zygote mitosis sterile meiosis spermatogenesis spermatogonia spermatozoa chromotids synapsis oogenesis polar bodies cytoplasm nucleus

testosterone libido epididymis vas deferens seminal vesicles urethra Cowper’s gland prostate gland penis prepuce estrus estrogen progesterone fallopian tubes cervix

vagina vulva clitoris endocrine system ovulation copulation corpus luteum conception fertilization estrus cycle ejaculation motile fertilization membrane cleavage protectant

quarantine artificial vagina extenders straws estrus synchronization artificial hormones embryo transfer progeny testing genetic base donor cows recipient cows superovulation prostaglandin catheter clone

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ distinguish between asexual and sexual

reproduction. ■ explain the process by which gametes

are produced in both the male and the female. ■ describe the steps involved in meiosis. ■ list and describe the parts and function

of the male reproductive system.

■ list and describe the parts and function

of the female reproductive system. ■ describe the functions of the hormones

that control reproduction. ■ describe the phases of the female

reproductive cycle. ■ explain the process by which

fertilization takes place.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ list the reasons why artificial

insemination is valuable to livestock producers. ■ explain the procedures used in artificial

insemination. ■ explain the importance of embryo

transfer. ■ list and explain the steps used in

embryo transfer.

■ describe the advantages of estrus

synchronization. ■ explain the process of estrus

synchronization. ■ describe new scientific technology

that will be of benefit to livestock producers.

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REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Russell Illig/Getty Images

In order for living things to remain on the earth, they must reproduce. If an organism does not reproduce, that type of organism would disappear as soon as death occurs. By reproducing, animals ensure that their type of animal will continue to exist. There are two basic means of reproducing. One-celled organisms and some plants reproduce by means of asexual reproduction—they produce another organism from only one parent. All higher-order animals reproduce by means of sexual reproduction. This means that animals come from two parents, a male and a female. In mammals, reproduction is achieved by each of two parents’ contributing genetic material to the young. Half of the characteristics of the young come from the father and half come from the mother. Each of the two parents creates reproductive cells called gametes. The male gamete is known as a sperm cell and the female gamete is known as an egg cell. The uniting of the two cells results in the beginning of a new animal that is similar to the parents. The new cell produced by the uniting of the sperm and the egg is called a zygote. The zygote divides by a process called mitosis. Both the egg and the sperm contain the material that dictates what the young animal will look like. Even though the gametes are so small that they cannot be seen without the aid of a microscope, they contain all of the material necessary to determine all of the characteristics of the new animal. This material is called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. DNA is the matter that carries the code that determines exactly how the animal will develop and how it will look. Specific segments or units of DNA that are grouped together are called genes. Each gene has a unique structure that controls a trait of an animal. For example, a gene may determine that Angus cattle are hornless, or may determine that Watusi cattle will have horns that grow to a length of 6 feet (Figure 18–1). Groups of genes combine to form threadlike structures called chromosomes. The name comes from chromo, which means “colored,” and soma, which means “body.” Each cell in an animal’s body contains a number of chromosomes. In body cells, the chromosomes always come in pairs. Different species have different numbers of pairs. Figure 18–2 provides a listing of the number of numbers of chromoFigure 18–1 Watusi cattle have specific genes that determine somes for several domestic animals. Each that their horns will be long. gamete (the sperm and the egg) contains

one of each pair or half of the chromosomes. For example, each horse cell contains 32 pairs, or 64 chromosomes. The sperm or egg from a horse would each contain 32 chromosomes. When the egg and the sperm unite at the time of conception, they each contribute 32 chromosomes that go together to form a full set of 64 chromosomes. Each chromosome from the father is matched with a chromosome from the mother. Notice that the donkey has 31 pairs or 62 chromosomes. Horses and donkeys can be mated successfully to produce an offspring known as a mule. However mules cannot reproduce because the donkey’s 31 pairs of chromosomes combined with the horse’s 32 chromosomes will not divide into an even pairing of chromosomes. As a result, the gamete produced by a male or female mule will not successfully unite to form a zygote. For this reason, mules are almost always sterile, which means that mules are not generally capable of reproducing. Production of Gametes The formation of the sperm cell takes place in the testicles of the male; the formation of the egg takes place in the ovaries of the female. Within these organs, a process known as meiosis takes place. This process differs from mitosis in that meiosis results in a cell that contains only half the number of chromosomes of the original cell (Figure 18–3). In mitosis, the dividing cells contain the same number of chromosomes as the parent cells. Meiosis is necessary in order to allow the contribution of half of the chromosomes by each parent. The production of the male gamete or sperm is called spermatogenesis. In the testes of the male, cells called spermatogonia are produced. Through a four-step process, these cells develop into spermatozoa. During the first step, the chromosomes replicate (make an exact copy of themselves) and remain attached. The replicated chromosomes are called chromotids. In the next step, the chromotids come together and are matched in pairs in a process called synapsis. In the third step, the cell divides, the chromosomes are separated, and each cell receives one of each chromosome from each pair. However, remember, that each chromosome replicated itself (a chromotid) and is still attached to another chromosome. In the final step, the cells separate again and the chromotids separate and become chromosomes. Remember that these cells (the new sperm cells) each contain only half of the chromosomes that the original cell contained. The end result of this process is that four new sperm cells are produced from the original cell. When the sperm is united with the egg at conception, the original number of chromosomes is restored because the sperm furnishes half of the chromosomes and the egg furnishes half.

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CHARACTERISTIC NUMBERS OF CHROMOSOMES IN SELECTED ANIMALS Chromosome Animals Number (2n) Donkey 62 Horse 64 Mule 63 Swine 38 Sheep 54 Cattle 60 Human 46 Dog 78 Domestic cat 38 Chicken 78 Figure 18–2 Different animals have

different numbers of chromosomes.

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MATURATION PROCESS (MEIOSIS) Male germ cell (sperm)

Female germ cell (egg)

Mutiplication period

Growth period Pairing of chromosomes Reduction

Division

Mature sperm

Mature egg

Figure 18–3 Meiosis is the process by which mature sperm and egg cells develop.

Gamete production in the female is known as oogenesis. The stages of egg production are similar to those in sperm production. The one important exception is that in sperm production, four new sperm cells are produced from the original cell. In egg production, only one egg cell is produced. Instead of producing four new eggs, three of the newly divided cells become what are known as polar bodies and only one cell becomes a viable egg. Polar bodies are produced as a result of most of the cytoplasm—cell material outside the nucleus—from the cells going to the one cell that will become the egg. The function of polar bodies is to provide sustenance for the egg until conception. The sperm cell is much smaller than the egg cell and needs less to subsist.

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THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Prostate In mammals, both the male and the female gland have specialized systems that function to provide a means of producing and uniting the sperm and egg. In the male, the gamete is proSeminal vesicles duced by the testicles. Ordinarily, a male has two testicles that are suspended away from the body. An exception is poultry, in which the testes are on the inside of the rooster’s body. In mammals, the testicles are enclosed Penis in a saclike structure called the scrotum. The scrotum functions not only to encase the tesSigmoid Sheath ticles but also to act as a means of regulating flexure the temperature of the testicles. For sperm Scrotum Vas deferens production to occur, the testicles must have Epididymis a temperature lower than the animal’s body. Testicles This is why the testicles are suspended away Figure 18–4 The reproductive tract of a bull. from the body. The skin of the scrotum is thin, relatively hairless, and contains no subcutaneous (under the skin) fat. This aids greatly in the dissipation of heat in the summer. In the winter, the scrotum is retracted by small muscles that draw the testicles toward the body to keep them warm. The reproductive tract of a bull is shown in Figure 18–4. In addition to producing sperm, the testicles produce the hormone testosterone. This hormone controls the animal’s libido, or sex drive, and stimulates the development of sex characteristics. For example, the development of large forequarters in a bull and the growth of large tusks and the unpleasant odor in boars are induced by testosterone. Along the outside of the testicles is a tuberous structure called the epididymis that provides a place for the storage and maturation of the sperm produced by the testicles. A long tube called the vas deferens leads from the epididymis to the seminal vesicles, located at the upper end of the urethra (the tube through which urine is passed from the bladder). The vas deferens serves as a transportation route for the sperm. The male reproductive tract has three accessory glands. The first, the seminal vesicles, function to secrete a fluid that is mixed with the sperm to protect the sperm and provide a mechanism by which the sperm can be transported. The two other glands also secrete fluid. The mixture of fluids is referred to as semen. The seminal vesicles also act as a holding place for the sperm. The Cowper’s gland secretes fluid that helps to cleanse the urethra before the sperm is passed along the tube. This secretion also acts to coagulate or to thicken the semen.

Cowper's gland

Retractor muscle

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The prostate gland also secretes fluid that is added to the semen mixture. Its purpose is to provide nutrients for the sperm and to expel the semen during the mating process. The male organ that deposits sperm in the female tract is the penis. This organ also serves as the means of expelling urine from the body. The penis of the boar, bull, and ram is composed of a high concentration of connective tissue. The upper end of the penis is S-shaped and flexes to extend the penis outward during mating. The penis of the stallion is made up of a high concentration of vascular tissue that allows the organ to become engorged with blood. This causes the penis to become extended until it is said to be erect. This allows penetration of the female. The external covering of the penis is called the sheath, or prepuce; its purpose is to protect the penis from injury or infection.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The female reproductive system is much more complex than that of the male. Sperm production in the male is constant, but production in the female comes about only in carefully controlled cycles. The cycle produces the egg, places the egg in the proper place, causes the female to accept the male for mating—called estrus or heat—and ensures that the fertilized egg remains in place throughout the gestation period. This cycle from egg production to fertilization occurs at different intervals in different animals. The female reproductive system consists of several organs that make a contribution to the process. The ovaries are two small organs supported in the abdominal cavity by strong ligaments. Inside these ligaments are the arteries and vessels that supply blood to them. The main function of the ovaries is to produce the egg, or ovum (Figure 18–5). This is where the oogenesis, or production of the egg, takes place. THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Vulva

Infundibulum Vagina Ovary

Cervix Uterus

Uterine Fallopian tube horns (oviduct)

Clitoris

Urethra Bladder

Figure 18–5 The female reproductive tract.

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Another important role of the ovaries is to produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone. (These two hormones play essential roles in the reproductive cycle of the female.) Leading from the ovaries are two tubes known as the fallopian tubes which serve to transport the egg from the ovaries to the uterus. It is within the fallopian tubes that the egg is united with the sperm and conception takes place. The fallopian tubes open into a muscular saclike organ known as the uterus (sometimes called the womb). The uterus serves as the chamber in which the fertilized egg (zygote) develops into an embryo, then into a fetus, and finally expels the newborn animal. The uterus is sealed by a thick group of circular-shaped muscles called the cervix. The cervix acts as a valve that keeps foreign matter from entering the uterus. It contains glands that secrete a waxlike material that serves as a seal to the uterus. When the animal comes into estrus, the cervix opens to allow passage of the sperm. The cervix opens into the vagina, which is a sheathlike organ that accepts the male’s penis during mating. The semen is deposited here. When the fetus has matured, the vagina serves as the birth canal through which the young animal leaves the uterus. The exterior part of the female reproductive system is the vulva. The vulva provides a closing for the vagina and serves as the end of the urinary tract that expels the urine. Within the vulva is a small sensitive organ called the clitoris that provides stimulation during the mating process. As mentioned earlier, the entire process of the female reproductive cycle is controlled by hormones (Figure 18–6). Hormones are produced by the endocrine system and serve to stimulate or inhibit the development or operation of body functions such as reproduction. This system includes the pituitary gland, which is located near the base of the brain in mammals and acts as a type of master control for most of the other glands in the endocrine system. The reproductive cycle of the female begins with a hormone secreted from the pituitary gland that stimulates the ovary to produce a blisterlike structure called a follicle. The hormone, therefore, is called the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). The follicle, which appears as a clear blister on the surface of the ovary, secretes the hormone called estrogen (Figure 18–7). Estrogen acts as a messenger that stimulates the rest of the reproductive system to prepare to receive the egg. The follicle continues to produce estrogen and provides a place for the ovum to grow and mature. Oogenesis occurs in the follicle. When the gamete (the egg or ovum) is matured, the follicle becomes soft and expels the egg into the fallopian tube. (Some animals such as pigs have more than one young. The follicles of these animals release several eggs instead of one. Occasionally, even cattle may release two eggs instead of only one, resulting in the birth of twins.)

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ENDOCRINE INTERRELATION Estrogen

Growth

Es tro ge Pr n og es ter on e

Anterior Pituitary

TTH

Thyroxine

P O S T

Oxytocin

Iodine

Mammary Gland

Pitre ssin Pa rat hy rot Pa rop rat hic ho rm on e

Thyroid Gland

Pancreas

Uterus

Lactogenic

Diabetogenic ic ph tro a re nc Pa

LH

Progesterone

FSH

Estrogen

Ad ren oc ort Ad ico ren tro oc ph ort ic ica l Ketog enic

Progesterone

Ovary

Parathyroid Gland Calcium Phosphorus

Courtesy of NAL Image Gallery. Photo by Harold Hafs

Figure 18–6 Hormone and chemical interaction.

Figure 18–7 The follicle, which appears as

a clear blister on the surface of the ovary, secretes a hormone called estrogen.

Occasionally, even cattle may release two eggs instead of only one. This results in the birth of twins. This process is known as ovulation, Figure 18–8. As ovulation occurs, the estrogen produced by the follicle causes the animal to go into the condition known as estrus or heat. During this time, which may last from a few hours to two or more days. During this time the female allows the male to mate with her. During this process, called copulation, the male’s sperm are deposited into the female’s vaginal tract. The expulsion of the egg from the follicle leaves a rupture that is filled with yellow cells that develop into a body called the corpus luteum. The development of the corpus luteum is caused by a hormone from the pituitary gland known as the luteinizing hormone (LH). The corpus luteum that develops where the follicle ruptured secretes a hormone called progesterone. This hormone causes the walls of the uterus to thicken in preparation for receiving the fertilized egg. After conception (the uniting of the sperm and the egg) occurs, the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone and the female remains pregnant. If conception does not occur, the corpus luteum recedes, the ovary returns to normal, and the cycle begins again.

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Adrenal Gland

THE REPRODUCTION PROCESS

OVULATION Graafian follicle

Corpus luteum

Egg

Ovary (during heat)

Ovary (not in heat) A

B

Figure 18–8 The process of ovulation.

When the sperm from the male are deposited into the female’s vaginal tract, the sperm cells make their way up through the cervix, through the uterus, and into the fallopian tubes. If a mature ovum (egg) is present, then conception may occur.

FERTILIZATION Fertilization is the process by which the sperm is joined with the egg. Following this process, the embryo begins to develop. Because the sperm may only live for 20 to 30 hours, mating must take place at a time when the egg has matured and is released from the ovary. The entire process of gamete production is controlled by hormones. For example, the hormone estrogen, secreted by the follicle that develops on the ovary, causes the animal to enter the estrus phase. During this time, which may last from a few hours to a few days depending on the species of animal, the female allows the male to approach her and to mate. Estrus is timed to occur as the follicle releases the egg. If fertilization does not occur and the female does not become pregnant, the whole process of egg production begins again. This cycle is referred to as the estrus cycle. It normally occurs every 21 days in hogs, cattle, and horses, and every 17 days in sheep (Figure 18–9). During mating, a combination of sperm and fluid (semen) is deposited into the vagina of the female. The process is called ejaculation and the semen is sometimes referred to as ejaculate. As stated earlier, the fluid in the semen serves two purposes: to provide nourishment for the sperm, and to provide a means for the sperm to move. In each ejaculation, millions of sperm are deposited. Each sperm is shaped like a tadpole and has a tail that causes the sperm to move in a whiplike action (Figure 18–10). Sperm that

Courtesy of Vocational Materials Service, Texas A & M University

Egg

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Species Mare

Length of Estrus Cycle (days) average range 21 10–37

Length of Estrus average range 5–6 days 1–14 days

Cow

19–21

16–24

16–20 hrs.

8–30 hrs.

Ewe

16

14–20

30 hrs.

20–42 hrs.

Sow

21

18–24

1–2 days

1–2 days

Usual Time of Age at Ovulation 24–48 hours before end of estrus 10–14 hours after end of estrus 1 hour before end of estrus 18–60 hours after estrus begins

Length of Gestation (days) average range 336 310–350

Age at Puberty (months) 10–12

281

274–291

8–12

150

140–160

4–8

112

111–115

5–7

ANATOMY OF SPERM

Tail

Neck Body

Head – chromosomes contained in the nucleus of head

Courtesy of Vocational Materials Service, Texas A & M University

Figure 18–9 The reproductive cycle in agricultural animals varies in length.

Chad Baker/Getty Images

Figure 18–10 The anatomy of sperm.

Figure 18–11 The outer membrane

of the egg must be dissolved before the sperm can enter the egg. Note the sperm that has penetrated the egg.

are able to move about freely are said to be motile. Through this means, the sperm begin a journey through the cervix, into the uterus, and into the fallopian tubes (oviduct) where fertilization occurs. The sperm are attracted to the egg by a chemical that is secreted by the egg. An obvious question is: If only one sperm is needed to fertilize the egg, why are millions of sperm deposited? This large number of sperm is needed for two reasons. First, not all sperm are hardy enough to make the long trip to the oviduct where the egg is. Therefore, a large number of sperm are necessary to ensure that some sperm reach the right destination. Second, even though only one sperm penetrates and fertilizes the egg, many sperm are needed for the process. The sperm swarm around the egg and secrete an enzyme that loosens the cells surrounding the egg. The outer membrane of the egg is covered with a protective layer of a jellylike substance that must be dissolved before the sperm can enter the egg (Figure 18–11). The sperm release a chemical that works to dissolve the coating. One of the sperm forms a tubelike connection with the membrane of the egg. The nuclear material of the sperm then enters the egg and fertilization occurs. Only the nuclear material actually enters the egg; the tail of the sperm is left outside of the egg. When the nucleus of the sperm enters the egg, the egg releases carbohydrates and protein to form a layer around the egg that will prevent any more sperm from entering. This new layer is called the fertilization membrane. Fertilization is completed when the nucleus of the sperm and the nucleus of the egg fuse together and the correct number of chromosomes for that particular species is restored. Remember that during meiosis, only half of the number of chromosomes from the original cell are transmitted in the egg and half are transmitted in the sperm. At the completion of fertilization, the original number is reestablished. The resulting fertilized cell is referred to as a zygote (Figure 18–12).

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THE REPRODUCTION CYCLE IN FARM ANIMALS

Very soon after fertilization, the zygote begins to divide. This type of cell division is called mitosis as compared to meiosis, which is the process by which the gametes are formed. Mitosis will be dealt with in Chapter 18. The division of the fertilized egg by mitosis is called cleavage. The cells continue to divide rapidly, and as they do, they make their way out of the oviduct into the uterus. As the cells enlarge and begin to differentiate, the mass of cells is called an embryo. Differentiate means that the cells begin to specialize; some begin to form cells that will become skin, some bones, some internal organs, and so on. No one completely understands what causes differentiation, but we do know that all parts of the animal’s body come from the original fertilized egg. Once the embryo reaches the uterus, it attaches to the wall of the uterus and begins to develop. In the embryo development stage, the corpus luteum maintains a level of the hormone progesterone that causes the uterus to implant and nourish the embryo. As a result, the lining of the uterus remains intact and the embryo can continue to develop. In other words the female maintains pregnancy.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION As humans began to understand how reproduction works in animals, they began to use techniques that aided in natural reproduction. Healthier, faster-growing, more efficient animals could be produced with help from the humans who cared for the animals. One of the production practices that has been a real asset to animal producers is artificial insemination. Artificial insemination is not a new technology. Some say that the process goes all the way back to the Middle Ages, when Arabs used this method to collect semen from stallions that belonged to their enemies and to breed their own mares in order to produce superior foals. The first recorded use of artificial insemination was in 1780, when Lazarro Spallanzani, an Italian scientist, was successful in artificially inseminating dogs. Perhaps the first large-scale use of artificial insemination was by the Russians shortly after the turn of the twentieth century. A Russian physiologist named Ivanoff used the process to help replenish the horse population in his country following World War I. Later, the technology was used for cattle and sheep on a large scale. Artificial insemination first began to be used in the United States in the 1930s. But, as in the other countries, it had not reached its full potential because fresh semen had to be used. The lifespan of sperm is only about 2 to 3 days, so there were problems in obtaining semen when it was needed. In the 1950s, the technique of freezing semen was perfected. A protectant such as glycerine is added, and the semen is frozen at a specific steady rate until the temperature reaches 320°F (Figure 18–13). If the semen is kept at this temperature, it can

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Courtesy of Richard Fayrer-Hosken, University of Georgia

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Figure 18–12 Fertilization occurs

when the nucleus of the sperm and the nucleus of the egg fuse. The cell multiplies and begins to differentiate.

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Courtesy of Dr. Frank Flanders

remain viable for years. In fact, bull semen has been stored successfully for as long as 30 years. Semen from bulls, stallions, and rams can be frozen, stored, and thawed successfully. Semen from boars, however, usually is shipped immediately and is used fresh because of problems with sperm viability when it is frozen. Artificial insemination is used most widely in the dairy industry (Figure 18–14), but also is used extensively for beef and, to a lesser extent, with horses, sheep, and swine. The advantages of using artificial insemination are numerous. 1. Producers may use sires of higher quality than they otherwise could afford. A high-quality sire from any species is expensive; the cost of semen from artificial insemination is much lower.

Figure 18–13 A protectant such as glycerine

is added to semen and the semen is frozen at a specific steady rate until the temperature reaches 320°F.

2. Data from the progeny of sires used in artificial insemination are available to aid the producer in determining the quality of the sire. One bull may produce many thousands of offspring. The American Breeders Service reports that one of their superior bulls lived for 12 years and produced more than 462,000 ampules of semen. Obviously, if production data for thousands of offspring can be compiled, the producer can get a clear idea of the type of animals to expect from the sire.

Courtesy of Dr. Frank Flanders

3. Artificial insemination allows the producer to select the type of sire needed for a particular group of females. For instance, a hog producer may need to increase the size of bone in the herd, or a beef producer needs a bull that will sire smaller calves at birth for calving ease. Through the use of sire data, the producer can select sires that are known for these characteristics.

Figure 18–14 Artificial insemination is widely used

in the dairy industry.

4. Producers do not have to keep male animals. This can be an advantage not only because of expense but also from a safety standpoint. Mature male animals are by their nature aggressive and often dangerous. A large boar or bull can kill or seriously injure those who care for them. 5. The likelihood of disease is lessened. Many diseases are transmitted through direct contact with other animals. By using artificial insemination, contact between animals is avoided.

THE REPRODUCTION PROCESS

6. Sires from all over the world can be used. One of the largest problems associated with importing animals from other countries is strict quarantine laws that require the animals to be kept in isolation for a period of time to make sure that they do not bring disease into the United States. By using frozen semen, new genes can be brought into the country with less risk of importing disease, and they can be brought in at much less cost. 7. Sires can be easily replaced. If producers own their own sires, the expense of changing sires is substantial. If a producer is not pleased with the offspring of the sire, the old sire has to be sold and a new one bought. By using artificial insemination, all the producer has to do to change sires is to order semen from a different sire. Semen Collection and Processing

SEMEN VOLUME & NUMBERS FOR FARM ANIMAL SPECIES Total Volume per Sperm per Sperm per Number of Ejaculate milliliter (one Ejaculate Females per Animal (milliliter) thousands) (billions) Ejaculate Boar 150–250 100 15–25 10–12 3–5 100–600 Bull 5–15 1,000 Rooster 0.6–0.8 3,000 1.8–2.4 Ram 0.8–1.0 1,000 0.8–1.0 40–100 Stallion 70–100 100 7–10 8–12 Figure 18–15 The volume of semen ejaculate varies with different agricultural

animals.

Courtesy of Vocational Materials Service, Texas A & M University

Semen is collected through the use of an artificial vagina. The artificial vagina consists of a rigid tube that is lined with a smooth surface water jacket that is filled with warm water. At the end is attached a receptacle for collecting the semen. As the male approaches and mounts the dummy or live animal, the penis is guided into the artificial vagina, where ejaculation occurs. The amount of the ejaculate or semen varies with different species (Figure 18–15). Once the semen is collected, it is examined in the laboratory under a microscope (Figure 18–16), to check for foreign material and for quality. Quality is determined by the number of sperm in a milliliter of semen, how active the sperm are (motility), and the shape of the sperm (morphology). Very active sperm are desirable because of the distance they must travel to reach the oviduct of the female. Sperm of different species are shaped differently

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Figure 18–16 Once the semen is collected, it is examined in the laboratory under a

microscope.

Bull

Sheep

Chicken

Rat

Guinea Pig

Figure 18–17 Species differ in sperm anatomy.

(Figure 18–17). The sperm are checked for the normal shape; a large number of sperm with an unusual shape is not desirable (Figure 18–18). Once an ejaculate has been checked and determined to be of an acceptable quality, it is processed. Processing involves adding extenders such as milk, egg yolk, glycerine, and/or antibiotics. One purpose of the extenders is to provide a means of diluting the semen. The semen from one bull ejaculation may be divided into several units, depending on the number of sperm in the

Courtesy of Vocational Materials Service, Texas A & M University

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Courtesy of Dr. Frank Flanders

ejaculate. Another purpose of extenders is to provide protection to the sperm during the freezing procedure. Extenders also provide nourishment for the sperm. After adding the extenders, the semen is checked again to make sure that the sperm are still motile. The semen then is packaged in small, hollow tubes called straws, sealed, and labeled with the name of the company, the date, and A the name of the sire (Figure 18–19). The straws containing the semen are frozen at a specific rate to 320°F and are stored and transported in liquid nitrogen tanks. Boar semen does not freeze as well as bull semen. Although frozen boar semen is used, fresh semen is preferred because its use results in greater conception rates. When the technician is ready to artificially inseminate an animal, the straws are carefully removed from the liquid nitrogen tank. PrecauB tions have to be taken because liquid nitrogen Figure 18–18 Sperm with abnormal shapes are not can cause a frostbite-like injury if it contacts the desirable. (A) normal. (B) defective. skin. The straws of semen have to be thawed at the proper temperature and speed. Thawing may be accomplished through the use of a special apparatus that heats water to a certain temperature or through the use of a water-filled thermos bottle. The straw is placed into the

Figure 18–19 The semen is placed in straws, labeled, and stored in tanks cooled

with liquid nitrogen.

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Courtesy of Dr. Ben Bracket, Department of Physiology, School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Georgia

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Rectum Arm in plastic “sleeve”

Insemination syringe Vagina Bladder Delmar/Cengage Learning

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Figure 18–20 Once the semen is placed in the female tract, fertilization takes place

just as in natural mating.

water and left for not less than 30 seconds and not more than 15 minutes. Proper thawing assures that the thawed sperm will be healthy and motile. Once the semen is properly thawed, the straw containing the semen is placed in a tubelike instrument that will be used to place the semen in the tract of the female (Figure 18–20). After the semen is placed in the female tract, the process of fertilization takes place just as in natural mating. The people who do the actual insemination must undergo special training before they can develop the skills necessary to properly thaw the semen and place it correctly. Control of the Estrus Cycle Another scientific advance that has aided greatly in improving the reproductive efficiency of agricultural animals is the use of estrus synchronization. Recall that estrus (the time the female allows breeding) is controlled by the production and secretion of hormones at the proper time. The estrus cycle is a chain of events that occur as certain hormones are released. If artificial hormones (from an outside source) are introduced into the female, the hormones will cause the same reaction as a naturally produced hormone. For example, remember that a hormone causes the follicle to develop on the ovary, and the egg is developed from the follicle. By injecting females with a hormone that stimulates the follicle, the female will begin the cycle at that point and come into estrus. The advantage to the producer in inducing estrus is that by injecting all of the females in the herd at the same time,

THE REPRODUCTION PROCESS

the cycle can be synchronized so that they all come into heat at about the same time. The obvious advantage is that a producer can have all of the animals artificially inseminated at the same time. Not only does this save time and resources at breeding time but it will also save because the females will all calve or farrow at about the same time. The crop of young animals will be of about the same age so they can be managed alike as they are grown out.

EMBRYO TRANSFER Among the newest of the reproductive technologies is that of transferring embryos from one female to another. Just as artificial insemination has allowed genetic improvement from a single sire to be greatly increased, embryo transfer has increased the reproductive capacity of superior females. If a producer breeds a superior female, the animal will produce one offspring per year. Although a female is capable of producing many thousands of eggs during her lifetime, only a relatively few will develop into offspring. If the eggs are collected from a superior female and implanted in an inferior animal, the superior female has the capacity to produce many offspring in a year. Embryo transfer has many benefits: 1. The use of embryo transfer allows the rapid advancement of genetics from the dam. Just as artificial insemination allows the production of many offspring from a superior male, embryo transfer allows the production of many offspring from a superior female (Figure 18–21).

©iStockphoto

2. Embryo transfer allows the progeny testing of females. This involves gathering data from the offspring of a particular animal. The data are analyzed to determine how valuable

Figure 18–21 Embryo transfer allows the production of many offspring from a

superior female.

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the animal is as a parent. Through the use of artificial insemination, a male can be progeny-tested in a short time because of the tremendous number of offspring that can be born and raised at the same time. The problem with progeny testing with females is that their offspring are limited in number and this method does not allow sufficient numbers of offspring from which data can be collected. Through the use of embryo transfer, one female can produce many offspring in a short period of time, allowing for the testing of her progeny. 3. As in artificial insemination, embryo transfer permits the import and export of quality animals without the quarantine measures required of animals that are already born. 4. Embryo transfer allows the use of a dual production system. For example, by using embryo transfer, dairy cattle can produce calves that are pure beef animals. Dairy cows are bred so they will continue to produce milk. But if they are bred naturally or by using artificial insemination, the calves will still be half dairy animals. When beef calves are preferred, embryo transfer is the method used. 5. Implanting two embryos into a recipient female can produce twin offspring. 6. Producers can rapidly convert their herds from grade animals to purebred herds. By implanting a female of mixed breeding with purebred embryos, they can raise replacement animals that are both purebred and high quality. Some argue that the use of embryo transplant has a big disadvantage. They say that if producers use embryo transfer and artificial insemination over a period of many years, the genetic base of the various breeds of animals will narrow. This means that in time there will be only a relative few animals that will eventually provide genetic material (egg and sperm) for the perpetuation of the breed. The fear is that producers, by demanding only embryos from the best animals, will eventually cause the loss of animals the producers feel are inferior. If the only animals of a breed that exist are related, there is reason to believe that this will lead to weakening rather than strengthening the breed. Others contend that through the use of embryo transfer, the importation of genetic strains from all over the world will prevent this problem from occurring. They contend that there are enough different strains in the world to make a narrowing of the genetic base highly improbable. Who is right? Only time will tell.

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The process of embryo transfer begins with the selection of donor cows and recipient cows. Cows selected as donors are usually animals that are of unusual value as breeding animals. They possess characteristics that are highly desirable to pass on to offspring (Figure 18–22). These characteristics might include high milking ability, growthability, or reproductive capacity. Or, the characteristics might be the type in demand for the show ring. In any case, the donor animals are too valuable to produce an offspring only one time a year. Producers may purchase frozen embryos from one of many companies that specialize in the sale of genetically superior embryos. The producer selects the embryos he or she wishes to order by analyzing data that have been compiled about the donor and the sire. These data usually consist of production data about the animal’s ancestors and their progeny. In this way, the producer can select for those traits that will be of most use in the producer’s herd. By contrast, recipient cows (those into which the embryo will be transferred) usually are cows of ordinary value, but these animals also are selected carefully. They must be healthy animals that are able to reproduce efficiently. They must be able to maintain pregnancy and to deliver a healthy, growing calf at the end of the gestation period. Some producers like to use recipient cows that have at least some dairy breeding so they will produce adequate milk for the calf. After the donor and the recipient animals have been selected, both groups must be synchronized so they are at the same phase in their estrus cycle. This allows for the proper transfer of the embryo from one reproductive system to another. This synchronization is accomplished using the procedures discussed earlier. The only difference is that the donor animals undergo a process known as superovulation, which causes them to release several eggs instead of just one. In this way, as many as 12 to 15 eggs can be collected from one ovulation. Superovulation is accomplished by injecting the donor with a follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). This hormone causes the ovaries to produce several follicles instead of just one (the follicles provide a place for the growing and maturing of the egg). During the process, the female is injected with prostaglandin to cause her to come into estrus. About 48 hours later, the female should be in estrus or heat. At this time, the cows are artificially inseminated or are bred naturally. Because there are multiple eggs to fertilize, more semen Figure 18–22 Only high-quality females such as this one must be used than would be used in regular artifi- are used as donor cows. cial insemination.

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The Process of Embryo Transfer

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Once fertilization occurs, the fertilized eggs (embryos) are allowed to grow for about a week before they are collected. In the earlier days of embryo transfer, the eggs were collected by removing the embryos surgically. This caused problems because of the scarring of tissue in the reproductive tract of the donor female. Today, the embryos are removed by a process called flushing. In this procedure a long, thin rubber tube called a catheter (Figure 18–23) is passed through the cervix and into the uterine horn. The catheter has an inflatable bulb about 2 inches from the end that fills like a balloon and seals the entrance to the uterus. Then a solution is then injected through the catheter into the uterus. When the fallopian tubes and the uterus are filled with solution, the flow of the solution is stopped and the solution is drained off into a collection cylinder. The fertilized eggs (embryos) are carried out of the uterus with the solution. An average of about six embryos are collected with each flush. After the embryos have been flushed out, the uterus is flooded with another type of solution that kills any embryos that were missed. This solution also helps to prevent infection. Once the embryos are collected in the solution, they are strained from the solution and examined under a microscope to determine their quality. Only embryos that are in the proper stage of maturity and appear normal and undamaged are used for transferring (Figure 18–24). The embryos may be transferred directly to a recipient female or may be frozen and stored for implantation at a later date. The recipient cow is induced to come into estrus using injections of prostaglandins. When the corpus luteum reaches the proper stage, the embryo is placed in the uterus of the Three channel catheter

Air inlet valve for inflating cuff

Inlet for flushing medium

Inflatable cuff holds catheter in place and prevents leakage of medium and uterine body Inlets for flushing medium and any flushed embryos Flushing medium outlet to uterine tip

Figure 18–23 A Foley three-way catheter.

Collection of flushed medium

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Figure 18–24 The embryo on the left is normal. The others are abnormal and not

suitable for implant.

recipient cow (Figure 18–25). The pregnancy is allowed to progress as it would in a normal conception. Research has shown that pregnancies from embryo transfer are as likely to go fullterm and deliver a normal calf as are pregnancies from natural conception.

Exciting possibilities for the use of embryo transfer exist in the not-too-distant future. In fact, much of the knowledge required to make these practices a reality is already known, if not feasible economically. For example, one of the techniques that producers would like to use is to be able to determine the sex of an embryo. Being able to transplant an embryo that they would be sure would produce a ram, a heifer, a boar, or a filly would benefit livestock producers tremendously. For example, dairy producers might like most of the calf crop to be female, to be used as replacements in the herd (Figure 18–26). If the embryos could be separated before implantation, all female embryos could be used. Or if a purebred breeder wants to produce mostly males to sell as herd sires, the process could be benFigure 18–25 Here, technicians are placing embryos in the eficial. Of course, scientists already are able recipient female. to determine the sex of an embryo before it

Delmar/Cengage Learning

New Technology in Embryo Transfer

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Figure 18–26 If embryos can be separated by sex, dairy producers could plan for a

majority of calves born to be female.

is implanted in the recipient female. The goal now is to make the process inexpensive enough to make sex determination profitable. Another technology that holds promise is that of cloning. A clone is an animal that is genetically identical to another animal. Cloning involves the splitting of embryos into two or more parts that will produce genetically identical offspring. The ability to clone exists already and is rapidly becoming economically feasible. In fact, cloning now is done routinely on a commercial scale by several embryo transfer companies. This process will be discussed in the next chapter.

SUMMARY The most important aspect of animal agriculture is reproduction. Through this process, new animals are brought into the world. For many years, the natural process of breeding has been controlled by humans with increasingly more dramatic results. The use of artificial insemination and embryo transplantation has revolutionized the entire industry of animal agriculture. Selective breeding has brought about gains in efficiency and the type of animal better suited for production. The exciting new world of gene manipulation and cloning will bring about changes we cannot yet comprehend.

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REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. An organism that reproduces asexually originates from one parent, and one that reproduces sexually arises from two parents. 2. Zygotes divide by a process called meiosis. 3. The material in gametes that determines all of the characteristics of the new animal is called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. 4. Each chromosome from the male parent is matched with a chromosome from the female parent. 5. The egg of the female and the sperm of the male each have half the chromosomes that normally occur in other cells of the body. 6. In mammals, conception takes place in the uterus. 7. Testicles are suspended away from the body to increase the temperature, which is necessary for sperm production. 8. The pituitary gland produces a hormone that stimulates the ovary to produce a follicle. 9. The male organ that deposits sperm in the female tract and serves as the means of expelling urine from the body is called the penis. 10. The external covering of the penis is called the sheath or prepuce. 11. The lifespan of sperm is only 2 to 3 hours. 12. All species of mammals have the same amount of ejaculate. 13. The female reproductive system is much simpler than that of the male. 14. When the gamete is mature, the follicle becomes soft and expels the egg into the fallopian tube. 15. After conception occurs, the corpus luteum stops producing progesterone and the female aborts the zygote. 16. Embryo transfer allows for the production of many offspring from a superior male. 17. Embryo transfer also allows dairy cows to produce calves that are pure beef animals. 18. Collecting embryos by removing them surgically often causes problems because of the scarring of tissue in the reproduction tract of the donor female. 19. Only embryos in the proper stage of maturity that appear normal and undamaged are used for embryo transfer. 20. Scientists cannot determine the sex of an embryo before it is implanted in the recipient female. Fill in the Blanks 1. The production of the male gamete or ____________ is called ____________, and female gamete production is referred to as ____________. 2. The testicles produce the hormone ____________, which controls the animal’s ____________ and stimulates the development of ____________ characteristics. 3. The three accessory glands in the male reproductive tract are the ____________ ____________, the ____________ gland, and the ____________ gland. 4. Replicated chromosomes are called ____________. When they come together and are matched up in pairs, it is called ____________.

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5. In sperm production ____________ new sperm cells were produced from the original cell, but in egg production only ____________ egg cell is produced. 6. A long tube called the vas deferens leads from the ____________ to the ____________ vesicle, located at the upper end of the ____________. 7. The ovaries produce the ____________ or ____________, they provide a place for ____________ to take place, and they produce the hormones ____________ and ____________. 8. The fluid in the semen serves two purposes: to provide ____________ for the ____________ and to provide a means for the sperm to be ____________. 9. Large numbers of sperm are needed because not all sperm are able to make the ____________ ____________ to the ____________ where the ____________ is, and many are needed to secrete an ____________ that loosens the ____________ surrounding the ____________, and they also release a ____________ that dissolves the ____________ around the egg. 10. Leading from the ovaries are two tubes known as the fallopian tubes, which serve to transport the ____________ from the ____________ to the ____________. 11. When the nucleus of the single sperm enters the egg or ____________, the ____________ then releases ____________ and ____________ that form a layer around the ____________ to ____________ any more ____________ from entering. 12. Once the embryo reaches the ____________, it ____________ to the wall of the ____________ and begins to ____________. 13. When a mass of cells starts to differentiate, the cells begin to specialize to form ____________, ____________, ____________ ____________, etc. 14. An artificial vagina consists of a ____________ tube lined with a ____________ surface ____________ ____________ that is filled with ____________ ____________. 15. Some producers say that embryo ____________ and ____________ insemination over a period of years will narrow the ____________ base of the various ____________ of animals. 16. Quality of semen is based on the ____________ of ____________ in a ____________ of semen, how ____________ the sperm are, and the ____________ of the sperm. 17. Some producers believe that embryo transfer will allow the ____________ of ____________ strains from all over the world. 18. In embryo transfer, flushing involves a long, thin rubber ____________, called a ____________, which is passed through the ____________ ____________ and into the ____________ ____________. 19. Cloning involves the ____________ of embryos into two or more ____________ that will produce ____________ identical ____________. Discussion Questions 1. What are the two different methods by which organisms reproduce? 2. What is a gamete? 3. What function does a gene serve? 4. Why do chromosomes always come in pairs (in higher-ordered animals)? 5. Explain why mules cannot reproduce. 6. What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis?

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7. List and explain the steps in the production of spermatozoa. 8. Name and explain the purpose of the hormone produced by the male’s testicles. 9. What purposes do the accessory glands of the male reproductive tract serve? 10. Name and give the functions of three hormones that assist in control of the female reproductive cycle. 11. What function does the cervix serve? 12. Explain how the female gamete (the egg) is produced in the ovary. 13. Where does fertilization take place? 14. Why is a large number of sperm needed to ensure that fertilization takes place? 15. What is the difference between a zygote and an embryo? 16. What are the advantages of using artificial insemination? 17. How is semen stored in order to last a long period of time? 18. What is estrus synchronization? 19. Why would producers want to synchronize the estrus cycles of their herds? 20. What are the benefits of embryo transfer? 21. How are embryos collected from the female? 22. What potential problem do some people see in the continued use of embryo transfer? Student Learning Activities 1. From a local slaughterhouse, obtain reproductive tracts of beef and pork animals. In the laboratory, dissect and examine the tracts. To protect yourself from any disease organisms that might be present in the tracts, be sure to wear rubber gloves at all times. 2. Obtain samples of frozen semen and embryos from a local veterinarian. Following the veterinarian’s instructions, carefully thaw the semen and embryos and examine them under the microscope. Look for sperm or embryos that may be damaged or of low quality. 3. Using the catalogs of breeder companies, compare the costs of semen and embryos of different animals. List some reasons why there would be a price difference. Explain why a producer might want to buy the cheaper or the more expensive semen or embryos. 4. Conduct a survey of livestock producers in the area. Determine how many of the producers use artificial insemination and/or embryo transfer. Ask for their reasons for or against using the techniques.

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19

Cloning Animals

KEY TERMS clone surrogate mother genetic engineering genetic improvement

endangered species genetic code oocyte zygote

differentiation morula nuclear transfer enucleated oocyte

quiescent cells genetically altered clone genotype phenotype

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE When you have finished studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ describe animals that have been

successfully cloned. ■ explain the difference in cloning

■ the process of nuclear transfer. ■ discuss why there can be differences in

animal clones.

derived from embryos and cloning derived from differentiated cells.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE When you have finished studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ discuss the benefits of cloning animals. ■ list ways in which cloning has already

been used. ■ explain how cloning and genetic

altering can be used together to produce useful animals.

■ discuss how the cloning of cattle has

been made more efficient.

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loning is the process of producing offspring that are genetically identical from a parent. Notice that the term “parent” is used instead of “parents.” Clones are derived from a single parent without the usual mating process. In nature there are animals such as starfish and sponges that reproduce asexually (reproduction from a single parent), but almost all higher-ordered animals reproduce through the uniting of a sperm and an egg. Remember from Chapter 18 that an offspring gets half of its genetic makeup from each parent and receives traits from both parents. In this way, no two animals are identical genetically. There is, however, an exception: Sometimes the fertilized egg divides and two or three embryos develop. When this happens, the two (twins) or three (triplets) offspring are identical in genetic makeup because the egg was already fertilized when it divided so the genetic coding was already determined. In a sense, these twins or triplets are clones because they have the same genetic scheme (Figure 19–1). Not all twins and triplets are identical. Sometimes the mother releases two or more eggs instead of one. Different sperm fertilize the different eggs and twins or triplets occur that are not identical. In some animals such as pigs, dogs, and cats, this is common, and they have litters of offspring. In other animals, such as cattle and horses, twins and triplets do happen, but this is not common. Sheep may have twins or a single lamb. The purpose of cloning is to reproduce animals from a single parent that will be genetically identical to the parent. This is different from identical twins because the egg divides after fertilization and the twins are genetically identical but are genetically different from either parent. Today, scientists can produce clones that are identical to a single parent. The process is extremely complicated and took many years of research to achieve. Many types of animals have been cloned. Cattle, pigs, dogs, rabbits, cats, rats, and sheep have all been successfully cloned. However, the process is very expensive and time-consuming. If cloning is so expensive, the obvious question is: Why, with all of the modern techniques such as selective breeding, artificial insemination, and embryo transplant, do we want to clone animals? The following section discusses some of the Figure 19–1 Twins and triplets can be considered clones rationale for conducting further research on if they come from the same zygote. the cloning process. ©iStockphoto

C

CLONING ANIMALS

REASONS FOR CLONING Cloning is controversial as well as expensive. Almost all producers have to make a profit to remain in business, so any aspect of production has to be cost-effective. Cloning is a reproduction method that cannot be done by producers or the average veterinarian. Labs are expensive, and they take a lot of time to produce cloned animals. Nevertheless, there are some good reasons for cloning. Genetic Superiority

Ed Phillips, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Perhaps the most important reason for cloning is to take advantage of genetic superiority. Even with the technology of artificial insemination and embryo transplant, the process of genetic improvement in animals can be slow. Also, keep in mind that with these technologies, the resulting offspring are still a combination of the genetics of both parents. Through the use of cloning, each cell in the body of a superior animal could theoretically produce a new animal with the same gene pool (Figure 19–2). If these cells can be harvested, grown into embryos in the lab, and transplanted into surrogate mothers, there could be a tremendous increase in the efficiency of genetic improvement. A vastly superior animal could be used to produce a large number of offspring that theoretically would have the same characteristics as the parent. One of the problems with selective breeding is that unwanted traits sometimes are passed along with the desirable traits in superior animals. Scientists are able to insert DNA into animal cells that control certain characteristics. This process, called

Figure 19–2 Through the use of cloning, each cell in the body of a superior animal

theoretically could produce a new animal with the same gene pool.

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genetic engineering, allows scientists to produce characteristics in animals that might not be possible through the normal selective breeding process. However, the process of inserting DNA into animal cells is a very complicated, time-consuming process and is expensive. If the cells from a genetically engineered animal could be cloned, the process could be made a lot more efficient. By carefully selecting the genes that carry only desirable traits, this problem could be eliminated. Theoretically through the process of genetic engineering, a “superclone” could be developed that would be an ideal agricultural animal. This animal could then be reproduced through multiple clones. Animal and Product Uniformity Although genetic diversity has many advantages, a drawback is that genetically diverse animals raised together are given care and nourishment aimed at the average animal in the flock or herd. This means that there will be animals that need less nourishment or medication and there will be animals that will need more nourishment and medication. If the animals were all genetically identical, the environmental care, medications, feed, and other management techniques could be tailor-made for the entire group of animals in the flock or herd. Also, animal products from cloned animals could be more uniform. If an entire flock of cloned chickens were raised in the same environment with the same management practices, the resulting chicken carcasses should be uniform. Drumsticks, as well as all other parts of the chicken, would all be close to the same size. The same would be true for any agriculture animal. If a particular market wanted small T-bone steaks, then cloned cattle that matured early and produced relatively small T-bone steaks could be raised in the same pen, managed in the same way, and sold at the same time through the same market (Figure 19–3). Both retailers and consumers could order steaks of a uniform size of their choice. This could make the process of raising meat more efficient and ultimately benefit the consumer by lowering prices and increasing the quality of meat products.

John A Rizzo/Getty Images

Endangered Species

Figure 19–3 Through cloning, cuts of

meat such as T-bone steak could be made uniform and the proper size.

Most likely you have seen the movie where scientists use DNA harvested from the digestive tract of mosquitoes preserved in amber. The idea was that the mosquitoes were trapped in the amber during the Jurassic period, when dinosaurs roamed the earth. The blood in the mosquitoes’ system was blood they took from dinosaurs, and thus the DNA of the dinosaurs was preserved. Because all cells of an animal carry the animal’s entire genetic code, the DNA sequencing of the dinosaurs could be extracted and duplicated.

Although most scientists think this story line can never be brought to reality, many scientists think that cloning may be a solution to the extinction of animal species that are on the verge of dying out. Throughout the world, literally hundreds of different animal species are in danger of becoming extinct. Even with the best conservation efforts, whole species of animals continue to disappear. If new animals could be reproduced from the tissue of the few remaining animals, many endangered species might be saved (Figure 19–4). In fact, scientists have dreamed of bringing back long-extinct species through the cloning of preserved DNA. For example, wooly mammoths and mastodons have been extinct for thousands of years, yet frozen remains of these animals are periodically discovered in the arctic regions. The thought is that if enough intact DNA is preserved in the remains, an embryo of the animal might be cloned, using elephants as surrogate mothers. So far there has been no success with this goal, primarily because no DNA has been found that is complete and sound enough to be used for cloning. Some success in the cloning of endangered species has already been achieved. In 2000, an endangered species was successfully cloned. The Asian gaur is an oxlike animal native to India and Burma that has been endangered for several years. The adults can reach a mature weight of over a ton and have been a favorite game animal for many generations of hunters. Overhunting and the destruction of their habitat have caused the populations of these animals to decrease drastically to the point of extinction. Using cow eggs with the nucleus removed, DNA from the skin cells of a dead gaur was implanted into the eggs and the resulting embryos were placed in the reproductive tract of cows. Altogether, 42 embryos were implanted into 32 cows; however, only one live birth of a real cloned gaur resulted. Even though the cloned calf, named Noah, died only 2 months after birth, scientists proved that the technology was possible. In the future, genetic scientists and wildlife biologists will attempt to clone many other endangered species. Research Perhaps the greatest advantage of cloned animals is their use as research animals. One of the biggest problems facing researchers is that of controlling all the differences among animals within a group or between groups. A group of animals selected for research will have different genetics even though they may be closely related. Often, this interferes with the findings of a research study. For example, differences may show up that are related more to genetics than to the treatment given to the experimental group. Placing a large number of animals in both the experimental and the control groups usually controls this genetic difference (Figure 19–5).

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Figure 19–4 If new animals could

be reproduced from the tissue of the few remaining animals, many endangered species might be saved.

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Figure 19–5 Because they are genetically the same, cloned animals could greatly

reduce the number of animals needed for a research study.

Having to use large numbers of animals and having to repeat experiments many times greatly increase the cost and amount of time involved in conducting animal research. However, if genetically identical animals could be produced through cloning, the number of animals needed for the study would be much fewer and the results also might be more meaningful. The differences among animals in an experimental group because of genetic differences could be eliminated.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CLONING PROCESS For decades, scientists have known that all the cells in an animal’s body contain the genetic code for the entire animal. This code is created when half the code is passed from the father and half is passed from the mother when the sperm and the egg unite during fertilization. After the egg, called an oocyte, is fertilized, it becomes a zygote with the complete genetic code intact. As discussed in Chapter 18, the zygote begins to divide into identical cells and the process of cell division continues for 10 to 12 days until a ballshaped mass of cells called a morula is formed. At this point, cells begin to change and to develop into different types of cells that will divide and grow to form bones, muscle, skin, and so on. The cells from which the differentiation begins are called stem cells. Once the cells begin to differentiate, the genetic coding is locked into place and bone cells produce nothing but bone cells and muscle cells produce muscles, and so on, even though the entire genetic code is contained in each cell. For many years, scientists thought that once the cells differentiated, the process could not be reversed into producing undifferentiated cells. Scientists developed the first clones by dividing a zygote to produce two or more animals. The scientists stimulated each half of a zygote to continue the division process, and clones were born in much the same manner as ordinary identical twins in which the zygote divided naturally (Figure 19–6). It was long thought that this was the only means of creating clones because the process of differentiation could not be reversed.

Luk Cox, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

CLONING ANIMALS

Figure 19–6 The first clones were created using microscopic tools to divide a zygote.

Animal clones derived from differentiated cells first became a reality back in 1962 when a scientist named John Gurdon of Oxford University developed a procedure called nuclear transfer. Gurdon was able to take the DNA from a cell in the intestine of an adult frog and use this genetic material to clone a frog. He began by removing the nuclei from a batch of frog eggs. Remember that the nucleus of a cell is where the DNA is located, so when the nucleus was removed, the DNA was removed along with it. This resulted in what is known as an enucleated oocyte. From other frogs, Dr. Gurdon took cells from the intestines, removed from the nuclei of the cells, and placed them into the enucleated eggs. Through this process of nuclear transfer, he created many cells with new nuclei. Although most of the cells died, some of the nuclear transfer cells began to behave in much the same way as a fertilized egg. These cells began to divide, and after a while a morula formed (Figure 19–7). From this structure, the cells began to differentiate and develop into tadpoles. For the first time, a scientist had demonstrated that cell differentiation could be reversed. However, a large problem arose from the experiments: Even though the tadpoles appeared to be normal, they never developed into frogs. Other scientists duplicated Gurdon’s research, but no one could get the cloned tadpoles to develop into grown frogs. The reason still remains a mystery. Gurdon’s procedure was tried many times with other animals. Scientists were particularly interested in cloning mammals such as pigs and cattle because of the usefulness and economic value of these animals. However, no one was able to get nuclear transferred mammal cells to grow and divide beyond a few cells. The scientific thought at the time (1970s and 1980s) was that for some reason the process would not work in mammals as it had in tadpoles. However,

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NUCLEAR TRANSFER PROCEDURE

Holding Pipette

DNA

Polar Enucleation Body Pipette

Enucleated Oocyte

Embryonic Cell

STEP 1: Remove DNA from unfertilized egg (enucleation). STEP 3: Place embryonic cell next to egg from Step 1 Why: We do not want the genetic information from the egg (enucleated egg). (unknown genetics). Embryonic Cell

Fused Embryonic Cell and Enucleated Oocyte Electrodes

Holding Pipette

Transfer Pipette

STEP 2: Pick up one cell from a good embryo. Why: We want to use the good genetics of the embryo.

STEP 4: Fuse egg and cell by brief electrical pulse. Why: Embryonic cell will supply genetic information and egg will supply cytoplasm to form new embryo (copy).

STEP 5: Repeat Steps 1-4 until each cell of the embryo has been used. Why: Each cell has potential to form a copy of the original embryo. A 32 cell embryo could produce up to 32 copy embryos (clones) during one cycle of the cloning process.

STEP 6: Culture clones for 5 to 6 days until they reach the morula or blastocyst stages. Transfer or freeze clones. Why: The best stages of embryo development for embryo transfer or freezing are that of morula and blastocyst.

Figure 19–7 The nuclear transfer process.

some scientists refused to give up and continued to research methods of cloning mammals. They were successful in the late 1980s when sheep, cattle, and rabbits were successfully cloned. However, these clones were accomplished by dividing embryos and were not the result of the nuclear transfer of DNA from an adult cell. Cloning Mammals A theory was developed in the 1980s when scientists began to study how cells divide and differentiate. For many years they had known that some cells divide more rapidly than others. Cells such as those that make up skin, hair, or inner organs go through their division cycle more rapidly than other body cells. This is because repairs have to be made as cells are injured or wear out on such exposed areas as skin. Cells go through periods of inactivity and are said to be quiescent. During these periods, cells do

Courtesy of Dr. Carol L. Keefer, ABS Specialty Genetics

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not divide because there is no need for rapid cell division. Then when the cells are needed, some mechanism that is still not very well understood triggers the cells into action. In the 1990s scientists at Roslin Institute in Scotland began to experiment with quiescent cells as a way of cloning mammals. They began by taking rapidly dividing cells from the mammary gland of a pregnant white-faced sheep and culturing the cells in the laboratory. As a treatment, they deprived the cells of nutrients to stop the cells from growing. Using previously developed technology, they removed the nucleus of an oocyte from a blackfaced ewe, and the DNA from the white-faced sheep’s mammary gland was placed in the cell. A small current of electricity caused the foreign DNA to enter and fuse with the cytoplasm in the enucleated oocyte. Nutrients then were added to cause the new cells to begin to divide. The dividing embryo then was placed in the reproductive tract of a black-faced sheep. Of course, this was not a one-time process that achieved immediate results. The scientists created 277 new embryos from this process, and of these, they recovered only 29 that were good enough to transplant into ewes. Thirteen ewes were given either one or two of the embryos, and of these 13, only one grew to full term and produced a normal, healthy lamb. The lamb had a white face and was born to a black-faced surrogate mother, so the scientists could be almost sure that the lamb was a product of their cloning. All doubt was removed when DNA fingerprinting proved that the DNA from the cloned sheep, named Dolly, matched the cells from the tissue taken from the mammary gland. Dolly created quite a phenomenon in the media. TV and radio newscasts all over the world carried stories about the birth of Dolly. The Roslin Institute estimated that in the first week after the story broke, the scientists there received more than 2,000 phone calls about the clone. In addition, during that same week, they talked at length with nearly 100 reporters and Dolly was filmed by 16 film crews and photographed by more than 50 media photographers. Many of the news stories raised ethical concerns about cloning animals. Questions were asked about whether Dolly was a “normal” animal and the type of creature she might develop into. Also, concerns were voiced about the likelihood that the research might lead to the cloning of humans. Since that time, Dolly has matured and produced normal lambs of her own, and fears about her have subsided. Several stories were published about abnormalities with Dolly, but almost all of these have been proven to be unfounded. For example, it was once thought that Dolly was aging more rapidly than normal. However, a closer examination revealed that while the arthritis in her joints was unusual, it is known to occur in sheep of her age. Speculation is that the problems were not related to cloning.

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Genetically Altered Clones

Courtesy of Gary Farmer

Courtesy of Dr. Steven Stice, University of Georgia

Later, the Roslin Institute produced two cloned lambs, named Molly and Polly, that had been genetically altered. The animals were given a human gene responsible for the production of a protein that aids in the clotting of blood after an injury. The protein, Factor IX, could be very useful as a pharmaceutical in treating human patients who suffer from hemophilia. The idea is that if genetically altered animals can be mass-produced, the substance can be commercially produced at a much lower cost than by conventional methods. The first genetically altered calf clones were produced in 1998. Figure 19–8 These two calves were Dr. Steven Stice and Dr. James Robl of the University of Georgia the first genetically altered cloned developed two genetically altered cloned calves named George and calves. Charlie (Figure 19–8). These researchers placed two genes, a genetic marker and a gene that makes cells resistant to antibiotics, into Holstein cattle DNA that was used to clone the two calves. Although the main benefit gained from this procedure was research, the process proved that genetically altered calves could be produced. Later, Dr. Stice led efforts to clone calves possessing a gene to enable cows to produce milk with the human serum albumin. Every year around 440 tons of human serum albumin are used in hospitals to treat patients. If this process can be made commercially feasible, a tremendous boon to the medical establishment will be achieved. Also, it will open the door for many more beneficial products that can be produced in this way. Another breakthrough occurred in 2002 at the University of Georgia when Dr. Stice succeeded in cloning a calf from cells taken from a cow that had been dead for 48 hours. The female calf grew normally, matured, and had a normal healthy calf by the natural breeding process. The cells were taken from a kidney of the slaughtered animal because the kidneys usually remain with the carcass until the carcass is divided into retail cuts. The importance of this technology is that the possibility may exist to take cells from a superior carcass and clone animals to produce similar carcasses. If a truly superior carcass is found, the animal is already dead and reproducing the animal Figure 19–9 KC was the first animal cloned from an animal would be possible only through cloning that had been dead for 48 hours. (Figure 19–9).

PERFECTING THE PROCESS Several times, research has shown that mammals can be cloned successfully. The challenge now is to make the process easier and more efficient. Remember that when Dolly was cloned,

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277 cloned embryos resulted in only one lamb, and of the 13 ewes that received 29 healthy embryos, only Dolly was carried to full-term. Obviously, this success rate is far too inefficient to be of any practical use. If cloning is ever to achieve the potential outlined by futurists, the process will have to be greatly refined and perfected. In 2001, a team of scientists led by Dr. Steven Stice at the University of Georgia reached a milestone in this effort when eight Figure 19–10 All eight of these calves were cloned from the calves cloned from the same adult cow were same cow. born (Figure 19–10). All of the calves were born from different surrogate mothers over a period of about 2 months. The significance of this achievement is that in the past, the best viability rate of cloned cattle embryos was about 1 in 20. Dr. Stices’s team reduced that rate to 1 in 7. The team used eggs harvested from the cattle ovaries obtained from the slaughter plant. Using the eggs as host cells, the nuclei were removed in much the same way as described for the previous research. The process differed in that a chemical inhibitor was applied to the cells from the donor cow. This chemical makes the cell more uniform in preparation for cloning. In other words, the DNA material used for cloning was made more uniform through the use of the chemical inhibitor.

Courtesy of Dr. Steven Stice, University of Georgia

CLONING ANIMALS

An interesting phenomenon about cloning is that there can be observable differences in clones. Take a close look at the calves in Figure 19–11. Can you detect any differences in the calves? Obviously the size difference is due to the differences in the ages of the calves. But what about the different color patterns on the animals? Since they all have an identical genetic makeup, how can the patterns be so different? Remember from the discussion of genetics in Chapter 18 that the genotype of an animal is the actual genetic makeup and the phenotype is how the genes are expressed or how the animal actually looks. Environmental factors can have a large impact on an animal’s phenotype. Remember that all the calves were born to different surrogate mothers. Differences in nutrition, condition of the placenta, or the degree of heat absorbed by Figure 19–11 The color pattern on cloned calves may be different. the fetus can all affect the color patterns

Courtesy of Dr. Steven Stice, University of Georgia

DIFFERENCES IN CLONES

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of individual calves. Also notice that the color pattern on the heads of all the calves appears to be the same. Head markings on calves do not seem to migrate during gestation as do markings on other regions of the body. With all the knowledge we have accumulated about cloning animals, there is a tremendous amount yet to learn!

SUMMARY Until recently, the cloning of animals has been a fantasy of science fiction writers. In recent years, several breakthroughs in our understanding of DNA and the gene transfer process have allowed scientists to make this concept a reality. Several animals including rabbits, cattle, and sheep have been successfully cloned using DNA from adult animals. Many benefits can be gained by the cloning of animals if the process can be made commercially feasible. Although the technology to make this happen is still just around the corner, most geneticists believe that the techniques can be developed to the point where the cloning of agricultural animals is a common occurrence. Given concerns raised over cloning, it remains to be seen whether or not the public will accept cloning as part of our society. Despite the controversy surrounding animal cloning, research and development of this technology have continued at an everincreasing pace. Predictions are that in the near future, cloned animals will be commercially feasible and a common occurrence. In fact, large mammals such as cattle and sheep have already been cloned and have received a lot of media attention. Several large companies are investing a huge amount of time and resources into the development of animal cloning. A discussion of these concerns will be addressed in another chapter.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Animal clones appear frequently in nature. 2. Genetic engineering might be able to produce a “superclone.” 3. Only a few of the cells of an animal’s body contain the full genetic code. 4. The first artificially developed clones were created by splitting embryos. 5. So far, scientists have not been able to reverse a differentiated cell into an undifferentiated cell. 6. An enucleated cell contains two nuclei. 7. Dolly the sheep was the first mammal to be cloned. 8. Cloning can produce animals that are normal in every way. 9. Animals cloned from the same animal will all have the same genetic code but may differ in appearance. 10. Almost all scientists agree that the cloning process can never be made commercially feasible.

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Fill in the Blanks 1. All naturally born twins are actually ____________ because they have the same ____________ ____________. 2. Products from cloned animals will be more ____________. 3. Currently, the greatest use of cloned animals is as ____________ animals. 4. An unfertilized egg is called a ____________, and a fertilized egg is called a ____________. 5. An egg with the nucleus removed is called a(n) ____________ ____________. 6. The cells from which differentiation begins are called ____________ ____________. 7. Cells go through periods of inactivity and are said to be ____________. 8. Some people are concerned that research on cloning animals might lead to the cloning of ____________. 9. The actual genetic makeup of an animal is called the ____________, and the way the genes are expressed is called the ____________. 10. Many benefits of cloning can be realized if the process can be made ____________ ____________. Discussion Questions 1. List three benefits of cloning animals. 2. Explain the benefit of making all the animals in a herd uniform. 3. How can the use of cloned animals reduce the cost of conducting animal research? 4. List and explain the step involved in nuclear transfer. 5. What is the difference between a stem cell and a differentiated cell? 6. What were some of the concerns over the cloning of Dolly the sheep? 7. What is the advantage of using genetically altered embryos for cloning? 8. Explain how genetically identical cloned calves may have different color patterns. 9. What is the difference between a phenotype and a genotype? 10. Discuss how cloned animals may be used for pharmaceuticals. Student Learning Activities 1. Search the Internet and locate information on cloning pets. Prepare a position paper on your thoughts concerning the use of cloning techniques to re-create a beloved pet that has died. Should time and funding be invested in this technology? Share your findings and conclusions with the class. 2. Read a story or watch a movie that depicts cloning as science fiction. Was the plot feasible and realistic? Record your thoughts, and share them with the class. 3. Conduct a survey of teachers and students in your school to determine attitudes toward animal cloning. Ask if they can give examples of animals that have been successfully cloned. Find out whether they think scientists should develop and perfect the cloning process. Do they think animal cloning will lead to human cloning? Choose a species of agricultural animal, and write a report on the benefits of cloning that species. If the animal could be genetically altered before it is cloned, what beneficial traits should be added? Share the results with the class.

CHAPTER

20

Animal Growth and Development

KEY TERMS prenatal postnatal hyperplasia hypertrophy Cytoplasm meiosis morula blastula

placenta amniotic fluid ectoderm mesoderm endoderm morphogenesis notochord oxytocin

colostrum cartilage ossification organic energy marbling artificial hormones Castration

lean-to-fat ratio barrows aging Chronological age physiological age vertebrae collagen

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ describe how an animal grows. ■ distinguish between prenatal and

postnatal growth. ■ define mitosis. ■ explain the three phases of prenatal

growth. ■ define cleavage. ■ list the layers of the blastula and the

organs that are derived from each layer. ■ describe the function of the placenta.

■ explain how muscle cells are different

from most body cells. ■ discuss the sequence in which fat tissue

is deposited in an animal’s body. ■ define the role of fat cells. ■ explain the effects of hormones in the

growth process. ■ describe the aging process in animals. ■ distinguish between chronological and

physiological age.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain why animal growth is so

important to producers of agricultural animals. ■ explain why selection for muscling in

breeding cattle is important. ■ explain the phases of an animal’s life

in which the most rapid growth occurs.

■ discuss the effect of castration on the

growth of animals. ■ define the lean-to-fat ratio. Explain the

effects of aging on the productivity of animals.

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LL ANIMALS MUST GO through the process of growth in order to develop from a fertilized egg into a mature adult. During their lives, animals go through several stages of development in which their growth takes place in slightly different ways. A vast amount of both basic and applied research has been completed to better understand how growth occurs and how to make the growth process more efficient. Animal producers earn their living based on the amount of growth that occurs in animals. This is true whether the producers raise cattle for beef, sheep for wool, or horses for pleasure riding. Without this growth, animal products would be nonexistent (Figure 20–1). Growth is generally defined as an increase in the size or volume of living matter. An animal begins as a microscopic speck and grows within its mother until a certain mass of body weight and degree of maturity are achieved. A newborn calf may weigh 85 pounds at birth, but by the time this animal is mature, it may weigh more than a ton (Figure 20–2). The two major phases of growth in the animal’s life are prenatal and postnatal. Prenatal refers to occurrences that take place before the animal is born; postnatal refers to occurrences after the animal is born. During prenatal growth, all of the organs of the animal’s body will be formed. When the animal is born, the organs begin to function in order for the animal to live and grow outside the mother’s womb. During postnatal growth, the animal increases in size and the body systems develop and mature. During both Figure 20–1 Producers depend on the growth of animals prenatal and postnatal growth, the increase in to make a living. size is a result of the cells increasing in size or in number. The increase in the number of cells is called hyperplasia, and the increase in the size of the cells is called hypertrophy. Growth in the size of cells usually is a result of the accumulation of materials such as protein or calcium in the cytoplasm of a cell. Cytoplasm is the material within the cell wall that does not include the nucleus.

©iStockphoto/Margo Harrison

Courtesy of North American Limousin Association

A

Figure 20–2 Calves begin small but may grow to weigh

more than a ton.

PRENATAL GROWTH Prenatal growth may be divided into three phases: ovum, embryonic, and fetal. The Ovum Stage The ovum phase lasts from fertilization of the ovum by the sperm until the mass of cells attaches to the wall of the uterus. This phase

ANIMAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Pronuclei

2-Cell Zygote

16-Cell Zygote

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Ovum

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Figure 20–3 The ovum stage is the first phase of life, and the single cell is the

beginning of animal life.

lasts about 10 days in sheep and 11 days in cattle. During this period, little change takes place and the shape of the cell mass remains approximately spherical. The single cell (fertilized egg) is the beginning of animal life (Figure 20–3). Remember from Chapter 16 that the sperm cell and the egg cell develop in a process called meiosis. Each of these cells contains half the number of chromosomes needed to create a new animal. When the two gametes (the egg and the sperm) unite at fertilization, they combine to supply the correct number of chromosomes for the new animal. After fertilization, the fertilized cell must reproduce itself so it can begin to grow. This process of cell division is called mitosis. Through mitosis, the nucleus of a cell divides and the DNA is replicated so each cell contains exactly the same genetic information. As the number of these cells increases, the fertilized egg develops into a tight ball containing a large number of cells. This process is called cleavage. As the cells multiply and divide, they form a spherical mass called the morula. The cells of the morula are arranged to form an outer layer and a central core (Figure 20–4). As the mass of cells continues to grow, a fluid-filled cavity develops in the center of the group of cells. This mass of cells with a cavity in the center is called a blastula. From the blastula, the cells begin to differentiate.

Morula

During the embryonic phase, the major tissues, organs, and their major systems are differentiated. The embryo is attached to the uterus, and a saclike pouch develops around the embryo. This enclosure is called the placenta, and it contains fluid known as the amniotic fluid. The purpose of the placenta is to give the embryo (fetus) nutrition and oxygen from the mother. Also, the placenta absorbs waste materials, and the mother’s lungs and kidneys dispose of these wastes. The amniotic fluid in the placenta serves as a mechanism to absorb shock and to protect

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The Embryonic Phase

Figure 20–4 As the cells multiply,

they form a spherical mass called the morula.

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the fetus. It also provides a lubricant when the fetus is moving through the birth canal. The embryonic phase lasts from the 10th day to the 34th day in sheep and from the 11th day to the 45th day in cattle. During the embryonic phase, the body undergoes a series of successive changes without much weight gain. The blastula goes through a process that begins the development of all the organs and tissues in the animal’s body. This process begins with the cells dividing into three layers (Figure 20–5). The outer layer is called the ectoderm, the middle layer is called the mesoderm, and the inner layer is called the endoderm. All parts of the animal’s body develop from these layers. This process of cell development into different tissues and organs is known as morphogenesis. After the layers are formed, the outer layer (the ectoderm) develops into the tissues that are on the outside or near the surface of the animal’s body. These include the skin, hair, hooves, and certain endocrine glands (ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream). In addition, this layer forms the central nervous system—the brain, the spinal cord, and all the nerve branches. The development of the brain and spinal cord begins with formation of the neural tube. The neural tube is formed by a thickened strip of ectodermal cells that fold together to form a tube. Another group of endodermal cells form a rodlike structure (notochord) that gives rise to the vertebral column. From this beginning, the brain and nervous system of the animal are formed. The mesoderm layer develops into the animal’s skeletal and muscular system, including the bones, muscles, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. The heart, veins, arteries, and other parts of the circulatory system also develop from this layer. In addition, the reproductive system is formed from the mesoderm layer. The inner organs, such as the liver and the digestive system, develop from Skin epidermis Epidermal Hair and nails the endoderm layer. The endoderm forms ectoderm Enamel of teeth the digestive system, lungs, liver, and Neural or Brain nerve tube Neural ectoderm other endocrine glands. Spinal cord The animal begins to take on a Muscles, bones recognizable form in the late embryonic Mesoderm Circulatory system Digestive system stage (Figure 20–6). Scientists do not Kidneys and ducts Digestive cavity fully understand what triggers cells into Reproductive system Connective tissue taking on different forms in the differentiation process. They believe that the Lining of digestive Endoderm answer is in the genetic code of the DNA. system Body cavity Bladder As more and more genetic research is completed, scientists are realizing that Figure 20–5 From the blastula, the cells begin to differentiate into this code is much more complicated distinct types of tissue. than they once thought.

Late Embryo

Tailbud Embryo

Delmar/Cengage Learning

ANIMAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Figure 20–6 The animal begins to take on a recognizable form in the late

At birth

Early fetus

Figure 20–7 The animal’s vital organs develop in the fetal stage.

The Fetal Stage Animals of different species grow at different rates during the fetal stage. All of the organs of the body develop at this stage (Figure 20–7). Vital organs such as the liver, heart, and kidneys have functional importance during fetal growth. These organs undergo a greater proportion of their growth in the early stages, and the digestive tract undergoes a far greater proportion of its growth in the later stages. The reason is that the animal must have fully functioning organs, such as the heart and lungs, before it is born. Because nutrients are passed from the mother’s bloodstream, the digestive system of the fetus is not as vital.

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embryonic stage.

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Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

328

Figure 20–8 At birth, the animal is expelled from the

uterus. When the animal hits the ground, its lungs are stimulated into operating.

Growth of the various parts of the fetus and the organs is characterized by changing rates of growth. This means that various organs grow faster at times than other organs. Continuous changes in the fetus occur during the fetal stage. As the fetus matures, it becomes less and less dependent on the mother. When the fetus is able to live on its own, a hormone called oxytocin stimulates the muscles of the uterus into contracting. The birth canal relaxes, and the new animal is expelled from the uterus. As the animal hits the ground, the lungs are stimulated into functioning and the animal begins to live on its own (Figure 20–8).

POSTNATAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

©iStockphoto

After an animal is born, the parts of its body do not grow and develop at the same rate, nor is the development rate of different species the same. However, the order in which the animal’s parts and systems develop is much the same in all species. Generally, tissues develop in the order of importance to the animal’s survival. In most species of animals, the head comprises a larger portion of the body at birth than at any time during the animal’s postnatal development. The head contains the brain, and this organ directs not only the growth but also the functions of all the other systems and Figure 20–9 Strong legs are necessary at an early stage organs. The animal’s legs tend to comprise so animals can stand and nurse. a larger portion of the body at birth than at later stages. Well-developed legs are necessary because young animals must be able to stand and nurse (Figure 20–9) or be able to get away from predators. The brain, central nervous system, heart, and circulatory system are all well-developed at birth. These organs are essential because when the animal is expelled from its mother’s womb, it must survive on its own. The respiratory system and the digestive system of animals usually develop soon after birth. The first milk from the mammary glands of the mother is called colostrum. This milk is rich in nutrients and passes immunity from the mother to the newborn. Also, the colostrum cleanses the digestive tract and stimulates it into functioning. Animals grow rapidly from the time they are born until they reach sexual maturity. In the brief period just after birth, the

animal grows relatively slowly as the organs adjust to functioning outside the mother’s placenta. After that period, the animal begins a stage of rapid growth when bone and muscle tissue grow steadily. This period continues until the animal reaches sexual maturity. During this phase, the animal achieves the fastest growth rate and the greatest feed efficiency. The size of an animal depends for the most part on the size and amount of bones and muscles in the animal’s body. All of the animal’s muscle cells are in place by birth. Muscle cells are different from most other cells in that they are long and relatively thin and contain many nuclei (Figure 20–10). After the animal is born, growth in the animal’s muscle system results from increases in the size of, but not in the number of, cells. This is why it is so important to select parent animals that will pass along the genetic ability to develop an adequate quantity of muscle cells. Bone tissue cells multiply both before and after birth. Bones grow longer by the hardening of cartilage tissue at the end of the bones. Cartilage tissue is softer than bone and solidifies as the bone matures. Once the cartilage solidifies all the way to the end of the bone, the bone ceases to grow. This process is called ossification. When bones mature, they are made up of about half minerals; the two main minerals are calcium and phosphorus. The other half is made up of organic matter such as protein. After the animal reaches sexual maturity, it continues to grow, although it grows at a slower pace until the muscle and bone stop growing. The animal then begins to lay down layers of fat. Fat is present in all phases of the animal’s growth if there is adequate nutrition in the diet to allow for the storage of fat. Fat is nature’s way of storing energy for the animal to use when it is not getting as much feed as it normally does. An animal’s body contains two types of fat: White fat stores energy; and brown fat functions to maintain the animal’s body heat. The animal first deposits fat in the abdominal cavity, where the fatty tissue serves to cushion the internal organs. After a sufficient amount is deposited in the abdominal cavity, the fat is then placed between the muscles; this tends to give the animals a sleek, smooth appearance. The last place for storage of fat is inside the muscles. In retail cuts of meat, these deposits of fat are called marbling.

THE EFFECTS OF HORMONES ON GROWTH Hormones are chemical substances formed by the endocrine glands and secreted into the bloodstream. They are carried to other parts of the body where they stimulate organs into action

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Figure 20–10 Muscle cells are

different in that they are elongated and contain many nuclei.

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Gland Pituitary

Hormone Somatotropin (STH)

Thyroid

Thyroxin

Testicles

Testosterone

Ovaries

Estrogens

Adrenal

Glucocorticoids

Effects on Protein Effects on Skeleton Metabolism Stimulates growth and Increases nitrogen closure of long bones retention and protein synthesis Stimulates growth of Controls body long bones; essential metabolism by for STH effect increasing energy production and oxygen consumption by tissues High dose is weak Stimulates nitrogen stimulator of retention; promotes epiphyseal closure and muscle growth and inhibits STH; low dose development of sex increases the width of characteristics epiphysis and helps STH effect Increase nitrogen Inhibits skeletal growth; promotes retention and protein synthesis in ruminants epiphyseal closure Increases protein Decreases growth of epiphysis; decreases and amino acid degradation; inhibits stimulation of protein synthesis epiphysis by STH and increases fat deposition

Figure 20–11 Hormones have quite an effect on the way animals grow.

or control bodily processes. The growth of an animal is regulated by hormones. The more important of the glands that secrete hormones affecting the growth of animals are the pituitary, thyroid, testicles, ovaries, and adrenal glands. Figure 20–11 shows the hormones that are responsible for the stimulation and regulation of animal growth. These hormones regulate the ultimate size of the animal. If there is an excessive amount, the animal will be abnormally large or malformed. An absence of the hormones can cause the animal to be a dwarf. Producers make use of artificial hormones to cause animals to grow more rapidly or more efficiently. These hormones or hormonelike substances are implanted in the animal (usually in the ear). The implants slowly release a very small amount of the growth stimulant over a period of time. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) closely regulates the amount of these substances that are allowed to be present in the meat from implanted animals (see Chapter 24).

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Lean-to-Fat Ratio Highest Intermediate Lowest

Cattle Bull Steer Heifer

Sheep Ram Wether Ewe

Swine Boar Gilt Barrow

Figure 20–12 The animal’s gender affects the lean-to-fat ratio of its body.

Castration of males slows growth and increases fat deposition in cattle, sheep, and swine. As indicated in Figure 20–11, the testicles produce testosterone that stimulates growth to a certain degree. When the testicles are removed, the production of this hormone stops and growth is somewhat affected. The degree of this effect varies within the species. It also affects the amount of lean and fat in the animal’s body. This is referred to as the lean-to-fat ratio. In cattle and sheep, the female has the lowest lean-to-fat ratio (Figure 20–12); a larger portion of the female body contains fat than contains lean. Uncastrated males have the highest lean-to-fat ratio, and castrated males fall somewhere in between. However, barrows (castrated male pigs) have a lower lean-to-fat ratio than gilts because barrows reach maturity earlier and have more fat deposition than gilts. Animals with the highest lean-to-fat ratio (intact males) usually have the least marbling. This is especially true for bulls.

THE AGING PROCESS IN ANIMALS Aging, from the time of birth to the time of death, involves a series of changes that lead to deterioration of the animal and eventually to death. There are two different terms for aging in animals. Chronological age refers to the actual age of the animal. Physiological age refers to the stage of maturity the animal has reached. In determining the physiological age of an animal after it has been slaughtered, the most common method is that of examining the bones. As mentioned earlier, as bones mature, they harden. Soft cartilage tissue, such as that on the rib cage and the vertebrae, continues to solidify throughout the animal’s life. Physiological age can be determined by the degree to which these cartilage tissues have solidified. It is said that as soon as an animal is born, it begins to die. This is true from a physiological sense because after formation of the embryo, many tissue cells stop dividing and only the cells essential to life (skin, blood, etc.) continue to divide. The animal’s lifespan is directly related to the rate of growth or the length of time to reach maturity. Sheep mature in about a

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Courtesy of Vocational Materials Service, Texas A&M University

332

Figure 20–13 Animals differ in how long they live.

year and have a life expectancy of about 10 years. Cattle require 2 to 3 years to reach maturity and have a life expectancy of 20–25 years (Figure 20–13). The physiological functions of animals decrease with age. Muscular strength and speed decline, reproductive organs secrete lower levels of hormones, and the time of recovery from substance imbalances increases with age. There is a gradual breakdown of separate nerves, the nervous system, and glandular control involved in aging. Wrinkles form as collagen, and protein become less elastic. Production by agricultural animals is often limited by age. This is because animals tend to lose their teeth as they age and become inefficient. Mothers produce less milk as they age, so their young do not grow as rapidly. Some animals, such as the sow, reach excessive size, causing management problems. Sows are culled at 2 to 3 years of age. Cows usually are culled by age 10–11 years, ewes are culled at about age seven to eight years, and sows are culled at two to three years of age. The factors affecting how long an animal may live or be productive may be genetic or environmental. How the animals are cared for determines to a large extent how well they do at an advanced age.

SUMMARY Animals begin to grow at birth and in some ways continue this process until they die. All the body’s systems must develop, grow to the proper size, function, and replace cells as they are lost or wear out. Growth and development are what the animal industry is all about. Ensuring that animals grow properly is the job of all connected with the industry from conception to the slaughter process.

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REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Prenatal refers to occurrences before the animal is born; postnatal refers to occurrences after the animal is born. 2. Prenatal growth may be divided into three phases: ovum, embryonic, and trimester. 3. Differentiate means that the cells take on different forms to produce different tissues. 4. The placenta serves as a mechanism to absorb shock and to protect the fetus. 5. During the embryonic phase, the body undergoes a series of weight gains without much new development. 6. The inner organs, such as the liver and digestive system, develop from the endoderm layer. 7. The differentiation process has been studied and researched so extensively that there is little left to find out. 8. All species of mammals grow at nearly the same rate. 9. Although the order in which parts and systems of the animal develop is different for different species, the rate is the same. 10. After the organs have adjusted to functioning outside the mother, the animal begins a stage when bone and muscle tissue grows rapidly. 11. At sexual maturity, another growth spurt affects the animal’s fertility. 12. After enough fat has been deposited inside the muscles, fat is deposited between the muscles. The last place that fat is stored is in the abdominal cavity. 13. Hormones stimulate organs into action or control bodily processes. 14. A low lean-to-fat ratio means that the body has more fat than muscle. 15. Production by agricultural animals is never limited by age.

Fill in the Blanks 1. Growth is generally defined as an ____________ in the ____________ or ____________ of ____________ matter. 2. The increase in the number of cells is referred to as ____________, and the increase in the size of the cells is referred to as ____________. 3. The blastula is a mass of ____________ with a ____________ -filled cavity in the ____________. 4. The differentiation process begins with the ____________ forming three basic layers: an outer layer called the ____________, a middle layer called the ____________, and an inner layer termed the ____________. 5. The development of the brain and spinal cord begins by the formation of the ____________ tube, which is formed by a ____________ strip of ____________ cells which fold together to form a ____________. 6. The mesoderm layer develops into the ____________ and muscular system of the animal, such as bones, ____________, ____________, tendons, and ____________. 7. As soon as they are born, animals must have certain organs, such as the ____________ and ____________, that begin to function immediately.

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8. When the fetus is able to live on its own, a hormone called ____________ stimulates the muscles of the ____________ into contracting, and the birth canal is ____________. 9. The brain, ____________ ____________ system, heart, and ____________ system are all ____________ developed at birth. 10. Colostrum is the ____________ milk from the mammary glands of the mother and passes ____________ from the mother to the ____________. 11. Muscle cells are different from most other cells in that they are ____________ and relatively ____________ and contain many ____________. 12. Fat is ____________ way of storing ____________ for the animal to use when it is not getting as much ____________ as it normally does. 13. Hormones are ____________ substances formed by the ____________ glands and ____________ into the ____________. 14. Two terms for aging in animals are chronological age, which refers to the ____________ ____________ of the animal, and physiological age, which refers to the ___ of ___ the animal has ____________. 15. With age, muscular strength and ____________ decline, ____________ organs secrete lower levels of ____________, and the time of ____________ from substance ____________ becomes longer.

Discussion Questions 1. Why is animal growth essential to producers? 2. By what two methods does growth occur? 3. What is the difference between the morula and the blastula? 4. What is the purpose of the placenta? 5. Name three layers of the blastula. 6. What organs arise from the ectoderm? 7. What is meant by differentiation? 8. What is oxytocin? 9. Why is it essential that newborn animals have well-developed legs? 10. At what stage in an animal’s life does the most rapid growth occur? 11. What is meant by ossification? 12. List the sequence in which an animal’s body deposits fat. 13. List five glands that secrete hormones that affect growth. 14. What is meant by the lean-to-fat ratio? 15. Tell the difference between chronological and physiological age.

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Student Learning Activities 1. Obtain from a slaughterhouse fetuses from animals that have been slaughtered. Try to determine the stage of maturity for each. Be sure to wear latex gloves when handling the material. 2. Visit with a producer and determine how he or she determines when animals have reached the level of maturity desired for market. Try your hand at making the determination of animals in the producer’s herd.

CHAPTER

21

Animal Nutrition

KEY TERMS maintenance ration feedstuff anabolism catabolism amino acids essential amino acids nonessential amino acids crude protein content carnivores herbivores tankage cellulose

monosaccharides disaccharides glucose fructose galactose sucrose lactose lipids inorganic macrominerals microminerals trace minerals

free choice carotene toxic monogastric gastrointestinal tract alimentary canal absorption cecum esophagus pepsin duodenum jejunum

ileum semipermeable membrane diffusion boluses (sing., bolus) rumen reticulum omasum abomasum mucous membranes bloat

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain why animals must have nutrients. ■ list the six nutrients that are essential

to life. ■ discuss the role of water in supporting

life. ■ discuss the relationship between

proteins and amino acids. ■ distinguish between a carnivore, an

omnivore, and a herbivore. ■ discuss the importance of protein in

animals’ diet. ■ discuss the importance of carbohydrates. ■ list the types of common sugars. ■ distinguish between a starch and a sugar.

■ discuss the importance of fats in the

diet of animals. ■ discuss the role minerals play in

sustaining life. ■ list the vitamins that are important in

an animal’s diet. ■ discuss the functions of vitamins. ■ distinguish between a monogastric

digestive system and a ruminant digestive system. ■ list and define the function of the organs

of the monogastric digestive system. ■ list and define the function of the

organs of the ruminant digestive system.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ name the sources from which protein

is obtained for feeds. ■ list the common grains that are used as

a source of carbohydrates. ■ distinguish between a concentrate and

roughage. ■ list the sources of fats in animal rations.

■ list the sources of minerals in animal

feeds. ■ list sources for the various vitamins

that are of use to animals. ■ explain the differences in the feed used

by monogastrics and the feed used by ruminants.

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or an animal to continue living, growing, reproducing, and performing all of the bodily functions, it must have nourishment. All of its movement and body processes require the use of energy. An animal can obtain energy from only two places: from the food it ingests and from the energy stored in its fat cells. Obviously, even for the animal to store energy in the fat cells, it must have an intake of food. In the wild, animals must spend most of their time in search of food to sustain themselves. In contrast, most agricultural animals are given their food every day. The nutrients obtained from their feed can go into growing and producing the products desired by the producers. Therefore, producers carefully balance the diets to fit the needs of their animals. A certain level of nutritional needs, known as the maintenance ration, must be met first. This is the level of nourishment needed by the animal to maintain its body weight and not lose or gain weight. Nourishment over that amount can be used for growing, gestating, and producing milk or other products (Figure 21–1). In the wild, most animals eat a variety of foods. This variety gives the animals the nutrients they need to support their bodily functions. In agricultural operations, producers balance the feeds of their animals to ensure that the proper nutrients are consumed. In confinement, the animals have to eat what the producer gives them. A lot of research has gone into the development of feeds that give animals exactly what they need to remain healthy and Figure 21–1 Animals must have nourishment above the to perform at their peak (Figure 21–2). One type maintenance level to grow, gestate, and/or produce milk. of feed may supply several of the needed nutrients, but usually a certain feedstuff contains a certain concentration of a particular nutrient. A feedstuff is generally a feed component that producers would not normally give by itself, but combined with other types of feedstuffs, it helps comprise the animal’s feed. Animals must have nutrients in each of six major classes: water, protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Each of these classes of nutrients serves a specific function in the metabolism of the animal. Metabolism refers to all the chemical and physical processes that take place in the body. These processes provide energy for all of the functions and Figure 21–2 A lot of research has gone into developing activities of the animal’s body. Metabolism feeds that provide animals with the proper nutrients. that builds up tissues is called anabolism. Courtesy of Dr. Frank Flanders, Agricultural Education, University of Georgia

Courtesy of ARS

F

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Examples of anabolism are the maintenance of the body, growth, and tissue repair. Metabolism that breaks down materials is called catabolism. An example is the breakdown of food within the digestive system.

Digital Vision/Getty Images

Water is the most abundant compound in the world. More than two-thirds of the world’s surface is covered with water. Because this nutrient is essential for sustaining life, animals take in Figure 21–3 Water is an essential nutrient needed to water frequently to remain alive (Figure 21–3). provide all the bodily fluids. Even animals such as llamas and camels, which can go for long periods of time without drinking, have to have water. This nutrient provides the basis for all the fluid in the animal’s body. The bloodstream must be a liquid in order for circulation to occur. Digestion requires moisture to break down the nutrients and move the feed through the digestive tract. Water is needed to produce milk. It is needed to provide fluid for manufacturing all the bodily fluids. It provides the cells with pressure that allows them to maintain their shape. It helps the body maintain a constant temperature. Another vital function of water is that of flushing the animal’s body of wastes and toxic materials. This nutrient is so vital that over half the animal’s body is composed of water. A loss of 20 percent of this water will result in the death of the animal. Using ballpark figures, animals generally need about 3 pounds of water for every pound of solid feed they consume. Some of this water comes in the feed itself. For instance, animals that graze obtain water from the succulent green forages they eat. Some water can be obtained in feeds such as silage that have a relatively high water content. However, most of the water an animal needs comes from the water it drinks. Because water is so essential, producers make sure that animals are given a constant supply of clean water. Animals may require more water at some times than others. A horse that is working hard in hot weather will sweat profusely and will need more water intake to replenish the fluid lost from its body. Likewise, a sow that is nursing a litter of 12 piglets requires a lot of water to produce milk for the young Figure 21–4 A sow nursing a litter of piglets needs a lot of water. (Figure 21–4).

Courtesy of NRCS

WATER

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PROTEIN Protein can make up to around 15–16 percent of an animal’s ration and may be the most costly part of the ration. Proteins are composed of compounds known as amino acids. Amino acids are often said to be the building blocks of life because they go into the formation of tissues that provide growth for the animal. Muscle production in particular depends on the amino acids found in proteins. All of the enzymes and many hormones in the animals’ bodies are composed of protein. To a certain extent, protein also is used to provide energy. Like water, some animals need more protein than others do. Young, rapidly growing animals need more protein than mature animals because the amino acids in the protein are required to build muscles, skin, hair, bones, and all of the other cells that go into the growth process (Figure 21–5). A cow that is giving large amounts of milk needs more protein than an animal that is not lactating. In all, there are over 20 different types of amino acids that an animal’s body uses. Of these, there are 10 essential amino acids that the animal must obtain from its feed. The other amino acids can be synthesized in the animal’s digestive tract. This means that the nonessential amino acids can be made from the 10 that the animal consumes. In this sense, the 10 are essential in that they cannot be manufactured by the animal and must be consumed. Table 21–1 lists the essential amino acids and the nonessential amino acids. Animals may not be able to digest all the protein in a given feed. The total amount of protein in a feed is called the crude protein content. The amount of crude protein in a feed is calculated by analyzing the nitrogen content and multiplying that percentage by 6.25. Digestible protein is the protein in a feed that the

Courtesy of NRCS

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Figure 21–5 Animals use protein to grow muscle, hair, and other tissues.

ANIMAL NUTRITION

Essential Amino Acids Arginine Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Phenylalanine Threonine Tryptophan Valine

341

Nonessential Amino Acids Alanine Aspartic acid Citrulline Cystine Glutamic acid Glycine Hydroxyproline Proline Serine Tyrosine

Figure 21–6 Animal byproducts

have been banned from almost all animal feed.

Courtesy of USDA/ARS

animal can digest and use. Digestible protein ranges from about 50–80 percent of the crude protein. Of all the ingredients in an animal’s feed, protein is usually the most costly. Although protein can be found in most feedstuffs, some have a much lower content than others. For example, yellow corn has a protein content of around 8 percent. A growing pig may need a ration that consists of 16 percent protein. Being fed corn alone will not give the pig an adequate amount of protein to provide for building the body cells to sustain growth. This means that a feedstuff that is higher in protein content will have to be added. Protein can come from basically two sources: animal and plant. Carnivores (animals that eat other animals), such as dogs, cats, and foxes, get almost all of their protein from meat. After all, the muscles in an animal’s body are composed primarily of protein and can serve as food for another animal. Omnivores (animals that eat both plants and animals), such as humans and pigs, can get protein from both plants and animals. Animals that eat only plants are called herbivores, and they must get protein exclusively from plants. Most feedstuffs that are rich in protein come from plant sources. Pigs once were fed slaughterhouse byproducts such as tankage and blood meal. Recent research has shown that these protein sources are inferior to plant sources in terms of protein that is usable to the animal. Cattle also were once fed animal byproducts, but such feeding is banned now. In fact, almost all feeding of animal byproducts has been banned because of concerns about transmitting diseases to humans (Figure 21–6). Some dried fish meal is fed to hogs as a supplement. Much of plant protein that goes into the feed of animals comes from the vegetable oil industry. Cooking oil usually is pressed from cottonseed, soybeans, peanuts, or corn (Figure 21–7). These seeds are run through huge presses, where the oil is squeezed out. The material that is left is in the form of a cake composed of the

Belinda Pretorius, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Table 21–1 There are 20 different amino acids that an animal’s body uses.

Figure 21–7 Soybeans provide

protein for animal rations.

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Courtesy of Dan Rollins, ConAgra Feed Mill, Falkville, Alabama

Courtesy of Dan Rollins, ConAgra Feed Mill, Falkville, Alabama

342

Figure 21–8 Feeds are balanced using computers. This is a

Figure 21–9 Feed samples are constantly monitored

computer control panel of a large, modern feed mill.

to ensure the proper balance and quality of the feed.

seeds minus the oil. It is dried and ground into a meal for feed. This material is usually 40–45 percent crude protein and can greatly increase the percentage of protein in a feed. This feedstuff then is mixed with the other feedstuffs in the proper ratio to give the desired protein content for the feed. The protein source that is used is often determined by the animal that is being fed. For instance, pigs are not fed cottonseed meal because this feedstuff contains a substance known as gossypol that is toxic to them. Other needs of the animal also determine the protein source that is used. Modern livestock operations no longer just balance a feed ration based on the percentage of protein. Now the feed formulas are based on the types and amounts of amino acids that are needed by a particular group of animals. The process of balancing feed rations based on amino acid content is so complicated that it is done by computers. Large modern feed mills have computers that control the formulating and blending of the different types of feed (Figure 21–8). Two feedstuffs may have the same percentage of protein and have different percentages of the essential amino acids. Different amino acids are needed for different body functions. For example, a different amino acid is needed for growth than is needed for milk production. Growing animals need a different type of protein supplement than a lactating dam needs. Feeds balanced on the type of amino acids needed by the animal are more cost-efficient (Figure 21–9).

CARBOHYDRATES The main source of energy from animals comes from carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars, starches, and cellulose and are the major organic compounds in plants. Almost all carbohydrates come from plants and are developed by photosynthesis. By weight,

plants are composed of about 75 percent carbohydrates. As will be discussed later, some animals are more efficient than others at making use of these carbohydrates. Starch is generally found in grain. The plants use starch as energy storage for the seed. Grains such as wheat and corn contain a lot of starch and, therefore, a lot of energy for the animal to use. Starches are composed of sugars, and in the process of digestion, the starch is broken down into the component sugars. There are several different types of sugars. Two broad groups are monosaccharides (the simple sugars) and disaccharides (the more complex sugars). “Simple” and “complex” refer to the chemical composition of these sugars and the different ways the molecules are formed. There are several common simple sugars (monosaccharides); among these are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Glucose is the simplest of all the sugars and is found in a low concentration in plant materials. It is also the major energy source found in an animal’s blood. The animal’s body breaks down some of the other sugars into glucose. Fructose is found in fruits and honey and is the sweetest of all the sugars. Common table sugar, sucrose, is a disaccharide composed of fructose and glucose. Galactose is obtained from the breakdown of the disaccharide lactose (milk sugar). Cellulose is the portion of cell walls that gives the plant its rigid structure. The enzymes in an animal’s digestive system cannot break down cellulose. However, some animals have Figure 21–10 Most of the millions of tons of corn grown microorganisms in their digestive system that each year go into the production of animal feeds. break down the cellulose fiber so the enzymes can digest the material. (This will be discussed later in this chapter.) The most important source of carbohydrates for agricultural animals is grains. Most of the millions of tons of corn grown in the United States each year go into the production of livestock feed (Figure 21–10). Other grains, such as wheat, oats, and barley, also are used. Feeds that are high in grain content are called concentrates because of their high concentration of carbohydrates. For horses and ruminant animals, forages grown for grazing and for hay are valuable sources of feed. These food sources are referred to as roughages because of the amount of fiber in the diet. Sometimes a combination of grain Figure 21–11 Corn is chopped to create silage, which is a and forage is used in the form of silage or similar combination of roughages and concentrates. types of feed (Figure 21–11).

Courtesy of NRCS

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Digital Vision/Getty Images

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Courtesy of NRCS

Santokh Kochar/Getty Images

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(B)

(A) Figure 21–12 Oil within seeds such as corn (A) and soybeans (B) is an example of plant fats.

FATS Fats are part of a group of organic compounds known as lipids. These compounds will not dissolve in water but will dissolve in certain organic solvents. Besides fats and oils, lipids also include cholesterol. Fats are found in both plants and animals. They serve as concentrated storage places for energy. An example of plant fats is the oil within seeds such as peanuts and soybeans (Figure 21–12). Fats serve the purposes of providing energy for the animal and of storing excess energy. When an animal consumes more energy (especially in the form of fats) than it needs to provide for all the needed bodily functions, the excess is stored in the form of fat. When the body does not take in enough energy to perform the normal bodily functions, these reserves of fat are used. Certain acids, referred to as the essential fatty acids, are also derived from fats. These acids are necessary in some animals for the production of certain hormones and hormonelike substances. The most important sources of fats in feeds for agricultural animals are the grains that contain oil. Corn and most other feed grains contain oil that the animals use as a fat source. Some types of animals, pigs for example, may have problems if they are fed too much oil. Hogs fattened on oily feeds such as whole peanuts may produce soft, oily pork that is not acceptable to consumers.

MINERALS Minerals are the only group of nutrients besides water that are inorganic. Although they provide only a small portion of the total feed intake, they are vitally important. Animals must have a sufficient intake of these inorganic materials to provide the building materials for their body structure. Bones are formed by a combination of calcium and phosphorus. In addition to building bones, minerals aid in the construction of muscles, blood cells,

VITAMINS Vitamins are considered to be micronutrients. This means that the body needs them in very small amounts. Even though only small amounts are required, vitamins are essential for life. They are essential for the development of normal body processes of growth, production, and reproduction. They are also vitally important in providing the animal with the ability to fight stress, disease, and to maintain good health. Some animals are able to synthesize certain vitamins in their body tissues. Other vitamins cannot be created by the animal from other nutrients and must be obtained from the diet or by microbial synthesis in the digestive system. There are 16 known vitamins. The B vitamins and vitamin C are water-soluble. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K.

Figure 21–13 The shells of eggs

are composed mostly of the mineral calcium.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

internal organs, and enzymes. This group serves the important role of providing structural support for the animal. Bones are formed by a combination of calcium and phosphorus. Another example is eggshells, which are mainly composed of calcium. Eggshells are ground up and added to chicken feed as a source of calcium. Animals must have a sufficient intake of these inorganic materials to provide the building materials for their body structure. In addition to building bones, minerals provide other essential needs. They aid in the construction of muscles, blood cells, internal organs, and enzymes. Animals with a deficiency in minerals never develop properly and are more susceptible to disease. The mineral elements required by animals include seven macrominerals (required in relatively large amounts in the diet) and nine microminerals, or trace minerals (required in very small amounts in the diet). The macrominerals are calcium, chlorine, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulfur. The microminerals are cobalt, copper, fluorine, iron, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, and zinc. These inorganic, crystalline, solid elements make up 3–5 percent of the body on a dry-weight basis, with calcium (approximately one-half the body mineral) and phosphorus (approximately one-fourth the body mineral) accounting for the largest portion of the total mineral content. Minerals usually are added to animal feed in their chemical form. Calcium sometimes is added from other animal sources. For example, ground-up oyster shells and eggshells are fed to laying hens to provide materials for their bodies to create strong eggshells (Figure 21–13). Minerals are often fed free choice. This means that the animals are given free access to the minerals and are allowed to eat all they wish. For cattle, this is done by a mineral box or trough, or by the use of a salt block (Figure 21–14). Essential minerals are in the block, and the animals get them as they lick the block for salt.

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sbarabu, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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Figure 21–14 Cattle are fed minerals “free choice.” This mineral box turns with the wind to help keep out the rain.

CHAPTER 21

Vitamin A Vitamin A is not found in feeds, but it is converted by the animal’s body from the provitamin carotene, which is found in green, leafy forages from pastures, hay, silage, and dehydrated legumes (alfalfa). Other sources include yellow corn, fish liver oils, and whole milk. Vitamin A can be stored in fats and the liver for several months, to be used when forage quality is low or when stress conditions increase the body’s demand for vitamin A. Supplementation is usual for ruminants and swine. Vitamin D Vitamin D is sometimes referred to as the “sunshine vitamin” because animal and plant sources both depend on ultraviolet light to make a form of vitamin D. The liver and the kidneys convert this form of the vitamin to usable forms. Animals make their own vitamin D, and diets of sun-cured forages, yeast, and certain fish oils provide the basis for synthesis (Figure 21–15). Commercial vitamin D is available, generally made from irradiated yeast. Excessive amounts of vitamin D can reduce an animal’s efficiency and is toxic in some incidences. Animals in total confinement often receive supplements of vitamin D. Vitamin E The cereal grains, germ oils, and green forage or hay supply vitamin E. This vitamin is found in several forms of a complex organic compound called tocopherol. Commercially produced vitamin E is available for supplemental feeding. There are no known toxic effects from excessive levels in the diet.

Courtesy of NRCS

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Figure 21–15 Sun-dried forages can provide the basis for the synthesis of vitamin D.

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Vitamin K Vitamin K is utilized to form the enzyme prothrombin, which in turn helps to form blood clots. Deficiencies rarely occur because vitamin K is synthesized in the rumen and in the monogastric intestinal tract. Green forages, good-quality hays, fish meal, and synthetic forms of vitamin K can be used to increase the level of vitamin K in the diet.

Thiamine is essential as a coenzyme in energy metabolism. Dietary sources of thiamine include green forage and well-cured hays, cereal grains (especially seed coat or bran), and brewer’s yeast. Heat-processing of grains reduces the amount of available thiamine. Thiamine usually is synthesized in the rumen. The diet of monogastric animals usually provides enough thiamine. However, thiamine is commercially available in vitamin premixes. Riboflavin is important as a part of two coenzymes that function in energy and protein metabolism. Sources include green forages, leafy hays, or silage; milk and milk products; meat; fish meal; and distiller’s or brewer’s byproducts (Figure 21–16). Commercially available riboflavin typically is added to swine rations and may be needed in ruminant rations. Pantothenic acid is a component of coenzyme A, which is important in fatty acid and carbohydrate metabolism. Sources include brewer’s yeast, liver meal, dehydrated alfalfa meal, molasses, fish solubles, and most feedstuffs. Commercial sources should be included in the diets of confined animals. Niacin is part of an enzyme system that is essential in the metabolism of fat, carbohydrates, and proteins. Niacin is found in animal byproducts, brewer’s yeast, and green alfalfa. Most feeds contain some niacin, but the niacin in grains is largely unavailable to nonruminants, so supplementation often is needed. Pyridoxine is a coenzyme component necessary for fatty acid and amino acid metabolism. Most feedstuffs are fair-to-good sources of pyridoxine, including cereal grains and their byproducts, rice and rice bran, green forages and alfalfa hay, and yeast. Supplementation in animal diets usually is not needed. Biotin is widely distributed. It is found in large quantities in egg yolk, liver, kidney, milk, and yeast. Biotin is a part of an enzyme involved in the synthesis of fatty acids. AniFigure 21–16 Green forages are a good source of vitamins mals can readily synthesize biotin, and it is such as vitamin K, thiamine, and riboflavin. not deficient in normal farm animals.

Courtesy of NRCS

The B Vitamins

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Folic acid is needed in body cell metabolism. It is found in green forages, such as alfalfa meal, and in some animal proteins. The animal body synthesizes some folic acid, and although it is available in synthetic forms, supplements are not greatly needed in farm animals. Choline is a component of fats and nerve tissues and is needed at greater levels than other vitamins. Most commonly used feeds are good sources of choline. Choline is synthesized in the animal body when other vitamins such as B12 are abundant. B12 functions as a coenzyme in several metabolic reactions and is an essential part of red blood cell maturation. Synthesis of vitamin B12 requires cobalt. Sources of B12 include protein feeds of animal origin and fermentation products. Most swine rations are supplemented with vitamin B12. Inositol is found in all feeds and synthesized in the intestinal tract, so is not generally needed as a supplement. Although the function is not well known, paraaminobenzoic is synthesized in the intestine. It usually is not deficient in livestock rations. Vitamin C Vitamin C is essential in forming the protein collagen. Vitamin C is found in citrus fruits, green, leafy forages, and well-cured hays. Animals normally can synthesize sufficient quantities of vitamin C to meet their needs.

THE DIGESTION PROCESS Animals use feed nutrients on a cellular basis—all of the different nutrients that an animal takes in must be converted to a form that the cells in the body can use. Once this conversion (digestion) is completed, the nutrients must be transported to the cells where they are needed. The system that performs this task is referred to as the digestive system. The organs that make up this system are known as the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The gastrointestinal tract is also referred to as the alimentary canal. This is the tract reaching from the mouth to the anus, through which feed passes following consumption and where it is exposed to the various digestive processes. The digestive system consists of the various structures, organs, and glands involved in procuring, chewing, swallowing, digestion, absorption, and excretion of feedstuffs. Although there are similarities in the digestive systems, farm animals are often classified according to the nature of their digestive system. There are basically two types of digestive systems. One is known as monogastric (single-compartment stomach (Figure 21–17); and the other is known as ruminant (multicompartment stomach). Following are descriptions of processes in the two digestive systems in the order of occurrence.

ANIMAL NUTRITION

Rectum

Large intestine Monogastric systems are those that have Stomach only one-compartment stomachs. These Esophagus include the pig, horse, dog, cat, and birds. The horse has an enlargement, known as a cecum, that enables it to utilize high-fiber feeds by means of microbial fermentation, Small intestine much as do ruminants (Figure 21–18). This Salivary gland means that the horse is not typical of monogastric animals. Simple-stomach (monogastric) animals are not capable of digesting Figure 21–17 The pig has a monogastric digestive system. large amounts of fiber and are usually fed concentrate feeds. The digestive process begins in the mouth, which is the first organ of the digestive tract. Within the mouth, the tongue is used for grasping the food, mixing, and swallowing. The teeth are used for tearing and chewing the feed. This is the first step in the process of breaking down the feed into fine particles. The mouth also contains salivary glands, which consist of three pairs of glands that excrete saliva. Saliva contains several substances: water to moisten, mucin to lubricate, bicarbonates to buffer acids in the feeds, and the enzyme amylase to initiate carbohydrate breakdown. The esophagus is a hollow, muscular tube that moves food from the mouth to the stomach. This is accomplished by muscular contractions that push the food along. The stomach is a hollow muscle that causes further breakdown of foods by physical muscular movement. The food is pressed together and massaged by the movement of muscles in this area. In the stomach, food is also broken down by chemical

Small intestine

Rectum

Small colon

Large colon

Cecum

Figure 21–18 Horses have a large pouch called a cecum that helps digest

high-fiber feeds such as hay.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Stomach

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Monogastric Digestive Systems

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Small intestine

Delmar/Cengage Learning

Villi Villus in cross section

Figure 21–19 The small intestine

is lined with fingerlike projections, called villi, that absorb nutrients into the bloodstream.

action. The walls of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid that begins to dissolve the food. Another secretion, pepsin, begins to break down proteins into the amino acids. The secretion rennin acts to curdle the casein in milk. Gastric lipase causes the breakdown of fats to fatty acids and glycerol. The small intestine is a long, hollow tube that leads from the stomach to the large intestine. The small intestine is made up of three main parts: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The entrance to the small intestine is controlled by a sphincter muscle that helps to move food into and through the tract. The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It receives secretions from the pancreas, which break down proteins, starches, and fats. Here, the intestinal walls secrete intestinal juices containing enzymes that further break down the food. The next segments of the small intestine, the jejunum and the ileum, are the areas of nutrient absorption. Absorption is the process by which the nutrients are passed into the bloodstream. The villi (small fingerlike projections) in these areas facilitate absorption into the bloodstream and/or the lymph system through membranes that surround the villi (Figure 21–19). This type of membrane is called a semipermeable membrane. This means that the membrane allows particles to pass through in a process called diffusion. The last organ of the digestive tract is the large intestine. This organ is divided into three sections. The first section is the cecum, which is a blind pouch. A cecum is of little function in most monogastric animals. However, in some animals, such as the horse, this area is where fibrous food such as hay and grass is broken down into usable nutrients. The second segment of the large intestine is the colon, which is the largest part of the organ. Its function is to provide a storage space for wastes from the digestive process. Here water is removed from the wastes and some microbial action begins on fibrous materials. The rectum is the final segment of the large intestine and the final part of the digestive system. It serves to pass waste material through to the anus, where it is eliminated. Ruminant Digestive System Animals such as cows and sheep have multicompartment stomachs that allow them to use high-fiber feeds such as grasses and hays. These animals are often called “cud chewers” because they regurgitate boluses of feed that they consumed earlier, and remasticate (chew) and reswallow it. The digestive systems of ruminants differ from monogastric systems in several ways, as follows. The mouth of ruminants does not contain any upper front teeth. Instead, there is a dental pad that works with the lower incisors for tearing off forages and other feedstuffs. The upper and lower

ANIMAL NUTRITION

Rumen Small intestine

Omasum

Esophagus Reticulum

Abomasum

Figure 21–20 The stomach of cattle has four compartments, which

allows them to use large amounts of roughages.

Compartments of the Ruminant Stomach The esophagus leads to both the reticulum and the rumen. As ruminants graze, they tend to pick up hard, indigestible objects such as small stones, nails, and bits of wire. These heavy materials fall into the reticulum. The walls of the reticulum are made up of mucous membranes, which form subcompartments with the appearance of a honeycomb. These small compartments trap and provide a storage place for “hardware” that does not float. The reticulum also functions to store, sort, and move feed back into the esophagus for regurgitation, or into the rumen for further digestion. The process of breaking down roughages begins with contraction of the reticulum and muscles in the esophagus to move roughage and fluid to the mouth. Excess fluid is squeezed out, and the material is reswallowed. After the material is reswallowed, it moves to the rumen. The rumen functions as a storage vat where food is soaked, mixed, and fermented by the action of bacteria. The hollow, muscular paunch fills the left side of the abdominal cavity and contains two sacks, each lined with papillae (nipplelike projections) that aid in the absorption of nutrients. Bacteria and other microorganisms such as protozoa thrive in the rumen environment and break down fibrous feeds (Figure 21–21). Carbohydrates are broken down into starches and sugars. Volatile fatty acids are released as the carbohydrates are broken down, and these fatty acids are absorbed through the rumen wall to provide energy for the body. Bacteria also use nitrogen to form amino acids, and eventually proteins. The bacteria also can synthesize water-soluble vitamins and vitamin K. Byproducts of the microbial activity include

Delmar/Cengage Learning

jaw teeth (molars) enable the animal to chew on one side of the mouth at a time. Large quantities of saliva are produced in the mouth. This saliva is highly buffered and provides phosphorus and sodium for the rumen microorganisms. Unlike most monogastric animals, there are no enzymes in the saliva, but there is some urea released that provides nitrogen for the bacteria in the rumen.The stomach has four compartments. It consists of the rumen (paunch), reticulum (honeycomb), omasum (many piles), and the abomasum (true or glandular stomach) (Figure 21–20). In the young ruminant animal, an esophageal groove or heavy muscular fold allows milk from the suckling animal to bypass the rumen and reticulum to the omasum.

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Photo by Sharon Franklin/ Colorization by Stephen Ausmus/USDA/ARS

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Figure 21–21 This protozoan lives and thrives in the rumen.

methane and carbon dioxide. The blood absorbs a small portion of these gases, but much of the gas is eliminated by belching. Belching occurs when the upper sacs of the rumen force gases forward and downward so the esophagus can dilate and allow gases to pass. If gases are not eliminated due to froth or foam blocking the esophagus, a condition called bloat (an inflation of the rumen) will sometimes occur. After leaving the rumen, the food material passes through to the omasum. The omasum is a round organ on the right side of the animal and to the right of the rumen and reticulum. The omasum grinds roughage using blunt muscular papillae that extend from many folds of the omasum walls. The last compartment of the ruminant’s stomach is the abomasum. The abomasum is the only glandular (true stomach) compartment of the ruminant. The abomasum is located below the omasum and extends to the rear and to the right of the rumen. This compartment functions similarly to the stomach of monogastric animals. By the time food materials reach the abomasum, the fibers of the roughages have been broken down to the extent that they can be handled by the abomasum. The small and large intestines of the ruminant animal function much the same way as they do in the monogastric animal.

SUMMARY In order for animals to grow and thrive, they must have the proper nutrition. An understanding of how the digestive process works in different types of animals is essential in order to formulize

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the proper diet for animals. Factors such as species, age, sex, and environmental conditions all must be taken into account in formulating rations. Today’s feeds are scientifically balanced to give animals exactly what they need in each particular circumstance. Research scientists are continuing to find new and better ways of providing nutrients to animals.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. A feedstuff is generally a feed component that producers would not normally give to an animal exclusive of other feedstuff. 2. Water, although an essential nutrient, is needed only in small amounts and makes up only a tiny fraction of the animal’s body. 3. Protein, composed of amino acids, may be the most costly part of the animal’s ration. 4. Digestible protein, the protein in a feed that the animal can digest and use, makes up about 20–25 percent of the crude protein. 5. Carnivores get almost all their protein from meat, omnivores can get protein from meat and plants, and herbivores get protein exclusively from plants. 6. The main source of tissue-building proteins is carbohydrates. 7. Photosynthesis accounts for almost all of carbohydrate development. 8. Of all the millions of tons of corn grown in the United States each year, only a small amount is used for feed grain. 9. Fats can be obtained only from animals. 10. Animals with a deficiency in minerals never develop properly and are more susceptible to disease. 11. Animal and plant sources both depend on ultraviolet light to make a form of vitamin D. 12. It is possible for animals to ingest too many vitamins, and harm can result. 13. The terms gastrointestinal tract and alimentary tract refer to the same system. 14. The small intestine consists of three parts: the duodenum (which breaks down the food), the jejunum, and the ileum (both of which are areas of absorption). 15. Ruminant animals do not have small and large intestines. Fill in the Blanks 1. The maintenance ration is the level of ____________ needed by the ____________ to maintain ____________ weight and not ____________ or gain weight. 2. Metabolism refers to all of the ____________ and ____________ processes that take place in the ____________ body. 3. Metabolism that builds up tissue (such as growth and ____________ repair) is called ____________; metabolism that breaks down material (such as the breakdown of ____________ within the ____________ system) is called ____________.

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4. Young, rapidly growing animals need more protein than ____________ animals because the ____________ acids are needed to build muscles, ____________, ____________, bones, and all of the other cells that go into the ____________ process. 5. Feed formulas now are based on the ____________ and ____________ of ____________ acids that are needed by a particular group of ____________. 6. Carbohydrates are compounds made up of ____________, hydrogen, and ____________ and include sugars, ____________, and ____________. 7. Simple or complex sugars refer to the ____________ composition of the sugar and the different ____________ the ____________ are formed. 8. When an animal consumes more energy (especially in the form of ____________) than it needs to ____________ for all the necessary bodily ____________, the excess is stored in the form of ____________. 9. Although minerals provide only a small portion of the total ____________ intake, they are vitally important in providing ____________ support for the ____________. 10. Although vitamins are ____________—needed only in small amounts—they are essential in the development of normal body ____________ of health, ____________, production, and ____________. 11. Good sources for pyridoxine include ____________ grains and their byproducts, ____________ and rice bran, ____________ forages and ____________ hay, and ____________. 12. Choline is a component of ____________ and ____________ tissues and is needed in ____________ levels than other ____________. 13. Simple-stomach or ____________ animals are not capable of ____________ large amounts of ____________ and are usually fed ____________ feeds. 14. Ruminants such as the cow and ____________ have ____________ stomachs that allow them to use high- ____________ feeds such as grasses and ____________. 15. The esophagus in a ruminant animal leads both to the reticulum (which serves to store ____________ and functions to store, sort, and ____________ feed back into the esophagus for ____________ or into the rumen for further ____________) and the rumen (which functions as a storage ____________ where food is soaked, ____________, and ____________). Discussion Questions 1. What is the difference between a feed and a feedstuff? 2. Define metabolism. 3. List at least four functions water plays in sustaining life. 4. Explain why a young animal needs more protein than a mature animal does. 5. List the sources of protein for livestock feeds. 6. From what source do all carbohydrates come? 7. What purpose do fats serve? 8. What essential needs do minerals provide?

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9. List the vitamins that are needed by animals. 10. List the parts of the monogastric digestive system and briefly describe the function of each. 11. List the compartments of the ruminant stomach and describe the function of each. Student Learning Activities 1. Locate and report on an article telling about research that has been completed on livestock feeds. Explain what practical differences you feel this research will make. 2. Obtain the tag from a bag of feed. Make a list of the ingredients and tell which nutrients are derived from each component. 3. From a slaughterhouse, obtain the digestive tract of a monogastric animal (pig) and a ruminant (sheep or cow). Dissect the tract and identify all of the parts. Be sure to wear latex gloves when the organs are handled.

CHAPTER

22

Meat Science

KEY TERMS wholesale cuts immobilization kosher exsanguination chine shroud rigor mortis

aging primal cuts adipose mastication elastin oxidation rancid

microbes psychrophiles thermophiles mesophiles aerobic organisms anaerobic organisms facultative

dry curing injection curing combination curing blast freezing radiation irradiation E. coli

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ describe physiological processes that

take place in an animal’s body at death. ■ describe the process of ossification. ■ list the different types of tissue that

make up muscles. ■ explain the factors that affect the

■ discuss the types of microbes that cause

spoilage. ■ list the factors that favor the growth

of microbes. ■ discuss the scientific principles behind

the preservation of meats.

sensation of taste. ■ explain why meat is so highly

perishable.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain the steps in the slaughter of

meat animals. ■ distinguish between quality grading

and yield grading of carcasses. ■ list the wholesale cuts of beef, pork,

and lamb.

■ discuss the factors that affect the

palatability of meats. ■ discuss the various methods used to

preserve meats.

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MEAT INDUSTRY

Courtesy of Dr. Estes Reynolds, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

Americans are a nation of meat eaters. Each year the average person in this country consumes 48 pounds of beef and veal, 29 pounds of pork, and 24 pounds of poultry. Very few nations in the world even come close to us in the per-capita consumption of meat. In addition, when compared to the rest of the world, Americans spend a small percentage of our annual income for food. This means that they can afford to buy the type of food they prefer and, obviously, they prefer meat. Lean meat is dense in nutrients. A pound of meat may equal or surpass the nutritive content of the feed that it took to produce the meat. Meat is among the most nutritionally complete foods that humans consume. Foods from animals supply about 88 percent of the vitamin B12 in our diet because this nutrient is very difficult to obtain from plant sources. In addition, meats and animal products provide 67 percent of the riboflavin, 65 percent of the protein and phosphorus, 57 percent of the vitamin B6, 48 percent of the fat, 43 percent of the niacin, 42 percent of the vitamin A, 37 percent of the iron, 36 percent of the thiamin, and 35 percent of the magnesium in our diet. In recent years, the trend in meat consumption has changed rapidly. Modern consumers want meat products that are already cooked or are ready to place in the oven or microwave. Meat products such as chicken wings, that once were considered to be almost byproducts, are now packaged fully cooked, frozen, and ready to place in the microwave oven. Individually wrapped chicken parts, chops, and steaks that are ready to go on the grill are all gaining in popularity with consumers. The meat industry is changing rapidly to accommodate the wishes of the consumer. The vast majority of agricultural animals raised in the United States are produced for meat. Meat is defined as the edible flesh of animals and may include the muscles, certain internal organs such as the liver, and other edible parts. A huge industry has developed around processing animals into edible products (Figure 22–1). The United States has more than 5, plants that slaughter animals. The trend in recent years is for the these plants to become larger. Of the animals slaughtered under federal inspection, 80 to 90 percent are processed in fewer than 200 plants. These plants may slaughter Figure 22–1 Animals are processed into meat in large, more than 100,000 animals in a single year. automated plants. In the larger plants, the slaughter process is

highly organized and automated. Like an assembly line, workers perform only a few tasks with the animal or carcass, and the product goes on down the line to the next person. When the animals are brought in, they must be inspected and slaughtered. The head, entrails, hair or hide, and feet must be removed. What is left is referred to as the carcass, Figure 22–2. The carcass is then cut into wholesale cuts and sold to grocery stores and other outlets where meat cutters divide the wholesale cuts into retail cuts. The consumer buys the retail cuts that are ready for cooking.

THE SLAUGHTER PROCESS After the live animals are inspected (see Chapter 24), they are brought down a chute onto the slaughter floor. The first of several steps in the slaughter process is immobilization. The purpose is to render the animal unconscious so it feels no pain. This must be done in such a way as to allow the heart to continue to pump, to drain the animal’s body of blood. Regulations for the Figure 22–2 The carcass is the part of the animal immobilization process are set by the Federal Humane left after the head, entrails, hide (or hair), and feet are Slaughter Act. Immobilization may be accomplished removed. in several ways. The animal may be placed in a chamber of carbon dioxide until it goes to sleep from lack of oxygen. Some slaughter plants use electric shock to render the animal unconscious. Others use a cartridge or a mechanical bolt that is driven by compressed air to stun the animal. Livestock slaughtered for kosher markets are exempt from the requirement of stunning, under the Humane Slaughter Act. Kosher means that the animal is slaughtered under the regulations of Jewish religious laws. In any case, humane slaughter must be done quickly and with as little stress as possible to the animal. After immobilization, the animal must be bled quickly to keep it from regaining consciousness and to prevent hemorrhaging (escape of blood from a ruptured blood vessel) resulting from a rise in blood pressure. This process, exsanguination, usually is done by severing the jugular vein with a sharp knife. Unless bleeding is accomplished within a few seconds of immobilization, the blood pressure may cause hemorrhaging resulting in blood spots in the meat. As soon as the blood pressure begins to drop, the heart speeds up to maintain pressure. This action fills many of the organs with blood and, thus, blood loss at exsanguination is only about 50 percent of the total volume of blood. Figure 22–3 The animals are The animal is hoisted on a rail, and the hide and entrails are hoisted onto a rail and the entrails removed (Figure 22–3). Pigs that have been slaughtered may be are removed. dipped into scalding water and placed on a machine that scrapes the

Steve Lovegrove, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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Courtesy of Dr. Estes Reynolds, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

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Adam Crowley/Getty Images

Courtesy of Dr. Estes Reynolds, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

Courtesy of Dr. Estes Reynolds, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

hair from the hide. Other slaughter plants skin the pigs. When the internal organs are removed, care is taken to preserve those that are to be used for food. The liver is the most commonly eaten of the internal organs (Figure 22–4). The brains, the pancreas (sweetbread), intestines (chitterlings or tripe), and the heart are all used as human food. In some parts of the world, the kidneys also are used as food. During the slaughter process, federal inspectors are on hand to inspect the internal organs and the carcass to detect any health concern about the meat from the animal (Figure 22–5). If they find a Figure 22–4 The liver is an example of an internal problem, the carcass may be condemned as unfit organ used for food. for human consumption. Each carcass that is to be sold for human consumption must be inspected. Beef carcasses are generally sent into the cooler in halves called sides of beef. After slaughter, the carcass is sawed down the backbone, called the chine, and the carcass is divided into two pieces. In very large carcasses, each side may be divided into two quarters. To do this, the side is divided between the 12th and 13th rib into the fore quarter and the hind quarter (Figure 22–6). Lamb carcasses usually are sent to the cooler whole. Hog carcasses usually are divided in half down the backbone. The carcasses of beef and pigs that have been skinned are covered in a heavy cloth soaked in salt water. The purpose of this covering, called a shroud, is to prevent the carcass from drying out. After slaughter, the carcasses need to be cooled down rapFigure 22–5 Federal inspectors idly. Here the carcasses undergo a process known as rigor mortis examine the internal organs of in which the muscles lock into place and the carcass becomes each carcass. stiff. The physiology of rigor mortis is similar to muscle contractions in a live animal, except that in the carcass, the muscles do not relax. The onset of rigor mortis usually takes from 6 to 12 hours for beef and lamb, and 30 minutes to 3 hours for pork. As enzymes and microorganisms begin to break down the muscle tissue, rigor mortis is partially relaxed. Usually it is desirable to reduce muscle temperature as quickly as possible after death to minimize protein degradation and inhibit growth of microorganisms. Pork and lamb carcasses are usually cooled for 18 to 24 hours before they are cut into wholesale cuts. Larger beef carcasses may require 30 or more hours of cooling before they are ready to be cut (Figure 22–7). Higher-quality beef carcasses may be aged in the cooler for as long as a week. The carcasses undergo a period of aging to allow enzymes and microorganisms to begin the process of breaking down the tissue. This improves tenderness and flavor but adds to the expense of processing the meat. Figure 22–6 Beef carcasses are An alternative to aging is the use of electrical stimulation divided down the backbone and of the muscles. A current of 600 volts is sent through the carbetween the 12th and the 13th ribs. cass immediately after slaughter and before the hide is removed.

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After the carcasses are cooled, they are graded according to USDA standards. Federal Meat Grading was officially established in 1925 Figure 22–7 After slaughter, the carcasses are chilled by hanging in the cooler. and is administered by the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The meat grade certifies the class, quality, and condition of the agricultural product examined to conform to uniform standards. Quality grades are a prediction of the eating quality (palatability) of properly prepared meats. Yield grades indicate expected yield of edible meat from a carcass and the subsequent wholesale cuts from that carcass. Grading is voluntary and is paid for by the meat packer. Quality grades of beef are as follows: Prime, Choice, Select, Standard, Commercial, Utility, Cutter, and Canner. Grades are determined by the age of the animal at slaughter and the amount of fat intermingled with the muscle fibers. Age is determined by the maturity of the cartilage and bones in the carcass. Remember that as an animal ages, the cartilage hardens and turns to bone. Graders inspect the rib cage and vertebrae of the carcass for the degree of bone and cartilage hardening, called ossification (Figure 22–8). As the animal ages, vertebrae in the lower end of the backbone tend to fuse, or grow together. By determining the degree of ossification, graders are able to classify the animal according to its maturity. Animals that appear to be older than about 42 months cannot receive the highest two grades (Prime and Choice). Younger animals tend to be more tender than older animals. The amount of fat among the muscle fibers is determined by examining the longissmus dorsi muscle that runs the length of the vertebrae on each side. The carcass is separated Figure 22–8 Graders determine the age of an animal by between the 12th and 13th ribs to expose this examining the vertebrae. Note how the bones of the vertebrae cross-section. The fat, known as marbling, are fused together. This indicates the carcass of an older animal. shows up as specks of white across the rib eye

Courtesy of Dr. Estes Reynolds, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

GRADING

Courtesy of USDA

The stimulation speeds up natural processes that occur after death, like the depletion of energy stores from the body. Although this process affects the tenderness of the meat only slightly, there are other benefits such as improved color, texture, and firmness. This process also makes the hide easier to remove.

CHAPTER 22

Courtesy of North American Limousin Association

362

Figure 22–9 A USDA grader inspects the amount of

marbling in the rib eye of a beef carcass.

(Figure 22–9). The more specks of fat that are visible, the higher is the grade (assuming maturity is the same). Beef that grades Prime has the highest degree of fat in the muscle. Fat is what gives meat its flavor and juiciness. Fat is expensive to put on animals, so the leaner grades usually are less expensive. Most feedlot owners want their animals to grade a low Choice at slaughter. Those who feed animals to grade Prime cater to the restaurant trade. Most beef bought in the grocery store is Choice grade, although a few market chains are selling the leaner Select grade as a low-fat meat. Yield grade is an estimate of the percentage of boneless, closely trimmed retail cuts that come from the major lean primal cuts (round, loin, rib, and chuck). USDA yield grades for beef are as follows:

1. more than 52.3 percent lean primal cuts 2. 50.0–52.3 percent lean primal cuts 3. 47.7–50.0 percent lean primal cuts 4. 45.4–47.7 percent lean primal cuts 5. less than 45.4 percent lean primal cuts

Courtesy of North American Limousin Association

Courtesy of North American Limousin Association

The Yield grade is determined by a formula used by the grader. Factors in the formula are the chilled carcass weight, amount of internal (kidney, pelvic, and heart) fat, size of the rib eye area, and amount of backfat on the carcass (Figure 22–10 and Figure 22–11).

Figure 22–10 A USDA grader uses a rib eye grid to

Figure 22–11 The thickness of the backfat is measured at

measure the area of the rib eye.

the rib eye.

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THE WHOLESALE CUTS

FACTORS AFFECTING PALATABILITY Palatability refers to how a food appeals to the palate (a portion of the roof of the mouth). Meat palatability depends on qualities such as appearance, aroma, flavor, tenderness, and juiciness. The palatability of a piece of meat depends on a combination of the qualities listed above and the way in which it was cooked. However, consumers buy most retail meat in the uncooked form. Processed meats are an exception. These meats are composed of those parts of the carcass that do not make good retail cuts (much the same as sausages and ground meat). These meats undergo a processing that may include pressing, forming, and slicing. These products are usually fully cooked and are used as cold cuts and sandwich material. Bologna, hot dogs, processed ham, and salami all fit this category (Figure 22–16). Appearance is the factor that first influences the expectations of quality. Beef, pork, and lamb all vary in the shades of red color. Darker meat tends to be associated with either a lack of freshness or meat from older animals. Bright red meat gives the appearance of being fresh and wholesome.

Round

Sirloin Flank Shortloin

Plate Rib

Brisket Chuck Shank

Figure 22–12 Carcasses are divided

into wholesale cuts.

Courtesy of Dr. T. F. Price, Michigan State University

After the carcasses have been chilled for the proper time, they are taken out of the cooler and cut into pieces that are sold to retail outlets. These cuts, known as primal cuts, are packaged in vacuum packs, placed in boxes, and shipped to the retailers. One advantage of this is that around 30 percent of the carcass weight is trimmed away with the excess fat and bone. This saves in the shipping costs. Boxed primal cuts are also easier to handle than are sides of beef or pork. Retailers also see this as an advantage because they can order the cuts of meat they need without getting parts they have no market for (Figure 22–12). Wholesale or primal cuts of beef usually consist of the chuck, loin, rib, and round. Pork cuts include shoulder, loin, sides, and ham. Lamb cuts include shoulder, rib, loin, and leg. Primal cuts sometimes are divided into smaller units called subprimal cuts. The wholesale cuts are divided into the retail cuts. These are the cuts of meat that the consumer buys at the grocery store. They are sized into portions that can be easily cooked and eaten without further cutting or trimming (Figure 22–13A–C). The most expensive retail cuts usually come from the loin area (Figure 22–14). This muscle group is usually the most tender of the muscle groups. This is the area from which chops and steaks such as T-bones come. As the retail cuts are made, there is always muscle that is trimmed or portions that do not make good retail cuts of meat. These portions or trimmings are made into sausage or ground meat (Figure 22–15). Often, the sausage is spiced and preserved by drying or smoking. Ground beef becomes hamburger meat.

CHAPTER 22

Courtesy of Cattlemen’s Beef Board and National Cattlemen’s Beef Association

364

Figure 22–13A

Retail cuts of beef–where they come from and how to cook them.

MEAT SCIENCE

American Lamb

Leg

Cuts & How To Cook Them

Whole Leg (Roast)

Shoulder

Rack

Loin

Rack Crown Roast (Roast)

Leg

Rib Roast Short Cut Leg, Sirloin Off

(Broil, Grill, Roast)

(Roast)

Foreshank & Breast

Loin

Shank Portion Roast

(Broil, Grill, Panbroil,Panfry, Roast)

Frenched Rib Chop (Broil, Grill, Panbroil, Panfry, Roast)

(Roast)

Shoulder

Loin Roast

Center Leg Roast

Rib Chop

(Roast)

Square Cut Shoulder Whole

(Roast)

(Braise, Roast)

Boneless Loin Strip (BRT) (Roast)

Center Slice (Broil, Grill, Panbroil, Panfry)

Saratoga Roast

Loin Chop American-Style Roast

(Broil, Grill, Panbroil, Panfry)

(Braise, Roast)

(Roast)

Double Loin Chop (Broil, Grill, Panbroil, Panfry)

Boneless Shoulder Roast (BRT) (Braise, Roast)

Frenched-Style Leg Roast

Blade Chop

Tenderloin

(Braise, Broil, Grill, Panbroil, Panfry)

(Roast)

(Roast)

Boneless Leg Roast (BRT)

Foreshank & Breast

Arm Chop (Braise, Broil, Grill, Panbroil, Panfry)

(Roast)

Foreshank (Braise)

Other Cuts

Frenched Hindshank

Spareribs (Denver Ribs)

(Braise)

Lamb for Stew

(Braise, Broil, Grill, Roast)

(Braise)

Sirloin Chop

Riblets (Braise, Broil, Grill)

Boneless Sirloin Roast

Ground Lamb (Broil, Grill, Panbroil)

(Roast)

Top Round (Roast)

Cubes for Kabobs (Braise, Broil, Grill)

www.americanlamb.com

Figure 22–13B

Retail cuts of lamb—where they come from and how to cook them.

Courtesy of the American Lamb Board

(Braise, Broil, Grill, Panbroil, Panfry)

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Pork Basics Upper row (l-r): Bone-in Blade Roast, Boneless Blade Roast Lower row (l-r): Ground Pork (The Other Burger Sausage, Blade Steak

Shoulder Butt

),

Chops

Cooking Methods Blade Roast/Boston butt – roast, indirect heat on grill, braise, slow cooker Blade Steak – braise, broil, grill Ground Pork – broil, grill, roast (bake)

Upper row (l-r): Smoked Picnic, Arm Picnic Roast Lower row: Smoked Hocks

Picnic Shoulder

®

Loin Roasts

Cooking Methods Smoked Picnic Roast – roast, braise Arm Picnic Roast – roast, braise, slow cooker Smoked Hocks – braise, stew

Top: Spareribs Bottom: Slab Bacon, Sliced Bacon Cooking Methods Spareribs – roast, indirect heat on grill, braise, slow cooker Bacon – broil, roast (bake), microwave

Upper row (l-r): Sirloin Chop, Rib Chop, Loin Chop Lower row (l-r): Boneless Rib End Chop, Chef’s Prime Filet™ – Boneless Center Loin Chop, America’s Cut™ – Butterfly Chop Cooking Methods Cutlets ( 1⁄8 to 3⁄8 inch) – sauté Thin (½ to ¾ inch thick) – grill, broil, Thick (1¼ to 1½ inch thick) – grill, broil, roast

Upper row (l-r): Center Rib Roast (Rack of Pork), Bone-in Sirloin Roast Middle: Boneless Center Loin Roast Lower row (l-r): Boneless Rib End Roast, Chef’s Prime TM – Boneless Sirloin Roast Cooking Methods roast, indirect heat on grill, slow cooker

Tenderloin & Canadian-Style Bacon Ribs Left: Tenderloin Right: Canadian-Style Bacon

Left: Country-Style Ribs Right: Back Ribs

Cooking Methods Tenderloin – roast, grill, pan broil Canadian-Style bacon – roast, broil, sauté

Cooking Methods roast, indirect heat on grill, braise, slow cooker

Side Shoulder Butt

Upper row (l-r): Bone-in Fresh Ham, Smoked Ham Lower row (l-r): Leg Cutlets, Fresh Boneless Ham Roast

Picnic Shoulder

Leg Side

Cooking Methods Fresh Leg of Pork – roast, indirect heat on grill, slow cooker Smoked Ham – roast, indirect heat on grill Ham Steak – broil, roast

Leg Roasts No-fuss family dinner or holiday favorite

THE MANY SHAPES OF PORK

Cut Loose!

Chops Dinner, backyard barbecue or gourmet entree

When shopping for pork, consider cutting traditional roasts into a variety of di erent shapes

©2007 National Pork Board Des Moines, IA USA

Figure 22–13C

Loin

Cubes Great for kabobs, stew and chili grill, stew, braise, broil

www.TheOtherWhiteMeat.com

Retail cuts of pork—where they come from and how to cook them.

Strips Super stir fry, fajitas and salads grill, sauté, stir fry

Cutlets Delicious breakfast chops and quick sandwiches 1/8 to 3/8 inch thick – sauté, grill

#03341 04/2007

Courtesy of the National Pork Board

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Courtesy of Dr. Estes Reynolds, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

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Courtesy of Dr. Estes Reynolds, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

MEAT SCIENCE

Figure 22–15 Sausages are made from ground meat. Here, tubes made from intestines are being filled with sausage meat.

Courtesy of National Livestock and Meat Board

retail cuts that come from it.

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

Figure 22–14 This is a wholesale cut (the loin) and the

Figure 22–16 Many types of processed meat are made from

Figure 22–17 The amount of fat in proportion to the muscle

various parts of the carcass.

affects consumer approval. This steak has too much fat.

Fat that is yellow instead of creamy white is less appealing to consumers. Yellow fat is generally associated with certain breeds that are unable to convert carotene (yellow to red pigment found in vegetables, body fat, and egg yolks) to vitamin A. Cattle that have been grass-fed and have consumed an excess of carotene may have yellow fat. Grain-fed beef generally is considered to taste better than grass-fed beef. The amount of fat and bone in proportion to muscle also affects the appearance and consumer appeal of meat (Figure 22–17). Consumers realize that fatter meat with bones has a smaller portion of edible meat or more plate waste (meat scraps, bone, and fat that is not consumed). Tenderness is a sensation that has several components and has been the object of considerable study. Tenderness is difficult to measure. Terms that have been ascribed to tenderness during chewing include: resistance to tooth pressure, softness to

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tongue and cheek, ease of fragmentation, mealiness, adhesion or stickiness, and residue after chewing. Not only is it difficult to describe eating tender versus tough meat, but it also has been difficult to use mechanical devices that measure the many aspects of chewing and taste. Components of muscle that contribute to tenderness are connective tissue, state of the muscle fibers (what degree of contraction), and the amounts of adipose (fat) tissue. However, the amount of adipose tissue or fat, particularly intramuscular (within the muscle) fat known as marbling, probably does not influence tenderness to any great degree. Research has not been able to relate marbling to tenderness except that marbling may tend to act as a lubricant during mastication (chewing) and swallowing, and that marbling is related to high-energy feed and production systems. Connective tissue connects various parts of the body and is distributed throughout the body. Sheaths of connective tissue surround muscle bundles, nerve trunks, blood vessels, tendons, and fat cells (adipose tissue). Connective tissue consists of a structureless mass (called ground substance), embedded cells, and extracellular fibers (fibers outside the cell). Extracellular fibers include collagen and elastin. Collagen is the most abundant protein in the animal and is found in all tissues and organs. The presence of collagen in skeletal muscle is generally proportionate to the physical activity of the muscle—the more the activity, the more collagen. Muscles of the limbs contain more collagen than the muscle along the spinal column. As the animal grows older, the collagen becomes less soluble. An example of collagen solubility is the gelatin material in the pan after cooking a pot roast in moist heat. Therefore, the muscles of younger animals and the muscles responsible for less physical activity, such as those along the spinal column, are more tender. Elastin is an elasticlike protein found throughout the ligaments, arterial walls, and organ structures. Elastin fibers are easily stretched, and they return to their natural state when the tension is released. Cooking has no appreciable effect on elastin fibers. Cuts of meat with high elastin content tend to appear tougher. When selecting fresh cuts of meat in the retail case, the consumer should avoid extremes in apparent juiciness. A dark, dry appearance usually indicates either age in the retail case or age of the animal from which the cut was obtained. Extremely moistappearing meat (moisture oozing out of the retail cut) indicates the pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) condition associated with some meats. The juiciness of cooked meat is important in the perception of palatability to consumers. The juice is made up of water and melted intramuscular fats. As the meat is chewed, juices are released that stimulate the flow of saliva, thereby further increasing the

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apparent juiciness. The juices contain flavor components, and they assist in lubricating, softening, and fragmenting the meat during chewing. The flavor of meat often changes after extended storage periods. The chemical breakdown of nucleotides (flavor compounds) imparts a desirable aged flavor, whereas oxidation of fatty acids (oxidative rancidity) results in a rancid flavor and a sharp, unpleasant aroma. Aroma is detected from numerous gaseous aspects of meat that stimulate nerve endings in the linings of the nasal passages. The total sensation is a combination of taste (gustatory) and smell (olfactory). The meaty flavor and aroma stimulate the flow of gastric juices and saliva, that aid in digestion and increase the apparent juiciness of the meat.

Meat is a highly perishable product that can spoil in a very short time. Meat is preserved by creating conditions that are unfavorable for the growth of spoilage organisms and the development of off-flavors, which usually are a result of chemical oxidation of fatty acids or proteins. Historically, methods of preservation have included drying, smoking, salting, refrigeration, freezing, canning, and freeze-drying. Degradation of the animal tissue begins upon slaughter as a result of chemical, biological, and physical reactions. Microorganisms are an integral part of this process, as they thrive on the nutrients supplied by meat. Meat provides an ideal medium for the growth of many microbes (microorganisms) (Figure 22–18). Molds, yeast, and bacteria are all found on or in meat. Molds are multicellular, multicolored organisms that have a fuzzy or mildewlike appearance. They spread by producing spores that float in the air or are transported by contact with objects. Yeast consists of large, unicellular buds and spore forms that are spread by contact or in air currents. Most yeast colonies are white to creamy in color and usually are moist or slimy in appearance or to the touch. Among the factors affecting the growth of microbes are temperature, moisture, oxygen, pH, and the physical form of the meat. Temperature can influence the rate and kind of microbial growth. Some microbes grow well in cooler temperatures of 0°–20°C (32°–68°F). These are known as psychroFigure 22–18 Meat provides an ideal medium for the philes. Microbes that grow at higher temperatures, growth of microbes. This package of processed meat has between 45°C and 65°C (113°–150°F), are called spoiled. Note the ballooning of the wrapper caused by gases thermophiles. Microorganisms with an optimum released by the spoiling meat. growth temperature between the psychrophiles

Courtesy of Dr. Estes Reynolds, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

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Courtesy of Dr. Estes Reynolds, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

and the thermophiles are called mesophiles. Temperatures below 5°C (40°F) greatly retard the growth of spoilage microorganisms and prevent the growth of most pathogens. Moisture and relative humidity greatly affect the growth of certain microorganisms. Most microbes must have moisture to reproduce and grow. Oxygen availability determines the type of microorganism that grows. Microorganisms requiring free oxygen in order to grow are called aerobic organisms. Those organisms growing in the absence of oxygen are called anaerobic organisms. Microbes that can grow with or without free oxygen (reduced oxygen availability) are termed facultative. Molds, yeast, and many of the bacteria commonly associated with meat are aerobic. Many of the bacteria found in meats, such as lactobacillus, are anaerobic or facultative and will, over time, cause spoilage in vacuum-packaged meat products. In vacuum packaging, the meat is placed in a plastic bag and all the air is removed (Figure 22–19). This creates a package that does not let air or moisture pass through. The vacuum packaging of meat and meat products increases the storage time of these products by inhibiting the growth of aerobic organisms. Most microorganisms have an optimum pH near neutrality (pH 7.0). Molds survive in a wide range of conditions (pH 2.0 to 8.0). Yeasts favor a slightly acidic condition of pH 4.0 to 4.5. Most bacteria favor a range of pH 5.2 to 7.0. Meat and meat products generally range from pH 4.8 to 6.8, with the norm being approximately pH 5.4 to 5.6. Therefore, meat conditions favor the growth of molds, yeast, and the acidophilic (acid-loving) bacteria. The physical form of meat affects the growth of microorganisms. As carcasses are separated into primal, subprimal, and retail cuts, more surface area is exposed. This surface area provides nutrients, moisture, and oxygen for the microorganisms to grow. When meat is ground for products such as sausage and hamburger, the maximum surface area is exposed and the microorganisms are spread throughout the product. Therefore, sanitation and keeping the temperature as low as possible are the major considerations in maintaining acceptable numbers of microbes. Meat that has been frozen and thawed is more susceptible to microbial growth because of ruptured cells and increased surface moisture. Refreezing meat that has been thawed does not cause serious deterioration Figure 22–19 Vacuum packaging of meat improves the or breakdown in itself, but refreezing will not storage time. reverse the deterioration caused by microbes.

Refreezing in less than optimum conditions, such as often exist in home refrigerator/freezer units, will cause decreases in juiciness and flavor due to the formation of large ice crystals that rupture the cells. This causes drying and the oxidation of fats. Curing and Smoking Meat processing developed soon after people became hunters in prehistoric times. The salting and smoking of meat has been Figure 22–20 These sausages are documented as far back as 850 B.C. by Homer, and as far back as hung on a rack and will be placed in a the thirteenth century B.C. by the Chinese. In these early times, smoker. Smoke imparts flavor to meat. the smoking (drying) and salting (curing) of meats were the only known methods of preservation. Today, the curing and smoking of meat is a method of imparting a particular flavor to the meat (Figure 22–20). Very few people in this country still rely on curing and smoking as methods of preservation. There are just about as many cured products today as there are regions of the world, many of these being descendants of the ancient curing methods. The two main ingredients used to cure meats are salt and nitrite. Some of the most frequently used are sugar, ascorbate, erythorbate, phosphates, and delta gluconolactone. Today, salt is used at levels that generally impart flavor to the product (1 to 3 percent) instead of the amounts used to preserve the meat item being cured (9 to 11 percent). Nitrates (saltpeter) and nitrites are used to impart the “cured meat” color and flavor and to inhibit bacteria action. The use of nitrites or nitrates is not permitted to result in more than 120 parts per million (ppm) of nitrite in the finished product. The oldest of these methods is known as dry curing. In this method, the cure ingredients are rubbed onto the surface of the product and allowed to move into the product by osmosis. This method takes the longest amount of time to infiltrate the meat. Over time, technology has improved on this simple procedure. A more modern method of curing meat is injection curing (Figure 22–21). This method involves pumping the curing solution (brine) into the meat product. This shortens the curing process since the curing ingredients are dispersed directly into the meat. There are three methods of placing the cure into the product. The first of these uses the artery system in the meat (primarily used in hams) to disperse the curing adjuncts. The second of these methods involves placing a hollow needle (stitch) into the major muscle masses of the product to inject the curing solution. The third method of curing, combiFigure 22–21 These hams have been injected with nation curing, is simply a combination of dry curing curing solution and are about to be placed in the smoker. and injection curing.

Bork, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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Refrigerator Storage of Meat Carcass temperatures upon exiting the slaughter floor generally range between 30°C and 35°C (85°–95°F). Chill coolers generally operate at about 3°C to 1°C (27°–34°F), and carcasses need to be chilled to less than 5°C (40°F). The time required for the chilling process is affected by the carcass size, amount of fat on the carcass (fat reduces heat dissipation), and the initial heat of the carcass. Rapid air movement can reduce the chilling time up to 25 percent. After 12 to 24 hours in the chill cooler (often called a hot box), beef carcasses are moved to aging or holding coolers at 0° to 3°C (32°–37°F) until they are fabricated or shipped. The storage life of carcasses or meat products in refrigeration depends on factors such as initial numbers of microbes on the meat, temperature and humidity conditions during storage, use of protective coverings or packaging, animal species, and the type of product being stored. As a rule of thumb, fresh meat under good home refrigeration conditions should be consumed within four days of purchase. Freezer Storage of Meat Freezing acts as a preservation method because microbial and enzymatic activity is stopped at about 10°C (14°F). However, some changes do still take place, such as the development of rancidity and surface discoloration due to dehydration. Factors that affect the quality of frozen meat include freezing rate, length in freezer storage, packaging materials used, and the variability of the freezer temperatures. The most common method of commercial freezing is to utilize high-velocity air and temperatures of 10°C to 40°C (14°–40°F). This method is commonly termed blast freezing. Methods of freezing utilizing condensed gases in direct contact with the product are termed cryogenic. Problems associated with relatively slow freezing include the formation of large ice crystals and the loss of moisture during thawing. Temperature fluctuations during frozen storage also may cause these problems. The length of time that meat can be stored in a freezer varies with freezer temperature, temperature fluctuations, species, type of product, and type of wrapping material. The product must be packaged using vapor-proof materials to keep oxygen out and to keep moisture in the package. Oxygen causes oxidative reactions such as rancidity. Moisture loss causes dehydration and a condition known as freezer burn. Storage time may be extended by lowering storage temperatures. Although it is not economically feasible, maintaining a temperature of 80°C (112°F) stops most chemical changes. Most commercial and home freezers are maintained at approximately

MEAT SCIENCE

18°C (0°F) or lower. Even at this temperature, fluctuations in temperature may cause migration of water and increased moisture loss upon thawing. Meats from different species differ in the time that freezer storage will maintain acceptable quality. The difference is primarily due to differences in fat composition. Softer fats, such as those found in pork, are more susceptible to oxidative changes and subsequent loss of flavor. Because of the differences in fat composition, recommendations for length of freezer storage at 18°C (0°F) or lower are as follows: beef—6 to 12 months lamb—6 to 9 months pork—4 to 6 months cured meats—1 to 2 months. This can vary with packaging material, cuts of meat, and fluctuation in freezer temperature. Processing of the meat into sliced, ground, or cured products influences the acceptable freezer storage time. Exposure to oxygen or the addition of salts enhances the development of rancidity and reduces flavor acceptability. Preservation of Meat by Drying Because moisture is critical to microbial growth, removing moisture from meat is an effective means of preservation. Lowmoisture foods are those that contain less than 25 percent moisture. Beef jerky is an example of a low-moisture food. Intermediate-moisture foods have less than 50 percent moisture. Dry salami is an example of an intermediate dry-meat product that is shelf-stable (requires no refrigeration) but still subject to mold growth unless it is treated with a mold inhibitor. Most meat products that are dried also contain some salt, which assists in lowering the moisture of the product. Irradiated Meat In 1997, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted approval to use radiation to help preserve red meat. This technology has been around for several years and has been used on a wide variety of foods ranging from wheat to onions. In 1990, the technology was approved for use on the poultry to control salmonella and on pork to stop trichina, but approval for beef was delayed. Currently, irradiation is used in more than 40 countries to preserve food. The technology makes use of low levels of radiation to kill pathogens in food products. Of course, additional preservation techniques such as refrigeration are required because the food

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Courtesy of USDA

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Figure 22–22 Food treated with

irradiation must be labeled with this identifying logo.

is not permanently preserved. However, the rate of spoilage is greatly reduced and dangerous bacteria such as salmonella and E. coli are killed. This makes meat much safer for the consumer. The greatest hindrance to the use of irradiation on meats and other foods is consumer acceptance. There seems to be an aversion to eating anything that was submitted to radiation. However, the FDA has declared the process to be safe and effective. A symbol indicating that the product has been treated by irradiation is required on all packages (Figure 22–22). After treatment, the food is no more radioactive than your teeth are after a dental x-ray. Perhaps after the irradiated foods have been sold for a while, consumers will accept them more readily.

SUMMARY Americans eat a lot of meat, and this has spawned a tremendous industry that is constantly changing in an attempt to meet the needs of the consumer. We want products that are safe, tasty, and affordable. The government, through the USDA and the FDA, regulate the growing, processing, grading, packaging, and sale of all meat products. These products require a wide variety of preservation methods to keep the meat from spoiling. As a result of our high-tech agricultural food systems, we enjoy the best, cheapest, and safest food supply in the world.

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REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Regulations for the immobilization process in the slaughterhouse are set by the Cattlemen’s Association. 2. Exsanguination refers to the practice of rendering an animal unconscious so it feels no pain during slaughter. 3. The temperature must be raised immediately after death to kill microorganisms and to minimize protein degradation. 4. The meat grade, which certifies class, quality, and condition of the carcass, is mandatory for all meat packers and is paid for by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 5. The amount of fat in the muscle fibers is referred to as marbling. 6. Tenderness is one of the easiest qualities of meat to test. 7. The more collagen and elastin that meat contains, the less tender it is. 8. Aroma is a combination of taste (gustatory) and smell (olfactory). 9. Preserving meat involves creating conditions that are unfavorable for the growth of spoilage organisms and the development of off-flavors. 10. The best temperature to keep meat from spoilage is below 40°F. 11. Vacuum packing meat prevents any bacteria from contaminating meat by keeping oxygen and moisture out. 12. Meat that has been frozen and thawed is more susceptible to microbial growth because of the rupture of the cells and increased surface moisture. 13. Meat processing is a recent development that became popular in the 1940s. 14. Once meat is frozen, no more changes take place (such as microbial breakdown of the meat and the development of rancidity). 15. Low-moisture foods, such as dry salami, contain less than 25 percent moisture; intermediate moisture foods, such as beef jerky, contain less than 50 percent moisture.

Fill in the Blanks 1. Meat is defined as the ____________ flesh of animals and may include the ____________, certain internal ____________ such as the ____________, and other edible parts. 2. Federal inspectors are on hand during the slaughter process to inspect the ____________ ____________ and the ____________ to detect any ____________ concern over the meat from the ____________. 3. The use of electrical stimulation instead of aging involves a current of ____________ ____________ volts that is sent through the ____________ immediately after ____________ and before the ____________ is removed. 4. Factors affecting the Yield grade are the ____________ carcass weight, amount of ____________ fat, size of the ____________ ____________ area, and amount of ____________ on the carcass.

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5. Primal cuts, which are sold to ____________ outlets, are packaged in ____________ packs, placed in ____________, and shipped to the ____________. 6. Meat palatability depends on such qualities as appearance, ____________, flavor, ____________, and ____________. 7. Connective tissue consists of a ____________ mass called ____________ substance, ____________ cells, and ____________ fibers. 8. The juices of cooked meat contain ____________ components, and they assist in ____________, softening, and ____________ the meat during ____________. 9. Meat provides an ideal ____________ for the growth of many ____________ such as ____________, yeast, and ____________. 10. As carcasses are separated in different primal, ____________, and retail cuts, more ____________ area is exposed, providing ____________, moisture, and ____________ for the ____________ to grow. 11. Refreezing meat with less-than-optimum conditions, such as often exist in ____________ refrigerator/ freezer units, will cause decreases in ____________ and ____________ because of the formation of large ____________ ____________ that rupture the ____________. 12. There are just about as many cured ____________ today as there are regions of the ____________, many of which are descendants of the ____________ curing ____________. 13. In dry curing, the cure ingredients are ____________ onto the ____________ of the product and allowed to move into it by ____________. 14. The storage life of carcasses depends on factors such as the initial numbers of ____________ on the meat, temperature and ____________ conditions during ____________, use of protective ____________ or ____________, animal species, and the type of ____________ being stored. 15. Softer fats, such as those found in ____________, are ____________ susceptible to ____________ changes and subsequent loss of ____________.

Discussion Questions 1. Define the term meat. 2. What methods are used to render an animal immobile during the slaughter process? 3. What parts of the animal are edible besides the muscles? 4. What is rigor mortis? 5. What is the difference between Quality grading and Yield grading? 6. List, in order, the Quality grades of beef. 7. List three factors that affect the palatability of meat. 8. List six methods of preserving meats. 9. Name three types of microbes that cause meat spoilage? 10. What problems are encountered when meat is frozen slowly? 11. Discuss the greatest hindrance to preserving meat with irradiation.

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Student Learning Activities 1. Visit a local grocery store and list all of the cuts of meat in the meat counter. Develop a chart illustrating the wholesale cut from which each came. 2. Interview a meat buyer for the grocery store. Determine how and where the meat is bought, the Quality grade and Yield grade bought, and which wholesale cuts the buyers purchase most often. 3. Go to the grocery store and look for food products that have been treated with irradiation. Share your list with the class.

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23

Parasites of Agricultural Animals

KEY TERMS symbiosis mutualism commensalism parasitism host life cycle

anemia internal parasites external parasites metamorphosis stomach worms strongyle

colic ascarids intermediate host flukes warm-blooded nymph

systemic pesticides bolus biological control

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain symbiotic relationships. ■ distinguish among mutualism,

commensalism, and parasitism. ■ discuss how parasitism causes harm to

host animals. ■ explain the process of metamorphosis.

■ list the phases in the life cycle of an

insect. ■ distinguish between a roundworm and

a segmented worm. ■ explain how scientific research is used

in the eradication of parasites.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ list the types of parasites that infest

agricultural animals. ■ explain how production losses are

incurred because of parasites. ■ list the conventional means of

controlling parasites on agricultural animals.

■ discuss how the life cycle of a parasite

can be used to control the parasite.

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NIMALS OF DIFFERENT SPECIES that live in close association with each other are said to live in a symbiotic relationship. Symbiosis can take at least three different forms: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Mutualism is a relationship that is beneficial to both species of animals. For example, as explained in Chapter 21, on nutrition, certain bacteria live in the rumen of cattle. The cattle provide the bacteria with food and a place to live. The bacteria help the cattle break down fibers into a form that can be digested. Another example is that of tick birds that light on the back of cattle and other animals. The birds obtain food from eating the ticks on the animals, and the animals benefit by having an annoying pest removed (Figure 23–1). Commensalism is the relationship of animals in which one benefits and the other is not harmed. An example of commensalism is the relationship between cattle and houseflies. The housefly must lay its eggs in the feces of animals. The fly benefits from the fecal material deposited by the cattle, but the cattle are not harmed by the housefly. The third form of symbiosis is that of parasitism. Parasitism is a relationship that is beneficial to one animal and harmful to another. It accounts for the vast majority of the incidences of symbiosis. All agricultural animals are susceptible to parasites, and measures must be taken by producers to deal with parasitism. The animal that lives off the other animal is called a parasite; the animal that the parasite lives on or in is called the host. Figure 23–1 An example of mutualism is the tick bird, which According to the USDA, parasitism lands on cattle and eats the ticks. causes almost a billion dollars worth of damage to agricultural animals each year. Generally, parasites that live in and on livestock are insects that live out one or more of the phases of their life cycle at the expense of the agricultural animal. The damage they cause comes about in several ways. Most parasites live off the blood of the host animal. The continual loss of blood causes the animal to develop a condition known as anemia. One of the major functions of an animal’s blood is that of providing body cells with oxygen and food nutrients. If enough parasites are living off the blood of an animal, the blood supply to the animal may be greatly diminished. When this occurs, the host animal will become ill because the body cells are not getting enough oxygen and food nutriFigure 23–2 Animals infected with ents. The animals are said to be anemic. The animals are slugparasites do not feel well and do not gish, feel poorly, and do not grow or perform as they should perform as they should. (Figure 23–2). Wilmetts, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Al Parker Photography, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

A

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Animals that are hosts to parasites are in a weakened condition. This makes the animals more susceptible to disease; disease organisms can more effectively attack weak animals. As was explained in Chapter 22, an animal’s body has an immune system to fight disease organisms that invade its body. In order for the immune system to function properly, the animal must be strong and in good health. If the animal is in a weakened condition, the immune system will not function as it should and the animal will get sick more easily. Parasites often carry disease organisms from one animal to another. An insect may feed on an infected animal and then feed on a healthy animal and transmit disease organisms (Figure 23–3). For example, a dreaded disease of horses is sleeping sickness. This disease is passed on by an insect that bites and sucks blood from the animal. An insect may bite an infected horse and Figure 23–3 Parasites may pass diseases from a sick animal draw blood from the sick animal. Then the to a healthy one. insect may fly to another area, where it bites a healthy animal. In doing so, it passes disease germs to the healthy animal. Humans, too, can get diseases this way. A common example is malaria, which is transmitted through the bite of a mosquito. Animals that are infected with parasites are almost always uncomfortable. Parasites cause irritation of the skin, intestinal tract, or other parts of the body. Animals that are irritated and uncomfortable do not grow as well and are not as efficient. For animals to grow, breed, or feed their young, they must feel healthy. If parasites are causing the animal pain or the host animal has to spend most of its time trying to alleviate an itch caused by parasites, the animal will perform poorly. Animals that are infected with parasites consume more feed per pound of gain. In other words, the feed efficiency of the animal is lowered. This means that the cost to maintain the weight of the animal is increased. If parasites are feeding on an agricultural animal, they are feeding either directly or indirectly on the feed supplied by the producers. Parasites can generally be broadly divided into two categories: internal parasites and external parasites. Although some parasites live their entire lives on or in the host animal, most live only a portion of their life on or in the host. In these instances, the host animal supports the parasite through only a phase of its life cycle. For example, insects go through four

Hunta, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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complete stages from the time they hatch until they are mature adults capable of Eggs reproducing. This process of change is called metamorphosis. At each one of these stages the insect looks completely different from its appearance during the other three stages Adult (Figure 23–4). It is during one of these four stages in a parasite’s life that the host animal is infested. When the young insect hatches, it usuLarva ally is in the larval stage. This means that the young insect looks very much like a worm. A larva usually is a voracious eater Pupa and can do a lot of damage to plants or to a host animal. When the larva matures, it passes into the Figure 23–4 Most insects go through four stages of pupa stage, which is usually a relatively dordevelopment. mant stage. A pupa is the intermediate stage between the larva and the adult. During this stage, the body tissues of the young insect convert from a larva to an adult. The last stage is the adult. In this stage, the insect lays eggs and the cycle begins again.

INTERNAL PARASITES Internal parasites actually live within the animal’s body and may feed on the animal’s blood or on feed that passes through the animal. Internal parasites are divided into three major groups: roundworms, tapeworms, and flukes.

Carsten Medom Madsen, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock.com

Roundworms

Figure 23–5 Roundworms infect the digestive tracts of their

hosts.

Roundworms cause more damage to agricultural animals than any other group of internal parasites. They infect almost all types of livestock and exist by living in the digestive tract of their hosts (Figure 23–5). Stomach worms infect all classes of livestock and cause damage by the adults’ burrowing into the lining of the host’s stomach and sucking the animal’s blood. Also, by digging into the stomach lining, the worm damages the tissue of the stomach, enzymes are not produced, and the host animal cannot digest food as well as before the infestation. The worms release poisons as they digest their food and excrete the waste into the host

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animal. These poisons can cause the host animal to become ill. In general, an ill animal will not eat or perform nearly as well as a healthy animal. Adult worms The worms lay eggs in the stomach in digestive tract of hosts of the host and pass out of the animal in the feces. While in the feces, the eggs hatch into larvae and the larvae crawl out onto a blade of grass. A grazing aniEggs passed mal then eats the grass and swallows the Infective larva in manure larvae. Once the larvae are swallowed, crawls up and onto pasture are swallowed they settle in the stomach of the host by grazing cattle animal and begin to penetrate the stomach lining. The parasites remain there, feeding off the animal’s blood and laying eggs. The eggs pass out of the host aniYoung worm develops mal, and the whole process starts again in egg in manure Larva develops (Figure 23–6). to infective stage Another type of roundworm is the strongyle. The life cycle of the strongyle is Young worm or similar to that of stomach worms except larva hatches that instead of living in the stomach linFigure 23–6 Roundworms live only part of their life cycle in host ing, strongyles live in the intestines of the animals. host animal. Strongyles cause damage by causing scar tissue in the small intestine and by sucking blood from the host animal. Since the small intestine absorbs food nutrients into the bloodstream, a damaged small intestine reduces the efficiency of the digestive system of the infested animal. These parasites are particularly damaging to horses and can cause a digestive disorder called colic. The largest of the roundworms are the ascarids. Ascarids most often attack young animals. Like the stomach worms and strongyles, the larvae of ascarids are ingested by animals grazing on blades of grass to which the larvae have attached themselves. The larvae burrow into the walls of the intestines, and from there work their way through the host’s heart, liver, and lungs. When they reach the lungs, the worms are coughed up by the host animal and swallowed. The larvae are passed into the small intestine, where they develop into adults. The adults lay eggs that are passed out onto the grass in the host animal’s feces; the eggs hatch; the larvae attach to blades of grass; and the process is renewed. Tapeworms Tapeworms belong to a class of worms that are segmented. This means that the bodies of the worms are made up of distinct segments. Each of these segments contain both male and female

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

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3drenderings, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock.com

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Figure 23–7 The adult tapeworm lives in the small intestine of the host animal.

BROAD TAPEWORM

Oribatid mite LIFE CYCLE

Courtesy of Instructional Materials Service, Texas A & M University

Adult stage

Figure 23–8 The life cycle of the

Jubal Harshaw, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock.com

tapeworm involves two hosts.

Figure 23–9 Liver flukes cause

damage to the liver of the host animal.

reproductive organs, and each segment is capable of producing fertilized eggs. These segments break off the body of the worms and reproduce. Tapeworms cause less damage than roundworms because they do not feed on the animal’s blood or cause scarring of the digestive tract. They do, however, cause losses because of the manner in which they feed. The adults of the tapeworm live in the small intestine of the host animal (Figure 23–7). These parasites grow to be quite large, with some species reaching lengths of 25 feet. The tapeworm lives off feed that is passed into the host animal’s intestine. It causes the animal harm by devouring the food the animal has eaten. The life cycle begins when the segments of the adult tapeworms break off and pass out in the feces. Each segment contains eggs that hatch in the feces. The eggs are eaten by a small mite called an oribatid mite that lives in the grasses found in pastures (Figure 23–8). The mite serves as an intermediate host. An intermediate host is an animal that a parasite uses to support part of its life cycle. An intermediate host is not harmed by the parasite. Since the mite lives on grasses, they are swallowed by grazing animals. The eggs are then passed through the animal to the small intestine, where they hatch and live until maturity. Flukes Flukes are small, seed-shaped flatworms that live in various parts of the host animal. By far the most damaging flukes are those that live in the liver. The adult liver flukes live in the bile ducts of the liver, where they cause scarring of the liver and bile ducts and general irritation of the liver (Figure 23–9). The adults lay eggs in the bile duct. The eggs are passed through to the intestines and out in the feces. These parasites need an intermediate host. For the eggs to hatch, they must land in water. After the larvae hatch, they swim in search of snails to serve as intermediate hosts. Once the snails are located, the larvae enter the snails to develop and reproduce (Figure 23–10). This stage is unusual because the larvae divide and multiply asexually. The larvae divide by themselves to create new organisms without mating and laying eggs. The new larvae emerge and attach to plants in or near the water. Livestock eat the plants and become infected with the flukes. The flukes eat their way through the walls of the digestive tract and migrate to the liver, where they feed on the host animal’s blood. In about 3 months, they begin to lay eggs. Fluke infestation damages the host animal’s liver and causes the bile ducts to thicken and cease normal function. Livers from livestock infested by flukes are unfit for human consumption, and thus a valuable human food source is wasted.

PARASITES OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

LIFE CYCLE

Courtesy of Instructional Materials Service, Texas A & M University

Snail

Figure 23–10 Liver flukes use the snail as an intermediate host.

EXTERNAL PARASITES External parasites generally do not cause as much damage to animals as internal parasites. They can, however, cause losses in terms of animal discomfort, the loss of hide quality, and blood loss. External parasites include ticks, lice, and flies. Ticks Ticks generally will attach themselves to most warm-blooded agricultural animals. They cause damage by penetrating the skin and sucking blood from the host animal. This not only leaves a sore that can be an avenue for disease organisms but also can cause the host animal to be anemic from the loss of blood. Tick eggs are laid in the grass and over winter to hatch in the spring. When the larvae hatch, they climb up onto the grass or into bushes (Figure 23–11). When an animal passes by, the tick larvae attach themselves to the animal and gorge on the animal’s blood. They then fall to the ground where they remain until the following spring. In the spring, they undergo metamorphosis. The tick larvae change into nymphs. The nymphs climb into bushes, attach themselves to passing animals, and fill themselves with blood. Then the nymphs drop to the ground, overwinter, change into an adult in the spring, and go through the same feeding process. When the adults fall to the ground, eggs are laid, and the life cycle begins again. Three years are required for ticks to complete their life cycles.

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Sexually immature nymph

Miramiska, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock.com

Male and female adults

Figure 23–12 Lice are small,

wingless insects that cause irritation to their hosts.

Six-legged larva

Figure 23–11 The typical life cycle of the tick.

When ticks feed, they insert their mouth parts into the host animal’s skin and inject saliva into the wound. The saliva contains an anticoagulant, a substance that prevents the blood from clotting and allows the blood to flow freely into the ticks. These pests attack almost all warm-blooded animals, including people. Because the same tick may have as many as three hosts during its life cycle, diseases may be spread from one animal to another. One such disease that is spread to humans is Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Lice

Adult Male

Female

Young louse

Figure 23–13 The entire life cycle of the louse is lived out on the

host animal.

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

Eggs glued to hair

Lice (singular, louse) are tiny, wingless insects that are external parasites of most warmblooded agricultural animals (Figure 23–12). There are two types; blood-sucking lice that feed by drawing blood through the animal’s skin, and biting lice that feed on the hair or skin particles and excretions of the animals. The life cycle of lice is simple compared to the life cycle of some other parasites. Their whole lives are lived on the host animal (Figure 23–13). The adult females attach eggs to the hair follicles of host animals. The eggs hatch one to two weeks later, and the newly hatched nymphs live to maturity on the host animal. By biting or piercing the skin of the host animal, lice cause the animal to become very uncomfortable. This results in the animal’s rubbing and scratching against posts, trees, or other objects in an attempt to obtain relief from the itching.

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

Eggs

As a result, time is lost from grazing or eating and a weight loss may occur. In addition, animals that are heavily infested with lice may become so uncomfortable that normal processes such as breeding can be interrupted. Heel Flies Heel flies, also known as cattle grubs, are a serious parasitic pest of cattle. The adult flies lay eggs on the lower part of the legs of cattle. Figure 23–14 Cattle grubs eat a hole When the eggs hatch, the larvae penetrate the skin through the through the skin on the animal’s back. hair follicles and begin a journey through the animal’s body that may take several months. The larvae burrow through the soft tissue of the animal all the way from the leg to the back, where they eat a hole in the skin of the animal’s back for a breathing hole (Figure 23–14). The larvae, or grubs, feed on the host animal’s flesh until they mature. At this time, they eat their way through the hide and fall to the ground, where they live on debris. Here, the larvae turn into pupae and mature to adults. This process takes about 1 to 2 months. The adult flies emerge, attach themselves to the heel of an animal, lay eggs, and the process Figure 23–15 The adult heel fly lays eggs on the hair of the animal’s starts all over again (Figure 23–15). heel. The larvae travel from the foot to the back through the body of Cattle grubs cause damage because of the animal. the animal’s discomfort. In addition, meat damaged by the grubs must be trimmed away and is lost. Hides from cattle infected by grubs have holes in them from the larvae’s opening holes for breathing and emerging from the animal. This greatly reduces the value of the hide.

Delmar/Cengage Learning

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Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

PARASITES OF AGRICULTURAL ANIMALS

To make the animals comfortable so they will grow and produce efficiently, both internal and external parasites must be controlled. The most widely used method of control is to medicate the host animals. Because the parasites feed on some part of the animal’s body or ingested food, medication must be applied to the host to get rid of the parasites. With external parasites, the chemical or medication is applied to the animal’s skin by spraying, pouring on, or running the animals through a dipping vat (Figure 23–16). Recent research has developed a new generation of medications called systemic pesticides, that are injected into the animal’s body. Although the medication has little effect on the host, the parasites are killed or are repelled from the host animal. Internal parasites are controlled by giving the host animal an injection

© iStockphoto/Jason Lugo

PARASITE CONTROL

Figure 23–16 External parasites can

be controlled by applying insecticides to the animal’s skin.

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or a large pill (called a bolus), or by putting the medication in the animal’s feed or water (Figure 23–17). The medications have undergone vigorous tests and regulations by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration in order to make sure the drugs are safe for the animal and that the milk, meat, eggs, or other products from the animals are safe for human consumption. An alternative approach to controlling parasites is biological control. At different stages of the parasite’s life cycle, it is more vulnerable than at other stages. Scientists have concentrated their efforts at controlling or eradicating the pests at these vulnerable stages. Figure 23–17 Internal parasites can be controlled by giving An interesting example is that of the medication to the host animal. screwworm. At one time the screwworm was a serious pest of agricultural animals. The adult female screwworm flies usually lay eggs in open wounds on animals; however, some infestations have been known to have occurred without the animal’s having an open wound. The eggs hatch, and the larvae, known as maggots, feed on the flesh of the host animal. The maggots tear out pockets of healthy flesh next to the wound and inject a toxin into the wound to prevent it from healing. The larvae grow and feed in the wound for about a week before dropping to the ground and changing to the pupa stage. The pupae go into the ground, where they mature and become adults. Once the adults emerge from the ground, they mate and lay eggs to begin the life cycle again. The screwworm fly mates only once during its lifetime, and scientists saw this as a weak point in its life cycle. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, a government program was begun to eradicate the screwworm. This was done by treating adult screwworm flies with gamma rays from cobalt-60. This treatment rendered both the male and the female flies sterile. Massive numbers of the sterile screwworm flies were released in the areas of the South where the screwworm infestations occurred. When a sterile female mated with either a sterile male or a fertile male, no eggs were produced. When a sterile male mated with a normal female, no viable eggs were produced. After several years of releasing huge numbers of sterile adults, the screwworm was—for all practical purposes—eradicated. This effort was duplicated in the 1970s in a cooperative effort with the Mexican government. This effort also was quite successful. Through scientific research, efforts, and control measures such as this, pests can be controlled without harming the host animal or the environment.

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SUMMARY Parasites have always been a problem for animal producers. Each year, parasites cost millions of dollars in damage and control measures. In addition, they can cause disease problems to both animals and humans. By studying the life cycles of parasites, new and better control measures have been developed. A combination of methods are now used to control these pests. Through research and development, some serious pests have been eradicated.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Mutualism is the relationship of animals when one benefits and the other is not harmed. Commensalism is a relationship which is beneficial to both species of animals. 2. Parasites very rarely carry disease organisms from one animal to another. 3. Animals that are infected with parasites consume less feed per pound of gain. 4. When a young insect first hatches, it is usually in the larval stage, looking very much like a worm. 5. Roundworms cause more damage to agricultural animals than any other group of internal parasites. 6. Ascarids most often attack young animals and work their way to the animal’s heart, liver, and lungs. 7. An intermediate host is an animal that the parasite uses to support part of its life cycle and is killed in the process. 8. When flukes use snails as their intermediate hosts, the larvae actually divide and multiply asexually inside the snails. 9. Ticks cause damage by penetrating the skin and sucking the blood from the host animal. This leaves a sore that can be an avenue for disease organisms and can leave the animal anemic. 10. Only half of the life cycle of the louse—the larva stage—is lived on the host. 11. Heel flies live out their entire life cycle on the legs of the host, causing lameness that interferes with grazing. 12. For animals to be comfortable and grow and produce efficiently, both internal and external parasites must be controlled. 13. Biological control has proven to be completely ineffective in controlling parasites in agricultural animals. 14. The adult female screwworm fly must have an open wound or injury in which to lay her eggs. No known infestations have occurred without an open wound. 15. The governments of two separate countries cannot work successfully together to eradicate pests, because of duplication of efforts and communication problems.

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Fill in the Blanks 1. Parasitism is a ____________ that is ____________ to one animal and ____________ to another and accounts for the vast majority of the incidences of ____________. 2. Anemic conditions in agricultural animals result in a ____________ condition that makes the animals more susceptible to ____________ ____________ because of the ____________ ____________ functioning improperly. 3. Parasites cause irritation of the ____________, ____________ ____________, or other ____________ of the ____________. 4. Internal parasites actually live ____________ the animal’s ____________ and may feed on the animal’s ____________ or on ____________ that passes through the ____________. 5. Strongyles are a type of ____________ that live in the ____________ of the ____________ animal and cause damage by causing ____________ tissue in the ____________ intestine and by sucking ____________ from the animal. 6. Tapeworms are ____________ worms. Each segment contains both ____________ and ____________, reproductive ____________, and each is capable of producing ____________ ____________. 7. The most damaging flukes are those that live in the ____________ ____________ of the liver, where the adult causes ____________, ____________ of the liver and ____________ ____________, and general ____________ of the ____________. 8. External parasites cause losses in terms of animal ____________, the loss of ____________ ____________, and blood ____________. 9. Ticks can have up to ____________ hosts during their life ____________, so diseases, such as ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ can be spread from one animal to ____________. 10. There are two types of lice: ____________ sucking lice, which feed by drawing ____________ through the animal’s ____________, and biting lice, which feed on the ____________ or ____________ particles and ____________ of the animals. 11. Internal parasites are controlled by giving the host animal an ____________, a large pill (called a ____________), or by putting the ____________ in the animal’s ____________ or ____________. 12. Medications have undergone vigorous tests and regulations by the ____________ ____________ ____________ of ____________ and the ____________ and Drug ____________ to make sure that the drugs are safe for the ____________ and that the ____________, ____________, ____________, or other products from the animals are safe for ____________ ____________. 13. At different stages of the parasite’s life, or life ____________, they are more vulnerable than at other ____________. 14. Adult screwworm flies were rendered ____________ by treatment with ____________ ____________ from ____________. 15. Through scientific research efforts and control measures, some pests can be ____________ without causing ____________ to the ____________ ____________ or the ____________.

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Discussion Questions 1. What is meant by a symbiotic relationship? 2. Name and give examples of three types of symbiotic relationships. 3. What are three ways that parasites can harm their hosts? 4. What are three major groups of internal parasites that infest agricultural animals? 5. Explain what is meant by a life cycle. 6. What are the four stages in the life of an insect? 7. Explain how the following parasites cause damage to their hosts: roundworms, tapeworms, flukes, ticks, lice, heel flies. 8. List three ways of controlling parasites. Student Learning Activities 1. Go to the library and research the life cycle of an insect pest. Develop a plan to control the insect by using the pest’s life cycle. 2. Visit with a livestock producer and determine the measures he or she uses to control parasites. Ask the producer to explain how the methods are different from what they were a few years ago. 3. Visit with a local veterinarian and ask the vet to explain what the most serious parasites in the local area are and the measures used to control them.

CHAPTER

24

Animal Diseases

KEY TERMS infectious diseases contagious diseases cocci bacillus spirilla

virus protozoa phagocytes lymphocytes antigens

active immunity naturally acquired active immunity artificial active immunity spore

aflatoxin prion noninfectious diseases ergot

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ list the types of disease-causing

organisms.

■ distinguish between infectious and

noninfectious diseases.

■ describe three types of bacteria.

■ describe how diseases are spread.

■ list the characteristics of viruses.

■ explain how antigens enter the body.

■ list the characteristics of protozoa.

■ explain how passive and active

■ describe how an animal’s immune

system works. ■ explain the function of red and white

blood cells.

immunity differ. ■ distinguish between naturally acquired

immunity and artificially acquired immunity.

■ describe how vaccines work.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ describe the indications that an animal

is sick. ■ list examples of diseases of agricultural

animals caused by microorganisms. ■ explain how livestock diseases are

spread. ■ list examples of diseases caused by

genetic disorders.

■ give examples of diseases caused by

improper nutrition. ■ give examples of plants that are

poisonous to agricultural animals. ■ cite examples of government disease-

eradication programs.

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HE TERM DISEASE IS BROADLY defined as being not at ease, or uncomfortable. Animals, just like humans, get diseases and have health problems. Producers of agricultural animals have a vested interest in keeping their animals healthy. Healthy animals grow faster and produce more profit for their owners. Diseases come in a variety of types and have a variety of causes (Table 24–1). Some are mild and cause only minor discomfort to the animal; others are severe and cause death quickly. Although

T

Disease

Preventive and Control Measures

Cause

Symptoms

Anemia

All farm animals are susceptible

Characterized by general weakness and a lack of vigor; iron deficiency prevents the formation of hemoglobin, a red ironcontaining pigment in the red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen to the cells

A balanced ration will ordinarily prevent anemia. Baby pigs raised on concrete need iron supplement.

Bloat

Typically occurs when animals are grazing on highly productive pastures during the wetter part of late spring and summer

Swollen abdomen on the left side, labored breathing, profuse salivation, groaning, lack of appetite, and stiffness

Maintain pastures composed of 50 percent or more grass

Colic

Improper feeding

Pain, sweating, and constipation; kicking and groaning

Careful feeding

Enterotoxemia

Bacteria and overeating

Constipation is an early symptom and is sometimes followed by diarrhea

Bacterin or antitoxin vaccine should be used at the beginning of the feeding period

Founder

Overeating of grain or lush, highly improved pasture grasses

Affected animals experience pain and may have fever as high as 106°F

Good management and feeding practices will prevent the disease

Hog cholera (now eradicated from the United States) is caused by a filterable virus

Loss of appetite, high fever, reddish-purplish patchwork of coloration on the affected stomach, breathing difficulty, and a wobbly gait

A preventive vaccine is available; no effective treatment; producers should use good management

Nutritional Defects

Viral Diseases Cholera

Table 24–1 Disease and nutritional defects

(continued )

ANIMAL DISEASES

395

Preventive and Control Measures

Disease

Cause

Symptoms

Equine Encephalomyelitis

Viruses classified as group A or B cause the disease; transmitted by bloodsucking insects such as mosquito

Fever, impaired vision, irregular gait, muscle spasms, a pendulous lower lip, walking aimlessly

Control of carrier; use of a vaccine

Hemorrhagic Septicemia

Caused by a bacterium that seems to multiply rapidly when animals are subject to stress conditions

Fever, difficult breathing, cough, discharge from the eyes and nose

Vaccination prior to shipping or other periods of stress

Newcastle

A poultry disease caused by a virus that is spread by contaminated equipment or mechanical means

Chicks make circular movements, walk backward, fall, twist their neck so the head is lying on the back, cough, sneeze, high fever, and diarrhea

Several types of Newcastle vaccines are available; antibiotics are used in treating early stages of the disease to prevent secondary infections

Warts

Believed to be caused by a virus

Protruding growths on the skin

No known preventive measures; most effective means is with a vaccine

Pneumonia

Bacteria, fungi, dust, or other foreign matter; the bacterium Pasteurella multiocida is often responsible for the disease

General dullness, failing appetite, fever, and difficult breathing

Proper housing, ventilation, sanitation, antibiotics

Tetanus

A spore-forming anaerobic bacterium; the spores may be found in the soil and feces of animals

Difficulty swallowing, stiff muscles, and muscle spasms

Immunizing animals with a tetanus toxoid

Anthrax

A spore-forming bacterium

Fever, swelling in the lower body, bloody discharge, staggering, trembling, difficult breathing, convulsive movements

An annual vaccination; manure and contaminated materials should be burned and area disinfected; insects should be controlled

Blackleg

A disease of cattle and sheep caused by a sporeforming bacterium which remains permanently in an area; the germ has an incubation period of 1 to 5 days and is taken into the body from contaminated soils and water

Lameness, followed depression and fever; by the muscles in the hip, shoulder, chest, back, and neck swell; sudden death within three days of onset of symptoms

A preventive vaccine

Bacterial Diseases

Table 24–1 (Continued from the previous page)

(continued )

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Preventive and Control Measures

Disease

Cause

Symptoms

Brucellosis

Caused by the bacterium Brucella abortus

Abortion of the immature fetus is the only sign in some animals

Vaccinating calves with Brucella abortus will prevent cattle from contracting this disease; infected cattle must be slaughtered

Distemper

A disease of horses; exposure to cold, wet weather, fatigue, and an infection of the respiratory tract aid in spreading the disease

Increased respiratory rate, depression, loss of appetite, and discharge of pus from the nose are visible symptoms; infected animals have a fever and swollen lymph glands (located under the jaw)

Animals with disease should be isolated, provided with rest, protected from the weather, and treated with antibiotics

Erysipelas

A resistant bacterium capable of living several months in barnyard litter

Three forms: acute, subacute, and diamond skin form; acute symptoms are a high fever, constipation, diarrhea, and reddish patches on the skin; subacute is usually localized in an organ such as the heart, bladder, and joints; sloughing off of the skin is common

An anti-swine erysipelas serum is available

Leptospirosis

A bacterium found in the blood, urine, and milk of infected animals

Abortion and sterility; symptoms are blood-tinged milk and urine

Susceptible animals should be vaccinated

Tuberculosis

The three types of tubercle bacilli causing the disease are human, bovine, and avian; the human type rarely produces tuberculosis in lower animals, but the bovine type is capable of producing the disease in most warmblooded vertebrates

Lungs are affected; however, other organs may be affected; some animals show no symptoms; others appear unhealthy and have a cough

Maintaining a sanitary environment and comfortable quarters will help in preventing the disease

Pullorum

A poultry disease caused by a bacterium which is capable of living for months in a dormant state in damp, sheltered places; the germs infect the ovary and are transmitted to the chicks through the eggs

Infected chicks huddle together with their eyes closed, wings drooped, feathers ruffled, and have foamy, white droppings

Blood test is required for positive identification of the disease; disposal of infected hens will aid in preventing the disease; chicks should be purchased from a certified pullorum-free hatchery

Table 24–1 (continued from the previous page)

(continued )

ANIMAL DISEASES

397

Preventive and Control Measures

Disease

Cause

Symptoms

Foot Rot

A fungi common to filth is responsible for foot rot; animals are most apt to contact foot rot when they are forced to live in wet, muddy, unsanitary lots for long periods of time

Skin near the hoofline is red, swollen, and often has small lesions

Maintaining clean, welldrained lots is an easy method of preventing foot rot

Calf Diphtheria

A fungal disease that lives in soil, litter, and unclean stables; it enters the body through small scratches or wounds

Difficulty breathing, eating, drinking; patches of yellowish, dead tissue appear on the edges of the tongue, gums, and throat; there is often a nasal discharge

The diseased tissue is removed to expose healthy tissue, which is treated by swabbing it with tincture of iodine

Several species of protozoa are responsible

Occurs in two forms; cecae and intestinal: cecae is the acute form that develops rapidly and causes a high mortality rate; bloody droppings and sudden death are symptoms; intestinal coccidiosis is chronic in nature, and its symptoms are loss of appetite, weakness, pale comb, and low production; few deaths occur from the latter form

The disease is transmitted by the droppings of infested birds, so maintaining sanitary conditions and the feeding of a coccidiostat will prevent the disease

Causes have not been determined; several different bacteria are involved; it is contagious, especially in young pigs, and is spread by direct contact

Affects the bone structure of the nasal passages; the snout will become twisted and wrinkled

Sanitation is important in preventing the disease; there is not a specific treatment; use of sulfamethazine may help

Protozoa Coccidiosis (pertaining to poultry)

Unknown Causes Atrophic Rhinitis

Source: Instructional Materials Service, Texas A & M University. Table 24–1 (continued from the previous page)

animals that are sick may not show any outward signs or symptoms of being ill, they usually do display symptoms indicating that they are not feeling well. The animal may be droopy, go off feed and water, be restless, or have a dull coat (Figure 24–1). In some cases, the animal may have a fever. This means that the body temperature of the animal is higher than normal.

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Courtesy of Dr. Jean Sander, Academic and Student Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State Universtity

398

INFECTIOUS DISEASES Infectious diseases are those caused by microorganisms that invade the animal’s body. These are usually contagious diseases, which means that the infected animal can pass the disease on to a healthy animal. There are many types of microorganisms that cause diseases in animals. Bacteria

One of the most common types of disease-causing organisms are bacteria. Bacteria are all around us (Figure 24–2). They can be appear droopy. This turkey suffers found in the hottest of deserts and buried deep in polar ice. They from fowl pox. live on and in the bodies of all animals and probably are more numerous than the cells of the animal’s body. Many of the bacteria around us are beneficial. Those living in the stomachs of ruminants help the animals digest food. Bacteria are useful in the production of cheese and foods such as sauerkraut. There are, however, many types of bacteria that cause harm. Harmful bacteria invade the cells of an animal’s body. Parasitic bacteria may harm the animal by feeding off the cells of the body or by secreting a material known as a toxin. A toxin is a substance that causes harm to an organism. In other words, it is a poison. When large numbers of harmful bacteria invade an animal’s body, the animal becomes ill. The type and form of the illness Figure 24–2 Bacteria are all around us. These bacteria are depend on the type of bacteria that invades growing on media in a petri dish. the animal. Cocci are round, spherical-shaped bacteria. Diseases such as some forms of pneumonia and strep infections are caused by this bacteria (Figure 24–3). Bacillus bacteria are rod-shaped organisms that may be single, paired, or arranged in chains (Figure 24–4). They cause many serious diseases in agricultural animals; a few are anthrax, tetanus, blackleg, intestinal coliform, salmonella, and tuberculosis Spirilla bacteria are shaped like spirals or corkscrews. These bacteria are highly motile, which means they can move about very easily. They also require a moist atmosphere to survive; consequently, they live very well in the reproductive tracts of animals. Some of the diseases they cause are leptospirosis, Figure 24–3 Cocci are round, spherical-shaped bacteria. vibriosis, spirochetosis, and many others. Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

PhotoDisc/Getty Images

Figure 24–1 Sick animals may

Most bacteria can be controlled by the use of antibiotics. The first of these medicines was penicillin, which was produced from extracts of molds. Many different forms of penicillin are now produced artificially and are highly effective against bacterial infections; however, some bacteria have developed resistance to antibiotics. Viruses A virus is a very tiny particle of matter composed of a core of nucleic acid and a covering of protein that protects the virus. Viruses have characteristics of both living and nonFigure 24–4 Bacillus are rod-shaped bacteria. living material. It could be said that viruses are on the borderline between living and nonliving. They are made up of some of the material found in cells, but they are not cells because they do not have nuclei or other cell parts. Viruses do not grow and cannot reproduce outside a living cell. Once inside a living cell, the virus reproduces using the energy and materials of the invaded cell. Viruses harm cells by causing them to burst during the reproduction process of the virus and by using material in the cell that the cell needs to function properly (Figure 24–5). Therefore, viral diseases cause the animal to be sick by preventing certain cells in the animal’s body Figure 24–5 This chicken suffers from functioning properly. from fowl pox. Note how the viruses There are many different types of viruses that cause a varihave destroyed cells in the comb. ety of serious diseases in agricultural animals. Viral diseases are more difficult to treat than diseases caused by bacteria. The antibiotics that have proven to be effective against bacteria are of no use against viruses. Some of the more serious livestock diseases caused by viruses are foot-and-mouth disease, influenza, hog cholera, and pseudorabies. Many viral diseases are incurable. The best means of dealing with them is prevention. Protozoa Another type of microorganism that causes diseases in agricultural animals is the protozoan. Protozoa are single-celled organisms that often are parasitic. They cause harm to animals by feeding on cells or by producing toxins. Examples of diseases caused by protozoa are African sleeping sickness and anaplasmosis. Coccidiosis is one of the most costly diseases in the poultry industry (Figure 24–6). This disease is caused by several different species of protozoa and causes diarrhea and weight loss in chickens. Most protozoa can be controlled by drugs.

Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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Courtesy of Dr. Jean Sander, Academic and Student Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University

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THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Courtesy of NRCS

Disease-causing viruses, bacteria, and protozoa are all present in the environments of animals and people. They are so prevalent that they are ingested into the body almost constantly. These organisms can enter the body through regular body openings such as the mouth, nose, eyes, reproductive system, or any other natural opening. They may enter through the skin or through a wound in the body as well. If the animal’s body did not have a means for defending itself against these disease agents, Figure 24–6 These protozoa cause coccidiosis in the animal would live a short, miserable life. poultry. Fortunately, animals (including people) have several lines of defense in fighting disease. The first line consists of physical barriers that keep the disease-causing agents out. For instance, the nostrils are lined with hairs that attract particles that harbor germs before they can enter the body. When an animal sneezes, the particles are expelled. Almost all body openings and many internal organs are lined with mucous membrane. These are tissues that secrete a viscous, watery substance that traps and destroys bacteria and viruses. The most prevalent avenue for organisms to enter the body is through the digestive and respiratory systems. Countless billions of microorganisms live in the soil, and some of them are diseasecausing germs. Certain disease germs can live in the soil for many years. Most animals come in contact with the ground as they eat (Figure 24–7). Cattle, sheep, and horses graze and pull grass from the ground, and pigs root in the ground for food. Even processed feed is far from being sterile. Every minute animals breathe in large amounts of air laden with all sorts of particles and organisms. Fortunately, the body has ways to destroy harmful organisms. For instance, if the germs swallowed with feed are not trapped by the mucous membrane of the digestive tract, they are most often killed by the digestive enzymes. Germs ingested by breathing are trapped in the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. Disease agents that get through the first line of defense are usually destroyed by the second line of defense. This line is composed of cells and chemicals in the bloodstream. Blood is basically composed of two types of cells—white blood cells and red blood cells. The red blood cells carry oxygen and nourishment to the other Figure 24–7 Animals come in contact with the ground. body cells. White blood cells are produced in Disease-causing germs can live in the soil for many years. the bone marrow and circulate throughout the

401

body to get rid of worn-out body cells. Certain of these white blood cells, called phagocytes, intercept and destroy disease-causing agents (Figure 24–8). These cells also migrate to certain organs, such as the liver, lymph nodes, and spleen, and remain there to intercept disease-causing agents. White 1 blood cells also circulate through other body fluids 2 and the mucous membranes. When phagocytes encounter foreign organisms, they release chemicals that induce the production of more white blood cells to help fight the disease organism. In fact, one important way a veterinarian can tell if an animal is sick is by counting the number of white blood cells in the animal’s 3 4 bloodstream. A count larger than normal indicates Figure 24–8 Phagocytes intercept, engulf, and destroy that there are disease organisms present in the anidisease-causing agents. mal’s body, and a large number of phagocytes have been produced to combat them. Certain white blood cells are produced by the lymph glands and are called lymphocytes. These cells react to foreign substances by releasing chemicals that kill the disease-causing organisms or inactivate the foreign substance. The substances that cause the release of the chemicals are called antigens. Antigens may be viruses, bacteria, toxins, or other substances. The chemicals released by the lymphocytes are known as antibodies. The lymphocyte can also become a “memory cell” that is ready to release an antibody if the same type of antigen enters the body at a later time. When this happens, it is known as a secondary immune response. This response occurs much more rapidly and lasts longer than the primary response. Immunity Immunity means that an animal is protected from catching a certain disease. This is because the animal’s body is capable of producing sufficient antibodies in enough time to neutralize the disease-causing agent before the animal becomes sick. Immunity can be either active or passive. Active immunity means that the animal is more or less permanently immune to the disease. Passive immunity means that the animal is only temporarily immune. Animals are born with some immunity to diseases. In mammals, the first milk, called colostrum, that is given to the newborn animal is rich in antibodies from the mother. These antibodies serve the new animal until its own immune system can take over. As the animal is exposed to more and more antigens, antibodies build up in the animal’s body. Naturally acquired active immunity is obtained by the animal’s actually having a disease and recovering. The memory phagocytes react quickly when the

Delmar/Cengage Learning

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antigen that causes that specific disease enters the animal’s body and the antigens are overwhelmed. Artificial active immunity can be induced in the animal by injecting antigens into the animal that causes the phagocytes to react without making the animal seriously ill (Figure 24–9). This process was devised by an Englishman named Edward Jenner in the late 1700s. At that time, smallpox epidemics swept through many parts of the world, killing more than half of the people who contracted the disease. Those who survived became permanently immune to the disease, which meant they would never be sick Figure 24–9 Artificial immunity can be induced by injecting with it again. Jenner knew that those who antigens into an animal. contracted cowpox never came down with smallpox. Cowpox was, as the name implies, a disease of cattle. Humans could also get the disease, but it was usually mild. Jenner collected material from sores that developed on people who had cowpox, and he injected this material into healthy people. The people who were injected became ill with a mild case of cowpox, but then were immune to smallpox in the future. The Latin word for cow is vacca, and the word vaccination was coined based on the fact that the immunity originated from cows. This concept was used later by Louis Pasteur to develop several vaccines. All of the modern vaccines, whether given to humans or animals, work on basically the same principles. When Jenner used materials from cowpox sores, he injected live viruses. This worked well in this particular case, but as more vaccines were developed, it was discovered that often the vaccination could cause the disease. Also, many of the viruses can live for a long time in the soil. If bottles of live vaccine are dropped and broken, the soil can become contaminated. Research has proven that weakened or killed viruses can be effective vaccines against many diseases. These materials act as antigens in stimulating the production of antibodies in much the same way as a live virus does, but without the dangers incurred with using live viruses. Fungal Diseases Fungi (singular, fungus) are another type of disease-causing agents. These organisms are plantlike structures that lack chlorophyll and can grow and thrive in dark damp places. Remember from Chapter 2 that fungi are in a separate kingdom and are neither plants nor animals. There are over 100,000 species of fungi that are very diverse in size and type. The best known species are

Figure 24–10 Fungi release spores

into the air. Some types of spores can cause disease.

Prions Another type of infectious agent is called a prion, which is short for proteinaceous infectious particle. The discovery of prions is relatively

Figure 24–11 Some people are highly allergic to toxins produced by fungi on peanuts.

Albert J Copley/ Getty Images

the mushrooms we see growing everywhere in damp places that are not in direct sunlight. While some of the mushrooms are edible, many are poisonous. Fungi play a very important role in nature. Because they cannot digest food within their bodies, they digest food outside their bodies by releasing enzymes into the environment in which they live. Through this process, fungi break down organic matter into a usable form. This function helps get rid of dying and decaying plant and animal materials. Fungi reproduce by means of releasing spores into the air. The spores are somewhat like very tiny seeds that are dispersed on the wind. Problems arise when the fungi spores land on living tissues and the resulting fungi begin to break down these tissues (Figure 24–10). This causes fungal diseases such as ringworm and athlete’s foot in humans. Millions of people suffer from allergies caused by fungi that irritate the nasal passages. These organisms also cause serious diseases in agricultural animals. One such serious disease is aspergillosis, that affects poultry. The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus causes hard nodular areas to develop in the lungs and an infection of the air sacs of poultry. Symptoms include gasping, sleepiness, loss of appetite, and sometimes convulsions and death. The fungus or mold grows on litter, feed, rotten wood, and other organic materials in the poultry house. The disease is not spread by bird-to-bird contact but, instead, by the poultry breathing in spores released by the fungus. Another type of fungal disease that affects livestock is caused by Aspergillus flavus, a fungus that grows well on grains that are a part of animal rations. It also thrives on nuts such as peanuts. These and other types of fungi produce a highly potent toxin called aflatoxin. You may have heard that some people are highly allergic to peanuts. In fact, people have died as a result of eating peanuts, not because they were so allergic to the peanuts themselves, but to the aflatoxins produced by the fungi growing on the peanuts that humans eat. However, most people are not allergic to these toxins (Figure 24–11). Livestock are also susceptible to aflatoxins, and each year losses occur to the livestock industry because of allergic reaction to the toxin. Fungi also cause a lot of problems with plants, but, as mentioned previously, fungi can be useful, too. An entire discipline is devoted to the study of fungi. This study is called mycology, and scientists who study fungi are called mycologists.

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Leo, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

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recent, and scientists still are not sure exactly how these agents function or how they propagate. However, they do know that these types of proteins are responsible for diseases called transmissible spongiform encephalopathy, diseases also know as TSEs. The most widely known livestock diseases from prions are scrapie in sheep and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle. BSE is best known as mad cow disease that has caused widespread concern all over the world because of its transmissibility to humans. Also, a disease that affects deer called chronic wasting disease is thought to be caused by prions. Diseases caused by prions affect tissues in the brain and are usually untreatable and fatal. BSE is called mad cow disease because of the strange way an animal acts when it has the disease. People can get mad cow disease by eating poorly cooked meat from infected animals. There is some indication that humans have to have a genetic predisposition for the disease before they can contract it. Cattle are thought to contract the disease by eating feed that has animal byproducts in it. If the feed contains tissue from the nervous system of an animal with BSE, the animal that eats the feed may get the disease.

NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES Not all diseases of agricultural animals are caused by being infected with microorganisms. Diseases can be caused by means other than contact with infected animals. These are noninfectious diseases. They are not contagious. Genetic Diseases Some diseases are caused by defects in the genes that were transferred from the animal’s parents. Usually animals with genetic disorders will also pass the problem on to the next generation, so the disease stays in certain breeds or bloodlines of animals. One example is a condition known as white heifer’s disease in Shorthorn cattle. Certain heifers that are solid white in color have a genetic defect that causes them to be sterile. Since the cause is purely genetic, other cattle or other animals cannot contract the disease from the heifers with the disease. In certain lines of Holstein cattle, calves are born with a condition known as mule foot, in which the hooves are shaped like a horse’s or mule’s foot rather than having two toes like normal cattle. Again, this disorder is purely genetic and cannot be spread through contact with other cattle. At present, the only way to control genetic diseases is by using good selection practices and avoiding breeding animals that are known to have genetic defects in their line. Perhaps in the near future, the process of genetic engineering will be developed to a point at which these problems can be removed from animals.

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Animals can become sick from faulty nutrition. All animals need certain amounts of a variety of nutrients. If these nutrients are lacking in the animal’s diet, the animal can become ill (Figure 24–12). An example of a nutritional disease is milk fever in dairy cattle. Cows with this disease lie down and are unable to stand. The condition is caused by an insufficient amount of calcium in the bloodstream. Because milk is rich in calcium and milk comes from the bloodstream, cows that produce heavily sometimes have this problem. The disease is usually cured by the injection of calcium salts directly into the animal’s bloodstream. The effects are immediate and dramatic. Animals that have been down for hours suddenly are able to stand and move about. Other nutrition-related diseases can be caused by overeating. Cattle that are turned in on lush, green grazing can have a problem known as bloat. Bloat is caused when the sudden ingestion of large amounts of green forage (usually legumes) causes foaming in the animal’s digestive tract. The foamy bubbles block the openings of the tract and prevent the passage of gas. The gas can build up to such an extent that it can cause death. Horses, cattle, and sheep can get a condition known as founder if they eat too much grain, especially if the ration is changed too rapidly. This condition causes the feet to become inflamed and the hooves to grow upward and outward. The animals don’t eat very well and lose weight rapidly.

POISONING Like any other animals, agricultural animals can be made sick by ingesting toxic materials. These materials can be picked up in a variety of ways. The animal can eat feed that is contaminated. If feed becomes moldy, certain toxins can develop that can make livestock quite sick and may even kill them. Among the most potent of the toxins from moldy feed are aflatoxins and ergot. Both of these toxins are developed from fungi that grow on grains. Producers are careful that feed fed to agricultural animals is free from mold. Another type of poisoning that causes problems with animals is that of poison plants. Animals that graze can readily pick up plants that contain toxins. Poisonous plants are found throughout the United States. Losses are incurred in all states from plant poisoning. The western regions of the country sustain the heaviest loss because of so much grazing on uncultivated range land. Some fairly common plants, such as ferns, bitterweed, buttercups, cocklebur, and milkweed, can be poisonous to some species of agricultural animals (Figure 24–13). Certain plants can be highly toxic to some animals and almost harmless to others. For example, tansy ragwort, which grows in the Northwest, is deadly to horses; yet sheep can eat the plant with little or no harm (Figure 24–14).

Courtesy of Dr. Jean Sander, Academic and Student Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University

Nutritional Diseases

Figure 24–12 Lack of proper

nutrition can cause disease. The deformity in this chicken’s feet was caused by a deficiency of riboflavin in the diet.

Figure 24–13 Common plants such as cocklebur (left) and milkweed (right) are

poisonous to livestock.

Modified from USDA

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Modified from USDA

406

Figure 24–14 Tansy ragwort is

deadly to horses and cattle, yet is nearly harmless to sheep.

DISEASE PREVENTION

Courtesy of ARS

Producers of agricultural animals take careful measures to protect their animals from diseases. Most have strict vaccination schedules for all their animals, to prevent them from contracting diseases (Figure 24–15). Even though there may have been no outbreaks of a certain disease, producers still use vaccinations because they are aware that disease organisms are spread in a variety of ways. Infectious disease organisms can be transported by wildlife. Deer can transmit certain diseases to cattle and sheep. Wild pigs can spread disease to domesticated herds. Wild horses can infect domesticated animals. Many species of birds can transmit disease to animals, especially to chickens. At one time, birds were held responsible for spreading hog cholera from one farm to the next. Diseases can also be spread by humans. People moving from one farm to another can carry disease organisms on their shoes or clothes. Many modern swine and poultry producers no longer allow visitors in their production houses (Figure 24–16). Those who do allow visitors insist that they wear disposable boots or that shoes be thoroughly disinfected. Newly purchased animals also may be a Figure 24–15 Most producers have strict vaccination source of disease outbreak. Producers usually schedules to protect their animals from diseases. keep new animals away from the other ani-

ene, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

ANIMAL DISEASES

Figure 24–16 Many producers do not allow visitors in their production houses.

mals until they are certain that the new animals are disease-free. Animals that come from foreign countries are kept in quarantine until they can be declared disease-free; they are kept in isolation areas outside the country during this time. Economically, though, it is feasible for only very valuable animals to be kept in quarantine. Government regulations such as quarantining help deter the spread of livestock diseases. Livestock that are transported across state lines require a certificate showing that the animal has been examined, tested, and declared disease-free. Also, animals entering fairs and livestock shows are required to have health certificates. The federal government has eradication programs to eliminate diseases. An example is the brucellosis (Bangs) program. Brucellosis is a disease of several agricultural animals, but it is a particularly serious problem in cattle. This disease causes abortion and accounts for large losses in profit among cattle producers. States that have herds of cattle with brucellosis require that all animals being sold to producers be tested for this disease. If an animal is tested positive, it is branded and usually sent to slaughter.

SUMMARY Since humans began raising livestock, problems with diseases have arisen. Many of the diseases are minor and cause relatively few problems while other diseases can completely devastate large herds of animals. There are thousands of different types of pathogens and substances that can cause disease. Through research and development, humans have learned very effective ways of preventing and treating animal diseases. In the future, as in the past, new diseases will surface and new and better control methods will have to be developed.

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REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. The health of an animal does not affect the profit made by its owner. 2. Infectious diseases, which are usually contagious, are caused by microorganisms. 3. Protozoa harm animals by feeding on cells or by producing toxins. 4. The first line of defense against disease includes hairs (such as those found in the nostrils) and mucous membranes (found in many of the internal organs). 5. A large number of white blood cells in an animal can tell a veterinarian that an animal is healthy and at no risk for disease. 6. Naturally acquired active immunity is obtained by the animal’s actually having the disease and recovering. 7. Artificial active immunity can be induced in an animal or a person by injecting antigens that cause the phagocytes to react without making the animal or person seriously ill. 8. Genetic diseases are contagious. 9. Diseases such as white heifer’s disease and mule foot can be prevented through vaccines. 10. Although sickness resulting from faulty nutrition, such as bloat, can be serious, it is never fatal. 11. The western region of the country sustains the heaviest loss from poisonous plants because of so much grazing on uncultivated range land. 12. Plants that are highly toxic to some animals can be almost harmless to others. 13. Infectious disease organisms can be transported by wildlife and humans. 14. Animals that come from foreign countries are kept in quarantine until they can be declared disease-free. 15. All animals entering fairs and livestock shows are required to be kept in quarantine for at least 48 hours. Fill in the Blanks 1. Bacteria may harm animals by feeding off the ____________ of the ____________ or by secreting a material known as a ____________, which causes ____________ to an organism. 2. One of the first antibiotics developed to fight bacteria was ____________, which was produced from ____________ of ____________. 3. Viruses harm cells by causing them to ____________ during the ____________ process of the virus and by using ____________ in the cell that the cell needs to ____________ properly. 4. Disease-causing viruses, ____________, and protozoa can enter the body through the ____________ body openings such as the ____________, ____________, ____________, the ____________ system, or any other ____________ opening as well as through the skin or through a ____________ in the body. 5. Some white blood cells, called phagocytes, intercept and ____________ disease-causing ____________ as well as migrating to certain organs such as the ____________, ____________ nodes, and the ____________. 6. Lymphocytes are cells that react to ____________ substances by releasing ____________ that kill the ____________-causing organisms or ____________ the foreign substance.

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7. Active immunity means that the ____________ is more or less ____________ immune to the disease, and passive immunity means that the animal is only ____________ immune. 8. In mammals, the ____________ milk given to the ____________ ____________ animal is rich in ____________ from the mother, which serves the new animal until its own ____________ ____________ can take over. 9. Research has proven that weakened or ____________ viruses can be effective ____________ against many ____________. 10. The only way known to prevent genetic diseases is by using good ____________ practices and avoiding ____________ animals that are known to have genetic ____________ in their line. 11. Diseases such as ____________ ____________ in dairy cattle (caused by lack of calcium), ____________ (caused by cattle being turned out on lush, green grazing), and ____________ (caused by animals eating too much grain) are all caused by incorrect nutrition. 12. Among the most potent of the toxins from moldy ____________ are ____________ and ____________, which develop from ____________ that grow on ____________. 13. Modern swine producers who allow visitors usually insist that ____________ boots be worn or that ____________ be thoroughly ____________. 14. Livestock that are transported across state lines require a ____________ showing that the animal has been ____________, ____________, and declared ____________ ____________. 15. If an animal is tested positive for brucellosis (Bangs), it is ____________ and usually sent to ____________. Discussion Questions 1. What are some of the indications that an animal is not well? 2. What is meant by an infectious disease? 3. List three types of bacteria according to shape? 4. How do viruses cause an animal to be sick? 5. What is an animal’s first line of defense in fighting infectious disease? 6. What role do white blood cells play in fighting disease? 7. What are antigens? 8. What is the difference between active and passive immunity? 9. List three types of noninfectious diseases? 10. Explain at least two ways diseases are spread. Student Learning Activities 1. Visit with a local veterinarian who treats large animals. Determine what livestock diseases he or she has encountered in your area. Find out the procedures used in diagnosing diseases. 2. Visit with a producer and find out what measures he or she takes to prevent diseases. Ask which diseases he or she fears the most. 3. Prepare a list of the plants in your area that are poisonous to livestock. Your local county Extension Office should have helpful information.

CHAPTER

The Issue of Animal Welfare

KEY TERMS animal rights activists animal welfare activists withdrawal periods debeaking

docking dehorning castration beak trimming

pecking order elastrator scrotum freeze branding

hot branding

25

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ discuss potential problems brought

about by animals being raised in confinement. ■ determine why animals raised in an

agricultural setting are healthy and efficiently grown.

■ cite examples of how the use of

animals in research has helped humans. ■ list the laws that govern the use of

laboratory animals for research.

■ explain a potential problem associated

with the continuous ingestion of antibiotics.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ list the reasons why some people

object to the raising of farm animals. ■ defend the use of confinement

operations. ■ defend the use of management

practices associated with the raising of agricultural animals.

■ explain how producers benefit when

their animals are content and healthy. ■ list the laws governing the use of

agricultural animals.

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EOPLE HAVE USED ANIMALS FOR as long as we have been on Earth. Early humans hunted animals to eat and to use their hides for clothing and shelter. Later, as civilizations began to develop, humans began to raise animals in order to have a ready and abundant source of food and clothing. When this happened, people began to control all aspects of the lives of animals. This meant that the animals depended on the people who raised them for food and protection. Almost from the very beginning, people have been concerned about the well-being of animals they raised and controlled (Figure 25–1). After all, animals are living creatures with the ability to feel pain and to suffer distress, and people have always been concerned that animals not suffer needlessly. In fact, as far back as the time of the Greek mathematician Pythagoras, arguments have been made that people should not eat animals because animals should not be killed. Later Greek philosophers such as Plutarch argued that animals should be treated with justice. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, protection societies began to develop that sought to prevent animals from being mistreated. In the United States, the Animal Rights Movement began in the 1970s. Today, various animal rights organizations are very active politically, working to pass laws governing how animals may be treated. At least two main lines of thought are associated with this movement. One philosophy is that animals should have the same rights as humans. People who espouse this philosophy believe that animals should be free to live their lives without interference from people, that it is not right to kill animals for food or to obtain their skins for clothing or any other purpose. This group of people, known as animal rights activists, believe that killing animals is just as wrong as killing humans, that animals should have the same rights as humans. This group is known broadly as animal rights activists. The other line of thinking is that it is moral to raise animals for human use, but that animals should not be abused or mistreated in any way. These people believe that although animals are raised for slaughter, the animals should be made as comfortable and as “happy” as possible while they are alive. This group is generally known as animal welfare activists. In theory, livestock producers do not argue with the animal welfare activists. The controversy centers around what Figure 25–1 Producers have always been concerned about the constitutes the abuse or mistreatment welfare of their animals. of animals. The animal welfare activists ©iStockphoto/Susan H. Smith

P

THE ISSUE OF ANIMAL WELFARE

413

object to what they refer to as livestock factories in which animals are mass-produced under conditions that totally neglect the welfare of the animals. They consider the only motivation in producing the animals to be profit. According to animal welfare activists, several factors can cause problems for animals, as discussed next.

©iStockphoto/Jean Frooms

Animal welfare activists believe that modern livestock operations are nothing more than animal factories where animals are massproduced like nonliving things. They think that the modern farm where animals are produced is much different from farms of several years ago. The activists are of the opinion that all the modern producer cares about is making money, even if it causes animals to suffer. The production of animals in a confined space is viewed as being cruel and causing animals to suffer (Figure 25–2). They object to pigs being raised in crowded pens where they never leave the pen and have little room to exercise. Placing sows into farrowing crates where they cannot turn around or take a step is considered cruel. Animal welfare activists disapprove of layer hens being kept in cages for their entire lives. They think that the hens are put under stress because they do not have enough room to stretch their wings or to get any exercise. The hens are seen as being similar to a factory production line where all feed and water are brought to the hens and their sole function in life is to produce eggs. Figure 25–2 Animal welfare activists object to animals Cattle feedlots are considered objectionable being raised in a confinement operation. when the animals are crowded together and no shade is provided to protect them from the sun and no shelter is provided against the rain and the cold. Livestock producers contend that almost all livestock produced in the United States come from family-owned farms and ranches. Producers are in the business because they enjoy working with animals and have the animals’ best interests at heart. Producers point out that in order to stay in business, they must make a profit. More profit can be made if the animals are healthy and well cared for (Figure 25–3). Animals that are under stress cannot grow and produce well. In fact, the more comfortable an animal is, the Figure 25–3 Animals that are not under stress and are more profit can be made because the animal is healthy produce better and make more profit for the producer. growing more rapidly. Producers point out that

Courtesy of NRCS

CONFINEMENT OPERATIONS

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©iStockphoto/Rick Whitacre

414

Figure 25–4 Sows are placed in farrowing crates to

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

protect the piglets.

Figure 25–5 Animals raised in confinement operations are

Courtesy of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia

easier to care for.

Figure 25–6 Hog facilities are designed to make the

animals comfortable.

sows are put in farrowing crates to protect the piglets that might otherwise be crushed by the mother (Figure 25–4). Another argument for the use of confinement operations is that over the years, animals have been specially bred for confinement operations. These animals are vastly different from their relatives in the wild. Also, animals in confinement are easier to care for because the producer can see each animal every day and often several times a day (Figure 25–5). Housing provides shelter from the elements and from predators. Many millions of dollars and countless hours of effort have gone into research to design housing and facilities that make animals comfortable. A hog house, for example, is scientifically designed for hogs; the design takes into account the animals’ well-being (Figure 25–6). An uncomfortable, stressed-out animal simply will not grow as efficiently as an animal that is content. The fact that animals are far more efficient in terms of production and growth than they have been in years past adds credence to the producer’s arguments.

THE USE OF DRUGS Animal welfare activists disapprove of feeding drugs such as antibiotics to animals as a preventive measure. They point out that traces of the drugs may possibly show up in the meat that is to be consumed by people. They feel that the drugs will have an adverse effect because bacteria that the drugs are guarding against may become immune to the antibiotics as a result of the prolonged feeding of the drugs. They are also concerned that the bacteria will develop into strains of organisms that will not respond to modern antibiotics. This could cause serious health problems not only for animals but also for humans. On the other hand, producers counter that the addition of medication to the feed makes the animals healthier than they would be if they were allowed to roam free in nature. Because of the medication, the animals remain not only free from disease but also free from parasites (Figure 25–7). A healthy animal

that is free from external and internal parasites suffers less than an animal that does not have the benefit of medication. Producers point out that, for a drug to be approved for use in animals, the Food and Drug Administration tests the proposed drug exhaustively to prove that the medication is not only safe and beneficial to the animals, but that it is also safe for humans who consume the meat, eggs, or dairy products from those animals. Laws mandate strict withdrawal periods for the drugs. This means that there is a minimum number of days that an animal must be off a particular medication before it can be slaughtered or before dairy products from the animal can be used.

415

jocicalek, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

THE ISSUE OF ANIMAL WELFARE

Figure 25–7 Animals that are fed medications are free

from parasites and are healthier.

©iStockphoto

Animal welfare activists are concerned that animals undergo such management practices as debeaking, tail docking, dehorning, and castration. They point out that almost always these practices are done without anesthesia, and this causes the animal to suffer (Figure 25–8). The activists take the position that the animal would be better off if these operations were not performed. Figure 25–8 Animal welfare activists consider many They reason that nature had a reason for creatmanagement practices to be cruel to the animals. ing each animal “as is” and that it should be left in its natural condition. Producers explain that these practices are necessary for the well-being of the animals. For example, an animal with no horns is far less likely to cause injury to another animal or to a human than an animal that has horns. Since nature intended the horns for use in self-defense, animals under the protection and care of humans have no real need or use for the horns; therefore, dehorning is beneficial to the animal. Beak trimming is done to prevent chickens from injuring others as they establish a natural pecking order. In modern operations, the animals are far less likely to be injured if the beaks of the chicks are trimmed. (Actually, only the tip of the beak is removed.) A modern method of beak trimming is to use a chemical solution on the tip of the beak. The solution dissolves the tip and causes the chick no pain. The procedure actually makes it easier for the chickens to eat (Figure 25–9). In nature Figure 25–9 Trimmed beaks they use a sharp beak to pick up seeds or to catch insects. The allow chickens to eat processed trimmed beaks make it easier for them to eat the processed feed feed more efficiently. prepared for them.

Edmond Van Hoorick/Getty Images

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

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Jeff Strauss, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

©iStockphoto/Cynthia Baldauf

Pixel196, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Tails are docked in sheep because research has shown that removing the tail allows the animal to remain cleaner and healthier. Otherwise, mud, dirt, and manure cling to the tail and cause stress to the animal. Castration is done at an early age to prevent problems associated with male animals fighting for dominance and to provide a higher-quality meat when the animal is slaughtered. Although the animals undergo temporary discomfort from these procedures, producers argue that in the Figure 25–10 Bloodless castration is done without long run the practices are in the animals’ best opening a wound. interests. Producers have always looked for management techniques that cause less stress to their animals. Procedures such as tail docking and castration are done at an early age because the younger animals suffer less trauma than older animals that undergo these operations. The use of caustic soda or other solutions on the horn buds of young calves is usually considered to be less stressful than cutting the horns out when the animal is older. Many producers use a technique such as the elastrator band to castrate animals and dock their tails. This consists of placing a rubber band around the tail or scrotum of the animal to prevent the flow of blood. Consequently, the scrotum or tail eventually drops off. Another method is to use a clamp that breaks the cords that transport sperm (Figure 25–10). These methods do not require opening a Figure 25–11 Critics of hot wound on the animal. branding contend that the proOne technique that has lessened stress on animals is the cedure causes the animal pain. use of freeze branding instead of hot branding. Producers must have some way of identifying individual animals. The use of the hot branding iron has been used by cattle producers for many generations. Critics of this process say that the procedure causes severe pain for the animals. The hot iron causes a burn that scars over and leaves a permanent mark on the animal (Figure 25–11). A newer technique called freeze branding uses a tremendously cold iron to do the marking. In this method, an iron is immersed in a container of liquid nitrogen. Nitrogen in the liquid state is approximately –320°F and it cools the iron to an extremely cold temperature. The iron is then applied to a part of the animal’s skin that has had the hair closely clipped. This procedure kills the pigment-producing cells at the base of the hair follicle and results in the growth of white hair. A longer application of the iron results in the killing of the entire follicle and will leave a Figure 25–12 Freeze bald mark where the iron touched. The advantage of this method branding kills the hair pigment, is that the animals feel very little pain as they are permanently thus marking the animal. marked (Figure 25–12).

Figure 25–13 In some parts of the world, shepherds still live

with their sheep.

Monkey Business Images, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

Livestock producers have always been known for their concern and care for the animals they raise. They have always taken pride in producing strong, healthy animals. Throughout all of recorded history, accounts have been left of how producers carefully tended their animals—often at the risk of peril to themselves. Shepherds have traditionally lived with their sheep and guarded them against wild animals (Figure 25–13). Even though methods have now changed and the raising of animals is much more intensive, most animals are still cared for by families who earn their livelihoods caring for animals. According to the Animal Industry Foundation, 97 percent of the farms in the United States are family owned and operated (Figure 25–14). The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports that there are only 7,000 non-family-owned farms in the entire United States. A tour of any of the thousands of livestock shows that are conducted each year in the United States will show the amount of pride these farm families take in the livestock they produce. At the 1990 National Cattlemen’s Association Convention, the producers adopted the following statement of principles on animal care, environmental stewardship, and food safety:

417

©iStockphoto

THE ISSUE OF ANIMAL WELFARE

Figure 25–14 Most of the farms in the United States are

family-owned.

I believe in the humane treatment of farm animals and in continued stewardship of all natural resources. I believe my cattle will be healthier and more productive when good husbandry practices are used. I believe that my and future generations will benefit from my ability to sustain and conserve natural resources. I will support research efforts directed toward more efficient production of a wholesome food supply. I believe it is my responsibility to produce a safe and wholesome product. I believe it is the purpose of food animals to serve mankind and it is the responsibility of all human beings to care for animals in their care.

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Similarly, the National Pork Producers Council has adopted the following Pork Producers Creed: I believe in the kind and humane treatment of farm animals and that the most efficient production practices are those that are designed to provide comfort. I believe my livestock operation will be more efficient and profitable if managed in a manner consistent with good husbandry practices as known and recommended by the animal husbandry community. I believe in an open-door policy to visitors to my farm, to all those who are sincerely interested in production methods and the welfare of animals, so long as they do not endanger the health and welfare of my animals and do not interrupt my production routine or impair the production process. I believe in and will support research efforts designed to measure stress of farm animals and directed toward more efficient production of food and enhancement of the welfare of animals and man. I believe it is the animal’s purpose to serve man; it is man’s responsibility to care for the animals in his charge. I will vigorously oppose any legislation or regulatory activity that states or implies interference with that responsibility.

Courtesy of USDA

RESEARCH

Figure 25–15 A lot of research is

conducted using animals such as guinea pigs.

Another issue of great concern for animal welfare activists is that of the use of animals for research. As far back as the second century A.D., scientists have used animals in research. Most of the medical advances made by humans during the past 100 years have come about through the use of animals to test treatments and medication. Before any type of medical treatment can be tested on humans, it must first be tested using animals. Most people realize that research is carried out using mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs, Figure 25–15. However, during recent years much controversy has come about over the use of cats, dogs, and primates. Those who oppose the use of animals in research contend that the knowledge gained through the research cannot justify the suffering the animals must undergo to test a treatment or to experiment with a new theory, Figure 25–16. These people are particularly emphatic over the use of animals to test such products as cosmetics. They cite examples of how rabbits have chemicals placed in their eyes to determine how irritating an ingredient in an eye shadow for humans might be. The activists insist that the suffering of animals should not be allowed merely to produce new products that are used only to make people appear more attractive.

People and groups opposed to the use of animals in research argue that animals really do not have enough in common with humans to be used in research. They also contend that much of the research using animals could be done through the use of computer models and through the use of cell cultures. Scientists who use animals in research counter these arguments with the point that animals cannot be elevated to the same level as humans. The scientists argue that the use of the animals is well justified by the advances in medicine and health care that have come about through the use of experiments with laboratory animals. They cite the examples of diseases such as polio that have been almost eradicated through the use of research using animals. They do agree that advances have been made in the use of cell cultures and the use of computer simulations and that the use of these techniques can reduce the necessity of using animals in some instances. However, they also point out that these techniques have limited use. The use of live animals is unavoidable because no method has been developed that adequately substitutes for a live animal.

419

Nego Thye Aun, 2012. Used under license from Shutterstock

THE ISSUE OF ANIMAL WELFARE

Figure 25–16 Many people

object to using primates for research.

SUMMARY The controversy surrounding animal welfare will likely continue. As the number of people who are actively involved in the production of animals becomes fewer and the farms and ranches become larger, there will be less understanding on the part of the public concerning the production of animals for food. The producers will have to take on increasing responsibility to educate the public about production methods. They will also be compelled to ensure that the practices employed are truly in the best interests of the animals. Efforts must always be put forth to keep facilities clean and comfortable for the animals. Doing so will help maintain the image of the livestock producer as someone who truly cares for the animals’ welfare.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Concern for the welfare of agricultural animals is relatively recent. 2. Animal welfare activists believe that it is moral to raise animals for human use but that animals should not be abused or mistreated in any way. 3. Animal welfare activists think that modern livestock operations are just the same as they were several years ago. 4. According to animal welfare activists, pigs, layer hens, and cattle in some feedlots are treated cruelly and suffer. 5. Animals are far more efficient in terms of production and growth than they have been in years past, which adds credence to the producers’ arguments that the animals are content.

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6. Animal welfare activists point out that debeaking, tail docking, dehorning, and castration are done without anesthesia and, therefore, cause the animals to suffer. 7. A new technique for identifying individual animals is freeze branding, in which a severe freeze burn is caused that scars over and leaves a permanent mark on the animal. 8. Livestock producers have always been known for their neglect and uncaring attitude toward the animals they raise. 9. Both the National Cattlemen’s Association and the National Pork Producers Council have adopted creeds outlining their beliefs about the fair treatment of animals and the environment. 10. Animal welfare activists have concentrated solely on farm animals, completely ignoring animals used for research. 11. People opposed to the use of animals in research contend that computer models and cell cultures can be used instead. 12. Although no specific examples can be shown, scientists argue that research must be continued, even if no good comes from it. 13. As animal production changes, producers will have to take increasing responsibility to educate the public about protection measures. 14. The controversy over animal welfare is just about ended, with both sides compromising. 15. The producers and the animal welfare activists both have good points, and neither group is 100 percent right. Fill in the Blanks 1. Early humans hunted animals for ____________ and to use their ____________ for ____________ and ____________. 2. Animal rights activists believe that killing ____________ is just as wrong as ____________ humans and that ____________ should have the same ____________ as humans. 3. Animal welfare activists object to what they refer to as livestock ____________, in which animals are ____________ ____________ in conditions that totally ____________ the welfare of the ____________. 4. Producers are in the business because they enjoy ____________ with ____________ and have the animals’ best ____________ at ____________. 5. Many millions of dollars and countless ____________ of effort have gone into ____________ to design housing and ____________ that make animals ____________. 6. Producers point out that, for a drug to be approved for use in animals, the Food and Drug Administration puts the ____________ drug through ____________ testing to prove that the ____________ is not only safe and ____________ for the animals, but also is safe for humans who ____________ meat, eggs, or ____________ ____________ from those animals. 7. Castration is done at an ____________ age to prevent problems associated with ____________ animals fighting for ____________ and to provide a higher quality ____________ when the animal is ____________. 8. In the United States, ____________ of the farms are ____________ -owned and operated, and there are only ____________ non-family-owned ____________ in the entire country. 9. Those who oppose the use of animals in research contend that the ____________ gained through the ____________ cannot justify the ____________ the animals must undergo to test a ____________ or to experiment with a new ____________.

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10. The activists cite examples of how rabbits have ____________ placed in their ____________ to determine how ____________ an ingredient in an ____________ ____________ for humans might be. 11. Scientists cite examples of diseases such as ____________ that have been almost ____________ through research using ____________ in experiments. 12. Scientists agree that advances have been made in the use of cell ____________ and the use of ____________ simulations and that these ____________ can reduce the necessity of using ____________ in some instances. 13. As the number of people who are actively involved in the production of ____________ becomes ____________ and the ____________ and ranches become ____________, there will be less ____________ on the part of the public concerning the production of animals for ____________. 14. Producers will be compelled to ensure that the ____________ used are truly in the best ____________ of the ____________. Discussion Questions 1. What is the difference in the positions of people who advocate animal rights and those who advocate animal welfare? 2. Why do animal welfare activists oppose raising animals in confinement? 3. What arguments do producers offer in defense of confinement operations? 4. How do livestock producers justify the use of antibiotics in feed? 5. Why is the practice of freeze branding considered more humane than hot branding? 6. What percentage of the farms in the United States are owned and operated by families? 7. What two livestock associations have adopted statements dealing with the treatment of animals? 8. Why is the controversy surrounding animal welfare likely to continue? 9. Why are some individuals and groups opposed to using animals in research? 10. What justifications do scientists offer in defense of the use of animals in laboratory experiments? 11. What are two new technologies that have lessened the need for using animals in experimental research? Student Learning Activities 1. Locate and read an article in a magazine, newspaper, or other publication that advocates animal rights. List the points made by the author that you believe are correct and factual. Also list the author’s points that you think are not based on fact. Compare your lists with the lists of other students in your class. 2. Make a list of management practices that might be criticized by animal welfare activists. Think of and write down methods or alternatives that the producer might employ to lessen the criticism. 3. Write a brief report on at least one scientific advancement that used animals in the research. Be sure to include how the animals were used and how people have benefited from the advancement. 4. Take a stance either for or against the use of animals to test cosmetics. Present your arguments to the class. Compare your arguments to the arguments of those in the class who took the opposing view.

CHAPTER

Consumer Concerns

KEY TERMS curing antemortem rendering antibiotics Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

cholesterol marbling genetic engineering genetics RST

BST coliforms colon public lands

Bureau of Land Management greenhouse effect

26

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN BASIC SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain the rationale for consumer

concern over food safety. ■ define and explain the role of

cholesterol. ■ define genetic engineering. ■ explain the rationale for concerns

about genetic engineering.

■ discuss the concept of the greenhouse

effect. ■ explain how the balance of oxygen and

carbon dioxide is maintained in the atmosphere. ■ explain how bacteria can be beneficial

to the environment.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ explain why agriculturalists must

be more sensitive to the concerns of consumers. ■ tell the difference between meat

grading and meat inspection. ■ summarize how meat is inspected. ■ tell how research has shown that the

meat supplied to consumers is safe and nutritious.

■ give examples of how genetic

engineering has benefited the producer. ■ describe how producers of agricultural

animals are good caretakers of the environment.

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T ONE TIME IN THE history of our country, almost everyone knew how food was produced and processed. This was because the growing and processing of food was done at home. Before the end of the nineteenth century, the vast majority of people in the United States lived in rural areas and produced most of the food they ate. Crops were gathered and dried, pickled, or canned for the family to use during the winter months. When the weather turned cool, livestock was slaughtered Figure 26–1 Most people see only and the meat was preserved by drying, canning, or curing. Because the finished product in the grocery the people processed their own food, they knew how the food was store. processed and what went into the food. Today, relatively few people process their own food. The only form of food that most people ever see is the finished product in the grocery store (Figure 26–1). Trends in food processing follow what the consumer demands. Consumers are the people who buy and use products. Because the husband and the wife are both working outside the home in most families, consumers want food that is more processed than in the past. This means that food products have to be closer to being ready to eat than at any time in our history. As more and more steps are added in the processing of food, consumers become more concerned about how the processing was done and what ingredients went into the product (Figure 26–2). At the same time, consumers do not understand how crops and animals are grown. Because the consumers want food products that are relatively inexpensive, producers have to use means that can get as much efficiency as possible from the crops and animals they grow. Chemicals and other substances are used in the production and processing of food that consumers do not generally understand. As modern technology increases and new discoveries help growers produce more efficiently, concerns are raised among consumers about the safety and wholesomeness of the food they buy and consume. Much of this concern centers around the animal industry and the products such as meat, milk, and eggs produced by the industry. Animal products are very susceptible to spoilage. They can easily pick up microorganisms from the processing that can cause spoilage. Recently, public concern over food poisoning has been raised as a result of contaminated meats. In these cases, the cause of the illnesses was hamburger containing the E. coli bacteria. This bacteria inhabits the colon of animals and humans and certain strains of the bacteria can cause illness and even death. Problems arise during the Figure 26–2 As more steps are added in the processing of slaughter process when the internal organs foods, the more concerned consumers become. are removed from the animal. Sometimes ©iStockphoto

©iStockphoto/Sean Locke

A

the carcass is contaminated when it comes in contact with E. coli bacteria from the viscera. Hamburger is particularly susceptible because in the grinding process, the bacteria on the surface of meat are ground and mixed with all of the meat in the batch (Figure 26–3). Given a warm, moist environment, the bacteria grow and reproduce rapidly, and eventually enough bacteria are produced to cause illness if the bacteria are not destroyed. Poultry has also come under careful scrutiny because of the possibilFigure 26–3 Hamburger is particularly susceptible to E. coli bacteria ity of contamination with salmonella because of the grinding and mixing process. bacteria. Most often all harmful microorganisms can be destroyed by cooking the meat thoroughly. As a result of sickness from contaminated meats, new regulations are in effect for the inspection and handling of meat products. The first step in preventing food-borne bacteria on meat is sanitation and taking precautions at the meat-processing plants. Slaughterhouses are under new and more rigorous requirements for sanitizing the plant and preventing meat from contacting fecal material. In addition, new scientific tests are conducted on the meat to determine the presence of bacteria. Although we have had serious outbreaks of sickness caused by contaminated meat, our supply of meat is still considered to be safe when it is handled and cooked properly. Only a very tiny percentage of the meat on the market has been found to contain large numbers of harmful bacteria. The Meat Inspection Act passed in 1906 requires that all meat products that are processed and sold in the United States will pass inspection by the United States Department of Agriculture. Since that time, the law has been revised and updated several times to ensure that only the very best, most wholesome meat reaches the consumer. Meat inspection is not the same thing as meat grading (Figure 26–4). Meat inspection simply guarantees that the meat will be safe, wholesome, and accurately labeled. All meat that is sold must, by law, be inspected. Grading refers to the eating quality Figure 26–4 Meat inspection is not the same thing as meat grading. and degree of yield expected from a carAll meat that is sold must be inspected. cass. Grading is optional. Meat inspection

Courtesy of USDA

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Courtesy of USDA

undergoes several phases. First, the animals that are to be slaughtered must be inspected while they are alive. This is called antemortem inspection (ante means “before,” and mortem means “death”). As the animals are brought in prior to slaughter, a government inspector examines them. Animals that are down, disabled, diseased, or dead are condemned as unsafe for human consumption. Animals that the inspector thinks may have a problem are set aside for further examination. The plant where the animals are to be processed must proFigure 26–5 Meat products are closely monitored and vide the inspector a well-lit, clean area to examine inspected. animals that the inspector suspects are not in the best of health. These animals are examined thoroughly and, if found to be ill, are tagged as condemned and are not allowed to be slaughtered for human consumption. After the animals are slaughtered, they must again undergo inspection. Slaughter plants are required to provide adequate lighting (50 footcandles) so the inspector can inspect the carcasses thoroughly (Figure 26–5). The head, lungs, heart, spleen, and liver are inspected for signs of disease, parasites, or other problems that might render the meat of cattle, sheep, and hogs less than wholesome. The internal and external cavity of slaughtered poultry must be examined, as well as the air sacs, kidneys, sex organs, heart, liver, and spleen. Carcasses that do not pass inspection are declared to be condemned and are not allowed to be used for human consumption. These condemned carcasses undergo a process called rendering, during which they are placed under heat that is high enough to kill any organism that could cause problems. The rendered meat then is used as a byproduct that is not intended for human consumption. Byproducts can be used as pet food or for other products such as fertilizers. Condemned carcasses usually represent less than 1 percent of the carcasses inspected. Producers, buyers, and packers all try to avoid sending animals to slaughter that they know will not pass inspection. Those that do get by are discovered by the federal inspectors at the processing plant.

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN When consumers hear of problems with animal product in other countries, they become concerned about our own food supply. Animal products such as meat are traded all over the world much like other products. When a country has a problem with contaminated meat from an outbreak of mad cow disease, consumers fear that the meat or other animal products they buy in the grocery store may have come from the country with the problem. To help

calm the fears, a new law called the Country of Origin Labeling has been enacted. This law requires retailers, such as full-line grocery stores, supermarkets, and club warehouse stores, to notify their customers with information regarding the source of certain foods. Food products, covered by the law include muscle cut and ground meats: beef, veal, pork, lamb, goat, and chicken; wild and farm-raised fish and shellfish; fresh and frozen fruits and vegetables; peanuts, pecans, and macadamia nuts. The effect of this law is that consumers can tell from the food package where the product originated (Figure 26–6). Sometimes a label may list more than one country. For example, a meat processing plant may have U.S.-raised beef that is too fat for hamburger. This meat may be mixed with leaner beef from Mexico or Canada. In this case, the hamburger will be labeled as originating in USA, Canada, and Mexico. Any meat imported into the United States must meet the same inspection requirements as meat originating in this country.

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Hormel is a registered trademark of Hormel Foods, LLC and used with permission

CONSUMER CONCERNS

Figure 26–6 Most food products must be labeled to identify

the country of origin.

Animals grown in large numbers are fed medication to prevent and cure disease and to ward off parasites. This can result in a better, safer product for the consumer. Animals that are kept healthy all their lives reach the processing plant healthier and yield a more healthy product. Consumers are sometimes worried about the residue of these medications that are fed to livestock. For instance, concern is raised over the amount of antibiotics fed to cattle, hogs, and poultry (Figure 26–7). The worry is that as humans consume meat from animals that were fed antibiotics, these medications Figure 26–7 Consumers sometimes worry about the might enter the human body and build up a resimedication given to livestock in their feed. due that will create an intolerance to medication. Since the types of antibiotics given to agricultural animals are the same type as given to humans, some believe that bacteria may develop strains that are resistant to the medications, which would make the medications ineffective when needed by humans. Research by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has clearly shown that adding antibiotics to animal feed in the proper amount does not result in antibiotic residue in meat.

B Drake/PhotoLink/Getty Images

ANIMAL MEDICATIONS

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HORMONES

Courtesy of USDA

Animals are also given growth hormones to aid in feed efficiency and growth rates. Many consumers are concerned over the long-range effects of the hormones fed to animals that might be residual in meat, eggs, milk, or other products. According to the National Cattlemen’s Association, there is no evidence of any human health problem from the use of any natural or synthetic hormones fed to livestock. The FDA closely regulates the amount of hormone residue allowed in meat. When cattle are given growth hormones, the dosage is administered by means of implanting a small capsule underneath the skin that releases the hormone very slowly. The capsule is implanted under the skin of the ear because at slaughter the ears are put into the waste bin and are not processed for consumption. No more than 1 percent of the human body’s daily production of an implanted hormone is allowed to be present in the daily intake of meat. Because the hormone level in the meat is greatly reduced (by 90 percent) through the digestive process, the amount of hormones the body absorbs through meat is extremely small. The relative amounts of estrogen produced by people and the estrogen in a serving of beef from a steer that has been implanted with hormones and one that has not. In fact, a person will obtain thousands of times the amount of estrogen from a gram of soybean oil than from a gram of beef from an implanted steer. In order for a product to be released and sold for use by animal producers, the product must be researched and tested through rigorous standards before it is declared safe by the government. The product must be so thoroughly studied and tested that there is no significant chance that the product will cause any health problems for the consumer. The USDA closely monitors animal products for traces of residues resulting from feed additives or medications that are given to animals. The allowable amounts of these residues in foods would have to be hundreds, and in some cases thousands, of times greater before any effect at all could be detected in humans who consume the animal product (Figure 26–8).

Figure 26–8 The USDA closely monitors animal products for

impurities and residues. These inspectors are examining meat products.

CHOLESTEROL Several years ago, some medical research indicated that a high intake of a substance known as cholesterol was a contributing cause of heart disease. Cholesterol is a fatlike substance found in animal tissue. It is

an essential part of nerve tissue and cell membranes of all animals, including humans. Cholesterol plays an important role in the body’s manufacture of hormones and in the production of the bile used in digestion. Although cholesterol is essential to life, studies have shown a correlation between high cholesterol levels and clogged heart arteries. Because meat contains cholesterol, consumers have been concerned about eating meat. Recent studies have been somewhat contradictory about how important a role cholesterol actually plays in the formation of deposits in the coronary system. Some studies indicate that these deposits are related more to the amount of exercise a person gets and the person’s heredity than the amount of cholesterol intake. Modern meats contain less fat than the meat produced in the past. The pork producer and the beef producer organizations are both promoting pork and beef as healthful foods that are leaner and trimmer than meats of a few years ago. For example, a choice cut of beef today has a smaller fat content—less marbling—than a choice cut of beef did 10 years ago (Figure 26–9). Although fat is what gives meat its flavor, research is constantly being conducted to produce a lean meat product with a low-fat content.

GENETIC ENGINEERING Genetic engineering is the alteration of the genetic makeup of an organism to produce a desired effect. The development of modern technology has given scientists the ability to enter an organism’s genetic makeup and insert, remove, and alter genes that are responsible for the organism’s characteristics. This has the promise of tremendous benefits to the producers of agricultural animals. If we are able to improve the genetics of animals by simply changing the genes, we can boost the efficiency of producing them and, in turn, produce better and cheaper products for the consumer. At the same time, consumers are concerned over the use of genetic engineering. Some people see this effort as interfering with nature. They fear that by altering the genetic makeup of an animal, the potential exists to create animals that might not be in the best interest of humans. Many science fiction movies have been made that depict monstrous animals created by a scientist who disturbs the natural order of the animal’s makeup. In addition, there is a fear that products from genetically engineered animals will contain substances that will prove harmful to the people who consume them. One such example is the use of a substance called recombinant bovine somatotropin (RST or BST). This substance is produced by genetic engineering and is a naturally occurring hormone (Figure 26–10). Scientists have known for many years that cows receiving additional

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Courtesy of North American Limousin Association

CONSUMER CONCERNS

Figure 26–9 Choice cuts of beef

have less fat content than those of a few years ago.

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©iStockphoto

amounts of BST significantly increase their milk production. Until recently, this substance was scarce and very expensive. However, due to genetic engineering, the hormone can now be produced quickly and cheaply. The use of BST has been and is now being debated in regard to its safety. Some say that no studies have been conducted to determine the long-term effects of drinking the milk from cows that have been given BST to increase their milk production. They point to the fact that large doses can cause inflammation of Figure 26–10 A genetically engineered hormone is given to cows the cow’s udders and that this may be to increase their milk production. a sign that the hormone is not safe. Proponents point out that the cows are only given very small doses and that no ill effects have been discovered. Also, the National Institute of Health and the Food and Drug Administration have declared BST to be safe both for the cows and for the humans who consume the milk.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Courtesy of NRCS

Some have criticized the production of agricultural animals as harmful to the environment. They point out that animals, particularly in a confinement operation, generate a lot of waste. They fear that this waste will get into the water supply and contaminate water designated for human consumption. This concern is well-founded. Animal wastes contain bacteria called coliforms, which means “bacteria from the colon.” These bacteria can carry disease to humans and other animals if they are allowed to escape into the water supply. Animals in confinement do create a lot of waste that could possibly contaminate the water supply; however, there are stringent laws that prevent this from happening. It is illegal for any producer to discharge animal waste into a stream. In fact, the Environmental Protection Agency has regulations that help prevent this from happening even accidentally. The use of lagoons and holding ponds have helped protect the environment. A lagoon is a body of water made especially for holding animal wastes from confinement operations (Figure 26–11). Modern lagoons are designed to allow the breakdown of Figure 26–11 The use of lagoons and holding ponds helps to harmful substances through the use of protect the environment.

431

beneficial bacteria that work to decompose the waste material into less complex substances. The decay of any organic material comes about through the action of microorganisms such as bacteria. To aid in this process, the construction of lagoons is regulated in order to provide for the correct depth of water that will allow for the most efficient growth of beneficial bacteria. The lagoon is periodically pumped out and spread on fields. Figure 26–12 Manure is spread out on land for use as fertilizer. Manure is a natural, high-quality fertilizer that is valuable in the production of many crops, and once the decomposition process has taken place, there is no harm to the environment. The use of manure actually can cut down on pollution by reducing the amount of commercially produced fertilizers required to grow crops (Figure 26–12). Almost all manufacturing plants create a degree of pollution.

THE OVERGRAZING OF PUBLIC LANDS

Courtesy of ARS

Some people are also concerned that our public lands are being overgrazed and ruined by producers who do not take care of the land. In the western part of the United States, government lands are leased to animal producers (Figure 26–13). A recent report of the Bureau of Land Management pointed out that our public range lands are in better shape than at any time during this century. Cattle and sheep producers know that they will be using the land for a long time and that it is in their best interest to care for the land. Most producers want to pass their operations on to

Figure 26–13 Although leased for grazing, public range lands are in better shape

than at any time during this century.

Courtesy of NRCS

CONSUMER CONCERNS

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subsequent generations. The only way for this to happen is to carefully manage the land. Land that is well cared for will produce animals more efficiently. According to the USDA, a sound management system for grazing builds the soil and enhances wildlife habitats. Wildlife numbers on government range land have improved dramatically over the past 30 years. When properly managed, the grazing of livestock on public lands can actually be good for wildlife. Through the control of undesirable species of brush and plants, better grazing is provided for the wildlife as well as for the cattle. Also, water has to be provided for the agricultural animals and, in doing so, water is provided for wildlife as well.

GLOBAL WARMING

Kim Steele/Getty Images

In recent years, concern has been raised over a phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect. The theory behind this effect is that the earth is gradually warming due to problems encountered in the destruction of parts of our environment. (The effect was named for the extra heat inside a house made from glass or greenhouse.) Proponents of the theory say that a higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes the heat from the sun to become more intense and the temperature of the earth to be raised. The proper balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air is brought about by plants and animals. Animals breathe in air, absorb oxygen, and give off carbon dioxide. Plants take in air, absorb carbon dioxide, and give off oxygen. Vast acres of forest in the tropical areas of the world have always helped keep this balance in order. As trees are destroyed, some of the world’s potential for absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen is lost. Environmentalists point out that forest areas are being cleared in order to raise livestock and this, along with the methane gas produced by the animals, is contributing to global warming. In South America especially, tropical rain forests are being destroyed in order to make room for the production of cattle (Figure 26–14). However, the majority of the land being cleared is for crops and other uses. The United States imports very little meat from South and Central America. Land cleared for grazing in the United States is very small. Land statistics show that the amount of forest land today is only slightly less than it was in 1850. Confinement operations produce a lot of manure. In natural biological processes, the Figure 26–14 Tropical rainforests are being destroyed to manure produced in these operations gives off make room for agriculture. methane gas. Some environmentalists have

CONSUMER CONCERNS

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suggested that this may be a contributing factor to the greenhouse effect. Research indicates that the amount of methane that these animals give off does not contribute to global warming. As a matter of fact, in some parts of the world, this methane gas has been collected and used as a fuel source.

SUMMARY Agriculture is an essential industry that will have to continue to expand as the population grows. Our modern society is not as knowledgeable about this industry as past generations when the vast majority of people grew up on a farm. In addition, science has equipped us with new insights into the food we eat and the environment surrounding us. Concern arises as people read reports outlining problems with the food supply and the environment. The agricultural industry has two very important responsibilities. First, we must make sure that we supply a plentiful, wholesome, and safe food supply for the population. Secondly, we must ensure that the practices we use are environmentally sound and that the world we live in can be preserved for generations to come.

REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. Trends in food processing follow what is easiest for the producers to deliver. 2. Almost all the problems of salmonella poisoning from poultry can be traced to the producers. 3. Meat inspection and meat grading are essentially the same thing. 4. Animals that are down, disabled, diseased, or dead are condemned as unsafe for human consumption. 5. Medication helps animals fight diseases and ward off parasites. 6. A person will obtain thousands of times the amount of estrogen from a gram of soybean oil as from a gram of beef from an implanted steer. 7. Recent studies have been somewhat contradictory as to how important a role cholesterol actually plays in the formation of deposits in the coronary system. 8. Cows that get additional recombinant bovine somatotropin give less milk, sometimes drying up completely. 9. Cows are given huge amounts of BST, and both the National Institute of Health and the Food and Drug Administration have declared BST to be harmful to lactating cows. 10. The producing of agricultural animals has been criticized by some as being harmful to the environment. 11. Bacteria found in animal wastes cannot carry diseases to humans and other animals if allowed to escape into the water supply. 12. The depth of the water in a lagoon has no effect on the growth of beneficial bacteria.

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13. A recent report of the Bureau of Land Management pointed out that our public range lands are in worse shape than at any time in this century. 14. As trees are destroyed, some of the world’s potential for absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen is lost. 15. Because of their natural biological processes, agricultural animals give off methane gas from the large amounts of manure. Fill in the Blanks 1. Before the end of the nineteenth century, the vast ____________ of people in the United States lived in ____________ areas and produced most of the ____________ they ____________. 2. As modern technology increases and new ____________ help growers to produce more ____________, concerns are raised among ____________ about the safety and ____________ of the food they buy and consume. 3. The 1906 Meat Inspection Act ensures that all ___________________ products processed and ____________ in this country will pass ____________ by the United States Department of ____________. 4. Condemned carcasses undergo a process called ____________, where they are placed under enough ____________ that any ____________ that can cause ____________ are ____________. 5. Research by the USDA and the Food and Drug Administration has clearly shown that adding ____________ to animal ____________ in the proper ____________ does not result in antibiotic ____________ in the meat. 6. When cattle are given growth hormones, the ____________ is given by means of ____________ a small ____________ underneath the skin that releases the ____________ very slowly. 7. Genetic engineering is the ____________ of the ____________ makeup of an ____________ to produce a desired ____________. 8. Some consumers fear that the products from ____________ engineered animals will contain ____________ that will prove harmful to the ____________ who ____________ them. 9. Animal wastes contain bacteria called ____________, which means ____________ from the ____________. 10. A lagoon is a body of ____________ made especially for holding animal ____________ from ____________ ____________. 11. The decay of any ____________ material comes about through the action of ____________ such as ____________. 12. Most producers want their ____________ to pass on to the next ____________ and know that the only way for this to happen is to carefully ____________ the land. 13. The theory behind the greenhouse effect is that the ____________ is gradually ____________ because of problems encountered in the ____________ of parts of our ____________. 14. Environmentalists point out that ____________ areas are being ____________ in order to raise ____________ and this, along with the ____________ gas produced by the animals, is contributing to ____________ ____________. 15. Research indicates that the amount of methane gas given off by agricultural animals does ____________ contribute to ____________ ____________.

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Discussion Questions 1. Explain why consumers are more concerned with the quality and safety of food than they were 50 years ago. 2. What are consumer concerns over meat safety? 3. What is the Meat Inspection Act? 4. What is the difference between antemortem and postmortem inspection? 5. Why are animals given growth hormones? 6. What hormone level is allowed by the Food and Drug Administration in a person’s daily intake of meat? 7. What role does cholesterol play in our bodies? 8. Why are consumers concerned about the intake of cholesterol? 9. What is BST and what does it do? 10. List three areas of consumer concern over the environment. Student Learning Activities 1. Talk to at least 10 people who buy meat. Make a list of the concerns these people have about the meat they buy. Share your list with the class. 2. Visit a slaughterhouse when carcasses are being inspected. Ask the inspector to explain what he or she looks for in a healthy carcass. 3. Formulate some ideas as to what could be changed about agricultural animals through genetic engineering. List the benefits of the changes and also list possible problems. 4. Visit a confinement operation and observe the manure-disposal system. List possible environmental problems that you observe. Also list the efforts made to protect the environment.

CHAPTER

27

Careers in Animal Science

KEY TERMS career post-secondary institution master’s degree Ph.D.

community college Supervised Agricultural Experience Program (SAEP)

FFA Organization associate’s degree Post-secondary Agriculture Students Organization

bachelor’s degree graduate degree

STUDENT OBJECTIVES As a result of studying this chapter, you should be able to ■ identify career options in animal

science. ■ compare specific jobs with required

educational levels. ■ identify ways to develop leadership

skills.

■ list some of the qualities employers

look for in employees. ■ explain and practice good inter-

viewing skills.

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HINKING ABOUT YOUR FUTURE is an exciting activity. There are so many possibilities and opportunities that it can be daunting to try and narrow your choices (Figure 27–1). As you consider what you want to do for a career, first think of what you really enjoy doing and what interests you. You will spend many hours at work, and the more you enjoy your work, the happier you can be.

©iStockphoto

T

Figure 27–1 So many possibilities and opportunities are

CAREER OPTIONS

available that it can be daunting to try to narrow your choices.

©iStockphoto/Laurence Gough

The agricultural industry offers tremendous opportunities for a young person considering a career. Estimates are that each year, the agricultural industry will have 58,000 new job openings. This includes more than 200 different careers across many different areas. After studying the concepts in this text, you may decide that you want to pursue a career in one of the many branches of the animal industry. Animal science is a broad and diverse industry that deals with the biological sciences. If you enjoy studying about and working with animals, you might think about a career in animal science. As with any other career, preparation for the occupation is essential. Hundreds of different jobs are available in the area of animal science that require many different types and levels of education and training. As with most other careers, salaries and working conditions usually are better in jobs that require more education. You may wish to start work as soon as you graduate from high school. Or you may wish to attend a 2-year post-secondary institution. Or you may wish to major in animal science or a related area at a university. And you may wish to continue your education after graduating from a university. Many exciting careers dealing with animals can be obtained by attending graduate school and obtaining a master’s degree or a Ph.D. in animal science. You could even become a research scientist who discovers new and better methods of growing agricultural animals (Figure 27–2). No matter what level of career you wish to enter, you will have to prepare yourself with an education. Then, after you begin Figure 27–2 Your career could lead you to become a research your career, you will continue to learn as scientist. you improve and advance in your chosen

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area. It is never too early to begin thinking about a career in animal science. Your parents, school administrator, agriculture teacher, and the faculty in an animal science department at a community college or university are all good sources of information as you choose a career. As with any other career, you need to carefully explore all aspects of the profession. As you investigate the different career options, keep asking yourself the following questions:

Courtesy of ARS

1. Is this something I really enjoy? 2. Can I make a living doing this? 3. What are the opportunities for employment?

5. Am I willing to commit to this preparation?

Figure 27–3 You will have the

opportunity to learn actual job skills through your SAEP.

If you choose to go to work immediately after graduating from high school, several jobs are available to you in the area of animal science. You should take all of the courses in agriculture, agriscience, and agribusiness that your school offers. In these courses you will learn the basics of how plants and animals live, grow, and reproduce. In addition, you will learn the essentials of properly caring for animals, as well as the responsibility involved in caring for animals. You will have opportunities to learn skills in actual job situations through a Supervised Agricultural Experience Program (SAEP) (Figure 27–3). Also, you can obtain leadership and personal development skills through the FFA Organization. You can participate in activities such as livestock-judging contests including dairy products judging, poultry judging, livestock and showmanship shows, and proficiency awards. Most of these activities are available to you whether you live on a farm or in the center of a city. Figure 27–4 A milking machine operator carefully Some of the jobs that can be secured with a prepares the udder and places milking cups on the teats. high school diploma follow: herdsman small animal producer (Figure 27–5) feed mill worker milking machine operator (Figure 27–4) sheep shearer groomer

chick grader egg candler slaughterhouse worker milk hauler poultry processing plant worker

©iStockphoto/Volker Rauch

4. What type of education, training, or other preparation is necessary to be employed in this area?

CHAPTER 27

Courtesy of Agricultural Communications Department, University of Georgia

440

Figure 27–5 Producers of small animals raise animals

Courtesy of USDA

for laboratory use.

Figure 27–6 Meat cutters break carcasses into wholesale

cuts and then divide these cuts into retail cuts ready for sale at the grocery market.

Careers with an Associate’s Degree An associate’s degree is a 2-year degree from a community college or a 2-year institution. Many programs teach animal science in community colleges all across the country. If you enroll in one of these programs, you will study practical courses in the fundamentals of producing and caring for animals. You will also study the sciences of chemistry, biology, and zoology, as well as math and English. Credits for many of the courses taken at a community college may be transferred to a university if you later decide to continue your education. If you enjoyed livestock judging in high school, you may want to continue your interest with competitive livestock evaluation at the community-college level. You also may become involved in student organizations such as the Post-secondary Agriculture Students Organization that participate in many activities involved with animal science. Listed below are some jobs that are available with an associate’s degree: veterinarian assistant meat cutter (Figure 27–6) computer operator embryo implant technician poultry vaccinator

wool grader farrier (Figure 27–7) producer animal buyer artificial insemination technician

Courtesy of Kentucky Horse Park

Careers with a Bachelor’s Degree

Figure 27–7 Farriers trim and care for horses’ hooves as

well as fitting shoes.

A bachelor’s degree requires 4 years of education at a college or university. There is a broad array of choices in majors that work with animals. These include animal science, dairy science, poultry science, and agricultural education. You will study courses in science such as chemistry, biology, and zoology. At a large number of universities, the departments that teach these courses are housed in the College of Agriculture. In animal science, you will study animal anatomy, nutrition, animal growth and development, and other courses dealing with how animals live, grow, and reproduce (Figure 27–8).

441

Courtesy of ARS

Courtesy of ARS

CAREERS IN ANIMAL SCIENCE

Figure 27–8 In animal science, you will

Figure 27–9 High school agriculture teachers instruct students in the

take many different courses dealing with agricultural animals.

basics about animals.

By taking courses in education, you can qualify to teach agriculture at a high school. You can also participate in such competitive events as livestock evaluation and meat evaluation. Student organizations include Block and Bridle, Collegiate FFA, and Collegiate 4-H. Careers requiring a bachelor’s degree include: farm or ranch manager meat grader company representatives for animal feed and health products producer high school agriculture teacher (Figure 27–9)

field service technician extension agent hatchery manager agricultural journalist dairy inspector

Once you complete your bachelor’s degree, you may want to continue your education and get a master’s degree and then a Ph.D. degree. With a graduate degree, you will be able to conduct scientific research or continue your education to earn a degree in veterinarian medicine (Figure 27–10). You will choose a specific area of animal science in which to concentrate your studies, and most of your course work will be in that area. For example, you might want to study in the area of nutrition or animal reproduction. Your course work will include study in statistics and research methodology so you

Photodisc/Getty Images

Careers with a Graduate Degree

Figure 27–10 Graduate studies

can lead to a degree in veterinarian medicine.

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USDA

442

Figure 27–11 A veterinarian also may be a meat inspector for the USDA.

will be able to understand, design, and conduct scientific research. These degrees require good grades in college and a determination to study hard to reach your career objective. Examples of jobs requiring an advanced degree such as a Ph.D. or a Doctorate of Veterinary Medicine are: veterinarian meat inspector (Figure 27–11) animal geneticist animal nutritionist

reproductive physiologist microbiologist research scientist college or university professor

Courtesy of ARS

DEVELOPING PERSONAL AND LEADERSHIP SKILLS

Figure 27–12 Throughout your

study of agricultural education, you will have numerous opportunities to develop skills in leadership as well as life skills.

Merely having the proper education and/or technical skills will not guarantee that you will be successfully employed. Employers want balanced, well-adjusted employees who can work well with others and grow professionally. Throughout your study of agricultural education, you will have numerous opportunities to develop leadership skills and life skills (Figure 27–12). These are extremely important abilities not only in leading a productive work life, but also in leading a satisfying personal life. Employers want people who can successfully communicate and work with other people. They want employees who can move up in the company and take on leadership roles that will include supervising other people. Through the programs offered through the FFA Organization and Supervised Agricultural Experience Programs (SAEP) you will have the opportunity to learn and practice competencies that will help you develop as

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Study the qualities of good leaders and learn from their mistakes. Listen, but do not imitate. Remember that you have your own personality and abilities, and you need to develop your own persona. Analyze yourself, determining your weak and strong points, and set goals for improvement. This may make you uncomfortable, but remember that Figure 27–13 An effective leader gets people to work together. in order to grow professionally you must A good way to learn this skill is to work on committees in your sometimes get out of your comfort FFA chapter. zone. Learn how to take directions. Good leaders listen to other people and determine steps that need to be taken in any endeavor. Employers do not want anyone working for them who doesn’t listen, follow directions, and communicate the directions to other people. Learn to be a good listener and practice remembering steps and following through on both written and verbal directions. Learn about groups in general and how they function. Identify the types of people in a group. Remember that people have different personalities and socialization styles. An effective leader gets people to work together. A good way to learn this skill is to work on committees in your FFA chapter (Figure 27–13). Make and follow a plan to develop personal leadership skills. Set goals for yourself and make specific plans to achieve each goal, and then stick to the plan. This should be an ongoing activity throughout your career. Even top-level executives in large corporations are constantly looking for ways to improve themselves. That is how they got to be top-level executives!

Jon Feingersh, Photography Inc./Getty Images

a leader. Listed below are some of the ways you can develop leadership skills that will be valuable in any career:

The interview process is the most important part of obtaining employment. It gives the employer a chance to get to know you and to draw an opinion as to your abilities, qualifications, and suitability for the job. Also, you are given an opportunity to find out more information about the potential employment. Keep in mind that you will have only one opportunity to make a first impression, and first impressions are usually the most important (Figure 27–14).

Trinette Reed/Getty Images

INTERVIEW PREPARATION

Figure 27–14 An interview is not the

place to make a fashion statement.

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Below are several suggestions that should help you prepare for and carry out the interview. Be neat and well-groomed. Portray the correct image by what you wear. Clean, neat, well-coordinated clothes convey the message that you care about your personal appearance. Don’t forget to polish your shoes, and wear neat, clean socks. Good grooming, such as neat and clean hair and fingernails, conveys the image of a person who cares about your health as well as your appearance. Employers want workers who take care of themselves and stay healthy. This cuts down on sick days and loss of work productivity. ■ Dress appropriately for the type of job you apply for. For example, if you are interviewing for a job potting plants in a greenhouse, a suit and tie would be inappropriate. On the other hand, if you are interviewing for a position where you will constantly be meeting and dealing with people, a coat and tie would be appropriate. Figure 27–15 Go to the interview alone. The employer ■ Go to the interview alone. Remember wants to know about you—not your friends or relatives. that the employer wants to know about you— not your friends or relatives (Figure 27–15). While it may be comforting to have a friend or relative with you, it is distracting to the process and gives the impression that you are not self-confident and do not function well on your own. ■ Be on time. Keep in mind that all employers want workers who give a full day’s work. Also, they want employees who can be depended upon to be punctual and dependable. Tardiness to an interview tells an employer that you are careless about time. Being late could cost you the opportunity to get the job. ■ Use good manners. No matter what job you are interviewing for, you most likely will have to deal with people. Employers do not want workers who are insensitive to the feelings of others. Good manners are a reflection of how well you regard the rights and opinions of others (Figure 27–16). If you are unsure about your mannerisms, go to the library and check out a book on proper etiquette. Practice the principles outlined in the book. ■ Pay attention to the interviewer. To seriously consider you for the job, the employer has to be convinced that you really want the job. If your mind seems to wander or you Figure 27–16 Good manners are a don’t pay attention to the questions asked, you will give the reflection of how well you regard the impression that you really are not interested in the job or that rights and opinions of others. you lack focus. Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./Getty Images

©iStockphoto/Jeffrey Smith

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Ask appropriate questions about the job. Remember that you also will be making a decision as to whether you wish to work for the employer. Ask questions about the job, such as duties required, working conditions, and opportunities for training and advancement (Figure 27–17). Avoid questions regarding salary or pay. Ask these questions after you receive a job offer. If the first question you ask is about pay, the employer may get the idea that all you are interested in is the pay. ■ Have necessary personal reference Figure 27–17 Ask questions about the job, such as duties, information with you. If you working conditions, and opportunities for training and have not previously supplied letters advancement. of reference, take these with you to the interview. If appropriate, include examples of your work. Anticipate materials the employer may want to see, and take them with you (Figure 27–18). Employers like to hire people who are organized and think ahead. ■ Answer the questions openly, completely, and honestly. Don’t try to “pad” your qualifications or tell the employer that you have skills you do not possess. Most employers place a lot of importance on honesty and will be reluctant to hire anyone they think is not being completely honest in answering the questions. Also, be careful not to talk too much. Simply answer the questions in a concise, to-the-point manner. ■ Follow up after the interview. When the interview is completed, thank the interviewer and leave promptly. After you get home, take the time to write a thank-you letter to the employer, expressing your appreciation for the opportunity to interview for the job. Make the letter neat, Figure 27–18 Anticipate materials professional, brief, and to the point. that the employer may want to see, and take them with you to the interview. SUMMARY Choosing a career is one of the most important decisions you will ever make. A lot of thought, planning, and preparation should go into choosing a career. Decide what level of education you are comfortable in pursuing and work toward completing your education. Remember that the higher-level jobs require more education and training, but the jobs can often be more enjoyable. As you develop technical skills, also develop good work habits, as well as personal and leadership skills. Almost all careers require a combination of all these different types of skills. There is a broad array of jobs in animal science and one could be right for you.

Stockbyte/Getty Images

©iStockphoto/Stephan Hoerold

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REVIEW EXERCISES True or False 1. The first thing to consider in choosing a career is the type of activity you enjoy doing. 2. Only a small number of jobs deal with animals. 3. Almost all the jobs in animal science require a Ph.D. 4. An associate’s degree usually takes 2 years after high school to complete. 5. Credits for many courses taken at a community college can be transferred to a university. 6. Colleges offer a lot of opportunities to participate in student organizations. 7. Mastering the technical skills is all you need to do to succeed in a career. 8. If you are in a leadership position, you also must be able to take directions. 9. Interviews are not something you can prepare for. 10. Goal setting is an important skill to learn. Fill in the Blanks 1. Animal science is a ____________ and ____________ industry that deals with the biological sciences. 2. No matter what level of career you wish to enter, you will have to prepare yourself with an ____________. 3. Your ____________, school ____________, your ____________ teacher, and the faculty in an animal science department at a community college or university are all good sources of information as you choose a career. 4. You will have opportunities to learn skills in actual job situations through a ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________. 5. In animal science, you will study ____________ ____________, ____________, ____________, ____________, and ____________, and other courses dealing with how animals live, grow, and reproduce. 6. Employers want balanced ____________ employees who can work well with others and grow ____________. 7. Employers want people who can successfully ____________ and ____________ with other people. 8. A good way to learn to work with people is to work on ____________ in your ____________ ____________. 9. ____________ ____________, such as neat and clean hair and fingernails, conveys the image of a person who cares about ____________ as well as their appearance. 10. Tardiness to an interview tells an ____________ that you are ____________ about ____________. Discussion Questions 1. What are the most important things to consider in choosing a career? 2. List some jobs you can enter with a high school diploma. 3. List some jobs in animal science that require a bachelor’s degree.

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4. What student organizations can you be involved with in college? 5. Describe the personal and leadership skills that employers want in their employees. 6. Why is it important to learn to take directions? 7. How do you determine how to dress for an interview? 8. Why is good grooming important in an interview? 9. Why are good manners important job skills? 10. How should you follow up an interview? Student Learning Activities 1. Make an inventory of all the activities you enjoy doing, and list career options that might allow you to participate in these activities. If you cannot find a career that fits, perhaps you are unrealistic in your expectations. Share the list with the class and ask for ideas. 2. Check the employment ads in several newspapers. List those that relate to animal science. 3. Locate an animal science or agricultural education department at a university in your state. This can be done through an Internet search. Ask them to send information about programs at the university. 4. Interview someone who works in the animal industry. Ask him or her what they do on the job. Also ask what education or preparation was required for the job. 5. With your teacher acting as a potential employer, go through a mock interview. Ask for feedback on how you may improve.

Plate 5 American Polled Hereford Bull.

448 Plate 4 Limousin Bull.

Plate 6 American Simmental Bull. Courtesy of the North American Limousin Foundation.

Plate 1 Angus bull.

Courtesy of the American Simmental Association.

Courtesy of the American Polled Hereford Association.

Courtesy of the American Salers Association.

Courtesy of the American-International Charolais Association.

Courtesy of the American Angus Association.

APPENDIX

A

Examples of Common Livestock Breeds

Plate 2 Charolais bull.

Plate 3 American

Salers Bull.

Plate 9 Guernsey Cow.

Plate 11 Jersey Cow. Courtesy of the Holstein Association USA, Inc.

Courtesy of the American Guernsey Association.

Plate 7 Ayrshire Cow.

Courtesy of the American Milking Shorthorn Society.

Courtesy of the American Jersey Cattle Club.

Courtesy of the Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders’ Association.

Courtesy of the Ayrshire Breeders’ Association.

EXAMPLES OF COMMON LIVESTOCK BREEDS

Plate 12 Milking Shorthorn Cow.

449

Plate 8 Brown Swiss Cow.

Plate 10 Holstein-Friesian Cow.

Plate 15 Chester White Swine.

Plate 17 Hereford Swine. Courtesy of the American Landrace Association.

Courtesy of Swine Genetics.

Plate 13 Poland China Swine.

Courtesy of Swine Genetics.

Courtesy of the National Hereford Hog Record Association.

Courtesy of the United Duroc Swine Registry.

Courtesy of the Poland China Record Association.

450 APPENDIX A

Plate 14 Duroc Swine.

Plate 16 Landrace Swine.

Plate 18 Spotted Swine.

Plate 21 Hampshire Ram.

Plate 23 Rambouillet Ram. Courtesy of the Sheep Breeder Magazine.

Courtesy of the Sheep Breeder Magazine.

Plate 19 Columbia Ram.

Courtesy of the Sheep Breeder Magazine.

Courtesy of the Sheep Breeder Magazine.

Courtesy of the Sheep Breeder Magazine.

Courtesy of the Columbia Sheep Breeders’.

EXAMPLES OF COMMON LIVESTOCK BREEDS

Plate 20 Dorset Ram.

Plate 22 Polypay Ram.

Plate 24 Suffolk Ram.

451

Plate 27 Saanen Goat.

Plate 29 Toggenburg Goat. Courtesy of the American Dairy Goat Association.

Courtesy of the American Dairy Goat Association.

Plate 25 Alpine Goat.

Courtesy of the American Dairy Goat Association.

Courtesy of the American Dairy Goat Association.

Courtesy of the American Dairy Goat Association.

Courtesy of the American Dairy Goat Association.

452 APPENDIX A

Plate 26 Nubian Goat.

Plate 28 Lamancha Goat.

Plate 30 Oberhasli Goat.

Plate 35 Standardbred.

American Paint. Plate 34

Plate 36 Thoroughbred. Courtesy of Don Shugart.

Plate 31 Appaloosa.

Courtesy of the Illinois Racing News.

Courtesy of the U.S. Trotting Association.

Courtesy of Johnny Johnston.

Courtesy of the American Quarter Horse Association.

Courtesy of the Appaloosa Horse Club/photo by Tom Poulsen.

EXAMPLES OF COMMON LIVESTOCK BREEDS 453

Plate 32 Quarter Horse.

Plate 33 Arabian.

Plate 41 White Pekin Duck.

Broad Breasted Bronze Turkey. Plate 40

Plate 42 Toulouse Goose. Courtesy of Watt Publishing Co.

Plate 37 White Leghorn Rooster.

Photo by Dr.
Charles Wabeck.

Courtesy of Jurgielewicz Duck Farm.

Courtesy of the Minnesota Turkey Research and Promotion Council.

Photo by Dr. Charles Wabeck.

Photo by Dr. Charles Wabeck.

454 APPENDIX A

Plate 38 White Plymouth Rock Hen.

Plate 39 Broad Breasted Large White Turkey.

Plate 45 Dutch.

Plate 47 English Lop. Courtesy of the American Rabbit Breeders Association.

Courtesy of the American Rabbit Breeders Association.

Plate 43 English Spot.

Courtesy of the American Rabbit Breeders Association.

Courtesy of the American Rabbit Breeders Association.

Courtesy of the American Rabbit Breeders Association.

Courtesy of the American Rabbit Breeders Association.

EXAMPLES OF COMMON LIVESTOCK BREEDS

Plate 48 New Zealand White.

455

Plate 44 English Angora.

Plate 46 Checkered Giant.

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Glossary

A

abomasum—the fourth, or true, stomach division of a ruminant animal absorption—the passage of food from the digestive system to the bloodstream active immunity—the type of immunity in an animal that is permanent adipose—the technical term for fat tissue aerobic organisms—grow only in the presence of oxygen aflatoxin—the highly toxic substance produced by some strains of the fungus Aspergillus flavus. It is found in feed grains. aging—the process by which meats are hung in a cool environment for a specific period to improve the flavor and tenderness; also, the process of maturing and getting older agricultural animals—animals raised for the purpose of making a profit agriculture—the broad industry engaged in the production of plants and animals for food and fiber; the provision of agricultural supplies and services; and the processing, marketing, and distribution of agricultural products albumen—the white of the egg alimentary canal—tract extending from the mouth to the anus, through which food passes and where it is exposed to the various digestive processes

allele—an alternative form of a gene. For example one allele may control red coat color and another may control black coat color. alternative animal agriculture—production of animals other than the traditional agricultural animals alveoli—small grapelike structures in the udder of a cow that produces milk amino acid—the basic building block of protein amniotic fluid—the fluid that surrounds a fetus before birth anabolism—the growth process by which tissues are built up anaerobic organisms—grow without the presence of oxygen anemia—a disease caused by a deficiency of hemoglobin, iron, or red blood cells angora—a fiber produced from the hair of Angora goats and used to produce some of the finest fabrics in the world. animalia—the highest level of scientific classification (kingdom) to which all animals belong animal rights activists—people who think that killing animals is as wrong as killing people and that animals have the same rights as people animal welfare activists—people who believe that animals should be treated well and that 457

458

GLOSSARY

their comfort and well-being should be considered in their production antemortem—preceding death Anthelmintic—a drug or substance given to animals to eliminate parasitic worms. antibiotics—a group of drugs used to fight bacterial infections antibodies—substances produced by an animal’s body that fight disease or foreign materials in the bloodstream or other places in an animal’s body antigen—any substance that stimulates the production of antibodies in an animal’s body apiary—a group of hives applied research—the use of discoveries made in basic research to help in a practical manner. aquaculture—the production of animals that live predominantly in the water artificial active immunity—immunity that comes about as a result of a vaccination artificial hormone—a manufactured substance that is used in place of a naturally produced hormone artificial insemination—the placing of sperm in the reproductive tract of the female by means other than that of the natural breeding process artificial vagina—a tubelike device used to collect semen from a male animal ascarid—largest of the parasitic roundworms, most often attacking young animals asexual reproduction—the production of young by only one parent assistance dogs—dogs that are used to help humans perform any task they cannot do or need assistance in doing. associate’s degree—a two-year degree from a community college B

bachelor’s degree—a degree requiring four years of education at a college or university bacillus—rod-shaped bacterium

backfat—fat tissue that is deposited under the skin of an animal balance—general proportions in the physical structure of an animal balanced ration—a diet designed to provide an animal with all the necessary nutrients barrow—a male pig that has been castrated before reaching sexual maturity basic research—the investigation of why or how processes occur beak trimming—the process of removing the tip of a chicken’s beak to prevent injury to other chickens beef—the meat from cattle over a year old bee space—the space (about 3/8 inch) in a beehive that allows bees to work back-to-back billy—a mature male goat binomial nomenclature—a system of scientific classification of living organisms that uses two names, the genus and the species. The names usually come from Latin derivatives. biological control—the use of natural means rather than chemicals to control pests blast freezing—most common method of commercial freezing, utilizing high-velocity air and temperatures of –10°C to –40°C blastula—a mass of cells with a cavity that occurs from the dividing of a fertilized egg. From this stage the cells begin to differentiate. blind nipples—nonfunctional nipples on the mammary system of a female pig bloat—a condition in cattle caused by gas being trapped in the digestive system. Left untreated, the condition can be fatal. blood typing—analyzing an animal’s blood to determine the animal’s ancestry boar—a male pig that has not been castrated bolus—a large pill; also, a soft mass of chewed food breed—a group of animals with a common ancestry and common characteristics that breed true.

GLOSSARY

breed association—an organization that promotes a certain breed of animal. They control the registration process of purebred animals of that breed. breeding true—offspring almost always looking like the parents brisket—the breast or lower chest of a fourlegged animal broiler—a chicken approximately eight weeks old that weighs 2 1/2 pounds or more broiler industry—raising chickens for their meat brood—group of young undeveloped bees (pupae/larvae) that grow and metamorphose into adult bees in brood cells in the hive brood cells—cells in the hive where the queen bee lays her eggs brood chamber—that portion of a bee hive where the queen lays eggs and the young bees are hatched and raised browse—the consumption of leaves and stems as compared to grazing. BST—bovine somatotropin, a naturally occurring hormone that aids in stimulating the production of milk in cows

clawing other birds in the flock, often causing injury and death cannon bone—a bone in hoofed mammals that extends from the knee or the hock to the fetlock or pastern carcass—that part of a meat animal that is left after the hide and hair, feet, head, and entrails have been removed carcass merit—quality and yield of a carcass carding—one of the first steps in the processing of wool. The fibers are separated from other fibers in the locks or bunches of wool. career—an occupation in which one earns a living carnivore—an animal whose diet consists mainly of other animals carotene—an orange or red pigment found in green leafy plants, especially carrots. It can be converted to vitamin A by an animal’s body. cartilage—firm but pliant tissue in an animal’s body that may turn to bone as the animal ages cashmere—a fine fabric that comes from the hair of fiber goats.

buck—a mature male dairy goat

castings—manure from worms

buckling—a young male dairy goat

castrated—condition in which an animal’s testicles have been removed

bull—a male bovine that has not been castrated

459

castration—act of castrating a male animal.

Bureau of Land Management—the federal agency that oversees the management of government lands

catabolism—the process of breaking down tissues from the complex to the simple as in the digestive process

by-product—a product that is created as the result of producing another product

catheter—a tube that is inserted into an animal’s body to inject or withdraw fluid

cabrito—The Spanish term for goat meat.

cecum—the enlargement on the digestive tract of animals such as the horse that allows them to digest large amounts of roughages

cage operation—an operation in which hens are kept in cages all their lives as they produce eggs

cell—the basic building block of living tissue. It generally consists of a membrane wall, a nucleus, and a cytoplasm.

candling—the use of light shined through an egg to determine defects in the egg

cellulose—an inert complex carbohydrate that makes up the bulk of the cell walls of plants

cannibalism—the habit of some birds in a poultry flock of repeatedly pecking and

centrioles—strands of genetic material outside the nucleus of animal cells

C

460

GLOSSARY

cervix—the organ that serves as an opening to the uterus

coliforms—a group of bacteria that inhabit the colons of people and animals

chalazae—ropelike structures inside an egg that hold the yolk in the center of the egg

collagen—a protein that forms the main component of connective tissues in animals

chevon—the French term for goat meat.

colon—the large intestine

chine—the backbone of an animal

colony—a group of bees consisting of workers, queen, and drones that live together as a unit

cholesterol—a fat-soluble substance found in the fat, liver, nervous system, and other areas of an animal’s body. It plays an important role in the synthesis of bile, sex hormones, and vitamin D. chromosomes—a linear arrangement of genes that determines the characteristics of an organism chromotid—one strand of a double chromosome chronological age—the actual age of an animal in days, weeks, months, or years

colostrum—the first milk that a mammal gives to the young following birth. It is rich in nutrients and imparts immunity from the mother to the offspring. Combing—process by which wool fibers are untangled and smoothed in preparation for being made into worsted wool combination curing—a combination of dry curing and injection curing

classes—further divisions within phyla or subphyla

commensalism—a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other is not harmed

cleavage—the splitting of one cell into two parts

community college—a two-year institution in which one may obtain an associate’s degree

climate-controlled houses—livestock (or poultry) houses that are kept at the proper temperature, lighting, and humidity for optimal growth and comfort of the animals

companion animals—animals whose main purpose is serving as pets or friends to humans

clitoris—small, sensitive organ within the vulva that provides stimulation during the mating process

concentrate—a feed that is high in carbohydrates and low in fiber conception—uniting of sperm and egg

cloaca—the opening in a hen’s body through which the egg is expelled

conditioning—process of learning by associating a certain response with a certain stimulus

clone—an organism, produced by asexual means, with the exact same genetic makeup as another

confinement operation—a system of raising animals in a relatively small space

cocci—round, spherical-shaped bacteria

conformation—the shape or proportional dimensions of an animal

codominant genes—genes that are neither dominant nor recessive

consumers—those who buy or use food, manufactured goods, or other products

cold-blooded—See ectothermic

contagious disease—a disease that may be passed from one organism to another

cold-water fish—a fish that will not thrive in water temperatures above 70°F colic—a condition in horses caused by a blockage in the digestive system. The intestine becomes distended and causes pain to the animal.

control group—a group of animals or plants (in a scientific experiment) that does not receive the treatment under study copulation—the act of sexual union between two mating animals

GLOSSARY

corpus luteum—a swelling of tissue that develops on the follicle at the site where an ovum has been shed cortex—the outer layer or region of any organ; also, in wool fibers the tissue immediately external to the xylem cow—a female bovine that has had a calf cow-calf operation—a system of raising cattle, the main purpose of which is the production on calves that are sold at weaning

461

D

dam—the mother of an animal dam breeds—those breeds of agricultural animals that are used as dams in a cross-breeding program debeaking—removing the tip of a chicken’s beak to aid in the prevention of cannibalism dehorning—permanently removing an animal’s horns

cow-hocked—a condition in which an animal’s back feet are splayed out and the hocks are turned in

dental pad—a hard pad in the upper mouth of cattle and other animals that serves in the place of upper teeth

Cowper’s gland—a gland in the male reproductive tract that produces a fluid that is added to the ejaculate

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—a genetic acid that controls inheritance

crimp—the amount of waves in wool fiber crossbred—an animal that is the result of the mating of parents of different breeds crude protein content—total amount of crude protein in a feed, calculated by analyzing the nitrogen content and multiplying that percentage by 6.25 crustaceans—aquatic animals with a rigid outer covering, jointed appendages, and gills cryogenics—method of freezing, utilizing condensed gases in direct contact with the product being frozen cud—a small wad of regurgitated feed in the mouth of a ruminant that is rechewed and swallowed

differentiation—the development of different tissues from the division of cells diffusion—in the process of absorption, the passing of particles through a semipermeable membrane digestion—the changes that food undergoes within the digestive tract to prepare it for absorption and use in the body disaccharides—the more complex sugars discriminate breeder—an animal that will only breed with a certain mate dissolved oxygen—oxygen in water that is available for the use of animals with gills (such as fish) docile—having a quiet, gentle nature

curd—the coagulated part of milk that results when the milk is clotted by adding rennet, by natural souring, or by adding a starter

docking—the removal of an animal’s tail

curing—treating meat to retard spoilage

domesticated—raised under the care of humans

cutability—percent of lean cuts a carcass will produce

dominant gene—a gene that expresses its characteristics over the characteristics of the gene with which it is paired

cuticle—outer layer of cells of wool fibers cytokinesis—the last phase of cell division where the cytoplasm is divided in the cell. cytoplasm—the living material within a plant or animal cell excluding the nucleus cytoplasm—a watery substance that fills the cells of an animal.

doe—a mature female dairy goat. doeling—an immature female dairy goat.

donor cow—a cow of superior genetics from which an embryo is taken to implant in a cow of inferior genetics double muscling—a condition in beef animals that is characterized by large, bulging, round muscles

462

GLOSSARY

draft horse—a horse that is used mainly for pulling loads or for working

endangered species—species that are on the verge of dying out

drone—a male honeybee

endocrine system—the system of glands in an animal’s body that secrete substances that control certain bodily processes

dry curing—the process of curing meat by rubbing the cure ingredients onto the surface of the product and allowing it to move into the product by osmosis dual-purpose animal—an animal that is raised for more than one purpose, e.g. sheep for wool and mutton duodenum—the first portion of the small intestine E

E. coli—a type of bacteria commonly found in the colon of animals ecological balance—the balance nature has regarding the living things in a given area ectoderm—the outer of the three basic layers of the embryo, which gives rise to the skin, hair, and nervous system ectothermic—animals whose body temperature adjusts to the air and water around them. Also known as cold blooded. efficiency—ability of the animal to gain on the least amount of feed and other necessities ejaculation—release of semen (the ejaculate) elastin—a protein substance found in tendons, connective tissue, and bone elastrator—a device that is used to stretch a rubber band over the scrotum or tail of an animal. The blood circulation is cut off and the testicles or tail drops off. embryo—an organism in the earliest stage of development embryo transfer—transferring embryos from one female to another to increase the reproductive capacity of superior females embryo transplant—removing an embryo from a female of superior genetics and placing the embryo in the reproductive tract of a female of inferior genetics

endoderm—the innermost layer of cells of an embryo, which develops into internal organs endoplasmatic reticulum—a large webbing or network of double membranes that are positioned throughout the cell that provide the means for transporting material throughout the cell. endothermic—an animal whose body temperature is warmer than its surroundings energy—the capacity to do work enucleated oocyte—an egg with the nucleus removed environment—the total of all the external conditions that may act upon an organism or community to influence its development or existence enzyme—a protein that is produced by an animal’s body that stimulates or speeds up various chemical reactions epididymis—a small tube, leading from the testicles, where sperm mature and are stored epinephrine—a hormone that is released when an animal gets frightened or upset. In cows it inhibits the milk letdown process. epistasis—interaction of genes that are not matched pairs to cause an expression different from the coding of the genes ergot—a fungus disease of grains that produces a toxin esophagus—the tube leading from the mouth to the stomach essential amino acid—any of the amino acids that cannot be synthesized by an animal’s body and must be supplied from the animal’s diet

GLOSSARY

463

estimated breeding value—in beef cattle, an estimate of the value of an animal as a parent

F

estrogen—a hormone that stimulates the female sex drive and controls the development of female characteristics

fallopian tubes—the tubes leading from the ovaries to the uterus

estrus—the period of sexual excitement (heat) when the female will accept the male

farrier—a person who cares for horses feet.

estrus cycle—the reproductive cycle of female animals measured from the beginning of one heat period until the beginning of the next

farrowing crate—a crate or cage in which a sow is placed at the time of farrowing to protect the newborn pigs

estrus synchronization—using synthetic hormones to make a group of females come into heat (estrus) at the same time ethology—the science of animal behavior eukaryotic cells—cells that have a relatively large structure called a nucleus that is composed primarily of nucleic acids, proteins, and enzymes and are found in both plants and animals. ewe—a female sheep expected progeny difference—an estimate of the expected performance of an animal’s offspring exotic animals—animals that are out of the ordinary, such as an unusual breed exothermic—animals whose internal body temperature comes from the environment, an example being reptiles experiment—an operation carried out under controlled conditions to discover an unknown entity, to test a hypothesis, or demonstrate something known

facultative—microbes that can grow with or without free oxygen

families—smaller divisions within classes farrow—to give birth to a litter of pigs

farrowing operation—first phase of a pig operation involving the birth of the piglets. feed conversion ratio—the rate at which an animal converts feed to meat feeder pig—a young pig weighing less than 120 pounds that is of sufficient quality for finishing as a market hog feedlot—a pen in which cattle are placed for fattening prior to slaughter feedlot operation—an agricultural enterprise where beef animals are placed in pens and fed grain to fatten them feedstuff—a basic ingredient of a feed that would not ordinarily be fed as a feed by itself felting—the property of wool fibers to interlock when rubbed together under conditions of heat, moisture, and pressure fermentation—the processing of food by the use of yeasts, molds, or bacteria fertile—capable of producing viable offspring fertilization—the union of the sperm and egg

experimental group—the group used to test a hypothesis; the group subject to experimentation

fertilization membrane—a membrane surrounding an egg that is formed after the egg is fertilized. This prevents another sperm from entering.

exsanguination—the removal of an animal’s blood during the slaughter process

fertilized egg—an egg that has united with a sperm

extender—a substance added to semen to increase the volume

FFA Organization—student organization dedicated to making a positive difference in the lives of students by developing their potential for premier leadership, personal

external parasite—a parasite that lives in the hair or on the skin of an animal

464

GLOSSARY

growth, and career success through agricultural education (http://www.ffa.org/) fingerling—a small fish that is of sufficient size to use for stocking finish—the amount of fat on an animal that is ready for slaughter finishing—fattening of animals prior to slaughter

fructose—the sugar found in fruit fry—small, newly hatched fish fumigate—to kill pathogens, insects, etc. by the use of certain poisonous liquids or solids that form a vapor fungi—the kingdom to which multicelled organisms such as fungi belong

finishing operation—last phase of a pig operation involving bringing feeder pigs up to market weight.

G

fluke—small, seed-shaped parasitic flatworm, the most damaging of which live in the host’s liver

gastrointestinal tract—the digestive system, made up of the stomach and intestines

flushing—the process of removing embryos from the donor cow by injecting a fluid by means of a catheter passed through the cervix and into the uterine horn

genes—units of inheritance, composed of DNA

follicle—a small blister-like structure that develops on the ovary that contains the developing ovum

galactose—the sugar in milk gamete—the sex cell, either an egg or sperm

gelding—a male horse that has been castrated genetic base—the breeding animals available for a producer to use genetic code—otherwise known as DNA, passed on from the parent(s) which is contained in all the cells of animal’s body

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)—the naturally occurring hormone that stimulates the development of the follicle on the ovary

genetic defect—an impairment of an animal that was passed by the parents to the offspring

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)—a federal agency that regulates the production, manufacture, and distribution of food and drugs

genetic engineering—the alteration of the genetic components of organisms by human intervention

forage—livestock feed that consists mainly of the leaves and stalks of plants foundation comb—a sheet of honeycomb placed onto frames on which the bees complete the comb to fill with honey frame size—a score that depicts the size and weight of an animal at maturity. The measure is taken at the shoulder or at the hip. free choice—feeding an animal with an unlimited supply of feed. The animal is free to eat whenever it wants. freeze branding—a method of marking cattle by using a super cold metal that kills the pigment-producing ability of the hair contacted

genetic improvement—the increase in occurrence of genetically favorable traits in offspring genetically altered clone—a clone that results when a specific gene(s) is placed into the DNA of the animal desire to be cloned genetics—the science that deals with the processes of inheritance in plants and animals; also, the genetic makeup of an organism genetic variation—the difference between animals due to their genetic makeup genotype—the genetic makeup of an organism genus—a class or group marked by common characteristics and comprised of structurally related organisms; the first name in the binomial nomenclature identifying an organism

GLOSSARY

germinal disk—a spot in the yolk portion of the egg that contains the genetic material from the female gestation—the length of time from conception to birth gilt—a female pig that has not given birth gland cistern—where the milk is stored in the cow glucose—a common sugar that serves as the building blocks for many complex carbohydrates golgi apparatus—an organelle within a cell that is shaped like a group of flat sacs that are bundled together. Their function is to remove water from the proteins and prepare them for export from the cell. graduate degree—either a master’s degree or Ph.D. obtained after the completion of a bachelor’s degree that may require students to be engaged in scientific research grease wool—wool as it comes from the sheep greenhouse effect—an effect supposedly caused by an increase of carbon dioxide and pollutants in the air. The effect is supposed to cause the climate of the earth to warm. growing operation—in swine production, the phase between the time they are weaned and the time they are finished for market growthability—the ability of an animal to make efficient rapid growth grub—the larva stage of some insects, particularly beetles guard bee—worker bee who regulates all the insects that enter the hive H

hand breeding—a system of breeding horses where the mares and stallions are kept separate until they are bred heifer—a female bovine that has not produced a calf helix—strands consisting of molecules of DNA that are shaped like a corkscrew

465

herbivore—an animal that eats plants as the main part of its diet heritability—the portion of the differences in animals that is transmitted from parent to offspring heterosis—the amount of superiority in a crossbred animal compared with the average of their purebred parents; also called hybrid vigor heterozygous—two parental genes calling for a specific characteristic (e.g., hair color) that are not identical (e.g., one calls for black hair, the other for white hair). The dominant gene will override the effect of the other gene. hip height—a measurement taken on the highest point of the hip of cattle at a given age. This is an indication of the frame size and the weight of an animal at maturity. hippotherapy—a type of physical therapy using animals with physically challenged humans to help improve mobility hive—a structure used to house bees homeostasis—The ability of an organism to remain stable when conditions around it are changing. homogenization—the process of forcing the large cream globules through a screen at high pressure, reducing them to the size of the milk globules homogenized milk—milk that has been blended to dissolve the fat molecules so that the fat (cream) will not become separated from the rest of the milk homozygous—two parental genes calling for a specific characteristic (e.g., hair color) that are identical (e.g., both call for black hair) honey comb—six-sided cells joined together, used to store nectar hormones—chemical substances, secreted by various glands in an animal’s body, that produce a certain effect

466

GLOSSARY

host—an animal on which another organism depends for its existence hot branding—using a hot iron to burn a permanent identifying mark onto an animal hutches—cubicles used to house rabbits hybrid—an animal produced from the mating of parents of different breeds

infundibulum—the enlarged funnel-shaped structure on the end of the fallopian tube that functions in collecting the ova during ovulation ingestive behavior—the mannerisms or habits that an animal uses during the intake of food

hybrid vigor—See heterosis.

injection curing—pumping a curing solution into a meat product

hyperplasia—an increase in the number of cells in the tissues of organisms

inorganic—not containing carbon and usually derived from nonliving sources

hypertrophy—growth due to an increase in the size of cells

insect—an animal of the class Insecta. They have three body parts and six legs.

hypothesis—a theory by a scientist as to the cause or effect of a phenomena. This is tested by experimentation or other types of research.

instinct—the ability of an animal, based on its genetic makeup, to respond to an environmental stimulus

I

ileum—last division of the small intestine immobilization—the process of rendering an animal oblivious to pain during the slaughter process. immunity—resistance to catching a disease imprinting—a kind of behavior common to some newly hatched birds or newly born animals that causes them to adopt the first person, animal, or object they see as their parent incubation—the process of the development of a fertilized poultry egg into a newly hatched bird. The eggs must have the proper heat, humidity, and length of time.

intelligence—the ability to learn intermediate host—an animal, other than the primary host, that a parasite uses to support part of its life cycle internal parasite—a parasite that lives inside the body of the host animal inverted nipples—a condition in female pigs in which the opening of the nipples on the mammary system appears to be inverted or to have a crater in the center. These are usually nonfunctional. irradiation—a food preservation process that uses low levels of radiation to kill patho gens in food products. isthmus—the part of the fallopian tubes between the ampulla and the uterus

index—a system of comparing animals within a group with the group average. A score of 100 is used for the average.

J

indiscriminate breeder—an animal that will breed with any animal of the same type and the opposite sex

K

infantile vulva—a condition in gilts in which the vulva is very small and underdeveloped. Gilts with this condition are generally infertile.

kingdoms—the five common divisions into which natural objects are classified

infectious disease—a disease that is contagious

jejunum—part of the small intestine

killer bees—honeybees of African origin that are reputed to have a very aggressive nature

kosher—designates any food produced, killed, or prepared according to Jewish dietary laws

GLOSSARY

L

laboratory animal—an animal that is raised for the purpose of being used for laboratory experimentation lactase—an enzyme produced in animal small intestines and other organs that breaks down lactose. lactation—the process of an animal’s giving milk lactose—a sugar obtained from milk lagoon—a body of water used for the decomposition of animal wastes lamb—referring to meat, that which comes from a sheep that is less than one year old lanolin—the fatty substance removed from grease wool when it is scoured and cleaned lard—the processed fat from swine larva—the immature stage of an insect from hatching to the pupal stage layer—a chicken raised primarily for egg production lean-to-fat ratio—the amount of lean meat in a carcass compared to the amount of fat letdown process—relaxation process (initiated by the release of oxytocin) allowing milk to pass out of the cow through the teat libido—the sexual drive of an animal life cycle—the changes in the form of life an organism goes through in its lifetime ligaments—the tough, dense fibrous bands of tissue that connect bones or support viscera light horse—a horse that weighs between 900 and 1,400 pounds at maturity linear evaluation—a method of evaluating the degree of a trait in an animal. Certain traits are given a score based on the ideal.

467

luteinizing hormone—the hormone that stimulates ovulation lymphocyte—a kind of white blood cell produced by the lymph glands and certain other tissues. It is associated with the production of antibodies. lysosomes—organelles that are the digestive units of the cell that break down proteins, carbohydrates and other molecules as well as any foreign material such as bacteria that enters the cell. M

macromineral—minerals that are required in relatively large amounts in an animal’s diet magnum—the part of the oviduct of a bird located between the infundibulum and the isthmus. This is where the albumin of the egg is produced. maiden flight—the new queen bee’s flight during which she mates with the drones maintenance ration—the feed mixed in the proper proportions and amounts for an animal to maintain its weight and other bodily functions manure—excrement from animals marbling—the desired distribution of fat in the muscular tissue of meat that gives it a spotted appearance. Marbling is used in the quality grading of a carcass. mare—a female horse that has produced a foal master’s degree—degree obtained after a bachelor’s degree, in which one may be required to conduct scientific research in the required course work mastication—the act of chewing food

lobule—cluster of alveoli

mastitis—a disease involving the inflammation of the udder of milk-producing females

loin eye—a cross section of the Longissimus (the muscle running the length of the backbone) of an animal’s carcass

maturity—the point in an animal’s life when it is old enough to reproduce, also refers to the age of an animal or carcass

lumen—hollow cavity in an organ (pl. lumens or lumina )

meat animals—animals that are raised primarily for the meat in their carcass

lipid—a fat or fatty tissue

468

GLOSSARY

medium wool type—a breed of sheep raised primarily for meat

morphogenesis—process of cell development into different tissues and organs

meiosis—cell division that results in the production of eggs and sperm

morula—a spherical mass of cells that develops into an embryo

mesoderm—the central layer of cells in a developing embryo, which gives rise to the circulatory system and certain other organs

most probable producing ability—an estimate of a cow’s future productivity for a trait

mesophiles—microbes that grow at medium temperatures (20°–45°C) metabolism—the chemical changes in cells, organs, and the entire body that provide energy for the animal metamorphosis—the process by which organisms, especially insects, change in form and structure in their lives microfilaments—fine fiber like structures composed of protein that help the cell to move by waving back and forth. micromineral—minerals that are required in relatively small amounts in an animal’s diet micronutrients—nutrients that are required in relatively small amounts in an animal’s diet

mother breeds—those breeds of animals that make the best mothers, such as the Yorkshire and Landrace breeds of swine motile—able to move about mucin—substance (secreted by cells in the magnum) that develops into the white or albumen of the egg mucous membrane—a form of tissue in the body openings and digestive tract that secrete a viscous, watery substance called mucus mule—a cross between a horse and a donkey. The mother is a mare and the father is a jack. muscling—the degree and thickness of muscle on an animal’s body

microbe—minute plant or animal life. Some cause disease; others are beneficial.

mutation—an accident of heredity in which an offspring has different characteristics than the genetic code intended

micromanipulator—a very small instrument that is used to dissect cells and embryos in the cloning process

mutton—the flesh of a sheep older than one year of age

milking parlor—milking area mitochondria—peanut shaped organelles which functions to break down food nutrients and supply the cell with energy. mitosis—cell division involving the formation of chromosomes mohair—the long lustrous hair from the angora goat

mutualism—a symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to both species N

nanny—a mature female goat naturally acquired active immunity—immunity to a disease that is acquired by the animal’s having had a disease

monera—the kingdom to which singular celled organisms such as bacteria belong

natural selection—the natural process that results in the survival of those individuals or groups best adjusted to the conditions under which they live; commonly called survival of the fittest

monogastric—refers to an animal that has only one stomach compartment, such as swine

nonessential amino acid—amino acid that can be synthesized by the animal’s body

monosaccharides—the simplest sugars, for example, glucose, fructose, and galactose

noninfectious disease—a disease that cannot be transmitted from one animal to another

molting—the process of poultry casting off old feathers before a new growth occurs

GLOSSARY

469

notochord—in animals of the phylum Chordata a stringy rodlike structure that is made of tough elastic tissue which is present in the embryo

osmosis—the process by which the water moves from a region of high concentration of water to a region of low concentration,

nuclear transfer—the process in which the nucleus of an egg is removed and replaced with the nucleus of another cell from an organ or other animal tissue

ovary—the female organ that produces the egg and certain hormones

nucleotide—a basic structural component of DNA and RNA

ovum—an egg

nucleus—the central portion of the cell that contains the genetic material nukes—small hives in which queen bees are commercially produced nursery—a facility for caring for pigs after they are weaned

ossification—the process of forming bone

ovulation—the process of releasing eggs from the ovarian follicles oxidation—any chemical change that involves the addition of oxygen oxytocin—the hormone that stimulates constriction. It activates the egg-laying process in hens. It also causes the alveoli to release milk in cows.

nursery bee—the group of worker bees whose jobs it is to care for the brood and the queen.

P

nutrients—substances that aid in the support of life

papillae—any small nipplelike projections

nutritional disease—a disease that is caused by not enough or too much of a certain nutrient in an animal’s diet

parasitism—a symbiotic relationship in which one organism lives on or in another organism at that organism’s expense

nymph—a stage in the development of some insects that immediately precedes the adult stage

passive immunity—immunity that is temporary

O

pasteurization—the process of heat treating milk to kill microbes

offspring—the young produced by animals omasum—the third compartment of the ruminant stomach, where a lot of the grinding of the feed occurs omnivorous—describing an animal that eats both plants and other animals oocyte—an unfertilized egg oogenesis—the process of egg production in the female orders—smaller divisions within classes organelles—structures within cells that form differing and various functions.

palatability—the degree to which a feed or food is liked or accepted by an animal or human paraffin—a waxy substance

pasterns—the part of an animal’s leg that connects the cannon with the foot or hoof

pasture breeding—a system of breeding horses in which the stallion runs free in the pasture with the mares pecking order—the order in which some poultry in a flock may peck others without being pecked in return pedigree record—the record of an animal’s ancestry pelt—the natural whole skin covering including the hair, wool, or fur of an animal

organic—containing carbon or being of living origin

pelvic capacity—the dimensions of a female’s pelvic area that is an indication of its ability to give birth easily

organism—any living being, plant or animal

penis—the male organ of copulation

470

GLOSSARY

pepsin—a digestive enzyme secreted by the stomach per capita consumption—the amount of a product that is consumed by a person over the period of a year performance data—the record of an individual animal for reproduction, growth, and production perissodactyl—an animal with only one toe on its foot such as the horse, donkey, zebra, etc. pH—a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance phagocyte—an animal cell capable of ingesting micro organisms or other foreign bodies pharmaceuticals—medicines or drugs used in human or animal health care Ph.D.—degree obtained after a master’s degree; Doctor of Philosophy phenotype—the observed characteristic of an animal without regard to its genetic makeup pheromone—a chemical that sends messages by organisms for the purposes of communication photosynthesis—the process by which green plants, using chlorophyll and the energy of sunlight, produce carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide phulon—the greek word for race or kind

pituitary gland—a small gland at the base of the brain that secretes hormones that stimulate growth and other functions placenta—the membranous tissue that envelops a fetus in the uterus plantae—the highest level of scientific classification (kingdom) to which all plants belong plasma membrane—a membrane that encloses and protects the cells contents from the external environment; regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell such as the taking in of nutrients and the expelling of waste; and allows interaction with other cells polar bodies—produced during oogenesis as the result of the cytoplasm going to the cell that becomes the egg. Polar bodies function to provide sustenance for the egg until conception. polled—an animal that is naturally hornless pony—a horse that weighs 500–900 pounds at maturity Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS)—a condition in swine characterized by extreme muscling, nervousness, tail twitching, skin blotching, and sudden death post-legged—a condition in animals in which the rear legs are too straight postmortem—after death postnatal—after birth

phyla—the primary divisions of the kingdom Animalia

Post-secondary Agriculture Students Organization— student organization that participates in animal science activities

physiological age—the age of an animal as determined by an examination of the carcass

post-secondary institution—an educational institution attended after high school for higher education

pigeon-toed—condition in which the front feet are turned in

poultry—any domesticated fowl, such as chickens, ducks, geese, or turkeys, that are raised for their meat, eggs, or feathers

pigmentation—the naturally occurring color in the hair and skin of an animal pin nipples—small, underdeveloped nipples on the teats of a pig. They are usually nonfunctional.

predators—animals that kill and eat other animals prenatal—before birth prepuce—See sheath.

GLOSSARY

471

primal cuts—the most valuable cuts on a carcass, usually the leg (or hindquarter), loin, and rib

pullet—a young hen

prion—a proteinlike substance that can cause an infection or illness

purebred—an animal that belongs to one of the recognized breeds and has only that breed in its ancestry

progeny—the offspring of animals progeny testing—determining the breeding value of animals by testing their offspring progesterone—a hormone produced by the ovaries that functions in preparing the uterus for pregnancy and maintaining it if it occurs prokaryotic cells—the smallest of all cells, they contain genetic materials but this material is not confined to a nucleus. prolactin—a hormone that stimulates the production of milk propolis—a glue or resin collected from trees and plants by bees. It is used to close holes in the hive. prostaglandin—a group of fatty acids that perform various physiological effects in an animal’s body. Artificial prostaglandin is used in heat synchronization of cattle.

pupa—the stage in an insect’s life between the larva stage and the adult stage

purebred operation—a cattle operation that raises purebred animals to be used in breeding programs Q

quality grade—the grade given to a beef carcass that indicates the eating quality of the meat quarantine—the isolation of an animal to prevent the spread of an infectious disease queen—female bee, larger and more slender than other bees, whose main purpose is to lay eggs for the hive and is cared for by worker bees in the hive queen cells—special large cells in the hive in which new queen bees are developed queen excluder—a device placed in a beehive to prevent the queen from leaving the brood chamber

prostate gland—the male reproductive gland that ejects the semen from the male reproductive tract

quiescent cells—the period of inactivity of a cell

protectant—a substance added to semen to protect it during freezing and storage

radiation—the emission of energy through waves of subatomic particles

protista—the kingdom to which singular celled organisms such as protozoa belong

ram—a male sheep that has not been castrated

protoplasm—the material of plant and animal tissues in which all life activities occur

ration—the feed allowed for an animal in a 24-hour period

protozoa—single-celled organisms that are often parasitic

recessive—non-dominant

protozoan infestation—a condition where animals are suffering from protozoan parasites. PSE pork—pale, soft, and exudative pork; the meat is a very light pink in color and soft and dry in texture when cooked

R

rancid—the putrefied state of foods

recessive gene—a gene that is masked by another gene that is dominant recipient cow—a genetically inferior cow in which an embryo from a genetically superior cow is placed

psychrophiles—microbes that grow well in cooler temperatures (0°–20°C)

refrigerated trucks—trucks that contain their own refrigeration unit used for transporting meat or other perishable products

public lands—lands that are owned by the government

rendering—process during which condemned carcasses are placed under heat severe

472

GLOSSARY

enough to kill any organisms that could cause problems rennet (rennin)—an enzyme extracted from the stomach of cattle used in the cheese-making process reproductive efficiency—the capability of producing offspring in a timely and efficient manner retail cuts—cuts of meat that are ready for purchase and use by the consumer reticulum—the second compartment of a ruminant’s stomach rib eye—the exposed muscle surface that results when a side of beef is cut between the twelfth and thirteenth rib ribonucleic acid (RNA)—a nucleic acid associated with the control of cellular chemical activities rigor mortis—a physiological process following the death of an animal in which the muscles stiffen and lock into place roughage—a feed low in carbohydrates and high in fiber content royal jelly—secreted from bees, this food causes larvae to develop into queen bees RST—See BST. rumen—the largest compartment of the stomach system of a ruminant. This is where a large amount of bacterial fermentation of feed occurs. ruminant—any of a class of animals having multicompartmented stomachs that are capable of digesting large amounts of roughages S

salmonella—a large group of bacteria, some of which cause food poisoning scientific method—a systematic process of gaining knowledge through experimentation scientific selection—the selection of breeding or market animals based on the results of scientific research

scoured wool—wool after the fibers have been cleaned in the scouring process scouring—cleaning of grease wool by gently washing it in detergent scout bees—bees that locate nectar sources and report to the colony scrotal circumference—a measurement taken around the scrotum of a bull. It is an indication of the fertility of the bull. scrotum—the pouch that contains the testicles seed stock cattle—the cattle to be used as the dams and sires of calves that will be grown for market seines—large nets used to harvest fish from ponds selective breeding—choosing the best and desired animals and using those animals for breeding purposes semen—a fluid substance produced by the male reproductive system that contains the sperm and secretions of the accessory glands seminal vesicles—a gland attached to the urethra that produces fluids to carry and nourish the sperm semipermeable membrane—a membrane that permits the diffusion of some components and not others. Usually water is allowed to pass but solids are not. serum—the clear portion of any animal fluid service animals—animals that aid humans with disabilities. They may serve as aids in hearing, seeing, sensing danger, or other functions. sex character—the physical characteristics that distinguish males from females sexual reproduction—reproduction that requires the uniting of an egg and a sperm sheath—the covering of the male penis shell gland—another name for the uterus of a hen shroud—a cloth used to wrap a carcass during the aging process

GLOSSARY

siblings—brothers and sisters sickle-hocked—a condition in animals in which the back legs have too much curve silage—a crop, such as corn, that has been preserved in its succulent condition by partial fermentation sire—the father of an animal sire breeds—those breeds of agricultural animals that are used as sires in a cross-breeding program smoothness—lack of awkward bone structure and a smooth, even finish along the top and sides of an animal social behavior—how animals act when they interact with each other soundness—structural strength and stability sow—a female pig that has had a litter of pigs species—a category of individuals having common attributes as a logical division of a genus; the second name in the binomial nomenclature identifying an organism specific gravity—the density of a substance compared to the density of water sperm—the male reproductive cell that unites with an egg spermatogenesis—the development of the sperm cell spermatogonia—primitive male germ cells spermatozoa—mature male gametes sperm nests—pockets for storing sperm inside the oviducts sphincter muscle—a ring-shaped muscle that closes an orifice spirilla—spiral-shaped bacteria splayfooted—condition in a animal when its front feet are turned out spore—the reproductive “seed” of a fungus stallion—a mature male horse that has not been castrated stanchion—a loose-fitting device that goes around a cow’s neck and limits the animal’s mobility in the stall or milking area

473

starter culture—culture that starts the process of fermentation for making cheese steer—a male bovine that has been castrated before sexual maturity sterile—not capable of producing offspring stimuli—any agent that causes a response stocker—a calf that has been weaned and is being conditioned prior to entering the feed lot stocker operation—an operation that conditions calves after weaning and before they enter the feed lot stomach worm—parasite roundworm that burrows into the stomach lining and sucks the host animal’s blood straw—a tube in which semen is frozen and stored strongyle—parasitic roundworm that lives in the intestine of the host animal style—the way an animal carries itself sucrose—common table sugar (disaccharide composed of fructose and glucose) suint—solid deposits from sheep perspiration found in wool super—a boxlike structure that makes up part of a beehive. It is removed during honey harvest. superovulation—the stimulation of more than the usual number of ovulations during a single estrus cycle due to the injection of certain hormones Supervised Agricultural Experience Program (SAEP)—the actual, hands-on application of concepts and principles learned in the agricultural education classroom (http:// www.ffa.org/programs/sae/index. html). surrogate mother—a mother who acts as the recipient of an embryo from another parent and carries it until birth swarm—a group of bees that have left the hive because of overcrowding symbiosis—the close association of two dissimilar organisms

474

GLOSSARY

synapsis—the process by which chromotids come together and are matched up in pairs synthetic lines—boars or sows used for breeding that resulted from the blending of several different breeds

USDA—United States Department of Agriculture uterus—the female reproductive organ in which the fetus develops before birth V

systemic pesticides—pesticides that are taken into the body of an animal and are part of the animal’s system

vaccinating—the process of injecting an animal with certain microorganisms in an effort to make the animal immune to specific diseases

T

vaccine—a substance that contains live, modified, or dead organisms that is injected into an animal to make it immune to a specific disease

tankage—dried animal residues usually freed from fats and gelatin teat—the portion of the mammary gland that expels milk tertiary ducts—part of the duct system that carries milk from the alveoli to the gland cistern where the milk is stored testicles—the male organs that produce sperm and certain hormones testosterone—the male hormone responsible for the male sex drive and the development of the male sex characteristics

vacuoles—organelles that serve as storage compartments for the cell. vacuum packaging—a means of packaging meat by wrapping it in plastic wrap and drawing the air from it vagina—the canal in the female reaching from the uterus to the vulva vas deferens—the tube connecting the epididymis of the testicles to the urethra

thermophiles—microbes that grow at higher temperatures (45°–65°C)

veal—the meat from calves slaughtered before they are three months of age

thurl—the thigh of an animal

vertebra (plural: vertebrae)—the backbone of an animal

toxic—poisonous trace mineral—a mineral that is needed in relatively minute amounts in an animal’s diet treatment group—in a scientific experiment, the group of animals and plants that receives the treatment that is being researched type—the total of all the characteristics of an animal that make it and others like it unique

vertebrate—an animal having a backbone vertical integration—poultry operation where the producer or company owns the hatchery, feed mills, processing plants, and distribution centers. viable—capable of living villi—microscopic, fingerlike projections of the inner lining of the digestive tract virus—disease-causing agent

U

underline—the belly of an animal. In swine it refers to the mammary system of the female. urethra—the tube that carries urine from the bladder and serves as a duct for the passage of the male’s semen

vulva—the external reproductive organ of the female W

warm-blooded—See endothermic. warm-water fish—a fish that does not thrive in water colder than 60°F

GLOSSARY

have many jobs in the hive including bringing nectar and pollen to the hive from the field, producing and storing honey, acting as guard bees for the hive, and caring for the queen and brood

weaned—a young animal no longer dependent on its mother’s milk weaning weight—the weight of a calf at weaning, usually considered to be about 500 pounds wether—a male sheep or goat that has been castrated whey—watery part of milk that is separated from the curd in the cheese-making process wholesale cuts—the major parts of a carcass that are boxed and sold to wholesale distributors withdrawal period—the length of time that must transpire between the time an animal is given a certain drug and the time the animal’s milk can be used or the animal is slaughtered wool type—a breed of sheep raised primarily for wool work animal—an animal that is raised primarily for the work it can perform worker bees—sterile female bee; comprise the largest number of bees in the colony and

475

Y

yearling—an animal that is a year old yearling weight—the weight of a beef animal at 365 days of age yield grade—a grade in meat animals that refers to the amount of lean meat produced in a carcass yogurt—a semisolid, fermented milk product yolk—the yellowish part of a fowl’s egg that contains the germinal disk; also the substances such as wool grease in a fleece Z

zoonoses—diseases and infections that can be transmitted from animal to humans zygote—a fertilized egg

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References

Gillespie, J.R. (1997) Modern livestock and poultry production. (5th ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar, Cengage Learning. Herren, R.V., and R.L. Donahue. (1991) The agriculture dictionary. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar, Cengage Learning. Landau, M. (1992) Introduction to aquaculture. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Legates, J.E., and E.J. Warwich. (1990) Breeding and improvement of farm animals. (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. National FFA Foundation. (1995) Animal welfare instructional materials. Alexandria, VA: author National FFA Foundation. (1996) Equine science. Alexandria, VA: author

Oklahoma State University. (1992) Meat and poultry processing. Department of Vocational and Technical Education Curriculum and Instructional Materials Center. Stillwater, OK: author Parker, R. (1995) Aquaculture science. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar, Cengage Learning Parker, R. (1998) Equine Science. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar, Cengage Learning Taylor, R.E., and T.G. Field. (1998) Scientific farm animal production. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Warren, D.M. (1995) Small animal care and management. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar, Cengage Learning

477

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Index

A Abomasum, 351 Absorption, 348 Abyssinian cats, 156 Accelerated genetics beef sire EPDs, 52 Acquaculture industry, 138–151 alligator farming, 148 bullfrogs, 146–147 crayfish, 147–148 history and statistics, 140 insect larvae, 147 types of creatures, 140 see also Fish production Active immunity, 401 Adipose tissue, 368 Advances in production of food from animals, 7–10 beef and veal world production, 9 beef cattle liveweight increases, 7 milk per dairy cow increases, 8 poultry industry advances, 8–9 sheep liveweight increases, 8 swine liveweight increases, 8 Aerators, in fish production, 141 Aerobic organisms, 370 Aflatoxins, 403, 405 African bees, 194 Aging process, 331–332 Aging the carcass, 360 Agricultural animals, 6 Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 361

Agriculture, 4 Alaskan Malamute, 156 Alimentary canal, 348 Allele, 239 Allergies, from animal hair and dander, 164 Alligator farming, 148 Alligators, 140 Alpaca, 171 Alpine goats, 117 Alternative animal agriculture, 166–181 fish bait production, 171–172 hunting preserves, 178–179 laboratory animal production, 173–174 large game animals, 173 llama production, 171 natural and certified animal products, 174–178 see also Rabbits Alveoli, 52 American Dairy Goat Association, 116 American Rabbit Breeders Association, 168 American Saddlebred horse, 129, 206 Amino acids, 72, 340 Amniotic fluid, 325 Amphibia class of Vertebrata, 22 Amphibians, 140. See also Aquaculture industry Anabolism, 338–339 Anaerobic organisms, 370 Anaphase, 230 Anemia, 380

Angora goats, 104, 104–105, 105 Angus cattle, 25, 39 Animal agriculture as science, 2–17. See also Advances in production of food from animals; Legislation in education; Milestones in animal agriculture Animal behavior, 202–217 conditioning, 206 docile animals, 207 ethology, 204 genetics, 204 imprinting, 205 indiscriminate breeders, 207 ingestive behavior, 210–211 instinctive behavior, 204 intelligence levels of animals, 204, 205 learned behavior, 205 natural habitat, 204 sexual and reproductive behavior, 209–210 tool use, 204 see also Communication in animals; Social behavior Animal bites and scratches, 164 Animal byproducts for feed, 36 Animal cells, 218–233 blastula, 230 chromosomes, 223 cleavage, 230 cytoplasm, 223–224 diffusion, 225 DNA, 223 endoplasmatic reticulum, 227 enzymes, 226

479

480

INDEX

Animal cells (continued ) equilibrium, 225 eukaryotic cells, 223–226 genes, 223 Golgi apparatus, 226 homeostasis, 226 importance of, 220 lysosomes, 227 microfilaments, 226 mitochrondria, 226 nucleus of, 223 organelles, 224, 226–227 osmosis, 225 placenta, 130 plasma membrane, 224 prokaryotic cells, 222–223 stem cells, 230–231 types of, 220–224 vacuoles, 226 see also Cell reproduction Animal feed, byproducts for, 38–39 Animal Industry Foundation, 417 Animal rights activists, 412 Animal Rights Movement, 412 Animal welfare activists, 412–413 Animalia kingdom, 21 Animals domesticated, 4 health of, 161–164 immunization, 10 per-capita consumption of poultry and livestock, 78 raised for food, 257 Annelida phylum, 22 Antemortem inspection, 426 Anthelmintics (de-wormers), 122 Antibiotics, 36, 399, 414, 427 Antibodies, in milk, 52 Antigens, 401 Antilopinae family, 23 Apiary, 184 Apis mellifera, 184 Applied research, 6 Aquariums, 158 Aries species, 23 Aroma in palatability, 369 Arthritis, 13 Arthropoda phylum, 21 Artificial active immunity, 402 Artificial hormones, 298, 330 Artificial insemination, 11, 293–299

advantages of, 294–295 artificial hormones, 298 artificial vagina, 295 in cattle, 50 estrus cycle control, 298–299 estrus synchronization, 298 extenders, 296–297 in goats, 114 history of, 293 honeybees, 195, 196 protectant, 293, 294 semen collection and processing, 295–298 semen volume and numbers for farm animals, 295 sperm anatomy, 296 straws for semen, 297–298 Artificial vagina, 295 Artiodactyla order, 22 Ascarids, 383 Asexual reproduction, 284 Aspergillus flavus, 403 Aspergillus fumigatus, 403 Assistance dogs, 159 Associate’s degree, 440 Australian Cattle Dog, 156 Automation in slaughter process, 359 Aves class of Vertebrata, 22 Ayrshire cattle, 27

B B vitamins, 347–348 Baby beef or calf, 35 Bachelor’s degree, 440–441 Bacillus bacteria, 398 Backfat, in beef selection, 265 Bacon, 66 Bacteria, 398–399 in milk, 56 Balance of carcass, 273 Balanced ration feeding, in dairy industry, 51 Barrows, 71, 331 Basic research, 6 Beagles, 156 Beak trimming, 415 Bee space, 191 Beef and veal world production, 9 Beef industry, 32–47 the American diet, 34 breeds of beef cattle, 39–40. See also specific breeds

byproducts for animal feed, 38–39 cattle liveweight increases, 7 geographical areas, 37–38 grass fed versus feedlot fed beef, 174 grazing agricultural animals, 37, 38 history of in United States, 37 products from beef in addition to food, 39 segments of, 41–44 statistics on, 37, 42 types of beef, 34–35 Beef selection, 265–272 backfat, 265 breeding cattle, 269–272 brisket, 271 carcass grading, 265 double muscling, 266, 268, 269 feed concentrate, 268 frame size, 266 growthiness, 270 hip height, 266, 267 pelvic capacity, 269 retail cuts, 266 rib eye, 266 set of legs and feet, 271, 272 sex characteristics, 270–271 testicle shape and size, 270–271 see also Scientific selection Beef, types of, 34–37 baby beef, 35 certified organic beef, 36–37 grain-fed beef, 35, 174 grass-fed beef, 36, 174 natural beef, 36 veal, 34–35 Beefmater cattle, 40 Bees as social insects, 185–190 Berkshire swine, 68 Biological control of parasites, 388 Binomial nomenclature, 20 Biotin, 247 Black and Tan Coonhound, 156 Blast freezing, 372 Blastula, 230, 325, 3236 Blind nipples, 261–262 Blind people, guide dogs for, 160 Bloat, 352, 405 Blood cells, 221 Blood typing, 25 Bloodhounds, 156

INDEX

Blue Tick Coonhound, 206 Boer goats, 114 Boluses, 350, 388 Bone, 277 Bone cells, 221 Border Collie, 156 Bos genus, 23 Bos indicus, 23, 26, 40 Bos taurus, 23, 26, 40 Bovidae family, 23 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), 404 Boxcars, refrigerated, 11 Boxers, 156 Brahman cattle, 26, 40 Brangus breed of cattle, 25, 40, 41 Breed associations, 13, 25 Breed classification, 24–26 blood typing, 25 crossbreeding, 26 purebreds, 25 selective breeding, 24–25 Breeding cattle, 269–272 Breeding ewes, 274 Breeding rams, 274–275 Breeding true, 24 Brisket, 271 British breeds of cattle, 39 Brittany Spaniel, 155 Broiler industry, 79–88 broiler houses, 80, 86–87 cannibalism, 80 hatching rooms, 85–86 heterosis, 81 hybrid birds, 81 hybrid vigor, 81 layers, 81. See also Layer industry processing plants, 88 statistics and geographical location, 79 vertical integration, 80 waste products for fertilizer, 87 see also Chickens; Egg production; Layer industry; Poultry industry; Turkey industry Broilers (chicken), 8–9 Brood and brood cells, 186 Brood chamber, 192 Browsing for food, 119 Brucellosis (Bangs), 407

BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), 404 BST (recombinant bovine somatotropin), 430 Budgerigars, 163 Bull Terrier, 156 Bulldog, 156 Bullfrogs, 140, 146–147 Bureau of Land Management, 431 Butter, 50, 112

C Cabrito, 111 Cage operations, layer industry, 88–89 Cage raising, in fish production, 144 Calf or baby beef, 35 Camels, 27, 29 milk from, 58 Cameroon Dwarf goat, 116 Candling eggs, 90 Canis familiaris, 24 Cannibalism in chickens, 80 Cannon bone, 264 Capra genus, 23 Caprinus subfamily, 23 Carbohydrates, 342–344 Carcass in beef selection, 265 rendering, 426 in swine selection, 264–265 Carcass merit, 72, 273, 276 Carding, 103 Careers in animal science, 436–447 associate’s degree, 440 careers with a bachelor’s degree, 440–441 careers with a graduate degree, 441–442 community college, 439 FFA Organization, 439, 443 interview preparation, 443–445 jobs available with an associate’s degree, 440 jobs available with high school diploma, 439 master’s degree, 438 personal and leadership skills, 442–443 Ph.D., 438

481

Post-secondary Agriculture Students Organization, 440 post-secondary institution, 438 Supervised Agricultural Experience Program (SAEP), 439 Carniolan bees, 194 Carnivores, 341 Carotene, 346 Cartilage, 329 Castings of worms, 172 Castration, 70, 331, 415, 416 Cat scratch fever, 164 Catabolism, 339 Catfish, 141, 143–144 Catheters in embryo transfer, 302 Foley three-way catheter, 302 Cats, 154, 156, 158 breeds of, 156 mice and other vermin, 156 Cattle communication in animals, 213–214 ingestive behavior, 211 social behavior, 207 Cattle grubs, 387 Cattle shows, 41 Caucasian bees, 194 Cecum, 133, 211, 349 Cell reproduction, 228–230 anaphase, 230 centrioles, 229 interphase, 228–229 meiosis, 228 metaphase, 229 mitosis, 228–230 prophase, 229 telophase, 230 see also Animal cells Cells. See Animal cells Cellulose, 342 Centrioles, 229 Certified animal products, 174, 174–178 Certified organic beef, 36–37 Cervidae family, 23 Cervix, 289 Charolais cattle, 49 Cheese manufacturing, 50, 60–61 curd, 61 curing or ripening, 61 enzymes, 60

482

INDEX

Cheese manufacturing (continued ) fermentation, 60 goat cheese, 112 rennet, 60 sheep cheese, 59 starter culture, 60 whey, 61 see also Dairy industry Chemical oxidation, 369 Chemicals and other substances in meats, 424 Chester white swine, 68 Chevron, 111 Chianina cattle, 40 Chickens, 78, 205 communication in animals, 212 pecking order, 208 social behavior, 208 see also Broiler industry; Poultry industry Chihuahua, 156 Chimpanzees, 204, 205 China, swine industry in, 66 Chine, 260 Cholesterol, 429 Choline, 348 Chordata phylum, 22 Chromosome numbers for domestic animals, 284–285 Chromosomes, 223, 236, 242–243 Chromotids, 285 Chronological age, 331 Citrus pulp, 39 Clams, 140 Classes in scientific classification, 22 Classics in education, 4 Classification of agricultural animals, 18–31 breed classification, 24–26 scientific classification, 20–23 use classification, 26–29 Cleavage, 230, 293, 325 Cleopatra, 112 Climate-controlled houses for swine, 70 Clitoris, 289 Cloning, 304, 308–321 animal and product uniformity, 312 cloning mammals, 316–317 development of the process, 314–319

differences in clones, 319–320 differentiation, 314 DNA, 312–313, 315 endangered species, 312–313 enucleated oocyte, 315 Factor IX, 318 genetic code, 314 genetic engineering, 311–312 genetic improvement, 311 genetic superiority, 311–312 genetically altered clones, 318 genotype, 319 nuclear transfer, 315, 316 oocyte, 314 phenotype, 319 quiescent cells, 317 reasons for, 311–314 research, 313–314 surrogate mothers, 311 twins and triplets from same zygote, 310 zygote, 314 Cocci bacteria, 398 Codominant genes, 240 Cold-blooded (ectothermic) animals, 140–141 Colic, 383 Coliforms, 430 Collagen, 332, 368 Colon, 238 Colony of bees, 212 Color coding, 241 Colostrum, 52, 135, 328, 401 Columbus, Christopher, 110 Combination curing, 371 Combing, 103 Commensalism, 380 Commercial honey production, 190–193 Communication in animals, 212–214 cattle, 213–214 chickens, 212 honey bees, 212 horses, 212–213, 214 pigs, 212, 213 see also Animal behavior Community colleges, 439 Companion animals, 154 Computers in animal agriculture, 12–13 Concentrate in feeding, 268 Conception, 290

Conditioning, 206 Confinement operations, 413–414, 433 in swine production methods, 71, 72 Conformation, 275 Connective tissue, 368 Consumer concerns, 422–435 antemortem inspection, 426 antibiotics in meat, 427 chemicals and other substances, 424 cholesterol, 429 country of origin labeling, 426–427 curing, 424 E. coli bacteria, 424–425 environmental concerns, 430–431 estrogen levels, 428 food poisoning, 424–425 genetic engineering, 429–430 global warming, 432–433 greenhouse effect, 432 growing and processing food, 424 hormones, 428 Meat Inspection Act, 425–426 medications for animals, 427 overgrazing of public lands, 430–431 pet food, 426 recombinant bovine somatotropin (RST or BST), 430 rendering carcasses, 426 Contagious diseases, 398–400 Continental European breeds of cattle, 40 Control groups, 6 Cooperative Extension Service, 5 Copulation, 290 Corn, 37, 343, 344 and swine industry, 68 Corpus luteum, 290 Cortex, 101–102 Cortisone, 13 Cotton, 101 Cottonseed, 38 Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, 7 Country of origin labeling, 426–427 Cow-calf operations in beef industry, 41–42

INDEX

Cow-hocked, 264 Cowper’s gland, 287 Cowpox, 402 Coyotes as predators, 100 Crayfish, 140, 147–148 Crickets, in fish bait production, 172 Crimp, 102 Crossbreeding, 26 in goats, 114 in swine industry, 68 Crows, 204 Crude-protein content, 340 Crustaceans, 140. See also Aquaculture industry Cryogenic freezing, 372 Cud, 22 Cud chewers, 350–352 Cultivated or row crops versus grazing land, 38 Curd, 61 Curing and smoking meat, 371, 424 Curing or ripening of cheese, 61 Curriculum of universities, 4 Cutability, 273 Cuticle, 101 Cytoplasm, 223–224, 286, 324

D Dairy goat breeds, 117–119 Dairy goats, 111–112 Dairy industry, 48–63 accelerated genetics beef sire EPDs, 52 artificial insemination, 50 balanced ration feeding, 51 butter, 50 cheese, 50. See also Cheese manufacturing cream, 57 dairy goats, 58–59 dairy sheep, 59–60 embryo transplants, 62 feeding, 51 foraging, 51 gestation, 51–52 Holstein cattle, 51 ice cream, 50, 56 linear evaluation, 51–52 milk, 50. See also Milk production silage, 51

statistics on, 50 yogurt, 50 Dalmatian, 156 Dam breeds, 39 Dams, 11, 12 Darwin, Charles, 207 De Soto, Hernando, 67 Debeaking, 415 Debouillet sheep, 104 Deer, 173, 178–179, 406 Dehorning, 415 Delaine sheep, 104 Dental pads, 211 Diabetes, 13, 231 Diet of Americans, 34 Differentiation of cells, 237, 238, 293, 314 Diffusion, 225, 350 Digestion process, 348–352 absorption, 348 alimentary canal, 348 gastorintestinal tract, 348 monogastric digestion system, 349–350 ruminant digestion system, 350–352 see also Nutrition Disaccharides, 343 Diseases, 392–409 antibiotics, 399 bacteria, 398–399 contagious diseases, 398–400 disease defined, 394 fungal, 402–403 genetic diseases, 404 infectious diseases, 398–400 list of diseases and nutritional defects, 394–397 noninfectious, 404–405 nutritional, 405 poisonings, 405 prevention of, 406–407 prions (proteinaceous infectious particle), 403–404 protozoa, 399, 400 related to small animal industry, 162–164 symptoms and signs, 397 viruses, 399 see also Immune system DNA, 223, 236, 237, 284 and cloning, 312–313, 315 in ovum stage, 325

483

Doberman Pinscher, 156 Docile animals, 207 Docking, 70, 415, 416 Dogs, 154, 155–156, 158, 205 assistance, 159 breeds of, 155–156 guard, 122 herding animals, 155, 206 as predators of sheep, 100 as work animals, 28 Dolphins, 205 Domesticated animals, 4, 20 Domestication in scientific selection, 256 Dominance, 208–209 Donkeys, 27, 129 Donor cows, 301 Dorset breed of sheep, 100 Double muscling in beef selection, 266, 268, 269 Draft horses, 28 Drones (bees), 185–186, 188 Drug residue in milk, 56 Drugs, 414–415 Dry curing, 371 Drying meat, 11, 373 Dual-purpose goat breeds, 115–116 Ducks, 78, 92, 205. See also Poultry industry Duodenum, 350 Duroc swine, 68

E E. coli, 374 Earthworms in fish bait production, 171–172 Eastern societies and goat milk, 112 Ecological balance, 100 Ectoderm, 326 Ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals, 140–141 Efficiency in scientific selection, 258 Egg production, 81–82 albumen, 81 cells, 81 chalazae, 82 cloaca, 82 cross-section of an egg, 82 embryo development, 84–85 fertilization, 84–85 germinal disk, 85

484

INDEX

Egg production (continued ) hatching eggs, 83–84 increases, 9 incubation process, 82 infundibulum, 81 isthmus, 82 magnum, 81 ovary, 81 ovum, 81 oxytocin, 82 relative humidity, 84 shell gland, 82 sperm, 84–85 sperm nests, 85 sweating, 84 uterus, 82 yolk, 81 see also Broiler industry; Chickens; Poultry industry Eggs, 292 candling, 90 fertilized, 236 Ejaculation, 291 Elastin, 368 Elastrator, 416 Electrical stimultion of muscles in aging, 360–361 Elk, 173 Embryo transfer, 11, 299–304 benefits of, 299–300 catheters in, 302 cloning, 304 donor cows, 301 Foley three-way catheter, 302 genetic base, 300 in goats, 114 new technology in, 303–304 progeny testing of females, 299–300 prostaglandin, 301 recipient cows, 301 superovulation, 301 Embryonic phase, 325–326 Endangered species, 157 and cloning, 312–313 Endocrine system, 289 Endoderm, 326 Endoplasmatic reticulum, 227 Energy storage, 329 Enucleated oocyte, 315 Environment concerns about, 430–431 disease-free, 10

in scientific selection, 256 and sheep industry, 100 study of, 4 in swine production methods, 73 Enzymes, 226 in cheese manufacturing, 60 EPD (expected progeny difference), 246, 247 Epididymis, 287 Epinephrine, 54 Epistasis, 241 Equilibrium, 225 Equus asinus, 26 Equus caballus, 26, 129 Ergot, 405 Esophagus, 349 Essential amino acids, 340, 341 Estimated breeding values, 246 Estrogen, 289 Estrogen levels, 428 Estrus, 288, 291, 411 cycle control of, 298–299 synchronization of, 298 Ethology, 204 Eukaryotic cells, 223–226 Ewes, 243, 273 Exothermic animals, 157 Exotic animals, 157 Exotic breeds of cattle, 40 Expected progeny difference (EPD), 246, 247 Experiment stations, 5 Experimental groups, 6 Experiments, 6 rabbits for, 169 Exsanguination, 359 Extenders for semen, 296–297 External parasites, 122–123, 381, 385–387

F Facilities for animals, 214 Factor IX, 318 Facultative organisms, 370 Fallopian tubes, 289 Families scientific classification, 23 Farriers, 136 Farrowing operation, 70 Fat as energy storage, 329 in milk, 56

in nutrition, 244 in palatability, 367 Fat cells, 221 FDA. See Food and Drug Administration Feathers, of geese and ducks, 92 Federal Humane Slaughter Act, 359 Federal inspection in plants, 358 Feed conversion ratio, in swine production methods, 71 Feed formulation by computers, 12 Feeder pigs, 70 Feedlot operations in beef industry, 43–45 Feedstuff, 338 Feet in swine selection, 264 Felting, 102 Female reproductive system, 288–291 cervix, 289 clitoris, 289 conception, 290 copulation, 290 corpus luteum, 290 egg, 292 endocrine system, 289 estrogen, 289 estrus, 288, 291 fallopian tubes, 289 hormone and chemical interaction, 290 ovulation, 290, 291 progesterone, 289 vagina, 289 zygote (fertilized egg), 289 see also Reproduction process Fermentation in cheese manufacturing, 60 Fertility in scientific selection, 257–258 Fertilization membrane, 292 Fertilized eggs, 236 Fertilizer for crops, 73 manure as, 431 Fetal stage, 327–328 FFA Organization, 439, 443 Fiber goats, 112–113 Fibers of wool, 101–102 Fingerlings, 144 Finish on carcass, 273, 276–277

INDEX

Finishing operation, in swine production methods, 72 Fish, 205 Fish bait production, 171–172 Fish production, 140–146 aerators, 141 cage raising, 144 catfish, 141, 143–144 ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals, 140–141 fingerlings, 144 fry fish, 144 gills, 141 oxygen, 141 photosynthesis, 141–142 salmon production, 146 seines, 144 sport fishing, 146 tilapia production, 145 trout, 145 warm-water and cold-water fish, 143 see also Acquaculture industry Fleece quality, 273 Flies, 123 Flukes, 384–385 Foley three-way catheter, 302 Folic acid, 348 Food, animals raised for, 257 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) antibiotics in meat, 427 BST in animals, 430 hormones in animals, 428 in radiation of meat, 373 regulating hormones, 330 Food poisoning, 424–425 Foundation comb, 191 Founder, 405 4-H organization, 160 Fox Terrier, 156 Frame size in beef selection, 266 Free choice, 345 Freeze branding, 416 Freezer storage of meat, 370, 371–372 Fructose, 343 Fry fish, 144 Functional traits in evaluating animals, 248 Fungal diseases, 402–403 Fungi kingdom, 21 Fur of rabbits, 169

G Gaited saddle horses, 129 Galactose, 343 Gamete production, 285–286 Gamete (sex cell), 242 Gastrointestinal tract, 348 Geese, 78, 92, 205. See also Poultry industry Gelding horses, 135 Gene transfer, 236–242 allele, 239 chromosomes, 236 codominant genes, 240 color coding, 241 differentiation, 237, 238 DNA, 236, 237 epistasis, 241 genes, 236 helix, 237, 238 heterozygous genes, 239 homozygous genes, 239 mutations, 241–242 nucleotides, 237 recessive genes, 239 ribonucleic acids (RNA), 237 see also Genetics Genes, 11, 223, 236 Genetic base, 300 Genetic code, 314 Genetic diseases, 404 Genetic engineering, 311–312 Genetic improvement, 311 Genetic superiority, 311–312 Genetically altered clones, 318 Genetics, 204, 234–253 determination of sex, 242–243 gamete (sex cell), 242 genotypes, 236 heritability, 243 heritability estimates for beef, swine, and sheep, 144 phenotypes, 236 in the selection process, 243–244 X and Y chromosomes, 242–243 zygote, 243 see also Gene transfer; Performance data Genotypes, 236, 319 Genus in scientific classification, 23 German bees, 194 German Shepherd, 160

485

Gestation period, 11, 68 Gills, 141 Gilts, 71, 262, 331 Giraffidae family, 23 Gland cistern, 53 Global warming, 432–433 Glucose, 343 Goat industry, 108–125 anatomy and physiology, 119–120 anthelmintics (de-wormers), 122 billies/nannies/wethers, 113 body types, 120 breeding, 120 breeds of goats, 113–119 browsing for food, 119 bucks/does/wethers/doelings/ bucklings, 117 cabrito, 111 chevron, 111 classification, 119 dairy goat breeds, 117–119 dairy goats, 111–112 dual-purpose goat breeds, 115–116 external parasites, 122–123 fiber goats, 112–113 goat leather, 113 goat milk products, 112 goat skins, 110 guard dogs, 122 health benefits of milk, 112 history, 100 housing/fencing/protection, 121 internal parasites, 121–122 lactase, 112 lactose intolerance, 111 management of goats, 120–123 meat goat breeds, 114–115 meat goats, 111 nomadic tribes, 110 nutrition, 120–121 parasites, 121–123 predators, 122 production in the United States, 113 ruminant animals, 119 Goat selection, 277–279 breeding meat goats, 278 dairy goats, 278–279 market goats, 277–278 see also Scientific selection Goatex Group, LLC, 115

486

INDEX

Goats Angora, 104–105 ingestive behavior, 211 mohair, 104–105 Golgi apparatus, 226 Goperus polyphemus, 21 Gophers, 20–21 Government regulations, quarantining, 407 Grading meat, 361–362 Graduate degree, 441–442 Grain-fed beef, 35 Grand Canyon trails, 131 Grass-fed beef, 36 Grazing agricultural animals, 37, 38 Grease wool, 102 Greenhouse effect, 432 Growing operation, in swine production methods, 71–72 Growth and development, 322–335 aging process, 331–332 artificial hormones, 330 cartilage, 329 castration, 331 chronological age, 331 collagen in aging, 332 colostrum in milk, 328 cytoplasm, 324 energy storage, 329 hormones and growth, 329–331 hyperplasia, 324 hypertrophy, 324 lean-to-fat ratio, 331 life spans of animals, 322 marbling, 329 organic matter, 329 ossification, 329 physiological age, 331 postnatal growth, 324, 328–329 vertebrae in aging, 331 see also Prenatal growth Growth promotants, 36 Growthability or growthiness, 245, 261, 264 in beef selection, 270 in scientific selection, 258 Grubs, 210 Guard bees, 190 Guard dogs, 156 for goats, 122 for sheep, 100

Guinea pigs in nursing homes, 158 Gurdon, John, 315

H Ham, 66. See also Swine industry Hampshire breed of sheep, 100 Hampshire swine, 68 Hand breeding horses, 134 Harness horses, 28 Hatch Act (1872), 5 Hatching rooms, 85–86 Health benefits of goat milk, 112 of pets, 157–158 Hearing-ear dogs, 160 Heart disease, 231 Heart valves, pig, 14, 70 Heel flies, 387 Heifers, 52 Helix, 237, 238 Herbivores, 341 Herding Dogs, 156 Hereford cattle, 39 Heritability, 243 estimates for beef, swine, and sheep, 144 Heterosis, 68 in chickens, 81 in goats, 114 Heterozygous genes, 239 Hides, 39 of alligators, 148 Hierarchy and dominance, 208–209 High school diploma, 439 High-volume pigs, 260 Hip height in beef selection, 266, 267 Hippotherapy, 161 Hive collapse, 198 Hives, 185, 191–193 Hog cholera, 406 Hogs. See Swine industry Holding ponds, 431 Holding tanks in milk production, 57 Holstein Association, 51, 249 Holstein-Friesian Association, 248 Homeostasis, 226 Homespun cloth, 101 Homogenization of milk, 57 Homozygous genes, 239

Honey combs, 188 Honey extractors, 193 Honeybee industry, 182–201 apiary, 184 Apis mellifera, 184 artificial insemination, 195, 196 bee space, 191 bees as social insects, 185–190 breeds of bees, 193–195 brood and brood cells, 186 brood chamber, 192 commercial honey production, 190–193 communication in animals, 212 docility of bees, 193 foundation comb, 191 guard bees, 190 history, 190 hive collapse, 198 hives, 185, 191–193 honey combs, 188 honey extractors, 193 importance of, 184–185 killer bees, 194, 195 metamorphosis of insects, 186 new queen production, 195–196 nucleus (“nukes”), 193, 194 nursery bees, 189 parasites of bees, 197–198 per-capita consumption of honey, 184 pheromones, 190 pollination, 184–185 propolis, 192 queen cells, 187, 196 queen excluder, 192 queens/drones/workers, 185–186, 188 royal jelly, 187, 195 scout bees, 189 statistics, 184 supers, 190 swarms, 187, 193 top honey-producing states, 184 Hormone and chemical interaction, 290 Hormones, 6, 13, 36, 428 artificial, 298 and growth, 329–331

INDEX

Horse industry, 126–137 anatomy of the horse, 132–134 classification, 129–130 history and statistics, 128–129 horse conformation and body type, 133–134 mules, 128, 130–132 raising horses, 134–136 recreational purposes, 129 thoroughbred races, 130 see also Horses Horse shows, 130 Horses, 154, 212–213, 214 artificial insemination and embryo transfer, 137–138 cecum, 133 colostrum milk, 135 Equus caballus, 129 farriers for, 136 gelding, 135 hand breeding, 134 hippotherapy, 161 learning in, 206 light/draft/ponies, 129, 130 milk from, 58 pasture breeding, 134 perissodactyls, 132 reproduction in, 134–135 saddle, 130 veterinarians for, 136 weaning, 135–136 wild, 129 as work animals, 28 see also Horse industry Host for parasites, 380 Hot branding, 416 Hound Group of dogs, 156 Human cell research, 231 Human disorders, treatment of, 13–14 Human parts, animal parts for replacement of, 14, 70 Humans, disease transmission to animals, 406 Hunting birds, 92 Hunting preserves, 178–179 Hutches, 168–169 Hybrid birds, 81 Hybrid vigor in chickens, 81 in goats, 114 in swine, 68 Hyperplasia, 324

487

Hypertrophy, 324 Hypothesis, 5–6

Jobs. See Careers in animal science Juiciness of cooked meat, 368–369

I

K

Iguanas, 157 Ileum, 350 Immobilization of animal in slaughter process, 359 Immune system, 400–402 active immunity, 401 antigens, 401 artificial active immunity, 402 colostrum, 401 lymphocytes, 401 naturally acquired active immunity, 401–402 phagocytes, 401 vaccination, 402 see also Diseases Immunity, 10 Imprinting, 205 Indexes in performance data, 244–245 Indiscriminate breeders, 207 Infantile vulva, 262 Infectious diseases, 398–400 Information retrieval, 12–13 Ingestive behavior, 210–211 Injection curing, 371 Inorganic matter, 344 Inositol, 348 Insect larvae, 147 Insemination, artificial, 11 Instinctive behavior, 204 Insulin, 13 Intelligence levels of animals, 204, 205 Intermediate host, 384 Internal parasites, 121–122, 381, 382–385 Internet, 12–13 Interphase, 228–229 Interview preparation, 443–445 Inverted nipples, 262 Irish Setter, 155 Irradiated meat, 373–374 Italian bees, 194

Kiko goats, 114–115 Killer bees, 194, 195 Kinder goats, 116 Kingdoms in scientific classification, 21 Kosher markets, 359

J Jacks (asses), 26, 130 Jejunum, 350 Jenner, Edward, 402 Jewish religious laws, 67, 359

L Laboratory animal production, 173–174 controversy in, 173 and genetic defects, 173–174 Labrador Retriever, 155, 160 Lactase, 112 Lactation cycles, 6 Lactose, 343 Lactose intolerance, 111 Lagoons for waste products, 73, 431 LaMancha goats, 118, 119 Lamb, 98. See also Sheep industry Land Grant Act or Morrill Act (1862), 5 Land grant colleges, 5 Landrace swine, 68 Langstroth, Lorenzo, 190 Lanolin, 102 Lard, 67, 259. See also Swine industry Large game animals, 173 Layer industry, 88–90 cage operations, 88–89 candling eggs, 90 metabolism to produce eggs, 88 molting, 89 per-capita egg consumption, 88 pullets, 89 see also Broiler industry; Chickens; Egg production; Poultry industry Leadership skills, 442–443 Lean-to-fat ratio, 331 Learned behavior, 205 Leather, 39, 113 Legislation in education, 5. See also Animal agriculture as science Legs and feet set in beef selection, 271, 272

488

INDEX

Letdown process in milk production, 53 Lice, 123, 386–387 Life cycle, 380 Life spans of animals, 322 Ligaments of joints, 263 Limousin cattle, 40 Lincoln, Abraham, 5 Linear classification, 246–249 Linnaeus, Carolus, 20 Lipids, 344 Livestock factories, 413 Llama production, 171 Lobule, 53 Loin eye, 260 Longhair cats, 156 Longhorn cattle, 256–257 Low-fat milk, 56 Lumen, 53 Lyme disease, 163 Lysosomes, 227

M Macrominerals, 345 Mad cow disease, 404 Maintenance ration, 338 Male reproductive system, 287–288 Cowper’s gland, 287 ejaculation, 291 epididymis, 287 motile sperm, 292 penis, 288 prepuce, 288 prostate gland, 288 seminal vesicles, 287 sperm anatomy, 292 testosterone, 287 urethra, 287 vas deferens, 287 see also Reproduction process Mammilia class of Vertebrata, 22 Management practices, 415–418 beak trimming, 415 castration, 415, 416 debeaking, 415 dehorning, 415 docking, 415, 416 elastrator, 416 freeze branding, 416 hot branding, 416 pecking order, 415 scrotum, 416 see also Welfare of animals

Manure as fertilizer, 431 and methane gas, 434 Marbling in meat, 329, 361–362, 429 Market lambs, 275–277 Master’s degree, 438 Mastication, 368 Mastitis, 55 Mayflower, 110 Meat goat breeds, 114–115 Meat goats, 111 Meat industry, 358–359 Meat Inspection Act, 425–426 Meat instead of lard in swine selection, 259 Meat science, 356–377 grading meat, 361–362 marbling in meat, 361–362 meat industry, 358–359 nutrients in meat, 358 per-capita consumption of meat, 358 primal cuts, 362, 363 wholesale cuts, 363 yield grade, 362 see also Palatability factors; Preservation and storage of meat; Slaughter process Medications for animals, 427 Meiosis, 228, 286, 287, 325 Mendel, Gregory, 273 Merino sheep, 104 Mesoderm, 326 Mesophiles, 370 Messenger dogs, 156 Metamorphosis in insects, 186, 382 Metaphase, 229 Methane gas, 433 Mice and other vermin and cats, 156 Microbes, 369 Microfilaments, 226 Microminerals, 345 Milestones in animal agriculture, 10–14 animal immunization, 10 artificial insemination, 11 computers, 12–13 embryo transfer, 11 refrigeration, 10–11

Milk antibodies, 52 grades of, 57 homogenization of, 57 from horses, 58 increases per dairy cow, 8 low-fat, 56 pasteurization of, 57 skim, 56 testing, 56 types and processing of milk products, 58 whole, 56 see also Colostrum; Milk production Milk fever, 405 Milk production, 52–58 alveoli, 52 epinephrine, 54 gland cistern, 53 holding tanks, 57 letdown process, 53 lobule, 53 lumen, 53 mastitis, 55 milk parlors, 54–56 oxytocin, 53 pituitary gland, 53 prolactin, 53 sphincter muscle, 53 stanchions, 54 teats, 53 tertiary ducts, 53 udders, 53, 55 vacuum system milking machines, 55 see also Dairy industry; Milk Milk products, goat, 112 Milking parlors, 54–56, 206 Minerals, 344–345 Mites, 123 Mitochrondria, 226 Mitosis, 228–230, 284, 293 Mohair, 104–105 Mollusca phylum, 21–22 Mollusks, 140. See also Aquaculture industry Molting, 89 Monera kingdom, 21 Mongolians, 58 Monogastric digestion system, 349–350 Monogastric intestinal tract, 347

INDEX

Monosaccharides, 343 Morphogenesis, 326 Morrill Act or Land Grant Act (1862), 5 Morrill, Justin, 5 Morula, 325 Moslems, pork consumption by, 67 Most probable producing ability (MPPA), 245 Mother breeds in swine, 69 Mothering ability, 245 Motile sperm, 292 MPPA (most probable producing ability), 245 Mucous membranes, 351 Mules, 26, 128, 130–132 Muscle cells, 221 Muscling of carcass, 273 Mutalism, 380 Mutations, 241–242 Mutton, 98. See also Sheet industry

N National Cattlemen’s Association, 428 statement of principles, 417 National Institute of Health, 430 National Pork Producers Council, Pork Producers Creed, 418 National Pork Products Council, 66–67 Native Americans, pork consumption of, 67 Native animal reintroduction, 100 Natural animal products, 174 Natural and certified animal products, 174–178 Natural beef, 36 Natural habitat, 204 Natural selection, 256 Naturally acquired active immunity, 401–402 Nature, 4 Nerve cells, 221 New Castle disease, 157 Niacin, 347 Nigerian Dwarf goats, 118–119 Nipples in swine selection, 261–262 Nomadic tribes, 110 Noninfectious diseases, 404–405 Nonsporting Dogs, 156

Nonessential amino acids, 340, 341 Notochord, 22, 326 Nubian goats, 111, 114, 116 Nuclear transfer, 315, 316 Nucleotides, 237 Nucleus (“nukes”), 193, 194 Nucleus of cells, 223, 286 Nursery bees, 189 Nurseries in swine production methods, 70–71 Nursing homes and pets, 158 rabbits in, 158 Nutrients in meat, 358 Nutrition, 336–355 anabolism, 338–339 carbohydrates, 342–344 catabolism, 339 fats, 244 feedstuff, 338 maintenance ration, 338 minerals, 344–345 protein, 340–342 vitamins, 345–348 water, 339 see also Digestion process Nutritional defects and diseases, list of, 392–395. See also Diseses Nutritional diseases, 405 Nutritional value of meat, 169 Nymphs, 385

O Oberhasli goats, 118 Offspring, 11 Old English Sheepdog, 156 Omasum, 351 Omnivorous animals, 6 Oocyte, 314 Oogenesis, 286 Orbatid mite, 384 Orders in scientific classification, 22 Organelles, 224, 226–227 Organic fertilizer for crops, 73 Organic matter, 329 Organisms, 20 Organs for food, 360 Osmosis, 225 Ossification, 329 Overeating, 405

489

Overgrazing of public lands, 431–432 Ovis genus, 23 Ovulation, 290, 291 Ovum stage, 234–325 Oxidation of fatty acids, 369 Oxygen, 141 Oxytocin, 53, 328 Oysters, 140

P Pack animals, llamas as, 171 Palatability factors, 363–369 adipose tissue, 368 aroma, 369 collagen, 368 connective tissue, 368 elastin, 368 fat, 367 juiciness of cooked meat, 368–369 mastication, 368 oxidation of fatty acids, 369 pale, soft, exudative (PSE) condition, 368 rancid flavor, 369 smell (olfactory) factor, 369 taste (gustatory) factor, 369 tenderness, 367–368 see also Meat science Pale, soft, exudative (PSE) condition, 259, 368 Pantothenic acid, 347 Parasites, 121–123, 378–391, 414–415 anemia, 380 ascarids, 383 in bees, 197–198 biological control, 388 bolus, 388 cattle grubs, 387 colic, 383 commensalism, 380 control of parasites, 387–388 external parasites, 381, 385–387 flukes, 384–385 heel flies, 387 host, 380 intermediate host, 384 internal parasites, 381, 382–385 lice, 386–387 life cycle, 380 metamorphosis in insects, 382 mutalism, 380

490

INDEX

Parasites (continued ) nymphs, 385 orbatid mite, 384 parasitism, 380 roundworms, 382–383 screwworm, 388 sleeping sickness in horses, 381 snails, 385–386 stomach worms, 382–383 strongyle, 383 symbiosis, 380 systemic pesticides, 387–388 tapeworms, 384 tick bird, 380 ticks, 385–386 warm-blooded animals, 385 Parasitism, 380 Parkinson’s disease, 231 Parrots, 157, 163 Pasterns, 263 Pasteur, Louis, 10, 402 Pasteurization of milk, 57 Pasture breeding horses, 134 Pavlov, Ivan, 206 Peanut allergies, 403 Pecking order, 208, 415 Pedigree record, 246 Pekinese, 156 Pelts, 104 Pelvic capacity in beef selection, 269 Penis, 288 Pepsin, 350 Per-capita consumption of meat, 358 Performance data, 244–250 estimated breeding values, 246 expected progeny difference (EPD), 246, 247 functional traits in evaluating animals, 248 growthability, 245 indexes, 244–245 linear classification, 246–249 measurements of mothering ability, 245 most probable producing ability (MPPA), 245 pedigree record, 246 siblings, 246 weaning weight, 244 yearling weight, 244 see also Gene transfer; Genetics

Perissodactyla order, 22, 132 Persian cats, 156 Personal and leadership skills, 442–443 Pet food, 161, 426 Petroleum industry, 101 Pets, rabbits as, 169. See also Small animal industry pH, 172, 370 Phagocytes, 401 Pharmaceuticals, 13, 39 Ph.D., 438 Pheasants, 92, 179 Phenotypes, 236, 319 Pheromones, 190 Photosynthesis, 141–142 Phulon, 21 Phyla in scientific classification, 21–22 Physiological age, 331 Piece-dyed wool, 103 Pietrain swine, 68 Pig heart valves, 14 Pig skin for human treatments, 14 Pigeon-toed, 264 Pigs, 212, 213 characteristics of, 69 free range and wild, 67 and human body parts, 14, 70 ingestive behavior of, 210, 211 intelligence of, 205, 206 and research, 70 slaughtering, 359–360 social behavior, 208, 209 see also Swine industry Pin nipples, 261 Pituitary gland, 53 Placenta, 130, 325 Plantae kingdom, 21 Plasma membrane, 224 Poisonings, 405 Poisonous plants, 405, 406 Poland China swine, 68 Polar bodies, 286 Polled, 24 Polled Hereford breed, 242 Pollination, 184–185 Poodle, 156 Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS), 259 Pork rendering fat from, 67 salting, 67

smoking, 67 see also Swine industry Pork consumption, 66–67 Post-secondary Agriculture Students Organization, 440 Post-secondary institution, 438 Poultry industry, 76–95 advances in, 8–9 per-capita consumption of poultry and livestock, 78 statistics on, 78–79 see also Broiler industry; Layer industry; Turkey industry Prawns, 140 Predators on goats, 122 on sheep, 100, 205 Prenatal growth, 324–328 embryonic phase, 325–326 fetal stage, 327–328 ovum stage, 234–325 see also Growth and development Prepuce, 288 Preservation and storage of meat, 10–11, 369–374 aerobic organisms, 370 anaerobic organisms, 370 blast freezing, 372 chemical oxidation, 369 combination curing, 371 cryogenic freezing, 372 curing and smoking, 371 dry curing, 371 drying meat, 373 facultative organisms, 370 freezer storage of meat, 371, 372–373 historical methods of preservation, 369 injection curing, 371 irradiated meat, 373–374 mesophiles, 370 microbes, 369 pH of microorganisms, 370 psychrophiles, 369 refrigerator storage of meat, 372 thermophiles, 369 see also Meat science Prevention of diseases, 406–407 Primal cuts, 362, 363 Primate order, 22 Primates for research studies, 173

INDEX

Prions (proteinaceous infectious particle), 403–404 Processing plants in broiler industry, 88 Product testing, rabbits for, 169 Progeny, 12, 13 Progeny testing of females, 299–300 Progesterone, 289 Prokaryotic cells, 222–223 Prolactin, 53 Prophase, 229 Propolis, 192 Prostaglandin, 301 Prostate gland, 288 Protectant, 293, 294 Protein, 340–342 Protista kingdom, 21 Protozoa, 399, 400 Psychrophiles, 369 Public lands, overgrazing of, 431–432 Pug, 156 Pullets, 89 Purebred operations in beef industry, 41 Purebreds, 25 Pygmy goats, 116 Pyridoxine, 347

Q Quail, 92, 179 Quarantining, 407 Queen cells, 187, 196 Queen excluder, 192 Queens, 185–186, 188 new queen production, 195–196 Quiescent cells, 317

R Rabbits, 168–171 breeding of, 170 commercial operations, 168 demand for, 169 for experiments and product testing, 169 feed for, 169, 170 fur of, 169 history, 168 hutches, 168–169 in nursing homes, 158 nutritional value of meat, 169 as pets, 169 wild rabbits in Australia, 170

see also Alternative animal agriculture Rabies, 162 Races, thoroughbred, 130 Radiation to preserve meat, 373 Rambouillet sheep, 104 Rancid flavor, 369 Range wars, 211 Rats for research studies, 173 Rattus norevegicus, 21 Recessive genes, 239 Recipient cows, 301 Recombinant bovine somatotropin (RST or BST), 430 Recreational purposes, horses for, 129 Refrigeration, 10–11, 372 Reintroduction of native animals, 100 Rendering carcasses, 426 Rennet, 60 Reproduction cycles in farm animals, 292 Reproduction process, 282–307 asexual reproduction, 284 chromosome numbers for domestic animals, 284–285 chromotids, 285 cleavage in egg, 293 cycles in farm animals, 292 cytoplasm, 286 differentiation of cells, 293 DNA, 284 fertilization membrane, 292 gamete production, 285–286 meiosis, 286, 287 mitosis, 284, 293 nucleus of cells, 286 oogenesis, 286 polar bodies, 286 sexual reproduction, 284 spermatogenesis, 285 spermatogonia, 285 spermatozoa, 285 synapsis, 285 zygotes, 284 see also Artificial insemination; Embryo transfer; Female reproductive system; Male reproductive system Reproductive efficiency, 259, 261 in scientific selection, 257–258

491

Reproductive process conception, 290 copulation, 290 ejaculation, 291 fertilization, 291 Reptiles, 140, 157. See also Aquaculture industry Reptilia class of Vertebrata, 22 Research, 4–7 and animal welfare, 418–419 and cloning, 313–314 and pigs, 70 Retail cuts, 363–366 of beef, 364 in beef selection, 266 of lamb, 365 of pork, 366 Reticulum, 351 Rib eye in beef selection, 266 Riboflavin, 347 Ribonucleic acids (RNA), 237 Rigor mortis, 360 Ringworm, 163 RNA (ribonucleic acids), 237 Robl, James, 318 Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 163 Roundworms, 382–383 in dogs, 163 in goats, 122 Royal jelly, 187, 195 RST (recombinant bovine somatotropin), 430 Rumen, 347, 351 Ruminant animals, 119, 210, 211 Ruminant digestion system, 350–352 Ruminantia suborder, 22, 23 Russian bees, 194 Rye grass seed production and sheep, 98

S Saanen goats, 117 Sable goats, 117 Saddle horses, 28, 130 Salmon, 205 Salmon production, 146 Salmonella poisoning, 157 Salting meat, 10 Santa Gertudis breed of cattle, 26, 40 Saponification, 112 Savanna goats, 115

492

INDEX

Scavengers, dogs as, 155 Science defined, 4 Scientific classification, 20–23 classes, 22 families, 23 genus, 23 kingdoms, 21 orders, 22 phyla, 21–22 species, 23 Scientific method, 5–7 Scientific research, 4, 13–14 Scientific selection, 254–281 animals raised for food, 257 domestication, 256 efficiency, 258 fertility, 257–258 genetics in, 243–244 growthability, 258 history, 256 natural selection, 256 reproductive efficiency, 257–258 surviving in the environment, 256 see also Beef selection; Goat selection; Sheep selection; Swine selection Scouring wool, 102 Scout bees, 189, 212 Scraple, 404 Screwworms, 388 Scrotum, 416 Specific gravity of cream and milk, 57 Seines, 144 Selection. See Scientific selection Selective breeding, 24–25 Semen, 11 collection and processing of, 295–298 volume and numbers for farm animals, 295 Seminal vesicles, 287 Semipermeable membrane, 350 Serum, 10 Service animals, 159–161 Sex characteristics in beef selection, 270–271 in swine selection, 261 Sex determination, 242–243 Sexual and reproductive behavior, 209–210 Sexual reproduction, 284 Sheaths on testicles, 262

Sheep, 205 ingestive behavior, 211 liveweight increases, 8 social behavior, 208 Sheep industry, 96–107 breeds, 99–100 ecological balance, 100 and environmentalists, 100 guard dogs, 100 history, 98 lamb, 98 mutton, 98 predators, 100 rye grass seed production, 98 show animals, 99 spring lambs, 98 statistics on production, 99 wool types, 99–100 see also Wool industry Sheep selection, 273–277 bone, 277 breeding ewes, 274 breeding rams, 274–275 carcass merit, 273, 276 conformation, 275 cutability, 273 fleece quality, 273 market lambs, 275–277 vacuum packaging, 275 see also Scientific selection Shorthair cats, 156 Shorthorn cattle, 25, 30 Show animals, sheep as, 99 Shrimp, 140 Shroud, 360 Siblings, 246 Sickle-hocked, 247 Signal dogs, 160 Simbrah cattle, 40 Simmental cattle, 40 Sire breeds, 39 in swine, 69 Sires, 11, 12 Skim milk, 56 Slaughter process, 358–361 aging the carcass, 360 automation in, 359 chine, 260 electrical stimulation of muscles, 360–361 exsanguination, 359 federal inspection in plants, 358 immobilization of animal, 359 kosher markets, 359

rigor mortis, 360 shroud, 360 see also Meat science Sled dogs, 156 Sleeping sickness in horses, 381 Small animal industry, 152–165 animal health, 161–164 cats, 154, 156, 158 commercial industry, 154 companion animals, 154 diseases and afflictions related to, 162–164 dogs, 154, 155–156, 158 exotic animals, 157 health benefits, 157–158 history, 155, 156 horses, 154 pet food, 161 reptiles, 157 service animals, 159–161 statistics, 154 Smallpox, 402 Smell (olfactory) factor, 369 Smith-Hughes Act (1917), 5 Smith-Lever Act (1914), 5 Smoking meat, 371 Smoothness of carcass, 273 Snails, 385–386 Soap goat milk, 112 from lard, 67 Soaps and lotions, from wool, 102 Social behavior, 207–209 cattle, 207 chickens, 208 hierarchy and dominance, 208–209 pigs, 208, 209 sheep, 208 wild horses, 208 see also Animal behavior Somatic cells, in milk, 56 Soundness of carcass, 273 Southdown breed of sheep, 100 Sow Productivity Index, 245 Sows, 239. See also Swine industry Soybeans, 38, 341, 344 Spallanzani, Lazarro, 293 Spanish goats, 116 Species in scientific classification, 23 Sperm anatomy, 292, 296 Sperm, viable, 262 Spermatogenesis, 285 Spermatogonia, 285

INDEX

Spermatozoa, 285 Sphincter muscle, 53 Spinning, 103, 104 Spirilla bacteria, 398 Splayfooted, 264 Spores, 403 Sport fishing, 146 Sporting Group breeds of dogs, 155 Spotted swine, 68 Spring lambs, 98 Stallions, 208 Stanchions, 54 Starter culture in cheese manufacturing, 60 Steers, 140 Stem cells, 230–231 Stice, Steven, 318, 319 Stock-dyed wool, 103 Stocker operations in beef industry, 43 Stomach worms, 382–383 Straws for semen, 297–298 Strongyle, 383 Structural soundness in swine selection, 262–264 Style of carcass, 273 Sucrose, 343 Suffolk breed of sheep, 100 Sugar beet pulp, 39 Suiform suborder, 22 Suint, 102 Superovulation, 301 Supers in bee hives, 190 Supervised Agricultural Experience Program (SAEP), 439 Surrogate mothers, 311 Sus scrofa, 20 Swarms, 187, 193 Swine industry, 64–75 breeds of swine, 68–69 consumption of pork, 66–67 and corn, 68 crossbreeding, 68 geographic areas, 66, 68 gestation period of swine, 68 heterosis, 68 history of, 67–68 hybrid vigor, 68 mother breeds, 69 sire breeds, 69 statistics on, 66 synthetic lines, 68 see also Pigs; Pork; Swine production methods

Swine liveweight increases, 8 Swine production methods, 69–72 amino acids, 72 barrows, 71 carcass merit, 72 castration, 70 climate-controlled houses, 70 confinement operation, 71, 72 docking, 70 environmental concerns, 73 farrowing operation, 70 feed conversion ratio, 71 feeder pigs, 70 finishing operation, 72 gilts, 71 growing operation, 71–72 lagoons for waste products, 73 nurseries, 70–71 organic fertilizer for crops, 73 see also Swine industry Swine selection, 258–265 and breeding hogs, 261–265 cannon bone, 264 carcass, 264–265 feet, 264 growthiness, 261, 264 high-volume pigs, 260 ligaments of joints, 263 loin eye, 260 meat instead of lard, 259 nipples, 261–262 pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) pork, 259 pasterns, 263 Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS), 259 reproductive efficiency, 259, 261 sex characteristics, 261 standing and walking on concrete, 263 structural soundness, 262–264 see also Scientific selection Symbiosis, 380 Synapsis, 285 Synthetic fibers, 101 Synthetic lines in swine industry, 68 Systemic pesticides, 387–388

T Tankage, 341 Tapeworms, 122, 384 Taste (gustatory) factor, 369 Teats, 53 Telophase, 230

493

Tenderness in palatability, 367–368 Tennessee fainting goats, 115 Terrier Group of dogs, 156 Tertiary ducts, 53 Testicle shape and size in beef selection, 270–271 Testicles, boar, 262 Testosterone, 287 Textile industry, 101 Thermophiles, 369 Thiamine, 347 Thonomomys species, 21 Thoroughbred races, 130 Thurl, 246–247 Tick bird, 380 Ticks, 123, 163, 385–386 Tilapia production, 145 Toggenburg goats, 118 Tool use in animal behavior, 204 Toxoplasmosis, in cats, 163 Toy Dog Group, 156 Trace minerals, 345 Tracheal mites, 197 Tragulidae family, 23 Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE), 404 Trout, 145 TSE (transmissible spongiform encephalopathy), 404 Turkey industry, 90–92 artificial insemination, 91 confinement houses, 91 muscling of commercial turkeys, 90 open range, 91–92 per-capita consumption, 90 production in the United States, 91 see also Broiler industry; Poultry industry Turkeys, 78, 178, 179 increases in weight of, 9 see also Poultry industry Twins and triplets from same zygote, 310 Tylopoda suborder, 22 Type of carcass, 273

U Udders, 53, 55 Underline in color, 24 Uniformity in animal and product, 312

494

INDEX

United States the American diet, 34 history of beef industry in, 37 per-capita income in, 4 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 5 Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS), 361 grades of beef, 174 hormones in animals, 428 meat grading, 425 meat inspection, 425–426 non-family-owned farms, 417 nutritional value of meats, 169 regulations for organic animal products, 174–178 Universities, 4–5 Urethra, 287 USDA. See United States Department of Agriculture Use classification, 26–29 dual-purpose animals, 28–29 meat animals, 26–27 work animals, 27–28

V Vaccination, 10, 402, 406 Vaccines, 10 Vacuoles, 226 Vacuum packaging, 275 Vacuum system milking machines, 55 Vagina, 289 artificial, 295 Varroa mites, 198 Vas deferens, 287 Veal, 34–35 world production of, 9 Vermin and cats, 156 Vertebrae in aging, 331 Vertical integration in broiler industry, 80 Vetebrata subphylum, 22 Veterinarians, 136 small animal, 161–162 Viable sperm, 262 Villi, 350 Viruses, 222, 399 Vitamin A, 346 Vitamin B, 347–348 Vitamin C, 348 Vitamin D, 346 Vitamin E, 346

Vitamin K, 347 Vocational Agriculture programs in public high schools, 5 Vulva, infantile, 262

W Wall Street, 67 Warm-blooded animals, 385 Warm-water and cold-water fish, 143 Waste products for fertilizer, 87 Water, 339 Water buffalo, 27 Watusi cattle, 284 Weaning weight, 244 Weaving, 103, 104 Welch Terrier, 156 Welfare of animals, 410–421 Animal Industry Foundation, 417 animal rights activists, 412 Animal Rights Movement, 412 animal welfare activists, 412–413 antibiotics, 414 confinement operations, 413–414, 433 drugs, 414–415 history, 412 livestock factories, 413 National Cattlemen’s Association statement of principles, 417 National Pork Producers Council Pork Producers Creed, 418 parasites, 414–415 research, 418–419 withdrawal periods for drugs, 415 see also Management practices Whales, 205 Whey, 61 Whole milk, 56 Wholesale cuts, 363 Wild and domesticated dogs as predators of sheep, 100 Wild cattle, 256 Wild dogs, 155 Wild horses, 129, 208, 406 Wild pigs, 256, 257, 406 Wild rabbits in Australia, 170 Wildlife and disease transmission, 406

Wildlife areas, stocking, 92 Withdrawal periods for drugs, 415 Wolves, 155, 206 Wool industry, 100–105 alpaca, 171 carding, 103 combing, 103 cortex, 101–102 crimp, 102 cuticle, 101 felting, 102 fibers of wool, 101–102 grease wool, 102 history, 100–101 mohair, 104–105 pelts, 104 per-capita consumption of wool, 104 piece-dyed wool, 103 processing wool, 102–104 scouring wool, 102 soaps and lotions, 102 spinning, 103, 104 stock-dyed wool, 103 suint, 102 weaving, 103, 104 yarn-dyed wool, 103 yolk, 102 see also Sheep industry Wool types, 99–100 Work animals, horses as, 28 Worker bees, 185–186, 188 Working Dog Group, 146

X X and Y chromosomes, 242–243

Y Yarn-dyed wool, 103 Yearling weight, 244 Yearlings, 274 Yield grade, 362 Yolk in wool, 102 Yorkshire swine, 68

Z Zebras, 129 Zebu cattle, 40 Zoonoses, 162–164 Zygotes, 243, 284, 289, 314 twins and triplets from same zygote, 310