Europe 1789 to 1914.. the Age of Industry and Empire

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SCRIBNER LIBRARY OF MODERN EUROPE

EUROPE 1789

TO

1914

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE AGE OF INDUSTRY AND EMPIRE

EDITORIAL BOARD

EDITORS IN CHIEF

John Merriman Yale University Jay Winter Yale University ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Jane Burbank New York University John A. Davis University of Connecticut Steven C. Hause Washington University, St. Louis Mark S. Micale University of Illinois Dennis Showalter Colorado College Jonathan Sperber University of Missouri

SCRIBNER LIBRARY OF MODERN EUROPE

EUROPE 1789

TO

1914

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE AGE OF INDUSTRY AND EMPIRE

Volume 5 Talleyrand to Zollverein; Index John Merriman and Jay Winter EDITORS IN CHIEF

Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire John Merriman Jay Winter Editors in Chief

ª 2006 Thomson Gale, a part of the Thomson Corporation. Thomson and Star Logo are trademarks and Gale and and Charles Scribner’s Sons are registered trademarks used herein under license. For more information, contact Thomson Gale 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Or you can visit our Internet site at http://www.gale.com

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Europe 1789 to 1914 : encyclopedia of the age of industry and empire / edited by John Merriman and Jay Winter. p. cm. — (Scribner library of modern Europe) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-684-31359-6 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31360-X (v. 1 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31361-8 (v. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31362-6 (v. 3 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-68431363-4 (v. 4 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31364-2 (v. 5 : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31496-7 (ebook) 1. Europe–History–1789-1900–Encyclopedias. 2. Europe–History–1871-1918– Encyclopedias. 3. Europe–Civilization–19th century–Encyclopedias. 4. Europe– Civilization–20th century–Encyclopedias. I. Merriman, John M. II. Winter, J. M. D299.E735 2006 940.2’8–dc22 2006007335

This title is also available as an e-book and as a ten-volume set with Europe since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of War and Reconstruction. E-book ISBN 0-684-31496-7 Ten-volume set ISBN 0-684-31530-0 Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME

n

Maps of Europe, 1789 to 1914 . . . xvii

VOL UME 5 n

T Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de Tchaikovsky, Peter Telephones Tennyson, Alfred Thiers, Louis-Adolphe Tirpitz, Alfred von Tobacco Tocqueville, Alexis de Tolstoy, Leo Tories Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de Tourism Toussaint Louverture Trade and Economic Growth Trafalgar, Battle of Transportation and Communications Treitschke, Heinrich von Trieste Tristan, Flora Tuberculosis Tunisia Turati, Filippo Turgenev, Ivan Turner, J. M. W.

n

U Ukraine Ulm, Battle of Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich Umberto I Universities Unkiar-Skelessi, Treaty of Utilitarianism Utopian Socialism

n

V Van Gogh, Vincent Venice Verdi, Giuseppe Verga, Giovanni Verne, Jules Victor Emmanuel II Victoria, Queen Vienna Viollet-le-Duc, Euge`ne Virchow, Rudolf Vladivostok

n

W Wagner, Richard Waldeck-Rousseau, Rene´ Wales

v

CONTENTS OF THIS VOLUME

Wallace, Alfred Russel War of 1812 Warsaw Waterloo Webb, Beatrice Potter Weber, Max Weininger, Otto Welfare Wellington, Duke of (Arthur Wellesley) Wells, H. G. Westernizers Whigs Wilberforce, William Wilde, Oscar William I William II William IV Windthorst, Ludwig Wine Witte, Sergei Wollstonecraft, Mary Wordsworth, William Working Class World’s Fairs Wundt, Wilhelm

vi

n

Y Yeats, William Butler Young Czechs and Old Czechs Young Hegelians Young Italy Young Turks

n

Z Zasulich, Vera Zionism ´ mile Zola, E Zollverein

n

Systematic Outline of Contents . . . 2527 Directory of Contributors . . . 2539 Index . . . 2559

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

VOLUME 1 n

Introduction . . . xix Maps of Europe, 1789 to 1914 . . . xxix Chronology . . . xxxvii

n

A Abdul-Hamid II Absinthe Action Franc¸aise Acton, John Addis Ababa, Treaty of Adler, Alfred Adler, Victor Adrianople Africa Agassiz, Louis Agricultural Revolution Airplanes Albania Alcohol and Temperance Alexander I Alexander II Alexander III Alexandra Algeria Alliance System Alsace-Lorraine Amsterdam

Anarchism Anarchosyndicalism Andreas-Salome´, Lou Anneke, Mathilde-Franziska Anticlericalism Anti-Semitism Aristocracy Armenia Armies Arnold, Matthew Artisans and Guilds Art Nouveau Asquith, Herbert Henry Associations, Voluntary Atget, Euge`ne Athens Auclert, Hubertine Augspurg, Anita Austen, Jane Austerlitz Australia Austria-Hungary Austro-Prussian War Automobile Avant-Garde

n

B Baden-Powell, Robert Bagehot, Walter Bakunin, Mikhail Balkan Wars

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CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Balzac, Honore´ de Banks and Banking Barbizon Painters Barcelona Barre`s, Maurice Barry, Charles Baudelaire, Charles Ba¨umer, Gertrud Beards Beardsley, Aubrey Bebel, August Beethoven, Ludwig van Belgium Belgrade Belinsky, Vissarion Bely, Andrei Bentham, Jeremy Berdyayev, Nikolai Bergson, Henri Berlin Berlin Conference Berlioz, Hector Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste Bernard, Claude Bernhardt, Sarah Bernstein, Eduard Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von Bismarck, Otto von Black Hand Black Sea Blake, William Blanc, Louis Blanqui, Auguste Blok, Alexander Body Boer War Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia Bolsheviks Bonald, Louis de Bonapartism Borodino Bosnia-Herzegovina Bosphorus Boulanger Affair Boulangism Bourgeoisie Boxer Rebellion Brahms, Johannes Braille, Louis Brentano, Franz

viii

Bronte¨, Charlotte and Emily Brougham, Henry Brunel, Isambard Kingdom Brussels Brussels Declaration Budapest Bulgaria Bund, Jewish Burckhardt, Jacob Bureaucracy Burke, Edmund Business Firms and Economic Growth Butler, Josephine Byron, George Gordon

n

C Cabarets Cabet, E´tienne Caillaux, Joseph Cajal, Santiago Ramo´n y Canada Canova, Antonio Capitalism Captain Swing Carbonari Carducci, Giosue` Caribbean Carlism Carlsbad Decrees Carlyle, Thomas Carpenter, Edward Castlereagh, Viscount (Robert Stewart) Catherine II Catholicism Catholicism, Political Cavour, Count (Camillo Benso) Center Party Central Asia Ce´zanne, Paul Chaadayev, Peter Chadwick, Edwin Chamberlain, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Joseph Champollion, Jean-Franc¸ois Charcot, Jean-Martin Charles X Charles Albert

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1 7 8 9

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1 9 1 4

CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Chartism Chateaubriand, Franc¸ois-Rene´ Chekhov, Anton Chemistry Childhood and Children China Cholera Chopin, Fre´de´ric Cinema Cities and Towns Citizenship Civilization, Concept of Civil Society Class and Social Relations Clausewitz, Carl von Clemenceau, Georges Clothing, Dress, and Fashion Coal Mining Cobbett, William Cobden, Richard Cobden-Chevalier Treaty Cockerill, John Coffee, Tea, Chocolate Coleridge, Samuel Taylor Colonialism

Cossacks Counterrevolution Courbet, Gustave Crime Crimean War Crispi, Francesco Croce, Benedetto Cruikshank, George Crystal Palace Cubism Curie, Marie Curzon, George Cuvier, Georges Cycling Czartoryski, Adam

n

D

VOL UME 2

C (CONTINUED) Colonies Combination Acts Commercial Policy Committee of Public Safety Communism Comte, Auguste Concert of Europe Concordat of 1801 Congress of Berlin Congress of Troppau Congress of Vienna Conrad, Joseph Conservatism Constable, John Constant, Benjamin Consumerism Continental System Cooperative Movements Corn Laws, Repeal of Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille

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1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

Daguerre, Louis Danish-German War D’Annunzio, Gabriele Danton, Georges-Jacques Darwin, Charles Daumier, Honore´ David, Jacques-Louis Davies, Emily De Vries, Hugo Dea´k, Ferenc Death and Burial Debussy, Claude Decadence Degas, Edgar Degeneration Delacroix, Euge`ne Delcasse´, The´ophile Demography Denmark Deraismes, Maria Deroin, Jeanne Diaghilev, Sergei Dickens, Charles Diet and Nutrition Dilthey, Wilhelm Diplomacy Directory Disease Disraeli, Benjamin Dohm, Hedwig

ix

CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Dore´, Gustave Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Doyle, Arthur Conan Dreadnought Dreyfus Affair Drugs Drumont, E´douard Dublin Dueling Durand, Marguerite Durkheim, E´mile Dvora´k, Antonı´n

n

E Eastern Question East India Company Economic Growth and Industrialism Economists, Classical Education Edward VII Egypt Ehrlich, Paul Eiffel Tower Einstein, Albert Electricity Eliot, George Ellis, Havelock Emigration Endecja Engels, Friedrich Engineers Environment Estates-General Eugenics Eurasianism Evolution Exile, Penal Explorers

n

F Fabians Factories Fashoda Affair Fauvism Fawcett, Millicent Garrett

x

Federalist Revolt Feminism Ferdinand I Ferdinand VII Ferry, Jules Fichte, Johann Gottlieb Fin de Sie`cle Finland and the Baltic Provinces First International Flaˆneur Flaubert, Gustave Fontane, Theodor Football (Soccer) Forster, E. M. Fouche´, Joseph Fourier, Charles Fox, Charles James France Francis I Francis Ferdinand Francis Joseph Franco-Austrian War Franco-Prussian War Frankfurt Parliament Frazer, James Frederick III Frederick William III Frederick William IV Freemasons Frege, Gottlob French Revolution French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars Freud, Sigmund Friedrich, Caspar David Furniture Futurism

n

G Gagern, Heinrich von Gaj, Ljudevit Gall, Franz Joseph Galton, Francis Gambetta, Le´on-Michel Garibaldi, Giuseppe Gaskell, Elizabeth Gaudı´, Antonio Gauguin, Paul

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1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Gender Generation of 1898 Geneva Convention George IV Ge´ricault, The´odore Germany Giolitti, Giovanni Girondins Gissing, George Gladstone, William Glinka, Mikhail Godwin, William Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von Gogol, Nikolai Goncharov, Ivan Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de Gorky, Maxim Gouges, Olympe de Goya, Francisco Great Britain Great Reforms (Russia) Greece Grimm Brothers Guesde, Jules Guimard, Hector Guizot, Franc¸ois

n

H Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Hague Conferences Haiti Hamburg Hardenberg, Karl August von Hardie, James Keir Hardy, Thomas Haussmann, Georges-Euge`ne Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Heine, Heinrich Helmholtz, Hermann von Herder, Johann Gottfried Hertz, Heinrich Herzen, Alexander Herzl, Theodor Hirschfeld, Magnus History Hobson, John A. Hofmannsthal, Hugo von

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1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

Ho¨lderlin, Johann Christian Friedrich Holy Alliance Homosexuality and Lesbianism Housing Hugo, Victor Humboldt, Alexander and Wilhelm von Hundred Days Husserl, Edmund Huxley, Thomas Henry Huysmans, Joris-Karl

VOL UME 3 n

I Ibsen, Henrik Immigration and Internal Migration Imperialism Impressionism India Indochina Industrial Revolution, First Industrial Revolution, Second Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Intellectuals Intelligentsia International Law Ireland Istanbul Italy

n

J Jacobins Jadids Japan Jarry, Alfred Jaure`s, Jean Jelacic, Josip Jena, Battle of Jenner, Edward Jewish Emancipation Jews and Judaism Jingoism John, Archduke of Austria

xi

CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Jomini, Antoine-Henri de Jung, Carl Gustav

n

K Kadets Kafka, Franz Kandinsky, Vasily Karadjordje Kautsky, Karl Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) Kierkegaard, Søren Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Kipling, Rudyard Kitchener, Horatio Herbert Klimt, Gustav Koch, Robert Kosciuszko, Tadeusz Kossuth, Lajos Krafft-Ebing, Richard von Kropotkin, Peter Krupp Kuliscioff, Anna Kulturkampf Kutuzov, Mikhail

Leopold I Leopold II Lesseps, Ferdinand-Marie de Leve´e en Masse Liberalism Libraries Liebermann, Max Liebknecht, Karl List, Georg Friedrich Lister, Joseph Liszt, Franz Literacy Lithuania Lloyd George, David Lombroso, Cesare London Loos, Adolf Louis II Louis XVI Louis XVIII Louis-Philippe Lovett, William Luddism Lueger, Karl Lumie`re, Auguste and Louis Luxemburg, Rosa Lyell, Charles Lyon

n

L Labor Movements Labour Party Laennec, Rene´ Lafayette, Marquis de Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste Lamartine, Alphonse Landed Elites Larrey, Dominique-Jean Lasker-Schu¨ler, Else Lassalle, Ferdinand Lavoisier, Antoine Law, Theories of LeBon, Gustave Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre-Auguste Leipzig, Battle of Leisure Lenin, Vladimir Leo XIII Leopardi, Giacomo

xii

n

M Macaulay, Thomas Babington Mach, Ernst Machine Breaking Madrid Mafia Mahler, Gustav Mahmud II Maistre, Joseph de Majuba Hill Malatesta, Errico Malthus, Thomas Robert Manchester Manet, E´douard Mann, Thomas Manners and Formality Manning, Henry Manzoni, Alessandro Marat, Jean-Paul

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1 7 8 9

TO

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CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Marconi, Guglielmo Marie-Antoinette Markets Marriage and Family Martineau, Harriet Martov, L. Marx, Karl Masaryk, Toma´sˇ Garrigue Masculinity Matisse, Henri Maurras, Charles Maxwell, James Clerk Mazzini, Giuseppe Mediterranean Me´lie`s, Georges Mendel, Gregor Mensheviks Menzel, Adolph von Mesmer, Franz Anton Metternich, Clemens von Meyerhold, Vsevolod Michel, Louise Michelet, Jules Mickiewicz, Adam Milan Military Tactics Mill, Harriet Taylor Mill, James Mill, John Stuart Millet, Jean-Franc¸ois Millet System Milyukov, Pavel Minorities Missions Modernism Moltke, Helmuth von Mommsen, Theodor Monet, Claude Monetary Unions Montenegro Montessori, Maria Morisot, Berthe Moroccan Crises Morocco Morris, William Moscow Mozzoni, Anna Maria Mukden, Battle of Munch, Edvard Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz, Treaty of

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Museums Music Musil, Robert Mussorgsky, Modest

n

N Nadar, Fe´lix Nanking, Treaty of Naples Napoleon Napoleon III Napoleonic Code Napoleonic Empire Nash, John Nationalism Naval Rivalry (Anglo-German) Navarino Nechayev, Sergei Nelson, Horatio Netherlands Newman, John Henry New Zealand Nicholas I Nicholas II Nietzsche, Friedrich Nightingale, Florence Nihilists Nijinsky, Vaslav Nobel, Alfred Norton, Caroline Novalis (Hardenberg, Friedrich von) Nurses

n

O Oceanic Exploration O’Connell, Daniel O’Connor, Feargus Octobrists Offenbach, Jacques Old Age Olympic Games Omdurman Opera Opium Wars Otto, Louise

1 9 1 4

xiii

CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Ottoman Empire Owen, Robert

V OLU M E 4 n

P Pacifism Paganini, Niccolo` Paine, Thomas Painting Palacky´, Frantisˇek Palmerston, Lord (Henry John Temple) Pankhurst, Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia Pan-Slavism Papacy Papal Infallibility Papal State Paris Paris Commune Parks Parnell, Charles Stewart Pasteur, Louis Pater, Walter Paul I Pavlov, Ivan Pavlova, Anna Peasants Peel, Robert Pe´guy, Charles Pelletier, Madeleine Peninsular War People’s Will Philhellenic Movement Photography Phrenology Phylloxera Physics Picasso, Pablo Piedmont-Savoy Pilgrimages Pinel, Philippe Pissarro, Camille Pius IX Planck, Max Plekhanov, Georgy Pogroms Poincare´, Henri

xiv

Poincare´, Raymond Poland Police and Policing Polish National Movement Poor Law Popular and Elite Culture Population, Control of Populists Pornography Portsmouth, Treaty of Portugal Positivism Posters Poverty Prague Prague Slav Congress Pre-Raphaelite Movement Press and Newspapers Primitivism Professions Prostitution Protectionism Protestantism Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph Prussia Psychoanalysis Psychology Public Health Puccini, Giacomo Pugin, Augustus Welby Pushkin, Alexander

n

Q Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques

n

R Race and Racism Radicalism Railroads Rank, Otto Ranke, Leopold von Ravachol (Franc¸ois Claudius Koenigstein-Ravachol) Ravel, Maurice Realism and Naturalism

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CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Red Cross Reign of Terror Renan, Ernest Renoir, Pierre-Auguste Repin, Ilya Republicanism Restaurants Restoration Revolution of 1905 (Russia) Revolutions of 1820 Revolutions of 1830 Revolutions of 1848 Rhodes, Cecil Richer, Le´on Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Risorgimento (Italian Unification) Robespierre, Maximilien Rodin, Auguste Roentgen, Wilhelm Roland, Pauline Rolland, Romain Romania Romanies (Gypsies) Roman Question Romanticism Rome Rossini, Gioachino Rothschilds Roussel, Nelly Rude, Franc¸ois Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria Ruskin, John Russia Russian Orthodox Church Russo-Japanese War Russo-Turkish War Rutherford, Ernest

n

S Sade, Donatien-Alphonse-Franc¸ois de St. Petersburg Saint-Simon, Henri de Salvation Army Sand, George San Stefano, Treaty of Satie, Erik Schelling, Friedrich von

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Schiele, Egon Schinkel, Karl Friedrich Schlegel, August Wilhelm von Schleiermacher, Friedrich Schlieffen Plan Schnitzler, Arthur Schoenberg, Arnold Schopenhauer, Arthur Schubert, Franz Science and Technology Scotland Scott, Walter Seaside Resorts Second International Secret Societies Secularization Semmelweis, Ignac Separation of Church and State (France, 1905) Sepoy Mutiny Serbia Serfs, Emancipation of Seurat, Georges Sewing Machine Sexuality Shamil Shaw, George Bernard Shelley, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shimonoseki, Treaty of Siberia Sicilian Fasci Sicily Siemens, Werner von Sieye`s, Emmanuel-Joseph Silver Age Simmel, Georg Sismondi, Jean-Charles Leonard de Sister Republics Slavery Slavophiles Smallpox Smiles, Samuel Socialism Socialism, Christian Socialist Revolutionaries Sociology Soloviev, Vladimir Sorel, Georges South Africa

xv

CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES

Spain Spencer, Herbert Speransky, Mikhail Spiritualism Sports Stae¨l, Germaine de Statistics Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle) Stephen, Leslie Stevenson, Robert Louis Stolypin, Peter Strachey, Lytton Strauss, Johann

xvi

Stravinsky, Igor Strikes Strindberg, August Struve, Peter Subways Suez Canal Suffragism Suttner, Bertha von Sweden and Norway Switzerland Symbolism Symonds, John Addington Syndicalism Syphilis

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MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

The maps on the following pages show the changes in European national boundaries from 1789 to 1914, including the unification of Italy and of Germany.

xvii

N

Europe, 1789

Norwegian Sea

International border City 0 0

100

Gulf of B oth nia

MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

SWEDEN

FINLAND (Sweden)

Faroe Islands

200 mi.

100 200 km

Shetland Islands

Helsingfors

NORWAY (Denmark)

G

Christiania

o ul f

f Fi

nl a

nd

St. Petersburg

Stockholm

Orkney Islands

Moscow

Sea

Scotland

RUSSIA

Copenhagen

DENMARK

Sea

ti

c

North Edinburgh

Ba

Ireland

l

Königsberg

G R E AT B R I TA I N PRUSSIA

Dublin Hanover

Wales

England

Hanover

Amsterdam

POLAND

Warsaw

NETH.

London

Saxony

Brussels Austrian Netherlands

AT L A N T I C OCEAN

H O LY ROMAN EMPIRE

Paris

GALICIA

Bohemia Moravia

Bavaria Munich SWISS CONFED.

FRANCE

Bay of Biscay

Berlin

PIEDMONT

HABSBURG POSSESSIONS

Austria Vienna

Moldavia

Buda Pest

TRANSYLVANIA

HUNGARY

Tyrol

Black Sea

Wallachia

Milan VENICE Venice

Genoa Florence VENICE PAPAL STATES A d RAGUSA

MONTENEGRO

TUSCANY

ri

POR

Lisbon

TUG

AL

ANDORRA

Corsica (France)

Madrid

Minorca (Great Britain)

S PA I N Iviza (Spain)

Rome Naples

at

ic

NAPLES

Constantinople

O

Se

T

a

T

O

M

AN

EM PIRE

SARDINIA

Ty r r h e n i a n Sea

Majorca (Spain)

Sicily

Athens

Ionian Sea

Algiers

Tunis

xviii

Crete (Ottoman Empire)

Malta

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Mediterranean Sea

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

G R E AT B R I TA I N

France in 1789 International border City

F

l

a

n

d

English Channel

AUSTRIAN NETHERLANDS

Lille

er

s

N Rouen

GERMAN S TAT E S Nancy

Paris

Lorraine Brittany

re Loi

R iv

ce Rhine Riv er

Île de France

Alsa

Sei ne R N o r m a n d y iv e r

er

Franche Comté

F R A N C E

Nantes

AT L A N T I C OCEAN

NEUCHÂTEL

SWISS CONFEDERATION Burgundy

Poitou La Rochelle

Geneva Lyon

i v er

Bay of Biscay

o

nn

Rhône R

Bordeaux

Ga r

eR

AVIGNON

iver o

d Toulouse

La 0

50 50

NICE

c

Guyenne and Gascony

0

KINGDOM OF SARDINIA

u ng

e

REPUBLIC OF GENOA

Provence Marseille

100 mi.

100 km

Corsica

ANDORRA

S P A I N

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

Mediterranean Sea

xix

MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

FINLAND (to Russia)

KINGDOM OF NORWAY AND SWEDEN

St. Petersburg

Stockholm

North Sea

Moscow N

Baltic Sea

DENMARK

GREAT BRITAIN

NETHERLANDS 0 0

200 200

Amsterdam

400 mi.

HANOVER Berlin

London

400 km

OM KINGD

BELGIUM

Frankfurt

Paris

ATLANTIC OCEAN

RU OF P

S

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

SIA POLAND (to Russia)

Carlsbad Prague

HUNGARY

Vienna

FRANCE SWITZERSW

Buda

Pest

LAND

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

Milan

Madrid

SPAIN

PARMA Venice TUSCANY MODENA PAPAL dr iat CORSICA STATES ic KINGDOM (France) S

A

PO RTU GA

L

PIEDMONT

OF SARDINIA

ea

Rome

OT

Sea ck Bla

TO

M

Naples

SARDINIA Gibraltar

EM

KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES

GREECE

AFRICA

Constantinople

AN

PIRE

Athens

Mediterranean Sea

Europe, 1815 Boundary of the German Confederation, 1815

xx

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1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

SWITZERLAND

Italian Unification Kingdom of Sardinia, 1858 Added to Sardinia, 1859 and 1860 Added to Italy, 1866 Added to Italy, 1870

VENETIA

LOMBARDY Milan

Venice

Turin

PIEDMONT PARMA

MO

Genoa

DE NA

SAVOY (to France)

NICE (to France)

SAN MARINO

LUCCA Florence

Ligurian Sea

TUSCANY

PA PA L S TAT E S

A

dr

CORSICA (France)

ia

ti

c

Se

a

Rome

Naples

KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES

SARDINIA

Ty r rh e n i a n S e a

N

Ionian Sea 0 0

50 50

Me

100 mi. 100 km

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Palermo

dit

1 9 1 4

er

ra

ne

S I C I LY

an

Se

a

xxi

MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

SWEDEN

N

DENMARK

North Sea

Baltic Sea

Schleswig

East Prussia

Holstein Pomerania

Mecklenburg

Hamburg

S

Hanover

West Prussia

S

U

R

Posen

Berlin

u la

P

R.

RUSSIA

.

e Rhin

eR Elb

Westphalia

BELGIUM

Vist

Brandenburg

NETHERLANDS

A

I

O

R.

Thuringia

Ems

Saxony

Sedan

de rR

.

Silesia Frankfurt

LUX. To Paris

Prague

M ain R.

Sadowa

Metz Bavaria

Lorraine

AUSTRIAH U N G A RY

FRANCE

Alsa ce

Württemberg

Munich

Baden

Da nub e R.

Hohenzollern

German Unification Vienna

SWITZERLAND 0 0

xxii

50 50

100 km

100 mi.

Prussia, 1865 Added to Prussia, 1866 Added to form North German Confederation, 1867 Added to form German empire, 1871 Boundary of German empire, 1871 Route of Prussian armies in Austro-Prussian War Route of German armies in Franco-Prussian War Battle sites

E U R O P E

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TO

1 9 1

MAPS OF EUROPE, 1789 TO 1914

Europe, 1914 International border N

EN

0 0

250 250

500 mi.

500 km

Sea

NO

SW

RW

AT L A N T I C OCEAN

ED

AY

ICELAND

lti c

North Sea

Ba

DENMARK

UNITED KINGDOM

R

U

S

S

I

A

NETH.

GERMANY BELG.

Caspian Sea

LUX.

FRANCE

AUSTRIAHUNGARY

SWITZ.

ROMANIA

ALBANIA

BULGARIA

IA

GREECE

Spanish Morocco

Tunisia (Fr.)

Morocco (Fr.)

O T T O M A N E M P I R E

IA RS PE

PORT UG AL

L

MONT.

RB

A

Y

S PA I N

Black Sea

SE

IT

ANDORRA

Med iterr anean Sea

Algeria (Fr.)

Libya (It.)

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TO

1 9 1 4

Egypt (Br.)

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TALLEYRAND, CHARLES MAURICE DE (1754–1838), arguably the most famous diplomat that France ever produced. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Pe´rigord was born in Paris on 2 February, the son of a noble army officer. Neglected by his parents, as a young boy he sustained a foot injury that gave him a limp for the rest of his life, thus ruling out the possibility of a military career. Instead he trained for the priesthood, was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in December 1779, but then led a very secular life in Paris aristocratic society, openly consorting with his mistress Adelaide Filleul, the Countess of Flahaut, by whom he had an illegitimate son. Nevertheless, his aristocratic credentials secured his appointment as bishop of Autun in 1788. In April 1789, Talleyrand was elected a deputy of the clergy of Autun to the Estates General. On 10 October 1789 in the National Assembly, the successor to the Estates General, he proposed that all Church property should be confiscated to solve the continuing financial crisis. The acceptance of this proposal in November deprived the Roman Catholic Church in France of nearly all its wealth and led to its radical restructuring in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790). Talleyrand was one of only four bishops to swear an oath of loyalty to this Constitution, and as a ‘‘constitutional bishop’’ on 14 July 1790 he officiated at the Feast of the Federation, the national ceremony in Paris to commemorate the first anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. In January 1791,

Talleyrand resigned his bishopric. His diplomatic career began in 1792 when he was sent on a mission to London to improve relations between France and Britain. Expelled from Britain in February 1794, he moved to the United States, where he settled in Philadelphia. There he traveled quite extensively, made money from property speculations, and frequented a circle of fellow French e´migre´s. Allowed to return to France, he arrived in Paris in September 1796 and resumed a relationship with Anne-Louise-Germaine de Stae¨l (1766– 1817). Partly due to her influence, Talleyrand was appointed minister of foreign affairs by the Directory in July 1797. In December 1797, he met Napoleon Bonaparte for the first time and soon began planning with him the expedition to Egypt, which set sail from France in May 1798. Meanwhile, Talleyrand had acquired a new mistress, the wife of Charles Delacroix, Talleyrand’s predecessor as minister of foreign affairs. By her he had another illegitimate son, Euge`ne Delacroix (1798–1863), who became a famous Romantic artist. Talleyrand resigned as minister of foreign affairs in July 1799 and soon began plotting a coup d’e´tat to remove the Directory with Joseph Fouche´ (1759–1820, the minister of police) and Napoleon Bonaparte (who had returned from Egypt in October 1799). Following the coup d’e´tat of 10 November 1799, Napoleon reappointed Talleyrand minister of foreign affairs. Talleyrand negotiated the Treaty of Lune´ville with Austria (9 February 1801) and

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supported Napoleon’s policies of reconciliation with royalists and Roman Catholics, but he was soon disagreeing with the First Consul over the severity of the Treaty of Amiens with Britain (27 March 1802), the annexation of Piedmont to France (21 September 1802), and the declaration of war against Britain (18 May 1803). Nevertheless, Talleyrand was, at the very least, a passive accomplice in the execution of Louis-AntoineHenri de Bourbon-Conde´, the Duke of Enghien (20 March 1804). When Napoleon assumed the imperial title (2 December 1804), Talleyrand became Imperial Grand Chamberlain. Whereas Napoleon sought to impose French domination over Europe, Talleyrand believed in the balance of power and unsuccessfully urged moderation on Napoleon after the successive defeats of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. In August 1807, Talleyrand resigned as foreign minister and from 1808 publicly criticized Napoleon’s policies, at a time when Napoleon was at the height of his success. While Talleyrand supported Napoleon’s marriage to Marie-Louise (1791–1847) of Austria, he bitterly opposed the invasion of Russia in 1812. Thus, although Napoleon had made Talleyrand a prince and extremely rich, Talleyrand deserted him in 1814 to play a leading role in the restoration of the Bourbons. In April 1814, Talleyrand persuaded Alexander I (1777–1825) of Russia to accept the return of the Bourbons and the French Senate to depose Napoleon and offer the French throne to Louis XVIII (1755–1824). Once more the minister of foreign affairs (13 May 1814), Talleyrand represented France at the Congress of Vienna. Brilliantly exploiting the principle of legitimacy that the Allies claimed to uphold, Talleyrand secured for France remarkably favorable terms. However, the Hundred Days episode resulted in harsher treatment of France by the Second Treaty of Paris (20 November 1815). Forced to resign in September 1815, Talleyrand retired to his country estate, Valenc¸ay. During the late 1820s, Talleyrand actively supported the liberal opposition to Charles X (1757–1836); in the Revolution of 1830, he contributed to the accession of Louis Philippe (1773– 1850) as king of the French. As a reward, he was appointed French ambassador in London (September 1830–November 1834), when he

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helped to negotiate the separation of Belgium from the Netherlands. He died on 17 May 1838. To his critics he was the serial betrayer of the Roman Catholic Church, the Directory, Napoleon I, and Charles X, and the personification of corruption and vice. To his admirers he was the consummate politician and diplomat, who always sought the true interests of France. See also Concert of Europe; Congress of Vienna; France; French Revolution; Napoleonic Empire; Restoration; Revolutions of 1830. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Talleyrand-Pe´rigord, Charles-Maurice de. Memoirs of Talleyrand. Edited by the Duke of Broglie. 5 vols. New York, 1891.

Secondary Sources Bernard, Jack F. Talleyrand: A Biography. New York, 1973. Brinton, Crane. The Lives of Talleyrand. New York, 1936. Dwyer, Philip G. Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, 1754– 1838: A Bibliography. Westport, Conn., 1996. WILLIAM FORTESCUE

n

TCHAIKOVSKY, PETER (1840–1893), Russian composer. Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky was born in Votkinsk, Russia. His father worked as a superintendent of state mines; his mother, who was half French, insisted on hiring French servants to attend to her son. Even as a child, Tchaikovsky was introspective and neurotic. By age thirteen, his homosexuality had become obvious. At fourteen he lost his only true friend, his mother, to cholera. He felt no closeness to any of his other relatives, nor was he interested in communicating with any of his peers. After a short period as a student in a government law school, which he despised, he left to study with the composer and pianist Anton Rubinstein, the founder of the St. Petersburg Conservatory of Music. Several years thereafter, he accepted an offer to teach harmony and was also invited by several western and southern European countries to appear as a guest conductor in major concert halls, as well as at his home base, the Moscow Conservatory. He resigned from his professorship in 1878.

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Tchaikovsky was one of the innovators of Russian Romanticism, but he also considered it his duty to introduce Russian patriotism and nationalism into his music. His vast output included piano and violin concertos, choral works, symphonies, chamber music, and church music. His most creative works were in genres that included fantasies, overtures such as ‘‘Romeo and Juliet,’’ choral works, and piano-and-violin concertos. In western Europe, Tchaikovsky’s music was well received, and in Russia he was considered to be the most Romantic and patriotic of composers. The literary giants of his time were Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Leo Tolstoy, yet controversy exists over whether Tchaikovsky ever made the time or had the desire to meet either of them. In 1888 Tchaikovsky took a significant tour to Leipzig, Germany, to meet with Edvard Grieg and Johannes Brahms. He also visited London, Paris, and Prague. His labors on Symphony No. 5 in E Minor became increasingly intense and emotional, which fed his neurotic despair. Nevertheless, he insisted on continuing his travels. He went to the United States and to England, where he was awarded an honorary doctorate of music at Cambridge. Tchaikovsky’s attempts to masquerade as heterosexual were obvious to all. The only woman he ever truly loved was his mother. He spent one night with Desire Artot, a singer and prima donna of a visiting Italian troupe, but refused to comment on it. In the 1870s he visited Georgia and other Russian territories. A former student of his, Antonia Milyukova, talked him into marrying her but the marriage did not last long. Beginning in 1876 he was subsidized by the wealthy widow Nadezhda von Meck, who gave him the means to survive. In 1885 he bought a house in Maidanovo, near Moscow and lived there until a year before his death. Despite his successes, his mental condition deteriorated, and this was aggravated when Nadezhda von Meck stopped supporting him, both financially and socially. By then he was no longer in need of her money, but the psychological damage was noticeable. On his deathbed, he repeated her name over and over. He had just completed his last symphony, the Pathetique, which he rightfully considered his masterpiece. Several historians have claimed that he wanted to poison himself after having allegedly been accused

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of involvement with a male member of the British imperial family. Tchaikovsky’s major works include the operas Undine, 1869; Mazepa, 1884; Pathetique, 1893; Queen of Spades, 1890; and Eugene Onegin, 1879; the ballets The Nutcracker Suite, 1892; The Sleeping Beauty, 1890; and Swan Lake, 1877; the symphonies No. 4 in F Minor, No. 5 in E Minor, and No. 6 in B Minor (Pathetique); the Piano Concerto No. 1 in B-Flat Minor; and the Americanized Russian vocals ‘‘None but the Lonely Heart’’; ‘‘Why Did I Dream of You’’; and ‘‘Don Juan’s Serenade’’; as well as chamber and instrumental music. See also Diaghilev, Sergei; Music; Mussorgsky, Modest; Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abraham, Gerald, ed. Tchaikovsky: A Symposium. London, 1945. Brown, David. Tchaikovsky. 4 vols. New York, 1978–1992. Garden, Edward. Tchaikovsky. New York, 1973. Strutte, Wilson. Tchaikovsky: His Life and Times. Speldhurst, U.K., 1979. Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilich. The Diaries of Tchaikovsky. Translated by Wladimir Lakond. New York, 1945. Volkoff, Vladimir. Tchaikovsky: A Self-Portrait. Boston, 1975. Warrack, John.Hamilton Tchaikovsky. London, 1973. LEO HECHT

TELEGRAPH.

See Science and Technology.

n

TELEPHONES. Private enterprise, operating under government-granted concessions, initiated urban telephone service in most European countries (except Germany) in the late 1880s, though virtually all were nationalized in the 1880s and 1890s. The government-operated post and telegraph (and later, telephone) administrations (PTT) then often restricted telephone network development to protect their earlier telegraph investments. As a result, by 1914 the telephone was far more developed in the United States (which had nearly two-thirds of

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the world’s telephones, or nearly ten for every one hundred people) than anywhere in Europe. Telephone devices patented by Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) were first demonstrated in London and several continental cities in 1877– 78. The inception of regular telephone service varied across European capitals, from London and Paris in 1879; followed by Stockholm, Copenhagen, and Christiania, Norway, in 1880; Berlin, Vienna, and several Italian cities in 1881; Helsinki and Lisbon in 1882; Brussels, Moscow, and St. Petersburg in 1883; Luxembourg City in 1885; and finally various Spanish cities in 1886–87. As these dates suggest, early telephone development concentrated in urban areas with many potential users, providing little interconnection among them and little or no service to small communities and rural areas. Virtually all switching of calls required manual operation using male, and later female, operators. Women operators were required to be single (and to resign upon marrying) in Britain, Switzerland, Norway, and Sweden. Local pricing of telephone service varied. Most subscriber charges were based on per use with some reflection of the distance carried or (more rarely) a flat charge for a given period of use. There was considerable variation in the prices charged by different PTTs. By the mid-1880s, the International Telegraph Bureau in Bern, Switzerland, began to collect and publish statistics on telephone availability and use. By 1887, Germany’s PTT had 123 exchanges and more than 22,000 subscribers, while Sweden’s privately owned operation (with 148 exchanges and nearly 13,000 subscribers) was second. Other nations fell far behind. The growing need to interconnect service across national boundaries raised similar questions as had the telegraph decades earlier: the need for some means of setting and interconnecting varied technical standards, as well as melding different currencies and means of paying for telephone service—and determining how to divide revenues across the telephone systems involved. Among the earliest international links were landlines connecting such European cities as Brussels and Paris. Over-water routes took longer: the first was London to Paris in 1891, and Britain to Ireland by means of an undersea cable from Scotland two years later.

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The telephone was occasionally applied to deliver concert music and stage entertainment— for example, in Budapest (the Telefon Hirmondo operated by the Puskas brothers in 1893), Paris (the Theatrophone), and in London. The first European automatic telephone exchange (using strowger devices developed in the United States) began operation in Berlin in 1899, but most European nations relied on (often high-capacity) manual switches to the eve of World War I. The first pay telephone kiosks appeared in Britain by 1904, and soon in other nations. Europe fell far behind U.S. rates of telephone system growth and technical developments from 1890 to 1914, chiefly because of PTT monopoly control of telephone services across Europe. This usually meant that insufficient capital was made available for system expansion (telephones had low priority in national budgets), telephone rates were held to artificially low levels by national parliaments (thus financially starving the systems even more), and telephone administrators generally were subordinate to those directing telegraph and postal services. Further, and with few exceptions, there was virtually no overall system planning or policy and very little study of either rates charged or traffic carried. On the other hand, German and Swiss PTTs stood out for their effective operation of telephone networks, and the three Scandinavian nations retained private ownership and thus a strong commercial impetus to expand telephone availability. This shows up in some statistics: by 1914, a third of British telephones were in London, but the city still had but 3.5 telephones per 100 people, while Stockholm had 24; Copenhagen, 9; Berlin, 6.6; and Paris, 3.2. As had been the case earlier in the United States, telephone use was limited for the first several decades to government officials, businesses, and the wealthy who could afford the equipment and service charges. Only very slowly—and barely so by 1914—was telephone service made more widely available to and affordable by the general public, at first with phones in public places and pay stations, and later in individual homes. See also Science and Technology; Transportation and Communications.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baldwin, F. G. C. The History of the Telephone in the United Kingdom. London, 1925. Bennett, Alfred Rosling. The Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe. London, 1895. Reprint, New York, 1974. Chapuis, Robert J. 100 Years of Telephone Switching (1878– 1978). Amsterdam, 1982. Holcomb, A. N. Public Ownership of Telephones on the Continent of Europe. Boston, 1911. Webb, Herbert Laws. The Development of the Telephone in Europe. London, 1911. Reprint, New York, 1974. CHRISTOPHER H. STERLING

TEMPERANCE.

See Alcohol and Temperance.

n

TENNYSON, ALFRED (1809–1892), English poet and the leading representative of Victorian verse. Born in Somersby, Lincolnshire, Alfred, Lord Tennyson was a precocious child who wrote poems after the styles of John Milton (1608–1674) and the British Romantics.

Between 1832 and 1842 Tennyson published no new volumes, but he edited and wrote much during this melancholic period, initiating In Memoriam, which celebrated Hallam, ‘‘The Two Voices’’ (originally entitled ‘‘Thoughts of a Suicide’’) and his ‘‘English Idylls.’’ In 1842 Tennyson published Poems to unfavorable reviews. The volume included ‘‘Morte d’Arthur,’’ ‘‘Locksley Hall,’’ and ‘‘The Vision of Sin.’’ That same year the prime minister, Sir Robert Peel (1788–1850), granted him a pension of £200 for life, easing his financial burden. In 1847 Tennyson published his first long poem, The Princess, a conservative view of university education for women. On 13 June 1850, Tennyson married Emily Sellwood, after a very long and uncertain courtship, due in part to her father’s early disapproval of Tennyson’s unorthodox lifestyle and liberal religious views. The year 1850 also marked a professional turning point. Tennyson anonymously published In Memoriam, which enjoyed tremendous success and won him the favor of Queen Victoria (r. 1837– 1901), who helped bring about his appointment as poet laureate that same year. Tennyson had finally secured his reputation and finances.

In 1832 Tennyson published Poems, a volume that included ‘‘The Lotos-Eaters’’ and ‘‘The Lady of Shalott.’’ Reviewers’ attacks deeply distressed the self-critical Tennyson, but he continued to revise his old poems and compose new ones.

A massive poem, In Memoriam captured the public imagination, highlighting many concerns of the Victorian age as the author searched for the meaning of life and death and tried to come to terms with the loss of his friend. The poem struggles with religious doubt and faith, weighing spiritual belief in immortality against emerging scientific theories of evolution, astronomy, and modern geology. Tennyson cemented his position as national poet with his Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington (1852) and a poem about the 25 October 1855 Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava in the Crimea in Maud and Other Poems (1855).

In September 1833, Tennyson’s close Cambridge friend Arthur Hallam died suddenly. The loss of Hallam, recently engaged to marry Tennyson’s sister Cecilia, dealt a serious blow to Tennyson. He soon drafted ‘‘Ulysses,’’ ‘‘Morte d’Arthur’’ and ‘‘Tithonus’’—three poems prompted by the death, but all with strong classical echoes that spoke to his expressly modern and personal sentiments.

In 1859 Tennyson published the first four parts of Idylls of the King, a series of twelve connected poems that reviewed the legend of King Arthur, in whom he held a lifelong interest. He held Arthur up as an exemplar of human spirituality, while the poems infused elements of traditional romance with middle class Victorian morality. The poems were an immediate success and thrust upon

In November 1827 Tennyson entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where his standing as a poet grew and in June 1829 he won the chancellor’s gold medal for his poem, Timbuctoo. The death of his father in March 1831 revealed his family’s deep financial indebtedness, and Tennyson left Cambridge without taking a degree.

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Tennyson an undesired public fame, which rose with further publications, such as Enoch Arden (1864). In September 1883 Tennyson accepted a peerage as First Baron and took his seat in the House of Lords in March 1884. In 1886 he published a new volume containing ‘‘Locksley Hall Sixty Years After,’’ which assaulted modern decadence and liberalism and retracted the earlier poem’s belief in inevitable human progress. In the last two decades of his life Tennyson also turned to poetic drama, though his plays proved only moderate successes, broadcasting his growing disapproval of the religious, moral, and political tendencies of the age. His poem ‘‘The Ancient Sage,’’ published in Tiresias and Other Poems (1885), aired a more hopeful suggestion of eternal life. Tennyson remained productive well into old age. He wrote the elegy ‘‘Crossing the Bar’’ in October 1889 while crossing the Isle of Wight. Despite ill health, he finished his last volume, The Death of Oenone, Akbar’s Dream, and Other Poems in 1892. He died on 6 October 1892 in Aldworth, Surrey, aged eighty-four. Tennyson’s fame was challenged during his own lifetime, when poets Robert Browning (1812–1889) and Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909) emerged as rivals. Early twentiethcentury critics, who held aloft the modernist approaches of such poets as William Butler Yeats (1859–1939) and T. S. Eliot (1888–1965) and celebrated the rediscovery of poets John Donne (1572–1631) and Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844–1889), further eroded Tennyson’s reputation. Around the turn of the twenty-first century, appreciation for the abundance and variety of Tennyson’s sweeping lyricism reemerged, most especially for his In Memoriam, ‘‘Crossing the Bar,’’ and ‘‘Ulysses.’’ See also Carlyle, Thomas; Romanticism. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Martin, Robert Bernard. Tennyson: The Unquiet Heart. Oxford, U.K., 1980. Ormond, Leone´e. Alfred Tennyson: A Literary Life. New York, 1993. Richardson, Joanna. Pre-eminent Victorian, A Study of Tennyson. London, 1962.

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Ricks, Christopher B. Tennyson. New York, 1972. Tennyson, Charles. Alfred Tennyson. New York, 1949. STEPHEN VELLA

TERROR, THE.

See Reign of Terror.

n

THIERS, LOUIS-ADOLPHE

(1797– 1877), one of the founders of the Third Republic in France. Adolphe Thiers was born in Marseilles on 15 April 1797. He overcame birth outside wedlock, desertion by his father, relative poverty, and a stature of just five feet and two inches with his ambition, intelligence, and industry. A pupil at the lyce´e in Marseilles, he went on to study law at the University of Aix-en-Provence. Although his family had suffered financially during the Revolution, Thiers embraced liberal political ideas after 1815, and following graduation chose journalism, not law. Moving to Paris in 1821, he joined the leading liberal newspaper, Le Constitutionnel. Thiers also embarked on a major historical work, his History of the Revolution (ten volumes, 1823– 1827), which provided a liberal interpretation of the Revolution and a rational explanation for the Jacobin Terror. In January 1830, a new Paris liberal newspaper was founded, Le National, and, with Franc¸ois-Auguste-Marie Mignet (1796–1884) and Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Armand Carrel (1800–1836), Thiers became one of its three editors. Le National argued that the king’s ministers had to have a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, supported opposition candidates in parliamentary elections, attacked the Jules Armand Polignac (1780–1847) ministry, and opposed the four ordinances of 26 July 1830. Thiers was one of the principal authors of a protest against the ordinances drawn up on 26 July and signed by forty-four journalists. He also played a leading role in persuading Louis-Philippe (1773–1850), Duke of Orleans, to succeed King Charles X (1757–1836) after the latter’s abdication.

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On 21 October 1830, Thiers was elected deputy for Aix-en-Provence. He served as minister of the interior from October 1832 to January 1833, and then as minister of commerce and public works. Minister of the interior once more, Thiers was blamed for the massacre of the Rue Transnonain (13 April 1834), when several innocent civilians were killed in a shoot-out between republican militants and soldiers and guardsmen. Nevertheless, Louis-Philippe appointed him to head a ministry from February to August 1836, and again from 1 March 1840. In his second ministry, Thiers apparently threatened a war between France and the other European powers over Egypt and Syria. Alarmed, Louis-Philippe eventually dismissed Thiers (22 October 1840). Out of government office for the rest of the July Monarchy, Thiers began his mammoth History of the Consulate and Empire (twenty volumes, 1845–1862). This long and detailed narrative history portrayed Napoleon I (r. 1804–1814/15) as a Romantic hero and successful military commander. After Louis-Philippe had dismissed Franc¸ois-Pierre-Guillaume Guizot (1787–1874) on 23 February 1848, he invited Thiers to form a ministry, but by then it was too late to save the July Monarchy. Elected to the National Assembly on 4 June 1848, Thiers backed Napoleon III (1808–1873) in the presidential election of 10 December 1848. Yet Thiers did not accept ministerial office and became increasingly critical of the Prince-President. Briefly imprisoned after the coup d’e´tat of 2 December 1851, Thiers then led a life of exile in Brussels, London, and Switzerland until allowed to return to France in August 1852. In May 1863, he gained election to the Legislative Body, where he joined the opposition while remaining separate from the republican Left. He campaigned for liberal freedoms (though not free trade), opposed the Mexican expedition, and warned against the expansion of Prussian power in Germany. In July 1870 he desperately tried to discourage war with Prussia. Once the war had begun, he urged the concentration of French troops in the Paris area. He refused to serve as a minister under Empress Euge´nie or in the provisional government formed after 4 September 1870, but he did agree to accept a diplomatic mission to seek foreign assistance for France.

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In the National Assembly elections of 8 February 1871, following the armistice with Germany of 28 January, twenty-six departments elected Thiers. This remarkable indication of his popularity ensured his election in Bordeaux as ‘‘Chief of the Executive Power’’ (13 February 1871). Thiers then had to accept the harsh terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt (10 May 1871)—the payment of a large indemnity and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. Meanwhile, by ordering the removal of cannon from Paris on 17 March 1871, Thiers had provoked the outbreak of the Paris Commune. The defeat of the Paris Commune temporarily crushed the radical Left, while the opposition of Thiers to a monarchical restoration helped to check the royalist Right. Instead, Thiers presided over the emergence of a conservative Republic. By the time of his resignation (24 May 1873), he had achieved financial stability, the full payment of the indemnity owed to Germany, and the ending of German military occupation of French territory. Thiers continued to be a deputy, but took little part in parliamentary debates. Thiers died on 3 September 1877. His exceptionally long career, from the 1820s to the 1870s, indicates the political continuities in this period, despite four changes of regime, and the close connections between journalism, historical writing, and politics common in nineteenth-century France. His political legacy, a combination of patriotism, liberalism, and conservatism, had a profound effect on the Third Republic. See also France; Guizot, Franc¸ois; Liberalism; Paris Commune; Restoration; Revolutions of 1830; Revolutions of 1848. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Thiers, Louis-Adolphe. Discours parlementaires de M. Thiers. Edited by M. Calmon. 16 vols. Paris, 1879–89. ———. Notes et souvenirs de M. Thiers: 1848: Re´volution du 24 fe´vrier. Paris, 1902.

Secondary Sources Bury, J. P. T., and R. P. Tombs. Thiers, 1797–1877. London, 1986. Guiral, Pierre. Adolphe Thiers, ou, De la ne´cessite´ en politique. Paris, 1986. WILLIAM FORTESCUE

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n

TIRPITZ, ALFRED VON (1849–1930), Prussian admiral. Alfred Peter Friedrich Tirpitz (who was ennobled in 1900) was born on 19 March 1849 in the small town of Ku¨strin in the eastern part of Prussia. The son of a judge, he joined the Prussian Navy in 1865 and soon made a brilliant career. In the 1880s he was responsible for the development of the new torpedo weapon. In 1891 he became chief of staff of the Baltic naval station. He also quickly attracted the attention of the new kaiser, William II, himself a naval enthusiast, for unlike many of his elder comrades Tirpitz had a clear concept of both naval policy and naval strategy. Although the extent of the influence of Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan on Tirpitz is difficult to measure, their concepts were similar. Mahan believed that the Roman Empire was shaped by its control of the sea; Tirpitz was deeply convinced that history had proven sea power to be a prerequisite to the German Empire’s power, prestige, welfare, and social stability in the twentieth century. Accordingly, he developed a plan to achieve these aims by building a battle fleet that he believed would be able to gain command of the sea. Appointed commanding admiral of the German East Asian Squadron in 1896, he was called back in June 1897 to become secretary of the Imperial Navy Office. Supported by the new secretary for foreign affairs, Bernhard von Bu¨low, and using modern methods of propaganda to influence both parties in the Reichstag as well as the public, he began to realize what historians later were to call the Tirpitz Plan, which aimed at securing ‘‘a place in the sun’’ for Germany. For the advocates of this policy, it seemed inevitable that Germany would challenge Britain’s supremacy in the world and on the seas. In June 1898 the Reichstag passed the First Navy Law, which established a battle fleet consisting of two battle squadrons and, most importantly, ensured continuous fleet building. Only two years later, this fleet was doubled. Although Tirpitz finally gave up the idea of demanding two more battle squadrons in 1905, he added six armoured cruisers for service on foreign stations to the existing fleet in 1906. More important, he decided to follow Britain’s example and start building battleships of

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the Dreadnought type, armed with large guns. Thus he openly challenged the Royal Navy, which as a result quickly lost its margin of superiority in modern vessels. By reducing the age of replacement of older ships in 1908, he further accelerated the tempo of German battleship building. Contrary to his own expectations, this step was the beginning both of an arms race and the decline of his plan. After the failure in 1908 of British attempts to induce the German government to reduce its building program, the Royal Navy started to outbuild its German rival in 1909. At the same time, Tirpitz began to lose support within the government as well as with the public. Steadily increasing costs and Germany’s isolation among the great powers seemed to require a change in German foreign and naval policy. Supported by the Kaiser, Tirpitz was, however, still strong enough to thwart the attempts of Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, appointed chancellor in July 1909, to negotiate a naval agreement. Moreover, Bethmann Hollweg’s fiasco in the Moroccan crisis in 1911 offered Tirpitz an opportunity to once again increase the navy. Tirpitz eventually pushed through a new naval bill in 1912, stabilizing a building rate of 3 capital ships a year. The Imperial Navy now consisted of 61 capital ships, 40 light cruisers, 144 torpedo boats, and 72 submarines. In spite of this success, his influence on German politics was diminishing. The Moroccan crisis, the Balkan Wars in 1912 to 1913, and the threat of a world war on the Continent strengthened the position of the army, which was enlarged twice in 1912 and 1913. Moreover, in early 1914 even Tirpitz realized that his policy was on the verge of bankruptcy due to financial constraints and rising costs on the one hand and Britain’s determination to preserve its naval supremacy on the other. His policy’s obvious lack of success did not harm his popularity, however. Members of the German Right were convinced that he was the ideal candidate to replace Bethmann Hollweg, who seemed too weak to break the iron ring around Germany. Tirpitz was not involved in the decisions that led to the outbreak of war in August 1914. However, afraid of a humiliating diplomatic defeat, he did not plead for moderation. The war soon proved disastrous for Tirpitz’s navy. Bottled in the German Bight, it was unable to successfully challenge the

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Grand Fleet. Raids on the British east coast were costly and dangerous, and the battle of Jutland in May 1916 was no strategic breakthrough. Only unrestricted submarine warfare, advocated by Tirpitz since 1915, seemed to offer a way out of a strategic deadlock but at a high price: it brought the United States into the war in 1917. Having lost the confidence of the kaiser, Tirpitz was forced to resign in March 1916 after one of several disputes with the chancellor about submarine warfare. However, he did not refrain from interfering in politics. In September 1917 he became chairman of the German Fatherland Party, a right-wing organization demanding far-reaching annexations and rejecting all domestic reforms. After the war he quickly became the eminence gris (gray eminence) of the German Right, and he was involved in a number of attempts to overthrow the republican government. In 1925 he was one of the main architects of Field Marshall Paul von Hindenburg’s candidacy for president. At the same time, he exerted great influence on the navy, whose members still regarded him as their master. Still actively involved in antirepublican intrigues, the father of the German battle fleet died on 6 March 1930. See also Balkan Wars; Germany; Moroccan Crises; Naval Rivalry (Anglo-German).

Steinberg, Jonathan. Yesterday’s Deterrent: Tirpitz and the Birth of the German Battle Fleet. London, 1968. MICHAEL EPKENHANS

n

TOBACCO. On the eve of the French Revolution, some 250 years after its introduction from the Americas, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) was used as a recreational stimulant throughout Europe. It was an important article of trade between Europe and the rest of the world and a significant source of income for many European governments. In Spain, France, Portugal, and Austria the supply of tobacco was subject to a government monopoly; in every other European country its import, processing, or sale was controlled by some form of fiscal legislation. State control of the tobacco supply was challenged at various times during the period, notably in France, where both taxation and the government monopoly were abolished during the Revolution (although both were subsequently reinstated); in Berlin in 1848, when the right to smoke in public places was a demand of and concession made to the revolutionaries; and in Italy in 1848, where protests against an Austrian monopoly led to open revolt in Lombardy, Venice, and Piedmont.

Halpern, Paul G. A Naval History of World War I. Annapolis, Md., 1994.

The principal source of tobacco was the Americas, with the United States the largest supplier followed by Brazil and Cuba. Tobacco was also imported to Europe from Sri Lanka and the Philippines in the Far East and Egypt and the Ottoman Empire in the Near East. Tobacco cultivation was banned in many European countries, including Great Britain, in order to protect national monopolies or customs revenues. However, it was grown on a commercial scale in Russia, the Netherlands, and a number of Germany principalities.

Herwig, Holger H. ‘‘Luxury Fleet’’: The Imperial German Navy, 1888–1918. London, 1980.

SOCIAL ASPECTS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Tirpitz, Alfred von. My Memoirs. 2 vols. New York, 1919.

Secondary Sources Berghahn, Volker R. Der Tirpitz-Plan: Genesis und Verfall einer innenpolitischen Krisenstrategie unter Wilhelm II. Dusseldorf, Germany, 1971.

Hobson, Rolf. Imperialism at Sea: Naval Strategic Thought, the Ideology of Sea Power, and the Tirpitz Plan, 1875– 1914. Boston, 2002. Lambi, Ivo N. The Navy and German Power Politics, 1862– 1914. Boston, 1984. Scheck, Raphael. Alfred von Tirpitz and German RightWing Politics, 1914–1930. Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1998.

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At the beginning of the nineteenth century the usual way in which tobacco was consumed throughout Europe was as snuff—dried, flavored, powdered tobacco, sniffed by the pinch as a stimulant. Over the next half-century, as a general trend across the Continent, snuffing was replaced by smoking. In some countries such as Great Britain and Holland the trend was a revival, but in others,

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such as Prussia, the habit was new. The switch from snuff taking to smoking commenced in the Napoleonic Wars, when the British soldiers who served in Spain during the Peninsula campaign were introduced to cigars, hitherto a Spanish or South American method of tobacco consumption, and brought the habit home with them, where it quickly spread: in 1800 Britain imported twentysix pounds of cigars; in 1830, two hundred fifty thousand pounds. Contemporaneously with the introduction of cigars, Britain also witnessed a revival of pipe smoking, which had been the principal form of tobacco use in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The revival, however, was accompanied by new social attitudes to smoking and a new etiquette for smokers. It was accepted that the smell of tobacco smoke might cause offense, and so space was dedicated, in both private houses and public institutions, to the creation of smoking rooms. Moreover, while snuff had been used by both sexes at every level of society, smoking was considered to be a masculine habit, and except among the poor, women who smoked were the subjects of moral opprobrium (although perhaps not in ‘‘bohemian’’ circles). The pan-European drift toward smoking was uneven: the first year in which more tobacco was sold in France for smoking rather than snuffing was 1830, whereas in Venice the change did not occur until 1860. As a consequence, a variety of tobacco habits coexisted side by side in many European countries, and the particular habit any individual possessed often reflected his or her social class. The ability to determine a person’s background by how they used tobacco was employed by novelists as an aid to characterization: Charles Dickens in Great Britain and Honore´ de Balzac in France were both careful to specify the tobacco habits of their characters. In Britain, in particular, clear literary conventions were established: the amoral or ostentatious rich smoked cigars; the dependable middle class and intellectuals enjoyed pipes; old people and mill workers took snuff. Tobacco and smoking were also the subject of artistic works in their own right. For instance, Charles Baudelaire included a poem dedicated to his pipe in Les Fleurs du Mal (1857). Attitudes toward tobacco generally were very positive. It was associated with thinking as well as

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relaxation and considered to be a mental stimulant. Among the poor it was used to suppress appetite. Despite advances in chemistry and the isolation, in 1828 in Heidelberg, of the alkaloid nicotine—the chemical soul of tobacco—which was found to be highly toxic, neither smoking nor snuffing were thought to be injurious. Criticism usually focused on sanitary matters (the odor of tobacco smoke tainted clothes) or safety: in Prussia, wire cigar guards were employed to protect smokers and their surroundings from ash and burning embers. Opposition to tobacco use gained some momentum in Great Britain with the advent of the temperance movement, which attacked smoking as being godless and wasteful. However such sentiments were rare and were contrary to received opinion. CIGARETTES AND INDUSTRIALIZATION

Although tobacco was mass consumed, for much of the nineteenth century its conversion into a consumer product was unsophisticated: it was processed rather than manufactured, and the principal cost of production in every European country was labor. The Royal Tobacco Factory in Seville, Spain, was the largest industrial building in Europe at the beginning of the period, yet it lacked all but the most rudimentary of machinery. The snuff, cigars, and loose tobacco it produced were handmade by a largely female workforce. The loose tobacco was destined for the urban poor, who smoked it rolled in scraps of paper. This manner of smoking was adopted by French travelers who carried it to Paris, where the little hand-rolled paper and tobacco cigar was named the ‘‘cigarette’’ by the writer The´ophile Gautier in 1833. Cigarettes acquired romantic associations in France. Works such as Prosper Me´rime´e’s Carmen (1845) put them into the mouths of tempting young women and the men who wished to seduce them. In response to evident demand, the French tobacco monopoly started manufacturing cigarettes by hand in 1845. In Great Britain, by contrast, cigarettes were a luxury item and their consumption was thought to be effete. They had been introduced to the country in 1856 by a veteran of the Crimean War, were produced in limited quantities by exclusive tobacconists such as Philip Morris of Bond Street, and

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An 1824 print captioned ‘‘Tis very good! (indeed)’’ depicts women enjoying snuff. ª

HULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS

were smoked by people of equivocal social standing such as the playwright Oscar Wilde. Matters changed in 1883 with the introduction of mechanization, which enabled British suppliers to produce a cheap and uniform product. Machine-made cigarettes did not displace existing tobacco products but rather created their own market. Unlike pipes they were simple to use, in contrast to cigars they were mild to smoke, and above all, they were consistent in quality. Such attributes made cigarettes appealing to the ever-increasing number of clerical workers; they were also attractive to women and to minors.

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Cigarettes inspired the first popular opposition to smoking in Great Britain. It was perceived that such cheap branded products were irresistible to children, and in 1908 the Children and Young Persons Act was passed, which made it illegal to sell tobacco to those under sixteen years of age—an implicit acknowledgment that tobacco use might pose a risk to health. Notwithstanding such reservations, tobacco rations were supplied to British troops and to the soldiers of every other one of the principal combatant nations at the outbreak of World War I, and tobacco consumption throughout Europe ended the period on a rising trend.

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See also Alcohol and Temperance; Drugs. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barrie, J. M. My Lady Nicotine. London, 1890. Gately, Iain. Tobacco—A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization. New York, 2002. Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History. London, 1993. Hilton, Matthew. Smoking in British Popular Culture, 1800–2000. Manchester, U.K., 2000. IAIN GATELY

Guizot, Tocqueville looked toward America rather than aristocratic Great Britain as a potential model for the democratic future. Because of his family’s continued loyalty to the exiled Bourbons, Tocqueville’s political position had also become precarious. He and his close friend and fellow liberal, Gustave-Auguste de Beaumont de la Bonninie`re, formulated a plan to obtain official permission to study prison reform in America. In doing so they also hoped to establish a reputation for themselves as experts on the new political order, which would qualify them to participate in building France’s political future.

n

TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS DE

(1805– 1859), French political theorist, historian, and political liberal. Alexis de Tocqueville remains best known as the author of two classics: De la de´mocratie en Ame´rique (1835 and 1840; Democracy in America) and L’ancien re´gime et la re´volution (1856; The Old Regime and the Revolution). Tocqueville was born on 29 July 1805 into an old Norman aristocratic family that had suffered severely from the French Revolution. His life was dedicated to understanding the origins and implications of that upheaval for his nation and the larger world. Despite a frail voice in a fragile body he chose a career in politics. In preparation for that career he was strongly influenced by the lectures of the historian and statesman Franc¸oisPierre-Guillaume Guizot (1787–1874), who traced the decline of aristocratic privilege over the centuries preceding the French Revolution. At the same time Tocqueville became deeply interested in the Anglo-American world, which was to become his major source for a lifetime of comparisons with developments in his own country. The July Revolution of 1830 was a turning point for the young Alexis. The Bourbon dynasty, to which his family was closely tied, was displaced by the ‘‘citizen king,’’ LouisPhilippe (r. 1830–1848). The revolution confirmed Tocqueville’s conviction that France was moving rapidly and inevitably toward ‘‘equality of conditions.’’ Breaking with the perspective of the older generation’s liberals epitomized by

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DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA

The two young men traveled through the United States for nine months in 1831–1832. The firstfruits of their journey was a joint report in fulfillment of their official mission: Du syste` me pe´ nitentiaire aux E´ tats-Unis (1833; On the Penitentiary System in the United States and Its Application to France). On the basis of his observations and further readings Tocqueville attempted to lay bare the essential components of political society in the United States. He focused on those aspects of America most relevant to his own liberal philosophy and political ambitions. The vitality, the limitations, the excesses, and the potential future of democracy became the themes of Democracy in America. The period immediately following the publication of Democracy was probably the happiest in Tocqueville’s life. The book instantly won him an international reputation as a judicious political scientist. It was soon translated and published in Great Britain, the United States, Belgium, Germany, Spain, Hungary, Denmark, and Sweden. A voyage to England and Ireland in 1835 solidified lifelong friendships with the British elite, a bond that was reinforced that same year by his marriage to an Englishwoman, Marie Mottley. As a source of comparisons and intellectual exchange, England became, in Tocqueville’s words, his second country. Returning to France, Tocqueville began a sequel to his Democracy, now focusing on democratic ideas, beliefs, and mores in America. The second Democracy took longer to write and took Tocqueville further afield than its author had

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anticipated. Although published in 1840 under the same title as the earlier work, it ended up being as much about democracy in France and Europe as in the United States. Tocqueville’s observations on the continuing bureaucratization of the French state and the progressive diminution of French political life during the late 1830s caused him to envision a new threat to democracy. Centralization and apathetic individualism made egalitarian societies vulnerable to a new form of despotism. Tocqueville’s theme, as he wrote to John Stuart Mill, had become less America than ‘‘the influence of equality on the ideas and the sentiments of men.’’ The ambiguities created by chapters on this new theme, interspersed with others more directly focused on America, accounted for some confusion among readers, and for the more muted reception of the 1840 volume in France. Just as he completed his second Democracy, Tocqueville fulfilled his youthful ambition to step into the political arena. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1839 from Valognes. Tocqueville’s need for uncompromising dignity and independence, however, deprived him of the influence to which he aspired in the legislature of the July Monarchy. For the next eight years he remained only a well-respected spokesman for legislative committees. On nonpartisan issues such as prison reform and colonial policy, he put his familiarity with American and British examples to good use. The Revolution of 1848 presented Tocqueville with new threats and new opportunities. France was immediately faced with militant working-class demands for extensive and even revolutionary social reforms. Tocqueville was determined to combat what he viewed as the combined danger of increased state power and a proletarian attack on the basic principle of private property. France’s electoral system also changed dramatically in 1848. The provisional government called for a new national constituent assembly based on universal male suffrage. Tocqueville’s own voting constituency therefore suddenly expanded from several hundred to 160,000. In his campaigns for reelection in the Second French Republic, Tocqueville made the transition so well that he became the most successful vote getter in his department of La Manche. He subsequently

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opposed all radical social reform and joined the National Assembly in crushing a working-class uprising in 1848. The following year he briefly served the Republic as foreign minister, from June to October 1849. During a long period of illness in 1850 Tocqueville began a memoir on the Revolution of 1848. It was published posthumously, in 1893, under the title Souvenirs (1896; Recollections). When the Republic was overthrown on 2 December 1851 by President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (later Napoleon III; r. 1852–1871), Tocqueville refused to take an oath to the new regime and withdrew from politics. Seeking to sustain his liberal mission by other means, Tocqueville reverted to the strategy of the 1830s, touching on his fundamental concern with the relation of liberty to equality. He sought to trace the origins of France’s entrapment in cycles of despotism and revolution by investigating the two centuries preceding the French Revolution. After four years of intensive archival research the Old Regime and the Revolution was published in 1856. Tocqueville located the deep structural sources of France’s alterations of upheaval and despotism in the long-term evolution of the prerevolutionary monarchy and society. At the same time he offered his readers a counterpoint to his pessimistic analysis of French political instability by continuous comparisons with the Anglo-American world. The acclaim from liberal sympathizers in France and abroad that greeted his new history dispelled some of the gloom of his last years. INFLUENCE

In the midst of writing his sequel to the Old Regime, Tocqueville died on 16 April 1859 at Cannes. Although he quickly became the posthumous leader of French liberalism, his reputation in France languished at the end of the nineteenth century. In the following century the totalitarian challenges to the survival of liberal democratic institutions helped to stimulate a ‘‘Tocqueville renaissance.’’ After World War II the revival of his Democracy was fostered by the emergence of the United States as a world power. The expansion of political democracy in Eastern Europe after 1989 sustained that momentum. Tocqueville’s The Old Regime became the foundational text for a revision of the

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prevailing Marxist interpretation of the Revolution in France itself. However, the revival of interest in Tocqueville has not been based only on a sequence of events. A major change in the scholarly attention to Tocqueville’s writings emerged during the late twentieth century. There was a broadening consensus on the relevance of his thought to democracy on a global scale. This growing encounter with Tocqueville’s major writings is evidenced by an explosion of international scholarship. That scholarship has given us a rich sense of Tocqueville’s complex dialogues with himself and his contemporaries and with the challenges faced by the world of the early twenty-first century. Some have sought to demonstrate that Tocqueville was entrapped by the limitations of his own time and background. Others have argued that he ultimately despaired of his hopes for political liberty in an egalitarian world. Yet a majority of historians and social scientists find in his thought a deeper affirmation of the resilience of democratic liberal institutions and mores. Tocqueville’s sensitivity to civil society as a determinative of institutional success or failure has been echoed by contemporary students of political thought. Tocqueville’s cumulative legacy is evidence of his unparalleled power to bring contemporary political concerns into sharper focus even where consensus on fundamentals remains difficult to achieve. See also French Revolution; Marx, Karl; Michelet, Jules; Napoleon III; Revolutions of 1830; Revolutions of 1848.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Drescher, Seymour. Tocqueville and England. Cambridge, Mass., 1964. Assesses the influence of England on Tocqueville’s life and thought. Jardin, Andre´. Tocqueville: A Biography. Translated by Lydia Davis with Robert Hemenway. New York, 1988. The most recent and detailed narrative of Tocqueville’s life. Lamberti, Jean-Claude. Tocqueville and the Two Democracies. Cambridge, Mass., 1989. Stresses changes in Tocqueville’s view of democracy between the 1835 and 1840 volumes. Me´lonio, Franc¸oise. Tocqueville and the French. Translated by Beth G. Raps. Charlottesville, Va., 1998. An account of French attitudes toward Tocqueville and

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his works during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Schleifer, James T. The Making of Tocqueville’s Democracy in America. Indianapolis, 2000. An abundantly documented reconstruction of the major concepts in Democracy, using Tocqueville’s extensive notes and drafts. Schleifer stresses the unity of the two books, published in 1835 and 1840. Tocqueville, Alexis de. The Tocqueville Reader: A Life in Letters and Politics. Edited by Olivier Zunz and Alan S. Kahan. Oxford, U.K., 2002. Welch, Cheryl B. De Tocqueville. Oxford, U.K., 2001. A synthesis of Tocqueville’s political thought from the perspective of political science. SEYMOUR DRESCHER

n

TOLSTOY, LEO

(in Russian, Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy; 1828–1910), Russian novelist and moral philosopher. Leo Tolstoy, a Russian nobleman, was born at his family’s estate, Yasnaya Polyana (‘‘clear glade’’), on 9 September (28 August, old style) 1828. Orphaned by age ten, he was raised by close relatives. While at Kazan University, he read Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Confessions, which exerted a profound and lifelong influence on him. Rejecting what he perceived as a trivial education, Tolstoy broke off his studies and eventually followed his brother Nikolai to the Crimea to serve in the elite artillery corps.

LIFE AND WORKS

In the Crimea Tolstoy’s literary career began in earnest, with the publication of the autobiographical trilogy Childhood (1852), Boyhood (1854), and Youth (1857), and the remarkable Sevastopol Stories (1855–1856). In late 1859, contemptuous of the vagaries of the writer’s life, Tolstoy returned to Yasnaya Polyana intent on bettering the lives of his own peasants. He married Sophia Andreyevna Bers in 1862; they had thirteen children. Tolstoy wrote The Cossacks (1863), and then began his stupendous historical novel War and Peace, written and published between 1865 and 1869. It provoked lively and heated critical debate. He followed it with a tale of modern society, Anna Karenina

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(1875–1877), which was published serially to good reviews. In the late 1870s, seized by a profound feeling of hopelessness in the face of the eventuality of death, Tolstoy embarked on a religious transformation detailed in the profound and controversial Confession (1879). The essential elements of Tolstoy’s new religious ideas can be found in a trilogy: An Investigation of Dogmatic Theology (1880), A Translation and Harmony of the Four Gospels (1882–1884), and What I Believe (1884). The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1894) details Tolstoy’s doctrine of pacifism. Tolstoy’s crisis was both aesthetic and moral, so his literary works took on a more overtly didactic tone. Masterful stories of this period include ‘‘The Death of Ivan Ilych’’ (1886), ‘‘How Much Land Does a Man Need?’’ (1886), and ‘‘The Kreutzer Sonata’’ (1891). Master and Man (1895) portrays a man’s deathbed conversion. The less successful Resurrection (1899) concerns an impassioned search for justice. Tolstoy’s famous work of literary criticism, What Is Art? (1898), vituperatively condemns much of world literature—Tolstoy’s own contribution as well as William Shakespeare’s—as elitist and corrupting. Art, he argued, should not seduce for the sake of enjoyment, but should edify the masses by infecting them with sympathetic feelings. Leo Tolstoy c. 1900–1910. ªMICHAEL NICHOLSON/CORBIS

Tolstoy’s outspoken repudiation of government and church responses to social crises contributed to his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901. His masterful novel Hadji Murat (1904) concerns a protracted war between Caucasian mountaineers and the Russians. Seeking to free himself of the wealth, privilege, and fame that overwhelmed him, Tolstoy left home and died at Astapovo railway station on 20 November (7 November, old style) 1910. At the time of his death Tolstoy was a figure of world renown and an ambivalent leader of his own religious movement. Thousands of Russian peasants accompanied his funeral procession, and the demise of this giant of a man was felt by many to be the passing of a whole era. CONTRIBUTIONS TO LITERATURE

Tolstoy discovered new forms for the novel. Set during the Napoleonic Wars, War and Peace depicts the lives of three families. Compared by

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Tolstoy himself to Homer’s Iliad, the subject of the novel is ‘‘life itself,’’ conveyed by Tolstoy through precise detail and sweeping description. Anna Karenina, lauded as one of the world’s greatest novels, contrasts the eponymous heroine’s adulterous relationship with two other, more or less ideal, marriages. Even upon the publication of Childhood, however, Tolstoy was heralded as a great new literary talent for his extraordinary ability to convey every nuance of conscious thought. His works are rife with luminous moments where the individual’s existence melds harmoniously with all creation, as when Levin is mowing hay in Anna Karenina, or Prince Andrei lies dying on the battlefield in War and Peace. Also central to Tolstoy’s thought is a strain of anti-individualism that intensifies with time. It manifests itself in his critique of the ‘‘great men’’ theory of historical causation.

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TORIES

For Tolstoy, there exists an eternal truth that is the same for all people in all times. One merely needs to discover what that truth is and live in complete harmony with it. Through most of Tolstoy’s literary career, apprehension of the truth occurs through aesthetic means, most insistently through defamiliarization (ostranenie), a method that exposes society’s conventions by making them ‘‘strange.’’ This device is famously employed in War and Peace, for example, in the scene in which Natasha attends the opera for the first time. Tolstoy also employs repetition, enumeration, and logical sequencing. He effects narrative shifts in point of view that are held together by an omniscient narrator who as often as not contains a measure of the personality of Tolstoy himself. In his postconversion works the aesthetic element is often dominated by social and political commentary, although the best works, such as Hadji Murat, achieve universal clarity. CONTRIBUTIONS TO SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS THOUGHT

While at times sympathetic to radicals, liberals, and conservatives, Tolstoy largely remained at odds with the main currents of nineteenth-century Russian intellectual thought. Akin to an eighteenthcentury philosophe, Tolstoy, a fierce believer in the equality of all people, envisioned and put into practice at times utopian social and educational reforms. Although he eventually came to a wholesale rejection of his class’s way of life, in less dogmatic moments he believed that with privilege came the responsibility to educate those less fortunate than oneself. After his moral crisis of 1880, Tolstoy came to embrace Christian anarchism. He interpreted Christ’s injunction to turn the other cheek as a summons to nonviolent protest against injustice. Tolstoy tended to follow any idea through to its logical conclusions, even if that led him to extreme, even contradictory, positions. For example, he spoke out not against revolutionaries’ violent tactics, but against the government’s execution of the revolutionaries. He used his notoriety to rail against the legal system, the prisons, private property, the bureaucracy, marriage, education, and agriculture. Tolstoy’s pacifism had a profound influence on Mahatma Gandhi, spiritual and political leader of India.

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See

also Chekhov, Anton; Dostoyevsky, Pacifism; Russia; Turgenev, Ivan.

Fyodor;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Tolstoy, Leo. Polnoe sobranie sochenenii. Edited by V. G. Chertkov. 90 vols. Moscow, 1928–1958. Definitive Russian edition of Tolstoy’s works. ———. Tolstoy Centenary Edition. Translated by Louise and Aylmer Maude. 21 vols. London, 1929–1937. Comprehensive, though incomplete, set of translations. ———. Anna Karenina. Translated by Constance Garnett. Edited and translation revised by Leonard J. Kent and Nina Berberova. New York, 1965. Reprint, 1993. ———. Great Short Works of Leo Tolstoy. Translated by Louise and Aylmer Maude. New York, 1967. ———. War and Peace. Translated by Ann Dunnigan. New York, 1968. Reprint, 1993.

Secondary Sources Bloom, Harold, ed. Leo Tolstoy: Modern Critical Views. New York, 1986. Excellent articles by distinguished scholars on key aspects of Tolstoy’s work. Orwin, Donna Tussing. Tolstoy’s Art and Thought, 1847– 1880. Princeton, N.J., 1993. Brilliant study of the ideas that led Tolstoy to write his masterpieces. Steiner, George. Tolstoy or Dostoevsky: An Essay in the Old Criticism. 2nd ed. New Haven, Conn., 1996. Good overall interpretation of Tolstoy’s works. The Tolstoy Studies Journal. Toronto, 1998–. Good source for contemporary scholarly articles on Tolstoy. SARAH A. KRIVE

n

TORIES. On 14 July 1789, when the Bastille was attacked by a revolutionary mob, there were, save perhaps for James Boswell (1740–1795) and a few politically eccentric High Church clergymen, few individuals in Great Britain who would have identified themselves as Tories. None would have considered themselves as members of a ‘‘Conservative Party,’’ as that was an expression of 1830. The term Tory had first come into widespread usage in the 1670s and came to denote thereafter English and Welsh politicians and their supporters who placed a great deal of emphasis on the royal prerogative and the virtues of the established Church of England; were well able to restrain their enthuE U R O P E

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siasm for Protestant Dissenters (Baptists, Quakers, Presbyterians, Unitarians, Congregationalists); were, at best, wobbly in their passion for the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent settlement of the English, Scottish, and Irish crowns on the German Lutheran electors of Hanover; and who tended, as a generally landed and country party, to mistrust the accoutrements (national banks, national debts, stock exchanges) of commercial capitalism. By the 1760s and 1770s, the term Tory was fast becoming an anachronism owned up to by few and utilized chiefly by Whigs as a cudgel with which to beat up political opponents. Most members of the political nation of 1789, including those ‘‘fathers of conservatism,’’ Edmund Burke (1729–1797) and William Pitt (1759–1806), would have considered themselves as Whigs of one form or another. GOVERNING PARTY

William Pitt the Younger had been prime minister since 1783 as leader of a post–American war coalition, usually termed ‘‘Pittite,’’ whose distinguishing characteristic was loyalty to George III (r. 1760–1820). They were widely credited with the ability to provide sound and efficient government. Indeed, from the perspective of 1750 or of 1850, there was, save for this pragmatic loyalty to the king, nothing particularly ‘‘Tory’’ about Pitt or his government. Pitt tended to be broadly sympathetic to the Irish Catholics, to limited parliamentary reform, and to the cultivation of at least reasonable relations with the Protestant Dissenters. This Pittite moderation changed with the increasing radicalization of the French Revolution. What could arguably be called the bible of modern conservatism, Edmund Burke’s clarion call for resistance to the French explosion, Reflections on the Revolution in France, was published in 1790. Burke, like Pitt, with a background replete with parliamentary opposition to the American war and, in a qualified way, to British imperialism in India, was no Tory, but a Foxite Whig. Yet it was Pitt and Burke, old enemies and never very cordial colleagues, who in the 1790s stitched together a governing coalition of Pittites and former Foxite Whigs that became, even more than the papacy or the Russian monarchy, the centerpiece of European opposition to the Revolution and to Napoleon

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Bonaparte. This coalition, save for a brief time in 1806 and 1807, remained in power from 1794 to 1830. It was the nucleus of a revived Tory Party, though most of its members, at least until the 1820s, wore the Tory label most uncomfortably. The Tories, who oversaw the great victories over the French Empire in 1814 and 1815, and the establishment thereafter of a Pax Britannica over the sea lanes of the world, and who attempted in the 1820s to liberalize the rigors of traditional mercantilism, were smashed by the Catholic issue after 1827. Many of the leading lights of the coalition, the Pitts, the Burkes, the Cannings, the Castlereaghs, were supporters of Catholic emancipation, allowing the Catholics of the United Kingdom, who were, of course, the vast majority in Ireland, access to the imperial parliament in London. The backwoodsmen of the party, in this reflecting, most probably, the wider views of the British people, did not support emancipation. When Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington (1769–1852), an anti-Catholic of long standing, became prime minister in 1828, he decided, not for the last time in the history of his party, to trump ideology with pragmatism and give in to the demands of the Catholic Irish and their leader, Daniel O’Connell (1775–1847). The result was the death knell of the Pittite-Burkeite coalition at the general election of 1830. The victorious Whigs and Liberals then proceeded to institute a reformation of the voting system for the House of Commons in the interest, most generally, of their middle class supporters. OPPOSITION PARTY

The Tory Party, used to running the country and the empire since 1783 or 1794, found themselves in 1830 in the unfamiliar terrain of opposition. It was, alas for the Tories, to be a too familiar terrain over the bulk of the nineteenth century, the liberal century of British politics. Between 1830 and 1885, the Tories only once won the majority of votes cast at a general election, in 1841, and otherwise only won in 1874. They lost to some sort of Liberal-Whig coalition at thirteen general elections during the time period. Contrast this to their years of triumph between 1783 and 1829, when only one general election was lost and nine were won!

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The Tories in the early 1830s rechristened themselves ‘‘the Conservative Party’’ and developed or refined their old Pittite principles into what many hoped would be a coherent political ideology called ‘‘Conservatism.’’ This new ideology was trumpeted in newspapers, magazines, and speeches on the hustings and in Parliament. It basically endorsed the idea of a confessional (Anglican) party and denounced the works and pomps of those forces of economic and social modernity that the Conservatives held responsible for their electoral defeats: the classical political economists, the factory owners, the New Poor Law reformers, and those free traders who advocated the ending of protective duties on agriculture. That the Conservative leadership in Parliament, the Wellingtons, the Peels, the Grahams, were enthused by this agenda is unlikely. Sir Robert Peel (1788–1850) in the Tamworth Manifesto of 1834 presented a more moderate Conservatism, accepting of much of the Liberal reforms of 1830–1834. But it may have been the more undiluted conservatism of the church and the newspapers that orchestrated Peel’s great victory of 1841. Peel’s 1841–1846 administration showed the great disconnect that existed between the party leadership and the rank and file. Little was done for the church, the New Poor Law was not repealed, economic modernity was not repudiated, and agricultural protection was not retained. In 1846, Peel, William Ewart Gladstone, Sir James Graham, and other party notables began the trek away from conservatism toward the wider shores of liberalism, leaving their former party a rump. This secession of the Tory generals forms the background for the emergence of a witty, talented parliamentarian, Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881), a baptized Jew with numerous personal quirks not normally congenial to a conservative-minded club, nor to the party leadership in the House of Commons. The Tory Party came to power, if briefly, in 1852, 1858, and 1866, and, for a longer time, in 1874, not because the voting public wanted them but because the dominant Liberals fell out among themselves. And the Tories (and Disraeli) played the Liberal game to stay in power. They jettisoned protection and their confessional leanings, supported Jewish emancipation, enfranchised the

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urban working class, and adopted a high imperialist foreign policy. None of this seemed to matter greatly, and the Liberal machine, chastened by its periodic loss of power, picked itself up, won elections, and moved on. What changed this idiom more than the political skill and eccentric wisdom of Disraeli or the iron pragmatism of Disraeli’s successor, Lord Salisbury (Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 1803–1903), was the destruction of the nineteenth-century Liberal paradigm by its own leader, Gladstone. In 1885 and 1886, by suddenly embracing the Irish leader Charles Stewart Parnell’s vision of Home Rule for Ireland, Gladstone ended the Liberal era in British politics as savagely as in 1829 the Duke of Wellington and Robert Peel, by supporting Catholic emancipation, had ended the Tory one. The Conservatives now found themselves in an anti–Home Rule governmental alliance with the relatively congenial whiggish Right of the Liberal Party and the not so congenial collectivistic Left, led by Joseph Chamberlain (1836–1914). ‘‘UNIONIST PARTY’’

Between 1886 and the official formation of a ‘‘Unionist Party’’ in 1895, the two sides (or three sides) of the new coalition learned to tolerate and support each other. For twenty years after 1886, led by Salisbury and then by his nephew Arthur James Balfour (1848–1930), the Conservatives (or Unionists) won three general elections and were in unaccustomed power for all but three years. The dominant figure of the party, however, probably more than Salisbury and certainly more than Balfour, was Chamberlain. As Winston Churchill said of him, he made the weather. He also made trouble for the future, by too aggressively promoting African imperialism and by suddenly jettisoning sixty years of a general free trade consensus in favor of massive protection. The divided Unionists, then, lost three general elections between 1905 and 1914. In 1914 the great men of British politics, Herbert Henry Asquith, David Lloyd George, and Winston Churchill, were Liberals. Liberalism seemed more than Unionism (or Conservatism) to have captured the public mood on foreign, imperial, and domestic issues. On 4 August 1914, the day that the German army invaded Belgium,

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few would have predicted that the Unionist and Conservative Party would be the most formidable political machine in Europe during the twentieth century. See also Conservatism; Great Britain; Whigs. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Burke, Edmund. Reflections on the Revolution in France. Edited by J. C. D. Clark. Stanford, Calif., 2001.

Secondary Sources Bentley, Michael. Lord Salisbury’s World: Conservative Environments in Late-Victorian Britain. Cambridge, U.K., 2001. Colley, Linda. Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837. New Haven, Conn., 1992. Dangerfield, George. The Strange Death of Liberal England. New York, 1935. Gash, Norman. Reaction and Reconstruction in English Politics, 1832–1852. Oxford, U.K., 1965. Marsh, Peter T. Joseph Chamberlain: Entrepreneur in Politics. New Haven, Conn., 1994. Sack, James J. From Jacobite to Conservative: Reaction and Orthodoxy in Britain, 1760–1832. Cambridge, U.K., 1993. Smith, Paul. Disraeli: A Brief Life. New York, 1996. JAMES J. SACK

n

TOULOUSE-LAUTREC, HENRI DE (1864–1901), French artist best known for portrayals of Paris life. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec belonged to no theoretical school, but is now sometimes classified as postimpressionist. His primary focus was unsentimental evocations of personalities and social mores in working-class, cabaret, circus, and brothel scenes. Toulouse-Lautrec’s greatest contemporary impact came with the thirty posters done between 1891 and 1901 that transformed the aesthetics of poster art. BACKGROUND AND ARTISTIC TRAINING

A heritage of wealth, artistic talent, and a rare genetic disorder defined Toulouse-Lautrec. Born in Albi, France, as the child of a first-cousin marriage between aristocrats, Henri Marie Raymond de

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Toulouse-Lautrec Montfa inherited a rare form of dwarfism that left him deformed and crippled. During an otherwise normal childhood, he suffered from increasingly severe bone pain. At age thirteen in 1878, a minor fall broke his left femur or thighbone. In 1879, a second fall broke the right femur. His growth stopped at 152 cm (about 4’ 11’’) tall. Controversies surrounding the causes of his disability include rumors he fell from a horse or received incompetent medical treatment. It is sometimes claimed that he had pycnodysostosis (a genetic disorder of the bones), but in photographs he does not appear to have several of its identifying symptoms. His exact malady remains undiagnosed. His childhood was marked by conflicts between his parents. Consequently the primary family unit became the artist and his mother. The child Toulouse-Lautrec often drew and painted alongside his father or one of his uncles, all talented amateur artists; he used art to tolerate long convalescences. His uncle, Charles de Toulouse-Lautrec (1840–1915), and deaf-mute artist Rene´ Princeteau (1844–1914), who specialized in horses, provided early art training. In 1882 at age seventeen, with parental approval, he began art study in Paris, receiving training from Le´on-Joseph-Florentin Bonnat (1833–1922) and Fernand Cormon (1845–1924). Toulouse-Lautrec kept studios in Montmartre, influenced by neighboring artists Edgar Degas (1834–1917) and Jean-Louis Forain (1852–1931). Friends included close relatives, fellow aristocrats, prostitutes, circus performers, and artists Vincent Van Gogh (1853–1890), Pierre Bonnard (1867–1947), and Edouard Vuillard (1868–1940). Much of his art portrayed dance halls and cabarets like the Moulin de la Galette, the Moulin Rouge, and the Mirliton, where, after dining at his mother’s, he drank nightly. ART AND LIFE

By age twenty-two, Toulouse-Lautrec was an accomplished artist and a hopeless alcoholic. Rejecting the hypocrisy and sentimentality he believed corrupted all human relations, he flaunted his physical handicaps, with a veneer of self-mockery and outrageous public misbehavior. Many works make reference to his disabilities, ranging from cruel caricatures of himself and others to ‘‘nostril view’’ portraits, and figure studies with legs, arms,

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used photographs to fix a pose or scene, while making a painted portrait. His paintings are virtually always in oil, usually greatly thinned with turpentine, painted on an absorbent surface such as bare canvas, wood panel, or cardboard. He typically used tiny brushes to make subtle and detailed facial studies, sketching in the rest of the scene in quick strokes with larger brushes. Toulouse-Lautrec’s paintings are striking for the revealing expressions and body language of his models and for his staging of social narratives via costume and location. Finished paintings in turn sometimes served as preliminary studies for a color lithograph or poster. However, the image in the final print was pared down, simplified, and abstracted into a work whose emphasis was on areas of color and repeated shapes, containing virtually none of the psychological impact of the oil. It was in his multiples that Toulouse-Lautrec most showed the influence of Japanese art. He experimented with superimposed layers of color on the lithographic print, a variety of spatter techniques, and other technological inventions, but it was above all his understanding of the guiding principles of the advertising poster that revolutionized the art form. He created striking trademark images whose message was immediately understandable, rendering his subjects so memorable that they are still recognizable to the early-twenty-first-century viewer. Poster for the Moulin Rouge by Toulouse-Lautrec, 1891. Toulouse-Lautrec depicts La Goulue, one of the most popular and risque´ dancers at the Moulin Rouge. THE ART ARCHIVE

and in one case, head cut off by the frame, symbolically handicapping his models as he was himself. He became iconoclastic, resolutely destroying others’ pretensions with a sharp word or a slash of pencil on paper. Against his father’s wishes, he decided to sign with the family name: H. T-Lautrec. ARTISTIC PROCESS

Toulouse-Lautrec prepared a final work by proceeding through a variety of media. First he did many sketches, sometimes using carbon and tracing paper to preserve images he liked. He at length distilled an expression or gesture into a single evocative, sometimes caricatural line. Obsessed with technical innovation and being ‘‘modern,’’ he sometimes

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Both notoriety and success came quickly to Toulouse-Lautrec. In spite of his irregular and distracting lifestyle, he was remarkably productive. By age twenty-one he was selling drawings to magazines and newspapers, illustrating books, song sheets, menus, and theater programs. Acclaimed by the avant-garde, he exhibited constantly. Although his work sold well, and his monthly allowance from his parents (around 15,000 francs per year) was perfectly adequate, he had extravagant tastes and lavish generosity. Virtually every letter home said, ‘‘Send money!’’ He was institutionalized for several months in 1899 for treatment of psychological symptoms caused by organic deterioration certainly from advanced alcoholism, and possibly from tertiary syphilis. He died two months before his thirtyseventh birthday. In a career lasting only twenty years, he produced a phenomenal amount of art: 737 canvases, 275 watercolors, 368 prints and posters, and 5,084 drawings, not to mention lost works,

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an occasional book binding, ceramic, or stained-glass window. Some 300 works are pornographic. Toulouse-Lautrec’s art remains so popular that it has become a commonplace, reproduced on coffee mugs, dish towels, and shopping bags. Research and criticism have traditionally centered on its art historical, biographical, or social context. More recent studies focus on Toulouse-Lautrec’s distinctive, repetitive artistic characteristics: fleeting impressions, transparency, layering, visual narrative, jokes and puns, homages to and pastiches of other artists. These traits reveal subtlety and complexity that are increasingly appreciated by other artists, scholars, and the public at large.

Devynck, Daniele. Toulouse-Lautrec: The Posters, Collection of the Muse´e Toulouse-Lautrec. Graulhet, 2001.Thorough, serious study of Toulouse-Lautrec’s poster art. Frey, Julia. Toulouse-Lautrec: A Life. London, 1994. Only complete biography. Based on contemporaneous letters and documents. Heller, Reinhold. ‘‘Rediscovering Henri de ToulouseLautrec’s At the Moulin Rouge.’’ Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies 12, no. 2 (1986): 114–135. Examines the cutting and re-stitching of a section of the famous oil, theorizing possible intent. Murray, Gale B. Toulouse-Lautrec: The Formative Years, 1878–1891. Oxford, U.K., 1991. Study of ToulouseLautrec’s early work with focus on dating and artistic influences.

See also Fin de Sie`cle; France; Impressionism; Paris; Posters.

Schimmel, Herbert, ed. The Letters of Henri de ToulouseLautrec. Oxford, U.K., 1991. Translates (sometimes badly) many if not all Toulouse-Lautrec’s existing letters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thomson, Richard, et al. Toulouse-Lautrec. London, 1977. Exhibition catalog. Some interesting critical articles. Excellent chronology.

Primary Sources Carlton Lake Collection, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas. Austin, Tex. Unpublished original letters by Toulouse-Lautrec and members of his family, most written between 1864 and 1894. Dortu, M. G. Toulouse-Lautrec et son oeuvre. 6 vols. New York, 1971. Only catalog of all works credibly attributed to Toulouse-Lautrec. A huge effort, but contains many errors in dating and some in attribution. Muse´e Toulouse-Lautrec Collection. Albi, France. Originals and/or copies of all possible documentation on Toulouse-Lautrec, including letters, photographs, schoolbooks, clippings, etc. Wittrock, Wolfgang, ed. Toulouse-Lautrec: The Complete Prints. 2 vols. London, 1985. Reproduces and documents each known state of Toulouse-Lautrec’s prints. Worthwhile articles by several critics.

Secondary Sources Bibliotheque Nationale and Queensland Art Gallery. The Lautrecs of Lautrec. Brisbane, 1991. Exhibition catalog. Notable for interesting articles and entries. Castleman, Riva, and Wolfgang Wittrock, eds. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Images of the 1890s. New York, 1985. Exhibition catalog. Reproduces evolution of artistic choices through preparatory and finished works. Cate, Phillip Dennis, and Patricia Eckert Boyer. The Circle of Toulouse-Lautrec: An Exhibition of the Work of the Artist and of his Close Associates. New Brunswick, N.J., 1985. Exhibition catalog. Artists who were ToulouseLautrec’s friends and contemporaries. Denvir, Bernard. Toulouse-Lautrec. London, 1991. Excellent overall analysis of the artist’s relation to his work.

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Thomson, Richard, Phillip Dennis Cate, and Mary Weaver Chapin. Toulouse-Lautrec and Montmartre. Washington, D.C., 2005. Exhibition catalog. JULIA FREY

n

TOURISM. Until the late twentieth century, the history of tourism was not a serious subject for historical inquiry. Before the advent of social history, political historians duly noted where decisions and pronouncements were made, and the place of leisure travel becomes obvious only in retrospect: French Emperor Napoleon III met Count Cavour (Camillo Benso) in the comfortable French spa town of Plombie`res to plot what turned out to be a war of Italian unification against the Austrians; and King William of Prussia had been taking the waters at Ems when the Ems dispatch was issued in 1870, provoking the French to declare war. Even the emergence of social history initially left the history of tourism at the margins. Careful analysis of workers, peasants, the bourgeoisie, and eventually women, that is, specific social groups, eventually made room for analysis of cultural practices besides work, such as tourism. The neglect was unfortunate because the history of tourism has revealed just how much various social groups used travel to set themselves off from others

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THE MICHELIN RED GUIDE: AUTOMOBILE TOURISM AND GENDER ROLES

In 1900, Michelin published the first Guide Michelin to France. In the preface, Michelin noted that ‘‘this work desires to give all information that can be useful to a driver traveling in France, to supply [the needs of] his automobile, to repair it, and to permit him to find a place to stay and eat, and to correspond by mail, telegraph, or telephone’’ (p. 5). Offering this new red guide free of charge, the company recognized that by encouraging automobile travel it fostered the consumption of tires. In essence, the guide offered knowledge about tires and about French towns, thus providing a sort of informational infrastructure for early automobile tourists. Interestingly, the red guide and advertisements for it reinforced societal assumptions about sexual difference in early twentieth-century Europe. In an age when many wealthy men did not even drive their own cars, they were still portrayed as in charge in their planning of trips and management of the chauffeur. Women, by contrast, were presumed to be flighty, hopefully attractive, and concerned with maintaining their beauty. Advertisements for the red guides played on the idea that men, the providers, needed to supply a comfortable place to stay for women, the presumed consumers. In one case, Michelin recounted the tale of newlyweds traveling without a red guide. After the chauffeur informed them that a mechanical breakdown would leave them stranded overnight, the Viscount Rene´ de la Ribaudie`re (a name suggesting bawdiness as well as aristocratic origins) and Giselle, his new wife (the text notes that ‘‘she was not yet [really] the countess’’), got a room in a hotel that was, according to the owner, ‘‘the best in the region.’’ After retiring to their room, they found a bat, and

and thus to construct differences of class and gender as ‘‘natural’’ social divides. In fact, tourism, like other forms of consumption, was as much a defining characteristic of social position as the work with which it was often contrasted. THE GRAND TOUR

In the eighteenth century, the British had been predominant as early tourists. Before the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, many aristo-

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it took a quarter of an hour and all of the eloquence that M. de la Ribaudie`re had in order to calm down Giselle. However, the little viscount did not waste any time, and he quickly addressed his very imminent wife the most legitimate compliments on the beauty of her legs and the finesse of her ankles, when suddenly he cried out in distress. ‘‘Ah! my God, what is the matter?’’ Giselle asked him. [He replied,] ‘‘my darling, where did you get this bit of red on your shoulder which was so white a moment ago?’’ The same exclamation came out of both of their mouths, ‘‘Bed bugs.’’ They killed 10, then 100, then 577; they could not have fought off the yellow invasion with more ardor. Finally, overtaken by sleep, Giselle resigned herself to stretching out on her uncomfortable and hard bed. And the viscount wanted to begin the conversation again. ‘‘Oh, no, my dear,’’ she told him. . . . When the sun rose, Giselle was still not yet Madame de la Ribaudie`re, though she looked like cream with strawberries [that is, her cream-colored skin had many red marks resembling strawberries]. (‘‘Lundi de Michelin,’’ Le Journal, 6 July 1908, p. 5)

By playing on the notion of consummation of the marriage, Michelin suggested that the viscount, however desperately he may have tried, did not get to have sex with his new wife because he had not ordered a copy of the red guide, so he did not realize there was a fine hotel nearby. Having not fulfilled his role as good provider, the viscount could not fulfill his role as a husband in the act of sex. Thus, marketing of the red guide—which began ostensibly as a list of mechanics and places to buy gas—could assert assumptions about the appropriate behavior of men and women: men were supposed to take care of the practical details while traveling, by buying a red guide, and women were to worry about their appearance.

cratic and wealthy British families sent their sons on a Grand Tour of Europe. To have done a Grand Tour set a young English man apart from his contemporaries, not to mention his social inferiors. For the growing upper middle class, a tour of classical ruins was construed as cultural training, not unlike attending university. Lasting for several months, a tour usually included Paris and often other major European capitals and was almost always dominated by the Italian cities. Venice,

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Florence, Rome (including the digs at Pompeii), and sometimes Naples were must-sees, while Genoa and Turin usually figured as stopping points en route from the Alpine crossing to the south. Art collections, architecture, classical ruins, and brothels were the main attractions. The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars interrupted much international tourism, particularly by the British, until 1815. However, in the course of the nineteenth century, the idea of the Grand Tour remained an important image as the numbers of Europeans with the time and financial resources to travel grew. Napoleon’s road building across France and through the Alps facilitated access by reducing travel times. Museums opened their doors, following the example of the Louvre, which became public during the Revolution. The populations capable of affording a tour grew. In addition, the number of women traveling, escorted by female family members, servants, and friends—and sometimes husbands and fathers—steadily increased. Both evolving aesthetics and accessibility changed the destinations and the perceptions of early nineteenth-century tourists. The Alps, long considered a mere untamed obstacle en route to Italy, became a destination in their own right and an important stop on many a Grand Tour. Mountain climbing for the few and hiking for the many became primary attractions. Romantic sensibilities also led to interest in Gothic cathedrals along with the classical monuments. The few travelers to Greece in the nineteenth century, which seemed more accessible after its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1832, were in search of classical ruins overrun by vegetation and partially destroyed by time; here Lord George Gordon Byron’s poetry was an obvious inspiration. During the period from 1792 to 1815, a heyday of early Romanticism, the British Lake Counties so dear to William Wordsworth became primary alternatives for wealthy British tourists unable to tour the Continent. With a volume of Wordsworth in hand, visitors sought the uncontrolled nature he had described. TAKING THE WATERS: SPAS AND SEASIDES

Named for Spa, a well-known spring of mineral water in what would after 1830 be known as Belgium, spas had long existed in Europe. The

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Romans had established baths filled with spring water, and some of those same baths remained in operation throughout the Middle Ages, attracting both local inhabitants and the infirm from farther away. In Hungary, baths experienced a boom in the eighteenth century. Improved roads and coach service made the baths more accessible, and towns such as Bath in western England, Vichy in south-central France, and Baden-Baden in the southwestern German state of Baden became important destinations. Until the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, baths frequently remained large pools in the open air, situated within the towns and open, without charge, to all who wished to bathe. Although only scattered evidence has survived, it appears that in the early modern period bathers of both sexes of all social groups wore little clothing, frolicking in the baths. By the early nineteenth century, as bourgeois usage grew dramatically, so too did the expectations for regulation of access. In France, the open-air pools largely disappeared, replaced by individual bathing compartments where a bather would not come in contact with anyone but spa staff. At least in France, the strict separation of the sexes and careful attention to appropriate attire resulted in part from women’s complaints of men’s behavior at the baths, so the institution of new norms of propriety may have resulted as much from women’s increased presence as from a desire for social control on the part of the bourgeoisie in general. Nevertheless, a clear segmentation by social class clearly took place. The poor and working poor found themselves excluded from many of the baths, and an array of new hospitals for the poor requiring hydrotherapy segregated them from the wealthy bathers. In the nineteenth century, doctors largely controlled access to the baths. Doctors developed a complement of hydrotherapeutic techniques, including hot and cold pressurized showers, hot mud packs for the body, and individualized boxes for prescribed steam baths. During an average three-week course of treatment, the majority of a patient’s time was often not spent in the bathing pools themselves. Even when patients were in the bath, the duration of daily treatments was closely controlled by the spa’s staff.

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Social stratification was a defining characteristic of spa towns. Locals worked in the baths, in the hotels, and in the newly organized casinos. In towns such as Vichy and Aix-les-Bains (in Savoy), service to wealthy travelers was the primary employment for local residents. While the wealthy travelers registered their names, addresses, professions, and the number of accompanying servants— all markers of social station in the nineteenth century—before going off to the baths for their cures, locals lost their earlier (nonmedical) access to the baths. Spa employees and larger municipal police forces further kept the homeless and begging poor out of the casinos and off the important promenades, where their presence was assumed to damage the appeal of the spa town. After 1750, first in Britain and then on the Continent, the aristocracy and increasingly the middle classes also began to flock to the seaside, spurring the development of resorts. In many parts of Europe, though sources are comparatively scarce, there is evidence of swimming or playing in sea water on the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. As bourgeois interest in the seaside grew, so too did municipal regulations governing use of the beaches. In the first half of the nineteenth century, nude bathing was banned on most beaches, which were also usually segregated by sex. Although access to the sea remained open to people of all social classes, the primary beachfront connected to resort towns was largely reserved for wealthy travelers whose expenditures supported local economies. Although Romantic interest in the sea as untamed nature was not unlike the ‘‘discovery’’ of the Alps, the motivation for travel to the seaside, as in the case of spas, was also ostensibly medical. For skin and particularly pulmonary ailments, especially tuberculosis, doctors often advised an extended stay on the coast. By the early nineteenth century, doctors also began to regulate immersion in the water. Doctors offered careful instructions as to the preparation, duration, and necessary movements during daily baths in sea water. Doctors and bathers made an important distinction between men and women. While women in particular were prescribed strict guidelines, carried out by attendants who manned the individualized bathing boxes ostensibly for the preservation

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of female modesty, doctors exercised comparatively little control over men, who customarily treated jumping into the waves as a sort of male rite of passage, a proof of their virility. The medicalized control established at the seaside was thus inseparable from a broader social control of women’s movements and their bodies in the nineteenth century. RIDING THE RAILS AND READING THE GUIDEBOOKS

Although the network of European roads and coach services improved steadily in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, facilitating tourism among wealthy Europeans, the development of the railroad allowed faster and considerably cheaper transportation, dramatically increasing the number of people who could afford to travel. The greater accessibility made possible by the railroad did not erase social distinctions but rather altered their contours; just as the railroad had first-class, secondclass, third-class, and even fourth-class carriage, tourist destinations changed to accommodate both greater social diversity but also the desire for social differentiation by those who could afford better. The railroad had an ironic effect on established tourist destinations. For example, on the southern coast of England, Brighton had been a favored destination of the English nobility and royalty in the eighteenth century. However, when the railroad connected Brighton to nearby London, the middle and lower middle class of the city began to make day trips to Brighton. The royal family and social elite relocated their social season to the north, placing themselves outside the logistical and financial reach of these new tourists. In France, where the warm and more desirable seasides were in the south, the railroad made it possible for the wealthy of Paris and of Europe to easily make a journey impractical for those of limited means. The empress Euge´nie, wife of Napoleon III of France, made Biarritz on the southwestern French coast a sought-after resort town once the railroad line was established. On the Riviera, the French annexation of Nice in 1860 facilitated the development of a French railway line from Paris. Nice expanded rapidly and its wintertime (the social season on the Riviera) population exploded as the international social elite swarmed in.

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More tourists with more destinations sought ever more information about where to go, what to see, and how to get there most easily. Because tourists on land were by mid-century traveling almost exclusively by railroad, guidebooks adopted railway itineraries as their organizational framework. In Britain, John Murray published little red guides to sights and hotels of Europe, in a format quickly adopted by Karl Baedeker in Germany. With guides in several European languages covering western, northern, and southern Europe by 1914, Baedeker and his successors built a veritable empire of guidebooks, directing tourists where to go and what to see. In France, Adolphe Joanne launched a similar series published by Hachette, which had a monopolistic control of bookstores in French rail stations. The Murray, Baedeker, and Joanne guidebooks, like their eventual competitors, offered practical information about the quality and prices of hotels, admission prices to museums, train schedules, detailed information about the sights a dutiful tourist should not miss, and even advice about appropriate behavior. In short, the guidebooks attempted to instruct the novice tourist in how to travel. By providing abundant information updated in frequent re-editions, guidebooks took some of the uncertainty out of travel, but arrangements remained entirely in the hands of individual tourists, who needed to negotiate not only with hotels but also with the multitude of different train companies even within a given country. For the lower middle class and skilled workers with limited means, less time, and little familiarity with the profusion of train schedules and fares, Thomas Cook offered both greater certainty and moderate prices. A British cabinetmaker and minister, Cook organized his first tour by railroad for working men and women attending a Temperance meeting in 1841. In 1851 he negotiated prices with the railroads and lined up accommodations for some 165,000 British men and women who traveled to the see the Grand Exhibition in London (some 3 percent of visitors). By the 1860s, as railroad fares declined within Britain, often obviating the need for his services, Cook focused on tours of the Continent, beginning with Paris (1861), then Switzerland (1863), Italy (1864), and Spain (1872). In several respects, Cook and his

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competitors opened up touring to social groups that had not traveled in the past. Initially, ‘‘workingmen,’’ usually skilled artisans or lower middleclass tradesmen on day trips, formed the primary travelers. Without this early group being abandoned, as the destination increasingly became the Continent, Cook’s tourists also came from a broad spectrum of the middle class; not only doctors, lawyers, and salaried employees but also teachers and ministers, who had time but limited incomes, were a primary constituency. Cook’s tour came to embody the increased access to travel in nineteenth-century Europe. As a result, those travelers who could afford longer, slower, and more costly trips ridiculed the monthlong Cook’s tours to Continental Europe as offering no time for the real appreciation of the monuments, museums, and landscapes seen in a blur. The perceptions of social distinction shifted; for the modest, touring offered status, but for the wealthy the fact of touring the Continent often became less important than in what company and how one did. The most obvious social change among tourists became in the nineteenth century the increased presence of women. Although a few women had done the Grand Tour or had taken the waters in the eighteenth century, in the course of the nineteenth century tourism by women unaccompanied by men became standard. The railroads and guidebooks (which were often, as in the case of the Baedeker, downright sexist even by nineteenthcentury standards) facilitated travel, making it easier for women to travel without the company of men. In Cook’s tours both single women and women traveling in groups were actually more heavily represented than men. While ease of transport was clearly one reason, the broader cultural changes in nineteenth-century Europe were another. Whereas men had been the primary collectors of art early in the century, women increasingly became connoisseurs of art, music, and culture generally, though the remunerated professions of artist, curator, or academic remained the preserve of men. Bourgeois women’s predominance in the church was also a factor; in largely Protestant Britain women had an important role in the Temperance movement, sometimes necessitating travel by train, and in Catholic areas women were proportionately better represented in the organized group tours to

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Morocco were sometimes destinations. While traveling outside Europe, Europeans could congratulate themselves on their own national—in having a grander empire they could be superior to other Europeans—and racial superiority, presumably manifest in the vast material divide between them and indigenous peoples.

BICYCLE AND AUTOMOBILE TOURISM

Egyptian guides help tourists climb the Great Pyramid at Cheops c. 1900. ªCORBIS

pilgrimage sites, such as the spring at Lourdes in the Pyrenees mountains. By the end of the nineteenth century, growing nationalist and imperialist sentiment, laced with Social Darwinism, was also reflected in well-off Europeans’ travel. Guidebooks could be quite nationalistic. In the 1860s, the Baedeker guides in the German language fervently claimed that Frenchheld Alsace-Lorraine should in fact be part of united Germany. British guides frequently deplored the supposedly inadequate hygiene on the Continent, especially the absence of toilets flushed with water. In countries with expanding empires, most notably Britain and France, trips to the colonies gained in popularity among the wealthy. Although their numbers remained small, Britons and to a lesser extent other Europeans, very often under the auspices of a Cook’s tour down the Nile, traveled to Egypt in search of cultural exoticism; by the 1880s they were reassured by the British protectorate. Britons also went to Palestine to visit the ‘‘Holy Land.’’ Among the French, the colonies of Algeria and later

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While the overwhelming majority of travelers in the early twentieth century continued to use the railroad, technological innovations of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries placed renewed emphasis on traveling by road as well as rail. The ‘‘safety’’ bicycle with two wheels of the same size became a fashionable rage for sportsmen rich enough to buy one in the 1890s. In the first decade of the twentieth century, the automobile began to rival the bicycle among sportsmen, and it quickly became a means of tourist transportation for aristocrats and bourgeois Europeans. The automobile’s price and extremely high maintenance costs made it a socially exclusive mode of transportation. An automobile allowed wealthy men, accompanied by women and usually a mechanic/driver, to make long trips, veritable adventures given the poor reliability of automobiles when compared to trains. Both bicycle and automobile tourism necessitated a new infrastructure eventually provided by local and national authorities. Well-maintained, eventually paved roads with road signs became the subject of important lobbying efforts by tourists enamored of the new forms of transport. An array of nonprofit organizations emerged across Europe to advocate the interests of first cyclists then motorists. Inspired by the British Cyclist Touring Club, ‘‘touring clubs’’ funded by members’ contributions and often public subsidies, worked with local and national governments to provide an infrastructure for all forms of tourism, though cycling received pride of place in the 1890s. After 1900, touring clubs, working alongside more socially exclusive automobile clubs, also argued for roadway improvements necessary for automobiles. In several countries, the touring clubs, while overwhelmingly bourgeois, were among the largest of associations. The Touring Club de France, founded in 1890, had nearly 100,000 members in

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1914. The Touring Club Ciclistico Italiano, founded in 1894, dropped ‘‘cycling’’ from its name in 1900 and itself grew to 450,000 members in the interwar years. CONCLUSION: TOURISM AND SOCIAL DISTINCTIONS

Before the 1790s, when the English term tourist, itself derived from the French term tour, first emerged in the English language, traveler was the primary designation used for what one might call the ‘‘leisure traveler.’’ In the course of the nineteenth century, most European languages acquired a term equivalent to the English tourist. Since the nineteenth century, tourists and social observers have often distinguished between travelers and tourists. Late-nineteenth-century travelers condemned Cook’s tourists as superficial. Travelers supposedly appreciated what they saw and experienced whereas tourists completed a list of things that ‘‘needed to be seen.’’ Many historians and other writers have often accepted the distinction at face value, stressing the difference between the old bourgeois, aristocratic, and educated travelers and the late nineteenth- and twentieth-century hordes who supposedly understood little besides how to have a good time. In fact, the terms reveal more about the people employing them to reinforce social difference than about any real difference between leisure travelers and tourists. Many middle-class travelers in the nineteenth century, even ‘‘Cook’s tourists,’’ could be far more interested in European art and architecture, which also offered them the possibility of a sort of cultural capital upon returning home, than the fabulously wealthy who spent much of their time simply enjoying themselves in the company of their compatriots. In short, the distinction that some have made between travelers and tourists, like the distinctions that post–World War II tourists often make between themselves and other, presumably less knowledgeable and culturally sensitive tourists, are not ‘‘real,’’ measurable differences. In the nineteenth century, social distinctions made between those who could afford to take the tour, take the waters in a spa, or go to the beach and those who could not mirrored the social segmentation of European society as a whole. Similarly, the prescribed roles for women and

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men further reflected widespread assumptions about the ‘‘natural’’ differences between the sexes. Tourism, having afforded some people the occasion to join their presumed cohorts and set themselves off from other people, thus provides a fascinating glimpse at the social hierarchies that characterized nineteenth-century Europe. See also Automobile; Cycling; Popular and Elite Culture; Railroads; Transportation and Communications. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baranowski, Shelley O., and Ellen Furlough, eds. Being Elsewhere: Tourism, Consumer Culture, and Identity in Modern Europe and North America. Ann Arbor, Mich., 2001. Bertho Lavenir, Catherine. La roue et le style: Comment nous sommes devenus touristes. Paris, 1999. Bosworth, R. J. B. ‘‘The Touring Club Italiano and the Nationalization of the Italian Bourgeoisie.’’ European History Quarterly 27, no. 3 (July 1997): 371–410. Buzard, James. The Beaten Track: European Tourism, Literature, and the Ways to Culture, 1800–1918. New York, 1993. Corbin, Alain. The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the Seaside, 1750–1840. Translated by Jocelyn Phelps. New York, 1994. Grewal, Inderpal. Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire, and Cultures of Travel. Durham, N.C., 1996. Harp, Stephen L. Marketing Michelin: Advertising and Cultural Identity in Twentieth-Century France. Baltimore, 2001. Haug, C. James. Leisure and Urbanism in Nineteenth Century Nice. Lawrence, Kansas, 1982. Koshar, Rudy. ‘‘‘What Ought to Be Seen’: Tourists’ Guidebooks and National Identities in Modern Germany and Europe.’’ Journal of Contemporary History 33, no. 3 (1998): 323–340. Koshar, Rudy, ed. Histories of Leisure. New York, 2002. Levenstein, Harvey. Seductive Journey: American Tourists in France from Jefferson to the Jazz Age. Chicago, 1998. Lo ¨ fgren, Orvar. On Holiday: A History of Vacationing. Berkeley, Calif., 1999. MacCannell, Dean. The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. Berkeley, Calif., 1999. Mackaman, Douglas Peter. Leisure Settings: Bourgeois Culture, Medicine, and the Spa in Modern France. Chicago, 1998. Nordman, Daniel. ‘‘Les Guides-Joanne.’’ In vol. 2, Lieux de me´moire, edited by Pierre Nora, 1035–1072. Paris, 1997.

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Pemble, John. The Mediterranean Passion: Victorians and Edwardians in the South. Oxford, U.K., 1987. Rauch, Andre´. Vacances et pratiques corporelles: La naissances des morales du de´paysement. Paris, 1988. ———. Vacances en France de 1830 a` nos jours. Paris, 1996. Swinglehurst, Edmund. Cook’s Tours: The Story of Popular Travel. Poole, Dorset, U.K., 1982. Tissot, Laurent. Naissance d’une industrie touristique: Les Anglais et la Suisse au XIXe sie`cle. Lausanne, Switzerland, 2000. Towner, John. An Historical Geography of Recreation and Tourism in the Western World, 1540–1940. Chichester, U.K., and New York, 1996. Walton, John K. The English Seaside Resort: A Social History, 1750–1914. Leicester, U.K., and New York, 1983. Withey, Lynne. Grand Tours and Cook’s Tours: A History of Leisure Travel, 1750–1915. New York, 1997. STEPHEN L. HARP

n

TOUSSAINT LOUVERTURE (c. 1743– 1803), French general and Haitian political leader. Legends maintain that on Toussaint (All Saint’s Day), 1 November 1745, at a plantation owned by the Comte de Bre´da, a first son was born to a former African king. In Catholic Saint-Domingue (as Haiti was known during the French colonial period), the slave child was christened Franc¸ois Dominique Toussaint. Franc¸ois Antoine Bayon de Libertat, the plantation overseer, saw only potential in the small, frail boy, and in a striking departure from convention, ensured that he became literate and solidly grounded in the Catholic faith. While Toussaint’s equestrian skills earned him the exclusive position of driver and master of horses at Bre´da, he also gained wide recognition among his fellow slaves as a master practitioner of herbal medicine—felicitous skills that would serve Toussaint well during the convulsions that lay ahead. Battles for primacy between the white social classes and mulattoes characterized the French Revolution in Saint-Domingue, until the night of 22 August 1791, when tens of thousands of slaves throughout the colony’s great northern plain revolted, torching cane fields and plantations, and

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‘‘I am Toussaint Louverture, my name is perhaps known to you. I have undertaken vengeance. I want liberty and equality to reign in Saint-Domingue. I work to make them exist.’’ (Toussaint to his ‘‘brothers and friends’’ in Saint-Domingue, 29 August 1793) ‘‘By defeating me, one has only cut the trunk of the tree of Negro liberty in Saint-Domingue; it will rise again by its roots, for they are numerous and deep.’’ (Toussaint from his cell in Fort de Joux)

massacring nearly every non-black they could find. After helping the Bayon de Libertat family to safety, Toussaint joined the rebellion, and by early 1793 was among the thousands of rebel slaves who had crossed into neighboring Santo Domingo, where the Spanish king offered freedom and promotion for black (and white) fugitives who would take up arms against French Republicans. Starting as physician and key advisor to slave leader Georges Biassou, Toussaint eventually attained the rank of brigadier with an independent command of more than 4,000 black troops—irregulars that he drilled into an extraordinarily competent fighting force. Throughout 1793, Toussaint’s military talent became so well established that by August, he composed a general call to arms to the slaves of Saint-Domingue in which he referred to himself for the first time as ‘‘Louverture’’—the opening. For reasons that remain unclear, on 6 May 1794, Toussaint renounced his allegiance to Spain, declared for France, and quickly amassed a series of victories against his former Spanish and British confederates. In 1796, Toussaint rescued French Governor General E´tienne Laveaux from imprisonment by disaffected mulattos; Laveaux reciprocated by appointing Toussaint lieutenant governor general of the colony. France’s Directory followed suit, officially promoting Toussaint to division general, and naming him lieutenant governor general and commander in chief of armies of Saint-Domingue (2 May 1797). By November 1800, Toussaint was complete master of SaintDomingue. He annexed Santo Domingo in February 1801, and in May, promulgated the island’s first

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order to take possession of the colony), disarm the blacks, and then force their return to slavery. Ferocious fighting ensued until Toussaint and Leclerc concluded an armistice during which the black general was allowed to retire under protection to his estate. This reprieve was only a ruse; Toussaint and his family soon were abducted from their home and spirited away to France, where Napoleon had the general barbarously incarcerated in the dungeons of Fort de Joux in France’s eastern Jura Mountains. Toussaint died the following year from exposure and neglect, while his wife and children simply disappeared. Fighting in SaintDomingue continued until November 1803 when, abandoned by Napoleon and decimated by yellow fever and malaria, the pitiful remnants of the Army of Saint-Domingue surrendered to General Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1758–1806).

Toussaint Louverture meets with defeated generals. Nineteenth-century engraving commemorating Toussaint Louverture’s defeat of British troops in Haiti, 1798. CORBIS

ªBETTMANN/

constitution—a document that named him governor general for life. Acknowledged as a protector to anyone, regardless of color, who would support his designs for a stable, resurgent Saint-Domingue, Toussaint exercised his authority to rebuild the devastated colony. He encouraged the return of e´migre´ French planters and enforced labor decrees through martial law, but ensured that former slaves were compensated for their labor with one-third of the crops they helped produce. However, Toussaint’s regime barely had time to accrue measurable successes before the colony was once again at war. In December 1801, Napoleon I (r. 1804– 1814/15) dispatched to Toussaint his most respectful greetings, along with a 21,000-man invasion force under the command of his brotherin-law, Captain-General Charles-Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc (1772–1802). Leclerc’s secret instructions from Napoleon included orders to conciliate Toussaint and his leaders (promising anything in

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As the result of Napoleon’s ill-advised treatment of Toussaint and Saint-Domingue, France not only lost any chance to regain meaningful influence over its most lucrative former overseas possession, but also a potential staging base for regaining control of the Louisiana Territory. The impact on Haiti, however, was tragic. Minus Toussaint’s unifying leadership, Haiti devolved into the 200 years of internecine fighting and corrupt administrations that characterize the country into the twenty-first century. See also Caribbean; Colonies; French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Haiti. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fick, Carolyn E. The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below. Knoxville, Tenn., 1990. Heinl, Robert Debs, Jr., and Nancy Gordon Heinl. Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1971. Boston, 1978. James, Cyril Lionel Robert. The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution. Rev. ed. New York, 1963. JAMES L. HAYNSWORTH

n

TRADE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH. Since Adam Smith (1723–1790) and David Ricardo (1772–1823), trade and economic growth have been regarded as interconnected,

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and ‘‘Smithian growth’’ has become a fixed term in economic growth analysis. The connection is obvious: if previously nonintegrated regions and countries have cost advantages in different types of products, trade will benefit both sides. For example, Polish grain farmers can produce wheat at a lower cost than English farmers, whereas English workers can produce textiles more cheaply than Polish workers. The ‘‘comparative advantages’’ of the English textile sector furthermore imply that even if an English worker could in principle produce grain at a lower cost than even a Polish laborer, that worker can only spend his time either with grain or with textile production. If the cost advantage in textiles is relatively larger, the worker should thus continue to produce textiles and eat imported wheat. Smith and Ricardo were convinced that the effects of trade are positive. However, international trade has also been the target of hostile criticism, and the debates on how beneficial the effects of trade were in nineteenth-century Europe are relevant for the contemporary world. The debates focused on the following four hypotheses: 1. Growing imports have always provoked countermeasures, or attempted countermeasures, from interest groups who were afraid of losing income and social status when faced with competition from imported labor or goods. For example, British landowners lobbied for and benefited from protectionism in the early nineteenth century while continental European textile manufactures flourished when Napoleon I (r. 1804– 1814/15) closed the French ports to British manufactures. 2. While market integration had mostly beneficial effects on purchasing power, it is less clear that the contribution to the overall growth of welfare was always positive. For example, integration might in some situations have detrimental effects on health or longevity for parts of the population, which might adversely affect living standards. The ‘‘Human Development Index’’ of the United Nations includes measures such as life expectancy and education, whereas others have used human height as a proxy for the so-called Biological Standard of Living. During the nineteenth century in Europe, height in some cases even declined in

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some previously remote and nonintegrated regions of Europe. 3. It has been argued that trade not only promoted direct growth in ways that Adam Smith had predicted but that it also influenced the development of institutions. Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson have argued that trading cities on the Atlantic coast benefited particularly from the development of institutions that transmitted information more easily and protected and defined property rights. Although their study concentrates on the early modern period, the influence of greater institutional efficiency might have continued well into the nineteenth century. Another indirect effect might also have been the formation of physical and financial capital through the reinvestment of a produced surplus, as is implied by Douglass North’s theory of ‘‘export-led growth.’’ 4. The indirect growth effects of trade may influence income inequality. Eli F. Heckscher and Bertil Gotthard Ohlin have argued that an increased import of goods produced primarily with unskilled labor will reduce unskilled wages, thereby increasing inequality. The opposite holds for the increased export of goods ‘‘containing’’ unskilled labor inputs. Yet while increasing inequality may imply more investments by the rich (because poorer people do not invest much), inequality can also lead to a lack of schooling and human capital formation among the poor, in addition to negative health and crime effects, or even upheaval and social conflict. These four hypotheses about the relationship between trade and economic growth will be discussed in more detail below. Before addressing them, however, the trade structure of Europe in the nineteenth century needs to be addressed: Which countries concentrated on which export staples? How large were the net exports of particular items that can inform us about the country’s growth prospects? Which imports and exports restored the trade balance (taking into account that national deficits were modest in nineteenth-century Europe, at least if we interpret colonial military activities as ‘‘service exports,’’ which is surely debatable)?

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India House, Sale Room. Engraving by Pugin and Rowlandson, 1808. Buyers gather to bid on the rich cargoes brought into London by the East India Company. ªHISTORICAL PICTURE ARCHIVE/CORBIS

FLOWS OF TRADE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY EUROPE: GRAIN, MACHINERY, AND OTHER GOODS

Who traded which commodities in nineteenthcentury Europe? To answer this question, we must concentrate on a small number of commodities, and only the principal exporters and importers can be taken into account. A German survey published by the German Imperial Statistical Yearbook (1915) gives an overview of trade in the pre–World War I period. Two commodities, or rather commodity groups, are particularly interesting for European trade history: ‘‘grain’’ (more precisely: grain, rice, and flour) and machinery. Grain had been a major trading commodity from the Middle Ages onward. It is self-evident that grain, rice, and flour are crucial for human nutrition. In the nineteenth century, grain imports

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were responsible for sustaining the extremely high population density of some of Europe’s rapidly developing regions. The biggest exporters of grain, rice, and flour in 1913 were Russia, the United States, and British India (which included today’s Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Burma). Much smaller quantities were exported in 1913 by Canada, Romania, and Australia. Especially Romania, with a population of less than one tenth of the Russian population, exported remarkable quantities per capita. Argentina was also an important grain exporter. Not surprisingly, the biggest importer of grain was the United Kingdom. Britain was thus not only the workshop of the world but also consumed most of the traded grain. The second-largest importer was Germany, whose export of industrial goods

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was growing strongly at the time. However, the German East (and the Polish parts of the empire) were long-established grain exporters, so that Germany’s grain-trade statistics were more balanced in effect, with internal trade playing an important role as well. We also need to take into account that the United Kingdom and Germany had the largest populations among the large grain consumers. On a per capita basis, imports were in fact very high in the Netherlands and Belgium as well. Italy imported a substantial total amount of grain, but not as much per capita. Other modest grain importers were Switzerland, France, Denmark, and Norway. Most of these importing countries were among the early industrializers, whereas most exporters tended to be late developers (except for the United States). Interestingly, there were also a number of net grain importers among the less developed countries (LDCs) in 1913, such as China, Sri Lanka (‘‘Ceylon’’ at the time), and Indonesia. The same applies to Japan and the British Straits Settlement (mostly Singapore and Melaka), which counted as LDCs in 1913. During the period following the ‘‘grain invasion,’’ a term coined by Kevin O’Rourke, the dramatic decline of transportation costs for grain from the New World and Black Sea area caused enormous shifts in production and land revenues. The New World and Russia now accounted for a large share of the total grain trade, whereas a much larger amount had been produced locally before. Net export values of machinery are important to examine because machinery was one of the most human capital–intensive (that is, skill-intensive) commodities being traded at large quantities during the period. The United Kingdom remained the world’s export champion in the prewar period, with 6.4 million Marks of net exports. Germany had heavily reduced the United Kingdom’s lead in the decade before and almost reached its competitor with 6.0 million Marks in machinery exports. In a similar vein, the United States had made its mark as a strong new force producing machinery for many different purposes. Switzerland—with its much smaller population—reached only about 5 percent of the net export value of each of the big three machinery exporters. It is also interesting to look at the principal importers of machinery because those countries were using imports to

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build up a physical capital stock during the period. The world’s leading importer of machinery was the Russian Empire. Canada and France had approximately half of the volume of Russia’s imports, making them also significant importers at the time. Next followed Australia and Austria-Hungary, whereas the net machinery imports of Italy, Mexico, and Belgium were only modest in 1913. To summarize, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States were the leading exporters of machinery in the nineteenth century. In contrast, the major importers were spread more evenly among the richer and developing nations in 1913. Grain imports tended to be the mirror image of machinery exports, with the important exception of the United States, which exported both grain and machinery in substantial quantities. This discussion has concentrated on the two commodities that are of particular interest for assessing economic development. What has not been discussed, however, is the value of the most important import and export goods. By far the most valuable export commodity in 1913 was cotton from the United States, which accounted for 23 million Marks, or about three times the value of U.S. net grain exports. In second place came British coal, with Brazilian coffee ranking third. Of course, these goods were much more dependent on natural conditions such as resources and climate than were grain and machinery, which could in principle be produced in any location that had sufficient population density and skill levels. TRADE DEVELOPMENTS IN THE EUROPEAN NORTH AND SOUTH

The major European trading nations were undoubtedly Great Britain, Germany, France, and other northwest European countries. Yet the development of trade also played an important role for countries in the far north and south, and it was only in the eastern European regions that lacked access to rivers or coasts that international trade might have been somewhat less important. The grain exports of the Russian Empire, eastern Germany (including today’s Poland), and Romania have already been discussed. In addition, wood and butter exports played an important role for the far north of Europe, whereas fruit, olive oil, and other horticultural exports came from the

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Mediterranean. Similar to the grain invasion that shook all of Europe, important globalization events occurred in the South, as Jose´ Morilla Critz, Alan Olmstead, and Paul W. Rhode have argued: during the 1880s Mediterranean fruit exports dominated European and U.S. markets, but fruit production in California, Florida, and similar regions of the New World started to become competitive in the following three decades. California farmers first captured large slices of their home market, aided by U.S. protectionist policies and natural disasters in Europe such as the phylloxera plague that destroyed two-thirds of the European grape production in the second half of the nineteenth century. By the end of the century, U.S. products were even competing with Mediterranean fruits in northern Europe. In the 1870s, for example, the important Spanish raisin exporting area of Ma´laga exported nearly 60 percent of its production to the United States. In the 1890s, this share had fallen to 10 percent. Initially, this decline was caused by phylloxera, but later on, the market opportunities that had been lost to the California competitors played the major role. Since the Ma´laga region also had the highest emigration rates in Spain, some authors have concluded that a causal relationship existed between lost export markets and emigration. In contrast to raisins, citrus exports were in general a success story for Mediterranean agriculture. Oranges from Spain and lemons from Italy became famous in many parts of the world. However, American competition grew in these fruit markets as well, and U.S. protectionism posed further problems. In the case of lemons in particular, the Italians had to redirect their trade to northern Europe, after performing vast advertising campaigns there. In 1907–1913, Germany and Austria-Hungary became the most important recipients of Italian citrus fruits. Greek exporters specialized in currants and even benefited from the phylloxera catastrophe at first, since they could sell their produce to French winemakers, who used it as a temporary substitute for their own grape production. After the recovery of grape production, however, the French government in 1892 imposed high tariffs, which had disastrous consequences for the Greek economy. The plum and prune exports of Serbia and of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the fig and raisin exports of the Turkish west coast, experienced a

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similar development: a promising start, followed by a struggle against protectionism and competition with California and other New World regions (such as Australia). What is particularly interesting about this phenomenon is that we would not expect high-wage areas in the New World to be able to compete successfully with the low-wage areas of southern Europe in the seemingly labor-intensive horticulture. Critz, Olmstead, and Rhode, on whose research this section draws heavily, report that one acre of land requires only 9 man-hours of labor to grow wheat, whereas 286 hours are required to grow lemons, for instance. The output value varies drastically as well, of course. The authors have calculated that the value of output per man-hour on U.S. fruit farms was in fact very similar to that of other U.S. farms in the early twentieth century. Moreover, California farmers were quite successful in using modern packing techniques, brand names, and scientific techniques to overcome blue mold and similar production problems. In this way, they were able to outbalance higher labor and transportation costs compared with their major competitors. The effects on southern European exports were sometimes dramatic. More successful development of the fruit markets could have resulted in dynamic, export-led growth engines in many southern European regions, as well as in the reinvestment of profits into those poor regions. This remains true even when considering that the total value of production of horticultural goods was certainly lower than that of other agricultural goods (mainly for the domestic market). Another important point here is that the majority of consumers clearly benefited from the increased competition. Nonetheless, two of the three markets discussed in more detail above share some common characteristics that suggest some answers to our initial question: Why was there opposition to trade, if trade increased welfare? In both the European grain market and the Mediterranean fruit market, decisive changes occurred in the nineteenth century. The ‘‘grain invasion’’ and the ‘‘fruit invasion’’ produced a substantial number of losers who tended to be politically well-organized. Even if on average, the growth in trade surely added to European prosperity, the fate of the fruit farmers of the Mediterranean and the eastern German

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grain-farming nobility gave rise to political forces that influenced the economic history of their respective countries in crucial ways. TRADE AND GROWTH

What follows is an empirical discussion of Smith’s and Ricardo’s expectation that trade would trigger economic growth in nineteenth-century Europe. This issue is difficult to resolve because comparative evidence on trade shares in the early nineteenth century still contains a large margin of error. Moreover, convergence effects must be taken into account, since a country with a high initial trade share (such as the Netherlands) would probably increase its trade shares at a lower rate than any newcomer. In addition, a thorough analysis would require taking into consideration all other potential growth determinants such as human and physical capital growth, institutional design, geography, and political development as well as alternatives to commodity trade, for example, the exchange of capital (foreign investment) and population (migration). Here, our aims are more modest. We have taken Paul Bairoch’s rough estimates of export shares for the early and late nineteenth century and compared them with Maddison’s GDP estimates for 1820 and 1913, combined with an investigation of individual cases. In the following, we distinguish trade shares (imports plus exports per GDP) from export shares (only exports per GDP). Even with all those caveats, some important facts emerge clearly. First, the Netherlands exported the highest share of their GDP in 1840, followed by a number of relatively small countries such as Norway and Denmark. Smaller countries often had larger trade shares because country-size is negatively correlated with the amount of production items passing borders. However, in early-nineteenth-century Europe, there were also many smaller countries with low trade shares while the United Kingdom displayed one of the highest shares. Between the early and late nineteenth century, export shares grew for all countries. Overall, they ranged between about 1 and 9 percentage points higher in 1910 than in 1840, with typical values of 1 to 3 percent. At the same time, GDP per capita grew substantially in all countries. Even the inhabitants of slowly growing economies such as Portugal, Russia, and Greece had become richer by roughly

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$500–1000 per year before World War I (measured in 1990 Geary-Khamis Dollars, a standard measure for making purchasing power comparable across time). In many cases, this meant a doubling or tripling of real incomes within less than a century. Lastly, the Swiss population had acquired four times more purchasing power in 1913 than in 1820. Based on those numbers, it is not implausible to assume that nineteenth-century growth was caused to a large extent by ‘‘Smithian’’ trade effects. Yet was it the case that countries with higher integration into trading networks also achieved more growth? As the example of the Netherlands, with a high export level but only slightly above-average growth rates indicates, export levels probably had no impact on subsequent growth performance. Even if additional explanatory variables were taken into account, this result would not change significantly. It is clear that countries with disproportionately large export shares at the end of the period (i.e., irrespective of the initial level) also experienced much higher increases in national income per capita. Belgium, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Switzerland, France, and Germany were examples of the strong and positive development of both variables. On the other hand, the small export-share increases of Portugal, Russia, and Greece went hand in hand with an only modest increase in income. Again, we would like to emphasize that we are not looking at growth rates in percentages here. Moreover, this analysis cannot reveal the direction of the causality involved: Did increasing trade shares cause income growth, or did increasing per capita–production (which equals income per capita) correlate with the need to export a higher share of production? Hence, from this descriptive analysis, we can only conclude that a higher export share correlates empirically with higher additional income. Overall, both export shares and income per capita grew in all European countries over the nineteenth century, yet while the increase was most significant in Belgium and the United Kingdom, it was much less so in southern and eastern Europe. TRADE POLICY

Bairoch, O’Rourke, and Jeffrey Williamson have given excellent overviews of trade policy. They

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Victoria Mesmerises. Illustration from Punch, 1843. The young Queen Victoria made her first visit to France in 1843, meeting with French king Louis-Philippe and helping to overturn the adversarial relations that had long persisted between Great Britain and France. Trade issues were very much on the minds of the British, as opposition to the Corn Laws grew dramatically. The cartoonist here suggests that the queen dominated the negotiations by hypnotizing the seventy-year-old Louis-Philippe. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY

describe in detail the history of ideas that influenced the debate about free-trade versus protectionist policies. What they found was that most countries were certainly not free-traders in the early nineteenth century, except for perhaps the Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, and Portugal. In England, an intensive discussion was waged before midcentury on whether the country should abolish its protectionist policies against grain imports. Over time, free-traders influenced by Ricardo and the ‘‘Manchester’’ liberals convinced enough political decision-makers in their favor, so that the famous protectionist Corn Laws were finally dropped in the 1840s (after having been gradually reduced

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earlier). Subsequent negotiations between the United Kingdom and France, as well as the general economic upturn of the 1860s led to a wave of free-trade policies in the 1860s and 1870s. However, the dramatic decline in transportation costs and the high productivity of New World farmers stimulated a rebound in protectionism in many continental European countries against grain imports while the United States acted in a strongly protectionist manner against industrial imports. However, protectionist measures were not strong enough to hinder the international integration of many markets. The fall in transportation costs simply outweighed most such measures.

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The integration of commodity markets within Europe can be measured by the decline in price gaps. For example, the price gap between Odessa in Ukraine (one of the major grain exporting regions) and London decreased from 40 percent to virtually 0 percent between 1870 and 1906. Similarly, the price gap of Swedish wood between its country of origin and England fell from 155 to 70 percent. In general, O’Rourke and Williamson found that the strong increase in commerce and trade in the nineteenth century was mainly the result of declining transportation costs and only to a much lesser extent of more liberal trade policies. This stands in sharp contrast to the boom in international trade in the second half of the twentieth century, when trade policies accounted for most of the trade-generating effects, whereas the decline of transportation costs due to technological improvement was only modest. TARIFFS AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

The expansion of export shares correlated with additional per capita income in nineteenth-century Europe. Does this imply that protectionism was bad for growth? To answer this question, we must first consider that neither protectionism nor its inverse, the ‘‘openness’’ of countries, correlates perfectly with trade shares. For example, Germany and France became grain protectionists in the late nineteenth century, yet their export shares still continued to increase substantially, since economic forces were simply much stronger than the respective political countermeasures. The growth effects of protection (as opposed to free trade) have been studied in great detail for the contemporary world. Free-traders expect welfare effects if the external effects (i.e., side effects) of protection are not important. However, if ‘‘infant industries’’ cannot develop because the industries of industrialized countries have already achieved specific knowledge and cost-efficient production methods, then the protection of those industries on the side of the newcomers could stimulate growth. Empirically, most studies for the late twentieth century concur with Jeffrey D. Sachs’s conclusions that free trade rather then protectionism was a successful device for growth. However, for the late nineteenth century, O’Rourke found that protective tariffs in fact had a positive

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influence on growth rates, even after allowing for changes in the capital-labor ratio, land-labor ratio, initial income level, schooling, and other countryspecific characteristics. His analysis included seven European countries, the United States, Australia, and Canada for 1870–1913 and indicates that the protectionist United States grew fast, whereas the free-trading United Kingdom grew only modestly during the period under consideration. In addition, O’Rourke found that Germany was not as protectionist as studies focusing particularly on the grain trade have suggested. Even if the United States and the United Kingdom are omitted as extreme cases, the positive relationship between protectionism and growth is confirmed for the nineteenth century. A possible causal mechanism, O’Rourke suggests, was that tariffs caused a declining share of the labor force to be employed in agriculture, especially in the New World, where tariffs benefited industrial production. It should be noted, however, that our comparison of export shares and GDP growth refers to long-term growth over almost a century, whereas O’Rourke’s study explores the effect of protection levels on annual growth rates in the period 1875–1913, controlling for a number of other variables as well. INTERNAL TRADE: DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS

So far we have concentrated mainly on international trade, since external exchange always attracts the highest attention from policy makers and the general public. More important in terms of value, however, was internal trade that did not cross national boundaries in nineteenth-century Europe. Trade within countries increased dramatically at the time because transportation facilities experienced a veritable revolution. The railway network not only grew dramatically in size, but the railway system also became ever more refined. Moreover, toward the very end of the nineteenth century, refrigeration wagons allowed the transportation of perishable goods. For the first time in human history, it became possible to provide large urban populations with food that was as healthy as the food consumed in the countryside. Milk, for example, had previously not been transportable to large urban agglomerations at reasonable costs, although urban centers were in dire need of protein in particular because of the high rates of disease. Before the

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A department store in the Old Town square, Prague, c. 1895. Industrialization in the nineteenth century led to increased production of consumer goods and the consequent growth in large retail establishments such as the one shown here. ªSCHEUFLER COLLECTION/CORBIS

introduction of refrigeration wagons and a dense railway network in general, there had always been an ‘‘urban penalty’’ of health and nutritional qualities, with the result that urban dwellers often lived shorter lives than their contemporaries in the countryside. The change in the ‘‘transportability of health inputs’’ was perhaps the most dramatic and decisive development of nineteenth-century trade history. In the countries that invested heavily in this new transportation technology—not least because of adequately low temperatures in their territories, as opposed to the Mediterranean region, which followed about half a century later, for example— a stagnation of life expectancies and heights that had lasted for millennia finally ended in the second half of the nineteenth century. Clearly, this development was accompanied by progress in the application of hygienic and medical knowledge, although it is not easy to disentangle the individual

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contribution of each. Thomas McKeown, for example, has argued that nutrition played a much stronger role in increasing health and longevity, whereas the impact of medical knowledge set in much later. McKeown did not address the issue of the tradability of perishable foods, but this is probably the heart of the matter. We would, for example, not expect a decline in hygiene and health knowledge with the advent of railway stations in villages, but agricultural workers with lower incomes experienced significant downward trends in health. This has been analyzed using anthropometric techniques that take human height as a proxy for nutritional status and health (see, for example, Komlos and Baten). Human stature is mostly determined by the quality of nutrition in the first three years of life, and by the disease environment. When a railway station was opened in the countryside nearby, for example, farmers

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could sell their perishable products to urban consumers with high purchasing power. In earlier times, the local poor population in the countryside had often been able to consume healthy food at very low prices or even for free. If they were involved in the production of butter, for example, they were often allowed to drink the remaining milk. Others were allowed to eat offals after local cattle were slaughtered. All such nonmarket entitlements disappeared with the arrival of the railway, so that poor rural children lost their previous height advantage while the heights of urban children increased. In the long run, the health and longevity of poor agricultural laborers increased as well. In the short run, however, there were losers from the modernization process, and their experiences should not be overlooked when examining the dramatic trade and income increase in nineteenth-century Europe.

CONCLUSION

INEQUALITY EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION

We then analyzed whether countries with strongly expanding trade shares experienced the relatively highest increases in income, an assumption that is supported by the available data. However, the question of causality cannot be resolved at the current state of research, and there is evidence that protectionism may even have been positively correlated with growth, at least in the short run from 1875 to 1913.

While it is clear that landowners in western Europe lost income when vast quantities of grain arrived from the New World, the effect on workers was hotly debated at the time. O’Rourke describes the nineteenth-century debates on the influence of cheap grain imports on workers’ living standards. Karl Marx argued that rural depopulation in Ireland was reinforced by the switch from tillage to pasture, as Ireland focused on butter exports in response to globalization. Since pasture was less labor-intensive, fewer agricultural workers were employed. Benjamin Disraeli (1804–1881), a leading English politician, was similarly concerned about the decreasing demand for rural workers in England caused by the arrival of cheap grain from the New World. He argued that this negative labor-demand factor was more important than the positive cost of living effect for workers. A coalition of Manchesterian liberals and socialist workers opposed this view. They believed (correctly) that the cost of living effect dominated in most industrialized nations. In western Europe, the grain invasion had mostly egalitarian effects on average, reducing the previously very high income inequality. In some grain regions, however, agricultural workers had to bear at least the cost of migrating to industrializing cities. The costs of migration were particularly high if it implied the crossing of national borders (Ireland to England or the United States, Poland to Germany, and so forth).

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This essay first discussed the relationship between trade and economic growth in nineteenth-century Europe. It began with a description of the net exports of two important commodities, machinery and grain. Machinery production requires a high skill level, and countries that specialized early on in its production and export became rich countries— and continued to be so even after losing world wars and colonial empires in the twentieth century. In contrast, specialization in grain did not require large investments in skills. It has been argued that the export of primary goods led to deindustrialization and poor growth in the long run. This was not the case for all grain exporters in 1913. The United States, Canada, and Australia proved success stories in the long run. Eastern Europe and Argentina might have grown less than expected in the twentieth century, but there were also other reasons for this.

From the point of view of trade history, it is particularly interesting to assess the reasons for the frequent protest against, and opposition to, globalization and international trade in the nineteenth century. The unfulfilled hopes of the Mediterranean fruit farmers was a case in point, as they struggled with the growing competition from California, a region they might never have heard of before. Even the internal trade expansion of this period produced many winners but also some losers, since previously isolated farmers and farm workers lost their health advantage. Yet a dramatic health revolution occurred in the cities: for the first time in the history of mankind, the inhabitants of densely populated metropolises could live long and healthy lives, which could at least in part be accredited to the nineteenth-century trade expansion that made healthy nutrition possible. Finally, the trade history of the nineteenth century produced some ‘‘rich losers.’’ For example, the

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The Great Vegetable Market in Moscow, 1902. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Russian economy still depended primarily on agriculture. ªCORBIS

British gentry lost a substantial share of their rents when grain protectionism was abolished around midcentury. The Russian nobility may have been compensated by export revenues, but the German landed aristocracy felt severely threatened by the ‘‘grain invasion,’’ a development that may have increased their willingness to start World War I— an extreme example of resistance to of globalization, to be sure. See also Banks and Banking; Economic Growth and Industrialism; Economists, Classical.

Change, and Economic Growth.’’ NBER Working Paper 9378, 2002. Bairoch, Paul. ‘‘European Trade Policy, 1815–1914.’’ In The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, edited by Peter Mathias and Sidney Pollard, vol. 8, pp. 1–160. Cambridge, U.K., 1989. Critz, Jose´ Morilla, Alan Olmstead, and Paul W. Rhode. ‘‘ ‘Horn of Plenty’: The Globalization of Mediterranean Horticulture and the Economic Development of Southern Europe, 1880–1930.’’ Journal of Economic History 59, no. 2(1999): 319–352.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Komlos, John, and Joerg Baten, eds. The Biological Standard of Living in Comparative Perspective. Stuttgart, Germany, 1998.

Acemoglu, Daron, Simon Johnson, and James Robinson. ‘‘The Rise of Europe: Atlantic Trade, Institutional

Maddison, Angus. The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective. Paris, 2001.

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TRADE UNIONS

McKeown, Thomas. The Modern Rise of Population. London, 1976. North, Douglass C. ‘‘The New Institutional Economics and Third World Development.’’ In The New Institutional Economics and Third World Development, edited by John Harriss, Janet Hunter, and Colin M. Lewis, 17–26. London, 1995. O’Rourke, Kevin, ‘‘Tariffs and Growth in the Late 19th Century.’’ Economic Journal 110 (Aprtil 2000): 456–483. O’Rourke, Kevin, and Jeffrey Williamson, Globalization and History: The Evolution of a Nineteenth-Century Atlantic Economy. Cambridge, Mass., 1999. Sachs, Jeffrey D., and Andrew Warner. ‘‘Economic Reform and the Process of Global Integration.’’ Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 1(1995):1–118. JOERG BATEN

TRADE UNIONS.

See Labor Movements; Syn-

dicalism.

n

TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF. Fought on 21 October 1805, the Battle of Trafalgar, in which a British fleet under the command of Admiral Horatio Nelson defeated a combined Franco-Spanish fleet, was the culmination of a yearlong campaign of deception and maneuver supporting Emperor Napoleon I’s project for the invasion of England. With the major elements of his French and Spanish navies blockaded in Continental ports, Napoleon initially proposed to slip his invasion flotilla of small craft past the Royal Navy forces on watch in the English Channel. As the folly of that notion became obvious, Napoleon proposed instead to unite the main Spanish fleet with the French squadrons from Toulon and Brest, gaining control of the Channel long enough for his invasion force to cross. His plan took sophisticated account of the relative dispersion of British forces. The Toulon squadron, under its new commander Vice Admiral Pierre-Charles de Villeneuve, would evade its blockaders, pick up a Spanish squadron at Ca´diz, and sail for Martinique in the West Indies. There it would join another French squadron sortieing from Rochefort. The combined force would return to France, while the Brest squadron broke its

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blockade and joined the ships from Martinique in a sweep of the Channel that would clear the way for the conquest of England. Napoleon expected the British to mount vain pursuits in all directions as the Franco-Spanish squadrons combined and recombined. In fact, apart from the predictable uncertainties of weather and wind, the quality of the French and Spanish navies was far below that required by the proposed display of maritime virtuosity. Both had spent too much time in port under British guns to have developed the seamanship and self-confidence to execute Napoleon’s grand design smoothly. The French fleet in particular had never recovered from the losses of experienced officers and petty officers caused by the Revolution. The Brest squadron never made it out of port in the face of a dogged close blockade. Villeneuve had better fortune—and a temporarily obliging enemy in the person of Nelson. Commanding in the Mediterranean, Nelson had maintained a longrange blockade of Toulon in the hope of luring the French out to battle. When Villeneuve slipped out of Toulon in late March 1805, Nelson thought he was making for Egypt. Instead the French admiral, after a brief stopover at Ca´diz, made for the West Indies, getting a three-week head start before Nelson turned in pursuit. Villeneuve arrived at Martinique to find no one else there; the ships from Rochefort had come and gone. On learning of Nelson’s arrival in the Caribbean, Villeneuve set his sails for Europe as well. His revised orders were to break the blockades of El Ferrol and Brest, pick up the Spanish and French ships there, and take the entire fleet into the Channel. But he had little confidence in his own fleet, whose efficiency had improved little during its time at sea. After an inconclusive engagement with a British squadron under Vice Admiral Robert Calder, Villeneuve made for Ca´diz. Temporarily at least, he was safely out of range of major British forces. He had also sacrificed any chance he might have of executing Napoleon’s grand design. Nelson, frustrated by his failure to catch up with Villeneuve, returned to England and a brief shore leave. On 14 September he put to sea again, assigned as commander of the blockading force at Ca´diz. He had spent three weeks working on the

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TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF

The Battle of Trafalgar. Painting by John Callow, 1875. ªFINE ART PHOTOGRAPHIC LIBRARY/CORBIS

problem of putting paid to Villeneuve once and for all. His intention was to let the allied fleet sortie, then attack it not in an orthodox line of battle formation but in two columns, splitting his enemy and bringing about a no-holds-barred melee. Conventional wisdom argued such an action could not be controlled. Nelson was confident in the quality of his crews and captains—and not least in an improved signal system facilitating transmission of orders even in close action. Under orders from Napoleon to engage, Villeneuve set sail on 19 October. Fearing to frighten his opponent back to port, Nelson stalked him until the morning of the twenty-first. The subsequent jockeying for position only highlighted Franco-Spanish navigational shortcomings. Nothing was wrong with their courage—but as the British came to close quarters the Royal Navy’s gunnery and ship-handling created a debacle. Twenty-two allied ships out of thirty-three were lost when the final tally was taken. No British ship was sunk, though most were badly battered.

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Nelson fell to a musket shot, his place among the great admirals assured for all time. Trafalgar was the most important naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars. It put an end to Napoleon’s hopes of invading England, and decided as well an Anglo-French struggle for naval mastery dating back to the mid-seventeenth century. Nelson’s victory secured a British mastery of the high seas that endured for more than a century. See also French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Military Tactics; Napoleon; Nelson, Horatio. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Howarth, David. Trafalgar: The Nelson Touch. London, 1969. Reprint, London, 2003. Lambert, Andrew. Nelson: Britannia’s God of War. London, 2004. Excellent alike on Nelson’s history and mythology. Schom, Alan. Trafalgar: Countdown to Battle, 1803–1805. New York, 1990. DENNIS SHOWALTER

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n

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS. Over centuries, roads evolved in response to the movement of goods and people. They included narrow tracks linking farms to fields and those linking villages to each other and to local and regional markets; links between market towns and regional administrative and commercial centers; and major routes radiating from national capitals toward these regional centers and the frontiers. Differing natural conditions meant that the physical condition and carrying capacity of these routes varied considerably, as did the priorities and resources accorded to their maintenance by local users as well as administrative bodies. Everywhere, however, users incurred substantial ‘‘transaction costs’’ as a result of slow movement, dependent on horse traction. Furthermore, irregularity and the resulting need to maintain stocks of foodstuffs and essential raw materials, which were susceptible to spoilage, added to costs. ROADS AND WATERWAYS

In response to growing demand, from at least the beginning of the eighteenth century, increasingly efforts were made to improve road construction techniques, provide paved surfaces, and introduce more regular maintenance. The timing and nature of the decisions taken are intelligible only within particular geographical, political, social, institutional, and cultural contexts. Thus in Britain, improvement was to be funded primarily through private initiative by means of the creation of turnpike trusts—of which there were 1,037 by 1834— and the introduction of tolls. Elsewhere, classification of routes, the ordering of priorities, and supervision of construction by state engineers were more likely, with resources provided by a mixture of tolls, taxation, and obligatory labor service. With better road surfaces, carts and carriages could move more rapidly and carry heavier loads, with less wear and tear on both beasts and vehicles. Certainly less strain was imposed on the horses. Carefully selected for their particular functions, they represented a substantial investment. In an expansive economic situation, improved roads were a major factor in sustaining growth. Government interest was also encouraged by the desire to reinforce political centralization. Additionally, improved

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roads promoted changing perceptions of time and space as well as more positive attitudes toward travel. For official use, as well as for the convenience of the small minority who could afford to use the mail coach or a private carriage and able to take advantage of relays of horses, travel was becoming increasingly rapid. In France, where technical improvements in road construction and maintenance largely followed British models, the most effective road system in Continental Europe was created during the eighteenth century. Subsequently, with the exception of strategic routes, roads were neglected during the long and destructive wars of the revolution and empire until, with the coming of peace, work was resumed. While these improvements were certainly welcomed, travelers continued to complain, especially about the marked deterioration in conditions once they moved away from privileged axes. In the uplands steep gradients frequently required the use of packhorses rather than carts. Although times varied considerably according to the season and weather, in 1827 it was still likely to take twentyfive days to transport goods from Paris to Marseilles at a cost of 14.50 francs a metric ton, even on relatively good roads. For somewhere between 32 and 36 francs ‘‘accelerated’’ transport might reduce the time taken to thirteen days. The range of transport services included large enterprises with heavy wagons and large teams of horses and offering regular departures; local carriers providing links with nearby market towns; and the hosts of peasants engaged in transporting their own produce or, during the agricultural quiet season, offering their services, together with horses or oxen, to whomever needed a cart and generally at very low cost. There was a clear division of function between road and waterway transport. Road transport was generally preferred for innumerable short-distance movements, in the absence of navigable water, or else as a feeder to the waterways. In general it was more rapid and reliable and certainly offered greater flexibility than did carriage by water. High-value goods, which could bear the cost of transport, would be transported by road. However, waterways offered the only economic means of transporting such bulky products as cereals, coal,

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A stagecoach on a mountain road. The use of horse-drawn vehicles for transportation and tourism increased early in the nineteenth century due to improved roadways and more comfortable coaches. In this photograph, passengers riding a stagecoach through the scenic Furka Pass in the Swiss Alps admire the view. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS

and building materials as well as finished textiles and metallurgical products, glass, and pottery. Britain, an island penetrated by numerous waterways, and the Low Countries thus enjoyed considerable advantages. Nevertheless, conditions on the waterways and transport costs were extremely diverse. In part this reflected seasonal variations in the depth of water and in the strength of the current, whether movement was with or against the current, and, on the larger rivers and at sea, the direction of the prevailing winds. The existence of obstacles (including rocks, shifting sandbanks, bridges, and mill weirs) was another key factor. Transshipment was frequently necessary. Even minor rivers might be employed at least downriver and when water levels were high. On faster-flowing streams, where downriver movement alone was possible, boats were likely to be broken up on reaching their destination. As a result of differences in the conditions for navigation, the structure and capacity of boats varied considerably. Rivers were also the means of floating downriver the wood that served as the

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essential construction material and as a major source of fuel. In addition to numerous barges coming downriver, regions accessible to the sea attracted ships active in long-distance international trade and also played host to the numerous small coasters plying their trade between the large number of mostly tiny harbors. In response to growing demand, the construction of canals offered a means of bypassing obstacles and of linking the various river basins in order to create more extensive networks. The excavation of reservoirs to improve water supply, the construction of locks to overcome gradients, and the provision of towpaths to make it easier to use horses to tow barges, all represented means of improving canal navigation. In France, where the rivers Seine, Loire, Saoˆne, and Rhoˆne carried the most traffic, much of the canal construction, beginning in the seventeenth century, was directed toward improving links between these river basins. In the south the Canal du Midi linked the Garonne River at

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Toulouse with the Mediterranean at Se`te, transporting cereals from upper Languedoc, an area of surplus, to lower Languedoc, where deficits were common. Considered to be a technological marvel when under construction between 1665 and 1681, it ran for some 240 kilometers and included 74 locks. By 1840 Paris was linked to central France by the upper Seine and its tributaries and by the canals of Bourgogne and the Centre, with the east by the Marne-Rhine canal, with the coal fields of Belgium and the north by the Canal de SaintQuentin and the Oise, and by the lower Seine to the sea. Lyon, at the confluence of the rivers Rhoˆne and Saoˆne, served as the second major node in the French transport system. As late as 1829, with steam locomotion already in its early stages but with an uncertain future, the Becquey Plan assumed that economic change would continue to depend on substantial investment in the canalization of rivers and in canal construction.

internal and international trade. By 1850 the various German states had constructed only 750 kilometers of canals to link the major river systems, while the navigable link established from the 1820s between the Baltic and Black Seas was often interrupted by adverse water conditions. Nevertheless, ports like Hamburg, Lu ¨ beck, Danzig, and the Russian Baltic port of Riga at the mouths of these rivers made important contributions to the export trades in grain, timber, flax, and hemp. In Italy the river Po and the Tiber below Rome carried substantial traffic; in Spain the Guadalquivir and the lower reaches of the Tagus, Duero, and Ebro were also used for navigation. Topography represented an insurmountable obstacle to significant canal construction, however. In much of Scandinavia slow construction of what would in any case be a low-density rail network would ensure that coastal shipping remained important throughout the nineteenth century.

In practice the waterways continued to suffer from major shortcomings. As a senior French government engineer pointed out: ‘‘the utility of canals is recognised along their length, but extends itself for only short distances from their banks. Immediately the merchandise transported by boats has to be re-loaded into carts, the unloading, the reloading and carting eliminates the economies offered by water transport’’ (quoted in Price, p. 45). Every lock represented a bottleneck. Propulsion, prior to the development of small and inexpensive steam engines, depended on horse or sail and in some cases even on human power and represented a major problem, especially against the current. The upper reaches of the Rhine were thus used primarily by downriver traffic, with the most active stretch of the river that between Mainz and Cologne. Gradually, in the early nineteenth century efforts were made to abolish the tolls charged by various cities along its banks and to clear the riverbed; from the late 1820s steamers were introduced to carry passengers and from midcentury tugs to tow barges. In northern Germany the Weser, Elbe, and Oder were used mainly by local traffic, while farther east the Vistula, even if closed by freezing for some three months each year, made possible substantial transports of rye and wheat. In both Germany and Russia the north-south flow of the major rivers limited their impact on both

In spite of the expense and frequent difficulty of movement by both road and water the gradual increase in the efficiency of the transport system reduced the cost and improved access to potential markets, as well as increasing the efficiency with which marketplace information was diffused. Thus, although they provided few of the ‘‘backward’’ linkages to industry—which, for example, would be created by railway demand for metallurgical products—improved road/water transport would have a substantial impact on economic conditions. Reductions in transport costs, and in effect of the prices paid by consumers, stimulated the expansion of demand for manufactured goods and the greater commercialization of agriculture, particularly in the already relatively favored areas of valley and plain. Urban centers at nodal points in communications networks, which performed key commercial functions, could be supplied more easily with the raw materials and foodstuffs necessary to their further development. Central to regional communications systems themselves, they were also the key elements in interregional and international trade. Even in the more isolated areas growing numbers of middlemen were active in the host of markets and fairs still made necessary by the slow and expensive communications that limited the zone of attraction of most small markets to something like a circumference of fifteen kilometers. Nevertheless, they drew

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in peasant farmers anxious to sell their produce and increasingly able to make purchases. Information on the prices of such key commodities as cereals and coal suggests that a gradual and piecemeal process of market integration was underway but also points at the continued fragmentation that remained a predominant characteristic of pre-rail economies. The survival of numerous dispersed small-scale iron producers was a further indication of the difficulties of access to both raw materials and markets, of poor diffusion of technical as well as market information, and the weakness of competitive pressures to innovate. In such situations railway construction would represent a response to the bottlenecks emerging within road/water transport systems as the economic development, to a large degree stimulated by their improvement, resulted in a further growth in the demand for transport facilities. Just to take one example, the Thames below, and especially in, London, was increasingly packed with colliers bringing coal from the northeast while nearby streets were congested with horses and carts. RAILWAYS AND STEAM-POWERED WATER TRANSPORT

A technical solution to these problems was being developed, however. Like the canals, the first railways were constructed as adjuncts to river systems and as means of replacing costly road transport. However, it rapidly became evident that in spite of considerable investment in the improvement of roads and waterways and substantial pre-rail reductions in the cost of transport, the railways offered considerable further advantages in terms of cost, speed, and regularity. This was especially welcomed in those areas that had previously lacked easy access to waterways or the sea. Rail construction would have a substantial market-widening impact. The cost reductions they allowed stimulated demand for a wide range of products. The growing integration of space would also result in greater regional specialization as the more resourceful producers benefited from comparative advantage. Together with the intensification of competition, they promoted the more efficient diffusion of information and stimulated technical innovation. Long-distance passenger transport moved virtually entirely to the railways, which offered cheaper, far more rapid, and more comfortable transport. The time taken for the

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coach journey from Paris to Lille in northern France had already been reduced from forty-eight hours in 1815 to twenty in 1845 as a result of road improvements and better coach design and horse breeding. Clearly more positive attitudes toward traveling had developed as a result. However, there were limits to what could be achieved by horse traction, and by 1855 the rail journey took only four hours and fifty minutes. The greater concentration of manufacturing processes also led to the deindustrialization of less well-endowed areas and to a process of ruralization as dispersed handicraft manufacture collapsed. The injection of this new technology into the communications system had a substantial impact on road and waterway traffic, which underwent a relative decline in importance. The schematic model drawn by Norman J. G. Pounds (An Historical Geography of Europe, 1800–1914, Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1985, figure 9.1, p. 428) provides an effective representation of these trends. The statistical information available is extremely fragmentary, however, particularly for road and waterway transport. Table 1 therefore provides only an additional impression of trends. Although the pre-rail forms of transport continued to move similar or even slightly greater volumes of freight, their share dropped considerably. Between 1851 and 1876, while the tonnage carried by French railways increased by around 1,590 percent, that carried by water and road rose by 18 and 19 percent respectively. In general traffic declined on waterways and roads running parallel to the railways while rising substantially on roads providing access to railway stations. It also needs to be borne in mind that rail construction was extended over at least a half-century, affecting repeated local and regional changes in road use. Waterway transport of bulky commodities was also threatened. Operating in an area with relatively efficient waterborne transport, the Nord railway company in France nevertheless proved able, by means of competitive pricing, to attract a substantial part of the traffic in coal coming from Belgium and the departments of the Nord and Pas-deCalais. This represented 44 percent of its goods traffic in the period from 1873 to 1884. Major coal

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TABLE 1

Transport of commodities in France, 1830–1914 (in thousand millions of metric ton-kilometer) Period

Road

Canal

Rail

Sea (coaster)

Total

1830 1841–1844 1845–1854 1855–1864 1865–1874 1875–1884 1885–1894 1895–1904 1905–1914

2.0 2.3 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

0.5 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.3 1.5 2.3 3.2 3.8

— 0.06 0.46 3.00 6.30 9.40 10.90 14.90 21.00

0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.1

3.5 3.9 5.0 7.8 11.0 14.1 16.7 22.0 28.8

SOURCE:

J.-C.Toutain, Les transports en France de 1830 à 1965 (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1968), p. 252

mining and metallurgical enterprises constructed both internal rail systems and spurs linking them to the external railway network. In the case of seaborne trade the railway was either complementary, in providing a means of penetration inland for seaborne people and goods, or else competitive, particularly with coastal traffic. International and especially transatlantic trade grew substantially in volume, reflecting both rising prosperity and substantial reductions in maritime freight costs resulting from improvements in the design and construction of both sailing and steam ships. Gradually, from the 1820s and 1830s, steamers entered coastal trade and from midcentury into longer-distance transport. Although as late as 1870 only 24 percent of British merchant tonnage and around 9 percent of that of France, Germany, and Italy was steam powered, the speed and carrying capacity of sailing ships was improved considerably. Increasingly, however, especially from the 1870s and 1880s and in long-distance trade, steam propulsion replaced sail, especially as more reliable and efficient engines reduced fuel consumption and larger iron—then steel—ships were constructed offering more cargo space. This growing maritime trade—and the shipbuilding that made it possible—was increasingly concentrated in the major ports, where infrastructure investment in docks, quays, and cranes had improved turnaround times for ships and which furthermore benefited from efficient rail links to wide hinterlands as well as rail tariff policies that sought to maximize traffic. There was intense competition between such ports as Le Havre, Antwerp, and Hamburg for a lucrative transit trade. The massive imports of raw materials

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and foodstuffs did much to keep down both the price of manufactured goods and the cost of living and thus to stimulate consumer demand. From the 1860s through 1880s, on a selective basis, substantial investments also took place in the improvement of conditions for navigation on such major rivers as the lower Seine, Meuse, Rhine, Elbe, and even the Danube (where natural obstacles continued to deter users) as well as in the widening and deepening of canals, designed to allow the constant movement of high-capacity barges. Between 1873 and 1914 the length of canals and canalized rivers in Germany almost doubled, to 6,600 kilometers. In France and Germany governments favored this as a means of countering rail monopoly by providing an even cheaper means of transport for bulky commodities like coal and iron ore. Between the mid-1880s and 1905 the tonnage carried on French waterways grew by 73 percent, on Belgian by 114 percent, and on German by 274 percent. In the French case the relative decline in the significance of inland waterways was reversed as their share in goods traffic, which had fallen from 37 percent to 15 percent between 1851 and 1882, rose again to 21 percent by 1903. In less economically dynamic regions or where natural conditions made the cost of improvement prohibitive, waterways like the Loire or Vistula were largely abandoned and river ports decayed rapidly. REVIVAL OF THE ROAD: BICYCLES AND MOTORCARS

As had been the case with the development of the railway system, the revival of the road as a means of

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A group of shipbuilders in their shipyard. Late-nineteenth-century photograph. The use of steel for shipbuilding allowed for the construction of much larger vessels and greatly enlarged the fortunes of shipping magnates. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS

transport was a response to the perceived shortcomings of existing rail/road transport facilities. The introduction of the bicycle and then of the motorcar were once again to transform transport conditions. Substantial investment in road improvement had continued because of roads’ central importance to short-distance transport and in providing access to the railways. In 1867, a Parisian blacksmith called Pierre Michaux probably produced the first commercial bicycle. By 1885 the modern safety bicycle had been developed. From the late 1880s its use rapidly spread as its cost fell. The bicycle offered both a means of getting to work and a leisure activity that enhanced personal liberty. By 1890 some five hundred thousand were in use in Britain. Michelin’s

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invention of the detachable, inflatable tire in 1888 provided for a more comfortable ride. Typically, large numbers of producers entered the new industry before competition and overproduction eliminated the weakest. Even more significant was the development of the internal combustion engine, invented independently by Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler in the 1870s and 1880s. This provided a more compact, fuel-efficient power technology than that provided by steam and allowed the construction of lighter vehicles no longer dependent on rails. The automobile offered a flexible and rapid means of personal transport to luxury consumers anxious to escape from crowded, more ‘‘democratic’’ forms of transport. Initially, customized cars were

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TABLE 2

Annual expenditure on roads in France, 1815–1913 (in millions of francs) Period

Expenditure

1815–1819 1820–1829 1830–1839 1840–1849 1850–1859 1860–1869 1870–1879 1880–1889 1890–1899 1900–1909 1910–1913

58.2 65.0 110.3 170.6 176.8 220.7 223.7 243.9 231.9 234.2 249.0

cially in related activities in garages and road maintenance. Soon World War I would provide a massive stimulus to production that heralded the postwar rebirth of road transport and, because motor vehicles offered greater convenience and flexibility at a competitive price, the gradual but accelerating decline of the railway. Although the process would take decades, particularly in the countryside, the age of the horse was also coming to an end. See also Airplanes; Automobile; Cycling; Industrial Revolution, First; Industrial Revolution, Second; Railroads; Trade and Economic Growth. BIBLIOGRAPHY

assembled by skilled artisans in hundreds of metalworking and carriage-building workshops, some of which, like Peugeot, were pushed into diversification by intense competition among bicycle manufacturers. Again, only a small minority of these companies, including Peugeot, Opel, and Fiat, would survive growing competitive pressures. By 1907 there were some 150,000 vehicles in use throughout Europe, increasing to 600,000 by 1914. In France 91,000 vehicles were in use in 1913; in Germany there were 61,000 private cars and 9,700 commercial vehicles. Public transport was also affected. Thus, whereas in London in 1903 11,000 hansom and hackney cabs and 1 motor cab plied their trade, by 1913 there were already 8,000 motor cabs, and the number of horse-drawn cabs had declined to 1,900. Trucks and motorbuses were also making an appearance. As a result of better automobile design and the improvement of road surfaces, the reliability of vehicles and their capacity for long-distance movement also increased rapidly. A major new industry was in the making. In Europe’s fragmented markets assembly-line production was slower to develop than in the United States. In 1914 Peugeot, the largest European producer, turned out only around 2 percent of the cars produced by Ford. Even at this stage, however, the burgeoning new industry substantially increased demand for aluminum, high-quality steels and alloys, and rubber and oil. Renault, Panhard et Levassor, and others were also already moving into the production of aircraft engines. In France by 1914 some 100,000 were employed in making cars and espe-

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Laux, James Michael. In First Gear: The French Automobile Industry to 1914. Liverpool, U.K., 1976. Livet, Georges. Histoire des routes et des transports en Europe. Strasbourg, France, 2003. Price, Roger. The Modernization of Rural France: Communications Networks and Agricultural Market Structures in Nineteenth-Century France. London, 1983. Szostak, Rick. The Role of Transportation in the Industrial Revolution: A Comparison of England and France. Montreal, 1991. Ville, Simon P. Transport and the Development of the European Economy, 1750–1918. London, 1990. ———. ‘‘Transport and Communications.’’ In The European Economy, 1750–1914: A Thematic Approach, edited by Derek H. Aldcroft and Simon P. Ville. Manchester, U.K., 1994. ROGER PRICE

n

TREITSCHKE,

HEINRICH

VON

(1834–1896), German nationalist. Born on 15 September 1834 in Dresden, the future champion of Prussian-led German unification Heinrich von Treitschke grew up in the aristocratic, conservative, and provincial atmosphere of the capital of the kingdom of Saxony. The son of an army officer who eventually rose to the rank of general and a mother who descended from a venerable Saxon noble family, Treitschke became interested at an early age in German nationalism, convinced as early as 1848 that only the Prussian monarchy could unite the Germans states. Prevented from becoming an officer due

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to a childhood ear affliction that eventually resulted in total deafness, Treitschke graduated in 1851 from the elite Holy Cross secondary school and went on to study history, political economy, and state administration in Bonn, Leipzig, Tu ¨ bingen, Freiburg, and Heidelberg before taking a teaching position at the University of Leipzig in 1859. As a university professor and a contributor to the journal Preussische Jahrbu ¨ cher, Treitschke initially promoted German unification from a classically liberal standpoint. Prussia’s current authoritarian nature, Treitschke believed, hindered unification because it represented a foreign-influenced perversion of the ideal traditional Prussian state, one based on collaboration between the monarchy and a civil service dominated by the educated bourgeoisie. Events in the 1860s caused Treitschke to revise his opinions. Prussia’s victories over Denmark in 1864 and Austria in 1866 convinced him to overlook Otto von Bismarck’s role in the conflict between the Prussian state and its parliament and to begin to believe that Bismarck could succeed in forging a centralized nation-state in central Europe. The founding of the German Empire in 1871 largely fulfilled Treitschke’s wishes, despite reservations concerning, among other things, Germany’s weak federalist structure. Although he served as a deputy in the national parliament until 1884, Treitschke exerted his influence primarily through his writings and lectures. His five-volume, unfinished monumental German History in the Nineteenth Century, begun in 1879, chronicled political, economic, theological, philosophical, and cultural developments in the period up to 1848. Like his other writings, this work wedded his deeply felt political convictions with his interest in historical events; the first two decades of the century were characterized as a blossoming of the national ideal that was crushed after 1815 by the triumph of small-minded German particularism and the unnatural and pernicious domination of central Europe by the Habsburg Monarchy. Clear to contemporary readers was the implicit glorification of Prussia’s role in creating a unified nation-state. In his published essays, Treitschke engaged many of the pressing issues of the day. He supported Bismarck in the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf of the 1870s, and he railed against socialism and its

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proponents within academe. Treitschke also played an important role in making respectable and thereby spreading anti-Semitism within German society. Although he claimed to abhor the violent manifestations of anti-Semitism, Treitschke attacked Germany’s Jews in print, accusing them of undermining traditional German values and thereby weakening the German state. Generations of antiSemites would thank him for the infamous slogan ‘‘the Jews are our misfortune.’’ By the mid-1880s, Treitschke was calling for Germany’s acquisition of overseas colonies. ‘‘All great nations in history felt the urge to impress the stamp of their authority on barbaric countries while they felt strong enough to do so,’’ Treitschke wrote. ‘‘He who does not take part in this gigantic competition is destined to cut a poor figure one day. . . . It is therefore a vital question for the [German] nation to show colonial drive’’ (quoted in Winzen, p. 160). A consequence of his growing interest in the issue of German expansion was a growing hatred of Great Britain. For Treitschke, Great Britain represented a ‘‘reactionary power’’ that would have to be dealt with if Germany were to realize the goals of Weltpolitik. Moreover, Treitschke believed that military conflict with England or other powers was not only inevitable but also legitimate and often beneficial. Although most historians believe Treitschke contributed very little to the discipline of history, scholars recognize his enormous impact on the many Germans who attended his lectures or read his articles. Lecturing to overflow crowds at Berlin’s Kaiser Wilhelm University, Treitschke helped to instill imperialistic, chauvinistic, and anti-Semitic values in a generation of young men, many of whom later occupied important positions in the Wilhelmine state and its society. Men such as Carl Peters, Alfred von Tirpitz, Bernhard von Bu ¨ low, and Helmuth Johannes von Moltke learned from Treitschke of the positive effects of war, the essential foreignness of Jews and non-Germans, and the deficiencies of parliamentary democracy. Whether such teachings laid the foundation for National Socialism remains a subject of debate among scholars. See

also Anti-Semitism; Ranke, Leopold von.

Imperialism;

Nationalism;

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bussmann, Walter. ‘‘Heinrich von Treitschke 1834–1896.’’ In Die Grossen Deutschen. Deutsche Biographie, edited by Hermann Heimpel, Theodor Heuss, and Benno Reifenberg. Berlin, 1957. Dorpalen, Andreas. Heinrich von Treitschke. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1957. ————. ‘‘Heinrich von Treitschke.’’ Journal of Contemporary History 7, nos. 3–4 (1972): 21–35. Iggers, Georg. ‘‘Heinrich von Treitschke.’’ In Deutsche Historiker. Band II, edited by Hans-Ulrich Wehler. Go¨ttingen, 1971. Kupisch, Karl. Die Hieroglyphe Gottes. Grosse Historiker der bu ¨ rgerlichen Epoche von Ranke bis Meinicke. Munich, 1967. Langer, Ulrich. Heinrich von Treitschke. Politische Biographie eines deutschen Nationalisten. Du¨sseldorf, 1998. Loftus, Ilse. ‘‘Bismarck and the Prussian Historians.’’ In Imperial Germany. Essays, edited by Volker Du¨rr, Kathy Harms, and Peter Hayes. Madison, Wisc., 1985. Winzen, Peter. ‘‘Treitschke’s Influence on the Rise of Imperialist and Anti-British Nationalism in Germany.’’ In Nationalist and Racialist Movements in Britain and Germany Before 1914, edited by Paul Kennedy and Anthony Nicholls. London, 1981. CHARLES LANSING

n

TRIESTE. ‘‘It is the affliction of her two natures—the commercial and the Italian—that collide and cancel out each other. And Trieste cannot suffocate either of the two. This is her double soul.’’ Such was the writer Scipio Slataper’s description of his native city (La voce, 25 March 1909; in Slataper, pp. 38–39). From a small city of approximately 30,000 at the beginning of the nineteenth century, Trieste grew to a major central European city of more than 240,000 by 1913. Habsburg support for the free port and commercial privileges beginning in the mid-eighteenth century spurred the growth of the city that had been under Habsburg protection since the fourteenth century. Yet, by the eve of World War I, technological developments in commercial and maritime trade had begun to erode the city’s economic foundations, and nationalist tensions threatened the political stability of the Habsburg port.

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COMMERCIAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

Intending to challenge Venetian domination, the Austrian emperor Charles VI extended free-trade privileges in the Adriatic in 1719. From 1731 to 1775, Trieste functioned as the administrative center of the Habsburg Adriatic commercial zone. France’s defeat of the Venetian empire in 1797 encouraged Austrian commercial expansion in the Adriatic and Mediterranean, and down to 1814 Trieste became a pawn in the contest between Austria and France. Three periods of French occupation (March to May 1797, November 1805 to March 1806, and November 1809 to October 1813) encouraged western European political associations, and Napoleon’s choice of Trieste as the administrative center for the Illyrian provinces created links between the upper Adriatic region and areas of the Italian peninsula as far south as Rome. After 1814 Trieste and other Adriatic provinces, in part inherited from Venice, became part of Austria’s Adriatic littoral. The port city’s trade blossomed with Habsburg assistance. In 1835 the navigation firm Lloyd Austriaco was founded, and in 1836 the Austrian government granted the steamship line a charter, initiating a marriage between private venture and government that allowed Lloyd to become the largest steamship company in the Mediterranean by 1851. The insurance sector also flourished. Assicurazioni Generali, destined to be one of the largest insurance companies in Europe and the Mediterranean, was founded in 1831, and Riunione Adriatica di Sicurta` was established in 1838. Trieste grew as a pillar of Habsburg maritime commerce to become, perhaps, the fourth most important city in the empire after Vienna, Budapest, and Prague. The city’s architecture took on a Viennese aspect with development of the Theresian Quarter, named for the Habsburg empress Maria Theresa, centered on the Grand Canal. By the midnineteenth century, a neoclassical stock exchange building graced the main avenue leading from the Grand Canal to the major public square, Piazza Grande, which over the course of the century became home to imposing and ornate public buildings and the headquarters of Lloyd Austriaco. The Habsburg monarchy also sought to establish a direct presence in the city. In 1856

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Ponte Rosso on the Grand Canal, Trieste. Photograph by Giuseppe Wulz c. 1890. The church of Sant’Antonio can be seen in the background. ALINARI/ART RESOURCE

Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, the younger brother of the emperor Francis Joseph and supreme commander of the Imperial Austrian Navy, began construction of his royal palace Miramare. Ferdinand died in 1867 in an ill-advised attempt to rule as the emperor of Mexico, but construction of the castle continued, and by 1871 the completed royal residence stood as a symbol of Habsburg authority. By the mid-nineteenth century, under Habsburg tutelage, Trieste’s trade position was enhanced. The Su¨dbahn rail connection, completed in 1857, formed a direct link to Vienna. Although the Adriatic route could never match the northern German port route in terms of efficiency and economy, Trieste grew as a cosmopolitan port city

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serving international commercial interests. In the 1860s the convergence of Austria’s loss of Venice to Italy, Habsburg suspicions of German states unifying under a ‘‘small German’’ model, and the monarchy’s compromise of 1867 that split the empire into two parts served to focus Austrian energies on the development of Trieste. The Adriatic port served as an alternative to lost Venetian routes and politically unreliable networks through Bismarck’s Germany. In 1891 the monarchy abrogated Trieste’s free-port status, but Habsburg monopolies, subsidies, and commercial advantages continued to feed economic growth. In 1913 trade with imperial regions accounted for over 80 percent of Triestine commercial rail traffic.

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COSMOPOLITAN PORT AND CULTURE

From the Habsburg perspective, Trieste rested in the hands of commercial elites of a variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds, whose allegiance lay with the monarchy and whose focus was on economic concerns. The urban environment had an Italian character due to reliance on an Italian dialect as the lingua franca and general adherence to Italian customs. However, the city was reputed to be cosmopolitan, with a climate heavily influenced by diverse groups of immigrants, including Greeks, Ottomans, Jews, and English and Swiss Protestants. At the same time, a strong civic identity grew out of the city’s pretensions to economic importance and autonomy within the Habsburg Empire. Writers in Trieste captured the contradictions of the ‘‘cosmopolitan’’ and ‘‘municipal’’ identities and the clash between economic internationalism and nationalist particularism. They also emphasized the psychoanalytic perspective, filtering to the port from Freud’s circle in Vienna. The Irish writer James Joyce spent several years before World War I teaching English in Trieste and is reputed to have drawn inspiration for many of his characters, including Leopold Bloom in Ulysses, from the Triestines. Best known among the psychoanalytically inspired works is the novel Zeno’s Conscience by Triestine native Italo Svevo. Cultural networks and literary circles embracing diversity remained intact on the eve of World War I, but political bifurcation went hand in hand with the emergence of ethnic antagonisms that increasingly pit Italians against Slavs in the second half of the nineteenth century. By the 1880s, the increasing wealth of Trieste had quickened the pace of immigration to the urban center, altering the ethnic and political landscape. The migration of workers from nearby rural districts in Italy, Istria, and Slovene and Croatian Adriatic provinces and the changes wrought by rapid urbanization set the stage for the opposition between socialists and national liberals. NATIONALIST/ETHNIC DEBATE

Nationalist or ethnic antagonism in Trieste had its roots in the upheavals of 1848. In 1848 local civilian and military leaders, recognizing the port’s reliance on Vienna, generally maintained calm in Trieste. The monarchy rewarded the city’s loyalty

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by transferring the seat of the Austrian navy from revolutionary Venice. Nonetheless, the city’s role as a port serving Germanic Austria increasingly clashed with the aspirations and ambitions of nationalist groups, in particular irredentist Italians, who wished to integrate all Italian-speaking territories into the new Italian state. The 1860s were critical in the emergence of ethnic and nationalist politics in the northeastern Adriatic lands. Italian unification, particularly the inclusion of Lombardy and Venetia, former Habsburg holdings, in the new state of Italy, exacerbated tensions over the fate of the Italianspeaking populations of the Adriatic littoral. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 brought nationalist questions to the fore. It excited Slavic interests in autonomy and, by the turn of the century, spurred proposals for a third, Slavic component to the monarchy. The most famous local nationalist incident occurred in 1882 and involved Guglielmo Oberdan (or Oberdank) and a plan to assassinate the Austrian monarch Francis Joseph, visiting Trieste to honor the five-hundredth anniversary of the city’s adhesion to Austria. Officials uncovered Oberdan’s plot, and he was hanged for treason. The execution furnished the irredentist movement with a local martyr for the Italian cause. By the turn of the twentieth century, Trieste’s municipal council rested squarely in the hands of Italian nationalists who controlled local matters. Heightening sensitivities to ethnic and cultural differences fueled nationalist antagonisms throughout the empire. In the northeastern Adriatic provinces, Slavs and Italians began to struggle against one another and against Austrian (considered Germanic) officials. The fever pitch of the prewar debate between factions favoring international commerce under the oversight of Austria and those with Italian irredentist aspirations was evident in 1912 in the firestorm that erupted over the publication of Angelo Vivante’s Irredentismo adriatico (Adriatic irredentism). Irredentists expected Vivante, a respected member of an Italian Triestine bourgeois family, to support pro-Italian factions. Instead, he emphasized Trieste’s dependence on Austria and painted irredentist schemes as ‘‘utopian’’ dreams, emphasizing the ‘‘antithesis between the

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economic element and the national one’’ as ‘‘the guiding thread of all Triestine history’’ (Vivante, p. 221). At the end of World War I, victorious Italy’s incorporation of Trieste into the liberal state could be counted an Italian nationalist triumph. However, Vivante’s antithesis could not be reconciled. Italy’s victory proved Pyrrhic. Italy was frustrated at the inability to annex other coveted territories in the eastern Adriatic; nationalists and socialists clashed; the port city, due to the ravages of war and political separation from hinterlands in central Europe, entered into a period of decline. Economic crisis and political and ethnic antagonisms set the stage for the well-known, bitter twentieth-century contests over the fate of Trieste. See also Austria-Hungary; Italy; Vienna. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Slataper, Scipio. Lettere triestine: Col seguito di attri scritti vociani di polemica su Trieste. Trieste, 1988. Svevo, Italo. Zeno’s Conscience. Translated by William Weaver. New York, 2001. Translation of Coscienza di Zeno (1923). Vivante, Angelo. Irredentismo adriatico. Trieste, 1984.

Secondary Sources Dubin, Lois C. The Port Jews of Habsburg Trieste: Absolutist Politics and Enlightenment Culture. Stanford, Calif., 1999. McCourt, John. The Years of Bloom: James Joyce in Trieste, 1904–1920. Dublin, 2000. Pizzi, Katia. A City in Search of an Author: The Literary Identity of Trieste. London, 2001. Scha¨chter, Elizabeth. Origin and Identity: Essays on Svevo and Trieste. Leeds, U.K., 2000. Sondhaus, Lawrence. In the Service of the Emperor: Italians in the Austrian Armed Forces, 1814–1918. New York, 1990. MAURA E. HAMETZ

n

TRISTAN, FLORA (1803–1844), French feminist and socialist. Flore-Ce´lestine-The´re`se-Henriette Tristan Moscoso, who called herself Flora Tristan, was born in Paris. Her French mother had met her father, a Peruvian-born nobleman of Spanish ancestry, in

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Bilbao (Spain) during the French Revolution. Their religious marriage was not recognized under Revolutionary law, making Flora and her younger brother Pio technically illegitimate. They did not inherit on their father’s sudden death in 1807, and grew up in modest circumstances in the countryside near Paris. Little is known of Tristan’s life until she returned to Paris in 1818 and found work coloring designs in the engraving workshop of Andre´ Chazal. She married him shortly before her eighteenth birthday, but the marriage was violent and Tristan left her husband in 1825. With two sons to support and pregnant with her third child, she had difficulty finding work. Following the birth of her daughter in October 1825, she left her children in her mother’s care and became a ‘‘lady’s maid,’’ traveling throughout Europe with her employers. She then made contact with her father’s family and visited Peru in 1832–1833 in an unsuccessful attempt to claim her inheritance. This voyage provided the basis for her first major publication, Peregrinations of a Pariah (1838), and for a career as a writer. Her account of her unhappy marriage also sparked renewed conflict with her estranged husband, who was jailed after attempting to kill her in 1838. Tristan’s travels opened her eyes to the extent of social injustice and transformed her from a disillusioned wife pursuing her own rights into a political activist. In the 1830s she signed petitions for the legalization of divorce and against capital punishment, and published a pamphlet on the plight of single women. She became interested in the socialist theories of Charles Fourier (1772–1837), Robert Owen (1771–1858), the Saint-Simonians, ´ tienne Cabet (1788–1856), but found none and E of them satisfactory. Tristan began to publish her own proposals in both fiction and nonfiction. The hero of her 1838 novel Me´phis, a self-proclaimed ‘‘proletarian,’’ fought oppression by aristocrats and Jesuits with his lover, the Andalusian Mare´quita (a character based partly on Tristan herself). The novel ends with the birth of their daughter, Mary, a female savior destined to complete the redemption of the proletariat. Following a fourth trip to England in 1839, Tristan published a report on the plight of workers in the nation at the forefront of industrialization

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A monument to Tristan, funded by French workers, was erected at Bordeaux in October 1848. It was inscribed: ‘‘In memory of Madame Flora Tristan, author of the Workers’ Union, with the workers’ gratitude. Liberty—Equality—Fraternity—Solidarity.’’ This acknowledged her dedication to the workers’ cause. Nevertheless, her relationships with workers were sometimes difficult. She remained an outsider, defining herself as one of the ‘‘enlightened bourgeoisie.’’ Her messianic vision and her claim to be the ‘‘mother of the workers’’ also emphasized her own leadership, creating some resentment. Tristan’s approach reflected both the religious currents within Romantic socialism, and the prominence of middle-class figures within socialist organizations at that time.

Flora Tristan. Nineteenth-century lithograph portrait. BIBLIOTHE`QUE MARGUERITE DURAND, PARIS, FRANCE/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/ARCHIVES CHARMET

(Promenades dans Londres [Walks in London], 1840). She cited a range of investigations and reports to give her work credibility. Her preface warned French workers that they faced similar problems as industrialization spread. Her links with militant French workers from 1843 and her investigation of French workers’ lives sharpened her conviction that the political mobilization of the ‘‘largest and most useful class’’ was the key to social transformation. She promoted this idea in her bestknown book, Workers’ Union (1843). It emphasized the need for workers to form a ‘‘union’’ with a broad membership, superseding craft-based associations, if they were to become a political force. Unskilled workers and women needed to be included. She argued that women’s oppression underpinned the oppression of workers and that workers should lead the way in recognizing women’s rights. While on a speaking tour to promote this book, Tristan died at Bordeaux of suspected typhoid fever on 14 November 1844.

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Tristan’s feminist legacy is also complex. She did not form alliances with other feminists of her day, desiring to lead rather than follow. But she articulated the concerns shared by feminists in this period about discriminatory marriage laws, education, employment, and personal autonomy for women. Tristan’s reputation as one of the most significant feminists and socialists of her day is well deserved, and her life illustrates that these two sets of ideas were intimately connected in the early nineteenth century. See also Feminism; France; Socialism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources The London Journal of Flora Tristan. Translated, annotated, and introduced by Jean Hawkes. London, 1982. The Workers’ Union. Translated with an introduction by Beverly Livingston. Champaign, Ill., 1983. Flora Tristan, Utopian Feminist: Her Travel Diaries and Personal Crusade. Selected, translated, and with an introduction to her life by Doris Beik and Paul Beik. Bloomington, Ind., 1993. Flora Tristan’s Diary: The Tour of France, 1843–1844. Translated, annotated, and introduced by Ma´ire Fedelma Cross. Oxford, U.K., and New York, 2002.

Secondary Sources Bloch-Dano, Evelyne. Flora Tristan: La femme-messie. Paris, 2001. The best recent biography in French. Cross, Ma´ire, and Tim Gray. The Feminism of Flora Tristan. Oxford, U.K., and Providence, R.I., 1992.

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TUBERCULOSIS

Grogan, Susan K. Flora Tristan: Life Stories. London, 1998. Explores Tristan’s life through the variety of selfimages she created.

the towns; no definitive explanation for this variation is known in the early twenty-first century.

Puech, Jules-L. La vie et l’oeuvre de Flora Tristan, 1803– 1844. Paris, 1925. This first biography remains invaluable.

MODERN CONCEPTS OF TUBERCULOSIS

SUSAN K. FOLEY

n

TUBERCULOSIS. The symptoms of tuberculosis, more often called consumption or phthisis in the nineteenth century, have been known in Europe for many hundreds of years. A Dublin physician described consumption of the lungs in 1772 in much the same way as modern medical treatises do—as an obstinate cough, inclination to vomit, oppression of the chest, habitual fever that increases after eating, general paleness, high pulse, night sweats, loss of weight, and coughing up of blood. Infection with the tubercle bacillus was widespread in Europe; some calculations for the early twentieth century suggest an almost 100 percent rate of infection. But though not all who were infected went on to develop the full-blown disease, mortality was high. At the height of the epidemic possibly at least two-thirds to three-quarters of those who had the disease died, most commonly from respiratory failure. Even among the recovered, tuberculosis could return in later life. Some historians see the high rates of tuberculosis in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as the downward curve of an epidemic that had reached its peak several hundred years before. Others argue that a deteriorating urban environment caused an increased incidence in the early nineteenth century. All agree that in most European countries—Ireland and Norway were the exception—tuberculosis was on the decline in the late nineteenth century. Nonetheless, of all the infectious diseases, tuberculosis was the most important contributor to mortality in the nineteenth century and, while its decline continued into the twentieth, it was still the leading cause of death among young adults. Tuberculosis was more prevalent in the cities and towns. There is some evidence that in the nineteenth century, with important exceptions, mortality from tuberculosis was higher among women than men in rural areas, whereas the reverse was true for

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Modern concepts of the causes of tuberculosis date from 1882, when the German scientist Robert Koch identified the bacteria responsible for the disease. Before then only two significant developments had taken place that affected the understanding of tuberculosis. One was the refinement around 1816 by the French scientist Rene´-The´ophileHyacinthe Laennec of the stethoscope, which aided better diagnosis; the other was the microscope, which enabled the identification of the characteristic lesions or ‘‘tubercles’’ that were present in the infected organs of sufferers. This established that, although consumption of the lungs was the most prevalent form of the disease, it could be found in other parts of the human body. It also gave the disease its modern name—tuberculosis. Before Koch it was not known whether tuberculosis was infectious, though some doctors suspected it was. It was widely believed to be hereditary, and this led to families concealing the disease. Innumerable cures were offered in the early nineteenth century, all in retrospect valueless, including inhalation of iodine, a diet rich in fat, water cures, and even starvation. Some doctors attributed its incidence to overindulgence. By the middle of the nineteenth century, climate was considered to be an important influence on tuberculosis, and medical journals of the period are full of investigations of the incidence of tuberculosis in different climates around the world. This led sufferers to take tours or voyages in search of a climate they hoped would improve their health. A significant number of immigrants from Europe to the New World and the colonies were tuberculosis sufferers. The lingering nature of death from consumption of the lungs and the fact that it seemed to strike the young in their prime led to a romantic iconography growing up around the disease in the nineteenth century. Some symptoms—flushed cheeks, glittering eyes—were considered to enhance beauty. The febrile excitement that sufferers often displayed in their psychological reaction to their illness led to an association between susceptibility to tuberculosis and emotional and artistic temperaments. Thus in operas, novels, and art, death from tuberculosis was used as the climax of a tragic

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Dr. Koch’s Treatment for Consumption at the Royal Hospital, Berlin.

English engraving, late nineteenth century.

Following his discovery of the bacterium that causes tuberculosis in 1882, Robert Koch attempted to develop treatments for the disease. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1905 for his discoveries. PRIVATE COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

narrative of unfulfilled promise and youthful hopes dashed. Most famously the theme appears in the death of Mimi in Giacomo Puccini’s opera La Bohe`me (1896), based on Henri Murger’s novel of 1849. However, there are many examples in real life of the impact of tuberculosis on promise. The disease claimed the composer Fre´de´ric Chopin at thirty-nine; the Bronte¨ sisters Emily, Anne, and Charlotte at ages thirty, twenty-nine, and thirty-eight respectively; and the playwright Anton Chekhov at forty-four and the poet John Keats at age twenty-five. TREATMENT

The belief that fresh, uncontaminated air was good for the tuberculosis sufferer gained ground in the nineteenth century and came to dominate treatment of the disease. One product of this was the specialized tuberculosis hospital or sanatorium situated in an area chosen for climate and fresh

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air. The most famous example was the hospital in the German Black Forest opened by Dr. Otto Walther in 1888, which combined bed rest, medical attendance, and exposure to the air. Sanatoriums based on similar principles, catering initially to the private patient, opened throughout Europe. Isolated mountain retreats in Europe, brought within reach by the railway, experienced burgeoning local economies built on the provision of sanatoriums for the tubercular. The sanatorium led to the development of a specialized form of hospital architecture and to a literature based on the patient’s experience. Every European country produced novels of sanatorium life, most now forgotten. However, the most famous is the German novelist Thomas Mann’s The Magic Mountain, published in 1924. This was the year that the writer Franz Kafka, whose life and work was also overshadowed by the disease, died from tuberculosis in an Austrian sanatorium.

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The late nineteenth century saw a dramatic change in attitudes toward tuberculosis. Koch’s discovery of the infectious nature of tuberculosis opened up the possibility that it could be susceptible to the kind of public health measures that had once been used to combat the ‘‘fevers’’—the epidemic diseases such as cholera, typhus, and smallpox. These included notification, isolation, and decontamination. Between 1890 and 1914 nongovernmental organizations emerged in Europe, usually initiated and led by medical professionals. They raised consciousness of the disease among the public, advocated hygiene, and strove to bring the benefits of the sanatorium within reach of the poor. The principle they operated under was that the disease could be prevented, contained, and perhaps even cured. Thus tuberculosis became a focus for private charitable and eventually government action. A series of international conferences acted as a vector for the spread of ideas about its treatment across Europe. They encouraged comparisons between national tuberculosis rates, though the figures these comparisons were based on were notoriously unreliable. Nonetheless, this helped to make lowering the national tuberculosis rate a matter of patriotic duty. There were national styles in the public health treatment of tuberculosis. Germany was the country with strongest adherence to the sanatorium; France to the outpatient clinic dealing exclusively with tuberculosis—the tuberculosis dispensary. Some countries had a system of compulsory notification of sufferers, others resisted. Two significant disparities in tuberculosis policy concerned the use of the antituberculosis vaccine BCG and the treatment of bovine tuberculosis. Koch’s discoveries had encouraged the search for a vaccine against tuberculosis and in 1921 two French scientists Albert-Le´on-Charles Calmette and Camille Gue´rin announced the discovery of BCG. By the 1930s it was in use in France and Scandinavian countries but elsewhere, particularly in Britain, its value as a preventative measure was questioned. By the 1940s, however, the use of BCG, particularly for children, had become widespread in Europe. The second was treatment of bovine tuberculosis. Tubercles similar to those seen in humans were observed in animals, and the bacteria Koch found in affected humans was also present in animals. But he doubted, incorrectly, that tuberculosis

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could be transmitted between animals and humans. In the first decade of the twentieth century experimental proof that it could be so transmitted was available and generally accepted. The chief vector was in the milk and meat of infected animals, primarily cattle. Tuberculosis transmitted by milk affected the bones and internal organs of children in particular. This led to another familiar figure of the nineteenth century—the severely crippled child. Improved agricultural practices and pasteurization of milk eventually led to decline in tuberculosis of bovine origin, but the politics of agriculture intervened in some countries to slow down reform. See also Disease; Public Health.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barnes, David. The Making of a Social Disease: Tuberculosis in Nineteenth-Century France. Berkeley, Calif., 1995. Bryder, Lynda. Below the Magic Mountain: A Social History of Tuberculosis in Twentieth-Century Britain. Oxford, U.K., 1988. Dormandy, Thomas. ‘‘The White Death’’: A History of Tuberculosis. London, 1999. Jones, Greta. ‘‘Captain of All These Men of Death’’: The History of Tuberculosis in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Ireland. New York and Amsterdam, 2001. Smith, Francis Barrymore. The Retreat of Tuberculosis, 1850–1960. London, 1988. GRETA JONES

n

TUNISIA. The history of Tunisia during the long nineteenth century really begins with the advent of Ottoman suzerainty in the late sixteenth century. In 1574 Sinan Pasha took control of Tunis on behalf of the Ottomans and put an end to the Hafsid dynasty that had ruled Tunisia since 1229. For the Ottomans, this victory represented a strategic success that complemented their conquest of EgyptSyria (1516–1517) and their capture of Algiers (1525) and Tripoli, Libya (1551). In North Africa, only Morocco would escape Ottoman dominance. In the race to control the southern Mediterranean coast in the sixteenth century, the Ottomans emerged as victors against their Spanish rivals. 2361

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The administration of Tunisia was vested in the appointment of a pasha and the stationing of a contingent of Janissaries (elite Turkish soldiers) to ensure the continuance of Ottoman rule. Next to the pasha, the bey was responsible for internal affairs (mostly keeping the local tribes in check) and for the collection of taxes. By 1591 a rebellion of the Janissaries propelled their junior commanders, each bearing the title of dey, to the forefront of the provincial administration. This date marked the ascendancy of the power of the deys in Tunisia. The dey relied on the allegiance of fellow officers and on the discipline of the Janissaries while the bey had authority over the indigenous members of the Mahalla (the ‘‘fiscal’’ troops). For most of the seventeenth century the position of bey rose to the detriment of its rival after Murad Bey (d. 1631), a Corsican of origin, founded the hereditary Muradid dynasty that would last until 1702, when its last ruler was assassinated. By 1705 a bey, al-Husayn ibn Ali (whose father was of Greek origin) succeeded in repelling an invasion from Algiers and took control of Tunisia, hence founding the Husaynid dynasty that would rule the country until 1957, when the Tunisian republic was declared. He was a Kulo g lu (Turkish for ‘‘son of a slave’’), a term generally applied to someone issued from the union of a member of the Turkish military and a local woman. This dynasty was granted hereditary succession by the Ottomans and acknowledged nominal Ottoman suzerainty. In the eighteenth century, the Husaynid rulers successfully faced the challenge posed by the expansionist aims of the deys of Algiers. Economically, they encouraged the creation of new crafts (weaving and textiles), imposed a state monopoly over the export of the main agricultural products (particularly olive oil and cereals), and tolerated corsair activity from their ports. By the end of the century, the rule of Hammuda Pasha (r. 1782–1814) witnessed added prosperity as a result of the fiscal reform and the abolition of the state monopoly on agriculture, known as Mushtara, which victimized the farmers and the peasantry. This last measure was repealed by his successor. A turning point in the history of this dynasty came in 1830, with the French occupation of Algeria. Although France rid the Husaynid beys of a bellicose neighbor against whom they had fought many wars, its military presence in Algeria

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represented a greater threat to their rule, because this allowed France to flex its military muscle toward achieving its imperialist designs over the region. Barely a month after the fall of Algiers, France was able to impose a treaty on Tunisia’s Husayn Bey (r. 1824–1835) that stipulated the lifting of the state monopoly over agricultural exports, the establishment of a system of capitulations similar to the one maintained with the Ottomans, and the suppression of piracy by the Barbary corsairs. With regard to the last issue, an identical demand had been made by France and Britain in 1819 in the name of the European powers following the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle but was met with the procrastination of the beys. The nineteenth century witnessed the implementation of modernist reforms in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and Iran. In the case of Tunisia, the rule of Ahmad Bey (r. 1837–1855) was the beginning of such a trend. The crux of the reform was the common model adopted by the other three countries, namely the concentration on building a modern army along European lines. To this effect, the bey established a military school at Bardo, a suburb of Tunis, using Italian instructors who were soon replaced with Frenchmen. A visit to Paris in 1846 whetted Ahmad Bey’s appetite for palace building, and the mounting expenditures led to higher taxation, monopolistic policies, and financial ruin. His successors had to deal with internal unrest, such as the 1864 revolt in the south led by Ali bin Ghadahum, and with the need to meet the state’s expenditures. With regard to the latter, Tunisia borrowed from European banks. Unable to repay the debt on schedule, it declared bankruptcy in 1869 and had to agree to the formation of an International Financial Commission (made up of representatives of Tunisia, France, Britain, and Italy) to oversee its revenues. This commission controlled Tunisian finances until 1884, when France assumed the Tunisian debt three years after the establishment of its protectorate over the country. Despite the bleak financial situation, Tunisia undertook a number of reforms. Under European pressure, slavery was abolished (1846) and the bey issued the Fundamental Pact (Ahd al-Aman, September 1857) guaranteeing the rights of minorities, equal justice, and freedom of commerce. In 1861 a constitution (the first of its kind in the

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Arab and Islamic worlds) reiterated the principles of the Fundamental Pact and created a grand council whose members were selected by the bey. The reformer Khayr al-Din assumed the presidency of the council, but this last experiment was short lived, and in 1864 the constitution was suspended. In the realm of education, the Sadiqi college, founded in 1875, was the first establishment to offer a modern and secular instruction and would play a role in the formation of the future Tunisian intelligentsia. Tunisia had to deal with the competing interests of three European powers: France, Britain, and Italy. Of these, France exploited its position of strength to further its own interests in Tunisia and to outmaneuver its main European rivals. At the Congress of Berlin (1878), it reached an understanding with Great Britain regarding their respective colonial designs in the Mediterranean. Three years later, French land and naval forces swiftly took control of the Tunisian capital and imposed the Treaty of Bardo (12 May 1881) on Muhammad al-Sadiq Bey (r. 1859–1882), a year before British troops landed in Egypt (1882) and thirty years before the Italian occupation of Libya (1911). This treaty, together with the subsequent Convention of al-Marsa (8 June 1883) established the French protectorate over Tunisia. The bey was reduced to a figurehead, and real power was concentrated in the hands of the French residentminister, a title that changed in 1885 to residentgeneral. French citizens were offered incentives to settle in Tunisia and own farmland at symbolic prices. By 1893 the military draft was extended to the Tunisians, thus giving France the opportunity to count on the added manpower to maintain order in its colonies or to fight its wars. As a result, over sixty thousand Tunisians served in the French army in World War I. See also Algeria; Colonialism; Egypt; France; Imperialism. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge, U.K., 1987. Brown, Carl L. The Tunisia of Ahmad Bey, 1837–1855. Princeton, N.J., 1974. An excellent study of Tunisian society in the period under study. Ganiage, Jean. Les origines du protectorat franc¸ais en Tunisie, 1861–1881. 2nd ed. Tunis, 1968.

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Green, Arnold H. The Tunisian Ulama, 1873–1915: Social Structure and Response to Ideological Currents. Leiden, Netherlands, 1978. Kraı¨em, Mustapha. La Tunisie pre´coloniale. 2 vols. Tunis, 1973. A documentary survey of the period. Krieken, G. S. van. Khayr al-Dıˆn et la Tunisie, 1850–1881. Leiden, Netherlands, 1976. Mahjoubi, Ali. L’e´tablissement du protectorat franc¸ais en Tunisie. Tunis, 1977. Perkins, Kenneth J. Historical Dictionary of Tunisia. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md., 1997. Contains an extensive bibliography. Tlili, Be´chir. Les rapports culturels et ide´ologiques entre l’Orient et l’Occident, en Tunisie au XIXe`me sie`cle (1830–1880). Tunis, 1974. ADEL ALLOUCHE

n

TURATI, FILIPPO

(1857–1932), Italian

socialist. Filippo Turati was the most significant Italian Socialist leader before the Fascist era. Turati passed from his conservative and Catholic family traditions to positivism and finally to socialism. In the 1880s Turati began to write for La plebe, an early socialist newspaper, and in 1885 he met the Russian socialist Anna Kuliscioff. This relationship was to be the most important on a personal and intellectual level in his life and lasted until Kuliscioff’s death in 1925. In the late 1880s Turati began to read Karl Marx, whose theories he combined with his original positivism and democratic faith. However, Turati was never tied to ideology as an end in itself, but was much more drawn to practical results. In 1889 he founded the Milanese Socialist League and two years later launched the influential journal Critica sociale. In 1892 Turati played a key role in creating the Italian Socialist Party (PSI). He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time in 1896. However, during the repression that followed the popular protests of May 1898, he was stripped of his parliamentary immunity and imprisoned. The experience of martial law and prison convinced Turati that a fundamental step to a socialist society was the democratization of Italy. He accepted the overtures of Giovanni Giolitti and Giuseppe

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Zanadelli to collaborate with more democratic liberals in a defense of the rights of Parliament. In 1901 Turati, Leonida Bissolati, and Claudio Treves formed the core of a reformist group that engineered a favorable vote from the Socialist deputies for the Zanardelli-Giolitti government. Giolitti, as interior minister, allowed the Socialist trade unions greater scope to organize industrial and peasant labor and to conduct strikes in the private sector. Turati’s relationship with Giolitti proved to be a complicated one. In 1903, when Giolitti succeeded Zanardelli as prime minister, he offered a position in the government to Turati. The reformist leader rejected the offer. Two issues drove a wedge between the two men. Turati was identified with the unionization of state workers, which Giolitti did not accept. More importantly, it became apparent that Giolitti’s program did not entail major social and economic reforms. Turati’s control over the Socialist Party was also tenuous. His strength was in the parliamentary delegation, not in the base of the party. In 1904 the party took a turn to the left; Turati’s reformist faction did not regain full control of the party until 1908. That year the Socialists adopted a program that called for fundamental reforms of the taxation system and the introduction of universal manhood suffrage. Turati never embraced universal suffrage and in 1910 accepted a more limited voting rights bill from the government of Luigi Luzzatti. When Luzzatti’s government fell in March 1911 and Giolitti returned to office on a program of nationalization of the insurance industry and universal manhood suffrage, the time seemed to be right for a renewed alliance between Giolitti and the Socialist reformists. The new prime minister offered a position in the cabinet to Leonida Bissolati, a leading moderate. This time, Turati, fearing that the more radical party militants would not accept participation in a non-Socialist government, weighed in to persuade Bissolati to reject the offer. Soon after, relations between Turati and Giolitti turned sour when the government decided to conquer Libya in September 1911. Although Turati passed into opposition, more revolutionary leaders, including Benito Mussolini, took control of the party in

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1912. Turati never again regained a majority, nor was his relationship with Giolitti ever fully repaired. The years after 1914 would be frustrating ones for Turati as he sought to find a constructive role. The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution radicalized the Italian Socialist Party and blocked Turati’s hopes that the PSI might cooperate with other democratic movements in a campaign for a new constitution and a democratic republic. Turati was in the minority at the 1919 party congress when the leadership set its sights on joining the new Communist International. Although the PSI won 156 seats in the November 1919 elections, Turati was blocked by party policy from using this strength constructively. Turati remained in a party that frittered away its opportunities and opened the door to Fascist reaction; only in October 1922, when the Socialist Party was completely irrelevant, did Turati’s reformist faction finally break off to form the Unitary Socialist Party (PSU). Turati watched helplessly as the Fascist dictatorship took hold in Italy. In December 1925 Anna Kuliscioff died; the next year a group of young socialists organized Turati’s escape from Italy to France. Turati became active in exile politics, supporting the movement to reunify the PSI and PSU, which took place in July 1930. He died in Paris in March 1932. See also Giolitti, Giovanni; Italy; Kuliscioff, Anna; Socialism. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Di Scala, Spencer. Dilemmas of Italian Socialism: The Politics of Filippo Turati. Boston, 1980. Miller, James Edward. From Elite to Mass Politics: Italian Socialist in the Giolittian Era, 1900–1914. Kent, Ohio, 1990. ALEXANDER DE GRAND

n

TURGENEV, IVAN (1818–1883),Russian novelist, poet, and playwright. Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev, a Russian nobleman, was born on 9 November (28 October, old style) 1818 and grew up on his mother’s vast estate, Spass-

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koye, in Russia’s Orel Province. Both witness and recipient of his mother’s arbitrary beatings, Turgenev grew to abhor tyrannical systems and violence of all kinds. He was graduated from St. Petersburg University in 1837. A subsequent momentous period of study at the University of Berlin solidified his belief that progress lay along the path of Westernization begun during the reign of Peter I (r. 1682– 1725), rather than with purely Russian social forms as stipulated by the adherents of its countercurrent in Russian thought, Slavophilism. In Europe he also became acquainted with many future Russian intellectual leaders. Back in St. Petersburg, he published a long poem, Parasha (1843). In this same year he became acquainted with Pauline Viardot-Garcia, an operatic star who was married, and with whom he soon began a lifelong, probably unconsummated, liaison. Quitting the civil service to devote himself to literature, Turgenev published the long story, ‘‘Diary of a Superfluous Man’’ (1847), which, in a manner that was to be rather uncharacteristic of his work as a whole, depicted a self-deprecating, protoDostoyevskian type. Turgenev’s play A Month in the Country (1850) influenced the development of Russian theater, in particular the dramatic art of Anton Chekhov. ‘‘Diary’’ marks the beginning of Turgenev’s literary focus on the intellectual debates of the Russian intelligentsia. In 1852 he was arrested for the publication of an obituary on Nikolai Gogol. Turgenev spent a month in police detention, then more than a year under house arrest. Perennially interested in social and political problems, he achieved notoriety for the publication—first serially in the journal The Contemporary—of a collection of sympathetic, realistic depictions of the peasantry titled A Sportsman’s Sketches. The first, ‘‘Khor and Kalinich,’’ sensitively contrasts two peasants’ attitudes toward life, and its successful reception emboldened Turgenev to continue in this vein. Among the sketches, ‘‘Bezhin Meadow’’ epitomizes Turgenev’s lyrical description of the natural world. Sketches was the first work to reveal the plight of the peasant class in Russia, and they contributed to Tsar Alexander II’s decision to emancipate the serfs in 1861. In the 1850s Turgenev also wrote three novels, each of which reflects both important social issues of the period and Turgenev’s ambivalent nostalgia for the romanticism of his youth. The well-received Rudin (1856) depicts a man of Turgenev’s own genera-

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tion; A Nest of the Gentry (1859) conveys an outsider’s unsettling effect on a family; and On the Eve (1860) offers a portrait of a revolutionary hero. Also in 1860 Turgenev published an influential essay, ‘‘Hamlet and Don Quixote,’’ whose literary typology divides heroes into two types: the self-conscious, introspective, and ironic Hamlets, and the idealistic Don Quixotes, who selflessly devote themselves to abolishing oppression. Two remarkably evocative love stories of this period are ‘‘Asya’’ (1858) and ‘‘First Love’’ (1860). Turgenev’s artistically accomplished but politically controversial novel Fathers and Children (1862; Otsi i deti)—sometimes translated into English as Fathers and Sons—unsentimentally depicts the conflict between the young generation of radicals and their conservative, Slavophile-leaning elders. By the 1860s, moderate Westernizers such as Turgenev were losing sway to a rising class of men who were neither nobles nor peasants. These socalled men of various classes (raznochintsi) were agitating—some with increasing violence—for social reforms. Credited with bringing the term nihilism into wide usage, Fathers and Children was rejected by liberals because it seemed to ridicule their cause, and by conservatives because it oversympathized with the radicals. The work’s hostile reception shocked Turgenev, leading him to leave Russia permanently and settle in western Europe, first in Baden-Baden, then in Paris. Despite or perhaps because of his physical distance from his homeland, Turgenev’s last novels, Smoke (1867) and Virgin Soil (1877), continued to reflect particularly Russian social problems. His final novel, The Torrents of Spring (1872), achieves poignant clarity, while the pessimistic Poems in Prose (1883) presages modernist stylistic innovations. Turgenev became the first Russian writer to gain a wide reputation in Europe. He was a wellknown figure in Parisian literary circles, where he had connections with Gustave Flaubert and E´mile Zola. Warmly received by Anglophone society, Turgenev received an honorary degree at Oxford University, and exerted a strong influence on Henry James. Virgin Soil’s sympathetic treatment of the populist movement lifted Turgenev’s reputation at home one last time. After a triumphant return to Moscow in 1880 for the unveiling of the monument to Alexander Pushkin, he returned

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to France and died in Bougival, near Paris, on 3 September (22 August, old style) 1883. Generally considered masterful evocations of nineteenthcentury life, Turgenev’s works remain widely read in Russia today. See

also Chekhov, Anton; Dostoyevsky, Fyodor; Flaubert, Gustave; Gogol, Nikolai; Tolstoy, Leo; ´ mile. Westernizers; Zola, E

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Beaumont, Barbara, ed. Flaubert and Turgenev: A Friendship in Letters; The Complete Correspondence. New York, 1985. Turgenev, Ivan. Polnoe sobranie sochinenii i pisem. 28 vols. Moscow, 1960–1968. Definitive Russian edition of Turgenev’s works. ———. The Essential Turgenev. Edited by Elizabeth Cheresh Allen. Evanston, Ill., 1994. Contains translations of Rudin, A Nest of Gentry, Fathers and Sons, and First Love; selections from Sportsman’s Sketches; seven short stories; and fifteen prose poems. Also contains samples of the author’s nonfiction drawn from autobiographical sketches, memoirs, public speeches, the essay ‘‘Hamlet and Don Quixote,’’ and correspondence with Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Leo Tolstoy.

Secondary Sources Allen, Elizabeth Cheresh. Beyond Realism: Turgenev’s Poetics of Secular Salvation. Stanford, Calif., 1992. Freeborn, Richard H. Turgenev: The Novelist’s Novelist. London, 1960. Reprint, Westport, Conn., 1978. Kagan-Kans, Eva. Hamlet and Don Quixote: Turgenev’s Ambivalent Vision. The Hague, Netherlands, 1975. Moser, Charles A. Ivan Turgenev. New York, 1972. Waddington, Patrick. Turgenev and England. London, 1980. SARAH A. KRIVE

n

TURNER, J. M. W. (1775–1851), English painter. Born in London in 1775, the landscape and history painter J. M. W. Turner had a long, productive, and highly successful career, which evolved against a background of tumultuous political and social change in Europe. The son of a barber, Turner received little formal education but

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embarked on his career at a precociously young age, entering the Royal Academy Schools in 1789 and making his exhibition debut there in 1796, at the age of twenty-one, with his painting Fishermen at Sea. Despite his reclusive tendencies, Turner played an important role in the artistic politics of the period and participated actively in the institutional and social life of the Royal Academy, holding the post of professor of perspective between 1807 and 1837. Secretive about his working methods and private life, he never had pupils but was often generous with advice to his fellow artists. Turner traveled extensively in Britain and the Continent, documenting with an acute eye both scenes of everyday life and events of broader political significance. Although patriotic and intensely interested in contemporary events, Turner rarely articulated his views on politics and seldom addressed controversial issues directly in his work, perhaps in order not to alienate his patrons. He preferred subtle allusion, often literary in nature, over overt reference. His extensive body of work nonetheless constitutes a penetrating chronicle of the political and social landscape of Europe during the first half of the nineteenth century and an eloquent articulation of contemporary ideas of nationhood. The wars with Napoleon (1793–1815) played a crucial role both in the development of Turner’s career and in the evolution of British landscape art. Between 1799 and 1815, recreational travel on the Continent was highly restricted and Turner was forced to delay his visit to Italy, which was regarded as an essential component of an artist’s education, until the cessation of hostilities. He eventually embarked on the trip in 1819, when he was over forty. In 1802, the year he was elected as a full member of the Royal Academy, Turner took advantage of the respite offered by the short-lived Peace of Amiens and traveled to France and Switzerland. In Paris he made sketches and detailed notes of Old Master paintings looted by Napoleon and exhibited in the Louvre. In Britain during the Napoleonic Wars, necessity and patriotism created a renewed interest in the indigenous landscape. Turner undertook a series of sketching tours of Britain, which provided raw

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The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons, October 16, 1834. Painting by J. M. W. Turner, 1834. ªPHILADELPHIA

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material for a large output of paintings and watercolors, many of which were engraved and published. His designs for Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England (1814–1826), a series of line-engravings focusing on the area of the country most vulnerable to French attack, celebrate the nation’s military and economic strength, containing references to the forestry, ship-building, and sail-making industries.

on 18 June 1815, many artists made pilgrimages to the battleground. Turner was forced by pressure of work to delay his visit until 1817, but the site made a profound impression on him. His 1818 painting The Field of Waterloo is a profound and unequivocally antiheroic response to the subject, depicting the relatives of the fallen common soldiers searching for their loved ones in the aftermath of battle.

Turner shared his contemporaries’ fascination with Napoleon, whose extraordinary career spoke to his preoccupation with the theme of rise and fall of civilizations. In 1812, the year of Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow, Turner exhibited his monumental painting Snow Storm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps, drawing parallels between ancient history and contemporary events. Following the British victory at Waterloo

Although Turner’s political affiliations remain unclear, one of his closest friends, Walter Fawkes (1769–1825), was an ardent Whig, and libertarian sympathies, albeit often expressed through the filter of historical subject matter, seem to inform works such as Dolbadern Castle, North Wales, and Northampton, the latter implying support of the controversial bill for electoral reform spearheaded by the Whigs and passed in 1832. Turner was

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sometimes moved to comment more overtly on acts of inhumanity. His unexhibited canvas Disaster at Sea responded to the destruction of the female convict-ship Amphitrite in a storm on 1 September 1833, in which the entire cargo of 125 women and children, bound for Botany Bay, perished less than a mile from the French shore when the ship’s captain rejected offers of assistance. In 1840, perhaps stimulated by the abolition of the slave trade in the British colonies in 1833, Turner exhibited his spectacular critique of empire and the slave trade, Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying: Typhoon Coming On. Turner lived and worked in London all his life, yet representations of the metropolis and references to its political life are surprisingly rare in his oeuvre, even though he witnessed there and depicted some of the most momentous events of his era, including the return of the Victory, bearing Nelson’s body, after the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, and the burning of the Houses of Parliament on 16 October 1834. Of all the British landscape artists of the period, Turner was most fascinated by modernity. Alert to the aesthetic possibilities offered by industrial sites and aerial pollution, many of his acutely observed images, such as his 1816 watercolor of Leeds and Keelmen Heaving Coals by Night (1835), chart Britain’s troubled transition from an agrarian to an industrial society. Turner was particularly interested in steamboats, which enabled him to travel more quickly and widely than was previously possible. Intellectually curious (as his fellow painter John Constable noted, he had ‘‘a wonderful range of mind’’), Turner’s eclectic range of scientific interests included meteorology, geology, perspective, and color theory, and his use of pigments was highly experimental.

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Although his often arcane choice of subject matter and unconventional handling of paint often attracted adverse criticism, Turner was nonetheless regarded as the most significant painter of his time, and his work continues to exert an enduring influence, both in Europe and North America. See also Constable, John; French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Romanticism; Slavery. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bailey, Anthony. Standing in the Sun: A Life of J. M. W. Turner. London and New York, 1997. An excellent and readable biography. Butlin, Martin, and Evelyn Joll. The Paintings of J. M. W. Turner. 2 vols. New Haven, Conn., and London, 1984. An exemplary catalog raisonne´ of exhibited and unexhibited paintings. Gage, John. J. M. W. Turner: A Wonderful Range of Mind. New Haven, Conn., and London, 1987. A groundbreaking study, demonstrating the breadth and depth of Turner’s intellectual interests. Hamilton, James. Turner’s Britain. London, 2003. An exhibition catalog exploring Turner’s profound engagement with the social, political, and physical landscape of Britain. Joll, Evelyn, Martin Butlin, and Luke Herrman, eds. The Oxford Companion to J. M. W. Turner. Oxford, U.K., 2001. An exemplary reference book written by team of distinguished Turner scholars; particularly relevant are articles on Chartism, the Napoleonic Wars, politics, and slavery. Rodner, William S. J. M. W. Turner: Romantic Painter of the Industrial Revolution. Berkeley, Calif., 1997. A comprehensive account of Turner’s concern with industry and technology. Venning, Barry. Turner. London and New York, 2003. An insightful and readable introduction to Turner’s life and work, situating the artist within his political, social, and artistic contexts. GILLIAN FORRESTER

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UKRAINE. The history of Ukraine begins with Kiev (Kyı¨v). In the Early Middle Ages, Kiev was the center of Kievan Rus, a trading domain that became an Orthodox Slavic state. Its civilizational base was the Old Church Slavonic language, written in Cyrillic characters, and a law code recorded in a modified form of that language. By the time the Mongols arrived in 1241, Kievan Rus had already been divided into competing principalities. In the fourteenth century the Grand Duchy of Lithuania absorbed most of the territories now known as Belarus and Ukraine. Lithuania became a largely Orthodox country, and Orthodox culture and law migrated from Kiev to Vilnius. Galicia, a western duchy of Rus, was annexed by Poland in the 1340s. Poland and Lithuania established a personal union in 1386. In 1569, when Poland and Lithuania established a Commonwealth, Ukrainian lands were transferred from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the kingdom of Poland. This created a new boundary among the lands that had once been Rus, between Belarus (which remained in Lithuania) and Ukraine (now in Poland). THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE COSSACKS

Between 1569 and 1648 Polish rule animated Ukrainian civilization, but also provoked Ukrainian opposition. Reacting to the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, Ukrainian clerics published books and established academies, most importantly in Kiev. Ukrainian and Belarusian bishops initially supported the Union of Brest of 1596, which was

designed to preserve the Eastern Christian rite within the Catholic Church. The church thus established was known as Uniate, and later Greek Catholic. This transformation was incomprehensible to the peasantry, which was increasingly exploited by a ‘‘second serfdom.’’ The Cossacks, a native Ukrainian group of free warriors and fighters, constituted an important segment of the Polish army. As they were not noble, they could not take part as equals in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a republic of nobles. In 1648 one of their number, Bohdan Khmelnytsky organized a rebellion against Polish rule. Cossacks and peasants murdered Poles and Jews, and Ukrainian peasants were murdered in their turn by Polish landlords. As the war turned against the Cossacks, Khmelnytsky solicited help from Muscovy at Pereyaslav in 1654. Ukrainian Cossacks then fought with Muscovite armies against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, beginning the period in Polish history known as the Deluge. The Commonwealth conceded to Muscovy left-bank Ukraine (east of the Dnieper [Dnipro] River) and the city of Kiev, in a peace accord of 1667. Whereas Kiev had shared its medieval Christian achievements with Vilnius, it now imparted its renaissance and baroque attainments to Moscow. Kievan churchmen provided the reservoir of learning and ambition for Tsar Peter’s reform of the Orthodox Church and spread European learning in Muscovy. The Cossacks, having freed themselves from Polish rule, tried to assert Polish-style rights for themselves within the Russian Empire. They also wished to preserve their

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own administration, known as the hetmanate, in left-bank Ukraine. Their ideas of reform clashed with those of Catherine II (r. 1762–1796), who wished to create a uniform state. She abolished the hetmanate in 1764. The Cossacks made their case in Catherine the Great’s legislative commission (1767–1768), referring as ever to the traditional rights of nobles in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Yet Catherine had little need for groups of warriors living in an illdefined relationship to central authorities. Military victories over the Ottoman Empire and the Russian annexation of the Crimea revealed that the Cossacks were of relatively little importance in war. The Zaporozhian Cossacks, free men living to the east of the old hetmanate, were eliminated by a Russian surprise attack in 1775. In 1781 Ukraine was divided, along with the rest of the empire, into provinces. In 1786 Ukrainian Orthodox dioceses were secularized, as were Russian dioceses before them. The Kiev Academy, which had taught a classical curriculum in Polish and Latin, was abruptly made into a theological school with Russian as the language of instruction. Conscription was introduced in 1789, ending any possibility for the creation of local fighting forces. Catherine’s state building, despite appearances, had much to offer the Cossack elite. Cossack officers became members of the Russian dvorianstvo (according to the 1785 Charter to the Nobility). As such they were able to press claims to own land and peasants. Ukrainian peasants became serfs, and the Jews were expelled from Kiev. With the creation of a state administration Cossack officers and their descendants found new opportunities for careers in the provincial capitals and indeed in St. Petersburg. In the last three decades of the eighteenth century, Ukrainian families filled the ranks of the Russian civil service and essentially dominated the (nonforeign) intellectual classes. They arrived in the Russian capital as Russia was partitioning Poland out of existence, in 1772, 1793, and 1795. The partitions brought rightbank Ukraine, west of the river Dnieper, into the Russian Empire. Of the old lands of Kievan Rus, only Galicia remained outside Russia, annexed in the partitions by Austria. As the nineteenth century began, almost the entirety of Ukraine was part of the Russian Empire.

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As in Europe as a whole, so in Russia the extension of imperial rule coincided with the emergence of local patriotism. Kharkov University, founded in 1805, was intended to anchor Ukraine in Russia and transmit European scholarship throughout the empire. It served this purpose, but with the French Enlightenment it also brought German philosophy. Kharkov, perhaps the most important Ukrainian city at this time, was east of the old hetmanate, and can in no way be seen as directly transmitting Cossack traditions. Instead, scholars and students sought, like Romantics throughout Europe, to seize upon what was local and authentic, counterposing implicitly or explicitly tradition to progress. Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861), the greatest Ukrainian Romantic poet, drew from Polish and Russian models as he created a uniquely Ukrainian idiom. In 1846 the publication of the Istoriia Rusov (History of the Rus people) revealed the potential political implications of Romanticism. It treated the Cossacks, not Muscovy, as the true people of Rus, and the Russian Empire as an interloper in the heartland of the Slavs. In the nineteenth century, left-bank and rightbank Ukraine were very different. In right-bank Ukraine, west of the Dnieper, Polish nobles remained the dominant class, despite the destruction of Poland itself. It was precisely in right-bank Ukraine that the early modern Polish system revealed itself in its most extreme form: a small number of Roman Catholic landlords owned vast estates and huge numbers of serfs. In some cases Polish families owned territories as large as small countries, and hundreds of thousands of serfs. In this system, Jews mediated between those who owned the land and those who worked it, between Polish lords and Ukrainian serfs. Although there were far more landless Polish nobles than there were great lords, and many more Polish peasants, those who stood atop the system were Poles. Precisely because this arrangement was so profitable, relatively few important Polish families joined in the Polish uprising of 1830 to 1831 against Russian rule. Polish nobles in right-bank Ukraine nevertheless confronted a harsher Russian policy once the uprising had been defeated. The Commission on National Education, which had organized Polishlanguage schooling, was liquidated. The famous

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lyce´e in Krzemieniec was closed, its priceless library of thirty-four thousand volumes (which included the collections of the Royal Palace in Warsaw) sent to Kiev. About two-thirds of the Roman Catholic monasteries in left-bank Ukraine were liquidated after 1831. In 1840 the Lithuanian Statute was annulled, on the grounds that it was alien to Russian traditions. Here was the great irony of modernization. The first Lithuanian Statute (1529) flowed from the traditions of Kievan Rus. In form and in content, in language and in law, it represented an unbroken tradition of the Eastern Slavs. The Russian Empire, which claimed to be the inheritor of such traditions, liquidated them instead. In left-bank Ukraine, St. Petersburg had confronted for decades the problem of ‘‘surplus’’ Polish nobles, men without means who clung nevertheless to their noble status. In the old PolishLithuanian Commonwealth, some very high percentage of the population, perhaps 10 percent, had been noble. Noble status required neither the ownership of land nor service to the state. Like the Cossacks of the right bank a few decades before, the petty nobles of the left bank referred to ancient rights, with the distinction that they and their families had indeed enjoyed such rights under the Commonwealth. After 1831, Russia moved to eliminate this troublesome group, which so ill fit the Russian notion of nobility. In the two decades after 1831, some 340,000 nobles were ‘‘declassified,’’ leaving a total of perhaps 70,000 Polish nobles in left-bank Ukraine. Of these, only about 7,000 possessed great estates. Russian policy thus distorted further an already extremely exploitative society. Polish landholders then used Russian property law to expel poorer brethren from land they had tilled for centuries. In their own way, these few Polish landlords preserved Polishness in these terrains, although it was an image of Polishness that denied all modern democratic ideas and could only provoke the local peasantry. St. Petersburg occasionally tried to use the Ukrainian peasantry against Polish landlords. Peasants who were encouraged by imperial promises, however, then had to be quelled by imperial soldiers. The abolition of serfdom in 1861 was received differently by Ukrainian peasants than by those in Russia: the Ukrainian peasants wished to

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receive their own individual plots. They did not in any case receive enough land to truly prosper, and did not understand that land reform would also mean the loss of rights to traditional use of common land. Polish landlords held their own against this pressure and against others. They circumvented Russian legislation banning the sale of land to Poles by leasing it to Jews. They deterred Russians from settling by humiliating them socially. They began small-scale industrial projects such as sugar beet refineries. Over the course of the nineteenth century Kiev became a center of Ukrainian national society and Ukrainian intellectual life. The annexation of the right bank placed Kiev squarely between Russia’s eastern and western Ukrainian territories. Kiev was a provincial capital, and increasingly a port of call for traders. It was a city that spoke Russian, Polish, and Yiddish rather than Ukrainian, but it was the center of hopes for those who began to think of Ukraine as a future political home. Like other university towns in imperial Russia, it became the center of a populist movement. In Ukraine, however, populism took on a particularly national character. Populists of Polish and Russian origin, when they ‘‘went to the people,’’ realized that Ukrainian culture could not be reduced to Polish or Russian models. Some Polish students felt that their families had subjected peasants to both social and national exploitation. Some of them, such as the populist historian Volodymyr Antonovych, took up a Ukrainian identity themselves. Especially after the Polish uprising of 1863 to 1864, Russian authorities assimilated the Ukrainian national question to a Polish plot. When the publication of books in Ukrainian and the use of the Ukrainian language were banned in the 1860s, this was a response to a perceived Polish threat. Ukrainian intellectuals, obviously, bore the brunt of this repression. Important scholars chose immigration, thereby transferring the ideas of Kharkov and Kiev farther west. In this way, in the 1870s, Ukrainian populist scholars animated a Ukrainian national movement in Austria, in the eastern portion of Austria’s province of Galicia. Antonovych’s student Mykhailo Hrushevsky, for example, was hired by Austrian authorities to teach east European history at the university in Lemberg in 1894. In Austria, starting in 1898, he published his

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Ukrainian peasants at a market, Mukacheve, Ukraine, c. 1908–1914. ªSCHEUFLER COLLECTION/CORBIS

ten-volume masterpiece, A History of Ukraine-Rus. This foundational work of Ukrainian history was based on ideas developed and research completed in the Russian Empire, but could be published only beyond its boundaries. At the end of the nineteenth century Austria became the center of the Ukrainian national movement. THE GALICIAN REVIVAL

The eastern half of Austrian Galicia was perhaps 65 percent Ukrainian in population, but such numbers mattered only when church and secular leaders began to attend to the peasantry. The most important institution of the Ukrainian national revival in Galicia, the Greek Catholic Church, was designed to serve entirely different purposes. The Greek

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Catholic Church was the old Uniate Church, created in 1596 at Brest by Orthodox bishops who wished to preserve their Eastern rite in an institutional union with Rome. Although the Uniate solution never supplanted traditional Orthodoxy, the Uniate Church survived (paradoxically) as a separate institution. The partitions of Poland left most Uniate believers in the Russian Empire, but a considerable number in Austrian Galicia. While St. Petersburg merged the Uniate Church with the Russian Orthodox Church, Vienna preserved the church but changed its name to the Greek Catholic Church. Austrian Empress Maria Theresa meant to underline thereby that the church was the equal of the Roman and Armenian Catholic Churches in Galicia, and emphasize the distinction from Orthodoxy.

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Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the Greek Catholic Church was loyal to the Habsburgs and faithful to traditions of Polish high culture. While a few of its priests experimented with Ukrainian lexicons and folklore, the church itself was hostile to such undertakings. In 1848 Austrian authorities called upon the Greek Catholic Church to help quell the revolution, in which Poles were taking part. Ukrainian peasants, dominant in numbers, were to frighten Polish nobles who requested home rule. This achieved, Vienna ignored the Greek Catholic hierarchy, which was disappointed to find the loyalty of its flock unrewarded. A fascination with Russia ensued, because Russia could present itself as an alternative to both Austria and Poland. After Polish nobles succeeded in gaining autonomy for themselves in Galicia in the late 1860s, the attraction of Russia as a counterweight increased. Greek Catholic Russophiles developed an ideology of themselves as a member of the family of Russian nations, writing in a mixture of Ukrainian, Old Church Slavonic, and Russian. In the last decades of the nineteenth century, the reform of the Austrian electoral system rewarded those who could communicate directly with voters in their own language. The secular sons and daughters of priests realized that democracy required new kinds of political organization. Ukrainian populism imported from Russia played an important role in the articulation of a new secular politics. Ivan Franko, the most important of the new generation of activists, was greatly influenced by Mykhailo Drahomanov, a Ukrainian populist who had lost his professorship in Kiev. As in Russia, some of the important figures were converts from the Polish nation. Andrii Sheptytsky, the Ukrainian who turned the Greek Catholic Church into a popular national institution, was born a Pole and a Roman Catholic. He ascended to the metropolitan see of Galicia in 1900. In the early years of the twentieth century, Ukrainian national activists competed with Polish nationalists and socialists for political influence in a Galicia that was governed by the Polish nobility on behalf of the Habsburg dynasty. The successive enlargement of the franchise and the freedom to publish in national languages favored the development of a Ukrainian-Polish

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national competition, one that sharpened skills and sensitivities on both sides in the early years of the twentieth century. Ukrainian parties that allied with Polish or Jewish rivals for tactical reasons displayed the experience gained from sophisticated national politics. Nothing similar could take place in the Russian Empire of the early twentieth century. During the Russian Revolution of 1905, Ukrainian demands were limited to autonomy. Before World War I, very few Ukrainians in the Russian Empire advocated national independence. Galician Ukrainian activists regarded ‘‘Great Ukraine,’’ the lands to the east in Russia, as part of a future united state. The Russian census had revealed to them the vast domains of the Ukrainian population to their east. Their goal was national unity, as achieved earlier by the Italians and the Germans, as planned for also by the Poles. Galicia was seen as the first and crucial land of a general national revival. See

also Austria-Hungary; Cossacks; Peasants; Poland; Russia.

Nationalism;

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beauvois, Daniel. Le noble, le serf, et le revizor: La noblesse polonaise entre le tsarisme et les masses ukrainiennes, 1831–1863. Paris, 1985. ———. La bataille de la terre en Ukraine, 1863–1914: Les Polonais et les conflits socio-ethniques. Lille, France, 1993. ———. Pouvoir russe et noblesse polonaise en Ukraine, 1793–1830. Paris, 2003. Hrycak, Jaros•aw (Hrytsak, Iaroslav). Historia Ukrainy, 1772–1999: Narodziny nowoczesnego narodu. Lublin, Poland, 2000. Kappelar, Andreas. Russland als Vielvo¨lkerreich: Entstehung, Geschichte, Zerfall. Munich, 1992. Markovits, Andrei S., and Frank E. Sysyn, eds. Nationbuilding and the Politics of Nationalism: Essays on Austrian Galicia. Cambridge, Mass., 1982. Miller, Alexei. The Ukrainian Question: The Russian Empire and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century. Budapest, 2003. Rudnytsky, Ivan L. Essays in Modern Ukrainian History. Edmonton, Alta., Canada, 1987. Saunders, David. The Ukrainian Impact on Russian Culture, 1750–1850. Edmonton, Alta., Canada, 1985. TIMOTHY SNYDER

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ULM, BATTLE OF

n

ULM, BATTLE OF. The Battle of Ulm (September–October 1805) was the opening round of the War of 1805, fought between Napoleon I and the Third Coalition of Austria, Russia, Britain, and Sweden. The conflict arose primarily from conflicts between Napoleon, Russia, and Austria over measures Napoleon had taken both to secure his own position in France and to strike at Great Britain, with which he had been at war since March 1803. The immediate sources of conflict in 1805 were in Italy, a fact that played an important role in shaping the military campaign. The allied war plan for the late summer of 1805 involved a coordinated effort: vast armies attacking France from the Adriatic to the North Sea. The largest Austrian army, commanded by Archduke Charles, would attack in Italy. Another Austrian force, nominally commanded by Archduke Ferdinand but actually controlled by its quartermaster general, Baron Karl von Mack, would seize Bavaria and await the arrival of Russian reinforcements commanded by General Mikhail Kutuzov before invading France via Switzerland. Still other forces were to make landings in Naples and Hanover, while large Russian armies attempted to compel Prussia to join the coalition as well. Napoleon did not initially recognize the gathering storm clouds. He was intent upon his plans for the invasion of England and the final preparations of the Army of the Channel at Boulogne with which he intended to destroy his ancient nemesis. The emperor also believed that he had sufficiently cowed Austria during the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1801) that he need not fear it in 1805. When he learned in late August that the French fleet would not be able to seize the English Channel to permit his invasion of England, Napoleon decided to strike the coalition instead, hoping that by punishing Austria he could gain time to renew his war with ‘‘perfidious Albion.’’ He therefore directed the bulk of the newly rechristened ‘‘Grande Arme´e’’ to race from its camps along the Channel to the Rhine, while the corps of Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, which was occupying the British territory of Hanover, would rush south, through Prussian territory, toward the Upper Danube. At first, Napoleon did

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not know what the Allies’ intentions were. He sought only to drive into Bavaria as rapidly as possible to protect or, if necessary, restore his ally, Maximilian I, the elector of Bavaria, to his threatened throne. The emperor’s initial war plan, therefore, would have precipitated a head-on collision with the advancing Austrian army. As the Grande Arme´e approached its final positions on the Rhine in late September, however, Napoleon realized that Mack’s Austrian army had advanced all the way to the Iller River, far to the west. He saw a corresponding opportunity to drive into Mack’s rear and cut his army off from its lines of communication and retreat. Adjusting his plans of movement accordingly, Napoleon enveloped Mack’s right flank. The success of that maneuver hinged on the movement of Bernadotte’s corps (and two others) through the Prussian territory of Ansbach, while the Prussians had declared themselves in a state of armed neutrality. Mack did not expect or believe that Napoleon would violate Prussian neutrality, and thereby risk bringing more than 200,000 firstrate troops into the field against him. Mack had therefore taken no steps to guard his right wing, enabling Napoleon’s forces to drive rapidly into Mack’s rear and force the Austrians back toward Ulm in a series of confused battles along the Danube. By 14 October, the Austrians were sealed in the dilapidated fortress of Ulm itself, ringed by French troops and with no hope of escape. Mack agreed on 17 October to surrender his army by the twenty-fifth, although the date was subsequently moved up to the twentieth at Mack’s request. Napoleon’s violation of Prussian territory had, in the meantime, had the effect of bringing Prussia into the war. At Potsdam in early November, King Frederick William III signed an agreement with Tsar Alexander I of Russia to strike Napoleon’s exposed army along its flanks and rear. The Prussians began a rapid mobilization and deployment to effect this plan, which was suspended by the Treaty of Scho¨nbrunn signed by Prussian co-foreign minister, Count Christian von Haugwitz, on 15 December, thirteen days after the Battle of Austerlitz at which Alexander and his remaining Austrian allies were defeated. The Battle of Ulm was not a masterpiece of prior planning and skillful deception, as it is sometimes made out, but rather a masterpiece of skillful and

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decisive adaptation to changing circumstances. Napoleon’s initial plans were to do more or less what Mack expected him to do, although with much greater force. He devised the plan for the final, brilliant maneuver only after he had seen the Austrian deployment. He thereby seized an opportunity that a confused enemy had presented to him. Moreover, Napoleon was able to do so only by sacrificing the future security of his army. He had not reckoned on Prussian hostility following the violation of Ansbach, and so did not understand the full danger to which he exposed his army at a strategic level in order to gain an operational advantage over the enemy at hand. See also Armies; Austerlitz; French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Napoleon. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Duffy, Christopher. Austerlitz, 1805. London, 1977. FREDERICK W. KAGAN

n

ULRICHS, KARL HEINRICH (1825– 1895), German homosexual emancipationist, lawyer, journalist, and author. In the written and spoken word, Karl Heinrich Ulrichs was the first person to demand not just the decriminalization of homosexual practices but also the complete legal equality of homosexuals and heterosexuals. A man ahead of his time, he came out publicly as a homosexual in 1867 and envisioned a political and sociocultural movement of homosexuals organized to demand their rights as an oppressed minority. Unable to rally any substantial solidarity among the homosexuals of his era, he left Germany for voluntary exile in Italy. Ulrichs’s ability to imagine homosexual emancipation and his maverick willingness to challenge authority was surely in part a matter of individual temperament but may also have derived from his family heritage in Frisia, the coastal region straddling Holland, Germany, and Denmark that is the only part of Germany that remained free of feudalism in the Middle Ages. He was born on 28 August 1825 in Aurich, the foremost Frisian city, as the son of an architect in the civil service of the king-

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dom of Hanover. Following the study of law at the Universities of Go ¨ ttingen and Berlin, Ulrichs began a promising judicial career in Hanover in 1848. Six years later, however, his homosexual proclivities came to light, and he chose to resign from the civil service rather than face certain dismissal. He moved to Frankfurt am Main, where he worked as a newspaper journalist and as an administrative assistant for a delegate to the German Confederation. In 1864 Ulrichs published the first of a series of twelve small books that appeared under the collective title Investigations into the Riddle of Man-Manly Love. In language that was closely reasoned and legalistic but at times also impassioned and immediately accessible, this wide-ranging set of books surveyed the domains of law, religion, medicine, history, literature, and current events in an almost encyclopedic effort to assemble all available information on homosexuality, challenge homophobic prejudice, and muster support among homosexuals themselves. These books—the first five appeared in 1864 and 1865—led to a far-flung correspondence with homosexuals throughout Germany and abroad, and they document Ulrichs’s own growing knowledge about homosexuality, drawing on data and leads he received from his correspondents. THE ‘‘THIRD SEX’’ THEORY

Ulrichs began with the assumption that virtually all homosexuals shared his delicate features, which he himself described as feminine, as well as his boyhood interest in girls’ pastimes and their colorful clothing, which contrasted vividly with the increasingly drab men’s dress of his era. His first awareness of homosexual interests came at age fifteen, followed by a full recognition of his orientation at twenty-one, and he frankly described his erotic fascination with laborers clad in working-class garb and soldiers decked out in colorful uniforms. His contacts with his contemporaries soon convinced him, however, that beyond effeminate homosexuals of his own stripe there were fully masculine ones as well as butch and femme lesbians, and he eventually came to recognize bisexuality as a valid sexual category. Despite his acknowledgment of a panoply of sexual orientations and types, Ulrichs basically maintained his ‘‘third sex’’ theory of homosexuality, according to which gay men are endowed at birth

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with a female anima (which might be translated as spirit, psyche, or soul) and lesbians are endowed with a male one. He coined the word Urning for a homosexual, drawing on the speech by Pausanias in Plato’s Symposium in which the origins of same-sex and opposite-sex love are attributed to the two avatars of the love goddess, one being the motherless daughter of Uranus, and the other the daughter of Zeus and Dione (thus Dioning was Ulrichs’s name for heterosexuals). The term Urning, occasionally rendered in English as Uranian, had some Europeanwide currency for a few decades but was ultimately edged aside by adoption of the term homosexual, which was likewise coined in the 1860s. Ulrichs argued that the natural, innate quality of homosexuality meant that it was unjust and pointless to punish it, and he compared the persecution of homosexuals with that of witches in earlier centuries, confident that growing enlightenment would ultimately lead to homosexual equality. ANTI-PRUSSIAN ACTIVISM

Ulrichs’s publication series was halted by the wars of German unification spearheaded by Otto von Bismarck. A local patriot, Ulrichs was twice imprisoned in 1866 for opposing the Prussian invasion and annexation of Hanover. His house was searched and his papers, including a manuscript collection of homosexual poetry, were confiscated. Shortly after his second release from prison, he traveled to Munich to deliver an address on homosexual rights at the 1867 Congress of German Jurists. His call for the repeal of sodomy statutes in the various German states was roundly shouted down by the entire outraged audience. Following his aborted speech in Munich, Ulrichs resolved to come out publicly as a homosexual to the entire German nation. ‘‘As Urnings, we should and must present ourselves without a mask. Only then will we conquer ground to stand on in human society; otherwise, never’’ (Ulrichs, vol. 1, p. 123). Whereas his first five books had appeared under the pseudonym Numa Numantius, his sixth, published in 1868, was published under his own name, as were his six subsequent volumes on homosexuality that appeared between 1869 and 1879. Banned from Hanover, Ulrichs moved initially to southern Germany. These books documented a growing international network of homosexuals

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and an increasing knowledge of the homosexual subculture, including the slang and practices of his era in Germany, England, and elsewhere. He criticized the homophobia of the majority but also lamented the cowardice of his fellow homosexuals. Ulrichs was bitterly disappointed when Prussia, with its harsh antisodomy statute, became the foremost state following national unification in 1871, which led in the following year to the imposition of Prussia’s criminal code throughout Germany. Ulrichs left Germany for voluntary exile in Italy in 1880, and here he spent the last fifteen years of his life cultivating the revival of Latin as a universal language. His grave is in Aquila, Italy, where he died on 14 July 1895. In Aquila, Ulrichs was visited by John Addington Symonds (1840–1893), who provided a sympathetic portrait of Ulrichs as an individual along with a useful pre´cis of his third-sex theory in A Problem in Modern Ethics (1881). In Germany, Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840–1902) credited Ulrichs with first drawing his attention to homosexuals, these ‘‘stepchildren of nature’’ (Ulrichs, vol. 2, p. 512), and Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) commented, albeit disparagingly, on Ulrichs’s theory in his Three Essays on Sexuality (1905). Magnus Hirschfeld (1868–1935) admiringly noted that Ulrichs single-handedly developed virtually the entire platform of the homosexual emancipation movement that finally came into being at the close of the nineteenth century, including proposals of a homosexual journal, a national petition to repeal the antisodomy statute, and even a ‘‘bond of love’’ or civil union ‘‘analogous to’’ heterosexual marriage (vol. 1, p. 234). In their private correspondence, Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) commented on Ulrichs’s writings, remarking that ‘‘the pederasts’’ were beginning to count themselves and to notice that they formed an organizable minority. Although he estimated that homosexuals constituted just 0.2 to 0.4 percent of the German adult male population, Ulrichs indeed recognized that homosexuals constituted a minority that could demand its ‘‘inalienable . . . civil rights’’ from ‘‘despotic majorities’’ (vol. 2, pp. 605, 547). He fully anticipated the identity politics of the late twentieth century by placing homosexuals on a par with other oppressed minorities and reminding his fellow

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homosexuals of their duty to practice solidarity ‘‘on the side of the victims of violence and abuse: whether they are called Poles, Hanoverians, Jews, Catholics’’ (vol. 2, p. 547). By the early twenty-first century, German homosexual activists had successfully lobbied to have streets in Aurich, Hanover, Bremen, and Munich named in his honor. See also Freud, Sigmund; Hirschfeld, Magnus; Homosexuality and Lesbianism; Krafft-Ebing, Richard von; Symonds, John Addington. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich. The Riddle of ‘‘Man-Manly’’ Love: The Pioneering Work on Male Homosexuality. 2 vols. Translated by Michael A. Lombardi-Nash. Buffalo, N.Y., 1994.

Secondary Sources Kennedy, Hubert. ‘‘Karl Heinrich Ulrichs: First Theorist of Homosexuality.’’ In Science and Homosexualities, edited by Vernon A. Rosario, 26–45. New York, 1997. ———. Karl Heinrich Ulrichs: Pioneer of the Modern Gay Movement. 2nd ed. San Francisco, 2005. JAMES D. STEAKLEY

n

UMBERTO I (1844–1900; ruled 1878–1900), king of Italy. Born 14 March 1844, Umberto received the rank of captain on his fourteenth birthday. He held a series of military commands beginning in October 1862 and saw action at Custoza against Austria in 1866. He married his cousin Margherita, daughter of Ferdinand, the duke of Genoa, on 22 April 1863. Umberto became king of Italy when his father, Victor Emmanuel II, died on 9 January 1878. Departing from his father’s example, he ignored the legacy of the House of Savoy and took the title Umberto I rather than Umberto IV. Just ten months after he assumed the throne, the anarchist Giovanni Passanante tried to stab him (17 November 1878). Umberto escaped unscathed, but twenty-two years later another anarchist succeeded in killing him. King Umberto inherited the challenges of establishing the infrastructure, laws, and institutions for the newly united Italian state and of securing its

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place among the powers of Europe. Political factionalism and the strains of economic modernization produced increasing tension and tumult during his reign. To popularize the monarchy, Umberto traveled widely in Italy, and he regularly visited the sites of earthquakes, floods, and epidemics to comfort the victims. His efforts to connect with the people earned him the label ‘‘the good king.’’ But Umberto did not limit his duties to ceremony. He played a role in turning Italy away from France and toward an alliance with Germany and AustriaHungary, using his personal ties with fellow monarchs to smooth the way. He also encouraged Italy’s imperialist ambitions in Africa. The king’s role in domestic politics produced controversy at the time and in historical assessments of his reign. He accepted a series of weak cabinets directed by prime ministers of the left, including Agostino Depretis, Benedetto Cairoli, and Francesco Crispi. In the 1890s these governments faced agrarian and urban discontent and the growing power of the Socialists. Alarmed industrialists and landowners supported the suspension of constitutional guarantees to enforce public order. In a context of rapidly fluctuating majorities and weak cabinets, Umberto allowed prime ministers to legislate by royal decree. The persistent weakness of parliament caused influential lawmakers such as Sidney Sonnino to call for the return to even stronger royal authority. In 1898 high bread prices intensified popular agitation, and in May an insurrection broke out in Milan. The government imposed martial law and General Fiorenzo Bava Beccaris restored order, with considerable loss of civilian life. Despite the outrage of socialists, republicans, and anarchists, on 9 June 1898 the king proclaimed his gratitude to the soldiers, decorated Bava Beccaris for merit, and named him senator (16 June). Hoping for a firm government, he then appointed a military man, General Luigi Pelloux, prime minister. Pelloux ended martial law and presented to parliament proposals curbing freedom of press, meeting, and association. When deputies of the left tried to obstruct their passage, Pelloux suspended the parliamentary session (22 June 1899) and imposed the public order laws by decree (28 June 1899). The following year the courts nullified the decrees, and new elections (3 June and 10 June 1900)

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returned a majority favorable to the government. Pelloux resigned anyway, and the king appointed the moderate Giuseppe Saracco to replace him. This ‘‘liberal about face’’ ended conservative efforts to bypass parliament and to revitalize government by reinforcing royal power. In the view of some historians, Umberto had endorsed what amounted to a legal coup d’etat during the turnof-the-century crisis. Others criticize his passivity in the face of parliamentary weakness and the autocratic initiatives of politicians such as Crispi. When he inaugurated the new parliament on 16 June 1900, Umberto underscored his intention to maintain the commitment with which he had begun his reign: the defense of constitutional liberties. Six weeks later, on 29 July 1900, Gaetano Bresci, a silk worker and anarchist, killed Umberto at Monza, proclaiming that renewing Italy began with eliminating its symbolic head. Judgments of Umberto vary, and while few credit him with saving the monarchy or accuse him of destroying it, most concur that his actions caused serious discussion of its merits. See also Italy; Victor Emmanuel II. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Farini, Domenico. Diario di fine secolo. Edited by Emilia Morelli. Rome, 1961. Provides an inside look at political life from a close advisor of King Umberto.

Secondary Sources Alfassio Grimaldi, Ugoberto. Il re ‘‘buono’’: La vita di Umberto I e la sua epoca in un’esemplare ricostruzione. 5th ed. Milan, 1973. Mack Smith, Denis. Italy and Its Monarchy. New Haven, Conn., 1989. SUSAN A. ASHLEY

UNIFICATION, ITALIAN.

See Risorgi-

mento (Italian Unification).

UNITED KINGDOM. 2378

See Great Britain.

n

UNIVERSITIES. In the first half of the nineteenth century, higher education in Europe underwent changes that resulted in the establishment of divergent institutional systems. Beginning in the 1870s, however, a new consensus began to emerge, based on an ideal that combined teaching and research that accelerated the exchange of knowledge, teachers, and students across the Continent. CHANGES IN THE MAP OF EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES

In 1790 there were 143 active universities in Europe. As the century came to a close, and over the first half of the nineteenth century, major changes started to occur that, to begin with, affected Germany, France, and Russia. Germany, France, and Russia: Revolution in the university Of the thirty-five German universities existing in 1789, with a total of seventy-nine hundred students, eighteen disappeared during the Revolutionary period. On the other hand, three new institutions were founded, in Berlin (1810), Breslau (1811), and Bonn (1818). Prussia hoped that these would help buttress the control it recovered after 1815 over extremely heterogeneous lands now stretching from part of conquered Poland to the Catholic Rhineland. The French university landscape was even more radically altered. A string of revolutionary laws and decrees issued between 22 December 1789, when universities were subordinated to the de´partements, and 7 Ventoˆse Year III (25 February 1795) quite simply swept away colleges and faculties of theology, medicine, the arts, or law founded in the Middle Ages. Under the Consulate (1799– 1804) and Empire (1804–1814), French higher education was integrated into a highly restrictive central administrative framework from which all local institutional autonomy was completely absent. Professional faculties (three of medicine and three of law for the whole empire in 1804) and academic faculties (of arts and letters and of science) were all brought under the authority of a central administration known as the ‘‘Imperial University.’’ Fortunately, the Napoleonic regime spared certain major institutions considered to be genuine seedbeds of scientific innovation. Some of these dated from the ancien re´gime, such as the

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Jardin du Roi, turned into a museum in 1793, and the Colle`ge de France; some had been founded during the Revolutionary period, such as the Conservatoire des Arts et Me´tiers, the Institut de France, and the School of Oriental Languages; and others were long-established elite training establishments such as the E´cole Polytechnique for civil and military engineers, the Saint-Cyr military academy, and the E´cole Normale for the training of university teachers. In Russia too the transformation of the university system was rapid and carried out from above. Moscow University itself was founded early on, in 1755. Between 1803 and 1819, however, as many as five Russian universities came into being: Kazan (1804); Kharkov (1805); Dorpat (Tartu), formerly a German institution, became Russian in 1802; Vilna (1803), transferred to Kiev in 1835; and St. Petersburg (1819). In the second half of the nineteenth century, universities in Odessa (1865), Tomsk (1888), and Saratov (1909) were established. To these institutions should be added very many higher technical schools, chiefly in Moscow. Elsewhere in Europe, however, the growth of universities was far slower. Slow progress in northwestern and southern Europe The British Isles were especially conservative. In 1800 there was one university in Ireland, namely Trinity College in Dublin; four in Scotland; and two—the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge—in England. This deficit was gradually mitigated by local endeavors with no overarching plan: by 1901, Durham (1832), London (1828; reincorporated 1836), Manchester (1851), and twelve other ‘‘civic universities’’ had gradually been established in the larger English cities. And, thanks to reforms made in Scotland in 1858 and at Oxford and Cambridge in 1877, it is possible to say that a real university system, rather than the isolated colleges of an earlier time, had come into existence in Great Britain before 1914. As for the Mediterranean region and northern and eastern Europe, it is hard to blame traditionalism for the delayed progress of higher education. Governments in these areas tended to create new, more functional institutions as a response to social and political pressures, the result being a highly unbalanced distribution of facilities. Before 1871,

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the Italian states as a whole possessed twenty-one establishments of higher learning, but these varied dramatically in size and were distributed in a way that failed to reflect real needs: northern and central areas were overserved, whereas from the academic standpoint the south was a near-desert utterly dominated by the giant University of Naples. By contrast, a centralized country such as Spain was able to rationalize its university map gradually during the nineteenth century. A number of the institutions of the old regime were simply closed down between 1807 and 1845, with no attempt being made to revitalize them. Just ten universities remained, each covering a district conceived on the model of France’s ‘‘circumscriptions.’’ After the transfer of the main institution from Alcala´ de Henares to Madrid in 1836, the nationwide network suffered, just like that of France, from the crushing weight and privileges of what in the official terminology was called the ‘‘Central University.’’ Smaller countries also, notably the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, and to a lesser degree the countries of Scandinavia, met with much difficulty in their attempts to bring a measure of rationality to their university systems. As in the modern period, religious traditions and national, even regional, rivalries meant that these sparsely populated states had a disproportionate number of institutions relative to their actual needs. In the wake of Belgium’s independence, two new universities were founded, a liberal and secular one in Brussels and a Catholic one in Malines (both in 1834). The reorganization of 1835, however, left the country with just four universities: two state institutions, in Ghent and Lie`ge, an independent university in Brussels, and a Catholic one in Louvain. The map of Scandinavian universities went through analogous revisions in response to political changes and the requirements of scientific innovation. The achievement of autonomy, and then independence, by such new states as Norway and Finland enabled them to develop systems of higher education clearly distinct from those of their former protectors, Denmark and Russia, respectively. The ancient universities in Scandinavia were Copenhagen, founded in 1479, and, in Sweden, Uppsala (1477) and Lund (1666). To these was

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added the University of Christiania (Oslo); founded in 1811, six years after Norway became independent of Denmark, it was to be the center of Norwegian nationalism. Similarly, the elevation of Finland to the status of a grand duchy dependent on the Russian Empire was followed by the transfer of the University of Turku to Helsinki (1828). Change in the university and political change in central and eastern Europe In the early modern period, central and eastern Europe was a region with little in the way of a university system. This traditional pattern, however, was gradually transformed by virtue of the expanding national and liberal movement, the training of local elites in western Europe, the birth of new states, religious and ethnic rivalries, and a growing desire to catch up with the more developed parts of Europe. A few signs of intellectual subordination or archaism nevertheless survived until after World War I, as witness the continuing flow of students sent to Germany and France from most of these new nations. The western part of the Austrian Empire (Cisleithania) was undoubtedly the best served region, with six ancient universities at the beginning of the nineteenth century, to which almost as many advanced technical schools were added in the first half of that century. This picture underwent very few modifications thereafter, except for the division of the University of Prague into two autonomous institutions, one Czech and the other German, in 1882; the creation of the University of Agram (Zagreb) in Croatia in 1874, with philosophy, theology, and law faculties; and the founding of the University of Czernowitz (now Chernivtsi, Ukraine) in 1875. As for the eastern portion of the empire, Transleithania, its sole university was founded in Nagyszombat (now Trnava, Slovakia) in 1635 then moved to Buda in 1775 and then to Pest in 1784. The university could award doctorates but offered only partial programs of technical instruction and specialized law and theology courses. New universities were eventually established around the turn of the nineteenth century, as was consistent with the country’s development. A very different path was taken by higher education in partitioned Poland, which would not regain its independence until 1918. Throughout

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the nineteenth century, Polish elites were educated for the most part in foreign universities. Students from the Prussian province of Posen (Pozna´n) attended the universities of Berlin and Breslau and, being barred from administrative posts, tended to take up Catholic theology. In Austrian Galicia, however, there were two predominantly Polish university towns, Krako´w and Lemberg (now L’viv, Ukraine). The most repressive university system was in the Russian-dominated ‘‘Congress Kingdom of Poland.’’ From 1831 to 1862, the University of Warsaw was in effect closed in reprisal for the 1830 uprising. During those years, Polish students were thus obliged to go to Russia—to Kiev or St. Petersburg. After 1864 the University of Warsaw was Russified, becoming in effect a sort of private free university. This institution had to struggle to survive, and indeed it lost all autonomy in 1869. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, Polish elites preferred to educate their young people abroad, in clandestine establishments or, more and more, in the Polish-speaking and relatively independent Galician universities. The most oppressed group of all were Jews aspiring to higher education but confronted by both Russian and Polish anti-Semitism. On the fringes of Europe, Greece, Bulgaria, and Romania provide examples of the simultaneous emergence of the modern university and the modern nation under strong foreign influence—Bavarian or German for the first two, French for the third. In such small rural countries the founding of a university in the capital was one of the chief symbols of an independence eventually won after long centuries of cultural oppression. From the outset, the new kingdom of Greece, with Otto, son of the king of Bavaria, at its head, sought to buttress its national identity by establishing a university in Athens. Inaugurated on 3 May 1837, it was to serve for the rest of the century as a rallying point for the Greek diaspora living under the Ottoman Empire (more than 40 percent of students at the University of Athens were born outside Greece’s borders). In Romania, the creation of the University of Ias¸i (1860) through the expansion of an academy dating from 1835 was followed in 1864 by the founding of the University of Bucharest on the basis of three preexisting faculties (arts, sciences, and law); a medical school was added in 1869 and

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a department of theology in 1884. These two institutions reflected the desire of the Moldo-Wallachian elites to emancipate themselves from dependence on ancient centers of learning abroad that had trained the ruling class until that time. As a small country speaking a romance language, however, Romania maintained its links to France, and most of its future university teachers and a significant proportion of its students, especially in law and medicine, continued to complete their education in Paris. EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY SYSTEMS

The first seventy-five years of the nineteenth century thus saw the rise of university systems in Europe that differed greatly according to their location. This may be explained in part by the upheavals and reorganizing already mentioned, and in part, too, by the survival of long-standing cultural traditions. The two most radically distinct approaches, which for the sake of convenience are referred to here as the ‘‘Napoleonic’’ and ‘‘Humboldtian’’ systems, were instituted almost simultaneously and represented opposing responses both to critical historical contingencies and to the intellectual and pedagogical debates of the Enlightenment. The Napoleonic system Though constructed almost from scratch, the Napoleonic system of higher education extended certain eighteenth-century innovations (the vocational schools) while rejecting the universalizing ambitions and new departures of the radical phase of the French Revolution. The intent was to endow the state and postrevolutionary society with the framework needed to stabilize a country turned upside down, to exercise a tight control over education in accordance with the new social order, and to prevent the emergence of a sphere of intellectual freedom too large and dangerous for the state to handle. This enlightened despotism accounts for the predominance of the ‘‘school’’ model (even when the term faculty was used), the tyranny of state diplomas governing the right to exercise a specific function or profession, the importance placed on grading and competition even in courses of study that did not necessarily call for them, the regimentation of curricula, and the conferment of degrees by the state alone. The system implied a strict division of labor among faculties and a high measure of educational specialization. In consequence all essential

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research and innovation was confined to the large establishments—to a few departments of the Sorbonne or the Colle`ge de France or to the academies and learned societies. This explains the chief shortcoming of French higher education, namely the overconcentration of resources and manpower in Paris. This unegalitarian logic was also reflected in the hierarchical relations among teachers: because a portion of their remuneration was in the form of examination rights, teachers in the vocational schools with their large intake and those in Paris with its abundance of candidates had unfair advantages. This inequity was exacerbated by the ability of professionals, notably teachers of law and medicine, to supplement their incomes through extramural activity. Professors of arts and science subjects, meanwhile, often sought to increase their revenue by cumulating teaching or administrative functions, which had an exploitative effect on substitutes and adjuncts. The Humboldtian system The new university system promoted by Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) was conceived in explicit opposition to the Napoleonic approach. Under its sway the philosophy faculty was assigned equal if not superior status to other departments. The philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) defined the university in this context as that place where masters and fellow students assemble between school (in the sense of secondary education, viewed as a coming together of masters and apprentices) and academy (meaning an assembly of masters among themselves). This ambitious intellectual ideal explains the categorical rejection of French-style vocational and specialized schools, which turn their back on what the German model considered the true purpose of the university, namely to awaken the individual to knowledge, to adopt an encyclopedic approach, and to offer a free choice of studies (Lernfreiheit). Nevertheless, even though the organization of the University of Berlin was certainly influenced by these ideas, it would be an error to assume that its structure conformed strictly to the myth of the ‘‘Humboldtian system’’ as later constructed by German academia.

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To begin with, research played a distinctly subordinate role in the new system, and the particular relationship between teaching and research that was subsequently deemed one of the chief distinguishing features of the Prussian approach came into being only slowly and in an uneven manner depending on place and discipline. As for another hallmark of the German system, much admired by foreign observers, namely the use of the privatdocent (an assistant professor who gives lectures to students without being tenured and is directly paid by them) in the training of future teachers, it should be pointed out that this arrangement was by no means as widespread as is often assumed. The real basis of the dynamism of the German system (or more accurately systems) was perhaps that, being less rigid than any other, it was able to benefit from nineteenth-century intellectual and social advances. Decentralization indeed allowed for local initiatives that might later, imitated or imported, spread to other universities. Student mobility obliged institutions to adapt according to demand, and this created a process of emulation that was by definition absent from unified and centralized states such as France. All these features are primarily the result not of any concerted approach but of a history based on the division of Germany into several different states. Nor should one overlook the persistence of older traditions (differing religious practices according to region, the continuing subordination of philosophy departments in southern Catholic states such as Bavaria) or the enduring wish of the sovereign of the German states to retain political control over ‘‘their’’ universities. In 1819, for example, the conference of German states in Karlsbad decided that the universities should be subject to political surveillance in view of a growing liberal student movement, the Burschenschaft. The concern of the states was only increased by the degree of student participation in the 1848 movement for German unification. The supposed competitiveness of the academic market within a multipolar system unique in Europe was nonetheless vulnerable to corruption through persistent nepotism in recruitment, especially in the smaller universities. Inasmuch as the state, in order to meet the demand for teachers, resorted to the creation of extraordinary, low-paying and nontenured positions for teachers or privatdocenten, this arguably served as a spur to

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young researchers whose work had to be truly distinguished if they were to join the professoriate. On the other hand, the appointment process remained prone to biases of a social kind into the twentieth century; in the conservative Protestant states, for instance, Catholics, teachers considered too liberal, and—a fortiori—Jews were persistently discriminated against or even excluded from the academy. The vocational crisis of the German system During the latter part of the nineteenth century, when the German university system was being imitated across Europe and elsewhere in the world, the system itself was undergoing a crisis. This reflected several problems related to social and intellectual changes: the difficulty of incorporating the most modern scientific and technical culture, the aristocratic corporatism of the teachers, the lagging professionalization of certain career paths, and so on. This was a crisis of growth—and a crisis in the academy’s sense of vocation. After stagnating between 1830 and the mid1860s, the German student population had multiplied by a factor of five (to sixty-one thousand) by 1914. In the main, this growth benefited the smaller universities and the philosophy faculties. For the first time the number of arts and science students surpassed that of law students, while the tally of theology students in 1914 was a full half lower than in 1830. Higher education was changing, shifting its emphasis from traditional avenues such as the clergy or the civil service to more modern careers such as college teaching, scientific research, engineering, and the technical professions. In parallel to the universities a network of Technische Hochschulen (polytechnics) was set up— ten in all by the beginning of the twentieth century. Their student population more than tripled from five thousand in 1871–1872 to seventeen thousand in 1903; university enrollment doubled during the same period. These technical colleges were disparaged by those in traditional universities, and it was only thanks to the intervention of Emperor William II in 1899 that they obtained the right to bestow doctorates. The new generation of students tended to be drawn from less middle-class, less cultivated backgrounds than its predecessors, and student attitudes were more pragmatic. Students were now less

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taken with the Humboldtian ideal, for they were seeking an education tailored to very precise career goals, and this often gave rise to misunderstandings with teaching staff who for their part were increasingly specialized, detached from the surrounding society, and prone to indulging nostalgia for a Germany that was no more. The burgeoning student population alarmed conservatives fearful of the rise of what Otto von Bismarck called a ‘‘proletariat of bachelors.’’ The absence of regulation with regard to enrollment probably did produce numbers of students in law, medicine, and arts and sciences that at some point became disproportionate to the society’s needs. As for the system’s vocational crisis, it was an even more pointed threat to the German approach than uncontrolled expansion, because it precipitated an internal dislocation of the universities. The Humboldtian ideal was meant to help educate distinguished young men of the solid bourgeoisie or nobility. But once the universities were populated in the majority by young people (including, from the early nineteenth century on, young women and foreign students) whose concern was to maximize the future profitability of their university careers, the orientation of higher education was bound to veer toward utility and specialization. After 1871 the governments of German states gradually accepted this tendency, structuring their institutions and courses of study in accordance with the new needs of an industrial society. They also fostered ties between scientific research and the economy. These new priorities were bound to throw the earlier German ideal model of the university into question. The crisis also affected those supposed to embody and uphold the Humboldtian ideal, the university professors themselves. The untenured were often in the majority, notably in the sciences and in medicine, but they did not always participate in collective faculty decisions. This imbalance made career advancement slower and more arduous and fed a discontent that erupted before World War I in the movement of the Nicht-Ordinarien. The proliferation of untenured teachers cannot be explained solely by the financial advantage governments stood to reap from the availability of lowerpaid employees. It was related also to the increasing prestige of professorships, which were more and

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more eagerly sought after, and to the growing specialization of disciplines, whose new branches would typically be entrusted to young untenured teachers. These factors accelerated innovation, but they were also a source of intellectual frustration. They meant, for one thing, that new entrants to the system needed to dispose of private means while waiting for promotion or occupying lowerlevel positions. Meanwhile, institutional autonomy was increasingly jeopardized by state intervention in appointments and even more by the growing financial dependence of the universities on public funding for the equipment needs of scientific and medical research and even for research grants and library resources in the humanities. The ‘‘freedom and solitude’’ of the ideal Humboldtian professor had scant prospect of survival in institutes where collective projects held sway or in universities collaborating closely with captains of industry. Austro-Hungarian exceptionalism AustroHungarian higher education presented a far more traditional aspect than the German universities. After the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1773, the central government administered the entire system, including the non-German-speaking parts, under the Ratio educationis law of 1777. Remnants of medieval tradition, such as ‘‘student nations’’ and the ‘‘assembly of the doctors,’’ and the survival of absolutist tendencies into the 1850s, also impeded the introduction of German-style reforms. The university system thus had a strictly functional goal, namely the provision of the human cogs—priests, functionaries, or teachers—needed by a heterogeneous empire. Education was thus governed in every detail from above, in sharp contrast to the pedagogical freedom gradually spreading in Germany. With the exception of the Vienna Faculty of Medicine, Austrian universities were scientifically backward. The 1848 revolution, in which Viennese and Hungarian students were very active participants, obliged the authorities to experiment with the Prussian model (Count Leo Thun Von Hohenstien’s reform), albeit in an authoritarian version that remained in place until around 1860. Under this arrangement higher education was extended by two years, while students in the preparatory years no longer entered institutions of higher education until they had passed a ‘‘maturity examination’’ (or

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baccalaureate). The philosophy faculty thus achieved parity with other departments, as in Germany. The government eliminated student nations and associated teachers’ remuneration with the number of students enrolling in their courses. The opening up of the academic market through the hiring of more privatdocenten and the recruitment of teachers from Germany created a competitive situation that over time raised scientific teaching standards. The chief peculiarity of the Austro-Hungarian system lay, however, in the obstinate survival up until World War I of professional (and especially law) faculties: 45.7 percent of Viennese students in 1860 and as many as 53.8 percent in 1909 were law students; in Hungary the proportion was close to 60 percent. British systems It makes little sense to speak of a single university ‘‘system’’ in the British Isles. The characteristics of English universities on the one hand and Scottish on the other were the product less of any state plan than of compromises between centuries-old traditions and long-postponed reforms. To this picture must be added new institutions, privately or locally conceived, that addressed shortcomings in the existing establishments and were thus governed by the logic of local conditions rather than by an overarching idea, as in France or Germany. For most of the nineteenth century, a clear distinction has to be drawn between the Scottish universities and the two ancient English universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The Scottish institutions were much more closely akin to universities on the Continent because they depended on the state for most of their financial support. Their doors were open to students from modest backgrounds, they imposed neither residence nor the tutorial system, and they were far more concerned with teacher training than the ‘‘colleges’’ of their English counterparts. Reformed before the English universities by virtue of two royal commissions (1826 and 1876) and two acts of Parliament (1858 and 1889), the Scottish universities took the lead in educating students in the new disciplines and preparing them for professions other than the clergy. As early as the 1820s, their total student population was large, totaling 4,250, whereas Oxford and Cambridge together had less

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than one thousand undergraduates. The reason was twofold: the simultaneous presence within the Scottish universities of adolescents of fourteen or fifteen, ‘‘lads o’parts’’ drawn directly from parochial schools, and young men of twenty or thirty years of age; and a generous scholarship system. The flexibility of curricula and attendance even made it possible to combine studies with work. While a humanist culture continued to dominate at Oxford and Cambridge and while vocational training in England, as a practical matter, was provided outside university walls, the Scottish universities, like those of most European countries, combined the two functions. At the start of the nineteenth century, Oxford and Cambridge differed in every particular from the Scottish universities. They had barely emerged from a long period of stagnation stretching over the best part of the previous century. By about 1829, with 840 admissions annually, they had returned to their seventeenth-century level. The requirement that students reside in the colleges, the high cost of enrollment, the absence of vocational preparation other than clerical, and the refusal of admission to non-Anglicans placed further limits on expansion. The gradual introduction of formal examinations (the Tripos), especially at Cambridge, produced a corresponding improvement in the quality both of the teaching and of the students. The complete independence of these ancient universities vis-a`-vis the state was founded on their vast landholdings and on their close relationship with the Church of England. Their ideal of an educated man was still that of a well-rounded honneˆte homme (honest man), and moral context continued to count as much as scholarly content. Thus the teacher–student ratio was kept much higher than in continental Europe. At Oxford, for example, there was a teacher for every nineteen students in 1814 and for every sixteen students in 1900. It is true that competition for ‘‘honors’’ introduced a kind of meritocracy and bestowed social markers, so to speak, of future success. Even before religious restrictions were lifted, dissidents got around them in 1828 by instituting the first non-Anglican college in London, namely University College, destined to become one of the core components of the University of London. The

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Protest against the admission of women to Cambridge University c. 1880. Separate women’s colleges had been established at Cambridge in 1869 and 1872, and women were granted academic degrees after 1880, despite protests such as the one pictured here. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS

Anglicans of the capital responded in 1831 by founding King’s College. The Whig government recognized both colleges in 1836 in setting up the University of London, licensed to deliver degrees on students in London institutions. As early as 1850, two hundred candidates took advantage of this method of circumventing the constraints of the traditional universities. The new university thus introduced another level of heterogeneity into British higher education, for London was not residential like Oxford and Cambridge (‘‘Oxbridge’’), nor was it unified like the Scottish establishments. A third phase in the evolution of the British higher education system was constituted by the creation of the ‘‘civic universities’’ mentioned earlier, which had purely practical goals and philanthropical or local funding, and by the long-deferred reform of the ancient universities, where a few features of the German system were eventually introduced.

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Russia between Humboldt and Napoleon In Russia, the beginning of the nineteenth century saw the establishment of a system of secondary and higher education. The new universities were modeled on the German system. The first teachers were in fact Germans or Russians trained in Germany, notably at Go ¨ ttingen. The most contradictory aspect of the new system, an aspect that would endure as long as the Russian Empire itself, was that these institutions, devoted in principle to science and theoretically rather autonomous, were nevertheless assigned the task, after the fashion of France’s grandes e´coles, of training civil servants. This ambiguity was reflected in an alternation between liberal periods facilitating Westernization and the politicizing of student youth and periods of repression and militarization precipitated whenever the authorities felt they had been too permissive. The first such reactionary moment came in the 1830s in response to the European and Polish

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revolutionary events of 1830 to 1832. The statute of 1835 obliged students to wear uniforms and follow regimented curricula while teachers were forced to defend the Orthodox religion, autocracy, and nationalism. The tumult of 1848 in Europe sparked a new militarization of the Russian universities. Rectors were now to be appointed, the teaching staff was purged, the content of courses became liable to prior vetting, enrollment fees were increased so as to reduce the number of students, and students were subjected to military training and strict pedagogical control. Disciplines perceived as dangerous (such as constitutional law and philosophy) were eliminated. By the early 1860s, however, the return to a more liberal administration had begun. Initially intended as they were to train a nobility integrated into the state, the Russian universities accepted but a small proportion of poorer students. In Moscow in 1862, 71 percent of students were children of the nobility or of eminent functionaries—actually up from the 65.9 percent estimated for 1831. In theory at least, the teaching system was very rigorous, calling for twenty hours of obligatory course work per week, a pass-or-fail yearly examination, and a maximum of six years of study to finish the nominal four-year program. Selection was not very strict in practice, however: more than two-thirds of students were graduated and received the title of kandidat. TRANSFORMATIONS AND CONVERGENCE OF EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY SYSTEMS

Sociologists and historians of education have described the period from 1860 to 1914 as one of diversification, expansion, and professionalization of higher education. These three tendencies were accompanied by the growing influence of the German system as a model for reform in countries whose universities had remained traditional. Convergence was nevertheless only partly realized because of the persistence of national and regional particularities. France: Incomplete reform (1868–1904) In France during these years two main concerns, the need to develop the research function within the faculties, as in the German system, and the

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need to restore balance to a vastly overcentralized structure, joined forces with a mood of intense national self-examination prompted by the defeat of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) to spur on the movement for reform. In 1868 the first concern was addressed when Victor Duruy (1811–1894) founded the four sections of the E´cole pratique des hautes e´tudes, so creating teaching laboratories and a place where knowledge was transmitted by means of specialized seminars that broke from formal courses intended for a wide audience (the main form of teaching in the faculties). The second concern, the need for decentralization, took longer to address. A solution required local support from the provincial cities, a new inflow of teachers (teaching positions nearly tripled between 1865 and 1919), and much increased financial resources (faculty budgets more than tripled between 1875 and 1913). Most universities were reorganized or expanded during this time. An improved balance was achieved, too, between vocational and academic faculties, bringing things closer to the German model in this regard. The greatest challenge was the administrative reform embodied in the law of 1896 that grouped faculties together as universities. As was consonant with their status as civil institutions, these new entities had elected governing councils, controlled a portion of their budgets, and were empowered to create and eliminate professorial posts and to receive endowments. In a word, they could innovate. Convergence with the German system was nevertheless incomplete. The decentralization failed to impinge seriously on the dominance of Paris: 43 percent of all French faculty students were still to be found in Paris in 1914, as compared with 55 percent in 1876. Paradoxically, the decision finally taken to transform all groups of faculties into universities, even in small towns, prevented the emergence of major regional centers capable of competing with Paris. All the same, the reform must be credited with the diversification of the subjects on offer and a reduction in the average age of teachers, who now fell into several different categories. The university reform was less successful in the vocational faculties, and it failed to challenge the enduring hold of an elite system of higher education over recruitment to top technical and

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administrative positions. So far from losing their importance, the schools of this system multiplied, keeping most of their privileges. After 1870 they were reinforced by commercial schools, as well as new engineering schools and schools of administration. Catholic faculties created after 1875 also developed vocational training opportunities. The development of the British universities This period was also decisive for British universities, which experienced their most radical reforms since the Middle Ages. England’s two ancient universities were obliged by parliamentary action to adapt to the modern world: non-Anglican, female, and foreign students were at last admitted in the 1870s, when they were permitted to enroll outside the college system. Meanwhile college fellows were gradually given permission to marry. From this point on, therefore, a genuine academic career became a possibility, because university teaching was no longer merely a stepping-stone to the clergy or to the liberal professions. In consequence the population of Oxford and Cambridge grew considerably. The range of subjects taught, still confined at midcentury to the classics and to mathematics, opened up now to the sciences, history, law, and foreign languages. Research too now had a place, especially at Cambridge, after a gift from the Duke of Devonshire made it possible in 1871 to create the Cavendish Laboratory, where part of the future British scientific elite would be trained. The most significant changes in the British academic landscape nevertheless occurred outside Oxbridge, as the new civic universities grew in number in the provincial cities, their purpose being to train the new managers needed by an industrial and urban society. Until these universities were granted full independence by royal charter, their students received their degrees through the University of London, an establishment that itself expanded very greatly as more and more specialized institutions were federated under its aegis in a somewhat abstract manner. The resulting ‘‘exploded’’ university obtained its real charter only in 1898. The other change that underlined the break with the Middle Ages was the state’s ever-increasing financial stake in institutions that had hitherto subsisted either on their inherited wealth (Oxbridge)

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or on the support of private or municipal benefactors (the provincial universities). This departure was initiated in 1889, and by 1906 state aid had already reached £100,000, a by no means negligible sum, albeit much inferior to university apportionments on the Continent (from the 1890s on, for example, France disbursed four times as much to its fifteen groups of faculties). The Scottish universities depended even more on the state. They were granted £72,000 yearly from 1892, to which were added funds for building, endowments from local businesspeople to create chairs of practical interest, and, beginning in 1901, a gift worth £100,000 per annum from the Scottish-born American industrialist and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie. The social background of university entrants continued to reflect great elitism at Oxbridge, but for the new universities and above all for the Scottish institutions the picture was considerably more egalitarian, and thus closer to the continental pattern. In 1910, for instance, 24 percent of university entrants at the University of Glasgow were children of manual workers, and 20 percent those of small shopkeepers, artisans, and office workers; at Oxford these two categories together accounted for a mere 10 percent of student intake, although they constituted 90 percent of the active population in Britain. This discrepancy in the level of social discrimination between the two kinds of universities had a financial underpinning: in Scotland, fees were low, scholarships plentiful, and the primary and secondary education network well developed; in England, by contrast, Oxbridge students continued to be drawn mostly from the high-fee public (i.e., private) schools, while some two hundred pounds per annum, roughly equivalent to the entire income of a middle-class family, was needed to fund an Oxbridge student. And in 1910 no more than 7 percent of English students received scholarships (predominantly young people supported by local municipalities interested in their pursuing technical careers). Austria-Hungary: The attraction of Germany It was during the second half of the nineteenth century, too, that the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the newly developing Balkan nations began in their turn to feel the gravitational pull of the

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German model. Their universities belonged in a sense to two worlds: they were modern, and close to the German academy, inasmuch as Germanspeaking teachers and students were continually circulating through the western part of the empire and even reaching Budapest; but at the same time they were still archaic in many ways, still characterized by the backwardness of largely rural countries where careers for professionals lay in the civilservice, judicial, ecclesiastical, or medical spheres far more often than in the scientific or literary ones. The eighteenth century’s enlightened despotism had left a concrete legacy in the shape of many well-established advanced technical schools. But the whole system was subject to unusual stress on account of the national and religious origins of its students, drawn as they were from populations of great diversity. Another difficulty arose from the pressure, strongest in the east, for students to migrate westward to Vienna, to the German or Swiss universities, or even, in the latter part of the period, to Paris, a trend that deprived many new institutions of the most highly motivated individuals. The universities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire gradually won the right to teach in national languages. They thus became seedbeds of national freedom movements, which naturally tended to block convergence with the German system and with international intellectual life. The Hungarian universities had a number of special traits, notably the predominance of law studies, a privileged avenue so favored by the ruling class that Hungary was dubbed ‘‘a nation of lawyers.’’ The explanation for this lies in the development of a Magyar bureaucracy after the Compromise of 1867 and by the new prominence of the legal profession in a liberal economy. The petty and middle-level Hungarian nobility, with its land rents in decline, used law training as a way of monopolizing positions in the state apparatus. By the end of the century this monopoly was being challenged by commoners, especially by Jews who were able to take advantage of bloated university law schools where rather easy requirements made it possible to combine legal studies with other activities. By the same token, such easy access to law courses facilitated the assimilation of Germans and Slavs into the dominant ethnic group.

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Switzerland: Gradual expansion During this period Switzerland slowly developed an approach to higher education that was unique in three respects. In the first place, there was no nationwide university system, because each establishment depended on a particular canton that had a free hand with respect to education. Second, because the canton authorities were directly involved in the governance of the university, institutions were immediately affected by political developments. Third, the independence of cantons notwithstanding, the nearness of Swiss university towns to one another meant that competition always had to be reckoned with when striving to attract students from a single linguistic catchment area; rather as in the German system, this was a powerful spur to productive rivalries. An original—albeit almost unavoidable—way to fund the conversion of the old Swiss academies created by the Reformation into true universities (including research facilities), was the opening of the door to foreign students and (unusually early) to young women. Even before 1914, female students constituted a fifth of the total Swiss student population, more than twice their proportion in France at that time. As for foreign students, their percentage in Geneva was very high: 44 percent in 1880 and 80 percent in 1910; for all Swiss universities their numbers were not much lower: 47 percent in 1900 and 53 percent in 1910. All these rather unusual characteristics made Switzerland’s small universities into innovators when compared with peer institutions in neighboring countries. Italy and Spain: The difficulty of reform Reform in the Italian university system proceeded alongside the construction of the national state. It was particularly elusive inasmuch as modern and medieval traditions weighed heavily on the system, while the unique role played by the Catholic Church in Italian society meant that any attempt at modernization meant contesting clerical privileges. The Casati Law of 1859 sought to centralize higher education after the fashion of the French system. It excluded the church from higher education but failed to eliminate small local universities inherited from medieval times. With its seventeen complete or incomplete groups of faculties, post-unification Italy at the end of the nineteenth century seemed overendowed by comparison with France (fifteen groups)

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or Germany (twenty universities), especially since Italy’s population was smaller and its territory only half as large. In addition, the Italian network was very unevenly organized: in the 1890s, for instance, eight universities had fewer than five hundred students among them, while in the following decade the student body at Naples alone numbered more than four thousand. The only notable reform, motivated by anticlericalism, was the abolition of theology faculties in 1873. At the turn of the century, despite German influence, the system’s long-standing defects remained, among them the predominance of law studies, the lack of independence for the smaller university centers, and hidebound teaching methods. The archaic character of the degree courses was at the root of significant unemployment among brainworkers and a predilection for civilservice posts that worked to the detriment of the sort of advanced technical training needed by a modern economy. In the early 1900s, however, this last tendency was significantly reversed, thanks largely to privatesector initiatives. In response to the new industrial Italy’s need for managers, business leaders, and technicians, public business schools sprang up, the private Bocconi University was founded in Milan (1902), and engineering schools were established in Milan (1863), Naples (1868), and Turin (1859). But teachers were still badly paid, precipitating a continual search for other sources of income— especially in law departments, often a springboard to politics. Spain, like other Mediterranean countries, saw its higher education system fall dramatically behind that of the more advanced northern European nations in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Until 1900 the Spanish universities were plagued by some of the same problems as the French but in an even more chronic way. Those problems included overcentralization, skeletal staffing, bureaucratic administration, and lifeless teachers given to rote methods. The law faculties monopolized the majority of students. The central university of Madrid dominated the whole system because it alone could confer doctorates and because its teachers were better paid. Advanced technical schools supplemented the very traditional degree courses offered in the faculties.

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Though overshadowed by the technical schools, the Spanish universities were very slow to welcome academic and modern disciplines. Twothirds of teachers were underpaid and to ensure their futures were obliged to seek additional work or hope for transfer to Madrid. The movement for reform was started by a modest group of teachers at Oviedo, the smallest university in Spain. They were inspired by measures taken from 1900 on by a new minister of public education, among them the opening up of faculties of arts and sciences to new disciplines, the introduction of the social sciences into law departments, and the establishment of scholarships. Chronic shortages of funds, however, limited such advances. The necessity of modernizing course content and attracting students from new sectors was addressed by adopting the English system of university extensions; this solution was initiated in the shape of public courses at the University of Saragossa in 1893, and later spread to other Spanish universities. Russia: The impossibility of liberalization Russian higher education during this period was inhabited by contradictory tendencies. On the one hand, in accordance with the Russian tradition of benevolent despotism, the state was striving to make the system into an integral part of the modernization and Westernization of the country. On the other hand, the reactionary tendencies of the autocracy reemerged from time to time in response to endemic revolutionary agitation, enforcing authoritarian measures designed to reassert control over universities viewed as hotbeds of subversive ideas and a threat to the social order. The expansion in the student population during the period is even more striking in view of the very low initial tally: a total of five thousand students in nine universities in 1860 swelled to thirty-seven thousand students fifty years later. That this trend was unstoppable, despite restrictive measures (including quotas for Jews and those of modest means) passed in the wake of the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, is accounted for by the appeal of higher education in a society in which bureaucratic positions were the most prestigious of all. Aside from the study of law, which led to such positions, medicine also exerted a growing attraction in view of the country’s immense health

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care needs and the perception that science was the prime weapon in the fight against poverty and ignorance. As a result of the rise of social aspirations in the middle and lower socioeconomic strata, the proportion of students of noble background dropped between 1865 and 1914 from 67 percent to 35 percent in the technical schools and from 55 percent to 25 percent in the universities. Meanwhile, aspirants from petty bourgeois, middle-class, or Jewish families who failed to enter higher education because of obstacles placed in their way by official policies were quick to go abroad, and indeed in great numbers, to obtain degrees. Thus Paris, Berlin, and the Swiss universities acquired large communities of Russian students whose number should really be added to the empire’s official figures. It was during this period too that women entered the Russian student population in force: in 1914–1915, women constituted 30 percent of all students in Russian higher education as compared with an almost negligible proportion in 1900. Political agitation among students did not end with the century; rather, it continued to reflect the failure of the Russian system to adapt to the emerging modern society. The growth of student militancy was a response to the refusal of the authorities to recognize student associations and their recurrent reassertion of the most authoritarian regulations. The high point of student agitation was reached with the Revolution of 1905, when the universities served as centers of the mobilization that led to the general strike of October. The growing inadequacy of the Russian university system was reflected in the fact that teachers in higher education, though drawn in the majority from privileged backgrounds (39 percent of them were nobles as late as 1904), inclined overall toward liberalism and reform. Their ideals were Humboldtian, even as tsarism continued to bar the way to the scientific freedom indispensable to progress. But both the statute of 1884, which sought to bring the universities back under control following the assassination of Alexander II, and an orientation toward vocational rather than scholarly and scientific goals were gradually brought into question in actual practice. The institution of privatdocenten in the German mold failed to produce the desired effect absent an adequate pool of

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teachers. Mediocre remuneration and the difficulty of obtaining a post made an academic career unappealing. Between 1900 and 1914, the situation in the Russian universities deteriorated sharply for lack of revenues (the state met only 60 percent of the budget, the remainder coming from fees) and because the creation of teaching positions failed to keep pace with student enrollment. Ever-growing internal and external tensions (between tenured and untenured teachers, between teachers, students, and the authorities, and so forth) further contributed to the disorganization of a system that, despite a government commission set up in 1902, shrank in fear from any idea of reform. CONCLUSION: A EUROPEAN SYSTEM?

Despite the multiplicity of university systems and the persistence of national and cultural differences, the last years of the nineteenth century saw the birth of a truly ‘‘European’’ university, albeit a university that was invisible and without institutional boundaries. Its basis was the incessant and ever-increasing movement not just of students but also of teachers between different cultural environments. For students such migrations represented ways of escape from the political and institutional obstacles that faced them in ‘‘backward’’ or oppressive countries, mostly in eastern and southern Europe. Teachers for their part traveled a good deal between the main centers, attending congresses, joining scientific associations, and setting up exchange programs. This invisible academy realized the Humboldtian ideal inasmuch as it was based on a true desire for knowledge, despite geographical or institutional obstacles, and on the freedom to teach and learn outside official curricula. The fact that students could choose between competing university centers was one index among others of the intellectual reach of those institutions, and hence of their capacity for innovation and excellence in particular disciplines. As for teacher exchanges, they attested to the intensity of intellectual relations between different linguistic and cultural regions, and to the strong influence of this country or that in a particular branch of learning. Even though it issued into the most murderous explosion of nationalism in European history, this period nevertheless suggested the possible shape of a reconstructed academic Europe firmly linked to the most ancient medieval traditions.

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See also Education; Humboldt, Alexander and Wilhelm von; Intellectuals; Intelligentsia; Professions; Schleiermacher, Friedrich. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Charle, Christophe, and Jacques Verger. Histoire des universite´s. Paris, 1994. Jarausch, Konrad H., ed. The Transformation of Higher Learning, 1860–1930: Expansion, Diversification, Social Opening, and Professionalization in England, Germany, Russia, and the United States. Stuttgart, Germany, 1982. Ringer, Fritz K. Education and Society in Modern Europe. Bloomington, Ind., 1979. Rothblatt, Sheldon, and Bjo¨rn Wittrock, eds. The European and American University since 1800: Historical and Sociological Essays. Cambridge, U.K., 1993. Ru ¨ egg, Walter, ed. A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 3: Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (1800–1945). Cambridge, U.K., 2004. Schriewer, Ju¨rgen, Christophe Charle, and Edwin Keiner, eds. Sozialer Raum und akademische Kulturen: Studien zur europa¨ischen Hochschul- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert/A la recherche de l’espace universitaire europe´en: E´tudes sur l’enseignement supe´rieur aux XIXe et XXe sie`cles. Frankfurt am Main, 1993. Schubring, Gert, ed. ‘‘Einsamkeit und Freiheit’’ neu besichtigt: Universita¨tsreformen und Disziplinenbildung in Preussen als Modell fu ¨ r Wissenschaftspolitik im Europa des 19. Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart, Germany, 1991. Stone, Lawrence, ed. The University in Society. 2 vols. Princeton, N.J., 1974. CHRISTOPHE CHARLE

n

UNKIAR-SKELESSI, TREATY OF. On 8 July 1833, representatives of the Russian and Ottoman governments signed a ‘‘treaty of defensive alliance’’ in Unkiar-Skelessi (Hunkar Iskelesi), a suburb of Constantinople. The treaty consisted of two parts, a section of six articles in addition to a secret ‘‘separate article.’’ The first section recorded the signatories’ pledge of common defense and mutual aid ‘‘against all attack,’’ in addition to consultation and cooperation in matters affecting each empire’s ‘‘tranquility and safety.’’ Unkiar-Skelessi confirmed the terms of the 1829 Treaty of Adrianople, which had concluded the Russo-Turkish conflict arising from the War of Greek Independence.

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Now, Russian emperor Nicholas I (r. 1825–1855) promised to provide, when requested by the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman government), such forces as necessary to maintain Turkey’s independence. For its part, the Ottoman government of Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) would pay for provisioning these forces. The empires’ representatives agreed that the treaty’s terms would last for eight years, at which time they would discuss renewal. The treaty’s ‘‘separate’’ and secret article modified the terms of the public document by stating that, to spare the expense of direct aid to Russia when the latter came under attack, the Sublime Porte would instead close the Dardanelles to any foreign warships ‘‘under any pretext whatsoever.’’ Unkiar-Skelessi closed one phase and began another in the history of the ‘‘Eastern Question’’— that is, the international complications stemming from the Ottoman Empire’s chronic weakness. The Greek revolution had inspired the Ottoman governor of Egypt, Mehmet Ali (1769–1849), to mount his own rebellion. In 1831, his French-trained troops invaded Syria under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha (1789–1848). By the spring of 1833, Ibrahim’s armies had seized Syria and were advancing on Constantinople. Unable to turn to Great Britain—where the government was embroiled in debates over the Reform Bill—the sultan reluctantly accepted Russian offers of military support, remarking that a drowning man would even cling to a serpent. In April 1833, 10,000 Russian troops landed on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus Straits. In May, Mahmud II and Mehmet Ali concluded a peace at Kutahia; the sultan ceded Egypt, Syria, Cyprus, and Adana to his vassal’s control. Faced with the continuing presence of Russian troops, and amid potential tension created by the arrival in the Straits of French and British naval vessels, Mahmud II accepted the offer of an alliance extended by Nicholas I’s emissary Count A. F. Orlov. The day following the treaty’s signature, Russian troops received orders to withdraw, as Ibrahim Pasha’s armies had returned to their new territories. The treaty signaled a triumph for Russia’s ideological and strategic interests, but provoked contention with Great Britain and France over the fate of the ‘‘sick man,’’ as contemporaries called the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas and his advisors believed that they had protected a legitimate ruler

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against the forces of disorder, in keeping with their conservative view of international relations. UnkiarSkelessi also assured Russia’s ability to intervene in Ottoman affairs, in support of Nicholas I’s wish to maintain a weak but unified neighbor on Russia’s southern flank. These principles served as the basis of an agreement with Austria, signed at Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz in September 1833, thus resurrecting a Holy Alliance broken by the events in Greece. Russia’s new dominance in Turkey also excited suspicions in London and Paris, especially after the terms of the treaty appeared in the British press in August 1833. British officials, particularly Foreign Secretary John Henry Temple, Lord Palmerston (1784–1865), feared Russia’s larger designs, as well as the security of the route to India. French statesmen sought to bolster the position of their prote´ge´ Mehmet Ali. The Eastern Question re-emerged with new urgency in April 1839, when Mahmud II sought revenge from Mehmet Ali by invading Syria. Within months his armies were routed, his fleet defected to Egypt; Mahmud II himself died, leaving the throne to his adolescent son Abdul Mejid (1823–1861). The new crisis led to an Anglo-Russian rapprochement arising from two missions to London by Russian diplomat Ernst Brunnow (Brunnov), who offered to allow the lapse of Unkiar-Skelessi and other concessions. This turn allowed for an international intervention in support of Ottoman integrity and an end to the conflict by late 1840. In July 1841, Unkiar-Skelessi was replaced by a convention on the Straits signed in London by Russia, Britain, France, Prussia, and Austria. The new convention stipulated that in peacetime the sultan would admit no foreign warships into the Straits. It also brought a temporary pause to Anglo-Russian tensions over Ottoman affairs. See also Eastern Question; Holy Alliance; Metternich, Clemens von; Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz, Treaty of; Ottoman Empire; Russo-Turkish War. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Florinsky, Michael T. Russia: A History and an Interpretation. New York, 1953. Hertslet, Edward, Sir. ‘‘Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi.’’ In Map of Europe by Treaty, vol. 2, 925–928. London, 1875– 1891. Marriott, J. A. R. The Eastern Question: An Historical Study in European Diplomacy. Oxford, U.K., 1917.

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Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy, 1814–1914. New York, 1992. Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848. Oxford, U.K., 1994. DAVID M. MCDONALD

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UTILITARIANISM. One of the foundational doctrines of modern ethics in relation to political philosophy and public administration, utilitarianism has since the late eighteenth century pursued the implications of a number of interconnected ideas. These include the claim that the promotion of pleasure and avoidance of pain are the chief springs of human action, from which it was thought to follow, allowing for considerable complexities of measurement, that the concept of utility could be defined for each individual as the maximization of his or her happiness. The function of governments aiming to enhance public utility, it was argued, thus consisted in promoting ‘‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number.’’ Since such propositions were believed to accord with psychology, utilitarians contended that their doctrine was superior to classical, Christian, and natural law conceptions of virtue or duty, which were articulated only as abstract ideals. In putting forward policies they held to be beneficial and expedient, utilitarians judged that what should be done required assessments of human conduct’s tangible consequences and less attention than had been given by other thinkers to its arcane motives. Their ethics therefore placed greater emphasis on manifest standards of the good than on presumed notions of what was intrinsically right. EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY ORIGINS

These beliefs, as articulated by Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), James Mill (1773–1836), and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), owed much to both ancient and modern sources, including Greek sophists’ denial of the existence of moral absolutes on the grounds that man is the measure of all things, as well as Epicurean portraits of our species’ hedonism, Hobbesian conceptions of felicity, and French empiricist and materialist accounts of human nature’s malleability. It was only in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, however,

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that utilitarianism came to be developed as a systematic doctrine amenable to implementation by progressive rulers and radical political movements alike. This was partly because it was in this period of European intellectual history that admirers of the seventeenth-century scientific revolution undertook to extend its scope from natural phenomena to human affairs, endeavoring to formulate a science of man that also included a science of ethics and government. Utilitarianism served that purpose admirably. It was designed to promote strategies of public policy based on an empirical understanding of human nature, to derive values from facts and to dispose of all prescriptions that masqueraded prejudice and intuition as truth. To define both individual and public utility it required no strictures of Christian altruism nor, apparently, any suppression of men’s and women’s actual ambitions. If in these respects it seemed to provide a more democratic ethos than any competing philosophy and was hence suitable for an age of self-government, it in fact took root in the public domain in the late eighteenth century largely because progressively minded kings and queens embraced it. Although utilitarianism was to achieve its apotheosis in England in the course of the nineteenth century, many of its principles, and especially its commitment to legislative reforms designed to promote public happiness, were first adopted in regimes already at the time portrayed as examples of enlightened despotism. Frederick II of Prussia’s (r. 1740–1786) prohibition of torture and Joseph II’s (Holy Roman emperor, 1765–1790; and Habsburg ruler of Austria, 1780–1790) abolition of serfdom were each inspired by utilitarian doctrines as interpreted by German and Austrian proponents of cameralism who, like Bentham and his followers in England, sought to reorganize government’s structures and functions to make it more rational and accountable to the public interest. In France physiocratic ministers and advisors of King Louis XVI (r. 1774–1792) likewise set themselves the task of reforming feudal systems of agriculture and trade, to avert an already perceptible crisis of the old regime that would in time provoke the French Revolution of 1789. In both theory and practice eighteenth-century utilitarianism was perhaps more concerned with alleviating suffering than with securing happiness

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in a positive way, its chief proponents of the period addressing their attention above all to the criminal law. Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) made the distinction between crime and sin and the insusceptibility of religious beliefs to political enforcement central pillars of his tract of 1764, On Crimes and Punishment, where the expression ‘‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number,’’ makes its first printed appearance (in Italian) in a work of political theory, although it had been anticipated by Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746) in 1725 in his Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue. Torture, argued Beccaria, served no rational purpose in the affairs of a civilized state, since it could not deter future crimes and only managed to brutalize its victims, propositions soon taken to heart by Voltaire (Franc¸ois-Marie Arouet; 1694– 1778) in his own denunciations of the violence of religious bigotry sanctioned against Protestants by the Catholic Church in France. In his Fragment on Government of 1776 Bentham invoked Hutcheson’s and Beccaria’s formulation of the expression that would come to be regarded as his legacy and to encapsulate utilitarianism’s meaning, by this time given currency as well in Joseph Priestley’s Essay on the First Principles of Government of 1768. In 1789, in his Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham elaborated his conception of utility at greater length. Like Beccaria, he was initially most concerned with policies warranting the minimization of pain. In the late 1780s and early 1790s he developed a scheme for the reform of Britain’s prison system through a strategy of benign surveillance, termed Panopticon, whose disciplinary character in the absence of physical violence would come to be regarded by Michel Foucault (1926–1984) as one of the modern state’s insidious bureaucratic trappings. While most utilitarians after Bentham have been committed to liberal ideals, they have often been charged with inconsistency on the grounds that their principle of aggregating benefits for ‘‘the greatest number’’ is inescapably hostile to individual freedom. NINETEENTH-CENTURY UTILITARIANISM

Bentham welcomed the French Revolution and was eventually nominated a citizen of France, but he at first sought reform through philanthropy and

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not democracy and remarked that he would only agree to become a republican in Paris if permitted to remain a Royalist in London. In England it was less through his own endeavors than the influence of his chief and far more radical acolyte, James Mill, that utilitarianism became a potent political force. Under Mill’s guidance Bentham began early in the nineteenth century to campaign for major constitutional and social reform in England by way of such instruments as a free press, a parliament more manifestly accountable to the British electorate, and, eventually, universal suffrage. His Plan of Parliamentary Reform of 1818, together with Mill’s essays ‘‘Education’’ and ‘‘Government’’ for the Encyclopaedia Britannica and the Westminster Review, a political journal that the two men founded in 1824, were to make the philosophy of English utilitarianism, by now described as philosophic radicalism, one of the principal motors of British constitutional change that was to culminate in the great Reform Act of 1832 and the transformation around this time of the old Whigs into the modern Liberal Party. Other currents of English radicalism, including the Chartist movement, also contributed to these developments, but none sprang from so deep a source of reflection on human nature in general or, thanks above all to Mill, from its by now tributary doctrine of political representation. Mill’s son was to prove Britain’s preeminent, or at least most famous, political philosopher of the nineteenth century, less for his writings on utilitarianism than for his System of Logic and his essay On Liberty, still today liberalism’s chief manifesto. That Benthamite utilitarianism was an insufficient foundation for ethics seemed plain to John Stuart Mill for much of his life, and in essays on Bentham and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834) dating from the late 1830s he held that this doctrine, for all its admirable deconstruction of purely abstract ideals and blind intuitions, offered a defense of empiricism that lacked depth, subtlety, or any appreciation of aesthetic delight or the merits of received opinion. Utilitarianism as Bentham conceived it was a pragmatic and critical philosophy that had come to be compellingly radicalized, but it had never been informed by the terrors and passions of real experience, Mill remarked. In his essay Utilitarianism,

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dating from 1861, he continued to defend the principles of a philosophy he had mastered from his father, but he also set himself the task of distinguishing individuals’ higher from their lower pleasures, insisting, contrary to Bentham’s own scheme, that some kinds of pleasure, particularly of the mind, are more desirable and valuable than others. Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900), in his Methods of Ethics, first published in 1874, developed Mill’s objections to pure utilitarianism by way of contrasting both its virtues and faults from those of egoism and intuitionism, with which it competed for pride of place among other ethical doctrines. According to Sidgwick, each of these approaches taken separately was ultimately at variance with the more complex conceptions of reasonable conduct that did not admit of the formal definitions of the concepts of obligation and duty advocated by their proponents. To Sidgwick’s analysis in particular moral philosophers of the past century have owed many of their distinctions between consequentialist and duty-based or deontological moral philosophies, and between Benthamite consequentialism and the deontology of Immanuel Kant (1724– 1804) in particular, some of which were already anticipated by Kant himself in his treatment of empiricism and the philosophy of David Hume (1711–1776). See also Bentham, Jeremy; Coleridge, Samuel Taylor; Dickens, Charles; Great Britain; Liberalism; Mill, James; Mill, John Stuart.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Bentham, Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. London, 1789. Mill, John Stuart. Utilitarianism. London, 1863. Sidgwick, Henry. The Methods of Ethics. London, 1874.

Secondary Sources Hale´vy, Elie. The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism. Translated by Mary Morris. With a preface by A. D. Lindsay. London, 1928. Plamenatz, John Petrov. The English Utilitarians. Oxford, U.K., 1949. Thomas, William. The Philosophic Radicals. Oxford, U.K., 1979. ROBERT WOKLER

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UTOPIAN SOCIALISM. The term utopian socialism was first given currency by Friedrich Engels in his pamphlet ‘‘Socialism: Utopian and Scientific’’ (1880). For Engels the term referred to a group of early-nineteenth-century social theories and movements that criticized nascent capitalism and contrasted to it visions of an ideal society of plenty and social harmony. The three principal utopian socialists were the Frenchmen Henri de Saint-Simon (1760–1825) and Charles Fourier (1772–1837) and the British factory owner Robert Owen (1771–1858). Although these thinkers differed in significant ways—only Fourier was in any strict sense a utopian—all three attempted to find some solution for the social and economic dislocations caused by the French and Industrial Revolutions. All three began to write around 1800, published major works a decade later, and attracted followers who created Owenite, Saint-Simonian, and Fourierist movements in the 1820s and 1830s. ‘‘Socialism: Utopian and Scientific’’ offers a shrewd, well-informed, and sympathetic interpretation of the work of the utopian socialists. But this essay (originally part of a polemic against the German economist Eugen Du¨hring) was never intended to provide a comprehensive assessment of utopian socialism. Instead Engels emphasized aspects of utopian socialism that anticipated the Marxist critique of capitalism and dismissed much of the rest as ‘‘fantasy’’ unavoidable at a time when capitalist production was ‘‘still very incompletely developed.’’ Engels praised Fourier as a brilliant satirist of bourgeois society, Owen as an articulate spokesman for the demands of the working class, and Saint-Simon as the inspired prophet of a postcapitalist industrial order. At the same time, however, Engels criticized the utopian socialists for ignoring the importance of class conflict and failing to think seriously about the problem of how the ideal society might be brought into being. What the utopian socialists had failed to grasp, in Engels’s view, was that the development of capitalism and the growth of the factory system were themselves creating the material conditions both of proletarian revolution and of humanity’s ultimate regeneration.

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Despite its polemical origins, ‘‘Socialism: Utopian and Scientific’’ provided a paradigm within which historians worked for almost a century. In histories of socialism from G. D. H. Cole to George Lichtheim, the utopian socialists were seen as ‘‘precursors’’ whose theories were flawed by their faulty understanding of history and class conflict. The problem with this perspective is that it is both teleological and reductionist: teleological because it assumes that socialism reached its final ‘‘scientific’’ form in the writings of Karl Marx, and that the work of the utopians was valuable only insofar as it anticipated that of Marx; reductionist because it treats the development of socialism largely as a reflection of the rise of the working-class movement. FEATURES OF UTOPIAN SOCIALISM

Since the late twentieth century, however, some historians have called for a reassessment of utopian socialism that would grasp its inner logic and place it in its historical context. Viewed in this perspective, utopian socialism would seem to have four main features. First, it can be seen in economic terms as a reaction to the rise of commercial capitalism and as a rejection of the prevailing economic theory that the best and most natural economic system is one in which the individual is free to pursue private interests. Coming at an early point in the development of capitalism, the utopian socialists had a firsthand view of the results of unregulated economic growth. They shared a sense of outrage at the suffering and waste produced by early capitalism, and they all called for at least some measure of social control over the new productive forces unleashed by capitalism. Second, the critique and the remedies proposed by the utopian socialists were not, however, merely economic. They were writing out of a broader sense of social and moral disintegration. Competition for them was as much a moral as an economic phenomenon, and its effects could be seen just as clearly in the home as in the marketplace. Thus the utopian socialist critique of bourgeois society resembled that of conservatives such as Thomas Carlyle and socially conscious novelists such as Honore´ de Balzac and Charles Dickens. Utopian socialists believed that the French and Industrial Revolutions had produced a breakdown of traditional associations and group ties, that

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individuals were becoming increasingly detached from any kind of corporate structure, and that society as a whole was becoming increasingly fragmented and individualistic. Egoism was the great problem: the Saint-Simonians called it ‘‘the deepest wound of modern society.’’ And the utopian socialists’ vision of a better world was clearly the result of a search for some substitute for the old forms of community that egoism and individualism were destroying. Third, the utopian socialists all disliked violence and believed in the possibility of the peaceful transformation of society. Fourier and Saint-Simon had lived through the French Revolution and had been imprisoned during the Terror; they had no desire to see their ideas imposed by force or violent revolution. In any case they believed that this would not be necessary. Like Owen, Fourier and Saint-Simon expected to receive support for their ideas from members of the privileged classes. In that sense they were social optimists, and their optimism was rooted in their belief in the existence of a common good. Like the Enlightenment philosophes, they were convinced that there was no fundamental or unbridgeable conflict of interests between the rich and the poor, the propertied and the propertyless. Finally, there is an important point to be made about the form in which the utopian socialists presented their ideas. Each described himself as the founder of an exact science—a science of social organization—that would make it possible for humankind to turn away from sterile philosophical controversy and from the destructive arena of politics and to resolve, in scientific fashion, the problem of social harmony. But one of the striking features of the thought of the utopian socialists is that while they consistently presented their theories as rooted in the discovery of the true laws of human nature and society, they also spoke in the tones of religious prophets. For them the laws of nature were the laws of God, and the new science was the true religion. This blending of science and religion, and prophecy and sociology, was one of the hallmarks of the thinking of the utopian socialists and their followers in the period prior to 1848. UTOPIAN SOCIALIST MOVEMENTS

The movements created by the followers of SaintSimon, Owen, and Fourier flourished during the

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period 1830–1848. First on the scene were the Saint-Simonians, a group of brilliant young people, many of them graduates of the E´cole Polytechnique, the most prestigious school of engineering and applied science in France. Gathering around Saint-Simon in his last years, they regarded him as the prophet of a new world in which science and love would work together to bring about the material and moral regeneration of humanity. After his death in 1825, they founded journals and organized lecture tours designed to elaborate and spread his ideas. By 1830 they had created what they themselves described as a ‘‘faith’’—a new religion that aimed simultaneously at harnessing the productive forces of the emerging industrial society, at bettering the condition of ‘‘the poorest and most numerous class,’’ and at filling what they perceived as the moral and religious vacuum of the age. Eventually the movement was torn apart by a series of painful schisms, in the course of which the charismatic Prosper Enfantin (1796–1864) made himself ‘‘supreme father,’’ excommunicated various ‘‘heretics,’’ and issued a call for the ‘‘rehabilitation of the flesh.’’ After a brief period of communal living, a spectacular trial, and a general exodus to Egypt in search of the ‘‘female messiah,’’ the Saint-Simonian movement broke up. But in their sober years of maturity many of the former SaintSimonians went on to play important roles in French public life, promoting the colonization of North Africa, the development of railroads, and the industrialization of France during the Second Empire (1852–1870). The Owenites and the Fourierists were less spectacularly eccentric than the Saint-Simonians. But each group attracted many followers during the 1830s and 1840s. For a time in the early 1830s the Owenites were deeply involved in labor organization and the effort to create a great national federation of trade unions. This effort peaked in 1833–1834, but for another decade the principal Owenite journal, The New Moral World, continued to attract a substantial working-class readership. Most of the energy of the Owenites, however, went into a series of attempts to create working-class communities in which property was held in common and social and economic activity was organized on a cooperative basis. Inspired to some degree by the successful model factory that Owen himself had created at New Lanark in

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Scotland, seven such communities were created in Britain between 1825 and 1847 and another in America at New Harmony, Indiana. None of them lasted very long. But the cooperative trading stores created by working-class followers of Owen were more successful, and the history of the modern cooperative movement is generally traced back to the founding of an Owenite store in Rochdale, England, in 1844. The followers of Fourier also attempted to create experimental communities or ‘‘phalanxes’’ based on his theory (or rather on a watered-down version of his theory). Their efforts focused particularly on America, where some twenty-five Fourierist phalanxes were established in the 1840s. In France the Fourierists turned away from community building in the late 1840s and drew closer to the democratic and republican critics of the July Monarchy of King Louis-Philippe (r. 1830–1848). Under the leadership of the social reformer Victor Considerant (1808–1893), Fourierism became a political movement for ‘‘peaceful democracy,’’ which was to play a brief but significant role in 1848. The 1840s in France were also marked by the rise of a new generation of utopian socialists who emerged to create sects and ideologies of their own. E´tienne Cabet (1788–1856), a former conspiratorial revolutionary who had been influenced by Owen while an exile in England, attracted a substantial working-class following with the austere and authoritarian communist utopia described in his novel, Voyage en Icarie (1839). Pierre Leroux (1797–1871), a former Saint-Simonian, propounded a mystical humanitarian socialism, arguing that social reform should be guided by a new religion of humanity. The Christian socialist Philippe Buchez (1796–1865) helped found a working-class journal, L’Atelier, and inspired groups of artisans to form producers’ cooperatives. There was also an important group of feminist socialists, many of whom had passed through Saint-Simonianism or Fourierism, who began to find a voice in the 1840s. Flora Tristan (1803– 1844), Pauline Roland (1805–1852), and De´sire´e Ve´ret (1810–1891?) all pursued and deepened Fourier’s insight that the emancipation of women is the key to all social progress. And Tristan’s proposal for a workers’ union in L’Union ouvrie`re

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(1843) can now be seen as a kind of early syndicalist utopia. As they spread and multiplied, the ideologies of utopian socialism became part of a broad current of democratic and humanitarian thought in which the boundary lines between socialism and democratic republicanism became blurred. By 1848 utopian socialism had merged with other ideologies of the democratic Left to form a single movement that was broadly democratic and socialist. The shared foundation that held this movement together included a faith in the right to work and in universal (male) suffrage, a belief that the differences between classes and nations were not irreconcilable, and a program of ‘‘peaceful democracy’’ which assumed that if politicians would only appeal to the higher impulses of ‘‘the people,’’ a new era of class harmony and social peace would begin. In 1848 with the fall of the July Monarchy in France and of repressive police states in much of the rest of Europe, European radicals at last had their chance at power. But universal suffrage proved to be no panacea for the Left. In France the working-class insurrection of June 1848 shattered the dream of the utopian socialists that a ‘‘democratic and social republic’’ might usher in a new age of class harmony. Thereafter the program of ‘‘peaceful democracy’’ ceased to have any political meaning. The result of the failure of the 1848 revolutions, then, was to crush the idealistic and humanitarian aspirations of the second generation of utopian socialists and to destroy the vision of class collaboration that had been central to their thought. See also Fourier, Charles; Owen, Robert; Roland, Pauline; Saint-Simon, Henri de; Socialism; Tristan, Flora.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beecher, Jonathan. Charles Fourier: The Visionary and His World. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1986. ———. Victor Considerant and the Rise and Fall of French Romantic Socialism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2001. Carlisle, Robert B. The Proffered Crown: Saint-Simonianism and the Doctrine of Hope. Baltimore, Md., 1987. Claeys, Gregory. Machinery, Money, and the Millennium: From Moral Economy to Socialism, 1815–1860. Princeton, N.J., 1987. On the Owenites.

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Engels, Friedrich. ‘‘Socialism: Utopian and Scientific.’’ In The Marx-Engels Reader, edited by Robert C. Tucker, 683–717. 2nd ed. New York, 1978. Harrison, J. F. C. Quest for the New Moral World: Robert Owen and the Owenites in Britain and America. New York, 1969. Johnson, Christopher H. Utopian Communism in France: Cabet and the Icarians, 1839–1851. Ithaca, N.Y., 1974.

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Lichtheim, George. The Origins of Socialism. New York, 1969. Manuel, Frank E. The Prophets of Paris. Cambridge, Mass., 1962. Stedman Jones, Gareth. Introduction to The Communist Manifesto, by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, 3–187. London, 2002. JONATHAN BEECHER

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VAN GOGH, VINCENT (1853–1890), Dutch painter. Vincent Willem van Gogh is a classic example of the self-taught artist who, possessed of a unique talent and despite numerous setbacks, succeeded in securing a place in history. Although he drew passable landscapes and cityscapes in his youth, he did not become an artist until he was twenty-seven. It is remarkable, then, that in the ten years from 1880 to 1890 he was able to produce an impressive oeuvre, which by the time of his death included approximately nine hundred paintings and eleven hundred works on paper. In addition, he left some nine hundred letters filled with penetrating observations about his life and the role of art, artists, and literature. This correspondence is considered one of the most important of his era. CHILDHOOD

Van Gogh had a carefree childhood. He was the eldest son of a close-knit minister’s family in the rural village of Zundert, in the south of Holland. The rural surroundings gave him not only a lifelong love of nature but also an enduring nostalgia for the country of his youth. His Protestant upbringing was marked by an individualistic avowal of faith in which Christ’s humanity was central. Even though Van Gogh would later execrate the church as an institution, a symbolic and personal appreciation of nature as revelation remained a feature of his work. Until he opted for brush and pen in 1880, he was the proverbial jack-of-all-trades and master of

none. After a fragmentary education, he was hired as the youngest shop assistant in The Hague’s branch of the French art and print dealer Goupil and Company, in which his uncle Vincent Van Gogh (1820–1880) was a partner. He learned the trade and developed a respectable knowledge of the visual arts. He was especially drawn to the work of the Dutch seventeenth century, the Barbizon school, and the Hague school. In the evenings, he immersed himself in religiohistorical and theological questions, in the course of which he was deeply moved by the book La vie de Je´sus by the French theologian Ernest Renan (1823–1892). He gradually linked every experience to biblical texts, becoming preoccupied above all with the possibility of bringing consolation to humanity. He lost interest in the art business and was finally dismissed in 1876. Convinced that he had a social mission to fulfill, he successively tried to earn his keep as a teacher and assistant preacher in England’s Ramsgate (1876) and as a bookseller in Holland’s Dordrecht (1877). Having failed at both, he decided to follow in his father’s footsteps. But despite unremitting application, an attempt to study theology in Amsterdam in 1877 and 1878 was also unsuccessful. His appointment as evangelist among miners in Belgium’s Borinage district (1879) likewise ended badly. To his parents, who were close to despair, this signified the end of a conventional career. Van Gogh too was at his wits’ end. He dismissed suggestions that he become a lithographer, bookkeeper, carpenter’s apprentice, and even a baker.

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Finally, his brother Theo (1857–1891), who had also been employed at Goupil’s since 1873, suggested he become an artist. DUTCH PERIOD

Doggedly, Van Gogh strove to master the fundamentals of drawing, relying on textbooks. For a long time, his guiding lights were the French theoretician Armand Cassagne (1823–1907) and the artist Charles Bargue (c.1825–1883). He taught himself perspective, proportion, and human anatomy by copying old master drawings. He applied himself to social-realistic subject matter, which led, among other things, to such striking results as The Bearers of the Burden (1881). After moving in with his parents in Brabant’s Etten, in southern Holland, at the beginning of 1881, he took his themes from the rural setting and local peasant community. In this, he was inspired by the French rural realists Jules Dupre´ (1811–1889) and especially Jean-Franc¸ois Millet (1814–1875), who for many years became his artistic and spiritual mentor. Mounting friction with his parents prompted Van Gogh’s departure for The Hague, where he briefly took drawing and painting lessons from Anton Mauve (1838–1888), a well-known representative of the Hague school, and got to know Dutch painters such as George Hendrik Breitner (1857–1923), with whom he explored the city’s environs. Van Gogh underwent further training in perspective and life drawing, resulting in an important series of cityscapes, something that would remain a fixed genre in his oeuvre, along with numerous figure studies, among them Sorrow (1882), and studies of heads for which he got the local population to pose. As a great admirer of prints with social-realist themes from such illustrated magazines as the Graphic, he attempted to imbue his figures with a robust, expressive force. In addition, he explored the possibilities of color, which resulted in drawings such as The Poor and Money (1882). Following Millet, Van Gogh decided to abandon The Hague in order to further his skills as rural realist in unspoiled nature. The breakup of his difficult relationship with Sien Hoornik (1850– 1904), a former prostitute with whom he had lived since 1882, hastened his decision, and at the end of 1883 he set out for the northern Dutch province of Drenthe, where landscape and peasant life moved

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to the foreground of his work. He stayed for three months, given over to profound loneliness. Themes that paralleled those of Millet continued to preoccupy him during his stay in the still largely pristine Neunen in Brabant (1883–1885), although local weavers at work also appear. Painting became his principal activity, and although Van Gogh tested his ideas against those of his fellow artist and correspondent Anthon van Rappard (1858–1892), he was once again thrown back primarily on himself, relying for guidance on the color theories of the Romantic painter Euge`ne Delacroix (1798–1863), as formulated by, among others, the French art historian Charles Blanc (1814–1881). Employing a rich impasto stroke and dark palette— for which he was indebted to painters of the Hague school and the Barbizon school—he attempted to apply Delacroix’s ideas on color in numerous studies without having seen any of Delacroix’s paintings. Convinced of his progress and believing that before long he would be able to make marketable art, he attempted to complete fully developed paintings, of which The Potato Eaters (1885) was the first. TO PARIS

The death of his father in 1885 and subsequent familial tensions obliged Van Gogh to leave Nuenen. He went to Antwerp with the goal of making saleable art and honed his skill in portraiture and cityscape; he also took lessons at the academy. Toward the end of February 1886, he rather suddenly departed for Paris, moving in with Theo, who had been supporting him since 1881. Two years of experimentation and artistic encounters followed. His style and repertoire underwent a radical transformation and expanded considerably. After a short period in the studio of the history painter Fernand Cormon (1845–1926), where he did a great deal of drawing from nude and plaster models, he fell under the influence of the impasto-rich and brightly colored work of the Provenc¸al artist Adolphe Monticelli (1824–1886). He made a study of the color work of Delacroix and became fascinated by Japanese prints, which he collected passionately, and by the work of the contemporary French impressionists and young avant-garde of painters, including E´mile Bernard (1861–1941) and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901).

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Harvest. Convinced that he could make an artistic contribution, he urged Theo, to whom he sent his works in exchange for his support, to make sure he kept these works well secured. His desire to form an artists’ community in the south appeared to have become a reality with the arrival, in October 1888, of his mentor Paul Gauguin (1849–1903). The two artists worked closely, discussing all sorts of painterly issues, including whether or not it was possible to work from the imagination. But only nine weeks later, the collaboration was interrupted when the first signs of Van Gogh’s mental illness manifested themselves and he cut off his left earlobe. From then until his death, he would know long periods of depression, anxiety attacks, self-mutilation, and profound despair.

Self portrait by Van Gogh, 1887. MUSE´E D’ORSAY, PARIS, FRANCE/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

He experimented intensively with the impressionistic brush stroke technique, applied the postimpressionists’ pointillist technique, began using a much lighter palette, and incorporated decorative elements in his work. This led to such noteworthy results as Portrait of Pe`re Tanguy, Park Voyer d’Argenson, and series after series of cityscapes in watercolor. THE STUDIO OF THE SOUTH

In the beginning of 1888, fatigued by city life and yearning for unspoiled regions, Van Gogh left for Arles, in the south of France, which reminded him of the bright colors of Japan as he had seen it in prints. In the meantime, he had developed into a complete artist with a spontaneous, vigorous style who increasingly applied such elements of form as color and line independently, without sacrificing the expressive power of his subject matter. The rural setting around Arles inspired a remarkable series of drawings and paintings filled with harmonious color effects: blooming orchards, The Sunflowers, and The

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In April 1889, Van Gogh voluntarily committed himself to a psychiatric clinic in nearby Saint Re´my. His former optimism had been replaced with a feeling of gloom about the future. Nevertheless, as he had before, he made a virtue of necessity. He discovered new subject matter, such as the irises in the overgrown and walled-in clinic garden, and translated several beloved black and white prints of Millet and Rembrandt into colorful canvasses. Whenever his health permitted, he would also work outside, where he added Provence’s cypresses and olive trees to his repertoire. RETURN TO THE NORTH

In May 1890, exhausted, he left the south of France and settled in the Auvers-sur-Oise, near Paris. Here he once again took up what he called ‘‘the study of landscape and peasant life,’’ which had fascinated him throughout his painting life. He was enthusiastic about the village and the rustic setting and worked feverishly on a variety of landscapes—spacious fields, wheat stacks, and sunsets— in his characteristic, expressive language of form and brilliant color. He seemed to have recovered. The shock therefore was great when on 27 July he fatally wounded himself with a shot to the chest in a field near the village. Two days later he died in the arms of Theo, his anchor and support. See also Avant-Garde; Barbizon Painters; Delacroix, Euge`ne; Gauguin, Paul; Millet, Jean-Franc¸ois; Painting.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Druick, Douglas, and Peter Kort Zegers. Van Gogh and Gauguin: The Studio of the South. New York, 2001. Faille, J.-B. de la. The Works of Vincent Van Gogh: His Paintings and Drawings. Amsterdam, 1970. Hulsker, Jan. Vincent and Theo Van Gogh: A Dual Biography. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1990. ———. The New Complete Van Gogh: Paintings, Drawings, Sketches. Rev. ed. Amsterdam, 1996. Ives, Colta, et al. Vincent Van Gogh: The Drawings. New York, 2005. Stolwijk, Chris, et al. Vincent’s Choice: The Muse´e Imaginaire of Van Gogh. Amsterdam, 2003. Van Gogh, Vincent. The Complete Letters of Vincent Van Gogh, with Reproductions of All the Drawings in the Correspondence. 3 vols. New York, 1958. Van Heugten, Sjraar et al. Vincent Van Gogh: Drawings. 3 vols. Amsterdam, 1996–2001. CHRIS STOLWIJK

n

VENICE. On the eve of the French Revolution, as the capital of an independent Republic, Venice still ruled over an extensive territory stretching along the Adriatic coast into Dalmatia, and deep into Lombardy. Venice had long before lost its position as the Mediterranean’s dominant commercial center, falling victim to the rise of the Atlantic economy, and due to an inability to compete with bigger states. Indeed, by the mid-eighteenth century, the Habsburg free port of Trieste had begun to emerge as a rival even within the Adriatic. Nevertheless, Venice—still ruled by a narrow patrician oligarchy—was by no means the decadent and marginalized state often portrayed by contemporaries and subsequent historians alike. It remained a significant trading center, could deploy a sizeable fleet, and, in cultural terms, could still produce figures of the caliber of the playwright Carlo Goldoni (1707–1793) and the sculptor Antonio Canova (1757–1822). THE END OF THE VENETIAN REPUBLIC

The collapse of the Republic of Saint Mark in 1797 was not the consequence, as has frequently been suggested, of the cowardice and corruption of Venice’s patrician class, but a direct result of changes in international relations brought about

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by the French Revolution. During the second half of the eighteenth century, the Venetian government had recognized that the only possible means of surviving in the face of expansionist neighbors was to adopt a policy of neutrality. When the Directory’s Army of Italy invaded Italy in 1796 under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte (later Napoleon I, r. 1804–1814/15), the Venetian state had attempted to keep to this policy, but Austrian and French forces soon violated Venice’s neutrality. In the spring of 1797, Napoleon invaded the Republic’s mainland territories, establishing Jacobin satellite municipalities in many of the cities hitherto under its rule. Napoleon used a popular anti-French rising in Verona and resistance to French incursion into the lagoon as a pretext to occupy Venice itself. Faced with a French ultimatum, and anxious to avoid bloodshed or French reprisals, the last Doge, Ludovico Manin (r. 1789– 1797), transferred power to the French authorities. Napoleon briefly set up a Jacobin municipal republic in the city, but almost immediately entered secret negotiations with the Austrians. In October 1797, these resulted in the Treaty of Campoformido. By this treaty, Venice and most of its former mainland territories to the east of the river Mincio were transferred to Habsburg rule in exchange for territorial concessions elsewhere. AUSTRIAN AND NAPOLEONIC RULE

Austrian troops arrived in Venice in January 1798. The city remained under the relatively benign rule of the Habsburgs until January 1806, when, by the Treaty of Pressburg, Napoleon (now crowned Emperor) annexed the city and its remaining territory to his satellite Kingdom of Italy. Until its liberation by Austrian forces in the spring of 1814, Venice languished under Napoleonic rule. Reduced to the status of a provincial capital, and with its remnants of trade destroyed because of AngloFrench naval rivalry and economic warfare, the plight of the Venetians under Napoleon was further exacerbated by heavy conscription, rapacious taxation, and the systematic plundering of Venice’s art. The Vienna settlement acknowledged the Austrian Emperor, Francis I (r. 1804–1835), as ruler of Venetia. Although the newly created Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia was technically separate from the rest of the empire, in practice most key decisions were made in Vienna. Such

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centralized rule was unpopular among Venetians. There was also disappointment that much of the machinery and personnel of the Napoleonic system was retained. Venice continued to suffer from a heavy tax burden and conscription, and many Venetians were angered by the large numbers of ‘‘foreigners’’ (both German-speakers and Lombards) who dominated the higher ranks of the civil service. Nevertheless, government expenditure rose massively under Austrian rule, and the reign of Francis I saw a gradual increase in the numbers of Venetians playing a role in the administration. A major source of resentment remained the apparently preferential treatment given to Trieste, although in 1830 Venice was granted the same free port status as its rival. Another fillip to the Venetian economy came in the form of causeway linking the city with the mainland, completed in 1846. Despite such measures, Venice was characterized by poverty and unemployment. Surprisingly, until the later 1840s there was very little active opposition to Habsburg rule. The one attempted rising—a naval mutiny led by the Bandiera brothers, Attilio (1810–1844) and Emilio (1819–1844)—failed spectacularly. CULTURAL RESPONSES IN THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY

In the Napoleonic and Restoration periods, Venice’s greatest artist was the sculptor Canova, whose exquisite marbles were valued throughout Europe. In literary terms, the city was famous for the work of Ugo Foscolo (1778–1827), who flirted with the Napoleonic regime but went into exile in 1815. In the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, Venice began again to attract steadily larger numbers of travelers, including such figures as the French Romantic Franc¸ois-Rene´ de Chateaubriand (1768–1848), the novelist Stendhal (Henri Beyle; 1783–1842), the Irish poet Thomas Moore (1779–1852), and Lord Byron (1788–1824). Literary reactions to Venice were far from consistent, but few writers engaged with its current political and economic state; they preferred instead to explore a mythologized version of its past, and used the modern city as a trope for decay. This was echoed in representations by painters such as Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775–1851) and Richard Parkes Bonington (1802–1828) whose sketches showed contemporary Venice, but whose finished works tended to populate it with figures from much earlier

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periods. To the extent that foreign travelers did address the contemporary situation, they were generally critical of Austrian rule. One notable exception to this was John Ruskin (1819–1900), who loathed contemporary Venetians and bizarrely located the start of Venice’s decline in 1418. However, the general trend was reflected in the description of the city offered by Charles Dickens (1812–1870) in his Pictures from Italy (1846): in contrast with the gritty realism of the rest of the book, his chapter on Venice is entitled ‘‘An Italian Dream.’’ THE 1848 REVOLUTION AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY

The passive nature of Venice completely changed in 1848. Grievances had been growing since the late 1830s, as Venetians became increasingly intolerant of the bureaucratic and unresponsive nature of Austrian rule, of high taxation used to service the imperial debt, and of heavy-handed censorship. Matters were aggravated by the rule of the mentally weak Ferdinand I (r. 1835–1848), whose inability to provide direction was highlighted by the economic crisis of the so-called hungry forties. During 1846 and 1847, the people of Venice and its mainland increasingly criticized Austrian rule. The most eloquent opponent of the regime was Daniele Manin (1804–1857), who had risen to prominence during debates over the construction of a railway line between Venice and Milan. His persistent—although initially far from radical—attacks on Habsburg misrule landed him briefly in prison; on his release he assumed the role of champion of Venetian interests against alleged Austrian oppression. Revolution in France, the fall of Prince Clemens von Metternich (1773–1859) in the face of popular demonstrations in Vienna, increasing agitation in Hungary, and unrest elsewhere in Italy—including insurrection in Milan, which led to the retreat of the Austrian commander Count Joseph Radetzky (1766–1858)— generated panic among the authorities in Venice, and the governor, Aloys Palffy, evacuated the city. A provisional regime was swiftly established under the direction of Manin, who declared the establishment of a Republic of Saint Mark. The threat from Austria encouraged the population of the mainland to seek closer links with Milan and SardiniaPiedmont, tying Manin’s policy more closely to that of Piedmontese King, Charles Albert (r. 1831–1849), than he would have wished. However, defeat of

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Venice, 1840 Painting by J. M. W. Turner. Turner visited Venice three times between 1819 and 1840 and was much attracted by its luminous atmosphere. It became one of his favorite subjects for landscape. VICTORIA & ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON/ART RESOURCE, NY

Charles Albert by Habsburg forces at Custoza (July 1848) forced the Venetians to rely on their own resources to safeguard their newly won independence. Although the rest of the peninsula experienced risings in 1848 and 1849, the Venetian revolution endured longer than any other, eventually succumbing to military blockade and cholera. In the aftermath of revolution, Venice was subjected to the stern administration of the elderly Radetzky, before a milder regime was introduced under Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg (1832– 1867) in 1857. Nevertheless, relations between Vienna and the local population had been badly damaged, and many Venetians increasingly looked toward Italian unity as a means to escape from Austrian rule. This stance was strengthened when Manin publicly renounced his former republican sympathies and called on Italians to support unification under the Piedmontese monarchy. Hopes that Venice might be annexed by the Piedmontese evaporated in 1859, when the French emperor

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Napoleon III (r. 1852–1871) broke his promise to the prime minister Count Cavour (Camillo Benso; 1810–1861) that he would free all of northern Italy from Austria. The creation of the new Kingdom of Italy in 1860 led to intermittent calls for the seizure of Venetia. In 1865, the Austrians rebuffed an Italian offer to purchase the region. Acquisition of Venetia finally took place in 1866, when the Italians fought against Austria in alliance with Prussia. Despite defeats on land and sea by the Austrians, the Italians were still able to gain Venice and its mainland provinces, thanks to Prussian victory and the diplomatic involvement of Napoleon III. Legitimacy was given to the annexation by an overwhelmingly positive vote in a plebiscite, which was nevertheless marred by rigging and intimidation. VENICE UNDER ITALIAN RULE

Neither Venice nor the Venetian mainland initially benefited from Italian unity. As a port Venice

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continued to decline in the face of competition from other maritime cities in the peninsula. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and Venice’s selection as chief port of the India Mail in 1872 did act as a slight stimulus to trade, which was increasingly located in the west of the city (near the railway) rather than around Saint Mark’s Square. Venetians, however, remained generally indifferent or hostile to their new status as Italians, a fact reflected in their unwillingness to stand as parliamentary candidates in the 1870s. Economic problems persisted in the late nineteenth century, and, until the 1890s, Venetia witnessed some of Italy’s highest rates of emigration, albeit usually to European destinations rather than to the New World. Yet, despite the poverty of the region, Venice gradually reconciled itself to Italian rule in the decades before World War I. This in part reflected a gradually improving economy, helped by the growth of industry in the 1880s (including the establishment of the Stucky grain mill and pasta factory on the Giudecca and construction of warships in the Arsenale), and, more significantly, by the massive expansion of tourism. Venice now appealed not only because of its romantic past, but also because of the development of the Lido as a center for sea bathing. VENICE AND CULTURE, 1866–1915

Despite the establishment of a biennial international art festival in 1895, the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were not an especially fertile period for Venetian art or literature. In general, however, the city was more interesting as a stimulus to foreign artists, writers, poets, and composers than to homegrown ones. The most famous resident Italian writer in the years before World War I was the nationalist firebrand Gabriele d’Annunzio (1863–1938), whose novel The Flame of Life (1900) played with the contrasts between Venice past and modern. In very different ways, Henry James (1843–1916) and Thomas Mann (1875–1955) loaded Venice with symbolic significance.

Johann Strauss (1825–1899) opera A Night in Venice (1883), and the Venetian plays of Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1874–1929), as well as in many of the canvases of the Venetian painter Giacomo Favretto (1898–1964). British views of the city continued to be heavily influenced by the backwardlooking legacy of Ruskin. However, the city was also periodically home to a wide range of British, including the historians Rawdon Brown (1803– 1883) and Horatio Brown (1854–1926), the poet and historian John Addington Symonds (1840– 1893), and the novelist and fantasist Frederick Rolfe (1860–1913), who, while deeply interested in its past, engaged passionately with the modern city and its inhabitants. A similar preoccupation characterized the work of many American and British painters, such as Robert Frederick Blum (1857–1903), John Singer Sargent (1856–1925), Maurice Brazil Prendergast (1859–1924), and Sir Samuel Luke Fildes (1843–1927), who sought to portray a living city (albeit in a sometimes sentimentalized form). In so doing they echoed local painters, such as Ettore Tito (1867–1941), who was anxious to portray scenes of everyday Venetian life rather than turning the city into a symbol of past glory. The most radical response to the city in this period, however, came in 1910 when the leader of the Futurists, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (1876–1944), declared rhetorical war against a Venice that he saw as no more than a ridiculous museum. See also Milan; Naples; Rome; Trieste; Vienna. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Laven, David. Venice and Venetia Under the Habsburgs, 1815–1835. Oxford, U.K., 2002. Pemble, John. Venice Rediscovered. Oxford, U.K., 1995. Plant, Margaret. Venice: Fragile City 1797–1997. New Haven, Conn., 2002. Zorzi, Alvise. Venezia austriaca, 1798–1866. Rome, 1985. DAVID LAVEN

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The tension between Venice past and present was evident in the city’s treatment by other creative artists. Many remained obsessed with Venice’s exotic past, as evidenced in Hans Markart’s painting Homage to Queen Caterina Cornaro (1873), in the

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VERDI, GIUSEPPE (1813–1901), Italian operatic composer. Giuseppe Verdi was the most influential and popular composer of Italian opera during the

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second half of the nineteenth century. Born on 9 or 10 October 1813 to a family of small farmers and tavern keepers in the hamlet of Roncole, near Busseto, his musical talents were recognized early and cultivated by his parents, as well as by a local priest who instructed him in organ performance. Having spent his teenage years as church organist of San Michele in Roncole, he applied to the Milan Conservatory but was denied admission in part because, at eighteen, he exceeded the usual entering age. He relocated to Milan anyway, studying composition privately and working as a rehearsal pianist for the Milanese Societa` Filarmonica. Verdi received his first important break at the age of twenty-six when Bartolomeo Merelli, the impresario of Milan’s Teatro alla Scala, agreed to produce his first opera, Oberto, conte di San Bonifacio (1839; Oberto, count of St. Boniface). The work was enormously successful for a composer of such youth and inexperience, and it served as the catalyst for a career that was to span six full decades. During these years, Verdi composed twenty-eight operas for cities throughout Italy, as well as for Paris, London, St. Petersburg, and Cairo, and he was celebrated throughout Europe as the greatest Italian musical dramatist of the century. In the early twenty-first century, Verdi retains a place of honor in the pantheon of the nineteenth century’s great composers, and his operas remain among the most beloved in the repertory. Verdi experienced one of his only true failures early in his career with his second work, the comic opera Un giorno di regno (Milan, 1840; King for a day), which was removed from La Scala’s boards following its one and only disastrous performance. Embittered by this setback, and still reeling over the closely spaced deaths of his only two children (Virginia on 12 August 1838 and Icilio Romano on 22 October 1839) and his first wife (Margherita on 18 June 1840), Verdi allegedly resolved to quit composing (though he continued to participate in Milan’s musical life, rewriting portions of Oberto and overseeing rehearsals of the work). His next opera, Nabucco, was produced less than two years later (also at La Scala), and was an unprecedented success, catapulting Verdi from a local hero into a national and international superstar. His career thereafter was characterized by a steady stream of commissions and triumphs, and it has become common to divide his output into three periods:

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‘‘early’’ (1839–1849), ‘‘middle’’ (1849–1862), and ‘‘late’’ (1863–1891). His early period was his busiest, yielding fourteen operas including Ernani (Venice, 1844), Attila (Venice, 1846), and Macbeth (Florence, 1847). During the middle period, Verdi completed ten works, seven of which remain in today’s repertory: Luisa Miller (Naples, 1849), Rigoletto (Venice, 1851), Il trovatore (Rome, 1853; The troubadour), La traviata (Venice, 1853; The fallen woman), Les Veˆpres siciliennes (Paris, 1855; The Sicilian vespers), Simon Boccanegra (Venice, 1857; revised, Milan, 1881), and Un ballo in maschera (Rome, 1859; A masked ball). Verdi’s final period was his least productive, in large part because his firmly established reputation and finances permitted him the leisure to compose only when he desired. During this quarter century, he wrote the Messa di Requiem (Milan, 1874) and four operas: Don Carlos (Paris, 1867; revised, Milan, 1884), Aı¨da (Cairo, 1871), Otello (Milan, 1887), and Falstaff (Milan, 1893). Throughout most of his career, Verdi was accompanied by the soprano Giuseppina Strepponi (1815–1897), who created the leading female role in Nabucco and was one of Verdi’s staunchest advocates. They lived together for over a decade before marrying in 1859. Verdi died in Milan on 27 January 1901. The early decades of Verdi’s career overlapped with the Risorgimento (the movement for Italian unification), and his role as patriot and politician formed an integral component of his reputation. Beginning in 1858, the acronym VERDI was used to promote the popular choice for king (Vittorio Emmanuele, Re d’Italia), and the slogan ‘‘Viva Verdi!’’ became a common rallying call among patriots. Following independence, Verdi was elected to the first Italian parliament and later honored as senator for life. His most important role in the Risorgimento, however, was as a composer whose operas, especially their choruses, served as anthems symbolizing a burgeoning national identity. Since the early 1990s, however, the political significance of this music has come under question. Some have suggested that the composer’s preunification reputation has been misrepresented and that his choruses became political anthems only after Italian unification. This argument has encouraged a new round of research that has reconfirmed Verdi’s position as the vate (bard)

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of the Risorgimento and has opened the discussion to inquiries about political messages woven into the works of Verdi’s contemporaries as well as his own. That such debate still surrounds Verdi’s operas is a clear sign of the immediacy with which this music still speaks to audiences of the early twenty-first century, and with which it will continue to move opera lovers for years to come. See also Music; Opera; Rossini, Gioachino. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Balthazar, Scott L., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Verdi. Cambridge, U.K., 2004. Budden, Julian. The Operas of Verdi. 3 vols. London, 1973– 1981. Rev. ed., Oxford, U.K., 1992. Parker, Roger. Leonora’s Last Act: Essays in Verdian Discourse. Princeton, N.J., 1997. Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane. Verdi: A Biography. Oxford, U.K., 1993. HILARY PORISS

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VERGA, GIOVANNI (1840–1922), Italian novelist. Giovanni Verga was the greatest Italian novelist of the second half of the nineteenth century and the most important exponent of verismo (nineteenth-century Italian realism). He was born in Catania into a family of wealthy landowners with noble ascendancy on the paternal side (the father had the right to bear the title of knight). An earnest supporter of the Italian national cause, he served in the National Guard from 1860 to 1864, when he left due to his increasing uneasiness with the way the Italian army was repressing ‘‘brigandage’’ in the southern regions following unification. His early literary training took place in Sicily, but in 1869 he moved to Florence, at the time the capital of Italy, where he developed a lasting friendship with Luigi Capuana (1839–1915), the theorist of verismo. He left Florence in 1872 to move to Milan, then the center of a thriving publishing industry and of a lively literary and society scene, in which he became an untiring participant. He resided in the Lombard city for twenty years before returning permanently to Sicily. In his later years, with the advent of mass politics and frequent social

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and political turmoil in Italy, his political conservatism and nationalism became more vehement. Shortly before he died, he was appointed senator. After a literary debut with novels that dealt with patriotic themes, including I carbonari della montagna (1861–1862; The Carbonari in the mountains) and Sulle lagune (1863; In the lagoons), he wrote stories featuring mostly society men and women and focusing on tragic love entanglements, at times based on the author’s experiences, such as Una peccatrice (1866; A sinner), Storia di una capinera (1869; Story of a blackcap), Eva (1873), and Eros (1875). In 1874 he published his first short story on a different subject, the harsh life of a poor Sicilian woman (‘‘Nedda’’). In the following years, under the influence of French naturalism and of positivism (especially the emerging investigative literature on the Southern Question, the problem of governance of and the persistent poverty of the southern regions after unification of the country), he further devoted himself to the representation of Sicily and the Sicilians both in short story collections (Vita dei campi, [1880; Life in the fields], Novelle rusticane [1883; Little novels of Sicily]) and in novels that abandoned the conventions of the picturesque then dominating the literature on Sicily. In his greatest realistic novel, I Malavoglia (1881; The house by the medlar tree), he describes the vicissitudes of the Toscano family, Sicilian fishermen whose traditional ways are disrupted by the demands of the Italian state (which ‘‘steals’’ the first son for service in the army) and by the economic difficulties that ensue from a bad business deal. The solidarity among the members of the old family clan becomes a casualty in the struggle for material well-being and in the new and harsher conditions of an increasingly competitive society. Stylistically and linguistically the novel is original and unconventional. In its attempt to tell the story from the point of view of the community in which the Malavoglia family’s vicissitudes unfolded, it is replete with popular sayings that are supposed to express the wisdom of the community. And in order to render the language of ordinary Sicilians it is written in a ‘‘spoken’’ Italian that tries to reproduce the syntactical structures of the local dialect.

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Verga intended I Malavoglia to be the first in a cycle of five novels describing the vinti (conquered), those vanquished by the crushing tide of progress in five different social strata. However, after writing I Malavoglia, Verga completed only the second novel in the series, entitled Mastro-don Gesualdo (1889). Powerfully imbued with Verga’s pessimistic view of social life, this is the grim but vivid tale of a self-made Sicilian commoner, ruthlessly devoted to increasing his possessions, who tries to gain acceptance into the status-conscious local nobility by marrying an impoverished noblewoman. Having failed in this and other respects, he dies a lonely death in the house of the only daughter, who is ashamed of his low origins. Italian verismo shared several features with French naturalism, from the desire to represent contemporary society in a manner ‘‘true to reality,’’ to the focus on the determinants of life in different social strata, to the rhetoric of impersonality. In contrast to the urban focus of French naturalism, however, Italian veristi mainly represented a rural world under pressure from a changing political and economic order. Also in contrast to French naturalism, verismo never achieved fame abroad. Not even in Italy did I Malavoglia encounter the favor of the public and the critics and it was only after World War II and in the context of the rise of literary neo-realism that this masterpiece of Italian realism was fully appreciated and became enshrined in the literary canon. More positive was the reception of Maestro-don Gesualdo, but during Verga’s lifetime fame came to him primarily with the theatrical and then operatic adaptation, by Pietro Mascagni, of one of his Sicilian short stories, ‘‘Cavalleria rusticana,’’ (1884; Rustic chivalry) which premiered in Rome in 1890. See also Carducci, Giosue`; D’Annunzio, Gabriele; ´ mile. Realism and Naturalism; Zola, E

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Asor Rosa, Alberto, ed. Il caso Verga. Palermo, 1972. Brand, Peter, and Lino Pertile, eds. The Cambridge History of Italian Literature. New York, 1996. Merola, Nicola. Giovanni Verga. Florence, 1993. Moe, Nelson. The View from Vesuvius: Italian Culture and the Southern Question. Berkely, Calif., 2002.

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Verga, Giovanni. Tutte le novelle. Edited by Carla Riccardi. Milan, 1979. ———. Tutti i romanzi. Edited by Enrico Ghidetti. Florence, 1983.

SILVANA PATRIARCA

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VERNE, JULES (1828–1905), French novelist. For many years, Jules Verne was routinely paired with H. G. Wells as one of the founding fathers of modern science fiction. It is increasingly clear that the true picture is more complex. In his ‘‘Scientific Romances,’’ Wells composed extrapolations; the main axis of his work—as in most science fiction—is Time. Verne, who published fifty-five Voyages Extraordinaires between 1863 and the year of his death, was less interested in the fate of the Western world than in the explosive growth of Europe over the years of his career; his main axis is Space. Verne is perhaps the ultimate prose poet of geography. His early work in particular can therefore be understood as a geography of the European explosion; these early novels celebrate a sense that to travel the world is to possess the world. The explorers, scientists, military adventurers, and daring entrepreneurs who populate most of his early fiction transform the darkness of the world. They are light-bringers. Tales that have been understand as manuals for young imperialists include Cinq semaines en ballon (Five Weeks in a Balloon, 1863); Voyage au centre de la terre (Journey to the Center of the Earth, 1864); Vingt mille lieues sous les mers (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, 1870), and Le Tour du monde en quatrevingts jours (Around the World in Eighty Days, 1874). Verne’s novels have rarely been out of print. Unfortunately for his reputation, however, Verne’s work has persistently been misunderstood. Anglophone students have in general been reluctant, therefore, to examine his work for more comprehensive insights into that period (1860– 1880) when the scientific and industrial progress of Europe seemed an entirely natural justification for imperialism. But even the most eager scholar would have found the texts themselves, as they have been known for a century or more, almost

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impenetrable, because the true complexity of Verne’s imaginative take on the late nineteenth century has been deeply obscured by the notorious badness, until well into the twentieth century, of almost all translations of his work. It was normal for his early translators to cut up to 40 percent of the original texts and to bowdlerize what remained to render the result ‘‘suitable’’ for the juvenile audiences to which it was assumed Verne catered exclusively; moreover, the multiple ironies and ambivalences of these tales, which often sternly addressed political issues, were systematically expunged. Furthermore, almost a century after his death, French scholars have begun to discover that even Verne’s original French texts had suffered prior emasculations at the hands of his longtime publisher, Pierre-Jules Hetzel (1814–1886), who went so far as to reject an entire 1863 novel (Paris au XXe Sie`cle [Paris in the Twentieth Century]) because it took a mildly iconoclastic view of the ‘‘triumph’’ of Europe. As Verne’s novels dealt directly with Europe’s conquering of the world through applied science and technology, it is something of a tragedy that the full range of his understanding of these vital decades was so thoroughly obscured. In later years, it became more difficult to conceal from readers Verne’s examinations of the darker implications of the conquest of the planet— though even in the twenty-first century, Anglophone readers will have no access to the harsher implications of L’ıˆle a` he´lice (Propeller island, 1895)—as all political satire was stripped out of the English translation, The Floating Island (1896), though Verne’s final, devastating image of the consequences of travel does remain. The two communities on this artificial island, unable to agree on where they should go next, rip their habitat apart. Verne’s original French text has never been published; but the image of empires about to burst asunder did survive his censors. There is, of course, much of Verne’s work that combined didactism and a purer joy of storytelling. The dawn-like elation of discovering something new around the next corner of the world has never been so ringingly narrated. And the thousands of pages of his work as a whole constitute, in classic late nineteenth-century style, an exposition of the

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world, a glittering narrative of the world on display. In the end, Verne was his century’s great romancer. See also Explorers; Wells, H. G. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Evans, Arthur B. Jules Verne Rediscovered: Didacticism and the Scientific Novel. New York, 1988. Evans, Arthur B., ed. ‘‘A Jules Verne Centenary.’’ Special issue of Science Fiction Studies 95, vol. 32, part 1 (March 2005). Lottman, Herbert R. Jules Verne: An Exploratory Biography. New York, 1996. Smyth, Edmund J., ed. Jules Verne: Narratives of Modernity. Liverpool, 2000. JOHN CLUTE

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VICTOR EMMANUEL II (1820–1878; ruled 1861–1878), first king of Italy. Victor Emmanuel (born 14 March 1820) took the throne of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia at age twenty-eight. He succeeded his father, Charles Albert (r. 1831–1849), who abdicated after the Austrians defeated Piedmontese forces at the Battle of Novara in 1849. Twelve years later, 17 March 1861, with all but Venice, Rome, Trieste, and the Trentino united under the aegis of Piedmont, he accepted the title King of Italy. When he took power in 1849, Victor Emmanuel II endorsed the constitution granted by his father the year before and reluctantly agreed to Austria’s stiff terms for an armistice. Parliament rejected the armistice, and the new king dissolved it (29 March 1849) and called new elections only to see the voters reaffirm democratic control. The king dissolved the Chamber again and appealed to the people to return a more favorable majority with the Proclamation of Moncalieri, 20 November 1849. This time moderates took charge (9 December 1849), and they endorsed the peace treaty with Austria on 5 January 1850. Victor Emmanuel’s ability to stand up to the Austrians and to undercut the democrats without using force or violating the constitution won him the epithet ‘‘the gentleman king.’’ In this early crisis, he insisted on the royal prerogative to make war and peace and used his power to dissolve

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question. As Piedmont-Sardinia gained prominence, republicans and patriots elsewhere on the peninsula increasingly looked to Victor Emmanuel for leadership of the national movement. The exact nature of Victor Emmanuel’s role in the events leading to unification remains the subject of debate. Historians attribute the creation of Italy under Piedmontese rule to some combination of the diplomatic finesse of Cavour, the actions of the French emperor Napoleon III (1808–1873), the success of Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) and his Red Shirts, the popular drive for liberation, and the pressure of events. At the least, Victor Emmanuel did not obstruct unification, and according to most assessments, he assisted the process in key ways. In particular, he managed in volatile conditions to maintain contacts with the democratic movement while successfully presenting himself to moderates and frightened foreign governments as the only plausible guarantee against popular revolution.

Right Leg in the Boot at Last. Cartoon from the English satirical journal Punch, 17 November 1860. Garibaldi’s conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the subsequent unification of the peninsula under Victor Emmanuel II are lampooned. BIBLIOTHE`QUE NATIONALE, PARIS, FRANCE /BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/GIRAUDON

parliament to bring it in line with his more moderate views. His constitutional authority and his interest in using it gave him political influence, especially as the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia gained prominence in the movement to unify Italy. While he agreed with moderates on constitutional rule and Piedmont-Sardinia’s national mission, Victor Emmanuel remained conservative on religious matters. He resisted a bill to dissolve monastic orders, but at the urging of close advisors, he signed the law (29 May 1855). At odds over religious policy, the king and his prime minister Count Cavour (Camillo Benso, 1810–1861) found common ground on foreign affairs, agreeing to join France and England against Russia in the Crimean War (4 March 1855). Contributions to the war gave Piedmont-Sardinia a place at the Congress of Paris (opened 25 February 1856) and brought acknowledgment of the Italian

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The attempt of the Italian Felice Orsini (1819– 1858) on Emperor Napoleon III’s life (14 January 1858) opened a critical sequence of events. Napoleon III met with Cavour (July 20–21) and agreed to support Piedmont’s effort to expel Austria from northern Italy. He accepted the creation of a northern Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel as part of an Italian confederation of states. Victor Emmanuel agreed in turn to cede Nice and Savoy to France and to marry his daughter Clotilde to the emperor’s cousin, Prince Napoleon (alliance signed 24 January 1859). War broke out with Austria 27 April 1859, and French and Piedmontese troops forced an Austrian retreat. Under pressure from Napoleon III and over strong protests from Cavour, Victor Emmanuel accepted the truce of Villafranca (8 July 1859) and received control over Lombardy, causing Cavour to resign. Meanwhile the duchies of central Italy (Tuscany, Modena, Parma, Bologna) collapsed, and moderate leaders moved rapidly to take control. They requested annexation to Piedmont-Sardinia, and with the encouragement of England and the sanction of plebiscites, Victor Emmanuel agreed. With the king’s support and against the wishes of Cavour (who returned to power 21 January 1860), Garibaldi organized an army of volunteers and prepared to invade Sicily. The rapid liberation of Sicily from the Spanish Bourbons alarmed European powers, and

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Victor Emmanuel publicly warned Garibaldi against crossing to the mainland, while privately urging him on. When Garibaldi landed in southern Italy (18 August), the Piedmontese army invaded the Papal States to stop him (10 September 1860). The forces met at Teano (26 October), and Garibaldi ceded Sicily and Naples to Victor Emmanuel. As the first king of united Italy, Victor Emmanuel actively influenced foreign policy, working with his ministers to annex Venice (1866) and Rome (1870). Because parliamentary factionalism weakened cabinets, his authority to appoint ministers drew him into internal politics as well. Initially he favored the Right and then, with the ‘‘parliamentary revolution’’ of March 1876, he accepted the Left’s arrival in power. His actions helped reduce the opposition of republicans to monarchy and of the South to unification under the North. Victor Emmanuel died 9 January 1878 and was buried in the Pantheon in Rome. See also Crimean War; Italy; Risorgimento (Italian Unification); Umberto I. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Victor Emmanuel II. Le lettere di Vittorio Emanuele II, raccolte da Francesco Cognasso. Turin, 1961. A collection of the king’s letters.

Secondary Sources Mack Smith, Denis. Victor Emanuel, Cavour, and the Risorgimento. London, 1971. ———. Italy and Its Monarchy. New Haven, Conn., 1989. SUSAN A. ASHLEY

her reign with such nineteenth-century ideals as a devoted family life, earnestness, public and private respectability, and obedience to the law. As the personal embodiment of her kingdom and her empire, she was ever eager to ensure that her land was held in high esteem by its European neighbors and throughout the world for its economic and military strength and as a model of modern civilization. During her lifetime, Great Britain was noted for its pioneering developments in science, industry, and finance; for its rapid growth of population; and for becoming the first large country in which the majority of the population lived in cities. Queen Victoria was the official head of state not only of the United Kingdom but also of the expanding worldwide British empire, which included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and parts of Africa. BACKGROUND AND CHILDHOOD

Although King George III, who reigned from 1760 to 1820, had fifteen children, his three eldest sons had no legitimate children who survived. In 1817 his fourth son, Edward Augustus, duke of Kent, married a German noblewoman, Victoire Marie Louise (the daughter of one duke and the widow of another), for the specific purposes of producing an heir to Britain’s throne. He brought her to England just in time for little Victoria’s birth. When the baby princess was just eight months old, her father died. Victoria’s mother, the duchess of Kent, raised her in Kensington Palace with the help of German governesses, private English tutors, and the duchess’s brother, Leopold. The last had been married briefly to an earlier heir to the British throne, Princess Charlotte, who had died in childbirth, and in 1831 he became king of the newly independent state of Belgium.

n

VICTORIA, QUEEN (1819–1901; ruled 1837–1901), queen of the United Kingdom. The future Queen Victoria was born at Kensington Palace in the greater London area on 24 May 1819. She became queen of the United Kingdom of England, Scotland, and Ireland on 20 June 1837. After a reign of sixty-three-and-a-half years, the longest in British history, she died on 22 January 1901 at Osborne House, her winter home on the Isle of Wight. Her name became an adjective, ‘‘Victorian,’’ because people increasingly associated her life and

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Victoria learned to speak and write German and French as readily as English. She was also taught literature, history, geography, and the Bible. She was given lessons in singing and in playing the piano, as well as in painting, a hobby that she enjoyed into her sixties. On the accession of her uncle, King William IV, in 1830, she became heir apparent to the throne and, at the behest of her mother, she took several lengthy summer tours through England and Wales that included both country estates and city centers. Had King William IV died any sooner, Victoria’s mother would have

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become princess regent, but he lived just long enough—until 20 June 1837—to enable Victoria at age eighteen to inherit the throne in her own right. EARLY REIGN

Immediately on becoming queen, Victoria began regular meetings with William Lamb, second viscount Melbourne, Britain’s prime minister at the time. The two grew very close, and the grandfatherly Lord Melbourne (1779–1848) taught Victoria how the government of her country worked on a day-to-day basis. Britain in the nineteenth century was a constitutional monarchy, and the king or queen was the head of state who was expected to rule by means of a prime minister as the head of government, with the members of his cabinet serving as the heads of administrative departments. They were also members of, and required the support of, the United Kingdom Parliament, made up of an elected House of Commons and a (largely) hereditary House of Lords. When a general election left no single political party with an overall majority, the monarch initiated the process of government formation by inviting a particular parliamentarian to serve as prime minister and ‘‘form a government.’’ In practice, ultimate executive authority no longer lay with Queen Victoria, but a significant degree of influence remained to her—in matters of policy as well as in the appointment of cabinet members, ambassadors, and archbishops and bishops of the Church of England, an institution that the monarch served as ‘‘supreme governor.’’ On a daily basis she perused boxes of cabinet papers and diplomatic correspondence, and she conferred regularly by letter and in person with all ten of her prime ministers. In private, Queen Victoria was ever prepared to speak her mind. Much of the queen’s time was also devoted to ceremonial activities such as the award of honors and the official opening and (until the 1850s) closing of each year’s session of Parliament. Because Melbourne led the Whig Party (later known as the Liberal Party), Victoria became publicly identified with that party rather than with the opposition Tory (or Conservative) Party. The Whigs were known for their relative sympathy for freedom of speech and of the press and for greater religious liberty for those Britons who (as

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independent Protestants or Roman Catholics or Jews) did not belong to the established Church of England. They were also becoming increasingly sympathetic to the promotion of international free trade. For the time being, the Tories were more concerned with maintaining the land’s established institutions and with keeping the electorate within the limits—one adult male in five—set by the Reform Act of 1832. The young queen hoped that the Whigs and their parliamentary allies would maintain their House of Commons majority and that Melbourne would remain prime minister. When it appeared in 1839 that he might have to give up the post, the queen successfully used her influence to keep him. In the so-called Bedchamber Crisis, she refused to allow the Tory leader, Sir Robert Peel (1788– 1850), to change the aristocratic Whig ladies at her court. Peel then gave up the task of ‘‘forming a government,’’ and Melbourne continued as prime minister for two more years. A new general election in 1841 resulted in a decisive Tory majority in the House of Commons, however, and Victoria was compelled to accept Peel in his place. THE YEARS WITH ALBERT (1840–1861)

Victoria’s early years as queen were filled not only with government papers but also with parties, dances, concerts, and with visits by eligible potential husbands. In 1839 Victoria fell in love with one of these, her first cousin, Prince Albert of the small German duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. They were married on 10 February 1840, and Albert soon came to take a keen interest in the government of his new country. He served as his wife’s private secretary, and he persuaded her that, even as they both took an intense behind-the-scenes interest in the ministries that governed in Victoria’s name, publicly she should stand above party. Albert was an exceptionally serious and studious young prince who was more interested in science, music, and scholarship than in traditional aristocratic sports and pastimes. He served as chancellor of Cambridge University and he became the prime inspirer of the Great Exhibition of the Works of All Nations, the first true World’s Fair, which was held in London’s Hyde Park during the summer of 1851.

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Queen Victoria, Prince Albert and the Prince of Wales at Windsor Park with Their Herd of Llamas. Anonymous painting, nineteenth century. PRIVATE COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

Back in 1846 the royal couple had encouraged the efforts of Sir Robert Peel to abolish the Corn Laws and lead Britain toward international free trade, but in the process Peel’s Conservative Party split in two. During the 1850s, with a two-party tradition in temporary disarray, the influence of the monarch on the formation of nineteenth-century ministries reached a nineteenth-century highpoint. In 1851, royal initiative led to the dismissal of the popular Henry John Temple, third viscount Palmerston, from his post. The foreign secretary appeared too sympathetic to liberal nationalist groups undermining their fellow European monarchs, and he had failed too often to consult the queen before sending dispatches to British diplomats abroad. Although initially unhappy with the manner in which their kingdom drifted into the Crimean War (1854– 1856) against Russia, Queen Victoria became an enthusiastic supporter of the conflict once fighting had begun, and on 5 February 1855 she named

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Palmerston as wartime prime minister. She personally instituted the Victoria Cross as Britain’s highest award for wartime valor. Although respected by most of his new countrymen, Albert was little loved; he was sometimes criticized as an interfering foreigner, and his heavy German accent did not help. For the emotional Victoria, the stalwart Albert resembled a knight in shining armor, however, and between 1840 and 1857 they became the parents of nine children, all of whom grew to adulthood: Victoria (b. 1840), Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853), and Beatrice (b. 1857). The royal family seemed to be a model family, a family that increasingly enjoyed a private domestic life either at Windsor or at Osborne House (on the English Channel coast) or at Balmoral Castle (in the Scottish Highlands), both of the latter rebuilt on the basis of Albert’s designs. Victoria and

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Albert took an intense personal interest in the upbringing of their children, which they did not leave solely to nannies and governesses. THE YEARS OF WIDOWHOOD

Queen Victoria never recovered entirely from Albert’s death on 14 December 1861 at the age of forty-two. For almost a decade she remained in strict mourning. She rarely set foot in London, and she avoided most public occasions (such as the state opening of Parliament). She made exceptions for the unveiling of statues dedicated to Prince Albert and, after a few years, for attendance at army reviews. During the later 1860s her absence from the public stage caused several respectable politicians as well as radical agitators to propose that the United Kingdom be transformed into a republic. Behind the scenes, the queen continued to peruse papers and to talk and write to her ministers. She also found comfort in a loyal domestic staff headed by her favorite attendant, a Scottish Highlander named John Brown. Her influence determined the appointments of several bishops and archbishops. It also led to the passage of statutes such as an act of 1876 that restricted the right of scientists to experiment on living animals and an act of the same year that proclaimed Victoria empress of India. In her youth she had been known as ‘‘Queen of the Whigs,’’ but in the course of the 1870s she privately came to prefer Benjamin Disraeli, the leader of the Conservative Party (1868– 1881) to William Ewart Gladstone, the leader of the Liberal Party (1868–1875, 1880–1894). In Victoria’s eyes, Disraeli seemed more concerned with upholding Britain’s international prestige and consolidating its empire. She made little secret of her disappointment with the results of the general election of 1880, which left her no choice but to reappoint Gladstone as prime minister. He impressed her as too much the popular demagogue prepared to tamper with the kingdom’s institutions. She interpreted Gladstone’s unsuccessful proposals in 1886 and again in 1893 to grant ‘‘Home Rule’’ (domestic self-government) to Ireland as a step to break up the British Empire. She was more sympathetic to the Conservative ministries led by Robert Arthur Gascoyne-Cecil, third marquess of Salisbury, that

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Caricature of Queen Victoria. From Le Muse´e de Sires, feuille de caricatures, by Auguste Roubille, 1901. PRIVATE COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/ THE STAPLETON COLLECTION

governed Britain during most of the final fifteen years of the nineteenth century. THE GRANDMOTHER OF EUROPE

During the decades after Albert’s death, Queen Victoria remained increasingly concerned with her ever-growing family. All nine of her children married, and eight of them had children of their own. Most of those children and grandchildren married into the nobility of Europe. Thus one granddaughter became the tsarina of Russia and others the queens of Spain, Romania, Greece, and Norway; the aging matriarch become known as the ‘‘Grandmother of Europe.’’ The most important of such dynastic marriages involved Victoria’s eldest child, also known as Victoria, who in 1858 at age seventeen wed Crown Prince Frederick, the heir to the kingdom of Prussia and (after 1871) also the German Empire. Albert and Victoria hoped that the marriage would strengthen Anglo-German relations and help transform Prussia into a liberal constitutional monarchy

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journals published in 1868 and 1884 helped humanize her in the eyes of her subjects. Her Golden Jubilee (the fiftieth anniversary on the throne), which brought monarchs from all over Europe to London, was celebrated with great enthusiasm in 1887, and her Diamond Jubilee of 1897 evoked an even greater spirit of national and imperial pride. British political leaders and military regiments from five continents marched in London; the gathering provided the occasion for the very first meeting of colonial prime ministers—a precedent for the twentieth-century Commonwealth. After the Boer War (1899–1902) began, the aged queen became a single-minded champion of the British war effort, which included a state visit to Ireland in April 1900 (only the fourth of her reign) to thank Irish soldiers in the British army in Africa for their bravery. She both endured military defeats and celebrated victories before her own life ended on 22 January 1901 at Osborne House. A week-and-a-half later, after an elaborate military procession from Osborne to Windsor by ship, train, and horse-drawn gun carriage, her funeral was followed by a burial next to Albert in the Frogmore Mausoleum. Queen Victoria with her granddaughter Alexandra (left, holding baby daughter Tatiana), her grandson-in-law, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (standing, left), and her son Albert Edward (later King Edward VII). COLLECTION/CORBIS

ªHULTON-DEUTSCH

like that of Britain. Such hopes were to be disappointed as the crown prince was to be limited by cancer to a reign of ninety-nine days in 1888. Frederick’s son (Queen Victoria’s eldest grandson), the German emperor William II, was to lead the Central Powers during World War I (1914–1918) against the Allied coalition formally headed by another grandson (King George V of Great Britain) and by the husband (Tsar Nicholas II of Russia) of a granddaughter. Queen Victoria was often disappointed in her own immediate heir, Albert Edward, a slow learner who generally preferred play to work. His marriage in 1863 to the beautiful Alexandra of Denmark was popular, however, and the prince and princess of Wales enjoyed their role as social arbiters. The prince of Wales had to wait patiently to inherit the kingship, as during the 1880s his mother become more visible again and regained her earlier popularity. Excerpts from her private

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CONCLUSIONS

The very length of Queen Victoria’s sixty-threeand-a-half-year reign gives a deceptive impression of continuity and stability to what proved a period of dynamic change within the British Isles and the world. The queen sympathized with many of these changes such as the railroad, the camera, and the use of anesthetics in childbirth. She was more doubtful about others, such as the rapid increase in the size of an electorate that by 1901 included most men and (in local government elections) some women. She preferred to see women preside over the home and to serve as matchmakers, hostesses, and volunteer social workers rather than as doctors or lawyers. A more disciplined political party system diminished her political influence only a little in the course of her reign, and by the time of her death she had become the world’s best-known and most admired ruler and its most famous woman. She also remained a symbol of strict morality, good manners, and devotion to duty. She took great pride in her role as the formal head of the world’s largest multiracial and multireligious empire, and (unlike some of her ministers) she believed in the civil rights of all her subjects. Thus

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she became the first modern British monarch to confer a hereditary peerage on a Roman Catholic and the first ever to confer one on a professing Jew. In a world familiar with authoritarian rulers, she remained a symbol of the type of constitutional government in which change came by election and by parliamentary legislation rather than by revolution. See also Alexandra; Corn Laws, Repeal of; Crystal Palace; George IV; Imperialism; India; Nicholas I; Tories; William II; William IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Hibbert, Christopher, ed. Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals. London, 1984. A chronological compilation of many of the queen’s own writings that enables the reader to see the world through her eyes. The Letters of Queen Victoria. First series edited by Arthur Christopher Benson and Viscount Reginald Baliol Brett Esher, London, 1908; second series edited by George Earl Buckle, London, 1926–1928; third series edited by George Earl Buckle, 1930–1932. The single largest series of letters, nine volumes in all, by and to the queen. Emphasizes her political roles rather than her family life.

most detailed fully documented account of the first half of Victoria’s life. WALTER L. ARNSTEIN

n

VIENNA. Traditionally the seat of the Habsburg dynasty and the capital of its central European territories, Vienna experienced both great development and relative decline in the nineteenth century. With a population in 1789 of roughly 200,000, Vienna was the third-largest city in Europe after London and Paris. It experienced, like most major cities, an extraordinary population boom in the period. By 1914 Vienna’s population was over two million, but the city was now only fourth-largest in Europe, having been overtaken by Berlin. This was symbolic of the waning significance of Vienna as a political center, due to the checkered career of the Habsburg dynasty. It is indeed virtually impossible to disentangle Viennese history from Austrian history in general, and the name Vienna came to symbolize for the national communities of the Habsburg Monarchy not simply a city but rather the whole nexus of central power of the Habsburg state.

Vallone, Lynne. Becoming Victoria. New Haven, Conn., 2001. The fullest account of the queen’s early years.

Vienna was not only a political and administrative but also a major economic and cultural center. It underwent dramatic modernization, especially after midcentury, even though the relative slowness of this development compared to Berlin’s explosive growth gave rise to an image of Vienna as the conservative, even backward, other capital of central Europe. By 1900 it enjoyed a cultural reputation as a more old-fashioned, less avant-garde center than either Paris or Berlin, and it is only in retrospect that fin-de-sie`cle Vienna, the capital of a decadent multinational empire at the crossroads of so many of the positive and negative movements in the coming modern world, has come to be seen as a major center of innovation in its own right.

Warner, Marina. Queen Victoria’s Sketchbook. London and New York, 1979.

1789–1815: WAR AND PEACE

Secondary Sources Arnstein, Walter L. Queen Victoria. Basingstoke, U.K., and New York, 2003. Focuses on the monarch’s political, military, and religious roles. Hibbert, Christopher. Queen Victoria: A Personal History. London, 2000. Longford, Elizabeth. Victoria, R. I. London and New York, 1964. The first biography to make full documented use of the unpublished Royal Archives at Windsor. A sympathetic yet balanced account. Strachey, Lytton. Queen Victoria. London, 1921. The single most widely read life and a notable example of biography as a work of literary art.

Weintraub, Stanley. Victoria: An Intimate Biography. New York, 1987. Williams, Richard. The Contentious Crown: Public Discussion of the British Monarchy in the Reign of Queen Victoria. Aldershot, U.K., 1997. Woodham-Smith, Cecil. Queen Victoria from Her Birth to the Death of the Prince Consort. London, 1972. The

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In 1789 Vienna was still a walled city, surrounded on three sides by steep banks (on the fourth by a short stretch of the Danube River), beyond which the city’s suburbs spread. Architecturally the city was dominated by the baroque. The enlightened absolutism of Joseph II’s rule had liberalized Viennese cultural and intellectual life, and the city had

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The New Market, Vienna. Engraving, 1799. ªHISTORICAL PICTURE ARCHIVE/CORBIS

become the center of the German musical world. Combining both tendencies, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s hymn to (Masonic) reason, Die Zauberflo¨te (The Magic Flute) was premiered at Vienna’s Theater auf der Wieden in September 1791. The outlook for enlightened reform was already darkening by 1789, however, and the consequences of the French Revolution, along with the deaths in quick succession of Joseph II and Leopold II, set Austria on a course by which Vienna, as seat of the Habsburgs, came to represent the ideological nemesis of the revolution. Revolutionary opposition in Vienna itself was slight and was snuffed out ruthlessly, but Austria lost a series of wars to Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, and Vienna was occupied twice by French armies, in 1805 and 1809. On the second occasion a part of Vienna’s fortifications, at the Hofburg, was razed. The cost of these lost wars had a devastating effect on Habsburg finances, leading to state bankruptcy in 1811, with long-term damage to the Austrian, and Viennese, economies.

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Cultural life, however, carried on. During these bleak years Ludwig van Beethoven premiered most of his symphonies in Vienna, and the premiere of his opera Fidelio in November 1805 occurred during the French occupation, with many of the audience being French officers. Habsburg efforts after 1805 to encourage German nationalism even attracted a group of conservative German Romantic poets to the city as Germany’s ‘‘capital,’’ although the defeat of 1809 ended this project. Count Metternich’s astute diplomacy after 1809 and the defeat of the French in Russia in 1812– 1813 brought about a radical reversal of Austria’s, and Vienna’s, fortunes by 1814. In September 1814 Vienna became the site of the congress that was to reconstruct pre-Napoleonic Europe. The Congress of Vienna was an opportunity for Austria and the Viennese to entertain the other European powers and to persuade them to see Europe Metternich’s conservative way, which to a large extent they did. The congress also confirmed Vienna’s reputation as a city of many amusements but not one at the

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vanguard of progress. The Prince de Ligne commented that: ‘‘Le congre`s ne marche pas; il danse’’ (the congress does not walk [i.e., make progress]; it dances). The congress ended in June 1815 with a fairly durable settlement, but the comment was quite prescient about Vienna in the coming years. ¨ RZ 1815–1848: BIEDERMEIER AND VORMA

By the 1820s Vienna’s population, including the suburbs, had risen to roughly 300,000, with surplus labor from the countryside flooding into the city’s proto-industrial outskirts. Economic growth, however, lagged, and population growth was not matched by modernization of the city’s infrastructure. Gas lighting was introduced in 1817 but not systematically. The Danube flooded disastrously in 1830, and the lack of an adequate water supply resulted in a cholera epidemic in 1831 and 1832. A new water supply system, built after 1835, was ineffective. A new gate was punched through the walls at the Ka¨rntnertor, but otherwise the old city remained walled in. The city’s political life was similarly stifled. Metternich and his master, Francis I, reacting to the upheavals of the French Revolution, were determined to stop all political change, and the public sense of relief after the revolutionary crisis soon turned to a sense of stagnation. Under Metternich’s ‘‘system,’’ Austria and Vienna became watchwords throughout Europe for oppression, and although this reputation was exaggerated, the secret police and censorship system was quite well developed. Viennese intellectual life suffered as a result, and even Austria’s greatest writer of the era, Franz Grillparzer, a loyal bureaucrat, was seriously affected by the censor’s interventions. Yet musical life continued to flourish. Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony was first performed in Vienna in 1824, and Franz Schubert produced all of his great work in the period, dying in 1828. The waltz, developed by Joseph Lanner and Johann Strauss the Elder, first became part of Viennese life. In drama, Vienna’s Burgtheater under Joseph Schreyvogel became the premier German stage. Given the political and intellectual climate, the dominant style of the period was one of domestic, private, inward-looking simplicity, which came to be known as Biedermeier.

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The revolutions in western Europe in 1830 and the death of Francis I in 1835 ushered in a new era of frustration with the ‘‘system’’ and a shift toward optimism about the possibilities of progress that came to be known in retrospect as Vorma¨rz (Before March 1848). In popular theater the change could be seen in the succession from the fantasy plays of Ferdinand Raimund to the ribald satire of Johann Nestroy. The most obvious expression of the new approach was Eduard Bauernfeld’s play Grossja¨hrig (Of age), performed, remarkably, at the Burgtheater in 1847. This cultural shift paralleled and reflected economic and technological change in the city. In 1838 the Nordbahn, Austria’s first steam railway, financed by the Rothschilds, reached Vienna, and by the 1840s Vienna was linked up to the Continental rail system; in the 1840s a proper gas distribution system was being installed. In 1847 the Austrian Academy of Sciences was founded. Vienna was, haphazardly, becoming a modern city. 1848–1861: REVOLUTION, REACTION, REFORM?

With the population of Vienna approaching 400,000 by 1848, such incoherent improvements were not keeping pace with the basic needs of the populace. The harvest failures of 1846 and 1847 led to economic depression and near-starvation in Vienna’s ever-growing lower classes. Meanwhile the Habsburg machinery of government had effectively ground to a halt and was pressed on all sides, especially in Hungary, by calls for greater autonomy and freedoms. News of revolution in France in late February 1848 led to a demonstration in Vienna on 13 March. This turned to revolt when troops fired on the crowd and to revolution when a panicked Habsburg family sacked Metternich, acceding in the days following to many of the demands of the ‘‘revolutionaries.’’ The revolution of 13 March 1848 marked the high point of Vienna’s involvement in Austrian politics in the nineteenth century. Over the next months Vienna remained at the center of the revolution in the Austrian Empire. An elected constituent assembly, the Reichstag, met there in July. However, national divisions in the monarchy and social and ideological divisions within Vienna severely compromised the revolution. Most decisive was the failure of the revolutionaries to wrest

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Bird’s eye view of Vienna. Engraving by Gustav Veith, 1873. ERICH LESSING/ART RESOURCE, NY

control of the military from the Habsburgs. After another radical revolt in Vienna in October, a Habsburg army under Prince Alfred Windischgra¨tz bombarded and then conquered the city. Several revolutionary leaders were executed, and the city was put under martial law until 1853. The revolution had a detrimental effect on the city’s economy, but culturally and intellectually it produced a huge outpouring of pent-up creativity, reflected in the flood of publications in the period. It is telling, however, that one of the most memorable plays of the period was Nestroy’s Freiheit in Kra¨hwinkel (Freedom in Kra¨hwinkel), a positive but skeptical account of the revolution’s dynamics, and that the most famous musical piece was Johann Strauss the Elder’s Radetzkymarsch, a loyalist celebration of Habsburg victory against the Italians (and the revolution). Under the ‘‘decreed constitution’’ (1849– 1852), Vienna was given a Provisional Communal Ordinance on 6 March 1850. This integrated the suburbs fully into the city administration, creating

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a nine-district municipality that lasted until 1890. It allowed for an elected 120-man council (on a very narrow, tax-based, tri-curial franchise), which in turn elected a mayor. Theoretically, the law gave Vienna considerable autonomy, but the imposition of (neo-)absolutism in 1852 ended this. The centralist neoabsolutist regime wanted, however, to develop Vienna as a suitable capital for a modern absolutist Habsburg state. Hence it initiated in 1857 one of the most beneficial changes in Vienna’s modern history: the demolition of the city walls and their replacement by a broad boulevard, the Ringstrasse (Ring Street). The collapse of the neoabsolutist regime in 1859 and 1860 led to the restitution of the 1850 ordinance in 1860, and the March 1861 municipal elections created a large liberal majority that set about modernizing Vienna in earnest. 1861–1890: RINGSTRASSE LIBERALISM

By 1859 Vienna had a population of over 500,000; in 1869 it reached 607,000; in 1890, 828,000. This population increase reflected Vienna’s growth

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as an economic center, but as a political center Vienna declined in importance. The catastrophic defeat by Prussia in 1866 meant that Austria, and hence Vienna, was shut out of Germany. The Ausgleich (compromise) with Hungary in the same year also greatly reduced the range of Vienna’s administrative rule, which now only extended over Cisleithania, the Austrian half of Austria-Hungary. Vienna enjoyed a much larger degree of municipal autonomy after the Reichsgemeindegesetz (Imperial Communal Law) of 1862. From 1861 it hosted the new representative assembly, the Reichsrat; after 1867, however, this was only for Cisleithania. Vienna did remain the seat of the ‘‘common’’ ministries (foreign, defense, and financial) of Dualist Austria-Hungary and the main residence of the emperor and court. In the economic sphere Vienna developed spectacularly in the early liberal era of 1860 to 1873. Known as the Gru ¨ nderjahre (founders’ years), this period saw massive gains for Austrian entrepreneurs (hence the name), who invested much of their profits in the imperial center, especially in the new developments around the Ringstrasse. Of particular note were the many ‘‘palaces’’ built by Jewish financiers such as Gustav Epstein and Friedrich Schey, who, with their families, became an important part of Vienna’s ‘‘second society’’ (the ‘‘first’’ being the court and high nobility). The new liberal administration modernized major parts of Vienna’s infrastructure: new banks were built for the Danube (1862–1875), a new aqueduct providing water from the Alps was finished in 1873, a large number of schools and hospitals were built, and the Central Cemetery was opened in 1874. The Ringstrasse became the site for major civic and imperial—and heavily representational—buildings, among them the twin Natural and Art History Museums, the university, the new Burgtheater; the Greek classical parliament, and the Belgian-Gothic Rathaus (city hall) among them. By the 1880s Vienna had been transformed into an exemplary modern nineteenth-century capital. Yet by then, the German liberal hegemony in Austria no longer existed. The economic boom came to a halt in the crash of 1873, brought on by a wave of speculation surrounding Vienna’s hosting of the International Exhibition that year combined with another cholera outbreak. The Lib-

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erals lost their majority in the Reichsrat in 1879 to the conservative and federalist ‘‘Iron Ring.’’ Vienna remained a bastion of liberalism, but only because of its restrictive franchise. The emergence in the 1880s of anti-Semitic German nationalism in student and middle-class circles and the anti-Semitic Christian Social movement in the lower middle classes, together with the reconstitution of the Social Democrats in 1888 at nearby Hainburg, signaled by 1890 the approaching end of the liberal era in Viennese politics. Culturally and intellectually this period is usually seen as relatively barren as Vienna became, in Hermann Broch’s phrase, a ‘‘value vacuum.’’ The 1860s had seen the emergence of Viennese operetta, inspired by Jacques Offenbach’s works. Johann Strauss the Younger’s Die Fledermaus was first performed in 1874. (His ‘‘Blue Danube’’ waltz appeared in 1867.) Vienna also became the home of Johannes Brahms in 1878 and remained a major center of the German musical world. In art the period was dominated by the sensual historicism of Hans Makart, whose orchestration of the Ringstrasse parade celebrating the Silver Wedding of Francis Joseph and Elisabeth in 1879 is seen by many as the epitome of the parvenu kitsch of the Ringstrasse style. At the same time, the university prospered, especially its renowned medical school, and a sophisticated press, most notably the Neue Freie Presse (founded 1864), developed to serve the emergent, sizable educated class. The results were soon evident. 1890–1914: VIENNA 1900

On 18 December 1890 the incorporation of Vienna’s outlying suburbs was made law, effective January 1892. Vienna became a city of nineteen districts with a population of 1,365,000. Partly due to this expansion, the municipal elections of 1895 saw a shocking defeat for the Liberals by a Christian Social and German Nationalist coalition, whose platform was anti-Semitism. This was initially resisted by the Habsburg authorities, and the anti-Semites’ leader, Karl Lueger, was only confirmed as mayor by the emperor Francis Joseph after much delay, in 1897. From that point on, however, the Christian Socials were able to manipulate the franchise to ensure their complete hegemony over Viennese politics. Lueger’s rule was in

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Yet this was also the period in which the cultural and educational investments of previous generations came to fruition in a series of great cultural and intellectual achievements, known collectively as fin-de-sie`cle Vienna or ‘‘Vienna 1900.’’ These included Freud’s development of psychoanalysis; the art of Gustav Klimt and the Secession as well as of the Austrian expressionists, including Egon Schiele and Oskar Kokoschka; the music of Gustav Mahler and the young Arnold Schoenberg; the beginnings of the philosophical Vienna Circle; Austromarxism; and major contributions in such fields as physics, physiology, economics, medicine, law, and sociology. Vienna had a flourishing literary world that comprised far more than mere ‘‘coffeehouse wits’’ and included major writers such as Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Arthur Schnitzler, and Karl Kraus. It also developed a thriving popular mass culture, especially in operetta.

Head of a Woman. Sketch by Gustave Klimt. As founder of the Vienna Sezession group, which was instrumental in developing the art nouveau style in Austria, Klimt was one notable example of the rich cultural environment in Vienna in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. NEUE GALERIE, LINZ, AUSTRIA/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

practice much more moderate than his rhetoric suggested, and his municipalization of the city’s utilities and expansion of amenities are seen by most as contributing to a golden era in Vienna’s history. Nevertheless, his anti-Semitism, though seen as opportunistic, had practical effects on city policies and cast a pall over life for Vienna’s Jews, as well as encouraging the prejudices of those who were not mere opportunists, such as Adolf Hitler. Vienna was around 1900 the central stage for Cisleithanian mass politics. From 1890 there was an annual mass march by the Social Democrats on 1 May along the Ring; in 1897 and 1898 the Badeni affair, which touched on German-Czech relations, led to clashes in parliament and the streets; and from 1905 to 1907 there were mass demonstrations in favor of universal suffrage (passed in 1907). The national divisions of the last years of the monarchy tended, however, to see parliament stagnate and power pass from Vienna to the provincial, national centers.

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Part of this was to be expected in a city that by 1910 had a population of more than 2,031,000 and had continued to expand as the major educational and economic hub of the Dual Monarchy. In retrospect, however, the achievement of Vienna 1900, especially its very early insights into the modern world’s problems, requires explanation. Some see this as a result of the alienation of liberals from power and the retreat of the next generation into the refuge of art; others have, more narrowly perhaps, pointed to the very large presence, even predominance, of Jews as creators and supporters of this culture. Jews were not the largest minority group in Vienna: estimates put those of Czech origin as about a quarter of Vienna’s quite polyglot populace before 1914, whereas Jews were by then under 10 percent of the whole. Yet the Jews were the group that became the designated ‘‘outsiders’’; they also were the group that invested by far the most proportionally in secondary and higher education. This, combined with their position within Vienna’s social and economic structures (heavily overrepresented in commerce and the liberal professions), as well as the alienation caused by the success of political anti-Semitism in the city, helps account for the remarkable Jewish presence in the circles of the modern culture that has made Vienna 1900 so famous. In this view, it is precisely because Jews were threatened by the developments in late Habsburg Vienna that they recognized the problems with

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modernity and progress that only appeared later to others and so were forced to come up with solutions that anticipated later developments elsewhere. See also Austria-Hungary; Cities and Towns. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Musil, Robert. The Man without Qualities. 2 vols. Translated by Sophie Wilkins. New York, 1995. Translated from Der Mann ohn Eigenschaften, edited by Adolf Frise´. 2 vols. Reinbek, Germany, 1978. Schnitzler, Arthur. The Road to the Open. Translated by Horace Samuel, with a foreword by William M. Johnston. Evanston, Ill., 1991. Translated from Der Weg ins Freie. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1961.

Secondary Sources Barea, Ilsa. Vienna. New York, 1966. Beller, Steven. Vienna and the Jews, 1867–1938: A Cultural History. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1989. Beller, Steven, ed. Rethinking Vienna 1900. New York and Oxford, U.K., 2001. Boyer, John W. Political Radicalism in Late Imperial Vienna. Chicago, 1981. ———. Culture and Political Crisis in Vienna. Chicago, 1995. Broch, Hermann. Hugo von Hofmannsthal and His Time. Translated by Michael P. Steinberg. Chicago, 1984. Csendes, Peter. Geschichte Wiens. Vienna, 1990. Janik, Allan, and Stephen Toulmin. Wittgenstein’s Vienna. Chicago, 1996. Schorske, Carl E. Fin-de-Sie`cle Vienna: Politics and Culture. London, 1980. Spiel, Hilde. Vienna’s Golden Autumn, 1866–1938. New York, 1987. STEVEN BELLER

n

` NE (1814– VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EUGE 1879), French architect. Considered by many to be one of the most important theoreticians of architecture in the modern era, Euge`ne Viollet-le-Duc is renowned for his restorations of Gothic architecture in France during the nineteenth century. He began his professional career at a very young age with the Commission des Monuments Historiques soon after its formation

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as a government bureau in 1837. The commission was responsible for the classification of buildings as historical monuments, which rendered them eligible to receive credits from the state for their restoration and upkeep. Viollet-le-Duc quickly became the public and intellectual face of the commission, working alongside the director Prosper Me´rime´e, who was his close friend and lifelong supporter. Viollet-le-Duc’s most famous restoration projects were carried out under the auspices of the commission: the abbey church at Ve´zelay, begun in December 1839; the cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris with Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Lassus (from 1844); the abbey church of Saint-Denis (from 1846); the walled town of Carcassonne (from 1849); Amiens cathedral (from 1849); and the Chateaˆu de Pierrefonds (from 1858, and funded by Napoleon III’s personal treasury). In addition to actual restoration work, Viollet-le-Duc was a prolific writer, with numerous books and articles to his credit. His famous Dictionnaire raisonne´ de l’architecture franc¸aise du XIe au XVIe sie`cle (Reasoned dictionary of French architecture from the eleventh to the sixteenth century), published in ten volumes (1854–1868), is his philosophy of gothic architecture in the form of a dictionary. These writings influenced modern architects, such as Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright. Beginning in 1858, Violletle-Duc published the first volume of his equally ambitious but lesser known Dictionnaire raisonne´ du mobilier franc¸ais de l’e´poque carlovingienne a` la Re´naissance (1858–1875; Reasoned dictionary of the French bank from the Carlovingians to the Renaissance). His more forthrightly personal and polemical two-volume Entretiens sur l’architecture (1863 and 1872; Discourses on Architecture, 1875) contrasts his architectural pedagogy and epistemology with the given course of education provided ´ cole des Beaux-Arts. As a true by the state-run E polymath his other writings ranged from a book on Mont Blanc in the French Alps to a series of pedagogical books/novels for adolescents and articles on politics and military strategy. Although Viollet-le-Duc’s reputation as a theorist of architecture has fared well over the years, his restoration practice has undergone significant reevaluations in the last century. Until the 1960s, his restoration work was vilified, the responses ranging from mild criticism to vitriolic attack.

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Notre Dame de Paris c. 1835, before Viollet-le-Duc’s addition of the spire. Engraving by J. H. Le Keux after a drawing by Thomas Allom. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY

Whereas architects of the modern tradition valorized his emphasis on a ‘‘constructive’’ relationship to the past—which has been reduced in historiography to Viollet-le-Duc’s supposed championing of ‘‘structural rationalism’’—others, such as the architectural historian Achille Carlier, severely criticized Viollet-le-Duc’s interventionist approach to restoration. With the ‘‘fantastic’’ restoration of Pierrefonds serving as the prime example of his supposedly overzealous imagination, his restorations were taken to be ‘‘monstrous’’ in the literal sense of that term: producing a new entity out of the previous remains of the given building. From this perspective, Viollet-le-Duc was judged rather harshly in comparison to the anti-interventionist philosophies of restoration personified by John Ruskin and Marcel Proust (often conveniently overlooking the fact that both had a profound admiration for Viollet-le-Duc’s work). Beginning in 1980, a more even-handed approach to Viollet-le-Duc’s restoration work became the norm with the spate of catalogs and

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collected essays published to mark the centennial of his death. See also Paris; Ruskin, John; Schinkel, Karl Friedrich.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources ‘‘Ouvrages de Viollet-le-Duc.’’ In Viollet-le-Duc: Catalogue d’exposition, 397–404. Paris, 1980. This section contains a fairly comprehensive bibliography of Viollet-le-Duc’s publications including books, articles, prefaces, and work done in collaboration with other scholars. Viollet-le-Duc, Euge`ne. The Foundations of Architecture: Selections from the ‘‘Dictionnaire raisonne´.’’ Translated by Kenneth D. Whitehead. New York, 1990. Includes good translations of some key entries in the Dictionnaire raisonne´.

Secondary Sources Bergdoll, Barry. Introduction to The Foundations of Architecture: Selections from the ‘‘Dictionnaire raisonne´,’’ by Euge`ne Viollet-le-Duc. New York, 1990.

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Notre Dame de Paris c. 1870, after the addition of the spire. Color lithograph by Kronheim from the periodical Sunday at Home. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY

Boudon, Franc¸oise. ‘‘Le re´el et l’imaginaire chez Viollet-leDuc: Les figures du Dictionnaire de l’architecture.’’ Revue de l’art 58–59 (1983): 95–114. Bressani, Martin. ‘‘Notes on Viollet-le-Duc’s Philosophy of History: Dialectics and Technology.’’ Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 48, no. 4 (1989): 327–350.

Murphy, Kevin D. Memory and Modernity: Viollet-le-Duc at Ve´zelay. University Park, Pa., 2000. O’Connell, Lauren M. ‘‘Viollet-le-Duc on Drawing, Photography, and the ‘Space outside the Frame.’’’ History of Photography 22, no. 2 (1998): 139–146.

Damisch, Hubert. ‘‘The Space Between: A Structuralist Approach to the Dictionnaire.’’ Architectural Design Profile 17 (1980): 84–89.

Summerson, John. ‘‘Viollet-le-Duc and the Rational Point of View.’’ In his Heavenly Mansions and Other Essays on Architecture, 135–158. London, 1949. Reprint, New York, 1963.

Lee, Paula Young. ‘‘‘The Rational Point of View’: Euge`neEmmanuel Viollet-le-Duc and the Camera Lucida.’’ In Landscapes of Memory and Experience, edited by Jan Birksted, 63–76. London, 2000.

Vinegar, Aron. ‘‘Memory as Construction in Viollet-leDuc’s Architectural Imagination.’’ Paroles Gele´es 16, no. 2 (1998): 43–55.

Leniaud, Jean-Michel. Viollet-le-Duc; ou, Les de´lires du syste´me. Paris, 1994.

———. ‘‘Viollet-le-Duc, Panoramic Photography, and the Restoration of the Chaˆteau de Pierrefonds.’’ In International Viollet-le-Duc Colloquium, edited by Werner Oechslin. Zu ¨ rich, forthcoming.

Middleton, Robin. ‘‘The Rationalist Interpretations of Classicism of Le´once Reynaud and Viollet-le-Duc.’’ AA Files 11 (1986): 29–48.

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VIRCHOW, RUDOLF

n

VIRCHOW, RUDOLF (1821–1902), German pathologist and anthropologist. Rudolf Virchow contributed to the transformation of medical knowledge in the nineteenth century and was a founding figure for the discipline of anthropology in Germany. He was born in Schivelbein, Pomerania (today Swidwin in northwest Poland), on 13 October 1821 and died in Berlin on 5 September 1902. After receiving his degree in 1843, Virchow practiced medicine in Berlin until he was suspended for his radical political views during the revolutions of 1848. He accepted a faculty position in Wu ¨ rzburg and returned to Berlin in 1856. He became the leading figure at Berlin’s Pathological Institute, where he worked for forty-six years and trained generations of doctors and scientists. As a coeditor and leading author of several medical handbooks, Virchow published the findings of contemporary clinical research. His pathbreaking Die Cellularpathologie (1858; Cellular Pathology) argued that cells are the building blocks of higher units of life and that they are mutually dependent. This attention to the vital nature of cells produced a series of new ideas about the formation and spread of disease. Before Virchow and his generation, doctors viewed disease primarily as a problem in the body’s blood stream (the humors) or as an affliction of the nervous system. Virchow’s microscopic study of cells challenged traditional views of illness by arguing that cells themselves were healthy or diseased. This discovery is central to modern medicine’s understanding of tumors and cancer. Virchow vigorously advocated applications of scientific knowledge beyond the laboratory. His reports on infectious diseases in central Europe from 1848 and 1852 urged doctors to lead the fight for better sanitation conditions and higher levels of literacy and prosperity among rural populations. After his return to Berlin in 1856, Virchow served on the city council as a public health expert. He campaigned for a modern sewer system in the city and promoted improvements in the heating and ventilation of public institutions, such as hospitals, schools, military barracks, and prisons. Following his research on parasitic worms as the cause of trichinosis, Virchow started a vigorous

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campaign for meat inspection in 1872. These reforms grew out of Virchow’s belief that science would bring progress to society, and they were part of the broad program of nineteenth-century liberalism that championed rational thinking and positive state reforms. Virchow also had a career on the national political stage. In the 1860s, he opposed Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck’s plans for military spending in the Prussian Diet. After the unification of Germany in 1871, Virchow supported the national Kulturkampf (the ‘‘cultural struggle’’ to eliminate the influence of Catholicism in politics and education). He felt that science and rationality would flourish in a state free of clerical influence. Virchow served as a delegate to the German Empire’s Reichstag from 1880 to 1893. From the 1860s until his death, Virchow shaped the fields of prehistoric archaeology and anthropology in Germany. He championed an empirical approach to archaeology that eschewed patriotic or romantic conclusions and challenged the idea that prehistoric finds were directly related to contemporary national communities. Virchow was also active outside central Europe as a delegate to international conferences and as an archaeologist in Egypt, Turkey, and central Asia. Virchow was equally significant as the organizer of the German Anthropological Society and the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory, the most important networks for anthropology and archaeology in Germany. Virchow’s reputation as a leading scientist contributed to the status of these organizations, and his efforts helped to secure state support for Berlin’s Museum for Ethnology, which opened in 1886. Traditional scholarship has admired Virchow’s achievements in medicine and anthropology and presented him as a champion of objective science and rational reforms. Recent work, however, has placed Virchow, German anthropology, and liberalism’s faith in science in a broader intellectual context. In this rendering, Virchow’s interest in studying human beings during an epoch of national strength and imperialism contributed to the rise of biological racism in Germany. This contrasts the idea of categorizing human differences, which underpinned nineteenth-century anthropological thought, with Virchow’s liberal politics and

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his public rejection of anti-Semitism and ethnic definitions of nation-states. Beyond this debate about the place of anthropology within German history, Virchow stands as an extraordinary individual. By the 1890s, he knew nine languages and was recognized internationally as a tireless researcher and a master synthesizer of medical and anthropological knowledge. He was named to the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1873 and chosen as rector of the University of Berlin in 1893. Virchow was a true polymath who was able to grasp and shape entire fields of study in a way that would be unimaginable in the twenty-first century’s era of scientific specialization. See also Public Health. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ackerknecht, Erwin. Rudolf Virchow: Doctor, Statesman, Anthropologist. Madison, Wisc., 1953. An admiring survey of Virchow’s major ideas and publications. McNeely, Ian. ‘‘Medicine on a Grand Scale’’: Rudolf Virchow, Liberalism, and the Public Health. London, 2002. Draws attention to the connection between political liberalism, science, and public health policies. Zimmerman, Andrew. Anthropology and Antihumanism in Imperial Germany. Chicago, 2001. A recent study that connects Virchow and German anthropology to the history of imperialism and the rise of scientific worldviews. BRENT MANER

n

VLADIVOSTOK. Founded in 1860, Vladivostok became the major commercial and naval port of the Russian Far East. Its history epitomizes the challenges faced by tsarist Russia as a multiethnic empire and as a military power in the north Pacific. Count Nikolai Muraviev-Amursky, governorgeneral of Eastern Siberia, established the town on the site of a Chinese hamlet before the region was formally ceded by China to Russia. The name he gave it, which translated to ‘‘Ruler of the Orient,’’ belied its precariousness in an area contested by the rival imperialist nations of Europe and Japan. Situated at the end of a peninsula jutting 32 kilometers (20 miles) into Peter the Great Bay off

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the Sea of Japan, the Russian Navy had doubts about moving its Far Eastern squadron there from the more secure Nikolayevsk further north. The port freezes over during winter, and maritime access to the town can be controlled by hostile navies (as occurred during the Russo-Japanese War). Movement of settlers and transport of troops to Vladivostok from the central Russian provinces required travel along the slow and primitive overland routes across Siberia or over the high seas. These communications deficiencies were among the factors behind the decision to build the TransSiberian Railroad. Groundbreaking for the railroad took place at Vladivostok in 1892, but construction along the Amur River, which connected the region with the rest of Siberia, was deemed too expensive. An alternative presented itself after 1896 when the Russian government received permission to build the Chinese Eastern Railroad through Manchuria. In 1897 the Russians arranged a leasehold over the Liaodong Peninsula, including the naval base at Port Arthur and commercial port at Dalian (Dalny), where a substantial amount of Vladivostok’s commercial and naval traffic shifted. Tsarist defeat in the subsequent Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) and withdrawal from southern Manchuria led to the revival of Vladivostok, but the strategic disadvantages remained. By that time the town had grown from a collection of huts to the largest city of Siberia, with a population of nearly one hundred thousand. It was the capital of the Maritime Territory and had become a center of intellectual life with the founding of the Society for the Study of the Amur Region (1884) and the Oriental Institute (1899), dedicated to the study of Asian languages. Commercial activity also flourished in a modern district featuring ten banks and branches of European, Japanese, and Russian-owned firms. As a sign of the growing reputation of the city, twelve nations opened consulates there. Russian policymakers were dissatisfied, however. The presence of ex-convicts, fugitives, and Chinese bandits (hong huzi), along with a sizable number of sailors and stevedores, made Vladivostok the murder capital of Siberia. Foreign visitors were struck by its cosmopolitanism, but also its filth and violence. Russians who lived there lamented its isolation from European Russia.

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The demography of the city also alarmed the central government, ever concerned about its loose grip on a vast territory. In 1912 more than half the legal residents of the city were Russians, but their numbers were nearly balanced by 27,000 Chinese, 8,000 Koreans, and 3,000 Japanese. The city’s Asian inhabitants dominated economic life, with Chinese and Koreans making up 90 percent of the unskilled labor force on the railroad and the docks and supplying virtually all of the city’s produce, firewood, water, and animal feed. The Japanese competed in the service sector as barbers, servants, photographers, and, most commonly, prostitutes—in brothels that were often fronts for Japanese government espionage operations. Although occasional fighting broke out between Russians and Asians, intermarriage was a more common occurrence.

pelled to step up Russian migration to the town, whose population grew by more than thirty thousand before 1917. This ended up making the town less secure for the government because Russian workers were more politically conscious and open to revolutionary agitation than the Chinese coolies they displaced, although before World War I the secret police kept these tendencies in check. With an influx of refugees and prisoners of war from the German and Austrian armies and the rise of Bolshevik and Menshevik activism after February 1917, the stage was set for the upheavals experienced by the city in the coming revolutionary and civil war years. See also Russia; Russo-Japanese War; Siberia. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Russian officialdom’s fear of the ‘‘Yellow Peril’’ and desire to modernize through governmental uniformity and Russification made the state of affairs in Vladivostok seem a threat rather than an opportunity. The Revolution of 1905 fueled these anxieties as enlisted men awaiting repatriation from the Russo-Japanese War rioted and Trans-Siberian Railroad workers went out on strike. No major socialist cells had been active in the city, and order was restored quickly, but St. Petersburg felt com-

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Kabuzan, V. M. Dal’nevostochnyi krai v XVII–nachale XX vv., 1640–1917: Istoriko-demograficheskii ocherk. Moscow, 1985. Marks, Steven G. Road to Power: The Trans-Siberian Railroad and the Colonization of Asian Russia, 1850–1917. Ithaca, N.Y., 1991. Stephan, John J. The Russian Far East: A History. Stanford, Calif., 1994. STEVEN G. MARKS

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W n

WAGNER,

RICHARD

(1813–1883),

German composer. Richard Wagner was the most prominent German composer of the nineteenth century, but he was much more than a musician; he was a social movement in his own right, a focus of passionate adulation and equally passionate condemnation. Wagner was born on 22 May 1813. He came into the world at a time of great political turmoil, which was only fitting considering the turmoil he would generate himself over the course of his life. Napoleon I was defeated at the ‘‘Battle of the Nations’’ near Leipzig in October 1813, a defeat constituting the beginning of the end for the French emperor but by no means the end of the cascading changes brought on by the French Revolution. Those changes helped define the political and social context in which Wagner—a true Napoleon of the arts—lived and worked. EARLY YEARS

One of the victims of the typhus epidemic that swept over Leipzig in the wake of the Battle of the Nations was Friedrich Wagner, a police registrar and father of nine children, the youngest being six-month-old Richard. But in fact, Friedrich Wagner may not have been Richard’s father at all, because Wagner’s mother, Johanna, was intimate with a local painter and poet named Ludwig Geyer, whom she then married nine months after Friedrich’s death. Although Geyer became the only father Richard actually knew, the composer could never be sure

about the identity of his biological father. More vexing still, at least in his eyes, was the suggestion (since proven to be baseless) that Geyer was Jewish. The thought that he might himself carry the ‘‘taint’’ of Jewish blood undoubtedly fueled Wagner’s growing anti-Semitic phobia. The composer’s enduring anxieties about his origins also found expression in his operas, which, among other idiosyncrasies, betray an obsession with fatherless children. The first years of Wagner’s childhood were happy and secure enough, for Geyer obtained a position in the court theater in Dresden and dutifully cared for the large family he had inherited. Geyer died, however, when Richard was only eight, leaving an emotional hole in the boy’s life. Before departing the scene, Geyer passed on to his youngest son a budding passion for things theatrical. In introducing the boy to the Romantic composer Carl Maria von Weber, Geyer also kindled in him an enthusiasm for music. As a schoolboy, however, Wagner did not demonstrate any great skill in music—certainly he was no child prodigy like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. His primary interest was in drama, especially William Shakespeare, who appealed to his sense for the fantastic and grotesque. He also cultivated a passion for the ancient Greek tragedians, whose influence, like that of Shakespeare’s, later appeared prominently in his operas. Wagner began his study of musical composition in his late teens, when he fell under the electrifying influence of Ludwig van Beethoven. His first significant musical undertaking was a piano

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the conventional recitative, aria, duet, and choral forms. While writing these pieces, and for some time thereafter, Wagner was forced to make his living conducting other men’s works in provincial theaters. Meagerly compensated for these duties, but determined not to live like a church mouse, Wagner began to run up large debts. Money problems and creditorevasion would remain fixtures in his life. The need to escape creditors lay partly behind Wagner’s move to Paris in 1839. As an impoverished and unknown provincial from Germany, Wagner was in no position to make an impact in Louis-Philippe’s Paris, where charismatic virtuosi such as Franz Liszt and Fre´de´ric Chopin ruled the day. While in Paris Wagner received invaluable assistance from the German-Jewish composer Giacomo Meyerbeer, whom Wagner later came to despise and to blame for all the tribulations that attended his sojourn in Paris. In his essay Das Judentum in der Musik (1850; Judaism in music), Wagner held up Meyerbeer as an example of alleged creative sterility among Jews. Richard Wagner.

Chalk portrait by Franz von Lenbach.

SNARK/ART RESOURCE, NY

transcription of Beethoven’s Choral Symphony. At Leipzig’s Thomasschule he took violin lessons from a member of the Gewandhaus Orchestra, and he studied counterpoint and harmony with the cantor of the Thomaskirche, where Johann Sebastian Bach had worked a century earlier. Yet musical study was by no means Wagner’s sole preoccupation. Upon entering Leipzig University he became caught up in the rowdiness of student life, and in 1830, when the revolutionary spirit emanating from France spread to Leipzig, Wagner enthusiastically joined a mob of students in sacking a brothel and laying siege to a prison. FIRST OPERAS

Wagner’s initial forays into operatic composition did not give much evidence of the innovative mold breaker he was to become as a mature artist. His first three operas, Die Feen (1833–1834; The fairies), Das Liebesverbot (1834–1836; The ban on love), and Rienzi (1837–1840), followed in the traditions of German and Italian Romantic opera, employing

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Wagner’s opera Der fliegende Holla¨nder (The flying Dutchman) premiered (with Meyerbeer’s assistance) in Dresden in 1843. Although this work still contained many trappings of conventional opera, it anticipated the composer’s later ‘‘musicdramas’’ in its use of leitmotivs. Holla¨nder was not a critical or popular success, and Wagner began increasingly to clash with the musical establishment. The clashes continued during his tenure as Kapellmeister (a conducting post) at the Royal Court of Saxony in Dresden, where he served from 1843 to 1849. Although he was able to get his next opera, Tannha¨user, mounted in Dresden in 1845, he fought with the orchestra and court officials over its staging. When the revolutionary turmoil of 1848 swept into Saxony the following year he joined in the fighting, motivated both by political idealism and the hope that a new social-political order might be more receptive to his work. As a result of his participation in the abortive Saxon revolution, Wagner was obliged to flee to Switzerland, beginning an exile in that land that would span, with various interruptions, some

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twenty-three years. Here he composed Der Ring des Nibelungen (1851–1874), Tristan und Isolde (1857–1859), and Die Meistersinger von Nu ¨ rnberg (1862–1867), as well as his seminal prose essays Die Kunst und die Revolution (1849; Art and revolution) and Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft (1849; The artwork of the future). In the prose works he called for an artistic revolution through which traditional operatic forms would give way to a ‘‘total work of art’’ uniting poetry, music, drama, and dance in a profound exploration of the human condition. His music-dramas, above all Der Ring, Tristan, and Parsifal (1877–1882), put this ambitious conception into practice. BAYREUTH FESTIVAL

In order to translate his aesthetic ideals to the stage Wagner felt he needed a new kind of opera house, which in turn demanded a generous patron. The composer believed he had found his ‘‘angel’’ in young King Louis II of Bavaria, who upon coming to the throne in 1864 called Wagner to Munich and promised to build him a new theater there. However, Wagner’s luxurious living at state expense, his meddling in royal politics, and his notorious affair with Cosima von Bu ¨ low, the wife of the pianist and conductor Hans von Bu¨low and illegitimate daughter of Liszt, so soured the people of Munich that Louis was forced to send Wagner away in late 1865. (Wagner married Cosima in 1870, following her divorce from Bu ¨ low.) He returned to exile in Switzerland until 1872, when, following the establishment of the new German empire, he moved to Bayreuth, in northern Bavaria, in hopes of finally realizing his dream of building a special theater for the production of his work. The choice of Bayreuth was motivated partly by Wagner’s desire once again to exploit the largesse of Louis, but also by his hope of casting his envisaged annual music festival as an ‘‘artistic sister’’ of German unification, thereby securing financial support from the imperial government. In the end Wagner proved unable to win significant backing from Berlin, but with help from Louis and an innovative subscription system he was able to launch his ‘‘Richard Wagner Festival’’ with the first complete Ring production in 1876. The inaugural Bayreuth festival was not a success financially, and Wagner was unable to put on another

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festival until 1882, when he premiered Parsifal. As conductor for this performance Wagner employed Hermann Levi, a Jew, whose services he was obliged to accept under an agreement with Louis. Among the harshest critics of Parsifal, and indeed of the entire Bayreuth enterprise, was the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Earlier on Nietzsche had been a fervent admirer of Wagner, whose concept of the ‘‘total work of art’’ helped inspire Nietzsche’s first book, The Birth of Tragedy (1872). But Nietzsche was disgusted by what he saw as Wagner’s surrender to Christianity in Parsifal, and by the composer’s toadying to the imperial government in his efforts to fund Bayreuth. Wagner, who had been flattered by Nietzsche’s adulation, was deeply wounded by the criticism. The two former friends remained estranged on Wagner’s death in 1883. WAGNER AND NAZISM

In addition to launching the Bayreuth music festival, which Cosima Wagner carried on after his death, Wagner brought together in Bayreuth a coterie of disciples who dedicated themselves to perpetuating his musical and philosophical legacy. Known as the Bayreuth Circle, this group interpreted the composer’s contradictory ideas onesidedly as an endorsement of the authoritarian, racist, and chauvinistic views they themselves championed. Their influence, along with Adolf Hitler’s personal infatuation with Wagner’s operas, later turned Bayreuth into a kind of ‘‘court theater’’ for the Third Reich. Ever since, some commentators have seen Wagner as an intellectual ‘‘forefather’’ of Nazism. The question of Wagner’s connection to Nazism continues to inspire impassioned debate among historians and cultural critics, as does the relationship between his political ideas and his music. Is Wagner’s art indelibly ‘‘corrupted’’ by his sociopolitical views? Can one enjoy his music with a clear conscience? These questions will probably persist as long as Wagner’s operas are performed. See also Beethoven, Ludwig van; Liszt, Franz; Louis II; Nietzsche, Friedrich; Revolutions of 1848.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gray, Howard. Wagner. London, 1990.

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Gregor-Dellin, Martin. Richard Wagner: His Life, His Work, His Century. Translated by J. Maxwell Brownjohn. San Diego, Calif., 1983. Gutman, Robert W. Richard Wagner: The Man, His Mind, and His Music. New York, 1968. Large, David Clay, and William Weber, eds. Wagnerism in European Culture and Politics. Ithaca, N.Y., 1984. Millington, Barry, ed. The Wagner Compendium: A Guide to Wagner’s Life and Music. London, 1992. DAVID CLAY LARGE

n

´ (1846– WALDECK-ROUSSEAU, RENE 1904), prime minister of France (1899–1902) and a central figure in the campaign to separate church and state. Pierre-Marie-Rene´ Waldeck-Rousseau was born in western France, the son of a lawyer from Nantes who served in the Constituent Assembly of 1848 that established the Second Republic. He followed his father’s career, but had only moderate success in his practice at Rennes (Brittany). Waldeck-Rousseau was educated in Catholic schools, but had left the church and supported the anticlerical republicanism of Le´on Gambetta (1838–1882). He joined the Gambettist republican party at Rennes and was elected at age thirty-two to the Chamber of Deputies in the republican landslide of 1879. Waldeck-Rousseau joined Gambetta’s opportunist faction in the Chamber, and was rewarded with the Ministry of the Interior in Gambetta’s only cabinet (1881–1882). In these years he developed a liberal republicanism, supporting individual liberty and championing the Press Law of 1881 that created broad freedom of the press. When he stood for reelection in 1881, his program stressed the freedom of labor. As minister, WaldeckRousseau drafted a law of associations granting workers full rights of unionization. Gambetta died before this law could be adopted, and WaldeckRousseau joined many Gambettists in supporting Jules Ferry (1832–1893). He received the Ministry of the Interior in Ferry’s government of 1884–1885, in which post he won adoption of the Law of Associations in 1884, a law often referred to as the Waldeck-Rousseau Law.

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When Ferry was driven from office in 1885, and the climate of opinion shifted against liberal reforms, Waldeck-Rousseau lost interest in parliamentary life. He chose not to stand for reelection in 1889 and devoted himself to his Parisian legal practice. Waldeck-Rousseau’s mastery of the civil code, attention to detail, and skill at untangling complexity earned him considerable wealth in commercial law. CHURCH AND STATE

After a decade in retirement from politics, WaldeckRousseau was persuaded to run for a vacant senate seat from the Loire in 1894 and was elected by such an overwhelming margin that friends persuaded him to run for the presidency in 1895, although he lost to Fe´lix Faure (1841–1899). He returned to the senate for a full term in 1897, again by a huge margin. Rather than champion legislative causes, WaldeckRousseau used his political popularity to work behind the scenes to construct a ‘‘great republican circle’’ linking all elements of French republicanism. This put Waldeck-Rousseau in a respected, centrist republican position during the most tumultuous phase of the Dreyfus affair, with the result that he was asked to form a cabinet in June 1899, following the republican electoral victory. Waldeck-Rousseau served as prime minister for one of the longest terms of the Third Republic (1899–1902) and did so at a time of great national crisis. He tried to create a cabinet with broad appeal, taking the Ministry of the Interior and Religion for himself, retaining Theophile Delcasse´ (1852–1923) at the Quai d’Orsay, and including such diverse figures as General Gaston-AlexandreAuguste de Galliffet (1830–1909, who had led the suppression of the Paris Commune of 1871 and was detested on the left) at the Ministry of War and Alexandre Millerand (1859–1943, the first socialist to sit in a government) at the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Waldeck-Rousseau steered France through a period of labor unrest, critical court cases associated with the Dreyfus affair, and the beginning phases of the radical anticlericalism of the early twentieth century. He strove to maintain a moderate course on questions concerning the church, and he opposed the separation of church and state, although he merely postponed it for a few years.

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The debate on religion under Waldeck-Rousseau focused on revising the Law of Associations. In November 1899, he drafted a bill to apply this law to religious congregations. The debate on this bill, and the application of the resulting Law of Associations of 1901, accelerated the demand for the separation of church and state, and this ultimately led to Waldeck-Rousseau’s resignation. He had wanted government control over the Catholic religious orders, allowing them some freedom to act (analogous to his law for workers in 1884). Instead, the Law of Associations of 1901 became the instrument by which most religious orders were disbanded. Although his republican coalition won a major electoral victory in June 1902, the discouraged prime minister chose to retire, citing his health. His successor, Emile Combes (1835–1921), then carried out the anticlerical agenda of separation; Waldeck-Rousseau died following an operation for cancer of the pancreas in 1904. See

also Caillaux, Joseph; Clemenceau, Georges; Gambetta, Le´on-Michel; Separation of Church and State (France, 1905).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Waldeck-Rousseau, Rene´. La De´fense re´publicaine. Paris, 1902. ———. Action re´publicaine et sociale. Paris, 1903. ———. Politique franc¸aise et e´trange`re. Paris, 1903.

Secondary Sources Partin, Martin O. Waldeck-Rousseau, Combes, and the Church: The Politics of Anti-Clericalism, 1899–1905. Durham, N.C., 1969. Sorlin, Pierre. Waldeck-Rousseau. Paris, 1966. STEVEN C. HAUSE

n

WALES. In 1845 Frederick Engels commented that the Welsh ‘‘retain pertinaciously’’ their separate nationality. This sense of nationality was often retained against the condescension of the English. The position of Wales in the United Kingdom differed from that of Scotland or Ireland because Wales had been ‘‘incorporated’’ in the English realm

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in the sixteenth century rather than joined by parliamentary union as Scotland had been in 1707 or as Ireland would be in 1800. Consequently, Wales had few institutional expressions of its identity, and the nineteenth century would see the creation of many of its modern national institutions. Initially, however, this lack of distinctively Welsh institutions created a cultural space for religion, especially Protestant Nonconformity, to thrive and become a powerful marker of national identity. During the nineteenth century the national movement would be primarily concerned with achieving parity with the other nations of Britain, a brief attempt in the 1880s and 1890s to achieve self-government within the United Kingdom notwithstanding. With the expansion of the franchise during the century, most Welsh people developed a sense of citizenship rooted in a dual identity based on their linguistic and religious particularity on the one hand and loyalty to the British state on the other. At the end of the eighteenth century Wales was a thinly peopled country on the verge of momentous new changes. The majority of the people worked the land on poor upland farms dominated by a tiny aristocratic elite, while towns were small-scale and functioned as hubs of regional markets and cultural life. The impact of industrialization in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was profound. This first phase consisted of mining and the manufacture of metals like copper and iron in some of the biggest industrial concerns in the world. These developments were mainly financed by English capitalists. In the south of the country, small villages like Merthyr Tydfil were transformed into thriving, if socially unstable, urban centers, whereas ports like Swansea experienced more measured growth. The country was affected by the political ferment of the late eighteenth century, with Welshmen like Richard Price and David Williams becoming philosophers of the American and French Revolutions. In a country with a sparse population, demographic change was striking. Population growth comfortably exceeded 10 percent in every decade during the first half of the nineteenth century, rising to nearly 18 percent in the decade from 1811 to 1821. Much of this growth was experienced in the countryside, where agriculture was unable to absorb the excess and migration to the towns acted as a safety valve. Even so, major agrarian disturbances

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TABLE 1

Population of Wales, 1801–1911 Year

Population

% Change

1801 1811 1821 1831 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911

601,767 688,774 811,381 924,329 1,068,547 1,188,914 1,312,834 1,421,670 1,577,559 1,776,405 2,015,012 2,442,041

— 14.5 17.8 13.9 15.6 11.3 10.6 9.7 11.1 12.6 13.5 18.6

SOURCE:

Data from Census of England and Wales, 1801–1911.

erupted in southwest Wales in the form of the Rebecca riots (1839–1844). Whereas some historians see this episode as an expression of anger by the small farmers, others interpret it as community revolt with much wider social appeal. At the same time, the Chartist movement took root in other parts of the country. By mid-1839 about one-fifth of the population of south Wales were Chartists. Thousands of armed rebels marched on Newport on 4 November 1839 in what was intended to be the first step in a British rising. At least twenty-two were shot by the waiting soldiers and the rising failed. The movement revived in 1842 and 1848 but never regained the same momentum as in its early days. STABILITY AND PROGRESS

The transition from the agrarian and industrial revolt of the 1830s and 1840s to the period of mid-Victorian stability and political quiescence is one of the most striking developments of nineteenth-century Wales. It was a result of the stabilizing effect of the growth of railways, an increasing attachment to political reformism following the failure of Chartism, and the growing influence of the Nonconformist chapels. Public debate in these decades was shaped by religious allegiances. In 1851 a little more than half the population attended a place of worship, over three-quarters of whom did so in a Nonconformist chapel. Religious revivalism—like the trans-Atlantic revival of 1859—swelled the ranks of the denominations in both rural and industrial areas. Together with a popular culture rooted in the ideals of respectabil-

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ity and sobriety, the country was provided with the components for a new sense of national identity. Central to this was an episode known as ‘‘the Treachery of the Blue Books.’’ In 1847 government education commissioners published a report that denigrated the morals of the Welsh people as a whole, and more particularly those of women. This inaugurated a campaign to restore the reputation of the Welsh people, conducted from the pulpit, in public meetings and especially in the newspaper and periodical press in both Welsh and English languages. As well as the respectable public face of Wales, however, social tensions occasionally produced conflict, such as with the frequent anti-Irish riots in the towns and the widespread conflicts over poaching in rural areas. This period of cultural change is epitomized by the re-establishment, from 1858, of the annual National Eisteddfod, a popular cultural festival based on literary and musical competition, which was held in a different part of the country each year. Although drawing heavily on ‘‘traditional’’ culture, it ensured mass appeal because of a combination of the rise in literacy and the expansion of the press in both languages. Such cultural innovations were underpinned by economic change. The coal industry grew rapidly in south Wales in midcentury, as did slate quarrying in the northeast. Whereas in 1851 less than 20 percent of the population lived in settlements of more than five thousand inhabitants, just under 50 percent did so by 1891, and the trend was inexorably in this direction. Between 1850 and 1870 some 2,300 kilometers of railway were built to connect these towns. The creation of a dense railway network linked the different parts of the country in ways previously unthought of and went some way toward unifying the country. LIBERALISM AND THE NATION

A striking feature of politics after the Reform Act of 1867 was the overwhelming dominance of the Liberal Party, which won a clear majority of Welsh parliamentary seats in every election until 1922. As a result, some historians see this one-party domination as the creation of a national movement, while others portray the Liberal hegemony in terms of the rise of middle-class leadership. The party provided a voice for those outside the estab-

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Some major issues remained unresolved. Although not as serious as the Irish land question, rural grievances remained intractable. Between 1886 and 1891 a tithe war broke out throughout rural Wales, partly as a consequence of the international agricultural depression. In 1887 only 10.2 percent of the land was owned by the men and women who farmed it, and landlordism remained a powerful force. But between 1910 and 1914 all the major landowners began to sell land, and it was bought overwhelmingly by their tenants; thus on the eve of war, power relations in rural society were changing dramatically. This was a harbinger of a more fundamental social revolution in the countryside after 1918. The cornerstone of Welsh Liberal demands, disestablishment of the Church of England in Wales, remained unresolved until 1919.

Portrait of a Welsh market woman, Carmarthen, Wales, c. 1900. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS

lishment, including industrialists, professionals, farmers, and other members of the middle class. In an attempt to mobilize the people against an Anglicized aristocracy and the established church, the Liberal MP Henry Richard asserted that ‘‘the Nonconformists of Wales are the people of Wales.’’ In the 1880s and 1890s the party was a vehicle for ambitious young men like Tom Ellis and David Lloyd George, who combined a radical social agenda with nationalism. Their aim was parity with the other nations of the United Kingdom, rather than separatism, and parliament passed distinctive legislation for Wales for the first time in the 1880s on matters such as temperance and education. In 1893 a federal University of Wales was established, and it rapidly became an influential cultural institution.

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A concern with establishing national institutions permeated popular culture, as witnessed by the creation of the Football Association of Wales (1876) and the Welsh Rugby Union (1881), both of which facilitated competition on the international stage; the competition of nonstate nationalities in international sporting competitions is a peculiar feature of British life that originated at this time. Rugby, in particular, came to be regarded as a popular embodiment of Welsh identity. Other sports, like boxing, also flourished, with boxers such as Jim Driscoll and Freddie Welsh winning international acclaim. PEOPLE, LANGUAGE, AND GENDER

Population growth quickened once again from the 1880s and in-migration was mainly responsible for an increase of more than 18 percent during the first decade of the twentieth century. Regional disparities became acute from this decade, with 46 percent of the country’s population residing in the single county of Glamorgan by 1911. The exportoriented coal industry drew in large numbers of migrants from rural Wales and from England and transformed the industrial valleys of south Wales into frontier towns, while at the same time fueling the dramatic growth of ports like Cardiff and Barry. These far-reaching changes produced two longterm social trends: first, regarding language, and second, regarding the balance between the sexes in industrial society. By 1901 only a little over half the

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Young miners wash coal in Bargoed, Wales, 1910. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS

population spoke the Welsh language, a proportion that dropped below half during the following decade for the first time in history. By 1891 nearly 17 percent of the population was English-born. Industrial society was skewed numerically in favor of males, and the quintessential symbols of this culture were masculine: the coalminer, slate quarryman, rugby player, and male chorister. By contrast, the only significant female symbol in this period was the Welsh ‘‘mam’’ (mother), a figure associated with home and hearth. Such gendered conceptions of class and national identity were influential for much of the following century. Liberalism still dominated the political landscape, with not a single Conservative MP being elected from Wales in the landslide election of 1906. The first socialist MP, Keir Hardie, was elected at Merthyr Tydfil in 1900. Mass trade unions gained increasing importance; the South Wales Miners’

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Federation, which became the most important institution in Welsh life during the first half of the twentieth century, was founded in 1898. The years after 1909, usually termed the Great Unrest, mark something of a watershed in industrial society. Industrial disputes were numerous during these years and serious riots erupted, including anti-Semitic and antiChinese disturbances. Syndicalist ideas found a receptive audience in some quarters. The consensual politics of the older trade union leaders were brusquely swept aside. At the same time, the women’s suffrage movement became more militant, contributing to an atmosphere of general social malaise. These events stand in stark contrast to the extravagant royal pageantry associated with the Investiture of the Prince of Wales at Caernarfon Castle in north Wales in 1911. By the eve of World War I, Wales had been transformed by economic, demographic, cultural,

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and political developments. It was overwhelmingly an industrial and urban country and had one of the densest railway networks in the world. It remained one of Engels’s submerged ‘‘unhistoric nations,’’ but a national revival had taken place, and new national cultural institutions had been created. See also Great Britain; Ireland; Scotland. BIBLIOGRAPHY

of his scientific colleagues. The disagreements between the two founders of modern evolutionary theory remain unresolved, both within and beyond the scientific community. In his later years Wallace believed in a unity that underlay all physical, biological, social, and spiritual phenomena. Some of his later books, such as Darwinism (1889) and Studies Scientific and Social (1900), exemplify the evolutionary theism that surrounded his scientific analyses of the whole of nature.

Davies, John. A History of Wales. London, 1993. Jenkins, Geraint H., ed. The Welsh Language and Social Domains in the Nineteenth Century, 1801–1911. Cardiff, 2000. Jenkins, Philip. A History of Modern Wales, 1536–1990. London, 1992. John, Angela V., ed. Our Mothers’ Land: Chapters in Welsh Women’s History, 1800–1939. Cardiff, 1991. Jones, David J. V. Rebecca’s Children: A Study of Rural Society, Crime and Protest. Oxford, U.K., and New York, 1989. Jones, Gareth Elwyn, and Dai Smith, eds. The Peoples of Wales. Llandysul, Wales, 1999. Jones, Ieuan Gwynedd. Mid-Victorian Wales: The Observers and the Observed. Cardiff, 1992. Morgan, Kenneth O. Wales in British Politics, 1868–1922. 3rd ed. Cardiff, 1980. O’Leary, Paul. Immigration and Integration: The Irish in Wales, 1798–1922. Cardiff, 2000. Williams, Gwyn A. When Was Wales? A History of the Welsh. Harmondsworth, U.K., 1985. PAUL O’LEARY

n

WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823– 1913), British naturalist, geographer, humanist, and social critic. Discoverer and champion of the theory of evolution by natural selection, Wallace was one of nineteenth-century Britain’s most outspoken intellectuals. His insights into evolution are his most enduring legacy, and much has been written about his relationship with his famous friend and colleague, Charles Darwin (1809–1882). Wallace’s interests and publications ranged beyond evolutionary biology into political and spiritual arenas, much to the disappointment of Darwin and many

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He was the eighth of nine children born to Mary Anne Greenell and Thomas Vere Wallace, but only Alfred and two of his siblings survived past early adulthood. His family could barely afford the six years of formal education he received at the one-room Hertford Grammar School. Wallace, like his father, never held a permanent job and suffered from financial difficulties throughout his life. He married in 1866 and two of his three children survived to adulthood. In his youth, Wallace was exposed to secular and reformist political ideas as well as to phrenology and mesmerism. He became self-educated in various branches of science and natural history while working as a surveyor, and for a short time as a teacher. Well-read in the natural history literature of the day, Wallace shared his reactions with his new friend Henry Walter Bates, who introduced him to entomology. Deeply intrigued by the question of the origin of species, Wallace proposed to Bates that they travel to South America as self-employed specimen collectors for the thengrowing natural history trade. The traveled together to Brazil in 1848 and parted ways shortly thereafter. Wallace learned the rugged ropes of tropical fieldwork during four years of collecting in the Amazon basin. Although he amassed thousands of birds and insects, his specimens and most of his notes were destroyed in a fire at sea. Nevertheless, Wallace published several scientific articles and two books, and made enough of a name for himself in London’s scientific circles to embark on a journey to the Malay Archipelago (Malaysia, Indonesia, and part of New Guinea) as a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. Wallace traveled widely among the islands from 1854 to 1862, collecting biological specimens for his own research and for sale, and writing scores of

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scientific articles. He would be well known to naturalists for his collections alone, amassing more than 125,000 specimens, hundreds of which were new to science. Here he penned the essay for which he is now best known, in which he proposed that new species arise by the progression and continued divergence of varieties.

Slotten, Ross A. The Heretic in Darwin’s Court. New York, 2004.

Wallace returned to England at the age of thirty-nine and continued to make significant contributions to natural history, especially The Geographical Distribution of Animals in 1876, but his views on spiritualism and human evolution fell outside of the scientific naturalism that dominated scientific thought.

WARFARE.

He died at the age of ninety, having published twenty-one books, including a two-volume autobiography in 1905, and over seven hundred articles, essays, and letters. Wallace has been variously characterized as the nineteenth century’s greatest explorer-naturalist, the quintessential outsider, a spur to Darwin, and a crank. In the early twenty-first century scholars have begun to expand on the limited biographies of Wallace that prevailed in the twentieth century. These works (especially those by Fichman and Slotten) present a more complex figure, a fiercely intellectual but no less spiritual man, a brave and original thinker, who while shaping the history of modern Western science was also shaped by progressivism and by a rising tide of socialist and spiritualist beliefs. He believed that his most important contribution was the extension of natural selection into the social realm. For Wallace, improvement of the human race depended on natural selection acting on well-educated, economically free men and women in an egalitarian social system. See also Darwin, Charles; Evolution; Huxley, Thomas Henry.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Camerini, Jane R., ed. The Alfred Russel Wallace Reader: A Selection of Writings from the Field. Baltimore, Md., 2002. Fichman, Martin. An Elusive Victorian: The Evolution of Alfred Russel Wallace. Chicago, 2003. Moore, James. ‘‘Wallace’s Malthusian Moment: The Common Context Revisited.’’ In Victorian Science in Context, edited by Bernard Lightman, 290–311. Chicago, 1997. Raby, Peter. Alfred Russel Wallace: A Life. London, 2001.

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JANE R. CAMERINI

See Armies; Military Tactics.

n

WAR OF 1812. The war that began in 1812 between the United States and Great Britain resulted from the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars of the 1790s and early 1800s. Both France and Britain violated American neutral rights, and the United States objected to these transgressions. Ultimately, America exhausted both its diplomacy and its patience, declaring war on Britain on 18 June 1812. Preoccupied by its fight with Napoleon, Great Britain tried at the last minute to avoid war with the United States, and efforts were under way from its outset to conclude it. Nonetheless, the war lasted for two and a half years and would be instrumental in transforming AngloAmerican relations from suspicious enmity to grudging respect and eventually firm partnership. CAUSES

During the early years of the Franco-British conflict, the United States prospered because European powers used neutral shippers to supply their colonies. Yet the breakdown of the Peace of Amiens (1802) in 1803 abruptly changed that situation as France renewed its war against Britain. When Admiral Horatio Nelson decisively defeated the French fleet off Trafalgar (21 October 1805) and Napoleon crushed Britain’s continental allies at Austerlitz (2 December 1805), a stalemate resulted with Britain’s Royal Navy supreme on the seas and Napoleon’s Grande Arme´e apparently invincible in Europe. Unable to fight each other by force of arms, the two powers resorted to commercial warfare, a move that unavoidably targeted the United States, which was claiming the right as a neutral to trade with both countries. Although both Britain’s Orders in Council and France’s Berlin and Milan decrees restricted American trade, most Americans found British behavior more offensive because of

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the Royal Navy’s use of impressment—the abduction of sailors from American merchant vessels—to man British warships. In 1807, impressment nearly provoked war when HMS Leopard waylaid the U.S. Navy frigate Chesapeake and seized four of her sailors. Rather than resorting to war, however, President Thomas Jefferson persuaded Congress to pass the Embargo Act in December 1807. The plan was to deprive warring Europeans of U.S. trade until they respected American neutral rights, but commercial restriction failed as Americans openly flouted the embargo and seethed under government efforts to enforce it. Congress repealed the unsuccessful embargo in 1809 but continued commercial restriction with the temporary Non-Intercourse Act (1809) and Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810). Both were failures, but Macon’s Bill No. 2 was an embarrassing one: the United States resumed trade with the entire world, including Britain and France, but pledged to sustain it with the country that ended trade restrictions and stop it with the other. Napoleon, a master of deceit, hinted he would drop his restrictions, an obvious lie that President James Madison chose to treat as truth. The United States stopped trade with Britain. As Anglo-American tensions mounted in 1811, other issues drove the countries toward war. Indian unrest on America’s western frontier was actually the result of indigenous native resistance led by the Shawnee Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa (‘‘the Prophet’’), but many Americans believed it to be the product of British agitation. When Indiana territorial governor William Henry Harrison destroyed Tecumseh and the Prophet’s town at the Battle of Tippecanoe (7 November 1811), it drove the Indians into a British alliance. In late 1811, Madison called Congress into special session, and a prominent faction, the War Hawks, urged a resolute defense of American honor and security. The most popular War Hawk, Kentuckian Henry Clay, was elected Speaker of the House and steered a course that finally compelled Madison to send a war message to Congress on 1 June 1812. Congress responded with a formal declaration of war on 18 June 1812, but the divisive congressional debates and close votes on the

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declaration were a portent of American disunity in the coming conflict. The minority Federalist Party doubted the stated reasons for going to war with Great Britain. Federalists accused Republicans of wanting to expand American territory with the conquest of Canada, not reclaim American honor and preserve neutral rights. The war’s proponents were primarily western and southern farmers, they noted, who were improbable champions of free trade and sailors’ rights. New Englanders, who had the greater material interest in protecting trade, were the war’s most adamant opponents. Most scholars have concluded, however, that these appearances are deceptive. Farmers had a stake in preserving access to foreign markets for their produce and yearned to protect American honor. Aside from any expansionist schemes, the plan to invade Canada was dictated by the fact that Canada was where the British were. The United States declared war in 1812 to avenge the insult of impressment and stop injuries caused by the Royal Navy’s interference with America’s overseas trade. Britain finally did realize the danger of alienating the United States and was in the process of repealing the Orders in Council while Congress was voting for war, but the delay in receiving this news from London made it irrelevant. Fighting had already begun, and Britain, in any case, was unwilling to abandon impressment. THE WAR

Although Americans regarded Canada as a realistic military objective, repeated attempts to invade and occupy it proved fruitless. Occasionally they were disastrous, as when Michigan territorial governor William Hull’s 1812 campaign ended with his surrendering Detroit, a catastrophe that exposed the entire Northwest to British occupation and Indian depredations. Hull’s replacement, William Henry Harrison, barely kept an army together under the British onslaught. Elsewhere along the Canadian border in 1812 American plans proved equally ineffective, if not quite as ruinous. Brigadier General Henry Dearborn’s political clashes with unwilling New England state militias prevented a campaign against Montreal, and the Niagara frontier proved invulnerable to American invasion attempts. This dismal chronicle might have sunk American hopes altogether had it not been for the small U.S.

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Navy’s unexpected success during the war’s opening months. Because the Royal Navy was blockading Napoleonic Europe, it was short of ships for the American conflict, and aggressive American captains commanded skilled crews aboard powerful frigates that were more than a match for their British counterparts. Victories by celebrated ships such as the USS United States and USS Constitution (dubbed ‘‘Old Ironsides’’ by her crew) thrilled Americans and dismayed Britain. In 1813, however, the consequences of Napoleon’s ill-advised invasion of Russia signaled a dramatic decline in his fortunes, and more British ships could prosecute the American conflict. The Royal Navy asserted its dominance in 1813, bottling up the dangerous American frigates and mounting damaging raids along the coast, especially in Chesapeake Bay where Admiral Sir George Cockburn was particularly destructive. American attempts in 1813 to invade Canada at first appeared to be just as futile as the previous year’s had been. Dearborn crossed the Niagara River but had limited success and lost all gains as he tried to move into Upper Canada. The northeastern Canadian border remained impervious as well. Although the ineffectual Dearborn resigned, his replacements, Major Generals James Wilkinson and Wade Hampton, could not overcome personal differences to stage a march on Montreal. On 10 September 1813, however, American commodore Oliver Hazard Perry’s stunning victory over Sir Robert Barclay’s squadron secured American control of Lake Erie. Perry’s soon famous message of ‘‘we have met the enemy and he is ours’’ marked the war’s turning point in the Northwest. William Henry Harrison retook Detroit and hounded its fleeing defenders under Brigadier General Henry Procter, defeating them at the Battle of the Thames (5 October 1813). Tecumseh’s death in the battle ended Anglo-Indian cooperation in the region. The contest’s decisive year would be 1814, for Napoleon’s defeat and abdication (April 1814) allowed Britain to shift veteran soldiers from Europe to North America; meanwhile competent, aggressive officers were given command of American armies. In the spring, Major General Andrew Jackson defeated Red Stick Creeks in the Mississippi Territory, and Major General Jacob Brown crossed the Niagara River, took Fort Erie, and marched north

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to rendezvous with Commodore Isaac Chauncey’s Lake Ontario squadron. Chauncey’s squadron failed to appear, and Brown retreated, but not before fighting the war’s bloodiest battle, a stalemate at Lundy’s Lane (25 July 1814). Meanwhile, the British launched offensive operations in upstate New York and Chesapeake Bay. Major General Robert Ross scattered green American militia at Bladensburg, Maryland, and occupied Washington, D.C. (24 August 1814), burning its public buildings, including the Capitol and Executive Mansion. Following this symbolic but strategically irrelevant success, the British attacked Baltimore (12–13 September 1814), but Fort McHenry, which protected Baltimore’s Inner Harbor, withstood a relentless naval bombardment. When an American sharpshooter’s bullet mortally wounded General Ross, the British called off the attack. The British invasion along Lake Champlain ended when an American naval squadron under Commodore Thomas Macdonough crippled Captain George Downie’s ships on Plattsburgh Bay (11 September 1814), and at Plattsburgh, New York, Alexander Macomb’s Americans repulsed veterans under Canada’s governor-general Sir George Prevost. PEACE

Despite these victories, New England dissidents met at Hartford, Connecticut, in late 1814 to voice grievances and protest the war. Occurring in the shadow of recent American successes, the Hartford Convention caused the rest of the country to question New England’s loyalty and the Federalist Party’s patriotism. In addition, New England dissent that insisted the war could only end badly coincided with the war’s relatively acceptable conclusion. American and British peace commissioners who had been meeting in Ghent since late summer finally signed a peace treaty on Christmas Eve, 1814. Although the Treaty of Ghent did not address impressment or neutral rights, both parties regarded it as a satisfactory termination of the conflict. Britain had endured a quarter century of war in Europe and was eager to rid itself of the distraction of one in North America. The United States was relieved to escape the grave consequences of serious military defeat. The treaty thus restored all territory to the status quo antebellum, literally the situation as it existed before the war.

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The United States emerged from the contest more energized and united than it had been before or during it. Andrew Jackson’s crushing defeat of Lieutenant General Sir Edward Pakenham’s forces outside New Orleans on 8 January 1815 had occurred after the signing at Ghent but before the treaty’s ratification. The nearly simultaneous occurrence of Jackson’s victory and the news of the peace convinced many Americans that they had won the war. Britain, on the other hand, was ready to pursue diplomatic efforts to conciliate Americans and rehabilitate relations with them. In the coming years, important agreements both fixed and demilitarized the U.S.-Canada border, and other disputes were frequently submitted to arbitration. Anglo-American relations would occasionally be strained, but they would never again break, marking an evolving partnership that was to have a continuing and profound impact on Europe and the rest of the world. See also French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Great Britain; Imperialism. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Coles, Harry L. The War of 1812. Chicago, 1965. Heidler, David S., and Jeanne T. Heidler, eds. Encyclopedia of the War of 1812. Annapolis, Md., 2004. ———. The War of 1812. Westport, Conn., 2002. Hickey, Donald R. The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. Urbana, Ill., 1989. Horsman, Reginald. The War of 1812. New York, 1969. Mahon, John K. The War of 1812. Gainesville, Fla., 1972. DAVID S. HEIDLER, JEANNE T. HEIDLER

n

WARSAW. Warsaw first rose to prominence in the sixteenth century, when Poland and Lithuania joined to form a united republic. Because the city is located conveniently between the two capitals of Cracow (Krako´w) and Vilnius, and along the Vistula River leading to the major port city of Gdan´sk, it was used for meetings of the Sejm (parliament) from 1569, and as a royal residence from 1596. During the next two centuries Warsaw was repeatedly damaged by warfare and political turmoil, and the city’s economy was severely crippled. When Poland was conquered and partitioned in 1795, E U R O P E

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Warsaw was relegated to the status of a provincial town within the Kingdom of Prussia. The population of the city fell in a few short years from a pre-partition size of 150,000 to a mere 60,000 inhabitants. Napoleon fashioned a puppet state called the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807, thus returning a bit of the city’s former importance. Although the duchy fell with its founder, Warsaw remained a capital after 1815 when the Congress of Vienna sponsored the creation of the ‘‘Kingdom of Poland’’ as a semiautonomous state linked to the Russian Empire by a common hereditary ruler. The tsars steadily eroded the self-rule of the kingdom, but Warsaw retained its role as an administrative center. Above all, though, it was the focal point of the Polish national movement: Warsaw was the primary site for political agitation and public demonstrations, and it was the launching point for major uprisings in 1830 and 1863. Because of Warsaw’s symbolic importance, national independence is traditionally dated from the moment the city came under Polish authority on 11 November 1918. After Warsaw was linked to the major regional capitals by rail lines (Vienna from 1848, St. Petersburg from 1862), it developed rapidly into a major industrial and commercial center. Already in 1880 Warsaw had nearly 400,000 people, and by 1910 it had 750,000, making it the third-largest city in the Russian Empire and one of the fastest-growing cities in Europe. It continued to expand after the restoration of Polish independence, exceeding one million people by 1925. Warsaw’s urban infrastructure and architecture grew apace with this population growth: a modern sewage system was installed in 1872, gas lines were laid in 1856, the first tram line (horse-drawn) began service in 1866, a telephone system was in place from 1881, and electric power was available from 1903. Most of Warsaw’s inhabitants in the nineteenth century were Polish-speaking Roman Catholics, but Jews made up more than one-third of the population. Assimilation was limited, but certainly more common in Warsaw than in the countryside (the city’s main synagogue featured sermons in Polish from the 1850s onward). An influx of rural Jews at the end of the century increased the dominance of the Yiddish-speaking population. There were also about forty thousand Russian soldiers

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stationed in and around Warsaw at the start of the twentieth century. Even during the era of the partitions, Warsaw continued to be a focal point for Polish cultural, intellectual, and artistic life. The city’s vibrant theatrical scene featured the National Theater Company, which was founded in 1765 and housed from 1833 in a magnificent opera house known as the Wielki Teatr (Great Theater). Warsaw’s first major public art museum was created in 1862 and renamed the National Museum in 1916. The University of Warsaw was founded in 1816, but it had a troubled history: between 1831 and 1862 it was closed because the tsarist authorities feared student unrest, and between 1869 and 1915 Russian was the exclusive language of instruction. Nonetheless, the university produced many of the greatest intellectual and cultural figures of the era, including most of the so-callled Warsaw positivists (a late-nineteenthcentury political and literary movement defined by a liberal worldview and a naturalistic style). Though unable to serve as a center of political authority in the nineteenth century, Warsaw remained the symbolic capital of the country for many cultural and intellectual purposes. See also Austria-Hungary; Cities and Towns; Lithuania; Nationalism; Poland; Prague; Russia. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Corrsin, Stephen D. Warsaw before the First World War: Poles and Jews in the Third City of the Russian Empire, 1880–1914. Boulder, Colo., 1989. Drozdowski, Marian M., and Andrzej Zahorski. Historia Warszawy. 4th ed. Warsaw, 1997. Kieniewicz, Stefan. Warszawa w latach, 1795–1914. Warsaw, 1976. BRIAN PORTER

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WATERLOO. After eleven months of exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba, Napoleon Bonaparte returned to France in March 1815 and restored his empire. Meeting in Vienna to discuss the postwar reorganization of Europe, the Allies who had vanquished Napoleon one year earlier wasted no time. Renewing their alliance to

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form the Seventh Coalition, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria planned to have armies totaling almost 1 million men invade France by July. After Napoleon failed to convince the allies of his peaceful intentions, he devised a strategy of knocking one or more of the belligerents out of the war before they could combine their forces and overwhelm him. Napoleon’s return did not catch the allies wholly unprepared. Allied observation corps in Belgium steadily received reinforcements during the spring of 1815 to create an Anglo-Dutch army of 90,000 men under the command of Arthur Wellesley, the Duke of Wellington, and the Royal Prussian Army of the Lower Rhine: 120,000 Prussians under Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blu ¨ cher. Napoleon decided to strike these allied forces with his own 125,000-man Army of the North. After smashing through the Prussian forward posts on 14 and 15 June, the emperor inflicted a bruising defeat on Blu¨cher at Ligny on the 16th with the right wing of the French army. On the same day, the left wing, under the command of Marshal Michel Ney, encountered Wellington’s army at Quatre Bras. The resulting stalemate allowed Wellington to withdraw to Waterloo. The confusion of the French I Corps, which marched back and forth between Ligny and Quatre Bras without participating in either battle, also allowed the Prussian army to retreat unhindered north to Wavre, fifteen miles east of Waterloo. A series of blunders on the rainy day of 17 June placed the French at a decided disadvantage. Napoleon incorrectly assumed that the Prussians had retreated eastward along their line of communications, and assigned 33,000 men under the command of Marshal Emmanuel de Grouchy to drive Blu ¨ cher out of Belgium. He did not release the pursuit until 11:00 A.M. Then Grouchy took the wrong direction and failed to close the road between Waterloo and Wavre. After receiving Blu ¨ cher’s promise of support, Wellington took up a defensive position south of Waterloo with 68,000 men and awaited Napoleon and his 72,000 men on 18 June. While mud prevented Napoleon from launching his attack until 11:30 A.M., the Prussian IV Corps commenced its march to Waterloo at 4:30 A.M. followed by II and I Corps—a total of 70,000 men. Blu ¨ cher’s III Corps

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remained at Wavre as rear guard and was eventually attacked by Grouchy, but the combat had no influence on the monumental events at Waterloo. Napoleon opened the attack with a spirited assault by his II Corps on the entrenched farm of Hougoumont on Wellington’s right wing. The garrison held, and two hours later, at 1:30 P.M., the French I Corps tested Wellington’s left and eventually had to fall back. The British then countered with a cavalry charge that ground to a halt before massed French artillery. Shortly thereafter Napoleon noticed troops moving on his extreme right; by 2:00 P.M. reports confirmed the approach of Blu¨cher’s Prussians. While Napoleon shifted his reserves to meet the new threat on his right, Ney squandered the French cavalry in massed, unsupported charges between 3:45 and 5:00 P.M. that failed to break the British infantry squares in Wellington’s center. Just as the survivors of Ney’s charges limped back to the French line, Blu¨cher’s IV Corps attacked the French right. As more Prussian units arrived, Blu ¨ cher extended his front to threaten Napoleon’s line of retreat. While Napoleon oversaw the struggle against the Prussians around the village of Plancenoit, Ney managed to capture the fortified farm of La Haie Sainte around 6:00 P.M. With Wellington’s center almost bled dry, Ney called for reinforcements, but all available units had to be committed against the Prussians. Napoleon eventually managed to shift his Imperial Guard from Plancenoit to his center, but the opportunity to destroy Wellington had passed. At 7:30 P.M., Napoleon ordered eight battalions of the guard to spearhead one final assault against Wellington’s center. Wellington brought up his last reserves, which repulsed the attacking guard. Seeing the elite guardsmen routed and realizing that Grouchy would not arrive in time, the French army began fleeing the battlefield around 8:30 P.M. Only two battalions of the Old Guard maintained order to cover Napoleon’s exit from the battlefield. French losses amounted to 33,000 men and 220 guns, while the Allied armies sustained 22,000 casualties. The battle of Waterloo represents the climax of Napoleon’s way of war. During the latter years of his reign, he had experienced the consequences of failing to develop an adequate general staff system to direct the operations of multiple armies

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in theaters as far apart as Portugal and Russia. His reluctance to nurture his subordinates in the art of strategy and to create advanced military schools for the training of officers inhibited the French army’s ability to produce commanders who could conduct independent operations. Just as Napoleon exited the stage of history following the battle of Waterloo, so too ended the age when operations and battle could be directed solely by the genius of one man. See also French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Hundred Days; Napoleon; Wellington, Duke of (Arthur Wellesley). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Siborne, William. History of the War in France and Belgium in 1815. London, 1844.

Secondary Sources Bowden, Scott. Armies at Waterloo. Arlington, Tex., 1983. Chandler, David. Waterloo: The Hundred Days. London, 1980. MICHAEL V. LEGGIERE

n

WEBB, BEATRICE POTTER (1858– 1943), British socialist. Best known as a leader of the British Fabian Society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Beatrice Potter Webb was also an early empirical sociologist, the author of important works of social and political history, and a brilliant diarist and autobiographer. The daughter of Richard Potter (1817–1892), a railway magnate and lumber merchant, and Lawrencina Heyworth Potter (1821–1882), a bluestocking and would-be novelist, she was raised with her eight sisters by nannies and governesses on a Gloucestershire estate and in a London flat during the Season. Her grandfathers, businessmen who made their fortunes in cotton and trade in the north of England, were Radicals and Nonconformists. In rebellion against the privileged and yet constraining social ethos of her immediate family, she invoked the political and religious dissent of her Lancashire ancestry as her true heritage. As a young woman she chafed at the idea that an advantageous marriage

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Why this demand for State intervention from a generation reared amidst rapidly rising riches and disciplined in the school of philosophic radicalism and orthodox political economy?. . . The origin of the ferment is to be discovered in a new consciousness of sin among men of intellect and men of property; a consciousness at first philanthropic and practical . . .; then literary and artistic . . .; and finally, analytic, historical and explanatory. . . . The consciousness of sin was a collective or class consciousness; a growing uneasiness, amounting to conviction, that the industrial organization, which had yielded rent, interest and profits on a stupendous scale, had failed to provide a decent livelihood and tolerable living conditions for a majority of the inhabitants of Great Britain. Beatrice Webb, My Apprenticeship (pp. 178–180).

was the only imaginable vocation for a woman of her class and sought refuge in the intellectual tutelage of her mother’s friend Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), the Potter family’s ‘‘philosopher on the hearth.’’ She surprised both Spencer and her family when she married the socialist Sidney James Webb (1859–1947), the son of a milliner and hairdresser, in 1892. Together, along with colleagues George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), Sydney Olivier (1859–1943), Graham Wallas (1858–1932), Edward Reynolds Pease (1857–1955), and William Clarke (1852-1901), they led the Fabian Society in its early years. Webb’s autobiography, My Apprenticeship (1926), tells a story that is in many ways paradigmatic of the spiritual struggles, political transformations, and personal conflicts of many members of her generation. She describes the first half of her life as a search for ‘‘creed’’ and ‘‘craft’’ carried out within the context of what she called the ‘‘mid-Victorian Time-Spirit,’’ an ethos in which, as she put it, ‘‘the impulse of selfsubordinating service was transferred, consciously and overtly, from God to man’’ (My Apprenticeship, pp. 142–143). As a prote´ge´e of Spencer, the individualist philosopher, and daughter of laissez-faire capitalists, she questioned the principles of self-interest

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that left vast numbers of citizens in poverty and was drawn to a collectivist approach to economic and social organization. As a religious spirit, she moved away from Christian orthodoxies and gravitated to the ‘‘religion of humanity’’ of Auguste Comte (1798–1857) and the beliefs of English positivists like Frederic Harrison (1831–1923). As a woman, she railed against the marriage market of the London Season, rejected the idea of a husband who would completely eclipse her and her own aspirations, and sought a vocation outside of wedlock. During the 1880s, Webb considered the possibility of marriage to Joseph Chamberlain (1836–1914), then a leader in the Radical Party. Webb resisted Chamberlain’s political ideas, then more radical than her own, and his imperious personality, even as she felt deeply drawn to him. In the end, she wrote in her diary, marriage to someone like him might be disastrous: ‘‘I shall be absorbed into the life of a man whose aims are not my aims; who will refuse me all freedom of thought in my intercourse with him; to whose career I shall have to subordinate all my life, mental and physical’’ (Diary, vol. 1, p. 111). Webb was saved from the depressing aftermath of her failed relationship with Chamberlain and her stultifying life as dutiful, unmarried daughter by an invitation from her cousin Charles Booth (1840– 1916) to assist him in his mammoth survey of poverty in London. Booth, himself influenced by positivism and moved by current debates about the extent of poverty in England, left his work as a Liverpool shipowner and devoted himself to a project that lasted over fourteen years. If Comte and Spencer led Webb to an interest in the study of society, Booth gave her the opportunity to practice— and partly to invent—the craft of social investigation. Her contributions to Booth’s Life and Labour of the People in London (1889–1903) consisted of empirical studies of three metropolitan groups: dock laborers, sweatshop workers, and Jewish immigrants. At times using disguise and the technique of what would come to be known as participatory observation, Webb was able to produce both vivid accounts of East End life and analyses of the structure of labor. Now embarked on a craft, Webb began to move toward the creed of socialism. She was drawn to Fabianism because of her experiences with research, interest in the cooperative movement,

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Beatrice Webb. Undated photograph taken by George Bernard Shaw. NATIONAL TRUST, SHAW CORNER, HERTFORDSHIRE, UK/ BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY. THE SOCIETY OF AUTHORS, ON BEHALF OF THE BERNARD SHAW ESTATE.

and growing belief in the need for state regulation of labor, as well as by reading Fabian Essays, edited by Shaw and published in 1889. Although the origins of the Fabian Society were utopian and quasi religious, its leading members had, by this time, become gradualists committed to a scientific understanding of the historical evolution of society and to the propagation of state socialism, beginning with municipal collectivism. Sidney Webb’s own contribution to the Essays, on the ‘‘historic basis’’ of socialism, relied on theorists like Spencer and Comte, as well as John Stuart Mill (1806– 1873). When Beatrice married Sidney Webb, she embraced a political and intellectual way of life that combined belief, work, and what she called a ‘‘loving partnership.’’ As co-authors, husband and wife produced many tomes of political and economic history, among them The History of Trade Unionism (1894), Industrial Democracy (1897), and the nine-volume English Local Government (1903– 1929). They also founded the London School of

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Economics and launched The New Statesman. In 1905, Webb was appointed by Arthur James Balfour (1848–1930) to the Royal Commission on the Poor Law that investigated the state and efficacy of relief in Britain. Ultimately she and Sidney crafted and then campaigned for a minority report. The report dissented from the majority view that destitution could be alleviated through reform rather than, as the Webbs believed, wholly abolished. Sidney Webb joined the Labour governments of 1924 and 1929, while Beatrice engaged in campaigning and Labour Party politics and embarked on the writing of her autobiography. After the defeat of the second Labour government the Webbs turned their investigative attentions to the Soviet Union, which seemed to them to represent a ‘‘new civilization’’ that could enact the social, economic, and political principles for which they had long worked. Of all the aspects of the Webbs’ long careers, this idealization of Soviet communism was the most controversial and the most criticized. The Webbs have often been caricatured as Gradgrinds and ultra-rationalists. H. G. Wells (1866–1946), their colleague in the Fabian Society, satirized them in The New Machiavelli (1911). Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) wrote with bemusement of the Webbs’ visits to her home to discuss politics with her husband, Leonard, also a Fabian, and famously recorded in her diary that Beatrice declared marriage to be ‘‘necessary as a waste pipe for emotion’’ (Woolf, p. 196). Since the mid-1990s or so the Fabians—and the Webbs in particular—have warranted a second look from theorists in search of non-communist strains of socialism. Reevaluations of Webb have regarded her as a figure in her own right and have often focused on the literary dimensions of her work, her contribution to sociology, and her exemplary struggles with the constraints of Victorian femininity. See also Fabians; Shaw, George Bernard; Socialism; Spencer, Herbert.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Webb, Beatrice. Our Partnership. Edited by Barbara Drake and Margaret I. Cole. London, 1948.

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———. My Apprenticeship. Cambridge, U.K., 1979. ———. The Diary of Beatrice Webb. Edited by Norman and Jeanne MacKenzie. 4 vols. Cambridge, Mass., 1982–1985. Webb, Sidney, and Beatrice Webb. The Letters of Sidney and Beatrice Webb. Edited by Norman MacKenzie. 3 vols. Cambridge, U.K., 1978. Woolf, Virginia. The Diary of Virginia Woolf. Edited by Anne Olivier Bell. Vol. 1. London, 1977.

Secondary Sources Adam, Ruth, and Kitty Muggeridge. Beatrice Webb: A Life, 1858–1943. London, 1967. Caine, Barbara. ‘‘Beatrice Webb and the ‘Woman Question.’’’ History Workshop Journal 14 (Autumn 1982): 23–43. Hynes, Samuel. ‘‘The Art of Beatrice Webb.’’ In Edwardian Occasions, 153–173. New York, 1972. Lewis, Jane. Women and Social Action in Victorian and Edwardian England. Stanford, Calif., 1991. Nord, Deborah Epstein. The Apprenticeship of Beatrice Webb. London, 1985. DEBORAH EPSTEIN NORD

n

WEBER, MAX (1864–1920), German social scientist. While posterity views Max Weber primarily as a sociologist, his contemporaries knew him as an economist. He also made seminal contributions to economic history, political science, the history of law, and the philosophy of social science. Weber, in brief, is one of the giants of social science and his knowledge was truly encyclopedic. Weber was born into a wealthy and wellconnected upper-middle-class family in Erfurt. His father was a magistrate and later a member of the Reichstag, and his mother a deeply religious person of Huguenot ancestry. As a child Weber already showed a strong interest in reading and taking notes, especially in historical topics. As a student he focused on law, especially the history of law, but he also studied history, philosophy, and economics. Though he wrote his dissertation as well as his Habilitation thesis in the field of law, Weber was soon offered a professorship in economics; the reason for this was his impressive writings in this

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field as a member of the Verein fu ¨ r Sozialpolitik (Association for Social Policy). His academic career continued to be spectacularly successful until the end of the 1890s, when he had a nervous breakdown that stopped him from further academic work. Though he never fully recovered, Weber soon began to write again and lived most of his remaining years as a private scholar. In 1904–1905 he published The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which made him famous inside as well as outside of Germany. A few years later he started to work on what was to become another landmark study, Economy and Society (1910–1914). He also completed several volumes in a project called The Economic Ethics of the World Religions (1920–1921). Weber was a friend of major intellectuals of his time such as Georg Simmel (1858–1918), Ernst Troeltsch (1865–1923), and Georg Jellinek (1851– 1911). In 1893 he married a distant relative, Marianne Schnitger (1870–1954), who became active in the women’s movement and a scholar in her own right. After her husband’s death, Marianne Weber organized his work for publication and in other ways nurtured his reputation. Weber was intensely interested in politics and repeatedly tried to get a foothold in professional politics. This failed, and he was probably also temperamentally unsuited for routine political activity, which he famously described in ‘‘Politics as a Vocation’’ (1921) as the slow drilling through hard boards. Weber was, in contrast, quite influential through his many newspaper articles on political topics, especially during World War I. He also helped to write the constitution of the Weimar Republic. Weber wrote in several different social science disciplines. Besides his two dissertations in the history of law, he also wrote voluminously on the legal aspects of the stock exchange. In economic history, there is his famous economic and social history of antiquity, as well as his early study of rural workers in imperial Germany. A volume on general economic history also exists, reconstructed from students’ notes. Weber’s most important articles in the philosophy of social science have been collected in a separate volume, and so have his writings on politics. Finally, there are Weber’s works in sociology: The Protestant Ethic and the

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Spirit of Capitalism, Economy and Society, and The Economic Ethics of the World Religions. The Protestant Ethic is without doubt Weber’s most famous as well as his most controversial work. Its main thesis is that a certain type of Protestantism (‘‘ascetic Protestantism’’) helped to create the spirit of modern, rational capitalism. In doing so, it also helped to put an end to traditional capitalism and usher in a new period in the history of the West that Weber describes as an ‘‘iron cage.’’ What had started out as an attempt by Martin Luther (1483– 1546), John Calvin (1509–1564), and other Protestant reformers to improve the relationship of the believer to God, had paradoxically ended up as a more efficient way to make money. Exactly how this whole development came about constitutes the most controversial part of the so-called Weber thesis. According to what may be termed Weber’s hypothetical reconstruction, the typical Calvinist tried to counter religious anxiety by looking for signs that he or she was doing well in the eyes of an inscrutable God. One of these signs was material wealth, which made the Calvinists invest their business activities with religious energy and methodical intent. Soon the economic mentality of the Calvinists and other ascetic Protestants became the norm in economic life—and Western capitalism had acquired a new mentality. This mentality eventually translated into a set of new capitalist institutions, such as the modern factory, the joint-stock corporation, and so on. The Weber thesis had hardly been published before it was attacked. Much of the criticism in Weber’s time and into the twenty-first century, however, is based on a misreading of his argument. It is often claimed, for example, that Weber regarded ‘‘Protestantism’’ as ‘‘the cause’’ of ‘‘capitalism,’’ while what he argues is that ascetic Protestantism was one of the causes of a new capitalist mentality. Nonetheless, Weber’s work contains little empirical support of his thesis, perhaps because he primarily tried to show how modern rational capitalism could have emerged, drawing on the type of cultural analysis in which Weber at this point of his life was deeply interested. One way of summing up a century of debate about The Protestant Ethic is to say that while most social scientists reject Weber’s argument, it still has a number of defenders.

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The Protestant Ethic was part of a larger research project that Weber spent much of World War I working on. This project, which Weber called ‘‘The Economic Ethics of the World Religions,’’ had two major goals. First, Weber wanted to explore the role of religions other than Protestantism in promoting or blocking the birth of modern rational capitalism. And second, Weber wanted to explore what role rational forms of behavior and culture played in making the West into the leader of the modern world. Weber never completed this project, but the work that he did produce gives a clear indication of his findings. As to the first question, he established that most of the major religions in the world have in one way or another blocked the emergence of modern, rational capitalism. Hinduism, as Weber explains in The Religion of India (1958), legitimated the caste system. Buddhism, in contrast, set a high priority on withdrawing from the concerns of life in this world, something that led to a disinterest in material wealth. Taoism helped to prevent rational capitalism from emerging in Southeast Asia by exalting magic, according to The Religion of China (1951); Confucianism had a similar affect through its ethical justification of traditionalism. The rise of the West, according to Weber, is intimately connected to the central role that rationalism came to play in a number of areas of social life. Besides the economy, there is also art, architecture, music, and the state. In all of these areas, and more can be added, the West developed a certain mentality that made it possible for Europe to take the lead in the world and impose its leadership on other civilizations. While some see The Protestant Ethic and the volumes that make up The Economic Ethics of the World Religions as Weber’s most important achievement, others point to Economy and Society. Again, this was a work that he never completed. When he died he had finished the first four chapters and various drafts for the rest of the work, leaving it to posterity to figure out what he had intended to include. While controversy still rages over whether the content of the existing editions adequately captures Weber’s intentions, the scholarly quality of his

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work has never been questioned. In chapter 1 of Economy and Society, Weber presents a very ambitious program for what he terms an interpretive sociology: that is, a sociology that is concerned with social action and the meaning with which actors invest their behavior. Chapter 1 also contains a famous typology of sociological concepts. In addition, Economy and Society contains important chapters on economic sociology, sociology of law, and sociology of religion. Other chapters contain Weber’s famous theory of bureaucracy, the concept of status, and the typology of domination (rational, traditional, and charismatic). To this may be added a wealth of historical material as well as a superb account (in the current English edition) of the political situation in imperial Germany. While Economy and Society contains a highly sophisticated analysis of various social mechanisms that operate throughout society, it also gives voice to Weber’s view of the modern world. According to Weber, the modern world is becoming increasingly rationalized, a process that is taking place in all of society’s different spheres. Religion and the economy, for example, are becoming more methodical and rational. In several spheres, bureaucracy— defined by Weber as efficient and dutiful administration—is also becoming ever more present. There exist good reasons to regard Weber as one of the most important social scientists of all times, and of the same stature as scholars like Montesquieu (1689–1755), Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859), and Karl Marx (1818–1883). While an enormous secondary literature has been devoted to Weber’s writings, many parts of his work are still relatively unexplored or little understood. His consistent focus on the most central and difficult problems in social science—such as causality, culture, and social structure—makes his work ever modern.

———. The Religion of China. Translated and edited by Hans H. Gerth. New York, 1951. ———. The Religion of India. Translated and edited by Hans H. Gerth and Don Martindale. New York, 1958. ———. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich. Translated by Ephraim Fischoff. New York, 1978. ———. General Economic History. New Brunswick, N.J., 1981. ———. Gesamtausgabe. Frankfurt, 1984. ———. Weber: Political Writings. Edited by Peter Lassman and Ronald Speirs. Cambridge, U.K., 1994.

Secondary Sources Bendix, Reinhard. Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait. Garden City, N.Y., 1960. An important introduction to Weber’s work, minus his methodology. Ka¨sler, Dirk. Max Weber: An Introduction to His Life and Work. Chicago, 1988. This is the best overall introduction to Weber’s work and life. Marshall, Gordon. In Search of the Spirit of Capitalism: An Essay on Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic Thesis. London, 1982. An excellent introduction to the debate surrounding The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Mommsen, Wolfgang. Max Weber and German Politics 1890–1920. Translated by Michael S. Steinberg. Chicago, 1984. The major study of Weber’s political ideas. Sica, Alan. Max Weber: A Comprehensive Bibliography. New Brunswick, N.J., 2004. A major bibliography of the secondary material on Weber as well as existing translations of his work. Swedberg, Richard. The Max Weber Dictionary. Stanford, Calif., 2005. A helpful guide to key words and central concepts in Weber’s work. Weber, Marianne. Max Weber: A Biography. Edited and translated by Harry Zohn. New York, 1975. The only existing biography of Weber’s life, written by his wife. RICHARD SWEDBERG

See also Capitalism; Protestantism; Sociology. n BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Translated by Talcott Parsons. London, 1930. ———. Max Weber on the Methodology of the Social Sciences. Translated and edited by Edward A. Shils and Henry A. Finch. New York, 1949.

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WEININGER, OTTO (1880–1903), Austrian writer. Otto Weininger is a notorious figure in modern European history, largely because of his one book, Geschlecht und Charakter: Eine prinzipielle Untersuchung (1903; Sex and character: An investigation of principles), a voluminous treatise that ‘‘proved’’ that

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women and Jews did not possess rational and moral selves and, therefore, neither deserved nor needed equality with Aryan men or even simple liberty. Writers and thinkers as different as Franz Kafka (1883–1924), Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), Karl Kraus (1874–1936), James Joyce (1882– 1941), Robert von Musil (1880–1942), Elias Canetti (1905–1994), Gu ¨ nter Grass (b. 1927), and Germaine Greer (b. 1939) were struck, although not necessarily persuaded, by Weininger’s racist and misogynist vision of the world. Otto Weininger was born on 3 April 1880 to a Jewish family of Vienna, the second child and oldest son of Adelheid Frey (1857–1912) and Leopold Weininger (1854–1922). After graduating from high school in 1898, he enrolled in the philosophical faculty of the University of Vienna, where he attended lectures on logic, experimental psychology, pedagogy, the history of philosophy, and a wide range of scientific and medical topics. His friends remembered him as a somber and serious youth who scorned the alcoholic and lubricious pursuits of average university students and spent his free hours discussing ‘‘the most difficult philosophical subjects.’’ In 1900 Weininger’s friend Hermann Swoboda embarked on psychoanalysis with Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), who told him that all human beings were partly male and partly female, or ‘‘bisexual.’’ Swoboda reported Freud’s observation to Weininger, who, galvanized by this idea, immediately decided to write a monograph on sexuality entitled Eros und Psyche: Eine biologisch-psychologische Studie (Eros and Psyche: A biopsychological study). He eventually developed this tract, which argued that human beings were androgynous in their bodies as well as minds, into a Ph.D. dissertation under the supervision of the noted philosopher Friedrich Jodl. It was completed in 1902 and published the next year by the renowned firm of Wilhelm Braumu ¨ ller as Geschlecht und Charakter: Eine prinzipielle Untersuchung. Long before the completion of the dissertation, however, Weininger had become increasingly preoccupied with Kantian philosophy, ‘‘Jewishness,’’ ‘‘the woman question,’’ and the shortcomings of modern experimental psychology. A project that had begun by arguing the ambiguity of sexual

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difference thus became a somewhat heterogeneous text that was still organized around the notion of sexual difference but now included long and dense discussions of woman’s place in the universe, the masculine character of genius, the nature of the Jew, and the contamination of modern reason, thought, and art by effeminacy. This was not as eccentric as it might seem: the meanings of femininity (and indeed, of gender itself) were at the very heart of turn-of-the-twentieth-century debates about the nature and future of civilization—to deal with the former was to deal with the latter and vice versa. Woman, Weininger concluded, was amoral, soulless and utterly and pervasively sexual; the Jew was largely similar. Man, on the other hand, was microcosmic and protean—genius, morality, and creativity were always exclusively and necessarily male. Many of these arguments were linked with (or framed in response to) contemporary scientific and medical theories of sexuality and psychology, and documented in an enormous critical apparatus. The book attracted little notice after publication but then its author, returning deeply depressed from a holiday, killed himself in the house where Beethoven had died. This dramatic suicide boosted sales of Geschlecht und Charakter, and some of Weininger’s drafts and aphorisms were hastily collected by his friends and published ¨ ber die letzten Dinge (On last things). Reviews as U of Geschlecht und Charakter appeared in profusion, Weininger’s life was pored over by psychiatrists, and his work was championed by Vienna’s most pugnacious cultural critic, Karl Kraus. Although not a straightforward misogynist, Kraus strongly endorsed Weininger’s views about the pervasive sexuality of Woman and shared his anxieties about the degeneracy of Western civilization. After World War II, however, scholars have tended to approach Geschlecht und Charakter as an encyclopedic repository of fin-de-sie`cle racist and misogynist thought. While some continue to focus on Weininger’s own prejudices in relative isolation, most now use Geschlecht und Charakter to explore the racial and sexual anxieties that pervaded the world in which the book was written and which it sought to influence. See also Anti-Semitism; Feminism; Freud, Sigmund; Vienna.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Weininger, Otto. Sex and Character: An Investigation of Fundamental Principles, translated by Ladislaus Lo ¨ b, edited by Daniel Steuer and Laura Marcus, Bloomington, Ind., 2005. New and complete translation of Geschlect und Charakter (1903), superseding the incomplete English version of 1906.

Secondary Sources Harrowitz, Nancy A., and Barbara Hyams, eds. Jews and Gender: Responses to Otto Weininger. Philadelphia, 1995. Collection of informative articles on Weininger, his work, and his milieu. Janik, Allan. Essays on Wittgenstein and Weininger. Amsterdam, 1985. Pioneering essays on the importance of contextualizing Weininger. Sengoopta, Chandak. Otto Weininger: Sex, Science, and Self in Imperial Vienna. Chicago, 2000. Emphasizes the importance of biological and medical themes in Weininger’s work. CHANDAK SENGOOPTA

n

WELFARE. The European public welfare state began in the late nineteenth century, supplementing and sometimes supplanting private charity. Private charity, usually religious, had long dispensed alms, but increasingly public, generally secular state-welfare programs developed, especially beginning in the 1870s. Although some scholars had argued that the welfare state began in Germany during the time of Otto von Bismarck (chancellor, 1871–1890), when modern historians use the lens of gender, they understand that welfare began in many countries of western Europe at approximately the same time, but took different forms. WELFARE AND THE ‘‘DESERVING POOR ,’’ 1815–1870

Moral and religious convictions about poverty shaped charity and welfare policies. Religious charities believed that the poor would always form the bottom of the social and economic hierarchy, but sought to help those whom they thought deserved aid. Definitions of the ‘‘deserving poor’’ differed little by region or religion. They were the honest poor whose misfortunes were unpreventable, or those who could not care for themselves: abandoned or orphaned children, the insane, men and

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women too old or sick to work, and morally upstanding people who faced a sudden disaster. The ablebodied poor, customarily adult men, who would not work were labeled ‘‘undeserving’’ of poor relief. In Britain, as well as on the Continent, poor relief was locally based. Municipalities in England, France, and the German states required recipients to have lived in the community for a number of years to become eligible. Married women belonged to the domicile of their husbands, which denied them a right to poor relief as individuals. In the 1820s settlement and domicile requirements began to break down in Europe, as people increasingly moved around to get better jobs in response to labor demand. Legal settlement in new parishes was harder to acquire, and many poor barely subsisted on the margins of their new residences. New ideologies and conditions gave rise to the New Poor Laws of 1834 in Britain. This reform sought to restore the middle-class work ethic and moral values by tightening the criteria for aid and fostering self-support. It held poor families, specifically the men, responsible for their own survival. The New Poor Law developed prison-like workhouses as a punishment for those, especially men, who committed the ‘‘crime’’ of being a pauper. Indigent mothers of ex-nuptial children could also be taken into the workhouse and separated from their children as a disciplinary measure. Poor Law guardians incarcerated nonproviding fathers or indigent mothers in separate workhouse wards from each other and from their children. There was no clear separation between charity and public poor relief, with close cooperation between local Poor Law authorities and charitable organizations. Across Europe, religious charities and secular welfare attempted to buttress the family as the bulwark of the social order. On the Continent almost every major European city enlarged the parameters of welfare to include policies for maternal assistance to prevent infant mortality. Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Hamburg, as well as most of the major cities of the Habsburg Empire, France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal inaugurated free maternity hospitals where poor pregnant women could deliver their babies in secret. These same cities and countries often established foundling homes to permit abandonment as an alternative to abortion and infanticide, and to save the honor of the

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woman and her family. In predominantly Catholic countries such as France, Portugal, and Spain, and in cities such as Brussels and those on the Italian peninsula, foundling hospitals became the most important form of public welfare until late in the nineteenth century. PUBLIC WELFARE, 1870–1914

Between 1870 and 1914 traditional local poor relief coexisted with modern centralized state intervention, as welfare greatly expanded. State bureaucracies and legislators established new criteria for welfare, pertaining more to the needs of the state and less to the older moral strictures. Many local private charities that developed earlier in the century expanded and flourished. But they diminished in importance on a national level vis-a`-vis a new interest in state insurance programs and the developing rationalized welfare state. For a welfare state to develop, local politicians had to accept the notion that poor relief was less a gift from the rich and more the right of the poor, which they did by the end of the century. Poverty became a social disease rather than a moral disorder under the powerful discourse of medical professionals, their allies in government, and the positivist philosophy of the era. Needs of state in terms of the health of the population, educational reform, industrial and military expansion, urban unrest, and agricultural development came to outweigh the religious and moral imperatives so powerful in earlier decades and affected welfare programs accordingly. Furthermore, the difficult conditions of industry and the growing militancy of male laborers led to debates about the need for the state to protect workers. As a result, after 1870 public welfare institutions increased. Welfare did not so much take over from declining charity as it added additional layers of assistance. In Germany, the country that reputedly began the national welfare state in the 1870s and developed an interventionist state in the 1890s, there was little opposition between private charity and public welfare. Rather, the two worked in tandem. The valorization of maternity during the later nineteenth century translated into legislation, as social reformers enacted family welfare reforms centered on mothers and children. Social welfare

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programs designed to keep mothers and babies together started throughout Europe in the early 1870s and took similar forms in France, England, Germany, and Russia. Politicians and reformers in many western countries became increasingly willing to intervene directly in the family in order to protect children. At the same time, they glorified, dignified, and sought to protect motherhood. Public welfare authorities in England, France, and Germany perceived that underprivileged families were in a state of crisis contributing to high infant mortality, and thought the problem could be partially resolved by providing some subsidies to needy mothers who were breastfeeding their infants, establishing well-baby clinics and free milk dispensaries, teaching women how to be better mothers, and by providing school meals. Child protection was inseparable from the protection of motherhood, and it included legislation regulating children’s and women’s labor in Britain, Germany, and France. Authorities in western Europe regarded women as mothers, and motherhood became a social function. Politicians consequently enacted aid programs to support maternity. In Germany, this led to the protection of working mothers through maternity insurance and pregnancy leave. Generally, German infant welfare organizations fell under private auspices, such as the League for Protection of Mothers. In Russia, day nurseries and boarding institutions for infants of widowed, deserted, or working mothers developed as part of an effort to reduce infant mortality. Russian efforts were in keeping with their philosophy that the state could raise children better than poor, uneducated, working mothers. The major difference between child protection reforms in Russia and in countries of western Europe revolved around concepts of women’s roles as workers. Western European authorities viewed women primarily as mothers; Russians viewed women primarily as workers. To defend children from abusive parents, the French, British, and German governments enacted almost identical legislation enabling state welfare authorities to decide which parents were placing their children in moral danger and then deprive those parents of authority over their children. Police and welfare agents would subsequently remove the children from their parental homes

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and place the children with relatives, in foster care, or in institutions. In these instances, as in many other aspects of welfare, public authorities entered the private spaces of the underprivileged. The French Parliament enacted a law protecting these ‘‘morally abandoned’’ children in 1889, the same year that the British Parliament enacted the law for the Prevention of Cruelty and Protection of Children that allowed state authorities to remove children from their families when circumstances warranted it. Scottish Poor Law authorities, who had been separating children from abusive or dangerous family situations for decades and boarding them out, continued this process in the interest of protecting the children and imbuing them with sober work habits. Comparable German legislation came about a decade later. The significance of motherhood is evident in legislation in Britain, Germany, and France that treated childbirth as an illness entitled to medical assistance. The French law of 1893 on free medical assistance assimilated childbirth with other illnesses and allowed women in labor free admission to the public hospitals. Britain’s National Health Insurance Act of 1911 allotted a pittance to women who had enrolled in the insurance program, either on their own or through their husbands. The 1883 German law on health insurance entitled insured women factory workers to minimal benefits for three weeks of maternity leave after childbirth, but coverage was optional and rarely paid. Even Russia had a workers’ insurance law in 1912 that provided for maternity benefits. In France, the creation of mothers’ pensions, or aid to mothers (including the unwed) to encourage breast-feeding and prevent child abandonment provided another building block to the welfare state. Despite the opposition of church authorities who regarded payments to unwed mothers as a ‘‘subsidy to debauchery,’’ mothers’ pensions began in France in the 1870s and 1880s with programs of aid to single and married mothers. Portugal developed an equivalent system called a ‘‘subsidy of lactation’’ to aid indigent parents and widows or widowers, as well as unwed mothers. Despite opposition from church authorities, regions of Italy almost immediately followed France with similar programs of subsidies to single mothers who nursed their babies. In Italy, however, the motive

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was not a perceived depopulation but rather the desire to moralize poor, unwed mothers. Although much of the British, German, and Russian legislation for the protection of children and mothers resembled French programs, the differences between France and the other countries are twofold. One is a question of timing. France’s various programs for the protection of motherhood began in Paris and other cities in the 1870s, developed through the 1880s, and became nationally legislated in 1893, 1904, and 1913. Second, France was among the first to offer programs of aid to nonmarried mothers to prevent infant mortality on a national scale in 1904. Except for Russia, Italy, and Portugal, other nations’ laws restricted mothers’ pensions to widows or married mothers. Welfare in the form of maternity leaves varied in their comprehensiveness and remuneration. The Swiss were pioneers in this area; their 1877 law provided for eight weeks of leave, before and after delivery, and prohibited women from returning to factory work until six weeks after childbirth. One year later, in 1878, Germany enacted a three-week leave after childbirth, but neither the Swiss nor the German leaves included benefits or pay. By 1883 both Germany and Austria-Hungary had paid maternity leaves of three weeks after delivery for insured women, but the amount varied with each insurance program. Sweden put family policies into law in 1900 when it gave mothers a four-week maternity leave after the birth of a child. Mothers received no money, just time off from work to breast-feed. By 1900, Great Britain, Portugal, Norway, Sweden, Holland, and Belgium provided unpaid maternity leaves after delivery. France, along with Spain, Italy, Denmark, and Russia, lagged behind these other countries in instituting any kind of maternity leave, even without pay. In 1911 Sweden instituted a program to protect and care for women and their babies through maternity and convalescent homes as well as by giving women a subsidy to breastfeed their babies. In 1913 when France legislated paid maternity leaves before and after childbirth, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, and Austria-Hungary had paid leaves, and only Switzerland had a maternity leave before delivery. Maternity leaves and child welfare were just some examples of welfare at the turn of the century designed to keep families together.

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The revolving table at the foundling home, Paris. Lithograph, 1862. The use of a revolving table to allow people to preserve their anonymity while relinquishing infants to the care of foundling homes was mandated in France in 1811, when responsibility for the care of such infants was transferred from the central government to the departments. The number of children brought to the homes subsequently increased dramatically, leading to the abolition of the practice. BIBLIOTHE`QUE NATIONALE, PARIS, FRANCE/ THE BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

Politicians in all countries sought to use welfare to form a moral citizenry and create a stable working class. The German town of Elberfeld provides one example of how cities used poor relief to further their agenda of social discipline of the poor through inspections. The central goal of the Elberfeld system was to find work for the poor with a fixed domicile. Many German cities followed the Elberfeld model, but increased industrialization and migration after German unification made the Elberfeld system unworkable; reformers replaced it with a new, centralized, national system. The Bismarckian social insurance provisions of the 1880s and family welfare schemes of the 1890s aimed to integrate the working class into established society. To win support from male workers,

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in the 1880s the German government provided a welfare plan that included health insurance and old-age pensions for many of them. The impetus for welfare reforms at the end of the century may have come as a result of the general depression and fears of mass unemployment that struck most of Europe from the mid-1880s to mid-1890s. During these years the poor became more visible, and thus more of a perceived threat to an orderly society. The rise of industrial capitalism transformed poverty from a social into a political problem, as welfare state capitalism developed in response to crises in classical capitalism. Politicians redefined poverty to justify the state’s intervention in support of the patriarchal ideal and the raison

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d’e´tat. Specifically, the decline in agriculture and the migration of young to the cities in the late 1880s added to a large pool of urban labor (with many unemployed) and an elderly population remaining in the rural areas. Public welfare began to try to address some of the problems of workers and the elderly, beginning with national insurance programs for sickness, disability, and old age. In Germany, social reformers eventually recognized that deserving workers had a right to experience old age without financial hardships, and that it would be unjust to let them live out their lives under conditions worse than while they were still working. When old age came to be recognized as a separate stage of life in the late nineteenth century, old-age pensions became a subject of legislation. In England and France the debate continued over the divisions in how much families bore responsibility for the elderly and how much that responsibility devolved on welfare institutions. At the end of the century, public assistance made pensions available to proportionally fewer of the aged than it had before 1870, and the amount was reduced. In the absence of sufficient welfare, elder care devolved on families. State welfare was insufficient to deal with the problems of poverty and unemployment. In many countries, charitable organizations and mutual aid societies existed alongside public poor relief. Stable breadwinner working men in almost all countries established voluntary mutual aid societies designed to protect their members, and women formed cooperative guilds for self-help. Private charities remained important everywhere, although many became more secular. By the end of the nineteenth century neither charities nor welfare had enough money or facilities to meet the demand. Layers of institutions and of jurisdictions—municipal, local, regional, and national—provided private charity and public welfare. They combined their recognition of economic need, however, with a moral commitment to promote and reward working-class women’s domesticity and men’s steady work habits. Welfare measures in the last decades of the century involved a change in cultural concepts. Reformers recast the relationship between the sexual and social order, between the family and the state, and between what they thought of as the public and private spheres.

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The family remained the linchpin of the social order, but public welfare permitted a greater variety in acceptable family structures. With the change in attitudes came increased programs to provide medical, old-age, and accident insurance to workers. USING WELFARE, 1815–1914

The poor became knowledgeable consumers in the welfare market as they negotiated their way within the available programs. Unlike the middle classes who blamed the poor for their own plight, the poor themselves blamed the wider world over which they had no control. Therefore they regarded poor relief as a ‘‘right’’ during a crisis: an unexpected death (especially of the male breadwinner), illness or accident to the male breadwinner, childbirth, old age, unemployment, or having many young children at home. By the end of the century, some reformers also asserted that welfare was a right. Welfare allowed men and women a form of ‘‘disciplinary individualism’’ in which a person voluntarily conformed to requirements and tried to use the laws and institutions to their own ends. They used institutions as a safety net. In England, Ireland, Belgium, and Holland families used the workhouses as institutions of last resort. Entering one meant loss of respectability, and the elderly felt this sense of shame quite keenly. Others, perhaps those less needy, decided not to request poor relief to avoid the disgrace of pauperism. Outdoor relief (assistance in the poor’s own homes and outside of institutions) was preferable to the detested workhouses, although it was an income subsidy insufficient to provide food, fuel, and shelter for its recipients. In England, between 60 and 80 percent of the recipients of poor relief, both in the workhouse and outdoors, were adult women and children, equally divided. More than half of the women were single parents. Changes in the British Poor Laws (1834 and 1871) making outdoor relief more restrictive led to adaptive family strategies. If neighbors and relatives possibly could feed another mouth, they stood ready to help by taking in young children so the child might avoid the parish workhouses. In France, Italy, and Russia, in acts of desperation, women abandoned hundreds of thousands of children at institutions each year. At the height

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don. When government policy permitted, families used institutions to their own advantage, allowing the state to raise the children until they could reclaim them. When public authorities imposed restrictions on child abandonment, the desperate continued to abandon their babies. However, other welfare resources for mothers, such as aid for maternal breast-feeding or day-care centers, often accompanied restrictions on infant abandonment, especially in France. Few questioned the entitlement of children to food and sustenance through welfare when their mothers could not provide. Dealing with the elderly was a different matter.

Destitute Men Applying for Admittance to a London Night Refuge. Engraving by Gustave Dore´ c. 1869–1871. IMAGE SELECT/ART RESOURCE, NY

of child abandonment around midcentury, approximately twenty-six thousand children per year were abandoned in Moscow and St. Petersburg. In Paris during the peak decade of the 1830s, around five thousand per year were abandoned, and more than forty-four thousand abandoned children under twelve were alive in all of France in a given year of that decade. Spain and Portugal saw fifteen thousand per year abandoned; a fifth of all babies were abandoned in Warsaw; half of all babies in Vienna and two-fifths in Prague; a third of all babies in Milan and Florence. Mothers, especially the unwed, may have been driven to abandon their babies because of their impoverishment and their working conditions that precluded work and care for their infant. The higher rates of illegitimacy and rural-to-urban migration also contributed to a greater proportion of abandoned ex-nuptial children. The baby’s gender did not matter to single mothers, but married women abandoned more girls than boys. Welfare policies also affected mothers’ decisions to aban-

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Family support of the elderly was critical. Widowhood amplified problems of economic insecurity and possible destitution for women more than men. The aged in Britain relied on complex systems of support from their own wages and pensions, and from their children and Poor Law relief. At the turn of the twentieth century, the establishment of widows’ pensions in England enabled fortunate men and women to benefit from that insurance, and in 1908 all deserving poor were eligible for old-age pensions. The Dutch government established regulated and regimented old-folks’ homes for widows and unmarried elderly women. In Paris, poor widows were approximately half of those on the welfare roles of public assistance. In Germany old age was not used as a category to determine the distribution of poor relief, which was geared for the sick and disabled. Until after World War I, state insurance schemes were geared to help the individual, including the aged, whereas poor relief was understood as a subsidiary measure that kicked in when all family support had failed. Europe was not a monolithic entity and a multiplicity of regional and national patterns prevailed. In England, a strong desire to imbue the poor with the donors’ concepts of morality and respectability influenced welfare and poor relief. Authorities in England and Germany channeled welfare through the male breadwinner. France, however, tried to reconcile women’s productive and reproductive roles, and welfare went directly to the mothers, with guidelines and supervision from the state. In Russia, quite unlike Great Britain, poverty was not considered a sin, and

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authorities did not noticeably distinguish between the deserving and undeserving poor. Russia also did not develop a national welfare system. By 1914, British paupers had a right to public assistance in the parish of their birth or settlement. In Germany, national insurance plans developed for workers, all towns provided some poor relief, and rural areas were required to establish relief commissions for the poor. The French enacted comparable legislation, and approximately threefourths of French men and woman had access to assistance for hospital care or other forms of temporary relief on the eve of World War I. A welfare system is a product of an urban society. It developed more completely during the nineteenth century in more urban countries with an ideology that understood that a welfare system benefited the entire nation. See also Bismarck, Otto von; Class and Social Relations; Poor Law; Poverty; Trade and Economic Growth; Working Class. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Accampo, Elinor, Rachel G. Fuchs, and Mary Lynn Stewart. Gender and the Politics of Social Reform in France, 1870–1914. Baltimore, Md., 1995. Baldwin, Peter. The Politics of Social Solidarity: Class Bases of the European Welfare State, 1875–1975. New York, 1990.

Fuchs, Rachel G. Abandoned Children: Foundlings and Child Welfare in Nineteenth-Century France. Albany, N.Y., 1984. ______. Poor and Pregnant in Paris: Strategies for Survival in the Nineteenth Century. New Brunswick, N.J., 1992. Gouda, Frances. Poverty and Political Culture: The Rhetoric of Social Welfare in the Netherlands and France, 1815– 1854. Lanham, Md., 1995. Horn, Pamela. Children’s Work and Welfare, 1780–1890. Cambridge, U.K., 1995. Humphreys, Robert. Sin, Organized Charity, and the Poor Law in Victorian England. New York, 1995. Katz, Michael B., and Christoph Sachße, eds. The Mixed Economy of Social Welfare: Public/Private Relations in England, Germany, and the United States, the 1870s to the 1930s. Baden-Baden, 1996. Kertzer, David I. Sacrificed for Honor: Italian Infant Abandonment and the Politics of Reproductive Control. Boston, 1993. Kidd, Alan J. State, Society, and the Poor in NineteenthCentury England. New York, 1999. Lees, Lynn Hollen. The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1700–1948. Cambridge, U.K., 1998. Lewis, Jane. The Voluntary Sector, the State, and Social Work in Britain: The Charity Organisation Society/ Family Welfare Association since 1869. Aldershot, U.K., 1995.

Barry, Jonathan, and Colin Jones, eds. Medicine and Charity before the Welfare State. London and New York, 1991.

Lindemann, Mary. Patriots and Paupers: Hamburg, 1712–1830. New York, 1990.

Behlmer, George K. Friends of the Family: The English Home and Its Guardians, 1850–1940. Stanford, Calif., 1998.

Lindenmeyr, Adele. Poverty Is Not a Vice: Charity, Society, and the State in Imperial Russia. Princeton, N.J., 1996.

Bock, Gisela, and Pat Thane, eds. Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of the European Welfare States, 1880s–1950s. London and New York, 1991.

Mandler, Peter. ed. The Uses of Charity: The Poor on Relief in the Nineteenth-Century Metropolis. Philadelphia, 1990.

Boyer, George R. An Economic History of the English Poor Law, 1750–1850. Cambridge, U.K., 1990. Cunningham, Hugh, and Joanna Innes, eds. Charity, Philanthropy, and Reform from the 1690s to 1850. New York, 1998. Daunton, Martin, ed. Charity, Self-Interest, and Welfare in the English Past. London, 1996. Dickinson, Edward Ross. The Politics of German Child Welfare from the Empire to the Federal Republic. Cambridge, Mass., 1996.

Prochaska, Frank. Women and Philanthropy in NineteenthCentury England. Oxford, U.K., 1980. Ransel, David L. Mothers of Misery: Child Abandonment in Russia. Princeton, N.J., 1988. Steinmetz, George. Regulating the Social: The Welfare State and Local Politics in Imperial Germany. Princeton, N.J., 1993. Thane, Pat. Foundations of the Welfare State. London, 1982. Van Leeuwen, Marco H. D. The Logic of Charity, Amsterdam, 1800–50. Houndmills Basingstoke, U.K., 2000.

Finalyson, Geoffrey. Citizen, State, and Social Welfare in Britain, 1830–1990. Oxford, U.K., 1994.

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WELLINGTON, DUKE OF (ARTHUR WELLESLEY)

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WELLINGTON, DUKE OF (ARTHUR WELLESLEY) (1769–1852), British army general and politician. The Duke of Wellington has been admired far more for his command of the British army than for his contribution to parliamentary politics. He was Britain’s most revered and respected army general during the nineteenth century, but also a very unpopular prime minister. Born in Ireland into the Anglo-Irish aristocracy, Arthur Wesley (later Wellesley) was the third surviving son of Garret Wesley, the first Earl of Mornington, and Lady Anne. His family’s difficult financial circumstances after the early death of his father in 1781, in addition to his poor performance at Eton and a French military academy, dampened his prospects. His ambitious but less talented eldest brother, Richard, launched Wellington’s military career in 1787 by obtaining for him a commission in the 73rd regiment. Wellington started at the bottom of the officer ranks but quickly worked his way up by transferring from regiment to regiment and by serving as aidede-camp to the lord lieutenant of Ireland beginning in 1787. With the outbreak of war between Britain and revolutionary France in 1793 came Wellington’s first serious battlefield test. In 1794 he sailed for the Netherlands with the 33rd regiment, and while it was a disastrous campaign, he later claimed to have learned from his commanders’ mistakes. Success in the field would have to wait for India, where he served from 1797 to 1805. He gained notable victories in Mysore (1799), where he was appointed governor, and at Assaye (1803). At the same time, he obtained valuable experience in administration and diplomacy. Though recognized for his military success in India with a knighthood, Wellington’s greatest renown came during the Napoleonic Wars, especially in the Iberian Peninsula, where Napoleon’s military occupation caused deep anger and resentment. Wellington arrived in 1808 to assist the rebelling Spanish and Portuguese. He drove off the French at Rolica and repulsed a French attack at Vimeiro, but was ordered by a newly arrived senior officer to sign an armistice. The unpopularity at home of the Convention of Cintra resulted in an official inquiry, but Wellington suffered no serious harm. In 1809 he was in command in Portugal and

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by 1814 had pushed the French out of Spain and back across the French border. A series of major victories, for example at Talavera (1809), Salamanca (1812), and Vitoria (1813), catapulted him to warhero status and earned him the titles of duke and field marshal. Wellington’s military success can be attributed to his stunning grasp of defensive tactics, his attention to supply lines, and his ability to act decisively under pressure. When the Napoleonic Wars ended, he was appointed ambassador to the restored Bourbon court and served as a delegate to the Congress of Vienna, but was recalled to the army when Napoleon escaped from Elba. Wellington and Napoleon faced each other for the first and last time at the battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Napoleon suffered a terrible defeat after the Prussians, commanded by Gebhard von Blu¨cher, joined Wellington’s battered but unyielding troops. In command of the army of occupation in France until 1818, Wellington never fought another military battle, just political ones. His political career began early. He represented Trim in the Irish Parliament (1790–1797) and served as member of Parliament (MP) for Rye (elected 1806) and chief secretary to Ireland (1807–1809). When he returned from France, he joined the cabinet of Lord Liverpool (Robert Banks Jenkinson; 1770–1828) as master-general of the ordnance (1818–1827). While positioning himself above party politics, he was firmly aligned with the Tories. He distrusted the liberal wing of the party but was more pragmatic and less reactionary than the ultra-Tories. He thus opposed the expansion of democracy but retreated from entrenched positions in the interest of political order. This pragmatism helps to explain why during his term as prime minister (1828–1830) progressive reforms were enacted, including the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts (1828) and the passage of Catholic Emancipation (1829), which together opened political office to Protestant dissenters and Roman Catholics. Wellington’s most costly political blunder was refusing to compromise over parliamentary reform and the expansion of the electorate, which brought the opposition Whigs into power. Wellington continued to be politically active, serving in Robert Peel’s cabinet as foreign secretary (1834–1835) and minister without portfolio (1841–1846). Though his opposition to parliamentary reform

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tarnished his public standing, by the time of his death he had recovered his status as a selfless elder statesman, which a state funeral, burial in Saint Paul’s Cathedral, and numerous public statues make abundantly clear. See also French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Great Britain; Tories. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Gurwood, John, ed. The Dispatches of . . . the Duke of Wellington. 13 vols. London, 1834–1839. Wellington, Arthur Wellesley. Supplementary Despatches, Correspondence, and Memoranda of . . . the Duke of Wellington . . . Edited by His Son, the Duke of Wellington. 15 vols. London, 1858–1872.

Secondary Sources Gash, Norman, ed. Wellington: Studies in the Military and Political Career of the First Duke of Wellington. Manchester, U.K., 1990. Longford, Elizabeth. Wellington. 2 vols. London and New York, 1969–1972. Remains the classic account. Thompson, Neville. Wellington after Waterloo. London, 1986. ELISA R. MILKES

n

WELLS, H. G. (1866–1946), British novelist, journalist, historian, sociologist, and futurologist. Herbert George Wells was born into an impoverished lower-middle-class family and was apprenticed to a draper at age fourteen. He won a scholarship to the Normal School of Science (now part of Imperial College, London), where he studied biology under Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895). Subsequently, he worked as a teacher and then as a journalist, producing a series of scientific speculations for a number of leading periodicals including the Fortnightly Review and Nature. Wells began his varied and prolific literary career with a succession of ‘‘scientific romances,’’ which are generally acknowledged as the pioneers of science fiction. The Time Machine (1895) is a fable set in the year 802701 and portrays the split of the human race into two species—the dainty Eloi and the monstrous, subterranean Morlocks—

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along class lines. This was followed by The Island of Doctor Moreau (1896), The Invisible Man (1897), The First Men in the Moon (1901), and other works. These works were inspired by the reassessment of humanity’s place in nature initiated by the theory of natural selection described by Charles Darwin (1809–1882). They display Wells’s lifelong preoccupation with evolutionary time and contain, to varying degrees, social allegory, foreboding about the future (often arising out of the laws of thermodynamics), and an assessment of the impact of scientific advancement upon the social order. Wells’s output as a scientific romancer was paralleled by a series of fantastic novels, notably The Wonderful Visit (1895) and The Sea Lady (1902). In the 1890s, he also embarked upon a career as the author of such unforgettable short stories as ‘‘The Stolen Bacillus’’ (1893), ‘‘The Red Room’’ (1896), and ‘‘The Door in the Wall’’ (1906). After 1900, Wells diversified his energies into a number of fields. His determination to establish himself as a mainstream novelist began with Love and Mr. Lewisham (1900) and culminated in TonoBungay (1909). In Kipps (1905) and The History of Mr. Polly (1910), Wells displayed considerable sympathy for the ‘‘little man.’’ Ann Veronica (1909), which considers sexual equality and the issue of women’s rights, caused considerable controversy. He famously feuded with Henry James (1843–1916), whom he ruthlessly caricatured in Boon (1915). Wells’s insistence that novelists should fulfill a didactic purpose, rather than indulge in art for art’s sake, also caused his estrangement from Joseph Conrad (1857–1924). Anticipations (1902), his first major work of futurology, examined the scientific and social trends that might shape the twentieth century. Wells joined the Fabian Society in 1903, but severed relations after a polemical exchange with leading members George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), Beatrice Potter Webb (1858–1943), and Sidney James Webb (1859–1947); he depicted the Fabians in The New Machiavelli (1911). During his Fabian period, Wells wrote A Modern Utopia (1905), which established the popular conception of him as one of the twentieth century’s few unequivocally utopian writers. Wells foresaw many of the advancements in modern warfare, including the use of poison gas in

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World War I (In The War of the Worlds [1898]) and the development of the tank (in the short story ‘‘The Land Ironclads’’ [1904]). In The World Set Free (1913), he predicted the atomic bomb. Wells was an outspoken critic of the League of Nations but campaigned tirelessly towards global unification, which he saw as the only alternative to annihilating conflict. He was pivotal to the Sankey Declaration on the Rights of Man, a precursor of the United Nations Charter. Wells’s readership as a novelist declined in the 1920s, as attention turned to younger novelists such as Virginia Woolf (1882– 1941) and James Joyce (1882–1941). However, he continued to reach a vast audience, particularly with The Outline of History (1920, abridged as A Short History of the World, 1922). Wells saw human history as a ‘‘race between education and catastrophe,’’ and increasingly endeavored to facilitate the synthesis of existing nations into a ‘‘World State.’’ Wells famously debated with world leaders, including U.S. presidents Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) and Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945). He met with Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) in 1920 and with Lenin’s successor, Joseph Stalin (1879–1953), in 1934. Wells’s The Shape of Things to Come (1933, with its cinematic version, Things to Come, appearing in 1936), confirmed his status as a great popularizer of scientific and political ideas. Wells’s last book, Mind at the End of Its Tether (1945), is a deeply pessimistic vision of humanity, which should be understood as a despairing response to the outcome of World War II. His Experiment in Autobiography (1934) is a lively account of Wells’s involvement in the controversies of his own age. See also Fabians; Science and Technology; Verne, Jules.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Haynes, Roslynn D. H. G. Wells: Discoverer of the Future. New York, 1980. MacKenzie, Norman, and Jeanne MacKenzie. The Time Traveller: The Life of H. G. Wells. London, 1973. Parrinder, Patrick. Shadows of the Future: H. G. Wells, Science Fiction, and Prophecy. Syracuse, N.Y., 1995. Partington, John S. Building Cosmopolis: The Political Thought of H. G. Wells. Aldershot, U.K., 2003. STEVEN MCLEAN

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WESTERNIZERS.

The Westernizers (zapadniki) were a loosely organized group of Russian intellectuals, who from the late 1830s to the mid-1850s engaged the Slavophiles (slavianofily) in a bitter debate about Russia’s past, its national identity, and its probable future. The trigger for this debate was Petr Chaadayev’s ‘‘First Philosophical Letter’’ (written 1828, published 1836), which charged that Russians, cut off from the Roman Catholic Church and therefore from the living source of European civilization, were ‘‘orphans with one foot in the air’’ who had contributed nothing to the world. Stung to the quick, the Slavophiles defended the Orthodox Church and Old Russian social forms and folk traditions as superior to the religious, social, and political institutions of the ‘‘rotten,’’ ‘‘barbarous’’ West. In response, the Westernizers claimed either that Russia had always been a member of the European community of nations or that Russia, in spite of its peculiar origins, was gradually becoming Europeanized and would eventually join the West as an equal partner in the civilized community of nations. Aside from their role in this pivotal debate, the Westernizers were significant in another regard: they contributed to the birth of a distinctively Russian agrarian socialism—the genesis of Russian anarchism and liberalism. Their tiny group was the intellectual seedbed of progressive politics in mid-nineteenth-century Russia. It is customary to divide the Westernizers into two smaller groups. The moderate Westernizers included the historians Timofei Granovsky (1813– 1855) and Sergei Soloviev (1820–1879), the legal expert Konstantin Kavelin (1818–1885), and the jurist Boris Chicherin (1828–1904). Sometimes the literary critic Pavel Annenkov (1813–1887) and the novelist Ivan Turgenev (1818–1883) are also added to the list of moderates. The radical Westernizers included the literary critic Vissarion Belinsky (1811–1848), the great memoirist Alexander Herzen (1812–1870), and the future anarchist Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876). As a historian of medieval and early modern Europe, Granovsky traced the development of centralized states, representative governments, and educated civil societies in the West. His university lectures strongly implied that Russian history had belatedly followed the Western pattern of social

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evolution, so that contemporary Russians could see their future in Europe’s immediate past. Soloviev’s classical History of Russia from Ancient Times (published in twenty-eight volumes from 1851 to 1879) argued that Russia, like the West, had gradually moved from an association of tribes to a modern state, based on common religious and political values and ruled by an enlightened government. Although he thought that Peter the Great (r. 1682–1725) had contributed much to this development, Soloviev saw Peter and other Europeanizers as organic products of a Russian past that from time immemorial had begun slowly converging with the West. Kavelin emphasized the slow development in Russia of abstract ideas (such as duty to the state, citizenship, and the rule of law) crucial to the appearance of a modern Europeanized polity. In his 1847 essay ‘‘An Analysis of Juridical Life in Ancient Russia,’’ he pointed to the complete development of the free individual (lichnost) as the final goal of Russian history. Chicherin, younger by a generation than other moderates, used their insights into Russian history and law as the basis of a liberal political program. In his essay ‘‘Contemporary Tasks of Russian Life’’ (1855), he made the case for the abolition of serfdom, freedom of conscience and the press, and an independent court system. Annenkov and Turgenev wrote memoirs chronicling the Westernizer–Slavophile debate from perspectives agreeable to the Westernizers. Turgenev’s early fiction, especially A Sportsman’s Sketches (1852), contributed to the abolition of serfdom by showing Russian serfs as sympathetic human beings. Russian contemporaries and subsequent scholars (including Isaiah Berlin and Leonard Schapiro) regarded Turgenev as a Westernizer and moderate liberal. Among the radical Westernizers the leader was Belinsky, who contended in the article ‘‘Russia before Peter the Great’’ (1842) that only Peter’s forceful intervention in backward, semibarbarous Russia had made it possible for Russia to join the community of civilized nations. According to Belinsky, Peter was ‘‘a god who breathed a living soul into the colossal, sleeping body of ancient Russia.’’ Belinsky’s ‘‘Letter to Gogol’’ (1847) lamented Russian religious oppression and the existence of serfdom, and pointed to Russian writers’ moral responsibility to expose injustice. Belinsky had no

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patience with the Slavophiles’ apologies for prePetrine Russia or for their religious ‘‘obscurantism.’’ Bakunin’s polemic against conservatism, ‘‘The Reaction in Germany’’ (1842), was a thinly veiled call for social revolution in the name of a ‘‘new religion of humanity.’’ By the late 1840s both Bakunin and Herzen had come to believe that Russia might actually precede the West in inaugurating social justice, if only the peasant commune could be emancipated, peacefully or forcefully, from governmental interference. Herzen’s ‘‘The Russian People and Socialism’’ (1851) made the case for the Russian commune as socialist ideal. Subsequently, Bakunin achieved fame as a revolutionary Pan-Slav and as the apostle of Russian anarchism in Europe. Herzen achieved renown as the ‘‘father of Russian socialism.’’ See also Bakunin, Mikhail; Belinsky, Vissarion; Chaadayev, Peter; Herzen, Alexander; Intelligentsia; Russia; Slavophiles; Soloviev, Vladimir; Turgenev, Ivan. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berlin, Isaiah. Russian Thinkers. New York, 1978. Copleston, Frederick C. Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev. Tunbridge Wells, U.K., 1986. Edie, James M., James P. Scanlan, and Mary-Barbara Zeldin, eds. Russian Philosophy. Vol. 1: The Beginnings of Russian Philosophy: The Slavophiles; The Westernizers. Chicago, 1965. Hamburg, G. M. Boris Chicherin and Early Russian Liberalism, 1828–1866. Stanford, Calif., 1992. Walicki, Andrzej. A History of Russian Thought from the Enlightenment to Marxism. Translated by Hilda Andrews-Rusiecka. Stanford, Calif., 1979.

G. M. HAMBURG

n

WHIGS. The Whigs were one of the two main opposing political parties in Great Britain in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The term originally referred to the opposition to James II in the decade before the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The Whigs led Parliament from 1715 to 1760 before losing the confidence of the Crown and electorate. In December 1783 King George III selected William Pitt the Younger to lead a new

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Tory government. The Whigs would remain out of power until 1830, save for Charles James Fox’s participation in 1806 in the ‘‘ministry of all the talents’’ under the conservative Lord Grenville. PARTY IDENTITY

During the reign of George III (1760–1820) the Whigs constituted less of a party per se than a network of aristocratic families operating in Parliament through patronage and influence. Unity relied on personal loyalty, shared ideology, or the simple desire for power. Modern party alignments emerged after 1784, when new political crises, including the controversy over the American Revolution, roused public opinion. The most prominent Whig faction, headed by the second Marquis of Rockingham, advocated freedom for the American colonists and counted the Irish-born philosopher and parliamentarian Edmund Burke among its ranks. The Whigs cherished fundamentally aristocratic attitudes and regarded themselves as the natural protectors of English liberties and civil institutions against the influences of the Crown. They looked upon society as a hierarchical set of interdependent relationships and looked down upon the authoritarian uses of state coercion. Their vision was of a consensual and cooperative civil society bound together by deferential citizens with reciprocal rights and responsibilities, led by a socially responsible and benevolent governing class. Government powers were to be bounded by law, custom, and humane principles. Whigs stood firmly against monopolies in commerce, religion, and politics. THE POLITICS OF OPPOSITION

Fox led the Whig opposition for many of these years, representing the interests of religious dissenters, provincial industrialists, and a rising middle class. His support for the French Revolution of 1789 and his opposition to the war against France pushed some moderate Whigs to support Pitt and isolated Foxites from growing conservative sentiment. Between 1803 and 1806 the party rebuilt itself, as Fox and Lord Grenville drew in Whigs who had left over the French Revolution. A Foxite core, the more conservative Grenvillites, and Samuel Whitbread’s radical ‘‘Mountain’’ (named in ironic reference to Maximilien Robespierre’s allies in the National Convention) comprised the spectrum of Whig

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opposition until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Though diverse in their principles, all factions supported Catholic emancipation and the general expansion of civil liberties. Between 1808 and 1830 the Whigs established themselves as an effective opposition. Henry Brougham, a Scottish barrister and leading Whig parliamentarian, advanced his party’s fortunes by extending party activity beyond Westminster to the nation as a whole, appealing to provincial merchants and manufacturers frustrated at their exclusion from influence. He opened up county and borough politics through contested parliamentary elections and played to public opinion and the press to keep Tory governments on the defensive. The Whigs benefited from Tory Prime Minister Liverpool’s stroke in 1827 and the government’s split over Catholic Emancipation in 1829. In 1830 William IV (r. 1830–1837) turned to the Whigs under the leadership of Earl Grey to form a government. Grey and his successor, Lord Melbourne, pursued a general program of measured reform over the next decade. POWER, REFORM, AND DISSOLUTION

The government’s bold Reform Act of 1832 replaced notoriously ‘‘rotten’’ boroughs, which had few voters, with representatives for the previously unrepresented manufacturing districts and cities. It also increased the size of the electorate in England and Wales by over two hundred thousand persons, or almost 50 percent. The basis of voting, however, remained a property qualification. Some working-class voters lost the right to vote as a result of the abolition of old franchise rights. The 1832 Reform Act initiated a political realignment that favored the Whigs and would fuel the emerging Liberal Party well into the 1880s. The Whig leadership had connected high politics with middle-class provincial interests and public opinion, forming the bedrock of Victorian liberalism. Returned with a huge majority at the general election of December 1832, the Whigs carried out a number of other important reforms. A statute in 1833 ended slavery in the British colonies, while another charter reduced the East India Company from a monopolistic trading power to a purely administrative organ.

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In 1834 the new Poor Law was passed. The law grouped parishes into unions and placed them under the control of elected boards of guardians, with a national Poor Law Board in London. Its basic principle—that outdoor poor relief should cease and that conditions in workhouses should be ‘‘less eligible’’ than the worst conditions in the labor market outside—was bitterly resented by workers and many writers throughout the country and led to outbreaks of violence. As the Whigs provoked working-class hostility, they saw the spread of Chartist campaigns, which attacked the Reform Act as a sellout to the upper classes and opposed the new Poor Law. Lord Grey’s successor, Lord Melbourne, successfully passed the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835, which replaced old oligarchies in local government with elected councils. Many unincorporated industrial communities received their first governmental powers. Melbourne failed, however, to find effective answers to the pressing financial, economic, and social questions of the day. These questions grew after 1836, when a financial crisis unleashed an economic depression accompanied by a series of bad harvests. Once the Whigs began to live with the reforms they had enacted in the early 1830s, they lost their radical vitality and fell into decline. By 1840, they had alienated many of the groups that had originally cooperated with their reforming legislation, such as the Dissenters, Evangelicals, and Benthamites. The Whigs also lost radical members disillusioned with the limited nature of factory reform and the failure to end squalor in the towns, and they acquired a reputation for the occasional endorsement of repressive measures, as in the case of the Tolpuddle Martyrs of 1834. The Tories under Robert Peel won the 1841 election. During the 1840s the Whig label lost its political meaning as reformers gathered under the Liberal banner. See also Fox, Charles James; Liberalism; Poor Law; Tories.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hay, William Anthony. The Whig Revival, 1808–1830. New York, 2005.

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Jenkins, T. A. Gladstone, Whiggery, and the Liberal Party, 1874–1886. Oxford, U.K., 1988. Mitchell, Leslie. The Whig World. London, 2005. Parry, Jonathan. The Rise and Fall of Liberal Government in Victorian Britain. New Haven, Conn., 1993. Smith, E. A. Whig Principles and Party Politics: Earl Fitzwilliam and the Whig Party, 1748–1833. Manchester, U.K., 1975. Wasson, Ellis Archer. Whig Renaissance: Lord Althorp and the Whig Party, 1782–1845. New York, 1987. STEPHEN VELLA

WHITE TERROR.

See Counterrevolution.

n

WILBERFORCE,

WILLIAM (1759– 1833), British statesman, philanthropist, and religious leader.

William Wilberforce led the campaign in the British Parliament against slavery and was an influential philanthropist and religious leader. He was born in Hull, Yorkshire, the son and grandson of merchants who had grown rich through the town’s trade with the Baltic. Wilberforce was educated at Hull Grammar School, Pocklington School, and St John’s College, Cambridge. Due to the early deaths of his father and uncle, he inherited considerable wealth while still a teenager. In 1797 he married Barbara Spooner and had two daughters and four sons, including Samuel Wilberforce (1805–1873), later Bishop of Oxford. In 1780 Wilberforce became member of Parliament (MP) for Hull, and in 1784 was elected for Yorkshire, the largest constituency in England, which gave him an important political power base. He was also very well connected at Westminster, being a close friend of the prime minister, William Pitt the Younger (1759–1806), and of other leading figures. In 1785–1786, Wilberforce experienced a period of spiritual crisis, which resulted in his conversion to evangelical Christianity and his subsequent conviction

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that ‘‘God Almighty has set before me two great objects, the suppression of the slave trade and the reformation of manners’’ (Wilberforce and Wilberforce, vol. 1, p. 149). Wilberforce commenced his parliamentary campaign against the slave trade in May 1789. In January 1790 he secured a Select Committee to examine the evidence, and in April 1791 moved for leave to bring in an abolition bill. Insecurity arising from the context of the French Revolution made Parliament fear such a measure could have subversive consequences, and Wilberforce was initially decisively defeated. An extensive campaign of popular agitation and petitioning ensued, causing the House of Commons to vote in 1792 for gradual abolition, but this measure was blocked by the House of Lords. Wilberforce’s efforts had to be maintained for a further sixteen years, until eventual victory was secured in 1807. Meanwhile, Wilberforce was also pursuing his agenda for moral and spiritual reform. In 1787 he had helped to secure a Proclamation for the Encouragement of Piety and Virtue and worked hard to disseminate and implement it. In 1797 he published A Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes of this Country Contrasted with Real Christianity. This was a critique of nominal Christianity and a call to widespread conversion to evangelicalism, as a means of both personal and national salvation. The book was widely read and very influential in contributing to an ongoing process of religious revival. During the 1790s and 1800s, Wilberforce was a central figure in the so-called Clapham Sect of wealthy lay evangelicals that supported parliamentary campaigns on the slave trade and other matters and was instrumental in the formation of numerous religious societies. After the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, Wilberforce continued to have a prominent independent role in Parliament, particularly as a kind of national moral arbiter. In 1813 he played a significant part in securing the admission of missionaries to India, and from 1814 campaigned for the abolition of the slave trade by other nations. He enjoyed only limited immediate success, but ensured that the matter would remain firmly on the diplomatic agenda.

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In 1823 a parliamentary campaign for the abolition of slavery itself was initiated. Wilberforce gave it strong moral support, but he was aging fast and unable to take a significant active part. He retired from Parliament in 1825 and died in 1833, just three days after hearing that the abolition bill had passed its third and final reading in the House of Commons. Wilberforce’s career has given rise to controversy on two specific issues. First, there is debate regarding the real importance of his personal role in the campaign against the slave trade. It is generally agreed, however, that he provided crucial parliamentary leadership, although the wider extraparliamentary campaign was primarily the work of others. Second, there is an acknowledged tension between his advocacy of the abolition of slavery and other reforming causes, and his willingness to countenance repression of political radicalism, both in the 1790s and in the disturbed years following the restoration of peace in 1815. It was also alleged that his preoccupation with slaves in the West Indies blinded him to the sufferings of the poor at home. Nevertheless, Wilberforce’s achievements were undeniably substantial. In addition to specific legislation, he was important in demonstrating how an independent political campaign pursued with great consistency and integrity could eventually bring striking results, and in providing a moral and spiritual example that stimulated significant changes in cultural attitudes. See also Great Britain; Slavery. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Wilberforce, Robert Isaac, and Samuel Wilberforce. The Life of William Wilberforce. 5 vols. London, 1838. A detailed account by two of Wilberforce’s sons, containing much rich material, but stronger on religious than political aspects.

Secondary Sources Oldfield, J. R. Popular Politics and British Anti-Slavery: The Mobilisation of Public Opinion against the Slave Trade 1787–1807. London, 1998. Pollock, John. Wilberforce. London, 1977. A scholarly biography. JOHN WOLFFE

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n

WILDE, OSCAR (1854–1900), Irish playwright. Oscar Fingal O’Flahertie Wills Wilde was, as he said of himself, a ‘‘man who stood in symbolic relation to his times’’ (De Profundis). He was born on 16 October 1854, at 21 Westland Row in Dublin. His father, Sir William Wilde, a leading ear and eye surgeon, devoted himself to caring for the city’s poor. His charitable dispensary later developed into the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital. He also was the author of several noteworthy books on archaeology and Irish folklore. Wilde’s mother, Jane, was also a writer, as well as an activist for Irish nationalism, an early suffragist, and a socialist. Under the pen name Francesca Esperanza Wilde, she drew note in Dublin’s political circles by publishing a series of defenses of Irish nationalism. After the family moved to more fashionable quarters on Merrion Square in June of 1855, Lady Wilde convened a regular Saturday afternoon salon with guests such as the writer Sheridan le Fanu, Samuel Lever, the lawyer and nationalist leader Isaac Butt, and the antiquarian and poet Samuel Ferguson. EDUCATION AND CAREER

This circle was Wilde’s milieu until the age of nine, when he was enrolled at Portora Royal School in Enniskillen, Fermanaugh. He graduated in 1871, gained entrance to Trinity College, Dublin, and studied classics there from 1871 to 1874. He won the Berkeley Medal, the highest honor in classics granted at Trinity, which helped him gain a scholarship to Magdalen College, Oxford. At the age of twenty Wilde moved from Ireland to England and continued to excel in his studies. He graduated from Oxford in 1878 with a double first, and won the 1878 Oxford Newdigate prize for his poems Ravenna. Wilde returned to Dublin after Oxford and fell in love with Florence Balcome. She, however, spurned Wilde and became engaged to Bram Stoker. Wilde announced his intention to leave Ireland permanently because of the romantic misfortune. He took up quarters in London in 1878, and spent the next six years living off a lucrative lecturing career that took him to France and on a Continental tour of the United States.

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Wilde’s celebrity as a lecturer derived from his involvement at Oxford in the aesthetics movement, a new cult of decorative arts and aesthetic theory originated by William Morris (1834–1896) and his circle. Wilde captivated the media, who made him spokesperson for the movement. By 1881 the cult of the ‘‘Aesthetes’’ was important enough that Gilbert and Sullivan lampooned it in the popular operetta, Patience, which popularized Wilde as an effete poet who ‘‘strolled down Picadilly with a medieval lily in his hand.’’ The show was a hit, and Wilde was a celebrity, though none of his major writings had yet appeared. The success of the operetta’s premiere in New York prompted its producer, Richard D’Oyly Carte (1844–1901), to arrange Wilde’s 1882 American lecture tour. Newspapers in the larger cities attacked Wilde, describing at length his pasty white skin, and his odd, lyrical intonation. The mining towns of the West, ironically, applauded Wilde; one of the most favorable press notices about him appeared in the Leadville, Colorado, Gazette in 1881. Wilde returned to Dublin only twice during this period of lecturing. On one of those visits in 1884 he met Constance Lloyd, the daughter of a wealthy London family, and proposed almost instantaneously. They wed on 29 May 1884. Lloyd’s allowance of 250 pounds yearly was a considerable asset, and the couple cultivated a life of luxury at 16 Tite Street in London. In the next two years they had two sons, Cyril (1885) and Vyvyan (1886). Wilde commenced a series of journalistic appointments. He reviewed for the Pall Mall Gazette from 1887 to 1889, and then became editor of Woman’s World, which he fashioned into a laboratory for exploring the decorative arts and a mouthpiece for socialist reformation. The period immediately after taking the editorship was one of extreme creative productivity for Wilde. In 1891 his most important prose writings appeared in the collection Intentions, which included ‘‘The Decay of Lying’’ and ‘‘The Critic as Artist,’’ and his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray, was serialized in Lipincott’s Magazine. Mainstream reviewers praised Wilde’s prose but condemned his morality. Max Nordau, whose influential book Degeneration (1895) attacked aestheticism, used the novel as an

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wright George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950) to call him ‘‘our only serious playwright.’’ Wilde’s next— and last—play, The Importance of Being Earnest, opened at the Haymarket only a month after An Ideal Husband, putting Wilde in the enviable position of having two simultaneous West End hits. TRIALS

The notes for works left by Wilde suggest he intended to have a long career as a playwright. However, 1891 also saw the beginning of Wilde’s intimacies with Lord Alfred Bruce Douglas (1870– 1945), the son of John Sholto Douglas, 8th Marquess of Queensberry. Douglas, a devotee of the cult of aestheticism, became Wilde’s constant companion in the London social world. Douglas had not yet come of age and had no allowance, and Wilde’s flagrant displays of spending and support, as well as the attention paid by the public to the men’s extravagance, snubbed the father’s position as financial authority. To retaliate, the marquess made a plan to interrupt the opening night of The Importance of Being Earnest with an insulting delivery of vegetables made to the playwright while his play was in progress. Warned of the plot, Wilde had the marquess barred from the theater. The next day, 18 February 1895, the marquess left a calling card for Wilde at the Albemarle club. On the back he had written, ‘‘For Oscar Wilde posing as a Somdomite [sic].’’ Oscar Wilde. ªBETTMANN/CORBIS

example of how degenerate artists hasten the ‘‘moral laxity and decay’’ of a nation. In 1891 Wilde also wrote Lady Windermere’s Fan, the first of four stage hits that elevated Wilde into a West End legend. It opened as an immediate hit at St. James’ Theatre in London in February 1882, and earned Wilde an astonishing seven thousand pounds. He followed it with A Woman of No Importance at the Haymarket Theatre in London on 19 April 1893, which was hailed as the best ‘‘comedy of manners’’ since Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751– 1816). In his third West End hit, An Ideal Husband, Wilde crafted his epigrams and wit around a political melodrama, prompting the socialist play-

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Goaded by Douglas, Wilde pressed charges of criminal libel against the marquess. The ensuing events ended any hopes Wilde had of sustaining his career and left him financially and emotionally destitute. In April the crown took over prosecution, and the solicitor Edward Clarke based his case against the marquess almost entirely on Wilde’s own assertions that the accusation of being a sodomite had no basis. To challenge that claim, Edward Henry Carson, barrister for the defense, located several lower-class boys who claimed to have had intimacies with Wilde. The revelation laid waste to the prosecution, humiliated Wilde, and prompted the dismissal of the case. Carson’s witnesses, however, provided the ground for the crown to arrest Wilde on 6 April 1895, on charges of ‘‘committing acts of gross indecency with other male persons: under section 11 of the 1885 Criminal Law Amendment Act.’’ Wilde,

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along with Alfred Taylor, who had allegedly solicited the services of young men for Wilde, faced twentyfive counts. The jury deadlocked on all charges except one, of which they acquitted Wilde. Despite entreaties from luminaries such as Bernard Shaw and even from the marquess’s own attorney, Edward Carson, the crown stood adamant in its desire to secure a conviction, and pursued a second trial under the prosecution of the solicitor-general himself, Frank Lockwood. The crown’s motives are a matter for speculation. Ambiguous letters between Queensberry and Prime Minister Rosebery (Archibald Philip Primrose), who was widely suspected of having had a homosexual affair earlier in his career with another of Queensberry’s sons, suggest that Rosebery might have been blackmailed into pursuing prosecution. More generally, the British government had become uncomfortably associated with prurience by several well-publicized scandals that called into question the moral ethics of certain government officials. The prosecution of Wilde might have seemed a way to redeem the government against its own transgressions. Wilde himself, however, was the leading contributing factor. In 1892 the lord chamberlain refused to license the performance of Wilde’s newest play, Salome, because it contained biblical characters. Wilde reacted publicly and his anger resounded across London society. In 1893 he published the play in a French edition, as if to snub the parochial taboos of the English system, and in 1894 he published an English fine art edition with pornographic illustrations by Aubrey Beardsley (1872–1898). Such actions showed little respect for authority. Also, Wilde’s Irish origins and his flaunting of new, commercially derived money caused further contempt. In many ways, this was a prosecution about nationality and class as much as it was about sexual behavior. The third trial resulted in the verdict of guilty on all charges save one, and Wilde served two years at hard labor in prison, the last eighteen months of it at Reading Gaol. He was released on 19 May 1897. Penniless and abandoned by his wife and sons (as well as by Douglas), he adopted the name Sebastian Melmoth, after the title character of Melmoth the Wanderer, and lived in self-imposed exile from society and the aesthetic movement.

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Only two pieces of any significance issued from Wilde after release. The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898), a poem seeking to elicit compassion for prisoners, and De Profundis (1905), a long letter written to Douglas from prison that provides Wilde’s most personal statement of his philosophies of art, life, and himself. Wilde died of cerebral meningitis on 30 November 1900, only three years after his release. He was buried in the Cimitie`re de Bagneux on the outskirts of Paris, but was later relocated by generous friends to the more prestigious Pe`re Lachaise Cemetery, where his grave is marked by a commissioned monument from sculptor Sir Jacob Epstein (1880–1959). See also Avant-Garde; Carpenter, Edward; Homosexuality and Lesbianism; Morris, William; Symonds, John Addington. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cohen, Ed. Talk on the Wilde Side: Toward a Genealogy of Discourse on Male Sexualities. New York, 1993. Cohen, Philip K. The Moral Vision of Oscar Wilde. Rutherford, N.J., 1978. Ellmann, Richard. Oscar Wilde. New York: Viking, 1987. Ellmann, Richard, ed. Oscar Wilde: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969. Foldy, Michael S. The Trials of Oscar Wilde: Deviance, Morality, and Late-Victorian Society. New Haven, Conn., 1997. Gagnier, Regenia A. Idylls of the Marketplace: Oscar Wilde and the Victorian Public. Stanford, Calif., 1986. Hyde, H. Montgomery. Oscar Wilde: A Biography. London, 1975. Nassaar, Christopher S. Into the Demon Universe: A Literary Exploration of Oscar Wilde. New Haven, Conn., 1974. Nunokawa, Jeff. Oscar Wilde. New York, 1995. Shewan, Rodney. Oscar Wilde: Art and Egotism. London, 1977. Sinfield, Alan. The Wilde Century: Effeminacy, Oscar Wilde, and the Queer Movement. London, 1994. Summers, Claude J. Gay Fictions: Wilde to Stonewall: Studies in a Male Homosexual Literary Tradition. New York, 1990. Woodcock, George. The New York, 1950.

Paradox

of

Oscar

Wilde.

GREGORY BREDBECK

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WILLIAM I (in German, Wilhelm I; 1797– 1888), emperor of Germany (1871–1888) and king of Prussia (1861–1888). William I was the second son of the future King Frederick William III of Prussia and Louise of Mecklenburg. As the younger brother of the heir, William was expected to make a career in the military, and this was a role that he relished. He served in the wars against Napoleon I and was devoted to the army. In 1829 William married Princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. The union produced two children: Frederick, who later reigned as Frederick III, and Louise, who married the grand duke of Baden. William’s marriage was one of convenience; he had abandoned his love affair with a Polish countess, Elise Radziwill, who was not deemed to be a suitable consort for a Prussian prince. William and his wife were ill-suited temperamentally and politically; he particularly had no use for his wife’s more liberal political views. William’s conservatism and advocacy of the use of force against the forces of change earned him the enmity of revolutionaries during the revolutions of 1848, and he was forced to flee to England incognito. When the tide of the revolution turned, William returned to Prussia and commanded the troops that put down a republican insurrection in Baden. As the result of the revolution, Prussia became a constitutional monarchy. Although William was no advocate of constitutionalism, he believed that the monarch had the obligation to uphold the constitution. His beliefs on this score were tested in 1858 when he became regent of Prussia after his brother, King Frederick William IV, was declared unfit to rule. As regent, William gave hope for progressive change when he appointed moderate liberals to his cabinet. But after he became king in 1861, he introduced military reform bills that ran afoul of liberals in parliament who believed that it would create an army that would be used to suppress reforms. Liberals in the Prussian parliament repeatedly rejected his army reform bills, as government operations ground to a halt. For weeks, relations between crown and parliament stood at an impasse, and William threatened to

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abdicate. Liberals advocated the accession of William’s son Frederick, who was more liberal than his father, whereas conservatives flocked to William’s nephew Frederick Charles, who threatened to do away with the constitution altogether. In September 1862, at the height of the crisis, William accepted his advisors’ suggestion to appoint Otto von Bismarck as prime minister. Bismarck found a convenient loophole in the constitution that allowed him to push through the king’s military reforms. Bismarck then proceeded to assuage liberals’ anger over his manipulation of the constitution by achieving their long-held desire for a united Germany under Prussia, which became a reality after Prussia’s victories over Austria in 1866 and France in 1871. William I commanded troops during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, received the surrender of Napoleon III at Sedan, France, and was proclaimed German emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. William reigned as emperor for the next seventeen years, despite advanced age and two attempts on his life. Although Bismarck told his biographers he was a mere servant of his emperor, historians usually refer to the period of William’s rule as the Age of Bismarck, because the chancellor dominated both domestic and foreign policy. Yet William was no mere cipher of his chancellor; he often disagreed with his policies. William did not favor Bismarck’s struggle against the Roman Catholic Church during the 1870s, and gave it only his tacit consent. In the end, William was a modest, hard-working, and conscientious ruler. His letters and memoranda show that he carefully thought through issues affecting his realm. Though his militarism and conservative views often put him at odds with radical elements in the German Empire, he was a popular monarch. As William lay dying at the age of ninety-one, his wife permitted a cameo of Elise Radziwill to be placed in his hand. After clutching it briefly, the old emperor passed away. He was succeeded by his son Frederick, who was ill with cancer and reigned for only three months. Frederick in turn was succeeded by his son, who became Emperor William II. Although the young emperor worshipped his late grandfather, it was Germany’s misfortune that he lacked the elder man’s conscientiousness and sense of restraint.

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See also Austro-Prussian War; Bismarck, Otto von; Danish-German War; Franco-Prussian War; Frederick William IV; Germany; Prussia; Revolutions of 1848. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aronson, Theo. The Kaisers. London, 1971. Bo ¨ rner, Karl Heinz. Kaiser Wilhelm I, 1797 bis 1888: Deutscher Kaiser und Ko¨nig von Preussen. Cologne, Germany, 1984. Marcks, Erich. Kaiser Wilhelm I. Leipzig, Germany, 1897. Schultze, Johannes, ed. Kaiser Wilhelms I: Weimarer Briefe. Berlin, 1924. PATRICIA KOLLANDER

n

WILLIAM II (in German, Wilhelm II, 1859– 1941, ruled 1888–1918), German kaiser and king of Prussia. William II, the last king of Prussia and German emperor, possessed a royal lineage that might well have been the envy of many another European sovereign. He was the eldest grandson of both the first German emperor, William I (r. 1871– 1888), and Queen Victoria (r. 1837–1901), and was a descendant of Russian tsars as well. From the moment of his birth in 1859 he was destined for a great future but also beset by handicap, for as a result of his protracted delivery his left arm was paralyzed for life. Although the child learned to accept this misfortune and became remarkably adept at sports, his mother, Victoria, was mortified that her son was less than physically perfect. She made her disappointment evident, and thus began the pronounced estrangement between mother and son that endured until her death when William was forty-two. William’s education from the time that he was seven until he reached eighteen and was ready for a university was in the hands of the stern, unappeasable and relentless Georg Hinzpeter. No wonder that in 1877, when William finally escaped his grasp, he found great pleasure in his new life at the University of Bonn, where, however, he was an indifferent student. After two years he had had enough and took up a military career that was infinitely more to his liking. In the army, he would declare, he found not only his true vocation but

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also the warm family atmosphere that his mother had deliberately withheld. William’s fellow officers greeted him cordially, but very few could detect any real military talent in their future ruler. Government officials, who periodically attempted to introduce William to diplomatic or domestic affairs, similarly found him unimpressive. By the time William was in his mid-twenties he was an object of some concern. Willful, conceited, lazy, and unjustifiably self-impressed, he was to his father, the genuinely heroic Crown Prince, a bogus ‘‘compleat lieutenant’’ and to Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), the imperial chancellor, a loquacious nullity. The thought of such a stripling on the throne was disquieting, but William II would follow old William I, born in 1797, and the Crown Prince, born in 1831. Young William’s succession, it seemed, would be postponed for at least a decade or two, during which time he might somehow manage to become more mature. That optimistic hope fell to pieces in the fall of 1887, when the Crown Prince was diagnosed as suffering from a fatal carcinoma of the larynx. Whether he would live to succeed his ninety-year-old father seemed in doubt. William I died in March 1888, and ninetynine days later the Crown Prince, who had succeeded him as Emperor Frederick III, expired from his malady. William II, at twenty-nine, was now the German kaiser and king of Prussia. As ruler, the new kaiser was persuaded that he was endowed by God Almighty with powers and responsibilities and that his authority, thoroughly upheld by both the Prussian and imperial constitutions, was to be personally exercised however he wished. William was avidly supported in this estimation by his entourage, men frequently military by profession, almost entirely sycophantic in behavior, and whose principal qualification for appointment to the entourage was their unquestioning allegiance to the young ruler. This inflation of William II’s ego was also served by his wife, the Empress Augusta Victoria (1858–1921), a lackluster, prosaic woman who lived entirely in her consort’s shadow. The first casualty of William’s personalized monarchy was Bismarck, a man of titanic self-assurance and Caesarian mien, who was sent packing early in 1890. The new chancellor, General Leo von Caprivi (1831–1899), found that the emperor and his entourage could not effectively be resisted, an experi-

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The Car of the German Empire Driven by Wilhelm II. Cover illustration by Thomas Heine for the German satirical journal Simplicissimus, 1907. PRIVATE COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY. ª 2005 ARTISTS RIGHTS SOCIETY (ARS), NEW YORK/ VG BILD-KUNST, BONN.

ence that his successor in 1894, Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfu¨rst (1819–1901), also found to be true. Hohenlohe would last until 1900, when he yielded to Bernhard von Bu ¨ low (1849–1929), who was known as ‘‘the eel’’ for his oleaginous manner and suave handling of his imperial master. Although insistent on making full use of his prerogative, William was so inconstant and dilatory, so prone to sudden changes of opinion and to new enthusiasms, he in fact was not the supreme autocrat he believed himself to be. The so-called perso¨nliches Regiment (personal regime) was actually exercised by his aristocratic minions in the military and civil bureaucracy. The work that William’s dutiful servants had to perform was complicated because of the kaiser’s incessant, bombastic intrusions. The last kaiser believed himself to be a genius, especially at warfare and diplomacy, two areas he preferred to domestic affairs. Resolutely moral, anti-Catholic, and Francophobe, he wrote France off as racially inferior and eternally inimical to the German Empire.

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Toward Great Britain, the land of his disliked mother’s birth, William was ambivalent. He envied its wealth but loathed what he considered its moral laxity and lust for power. The Slavs, like the French, were a lesser breed, but the Russian tsars, being like himself—autocrats of limitless power— could be useful allies. Since the Italians were beneath notice as Latins and degenerates and the minuscule kings from the house of Savoy little more than hairy dwarfs, only Austria-Hungary was a truly suitable ally for imperial Germany. William greatly admired Emperor Francis Joseph I (r. 1848–1916), and one of the very few consistent strands in his life was his devotion to the Habsburg sovereign. In diplomacy, William fostered the alliance of 1879 with Austria-Hungary, hoped in vain to rope Russia in as an ally, and alienated the British by his offensive behavior and by the construction beginning in 1898 of a vast battleship-based navy. By 1914, Germany had no allies other than Austria-Hungary, and that was perhaps more a liability than an asset. Within Germany, William aspired to make himself popular, and to achieve this aim he began his reign trying to pose as the friend of the working class. This did not capture the multitudes and William eventually grew resentful of the ever increasing rise of the doctrinarily Marxist Social Democratic party, which following the elections of 1912 became the largest faction in the imperial legislature. Meanwhile, William had alienated the second most numerous party, the Catholic Center, by his resolute prejudice against Catholicism, nor did he have many admirers among the middle parties representing the interests of business and commerce. As a result, William’s governments staggered through a series of parliamentary crises and the regime was increasingly discredited. William’s own stature sank in popularity as a result of these difficulties and also because of a variety of scandals, some of them surrounding accusations of homosexuality involving a number of his closest associates in the entourage. The reign of the last kaiser was not only full of unresolved crises, it was also messy and unedifying. Finally, William’s regime was dreary. The kaiser’s court, though splendid and run like clockwork, was a bore. The throne was adamantly

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opposed to any innovations in the arts and patronized only those who praised the sovereign and delivered traditional works of second- or third-rate quality. There was no place in William’s artistic galaxy for Richard Georg Strauss (1864–1949) or Max Liebermann (1847–1935) or Gerhart Hauptmann (1862–1946). Germany’s antediluvian political system was paradoxically coexistent with one of the most remarkable economic upsurges any nation in Europe enjoyed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Industry prospered and commerce spread around the world. William II is not entitled to any credit on this score, for he was snobbish toward the middle class although he envied their wealth. An occasional entrepreneur, notably the Krupps of Essen or Albert Ballin (1857–1918), the Hamburg shipping magnate, might fraternize with the kaiser, but none was ever part of the inner circle, and William remained as ignorant of economics as he was of almost everything else. In 1913, William celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of his ascension to the Prussian and imperial throne. The occasion was appropriately pompous but also rather contrived, for the sovereign being honored was neither popular nor notably respected. Throughout his reign there were suspicions that he was mentally unbalanced, and many who knew him well believed this to be the case, citing as evidence William’s irrepressible loquacity, incessant traveling, astounding tactlessness, and nervous prostration at moments of crisis. William in fact may have been the victim of porphyria, a genetic disorder that has mental as well as physical symptoms. The kaiser’s Germany was rich, it was powerfully armed, but it had few friends, a number of notable enemies, and a marked lack of internal political stability. Just a year after the observance of the anniversary, Germany found itself at war, blockaded at sea and outnumbered on land. The fate of Germany, in that ominous moment in its history, rested on a man utterly unequal to the challenge, an emperor who, for all his splendor, was a vacuous, blundering epigone who reduced his splendid inheritance to inglorious ruin. See also Bismarck, Otto von; Frederick III; Germany; Nicholas II; William I.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Ro ¨ hl, John C. G., ed. Philipp Eulenburgs Politische Korrespondenz. 3 vols. Boppard am Rhein, 1976–1983.

Secondary Sources Cecil, Lamar. Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor, 1859–1900. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1989. ———. Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900–1941. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1996. Hull, Isabel V. The Entourage of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1888– 1918. Cambridge, U.K., 1982. Ro ¨ hl, John C. G. Young Wilhelm: The Kaiser’s Early Life, 1859–1888. Translated by Jeremy Gaines and Rebecca Wallach. Cambridge, U.K., 1998. ———. The Kaiser’s Personal Monarchy, 1888–1900. Cambridge, U.K., 2004. Ro ¨ hl, John C. G., and Nicolaus Sombart, eds. Kaiser Wilhelm II. New Interpretations: The Corfu Papers. Cambridge, U.K., 1982. LAMAR CECIL

n

WILLIAM IV (1765–1837), king of Great Britain and Ireland (1830–1837) and king of Hanover (1830–1837). William Henry was the third son of George III and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. In 1779 he was sent to sea as a midshipman in the hope that the Royal Navy would instill disciplined habits and offer him a career of public service. He saw action against the Spaniards off Cape St. Vincent, and subsequently his competence as a naval officer won the approval of his superiors who included Horatio Nelson. From 1783 to 1785 he resided in Hanover. In 1789 he became duke of Clarence and St. Andrews and earl of Munster. He played no part in the French Wars that commenced in 1793, and his promotion to admiral in 1798 was a formality. He resumed an active connection with the Navy in 1827 when he was appointed lord high admiral, but he clashed with members of his advisory council and resigned. From 1791 William cohabited with Dorothy Jordan, an actress. A caring father, he fostered the marital and career prospects of their ten children (surnamed FitzClarence). William terminated his relationship with Jordan in 1811, and in 1818 he

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married Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. Although their children died in early infancy, the marriage was a happy one. William had no cultural or intellectual interests. His undignified appearance and eccentric mannerisms, together with behavior and language that smacked of the quarterdeck, attracted ridicule in polite society, but his bluff geniality contributed to the popularity he enjoyed at various times during his reign. William became king in 1830 on the death of his brother, George IV. He played a major part in two episodes that altered the British constitution. The first of these was the struggle for the Reform Act by which Earl Grey’s Whig government enlarged the parliamentary electorate in 1832 and removed some anomalies from the representative system. Wishing to restrict the extent of the change and abate controversy, William would have preferred to see the legislation carried by a coalition of Whigs and Tories or by a Tory government, but at two crucial junctures he supported his Whig ministers in the face of strenuous Tory opposition. He deferred to their insistence on a general election in 1831 at which they won a majority in the House of Commons, and, when the Tories blocked the legislation in the House of Lords, he agreed to create enough Whig peers to pass the Reform Act if the Tory lords persisted in their opposition. The threat was enough to carry the day, setting a precedent for the subordination of the House of Lords to the wishes of the House of Commons. William’s popularity during the controversy was indicated by an illustration in The Extraordinary Black Book, a radical tract that contained an illustration showing a people’s king surrounded by ministers who were ‘‘Friends of Reform, Foes of Revolution.’’ The second episode counteracted this favorable impression. Alarmed by the liberalism of his ministers and encouraged by Tory sympathizers, who included his wife and some of his children, William dismissed the Whigs in 1834 and installed a Tory government led by Sir Robert Peel. He was emboldened by a precedent from the years 1783 and 1784 when his father had ousted a Whigdominated coalition and appointed a more congenial government that was confirmed in office by a general election. William miscalculated; at the ensuing general election, the voters rejected the Tories. William had to endure the humiliation of

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reinstating the Whigs, who not only pursued policies that were repugnant to him but also took the opportunity to restrict the hostile activities of his court circle. It was the last time that a British monarch dismissed a government with a House of Commons majority. William’s enthusiasm for reform was always limited. Before coming to the throne he had supported Catholic emancipation but defended the institution of slavery. During the crisis that attended the passing of the Reform Act he was reluctant to depart from the eighteenth-century constitutional theory that envisaged a balance of power between the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons. After 1832 he attempted to protect the privileges of the Protestant church establishment in Ireland, and he regarded the activities of the Irish nationalist leader Daniel O’Connell as little better than treasonous. William also disagreed with his ministers’ policy of supporting liberals in Portugal, Spain, and other parts of continental Europe. The last years of his reign were uneventful. William died in 1837 and was buried in Windsor Castle. He was succeeded in the United Kingdom by his niece, Victoria, and in Hanover, where the Salic law of succession excluded women from the throne, by his brother, Ernest Augustus. See also George IV; Great Britain; Wellington, Duke of (Arthur Wellesley); Whigs. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brock, Michael G. The Great Reform Act. London, 1973. The standard work on the 1832 Reform Act. Newbould, Ian. Whiggery and Reform, 1830–1841. London, 1990. A modern study of the Whig reformers of the 1830s. Ziegler, Philip. King William IV. London, 1971. A biography that draws on the royal archives and other major primary sources. ALEX TYRRELL

n

WINDTHORST, LUDWIG (1812–1891), German politician. Germany’s greatest parliamentarian, Ludwig Josef Ferdinand Gustav Windthorst, served simul-

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taneously in the Prussian and the German national parliament (Reichstag), where as leader of the Center Party he took the floor more than any other speaker. His wit, sang-froid, and tactical genius were the marvel of all. When political upheavals in 1878 made the Center and its associate members the Reichstag’s largest grouping, a position it would keep until 1912, Windthorst held the parliamentary balance of power. EARLY CAREER

Windthorst’s politics were colored by an early Anglophilia (born in Hanover, he was a subject of the English crown until he was twenty-five) and a libertarianism nourished by his experience as member of a religious and political minority: as a Catholic in Protestant Hanover, and after its annexation in 1866, as a Hanoverian loyalist in a Germany first truncated and then dominated by Prussia. After education at the Universities of Go¨ttingen (1830– 1831) and Heidelberg (1832–1833), Windthorst quickly became the leading lawyer in his native Osnabru ¨ ck, although he was functionally blind by his thirtieth year. Appointed to several prestigious offices, he was serving on the Hanoverian Supreme Court when in 1848 revolution opened the possibility of a political career. In 1849 he was elected to the diet’s lower chamber, and in 1851, its president. Windthorst was twice appointed Justice Minister (1851–1853 and 1862–1865), the only Catholic to hold cabinet rank in the history of the kingdom. In spite of Hanover’s chronic constitutional crisis, he succeeded in putting the reforms of 1848 into effect: public judicial proceedings, jury trials, reorganization of the courts, separation of justice from administration. Although distrusted by George V (r. 1851–1866) as a ‘‘jesuit,’’ Windthorst’s support for the German Confederation and his opposition to Prussian-led nationalism made him well known in particularist and pro-Austrian circles throughout Germany. After Prussia’s annexation of Hanover in 1866, he represented his deposed monarch in negotiations with Otto von Bismarck (r. 1871– 1890) over Hanoverian royal property (Welfenfonds), beginning an adversarial relationship that would last a lifetime. Contrary to agreement, Bismarck impounded the Welfenfonds in 1868, feeding Windthorst’s pessimism about the future of rule of law in a Prussian-dominated Germany.

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Elected to the Prussian lower house as deputy for Meppen, Windthorst could find no party to his liking, yet isolation did not intimidate a man that wags soon dubbed ‘‘the Meppen Party.’’ In the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, he attracted allies from other recently annexed or marginalized states, forming a short-lived Federal-Constitutional Union. Elections to the all-German Customs Parliament in 1867, by returning like-minded deputies from the predominantly Catholic south, opened his eyes to the advantages of a democratic franchise. Working behind the scenes to unite particularists of all stripes, Windthorst succeeded in thwarting German nationalist hopes of turning the Customs Parliament into a forum for coaxing the southern states voluntarily into Bismarck’s Confederation, foreshadowing his later reputation as ‘‘father of all hindrances.’’ Windthorst voted against the constitution of the North German Confederation and later, of the German Empire, for failing to provide a house of lords, a supreme court, a cabinet collectively responsible to the Reichstag, and safeguards for the rights of member states. Cool to nationalism himself, Windthorst offered irritating reminders of his countrymen’s double standard in applying the nationality principle. Thus he protested against annexing AlsaceLorraine without consulting its population, demanded parliamentary representation for its citizens, and excoriated the suspension of civil law under the guise of military emergency. AFTER 1870

In the Reichstag, Windthorst brought together in the Center Party a diverse collection of outsiders in the new empire—Prussian and southern Catholics, Poles and Alsace-Lorrainers, and Lutheran legitimists from Hanover (the latter as affiliated members). Even as they instilled the concept of a loyal opposition among their constituents, they were branded as Reichsfeinde (‘‘enemies of the Reich’’) by the Bismarckian press. Although his hopes that the Center might attract Protestants beyond Hanover were disappointed, Windthorst insisted that his party champion the same rights for Protestants and Jews that it demanded for Catholics. In November 1880 he repeatedly threatened to resign his seat if the Center supported the anti-Semitic side in a debate on the Jewish Question in the Prussian House of Deputies. In January 1886 he sponsored a successful Reichstag motion censuring the Prus-

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sian government for expelling, almost overnight, more than thirty thousand undocumented Poles and Jews in the East. Windthorst’s distrust of state power had intensified during the Kulturkampf (‘‘battle for civilization,’’ 1872–1887) , when Bismarck, with broad support in parliament and the public, sponsored legislation to subordinate the Catholic Church to the state. Windthorst joined the bishops in calling for civil disobedience to laws that conflicted with conscience. Windthorst amazed contemporaries by his skill not only in holding his extremely heterogeneous party together, but in shifting it rapidly right and left, as opportunities appeared. In 1873, hoping to split the National Liberals or at least to force them to choose between angering Bismarck or their own voters, he persuaded his instinctively conservative colleagues to sponsor a series of democratic motions: to replace the plutocratic franchise and open voting in Prussian state elections with the Reichstag’s manhood suffrage and secret ballot; to end the newspaper tax and other press restrictions; and to institute salaries for Reichstag deputies. Liberal leaders, warning that association with Windthorst was a political ‘‘kiss of death,’’ succeeded in tabling the motions. Although the defense of the Reichstag’s rights and its democratic franchise became central to the Center Party’s program, Windthorst’s residual monarchism, and fears of the tyranny of the majority, kept him from advocating parliamentary sovereignty. Not alarmed by the rise of Social Democracy, Windthorst worked to integrate socialism’s adherents into parliamentary life, supporting motions to release socialist deputies from prison and, when they were too few to sponsor motions of their own, lending them Center signatures to enable their motions to come to the floor. Opposing all laws designed against specific groups (‘‘exceptional legislation’’) as contrary to the principle of equality before the law, Windthorst led his party to reject Bismarck’s Anti-Socialist Law in 1878 and, with some defections, its biannual renewals thereafter. Votes such as these incurred the displeasure of Pope Leo XIII (r. 1878–1903), as did Windthorst’s electoral alliances with Left Liberals in the 1880s. Already suspect for having voiced opposition in 1869, both privately and with other Catho-

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lic deputies in a hastily assembled ‘‘Berlin Laymen’s Council,’’ to the prospective declaration of papal infallibility, Windthorst was increasingly seen by the pontiff as an obstacle to his own plans to negotiate a solution to the Kulturkampf. Aiming also to enlist Bismarck’s help in recovering Rome for the Holy See (a cause Windthorst considered not only lost, but no longer even desirable), Leo kept Windthorst ignorant of the course of negotiations and stymied Center Party initiatives in parliament, hoping to offer the chancellor the party’s votes on political matters as an inducement for ecclesiastical concessions. Windthorst declined to oblige, suggesting that separation of church and state on the North American model was preferable to compromising constitutional principles. In 1887, when the Center, in accord with its platform’s demand for parliamentary control of the purse, defeated Bismarck’s seven-year military budget (Septennat), the chancellor dissolved the Reichstag and waged an uproarious election campaign against the Reichsfeinde. Leo gave Bismarck permission to leak a papal note that had instructed Windthorst to support the Septennat as quid pro quo for a prospective settlement of the Kulturkampf. The Bismarckian press, which had previously scoffed at the Center’s professed independence of church authority on political questions, now expressed itself scandalized at Windthorst’s ‘‘disobedience,’’ gloating at the pope’s apparent disavowal of the overwhelmingly Catholic party. The Center was returned unscathed, but Windthorst was forced to acquiesce in Leo’s ecclesiastical ‘‘Peace Settlement’’ that same year, although it left many Catholic demands unsatisfied. Windthorst shared little of the passion of Catholic thinkers for social reform, although he gave tepid support to the Center’s sponsorship of factory legislation in 1877. His experience in Osnabru¨ck, whose Protestant patriciate controlled access to guilds, made him sympathetic to free enterprise and free trade. He resisted Bismarck’s plans for a tobacco monopoly and for the nationalization of railways, fearing abuses if vast numbers of workers became dependent on an employerstate. The Center supported compulsory health insurance for workers in 1883 and workman’s compensation in 1884, financed by contributions from workers and employers, or, in the latter case,

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by employers alone. But in 1889, when substantial numbers of older and conservative colleagues broke ranks to support Bismarck’s old age and disability insurance, partially funded by the state, Windthorst felt betrayed. Yet he was rarely dogmatic on economic questions. The demands of its constituency led the Center to precede Bismarck in advocating tariffs in 1879 and to support increases in grain duties in 1885 and 1889. Even so, Windthorst succeeded in passing a provision to distribute much of the income generated by the tariff to Germany’s member states, thus frustrating Bismarck’s hopes for an imperial revenue-producing mechanism beyond the control of representative bodies. After years of Bismarck’s vilification (‘‘Two things sustain my life and make it sweet: my wife and Windthorst. One is for love, the other for hate’’ [Tiedemann, vol. 2, p. 3]), it was to Windthorst that the chancellor turned in March 1890, when national elections deprived him of a reliable majority. Bismarck agreed to a number of ecclesiastical concessions, but his approach to Windthorst was itself a sign that the chancellor’s power was waning. When word of the interview leaked out, the ensuing scandal gave William II (r. 1888– 1918), furious at being left in the dark about so signal a change of course, the excuse he needed for Bismarck’s dismissal. Though Windthorst insisted that the Center was a political, not a religious party, the Catholic clergy provided its electoral machinery and Germany’s bishops, a power base that he employed against both Leo XIII and the occasional obstreperous clerical colleague. His own influence within the church in Germany was unequaled, extending to episcopal appointments and other ostensibly ecclesiastical matters. Within the Center delegation, priests were his most reliable allies. Although by the 1880s some aristocratic rivals, dismayed by their party’s continued oppositional course, chaffed under one-man rule, they commanded no comparable support. Windthorst discouraged the formation of other mass organizations of Catholics, whose moves outside parliament might limit his own tactical flexibility. When in summer of 1890 Catholic aristocrats met to establish an organization to respond in kind to the religious polemics of the recently founded Protestant League, Wind-

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thorst reacted with horror. Marshalling allies in party, clergy, and press, he transformed the nascent Catholic League into the very different Volksverein fu ¨ r das Katholische Deutschland (People’s Association for Catholic Germany), which combined the functions of adult education, information bureau, and training program for the Center’s party workers. With 805,000 members by 1914, it became one of the largest voluntary organizations in Germany. More than any figure of his generation, Windthorst embodied the transition from notable to mass politics. Even in old age, he was a tireless presence at rallies throughout the country, drawing crowds of thousands, who burst into song (‘‘The Little Excellency,’’ composed in his honor) at his entrance. He turned disadvantages into assets: his lack of the noble title customary among his peers fostered the rumor (which he never denied) that he was the son of peasants. Conspicuous ugliness and a stature that did not reach five feet made him the darling of cartoonists, especially during debating duals with the giant Bismarck. The elfin, bespectacled, eminently civilian parliamentarian (‘‘the Civilian Moltke’’; ‘‘General Schlauberger’’ [sly dog]) offered a counter-symbol to the authoritarian values exemplified by Germany’s field marshals, elite officials, and aristocratic chancellors. At his death he was given all the honors of a state funeral, critics complained, and the Social Democratic press proclaimed him ‘‘the most popular man in Germany.’’ Yet anti-parliamentary and anti-Catholic sentiment continued to color his image among nationalists of both liberal and conservative persuasions, and the currents that Windthorst embodied— Catholic, federalist, and constitutionalist—became fully acceptable to the majority only after the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. See also Catholicism, Political; Center Party; Germany; Kulturkampf; Prussia. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Tiedemann, Christoph von. Aus sieben Jahrzehnten. Erinnerungen. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1905–1909. Windthorst, Ludwig Josef Ferdinand Gustav. Ausgewa¨hlte Reden gehalten in der Zeit von 1861–1891. 1903. 3 vols. Reprint, Hildesheim, Zurich, and New York, 2003.

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———. Briefe 1834–1880. Edited by Hans-Georg Aschoff with Heinz-Jo¨rg Heinrich. Paderborn, Germany, 1995. Briefe 1881–1891: um einen Nachtrag mit Briefen von 1834 bis 1880 erga¨nzt. Edited by Hans-Georg Aschoff with Heinz-Jo¨rg Heinrich. Paderborn, Germany, 2002. ———. Ludwig Windthorst, 1812–1891. Edited by HansGeorg Aschoff. Paderborn, Germany, 1991. Brief edition of Windthorst’s most important speeches, annotated and put in context.

Secondary Sources Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. Windthorst: A Political Biography. Oxford, U.K., and New York, 1981. Translated into German as Windthorst: Zentrumspolitiker und Gegenspieler Bismarcks, with an expanded bibliography, 1988. First critical scholarly biography, notable for uncovering Windthorst’s close relations to the clergy and conflicts with Leo XIII. Bachem, Karl. Vorgeschichte, Geschichte und Politik der Deutschen Zentrumspartei: Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der katholischen Bewegung, sowie zur allgemeinen Geschichte des neueren und neuesten Deutschland 1815–1914. Vols. 3–5. Cologne, 1927– 1932. Invaluable resource by knowledgeable Center politician, personally close to Windthorst in his later years, based on a rich collection of contemporary materials. Colonge, Paul. Ludwig Windthorst (1812–1891): (Sa pense´e et son action politiques jusqu’en 1875). 2 vols. Lille and Paris, 1983. Exhaustive coverage. Goldberg, Hans-Peter. Bismarck und seine Gegner: die politische Rhetorik im kaiserlichen Reichstag. Du¨sseldorf, 1998. Analyzes Bismarck’s rhetoric and that of his principal parliamentary antagonists: Windthorst; the Social Democrat August Bebel; and the Progressive Eugen Richter. Hu ¨ sgen, Eduard. Ludwig Windthorst. Cologne, 1907. Classic, if uncritical, biography by editor of a Center Party newspaper in Du¨sseldorf who was eyewitness to some of the events described. Enriched with contemporary caricatures, campaign doggerel, and long quotations. Meemken, Hermann, ed. Ludwig Windthorst, 1812–1891: christlicher Parlamentarier und Gegenspieler Bismarcks: Begleitbuch zur Gedenkausstellung aus Anlass des 100. Todestages. Meppen, Germany, 1991. Revealing photographs, caricatures, and other contemporary graphics along with articles that are valuable for illuminating Windthorst’s connections with his Emsland constituency in northwestern Germany. MARGARET LAVINIA ANDERSON

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WINE. Wine was one of the principal alcoholic beverages consumed in Europe during the long nineteenth century. Beer and wine had already been staple elements in the daily diet throughout Europe for centuries because they were safer to drink than the available water, which was often contaminated by human, animal, and industrial waste. Several themes bear on the history of wine between 1789 and 1914. They include changes in production and consumption patterns, the effects of the temperance movements and phylloxera, and shifts in the cultural status of wine. WINE IN 1789

At the end of the eighteenth century, wine was consumed by common people in areas where viticulture flourished, and where wine was inexpensive because it did not have to be transported to market or could be produced on a local or domestic scale. Thus, wine consumption was widespread in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, and Greece, and those regions of central and eastern Europe where grapes were cultivated. Elsewhere, beer, ale, and distilled spirits were more commonly consumed, but because wine had a social cachet, it was imported for consumption by those who could afford it. The middle and upper classes in northern Europe also consumed beer and spirits, but wine was a socially valued beverage and wine merchants did brisk business in England, the Netherlands and Belgium, Scandinavia, and Russia. The English market, for example, soaked up huge volumes of wine from Bordeaux and Port (wine fortified with brandy) from Portugal. A 1793 guide to St. Petersburg noted that wealthy people there drank wines from Bordeaux, Burgundy, and Champagne, and also Hungarian wines that were also popular because they are ‘‘strong, very alcoholic, and warm the blood’’ (Phillips, p. 202). Even where wine was available locally, as in northern Italy, wine was imported from France because it was reputed to be of higher quality. It is impossible to provide useful figures on per capita consumption because total production is often unknown and drinking patterns are unclear. Enough wine was brought into Paris in the 1780s

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to enable each inhabitant—women, children, and men—to consume between three and six liters of wine a week. But adult men clearly drank more than women and children, and some tavern records suggest that men might have downed two liters of wine a day. Although contemporary commentators condemned drunkenness, they accepted wine as a basic part of the daily diet. The political scientist JeanBaptiste Moheau wrote in the 1780s that wine is ‘‘an excellent beverage for the poor, not only because it is a food but also because it is very good protection against physical decay’’ (Phillips, p. 203). The popularity of wine in eighteenth-century France led to complaints that high taxes on it led to clandestine wine-shops and smuggling. Wine was regularly smuggled into Paris—sometimes through channels bored through the city walls—and taverns selling less expensive wine outside the walls (where the city tax was not levied) did a roaring trade on holidays. In response to complaints about sales taxes, the Revolutionary government abolished the tax on wine in 1791 and, at midnight on 1 May, a convoy of hundreds of carts brought an estimated 2 million liters of wine into Paris for sale at the new, tax-free price. Even when a tax was re-imposed in 1798, wine was still cheaper than it had been before the Revolution. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

The Revolutionary and Napoleonic periods promoted the wine industry in France, and annual production rose by a third between the late 1780s and the period from 1805 to 1812. The area under viticulture increased, especially in southern France, and governments subsidized the wine industry by purchasing vast volumes of wine for military rations and hospitals during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815). During the nineteenth century, several developments favored the spread of wine consumption throughout Europe. One was an improvement in transportation brought about by railroads from the 1850s onward. Until then, the cheapest means of moving wine was by water (river or coastal shipping), but trains could carry bulk wine inexpensively, and the railroad extended the market reach of wine regions. From the 1860s, the wines of

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southern France (especially Languedoc) began to penetrate the large working-class markets in Paris and France’s northern industrial cities. There were also developments in elite wines, and regions like Bordeaux consolidated their reputations for producing premium wines. In 1855, at the request of Napoleon III, the seventy-nine most expensive wines from some of Bordeaux’s most prestigious districts were classified into five categories (known as Crus or ‘‘Growths’’). In the same period, in the Italian region of Tuscany, Baron Ricasoli set out the approved grape varieties for modern Chianti. During the nineteenth century, too, modern Champagne was born. In the 1820s Veuve Clicquot introduced new techniques of production that were widely adopted and became known as the ‘‘Champagne Method,’’ while in mid-century Champagne began to move from the sweet sparkling wine it had been, to the drier styles now most common. TEMPERANCE

While the European wine industry was growing, expanding its markets and developing expensive, premium wines, two threats emerged. The first was an unprecedented movement against the consumption of any more alcohol than was needed for basic dietary purposes. This temperance movement was a coordinated expression of the concern that had been articulated sporadically for centuries, as civic and church commentators warned against the social and personal consequences of excessive drinking. By the end of the nineteenth century, some temperance movements began to call for total abstinence and a ban on the production of beverage alcohol. Anti-alcohol movements like these attracted less support in Europe, especially Continental Europe, than in North America and Australasia. In Europe, wine and beer were entrenched in diet and culture. And to the extent that sources of potable water needed to be available before alcohol could be removed from the diet, much of Europe lagged behind other parts of the Western world. Although the anti-alcohol campaigns made some inroads in England, they were largely ineffec-

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tive in continental Europe. In France, a number of temperance organizations focused their campaigns solely on spirits and went so far as to encourage wine-drinking on the ground that wine was healthy and an antidote to alcoholism. A side effect of the anti-alcohol campaigns was a decline in the reputation of wine as having therapeutic qualities. For centuries wine had been prescribed for digestive and other problems, and it was believed to have general tonic effects. In 1870–1871, one hospital in Darmstadt, Germany, went through 4,633 bottles of white and 6,332 bottles of red wine from the Rhine region, sixty bottles of Champagne, a few dozen bottles of superior white and red Bordeaux, and about thirty dozen bottles of Port. Yet in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, new drugs and painkillers (like aspirin), sedatives, and tranquilizers came onto the market. They were clinically tested and promised specific results, unlike wine, which was promoted as merely beneficial in a general sense. PHYLLOXERA

The decline of wine as medicine had a long-term effect. A more serious and immediate threat to wine in nineteenth-century Europe was phylloxera, a vine-disease imported from North America that took hold in southern France in the 1860s and, during the following decades, devastated vineyards throughout almost the whole of Europe. For years—the timing varied from region to region— wine production fell and many consumers shifted to other beverages. The phylloxera epidemic was a short-term blow to Europe’s wine industry (a solution was put in place from the 1870s), but it had far-reaching effects. For one thing, it changed the map of European viticulture. In France, many marginal vineyards in the north were not replanted and the center of gravity shifted south, as the vineyards of Languedoc-Roussillon (now with rail access to northern markets) expanded dramatically. All Europe’s wine industries were affected by phylloxera. Spanish wine benefited at first, as an influx of French winemakers left their dying vines in regions like Bordeaux and began to work in Spanish regions such as Rioja. But then, Spain’s vines died in turn. Italy’s wine-producers experi-

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enced a short sales boom as the French imported wine to make up their own shortfall. But phylloxera soon spread to Italy’s vineyards, too. When phylloxera reduced the wine supply, counterfeit and substitute wines (some made from raisins, others adulterated with all kinds of additives) flooded the European market. They damaged the reputation of established regions and led wine consumers to shift to beer and spirits, such as Scotch whisky in England and absinthe in France. RECOVERY AFTER PHYLLOXERA

In an effort to recover its markets, the French wine industry enacted rules that became a model for wine laws in many countries in the twentieth century. The rules restricted the ingredients in wine and specified (for the first time) that it had to be made from fresh grapes. At the turn of the century, the French parliament declared wine to be a safe and healthy beverage. France also adopted Appellation d’Origine Controˆle´e laws to regulate the use of geographical names on wines. From 1908, wines could not be labeled ‘‘Champagne’’ unless they were made from grapes grown there. These laws were extended to other regions in the twentieth century and became the basis for wine laws throughout Europe. Developments in France through much of the nineteenth century are so important not only because French wine was reputed to be the best in the world (winemakers came to France from across Europe and around the world to learn techniques), but also because France made more wine than any other country. In 1828, French wine production accounted for 40 percent of world output and France’s 2 million hectares of land under vines was far greater than Italy’s 400,000 hectares, Austria’s 625,000, and Hungary’s 550,000. France was also the site of many of the technical advances in winemaking in the nineteenth century. The great French scientist Louis Pasteur devoted much of his time to research on wine, especially to understanding the process of fermentation. Ironically, the process of heating liquids to kill off bacteria (pasteurization) was used to produce unfermented grape juice that many temperance campaigners argued should replace wine in the Christian communion.

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Despite the phylloxera episode and the efforts of anti-alcohol movements, wine retained its popularity among Europeans whether they drank cheap, ordinary wine or could afford the prestigious brands. Even when regular supplies of reliable fresh water became available, and even when the medical properties of wine were called into question, consumption rates remained high in many parts of Europe, especially Italy, Spain, and France. Nonetheless, by 1900, production outpaced demand in some regions, prices fell, and some industries faced a crisis. In several French regions, producers and workers in wine-related jobs demonstrated in large numbers. Protests attracted 300,000 in Ni˚mes and 600,000 in Montpellier in 1907. In 1911, workers in Champagne destroyed hundreds of thousands of liters of Champagne during disturbances. The outbreak of war in 1914 came to the aid of the French wine industry. Although the call-up of troops in August left wineries short-handed for what would prove a bumper harvest, the grapes were picked by older men, women, and children. The wineries of Languedoc donated 20 million liters to military hospitals, and soon the government was buying vast amounts of wine for soldiers’ rations. The military wine ration was increased steadily as the war dragged on, and in 1917 French troops at the front consumed 1.2 billion liters of wine. The long nineteenth century was bracketed by political upheavals that, in the short term at least, were good for the wine industry. In the one hundred years between, the industry and the status of wine in material, cultural, and medical terms went through a series of transformations that set the stage for wine’s playing a different role in twentiethcentury European society and culture. See also Alcohol and Temperance; Diet and Nutrition; Phylloxera. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Guy, Kolleen M. When Champagne became French: Wine and the Making of a National Identity. Baltimore, 2003. Haine, W. Scott The World of the Paris Cafe´: Sociability among the French Working Class, 1789–1914. Baltimore, 1996.

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Loube`re, Leo. The Red and the White: The History of Wine in France and Italy in the Nineteenth Century. Albany, N.Y., 1978. Phillips, Rod. A Short History of Wine. New York, 2001. Prestwich, Patricia E. Drink and the Politics of Social Reform: Antialcoholism in France since 1870. Palo Alto, Calif., 1988. ROD PHILLIPS

n

WITTE, SERGEI (1849–1915), Russian politician. Sergei Yulyevich Witte was born in Tiflis, Georgia, in 1849. His father was a Baltic German who moved up Peter the Great’s Table of Ranks to become a hereditary noble. His mother was related to the ancient Dolgoruky princes; to Helena Blavatsky, a founder of theosophy; and to Rostislav Fadeyev, a leader of the Pan-Slavs. Witte shared the Pan-Slav view that the Russian autocracy united the empire’s disparate nationalities. Married twice, Witte had two adopted daughters. Following his degree in mathematics from the University of Novorossiisk, Witte entered the new field of railroading in Ukraine. He always considered railways key economic levers. His expert management of the southwestern railways and ideas on financing railways and strengthening the economy of the empire catapulted him to St. Petersburg to head the new Department of Railroad Affairs in the Ministry of Finance and then to the position of minister of finance. As minister of finance (1892–1903), Witte supervised construction of the Trans-Siberian Railroad, put Russia on the gold standard, forged tariffs with Germany that included fairly favorable conditions for Russia, encouraged foreign investment, and stimulated industrialization through government purchase of domestically produced rails and equipment at above-market prices. During his administration technical and commercial schools increased seventeenfold. Small-scale businesses continued to proliferate. Witte published on economic subjects and to supplement the ministry of finance newspaper established a commercialtrade newspaper and a scholarly economic journal. He transmuted information received from chairing

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the Special Conference on the Needs of Agricultural Industry or Rural Industry into measures for agrarian improvement. Although he used a loan from France in 1895 to finance the Chinese Eastern Railway through Manchuria, Witte opposed the Russian adventurism in Korea and Port Arthur that precipitated the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Palace intrigue resulted in Witte’s dismissal as finance minister in 1903. As chair of the Committee of Ministers (1903–1905), however, Witte supervised significant laws and proposals. One implemented an imperial decree adding corporately elected members to the State Council, a legislative body dating from the early nineteenth century, composed of appointed officials. Other proposals concerned replacing peasant communes with private farmsteads, improving the position of ethnic and religious minorities, and expanding self-government—proposals that Peter Stolypin fleshed out and strove to implement between 1906 and 1911. In September 1905 Witte participated in the peace conference in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, ending the Russo-Japanese War and achieved favorable terms for Russia. He had reservations about local, popularly elected assemblies (zemstvos) and the establishment of a parliament, but to quell the general strike that erupted in the fall of 1905, Witte urged Tsar Nicholas II to institute a popularly elected, legislative Duma to complement the State Council. As chair of the Council of Ministers (October 1905– April 1906), a quasi–prime ministerial position, Witte tried to co-opt moderate liberal opposition leaders into the government. He worked out electoral regulations for the Duma, which represented all categories of adult males, though not fully and equally. Witte was awarded the title count for arranging a 2.25 billion franc loan from French, British, Dutch, Austrian, and Russian bankers, finalized in April 1906. He simultaneously resigned as head of the government because hostile political groups dominated the First Duma and because of tension with Tsar Nicholas. Appointed to the State Council, Witte served in that upper parliamentary chamber until his death, on 13 March (28 February, old style) 1915. He opposed extension of zemstvos to the

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western provinces of the empire, on which Stolypin staked his career in 1911. Witte also opposed war with Germany, which broke out in 1914. Though not entirely due to Witte, the Russian economy was the fifth strongest in the world in the early twentieth century, with high growth rates that plunged during the 1904–1905 revolution but rebounded through 1913. See also Austria-Hungary; Nicholas II; Russia; Stolypin, Peter. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Witte, Sergei. The Memoirs of Count Witte. Translated and edited by Sidney Harcave. Armonk, N.Y., 1990.

Secondary Sources Gregory, Paul R. Before Command: An Economic History of Russia from Emancipation to the First Five-Year Plan. Princeton, N.J., 1994. Harcave, Sidney. Count Sergei Witte and the Twilight of Imperial Russia: A Biography. Armonk, N.Y., 2004. Mehlinger, Howard D., and John M. Thompson. Count Witte and the Tsarist Government in the 1905 Revolution. Bloomington, Ind., 1972. Von Laue, Theodore H. Sergei Witte and the Industrialization of Russia. New York, 1963. MARY SCHAEFFER CONROY

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WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARY (1759– 1797), radical thinker, polemicist, translator, and writer of fiction and educational and historical works. Mary Wollstonecraft was the eldest of three daughters and the second of six children born to Edward John Wollstonecraft, a silk weaver of Spitalfields, London, and Elizabeth Dixon, from Ballyshannon, Ireland. Her father’s subsequent failure as a gentleman farmer had the consequence that she spent her adult life constantly seeking independence by earning enough to support herself, her sisters, and later, her child. Her early educational works, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1786), Original Stories from Real Life (1788), and the anthology The Female Reader (1788) are fruits of her experiences as lady’s companion, mistress of a school set up

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political rights because franchise was then based on ownership of property. She advocated representation and citizenship for both men and women, including the right to useful employment for both sexes.

Mary Wollstonecraft. Engraving after the portrait by John Opie. PRIVATE COLLECTION/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

with her sisters Eliza and Everina, and as governess to the Kingsborough family at Mitchelstown near Corke in Ireland; while her first novel Mary, a Fiction (1787) is based on an intense friendship with Fanny Blood. Her London publisher Joseph Johnson also employed her to review and abstract for his Analytical Review, founded in 1788, and to translate contemporary works. Wollstonecraft’s two best known works, A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790), published anonymously in reply to Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), and Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), published under her own name, owe their genesis to a London group of Dissenter friends in Newington Green, including Dr. Richard Price (1723–1791), whom Wollstonecraft met when running the school in the area, and to Joseph Johnson’s circle—including the artist Henry Fuseli (1741– 1825) and the radical thinker Thomas Paine (1737–1809). In these two works, stimulated by discussions on the French Revolution, Wollstonecraft argued for enfranchising those who had no

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In 1792, Wollstonecraft went to France to report on the French Revolution for Johnson, which enabled her to recover from an unhappy love for Fuseli. Her observations became An Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution and the Effect It Has Produced in Europe (1794). In 1793, the year of the execution of the king of France, Louis XVI (r. 1774–1792), she began a relationship with Gilbert Imlay (c. 1754–1828), an American writer and trader, who, on the passing of the Law of Suspects (17 September 1793), registered her as his wife at the American Embassy. Wollstonecraft bore his child, Fanny, named after her friend who died in Portugal in 1785. After attempting suicide in 1795, she agreed to act as Imlay’s business associate in an attempt to gain redress for the loss of a cargo of silver reputedly lost in Scandinavia. Her Letters Written During a Short Residence in Norway, Denmark, and Sweden (1796) was the literary spin-off from intricate and difficult negotiations on Imlay’s behalf while traveling in Scandinavia with her baby daughter and maid. On her return to London, her reaction to Imlay’s repeated unfaithfulness was a second suicide attempt. Miraculously saved from drowning in the River Thames in October 1795, she lived to marry the philosopher William Godwin (1756–1836) in 1797. Wollstonecraft wrote the never-finished ‘‘Lessons’’ for her daughter Fanny and worked on a further development of her feminist ideas in the novel Maria; or, The Wrongs of Woman (published posthumously in 1798), in which she presented an acute analysis of the intricate interrelation of class, gender, and love. Wollstonecraft died of puerperal fever on 10 September 1797, eleven days after the birth of her second daughter, Mary, the future Mary Shelley (1797– 1851). The publication by Godwin of Memoirs of the Author of the Rights of Woman (1798) continued the trend of turning Wollstonecraft the celebrity into an object of censure on account of her unconventional personal life, by revealing details of her sexual history. Less than a century later,

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however, the suffragist movement found in Wollstonecraft a champion for their cause. As antidote to the appropriation of Wollstonecraft by a variety of feminist persuasions, scholarship of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries has tended to concentrate on two areas: situating Wollstonecraft within the intellectual and social parameters of the late eighteenth century and making known further details of her eventful life. Mary Poovey (1984) discusses Wollstonecraft in relation to concepts of appropriate behavior of her time, and Barbara Taylor (2003) stresses the theistic framework of her thought. Lyndall Gordon’s research on Mary Wollstonecraft’s travels in Scandinavia (2005) reveals hitherto unknown details of that hazardous and demanding journey. See also Burke, Edmund; Feminism; French Revolution; Godwin, William; Shelley, Mary. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Todd, Janet, and Marilyn Butler, eds. The Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. 7 volumes. London, 1989.

Secondary Sources Gordon, Lyndall. Mary Wollstonecraft: A New Genus. London, 2005. Poovey, Mary. The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen. Chicago, 1984. Taylor, Barbara. Mary Wollstonecraft and the Feminist Imagination. Cambridge, U.K., 2003. JENNIFER LORCH

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WORDSWORTH,

WILLIAM

(1770–

1850), British Romantic poet. William Wordsworth is so synonymous with ‘‘Romanticism’’ that the period used to be called ‘‘The Age of Wordsworth.’’ Born 7 April 1770, Wordsworth lived into the middle of the next century, when Victoria (r. 1837–1901) was Queen and Alfred Tennyson (1809–1892) and Robert Browning (1812–1889) the celebrated new poets. It is often said that Wordsworth ‘‘the poet’’ died in 1807, survived by stodgy didactic work, minor new

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verse, repackaged older work, and a belated Poet Laureateship in 1843, yet his influence was considerable. Amid the encroachments of modern life, Wordsworth provided an enduring image of the poet as disciple of ‘‘Nature’’ and representative voice of feeling, whether of quiet sentiment, troubled passion, or moral severity. No less in life than in verse, he embodied ‘‘plain living and high thinking,’’ at home in the Lake District in Northwest England, a region marked by natural beauty that he made famous. He was happy in his family life, yet often withdrew into meditation and depths of emotion. Born in the Lake District, Wordsworth was one of five children. His father was a steward for a powerful local landlord, and the poet’s boyhood was enjoyed in the market town of Cockermouth, with adventures in the nearby outdoors. The death of his mother when he was eight changed everything: his father, frequently away on business, sent William’s sister Dorothy off to relatives and the brothers to school in distant Hawkshead. Five years later, his father died, and legal wrangling prevented the estate from being settled until 1802. In 1787 Wordsworth entered St John’s College, Cambridge, to prepare for a living in the Church but Cambridge seemed an alien world to this native of the Lakelands. Vacationing in Europe in the summer of 1790, one year after the French Revolution, he caught the enchantment of millenarian hopes. He took his degree in 1791; that summer he toured Wales (climbing Mount Snowdon) and then returned to France in November 1791. Wordsworth was at once excited and troubled by the new politics of France. He found love with Annette Vallon, who bore their daughter, Caroline, in December 1792. But by then, depleted funds and a looming Terror had forced Wordsworth home, and, because of the ensuing war between England and France, it was not until 1802 (the Peace of Amiens) that he would see Annette and Caroline, just once more, prior to marrying a childhood sweetheart, Mary Hutchinson. Across the turmoil of the 1790s Wordsworth grew ‘‘Sick, wearied out with contrarieties,’’ and relinquished ‘‘moral questions in despair’’ (Prelude 10.900–01). The record of Wordsworth’s activities from 1792 to 1795 is obscure. He may have

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become involved with radical politics at home and may have ventured to France. In 1795 a legacy of £900 enabled him to devote himself to poetry and reunite with his sister Dorothy (1771–1855), who was always to be his encourager, companion, scribe, and housekeeper. A new friend, the poet and journalist Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772– 1834), inspired Wordsworth with a fresh sense of mission and power. In 1797, he and Dorothy moved to Somerset to be near Coleridge, and the poets were soon collaborating on Lyrical Ballads. Regarded today as a landmark of Romanticism, this volume was published anonymously in 1798 to mixed reviews. When local political anxieties put the group under suspicion, the Wordsworths’ lease was not renewed, and the trio decided to go to Germany for winter, to soak up the language, culture, and philosophy. With more financial resources, Coleridge enjoyed the university towns, while the Wordsworths spent a miserable winter in the remote village of Goslar. It was here that Wordsworth drafted new poems for Lyrical Ballads and his first fragments of autobiography. Coleridge was urging him to write a major philosophical epic, and could abide the autobiographical turn only as preparatory, but for Wordsworth ‘‘the story of my life’’ (1.668) would become compelling epic in its own right. Returning to the Lake District in late 1799, the Wordsworths settled in Grasmere, their home for the rest of their lives. In 1800 a two-volume Lyrical Ballads, now signed as Wordsworth’s, appeared with a controversial Preface declaring such principles as inspiration from ‘‘emotion recollected in tranquillity,’’ the equation of ‘‘all good poetry’’ with ‘‘the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings,’’ and the tuning of poetic language to ordinary conversation, rooted in ‘‘nature’’ and ‘‘rural society.’’ This manifesto was in part an exercise in mythmaking; but it also marked, said the critic William Hazlitt (1778–1830) in retrospect, ‘‘a new style and a new spirit.’’ It set the terms of Wordsworth’s fame, even as it focused the charges of his critics for decades on. The steadily expanding household finally settled at Rydal Mount in 1813, when Wordsworth received a patronage position from the Tory government. The decade prior had been pained by several losses: his brother John, a sea captain, perished in a shipwreck in 1805; two of his and

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Mary’s five children died in 1812; and by 1810 Coleridge’s opium addiction and truancy from his own family led to strains in his relationship with Wordsworth. This resulted in a bitter alienation that was not mended until the late 1820s. Leading reviewers ridiculed Poems in Two Volumes (1807), and would be no kinder to The Excursion (1814), a nine-book epic ‘‘On Man, On Nature, and On Human Life.’’ Yet the attention, and the advent of a collected Poems (in which the poems were arranged by conceptual category rather than by date) in 1815, confirmed Wordsworth’s fame and importance, and he continued to write and publish in every decade of his long life. During this life, The Excursion was regarded as his major work. The story of a ruined cottage in its first book was widely admired, and overall Wordsworth was prized for poems filled with pathos, such as ‘‘Michael’’ and ‘‘The Brothers’’ (in which, as he said in his Preface to Lyrical Ballads, the feeling gives importance to the action and situation); odes of crisis and troubled consolation, such as ‘‘Tintern Abbey’’ and ‘‘Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood’’; and a wealth of exquisite sonnets, songs, and lyrics (‘‘The Solitary Reaper’’ was among the most famous). Victorians revered the poet whose love of ‘‘Nature’’ could heal their ‘‘iron age,’’ whose images of childhood and youth evoked simple joys, whose mature poetry gave unembarrassed voice to feeling. The poet John Keats (1795–1821) preferred the ‘‘dark passages’’ and ‘‘the burden of the mystery’’—the poetry also of most interest to twentieth-century readers, for whom The Prelude (that preparatory autobiography) is the recognized major work. Just weeks after Wordsworth’s death, this fourteenbook epic, composed across fifty years, appeared in print. Prelude it was: another version completed in 1805 was published in 1926, and then, further into the twentieth century, a two-book version from 1798–1799, and a five-book version from 1804. In this array of narrative forms and ceaseless revisions, of multiple selves, of writing reflexively as a poet about becoming a poet, The Prelude seems a venture of prescient modernism, but it also endures as a vivid imaginative reckoning with a life animated by the contradictory currents of its age. See also Coleridge, Samuel Taylor; Great Britain; Romanticism; Shelley, Percy Bysshe.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources The Poetical Works of William Wordsworth, ed. Ernest de Selincourt, revised by Helen Darbishire. Oxford, U.K., 1949–1959. Wordsworth, William. Poems. Edited by John O. Hayden. Harmondsworth, U.K., 1977. ———. The Prelude, 1798, 1805, 1850: Authoritative Texts, Context and Reception; Recent critical essays. Edited by Jonathan Wordsworth, M. H. Abrams, and Stephen Gill. New York, 1979. ———. The Prose Works of William Wordsworth. Edited by W. J. B. Owen and Jane Worthington Smyser. Oxford, U.K., 1974. Wordsworth, William, and Dorothy Wordsworth. The Letters of William and Dorothy Wordsworth. Edited and arranged by Ernest de Selincourt and revised by Chester L. Shaver, Mary Moorman, and Alan G. Hill. Oxford, U.K., 1967–1993.

Secondary Sources Chandler, James K. Wordsworth’s Second Nature: A Study of the Poetry and Politics. Chicago, 1981. Ferguson, Frances. Wordsworth: Language as CounterSpirit. New Haven, Conn., 1977. Ferry, David. The Limits of Mortality: An Essay on Wordsworth’s Major Poems. Middletown, Conn., 1959. Gill, Stephen. William Wordsworth: A Life. Oxford, U.K. and New York, 1989. Johnston, Kenneth R.. The Hidden Wordsworth: Poet, Lover, Spy. New York, 1998. Jones, John. The Egotistical Sublime: A History of Wordsworth’s Imagination. London, 1954. Mahoney, John L. William Wordsworth: A Poetic Life. New York, 1997. Onorato, Richard J. The Character of the Poet: Wordsworth in ‘‘The Prelude.’’ Princeton, N.J., 1971. Wolfson, Susan J. The Questioning Presence: Wordsworth, Keats, and the Interrogative Mode in Romantic Poetry. Ithaca, N.Y., 1987. Wordsworth, Jonathan. William Wordsworth: The Borders of Vision. Oxford, U.K., 1982. SUSAN J. WOLFSON

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challenges to its hegemony. The invention of this terminology in approximately 1830 cannot be explained simply by the structural social changes generated by industrialization. Eighteenth-century Britain already had wage laborers in artisanal trades, protoindustry, agriculture, and new factories. They engaged in strikes, grain and anti-enclosure riots, and machine breaking—struggles underpinned by craft and community solidarity and justified as defense of a moral economy against emerging freemarket practices. But the participants in these class conflicts before the emergence of a working class were called, variously, the crowd, the mob, or the people. Crucial changes in vocabulary emerged from the French Revolution. The bourgeoisie denounced ‘‘idle, parasitic’’ aristocrats and proclaimed its own virtues: industry, productivity, rationality, and moderation. British advocates of parliamentary reform eulogized the disenfranchised middle class of expanding industrial towns, claiming for them similar qualities. The rhetoric of liberty, equality, and fraternity and the rights of man was sufficiently inclusive to arouse popular support. However, both the Revolution of 1830 in France and the Reform Act of 1832 in Britain excluded workers from enlarged franchises. Outraged by this betrayal, politicized workers appropriated aspects of bourgeois discourse. They asked whether workers were not the truly productive class. A new terminology was born, generating mobilizing myths that were capable of providing a sense of identity for disparate groups and constructing a sociopolitical constituency. Soon contributions from Lyon silk weavers to a Saint Etienne miners’ strike funds included messages of solidarity to ‘‘fellow members of the working class (la classe ouvrie`re).’’ THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CLASS IDENTITY

Older usages persisted, however. In England, Chartist rhetoric still used the tropes of eighteenth-century radicals’ denunciation of aristocratic ‘‘Old Corruption.’’ Workers responded to narratives of ‘‘the people’’ promulgated by English Gladstonian liberals or French republicans. Yet workers proved adept at appropriating bourgeois discourses on property, domesticity, and family values for their own (class) purposes. Spitalfields silk weavers defended their threatened jobs by citing their rights to ‘‘property in labour’’ and insisted on male workers’ need for a ‘‘family wage’’

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to support their wives and children. Hence the concept of the working class emerged as a result of changing self-awareness, marked by a sharp linguistic shift. Stories told by individuals and groups about themselves nurtured class consciousness. Most of the hundreds of nineteenth-century worker autobiographers used class as the central category for their interpreting life experiences, viewing the world through the prism of class differences. These were not typical workers. Most workers with the literacy and inclination to write were male and skilled and they valued education not because it would bring them social promotion but for the self-emancipation it offered, and for its use in the emancipation of what they considered their class. Their fascination with ideas led some of them to be dismissed as eccentrics by their workmates. Some were scathing about the fecklessness, lack of intellectual curiosity, and brutality of some fellow workers. Although some made contacts with bourgeois liberals, most rejected liberalism. Marginal to their own class, they were acutely aware of nuances of class distinctions. Some were what Antonio Gramsci later called organic intellectuals—still close to their own class yet aware of broad issues and active in constructing a plebeian public sphere. Crucially, the stories they told about themselves shaped a working-class identity by imposing coherent narratives on the flux of complex social realities. These—secular versions of Christian conversion stories—emphasized how early poverty, exploitation, and humiliations were transformed once reading opened their eyes to the system of capitalist exploitation. They metamorphosed from victims into agents. Their duty was to educate their fellow workers who, once aware of their situation, could build a better society. Whereas the United States constructed narratives of individual upward mobility that might be possible for ambitious immigrants, Europe produced narratives of class salvation via collective struggle. These autobiographers also reminded readers of both the history and myths of workers’ struggles. One prerequisite for a critical, counterhegemonic view of the world, critical of dominant bourgeois identity, was consciousness of who one was, rooted in a sense of where one had come from.

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CLASS AND SOLIDARITY

By 1914 the working class had become a sociopolitical actor. Karl Marx’s goal, ‘‘the constitution of the working class into a political party,’’ appeared achievable. Germany’s Social Democratic Party (SPD), with one million members, secured 34 percent of the vote. Trade unions, once confined to craft elites, were becoming centralized, industrial, mass organizations. Britain and Germany each had four million union members by 1914. France regularly experienced over a thousand strikes per year, five times the 1880s average. Strike rituals—street demonstrations, appeals for worker solidarity—became part of everyday experience in industrial Europe. Whereas elites once feared disorder and disease from what they considered to be criminal and dangerous classes, now they devised strategies to counter challenges from organized labor, including electoral concessions, welfare and municipal reforms, and social imperialism. Widespread structural proletarianization underlay these developments. But one cannot simply assume levels of working-class consciousness or mobilization from the processes of industrialization. Marx had explained the defeat of the revolutions of 1848 by arguing that, outside of Britain and parts of France and Germany, Europe’s proletariat remained small and immature. The success of future revolutions required industrialization. Subsequent trends partly confirmed Marx’s predictions of a polarization between capital and labor. Some homogenization of labor occurred. Artisanal trades declined and casual and migrant workers were recruited into semiskilled jobs in large mechanized factories, mines, steel works, and on railways. However, no monolithic trend emerged, rather development was combined and uneven. Everywhere, the heavy industry of the Second Industrial Revolution coexisted in symbiotic relationship with dispersed, archaic sectors, and relied on pools of migrant or protoindustrial labor. Despite Germany’s spectacular industrial development—coal and heavy engineering, chemicals and railways—28 percent of its labor force remained agricultural in 1900; substantial artisanal and protoindustrial sectors remained (Solingen cutlery; Saxon textiles). France remained 60 percent rural, with peasant proprietors and sharecroppers outnumbering agricultural laborers. Northern coalfields, Lorraine steel, and heavy engineering in Parisian and Lyonnais banlieues (suburbs) coexisted

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with small, high-quality artisanal production. Twothirds of Italy’s industrial workers were in the Milan/Turin/Genoa triangle. Spain’s industries (Asturias coal; Bilbao steel and shipyards; Catalan textiles and engineering) were islands in a rural sea. After the emancipation of the serfs in the 1860s, tsarist Russia’s state-sponsored industrialization quintupled the industrial workforce, to three million, between 1890 and 1914. But alongside St. Petersburg’s large engineering plants, Moscow textile factories, and Donbas coal mines, a huge peasantry remained. The proletariat exceeded 50 percent of the population only in Britain. Yet there, as in France and Germany, many new workers were white-collar employees (bank clerks, shop assistants) whose identification with blue-collar proletarians was problematic. Such structural developments engendered changes in family patterns and communities. Artisans’ children, who once married largely within their craft communities, now chose marriage partners from a wider working-class background. Wage differentials between British skilled and unskilled occupations narrowed steadily. Upward mobility remained rare: 90 percent of British manual workers’ sons themselves did manual jobs. Hereditary working-class communities emerged—later idealized for their neighborly values, which contrasted with bourgeois individualism and the crass commercialism of an emerging mass consumer culture. The Paris Commune of 1871 was underpinned by community solidarities of popular faubourgs (suburbs) after Georges-Euge`ne Haussmann’s large-scale urban renewal projects threw together displaced innercity artisans and recent migrants. But no single, model working-class community existed. Metallurgical workers might live in single-industry company towns, such as the Schneider family’s Le Creusot, run by one paternalist employer, or in industrial cities such as Du¨sseldorf. Large cities provided workers with a range of potential industries and employers, and wider possibilities of relations with other social groups. Yet there was often little contact between the older Parisian faubourgs and the industrial banlieues that emerged around the city’s periphery. Lifestyles, cultures, and experiences inevitably differed widely between these and other types of community. Marx assumed that industrial concentration, by drawing

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workers together and creating shared experiences and grievances, would nurture class consciousness and organization. ‘‘Class-in-itself’’ would emerge naturally from ‘‘class-for-itself.’’ However no simple correlation existed between levels of industrialization and worker militancy. Some workers in dispersed sectors proved more militant than others in what Marx considered more advanced sectors. Agricultural laborers, who were widely assumed to be deferential, supported anarchosyndicalist strikes in Apulia and the Po Valley in Italy, Andalusia in Spain, or the lower Languedoc vineyards in France. Half of unionized Italian workers in 1914 were in the Agricultural Workers’ Federation (Federterra). The proletarianized peasants of southwest Russia were prominent in the Revolution of 1905. The Captain Swing revolt of rural workers in southern England in the early 1830s suggested that even ‘‘Hodge’’—the stereotypical deferential, cowed English laborer—might resort to machine breaking and cattle maiming. Protoindustrial textile workers—favored by capitalists as a cheap, dispersed, and quiescent labor force—organized strikes in Dauphine´, France, and northern Italy in the 1890s. Marxists were suspicious of what they considered to be backward rural migrants to the city, whom they stereotyped as prone to drink and violence. Yet in late tsarist Russia, many such immigrants were radicalized by ongoing social conflict in their native villages, where some owned plots of land, and by their capacity to recreate the solidarities of the village commune (mir) in their urban neighborhoods. Cross-national comparisons bring into question any rigid occupational determinism. Skilled engineering workers provided the backbone of the Marxist Social Democratic Party in Germany as well as key Bolshevik cadres in St. Petersburg, Russia. In Paris in 1900s, they supported syndicalist strikes against ‘‘scientific management,’’ which threatened their shop-floor autonomy. Yet the Victorian labor movement’s reformism has been ascribed to the moderation of a relatively privileged labor aristocracy—including engineers, whose union proved keen to exclude the unskilled and avoid strikes by bargaining with employers. Yet occupational groups were strongly marked by the nature of their jobs. Dockers were low-skilled,

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Working men’s bar, Paris. Illustration by Steinlen from the French satirical journal Gil Blas, 11 August 1895. The illustrator emphasizes the grim faces of the patrons. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY

low-status workers operating in casual labor markets within tough waterfront cultures (Barcelona, Marseille, Hamburg). Their levels of unionization were erratic, and their strikes marked by violence against strikebreakers. By contrast, printers were natural labor aristocrats—literate, self-taught worker-intellectuals, and among the first to unionize. Even Russian printers were moderates—requesting respect from employers and the state; they were pushed reluctantly toward menshevism only by tsarist brutality. Miners’ politics varied widely with location and with the national political culture but the shared dangers of mining created intense workplace solidarity, reinforced by the strong community identities of isolated pit villages. RADICAL ARTISANS AND INDUSTRIAL WORKERS

Radical artisans dominated the early labor movements. Paris was Europe’s revolutionary capital. The thousands killed or arrested during the Paris Commune of 1871, which Marx called the first

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example of the working class in power, were tailors, shoemakers, building craftsmen, and furniture makers—an occupational profile strikingly similar to that of the sans-culotte activists of 1793. In Britain the factory system came earlier than in France. Northern mill workers were active in Chartist agitation and strikes in the 1830s. But skilled workers—handloom weavers, London craftsmen, and Sheffield cutlers—were central to early labor protest. Militancy among France’s emerging industrial proletariat was sporadic and unorganized. Many miners and forge workers lived in tightly controlled, isolated, paternalist company towns such as Decazeville. Textile mill workers were often women and children—unskilled, new to industrial work, lacking organizational traditions. The notorious slums of Lille engendered more drunken despair than they did organized protest. France relied on artisanal skills for high-quality goods— silks, porcelain, fashions, and furniture—for niche markets. But the skilled trades faced varied threats. Less skilled, sometimes rural, labor was employed to do simpler, subdivided tasks. Apprenticeship training deteriorated. The chances of journeymen becoming small masters declined. Trades came to be dominated by merchants, who put out raw materials and orders and controlled credit. Nevertheless, artisans possessed the resources to resist. Their skills were still required in up-market sectors. High literacy sustained a radical artisan press. Craft-dominated neighborhoods (the silk weavers’ Croix- Rousse in Lyon; Faubourg Saint Antoine in Paris) had community solidarity, mutual aid, and cooperative schemes. Journeymen and small masters, united by their hatred of big merchants, often drank and sang together in cafe´s or goguettes (popular singing societies). They drew on traditions of artisanal organization, such as that of the compagnonnages, associations that aided ‘‘tramping’’ journeymen, which had roots in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Where once artisans dreamed of a republic of small, independent producers, the inexorable advance of capitalism pushed them toward collective solutions. In 1848 French artisans hoped that an associationist republic—one sympathetic to their cooperative aspirations— would establish banks offering cheap credit and put out orders to producer cooperatives, which had fifty thousand members in Paris alone.

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However, before one accepts that labor movements originated in the work-based culture and grievances of artisans, question need to be raised. Were French artisans militant less because of occupational grievances—which were present in other industrializing societies—than because their political aspirations were raised in the decades after the revolution by contact with neo-Jacobin republicans? Was the craft-proud radical artisan a myth constructed by radical journalists, some of them former artisans—an image designed to counter bourgeois stereotypes about the drunken, brutal dangerous classes? Artisans in relatively secure trades (for example, carpenters) proved less militant than shoemakers and tailors, many of whom wished to escape from trades degraded by the practice of sweating, which forced them to work ever-longer hours performing increasingly subdivided tasks for inexorably declining wages. Were artisans less precursors of later proletarian activists than reactionary radicals, their desperate rearguard actions fueled by awareness that the industrial juggernaut would overwhelm their culture and communities? Factory proletarians, by contrast, could envisage no alternative to the new industrial system on which their jobs depended. They took time to develop the solidarity required for effective class mobilization. Hence the gap in popular protest—in Britain after 1850, in France after 1870—as artisan radicalism faded and before new proletarian militancy surfaced. Multiple frictions existed within the artisanal world. Pressures on specific trades could lead to conflicts between journeymen and masters, as happened in Germany, where masters’ guilds persisted. Generational tensions also existed. In Paris in 1848, older journeymen fought on the barricades but younger workers were recruited into the Garde Mobile (Mobile Guard) to fight for order. Journeymen’s compagnonnages had a heritage of internecine, ritualized violence and job competition that could obstruct trade union solidarity. But the major myopia of artisan culture was the issue of gender. GENDER

The construction of the working class was always gendered. Although some utopian socialists did support women’s rights and employment opportunities, Chartism championed male suffrage. Miso-

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gynistic artisanal spokesmen portrayed ‘‘cheap and docile’’ female workers as the primary threat to their jobs and skills. Textile mills, which destroyed the handloom weavers’ livelihoods, employed mainly female and child labor. Seamstresses replaced male tailors. Friedrich Engels depicted the ‘‘unsexing’’ of Manchester workers, whose patriarchal power ebbed away when their wives and daughters worked in the mills while the men performed domestic chores. Their status was bound up with the independence derived from what they considered honorable labor and property in skill. British trade unionists campaigned for votes for ‘‘heads of families’’ and for a family wage. Capitalist exploitation of female labor was considered an evil, exposing women to physical degradation and sexual harassment, depriving workers’ homes of women’s domestic skills. Trade unionists welcomed protective legislation, hoping that restrictions on the hours women could work would disqualify them from key jobs. Labor movement iconography depicting brawny steelworkers and miners reflected the male domination of key Second Industrial Revolution industries. Yet the ideal of the wife remaining at home was attainable only for skilled workers. Women constituted a high proportion of the labor force—over 35 percent in France, where many married as well as single women worked. Yet women’s work was imagined as marginal and supplementary, even for single women. With rare exceptions, as for example in tobacco factories, women’s jobs were viewed as unskilled. Many worked in deplorable conditions in the sweated domestic trades, beyond the reach of factory inspectors or unions. Unsurprisingly, women rarely expressed a strong sense of identity with their jobs. By 1900 the SPD was arguing in principle for women’s equality as workers and citizens while denouncing ‘‘bourgeois feminism’’ and insisting that female oppression was a product of capitalism and could be abolished only after the revolution. Marxist textile unions in Germany and northern France recruited female workers, but their male leaders marginalized women’s specific demands to focus on men, who were able to vote. Women’s proportion of French union membership doubled to 10 percent between 1900 and 1914, but the printers’ craft union fought rearguard actions

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their municipal socialism aroused women’s interest, since it offered the possibility of child care, health clinics, and similar services. Despite this, when women were enfranchised in parts of Europe after 1918 many proved reluctant to vote for workers’ parties, which they perceived as male dominated and insensitive to women’s concerns. THE LEFT AND THE RIGHT

Labor movements sought to construct a cohesive working class that would act as a class by shaping disorderly social realities into a coherent narrative. But prioritizing the story of certain types of workers risked ignoring or alienating others. Workers—as postmodernists emphasize—had a variety of potential identities. Class, which was constructed in the workplace, was but one. The European right wing’s strength in the era of mass politics lay both in its appeal to popular strata— peasants, the petty-bourgeoisie, white-collar workers—who were alienated by the proletarian discourse of socialism and in its appeal to elements of a working class fragmented along lines of religion, nationality, and ethnicity.

Wigan colliery workers, Lancashire, England. Postcard photograph c. 1890. The young women pictured here were employed as surface workers, whose job was to move and sort the coal. The growing need for coal throughout Europe in the nineteenth century created many jobs, but the work was extremely hazardous and accidents claiming hundreds of lives were common. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY

against admitting them. Yet working-class women were active in protests outside the sphere of organized labor. They had long participated in food riots. Miners’ wives policed pit villages during strikes, harassing and shaming strikebreakers. In Italy and southern French vineyards, women on picket lines dared troops to shoot the ‘‘weaker sex.’’ Women’s networks underpinned neighborhood solidarity, organizing tenant protests against landlords and providing abortion advice. As leftwing parties began to win control of some town councils in Britain, France, and Italy by the 1890s,

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There was no necessary incompatibility between being a devout Christian and a class-conscious worker. The Christian socialism of Britain’s Independent Labour Party was rooted, like popular liberalism, in the nonconformist chapels of northern England. Images of Christ the carpenter adorned the walls of French producer cooperatives in 1848. However, Catholicism’s ties to the right wing meant that the French labor movement was stronger where workers were recruited from anticlerical rural regions—the Limousin, the Centre—than from clerical bastions such as Brittany. Catholic workers were alienated by the Left’s militant anticlericalism. In 1871 the Paris Commune executed clerical hostages. Churches were burned during Barcelona’s semana tra´gica, the ‘‘tragic week’’ in 1909 during which a popular insurrection took over the city. Spanish anarchism tapped the fury of a religious people outraged by the clergy’s alliance with the rich. Obreros conscientes (self-educated ‘‘conscious workers’’), spreading the anarchist gospel to wretched landless laborers of Andalusian latifundia, preached of a millennium of social justice once the countryside was purged of taxmen, landowners, the Civil Guard, and priests. Catholic workers in devout

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regions such as Galicia and New Castile supported the right wing. The gulf between anticlerical male workers and their devout womenfolk was a feature of Latin Europe, fueling the men’s suspicions that women’s irrational superstition made them unfit for socialism. German socialism recruited among lapsed Protestants. Catholic workers in the Rhineland and Ruhr often supported the Center Party and Catholic unions. Religious and ethnic tensions overlapped. Flemish migrants in northeastern French textile towns were criticized by French workers for their clericalism as well as for being strikebreakers. The Catholicism of Liverpool’s Irish immigrants provoked a Tory vote among native Protestant workers. Ruhr trade union leaders oscillated between criticizing Polish miners for their docility and clericalism and lamenting their propensity for ill-disciplined wildcat strikes. French steel magnates in Lorraine exploited the cheap labor of Italian immigrants—who lacked the vote—while simultaneously playing on the xenophobia of French workers, who monopolized the skilled jobs, received company housing and voted for the radical Right in the 1890s. Jewish artisans in Paris’s Marais district or London’s East End were the targets of populist anti-Semitism. In a Europe of economic rivalries and social Darwinism, workers were not immune to the lure of social imperialism. Elites had long exhibited what might be called class racism, viewing workers as a dark, inferior species—criminal and dangerous classes, who were diagnosed in quasi-biological terms and categorized by emerging criminology as pathologically degenerate. Eugenicists debated restricting the breeding of the poor in the East End slums of outcast London. But welfare legislation was introduced to improve the imperial ‘‘racial stock’’ and workers were re-classified as white. Birmingham workers voted for Tory municipal reformer Joseph Chamberlain, who argued that imperial protection guaranteed the export markets on which jobs depended. On the eve of 1914, mass demonstrations denounced South African mine owners for opening skilled jobs to black workers. REFORMIST AND REVOLUTIONARY LABOR MOVEMENTS

However, socialist parties were built, and they countered the power of organized capitalism,

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including cartels and employers’ associations. The German model—a mass party affiliated to industrial unions—set the pattern for northern and central Europe, achieving 40 percent electoral support in Finland and 25 percent in Austria, despite growing tensions between German and nationally conscious Czech workers. However, no two societies had identical experiences of class formation and mobilization. The peculiarities of each labor movement reflected historical experiences, culture, the nature of the particular state, employer strategies, and the ideologies available to workers. A plausible—if banal—generalization is that liberal states engendered reformist labor movements and authoritarian regimes engendered radical or revolutionary labor movements. This latter was clearly true of tsarist autocracy. Unions were illegal in Russia, political protest was clandestine, and troop massacres of workers’ demonstrations (Bloody Sunday in 1905; the Lena goldfields shootings in 1912) eroded residual popular loyalty to the tsar. Pragmatic reformism was impossible. While populists placed their hopes in the huge, discontented peasantry, Marxists targeted the small but rapidly growing urban proletariat, particularly St. Petersburg’s skilled metalworkers. Yet it is difficult to locate Russian protest in any specific section of the working class, for it involved broad strata of the people. The urban population’s ties to village Russia made it difficult to disentangle worker and peasant grievances. Workers’ attitudes toward the revolutionary intelligentsia were ambivalent; gratitude was tinged with resentment at their claims that only intellectuals could bring full class consciousness to the workers and channel spontaneous protest into coherent strategies. The liberal British model was very different. The first industrial nation eliminated its peasantry before 1800. By 1900, it was 80 percent urban. It had a parliamentary tradition. The franchise was gradually extended to broad strata of the working class. The early Industrial Revolution had been a bleak age, marked by appalling slum and factory conditions, periodic mass unemployment, and stagnant real wages. But during the mid-Victorian economic boom, wages rose and employers accepted negotiation with unions, which had been legal since the 1820s. Many trade unionists

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supported the Liberal Party of Prime Minister William Gladstone, perceived as sympathetic to workers’ democratic interests. Popular politics and labor relations became harsher in the Great Depression of 1873–1896. Rising unemployment and employer intransigence challenged illusions of ongoing progress under capitalism. Eventually the Labour Party (1900) emerged because of worker alarm at legal threats to union rights. But the party, which was designed for the pragmatic defense of trade union interests, not to build socialism, attracted only 7 percent of the vote. The British paradox is, thus, that the world’s first and largest proletariat produced a small, nonsocialist, workers’ party. A dense working-class culture did exist, a distinctive lifestyle identifiable by the 1870s that persisted into the 1950s. This was a world of flat caps, fish and chips, Saturday afternoon soccer, seaside rail excursions, hobbies, and allotment gardens. Its communal and collective values were incarnated in friendly societies (consumer cooperatives with millions of members) and unions. Yet it was an introverted culture, more fatalistic and consolatory than radical, exhibiting little aspiration to challenge bourgeois hegemony. Valuing the liberties guaranteed by the state, including the freedom to bargain collectively, it otherwise wished to be left alone. Monarchy was widely accepted as symbolic of British fair play and a regime that rarely used troops against strikers. Socialism revived after 1880 but found difficulty in penetrating this culture. In Germany, certain factors encouraged a similar integration of labor into the national political scene. Universal male suffrage came relatively early (1870), as did welfare legislation (the 1880s), which was introduced to woo workers from socialism. Real wages rose gradually. Workers could take patriotic pride in Germany’s burgeoning industrial strength, and many were employed in defense industries. However if the labor movement’s daily practice was pragmatic, the SPD’s official ideology was Marxist. Its revolutionary stance was a response to the more authoritarian face of the Reich. Real power lay with the Junkers, army, and bureaucracy, not with a largely impotent Reichstag. The regime treated labor as enemies of the Reich. Three-tier local suffrage systems kept the left from municipal power. Antiunion laws (1878–1890) and intransigent heavy industrialists hindered the development of collective

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Caney the Clown. Photograph from Street Life in London, 1878, by John Thomson and Adolphe Smith. Like other photographic surveys of the period, Thomson and Smith’s work was intended to draw attention to the problems encountered by the poor and working classes. The text accompanying this photograph describes the difficult life of ‘‘Caney,’’ who had been a successful comedic performer until injury forced his retirement. He subsequently supported himself by performing minor repairs for households in the neighborhood of Drury Lane. MARY EVANS PICTURE LIBRARY

bargaining and reformist unionism. Heavy indirect taxation penalized working-class consumers and funded armaments programs. By 1914 labor reformists and radicals were evenly balanced, the latter insisting that hopes of gradual democratization of the Reich were illusory. Socialism in Germany emerged in the 1870s alongside an emerging working-class culture and before unions were free to organize. It sought to mold working-class life, nurturing an unparalleled alternative culture of libraries, choral and theater groups, and sports clubs. Ninety-five socialist papers sold 1.5 million copies daily. The ideological impact of this remains unclear. Perhaps workers borrowed escapist novels from party libraries rather than Marxist tracts. An emphasis on the classic

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German musical and literary repertoire may have encouraged bourgeoisification of the tastes of respectable elements of the working class. Fears of jeopardizing this associational infrastructure may have made party officials reluctant to undertake open resistance to the Reich. Meanwhile, millions of workers outside this subculture, including rough elements of the working class, remained vulnerable to the lure of official patriotic propaganda and of an emerging mass commercial culture. Reformist strands in French working-class culture were encouraged by the democratic Third Republic. Since the Revolution, labor activists had collaborated with radical republican lawyers and doctors who had flirted with associationist socialist rhetoric. Trade unions were belatedly legalized (1884). The republic sought to normalize industrial relations through arbitration procedures, encouraging reformist trends in the miners’ unions through state enforcement of pit safety. Republican secular education appealed to working-class anticlericalism and fed their republican patriotism. Workers’ autobiographies spoke affectionately of dedicated republican schoolteachers. Yet the republican/revolutionary tradition was deeply ambiguous. Workers felt betrayed by failures to implement the revolution’s egalitarian promises by establishing a social republic. It was republicans who suppressed the Paris Commune in 1871 and still used troops to shoot strikers in major incidents (1891, 1900, 1908). Intransigent employers, reluctant to accept collective bargaining, used company paternalism or scientific management to deny unions shop-floor influence. Welfare was introduced later in France than in Germany and was less extensive. A revolutionary legacy of popular direct action inspired syndicalists, who dominated the Confe´de´ration Ge´ne´rale du Travail (CGT) union confederation in the 1900s. Syndicalism’s emphasis on worker control appealed to craftsmen and skilled workers, who had once supported producer cooperatives. But it attracted unskilled laborers, dock workers, vineyard laborers, and dissident miners and rail workers critical of their unions’ reformism. Bourses du Travail, where workers from various occupations met, coordinated regional strike strategies. The French labor movement was notoriously fragmented. Despite the foundation of a single Socialist Party in 1906, squabbling between reformist, Marxist, and quasi-syndicalist

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factions persisted. French socialist voting (16 percent) and union membership (10 percent) were below the levels in much of Europe. Yet levels of strike militancy and direct action were high. After 1900, under Giovanni Giolitti, oligarchic Italian liberalism sought to integrate an emerging working class and woo reformist socialists by extending the franchise (1912) and introducing modest welfare measures and industrial relations reforms. But popular national identity remained weak in a peninsula fragmented by linguistic and regional diversities. Po Valley and Apulian landowners, suspicious of Giolitti’s conciliatory strategy, hired gunmen to break strikes. Troops were also used against strikers, although fewer proletarian massacres took place than had happened in the 1890s. Maximalist socialists, who indulged in revolutionary rhetoric, and syndicalists were influential, particularly outside the northern industrial towns, whose workers were the principal beneficiaries of Giolitti’s policies. Camera del lavoro, drawing together both skilled and unskilled workers from a variety of occupations, sustained a radical subversive culture (souversismo) that was at odds with the cautious reformism of the Socialist Party and the union confederation leaderships. DIVERSITY AND CHANGE

The European working class was too diverse to embrace any single strategy or ideology. Many patriotic, religious, deferential, or female workers were beyond the reach of organized labor, although some joined Catholic, company, or other unions. Much worker protest was unorganized. Despite integrationist governmental strategies and rising real wages in western, northern, and central Europe, the scale of labor unrest in the decade before 1914 suggests widespread—although diverse and uncoordinated—frustration and anger. Even Britain experienced quasi-syndicalist strike waves from 1911 through 1914, with miners, rail workers, and dock workers expressing dissatisfaction with union bureaucracies and Labour Party reformism. Syndicalist aspirations for job control, dismissed as archaic by centralized industrial unions, still resonated with craft workers such as the Solingen cutlers in Germany. From Paris to St. Petersburg, skilled workers, faced with the tough work discipline imposed by scientific man-

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agement, which eroded shop-floor autonomy, responded with small-scale acts of everyday protest—mocking foremen, slowing down their work, sabotaging, and pilfering. In the rapidly expanding Ruhr mining towns of Germany, with low levels of union organization, workers clashed violently with management and police. Labor organizers struggled to contain what they considered the less respectable forms of worker protest. SPD leaders were delighted by a massive Hamburg suffrage reform demonstration in 1905 but blamed lumpen, criminal elements from the docks for subsequent looting and clashes with the police. The disintegration of labor movement and of working-class communities in late-twentieth- and early-twenty-first-century Europe has prompted skepticism about working-class agency in earlier periods. Postmodernism’s emphasis on multiple, flexible identities questions the primacy of work-based identities. It has become difficult to envisage a world where millions of people proclaimed themselves working class and proud of it and saw themselves as the salt, not the scum, of the earth. It is true that many workers’ allegiance to labor movements was conditional, pragmatic, and instrumental. No working class is ever definitively made. Capitalism endlessly undermines communities, establishing new industries in fresh locations where workers struggle to establish new solidarities. Doubtless, workers’ grasp of socialist theories was sketchy. Yet many workers did believe that history was on their side. The reports of police spies who listened to Hamburg workers’ conversations in bars suggested that many ordinary workers had internalized the SPD’s vision of the world. Outside of the repressive regimes of eastern and southern Europe, labor movements had benefited from the liberal constitutional systems established after the 1860s. But, as European liberalism proved reluctant to adapt to mass politics, it was workers’ movements that carried progressive hopes for a future world of social justice. Perhaps the march to war in August 1914 suggests that in the last resort patriotism trumped class identity and internationalist class solidarity. Yet many French workers imagined that they were defending their republican homeland against reactionary Kaiserism, just as German workers believed they were defending their hard-won gains against repressive tsarism.

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Many such workers, and their counterparts across Europe, participated in the massive labor unrest of 1917 through 1921, which swept away three empires. See also Chartism; Class and Social Relations; Cooperative Movements; Engels, Friedrich; Industrial Revolution, Second; Labor Movements; Marx, Karl; Peasants; Socialism; Syndicalism; Utopian Socialism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bell, Donald H. Sesto San Giovanni: Workers, Culture, and Politics in an Italian Town, 1880–1922. New Brunswick, N.J., 1986. Berger, Stefan, and Angel Smith, eds. Nationalism, Labour, and Ethnicity: 1870–1939. Manchester, U.K., 1999. Berlanstein, Lenard, ed. Re-Thinking Labor History: Essays on Discourse and Class Analysis. Urbana, Ill., 1993. Bonnell, Victoria. Roots of Rebellion: Workers, Politics, and Organizations in St. Petersburg and Moscow: 1900– 1914. Berkeley, Calif., 1983. Calhoun, Craig. The Question of Class Struggle: Social Foundations of Popular Radicalism during the Industrial Revolution. Chicago, 1982. Canning, Kathleen. Gender and Changing Meanings of Work: Structure and Rhetoric in the Making of the Textile Factory Labor Force in Germany: 1850–1914. Ithaca, N.Y., 1995. Clark, Anna. The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class. Berkeley, Calif., 1995. Evans, Richard. Proletarians and Politics: Socialism, Protest, and the Working Class in Germany before 1914. New York, 1990. Geary, Dick, ed. Labour and Socialist Movements in Europe before 1914. New York, 1989. ———. European Labour Protest: 1848–1945. London, 1981. Hogan, Heather. Forging Revolution: Metalworkers, Managers, and the State in St. Petersburg, 1900–1914. Bloomington, Ind., 1993. Kaplan, Temma. The Anarchists of Andalusia: 1868–1903. Princeton, N.J., 1977. Katznelson, Ira, and Aristide Zolberg, eds. Working-Class Formations: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States. Princeton, N.J., 1986. Lidtke, Vernon. The Alternative Culture: Socialist Labor in Imperial Germany. New York, 1985.

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Maines, Mary Jo. Taking the Hard Road: Life Course in French and German Workers’ Autobiographies in the Era of Industrialization. Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995. Merriman, John. The Margins of City Life: Explorations on the French Urban Frontier, 1815–1851. New York, 1991. Miles, Andrew, and Mike Savage. The Re-making of the British Working Class: 1840–1940. London, 1994. Perrot, M. Strikes in France: 1870–1890. Leamington Spa, U.K., 1987. Prothero, I. J. Radical Artisans in Britain and France: 1830–1870. Cambridge, U.K., 1997. Steinberg, Marc. Fighting Words: Working-Class Formation, Collective Action, and Discourse in Early NineteenthCentury England. Ithaca, N.Y., 1999. Thompson, E. P. The Making of the English Working Class. London, 1963. ROGER MAGRAW

n

WORLD’S FAIRS. The origins of the world’s fair (also known as international exposition, exposition universelle, esposizione internazionale, and Weltausstellung) lie in the Industrial Revolution, which vastly expanded manufacturing, trade, and transportation in the first half of the nineteenth century. Beginning with London’s Great Exhibition in 1851, a series of world’s fairs were held in Europe to showcase advances in manufacturing, science, and technology and gradually spread to other parts of the world, including the United States and Australia. The nineteenth-century world’s fairs did not exhibit only machines and the products they manufactured. They attempted to summarize, categorize, and evaluate the whole of human experience. Displays of natural products, handmade goods, the fine arts, models, and ethnographic artifacts were also an important part of the exhibitions. Although the world’s fairs sought to educate visitors about scientific and technological advances, entertainments and amusements gradually became a central feature of the events and sometimes even overshadowed their industrial component. The world’s fairs celebrated international cooperation and peaceful competition among nations, but they were also sites of national rivalry, where countries celebrated their national identities and strove for prestige by exhibiting their

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manufactures, cultural achievements, and imperial possessions. World’s fairs grew out of the manufacturing exhibitions of the late eighteenth century. Unlike the great medieval fairs, the chief aim of the manufacturing exhibitions and later world’s fairs was not buying and selling but exhibiting the latest machines and products in order to stimulate competition and economic progress. In Britain, the Royal Society of Arts held an exhibition of machinery and mechanical inventions in 1761, and small exhibitions of industrial products were held in Geneva in 1789, Hamburg in 1790, and Prague in 1791. The first national exhibition of industrial products, however, took place in France under the Directorate. In 1797 the Marquis d’Ave`ze, commissioner of the former Royal Manufactories, organized an exhibition of goods with the goal of promoting French industry and stimulating the purchase of the unsold porcelain, tapestries, and carpets that had accumulated since the Revolution and the British naval blockade. The exhibition was so successful that the interior minister, Franc¸ois Neufchaˆteau, announced plans to hold a series of national exhibitions in temporary buildings specially constructed for this purpose on the Champde-Mars. The first was held for three days in 1798 and featured a published catalog of exhibits as well as an official report, which underlined the French ability to compete with British industry. International economic competition was at the core of the industrial exhibition movement from the start. France continued to hold national manufacturing exhibitions periodically throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, culminating in the 1849 exhibition, which lasted for six months and drew over 4,500 exhibitors. A number of European countries followed the French example, and between 1818 and 1851 national exhibitions were held in Bavaria, Belgium, Ireland, the Netherlands, Prussia, Russia, Spain, and Sweden to promote industrial development. In 1844 Berlin hosted an ‘‘All-German Exhibition,’’ which foreshadowed the political unification of the German states. Although the British state showed no interest in organizing national exhibitions, mechanics institutes began organizing educational exhibitions of mechanical inventions and scientific discoveries throughout the country starting in 1837. During the debate

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on abolishing the protectionist Corn Laws, freetrade advocates organized a ‘‘Free-Trade Bazaar’’ in London’s Covent Garden, and after 1847 the Royal Society of Arts sponsored annual national industrial exhibitions in London. The idea of holding an international industrial exhibition to educate domestic producers by exposing them to foreign manufactures was first raised in France, in 1834 and again in 1849, but protectionist arguments warning of foreign competition and industrial espionage proved persuasive and the idea was dropped, only to be picked up by Henry Cole, a member of the Royal Society of Arts, during his visit to the 1849 Paris exhibition. On his return to Britain, Cole discussed the possibility of hosting an international exhibition in London with the president of the Royal Society, Prince Albert, who threw his support behind the project. It was decided to establish a Royal Commission to raise funds and prepare for the exhibition, which was to be selffinancing. While Prince Albert is sometimes given credit as the originator of the idea of holding an international exhibition in 1851, Henry Cole and the other members of the Royal Commission were the main organizing force behind the event. The commission was dominated by industrial and financial leaders who were liberal advocates of the economic doctrine of free trade. They saw the exhibition as an opportunity both to demonstrate to the world the virtues of commercial and political liberalism and to promote the export of British manufactures. LONDON 1851

The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, as it was called, has often been seen as a self-congratulatory celebration of Britain’s confidence in its industrial might. One of the primary motivations for holding an international exhibition, however, was widespread anxiety about the quality of British industrial design. By exposing British manufacturers to the products of their Continental rivals, the exhibition’s organizers hoped to stimulate them to improve the quality of their design in order to better compete in world markets. Nor was the nation united behind the Great Exhibition. Although the Corn Laws had been abolished in 1846, Britain was still deeply divided over the issue of free trade, and protectionists claimed that foreign manufacturers would steal British ideas. The memories of the Chartist

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demonstrations and the European revolutions of 1848 aroused fears that the exhibition would attract large numbers of workers and foreign revolutionaries to London and lead to public disorder. The biggest controversy was over the permanent exhibition building proposed for Hyde Park, which opponents claimed would spoil the park and necessitate the removal of cherished trees. Hyde Park was saved from disfigurement by the adoption of Robert Paxton’s innovative design for a glass-andiron structure in the form of a basilica that would be high enough to contain trees and that could be disassembled and removed after the exhibition. Paxton’s Crystal Palace, as it was dubbed, was the chief wonder of the Great Exhibition. Of immense proportions, it was inspired by the structure of conservatories and constructed using prefabricated components that were quickly assembled on the site in only seventeen weeks. The glass walls and roof permitted natural light to illuminate the Crystal Palace’s five naves, the tallest of which soared to the height of Paris’s Notre-Dame cathedral. It was sold after the exhibition and moved to south London. The exhibition was opened by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on 1 May 1851 in the presence of the ambassadors of the participating nations. It was an immediate success and earned a substantial profit by the time it closed in October. Contrary to the dire predictions of riot and disorder, the crowds attending the exhibition were well behaved, although as a precaution the Duke of Wellington discreetly stationed mounted troops around London before the opening. After a few weeks ticket prices were lowered to one shilling from Monday through Thursday in order to attract all classes of society. Over six million people visited the Great Exhibition, most of whom came to London by railway, some on cheap excursions organized by Thomas Cook. The Crystal Palace contained over 100,000 different exhibits from some fourteen thousand exhibitors. The exhibits were classified in four categories—raw materials, machinery, manufactures, and the fine arts—and thirty subcategories. The classification system reflected the exhibition’s emphasis on the manufacturing process but did not exclude the arts or machines not used for industrial production. Exhibits were displayed according to their national origin, however, and only the British section was organized according to the official classification scheme. Foreign countries were free

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to organize their space as they saw fit. British exhibits, including those of the colonies, occupied half of the space in the Crystal Palace, while the other half held the displays of the thirty-eight other countries that participated in the exhibition. The physical arrangement of the exhibits was often random and confusing to the visitors who beheld the vast assortment of machines, models, agricultural produce, and art. Although the intention of the exposition was to educate the public about the processes and products of industry, it was also a great spectacle. The so-called lions of the exhibition included the Koh-i-noor diamond, the queen of Spain’s jewels, the Gothic medieval court, the collection of stuffed animals from Wu ¨ rttemburg, and a crystal fountain in which flowed eau de cologne. Among the other exhibits that received the most attention were the steam-powered working machines and electric telegraph in the British section, photography in the French section, the Colt revolvers and McCormick harvester in the American section, and the cornucopia of imperial treasures presented by the East India Company. Full-scale examples of improved houses for workers, designed by Prince Albert, were displayed outside the Crystal Palace. The Great Exhibition was more than a mere display of goods; it was also an international competition that measured and compared the technological, economic, and artistic development of each nation. Adopting the practice of the French national exhibitions, the organizers appointed juries to evaluate the exhibits and gave prizes to those deemed best; 170 Council medals were awarded for innovation and 2,918 Prize medals for excellence in workmanship. Britain, with over half of the exhibitors, received the most awards, but France came in a close second even though it was represented by many fewer exhibitors. Most of Britain’s Council medals were awarded for machinery, while France’s were more evenly distributed among the various categories of classification. The Great Exhibition, while it confirmed Britain’s leadership in manufacturing, was also a victory for French design. The German states won few Council medals but received numerous Prize medals, while the United States obtained few medals of either type, though the exhibition did raise awareness of its growing industrial power. After the exhibition ended the Royal Commission

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Interior of the Crystal Palace, Great Exhibition, London, 1851. Designed by architect Joseph Paxton for the first of the major European exhibitions, the Crystal Palace was a vast glass and steel enclosure that provided an impressive showcase for the industrial and aesthetic treasures displayed within. ªHISTORICAL PICTURE ARCHIVE/CORBIS

published a voluminous official catalog containing detailed descriptions of every nation’s exhibits together with discussions of the historical and scientific background. Other nations and some American states also published official reports and catalogs in which they evaluated the exhibition and its exhibits. PARIS 1855

The Great Exhibition and its Crystal Palace quickly spawned imitations, eventually leading to a succession of international expositions throughout Europe and the world. Dublin and New York each held international exhibitions in 1853, but the next truly international world’s fair took place in Paris in 1855. The French were determined to respond to the Great Exhibition and outdo their British economic rivals, and planning for the 1855 Exposition Universelle began in 1851. Like the Great

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Exhibition, the first French world’s fair celebrated international peace and cooperation, despite the ongoing conflict with Russia in the Crimea. Napoleon III intended the exhibition to showcase the achievements of his new Second Empire, to demonstrate that Paris was the artistic center of the world, and to encourage French industry to become more competitive. The exhibition was also used to strengthen relations with Britain, France’s ally in the Crimean War, and Victoria and Albert visited Paris at Napoleon’s invitation. A permanent exhibition building, the Palace of Industry, was erected on the Champs-Elyse´es, where it remained in use until 1897. Although constructed of iron and glass like Paxton’s Crystal Palace, it was more traditional in appearance, for its iron frame was hidden by a classical facade. It turned out that the Palace of Industry could not hold all the exhibits, and the machinery and fine arts had to be placed in secondary structures erected nearby. The 1855 exhibition was in many respects similar to that of 1851, but larger in size and with more exhibitors, about half of them French. Attendance was lower, at just over five million visitors, and the exhibition lost money. French and British industry again dominated the exhibition and took the majority of the awards. There were few innovations to be found in 1855, but among the novelties on display were new materials such as cement and aluminum and the new technique for electroplating silver. The British and French empires were prominently displayed, with large sections devoted to India and Algeria. The exhibition also contained a thematic section devoted to improvements in the lives of the working classes, which contained examples of inexpensive consumer goods and models of improvements in housing. The French placed much greater emphasis on the fine arts, in which France excelled, than the British had in 1851. About five thousand works of art from twenty-nine countries were exhibited in 1855, among them paintings by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Euge`ne Delacroix, and the Pre-Raphaelites. Two of Gustave Courbet’s canvases were not accepted for exhibition, so the young artist held his own exhibition outside the fine arts pavilion, the first of a number of alternative art exhibitions held by disgruntled artists at world’s fairs.

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Machinery on display, London International Exhibition, 1862. ªHULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS

LONDON 1862

Britain attempted to follow up on the success of the Great Exhibition with the International Exhibition of 1862. Yet the sequel failed to arouse the anticipated interest despite its larger size and the inclusion of many more works of art. The enormous brick building that was chosen to house the exhibition, whose size was its only outstanding feature, never gained the popularity of the Crystal Palace, which was still standing in its new location in south London. Prince Albert’s death in late 1861 cast a shadow over the exhibition, while the United States, in the midst of a civil war, sent only a few items to display. The shortage of cotton caused by the war had crippled Britain’s textile industry and reduced its exhibits. A number of technical innovations where on show, however, such as a calculating machine and Henry Bessemer’s newly developed process for making steel. The exhibition attracted only slightly more visitors than in 1851, despite improvements in transport and communication, and closed with a substantial deficit. The 1862 exhibition’s poor showing suggests that ever-bigger copies of the Great Exhibition had limited public appeal and that simply displaying a multitude of machines and objects was not enough to draw the crowds.

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PARIS 1867

Although Dublin hosted a small international exhibition in 1865, the next important world’s fair was held in Paris in 1867. The Exposition Universelle of 1867 established Paris as the center of the world’s fair movement and significantly changed the look of subsequent world’s fairs. Organized by the Saint-Simonian Fre´de´ric Le Play, this was the first world’s fair to expand outside of the main exhibition building, which was surrounded by international restaurants, an amusement park, and separate national pavilions constructed by the participating nations. Among the structures dotting the exhibition grounds and giving them a festive atmosphere were a picturesque Swiss chalet, an Indian temple, a Tunisian palace, a Gothic cathedral, and an English lighthouse. It was also the first world’s fair to remain open in the evening and to include non-European peoples as part of the exhibits, in North African tableaux vivants, for example, and an Egyptian bazaar with native craftsmen and camel attendants. These innovations became standard in subsequent world’s fairs. The Parisian excursion boats, or bateaux mouches, made their first appearance at the exhibition to take fairgoers sightseeing on the river Seine. The elliptical main exhibition hall, an enormous iron-and-glass structure a mile in circumference, was designed to facilitate the classification and comparison of the displays by grouping them together by both product and nation. Breaking with the tradition established at the Crystal Palace of organizing the displays along national lines, Le Play attempted to combine two organizing systems: products and the nations that produced them. Concentric halls, each devoted to a particular category of objects, ringed a central garden in the interior of the exhibition hall. Each nation’s products were arranged along lines radiating from the center and intersecting the concentric bands. This two-part classification system, much more ambitious than the schemes used in previous world’s fairs, aimed to present a complete picture of human activity throughout the world from prehistoric times to 1867. Another concept introduced was the use of thematic displays of the ‘‘History of Work’’ and the ‘‘History of the Earth,’’ which sought to put the entire exhibition in historical perspective. In seeking to organize, classify, and exhibit all of human history, the exhibition con-

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structed an epic of material progress in which European civilization played the leading role and created the illusion that scientific knowledge could order and control the world. The outer concentric hall contained the Gallery of Machines, a raised area affording views across the interior of the exhibition. A hydraulic elevator carried visitors to an observation platform on the roof. Among the novel exhibits in 1867 were petroleum, an American rocking chair, artificial limbs, the telegraph, and a working model of France’s latest engineering feat, the Suez Canal. Demonstrations of new diving equipment were held each day, where the public could see men remain underwater for several hours in an iron tank. Among the spectators was Jules Verne, who incorporated the inventions he saw at the 1867 exposition in his novel Twenty-Thousand Leagues under the Sea (Vingt mille lieues sous les mers, 1870). Like the 1855 exposition, that of 1867 celebrated the progress and prosperity ostensibly brought to France by the Napoleon III’s Second Empire. France’s colonies were prominently displayed, with separate sections devoted to Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. The empire’s proclaimed social ideals were manifested in an entire section of the exposition devoted to social welfare. It included exhibits of model sanitary housing for the poor and social projects to improve the lives of workers. Napoleon himself contributed a design for a workers’ housing project, which unsurprisingly won a grand prize. The exposition, while a great success that attracted nearly seven million visitors and made a respectable profit, turned out to be the swan song of the Second Empire. The festivities were marred by the June execution of Napoleon’s prote´ge´ Maximilian in Mexico and the return of his widow to Paris. King Victor Emmanuel II demonstrated his anger at Napoleon’s meddling in Italian affairs by avoiding the exposition, while during his visit to Paris the tsar of Russia was nearly assassinated by a Polish patriot. Discontent with Napoleon’s policies was growing at home, and the emperor’s critics voiced their opinions more and more loudly. In addition, Prussia’s rapid defeat of Austria the preceding year called into question whether France would long remain the leading power on the Continent. One of the sensations of the exposition was a fifty-ton steel cannon made by

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the German firm Krupp. Three years later the same cannon would be used to bombard Paris during the Franco-Prussian War. LONDON 1871–1874

The four London International Exhibitions held from 1871 to 1874 represented an attempt to limit the size of world’s fairs by focusing each year on specific categories of exhibits, together with scientific discoveries and the fine arts. They also took steps to avoid the international rivalry that had characterized previous world’s fairs by organizing the displays according to class rather than nationality and by opting not to award prizes. Ten exhibitions were planned to be held over ten years in an assortment of temporary buildings erected near London’s Albert Hall, which hosted a series of concerts. The first exhibition was relatively successful, but declining interest led to the decision to end the exhibitions after the 1874 season. VIENNA 1873

The nineteenth century’s only Germanic world’s fair was held in Austria in 1873. The Vienna Weltausstellung marked the twenty-fifth anniversary of the coronation of Emperor Francis Joseph I and was intended to celebrate the country’s recovery from its political and economic setbacks in the 1850s and 1860s, which included the separation of Hungary, as well as to publicize the ambitious program of urban planning and reconstruction that had made Vienna one of the grandest cities in Europe. The exhibition was held in Vienna’s wooded Prater park on the banks of the Danube and was the first world’s fair to have separate buildings devoted to industry, machinery, agriculture, and art, an innovation borrowed from Moscow’s Polytechnic Exhibition of 1872. The main exhibition building was the Palace of Industry, an ornate structure in the Italian Renaissance style that was designed to be used as a permanent home for the Corn Exchange after the fair ended. Its vast nave was a half-mile in length, with sixteen galleries branching off to the sides. At the center was a rotunda under the world’s largest dome. Within the Palace of Industry the exhibits were organized geographically, with the participating countries arranged from east to west and Austria at the center. In the park surrounding the Palace of Industry stood the buildings devoted to machinery, agricul-

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ture, and art as well as numerous international pavilions and entertainment venues. While housing exhibitions at earlier world’s fairs had focused on the needs of urban workers, at Vienna there was an extensive exhibit of rural homes from around the world. Visitors were entertained by open-air concerts at the Strauss pavilion, military bands, and gypsy musicians. The Vienna exhibition devised the most complex system of display categories used at any nineteenth-century world’s fair, comprising some twenty-six different categories, including new ones such as transportation, forestry management, the ownership of ideas, the education of women and children, the healing arts, and the living conditions of the common people. It focused more extensively than earlier fairs on social and educational issues and even had a category devoted to the cultivation of good taste among the population. Germany participated in the Vienna exhibition for the first time as a united nation and, after Austria, contributed the largest number of industrial exhibits, while France managed to mount a credible display despite the devastating defeat it had recently endured in the Franco-Prussian War. It was Japan, however, that made the biggest splash in its first large-scale effort at a world’s fair. Japan’s exhibits introduced Europeans to its art, culture, and industry, while the Japanese delegation to the Vienna exhibition carefully studied Western technology and industrial organization and published their observations in ninety-six volumes after returning home. The 1873 exhibition was beset by a series of unfortunate events. The Vienna stock exchange was hit by a worldwide financial crisis and collapsed less than a week after Emperor Francis Joseph opened the exhibition, resulting in an economic depression and soaring unemployment. Fears of a repetition of the cholera outbreak of 1872 kept many visitors away from the city, while heavy rains damaged the exhibition buildings in late June. The exhibition suffered a huge financial loss, even though by the time it closed it succeeded in attracting more than seven million visitors. PARIS 1878

In 1878 France’s newborn Third Republic held a world’s fair in Paris to demonstrate to the world

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that the nation had recovered from the FrancoPrussian War of 1870–1871. The Exposition Universelle of 1878 was a celebration of the republic and of French civilization, and it contributed to healing the divisions caused by the seize mai political crisis of the preceding year. As Victor Hugo enthused, ‘‘The world is our witness that France makes good use of defeat.’’ However, some critics argued that France could not afford such a lavish expenditure when it had only recently paid off its indemnity to Germany, while French churchmen objected to the secular tone of the fair, for the republic forbade religious remarks in the opening ceremonies. French artists who specialized in battle scenes were enraged that the fair also forbade the exhibition of paintings whose subject was the Franco-Prussian War. The memory of France’s defeat was still fresh, and the German government was pointedly not invited, although German artists participated unofficially. Sixteen million people attended the fair, but it closed with a sizable deficit. The fair was organized similarly to its predecessor in 1867. The centerpiece of the exhibition was the Palace of Industry on the Champ-de-Mars, a rectangular building that housed most of the displays, which were again ordered by their class in one direction and by nationality in another. Visitors could choose to examine a single class of manufactures from around the world or all the manufactures of a particular country. A striking innovation was the Street of Nations in the central court of the Palace of Industry, where foreign nations built separate entrances to their exhibits, resulting in an eclectic assortment of national architectural styles. Some nations also built pavilions across the Seine in the Trocade´ro Park, which was dotted with curiosities such as a Japanese farm, an Algerian cafe´, and the head of Auguste Bartholdi’s Statue of Liberty, the hand and torch of which had been exhibited two years earlier at the 1876 Centennial International Exhibition in Philadelphia. Exhibits by large manufacturers, such as the Singer Company’s sewing machines and SchneiderCreusot’s enormous pile driver, were very prominent at the fair and a sign of the coming domination of world’s fairs by corporate displays and pavilions. A more exotic venue at the 1878 world’s fair was the Street of Cairo, a collection of shops and a bazaar where North Africans were employed to serve visitors. The Cairo street proved so popular that it

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became a staple fixture of world’s fairs, increasing in size with each fair until it constituted an entertainment zone unto itself, with restaurants, cafe´s, and belly dancers in addition to dozens of shops. The 1878 world’s fair was the first to employ technology to control the temperature, through a system of pipes that carried water from the Seine under the raised floor of the Palace of Industry. Water was also harnessed to power hydraulic elevators that speeded visitors to the top of Trocade´ro Hill, where a permanent palace was erected for concerts, art exhibits, and international congresses that were held as part of the world’s fair. Some of the congresses had long-lasting consequences, such as the establishment of the International Postal Union, the introduction of international copyright laws, and the adoption of Braille as the recognized international system of touch reading. One of the most sensational events during the fair was the illumination of the Avenue and Place de l’Opera with Thomas Edison’s new electric lighting. Edison’s phonograph, first displayed to the public at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876, was introduced to Europeans at the 1878 Paris fair to great acclaim. Edison himself, self-taught and of modest origins, was lionized by much of the French press as an example of what the human mind could achieve in the absence of social barriers. AMSTERDAM 1883

The 1880s and 1890s witnessed an explosion in the number of world’s fairs and smaller international exhibitions, as the exhibition phenomenon spread far beyond Europe. The United States had hosted its first major world’s fair in Philadelphia to celebrate the centennial of the American Revolution in 1876, and Australia held world’s fairs in Sydney in 1879– 1880, Melbourne in 1880–1881 and 1888–1889, and Adelaide in 1887–1888. Other international exhibitions took place in Atlanta (1881 and 1895), Boston (1883–1884), Calcutta (1883–1884), New Orleans (1884–1885), Antwerp (1885 and 1894), Edinburgh (1886), Glasgow (1888), Barcelona (1888), Chicago (1893), San Francisco (1894), Brussels (1897), Guatemala City (1897), Nashville (1897), and Stockholm (1897). The first and only Dutch world’s fair, the International Colonial and Trade Exposition of 1883, was the first to place empire at center stage.

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While every world’s fair since London’s Great Exhibition had included numerous displays of the products of Europe’s overseas empires, their main focus had been industry. The Amsterdam world’s fair presented empire as spectacle. Unlike French world’s fairs, the Dutch fair was organized by businessmen without government financial assistance, although the government did give its approval to the project. The facade of the main building, designed by a French architect, was an exotic pastiche of Indian motifs that curiously had no relation to the architecture of the Netherlands’ own colonial possessions in the East and West Indies. Separate pavilions were devoted to colonial exhibits, the city of Amsterdam, and the monarchy, while arts and ethnographic displays were presented in the newly built Rijksmuseum. Only the Netherlands and Belgium mounted full-scale exhibits, but most European nations were represented as well as the United States, Haiti, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela, Japan, China, Turkey, Persia, and Siam. About one million people visited the fair, but its significance was much greater than attendance figures indicate. For the first time, a world’s fair displayed villages inhabited by colonial peoples, who entertained visitors in displays of their native customs. Exhibits of exotic non-Western peoples by itinerant showmen dated back at least to the sixteenth century and were commonplace throughout Europe by the second half of the nineteenth century. Starting with the Amsterdam fair, however, the ‘‘native village’’ was a regular feature of European and American world’s fairs. A mixture of commercial sensationalism, pseudoscientific anthropology, and imperial power, it served as a vivid contrast to the ultramodern technologies on display and seemed to confirm assumptions about the superiority of European civilization. In the era of the ‘‘new imperialism,’’ colonial exhibits became an increasingly ostentatious component of the world’s fairs, which celebrated colonialism as a force for human progress. PARIS 1889

Held to commemorate the centennial of the French Revolution, the Paris Exposition Universelle of 1889 produced one of the modern world’s great iconic images: the Eiffel Tower, a cast-iron tower that at 300 meters high was the tallest structure ever erected. Cherished today as the symbol of Paris, the naked iron skeleton of Gustave Eiffel’s

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tower was initially seen by many Parisians as a hideous defilement of the city’s skyline, by others as an expression of the primitive, barbaric power of industrial society. The tower was a hit with the public, however, and almost two million people ascended it by elevator during the exposition, including the Prince of Wales, W. F. ‘‘Buffalo Bill’’ Cody, Sarah Bernhardt, and Thomas Edison. The central axis of the fair on the Champ-de-Mars ran under the Eiffel Tower to the entrance of the main exhibition building, at the rear of which stood the Gallery of Machines, another feat of modern construction technology whose glass roof enclosed fifteen acres of exhibition space without support from internal columns. Among the mechanical wonders on display were a steam-powered tricycle, a German gasoline-powered motorcar, and a huge exhibit of Thomas Edison’s multitude of inventions, including an electric phonograph that charmed the crowds by alternately playing the French and American national anthems. From electrically powered moving platforms suspended over the gallery visitors could look out onto the humming machinery in motion below. Like the Eiffel Tower, the Gallery of Machines offered the public spectacular views and constituted an attraction in itself, apart from the technology it exhibited, which had become part of the entertainment. Some eighty other buildings filled the Champ-deMars and the banks of the Seine, containing displays of foreign industrial manufactures, the fine arts, horticulture, and agricultural products and machinery, as well as thematic displays such as one devoted to ‘‘Social Economy,’’ an attempt by the French government to respond to growing labor unrest by displaying the gains made by the working class under the Third Republic. More successful was Charles Garnier’s history of human habitation, comprising forty-nine structures depicting the evolution of housing through the ages. Another historical display used stationary tableaux to illustrate the development of human labor from prehistory to the present. The Trocade´ro Palace contained ethnographic exhibits that included works of African, Oceanic, and pre-Columbian art. Many countries erected national pavilions, among which Mexico’s contribution was an Aztec palace. A large section of the exposition was devoted to the French colonial empire, with palaces and pagodas designed by French architects to

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The Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889. This view of the fairgrounds shows the position and prominence of the Eiffel Tower. ªCORBIS

house exhibits from colonies in Indochina, India, and Africa, where visitors could ride in rickshaws powered by Indochinese. As in 1878, colonial peoples were brought to Paris to populate villages representing Senegal, Tonkin, Tahiti, and other French imperial possessions. Paul Gauguin was inspired to go to Tahiti by the impression made on him by the living examples of ‘‘noble savages’’ he saw at the fair’s Tahitian village. Pleasure and entertainment eclipsed the industrial exhibits at the 1889 world’s fair, which marked an important shift from the original focus of world’s fairs on educating the public about advances in science and technology. In addition to the exotic spectacles offered by native villages,

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concerts, balls, and theater performances were regularly held in the exposition’s park, which contained a variety of international restaurants and cafe´s providing refreshments to fairgoers. At the Pavilion of Military Aeronautics, visitors could make an ascent in a tethered balloon, while in the Palace of Liberal Arts they could closely inspect a giant globe of the earth by riding to the top in an elevator and descending along an inclined walkway. Electricity was widely used to enhance the festive atmosphere, illuminating the fairgrounds by night to prolong visitors’ enjoyment of the attractions in the park, which included a fountain display with colored lights. Each evening a tricolor searchlight atop the Eiffel Tower cast its beam across the darkened skies

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over Paris. A more serious attitude prevailed at the dozens of official international congresses that took place during the exposition and were devoted to topics ranging from alcohol abuse to women’s role in the labor force. There were also some unofficial congresses, one of which, held by Marxist socialists, founded the Second International and adopted May First as the international holiday of labor. Although some European monarchies refused the invitation to a world’s fair celebrating the French Revolution, most countries were represented, if unofficially, by their firms, who refused to sacrifice publicity and profit for political considerations. Even members of the royal families of Britain and Russia, both of whom had vocally refused to take part in a celebration that paid tribute to the French Revolution, visited the exposition nevertheless. One of the most successful world’s fairs of the nineteenth century, the 1889 Paris exposition attracted over thirty million visitors and even made a modest profit. It almost certainly boosted France’s self-esteem, drew attention to France’s colonial empire, and helped to draw a line over the divisive Boulanger affair of the preceding winter. PARIS 1900

Less than three years after the close of the 1889 exposition the French government announced plans for another one in 1900, partly in order to seize the initiative from Germany, which had been considering holding its first world’s fair. In France the 1890s were marked by political scandals, economic and demographic stagnation, and a growing sense of the nation’s declining influence in the world. The disunity of the Third Republic had been only temporarily obscured by the triumphant success of the 1889 fair, and the exposition of 1900 aroused enormous controversy while still in the planning stages. Critics claimed that it would benefit only Paris to the detriment of the provincial economy, that it would morally corrupt the French, and that it would do nothing to further the interests of French businesses. Not since the preparations for London’s Great Exhibition of 1851 had a world’s fair aroused such concerted opposition. Supporters countered with arguments that emphasized the stimulus it would give to exports and the jobs it would create and contended that the honor and international prestige of France

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were at stake. Although domestic opposition was overcome, diplomatic crises also threatened the exposition. The Fashoda crisis of 1898, when France backed down before British forces in East Africa, strained relations between the two countries, and French support for the Boers in their war with Britain did nothing to improve matters. The United States was insulted by the location its pavilion was allotted and had to be mollified with a more prominent position. More importantly, the drawn-out Dreyfus affair tarnished France’s reputation and led some nations to consider a boycott of the exposition, a prospect averted only when Dreyfus finally received a presidential pardon in September 1899. The world’s fair of 1900 was the largest ever held in Paris. It attracted more than fifty million visitors, short of the official projection of sixty million but still a record that was only surpassed in 1967 at Montreal’s Expo 67. Spread out on the Champde-Mars, Trocade´ro Hill, along the banks of the Seine, and in the Bois de Vincennes (connected to the rest of the exposition by the city’s new Me´tro line), it comprised over 80,000 exhibits divided into 18 classes and 121 subclasses. It was the last European world’s fair to attempt to summarize the achievements of Western civilization, although its vast size and the chaotic arrangement of the multitude of exhibits made it almost impossible for visitors to take it all in. As at previous world’s fairs, many worthy international congresses on various subjects took place, included two organized by French feminists. An event that heralded a new form of national competition for prestige was the second meeting of the modern Olympic Games, held in the Bois de Vincennes. There was little in the way of architectural innovation at the 1900 exposition. The official buildings, such as the Grand Palais, the Petit Palais, and the Palace of Electricity, had their iron internal structures hidden by facades decorated in the ornate neoclassical style favored by the academics of the E´cole des Beaux-Arts. On the left bank of the Seine the Street of Nations, inspired by the one in the 1878 exposition, was lined by foreign pavilions in historical national styles, such as Germany’s sixteenth-century Rathaus. France’s ally Russia occupied an enormous amount of space on Trocade´ro Hill, where in addition to a Kremlinesque

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national pavilion it also contributed a pavilion of Asiatic Russia, in which visitors could make a simulated journey along the Trans-Siberian Railway. Finland, although part of the Russian Empire, asserted its separate identity with one of the most original buildings of the exposition, a superb national pavilion designed by Eliel Saarinen using native woods and decorative motifs inspired by Scandinavian nature. Another noteworthy structure was the theater of the American expatriate dancer Loie Fuller, designed in the art nouveau style by Henri Sauvage. Although the exposition was not the triumph of art nouveau that it is sometimes made out to be but rather an eclectic hodgepodge of extravagant and colorful buildings, elements of art nouveau were present in a number of structures, including the main staircase of the Grand Palais, Rene´ Binet’s Monumental Gateway to the exposition grounds on the Place de la Concorde, and the fashionable Pavillon Bleu restaurant. The best examples, however, were to be found in the rooms of the German, Austrian, and Hungarian pavilions and in the entrances to Hector Guimard’s Me´tro stations. Among the new technologies on display were X-rays, wireless telegraphy, bicycles, automobiles, turbines, and cinema, but the exposition’s massive use of electric lighting was the biggest marvel. Paul Morand, a contemporary chronicler of the exposition, dubbed electricity ‘‘the religion of 1900.’’ In the Palace of Electricity visitors could watch the dynamos at work supplying electricity to power machinery and illuminate the exposition grounds at night to create a fairy-tale landscape. The Monumental Gateway, the bridges over the Seine, and the Eiffel Tower sparkled with thousands of incandescent lights, giving Paris a glimpse of the luminous future. Loie Fuller’s dance performances, in which she employed colored lights and electric arc lamps together with her trademark flowing scarves, were a sensation. Another hit, the Cine´orama, used phonograph music, colored filmstrips, and ten synchronized projectors on a 360-degree screen to simulate a balloon ride in a vivid demonstration of the possibilities afforded by new technologies of entertainment. The 1900 world’s fair had an unprecedented number of commercial venues operated by private firms and businessmen. All the major French

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department stores had their own separate pavilions, as did the American McCormick Harvesting Machine Company and France’s Schneider metallurgical firm. There were 207 restaurants and 58 different attractions with separate entrance fees, giving the exposition the character of a vast amusement park. Visitors could travel back in time in Vieux Paris or Andalusia in the Time of the Moors, take in the sights of faraway places in the Tour du Monde, make a sea voyage to Constantinople at the Mare´orama, and view the moon through the world’s largest telescope. An electric-powered moving sidewalk, modeled on the one that had made its debut at Chicago’s World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893, offered a novel terrestrial experience to those not daring enough to ride the giant Ferris wheel, another Chicago import. In addition to the extensive official colonial displays of France, Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Portugal, there were commercial exhibits of native villages inhabited by African and Asian people as well as the ever-popular Street of Cairo and its belly dancers. The 1900 exposition was noteworthy, however, for one attempt to challenge the prevailing imperial and racist images of ‘‘primitive,’’ nonEuropean peoples in W. E. B. Du Bois’s Exhibit of American Negroes, located in the Social Economy section of the exposition alongside other American exhibits of tenement houses and libraries. It contained materials on African American history, contemporary social and economic conditions, educational institutions, and literature. Contemporary assessments of the 1900 world’s fair were mixed. To be sure, the exposition had attracted an unprecedented number of visitors and probably infused money into the French economy, although a number of contemporary critics claimed that it was a financial catastrophe. Paris got new buildings and a new bridge over the Seine, the Pont d’Alexandre III. Most of the businessmen who had paid dearly for concessions lost money, however, and eventually got a partial refund of their fees. To some observers the exposition had revealed France’s industrial weakness. The German technical and artistic exhibits outshone those of France, adding to French anxieties about their nation’s decline. Others were struck by the contrast between the vast material riches on display and the inability of the exposition to adequately classify them in the interests of

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The Grand Palais, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1900. The opulent Beaux-Arts-style Grand Palais, designed under the supervision of lead architect Charles-Louis Girault, displayed fine art from around the world during the exposition. ªMICHAEL MASLAN HISTORIC PHOTOGRAPHS/CORBIS

scientific progress. Although some scholars have linked such pessimistic assessments of the 1900 world’s fair to a fin-de-sie`cle loss of faith in science, reason, and progress among intellectuals, it is doubtful that their disillusionment was shared by the millions of ordinary visitors. The 1900 Exposition Universelle was the climax of the series of world’s fairs held between 1851 and World War I. Although world’s fairs were held between 1900 and 1914 in Glasgow (1901), St. Louis (1904), Lie`ge (1905), Christchurch, New Zealand (1906–1907), Dublin (1907), Brussels (1910), and Ghent (1913), none of them approached the size or scope of the one in Paris in 1900. By 1900 world’s fairs were increasingly seen in Europe as a financial burden on their host countries and the participants, a phenomenon known as ‘‘exposition fatigue.’’ Established firms were sometimes reluctant to interrupt their production by

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shifting resources and labor into preparations for a world’s fair, although new firms welcomed the opportunity to attract publicity and perhaps win prize medals for their products. In 1907 an international federation of exhibitors was set up in Paris to deal with issues relating to world’s fairs, and in 1912 seventeen nations signed a convention to regulate international expositions. Although the convention was never ratified due to the outbreak of World War I, efforts to bring world’s fairs under international supervision resumed after the war, eventually resulting in the formation of the Bureau of International Expositions, formed in Paris in 1931, which today is the regulatory body that supervises the conduct of world’s fairs. CONCLUSION

The great nineteenth-century world’s fairs or universal expositions were regarded by contemporaries

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as historic events that had an enormous international impact. They spread ideas, created a universal exhibition language, and marked the stages of the rapid developments in applied science and technology in Europe and the world during the second half of the nineteenth century. One of the most important contributions of the world’s fairs was to facilitate technology transfer, acquainting people from different countries with the latest improvements in technology and industrial design. Some manufacturers, such as Colt, McCormick, Edison, Bessemer, and Krupp, were very successful in using the world’s fairs to find new markets for their products. The international exhibitions promoted the idea of social progress, too, through exhibits devoted to model housing, education, and public health issues. Exhibition techniques and novelties were also transferred from one world’s fair to the next and between Europe and the rest of the world. Chicago’s Ferris wheel of 1893 was a response to Paris’s Eiffel Tower of 1889, and its success led the 1900 Paris world’s fair to acquire its own Ferris wheel. The world’s fairs influenced and were influenced by commercial entertainments and museum displays, from which they borrowed native villages and other ethnographic exhibits. For Karl Marx, the nineteenth-century world’s fairs were evidence of how capitalism had overcome national boundaries, but they were also important expressions of national rivalry and of national identities. France in particular consistently used international expositions to assert its superiority in the arts and its universal civilizing mission, which is why art exhibitions and displays of colonies and their inhabitants were such a key component of French exhibits. The world’s fairs also offered opportunities to smaller or peripheral countries to assert or construct national identities in an international setting. Japan was remarkably successful in promoting its culture and industry at world’s fairs, while Mexico forged a distinctive image of itself as a non-European but modern and progressive nation. Finland used world’s fairs in the late nineteenth century to project a unique national identity in the face of St. Petersburg’s campaign of Russification. Imperialism was a constant presence at the world’s fairs from the Great Exhibition until well into the twentieth century. The ever more lavish colonial displays of the European empires raised their national prestige, reinforced existing cultural

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and racial stereotypes, and proclaimed the progressive influence of European colonialism. World’s fairs have been interpreted as expressions of nationalism, imperialism, racism, consumerism, and capitalism, which they were. Yet they were also social rituals, and as such it is not surprising that they reflected the dominant ideologies of their historical settings. The world’s fairs reveal much about the outlooks and intentions of their organizers, but their impact on the public is difficult to assess. Their size meant that it was impossible for most ordinary visitors to study the multitude of displays more than superficially. People went to the world’s fairs not only to be educated but also to be entertained and have a good time, and throughout the nineteenth century the entertainments on offer grew more and more spectacular until the world’s fairs resembled giant amusement parks. The world’s fairs’ emphasis on the latest developments in human endeavor meant that they were a fleeting presence in the cities that hosted them, but they left behind a considerable material legacy. London’s network of cultural institutions in south Kensington was founded with the profits from the Great Exhibition, while the Crystal Palace served as an exhibition hall and cultural center in south London until it was destroyed by fire in 1936. The profits from the Glasgow International Exhibition of 1888 funded the construction of the City Museum and Art Gallery on the exhibition grounds in Kelvingrove Park. In Paris, structures erected for its expositions universelles were often reused for years before being demolished to make way for new buildings for other expositions. The Trocade´ro Palace stood until 1936 when it was replaced by the Chaillot Palace for the 1937 Exposition Universelle, while the Eiffel Tower, the Grand Palais, and the Petit Palais are today visible reminders of the impact of world’s fairs on the appearance of Paris. Their impact on art and architecture was mixed. By opening the 1855 and 1867 expositions to nonacademic painters, Napoleon III undermined the power of the Acade´mie des Beaux-Arts to determine taste, yet conservatives dominated the committees that selected works for display at the world’s fairs until World War I. Only the Centennale exhibition in 1900 included representatives of modern trends in painting such as impressionism and postimpressionism. The Crystal Palace was an architectural

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sensation and spawned replicas in New York, Dublin, Munich, and other cities, but neoclassical, baroque, and Renaissance influences predominated in most of the main exhibition buildings constructed for world’s fairs before World War I. Although art nouveau was very much in evidence at the 1900 world’s fair, the Glasgow international exhibition of 1901 was dominated by Spanish Renaissance architecture and bore no trace of Glasgow’s own modernist style, developed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh and his followers. National architectural styles incorporating folk elements and themes were developed for their world’s fair pavilions by some countries, while European architects designed pavilions for colonies in ‘‘indigenous’’ styles that sometimes served after independence as the basis of new national styles. These national and indigenous styles are perhaps the most lasting architectural legacy of the world’s fairs, for they influenced the development of the entertainment environment of the twentieth-century theme park. See also Civilization, Concept of; Consumerism; Crystal Palace; Imperialism; Industrial Revolution, Second; Popular and Elite Culture; Second International; Tourism. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allwood, John. The Great Exhibitions. London, 1977. Auerbach, Jeffrey A. The Great Exhibition of 1851: A Nation on Display. New Haven, Conn., 1999. Celik, Zeynep, and Leila Kinney. ‘‘Ethnography and Exhibitionism at the Expositions Universelles.’’ Assemblages 13 (1990): 34–59. Chandler, Arthur. ‘‘Revolution: The Paris Exposition Universelle of 1889.’’ World’s Fair 7, no. 1 (1987): 1–9. Curti, Merle. ‘‘America at the World’s Fairs, 1851–1893.’’ American Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1950): 833–856.

Jeremy, David J. ‘‘The Great Exhibition, Exhibitions and Technical Transfer.’’ In The Great Exhibition and Its Legacy, edited by Franz Bosboch and John R. Davis, 129–139. Munich, 2002. Kaiser, Wolfram. ‘‘Vive la France! Vive Re´publique? The Cultural Construction of French Identity at the World Exhibitions in Paris 1855–1900.’’ National Identities 1, no. 3 (1999): 227–244. Kusamitsu, Toshio. ‘‘Great Exhibitions before 1851.’’ History Workshop no. 9 (1980): 70–89. Mainardi, Patricia. Art and Politics of the Second Empire: The Universal Expositions of 1855 and 1867. New Haven, Conn., 1987. Mandell, Robert D. Paris 1900: The Great World’s Fair. Toronto, 1967. Mattie, Eric. World’s Fairs. Princeton, N.J., 1998. Mitchell, Timothy. ‘‘The World as Exhibition.’’ Comparative Studies in Society and History 31, no. 2 (1989): 217– 236. Rancie`re, Jacques, and Patrick Vauday, ‘‘Going to the Expo: The Worker, His Wife and Machines.’’ In Voices of the People: The Social Life of ‘‘La Sociale’’ at the End of the Empire, edited by Adrian Rifkin and Roger Thomas, 23–44. London, 1988. Rydell, Robert W., and Nancy E. Gwinn. Fair Representations: World’s Fairs and the Modern World. Amsterdam, 1994. Silverman, Deborah L. ‘‘The 1889 Exhibition: The Crisis of Bourgeois Individualism.’’ Oppositions 8, no. 1 (1977): 71–89. Stoklund, Bjarne. ‘‘The Role of International Exhibitions in the Construction of National Cultures in the 19th Century.’’ Ethnologia Europaea 24, no. 1 (1994): 35–44. Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio. Mexico at the World’s Fairs: Crafting a Modern Nation. Berkeley, Calif., 1996. Williams, Rosalind H. Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth-Century France. Berkeley, Calif., 1981.

Davis, John R. The Great Exhibition. Stroud, U.K., 1999.

ANTHONY SWIFT

Fauser, Annegret. Musical Encounters at the 1889 Paris World’s Fair. Rochester, N.Y., 2005. Findling, John, and Kimberley D. Pelle, eds. Historical Dictionary of World’s Fairs and Expositions, 1851– 1988. Westport, Conn., 1990. Greenhalgh, Paul. Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions, and World’s Fairs, 1851–1939. Manchester, U.K., 1988. Harris, Neil. ‘‘Expository Expositions: Preparing for the Theme Parks.’’ In Designing Disney’s Theme Parks, edited by Karal Ann Marling, 19–28. Paris, 1997.

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WUNDT, WILHELM (1832–1920), German psychologist. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was the leading institution builder for the modern discipline of experimental psychology. He wrote the first effective textbook for the new field—Grundzu ¨ ge der physiologischen Psychologie (1874; Principles of phy-

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siological psychology)—and in 1879 he established a laboratory and institute at the University of Leipzig to which students could come for the explicit purpose of conducting Ph.D. research in experimental psychology. In 1881 he founded Philosophische Studien, a journal that despite its title published the results of the research conducted in Wundt’s institute, thus becoming the first in the world to be explicitly devoted to experimental psychology. Wundt and his institute attracted students from around the world, many of whom returned to their home countries to establish similar psychology laboratories and programs there; by 1900 there were more than one hundred of them worldwide, and psychology was widely recognized as an important new academic discipline. Wundt was born near Mannheim, Germany, on 16 August 1832, into an academic family, his paternal grandfather having been a professor of history at Heidelberg, and his uncle Philipp Friedrich Arnold (1803–1890) a physician and professor of physiology. Young Wundt followed his uncle first to Tu ¨ bingen and then to Heidelberg, where he completed his medical degree in 1856. As a student he published two physiological papers in the start of a prodigiously prolific career. Attracted more to research than to medical practice, he briefly worked at Johannes Mu ¨ ller’s (1801–1858) celebrated Physiology Laboratory in Berlin before returning to Heidelberg as a Privatdozent in physiology. At that time the famous Hermann Helmholtz (1821– 1894) arrived to establish a Physiology Institute, and Wundt was named his assistant. Although Helmholtz identified himself as a physiologist, he was also among the vanguard of those mid-nineteenthcentury scientists who challenged Immanuel Kant’s (1724–1804) influential characterization of psychology as an intrinsically nonexperimental, primarily philosophical discipline, on the grounds that psychological phenomena could not be experimentally manipulated or subjected to mathematical analysis. Helmholtz had shown that many aspects of conscious sensation and perception could be accounted for via mechanistic analysis of the physiological systems involved in vision and audition. His demonstration of the finite and measurable speed of the nervous impulse had led to experimental research on ‘‘reaction times’’ and ‘‘mental chronometry.’’ Also in 1860, Gustav

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Fechner (1801–1887) pioneered the field of ‘‘psychophysics,’’ showing how the ‘‘just noticeable difference’’ in perceived stimulus intensity— clearly a psychological variable—could be measured and subjected to mathematical analysis. The young Wundt contributed in a small way to the field of mental chronometry in 1861, with a study showing that the psychological act of switching attention from an auditory to a simultaneously occuring visual stimulus required a measurable one-tenth of a second. More consequentially, he concluded that the growing body of research at the boundary between psychological experience and its physiological underpinnings provided material for a discrete discipline of experimental psychology, an idea he introduced in his 1862 book, Beitra¨ge zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung (Contributions to the Theory of Sensory Perception), and then developed and illustrated more fully twelve years later in his Principles of Physiological Psychology (1874). The latter book greatly enhanced Wundt’s visibility and led to his appointment as full professor in philosophy, first at Zurich in 1874 and then at Leipzig the following year. Most of the experimental research conducted by Wundt’s students at the Leipzig institute fell into the general categories of psychophysics and mental chronometry, augmented by introspective analyses of immediately conscious experience into categories of sensations and feelings. Significantly, however, even as he promoted these studies Wundt also argued that experimental methods were only applicable to those psychological phenomena lying close to the border of physiology, and not to the ‘‘higher’’ mental processes including memory and thinking. The latter, he argued, involved supraindividual, communal processes such as language and custom, which had to be studied by comparative and historical methods rather than laboratory manipulations in a separate discipline he called Vo¨lkerpsychologie. Wundt also described his overall approach to psychology as ‘‘voluntaristic,’’ because it stressed that the higher mental processes occurring at the center of consciousness entailed an inherently unpredictable and sometimes creative process he called ‘‘apperception’’ (as opposed to simple perception), unbound by the mechanistic laws of association. An ardent German nationalist, Wundt fell out of vogue in English-speaking countries during

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World War I, and only fragments of his voluminous works have been translated. Further, a later generation of psychologists spearheaded by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), who invented ‘‘nonsense syllables’’ as a vehicle for the experimental investigation of memory, vigorously challenged Wundt’s assumptions regarding the limitations of experimental methods. Modern cognitive science routinely investigates many phenomena that Wundt would have considered out of bounds. But still, legitimate debate continues about the ultimate limitations of mechanistic and experimental analysis, as in the discussions about strong versus weak Artificial Intelligence. Since the 1970s a small but growing number of anglophone historians have called attention to the contemporary relevance of many of Wundt’s works. See also Helmholtz, Hermann; Psychology. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources

Translated by Edward Leroy Schaub. London, 1916. Translation of parts of Wundt’s ten-volume Vo¨lkerpsychologie. ———. Principles of Physiological Psychology. Translated by Edward Bradford Titchener. Reprint, New York, 1969. Translation of portions of the fifth German edition (1902) of Grundzu ¨ ge der physiologischen Psychologie, criticized by some historians as providing a misleading picture of Wundt’s overall psychology.

Secondary Sources Bringmann, Wolfgang G., and Ryan D. Tweney, eds. Wundt Studies: A Centennial Collection. Toronto, 1980. Several important articles on Wundt prepared to mark the centennial of his first laboratory in Leipzig. Fancher, Raymond E. ‘‘Wilhelm Wundt and the Establishment of Experimental Psychology.’’ In his Pioneers of Psychology, 3rd ed., 145–185. New York, 1996. Rieber, Robert W., and David K. Robinson, eds. Wilhelm Wundt in History: The Making of a Scientific Psychology. New York, 2001. Presents important aspects of the modern reevaluation of Wundt’s work.

Wundt, Wilhelm. Elements of Folk Psychology: Outlines of a Psychological History of the Development of Mankind.

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YEATS, WILLIAM BUTLER (1865– 1939), Irish poet. ‘‘I had three interests,’’ William Butler Yeats wrote in 1919, ‘‘interest in a form of literature, in a form of philosophy, and a belief in nationality.’’ Throughout a long life of exceptional creativity, Yeats was to try and hammer these thoughts into a unity. Drawing on his ancient Irish culture, he strove after a uniquely modern image of artistic, political, and spiritual wholeness. His heroic commitment to his task obliged Yeats to engage with his times as both a public and a private man. In so doing, the Irishman created some of the most important European poetry of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Yeats’s interest in nationality places him against Ireland’s struggle to find its political independence from imperial England as well as its own unique cultural identity. In his youth, Yeats was greatly influenced in these matters by the commanding figure of John O’Leary (1830–1907), who, at Dublin’s Contemporary Club, offered Yeats the influential notion of an elite Irish intelligentsia steeped in traditional values and strongly antibourgeois in its sentiments. O’Leary also opened his library to Yeats, where the poet began to find in his Celtic inheritance the ideals and images that could foster a sense of nationhood. This initiative, called for its dreamy qualities the Celtic Twilight, led to Yeats’s exploring versions of Irish folklore, to the recovery of

mythical Irish heroes in The Wanderings of Oisin (1889) and, most fruitfully perhaps, to the lyrics gathered in that early masterpiece of the Irish Literary Renaissance: The Wind among the Reeds (1899). These poems, inspired by a sense of magical Ireland and hopes for the mystical transformation of loathed Victorian materialism—ideas nurtured by such mentors in London as William Morris (1834–1896) and Oscar Wilde (1854– 1900)—lead to a consideration of Yeats’s occult interests. Yeats lost his Christian faith as a boy, but his naturally spiritual temperament was homesick. He would soon turn to occultism, the belief that the supernatural can be approached through ritual and incantation. A profound study of the English Romantic poet William Blake (1757–1827) showed Yeats the importance of a spiritual life rooted in the imagination, and he joined Madame Blavatsky’s Theosophists in London before becoming a member of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Drawing on the widest traditions of the occult and defiantly opposed to materialism, the Order’s rituals appeared to offer its members a shared, instinctual, and numinous experience of life that could be felt as spiritual release. Such impulses inform the lyrics of The Rose (1893), which also contains Yeats’s most famous and popular evocation of romantic Ireland, ‘‘The Lake Isle of Innisfree.’’ In this poem, the exquisitely subtle vowel sounds create a mood of dreaming and escape into a redemptive world of vividly realized natural beauty as the poet imagines living alone in the

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‘‘bee-loud glade.’’ Here is Yeats’s early style of Celtic Twilight at its finest. Among the members of the Golden Dawn was the woman who was to dominate much of Yeats’s life: the wildly beautiful and politically radical Maude Gonne (1866–1953), whose passionate commitment to Irish independence further inflamed Yeats’s own. Their long, often painful relationship is deeply woven into Irish nationalist history, nowhere more vividly than when, in 1902, Gonne played the eponymous heroine of Yeats’s play Cathleen ni Houlihan, a drama which examines the ruthless demands made by nationalism. Yeats was greatly aided in the writing of this play by another woman friend: Lady Isabella Augusta Gregory (1852–1932), a patrician Anglo-Irish widow who, in middle age, was discovering her own formidable literary talent. Together they founded the Abbey Theatre, which had an incalculable influence on the flowering of Irish drama, not least through promoting Yeats’s own dramatic works and above all the plays of J. M. Synge (1871–1909). Meanwhile, the life at Lady Gregory’s house at Coole moved Yeats’s own thought in an ever more aristocratic direction, impulses deepened by his reading of Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). These influences led to a greater firmness and directness in Yeats’s poetic style and subject matter, qualities to be seen in ‘‘To a Wealthy Man who Promised a Second Subscription to the Dublin Municipal Gallery if It Were Proved the People Wanted Pictures.’’ Celtic Twilight was fading before a horror of mass society, and Yeats now excoriated the majority of Dubliners as philistines unworthy of his ideal Ireland. He was caught unawares, however, by the Easter Uprising against the British and so by the deep, unflinching, reckless nationalism of men such as Patrick Henry Pearse (1879–1916). In his great poem on the subject, ‘‘Easter 1916,’’ Yeats, deeply stirred, attempted a mixture of impartiality and wonderment as he realized how from this event, futile although it appeared, ‘‘a terrible beauty is born.’’ Yeats’s poetry—inspired by the occult, honed in its vigor, and politically informed—was beginning to stare at the ineluctable violence that lies at the heart of the twentieth century. See also Blake, William; Ireland; Morris, William; Wilde, Oscar.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Yeats, William Butler. Autobiographies. London, 1955. ———. The Variorum Edition of the Poems of W. B. Yeats. Edited by Peter Allt and Russell K. Alspach. New York, 1957. ———. The Variorum Edition of the Plays of W. B. Yeats. Edited by Russell K. Alspach. London, 1966.

Secondary Sources Coote, Stephen. W. B. Yeats: A Life. London, 1997. Ellmann, Richard. Yeats: The Man and the Masks. Rev. ed. London, 1979. Finneran, Richard, ed. Yeats: An Annual of Critical and Textual Studies. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1983–. Foster, Roy. W. B. Yeats: A Life. 2 vols. Oxford, U.K., 1997–2003. Harper, George Mills. The Making of Yeats’s ‘‘A Vision.’’ 2 vols. London, 1987. Henn, T. R. The Lonely Tower: Studies in the Poetry of W. B. Yeats. London, 1950. STEPHEN COOTE

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YOUNG CZECHS AND OLD CZECHS. Following the suppression of the 1848 revolutions in the Habsburg lands, political activity was outlawed, but the failures of this ‘‘neoabsolutist’’ system, especially the losses in the Italian War of 1859, caused Emperor Francis Joseph to change course. As a result, the so-called constitutional era in the Austrian Empire was launched in 1860, and provincial diets reappeared, an imperial parliament (the Reichsrat) was established in Vienna, and political parties were founded. In Prague, Czech leaders, led by Frantisˇek Palacky´ and his son-in-law Frantisˇek L. Rieger, created the Czech National Party, whose goals were the political autonomy of the Bohemian crown lands of the empire on the basis of the traditional state rights of the old Kingdom of Bohemia, and greater rights for Czech language and culture. Because elections were carried out according to a restrictive curial system, which weighted votes in favor of wealthy landowners and urban elites, the party made a tactical alliance with the conservative great landowners, who shared their desire for provincial autonomy. Although the 1867 Ausgleich (compromise), which

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created the new country of Austria-Hungary out of the old empire, expanded political and individual rights in the Bohemian crown lands, it represented a setback for the Czech program because it established German dominance in the western, or ‘‘Austrian,’’ half of the monarchy. In response, the National Party launched a program of passive resistance, refusing to participate in the local diets and the imperial parliament. From its origins, the National Party had incorporated two factions, the conservative Old Czechs and the progressive Young Czechs—the name of the latter reflecting not the age of its members, but rather its initial identification with liberal nationalist movements such as ‘‘Young Germany’’ and ‘‘Young Poland’’ that had been inspired by the Italian ideologue, Giuseppe Mazzini. The split in the Czech national camp became apparent in a debate over the Polish revolt against Russia in 1863. The more conservative wing around Palacky´ and Rieger, although critical of tsarist policies, continued to support Russian leadership of the Slavic world, whereas liberals condemned the Russians as oppressors, and a small group of radical polonophiles sought to aid the Poles directly. In addition, the Young Czechs questioned the need for an alliance with the landed aristocrats, and developed an interpretation of Bohemian state rights that de-emphasized its feudal aspects. They combined their demands for greater democracy with a program of strident nationalism and occasional anticlericalism designed to appeal to the broad masses. Chafing under the restrictions of passive resistance, the Young Czechs broke with the National Party, establishing a new party, the National Liberal Party, in 1874, and resuming participation in the government. In 1878 the Old Czechs also abandoned passive resistance and made an agreement with the Young Czechs to promote the national agenda. This coalition, led by the Old Czechs, supported the government of Austrian Minister-President (prime minister) Eduard Taaffe, which came to power in 1879, in return for concessions on national issues. The diminishing returns of this agreement caused the Young Czechs to end their cooperation with the Old Czechs in 1888. Following a controversial agreement negotiated by the Old Czechs in 1890 that gave

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significant concessions to the Bohemian Germans, the Young Czechs unseated their rivals in the 1891 elections to the imperial parliament. The Young Czech victory was in many ways a protest against the Old Czechs, and it transformed the party from a small radical nucleus into a broad coalition encompassing disparate segments of Czech society. Once in power, party leaders lost touch with the more radical elements that had brought them to victory. As a result, several new, mostly small, parties, advocating a variety of progressive reforms, emerged to challenge the Young Czechs. At the same time, the expansion of the franchise opened the way for a transfer of political power away from parties of notables such as the Old and Young Czechs to mass-based parties of interest, such as the Social Democrats and the Agrarian Party. The Young Czechs lost their leading role in Czech politics in 1907, following the first elections to the imperial parliament on the basis of universal male suffrage. They continued to exert significant influence in provincial and municipal politics, where the curial system remained in effect. Increasingly identified as the party of business and banking interests, the Young Czechs emerged after the fall of the empire as the Czechoslovak National Democratic Party, one of the five influential parties that set the political course in the interwar Czechoslovak Republic. See also Austria-Hungary; Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia; Masaryk, Toma´ˇs Garrigue; Palacky´, Frantisˇek. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Garver, Bruce M. The Young Czech Party, 1874–1901, and the Emergence of a Multi-party System. New Haven, Conn., 1978. Sˇolle, Zdeneˇk. Stoletı´ cˇeske´ politiky: Poca´tky modernı´ cˇeske´ politiky od Palacke´ho a Havlı´cka az po realisty Kaizla, Krama´re a Masaryka. Prague, 1998. ˇ echa´ch. Vojteˇch, Toma´sˇ. Mladocˇesˇi a boj o politickou moc v C Prague, 1980. CLAIRE E. NOLTE

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1830s and the mid-1840s. They flourished in the middle of the period between the (successful) Revolution of 1830 in France, when the reactionary Charles X (r. 1824–1830) was deposed, and the (unsuccessful) wave of revolutions that swept Europe in 1848. The Young Hegelians were thus both the product and the producers of the potent mixture of religion, philosophy, and politics that fermented in Germany during that seminal period. Their leading members were David Friedrich Strauss, Arnold Ruge, Bruno and Edgar Bauer, August Cieszkowski, Ludwig Feuerbach, Max Stirner (Johann Kaspar Schmidt), Moses Hess, Karl Marx, and Friedrich Engels. It is impossible to speak of a ‘‘movement’’ before about 1840, when the increasingly radical position of the Hallische Jahrbu ¨ cher, their principal organ, provided a rallying point. They were at the beginning exclusively preoccupied with religious questions, and, as Ruge later remarked, the extent to which the origins of the Hegelian School were theological can be measured by the fact that it was the purely theological Das Leben Jesu (1835; Life of Jesus) by Strauss that had the most influence on its development. Apart from art and literature, religion was the only field where different alignments and relatively free debate were possible. Because of the censorship almost all newspapers were merely pale reflections of the government’s views. Genuinely political arguments among the Young Hegelians did not appear before about 1840, when the accession of Frederick William IV (r. 1840–1861) and the attendant relaxation of press censorship opened the newspapers for a short time to their propaganda. The focal point of the Young Hegelians was the University of Berlin. Almost all of them— Bruno and Edgar Bauer, Cieszkowski, Feuerbach, Stirner, Marx, and Engels—had studied philosophy in Berlin. Hess and Ruge were the only important exceptions. Several of them—Bruno and Edgar Bauer, Feuerbach, Ruge—had followed the example of Hegel in beginning their studies with theology, only later switching to philosophy. All came from well-to-do, middle-class families, such as could afford to send their sons to a university. For the Young Hegelians were an extremely intellectual group for which a university education was essential, Hess being the only self-educated member.

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Apart from Hess and Engels—both to some extent autodidacts in philosophy since their fathers wished them to go into the family business—all the Young Hegelians wished to go on to teach in some form or another, most of them in universities, though Stirner taught in a high school. Their misfortune was that, owing to their unorthodox ideas, the universities were gradually closed to them and they found themselves without jobs and cut off from society. With this background it is not surprising that the Young Hegelians should put such emphasis on the role of ideas and theory. They were essentially a philosophical school and their approach to religion and politics was always intellectual. Their philosophy is best called a speculative rationalism; for to their romantic and idealist elements they added the sharp critical tendencies of the Aufkla¨rung (Enlightenment) and an admiration for the principles of the French Revolution. The second half of Feuerbach’s Das Wesen des Christenthums (1841; Essence of Christianity) was full of the old Aufkla¨rung arguments against religion; Bruno and Edgar Bauer made long historical studies of the French Revolution, as did Marx also; and the Young Hegelians in general were very fond of comparing themselves either to the ‘‘mountain’’ or to individual revolutionaries of that time. They believed in reason as a continually unfolding process and conceived it their task to be its heralds. They radicalized still further Hegel’s conception of religion as a prelude to philosophy by denying the possibility of any supernatural revelation. Like Hegel, they believed that this process would achieve an ultimate unity, but they tended—especially Bruno Bauer—to believe that it would be immediately preceded by an ultimate division. This meant that some of their writings had an apocalyptic ring, for they thought it their duty by their criticism to force divisions to a final rupture and thus to their complete resolution. The sometimes fantastic views of the Young Hegelians, views that Marx was later led to call mockingly ‘‘pregnant with world revolution,’’ were helped, firstly, by their impression that they lived in an age of transition and at the dawn of a completely new era. Their apocalyptic tendencies

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were increased by their position as jobless intellectuals on the margin of society. Having no roots in the society that they were criticizing, they could allow their ideas to range at will. Second, the Young Hegelians placed great faith in the power of ideas; here again Bauer was the most outstanding example. The German poet and critic Heinrich Heine (1797–1856) had already said that thought preceded action as lightning did thunder. It was precisely in this ‘‘trailblazing’’ that the Young Hegelians were engaged. Marx echoed this thought in his first piece of serious writing, the doctoral dissertation of 1841, when he wrote, following Bruno Bauer, that even the practice of philosophy was itself theoretical. Even when some of the Young Hegelians began to express their ideas in purely political terms, this idea of the independence and primacy of theory still held sway. Their watchword was ‘‘critique’’— of religion, philosophy, and politics. They echoed the famous declaration of the young Mikhail Bakunin, at the time himself in contact with several of the Young Hegelians, that ‘‘the joy of destruction in itself is a creative joy.’’ This implacably critical impulse led through a rejection of any form of Christianity and an idealized aspiration toward democracy to the solipsistic anarchy of Max Stirner. Although the Young Hegelians had ceased to exist as a coherent force by 1844, they acted as a matrix in which several of the most important elements of European thought gestated. Strauss and Bruno Bauer began a radical critique of the New Testament that continues to this day in biblical studies, as does Feuerbach’s humanist reading of religion in contemporary ‘‘death of God’’ theologies. Stirner’s ne plus ultra of egoism in his book Der Einzige und sein Eigentum (1844; The ego and its own) has been seen as one of the founding documents of anarchism and a precursor of, and possible influence on, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844–1900). And, of course, in the evolution of Marx’s ideas, a radical interpretation of Hegel was an essential addition to French socialism and English economics. Thus the influence of the Young Hegelian secularization of Christian eschatology has proved more influential and lasting than many at the time would have expected.

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See also Bakunin, Mikhail; Berlin; Engels, Friedrich; Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich; Revolutions of 1848.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brazill, William J. The Young Hegelians. New Haven, Conn., 1970. McLellan, David. The Young Hegelians and Karl Marx. London, 1969. Stepelevich, Lawrence S., ed. The Young Hegelians: An Anthology. Cambridge, U.K., 1983. DAVID MCLELLAN

n

YOUNG ITALY. Young Italy, a secret political association, was founded by Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872) in Marseilles in July 1831 to promote the fight for Italian independence and unity. Mazzini had taken up residence in the French port city to avoid serving a sentence of confinement for his political activities. At the time of his departure from Italy, the success of revolution of July 1830 in France encouraged Italians to expect a similar outcome on their country. Mazzini founded Young Italy after attempts at revolution in Italy were put down with the help of Austrian intervention. Young Italy recruited in Italy and among political exiles abroad in competition with other patriotic societies. The name indicated Mazzini’s faith that the young would succeed where radicals of the older generation had failed, and his disappointment with the revolutionary tactics of the Carboneria, the secret society behind the unsuccessful revolutions of 1820–1821 and 1830–1831. But although Young Italy targeted those between the ages of twenty and thirty-five, it excluded no one on the basis of age or sex. Mazzini hoped that Young Italy would serve as an umbrella organization for patriots who accepted its basic principles of republicanism, social justice, faith in the people, and in Italy’s revolutionary mission. Its membership was secret out of necessity, but unlike other secret societies that kept their aims and programs shrouded in mystery, Young Italy proclaimed its intentions openly, recruited broadly, and disseminated its message in print and by word of mouth.

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Young Italy’s religious ethos reflected Mazzini’s conviction that commitment requires a firm religious basis. Its members were called apostles, held to high standards of personal conduct, enjoined to appeal to ideals and principles rather than material interests, and to bring the word to the masses, without whose support no revolution could succeed. A firm believer in the importance of political education, Mazzini published the journal Giovine Italia and saw to it that copies were smuggled into Italy. But Young Italy did not confine itself to long-term political education. It also conspired to promote revolution and guerrilla warfare based on the theories developed by Mazzini’s close collaborator, Carlo Bianco di Saint-Jorioz (1795–1843), in the book Della Guerra nazionale d’insurrezione per bande (1828; On the national war of insurrection by bands). Members of Young Italy pledged to destroy tyrants and keep ready a dagger, a gun, and fifty rounds of ammunition for action on short notice. Young Italy was a remarkable achievement considering the difficulties that it faced. Funds were not a serious problem, for its activities were bankrolled by well-off Lombard exiles. But that created another problem for Mazzini, for the same exiles demanded a voice in decisions that he did not want to share. Other secret societies regarded Young Italy as a rival and sabotaged its work. The reformed Carboneria, headed by the old Jacobin Filippo Michele Buonarroti (1761–1837) and the society Veri Italiani (True Italians), both advocating a materialistic philosophy abhorrent to Mazzini, were Young Italy’s most formidable rivals in the political underground. Spies infiltrated its ranks and police crackdowns disrupted its operations. Rapid communication and coordination of efforts in the Italian states, France, and Switzerland, where Young Italy was active, presented insurmountable problems. Wildly inflated estimates put Young Italy’s membership at around 140,000 in 1833, but even a membership of no more than a few thousand would have been a remarkable achievement under the circumstances. Whatever the numbers, Young Italy attracted the most idealistic and best educated Italians and constituted the first broadly based revolutionary movement in Italy.

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In 1833 and 1834 Young Italy suffered a series of reverses that destroyed its effectiveness, the last and most severe setback occurring in February 1834 when armed incursions into Savoy from France and Switzerland failed to spark the popular uprising on which Mazzini counted for success. Mazzini revived Young Italy in London in the 1840s. This new version, which is sometimes referred to as the second Young Italy, differed from the first in paying less attention to political conspiracy and more to political education. It was particularly popular among Italian students, who did not remember the failures of the first Young Italy and revered the name of Mazzini. It was flanked by a workers’ union and had branches in North America and South America. It contributed to the political climate that led to the revolutions of 1848, but played no direct role in the revolutions; it was replaced by other Mazzinian organizations after 1848. The name was replicated by other militant democratic movements, including Young Ireland in the 1840s and Young America in the 1850s. See also Carbonari; Mazzini, Giuseppe; Nationalism. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hales, Edward E. Y. Mazzini and the Secret Societies: The Making of a Myth. New York, 1956. Sarti, Roland. Mazzini: A Life for the Religion of Politics. Westport, Conn., 1997. ROLAND SARTI

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YOUNG TURKS. Between 1828 and 1867, the phrase Young Turk was used to denote those Ottoman intellectuals and statesmen advocating liberal reforms and a constitutional regime for the Ottoman Empire. Specifically, when a number of leading Ottoman intellectuals fled the Ottoman capital to organize an opposition movement in Paris financed by the Egyptian prince Mustafa Faˆzıl (1829–1875) the European press called them Young Turks. Turkish historiography labels this group the Young Ottomans. Later on, British and French diplomatic correspondence used the terms Young Turk and The Young Turkey Party to refer to those statesmen who supported the movement for a constitution. E U R O P E

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Following the end of the short-lived constitutional regime in 1878, both Ottomans and Europeans referred in general to the opponents of the regime of Sultan Abdu¨lhamid II (r. 1876– 1909) as the Young Turks. It was the Ottoman Freemasons who, in 1893, first formally named their political branch The Committee of Young Turkey at Constantinople. Then, in 1895, the main opposition group, the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress, advertized its French journal as ‘‘Organe de la Jeune Turquie.’’ From this point on, the phrase Young Turk was used among Ottoman subjects (of all religions) to denote opposition organizations dominated by Muslim dissidents. YOUNG TURK MOVEMENT: IDEAS AND POLICIES

The Young Turk movement took place in Europe and British-ruled Egypt between 1878 and 1908. Members of this movement founded a host of political parties, committees, and leagues to topple the absolutist regime of Abdu¨lhamid II and replace it with a constitutional monarchy. Although their European contemporaries and many scholars commonly labeled the Young Turks liberals and constitutionalists, these traits were promoted by a small minority in the movement. Members of the major Young Turk organizations did not adopt liberal ideas and viewed constitutionalism merely as a device to stave off great-power intervention in the Ottoman Empire. The initial activities of the Young Turks did not go further than the publication of a few journals. In 1889, the major Young Turk organization was established in the Royal Medical Academy, which originally called itself the Ottoman Union Committee. After protracted negotiations between the original founders and Ahmed Rıza (1859–1930), who led the Young Turk movement intermittently between 1895 and 1908, the name was changed to the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress. This new title reflected the staunch positivism of Ahmed Rıza, who had unsuccessfully proposed naming the group ‘‘Order and Progress,’’ after the famous aphorism of philosopher Auguste Comte (1798– 1857). This committee, which remained the most

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important Young Turk organization until the end of the movement, was a loose umbrella organization until 1902. While some branches supported the gradual reform program of the positivists, others advocated revolution; still others were dominated by the ulema, the Muslim learned establishment. In 1902, a schism developed in Paris at the First Congress of Ottoman Opposition Parties. The majority party, led by the sultan’s brotherin-law Mahmud Celaˆleddin Pasha and his two sons Sabahaddin and Luˆtfullah Beys, allied itself with Armenian and Albanian committees. They promoted the idea of a coup with British assistance. This willingness to work with foreign powers sparked the opposition of the minority party, under the leadership of Ahmed Rıza. It adopted a Turkist policy, demanding a leadership role for Turks, and categorically rejecting any foreign intervention in Ottoman politics. The majority party reorganized itself in 1905 under Sabahaddin Bey’s leadership; in that year Sabahaddin Bey also founded the League of Private Initiative and Decentralization, and he worked toward creating a mutual understanding with the non-Muslim organizations. Also in 1905, the minority party, under the leadership of Bahaeddin S˛akir, reorganized itself under the new name, the Ottoman Committee of Progress and Union. In 1907 this new organization merged with the Ottoman Freedom Society, which had been established by army officers and bureaucrats in Salonica in 1906. From this point on, the Young Turk movement spread deeply among the Ottoman officer corps in European Turkey. In July 1908, the Ottoman Committee of Progress and Union carried out the Constitutional Revolution, which marked both the end of Abdul-Hamid II’s regime and the Young Turk movement. Some European historians call the new administration ‘‘the Young Turk government.’’ This usage is misleading, because actually both regime and opposition after 1908 came from former Young Turks. Because all members of organizations dominated by the Muslim opponents of the sultan and their sympathizers in the empire were called

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Young Turks, this phrase does not necessarily refer to individuals who shared similar ideas. For instance, ulema and ardent positivists worked together in various Young Turk organizations as members. In the early stages of the movement, many Young Turks, including the original founders of the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress, were adherents of mid-nineteenthcentury German materialism and admirers of Ludwig Bu ¨ chner (1824–1899). Social Darwinism also deeply influenced many Young Turks. Positivism, too, was advanced by various Young Turk leaders, and the French organ of the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress used the positivist calendar for a while. Interestingly, French social scientist Gustave Le Bon (1841–1931) and his theories on crowd psychology made a strong impact on almost all members of the movement. Le Bon’s ideas shaped the elitism promoted by the Young Turks. For their part, Sabahaddin Bey and his followers were deeply influenced by the Science sociale movement, particularly by Edmond Demolins (1852–1907). (The Science sociale

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movement aimed at turning social research into a branch of science through scientific research and creating a truly scientific method of study and analysis of social phenomena.) Following the reorganization of the Ottoman Committee of Progress and Union, these ideas receded to the background. Practical political ideas took their place. For instance, a proto-nationalism emerged. It stressed a dominant role for ethnic Turks in the empire, while resisting European economic penetration and political intervention in the Ottoman Empire. See also Nationalism; Ottoman Empire. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hanio glu, M. S˛u¨kru¨. The Young Turks in Opposition. New York, 1995. ———. Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902–1908. New York, 2001. Petrosian, Iu. A. Mladoturetskoe dvizhenie: vtoraia polovina XIX-nachalo XX v. Moscow, 1971. M. S˛U¨KRU¨ HANIOG˘ LU

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Z n

ZASULICH, VERA (1849–1919), Russian revolutionary. Born 8 August (27 July, old style) 1849 into a family of impoverished lesser nobility and raised by well-to-do relatives in Smolensk province of imperial Russia, Vera Zasulich first encountered radical ideas when she began attending boarding school in Moscow in 1866. The radicals of the 1860s, critical of the social, political, and cultural order associated with serfdom, regarded gender differences as irrelevant to the struggle against it, and welcomed the participation of women. Yekaterina, the eldest Zasulich sister, introduced Vera to members of the radical Ishutin circle who remained at liberty after Dmitri Karakozov’s attempted assassination of the tsar, Alexander II. In the summer of 1868, Vera Zasulich settled in St. Petersburg, where she participated in work collectives and then taught in an evening literacy school for workers. There she met the notorious revolutionary Sergei Nechayev, whom she served briefly as a go-between, her only oppositional act thus far. It led to her arrest in April 1869. Released two years later, she was imprisoned again in the summer of 1872, then sent into exile. These years, a time of deprivation and suffering, cemented Zasulich’s commitment to the destruction of the state. Following her release in September 1875, Zasulich went to Kiev, where she joined the revolutionary Southern Insurgents, and assumed an illegal existence. In the group she met and became involved with Lev Deich, with whom

she lived whenever circumstances permitted until Deich’s arrest in 1884. In December 1876 Zasulich returned to St. Petersburg; joined the recently established group Land and Liberty, devoted to peasant revolution; and worked in its underground press and at planning comrades’ prison escapes. In July 1877 she learned of the flogging of a political prisoner, Arkhip Bogolyubov, ordered by Fyodor Trepov, the governor-general of St. Petersburg, and, outraged, vowed retribution for an act she deemed immoral. Zasulich’s attempted assassination of Trepov the following January won her fame in Russia and abroad. Although she shot at close range, Zasulich only wounded Trepov; then, prepared to accept the consequences of her action, she made no effort to defend herself or flee. Promptly arrested, she was tried and acquitted by a jury at the end of March, then released. Zasulich’s acquittal brought the end of jury trials for political crimes. To avoid being arrested again on government orders, she escaped to Geneva, where she remained until 1905 except for two brief, clandestine trips to Russia and three years spent in London. Liberals and radicals in Russia and Europe applauded Zasulich’s acquittal. Russian radicals understood it to indicate widespread popular sympathy for their aims, and it encouraged exponents of terrorism among the fracturing populist movement. Zasulich was not among them. Instead, she rejected terrorism as a political tactic. In August 1879, during a brief visit to Russia, she joined the short-lived Black Repartition, which favored the

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revival of agitation among the peasantry. Abroad, she gradually moved from a peasant-oriented to a Marxist view of social transformation. In September 1883 Zasulich became one of the founders of Russia’s first Marxist organization, the Emancipation of Labor Group. It took seven more years, however, before she fully abandoned her faith in the peasant commune and Russia’s ability to bypass capitalism, and became convinced that only the proletariat, a group just emerging in Russia, could make a socialist revolution. Her views were congruent with those known as Menshevism after 1903: the proletariat would assume its historical role only after an extended period of maturation and preparation by radical intellectuals.

Zasulich, Vera. ‘‘Vera Zasulich.’’ In Five Sisters: Women against the Tsar, edited and translated by Barbara Alpern Engel and Clifford N. Rosenthal, 59–94. New York, 1975. Translation of Vospominaniia (1931).

Secondary Sources Bergman, Jay. Vera Zasulich: A Biography. Stanford, Calif., 1983. BARBARA ALPERN ENGEL

n

ZIONISM. First used in public on 23 January

See also Mensheviks; Nechayev, Sergei; Populists; Socialism.

1892 by Nathan Birnbaum, Zionism is the term used for the main Jewish nationalist movement that originated in central and eastern Europe in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Zionism’s main ideological claim was that the Jews were not simply an ethnic or religious minority group but were rather a distinct, if dispersed, people—a nation. As such, Jews could never be fully integrated into their host societies, and indeed should not; instead they needed, and had a right to, their own state, in their national homeland, Palestine, or, as most Zionists came to call it, Eretz Israel (Hebrew for ‘‘Land of Israel’’). Zionism therefore rejected the main integrative, assimilationist strategy of the movement for Jewish emancipation that started in the late eighteenth century. Zionism’s relation to this movement was, however, highly ambivalent, for while many Zionists insisted on a distinct cultural and national identity for Jews, many others, including its founding figure and initial leader, Theodor Herzl, also saw the movement as a means of integrating the Jews into the rest of civilized society, but on a national rather than individual level. Jews were to be, therefore, a ‘‘normal’’ nation, but they were also to be a model ‘‘normal’’ nation: pioneers in technology, culture, progressive social causes, and pluralist tolerance, and at the center of world civilization. Zionism, therefore, rather than ‘‘solving’’ the Jewish Question, as was claimed for it, came to reflect the complex, dialectical relationship between particularism and universalism that marked Jewish emancipation and indeed modern Jewish history generally.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

JEWS AND NATIONALISM

Reserved and self-effacing, Zasulich never sought visibility or political authority, despite the level of respect she garnered from the Left. During her years abroad, she established links with European socialists; wrote political analyses and historical/biographical studies; edited e´migre´ publications, most notably the Marxist periodical Iskra (The spark); worked to assist revolutionaries in Russia; and devoted considerable energy to preserving unity in the fractious e´migre´ movement. When the Russian Social Democrats split in 1903, Zasulich sided with the Mensheviks. Eager to be on the scene, she returned to Russia in the fall of 1905; the failure of the Revolution of 1905 marked the end of her active participation in revolutionary politics. When World War I broke out in 1914, Zasulich supported Russia’s participation against Germany, because she considered German imperialism a threat to international socialism. Following the revolution of February 1917, Zasulich backed the Menshevik policy of collaboration with liberals in the Provisional Government; in her view, the October Revolution perverted Marxism. Her health was seriously failing by then, weakened by the tuberculosis she had contracted in 1889, and from which she had suffered since. Zasulich died of pneumonia on 8 May 1919.

Primary Sources Koni, A. F. Vospominaniia o dele Very Zasulich. Moscow, 1933.

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Zionism differed markedly from almost all other European nationalisms in the period, even diasporic nationalisms such as that of the Greeks, by having

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only a marginal overlap between people and territory. There were some Jews in the Jewish ‘‘homeland’’ in Palestine, but Jews were far from being a majority in the area, and had no political control or recognized claim to the territory. The vast bulk of Jews lived outside of Palestine: the Sephardic Jews were scattered mainly across the lands, current and former, of the Ottoman Empire as well as parts of western Europe and the Americas; the Ashkenazi Jews were concentrated in central and eastern Europe, especially the area of the Russian Empire known as the Pale. This discrepancy between people and territory was an accepted part of premodern, traditional Jewish life and thought. Jews thought of themselves as a people, living as they did in autonomous communities, apart from, and usually discriminated against by, the surrounding societies. Yet they did not see themselves in modern nationalist terms, and their dispersion was explained, and justified, in religious terms, with an ingathering of the Jewish people to the homeland in Palestine seen almost exclusively in connection with the coming of the Messiah. This situation became untenable with the onset of the modern state and its concomitant, secular nationalism, in the late eighteenth century. Jewish autonomy was abolished as part of the centralization of state power, and the spread of secular nationalism, associated most strongly with the French Revolution, was a direct challenge to the Jews’ traditional group identity. The modernizers within western and central European Jewry, including the neo-Orthodox, initially responded by defining Jewish identity exclusively in individual religious terms, thus denying any secular Jewish group (i.e., national) identity. Many even removed any vestigial mention in the liturgy of the wish to return to Zion as an outdated confusion that might hamper the full identification of Jews with their respective nations, whether French, German, or any other. This ‘‘assimilationist’’ strategy was effective as long as the national identity in question was inclusive, civic, and not seriously challenged by competing national identities. Where the nation gained an ethnic or racial, hence exclusive, definition, or where nationalities competed for regional supremacy, as in the empires of central and eastern Europe, the strategy’s success was not so clear: Jews were not accepted as members

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of the nation because of their different ethnicity and traditional prejudices against them. It was also unclear to which national group Jews should try to belong: in Bohemia, for instance, German, Czech, or ‘‘Austrian’’? In this way, Jews often became caught in the crossfire between competing nationalisms. JEWISH NATIONALISM

There was also a more positive possibility arising from the Jewish confrontation with nationalism. In areas such as the Russian Pale, where Jews were in sufficient numbers to retain a strong group identity, the option presented itself of Jews imitating the other groups around them by themselves forming their own ‘‘nation.’’ Hence Russian Jewish intellectuals, led by Perez Smolenskin, developed in the 1860s their own brand of secular Jewish nationalism, alongside all the others. Initially, however, most of the proponents of this secular Jewish national identity thought it could be realized in Europe in deterritorialized form. Most saw no need for the apparently impossible project of mass immigration of Jews to Palestine. There were, admittedly, calls from the early nineteenth century from various sources, including several British Christian evangelicals and Benjamin Disraeli, for the Jews’ return to their biblical homeland, and the connection between the rediscovery of Jewish identity and the reclaiming of Zion was the centerpiece of George Eliot’s novel Daniel Deronda, published in 1876. A prominent German Jewish intellectual, Moses Hess, once an avowed supporter of total Jewish integration in a socialist society, in his book Rome and Jerusalem (1862), also lent his voice to the call for recognition of Jewish nationhood and the restoration of a Jewish state in Palestine. Until the very end of the 1870s, however, very few held this view. In western and central Europe the strategy of assimilation, or at least integration, remained dominant among Jews, and even those, largely in eastern Europe and Russia, who supported a secular Jewish nationalism denied that this necessitated a Jewish state in Palestine. THE LOVERS OF ZION

The radicalization of European nationalism around 1880 brought a sea change in Jewish attitudes. In central Europe the emergence of ‘‘anti-Semitism’’ as a formal political movement began to sow

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doubts in the minds of some supporters of assimilation; and in eastern Europe the success of Slav liberation movements against the Turks led to the rapid growth in Russian elites of Pan-Slavism. The effect of this on Jews was twofold. Some, such as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, were inspired by Slav nationalist success to demand that the Jews also realize their national identity. In Ben-Yehuda’s view this meant that Jews should speak Hebrew, which in turn necessitated their living in their own land, which meant immigrating to Palestine, as he recommended in 1879. Others were dismayed at the ethnonationalist nature of Pan-Slavism, which threatened the status of Jews within the Russian Empire. Their fears were confirmed in 1881 when the assassination of the relatively liberal Tsar Alexander II was followed by a spate of pogroms and a reactionary crackdown under Alexander III. After the pogroms of 1881 most Jewish nationalists, including Smolenskin, became supporters of mass Jewish immigration to Palestine. In many of Russia’s Jewish population centers they formed groups, under the general rubric of Hovevei Ziyyon (Lovers of Zion), to promote this goal. The new rationale of the movement was articulated by Leo Pinsker’s Auto-Emanzipation (1882), which identified anti-Semitism as a psychic disease that was incurable and would bar the acceptance of Jews by European societies. Hence Jews needed to emancipate themselves, and form their own state. Ironically, Pinsker was not at all convinced that this state should be in Palestine, thinking North America a preferable site, but the vast majority of secular Jewish nationalists, with their more ethnocultural understanding of Jewish identity, could recognize only Palestine as the goal of emigration. The new movement gained some unity of purpose at the Kattowitz Conference of 1884, received some financial backing from such figures as Edmond de Rothschild, and did see some land purchases and immigration to Palestine, the ‘‘First Aliyah’’ (literally ‘‘Going Up’’). Overall, however, the Lovers of Zion suffered from a lack of organization, persecution by the Russian authorities, and conflict between the secular and religious factions. Although the pressure to emigrate remained, this could be relieved more easily by settling in America than in Palestine. By the early 1890s, with its initial impetus long gone, the movement was almost defunct.

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THEODOR HERZL AND ‘‘POLITICAL ZIONISM’’

The intervention of a Viennese journalist with no previous connection to Zionism, Theodor Herzl (1860–1904), revived the movement’s fortunes. A fairly typical product of Vienna’s assimilated Jewish liberal bourgeoisie, Herzl had been a liberal German nationalist in his youth, and he held quite a negative opinion of the parvenu Jewish society around him. Increasing concern about anti-Semitism in France (where he was the correspondent of the Neue Freie Presse in Paris from 1891 to 1895) and Austria, and the negative effects of the new, social ‘‘ghetto’’ in which assimilated Jews found themselves as a result, eventually led him to question the wisdom of assimilation. In June 1895, in the wake of the Dreyfus trial in France and, more crucially, the electoral triumph of the anti-Semitic Christian Socials in April that year in Vienna, Herzl came to the radical conclusion that the only way to solve the Jewish Question was for the Jews to recognize that they were a separate people, and should leave Europe to settle in a state of their own, as agreed to by the international community. After failing to win over the western and central European Jewish elite, Herzl started appealing to the Jewish masses, and his plan was published as a pamphlet, Der Judenstaat: Versuch einer modernen Lo¨sung der Judenfrage (The Jewish state: An attempt at a modern solution of the Jewish Question), in February 1896. His call met with an enthusiastic response not among western and central European Jews (at which it was aimed), but rather among eastern European Jews, in the preexisting Zionist movement of which Herzl had been unaware. While in many respects simply repeating the core ideas of Pinsker, Herzl’s plan was more detailed, Herzl himself had a higher prestige, as a ‘‘Western’’ intellectual, and he brought to the ‘‘Jewish cause’’ a remarkable political and organizational flair and energy. Very soon he became the leader of the movement, with Max Nordau, another highly prestigious ‘‘Western’’ intellectual, as his deputy. The initial results of Herzl’s leadership were dramatic: in 1897 he convened the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, and he managed in a very short space of time to create the institutional structures and the appearance of a legitimate, substantial Jewish nationalist movement that firmly

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anchored Zionism in the international political world. His brand of ‘‘political Zionism’’ laid great stress on securing international recognition of and hence legitimacy for the goal of a Jewish state, and the resulting diplomatic campaign saw Herzl meet many of Europe’s heads-of-state, including William II of Germany. This made Zionism respectable and gave it a high profile that was indispensable for its later success. STRUGGLE FOR THE JEWISH FUTURE

Zionism, however, remained weak, and was soon in deep crisis. The movement convinced only a small minority of western and central European Jewry of the need to give up the strategy of integration into European society. Even in eastern Europe, Zionism had to compete with other models of Jewish modernization, such as the socialist Bundists, and within Zionism there were several competing visions of how to proceed. Herzl’s political Zionism, for all its diplomatic glamour, had achieved hardly any success in pursuit of the movement’s main goal: securing the right to a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Its neglect of a distinct, ethnoculturally Jewish content for the new state of the Jews also antagonized the ‘‘cultural Zionists,’’ such as Asher Ginzberg (also known under the pseudonym Ahad Ha’am) and Martin Buber. Herzl’s main goal for his Jews’ state was to act as a refuge from antiSemitism and to transform Jews into ‘‘real humans’’ by making them fully responsible citizens—of their own country. He had (like Pinsker) initially not seen Palestine as the necessary and sole site for his state, and even when he accepted this need, his Zionist vision, as articulated in the novel Altneuland (1902; Old new land), remained one with a progressive, liberal, universalist, pluralist, and humanist character (as befitted his central European Jewish background), rather than one with an identifiably, ethnically Jewish one. Cultural Zionists, in contrast, were intent on promoting a particular, culturally Jewish national identity (especially involving Hebrew as the national language), and saw a Jewish homeland more as a means to that end, rather than as a site for the ‘‘normalization’’ of Jews. ‘‘Practical Zionists’’ also differed from the political Zionists in insisting on the need to pursue colonization of Palestine even before international agreement on this (especially from the Turkish government that ruled Palestine) had been achieved.

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The conflict over the movement’s future culminated in the Uganda Crisis of 1903, when the (largely Russian) opposition protested vehemently at Herzl’s agreement to pursue the prospect of a Jewish colony in British East Africa (‘‘Uganda’’), seeing this as a fatal detour from the goal of Palestine. Herzl achieved a compromise with the rebels, but very soon thereafter, on 3 July 1904, he died of heart disease. In the aftermath of the leader’s death, the movement regrouped, but with power shifting to the ‘‘Russians.’’ The supporters of the idea behind the Uganda project, of a territory that could be a ‘‘night shelter’’ for Jews fleeing anti-Semitism, broke away in 1905 and formed the Jewish Territorial Organization. David Wolffsohn became the new leader and continued the political Zionist strategy of Herzl, negotiating with Turkey for more Jewish rights in Palestine. Meanwhile, however, the goals of the cultural and practical Zionists, to further Jewish educational and economic development, and Jewish settlement, in Palestine, were also pursued. The combination of diplomatic activity and practical activity on the ground, named ‘‘synthetic Zionism’’ by its leading practitioner, Chaim Weizmann, became the dominant trend in the movement, especially after Wolffsohn’s resignation in 1911, and Nordau’s subsequent self-imposed absence. By 1914, Zionism presented a complex and ambivalent picture. On the one hand, it remained riven by factional disputes, with political, cultural, and synthetic Zionists being accompanied by other factions, such as the religious-Orthodox Mizrahi, and the socialist Poale Zion. On the other, however, many of these disputes were taking place in Palestine as well as in Europe because the Second Aliyah, after 1905, had brought a substantial number of Jews to Palestine, and various educational, cultural, and economic institutions had been founded and financed, much of it under the skillful direction of Arthur Ruppin at the Palestine Office of the Jewish National Fund. Moreover, the evident weakness of Turkish rule in the area had led to renewed hopes of a diplomatic breakthrough, which was indeed to occur with the Balfour Declaration of 1917. What remained quite unclear in 1914, and almost entirely unaddressed, was the question of how—assuming its future success—the nascent Zionist colony in the Jewish homeland of Palestine would deal with the fact of the Arab population that already lived there.

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See also Anti-Semitism; Herzl, Theodor; Jews and Judaism; Minorities; Nationalism. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Hertzberg, Arthur, ed. The Zionist Idea: A Historical Analysis and Reader. Garden City, N.Y., 1959. Herzl, Theodor. Old New Land. Translated by Lotta Levensohn. New York, 1960. ———. The Jewish State. Translated by Harry Zohn. New York, 1970.

Secondary Sources Avineri, Shlomo. The Making of Modern Zionism: Intellectual Origins of the Jewish State. New York, 1981. Beller, Steven. Herzl. 2nd ed. London, 2004. Frankel, Jonathan. Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nationalism, and the Russian Jews, 1862–1917. Cambridge, U.K., 1981. Laqueur, Walter. A History of Zionism. New York, 1972. Reprint, with a new preface by the author, New York, 1989. Vital, David. The Origins of Zionism. Oxford, U.K., 1975. ———. Zionism: The Formative Years. Oxford, U.K., 1982. STEVEN BELLER

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´ MILE (1840–1902), French noveZOLA, E list who founded the naturalism movement in literature. The second half of the nineteenth century in France was less prolific of great creative artists who made their presence felt in the realm of politics. A notable exception was E´mile Zola. Born in Paris on 2 April 1840, Zola grew up in Aix-en-Provence where his father, an expatriate Italian engineer, had been engaged to build the dam and canal that now bear his name. Zola’s father died in 1847, shortly before construction began, leaving his family in straitened circumstances. Swindled of shares in the canal company, his widow, Emilie, initiated a lawsuit that lasted for years and haunted her son’s childhood and adolescence. Zola attended the Colle`ge Bourbon on a scholarship. His classmates there included Paul Ce´zanne (1839–1906), with whom he formed a close friendship.

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After Emilie Zola’s case was done inching through provincial courts, she followed it to a higher tribunal in Paris. The year was 1857. Zola completed secondary school up north, at the lyce´e Saint-Louis, in a troubled state of mind. Wanting a literary career but burdened with expectations that he would imitate his father, he failed the baccalaureate examination. This calamity, which coincided with the final, disappointing adjudication of Emilie’s suit, proved to be a blessing in disguise, for in 1862 Zola found employment at the publishing house of Hachette and by 1866 had become its publicity director. Zola’s four years at Hachette shaped his future. He came under the influence of a house author, the philosopher Hippolyte-Adolphe Taine (1828– 1893), whose seminal work, Histoire de la litte´rature franc¸aise (1862–1863), propagated the idea that cultural traits, works of art, and even metaphysical pieties, far from being independent of nature, belong to the material world and warrant material analysis. Epitomized in a celebrated formula—race, milieu, moment (race, environment, historical moment)—this view of human affairs would imbue Zola’s fiction when, during the 1860s, he began to write novels. His animus against literary conventions extended to the realm of fine art, where the E´cole des Beaux-Arts held sway, exercising its academic custodianship through the annual state exhibition, the Salon. In 1865, Zola, guided by Ce´zanne, took up the cudgels for avant-garde painting in a long article on Edouard Manet (1832–1883), later published under separate cover. Distinctly unconventional was Zola’s first important work of fiction, The´re`se Raquin (1867), which reflected his preoccupation with the theories of heredity that abounded in midcentury France. Ten years after the imperial regime had prosecuted Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880) for his ‘‘assault on public morals’’ in Madame Bovary (and lost), it thought better of bringing similar charges against Zola, but The´re`se Raquin nonetheless enjoyed a succe`s de scandale, with one critic citing it as a prime example of crude realism, or what he dubbed la litte´rature putride. One year later, Zola drafted the outline of a saga that was eventually to fill twenty volumes and bear the comprehensive title Les Rougon-Macquart: Histoire naturelle et sociale d’une famille sous le second Empire. Work on it began in great earnest after the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871).

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(1822–1896) every Sunday afternoon during the winter season. Now he became a maıˆtre a` penser in his own right, marshalling his entourage, which included Guy de Maupassant (1850–1893) and Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848–1907), under the banner of naturalism. Well-schooled in publicity, he favored slogans that linked his aesthetics to scientific thought of the day. Claude Bernard’s An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865) is evoked throughout his critical work, where ‘‘naturalism,’’ ‘‘physiology,’’ and ‘‘experimental’’ recur with the obsessiveness of a mantra. This jargon did not please all his prote´ge´s—least of all Maupassant, who chafed at wearing labels. More importantly, it slighted the imaginative brilliance of his own work. During the last few decades of the twentieth century literary scholars, hostage no longer to Zola’s polemical gloss, elucidated the art of his fiction and the mythic structures that demonstrate his affinity to the Romantic generation of French writers. ´ mile Zola. Portrait by Edouard Manet, 1868. MUSE´ D’ORSAY, E PARIS, FRANCE, LAUROS/GIRAUDON/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY

Zola’s purposes in Les Rougon-Macquart were to trace the ramification of a single family through the whole of French society between 1851 and 1870, to describe the various milieux its members inhabit, and to show heredity manifesting itself in the ghosts that pursue them. While earning his livelihood in journalism, he found time to compile for each novel a file or dossier pre´paratoire often bulkier than the novel itself. His motto, nulla dies sine linea, served him well. ‘‘No day without a line’’ resulted in few years without a novel. Journalism supported him until 1876, when the seventh installment of his saga, L’Assommoir—a story that unfolds in a Paris slum—achieved commercial success. Zola’s powerful portrayal of the dissoluteness to which poverty lends itself went hand in hand with his exploitation of working-class argot. Thenceforth, every work he produced was a bestseller. Fame attracted followers. Since 1872 Zola had been a reverent confrere of Flaubert, at whose flat he joined Ivan Turgenev (1818–1883), Alphonse Daudet (1840–1897), and Edmond de Goncourt

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Zola’s politics were no less complex than his artistic personality. He gave an excellent account of himself as a parliamentary reporter after the Franco-Prussian War, but came to hate political debate for distracting the public from literary conversation. He wrote stories that exposed the misery of the working class but excoriated the Communards of 1871. Zola the literary baron who fancied himself a captain of industry in his own domain (and a worthy heir of Franc¸ois Zola, who would have acquired great wealth had he lived long enough) idealized Fourierist utopianism in a late novel, Le Travail. Attacked by the Right as a saboteur of venerable institutions and by the Left for describing rather too vividly the moral degradation of slum dwellers, he contributed to liberal papers and conservative alike. Of his devotion to the Republic there was never any doubt, however. When, in 1896, two years after the trial of Alfred Dreyfus (1859–1935) and his transportation to Devil’s Island, a journalist named Bernard Lazare (1865–1903) asked Zola to join the small party of Dreyfusards in their campaign to exculpate the captain, he agreed with the alacrity of a man eager as much to avenge the unjust verdict of his mother’s trial as to unmask the military establishment. The Dreyfus affair truly became an Affair when L’Aurore

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Zola, E´mile. Oeuvres comple`tes. 15 vol. Paris, 1966–1969. The two principal editions of the Rougon-Macquart are in the Bibliothe`que Ple´iade (5 vols., edited by Henri Mitterand; Paris, 1960) and in the Bouquins series (3 vols., edited by Colette Becker; Paris, 1991). ———. Correspondance de E´mile Zola. 12 vols. Edited by B. H. Bakker. Montreal, 1978–1995. Compiled by a team of French and Canadian scholars.

Secondary Sources Becker, Colette. Les Apprentissages de Zola. Paris, 1993. Becker, Colette, Gina Gourdin-Servenie`re, and Ve´ronique Lavielle. Dictionnaire d’E´mile Zola. Paris, 1993. A useful reference work. Borie, Jean. Zola et les mythes; ou, De la nause´e au salut. Paris, 1971. Bredin, Jean-Denis. The Affair: The Case of Alfred Dreyfus. New York, 1986. Offers a wide perspective on the Dreyfus affair. Brown, Frederick. Zola: A Life. New York, 1995. Hemmings, F. W. J. Emile Zola. Oxford, U.K., 1953. Levin, Harry. The Gates of Horn: A Study of Five French Realists. Oxford, U.K., 1966. Cover illustration for the leftist periodical Le Cri du Peuple advertising its forthcoming publication of Germinal. MUSE´E DE LA VILLE DE PARIS, MUSE´E CARNAVALET, PARIS, FRANCE/BRIDGEMAN ART LIBRARY/ARCHIVES CHARMET

published Zola’s celebrated indictment, ‘‘J’accuse,’’ on the front page of its 13 January 1898 issue. Only then did the cause gain adherents all over France, indeed, throughout Europe. Vilified by the antiRepublican, anti-Semitic opposition, Zola fled to England rather than risk imprisonment for slander and lived in hiding outside London until June 1899, when evidence supporting his allegations came to light. The Dreyfus affair inspired La Ve´rite´, the fourth novel of his unfinished tetralogy, Les Quatres E´vangiles. Zola died in 1902 of asphyxiation from a defective flue. Suspicions linger to the present day that he was the victim of an anti-Dreyfusard conspiracy. Six years after his death, his remains were reinterred in the Pantheon, alongside those of Victor Hugo (1802–1885). See also Anti-Semitism; Ce´zanne, Paul; Dreyfus Affair; Flaubert, Gustave; Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de; Huysmans, Joris-Karl; Paris; Paris Commune; Realism and Naturalism; Republicanism.

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Mitterand, Henri. Zola. L’Histoire et la fiction. Paris, 1990. ———. Zola. Paris, 1999–2002. Page`s, Alain. Emile Zola, un intellectuel dans l’Affaire Dreyfus. Paris, 1991. The most thorough account of Zola’s role in the Dreyfus affair. Serres, Michel. Feux et signaux de brume, Zola. Paris, 1975. FREDERICK BROWN

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ZOLLVEREIN. The image of the German Zollverein (customs union, formed in 1834 between the members of the German Confederation) has been heavily influenced by two nineteenth century authors. The famous economist Friedrich List (1789–1846) as early as the 1830s spoke of the Zollverein and the railways as the Siamese twins of German economic modernization, thus stressing the importance of market integration for the Industrial Revolution. The famous historian Heinrich von Treitschke (1834–1896) a half a century later linked the foundation of the German Zollverein in 1834 to the battle of Ko¨niggra¨tz (1866), drawing a direct line from the beginnings E U R O P E

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of the customs union to national unification under Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898). While more recent authors are quite skeptical about either claim, the economic consequences of market integration and nation building still dominate the literature on the German Zollverein. FOUNDATION OF THE ZOLLVEREIN AND ITS ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

While the post-Napoleonic German Confederation proved unable to agree upon a common trade policy, the still more than forty German states after 1815 at least began to abandon the internal tariff borders running through their territories. In the following years—and after difficult negotiations— agreements between some German states were reached so that by the late 1820s three customs unions transcending the borders of single German states had been founded. In the south Bavaria and Wu ¨ rttemberg had formed an alliance, while in the north Hesse-Darmstadt had joined Prussia. Partly as a reaction to the latter, and with support from the Austrian government, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Saxony, and a number of smaller states formed a Middle German Commercial Union later that year (1828). The tension between its character as an anti-Prussian bulwark and its conception as a tariff union clearly diminished its economic attractiveness. The initiative thus fell to the customs union dominated by Prussia, which as early as 1829 reached a first agreement with the southern customs union of Bavaria and Wu ¨ rttemberg. A further decisive step on the way to the German Zollverein was taken when Hesse-Cassel joined the customs union dominated by Prussia in 1833, thus bridging the territorial gap between the eastern and western provinces of Prussia. The same year saw Bavaria and Wu ¨ rttemberg as well as Saxony and a number of smaller states joining, so that the name of a German Zollverein, which quickly gained currency, was justified for the system of tariff contracts coming into force on 1 January 1834. While most German states in the south that had remained outside the Zollverein in 1834 joined during the following years, the refusal of Hanover, Hamburg, and Bremen to do so deprived the Zollverein of direct access to the North Sea for several decades to come. Why was the Prussian-dominated customs union so successful, and what were the motives

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of those who joined it? For one, already Prussia’s tariff law of 1818 had served as a model for a compromise between divergent economic interests. Immediate neighbors often had no choice but to join because they depended on Prussia for their exports. Others profited from the enormous rise in the efficiency of the new system. The costs of securing the tariff borders and of tariff administration— which had eaten up about 100 percent of tariff incomes in Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse-Cassel before 1830—were drastically reduced. The importance of tariff income for the budgets, especially of many smaller states, grew accordingly. This was more than merely a fiscal question because income raised through tariffs was not subject to the parliamentary control that had been established in the mostly constitutional German states after 1815. The motives for joining thus were manifold, and by no means exclusively economic. But although economic interests differed from one state to the next, economic interest groups often lobbied for joining the Zollverein. Saxony for example, certainly the most developed industrial region in the 1830s, could hardly do without the Prussian market. But many other states such as Wu ¨ rttemberg realized as well that their commercial activity was oriented toward the north and the west rather than the south. This had, among other things, to do with the construction of the railway system since the mid1830s that strengthened the ties between Baden, Wu ¨ rttemberg, and Bavaria and the northern parts of Germany. The Zollverein thus fostered the economic integration of its territory without being the sole driving force behind this process. But while market integration was certainly advantageous for the industrial development that gained considerable pace from the mid-1840s onward, the Zollverein can hardly be credited with causing the German Industrial Revolution. Economic historians tend to agree that it was not even a necessary prerequisite of industrial development. With the Industrial Revolution under way, however, the renewable contracts constituting the Zollverein increasingly reflected the more and more industrial character of its member states. Thereby the gap between the Zollverein and Austria widened. It was not only that the Habsburg Monarchy as a whole retained a far more agrarian character, but even its more

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industrial regions fell behind during the 1850s and 1860s. Thus while the economic integration fostered by the Zollverein did not cause the German Industrial Revolution, it intensified enormously the economic integration of its territory, turning the Zollverein into an ever sharper weapon within the Austro-Prussian struggle over supremacy within the German Confederation. TRADE POLICY AND NATION BUILDING

Thus, while the Zollverein originally was not designed to be a means of isolating Austria within the German Confederation, it increasingly became one. The political public of the 1840s discussed intensely the Zollverein’s unifying potential, which became more and more obvious from the 1850s onward. While the economic and administrative integration of the Zollverein progressed, a commercial treaty between Austria and Prussia in February 1853 seemed to open up the possibility of Austrian membership in the future. The treaty stipulated that negotiations were to begin no later than 1860. Thus by 1865, when the renewed Zollverein contracts were due to run out, a central European customs union including Austria would have been possible. That this possibility remained a mere chimera had to do with Prussian policy as well as with different economic structures and interests. It proved all too easy for Rudolph Delbru ¨ ck (1817–1903), who directed Prussian trade policies, to advocate a free trade course that was unacceptable to the protectionist Austrian economy. Politically the Prussian quest for hegemony thus was hardly concealed. And while this provoked considerable opposition in many member states of the Zollverein, it soon turned out that these states could hardly afford economically to leave the Zollverein behind. Petitions by chambers of commerce and political campaigns made that abundantly clear. Thus in 1861, rather than working toward the integration of Austria into the Zollverein, Prussia was negotiating a commercial treaty with France that aimed at the equal treatment of Prussian imports to France with those from Britain or Belgium, and which meant a considerable lowering of tariffs. Against considerable opposition from the non-Prussian members of the Zollverein, Prussia not only signed the treaty on 2 August 1862, but

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in December 1863 terminated the Zollverein contracts that were running out in 1865. Prussian officials knew only too well that this put its Zollverein partners in an extremely difficult spot. While most of them objected to the hegemonic role claimed by Prussia, they needed the Prussian market and were attracted by the enlarged trade zone opened up by the French-Prussian treaty. Ultimately they had to pay the price of accepting Prussia’s arbitrary behavior for a renewal of the Zollverein. Economic interests thus weighed heavily. This is not to say, however, that they determined the political outcome (i.e., German unification). After all, Austria in 1866 successfully called for the mobilization of the non-Prussian troops of the German Confederation after Prussia had invaded Holstein. The following war thus saw Prussia fighting not only against Austria but against non-Prussian members of the Zollverein as well. Since its outcome was by no means a foregone conclusion, it would be farfetched to regard the economic integration of the Zollverein as the anticipation of the German nation state. But if it was not determinative, it was nevertheless crucially important, which can be gauged from its continued operation during the war. Neither the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 nor the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 meant the end of the economic integration of Germany fostered by the Zollverein, however. Hamburg and Bremen did not become part of the German tariff area until 1888. See also Germany; Hamburg; List, Georg Friedrich; Nationalism; Prussia; Trade and Economic Growth.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bo ¨ hme, Helmut. Deutschlands Weg zur Großmacht. Studien zum Verha¨ltnis von Wirtschaft und Staat wa¨hrend der Reichsgru ¨ ndungszeit 1848–1881. Cologne, 1966. Hahn, Hans-Werner. Geschichte des Deutschen Zollvereins. Go¨ttingen, 1984. Henderson, W. O. The Rise of German Industrial Power, 1834–1914. Berkeley, Calif., 1975. Lenger, Friedrich. Industrielle Revolution und Nationalstaatsgru ¨ ndung. Stuttgart, 2003. FRIEDRICH LENGER

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SYSTEMATIC OUTLINE OF CONTENTS This outline provides a general overview of the conceptual scheme of the encyclopedia, listing the titles of each entry. Because the section headings are not mutually exclusive, certain entries in the encyclopedia may listed in more than one section. Under each heading, relevant articles are listed first, then biographies.

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1. ART AND CULTURE Art Nouveau Avant-Garde Barbizon Painters Cinema Crystal Palace Cubism Decadence Eiffel Tower Fauvism Futurism Generation of 1898 Impressionism Modernism Music Opera Painting Photography Popular and Elite Culture Pre-Raphaelite Movement Realism and Naturalism Romanticism Symbolism 1.1. BIOGRAPHIES

Arnold, Matthew Atget, Euge`ne

Austen, Jane Balzac, Honore´ de Barre`s, Maurice Barry, Charles Baudelaire, Charles Beardsley, Aubrey Beethoven, Ludwig van Berlioz, Hector Bernhardt, Sarah Blake, William Blok, Alexander Brahms, Johannes Bronte¨, Charlotte and Emily Byron, George Gordon Canova, Antonio Carducci, Giosue` Ce´zanne, Paul Chateaubriand, Franc¸ois-Rene´ Chekhov, Anton Chopin, Fre´de´ric Coleridge, Samuel Taylor Conrad, Joseph Constable, John Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Courbet, Gustave Cruikshank, George Daguerre, Louis D’Annunzio, Gabriele

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SYSTEMATIC OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

Daumier, Honore´ David, Jacques-Louis Debussy, Claude Degas, Edgar Delacroix, Euge`ne Diaghilev, Sergei Dickens, Charles Dore´, Gustave Dostoyevsky, Fyodor Doyle, Arthur Conan Dvora´k, Antonı´n Eliot, George Flaubert, Gustave Fontane, Theodor Forster, E. M. Friedrich, Caspar David Gaskell, Elizabeth Gaudı´, Antonio Gauguin, Paul Ge´ricault, The´odore Gissing, George Glinka, Mikhail Godwin, William Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von Gogol, Nikolai Goncharov, Ivan Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de Gorky, Maxim Goya, Francisco Grimm Brothers Guimard, Hector Hardy, Thomas Heine, Heinrich Hofmannsthal, Hugo von Hugo, Victor Huysmans, Joris-Karl Ibsen, Henrik Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Jarry, Alfred Kafka, Franz Kandinsky, Vasily Kipling, Rudyard Klimt, Gustav Lasker-Schu¨ler, Else Leopardi, Giacomo Liebermann, Max Liszt, Franz Loos, Adolf Lumie`re, Auguste and Louis Mahler, Gustav

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Manet, E´douard Mann, Thomas Manzoni, Alessandro Martineau, Harriet Matisse, Henri Me´lie`s, Georges Menzel, Adolph von Meyerhold, Vsevolod Mickiewicz, Adam Millet, Jean-Franc¸ois Monet, Claude Morisot, Berthe Morris, William Munch, Edvard Musil, Robert Mussorgsky, Modest Nadar, Fe´lix Nash, John Nijinsky, Vaslav Novalis (Hardenberg, Friedrich von) Offenbach, Jacques Paganini, Niccolo` Pavlova, Anna Pe´guy, Charles Picasso, Pablo Pissarro, Camille Puccini, Giacomo Pugin, Augustus Welby Pushkin, Alexander Ravel, Maurice Renoir, Pierre-Auguste Repin, Ilya Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Rodin, Auguste Rolland, Romain Rossini, Gioachino Rude, Franc¸ois Sand, George Satie, Erik Schiele, Egon Schinkel, Karl Friedrich Schnitzler, Arthur Schoenberg, Arnold Schubert, Franz Scott, Walter Seurat, Georges Shaw, George Bernard Shelley, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Smiles, Samuel

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Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle) Stevenson, Robert Louis Strachey, Lytton Strauss, Johann Stravinsky, Igor Strindberg, August Symonds, John Addington Tchaikovsky, Peter Tennyson, Alfred Tolstoy, Leo Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de Turgenev, Ivan Turner, J. M. W. Van Gogh, Vincent Verdi, Giuseppe Verga, Giovanni Verne, Jules Wagner, Richard Wells, H. G. Wilde, Oscar Wordsworth, William Yeats, William Butler Zola, E´mile

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2. CONCEPTS AND IDEAS Anarchism Anarchosyndicalism Carlism Civilization, Concept of Conservatism Degeneration Eugenics Eurasianism Feminism Imperialism Jingoism Liberalism Nationalism Pacifism Pan-Slavism Phrenology Primitivism Race and Racism Radicalism Republicanism Secularization Socialism Spiritualism

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Utopian Socialism Westernizers 2.1. BIOGRAPHIES

Bakunin, Mikhail Bely, Andrei Blanc, Louis Cabet, E´tienne Dohm, Hedwig Fourier, Charles Galton, Francis Herzen, Alexander Herzl, Theodor Kropotkin, Peter Maurras, Charles

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3. ECONOMIC HISTORY Agricultural Revolution Artisans and Guilds Banks and Banking Business Firms and Economic Growth Capitalism Coal Mining Colonies Combination Acts Commercial Policy Consumerism Continental System Corn Laws, Repeal of East India Company Economic Growth and Industrialism Factories Industrial Revolution, First Industrial Revolution, Second Krupp Labor Movements Luddism Machine Breaking Monetary Unions Protectionism Rothschilds Sewing Machine Strikes Syndicalism Trade and Economic Growth Zollverein 2529

SYSTEMATIC OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

3.1. BIOGRAPHIES

Bagehot, Walter Bentham, Jeremy Caillaux, Joseph Cockerill, John Hobson, John A. List, Georg Friedrich Malthus, Thomas Robert Nobel, Alfred Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph Rhodes, Cecil Siemens, Werner von Webb, Beatrice Potter

Markets Marriage and Family Old Age Parks Phylloxera Restaurants Seaside Resorts Sports Tobacco Tourism Wine

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4. EDUCATION AND LITERACY Education Libraries Literacy Museums Philhellenic Movement Press and Newspapers Universities 4.1. BIOGRAPHIES

Deraismes, Maria Humboldt, Alexander and Wilhelm von Montessori, Maria

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5. EVERYDAY LIFE Absinthe Beards Cabarets Childhood and Children Clothing, Dress, and Fashion Coffee, Tea, Chocolate Cycling Death and Burial Diet and Nutrition Drugs Football (Soccer) Furniture Housing Leisure Manners and Formality

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6. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, DIPLOMACY, WARS Alliance System Armies Berlin Conference Brussels Declaration Concert of Europe Congress of Berlin Congress of Troppau Congress of Vienna Diplomacy Dreadnought Eastern Question Fashoda Affair Hague Conferences Holy Alliance Military Tactics Moroccan Crises Napoleonic Empire Naval Rivalry (Anglo-German) Schlieffen Plan 6.1. BATTLES

Austerlitz Borodino Jena, Battle of Leipzig, Battle of Majuba Hill Mukden, Battle of Navarino Omdurman Trafalgar, Battle of Ulm, Battle of Waterloo

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Mafia Napoleonic Code Police and Policing Poor Law

6.2. TREATIES

Addis Ababa, Treaty of Cobden-Chevalier Treaty Mu¨nchengra¨tz, Treaty of Nanking, Treaty of Portsmouth, Treaty of San Stefano, Treaty of Shimonoseki, Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi, Treaty of

7.1. BIOGRAPHIES

Augspurg, Anita Lombroso, Cesare

6.3. WARS

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Austro-Prussian War Balkan Wars Boer War Boxer Rebellion Crimean War Danish-German War Franco-Austrian War Franco-Prussian War French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars Opium Wars Peninsular War Russo-Japanese War Russo-Turkish War Sepoy Mutiny War of 1812 6.4. BIOGRAPHIES

Clausewitz, Carl von Curzon, George Delcasse´, The´ophile Jomini, Antoine-Henri de Kitchener, Horatio Herbert Kutuzov, Mikhail Lesseps, Ferdinand-Marie de Moltke, Helmuth von Nelson, Horatio Tirpitz, Alfred von Wellington, Duke of (Arthur Wellesley) Law, Justice, and Crime

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7. CRIME Exile, Penal Geneva Convention International Law Law, Theories of

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8. PHILOSOPHY AND INTELLECTUAL LIFE Communism Economists, Classical History Intellectuals Intelligentsia Positivism Psychology Sociology Utilitarianism Young Hegelians 8.1. BIOGRAPHIES

Acton, John Andreas-Salome´, Lou Berdyayev, Nikolai Bergson, Henri Brentano, Franz Burckhardt, Jacob Burke, Edmund Carlyle, Thomas Chaadayev, Peter Champollion, Jean-Franc¸ois Comte, Auguste Croce, Benedetto Dilthey, Wilhelm ´ mile Durkheim, E Ellis, Havelock Fichte, Johann Gottlieb Frazer, James Frege, Gottlob Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Herder, Johann Gottfried Ho¨lderlin, Johann Christian Friedrich Husserl, Edmund Kierkegaard, Søren Lamartine, Alphonse

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SYSTEMATIC OUTLINE OF CONTENTS

LeBon, Gustave Macaulay, Thomas Babington Michelet, Jules Mill, Harriet Taylor Mill, James Mill, John Stuart Mommsen, Theodor Nietzsche, Friedrich Pater, Walter Ranke, Leopold von Renan, Ernest Ruskin, John Saint-Simon, Henri de Schelling, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm von Schopenhauer, Arthur Simmel, Georg Sismondi, Jean-Charles Leonard de Sorel, Georges Spencer, Herbert Stae¨l, Germaine de Stephen, Leslie Struve, Peter Tocqueville, Alexis de Treitschke, Heinrich von Viollet-le-Duc, Euge`ne Weber, Max Weininger, Otto Wollstonecraft, Mary Wundt, Wilhelm

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9. PLACES 9.1. BODIES OF WATER

Black Sea Bosphorus Caribbean Mediterranean Oceanic Exploration Suez Canal 9.2. CITIES

Adrianople Alexandra Amsterdam Athens Barcelona

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Belgrade Berlin Brussels Budapest Dublin Hamburg Istanbul London Lyon Madrid Manchester Milan Moscow Naples Paris Prague Rome St. Petersburg Trieste Venice Vienna Vladivostok Warsaw 9.3. COUNTRIES AND REGIONS

Albania Alsace-Lorraine Armenia Austria-Hungary Belgium Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia Bosnia-Herzegovina Bulgaria Denmark Finland and the Baltic Provinces France Germany Great Britain Greece Ireland Italy Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Lithuania Montenegro Netherlands New Zealand Ottoman Empire Papal State Piedmont-Savoy Poland

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Portugal Prussia Romania Russia Scotland Serbia Siberia Sicily Spain Sweden and Norway Switzerland Ukraine Wales 9.4. PLACES OUTSIDE EUROPE

Africa Algeria Australia Canada Central Asia China Egypt Haiti India Indochina Japan Morocco South Africa Tunisia

10.1. BIOGRAPHIES

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10.POLITICAL HISTORY Action Franc¸aise Black Hand Bolsheviks Bonapartism Boulanger Affair Boulangism Bureaucracy Carbonari Carlsbad Decrees Center Party Chartism Citizenship Civil Society Colonialism Dreyfus Affair

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Endecja Fabians First International Frankfurt Parliament Great Reforms (Russia) Hundred Days Jadids Kadets Kulturkampf Labour Party Mensheviks Nihilists Octobrists People’s Will Polish National Movement Populists Prague Slav Congress Restoration Risorgimento (Italian Unification) Second International Slavophiles Tories Whigs Young Czechs and Old Czechs Young Italy Young Turks

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Abdul-Hamid II Adler, Victor Alexander I Alexander II Alexander III Anneke, Mathilde-Franziska Asquith, Herbert Henry Auclert, Hubertine Bebel, August Belinsky, Vissarion Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste Bernstein, Eduard Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von Bismarck, Otto von Blanqui, Auguste Bonald, Louis de Brougham, Henry Castlereagh, Viscount (Robert Stewart) Catherine II Cavour, Count (Camillo Benso) Chamberlain, Joseph Charles X

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Charles Albert Clemenceau, Georges Cobden, Richard Constant, Benjamin Crispi, Francesco Czartoryski, Adam Dea´k, Ferenc Deroin, Jeanne Disraeli, Benjamin Durand, Marguerite Edward VII Fawcett, Millicent Garrett Ferdinand I Ferdinand VII Ferry, Jules Fox, Charles James Francis I Francis Ferdinand Francis Joseph Frederick III Frederick William III Frederick William IV Gagern, Heinrich von Gaj, Ljudevit Gambetta, Le´on-Michel Garibaldi, Giuseppe George IV Giolitti, Giovanni Gladstone, William Guesde, Jules Guizot, Franc¸ois Hardenberg, Karl August von Hardie, James Keir Jaure`s, Jean John, Archduke of Austria Karadjordje Kautsky, Karl Kosciuszko, Tadeusz Kossuth, Lajos Leopold I Leopold II Lloyd George, David Louis II Louis XVI Louis XVIII Louis-Philippe Lovett, William Lueger, Karl Mahmud II Martov, L.

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Masaryk, Toma´sˇ Garrigue Mazzini, Giuseppe Metternich, Clemens von Milyukov, Pavel Mozzoni, Anna Maria Napoleon Napoleon III Nicholas I Nicholas II O’Connell, Daniel O’Connor, Feargus Palacky´, Frantisˇek Palmerston, Lord (Henry John Temple) Pankhurst, Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia Parnell, Charles Stewart Paul I Peel, Robert Plekhanov, Georgy Poincare´, Raymond Ravachol (Franc¸ois Claudius KoenigsteinRavachol) Shamil Speransky, Mikhail Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stolypin, Peter Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de Thiers, Louis-Adolphe Toussaint Louverture Turati, Filippo Umberto I Victor Emmanuel II Waldeck-Rousseau, Rene´ William I William II William IV Windthorst, Ludwig Witte, Sergei

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11.RELIGION Anticlericalism Bund, Jewish Catholicism Catholicism, Political Concordat of 1801 Jewish Emancipation Jews and Judaism

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Millet System Missions Papacy Papal Infallibility Pilgrimages Protestantism Roman Question Russian Orthodox Church Salvation Army Separation of Church and State (France, 1905) Socialism, Christian Zionism 11.1. BIOGRAPHIES

Agassiz, Louis Drumont, E´douard Leo XIII Maistre, Joseph de Manning, Henry Newman, John Henry Pius IX Schleiermacher, Friedrich Soloviev, Vladimir Wilberforce, William

13.SCIENCE

12.REVOLUTIONS Counterrevolution French Revolution Paris Commune Revolution of 1905 (Russia) Revolutions of 1820 Revolutions of 1830 Revolutions of 1848 Secret Societies Socialist Revolutionaries 12.1. FRENCH REVOLUTION

Committee of Public Safety Directory Estates-General Federalist Revolt French Revolution Girondins Jacobins Leve´e en Masse Reign of Terror Sister Republics

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Danton, Georges-Jacques Engels, Friedrich Fouche´, Joseph Gouges, Olympe de Jelacˇic´, Josip Kuliscioff, Anna Lafayette, Marquis de Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre-Auguste Lenin, Vladimir Luxemburg, Rosa Marat, Jean-Paul Marie-Antoinette Marx, Karl Michel, Louise Nechayev, Sergei Paine, Thomas Robespierre, Maximilien Sieye`s, Emmanuel-Joseph Zasulich, Vera

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Chemistry Electricity Engineers Evolution Physics Science and Technology Statistics 13.1. MEDICINE

Cholera Disease Nurses Psychoanalysis Public Health Red Cross Smallpox Syphilis Tuberculosis 13.2. BIOGRAPHIES

Adler, Alfred Bernard, Claude Braille, Louis Cajal, Santiago Ramo´n y

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Chadwick, Edwin Charcot, Jean-Martin Curie, Marie Cuvier, Georges Darwin, Charles De Vries, Hugo Ehrlich, Paul Einstein, Albert Freud, Sigmund Gall, Franz Joseph Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Helmholtz, Hermann von Hertz, Heinrich Huxley, Thomas Henry Jenner, Edward Jung, Carl Gustav Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) Koch, Robert Krafft-Ebing, Richard von Laennec, Rene´ Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste Larrey, Dominique-Jean Lavoisier, Antoine Lister, Joseph Lyell, Charles Mach, Ernst Marconi, Guglielmo Maxwell, James Clerk Mendel, Gregor Mesmer, Franz Anton Nightingale, Florence Pasteur, Louis Pavlov, Ivan Pinel, Philippe Planck, Max Poincare´, Henri Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques Rank, Otto Roentgen, Wilhelm Rutherford, Ernest Semmelweis, Ignac Virchow, Rudolf Wallace, Alfred Russel

Class and Social Relations Landed Elites Peasants Serfs, Emancipation of Working Class

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15.SOCIAL HISTORY Alcohol and Temperance Anti-Semitism Associations, Voluntary Body Captain Swing Childhood and Children Cities and Towns Cooperative Movements Cossacks Demography Dueling Emigration Environment Explorers Flaˆneur Freemasons Gender Homosexuality and Lesbianism Immigration and Internal Migration Masculinity Minorities Olympic Games Pogroms Population, Control of Pornography Posters Poverty Professions Prostitution Romanies (Gypsies) Sexuality Sicilian Fasci Slavery Suffragism Welfare World’s Fairs

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15.1. BIOGRAPHIES

Ba¨umer, Gertrud Butler, Josephine

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Carpenter, Edward Chamberlain, Houston Stewart Davies, Emily Haussmann, Georges-Euge`ne Hirschfeld, Magnus Lassalle, Ferdinand Liebknecht, Karl Malatesta, Errico Norton, Caroline Otto, Louise Owen, Robert Pelletier, Madeleine Richer, Le´on Roland, Pauline Roussel, Nelly

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16.TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION Airplanes Automobile Railroads Subways Telephones

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DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS JOHN J. ABBATIELLO

JOHN H. ALCORN

United States Air Force Academy Dreadnought

Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut Sicilian Fasci

HENRY ABRAMSON

Touro College South, Miami Beach, Florida Pogroms

ANTONY ANGHIE

University of Louisville Ba¨umer, Gertrud Otto, Louise

University of Utah Berlin Conference

JAMES SMITH ALLEN

University of Southern California Feminism Roussel, Nelly

Southern Illinois University, Carbondale Freemasons

University of Washington Blake, William

˚ HR JOHAN A

Hofstra University Denmark Sweden and Norway

MARK ANTLIFF

Duke University Bergson, Henri Cubism

ADEL ALLOUCHE

CELIA APPLEGATE

Yale University Mahmud II Millet System Tunisia

University of Rochester Music JULIAN ARCHER

HOLGER AFFLERBACH

Emory University Congress of Berlin

University of California—Berkeley Windthorst, Ludwig

ANN TAYLOR ALLEN

ELINOR ACCAMPO

HAZARD ADAMS

MARGARET LAVINIA ANDERSON

KATHRYN AMDUR

Emory University Anarchosyndicalism OLOV AMELIN

Independent Scholar Nobel, Alfred

Drake University First International JOHN H. ARNOLD

Birkbeck College, University of London, U.K. History

FRANS C. AMELINCKX ANDREW AISENBERG

Scripps College Body Syphilis

University of Louisiana at Lafayette Chateaubriand, Franc¸oisRene´

WALTER ARNSTEIN

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign (emeritus) Victoria, Queen 2539

DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

SUSAN A. ASHLEY

RICHARD BARNETT

STEVEN BELLER

Colorado College Umberto I Victor Emmanuel II

Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine at University College London, U.K. Lister, Joseph

Independent Scholar, Washington, D.C. Adler, Victor Ferdinand I Francis I Francis Ferdinand Francis Joseph John, Archduke of Austria Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria Vienna Zionism

NICHOLAS ATKIN

University of Reading Catholicism, Political JEFFREY A. AUERBACH

California State University Crystal Palace JOSEPH AUNER

State University of New York at Stony Brook Schoenberg, Arnold LEORA AUSLANDER

University of Chicago Furniture MICHAEL R. AUSLIN

Yale University Japan Russo-Japanese War TIMOTHY BAHTI

Claviers, France Ho¨lderlin, Johann Christian Friedrich DUDLEY BAINES

London School of Economics Emigration DAVID E. BARCLAY

Kalamazoo College Frederick William IV ELAZAR BARKAN

Claremont Graduate University Primitivism

VINCENT BARNETT

Birmingham University, U.K. Humboldt, Alexander and Wilhelm von Pavlov, Ivan SAMUEL H. BARON

University of North Carolina (emeritus) Plekhanov, Georgy

ALAIN BELTRAN

TIMOTHY JOHN BARRINGER

Yale University Pre-Raphaelite Movement

Institut d’Histoire du Temps Pre´sent (CNRS, France) Electricity EDWARD BERENSON

New York University Caillaux, Joseph

H. ARNOLD BARTON

Southern Illinois University at Carbondale (emeritus) Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste

MAXINE BERG

University of Warwick, U.K. Industrial Revolution, First

JOHN BATCHELOR

University of Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K. Conrad, Joseph Ruskin, John

GUNTHER BERGHAUS

University of Bristol Futurism

JOERG BATEN

Eberhard Karls University of Tuebingen, Germany Trade and Economic Growth

SUSAN BERNSTEIN

SIGRID BAUSCHINGER

DAVID CARSON BERRY

University of Massachusetts Lasker-Schu¨ler, Else

Univ. of Cincinnati Stravinsky, Igor

JONATHAN BEECHER

University of California, Santa Cruz Fourier, Charles Utopian Socialism

Brown University Liszt, Franz

PATRICK BESNIER

University of Maine, Le MansLaval, France Jarry, Alfred

JOHN BELCHEM MARGARET BARNETT

University of Southern Mississippi Roentgen, Wilhelm 2540

University of Liverpool, U.K. Cobbett, William Cobden, Richard Lovett, William

EUGENIO F. BIAGINI

University of Cambridge Gladstone, William Great Britain

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JOHN W. BICKNELL

PATRICE BOURDELAIS

MICHAEL BROWN

Drew University Stephen, Leslie

Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris Cholera

University of Kent, U.K. Jenner, Edward

PATRICK KAY BIDELMAN

The Ringling School of Art and Design and the University of South Florida Deraismes, Maria Richer, Le´on

ROBERT W. BROWN PETER BOWLER

Queen’s University of Belfast, U.K. Evolution JOSEPH BRADLEY

University of Tulsa Civil Society

EMILY D. BILSKI

Liebermann, Max J. DANIEL BREAZEALE

University of Kentucky Fichte, Johann Gottlieb

RUDOLPH BINION

Brandeis University Andreas-Salome´, Lou

University of California, Riverside Carpenter, Edward Wilde, Oscar

JOHN T. BLACKMORE

Independent Scholar (emeritus University of Vienna, Tsukuba University, Japan) Mach, Ernst

CHRISTOPHER BREWARD

Victoria & Albert Museum, London Clothing, Dress, and Fashion

MARK E. BLUM

University of Louisville Kafka, Franz

MICHAEL BROERS JUDIT BODNAR

Central European University, Budapest Budapest

Oxford University Napoleonic Empire Piedmont-Savoy Sister Republics

LLOYD BONFIELD

TED R. BROMUND

Tulane University Napoleonic Code

Yale University Olympic Games ERIC DORN BROSE

MATTIE BOOM

Drexel University Frederick William III

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Photography

Rice University Cruikshank, George

Alfred Adler Institute, Berlin Adler, Alfred JULIA BRUGGEMANN

DePauw University Augspurg, Anita Dohm, Hedwig ANTHONY BRUNDAGE

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Chadwick, Edwin JOHN BUCKLEY

University of Wolverhampton, U.K. Airplanes PHILLIP BUCKNER

University of New Brunswick (emeritus) Canada JANE BURBANK

DANIEL R. BROWER JAMES A. BOON

University of California, Davis Central Asia

Princeton University Frazer, James

New York University Intelligentsia RICHARD W. BURKHARDT JR.

FREDERICK BROWN LAIRD BOSWELL

University of Wisconsin—Madison Alsace-Lorraine

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LOGAN DELANO BROWNING

ALMUTH BRUDER-BEZZEL GREGORY BREDBECK

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University of North Carolina, Pembroke Degas, Edgar Monet, Claude Pissarro, Camille

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State University of New York at Stonybrook Zola, E´mile

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University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Cuvier, Georges Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 2541

DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

SIMON BURROWS

JEAN-FRANC ¸ OIS CHANET

GARY B. COHEN

Leeds University, U.K. Press and Newspapers

University of Lille-3, France Jaure`s, Jean

University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Prague Slav Congress

JUNE K. BURTON

CHRISTOPHE CHARLE

University of Akron Champollion, Jean-Franc¸ois

Universite de Paris I—Pantheon Sorbonne Universities

JOSEPH CADY

New York University School of Medicine Symonds, John Addington PETER CAIN

Sheffield Hallam University, U.K. Hobson, John A. WILLIAM M. CALDER III

University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign Mommsen, Theodor CRAIG CALHOUN

New York University Sociology JANE CAMERINI

Independent Scholar Wallace, Alfred Russel

Xavier University Cobden-Chevalier Treaty Lesseps, Ferdinand-Marie de Red Cross

New York University Colonialism

CLIVE H. CHURCH

University of Kent, U.K. Revolutions of 1830

SANDI E. COOPER

College of Staten Island and The Graduate Center, City University of New York Pacifism Suttner, Bertha von

GREGORY CLAEYS

Royal Holloway, University of London, U.K. Owen, Robert Socialism

STEPHEN HUGH COOTE

Naresuan University, Thailand Yeats, William Butler

CHRISTOPHER CLARK

St. Catherine’s College, London Prussia

ROGER COOTER

RICHARD CLOGG

St. Antony’s College, University of Oxford Greece

Indiana University Maxwell, James Clerk

Independent Scholar Verne, Jules

University of Paris 5 Rene´ Descartes Bernard, Claude

Washington and Lee University William II 2542

St. John’s University Concordat of 1801 Leo XIII Papacy Pius IX PHILIP COTTRELL

JUDITH G. COFFIN LAMAR CECIL

Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine, University College London Gall, Franz Joseph FRANK J. COPPA

JOHN CLUTE

JEAN CHRISTOPHE COFFIN JORDI CAT

University of Colorado at Denver Stolypin, Peter Witte, Sergei FREDERICK COOPER

Seton Hall University Courbet, Gustave

TERRELL CARVER

University of Bristol, U.K. Communism Engels, Friedrich Marx, Karl

MARY SCHAEFFER CONROY

PETRA TEN-DOESSCHATE CHU

MARIE CARANI

Laval University, Canada Ce´zanne, Paul Rodin, Auguste

Bocconi University, Milan, Italy Business Firms and Economic Growth

RACHEL CHRASTIL

NICHOLAS CAPALDI

Loyola University New Orleans Mill, John Stuart

ANDREA COLLI

University of Texas, Austin Consumerism Sewing Machine

University of Leicester, U.K. Banks and Banking Brunel, Isambard Kingdom Cockerill, John

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MAURA COUGHLIN

ALEXANDER DE GRAND

BERNARD DUCHATELET

Brown University Barbizon Painters

North Carolina State University Carducci, Giosue`

University of Brest Rolland, Romain

KRISTA COWMAN

ALEXANDER DE GRAND

JACALYN DUFFIN

Leeds Metropolitan University, U.K. Butler, Josephine

North Carolina State University D’Annunzio, Gabriele Giolitti, Giovanni Kuliscioff, Anna Turati, Filippo

Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada Laennec, Rene´

JAMES CRACRAFT

University of Illinois at Chicago St. Petersburg

´ N DEA ´K ISTVA RICHARD CRAMPTON

University of Oxford Albania

Columbia University Dea´k, Ferenc Kossuth, Lajos

TRAVIS L. CROSBY

PATRICE DEBRE

Wheaton College Chamberlain, Joseph Lloyd George, David

Universite´ Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France Pasteur, Louis

MARGARET L. CRUIKSHANK

ROBERT K. DEKOSKY

University of Maine Macaulay, Thomas Babington

University of Kansas Rutherford, Ernest

CHRISTOPHER DUGGAN

University of Reading, U.K. Crispi, Francesco ¨ L DUMONT JEAN-NOE

Colle`ge Supe´rieur, Lyon, France Pe´guy, Charles PASCAL DUPUY

University of Rouen, France Sade, Donatien-AlphonseFranc¸ois de STEVEN F. EISENMAN

Northwestern University Gauguin, Paul

BERNARD DELPAL HUGH CUNNINGHAM

Secularization

University of Kent, U.K. Jingoism

SELIM DERINGIL

JAMES CURRIE

State University of New York at Buffalo Brahms, Johannes Mahler, Gustav

Bogazici University, Turkey Black Sea Bosphorus Jadids DIMITRIJE DJORDJEVIC

University of California, Santa Barbara Belgrade

ROBERT CUSHMAN

The National Post, Canada Shaw, George Bernard

DEIRDRE DONOHUE MARY E. DALY

International Center of Photography, New York Nadar, Fe´lix

University College, Dublin, Ireland Dublin

GEOFFREY ELLIS

Hertford College, Oxford University Continental System CLIVE EMSLEY

Open University, U.K. Crime Fouche´, Joseph Police and Policing BARBARA ALPERN ENGEL

University of Colorado Zasulich, Vera JENS IVO ENGELS

University of Freiburg, Germany Environment

SEYMOUR DRESCHER JOHN A. DAVIS

University of Connecticut Carbonari Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Risorgimento (Italian Unification) Rome

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University of Pittsburgh Tocqueville, Alexis de

LAURA ENGELSTEIN

Yale University Revolution of 1905 (Russia)

LAURENT DUBOIS

Michigan State University Caribbean Haiti

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STEVEN ENGLUND

Independent Scholar Barre`s, Maurice 2543

DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

Drumont, E´douard Napoleon MICHAEL EPKENHANS

Otto-von-Bismarck-Stiftung, Germany Tirpitz, Alfred von ROBERT M. EPSTEIN

U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Leipzig, Battle of EDWARD J. ERICKSON

International Research Associates, LLC. Adrianople Eastern Question

GIOVANNI FEDERICO

EVA FORGACS

European University Institute, Florence, Italy Commercial Policy Protectionism

Art Center College of Design, Pasadena, CA Avant-Garde ALAN FORREST

WILFRIED FELDENKIRCHEN

University of ErlangenNuremberg, Germany Siemens, Werner von

University of York, U.K. Directory Leve´e en Masse GILLIAN FORRESTER

NIALL FERGUSON

Yale Center for British Art Turner, J. M. W.

Harvard University Rothschilds

JOHN FORRESTER

University of Cambridge, U.K. Psychoanalysis

GEOFFREY G. FIELD

Purchase College, State University of New York Chamberlain, Houston Stewart

WILLIAM FORTESCUE

New York University Opera

New York University Abdul-Hamid II Mediterranean

University of Kent, Canterbury, U.K. Lamartine, Alphonse Ledru-Rollin, AlexandreAuguste Paris Commune Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de Thiers, Louis-Adolphe

CHARLES J. ESDAILE

RICHARD FLOYD

RICHARD FREEBORN

University of Liverpool, U.K. Carlism Ferdinand VII Peninsular War

Washington University, St. Louis, MO Poor Law

AHMET ERSOY

Bogazici University Istanbul

K. FLEMING THOMAS ERTMAN

ANDREAS ETGES

Free University of Berlin, Germany Anneke, Mathilde-Franziska WILLIAM EVERDELL

Saint Ann’s School Cajal, Santiago Ramo´n y De Vries, Hugo CATHERINE EVTUHOV

Georgetown University Soloviev, Vladimir

2544

GREGORY L. FREEZE

Brandeis University Russian Orthodox Church

MARK FOLEY

Independent Scholar Barry, Charles Nash, John Pugin, Augustus Welby

UTE FREVERT

Yale University Dueling JULIA FREY

SUSAN K. FOLEY

Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Gambetta, Le´on-Michel Michel, Louise Roland, Pauline Tristan, Flora

RAYMOND E. FANCHER

York University Galton, Francis Wundt, Wilhelm

University of London Belinsky, Vissarion

Independent Scholar Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de CATHY A. FRIERSON

Univesity of New Hampshire Great Reforms (Russia) PETER FRITZSCHE

JOHN FOOT

University College London Milan

University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign Nietzsche, Friedrich

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DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

JACK FRUCHTMAN JR.

RICHARD L. GILLIN

ARTHUR L. GREIL

Towson University Paine, Thomas

Washington College Shelley, Percy Bysshe

Alfred University Sorel, Georges

RACHEL G. FUCHS

CHARLES C. GILLISPIE

Arizona State University Population, Control of Welfare

Princeton University Marat, Jean-Paul

PATRICIA GUENTHERGLEASON

Independent Scholar Schleiermacher, Friedrich

HALINA GOLDBERG THOMAS W. GALLANT

York University, Canada Athens NIKOLAS GARDNER

European Studies Research Institute, University of Salford, U.K. Fashoda Affair

Indiana University— Bloomington Chopin, Fre´de´ric

SUZANNE GUERLAC

RICHARD E. GOODKIN

PETER J. GURNEY

University of Wisconsin, Madison Bernhardt, Sarah Flaubert, Gustave

University of Essex, U.K. Cooperative Movements SARA HACKENBERG

DANA GOOLEY

ALICE GARNER

Case Western Reserve University Paganini, Niccolo`

University of Melbourne, Australia Seaside Resorts

JOEL GORDON

IAIN GATELY

University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Suez Canal

Independent Journalist Tobacco

RAE BETH GORDON

PETER GAY

University of Connecticut, Storrs Me´lie`s, Georges

HEATHER HADLOCK

Stanford University Offenbach, Jacques HAEJEONG HAZEL HAHN

Seattle University Posters

Kennesaw State University Serfs, Emancipation of

University of Maryland University College Alcohol and Temperance

LIONEL GOSSMAN

LESLEY A. HALL

Princeton University Burckhardt, Jacob GIOVANNI GOZZINI

Wellcome Library for the History and Understanding of Medicine/ University College London Ellis, Havelock

University of Siena Poverty

RICHARD C. HALL

BORIS B. GORSHKOV RICHARD S. GEEHR

Bentley College Lueger, Karl ROBERT P. GERACI

University of Virginia Civilization, Concept of CHRISTOPHER H. GIBBS

Bard College Schubert, Franz

CHRISTOPH GRADMANN

MARY GIBSON

John Jay College, City University of New York Lombroso, Cesare Mozzoni, Anna Maria Prostitution

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San Francisco State University Dickens, Charles

W. SCOTT HAINE

Freud, Sigmund

E U R O P E

University of California, Berkeley Hugo, Victor

TO

Ruprecht-Karls-Universita¨t Heidelberg, Germany Koch, Robert

Georgia Southwestern State University Balkan Wars Bulgaria G. M. HAMBURG

KENNETH W. GRAHAM

University of Guelph, Canada Godwin, William

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Claremont McKenna College Herzen, Alexander Westernizers 2545

DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

MAURA E. HAMETZ

JANET HARTLEY

JOHN HEILBRON

Old Dominion University Trieste

London School of Economics and Political Science Alexander I

Yale University Planck, Max JAMES HEINZEN

CYRUS HAMLIN

Yale University Schinkel, Karl Friedrich Schlegel, August Wilhelm von MICHAEL HANAGAN

Vassar College Capitalism Class and Social Relations Economic Growth and Industrialism IAN HANCOCK

University of Texas Romanies (Gypsies) ¨ KRU ¨ HANIOG ˘ LU M. S ˛U

Princeton University Young Turks ALASTAIR HANNAY

University of Oslo Kierkegaard, Søren PAUL R. HANSON

Butler University Counterrevolution Estates-General Federalist Revolt Girondins Reign of Terror

HEINZ-GERHARD HAUPT

Rowan University Lenin, Vladimir Nechayev, Sergei

European Unversity Institute Artisans and Guilds STEVEN C. HAUSE

Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri Auclert, Hubertine Delcasse´, The´ophile Ferry, Jules Norton, Caroline Popular and Elite Culture Protestantism Separation of Church and State (France, 1905) Suffragism Waldeck-Rousseau, Rene´

REINHOLD HELLER

University of Chicago Munch, Edvard DAVID V. HERLIHY

Cycling HOLGER H. HERWIG

University of Calgary Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von Germany List, Georg Friedrich

JAMES L. HAYNSWORTH

CARLA HESSE

Independent Scholar Toussaint Louverture

University of California, Berkeley Gouges, Olympe de

LEO HECHT

COLIN HEYWOOD

George Mason University Mussorgsky, Modest Tchaikovsky, Peter

University of Nottingham Childhood and Children DAVID HIGGS

JAMES A. W. HEFFERNAN

University of Toronto Landed Elites

Dartmouth College Coleridge, Samuel Taylor Constable, John

ANNE HIGONNET ROBERT HARMS

Yale University Africa

MICHAEL HEIDELBERGER

University of Tu ¨ bingen, Germany Helmholtz, Hermann von

Barnard College, Columbia University Morisot, Berthe

STEVEN L. HARP

DAVID S. HEIDLER

KEITH HITCHINS

University of Akron Automobile Tourism

University of Southern Colorado— Pueblo War of 1812

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Romania

MARK HARRISON

JEANNE T. HEIDLER

ADAM HOCHSCHILD

University of Oxford, U.K. Smallpox

U. S. Air Force Academy War of 1812

Independent Scholar Leopold II

2546

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DIRK HOERDER

MADELEINE HURD

PETER JELAVICH

Universite´ de Paris 8, Saint Denis Immigration and Internal Migration

So¨derto¨rn University College, Sweden Hamburg

Johns Hopkins University Cabarets RUTH Y. JENKINS

York University Economists, Classical

University of California State at Fresno Nightingale, Florence

PATRICK H. HUTTON

RICHARD JENKYNS

Yale University Chekhov, Anton

University of Vermont Blanqui, Auguste Secret Societies

Lady Margaret Hall, University of Oxford Philhellenic Movement

NILES R. HOLT

PAULA E. HYMAN

JEREMY JENNINGS

Illinois State University Darwin, Charles

Yale University Jews and Judaism

Queen Mary, University of London Intellectuals

ELIZABETH L. HOLTZE

WILLIAM D. IRVINE

Metropolitan State College of Denver Grimm Brothers

York University, Toronto Boulanger Affair

JOHN HUTCHESON STEFAN-LUDWIG HOFFMANN

University of Bochum Associations, Voluntary MICHAEL HOLQUIST

AUSTIN JERSILD

Old Dominion University Shamil

GERALD N. IZENBERG SUNGOOK HONG

Seoul National University, South Korea Physics GAIL TURLEY HOUSTON

University of New Mexico Bentham, Jeremy Mill, James R. A. HOUSTON

University of St. Andrews, Scotland Scotland

Washington University in St. Louis Kandinsky, Vasily

CHRISTOPHER H. JOHNSON

JO ELLEN JACOBS

ROBERT E. JOHNSON

Milliken University Mill, Harriet Taylor

University of Toronto People’s Will

DALE JACQUETTE

BRIAN JOHNSTON

The Pennsylvania State University Brentano, Franz Husserl, Edmund

Carnegie Mellon University Ibsen, Henrik

Wayne State University Cabet, E´tienne

PHILIP T. A. JOHNSTON

ALAN HOUTCHENS

University of Southampton, U.K. Schopenhauer, Arthur

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Nijinsky, Vaslav

Texas A&M University Dvora´k, Antonı´n

KONRAD H. JARAUSCH

CHRISTOPHER JONES

CHRISTOPHER JANAWAY

RICHARD G. HOVANNISIAN

University of California, Los Angeles Armenia LINDSEY HUGHES

University College London Paul I

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Spain

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Professions

COLIN JONES

MAYA JASANOFF

University of Warwick, U.K. Marie-Antoinette

University of Virginia Curzon, George Egypt India

1 9 1 4

GRETA JONES

University of Ulster Tuberculosis 2547

DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

H. S. JONES

JOSEPH A. KESTNER

University of Manchester, U.K. Constant, Benjamin Saint-Simon, Henri de

University of Tulsa Doyle, Arthur Conan

Geneva Convention International Law DALE KRAMER

ALAN J. KIDD MAX JONES

University of Manchester Baden-Powell, Robert

University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign Hardy, Thomas

Manchester Metropolitan University, U.K. Manchester

LLOYD KRAMER DAVID JORAVSKY

Northwestern University Schnitzler, Arthur DAVID P. JORDAN

University of Illinois at Chicago Haussmann, GeorgesEuge`ne Louis XVI Paris Robespierre, Maximilien PIETER M. JUDSON

Swarthmore College Austria-Hungary FREDERICK W. KAGAN

U. S. Military Academy Austerlitz Borodino Nicholas I Ulm, Battle of

BEN KIERNAN

Yale University Indochina

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Lafayette, Marquis de

ESTHER KINGSTON-MANN

SARAH A. KRIVE

University of Massachusetts, Boston Populists KONSTANTINE KLIOUTCHKINE

MALCOM KELSALL

Cardiff University Byron, George Gordon PETER KEMP

The Johann Strauss Society of Great Britain Strauss, Johann

SHERYL KROEN

Pomona College, Claremont, CA Goncharov, Ivan JANE KNELLER

Colorado State University Novalis (Hardenberg, Friedrich von) ´ ˇ EVIC JOVANA L. KNEZ

Yale University Black Hand Bosnia-Herzegovina Montenegro Serbia

J. F. V. KEIGER

Salford University, U.K. Poincare´, Raymond

Independent Scholar Tolstoy, Leo Turgenev, Ivan

ALEXANDRA KOENIGUER

University Paris X—Nanterre Atget, Euge`ne

University of Florida Louis XVIII Restoration THOMAS KSELMAN

University of Notre Dame Anticlericalism Catholicism Pilgrimages MARY HAYNES KUHLMAN

Creighton University Gaskell, Elizabeth BRIAN LADD

University of Albany, State University of New York Berlin Cities and Towns

DIANE P. KOENKER

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Bolsheviks

ANDREW LAMBERT

King’s College, London Crimean War Navarino

PATRICIA KOLLANDER

Florida Atlantic University Frederick III William I

HUGO LANE

MARTTI KOSKENNIEMI

COLIN LANG

The Academy of Finland Brussels Declaration

Yale University Modernism

Polytechnic University of Brooklyn Pan-Slavism

SUSAN KINGSLEY KENT

University of Colorado at Boulder Davies, Emily Fawcett, Millicent Garrett 2548

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CHARLES LANSING

YVES LEQUIN

JAMES LIVESEY

University of Connecticut Treitschke, Heinrich von

Universite´-Lumie`re-Lyon 2, France Lyon

University of Sussex, U.K. Republicanism

DAVID CLAY LARGE

NANCY LOCKE

Montana State University, Bozeman Louis II Wagner, Richard

London Metropolitan University Bismarck, Otto von

Pennsylvania State University Manet, E´douard Renoir, Pierre-Auguste

SOPHIE LETERRIER

OLIVER LOGAN

Universite´ d’Artois, France Ravel, Maurice

University of East Anglia, Norwich, U.K. Papal Infallibility Papal State Roman Question

KATHARINE ANNE LERMAN

BARBARA LARSON

University of West Florida Symbolism

FRED LEVENTHAL

Boston University Fabians

DAVID LAVEN

University of Reading, U.K. Venice

MATTHEW LEVINGER KEITH LAYBOURN

University of Huddersfield, U.K. Hardie, James Keir Labour Party

Lewis and Clark College Hardenberg, Karl August von Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum

DAVID LEARY

University of Richmond Psychology

E. JAMES LIEBERMAN

George Washington University Rank, Otto

RENE LEBOUTTE

University of Luxembourg Coal Mining

HARRY LIEBERSOHN

RICHARD A. LEBRUN

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Ranke, Leopold von

University of Manitoba Maistre, Joseph de

ANDRE LIEBICH

PETER MELVILLE LOGAN

Temple University Eliot, George DAVID LOMAS

University of Manchester, U.K. Picasso, Pablo NANCY LOPATIN-LUMMIS

University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point George IV JENNIFER LORCH

University of Warwick, U.K. Wollstonecraft, Mary PATRICIA M. E. LORCIN

University of Reading, U.K. David, Jacques-Louis

Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva Martov, L. Mensheviks

LYNN HOLLEN LEES

DOMINIC LIEVEN

ANNE LOUNSBERY

University of Pennsylvania London

London School of Economics and Political Science Aristocracy

New York University Gogol, Nikolai

SIMON LEE

BRIGID LOWE

MICHAEL V. LEGGIERE

Louisiana State University Hundred Days Larrey, Dominique-Jean Waterloo

ALBERT LINDEMANN

FRIEDRICH LENGER

TESSIE P. LIU

University of Giessen, Germany Zollverein

Northwestern University Citizenship

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University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Algeria

University of California, Santa Barbara Anti-Semitism

1 9 1 4

Trinity College, Cambridge Bronte¨, Charlotte and Emily DAVID S. LUFT

University of California, San Diego Hofmannsthal, Hugo von Musil, Robert 2549

DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

¨ TZEN JESPER LU

BRENT MANER

IAN C. MCGIBBON

University of Copenhagen Hertz, Heinrich

Kansas State University Virchow, Rudolf

New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage New Zealand

DOUGLAS P. MACKAMAN

JO BURR MARGADANT

The University of Southern Mississippi Leisure EMMA MACLEOD

University of Stirling, U.K. Fox, Charles James

Independent Scholar Majuba Hill STEVEN G. MARKS

University of Naples ‘‘Federico II’’ Garibaldi, Giuseppe Naples

Clemson University Siberia Vladivostok

STEVEN E. MAFFEO

ERIC MASSIE

U.S. Air Force Academy and U.S. Joint Military Intelligence College Nelson, Horatio

University of Stirling, U.K. Stevenson, Robert Louis

Al Akhawayn University, Ifrane, Morocco Morocco

University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign Michelet, Jules

MARTIN F. MARIX EVANS

PAOLO MACRY

DRISS MAGHRAOUI

JOHN P. MCKAY

Santa Clara University Louis-Philippe

STEVEN MCLEAN

Nottingham Trent University Wells, H. G. DAVID MCLELLAN

Goldsmiths College, University of London Young Hegelians DARRIN M. MCMAHON

Florida State University Conservatism

GIOVANNI MATTEUCCI

University of Bologna Dilthey, Wilhelm

JAMES F. MCMILLAN

University of Edinburgh, U.K. Durand, Marguerite

PATRICK MAUME LOIS N. MAGNER

Purdue University Curie, Marie

Queen’s University, Belfast, U.K. Parnell, Charles Stewart MARY JO MAYNES

ROGER MAGRAW

University of Warwick, U.K. Working Class

University of Minnesota Marriage and Family

PETER MCPHEE

University of Melbourne, Australia Committee of Public Safety French Revolution Jacobins NEIL MCWILLIAM

OLGA MAIOROVA

University of Michigan Eurasianism

PAUL MAZGAJ

Duke University Rude, Franc¸ois

University of North Carolina, Greensboro Maurras, Charles

R. DARRELL MEADOWS

PAULINE M. H. MAZUMDAR

Independent Scholar Housing

University of Toronto Eugenics

CHRISTINE MEHRING

DAVID MCDONALD

Yale University Klimt, Gustav

DAN MALAN

Independent Scholar Dore´, Gustave FRANCES MALINO

Wellesley College Jewish Emancipation PHILLIP MALLETT

University of St. Andrews, U.K. Kipling, Rudyard 2550

University of Wisconsin, Madison Holy Alliance Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz, Treaty of Nicholas II Unkiar-Skelessi, Treaty of

EVAN M. MELHADO

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Chemistry

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WILLIAM E. MELIN

MARTIN A. MILLER

MICHAEL MORTON

Lafayette College Berlioz, Hector

Duke University Kropotkin, Peter

Duke University Herder, Johann Gottfried

ANNE K. MELLOR

MONSERRAT MILLER

PETER MORTON

University of California, Los Angeles Shelley, Mary

Marshall University Markets

Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia Gissing, George

NICHOLAS MILLER BRUCE W. MENNING

U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Mukden, Battle of Russo-Turkish War San Stefano, Treaty of

Benedictine College Generation of 1898 CAROL P. MERRIMAN

PAVLA MILLER

WILLIAM MURRAY

BARRY MILLIGAN

Independent Scholar Art Nouveau Schiele, Egon

Wright State University Drugs MARGARET MINER

JOHN MERRIMAN

Yale University Captain Swing Charles X France Ravachol (Franc¸ois Claudius Koenigstein-Ravachol) MARK S. MICALE

University of Illinois Absinthe Charcot, Jean-Martin Eiffel Tower Romanticism

Horace Mann School Brougham, Henry Castlereagh, Viscount (Robert Stewart) Combination Acts Corn Laws, Repeal of Palmerston, Lord (Henry John Temple) Wellington, Duke of (Arthur Wellesley)

TO

University of Illinois at Chicago Baudelaire, Charles JOEL MOKYR

Northwestern University and University of Tel Aviv Industrial Revolution, Second Science and Technology ANNIKA MOMBAUER

ELISA R. MILKES

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NORMAN H. MURDOCH

Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia Education Montessori, Maria

LESLIE ANNE MERCED

E U R O P E

Boise State University Gaj, Ljudevit Jelacˇic´, Josip Karadjordje

The Open University, U.K. Alliance System Moroccan Crises Schlieffen Plan

University of Cincinnati (emeritus) Salvation Army

Latrobe University, Australia Football (Soccer) SCOTT HUGHES MYERLY

Independent Scholar Beards GLENN MYRENT

Independent Scholar Lumie`re, Auguste and Louis ISABELLE H. NAGINSKI

Tufts University Sand, George WILLIAM NASSON

University of Cape Town Boer War Kitchener, Horatio Herbert Omdurman Rhodes, Cecil South Africa MICHAEL S. NEIBERG

University of Southern Mississippi Armies

JOHN WARNE MONROE

CATHARINE THEIMER NEPOMNYASHCHY

Iowa State University Spiritualism

Barnard College Pushkin, Alexander

DANIEL MORAN

SUSAN VANDIVER NICASSIO

Naval Postgraduate School Clausewitz, Carl von Jomini, Antoine-Henri de

University of Louisiana at Lafayette Puccini, Giacomo

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DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

RICHARD NOLL

PAUL O’LEARY

ROD PHILLIPS

DeSales University Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich

University of Wales, Aberystwyth, U.K. Wales

Carleton University, Ottawa Wine

CLAIRE E. NOLTE

Manhattan College Masaryk, Toma´sˇ Garrigue Palacky´, Frantisˇek Young Czechs and Old Czechs DEBORAH EPSTEIN NORD

Princeton University Webb, Beatrice Potter SHERWIN B. NULAND

Yale University Semmelweis, Ignac ROBERT A. NYE

Oregon State University LeBon, Gustave Masculinity Sexuality LYNN K. NYHART

University of Wisconsin, Madison Museums

DANIEL PICK

University of Maastricht Krafft-Ebing, Richard von

Birbeck College, University of London Degeneration

SHANE O’ROURKE

MARY PICKERING

York University, U.K. Cossacks

San Jose State University Comte, Auguste

HARRY OOSTERHUIS

PAUL A. PICKERING

MICHAEL R. ORWICZ

The Australian National University O’Connor, Feargus Peel, Robert

University of Connecticut Millet, Jean-Franc¸ois ROBERT J. PARADOWSKI

Rochester Institute of Technology Einstein, Albert Lavoisier, Antoine JONATHAN PARRY

Pembroke College, University of Cambridge Disraeli, Benjamin ALLAN H. PASCO

DAVID O’BRIEN

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Canova, Antonio Delacroix, Euge`ne Ge´ricault, The´odore

University of Kansas Balzac, Honore´ de

Georgetown University Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

Cardiff University Action Franc¸aise ALICE K. PATE

Williams College Ingres, Jean-AugusteDominique

Columbus State University Socialist Revolutionaries

STEPHEN C. PINSON

New York Public Library Daguerre, Louis LEON PLANTINGA

SILVANA PATRIARCA-HARRIS RALPH O’CONNOR

University of Aberdeen, U.K. Lyell, Charles

Fordham University Leopardi, Giacomo Manzoni, Alessandro Verga, Giovanni

ROBERT WILLIAM OLDANI

Arizona State University Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai 2552

Yale University Beethoven, Ludwig van JANET POLASKY

University of New Hampshire Brussels Leopold I

ROBERT OLBY

University of Pittsburgh Mendel, Gregor

Royal Holloway, University of London Blanc, Louis Bonapartism Bourgeoisie Bureaucracy Deroin, Jeanne Guizot, Franc¸ois TERRY PINKARD

KEVIN PASSMORE

CAROL OCKMAN

PAMELA PILBEAM

MARTA PETRUSEWICZ

City University of New York and Universita´ della Cabria, Italy Peasants Sismondi, Jean-Charles Leonard de

HILARY PORISS

University of Cincinnati Rossini, Gioachino Verdi, Giuseppe

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BERNARD PORTER

ROGER PRICE

BERNHARD RIEGER

University of Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K. Colonies Imperialism

University of Wales, Aberstwyth, U.K. Napoleon III Phylloxera Railroads Transportation and Communications

University College, London Krupp

BRIAN PORTER

University of Michigan Czartoryski, Adam Endecja Nationalism Polish National Movement Warsaw

DANIEL RINGROSE

Minot State University Engineers DAVID D. ROBERTS

CHRISTOPHER J. PROM

University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign Smiles, Samuel

DOROTHY PORTER

JUNE PURVIS

University of California San Francisco Disease Public Health

University of Portsmouth, U.K. Pankhurst, Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia

University of Georgia Croce, Benedetto SUSANNE ROBERTS

Yale University Library Libraries HARLOW ROBINSON

Northeastern University Meyerhold, Vsevolod

JOHN W. RANDOLPH JR. THEODORE M. PORTER

University of California, Los Angeles Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Bakunin, Mikhail CHARLES REARICK

University of Massachusetts at Amherst Fin de Sie`cle

LARRY L. PORTIS

Universite´ Paul Vale´ry (Montpellier 3) ´ mile Durkheim, E CAROLYN J. POUNCY

University of Maryland Pavlova, Anna PETER C. POZEFSKY

Emory University Gaudı´, Antonio BERNICE GLATZER ROSENTHAL

Fordham University Berdyayev, Nikolai

ALAN J. REINERMAN

RONALD J. ROSS

Boston College Diplomacy Metternich, Clemens von Revolutions of 1820

University of Wisconsin— Milwaukee Center Party Kulturkampf

LUCY RIALL

NICOLAS ROUSSELLIER

Birkbeck College, University of London Sicily

The College of Wooster Chaadayev, Peter Nihilists

JUDITH ROHRER

Institut d’e´tudes politiques, Paris Liberalism

NATHALIE RICHARD

EDWARD ROYLE

University of Oregon Silver Age

Universite Paris I—Pantheon, Sorbonne Renan, Ernest

University of York, U.K. Chartism

RADO PRIBIC

ANGELIQUE RICHARDSON

Lafayette College Dostoyevsky, Fyodor

University of Exeter, U.K. Spencer, Herbert

JENIFER PRESTO

HELEN M. ROZWADOWSKI

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University of Connecticut, Avery Point Campus Oceanic Exploration 2553

DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

JAMES H. RUBIN

State University of New York, Stony Brook Impressionism Painting PENNY RUSSELL

University of Sydney Manners and Formality MICHAEL A. RUTZ

University of Wisconsin—Oshkosh Explorers Missions JAMES SACK

Mazzini, Giuseppe Young Italy

CHANDAK SENGOOPTA

Birkbeck College, University of London Weininger, Otto

BENJAMIN C. SAX

University of Kansas Fontane, Theodor Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von

ALFRED E. SENN

University of Wisconsin Lithuania

´ DE ´ RIC SCHAUB JEAN-FRE

SONU SHAMDASANI

Ecole des hautes etudes en sciences sociales (Paris) Madrid

Wellcome Trust Centre for the History of Medicine, University College London Jung, Carl Gustav

WIELAND SCHMIED

Akademie der Bildenden Kuenste, Munich Friedrich, Caspar David

BARRY M. SHAPIRO

University of Colorado, Colorado Springs Frankfurt Parliament

BARBARA SCHMUCKI

DENNIS SHOWALTER

University of York, U.K. Subways

MICHAEL SALER

FREDERICK C. SCHNEID

University of California, Davis Decadence

High Point University Congress of Troppau Congress of Vienna French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars Sieye`s, Emmanuel-Joseph

Colorado College Addis Ababa, Treaty of Austro-Prussian War Concert of Europe Danish-German War Franco-Austrian War Franco-Prussian War Hague Conferences Moltke, Helmuth von Shimonoseki, Treaty of Trafalgar, Battle of

University of Illinois, Chicago Tories

Allegheny College Danton, Georges-Jacques

ROBERT E. SACKETT

BRITT SALVESEN

University of Arizona, Tucson Seurat, Georges JEFFREY L. SAMMONS

Independent Scholar Heine, Heinrich

JANE SCHNEIDER

City University of New York Mafia

NICHOLAS SHRIMPTON

University of Pennsylvania Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle)

PETER SCHNEIDER

Lady Margaret Hall, University of Oxford Arnold, Matthew

Fordham University Mafia

MICHAEL SIBALIS

JOSHUA SANBORN

KATRIN SCHULTHEISS

Lafayette College Portsmouth, Treaty of

University of Illinois at Chicago Nurses

MAURICE SAMUELS

Wilfrid Laurier University Homosexuality and Lesbianism LISA Z. SIGEL

ROLAND SARTI

JERROLD SEIGEL

University of Massachusetts, Amherst Cavour, Count (Camillo Benso) Charles Albert Italy

New York University Flaˆneur

2554

De Paul University Pornography DAVID SILBEY

SUDIPTA SEN

University of California, Davis East India Company

Alvernia College Asquith, Herbert Henry Edward VII

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Pelletier, Madeleine Syndicalism

LISA SILVERMAN

University of Sussex, U.K. Herzl, Theodor

SUSIE L. STEINBACH

Hamline University Austen, Jane

REBECCA L. SPANG MARC SMEETS

Raboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands Huysmans, Joris-Karl

University College, London Restaurants

Rutgers University Gender

MATTHIAS STADELMANN

CROSBIE SMITH

University of Kent Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson)

University of ErlangenNuremberg, Germany Glinka, Mikhail ADAM C. STANLEY

Univerity of Wisconsin, Platteville Stae¨l, Germaine de

DOUGLAS SMITH

University of Washington Catherine II SUSAN SMITH-PETER

College of Staten Island/City University of New York Speransky, Mikhail FRANK SNOWDEN

Yale University Malatesta, Errico

University of Pennsylvania Switzerland

JONATHAN SPERBER

University of Missouri Revolutions of 1848

BONNIE G. SMITH

JONATHAN STEINBERG

MARK D. STEINBERG

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. Gorky, Maxim CHRISTOPHER H. STERLING

George Washington University Telephones JANET STEWART

University of Aberdeen Loos, Adolf

PETER STANSKY

RICHARD STITES

Stanford University Morris, William

Georgetown University Diaghilev, Sergei Struve, Peter

ALESSANDRO STANZIANI

Centre national de recherches scientifiques, Paris Statistics

MELISSA K. STOCKDALE

University of Oklahoma Kadets Milyukov, Pavel

JAMES D. STEAKLEY

TIMOTHY SNYDER

Yale University Mickiewicz, Adam Poland Ukraine REBA N. SOFFER

California State University, Northridge Acton, John LAWRENCE SONDHAUS

University of Indianapolis Naval Rivalry (AngloGerman)

University of Wisconsin, Madison Hirschfeld, Magnus Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich

CHRIS STOLWIJK

BIRGITTA STEENE

DANIEL STONE

Sweden Strindberg, August

University of Winnipeg, Canada Kosciuszko, Tadeusz

GARY P. STEENSON

JUDITH F. STONE

California Polytechnic State University, San Lois Obispo Bebel, August Kautsky, Karl Lassalle, Ferdinand Liebknecht, Karl Second International

Western Michigan University Clemenceau, Georges Radicalism

MANFRED B. STEGER

CARL J. STRIKWERDA

Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia Bernstein, Eduard

The College of William and Mary Belgium Socialism, Christian

Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam Van Gogh, Vincent

TYLER STOVALL

University of California, Berkeley Minorities

CHARLES SOWERWINE

University of Melbourne, Australia Boulangism Dreyfus Affair

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DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

ROB STUART

CYRIL THOMAS

University of Western Australia Guesde, Jules

Universite´ de Paris Nanterre Fauvism Matisse, Henri

BARBARA VALOTTI

ETIENNE VAN DE WALLE

JAMES THOMPSON

University of Pennsylvania Demography

University of Bristol Bagehot, Walter

JOHN VAN WYHE

ROBERT W. THURSTON

Cambridge University Phrenology

Miami University Moscow

LIANA VARDI

Marconi, Guglielmo

CLAUDE J. SUMMERS

University of Michigan—Dearborn Forster, E. M. JOHN SUTHERLAND

University College London (emeritus) Scott, Walter RICHARD SWEDBERG

Cornell University Simmel, Georg Weber, Max DENNIS SWEENEY

University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Labor Movements Strikes ANTHONY SWIFT

University of Essex, U.K. World’s Fairs JULIE ANNE TADDEO

University of California, Berkeley Strachey, Lytton EMILE J. TALBOT

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de

JOHN GEOFFREY TIMMINS

University of Central Lancashire Factories

State University of New York, Buffalo Agricultural Revolution STEPHEN VELLA

MARIA TODOROVA

University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Ottoman Empire JANIS A. TOMLINSON

University Museums, University of Delaware Goya, Francisco

Yale University Carlyle, Thomas Manning, Henry Newman, John Henry Pater, Walter Sepoy Mutiny Tennyson, Alfred Whigs BRIAN VICK

University of Sheffield Gagern, Heinrich von

DAVID G. TROYANSKY

Brooklyn College of the City University of New York Death and Burial Old Age

ELOINA VILLEGAS

University of Colorado, Boulder Barcelona

ALEX TYRRELL

DAVID VINCENT

La Trobe University William IV

The Open University Literacy

HENK TE VELDE

HANS RUDOLF VAGET

K. STEVEN VINCENT

Leiden University, Netherlands Netherlands

Smith College (emeritus) Mann, Thomas

North Carolina State University Anarchism Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph

PETRA TEN-DOESSCHATE CHU

CYRUS VAKIL

Mahindra United World College of India Malthus, Thomas Robert

ARON VINEGAR

ELIZABETH KRIDL VALKENIER

IGOR VISHNEVETSKY

THIERRY TERRET

University of Lyon, France Sports

Columbia University Repin, Ilya

Seton Hall University Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Realism and Naturalism

2556

Ohio State University Viollet-le-Duc, Euge`ne

St. Sava Serbian Orthodox School of Theology, Libertyville, Illinois Bely, Andrei

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DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

THIERRY L. VISSOL

R. K. WEBB

STEPHEN WHEATCROFT

European Union Monetary Unions

University of Maryland, Baltimore County (emeritus) Martineau, Harriet

University of Melbourne, Australia Exile, Penal

JUDITH WECHSLER

DOUGLAS L. WHEELER

Tufts University Daumier, Honore´

University of New Hampshire, Durham Portugal

GREGORY VITARBO

Meredith College Kutuzov, Mikhail MICHIEL F. WAGENAAR

THEODORE R. WEEKS

University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Amsterdam

Southern Illinois University at Carbondale Alexander III

KEVIN WHELAN

PETER WALDRON

ROBERT WEINBERG

Keough Notre Dame Centre, Dublin, Ireland Ireland O’Connell, Daniel

University of Sunderland, U.K. Alexander II Russia

Swarthmore College Bund, Jewish

CHARLES WHITE

DORA B. WEINER

University of California, Los Angeles Pinel, Philippe

ANDRZEJ WALICKI

University of Notre Dame Slavophiles BARBARA WALKER

University of Nevada, Reno Alexandra

Henri-Poincare´ Archives (CNRS) and University of Nancy, France Poincare´, Henri KATHRYN A. WALTERSCHEID

University of Missouri—St. Louis Coffee, Tea, Chocolate Diet and Nutrition JAMES WALVIN

JOAN WEINER

Indiana University Frege, Gottlob

SARAH WHITING

University of Minnesota Guimard, Hector ERIC D. WEITZ

University of Minnesota Luxemburg, Rosa ANGELIKA WESENBERG

Nationalgalerie, Berlin Menzel, Adolph von JAMES L. WEST

University of York, U.K. Race and Racism Slavery

Middlebury College Octobrists TIMOTHY C. WESTPHALEN

GEOFFREY WAWRO

PAUL WHITE

Cambridge University Huxley, Thomas Henry

GABRIEL P. WEISBERG SCOTT WALTER

U.S. Army Forces Command, Fort McPherson, Georgia Jena, Battle of

Princeton University Parks STEVEN M. WHITING

University of Michigan Satie, Erik JAMES WHITMAN

Yale University Law, Theories of CRAIG WILCOX

Independent Scholar Australia ALAN WILLIAMS

Rutgers University Cinema

University of North Texas Military Tactics

State University of New York, Stony Brook Blok, Alexander

JOHN WILLIAMS

STEWART WEAVER

ZINA WEYGAND

GEORGE S. WILLIAMSON

University of Rochester Luddism Machine Breaking

Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, Paris Braille, Louis

University of Alabama Carlsbad Decrees Schelling, Friedrich von

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Colorado College Nanking, Treaty of

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DIRECTORY OF CONTRIBUTORS

ROLF WINAU

ROBERT WOKLER

BRADLEY D. WOODWORTH

Charite-Universitatsmedizin BerlinDavis Ehrlich, Paul

Yale University Bonald, Louis de Burke, Edmund Utilitarianism

University of New Haven Finland and the Baltic Provinces T. R. WRIGHT

NANCY M. WINGFIELD

Northern Illinois University Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia Prague

GAIL HILSON WOLDU

Trinity College Debussy, Claude

University of Newcastle, U.K. Positivism GUOQI XU

Kalamazoo College Boxer Rebellion China Opium Wars

MARY PICKARD WINSOR

J.R. WOLFFE

University of Toronto Agassiz, Louis

Open University, U.K. Wilberforce, William

ALISON WINTER

SUSAN J. WOLFSON

LINDA GERTNER ZATLIN

University of Chicago Mesmer, Franz Anton

Princeton University Wordsworth, William

Morehouse College Beardsley, Aubrey

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INDEX

Page references include both a volume number and a page number. For example, 5:2409–2411 refers to pages 2409–2411 in volume 5. Page numbers in boldface type indicate references to complete illustrations, tables, and figures.

n

A Aachen, 3:1411 Aachen Protocol of 1818, 3:1174 Aarcot, 2:706 Abbas I, sultan of Egypt, 2:732 Abbey, Rith, 3:1514 Abbey in an Oakwood (Friedrich), 2:911 Abbey Theatre (Dublin), 2:693; 3:1109, 1182; 4:1756; 5:2510 Abd Allah, 3:1668 Abd ar-Rahman ibn Hisham, 3:1547 Abdelkader, 1:44; 3:1547–1548 Abduction, The (Ce´zanne), 1:397 Abdul-Hamid II, Ottoman sultan, 1:1–2, 2; 3:1689, 1689, 1690 abdication of, 3:1691 Armenian Question and, 1:2, 91, 92 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2085 Young Turks and, 5:2515 Abdu¨lmecid I (Abdul Mejid), Ottoman sultan, 3:1187–1188, 1686; 5:2392 Abensberg-Eckmu¨hl, Battle of (1809), 2:902 Aberdeen, 4:2117 Aberdeen, Lord (George Hamilton Gordon), 2:976–977, 1007 Abhandlung u ¨ ber den Ursprung der Sprache (Herder), 2:1060 Abildgaard, Nikolai Abraham, 2:910 abolitionism. See antislavery movement

articles.

Page

numbers

Abomey. See Dahomey Aborigines, Australian, 1:133–134 Aborigines Protection Society, 2:504 abortion, 4:1762, 1827, 1829, 1836, 2042 Aboukir Bay, 3:1585, 1615 Abovian, Khachatur, 1:88 Abraham, Karl, 4:1905 Abrante`s, Mme d’, 1:167 absinthe, 1:2–4; 5:2477 Absinthe, L’ (Degas), 1:3 Absinthe Drinker, The (Manet), 3:1431–1432 absolute temperature, 3:1249 absolutism aristocracy and, 1:87 Austria-Hungary and, 1:139, 142–143, 262; 2:863–864; 3:1191 Congress of Vienna and, 1:457 Francis I and, 2:861 French Revolution as reaction against, 2:843, 886, 887 popular sovereignty vs., 1:456 Russia and, 1:81; 2:1017 Serbia and, 4:2144–2146 Spain and, 1:366, 367, 368; 2:808, 809 abstract art avant-garde and, 1:155 Ce´zanne and, 1:398, 399; 3:1132, 1261

in

italic type indicate

Gauguin as influence on, 3:1271 Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246 postimpressionism and, 4:1709, 1710 abstract expressionism, 3:1133 Abstraction and Empathy (Abstraktion and Einfu ¨ ulung; Worringer), 1:155 absurdism, 3:1213, 1242 Abundance (Le Fauconnier), 2:590, 591 Abyssinia. See Ethiopia Acade´mie des Beaux-Arts, 4:2086; 5:2505 Acade´mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 4:1953 Acade´mie des Sciences. See Academy of Sciences Acade´mie Franc¸aise, 1:213, 228; 2:560, 1093; 4:1702, 1806, 1953 Acade´mie Goncourt, 2:991 Acade´mie Suisse, 1:397 Academy of Architecture (Berlin), 4:2093 Academy of Arts (Prussia), 3:1353; 4:2092 Academy of Fine Arts (Brussels), 1:307 Academy of Fine Arts (France), 2:606, 641 Academy of Fine Arts (Vienna), 4:2089 Academy of Grenoble, 1:406

2559

INDEX

Academy of Inscriptions (France), 1:407 Academy of Medicine (France), 1:228 Academy of Sciences (Austria), 5:2418 Academy of Sciences (Bavaria), 2:814 Academy of Sciences (Brussels), 4:1921 Academy of Sciences (France) Bernard and, 1:228 Curie and, 2:595, 596 Lavoisier and, 3:1312 Marat and, 3:1443 photography and, 2:606; 4:1770–1771 Pinel and, 4:1791 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1804 Academy of Sciences (Prussia), 4:1799, 1800 Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg, Russia), 4:2075, 2076–2077 Acadia (Nova Scotia), 1:343 accident insurance, 1:356, 357; 2:540, 966 Accra, 2:779 Accumulation of Capital, The (Luxemburg), 3:1400 Aceh (people), 3:1617 Acemoglu, Daron, 5:2334 Achebe, Chinua, 4:1875 Achilles Receiving the Ambassadors of Agamemnon (Ingres), 3:1167 Ackerman, Robert, 2:872 Acland, Henry, 4:2046 acmeism, 4:2182 Acocella, Joan, 3:1643 acquired characteristics, inheritance of, 2:615, 637, 776–777, 778–779, 928; 3:1302–1303 Acre, 2:731, 900 Acre, Battle of (1799), 3:1683 Acropolis (Athens), 1:125 Across the Plains (Stevenson), 4:2255 acting. See theater Action Franc¸aise, 1:4–6, 389 attack on Bergson by, 1:214 Dreyfus affair and, 2:485–486, 684 Maurras and, 3:1476–1477 papal condemnation of, 3:1477 Sorel and, 4:2218 Action Franc¸aise, L’ (newspaper), 1:5; 3:1476 Action Libe´rale Populaire (France), 1:389 Act of Brussels of 1890, 3:1173 Act of Mediation of 1803, 4:2188 Act of 1967 (Britain), 2:746 Act of Uniformity of 1862 (Britain), 2:1002

2560

Act of Union of 1707 (Britain and Scotland), 2:999, 1006; 3:1177; 4:2118 Act of Union of 1800 (Britain and Ireland), 1:373; 2:999–1000; 3:1177 background of, 2:1000 Chartist demand for repeal of, 1:415 Dublin and, 2:690 hypocrisy of, 3:1177 United Kingdom established by, 3:1177, 1179 Acton, John, 1:6–7; 4:1722 Acts of Toleration of 1689, 1778, and 1791 (Britain), 4:1895 actual energy, 3:1250 Adam, Paul, 4:1943 Adam, Victor, 2:528 Adam Bede (G. Eliot), 2:744 adamism. See acmeism Adams, Henry, 2:618 Adams, John, 4:1701 Adana, 5:2391 Adas, Michael, 1:461 ADAV. See Allgemeiner deutscher Arbeiterverein Addams, Jane, 1:67 addiction. See drugs Addis Ababa, 1:8 Addis Ababa, Treaty of (1896), 1:7–8 Address to the German Nation (Fichte), 2:813, 814 Adelaide, queen of Great Britain, 5:2471 Adele Bloch-Bauer (Klimt), 3:1261 Adelfi (secret society), 1:360 Adelswa¨rd-Fersen, Jacques d’, 2:1084 Adl, Mohammed el, 2:836 Adler, Alfred, 1:8–10; 2:907, 908, 909; 4:1905 Adler, Friedrich, 1:11 Adler, Jankel, 3:1310 Adler, Max, 1:11 Adler, Salomon, 1:10 Adler, Victor, 1:10–11; 3:1395; 4:2127 Admiralty (St. Petersburg), 4:2075, 2078 adolescence, ‘‘discovery’’ of, 1:428 Adolphe (Constant), 2:545 ‘‘Adonias’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 Adoration of the Name of God, The (Goya), 2:996–997 Adorno, Theodor, 1:295; 3:1419, 1435, 1437; 4:1756, 2101, 2262 Adowa, Battle of (1896), 2:794; 3:1118

Adrianople, 1:12–13, 163, 164, 165; 2:705; 4:2068 Adrianople, Treaty of (1829), 1:12, 243; 3:1420, 1625; 4:2016; 5:2391 Adriatic Sea, 1:146, 163, 166; 3:1482, 1691 Montenegro and, 3:1540, 1541 adult education, 1:9, 384 adultery British divorce law and, 3:1646 French Civil Code and, 1:287 Napoleonic Code and, 2:943 Adutera, L’ (Fontane), 2:829 Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, The (Doyle), 2:680 advertising for automobiles, 1:150 Beardsley drawings and, 1:192 consumerism and, 2:550, 551 for furniture, 2:912, 913, 915 London Underground and, 4:2273 Michelin guide and, 5:2326 newspapers and, 4:1867–1868 popular culture and, 4:1823 posters and, 4:1845–1846, 1846, 1847 for sewing machines, 4:2160 Adwa, Battle of (1896), 1:7, 8, 362; 2:582, 583; 3:1200 Aegean Sea, 1:243; 2:704, 705; 3:1482, 1612 Aennec, Guillaume, 3:1297 Aeschylus, 2:1097; 4:1770 Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic (Croce), 2:584 aesthetic movement, 4:1746, 1770 Decadence and, 2:632, 633 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863, 1865 symbolism and, 4:2294 Wilde and, 5:2464 Affaire Dreyfus, L’ (film), 3:1483 Affiches a` Troubille, Les (Marquet), 2:796–797 Afghani, Jamal ad-Din, 3:1207 Afghanistan, 1:49, 395 Afghanistan War of 1839–1842, 2:674, 977, 1009; 3:1118 jingoism and, 3:1234 Africa, 1:13–22; 5:2411 activist opposition organizations, 1:500–501 Berlin Conference on, 1:20, 37, 220–224, 499; 3:1118, 1178 British civilizing mission in, 1:462 British colonies in, 2:508; 3:1115, 1258–1259

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INDEX

cholera pandemic and, 1:436 colonial racial divisions and, 1:499–500 Concert of Europe and, 2:527 Entente Cordiale and, 2:795 exploration of, 2:782–783, 784, 927 French colonial officers in, 2:504 French ‘‘new imperialism’’ in, 2:812–813; 3:1600 German colonies in, 2:967; 3:1116, 1125 human origins in, 2:619 imperialism in, 1:17–22, 94, 99, 205, 220–224, 240; 2:506, 509, 527, 663; 3:1115–1116, 1117, 1119, 1336–1337, 1545–1546, 1668–1669 indigenous elites and, 1:500 Italian colonies in, 1:7–8; 2:527, 582, 583 map of colonial holdings (1880), 3:1117 map of colonial holdings (1914), 3:1119 missionary activity in, 3:1527, 1528 Portuguese in, 4:1838–1839, 1840, 1841, 1843 primitivism and, 1:156; 4:1782, 1874, 1875 Rhodes and, 4:1996–1997 ‘‘scramble’’ for, 1:20–22, 220, 339, 499; 2:663, 795; 3:1115–1116 slavery and, 4:1925, 2190–2194 slave trade and, 1:13–14, 15, 16, 37, 308–309; 2:1036 trade commodities of, 1:14–16, 22 See also Boer War; colonialism; North Africa; specific countries and regions by name Africaine, L’ (Meyerbeer), 3:1671 African art, 1:156 African masks, 4:1782, 1875 African National Congress, 1:500 African Students Association, 3:1524 Afrikaners. See Boers afterlife, 1:378 Afternoon of a Faun, The (ballet), 3:1642, 1643 afternoon tea, 1:495 Aftonbladet (Swedish newspaper), 4:2283 Agadir Crisis (1911), 1:49, 339; 3:1370, 1545–1546, 1549; 4:1806 Against Nature (Huysmans), 2:632, 1104, 1105 A gao glu, Ahmet, 3:1207

E U R O P E

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Agassiz, Alexander, 1:23 Agassiz, Elizabeth Cabot Cary, 1:23 Agassiz, Louis, 1:22–24; 2:618 Agence France Presse, 4:1871 Age of Bronze, The (Rodin), 4:2008–2009 Age of Constantine the Great, The (Burckhardt), 1:317 Age of Mass Migration (Hatton and Williamson), 2:710 Age of Reason, The (Paine), 4:1701 agnosticism, 2:1103; 4:1893 Agnostic’s Apology (Stephen), 4:2254 Agony (Schiele), 4:2090 Agoult, Marie-Catherine-Sophie d’, 1:168; 3:1360 Agrarian Justice (Paine), 4:1701 Agricultural Reading Society, 3:1667 Agricultural Revolution, 1:24–29; 3:1164 Bohemian Lands and, 1:260 capitalism and, 1:358–359 Cavour and, 1:390 Central Asia and, 1:396 chemicals and, 3:1159–1160 Corn Law repeal and, 1:490–491; 2:557–560 Denmark and, 2:647 economic growth and, 1:350; 2:762 engineers and, 2:757 environment and, 2:762 Germany and, 2:762, 960 Italy and, 3:1195 landed elite and, 3:1304, 1305 machine breaking and, 1:357, 358–359; 3:1411 peasants and, 4:1753–1754, 1755–1756 plant and animal breeding and, 2:770 railroads and, 4:1936 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988 science and technology and, 4:2108, 2109 Siberia and, 4:2257 Sismondi and, 4:2186 Sweden and, 4:2284–2285 trade and, 5:2337, 2340–2341, 2348–2349 water pollution and, 2:764 Agricultural Workers Federation (Italy), 5:2485 agriculture. See Agricultural Revolution; farm labor; peasants Ahl a-Kitah, 3:1517 Ahmad Bey, 5:2362 Aı¨da (Verdi), 2:733; 3:1572, 1676; 5:2406

1 9 1 4

Aide-toi, le ciel t’aidera, 2:1029 Aids to Reflection (Coleridge), 1:497 Aids to Scouting (Baden-Powell), 1:159 airplanes, 1:29–32; 3:1161, 1163; 4:2114–2115 air pollution. See pollution airships, 1:30 Aix-les-Bains, 5:2328 Akc¸ura, Yusuf, 3:1207 Akhmatova, Anna, 1:250, 337; 4:2182, 2183 Akkumulation des Kapitals, Die (Luxemburg), 3:1400 Aksakov, Ivan, 4:2195, 2196, 2270 Aksakov, Konstantin, 4:2194 Aktion, Die (Berlin magazine), 4:2091 Alabama case, 2:1008; 3:1174 Alain-Fournier (Henry-Alban Fournier), 4:1760 Alam II, Mughul emperor, 2:706 A´ la nation arte´sienne (Robespierre), 4:2005 Aland Islands, 2:577 A´ la recherche´ du temps perdu (Proust), 1:166 Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude (Shelley), 4:2170 Albania, 1:32–34; 3:1690 Balkan Wars and, 1:32–33, 33, 146, 163, 166; 2:704–705 Eastern Question and, 2:704–705 independence of, 1:163–164; 2:1018; 3:1691; 4:2149 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2085 Albanian Prizren League, 3:1690 Albert, Charles, 3:1480 Albert, prince consort of Great Britain, 2:587, 729; 5:2496 background of, 3:1335 Freemasons and, 2:881 gender roles and, 2:946 Great Exhibition of 1851 and, 5:2412, 2494, 2495 photography and, 4:1771 wife, Victoria, and, 5:2412–2414, 2413 Albert Edward, prince of Wales. See Edward VII Alberto, Carlo, 1:390, 391 Albine Fiori (Sand), 4:2084 alchemy, 1:424 Alcock, Charles William, 2:832 alcohol and temperance, 1:34–37; 4:2082 absinthe and, 1:2–4; 5:2477 British bourgeoisie and, 1:288 coffee or tea and, 1:494 crime and, 2:572, 573

2561

INDEX

Dublin distillery and, 2:691 industrialization and, 2:549 prohibition laws and, 1:35–36 temperance and, 1:35–37, 119; 2:586–587; 4:1896 tobacco opponents and, 5:2314 women travelers and, 5:2329 See also beer; drugs; wine alcoholism, 1:37, 261; 2:816; 3:1472 Alekseev, Fedor, 3:1553 Alexander, prince regent of Serbia, 1:243 Alexander Column (St. Petersburg), 4:2078 Alexander Nevsky Monastery (St. Petersburg), 2:679; 4:2075 Alexander of Battenberg, prince of Bulgaria, 1:312 Alexander von Humboldt (Weitsch), 2:1096 Alexander I, emperor of Russia, 1:37–38, 132, 133, 226; 2:1019; 4:2048, 2049–2050 Borodino and, 1:272; 2:902 Bourbon restoration and, 5:2306 bureaucracy and, 1:323 Congress of Troppau and, 2:531–532 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–533, 534, 534, 565, 1080 Continental System and, 1:272 counterrevolution and, 2:566, 959; 4:1970 Czartoryski and, 2:603, 604 father, Paul I, and, 1:37; 4:1748 Finnish boundaries and, 2:817 Holy Alliance and, 1:38; 2:565, 959, 1079, 1080–1081; 4:1718, 1970 Kos´ciuszko and, 3:1265 Kutuzov and, 3:1281 Lithuania and, 3:1365 Metternich and, 3:1494 mysticism and, 2:1080 Napoleon and, 2:901, 902, 903, 1080; 3:1281, 1334, 1586, 1588 Nicholas I as successor to, 3:1625 Poland and, 4:1807, 1808, 1817 Pushkin’s exile and, 4:1919 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1979–1982 St. Petersburg and, 4:2078 secret societies and, 1:361 Speransky and, 4:2049, 2236 Talleyrand and, 5:2306 War of 1805 and, 5:2374 Warsaw and, 3:1493; 4:1808

2562

Alexander II, emperor of Russia, 1:38–40, 88; 2:1066; 3:1272; 4:2051 assassination of, 1:39, 40, 72, 89; 2:1017; 3:1614; 4:1767, 1768, 1802, 1832, 1975, 2052, 2053, 2053, 2079, 2196, 2210, 2216; 5:2389, 2517, 2520 Crimean War and, 1:244; 2:579, 1015; 3:1626 Great Reforms of, 1:39, 40, 88–89; 2:1014–1017; 3:1233; 4:1767, 1880, 1975, 2048–2049, 2051, 2196 Polish uprising and, 4:1818 Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2085 serf emancipation and, 4:2149, 2153; 5:2365 Speransky and, 4:2237 Alexander III, emperor of Russia, 1:40–41; 4:1975, 2051, 2053–2054 anti-minority programs of, 1:89 assassination plot against, 3:1326; 4:1768 Baltic provinces and, 2:821 Bulgaria and, 1:312 Cossacks and, 2:563 pogroms and, 1:72; 4:1802; 5:2520 Russification program and, 4:1956, 2054 Siberia and, 4:2172 son Nicholas II and, 3:1626, 1627 Alexanderplatz (Berlin), 1:217 Alexandra, empress of Russia, 1:41–42; 3:1627, 1627; 5:2415 Alexandra, princess of Wales (later queen of Great Britain), 2:729; 5:2415 Alexandria, 1:18; 2:731, 732, 733; 3:1482 Alexis, prince of Russia, 1:41, 42; 3:1627 Alexis, Paul, 2:1104 Alfieri, Vittorio, 3:1193 Alfonso und Estrella (Schubert), 4:2106 Alfonso XII, king of Spain, 1:366; 2:949; 4:2231 Alfonso XIII, king of Spain, 2:949; 4:2231 Alfred Dedreux as a Child with His Sister Elise (Gericault), 1:285 algebra, 4:1804 Algeciras Conference (1906), 3:1545, 1546, 1549

Algemeene Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter begunstigung van de Volksvlijt, 1:173–174 Algeria, 1:42–47 as French colony, 1:18, 43–47, 99, 498–499; 2:506, 640; 3:1116, 1389, 1420, 1482, 1547, 1548, 1600, 1613; 5:2362 French immigrants in, 2:504 French penal exile in, 2:780 indigenous population and, 2:604 Morocco and, 3:1547–1548 racial lines in, 1:500 tourism and, 5:2330 world’s fair displays of, 5:2496, 2497 Algiers, 5:2361, 2362 Ali, Mehmet, 4:2085, 2274; 5:2391, 2392 Ali bin Ghadahum, 5:2362 Alice, princess of Great Britain, 1:41 alimony, 3:1595 Alinari, Fratelli, 3:1194 Aline et Valcour (Sade), 4:2074 Ali Pasha, 2:1019; 3:1541, 1686 alizarin (red dye), 3:1157, 1159 Alkali Acts of 1863 (Britain), 2:764 Allard, Roger, 2:590 Allegemeine Zeitung (Prussian newspaper), 4:1869 Allegro (Russia), 4:2183 Allemane, Jean, 3:1217; 4:2298 Allgemeine Brouillon, Das (Novalis), 3:1647 Allgemeine Deutsche Frauenverein, 3:1681 Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein, 3:1310, 1311 Allgemeine Verband, 2:556 Alliance of Russian Muslims, 3:1207 alliance system, 1:47–50 Armenians and, 1:92 armies and, 1:96 Austria-Hungary and, 1:146, 147; 2:864 Balkans and, 1:166 Belgian neutrality and, 1:199 Bismarck and, 1:47, 48–50, 146, 147, 239–240; 2:663, 964–965 Britain and, 1:47, 48, 49; 2:1013 Castlereagh and, 1:374 Concert of Europe and, 2:526–527, 705 Congress of Vienna and, 1:374 Eastern Question and, 2:703–704 imperialism in China and, 1:434 Italy and, 3:1200, 1202–1203, 1546 Moroccan Crises and, 3:1545–1546

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Napoleonic Wars and, 1:374 Russia and, 3:1627–1628 World War I and, 1:47–50, 146, 232, 313; 2:527, 705, 968–969; 4:1806 Allied Control Council (1947), 4:1899 All-Merciful Manifesto of 1861 (Russia), 4:2149, 2150, 2153 Allom, Thomas, 5:2423 All-Russian Congress of Soviets, 4:2079 All-Russian Islamic Congress, 3:1207, 1208 All the Year Round (British periodical), 2:657 Almaden penal colony, 2:779 Almanach des gourmands (Grimod de la Reynie`re), 4:1967 Alma River, 2:578 Almayer’s Folly (Conrad), 2:535 Almudena Cathedral (Madrid), 3:141 Alphand, Jean-Charles, 2:1049; 4:1738, 1739–1740 Alphonsus of Liguori, 1:378 Alsace-Lorraine, 1:50–52; 4:2243; 5:2311, 2330, 2472 Bethmann Hollweg and, 1:232; 3:1611 French movements to recover, 1:184, 281 German annexation of, 1:47, 48; 2:870, 928, 929, 964; 4:1734 Protestantism in, 4:1893 Alsen Island, assault on (1864), 2:607, 608 Alsworth, W., 2:751 Altenberg, Peter, 1:336 Altenstein, Karl von, 1:369 alternating current, 3:1116 Altes Museum (Berlin), 4:2092, 2093 Althing (Christian August Fischer), 4:1834 Althorp’s Act of 1833 (Britain), 1:429 Altneuland (Herzl), 2:1068; 5:2521 Altomare, Libero, 2:918 Altona Museum (Germany), 3:1564 altruism, 2:619 Amadeo Ferdinando Maria di Savoia, 4:2230 Amalgamated Society of Cotton Spinners (Britain), 3:1288 Amalgamated Society of Engineers (Britain), 3:1288 Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants (Britain), 3:1295–1296 Amateur Emigrant, The (Stevenson), 4:2255

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Amateur Football Association (Britain), 2:833 Amateur Rowing Association (Britain), 4:2242 Amateur Swimming Association (Britain), 4:2242 Amateur Swimming Union (Britain), 4:2242 Amazon (Manet), 4:1708 Ambigu, L’ (theatrical troupe), 1:229 Ambris, Alceste de, 4:2299 Ambrosio Company, 1:443 ambulance corps, 3:1308 America (Blake), 1:244 American Breeders Association, 2:769, 770 American Crisis (Paine), 4:1700 Americanism, 4:1720 American Journal of International Law, 3:1175 American Marconi Company, 3:1370 American Notes (Dickens), 2:656 American Psychoanalytic Association, 4:1938 American Revolution, 1:342, 498; 2:669, 780; 4:2212 Fox support for, 2:839 French financial crisis from, 2:840–841, 884; 3:1385 Hellenism and, 4:1769 Kos´ciuszko and, 3:1264 Lafayette and, 3:1298, 1299, 1300, 1301 Paine and, 4:1700 Parliament and, 1:1001; 5:2461 American Scientist (magazine), 4:2110 American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 2:778 Americas. See Latin America; North America; specific countries America’s Cup, 3:1444 Amerika (Kafka), 3:1243 Amicizia Cattolica, 2:539 Ami du peuple, L’ (French journal), 3:1442, 1443 Amiens, 2:1089 Amiens, Treaty of (1802), 2:901; 3:1586, 1597, 1615; 5:2306, 2438 Amiens Charter, 4:2298–2299, 2300 Amis des Noirs, 4:2192 Amistad (film), 2:678 ammonia-producing process, 3:1160 ammunition. See armaments amnesia, 1:410 Amoros gymnastics method, 4:2241 Amour absolu, L’ (Jarry), 3:1213

1 9 1 4

Ampe`re, Andre´-Marie, 3:1162; 4:1780 amputation, 3:1308 Amsterdam, 1:52–55; 3:1616 banking in, 1:170 bohemian circle in, 3:1619 canal, 3:1618 as Liebermann painting subject, 3:1353, 1354 population of, 1:52, 53, 446 Amsterdam University, 1:54 Amsterdam World’s Fair of 1883, 5:2499–2500 Amundson, Roald, 2:783, 784 Amur Cossacks, 2:562 amusement parks, 4:1825 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, 1:408 Anabaptists, 1:55 ‘‘Analysis of Juridical Life in Ancient Russia, An’’ (Kavelin), 5:2460 Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (J. Mill), 3:1511 analytical psychology, 3:1240 Analytical Review (British journal), 5:2480 anarchism, 1:55–59, 62; 4:1698 anarchosyndicalism vs., 1:60 Bakunin and, 1:56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 161–162; 2:824, 825, 961; 3:1272, 1293; 4:1755 Barcelona and, 1:181, 183 Belgium and, 1:203 communism vs., 2:521 First International and, 2:824, 825; 3:1289 France and, 1:56, 57, 59, 60, 62; 2:857; 3:1497 Herzen and, 5:2460 intelligentsia and, 3:1170, 1641 Italy and, 1:57, 58; 3:1201, 1202, 1423–1425; 5:2377, 2378 Kropotkin and, 1:56, 57; 3:1272–1273 labor movements and, 3:1291 Malatesta and, 3:1423–1425 Marx’s conflicts with, 1:58, 161–162; 3:1468 Michel and, 3:1497–1498 as Nechayev influence, 3:1613 peasants and, 4:1755 Pissarro and, 4:1792, 1794 Portugal and, 4:1841 Proudhon and, 1:56, 57, 60, 62; 4:1897–1899 Ravachol and, 4:1941–1943, 1942, 1943

2563

INDEX

Saint-Simon and, 4:2080 Second International’s rejection of, 3:1294 secularization and, 4:2133 Spain and, 1:58–59; 3:1293; 4:2231; 5:2488 syndicalism and, 1:56, 59; 4:2297–2300 Tolstoy and, 5:2320 Westernizers and, 5:2459 William I assassination attempts and, 2:966 women’s rights and, 3:1293 worker education and, 2:724 Young Hegelians and, 5:2513 anarchosyndicalism, 1:56, 59–63; 4:1841, 2298; 5:2485 futurism and, 2:920 Anastasia, princess of Russia, 3:1627 Anatolia, 2:732; 3:1412, 1682, 1691 anatomy, 1:251; 2:599, 1102 pathological, 3:1297, 1298 See also body ancient Greece. See Hellenism; philhellenism Ancient Monuments Bill of 1904 (Britain), 2:597 ‘‘Ancient Sage, The’’ (Tennyson), 5:2310 Andalusia, 1:379; 3:1293; 4:1755 An der scho¨nen, blauen Donau (J. Strauss), 4:2260; 5:2420 Andersen, Hans Christian, 2:648; 3:1250, 1251 Anderson, Benedict, 3:1607 Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, 2:626 Anderson, James, 2:881 Anderson, Margaret, 1:383 Anderson, Thomas, 4:1744 Andes, 2:1096 Andra´ssy, Gyula, 2:530, 864 Andra´ssy Avenue (Budapest), 1:311 Andreas, Friedrich, 1:64–65 Andreas-Salome´, Lou, 1:63–66, 64 Andreyev, Leonid, 2:633 androgyne (symbolist trope), 4:2293 androgyny, 3:1270 Andromaque (Racine), 1:229 Andromeda (Dore´), 2:677 anesthesia, 3:491 ‘‘Angel in the House’’ (Patmore), 2:943 Angell, Norman, 4:1698 Angers, David d’, 4:2043 Angkor Wat, 3:1142 Anglican Church, 2:560

2564

Act of Uniformity (1862) and, 2:1002 anticlericalism and, 1:67, 68 Christian Socialism and, 4:2208 Darwin’s evolution theory and, 2:614 as England’s established church, 4:1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1895 Gladstone and, 2:976 Irish disestablishment of, 2:1008 Irish radicals and, 3:1176 Malthus and, 3:1425 Methodist origins in, 4:1895 missions and, 3:1527; 4:1895 Newman and, 3:1620–1621 nursing orders and, 3:1649 papacy and, 3:1332; 4:1720 prostitution reform and, 4:1886 temperance and, 1:36 Tories and, 5:2320 Tractarians and, 2:1006; 3:1440, 1620–1621; 4:1917, 1918 universities and, 2:1008; 3:1377, 1512; 5:2384 Victoria and, 5:2412 Welsh disestablishment of, 2:1012–1013; 5:2435 Anglican Church Missionary Society, 3:1527; 4:1895 Anglo-Boer War. See Boer War Anglo-Catholic Party (Britain), 2:1006 Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902), 3:1624, 1628; 4:2064 Angola, 1:13, 14, 15, 19, 20; 2:509 Angouleˆme, duc d’ (Louis-Antoine Bourbon), 4:2228–2229 Angouleˆme, Marie-The´re`se Charlotte, duchess d’ (Madame Royale), 3:1384 ˚ ngstro¨m, Anders Jonas, 4:2285 A aniline purple (mauveine), 3:1159 animal magnetism. See mesmerism animal protection, 2:650, 766 animals, farm. See livestock Ankara, 3:1129 Anna Karenina (Tolstoy), 5:2318–2319 Annales school (historical scholarship), 1:251 Annals of the Spreading of the Faith, 3:1405 Annam. See Indochina Annan, Thomas, 4:1772, 2119 ‘‘Anna O’’ (Bertha Pappenheim), 2:904, 905; 4:1904 Annas, Julia, 3:1514

Anne´e psychologique, L’ (journal), 4:1908 Anne´e sociologique (journal), 4:2215 Anneke, Fritz, 1:66 Anneke, Mathilde-Franziska, 1:66–67 Annenkov, Pavel, 5:2459, 2460 Annensky, Innokenty, 4:2182 Annexation Crisis (Serbia), 4:2148 Annuaire general and international de la photographie, L’ (journal), 3:1483 Annual Register (Britain), 1:327 Annunzio, Gabriele D’, 1:443 Ann Veronica (Wells), 5:2458 Another Dance of Death (Rethel), 2:629 Another Philosophy of History for the Cultivation of the Human Race (Herder), 2:1061 Anschauung (Goethean concept), 2:982 Anschluss, Austrian, 1:11 Ansdell, Richard, 1:72; 2:572 Anseele, Edward, 1:203 Anspach, Jules, 1:306 Antarctic expeditions, 2:783, 784 Anthe`s, Georges d, 4:1920 Anthony, Susan B., 1:67 anthrax, 4:1744–1745 Anthropological Society of London, 4:1836 anthropology, 4:1961 civilization concept and, 1:461 criminal, 2:573, 574, 638; 3:1371–1372 Frazer and, 2:872–873 on human origins, 2:619 on Industrial Revolution effects, 1:351 pornography and, 4:1835–1836 primitivism and, 4:1875 race and racism and, 4:1926 Virchow and, 5:2425–2426 Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (Kant), 4:2097 anthropometric studies, 1:351; 4:1816 Anthroposophical Society, 1:209 Anti-Bread Tax Circular, 2:558 Anticipations (Wells), 5:2458 anticlericalism, 1:67–71 Barcelona and, 1:69, 180–181, 182 Belgium and, 1:203–204, 307, 389 Carducci and, 1:362 Catherine II and, 1:375 Comte and, 2:523–524 conservative backlash to, 2:540 Czartoryski and, 2:603

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Deraismes and, 2:649, 650 Dohm’s feminism and, 2:675 France and, 1:67–69, 70, 380, 381, 387, 389, 410–411, 479; 2:540, 689, 812, 858; 4:1737, 1929–1930, 1969, 2136; 5:2432–2433 Freemasonry and, 2:877–882 French Directory and, 2:666 French Radicals and, 4:1929 French Revolution and, 2:843, 844, 888, 894, 1000; 4:1717–1718 Gambetta and, 2:928 Germany and, 1:69–70, 382, 388; 2:966; 3:1277–1279 Giolitti’s abandonment of, 2:972 Italian university reform and, 5:2389 Italy and, 1:69, 70, 388; 3:1200 Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1279 labor movements and, 5:2488–2489, 2491 Napoleon and, 2:957 nursing and, 3:1649–1650 Papal State and, 4:1726 Paris Commune and, 1:68, 381; 4:1736; 5:2488 Pius IX’s responses to, 4:1722, 1795 political Catholicism and, 1:68–70, 388–389 Portugal and, 4:1840, 1842 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1718–1719 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1719, 1991 Roman Question and, 4:2024 Rome and, 4:2037 Spain and, 1:68, 69, 366, 388; 5:2488–2489 Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432–2433 See also secularization; separation of church and state Anti-Corn Law League, 1:417, 490, 491; 2:517, 558–560, 715, 1005; 4:1889 liberalism and, 3:1345 Manchester as base of, 3:1429, 1566 tactics of, 2:558–559 See also Corn laws, repeal of Anti-Du ¨ hring (Engels), 2:756; 3:1462; 4:2205 Antigone (Sophocles), Ho ¨ lderlin translation of, 2:1078 Antigua, 1:364, 365 Anti-Jacobin Review (English journal), 2:537

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Antiochus and Stratonice (Ingres), 3:1166 Antiquary, The (Scott), 4:2123 Antiquities of Athens, The (Stuart and Revett), 4:1762 Antiquity of Man, The (Lyell), 3:1402 Anti-Revolutionary Party (Netherlands), 3:1619; 4:2209 Anti-Semite’s Petition (1880), 1:71 Anti-Semitism, 1:71–78; 3:1233–1234 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:4; 3:1476 Austria-Hungary and, 1:73, 75, 475; 2:689, 904; 3:1233, 1393–1395, 1526; 4:2045; 5:2520 blood libel and, 1:77, 462; 3:1394; 4:1802 Britain and, 5:2489 Budapest and, 2:1066 Catholics and, 1:73, 383 Chamberlain (Houston) and, 1:403, 404 crime scapegoating and, 2:572, 575–576 Czech nationalists and, 1:262, 263; 4:1860, 1861 Czech worker protests and, 4:1860 degeneracy label and, 2:636, 639, 683 Drumont and, 2:688–690 Endecja and, 2:753 fin de sie`cle anxieties and, 2:816, 1067 France and, 1:4, 5, 74–77, 97, 184, 185, 383; 2:540, 542, 683–686, 688–690, 816, 1068; 3:1233, 1338; 5:2489, 2520 Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862 German nationalist movement and, 1:10–11, 403, 404; 2:968 German populist politics and, 1:82; 2:542; 3:1233 Hamburg and, 2:1040, 1041 Heine’s experience with, 2:1056 Herzl’s experience with, 2:1066, 1067, 1068; 3:1395 Hitler and, 4:1799–1800 intellectuals and, 3:1168 ‘‘Jesuit myth’’ literature’s similarity with, 1:70 Jewish emancipation and, 1:74; 3:1225, 1233, 1393–1394 Jewish workers and, 5:2489 Kossuth’s campaign against, 3:1269 Liebermann’s artwork and, 3:1353, 1354

1 9 1 4

Lueger and, 1:73, 75, 77; 2:689, 816; 3:1233, 1393–1395 machine breaking and, 3:1411 Maurras and, 3:1476 misogyny and, 2:947 Poland and, 2:753 Prague and, 4:1860, 1861 racial basis of, 1:71 retailing and, 2:552 Russia and, 1:40, 72, 75, 76, 77; 2:689; 3:1233, 1234, 1627, 1628 scapegoat theory of, 1:77 Schnitzler’s resistance to, 4:2101 Simmel and, 4:2215 Treitschke and, 5:2353 universities and, 5:2380, 2382, 2389 Vichy France and, 4:2303 Vienna and, 1:73, 75, 77; 2:816, 1067; 3:1233, 1393–1395, 1418; 4:2045; 5:2420, 2421–2422 voluntary associations and, 1:119, 121 Wagner and, 2:1067; 5:2429, 2430 Wales and, 5:2436 Weininger and, 5:2449 Zionism as response to, 2:1068; 5:2519–2520 See also pogroms antisepsis, 3:1358–1359; 4:1743–1744, 1745 antislavery movement, 1:365; 2:708; 4:2192–2193, 2194 Britain and, 1:18, 19, 211, 303, 365; 2:1003; 5:2462–2463 Brussels Declaration and, 1:308–309 citizenship of freed slaves and, 1:458 feminist movement and, 2:804 German Forty-Eighters and, 2:962 Gouges and, 2:994 Lafayette and, 3:1299 Leo XIII and, 3:1332 Protestants and, 4:1896 race and, 4:1926–1927 Wilberforce (William) and, 5:2462–2463 Anti-Socialist Law of 1878 (Germany), 5:2473 Anti-Socialist Law of 1886 (Austria), 1:11 antivivisectionism, 2:650 Antoine, Andre´, 3:1109 Antonelli, Giacomo, 4:1796, 1797 Antonelli, Giuseppe, 4:1719 Antonovych, Volodymyr, 5:2371 Antwerp, 1:200, 202 market square, 1:451

2565

INDEX

Anuvong, king of Laos, 3:1139 Anzer, Johann Baptist von, 1:292 Aoki-Kimberley Treaty (1894), 3:1212 Apache (people), 2:575 Apaches (avant-garde group), 4:1944 apaches (French street thieves), 2:575 apartment buildings, 1:453; 2:1027, 1088; 4:1857 Paris and, 4:1731, 1732 aperitifs, 1:3–4 aphasia, 1:408 aphid. See phylloxera Apollinaire, Guillaume, 1:156, 335; 2:590; 3:1214; 4:1782 Apollodorus (Frazer translation), 2:873 Apologia pro vita sua (Newman), 3:1621 ‘‘Apology of a Madman’’ (Chaadayev), 1:400 Apostles (Cambridge club), 2:835; 4:2258 Apostolicae Curae (papal bull, 1896), 3:1332 Apotheosis of Homer, The (Ingres), 3:1165 Appeal on Behalf of One Half the Human Race (Thompson and Wheeler), 4:2201 Appeal on Behalf of Women (Thompson and Wheeler), 2:803 Appeal to Reason, An (Mann), 3:1435 Appellation d’Origine Controˆle´e laws (France), 5:2477 Appert, Nicolas-Franc¸ois, 2:659; 4:1743, 2113 Apple Picking at Eragny-sur-Epte (Pissarro), 4:1794 applied psychology, 4:1909 Apponyi, A. G., 2:606 Appreciations: With an Essay on Style (Pater), 4:1746 apprentices, 5:2486 Apre´ l’Emancipation (cartoon), 2:948 Apre´s-midi d’un faune, L’ (ballet), 3:1642, 1643 April Uprising of 1876 (Bulgaria), 1:312; 3:1688 Apulia, 3:1504 aquavit, 1:34 aqueducts, 3:1412; 4:1731 Arabesques (Gogol), 2:988 Arabia, 3:1420 Arabian Sea, 3:1482 Arabs African trade and, 1:16 Algeria and, 1:43, 44–45, 46 Morocco and, 3:1547 nationalism and, 3:1682

2566

Palestine and, 2:598 Arago, Franc¸ois, 2:606, 607; 4:1770–1771, 1780, 1963 Aragon, 1:379 Arana, Sabino, 4:2232 Aranjuez, 3:1413 Arbeiter Zeitung (socialist newspaper), 1:11 ‘‘Arcades Project’’ (Benjamin), 2:826–827 Arc de Triomphe (Paris), 1:270; 2:737; 4:1729, 2043, 2044 archaeology, 1:219; 4:1769; 5:2425 Archer, Frederick Scott, 4:1770 Archer, William, 3:1107 Archipenko, Alexander, 1:156; 2:591, 920 architecture art nouveau and, 1:107–114, 152, 153; 2:815 Atget photographs of, 1:123–124 Barcelona and, 1:183–184; 4:2232 Barry and, 1:185–186 Beardsley’s influence on, 1:192 Belgrade and, 1:206–207 Berlin and, 1:216, 217; 4:2091, 2092–2094 Brussels and, 1:307 classical Greek influence on, 4:1769 Crystal Palace and, 2:587–588, 589–590; 5:2494–2495, 2495, 2496, 2505–2506 Curzon’s preservationism and, 2:597, 598 Eiffel Tower and, 2:736–738; 5:2500, 2501, 2503, 2505 Frederick William IV and, 2:876 futurism and, 1:157 Gaudı´ and, 1:183–184; 2:935–938; 4:2232 German expressionism and, 1:154 Gothic and, 1:112, 185, 186; 3:1600; 4:2046; 5:2422 Gothic Revival and, 4:1917–1918, 2030 Guimard and, 2:1026–1028 Indo-Saracenic, 3:1135 Istanbul and, 3:1188, 1189 Loos and, 3:1381–1382 Madrid and, 3:1413, 1413 Morris and, 3:1550 Nash and, 3:1600–1602 Paris and, 2:1049; 4:1731, 1732 photography and, 4:1772 Pugin and, 4:1917–1918 Romanticism and, 4:2026, 2030

Ruskin on, 4:2046 St. Petersburg and, 4:2075–2079 Schinkel and, 4:2091–2094 Trieste and, 5:2354 Vienna and, 5:2416 Viollet-le-Duc and, 4:2030; 5:2422–2423 world’s fairs and, 5:2494–2496, 2495, 2500, 2501, 2502–2503, 2505–2506 Architecture of the Italian Renaissance, The (Burckhardt), 1:318 Architektonisches Lehrbuch (Schinkel), 4:2094 Archivio di antropologia criminale, psichiatria e medicina legale (journal), 3:1371 Arco, Marie, 1:6 Arcot, 3:1133 Arco-Valley, Countess von, 1:6 Arctic exploration, 2:783, 784 Ardahan, 2:530; 4:2085 A´Rebours (Huysmans), 2:632, 1104, 1105 Arena (Milan), 3:1501 Arevelk (Armenian journal), 1:90 Argenteuil, Les Canotiers (Manet), 3:1433 Argenteuil-sur-Seine, 3:1535 Argentina, 2:931; 3:1175 football (soccer) and, 2:834 immigrants to, 2:646, 747, 747 meat shipments from, 2:659 trade and, 5:2335, 2342 Argument on Behalf of the Catholics in Ireland (Tone), 3:1176 Aribau, Buenaventura Carles, 4:2232 Arie`ge region (France), 1:359 Arie`s, Philippe, 2:628 Ariosto, 2:676 aristocracy, 1:78–87, 469–470 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:4–5 armies and, 1:94–95 Austria-Hungary and, 1:81, 87, 138, 139, 140–141 automobile and, 1:150 Baltic provinces and, 2:818–819 Berlin and, 1:219 Bonald and, 1:268, 269 bourgeoisie entry into, 1:472, 476 bourgeoisie vs., 1:107, 284, 291, 323, 470–472 British liberalism and, 3:1345 British ruling class and, 1:86, 284 bureaucratic careers and, 1:321, 322, 323, 324 cities and, 1:445, 446

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conservatism and, 1:81, 82, 83; 2:537, 540, 958 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:559–560 country houses and, 3:1305 Curzon paternalism and, 2:597 decline of, 1:284 as degenerate, 2:636 dueling and, 2:694–696; 3:1472 education of, 2:728 Finland and, 2:819 French counterrevolutionary movement and, 2:563; 3:1388 French Restoration and, 3:1387 French Revolution and, 1:78, 80–81, 471; 2:840–841, 842, 843, 845, 886, 897 Hungary and, 3:1266 intellectuals and, 3:1168 Italian city-state republics and, 3:1191 Japan and, 3:1208 landholding by, 1:78, 80–81, 83, 84–85, 469; 3:1304–13077 leisure and, 3:1323, 1324 Lithuania and, 3:1366 London and, 3:1373 manners and, 3:1438 Marx’s class theory on, 3:1306, 1307 nineteenth-century definition of, 1:78, 80 nobility vs., 1:78, 80 Paris and, 4:1727 Paul I’s curbs on, 4:1747, 1748 peasants and, 4:1754 piano proficiency and, 1:439 Poland and, 1:78; 4:1806, 1807, 1808, 1809, 1810, 1811, 1812 post-French Revolution adjustments by, 1:457 Prussian reforms and, 2:1042 as Russian Decembrists, 3:1625 Russian Great Reforms impact on, 2:1017 Russian Table of Ranks and, 1:286, 323 serf emancipation and, 1:84, 1017 sociable traditions of, 1:116–117 utilitarians’ distrust of, 3:1510 varying meanings of, 1:78 Aristotle, 1:299, 465; 2:520 arithematic. See mathematics Arkwright, Richard, 3:1153; 4:2115 Arlesienne, L’ (Madame Ginoux) (Van Gogh), 4:1709 Armagh expulsion (1795), 3:1176

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armaments ammunition and, 1:99 arms race and, 2:527, 1034; 4:1697 battleship, 2:681, 682 as capitalist market, 1:355–356, 357 Crimean War developments in, 2:580 Crystal Palace exhibition of, 2:588 disarmament conferences and, 2:1034 French advances in, 2:271, 866, 869 Geneva Convention and, 2:953 imperialism and, 1:20; 3:1118 innovations in, 1:355–356; 3:1507 Krupp steelworks and, 3:1274, 1275, 1276 manufacture of, 2:790 military tactics and, 1:95, 99; 3:1506, 1507 Napoleonic tactics and, 3:1506 naval buildup and, 2:681–683 progress and, 2:815 Sepoy Mutiny and, 3:1135 technology and, 2:1034 See also rifles; warfare Armance (Stendhal), 4:2252 Arme´e nouvelle project (Jaure`s), 3:1218 arme´es re´volutionnaires, 4:1951 Armenakan Party (Turkish Armenian), 1:92 Armenia, 1:87–93; 3:1217; 4:2022 genocide and, 1:2, 90, 92 Kadets and, 3:1241 millet system and, 3:1687 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2085 Stolypin and, 4:2257 Armenian Apostolic Church, 1:88, 89, 90 Armenian Catholic Church, 5:2372 Armenian National Constitution, 1:90 Armenian Question, 1:90–92 Armenian Revolutionary Federation, 1:89 Armeno-Tatar War, 1:89 armies, 1:93–102 Armenians in, 1:88 Austrian deficits and, 2:866, 867 British modernization of, 2:1007–1008 British system of, 1:94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 98, 99, 100 cholera spread by, 2:669 conservatism and, 2:540 Cossacks and, 2:563, 564 Dreyfus affair and, 2:683–685, 858; 3:1216

1 9 1 4

dueling code and, 2:695, 696 French decline of, 1:271 French expectations of, 2:866 French system of, 1:93–94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100–101, 271; 3:1222 Geneva Convention and, 2:952–953 gymnastics and, 4:2243 imperial setbacks and, 3:1473 India and, 3:1135 Lafayette and, 3:1299, 1300 laissez-faire cuts in, 2:707 leve´e en masse and, 3:1338–1340 masculinity and, 3:1473 medical services and, 3:1307–1308 militarism and, 1:94 Montenegro and, 3:1540 operations and, 3:1505 Ottoman reform of, 3:1420, 1612, 1683, 1685 peasants and, 4:1755 Poland and, 4:1808 police and, 4:1814, 1817 Prussian system of, 1:94, 96, 98, 99; 2:958, 962, 963, 964; 3:1222, 1274, 1531–1532, 1685; 4:1900, 1903 recruitment practices for, 3:1339 Russian system of, 1:94, 97; 2:1014, 1016–1017; 3:1280–1282 Russian universal military service and, 2:1014 shell shock and, 3:1507 structure and organization of, 1:94–96 technology and, 1:96, 99, 101, 217 tobacco rations for, 5:2315 typhus and, 2:668, 669 vaccination and, 3:1224 See also casualties; conscription; military tactics; warfare; specific wars by name Armory Show (New York, 1913), 3:1474 Army of the Holy Faith, 4:2187 Army of the North, 5:2442 Arnason, H. H., 1:153 ´ mile, 4:1695, 1696, 1697 Arnaud, E Arndt, Ernst, 4:1826 Arnim, Achim von, 2:1023 Arnim, Bettina von, 1:316 Arnold, Matthew, 1:102–103, 301; 3:1183, 1323, 1408, 1513 Pater and, 4:1746 Stephen and, 4:2253 Strachey on, 4:2259

2567

INDEX

Arnold, Philipp Friedrich, 5:2507 Arnold, Thomas, 1:102, 103; 4:2240 Arnolfini Marriage Portrait (van Eyck), 4:1863 Aron, Raymond, 3:1169 Arosa, Gustave, 2:939 Arouet, Franc¸ois-Marie. See Voltaire Around the World in Eighty Days (Verne), 5:2408 Arpiarian, Arpiar, 1:90 Arrhenius, Svante August, 4:2113, 2285 Arrow incident (1856), 3:1679 ˇ rnojevicˇ, Patriarch, Arsenius III C 4:2143 arsphenamine (salvarsan), 2:736 art. See graphic arts; illustration; painting; sculpture; Art and Artist (Rank), 4:1939 art collection, 2:634, 636 art criticism. See criticism, art Art du cuisinier, L’ (Beauvilliers), 4:1965 art for art’s sake, 1:109; 2:632; 3:1619 art galleries. See museums art history Burckhardt and, 1:315, 316, 319 fauvism and, 2:795–797 museum collections and, 3:1562 positivism and, 3:1132 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1865 Winckelmann and, 4:1769 women and, 3:1544–1545 Arthurian legend, 1:160 artificial selection. See eugenics artillery, 1:94, 95, 99; 2:869 French army and, 2:866 military tactics and, 3:1507 Artisan, The (French journal), 3:1285 artisans and guilds, 1:103–107; 4:2265; 5:2484 artisans and, 1:104–107 art nouveau and, 1:107–108, 153 Belgium and, 1:203, 307 cities and, 1:444, 446 class and, 1:473, 474 Denmark and, 2:647 First International and, 2:824 French Revolution and, 2:843; 3:1314, 1315 garment making and, 4:2158 Germany and, 1:111, 107, 459; 2:960 guilds and, 1:111, 106, 203 Hamburg and, 2:1040 Japan and, 3:1208

2568

labor movements and, 3:1283–1284, 1286; 5:2486–2487 liberalism and, 1:458 London and, 1:104; 3:1373–1374, 1378, 1390 Luddism and, 3:1391–1392, 1411 Milan and, 3:1504 Owen ‘‘exchange bazaars’’ and, 3:1693 Prussian reforms and, 2:958 radicalism and, 1:111, 459; 3:1390; 5:2486–2487 Revolutions of 1830 and, 1:457 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988, 1991 strikes and, 4:2264 Artist, The (Rank), 4:1938 art nouveau, 1:107–114, 152–153, 336 Beardsley and, 1:109, 192 Brussels and, 1:109, 109, 110, 112, 307 fin de sie`cle and, 2:815 Guimard and, 1:109, 109; 2:1026–1028 Paris and, 4:1732 Paris Exposition Universelle (1900) and, 5:2503, 2506 Paris subways and, 4:2273; 5:2503 poster art and, 4:1846 Prague and, 1:113; 2:815; 4:1858 Schiele and, 4:2089 Vienna and, 1:112, 152–153; 2:815; 3:1530 Art Nouveau, L’ (Parisian gallery), 1:108 Art of Travel, The (Galton), 2:927 Artois, comte de. See Charles X Artois, Henri-Charles-FerdinandMarie Dieudonne´ d’. See Chambord, comte de Artot, Desire, 5:2307 Arts and Crafts movement, 1:109, 152, 153; 2:914 Loos critique of, 3:1381 Morris founding of, 3:1550; 4:1865 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863, 1865 Artsruni, Grigor, 1:89 Aryanism, 1:403; 2:769, 816 Aryan Theater (Vienna), 3:1394–1395 Arzamas (Russian literary group), 4:1919 Asante Empire, 1:13, 19 Aschenbrandt, Theodor, 2:688 Aschenbro¨del (J. Strauss), 4:2261 Ashbee, Charles Robert, 1:152 Ashbee, Henry Spenser, 4:1836

Ashbourne, 3:1181 Ashcraft, R., 3:1514 Ashkenazi Jews, 3:1226; 5:2519 Ashley, Lord. See Shaftesbury, Lord Ashton, Frederick, 4:1751 Ashton, T. S., 3:1153 Ashton family, 1:287 Asia British civilizing mission in, 1:462 British imperialism in, 3:1116 cholera pandemic and, 1:436 East India Company and, 2:705 economic growth and, 3:1149–1152 Eurasianism and, 2:771–776 imperialism in, 1:94, 99; 2:812 indigenous elites and, 1:500 trade with, 3:1151 See also Central Asia; specific countries and regions by name Asia (British warship), 3:1612 Asiatic Society of Bengal, 3:1133–1134 Asiatic Society of Japan, 3:1210 Aspasia, 2:1018 Aspern-Essling, Battle of (1809), 2:860 Aspinall, Arthur, 4:1872 aspirin, 3:1164 Asquith, Herbert Henry, 1:114–115; 2:598, 730, 1012–1013; 3:1348, 1369; 5:2322 ASRS. See Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants Assassination of the Duc de Guise, The (film), 1:442 assassinations. See terrorism Assassins, 2:687 assemblies. See parliaments assembly line, 5:2352 Assembly of Jewish Notables (France, 1806), 3:1227 Assembly of Notables (France), 2:767, 841–842; 3:1385, 1386 Assembly of the Clergy (France), 1:386–387 Assheton, Edward. See Cross, Viscount Assicurazioni Generali, 5:2354 assimilation as anti-Semitic target, 3:1233 as civilizing mission, 1:462–463 as French colonial policy, 2:508 immigrants and, 3:1114 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1225, 1228–1229, 1232, 1353, 1525 Jewish homeland vs., 2:685; 5:2518, 2519, 2520

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of missionaries, 3:1527–1528 U.S. immigration quotas and, 2:750 Association for Analytical Psychology, 3:1240 Association for Free Psychoanalysis, 1:8 Association for Individual Psychology, 1:8 Association for the Reform and Codification of International Law, 3:1175 Association for the Rights of Women, 3:1497 Association of Progresssive Womens Groups (Berlin), 1:129 Association of Traveling Art Exhibits, 4:1956–1957 associations, voluntary, 1:56, 115–123, 466, 467–468 anti-Corn Law, 2:558 in Baltic provinces, 2:820–821 Catholic, 1:203, 383–384, 388, 389 in Finland, 2:820, 821 Irish immigrant, 3:1525 Irish Revival, 3:1182–1183 liberalism and, 3:1341 libraries and, 3:1352 in London, 3:1375–1376 male private clubs as, 1:116; 3:1471 mutual aid societies and, 3:1284, 1331–1332; 5:2454 in Prague, 4:1856 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1989 touring clubs as, 1:149 for workers benefits, 3:1284 See also cooperative movements Assommoir, L’ (Zola), 5:2523 assumptionism, 1:69; 3:1511–1512; 4:1908 Aston, Louise, 1:66; 3:1680 Astrakhan, 1:436 astronomy, 4:2113 Maxwell and, 3:1478 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1804, 1805 Quetelet and, 4:1921 Astruc, Zacharie, 3:1432 ‘‘Asya’’ (Turgenev), 5:2365 asymmetry, 4:1743 Atala (Chateaubriand), 1:420 Dore´ illustrations, 2:676 Atatu¨rk, Kemal, 3:1207, 1682, 1691 Atelier, L’ (socialist journal), 5:2397 Atelier of the Artist or Real Allegory of Seven Years of My Artistic Life, The (Courbet), 2:568–569 Atget, Euge`ne, 1:123–125 atheism, 3:1459, 1514; 4:2030

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Nietzsche and, 3:1629–1631 Athenaeum (British journal), 4:2258 Athenaeum (Manchester), 1:186 Athena¨um (German journal), 2:985; 3:1647; 4:2094, 2097 Athens, 1:125–127 ancient democracy of, 4:1769–1770 market street, 1:126 Olympic Games and, 1:126; 3:1665, 1666, 1667, 1667; 4:2246 Atkinson, George Franklin, 3:1459; 4:2139 Atlantic Ocean Panama Canal and, 3:1338 See also transatlantic crossing; transatlantic telegraph Atlantic slave trade, 1:13 Berlin Conference abolishing, 1:499 British abolitionists and, 1:303; 2:708 Brussels Declaration abolishing, 1:308–309 to Caribbean, 1:363, 365; 2:1036 France and, 2:897 Protestant campaign against, 4:1896 Atlas Mountains, 3:1547 Atlas of Plant Geography (Schouw), 2:649 Atlas Works, 2:792 atomic bomb, 2:740; 4:1781 atomic fission, 4:1781 atomic number, 1:427 atomic theory, 1:427; 4:1780 chemistry and, 1:424, 425–426 Einstein and, 2:739 Mach’s rejection of, 3:1409 radioactivity and, 2070–2071; 2:594–595 Rutherford and, 4:2070–2071 atomic weight, 2:595 tables of, 1:424, 425, 426, 427 atonality, 3:1245, 1437, 1572; 4:2101, 2102–2103, 2103 atoxyl, 2:736; 3:1264 Attack on a Potato Store in Ireland (engraving), 3:1179 Atta Troll (Heine), 2:1056 Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (Fichte), 2:813 At the Stock Exchange (Degas), 1:354 Attila (Verdi), 5:2406 Attwood, Thomas, 1:415 Auber, Daniel-Franc¸ois-Esprit, 3:1671, 1672, 1673, 1674 Auberge Ganne inn (Barbizon), 1:177 Au Bonheur des Dames (Zola), 1:289; 2:548

1 9 1 4

Aubry, Louis-Yves, 2:996 Auch Eine Philosophie der Geschichte zur Bildung der Menschheit (Herder), 2:1061 Auckland, 3:1624 Auclert, Hubertine, 1:127, 127–128; 2:650, 651 Durand viewed by, 2:697 Richer and, 4:1998 women’s suffrage and, 4:2279, 2281 Auden, W. H., 3:1256 Au-dessus de la Meˆle´e (Rolland), 4:2015 Auenbrugger, Leopold, 3:1297 Auerstedt, Battle of (1806), 1:477; 2:901, 957; 3:1221, 1222, 1586; 4:1900 Augagneur, Victor, 3:1405 Augsburg Confession, 4:1891 Augspurg, Anita, 1:128–130; 4:2280 Augusta, princess of Prussia, 1:234; 2:873 Augusta Victoria, empress of Germany, 5:2467, 2468 Auguste Comte and Positivism (J. S. Mill), 4:1844 Augustus II, king of Poland, 4:2083 Aultman-Miller Bukeye Binders and Reapers, 1:27 Aupick, Jacques, 1:186 Auric, Georges, 4:1944, 2087 Aurier, Albert, 2:939; 4:2294 Auriol, Vincent, 3:1218 Aurore, L’ (French newspaper), 1:480; 2:685; 5:2523–2524 Ausˇra (Lithuanian newspaper), 3:1366 Austen, Jane, 1:130–132, 301; 2:1046; 3:1323 Austerlitz (1805), 1:132–133; 3:1592; 5:2374, 2438 Alexander I and, 1:37–38, 132, 133 Bohemian Lands and, 1:259–264 Kutuzov and, 3:1281 Napoleon’s gun-to-infantry ratio and, 3:1506 Napoleon’s victory at, 1:93, 132–133; 2:846, 875, 901, 957; 3:1586 Austin, Charles, 3:1512 Australia, 1:133–137; 3:11114; 5:2411 Aborigines of, 1:133–134 Australia (British battle cruiser), 3:1611 Australia British settlement colonies in, 1:351; 2:504, 509; 3:1115 exploration of, 2:782

2569

INDEX

football (soccer) in, 2:830 immigrants to, 2:646, 747, 747 immigration policies of, 1:353 New Zealand and, 3:1623 penal colonies in, 1:134; 2:505, 780 trade and, 2:505; 5:2335, 2336, 2342 world’s fairs and, 5:2493, 2499 Austria. See Austria-Hungary; Hapsburg Monarchy; Vienna Austria-Hungary, 1:137–147 Adler, Alfred and, 1:8–10 Adler, Victor and, 1:10–11 Albania and, 1:33; 3:1691 alliance system and, 1:47–50; 2:526, 527, 663–664, 864 anti-Catholic, anti-Habsburg movement in, 1:263 anti-Semitism in, 1:73, 75, 475; 2:689, 904; 3:1233, 1393–1395, 1526; 4:2045; 5:2520 aristocracy in, 1:81, 87, 138, 139, 140–141, 471 army system of, 1:94, 97; 2:866, 867; 3:1505 artisans and, 1:105 art nouveau and, 1:108, 112 Austerlitz defeat of, 1:93, 132–133; 2:957; 3:1586 Balkans and, 1:32, 33, 49, 146, 163, 164, 165, 166, 206, 207; 2:530, 663–664, 705; 4:2149 banking and, 1:170, 171, 173 bankruptcy threat to, 4:1990 Bohemian Lands and, 1:259–264; 4:1712 Bosnia-Herzegovina occupation/ annexation by, 1:32, 49, 137, 146, 207, 242, 276–277; 2:703–704, 864, 865; 3:1628, 1690, 1691; 4:2045, 2067, 2069 bourgeoisie in, 1:471 Brentano circle in, 1:298 cabarets in, 1:336 Catholic majority in, 1:377 Catholic political parties in, 3:1393–1395 cholera epidemic in, 1:438; 2:669 Christian Democratic Party in, 4:2209 Christian Social Party and, 3:1393 commercial policy of, 2:512 Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527, 565 Congress of Berlin and, 1:146, 240; 2:529, 530, 705

2570

Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534, 565, 861, 958 Congress System and, 1:374 constitutionalism and, 1:142, 144, 145; 2:864; 5:2510 Danish-German War and, 2:607–609, 648, 963 drinking culture of, 1:34 Dual Alliance and, 2:864, 965 dual capitals of, 1:309–312 as Dual Monarchy (1866), 1:144–147, 262, 309; 2:627, 864; 3:1269 dueling code in, 2:696 Eastern Question and, 2:703 education in, 2:723, 724 emigrants from, 3:1114 Ferdinand I and, 2:807–808 fin de sie`cle mood of, 2:815 football (soccer) in, 2:833, 834 foreign policy and, 1:146 Francis I and, 2:860–861 Francis Ferdinand and, 2:861–862 Francis Joseph I and, 2:961, 863–865 Freud and, 2:903–909 gentry bureaucracy in, 1:83 German alliance with, 1:239; 2:703–704 German Confederation leadership and, 2:958, 962 German unification and, 1:47, 237, 263; 2:871, 923–924, 962, 963–964; 4:1902, 1993 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1020 Hofmannsthal and, 2:1076–1077 Holy Alliance and, 2:531, 565, 1002, 1079–1081; 4:1970, 1971, 1973, 1985, 2228; 5:2392 Italy and. See under Habsburg Monarchy Jelacˇic´ and, 3:1219–1220 Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225–1226, 1227, 1229 Jewish population of, 3:1229, 1524, 1525–1526; 4:1808 John, archduke of, 3:1235–1236 Joseph II reforms and, 1:137, 138–139 Kafka and, 3:1242–1243 labor movements in, 3:1287, 1288, 1289, 1290; 5:2489 Lafayette’s imprisonment by, 3:1300 landed elite in, 1:469

Leipzig battle and, 3:1319 Loos and, 3:1381–1382 Lueger and, 3:1392–1395 Mach and, 3:1408–1410 machine breaking in, 3:1411 Metternich and, 2:861; 3:1236, 1491–1495 Milan and, 3:1501–1502 monetary system of, 3:1538 monetary unions and, 1:171; 5:2525–2526 Montenegro and, 3:1539, 1541, 1546 Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz treaty and, 3:1560–1561 as multinational empire, 2:724–725; 3:1525, 1526 music and, 3:1571 Musil and, 3:1573–1574 Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1587 Napoleonic Wars and. See under French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars nationalist movements and, 1:10–11, 145; 4:1993 Ottoman reforms and, 1:33; 3:1683 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717 papacy and, 4:1719, 1725 papal infallibility doctrine and, 4:1723 Papal State and, 4:1724 police system in, 4:1814 Polish partitions and, 1:376; 2:957; 4:1807, 1808, 1809, 1812, 1813, 1817, 1818, 1900, 1989; 5:2370, 2371, 2380 post-1867 Austria and, 1:145–146 post-1867 Hungary and, 1:144–145 Prague Slav Congress and, 1:141, 142; 4:1861–1863 press in, 4:1870 Protestant minority in, 4:1891, 1891 Prussia and, 1:234, 237–238; 4:1899–1900, 1901, 2045; 5:2353, 2420, 2467, 2526 Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374; 2:662 railroads and, 4:1933 Rank and, 4:1938–1939 Restoration and, 4:1967, 1970, 1971, 1973 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980, 1981, 1982 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985, 1986

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Revolutions of 1848. See under Habsburg Monarchy Rothschilds and, 4:2040, 2041 Rudolf (crown prince) and, 4:2044–2045 Russia and, 1:146; 2:526, 704–705, 1081; 4:1995, 2054, 2067, 2070; 5:2392 San Stefano Treaty and, 2:703; 4:2069, 2086 Schiele and, 4:2089–2091; 5:2421 Schnitzler, 4:2100–2101; 5:2421 Schoenberg and, 4:2101–2103; 5:2421 Schubert and, 4:2106–2107 Second International and, 4:2127, 2128 Semmelweiss and, 4:2134–2135 Serbia and, 1:146, 166, 206, 207, 242, 243, 277; 2:663, 704–705, 862, 863, 865; 3:1247, 1546; 4:1994, 2146–2149 serfdom abolished in, 4:1754 slave trade and, 1:13, 308 sports in, 4:2242, 2243 Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2259–2261; 5:2420 strikes in, 4:2268 subway in, 4:2272 suffrage in, 1:145; 4:2279, 2281; 5:2421 Suttner and, 4:2281–2282 Talleyrand and, 5:2304, 2305 telephone service in, 5:2308 temperance movement and, 1:36 Three Emperors’ League and, 2:703; 3:1690 tobacco and, 5:2313 trade and, 5:2336, 2337 Trieste and, 4:2004; 5:2354–2356, 2403 Triple Alliance and, 1:48, 166, 239; 2:526, 965; 3:1200; 4:2017 Ukraine and, 5:2371–2373 universities in, 2:728; 5:2380, 2383–2384, 2387–2388 urban development and, 1:452 utilitarianism and, 5:2393 Venice and, 3:1597; 4:1994–1995, 2004; 5:2355, 2356, 2402–2404 voluntary associations in, 1:117, 118, 119 Weininger and, 5:2448–2449 welfare initiatives in, 1:357; 5:2452 William II and, 5:2469

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1 7 8 9

TO

wine and, 5:2477 women legislators in, 4:2281 women teachers in, 2:724 world’s fairs and, 5:2498, 2503 World War I and, 1:146; 2:862, 863, 865, 968–969; 3:1203 Young Czechs and Old Czechs and, 5:2510–2511 See also Austro-Prussian War; Budapest; Crimean War; FrancoAustrian War; French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Habsburg Monarchy; Hungary; Vienna Austrian Christian Social Party. See Christian Social Party Austrian German Nationalism, 1:10, 11 Austrian National Bank, 1:170 Austrian Netherlands, 4:2187 See also Belgium Austrian Peace Society, 4:2282 Austro-German Dual Alliance of 1879, 4:2086 Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, 4:2018; 5:2356, 2388, 2510–2511 Austromarxism, 5:2421 Austro-Prussian War (1866), 1:96, 144, 147–148; 2:963–964; 5:2526 Austrian defeat in, 2:864; 3:1269 Bismarck and, 1:235, 236, 237–238; 2:662, 963–964; 4:1902 Bohemian Lands and, 1:147–148, 262; 2:963–964 cholera epidemic and, 2:669 Frederick III and, 2:874 Geneva Convention and, 4:1949 German unification and, 2:963–964 Louis II and, 3:1383 Moltke and, 3:1532 outcomes of, 1:262, 393; 2:567, 662, 853, 867; 3:1199, 1538 Prague’s support for Austrian in, 4:1860 Prussian military technology and, 1:217; 3:1505–1507 Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:648; 4:1902 William I and, 5:2467 Austro-Slavism, 4:1860 Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791), 3:1247; 4:2142 authoritarianism Bolsheviks and, 3:1488 Bonapartism and, 1:269, 271

1 9 1 4

Boulangism and, 1:283–284 Carlism and, 1:366–368 Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:368–370 Catherine II and, 1:376–377 Chamberlain (Houston) and, 1:403 Charles X and, 1:412–413 civil society vs., 1:466–467 Committee of Public Safety and, 2:665, 892 Comte and, 2:523–524 Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862 Jacobins and, 2:665, 892 Napoleon III and, 2:567 Nicholas II and, 2:862; 3:1627, 1628 papal infallibility and, 1:382 peasant life and, 4:1756 political Catholicism and, 1:389 politically motivated migration from, 3:1113 as secret society response, 1:361 William II and, 2:862 Autobiography (Darwin), 3:1426 Autobiography (J. S. Mill), 3:1508, 1509, 1512, 1514 autochrome color process, 3:1397–1398; 4:1774 autocracy. See authoritarianism Auto-Emanzipation (Pinsker), 5:2520 automobile, 1:148–151; 2:576, 602, 793 Lyon production of, 3:1405 mass production and, 3:1162 microinventions for, 3:1161 progress and, 2:815 racing and, 3:1325 rubber tires and, 3:1336 tourism and, 5:2326, 2330–2331 as transportation, 5:2351–2352 automobile clubs, 5:2330 autos-da-fe´, 4:1968 autotype, 4:1773 Autumn Leaves (Millais), 4:1864 Aux Trois Fre`res Provenc¸aux (Paris restaurant), 4:1966 avant-garde, 1:151–158 absinthe and, 1:2–4 Apaches and, 4:1944 art nouveau and, 1:107, 109, 152–153 Beardsley and, 1:109, 191–192, 193 Bergson’s influence on, 1:214 Berlin and, 1:220 Brussels and, 1:307 cabarets and, 1:335, 336 Ce´zanne and, 1:398–399

2571

INDEX

cubism and, 1:156, 157; 2:590–593 defining characteristics of, 1:151–152 Diaghilev and, 2:655 fin de sie`cle and, 2:815 futurism and, 1:156–158; 2:915–921 Gauguin and, 1:152, 154; 2:941 German expressionism and, 1:154–156, 157 impressionism and, 1:152; 4:1701 Jarry and, 3:1214 Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246 Lasker-Schu¨ler and, 3:1309–1310 Loos and, 3:1381–1382 Meyerhold and, 3:1496 painting and, 4:1701, 1706–1711 Picasso and, 4:1781–1784 poster art and, 4:1846 primitivism and, 1:156; 4:1874 Ravel and, 4:1944 Repin and, 4:1958 Satie and, 4:2086–2087 Stravinsky and, 3:1573; 4:2262–2263 symbolism and, 4:2295 Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2324 Van Gogh and, 5:2400 Wagner and, 3:1675 Zola and, 5:2522 A´ Vau-leau (Huysmans), 2:1104 Ave´-Lallement, Friedrich, 2:572 Avene de l’Ope´ra (Paris), 2:1049 Avenir, L’ (French Catholic newspaper), 1:381, 387; 4:1718 Avenir de la science, L’ (Renan), 4:1953, 2133 Avenir des femmes, L’ (French feminist journal), 1:127; 4:1998 Avenir movement, 4:1718–1719 Aventures d’Arthur Gordon Pym, Les (Baudelaire), 1:188 Avenue (Budapest). See Andra´ssy Avenue Avenue de l’Opera (Paris), 2:1048, 1050 Avenue de l’Ope´ra: Sunshine, Winter Morning (Pissarro), 4:1793, 1794 Avenue Theatre, 1:192 Ave`ze, marquis d’, 5:2493 Avignon, 3:1513, 1514 Awadh, 3:1133, 1134 Awakening Conscience, The (Hunt), 4:1864 Axelrod, Pavel, 1:264, 265; 3:1488 axons, 1:342

2572

Ayacucho, Battle of (1824), 4:2229 Azef, Evno, 4:2211 Azeglio, Massimo Taparelli, marchese d’, 1:391; 2:930; 3:1194; 4:1786–1787 Azerbaijan, 3:1207 Azores, 4:1839 Azorin (Jose´ Martı´nez Ruı´z), 2:950, 951 ‘‘Azosoyuz’’ (Khlebnikov), 2:774 Azov, Sea of, 1:243; 2:579 Azuaga, 1:379

n

B ‘‘Baa Baa, Black Sheep’’ (Kipling), 3:1256 Baader, Franz von, 2:1080; 4:2088 Babcock, William, 1:177 Babeuf, Franc¸ois-Noe¨l (‘‘Gracchus’’), 2:520, 521, 665, 845; 4:2129–2130, 2200 Babinski, Joseph, 1:410 Babouviste theory, 4:2131 Bach, Alexander von, 3:1220; 4:1856 Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, 3:1489 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1:294; 3:1419, 1570; 5:2430 Baciocchi, Felice and Elisa, 4:1698 Back to Methuselah (Shaw), 4:2166–2167 Bacon, Francis, 2:1064; 3:1422; 4:1779, 2110 Bacon, Reginald, 2:682 bacteriology, 1:438; 3:1164 Koch and, 3:1262–1263; 4:1914 Pasteur and, 4:1742–1745 public health and, 4:1914 See also germ theory of disease badaud vs. flaˆneur, 2:826 Baden, 1:236, 369; 4:1995 liberalism and, 3:1346 List as U.S. consul in, 3:1357 marriage bond and, 3:1453 Napoleon and, 2:957 Prussia and, 2:867, 964; 4:1901 written constitution of, 1:457; 2:959 Baden-Baden, 5:2327 Badeni, Kasimir Felix, 1:262; 4:1860, 1861 Badeni affair, 5:2421 Badeni language ordinances (1897), 2:865 Baden-Powell, Robert, 1:159–160 Baedeker, Karl, 5:2329, 2330 Baedeker’s guidebooks, 4:1824

Baekeland, Leo Hendrik, 3:1160 Baer, Karl Ernst von, 4:2234 Bagehot, Eliza Wilson, 1:160 Bagehot, Thomas Watson, 1:160 Bagehot, Walter, 1:160–161 Baghdad Railway, 1:49 Bagot, Richard, 3:1621 Bagration, Peter, 1:132, 272, 273 Bahadur Shah II, 3:1135; 4:2138, 2140 Bahr, Hermann, 2:1067 Bailey, Liberty Hyde, 2:653 Bailly, Jean-Sylvain, 3:1443 Bain, Alexander, 3:1514; 4:1907 Bain, Le (Manet), 3:1432–1433 Bainville, Jacques, 1:5 Bairoch, Paul, 2:514; 5:2338–2339 Bajer, Frederik, 4:1697 Baju, Anatole, 2:632 Bakelite, 3:1160 Baker, Josephine, 1382 Bakst, Le´on, 1:192, 336; 4:2181 Diaghilev and, 2:654, 655 Baku, 2:742 Bakunin, Mikhail, 1:161–163; 2:990; 3:1170; 4:1941 anarchism and, 1:56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62; 3:1272, 1293; 4:1755 as Belinsky influence, 1:207 First International and, 1:162; 2:824, 825, 1025; 3:1289 Herzen’s views and, 2:1064, 1065, 1066 International Workingmen’s Association and, 4:2205 Kropotkin as successor to, 3:1272 Malatesta and, 3:1424 Nechayev and, 1:162; 3:1613 as People’s Will influence, 4:1767 as populist influence, 4:1831 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1862 Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:161; 2:961 rivalry with Marx of, 1:161, 162; 3:1289, 1424 Schelling and, 4:2088 secularization and, 4:2133 Spanish labor movement and, 4:2299 as Westernizer, 5:2459, 2460 Young Hegelians and, 5:2513 Balaganchik (Blok), Meyerhold staging of, 3:1496 Balakirev, Mily, 2:980; 3:1571, 1575; 4:1999, 2000 Balaklava, 1:244 Balaklava, Battle of (1854), 1:95; 2:578

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

balance of power Bismarck’s destruction of, 2:853, 964 Chinese-British trade and, 3:1678 Concert of Europe paradigm vs., 2:524, 526 Concert of Europe’s decline and, 2:663 Congress of Vienna’s maintenance of, 1:374, 457; 2:532; 3:1482 Crimean War and, 2:580 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:867 Mediterranean and, 3:1613 Mehmet Ali’s conquests and, 2:732 Metternich and, 3:1492, 1493, 1494 San Stefano Treaty and, 1:12; 4:2085–2086 Balard, Je´roˆme, 4:1743 Balbo, Cesare, 1:390; 4:1786 Balcome, Florence, 5:2464 Balcony Room (Menzel), 3:1489 ‘‘Balder Dead’’ (Arnold), 1:102 Baldus, E´douard, 4:1771–1772 Baldwin, Stanley, 3:1256 Balentics, Imre, 2:575 Balfour, Arthur, 1:80, 405; 2:798; 5:2322, 2445 Irish policy and, 2:1011; 3:1181 Balfour Declaration (1917), 5:2521 Balicki, Zygmunt, 2:752 Balkan Alliance (1912), 1:207 Balkan League, 1:32, 33, 163, 313; 2:704–705; 3:1546; 4:2149 Balkans, 4:2165 alliance system and, 1:48, 146; 2:964 Armenians in, 1:87 Austria-Hungary and, 1:146; 2:703–704 Austro-Russian rivalry in, 3:1690 Belgrade and, 1:205–207 Bismarck and, 1:239, 240; 2:965 Black Hand and, 1:242–243 conference diplomacy and, 2:662 Congress of Berlin and, 2:530–531 Eastern Crisis (1875–1878) and, 2:674, 703; 3:1687–1690 Germany and, 2:968 Greek shipping and, 2:1018 Greek War of Independence and, 3:1685 Illyrian movement and, 2:924, 925 migration and, 2:748; 3:1109–1110, 1113 nationalism and, 1:2, 163, 166; 2:663, 705, 704–705, 1018; 3:1420, 1685, 1690

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Orthodox merchant class and, 3:1684 Ottoman Empire and, 1:2; 3:1188–1189, 1420, 1682, 1683–1691 population of, 3:1682 railroads and, 4:1933 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985 Romania and, 4:2017 Russia and, 1:163, 165, 166, 276; 2:663–664; 3:1690 Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067–2068 San Stefano Treaty and, 2:703; 4:2085–2086 Serbia and, 3:1683–1684; 4:2145, 2146, 2149 trialism and, 2:862 universities and, 5:2387–2388 See also Balkan Wars; Eastern Question Balkan Wars, 1:163–166; 2:527, 704–705; 3:1628, 1690, 1691 Adrianpole and, 1:12–13, 163 Albania and, 1:33, 33; 3:1691 Armenians and, 1:89, 92 Belgrade and, 1:207 Bulgaria and, 1:313 combatants of, 1:2, 32–33 consequences of, 1:2, 32–33, 146, 165–166, 313; 2:663, 705 first Balkan War, 1:12, 163–164, 166, 207; 3:1541 Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862 Francis Joseph and, 2:865 Germany and, 5:2312 Greece and, 1:2, 13, 163–166; 2:704, 1022, 1022; 3:1541, 1685, 1691; 4:2149 Jaure´s’s view of, 3:1217 Montenegro and, 3:1541 Ottoman losses in, 3:1190, 1546 Red Cross and, 4:1949 second, 1:13, 164–165, 166, 313; 3:1541; 4:2149 Serbia and, 1:2, 13, 146, 163–166, 313; 2:704; 3:154, 1691; 4:2146, 2149 young refugees from, 1:165 Young Turks and, 1:92 Balla, Giacomo, 1:157; 2:917, 920 Ballad of Reading Gaol, The (Wilde), 5:2466 ballads, 4:2123 Ballantyne, John and James, 4:2123 ballasite, 3:1644

1 9 1 4

Ball at the Moulin de la Galette (Renoir), 4:1955 Ballesteros, Francisco, 4:2228 ballet avant-garde, 1:154 Dega’s images of, 2:633, 634, 635; 4:1708 Diaghilev and, 2:654, 655; 4:1876, 2077 as French grand opera component, 3:1671 Nijinsky and, 3:1642–1643 Pavlova and, 4:1749–1751, 1750 primitivism and, 4:1876 Ravel and, 4:1945 St. Petersburg and, 4:2077 Satie and, 4:2087 set design for, 1:192 Stravinsky and, 4:2261–2262 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307 Ballets Russes, 1:192; 2:655; 4:1876 Nijinsky and, 3:1642, 1642, 1643 Ravel and, 4:1944 Satie and, 4:2087 Stravinsky and, 4:2261–2262 Ballets Sue´dois, 4:2087 Ballin, Albert, 5:2470 Balliol College (Oxford), 1:102 Ballo in maschera, Un (Verdi), 3:1678; 5:2406 balloons, 1:30; 3:1153 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:868; 3:1578 Nadar and, 3:1578 Ball Souper, The (Menzel), 3:1490 Balluriau, Paul, 2:1085 Balmont, Konstantin, 4:2181–2182 Balsar, Battle of (1764), 2:706 Baltard, Victor, 2:1049 Balthazar Castiglione (Raphael), Matisse copy of, 3:1474 Baltic provinces. See Finland and the Baltic provinces Baltic Sea British fleet and, 3:1615 Crimean War and, 2:577 Lithuania and, 3:1365 Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:648 Baltic states. See Finland and the Baltic provinces Balzac, Honore´ de, 1:166–169, 167, 270, 472; 2:827; 3:1577; 4:2253; 5:2314, 2395 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 Dostoyevsky and, 2:678 peasant novels of, 4:1756

2573

INDEX

realism and, 2:830 Rodin’s statue of, 4:2009 Sand and, 4:2084 Banca Roma. See Bank of Rome Bandiera, Attilio and Emilio, 3:1255; 4:2002; 5:2403 banditry, 2:571, 573, 576; 3:1598; 4:2004 culture of, 4:1821 Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786 southern Italy and, 3:1195, 1199, 1414–1416, 1424 banishment, 2:779 Bank fu¨r Handel und Industrie zu Darmstadt, 1:175 Bank Holiday Act of 1870 (Britain), 1:288 Banking School theory, 3:1510 Bank of Belgium, 1:174, 493 Bank of England, 1:161, 170, 172, 173 gold standard and, 1:353 Peel and, 4:1758, 1759 Bank of France, 1:170, 171, 174; 2:846; 3:1398, 1586; 4:1737 Bank of Ireland, 1:172; 2:692 Bank of Italy, 1:171 Bank of Prussia, 1:171 Bank of Rome, 2:971 Bank of Sicily, 3:1417 Bank of the Netherlands, 1:53 Bank of the People, 4:1899 Banks, Joseph, 3:1223 Banks, Robert. See Liverpool, Lord banks and banking, 1:170–176; 3:1537 Amsterdam and, 1:53 anti-Semitism and, 1:77 aristocracy and, 1:83–84 Bagehot study of, 1:161 Barcelona and, 1:182 Belgium and, 1:174; 3:1335 Berlin and, 1:176, 216–217 bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 470, 471 branch networks and, 1:171 cities and, 1:445 crime and, 2:571 foreign investments and, 1:353–354 German industrialist financing by, 1:355; 2:960 Germany and, 1:175, 176; 2:965 gold standard and, 1:353, 357; 3:1537 investment banking and, 1:174–175 Italy and, 2:583, 609, 971; 4:2036–2037

2574

Jews and, 3:1228, 1231 joint-stock banking and, 1:171–173, 174, 175–176, 216–217; 2:960; 4:2040 London and, 3:1374 Lyon and, 1:174, 175; 3:1405 Milan and, 3:1195, 1503 Naples and, 3:1582 Napoleon and, 1:170; 2:846; 3:1586 railroad construction and, 4:1933 Rothschilds and, 4:2039–2041 Russia and, 2:1014, 1016; 4:2257 Serbia and, 4:2147 See also monetary unions; Zollverein Banks of Marne at Chennevie`res, The (Pissarro), 4:1792–1793 banlieues, 4:1732; 5:2484–2485 Bannerman, Henry Campbell, 1:469 Banque de Belgique. See Bank of Belgium Banque de France. See Bank of France banquet campaigns, 4:1990 Bantu (people), 4:2219 Banville, Theodore de, 2:1103–1104 baptism, 1:380 Baptist Missionary Society, 3:1527; 4:1895 Baptists, 2:1002; 4:1891, 1894, 1897 Christian Socialism and, 4:2208 Baptist War (1831), 1:365 Bara, Joseph, 4:1960 Baratieri, Oreste, 1:8 Bar at the Folies-Berge`re, A (Manet), 3:1433, 1434; 4:1845 Barbados, 1:364, 365 Barbaroux, Charles-Jean-Marie, 2:973, 974 Barbe`re, Bertrand, 4:1763 Barber of Seville, The (Rossini), 3:1572, 1670; 4:2038, 2039 Barbe`s, Armand, 4:2131 Barbey d’Aurevilly, Jules-Amedee, 1:187; 2:633 Barbier, Paul Jules, 1:229 Barbier de La Serre, Charles, 1:296, 297 Barbiere di Siviglia, Il (Rossini), 3:1572, 1670; 4:2038, 2039 Barbizon painters, 1:176–180; 2:562, 939; 3:1126, 1353 landscapes and, 4:1954 Millet and, 3:1515, 1516 as Pissarro influence, 4:1792 Romanticism and, 1:176, 178; 4:1702, 1705 Van Gogh and, 5:2399, 2400 Barbus (French artist group), 1:191 Barcelona, 1:180–184

anticlerical riots in, 1:69, 180–181 architecture in, 1:112, 183–184; 2:935–938; 4:1826, 2232 art nouveau and, 1:112 cabarets and, 1:335 class warfare in, 1:181–182, 183 Gaudı´ and, 2:935–938; 4:1826 international exhibitions and, 5:2499 Peninsular War and, 4:1764, 1765 Picasso and, 4:1781 population of, 1:181, 182 Semana Tra´gica and, 4:2231; 5:2488 textile industry in, 1:180, 357 urban development and, 1:181, 182, 452; 2:935 Barcelona Football Club, 4:2244 Barcelona Process, 3:1481 Barcelona School of Architecture, 2:935 Barclay, Robert, 5:2440 Barclay de Tolly, Mikhail, 1:272; 2:819; 3:1321, 1322 Bardell v. Pickwick (Dickens), 3:1646 Bardley, Mary Anne, 3:1602 Bardo, Treaty of (1881), 5:2363 Bare`re, Bertrand, 2:894 Bargaining in Europe (Marsh), 2:516 Barge Haulers on the Volga (Repin), 4:1956, 1957 barges, 5:2347, 2348, 2350 Bargue, Charles, 5:2400 Bari, 3:1581 Baring, Alexander, 3:1374 Baring, Evelyn. See Cromer, Lord Baring crisis (1890), 1:135 Barings, 4:2040 Barlach, Ernst, 1:154 Barnaby Rudge (Dickens), 2:656 Barnave, Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, 1:471; 2:611 Barnetche, Euge´nie, 4:2086 Barnett, Samuel Augustus and Henrietta, 3:1376 Barney, Natalie, 2:1084 Barnum, P. T., 3:1566 Baroja, Pı´o de, 2:950; 4:2232 Baroness Germaine de Stae¨l (Isabey), 4:2247 Baronian, Hagop, 1:90 Baron Munchausen (Dore´ illustrations), 2:676 Barons, Krisˇjanis, 2:820 baroque style, 4:2076; 5:2416 Barr, Alfred H., Jr., 1:156 Barrack-Room Ballads (Kipling), 3:1256 Barras, Paul de, 2:664, 894 Barre`s, Maurice, 1:184–185; 2:858

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

barricades, 2:1047, 1048; 4:1731, 1735, 1736, 1960, 1963, 1990 Barrow-in-Furness (England), 1:84 Barruel, Augustin de, 2:881 Barry, Charles, 1:185–186; 4:1917, 1918, 2030 Barry, Edward Middleton, 1:186 Bartered Bride, The (Smetana), 3:1673 Barth, Heinrich, 2:782 Barth, Karl, 3:1252, 1253; 4:2097 Bartholdi, Auguste, 5:2499 Barthou, Jean-Louis, 2:857 Basanavicˇius, Jonas, 3:1366–1367 Basayev, Shamil, 4:2165 Basel Burckhardt and, 1:316–317 First International Congress of 1869 in, 2:824–825 Basel, Treaty of (1795), 2:900; 4:1900 BASF (Baden Aniline and Soda Manufacturing), 3:1160 Basic Laws of Arithmetic (Frege), 2:883 Basile, Mathieu. See Guesde, Jules Basler Zeitung (German newspaper), 1:317 Basque Nationalist Party, 4:2232 Basque province Carlism and, 1:368 Catholicism in, 1:379 education and, 2:726 Basque region (Spain), 4:2231, 2232 Basques, 2:949 Bastiat, Fre´de´ric, 4:1695 Bastien-Lepage, Jules, 4:1946, 2292 Bastille, fall of (1789), 2:842, 886–887; 3:1300, 1385; 4:1728, 1729 commemoration of, 5:2305 journalists portrayal of, 4:1869 Ba-ta-clan (Offenbach), 3:1661 Batavian Republic (Netherlands), 3:1597, 1616; 4:2186, 2187–2189 vaccination requirements, 4:2197 Bateau Lavoir (Montmartre building), 2:590; 4:1782 Bates, Henry Walter, 5:2437 Bateson, William, 2:653 Bath (England), 1:288; 3:1323; 5:2327 Bather of Valpinc¸on, The (Ingres), 3:1167 Bathers (Renoir), 4:1955, 1956 Bathers, The (Ce´zanne), 1:398 Bathers, The (Courbet), 2:568 bathing, 1:251, 253 bathing machines, 4:2124–2125 bathmetric charting, 3:1658

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

baths, therapeutic, 4:2124, 2125, 2126; 5:2327, 2328 Batllo, Josep, 1:183 Battaglia di Legnano, La (Verdi), 3:1672 battalion (military unit), 1:94, 99 Battambang, 3:1142 Batthya´ny, Lajos, 3:1220, 1267, 1268 Battle of the Nations. See Leipzig, Battle of Battle of Trafalgar, The (Callow), 5:2345 Battleship Potemkin, The (film), 4:1976 battleships dreadnaught, 2:681–683, 968; 3:1610–1611 German buildup of, 3:1609–1610 Batumi, 4:2085 Bauakademie (Berlin), 4:2093 Baudelaire, Charles, 1:169, 186–188, 187; 4:2008 absinthe drinking and, 1:3 bohemian circle of, 3:1577 chiffonnier character and, 3:1432 on Daumier’s drawing, 2:622 Decadence and, 2:632 flaˆneur and, 2:826, 827 hashish use by, 2:687 Manet friendship with, 3:1432, 1433 Matisse illustrations for, 3:1475 on modern painting, 3:1128, 1132, 1529, 1530, 1543; 4:1708 opium use by, 2:686 poetry by, 1:187 realism and, 4:1946 Russian symbolists and, 4:2181 on Sand, 4:2085 symbolism and, 4:2292, 2293 tobacco and, 5:2314 translations by, 1:187–188 Wagner and, 3:1675 Baudin, Nicolas-Thomas, 2:781 Baudin Trial (1868), 2:928 Bauer, Bruno, 4:2203; 5:2512, 2513 Bauer, Edgar, 5:2512 Bauer, Felice, 3:1243 Bauer, Otto, 1:11, 314 Bauernfeld, Eduard, 5:2418 Bauhaus, 3:1246 Baum, Paul, 1:155 Ba¨umer, Gertrud, 1:188–190; 3:1681 Baumgartner, Walter, 4:2269 Bautzen, Battle of (1813), 2:903; 3:1334 Bava-Beccaris, Fiorenzo, 3:1504; 5:2377

1 9 1 4

Bavaria, 1:236, 369; 4:1987, 1995 Austro-Prussian War and, 3:1383 as German Confederation state, 2:958–959 Louis II and, 3:1382–1384 Napoleon and, 2:957 Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901, 902 papal infallibility and, 4:1722, 1723 poor relief and, 4:1851 Prussia and, 2:867, 964; 4:1901 Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:961; 4:1834 sodomy decriminalization in, 2:1083 written constitution of, 1:457; 2:959 See also Bayreuth Festival; Munich Bavarian Statistical Bureau, 2:571 Bayade`re, La (ballet), 4:1750 Bayazid, 4:2085 Bayerische Hypotheken- und WechselBank, 1:176 Bayerische Veriensbank, 1:176 Bayer’s aspirin, 3:1164 Bayes, Thomas, 4:2248 Bayeu y Subia´s, Francisco, 2:997 Bayly, Christopher, 3:1151, 1152 Bayon de Libertat, Franc¸ois Antoine, 5:2332 bayonet tactics, 1:95 Bayonne, 3:1226 Bayrakdar Mustafa Pasha, 3:1420 Bayreuth, Wilhelmine von, 3:1489 Bayreuth Circle, 5:2431 Bayreuth Festival (Bavaria), 1:403, 404; 3:1567, 1571, 1674; 5:2431 Louis II funding of, 3:1383 Nietzsche’s view of, 3:1635 Baza´n. See Pardo Barza´n, Emilia Bazard, Amand, 4:2081, 2202 ‘‘Bazarov’’ (Pisarev), 3:1639–1640 Bazarovshchina. See nihilists Bazille, Jean-Fre´de´ric, 1:177; 3:1126, 1534; 4:1954 BCG vaccine, 5:2361 BDF. See Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine beaches. See seaside resorts ‘‘Beach of Falesa´, The’’ (Stevenson), 4:2256 Beaconsfield, earl of. See Disraeli, Benjamin Beagle voyage, 2:613–614, 615, 616–617, 616, 617, 777 beards, 1:190–191 Beardsley, Aubrey, 1:109, 191–194, 193; 4:2293; 5:2466 Decadence and, 2:633 fin de sie´cle pessimism of, 2:815

2575

INDEX

Bearers of the Burden, The (Van Gogh), 5:2400 Beaton, Cecil, 1:192 Be´atrice et Be´nedict (Berlioz), 1:225 Be´atrix (Balzac), 1:168 Beaucorps, Gustav de, 1:45 Beauharnais, Euge`ne de, 1:360; 2:902; 3:1192; 4:2001, 2188 Beauharnais, Hortense de, 3:1590 Beaumont de la Bonninie`re, GustaveAuguste de, 5:2316 ‘‘Beauty in Nature’’ (Soloviev), 4:2216 Beauvilliers, Antoine, 4:1965 Beauvoir, Simone de, 3:1169; 4:1762, 2042, 2074 Beaux-Arts style, 2:1049; 4:1731, 1732 Bebel, August, 1:111, 194–195; 2:1170; 3:1289, 1311; 4:2127 Kautsky and, 1:194; 3:1248 Becalmed (Huysmans), 2:1104 Beccaria, Cesare, 1:376; 2:637; 3:1371, 1441; 5:2393 Bechtejeff, Vladimir, 1:155 Beck, Lewis White, 2:1060 Beck, Max Vladimir, 2:862 Beckedorff, Ludolf von, 1:431 Becker, Lydia, 1:332; 4:2279 Beckerman, Michael, 2:700–701 Beckett, Samuel, 4:2269 Becquerel, Antoine-Henri, 2:594, 595; 4:2070 Becquey, Louis, 2:757 Becquey Plan, 5:2348 Bedborough, George, 2:745 Bedchamber Crisis (1839), 1:416; 4:1758; 5:2412 Bedford, duke of (Francis Russell), 1:29 Bedford College (London), 3:1377 Bednye lyudi (Dostoyevsky), 2:678 beer, 1:34, 35; 5:2475, 2476, 2477 Bohemian Lands and, 1:260 brewer bourgeoisie and, 1:284 as drinking water alternative, 2:658 Dublin brewery and, 2:691 Beer-Hofmann, Richard, 1:65; 2:1067 Beernaert, Charles, 1:205 Beesly, Edward Spencer, 4:1844 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1:195–199, 196; 2:1078; 3:1360, 1565, 1568, 1571; 4:2027, 2102, 2106; 5:2449 as Dvorˇa´k influence, 2:701 Klimt artwork and, 3:1260 as Mahler influence, 3:1419 opera and, 1:196; 3:1670 Promethean myth of, 3:1570

2576

Rossini and, 3:1572 Vienna and, 5:2417, 2418 Wagner and, 5:2429–2430 Beethoven (Solomon), 1:199 Beethoven after Napoleon (Rumph), 1:199 Beethoven and his Nephew (E. and R. Sterba), 1:198–199 Beethoven and the Construction of Genius (DeNora), 1:199 Beethoven Frieze (Klimt), 3:1260 Beethoven: The Music and the Life (Lockwood), 1:199 Beeton’s Christmas Annual (periodical), 2:680 Beggar on the Path, A (Davis), 4:1848 beggars, 2:570; 4:1847 Beggrov, Aleksandr Karlovich, 4:2078 Begriffsschrift (Frege), 2:883 Behaine, Pigneau de, 3:1137–1138 behaviorism, 4:1748–1749, 1908 Behring, Adolf von, 2:735 Behrisch, Franz Wolfgang, 2:982 Beijerinck, Martinus Willem, 2:653 Beijing, 1:434; 3:1680 Beijing, Convention of (1860), 3:1680 Beilis, Mendel, 1:77; 3:1628 Beitra¨ge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Mach), 3:1409 Beitra¨ge zur Optik (Goethe), 2:986 Beitra¨ge zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung (Wundt), 5:2507 Be´jart, Maurice, 3:1643 Bekhterev, Vladimir, 4:1908 Bekker, Paul, 1:295 Belagerung von Mainz, Die (Goethe), 2:987 Belarus, 5:2369 Belasco, David, 4:1916 bel canto, 3:1671 Belfast, 2:690, 691, 1000 Home Rule resistance in, 3:1183, 1184–1185 United Irishmen in, 3:1176 Belgian Congo. See Congo Free State Belgian Democratic League, 1:204 Belgian Regatta Society, 4:2244 Belgioioso, Christina Trivulzio, 2:803; 3:1300 Belgium, 1:199–205 anticlericalism and, 1:203–204, 307, 389 Antwerp market square, 1:451 art nouveau and, 1:107, 104, 108–109, 112, 152, 307 banking and, 1:174; 3:1335 Catholic cooperatives in, 2:556

Catholicism in, 1:377, 383, 387; 3:1330, 1332 Catholic nationalism and, 3:1657 Catholic political parties in, 1:388, 389 child labor in, 1:430 Christian Democratics in, 4:2209 Christian Socialism in, 4:2208, 2209 coal production in, 1:201, 203, 361, 485, 486, 487, 488 Cockerill textile machines and, 1:492–493 collective recognition of, 3:1173 Congo takeover by, 1:21, 205; 2:509; 3:1337 Congress of Vienna and, 2:533 cooperative movements and, 2:556–557 emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748 engineering projects in, 2:757, 760; 3:1149 feminism in, 2:802 First International in, 2:825 football (soccer) in, 2:833, 834 France and, 1:199, 200, 201; 2:566–567; 3:1388 French immigrants in, 1:201; 2:666 French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and, 1:199, 200; 2:899, 900, 903; 3:1587 German invasion of, 1:99, 199, 205, 232 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137, 199 housing and, 2:1089 independence of, 1:200; 2:525, 566, 662; 3:1173, 1335; 4:1713, 1973 industrialization in, 1:199, 201–202, 203, 351; 2:791 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions of, 5:2493 industrial towns in, 1:445 international exhibitions and, 5:2499 Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225, 1227 labor movements in, 3:1290, 1291, 1294 Leopold I and, 3:1334–1336 Leopold II and, 1:20–21, 102, 204–205; 3:1336–1337 liberalism and, 3:1342 literacy in, 2:720 metal industry in, 1:201–202, 203; 3:1149 Napoleonic Empire and, 1:199; 3:1587

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Netherlands and, 1:199, 200, 201, 202; 2:525, 566; 3:1335; 5:2306 population density of, 1:202 potato famine in, 1:201 prostitution and, 4:1883, 1884 Quetelet and, 4:1921–1922 railroads and, 1:201, 305; 2:764; 3:1335; 4:1933, 1934, 1936, 1937 Revolution of 1830 and, 1:200; 2:566, 662; 3:1335, 1561, 1617; 4:1983, 1984, 1985–1986 Revolution of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1990 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098 seaside resorts and, 3:1324; 4:2125 Second International and, 4:2127, 2128 socialism and, 1:199, 203, 204, 205, 307 sports in, 4:2241, 2242, 2244, 2245 strikes in, 1:203, 204; 3:1288, 1293; 4:2267–2268 suffrage in, 1:203, 204; 4:2278, 2279 symbolists and, 4:2295 telephone service in, 5:2308 tennis match in, 3:1324 trade and, 5:2336, 2338 universities and, 5:2379 urbanization of, 1:443 waterway transport in, 5:2350 welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452, 2454 wine and, 5:2475 world’s fairs and, 5:2499, 2500, 2503, 2504 See also Brussels Belgrade, 1:205–207; 2:741 population of, 1:206 Belgrand, Marie-Franc¸ois, 2:1049 Belgravia (London), 3:1373 Belinsky, Vissarion, 1:207–208; 2:1064, 1066; 3:1170; 4:2050 as Westernizer, 4:2195; 5:2459, 2460 Belisarius, 3:1663 Bell, Alexander Graham, 3:1163; 5:2308 Bell, Clive, 4:2258 Bell, Joseph, 2:680 Bell, Richard, 3:1295 Bell, The (newspaper), 2:1066 Bell, Vanessa, 2:835 bell curve, 2:652, 770; 4:1922

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

belle epoque, 2:817 absinthe and, 1:2–4 Durand and, 2:697 Paris and, 4:1732–1733 Belle He´le`ne, La (Offenbach), 3:1660 Bellelli Family, The (Degas), 1:470 Belleville (Parisian suburb), 4:1735 Belleville Manifesto of 1869 (Gambetta), 2:928; 4:1734, 1963; 2136 Belleville Programme. See Belleville Manifesto of 1869 (Gambetta). Bellini, Vincenzo, 3:1565, 1572, 1670, 1671–1672; 4:2038 bel canto and, 3:1671 as Glinka influence, 2:979; 3:1673 Verdi compared with, 3:1673 Belloc, Hilaire, 3:1118 Belvedere Circle, 2:862 Bely, Andrei, 1:208–210, 214, 250; 2:774; 4:2079, 2182, 2217 Benavente y Martı´nez, Jacinto, 2:950, 951; 4:2232 Benckendorff, Alexander von, 2:819 Benda, Julien, 3:1169, 1172; 4:1760 Benedek, Ludwig von, 1:148 Benedict XV, pope, 3:1203; 4:1717, 1721 Bengal, 1:436 East India Company and, 2:706; 3:1133 partition of, 2:597; 3:1136 reunification of, 3:1137 Bengal Army, 3:1135 Benguela (Africa), 1:19 Benin, 1:13 Benjamin, Walter flaˆneur and, 2:826–827 on Kafka, 3:1242 Benn, Gottfried, 3:1309, 1310 Bennett, Arnold, 4:2235 Bennigsen, Rudolf von, 3:1319, 1320, 1321, 1347 Benois, Alexandre, 2:654, 655; 4:2181 Bensemann, Walter, 2:833–834 Benso, Camillo. See Cavour, Count Benso, Gustavo, 1:390 Bentham, Jeremy, 1:210–211, 371, 401; 2:637, 717; 4:2296 homosexuality defense by, 2:1085 legal principles and, 3:1314 Mill (James) as colleague of, 3:1510 as Mill (John Stuart) influence, 1:211; 3:1512, 1513, 1514 as O’Connell influence, 3:1654 poverty definition of, 4:1847–1848, 1849

1 9 1 4

utilitarianism and, 1:210–211; 5:2392, 2393–2394 Benthamism. See utilitarianism Bentick, William Henry Cavendish. See Portland, duke of Bentinck, George, 2:672–673, 1005 Bentley’s Miscellany (periodical), 2:656 Benue River, 2:783 Benvenuto Cellini (Berlioz), 1:225 Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer, 5:2520 Benz, Carl Friedrich, 1:148; 3:1161; 5:2351 Be´ranger, Pierre-Jean de, 1:270 Berberova, Nina, 4:2183 Berbers, 1:43, 44, 46, 498; 3:1547 Berceo, Gonzalo de, 2:950 Berdyayev, Nikolai, 1:211–213; 3:1171; 4:2196 Berg, Alban, 3:1676; 4:2102 Berg, Lev, 2:775 Bergasse, Nicholas, 3:1490 Berger, Fred, 3:1514 Berger, Susanne, 4:2092 Bergh, Henry, 2:778 Bergson, Henri, 1:213–215; 2:777–778; 3:1215 as cubist influence, 2:593 as futurist influence, 1:214; 2:918, 921 as Pe´guy influence, 4:1760, 1761 on secularization, 4:2133 Bergson, Jeanne, 1:213 Berkeley, George, 1:326; 3:1409 Berlage, Hendrik Petrus, 1:55 Berlin, 1:215–220 advertising and, 2:550 anti-Semitism in, 1:71 architecture in, 1:216, 217; 4:2091, 2092–2094 art nouveau in, 2:815 bourgeois elite in, 1:472 cabarets in, 1:220, 335–336; 4:2102 as center of alliance system, 1:239 church building in, 4:1826 Cockerill wool machinery in, 1:493 as commercial center, 2:551 counterrevolution and, 2:567 as diplomatic capital, 2:965 electric lighting in, 2:742 expressionist painters in, 1:154–155, 220, 220 female teachers in, 2:724 feminism and, 1:129; 2:675–676 as financial center, 1:176, 216–217 Fontane’s novels and, 2:829 French occupation of, 2:875; 4:2092 Friedrichstrasse, 1:218, 219

2577

INDEX

geographical society of, 2:784 German unification and, 4:1901 growth of, 1:443 Hegel in, 1:215; 2:1053, 1054 homosexual subculture of, 2:1083 housing in, 1:218–219; 3:1554 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions in, 5:2493 Jewish cultural role in, 3:1231, 1234 Kierkegaard in, 3:1250–1251 labor movements and, 3:1287, 1291 Lasker-Schu¨ler in, 3:1309–1310 Liebermann in, 3:1353, 1354 opera and, 1:219; 3:1673 population of, 1:217, 446; 2:1087 Prussian tradition and, 1:219 psychoanalysis and, 4:1905, 1906 public health measures in, 4:1914 railroads and, 4:1936 Revolution of 1848 and, 1:215–216; 2:877, 961; 4:1901–1902, 1990, 1993 salons in, 1:215, 316; 2:675 Schauspielhaus, 1:216 smoking in, 5:2313 sociology and, 4:2214–2215 suburbs of, 1:217, 218–219 subway in, 4:2271–2273 telephone service in, 5:2308 theater in, 1, 219; 3:1109 universities and, 5:2378 Volkspark in, 4:1740 voluntary associations and, 1:117 See also University of Berlin Berlin, Congress of (1878). See Congress of Berlin Berlin, Isaiah, 2:539, 1061, 1065, 1066; 5:2460 Berlin, Treaty of (1878), 1:91, 206; 2:674 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 3:1690 Bulgarian division by, 1:312 provisions of, 3:1690 Serbian independence and, 3:1683; 4:2146 Berlin Academy, 2:911; 3:1354, 1533 Berlin Act of 1885, 1:221–223, 308; 3:1173 Berlin Conference (1884–1885), 1:20, 220–224; 3:1118 alcohol and, 1:37 Bismarck and, 1:12, 221, 239; 2:812 consequences of, 1:223–224, 499; 2:795 dual goals of, 1:221–222, 223; 3:1173

2578

slave trade ban and, 1:308–309, 499 Berlin Court Theater, 3:1673 Berlin Decree (1806), 2:553, 902; 3:1586; 5:2438 Berliner Handelsgesellschaft, 1:175 Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung (magazine), 4:1773 Berlin Movement (1880s), 1:71 Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, 1:219 Berlin Potsdam Railway, Menzel painting of, 3:1489 Berlin Secession, 1:154; 3:1353, 1354 Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory, 5:2425 Berlin Workers’ Congress (1848), 3:1287 Berlioz, Hector, 1:197, 224–226; 2:979, 1046; 3:1360, 1565, 1572 Glinka and, 2:980 opium use by, 2:686 Romanticism and, 4:2030 Bernadette, Saint, 4:1788 Bernadotte, house of, 4:2287 Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste, 1:226–227; 2:903; 3:1319, 1320, 1321, 1322, 1431; 5:2374 Bernard, Claude, 1:227–229, 408; 5:2523 Bernard, E´mile, 2:939; 5:2400 Bernardi, Giuseppe, 1:347 Bernays, Martha, 2:904, 905; 4:1904 Bernhardt, Maurice, 1:229 Bernhardt, Sarah, 1:229–230, 230; 4:1846; 5:2500 Bernoulli, Jakob, 4:2248 Bernstein, Carl and Felicie, 3:1353 Bernstein, Eduard, 1:230–231; 3:1248, 1328, 1399–1400; 4:2205, 2270 Plekhanov tracts against, 4:1801 Berny, Laure de, 1:167 Berr, Isaac, 3:1226 Berri, Charles Ferdinand, duc de, 1:361, 412; 2:847; 3:1387; 4:1969 Berry, duchesse de, 4:2124 Berry, Louis-Auguste, duc de. See Louis XVI Berry, Marie-Caroline de, 3:1298 Bers, Sophia Andreyevna, 5:2318 Bertani, Agostino, 3:1556 Berthollet, Claude-Louis, 3:1153; 4:2115 Bertillon, Alphonse, 2:576–577; 4:1816, 1816 Bertin, Jean-Victor, 2:560 Bertin, Rose, 1:481

Bertrand, Henri-Gratien, 3:1321; 4:2044 Berzelius, Jo ¨ ns Jakob, 1:424–425; 4:2285 Besant, Annie, 4:1829–1830 Beseda, 4:2055 Bessarabia, 2:530; 3:1420; 4:2017, 2020, 2069, 2085 Bessemer, Henry, 3:1158, 1159; 4:2113, 2115; 5:2496, 2505 Bessemer converter, 1:485; 3:1157, 1158, 1159 Bessemer process, 4:2115 bestiality, 3:1270 Besy (Dostoyevsky), 2:679 Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von, 1:49, 232–233; 2:968, 969; 3:1357, 1611; 5:2312 Bethnal Green Republican Propagandist Society, 4:1964 Betrothed, The (Manzoni), 3:1193–1194 Beuret, Rose, 4:2008, 2009 Beuth, Peter, 1:493 Beuzon, Joseph, 2:504 BEW electric company (Berlin), 2:742 Bewick, Thomas, 4:1867 Beyle, Marie-Henri. See Stendhal Beylism, 4:2253 Beyond Good and Evil (Nietzsche), 3:1631, 1635 Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Freud), 2:908 beys, 5:2362 ‘‘Bezhin Meadow’’ (Turgenev), 5:2365 Bezobrazov, A. M., 3:1628 Bhagavad-Gita, 1:372 Biafra, 1:13 Bianchi, Antonia, 4:1699 Biarritz, 4:2125, 2126; 5:2328 Biassou, Georges, 5:2332 Bible age of earth and, 2:615, 776; 3:1401–1402 as Blake influence, 1:246 Dore´ illustrations and, 2:676 higher criticism and, 2:744 New Testament and, 4:1770, 2182 Protestant primacy of, 4:1890, 1891, 1892 Bible Society, 4:1896 Biblical Songs (Dvorˇa´k), 2:701 Bibliographie des ouvrages relatifs a` l’amour (Gay), 4:1836 bibliography, 4:1836 Bibliotheca Germanorum Erotica (Hayn), 4:1836

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Bibliothe`que Marguerite Durand (Paris), 2:697 Bibliothe`que Nationale (Paris), 3:1350 Biceˆtre (Paris), 3:1665; 4:1791 Bichat, Marie-Franc¸ois-Xavier, 1:340; 4:1790 bicycles. See cycling Bicycle Union (Britain), 2:600 Biedermeier style, 5:2418 biens nationaux, 4:1968–1969, 1970 Bie´trix de Rozie`res, Jacques, 2:996 Big Business. See business firms and economic growth; corporations Bigg, William Redmore, 4:1852 Bight of Benin, 1:13 Bihar, 2:706 Bijoux indescrets, Les (Diderot), 4:1833 Bildung, 2:947, 983, 985 bildungsroman Goethe and, 2:985 Mann and, 3:1436 Bill of Rights (U.S.), 3:1299 Billroth, Theodor, 4:1877 bimetallism, 3:1538 binders, mechanical, 1:27 Binet, Alfred, 2:927; 4:1908, 2162 Binet, Rene´, 2:1031; 5:2503 Bing, Siegfried, 1:108 Binny, John, 2:573 biochemistry, 1:426 biodiversity, 2:762 biogenetic law (Haeckel), 2:1031 Biographia Literaria (Coleridge), 1:497 Biographical History of Philosophy (Lewes), 4:1844 Biological Museum (Stockholm), 3:1564 Biological Standard of Living, 5:2334 biology Cajal and, 1:340–342 Darwin and, 2:613–614, 616, 617, 618 degeneration and, 2:238 Goethe and, 2:986, 1031 Haeckel and, 2:1031–1032 Lamarck and, 3:1301–1303 See also botany; evolution; genetics Biot, Jean-Baptiste, 4:1779, 1780 birds, 2:766 Birmingham bourgeoisie in, 1:472 Chamberlain (Joseph) municipal reform in, 1:404, 405, 450 Chartism and, 1:415, 416; 3:1390 football (soccer) and, 2:831 population of, 1:446; 2:1087 technology and, 3:1153

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Birmingham Lunar Society, 4:2111 Birmingham Oratory, 3:1621 Birmingham Political Union, 1:415, 416 Birnbaum, Nathan, 5:2518 Birrell, Charles, 1:331; 3:1181 birth control. See contraception; population, control of Birth of Tragedy, The (Nietzsche), 3:1631; 4:1770; 5:2431 birthrate drop in, 3:1472, 1662 fertility rate and, 2:645–646, 769, 771 French drop in, 2:897 French pronatal policy and, 2:771 increase in (1750–1850), 4:1827–1828 in London, 3:1372 of working class families, 3:1455 See also population, control of bisexuality, 2:906, 1070, 1085; 5:2375, 2449 Biskara, Nomad Camp (Beaucorps), 1:45 Bismarck, Johanna Puttkamer von, 1:233–234 Bismarck, Malwine von, 1:233 Bismarck, Otto von, 1:204, 233–242, 411; 4:2207 alliance system and, 1:47, 48–50, 146, 147, 239–240; 2:526, 663, 705, 864, 964–965 anticlericalism and, 1:70 aristocratic elite and, 1:84 army system and, 1:94 assessment of career of, 1:241 Austro-Prussian War and, 1:147, 148; 2:567, 669, 867, 963; 3:1383, 1506; 4:1902 background and early career of, 1:233–234 Berlin and, 1:217 Berlin Conference and, 1:12, 221, 239; 2:812 Boulanger and, 1:281–282 on British navy, 3:1609 caricatures of, 1:236; 2:963 Catholic political activity and, 2:966 Cavour compared with, 2:583; 3:1198 Center Party opposition to, 1:239, 393; 2:966 as chancellor, 1:238–239 church-state relations and, 4:1896 Concert of Europe’s weakening by, 2:662

1 9 1 4

Congress of Berlin and, 1:312; 2:530, 705, 812 conservatism and, 1:234, 237, 238–239, 241; 2:540–540, 966–997 Danish-German War and, 2:607, 608, 963; 4:1902 dismissal of, 1:233, 240–241; 2:526, 663, 967 domestic policies of, 1:237–239, 459; 2:965 foreign policy of, 1:234–235, 239–240; 2:526, 583, 812, 963–965 Franco-Prussian War and, 1:235, 236; 2:526, 662, 868, 870, 953, 964; 4:1734, 1736, 1903 Frederick III and, 2:874 French imperialism and, 2:812 German unification and, 1:233, 235–237, 262; 2:526, 662, 867, 874, 924, 962–967; 3:1198, 1383, 1523, 1605; 4:1902–1903 Guchkov and, 3:1659 Hamburg and, 2:1040 Kulturkampf and, 1:238, 239; 2:966; 3:1277, 1279, 1331; 4:1719, 1720, 1723, 1795, 1812, 1896, 1903 Lassalle and, 3:1311 Leo XIII and, 3:1331; 5:2473 liberals and, 3:1346, 1347 Louis II of Bavaria and, 3:1383 Mommsen and, 3:1533 Napoleon III and, 2:867 nationalism and, 1:84, 237, 241, 291 Pius IX and, 4:1795 Polish territory and, 4:1809, 1812 as Prussian minister-president, 1:235–238 Ranke and, 4:1940 reactionary policies of, 2:966–967 Romanies and, 4:2023 as Social Democrats enemy, 1:194, 230 socialist movement bans by, 1:36, 238–239; 2:966 state-sponsored social insurance and, 1:291, 321, 356, 459; 2:540, 966; 3:1664; 4:1854, 1915; 5:2450, 2453 suffrage and, 4:2279 Three Emperors League and, 1:48, 146; 2:526, 705 Treitschke and, 5:2353, 2524–2525 on university students, 5:2383

2579

INDEX

Virchow and, 5:2425 William I and, 1:238–239, 240; 2:962–963, 963; 5:2467 William II and, 5:2468, 2474 Windthorst and, 5:2472–2474 Bissolati, Leonida, 2:921, 971; 5:2364 Bisson Brothers, 3:1577 Bitoria, Battle of (1813), 4:1765 Bizet, Georges, 3:1675, 1676 Bizkaia por su independencia: Las cuatro glorias patrias (Arana), 4:2232 Bjo¨rko ¨ , Treaty of (1905), 1:49 Bjørnson, Bjørnstjerne, 4:2287 Blacas, duc de, 1:407 Black, Viktor, 3:1666 Blackamoor of Peter the Great, The (Pushkin), 4:1919 blackbody radiation, 4:1780 Blackburn Olympic (football team), 2:831 ‘‘Black Cat, The’’ (Poe; Baudelaire translation), 1:188 Black Forest, 2:763 Black Hand, 1:242–243, 277; 2:705 in Serbia, 4:2132 Black Hundreds, 4:1803 ‘‘Black paintings’’ (Goya), 2:996, 999 Blackpool, 3:1324 Black Repartition, 4:1800; 5:2517–2518 Black Sea, 1:164, 243–244; 5:2348 Bosphorus link with, 1:277–278 Crimean War and, 2:577–578, 1007 Mediterranean and, 1:243; 3:1482 Russia and, 1:243–244, 278, 376; 3:1683 Black Square on a White Ground (Malevich), 1:158 Blackstone, William, 1:210 Blackwood’s Magazine, 1:300; 2:744 Blair, Tony, 2:976 Blake, William, 1:190, 244–246, 245; 3:1511; 4:2008 Romanticism and, 4:2027, 2030 as Yeats influence, 1:246; 5:2509 Blanc, Charles, 5:2400 Blanc, Louis, 1:162, 247–248, 458; 3:1287; 4:1988, 2203 Cabet and, 1:338 cooperatives and, 1:247; 2:555 Blanche, Jacques-E´mile, 4:1710 Blanchot, Maurice, 2:1079 Blanqui, Auguste, 1:68, 248–249; 2:521; 4:1735, 1963 First International and, 2:824, 825 Michel and, 3:1497

2580

secret societies and, 4:2130, 2131–2132 Blanqui, Je´roˆme-Adolphe, 4:1897 Blanqui, Louis-Auguste. See Blanqui, Auguste Blanquism, 4:1963 Blanquist Party, 4:2298 Blatchford, Robert, 4:2200 Blaue Reiter, Der, 1:155, 156; 3:1245, 1309, 1530; 4:1711 Blaue Reiter Almanak, 1:155–156; 3:1245 Blavatsky, Helena, 3:1245; 5:2478, 2509 Bleak House (Dickens), 2:657 Bleak House (Ruskin), 1:371 bleeding (medical treatment), 1:436 Ble´riot, Louis, 1:30 Bleuler, Eugen, 3:1238, 1239; 4:1905 Bleyl, Fritz, 1:154 Blincoe, Robert, 1:350, 351, 352 blindness, Braille system and, 1:296–298; 5:2499 Blithedale Romance (Hawthorne), 2:838 Blitzstein, Marc, 4:2262 Bloch, Jan, 2:1034; 3:1507 Bloch, Jean-Richard, 3:1217; 4:1698 blockades. See Continental System; Crimean War Blok, Alexander, 1:249–250; 3:1496 Bely and, 1:209 Eurasians and, 2:774 Silver Age and, 4:2182, 2183 Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2217 Blondel, Maurice-E´douard, 4:2133 Blood, Fanny, 5:2480 blood feuds, 3:1539 blood libel, 1:77, 462; 3:1394; 4:1802 blood sports, 3:1414; 4:1821, 2240 blood transfusion, 4:2110 ‘‘Bloody Sunday’’ (Britain, 1887), 1:59 ‘‘Bloody Sunday’’ (Russia, 1905), 2:993; 3:1627; 4:1976, 1977, 2055, 2078–2079 Bloody Week (Paris, 1871), 3:1289; 4:1736 Bloomsbury Group, 2:835; 4:2258–2259 Bloy, Le´on, 2:1104 Blu ¨ cher, Gebhard Leberecht von, 2:903; 5:2442–2443, 2457 Leipzig battle and, 3:1319, 1320, 1321–1322 Blue Nude (Memory of Briska) (Matisse), 3:1474 Blue Nudes (Matisse), 3:1474

Blue Ribbon movement, 1:37 Blue Rider group. See Blaue Reiter, Der; Blaue Reiter Almanak Blue Rose group (Moscow), 157 Blum, Le´on, 3:1219 Blum, Robert Frederick, 3:1680; 5:2405 Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, 4:1924 Blumenstrau ¨ fse (Schlegel), 4:2095 Blunt, Thomas, 4:2112 Bluntschli, Johann Kaspar, 3:1175 Blu ¨ tenstaub (Novalis), 3:1647 B’nai Brith order, 1:119 ‘‘B’’ notebook (Darwin), 2:614 Boas, Franz, 2:774 Bobangi (people), 1:16 bobbies (British police), 4:1814 Bob Kick (film), 3:1483 Bobrikov, Nikolai, 2:822 Bobrowska, Ewa, 2:535 Bobrowski, Tadeusz, 2:535 Boccioni, Umberto, 1:157, 214 futurism and, 2:918, 919, 919; 4:1711 Bocconi University, 5:2389 Bo¨ckh, August, 1:316 Bo¨cklin, Arnold, 4:2292 Bodichon, Barbara Leigh (ne´e Smith), 2:626, 946 body, 1:251–255 beards and, 1:190–191 Berlin fitness cult and, 1:215 clothing and, 1:484; 2:943–944 criminal detection and, 2:576–577; 3:1371–1372; 4:1816 masculinity and, 3:1473 pornography and, 4:1833 racism and, 1:458 sexuality and, 4:2161–2164 sports and, 4:2239 woman’s control of own, 2:805 x-rays and, 4:2012 See also nudes Boerenbond (Belgium), 1:204 Boers (Afrikaners), 1:17–18, 20; 3:1118; 4:2219–2221, 2220, 2223–2224, 2225 Dutch ancestry of, 3:1619 military tactics and, 1:99, 100, 257 Boer War, 1:20, 255–259, 258, 271, 501; 2:526, 674, 977; 3:1610; 4:2223; 5:2415, 2502 Australian troops in, 1:135 Baden-Powell command in, 1:159 British brutality in, 1:257; 3:1182, 1259; 4:1949

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

British defeats in, 3:1473 Chamberlain (Joseph) as architect of, 1:405 costs and outcome of, 1:258–259; 2:1011 Doyle’s medical service in, 2:681 Fabian’s view of, 1:787 guerrilla warfare and, 1:257; 3:1259 imperialism and, 1:159, 255–259; 3:1118, 1119 Irish political parties and, 3:1182 jingoism and, 3:1234–1235, 1624 Kipling and, 3:1257 Kitchener and, 3:1258, 1259 Lloyd George’s critique of, 3:1369 Majuba Hill and, 3:1422–1423 military tactics and, 1:99, 100, 257; 3:1259 military technologies and, 3:1507 Netherlands and, 3:1619 New Zealand troops in, 3:1624 origins of, 1:255–257 Red Cross and, 4:1949 Rhodes and, 4:1997 Bofarull i de Broca`, 1:182 Bogdanov, Alexander, 1:267 Bogolyubov, Arkhip, 5:2517 Bogrov, Dmitri, 4:2257 Bohe`me, La (Puccini), 3:1677; 4:1916; 5:2360 Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, 1:259–264 anti-Semitism and, 4:1860, 1861 art nouveau and, 1:113–114; 2:815 Austrian Habsburgs and, 1:137, 139, 141–142, 145; 2:259–264, 864, 865; 4:1712 Austro-Prussian War and, 1:147–148, 262; 2:963–964 coronation jewels and, 4:1860 Czech-German violence in, 1:262–263 Czech independence and, 1:263–264; 3:1469 Czech national revival and, 1:261–264, 447; 3:1469; 4:1711–1712, 1716, 1856–1863 Dvorˇa´k and, 2:700–701 education in, 1:261, 262; 2:723 electricity in, 2:741 emigrants from, 1:119; 3:1525 German nationalism and, 2:961 German unification and, 4:1993, 1994 industrialization in, 1:259–261, 351 labor movements in, 3:1287, 1288

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

machine breaking in, 3:1411 Mahler and, 3:1418 Masaryk and, 3:1468–1469 Mendel and, 3:1484–1486 Moravian villagers, 1:263 Napoleonic Wars and, 1:132; 3:1319, 1321 nationalism and, 4:1994 nationalist conflicts within, 2:961; 3:1605 opera and, 3:1673 Palacky´ and, 4:1711–1712 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717 papal infallibility and, 4:1723 population of, 1:259 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861–1863 Prussia and, 1:85; 2:963; 4:1899, 1900, 1901 railroads and, 4:1933 Revolution of 1848 and, 1:141; 2:961; 4:1712, 1859–1860 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 Silesian weaver uprising in, 4:1990 Social Democrats and, 1:11 socialist party strength in, 3:1293 universities in, 5:2380 voluntary associations and, 1:118 Young Czechs and Old Czechs and, 5:2510–2511 See also Prague Bohemian Compromise (1890), 2:865; 4:1859 Bohemian Diet (Prague), 1:262 bohemian lifestyle, 2:815; 3:1577–1578, 1619; 4:1905 Bo¨hme, Jakob, 2:1080 Bo¨hmer, Caroline, 4:2095 Bohr, Niels, 4:2070 Boieldieu, Franc¸ois-Adrien, 3:1673 Boieldieu Bridge, Rouen, Damp Weather, The (Pissarro), 4:1794 Bois de Boulogne (Paris), 2:1049; 4:1731, 1732, 1739 Bois de Vincennes (Paris), 4:1731, 1739 Boissonade, Gustave, 3:1210 Bojsen, Frede, 2:648 Boldini, Giovanni, 2:1082; 4:1710 Bolero (Ravel), 4:1945 Bolingbroke, Viscount, 1:326 Bolı´var, Simon, 2:1037, 1096 Bolivia, 2:687 Bologna, 3:1581; 4:1723, 1724, 1985 Bolsheviks, 1:264–268; 4:1768, 2270; 5:2364

1 9 1 4

Bernstein’s critique of, 1:231 Bund and, 1:315 characteristics of, 3:1488 execution of Russian royal family by, 1:42 Gorky and, 2:993 Guesde’s view of, 2:1026 intelligentsia and, 3:1168, 1172 Kadet condemnation of, 3:1242 Kuliscioff’s view of, 3:1277 Lenin and, 1:249; 2:522; 3:1326, 1327–1329, 1488 Luxemburg’s critique of, 3:1401 Menshevik split with, 1:265, 266, 267, 317; 3:1328, 1329, 1460, 1487–1488; 4:1801 Milyukov’s opposition to, 3:1518, 1520 nihilist writings and, 3:1641 Plekhanov’s opposition to, 4:1801 Revolution of 1905 and, 4:1974, 1976 Russian Orthodox Church and, 4:2060, 2063 St. Petersburg and, 4:2077, 2079 socialist revolutionaries and, 4:2049, 2211 Struve and, 4:2271 syndicalists and, 1:62 working class and, 5:2485 See also Revolution of 1917 Bolshoi (Moscow), 2:655 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 2:652; 4:1799, 1922 Bombay Lancers, 1:98 bombing. See terrorism Bonald, Louis de, 1:268–269, 387; 3:1405 conservatism and, 2:537 counterrevolutionism and, 2:566; 4:1718 as French Revolution critic, 4:2133 Restoration and, 4:1968 Saint-Simon and, 4:2081 ultramontism and, 1:381 Bonaparte, Carlo, 3:1583 Bonaparte, Caroline, 4:2188 Bonaparte, Eugene, 2:856 Bonaparte, Je´roˆme, 2:957; 3:1599 Bonaparte, Joseph, 2:902, 997; 3:1192, 1254, 1599; 4:2001, 2188 Spanish throne and, 4:1764, 2226, 2227–2228 Bonaparte, Louis, 3:1254, 1590; 4:2188, 2189

2581

INDEX

Bonaparte, Louis-Napoleon. See Napoleon III Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I Bonaparte, Napoleon-Louis, 3:1590 Bonaparte, Pauline, 1:390 Bonaparte family, 3:1587 Bonapartism, 1:5, 269–272 Boulangists and, 1:269, 279, 282 bureaucracy and, 1:269, 321–322 conservatism and, 2:537 Eiffel Tower and, 2:737 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:853–854 Haussmann and, 2:1047 Napoleon III and, 3:1590–1593 peasant antiliberalism and, 4:1756 Third Republic and, 2:856, 858 Bonar Law, Andrew, 2:598; 3:1184 Bonfils, Henry Joseph Franc¸ois, 3:1175 Bonham Carter, Hilary, 3:1637 Bonheur, Rosa, 2:1084; 4:2117 Bonington, Richard Parkes, 5:2403 Bon Marche´, Le (Paris), 1:288–289, 484; 2:548 Bonnard, Pierre, 4:1773, 1845; 5:2323 Bonnat, Le´on-Joseph-Florentin, 5:2323 Bonneme`re, Euge`ne, 4:1753 Bonneville, Nicolas de, 2:973; 4:1701 Bonpland, Aime´, 2:1095 Bon Sens (French weekly), 1:247 Bonstetten, Karl-Viktor von, 4:2288 Bonvin, Franc¸ois, 4:1947 book illustration. See illustration bookmakers, 4:2240 Book of the Hanging Gardens, The (Schoenberg), 4:2102 Book of the New Moral World, The (Owen), 3:1693; 4:2201 books. See literacy; literature; printing Books of the Polish Nation and of Polish Pilgrimage (Mickiewicz), 3:1500 Boon (Wells), 5:2458 Booth, Bramwell, 4:2082, 2083 Booth, Catherine Mumford, 4:2082, 2083 Booth, Charles, 2:1075; 3:1375; 4:1853–1854, 2213; 5:2444 Booth, William, 4:2082–2083 Bordeaux federalist revolt in, 2:799, 800, 844 Girondists and, 2:973 Haussmann and, 2:1047 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1226 worker housing in, 2:1089 Bordeaux, duc de, 1:413 Bordeaux mixture fungicide, 3:1164

2582

bordello, 4:1885 Borges, Jorge Louis, 3:1256 Borghese, Camillo, 1:390 Borghese family, 4:2035 Boris, prince of Bulgaria, 1:313 Boris Godunov (Mussorgsky), 2:654; 3:1575–1576, 1674; 4:1919, 1999 Boris Godunov (Pushkin), 4:1919 Born, Stephen, 3:1287 Bo ¨ rne, Ludwig, 1:370 Bornholm, 2:647 Born in Exile (Gissing), 2:975 Borodin, Alexander, 2:774; 3:1571, 1575; 4:1999 Borodino (1812), 1:272–273; 2:902; 3:1588 Kutuzov and, 3:1281 Napoleon’s gun/infantry ratio and, 3:1506 Borroma¨us Verein, 3:1352 Borrow, George Henry, 4:2023 Borsig, August, 1:217; 2:960; 4:1936 Bosch, Carl, 3:1160; 4:2109 Bosco, Don, 1:383 ‘‘Boscombe Valley Mystery, The’’ (Doyle), 2:680 Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1:273–277 Austrian occupation/annexation of, 1:32, 49, 137, 146, 207, 242, 276–277; 2:703–704, 864, 865; 3:1628, 1690, 1691; 4:2045, 2067, 2069 family group, 1:275 Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862 Marian shrine in, 4:1788 Montenegro and, 3:1541 Muslim women, 1:274 Ottoman Empire and, 1:2; 2:703–704; 3:1687–1688 peasant uprisings in, 4:2067 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2069, 2085 Serbia and, 1:166, 242–243, 273, 275–276, 277; 2:703, 705, 862; 4:2146, 2148 special status of, 1:146 trade and, 5:2337 See also Sarajevo Bosnian Crisis (1908–1909), 1:163; 2:704 Bosphorus, 1:243, 277–279; 2:577, 703; 3:1421 Istanbul and, 1:278; 3:1186, 1188, 1190 Bossi, Erma, 1:155 Boswell, James, 5:2320

Botanical Gardens (Brussels), 1:395 botany Darwin and, 2:613 Denmark and, 2:649 de Vries and, 2:652–653 genetics and, 2:652–653 Goethe and, 2:986 Humbold (Alexander) and, 2:1095–1096, 1097 Lamarck and, 3:1301 Mendel and, 2:652, 653; 3:1484, 1485–1486 Botany Bay (Australia), 2:780 Botev, Khristo, 3:1687 Botha, Louis, 1:258; 4:2224 Bottle, The (Cruikshank), 2:586–587 Bottle of Vieux Marc, Glass, Guitar, and Newspaper (Picasso), 2:591 Bouchot, Frederic, 3:1454 Boucicault, Aristide, 1:289, 484 Boudin, Euge`ne, 3:1534 Bouffes-Parisiens theater, 3:1661, 1672 Bouguereau, Adolphe-William, 2:940; 4:1710 Boulanger, Georges-Ernest-JeanMarie, 1:184, 271, 279, 280–283, 479; 2:540, 649, 696, 858; 4:1964 Boulanger affair, 1:279–281, 282; 2:540–542, 583, 858; 5:2502 Barre`s and, 1:184, 185 Deraismes and, 2:649 indirect consequences of, 1:282 Michel’s view of, 3:1497 political posters and, 4:1846 Boulangism, 1:52, 185, 279, 281–283 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:5 Bonapartism and, 1:269, 279, 282 Clemenceau and, 1:479–480 Durand and, 2:696 failure of, 1:281 ‘‘Boule de suif’’ (Maupassant), 2:991 Boulevard des Capucines (Paris), 3:1577, 1578; 4:1732 Boulevard du Temple, Le (Daguerre), 2:606 Boulevard Haussmann (Paris), 4:1731 Boulevard Montmartre (Paris), 4:1732 Boulton, Ernest, 2:1084 Boulton, Matthew, 2:547, 548, 758, 760; 3:1153; 4:2111 Bounty (British ship), 3:1653 Bourbon, Louis-Antoine, 4:2228–2229 Bourbon-Conde´, Louis-Antoine-Henri de. See Enghien, duc de

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1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Bourbon dynasty Charles X and, 1:411–412; 3:1386 dressmaker to, 1:481 Ferdinand VII and, 2:808–809 French restoration of. See Restoration French Revolution and, 3:1385–1386 Italy and, 1:392; 2:932; 3:1191, 1195, 1196, 1254, 1255, 1414; 4:2000, 2003, 2004, 2130, 2175, 2176, 2188 last in line of, 2:847 Louis XVI and, 3:1384–1386 Louis XVIII and, 3:1386–1387 Louis-Philippe and, 3:1387, 1388, 1389 Naples and, 3:1580–1581, 1597, 1599 Napoleon I and, 4:1764, 1767; 5:2306 Revolution of 1830 ending, 2:566 Spain and, 1:181; 2:949; 4:1971, 2225, 2226, 2228–2229, 2231–2232 Tocqueville and, 5:2316 Bourbon Restoration, French (1814–1830). See Restoration Bourbon Restoration, Spanish (1875). See Restoration, Spanish Bourcet, Pierre de, 3:1505 Bourdelle, Antoine, 1:154 Bourgeois, Le´on-Victor-Auguste, 2:858; 4:1914 bourgeoisie, 1:283–292, 469, 470–472 in Amsterdam, 1:54 aristocracy and, 1:83, 470–472, 476 banking and, 1:172 as Barbizon painting buyers, 1:178 in Berlin, 1:219 body and, 1:251 Bolshevik/Menshevik split over, 3:1488 in Britain, 1:172, 284, 285, 287–288, 290, 452, 471 broadening of designation of, 1:283 as bureaucrats, 1:321, 322 as cabaret audience, 1:335 child rearing and, 1:431 Christian Socialism and, 4:2208 cities and, 1:283, 289, 445–450, 452, 471–472; 3:1452 civil society and, 1:465, 467, 468 constitutionalism and, 1:457, 459 consumerism and, 1:288–290, 352; 2:547, 549, 551, 552; 3:1453

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Corn Law repeal campaign and, 2:558–560 counterrevolution and, 2:567 culture and, 1:287–288 Daumier caricatures of, 2:621 diversity among, 1:291 dueling and, 2:696; 3:1472 education and, 1:472; 2:727–728 Engels’s critique of, 2:755, 756 family ideal of, 1:284, 287, 472, 482; 3:1452–1455, 1456 feminism and, 1:128, 129; 2:675, 805 fin de sie`cle threats to, 2:816 football (soccer) and, 2:834–835 in France, 1:106, 283–291 French Radicals and, 4:1928–1929 French Revolution and, 1:283–284; 2:897 gender dimorphism and, 1:287; 2:943, 944, 946; 3:1471 German Center Party and, 1:394 German industrialists and, 2:960 Guimard’s architectural designs for, 2:1027 Haussmann’s Paris plan and, 2:1049, 1088 housing and, 2:1088, 1089–1090 Jewish identification with, 3:1229, 1231–1232 as landowners, 3:1305 leisure activities of, 1:288; 2:551; 3:1324, 1325 Lenin’s view of, 3:1329 London suburbs and, 3:1373, 1375 manners and, 3:1438, 1439 Marx’s use of term, 1:283, 290–291; 2:707; 3:1306–1307 masculinity and, 1:287, 458 museum visits by, 3:1563 musical interests of, 3:1565–1566 in Paris, 1:283, 287, 445, 472; 4:1728, 1739 parks and, 4:1738, 1739, 1739, 1740 pets and, 2:766 photography and, 4:1772 piano playing by, 1:439 in Poland, 4:1811 politics and, 1:106–107, 204, 290–291 poor relief and, 1:450 as professionals, 1:107, 283, 284–285, 472, 473; 4:1879, 1881 in Prussia, 1:184, 290; 4:2251

1 9 1 4

railroads and, 4:1936 Revolutions of 1830 and, 1:284, 457–458, 471 Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:471; 4:1989 in Romania, 4:2018 in Russia, 1:283, 284, 471; 4:2211 in Scotland, 4:2117, 2118 seaside resorts and, 1:288; 4:2125; 5:2328 sexuality and, 1:287; 4:2161 socialist revolution and, 3:1460 suburbanization and, 2:1087–1088, 1090; 3:1452–1453 timepieces and, 3:1323 tobacco use by, 5:2314 tourism and, 5:2328, 2329, 2331 voluntary associations and, 1:116–119 wine and, 5:2475 women consumers and, 2:549 women’s traditional role and, 2:675 women teachers and, 2:727–728 working class and, 5:2483 Bourget, Paul, 1:5 Bourneville, D. M., 1:411 Bourse (Brussels), 1:356 Bourse de Commerce (Paris), 4:1729 Bourse des coope´ratives socialistes, 2:556 Bourses du Travail (labor exchanges), 1:59; 4:2298; 5:2491 Bouton, Charles-Marie, 2:605 Boutroux, E´tienne-E´mile-Marie, 4:1804 Bouvard and Pe´cuchet (Flaubert), 2:827–828 bovine tuberculosis, 5:2361 Boxer Rebellion, 1:292–294, 293; 3:1610, 1628; 4:2064 Japanese troops and, 3:1212 boxing, 1:288; 3:1378; 4:2240, 2245; 5:2435 Boyce, George Price, 4:1865 Boyen, Hermann von, 2:958 Boyer, Jean-Pierre, 2:1037 Boyhood (Tolstoy), 5:2318 Boys, Thomas Shotter, 3:1601 Boys’ and Girls’ Brigades, 1:159; 4:2082 Boy Scouts, 1:159–160; 3:1473; 4:2082 Boy’s Magic Horn, The (Brentano and Arnim), 2:1023 Bozzolla, Angelo, 1:156 BPU. See Birmingham Political Union Braddon, Mary Elizabeth, 1:130

2583

INDEX

Bradford, 3:1430 Bradlaugh, Charles, 4:1829–1830 Bradley, F. H., 3:1514 Bragaglia, Anton Giulio and Arturo, 2:920 Braganc¸a dynasty, 4:1764, 1766 Brahms, Johannes, 1:197, 294–296; 3:1565, 1566, 1568 Dvorˇa´k and, 2:701 German music and, 3:1570–1571 Liszt and, 3:1571 Paganini as influence on, 4:1699 Romanticism and, 4:2027 as Schoenberg influence, 4:2102 Schubert as influence on, 4:2107 on Strauss (Johann), 4:2260 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307 Vienna and, 5:2420 Braille, Louis, 1:296–298 Braille globe, 1:297 Braille system, 1:296–298; 5:2499 brain cell structure, 1:340 Freud’s studies of, 4:1904 Gall theories of, 2:926; 4:1774 phrenology and, 4:1774–1776, 1775 See also neurology Brand (Ibsen), 3:1108 Brand, Adolf, 2:1086 Brandell, Gunnar, 4:2269 Brandenburg, 4:1900, 1902 Brander, James, 2:515; 4:1887 Brannon, P., 2:588 Branting, Hjalmar, 4:2284 Braque, Georges, 1:153; 4:2158 cubism and, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592, 592, 593, 797; 3:1530; 4:1710, 1784 fauvism and, 1:153; 2:795, 797 Picasso and, 4:1784 Braschi, Giovanni Angelo. See Pius VI Brasenose College (Oxford), 4:1746 Bratya Karamazovy (Dostoyevsky), 2:679 Braude, Benjamin, 3:1516 Braun, Emma, 1:10 Braun, Heinrich, 1:11 Braun, Karl Ferdinand, 3:1445 Brawne, Fanny, 4:2029 Bray, Charles and Caroline, 2:743 Bray, John Francis, 4:2201 Brazil as coffee source, 1:494 colonies in, 3:1154 Comte’s motto and, 2:524 Garibaldi in, 2:930–931 immigrants to, 2:646, 747, 747

2584

independence of, 4:1839 Portugal and, 1:499; 4:1838, 1839 positivism and, 4:1844 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 slavery and, 1:14; 4:1924–1925, 2190–2194 tobacco and, 5:2313 trade and, 5:2336 world’s fairs and, 5:2500 breach of contract, 2:511 bread, 2:549, 555 adulteration of, 2:658, 659 British Corn Laws and, 2:557, 558, 559, 1004 British subsidies for, 1:358, 359; 2:709; 3:1425 French Revolution riots and, 3:1385; 4:1728 Milan 1898 riots and, 3:1504 Revolution of 1848 riots and, 4:1990 significance of price of, 2:658; 3:1385, 1403; 4:1728, 1821 breastfeeding, 1:431; 2:628, 645, 659; 4:1828 Brecht, Bertolt, 3:1435, 1437 Bre´da, comte de, 5:2332 breechloading rifle, 1:355; 3:1507 breeding. See eugenics; genetics Breitner, George Hendrik, 4:1773; 5:2400 Brentano, Antonie, 1:198 Brentano, Clemens, 2:1023 Brentano, Franz, 1:198, 298–300; 2:1099, 1100 Freud and, 4:1904 as Kafka influence, 1:299; 3:1242 Brera Art Gallery (Milan), 3:1501 Bresci, Gaetano, 3:1201; 5:2378 Breshko-Breshkovskaya, Yekaterina K., 4:2210 Breslau (German battle cruiser), 1:278 Brest River, 2:553 Brethren, German, 2:960 Brethren, Moravian, 4:2096 Brethren of the Free Spirit, 1:55 Breton, Andre´, 3:1214 Breton, Jules, 4:1947 Brett, John, 4:1864 Brettl-Lieder (Schoenberg), 4:2102 Breuer, Josef, 2:904–905; 4:1904 Breuget, Louis, 1:304 Brewster, David, 4:1772 Briand, Aristide, 2:643; 3:1217; 4:2137 Bride of Abydos, The (Byron), 1:332 Bridge, The. See Bru ¨ cke, Die Bridge at Argenteuil, The (Monet), 3:1535, 1536

Bridgewater House (London), 1:186 ‘‘Briefe und Bilder’’ (Lasker-Schu ¨ ler), 3:1309 Briefe zu Befo¨rderung der Humanita¨t (Herder), 2:1061 Brief nache Norwegen (Lasker-Schu¨ler), 3:1309 Brief Outline of the Study of Theology (Schleiermacher), 4:2097 ‘‘Brief Tale of the Antichrist’’ (Soloviev), 4:2217 Brienne, Lome´nie de. See Lome´nie de Brienne, E´tienne-Charles brigands. See banditry Bright, John, 1:350, 490, 492; 2:1007 anti-Corn Law movement and, 2:558 suffrage expansion and, 2:1008 Brighton, 1:288; 3:1324; 4:1824, 2124, 2125–2126; 5:2328 Brighton Pavilion, 3:1602 Brill, Abraham Arden, 4:1905 Brillat-Savarin, Jean Anthelme, 4:1965 Brion, Friedereike, 2:982, 983 Briot, Pierre-Joseph, 1:360 Brisbane, Albert, 4:2202 Brisson, Henri, 2:642 Brissot de Warville, Jacques-Pierre, 2:994; 4:1960, 2187 Committee of Public Safety and, 2:611 French Revolution and, 2:288, 890 Girondins and, 2:973; 4:1700 journalism and, 4:1869, 1871 Brissotins. See Girondins Bristol, 1:304, 305 Britain. See Great Britain British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, 2:506, 507 British Association for Promoting Co-operative Knowledge, 3:1390 British Association for the Advancement of Science, 2:614; 3:1160 British Association for the Promotion of Temperance, 1:36 British Communist Party, 4:1715 British Cyclist Touring Club, 5:2330 British East Africa, 5:2521 British East India Company. See East India Company British International Football Association Board, 2:834 British Isles. See Great Britain; Ireland; Scotland; Wales British Museum, 1:287, 407; 3:1375–1376, 1562, 1564 British Museum Library, 3:1562 Reading Room, 3:1351

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

British Parliament. See Houses of Parliament; Parliament, British British Phrenological Association, 4:1776 British Public Libraries Act of 1850, 3:1352 British Royal Academy. See Royal Academy (Britain) British Socialist Party, 3:1297 British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology, 2:1086 British South Africa Company, 4:1997 British Straits Settlement, 5:2336 British Volunteers, 4:2082 British Women’s Temperance Association, 1:36 Brittany, 2:800; 4:1757 Britton, Thomas, 3:1566 Brno, 1:263; 3:1411 Broch, Hermann, 3:1574; 5:2420 Brockhaus Enzyklopa¨die, 2:1053 Brod, Max, 3:1242; 4:1859 Brodyachaya Sobaka (St. Petersburg cabaret), 1:337 Broers, Michael, 2:540 Broglie, Jacques-Victor-Albert, duc de, 2:855; 4:173 Bronte¨, Anne, 1:301, 302; 5:2360 Bronte¨, Branwell, 1:302 Bronte¨, Charlotte, 1:300–301; 3:1509 feminism and, 2:802 Gaskell biography of, 2:933, 934 on Luddite riot, 3:1392, 1410 Bronte¨, Charlotte and Emily, 1:300–301, 301; 5:2360 Bronte¨, Patrick, 1:300 Bronze Horseman (St. Petersburg), 4:2075 Bronze Horseman, The (Pushkin), 1:210; 4:1919, 2075 Brooke, Rupert, 4:1826, 2259 Brookes, William Penny, 3:1667 Brook Farm (utopian community), 2:838 ‘‘Broom, or the Flower of the Desert’’ (Leopardi), 3:1333 brothels. See prostitution Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius, 4:1717 ‘‘Brothers, The’’ (Wordsworth), 5:2482 Brothers Karamazov, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:679 Brothers of Christian Schools, 2:721 Brouardel, Paul, 4:1914 brougham (carriage), 1:303 Brougham, Henry, 1:302–303, 401; 5:2461 Brouillet, Andre´, 1:409, 410

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Broussais, Franc¸ois-Joseph-Victor, 1:436 Brousse, Paul, 1:56, 57; 3:1217, 1272 Brown, Ford Madox, 4:1707, 1863, 1864 Brown, Horatio, 2:745; 5:2405 Brown, Jacob, 5:2440 Brown, John, 2:792; 5:2414 Brown, Lancelot (‘‘Capability’’), 4:1738 Brown, Norman O., 2:838 Brown, Rawdon, 5:2405 Brown, Robert, 2:739–740 Brownian motion, 2:740; 3:1409 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 4:2237 Browning, Robert, 2:1046; 4:2237; 5:2310 Brownlow Hill workhouse (Liverpool), 1:331 Bruant, Aristide, 1:335 Bru ¨ cke, Die, 1:154–155, 220; 2:797; 3:1489, 1530; 4:1711 Bru ¨ cke, Ernst, 2:904 Bruckner, Anton, 2:701; 3:1418, 1565, 1571 Brugnol, Louise de, 1:169 Brundage, Anthony, 1:402 Brunel, Isambard Kingdom, 1:303–305, 304; 2:590, 760 Royal Albert Bridge and, 4:1935 Brunner, Emil, 4:2097 Brunnow, Ernst, 5:2392 Bru ¨ nn Program (1899), 1:11 Bruno, Giordano, 2:1032; 4:2037 Brunschwicg, Ce´cile, 4:2279 Brunswick, 2:959; 4:1901 Brunswick, duke of, 2:899; 3:1221, 1222 Brunswick Manifesto (1792), 1:412; 2:844 Brunton, Richard, 3:1210 Brunty, Patrick. See Bronte¨, Patrick Brussels, 1:200, 305–308 artisanal guilds in, 1:203 art nouveau buildings in, 1:109, 109, 110, 112, 307 bilingualism in, 1:202, 307 First International Congress (1868) in, 2:825 foundling homes/hospitals in, 5:2451 Grande Place in, 1:306 guildhalls in, 1:105 Hotel Solvay, 1:307 international exhibitions in, 5:2499 Marx in, 3:1465 politics and, 1:203, 307 population of, 1:306

1 9 1 4

Second International headquarters in, 1:205; 3:1294 stock exchange in, 1:356 telephone service in, 5:2308 urban redevelopment and, 1:306; 2:1088 worker migrants to, 1:201 world’s fairs and, 1:104; 5:2504 Brussels Academy of Sciences, 4:1921 Brussels Conference (1874), 2:1034; 4:1950 Brussels Conference (1890–1891), 1:499 Brussels conventions (1890–1912), 1:37 Brussels Declaration, 1:308–309 Brussels Observatory, 4:1921 Bruyas, Alfred, 2:568 Bryce, James, 2:957 Bryusov, Valery, 1:249; 4:2181–2182 Buber, Martin, 5:2521 bubonic plague. See plague Buchan, John, 4:2256 Bucharest, 2:742; 4:2017 Bucharest, Treaty of (1812), 3:1247, 1420 Bucharest, Treaty of (1913), 1:165, 313; 4:2149 Buch der Lieder (Heine), 2:1055 Buch der Narrheit, Das (Herzl), 2:1068 Buchez, Philippe, 1:247; 3:1287; 4:2202, 2208; 5:2397 Bu ¨ chner, Ludwig, 5:2516 Buchwald, Jed, 2:1063 Buckingham Palace (London), 3:1375, 1602 Buckland, William, 3:1401, 1402 Buckle, Henry Thomas, 4:2282 Bu ¨ ckler, Johannes (Schinderhannes), 2:571 Buda. See Budapest Budapest, 1:309–312 art nouveau in, 1:112 cabarets in, 1:336 electric lighting in, 2:741 football (soccer) in, 2:834 growth of, 1:310 Herzl and, 2:1066–1067 Hungarian nationalism and, 1:447 Jewish community in, 3:1525 migration and, 3:1111, 1113 municipal government and, 1:450 Parliament Building, 1:310, 311 population of, 1:310 Revolution of 1848 and, 1:143, 310; 2:808; 4:1990, 1994

2585

INDEX

subway in, 4:2272 telephone service in, 5:2308 universities in, 5:2388 urban development and, 1:310–311; 2:1088 voluntary associations and, 1:117 Budapest Convention (1877), 2:703; 4:2067 Budd, William, 4:2109 Buddenbrooks (Mann), 3:1436; 4:2125 Buddhism, 3:1137, 1138, 1140 Buen Retiro Palace (Madrid), 3:1412 Buff, Charlotte, 2:983 Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de, 2:637, 776; 3:1301; 4:1924 Bugayev, Nikolai Vasilyevich, 1:209 Bugeaud, Thomas, 1:44 Buguet, Edouard, 4:2238 Building of the Twelve Colleges (St. Petersburg), 4:2075 Buisson, Ferdinand-Edouard, 2:812 Buisson de la Vigne, Ce´leste, 1:420, 421 Bui Thi Xuan, 3:1138 Bukhara, 1:395 Bukovina, 1:145; 4:2017, 2019–2020 Bulgakov, Sergei, 3:1171; 4:2196, 2217 Bulgaria, 1:312–313 Adrianople and, 1:12, 13, 164 April Uprising of 1876 in, 1:312; 3:1688 Austrian–Russian clash over, 1:240 Balkan League and, 1:32 Balkan Wars and, 1:2, 12–13, 163, 164, 165, 166, 207, 313; 2:704–705; 3:1541, 1691 Central Powers and, 1:146 Congress of Berlin and, 1:12; 2:530–531, 705; 3:1689 Eastern Question and, 2:703, 704–705, 1009 education in, 1:313; 3:1687 foreign policy objective of, 1:313 Greater Bulgaria movement and, 1:2 Greek War of Independence and, 3:1685 independence of, 2:1018; 3:1173, 1691 Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225 labor movements in, 3:1290 monetary system of, 3:1538 nationalism and, 1:2, 163, 166, 312, 313; 3:1686–1687, 1688 Orthodox Church and, 1:313; 3:1685, 1687 peasant uprisings, 4:2067

2586

Russian domination of, 1:312, 313; 2:703–704; 4:1717 Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067, 2068 San Stefano Treaty and, 1:312; 2:530–531; 3:1689; 4:2069, 2085, 2086 Serbia and, 1:313; 4:2149 suffrage in, 4:2279 Three Emperors League and, 1:146 universities in, 5:2380 Bulgarian Atrocities (1876), 2:977, 1009 Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East, The (Gladstone), 2:703 Bulgarian Orthodox Church, 1:313; 3:1685, 1687 Bull, Ole Bornemann, 3:1107; 4:1700 Bulletin (Red Cross publication), 4:1949 bullfighting, 3:1414; 4:1821 Bullock, William, 2:956 Bulls of Bordeaux, The (Goya), 2:996, 999 Bu ¨ low, Bernhard von, 1:394; 2:967; 5:2312, 2353, 2469 Bu ¨ low, Cosima von, 5:2431 Bu ¨ low, Hans von, 5:2431 Buls, Charles, 1:306 Bulwer-Lytton, Edward Robert. See Lytton, Edward Robert BulwerLytton Bund, Jewish, 1:313–315; 3:1233 Mensheviks and, 1:264, 265, 315; 3:1487 platform of, 1:314–315 Zionism and, 5:2521 Bund der Landwirte, 1:82 Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine (Germany), 1:189 Bundesrat, 2:964 Bund fu ¨ r Landwirtschaft (Germany), 2:517 bundling, 4:2163 Bungert, August, 3:1675 Buni Hisar/Lule Burgas, Battle of (1912), 1:163 Bunin, Ivan, 4:2183 Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, 3:1160 Buntes Theater (Berlin cabaret), 1:335; 4:2102 Buonarroti, Filippo Michele (Philippe), 1:337, 360; 2:521; 4:2129–2130; 5:2514 Burckhardt, Jacob, 1:315–320; 4:1769 bureaucracy, 1:320–325

Bohemian language ordinances and, 1:262–263 Bonald’s interpretation of, 1:269 Bonapartism and, 1:269, 321–322 bourgeoisie and, 1:283, 284, 285, 286, 472 Britain and, 1:321, 324–325 competitive examinations and, 1:324 conservatism and, 2:537, 540 definition of, 1:320–321, 325 education for, 1:322, 323–324; 2:726 first use of term, 1:320 France and, 1:320–322; 2:846; 3:1387 functions of, 1:324–325, 460 gentry and, 1:83 Germany and, 1:323–324; 4:1880 as guarantor of rights and entitlements, 1:460 India and, 2:706; 3:1135 Italy and, 1:322; 3:1191 Ottoman reforms and, 3:1686 Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1785 Prussia and, 1:217, 323–324; 2:726; 3:1278; 4:1900 Russia and, 1:322–323, 324 service workers and, 1:473 social insurance and, 1:291, 321, 356; 3:1664 Bureau of Public Health and Hygiene (France), 4:1914 Bureaux Arabes (Algeria), 1:44 Buret, Euge`ne, 1:247, 285–286 Bu¨rger, Gottfried August, 4:2094, 2095 Bu ¨ rgergeneral, Der (Goethe), 2:985 Burghauser, Jarmil, 2:700 burghers (Hamburg), 2:1039, 1040, 1041 Burghers of Calais, The (Rodin), 4:2009, 2010 Burgho¨lzli Hospital (Zurich), 3:1238, 1239; 4:1905 Burgos Seguı´, Carmen de, 2:952 Burgtheater (Vienna), 3:1260; 5:2418, 2420 Buria´an von Rajecz, Stephan, 1:276 burial. See death and burial Burial at Ornans, A (Courbet), 2:568; 4:1706, 1946–1947, 2133 Burial of Christ, The (Goya), 2:996 Burke, Edmund, 1:326–328, 497; 2:706, 1077; 3:1343; 4:1962, 2140; 5:2321 British political system and, 1:161, 327, 498

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

conservatism and, 1:326, 327–328; 2:538–539, 603 counterrevolution and, 2:566, 887; 3:1422; 4:1700, 1718 as French Revolution critic, 4:2133, 2212; 5:2321 Godwin critique of, 2:980; 5:2480 Paine and, 4:1700 political Romanticism and, 4:2031 Restoration and, 4:1968 on the sublime, 4:1702 as Whig, 5:2461 Burke, Peter, 4:1940 Burke, Robert, 2:782 Burkina Faso, 1:13 Burliuk, David, 1:157; 4:2182 Burma, 1:434, 498; 3:1137 Burne-Jones, Edward, 1:191; 3:1256, 1550; 4:2047 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864–1865 Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons, October 16, 1834, The (Turner), 5:2367 Burns, J. H., 3:1514 Burns, Lydia, 2:756 Burns, Mary, 2:756 Burschenschaften (student fraternities), 1:369, 457; 2:923, 959; 5:2382 Burton, Richard, 2:783, 784; 4:1875, 1876 Bury, J. P. T., 2:929 business firms and economic growth, 1:328–331 bourgeoisie and, 1:472; 2:960 capitalism and, 1:350–357 corporations and, 1:329–330, 355; 2:711 factories and, 1:328–329 Germany and, 2:967 Jews and, 3:1231 labor unions and, 3:1291 Rhodes and, 4:1996–1997 Siemens and, 4:2179–2180 See also economic growth and industrialization Busoni, Ferruccio Benvenuto, 4:2102 Butler, Eleanor, 2:1083–1084 Butler, George, 1:331, 332 Butler, Josephine, 1:129, 331–332; 2:650, 798, 804; 3:1556; 4:1884, 1896, 2162, 2302 Butovsky, Alesei, 3:1666 Butt, Isaac, 4:1741; 5:2464 Buttafuoco, Annarita, 3:1556 button trade, 2:547 Buveur d’absinthe, Le (Manet), 1:3 Buweis, 1:261

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Buzzi, Paolo, 2:918 Byron, George Gordon (Lord Byron), 1:332–334, 333; 2:930; 4:2123; 5:2327 death of, 4:1982, 2031 as Delacroix influence, 2:640 Greek War of Independence and, 1:333; 3:1604–1605; 4:1770 Luddite defense by, 3:1391, 1410 Malthus ridiculed by, 3:1426 opium use by, 2:686 as Pushkin influence, 4:1919 Shelley (Mary) and, 4:2168 Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and, 4:2170 Venice and, 5:2403 By the Beautiful, Blue Danube (J. Strauss), 4:2260; 5:2420 Byzantine Empire, 3:1685 Byzantium and Slavom (Leontiev), 2:773

n

C Cabanel, Alexandre, 2:940 Cabanis, Pierre-Jean-Georges, 4:1790 cabarets, 1:220, 335–337 Cabet, E´tienne, 1:144, 247, 337–338; 2:521; 3:1286; 4:2131, 2203; 5:2357, 2397 Cabiria (film), 1:442, 443 cables, 1:351, 353; 4:1937 See also telegraph cabs, 5:2352 cacao, 1:364 caciques, 4:2231 Cadbury family, 1:471 Ca´diz Cortes. See Cortes of Ca´diz Cae-Book of Sherlock Holmes (Doyle), 2:680 Caen, federalist revolt in, 2:799, 800, 844, 974 Caesar, Julius, 3:1584 Caesar and Cleopatra (Shaw), 4:2166 Caetano, Marcello, 4:1839 Cafe´ des Westens, 3:1309 Cafe´ Guerbois (Paris), 2:634 Cafe´ Museum (Vienna), 3:1381 Cafe´-Restaurant (Barcelona), 1:183 cafe´s, 1:2–4, 36; 2:547 caffeine, 1:494 Cafiero, Carlo, 1:57 Cahiers de la quinzaine (periodical), 4:1760, 2015 Caillaux, Henriette, 1:339 Caillaux, Joseph, 1:338–340; 2:858 Caille´, Rene´-Auguste, 2:782

1 9 1 4

Caillebotte, Gustave, 3:1126, 1128, 1530; 4:1732 Cailleux, Alphonse de, 2:606 Cain (Byron), 1:333 Cairo, 1:18; 2:731, 732, 733 British occupation of, 2:734 Cairoli, Benedetto, 5:2377 Cairo Opera House, 2:732 Caisse de la Dette Publique, 2:733 Cajal, Santiago Ramo´n y, 1:340–342; 4:1909 Calabria, 4:2002 Calcografia (Madrid), 2:997 Calcutta, 2:705, 706; 3:1133, 1136, 1139 Calder, Robert, 5:2344 Calderai Sublime Masters (secret society), 1:360 Calderon de la Barca, Pedro, 4:2095 Caleb Williams (Godwin), 2:981 calendars, 3:1324 calico, 3:1151–1152 California Act of 1909, 2:771 Callebotte, Gustave, 1:471 Callendar, L. A., 3:1486 callotypes, pornographic, 4:1834 Callouette (sculptor), 4:1954 Callow, John, 5:2345 Calmette, Albert-Le´on-Charles, 5:2361 Calmette, Gaston, 1:339 Calonne, Charles Alexandre de, 2:767, 841; 3:1385 Calvat, Me´lanie, 4:1788 Calvert, Edward, 1:246 Calvin, John, 4:1890; 5:2447 Calvinism, 2:1006; 3:1111; 4:1890–1891, 1892, 1895 Netherlands and, 3:1618, 1619 See also Presbyterianism Calvo, Carlos, 3:1175 Cambiale di matrimonio, La (Rossini), 4:2038 Cambodia, 3:1137–1143, 1145 Cambridge Local Examination, 2:626 Cambridge Modern History series, 1:6–7 Cambridge Population Group, 3:1147 Cambridge University, 4:1713, 2240, 2241; 5:2379, 2385, 2387 Acton and, 1:6–7 Albert and, 5:2412 Anglican Church and, 3:1377; 4:1895; 5:2384 Apostles (secret society) and, 2:835; 4:2258 Cavendish Laboratory and, 3:1478; 5:2387

2587

INDEX

class and, 2:728; 3:1512 Darwin and, 2:613 Forster and, 2:835 history teaching at, 2:1073, 1074 law education and, 2:726 liberalized admissions to, 2:1008 Maxwell and, 3:1378, 1477 women students and, 2:625, 626, 945; 5:2385 Camelots du Roi, 1:5; 3:1476 camera del lavoro, 5:2491 cameralism, 5:2393 camera obscura, 2:606 cameras. See cinema; photography Camera World (magazine), 4:1773 Camerini, Paolo, 4:1851 Cameroons, 1:20, 222 Camilla (Paer), 3:1670; 4:2038 Camoin, Charles, 1:153; 2:795–796 Camorra. See mafia Campagne in Frankreich (Goethe), 2:987 Campbell-Bannerman, Henry, 1:114; 2:979, 1011, 1012; 3:1348, 1369 Campo Formio, Treaty of (1797), 2:895, 900; 3:1192, 1584; 4:2001; 5:2402 Camps Elisis (Barcelona), 1:181 Camps-Volants, Les: Census of Bohemians in France (Mayer engraving), 4:2023 Camus, Albert, 3:1167 Canada, 1:135, 342–347; 5:2411 British penal exile in, 2:780 British ties of, 2:1005–1006 colonial trade and, 2:505 colonizing settlers in, 1:353; 2:504–505, 509 confederation of, 1:345–346 immigrants to, 1:351; 2:646, 647, 747, 747, 1005 immigration policies of, 1:353 as New France, 1:343 Parliament Building, 1:345 population of, 1:346 trade and, 5:2335, 2336, 2342 War of 1812 and, 5:2439, 2440 world’s fairs and, 5:2502 See also Quebec Canadian National Council for Combating Veneral Diseases, 4:1714–1715 Canal du Midi, 5:2347–2348 Canalejas y Me´ndez, Jose´, 4:2231 canals, 2:763 Amsterdam and, 1:53; 3:1618 engineers and, 2:757–758

2588

factories and, 2:792 French irrigation with, 2:762 Manchester and, 3:1428, 1431 Netherlands and, 3:1617 St. Petersburg, 4:2076 as transport system, 5:2347–2348, 2350 Trieste and, 5:2354, 2355 See also Panama Canal; Suez Canal Canary Islands, 3:1615 Candide (Voltaire), 1:103 candy, chocolate, 1:496 Canetti, Elias, 5:2449 Caney the Clown (Thomson and Smith), 5:2490 canned food, 2:659 Cannes, 1:303; 4:2125 Cannibal Club (London), 4:1836 cannibalism, 3:1624; 4:1874 Canning, Charles John (son), 4:2140; 5:2321 Canning, George (father), 1:374; 2:525, 954, 1020; 4:1758 Cannizzaro, Stanislao, 1:426 Cannon, George, 4:1834 canonization, 1:385 Canova, Antonio, 1:347–349, 348; 4:1702; 5:2402, 2403 Ca´novas del Castillo, Antonio, 4:2231 Canrobert, Certan, 2:579 Canti (Leopardi), 3:1333 Canton (China), 3:1578 Canzoni (Leopardi), 3:1333 Canzoni della gesta d’oltremare (D’Annunzio), 2:609 Capaldi, Nicholas, 3:1514 Cape Colony, 1:256 as British settlement colony, 1:17–18, 19; 3:1115 Protestant missionary society in, 3:1527 Cape of Good Hope, 1:17; 3:1122 Cape St. Vincent, Battle of (1797), 3:1615 Capital (Marx), 2:756; 3:1462, 1466, 1467, 1468; 4:2205 capitalism, 1:349–357 Agricultural Revolution and, 1:27, 28, 358–359 artisans and, 1:104, 106–107 banking and, 1:176 Belgium and, 1:203 birthrate and, 4:1828 bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 290–291, 471 British working class and, 2:1006–1007

as civilizing mission, 1:463 civil society and, 1:467 classical economists and, 2:712–718 communist opposition to, 2:521 cooperatives and, 2:557 corporations and, 2:711 crime and, 2:571 definitions of, 1:349 Engels’s view of, 2:754, 755 evolution theory and, 2:777 feminists and, 2:805 imperialism and, 3:1115, 1121–1122 individualism and, 2:709–710 Industrial Revolution (first) and, 3:1146, 1147, 1149 Industrial Revolution (second) and, 1:350–351; 3:1157–1158 institutional economists and, 2:709–710 Jewish investors and, 3:1231 Lenin’s view of, 3:1327 liberalism and, 3:1348, 1432 Luxemburg’s view of, 3:1400 Marx’s view of, 1:349, 350; 2:707, 708, 755, 1006; 3:1248, 1328, 1400, 1466–1467; 4:2205, 2210, 2213–2214 Mill (John Stuart) on, 4:2207 Napoleon Code and, 1:351 nationalism and, 1:355–356 neoclassical economists and, 2:707, 710 peasants and, 4:1755–1756, 1832 Protestantism and, 4:1892 Rhineland version of, 1:330 Ruskin’s opposition to, 4:2047 Saint-Simon and, 4:2080, 2081 serf emancipation and, 4:2149 socialist views of, 4:2201, 2205 sociology and, 4:2212 Spencer and, 4:2234 syndicalism and, 4:2298–2299 Tories and, 5:2321 United States and, 1:328 utopian socialism and, 5:2395 Weber’s thesis of, 1:349; 4:1892; 5:2447 welfare and, 5:2453–2454 See also economic growth and industrialization; free trade; market, the Capitalism and Slavery (Williams), 2:708 capital, characterization of, 2:713, 715 capital punishment. See death penalty

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Capodistrias, Ioannis, 2:1019; 4:1982 Cappellari, Bartolomeo Alberto. See Gregory XVI Capriccio espagnol (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:1999 Caprices (Paganini), 4:1698, 1699 Caprichos, Los (Goya), 2:997, 998; 4:1703, 2225 Caprivi, Leo von, 2:967; 5:2468–2469 Captains Courageous (Kipling), 3:1256 Captain’s Daughter, The (Pushkin), 4:1920 Captain Swing, 1:357–359; 3:1411; 4:1755, 1984; 5:2485 machine breaking and, 4:2264 See also Luddism Capuana, Luigi, 5:2407 carabinieri, 4:1814 Caravaggio, 2:941 carbolic acid, 3:1358, 1359; 4:1744 Carbonari, 1:359–362; 2:881; 3:1198, 1254 Byron and, 1:333 founding in Naples of, 1:360–361; 3:1193 Mazzini and, 3:1479 Revolution of 1820 and, 4:1979, 1980, 2130; 5:2513 Revolution of 1830 and, 1:361; 4:1979, 2130, 2131; 5:2513 as secret society, 1:359; 4:2130–2131; 5:2513, 2514 Carbonari della montagna, I (Verga), 5:2407 carbon dioxide, 3:1312 carburetor, 3:1161 Card Players, The (Ce´zanne), 1:398 Carducci, Giosue`, 1:362–363 Caribbean, 1:363–366 British capitalism and, 2:708–709, 710 British-French rivalry in, 3:1115 colonialism and, 1:363–366, 499; 2:708, 1035–1036; 3:1116 French colonial rights and, 2:888 French slave rebellion and, 1:364, 365, 498, 501; 2:890 Protestant missionary societies in, 3:1527 slave labor in, 1:363, 364; 2:708–709, 890, 1036; 4:1925, 1927, 2190, 2191 slave trade and, 1:13, 14 trade and, 2:709 See also Haiti Caricaturana (Daumier and Philipon), 2:621

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Caricature, La (French journal), 1:463; 2:621 caricature and cartoons Cruikshank and, 2:585–586 Daumier and, 2:620, 621–622 Dore´ and, 2:676 Nadar and, 3:1577 newspapers and, 2:620–622; 4:1823 Caritat, Marie-Jean de. See Condorcet, marquis de Carlier, Achille, 5:2423 Carlisle Bridge (Dublin), 2:691 Carlism, 1:366–368; 2:809; 4:1763–1764, 2227, 2229–2231 anticlericalism and, 1:68, 366 conservatism and, 1:83, 366–368; 2:539 Carlist Wars (1883–1836), 1:367–368 Carlo Emanuele, prince of Carignano, 1:413 Carlos, Don. See Charles III, king of Spain Carlos I, king of Portugal, 4:1841 Carlsbad Decrees (1819), 1:361, 368–370; 2:861, 959, 1043; 4:1869, 1972 Metternich and, 1:369; 3:1494; 4:1971 Carlton House (Lond), 3:1602 Carlyle, Jane Welsh, 1:370, 371 Carlyle, Janice, 3:1514 Carlyle, Thomas, 1:103, 370–372, 371; 2:941; 5:2395 Mazzini friendship with, 3:1480 Mill (John Stuart) friendship with, 3:1513 Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081, 2202, 2203 socialism and, 4:2206 Carmelite nuns, 1:384, 385 Carmen (Bizet), 3:1675, 1676 Carmen (Me´rime´e), 5:2314 Carnap, Rudolf, 3:1409 Carnarvon, Lord, 4:2223 Carnaval (ballet), 3:1642 Carnaval des revues, Le (Offenbach), 3:1661 Carnegie, Andrew, 3:1158; 4:1697; 5:2387 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 4:1697 Carnegie Institue Station for Experimental Evolution, 2:770 Carnegie steel, 3:1158, 1159 Carnival romani, Le (Berlioz), 1:225 Carnot, Lazare (father), 2:518, 664, 900; 3:1588 Carnot, Sadi (son), 4:1943, 2108

1 9 1 4

assassination of, 1:57; 2:857 heat theory of, 3:1249 Car of the German Empire Driven by Wilhelm II, The (Heine), 5:2469 Carol I, king of Romania, 4:2016–2017 Caroline, queen of Naples, 2:533 Caroline Islands, 2:967; 3:1279, 1331; 4:1720 Caroline of Brunswick, queen of Great Britain, 1:302, 489; 2:585–586, 954; 3:1284; 4:1834 Carpenter, Edward, 1:372–373; 2:745; 4:1747, 2206, 2296 Carpenter, Jules, 3:1397 carpet weaving, 3:1412 Carra`, Carlo, 1:157; 2:918 Carrel, Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Armand, 5:2310 Carriage at the Races (Degas), 2:636 Carrier, Jean-Baptiste, 2:563–565; 4:1951 Carrie`re, Euge`ne, 2:796 Carrington, Dora, 4:2259 Carrousel, arch of the (Paris), 4:1729 carrying capacity (ecology), 3:1426 cars. See automobile Carson, Edward Henry, 2:692; 3:1184, 1185; 5:2465, 2466 Carte, Richard D’Oyly, 5:2464 carte-de-visite portrait, 4:1772 Cartellier, Pierre, 4:2043 cartels, 1:487; 2:967; 3:1315 Cartesian Meditations (Husserl), 2:1100 cartoons. See caricature and cartoons Carvalho, Le´on, 3:1675 Cary, Elizabeth Cabot, 1:23 Casa Amatller (Barcelona), 1:184 Casa Batillo´ (Barcelona), 1:183; 2:936, 937 Casa Calvet (Barcelona), 2:936 Casa de les Punxes (Barcelona), 1:184 Casa Figueres (Barcelona), 2:936 Casagemas, Carles, 4:1781 Casa Iuster (Barcelona), 1:184 Casa Mila` (Barcelona), 1:183; 2:937, 937 Casati Law of 1859 (Italy), 5:2388 Casa Tomas (Barcelona), 1:184 Casa Vic¸ens (Barcelona vicinity), 2:936 Casement, Roger, 1:205 Caspian Sea, 1:395 Cassagne, Armand, 5:2400 ‘‘Cassandra’’ (Nightingale), 3:1637 Cassatt, Mary, 3:1126, 1128, 1131–1132; 4:2156 Castagnary, Jules, 3:1128 Castaigne, Andre, 1:126

2589

INDEX

Castelar y Ripoll, Emilio, 4:2230, 2231 Castel-Be´ranger (Guimard apartment house), 2:1027 Castelfidardo, Battle of (1860), 4:1797 Castello, Antonio Paterno`. See San Giuliano, marquis di caste system, 3:1208 Castiglione, Francesco Saverio. See Pius VIII Castile, 1:379; 2:950, 951 Castilhos, Julio de, 4:1844 Castle, The (Kafka), 3:1242, 1243 Castlereagh, Viscount (Robert Stewart), 1:373–374; 4:1970, 1971; 5:2321 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532, 533, 534, 565, 1080 on Holy Alliance, 2:1081 Metternich and, 3:1493, 1494 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980, 1981, 1982 slave trade abolishment and, 1:308 castrati, 3:1670 Castro, Carlos Marı´a de, 3:1413 Castruccio, Prince of Lucca (Shelley). See Valperga casualties Balkan Wars and, 1:165–166, 313 battlefield medicine and, 3:1307–1308 Boer War and, 1:258; 3:1259 cholera pandemics and, 1:436 Crimean War and, 2:629, 952 Franco-Austrian War and, 2:952 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:629 Geneva Convention and, 2:953 Jena battle and, 3:1221 Leipzig battle and, 3:1322 Majuba Hill and, 3:1423 Mukden and, 3:1557 Napoleonic campaigns and, 2:628, 644; 3:1340 Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow and, 2:902 Navarino and, 3:1612 Omdurman and, 3:1668 Paris Commune and, 2:855 World War I and, 1:101 Catalanisme (Catalanism), 1:182; 2:935, 937, 938, 949; 4:2232 Catalonia, 1:62, 180–184; 4:2231, 2232 cabaret in, 1:335 Carlism and, 1:367, 368 education in, 2:726

2590

folk culture and, 1:182 Gaudı´ and, 2:935–938 Napoleonic occupation and, 1:180; 4:1765 textile production ind, 3:1151 women’s labor syndicates in, 3:1293 See also Barcelona Catania, 4:2177 catastrophism, 2:615; 3:1402 Cate´chisme des industriels (SaintSimon), 4:2081 ‘‘Catechism of a Revolutionary, The’’ (Nechayev), 3:1613, 1614 Catena Librorum Tacendorum (Fraxi), 4:1836 Cathe´drale, La (Huysmans), 2:1104 Cather, Willa, 1:214 Catherine II (Roslin), 1:375 Catherine II (the Great), empress of Russia, 1:243, 374–377, 375, 400; 4:2047–2048, 2049, 2050 Alexander I and, 1:37 Cossacks and, 5:2370 counterrevolution and, 3:1625 Czartoryski and, 2:603 French Revolution and, 2:887; 4:1748 Peter the Great statue and, 4:2075 Poland and, 4:1806, 1807 Radishchev exiled by, 3:1552 Royal Cophenhagen china service gift to, 2:647 St. Petersburg and, 4:2075, 2077–2078, 2079 secularization and, 4:2059, 2061 son Paul I’s reversal of policies of, 4:1747, 1748 Cathleen ni Houlihan (Yeats), 5:2510 Catholic Action, 1:389; 4:2025 Catholic Association (Ireland), 1:388; 2:1003; 3:1656 Catholic Center Party (Germany), 1:238, 383 Catholic Electoral Union (Italy), 2:972 Catholic emancipation, 1:211, 381, 415; 2:1002, 1003; 3:1177 Catholic emancipation (Britain), 1:211, 373; 2:693, 1003; 3:1177, 1345; 4:1895 O’Connell and, 3:1656–1657 Peel and, 1:381; 4:1758 Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 (Britain), 1:415; 3:1345, 1656; 4:1758, 1895, 2118; 5:2457 Catholicism, 1:377–386 Acton and, 1:6 Albania and, 1:32

as anticlerical target, 1:67, 68, 70, 180–181, 381, 388–389 anti-Semitism and, 1:73, 183 aristocracy and, 1:83 Austria-Hungary and, 1:138, 144, 145, 263, 377; 2:871, 957 Belgium and, 1:200–201 Berlin migrants and, 1:217 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273, 275, 276–277 Britain and. See Catholic emancipation (Britain) British Act of Union and, 3:1177 Carlism and, 1:83 charities and, 4:1581 cholera relief and, 1:438 Comte’s analysis of, 4:1844 Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–529; 3:1586, 1588, 1598 cooperatives and, 2:556 Counter-Enlightenment and, 2:538 counterrevolution and, 2:566 culture of, 1:378–380 Directory and, 2:666 Dublin and, 2:693 Dvorˇa´k and, 2:700–701 Eastern Christian rite and, 5:2369, 2372 education and, 2:721, 723, 726, 812, 929 as eugenics opponent, 2:769 France and. See under France Freemasonry and, 2:881 French Canadians and, 1:343 French church-state separation and, 4:1929–1930, 2136–2137; 5:2432–2433 French Revolution and, 2:843, 846, 888, 894, 896 See also Civil Constitution of the Clergy Gallicanism and, 1:269; 2:529 gender dimorphism and, 2:945 German state separation from, 2:966 Germany and. See under Germany holidays and, 3:1324 Huysmans and, 2:1104 Ireland and, 1:327, 378, 379, 380, 383; 2:693, 1000, 1009, 1010; 3:1176, 1181, 1655–1657 Irish Devotional Revolution and, 3:1180–1181 Irish immigrants and, 3:1525 Italy and. See under Italy Jerusalem and, 1:244

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Kulturkampf against, 3:1277, 1278–1280, 1331; 4:1903 labor movements and, 5:2488–2489 lay organizations and, 4:2025, 2037 Leo IX and, 4:1798 Leo XIII and, 3:1330–1331 Lithuania and, 3:1366 Lorraine and, 1:51 Louis-Napoleon and, 3:1591 Lueger and, 3:1393 Lyon and, 3:1405 Madrid and, 3:1412–1413 Mahler as convert to, 3:1418 Maistre and, 3:1422 Manning as convert to, 3:1440–1441 Manzoni and, 3:1441, 1442 Marian cults and. See Marian devotion migration and, 3:1111 missions and, 3:1527, 1528 modernism and, 1:213, 214, 382–383, 385 as Netherlands minority, 1:377, 383; 3:1618, 1619 Newman’s conversion to, 3:1621 nursing orders and, 3:1648, 1649–1650 Pe´guy and, 4:1760, 1761 Peninsular War and, 4:2227 pilgrimages and, 4:1787–1790; 5:2329–2330 Poland and. See under Poland popular devotion and, 1:385, 393 Portugal and, 1:377; 4:1842 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1707 prostitution reform and, 4:1886 Protestantism contrasted with, 4:1891–1892 as Prussian minority, 1:381; 4:1901, 1972 Pugin’s conversion to, 4:1917–1918 Restoration and, 4:1968–1970 Rome and, 4:2033–2035, 2037 royalists and, 1:5 Salvation Army attacks on, 4:2083 Scotland and, 4:2118–2119 secularization and, 4:2134 Serbia and, 1:206 Slavophile view of, 4:2194, 2195 Spain and, 1:377, 379; 4:1766; 5:2488–2489 suffrage rights and, 4:2277 Switzerland and, 1:377; 4:2290, 2291 theology and, 1:384–385

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Tories and, 5:2321, 2322 Ukraine and, 5:2369–2372 ultramontanism and, 1:381–384, 388; 4:1721, 1722 Vietnam and, 3:143, 1138, 1140 voluntary associations and, 1:120 Warsaw, and, 5:2441 women’s idealization and, 1:287 See also papacy; papal infallibility; Papal State Catholicism, political, 1:377, 386–390 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:4, 5; 3:1477 anticlericalism and, 1:68–70, 388–389 anti-Semitism and, 1:73; 2:684, 689 Austria and, 3:1393–1395 Belgium and, 1:200–201, 202, 203, 204, 205 Bismarck’s Kulturkampf against, 1:238, 239; 2:966 British empancipation and, 4:1758 Central Party and, 1:393–394; 2:966 Christian Democracy and, 1:389 Christian Socialism and, 4:2208–2209 conservatism and, 1:387, 388, 389; 2:540, 541; 3:1393 Dreyfus affair and, 2:684 Dublin and, 2:691 French landmarks and, 2:737 in Germany, 5:2467, 2469, 2472–2474 Ireland and, 2:673, 1003; 3:1177, 1185 Italy and, 2:972 Kulturkampf and, 3:1278–1280 labor movements and, 3:1291 liberalism and, 1:383; 3:1344, 1346 non expedit policy and, 4:2024–2025 O’Connell and, 3:1654–1657 papacy and, 4:1718–1719 peasants and, 4:1755 Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:388; 4:1995 Roman Question and, 4:2024–2026 Third French Republic and, 2:855, 856 Catholic League (Germany), 5:2474 Catholic Party (Belgium), 1:389 Catholic Register (Irish periodical), 3:1656 Catholic University (Dublin), 2:693 Caton Woodville, R., 2:563 Cato Street conspiracy, 1:361 Cato the Elder, 3:1663

1 9 1 4

Catriona (Stevenson), 4:2256 Cattaneo, Carlo, 3:1480, 1501–1502; 4:2002 cattle. See livestock Caucasus Armenians in, 1:87, 88, 89, 91 Russia and, 2:703–704; 3:1625 Russian Islamic jadidism in, 3:1207–1208 Shamil and, 4:2164–2165 Cauer, Minna, 1:129 Cavacchioli, Enrico, 2:918 Cavaignac, Godefroy, 2:684; 3:1318; 4:2044 Cavaignac, Louis Euge`ne, 3:1590 Cavalieri, Tommaso, 4:2296 Cavalleria rusticana (Mascagni), 3:1676 ‘‘Cavalleria rusticana’’ (Verga), 5:2408 cavalry, 1:94–95, 244; 2:578, 578 Cavazza, Francesco, 3:1307 Cavazza family, 3:1307 Cavendish, Henry, 3:1312; 4:2114 Cavendish Laboratory (Cambridge), 3:1478; 5:2387 Cavignac, Jean-Baptiste, 2:851 Cavour, Count (Camillo Benso), 1:380, 390–393; 2:581, 583, 662, 866; 4:2003–2004, 2036; 5:2325, 2404, 2410 Garibaldi and, 1:391, 392; 2:932, 933; 3:1198 impact of death of, 3:1200 liberalism and, 3:1343, 1345; 4:1786–1787 Pius IX’s condemnations of, 4:1797 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 1:390, 391, 392–393; 3:1197–1198, 1481 Cavour family, 1:322, 390 Cayley, George, 1:30 Cazals, F. A., 3:1213 CCHP. See Consultative Committee on Public Health CDU. See Christlich-Demokratische Union Ce´art, Henry, 2:1104 Cecchetti, Enrico, 4:1750 Cecil, Robert. See Salisbury, Lord Ce´cile (Constant), 2:545 Celan, Paul, 2:1079 Ce´le´brite´s du juste milieu (Daumier), 2:621 celestial mechanics, 4:1804 Celestial Mechanics (Leplace), 4:1779–1780 Cellier, Le´on, 4:2085

2591

INDEX

Cello Concerto in B minor (Dvorˇa´k), 2:701 cell theory, 1:340; 3:1485 Cellularpathologie, Die (Virchow), 5:2425 celluloid, 3:1160 Celsius, Anders, 4:2285 Celtic (football club), 2:833, 834 Celticism, 3:1178, 1182–1183 Celtic Twilight, 5:2509, 2510 Cementiri de l’Est (Barcelona), 1:180 cemeteries, 2:628; 4:1731, 1858 Cenci, The (Shelley), 4:2170 Cenerentola, La (Rossini), 3:1670; 4:2038 censorship, 4:1869–1870 Armenia and, 1:89 Austria-Hungary and, 1:138, 142 Catherine II and, 1:377 Chateaubriand’s opposition to, 1:421 French fluctuating policies and, 1:450; 2:621; 3:1385; 4:1868–1870, 1899 French protests against, 1:450 German Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:368, 370; 2:959; 3:1494; 4:1869 German movement against, 1:336 Italy and, 4:1869, 2001 Joseph II’s relaxation of, 1:138 by London’s Lord Chamberlain, 3:1377 Napoleonic Empire and, 4:1869 Prussia and, 4:1869; 5:2512 Prussian relaxation of, 1:215, 216 Reign of Terror and, 4:1869 Russia and, 1:400; 2:1014, 1016; 3:1552, 1613, 1626, 1627; 4:1747, 1869, 1870, 2052, 2055 Spain and, 4:1869 Sweden and, 4:2283 See also freedom of the press Centennial International Exhibition. See Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition Center Party (Germany), 1:82, 388, 393–395 Bismarck policies against, 1:239; 2:966; 3:1278 naval buildup and, 3:1609 William II and, 5:2469 Windthorst and, 5:2472–2474 working class and, 5:2489 Central Asia, 1:395–397 imperial expansion and, 1:244, 395

2592

Russian colonial reforms in, 1:396–397 Russian expansion into, 1:39; 3:1116 Russian Islamic jadidism in, 3:1207–1208 Turkish nationalism and, 3:1690 Central Committee of Resistance to Oppression (France), 2:800 Central Market Hall (Budapest), 1:310 Central Powers, 1:146, 313 Central Railway Station (Amsterdam), 1:53 Centre Catala` (Barcelona), 1:182 Centre Party (Germany). See Center Party Centre Pompidou (Paris), 2:590 Centuria Librorum Absconditorum (Fraxi), 4:1836 ceramics art nouveau, 1:107, 111–112, 113; 2:815, 1028 See also pottery Cercle social (France), 2:994; 4:1961 Cerda`, Ildefons, 1:182 Cervantes, Miguel de, 2:621, 676, 950, 951 Cervara, La (Corot), 2:561 Cervera y Topete, Pascual, 4:2231 Ceuta, 3:1548 Ceylon, 1:436; 2:958 Ce´zanne, Paul, 1:397–399, 398 commemorative franc note for, 3:1398 cubism and, 1:156; 2:593; 4:1710 Delacroix as influence on, 2:641 impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128, 1131, 1132–1133; 4:1708 Impressionist Exhibition and, 4:1955 as Matisse influence, 3:1474 as Picasso influence, 4:1782 Pissarro and, 4:1792, 1793 postimpressionism and, 3:1530, 1536; 4:1710 Zola and, 5:2522 CGT. See General Confederation of Labor Chaadayev, Peter, 1:399–401; 2:772; 3:1170; 4:2050; 5:2459 Chabrier, Emmanuel, 3:1675 Chadwick, Edwin, 1:218, 401–402, 450 on criminality, 2:572 on hospital infections causes, 3:1358 Public Health Act and, 1:325; 4:1912 Chahut, Le (Seurat), 4:2157 Chaikovsky Circle, 3:1272

chain reaction, 4:1781 Chains of Slavery (Marat), 3:1442 chalcolite, 2:594 Chalgrin, Jean Franc¸ois Te´re`se, 4:2043 Chaliapin, Fyodor, 2:654; 3:1575 Chalier, Joseph, 2:800; 3:1403 Challenger (British ship), 3:1658 Chalmers, Thomas, 2:1006 Chamberlain, Basil Hall, 1:402 Chamberlain, Houston Stewart, 1:75, 77, 402–404; 4:2023 Wagnerian cult of, 1:403, 404 Chamberlain, Joseph, 1:355, 404–406, 450; 2:505, 1011; 3:1348 imperialism and, 1:405; 3:1118 Irish Home Rule and, 1:405; 2:1010 tariff reform and, 3:1369 Tories and, 5:2322 Webb and, 5:2444 workers’ support of, 5:2489 chamber music, 3:1568, 1569, 1670 Beethoven and, 1:197 Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999 Schubert and, 4:2106, 2107 Chamber of Deputies (France) anti-Semitic members of, 2:689 Charles X dissolution of, 1:412; 3:1388 Clemenceau and, 1:479, 480 Delacroix decorations for, 2:640 Delcasse´ in, 2:642–643 Ferry and, 2:810–811 Gambetta and, 2:928, 929 Guesde and, 2:1026 Guizot and, 2:1029; 3:1389 July Monarchy and, 3:1389 Lafayette and, 3:1300–1301 Lamartine and, 3:1303 Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318 Restoration and, 2:846 Revolution of 1830 and, 2:848 socialists and, 4:1732–1733 Third Republic and, 2:856 Chamber of Deputies (Italy), 2:581 Chamber of Labor (Milan), 3:1504 Chambers, Robert, 2:777 Chamber Symphony no. 1 (Schoenberg), 4:2102 Chambord, comte de (Henri-CharlesFerdinand-Marie Dieudonne´ d’Artois), 2:855 Champagne (wine), 5:2476, 2477, 2478 Champassak, 3:1142 Champ-de-Mars (Paris), 2:736, 890

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Champollion, Jean-Franc¸ois, 1:406–407 Champs Elysees (Paris), 2:869; 4:1735 Chance (Conrad), 2:536 Chancery Court (Britain), 1:303 Chandelle verte, La (Jarry), 3:1214 Chandler, Alfred, 2:711 Changarnier, Nicolas-Anne-Theoduke, 3:1318 ‘‘Channel Firing’’ (Hardy), 2:1045 Chansons des rues et des bois, Les (Hugo), 2:1094 Chansons made´casses (Ravel), 4:1945 Chanteuse, La (Degas), 1:336 Chants du Cre´puscule, Les (Hugo), 2:1093 Chanute, Octave, 4:2115 Chapman, Maria Weston, 3:1459 Chaptal, Jean-Antoine, 4:1790 Chapters on Socialism (J. S. Mill), 3:1514 Charbonnerie conspiracy, 1:337, 361 Charcot, Jean-Martin, 1:407–411, 409; 3:1665; 4:1908, 2255 Freud and, 2:639; 4:1904 Charcot’s joints, 1:408 Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Sime´on, 3:1474 Charenton (French prison/asylum), 4:2074 ‘‘Charge of the Light Brigade’’ (Tennyson), 1:95, 244 Charging Chasseur (Ge´ricault), 2:955 Charigot, Aline, 4:1956 charity African colonization and, 1:222 Belgian Catholic relief work and, 1:203 Catholic poverty relief as, 1:383 fundraiser poster, 4:1853 Malthusian opposition to, 3:1425–1426 nursing and, 3:1649 poor relief and, 4:1847, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1854; 5:2450, 2451 unemployed workers and, 5:2454 voluntary associations and, 1:119 See also welfare Charity Organization Society (London), 2:769; 4:1851 Charivari, Le (French journal), 2:621, 622 Charlatans modernes, Les (Marat), 3:1443 Charles I, king of England, 4:1738, 1958 Charles VIII, king of France, 4:2300

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Charles X, king of France, 1:411–413; 2:1029; 3:1442; 4:2038 abdication of, 1:270, 457; 2:566, 640; 3:1301, 1303; 4:1984; 5:2310 accession of, 2:847–848 Algeria and, 3:1389 Bonald’s hostility to, 1:269 brother Louis XVIII and, 3:1386 Chateaubriand and, 1:421 counterrevolutionary program of, 3:1387 French Revolution and, 2:843; 3:1386, 1403 grandson of, 2:855 July Ordinances (1830) and, 1:412; 3:1387, 1388 Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388 Restoration and, 4:1968–1969, 1970 Revolution of 1830 and, 1:412, 413; 3:1393; 4:1983–1984; 5:2512 Rossini opera and, 3:1671 suffrage and, 4:2277 Talleyrand and, 5:2306 Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor, 5:2354 Charles III, king of Spain, 1:336; 2:809; 4:2227, 2229 Naples and, 3:1191, 1580 Charles IV, king of Spain, 4:2225 Carlist coup and, 1:366, 367 David commission from, 2:624 French Revolutionary War and, 2:899 Goya as court painter to, 2:997, 999 Napoleon and, 2:902; 4:1763–1764 son Ferdinand VII and, 2:808, 809, 998; 4:1763 Charles V (self-proclaimed), king of Spain, 1:367, 368; 2:809 Charles XIII, king of Sweden, 1:226 Charles XIV John, king of Sweden and Norway. See Bernadotte, JeanBaptiste Charles XV, king of Sweden, 4:2283 Charles IV, king of the Two Sicilies. See Charles III, king of Spain Charles XII (Strindberg), 4:2286 Charles, archduke of Austria, 1:132, 133; 2:860, 901, 902; 5:2374 Charles Albert, king of SardiniaPiedmont, 1:413–414; 3:1195; 4:1969; 5:2409 constitution of, 1:414; 3:1196, 1197 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 4:2002, 2003 Venice and, 5:2403–2404

1 9 1 4

Charles Baudelaire (Deroy), 1:187 Charles Emmanuel II, king of Piedmont-Savoy, 4:1786 Charles Felix, king of Piedmont-Savoy, 1:413, 414; 2:539; 4:1786, 1969 Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. See Carol I, king of Romania Charles University (Prague), 3:1469; 4:1858 Charlotte, princess of Great Britain, 3:1334–1335, 1336; 5:2411 Charlotte, queen consort of Great Britain, 3:1224 Charlottenburg (Berlin suburb), 1:217, 218 Charlton, D. B., 1:228 Charnock, Harry, 2:834 Charpentier, Charlotte, 4:2123 Charpentier, Georges, 4:1955 Charterhouse of Parma, The (Stendhal), 4:2253 Charter of 1814 (France), 1:270, 457; 3:1387; 4:1969, 1971, 1984 Charter of 1826 (Portugal), 4:1839, 1839–1840 Charter of Amiens (1906), 1:60 Charter of the Nobility (Russia, 1785), 4:1747; 5:2370 Chartism, 1:271, 290, 414–419, 459; 2:1006; 3:1286; 4:1991 artisans and, 1:111; 3:1286 Carlyle and, 1:371 cooperatives and, 2:555 Corn Laws repeal campaign and, 2:559 Engels and, 2:754 influence of, 1:417–418 Ireland and, 3:1657–1658 Lovett and, 1:414, 416, 418; 3:1390–1391 Manchester and, 3:1430 O’Connor and, 1:415, 416–417; 3:1657–1658; 4:2277 Peel government and, 4:1759 platform of, 1:414; 2:1003, 1009; 3:1286, 1657 police and, 4:1814 public education and, 2:720 Punch cartoon on, 1:416 repression of, 2:1004, 1004 republicanism and, 4:1963 Smiles and, 4:2199 sources of, 1:414–415 strikes and, 1:416–417; 4:2265 suffragism and, 4:2277; 5:2487 temperance movement and, 1:36 utilitarianism and, 5:2394

2593

INDEX

in Wales, 5:2434 Wilberforce and, 5:2462 working class and, 5:2483, 2486 Chartist Cooperative Land Company, 3:1658 Chartran, Theobald, 2:931 Chartres Cathedral (Gleizes), 2:590 Chartreuse de Parme, La (Stendhal), 4:2253 Chastenet, Jacques, 2:929 Chataldzha, Battle of (1912), 1:163 Chateaubriand, Franc¸ois-Rene´, 1:269, 385, 387, 419–422; 3:1298 as Chaadayev influence, 1:400 on Christianity, 4:2133 conservatism and, 2:537 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 Romanticism and, 1:421; 4:2028, 2030, 2031 Spain and, 4:2228 Venice and, 5:2403 Chatelet, Parant du, 4:1910 Chatham, Lord. See Pitt, William (the Elder) Chaˆtiments, Les (Hugo), 2:1093 Chat Noir (Parisian cabaret), 1:335 Chaumette, Pierre-Gaspard, 2:802 Chaumont, Treaty of (1814), 1:374 Chauncey, Isaac, 5:2440 Chausson, Ernest, 3:1675 Chauvin, Jeanne, 2:696 Chavannes, Puvis de, 4:2292 Chayanov, Alexander, 4:1756 Chazal, Aline, 2:939 Chazal, Andre´, 5:2357 Chebyshev, Pafnuty, 4:2249 Chechen Wars, 4:2165 Chechnya, 4:2164 Cheddo (African soldiers), 1:15 Chekhov, Anton, 1:422–424; 2:654; 3:1436, 1495 Goncharov as influence on, 2:989 Moscow Art Theater and, 1:423; 3:1551 tuberculosis of, 5:2360 Turgenev and, 5:2365 chemical industry, 1:425, 426–427 fertilizers and, 1:25; 3:1164, 1305 French factories and, 2:792 Germany and, 2:967; 3:1159–1160 Lyon and, 3:1405 in Scotland, 4:2117 Second Industrial Revolution and, 1:351, 427; 2:709; 3:1157, 1159–1160 in Switzerland, 4:2290 water pollution and, 2:764

2594

chemical weapons, 2:953 chemistry, 1:424–427; 3:1153, 1159–1160, 1164; 4:2113–2114, 2115 Curie and, 2:594–595 electrochemistry and, 4:2114 first textbook of, 3:1312 Lavoisier and, 1:424; 3:1153, 1311–1313 Nobel and, 3:1644, 1645 nomenclature and, 3:1312 organic, 4:2109 Swedish contributions to, 4:2285 See also chemical industry Chemotactic Hypothesis (Cajal), 1:342 Che´nier, Andre´, 2:518 Che´ret, Jules, 2:550; 4:1845, 1846, 1846, 1853 Chernov, Victor M., 4:2210, 2211 Chernyshevsky, Nikolai, 3:1170, 1613, 1639, 1640; 4:2052 as populist influence, 4:1767, 1831 Cherry Orchard, The (Chekhov), 1:423; 3:1551 Cherubini, Luigi, 3:1673 Cheshire cotton industry, 3:1427, 1430 Chesterton, G. K., 4:2233 Chestnut Trees at Osny, The (Pissarro), 4:1793 Chevalier, Jacques, 3:1538 Chevalier, Michel, 1:491; 4:2202 Chevreul, Michel-Euge`ne, 4:2115, 2156 Cheyne, George, 2:546 Church of Saint-Germain l’Auxerrois (Monet), 3:1535 Chiaramonti, Barnaba Gregorio. See Pius VII Chicago school (sociology), 4:2214 Chicago World’s Fair (1893). See World’s Columbian Exposition Chicherin, Boris, 5:2459, 2460 Chiesa, Giacomo della. See Benedict XV chiffonier, 3:1431–1432 Chigi family, 4:2035 childbed fever, 4:2134–2135 Child Claimed by the Church, the State, and the Freemasons (Gir), 1:69 child custody British reform and, 3:1646 women’s rights and, 2:943, 9446–9447; 3:1595, 1646 child development, 4:1909 Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (Byron), 1:332, 333; 4:2123

Childhood (Tolstoy), 5:2318, 2319 childhood and children, 1:427–432 bourgeoisie and, 1:472; 3:1454–1455 Boy Scout/Girl Guide movements and, 1:159–160 breastfeeding and, 1:431; 2:628, 645, 659; 4:1828 changed economic value of, 4:1830 child abandonment and, 1:431; 4:1829; 5:2454–2455 crime and, 2:573, 575–576 diarrhea prevention and, 2:667 disease and, 2:667 education and, 1:427–431, 472; 2:719–728 family planning and, 4:1828 foundling homes and hospitals and, 5:2450–2451 Freudian theory and, 2:96, 905, 908; 4:1905 gendered socialization and, 3:1471 Grimm fairy tales and, 2:1023; 3:1523 improved health of, 2:645 innocence concept of, 1:428 kindergartens and, 3:1680 Montessori method and, 3:1542–1543 in peasant families, 4:1752–1753 protective reforms and, 5:2451–2452 racism and, 4:1927 smoking and, 5:2315 tuberculosis and, 5:2361 vaccination of, 3:1224, 1224 welfare initiatives and, 5:2451–2452, 2454, 2455 working-class families and, 3:1455, 1456 See also child custody; child labor; infant and child mortality; marriage and family; motherhood child labor, 1:427, 428–430, 431 Bohemia and, 1:261 bourgeois reforms and, 1:285, 288 British Industrial Revolution and, 1:350, 351, 352, 371; 2:708 British restraints on, 2:1003 Chadwick reforms and, 1:401 coal mining and, 1:371, 430 economic argument for, 2:708 factories and, 1:350, 351, 352, 371, 401, 429, 430, 430; 2:792, 793; 3:1150 family life and, 3:1455 family planning and, 4:1830

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Mill (John Stuart) on, 2:718 Norton’s writings against, 3:1645–1646 protective laws for, 2:793; 4:1830 Prussian minimum age for, 2:793, 967 textile industry and, 5:2486, 2487 Child Labor and the Industrial Revolution (Nardinelli), 2:708 Child Labor Law of 1839 and 1853 (Prussia), 2:793 Child of the Factory, The (engraving), 3:1150 Child of the Islands (Norton), 3:1646 child prostitution, 1:332 children. See childhood and children Children and Young Persons Act of 1908 (Britain), 5:2315 Children of the Factory, The (French engraving), 1:430 Children’s and Household Tales (Grimm brothers), 2:1023 Chile football (soccer) and, 2:834 monetary system of, 3:1538 papal diplomacy with, 4:1795 chimney sweep, 2:1007 China, 1:432–436; 2:547 Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294 Britain and, 1:432, 433–435; 3:1578–1579; 4:1713, 2064 See also Opium Wars Central Asia and, 1:395 clash of European culture with, 1:432–433, 434 East India Company and, 2:705; 3:1678, 1679 economic development and, 2:710 emigrants from, 3:1524 imperialism in, 1:434–435, 435; 3:1118, 1678–1680, 1679–1684 Japan and, 1:293–294, 434, 435, 435; 3:1210–1211, 1212; 4:2064 missionaries to, 3:1527–1528 Nanking Treaty and, 3:1578–1579, 1679 opium’s illegality in, 1:495; 3:1678, 1679 Palmerstons policy and, 4:1713 photographs of, 4:1772 rebellions in, 1:434, 435; 4:2171 reform of 1898 and, 1:435 Russia and, 4:2172 Russo-Japanese War and, 3:1556–1558, 1628 Shimonoseki Treaty and, 1:434; 4:2170–2171

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as tea source, 1:495; 3:1678 trade and, 3:152, 1151; 5:2336 Vietnam and, 3:139, 1137, 1138, 1142, 1144, 1145 world’s fairs and, 5:2500 See also Opium Wars china (pottery). See porcelain China Inland Mission, 3:1527–1528 Chinese Eastern Railroad, 4:2064; 5:2426, 2479 Chinese immigrants, 3:1524 Ching dynasty, 3:1138 chinoiserie, 1:432 Chirac, Jacques, 2:685; 3:1593 chiralty, 4:1743 Chlopi (Reymont), 4:1756 chlorine bleaching, 3:1152 chocolate. See coffee, tea, chocolate Choiseul, E´tienne Franc¸ois, duc de, 3:1384 Chokwe war, 1:15–16 cholera, 1:251, 436–438, 450 Algeria and, 1:43, 44, 47 Barcelona and, 1:181 Berlin and, 1:218 Britain and, 1:325, 450; 2:716; 3:1378 Dublin and, 2:690 factors in spread of, 2:669, 765, 1091 Hamburg and, 1:438, 450; 2:628, 1040 industrialism and, 2:668, 716 Madrid and, 3:1412 mortality rate from, 2:644, 667 pandemics of, 1:436–437; 2:1.438, 668–669 Paris and, 1:437, 438; 2:765; 4:1729, 1915 pathogen identification for, 3:1263 peasant victims of, 4:1751 public health measures and, 2:436, 437, 438, 628, 769; 4:1912, 1915 Rome and, 4:2035 Russia and, 4:2055 Scotland and, 4:2122 social unrest and, 2:668–669 Vienna and, 5:2418, 2420 Chopin, Fre´de´ric, 1:438–440, 439; 3:1565, 1571; 5:2430 Liszt and, 3:1360, 1361 Paganini as influence on, 4:1699 Polish national movement and, 1:440; 4:1818 Romanticism and, 4:2027

1 9 1 4

Sand and, 4:2029, 2084 tuberculosis of, 5:2360 choral music, 3:1568, 1570 choral societies, 4:1989 choreography. See ballet Choˆshuˆ family, 3:1210 Chotek, Sophie, 2:861–862 Chouans, Les (Balzac), 1:167 Christ Among the Doctors (Ingres), 3:1166 Christ Church Cathedral (Dublin), 2:693 Christenheit oder Europa, Die (Novalis), 3:1647 Christian IX, king of Denmark, 2:609, 963; 3:1626–1627 Christian anarchism, 5:2320 Christian Democrats Belgium and, 1:204 Christian Socialism and, 4:2209 France and, 1:5, 389 Leo XIII on, 3:1332 Christian Faith, The (Schleiermacher), 4:2097 Christian Frederik, king of Norway, 1:227 Christiania (Oslo), 3:1558 Christianity Austrian Jewish converts to, 3:1525 Berdyayev reinterpretation of, 1:212 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273, 275, 276–277 Cabet on communism as, 1:338 charity and, 4:1847, 1850 Chateaubriand’s writing on, 1:420 civilizing mission of, 1:462; 2:508 conservatism and, 2:539, 541 Darwinian evolution and, 2:614, 615, 618 gender dimorphism and, 2:945 Germanic racism and, 1:403 Gothic architecture and, 4:1917 Haeckel’s view of, 2:1032 Hegel and, 3:1463–1464 Herzen’s view of, 2:1064 Holy Alliance and, 2:1079–1080 Kierkegaard and, 3:1251–1253 millet system and, 3:1516–1517 missionaries and, 3:1527–1529 missions in India and, 3:1134 mysticism and, 2:1080 Nietzsche’s critique of, 3:1532, 1629–1631, 1633, 1635 poverty and, 4:1847 Young Hegelians and, 5:2513

2595

INDEX

See also Catholicism; Orthodox Church; Protestantism Christian Socialism. See Socialism, Christain Christian Socialist, The (journal), 4:2208 Christian Social Party (Austria), 3:1393, 1395 Christian Social Union, 4:2208 Christian Social Workers movement, 2:967 Christian Viennese Women’s League, 3:1395 Christ in the House of His Parents (Millais), 4:1864 Christ Leaving the Praetorium (Dore´), 2:677 Christlich-Demokratische Union (Germany), 1:189 Christliche, Gewerkvereine Deutschlands (Germany), 1:389 Christlich-Soziale Union (Germany), 1:189 Christmas Carol, A (Dickens), 2:656 Christmas Eve (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:1999 Christmas Eve: A Dialogue (Schleiermacher), 4:2097 Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem (Dore´), 2:677 Christ the Savior, Cathedral of (Moscow), 3:1551 Chrobak, Rudolf, 2:905 chromo-luminarisme, 4:2156 chronometry, 4:2240 chrysanthemum wallpaper (Morris design), 3:1550 Chrysler Building (New York City), 2:736 Chucca, Federico, 3:1414 Chulalongkorn, king of Siam, 3:1142 Chuprov, Alexander, 4:2249 church and state. See secularization; separation of church and state Church Army, 4:1886 Churchill, Winston, 3:1369, 1533, 1611; 5:2322 liberalism and, 3:1348 social reform and, 2:1012 Church Missionary Society (Anglican), 3:1527; 4:1896 Church of England. See Anglican Church Church of Humanity, 4:2213 Church of Ireland, 2:693; 4:1895 disestablishment of, 2:1008; 4:1895 Church of Saint Jaume (Barcelona), 1:180–181

2596

Church of Saint Vincent de Paul (Barcelona), 1:181 Church of Scotland, 2:1002, 1006; 4:2118 Church of the Prussian Union, 4:1901, 1972 Church of the Resurrection (St. Petersburg), 4:2079 Church Socialist, The (journal), 4:2208 Church Socialist League, 4:2208 Ciceri, Pierre-Luc, 2:605 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 1:465 Cieszkowski, August, 4:1808; 5:2512 cigarette box, art nouveau, 1:113 cigarettes, 5:2314–2315 women smokers of, 2:947 cigars, 5:2314 Cilicia, 1:92 Cinderella (J. Strauss), 4:2261 cinema, 1:440–443; 2:551, 815; 4:1772 Dore´’s influence on, 2:677–678 Lumie`re brothers and, 1:441, 442; 3:1396–1398, 1414; 4:1774, 1824 Me´lie`s and, 3:1482–1484 Milan and, 3:1504 montage and, 2:593 popular culture and, 4:1824 racism spread by, 4:1927 Cine´matographe, 1:441; 3:1396, 1397 Cines (film company), 1:442 ‘‘Cinque Maggio, Il’’ (Manzoni), 3:1441 Cinti, Decio, 2:918 Circassians, 1:92 Circerone, The (Burckhardt), 1:317 Circus (Seurat), 4:1845, 2157 Circus Parade (Seurat), 4:1845 Cirque, Le (Seurat), 4:1845, 2157 Cirque Me´drano (Paris), 4:1782 Cisalpine Republic, 3:1192, 1497, 1501, 1584, 1597; 4:2187–2188, 2189 Cisleithania. See Austria-Hungary Cispadine Republic. See Cisalpine Republic Citadel (Pest), 1:310 cities and towns, 1:443–456 administrative centers and, 1:445 Agricultural Revolution and, 1:24 Algeria and, 1:43 aristocracy and, 1:82, 83, 84, 85 artisan production in, 1:104–107 art nouveau and, 1:108 Baltic provinces and, 2:819

Bohemian Lands and, 1:260–261 bourgeois elite and, 1:471–472 bourgeoisie and, 1:283, 289, 445–450, 452; 3:1452 British population percentage in, 3:1147; 4:1912 coal heat and, 1:486 consumerism and, 1:445; 2:548–551 crime and, 1:449, 455; 2:571–572, 575 death rates and, 2:628, 644 disease epidemics and, 2:667–668, 670, 1091 education and, 2:720–723 electric power and, 2:741–742 Europe’s most populous, 2:557 fin de sie`cle pessimism and, 2:816 German population shift to, 2:960 growth of, 2:1086–1087 homosexual/lesbian subculture in, 2:1083–1084 housing and, 2:1087–1088; 3:1456 as impressionists’ subjects, 3:1535 Jews in, 1:447; 3:1231, 1232, 1234, 1525 leisure activities and, 3:1323, 1324; 4:1824 markets and, 3:1447–1449 maternity hospitals in, 5:2450 migration and, 1:201; 3:1110, 1111, 1112–1113, 1308; 4:1753 musical events and, 3:1566 New Zealand and, 3:1624 parks and, 4:1738–1741 pollution and, 2:764–766 population growth of, 1:440, 443, 446–447, 446; 2:764, 1086–1087; 4:1911–1912 poverty and, 4:1849, 1850, 1853–1854 promise and dangers of, 1:454–455 public health and, 1:450; 3:1649 railroads and, 4:1936 Rome and, 4:2035–2037 Russia and, 1:40, 452 Scotland and, 4:2117, 2119, 2119, 2121 seaside resorts and, 4:2124–2126; 5:2328 secularization and, 4:1824, 1893, 2133 Serbia and, 4:2147 sexuality and, 4:2161 sociology and, 4:2212 street life and, 1:447–449, 451

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street lights and, 1:207, 445–446; 2:548, 741, 742 subways and, 4:2271–2273 telephone service and, 5:2308 trade and, 5:2340–2342 tuberculosis incidence in, 5:2359 typhus incidence in, 2:670 urbanization and, 3:1308 working class and, 1:474; 5:2485 See also municipal government; cities by name citizen-army, French, 3:1340 citizenship, 1:456–461 active/passive distinction of, 1:458 British Catholics and, 3:1176, 1177 claims on state of, 1:459–460 colonies and, 1:501 definition of, 1:456 eligibility for, 1:458 French colonial regime and, 1:46; 2:888 French Revolution and, 2:843, 887, 888, 896; 3:1226, 1228, 1229, 1521 German vs. French view of, 1:51 Jews and, 3:1226, 1228, 1229 as male only, 3:1470 Netherlands and, 3:1620 racial and sexual barriers to, 1:458–459 republicanism and, 4:1958–1963 in Switzerland, 4:2290 women’s rights and, 2:801, 804–805 See also Catholic emancipation; Jewish emancipation; suffragism Citoyenne, La (French weekly), 1:127 City and South London Railway, 4:2272, 2273 City of London, 3:1378 ˇ iulionis, M. K., 3:1367 C Ciutadella, La (Barcelona), 1:182 civic activism. See civil society civic universities, 5:2379, 2385, 2387 Civil Code of 1804 (France), 1:287; 3:1314 Civil Code of 1900 (Germany), 3:1314, 1315 Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790 (France), 1:68, 268, 387; 2:890; 5:2305 Burke’s view of, 1:326 cartoon on, 2:889 Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527 counterrevolutionary movement and, 2:563 Directory and, 2:666

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

papacy and, 4:1717 passage and provisions of, 2:843, 888–889 civil engineers, 2:757–759 Civil Guard (Spain), 1:368 civilian militia, 2:958 Civilita` Cattolica, La (Jesuit journal), 4:2026 Civilization: Its Cause and Cure (Carpenter), 4:2206 civilization, concept of, 1:461–464 civil society and, 1:465 colonial policy and, 1:461–463, 498–500, 501; 2:504, 506–507, 509; 3:1134, 1513, 1522 degeneration and, 2:636–639 exploration and, 2:784 fate of indigenous peoples and, 2:504–505 Hellenism and, 4:1769 Herzen critique of, 2:1065 as imperialist rationale, 1:462–464; 3:1115, 1120, 1124–1125, 1174 international law and, 3:1174 manners and, 3:1440 masculinity and, 3:1472 missionaries and, 3:1527, 1528 Nietzsche’s critique of, 3:1629–1630 primitivism vs., 4:1873–1876 progress and, 2:814 race and racism debates and, 4:1923–1924 world’s fairs and, 5:2493, 2497 Civilization and Barbary (Wolfers), 1:109 Civilization and Its Discontents (Freud), 2:908, 909 Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, The (Burckhardt), 1:318, 319, 320 civil law. See law, theories of; Napoleonic Code civil liberties and rights. See rights civil service. See bureaucracy civil society, 1:464–469 Austria-Hungary and, 1:140–151 Bismarck’s innovations and, 1:459 cooperative movements and, 2:555–557 Irish Catholics and, 3:1656 liberalism and, 3:1341 Octobrists and, 3:1659 policing and, 4:1815–1816 Polish reforms and, 4:1807 Russia and, 4:2049 Swiss republicanism and, 4:1963

1 9 1 4

voluntary associations and, 1:115–122, 466, 467–468 Civil War, American, 1:66; 2:952; 3:1174 blocade of cotton exports and, 1:18; 2:732; 3:1431 British policy and, 2:1008 fire power and control and, 3:1507 German Forty-Eighter troop volunteers and, 2:962 Pius IX and, 4:1795 Civil War, Russian, 3:1242, 1518, 1519, 1660 pogroms and, 4:1803 Civil War, Spanish, 1:62, 69, 366, 368; 2:937 Civil War in France, The (Marx), 3:1468 Cixi, dowager empress of China, 1:293, 294, 435 Clair, Rene´, 4:2087 Clairmont, Claire, 4:2168 Clairmont, Mary Jane, 2:981; 4:2168 Clapham (London suburb), 1:36 Clapham Sect, 5:2463 Clare, John, 1:359 Clarke, Edward, 5:2465 Clarke, P. F., 3:1297 Clarke, William, 5:2444 Clarks of Paisley, 4:2117 Clark University, 1:341–342; 3:1239 class and social relations, 1:469–477 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:5 anarchosyndicalism and, 1:59–62 anticlericalism and, 1:70 armies and, 1:96–97, 101 artisans and, 1:104–107 Athens and, 1:125–126 as Austen subject, 1:131 Australia and, 1:135 automobiles and, 1:150 Barcelona ‘‘Tragic Week’’ and, 1:181–182 baths and spas and, 5:2327–2328 beards and, 1:191 Belgian language choice and, 1:202–203, 204, 307 Berlin and, 1:219–220 Bismarck social program and, 1:459 body and, 1:253–255 Bosnian Muslim elite and, 1:273 British liberal meritocracy and, 2:1006 British tax policy and, 2:977, 1002, 1004 bureaucracy and, 1:321–325

2597

INDEX

Chartism and, 1:414–418; 3:1286 childhood conceptions and, 1:428–429 cholera epidemics and, 1:437–438; 2:669 cities and towns and, 1:445–449, 452 civil society and, 1:465, 467, 468 classical economics and, 2:714–718 clothing and, 1:481; 2:550 consumerism and, 2:547, 548, 549, 552, 912–913 cooperatives and, 2:555, 556 Corn Laws repeal movement and, 2:558–560 counterrevolution and, 2:567 criminality and, 2:572–574; 3:1371–1372 Crystal Palace and, 2:587, 589 diet and, 2:658–659 Disraeli and, 2:672 dueling and, 2:694–696 educational disparity and, 1:431; 2:719–728 Estates-General and, 2:767–768; 3:1385 eugenics and, 2:637, 769–770 fin de sie`cle fears and, 2:816 French Algeria and, 1:46 French Revolution and, 2:840–843, 885–887, 887, 888 furniture and, 2:912–914 gap between rich and poor and, 1:291 housing and, 2:550, 1090–1092 infant and child mortality and, 3:1455 Japan and, 3:1208 jingoism and, 3:1235 leisure and, 3:1323–1326 liberalism and, 3:1349 libraries and, 3:1352 London cultural life and, 3:1378 love vs. arranged marriages and, 3:1453–1454 Manchester and, 3:1430 manners and, 3:1437–1440 Marx’s class conflict theory and, 3:1306–1307, 1465 Naples and, 3:1581, 1582 newspapers and, 4:1870–1873 Paris and, 4:1732–1733 Paris Commune and, 4:1736 poverty and, 4:1847–1854 professions and, 4:1881

2598

racism and, 1:74 revolutions and, 1:459–460 Scotland and, 4:2116–2117, 2119, 2120, 2122 seaside resorts and, 4:2125 Social Democrats and, 1:231 suffrage extension and, 1:204 Table of Ranks (Russia) and, 1:286, 323 tobacco use and, 5:2314, 2315 tourism and, 5:2325–2331 utopian socialism and, 1:338 welfare initiatives and, 5:2450–2456 See also aristocracy; bourgeoisie; landed elites; peasants; working class classical economists. See economists, classical classical period (music), 1:198 Classical Style, The (Rosen), 1:198 classicism, 1:286; 2:726–727 Canova and, 1:347–349 Goethe and, 2:985 Ingres and, 3:1166; 4:1705 Nash and, 3:1600, 1601 See also Hellenism classification systems Agassiz and, 1:23 Cuvier and, 2:598–599 Lamarck and, 3:1302 Class Struggles in France, The (Marx), 3:1466 Claude Gueux (Hugo), 2:1093 Claudel, Camille, 4:2009 Claude Monet (Isaacson), 3:1537 Claude Monet (Seitz), 3:1537 Clausen, George, 4:1948 Clausewitz, Carl von, 1:94, 477–479; 2:1033; 3:1237 definition of strategy by, 3:1505 on ‘‘fog and friction’’ of war, 2:869 mass armies and, 3:1340 Napoleon’s influence on, 3:1506 Clausius, Rudolf, 3:1160, 1249–1250 Clauzel, Bertrand, 3:1547 Clavic Congress, 4:1859 Clavie`re, Etienne, 4:1960 Clavigo (Goethe), 2:983 Clay, Henry, 5:2439 Cleave, John, 3:1390 Cleland, John, 4:1833 Clemenceau, Georges, 1:479–480; 2:696, 858; 4:1964 Boulanger and, 1:281 Caillaux and, 1:339 church-state separation and, 4:2136

Dreyfus affair and, 2:684; 3:1216 Drumont duel with, 2:689 as Ferry opponent, 2:642, 812–813 syndicalist movement and, 4:2298, 2299 Zola’s defense of Dreyfus and, 2:684 Clement XIV, pope, 1:68, 347 Cleopatra (ballet), 3:1642 Clere, Anselm, 1:182 Clermont-Tonnerre (French deputy), 3:1226 Clias, Phokion Heinrich, 4:2241 Climacus, Johannes (Kierkegaard pseud.), 3:1251 Cline, Henry, 3:1223 Clinical Medicine (Pinel), 4:1791 Clive, John, 3:1407 Clive, Robert, 2:706; 3:1133 clocks and watches, 3:1323, 1323–1324; 4:2290 cloisonnism (painting style), 2:939 Cloots, ‘‘Anacharsis,’’ 4:2187 Clothed Maja, The (Goya), 2:997 clothing, dress, and fashion, 1:480–485 art nouveau and, 1:109, 112 bathing costumes and, 4:2124; 5:2327 beards and, 1:190–191 consumerism and, 2:548, 549–550 cotton industry and, 4:2193 countercultural modes of, 1:484–485 couture houses and, 1:481–483; 2:548 gender and, 2:943–944; 4:2158 London police uniform and, 4:1814, 1815 manufacture of, 2:792 in Mehadia region, 1:139 New Woman and, 2:947 peasants and, 4:1751 sewing machine and, 1:483; 4:2158–2160 textile trade and, 3:1152 ‘‘Cloud, The’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 Cloudsley (Godwin), 2:982 Clough, Anne, 1:331 clovers, 1:26 cloves, 1:16 Club des Haschischins (Paris), 2:687 Club du Faubourg, 4:1762 Club Messiac, 2:888 Club of the Cordeliers, 2:890 clubs. See associations, voluntary CMS. See Church Missionary Society CNT. See National Confederation of Labor

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1 9 1 4

INDEX

coal mining, 1:485–488 aristocracy and, 1:85 Belgium and, 1:201, 203, 361, 485, 486, 487, 488 Bohemian Lands and, 1:260 Britain and, 1:485, 486, 487, 493; 3:1427; 4:1931, 2113; 5:2488 child labor and, 1:371, 430 environment and, 2:764 France and, 1:485, 486, 487, 488; 4:1936 Germany and, 1:352, 485, 486–487, 488; 2:967 Industrial Revolution and, 3:1150 production by country, 1:487 railway transport of, 4:1931, 1936; 5:2349–2350 Scotland and, 4:2117 steam power and, 1:485, 493 trade flow and, 5:2336 Wales and, 5:2434, 2435, 2436, 2436 women workers and, 1:488; 5:2488 workday/workweek and, 4:1824 coal pollution, 2:764 Coats and Clark, 4:2117 Cobbett, William, 1:489–490 Cobden, Richard, 1:490–491, 491; 2:1007 Corn Laws repeal movement and, 1:490; 2:558, 559, 707, 1005; 3:1325, 1345 laissez-faire and, 2:707, 709 peace activism and, 4:1695 Cobden-Chevalier Treaty (1860), 1:491, 491–492; 2:512; 3:1537 Coca-Cola, 2:688 cocaine, 2:687–688 Cocarde, La (French right-wing newspaper), 1:185 Cochin China, 3:142, 1141, 1143 Cochrane, Lord, 3:1612 Cockburn, George, 5:2440 Cockerill, Charles, 1:492, 493 Cockerill, John, 1:492–494; 2:791 Cockerill, William, 1:492–493; 2:791 Cockerill works (Belgium), 2:791 cocoa, 1:22 Cocteau, Jean, 1:184, 192; 4:2087 Code de l’Indige´nt (France), 1:46 Code des femmes, Le (Richer), 4:1998 Code Napole´on. See Napoleonic Code Code Noir of 1685 (France), reintroduction of (1802), 2:897 Codex Theodosianus (Mommsen), 3:1533 Codrington, Edward, 3:1612

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Cody, W. F. (Buffalo Bill), 5:2500 coefficients of correlation, 2:927 coffee, tea, chocolate, 1:364, 494–496 Caribbean trade and, 2:709 chocolate history and, 1:496 coffee history and, 1:494, 495 English afternoon tea and, 3:1439 markets and, 3:1448 rising consumption of, 2:547, 549, 658, 710 slavery and, 4:2192, 2193 tea history and, 1:495 trade and, 3:1151, 1678, 1679; 5:2336 coffeehouses (Vienna), 2:1067 Cohl, E´mile, 3:1484 Cohn, Ferdinand Julius, 3:1262 Cohnheim, Julius Friedrich, 3:1262, 1263 Coinage Law of 1821 (Prussia), 1:171 Coit, Pierre Auguste, 4:1710 coke. See coal mining Coketown (Dickens description), 1:443, 455 Colas Breugnon (Rolland), 4:2015 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 1:481 Colbran, Isabella, 4:2038 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (Long Island, New York), 2:653, 770 Cold War, 1:320; 3:1146 Cole, G. D. H., 5:2395 Cole, Henry, 5:2494 Cole, William A., 3:1147 Colenso, Battle of (1899), 3:1507 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 1:496–497 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 as Mill (John Stuart) influence, 3:1513; 5:2394 opium addiction of, 1:496; 2:686 Pater essay on, 4:1746 Romanticism and, 1:496–497; 2:543; 4:2027, 2029, 2031 Wordsworth and, 5:2482 ‘‘Coleridge’s Writings’’ (Pater), 4:1746 Colet, Louise, 2:828 Colette, 4:1945 Colette Baudoche (Barre´s), 1:185 collage, 1:156; 2:591, 592, 593; 4:1710, 1784 Collected Poems (Doyle), 2:681 Collected Works (J. S. Mill), 3:1514 Collection of Architectural Designs (Schinkel), 4:2093 collective bargaining, 4:2266 British bans on, 2:510–511 collective unconscious, 3:1239

1 9 1 4

Colle`ge de France, 1:227–228, 491; 4:1953; 5:2379, 2381 Egyptology chair of, 1:407 Laennec and, 3:1298 Michelet and, 3:1499 Mickiewicz and, 3:1500 Tarde and, 2:574 College Green (Dublin), 2:692 College Louis-le-Grand, 4:2073 Collegio Romano, 4:2024 Colline inspire´e, La (Barre´s), 1:185 Collini, Stefan, 3:1513 Collins, John, 3:1391 Collins, Wilkie, 2:657 Collinson, Charles, 4:1863, 1864 Collot d’Herbois, Jean-Marie, 2:800, 894 collotype, 4:1773 Cologne, 2:741; 4:1740 Cologne Communist Trial, The (Marx), 3:1466 Cologne Workers’ Association, 1:66 Colombia, 4:1720 Colo`nia Gu ¨ ell (Barcelona), 2:936 Colonial and Indian Exhibition (Crystal Palace, 1886), 2:589 colonialism, 1:497–502 in Algeria, 1:18, 43–47, 498–499 armies and, 1:99 Bismarck and, 1:240; 2:967 British gentry and, 1:83 British warfare and, 3:1258–1259 Burke on, 1:327 Caillaux and, 1:339 capitalist nationalism and, 1:355–356 in Central Asia, 1:395–397 cholera epidemics and, 1:436 as civilizing mission, 1:461–463, 498–500, 501; 2:504, 506–507, 509; 3:1134, 1511, 1513, 1522 East India Company and, 2:705–706 Entente Cordiale and, 2:643 foreign investment and, 1:353–354 French national identity and, 3:1522 in Indochina, 3:1142–1145 limits and unintended consequences of, 1:500–501 Malthusian theory and, 3:1427 missions and, 3:1528–1529 in Morocco and, 3:1547–1549 pornography and, 4:1835 Russian style of, 3:1207 in Sudan, 3:1668–1669 See also colonies; imperialism

2599

INDEX

Colonials, The (lithograph), 1:500 colonies, 2:503–510; 3:1114–1115 in Africa, 1:7–8, 17–22, 18, 19–22, 37, 205, 220–224, 240, 499; 2:508, 527, 582, 583, 663, 967; 3:115, 116, 1115–1116, 1125, 1258–1259, 1668–1669; 4:2218 in 1880, 3:1117 in 1914, 3:1119 African racial divisions and, 1:499–500 in Australia, 1:133–137, 351; 2:504–505, 509; 3:1115 British industrial financing by, 2:708, 710 in British North America, 1:343; 2:505, 999, 1000, 1005–1006 British trade and, 1:405, 498; 2:505, 505 in Canada, 1:342–347 in Caribbean, 1:363–366, 499; 2:708, 888, 1035–1036; 3:1115, 1116 in Central Asa, 1:397 convict, 1:134; 2:505, 779–781 definition of, 2:503, 509–510 economic value of, 2:505 emigration to, 2:747, 747 European rivalry for, 2:663 exploitation of, 2:506 forced labor and, 2:506 freedom from gender norms in, 2:948 French rights and, 2:888 as German economic drain, 2:967 growth of commodity trade with Britain, 2:505 in Haiti, 2:1035–1037 imperialism vs., 2:504, 506, 663; 3:1115 indirect rule policy for, 2:508 in Indochina, 3:1142–1145 in Indonesia, 3:1617 international law and, 3:1174 Leopold II as only personal owner of, 3:1336–1337 in Libya, 3:1202 marriage and family life in, 3:1457 migrants to Europe from, 3:1524–1525 missions in, 3:1527 ‘‘native policy’’ in, 2:507–509 in New Zealand, 3:1622 of nonsettlement, 2:506–507 penal exile to, 1:134; 2:505, 779–781

2600

prestige from, 3:1122 problems in ruling, 1:500–501 prostitution in, 4:1886 of settlement, 2:503–506; 3:1115 slave labor in, 1:308, 364, 498; 2:506; 4:1923, 1925, 2190–2191, 2190–2192 slavery abolishment in, 1:365, 458 slave trade and, 1:13, 303, 308 in South Africa, 4:2218–2224 Spain’s loss of, 1:181; 2:949 tourism and, 5:2330 trade and, 3:1151 world’s fairs and, 2:815 See also Boer War; colonialism; imperialism; India color-music, 4:1955 color photography, 3:1397–1398, 1578; 4:1774 color printing, 4:1845 color theory Goethe study of, 2:986 Mach bands and, 3:1408 Maxwell and, 3:1477, 1478 Colt Company, 5:2505 Colt revolver, 2:588 Columbian Exposition (1893). See World’s Columbian Exposition Columbus, Christopher Barcelona statue of, 1:182 Caribbean and, 1:363 European diet and, 2:658 Hispaniola colony of, 2:1035 Combe, Andrew, 4:1775 Combe, George, 4:1775 Combe, Thomas, 4:1864 Combes, E´mile, 2:858, 881; 3:1217; 4:2137; 5:2433 Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 (Britain), 2:510–511 combustion, 3:1312 Come´die-Franc¸aise (Paris), 1:229; 2:696 Gouges and, 2:994 Offenbach and, 3:1660 Come´die humaine, La (Balzac), 1:167, 168–169 comic opera. See ope´ra comique Comintern, 1:62 Comite´ d’Action Franc¸aise. See Action Franc¸aise Comite´ de Mendicite´, 3:1664 Comite´ Franc¸ais de la Liberation, 1:128 Commedia (Dante), 1:246 Commelynck, Fernand, 3:1496 Commentaries on the Laws of England (Blackstone), 1:210

commerce. See trade and economic growth commercial art, 1:192 commercial policy, 2:512–518 joint-stock banking and, 1:172–173 See also free trade; protectionism Commission des Monuments Historiques (France), 5:2422 Commission for the Protection of the Natives (Belgium), 3:1337 Commission of Women’s National Workshops (France), 3:1288 Commission on Intellectual Cooperation, 2:595 Committee (Ring) of Seven, 4:1938 Committee for Popular Rescue (Lyon), 3:1403 Committee of Muslim Socialists, 3:1207, 1208 Committee of Public Safety, 1:457; 2:518–519, 845, 900 authoritarianism of, 2:665, 892 Danton and, 2:518, 610, 611, 612 Directory and, 2:845 emergency powers of, 3:1205–1206 federalist revolt and, 2:800 Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206 Reign of Terror and, 2:844; 4:1951, 1952 republicanism and, 4:1962 Robespierre and, 4:2006, 2007 Sieye`s and, 4:2180 Committee of the Year Two (Huet), 2:845 Committee of Three Hundred Signatories (France), 2:738 Committee of Union and Progress. See Young Turks Committee of Young Turkey at Constantinople, 5:2515 common law, 1:303; 2:726; 3:1316 common market, 3:1539 Commons, John Rogers, 2:707 Common Sense (Paine), 4:1700, 2187 Communal Council (Brussels), 1:307 Commune (1871). See Paris Commune communes (Russia), 4:2052, 2151, 2153, 2195, 2196, 2257; 5:2460 communications. See press and newspapers; telegraph; telephones; transportation and communications Communion, 1:378, 379, 379 Communio´n Tradicionalista (Spain), 1:368 communism, 2:519–522 Bernstein on, 4:2205 Bolsheviks and, 1:264–267

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Cabet’s vision of, 1:338 Engels and, 2:754; 3:1465–1466 Galiyev and, 3:1208 intelligentsia and, 3:1172 Lenin and, 4:2205 Marx and, 3:1464, 1465; 4:2203, 2204 Pius IX’s condemnation of, 4:1795, 1798 secret societies and, 4:2131 Sorel and, 4:2217, 2218 Third International and, 4:2128, 2129; 5:2364 Vietnam and, 3:1144–1145 See also Marxism; Soviet Union Communist Information Bureau, 4:2128 Communist League, 2:521, 755; 3:1465; 4:2204 Communist Manifesto, The (Marx and Engels), 1:104; 2:755; 3:1462; 4:1946, 2081 overview of, 3:1465–1466 Communist Party, British, 4:1715 Communist Party, French, 2:1025; 3:1144; 4:1732, 1762 Communist Party, German, 2:1071; 3:1356 Communist Party, Indochina, 3:1145 Communist Party, Soviet, 3:1496; 4:2212 communitarian ventures, 4:2200–2201; 5:2397 Community and Society (To ¨ nnies), 2:698–699 community feeling (A. Adler concept), 1:9 Community of St. Johns House, 3:1649 Community of the Special, 2:1086 Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez, 2:732 Compagnon du tour de France, Le (Sand), 4:2083, 2084 compagnonnages, 5:2486, 2487 Companion of the Tour of France, The (Sand), 4:2083, 2084 Company of Russian Dramatic Artists, 3:1496 comparative advantage, principle of, 2:515; 4:1887 Complete Collection of the Laws of the Russian Empire (1830), 4:2236 Complete Suffrage Union (Britain), 1:416; 3:1391 Complete Works (Burckhardt), 1:318 Composition 4 (Kandinsky), 3:1246

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

‘‘Compositions’’ (Kandinsky series), 3:1245 Composition VII (Kandinsky), 3:1245 compounds, organic, 1:425–426 Compromise of 1867 (AustriaHungary), 1:262; 2:627, 864 Compte ge´ne´rale de l’administraiton de la justice criminelle (annual), 2:570 Comptes fantastiques d’Haussmann, Les (Ferry), 2:810, 1050 Comptoir d’Escompte, 1:174, 175, 176 Compton, Spencer. See Hartington, Lord compulsory education. See under education Computable General Equilibrium, 2:514 Comte, Auguste, 2:522–524, 573, 698; 4:2234; 5:2445, 2515 Bernard contrasted with, 1:228 feminism and, 2:946 on Gall’s theory, 2:926 law of three states of, 4:1843 Martineau’s translation/abridgement of, 3:1459 Mill (John Stuart) correspondence with, 3:1513, 1514; 4:1844 positivism and, 2:522, 523, 743; 3:1132; 4:1811, 1843–1844, 2133, 2202, 2213, 2214, 2238 Renan and, 4:1953 Saint-Simon and, 2:522–523; 4:2080–2081, 2202 sociology and, 4:2212, 2213 Webb and, 5:2444 Comte Ory, Le (Rossini), 4:2038 Comtesse de Rudolstadt, La (Sand), 4:2083 concentration camps, 1:257; 4:1949 Concept of Anxiety, The (Kierkegaard), 3:1251 conceptualism (legal theory), 3:1315 Concerning the Importance and Conditions of an Alliance between Germany and England (List), 3:1357 Concertgebouw (Amsterdam), 1:54 Concert of Europe, 2:524–527; 4:1971 alliance systems replacing, 1:47–50; 2:526–527, 663, 705 conservatism and, 2:540 decline of, 2:662–663 diplomatic solutions and, 2:661–662, 664, 1002; 3:1493 Metternich and, 3:1493 as negotiation system, 2:565 pre–World War I revival of, 2:527

1 9 1 4

Concerto in D Major for the Left Hand (Ravel), 4:1945 concerts at Crystal Palace, 2:589 performance conventions of, 3:1567 solo performances and, 3:1359–1360; 4:1698, 1699 subscription series and, 3:1565, 1566 Conciliation Act of 1896 (Britain), 3:1291 ‘‘Conciliation with the Colonies’’ (Burke), 1:327 Concluding Unscientific Postscripts to the Philosophical Fragments (Kierkegaard), 3:1251–1252 Concordat of 1516, 4:2136 Concordat of 1801, 1:69; 2:527–529, 565, 846; 3:1586, 1588, 1598; 4:1718, 1786, 2030 church-state separation and, 4:2136–2137 Concordat of 1855, 2:863 Concordat of 1929, 3:1199 Concordat of Fontainebleau of January 1813, 2:529 Conde´, Louis-Antoine-Henri. See Enghien, Duc d’ Conde´, prince de, 1:469; 3:1388 Conde´, princess de, 4:2073 conditioned reflexes, 4:1748–1749 Condition of the Working Class in England, The (Engels), 2:754; 3:1430; 4:2203 Condo, Josiah, 3:1210 condoms, 2:947; 4:1827, 1829 Condorcet, marquis de (Marie-Jean de Caritat), 2:522, 801, 802; 3:1425; 4:2279 Girondists and, 2:973, 974; 4:1700 Gouges and, 2:994, 995 Paine and, 4:1700 republicanism and, 4:1960, 1961–1962, 1963 Restoration and, 4:1973 conduct. See manners and formality Confederacio´n Nacional del Trabajo, 1:59; 4:2300 Confe´deration Ge´ne´rale du Travail. See General Confederation of Labor Confederation of Targowica, 4:1807 Confederation of the Bar (Poland), 4:1806 Confederation of the Rhine, 2:860, 901, 957; 3:1597, 1599 Confederation of Trade Unions (Sweden), 4:2284 Confession (Tolstoy), 5:2319

2601

INDEX

Confessions (Rousseau), 4:2026; 5:2318 Confession of a Child of the Century (Confession d’un enfant du sie´cle ; Musset), 4:2084 Confessions of an Economic Heretic (Hobson), 2:1076 Confessions of an English Opium-Eater (De Quincey), 2:686 Baudelaire translation, 1:188; 2:687 Confucianism, 3:1137, 1138, 1139, 1140, 1144, 1208 Congo, Belgian. See Congo Free State Congo, French. See French Congo Congo Free State abuses in, 1:500; 2:507, 509; 3:1125, 1136–1137 as Belgian colony, 1:21, 205; 2:509; 3:1337 Berlin Conference on, 1:220–222, 308–309; 3:1118, 1173 Conrad’s experiences in, 2:535; 3:1336 Leopold II and, 1:20–21, 109, 205, 222, 223, 308–309; 2:509, 783; 3:1116, 1118, 1124, 1136–1137 rubber production in, 3:1336 slave trade and, 1:13, 14, 308 Stanley and, 2:783; 3:1336 trade commodities of, 1:15, 16–17, 109; 3:1336–1337 Congo River, 1:13, 15–16, 20, 205, 220; 3:1336 French-British spheres of influence and, 2:795 internationalized navigation of, 3:1173 Congregationalists, 2:1002; 3:1527 Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, 4:1798 Congre´s, Le (cartoon), 2:534 Congre`s Franc¸ais et International du Droit des Femmes (1889), 4:1998 Congre`s International du Droit des Femmes (1878), 4:1998 Congress Kingdom of Poland, 1:38; 4:1808, 1810 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), 1:308; 2:861, 1081; 5:2362 Congress of Anatomists (Berlin), 1:340 Congress of Berlin (1878), 1:217; 2:529–531; 3:1173 Adrianople and, 1:12 Austria-Hungary and, 1:146, 240; 2:529, 530, 705 Bulgarian borders and, 1:312; 2:530; 3:1689

2602

Disraeli and, 2:1009 Eastern Question and, 2:703–704 France and, 2:530, 812; 5:2363 German Confederation founding by, 1:262 Poland and, 5:2441 relative peace following, 2:662 results of, 2:704; 3:1689 Romania and, 4:2017 Russian expansionism and, 1:39, 276; 2:530 San Stefano Treaty revision and, 3:1541, 1689; 4:2069–2070, 2086 Serbia and, 4:2144, 2145 Thessaly and, 2:530, 1022 Congress of Bourges (1904), 1:61 Congress of Criminal Anthropology (Rome, 1885), 3:1371 Congress of Eastern Peoples (Baku), 3:1208 Congress of German Economists, 2:962 Congress of German Jurists, 2:1086; 5:2376 Congress of Laibach (1821), 2:861, 1081; 3:1494 Congress of Nancy (1865), 2:810 Congress of Nationalities (Romania), 4:2019 Congress of Paris (1856), 3:1173; 5:2410 Congress of Prague (1813), 2:1098 Congress of Rastatt (1797), 3:1597 Congress of Troppau (1820), 1:361; 2:531–532, 861, 1080–1081; 4:1971, 1981 Metternich and, 2:531–532; 3:1494 Congress of Verona (1822), 2:861; 3:1173; 4:2228 Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), 2:525, 532–535, 661–662, 1002; 5:2417–2418 Alexander I and, 1:38; 2:603, 1080 Austria and, 2:532–534, 565, 861, 958 balance of power restoration and, 1:374, 457 Castlereagh and, 1:374 Chateaubriand and, 1:420 counterrevolution and, 2:565–566 Czartoryski and, 2:603 diplomatic solution of, 2:661–662 Francis I and, 2:861 Hamburg’s sovereignty and, 2:1038 Holy Alliance and, 2:534, 1080; 3:1685

international law and, 3:1173, 1174 Italy and, 2:533; 3:1193; 4:2001 Lithuania and, 3:1365 Louis XVIII and, 3:1387 Mediterranean spheres of influence and, 3:1482 Metternich and, 2:532, 533, 534, 565, 861, 1080–1081; 3:1493 monarchical effects of, 1:457 Napoleon’s return and, 2:903; 3:1588 Papal State and, 4:1724 Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1785 Poland and, 2:532–533; 4:1808, 1817–1818 Prussia and, 4:1899, 1900, 1901 Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374; 2:662 Restoration and, 3:1387; 4:1967, 1972, 1973 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1986 Rome and, 4:2033 Stein and, 4:2252 Swiss neutrality and, 4:2289 Talleyrand and, 5:2306 territorial rearrangements by, 2:861, 958 warfare prevention approach of, 2:661–662, 1033 Wellington and, 5:2457 See also Concert of Europe Congress System, 1:374 Coningsby (Disraeli), 2:672; 3:1430 Connolly, James, 1:61 Conrad, Jessie, 2:535 Conrad, Joseph, 2:535–536, 638, 948; 3:1336 primitivism and, 4:1875 Stevenson compared with, 4:2256 Wells and, 5:2458 Conroy, George, 3:1330 Consalvi, Ercole, 3:1193; 4:1718, 1724 conscription, 1:94, 97–98, 100; 2:804 France and, 3:1218, 1506, 1522 as French pre–World War I issue, 2:859 French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and, 2:892, 895, 900; 3:1192, 1193, 1339–1340, 1506, 1598, 1599 military tactics and, 3:1505, 1506 peasant revolts against, 4:1754 of Poles, 4:1809 in Russian Empire, 2:822, 1014, 1017; 3:1281 universal, 4:1960, 2052

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

consequentialism, 5:2394 Conservateur, Le (French weekly), 2:537 conservatism, 2:536–543 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:4–6; 2:542; 3:1476 Alexander I and, 2:531, 603 Alexander III and, 1:40, 41, 89; 3:1627 aristocracy and, 1:81, 82, 83; 2:537, 540, 958 Austria-Hungary and, 1:139, 145; 2:861 Bagehot and, 1:161 Barre`s and, 1:184–185 Bismarck and, 1:234, 237, 238–239, 241; 2:540–540, 966; 4:1903 Bonald and, 1:268–269; 2:537 Boulangism and, 1:280–283; 2:540–542 Burke and, 1:326, 327–328; 2:538–539, 603 Carlism and, 1:83, 366–368; 2:539 Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:369–370; 2:959; 4:1901 Catholic political parties and, 1:387, 388, 389; 2:540, 541; 3:1393 Chateaubriand and, 1:421; 2:537 Coleridge and, 1:496, 497 counterrevolutionaries and, 1:268–269; 2:563–568, 958 Davies and, 2:625 differing meanings of, 2:536–537 Dostoyevsky and, 2:678 Dreyfus affair and, 1:284; 2:542, 683, 857, 858 Endecja and, 2:752–753 Frederick William IV and, 2:877 German artisan guilds and, 1:104 Holy Alliance and, 2:565, 1079–1081 ideology of, 2:958 imperialism and, 3:1120 Italy and, 3:1201; 4:2002 lower middle-class and, 1:204 Maistre and, 4:1959 Malthus and, 3:1425–1426 Maurras and, 2:540, 542; 3:1476 Napoleon III and, 2:540, 541, 852, 853; 3:1591, 1592, 1593 nationalism and, 2:566; 3:1605 New Right and, 2:540–542, 858 Nicholas II and, 3:1627, 1628, 1660 Nietzsche’s philosophy and, 3:1629 nineteenth-century programs of, 2:540

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

origins of, 2:537–539 papacy and, 4:1718, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1724 Parnell’s program and, 2:1009 peasants and, 4:1756 Pius IX and, 1:388; 3:1278; 4:1719–1720, 1795–1796, 1798 radical right vs., 2:542 Ranke and, 4:1940 shopkeepers and, 1:106 Smiles and, 4:2199 Third French Republic and, 2:856–857, 858 Tories and, 2:537, 538; 5:2320–2323 ultramontane Catholicism and, 1:381, 382–383, 388 village communities and, 4:1756 William II and, 2:874, 967 See also counterrevolution Conservative Judaism, 3:1227 Conservative Party (Britain). See Tories Conservative Party (Germany), 3:1233, 1609 Conservative Party (Prussia), 1:394 Conservatoire National de Musique et de De´clamation (Paris), 3:1565 Conservatory of Music (St. Petersburg), 2:654 Considerant, Victor, 2:651, 838; 4:2202, 2279 Fourierism and, 5:2397 Considerations on Lord Grenville’s and Mr Pitt’s Bills Concerning Treasonable and Seditious Practices, and Unlawful Assemblies (Godwin), 2:981 ‘‘Considerations on Representative Government’’ (J. S. Mill), 3:1513 Conside´rations sur la France (Maistre), 3:1421, 1422 Conspiracy in Russia: A Nihilist Meeting Surprised (illustration), 3:1639 Conspiracy of Equals (1796), 1:360; 2:665; 4:2129–2130 Constable, Archibald, 4:2123 Constable, John, 1:177; 2:543–545, 544 as Menzel influence, 3:1489 Romanticism and, 2:543–544; 4:1703, 1704–1705, 2029 on Turner, 5:2368 constabularies. See police and policing Constant, Benjamin, 1:227, 270; 2:537, 545–546; 3:1343, 1588; 4:1962 Sismondi and, 4:2185 Stae¨l and, 4:2247

1 9 1 4

Constantine, prince of Russia, 3:1625; 4:1984, 2050 Constantinople. See Istanbul Constantinople, Treaty of (1913), 1:165, 313 Constituent Assembly (France), 1:247; 2:563 counterrevolutionists and, 2:563 Louis-Napoleon’s election to, 1:271 Proudhon and, 4:1899 trial of Louis XVI by, 3:1386 women’s suffrage and, 1:128 Constitutional Charter of 1814 (France), 2:1029; 3:1305; 4:1870 Constitutional Democrats (Russia). See Kadets constitutionalism Alexander I and, 1:38 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:52 Austria-Hungary and, 1:142, 144, 145; 2:864; 5:2510 Bagehot essay on, 1:160–161 Bavaria and, 1:457; 2:959 Belgium and, 1:200, 383; 3:1334, 1335 Britain and, 1:326; 3:1345 British reform advocates and, 2:1001 Bulgaria and, 1:312 Burke on, 1:326 conservatives’ opposition to, 2:958 Crispi and, 2:581 Denmark and, 2:648 Directory and, 2:665 Fabians and, 2:787 France and, 1:270, 456, 458; 2:768, 810, 856, 929; 4:1700, 1701 Germany and, 1:457, 459; 2:567, 861, 875, 959, 962; 4:1903 Greece and, 2:1020–1021 Hamburg and, 2:1038, 1039–1040 Hungary and, 2:627 Italy and, 1:414; 3:1197, 1254, 1255 Japan and, 3:1210 Kadets and, 3:1241 liberalism and, 2:958; 3:1341 Netherlands and, 3:1617 Ottomans and, 3:1188, 1688–1690; 5:2514–2515 Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786 Pius IX and, 4:1796, 1797 Poland and, 4:1807, 1808 Portugal and, 4:1839–1840 Prussia and, 2:1043; 4:1902 Revolutions of 1820 and, 1:361

2603

INDEX

revolutions of 1848 and, 1:142; 4:1988, 1995 Russia and, 3:1293; 4:2049–2050, 2055, 2056–2057, 2079, 2270 Saint-Simon and, 4:2081 Spain and, 1:366–367, 367 Sweden and, 1:227; 4:2283 Switzerland and, 4:2290, 2291 Turkey and, 1:1 utilitarianism and, 1:210 William I and, 5:2467 See also specific constitutions by name Constitutionnel, Le (French newspaper), 1:70; 5:2310 Constitution of 1791 (France), 1:458; 2:843, 890; 4:2180, 2277 women’s exclusion from, 2:995 Constitution of 1791 (Poland), 4:1807 Constitution of 1793 (France), 2:894; 4:1959, 2277 Constitution of 1795 (France), 2:894; 4:1701, 2181, 2277 Constitution of 1812 (Spain). See Cortes of Ca´diz Constitution of 1848 (France), 4:2277–2278 Constitution of 1848 (Switzerland), 4:2290, 2291 Constitution of 1849 (Austria), 2:863 Constitution of 1849 (Germany), 2:871 Constitution of 1866 (Romania), 4:2017 Constitution of 1869 (Spain), 4:2278 Constitution of 1870 (France), 3:1592 Constitution of 1874 (Switzerland), 4:2291 Constitution of 1876 (Spain), 4:2232 Constitution of Man, The (G. Combe), 4:1775 Constitution of the United States, 4:2290 constructivism, 1:398; 2:593; 3:1496 Consuelo (Sand), 4:2083 Consulate (France), 2:845–846; 3:1340, 1585–1586 Consultative Committee on Public Health (France), 4:1914–1915 consumerism, 2:545–553 Berlin poster, 2:969 bourgeoisie and, 1:288–290, 352, 445; 2:547, 549, 551, 552; 3:1453 British products and, 3:1153–1154 cities and, 1:445; 2:548–551 cooperatives and, 1:473; 2:555–557 Corn Laws and, 2:558 credit sales and, 2:550

2604

food and, 2:658, 659 furniture and, 2:912–913 London and, 2:548; 3:1378 luxury goods and, 3:1151–1152 markets and, 3:1447–1449 newspaper advertising and, 4:1867–1868 pornography and, 4:1834–1835, 1836 posters and, 4:1845, 1846, 1846 protectionism and, 4:1889 sewing machine and, 4:2159, 2160 sociology and, 2:552; 4:2235 white-collar women workers and, 1:352 working class and, 2:549–550, 555 world’s fairs and, 5:2505 consumption (disease). See tuberculosis consumption (goods). See consumerism Contadinelle (Palizzi), 4:1757 Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869 (Britain), 1:332; 2:804; 4:1815, 1884, 1886, 1896, 2162, 2301–2302 Contarini Fleming (Disraeli), 2:672 Contemplations, Les (Hugo), 2:1093–1094, 1095 Contemporary, The (Pushkin), 4:1920 Contemporary Club (Dublin), 5:2509 ‘‘Contemporary Tasks of Russian Life’’ (Chicherin), 5:2460 Contes Barbares (Gauguin), 4:1874 Contes d’Hoffmann, Les (Offenbach), 3:1661 Continental law, 3:1593 Continental System, 2:553–555, 846, 902; 3:1586–1587 British blockade and, 1:272, 303; 2:512, 553–554, 659, 846, 902, 5121; 3:1586, 1587, 1588, 1599 Hamburg and, 2:1038 Italy and, 3:1193 Peninsular War and, 4:1763, 1765, 1767 Russia and, 1:272; 3:1319, 1588 contraceptives, 2:805, 947; 3:1425; 4:1829–1830, 2161–2162, 2163 gender norms and, 2:947 obscenity legislation and, 4:1836 Roussels advocacy of, 4:2041, 2042 types of, 4:1827, 1829 contract law, 3:1596 Contrasts (Pugin), 4:1917 Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations (Mach), 3:1409

Contributions to the Natural History of the United States (Agassiz), 1:23 Contributions to the Theory of Sensory Perception (Wundt), 5:2507 Contribution to the Critique of Hegels Philosophy of Right: Introduction (Marx), 3:1465 Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, A (Marx), 3:1462, 1463, 1466 Engels’s review of, 2:756 Convention of al-Marsa (1883), 5:2363 Convention of Cintra (1808), 4:2227; 5:2457 Convention of Constantinople (1888), 4:2275 Convention on Land Warfare, 2:1035; 3:1175 Convent of Saint Joseph (Barcelona), 1:181 Convent of Saint Mary of Jerusalem (Barcelona), 1:181 Conversations with Goethe in the Last Years of His Life (Goethe), 2:987 convict colonies. See exile, penal Cook, James, 1:133; 2:782; 3:1653 Cook, Thomas, 1:288; 4:2274; 5:2329, 2494 Cooks tours, 4:1824 Cooper, Anthony Ashley. See Shaftesbury, Lord Cooper, James Fenimore, 2:575; 4:2123 cooperative movements, 2:555–557 artisans and, 1:111; 3:1390 Blanc and, 1:247; 2:555 consumerism and, 1:473; 2:555–557 Denmark and, 2:647 guilds and, 5:2454 labor movements and, 3:1284, 1286, 1287 libraries and, 3:1352 Owenites and, 3:1286, 1390, 1692–1693; 5:2397 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991 socialism and, 4:2206 Copenhagen, 2:649; 5:2308 Copenhagen Conventioin (1872), 3:1538 Coppe´e, Franc¸ois, 1:229 Coppello, Johannes Kappeyne van de, 3:1618 copper, 5:2433 ‘‘Copper Beeches, The’’ (Doyle), 2:680 Coppola, Francis Ford, 2:873 Coptic language, 1:406

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

copyright. See intellectual property law Coq d’or, Le (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:2000 Corbusier, Le (Charles Edouard Jeanneret), 2:590, 938; 5:2422 Corciato in Egitto, Il (Meyerbeer), 3:1671 Corday, Charlotte, 2:624; 3:1442, 1443 Cordeliers Club, 2:844 Corfu, 3:1482 Corinne (Stae¨l), 2:802; 3:1333; 4:2247 Corinth Canal, 3:1482 Corinthians (football team), 2:834 Corio, Silvio, 4:1714, 1715 Corleone, 4:2174, 2175 Cormon, Fernand, 5:2323, 2400 Cornhill Magazine, 2:680; 4:2253–2254 Corn Law of 1815, 1822, 1828, and 1842 (Britain), 2:557–558, 1004 Corn Laws, repeal of (1846), 1:417, 459; 2:512, 557–560; 4:1889; 5:2339, 2413, 2494 Carlyle and, 1:371 Cobden and, 1:490; 2:558, 559, 707, 1005; 3:1325 Disraeli and, 2:672 Gladstone and, 2:976–977 laissez-faire economics and, 2:707, 715 liberalism and, 3:1345 Manchester and, 3:1429 Peel and, 2:540, 559, 672, 1004–1005; 4:1759 Ricardo and, 2:715 Cornwallis, Charles, 3:1133 Coronation Dunbar of 1903 (Delhi), 2:597 Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine, The (David), 2:624 Corot, Jean-Baptiste-Camille, 1:177, 177; 2:560–562, 561; 4:1705, 1707 as impressionism influence, 3:1126, 1543; 4:1792 corporal punishment, 1:431; 2:781, 1016 Corporation Acts of 1828 (Britain), 5:2457 corporations, 1:106–107, 329–330; 2:711 European family leadership of, 1:330 law and, 3:1315 limited liability partnership and, 1:354 Second Industrial Revolution and, 1:355

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

white-collar workers and, 1:352 corporatism, 4:2081, 2082 corps (army unit), 1:95–96 Corps des Mines, 2:759 Corps des Ponts et Chausse´es (France), 1:149; 2:759; 4:1932 Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 3:1533 Corpus Juris Civilis (Mommsen), 3:1533 Correns, Carl, 2:653 Correns, Erich, 3:1486 ‘‘Correspondence’’ (Baudelaire), 4:2292 Corriere della Sera (Milan newspaper), 3:1502, 1504 Corrupt Practices Act of 1883 (Britain), 2:1009 Corsair, The (Byron), 1:332 corsairs, 5:2362 Corsica, 2:571; 3:1583–1584 Cort, Henry, 3:1152; 4:2115 Cortes of Ca´diz (Spain, 1812), 1:366, 367; 2:809; 3:1343; 4:1765, 1969, 2227, 2228, 2229 Corti, Luigi, 2:530 Cortot, Jean-Pierre, 4:2043 Corvisart des Marets, Jean-Nicolas, 3:1297, 1298; 4:1790, 1791 Cossa, Luigi, 4:1850 Cossacks, 2:562–563, 563; 3:1281; 4:1977; 5:2369–2370 Cossacks, The (Tolstoy), 5:2318 Costa, Andrea, 1:58; 3:1276, 1424 Costa y Martı´nez, Joaquı´n, 2:950, 951 Coste, La (chateau), 4:2073, 2074 Coˆte d’Azur, 3:1325 Coˆte des Boeufs at l’Hermitage (Pissarro), 3:1131, 1131 Coˆte d’Ivoire, 1:500; 2:812 Coˆte d’Or, Prieur de, 2:518 Cotswold ‘‘Olympick Games,’’ 3:1666 Cotta, Johann Friedrich, 4:1869 cottages, 2:1089 cotton African production of, 1:18, 21 American Civil War and, 1:18; 2:732; 3:1431 Barcelona and, 1:182 Belgian mills and, 1:201 British child and women labor and, 1:285, 350; 2:708 British exports of, 3:1428 British output of, 3:1147 capitalist bourgeosie and, 1:284, 287 Caribbean market and, 1:364; 2:709 Central Asian production of, 1:396 clothing and, 4:2193

1 9 1 4

Continental System and, 2:554 Denmark and, 2:647 Egypt and, 1:18; 2:731, 732; 4:2274 European manufacturing towns and, 1:351 factories and, 2:708, 790–791; 3:1149, 1427–1429 India and, 3:1135, 1151–1152 industrialization process and, 1:329; 2:710 Industrial Revolution (first) and, 2:709; 3:1427–1429 machine breaking and, 3:1410, 1411; 4:2264 Owen’s New Lanark mills and, 3:1692 Saxony and, 2:554; 3:1149 science and technology and, 4:2108, 2114 slavery and, 4:2191, 2192–2193 Switzerland and, 4:2290 technology and, 3:1152, 1153, 1410 trade flow and, 5:2336 women labor activists and, 3:1293 Cotton Market at New Orleans (Degas), 2:634 Coubertin, Pierre de, 3:1473, 1666, 1666, 1667 Coulomb, Charles-Augustin de, 4:1779 Council of the Five Hundred (France), 2:845, 894–895; 4:2181 Council of Trent (15451563), 1:378 Counter-Enlightenment, 2:538 Counter-Reformation, 4:1712 counterrevolution, 2:564–568 anti-Semitism and, 2:689 Bonald and, 1:268–269; 2:566 Bonapartism and, 1:270 Burke and, 1:326, 327–328; 2:538, 566 Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:361, 368–370; 2:959; 3:1494 Charles X and, 3:1387, 1403 as Directory backlash, 2:665 as feminist backlash, 2:802, 804; 3:1681 Francis I and, 2:860, 861 Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871–872 Frederick William III and, 2:875–876 Frederick William IV and, 2:876 as French Revolution backlash, 2:843–844, 887, 890, 891, 894, 973 Germany and, 2:871–872, 961, 962 Holy Alliance and, 2:959, 1079–1081; 3:1561

2605

INDEX

ideology of, 2:958 Italy and, 3:1193, 1254 against liberal nationalism, 3:1522 liberalism viewed by, 3:1342, 1343, 1344, 1522 Louis XVIII and, 3:1387 Louis-Napoleon and, 3:1591–1592 in Lyon, 3:1403 Maistre and, 2:566; 3:1421–1422 Marian pilgrimages and, 4:1788–1789, 1790 Maurras and, 3:1476 Metternich and, 2:566, 567, 959; 3:1494 Neapolitan Republic and, 3:1254 Nicholas I and, 2:566, 1081; 3:1625, 1626 Nicholas II and, 3:1628, 1660 papacy and, 4:1718, 1796–1797 Portugal and, 4:1839 as Reign of Terror backlash, 3:1206 Restoration and, 4:1967–1969, 1970, 1971, 1973 as Revolutions of 1848 backlash, 4:1993–1994 Russian repression and, 2:781; 4:1810, 1818, 1832 Countess of Carpio (1757–1795), Marquesa de la Bolana (Goya), 1:79 Countess of Rudolstadt, The (Sand), 4:2083 Count Robert de Montesquiou (Boldini), 2:1082 Country Doctor, A (Kafka), 3:1243 country houses, 1:186; 3:1305–1306, 1306 County Clare, 2:1003 county councils (Britain), 2:1010 County Donegal, evictions in, 3:1184 County Mayo, 4:1789–1790 County Wexford, 2:1000 Couperin, Franc¸ois, 1:440 Courbet, Gustave, 1:25; 2:568–570, 569; 3:1353; 4:1757, 1898, 2133; 5:2496 avant-garde and, 4:1706–1707 as impressionist influence, 3:1126, 1128 Manet and, 3:1433 Menzel and, 3:1489 realism and, 2:568–569; 3:1126, 1128; 4:1702, 1706–1707, 1708, 1946–1947, 1956 Couriau, Emma and Louis, 2:697 Courier de l’Europe (newspaper), 4:1871

2606

Courland, Duchy of, 2:817, 818, 819, 822–823 Courmont, Jules, 3:1405 Cours de philosophie positive (Comte), 2:522, 523; 4:1843, 1844 Courtauld family, 1:471 Courtet, E´mile, 1:73 Court of Chancery (Britain), 1:303; 3:1646 Cousin, Victor, 2:1054; 3:1298 Cousine Bette, La (Balzac), 1:169 Cousin Phillis (Gaskell), 2:934 Cousin Pons, Le (Balzac), 1:169 Couthon, Georges, 2:800 Couture, Thomas, 3:1431 couture houses, 1:481–483; 2:548 Covent Garden (London), 3:1377, 1567 coverture, 3:1595 Covetous Knight, The (Pushkin), 4:1919 Cowling, Maurice, 3:1514 cowpox, 3:1223 Coxe, William, 4:2076 Crace, John Gregory, 4:1918 Crackanthorpe, Montague, 2:770 Cracow. See Krako´w Cradle, The (Morisot), 3:1544 Craft, Robert, 4:2263 craftsmen. See artisans and guilds; art nouveau craft unions. See labor movements Crane, Walter, 1:191; 4:2201 Cranford (Gaskell), 2:934 craniology. See phrenology Crawford, John, 3:1139 Craxi, Bettino, 2:933 Crayon (journal), 4:1864 creation, 2:614, 615, 776, 1103; 4:2182 creationist theory, 4:2133 ‘‘creative destruction’’ theories, 1:162 Creative Evolution (Bergson), 1:213, 214 ‘‘creative evolution’’ theory, 2:777–778 credit banks and, 1:170–176 buying on, 2:550 Creditanstalt, 4:2041 credit cooperatives, 2:556 Cre´dit Industriel et Commercial, 1:174 Cre´dit Lyonnais, 1:174, 176; 3:1405 Cre´dit Mobilier. See Socie´te´ Ge´ne´rale de Cre´dit Mobilier Credito Italiano, 3:1503 Creditors (Strindberg), 4:2269 credit societies, 1:55

Creek Indians, 5:2440 Creighton, Mandell, 1:6 Cremer, William Randal, 4:1697 Cre´mieux decrees (1870), 1:46 Crespi family, 3:1504 Crete, 2:530; 3:1691 Creuze´ de Lesser, Augustin, 3:1580 cricket, 3:1378; 4:2240, 2243, 2245 Cri du Peuple, Le (French leftist periodical), 5:2524 crime, 2:570–577 Athens and, 1:125–126 Bentham prison reform and, 1:211 cities and, 1:449, 455; 2:571–572, 575 criminal class theory and, 2:572–574; 3:1371–1372 degeneracy and, 2:573, 574, 636, 637, 638, 639, 769; 3:1472 Doyle’s novels on, 2:680–681 fin de sie`cle pessimism and, 2:816 fingerprints and, 2:576, 927; 4:1816 forensic psychiatry and, 3:1270 homosexual acts as, 2:1082–1083, 1084, 1085; 5:2376 law and, 3:1315 literature ont, 2:574–575 London and, 3:1375 mafia and, 3:1414–1417, 1583 Naples and, 3:1583 penal exile for, 2:779–781 photographic records and, 2:576; 4:1816, 1816 police system and, 4:1814–1817 popular culture and, 4:1821 Romanies’ association with, 4:2022, 2023 St. Petersburg and, 2079 scapegoats and, 2:575–576 Siberian exile for, 4:2172 Sicily and, 4:2176–2177, 2178 statistical analysis of, 2:570, 571; 4:1922, 2248 theories of, 2:572–574, 638; 3:1371–1372; 4:1816 against women, 2:943 See also prisons Crimea Black Sea and, 1:243, 244; 2:1007 Russian annexation of, 1:376; 3:1683 Russian Islamic jadidism in, 3:1207–1208 See also Crimean War Crime and Punishment (Dostoyevsky), 2:678

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Crimean War, 1:234, 491; 2:530, 577–580, 580, 964; 3:1686 Alexander II and, 1:38–39; 3:1626 armies and, 1:95 Austria and, 1:143, 244; 2:577, 861, 863, 866, 1081; 3:1541 Austro-Prussian War and, 1:236; 2:866 Black Sea and, 1:243–244 Bosphorus control and, 1:278; 2:576 Britain and, 1:38–39, 94, 95, 244, 278; 2:577–580, 578, 1007, 1007–1008; 4:1713, 2048, 2051; 5:2410, 2413 British cavalry and, 1:94–95; 2:578, 578 casualties of, 2:952 Cavour and, 1:391 cholera transmission and, 2:669 Concert of Europe breakdown and, 2:525 deaths and, 2:629, 952 France and, 1:38–39, 94, 244, 271, 278; 2:577–580, 866; 3:1592; 4:2048, 2051; 5:2410 as Holy Alliance dissolution, 2:1079, 1081 Italy and, 5:2410 Mickiewicz and, 3:1500 myths of, 2:578–579 Napoleon III and, 2:579, 580; 3:1626 Nicholas I and, 3:1626 Nightingale’s nursing and, 3:1637–1638, 1637, 1649 origins of, 1:244; 2:576 Palmerston and, 4:1713 photography and, 4:1771 Piedmont and, 2:1007; 3:1198; 4:1787 Poland and, 4:1811 results of, 2:579–580 Russia and, 1:38–39, 243–244; 2:577–580, 1007; 4:1975, 2048, 2051, 2149–2150, 2153, 2196; 5:2410 Russian defeat in, 1:94; 2:1014, 1015; 3:1626 Slavophilism and, 4:2196 Crime of Father Amaro, The (Crime do Padre Amaro, O; Ec¸a de Querio´s), 1:70 criminal anthropology, 2:574; 3:1371–1372 criminal class theories, 2:572–574; 3:1371–1372

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Criminalite´ compare´e, La (Tarde), 2:574 criminal law. See crime Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885 (Britain), 2:639, 1083; 4:2297 Criminal Man (Lombroso), 2:638; 3:1371 Criminal Prisons of London and Scenes of Prison Live (Mayhew and Binny), 2:573 criminal type, 2:638 Criminal Woman, the Prostitute, and the Normal Woman (Lombroso and Ferrero), 3:1371 criminology. See crime Crisis, The (Owenite journal), 2:650 ‘‘Crisis of European Thought,’’ 3:1535 Crisis of the European Sciences, The (Husserl), 2:1100 Crisis of Western Philosophy, The (V. Soloviev), 4:2216 Crispi, Francesco, 2:581–583, 582, 947 Carducci’s support for, 1:362 Ethiopian campaign and, 1:8, 362; 2:582, 583; 3:1200 Giolitti and, 2:971 as prime minister, 2:582–583; 3:1200, 1348 Roman Question and, 4:2025 Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2174–2175, 2178 Umberto I and, 5:2377, 2378 Critica, La (periodical), 2:584 Critica sociale (socialist journal), 3:1276; 5:2363 criticism, art Baudelaire and, 1:188; 3:1543 on impressionists, 3:1126–1127, 1128, 1132 Ruskin and, 4:1864 criticism, literary Arnold and, 1:102–103 Belinsky and, 1:207–208 Coleridge and, 1:496, 497 Eliot (George) and, 2:744 Herder and, 2:1061 political, 1:102–103 in Russia, 4:2050 Schlegel and, 4:2094–2096 Shaw and, 4:2165 Strachey and, 4:2258 Tolstoy and, 5:2319 criticism, music, 3:1565, 1566 on Beethoven, 1:197 by Berlioz, 1:224, 225 by Schumann and, 3:1566, 1570

1 9 1 4

Critique of Abstract Principles, A (V. Soloviev), 4:2216 Critique of Political Economy (Marx), 4:2205 Critique of the Gotha Program, The (Marx), 2:522; 4:2205 Critiques (Kant), 2:813 Critz, Jose´ Morilla, 5:2337 Croatia, 4:1993, 1994; 5:2380 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:276 Gaj and, 2:924–925 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137, 141 Hungarian compromise with, 1:144 Jelacˇic´ and, 3:1219–1220 Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1599 nationalism and, 2:924–925; 3:1267–1268 Serbia and, 1:242 Croatian National Society (Bosnia), 1:276 Croce, Benedetto, 2:583–585; 4:2189 Crofters Wars, 4:2120 Croix, La (Catholic daily), 1:383; 2:684 Cromer, Lord (Evelyn Baring), 2:734; 4:2275 Crompton, Samuel, 3:1152, 1153 Cromwell (Hugo), 2:1092 Cromwell, Oliver, 2:831 Cronin, Archibald Joseph, 4:1882 Cronstadt, 2:579 Crook, Will, 3:1296 ‘‘Crooked Man, The’’ (Doyle), 2:680 Crookes, William, 4:2238, 2239 crop rotation, 1:26; 2:762, 960; 4:1751, 1753 Cros, Antoine-Jean, 2:955 Crosby, Alfred W., 2:668 Cross, John, 2:743 Cross, Viscount (Edward Assheton), 2:674 cross-dressing, 2:1082 ‘‘Crossing the Bar’’ (Tennyson), 5:2310 Cross in the Mountains (Friedrich), 2:910–911 Crouzet, Franc¸ois, 3:1587 Crouzet, Michel, 4:2253 crowd behavior, 3:1317; 4:1909 Cruikshank, George, 2:585–587, 586, 1023 Cruikshank, Isaac (father), 2:585 Cruikshank, Robert (brother), 2:585, 586 Crusenstolpe, Magnus, 4:2283 Crystal Palace, 2:587–590; 3:1376, 1378; 5:2494–2495, 2495, 2496, 2505–2506 Cruikshank etching of, 2:586 fire destruction of, 2:589

2607

INDEX

influence of, 2:589–590, 1006 interior of, 2:589 south entrance of, 2:588 success of, 4:1738 crystals, 1:425; 4:1743 Cualterio, Filippo, 3:1415 Cuba, 1:363–364, 365–366 slave emancipation in, 1:365 slavery in, 2:506; 4:2192, 2193, 2194 Spanish colonial rule in, 1:499; 4:2231 Spanish loss of, 1:181; 2:949; 3:1414 tobacco and, 5:2313 Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898), 1:366 Cubie`res, marquis de, 2:994 cubism, 1:214, 398; 2:590–594; 4:1732, 1875 avant-garde and, 1:156, 157 Braque and, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592, 592, 593, 797; 3:1530; 4:1710, 1784 futurism and, 2:918; 4:1711 Picasso and, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592, 593; 3:1530; 4:1710, 1783–1784 Cubitt, Thomas, 3:1373 Cudgel War (Luxembourg), 4:1755 Cue´rin, Robert, 2:834 Cui, Ce´sar, 4:1999 Cuisine, La (Vlaminck), 2:796 Cullen, Paul, 1:379 Cullen, William, 4:2108 cultural nationalism. See nationalism cultural pessimism, 2:631 cultural Zionists, 5:2521 Cultur der Renaissance in Italien, Die (Burckhardt), 1:318, 319, 320 culture. See popular and elite culture Culture and Anarchy (Arnold), 1:103 Cumnock News (Scottish newspaper), 2:1043 Cuoco, Vincenzo, 3:1192 CUP. See Young Turks Cupid and Psyche (Canova), 1:349 Curie, Ire`ne, 2:594, 596 Curie, Marie, 2:594, 594–597, 738; 4:1811 Curie, Pierre, 2:594, 595, 596 currency. See banks and banking; gold standard; monetary unions ‘‘Cursory Strictures on the Charge Delivered by Lord Chief Justice Eyre to the Grand Jury’’ (Godwin), 2:981 Curzon, George, 1:597–598; 3:1135, 1136

2608

Cusack, Michael, 3:1182 Cust, Henry, 2:798 Custine, Astolphe de, 2:1084 Custine, marquis de, 4:2076 Custom House (Dublin), 2:691 Customs House (Yokohama), 3:1209 customs union. See monetary unions Custom War (1906–1911), 1:206 Custoza, Battle of (1848), 4:1993, 2002 Custoza, Battle of (1866), 1:148 Cuvier, Georges, 2:598–599 as Agassiz mentor, 1:22 evolution theory and, 2:776 Lamarck’s acquired characteristics theory and, 2:614; 3:1302 natural history museum and, 3:1562–1634 Cuza, Alexandru Ion, 4:2016 cycling, 2:599–602 bicycle boom of 1890s and, 2:601–602 Netherlands and, 3:1619 racing and, 2:599–600, 601, 602; 3:1326; 4:1824 rubber tires and, 2:551, 600, 601; 3:1336 as sport, 4:2242, 2245 tourism and, 5:2330–2331 as transportation, 3:1163; 4:1824; 5:2350 Cyclists’ Touring Club (Britain), 2:600 Cyclopaedia of Useful Arts and Manufactures, 4:2114 Cyprus, 5:2391 British control of, 2:530, 705; 3:1690 Kitchener in, 3:1257 Mediterranean and, 3:1481 Mehmet Ali and, 3:1613 Cyril, St., 4:1716 Czartoryski, Adam, 2:602–604; 4:1807, 1808, 1810–1811 Czartoryski, Konstanty, 2:603 Czech language, 1:145, 259, 261, 262, 263; 4:1711, 1716, 1858, 1860–1861 Czech National Party, 4:1712; 5:2510–2511 Czech national revival, 1:261–264, 447; 3:1469; 4:1716 Dvorˇa´k and, 2:700–701 Masaryk and, 3:1469 Palacky´ and, 4:1711–1712, 1861 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717 Prague as center of, 4:1856–1861 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861–1863

Czech National Theater (Prague), 4:1857–1858, 1860 Czechoslovak Republic, 1:264; 3:1469; 4:1856 ‘‘Czech Quartet, The,’’ 2:700 Czech Republic. See Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia Czerny, Carl, 3:1360

n

D Dada, 1:153; 2:593; 3:1214 Dagestan, 4:2164 Dagnan-Bouveret, Pascal-AdolpheJean, 4:1948 Daguerre, Louis, 1:440; 2:605–607; 4:1770 daguerreotypes, 2:605, 606–607; 4:1770, 1771 pornographic, 4:1834 dahis, 4:2142 Dahlba¨ck, Lars, 4:2269 Dahlmann, F. C., 2:960 Dahomey, 1:13, 14, 15, 20, 21; 2:812 ´ ireann (Irish Parliament), Da´il E 3:1185 Daily Mail (London newspaper), 4:1868, 1871, 2280 Daily Mirror (London newspaper), 4:1871 Daily News (London newspaper), 3:1459 Daily Telegraph (London newspaper), 2:968 Daimler, Gottlieb Wilhelm, 1:148, 150; 3:1161; 5:2351 Daimler Motor Company, 2:793 daimyo. See samurai Dai Nam. See Vietnam dairy farming, 2:960; 3:1623, 1624 Dai Viet. See Vietnam Dakar, 1:20 Dale, Peter Allan, 4:2254 Dalhaus, Carl, 1:295 Dalhousie, Lord, 3:1134; 4:2138 Dalian (China), 1:292; 4:1837 Dalmatia, 2:958; 3:1203 Dalton, John, 1:424; 3:1430; 4:2114 Damala, Jacques, 1:230 Dame aux came´lias, La (Dumas), 1:229 Damnation de Faust, La (Berlioz), 1:225 Damned, The (Huysmans), 2:1104 Dan, Fyodor, 3:1460, 1487 Da Nang, 3:1140

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

dance. See ballet Dance at Bougival (Renoir), 4:1955 Dance of Death, The (Strindberg), 4:2269, 2286 Dance of Death genre, 2:629 ‘‘Dancing Man, The’’ (Doyle), 2:681 Dandre´, Victor, 4:1750 Daniel Deronda (G. Eliot), 2:744, 745; 5:2519 Danilevsky, Nikolai, 2:773, 775; 4:1832 Danilo II, prince of Montenegro, 3:1540, 1541 Danish-German War, 2:607–609, 648 Bismarck and, 1:235–236, 237; 2:963; 4:1902 Danish troops in, 2:608 Geneva Convention and, 2:952 German unification and, 2:963 See also Schleswig-Holstein Danish language, 3:1259 Danish Shooting Federation, 4:2243 Danish Sports Federation, 4:2245 D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 1:443; 2:609–610, 633, 951; 5:2405 Giolitti and, 2:972 Danse, La (Matisse), 3:1474, 1475 danse moderne. See modern dance Dante Alighieri, 1:246; 2:640; 3:1193; 4:2008, 2030, 2095 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 Dante’s Barque (Delacroix), 2:640 Danton (Rolland), 4:2015 Danton, Georges-Jacques, 2:610–612 Committee of Public Safety and, 2:518, 610, 611, 612 execution of, 2:610, 893 as Jacobin, 3:1205 Reign of Terror and, 2:610, 612, 893; 4:1952 Robespierre and, 4:2007 September Massacres and, 2:973 Danube River, 1:205, 243, 244 Budapest and, 1:309 Crimean War and, 2:577 international navigation of, 3:1173 Danzig, 4:1900 Daphnis and Chloe´ (Ravel), 4:1944 Darboy, Georges, 1:68; 4:1722, 1736 Darcy, Henri, 2:760 Dardanelles, 1:243; 2:703, 709 Bosphorus and, 1:278 Crimean War and, 2:577 Eastern Question and, 2:704–705 Mediterranean and, 3:1481–1482 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2391, 2392

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Dardanelles, Treaty of (1809), 1:278 Dargan, William, 2:693 Dargomyzhsky, Alexander, 3:1575 Darmsta¨dter (bank), 1:175 Dartmouth (British warship), 3:1612 Darty, Paulette, 4:2086–2087 Daru, Pierre, 4:2252 Darwin, Charles, 2:613–620, 619, 696, 740, 770, 872; 4:1909, 2071, 2255; 5:2458 Agassiz theories vs., 1:23 creationist theorists and, 4:2133 degeneration theorists and, 2:238, 239 Engels and, 2:756 evolution cartoon and, 2:778 Freud’s interest in, 2:904 Galton and, 2:637, 769, 927 Haeckel and, 2:1031, 1031–1032, 1069 Hirschfeld and, 2:1070 Huxley’s defense of, 2:614, 616, 617, 777, 1101, 1102 as Kautsky influence, 3:1248 Kelvin energy laws and, 3:1250 Kropotkin critique of, 3:1273 Lamarckian theory and, 3:1302 Lyell as influence on, 2:615; 3:1402 Malthus as influence on, 2:161, 615, 617; 3:1426 Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371 natural history museums and, 3:1563 natural selection and, 2:239, 613, 616, 617, 618, 653, 776, 777, 778–779 Polish positivists and, 4:1811 progress and, 2:814 research approach of, 4:1908 on Romanies, 4:2021 Spencer and, 4:2233, 2234 as Suttner influence, 4:2282 Wallace and, 5:2437 on women’s evolution, 2:945 Darwin, Emma Wedgwood (wife), 2:617 Darwin, Erasmus (grandfather), 2:613, 777, 927; 4:2111, 2168, 2233 Darwin, Leonard (son), 2:770 Darwin, Robert Waring (father), 2:613, 927 Darwin, Susannah Wedgwood (mother), 2:613 Darwinism (Wallace), 5:2437 Dasein concept, 3:1252 Dashnaktsutiun Party (Armenian), 1:92 Data of Ethics (Spencer), 4:2235 Daubigny, Charles-Franc¸ois, 1:178

1 9 1 4

Daudet, Alphonse (father), 1:5; 5:2523 Daudet, Le´on (son), 4:2084 Daughter of Sla´va (Kollar), 4:1716 Daum brothers, 1:108, 111 Daumier, Honore´, 1:35; 2:620–623, 622, 623, 850; 4:1881 Cruikshank as influence on, 2:586 Nadar and, 3:1578, 1579 Davaine, Casimir-Joseph, 4:1744 Davenport, Charles, 2:770–771 David, Jacques-Louis, 2:623–625; 3:1165, 1167, 1558; 4:1702, 1705, 1960, 2007 painting of Marat’s assassination by, 3:1442 David Balfour (Stevenson), 4:2256 David Copperfield (Dickens), 2:656 Davidsfonds (Belgium), 1:202 Davidson, Emily Wilding, 2:805–806 Davies, Emily, 2:625–627 Davis, Edward Thompson, 4:1848 Davitt, Michael, 2:1009; 3:1181; 4:1741 Davout, Louis-Nicolas, 1:133; 3:1221 Davy, Humphry, 1:424, 487; 4:2111, 2114, 2168 Days of Freedom (Russia), 4:1978 ‘‘Dayspring Mishandled’’ (Kipling), 3:1257 day-trippers, 3:1324; 4:2126; 5:2328 dazio consumo, 4:2174 Deaconesses of Kaiserswerth, 3:1649 deaconess movement, 3:1649, 1650 Dead Souls (Gogol), 1:208; 2:988 Dea´k, Ferenc, 2:627–628, 864; 3:1346 Deane, Phyllis, 3:1147 Dearborn, Henry, 5:2439, 2440 death and burial, 2:628–629 cremation and, 4:1894 dueling and, 2:695 political funerals and, 4:1963 secularization of, 4:1894 suicide and, 2:629, 632, 699, 816 See also casualties; mortality rates Death and Maiden (Schiele), 4:2090 ‘‘Death and the Maiden’’ string quartet (Schubert), 4:2106 Death as Victor (Rethel), 2:629 Death in the Sickroom (Munch), 3:1559 Death in Venice (Mann), 3:1435, 1436 Death of Empedocles, The (Ho ¨ lderlin), 2:1078 ‘‘Death of Ivan Ilych, The’’ (Tolstoy), 5:2319 Death of Marat (David), 4:1960

2609

INDEX

Death of Oenone, Akbar’s Dream, and Other Poems, The (Tennyson), 5:2310 Death of Sardanapalus, The (Delacroix), 2:640 Death of the Settler, The (Ivanov), 4:1757 death penalty British debates on, 2:570 in France, 4:1963, 2005 French debate on, 2:575 French guillotine and, 2:888 See also Reign of Terror Hugos writings against, 2:1093 penal exile as alternative to, 2:779–780, 781 public hangings and, 1:288 for sodomy, 2:1082, 1083 death rates. See infant and child mortality; mortality rates De Beers Consolidated Mines, 1:18; 4:1996 Debits and Credits (Kipling), 3:1257 De´blaiement d’art (van de Velde), 1:108 De Buonaparte et des Bourbons et de la ne´cessite´ de se rallier a` nos Princes le´gitimes pour le bonheur de la France et celui de l’Europe (Chateaubriand), 1:421 Debussy, Claude, 1:154; 2:630–631, 654; 3:1565, 1572 Chopin’s influence on, 1:440 impressionism and, 3:1133 opera and, 3:631, 1675 Ravel and, 4:1944, 1945 Satie and, 4:2086 Decadence, 2:631–633 art nouveau and, 1:109, 152 death and, 2:629 degeneration and, 2:631, 632, 636, 638 fin de sie`cle and, 2:629, 631–633, 638, 815–816; 3:1476 Huysmans and, 2:632, 1104, 1105 Maurras’s fixation on, 3:1476 Nietzsche and, 3:1631 Pater and, 4:1746 Picasso and, 4:1781 poets and artists and, 2:940 symbolism and, 2:633; 4:2292–2294 De´cadent, Le (literary journal), 2:632 De´cade philosophique, La (French journal), 4:1961 Decembrists, 1:38, 360, 400; 4:2050, 2236 Chaadayev and, 1:400

2610

Herzen and, 2:1064 intelligentsia and, 3:1170 Nicholas I’s crushing of, 3:1625 Pushkin and, 4:1919 dechristianization. See secularization decimal system, monetary, 3:1538 Decisi (secret society), 1:360 Declaration of Independence (Hungary, 1849), 3:1268 Declaration of Paris (1856), 2:1034; 3:1175 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), 1:283–284, 498; 2:665, 768, 843, 891; 3:1521; 4:1850 free press guarantee of, 4:1869 French buffer states and, 3:1597 National Assembly vote on, 2:886–887; 3:1299–1300 women’s exclusion from, 2:801, 941, 995 Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen republicanism and, 4:1959–1960 Robespierre’s support of, 4:2005 secularization and, 4:2132–2133, 2134, 2186–2187 Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen (Gouges), 2:801, 802, 941, 995–996 decorative arts art nouveau and, 110; 1:107–114, 152, 153; 2:815, 1028 Beardsley and, 1:192 Burne-Jones and, 4:1865 Crystal Palace exhibits and, 2:588 Morris and, 3:1549–1551; 4:1865 Pugin and, 4:1917, 1918 See also furniture Dedekind, Julius Wilhelm Richard, 2:883 Dedham Lock and Mill (Constable), 2:544 Dedham Vale (Constable), 2:543 Dedreux, Alfred, 1:285 deductive systematicity (legal theory), 3:1315 De e´criture hie´ratique des anciens e´gyptiens (Champollion), 1:407 Deerbrook (Martineau), 3:1459 defamiliarization, 5:2320 Defenders of the Constitution (Serbia), 4:2144–2145 Defense of Poetry, A (Shelley), 4:2170 De´fenseur de la constitution, La (Robespierre newspaper), 4:2006

DeFeure, Georges, 1:110 De Forest, Lee, 3:1163 Degas, Edgar, 1:252, 336, 354, 470; 2:633–636, 635; 3:1130; 4:1874, 1955, 2156; 5:2323 absinthe drinking and, 1:3, 3 art collection of, 2:634, 636 Daumier as influence on, 2:622 impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128, 1129–1130, 1131; 4:1708, 1709 Liebermann monograph on, 3:1353 Menzel and, 3:1490 modernism and, 3:1530 Morisot friendship with, 3:1544 photography and, 4:1773 De Gasperi, Alcide, 2:933 de Gaulle, Charles, 1:269, 271 ‘‘Degenerate Art’’ exhibition (Munich, 1937), 2:649 degeneration, 2:636–640, 683 criminality theory and, 2:573, 574, 636, 637, 638, 639, 769; 3:1472 Decadence and, 2:631, 632, 636, 638 eugenics and, 2:241, 636, 637, 769, 928 fin de sie`cle and, 2:816 homosexual/lesbian subculture and, 2:1083, 1084 male fears and, 3:1472 Degeneration (Nordau), 2:816 Degeneration: A Chapter in Darwinism (Ray), 2:238 De Ge´rando, Joseph Marie, 4:1850 Dehmel, Richard, 4:2102 Dehn, Siegfried, 2:979, 980 Deich, Lev, 5:2517 Dei delitti e delle pene (Beccaria), 3:1371 deism, 4:1893 Deiters, Otto, 1:340 ‘‘Dejection: An Ode’’ (Coleridge), 1:496 De´jeuner sur l’herbe (Manet), 3:1432, 1433, 1530, 1535; 4:1707 Delacroix, Charles, 5:2305 Delacroix, Euge`ne, 1:439, 439; 2:634, 640–642, 848, 939 Constable as influence on, 2:544 Friedrich’s importance compared with, 2:910 Liszt and, 3:1360 naturalism and, 4:1701 Paris Exposition of 1855 and, 5:2496 Romanticism and, 2:640–642, 910; 4:1705, 2027, 2030 Sand and, 4:2084 self-portrait of, 2:640

E U R O P E

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1 9 1 4

INDEX

Talleyrand and, 5:2305 Van Gogh and, 5:2400 De la De´mocratie en Ame´rique (Tocqueville), 1:115–116 De la litte´rature du midi de l’Europe (Sismondi), 4:2185 De l’Allemagne (Heine), 2:1056 De l’Allemagne (Stae¨l), 2:1056; 4:2095 De la monarchie selon la charte (Chateaubriand), 1:421 De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris (Parent-Duchaˆtelet), 4:1884, 2301 De la religion (Constant), 2:545 De la re´organisation de la socie´te´ europe´enne (Saint-Simon), 4:2081, 2202 De la Rey, Jacobus Hercules (‘‘Koos’’), 1:257 De la richesse commerciale; ou, Principes d’e´conomie politique applique´s a` la le´gislation du commerce (Sismondi), 4:2185 Delaunay, Robert, 1:156; 2:590, 738; 4:2158 Delaunay-Terk, Sonia, 1:156 De l’auscultation mediate (Laennec), 3:1298 Delbru¨ck, Rudolph, 1:238; 5:2526 Delcasse´, The´ophile, 2:642–643, 795, 857 Moroccan Crisis and, 3:1545 Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432 Delesalle, Paul, 1:56 Delhi, 3:1135, 1137 Delicias Atocha station (Madrid), 3:1413 Deliyannis, Theodore, 2:1021 Della Guerra nazionale d’insurrezione per bande (Saint-Jorioz), 5:2514 Deloraine (Godwin), 2:982 Delphine (Stae¨l), 2:802; 4:2247 Del primato morale e civile degli italiani (Gioberti), 3:1195; 4:1796, 2002 Del romanzo storico, e in genere de componimenti misti di storia e dinvenzione (Manzoni), 3:1442 Delvard, Marya, 1:336 Demandt, Alexander, 3:1533 democracy aristocracy and, 1:81–82, 83, 86 Arnold’s literary criticism and, 1:103 artisan radicalism and, 1:104 Athenian, 4:1769–1770 bourgeois liberalism and, 1:458 Chartist platform and, 1:414–415, 418, 459 civil society and, 1:467

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

classical economists and, 2:713 colonization and, 2:504 Guizot’s view of, 2:1030 labor movements and, 3:1292 Luxemburg’s socialism and, 3:1401 Mazzini and, 3:1479, 1480 Nietzsche’s repudiation of, 3:1629 press freedom and, 4:172, 1870 Protestanism and, 4:1892 racial/sexual inequality and, 1:458–459 republicanism and, 4:1958, 1959 Second International and, 3:1294 Serbia and, 1:207 Social Democrats and, 1:231 voluntary associations and, 1:115–116, 119, 120–122 Democracy in America (Tocqueville), 1:115–116; 3:1513; 4:2213; 5:2316–2317 Democratic Association (Brussels), 3:1465 Democratic Federation, 4:2205 Democratic National Party (Poland), 2:753 Democratic Party (Germany), 1:189 Democratic Party (Portugal), 4:1842 Democratic Republic of Congo. See Congo Free State Democratic Republic of Vietnam, 3:1145 democratic socialism, 1:282 Democritus, 3:1464 demography, 2:643–646 agarian production and, 2:762 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:52 Athens and, 1:125 Belgrade and, 1:206 cholera pandemics and, 1:436, 438; 2:668 death rate decline and, 2:628 Dublin and, 2:690 emigration and, 2:746–752 epidemic infections and, 2:667–668, 670–671 eugenics and, 2:637 family life effects of, 3:145 Germany and, 2:960 housing shortage and, 2:1086–1092 illegitimate births and, 4:1828 Industrial Revolution and, 3:1147, 1148 Irish Potato Famine’s effect on, 2:1005 land enclosures and, 1:26 literacy and, 4:1822

1 9 1 4

London and, 3:1372 Madrid and, 3:1412 Malthusian theory and, 3:1425–1427 as migration factor, 3:1112 Moscow and, 3:1553–1554 New Zealand and, 3:1622 old age and, 3:1662 Paris and, 4:1727–1728 peasants and, 4:1751, 1752 population control and, 4:1827–1831 Prague and, 4:1856 public health measures and, 2:670–671 Romania and, 4:2017 Scotland and, 4:2120–2122 Serbia and, 4:2146 social history and, 1:251 statistics and, 4:2248–2250 urban death rates and, 1:451 urban overcrowding and, 4:1912 See also birthrate; fertility rate; immigration and internal migration; infant and child mortality; mortality rates Demoiselles (French peasant protests), 1:359 Demoiselles d’Avignon, Les (Picasso), 1:156; 2:593; 4:1710, 1782–1783, 1783, 1875 Demolins, Edmond, 5:2516 Demos (Gissing), 2:975 Denis, Maurice, 1:154; 4:2294 Denmark, 2:649–649 Africa and, 1:19 alcohol consumption in, 1:35 as Berlin Conference participant, 1:221 British naval attack on, 3:1615 Caribbean colonialism and, 1:363 cholera and, 1:436 colonies and, 3:1114 commercial policy and, 2:512 education in, 2:648 emigrants from, 2:506 established church in, 4:1895 football (soccer) and, 2:833 German unification and, 1:47, 96; 4:1993 Hamburg and, 2:1038 Kierkegaard and, 3:1250–1254 labor movements in, 3:1290, 1291 life expectancy in, 2:643 monetary union and, 3:1538 Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901 poor relief and, 4:1851

2611

INDEX

population of, 2:647 Protestant population of, 4:1890, 1890 Prussia and, 1:234, 236, 237; 2:963; 5:2353 See also Danish-German War Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1990, 1993–1994 Schleswig-Holstein and, 1:147, 235–236, 237; 2:871, 963 slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19, 365, 458, 499; 2:506 slave trade and, 1:13, 308 socialist party strength in, 3:1293 sports in, 4:2241, 2243 suffrage in, 4:2278 Sweden’s cession of Norway from, 1:226, 227; 4:2287 telephone service in, 5:2308 temperance societies in, 4:1896 trade and, 5:2336, 2338, 2339 welfare initiatives in, 5:2452 Dennewitz, Battle of (1813), 3:1320 Denon, Dominique Vivant, 4:2043 DeNora, Tia, 1:199 Dent, J. M., 1:192 department stores, 1:288–290; 2:551, 552; 3:1453; 5:2341 cities and, 1:445 clothing sales and, 1:483, 484 credit and, 2:550 London and, 3:1378 shoplifting and, 2:574, 576 white-collar women workers and, 1:352 Departure of the Volunteers in 1792 (La Marseillaise; Rude), 4:2031, 2043, 2044 De´peˆche de Toulouse, La (journal), 3:1215, 1217 dependency theory, 2:708 depressions, economic. See Great Depression Depretis, Agostino, 2:581–582; 3:1200; 5:2377 De Profundis (Wilde), 5:2466 De Quincey, Thomas, 1:188; 2:686, 687 Derain, Andre´, 1:153; 4:1784 fauvism and, 2:795, 796, 797; 4:1875 Matisse and, 3:1474 Deraismes, Maria, 1:127; 2:649–650, 804; 4:1998 Derby, Lord (Edward George Geoffrey Smith Stanley), 2:673, 674, 1008

2612

Dernier chant du pe`lerinage d’Harold, Le (Lamartine), 3:1303 Dernie`re Incarnation de Vautrin, La (Balzac), 1:169 Dernier jour d’un condamne´, Le (Hugo), 2:1093 Deroin, Jeanne, 2:652–654, 654; 3:1288; 4:2013, 2279 De´roule`de, Paul, 1:282; 2:857, 858 Deroy, A., 4:1789 Deroy, Charles, 1:187 Derrida, Jacques, 3:1635 De Sanctis, Francesco, 1:317; 3:1556 Descamps, Edouard, 4:1697 Descartes, Rene´, 2:926; 4:1907, 2026 Descent of Man, The (Darwin), 2:617, 777 Deschanel, Paul-Euge`ne-Louis, 3:1218 Des classes dangereuses de la population dans les grands villes et des moyens de les rendre meilleurs (Fre´gier), 2:572 Description de l’E´gypte, 1:44, 406; 2:731 Descriptions automatiques (Satie), 4:2087 Des e´poques de la nature (Buffon), 2:776 ‘‘deserving poor’’ concept, 5:2450–2451 Desgeorges, Fre´de´ric, 1:248 Deshoulie`res, Antoineete de, 2:994 design. See decorative arts Deslon, Charles, 3:1490 Desmond, Adrian, 2:614 Desmoulins, Camille, 2:611, 893; 3:1205; 4:1869, 1960 De Sousa, Felix, 1:13 Despero, Fortunato, 2:917 Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, 2:1036; 5:2333 Desserte, La (Matisse), 3:1474 Desserte rouge, La (Matisse), 3:1474 Destitute Men Applying for Admittance to a London Night Refuge (Dore´), 5:2455 Desvaillie`res, Georges, 1:153 Desvosges, Franc¸ois, 4:2043 detective novel, 2:680, 816 detectives, 4:1815 determinism, 1:214 De Tham, 3:1143, 1144 Deutsche-Asiatische Bank, 1:176 Deutsche Bank, 1:175, 176; 2:965 Deutsche Bund. See German Confederation Deutsche Demokratische Partei (Germany), 1:189

Deutsche Frauenzeitung (women’s periodical), 1:66 Deutsche Grammatik (J. Grimm), 2:1024 Deutsche Kolonialverein, 3:1118 Deutsche Mythologie (J. Grimm), 2:1023 Deutscher Schulverein, 1:262 Deutscher Wehrverein, 3:1546 Deutsches Requiem, Ein (Brahms), 1:295 Deutsche Turnerschaft, 1:118; 4:2243 Deutsche Uebersee-Bank, 1:176 Deutsche Zentrumspartei. See Center Party Deutschland: Ein Winterma¨rchen (Heine), 2:1056 ‘‘Deutschland u¨ber alles’’ (song), 2:960–961 Deux aveugles, Les (Offenbach), 3:1660 Deux danseurs (Matisse), 3:1475 Deux journe´es, Les (Cherubini), 3:1673 Deval, Pierre, 1:43 De Valera, Eamon, 3:1185 Development of Capitalism in Russia, The (Lenin), 3:1327 Development of Psychoanalysis, The (Rank and Ferenczi), 4:1938 DeVigne, Robert, 3:1514 Devils, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:679; 3:1614 Devil’s Disciple, The (Shaw), 4:2166 Devils Island, 2:683 Devonshire, duke of, 1:84; 5:2387 Devoy, John, 4:1741 De Vries, Hugo, 2:61, 652–653; 3:1486 De Vries, Jan, 3:1152 deys, 5:2362 Dhaka, 3:1136 Diaghilev, Sergei, 1:154; 2:654–655, 774; 4:1750, 2077 Nijinsky and, 3:1642, 1643 Ravel and, 4:1944–1945 Repin and, 4:1957 Rimsky-Korsakov and, 2:654; 4:2000 Satie and, 4:2087 Stravinsky and, 2:654, 655; 4:1876, 2261–2262 World of Art group and, 4:2181 Diagne, Blaise, 2:509 dialectic Fichte and, 2:814 Hegel and, 3:1252 Kierkegaard and, 3:1252, 1253 Marx and, 3:1252, 1400 Dialectics of Nature (Engels), 2:756

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Dialogue on Poetry (Schlegel), 4:2095 diamonds, 1:18, 99 Lavoisier study of, 3:1312 South African mining of, 4:1996, 1997, 2221–2222, 2222 ‘‘Diaphaneite’’ (Pater), 4:1746 diaphragm, 2:947; 4:1827, 1829 diarrhea prevention, 2:667 ‘‘Diary of a Superfluous Man’’ (Turgenev), 5:2365 Diary of Vaslav Nijinsky, The (Acocella, ed.), 3:1643 Diaz de La Pen ˜ a, Narcisse-Virgile, 1:178 Dichtung and Wahrheit (Goethe), 2:982, 987 Dickens, Catherine Hogarth, 2:656–657 Dickens, Charles, 2:535, 655–658, 656, 830, 1046; 4:1776, 2022; 5:2314, 2395 Austen compared with, 1:130 Bronte¨ sisters and, 1:300 Carlyle as influence on, 1:371 on city’s evils, 1:443, 455 on criminal gangs, 2:573, 575 Cruikshank and, 2:585, 587 Crystal Palace vilified by, 2:590 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 French Revolution novel of, 1:371; 2:657; 3:1586 Gaskell friendship with, 2:934 legacy of, 2:657 Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371 on New Poor Law, 4:1820, 1848 Norton divorce trial and, 3:1646 nurse portrayal by, 3:1649 opium use by, 2:686 on placard-carriers, 4:1845 popularity of, 3:1407; 4:1823, 1825 spiritualism and, 4:2237 utilitarian education lampooon of, 3:1511 on Venice, 5:2403 Dickson, William, 3:1396, 1398 Dictionary of National Biography, 4:2253, 2254 Dictionnaire Annamite-Franc¸ais, 3:1142 Dictionnaire des ide´es rec¸ues (Flaubert), 1:3 Dictionnaire des sciences me´dicales, 4:1791 Dictionnaire raisonne´ de l’architecture franc¸aise du XIe au XVIe sie`cle (Viollet-le-Duc), 5:2422

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Dictionnaire raisonne´ du mobilier franc¸ais de l’e´poque carlovingienne a` la Re´naissance (Viollet-le-Duc), 5:2422 Diderot, Denis, 1:93, 498; 4:1833, 1843, 2026, 2047 Dien Bien Phu, fall of (1954), 3:1145 Dieppe, 4:2124, 2125 Diesel, Rudolf, 3:1161 diesel engine, 3:1161 diet and nutrition, 2:658–660 coffee, tea, chocolate and, 1:495–496; 2:658 demographic effects of in, 2:667 food adulteration and, 2:658, 659 food cooperatives and, 2:555 food preservation and, 2:659; 3:1164; 4:1743 food prices and, 4:1989 food riots and, 4:1754–1755, 1990; 5:2488 Irish potato dependency and, 3:1178 markets and, 3:1447, 1448, 1449 peasants and, 4:1751, 1752, 1754–1755 population growth and, 2:615; 3:1425, 1426–1427; 4:1828 restaurants and, 4:1964–1967 scarcity and, 2:658 trade and, 5:2340–2342 wine and, 5:2475–2478 working-class consumers and, 2:549, 550 See also bread; famine; Irish Potato Famine Diet of Speyer (1529), 4:1890 Dieu (Hugo), 2:1095 Diez, Carl Immanuel, 2:1051 Difesa delle lavoratrici, La (socialist newspaper), 3:1277 Different from the Others (film), 2:1071 differential equations, 4:1804 Digest of the Laws (Russia, 1832–1839), 4:2236 Dilettantism and Scholarship (Herzen), 2:1064 Dilettantism in Science (Herzen), 2:1064 Dillmann, Alfred, 4:2023–2024 Dillon, John, 4:1741 Dilthey, Wilhelm, 1:9; 2:660–661 Dimitrijevic´-Apı´s, Dragutin, 1:242–243 Dinard, 4:2125 Dinshaway incident (1906), 2:734 diode valve, 3:1444 Diorama, 2:605, 606, 607

1 9 1 4

diphtheria, 2:667 diplomacy, 2:661–664 arbitration and, 4:1697–1698 Bismarck and, 1:234–235, 239–240; 2:663, 705, 965; 3:1198 China and, 3:1579 Concert of Europe and, 2:525, 661–663, 1002; 3:1493 Congress of Berlin and, 2:530, 705 Czartoryski and, 2:603, 604 Delcasse´ and, 2:643 Disraeli and, 2:674 Haitian recognition and, 2:1037 imperialism as factor in, 1:1033; 3:1118, 1122 international law and, 3:1172–1173, 1174, 1175 Japan and, 3:1210, 1211–1212 Leopold I and, 3:1335 Metternich and, 2:861; 3:1492–1494 Napoleon I and, 3:197, 1584 Ottoman embassies and, 3:1683 papacy and, 4:1720, 1721, 1795 realpolitik and, 3:1198 as war prevention, 2:661–664, 1033 Diplomatic Revolution (1756), 3:1445 direct action syndicalism. See anarchosyndicalism direct current, 3:1116 Directory, 1:457; 2:664–666; 3:1388 Batavian Republic and, 4:2189 Bonald and, 1:268 coups against, 2:664, 665 embargoes of, 2:553 establishment of, 2:519, 844–845; 4:1701 Festival of Old Age and, 3:1663 Fouche´ and, 2:837 Italy and, 3:1254; 4:2001 Napoleon and, 3:1584, 1585 policy under, 2:666, 894–895; 3:1340 press and, 4:1869–1870 republicanism and, 4:1961 Saint-Simon and, 4:2080 secret societies and, 4:2129 Sieye`s and, 4:2180, 2181 Talleyrand and, 5:2305 Venetian Republic and, 5:2402 Disasters of War, The (Goya), 2:998, 998 disability insurance, state-sponsored, 2:966; 3:1664; 4:1915 disarmament. See armaments; pacifism Disaster at Sea (Turner), 5:2368

2613

INDEX

Discipline and Punishment (Foucalt), 1:211 discontinuous inheritance, 2:652–653 Disconto-Gesellschaft (Berlin), 1:175, 176 Discourse on Method (Descartes), 4:2026 Discourses on Architecture (Viollet-leDuc), 5:2422 Discourses on the Scope and Nature of University Education (Newman), 3:1621 Disde´ri, Andre´-Adolphe-Euge`ne, 4:1772 disease, 666–671 Aboriginal Australians and, 1:134 African colonization and, 1:19, 44 alcoholism as, 1:37 Algeria and, 1:43, 44, 47 bacteriology and, 1:438 Barcelona and, 1:181, 182 Berlin and, 1:218, 219 body and, 1:251, 253 childhood mortality rate and, 4:1829 cholera, 4:2035, 2055, 2122; 5:2418, 2420 colonial expansion and, 1:356 death-rate decline and, 2:628 Dublin and, 2:690 epidemiological/sanitary transition and, 2:628, 644 germ theory of, 3:1164, 1262–1264, 1358; 4:1744–1745, 2135 hospital care and, 3:1649 infant deaths from, 2:667 London and, 3:1372, 1378 Madrid and, 3:1412 old age and, 3:1665 peasant deaths from, 4:1751 Semmelweiss’s theory on, 4:2134–2135 social upheavals from, 2:267–268 stethoscope invention and, 3:1298 warfare and, 3:1307 water pollution and, 1:437, 438, 450; 2:658 See also medicine; public health; vaccination; specific diseases by name Disraeli, Benjamin, 1:204; 2:672–675 Carlyle as influence on, 1:371 Congress of Berlin and, 2:530 conservatism and, 2:540–540, 559; 5:2332 on Franco-Prussian War, 2:957, 964 gerontocracy and, 3:1664 Gladstone rivalry with, 2:673, 977 on grain trade, 5:2342

2614

imperialism and, 2:673, 673, 674, 977; 3:1122 Jewish origins of, 1:75; 2:672, 674 jingoism and, 2:589, 1009; 3:1234 on Manchester, 1:454–455; 3:1430 myth about, 2:674 peerage of, 2:675, 1009 as prime minister, 2:673–674, 1008–1009 protectionism and, 2:1005 Reform Act (1867) and, 2:1008 on Sepoy Mutiny, 2:508, 673 Suez Canal and, 2:733; 4:2275 Victoria and, 5:2414 Zionism and, 5:2519 Disruption of 1843, 4:2118 Dissenters (Britain). See Nonconformists Dissertation or Discourse (Draˇskovic´), 2:925 distance races, 4:2240 distilled spirits. See alcohol and temperance Divine Comedy (Dante), 4:2008, 2095 divine-right monarchy, 2:566; 3:1387; 4:1968, 1970–1971 division of labor, 2:515, 712–713, 716 gender and, 3:1452, 1453, 1455, 1471 labor movements and, 3:1286 Division of Labor, The (Durkheim), 2:698 divorce Brougham and, 1:302, 303 French rights and, 2:812, 843; 3:1595; 4:1962, 1998 French women’s rights and, 2:649, 650, 897 George IV suit for, 1:302, 489, 490; 2:585–586, 954; 4:1834 Italian legislatiion and, 2:971 Mill (Harriet Taylor) on, 3:1509 Napoleonic Code and, 2:897 no-fault, 4:1962 Norton and, 3:1646 Parnell scandal and, 2:978, 1011; 4:1742 women’s status and, 1:66, 287; 2:649, 650, 801, 804, 897, 946; 3:1645, 1646 Divorce, Le (Richer), 4:1998 Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857 (Britain), 3:1646 Djilas, Milovan, 3:1172 Djurdjura region (Algeria), 1:44 Dmowski, Roman, 2:752, 753; 4:1811–1812

Dnieper River, 1:243; 2:562 Dniester River, 1:243 Dobelbower, Nicolas, 2:683 Doberan, 4:2124 Dobrolyubov, Nikolai, 3:1170 Dobrovsky, Josef, 4:1716 Dobruja, 2:530; 4:2017, 2069, 2085 Dock Strike of 1889 (Britain), 1:59 dock workers, 5:2485–2486 Doctor Faustus (Mann), 3:1436–1437 doctors. See medicine; surgery Doctrinaires, 4:1971–1972, 1973 Doctrine of Lapse, 4:2138 Doctrine of Saint-Simon, The (SaintSimonian manifesto), 4:2202 Dodd, Frank, 3:1669 Doellinger, Ignaz von. See Do¨llinger, Johann Josef Ignaz von Dogali massacre (1887), 2:582 Dohm, Ernst, 2:675 Dohm, Hedwig, 2:675–676; 4:2280 Dohna, Friedrich Ferdinand Alexander, 2:1042 Dokuchayev, Vasily, 2:775 Dolbadern Castle (Turner), 5:2367 Dolgorukova, Catherine, 1:39 Do¨llinger, Johann Josef Ignaz von, 1:6, 385; 4:1719, 1722, 1723 Doll’s House, A (Ibsen), 2:942; 3:1108, 1473 Dolmabahc¸e, 3:1190 Dombey and Son (Dickens), 2:656 Dome`nech i Montaner, Lluis, 1:112, 183 domesticity. See marriage and family domestic novels, 3:1453 domestic servants, 1:473, 474 bourgeois domesticity and, 3:1453 clothing of, 1:484 London and, 3:1374 Paris and, 1727 women’s predominance as, 2:943; 3:1472 Dominican Republic, 1:363; 2:1035 Dom Se´bastien (Donizetti), 3:1672 Donatello, 4:2008 Don Carlos. See Charles III, king of Spain Don Carlos (Verdi), 3:1678; 5:2406 Doncieux, Camille-Le´onie, 3:1535 Donders, F. C., 4:1909 Dongen, Kees van, 1:153; 2:796 Donizetti, Gaetano, 3:1572, 1670–1671, 1672; 4:2038 as Glinka influence, 2:979; 3:1673 Verdi compared with, 3:1673 Don Juan (Byron), 1:333; 3:1426 Don Juan in Hell (Shaw), 4:2166

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Don Juan Tenorio (Zorrilla), 2:951 Donna, La (feminist journal), 3:1556 Donna delinquente, la prostituta e la donna normale (Lombroso and Ferrero), 3:1371 Donna del lago, La (Rossini), 3:1670, 1671; 4:2038 Donna ei suoi rapporti sociali, La (Mozzoni), 3:1555 Donne, John, 5:2310 Donner, Wendy, 3:1514 Donoso Corte´s, Juan Francisco Marı´a de la, 4:1969, 2208 Don Pacifico affair, 4:1713 Don Pasquale (Donizetti), 3:1670, 1672 don Quichotte, Le (French journal), 1:352 Don Quichotte a` Dulcine´e (Ravel), 4:1945 Don Quixote (Cervantes), 2:621 Dore´ illustrations, 2:676 Don River, 1:243; 2:562, 579 Don Valley, 2:792 ‘‘Door in the Wall, The’’ (Wells), 5:2458 Doppler, Christian, 3:1485 ‘‘Dora’’ case (Freud), 2:907; 4:1905 Dore´, Gustave, 2:586, 676–678, 677, 687; 3:1376; 4:1815, 1850, 2008; 5:2455 Dore´ Bible, The, 2:676 Dore´ Vase, The, 2:677 Dos I and II (Matisse), 3:1474 Dos Passos, John, 1:299 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 1:208; 2:535, 536, 654, 678–679, 830; 4:2217 on Crystal Palace, 2:590 Nechayev’s trial and, 3:1614 nihilist portrayal by, 3:1641 as Sand admirer, 4:2084 Slavophiles and, 4:2048, 2196 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307 Dostoyevsky, Mikhail, 2:678 Dot (Matisse), 3:1474 Double, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:678 double standard, 1:469; 2:947; 3:1471 feminist campaign against, 2:797, 798, 804 Doucet, Jacques, 1:483 Douglas, Alexander (Lord Hamilton), 2:625 Douglas, Alfred Bruce, 5:2465, 2466 Douglas, John Sholto (marquess of Queensberry), 5:2465, 2466 Douglass, Frederick, 2:657 Doukhobors, 1:346

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Doumer, Paul, 3:1142 Dovbush, Oleksa, 4:1821 ‘‘Dover Beach’’ (Arnold), 1:102 Dowie, Me´nie Muriel, 4:2235 Downie, George, 5:2440 dowries, 1:472; 3:1453, 1454, 1582 divorce and, 3:1595 Doyle, Arthur Conan, 2:679–680; 4:1823 D’Oyly Carte, Richard. See Carte, Richard D’Oyly Dracula (Stoker), 4:1822, 2255 draft. See conscription Drageoir a` e´pices, Le (Huysmans), 2:1103–1104 Dragomirov, Mikhail I., 4:2068 dragonfly woman corsage ornament (Lalique), 1:111, 111 Dragonne, La (Jarry), 3:1214 Drahomanov, Mykhailo, 5:2373 drama. See theater Draˇskovic´, Janko, 2:925 Dr. Baker and Factory Girls (engraving), 1:475 Dreadnought, HMS (battleship), 2:681–683, 682, 968; 3:1610, 1611 dream analysis, 2:905–906; 3:1239; 4:1905 Dream of Pilate’s Wife, The (Dore´), 2:677 Dreamplay, A (Strindberg), 4:2269 ‘‘Dreary Story, A’’ (Chekhov), 1:423 ‘‘Drei Klavierstu ¨ cke’’ (Schubert), 4:2107 Dresden, 1:154 Dresden, Battle of (1813), 3:1320 Dresden Convention (1838), 1:171; 3:1538 Dresdner Bank, 1:175, 176 dress. See clothing, dress, and fashion dressmakers, 1:481, 484; 2:792 Dreyfus, Alfred, 1:97; 4:1929, 1964, 2137; 5:2523 case against, 2:683–684, 858, 1068 case details, 3:1216 French government formal apology to, 2:685 intellectuals’ defense of, 3:1168–1169 pardon of, 2:685 Dreyfus, Lucie, 2:684 Dreyfus affair, 1:338; 2:683–686, 696, 858, 1074; 4:1964; 5:2502 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:4; 3:1476 anticlericalism and, 1:69; 2:858 anti-Semitism and, 1:4, 75–76, 77, 185, 383; 2:683, 684, 689, 816; 3:1233 church-state separation and, 4:2137

1 9 1 4

Clemenceau and, 1:480 conservatism and, 1:284; 2:542, 683, 857 Degas and, 2:634 French Radicals and, 4:1929 Herzl and, 2:685, 1068 intellectuals and, 3:1168–1169 Jaure`s and, 3:1216 LeBon and, 3:1316 Maurras and, 2:684; 3:1476 Me´lie`re film on, 3:1483 Michel’s view of, 3:1497 military culture and, 1:94; 2:684 Pe´guy and, 4:1760, 1761 Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432 Zola and, 1:480; 2:684, 685, 685, 858; 3:1168, 1216; 5:2523–2524 drinking establishments, 1:34, 35 drinking water, 1:450; 2:628, 658; 3:1164 Paris and, 2:1049; 4:1731 ‘‘drink question.’’ See alcohol and temperance Drinkwater, Peter, 3:1692 Driscoll, Jim, 5:2435 drive theory (Freud), 2:908; 4:1904 Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (Stevenson). See Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Dr. Koch’s Treatment for Consumption at the Royal Hospital, Berlin (engraving), 5:2360 Droit des Femmes (Auclert), 1:127 Droit des femmes (French feminist journal), 2:649; 4:1998 Droit des femmes (Paris), 1:127 Droit des gens, Le (Vattel), 3:1173 Droynik (Dostoyevsky), 2:678 Droysen, Johann Gustav, 1:316, 318 drugs, 2:686–688; 5:2477 See also opium; tobacco ‘‘Drummer Hodge’’ (Hardy), 2:1045 Drummond-Hay, John, 3:1548 Drumont, E´douard, 2:540, 542, 688–690 Drunkard’s Children, The (Cruikshank), 2:586–587 drunk boxing, 4:2240 Drury Lane theatre (London), 3:1377 Drzymala, Michal, 4:1755 Dual Alliance (1879), 1:48, 50, 96, 239; 2:864, 965 Dual Monarchy. See Austria-Hungary Dublin, 2:690–694, 692, 1000; 4:1964 architecture in, 2:590 Easter insurrection of 1916 and, 3:1185

2615

INDEX

insurrection of 1803 and, 3:1177 international exhibitions and, 2:693; 5:2495, 2497 population of, 1:446; 2:690 Protestant population of, 2:691 United Irishmen in, 3:1176 world’s fair (1907) and, 5:2504 Dublin Corporation, 2:691–693 Dubliners (Joyce), 2:694 Dublin Industrial Exhibition (1853), 2:693 Dublin University, 2:693 Du Bois, W. E. B., 5:2503 Du Camp, Maxime, 4:1772 Duc giornate, Le (Mayr), 3:1670 Duchamp, Marcel, 1:156; 4:1784 cubism and, 2:590, 593 Jarry and, 3:1214 Duchamp-Villon, Raymond, 1:156; 2:590 Duchy of Warsaw. See Grand Duchy of Warsaw Ducommun, Elie, 4:1697 Ducos, Jean-Franc¸ois, 2:973 ´ douard, 4:1851 Ducpe´tiaux, E Du Cubisme (Gleizes and Metzinger), 2:593 Dudevant, Amandine (Aurore). See Sand, George dueling, 2:689, 694–696; 3:1471–1472 Dufau, Pierre-Armand, 1:297 Dufaure, Armand, 2:856 Dufaure Law of 1872 (France), 2:825 Dufayel (Paris department store), 2:550; 4:2160 Dufy, Raoul, 1:153; 2:796 Dugdale, William, 4:1834 Du Haschisch et de l’Alie´nation Mentale (Moreau de Tours), 2:687 Du¨hring, Eugen, 5:2395 Duino Elegies (Rilke), 1:65 Duke of Bridgewater’s canal, 3:1428 Duma (Russia), 1:42, 265–266, 290 abolition of, 3:1660 creation of, 3:1328, 1627 Finland and the Baltic provinces and, 2:823 Kadets’ seats in, 3:1241–1242, 1518, 1519 liberals and, 3:1349 Mensheviks and, 3:1488 Moscow programs, 3:1555 Nicholas II and, 3:1627, 1628 Octobrist party in, 3:1658–1660 Dumas, Alexandre, 1:229; 3:1577

2616

Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 Dore´ monument to, 2:677 as Eiffel Tower opponent, 2:738 hashish and, 2:687 on peasant as proletarian, 4:1757 translation of Garibaldi’s Memoirs by, 2:930 DuMaurier (illustrator), 4:1965 dumdums (expanding bullets), 2:1034 Du Mesnil, Octave, 2:1091 Dumouriez, Charles-Franc¸ois du Perier, 2:974; 3:1339, 1388, 1443 Dunant, Jean-Henri, 2:867, 952; 3:1650; 4:1948–1950 Duncan, Isadora, 1:154; 2:1031 Dundee, 4:2117, 2119 Dunedin, 3:1624 Dunlop, John, 2:601 Dunrobin Castle (Scotland), 1:186 Duo for Piano and Cello (Ravel), 4:1945 Dupanloup, Fe´lix, 4:1722 Du Pape (Maistre), 3:1422 Dupleix, Franc¸ois, 2:706 Dupont de l’E´tang, Pierre-Antoine, 4:1757, 2227 Dupont de l’Eure, Jacques-Charles, 1:337 Dupotet, Charles, 3:491 Du¨ppel, assault on (1864), 2:607, 608 Dupre´, Jules, 1:178; 5:2400 Dupuy, Charles, 3:1215–1216 Durand, Marguerite, 2:696–697 Durand-Fardel, Maxime, 3:1665 Durand-Ruel, Paul, 2:634, 940; 3:1535; 4:1708, 1793, 1794 Duration and Simultaneity (Bergson), 1:213 dure´e (Bergson concept), 1:214 Du¨rer, Albrecht, 3:1213 Durham, 1:485 ´ mile, 1:106, 214; Durkheim, E 2:697–700; 4:1844, 1875 Saint-Simon and, 4:2081 secularization viewed by, 4:2133 sociology and, 4:2213, 2214, 2215 statistics and, 4:2248 Stephen and, 4:2254 Durnovo, Peter, 4:2059 Duruy, Victor, 2:853, 1073; 5:2386 Duse, Eleonore, 2:609 Dussap, Srpouhi, 1:90 Du¨sseldorf School of landscape painting, 2:912 Du syste`me industriel (Saint-Simon), 4:2081 Du syste`me penitentiaire aux E´tatsUnis (Tocqueville and Bonninie`re), 5:2316

Dutch East India Company, 1:17 Dutch East Indies. See Indonesia Dutch language, 1:200, 202, 204, 307 Dutch Reformed Church, 3:1618, 1619; 4:1890 duties. See protectionism Duties of Man, The (Mazzini), 3:1481 Dutrieux, He´le`ne, 1:31 Duval, Paul (Jean Lorraine), 2:633 Dvorˇa´k, Antonin, 2:700–701; 3:1565, 1571; 4:2102 Dvorˇa´k, Frantisˇek, 2:700, 701 dyestuff, 3:1159 Dying Swan, The (ballet), 4:1750 dynamite, 3:1160 dynamo, 1:485; 2:741 dynamo-electric principle, 4:2179 dysentery, 4:1751

n

E Eagleton, Terry, 1:302 earth, age of, 2:615; 3:1250, 1402 Earthly Paradise, The (Morris), 3:1550–1551 East Africa, 1:16–17, 240; 2:582 exploration of, 2:784 Germany and, 2:967 Portuguese colonies in, 2:509 See also Sudan East Cowes Castle, 3:1602 Easter (Strindberg), 4:2286 East End (London), 3:1373, 1375, 1377 East End Gallery (London), 3:1376 East End Opium Den (Dore´), 2:687 ‘‘Easter 1916’’ (Yeats), 5:2510 Eastern Armenians. See Russian Armenians Eastern churches. See Orthodox Church Eastern Crisis (1875–1878), 2:674, 703; 3:1687–1690; 4:2017 Eastern Europe ethnoliguistic homogeneity attempts in, 3:1605 intelligentsia in, 3:1172 Jewish population of, 3:1227, 1232–1233 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717 Soviet post–World War II occupation of, 2:522 Eastern Life: Present and Past (Martineau), 3:1459 Eastern Orthodox Church. See Orthodox Church

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Eastern Question, 2:703–705 Abdul-Hamid II and, 1:2 Albania and, 1:32–34 Bismarck and, 2:526 Black Sea and, 1:243–244 Bosphorus control as root of, 1:278 Concert of Europe and, 2:525, 526, 527, 662 Disraeli and, 2:674, 1009; 3:1234 international conferences on, 3:1173 jingoism and, 3:1234 Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz treaty and, 3:1560–1561 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1681, 1682–1692 revival of, 2:663, 704–705; 3:1687–1688 Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067 Serbia and, 1:206 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2391–2392 See also Congress of Berlin Eastern Rumelia, 2:530, 705; 3:1689 Eastern Thrace, 3:1691 Easter Rising of 1916 (Ireland), 2:693; 3:1185; 5:2510 East India College (Haileybury), 3:1426 East India Company, 1:327, 495, 498; 2:705–707; 3:1133, 1134 Africa and, 1:17, 17 Chinese trade monopoly of, 2:705; 3:1678, 1679 elimination of, 1:499 Great Exhibition of 1851 and, 5:2495 London and, 3:1374 loss of Indian rule by, 3:706, 1135 Mill (James) and, 3:1510, 1511, 1512 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1512–1513 opium smuggling and, 2:687; 3:1678 Sepoy Mutiny and, 2:706, 1008; 3:1135; 4:2137–2140 Whigs and, 5:2461 East Indies. See Dutch East Indies East London Federation of the Suffragettes, 4:1714 East London Waterworks Company, 1:437 Eastman, George, 3:1396 East Prussia, 4:1900 Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 5:2508 Ebb Tide, The (Stevenson), 4:2256 Eberhardt, Isabelle, 2:784

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Ebert, Friedrich, 3:1356 Ebro River, 4:1764 Ec¸a de Queiro´s, Jose´ Marı´a, 1:70; 4:1840 Ecce Homo (Nietzsche), 3:1631 Eckermann, Johann Peter, 2:987 Eckhart, Meister Johannes, 3:1238 Eckmann, Otto, 1:112 E´cole Centrale (Paris), 2:759 E´cole de Me´decine (Paris), 4:2080 E´cole de Nancy, 1:111 E´cole des Beaux-Arts (Paris), 1:177, 397; 2:634; 4:1954, 2043; 5:2502, 2522 fauves and, 2:795–796 Guimard and, 1:177 Matisse and, 3:1473 Millet and, 3:1515, 1516 E´cole Militaire (Paris), 4:1727 E´cole Normale Supe´rieure (Paris), 2:666 Jaure`s and, 3:1215 Laplacian physics and, 4:1780 Michelet and, 3:1499 Pasteur and, 4:1743 E´cole Polytechnique (Paris), 1:96; 2:522, 523, 666, 728; 4:1969, 2080; 5:2396 engineer graduates of, 2:757, 759 founding of, 2:738 E´cole Pratique des Haute Etudes (Paris), 2:1073; 5:2386 ecology, 3:1426 Economic Doctrines of Karl Marx, The (Kautsky), 3:1248 Economic Ethics of the World Religions, The (Weber), 5:2446, 2447 economic growth and industrialization, 2:707–712 Amsterdam and, 1:53 aristocracy and, 1:83, 84, 85 armies and, 1:101 Athens and, 1:125 Austria-Hungary and, 1:137, 142, 143, 144 banking and, 1:170–176 Barcelona and, 1:182, 183 Belgium and, 1:199, 201–202, 203, 351 Belgrade and, 1:206, 207 Berlin and, 1:216–219 Bohemian Lands and, 1:259–261, 351 bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 287, 470, 471 Britain and, 1:329, 330, 350; 2:708–709, 710, 1003–1004

1 9 1 4

Brussels and, 1:305 Budapest and, 1:310 business firms and, 1:328–331 capitalism and, 1:350–357 cholera pandemics and, 2:668, 716 cities and, 1:445, 449, 454–455 coal’s importance to, 1:485–486 Communist Manifesto on, 3:1465–1466 conservativism and, 2:540 consumerism and, 2:549–550, 551–552 crime and, 2:571 dietary effects of, 2:658–669 Dublin and, 2:691 economic thought on, 2:707–709 education and, 2:721 electricity and, 2:741–742 environment and, 2:761–766, 765 epidemiology and, 2:667–668 factories and, 2:788–793 France and, 1:329, 330, 351; 3:1149 free trade advocacy and, 2:1005 gender and, 2:944–995 Germany and, 1:40–41, 47–48, 331, 351; 2:960, 967, 969; 5:2524, 2525–2526 global divergence and, 3:1150–1151 globalization and, 3:1151–1152 Great Exhibtion of 1851 and, 2:587–588, 589 Hamburg and, 2:1040–1041 Hobson’s economic theory on, 2:1075–1076 housing and, 2:1087 imperialism and, 3:1115, 1124 India and, 3:1135 Krupp and, 3:1273–1276 labor movements and, 3:1288, 1290–1291 leisure activities and, 3:1323–1324 literacy and, 2:720 Lyon and, 3:1404 machinery and, 3:1410 Manchester and, 3:1427–1431 mass production and, 3:1162 Milan and, 3:1501, 1502, 1504 Poland and, 4:1811 protectionism and, 1:355 protoindustrialization and, 3:147–149, 1152 railroads and, 4:1935–1936 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988 Romania and, 4:2018 Russia and, 1:40–41; 3:1627

2617

INDEX

Saint-Simon’s concept of, 4:2081, 2202 science and technology and, 4:2115–2116 Scotland and, 4:2117, 2122 Serbia and, 4:2147 Siberia and, 4:2173 South Africa and, 4:2222–2223 utopian socialist view of, 5:2395 Wales and, 5:2433, 2436 welfare state and, 1:356 working class and, 1:473–474 See also Industrial Revolution, First; Industrial Revolution, Second; trade and economic growth Economic Interpretation of Investment, The (Hobson), 2:1076 economics Bagehot studies in, 1:161 consumerism and, 2:551–552 crime incidence and, 2:571 Hobson and, 2:1075–1076 land enclosures and, 1:26–27 List and, 3:1356–1357 major schools of, 2:707–710 Marx and, 3:1466–1468 railroads and, 4:1930–1931 republicanism and, 4:1961 Sismondi and, 4:2185–2186 Struve and, 4:2270–2271 Weber and, 5:2446 See also economists, classical; laissezfaire; market, the Economic Studies (Bagehot), 1:161 economies of scale, 1:27, 329, 351, 354; 3:1157 Economist, The (British periodical), 1:160; 2:558, 716; 4:2201, 2233 economists, classical, 2:712–719 on consumerism, 2:551 free trade and, 2:515, 707, 708, 709; 3:1348; 4:1887; 5:2333–2334, 2338, 2339, 2340 liberalism and, 3:1341, 1342, 1348–1349 Malthus as, 3:1426 Martineau as, 3:1459 as Marx’s targets, 3:1466 Mill (James) as, 3:1510 Mill (John Stuart) as, 3:1513, 1514 neoclassical economists and, 2:707, 709 from Scotland, 4:2120 See also Ricardo, David; Smith, Adam Economy and Society (Weber), 5:2446, 2447–2448

2618

e´criture aftiste (literary style), 2:991 Ecuador, 2:687 Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, 3:1687 Edelfelt, Albert, 4:1948 Edgar (Puccini), 4:1916 Edgeworth, Francis Ysidro, 4:2248, 2249 Edicts of Toleration of 1781 (Joseph II), 1:138, 259; 3:1225, 1225–1226, 1229; 4:1856 Edinburgh, 4:2117, 2118, 2123 Old Town conditions in, 1:453 school for poor children, 2:722 Edinburgh Academy, 3:1477 Edinburgh Phrenological Society, 4:1775 Edinburgh Review (periodical), 1:102, 332; 3:1513 Brougham and, 1:302–303 Macaulay essays in, 3:1407, 1408 Edinburgh University. See University of Edinburgh Edirne. See Adrianapole Edison, Thomas Alva, 3:1398; 4:2112, 2113; 5:2499, 2500, 2505 cinema and, 1:441; 3:1396 electricity and, 2:741, 742; 3:1162 Editorial Montaner i Simon (Barcelona), 1:183 Edo. See Tokyo education, 2:719–729 Adler (Alfred) reforms and, 1:9–10 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:52 Armenians and, 1:89 of army officers, 1:96 Arnold and, 1:103 Baltic provinces, 2:821 Belgium and, 1:202 Bohemian Lands and, 1:261, 262; 2:723 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:276 bourgeoisie and, 1:286–287, 472 Britain and, 1:32, 211, 303, 321, 325, 431; 2:720–721, 722, 724, 728, 1008, 1009, 1010, 1103; 4:1868 British secularization of, 4:1896 Bulgaria and, 1:313; 3:1687 bureaucracy and, 1:320, 322 Central Asia and, 1:396 of children, 1:427–431, 472; 2:719–728 civil society and, 1:468 classical learning and, 1:286; 2:726–727 class restraints and, 1:431; 2:720–728

compulsory, 1:429, 430–431; 2:648, 719, 721, 723, 723–724, 856, 947; 4:1830, 1868, 1891 Denmark and, 2:648 Egypt and, 2:731 of engineers, 1:355; 2:759–760; 4:2112 French July Monarchy reforms, 2:1029; 3:1388 French national identity and, 3:1522 French Revolution reforms, 1:286; 2:666, 846; 3:1361 French secularization of, 2:721, 723, 810, 811, 856, 858, 929; 4:1868, 1891 Germany and, 1:286; 2:723–724 Habsburg reforms and, 1:138; 2:723 hierarchical structure of, 1:291 Huxley reforms and, 2:1101, 1102–1103 jadidism and, 3:1207 Jews and, 3:1229, 1230, 1232 libraries and, 3:1352 in medicine, 1:410 Mill (James) theory of, 3:1511–1512 monitorialism and, 2:720 Montessori method of, 3:1542–1543 municipal government and, 1:450 in national language, 2:719, 724–725 Netherlands and, 3:1618, 1619 in nursing, 3:1649, 1650 Owen theory of, 3:1692 Poland and, 2:603; 4:180, 18117 professional, 2:726–727; 4:1876–1877 professional certification and, 1:285 Prussia and, 1:431; 2:723–724, 728; 3:1277; 4:1972 Prussian secularization of, 2:966; 3:1278; 4:1900 racism spread by, 4:1927 republicanism and, 4:1961, 1964 Russia and, 1:39, 376; 2:720, 723, 727, 1016, 1017; 4:2051–2052 in science, 2:1103; 4:2112 Serbia and, 4:2148 Sweden and, 4:2285 women and, 1:286–287; 2:625, 626, 721, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 801, 929; 4:1891 See also literacy; universities ‘‘Education’’ (Mill), 5:2394 Education Act of 1870 (Britain), 2:722, 1008; 4:1868

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Education Act of 1872 (Scotland), 4:2120 Education and Employment of Women, The (Butler), 1:332 E´ducation fe´ministe des filles, L’ (Pelletier), 4:1762 Edward Augustus, duke of Kent, 5:2411 Edward VII, king of Great Britain, 1:114–115; 2:729–731, 730; 3:1638 Asquith and, 1:114–115; 2:730–731 as auto enthusiast, 1:150 Coronation Dunbar and, 2:597 Edwardian Age and, 2:1011 as horse enthusiast, 2:730, 731 Indian coronation assembly for, 3:1135 lifestyle of, 2:729–731 mother Victoria and, 2:730; 5:2415, 2415 son George V and, 2:730, 1011 E = mc2 (Einstein theory), 2:740 Effendi, Reshid, 1:1 Effi Briest (Fontane), 2:828, 829 Eglinton, Lord, 1:72 E´glise Reforme´e, 4:1890 E´glise Taitbout (Paris), 4:2136 Egmont (Goethe), 2:983 Ego and the Id, The (Freud), 2:908 ego ideal, 2:908 egoism, 5:2394, 2396 Egypt, 2:731–734, 733 bankruptcy of, 2:733 British Museum collection from, 3:1596 British occupation of, 1:2, 18, 20, 221, 222; 2:731–734, 794–795; 3:1116, 1118, 1122, 1338, 1482, 1549, 1585, 1668, 1686; 4:2274, 2275–2276 British slave trade prohibition for, 1:308 British withdrawal from, 2:598 European interests in, 1:18–19, 20, 49; 2:731–734 Fashoda Affair and, 2:643, 663, 794–795; 3:1668 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1020; 3:1612–1613 Kitchener and, 3:1668 Mediterranean and, 3:1482 Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz Treaty and, 3:1560–1561 Napoleon’s invasion of, 1:18–19, 43, 44, 278, 406; 2:731, 895, 900; 3:1134, 1337, 1585 Ottoman decline in, 1:2, 278; 3:1420; 5:2361

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

photographs of, 4:1772 revolt against Ottomans by, 2:525; 3:1686 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 Suez War and, 4:2276 Sydenham Crystal Palace exhibit and, 2:588 Syrian occupation by, 2:732; 3:1420–1421; 5:2391, 2392 tobacco and, 5:2313 tourism in, 5:2330, 2330 woman with water vessel, 2:732 Young Turks and, 5:2515 See also Suez Canal E´gypte sous les Pharaons (Champollion), 1:406 Egyptology, 1:406–407; 2:731; 3:1585 Ehrenfels, Christian von, 1:298 Ehrlich, Eugen, 3:1315 Ehrlich, Paul, 2:734–736 Eichtal, Gustave d’, 4:2202 Eiffel, Gustave, 1:351; 2:736, 738, 759, 760; 5:2500 commemorative franc note for, 3:1398 Panama Canal investment and, 3:1338 Eiffel Tower, 1:351; 2:736–738, 737, 760; 4:1731; 5:2500, 2501, 2503, 2505 construction of, 2:760 Eiffel Towery (Delaunay), 2:590 Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, The (Marx), 3:1462, 1466, 1589–1590 Eighth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419 Einstein, Albert, 1:215; 2:738–741, 739, 1063; 3:1435 Curie (Marie) tribute by, 2:596 Mach and, 2:739; 3:1409 Planck and, 4:1799 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1805 special relativity theory of, 2:739–740; 3:1409; 4:1780–1781, 1805 Einstein, Maja, 2:738, 740 Einstein, Margot, 2:740 Einzige und sein Eigentum, Der (Stirner), 5:2513 Eisenach, Eldon J., 3:1514 Eisenstein, Sergei, 3:1482; 4:1976 Either/Or (Kierkegaard), 2:648; 3:1251, 1252 Eitingon, Max, 4:1905 Eixample (Barcelona section), 1:181, 182

1 9 1 4

e´lan vital (Bergson concept), 1:214 Elba Island, 2:533, 846, 903, 958, 1098; 3:1387, 1588 Elberfeld system, 4:1850–1851 Elbe River, 1:148; 2:553, 1038; 3:1319, 1320 elderly people. See old age Electeur, L (Ferry), 2:810 Electrical Engineering Society, 4:2179 electricity, 2:741–743; 4:2113 Belgrade and, 1:207 coal mining and, 1:487–488 dynamo and, 1:485 Eiffel Tower and, 2:737 German industry and, 2:967, 1041 Hertz waves and, 2:1058, 1062–1063; 4:1780 housing and, 2:1090 physics and, 4:1779, 1780 progress and, 2:815 Second Industrial Revolution and, 1:351; 2:709, 741–742; 3:1157, 1161–1162 street lighting and, 1:446; 2:741, 742; 3:1414 subways and, 4:2271–2272 telegraph and, 3:1161, 1477 world’s fairs and, 5:2499, 2500, 2501, 2503 See also electromagnetism electric lifts, 4:2273 electrochemistry, 1:426; 4:2114 electrodynamics, 2:1058; 3:1162; 4:1804 electrolysis, 4:2114 electromagnetism, 2:649, 740, 741 Faraday theory of, 4:1780 Hertz waves and, 2:1058, 1062–1063; 3:1163 Marconi experiments with, 3:1444 Maxwell’s theory of, 3:1249, 1478; 4:1780, 2109, 2114 physics and, 4:1779, 1780 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1804–1805 electron, 4:1804 discovery of, 1:427 electrostatics, 3:1249 Elektra (R. Strauss), 3:1675–1676 elektrotechnik, 4:2179 Ele´me´ns de perspective pratique a` lusage des artistes (Valenciennes), 2:561 Elementary Education Act of 1870 (Britain), 2:721 Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, The (Durkheim), 2:699–700 elements, radioactive, 2:595 Elements of Geology (Lyell), 3:1402

2619

INDEX

Elements of Political Economy (J. Mill), 2:717; 3:1510 Elena Pavlovna, grand duchess of Russia, 4:2154 Elettra (yacht), 3:1445 Elf Scharfrichter (Munich cabaret), 1:336 Elgar, Edward, 2:701 Elgin, Lord, 3:1376, 1562 Elias, Norbert, 1:461 Eliot, George, 2:743–745; 3:1408; 4:1756, 1844 as Sand admirer, 4:2084 Spencer and, 4:2235 Stephen and, 4:2254 Zionism as theme of, 5:2519 Eliot, T. S., 1:214; 2:657; 3:1256; 4:2182; 5:2310 Elisabetta regina d’Inghilterra (Rossini), 4:2038 Elisir d’amore, L’ (Donizetti), 3:1670 elite culture. See popular and elite culture elites. See aristocracy; landed elites Elizabeth, empress of Austria, 2:627, 863; 4:2044 assassination of, 2:865 Elizabeth, empress of Russia, 1:374–375; 2:603; 4:1747, 2076, 2077 Elizabeth and Essex (Strachey), 4:2259 Elizabethan Poor Laws. See Poor Law Elizabethan style, 1:186 Elkan, Sophie, 4:2287 Elkin, Stanley, 4:2101 Elle et lui (Sand), 4:2084 Elliot, George, 3:1679 Elliotson, John, 3:1491; 4:1775 Ellis, Edith Lees, 2:745, 746 Ellis, Edwin John, 1:246 Ellis, Havelock, 1:372; 2:745–746, 906, 948, 1085; 4:1747, 2162 Symonds and, 4:2296 Ellis, Tom, 5:2435 Elsen, Albert E., 4:2011 Elssler, Fanny, 4:1750 Elster Bridge, 3:1322 Elster River, 3:1320, 1321 Elvira Studio (Munich), 1:112 Emancipated, The (Gissing), 2:975 emancipation. See antislavery movement; Catholic emancipation; Jewish emancipation; serfs, emancipation of Emancipation Act of 1829 (Britain), 1:381 Emancipation Act of 1833 (Britain), 1:17

2620

Emancipation of Labor (Russian group), 4:1801; 5:2518 E´mancipation sexuelle de la femme, L’ (Pelletier), 4:1762 Embargo Act of 1807 (United States), 5:2439 embargoes. See Continental System embroidery, 1:112; 4:2290 embryogeny, 4:1953 embryology, 2:1102 Embryons desse´che´s (Satie), 4:2087 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 3:1574; 4:2030 Emigrants, The (Walker engraving), 2:751 emigration, 2:746–752 from agricultural crises, 2:646, 658 from Alsace-Lorraine, 1:52 Balkan Wars and, 3:1691 of Bosnian Muslims, 1:276 from Britain, 1:343, 344, 346, 351; 2:505, 506 counterrevolutionaries and, 564; 2:566 from Denmark, 2:647 from Dublin, 2:690 from Europe, 1:353; 2:646 from Europe (1830– 1914), 2:747 of European laborers, 1:353 from European overseas (1830–1914), 2:747 as export of labor, 3:1113 German decline in, 2:967 from Germany, 2:646, 960, 962 increased returns and, 2:749–750 from Ireland, 4:2118, 2121 from Irish Potato Famine, 2:646, 748, 1005 from Italy, 2:506, 747, 747, 748, 748; 3:1195, 1199, 1255 key peak years in, 2:748 from Lithuania, 3:1367–1368 of peasants, 4:1756 of Poles from Russia, 4:1808, 1818 as population control, 2:646 rates per year per thousand population, 2:748 reasons for, 2:747–748 from rural to urban areas, 4:1753 of Russian Jews, 1:40; 3:1113; 4:1804 to settlement colonies, 2:503–505 from Sicily, 4:2175, 2178 from Spain, 5:2337 from Sweden, 4:2285, 2287 from Venice, 5:2405 voluntary associations and, 1:119

See also immigration and internal migration E´migre´s Army of the Princes (France), 1:420 E´mile (Rousseau), 2:942 Eminent Victorians (Strachey), 4:2259 Emin Pasha (Eduard Schnitzer), 2:783 Emma (Austen), 1:130, 131 Emmerich, Anna Katharina, 1:385 Emmet, Robert, 3:1177, 1604 emotion, Romanticism and, 4:2027–2029 Empecinado, El, 4:2229 ‘‘Empedocles on Etna’’ (Arnold), 1:102 Empedocles on Etna and Other Poems (Arnold), 1:102 ‘‘Emperor’’ (Fifth) Piano Concerto (Beethoven), 1:196 ‘‘Emperor’s New Clothes, The’’ (Andersen), 2:648 Emperor Waltz (Strauss), 4:2260 ‘‘Empfindungen vor Friedrichs Seelandschaft’’ (Kleist), 2:911 empire. See imperialism; specific empires by name Empire Day, 2:505 Empirical Psychology (Wolff), 4:1907 Employe´s, Les (Balzac), 1:168 Ems telegram, 2:853 Enabling Act of 1933 (Germany), 2:966 enclosure acts (Britain), 1:26–27, 28, 358; 2:762; 4:1754 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 3:1272, 1408; 5:2394 Maxwell as physics editor of, 3:1478 Mill (James) as contributor to, 3:1510 Encyclope´die nouvelle, 4:2013 Endecja, 2:752–754; 4:1811–1812, 1818 Endell, August, 1:112 ‘‘Enemy from the East, The’’ (Soloviev), 4:2217 Enemy of the People, An (Ibsen), 3:1108 energy conservation, principle of, 2:1057, 1058; 3:1250 energy systems, 2:764; 3:1153, 1160–1162; 4:1781 Maxwell and, 3:1478 thermodynamics and, 3:1249–1250 Enfance du Christ, L’ (Berlioz), 1:225 Enfant et les sortile`ges, L’ (Ravel), 4:1945 Enfantin, Barthe´lemy-Prosper, 2:803; 4:2081, 2202; 5:2396

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Enfant prodigue, L’ (Debussy), 2:630 ‘‘Enfranchisement of Women, The’’ (H. T. Mill), 3:1509 Engel, Ernst, 2:552 Engels, Friedrich, 2:754–756, 755, 1006; 4:2205 on artisans, 1:104 Bernstein friendship with, 1:230–231 on class, 1:474, 475 communism and, 2:520, 521, 522, 754; 3:1465–1466 Communist Manifesto and, 4:1946, 2081 on family life, 3:1450 Fourierism and, 2:838 Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871 Guesde and, 2:1025 Kautsky and, 3:1248 Lassalle and, 3:1311 Manchester and, 1:455; 2:754, 756; 3:1430, 1466 Marx collaboration with, 3:1461, 1462, 1465, 1466; 4:2203, 2204 on peasants’ situation, 4:1756 Saint-Simon and, 4:2081 Schelling and, 4:2088 Second International and, 4:2127 as secret society critic, 4:2131 Social Democratic Party and, 3:1399 on Ulrichs’s writing, 5:2376 utopian socialism and, 5:2395 on Wales, 5:2433 on women’s rights, 2:805, 946 on women workers, 5:2487 as Young Hegelian, 5:2512 Engels, Robert, 3:1159, 1275 Enghien, duc de (Louis-Antoine-Henri Bourbon-Conde´), 1:420; 5:2306 Engineering Employers Federation (Britain), 3:1291 engineers, 2:757–761; 3:1149 Brunel as, 1:303–305 Cockerill family as, 1:492–493 Eiffel Tower and, 2:736, 738, 760 French vs.German training of, 1:355 Industrial Revolution and, 3:1430 Panama Canal and, 4:2080 St. Petersburg development and, 4:2076 Siemens as, 4:2178–2180 Suez Canal and, 4:2274–2276 technology and, 4:2111–2112 engines. See internal combustion engine; steam engine England. See Great Britain England Cup Tournament, 4:2241

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

English and Scottish Cooperative Wholesale Societies, 2:555 English Bards and Scotch Reviewers (Byron), 1:332 English Constitution, The (Bagehot), 1:160–161 English Football Association, 4:2242 ‘‘English Idylls’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309 English language Canada and, 1:343, 346 Grimms Law and, 2:1024 India and, 3:1134, 1407 English Laws for Women in the Nineteenth Century (Norton), 3:1645 English Literature and Society in the Eighteenth Century (Stephen), 4:2254 English Local Government (Webb and Webb), 5:2445 English Republic, The (journal), 4:1964 English Schools Football Association, 2:833 English Utilitarians, The (Stephen), 4:2254 English Woman’s Journal, 2:625 engraving, 1:244 Dore´ and, 2:676–678, 677 Matisse and, 3:1475 Enlightenment, 1:28, 67, 254; 4:1756 agricultural reform and, 2:28, 762 anticlericalism and, 1:67 aristocracy and, 1:80 associations and, 1:116, 121 Balkans and, 3:1684–1685 Berlin and, 1:215 Burke’s critique of, 1:327–328; 2:566 Carlist opposition to, 1:83 Catherine II and, 1:377 Chaadayev’s critique of, 1:400 civilization concept and, 1:461 civil society and, 1:465 conservative response to, 1:326, 327–328; 2:537, 538, 539, 566; 3:1425; 4:1968 counterrevolutionaries vs., 1:268, 269; 2:566 as Czartoryski influence, 2:602, 603 dueling critique of, 2:296, 694 Freemasons and, 2:878 free trade and, 2:515; 4:1887 French Revolution’s origins and, 2:841, 885 gender and, 2:941, 945 as Gouges influence, 2:994

1 9 1 4

Hamburg and, 2:1038 intellectuals and, 3:1167 Jews and, 3:1228–1229, 1233 John of Austria and, 3:1235 Jomini military theory and, 3:1236–1237 leisure and, 3:1323 liberalism and, 1:231; 3:1341 love viewed by, 4:2029 Maistre on, 3:1422; 4:1893 Malthus critique of, 3:1425 masculine-only rights and, 3:1470 mechanization and, 3:1411 Mill (James) and, 3:1510 museums and, 3:1562 national identity and, 3:1521 nature viewed by, 4:2158 Nietzsche critique of, 3:1633 O’Connell’s Catholicism and, 3:1655–1657 optimism of, 3:1425, 1426 pornography and, 4:1833 progress and, 2:631, 714 religion and, 2:545 Restoration and, 4:1968, 1972, 1973 Romanticism vs., 4:2026–2027, 2028, 2029 in Scotland, 1:464; 3:1510; 4:2120, 2123 Sieye`s and, 4:2180, 2181 slavery opposed by, 4:2192 utilitarianism and, 1:211 women’s status and, 2:800–801, 941, 945 Young Hegelians and, 5:2512 Enoch Arden (Tennyson), 5:2310 Enquiry Concerning Political Justice (Godwin), 2:980–981, 1000 En Route (En Rade; Huysmans), 2:1104 Ensor, James Sydney, 1:307; 2:638; 4:1845 Entartung (Nordau), 2:638 Entente Cordiale, 1:49, 50, 96; 2:526, 609; 4:2098 Delcasse´ and, 2:642, 643, 795 as Fashoda Affair aftermath, 2:795 Moroccan Crisis and, 1:49; 3:1545, 1546, 1549 Entfu ¨ hrung aus dem Serail, Die (Mozart), 3:1673 Entrance of Christ into Brussels, The (Ensor), 1:307 Entretiens sur l’architecture (Viollet-leDuc), 5:2422 entropy, 2:652

2621

INDEX

environment, 2:761–767 Malthusian theory and, 3:1426, 1427 racial debate and, 4:1924 Soloviev (Vladimir) on, 4:2217 See also nature; pollution; sanitation Eo ¨ tvo ¨ s, Jo´zsef, 3:1266 Epicurus, 3:1464 epidemics. See disease; specific diseases epidemiologic transition, 2:628, 644 ‘‘Epipsychidion’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 Epirus, 1:2; 4:2085 Episcopalians. See Anglican Church epistemology, Helmholtz and, 2:1058 Epping Forest, 3:1550 Eppinghoven, baroness von (Arcadia Claret), 3:1336 Epstein, Gustav, 5:2420 Epstein, Jacob, 5:2466 equal rights. See rights equity courts, 1:303 Eragny-sur-Epte, 4:1794 Erbsloh, Adolph, 1:155 Erekle II, 4:2164 Erfurt Program, The (Kautsky), 3:1248 Erfurt Union, 4:1902 Ericsson, John, 3:1644 Eritrea, 1:8; 3:1200 ‘‘Erlko ¨ nig, Der’’ (Goethe), 2:984 ‘‘Erlko ¨ nig, Der’’ (Schubert), 4:2106 Ermione (Rossini), 3:1672 Ernani (Verdi), 5:2406 Ernest Augustus, king of Hanover, 2:959–960, 1024; 5:2471 Ernst, Heinrich Wilhelm, 4:1700 ‘‘Eroica’’ (Third) Symphony (Beethoven), 1:197, 198 Eros (Verga), 5:2407 Eros: The Male Love of the Greeks (Ho¨ssli), 2:1085 Eros und Psyche: Eine biologischpsychologische Studie (Weininger), 5:2449 Erotika biblion (Riquetti), 4:1833 error curve. See bell curve Error judicaire, Une (Lazare pamphlet), 2:684 Ertartung (Nordau), 2:632 Erte´ (Romain de Tirtoff), 1:192 Erwartung (Schoenberg), 3:1676; 4:2102 erysipelas, 4:2198 Erzerum, 1:91, 92 escalators, 4:2273 Escoffier, Georges Auguste, 4:1967 Espan ˜ ola. See Dominican Republic; Haiti Espartero, Baldomero Ferna´ndez, 4:2229 espionage, 2:683, 684

2622

‘‘Esplanade System, The’’ (Strindberg), 4:2268 Esquirol, Jean-E´tienne-Dominique, 4:1791 Essai analytique sur les lois naturelles de l’ordre social (Bonald), 1:268 Essai historique, politique et moral sur les re´volutions anciennes et modernes, conside´re´es dans leurs rapports avec la re´volution franc¸aise (Chateaubriand), 1:420 Essais litteraires et historiques (Schlegel), 4:2096 Essai sur la litte´rature anglaise (Chateaubriand), 1:421 Essai sur la the´orie des proportions chimiques (Berzelius), 1:424 Essai sur le principe ge´ne´rateur des constitutions politiques (Maistre), 3:1422 Essai sur l’inegalite´ des races humaines (Gobineau), 1:74 Essaouira, 3:1548 Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke), 4:1907 Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent, An (Newsman), 3:1621 Essay on Catholicism, Liberalism, and Socialism (Donoso Corte´s), 4:2208 ‘‘Essay on Classification’’ (Agassiz), 1:23 Essay on Privilege (Sieye`s), 4:2180 ‘‘Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine’’ (Newsman), 3:1621 Essay on the First Principles of Government (Priestly), 5:2393 Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus), 2:615, 714–715; 3:1425, 1426 Godwin answer to, 2:981 Essays in Criticism (Arnold), 1:102 Essays in Freethinking and Plainspeaking (Stephen), 4:2254 ‘‘Essays on Government’’ (J. Mill), 3:1510 Essen, 3:1273, 1274, 1274 Essen, Siri von, 4:2268 Essence of Christianity, The (Feuerbach), 2:744, 754; 4:2133; 5:2512 essentialism, 1:23 Establishment for Gentlewomen During Illness (London), 3:1637 Estampes (Debussy), 2:631 Estates-General, 2:767–768, 841, 842, 885, 886; 3:1385 Freemasons and, 2:881

Lafayette and, 3:1299 Sieye`s and, 4:2180 suffrage and, 4:2276, 2277 women’s grievances and, 2:801 workers’ grievances and, 3:1411 Este family, 3:1191 Esterhazy, Ferdinand, 2:684 Esterica come scienza dell espressione e linguistica generale (Croce), 2:584 Estevadeordal, Antoni, 2:515 Estonia, 1:40; 2:817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 821, 822, 823 Estonia Society, 2:821 E´tat Inde´pendant du Congo. See Congo Free State E´tats-unis d’Europe, Les (journal), 4:1696 etchings, 2:998 Eternite´ par les Astres, L’ (Blanqui), 1:249 Etex, Antoine, 4:2043 ether, 4:1780, 2109 ‘‘Ethical Problem of the Light of Philosophical Idealism, The’’ (Berdyayev), 1:212 Ethics (Spinoza), Eliot translation, 2:744 Ethiopia, 1:362; 2:582, 583, 609, 794; 3:1116, 1118, 1200; 4:2175 Addis Ababa Treaty and, 1:7–8 ethnicity race vs., 3:1520 See also minorities ethnography, 2:873 ethnonationalism, 3:1524–1526 Etiology, the Concept, and the Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever, The (Semmelweiss), 4:2135 etiquette. See manners and formality Eton College, 4:2240, 2241 etymology, 2:1024 Euclidean geometry, 2:883 eudiometer, 4:2114 Eugene Onegin (Pushkin), 4:1919 Eugene Onegin (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307 eugenics, 2:769–771, 779; 5:2489 Chamberlain (Houston) and, 1:403 degeneracy theory and, 2:241, 636, 637, 769, 928 fin de sie`cle and, 2:816 Galton and, 2:652, 637, 779, 927, 928; 4:2249 German social and racial hygiene and, 4:1914 ‘‘racial hygiene’’ movement and, 2:619, 639 See also social Darwinism

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Eugenics (Davenport), 2:770 Eugenics Education Society (London), 2:769, 770 Eugenics Records Office (U.S.), 2:769, 770–771 Euge´nie, empress of France, 1:482; 2:732 Biarritz and, 4:2126; 5:2328 spiritualism and, 4:2237 Suez Canal opening and, 4:2274 Thiers and, 5:2311 Euge´nie Grandet (Balzac), 1:168 Dostoyevsky translation of, 2:678 Eulenburg, Philipp zu, 2:1084 Eulenburg affair (1907), 2:1071, 1084 Euler, Carl, 4:2242 Euler characteristic, 4:1804 ‘‘Eulogy for Ravachol’’ (Adam), 4:1943 Eurasianism, 2:771–776 Eure´ka (Baudelaire), 1:188 Eureka Field (Australia), 1:134 Euripides, 4:2095 Eurocentrism, 3:1174 Europe (Blake), 1:244, 246 European Coal and Steel Community, 1539 ‘‘Europe and Mankind’’ (Trubetskoy), 2:775 European Monetary Institute, 3:1539 European Parliament, 3:1539 European Union, 2:643; 3:1539, 1600 absinthe controls and, 1:4 European Union Constitutional Treaty (2006), 3:1539 euthanasia, 2:629 Eva (Verga), 5:2407 Evangelical Gymnasium (Budapest), 2:1066–1067 evangelicalism awakenings and, 4:1894–1895, 1896, 2136 Britain and, 2:1002, 1006; 3:1180; 4:1892–1893, 1895, 1896 childhood and, 1:428 church-state separation and, 4:2136 France and, 4:1968 Gladstone and, 2:976 St. Petersburg and, 4:2079 Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083 Scotland and, 2:1006 temperance movement and, 1:36 Wales and, 5:2434 Wilberforce and, 5:2463 See also Methodism; missions Evangelical Party (Scotland), 2:1006 Evans, Frederick H., 1:192

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Evans, Mary Ann. See Eliot, George Evans, Walker, 1:123 Eve (Pe´guy), 4:1760 Eve contre Dumas (Deraismes), 2:649 Eve dans l’humanite´ (Deraismes), 2:649 Evening News (London newspaper), 4:1871 evening primrose, 2:653 Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka (Gogol), 2:988 Everybody’s Political What’s What (Shaw), 4:2167 evolution, 2:776–779 Agassiz opposition to, 1:23; 2:618 capitalist application of, 2:777 civilization concept and, 1:461 cultural pessimism and, 2:631 Cuvier opposition to, 2:599 Darwin’s theory of, 2:614–619, 776, 945; 4:1908, 2071 degeneration as reversal of, 2:239, 636; 3:1472 Galton and, 2:927 Goethe’s theory of, 2:986 Haeckel and, 2:1031–1032, 1069 Huxley and, 2:1101, 1102, 1103 as Kautsky influence, 3:1248 Kelvin’s energy laws and, 3:1250 Lamarck’s theory of, 2:599, 928; 3:1302–1303 Lombroso ‘‘born criminal’’ theory and, 3:1371 Lyell and, 3:1402 Malthus and, 3:1426 Marxist application of, 2:756 mutation and, 2:653 natural history museums and, 3:1563 pre-Darwinian theories of, 2:614, 615, 776–777 progress and, 2:617, 814 Spencer’s theory of, 2:615–616, 777; 4:2233–2235 Wallace’s view of, 2:616; 5:2437, 2438 Evolutionary Socialism (Bernstein), 4:2205 Evolution of Modern Capitalism, The (Hobson), 4:2206 Ewers, Hans Heinz, 2:633 Examen de la philosophie de Bacon (Maistre), 3:1422 examinations civil service, 1:324; 2:726 professional, 4:1879–1880 university degree, 4:1877 Examples of Gothic Architecture (Pugin), 4:1917 Excursion, The (Wordsworth), 5:2482

1 9 1 4

Execution of Emperor Maximillian of Mexico, 19 June 1867, The (Manet), 2:854 Execution of the Defenders of Madrid, 3 May 1808 (Goya), 4:1703, 2226 Executive Commission (France), 3:1304 exercise. See sports Exeter College (Oxford), 3:1550 exhibitionism, 3:1270; 4:2162 Exhibition of Modern Consumer Goods, Berlin, 1909 (poster), 2:969 exile, penal, 1:134; 2:504, 779–782 Siberia and, 4:2050, 2054, 2172 Zasulich and, 5:2517 existentialism, 2:1101; 3:1252, 1635; 4:2028 Exodus to the East (Trubetskoy), 2:775 Expedition of the Thousand (1860), 1:392; 2:581; 3:1198 experimental psychology, 4:1908; 5:2506–2508 Experiment in Autobiography (Wells), 5:2459 Expiatory Chapel (Paris), 3:1386; 4:1729 Expiatory Temple of the Sagrada Familia. See Sagrada Familia exploitation, Marx’s theory of, 3:1467 explorers, 2:782–785 Galton as, 2:927 Humboldt (Alexander) as, 2:1096–1097; 3:1658 Kropotkin as, 3:1272 masculinity and, 3:1472 oceanic, 3:1653–1654 Verne’s portrayal of, 5:2408 Explosion of a Bomb on the Avenue de la Republique, Paris, by the Russian Anarchists and Nihilists (illustration), 1:58 explosives, 3:1160, 1644 export-led growth theory, 5:2334 exports. See trade and economic growth export subsidies, 4:1887 Exposition de la doctrine de SaintSimon (lecture series publication), 4:2081 Exposition of 1888 (Barcelona), 1:182–183 Exposition of 1892 (Brussels), 1:108 Exposition Universelle of 1855 (Paris), 2:641; 3:1660; 4:1947; 5:2495–2496 Courbet paintings and, 2:568–569 Exposition Universelle of 1857 (Paris), 2:641 Exposition Universelle of 1867 (Paris), 3:1433, 1661; 5:2497–2498

2623

INDEX

Exposition Universelle of 1878 (Paris), 1:298; 5:2498–2499 Goya ‘‘Black’’ paintings and, 2:999 Exposition Universelle of 1889 (Paris), 1:282, 351; 2:589, 647; 4:2127; 5:2500–2502, 2501 advertising and, 2:550 Eiffel Tower and, 2:736, 737, 738; 4:1731 electric lighting and, 2:742, 815 German participation in, 3:1354 as paean to progress, 2:815 peace activists and, 4:1696 photography and, 4:1772 Exposition Universelle of 1900 (Paris), 2:589, 1031; 4:1732, 2010; 5:2502–2504, 2504 advertising and, 2:550 art nouveau and, 1:108, 110, 111, 113; 2:1027 electric lighting and, 2:742 Lumie`re Photorama screen and, 3:1397 Nadar exhibit and, 3:1578 Exposition Universelle of 1925 (Paris), 1:108 Exposition Universelle of 1937 (Paris), 1:108; 2:589 expressionism, 2:797; 3:1530; 4:1710–1711 avant-garde and, 1:154–156, 157 Berlin painters and, 1:220, 220 Gaudı´ as influence on, 2:938 Munch as precursor of, 3:1558 Schiele and, 4:2089; 5:2421 Schoenberg’s music and, 4:2102 Strindberg and, 4:2269 See also Bru¨cke, Die Expression of Emotion in Animals, The (Darwin), 2:617 external economies, 4:1887 Extinction du paupe´risme, L’ (LouisNapoleon), 1:271; 3:1590 extinction theories, 2:599, 613; 3:1302 Eyck, Frank, 2:871 Eyck, Jan van, 3:1166; 4:1863 Eylau, Battle of (1807), 2:902; 3:1586 Eyre, Edward John, 1:371; 2:781 Eyu¨p, 3:1186

n

F Faberge´, Carl, 4:2079 Fabian Essays (Shaw, ed.), 2:787; 5:2445 Fabians, 1:230, 372; 2:787–788, 1011; 3:1693; 5:2443–2445

2624

Labour Party and, 3:1295 London School of Economics and, 3:1377 Shaw and, 1:987; 4:2166, 2206; 5:2444, 2458 socialism and, 1:230, 372, 787–788; 4:2206 Webb and, 2:788; 4:2206; 5:2443, 2444–2445, 2458 Wells and, 4:2206; 5:2445, 2458 Fables (La Fontaine), Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 Fable of the Bees (Mandeville), 2:551 Fabra, Pompeu, 4:2232 Fabre d’Eglantine, Philippe-Franc¸oisNazaire, 2:611 Fabri, Friedrich, 3:1121 Fabrizi, Nicola, 2:581 Fac¸ade of Rouen Cathedral (Monet), 3:1535–1536 ‘‘Facino Cane’’ (Balzac), 1:168 factories, 2:788–794 air pollution from, 2:764 Berlin and, 1:217, 219 Britain and, 1:350, 429; 2:708, 788–793; 3:1149, 1427–1431 British improved conditions in, 2:1003, 1004 capitalism and, 1:350 Catalan housing for, 1:183 child workers in, 1:350, 351, 352, 371, 401, 429, 430, 430; 2:708, 792, 793; 3:1150 cities and, 1:444, 445, 446, 449, 452, 454, 455 coffee or tea drinking and, 1:494 Denmark and, 2:647 diet and, 2:658–659 electricity and, 2:741 German Ruhr and, 1:357 Hamburg and, 2:1040–1041 Industrial Revolution (first) and, 1:351; 3:1146, 1148 Industrial Revolution (second) and, 1:352 labor movements and, 1:474; 2:793; 3:1291 legislation and, 2:793 Luddism and, 3:1391–1392 machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412 Madrid and, 3:1413 masculinization of work and, 3:1470 mass production and, 3:1162; 5:2352 Milan and, 3:1504 Owen reform proposals for, 3:1692

paternalism and, 2:793, 1087, 1088; 3:1275 Poland and, 4:1812 rise of, 1:328–329; 2:788–789 St. Petersburg, and, 4:2079 sewing machines and, 4:2159 social impact of, 2:792–793 steam power and, 2:709, 791–792; 3:1152, 1152, 1153, 1410, 1427 women workers in, 1:350, 351, 352, 371, 401, 475; 2:789, 792, 945; 3:1148 workday/workweek limits for, 1:285, 288, 401, 417; 2:793; 4:1824 worker housing and, 1:474; 2:793 workers and, 1:473, 474; 2:555 workshops vs., 2:788–789 Factory Act of 1833 (Britain), 1:401; 2:793 factory towns, 1:446 F. A. Davis Company, 2:746 Fadeyev, Rostislav, 5:2478 Faguet, Emile, 4:1697 Fairbairn, Thomas, 4:1864 Fairbairn, William, 3:1430 fairy tales, 2:648; 3:1523 Dore´ illustrations of, 2:676 Grimm brothers and, 2:1023–1024 Faith and Love (Novalis), 3:1647 Falange (Spain), 1:368 Falk, Adalbert, 2:966 Falkenhayn, Erich Georg Anton Sebastian von, 1:232 ‘‘Fallacies of Hope’’ (Turner), 4:1704 Fallen Jockey (Degas), 2:634 Falstaff (Verdi), 3:1676; 5:2406 Familia de Carlos IV, La (Goya), 4:2225 familial suffrage, 4:2278 Familiar Studies of Men and Books (Stevenson), 4:2255 Familiste`re (utopian community), 2:838 family. See marriage and family Family, The (Schiele), 4:2091 Family of Charles IV, The (Goya), 2:997; 4:1703 Family of Saltimbanques, The (Picasso), 4:1782 family-owned businesses, 1:330, 355 famine Belgium and, 1:201 Great Hunger of 1846–1847, 4:1751, 1754 India and, 3:1427 Naples and, 3:1580 peasants and, 4:1751, 1754–1755

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1989 Russia and, 4:1755, 2055, 2056 See also diet and nutrition; Irish Potato Famine Fanciulla del West, La (Puccini), 4:1916 Fanfarle, La (Baudelaire), 1:188 Fanny Hill (Cleland), 4:1833 Fanny’s First Play (Shaw), 4:2167 fans, electric, 2:741 Fantasio (Offenbach), 3:1661 Fantastic Symphony (Berlioz), 1:25, 224 Fantasy in F Minor (Schubert), 4:2107 Fante Confederation, 1:19 Fantin-Latour, Henri, 3:1432 Faraday, Michael, 1:441; 2:741; 3:1162, 1478; 4:1779, 1780, 2108 Far from the Madding Crowd (Hardy), 2:1045; 4:1757 Farman, Henri, 1:30 Farmers League (Belgium), 1:204 farming. See Agricultural Revolution; farm labor; peasants; specific crops farm labor, 1:24; 2:762 children as, 1:428, 429–430 gender and, 2:943 Germany and, 2:960 land reform and, 3:1305 machine breaking and, 1:357, 358–359; 3:1411 mezzandria system and, 3:1195; 4:2186 Po Valley and, 3:1195 Scotland and, 4:2116–2117, 2120, 2121 slaves as, 4:2190–2191 socialist neglect of, 3:1294 Wales and, 5:2433–2434, 2435 See also Agricultural Revolution; peasants; rural life; serfs, emancipation of Farnese Palace (Rome), 1:186 Farr, William, 1:437 Farrer, Thomas, 4:1864 far right. See New Right fascism Action Franc¸aise prefiguring, 1:4; 2:542, 686 Boulangism linked with, 1:282 Crispi and, 2:583 Croce’s opposition to, 2:585 ideological precursors of, 1:184, 185; 2:539, 542 Italian Futurist Party and, 2:921 Italy and, 2:972, 973; 3:1199, 1201, 1203; 4:2004, 2037; 5:2364

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Lateran Pact and, 1:382; 3:1199 Manns opposition to, 3:1435 Marconi and, 3:1445 Milan and, 3:1504 political Catholicism and, 1:389 racism and, 4:1928 Second Empire prefiguring, 3:1592 Sorel and, 4:2217, 2218 Spain and, 1:368 syndicalism and, 1:61, 62 fashion. See clothing, dress, and fashion Fashoda Affair (1898), 2:663, 784, 794–795, 1033; 3:1117–1118; 5:2502 Delcasse´ and, 2:643 Kitchener and, 2:794–795; 3:1668 Fasti (Ovid; Frazer translation), 2:873 Fat Cattle (Gillray), 1:29 Father, The (Strindberg), 4:2269 Fatherland Party (Germany), 1:404 Fathers and Sons (Turgenev), 3:1168, 1170, 1639; 5:2365 Father Thames Introducing His Offspring to the Fair City of London (cartoon), 4:1911 fauborgs, 5:2485 Fauchet, Claude, 2:973; 4:1961 Faure, Fe´lix, 2:684; 5:2432 Fausse industrie, La (Fourier), 4:2202 Faust (Goethe), 2:982, 983, 985, 987 Faust (Gounod), 3:1672 Faust legend, 4:2030 Faute de l’Abbe´ Mouret, La (Zola), 1:70 fauvism, 2:795–797, 796; 4:1710 as avant-garde, 1:153, 154 Bergson’s influence on, 1:214 coining of term, 1:156; 2:795 as Kandinsky influence, 3:1244, 1245; 4:1711 Matisse leadership of, 3:1474, 1530; 4:1710 modernism and, 3:1530 ‘‘wildness’’ and, 4:1875 ‘‘favorable variation’’ (Darwin theory), 2:615 Favorite, La (Donizetti), 3:1672 Favre, Jules, 3:1404 Favretto, Giacomo, 5:2405 Fawcett, Millicent Garrett, 2:626, 797–799, 798; 4:2279 Fawkes, Walter, 5:2367 Fay, C. R., 2:714 Faˆzil, Mustafa, 5:2514 Fear and Trembling (Kierkegaard), 3:1251, 1252 Feast in Time of the Plague (Pushkin), 4:1919

1 9 1 4

Feast of the Federation (France), 5:2305 Febre d’Or (Barcelonan ‘‘gold fever’’), 1:182 Febronianism, 4:1721 February Patent of 1861 (AustriaHungary), 1:262 February Revolution (Russia). See Revolution of 1917 Febvre, Lucien, 1:461 Fechner, Gustav Theodor, 4:1909; 5:2507 Fechner-Smarsly, Thomas, 4:2269 Federal-Constitutional Union, 5:2472 Federalist Papers, The (U.S.), 4:1958 Federalist Party (U.S.), 4:1701; 5:2439, 2440 federalist revolt (1793), 2:799–800, 844, 974; 3:1403 Federal Polytechnic (Zurich), 1:317 Fe´de´ration des Bourses du Travail, 4:2298 Fe´de´ration des groupes de la libre pense´e de Seine-et-Oise, 2:649 Fe´de´ration du Livre, 2:697 Fe´de´ration Internationale de Football Association, 2:834 Federation of American Womens Clubs, 2:596 Federation of French Rowers, 4:2244 Federation of Land Workers Leagues, 3:1294 Federazione Ginnastica d’Italia, 4:2243 Fedorov, V. A., 2:1014 feeblemindedness, 2:770, 771 Feen, Die (Wagner), 5:2430 felicitific calculus, 1:211 Felix Holt (G. Eliot), 2:744 Felix Krull (Mann), 3:1437 Fellowship of the New Life (Britain), 1:372; 2:787 female emancipation. See feminism Female Reader, The (Wollstonecraft), 5:2479 femininity. See gender; separate spheres; women feminism, 2:800–807, 945–946, 948 anarchism and, 3:1497–1498 Anneke and, 1:66–67 Auclert and, 1:127–128 Augspurg and, 1:129 backlash to, 2:802 Ba¨umer and, 1:188–190 birth control and, 2:805, 947; 4:1830–1831 Bloomsbury Group and, 4:2259 British gains and, 2:1008; 3:1646

2625

INDEX

Butler and, 1:331–332 caricatures of, 2:802, 943 Carpenter and, 1:372 Comte and, 2:523 Davies and, 2:625–626 Deraismes and, 2:649–650 Deroin and, 2:650–651 Dohm and, 2:675–676 Durand and, 2:696–697 equality vs. difference currents in, 2:801, 803 Fawcett and, 2:797–799 fin de sie`cle tensions and, 2:816; 3:1472–1473 first use of word, 2:800 French Radicals and, 4:1929 French republicans and, 4:1962 French Revolution and, 2:897 German movement and, 4:2280 Gissing novel on, 2:975 Gouges and, 2:801, 802, 843, 941, 993–996, 995–996 Kuliscioff’s view of, 3:1276 labor movements and, 3:1288, 1292–1293 lesbianism linked with, 2:1084 liberal individual critique of, 1:458 literary, 2:802–803 Luxemburg and, 3:1401 marital loss of rights and, 1:287, 303 ‘‘masculinity crisis’’ and, 3:1472–1473 Michel and, 3:1497–1498 Mill (Harriet) and, 3:1509 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1509, 1513, 1514, 1555 Mill’s Subjection of Women and, 2:804, 946, 1008 Mozzoni and, 3:1555–1556 Napoleonic Code vs., 1:128, 338; 2:802, 942–943 Netherlands and, 3:1620 Norton and, 3:1645–1646 nursing and, 3:1650 organized, 2:946 Otto and, 3:1680–1681 Owenism and, 4:2201 pacifism and, 1:129; 4:1696 Pelletier and, 4:1761–1762 politique de la bre`che strategy of, 4:1998 property rights and, 1:458 prostitution and, 4:1884, 1886 Protestantism and, 4:1891, 1892 republicanism and, 4:1962

2626

Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1992 Richer and, 4:1998–1999 Roland and, 4:2013–2014 Romanticism and, 2:945–946; 4:2029 Roussel and, 4:2041–2042, 2162 Sand and, 4:2085 Schnitzler and, 4:2100 second-wave (1970s) of, 2:806; 4:1761, 1762, 2041 sexual double standard and, 4:2162 socialism and, 1:194–195; 2:805, 946; 3:1276, 1288, 1293; 4:1714 Spencer and, 4:2235 Stae¨l and, 4:2247 symbolist movement and, 4:2293 temperance movements and, 1:35 Tristan and, 5:2357–2358, 2358, 2397 university education and, 1:372; 2:625, 626 utopian socialism and, 1:338; 5:2397, 2487 Wollstonecraft and, 2:802, 945, 995, 1000; 5:2481 Zetkin and, 2:946 See also women’s suffrage feminist scholarship on Beethoven, 1:199 on Bernhardt, 1:230 on colonialism, 3:1457 on family system, 3:1450, 1451 Gaskell’s rediscovery by, 2:934 on masculinity, 3:1470 on Mill (Harriet and John Stuart) collaboration, 3:1509 on Mill (John Stuart), 3:1514 on Mozzoni, 3:1556 on Pelletier, 4:1761, 1762 on Pre-Raphaelite women, 4:1864, 1865 Femme au chapeau (Matisse), 2:797; 3:1474 Femme en lutte pour ses droits, La (Pelletier), 4:1762 femme fatale character, 4:2292–2293 Femme libre (feminist newspaper), 2:650 Femmes de la Re´volution (Michelet), 2:996 fencing rooms, 4:2241 Fe´ne´on, Fe´lix, 3:1132; 4:2156, 2157 Feneˆtre ouverte a´ Collioure, La (Matisse), 2:796; 3:1474 Fenian Collar, 3:1604

Fenians (Irish Republican Brotherhood), 2:1009; 3:1009, 1185; 4:1815, 2132 Fennoman movement, 2:820 Fenton, Roger, 3:1591; 4:1771 Ferdinand I, emperor of Austria, 1:140, 142; 2:567, 606, 807–808; 3:1495 abdication of, 2:807, 808, 863 Kossuth and, 3:1267 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980 Venice and, 5:2403 Ferdinand I, king of the Two Sicilies, 2:531, 532, 564, 565; 3:1193, 1254–1255, 1267 Ferdinand II, king of the Two Sicilies, 3:1196, 1255 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1990, 1993, 2002 Ferdinand IV, king of Naples. See Ferdinand I, king of the Two Sicilies Ferdinand VII, king of Spain, 1:180, 181; 2:808–810; 4:2225–2229 Carlist coup and, 1:367; 2:809; 4:1763, 1764 Goya and, 2:998, 999 military revolt against, 4:1969 Napoleon and, 4:1763–1764, 1766 Restoration and, 1:420; 2:998, 999; 4:1969, 1970 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1979 Ferdinand Maximilian, archduke of Austria, 5:2355, 2374 Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, prince of Bulgaria, 1:312–313 Ferdinand VII Swearing in the Constitution (engraving), 4:2228 Fe´re´, Charles Samson, 2:636 Ferenczi, Sa´ndor, 4:1938 Ferenczy, Ka´roly, 4:1948 Ferguson, Adam, 4:2120, 2212 Ferguson, Samuel, 5:2464 Fe´rie (film effect), 3:1483 Ferme ge´ne´rale, 3:1311–1312 fermentation, 4:1743 Fernand Cortez (Spontini), 3:1671 ´ ngel de los, Ferna´ndez de los Rı´os, A 3:1413 Ferrara, Francesco, 4:2176 Ferrari, Giuseppe, 3:1480 Ferrer, Francisco, 1:69 Ferrero, Guglielmo, 3:1371 Ferri, Enrico, 2:573; 3:1371 Ferrier, Gabriel, 3:1473 Ferris wheel, 2:815; 5:2503, 2505 Ferro, Vito Cascio, 4:2174, 2175

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Ferry, Jules, 2:643, 810–813, 856, 929; 4:1868, 1891 assassination attempt on, 2:813 Delcasse´ and, 2:642 Haussmann expose´ by, 2:810, 1050 imperialism and, 2:812–813; 3:1118, 1121, 1522 secularism speech of, 2:811 as self-described liberal, 3:1346 Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432 Ferry Laws (1879–1885), 2:811; 4:1891 fertility rate, 2:645–646, 667, 760; 3:1662 contraceptives’ effect on, 2:947 decline in, 4:1829–1831 increase in, 4:1827–1829 fertilizers, 2:762, 764, 960; 3:1164; 4:1753 Agricultural Revolution and, 1:25 chemistry and, 3:1160, 1164, 1305 urban waste as, 2:766 Fervaal (d’Indy), 3:1675 Fesch, Joseph, 3:1298 Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey, 3:1163 Festival of Empire (Crystal Palace, 1911), 2:589 Festival of Old Age (France), 3:1663 Festival of the Federation (France, 1790), 2:888, 890 Festival of the Republic (France, 1798), 4:1961 Fet, Afanasy, 1:249 Feˆte foraine au Havre, La (Marquet), 2:796 fetishism, 3:1270; 4:2162 feudalism Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871 French Revolution ending of, 2:886, 892, 897; 3:1305; 4:1754 Japan and, 3:1208–1209 Napoleon’s abolishment of, 3:1192, 1254 Neapolitan abolishment of, 3:1414 nobility and, 3:1304; 4:1754 Prussian abolishment of, 2:958; 4:1754 See also serfs, emancipation of Feuer, Lewis, 3:1514 Feuerbach, Ludwig, 2:744, 754; 3:1464; 4:2088–2089, 2133 socialism and, 4:2203, 2204 Young Hegelians and, 5:2512, 2513 Feuillants, 2:890 Feuilles d’automne, Les (Hugo), 2:1093 Feure, Georges de, 4:1845 fevers, 2:667, 690; 3:1372

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Fez, Treaty of (1912), 3:1549 Fiat (automobile manufacturer), 5:2352 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 2:813–814; 4:2241 as Belinsky influence, 1:207 Berlin lectures of, 1:215 German cultural unification and, 3:1523, 1604 Ho¨lderlin as student of, 2:1078 Novalis study of, 3:1647–1648 Schelling and, 2:1051; 4:2088 ‘‘Fichte Studies’’ (Novalis), 3:1647–1648 Fidelio (Beethoven), 1:196; 3:1670, 1673; 5:2417 Field of Waterloo, The (Turner), 5:2367 field theory, 3:1248, 1478; 4:1780 Fierrabras (Schubert), 4:2106 Fifth Republic (France), 1:69 Fifth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1418, 1419 Fifth Symphony (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307 Figaro, Le (Paris daily), 1:156, 184 campaign to oust Caillaux by, 1:339 futurist manifesto and, 2:917, 920 Figatae Pallada, The (Goncharov), 2:989 Figgis, John Neville, 1:7 Fighting Organization, 4:2210, 2211 Figner, Vera, 4:1832 Figueras, Estanislao, 4:2230 Filangieri, Gaetano, 3:1580 Fildes, Samuel Luke, 5:2405 Filiger, Charles, 3:1213 Fille E´lisa, La (E. Goncourt), 2:991 Filles de la Charite´ de Sainte-Vincentde-Paul, 3:1648 Filleul, Adelaide, countess of Flahaut, 5:2305 film. See cinema Filosofia della practica (Croce), 2:584 financial markets. See banks and banking; stock exchanges Fin de Satan, La (Hugo), 2:1095 fin de sie`cle, 2:814–817 art nouveau and, 1:107–113, 152–153; 2:815 Bernhardt and, 1:229–230 Constable and, 2:543 death and, 2:629 Debussy and, 2:630–631 Decadence and, 2:629, 631–633, 638, 815–816 degeneration and, 2:631, 632, 636–639, 816; 3:1472 gender-norm changes and, 2:816, 947–949; 3:1472–1473

1 9 1 4

Generation of 1898 and, 2:949–952 historical dating of, 2:816–817 Hofmannstahl and, 2:1076–1077 homosexual/lesbian stereotypes and, 2:1084 illustrated posters and, 4:1845 Jarry and, 3:1213–1214 Klimt and, 3:1260–1262 Lueger and, 3:1393, 1395 masculinity concerns and, 3:1472–1473 museum exhibits and, 3:1564 music and, 2:815; 3:1572–1573 Nietzsche’s philosophy and, 3:1629 optimistic vs. pessimistic views of, 2:814–816 papacy and, 4:1720 Paris and, 4:1732 Picasso and, 4:1781–1782 Puccini’s operas and, 4:1917 right-wing nationalism and, 3:1476–1477 symbolist movement and, 4:2292 Vienna 1900 and, 5:2421 Viennese cultural scene and, 2:1067; 3:1418, 1419 Finding of the Saviour in the Temple, The (Hunt), 4:1864 Finer, S. E., 1:402 fingerprints, 2:576, 927; 4:1816 Finland and the Baltic provinces, 2:817–824 art nouveau in, 1:108, 113–114 cholera and, 1:436 Continental System and, 2:553, 554 electric lights and, 2:741 emigrants from, 2:748 labor movements in, 5:2489 potato blight in, 2:1005 Protestant population of, 4:1890 Revolution of 1830 and, 4:1986 Russian policies in, 1:41, 226; 2:821–822, 823; 4:1933, 1976, 2055, 2288 St. Petersburg and, 4:2076 socialist party strength in, 3:1293, 1294 Stolypin and, 4:2257 strikes in, 4:2267–2268 suffrage in, 4:2279, 2281 Sweden and, 4:2288 telephone service in, 5:2308 temperance movement in, 1:35 universities in, 5:2379–2380 women’s suffrage in, 2:823, 947; 4:2281

2627

INDEX

world’s fairs and, 1:113; 5:2503, 2505 See also Estonia; Latvia; Livonia Finnish Party, 2:822 Finnish Pavilion, 1:113 Finsen, Niels Ryberg, 2:649 Fiore, Pasquale, 3:1175 Fiquet, Marie-Hortense, 1:398 Firebird, The (Stravinsky), 2:654; 4:2261–2262 Fireworks (Stravinsky), 4:2261 First Balkan War (1912), 1:12, 163–164, 166, 207; 2:704–705; 4:1949, 2149 Montenegro and, 3:1541 First Blood in the Revolution (Kockkock), 4:1977 First Carlist War, 4:2229 First Coalition. See War of the First Coalition First Congress of Ottoman Opposition Parties (1902), 5:2515 First Empire (France). See Napoleonic Empire First Estate (France), 2:767, 841, 842, 886 First Germanic Sound Shift (Grimms Law), 2:1024 First Industrial Revolution. See Industrial Revolution, First First International, 1:203, 248; 2:521, 824–825; 3:1289; 4:1899, 2127, 2131 anarchist-Marxist split in, 2:824; 3:1289 anarchosyndicalism and, 1:60, 61 Bakunin and, 1:162; 2:824, 825, 1025 feminism and, 2:805 Jaure`s and, 3:1217, 1218 Marx’s founding of, 3:1467–1468; 4:2205 membership card of, 3:1467 Michel and, 3:1497 Naples and, 3:1424 pacifism and, 2:825 Paris Commune and, 3:1289 See also Second International First International Congress of Eugenics (1912), 2:771 First Italo-Abyssinian War, 1:7–8 First London Co-operative Trading Association, 3:1390 ‘‘First Love’’ (Turgenev), 5:2365 First Men in the Moon, The (Wells), 5:2458 First Moroccan Crisis. See Moroccan Crises

2628

First National Conference on Race Betterment (1914), 2:771 First Nations, The (Kipling), 3:1257 First Navy Law of 1898 (Germany), 3:1609, 1610, 1611; 5:2312 First Opium War. See Opium Wars First Partition of Poland (1772), 4:1900 ‘‘First Philosophical Letter’’ (Chaadayev), 4:2050; 5:2459 First Principles (Spencer), 4:2234, 2235 ‘‘First Program for the System of German Idealism, The’’ (Ho ¨ lderlin), 2:1078 First Republic (Austria), 1:10, 11 First Republic (France), 1:457; 2:610, 737 declaration of, 2:844–846, 891; 3:1205 Napoleon and, 3:1585–1586 new calendar of, 2:892–893 First Republic (Spain), 3:1414 First Restoration. See Restoration First Serbian Uprising (1804), 1683; 4:2142 First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). See Sino-Japanese War First String Quartet (Schoenberg), 4:2102 First Symphony (Brahms), 1:295 First Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419 First Vatican Council. See Vatican Council, First First Vienna Football Club, 2:833 First Workingmen’s International. See First International First Zionist Congress (Basel, 1897), 2:1068; 5:2520 Fischer, Christian August. See Althing Fischer, Fritz, 2:968 Fish, Hamilton, 3:1210 Fisher, John Arbuthnot, 2:682, 730; 3:1610 Fisher, Ronald, 3:1486 fisheries, 1:344 Fishermen at Sea (Turner), 5:2366 Fitzherbert, Maria Anne, 2:953–954 Fiume, 2:610, 972 Five, The (Russian composers), 3:1571, 1575 Five Days of Milan (1848), 3:1196 Five Pieces for Orchestra (Schoenberg), 4:2102 ‘‘Five Swans’’ tapestry (Eckmann), 1:112 Five Weeks in a Balloon (Verne), 5:2408 flagellation, 4:1836

Flame of Life, The (d’Annunzio), 5:2405 Flanders, 1:199, 200, 201, 202, 204 World War I battle in, 1:232 flaˆneur, 2:825–827; 3:1128 flapper, 2:947 Flaubert, Gustave, 2:535, 827–828, 830 on absinthe, 1:3 Decadence and, 2:632 as Kafka influence, 3:1243 peasant portrayal by, 4:1756 prosecution of, 5:2522 realism and, 2:991 Sand and, 4:2084 Turgenev and, 5:2365, 2523 Zola and, 2:827; 5:2523 Flaxman, John, 3:1165; 4:1702 Fledermaus (Vienna cabaret), 1:336 Fledermaus, Die (Strauss), 4:2261; 5:2420 Fleet Street (London), 3:1377 Fleetwood (Godwin), 2:981 Fleming, John Ambrose, 3:1444 Flemish language, 1:307 Flemish rights movement, 1:202 fleur-de-lis flag, 2:855 Fleurs du mal, Les (Baudelaire), 1:187; 3:1432, 1529; 4:2008, 2293; 5:2314 Fleurus, Battle of (1794), 2:518, 893 Fliedner, Theodore, 3:1649 Fliegende Holla¨nder, Der (Wagner), 3:1360; 5:2430 Fliess, Wilhelm, 2:904–905 ‘‘Flight of the Bumble Bee, The’’ (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:2000 Flinders, Matthew, 2:782 Floating Island, The (Verne), 5:2409 Flo¨ge, Emilie, 1:152 Floquet, Charles-Thomas, 2:811 Flora Danica (Royal Copenhagen china), 2:647 Flore franc¸aise (Lamarck), 3:1301 Florence child abandonment in, 5:2455 futurism and, 2:920 girls’ sewing class, 2:725 Ingres in, 3:1165 opera and, 3:1669 flour, 5:2335 Flourens, Marie-Jean-Pierre, 1:228; 4:1735 Flournoy, Theodore, 3:1238, 1239; 4:2238 Flower, William Henry, 3:1564 Flowers of Evil, The (Baudelaire), 1:187; 3:1432, 1529; 4:2008, 2293; 5:2314

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Flute Concert with Frederick the Great in Sanssouci (Menzel), 3:1489 Flying Dutchman, The (Wagner), 3:1360; 5:2430 flying machines. See airplanes; balloons flying shuttle, 3:1410 Flynn, Dennis, 3:1151 Foch, Ferdinand, 1:97, 100 Fogel, Robert, 4:1930, 1931 Fokine, Michel, 2:655; 3:1642; 4:1750, 1751 Folies Berge`res (Paris), 2:550; 4:1845 folk culture Catalonia and, 1:182 elite culture and, 4:1825 Finland and the Baltic provinces and, 2:820 German cultural nationalism and, 3:1523 Grieg and, 4:2287 Grimm brothers and, 2:1023–1024 Jung and, 3:1239 nationalism and, 4:1756 as popular culture, 4:1821 rural life idealization and, 4:1756 Russian peasants and, 4:1823 folklore. See folk culture Folklore in the Old Testament (Frazer), 2:872 Folk Psychology (Wundt), 4:1909 Fo ¨ lsing, Albrecht, 2:1063 Fondation Saint-Simon, 4:2081–2082 Fontaine, Margaret, 2:948 Fontaine, Pierre-Pranc¸ois-Leonard, 3:1602 Fontainebleau, Treaty of (1807), 4:2225 Fontainebleau Decree (1810), 2:553 Fontainebleau forest, 1:177, 178; 2:562; 4:1705 Fontana de Oro (Madrid cafe´), 3:1414 Fontane, Theodor, 2:828–830; 3:1436 Fonthill Abbey (Britain), 4:2030 food adulteration, 2:658, 659 food preservation, 2:659; 3:1164; 4:1743 food prices, 4:1989 food riots, 4:1754–1755, 1990; 5:2488 food supply. See Agricultural Revolution football (Gaelic), 3:1182 football (rugby), 2:832, 833; 3:1378; 4:2240–2241, 2242, 2246; 5:2435 football (soccer), 2:830–835, 832; 3:1378, 1414; 4:1824, 2242–2243, 2244, 2245

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Football Association (Britain), 2:830, 831, 833, 834; 4:2241 Challenge Cup, 2:832, 833; 4:1824 Football Association of Wales, 5:2435 Football League (Britain), 2:831 Forain, Jean-Louis, 5:2323 Forbes, Edward, 2:1102 Forbes, James, 3:1477 Forbes, John, 3:1298 Forbin, Auguste de, 2:605 Ford (automobile manufacturer), 5:2352 Ford, Henry, 2:552; 3:1162 Fords (cars), 1:149 Forefathers’ Eve (Mickiewicz), 3:1500 foreign relations. See diplomacy; specific countries by name Forel, Auguste Henri, 1:37, 341; 3:1238 forensics. See crime Fo ¨ rester-Nietzsche, Elizabeth, 3:1629 forests, 1:80–81; 2:763 Forge, Andrew, 3:1537 formalism, 3:1246 formality. See manners and formality Formosa (Taiwan), 3:121, 1210–1211 Foro Bonaparte complex (Milan), 3:1501 ‘‘Forsaken Merman, The’’ (Arnold), 1:102 Fors Clavigera: Letters to the Workmen and Labourers of Great Britain (Ruskin), 4:2047 Forster, E. M., 2:835–836 Fort, Paul, 4:2295 Fortnightly Review (journal), 4:1746, 2254; 5:2458 Fortschrittliche Volkspartei (Germany), 1:189 Fortunes of Nigel, The (Scott), 4:2123 Forty-Eighters, 1:66; 2:962; 4:2016, 2019 Foscolo, Ugo, 5:2403 fossil history, 1:23; 2:599, 613, 776; 3:1402 Foucault, Michel, 1:211, 431; 2:1082; 3:1270; 4:1848; 5:2393 Nietzsche and, 3:1635 Fouche´, Joseph, 2:800, 836–838, 894; 4:1815, 2001 Talleyrand and, 5:2305 Fouille´e, Alfred, 3:1518 Foules de Lourdes, Les (Huysmans), 2:1104 Foundation and Manifesto of Futurism (Marinetti), 1:156–157; 2:917, 918, 920 Foundation of the Entire Wissenschaftslehre (Fichte), 2:813

1 9 1 4

Foundations of Arithmetic, The (Frege), 2:883 Foundations of Natural Right (Fichte), 2:813 Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, The (H. Chamberlain), 1:75, 77, 403, 404; 4:2023 foundling homes/hospitals, 5:2450–2451, 2453 Fountain of Bakhchisarai, The (Pushkin), 4:1919 Fouquier-Tinville, Antoine-Quentin, 3:1446–1447; 4:1951, 1952 Fourier, Charles, 1:111; 2:555, 803, 838–839; 3:1286; 4:2131 gender equality and, 3:1288, 1555 reincarnation and, 4:2238 republicanism and, 4:1962 Romanticism and, 4:2031 socialism and, 4:2031, 2200, 2201–2202 spiritualism and, 4:2238 Tristan and, 5:2357 utopian socialism and, 1:247, 248, 459; 2:838–839; 4:2081; 5:2395, 2396, 2397 Fourier, Jean-Baptiste-Joseph, 1:406; 3:1249 Fourierists (utopians), 1:247, 248, 459; 4:2201–2202; 5:2396 Fournier, Alfred-Jean, 4:2302–2303 Fournier, Edmond, 3:1431 Fournier, Henry-Alban (AlainFournier), 4:1760 Four Ordinances of 1830 (France), 4:1983 14 juillet au Havre (Dufy), 2:796 Fourth Coalition. See War of the Fourth Coalition Fourth Estate, The (Pellizza da Volpedo), 4:1757 Fourth International, 4:2128–2129 Fourth Piano Concerto (Beethoven), 1:196 Fourth Symphony (Brahms), 1:295 Fourth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419 Fourvie`re basilica (Lyon), 3:1405 Four Zoas, The (Blake), 1:246 Fox, Charles James, 2:839–840 constitutional reform and, 2:1001, 1002 George IV and, 2:953, 954 Whigs and, 5:2461 Fox, Kate and Margaret, 4:2237 Fox, William Johnson, 3:1459, 1513 Fra Diavolo. See Pezza Michele Fragmens d’un ouvrage abandonne´ sur la possibilite´ d’une constitution

2629

INDEX

re´publicaine dans un grand pays (Constant), 2:545 ‘‘Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria:`Dora’’ (Freud), 4:1905 Fragment on Government (Bentham), 1:210; 5:2393 Fragment on Mackintosh (J. Mill), 3:1510 Fragments on Recent German Literature (Herder), 2:1061 Fragments Written for Hellas (P. B. Shelley), 4:2170 franc (French monetary unit), 3:1538, 1586 France, 2:840–860 absinthe and, 1:2–4 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:4–5 African colonies and, 1:18, 19, 20, 21, 43–47, 500; 2:812; 3:1122, 1389, 1548, 1549 African trade commodities and, 1:15 Agadir Crisis and, 3:1546 agriculture and, 1:24, 28; 2:762; 3:1305 airplanes and, 1:30, 31, 31 alliance system and, 1:41, 47–50; 2:1013 Alsace and Lorraine and, 1:50–52 American Revolution and, 2:840–841, 884; 3:1385 anarchists and, 1:56, 57, 59, 60, 62; 2:857; 3:1497 anticlericalism and, 1:67–69, 70, 380, 389, 410–411, 479; 2:540, 689, 812; 4:1929, 1969 anti-Semitism and, 1:4, 5, 74–77, 97, 184, 185, 383; 2:540, 542, 683–686, 688–690, 816, 1068; 3:1233, 1338; 5:2489, 2520 architecture in, 4:2030 aristocracy in, 1:80, 81 army system of, 1:93–94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100–101, 271; 3:1222 artisans in, 1:104–105, 106, 459 art nouveau and, 1:109–112, 152; 2:815 Atget and, 1:123–125 Austria and, 4:1937, 2001; 5:2305, 2306, 2374, 2442 Austrian war with. See FrancoAustrian War Austro-Prussian War and, 1:236 automobile industry and, 1:148–150; 5:2352 avant-garde and, 1:151–158; 3:1675; 4:1706–1709 Balzac and, 1:166–169

2630

banking and, 1:170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176 banquet campaigns and, 4:1990 Barbizon painters and, 1:176–180 Barre`s and, 1:184–185; 4:1705 baths and spas and, 5:2327 Baudelaire and, 1:186–188 beards as fashion in, 1:191 Becquey Plan and, 5:2348 Belgian immigrants in, 1:201 Belgian neutrality and, 2:566–567 Belgium and, 1:199, 200, 201 belle e´poque of, 2:817 Bentham and, 5:2393–2394 Bergson and, 1:213–215 Berlin Conference and, 1:221 Berlioz and, 1:224–225 Bernhardt and, 1:229–230 Blanc and, 1:247–248 Blanqui and, 1:248–249 Boer support by, 5:2502 Bonapartism and, 1:269–271 Boulanger affair and, 1:279–281 Bourbon restoration and. See Restoration bourgeoisie in, 1:106, 283–291, 471 Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292, 293 Braille and, 1:296–298 British free trade treaty with, 1:491–492; 3:1537 British naval agreement with, 3:1546 bureaucracy in, 1:320–322; 2:846; 3:1387 business firms in, 1:329 cabarets in, 1:335 Cabet and, 1:337–338 Caillaux and, 1:338–340 canals in, 2:757–758; 5:2347–2348, 2350 Carbonari and, 4:2130–2131 Caribbean colonialism and, 1:363, 364; 2:1035, 1036–1037 Catholicism in, 1:278–279, 377, 378–379, 380, 381, 383, 384, 384, 385, 386–388; 3:1648; 4:1721, 1929, 2030, 2031, 2136–2137; 5:2305, 2488 Catholic nursing care in, 3:1648, 1649–1650 Catholic political parties in, 1:388, 389 Cavour and, 1:390, 391–392 censorship in, 4:1869 Charbonnerie conspiracy in, 1:337, 361

Charter of 1814 and, 4:1969, 1971, 1984 chauvinism in, 3:1235 chemistry in, 1:424–425, 427; 3:1153 child abandonment in, 5:2454–2455 child labor in, 1:429, 430, 430; 4:1830 China and, 1:432, 434–435; 3:1579, 1679–1680 chocolate and, 1:496 cholera epidemics and, 1:436, 437, 438; 2:669; 4:1915 Chopin and, 1:439, 440 Christian Democrats in, 4:2209 Christian Socialism in, 4:2208 church-state separation in. See separation of church and state cinema in, 1:440, 441, 442, 443; 3:1396–1398, 1482–1484; 4:1824 citizenship and, 1:456, 458 civilizing mission of, 1:462–463, 464 civil society and, 1:466 Clemenceau and, 1:479–480 coal mining in, 1:485, 486, 487, 488; 4:1936 coffee consumption in, 1:494 colonialism and, 1:339, 498, 499, 501; 2:504, 507–508, 507, 508, 642, 859; 3:1114, 1151, 1154; 5:2330, 2332–2333, 2363 See also Algeria; Indochina colonial wars and, 2:505 commercial policy and, 2:512, 514, 516, 517 commodity transport by, 5:2350 Comte and, 2:522–524; 4:1844 Congress of Berlin and, 2:530, 812; 5:2363 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534, 565 conservatism and, 2:537–538, 541–542 Constant and, 2:545–546 consumerism and, 2:548, 549 contraception legislation and, 4:2042 cooperative movements in, 2:555–557 Corot and, 2:560–562 corporations in, 1:354 cotton production in, 1:329 counterrevolutionists in, 1:268–269; 2:563–568, 567 Courbet and, 2:568–569 Crimean War and, 1:38–39, 94, 244, 271, 278; 2:577–580, 866; 3:1592; 4:2048, 2051; 5:2410

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

criminality and, 2:570, 572, 573–574, 575, 576–577; 4:1816 cubism and, 2:590–593; 3:1530 Curies and, 2:594–597 Cuvier and, 2:598–599 cycling and, 2:599–600, 602 Daguerre and, 2:605–607 Danish-German War and, 2:608, 609 Daumier and, 2:620–622 David and, 2:623–625 death penalty and, 4:1963, 2005 Debussy and, 2:630–631 Decadence and, 2:631, 632–633 Degas and, 2:633–636 Delacroix and, 2:640–642, 910 Delcasse´ and, 2:642–643 demograpic data for, 2:643 Deraismes and, 2:649–650 Deroin and, 2:650–651 Doctrinaires and, 4:1971–1972, 1973 Dore´ and, 2:676–678 Dreyfus affair and, 1:75–76, 77; 2:683–686, 1068; 4:1929, 1964, 2137; 5:2432, 2502, 2523–2524 drinking culture of, 1:2–4, 34, 35, 36 Drumont and, 2:688–690 dueling code in, 2:695, 696; 3:1472 Durand and, 2:696–697 Durkheim and, 2:698–700 Eastern Question and, 1:278 economic growth rate of, 1:331 education in, 1:428, 431; 2:720, 721, 723, 724, 810, 811, 856, 929, 1029; 3:1522; 4:1868 Egypt and, 1:18, 222; 2:731, 732, 733, 794–795; 3:1585; 4:2274, 2275 Egyptology and, 1:406–407 Eiffel Tower and, 2:736–738, 760 emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748 engineers and, 2:757, 758–760 Entente Cordiale and, 1:49, 50, 96; 2:64, 526, 609, 642, 643, 795; 3:1545; 4:2098 Ethiopia and, 1:8 eugenics and, 2:769, 771 exploration and, 2:782, 784 factories in, 2:790–792 fashion and, 1:481–483; 2:792 Fashoda Affair and, 2:643, 663, 794–795; 3:1117–1118, 1668; 5:2502 fauvism and, 2:795–797 female teachers in, 2:724

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

feminism in, 1:127–128; 2:649–650, 650–651, 696–697, 801–802, 802, 803, 804, 947, 948, 995–996; 3:1288; 4:1761–1762, 1998–1999 feminist backlash in, 2:804 Ferry and, 2:810–813; 3:1118, 1121 fertility decline in, 4:1829 fin de sie´cle and, 2:814–817 fin de sie´cle right-wing nationalism in, 3:1476–1477 First International and, 2:824 Flaubert and, 2:827–828 football (soccer) in, 2:833, 834 Fouche´ and, 2:836–837 foundling homes/hospitals in, 5:2451, 2453 Fourier and, 2:838–839 Fourierism in, 4:2202; 5:2397 Freemasons in, 2:877, 880–881, 882; 4:1929, 1998, 2243 futurism and, 2:917, 920 Gallicanism and, 4:1721 Gambetta and, 2:928–929 Gauguin and, 2:939–941 gender practices in, 2:941–943 Ge´ricault and, 2:955–956; 4:1705 German antagonism of, 1:232; 2:859; 3:1546 See also Franco-Prussian War; World War I German relations with, 2:968; 5:2311 Goncourt brothers and, 2:990–992 Gouges and, 2:993–996 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1020; 3:1612, 1613, 1685, 1686 Guesde and, 2:1025–1026 guild abolishment in, 1:106 Guimard and, 2:1026–1028 Guizot and, 2:1029–1030 gymnastics clubs and, 1:118 Haiti and, 2:1035–1036, 1037 Haussmann and, 2:1046–1050 Herzen’s critique of, 2:1065 historiography and, 2:1073, 1074; 3:1499 Holy Alliance and, 4:1971 homosexual/lesbian acts decriminalization in, 2:1083 housing and, 2:1089 Hugo and, 2:1092–1095 as imperial power, 3:1115, 1116, 1118–1119, 1121, 1122; 5:2362 impressionism and, 3:1126–1133

1 9 1 4

India and, 3:1115, 1134 Indochina and, 3:1137–1138, 1139, 1140–1145 industrialization of, 1:329, 330, 351; 3:1149 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 4:1961; 5:2493 infant mortality rate in, 4:1829 Ingres and, 3:1165–1167 inheritance law in, 3:1450 intellectuals and, 3:1167–1168, 1169 inventions and, 3:1153 iron production in, 1:329 Japan and, 3:1210, 1212; 4:2171 Jarry and, 3:1212–1214 Jaure`s and, 3:1214–1219 Jewish emancipation in, 1:73; 3:1225, 1226–1227 Jews in, 3:1229, 1232 Jomini and, 3:1236–1237 labor movements in, 3:1217, 1285–1292; 4:2298–2299; 5:2485–2488, 2491, 2492 Laennec and, 3:1297–1298 Lafayette and, 3:1298–1301 Lamarck and, 3:1301–1303 Lamartine and, 3:1303–1304 landed elites in, 3:1304–1305 languages and, 2:725 Larrey and, 3:1307–1308 Lavoiseir and, 3:1311–1313 law and, 3:1313–1315, 1315, 1594–1596; 4:1951–1952 See also Napoleonic Code LeBon and, 3:1316–1317 Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1317–1319 leisure activities in, 1:288 Leo XIII relations with, 3:1331 Lesseps and, 3:1337–1338 liberal impediments in, 3:1346, 1348 liberalism in, 4:1971–1972, 2247; 5:2310 libraries in, 3:1350, 1352 literacy in, 2:720; 3:1522; 4:1822, 1868 Louis XVI and, 3:1384–1386 Louis XVIII and, 3:1386–1387 Louis-Napoleon and. See Napoleon III Louis-Philippe and, 3:1387–1389 Lumie`re brothers and, 3:1396–1398 lyce´e experience in, 1:428 Lyon and, 3:1403–1405 machine breaking in, 3:1410–1411, 1412; 4:1821, 2264

2631

INDEX

Manet and, 3:1431–1434; 4:1707–1708 Marat and, 3:1442–1443 Marie-Antoinette and, 3:1445–1447 marriage and family in, 1:287; 4:1827–1828, 1830 maternity hospitals in, 5:2450 Matisse and, 3:1473–1475 Maurras and, 3:1476–1477 medicine in, 1:227–228, 407–411 Mediterranean and, 3:1482 Mediterranean tourist towns in, 1:288, 303 Me´lie`s and, 3:1482–1484 mesmerism in, 3:1490–1491 Mesmer’s success in, 3:1490 Michel and, 3:1496–1498 Michelet and, 3:1498–1499 military schools in, 1:96 military tactics and, 1:95; 3:1505–1506 millennium celebration (2000) in, 2:738 Millet and, 3:1515–1516 modernism and, 3:1530 Monet and, 3:1534–1537 monetary union and, 3:1538 Morisot and, 3:1543–1545 Moroccan Crises and, 2:663; 3:1545–1546 Morocco and, 3:1548 museums in, 3:1562 music in, 3:1565, 1572 mutual aid societies in, 3:1284 Nadar and, 3:1577–1578 Napoleon and. See Napoleon I Napoleon III and. See Napoleon III national anthem of, 1:457; 2:518, 891; 4:1826 national identity and, 3:1521–1522 newspapers and, 4:1867, 1868–1869, 1872 nobility in, 1:78 North American colonies of, 1:343 Offenbach and, 3:1660–1662 old age in, 3:1662, 1663–1664, 1664, 1665 Olympic Games and, 3:1667 opera and, 3:1669, 1670, 1671–1672, 1673, 1675 Opium War and, 3:1679–1680 Ottoman Empire and, 5:2391 painting and, 1:397–399; 4:1701, 1702, 1705–1708 Panama Canal and, 3:1338

2632

Papal State and, 4:1719, 1725, 1726 Paris Commune and, 4:1964, 1998, 2132, 2204; 5:2311, 2485, 2486, 2488, 2491, 2523 Pasteur and, 4:1742–1745 patriotic holiday of, 4:1826 Paul I’s antipathy toward, 4:1747 peasant enfranchisement in, 4:1755 peasant households in, 4:1752 peasant rebellion in, 1:359 Pe´guy and, 4:1760–1761 Pelletier and, 4:1761–1762 penal exile and, 2:780 Peninsular War and, 4:2227–2228 philosophy and, 1:213–215 photography in, 4:1770–1772 phylloxera vineyard infestation in, 4:1777–1778 physiocrats and, 1:269; 2:515; 3:1304 Piedmont and, 2:866, 867; 4:2001; 5:2306 pilgrimages and, 4:1787–1789 Pinel and, 4:1790–1792 Pissarro and, 4:1792–1794 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1804–1805 Poincare´ (Raymond) and, 4:1805–1806 police system in, 2:837; 4:1813–1814, 1815, 1816 Polish migrants to, 4:1808 political clubs in, 4:1991 popular culture in, 4:1821–1822, 1826 population growth of, 4:1827, 1830 pornography and, 4:1833, 1834, 1835 Portugal and, 4:2225 positivism and, 4:1844 postal service in, 4:1937 poster art and, 4:1845, 1846 press freedom and, 4:1870 professional certification in, 1:284; 4:1879 professionals in, 4:1878, 1880 prostitution in, 4:1883, 1884, 1885, 2301 Protestant minority in, 4:1793, 1890, 1891, 1891, 1895, 1970, 2136–2137, 2279 Protestant missions to, 3:1527 Proudhon and, 4:1897–1899 Prussia and, 4:2004, 2092, 2225, 2251–2252; 5:2311, 2374–2375, 2442, 2467, 2526 See also Franco-Prussian War

psychological research tradition of, 4:1908 public health in, 4:1909, 1910, 1912–1913, 1914–1915 Radicalism in, 4:1928–1930, 1964 railroads and, 2:764; 4:1932–1935, 1937; 5:2349 Ravachol and, 4:1941–1943, 1942, 1943 Ravel and, 4:1944–1945 Red Cross and, 4:1949 Renan and, 4:1952–1954 Renoir and, 4:1954–1956 republicanism and, 1:248–249, 479–480; 4:1958–1964 restaurants in, 4:1964–1967 Revolution of 1789. See French Revolution Revolution of 1820. See under Revolutions of 1820 Revolution of 1830. See under Revolutions of 1830 Revolution of 1848. See under Revolutions of 1848 Richer and, 4:1998–1999 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 1:392; 2:931–932, 932; 3:1198; 4:2001, 2003 roads in, 5:2346, 2349, 2352 Robespierre and, 4:1951, 1952, 1960, 2005–2008 Rodin and, 4:2008–2011 Roland and, 4:2013–2014 Rolland and, 4:2014–2016 Romania and, 4:2017; 5:2381 Romanticism and, 4:2028, 2030, 2031, 2247, 2252 Rome and, 4:2003, 2004, 2033, 2034–2035 Rothschilds and, 4:2040, 2041 Roussel and, 4:2041–2042 Rude and, 4:2031, 2043–2044 Russia and, 1:411; 2:526, 642, 643, 795; 4:2048, 2050–2051, 2054; 5:2306, 2374, 2417, 2440, 2442 Sade and, 4:2073–2074 Saint-Simon and, 4:2080–2082, 2200 Sand and, 4:2083–2085 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2086 Satie and, 4:2086–2087 Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098–2099 science and, 1:227–228; 4:2112 seaside resorts in, 3:1325; 4:2124, 2125, 2126; 5:2328

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Second International and, 4:2127, 2128 secret societies in, 4:1995, 2129–2132 secularization of, 2:810–812, 856; 4:2136 September Massacres and, 4:2006 Serbia and, 4:2147 Seurat and, 4:2155–2158 Sieye`s and, 4:2180–2181 slavery and, 4:1959, 2192 slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19, 365, 458, 499; 2:506, 1036 slavery reinstatement and, 1:498; 2:897 slave trade and, 1:13, 308, 309 smallpox epidemic in, 4:2198 socialism and, 1:247–248; 2:824, 859; 4:1929, 1930, 2127, 2128, 2129, 2200, 2201–2203, 2205, 2265, 2298, 2299 social reform in, 1:285–286 sociology and, 4:2214 Sorel and, 4:2217–2218 Spain and, 4:1981, 2225–2229 spiritualism and, 4:2237, 2238 sports in, 4:2241–2246 Stae¨l and, 4:2246–2247 statistical study and, 4:2250 steamships and, 5:2350 Stendhal and, 4:2252–2253 strikes in, 2:857; 3:1288; 4:1930, 2265–2267; 5:2484, 2485, 2488, 2491 subways and, 4:2271–2273; 5:2502, 2503 Sudan and, 3:1668–1669 Suez Canal and, 3:1337–1338; 4:2274 suffrage in, 1:203, 247; 4:1928–1929, 1961, 1964, 1998, 2181, 2276–2281; 5:2317 Sweden and, 4:2283 Switzerland and, 4:2288 symbolists and, 1:214; 4:2292–2295 syndicalism and, 1:61, 62; 3:1292; 4:2266, 2267, 2298–2299; 5:2485, 2491 syphilis control in, 4:2300–2303 Talleyrand and, 5:2305–2306 tea drinking in, 1:495 technology and, 4:2112 telephone service in, 4:1937; 5:2308 temperance movement in, 5:2477 theater in, 1:229–230 Thiers and, 4:1932; 5:2310–2311

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

tobacco and, 5:2313, 2314 Tocqueville and, 4:2213; 5:2316–2318 Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2323–2325 tourism and, 5:2326, 2327, 2328, 2330 Toussaint Louverture and, 5:2332 trade and, 5:2334, 2336–2340 Trieste and, 5:2354 Triple Intervention of 1895 and, 4:2064 Tristan and, 5:2357–2358, 2358, 2397 tuberculosis treatment and, 5:2361 Tunisia and, 2:582; 5:2362, 2363 ultraroyalist reactionaries and, 2:539 universities in, 5:2378–2379, 2381, 2386–2387 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2392 utilitarianism and, 5:2393 Venetian Republic and, 5:2354, 2402 Verne and, 5:2408–2409 Vichy government and, 4:2303 Victor Emmanuel II and, 5:2410, 2497 villages in, 4:1752 Viollet-le-Duc and, 4:2030; 5:2422–2423 voluntary associations in, 1:116, 117, 118, 119 Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432–2433 War of 1812 and, 5:2438 wars of. See Franco-Austrian War; Franco-Prussian War; French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; World War I welfare initiatives in, 3:1664; 5:2450–2452, 2454–2456, 2491 wine and, 4:1777–1778; 5:2475–2478 women’s status in, 2:721, 723, 804, 843 women’s suffrage and, 1:127–128; 4:2279–2280, 2281 women university students in, 2:728 women workers in, 5:2487–2488 workers’ rights and, 2:716 working class and, 5:2483–2488, 2491, 2492 world’s fairs and. See Exposition Universelle Zola and, 5:2522–2524 See also Consulate; Directory; First Republic; Lyon; Napoleonic

1 9 1 4

Empire; Paris; Restoration; Second Empire; Second Republic; Third Republic France, Anatole, 3:1168, 1217 France et progre`s (Deraismes), 2:649 France Juive, La (Drumont), 2:540, 688, 689, 690 Franchi, Alessandro, 3:1330 Franchomme, August, 1:439 Francis I, emperor of Austria, 1:139, 140; 2:860–861 abolishment of Holy Roman Empire by, 2:860, 957–958 Austerlitz and, 1:132; 2:901 brother John, archduke of Austria, and, 3:1235, 1236 Congress of Berlin and, 2:534, 534 daughter Marie-Antoinette and, 3:1384, 1445 French Revolution and, 2:860, 957 French Revolutionary Wars and, 2:899 grandson Francis Joseph and, 2:863 Holy Alliance and, 2:1079 Metternich and, 3:1492, 1493, 1494, 1495 Mu¨nchengra¨tz treaty and, 3:1560 Naples and, 2:932; 3:1255 Napoleon and, 2:901, 902; 3:1597 son Ferdinand I and, 2:807–808 Francis II, Holy Roman emperor. See Francis I, emperor of Austria and king of Hungary Francis II, king of the Two Sicilies, 3:1255, 1581; 4:2003 Francis Charles, archduke of Austria, 2:807 Francis Ferdinand, archduke of Austria, 2:861–862 assassination of, 1:49, 207, 232, 242–243, 277; 2:663, 705, 861, 862, 865, 968; 3:1218, 1628; 4:2149 October Diploma of, 2:627 Romania and, 4:2019 Francis Joseph I, emperor of Austria and king of Hungary, 2:863–866, 864, 961, 962 assassination plots against, 5:2356 constitutionalism and, 5:2510 counterrevolution and, 2:567 Diamond Jubilee of, 1:263; 4:1861 Ferdinand I’s abdication and, 2:807, 808 Francis Ferdinand and, 2:861–862, 865

2633

INDEX

Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866, 867; 3:1198 gerontocracy and, 3:1164 government reforms and, 1:262; 2:864 Jewish policy of, 1:73 Kossuth and, 3:1268, 1269 Lueger and, 3:1393 neo-absolutism and, 2:863–864 Pius IX and, 4:1795 Prague demonstration and, 4:1860, 1861 program of, 1:142, 143, 144–145 Social Democrats and, 1:10, 11 son Rudolf and, 2:861, 864; 4:2044–2045 Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260 Suez Canal opening and, 4:2274 Venice and, 5:2402, 2403 Vienna and, 5:2418, 2420 William II and, 5:2469 world’s fairs and, 5:2498 World War I and, 2:862, 863 Franc-Nohain (playwright), 4:1944 Franco, Francisco, 1:366; 2:937 Franco-Austrian War (1859), 2:866–867, 952; 3:1198–1200; 4:1937 Austrian defeat in, 2:863, 867; 3:1198, 1255 Bohemian Lands and, 1:262 Cavour and, 1:392 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and, 3:1255 outcomes of, 3:1592 Franco-Prussian War, 1:478; 2:867–870; 4:1937, 2054; 5:2386, 2526 alliance system following, 1:47 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:50, 51–52, 281; 2:870; 4:1734 armistice terms of, 4:1734–1735 balloon use in, 2:868; 3:1578 Bavaria and, 3:1383 Bernhardt and, 1:229 Bismarck and, 1:235, 236; 2:526, 662, 868, 870, 953, 964; 4:1734, 1736, 1903 Blanqui and, 1:248 Boulanger affair and, 1:279 Charcot’s medical work in, 1:411 cholera epidemic and, 2:669 Clemenceau and, 1:479 Daumier caricatures and, 2:622 deaths from, 2:629

2634

as Decadence factor, 2:632 Disraeli on, 2:957 Ferry and, 2:810, 812 First International and, 2:825 Frederick III and, 2:874 French defeat in, 2:810, 854–855, 870, 928, 964; 3:1667; 4:1734–1735 French drive for revenge following, 1:279, 281–282; 2:526; 3:1546 French feminist movement and, 4:1998 French indemnity payment and, 4:1837 French social effects of, 1:118 Gambetta and, 2:928, 929 Garibaldi and, 2:932 Geneva Convention and, 4:1949 Geneva Convention disuse in, 2:952; 3:1175 German Reich formation following, 1:171; 2:964 Goncourt brothers and, 2:991 historians on, 2:1074 Louis II of Bavaria and, 3:1383 Michel and, 3:1497 microbial infection and, 4:1743 military technology and, 3:1507 Moltke and, 3:1532 Napoleon III and, 1:271; 2:569, 853–854, 868, 870, 928, 964; 3:1593; 4:1734 nursing and, 3:1650 as Olympic Games impetus, 3:1667 origins of, 2:853, 867–868, 964; 4:1903 outcomes of, 2:662, 854 papal infallibility pronouncement and, 2:966 papal loss of Rome and, 4:1719 Paris and, 4:1734–1735 Paris Commune and, 4:1734–1737 Pius IX and, 4:1797 Prussian general staff and, 1:96 Prussian technology and, 1:217 Renan racial theory and, 1:74 responsibility for, 2:964 Second Empire and, 2:853–855, 867–870; 3:1592 William I and, 5:2467 world’s fairs and, 5:2498, 2499 Franco-Russian Alliance (1894), 1:411; 2:526, 642, 643 Franco-Spanish system (migration), 3:1110

Frank, Manfred, 3:1647–1648 Frank, Semyon L., 3:1171 Frankenstein (M. Shelley), 2:945; 4:2029, 2168 Frankfurt, 2:958, 959 counterrevolution and, 2:567 financial wealth and, 1:83–84 Hegel and Ho¨lderin in, 2:1051 Jewish quarter of, 3:1233 John of Austria in, 3:1236 Prussian annexation of, 2:964 railroads and, 4:1934 Revolution of 1830 and, 1:457 Revolution of 1848 and, 4:1994 Rothschilds and, 4:2039 Frankfurt, Treaty of (1871), 1:50, 52; 5:2311 Frankfurt National Assembly. See Frankfurt Parliament Frankfurt Parliament (1848), 1:261, 393; 2:870–872, 877; 3:1287, 1346, 1523 Austria and, 1:141, 142 Frederick William IV and, 2:961–962; 4:1902 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1860, 1861 serf emancipation and, 4:1754 Frankfurt Parliament, The (Eyck), 2:871 Franklin, Benjamin, 2:741 Franklin, John, 3:1658 Franklin Society (France), 3:1352 Franko, Ivan, 5:2373 Frantz, Brian, 2:515 Franz, Friedrich, 3:1484 Franzo¨sische Maler (Heine), 2:1056 Franzo¨sische Zusta¨nde (Heine), 2:1056 Fraser, John Foster, 1:136 Frasers Magazine (Scotland), 1:370; 4:2254 Fratellanza artigiana d’Italia, 1:104 Fratuzzi, I, 4:2174 Frauen-Zeitung (feminist magazine), 1:66; 2:804; 3:1680, 1681 Frau in der Kulturbewegung der Gegenwart, Die (feminist magazine), 1:189 Frau Jenny treibel (Fontane), 2:828, 829 Frau ¨ lein Else (Schnitzler), 4:2100 Frau und der Sozialismus, Die (Bebel), 1:194–195 Fraxi, Pisanus (Ashbee pseud.), 4:1836 Frazer, James, 2:872–873 Frazer, Lilly, 2:872 Fre´de´ric, Le´on, 4:1948 Fre´de´ric Chopin (Delacroix), 1:439

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Frederick II (the Great), king of Prussia, 1:215, 375; 2:958, 963, 968; 4:1900 Carlyle biography of, 1:371 censorship and, 4:1869 centenary of, 4:1740 education reform and, 2:723 Menzel paintings of, 3:1489 military tactics and, 3:1505 utilitarianism and, 5:2393 Frederick III, king of Prussia and emperor of Germany, 1:240; 2:873–875; 4:1900 death of, 4:2045; 5:2468 father William I and, 2:874, 966 short reign of, 2:966 Siemens and, 4:2180 Frederick VI, king of Denmark, 2:648 Frederick William I, king of Prussia, 2:790 Frederick William III, king of Prussia, 2:606, 875–876; 5:2467 Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:369 Congress of Troppau and, 2:531, 534, 534 Hardenberg and, 2:1042, 1043 Holy Alliance and, 2:1079 Jena and, 3:1221 Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901, 902–903; 4:1900 reform and, 2:876, 958; 4:1900 Restoration and, 4:1972 Schinkel and, 4:2092 Schleiermacher and, 4:2097 son Frederick William IV and, 2:876, 877 Stein and, 4:2251 ultraconservative response to, 2:539 War of 1805 and, 5:2374 Frederick William IV, king of Prussia, 2:876–877 Bismarck and, 1:233, 234, 235 bureaucracy and, 1:324 German imperial crown refusal by, 2:961–962; 4:1902 papacy and, 3:1279 Polish territory and, 4:1808–1809 poor relief and, 4:1849 Ranke and, 4:1940 reforms and, 4:1901–1902 Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:216; 2:567, 961–962; 4:1901 Schelling and, 4:2088 Schlegel and, 4:2096 Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:871 suffragism and, 1:290

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

William I as successor to, 2:962; 5:2467 Young Hegelians and, 5:2512 Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony, 2:534 Frederick the Great (Carlyle), 1:371 ‘‘Frederick the Great’’ (Macaulay), 3:1408 Free Alliance (Berlin), 3:1291 free association (psychoanalysis), 4:1904 Free Association of German Unions, 1:61 free churches, 4:2136 Free Church of Scotland, 2:1006; 4:2118 Freedom (anarchist newspaper), 3:1272 freedom of association, 1:119 freedom of the press, 1:216, 369; 2:812, 958; 4:1869, 1873 France and, 4:1845 Russian Great Reforms and, 2:1016 Freedom of Trade and Occupation Acts of 1810 (Prussia), 2:958 freedom of worship. See religious tolerance freehold movement, 1:490; 2:647 free love, 2:803 free market. See capitalism; free trade; laissez-faire Freemasons, 2:877–882; 4:2130 anticlericalism and, 1:70 B’nai Brith modeled on, 1:119 Carbonari modeled on, 1:360 Catholic antagonism toward, 1:383 Chaadayev and, 1:400 Czartorysky and, 2:603 in France, 2:877, 880–881, 882; 4:1929, 1998, 2243 French nationalist Right vs., 1:5 French women’s rights and, 2:649; 4:1761 historical mythology of, 2:881 masculinity and, 3:1471 in Ottoman Empire, 5:2515 Pelletier and, 4:1761, 1762 in Portugal, 4:1841 prominent members of, 2:878 Russian repression of, 1:377; 3:1552 termnology and abbreviations of, 2:879 women and, 2:881, 882, 882 Freemasons Hall (London), 2:880 Free School (legal theory), 3:1315–1316 Free Thinkers, 2:1032; 4:1929 Freetown colony, 1:13–14; 3:1537

1 9 1 4

free trade, 1:28, 353; 2:512; 5:2339, 2340, 2354, 2413, 2494 Belgium and, 1:201, 203 Bismarck and, 1:239 Britain and, 2:512, 514, 707, 708, 715–717, 1004–1005, 1007, 1011, 1012; 3:1345, 1369 capitalism and, 1:354, 355; 2:515, 709 Cobden advocacy of, 1:490–491; 2:707, 709, 1005 Cobden-Chevalier Treaty and, 1:491, 491–492; 2:512; 3:1537 colonies and, 1:498; 2:505 Congo and, 1:221, 223, 308–309 conservative opposition to, 2:958 Continental System and, 2:512 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:558, 560, 718, 1004–1005 decline of, 3:1124 definition of, 2:707 economic liberalism and, 3:1341 Gladstone and, 2:976, 977, 1007 institutionalist arguments on, 2:709 liberals’ support for, 2:958; 3:1348 List’s rejection of, 3:1357 Manchester and, 3:1427, 1429 Napoleon and, 1:106 Netherlands and, 3:1617 peace activists and, 4:1695 Peel and, 4:1759 Philosophic Radicals and, 3:1512 Piedmont and, 3:1255 protectionism vs., 2:515–516; 4:1887–1889 Prussia and, 2:959 theory of, 4:1887–1888 Zollverein and, 1:171, 487; 2:505, 512 Free Trade Hall (Manchester), 3:1429, 1566 Free University of Amsterdam, 3:1619 free verse, 1:102; 4:2292 free will, 2:239 Free Womb Law of 1880 (Cuba), 1:366 Frege, Gottlob, 2:882–884, 1100 Fre´gier, Honore´, 2:572, 575 Freiberg, Hedwig, 3:1263 Freicorps (Serbia), 3:1247 Freie Bu¨hne (Berlin), 3:1109 Freiheit in Kra¨hwinkel (Nestroy), 5:2419 Freikorps (private paramilitary), 3:1356 Freiligrath, Ferdinand, 1:66 Freischu ¨ tz, Die (Weber), 3:1570, 1673

2635

INDEX

Fre´miet, Louis and Sophie, 4:2043 French Academy. See Acade´mie Franc¸aise French Academy (Rome), 3:1165 French Academy of Sciences. See Academy of Sciences French Canadians, 1:343, 344, 345, 346 French Celtic League, 2:590 French Communist Party, 2:1025; 3:1144; 4:1732, 1762 French Congo, 1:339; 2:783; 3:1546, 1549 French Congre´s International du Droit des Femmes, 2:649 French Cyclists’ Union, 4:2245 French Equatorial Africa, 1:20–21, 500 French Eugenics Society, 2:769 French Flag Hoisted at Timbuktu, The (illustraton), 2:507 French Geographical Society (Paris), 2:782, 784 French Guiana, 2:780–781 French Guinea, 2:780, 812 French Indochina. See Indochina French language Belgium and, 1:199–200, 202, 307 Brussels and, 1:307 Canada and, 1:343, 344 French opera, 3:1669, 1670, 1671–1672, 1673, 1675 French Revolution, 1:130; 2:840–844, 845, 884–899; 4:2212 aggression and, 2:661 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:50–51 anarchism and, 1:55–56 anticlericalism and, 1:68, 387; 2:843, 844, 888, 894, 1000; 4:1717–1718 antislavery movement and, 1:308 aristocracy and, 1:78, 80–81, 471; 2:840–841, 842, 843, 845, 886, 897 artisans and, 1:104 Bastille storming and, 2:842, 886–887; 3:1300, 1385; 4:1728, 1729 beginning (official) of, 3:1385 Bonapartism and, 1:269, 270 bourgeoisie defined by, 1:283–284 bread prices and, 3:1385; 4:1728 Burke’s view of, 1:326, 327–328; 2:538, 566, 887; 3:1422; 4:1700 as Cabet influence, 1:337 Caribbean slave revolt and, 1:364; 2:890 caricatures and, 2:886

2636

Carlyle’s history of, 1:370–371 Catherine II and, 1:376 Catholic Church and, 1:381; 4:2136 Catholic political activity and, 1:386–387, 389 centenary of (1889), 2:550, 737; 4:1696, 1731 Charles X and, 2:843; 3:1386, 1403 as Chartist influence, 1:415 Chateaubriand and, 1:419, 420 citizenship and, 1:456, 458; 2:843, 896; 3:1228, 1229 coal mine concessions and, 1:488 as Coleridge influence, 1:497 colonial revolutions and, 1:498 Committee of Public Safety and, 2:518–519, 845 communism and, 2:520 counterrevolutionaries and, 1:268–269, 326; 2:537, 538, 539, 542, 564–565, 689, 843–844, 887, 890, 891, 894; 3:1343, 1344 crime statistical collection and, 2:570 Danton and, 2:610, 611–612 David and, 2:623, 624; 4:1702 Directory and, 2:664–666, 894–895 disagreeable consequences of, 3:1343 E´cole Polytechnique founding and, 4:1780 education reforms of, 1:286; 2:666, 846; 3:1361 e´migre´ compensation and, 2:847 e´migre´s from, 1:268, 412, 420; 2:563, 843, 844; 3:1111, 1205, 1300, 1386 ending of (1802), 2:894–895, 901 Estates-General and, 2:767–768; 3:1385 European reaction to, 2:887; 3:1191 family law and, 3:1595 federalist revolt (1793) and, 2:799–800, 844 feminism and, 2:801–802, 806, 941, 945 First Republic and, 2:844–846, 891–893; 3:1205 foreign coalition against, 2:890–891 Fox’s view of, 2:839–840 Freemasons and, 2:881 as Gambetta inspiration, 2:929 gender exclusions by, 2:941, 945; 3:1470 German reaction to, 2:957, 959; 3:1523

Girondins and, 2:610, 612, 799, 844, 973–974 Goethe’s view of, 2:987 Gouges and, 2:994–996 Great Fear and, 2:886 Guizot’s view of, 2:1030 Habsburg reaction to, 1:139–140 health citizenship and, 4:1909, 1915 Hegels support for, 2:1051, 1053 Hellenism and, 4:1769 initial popularity of, 2:888 intellectuals and, 3:1167 Irish perception of, 3:1176 as Irish republicanism influence, 2:1000 Italian reaction to, 3:1191, 1192 Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206 Jaure`s’s socialist history of, 3:1216 Jewish emancipation and, 1:73; 2:843; 3:1226, 1228, 1229 Lafayette and, 2:890; 3:1299–1300 Lamartine history of, 3:1304 land confiscation and, 3:1305 Lavoisier and, 3:1313 legal reforms and, 2:888; 3:1313–1314, 1315, 1316 leisure practices and, 3:1323 liberal ideals and, 3:1342–1345 liberal postrevolutionary critique of, 2:546 Louis XVI and, 3:1385–1386, 1446 Louis XVIII and, 3:1386 Louis-Philippe’s support for, 3:1387–1388 Lyon and, 3:1403 machine breaking and, 3:1411 Maistre on, 3:1421–1422 Marat and, 3:1443 Marie-Antoinette and, 3:1445, 1446–1447 ‘‘Marseillaise’’ and, 1:457; 2:518, 891 mass deaths and, 2:628, 892–894; 3:1192 mass mobilization and, 3:1339–1340 Michelet’s history of, 3:1499 museum democratization and, 3:563, 1561; 4:1825 Napoleon and, 3:1584, 1586 national identity and, 3:1521–1522 nationalism and, 3:1603 old age and, 3:1662, 1664 origins of, 2:840–841, 884–885; 3:1385 Paine and, 4:1700–1701

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

painting and, 4:1701, 1702–1703 papacy and, 4:1717–1718 Paris and, 2:842–845, 886, 887, 890, 891; 4:1727–1729 Parisian mob violence and, 2:799, 845; 4:1728 peasants and, 4:1755 penal exile and, 2:780–781 phases of, 3:1192 pilgrimage ban and, 4:1787–1788 pogroms and, 4:1802 police system and, 4:1813 political clubs and, 2:890 positivism and, 4:1844 posters and, 4:1845 press’s role in, 4:1868, 1869 radicalization of, 2:890–894; 3:1192 See also Reign of Terror Ranke on, 4:1940 republicanism and, 4:1958–1964 Robespierre and, 4:2005–2006 Rome and, 4:2033 royal family and, 3:1385–1386 Russia and, 4:2047–2048 Sade and, 4:2074 Saint-Domingue and, 5:2332 Saint-Simon and, 4:2080, 2082 sans-culottes and, 1:111; 2:844, 887, 890 secret societies and, 4:2129 secularization and, 4:2132, 2133 September Massacres and, 2:799, 891, 973 serf emancipation and, 2:886, 892, 897; 3:1305; 4:1754, 2149 Sieye`s and, 4:2180–2181 significance of, 2:895–896 spread of ideals of, 1:456–457, 459, 461–462; 2:669, 895–896, 1019; 3:1176, 1342–1345; 4:1696 Stae¨l and, 4:2246–2247 suffragism and, 4:2277, 2279 Tories and, 5:2321 utopian socialist view of, 5:2395–2396 Vende´e insurgency and, 2:563, 565, 844, 892 Venetian Republic and, 5:2402 Wollstonecraft and, 5:2480 women’s rights and, 2:843, 941–942, 945; 4:2279 working class and, 5:2483 See also French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars; Reign of Terror

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

French Revolution, The (Blake), 1:244 French Revolution, The (Carlyle), 1:370–371 French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars, 2:891–892, 893, 895, 899–903 Alexander I and, 1:37–38, 226 allied unity and, 1:374 aristocracy and, 1:81 armies and, 1:93–94 Austerlitz and, 1:132–133; 2:846; 3:1586 Austria and, 1:93, 132–133, 139–140, 170; 2:611, 844, 846, 860–861, 861, 890, 893, 895, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 957; 3:1235–1236, 1254, 1319, 1492–1493, 1588; 4:1900; 5:2374, 2417, 2442 balance of power restoration after, 1:457 banditry and, 2:571 banking and, 1:170, 171 Belgium and, 1:199, 200; 2:899, 900, 903; 3:1587 Berlin occupation and, 1:215 Bernadotte and, 1:226–227; 2:903; 3:1319, 1320 blockades and, 2:553 Bonapartism and, 1:269–271 Borodino and, 1:272–273; 2:902; 3:1588 bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 471 Britain and, 2:846, 891, 895, 900–901, 1002; 3:1319, 1339, 1493, 1585, 1586–1587, 1588; 4:1764–1766 British rule in India and, 3:1134 Castlereagh and, 1:373, 374 Catherine II and, 1:376; 4:1748 Catholicism and, 1:387 Charles Albert and, 1:413 Clausewitz and, 1:477 Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527, 540, 661–664 Congress of Vienna and. See Congress of Vienna Continental System and, 2:553–554 Czartoryski and, 2:603 Danton and, 2:610 deaths from, 2:628, 644 Denmark and, 4:2287 diplomacy and, 2:661 Egypt and, 1:18, 43, 44, 406; 2:731, 900 First Coalition and, 2:860, 899–900

1 9 1 4

Fourth Coalition and, 1:38; 2:903 Frederick William III and, 2:875 Frederick William IV and, 2:876 French abolition of slavery and, 2:1036 French museum collections acquired from, 3:1562 French provocation for, 3:1596 French territorial expansion and, 2:895 See also Napoleonic Empire Germany and, 1:368–369; 2:957 Girondins and, 2:844, 974 Goya’s paintings and, 2:98, 997 gymnastics and, 4:2241 Hamburg and, 2:1038 Hundred Days and, 2:1098–1099 imperialism and, 3:1114, 1115 as international conflict, 3:1176 international law and, 3:1172, 1175 Ireland and, 2:1000 Italy and, 3:1191–1192, 1254; 4:1786, 2000–2001 Jacobins and, 3:1205, 1206 Jena and, 3:1221–1222 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1227 John, archduke of Austria, and, 3:1235036 Jomini and, 3:1236–1237 Kutuzov and, 3:1281–1282 Lafayette and, 3:1300 Larrey and, 3:1308 Leipzig battle and, 3:1319–1322, 1588 Leopold I and, 3:1334 leve´e en masse and, 3:1338–1340 Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388 medical services and, 3:1307–1308 Metternich and, 3:1491, 1492–1493 migrations and, 3:1110–1111 military tactics and, 3:1505–1506 Moscow’s destruction in, 3:1551 mythologies about, 3:1340 Napoleon and, 2:957; 3:1584–1588 Napoleonic Empire as legacy of, 3:1596–1597 Napoleon’s defeats and, 2:846, 847, 902–903, 1099; 3:1322, 1493, 1588, 1599; 4:1765–1767 Nelson and, 3:1615 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1683 Papal State and, 4:1724 Paul I and, 4:1748 penal exile and, 2:780 Peninsular War’s impact on outcome of, 4:1766

2637

INDEX

Poland and, 4:1807, 1808, 1817 Prussia and, 1:93, 133, 477; 2:553, 610, 611, 844, 846, 875, 876, 891, 895, 899–903, 957, 958, 1038, 1042, 1043; 3:1221–1222, 1319, 1493, 1586, 1588; 4:1899–1901, 2252 rationale for, 2:891–892, 895 resort development and, 4:2124 Restoration and, 4:1967, 1968 Russian invasion and, 1:38; 2:603, 846, 861, 958; 3:1281–1282, 1308, 1319, 1492, 1551, 1588, 1599; 4:1766 Second Coalition and, 2:860, 895, 900–901 Serbia and, 3:1683 sister republics and, 2:666; 4:2186–2187 Spain and. See Peninsular War sugar-beet farming and, 4:1753 Third Coalition and, 1:37–38; 2:603, 860, 901–902; 3:1586–1587 tobacco smoking and, 5:2314 tourism and, 5:2327 Trafalgar battle and, 3:1586, 1615; 5:2344–2345, 2438 Turner and impact of, 5:2366–2367 Ulm and, 5:2374–2375 Vienna’s occupation and, 5:2417 War of 1812 and, 5:2438 Wars of Liberation and, 4:1900 Waterloo and, 4:2039, 2124; 5:2367, 2442–2443, 2457 Wellington and, 5:2442–2443, 2457 wine and, 5:2476 See also Congress of Vienna; Napoleonic Empire French Royal Academy. See Royal Academy (France) French Section of the Workers International, 4:2299 French Socialist Party, 3:1217, 1218 Ho Chi Minh and, 3:1144 Pelletier and, 4:1761 Socialist Party of France vs., 3:1217, 1292 French Union for Womens Suffrage, 1:128; 4:2279–2280 French Workers Party, 1:127; 2:1025, 2205 Fre`res Zemganno, Les (E. Goncourt), 2:991 Frerichs, Friedrich Theodor von, 2:735 Fre´ron, Louis, 2:894

2638

Fresch, Cardinal, 1:420 Fresnaye, Roger de la, 1:156 Fresnel, Augustin-Jean, 4:1779, 1780 Freud, Anna, 2:904, 909; 4:1904 Freud, Sigmund, 1:464; 2:872, 903–910, 905; 3:1509, 1535; 4:2255 Adler (Alfred) and, 1:8–10; 2:907, 908 Andreas-Salome´ and, 1:65 anti-Semitism and, 2:904 Brentano’s influence on, 1:298, 299 cocaine and, 2:688 degeneration and, 2:638–639 on Dostoyevsky’s insights, 2:679 fin de sie`cle and, 2:816 Fourier seen as precursor of, 2:838 gender theories of, 2:948–949 Greek tragedy and, 4:1770 homosexuality theory of, 2:906, 1085; 4:2163 hysteria and, 1:410; 2:904–905 Jung and, 2:907, 908, 909; 3:1238–1239, 1240 as Kafka influence, 3:1242 on male potency, 3:1472 neuroanatomy and, 1:341, 342 psychoanalysis and, 1:8–9; 2:638–639, 904, 905–909; 3:1240; 4:1904–1905, 1908; 5:2421 Rank and, 4:1938 Schnitzler and, 4:2100 Schoenberg and, 4:2102 Schopenhauer as influence on, 4:2104 sexuality theory and, 2:905, 906–907, 908; 4:1904, 1905, 2104, 2163, 2164 on Ulrichs’s theory, 5:2376 Weininger and, 5:2449 Freud, Sophie, 2:908 Freycinet, Charles-Louis de, 1:279; 2:642, 856–857 Freycinet Plan (France), 4:1964 Fried, Alfred Hermann, 4:1697, 2282 Friedell, Egon, 1:336 Friedjung, Siegfried, 1:10 Friedland, Battle of (1807), 2:846, 902; 3:1586 Friedman, Milton, 2:707 Friedrich, Caspar David, 2:910–912, 911; 4:1703, 2027, 2029–2030 Friedrich Nietzsche in seinen Werken (Andreas-Salome´), 1:64 Friedrichshain (Berlin), 4:1740 Friedrichstrasse (Berlin), 1:218, 219

Friedrichswerder Church (Berlin), 4:2093 Friedrich Wilhelm University. See Humboldt University friendly societies, 2:1019; 5:2490 Friendship’s Garland (Arnold), 1:103 Friends of the People (France), 1:290; 3:1285 Fries, J. F., 2:1053 Friesz, Othon, 1:153; 2:796, 797 Frieze of Life, The (Munch), 3:1559, 1560; 4:2294 Fro¨ding, Gustav, 4:2287 From Euge`ne Delacroix to NeoImpressionism (Signac), 4:2158 From the Other Shore (Herzen), 2:1065 From the Papers of One Still Living (Kierkegaard), 3:1251 Fronde, La (Paris daily), 2:696–697 frozen food, 2:659; 3:1623 Fructuosa Rivera, Jose´, 2:931 fruit, 5:2337, 2342 Fry, Elizabeth, 3:1649 Fry, Roger, 2:835; 4:1865, 2258 Fuad Pasha, 3:1686 Fuchs, Ernst, 3:1316 fueros, 4:2229 Fuller, Loie, 5:2503 Fulton, Robert, 2:760 ‘‘Function of Criticism at the Present Time, The’’ (Arnold), 1:102 functions, theory of, 4:1804 Fundamental Laws of 1906 (Russia), 4:1978, 2057, 2211, 2257 Fundamental Pact of 1846 (Tunisia), 5:2362, 2363 Funen, 2:647 funerals. See death and burial funerary monuments, 1:347 fungicides, 3:1164 Furet, Franc¸ois, 4:1962, 2081–2082 furniture, 2:912–915, 913, 1090 art nouveau and, 1:107–108, 109, 110–112, 113; 2:815 consumerism and, 2:549, 912–913 Morris designs for, 3:1550 fur trade, 2:505; 4:2172 ‘‘Fuse´es’’ (Baudelaire), 1:188 Fuseli, Henry (Fu ¨ ssli, Johann Heinrich), 4:1703, 2027; 5:2480 Fustel de Coulanges, Numa-Denis, 1:51 Future of Illusion, The (Freud), 2:908–909 Future of Science, The (Renan), 4:1953, 2133 Future of War, The (Bloch), 2:1034 futurism, 2:550, 774, 915–921; 4:1711

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

avant-garde and, 1:155, 156–158 Bergson’s influence on, 1:214; 2:918, 921 collage and, 2:592 modernism and, 3:1530–1531 Russia and, 4:2182–2183 Venice and, 5:2405 Futurist Manifesto, The (Marinetti), 2:917 Futurist Political Party (Italy), 2:921 ‘‘Futurist Refashioning of the Universe’’ (Balla and Despero), 2:917 Fux, Johann, 3:1484 Fuzhou, 3:1679

n

G Gabon, 2:783, 812 Gabriel, Jacques-Ange, 4:1727 Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 2:661, 1062 Gaelic Athletic Association, 3:1180, 1182 Gaelic language, 4:2120 Gaelic League, 3:1180, 1182 Gagelin-Opigez, 1:482 Gagern, Heinrich von, 2:871, 923–924; 3:1346 Gailleton, Antoine, 3:1405 Gainsborough, Thomas, 2:543 Gaj, Ljudevit, 2:924–925; 4:1861 Gala Me´lie`s, 3:1484 Galanti, Giuseppe Maria, 3:1580–1581 Gala´pagos Islands, 2:613 Galata, 3:1186, 1190 Galata Bridge (Istanbul), 3:1684 Galerie Bernheim-Jeune (Paris), 2:918 Galgani, Gemma, 1:385 Galiani, Ferdinando, 2:515; 3:1580 Galicia (Austria-Hungary), 1:140, 145; 4:1993, 2020; 5:2369–2373, 2380 Jewish population in, 3:1229, 1232; 4:1808 peasant uprising in, 4:1755 Polish autonomy in, 4:1809, 1818 Galicia (Spain), 1:367–368; 4:1765 Galilei, Galileo, 4:2113 Galiyev, Sultan, 3:1208 Gall, Franz Joseph, 2:523, 925–926; 4:1775, 1908 Gallagher, John, 1:498 ´ mile, 1:108, 110, 111 Galle´, E Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II (Milan), 3:1503

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Gallery of Machines (Paris), 5:2500 galley slavery, 2:779 Gallia (Dowie), 4:2235 Galliani, Ferdinando, 4:1887 Gallican Articles of 1682, 2:529 Gallicanism, 1:269; 2:529; 4:1721 Galliffet, Gaston-Alexandre-Auguste de, 3:1216; 5:2432 Galli-Marie´, Ce´lestine, 3:1676 Gallipoli, 1:163, 278; 2:669; 3:1624 Galton, Francis, 2:927–928 eugenics and, 2:619, 637, 652, 769, 770, 779, 927, 928 human variation study of, 4:1908 statistical variation and, 2:652, 770; 4:1922, 2248–2249 Galton curve, 2:652 Galvani, Luigi, 4:2168 galvanometer, 3:1249 Gambara (Balzac), 1:168 Gambetta, Le´on-Michel, 2:810, 853, 928–930; 3:1122, 1219 Delcasse´ and, 2:642 peasant voters and, 4:1755 republicanism and, 4:1963 separation of church and state and, 4:2136 Third Republic and, 4:1734 Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432 Gambia, 1:13, 15, 21 Gambia River, 2:780 Gambler, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:678–679 Gamkrelidze, Thomas V., 2:1024 gamma-rays, 4:1804 Gandhi, Mohandas, 1:501; 3:1524; 4:2047; 5:2320 Gandon, James, 2:691 gangrene, 3:1308 gangs. See banditry; youth gangs Ganivet, Angel, 2:950 Ga¨nserupferinnen, Die (Liebermann), 3:1353 Ganz electric company, 2:741, 742 Gapon, Georgy, 4:1976 Garabit Viaduct (Cantal, France), 2:759, 760 Garasˇanin, Ilija, 4:2145, 2148 Garbo, Greta, 4:2287 garc¸onne (flapper), 2:947 Garde Mobile (France), 5:2487 ‘‘Gardener, The’’ (Kipling), 3:1257 gardens, 3:1305, 1600 Gardiner, A. G., 2:1044 Gare Saint-Lazare (Paris), 3:1535; 4:1732 Garfield, James, 4:1768 Gargantua (French journal), 2:621

1 9 1 4

Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 1:362, 391, 392; 2:930–933 caricature of, 2:931 Cavour and, 1:391, 392; 2:932, 933; 3:1197 Crispi and, 2:581 mafia and, 3:1415 myth of, 2:930, 932–933 pacifism and, 4:1696 popularity of, 3:1481 republicanism and, 4:1963 Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1197; 4:1719, 1796 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 2:931–932; 3:1195, 1197–1198, 1581; 4:1726 Roman Republic and, 3:1197 Rome and, 4:2003, 2004, 2034–2035, 2037 Sicilian revolt and, 3:1255, 1415 Sicily and, 4:2003, 2175, 2176 Victor Emmanuel II and, 4:2004; 5:2410–2411 Young Europe and, 3:1195 garments. See clothing, dress, and fashion Garnier, Charles, 2:738, 1049; 3:1672; 4:1708, 1731; 5:2500 Garnier, Joseph, 3:1538 Garnier, Tony, 3:1405 Garno, Diana, 1:338 Garofalo, Raffaele, 3:1371 Garrick, David, 1:327 Garrigue, Charlotte, 3:1468–1469 Garrison, William Lloyd, 3:1459 Garshin, Vsevolod, 2:633 gases, dynamic theory of, 3:1478; 4:1922 Gaskell, Elizabeth, 1:302; 2:657, 933–935, 934; 3:1430 Gaskell, William, 2:934, 935 Gaskell Society, 2:934 gas lighting, 5:2418 Gasprinski, Ismail Bey, 3:1207 gas street lights, 1:445–446; 2:548 electric lights compared with, 2:742 Gates of Hell, The (Rodin), 4:2008, 2009 Gatrell, Simon, 2:1045 GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs), 2:512 Gaudı´, Antonio, 1:112, 183–184; 2:935–938; 4:1826, 2232 Gaudreault, Andre´, 3:1482 Gauguin, Clovis, 2:939 Gauguin, Paul, 2:939–941, 940; 3:1530; 4:1757, 1874, 2156; 5:2501

2639

INDEX

avant-garde and, 1:152, 154; 2:941; 4:1710 Degas collection of works of, 2:634 as fauve influence, 2:795, 796 Jarry and, 3:1213 as Matisse influence, 3:1474 Pissarro and, 4:1792, 1793 postimpressionism and, 4:1709 primitivism and, 4:1874, 1875 symbolism and, 4:2294 Van Gogh and, 5:2401 Gaulard-Gibbs transformer, 3:1116 Gaulle, Edme, 4:2043 Gaumont, Le´on, 3:1397 Gaumont company, 1:442; 3:1483 Gauner (criminal type), 2:572 Gautier, The´ophile, 3:1432, 1577; 4:2182; 5:2314 Baudelaire essay on, 1:188 hashish and, 2:687 Gavarni, Paul, 2:586 Gaveaux, Pierre, 3:1673 Gay, Jean-Baptiste-Sylve`re, 2:847 Gay, Jules, 4:1836 gay culture. See homosexuality and lesbianism gay liberation movement, 2:1086 Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis, 2:1096 Gay Science, The (Nietzsche), 3:1631, 1632, 1635 gay studies, 4:2297 Gazette de France (newspaper), 4:1869 Gazette de Leyde (newspaper), 4:1867, 1868 Gazette des femmes (newspaper), 2:803 Gazette me´dicale de Paris (periodical), 4:1913 gazettes. See press and newspapers Gazza ladra, La (Rossini), 4:2038 Gdan´sk, 4:1808 GDP (gross domestic product) contrasting European per capita levels of, 1:350, 350 protectionism and, 2:513, 514 Second Industrial Revolution growth per capita, 1:352 Gebhardt, Willabald, 3:1666 Gedichte (Fonante), 2:828 Geer, Louis de, 4:2283–2284 Geiger, Theodor, 1:106 Geist (Hegelian concept), 2:1052 Geistliche Lieder (Novalis), 3:1647 Geliebte von Elftausend Ma¨dchen (Althing), 4:1834 Gellner, Ernest, 3:1607 Geman Romanticism, national culture and, 3:1523 Gem company, 4:2113

2640

gemeinschaft, 4:2212–2213 Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (To ¨ nnies), 2:698–699 Gemignani, Elvira, 4:1915 Gendarmerie Nationale (France), 4:1813–1814 gender, 2:941–949 aristocratic prerogatives and, 1:469 Austen’s novels and, 1:131 Australia and, 1:136 automobiles and, 1:149 beards and, 1:190–191 body and, 1:251 bourgeois domesticity and, 1:287; 2:943 Catholicism and, 1:379, 383 Chartism and, 1:418 church attendance and, 4:1893–1894 civil society and, 1:466, 467 criminality theories and, 2:574; 3:1372 Davies’s equality belief and, 2:626 Decadence and, 2:632 definition of, 2:941 dimorphism and, 2:798, 802, 942–949; 3:1470, 1471 division of labor and, 3:1450, 1452, 1453, 1455, 1471 as Doyle issue, 2:680 dueling code and, 2:695, 696 educational opportunity and, 2:719, 721, 723 educational path and, 2:724, 725 equality vs. differences and, 2:801 factory work and, 1:474 family roles and, 3:1450, 1453, 1471 fashion and, 4:2158 fin de sie`cle tensions and, 2:816, 947–949; 3:1472 French workforce and, 2:697 homosexual identity concerns and, 2:816 homosexuals and lesbians and, 2:1082–1086 Ibsens Doll’s House and, 2:942; 3:1108, 1473 imperialism and, 3:1472 impressionist painting and, 3:1130 inheritance laws and, 287 labor movements and, 3:1288, 1292 law practice and, 2:726 leisure and, 3:1325 literacy and, 2:274, 719, 723; 3:1363, 1363; 4:1822, 1868 London cultural life and, 3:1378 manners and, 3:1438–1439

migration and, 3:1114 misogyny and, 2:632, 675, 816, 995 Moscow ratio of, 3:1553–1554 Napoleonic Code and, 2:942–943; 3:1595 New Woman and, 1:485; 2:947 old-age pensions and, 3:1665 Paris Commune and, 4:1736 Pelletier’s theory of, 4:1761, 1762 professions and, 4:1881 propriety and, 3:1438–1439, 1439 prostitution and, 4:1883–1886 role resistance, 2:942 Romanticism and, 4:2029 Sand and, 4:2084 sewing and, 4:2158–2159 sexual double standard and, 1:469; 2:797, 798, 804, 947; 3:1471 sports and, 4:2245–2246 teachers and, 2:724 two-sex model of, 3:1470 university admission and, 2:728 voluntary associations and, 1:116 white-collar workers and, 1:473 working class and, 2:943, 944; 3:1741; 5:2487–2488 See also feminism; masculinity; separate spheres; women gene, coining of term, 2:653 Genealogy of Morals, The (Nietzsche), 1:64; 3:1633 General Act of the Berlin Conference of 1885, 1:221–223, 308; 3:1173 General Act of the Brussels Conference Relative to the African Slave Trade of 1890, 1:309 General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, 2:512 General Association of German Workers, 3:1289 General Board of Health (Britain), 1:325, 402; 4:1912 General Confederation of Labor (France), 1:59, 60, 61; 3:1217, 1218, 1289, 1292; 4:2298, 2299; 5:2491 General Confederation of Labor (Italy), 1:61; 3:1202, 1289; 4:2299 General German Workers Congress (1848), 3:1287 General Jewish Workers Union. See Bund, Jewish General Nicolas Guye (Goya), 2:997 General Postal Union (Bern, 1874), 3:1173

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

General School Ordinance of 1774 (Austria), 2:723 General Service Enlistment Act of 1856 (India), 4:2140 general staff (army), 1:96 general strikes, 1:62; 4:2267–2268, 2298–2299, 2300; 5:2390 Belgium and, 1:203, 204; 3:1293 British first planned (1842), 3:1284 Italy and, 3:1504 Russia and, 4:1974, 1977–1978, 2055–2056 St. Petersburg and, 2:823 for suffrage, 3:1293; 4:2268 General Theory (Keynes), 2:1076 general theory of relativity, 3:1409 General Treaty and Convention of Commerce and Navigation (1856), 3:1548 General Union of Carpenters and Joiners, 3:1284 General Union of Spinners, 3:1284 General Union of Workers (Spain), 3:1289 general will (Rousseau theory), 3:1603 Generation of 1870 (Portugal), 4:1840 Generation of 1898, 2:949–952 Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (Haeckel), 2:1031 genero chico, 3:1414 genetics criminality theories and, 2:573–574; 3:1371 de Vries plant breeding and, 2:652–653 eugenics and, 2:637, 769–770, 927 evolution theories and, 2:618, 778–779 Galton theories and, 2:927, 928; 4:1922 gene theory and, 2:653 Lamarck and, 2:615, 637, 777–779, 928; 3:1302 Mendel and, 2:652, 769–770, 778; 3:1484–1486 statistical laws and, 4:1922 Geneva, Republic of, 4:2288 Geneva Convention (1864), 2:952–953; 3:1173 amendments (1906, 1929, 1949), 2:953; 3:1175 protocols (1977), 2:963 Red Cross and, 3:1650; 4:1948–1950 Geneva First International Congress (1872), 2:825

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Genevie`ve, Saint, 4:1760 Genga, Annibale della. See Leo XII Genghis Khan, 2:773 Genius of Christianity, The (Ge´nie du Christianisme, Le; Chateaubriand), 1:420; 4:2030 Genoa, 4:2000 harbor, 1:448 Mazzini and, 3:1479 Piedmont-Savoy and, 3:1193; 4:1785, 1786 as republic, 3:1191, 1584, 1599; 4:2188 sister republics and, 4:2001, 2188 genocide Armenian, 1:2, 90, 92 Nazi ‘‘racial hygiene’’ and, 2:928 Gens de justice, Les (Daumier), 2:621 Gensonne´, Armand, 2:973 Gentile, Giovanni, 2:584, 585 Gentiloni, Ottorino, 4:2025 Gentiloni, Vincenzo, 2:972 Gentiloni Pact (1913), 2:972 ‘‘gentlemanliness’’ theory, 1:485 gentlemen’s clubs, 4:1966 gentry, 1:80, 83, 84–85, 86 leisure and, 3:1323 Gentz, Friedrich von, 2:540 Ge´ny, Franc¸ois, 3:1315 geodesy, 4:1921 Geographical Distribution of Animals, The (Wallace), 5:2438 geography, 2:784, 1097 Geological Society of London, 2:1102; 3:1376, 1401, 1402 Geologic Map of England and Wales with Part of Scotland (Smith), 4:2113 geology, 4:2113 Agassiz and, 1:22–23 age of earth and, 2:615, 776 Cuvier and, 2:599 Humboldt (Alexander) and, 2:1097 Kelvin and, 3:1250 Lyell and, 2:615; 3:1401–1402 geometry, 2:883 geopolitics, 3:1357 George, Stefan, 3:1529; 4:2102 George I, king of Greece, 2:1021, 1022 George III, king of Great Britain, 1:246; 3:1224; 5:2411, 2470 China and, 1:432, 433 Fox and, 2:839, 840, 1001 George IV regency and, 2:953, 954 Irish emancipation and, 1:373; 2:1000

1 9 1 4

London urban development and, 3:1375 mental instability of, 2:1000 Pitt the Younger and, 5:2321, 2460–2461 George IV, king of Great Britain, 2:953–955, 954; 5:2471 Cruikshank caricatures of, 2:585–586 death of, 2:1003 divorce suit of, 1:302, 489, 490; 2:585–586, 954; 4:1834 Jenner and, 3:1224 London development and, 3:1375 Luddism and, 3:1391 Nash architectural designs and, 3:1602 Scotland and, 4:2121 Scott and, 4:2123 George IV (Lawrence), 2:954 George V, king of Great Britain, 1:42, 114–115; 3:1624; 5:2415, 2472 father Edward VII and, 2:730, 1011 Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel (Schlesinger), 2:1052 Georgia (Russia), 4:2164, 2257 Georg-Speyer House (Frankfurt), 2:735 Gerdt, Pavel, 4:1750 Gerhardt, Charles-Fre´de´ric, 1:425–426 geriatrics. See old age Ge´ricault, The´odore, 1:285, 333; 2:640, 955–956, 956; 4:1705 Gerke, Anton, 3:1575 Gerlach, Ernst Ludwig von, 1:233, 234; 2:876 Gerlach, Joseph von, 1:340, 341 Gerlach, Leopold von, 1:233, 234; 2:876 Germ (Pre-Raphaelite journal), 4:1864 Germaine Lacerteux (Goncourt brothers), 2:991 German Anthropological Society, 5:2425 German Army League, 3:1546 German Brethren, 2:960 German Casino (Prague), 4:1858 German Center Party. See Center Party German Colonial League, 2:967 German Communist Party, 2:1071; 3:1356 German Confederation. See Germany; specific members German Customs Union. See Zollverein German Democratic Party, 1:189 German Dictionary (Grimm brothers), 2:1024

2641

INDEX

German expressionism. See expressionism German Fatherland Party, 5:2313 German Football Association, 2:834 German Grammar (J. Grimm), 2:1024 German Gymnast Society, 1:118 German History in the Nineteenth Century (Treitschke), 5:2353 German Ideology, The (Marx and Engels), 2:755; 4:2203 German Imperial Statistical Yearbook, 5:2335 German Internists’ Congress, 2:735 German Jurists, 2:962 German language academic nationalism and, 2:960 Austria-Hungary and, 1:138–139, 142, 143; 2:865; 3:1525 Baltic nobility and, 2:818–819 Bohemian Lands and, 1:259, 261–262; 4:1856, 1859, 1860–1861 cultural nationalism and, 3:1523 Grimms Law and, 2:1024 Kafka’s writings in, 3:3.1242 Marx’s writings in, 3:1466 Polish partition and, 1:239; 4:1812–1813, 1818 German Legends (Grimm brothers), 2:1023 German Medical Weekly, 1:341 German Navy League, 2:967 German Nurses’ Asociation, 3:1650 German opera, 3:1673, 1674–1675 Bayreuth and, 1:403, 404; 3:1383, 1567, 1571, 1635, 1674 Singspiel and, 3:1673, 1674 German Peace Society, 4:2282 German philosophy. See philosophy German Popular Stories (Taylor translation), 2:1023 German Racial Hygiene Society, 2:769 German Requiem (Brahms), 3:1571 German Romance (Carlyle), 1:370 German Romanticism, 4:2195 Berlin and, 1:215 Fichte and, 2:814 Frederick William IV and, 2:876–877 Friedrich and, 2:910–912; 4:1703 Goethe and, 2:985 Heine and, 2:1055–1057 Jena Circle and, 3:1647–1648 national culture and, 3:1523 Novalis and, 3:1647–1648 German Social Democratic Pary. See Social Democratic Party (Germany)

2642

German Sonderweg, 1:106 German unification, 1:47–48, 98, 217, 262; 2:962–967, 964; 4:2242 Bavaria and, 3:1383 Bismarck and, 1:233, 235–237; 2:526, 662, 874, 962–967; 3:1198, 1383, 1523, 1605; 4:1902–1903 commercial union as first step in, 2:512 Concert of Europe and, 2:526 conservative nationalism and, 2:566; 3:1605 counterrevolution and, 2:567 Crimean War and, 2:580 cultural unification and, 3:1522–1523 Czechs and, 4:1860 dueling craze and, 2:696 economic growth and, 2:967 fin de sie`cle power of, 2:815 as Franco-Prussian War outcome, 1:171; 2:964 Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:870–872 Frederick III and, 2:874 Frederick William IV and, 2:962 Gagern and, 2:923, 924 German Empire proclamation and, 2:964, 965; 4:1903 global power-politics and, 2:967 international law and, 3:1174 John of Austria and, 3:1236 Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1280; 4:1903 liberals and, 3:1346 Moltke and, 3:1531, 1532 monetary union and, 3:1537, 1538 See also Zollverein Poland and, 4:1809, 1812–1813, 1818, 1993 Polish territory and, 4:1809, 1812–1813, 1818 population increase and, 4:1829 Prague Slav Congress as response to, 4:1861, 1862 proclamation of (1871), 4:1903 Prussia and, 2:871, 924, 962–967; 4:1899, 1901, 1902–1903 Prussian authoritarianism and, 3:1523 Prussian defeat of Austria (1866) and, 1:393; 2:964; 4:1902 Prussian dominance and, 4:1903 Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:567; 4:1992–1993, 1995 Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:648

Treitschke and, 5:2352–2353 wars of.See Austro-Prussian War; Danish-German War; FrancoPrussian War William I and, 3:1383; 4:1903; 5:2467 William II and, 2:966–969 German Union for Women’s Suffrage, 4:2280 German Women’s League, 2:967 Germany, 2:957–970; 4:1967, 1972, 1985 Action Franc¸aise parallels in, 2:542 African colonies, 1:20, 222, 240, 256; 3:1116, 1125 aging population in, 3:1662, 1664 Agricultural Revolution and, 2:762, 960; 3:1160 agricultural workers and, 1:24; 2:960 Alexander III policies and, 1:40, 41 alliance system and, 1:47–50, 146; 2:663–664 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:50, 51–52 Andreas-Salome´ and, 1:63–65 Anneke and, 1:66–67 anticlericalism and, 1:69–70, 382, 388; 2:966; 3:1277–1279 anti-Semitism and, 1:71–72, 74, 75, 77, 82; 2:689, 815; 3:1233; 5:2353, 2472–2473 architecture in, 4:2030 aristocracy and, 1:82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 471 army system and, 1:94, 96, 97, 98, 99; 2:696 artisans and, 1:105, 106–107, 459; 2:960 art nouveau in, 1:108, 112, 152; 2:815 Augspurg and, 1:128–130 Austria and, 1:10, 11, 141, 143, 147, 148; 2:703–704, 863, 864, 958, 962; 5:2355 automobiles and, 1:148, 150; 5:2352 avant-garde and, 1:154–156 Baltic provinces and, 2:821, 822 banking in, 1:17, 83–84, 172, 174–175, 176, 216–217; 2:965 baths and spas and, 5:2327 Ba¨umer and, 1:188–190 Bebel and, 1:194–195 Beethoven and, 1:195–199; 3:1570 Belgium invasion by, 1:199, 205 Berlin as capital of, 1:217–220 Berlin Conference and, 1:221 Bernstein and, 1:230–231

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Bethmann Hollweg chancellorship and, 1:232 Bismarck and, 1:84, 233–241; 2:525, 662, 966 bourgeoisie in, 1:106–107, 286, 471, 473 Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294 Brahms and, 1:294–296; 3:1570–1571 British naval power and, 2:681, 682–683, 1013; 3:1609–1611; 5:2312 bureaucracy in, 1:323–324; 4:1880 business firms and, 1:330; 2:711 cabarets and, 1:335–336 Caillaux’s negotiations with, 1:339 canals in, 5:2350 Carlsbad Decrees and, 4:1971, 1972 Catholicism and, 1:377, 380, 383–384; 2:960; 4:1721; 5:2467, 2469, 2472–2474, 2489 Catholic political activity and, 1:388–389, 393–394; 2:966 Cavour’s relations with, 2:583 censorship in, 1:336, 368, 370; 2:959; 3:1494; 4:1869, 1870 Center Party in, 1:82, 388, 393–395; 5:2469, 2472–2474, 2489 chemistry in, 1:425, 426, 427; 3:1159–1160 child labor and, 4:1830 child-study movement and, 1:428 China and, 1:435 cholera epidemics and, 1:436, 438; 2:669 Christian Democrats and, 4:2209 Christian Socialism and, 4:2208 cinema in, 4:1824 city government and, 1:449–450 Civil Code (1900) of, 3:1314 civil society and, 1:466 class structure in, 1:106–107 coal production in, 1:352, 485, 486–487, 488; 2:967 coffee consumption in, 1:494 commercial policy of, 2:512, 516, 517 common currency in, 1:171 Congress of Berlin and, 2:530 Congress of Vienna and, 2:533, 958 constitutional movements in, 1:457, 459 corporations in, 1:355; 2:711 cotton production in, 1:329 credit cooperatives in, 2:556 criminality theory and, 2:572–573

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

cycling and, 2:602 Decadence and, 2:633 degeneration and, 2:769 Denmark and. See Danish-German War department stores in, 2:551 Dilthey and, 2:660–661 Dohm and, 2:675–676 dramatists in, 3:1108 dress reform and, 1:485 drinking culture of, 1:34, 35, 36 dueling in, 2:695, 696; 3:1472 Durkheim’s university studies in, 2:698 economic growth and, 1:40–41, 47–48, 331, 351; 2:960, 967, 969 education and, 1:286; 2:723–724 Ehrlich and, 2:734–736 elected assemblies in, 1:290 emigrants from, 1:351; 2:506, 646, 748, 960 ‘‘encirclement’’ fears of, 1:48, 49; 2:526, 527; 3:1545–1546, 1549 Engels and, 2:754–756 engineering training in, 2:759 established church in, 4:1895 eugenics and, 2:769–770 expressionism and, 3:1530 factory housing in, 2:1088 Febronianism in, 4:1721 feminism in, 1:129, 188–190; 2:675–676, 803–804, 946, 947; 3:1680–1681 Fichte and, 2:813–814 fin de sie`cle mood of, 2:815 Fontane and, 2:828–830 football (soccer) in, 2:833–834 forestry and, 2:763 Forty-Eighters from, 1:66; 2:962 France and, 5:2311 Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:870–872, 961–962 Frederick III and, 2:873–874 Freemasons and, 2:877, 881 French rivalry with, 1:232; 2:590 Friedrich and, 2:910–912; 4:1703 Gagern and, 2:923–924 gender hierarchy in, 2:947 German Confederation ending and, 2:964; 4:1902 German Confederation founding and, 1:262; 2:533, 875, 958 Goethe and, 2:982–987 Greek Revival style in, 4:1769 Grimm brothers and, 2:1023–1024 guild continuance in, 1:105, 106

1 9 1 4

gymnastics movement in, 1:118; 4:2241–2242, 2243, 2245 Haeckel and, 2:1031–1032 Hague Convention critique by, 2:1035 Hegel and, 2:1051–1054 Heine and, 2:1055–1057 Hellenism and, 4:1769, 1770 Helmholtz and, 2:1057–1058 Herder and, 2:1059–1062 Hertz and, 2:1062–1063 Hirschfeld and, 2:1069–1071 historiography and, 2:1072–1073, 1074 Ho ¨ lderlin and, 2:1077–1079 imperialism and, 1:20, 222, 240, 256, 339, 403; 2:506, 967, 967–968; 3:1116, 1120, 1121, 1122, 1125, 1545–1546; 5:2353 industrial electricity and, 2:741 industrialization of, 1:47–48, 329, 330, 350, 351, 355, 357; 4:2179; 5:2524, 2525–2526 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions of, 5:2493 Industrial Revolution (first) in, 1:351 Industrial Revolution (second) leadership of, 1:330–331, 351–352 industrial towns in, 1:445 infant mortality rate in, 4:1829 intellectuals and, 3:1167 international law textbooks and, 3:1175 iron production in, 1:329 iron protectionism and, 2:967 Italy and, 4:2098; 5:2377 Japan and, 3:1210, 1212; 4:2171 Jewish cultural identity and, 3:1232 Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225, 1227, 1229 Jews in, 1:73, 84, 217; 3:1228, 1229, 1231, 1232, 1233; 5:2353, 2472–2473 Kierkegaard’s influence in, 3:1253 Koch and, 3:1262–1264 Krafft-Ebing and, 3:1270–1271 Krupp and, 3:1273–1276, 1274 Krupp steel empire and, 3:1273–1276 Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1280, 1329; 4:1719, 1720, 1723, 1795; 5:2353, 2425, 2473 labor movements in, 3:1285–1291, 1293, 1294, 1310–1311; 5:2484, 2487, 2489–2492

2643

INDEX

landed elite in, 1:469 Lasker-Schu¨ler and, 3:1309–1310 Lassalle and, 3:1310–1311 law and, 3:1314, 1315 law education in, 2:726 liberalism and, 3:1346–1347 liberal reformists and, 1:457; 2:959–960, 961 libraries and, 3:1350, 1352 Liebknecht and, 3:1355–1356 Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355 List and, 3:1356–1357 literacy in, 2:720; 4:1822, 1868 literary naturalism and, 1:219 Lutheranism in, 4:1892, 1895 machine breaking in, 3:1411, 1412; 4:2264 Mann and, 3:1434–1437 as Marx’s target, 3:1466 Maurras’s screed against, 3:1476, 1477 Menzel and, 3:1488–1490 mesmerism in, 3:491 Metternich and, 3:1494 migration and, 3:1111, 1113 militarism and, 1:41 monetary systems and, 3:1535–1538 monetary union. See Zollverein Moroccan Crises and, 2:663; 3:1545–1546, 1549; 5:2312 mortality rate decline in, 2:762 music and, 3:1569, 1570–1571, 1572, 1670 mutual aid societies in, 3:1284 Napoleon and, 2:901, 902–903, 957–958; 3:1319–1322, 1597, 1599 national debt and, 2:968 national identity and, 3:1522–1523 nationalism and, 1:84, 368–369, 402; 2:542, 607, 662, 814, 870–871, 923–924, 958, 960–961; 3:1523, 1635, 1675; 4:1992–1993, 2131; 5:2352–2353, 2472 natural history museums and, 3:1563 naval buildup and, 2:967, 968; 3:1609–1611 naval rivalry with Britain and, 2:681, 682–683, 1013; 3:1609–1611; 5:2312 newspapers and, 4:1867, 1868, 1869, 1870 Nietzsche and, 3:1628–1636 Novalis and, 3:1647–1648 nursing and hospitals in, 3:1648, 1649, 1650

2644

obscenity codes and, 4:1833–1834 opera and, 3:1567, 1673, 1674–1675 Otto and, 3:1680–1681 painting and, 4:910–912, 911, 1703, 1711 papal infallibility doctrime and, 4:1722, 1723 parent-child relations in, 3:1454–1455 parks in, 4:1738, 1740–1751 phrenology and, 4:1776 pilgrimages and, 4:1788 Planck and, 4:1798–1800 pogroms and, 4:1802 Poland and, 1:315 police system in, 4:1814–1815 political clubs in, 4:1991, 1995 poor relief in, 4:1850–1851, 1854 population of, 2:960, 967 postal service in, 4:1937 professional certification in, 1:285; 4:1879–1880 professionals in, 4:1878, 1881 prostitution in, 4:1883, 1884 protectionism and, 4:1889 Protestant missions and, 3:1527 Protestant population of, 4:1890, 1890, 1892, 1892, 1895 psychological research tradition of, 4:1908 public health interventions in, 4:1913–1914 race and racism and, 4:1927 railroads and, 2:764; 4:1933–1937 Ranke and, 4:1939–1941 Red Cross and, 4:1949 revolutionary right and, 2:542 Revolution of 1830 and, 1:370, 457; 2:923, 959; 4:1984, 1985, 1986 Revolution of 1848 and, 2:567, 870, 923, 924, 961–962; 3:1412; 4:1987, 1990–1994, 1995 Romanies and, 4:2021, 2023–2024 Romanticism and, 4:2028, 2030, 2195 Rothschilds and, 4:2039, 2040, 2041 Russia and, 2:968; 4:2054, 2059, 2070, 2098–2099; 5:2478 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2086 Schelling and, 4:2087–2089 Schinkel and, 4:2091–2094 Schlegel (August) and, 4:2094–2096 Schleiermacher and, 4:2095, 2096–2098; 5:2381

Schleswig-Holstein and, 2:607–609, 648 Schlieffen Plan and, 4:1937, 2098–2099 Schnitzler’s view of, 4:2100 Schopenhauer and, 4:2103–2106 science and technology in, 4:2111–2112 seaside resorts in, 4:2124, 2125, 2126 Second International and, 4:2127, 2128, 2129 serf emancipation and, 4:1754 settlement colonies of, 2:504 Siemens and, 4:2178–2180 Simmel and, 4:2183–2184, 2215 Social Democrats and, 3:1292; 4:2127, 2128, 2129, 2205; 5:2469, 2473, 2484, 2485, 2487, 2490, 2492 social insurance in, 1:239, 291, 321, 356, 459; 2:540, 966; 3:1664; 4:1915 socialism and, 1:194–195, 230–231; 3:1310–1311, 1399–1400; 4:2127, 2128, 2129, 2203, 2205; 5:2473, 2489, 2490–2491 Socialist Party strength in, 3:1293 sociology and, 4:2212–2215 sodomy law in, 2:1083 spiritualism and, 4:2237, 2238 sports in, 4:2241–2246 statistical study and, 4:2248, 2250 steamships and, 5:2350 steel industry and, 2:967; 3:1158, 1159, 1159, 1273–1276, 1274 strikes in, 3:1288, 1289; 4:2266, 2268 submarine warfare and, 1:232 subways in, 4:2271–2273 suffrage in, 1:203, 290; 4:2279, 2280; 5:2490 symbolism and, 3:1529 syndicalism and, 1:61 telephone service in, 4:1937; 5:2308 temperance movement in and, 1:36; 4:1896 Third Reich and, 4:2021, 2023 Three Emperors’ League and, 2:703–704; 3:1690 Tirpitz and, 5:2312–2313, 2353 tobacco and, 5:2313 tourism and, 5:2327 trade and, 5:2335–2338, 2340, 2343 Treitschke and, 5:2352–2353

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Triple Alliance and, 1:48, 166, 239; 2:526, 965; 3:1200; 4:2017 Triple Intervention of 1895 and, 4:2064 tuberculosis treatment and, 5:2361 Ulrichs and, 5:2375–2377 unification of. See German unification universities and, 2:728; 5:2378, 2381–2383 urban development and, 1:452 urbanization of, 1:443 vaccination requirements in, 4:2198 Virchow and, 5:2425–2426 voluntary associations and, 1:116, 117, 118, 119 Wagner and, 3:1567, 1674–1675; 5:2429–2431 waterway transport in, 5:2348, 2350 weaponry and, 1:99 Weber and, 5:2446–2448 Weimar Republic and, 5:2446 welfare initiatives in, 3:1664; 5:2450–2456, 2490 William I and, 5:2325, 2467, 2468 William II and, 2:663; 5:2312, 2382, 2415, 2467, 2468–2470, 2474 Windthorst and, 5:2471–2474 women’s suffrage and, 4:2280 women university students in, 2:945 women workers in, 5:2487 worker housing in, 2:1089 working class in, 5:2484, 2485, 2487, 2489–2492 world’s fairs and, 5:2495, 2498, 2502, 2503 World War I and, 3:1508; 5:2312–2313, 2343 World War I origins and, 2:663–664, 705, 968–969 World War I reparations and, 4:1806 Wundt and, 5:2506–2508 Young Hegelians and, 5:2511–2513 Young Turks and, 1:278 Zollverein and, 1:171; 3:1357; 5:2524–2526 See also Bavaria; Berlin; Hamburg; Holy Roman Empire; Prussia; other specific cities and states Germany and the Next War (book), 4:1826 Germany Society of the Divine Word, 1:292 Germinal (Zola), 5:2524 germ theory of disease, 3:1164; 4:2113, 2114, 2135

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Lister antisepsis measures and, 3:1358–1359; 4:1744, 1745 Pasteur and, 4:1742, 1743–1744 public health and, 4:1914 See also bacteriology; vaccination Gerome, Jean-Leon, 2:940 gerontocracy, 3:1663–1664 Gershuni, Grigory A., 4:2210 Gerstl, Richard, 4:2102 Gesamtkunstwerk, 4:2294 art nouveau and, 1:108, 112 Wagner and, 1:11; 3:1674 ‘‘Gesand der Geister u¨ber den Wassern’’ (Goethe), 2:984 Gesangbuch (Novalis), 3:1647 Geschichte der Baukunst (Kugler), 1:318 Geschichte der deutschen Sprache (J. Grimm), 2:1024 Geschichte der neueven Baukunst: Die Renaissance in Italien (Burckhardt), 1:318 Geschichte Friedrichs des Grossen (Kugler), Menzel drawings for, 3:1489 Geschichten aus dem Wienerwald (Strauss), 4:2260 Geschlecht und Charakter: Eine prinzipielle Untersuchung (Weininger), 5:2448, 2449 ‘‘Geschwister’’ (Andreas-Salome´), 1:65 Gesellius, Herman, 1:113 Gespa¨che mit Eckermann in den Letzten Jahren seines Lebens (Goethe), 2:987 Gesselschaft der Musikfreunde, 3:1565 Getting Married (Strindberg), 4:2268 Gettysburg, Battle of (1863), 1:148 Gevorg (George) V, Catholicos, 1:89 Gewandhaus Orchestra (Leipzig), 3:1568 Gewerbesteueredikt (1810), 2:1042 Geyer, Ludwig, 5:2429 Ghana, 1:13 Ghaznavids, 4:2022 Ghent, 1:200, 201, 202, 203 Ghent, Treaty of (1814), 5:2440 ghetto, Jewish, 3:1227, 1525; 4:1718, 1797 Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 4:2008 Ghil, Rene´, 4:2294 Ghosts (Ibsen), 3:1108, 1109 Ghost Sonata, The (Strindberg), 4:2269 Gia Dinh Bao (Vietnamese newspaper), 3:1141 Giaimo, Nunzio, 4:2174 Gia-Long, 3:1137, 1138, 1141, 1145 Giambi ed epodi (Carducci), 1:362

1 9 1 4

Gianni Schicchi (Puccini), 4:1916 Gianour, The (Byron), 1:332 Gibbon, Edward, 2:1051 Gibraltar, 2:780; 4:1713 Gibraltar, Straits of, 3:1548 Gide, Andre´, 1:184; 2:679; 4:2295 Gide, Charles, 2:555, 556 Gids (Dutch review), 3:1619 Gierke, Otto von, 3:1315 Gifford, Emma Lavinia, 2:1045 Giftas trial, 4:2268 gig mill, 3:1410 Gilbert, William, 3:1661 Gilbert and Sullivan, 5:2464 Gilbert-Martin, 1:352 Gil Blas (periodical), 2:795 Gilchrist, Percy, 3:1158 Gillot, Hendrik, 1:63 Gillray, James, 1:29 Gilly, David, 4:2091 Gilly, Friedrich, 4:2091 Gimeno de Flaquer, Concepcio´n de, 2:952 gin, 1:34, 35 Ginzberg, Asher (Ahad Haam), 5:2521 Gioberti, Vincenzo, 1:382; 3:1195, 1334, 1480; 4:1796, 2002 Gioia, Melchiorre, 3:1192 Giolitti, Giovanni, 2:609, 610, 971–973; 3:1201–1202, 1203 Kuliscioff and, 3:1276–1277 labor movements and, 5:2491 liberalism and, 2:973; 3:1349 Roman Question and, 4:2025 Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2174 Turati and, 5:2363–2364 Giorno di regno, Un (Verdi), 5:2406 Giotto, 2:634 Giovine Italia. See Young Italy Giovine Italia (journal), 5:2514 Gippius, Zinaida, 4:2181–2182, 2183 Gir, Charles Felix, 1:69 Giradengo, Costante, 2:602 Giraldez, Arturo, 3:1151 Girardin, E´mile de, 1:421; 4:2013 Girardin, Saint-Mark, 1:227 Giraud, Maximin, 4:1788 Girault, Charles-Louis, 5:2504 Girieud, Pierre, 1:155 Girl Guides, 1:160; 4:2082 Girlhood of Mary Virgin (D. G. Rossetti), 4:1863–1864 Girl of Chioggia Dreaming of Her Loves, A (Naya), 2:946 Girl of the Golden West (Belasco), 4:1916

2645

INDEX

Girls in the Garden of an Orphanage in Amsterdam (Liebermann), 2:796; 3:1354 Girodet Roucy, Anne-Louis, 3:1165 Giro d’Italia, 2:602 Girondins, 2:973–974 executions of, 2:892, 974 federalist revolt and, 2:799–800, 974; 3:1403 French Revolutionary Wars and, 2:844; 3:1339 indictment of Marat by, 3:1443 Jacobins vs., 2:610, 612, 799, 844, 891; 3:1205 Paine and, 4:1700 Reign of Terror and, 4:1952 republicanism and, 4:1960 Robespierre and, 4:2006, 2007 sister republics and, 4:2187 Girton College (Cambridge), founding of, 2:625, 626 Giselle (ballet), 4:1750 Gissing, George, 2:589, 974–976; 4:1844, 1871 Gittings, Robert, 2:1045 Giverny, 3:1535, 1536 Gizzi, Pasquale, 4:1796 Gladstone, Catherine Glynne, 2:977 Gladstone, Mary, 1:7 Gladstone, William, 2:976–979; 4:2118; 5:2322, 2414, 2490 Acton friendship with, 1:6, 7 Asquith and, 1:114; 2:1012 Bourbon critique by, 3:1581 Chamberlain (Joseph) challenge to, 1:405 Cobden-Chevalier Treaty and, 1:492 Disraeli rivalry with, 2:673, 977 Eastern Question and, 2:703, 1009 on Frederick III, 2:873 gerontocracy and, 3:1664 governments of, 2:1008, 1009–1010, 1011 international law and, 3:1174 Irish Home Rule and, 2:978, 1010, 1011; 3:1181, 1184; 4:1742 Irish Land Act and, 3:1181; 4:1741 Labour Party pact of, 3:1296 on Leopardi’s poetic work, 3:1334 liberalism and, 3:1345, 1348 Mill’s (John Stuart) support for, 3:1513 Neapolitan political prisoners and, 3:1255 Palmerston and, 4:1713 on papal infallibility, 4:1722, 1896 Parnell and, 4:1741, 1742

2646

in Peel cabinet, 2:1004, 1007 reform agenda of, 2:11, 976, 978, 1008, 1009–1010 Sudan and, 2:734 suffrage expansion and, 2:977, 1008 ‘‘Gladstone on Church and State’’ (Macaulay), 3:1408 Glasgow, 4:2117, 2119, 2119, 2121 art nouveau and, 1:112 commercial growth of, 1:304 population of, 1:446; 2:1087 slum photographs of, 4:1772 spiritualist societies in, 4:2237 subway in, 4:2272 world’s fairs and, 5:2504, 2505, 2506 See also University of Glasgow Glasgow Weekly Mail (periodical), 2:1043 glass industry art nouveau design, 1:108, 111, 113 French factories and, 2:792 Murano spinners, 3:1202 See also stained glass Glauben und Liebe (Novalis), 3:1647 Glazunov, Alexander, 2:654; 4:1957, 1999 Gleaners, The (Millet), 1:179; 3:1515, 1516 Gleanings in Bee Culture (journal), 1:30 Gleichheit (socialist journal), 1:11 Gleizes, Albert, 1:156, 214; 2:590, 591, 593 Glen, Heather, 1:302 Gleyre, Charles, 3:1534; 4:1954 glial cells, 1:341 Glidden, Joseph Farwell, 4:2108 gliders, 1:30 Glinka, Mikhail, 2:979–980; 3:1579, 1673 globalization, 3:1151–1152, 1155, 1158 agriculture and, 4:1936 effects of, 5:2342, 2343 monetary unions and, 3:1537–1538 Globe, Le (journal), 2:1029 Gloeden, Wilhelm von, 4:2177 Glorious Revolution of 1688, 2:839, 1001; 5:2321 Ireland and, 3:1176 Gluck, Christoph Willibald, 3:173, 1661, 1670 Glu ¨ ckliche Hand, Die, (Schoenberg), 4:2103 Glucksberg dynasty, 2:1021 Glyn, Elinor, 2:598

Gmelin, Leopold, 3:1160 Gobat, Charles Albert, 4:1697 Gobineau, Arthur de, 1:74, 403 Goblet, Rene´, 1:279 Godet, Henri, 4:2042 Godet, Mireille, 4:2042 Godin, Jean-Baptiste, 2:838 ‘‘God is dead’’ (Nietzsche dictum), 3:1629–1631 Go¨do¨llo ¨ Workshops (Budapest), 1:112 Godoy, Manuel de, 2:808, 902, 997, 998; 4:1763, 1764, 2225 Godwin, William, 1:56, 57, 244; 2:980–982, 1000; 3:1425 daughter Mary Shelley and, 4:2168, 2169 as O’Connell influence, 3:1654–1655 wife Wollstonecraft and, 5:2480 Goeben (German battle cruiser), 1:278 Goegg, Marie, 4:1696 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 2:660, 678, 743, 982–987, 984, 1078 as Carlyle influence, 1:370 Chamberlain’s (Houston) interpretation of, 1:403–404 as Delacroix influence, 2:640 dueling defended by, 2:694 Friedrich and, 2:910 Haeckel and, 2:1031, 1032 Ibsen as influence on, 3:1108 as Jung influence, 3:1238 as Mann influence, 3:1436 Menzel lithographs and, 3:1489 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1513 nature studies of, 2:986, 1031 Rank and, 4:1938 Romanticism and, 2:985; 4:2027, 2028, 2030 Schelling and, 4:2088 Schlegel’s reviews of, 4:2094–2095 as Schubert inspiration, 4:2106 secularization viewed by, 4:2133 Goethe (H. Chamberlain), 1:403 Goethe in the Roman Campagna (Tischbein the Elder), 2:984 Gogh, Vincent van. See Van Gogh, Vincent Gogol, Nikolai, 2:678, 988–989; 4:1756 Belinsky critique of, 1:208 Bely writings on, 1:210 on Pushkin, 4:1920 on St. Petersburg, 4:2076 Turgenev and, 5:2365 goguettes, 5:2486 Go¨kap, Mehmet Ziya, 3:1690

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

gold Australia and, 1:134, 135; 2:780 as basis of nations wealth, 2:515; 4:1887 as German currency basis, 1:171 mercantilism and, 2:515 New Zealand and, 1622; 3:1623, 1624 South Africa and, 1:18, 99, 256; 2:505; 4:1997, 2223, 2224 uniform coinage of, 3:1538 Gold Coast, 1:13, 19, 22 Golden Age, 4:2181, 2183 Golden Age, The (Ingres), 3:1165 Golden Bough, The (Frazer), 2:872 Golden Fleece (avant-garde periodical), 1:157 Golden Horde, 2:774 Golden Horn, 1:278; 3:1186, 1190 bridges on, 3:1188, 1684 Gold Fields of South Africa Company, 4:1997 Goldman, Emma, 3:1273 Goldman and Salatsch (Vienna firm), 3:1381–1382 Goldoni, Carlo, 5:2402 Goldsmith, Oliver, 1:327 gold standard, 2:709; 3:1537; 4:2223 world trade and, 1:353, 357 Goldwyn, Samuel, 4:2166 golf, 4:2240, 2243, 2245 Golgi, Camillo, 1:340–341, 342 Golitsyn, Alexander, 2:1080 Golitsyn, Grigory, 1:89 Golovnin, Vasily, 2:1016; 3:1209; 4:2064 Goluchowski, Agenor, 4:1809 Goluchowski-Muraviev agreement (1897), 2:704 Go´mez Labrador, Pedro, 2:532 Goncharov, Ivan, 1:208; 2:989–990; 3:1641 Goncharova, Natalya, 1:157; 4:1920 Goncourt, Edmond and Jules de, 1:177; 2:990–992; 5:2523 Goncourt Academy, 2:1104 Go´ngora y Argote, Luis de, 2:951 Gonne, Maude, 5:2510 gonorrhea, 4:2301 Gonza´lez Bravo, Luı´s, 4:2229, 2230 Gooch, Daniel, 1:304 Good Templars, 1:37 Goodwin, John, 4:2176 Goodyear, Charles, 3:1160 Goodyear rubber, 2:588; 3:1160 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 2:536; 4:2196 Gorchakov, Alexander, 2:530; 4:2067

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Gordon, Charles, 2:734; 4:2259 Gordon, George. See Byron, George Gordon Gordon, George Hamilton. See Aberdeen, Lord Gordon, Lyndall, 5:2481 Gordon, Robert, 3:1537 Gordon riots (1780), 1:246 Go ¨ rgey, Artu´r, 3:1268, 1269 Go ¨ ring, Hermann, 3:1393 Gorky, Maxim, 2:992–993 Gorosy, Antal, 4:1992 Go ¨ rres, Joseph, 1:385 Gorsas, Antonie-Joseph, 2:973, 974 Gosse, Edmund, 4:2296 Go ¨ teborg, 1:35 gothic novels, 4:2030 Gothic Revival, 4:1917–1918, 2030 gothic style, 1:112, 185, 186; 4:2046; 5:2422 Morris and, 3:1550; 4:1865 Nash and, 3:1600 Pugin and, 4:1917, 1918 Gots, Mikhail R., 4:2210 Gott, Benjamin, 4:2115 Go¨tterda¨mmerung (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674 Go ¨ ttingen Seven, 2:959, 960 Go ¨ ttinger, 1:457 Go¨ttinger Gelehrte Anzeigen (journal), 4:2094–2095 Gott-Natur (Theophysis) (Haeckel), 2:1032 Gotto, Sybil, 2:770 Gottschalk, Andreas, 1:66 Go¨tz von Berlichingen (Goethe), 2:983 gouache paper cut-outs (Matisse), 3:1475 Goudstrikker, Sophia, 1:129 Gouges, Olympe de, 2:801, 843, 941, 993–996, 995; 4:1962 execution of, 2:802, 996 Gould, Stephen Jay, 2:618 Gounod, Charles, 2:881; 3:1672, 1675; 4:2030 Goupil and Company, 5:2399, 2400 Gourmont, Re´my de, 3:1213 ‘‘Government’’ (Mill), 5:2394 government employees. See bureaucracy Government of National Defense (Paris), 2:810; 4:1734 Govoni, Corrado, 2:918 Gowers, William, 1:408 Goya, Francisco, 1:79; 2:996–999, 998; 3:1433; 4:1703, 2225, 2226 Graham, Frank, 2:515; 4:1887 Graham, James, 5:2322

1 9 1 4

grain anti-threshing machine riots and, 1:357, 358–359; 3:1411 British Corn Laws and, 2:557–560, 1004; 4:1759, 1889 Canadian colonial trade and, 2:505 as diet basis, 2:658 failed harvest of 1846 and, 4:1989 free trade and, 4:1887 German protectionism and, 2:967 German yields of, 2:960 Hamburg as transit port for, 2:1038 peasants and, 4:1751, 1755 price rise/theft link and, 2:571 protectionism and, 2:512, 514, 517, 967 Russian exports of, 1:243, 278 as trade commodity, 5:2335–2339, 2342, 2343 See also bread; Corn Laws, repeal of Grain Sifters (Courbet), 2:568 Grainstacks, The (Monet), 3:1536 Grammar of Science (Pearson), 4:2249 Gramsci, Antonio, 1:465, 467; 2:1026; 5:2484 on intellectuals, 3:1169, 1172 Grand, Sarah, 4:2235 Grand Canal (Trieste), 5:2354, 2355 Grand Duchy of Posen, 4:1808, 1809 Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 2:603, 958; 3:1493, 1588, 1599; 5:2441 establishment/liquidation of, 4:1808, 1817 Grande-Duchesse de Ge´rolstein, La (Offenbach), 3:1660 Grande Jatte, La (Seurat). See Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte Grande Loge symbolique e´cossais de France: Le Droit Humain, 2:649, 881 Grande Odalisque, The (Ingres), 3:1165, 1166, 1167 Grande Place, La (Brussels), 1:306 Grande Rue de Pera (Istanbul), 3:1190 Grandmaison, Louis de, 1:100 Grand National Assembly (Bulgaria), 1:312 Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (Britain), 3:1284, 1286, 1693 grand opera. See under opera Grand Palais (Paris), 5:2502, 2503, 2504, 2505 grandparents, 3:1663, 1664 Grand Sanhedrin (France, 1807), 3:1227

2647

INDEX

Grands E´tudes d’Execution Transcendantes (Liszt), 3:1360 Grands Magasins de Louvre (Paris), 2:548 Grands Travaux (Haussmann), 1:53 grand tour, 1:288, 332; 5:2326–2327, 2329 Grand traite´ d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes (Berlioz), 1:225 Grand Ve´four (Paris restaurant), 4:1966 Granet, Franc¸ois-Marius, 2:605 Gran Hotel International (Barcelona), 1:183 Granjouan, 4:1835 Granovsky, Timofei, 2:1064; 5:2459–2460 Grant, Duncan, 4:2259 Grant, Jane, 4:2258 Granville, Lord (George LevesonGower), 3:1210 graphic arts advertising and, 2:550 Beardsley and, 1:192 cabarets and, 1:335, 336 Diaghilev and, 2:654 Kafka and, 3:1242 Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246 Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355 posters and, 4:1845–1847 See also caricatures and cartoons Grass, Gu ¨ nter, 5:2449 Grasset, Euge`ne, 4:1845 Grattan, Henry, 1:327; 2:1000 Dublin statue of, 2:692 Grattan Parliament (1782), 2:100, 1009; 3:1177 Graubu¨nden, 4:2288 Grave, Jean, 1:56, 57; 4:1794 Gravelotte-St. Privat, Battle of (1870), 3:1319 Graves de Communi Re (1901 encyclical), 3:1332; 4:1720 Gray, Asa, 1:23; 2:618 Gray, Effie, 4:2047 Gray, Elisha, 3:1163 Gray, John, 3:1514, 1693; 4:2201 gray-matter discontinuity hypothesis, 1:341 Graz, 3:1236 Great Awakening, 4:1894 Greatbach, George, 3:1637 Great Boer War, The (Doyle), 2:681 Great Britain, 2:999–1014 Act of Union (1801), 1:373, 415; 2:999–1000; 3:1117, 1177, 1179 Afghanistan war and, 2:674, 977, 1009; 3:1118

2648

Africa and, 1:13–14, 15, 17–18, 19–22, 221–222; 2:663 afternoon tea in, 3:1439 Agadir Crisis and, 3:1546 aging population in, 3:1662, 1664 Agricultural Revolution and, 1:24–29; 3:1305 airplanes and, 1:30 alliance system and, 1:47, 48, 49; 2:1013; 3:1546 American colonies independence from, 2:1000 anarchists in, 1:56, 59; 3:1272 anticlericalism and, 1:67, 68 anti-imperialists and, 3:1182 anti-Semitism in, 5:2489 antislavery movement in, 1:303, 308; 4:1896, 2192, 2193; 5:2462–2463 architecture in, 1:185–186; 4:1769, 2030 aristocracy in, 1:78, 80, 82–86, 284, 469 army system of, 1:94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 98, 99, 100 artisans and, 1:104 art nouveau and, 1:107, 109 Arts and Crafts movement and, 1:152, 153 asepsis and, 3:1358 Asquith and, 1:114–115; 2:1112–1113 Austen and, 1:130–132 Australia and, 1:133–137 Austro-Prussian War and, 1:236 Baden-Powell and, 1:159–160 Bagehot and, 1:160–161 bank holidays in, 1:285; 3:1324 banking in, 1:84, 161, 170, 171–173, 173, 175–176, 284 Barry and, 1:185–186 baths and spas in, 5:2327 Beardsley and, 1:191–192 Belgian neutrality and, 2:566–567 Bentham and, 1:210–211 Berlin Conference and, 1:221–222 black population in, 3:1524 Blake and, 1:244–246 Bloomsbury Group in, 2:835; 4:2258–2259 Boer War and. See Boer War bourgeoisie in, 1:172, 284, 285, 287–288, 290, 452, 471 Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294 Bronte¨ sisters and, 1:300–302

Brougham and, 1:302–303 Brunel and, 1:303–305 budget deficits and, 2:1004 bureaucracy in, 1:321, 324–325 Burke and, 1:326–328 business firms in, 1:330, 355; 2:711 Butler and, 1:331–332 Byron and, 1:332–333 Canada and, 1:343–347 canals and, 2:757, 763 capitalist economic principles in, 1:350 Captain Swing riots in, 1:357–359; 4:1755, 1984, 2264; 5:2485 Caribbean colonialism and, 364; 1:363, 365; 2:708–709, 710 Carpenter and, 1:372–373 Castlereagh and, 1:373–374 Catholic cathedral in, 4:1918 Catholic emancipation in, 1:211, 381; 2:1003; 3:1177, 1345, 1656; 4:1757 Catholicism in, 3:1440–1441; 4:1895, 2118; 5:2321, 2322, 2457, 2461, 2489 Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:404–405 Chartism and, 1:111, 414–418, 458; 2:1003; 3:1286; 4:1963, 1991, 2277; 5:2394, 2434, 2462, 2483, 2486 chemistry in, 1:424, 425, 426, 427; 3:1160 child labor in, 1:429, 430; 2:1003; 4:1830 China and, 1:432, 433–435; 3:1578–1579; 4:1713, 2064 cholera epidemic and, 1:436, 437 cholera riots in, 2:669 Christian Socialism in, 4:2207–2208; 5:2488 church attendance in, 4:1824, 1893, 1894 cinema and, 1:440, 441–442; 4:1824 civilizing mission of, 1:462, 463, 464 civil liberties and, 2:1001, 1002 civil rights and, 2:1001 classical economic theory and, 2:712–718 coal mining in, 1:485, 486, 487, 493; 3:1427; 4:1931, 2113; 5:2488 Cobbett and, 1:489–490 Cobden and, 1:490–491 Cockerill and, 1:492–493 cocoa and, 1:496 coffeehouse, 1:495

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Coleridge and, 1:496–497 colonialism and, 1:99, 408, 498, 501; 3:1114; 4:2218–2224, 2302; 5:2330 colonial migrants to, 3:1524–1525 colonial policy and, 1:498; 2:504, 505, 508 colonial trade and, 2:504, 505; 3:1151, 1154–1155 colonial wars and, 2:505 colonies of settlement and, 3:1115 colonizers from, 2:503–504 Combination Acts, 2:510–511 commercial policy and, 2:512, 514, 515, 516, 517 commonwealth and, 2:505 Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527, 565, 1002 Congress of Berlin and, 2:530, 705 Congress of Troppau and, 2:531, 532 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534, 565, 958, 1002 Congress System and, 1:374 conservatism and, 2:537; 3:1176 Constable and, 2:543–544; 4:1703, 1704–1705 consumerism and, 2:547–548, 551 Contagious Diseases Acts, 4:2162, 2301–2302 Continental System blockade and, 1:272, 303; 2:512, 553–554, 659, 846, 902, 5121; 3:1586, 1587, 1588, 1599 contraception and, 4:1829–1830 cooperative movements in, 2:555–557; 4:2206 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:557–560, 715, 1004–1005; 4:1889; 5:2339, 2413, 2494 corporations in, 1:330, 353; 2:711 cotton exports and, 3:1428 Crimean War and, 1:38–39, 94, 95, 244, 278; 2:577–580, 578, 1007; 4:1713, 2048, 2051; 5:2410, 2413 criminality and, 1:471; 2:570, 575, 576 Cruikshank and, 2:585–587 Crystal Palace and, 2:587–590, 1006 Curzon and, 2:597–598 cycling in, 2:600, 601, 602 Danish-German War and, 2:607, 608, 609 Darwin and, 2:613–620 Davies and, 2:625–626

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Decadence and, 2:631, 633 demographic data for, 2:643, 645, 667, 1087 Dickens and, 2:655–657 diet and nutrition in, 2:658–659 Disraeli and, 2:540, 672–674 domestic ideology in, 3:1453 domestic servants in, 1:474 Doyle and, 2:679–680 drinking culture of, 1:34, 35 Dublin migrants to, 2:690 dueling rejected in, 2:696–697 Dvorˇa´k’s visit to, 2:701 Eastern Crisis and, 3:1690 Eastern Question and, 1:278; 2:703 East India Company and, 2:705–707; 4:2137–2140; 5:2461, 2495 economic expansion of, 2:1006–1007 economic growth rate of, 1:331; 2:710 education in, 1:32, 211, 303, 321, 325, 431; 2:720–721, 722, 724, 728, 1008, 1009, 1010, 1103; 4:1868, 1896 Edward VII and, 2:729–730 Egypt and, 1:2, 18, 20, 221, 222; 2:731–734, 794–795; 3: 1116, 1338, 1482, 1549, 1585, 1686; 4:2274, 2275–2276 electric lighting in, 2:742 Eliot (George) and, 2:743–744 Ellis and, 2:745–746 emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 747, 748, 748 emigrants to North America from, 1:343, 344, 346, 351; 2:504, 505, 506, 646 enclosures in, 1:26–27, 29; 2:762 engineers and, 2:757–758, 760 Entente Cordiale and, 1:49, 50, 96; 2:526, 609, 642, 643, 795; 3:1545, 1546; 4:2098 epidemic effects in, 2:667 established church in, 4:1895 See also Anglican Church estate inheritance in, 3:1306 eugenics movement in, 2:637, 769, 770 evangelicalism in, 2:1002, 1006; 4:1894 exploration and, 2:782, 783, 784; 3:1653, 1654 Fabians and, 1:230, 372; 2:787–788, 1011

1 9 1 4

factories in, 1:350, 429; 2:708, 788–793, 1003, 1004; 3:1149, 1427–1431 fashion and, 1:481–482, 485 Fashoda Affair and, 2:643, 663, 794–795; 3:1117–1118; 5:2502 feminism in, 1:331–332; 2:625–626, 802, 803, 804, 946–947 First International in, 2:824, 825 football (soccer) in, 2:830–833, 832, 834 Forster and, 2:835–836 Fourierism in, 4:2202 Fox and, 2:839–840, 1001 France and, 5:2306, 2321, 2344–2345, 2374, 2438, 2442, 2457, 2502 Freemasons in, 2:877, 878, 880, 880, 881, 882 free press and, 4:1870 free trade and, 1:491–492; 2:512, 1004–1005, 1007, 1011; 3:1537 French alliance with (1846), 3:1389 French free trade treaty with, 1:491–492; 2:512; 3:1537 Galton and, 2:927–928 Gaskell and, 2:933–934 gender roles in, 2:946 gentlemen’s clubs in, 4:1966 George IV and, 2:953–955 German expansionism and, 2:1013 German naval rivalry with, 2:681, 682–683; 5:2312 Gissing and, 2:974–975 Gladstone and, 2:976–999, 1008, 1009–1010 Godwin and, 2:980–982 Great Game and, 1:395 Greece and, 4:1982 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1020; 3:1194, 1612–1613, 1685, 1686 guild decline in, 1:106 Hardy and, 2:1044–1046 hashish use in, 2:687 historiography and, 2:1072–1073, 1074 Hobson and, 2:1075–1076 homosexual act criminalization in, 2:746, 1082, 1083, 1084; 4:2297 housing in, 2:1088, 1089, 1091; 3:1453 Huxley and, 2:1101–1103 as imperial power, 1:405, 501; 3:1115, 1118–1119, 1122–1123; 4:1997, 2218–2225, 2275; 5:2414

2649

INDEX

impressionist school in, 3:1133 India and. See India Indochina and, 3:1140 industrial city and, 1:454–455 industrialization of, 1:329, 330, 350; 2:708–709, 710, 1003–1004 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2493–2494 Industrial Revolution and, 1:24, 303–305, 331, 371; 3:1146–1155, 1427–1429; 4:2193 infant mortality rate in, 4:1829 intellectuals and, 3:1167, 1168 international law textbooks and, 3:1175 international law and, 3:1174 inventions and, 3:1152–1153 Ionian Islands and, 2:1022 Irish Catholic policies of, 1:327; 3:1176 Irish immigrants in, 3:1372, 1373, 1524–1525 Irish Potato Famine response by, 3:1180 Irish question and. See Ireland; Irish Home Rule iron production in, 1:329, 492–493; 2:709; 3:1427 isolationism of, 2:526 Italy and, 2:977; 4:2003 Japan and, 3:1209, 1210, 1211, 1212, 1624, 1628; 4:2064, 2171 Japanese naval treaty with, 2:526 Jenner and, 3:1222–1224 Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225, 1227, 1229, 1345 Jewish financiers in, 1:84 Jews in, 3:1232; 5:2322 jingoism and, 3:1234–1235 Kelvin and, 3:1249–1250 Kipling and, 3:1256–1257 Kitchener and, 3:1257–1259 Kossuth’s reception in, 3:1269 labor movements in, 2:510–511, 1003, 1008, 1009, 1011, 1012; 3:1284, 1284–1285, 1285, 1286, 1288, 1290, 1290, 1291, 1292, 1293, 1411; 5:2484, 2486, 2489–2490, 2491 Labour Party and, 3:1295–1297 laissez-faire philosophy and, 2:707, 708, 715–717 landed elite in, 1:83, 86, 284, 290, 291 law and, 3:1314, 1316

2650

law education in, 2:726 leisure in, 1:288; 3:1324; 4:1824 liberalism and, 3:1342, 1343, 1345–1346, 1347, 1348, 1349; 5:2394 libraries and, 3:1351, 1351, 1352 Lister and, 3:1358–1359 literacy in, 2:720, 723; 4:1822, 1868 Lloyd George and, 3:1368–1370 Lovett and, 3:1390–1391 Luddism and, 3:1391–1392, 1410; 4:1821 Lyell and, 3:1401–1402 Macaulay and, 3:1407–1408 machine breaking in, 1:357, 358–359; 3:1410, 1411; 4:1821, 2264 Malthus and, 3:1425–1427 Manning and, 3:1440–1441 marriage and family in, 3:1453 married woman’s legal nonexistence in, 3:1645 Martineau and, 3:1458–1459 May Day celebration in, 4:1822 Mediterranean control and, 3:1481, 1482, 1615 mesmerism and, 3:1491 Methodism in, 4:1895 Metternich’s diplomacy and, 3:1493, 1494 migration and, 3:1112 military schools in, 1:96 Mill (Harriet Taylor) and, 3:1508–1509 Mill (James) and, 3:1510–1512 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1512–1515 monarch’s declining power in, 2:730 monetary system in, 3:1538 Moroccan Crisis and, 3:1545, 1549 Morocco and, 3:1548 Morris and, 3:1549–1551 most-favored-nation treaties and, 1:491 museums in, 3:1562, 1564 music and, 2:589 mutual aid societies in, 3:1284 Napoleonic Wars and. See Peninsular War; under French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars Nash and, 3:1600–1602 naval agreement with France of (1913), 3:1546 naval power of, 2:579, 681–683, 968, 1013; 3:1586–1587, 1609–1611

naval rivalry with Germany of, 2:681, 682–683; 5:2312 Neapolitan trade war with, 3:1255 Nelson and, 3:1614–1616 Netherlands and, 1:53 ‘‘New Liberalism’’ and, 2:1011–1012 Newman and, 3:1620–1621 newspapers and, 4:1866, 1867, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1872 New Zealand and, 3:1622, 1623–1624 Nightingale and, 3:1636–1638, 1649 Nonconformists in, 1:418; 2:1002 Norton and, 3:1645–1646 nursing in, 3:1648, 1649 Olympic Games and, 3:1666–1667 Omdurman and, 3:1668–1669 opium trade and, 1:495; 3:1678–1679 opium use and, 2:686–687 Opium Wars and, 1:355, 495; 2:1008; 3:1125, 1578–1579, 1678–1680 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1690; 5:2391 overseas investment by, 1:353–354 Owen and, 3:1692–1693; 4:2081, 2200–2201 painting and, 4:1702–1705, 1707 Palmerston and, 4:1712–1713 Pankhursts and, 4:1714–1715 Pater and, 4:1745–1747 Peel and, 4:1757–1759 penal exile and, 2:779–780 Peninsular War and, 2:1002; 4:1764–1766, 2227–2228; 5:2314 photography in, 4:1770, 1771 phrenology and, 4:1775–1776 physics and, 1:427 police system of, 3:1375; 4:1814–1815, 1817 political reform and, 1:457 political system and, 1:161 Poor Law and, 2:714, 1003; 4:1819–1820, 1848–1849, 1850, 1852–1853, 1854 popular culture and, 4:1821, 1822 population British/Irish ratio in, 3:1177 population growth in, 3:1147 pornography and, 4:1833, 1834, 1835

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Portugal and, 2:1002; 4:1764–1766, 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843 positivism and, 4:1844, 2213 posters and, 4:1845 poverty in, 4:1847–1848, 1852–1854 Pre-Raphaelites in, 4:1707, 1863–1864 professionals in, 4:1878, 1879, 1880, 1881 prostitution in, 1:332; 2:804; 4:1815, 1884, 1886, 1896, 2162 protectionism and, 5:2334, 2339, 2343 Protestant missions and, 3:1527, 1528–1529 Protestant population of, 4:1890, 1890, 1892, 1893 Prussia and, 5:2414–2415 psychoanalysis and, 4:1905 psychological research tradition of, 4:1908 public health intervention in, 1:325, 454; 2:667; 4:1910–1912 public school experience in, 1:428; 2:726, 728 Pugin and, 4:1917–1918 Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374; 2:662 Quintuple Alliance and, 2:531, 532 race and racism and, 4:1927 railroads and, 2:764; 4:1931, 1932, 1934–1937, 1935 Raj and, 3:1135–1137 Red Cross and, 4:1949 Reform Act of 1832 and, 4:1985, 2002, 2277, 2278, 2279; 5:2394, 2412, 2461, 2471, 2483 republicanism and, 4:1963, 1964 response by, 3:1180 restaurants in, 4:1966 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980, 1981, 1982 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1984, 1986 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991 Rhodes and, 4:1996–1997 roadways in, 5:2346 Romanticism and, 2:543; 4:1738, 1739, 1740, 2029, 2030 Rothschilds and, 4:2039, 2041 Royal Navy of, 5:2312, 2344–2345, 2438, 2439, 2440, 2470 Ruskin and, 4:2045–2047 Russia and, 4:2172

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Russian Central Asian conquest and, 1:395 Russian Jewish immigrants in, 1:40 Russian royal family and, 1:41, 42 Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2068, 2069 Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083 San Stefano Treaty and, 2:703; 4:2069, 2086 Scotland’s union with (1707), 2:999, 1006; 3:1177 seaside resorts in, 1:288; 3:1324; 4:2124, 2125–2126; 5:2328 secularization and, 4:1896, 2133 Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2137–2140 Shaw and, 4:2165–2167 Shelley (Mary) and, 4:2168–2169; 5:2480 Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and, 4:2169–2170 slavery and, 4:1925, 2190, 2192, 2193; 5:2461, 2462–2463 slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19, 365, 458, 499; 2:506, 1003 slave trade and, 1:13–14, 303, 308, 365; 2:708 socialism and, 1:59, 86, 372, 373; 2:1011; 3:1295, 1297, 1692–1693; 4:2200–2201, 2205–2207; 5:2490 social reform and, 1:285, 303, 401–402 social unrest in, 2:1011 sociology and, 4:2213 sodomy law in, 2:1082, 1083 Spain and, 1:180; 4:1763, 1764, 2225, 2227–2228 Spencer and, 4:2233–2235 spiritualism and, 4:2237 sports in, 4:2239–2246 statistical study and, 4:2250 steamships and, 5:2350 steel manufacture and, 3:1273 Stephen and, 4:2253–2254 Strachey and, 4:2258–2259 strikes in, 2:1008, 1011; 3:1288, 1441; 4:2265, 2266 subways in, 4:2271–2273, 2272 Sudan and, 1:18, 19; 2:734, 794; 3:1668–1669 Suez Canal and, 3:1338; 4:2274, 2275–2276 suffrage in, 1:203; 4:2276–2281, 2278, 2280; 5:2461, 2487 Sweden and, 4:2285 Symonds and, 4:2296–2297 syndicalism and, 1:61

1 9 1 4

syphilis control in, 4:2301–2302 Talleyrand’s expulsion from, 5:2305 tea preference of, 1:495 technological innovation and, 3:1152–1154 telephone service in, 5:2308 temperance movements and, 1:36, 37; 4:1896; 5:2476–2477 Tennyson and, 5:2309–2310 tobacco and, 5:2313, 2314–2315 Tories and, 5:2320–2323, 2412, 2457, 2471 tourism and, 5:2326–2330 trade and, 4:1889; 5:2334–2336, 2338–2340, 2343 Trafalgar and, 5:2344–2345 Treitschke’s hatred of, 5:2353 tuberculosis prevention in, 5:2361 Tunisia and, 5:2363 Turner and, 2:910; 4:1703–1704, 2029; 5:2366–2368 universities in, 5:2379, 2384–2385, 2385, 2387 university admittance in, 2:728 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2392 urbanization of, 1:443; 2:1086–1087; 4:1912 utilitarianism and, 1:210–211; 5:2393, 2394 vaccination in, 3:1224, 1224; 4:2197, 2198 Victoria and, 4:2121; 5:2309, 2339, 2411–2416 Victorian family portrait and, 2:1001 Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in, 2:1012 Victoria’s Golden Jubilee in, 2:742 village community in, 4:1752, 1754 voluntary associations in, 1:116, 117, 117, 118, 119, 120 Wallace and, 4:2206; 5:2437–2438 War of 1812 and, 2:846; 5:2438–2441 Waterloo and, 4:2039; 5:2442–2443, 2457 waterways and, 5:2347 wealth ownership in, 1:291 weaponry and, 1:20 Webb (Beatrice) and, 5:2443–2445 welfare initiatives in, 3:1664; 5:2450–2452, 2454–2456, 2462 Wellington and, 4:2227–2228; 5:2321, 2322, 2442–2443, 2457–2458 Wells and, 5:2458–2459

2651

INDEX

Whigs and, 4:1984; 5:2321, 2367, 2385, 2412, 2457, 2460–2462, 2471 Wilberforce and, 5:2462–2463 William II of Germany and, 5:2469 William IV and, 5:2411–2412, 2461, 2470–2471 wine and, 5:2475 Wollstonecraft and, 4:2168; 5:2479–2481 women medical students in, 2:728 women’s rights and, 4:2201, 2278, 2279, 2280–2281, 2280 women’s suffrage movement in, 2:797–799, 805–806, 806, 947, 1044; 4:1714–1715 Wordsworth and, 4:2029, 2030; 5:2481–2482 workhouses in, 1:351, 359, 401, 415; 2:715; 4:1820, 1848; 5:2450, 2454 working class in, 5:2483, 2485, 2489–2490, 2491 working women’s protective laws in, 2:944 world’s fairs and. See Crystal Palace; Great Exhibition of 1851 World War I and, 2:1013 Zionism and, 2:1068 See also Ireland; London; Manchester; Scotland; Wales Great Britain (steamship), 1:305 Great C Major Symphony (Schubert), 4:2107 Great Depression (1873–1896), 2:966; 4:1755; 5:2490 birth control and, 4:1830 Great Depression (1930s), 1:176; 4:2041 Great Divergence, The (Pomeranz), 2:710 Great Eastern (steamship), 1:305 Greater Bulgaria. See Bulgaria Greater Serbia. See Serbia Great Exhibition of 1851 (London), 1:134, 288, 350; 5:2412, 2493, 2494–2495, 2495 Crystal Palace and, 2:587–588, 589 leisure travel and, 4:1824 London police and, 4:1814 museum collections and, 3:1576 photography and, 4:1771 pleasure parks and, 4:1738 Great Expectations (Dickens), 2:657 Great Expectations (film), 2:677 Great Fear of 1789 (France), 2:886; 4:1755

2652

Great Game, 1:244, 395 Great Hunger of 1846–1847, 4:1751, 1754 ‘‘Great Idea’’ (Greek nationalist movement), 1:2 Great Illusion, The (Angell), 4:1698 Great Irish Famine. See Irish Potato Famine Great Jew and Tatar Market (Moscow), 3:1231 Great Kabyle Rebellion (1870–1871), 1:45 ‘‘great men’’ theory, 5:2319 Great Northern War, 2:817 Great Odalisque, The (Ingres), 3:1166 Great Powers African colonialism and, 1:205, 499 Albania and, 1:32, 33 Armenian Question and, 1:91–92 Austria-Hungary’s status as, 1:143 balance of power and, 1:374 Balkan crises and, 2:663 Balkan peace negotiations and, 1:164, 166; 2:705 Belgian independence and, 1:200; 3:1335 Berlin Conference and, 1:12, 221–222 Bismarck’s foreign policy and, 1:239, 240; 2:526 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:276 Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294 Bulgarian division by, 1:312 Chinese policies of, 1:434 Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527, 565, 1002 Congress of Berlin and, 2:529–531 Congress of Vienna and, 1:374; 2:532–534, 565, 958 consultations and congresses of, 3:1173–1174 Danish-German War and, 2:607–609 diplomacy and, 2:661–664 Eastern Question and, 2:703–705; 3:1681, 1687–1690 general staffs and, 1:96 Geneva Convention and, 2:952 Germany’s status as, 1:239 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1020–1021; 3:1612, 1685, 1686 international congresses and, 2:1081 Leipzig battle and, 3:1319–1322 Mediterranean and, 3:1482 Mehmet Ali and, 3:1686 Montenegrin policies of, 3:1541

mutual equality concept and, 2:525 Ottoman Empire and, 1:33; 3:1681–1682 Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1785 Russia’s Great Reforms and, 2:1014 slave trade abolition by, 1:308–309 See also Austria-Hungary; France; Great Britain; Italy; Prussia; Russia Great Pyramid at Cheops, 5:2330 Great Reforms (Russia), 1:39, 88–89; 2:1014–1018; 4:1880, 2048–2049, 2051 Alexander III’s backlash against, 1:40 People’s Will and, 4:1767 revolution of 1905 and, 4:1975 Russian Orthodox Church and, 4:2061 serf emancipation, 4:1975, 2049, 2051, 2149–2155, 2196 Slavophiles and, 4:2194, 2195, 2196 timeline of, 2:1014 See also serfs, emancipation of Great School (Serbia), 4:2148 ‘‘Great Stink’’ of 1858 (London), 1:450 Great Trek, 4:2220 Great Western (paddle steamer), 1:304–305 Great Western Railway, 1:303, 304; 2:760; 4:1936–1937 Greco, El (Dome´nikos Theotoko´poulos), 2:634; 4:1781, 1782 Greco-Turkish War, 1:2; 2:1021, 1022; 3:1685 Greece, 2:1018–1023 Albania and, 1:32, 33 antiquities and, 2:1018–1019; 3:1562 Balkan League and, 1:32 Balkan wars and, 1:2, 13, 163, 164, 165, 166; 2:704–705, 1022, 1022; 3:1541, 1685, 1691; 4:2149 banditry and, 4:1821 banking and, 1:170–171 Bulgaria and, 1:313; 4:2149 Byron in, 1:333 collective recognition of, 3:1173 Congress of Berlin and, 2:530 education in, 2:720 Frazer in, 2:873 ‘‘Great Idea’’ nationalist movement of, 1:2 independence of, 1:125, 170–171; 2:1018, 1020–1022; 3:1420, 1685; 4:1973, 1986

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Mediterranean and, 3:1482 monetary union and, 3:1538 nationalism and, 1:163, 166; 3:1345; 4:1981 Olympic Games and, 4:2244 Ottoman Empire and, 4:1981; 5:2327 railroads and, 2:764 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1981–1982 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985, 1986 Russia and, 4:1982 seaside resorts in, 4:2124 Serbia and, 4:2146–2147, 2149 sports in, 4:2242, 2244, 2245 territorial gains by, 1:2 tourism in, 5:2327 trade and, 5:2337, 2338 universities in, 5:2380 violent crime and, 2:571 wine and, 5:2475 See also Athens; Greek War of Independence: Hellenism; philhellenic movement Greek Catholic Church. See Uniate Church Greek culture. See classicism; Hellenism; philhellenic movement Greek Cyclists Union, 4:2245 Greek language Ho ¨ lderlin translations from, 2:1078 Humboldt (Wilhelm) translations from, 2:1097 secondary school syllabus in, 1:286 Greek Orthodox Church, 2:1018–1021; 3:1482, 1612; 4:1982 Bulgarian nationalism and, 3:1687 millet system and, 3:1687 Greek Revival style, 1:185; 4:1762 Greek Union of Associations for Athletic Sports and Gymnastics, 4:2245 Greek War of Independence (1821–1829), 1:125, 170; 2:566, 577, 959, 1019–1020; 4:1982 Austrian-Russian rupture over, 3:1561 British support for, 2:1002; 3:1194; 4:1713 Byron and, 1:333; 3:1604–1605 Concert of Europe and, 2:525 Delacroix paintings on, 2:640; 4:1701, 1705 Eastern Question and, 2:703; 3:1682, 1685

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Egypt and, 2:732 factors in, 2:1018, 1019–1020 Great Powers support for, 3:1685, 1686 Metternich and, 3:1494 Navarino and, 2:1020; 3:1420, 1612–1613 philhellenic movement and, 4:1770, 1771 Romania and, 4:2016 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2391 Green, Charles, 4:1822 Green, John Richard, 2:1074 Green, T. H., 3:1514 Greenaway, Kate, 4:2157 Green Balloon (Krako´w cabaret), 1:336 Greenberg, Clement, 4:1784, 2011 Green Lamp (Russian literary group), 4:1919 Greenland, 2:647 Green Stripe (Madame Matisse) (Matisse), 1:153 Greer, Germaine, 5:2449 Gregorovius, Ferdinand, 4:2036 Gregory, Lady Isabella Augusta, 5:2510 Gregory V, Patriarch, 2:1019 Gregory XVI, Pope, 1:381, 382, 388; 3:1195, 1196, 1330; 4:1719, 1720, 1721, 1985, 2033 Pius IX and, 4:1795, 1796 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1718–1719, 1724 Gre´gpore, Abbe´ l, 1:498 Grellmann, Heinrich, 4:2022 Grenouille`re, La (French dining establishment), 4:1954–1955 Grenouillie`re, La, 3:1128; 4:1708 Grenville, William Wyndham, 2:840, 954; 5:2461 ‘‘Gretchen am Spinnrade’’ (Schubert), 4:2106 Gre´tr, Andre´-Ernest-Modeste, 3:1673 Gre`vy, Jules, 41; 1:282; 2:929; 3:133 Grey, Charles (Earl Grey), 1:303; 2:1002, 1003; 4:1758, 2277; 5:2461, 2471 Poor Law reform and, 4:1819–1820 Grey, Edward, 2:704 Grey, George, 3:1623 Grey, John, 1:331 Gribeauval, Jean de, 3:1505 Griboyedov, Alexander, 1:208; 2:979 Grieg, Edvard, 3:1571; 4:2287; 5:2307 Griffuelhes, Victor, 4:2298, 2299 Grillparzer, Franz, 4:2107; 5:2418

1 9 1 4

Grimm, Herman (Wilhelm’s son), 2:1023 Grimm, Ludwig (younger brother), 2:1023 Grimm brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm), 2:960, 1023–1025, 1024; 3:1523 Cruikshank illustrations and, 2:586, 1023 Germanic mythology and, 4:1756 Grimm’s Fairy Tales, 2:1023; 3:1523 Grimm’s Law, 2:1024 Grimod de la Reynie`re, AlexandreBalthasar-Laurent, 4:1967 Gris, Juan, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592 Grmek, Mirko Drazen, 1:27 grocery chains, 1:352, 473; 3:1448–1449 Gros, Antoine-Jean, 2:640, 641; 3:1165 Gross Beeren, Battle of (1813), 3:1320 Gross-Cophta, Der (Goethe), 2:985 Grossdeutsch (Greater Germany) solution, 2:871, 923 gross domestic product. See GDP Grosse fuge (Beethoven), 1:197 Grossja¨hrig (Bauernfeld), 5:2418 Grossmann, Marcel, 2:739 Grosvenor Gallery (London), 4:1865 Grosz, George, 1:192 Grotius, Hugo, 2:953 Grouchy, Emmanuel de, 5:2442, 2443 Grouchy, Sophie de, 4:1962, 1963 Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (Frege), 2:883 Grundlagen der Arithmetik, Der (Frege), 2:883 Grundzu ¨ ge der physiologischen Psychologie (Wundt), 5:2506–2507 Grunewald (Berlin suburb), 1:219 Gru¨ngu ¨ rtel (Cologne), 4:1740 G. S. and L. (architectural firm), 1:113 Guadeloupe, 1:364, 365 Guadet, Marguerite-Elie, 2:973, 975 Guangxi, 3:1679 Guangxu, Emperor of China, 1:435 Guangzhou, 3:1678, 1679 Guangzhou system, 1:433 Guarantees of Harmony and Freedom (Weitling), 4:2203 Guardia Civil (Spain), 4:1814, 2229 Guardie di Pubblica Sicurezza (Italy), 4:1815 Guchkov, Alexander, 3:1659, 1660; 4:2058 Gudden, Bernhard von, 3:1383 Gue´henno, Jean, 3:1216 Gu ¨ ell, Eusebi, 1:183; 2:936

2653

INDEX

Gu ¨ ell Colony chapel (Barcelona), 2:937 Gu ¨ ell Palace (Barcelona), 2:936 Gu ¨ ell Park (Barcelona), 1:184; 2:936 Gue´pin, Ange, 1:247, 286 Gue´rin, Alphonse, 4:1743 Gue´rin, Camille, 5:2361 Gue´rin, Jules, 4:1913 Gue´rin, Pierre-Narcisse, 2:640, 955; 3:1165 Gue´rin, Robert, 2:834 Gue´roult, Adolphe, 4:1998 Guerrazzi, Francesco, 2:930 guerrilla warfare Boer War and, 1:257; 3:1259 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1019 in Ottoman territories, 1:2 Peninsular War and, 4:1765 Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and, 2:571 by Spanish traditionalists, 1:367 Sumatra and, 3:1617 Guesde, Jules, 2:540, 1025–1026; 3:1215, 1217; 4:2127, 2205, 2218 Guesdists, 2:1025 Guettard, Jean-E´tienne, 3:1311 Guey, Berthe, 1:339 Guibal, Armand, 1:487 Guibert, Herve´, 1:255 Guibert, Jacques de, 3:1505 Guiccioli, Teresa, 1:333 Guichard, Joseph, 3:1543 guidebooks, 4:1967; 5:2326, 2329, 2330 Guide Michelin, 5:2326 Guide to the Lakes (Wordsworth), 4:2029 Guidoboni-Visconti, Countess, 1:168 guildhalls (Brussels), 1:105 Guild of St. George, 4:2047 guilds. See artisans and guilds Guillamet, Gustave, 1:46 Guillaume Tell (Rossini), 3:1661, 1671; 4:2038, 2288 Guillaumin, Armand, 3:1126, 1128 Guillaumin, Emile, 4:1756 Guillotin, Joseph, 2:888 Guimard, Hector, 1:109; 2:815, 1026–1029; 4:1732 Paris subway and, 4:2273; 5:2503 Guinea. See French Guinea Guinness Brewery, 2:691 Guinness family, 1:471 Guiraud, Ernest, 3:1662 Guizot, Franc¸ois, 2:540, 847, 849, 1029–1030; 3:1303, 1318, 1389

2654

dismissal of, 5:2311 liberalism and, 3:1343, 1344; 4:1971–1972 as Tocqueville influence, 5:2316 Guizot Law of 1833 (France), 2:721 Gu ¨ lhane, Edict of (1839), 3:1187–1188 Gumilev, Nikolai, 4:2182, 2183 Gumplowicz, Ludwig, 4:2214 gunpowder, smokeless, 1:356 guns. See armaments; rifles Gurko, Joseph V., 4:2068 Guro, Elena, 4:2182 Gurrelieder (Schoenberg), 4:2102 Gustave III; ou, Le bal masque´ (Auber), 3:1673 Gustav IV Adolph, king of Sweden, 1:226; 4:2283 Gutehoffnungshu¨tte, 1:174 Guth, Jiri, 3:1666 Guthrie, Thomas, 2:722 Guy Mannering (Scott), 4:2123 Guys, Constantin, 2:826; 3:1128, 1578 Gwendoline (Chabrier), 3:1675 GWR. See Great Western Railway Gymnasium, 2:726, 727, 728, 1053 gymnasiums, 4:2241 gymnastics, 1:116, 118; 4:1989, 2239–2244, 2245 Gypsies. See Romanies Gypsies, The (Pushkin), 4:1919 Gypsy Baron, The (Strauss), 4:2261 Gyulai von Maros-Nemeth, Ignatius, 3:1321, 1322

n

H Haas, Willy, 4:1859 habeas corpus, 2:958; 3:1345; 4:1807 Haber, Fritz, 3:1160; 4:2109 Habermas, Ju ¨ rgen, 1:465–466, 467; 4:1872–1873 on intellectuals, 3:1167 Haber process, 3:1160 Habilitation (Weber), 5:2446 Habsburg Monarchy, 1:137–144; 4:2100; 5:2353, 2510 Austrian German nationalism and, 1:10, 11 Balkans and, 1:32 banking and, 1:170 Belgium and, 1:137, 199 Belgrade and, 1:206 Bohemian Lands and, 1:249, 259–264; 4:1711, 1712

Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273, 275, 276 conservatism and, 2:540 constitutionalism and, 5:2510 counterrevolution and, 2:567 Croatia and, 2:925 diminished influence of, 2:533 education and, 2:723 ethnic conflicts and, 3:1605 extent in 1789 of, 1:137 Ferdinand I and, 2:807–808 Francis I and, 2:860–861 Francis Ferdinand and, 2:861 Francis Ferdinand’s assassination and, 1:277 Francis Joseph and, 2:863–865 Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866–867 French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars and, 1:139–140; 2:533 Germany and, 2:871, 957 Greek Catholic Church and, 5:2373 Holy Roman Empire’s collapse and, 1:139–140 Hungary and, 2:627; 3:1268–1269 Italian bureaucrats and, 1:322 Italian thrones of, 1:137; 2:531, 533; 3:1191 Italy and, 1:391, 392, 414; 2:525, 531, 622, 669, 931–932; 3:1191, 1192, 1193–1196, 1196, 1198–1199, 1203, 1254, 1255, 1501–1502; 4:1981, 1985, 1994–1995, 2000, 2000–2003, 2001, 2033, 2034, 2098; 5:2377, 2409, 2410, 2513 Jelacˇic´ and, 3:1219–1220 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1225–1226, 1229, 1526 Jews in, 3:1227, 1232, 1525–1526 John, archduke of Austria, and, 3:1235–1236 labor movements and, 3:1288 Lueger’s elective position in, 3:1393 maternity hospitals an, 5:2450 Mediterranean and, 3:1481, 1482 Metternich and, 1:117, 139, 140, 141; 3:1236, 1491–1495 migration and, 3:1109–1110 Montenegro and, 3:1541 Napoleon I and, 3:1584, 1586 Ottoman Empire and, 1:137, 206; 3:1690 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716 political Catholics and, 1:388

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Prague and, 4:1855–1861 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1712, 1716–1717, 1861–1863 reforms of, 1:137–139, 140, 141, 142–143, 144, 260 Restoration and, 4:1971 Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:141–142, 162; 2:525, 567, 627, 808, 863, 961; 3:1236, 1502, 1605, 1626; 4:1719, 1848–1849, 1987, 1990, 1993–1995, 1994, 1995; 5:2418–2419, 2510 Romania, 4:2018–2020 Rudolf (crown prince) and, 4:2044–2045 Serbian nationalism and, 3:1247, 1683–1684; 4:1994, 2142, 2143, 2147–2148 successor states of, 1:144 Trieste and, 5:2354–2356, 2402, 2403 Venice and, 5:2402–2404 Vienna and, 5:2416–2420 women’s political suppression under, 2:804 Zollverein and, 5:2525–2526 See also Austria-Hungary; Holy Roman Empire Hachette, 5:2329, 2522 Hacia otra Espan ˜ a (Maetzu), 2:951 Hadji Ali Haseki, 1:125 Hadji Murat (Tolstoy), 5:2319, 2320 Hadzˇi Mustafa, 4:2142 Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich, 2:573, 777, 1031–1033, 1069; 4:1909, 2293 as Suttner influence, 4:2282 Hafez (Persian poet), 2:987 Haffkine, Waldemer, 1:438 Hafsid dynasty, 5:2361 Hagar in the Desert (Corot), 2:561 Haggard, H. Rider, 4:2255 Hagia Sophia (Istanbul), 3:1188 Hague, the, 1:53; 3:1616; 4:1697 Hague conferences (1899, 1907), 2:953, 1033–1035; 3:1173, 1175 Geneva Convention and, 2:952; 4:1950 Nicholas II and, 3:1628 peace procedures and, 4:1697–1698 Permanent Court of Arbitration and, 3:1174 Hague school, 5:2399, 2400 Haig, Douglas, 1:95 Hai Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutiun, 1:89

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Haileybury College, 2:706 Hainaut (Belgium), 1:202, 203 Hainburg Party Conference (1888), 1:11 Haine River, 1:486 Haiti, 1:363; 2:1035–1037; 4:2225; 5:2332 as independent nation, 2:1036–1037 slave revolt (1791) in, 1:364, 365, 498, 501; 2:890, 1036 slavery and, 4:2192; 5:2332 Toussaint Louverture and, 5:2332–2333, 2333 world’s fairs and, 5:2500 Halbwachs, Maurice, 2:552 Haldane, Richard Burdon, 2:730; 3:1611 Haldane Mission, 1:49 Hale´vy, E´lie (political scientist), 4:1892–1893 Hale´vy, Jacques-Franc¸ois-FromentalE´lie (composer), 3:1672 Hale´vy, Ludovic, 3:1593 halftone printing, 4:1773, 1867 Halicka, Alice, 2:591 Halifax Town Hall (Britain), 1:186 Hall, Charles, 4:2201 Hall, William Edward, 3:1175 Hallam, Arthur, 5:2309 Halle´, Charles, 1:287–288 Halle´, Jean Noe¨l, 3:1297 Halles, Les (Paris), 2:1049; 3:1449, 1449; 4:1729 Hallische Jahrbu ¨ cher (Young Hegelian publication), 5:2512 Halls of Science, 4:2201 Hals, Franz, 3:1353 Halske, Johann Georg, 4:2179 Hamann, Johann Georg, 2:983 Hamard, Caroline, 2:828 Hamburg, 2:1038–1041 bourgeoisie in, 1:472 cholera epidemic in, 1:438, 450; 2:628, 1040; 3:1263 French occupation of, 2:1038 houses along canal in, 2:1039 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2493 labor movements in, 5:2492 Lutheran population of, 4:1892 maternity hospitals in, 5:2450 opera in, 3:1673 park in, 4:1740 population of, 1:446; 2:1041 siege of (1813), 2:1038 subway in, 4:2272 waterway transport in, 5:2348, 2350

1 9 1 4

Zollverein and, 5:2526 Hamburg-American Line, 2:1039, 1040 Hamburger, Joseph, 3:1514 Hamburgische Unpartheyische Correspondent (newspaper), 4:1867, 1868, 1869 Hamed bin Muhammad (Tippu Tip), 1:16–17 Hamidye cavalry, 1:2 Hamilton, Alexander, 2:515; 4:1887 Hamilton, Anna, 3:1650 Hamilton, Ian, 1:95 Hamilton, Lord (Alexander Douglas), 2:625 Hamilton, William, 1:327; 3:1477–1478 Hamlet (Shakespeare), 1:229 ‘‘Hamlet and Don Quixote’’ (Turgenev), 5:2365 Hamlin, Christopher, 1:402 Hammuda Pasha, 5:2362 Ham Nghi, king of Vietnam, 3:1141 Hampden Park stadium (Scotland), 2:833; 4:2243 Hampson, Norman, 2:611 Hampsted Garden (London suburb), 2:1088 Hampton, Wade, 5:2440 Handbook of Physiological Optics (Helmholtz), 2:1057 Handbook of the History of Painting from Constantine the Great to the Present (Burckhardt), 1:316 Handbuch der Geschichte der Malerei (Kugler), 1:317 Handbuch der Geschichte der Malerei seit Constantin dem Grossen (Burckhardt), 1:316 Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte (Kugler), 1:317 Handel, George Frideric, 3:1568 Hannibal, Abram, 4:1918 Hannibal Crossing the Alps (Goya), 2:996 Hanoi, 2:813; 3:142, 1137, 1141, 1144, 1145 Hanover Britain and, 2:901 Congress of Vienna and, 2:533 liberal protests in, 2:959–960, 1024 Lutheran population of, 4:1892 Prussian annexation of, 2:964; 4:1900, 1901 Revolution of 1830 and, 1:457 written constitution of, 2:959, 960 Hanover, house of, 2:953, 959; 4:2118; 5:2321

2655

INDEX

Ireland and, 2:1000 Hansard, T. C., 1:489 Ha¨nsel und Gretel (Humperdinck), 3:1675 Hanska, Evelina, 1:166, 168, 169 Hanslick, Eduard, 1:295; 3:1566; 4:2107 ‘‘Hap’’ (Hardy), 2:1045 HAPAG (Hamburg-American Line), 2:1039, 1040 happiness, utilitarianism and, 1:211; 3:1510, 1511 Harden, Maximilian, 2:968, 1071 Hardenberg, Charlotte von, 2:545 Hardenberg, Friedrich von. See Novalis Hardenberg, Karl August von, 1:369, 457; 2:531, 1041–1043 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532 Prussian reforms and, 2:958; 3:1341; 4:1900 Hardie, James Keir, 2:1043–1044; 3:1295; 5:2436 Hardman, John, 4:1918 Hardman, William, 1:287 Hard Times (Dickens), 1:443; 2:657; 3:1511 Hard Times (Ruskin), 1:371 Hardwicke, Lord (Philip Yorke), 4:1925 Hardy, Emma Gifford, 2:1045 Hardy, Thomas, 2:1044–1046; 3:1109; 4:1757, 1844, 2253, 2256 Spencer and, 4:2235 harems, 2:640 Hargreaves, James, 3:1153, 1410 Harmonielehre (Schoenberg), 4:2103 Harmonies poe´tiques et religieuses (Lamartine), 3:1303 Harmony in Red (Matisse), 3:1474 Harms, Edith, 4:2090, 2091 Harnack, Adolf von, 3:1533 Harold in Italy (Berlioz), 1:225 Harpe, Fre´de´ric-Ce´sar de la, 1:37 Harper’s Monthly (magazine), 2:687 Harriman, Averell, 2:770 Harrington, James, 4:1958 Harris, Townsend, 3:1209–1210 Harrison, Birge, 4:1948 Harrison, Frederic, 4:1844; 5:2444 Harrison, Thomas Alexander (Alexander), 4:1948 Harrison, William Henry, 5:2439, 2440 Hart, Robert, 1:434 Hartford Convention of 1814 (U.S), 5:2440 Hartington, Lord (Spencer Compton), 2:1010

2656

Hartley, David, 1:210; 3:1458, 1511, 1512 Hartmann, Eduard von, 2:1045; 4:2216 Hartmann, Fre´de´ric, 1:270 Hartrocl, A. S., 4:1776 Harvard University, 1:23 Harvest, The (Van Gogh), 5:2401 Harvesters, The (Millet), 3:1515 Harzreise, Die (Heine), 2:1055 Hasheesh Eater, The (Ludlow), 2:687 hashish, 2:687 ‘‘Hashish-House in New York, A’’ (Kane), 2:687 Haskalah movement (Jewish Enlightenment), 3:1229 Hastings, Warren, 1:327; 2:669, 705; 3:1133, 1135; 4:2258 Hata, Sukehachiro, 2:736 Hatt-i Humayun (Ottoman principles), 3:1686 Hatt-i S˛erif of Gu ¨ lhane (Ottoman principles), 3:1686 Hatton, Timothy J., 2:710 Hatzfeldt, Sophie von, 3:1310 Haugwitz, Christian von, 1:133; 2:1042; 5:2374 Hauptmann, Gerhart, 1:65, 220; 2:951; 3:1411; 5:2470 Mann and, 3:1437 Hausa, 1:13 Haussmann, Georges-Euge`ne, 1:3, 53, 54, 306, 452; 2:621, 737, 1046–1051; 5:2485 assessment of, 4:1731 corruption charges and, 2:810, 1049–1050; 4:1731 deficit spending by, 4:1730–1731 dismissal of, 2:853; 4:1731 Ferry expose´ of, 2:810, 1050 Parisian park system and, 4:1738, 1739–1740 reconstruction of Paris by, 2:810, 852, 1046, 1047–1050, 1087, 1088; 3:1188, 1404, 1413, 1535; 4:1729–1731, 1732, 1733, 1739–1740, 1794 haute bourgeoisie, 1:471, 472, 476 Hauteville House (Hugo estate), 2:1094 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 2:838 Haydn, Franz Joseph, 1:198; 3:1419, 1568; 4:2102 Hayek, F. A., 3:1514 Hayes, Carlton, J. H., 3:1607 Haymakers, The (Millet), 1:179 Hayn, Hugo, 4:1836 Hay Wain, The (Constable), 2:543, 544; 4:2029

Hazlitt, William, 3:1426; 5:2482 Head of a Woman (Klimt), 5:2421 health. See disease; public health health citizenship. See public health health insurance, 5:2452, 2453, 2473 Bismarck national program and, 1:239, 356; 2:540, 966; 4:1915 Britain and, 2:1012 bureaucracy and, 1:32 Denmark and, 2:648 Health Insurance Law of 1883 (Germany), 4:1915 Healy, Timothy Michael, 4:1741, 1742 Heartbreak House (Shaw), 4:2167 Heart of Darkness (Conrad), 2:535–536, 948; 3:1336; 4:1875, 2256 Heart of Midlothian, The (Scott), 4:2123 heat flow, 3:1249–1250, 1478; 4:1779, 1780 See also thermodynamics Heavenly Twins, The (Grand), 4:2235 Hebbel, Friedrich, 3:1108 Hebe and the Eagle of Jupiter (Rude), 4:2044 He´bert, Jacques-Rene´, 2:974; 4:1952 Hebra¨ische Balladen (Lasker-Schu¨ler), 3:1309 Heckel, Erich, 1:154 Hecker, Friedrich, 2:961, 962 Heckscher, Eli Filip, 2:752; 5:2334 Hedda Gabler (Ibsen), 3:1108 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 2:1051–1055, 1052, 1058; 4:1962, 2195 as Belinsky influence, 1:207 Berlin and, 1:215; 2:1053, 1054 on Chinese autocracy, 1:432 civil society concept of, 1:465 Croce and, 2:584 dialectic and, 3:1252 Dilthey monograph on, 2:660 Engels on, 2:754, 755 Fichte as influence on, 2:814 Heine and, 2:1056 Holderlin friendship with, 2:1051, 1078 Kierkegaard as critic of, 3:1251, 1252, 1253 Marx and, 2:1054; 3:1463, 1464, 1465; 4:2203 on Napoleon, 2:957 philosophical legacy of, 3:1463–1465 philosophy of history of, 1:318; 2:1062

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

on Pinel, 4:1791 psychology and, 4:1907 Ranke and, 4:1940 Renan and, 4:1953 Romanticism and, 4:2031 Schelling and, 4:2087–2088, 2195 Schopenhauer and, 4:2104 sociology and, 4:2212 Young Hegelians and, 2:754; 3:1463, 1464; 4:2203; 5:2511, 2511–2513 Hegel’s Early Theological Writings, 2:1051 Heger, M., 1:301 Heidegger, Martin, 2:661; 4:2089 Ho ¨ lderlin as influence on, 2:1078 Husserl as influence on, 2:1101 Kierkegaard as influence on, 3:1253 Heiligenstadt Testament of 1802 (Beethoven), 1:197–198 Heimann, Vasily A., 4:2069 Heine, Heinrich, 2:1055–1057, 1056; 5:2513 censorship and, 1:369 on emancipation, 3:1225 as Frazer influence, 2:873 Lassalle’s legal defense of, 3:1310 on ‘‘Lisztomania,’’ 3:1360 Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081 Heine, Salomon, 2:1055 Heine, Thomas Theodor, 4:1846; 5:2469 Heinrich von Ofterdingen (Novalis), 3:1647 Hellas (P. S. Shelley), 4:1769 Hellenism, 1:320; 2:1018–1019, 1085; 4:1770–1771 museum antiquities collections and, 3:1562 Nietzsche and, 3:1632; 4:1770 Pater and, 4:1746, 1770 primitivism and, 4:1875 See also classicism; philhellenic movement Helmholtz, Hermann von, 2:1057–1059, 1062–1063; 3:1162; 4:1908, 2012; 5:2507 Helsinki, 5:2308 Helvetic Republic, 3:1597; 4:2188, 2189, 2288 Helve´tius, Claude-Adrien, 1:210 Hemaphrodite (antique marble), 2:940 hemophilia, 1:41, 42 Henderson, Andrea, 1:302 Henderson, Arthur, 3:1296 Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jacob, 3:1262 Henle, Richard, 1:292

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Henniker, Florence, 2:1045 He´non (Lyonnais politician), 3:1404 Henri, Charles, 4:2292 Henrique, Le´on, 2:1104 Henry, E´mile, 1:57; 4:1943 Henry, Hubert, 2:683, 684 Henry, Joseph, 4:2109, 2111 Henry, Marc, 1:336 Henry, William, 3:1430 Henschel, Georg, 2:960 Henslow, Robert, 2:613 Henson, Matthew, 2:784 Hep, Hep pogroms (1819), 4:1802 Hepworth, Cecil, 1:441 Herakles Finding His Son Telephos (Ingres), 3:1166 Herald League (Britain), 4:1714 Herbart, Johann Friedrich, 3:1409 Herbert, Robert J., 3:1537 Herbert, Sidney, 3:1637–1638, 1649 Hercules and Lichas (Canova), 1:349 Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 3; 2:566, 1059–1062, 1078; 4:2030, 2212 as Goethe influence, 2:983 linguistic national identity and, 3:1523, 1603, 1604 Hereditary Genius (Galton), 2:769, 927; 4:2248 heredity. See genetics Heredity in Relation to Eugenics (Davenport), 2:770 Hereros massacre, 3:1125 He´ricourt, Jenny d’, 3:1288 Hering, Ewald, 2:1058; 3:1409 Hermann und Dorothea (Goethe), 2:985 ‘‘Hermaphrodite’’ (Swinburne), 2:940 hermaphrodites, 2:1071; 4:2164 hermeneutics, 2:660–661 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, 5:2509, 2510 Hermitage Theater (St. Petersburg), 4:2077 Hermits, The (Schiele), 4:2090 Hernani (Hugo), 1:229; 2:1093; 4:2252 Hernani (Verdi), 3:1572 ‘‘He´rodias’’ (Flaubert), 2:828 Hero of Our Time, A (Lermontov), 1:208 Herr, Lucien, 3:1215 Herr Bastiat-Schulze von Delitzsch, der o¨konomische Julian, order: Capital und Arbeit (Lassalle), 3:1311 Herrenchiemsee (Louis II castle), 3:1383 ´ douard, 3:1405 Herriot, E He´rtie`re de Birague, L’ (Balzac), 1:167

1 9 1 4

Hertz, Heinrich, 2:1058, 1062–1064; 3:1163; 4:1780 Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph, 4:2114 Herz, Cornelius, 3:1338 Herz, Henriette, 1:215 Herzen, Alexander, 1:162; 2:772–773, 989–990, 1064–1066; 3:1170, 1552 as populist influence, 4:1831 as Westernizer, 4:2195–2196; 5:2459, 2460 Herzgewa¨chse (Schoenberg), 4:2103 Herzl, Pauline, 2:1067 Herzl, Theodor, 1:11; 2:1066–1069, 1067 Dreyfus affair as influence on, 2:685, 1068 on Jaure`s, 3:1219 Lueger’s anti-Semitism and, 3:1395 Zionism and, 1:76, 77; 2:1066, 1067, 1068–1069; 5:2518, 2520–2521 Herzegovina. See Bosnia-Herzegovina Hess, Moses, 2:754; 3:1464; 4:2203; 5:2512, 2519 Hess, Sophie, 3:1644, 1645 Hesse, Hermann, 3:1437 Hesse-Kassel, 2:900; 3:1599 Lutheran population of, 4:1892 Prussian annexation of, 2:964; 4:1901 written constitution of, 2:959 See also Westphalia, Kingdom of Hetaira Philike´ (secret society), 1:360 Heterogeneity of Language and Its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind, The (W. Humboldt), 2:1097 Hetherington, Henry, 3:1390 hetmanate, 5:2370 Hetzel, Pierre-Jules, 5:2409 Heure espagnole, L’ (Ravel), 4:1944 Heydt-Kersten und So ¨ hne, von der, 1:174 Heymann, Lida Gustava, 1:129–130 Heyne, Christian Gottlieb, 4:2094 Hibiya Riot (1905), 4:1838 Hickey, Thomas, 3:1134 Hicks, William, 2:734 hieroglyphics, 1:406 Hierta, Lars Johan, 4:2283 Highclere Castle (Hampshire), 1:186 higher criticism, 2:744 higher education. See universities Highland Shepherd, The (Bonheur), 4:2117 High Renaissance, 4:1863 high-wheel bicycle, 2:600–601

2657

INDEX

Hilendarski, Paisii, 1:312 Hill, J. W., 4:1864 Hill House (Glasgow), 1:112 Hillsides of the Hermitage, Pontoise, The (Pissarro), 4:1793 Hilmi, Abbas, 2:734; 4:2274 Hilsner, Leopold, 3:1469 Himmelfarb, Gertrude, 3:1509, 1514 Himmler, Heinrich, 4:2024 Hinckeldey, Karl von, 4:1815 Hind, Robert, 3:1637 Hindemith, Paul, 3:1310 Hindenburg (battle cruiser), 3:1610, 1611 Hindenburg, Paul von, 5:2313 Hinduism, 3:1134, 1135, 1136 Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2138, 2140 Hinzpeter, Georg, 5:2468 Hirobumi, Itoˆ, 3:1210, 1212 Hirsch, Maurice de, 1:280 Hirschfeld, Magnus, 2:1069–1072, 1086; 4:2163; 5:2376 Hirschfeld, Max, 3:1450 Hirschman, C. A. W., 2:834 His, Wilhelm, 1:341 His Last Bow (Doyle), 2:680 Hispaniola. See Dominican Republic; Haiti Histoire de dix ans (Blanc), 1:247 Histoire de la civilisation en Europe (Guizot), 2:1029 Histoire de la civilisation en France (Guizot), 2:1029 Histoire de la grandeur et de la de´cadence de Ce´sar Birotteau (Balzac), 1:168 Histoire de la litte´rature franc¸aise (Taine), 5:2522 Histoire de la peinture en Italie (Stendhal), 4:2252 Histoire de la re´volution de l’Angleterre (Guizot), 2:1029 Histoire de ma vie (Sand), 4:2083, 2084 Histoire des Girondins (Lamartine), 3:1303–1304 Histoire des re´publiques italiennes au Moyen Age (Sismondi), 4:2185 Histoire naturelle des animaux sans verte`bres (Lamarck), 3:1302 Histoire parlementaire de la France (Guizot), 2:1029 Histoires extraordinaires (Baudelaire), 1:188 Histoires grotesques et se´rieuses (Baudelaire), 1:188 Histoires Naturelles (Renard), 4:1944 Histoire socialiste de la Re´volution francaise (Jaure`s), 3:1216

2658

histology, 1:340, 340–341 Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution and the Effect It Has Produced in Europe, An (Wollstonecraft), 5:2480 historical landscape painting, 2:560, 561 historical materialism, 2:1054 historical novels, 3:1441–1442; 4:2123 historical operas, 3:1672 Historical, Political, and Moral Essay on Revolutions, Ancient and Modern (Chateaubriand), 1:420 Historical Right (Italy), 3:1200 ‘‘Historical Russian Concerts,’’ 2:654 Historical School (philosophy), 2:660 historical school of law, 4:2236 Historical View of the Literature of the South of Europe (Sismondi), 4:2185 historic fallacy, 1:103 historicism, 1:107, 295; 2:583, 584 Historische Fragmente (Burckhardt), 1:318 Historische Zeitscrhift (journal), 2:1072, 1073 history, 2:1072–1075 Acton and, 1:6–7 body focus of, 1:251–255 Burckhardt’s view of, 1:315, 318–319 Carlyle and, 1:370–371 Croce and, 2:583–584, 585 ‘‘great men’’ theory of, 5:2319 Guizot and, 2:1029, 1030 Hegel’s philosophy of, 2:1052, 1054, 1062 Herder’s philosophy of, 2:1061–1062 Herzen’s philosophy of, 2:1064 Humboldt’s (Wilhelm) philosophy of, 2:1097 industrialization and, 3:1146–1156 Macaulay and, 3:14707–14708 Marxist, 2:755, 1074–1075 Michelet’s view of, 3:1499 Milyukov’s school of, 3:1517, 1518, 1552 Mommsen and, 3:1532–1534 nationalism theories and, 3:1607–1608 Palacky´ and, 4:1711–1712 Ranke and, 4:1939–1941 Russian historians and, 3:1552 See also art history

‘‘History’’ (Macaulay), 3:1407 History of a Six Weeks’ Tour (Shelley and Shelley), 4:2168 History of British India (J. Mill), 3:1510 History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (Stephen), 4:2254 History of France (Michelet), 3:1499 History of India, A (J. Mill), 3:1510–1511, 1512 History of Mr. Polly, The (Wells), 5:2458 History of Painting in Italy (Stendhal), 4:2252 History of Philosophy from Thales to Comte, The (Lewes), 4:1844 History of Russia from Ancient Times (Soloviev), 5:2460 History of Russian Social Thought, The (Ivanov-Razumnik), 3:1170 History of Sexuality, The (Foucault), 3:1270 History of the Commonwealth of England (Godwin), 2:981 History of the Consulate and Empire (Thiers), 1:270; 5:2311 History of the Crusades (Michaud), 2:676–677 History of the Czech Nation in Bohemia and Moravia (Palecky´, 4:1711 History of the French Revolution (Michelet), 3:1499 History of the German Language (J. Grimm), 2:1024 History of the Latin and Germanic Peoples (Ranke), 4:1940 History of the Pugachev Rebellion, The (Pushkin), 4:1920 History of the Revolution (Thiers), 5:2310 History of the Roman Republic (Michelet), 3:1499 History of the Thirty Years Peace (Martineau), 3:1459 History of the Ukraine-Rus, A (Hrushevsky), 5:2372 History of Trade Unionism, The (Webb and Webb), 5:2445 history painting Courbet and, 2:568 Daguerre and, 2:605 David and, 2:624 Delacroix and, 2:640–642 Ge´ricault and, 2:955, 956 History of England from the Accession of James II (Macaulay), 3:1407 Hitler, Adolf, 1:189, 231, 404; 3:1589

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

anti-Semitism and, 3:1393; 5:2421 Center Party and, 2:966 Drumont and, 2:688 LeBon’s theory of crowds and, 3:1317 lower middle-class support for, 1:106 Lueger as influence on, 3:1393, 1395 Mann’s opposition to, 3:1435 Planck and, 4:1799–1800 Romanies and, 4:2021, 2023 Shaw and, 4:2167 Social Darwinism and, 2:619 Wagner and, 5:2431 Hmilton, Emma, 3:1615 Hobbes, Thomas, 1:465; 3:1272; 4:2212 Hobhouse, L. T., 3:1518; 4:2215 Hobrecht, James, 1:218 Hobsbawm, Eric, 3:1147, 1607, 1666; 4:1821, 2130, 2132 Hobson, John A., 2:505, 1012, 1075–1076; 3:1518 on economic imperialism, 3:1121–1122, 1125 on jingoism, 3:1235 socialism and, 4:2205, 2206–2207 Hoche, Louis-Lazare, 2:666 Ho Chi Minh, 1461; 3:1144–1145 Hochschild, Adam, 1:222 Hoch- und Untergrundbahnen (Berlin subway), 4:2273 hockey, 4:2245 Hoe, Richard, 4:1866 Hoechst Company, 2:736 Hoesch, Leopold, 2:960 Hofbibliothek (Munich), 3:1350 Hofer, Andreas, 3:1235–1236 Hoff, Jacobus, Hendricus. See van’t Hoff, Jacobus Hendricus Hoffaktoren, 4:2039 Ho ¨ ffer, Aloı´s, 1:298 Hoffmann, Erich, 4:2303 Hoffmann, E. T. A., 1:197, 198, 295; 2:678 Offenbach Contes d’Hoffmann and, 3:1661–1662 Hoffmann, Josef, 1:107, 112, 153, 336; 3:1381 Hofmann, August Wilhelm von, 1:425, 426; 3:1159, 1160 Hofmann, Josef, 2:654 Hofmannsthal, Hugo von, 2:1067, 1076–1077; 3:1437, 1675, 1676; 5:2405, 2421 Hogarth, Catherine. See Dickens, Catherine Hogarth Hogarth, Mary, 2:656

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Hogg, James, 4:2255 Hohenlinden, Battle of (1800), 2:901 Hohenlohe, Friedrich Ludwig, 3:1221, 1222 Hohenlohe-Ohringen, Christian-Kraft von, 1:84 Hohenlohe-Schillingsfu¨rst, Chlodwig zu, 4:1722; 5:2469 Hohenstien, Leo Thun Von, 5:2383 Hohenzollern dynasty, 1:83, 84, 389; 2:961 Austria-Hungary and, 2:865 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:853, 867, 964 Protestants and, 2:870–871 Prussia and, 4:1899, 1901 Holcroft, Thomas, 1:244 Ho ¨ lderin, Johann Christian Friedrich, 2:1077–1079 Hegel and, 2:1051, 1078 Hellenism and, 4:1769 Schelling and, 4:2088 holidays as British paid days off, 1:285; 3:1324 Czech national celebrations, 1:262 Dutch national celebration, 3:1619 patriotic and religious, 4:1826 vacations and, 3:1324–1325 Holland. See Netherlands Hollander, Samuel, 3:1514 Holloway, Thomas, 1:287 Holmes, Frederick Lawrence, 1:227 Holmes, Sherlock (fictional detective), 2:680–681 Holmskjold, Theodor, 2:647 Holocaust, 1:77; 2:639; 3:1395 holograms, 3:1398 Holroyd, Michael, 4:2259 Holstein. See Schleswig-Holstein Holstein, Friedrich von, 3:1545 Holtzendorff, Franz von, 3:1175 Holy Alliance, 2:1079–1082; 3:1173; 4:1985 Alexander I and, 1:38; 2:565, 959; 4:1718 Congress of Troppau and, 2:531–532 Congress of Vienna and, 2:534, 565 Crimean War breakup of, 2:1079, 1081 Greek War of Independence and, 3:1685 members of, 2:1002, 1079–1080; 4:1970, 1971, 1973, 2228; 5:2392 Metternich and, 2:861, 959

1 9 1 4

Mu¨nchengra¨tz convention and, 3:1561 Restoration and, 4:1970–1971, 1973 Revolutions of 1830 and, 2:566; 3:1561 Spain and, 4:2228 Holy Family (Schiele), 4:2090 Holy Family, The (Marx and Engels), 2:755 Holyoake, G. J., 2:555 Holy Roman Empire abolishment of, 2:901 anticlericalism and, 1:68 aristocracy and, 1:85 Catholicism and, 1:388 collapse of, 1:139–140; 2:860, 875 France and, 4:2186 Francis II as last emperor of, 2:860, 957 French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and, 2:899 German Confederation replacing, 1:262; 2:957 Habsburgs and, 2:957 Italian bureaucrats and, 1:322 Switzerland and, 4:2291 Voltaires description of, 2:957 Holy Shroud at Trier, 4:1788 Holy Sinner, The (Mann), 3:1437 Homage to Queen Caterina Cornaro (Markart), 5:2405 Home, Daniel Dunglas, 4:2237, 2238–2239 Home, Everard, 3:1223 Home and Foreign Review, The (formerly The Rambler), 1:6 Home Guard (England), 1:117 Home International Championship (British football), 2:832 Homeland (Blok), 1:250 Homeless Family Sleeping on a Bridge (Dore´), 2:677 Homer, 3:1165, 1675; 5:2319 Homer Deified (Ingres), 3:116 Home Rule. See Irish Home Rule Home Rule Party (Ireland), 4:1741, 1742 homicide. See crime; murder Homme qui rit, L’ (Hugo), 2:1094–1095 homosexuality and lesbianism, 2:1082–1086, 1085; 3:1450; 4:2162–2163 Bloomsbury Group and, 4:2258 Byron and, 1:332, 333 Carpenters theory of, 1:372–373 Decadence and, 2:632, 633

2659

INDEX

degeneracy label for, 2:639, 683 Ellis study of, 2:745, 746, 948, 1085; 3:1450 emancipation movement and, 2:1069–1071, 1086 fin de sie`cle concerns and, 2:816 first use of word homosexual and, 2:1082 Forster and, 2:835, 836 Freuds view of, 2:906, 1085 gay studies and, 4:2297 gender hierarchy and, 2:947 German court (1907) scandal and, 2:968, 1071, 1084 imperialism and, 2:948 Krafft-Ebing and, 2:816, 1085; 3:1270 Pater and, 4:1746, 1747, 1770 Sade and, 4:2074 Scouting and, 1:160 Strachey and, 4:2258, 2259 Symonds and, 4:2296–2297 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2306, 2307 terms for, 2:1082 ‘‘third sex’’ theory of, 5:2375–2376 Ulrichs and, 2:1070, 1085–1086; 5:2375–2377 Wilde and, 4:2258, 2297; 5:2465–2466 Wildes conviction and, 2:633, 639, 1070, 1084 Homosexuality of Men and Women, The (Hirschfeld), 2:1071 Hondschoote, Battle of (1793), 2:900 Hone, William, 2:585, 586 Honegger, Arthur, 4:2087 Hong Kong, 1:292, 434; 3:1680 cession to Britain of, 3:1579, 1679 prostitution and, 4:1886 syphilis control, 4:2302 honor, dueling and, 2:694–695; 3:1472 Honore´ Balzac (Rodin), 1:167 Hontheim, Johann Nikolaus von (Febronius), 4:1721 Hooker, Joseph, 2:616 Hoornik, Sien, 5:2400 Hope & Co., 1:170 Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 5:2310 Hopkins, William, 3:1477 Horen, Die (German literary journal), 4:2095 Horner, Francis, 1:302–303 horseback riding, 3:1305 horse breeding, 2:770 horse racing, 2:730; 4:2240, 2245

2660

horse transportation, 2:766 Horta, Victor, 1:109, 110, 152, 307, 307 Hortense, queen consort of France, 1:481 Hoschede´, Alice, 3:1536 hospices, 3:1664 Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau (Barcelona), 1:184 hospitals, 1:450; 3:1358, 1637 battlefield, 3:1308 changed function of, 3:1648 geriatrics and, 3:1665 Nightingale reforms and, 3:1638 nursing and, 3:1648–1650 postoperative infections in, 3:1358 Ho ¨ ssli, Heinrich, 2:1085; 4:2297 hot-air balloons. See balloons Hoˆtel Crillon (Paris), 4:1727 Hoˆtel de la Marine (Paris), 4:1727 Hoˆtel de Ville (Paris), 4:1729, 1734, 1736 Hoˆtel Dieu (Paris), 4:2300 Hoˆtel Lambert (Paris), 2:604 hotels cities and, 1:445 restaurants and, 4:1967 seaside resorts and, 3:1325 Hotel Solvay (Brussels), 1:307 Ho ¨ tzendorf, Conrad von, 2:862, 865 Houdin, Robert, 3:1483 Hound of the Baskervilles, The (Doyle), 2:680 Hours in a Library (Stephen), 4:2254 Hours of Idleness (Byron), 1:332 Household Words (British periodical), 2:657 Housekeeper, The (Daumier), 1:35 House of Commons (Britain) antislavery campaign in, 4:1896 Asquith’s rise in, 1:114–115; 2:730 Bagehot’s political theory and, 1:161 Brougham’s seat in, 1:303 Burke’s seat in, 1:326, 327 Castlereagh leadership in, 1:374 Chamberlain’s (Joseph) seat in, 1:404 Chartist platforms and, 417; 1:414–415 Cobbett’s seat in, 1:489–490 Cobden’s seat in, 1:491 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:1005 Disraeli’s career in, 2:672–673, 674 Fox’s career in, 2:839–840, 1001 Gladstone’s career in, 2:976–978, 978 Hardie’s seat in, 2:1043, 1044

Lloyd George’s career in, 3:1369–1370 Macaulay speeches in, 3:1407 Mill (James) on, 3:1510 Mill’s (John Stuart) seat in, 3:1513 O’Connor’s seat in, 3:1657, 1658 Palmerston’s seat in, 4:1713 Parnell’s seat in, 4:1741–1742 Peel’s seat in, 4:1757–1759 suffrage reforms and, 1:290 Wilberforce’s seat in, 5:2462–2463 See also Parliament, British House of Lords (Britain), 1:302; 2:560 Anglican bishopric members of, 4:1895 aristocracy as members of, 1:80, 86, 469 Brougham as member of, 1:303 Byron’s Luddite defense speech in, 3:1410 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:1005 Curzon as member of, 2:597–598 diminished power of, 2:730 Disraeli as member of, 2:674 People’s Budget of 1910 and, 3:1369 reforms and, 1:114, 115, 303; 2:730, 1012–1013; 3:1345, 1369–1370 House of Savoy. See Piedmont-Savoy House of the Hanged Man at Auvers, The (Ce´zanne), 1:398 Houses at L’Estaque (Braque), 2:593 Houses of Parliament (Britain), 1:185, 186; 4:1918, 2030 See also House of Commons: House of Lords; Parliament, British housing, 2:1086–1092 Amsterdam and, 1:55 art nouveau style of, 1:109–109, 112, 113–114 Barcelona and, 1:182, 183 Berlin and, 1:218–219; 3:1554 Brussels and, 1:306 building codes and, 1:453–454 cities and, 1:452, 453–454; 2:1086–1087; 4:1912 Dublin and, 2:692–693 factory workers and, 1:474; 2:793, 1087, 1088; 3:1275 furniture and, 2:913–914 London and, 3:1373, 1375 Manchester and, 3:1430 middle class and, 2:1088, 1089–1090; 3:1453 middle-class consumerism and, 2:549

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Moscow and, 3:1554 Paris and, 4:1727, 1731, 1733 peasants and, 4:1753 private sphere and, 3:1453 reformers and, 2:1090–1092 St. Petersburg and, 4:2079 sanitary problems and, 4:1912 typhus outbreaks and, 2:670 working class and, 2:550, 1087–1089, 1090–1092; 3:1456 See also apartment buildings; slums; tenements Houssaye, Arse`ne, 1:187 Houten, C. J. van, 1:496 Howard’s End (Forster), 2:835–836 How Is Scientific Socialism Possible (Bernstein), 4:2205 ‘‘How Much Land Does a Man Need?’’ (Tolstoy), 5:2319 Ho Xuan Huong, 3:1138 Høyen, Niels Lauritz, 2:647 Hroch, Miroslav, 3:1607 Hrushevsky, Mykhailo, 5:2371–2372 Huart, Louis, 2:826 Huddersfield Luddism, 3:1392 Hudsons Bay Company, 1:346 Hue´, 3:1138, 1140 Hueppe, Ferdinand, 2:834 Huet, J. B., 2:845 Hufeland, Christoph Wilhelm, 3:491 Hughenden Manor (Disraeli estate), 2:672 Hughes, Arthur, 4:1865 Hughes, Nathan, 2:1004 Hughes, Thomas, 1:428; 3:1162 Hugo, Le´opoldine, 2:1093, 1094 Hugo, Victor, 1:169, 229, 270, 411; 2:678, 827, 930, 1092–1095, 1093; 3:1360; 4:1849, 1916, 1963, 2123, 2252; 5:2499, 2524 Baudelaire essay on, 1:188 on childhood, 1:427 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 exile of, 2:1093–1095 funeral of, 2:1094, 1095 Goncourt brothers and, 2:991 as intellectual, 3:1167 Nadar and, 3:1578 peace congress and, 4:1695 as popular writer, 4:1823 Rodin’s monument to, 4:2009 Romanticism and, 4:2027, 2030 spiritualism and, 4:2237 women’s rights and, 1:127 Huguenots, 3:1111; 4:1891 Huguenots, Les (Meyerbeer), 3:1661, 1671

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Hull, William, 5:2439 Hull Anti-Mill Society, 2:555 Hulme, T. E., 1:214 Hu ¨ lsenbeck Children, The (Runge), 1:428, 429 human body. See body Human Development Index, 5:2334 human evolution. See evolution humanism, 4:1843–1844 humanitarianism Berlin Conference and, 1:221, 222, 223, 308 exploration and, 2:784 Geneva Conventions and, 2:952–953; 3:1175 Hague Law and, 3:1175 imperialism and, 3:1115, 1122 Humanite´, L’ (periodical), 3:1217, 1218 Human Pyramid, The (Dore´), 2:677 human rights French declaration of, 1:456 indigenous protection societies and, 2:504–505 Leopold II violation of, 1:205; 2:509 Portuguese cololonial abuses of, 2:509 ‘‘Human Vision’’ (Helmholtz), 2:1058 Humboldt, Alexander and Wilhelm von, 1:22; 2:1095–1098 Schloss Tegel estate of, 4:2092 university systems and, 5:2381–2383, 2383, 2390 Humboldt, Alexander von, 2:774, 1095–1096, 1096, 1097; 3:1658 Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 1:215, 430–431; 2:958, 1097–1098; 3:1341; 4:1900 as Mill (John Stuart) influence, 3:1513 Humboldt University, 2:958; 3:1533; 4:1900 See also Kaiser Wilhelm Institute Hume, David, 1:210, 326, 465; 3:1514; 4:2120; 5:2394 as Malthus influence, 3:1425 Hume, Joseph, 2:511; 3:1510 Humperdinck, Engelbert, 3:1675 Hunchakian Party (Armenian), 1:89, 92 Hunchback of Notre Dame, The (Hugo), 2:1093; 4:1916, 2030 Hundred Days, 2:846–847, 903, 958, 1098–1099; 3:1588, 1599 Congress of Vienna and, 2:534; 3:1493 Constant and, 2:545 Fouche´ and, 2:837

1 9 1 4

Louis XVIII and, 3:1387 Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388 Napoleon defenders and, 1:270, 471; 3:1589 Napoleonic myth and, 3:1589 new Napoleonic regime and, 3:1, 1588 Talleyrand and, 5:2306 Hungarian language, 1:310; 3:1268, 1269, 1605 Hungarian Revolution of 1848, 1:143; 2:627, 808, 961; 3:1344, 1605; 4:1990, 1992, 1995 counterrevolution and, 2:567, 1080–1081; 3:1626 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:141–142 Jelacˇic´ and, 3:1219–1220 Kossuth and, 3:1266, 1267 Hungarian Rhapsodies (Liszt), 3:1361; 4:1825 Hungarian Workers Union, 1:36; 2:864 Hungary Austria and, 4:1993, 1995; 5:2420, 2498 baths and spas in, 5:2327 Croatian nationalism and, 2:924, 925; 3:1268–1269 Dea´k and, 2:653–627 Dual Monarchy status of, 1:144–145, 262; 2:627 electrified factories and, 2:741 emigrant returns to, 2:749 emigrants from, 2:748 Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862 Kossuth and, 3:1265–1269 liberalism and, 3:1346 nationalism and, 1:447; 2:627, 705, 865; 3:1265–1269, 1267–1269, 1605; 4:1861, 1993, 2131 papal infallibility and, 4:1723 peasant status in, 4:1754 Protestant minority in, 4:1891 Radetzky and, 3:1219–1220 railroads and, 4:1933 republicanism and, 4:1963 Romanians and, 4:2018, 2019 Semmelweiss and, 4:2135 Serbia and, 4:1993, 1994, 2148 subways in, 4:2272 universities in, 5:2388 wine and, 5:2475, 2477 world’s fairs and, 5:2503 See also Austria-Hungary; Budapest; Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Hunger (Breton), 4:1947

2661

INDEX

hunger strikes, 2:805; 4:1714 Hunt, Holman, 4:1707, 1863, 1864, 2046 Hunt, Margaret, 2:1023 Hunt, William Holman. See Hunt, Holman Hunter, John, 3:1223 hunting, 3:1305, 1306; 4:2240 Huntington, Samuel, 2:536–537 Huntsman, Benjamin, 3:1152 hurling (sport), 3:1182 Hurt, Jakob, 2:820 Hus, Jan as Czech identity symbol, 1:262, 263 statue of, 4:1858 Husayn ibn Ali, al-, 5:2362 Husaynid dynasty, 5:2362 Huss, Magnus, 1:37 Husserl, Edmund, 2:1099–1101; 4:1907 Brentano’s influence on, 1:298, 299; 2:1099, 1100 Dilthey polemic with, 2:660, 661 Mach critique by, 3:1409 secularization viewed by, 4:2133 Hussites, 3:1469; 4:1711–1712, 1860 Hutcheson, Francis, 1:326; 5:2393 Hutchinson, Mary, 5:2481, 2482 Hutterites, 2:645 Hutton, R. H., 1:160 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 2:1101–1103, 1102; 4:2233; 5:2458 as Darwin’s champion, 2:614, 616, 617, 777, 1101, 1102 Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371 Huysmans, Camille, 1:205 Huysmans, Joris-Karl, 2:1103–1105 on Che´ret’s poster art, 4:1846 Decadence and, 2:632, 1104, 1105; 4:2292–2293 degeneration and, 2:638 Gauguin and, 2:939 Zola and, 5:2523 Hvittra¨sk (Finnish complex), 1:119 Hyatt, John Wesley, 3:1160 hybridization, 3:1484, 1485–1486 Hyde, Douglas, 3:1182 Hyde Park (Derain), 2:796 Hyde Park (London), 4:1738, 1739 women’s suffrage demonstrations in, 4:1761–1762 Hyder Ali, 2:706 Hyderbad, 2:706; 3:1133, 1134 hydrodynamics, 2:1058 hydrogen, 3:1312 hydrotherapy. See baths, therapeutic

2662

hygiene body and, 1:251, 253 death rates and, 2:644, 645 hospitals and, 3:1638 pollution and, 2:765–766 See also public health; sanitation hylaens (avant-garde group), 1:157 Hyman, Stanley, 2:872 Hymnen an die Nacht (Novalis), 3:1647 Hymns to the Night (Novalis), 3:1647 Hymn to Satan (Carducci), 1:362 Hyndman, Henry Mayers, 2:787; 4:2205 Hyperion (Ho¨lderlin), 2:1078 hypnosis, 3:1238; 4:1908, 2295 Charcot and, 1:410 Freud and, 4:1904 Me`lie`s and, 3:1483 mesmerism and, 3:1490–1491 hypodermic syringe, 2:686 Hyspa, Vincent, 4:2086 hysteria, 3:1239, 1325 Charcots theory of, 1:408–410; 4:1904 fin de sie`cle diagnoses of, 2:816; 3:1472 Freud and Breuer theories of, 2:410, 904–905, 907

n

I Ibn Hazm, 3:1516 Ibrahim Pasha, 2:731, 732, 1020; 3:1421, 1612; 5:2391 Ibsen, Henrik, 1:220; 2:638, 951; 3:1107–1109, 1108 fin de sie´cle and, 2:815, 816 on gender-role resistance, 2:942 Grieg and, 4:2287 Jarry and, 3:1213 Rank and, 4:1938 scandal created by, 3:1473 Shaw and, 4:2165–2166 Suez Canal opening and, 4:2274 symbolism and, 4:2295 Ibsen, Strindberg and the Intimate Theatre: Studies in TV Presentations (To¨rnqvist), 4:2269 Icarian communities, 1:338, 339 Icarie (Cabet), 1:104 Icarus, 1:29 Ice Age theory, 1:22–23 Iceland, 1:35 ICRC. See Red Cross Idden (Husserl), 2:1100

‘‘Idea for a Catechism of Reason for Noble Ladies’’ (Schleiermacher), 4:2097 Ideal Husband, An (Wilde), 5:2465 idealism, 4:1947, 2104 Croce and, 2:583–584 Fichte and, 2:813 Mach and, 3:1409 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1514 nationalism and, 3:1604–1605 Novalis and, 3:1647, 1648 Idea of a University, The (Newman), 3:1621 Idearium espan ˜ ol (Ganivert), 2:950 Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature (Schelling), 4:2088 Ideas: Introduction to Pure Phenomenology (Husserl), 4:2133 Ide´e de l’e´tat, L (Michel), 4:2081 Ide´e ge´ne´rale des la re´volution (Proudhon), 1:320 Ideen zu einer reinen Pha¨nomenologie (Husserl), 4:2133 Ideen zur Philosophie de Geschichte zur Bildung der Menschheit (Herder), 2:1061 Idee´s napole´oniennes, Les (LouisNapoleon), 1:271; 3:1590 ide´ologues, 2:522 Ideology and Utopia (Mannheim), 3:1172 Idiot, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:678, 679 Idyll de mai (caricature), 1:352 Idylls of the King (Tennyson), 5:2309–2310 Dore´ illustrations, 2:676 Iggers, George, 4:1940 Ignatiev, N. P., 4:2085 Igrok (Dostoyevsky), 2:678–679 ‘‘I Have Raised Myself a Monument Not Made by Hands’’ (Pushkin), 4:1919 Ilbert Bill of 1883 (British India), 3:1135 Ile de la Cite´ (Paris), 2:1048; 4:1730, 1732 Iliad (Homer), 3:1165, 1675; 5:2319 Flaxman drawings for, 3:1165 Ilinden revolt (1903), 3:1691 illegitimacy, 2:645, 944, 947, 995 English ‘‘baby farming’’ and, 4:1829 factors in, 4:1828 male fear of, 3:1471 illiteracy. See literacy Illusions du progre`s (Sorel), 4:2218 Illusions perdues (Balzac), 1:168 Illustrated London News (magazine), 4:1773

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

illustration Baudelaire on, 3:1128 Beardsley and, 1:109, 192, 193 Blake and, 1:245, 246 Bonapartism and, 1:270 Burne-Jones and, 4:1865 Cruikshank and, 2:585, 586–587 Daguerre lithographs and, 2:605 Daumierand, 2:620 Dore´ and, 2:676–678 Menzel and, 3:1489 newspapers and, 4:1867 photography and, 4:1772, 1867 posters and, 4:1845–1846 See also caricature and cartoons Illustration, L’ (French newspaper), 4:1773, 1867 Illustrations of Political Economy (Martineau), 3:1459 Illyrian movement, 2:924, 925 Illyrian provinces, 2:902; 3:1193, 1599 ILP. See Independent Labour Party Images (Debussy), 2:631 Imaginary Portraits (Pater), 4:1746 Imagined Communities (Anderson), 3:1607 IMF. See International Monetary Fund Imitation of Christ, The (Thomas a` Kempis), 1:385 Im Kampf um Gott (AndreasSalome´), 1:64 Imlay, Gilbert, 5:2480 Immaculate Conception, doctrine of, 4:1719, 1790 Pius IX and, 1:385; 4:1788, 1795, 1797, 1798 Protestant rejection of, 4:1891 immanent intentionality, Brentano’s doctrine of, 1:299 Immanuel Kant (H. Chamberlain), 1:403 immigration and internal migration, 3:1109–1114 Algeria and, 1:45–46, 47 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:52 Amsterdam laborers and, 1:54 Athens and, 1:125–126 Australia and, 1:134, 135, 353 Belgium and, 1:201 Berlin and, 1:217 Bohemian Lands, 1:261 Britain and, 2:690; 5:2489 Canada and, 1:343, 344, 346; 3:1114 cholera transmission and, 2:669 cities and, 1:444, 446–447; 2:670

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

from colonies, 3:1524–1525 Dublin and, 2:690 ethnic minorities and, 3:1524–1526 Hamburg and, 2:1041 as labor-importing, 3:1113 Lithuania and, 3:1367–1368 London and, 3:1372–1373 marriage and family life and, 3:145, 1457 Milan and, 3:1503–1504 New Zealand and, 3:1622 peasants and, 4:1756 of Poles into France, 4:1808 population growth and, 2:646 railroads and, 4:1936 Rome and, 4:2035, 2036 Russian serfs and, 4:2152, 2153, 2172–2173 Scotland and, 4:2118, 2120, 2121 Sicilians and, 4:2175 single people and, 3:1451 South Africa and, 4:2220–2223 Swedes and, 4:2285, 2287 Trieste and, 5:2356 typhus and, 2:668, 670 United States and, 1:353; 2:503–505, 646, 750, 962; 3:1114, 1367; 4:1804 Vladivostok and, 5:2427 voluntary associations and, 1:119 Wales and, 5:2435 women’s motives for, 3:1114 See also Irish immigrants ‘‘immortal beloved’’ document (Beethoven), 1:198 immunization. See vaccination Imperial Academy of Fine Arts (St. Petersburg), 4:2076, 2077 Repin and, 4:1956, 1957 Imperial Ballet School (Russia), 4:1750 Imperial Court Opera (Vienna), 3:1418 imperialism, 3:1114–1126 Addis Ababa Treaty and, 1:7–8 armed conflict and, 2:1033, 1034 armies and, 1:94, 99; 3:1473 as Austen theme, 1:131–132 Baden-Powell and, 1:159, 160 Berlin Conference and, 1:20, 220–224, 239 Berlin Conference as guise for, 1:223; 3:1118 Boer War and, 1:159, 255–259; 3:1118, 1119

1 9 1 4

Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292–294 Britain and, 1:221–222, 501; 2:597; 3:1668–1669; 4:1997, 2218–2224, 2218–2225, 2275, 2302; 5:2330, 2414 See also India before the 1870s, 1114–1115; 3:1116 capitalism and, 4:2205 Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:405; 3:1118 in China, 1:434–435, 435; 3:1118, 1678–1680, 1679–1684 civilizing mission and, 1:462–464; 3:1120, 1124–1125, 1174 colonization vs., 2:504, 506, 663; 3:115 as Conrad novelistic subject, 2:535, 536, 948 Crystal Palace and, 2:589 Curzon’s dedication to, 2:597, 598 definitions of, 3:1115 diplomacy and, 2:1033; 3:1118 Disraeli and, 2:673, 673, 674, 977, 1009; 3:1122 Doyle and, 2:680 East India Company and, 2:705, 706 in Egypt, 2:733–734 evolutionism and, 2:777 exploration and, 2:783, 784 factors in, 3:1115, 1121–1124 family life and, 3:1457 Fashoda Affair and, 2:794–795; 3:1117–1118; 5:2502 Ferry and, 2:812–813; 3:1118, 1121, 1522 France and, 1:339, 498, 499, 501; 2:504, 505, 507–508, 507, 508, 642, 643, 859, 897; 3:1118, 1497, 1600; 5:2330, 2332–2333, 2362, 2363 French continental. See Napoleonic Empire gender and, 2:948 Germany and, 1:20, 222, 240, 256, 339, 403; 2:506, 967, 967–968; 3:1116, 1120, 1121, 1122, 1125, 1545–1546; 5:2353 Great Game and, 1:244 Hobson’s economic theory on, 2:1075–1076; 3:1121–1122, 1125 ideology of, 3:1118–1121 industrialism and, 2:708 Italy and, 1:7–8, 362; 2:527, 582, 582, 583, 609, 794; 3:1116,

2663

INDEX

1118, 1200, 1202, 1546, 1549; 4:2299; 5:2377 Japan and, 3:1208–1212; 4:2171 jingoism and, 2:589; 3:1234–1235 Kipling and, 3:1256, 1257 Kitchener and, 3:1257–1259, 1668–1669 legacy of, 3:1124–1125 Lenin on, 3:1122, 1329 Leopold II and, 3:1336–1337 map of European empires (1815), 3:1116 map of European empires (1914), 3:1123 map of European holdings in Africa (1880), 3:1117 map of European holdings in Africa (1914), 3:1119 masculinity and, 2:948; 3:1472–1473 military defeats and, 3:1473 missionaries and, 3:116, 1115, 1528–1529 ‘‘modern colonialism’’ and, 1:499–500 Moroccan Crises and, 3:1545–1546 Nanking Treaty and, 3:1578–1579 Napoleon and, 3:1588 See also Napoleonic Empire Netherlands and, 3:1617–1618, 1619; 4:2218 ‘‘new imperialism’’ and, 2:812–813; 3:1115–1118 nonwhite population in Europe and, 3:1524 Portugal and, 3:1114, 1116, 1151; 4:1838–1839, 1840, 1841 primitivism and, 4:1875 race and racism and, 4:1923, 1927 reasons for, 3:1115 Rhodes and, 4:1997 Russia and, 3:1116, 1120; 4:2051, 2172; 5:2370 Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2137–2140 Sinn Fe´in opposition to, 3:1182 Spain and, 1:499; 2:949, 1035–1036; 3:1114–1115; 4:1979, 2225, 2228, 2229, 2231 Stevenson’s critique of, 4:2256 Suez Canal and, 4:2274, 2275 tourism and, 5:2330 Westernizers and, 2:508, 509; 3:1115, 1120, 1124 world’s fair displays and, 4:1875; 5:2496, 2497, 2500–2501, 2505 See also colonialism; colonies

2664

Imperialism (Hobson), 2:1075–1076; 3:1121–1122; 4:2206 Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (Lenin), 3:1122, 1329 Imperial Palace (Vienna), 3:1381–1382 Imperial State Bank (St. Petersburg), 4:2077 Imperial War Museum (Britain), 2:589 Importance of Being Earnest, The (Wilde), 5:2465 imports. See trade and economic growth impressionism, 2:569; 3:1126–1133; 4:1708–1709, 2156–2157, 2292; 5:2505 avant-garde and, 1:152; 4:1701 Ce´zanne and, 1:398–399; 3:1530 coining of term, 3:1126–1127 Corot as influence on, 2:562 Daumier prefiguring, 2:622 Debussy’s music and, 2:630–631; 3:1133, 1572 Degas and, 2:634, 636; 4:1708–1709 Delacroix as influence on, 2:641 exhibitions of, 2:634; 4:1955 fauvism and, 2:795 first exhibit, Paris, 1874, 3:1127, 1544, 1578; 4:1793 impact of, 3:1133 Liebermann and, 3:1352, 1353 Manet’s relationship with, 3:1433, 1530 Menzel as precursor of, 3:1489, 1490 modernism and, 3:1128–1132, 1530 Monet and, 3:1126–1127, 1128–1129, 1132, 1133, 1530, 1534, 1535–1537; 4:1708 Morisot and, 3:1543–1545 naturalism vs., 4:1948 Parisian scenes and, 4:1732, 1739 Pissarro and, 3:1126, 1127, 1128, 1130–1131, 1534; 4:1708, 1792–1794 positivism and, 3:1132–1133 precursors of, 2:544, 622 Renoir and, 4:1708, 1709, 1954–1956 Seurat and, 4:2156 two factions within, 3:1128 Van Gogh and, 5:2400, 2401 See also neo-impressionism; postimpressionism Impressions of Theophrastus Such (G. Eliot), 2:745

Impression: Sunrise (Monet), 3:1126–1127, 1129, 1535 impressment, 3:1339; 5:2439 ‘‘Improvisations’’ (Kandinsky series), 3:1245 In a Cafe´, or The Absinthe (Degas), 1:3 incandescent lamps, 2:741, 742 Incest Motif in Literature and Legend, The (Rank), 4:1938 Inchbold, John William, 4:1864 income Smith distribution theory of, 2:713 trade inequality and, 5:2334, 2342 income tax. See taxation In Darkest England, and the Way Out (Salvation Army manifesto), 4:2083 Independent Labour Party (Britain), 2:1011, 1043, 1044; 3:1295; 5:2488 women’s suffrage and, 4:1714 Independent Musical Society, 4:1944 Independent Theatre (London), 3:1109 Index Librorum Prohibitorum (pornography bibliography), 4:1836 Index of Prohibited Books Bergson and, 1:214 Maurras and, 1:5 India, 3:1133–1137; 5:2411, 2414 Armenians in, 1:88 British civilizing mission in, 1:462, 499; 2:507–508; 3:1134 as British Crown colony, 1:499, 501; 2:706; 3:1135 British cultural effects on, 3:1135 British-French clashes in, 3:1115 British rule in, 1:353, 354, 498; 2:506, 507, 508, 705–706, 999; 3:1115, 1116, 1124–1125, 1133–1137 British wars in, 3:1134 bureaucracy of, 2:706; 3:1135 Burke on British policy in, 1:327, 498 Castlereagh and, 1:373 as cholera pandemic origin, 1:436; 2:668, 669 cotton goods and, 3:1151–1152, 1428 Curzon as viceroy of, 2:597, 598; 3:1135, 1136 Disraeli on British policy in, 2:508 Doctrine of Lapse and, 4:2138 East India Company and, 2:705–706; 3:1133

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famines in, 3:1427 Forster novel on, 2:836 imperial expansion and, 1:244 imperial ideology and, 1:501 international exhibitions and, 5:2499 Kipling and, 3:1256 Kitchener command in, 3:1258 Macaulay’s views on, 3:1407 migrants to Britain from, 3:1524 Mill (James) writings on, 3:1510–1511, 1512 missionaries to, 5:2463 mutinies in. See Sepoy Mutiny nationalism and, 1:501; 2:597; 3:1135–1136 Protestant missionary societies in, 3:1527 railroads and, 1:353 Romanies’ origins in, 4:2021, 2022 syphilis control in, 4:2302 as tea source, 1:495 trade and, 3:1151–1152; 5:2335 Victoria as empress of, 2:674; 3:1135 Wellington and, 5:2457 world’s fairs and, 5:2496 India Act of 1784 (Britain), 2:794 India House, 3:1510, 1511 India House, Sale Room (Pugin and Rowlandson), 5:2335 India Mail, 5:2405 Indiana (Sand), 2:802; 4:2083 Indiana Law of 1907, 2:771 Indian Civil Service, 3:1136 Indian Mutiny (1857–1858). See Sepoy Mutiny Indian National Congress, 1:501; 2:597; 3:1135–1136 Indian Ocean Portuguese colonies and, 1:499 slave trade and, 1:14, 16, 308 indigenous peoples, 1:363, 500, 501 Australia and, 1:133–134 Christian missionary approaches to, 3:1527–1528 civilization concept and, 2:504 colonial governments and, 2:508 colonists’ treatment of, 2:504–505 imperial technological power and, 3:1118, 1125 Leopold II’s cruelty and, 3:1336–1337 ‘‘native policy’’ and, 2:507–509 New Zealand and, 3:1622, 1623, 1624 primitivism and, 4:1873–1876 South Africa and, 2:604; 3:1118; 4:2219, 2220, 2223

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indigo, 1:364; 3:1160 Indigo und die vierzig Ra¨uber (J. Strauss), 4:2261 Indische Bibliothek (Schlegel), 4:2095 individual freedom. See rights individualism, 4:1968, 2026, 2030, 2213 free markets and, 2:709–710, 712 Protestantism and, 4:1892 Indochina, 1:500; 2:508; 3:1137–1145, 1141, 1142 French colonialism and, 1:434; 2:812, 813; 3:1116, 1600 Indochina Communist Party, 3:1145 Indo-European language family, 3:1134 Indonesia, 1:53; 3:1617, 1619; 4:1772; 5:2336 ‘‘Indo-Russian Union, An’’ (Khlebnikov), 2:774 inductor, 4:2108 Indulgents, 4:1952 Industrial Democracy (Webb and Webb), 5:2445 industrial engineers, 2:759 industrialization. See economic growth and industrialization industrial/manufacturing exhibitions, 4:1961; 5:2493–2494 Industrial Revolution, First (1770–1870), 1:24; 3:1146–1156, 1305 Agricultural Revolution and, 1:27–28 Brunel and, 1:303–305 business firms/economic growth and, 1:30, 328–329, 331 capitalism and, 1:350–351; 3:1157–1158 Carlyle on, 1:371 Chartism as reaction to, 1:415, 416 child labor and, 1:430; 2:708 coal mining and, 1:485 Cockerill works and, 1:493 cotton factories and, 2:708 diet and nutrition and, 2:658–669 economic growth compared with Second Industrial Revolution, 1:352 educational opportunity and, 2:721 environment, 2:764–766 epidemics and, 2:667 factories and, 2:788–793 garment-making and, 4:2158 historiographies on, 3:1146–1147, 1149 innovation and, 2:709; 4:2108, 2111, 2115

1 9 1 4

labor protests and, 4:2264, 2265 Luddism and, 3:1391–1392 machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412 Malthus’s economic analysis of, 3:1426 Manchester and, 3:1427–1431 new industries of, 3:1157–1158 Owen reform program and, 3:1692–1693 painting and, 4:1705–1706 pollution and, 2:764 Romantic reaction to, 2:543 rural life idealization and, 4:1757 spread throughout Europe of, 1:349–351 technology and, 2:709; 3:1152–1154; 4:2108, 2111, 2115 towns and, 1:444, 445 workers’ living standards and, 1:350–351 Industrial Revolution, Second (1870–1914), 1:351–356; 2:711; 3:1156–1164, 1305 business firms/economic growth and, 1:329–331 capitalism and, 1:351–357; 3:1157 chemical industry and, 1:351, 427; 2:709; 3:1159–1160 coal output and, 1:485–486 consumerism and, 2:550–551 corporations and, 1:355 electricity and, 1:351; 2:709, 741–742; 3:1157, 1161–1162 energy systems and, 3:1160–1162 environment and, 2:764–766, 765 factories and, 2:792 German leadership of, 1:330–331 internal combustion and, 3:1161 labor movements and, 3:1290–1291 labor protests and, 4:2265–2266 London and, 3:1374–1375 nostalgia for rusticity and, 4:1757 photography and, 4:1772 population control and, 4:1830 railroads and, 4:1935–1936 sewing machine and, 4:2159 Siemens and, 4:2179 steel and, 1:351; 2:709; 3:1157, 1158–1159, 1273–1276 systems and, 3:1162–1163 technology and, 4:2112–2113, 2115 white-collar workforce and, 1:352 women workers and, 5:2487 working class and, 1:356–357; 5:2484

2665

INDEX

work-week reduction and, 4:1824 world’s fairs and, 5:2493 industrial sabotage, 3:1412 Industrial System, The (Hobson), 2:1075 industrial unions, 3:1289, 1291 Industrial Workers of the World, 1:61 Industrie, L’ (Saint-Simon), 4:2202 Indy, Vincent d’, 2:631; 3:1675 infant abandonment, 1:431; 4:1829 infant and child mortality, 1:261; 2:628, 644, 659 class differences in, 3:1455 decline in, 2:645; 4:1830 Dublin and, 2:690 London and, 3:1372 peasants and, 4:1753 as population control, 4:1829 in Scotland, 4:2122 urban high-density and, 2:667; 4:1912 as welfare concern, 5:2450, 2451, 2452 Infant Custody Act of 1839 (Britain), 3:1646 infanticide, 4:1827 infantile sexuality theory, 4:1905 infantry, 1:94, 95 infections, antiseptic and, 3:1358; 4:1743 infectious diseases. See disease inferiority complex, 1:9; 2:907 Inferno (Dante), 2:676 Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, 2:634; 3:1165–1167, 1166; 4:1706; 5:2496 Delacroix as antagonist to, 2:640; 4:1705 Ingush, 4:2165 inheritance (biological). See genetics inheritance laws landed elite and, 3:1306 Napoleonic Code and, 2:942; 3:1595 stem family system and, 3:1450 women and, 1:287 Inkermann Heights attack (1854), 2:579 In Memoriam (Tennyson), 5:2309, 2310 Innocents Abroad, The (Twain), 1:278 Innsbruck, 2:741 Inns of Court (London), 2:726; 4:1879 inoculation. See vaccination Inquirer, The (Unitarian periodical), 1:160

2666

Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development (Galton), 2:927 Inquiry Concerning the Distribution of Wealth (Thompson), 4:2201 Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Smith). See Wealth of Nations, The Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (Hutcheson), 5:2393 Inquisition, 1:73; 4:1766 abolition of, 4:2227 Restoration and, 4:1969 In Russian and French Prisons (Kropotkin), 3:1272 insanity, 1:410; 4:1718 Inspector General, The (Gogol), 2:988 instinctive federalism, 4:2227 Institut de Droit International, 2:952 Institut de France, 2:598, 599 Institut de l’Action Franc¸aise, 1:5 Institute for Advanced Study (Princeton), 2:740 Institute for Infectious Diseases (Prussia), 2:735 Institute for Serum Research and Testing (Berlin), 2:735 Institute for Sexology (Berlin), 2:1071 Institute of Hygiene (Munich), 4:1914 Institute of Nursing (London), 3:1649 institutionalism, 2:707–708, 709–710, 711 Institution of Civil Engineers (Britain), 2:758–759 Institution Royales des Jeunes Aveugles (Paris), 1:296, 297 instrumental music, 3:1567–1568, 1572 Romanticism and, 4:2027 Schubert and, 4:2106 insurance companies, 5:2354 intellectual property law, 2:595; 3:1173; 4:2111; 5:2499 music and, 3:1572 intellectuals, 3:1167–1169; 4:1946 Armenian, 1:88, 89, 90 Bergson and, 1:214–215 Bolshevik, 1:264, 266–267 Catholic, 1:385 Czech national revival and, 1:261 Dreyfus defense by, 2:684, 685 Eliot and, 2:743 Fabians and, 2:787 Generation of 1898 and, 2:950–952 German cultural nationalism and, 3:1523 hashish smoking and, 2:687

Hegel’s celebrity with, 2:1054 Italian, 1:362–363 Kautsky and, 3:1248–1249 in Madrid, 3:1414 Marx and, 3:1462, 1464 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716 peace activists as, 2:1034; 4:1695 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861–1863 Russia and, 2:772 Russian repression of, 3:1626 Stephen and, 4:2253–2254 Wallace and, 5:2437–2438 Westernizers as, 4:2195–2196; 5:2365, 2459–2460 Young Hegelians as, 5:2511–2513 Young Turks as, 5:2514–2516 See also intelligentsia Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power, The (Szelenyi), 3:1172 intelligence tests, 2:927 intelligentsia, 3:1168, 1170–1172 anarchist theory and, 3:1424, 1641 Belinsky and, 1:207–208; 3:1170 Berdyayev and, 1:212 Chaadayev and, 1:400; 3:1170 Herzen and, 2:1066; 3:1170 Kandinsky and, 3:1244–1245 Lenin’s view of, 3:1168, 1171, 1327–1328 in Lithuania, 3:1367 nihilism and, 3:1638–1641 in Poland, 4:1811 populists as, 3:1640–1641; 4:1767–1768, 1800, 1831–1832 radicalization of, 4:1879, 1880, 1881 in Russia, 4:1975, 2050, 2052–2053, 2055 See also intellectuals Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism, The (Shaw), 4:2167 Intentions (Wilde), 5:2464 interchangeable parts (modularity), 3:1162 intercontinental cable. See telegraph Interior of Crystal Palace at Sydenham Opened by Her Majesty, June 10, 1854 (Shepherd), 2:589 Interior View of the Womens Section of the St. Petersburg Drawing School (Khilkova), 2:727 Interior, Woman at the Window (Callebotte), 1:471 Intermediate Sex, The (Carpenter), 1:372–373

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Intermediate Types among Primitive Folks (Carpenter), 1:372 Intermezzo in Modo Classico (Mussorgsky), 3:1576 internal combustion engine, 5:2351 airplanes and, 1:30; 3:1161 automobiles and, 1:149; 3:1161 development of, 3:1161 Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, 1:2 internal medicine, 1:408 International. See First International; Second International International Abolitionist Federation, 1:129; 3:1556; 4:1884 International African Association, 1:20, 222 International Alliance for Womens Suffrage, 2:805 International Anarchist Congress (1907), 1:60 International Association of the Congo, 1:222, 223 International Athletic Congress, 3:1667 International Bureau of Weights and Measures, 1:353 International Committee for Assistance to Sick and Wounded Soldiers, 4:1948 International Committee of the Red Cross. See Red Cross International Committee of Women for a Permanent Peace (Hague, 1915), 1:189 International Congress of Psychology (Paris, 1889), 4:1908 International Congress of Women (The Hague, 1915), 1:129 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 3:1658 International Council of Nurses, 3:1650 International Criminal Court, 4:1697 international expositions. See Exposition Universelle; Great Exhibition of 1858; world’s fairs International Financial Commission, 5:2362 International Football Association, 2:832 international law, 3:1172–1176 African colonization and, 1:221, 222–223 Bosphorus and, 1:278 Geneva Convention and, 2:952–953 Hague Convention and, 2:1035 pacifism and, 4:1695, 1696–1697

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regulatory organizations and, 1:352–353 slavery ban and, 1:309 International Law Association, 3:1175 International Monetary Fund, 3:1538 International Olympic Committee, 3:1666, 1667 International Postal Union, 5:2499 International Prisoners of War Agency, 4:1949 International Psychoanalytic Association, 3:1240; 4:1905 International Railway Congress Association, 1:353 International Scientific Series, 4:2233 International Socialist Bureau, 4:2127 International Socialist Physical Education Association, 4:2245 International Society against State Regulated Vice, 4:1896 International Style, 1:109 International Telegraph Bureau, 5:2308 International Telegraph Union, 1:352 International Union for the Protection of Industrial Property, 1:353 International Union for the Publication of Customs Tariffs, 1:353 International Women’s Rights Congress (1878), 3:1556 International Workingmen’s Association. See First International Interparliamentary Union, 4:1695, 1699 Interpretation of Dreams (Freud), 2:905, 906; 4:1905, 1938 interpretive sociology, 5:2448 intersubjectivity, 2:1100 Intervention of the Sabine Women, The (David), 2:624 In the Year of Jubilee (Gissing), 2:975 Intima Theatre (Stockholm), 4:2269 ‘‘Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood’’ (Wordsworth), 5:2482 intonarumori (futurist noise machine), 2:919–920 Introduction a` l’e´tude de la me´decine expe´rimental (Bernard), 1:228 Introduction aux travaux scientifiques du XIXe sie`cle (Saint-Simon), 4:2080 Introduction to the Human Sciences (Dilthey), 2:660 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Bentham), 1:210–211; 5:2393

1 9 1 4

Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, An (Bernard), 5:2523 intuitionism, 5:2394 Invalides, Les (Paris), 1:270; 4:1726 invalid role, 3:1325 Invention of Tradition, The (Hobsbawm and Ranger), 3:1607 inventions. See science and technology; specific inventions by name ‘‘inversion.’’ See homosexuality and lesbianism invertebrate classification (Lamarck), 3:1302 Investigation of Dogmatic Theology, An (Tolstoy), 5:2319 Investigations into the Riddle of ManManly Love (Ulrichs), 2:1070; 5:2375 investment banking, 1:174–176; 2:960 invisible hand of the market, 2:515, 712; 4:1887 Invisible Man, The (Wells), 5:2458 IOC. See International Olympic Committee Ion (Euripides), 4:2095 Ionesco, Eugene, 4:2269 Ionian Islands, 2:1018, 1022; 3:1482 Ionian Sea, 3:1482 Iphigenie auf Tauris (Goethe), 2:984, 985 I promessi sposi (Manzoni), 3:1193–1194 Iradier, Eduardo Dato, 4:2232 Iran. See Persia Ireland, 3:1176–1186; 5:2433 Act of Union (1801) with, 1:373, 415; 2:999; 3:1177 alcohol abstinence crusade in, 1:36 Anglican established church in, 4:1895 army service and, 1:97 banking in, 1:172 Belfast as largest city in, 2:690 Castlereagh and, 1:373–374 Catholic emancipation as cause in, 1:373; 2:693, 1003 Catholicism and, 1:327, 378, 379, 380, 383; 2:693, 1000, 1009, 1010; 3:1176, 1181, 1654–1657 Catholic politicization in, 1:387, 388; 2:673; 3:1654–1657 Celticism and, 3:1178, 1182–1183 Chartism and, 3:1657–1658 Easter Rising (1916) in, 2:693; 3:1185; 5:2510 emigrants from, 2:747, 748, 748

2667

INDEX

emigrants to England from, 5:2489 emigrants to Scotland from, 4:2118, 2121 financial plight of, 2:1005; 3:1178–1179 football (soccer) in, 2:830, 832, 833 French Revolutionary War and, 2:895 Gladstone reforms in, 2:976, 978, 1008, 1009–1010 Home Rule and. See Irish Home Rule housing in, 2:692–693, 1088, 1089 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2493 landed elite in, 1:83 land tenancy in, 2:1008, 1009, 1010–1011; 3:1181, 1182; 4:1741, 1755 literacy rate in, 4:1868 Marian apparition in, 4:1789–1790 Marx on, 5:2342 O’Connell and, 3:1654–1657 O’Connor and, 3:1657–1658 old-age pensions in, 3:1664 Parnell and, 4:1741–1742 peasant plays and, 4:1756 peasants in, 3:1178, 1179; 4:1753 Peel and, 4:1758, 1759 police system in, 4:1814 population growth in, 3:1178 potato famine in. See Irish Potato Famine Protestantism and, 1:373; 2:1009, 1010 rebellion of 1798 and, 2:1000 religious equality in, 2:1008 republicanism and, 2:1000; 4:1964 rural radicalism and, 1:83 secret societies in, 4:2132 Shaw and, 4:2166 single women in, 2:645 sister republics and, 4:2187, 2188 strikers in, 4:2267 suffrage in, 4:2277, 2280–2281 syndicalism and, 1:61 telephone service in, 5:2308 theater in, 2:693; 3:1109, 1182; 4:1756; 5:2510 Tories and, 5:2321 ‘‘Troubles’’ and, 4:1755 universities in, 5:2379 Wellington and, 5:2457 Wilde and, 5:2464–2466 William IV and, 5:2471 women’s suffrage and, 4:2280–2281

2668

workhouses in, 5:2454 world’s fair (1907) and, 5:2504 Yeats and, 5:2509–2510 See also Belfast; Dublin Irish Act of Union (1800). See Act of Union Irish Citizen Army, 3:1185 Irish Football Association, 2:832 Irish Home Rule, 1:86; 2:558, 1000; 3:1184–1185, 1345, 1604; 4:1741–1742, 2131 Asquith and, 1:115 Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:405; 2:1010 Dublin government and, 2:691, 693 Fenians and, 2:1009; 3:1009, 1185; 4:1815, 2132 Gladstone and, 2:978, 1010, 1011 infighting and, 3:1182 Irish immigrants and, 3:1525 Irish Revival and, 3:1182–1183 Liberal Party split over, 3:1348 Parnell and, 5:2322 Salisbury policy and, 2:1010–1011 Sinn Fe´in and, 2:691; 3:1182–1184, 1185; 4:1964 Ulster opposition to, 3:1183, 1184 Victoria and, 5:2414 Wilde and, 5:2464 Yeats and, 5:2509, 2510 Irish Home Rule Act of 1912 (Britain), 2:1012–1013 Irish immigrants, 1:346, 351; 2:1005 in Britain, 3:1372, 1373, 1524–1525 Fenians and, 2:1009 stereotypes of, 3:1525 typhus and, 2:670 Irish Insurrection of 1803, 3:1177 Irish Land Act of 1870, 2:1008; 3:1181, 1182 Irish Land Act of 1885, 3:1181 Irish Land Act of 1891, 3:1181 Irish Land Act of 1903, 3:1181 Irish Land Act of 1909, 3:1181 Irish Land League, 2:1009 Irish language, 3:1182, 1183 Irish Literary Revival (1890s), 3:1180, 1183 Irish Literary Theatre. See Abbey Theatre Irish nationalism. See Irish Home Rule Irish Nationalist Party, 2:691, 978, 1011 Irish Parliament. See Parliament, Irish Irish Parliamentary Party, 3:1182, 1184

Irish Potato Famine (1842–1852), 1:325, 351, 379; 2:558, 644, 658; 3:1179–1180, 1179, 1427 British response to, 2:1005; 3:1180; 4:1759 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:1005 cultural impact of, 3:1180–1181 deaths from, 2:644, 1005; 4:1751 factors causing, 2:658, 761, 1005; 3:1164 migrants from, 2:646, 748, 1005; 3:1372, 1524 Irish Rebellion (1798), 1:373 Irish Republican Brotherhood. See Fenians Irish Republican Party, 4:1964 Irish Revival, 3:1182–1183 Irish Transport and General Workers’ Union, 2:691 Irish Volunteers, 3:1185 Irish Women’s Franchise League, 4:2281 iron Belgium and, 1:201, 202 Bohemian Lands and, 1:260 Britain and, 1:329, 492–493; 2:709; 3:1427 coke and, 1:485 Eiffel Tower construction of, 2:736, 738, 760 France and, 1:329 Germany and, 1:329; 2:967 Industrial Revolution (first) and, 2:709 Le Creusot power hammer and, 3:1163 Madrid buildings of, 3:1413 puddling and, 3:1152 steam-powered factories and, 2:791, 792 Wales and, 5:2433 See also steel production Iron Cross (Germany), 2:958 Iron Law of Wages (Ricardo), 2:714 Iron Rolling Mill (Menzel), 3:1489 irony, 3:1253 Irredentismo adriatico (Vivante), 5:2356–2357 irrigation canals, 2:762 Irrungen, Wirrungen (Fontane), 2:829 Irving, Washington, 2:656 Isaacson, Esther, 4:1794 Isaacson, Joel, 3:1537 Isabella II, queen of Spain, 1:59, 68, 182; 4:2229–2230 Carlists and, 1:367, 368 expulsion of, 2:949

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Isabey, Jean-Baptiste, 4:2247 Isandhlwana, Battle of (1879), 1:99; 3:1118 Ishutin circle, 5:2517 Iskra (socialist journal), 1:265; 3:1327, 1460, 1487; 4:1801; 5:2518 Islam Albania and, 1:32 Algeria and, 1:45–46, 47 as architectural influence, 2:936 Athens and, 1:125 Balkan Wars and, 3:1691 beards and, 1:190 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273, 274, 275, 276, 277; 3:1687–1688 Central Asia and, 1:395, 396–397 charity as tenet of, 4:1847 Chinese rebellions and, 1:434 Christian civilizing mission and, 1:462 Greece and, 4:1982 Greek War of Independence and, 3:1612 India and, 3:136, 1135 Istanbul and, 3:1186 jadidism and, 3:1206–1208 Mahdi and, 1:18–19; 2:734, 783; 3:1259, 1668 millet system and, 3:1516–1517, 1687 Morocco and, 3:1546–1549 Russia and, 1:39; 4:2164–2165 Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2138 Serbia and, 4:2142, 2146, 2147 Shamil and, 4:2164–2165 Sudan and, 1:18–19; 2:794; 3:1668 Turkish nationalism and, 3:1690, 1691 women’s seclusion under, 1:396–397 See also Ottoman Empire Islamic Red Army, 3:1208 Island of Doctor Moreau, The (Wells), 5:2458 Island of Sakhalin, The (Chekhov), 1:423 Isle-Adam, Villiers de, 2:633 Isle of Wight, 1:288 Isly, Battle of (1844), 3:1548 Ismail Pasha, 1:18; 2:732–733; 3:1338; 4:2274–2275 isomorphism, 1:425 Israel, State of, 1:314; 2:1066 Istanbul, 1:445; 2:704; 3:1186–1191, 1187, 1691 Adrianople and, 1:12 architecture of British embassy in, 1:186

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1 7 8 9

TO

Armenian residents of, 1:90, 92 Bosphorus division of, 1:278 British fleet sent to, 2:530 European residents of, 3:1190 Galata Bridge, 3:1684 population of, 1:446; 3:1188 Russian expansionist designs on, 1:166, 243, 244; 3:1689 Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067, 2068, 2069 Is the Parliamentary Labour Party a Failure? (Tillett pamphlet), 3:1296 Istoriia Rusov, 5:2370 Istria, 2:958; 3:1198, 1199, 1203 Itala Films, 1:442 Italian (Cisalpine) Republic, 3:1192 Italiana in Algeri, L’ (Rossini), 3:1670; 4:2038 Italian Athletics Federation, 4:2244–2245 Italian Cyclists’ Union, 4:2245 Italian Nationalist Association, 2:609 Italian Nationalist Organization, 1:363, 389 Italian National Society, 3:197–198; 4:2003 Italian opera, 3:1670–1671, 1672–1673, 1676–1677 Italian Renaissance, 1:185–186 Italian Renaissance Painting according to Genres (Burckhardt), 1:318 Italian Socialist Party. See Socialist Party (Italy) Italian Syndicalist Union, 1:62; 4:2299 Italian-Turkish War (19111912), 3:1202 Italian unification. See Risorgimento Italian War of 1859, 4:1937, 2003; 5:2510 Italienische Reise (Goethe), 2:985, 987 Italo-Abyssinian Wars, 1:7–8 Italy, 3:1191–1204 agricultural workers and, 1:24 airplanes and, 1:31 Albanian independence and, 3:1691 alliance system and, 1:47, 48–50; 2:526, 527 anarchism and, 1:57, 58; 3:1201, 1202, 1423–1425; 5:2377, 2378 anticlericalism and, 1:69, 70, 388; 3:1200 aristocracy and, 1:81; 3:1191 army system and, 1:94, 97 artisans and, 1:104 art nouveau in, 1:108, 152

1 9 1 4

Austrian Habsburgs and, 1:137, 391, 392, 414; 2:525, 531, 533, 567, 662, 669, 863, 864; 3:1191, 1193–1196; 4:1981, 1985, 1994–1995, 2000–2003, 2033, 2034, 2098; 5:2377, 2409, 2410, 2513 Balkan wars and, 1:163, 164; 4:2149 banditry in, 2:571, 573; 3:1195, 1199, 1414–1416, 1424 banking and, 9; 1:171, 174 banking scandal and, 2:583, 609, 971 Berlin Conference and, 1:221 Bourbons and, 1:392; 2:932; 3:1191, 1254, 1255; 4:2000, 2003, 2004, 2130, 2175, 2176, 2188 bourgeoisie in, 1:283 British policy and, 2:977; 4:2003 British slave trade prohibition and, 1:308 bureaucracy and, 1:322; 3:1191 business firms and, 1:329, 330 Byron and, 1:333 Canova and, 1:347–349 Carbonari in, 1:360–361; 4:1980, 2130–2131; 5:2513, 2514 Carducci and, 1:362–363 Catholic cooperatives in, 2:556 Catholicism and, 1:377, 380, 383, 385; 5:2388 Catholic nursing care in, 3:1648 Catholic political activity and, 1:389 Cavour’s political influence in, 1:390–393; 3:1200 censorship in, 4:1869, 2001 charities and, 4:1851 chemistry and, 1:424, 426 child abandonment in, 5:2454–2455 Christian Democrats in, 4:2209 cinema and, 1:442–443; 4:1824 commercial policy and, 2:512, 516, 517 Congress of Berlin and, 2:530 Congress of Troppau and, 2:531–532 Congress of Vienna and, 2:533; 3:1193; 4:2001 Corot’s paintings and, 2:560–561 cotton production in, 1:329 counterrevolution and, 2:567 criminology and, 2:572, 573, 637, 638; 3:1371; 4:1816 Crispi and, 2:581–583; 3:1200

2669

INDEX

Croce and, 2:583–585 cycling and, 2:602 D’Annunzio and, 2:609–610 Decadence and, 2:633 Degas’s studies in, 2:634 dueling code in, 2:696; 3:1472 education in, 2:720, 724–726 emigrant returns to, 2:749 emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 747, 748, 748; 3:1195, 1199, 1255 emigrants to settlement colonies from, 2:505 Ethiopian wars and, 1:7–8, 362; 2:582, 583, 609, 794; 3:1118, 1200 fascism and, 2:921, 972, 973, 1201; 3:1199, 1201, 1203, 1445, 1504; 4:2004, 2037; 5:2364 feminism and, 2:804; 3:1555–1556 football (soccer) and, 2:833 foundling homes/hospitals in, 5:2451 Freemasons and, 2:877, 881 French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars and, 3:1191–1192, 1254; 4:1786, 2000–2001 futurism and, 1:156–157, 214; 2:917–921; 3:1530–1531; 4:1711 Garibaldi and, 2:930–933 German alliance with, 1:239; 4:2098; 5:2377 Giolitti and, 2:971–973; 3:1201–1202, 1203 Goethe’s trip to, 2:984–985, 987 guild survival in, 1:104 Historical Right and, 3:1200 historiography and, 2:1074 imperialism and, 1:7–8, 362; 2:527, 582, 582, 583, 609, 794; 3:1116, 1118, 1200, 1202, 1546, 1549; 4:2299; 5:2377 industrialization and, 1:330 infant mortality rate in, 4:1829 Ingres and, 3:1165 international law textbooks and, 3:1175 Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225, 1227, 1229 Kuliscioff and, 3:1276–1277 labor movements in, 3:1289, 1290, 1291, 1292; 4:2174, 2267, 2299; 5:2485, 2488, 2491 landed elite in, 3:1307 Leopardi and, 3:1333–1334

2670

Leo XIII relations with, 3:1331 liberalism and, 3:1200–1202, 1348, 1349; 4:2025 Libyan annexation by, 2:527; 3:1546, 1549; 4:2299; 5:2361, 2364 Lombroso and, 2:638; 3:1371–1372 Louis-Napoleon and, 1:271; 2:662 Malatesta and, 3:1423–1425 Manzoni and, 3:1441–1442 Marconi and, 3:1444–1445 maternity hospitals in, 5:2450 Mazzini and, 3:1479–1481 Messina earthquake (1908) and, 4:1949 Metternich and, 3:1494 mezzadria sharecropping system and, 4:2186 migration and, 3:1112 monetary systems and, 3:1535–1538 monetary union and, 3:1538 Montessori and, 3:1542–1543 Mozzoni and, 3:1555–1556 Napoleon I and, 1:349, 360; 2:553, 901, 902, 903; 3:1192–1193, 1584; 4:1807 Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1192, 1501, 1587, 1597 See also Kingdom of Italy nationalism and, 1:362–363, 388, 414; 2:930, 931–932; 3:1193–1196, 1606; 4:1992, 2001–2004, 2033–2034, 2131, 2247 newspapers and, 4:1868, 1870, 1872 opera and, 3:1567, 1572, 1669–1670, 1670–1671, 1672–1673, 1676–1677 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1202; 4:2299 Paganini and, 4:1698–1700 pilgrimages and, 4:1788 police system in, 4:1814, 1815, 1816 political clubs in, 4:1991 press freedom and, 4:1870 professions in, 4:1880 prostitution regulation in, 4:1884 protectionism in, 4:1889 Protestant minority in, 4:1890, 1891, 1891, 1895 Prussia and, 1:234–235; 5:2404 Puccini and, 4:1915–1917 Radicals in, 4:1928 railroads and, 1:390; 2:764; 3:1195, 1200; 4:1933 republicanism and, 3:1197; 4:1963, 1964

Restoration in, 3:1193–1196; 4:1969, 1970, 1971, 1973, 2001–2002 revolutionary movements and, 1:361; 3:1194–1196 Revolutions of 1820 and, 2:662; 3:1195; 4:1980–1981 Revolutions of 1830 and, 3:1195; 4:1983–1986 Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:961; 3:1196–1197, 1255, 1344; 4:1786, 1987, 1990–1995, 2002–2003 Roman Question and, 4:1795, 2024, 2025 Rossini and, 3:1572, 1670–1671; 4:2038–2039 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 ruling elite in, 1:290 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2086 seaside resorts in, 4:2125 Second International and, 4:2127, 2128 secret societies in, 4:2001–2002, 2129–2131; 5:2513–2514 Sismondi and, 4:2185 sister republics and, 4:2186–2189 smallpox deaths in, 4:2198 socialism and, 3:1201, 1202, 1203, 1276–1277, 1424; 4:2174; 5:2363–2364, 2377, 2491 Southern Question and, 3:1199, 1256 spiritualism and, 4:2238 sports in, 4:2242, 2243, 2244, 2245 steamships and, 5:2350 strikes in, 3:1288; 4:2174, 2266, 2267–2268; 5:2485, 2488, 2491 syndicalism and, 1:61–62; 3:1292; 4:2266, 2267, 2298, 2299 syphilis and, 4:2300 tea drinking in, 1:495 telephone service in, 5:2308 tobacco and, 5:2313, 2314 trade and, 5:2336, 2337, 2405 Trieste and, 1:145; 4:2004; 5:2356–2357 Triple Alliance and, 1:48, 166, 239; 2:526, 583, 965; 3:1200; 4:2017 Tunisia and, 5:2363 Turati and, 5:2363–2364 Umberto I and, 5:2377–2378 unification of. See Risorgimento universities and, 5:2379, 2388–2389 Verdi and, 3:1567, 1672–1673; 5:2405–2407

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Verga and, 5:2407–2408 Victor Emmanuel II and, 4:2003, 2004, 2036, 2037; 5:2377, 2409–2411, 2410, 2497 villages in, 4:1752 violent crime and, 2:571 waterway transport in, 5:2348 welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452 wine and, 5:2475–2478 women medical students in, 2:728 women workers in, 5:2488 working class in, 5:2485, 2491 World War I and, 3:1202–1203 Young Italy and, 4:2131; 5:2513–2514 See also Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; Milan; Naples; Papal State; Piedmont-Savoy; Rome; Sicily; Venice Itine´raire de Paris a` Je´rusalem, L’ (Chateaubriand), 1:420, 421 Ivan IV, emperor of Russia, 1:377 Ivanhoe (Scott), 4:2123 Ivanov (Chekhov), 1:423 Ivanov, Ivan, 3:1614 Ivanov, Sergei, 4:1757 Ivanov, Vjacˇek, 2:1024 Ivanov, Vyacheslav, 4:2182, 2183 Ivanov-Razumnik, R. B., 3:1170, 1171 Ivan Susanin (Glinka), 2:979–980; 3:1571, 1673 Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan (Repin), 4:1957 ivory art nouveau jewelry of, 1:109, 110 European value of, 3:1336 Leopold II’s interest in, 3:1336 trade in, 1:15, 16–17, 205 Ivory Coast. See Coˆte d’Ivoire Izmir, 3:1482

n

J J & P Coats, 1:330; 4:2117 J’accuse (Zola), 2:684, 685, 685; 3:1216; 5:2524 Jackson, Andrew, 3:1357; 5:2440, 2441 Jackson, John Hughlings, 1:408 Jack the Ripper, 2:575, 576; 3:1375 Jacob, Max, 2:590 Jacobins, 1:270, 338; 2:518, 519, 664, 890, 897; 3:1205–1206 backlash against, 3:1206

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

David and, 2:624; 4:1702 Directory vs., 2:665 federalist revolt against, 2:799–800, 844 Fouche´ and, 2:837 Girondins vs., 2:610, 612, 891, 973–974; 3:1205; 4:1700 Gouges and, 2:994, 995, 996 Italian, 3:1192 in Italy, 4:2001 Lafayette’s flight from, 3:1300 Marat and, 3:1443 militant republicanism of, 2:891, 892 military tactics and, 3:1505 Napoleon’s association with, 3:1584 Paris and, 4:1728 Proudhon’s criticism of, 4:1899 radicalism and, 2:844, 892; 3:1192 Reign of Terror and, 2:892–894; 3:1403; 4:1952 republicanism and, 4:1959, 1960, 1962 Robespierre and, 4:2006, 2007–2008 Sieye`s and, 4:2180, 2181 sister republics and, 4:2186 Venice and, 5:2402 See also Committee of Public Safety Jacobs, Jo Ellen, 3:1514 Jacob’s Ladder (Blake), 1:245 Jacquard loom, 3:1153, 1154, 1404 Jacque, Charles-E´mile, 1:178 jacqueries, 1:82–83 Jacquon le Croquant (Roy), 4:1756 jadidism, 3:1206–1208 Jaeger, Gustave, 1:485 Jæger, Hans Henrik, 3:1558 Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, 1:215; 4:2021, 2241 Jahn, Otto, 3:1533 Jahrbuch fu ¨ r psychoanlytische und psychopathologische Forschungen (journal), 3:1239 Jahrbuch fu ¨ r sexuelle Zwischenstufen (Hirschfeld, ed.), 2:1071 Jaina, siege of (1912), 1:163 Jakobson, Carl Robert, 2:820 Jale`s counterrevolutionists, 2:563 Jamaica, 1:364, 365, 371; 4:2190 Jamdudum Cernimus (encyclical, 1861), 4:1797, 2024 James II, king of England, 3:1407; 5:2460 James, Henry, 1:299; 2:535; 3:1109; 4:2084, 2253, 2296; 5:2365, 2405 impressionist writing and, 3:1133

1 9 1 4

on London, 3:1372 Wells and, 5:2458 James, William, 1:214; 2:593, 638; 4:1783, 1908 Jung and, 3:1238, 1239 Jameson Raid (1895), 1:256; 4:1997 James Tait Black Memorial Prize, 4:2259 Jana´cˇek, Leos´, 2:700 Jandorf, Adolf, 2:551 Jane Eyre (C. Bronte¨), 1:300, 301; 2:802 Janet, Paul, 4:2081 Janet, Pierre-Marie-Fe´lix, 1:410; 3:1238, 1239; 4:1908, 2238 Janina, 1:164 Janissaries, 3:1683; 4:2141–2142; 5:2362 Algeria and, 1:43 Mahmud II abolishment of, 3:1186, 1420, 1612, 1685 Sarajevo settlement of, 1:273 Jannsen, Johann Voldemar, 2:820 Jansenism, 3:1479 January Uprising of 1863–1864 (Poland), 1:162; 4:1809–1811, 1818, 1831 Japan, 1:402; 3:1208–1212 alliance system and, 1:49 Britain and, 4:2064, 2171 British naval treaty with, 2:526; 3:1624 China and, 1:293–294, 434, 435, 435; 3:1210–1211, 1212; 4:2064 Germany and, 2:968 imperialism of, 3:1116 Korea and, 4:2064, 2065–2066, 2171 as naval power, 3:1624 papal relations with, 4:1720 population of, 3:1208 Portsmouth Treaty and, 4:1837–1838 Red Cross and, 4:1949 Russia and, 4:2063–2064, 2171, 2173 Shimonoseki Treaty, 4:2170–2171 trade and, 5:2336 Triple Intervention and, 1:434 United States and, 4:2063, 2064, 2065, 2066 Vladivostok and, 5:2427 world’s fairs and, 5:2498, 2500, 2505 See also Russo-Japanese War Japanese art, 2:991; 4:1874

2671

INDEX

as art nouveau influence, 1:109, 111, 192; 2:1026 as impressionist influence, 3:1129, 1130, 1210 woodblock prints and, 1:109, 192 Japan Society of London, 3:1210 Jardin des Buttes-Chaumont, Les, 4:1740 Jardin des Plantes, 4:1782 Jardin du Roi (France), 3:1301 Jaricot, Pauline, 3:1405 Jarrell, Randall, 3:1256 Jarrett, Edward, 1:229 Jarry, Alfred, 1:153, 153; 2:815; 3:1212–1214, 1213 Jaspers, Karl, 3:1253 Jassy, Treaty of (1792), 1:376 Jaure`s, Jean, 1:98, 282; 2:1026; 3:1214–1219; 4:1732, 2128 assassination of, 3:1214, 1218–1219, 1218 on cooperatives, 2:556 as Dreyfus partisan, 2:684 Pe´guy and, 4:1760 Java, 2:507; 3:1617 Jawlensky, Alexei von, 1:155; 2:797; 3:1245 Jay Treaty (1794), 3:1174 Jazz (album), 3:1475 Jealousy (Munch), 3:1559 Jean-Christophe (Rolland), 4:2015 Jeanne d’Arc (Barbier), 1:229 Jeanne d’Arc (film), 3:1483 Jeanne d’Arc (Pe´guy), 4:1760 Jeanneret, Charles Edouard. See Courbusier, Le Jedermann (Hofmannsthal), 2:1077 Jefferson, Thomas, 1:38; 2:1037, 1096; 3:1265, 1300, 1357; 4:2197; 5:2439 Jeffrey, Francis, 1:303 Jelacˇic´, Josip, 2:925; 3:1219–1221; 4:1994 Jellinek, Georg, 3:1174; 5:2446 Jemappes, Battle of (1792), 2:899; 3:1338, 1506 Jena, 1:369, 430; 2:1051–1052 Jena, Battle of (1806), 1:93, 477; 2:846, 875, 901, 957, 1038; 3:1221–1222, 1586; 4:1900, 2225 Jena Allgemeine Literaturzeitung (German journal), 4:2095 Jena Circle, 3:1647 Jenkin, Fleming, 3:1477 Jenkinson, Robert Banks, 1:374; 5:2457 Jenks, Chris, 1:428

2672

Jenner, Edward, 3:1222–1225, 1224; 4:1745, 2197 Jerichau-Baumann, Anna Maria Elisabeth, 2:1024 Jerrold, Douglas William, 2:587 Jerrold: London, A Pilgrimage (Dore´), 2:677 Jerusalem (Blake), 1:246 Jerusalem Latin patriarchate in, 4:1797 Napoleon occupation of, 2:900 Orthodox Church and, 1:244 Jervis, John, 3:1615 Jesuits, 1:384; 4:1718 as anticlerical target, 1:68, 70 expulsion from France of, 2:812 expulsion from Prussia of, 3:1278, 1279–1280 missions and, 3:1527 Roman Question and, 4:2026 in Switzerland, 4:2290 universities and, 4:2024; 5:2383 Jesus, 1:385 Aryanization of, 1:403 Renan life of, 2:688; 4:1892, 1953–1954; 5:2399 Strauss (David) life of, 2:743–744, 754 Jeune Re´publique (France), 1:389 Jeunesse Royaliste, 1:5 Jeux (ballet), 3:1642 Jeux d’eau (Ravel), 4:1944 Jevons, William Stanley, 2:707 jewelry, art nouveau, 1:109, 111, 111, 112, 113; 2:815 Jewish Bund. See Bund, Jewish Jewish emancipation, 3:1225–1227, 1228–1230 anti-Semitism and, 1:74; 3:1225, 1233, 1393–1394 Britain and, 3:1225, 1227, 1229, 1345 Denmark and, 2:647–648 France and, 1:73; 3:1225, 1226–1227 Prussia and, 2:958, 1042; 3:1227; 4:1900 Jewish France (Drumont), 2:540, 688, 689, 690 Jewish Ladies Association, 4:1886 Jewish Lobby, 2:683 Jewish National Fund, 5:2521 Jewish Question. See Jews and Judaism Jewish State, The (Heral), 2:1068 Jewish Territorial Organization, 5:2521

Jewish Virtues According to Galls Method (Courtet illustration), 1:73 Jews and Judaism, 3:1227–1234 Adler (Victor) and, 1:10–11 in Algeria, 1:43, 46 in Alsace, 1:51, 52 assimilation and, 1:73; 2:1066, 1067, 1068, 1069; 3:1232, 1353 in Austria-Hungary, 3:1223, 1524, 1525–1526; 4:1808, 2045; 5:2520 beards and, 1:190 in Berlin, 1:215, 216, 217, 219 Bohemian emancipation of, 1:259 Bolshevism and, 1:264, 265 in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1:275 in Britain, 1:84; 3:1232; 5:2322 Bund and, 1:264, 265, 313–315; 3:1233, 1487 Christian civilizing mission and, 1:462 Christian converts and, 1:71, 72, 74 cities and, 1:447; 3:1231, 1232, 1234 conversion and, 4:2102 Disraeli’s background and, 1:75; 2:672, 674 Dreyfus affair and, 2:683–686 as Dublin immigrants, 2:690 Durkheim’s background and, 2:698 economic activity and, 3:1228, 1230–1232 emancipation of. See Jewish emancipation emigration from Russia of, 4:1804 European population of, 3:1225, 1227, 1228 expulsions of, 3:1227 financial markets and, 1:84 in France, 4:1959, 2136, 2279, 2303 French Revolution and, 2:843, 846, 888; 3:1227 Freud and, 2:904, 906, 907 German feminism and, 2:803 German politics and, 2:968 in Germany, 5:2353, 2472–2473 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:138; 2:862 in Hamburg, 2:1038 Herzl and, 2:1066–1067 in Hungary, 1:144 immigration to United States of, 3:1367–1368 in Istanbul, 3:1186 Kadets and, 3:1241 Lasker-Schu¨ler and, 3:1309, 1310

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Liebermann and, 3:1353 in Lithuania, 3:1366, 1367, 1368 in London, 3:1373 Mahler and, 3:1418 male religious devotion and, 2:945 Marx and, 3:1463 Menshevik members and, 3:1488 millet system and, 3:1516–1517, 1687 in Morocco, 3:1547 nationalism and, 1:314 Nazism and, 4:2041 as Netherlands minority, 3:1618 Palestine and, 2:598 Pius IX restrictions on, 4:1797 pogroms against, 4:1802–1804 in Poland, 4:1808, 1809–1810, 1812, 1812 poverty aid and, 4:1847 in Prague, 3:1525; 4:1856, 1857, 1859 professional barriers for, 4:1881 psychoanalysis and, 4:1906 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991 in Riga and Courland, 2:818 in Romania, 4:2017 in Rome, 4:2035 Rothschilds and, 4:2039, 2041 Rudolf (crown prince) friendship with, 4:2045 in Russia, 4:1808, 1978, 2055, 2057, 2257; 5:2519, 2520 Schnitzler’s portrayal of, 4:2101 secular culture of, 3:1232; 4:2134 in Serbia, 4:2146, 2147 Slavophiles and, 4:2196 socialism and. See Bund in Ukraine, 5:2369, 2370, 2371 universities and, 5:2380, 2382, 2388, 2389, 2390 in Vienna, 5:2421–2422 Viennese cultural scene and, 2:1067 in Vilnius (Vilna), 3:1366, 1368 voluntary associations and, 1:119 in Warsaw, 5:2441 working class and, 5:2489 See also anti-Semitism; Zionism Jhering, Rudolf von, 3:1315 Jiaozhou Bay, 1:292 Jindrˇich (Heinrich Fu¨gner), 4:1856 jingoism, 2:1009; 3:1234–1235, 1624 Crystal Palace and, 2:589 newspapers and, 4:1872 popular culture and, 4:1826

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Joanne, Adolphe, 5:2329 Joanneum (library collection), 3:1236 Joan of Arc, 3:1499, 1637; 4:1760 Job, Book of, 1:246 Jocs Florals (Catalan literature), 1:182 Jodl, Friedrich, 5:2449 Joffre, Joseph, 3:1508 Jogiches, Leo, 3:1401 Johannesburg, 1:18 Johannsen, Wilhelm, 2:653 John, archduke of Austria, 3:1235–1236 Metternich’s firing and, 2:808 Napoleonic Wars and, 2:902 John Bull’s Dilemma (cartoon), 1:91 John Paul II, pope, 3:141, 1500; 4:1798 Johnson, Joseph, 5:2480 Johnson, Samuel, 1:327, 497; 4:2027, 2166, 2254 Johnson, Simon, 5:2334 John VI, king of Portugal, 4:1839, 1840 John XXIII, pope, 4:1798 Joie de vivre, La (Matisse), 3:1474 joint-stock banks, 1:171–173, 174, 175–176, 216–217; 2:960; 4:2040 joint-stock corporations, 1:330; 2:705, 960 Jokes and Their Relations to the Unconscious (Freud), 2:906; 4:1905 Joll, James, 4:2128 Jomini, Antoine-Henri de, 1:94; 3:1236–1237 Jommelli, Niccolo`, 3:1673 Jones, Ernest, 1:418; 2:907; 4:1905 Jones, William, 3:1133–1134; 4:2022 Jongkind, Johan-Barthold, 3:1534 Jordan, David Starr, 2:770 Jordan, Dorothy, 5:2470 Joseph II, Holy Roman emperor, 1:68; 3:1384; 5:2393, 2416, 2417 Buda as administrative center and, 1:309–310 Edicts of Toleration and, 1:138, 259; 3:1225, 1225–1226, 1229; 4:1856 Francis I as nephew of, 2:860 Italian bureaucrats and, 1:322; 3:1191 John of Austria as nephew of, 3:1235 Lombardy and, 3:1191 Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1592 political reforms of, 1:137, 138–139, 140, 259, 260 Prague founding and, 4:1855

1 9 1 4

serf emancipation and, 4:1754 Singspiel and, 3:1673 Joseph and His Brothers (Mann), 3:1435, 1436 Josephine (first wife of Napoleon I), 1:481; 2:624; 3:1587, 1590; 4:1729 Josephism, 1:68 Josephson, Ernst, 4:2287 Joubert, Frans, 3:1422 Joubert, Piet, 3:1423 Jouhaux, Le´on, 3:1218; 4:2299 Joule, James Prescott, 3:1160, 1249, 1430; 4:1779, 2108 Journal (Goncourt brothers), 2:991 Journal de la socie´te´ de 1789, 4:1961–1962 Journal de Me´decine, 3:1297 Journal de Rome, 3:1331 Journal du Magnetism, 3:1491 journalism. See press and newspapers Journal of the Working Class (France), 3:1285 Journal pour Rire, Le, 3:1577 Journals and Remarks (Darwin), 2:613–614 Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, A (Radishchevsky), 2:1014–1015; 3:1552 journeymen, 4:1988; 5:2486, 2487 Journey to Erzurum, A (Pushkin), 4:1919 Journey to the Center of the Earth (Verne), 5:2408 Jours et les nuits, Les (Jarry), 3:1213 Jouy, Jules, 1:335 Joyce, James, 1:214, 299, 378; 4:1742, 2269; 5:2356, 2449, 2459 Dublin and, 2:691, 694 as Ibsen enthusiast, 3:1109 Matisse illustrations for, 3:1475 modernism and, 4:1905 obscenity battle and, 4:1833 Joy Unhoped For (Blok), 1:250 Judaism. See Jews and Judaism Judendeutsch, 4:2039 Judengasse (Amsterdam), 3:1353 Judenstaat, Der (Herzl), 5:2520 Judentum in der Musik, Das (Wagner), 5:2430 Jude the Obscure (Hardy), 2:1045 Judgments on History and Historians (Burckhardt), 1:318 judiciary British reforms and, 1:303 French revolutionary reform of, 2:888; 3:1313–1314

2673

INDEX

German High Court of Appeals and, 2:965 individual rights and, 1:39; 3:1341 Permanent Court of International Justice, 3:1174 Russian reforms and, 1:39; 2:1014, 1015–1017 Judson, Whitcomb, 4:2113 Jugend (German weekly), 1:152, 336 Jugend in Wien (Schnitzler), 4:2100, 2101 Jugendstil (art nouveau movement), 1:108, 113, 152, 336; 2:550, 815 Juif errant, Le (Sue), 1:70 Juive, La (Hale´vy), 3:1672 ‘‘Jukes, The’’: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease, and Heredity (1877), 2:638 ‘‘Julian and Maddalo’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 July Column, 4:1728 July crisis of 1914, 2:968 July Days (Paris, 1830), 4:1982, 1983 July Monarchy (France), 1:269, 481; 2:575, 848–849, 961; 4:2002, 2131; 5:2397 Guizot and, 2:1029–1030 Haussmann and, 2:1046, 1047 Heine and, 2:1056 Hugo and, 2:1092, 1093, 1094 liberalism and, 3:1346, 1347, 1388–1389 machine breaking and, 3:1411 Metternich and, 3:1494 Paris under, 4:1728, 1729 programs of, 3:1388–1389 Thiers and, 5:2311 See also Louis-Philippe July Ordinances (1830), 1:412; 3:1387, 1388 July Revolution of 1830. See Revolutions of 1830 June Days (1848), 1:271; 3:1287, 1304; 4:1993 anticlericalism and, 1:381 Proudhons reaction to, 4:1899 repression following, 2:651 Jung, Carl Gustav, 1:8; 2:907, 908, 909; 3:1237–1240; 4:1905 Junge Medardus, Der (Schnitzler), 4:2100 Jungfernheide (Berlin), 4:1740 Jungle Books (Kipling), 3:1256 Jung-Stilling, Johann, 2:1080 Jung Wien circle, 2:1067 Junkers, 1:194; 2:539; 3:1305; 4:1889

2674

Junot, Andoche, 4:2225, 2227 Junta General del Principado de Asturias, La, 4:2227 Jura Federation, 1:56 Jura Mountains, 1:360; 2:569; 3:1272 jurisprudence. See law, theories of jury duty, 2:1016 jus ad bellum. See ‘‘just war’’ theories jus commune, 3:1593–1594 Justice, La (French newspaper), 1:479, 480 Justification of the Good, The (Soloviev), 4:2216 Justine (Sade), 4:1834, 2074 Justinian, emperor of Rome, 3:1593 Just So Stories (Kipling), 3:1257 ‘‘just war’’ theories, 3:1175; 4:1696, 1698 jute, 3:1135 Jutland, 2:607–608, 647 Jutland, Battle of (1916), 2:683; 5:2313 Juvenile Library, The (Godwin and Clairmont), 2:981 Juvenilia (Carducci), 1:362 Juventus of Milan (football club), 4:1824

n

K Kabyles (people), 1:43, 44, 45 Kabylia, 1:44 Kadets, 3:1241–1242, 1349; 4:2057 Berdyayev and, 1:212 Milyukov and, 3:1518–1519, 1552 Moscow and, 3:1555 Octobrists vs., 3:1659 Struve and, 4:2270, 2271 Kaffeelatsch, 1:494 Kafka, Franz, 1:214, 299; 2:679; 3:1242–1243, 1574; 4:1859; 5:2449 Mann’s admiration for, 3:1437 tuberculosis of, 5:2360 Kahn, Gustave, 4:2156, 2294 Kahnweiler, Daniel-Henry, 2:591; 4:1784 Kaiser Franz Josef Jubilee Exhibition, 3:1381 Kaiserjubila¨ums-Stadttheater (Vienna), 3:1394–1395 Kaiserswerth Hospital, 3:1637, 1649 Kaiser-Walzer (Strauss), 4:2260 Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (Berlin), 2:740; 4:1799, 1800, 1826 See also Humboldt University

Kakas Ma´rton (Hungarian journal), 4:2058 Kalabari, 1:14 Kalevala (Finnish epic), 2:820 Kalevipoeg (Kreutzwald), 2:820 Kalff, J., 1:54 Kali (Hindu goddess), 3:1134 Ka´lly, Benjamin von, 1:276 Kamarinskaya (Glinka), 3:1571 Kamenny Bridge (Moscow), 3:1553 Kamiesch Bay, 2:578 Kamil, Mustafa, 2:734 Kanak uprising (1878), 3:1497 Kandinsky, Vasily, 1:192; 2:797; 3:1243–1246, 1246; 4:2077, 2102, 2294 avant-garde and, 1:155 Blaue Reiter and, 3:1530; 4:1711 futurism and, 2:920 Kane, H. H., 2:687 ˇ eska´, 2:701 Kanenice, C Kanghwa, Treaty of (1876), 3:1211 Kang Youwei, 1:435 Kanoldt, Alexander, 1:155 Kanpur, 3:1135 Kant, Immanuel, 1:497; 2:1058; 4:2027 as Adler (Alfred) influence, 1:9 associationist critique by, 3:1511 Berdyayev on, 1:212 Chamberlain’s (Houston) interpretation of, 1:403 deontology and, 5:2394 as Fichte influence, 2:813 Frege and, 2:883 French Revolution ‘‘idea’’ and, 3:1343 as Hegel influence, 2:1051 Helmholtz and, 5:2507 as Mach influence, 3:1409 natural law indictment by, 2:953 psychology and, 4:1907 relativism and, 4:1843 Schleiermacher and, 4:2096, 2097 Schopenhauer and, 4:2104 Simmel and, 4:2184 Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2216 Kantorowicz, Hermann, 3:1315 Kaoru, Inoue, 3:1211 Kapital, Das (Marx), 2:756; 3:1462, 1466, 1467, 1468; 4:2205 Kaposy, Be´la, 4:1963 Kapp, Ca`cile, 1:66–67 Karadjordje, 3:1247–1248, 1683; 4:2142, 2144, 2145 Karadjordjevic´, Alexander, 4:2145 Karadjordjevic´, Peter, 4:2146

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Karadzˇic´, Vuk, 2:925; 4:2143 Karakozov, Dmitri, 5:2517 Karamanli dynasty, 3:1420 Karamzin, Nikolai, 3:1552; 4:2288 Karatheodori, Alexander, 2:530 Karavelov, Liuben, 3:1687 Karl XIV Johan, king of Sweden and Norway. See Bernadotte, Jean-Baptiste Karlowitz, Treaty of (1699), 3:1683 Karlsbad, 1:261 Karolinska Institute, 1:425 Kars, 2:530; 4:2085 Karsavina, Tamara, 2:655; 3:1642 Kasim, Mir, 2:706 Kaskeline, Friedrich, 4:2204 Kassongo, 1:16 katorzhniki (penal laborers), 2:781 Kattowitz Conference of 1884, 5:2520 Katzbach, Battle of (1813), 3:1320 Kaufhaus des Westens (Berlin department store), 2:551 Kaunitz, Eleonora von, 3:1492 Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton von, 3:1492 Kautsky, Karl, 1:11, 194; 3:1248–1249; 4:2127, 2205 attack on Bernstein by, 1:231 as Bund influence, 1:314 as Marxist popularizer, 3:1248 peasant economy and, 4:1756 Kavelin, Konstantin, 5:2459, 2460 Kawamura, Kageaki, 3:1557 Kay, James Phillips (later KayShuttleworth), 1:285 Kay, John, 3:1153, 1410 Kayor kingdom, 1:13, 20 Kazakhs, 4:2173 Kazan Muhhiri (newspaper), 3:1207 Kean (Dumas), 1:229 Keats, John, 1:102; 4:2027, 2029; 5:2360 on Wordsworth, 5:2482 Keegan, John, 1:12 Keelman Heaving Coals by Night (Turner), 5:2368 Keen, John, 2:601 Keiser, Reinhard, 3:1673 Keith-Falconer, Ion, 2:601 Kekule´ von Stradonitz, Friedrich August, 1:426; 3:1159, 1160 Kelly, Aileen M., 2:1065 Kelmscott Press, 3:1550 Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), 3:1249–1250; 4:1743 age of earth theory of, 2:615; 3:1250 field theory of, 4:1780 Maxwell and, 3:1477, 1478 telegraph and, 4:2109, 2111

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

thermodynamics and, 3:1160–1161 Kelvin Scale (absolute temperature), 3:1249 Kemal, Mustafa. See Ata¨turk, Kemal Kemey, Ferenc, 3:1666 Kempis. See Thomas a` Kempis Kendall, Richard, 2:634 Kendall, Willmore, 3:1514 Kennedy, Edmund, 2:781 Kent, James, 3:1175 Kenya, 1:21, 21, 500 Kergomard, Pauline, 2:697, 812 Kertbeny, Karl Maria, 2:1082 Kertch, Straits of, 1:243; 2:579 Kesselschlacht, 3:1507 Ketteler, Clemens von, 1:294 Ketteler, Wilhelm Emmanuel von, 4:1722, 1723, 2208–2209 Keynes, John Maynard, 2:835, 1076; 4:2258 ‘‘Khadzhi-Tarkhan’’ (Khlebnikov), 2:774 Khalturin, Stepan, 4:1832 Kharkov University, 5:2370, 2379 Khartoum, 1:18, 19; 2:734 Khatisian, Alexander, 1:88 Khayr al-Din, 5:2363 Khilkova, Ekaterina Nikolaevna, 2:727 Khiva, 1:395 Khlebnikov, Velimir, 1:157; 4:2182 Khmelnytsky, Bohdan, 5:2369 Khmers, 3:142, 1138, 1139, 1141, 1142 Khodasevich, Vladislav, 4:2183 Khoikhoi, 4:2219 Khomiakov, Alexei, 4:2194, 2196 ‘‘Khor and Kalinich’’ (Turgenev), 5:2365 Khovanshchina (Mussorgsky), 3:1575; 4:1999 Kiaer, Anders, 4:2249 Kiderlen-Wa¨chter, Alfred von, 3:1546 Kidnapped (Stevenson), 4:2255, 2256 Kiel, Treaty of (1814), 1:227 Kierkegaard, Søren, 2:648; 3:1250–1254, 1251 as Generation of 1898 influence, 2:950 pseudonymous writings of, 3:1251, 1253 Schelling and, 4:2088–2089 Kiev, 3:111; 5:2369, 2371 Kiev Academy, 5:2370 Kievan Rus, 5:2369, 2370, 2371 Kikuyu (people), 1:17 Kilmainham, Treaty of (1882), 4:1741 Kim (Kipling), 3:1257 Kimball, Theodora, 4:1738

1 9 1 4

Kimberley, 1:18; 4:2221, 2222 kindergartens, 2:945; 3:1680 Kindertotenlieder (Mahler), 3:1419 Kinder- und Hausma¨rchen (Grimm brothers), 2:1023 kinetic energy, 3:1250 Kinetoscope, 1:441; 3:1396 Kingdom of God Is Within You, The (Tolstoy), 5:2319 Kingdom of Holland, 4:2188, 2189 Kingdom of Italy, 3:1192–1193, 1197, 1198; 4:2001, 2024, 2033, 2188, 2189; 5:2402, 2404 Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, 4:1970, 1981, 2000, 2001, 2002; 5:2402–2403 Kingdom of Naples, 3:1192, 1581, 1597, 1599; 4:2001, 2188 Kingdom of Poland. See Poland Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 2:533; 3:1196, 1254–1256; 4:1970, 2175 Carbonari and, 4:2130 Cavour plan for, 1:392 Garibaldi’s conquest of, 2:932; 3:1255 Nelson and, 3:1615 peasant revolt in, 4:1755 Pius IX exile in, 4:1796 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1990, 1993 Spanish Bourbons and, 3:1191 See also Naples Kingdom of Westphalia, 2:957, 968; 3:1587, 1599; 4:1900 King Kong (film), 2:677 King Lear (Shakespeare), 3:1663 Kings College (Cambridge), 2:835 Kings College (London), 3:1377, 1402, 1477; 5:2385 Kingsley, Charles, 2:618, 681; 4:2208 Kingsley, George Henry, 2:783 Kingsley, Mary, 2:508, 783 Kingstown Regatta, 3:1444 Kinkel, Gottfried, 1:316 Kinnaird House shooting party (Scotland), 3:1306 Kinsbergen, Isidore van, 4:1772 Kinsey, Alfred, 2:1071 Kipling, John, 3:1256, 1257 Kipling, Rudyard, 1:160; 2:948; 3:1256–1257; 4:2287 on British-Indian cultural mix, 3:1135 Stevenson and, 4:2255, 2256 Kipps (Wells), 5:2458 Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig, 1:154–155, 220, 220; 4:1711

2675

INDEX

Kireyevsky, Ivan, 4:2194, 2195, 2196 Kiril, grand duke of Russia, 1:42 Kirilovsky, Daniil (Novomirsky), 1:60 Kirk Kilise, Battle of (1912), 1:12, 163 Kisch, Ergon Erwin, 4:1859 Kishinev massacre (1903), 4:2055 Kiss, The (Klimt), 3:1261, 1261 Kiss, The (Munch), 3:1559 Kiss, The (postcard), 2:944 Kiss, The (Rodin), 4:2009 Kissingen Dictate (1877), 1:239 Kistyakovsky, Bogdan, 3:1171 Kitaro, Nishida, 1:214 Kitasato, Shibasaburo, 2:735 Kitchener, Horatio Herbert, 1:256, 257; 3:1257–1259, 1258 Curzon feud with, 2:597, 598 Fashoda Affair and, 2:794–795; 3:1668 Omdurman and, 3:1668–1669 Sudan invasion and, 3:1668–1669 Kitchen Table, The (Ce´zanne), 1:398 Kitty Hawk (North Carolina), 1:30 Kladderadatsch (Berlin magazine), 2:675 Kle´ber, Jean-Baptise, 2:731 Klee, Paul, 1:155; 2:920; 3:1530 Kleindeutsch (Little Germany) solution, 2:871, 923, 964 ‘‘Kleine Blumen, kleine Bla¨tter’’ (Goethe), 2:983 Kleist, Heinrich von, 2:911; 3:1108 kleptomania, 2:574 Klimt, Ernst, 3:1260 Klimt, Gustav, 1:112; 2:815; 3:1260–1262, 1261, 1530; 5:2421 avant-garde and, 1:152–153 Schiele and, 4:2089, 2091 symbolism and, 4:2293, 2295 Vienna and, 5:2421 Klimt-Kollektive exhibition (1903), 3:1260 Klinger, Max, 3:1260 Kliuchevsky, Vasily, 3:1552 ‘‘Klo¨pplerinnen, Die’’ (L. Otto), 3:1680 Klu ¨ ber, Johann Ludwig, 3:1173 Kluge, Carl, 3:491 Klyuchevsky, Vasily Osipovich, 3:1518 Klyuev, Nikolai, 4:2183 Knaben Wunderhorn, Des (Brentano and Arnim), 2:1023 Knapp, Georg Friedrich, 4:2249 knezes, 4:2141, 2142, 2144 Knight Pa´sma´n (R. Strauss), 4:2261 Knights of Labor, 3:1331

2676

Knights of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem (Knights of Malta), 4:1748 Knights Templar, 2:881 Knipper, Olga, 1:423 Knock, Marian shrine at, 4:1789–1790 Knopf, 4:1939 Knox, Archibald, 1:113 Knox, Robert, 4:2023 Kobe, 3:1210 Koch, Robert, 1:438; 2:644; 3:1262–1264, 1358; 4:1744, 1914, 2110, 2113, 2114, 2135 tuberculin discovery and, 3:1263; 5:2359, 2360, 2361 Koch’s postulates, 3:1263 Kochubei, Prince, 4:2236 Kockkock, H. W., 4:1977 Kodak, 3:1396 Kodak camera, 4:1773 Koe¨lla-Leenhoff, Le´on, 3:1433 Kogan, Moissej, 1:155 Kohn, Hans, 3:1607 Koˆin, Kido, 3:1210 Kokoschka, Oskar, 1:153, 336; 5:2421 Kokovtsov, Vladimir, 4:2058 Kola Peninsula, 2:820 Kolla´r, Jan, 2:924; 4:1716, 1717 Ko ¨ lliker, Rudolf Albert von, 1:340, 341 Kollwitz, Ka¨the, 1:154; 4:2092 Kolokotronis, Theodore, 2:1020 Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky, Franz Anton, 2:808; 3:1495 Kolping, Adolph, 1:383; 4:2208 Komissarzhevskaya, Vera, 3:1496 Komura, Baron Jutaro, 4:2065 Ko ¨ nig, Friedrich, 4:1866 Ko ¨ niggra¨tz, Battle of (1866), 1:237, 262; 2:864, 964; 3:1319; 4:1860, 1902, 2004, 2242; 5:2524–2525 Frederick III and, 2:874 Ko ¨ nigsberger, Leo, 2:1099 Konitz (West Prussia), 2:576 Konra´d, George, 3:1172 Konrad Wallenrod (Mickiewicz), 3:1500 Konstantin Nikolayevich, grand duke of Russia, 2:1014, 1016; 4:2154 Konya, Battle of (1832), 3:1421 Koraı¨s, Adama´ntios, 2:1018–1019; 3:1685 Koran, 3:1516 Ko ¨ rber, Ernst, 2:865 Korea, 1:434; 4:2065 Japan and, 3:1211, 1212; 4:2064, 2065–2066, 2171 Russo-Japanese War and, 4:1837 Kornmann, Guillaume, 3:1490

Korzeniowski, Apollo, 2:535 Kos´ciuszko, Tadeusz, 3:1264–1265; 4:1807 Kos´ciuszko Foundation (New York), 3:1265 Kosmos (A. Humboldt), 2:1096 Kosovo, 1:32, 163, 166; 4:2149 Kosovo, Battle of (1389), 3:1541 Kossuth, Ferenc, 3:1267 Kossuth, Lajos, 1:141; 2:627, 925, 961; 3:1265–1270, 1268 Croatia and, 4:1994 exile of, 3:1269 Jelacˇic´ and, 3:1220 Palmerston and, 4:1713 republicanism and, 4:1963, 1964 speech to parliament (1848) of, 3:1266 Koteˇra, Jan, 1:113 Kotzebue, August von, 1:361, 369; 2:531, 875, 959; 4:1901 Koulouglis (people), 1:43 Kovalevskaya, Sofia, 4:2285–2286 Kowloon Peninsula, 3:1680 Kraepelin, Emil, 3:1238 Krafft-Ebing, Richard von, 2:636, 816, 906, 1085; 3:1270–1271; 4:2162, 2163; 5:2376 as Jung influence, 3:1238 Krako´w, 4:1808, 1809, 1990 cabaret in, 1:336 insurrection (1794) in, 3:1264 insurrection (1846) in, 4:1818 Kos´ciuszko memorial in, 3:1265 Kramskoy, Ivan, 4:1956–1957 Krasin´ski, Zygmunt, 4:1818 Kraus, Karl, 3:1309; 5:2421, 2449 Krauss, Rosalind E., 4:2011 Kreditbanken, 1:175 Kreditinstitut, 1:172 Krefeld, 2:791; 3:1411 Kremer, Arkady, 3:1460 Kremlin (Moscow), 3:1552, 1553, 1554; 4:2079 Krenek, Ernst, 3:1310 ‘‘Kreutzer Sonata, The’’ (Tolstoy), 5:2319 Kreutzwald, Friedrich Reinhold, 2:820 Kriedte, Peter, 3:1147 Krieger, Leonard, 4:1941 Kriegsakademie (Prussia), 1:96 Kristallseelen (Haeckel), 2:1032 Kritische Wa¨lder (Herder), 2:1061 Kroeber, Alfred Louis, 2:774 Krog, Arnold, 2:647 Kronecker, Leopold, 2:1099

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Kropotkin, Peter, 2:619; 3:1272–1273; 4:1755, 1757, 1941–1942 anarchism and, 1:56, 57, 60 Spanish labor movement and, 4:2299 Kroyer, Peder Severin, 2:647 Kruchenykh, Alexander, 1:157; 4:2182 Kru¨dener, Barbara Juliane von, 2:1080 Kruger, Paul, 1:256, 257; 4:1997 Kruger telegram, 3:1118 Krupp, 1:330, 471; 2:1088; 3:1159, 1159, 1273–1276 William II and, 5:2470 world’s fair displays of, 5:2498, 2505 Krupp, Alfred (son), 3:1273, 1274–1275 Krupp, Friedrich (father), 2:960; 3:1159, 1273 Krupp, Friedrich Alfred (grandson), 3:793, 1275–1276 Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, Gustav, 3:1276 Krupskaya, Nadezhda, 3:1327 Krupsky, Father, 3:1575 Krzhizhanovsky, G. M., 1:266 Kschessinska, Mathilde, 3:1642 Kselman, Thomas, 4:1894 Kubista, Bohumil, 1:154 ‘‘Kubla Khan’’ (Coleridge), 1:496; 2:686 Ku ¨ c¸u ¨ k Kaynarca, Treaty of (1774), 1:243, 376 Kugler, Franz, 1:316, 317, 318; 3:1489 Ku ¨ hn, Sophie von, 3:1647 Kulemann, Richard, 4:2023 Kuliscioff, Anna, 3:1276–1277, 1504, 1556 Turati and, 5:2363, 2364 Kulm, Battle of (1813), 3:1320, 1334 Kulomzin, Anatoly, 4:2173 Kulturgeschichte (unified history), 1:6 Kulturkampf, 3:1277–1280; 4:1903 aftermath and legacy of, 3:1280 anticlericalism and, 1:69–70, 382, 388; 3:1278 Bismarck and, 1:238, 239; 2:966; 3:1277, 1279, 1330 Catholic resistance to, 3:1278–1279; 4:1789, 1903 Center Party as target of, 1:393, 394; 2:966; 3:1278 end to, 3:1279, 1331 Holy Shroud at Trier and, 4:1788 Jewish Haskalah movement and, 3:1229 Leo XIII and, 4:1720

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

as papal infallibility response, 3:1277, 1278; 4:1723, 1896 Pius IX and, 3:1278, 1279, 1329, 1330; 4:1719, 1795, 1798 Polish Catholics and, 4:1812 targets of, 2:966; 3:1277–1278 Treitschke and, 5:2353 Virchow and, 5:2425 Windthorst and, 5:2473 Kumanovo, Battle of (1912), 1:163 Kunstformen der Natur (Haeckel), 2:1031 Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna), 3:1260 Kunstkamera (St. Petersburg), 4:2075 Ku ¨ nstlerhausgenossenschaft (Vienna), 3:1260 Ku ¨ nstlers Erdenwallen (Goethe; Menzel lithographs), 3:1489 Kunst und die Revolution, Die (Wagner), 5:2431 Kunstwerk der Zukunft, Das (Wagner), 5:2431 Kunstwerke der belgischen Sta¨te, Die (Burckhardt), 1:317 Kupka, Frantisˇek, 1:156; 4:2294 Kurakin, Alexei, 4:2236 Kurds, 1:2, 92 Kurfu¨rstendamm (Berlin), 1:217, 219; 2:551 Kuril Island chain, 3:1209 Kuropatkin, Alexei, 3:1557; 4:2065 Kutahiya, Peace of (1833), 3:1421 Kutuzov, Mikhail, 3:1280–1282; 5:2374 Austerlitz and, 1:132 Borodino and, 1:272, 273 Napoleon’s retreat and, 2:1080 Kuyper, Abraham, 3:1619; 4:2209 Kuzmin, Mikhail, 4:2182

n

L La`-Bas (Huysmans), 2:1104 labor cooperatives and, 1:247 masculinization of, 3:1470 migrations and, 1:353; 3:1109, 1112, 1113–1114 penal, 2:781 productivity of, 2:712–713 protoindustrialization theory and, 3:1148–1149 Second Industrial Revolution and, 3:1157

1 9 1 4

value and, 1467; 3:1466 in workshops, 2:788–789, 790 See also child labor; factories; farm labor; outwork; workday/ workweek; working class labor movements, 1:291; 3:1283–1295 Amsterdam and, 1:54–55 anarchosyndicalists and, 1:56, 59, 60–62 artisans and, 3:1283–1284, 1286; 5:2486–2487 Belgium and, 1:203 Berlin and, 1:219 Bolsheviks and, 1:264, 265, 267; 3:1488 Britain and, 2:1003, 1008, 1009, 1012; 3:1285, 1411; 5:2484, 2486, 2489–2490 British acts banning, 2:510–511 British Labour Party and, 3:1295, 1296, 1297 British unrest and, 2:1011; 3:1284 Bund as, 1:313, 314, 315 Cabet and, 1:337–338 Catholicism and, 1:383–384, 389 Christian Socialism and, 4:2208–2209; 5:2488 cities and, 1:449 cooperative movements and, 2:555–556 craft unions and, 3:1288–1289 Dublin and, 2:691 factories and, 1:474; 2:793; 3:1291 feminism and, 2:805; 3:1293 Finland and, 2:822 First International and, 2:824–825 France and, 3:1217, 1285–1292; 4:2298–2299; 5:2485–2488, 2491, 2492 French feminism and, 2:697 gender dimorphism and, 2:944–945 Germany and, 2:966; 5:2484, 2487, 2489–2492 goals of, 1:475 Hardie and, 2:1043–1044 Italy and, 1:61; 3:1202; 4:2174, 2267, 2299; 5:2491 Lassalle and, 3:1310–1311 Leo XIII and, 3:1331–1332 Lovett and, 3:1286, 1390–1391 Luxemburg critique of, 3:1400–1401 Lyonnais silkworkers and, 2:848, 849; 3:1284, 1404

2677

INDEX

male dominance of, 3:1470–1471 Manchester and, 3:1430 Manning and, 3:1441 mass unionization and, 3:1289–1292 Mensheviks and, 3:1488 Milan and, 3:1504 Mill (J. S.) view of, 2:718 Moscow and, 3:1554 Otto and, 3:1680 Owenism and, 5:2396 police surveillance of, 4:1815 police trade unions and, 4:1817 Prague and, 4:1860 reformist vs. revolutionary, 5:2489–2491 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1991 Russia and, 4:1801, 1976, 1978, 2078–2079; 5:2485, 2486, 2489 Second International and, 3:1294; 4:2127, 2128, 2267 secret societies and, 4:2131 Spain and, 3:1289, 1290, 1292; 4:2299–2300; 5:2485, 2488–2489 Sweden and, 4:2284 syndicalism and, 4:2298–2300; 5:2485, 2491 temperance movement and, 1:36 Third French Republic and, 2:856 Tristan and, 5:2357–2358 unionization rights and, 2:812 Wales and, 5:2436 women and, 2:697; 3:1276, 1292–1294, 1293, 1556; 5:2487, 2491 working class and, 5:2484–2492 See also strikes Labor Party (Belgium), 1:203–204 Labor Party (France), 3:1215, 1216–1217 Labor Rewarded (Thompson), 4:2201 Labouche`re Amendment (Britain), 2:1083; 4:2297 Laboure´, Catherine, 4:1788 Labour Leader (Scottish weekly), 2:1043 Labour Party (Britain), 1:115; 3:1292, 1295–1297 Carpenter and, 1:373 Christian Socialism and, 4:2208; 5:2488 establishment of, 2:1011–1012 Hardie and, 2:1043, 1044 Hobson and, 2:1076 labor movements and, 5:2490, 2491

2678

precursors to, 3:1559 Ruskin and, 4:2047 trade policies and, 2:517 Webb and, 5:2445 women’s suffrage and, 2:625, 798 Labour Representation Committee (Britain), 2:1011–1012; 3:1295–1296 Hardie and, 2:1044; 3:1295 See also Labour Party Labour’s Remedy and Labour’s Wrong (Bray), 4:2201 Labriola, Arturo, 1:61–62 Lacenaire, Pierre-Franc¸ois, 2:575 Lacerba futurist group, 2:920 Lacoon (Lessing), 4:1769 Lacordaire, Henri, 1:387, 388, 389 Ladies’ Land League (Ireland), 4:1741 Ladies’ National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts (Britain), 1:332; 4:1896 Ladies of Llangollen, 2:1083–1084 Lady from the Sea, The (Ibsen), 3:1108 ‘‘Lady of Shalott, The’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309 Lady of the Lake, The (Scott), 4:2123 Lady Windermere’s Fan (Wilde), 5:2465 Laennec, Rene´, 1:408; 3:1297–1298; 5:2359 Lafargue, Paul, 4:2127, 2218 Lafayette, marquis de (Marie Joseph Paul du Motier), 2:611, 768, 842; 3:1298–1301, 1299, 1385, 1443; 4:2006 American Revolution and, 3:1298, 1299, 1300, 1301 French Revolution and, 2:890; 3:1299–1300 Louis-Philippe endorsed by, 3:1301, 1388 Revolution of 1830 and, 2:848; 3:1298, 1301 Saint-Simon and, 4:2080 Laffitte, Pierre, 4:1844 Lafitte, Jacques, 1:284 La Fontaine, Henri, 4:1697 La Fontaine, Jean, 2:621, 676 Laforgue, Jules, 4:2294 Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in England, Die (Engels), 2:754; 3:1430 Lagercrantz, Olof, 4:2269 Lagerlo ¨ f, Selma, 4:2286, 2287 Laghouat, Algerian Sahara, 1879 (Guillamet), 1:46 Lagos, 1:19 Laguerre, George, 2:696

Laibach conference (1821), 4:1981 Laisne´ (French gymnasium), 4:2241 laissez-faire, 4:2120, 2201, 2234 Belgium and, 1:203 classical economists and, 2:712–718 Cobden and, 1:490–491; 2:709 Darwin and, 2:618, 619 institutionalist view of, 2:709 List’s view of, 2:708 monetary policy and, 3:1537 Smith and, 2:707 Lakanal, Joseph, 2:666 ‘‘Lake Isle of Innisfree, The’’ (Yeats), 5:2509–2510 Lake Poets, 4:2029 Lake Tanganyika, 1:16; 2:783 Lake Victoria, 2:783 Lalique, Rene´, 1:111, 111 Lalla Rookh (Kelvin’s yacht), 3:1250 Lallement, Pierre, 2:600 Lalo, E´douard, 3:1675 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 3:1301–1303, 1562 acquired characteristics theory of, 2:615, 637, 777–778; 3:1302–1303 Agassiz and, 1:23 evolution theory and, 2:599, 928; 3:1302 Spencer and, 4:2234 Lamarckism, 2:777–779; 3:1302–1303 Lamarque, Jean-Maximilien, 1:438 Lamartine, Alphonse, 2:849; 3:1303–1304, 1318, 1360; 4:1963, 2031 Lamb, William. See Melbourne, Lord Lamberg, Ferenc, 3:1220 Lamennais, Felicite´ de, 1:269, 381, 387, 388, 389; 3:1298 as Chaadayev influence, 1:400 church-state separation and, 4:1718 Lamiel (Stendhal), 4:2253 Lamm, Martin, 4:2269 Lamothe, Louis, 2:634 Lancashire, 1:82, 445 cotton industry in, 3:1149, 1427, 1428, 1430–1431 Luddite rebellion in, 3:1392, 1410 technology and, 3:1153 See also Manchester Lancaster Phrenological Society, 4:1775 land British enclosures of, 1:26–27, 28, 358 Bulgarian reform and, 1:313

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Canadian immigrants and, 1:344 Chartist land communities, 3:1658 freehold movement and, 1:490 French nationalization of church property and, 2:888, 897 Haitian ownership of, 2:1036 Irish tenancy and, 2:1008, 1009, 1010–1011; 3:1181, 1182; 4:1741, 1755 Madrid ownership of, 3:1412–1413 Naples and Sicily reform and, 3:1414–1415 nationalization movements, 4:2206 newly rich ownership of, 3:1305 Polish ownership of, 4:1809, 1810 Portuguese redistribution of, 4:1840 Russian emancipated serf purchases of, 2:1015, 1017 Sicilian sales of, 3:1415 Vietnam ownership of, 3:1143 See also landed elites; peasants; rural areas Land and Liberty (Russia), 4:1767–1768, 1800, 1831, 2052, 2209; 5:2517 Landarz, Ein (Kafka), 3:1243 landed elites, 3:1304–1307 as aristocracy, 1:78, 80–81, 83, 84–85 bourgeois business men as, 1:472 Britain and, 1:83, 86, 284, 290, 291, 469 British modified power of, 1:457 British Swing riots and, 1:358–359 bureaucratic careers and, 1:324 Chartist reforms and, 1:414 conservatism and, 2:540 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:540, 557–560, 715 decline of nobility and, 1:284 Disraeli as member of, 2:672 education and, 2:728 French Revolution confiscations from, 3:1305 gentry as, 1:80, 83, 84–85, 86 Ireland and, 2:1011 Malthus’s arguments to, 3:1426 Napoleonic reforms and, 3:1598 Portugal and, 4:1840 Russia and, 1:469; 3:1627; 4:2150–2151, 2153 Scotland and, 3:1306; 4:2116, 2117, 2120 Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2173–2174 Sicily and, 3:1415; 4:2173–2174, 2176

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Spanish Carlists and, 1:367–368 Wales and, 5:2435 Landes, David, 2:709–710, 711; 3:1147, 1153 ‘‘Land Ironclads, The’’ (Wells), 5:2459 Landja¨ger (German police), 4:1814 Land League (Ireland), 3:1180, 1181, 1182; 4:1741, 1790 Landmarks (Russian symposium, 1909), 1:212 Landmarks in French Literature (Strachey), 4:2258 Land Plan (Chartist), 1:417 landscape design, 3:1600; 4:1738, 1739, 1740 Landscape near Auvers (Ce´zanne), 1:398 landscape painting, 4:1703–1705 Barbizon painters and, 1:177–178; 3:1126; 4:1954 Ce´zanne and, 1:398; 3:1530 Constable and, 2:543–544 Corot and, 2:561–562 Courbet and, 2:569 Dore´ watercolors, 2:677 Friedrich and, 2:910–912; 4:1703 historical, 2:560, 561 impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128, 1534; 4:1708 outdoor, 3:1126; 4:1708, 1864, 1948 Pissarro and, 4:1792–1793 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864 Romanticism and, 4:2027, 2029–2030 Turner and, 4:2029; 5:2366–2368 Landtag (Prussia), 1:290, 291; 3:1355 Landwehr, 3:1505 Lang, Andrew, 2:873 Lange, Helene, 1:189; 3:1681 Langevin, Paul, 2:596 Langham Place group (Britain), 2:625 Langley, Samuel, 1:30 Langmuir, Irving, 1:427 languages Albania and, 1:32 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51, 52 Armenians and, 1:88, 90 Austria and, 1:145 Baltic provinces and, 2:818–819, 820, 821 Baudelaire literary translations and, 1:187–188 Belgium and, 1:199–200, 201–202, 204, 307 Bismarck ethnic policy and, 1:239

1 9 1 4

Bohemian Lands and, 1:142, 259, 261, 262–263; 2:865; 4:1716, 1856, 1860–1861 Braille system and, 1:298 Brussels and, 1:202, 307 Budapest and, 1:310 Canada, 1:342, 343, 344, 346 Central Asia and, 1:395, 396 city dwellers and, 1:447 education in multiethnic empires and, 2:719, 724–726 Egyptian hieroglyphics and, 1:406–407 Finland and, 2:818–819, 820, 822 Frege philosophy of, 2:884 Grimm’s (Jacob) linguistic studies and, 2:1024 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:138–139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 259 Herder theory of, 2:1060–1061; 3:1603 Humboldt’s (Wilhelm) linguistic theory and, 2:1097 Hungary and, 1:141, 144; 3:1266, 1267, 1605 India and, 3:1134 Indo-European family, 3:1134 Irish Revival and, 3:1182, 1183 Italian unification and, 3:1199 Jews and, 1:314; 4:2039 Manzoni and, 3:1442 national identity and, 2:719; 3:1521, 1523, 1525, 1603, 1604, 1605–1606 Nietzsche and, 3:1630, 1631 Poland and, 4:1812–1813, 1818 Prague and, 4:1856, 1858 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1862 Romani and, 4:2022 Russian-dominated Poland and, 1:40; 3:1605 secondary school syllabus and, 1:286 Slavs and, 2:924–925; 4:1716 Turkish nationalism and, 3:1690, 1691 Wales and, 5:2435–2436 See also specific languages Languedoc, 2:762; 4:1893 Lankester, Edwin Ray, 2:238 Lanner, Joseph, 4:2261; 5:2418 Lannes, Jean, 3:1221–1222 Lansdowne, Lord (Henry PettyFitzmaurice), 1:102 Laos, 3:1137, 1139, 1142, 1143, 1145

2679

INDEX

Lapin Agile (Paris cabaret), 1:335 Laplace, Pierre-Simon de, 3:1312, 1443; 4:1779–1780, 2113–2114, 2248, 2249 Large Bathers (Ce´zanne), 1:399 Larionov, Mikhail, 1:157, 214 Larkin, James, 1:61; 2:691; 4:2267 Larne gunrunning, 3:1185 La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Franc¸ois de, 3:1664 La Rochelle Confession, 4:1891 La Roche-sur-Youn (NapoleonVende´e), 3:1599 Larrey, Dominique-Jean, 3:1307–1309 La Scala (Milan opera house), 3:1502, 1504, 1672; 5:2406 Las Cases, Emmanuel de, 1:270; 3:1588 Lasker-Schu¨ler, Else, 3:1309–1310 Lassalle, Ferdinand, 1:459; 2:714; 3:1289, 1310–1311 German Social Democrats and, 4:2127, 2205 Schelling and, 4:2088 Lasson, Adolf, 3:1174 Lassus, Jean-Baptiste-Antoine, 5:2422 Last Attack on Rome by the French (engraving), 2:932 Last Days of a Condemned Man, The (Hugo), 2:1093 Last Days of Pompeii, The (film), 1:443 ‘‘Last Futurist Exhibition, The,’’ 1:158 Last Judgment (Leonardo da Vinci), 4:2008 Last Man, The (Shelley), 4:2169 Last of England, The (F. M. Brown), 4:1864 Lateran Treaty (1929), 1:382; 3:119 La Teste-Arcachon, 4:2125 La Thangue, Herbert Henry, 4:1948 latifondi, 4:2173, 2174, 2176 latifundia, 4:2035 Latin America British interests in, 2:1002 football (soccer) and, 2:834 Humboldt (Alexander) botanical travel in, 2:1095–1096, 1097 independence movements in, 2:525, 809, 930–931, 1002; 3:1174 Monroe Doctrine on, 3:1174 Portuguese colony in, 4:1838 positivism and, 4:1844 racism in, 4:1927 Spanish colonization of, 2:1036; 4:2228, 2229 See also specific countries by name

2680

Latin language, 1:139, 141 secondary school syllabus in, 1:286 Latin Monetary Union, 3:1537, 1538 Latium, 3:1193 La Touche, Rose, 4:2047 La Tour du Pin, count de, 1:387, 389 Latter-Day Pamphlets (Carlyle), 1:371 Latter-Day Saints, 1:338 Latvia, 1:40, 266, 447; 2:817, 818, 819, 819, 820–821, 822, 823 Latvian language, 2:820 Laubespine, marquise de, 3:1442 Laughlin, Harry H., 2:770, 771, 772 Laumaille´, Albert, 2:600 Laurence, Reginald Vere, 1:7 Laurencin, Marie, 2:590 Laurens, Henri, 2:591 Laurens, Johann Daniel, 4:2093 Laurent, Auguste, 1:425–426 Laurent family, 1:410 Lausanne, Treaty of (1923), 2:705; 3:1517 Laval, Carl Gustaf Patrik de, 3:1161 Lavater, Johann Kaspar, 2:926; 3:491 Laveaux, E´tienne, 5:2332 Lavigerie, Charles-Martial-Allemand, 3:1331, 1528 Lavoisier, Antoine, 2:518; 3:1311–1313; 4:2113–2114, 2115 chemistry and, 1:424; 3:1153, 1311–1313 Marat diatribe against, 3:1443 Lavrov, Peter, 3:1170; 4:1767 law, theories of, 3:1313–1316 Bentham and, 1:210 Brougham and, 1:303 codification movement and, 3:1195, 1593–1594 criminal punishments and, 2:574 Fichte and, 2:813 individual rights and, 3:1341 Russia and, 1:39; 4:2236 See also international law; Napoleonic Code Law for the Prevention of Cruelty and Protection of Children of 1889 (Britain), 5:2452 Law Le Chapelier of 1791 (France), 1:106 Lawn Tennis Association (Britain), 4:2242 Law of 22 Prairial of 1794 (France), 2:518–519; 4:1952 Law of Associations of 1884 (France), 2:812; 5:2432, 2433 Law of Associations of 1901 (France), 1:69; 3:1292; 5:2432, 2433

Law of Dynamic Polarization (Cajal hypothesis), 1:342 Law of Guarantees of 1871 (Italy), 4:2024, 2025 law of nations. See international law Law of Papal Guarantees of 13 May 1871 (Italy), 4:1719, 1795 ‘‘Law of Segregation in Hybrids, The’’ (de Vries), 2:653 Law of Suspects of 1793 (France), 2:844, 892; 4:1951–1952 Lawrence, Christopher, 3:1358–1359 Lawrence, D. H., 4:2235, 2259 Lawrence, Thomas, 2:954 Law Society of London, 3:1376 laws of thermodynamics. See thermodynamics lawyers, 1:285; 4:1881 Brougham as, 1:302, 303 as bureaucrats, 1:322, 324 class and, 1:472 Crispi as, 2:581 education of, 2:726 international law association of, 3:1175 professionalization of, 4:1879, 1880 women’s barriers as, 2:803, 945 See also law, theories of Laxman, Adam, 4:2064 Lay of the Last Minstrel (Scott), 4:2123 Lazare, Bernard, 2:684; 5:2523 Lazarev, I. D., 1:88 Lazarian family, 1:88 lazzaroni, 4:2187 Lea, Henry Charles, 2:1074 Leader (London weekly), 2:743 League for Protection of Mothers, 5:2451 League for the Promotion of the Interests of Women, 3:1556 League of American Wheelmen, 2:600 League of Armed Neutrality, 2:901; 3:1615 League of German Women’s Association, 1:189 League of Nations, 1:50; 2:595, 1076; 3:1125, 1173; 5:2459 League of Private Initiative and Decentralization, 5:2515 League of the Just, 2:521 League of Women Voters (U.S.), 1:67 learned behavior, 3:1511 Leavis, F. R., 4:2259 Le Bel, Joseph-Achille, 1:426 Leben Jesu, Das (D. F. Strauss), 2:743–744, 754; 5:2512 Le Blond, Alexandre, 4:2076

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

LeBon, Gustave, 2:816; 3:1316–1317; 4:1908, 2214 Young Turks and, 5:2516 Le Bras, Gabriel, 1:378 Le Brun, Charles-Franc¸ois, 4:1726 Le Chapelier Law of 1791 (France), 3:1314 ¨ do¨n, 1:112 Lechner, O Leclerc, Charles-Victor-Emmanuel, 5:2333 Leclerc, Georges-Louis. See Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Lecomte, Claude Martin, 4:1735, 1737 Lec¸on clinique a` la Salpe´trie`re, Une (Brouillet), 1:409, 410 Le Creps, Arthur, 4:1830 Le Creusot, 4:1736 Le Creusot power hammer, 3:1163 Lecture on Human Happiness, A (Gray), 4:2201 Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature (A. W. Schlegel), 4:1769 Lectures on Godmanhood (Soloviev), 4:2216 Lectures on the Diseases of the Nervous System (Charcot), 4:1908 ‘‘Lectures on the Function of the Principal Digestive Glands’’ (Pavlov), 4:1748 Lectures on the Method of Academic Study (Schelling), 4:2088 Lectures on the Philosophy of History (Hegel), 4:2031 Lectures on the Prophetical Office of the Church (Newman), 3:1621 Ledebour, Georg, 1:65 Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre-Auguste, 1:338; 2:849; 3:1304, 1317–1319; 4:1963 Lee, Jennette, 3:1109 Lee, Robert E., 1:148 leeching, 1:436 Leeds, 1:288, 454; 3:1392 Leeds (Turner), 5:2368 Leeds Parliamentary Reform Association, 4:2199 Leeds Times (newspaper), 4:2199 Leenhoff, Suzanne, 3:1433 Le Fanu, Sheridan, 5:2464 Le Fauconnier, Henri, 1:155; 2:590, 591 Lefebvre, Georges, 2:665 Lefranc, Jean-Jacques. See Pompignan, marquis de Left Hegelians. See Young Hegelians Left Octobrists, 3:1660 Left Socialist Revolutionaries, 4:2211

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Legal Marxists, 3:1328; 4:2270 Le´gende des Sie`cles, La (Hugo), 2:1094 Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia, The (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:2000 Le´ger, Fernand, 2:590 Legion of Honor (France), 4:1944 Delacroix and, 2:640 Dore´ and, 2:676 Dreyfus and, 2:685 establishment of, 3:1586 Matisse and, 3:1475 Napoleon’s initiation of, 2:846 Rodin and, 4:2009 Le´gislation primitive (Bonald), 1:268 Legislative Commission (Russia), 1:376 Legislative Corps (France), 1:491 Legislative Paunch, The (Daumier), 2:622 Le Gray, Gustave, 3:1577; 4:1730, 1771, 1772 Leguey, Luc, 2:948 Lehmbruck, Wilhelm, 1:154 Lehrlinge zu Sais, Die (Novalis), 3:1647 Leiden des jungen Werthers, Die (Goethe), 2:983; 3:1436 Leigh, Augusta, 1:332, 333 Leinster House (Dublin), 2:693 Leipzig, Battle of (1813), 2:959; 3:1319–1322, 1334; 5:2429 multinational army and, 2:875, 903, 958; 3:1319 Napoleon’s defeat at, 2:903; 3:1588 Napoleon’s gun/infantry ratio and, 3:1506 strategic importance of, 3:1319 Leipziger Illustrierte Zeitung (newspaper), 4:1867 Leipziger Strasse (Berlin), 1:217 leisure, 3:1322–1326; 4:1824 bourgeois activities and, 1:288; 2:551; 3:1324, 1325 cabarets and, 1:335–337 commercial entertainments and, 2:551 crime and, 2:572 Crystal Palace entertainments and, 2:589 cycling and, 2:599–602; 3:1326 football (soccer) and, 2:830–835; 3:1326 holidays and, 1:262, 285; 3:1324 landed elite and, 3:1305, 1306 London attractions for, 3:1377–1378

1 9 1 4

men’s clubs and, 3:1471 museum attendance and, 3:1563–1564 newspaper reading and, 4:1872 parks and, 4:1738–1741 patriotic holidays and, 4:1826 seaside resorts and, 4:2124–2126; 5:2328 secularization and, 4:1894 shopping and, 2:548 tourism and, 1:288; 5:2325–2331 vacations and, 3:1324–1325 voluntary associations and, 1:115–122 working-class activities and, 1:288 Leiter, Mary Victoria, 2:597 leitmotifs, 3:1675; 5:2430 Le Keux, J. H., 5:2423 Leland, Charles Godfrey, 4:2023 Lelewel, Joachin, 4:1808 Le´lia (Sand), 2:802; 4:2083, 2084 Lemonnier, Charles, 4:1696 Lemonnyer, J., 4:1836 Lenard, Philipp, 4:2012 Lenbach, Franz von, 5:2430 lending libraries, 3:1352 Lenin, Vladimir, 1:249, 266; 2:654, 1026, 1068; 3:1208, 1326–1329, 1327; 4:1768, 1804, 2049, 2054, 2205 anarchosyndicalism and, 1:60, 62 Bernstein antipathy toward, 1:231 Bolsheviks and, 1:264, 265, 267, 315; 2:993; 3:1327–1328, 1487, 1488 brother’s assassination and, 4:2054 Bund opposition by, 1:315 exiles of, 2:781; 3:1327–1328, 1329 Hobson’s Imperialism as influence on, 2:1076 on imperialism, 3:1122, 1329 intelligentsia and, 3:1168, 1171, 1327–1328 Kautsky as influence on, 3:1248 Kropotkin and, 3:1273 Luxemburg conflict with, 3:1401 Mach critique by, 3:1409 Martov’s socialist view vs., 3:1460, 1461 Marx as influence on, 1461 Marxist economics and, 2:707 party membership concept of, 3:1487 Pavlovs scientific studies and, 4:1749 peasant economy and, 4:1756 Plekhanov and, 4:1801

2681

INDEX

‘‘populist’’ as discrediting term of, 4:1832 Revolution of 1905 and, 3:1328–1329; 4:1974, 1976 St. Petersburg and, 4:2077, 2079 on Shaw, 4:2166 Sismondi and, 4:2186 Sorel and, 4:2218 Struve and, 4:2270 Wells and, 5:2459 worker organization and, 2:522 Leningrad. See St. Petersburg Lenne´ (landscape designer), 4:1740 Lenoir, Alexandre, 2:621 ´ tienne, 3:1161 Lenoir, E Leo X, pope, 4:2136 Leo XII, pope, 4:1718, 1719, 1721, 1724, 2033, 2035 Leo XIII, pope, 1:421; 2:540, 688, 1068; 3:1329–1333, 1621; 4:1717 Bismarck and, 3:1279; 5:2473 Kulturkampf and, 2:966 labor unions and, 4:2209 Lueger and, 3:1393 reforms of, 4:1720, 1721 Rerum Novarum encyclical of, 1:382, 383, 389; 4:1720, 2209 Roman Question and, 4:2025, 2026 secularization and, 4:2134 Windthorst and, 5:2473, 2474 Leo, Hermann, 1:287–288 Leonard and Gertrude (Pestalozzi), 3:1454–1455 Leonardo da Vinci, 1:29; 2:634; 4:2008 Freud psychobiography of, 2:907; 4:1905 Pater essay on, 4:1746 ‘‘Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood’’ (Freud), 2:907 Leoncavallo, Ruggero, 3:1676 Leonidas, 2:1018 Leonora (Pae¨r), 3:1670 Leonore; ou, L’amour conjugale (Gaveaux), 3:1673 Leontiev, Konstantin, 2:773, 775 Leopardi, Giacomo, 3:1333–1334 Leopold I, king of the Belgians, 1:200; 3:1334–1336; 4:1984; 5:2411 European royal marriages and, 3:1335 Leopold II, king of the Belgians, 1:204–205; 3:1336–1337 Brussels urban plan and, 1:306 Congo Free State and, 1:20–21, 102, 202, 222, 223, 500; 2:507;

2682

3:1116, 1118, 1124–1125, 1336–1338 father Leopold I and, 3:1336 fortune of, 3:1337 greed and cruelty of, 1:500; 2:506, 509; 3:1125, 1336–1337 slave trade and, 1:308–309 Stanley and, 2:783; 3:1336 Leopold II, Holy Roman emperor, 1:139, 322; 2:860; 3:1235; 4:1858 death of, 5:2417 Romania and, 4:2018 son John of Austria and, 3:1235 Leopold I, grand duke of Tuscany. See Leopold II, Holy Roman emperor Leopold II, grand duke of Tuscany, 3:1196 Leopold, prince of HohenzollernSigmaringen, 2:853, 867, 964 Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. See Leopold I, king of the Belgians Lepape, Georges, 3:1642 Le Play, Fre´de´ric, 1:387; 3:1450; 4:2213; 5:2497 leprosy, 4:1751 Lermontov, Mikhail, 1:208; 4:2256 Leroux, Pierre, 1:247; 4:2013; 5:2397 Le Roy, E´douard, 1:214 Le Roy, Jacques, 4:1756 Leroy, Louis Hippolyte, 1:481; 3:1126–1127, 1535 lesbianism. See homosexuality and lesbianism Le Secq, Henri, 4:1771 Leskien, August, 2:774 Leskov, Nikolai, 3:1641 Lesseps, Charles de, 3:1338 Lesseps, Ferdinand-Marie de, 2:732; 3:1337–1338 Suez Canal and, 4:2274–2275, 2276 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 3:1108; 4:1769 Lesson in Hysteria by Jean Martin Charcot, A (Brouillet), 1:409, 410 Les XX (art society), 4:2295 Lethaby, William Richard, 1:152 Letourneur, Louis-Honore´, 2:664 Letter of Advice to Young Americans (Godwin), 2:981 ‘‘Letter of Lord Chandos’’ (Hoffmannsthal), 2:1076 Letters from France and Italy (Herzen), 2:1065 Letters of a Russian Traveler, 1789–1790 (Karamzin), 4:2288 Letters on a Regicide Peace (Burke), 1:328

Letters on Mesmerism (Martineau), 3:1459 Letters on the Laws of Man’s Nature and Development (Martineau and Atkinson), 3:1459 Letters on the Study of Nature (Herzen), 2:1064 Letters Written During a Short Residence in Norway, Denmark, and Sweden (Wollstonecraft), 5:2480 Letter to a Member of the National Assembly (Burke), 1:328 Letter to Gogol (Belinsky), 1:208; 5:2460 Lettre a` M. Dacier relative a` l’alphabet des hieroglyphes phone´tiques employe´s par les Egyptiens pour e´crive sur leurs monuments les titres, les nomes, et les surnoms des souverains grecs et romains (Champollion), 1:407 Lettre au clerge´ franc¸ais (Deraismes), 2:649 Lettres a` ses commenttans (Robespierre newspaper), 4:2006 lettres de cachet, 2:842 Lettres d’un habitant de Gene`ve a` ses contemporains (Saint-Simon), 4:2080 Letuchaya Mysh (Moscow cabaret), 1:336–337 Letwin, Shirley, 3:1514 Levande do¨d (Olsson), 4:2269 Leˆ Van Khoi, 3:1139, 1141 leve´e en masse, 3:1338–1341, 1505; 4:1960 Lever, Samuel, 5:2464 Levi, Hermann, 5:2431 Levia gravia (Carducci), 1:362 Leviathan (Hobbes), 3:1272 Levin, Rahel (later Levin-Varnhagen), 1:215 Levine, Philippa, 4:1886 Levinstein, Eduard, 2:686 Levis, F. R., 1:302 Le´vrier, Antonin, 1:127, 128 Levski, Vasil, 3:1687 Levy, Richard S., 3:1393 Le´vy-Bruhl, Lucien, 4:1875 Le´vy-Leboyer, Maurice, 1:104 Lewes, George Henry, 1:301; 2:743; 4:1844 Lewis, Gilbert N., 1:427 Lewis, M. J., 3:1428 Lewis, R. A., 1:402 Lewis, Wyndham, 1:214 Lewis and Allenby, 1:481–482 Lexis, Wilhelm, 4:2248, 2249

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Liang Qichao (Liang Chi Chao), 1:435; 3:1143–1144 Libelt, Karol, 4:1862 liberalism, 3:1341–1350 Adler (Victor) and, 1:10–11 Armenians and, 1:89 Asquith and, 1:114–115; 2:1012 Austro-Hungarian reforms and, 1:143 Bernstein and, 1:231 Bismarck’s approach to, 1:238; 2:966 Britain and, 3:1342, 1343, 1345–1346, 1347, 1348, 1349; 5:2394 Burckhardt’s view of, 1:315, 317 Burke’s early political period and, 1:327 Catholic political parties and, 1:388–389 Cavour and, 1:390, 391 citizenship and, 1:458–459 classical economics and, 2:714, 716, 717 Constant and, 2:545–546; 3:1343 cooperatives and, 2:556 counterrevolution and, 2:566–567 Denmark and, 2:647–660 economic policy and, 1:490–491, 491–492; 3:1341, 1342, 1410, 1348049 See also free trade emancipatory, 3:1342–1345 European ideals vs. realities of, 3:1343 European split in, 3:1343–1344 failures of, 3:1347–1350 feminist critique of, 1:458 Forster and, 2:835, 836 four spheres of, 3:1341–1342 France and, 4:1971–1972, 2247; 5:2310 Frederick III and, 2:873–874 Freemasons and, 2:878 French Declaration of the Rights of Man and, 2:887 French feminist movement and, 2:649–650 French July Monarchy and, 3:1388–1389 Gagern and, 2:923–924 German curtailments of, 1:369–370; 2:962 German reformists and, 2:959–962, 965–966; 5:2473 Giolitti and, 2:973; 3:1349

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Gladstone and, 2:976–979, 1008, 1009–1010, 1012; 3:1345, 1347 Herzen critique of, 2:1065 Holy Alliance against, 2:959 individual rights and, 2:717, 812, 871, 958; 3:1341, 1464 intelligentsia and, 3:1170, 1171 Italy and, 3:1200–1202, 1348, 1349; 4:2025 Jewish assimilation and, 1:73 Kadets and, 3:241–242, 1349, 1519 Kulturkampf and, 3:1277 Madrid and, 3:1414 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1513, 1514; 5:2394 Milyukov and, 3:1518–1519 Moscow and, 3:1551–1552 myth of bourgeoisie and, 1:291 Netherlands and, 3:1617, 1618, 1619, 1620 Nietzsche’s repudiation of, 3:1629 O’Connell and, 3:1655–1657 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1690 papal condemnation of, 1:381–382; 4:1795, 1798 papal infallibility as response to, 4:1722 peace movements and, 4:1695, 1696 Pius IX and, 3:1196 political parties and, 3:1347–1348 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861–1863 press freedom and, 4:1870 professionalism and, 4:1881 progress and, 2:714 Prussia and, 2:958, 960; 3:1346–1347; 5:2467 questions raised about, 3:1343 republicanism and, 4:1962 Revolutions of 1830 and, 1:457–458 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991 Rudolf (crown prince) and, 4:2045 Russia and, 2:1016; 4:2055 Sismondi and, 4:2186 socialism and, 4:2205, 2206–2207 Spain and, 1:366–367, 368; 3:1343, 1347; 4:2230 Sweden and, 4:2283–2284 Thiers and, 4:1932; 5:2310 Tocqueville and, 5:2317 utilitarianism and, 5:2393, 2394 Vienna and, 5:2420 voluntary associations and, 1:118–119, 120, 121, 122 Wales and, 5:2434–2435, 2436

1 9 1 4

Westernizers and, 5:2459 See also conservatism Liberal Party (Belgium), 1:200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 307 Liberal Party (Britain), 2:1006, 1007, 1011, 1012; 3:1345; 5:2321, 2322, 2394, 2434, 2461, 2490 Acton and, 1:6 aristocracy and, 1:86 Asquith and, 1:114–115; 2:730, 1012 Chamberlain’s (Joseph) break with, 1:405; 3:1348 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:1005 Disraeli’s foreign policy vs., 2:674 Fox and, 2:1001 Gladstone and, 2:976–979, 1007, 1008; 3:1348 House of Lords and, 2:730 Indian (Morley-Minto) reforms and, 3:1136–1137 Irish Home Rule split in, 2:978, 1010, 1011; 3:1181, 1184, 1348 labor movements and, 2:1011; 3:1292 Labour Party and, 2:1012; 3:1295, 1296, 1297 Lloyd George and, 3:1345, 1348, 1349, 1369–1370 naval buildup and, 3:1610 Palmerston and, 2:1007; 4:1713 public health and, 1:325 Russell (John) and, 2:1007 Scotland and, 2:1003 social insurance and, 1:356 welfare reform and, 2:1075 women’s suffrage and, 2:625 working-class representatives in, 2:1009 Liberal Party (Madrid), 3:1413–1414 Liberal Union (Spain), 4:2230 Liberal Uprising in Spain (engraving), 4:2230 libertarianism, 4:1959 libertine tradition, 4:1833 liberty ancient vs. modern, 2:546 French declaration defining, 2:887 Liberty, Arthur, 1:485 Liberty fabrics, 1:108, 152 Liberty Leading the People (Delacroix), 2:640, 848; 4:2031 libraries, 3:1350–1353; 4:1825 Paris and, 4:1727 scientific/mathematical knowledge and, 4:2112

2683

INDEX

women librarians and, 2:945 See also museums Libre parole, La (anti-Semitic daily), 2:683, 684, 689 Libusˇe (Smetena), 4:1858 Libya, 1:31; 2:527; 4:2299; 5:2361, 2364 Italian colony in, 3:1202, 1546, 1549 Lichnowsky family, 1:195–196 Lichtenstein, Alois von, 2:1068 Lichterfreunde, 2:960 Lichtheim, George, 5:2395 Lictors Bringing Brutus the Bodies of His Sons (David), 2:624 Lidbetter, Eric J., 2:770 Liebermann, Max, 2:796; 3:1353–1355, 1354; 5:2470 Liebertwolkwitz, Battle of (1813), 3:1320 Liebesverbot, Das (Wagner), 5:2430 Liebich, Richard, 4:2023 Liebig, Justus von, 1:25, 425, 426; 2:762; 3:1159–1160; 4:2109 Liebknecht, Karl, 3:1355–1356 Liebknecht, Wilhelm, 1:194; 3:1289, 1311, 1355; 4:2127 Liechtenstein family, 1:469 lieder, 3:1418, 1419, 1570, 1571; 4:2106 Lied von der Erde, Das (Mahler), 3:1419 Lie`ge, 1:202, 203, 361, 493 textile factory, 2:791 Lieutenant Gustl (Schnitzler), 4:2100 Life and Labour of the People in London (Booth), 5:2444 Life and Works of Goethe (Lewes), 2:743 life expectancy, 2:628, 643, 719, 766 in London, 3:1372 Life for the Tsar, A (Glinka), 2:979–980; 3:1571, 1673 Life in the Sickroom (Martineau), 3:1459 Life of Charlotte Bronte¨ (Gaskell), 2:934 Life of Chaucer (Godwin), 2:981 Life of Henry Brulard, The (Stendhal), 4:2253 Life of Henry Fawcett (Stephen), 4:2254 Life of James Fitzjames Stephen, The (Stephen), 4:2254 Life of Jesus (Renan), 2:688; 4:1892, 1953–1954; 5:2399 Life of Jesus, Critically Examined, The (Strauss), 2:743–744, 754

2684

Life of Jesus, The (Renan), 4:1953–1954; 5:2399 Life of Napoleon (Scott), 4:2123 Life of Napoleon (Stendhal), 4:2252 Life of Rossini (Stendhal), 4:2252 Life of Schiller (Carlyle), 1:370 Life of Schleiermacher (Dilthey), 2:660 Life to Come and Other Stories, The (Forster), 2:836 Liffey River, 2:691 light Einstein wave theory of, 2:739, 740 Fresnel wave theory of, 4:1780 Maxwell electromagnetic nature of, 3:1478; 4:1780 Poincare´ (Henri) theories of, 4:1805 Light Cavalry Brigade (British), 1:95, 244; 2:578 ‘‘Light from the East’’ (Soloviev), 2:774 lighting art nouveau fixtures, 1:109, 112 coal mining and, 1:487–488 Eiffel Tower and, 2:737 electric, 2:741, 742, 815 street lights, 1:207, 445–446; 2:548, 741 Light of the World, The (Hunt), 4:1707 Light that Failed, The (Kipling), 3:1256 Ligne, Prince de, 5:2418 Ligny, Battle of (1815), 2:903; 4:1900 Ligue Antise´mitique, 1:5 Ligue de l’Action Franc¸aise. See Action Franc¸aise Ligue d’enseignement, 3:1352 Ligue des droits de l’homme, 2:684 Ligue des Patriotes, 1:282; 4:2243 Ligue franc¸aise pour le droit des femmes, 4:1998 Ligue internationale de la paix et de la liberte´, 4:1696 Ligue Nationale pour le Vote des Femmes, 2:697 Liguria, 3:1193, 1599 Ligurian Republic, 3:1584; 4:1785, 1786, 2188 Lilienthal, Otto, 1:30 Lille, 2:1089 limited-commitment system, 2:526 limited liability partnership, 1:354 Limits and Renewals (Kipling), 3:1257 Limoges, 4:1736 limpieza de sangre (blood purity), 1:74 Lincoln, Abraham, 2:932, 962; 3:1269 Lind, Jenny, 3:1566 Linder, Robert, 2:518, 800

Linderhof (Louis II castle), 3:1383 Lindgren, Armas, 1:113 linen industry, 1:201; 3:1179, 1411 ‘‘Lines Written in the Euganean Hills’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 Linevich, Nikolai Petrovich, 3:1557 Ling, Lijalmar, 4:2242 Ling, Per Henrik, 4:2242 linguistics. See languages Linnaean classification, 2:598 Linneaus, Carl, 4:1924, 2285 Linnell, John, 1:246 linotype, 4:1866 Linton, William James, 4:1964 Linz, 1:261 Lin Zexu, 3:1678, 1679 Linz Program, 1:10 Lipchitz, Jacques, 2:591–592 Lipincott’s Magazine, 5:2464 Lipiner, Siegfried, 1:10 Lipschitz, Jacques, 1:156 Lipton, Thomas, 1:352 liquor. See alcohol and temperance lira (Italian monetary unit), 3:1538 Lisbon, 4:1766; 5:2308 population of, 1:446 List, Georg Friedrich, 2:515–516; 3:1356–1357 economic views of, 2:708, 960; 4:1888 Zollverein and, 5:2524 Lister, Anne, 2:1084 Lister, Joseph, 3:1358–1359, 1359; 4:1744, 1745, 2113, 2135 Lisy, Alfred Firmin, 1:214 Liszt, Franz, 1:168, 295; 3:1359–1361, 1565, 1566, 1675; 5:2430 Berlioz friendship with, 1:225 Chopin friendship with, 1:439 folk music and, 3:1361; 4:1825 German musical repertoire and, 3:1571 Glinka and, 2:980 Paganini as influence on, 4:1699 Romanticism and, 4:2027, 2030, 2031 Sand and, 4:2084 Schoenberg and, 4:2102 Liszt, Franz von (legal theorist), 3:1315 literacy, 3:1361–1365 Belgium and, 1:202 Bohemian Lands and, 1:260 Braille system and, 1:296–298 Bulgaria and, 1:313 France and, 2:720; 3:1522; 4:1822, 1868

E U R O P E

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TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

gender and, 2:718; 3:1362, 1363 liberalism and, 3:1347 libraries and, 3:1350–1352 Naples and, 3:1581 Paris and, 4:1727 popular culture and, 4:1822 posters and, 4:1845 press mass readership and, 4:1868–1869 primary education and, 1:431 Protestants and, 4:1891 Prussia and, 2:723; 4:1900 racism spread by, 4:1927 Russia and, 1:431; 2:1017 Scotland and, 4:2119, 2120 Serbia and, 4:2148 statistics on, 4:1822 Sweden and, 4:2285 urban regions and, 2:720 Literary and Philosophical Society (Manchester/Leeds), 1:287 literary criticism. See criticism, literary literary societies, 1:287; 4:1989 literature absinthe drinking and, 1:3 Andreas-Salome´ and, 1:64–65 anticlerical subjects and, 1:70 Armenian authors and, 1:88, 90, 92 Arnold and, 1:102–103 Austen and, 1:130–132 avant-garde and, 1:151, 153 Balzac and, 1:166–169 Barre`s and, 1:184, 185 Baudelaire and, 1:186–188 Belinsky and, 1:207–208 Bely and, 1:208–210; 4:2079 Bergson’s psychological dure´e theory and, 1:214 Berlin and, 1:215, 220 Blake and, 1:244–246 Blok and, 1:249–250 Bloomsbury Group and, 4:2258–2259 Bonapartism and, 1:270 Brentano’s modernist influence on, 1:299 Bronte¨ sisters and, 1:300–302 Byron and, 1:332, 333 Carducci and, 1:362–363 Carlyle and, 1:371–372 Catalanism and, 1:182 Chaadayev and, 1:400 Chateaubriand and, 1:419–422 Chekhov and, 1:422–423 on childhood, 1:427

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Coleridge and, 1:496–497; 2:543 Conrad and, 2:535–536; 4:1875 on crime, 2:574–575 Cruikshank illustrations and, 2:585, 586–587 Czech nationalism and, 4:1857, 1859 D’Annunzio and, 2:609–610 Decadence and, 2:631–633; 4:2292–2293 degeneration and, 2:638 Delacroix and, 2:641 Denmark and, 2:648 Dickens and, 2:655–657 Disraeli and, 2:672, 673 Dohm and, 2:675–676 domestic novels and, 3:1453 Dore´ folio engravings and, 2:676–678 Dostoyevsky and, 2:678–679 Doyle and, 2:679–680 Eliot (George) and, 2:743–744 English problem novels and, 3:1430 expressionism, 1:220 feminist works and, 2:802–803 fin de sie`cle and, 2:815 Finnish epic, 2:820 Flaubert and, 2:827–828 Fontane and, 2:828–830 Forster and, 2:835–836 futurism and, 1:157 Gaskell and, 2:933–934 gender and, 2:945–946, 948 Generation of 1898 and, 2:950–952; 4:2232 German academic nationalism and, 2:960 German censorship of, 1:369–370 German naturalism and, 1:220 German Romanticism and, 2:814 Gissing and, 2:974–975 Godwin and, 2:980–982 Goethe and, 2:982–987 Gogol and, 2:988–989 Goncharov and, 2:989–990 Goncourt brothers and, 2:990–992 Gorky and, 2:992–993 gothic novels and, 4:2030 Gouges and, 2:994 Grimm brothers and, 2:1023–1024 Hardy and, 2:1044–1046 Heine and, 2:1055–1057 Hellenism and, 4:1769 Herder and, 2:1061 Herzen and, 2:1064–1066; 3:1552

1 9 1 4

Hofmannsthal and, 2:1076–1077 Ho ¨ lderlin and, 2:1077–1079 Hugo and, 2:1092–1095 Huysmans and, 2:1103–1105 on imperialism, 4:1875 impressionism and, 3:1133 intelligentsia and, 3:1170 Ireland and, 3:1182–1183 Irish revival in, 3:1180 Italian nationalism and, 2:930 Italian patriotism and, 3:1193–1194 Jarry and, 3:1212–1214 Kafka and, 3:1242–1243 Kiplin and, 3:1256–1257 Lamartine and, 3:1303–1304 Lasker-Schu¨ler and, 3:1309–1310 Leopardi and, 3:1333–1334 libraries and, 3:1350–1352 Mann and, 3:1434–1437 Manzoni and, 3:1441–1442 Martineau and, 3:1458–1459 Michel and, 3:1497 Mickiewicz and, 3:1500–1501 modernism and, 1:299; 3:1529 Moscow and, 3:1552 Musil and, 3:1574 Nadar and, 3:1577 naturalism and, 1:220 Netherlands and, 3:1619 New Women writers of, 4:2235 Norton and, 3:1645–1646 Novalis and, 3:1647–1648 opium users and, 2:686 Otto and, 3:1680, 1681 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716 Paris and, 4:1728 Pater and, 4:1745–1747 on peasant conditions, 4:1756–1777 Pe´guy and, 4:1760–1761 phrenology mentioned in, 4:1776 popular culture and, 4:1821, 1822, 1823 pornography and, 4:1833–1834, 1836 as Pre-Raphaelite painting subjects, 4:1864 Pushkin and, 4:1918–1920 racism and, 4:1927 realism and, 4:1946 Rolland and, 4:2014–2016 Romanies’ portrayal in, 4:2022–2023 Romanticism and, 2:543, 640; 4:2027, 2028, 2030 Russian Golden Age and, 4:2181, 2183

2685

INDEX

Russian nihilist portrayals in, 3:1639, 1641 Russian Oriental motifs in, 2:774–775 Russian Silver Age and, 4:2181–2183, 2217 Sade and, 4:2073–2074 Sand and, 4:2083–2085 Schnitzler and, 4:2100–2101; 5:2421 science fiction and, 5:2408, 2458 Scott and, 4:2030, 2122–2123 separate spheres ideology and, 2:943 serialized fiction and, 2:657 Shaw and, 4:2165–2167 Shelley (Mary) and, 4:2168–2169 Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and, 4:2027, 2031, 2169–2170 Stae¨l and, 4:2246–2247, 2247 Stendhal and, 4:2252–2253 Stephen and, 4:2253–2254 Stevenson and, 4:2254–2256 Strachey and, 4:2258–2259 Strindberg and, 4:2268–2269, 2286–2287 Sweden and, 4:2268–2269, 2286–2287 symbolism and, 2:940; 4:2292, 2294, 2295 Tennyson and, 5:2309–2310 Tolstoy and, 5:2318–2320 Turgenev and, 5:2364–2366 Venice and, 5:2403, 2405 Verga and, 5:2407–2408 Verne and, 5:2408–2409 Vienna and, 5:2419, 2421 Vietnam and, 3:1144 Wells and, 5:2458–2459 Wordsworth and, 4:2027, 2029, 2030; 5:2481–2482 Yeats and, 5:2310, 2509–2510 Zola and, 5:2522–2524 See also poetry Literature and Dogma (Arnold), 1:103 lithography color posters and, 4:1845 Daugerre and, 2:605 Daumier and, 2:621 Ge´ricault and, 2:956 Goya and, 2:999 Menzel and, 3:1489 Munch and, 3:1559 photography and, 4:1772, 1773 Lithuania, 3:1365–1368 Bund founding in, 1:313

2686

Jewish emigrants from, 3:1113 Mickiewicz and, 3:1500, 1501 Poland and, 5:2369, 2370, 2441 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1808 Ukraine and, 5:2369 See also Poland Lithuanian Statute (1529), 5:2371 Little Dancer Aged Fourteen, The (Degas), 2:633, 636 Little Dorrit (Dickens), 2:657 Little Girl in a Blue Armchair (Cassatt), 3:1131–1132 ‘‘Little Hans’’ case (Freud), 2:906 ‘‘Little Matchgirl, The’’ (Andersen), 2:648 ‘‘Little Mermaid, The’’ (Andersen), 2:648 Littre´, Maximilien-Paul-E´mile, 2:523; 4:1844, 1953, 1963 Lived Experience and Poetry (Dilthey), 2:660 Liverpool, 3:1430 Irish immigrants in, 3:1524, 1525 as port city, 1:304, 305 Liverpool, Lord ( Robert Banks), 2:954, 1002, 1003, 1004; 4:1758; 5:2461 Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 2:758; 3:1428 Lives of Edward and John Philips, The (Godwin), 2:981 Lives of Haydn, Mozart, and Metastasio (Stendhal), 4:2252 Lives of the Necromancers (Godwin), 2:982 livestock, 1:26; 2:766 anthrax and, 4:1744–1745 breeding of, 2:770 German imports of, 2:960 New Zealand and, 3:1623 peasants and, 4:1751 vaccines for, 4:1745 living standards, 1:351, 353 Livingstone, David, 1:221, 222; 2:782–783, 784 masculine image of, 3:1472 missionizing by, 3:1527 primitivism and, 4:1875 Livonia, 2:817, 818, 819, 822–823 Livorno, 3:1195 Liwa, al- (Egyptian newspaper), 2:734 Lloyd, Constance, 5:2464 Lloyd Austriaco, 5:2354 Lloyd George, David, 3:1296, 1368–1370, 1369; 5:2322, 2435 Asquith and, 1:114, 115 Curzon and, 2:597–598

liberalism and, 3:1345, 1348, 1349, 1368–1369 Mansion House Speech of, 3:1546 People’s Budget and, 1:114; 2:597–598 social reform and, 2:1012; 3:1369–1370 Lloyd-Jones, Roger, 3:1428 Lloyds (bank), 1:175 LMS. See London Missionary Society LMU. See Latin Monetary Union Lobachevsky, Nikolai, 4:1749 lobbies, producer, 2:516–517; 4:1888–1889 Lobkowitz family, 1:195–196 local government. See municipal government Local Government Act of 1888 (Britain), 3:1379 Local Government and Public Health Acts of 1871–1872 (Britain), 1:325 Lock, The (Constable), 2:543, 544 Locke, John, 1:326, 465; 3:1514; 4:2212 as Mill (James) influence, 3:1511 mind theory of, 4:1907, 1908 social contract theory and, 3:1272 Lock-Out of 1913 (Dublin), 2:691 ‘‘Locksley Hall’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309 ‘‘Locksley Hall Sixty Years After’’ (Tennyson), 5:2310 Lockwood, Frank, 5:2466 Lockwood, Lewis, 1:199 locomotor ataxia, 1:408 Lodge, Oliver Joseph, 3:1163; 4:2114 lodgers, 1:453 Lodoı¨ska (Mayr), 3:1670 Loge, La (Renoir), 3:1130; 4:1955, 1955 logic, 2:883–884, 1100 Logica come scienza del concetto puro (Croce), 2:584 logical positivism, 3:1409; 4:1844 Logic as the Science of the Pure Concept (Croce), 2:584 Logic of Collective Action, The (Olson), 2:516–517 Logische Untersuchungen (Husserl), 2:1100 Lohengrin (Wagner), 3:1435, 1675 Lois the Witch (Gaskell), 2:934 Loisy, Alfred, 1:385; 4:2133 Lokhvitskaya, Mirra, 4:2183 Lombardi all prima crociata, I (Verdi), 3:1672 Lombard Street (Bagehot), 1:161 Lombardy, 1:392, 414; 2:531, 532, 533, 962; 3:1153

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Austrian Habsburg rule and, 2:866, 958; 3:1191, 1193 Cisalpine Republic and, 3:1584 Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866; 3:1198, 1592 French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and, 3:1192, 1584 Metternich and, 3:1494 Mozzoni and, 3:1555, 1556 Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786 Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196 Venetia and, 3:1193 women’s suffrage and, 3:1556 See also Kingdom of LombardyVenetia; Milan Lombe, John and Thomas, 2:790 Lombroso, Cesare, 3:1371–1372 criminal class theory of, 2:573, 574; 3:1315 criminal typology and, 2:638, 639, 769; 4:1816 on homosexual imprisonment, 2:1085 on Romanies, 4:2023 Lome´nie de Brienne, E´tienne-Charles, 2:767, 841; 3:1385 London, 3:1372–1381 advertising and, 2:550 architecture and, 1:185–186 artisans and, 1:104; 3:1373–1374, 1378, 1390 automobiles and, 5:2352 bourgeois culture and, 1:287 bourgeois elite and, 1:472 bread riot, 1815, 2:559 chimney sweep, 2:1007 Chinese immigrants in, 3:1524 Chinese opium dens in, 2:687, 687 cholera epidemic in, 1:437; 2:716; 3:1378 consumerism in, 2:548; 3:1378 crime sensation and, 2:575; 3:1375 Crystal Palace and, 2:587–588, 589, 1006; 4:1738 day trippers from, 3:1324 Dore´ gallery in, 2:677 drainage system in, 1:450 electric lighting in, 2:742 engineering projects in, 2:758, 758 as financial center, 1:170, 175–176 financial elite and, 1:84, 85, 170, 256 First International founding in, 2:824 Fleet Street, 3:1377 fog and pollution in, 2:764

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1 7 8 9

TO

Freemasons in, 2:878, 880 growth of, 1:443; 2:1087 homosexual subculture in, 2:1083, 1084 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2494 Irish immigrants in, 3:1372, 1373, 1525 jingoism and, 3:1235 joint-stock banking and, 1:172–173 Kropotkin in, 3:1272 London Bridge, 2:758; 3:1379 Marconi in, 3:1444 markets and, 3:1448 Marx as exile in, 3:1466 match-seller, 3:1380 Mazzini in, 3:1480, 1481 migration and, 3:1111, 1113, 1372–1373 museums and, 1:287, 407; 2:598, 999; 3:1375–1376, 1562, 1563, 1564; 4:1825 Nash’s urban planning and, 3:1600–1602 newspapers and, 2:968; 3:1459; 4:1868, 1871 Offenbach operettas in, 3:1661 Olympic Games and, 4:2246 parks in, 3:1373, 1375, 1378, 1600–1601; 4:1738, 1739 Pavlova in, 4:1749, 1750 peace activism in, 4:1697, 1698 police system in, 3:1375; 4:1814–1815, 1815 population growth of, 1:446; 2:1087; 3:1372, 1373; 4:1911–1912 posters and, 4:1845 poverty in, 3:1375; 4:1850, 1853 public health and, 3:1372, 1373, 1378–1379, 1380, 1554; 4:1911–1912 restaurants in, 4:1966, 1967 riots of 1848 in, 1:417 rooftops view, 3:1376 Rothschilds and, 4:2039, 2040, 2041 Salvation Army and, 4:2082 sewer construction in, 2:758; 4:1912 as sports center, 4:2243 streets of, 1:451 strikes in, 4:2266 suburbs of, 2:1088; 3:1373, 1375 subway in, 4:2271–2273, 2272 telephone service in, 5:2308 theater in, 3:1108, 1109, 1377

1 9 1 4

typhus epidemics in, 2:670 unemployed in, 2:1010 West End, 1:85; 2:548, 551 world’s fairs, 5:2412, 2493–2496, 2495, 2496, 2498, 2505 See also Great Exhibition of 1851 London, Jack, 4:2235 London, Treaty of (1827), 2:1020 London, Treaty of (1832), 3:1613 London, Treaty of (1852), 2:963 London, Treaty of (1913), 1:164; 3:1203, 1691; 4:2149 London Ambassadors Conference (1913), 1:166 London & Westminster Bank, 1:172 London Anti-Corn Law Association, 2:558 London Bridge, 2:758; 3:1379 London Chapter Coffee House, 4:2111 London, City & Midland (bank), 1:175 London Conference (1817–1818), 1:308 London Conference (1840), 2:732 London Conference (1912), 1:33; 2:704 London, County & Westminster (bank), 1:175 London County Council, 3:1379–1380 London Dock Strike of 1889, 3:1441 London Exhibition of 1851. See Great Exhibition of 1851 London Exhibition of 1862, 5:2496, 2496 London Exhibition of 1871–1874, 5:2498 London Illustrated News, 4:1867 London Missionary Society, 2:782; 3:1527; 4:1895 London Philharmonic Society, 3:1565 London Protocol (1852), 2:648 London Review (magazine), 3:1513 London School of Economics, 2:788; 3:1377; 4:2215; 5:2445 London Society for Women’s Suffrage, 2:625 London’s Poor Sheltered under a Bridge (Dore´), 4:1850 London Times. See Times of London London Women’s Suffrage Society, 2:626 London Working Men’s Association, 1:414, 416, 417; 3:1286 Lovett and, 3:1390 Long, Luther, 4:1916 Longest Journey, The (Forster), 2:835

2687

INDEX

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 2:656 Long Island Physicians’ College (New York), 1:9 Lo ¨ nnrot, Elias, 2:820 looms. See weaving Loos, Adolf, 3:1381–1382 Lo´pez, Vicente, 2:999 Lord Byron (Gericault), 1:333 Lord Chamberlain (London), 3:1377 ‘‘Lord Clive’’ (Macaulay), 3:1408 Lord Jim (Conrad), 2:535–536 Loreley Fountain (South Bronx, New York), 2:1056 Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon, 2:653, 1063; 4:1805 Lorenzaccio (Musset), 1:229 Loreto, Marian shrine at, 4:1797 Loris-Melikov, Mikhail, 1:39, 88, 91; 4:1768 Lorrain, Claude, 2:543 Lorraine, Jean (pseud. of Paul Duval), 2:632 Los Angeles, German exile community in, 3:1435, 1437 Los von Rom movement (Austria), 1:263; 4:1719 Lothair (Disraeli), 2:673 ‘‘Lotos-Eaters, The’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309 Lotte in Weimar (Mann), 3:1436 Loubet, E´mile, 2:684, 685, 857 Loudon, John Claudius, 4:1738 Louis I, king of Bavaria, 2:606, 961; 3:1382, 1383; 4:1834 Louis II (‘‘Mad King Ludwig’’), king of Bavaria, 2:1020; 3:1382–1384 as List’s patron, 3:1357 Neuschwanstein castle and, 4:2030 Prince Rudolf and, 4:2045 Wagner and, 5:2431 Louis IX, (Saint Louis), king of France, 4:1760 Louis XIV, king of France, 1:93, 481; 2:794; 3:1384 move from Paris of, 4:1726, 1728 Louis XV, king of France, 3:1384, 1385, 1445; 4:1726–1727 Louis XVI, king of France, 3:1384–1386 constitutional monarchy and, 1:456 counterrevolutionaries in royal family of, 2:563 Danton’s scheme to save, 2:611 escape attempt of, 3:1385–1386 Estates-General and, 2:767–768, 801, 842, 885; 3:1385

2688

execution of, 1:471; 2:518, 624, 837, 891, 957, 974; 3:1192, 1386, 1446; 4:1951, 1968 French financial crisis and, 2:840–841; 3:1385 French Revolution and, 1:420; 2:843, 844, 886, 887, 888–891; 3:1385–1386; 4:1728 Girondin-Montagnard split and, 2:973–974 Jacobins and, 3:1205 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1225, 1226 Lafayette and, 3:1300 marriage to Marie-Antoinette of, 3:1384, 1445, 1446 National Convention and, 2:799 Paine on exile for, 4:1700 Parisian memorial to, 4:1729 personal qualities of, 2:887; 3:1384, 1385, 1388, 1446 removal to Paris of, 2:890; 3:1385, 1403, 1443, 1446; 4:1728 republicanism and, 4:1959 Robespierre and, 4:2005, 2006 sons of, 1:411, 412; 2:846; 3:1384, 1385, 1386, 1446 trial of, 3:1386 utilitarianism and, 5:2393 Louis XVII, king of France, 3:1386, 1446, 1447 Louis XVIII, king of France, 3:1303, 1386–1387 assumption of throne by, 2:846, 1098; 3:1387 Bonald’s hostility to, 1:269 Brunswick Manifesto and, 1:412 bureaucracy and, 1:321; 3:1387 Charles X and, 2:566; 3:1386 Charter of 1814 and, 1:270, 457; 3:1387 Chateaubriand and, 1:420, 421 education policy of, 2:723 Fouche´ and, 2:837 as French Revolution e´migre´, 3:1386–1387 Guizot and, 2:1029 as Hugo patron, 2:1092 Indochina and, 3:1140 Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388 missionary societies and, 4:1895 Napoleon’s return and, 2:847, 903, 1098, 1099; 3:1387 Restoration and, 2:847–848; 3:1387; 4:1968, 1969 sexual impotence of, 3:1384

suffrage and, 4:2277 Talleyrand and, 5:2306 ultraroyalist dissatisfaction with, 2:539 See also Restoration Louis IV, grand duke of HesseDarmstadt, 1:41 Louis, archduke of Austria, 2:807 Louis, Pierre-Charles-Alexandre, 4:2109, 2110 Louise, grand duchess of Baden, 5:2467 Louis-Auguste. See Louis XVI Louisiana, 3:1596; 4:2225; 5:2333 Louis-Napoleon. See Napoleon III Louis-Napole´on le grand (Se´guin), 3:1593 Louis-Philippe, king of the French, 1:413; 3:1255, 1387–1390; 5:2316, 2397 abdication of, 2:567, 849, 968; 3:1248, 1389 Belgium and, 1:200 Bonald’s hostality to, 1:269 Bonapartism and, 1:270 caricatures of, 3:1389, 1389 Charles X and, 1:413 Chateaubriand and, 1:421 daughter’s marriage to Leopold I and, 3:1335 Daumier caricature of, 2:621 exile of, 3:1388 father, Philippe E´galite´, and, 3:1388, 1389 French Revolution and, 3:1387–1388 Guizot and, 2:1029, 1030 Haussmann and, 2:1046, 1047 Hugo and, 2:1093, 1094 Lafayette and, 3:1301, 1388 Lamartine and, 3:1303 Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318 program of, 3:1388–1389 Restoration and, 4:1969 Revolution of 1830 and, 2:566, 848; 3:1388; 4:1984, 1985 Revolution of 1848 and, 2:567, 849, 968; 3:1248, 1389; 4:1990 suffrage and, 4:2277 Talleyrand and, 5:2306 Thiers and, 5:2310, 2311 trade and, 5:2339 See also July Monarchy Louis-Philippe-Joseph. See Philippe ´ galite´ E Loups, Les (Rolland), 4:2015

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Lourdes, 1:411; 2:1104; 4:1826 Marian shrine at, 4:1788–1789, 1789, 1790 Lourie´, Arthur, 4:2262 Louvel, Louis-Pierre, 1:412 Louvet de Couvray, Jean-Baptiste, 2:973, 974 Louvre (Paris), 1:287, 407; 2:737, 1047; 4:1726, 1727, 1729; 5:2327 as high-art cultural museum, 3:1562; 4:1825 Ingres ceiling painting for, 3:1165 photographs of, 4:1772 love, 4:2026, 2028, 2029 Love (Munch), 3:1559; 4:2294 Love and Mr. Lewisham (Wells), 5:2458 Love for Three Oranges (Prokofiev), 3:1496 Lovejoy, Arthur, 4:2031 love letters, 4:2029 love poetry, 1:249 Lovers of Wisdom (Russia), 2:772 Lovers of Zion, 5:2519–2520 Love Ruling the World (Rude), 4:2044 Loves Coming of Age (Carpenter), 1:372 love songs, 4:2029 Lovett, William, 1:414, 416, 418; 3:1286, 1390–1391 Low Countries. See Belgium; Netherlands Lo ¨ wenthal, Elsa Einstein, 2:740 Lower Depths, The (Gorky), 2:993 lower middle class, 1:472–473 conservative leanings of, 1:204 consumerism and, 2:550 Lo ¨ with, Karl, 1:320 Luanda Empire, 1:15–16, 19 Luang Prabang, 3:1142 Lubin, Georges, 4:2084, 2085 Lucca, 3:1191; 4:1970 Lucchesi, Police Commissioner, 4:2174 Lucerne, electric lighting and, 2:741 Lucia di Lammermoor (Bellini), 3:1671 Lucien Leuwen (Stendhal), 4:2253 Lucinde (Schlegel), 4:2097 Lucknow, 3:1133, 1135 Lucre`ce Borgia (Hugo), 2:1093 Ludd, Ned (‘‘King’’ or ‘‘General’’), 1:358; 3:1391, 1392, 1410; 4:1821 Luddism, 1:358; 2:511; 3:1391–1392 machine breaking and, 3:1410, 1411

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Ludlow, Fitz Hugh, 2:687 Ludlow, John, 4:2208 Ludwig II, king of Bavaria. See Louis II Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy (Engels), 2:756 Lueger, Karl, 2:1068; 3:1392–1396, 1394; 4:2282 anti-Semitism and, 1:73, 75, 77; 2:689, 816; 3:1233, 1393–1395 mass politics and, 3:1395 Vienna and, 5:2420–2421 Lugard, Frederick (Lord Lugard), 1:20; 2:507 Luis I, king of Portugal, 4:1841 Luisa Miller (Verdi), 5:2406 Luis Filipe, prince of Portugal, 4:1841 Luka´cs, Gyo¨rgy, 2:830; 3:1253; 4:2186 Lumie`re, Auguste and Louis, 1:441, 442; 3:1396–1398, 1397, 1414; 4:1774, 1824 Me´lie`s contrasted with, 3:1482 Lumie`re Company, 3:1396 Lumı´r (Czech journal), 4:1857 Lunacharsky, Anatoly, 1:267 Luna Park Scenic Railway (Paris), 4:1825 Luncheon of the Boating Party (Renoir), 4:1955 Lunda Empire, 1:13 Lundbye, Johan, 2:647 Lune´ville, Treaty of (1801), 2:860, 901; 5:2305 Luppe River, 3:1320 lupus, 2:649 Lutezia (Heine), 2:1056 Luˆtfullah Bey, 5:2515 Luther, Martin, 2:959; 5:2447 Lutheranism, 1:51; 4:1890, 1891 Baltic provinces and, 2:821 as established church, 4:1895 northern German population of, 4:1892 Sweden and, 1:226 temperance and, 1:36 Luxe, calme, et volupte´ (Matisse), 2:797; 3:1474; 4:1710 Luxembourg peasant revolt in, 4:1755 Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098 slave trade ban and, 1:308 telephone service in, 5:2308 welfare initiatives in, 5:2452 Luxembourg Commission (France), 2:849–850; 3:1287 Luxembourg gardens (Paris), 2:1048

1 9 1 4

Luxembourg Gardens at Twilight (Sargent), 1:289 Luxemburg, Rosa, 2:707; 3:1248, 1398–1401, 1399; 4:1811, 2205 assassination of, 3:1401 attack on Bernstein by, 1:231; 3:1399–1400 Liebknecht and, 3:1356 luxury goods Asian trade and, 3:1151–1152, 1153 automobiles as, 1:149–150 Brussels production of, 1:305 consumers of, 2:547, 548, 551 fashion and, 1:481 London production of, 3:1373–1374 Lyon and, 3:1404 Luza´n y Martı´nez, Jose´, 2:996 Lu ¨ zen, Battle of (1813), 2:903 Luzzatti, Luigi, 2:971; 5:2364 LWMA. See London Working Men’s Association Lyell, Charles, 3:1401–1403; 4:2133 as Darwin influence, 2:615; 3:1402 Lyell, Mary Horner, 3:1402 Lyon, 3:1403–1406 Catholicism and, 3:1404–1405 federalist revolt in, 2:799, 800, 844; 3:1403 Lumie`re brothers in, 3:1396, 1398 miners protests in, 3:1272 nursing school in, 3:1650 Paris Commune and, 4:1736 population of, 3:1404 radical press in, 4:1870 Reign of Terror in, 2:800, 894; 3:1403 silk manufacture in, 3:1153, 1404, 1405 silkworkers’ rebellion in, 2:848, 849; 3:1284, 1404 urban redevelopment ind, 2:1088; 3:1404 waterway transport and, 5:2348 worker housing in, 2:1089 Lyrical Ballads (Coleridge and Wordsworth), 1:496, 497; 2:543; 5:2482 Lytton, Edward Robert Bulwer-Lytton (Lord Lytton), 2:674; 4:2237

n

M Mably, Abbe´, 4:1958 Macaire, Robert, 2:621

2689

INDEX

Macartney, George, 1:433 Macartney mission, 1:433 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 3:1407–1408 colonial policy and, 2:508 historiography and, 2:1072 Mill (James) critique of, 3:1510 Macaulay: The Shaping of the Historian (Macaulay), 3:1407 Macauley, Eliza, 3:1288 Macbeth (Shakespeare), 1:153 Macbeth (Verdi), 3:1672; 5:2406 Macdonald, E´tienne Jacques-JosephAlexandre, 3:1320, 1321 Macdonald, Frances, 1:112 MacDonald, Hector Archibald, 3:1423 MacDonald, James Ramsay, 2:1012; 3:1295, 1296 Macdonald, Margaret, 1:112 Macdonough, Thomas, 5:2440 Macedonia, 3:1482 Balkan Wars and, 2:704–705 Bulgaria and, 1:312, 313 competing claims in, 1:163, 164, 166, 313; 3:1691 Congress of Berlin and, 2:530; 3:1689–1690 Greek possession of, 1:2 Serbia and, 1:242; 4:2146, 2148, 2149 Maceo, Antonio, 1:366 Macerata insurrection (1817), 1:360 Mach, Ernst, 2:739; 3:1408–1410, 1574 Ma´cha, Karel Hynek, 4:1857 Machado y Ruiz, Antonio, 2:950, 951 Machajski, Jan Waclaw, 3:1171, 1172 Mach Bands, 3:1408 Machiavelli, Niccolo`, 3:1193; 4:1958 machine breaking, 3:1287, 1410–1412 agricultural, 1:357, 358–359; 3:1411 Captain Swing riots and, 2:511; 4:1755 cultural support for, 4:1821 as labor protest, 4:2264 Luddites and, 3:1391–1392 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991 machine gun, portable, 1:20, 95, 99 Machinenzeitalter, Das (Suttner), 4:2282 machinery trade flow of, 5:2335, 2336, 2342 See also science and technology; specific types of machinery Mach One, 3:1408

2690

Mach’s Principle, 3:1409 Maciejowice, Battle of (1794), 3:1265 Mack, Karl von, 5:2374, 2375 Macke, August, 1:155 Mackenzie, Morrell, 2:874 Mackintosh, Charles Rennie, 1:107, 112, 192; 5:2506 Mackintosh, James, 2:981 Maclean, Rutger, 4:2284 MacMahon, Maurice de, 2:855, 856; 3:1664; 4:1737 Macomb, Alexander, 5:2440 Macon’s Bill No. 2 of 1810 (U.S.), 5:2439 Macpherson, Hector, 4:2235 Madagascar, 2:509, 810 Madama Butterfly (Puccini), 3:1677; 4:1916 Madame Bovary (Flaubert), 2:827, 828; 4:1756; 5:2522 Madame Ce´zanne (Ce´zanne), 1:398 Madame Charpentier and Her Children (Renoir), 4:1955 Madame Gervaisais (Goncourt brothers), 2:991 Madame Moitessier, Seated (Ingres), 3:1166 Maddison, Angus, 5:2338 Madeleine Church (Paris), 4:1729 Madgascar, 1:99 Madison, James, 3:1357; 5:2439 ‘‘Mad King Ludwig.’’ See Louis II Madonna (Munch), 3:1559 Madras, 1:88 Madrid, 3:1412–1414 architecture in, 2:590 Goya and, 2:997, 998–999 migration and, 3:1111 Napoleon’s occupation of, 4:1764 Palacio de Cristal, 3:1413 Madwoman, The (Ge´ricault), 2:956 Maeder, Alphonse, 3:1239 Maeterlinck, Maurice, 2:631; 3:1675; 4:2102, 2295 Jarry and, 3:1213 Maetzu y Whitney, Ramiro, 2:950, 951 Mafeking, siege of (1900), 1:159; 3:1119 Maffei, Clara, 2:803 mafia, 3:1414–1418, 1583; 4:1821 secret societies and, 4:2132 Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2173–2175 Sicily and, 4:2173–2175, 2178 Mafiusi di la Vicaria, I (play), 3:1415 Maganetic Crusade, 3:1658 magazines. See press and newspapers; specific titles

Magendie, Franc¸ois, 1:227, 436 magenta, 3:1159 Magenta, Battle of (1859), 1:392; 3:1198, 1592; 4:1726, 2003 Maggi, Luigi, 1:443 Magic Flute, The (Mozart), 3:1673, 1674; 4:2092; 5:2417 magicians, 3:1483 Magic Mountain, The (Mann), 3:1435, 1436, 1437; 5:2360 Magnan, Valentin, 2:637 magnetism. See electromagnetism Magnificent Cuckold, The (Crommelynck), Meyerhold production of, 3:1496 Magyarization, forced, 1:144 Magyar language, 1:141, 143 Magyars, 1:143; 2:862, 864, 865; 4:1860, 1861, 1963, 2018, 2019, 2045 Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 5:2312 Mahayana Buddhism, 3:1138 Mahdi, the, 1:18–19; 2:734, 783 Kitchener campaign against, 3:1258–1259, 1668–1669 Mahler, Gustav, 1:19, 54, 197; 2:654; 3:1418–1419, 1571, 1572; 5:2421 Schoenberg and, 4:2102 Schubert’s influence on, 4:2107 Mahmud Celaˆleddin Pasha, 5:2515 Mahmud II, Ottoman sultan, 3:1420–1421 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1019, 1020; 3:1612, 1686 Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz Treaty and, 3:1560 reforms and, 3:1186–1187, 1420, 1685–1686 Russian ships in Bosphorus and, 1:278 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2391, 2392 Maid of Pskov, The (Rimsky-Korsakov), 2:654; 4:1999, 2000 Maine, Henry, 3:1314; 4:2213 Maiorescu, Titu, 4:2018 Maison des Ducs de Brabant (Brussels), 1:306 Maison Dore´e (Paris restaurant), 4:1966 Maison du Peuple (Brussels), 1:109, 307; 2:556 Maison du Peuple (Paris), 1:109 Maison du Roi (Brussels), 1:306 Maistre, Joseph de, 1:269, 387, 389; 3:1421–1422; 4:1959, 2212 as Chaadayev influence, 1:400 as Comte influence, 2:523

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

conservatism and, 2:539, 542; 3:1421 counterrevolution and, 2:566; 3:1421; 4:1718 Restoration and, 4:1968 Saint-Simon and, 4:2081 ultramontism and, 1:381 Maitland, Frederic William, 2:1073 Maitron, Jean, 4:1897 maize, 1:26; 3:1195 Majeed, Javeed, 3:1511 Major Barbara (Shaw), 4:2167 Majorelle, Louis, 1:111 Ma´j School (Ma´chal), 4:1857 Ma´j School (Prague), 4:1857 Majuba Hill, 3:1422–1423 Makarov, Stepan Osipovich, 4:2064 Makart, Hans, 5:2420 Makitta, Thomas, 3:1484 Maklakov, Vasily, 3:1241 Malachenko, A. L., 1:266 Malakhov bastion, 2:579 malaria, 1:19, 44, 47; 2:782 Malatesta, Errico, 1:58, 60, 62; 3:1423–1425; 4:2299 Malavoglia, I (Verga), 5:2407–2408 Malawi, 4:1841 Malaya (British dreadnaught), 3:1611 mal du sie`cle, 4:2028 Malebo Pool (Africa), 1:16 Male Nude, Back View (Schiele), 1:254 Malerbi, Giuseppe, 4:2038 Malevich, Kazimir, 1:157–158, 214; 3:1243; 4:2294 Malik, Der. Eine Kaisergeschichte, (Lasker-Schu¨ler), 3:1309 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 2:873 Mallarme´, Ste´phane, 2:631, 939, 940, 1104; 4:1845, 1944, 1955 Jarry and, 3:1213 Matisse illustrations for, 3:1475 Morisot friendship with, 3:1544 symbolism and, 3:1529; 4:2292, 2293, 2294 Mally, Ernst, 1:298 Malmaison (Paris), 4:1729 Malmoˆ, Armistice of (1848), 2:648, 871 Malory, Thomas, 1:109 Malta, 2:901, 958; 3:1481 Maltheˆte-Me´lie`s, Madeleine, 3:1484 Malthus, Thomas Robert, 1:401; 3:1425–1427 as Darwin influence, 2:615, 616, 617; 3:1426 economic theory of, 3:1426 Godwin rebuttal to, 2:981 Mill (James) and, 3:1510

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

neo-Malthusians and, 4:1762, 1830 population theory of, 2:714–715, 717, 777; 3:1425–1427; 4:1827 Spencer and, 4:2234 welfare viewed by, 2:714, 715; 3:1425–1426 Malus, E´tienne-Louis, 4:1780 Mamluks, 1:18; 2:731, 900 Man, Paul de, 2:1079 Man and God (H. Chamberlain), 1:404 Man and Superman (Shaw), 4:2166 Manao Tupapau (Gauguin), 2:939–940 Manchester, 3:1427–1431 Anti-Corn Law League and, 2:517, 558; 4:1889 architecture in, 1:185, 186; 2:590 bourgeois culture in, 1:287–288 Butler’s feminist activity in, 1:332 city life and, 1:454–455 Cobden and, 1:490, 491 concerts in, 3:1566 cotton industry and, 3:1427–1429 Engels in, 2:754, 755; 3:1430, 1450, 1466 Irish immigrants in, 3:1525 labor movement and, 3:1284, 1285, 1430 Luddism and, 3:1392 millinery workers in, 3:1429 population of, 1:446; 2:1087; 3:1430 representation and, 2:1003 shirt factory in, 2:789 spiritualist societies in, 4:2237 symbolism of, 3:1429–1430 Manchester Anti-Corn Law Association, 2:558 Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 3:1430 Manchester school (social reform), 1:490 Manchester Ship Canal, 3:1431 Manchester Town Hall (Britain), 4:2030 Manchuria, 4:1837, 1838, 2064, 2065, 2171; 5:2426 railroads and, 4:2064, 2065; 5:2426, 2479 Manchurian War. See Russo-Japanese War Mancini, Pasquale Stanislao, 3:1174 Mancomunitat de Catalun ˜ a, 4:2231 Mandel, Ernest, 2:707 Mandelstam, Osip, 1:214, 250, 400; 4:2182, 2183

1 9 1 4

Mandeville (Godwin), 2:981 Mandeville, Bernard, 2:551 dueling defended by, 2:694 Mandl, Ignaz, 3:1393, 1394 mandolin chamber orchestra, 3:1569 Manet, E´douard, 2:569, 854, 950; 3:1431–1434, 1432, 1434; 4:1708, 2293; 5:2522, 2523 absinthe and, 1:3 Daumier as influence on, 2:622 Degas’s collection of works of, 2:634 impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128, 1129, 1131 modernism and, 3:1530, 1533–1534; 4:1707–1708 Morisot relationship with, 3:1544 Parisian scenes and, 4:1732 poster art and, 4:1845 Renoir and, 4:1954 Repin and, 4:1956 Manet, Euge`ne (Morisot’s husband), 3:1433, 1544 Manet, Julie (Morisot’s daughter), 3:1544, 1544 Manette Solomon (Goncourt and Goncourt), 1:177 Manfred (Byron), 1:333 Mangoni, Giuseppe, 3:1503 Manguin, Henri-Charles, 1:153; 2:795–796 Manhattan Project (atomic bomb), 2:740 Manheim, Ralph, 2:1023 Manhood Suffrage Riots in Hyde Park (Hughes), 2:1004 Manifesto of the Communist Party (Marx and Engels), 2:520, 521; 4:2204 Manifesto of the Equals (Mare´chal), 2:519, 520 ‘‘Manifesto of the Nations of Europe, The’’ (Pan-Slav Congress), 4:1862 Manin, Daniele, 1:391; 4:2002; 5:2403, 2404 Manin, Ludovico, 5:2402 Mankind as It Is and as It Ought to Be (Weitling), 4:2203 Mann, Erika (daughter), 3:1435 Mann, Golo (son), 3:1435 Mann, Heinrich (brother), 3:1435, 1437 Mann, Katia Pringsheim (wife), 2:675; 3:1435 Mann, Klaus (son), 3:1435 Mann, Thomas, 2:679; 3:1434–1437, 1574; 4:1905 on sanatorium life, 5:2360

2691

INDEX

Schopenhauer as influence, 4:2104 on seaside resorts, 4:2125 Venice and, 5:2405 Mann, Tom (British labor leader), 1:60; 3:1295, 1297 Ma¨nner and Helden (Fontane), 2:828 Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf, 2:819 manners and formality, 1:484; 3:1437–1440; 4:1908 Mannheim, Karl, 2:536; 3:1169, 1172; 4:2215 Manning, Cardinal, 4:2259 Manning, Henry, 3:1440–1441; 4:1722, 1896 Mann ohne Eigenschaften, Der (Musil), 3:1574 Manns, Die (television series), 3:1435 Man of Destiny, The (Shaw), 4:2166 Man of Honor (Fontane), 2:829 Manon (Massenet), 3:1675 Manon Lescaut (Puccini), 3:1677; 4:1916 Manrique, Jorge, 2:950 Mansfield Park (Austen), 1:130, 131 Mansfield Park (film), 1:131–132 Mansion House Speech (Lloyd George, 1911), 3:1546 Mantashev, Alexander, 1:88 Manteuffel, Otto von, 2:962 Mantua, 3:1669 Manuel II, king of Portugal, 4:1841 Manuel Godoy as Commander in the War of the Oranges (Goya), 2:997 Manufacture des Gobelins, 4:2115 manufacturing. See economic growth and industrialization; factories Man vs. the State, The (Spencer), 4:2234 Man Who Laughs, The (Hugo), 2:1094–1095 Man with a Broken Nose, The (Rodin), 4:2008 Man with a Hoe (Millet), 1:180; 3:1516 Man without Qualities, The (Musil), 3:1574 ‘‘Man with the Twisted Lip, The’’ (Doyle), 2:680 Manzanares River, 3:1412 Manzoni, Alessandro, 2:930; 3:1193–1194, 1334, 1441–1442, 1504; 4:2123 Maometto II (Rossini), 3:1670, 1671; 4:2038 Maori (people), 3:1622, 1623, 1624 Mao Tse-tung, 1461 Maracana, 2:833 Maraiana Islands, 2:967

2692

Marat, Jean-Paul, 2:799, 973, 974; 3:1205, 1442–1443; 4:1869, 1960 assassination of, 3:1443 David painting of, 2:624; 4:1702 as Jacobin, 4:1700 Marat at His Last Breath (David), 2:624; 4:1702 Marathas, 2:669, 706; 3:1134, 1136 Marble Palace (St. Petersburg), 4:2077 Marc, Franz, 1:155–156; 3:1309 Marcel; La cite´ harmonieuse (Pe´guy), 4:1760 Marchand, Jean-Baptiste, 2:643, 784, 794, 795 masculine image of, 3:1472 Marcks, Gerhard, 1:154 Marconi, Guglielmo, 2:1063; 3:1163, 1444–1445; 4:1780 Marcoussis, Louis, 2:591 Marcus, Steven, 4:1834 Marcuse, Herbert, 2:838 Mare´, Rolf de, 4:2087 Mare´chal, Sylvain, 2:519, 520 Marengo, Battle of (1800), 2:901; 3:1192 Marey, E´tienne-Jules, 1:441; 3:1396, 1398; 4:1772 Margary, Augustus, 1:434 Margate, 4:2124 Margherita, queen consort of Italy, 1:362 marginal utility, theory of, 2:551–552 Maria II, queen of Portugal, 4:1840 Maria, princess of Russia, 3:1627 Marı´a Cristina, queen regent of Spain (1806–1878), 1:367, 368; 2:809; 4:2229 Marı´a Cristina, queen regent of Spain (1858–1929), 2:949; 4:2231 Maria Christina of Austria, 1:347 Maria Cristina Albertina of SaxonyCourland, 1:413 Maria Da Glo´ria, 4:1839 Maria Fyodorovna, empress of Russia, 1:37, 41; 3:1626–1627; 4:1747 Marı´a Luisa, queen of Spain, 2:808, 998, 999; 4:1763, 1764 Marian Column (Prague), 4:1858 Marian devotion, 1:287, 385; 4:1719, 2037 apparitions and shrines, 4:1788–1789, 1789 of Pius IX, 4:1797, 1798 Protestant rejection of, 4:1891 See also Immaculate Conception, doctrine of Mariani, Angelo, 2:688

Maria Teresa of Tuscany, 1:413 Maria Theresa, empress of Austria, 1:138, 140, 260; 5:2354, 2372 daughter Marie-Antoinette and, 2:841; 3:1445, 1446 educational reform and, 2:723 Lombardy and, 3:1191 peasants’ status and, 4:1754 Maricˇ, Mileva, 2:739, 740 Marie, Pierre, 1:410 Marie-Ame´lie de Bourbon, 3:1388 Marie-Antoinette, queen of France, 3:1445–1447 background of, 3:1384, 1445 Danton’s scheme to save, 2:611 dressmaker for, 1:481 execution of, 2:892; 3:1192, 1447; 4:1952, 1968 extravagances of, 3:1385, 1446 French Revolution and, 2:841, 860; 3:1385, 1386 Gouges’s Rights of Women and, 2:995–996 Jacobin view of, 3:1205 Louis XVI marriage to, 3:1384, 1445 pornographic libels against, 3:1446; 4:1833 Reign of Terror and, 4:1952 unpopularity of, 3:1446 Marie Josephine (wife of Louis XVIII), 3:1386–1387 Marie-Louise, duchess of Parma (second wife of Napoleon I), 1:270; 2:861; 3:1492, 1587; 5:2306 Marienbad, 1:261 Marie-The´re`se, empress of Austria, 3:1384 Marie-The´re`se of Sardinia, 1:412 Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 1:156–157; 3:1214; 5:2405 futurism and, 2:915, 916, 917–918, 920–921; 3:1530–1531 Marino Faliero (Byron), 1:333 Mario and the Magician (Mann), 3:1435 Marischal College, 3:1477 Maritain, Jacques, 1:213, 214; 4:1760 Maritime Customs Bureau (China), 1:434 Maritime Territory, 5:2426 maritime trade. See shipping; trade and economic activity maritime warfare. See naval warfare Mariuccia Shelter (Milan), 4:1886 Marius the Epicurean (Pater), 4:1746 mark (German monetary unit), 1:171; 3:1538

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Markart, Hans, 5:2405 market, the classical economomists and, 2:712–719 free trade and, 2:515; 4:1887 inherent growth and expansion of, 2:709 institutionalist view of, 2:707–708, 709 invisible hand of, 2:515, 712; 4:1887 Marxist economists on, 2:707 neoclassical economists on, 2:707, 710 See also capitalism; free trade; laissez-faire market integration, 5:2334, 2349, 2524, 2525 markets, 3:1447–1450 Barcelona, 1:182 Morocco, 3:1547 Naples, 3:1580, 1582 Paris, 2:1049; 4:1732 Markevitch, Igor, 3:1643 Markov, Andrei, 4:2249 Markovic´, Svetozar, 4:2145 Marlotte (France), 1:177 Marmara Sea, 1:243, 278; 3:1186, 1188 Marmont, Auguste, 3:1321–1322 Marmont, Marshal, 4:1983 Marne, Battle of the (1914), 1:151; 3:1508 Marocainsi, Les (Matisse), 3:1475 Maroons, 1:364 Maroto, Rafael, 4:2229 Marpingen, Marian apparition at, 4:1789 Marquesas Islands, 2:941 Marquet, Albert, 1:153; 2:795–797; 3:1474 Marr, Wilhelm, 1:71, 72, 74, 75, 76 marriage and family, 3:1450–1458 age of marriage and, 2:645, 667; 3:1451; 4:1827–1828, 1829 Bosnian group portrait, 1:275 bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 287, 472, 482; 3:1452–1455, 1456 Britain and, 2:1001 British civil unions and, 4:1894 British women’s rights act and, 2:946–947, 1008 consumerism and, 2:547, 548 dowry and, 1:472; 3:1453, 1454 Dublin family size and, 2:690 Engels on, 2:946 family size and, 4:1828, 1829, 1830–1831

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

fertility rate decline and, 2:645–646 Fourier’s views on, 4:2202 French civil law and, 3:1595 French revolutionary legislators and, 2:897 furniture and, 2:914 gender norm changes and, 2:947–948 gender roles and, 2:941–943, 942; 3:1471 male financial support of, 3:1470 masculinity and, 3:1470 Napoleonic Code and, 3:1470, 1595 neo-locality and, 3:1451 old age and, 3:1662–1663, 1664; 5:2454, 2455 peasant typology of, 4:1752–1753 Pelletier’s view of, 4:1762 population control and, 4:1827–1828, 1830 poverty and, 4:1853 Prussian civil marriage registration mandate and, 2:966; 3:1278, 1279 Russian serfs and, 4:2151 Second Industrial Revolution workforce and, 1:352 separate spheres ideology and, 1:70, 418, 472; 2:943 sexuality and, 4:2161, 2163 utopian socialism and, 2:803 as women’s best option, 1:131 women’s legal restrictions and, 1:129, 303; 2:941–943 women’s legal subjugation and, 1:129, 303; 2:802, 803, 804, 941–943; 3:1645, 1646 women’s rights activism and, 2:801, 804 working class and, 5:2485 See also childhood and children; divorce; motherhood Marriage of Heaven and Hell, The (Blake), 1:246 Marriage with God (Nijinsky recital), 3:1643 Married Love (Stopes), 4:2163 Married Women’s Property Act of 1870 (Britain), 3:1646 Married Women’s Property Act of 1882 (Britain), 2:946–947, 1008 Married Women’s Property Committee (Manchester), 1:332 Marsaut, Jean-Baptiste, 1:487 Mars Disarmed by Venus and the Three Graces (David), 2:625

1 9 1 4

‘‘Marseillaise, La’’ (French anthem), 1:457; 2:518, 891; 4:1826 Marseille federalist revolt in, 2:799, 800, 844 Mediterranean and, 3:1482 Paris Commune and, 4:1736 shoemaker and tanner strikes in, 3:1284 socialism and, 2:859 urban redevelopment and, 2:1088 worker housing in, 2:1089 Marsh, Peter, 2:516; 4:1888 Marshall, Alfred, 2:707 Marshall, Thomas H., 1:460; 4:1851–1852 Marshall Fields (Chicago department store), 2:551 Martens, Fyodor Fyodorovich von, 3:1175 Martens, Georg Friedrich, 3:1173 Marthe, histoire d’une fille (Huysmans), 2:1104 Martignac, vicomte de. See Gay, JeanBaptiste-Sylve`re Martin, Charles, 4:2087 Martin, Georges, 2:649 Martin, Joseph, 2:941 Martin, The´re`se, 1:385 Martin Chuzzlewit (Dickens), 2:656; 3:1649 Martineau, Harriet, 2:714, 715, 717, 934; 3:1458–1460 Martineau, James, 3:1459 Martı´nez de la Rosa, Francisco, 3:1414 Martı´nez Ruı´z, Jose´ (‘‘Azorin’’), 2:950, 951 Martinique, 1:14, 364, 365 Martinu, Bohuslav, 2:700 Martorell, Joan, 2:935 Martov, L. (Yuli Martov), 1:165, 266; 3:1170, 1460–1461, 1487, 1488 Marty, Anton, 1:298; 3:1242 Martyn, Henry, 4:1887 Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, The (D’Annunzio), 2:609 Martyrs, Les (Donizetti), 3:1672 Marx, Heinrich, 4:2081 Marx, Karl, 1:66, 455, 458; 2:872; 3:1461–1468, 1477; 5:2448 anarchist opposition to, 1:58, 161–162; 3:1468 on artisans, 1:104 background and early years of, 3:1463–1464 Bakunin rivalry with, 1:161, 162; 3:1289, 1424 on Belgian capitalism, 1:203 Berlin life and, 1:316

2693

INDEX

on Berlin’s growth, 1:217 Blanqui’s view of, 1:248 on bourgeoisie, 1:283, 290–291; 2:707; 3:1306–1307 on Cabet, 1:337 capitalism viewed by, 1:349, 350; 2:707, 708, 755, 1006; 3:1248, 1328, 1400, 1466–1467; 4:2205, 2210, 2213–2214 civil society viewed by, 1:465, 467 class and, 1:474, 475; 3:1306–1307; 4:1893 on commodity fetishism, 2:551–552 communism and, 2:520, 521, 522 Communist Manifesto of, 4:1946, 2081 Crystal Palace and, 2:590 dialectic and, 3:1252 economic determinism and, 3:1371 Engels’s collaboration with, 2:754–756; 3:1430, 1462, 1465, 1466 Engels’s work contrasted with, 3:1462 father’s Lutheran conversion and, 4:1895 First International and, 2:824, 825; 3:1289, 1424, 1467–1468 Fourierism and, 2:838 Guesde and, 2:1025 Hegel and, 2:1054; 3:1463, 1464, 1465 Heine and, 2:1056 on industrialization, 5:2484 on Ireland, 5:2342 Kautsky and, 3:1248 Kierkegaard compared with, 3:1252 Kropotkin critique of, 3:1273 Lassalle and, 3:1311 as Lenin influence, 3:1326 List and, 3:1356, 1357 on Louis-Napoleon, 3:1589–1590 on Malthus, 3:1426 on On the Origin of Species, 2:618 on Paris Commune, 4:1737 peasant politics and, 4:1755, 1832 proletariat definition and, 1:446; 4:1849 property rights and, 3:1314 on republicanism, 4:1963 Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081, 2203, 2204 Second International and, 3:1294; 4:2127 as secret society critic, 4:2131

2694

secularization and, 4:2133 Shaw and, 4:2166 Sismondi and, 4:2186 Social Democratic Party and, 3:1399 socialism and, 4:2200, 2201, 2203–2205, 2214 sociology and, 2:698, 699; 4:2213–2214 on Spain, 4:2227 on terrorism, 4:2210 Turati and, 5:2363 on Ulrichs’s writing, 5:2376 utopianism and, 1:231, 337 utopian socialism and, 5:2395 women’s emancipation and, 1:194; 2:805, 946 working class and, 5:2484, 2485 on world’s fairs, 5:2505 as Young Hegelian, 5:2512, 2513 Marxism, 4:2203–2205 Adler (Victor) and, 1:11 anarchists vs., 3:1424, 1497 anarchosyndicalist rejection of, 1:60, 62 Bebel and, 1:195 Berdyayev and, 1:212 Bernstein and, 1:230–231 Bolshevik wing of, 1:264–267 bourgeoisie and, 1:467 Britain and, 2:1011 Bund and, 1:313, 315 capitalism defined by, 1:349 communism linked with, 2:522 economic theory and, 3:1466–1468 economism and, 3:1328 Engels and, 2:756 First International and, 2:824; 3:1289 Gorky and, 2:992 Guesde and, 2:1025–1026 historiography and, 2:1074–1075 Industrial Revolution and, 2:707, 708–709 intellectual influence of, 3:1462 intelligentsia and, 3:1170 Kautsky as theoretician of, 3:1248 Latvia and, 2:822 Lenin’s view of, 3:1326–1327, 1328, 1329 Luxemburg and, 3:1400, 1401; 4:1811 Martov and, 3:1460–1461 Marx as founder of, 3:1461 Menshevik wing of, 3:1487–1488 Morris and, 3:1551

peasant economy and, 4:1756 Plekhanov and, 4:1800, 1801 Poland and, 4:1811 political philosophy of, 3:1327 populists and, 4:1832 Russia and, 4:2054 Russian Armenians and, 1:89 Socialist Party of France and, 3:1202 socialist revolutionaries and, 4:2049, 2209, 2210; 5:2518 Sorel’s critique of, 4:2217, 2218 Spanish syndicalism and, 4:2299–2300 Struve and, 4:2270 Zasulich and, 5:2518 See also Marx, Karl Marxist criticism on Dilthy, 2:661 on Frankfurt Parliament, 2:871 on Hardy, 2:1046 Marxist economics, 2:707, 708–709, 710–711 Mary, mother of Jesus. See Marian devotion Mary, a Fiction (Wollstonecraft), 5:2480 Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life (Gaskell), 2:934; 3:1430 Maryinsky Theater (St. Petersburg), 2:655; 3:1642; 4:1750 Marylebone Cricket Club (Britain), 4:2242 ‘‘Mary Postgate’’ (Kipling), 3:1257 Masaryk, Toma´ˇs Garrigue, 1:264; 2:1099; 3:1468–1469 Mascagni, Pietro, 3:1676; 5:2408 masculinity, 3:1470–1473 aristocratic privileges of, 1:469 beards and, 1:190–191 bourgeoise patriarchy and, 1:287, 458 clothing and, 1:484, 485; 2:943–944 clubs and, 1:116; 3:1471 conflicts of, 3:1470 cycling and, 2:600 dueling and, 2:694–696; 3:1471–1472 fin de sie`cle tensions and, 2:816; 3:1472–1473 imperialist images of, 2:948; 3:1472–1473 mafia and, 3:1416 manners and, 3:1439 middle-class consumerism and, 2:549 old-age pensions and, 3:1665 Romanticism and, 4:2029

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

sexuality and, 4:2161, 2164 sports and, 4:2245 ‘‘Mask of Anarchy, The’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 masochism, 3:1270; 4:2162 Masonic Grand Orient, 2:879; 4:1998 Masonic lodges. See Freemasons Mass, 1:378, 379 mass armies. See leve´e en masse Massau (German battleship), 3:1610 Massawa, 1:7 Masse´na, Andre´, 4:2227 Massenet, Jules, 3:1675, 1677 Massenstreik Partei und Gewerkschaften (Luxemburg), 3:1400 Massimilla Donni (Balzac), 1:168 Massin, Caroline, 2:523 Massine, Le´onide, 2:655; 4:2087 Mass in E-flat Major (Schubert), 4:2107 Massis, Henri, 1:214 mass production, 3:1162; 5:2352 Mass Strike, Party, and Unions (Luxemburg), 3:1400 Mastai-Ferretti, Giovanni Maria. See Pius IX, Pope Master and Man (Tolstoy), 5:2319 Master Humphrey’s Clock (London weekly), 2:656 Master of Ballantrae, The (Stevenson), 4:2255 masters (artisans), 4:1988; 5:2486, 2487 Mastro-don Gesualdo (Verga), 5:2408 masturbation, 3:1471; 4:2161, 2162 Mat (Gorky), 2:993 Matejko, Jan, 3:1265 maternity hospitals, 5:2450 maternity leave, 5:2452 mathematics Frege and, 2:882–884 Husserl and, 2:1099–1100 Kelvin and, 3:1249 Maxwell and, 3:1478 physics and, 4:1778, 1779, 1780 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1804–1805 Quetelet and, 4:1921–1922 St. Petersburg and, 4:2077 Swedish contributions to, 4:2285–2286 Mathieu de Noailles, Anna-E´lisabeth, 3:1214 Mathilda (Shelley), 4:2169 ˇ eska´ (Czech group), 1:261; Matice C 4:1711 Matilde de Shabran (Rossini), 4:1699 Matisse, Henri, 3:1167, 1473–1476, 1475

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

fauvism and, 1:153, 214; 2:795–796, 797; 3:1474, 1530; 4:1710 as Kandinsky influence, 3:1244, 1245 Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857 (Britain), 1:303 Matsch, Franz, 3:1260 Matteotti, Giacomo, 2:972 Matter and Memory (Bergson), 1:213 Mattheson, Johann, 3:1673 Matthew, Theobald, 1:36 Matthieux, Johanna, 1:316 Matyushin, Mikhail, 1:157 Maud, W. T., 3:1669 Maud and Other Poems (Tennyson), 5:2309 Maudsley, Henry, 2:638; 4:1909 Maupassant, Guy de, 2:535, 638, 991, 1104; 3:1436; 5:2523 Maura y Montaner, Antonio, 4:2231 Maurepas, Jean-Fre´de´ric Phelypeaux de, 3:1384, 1385 Mauriac, Franc¸ois, 1:184 Maurice (Forster), 2:836 Maurice, Frederick Denison, 4:2206, 2208 Mauritius, 1:16 Maurois, Andre´, 4:2085 Maurras, Charles, 3:1476–1477 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:4, 5, 214, 389; 2:542, 684; 3:1476–1477 conservatism and, 2:540, 542; 3:1476 Dreyfus affair and, 2:684; 3:1476 extreme right and, 2:858; 3:1476 as Sand detractor, 4:2084 Maury, Abbe´ (Jean-Siffren), 3:1226 Maury, Matthew Fontaine, 3:1658 Mausoleum Book, The (Stephen), 4:2254 Mauss, Marcel, 4:2215 Mauve, Anton, 5:2400 mauveine, 3:1159 Max, Peter, 1:192 Maximalists, 4:2211 Maxim gun, 1:20 Maximilian I, elector of Bavaria, 5:2374 Maximilian II, king of Bavaria, 3:1382; 4:1940 Maximilian, archduke of Habsburg, 5:2404 Maximilian, emperor of Mexico, 2:854; 5:2497 Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science, 4:1800 Maxwell, James Clerk, 2:739; 3:1162, 1163, 1477–1479

1 9 1 4

electromagnetism and, 3:1249, 1478; 4:1780, 2109, 2114 Helmholtz and, 2:1058 Hertz and, 2:1062, 1063 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1804 statistics and, 4:1922 Mayakovsky, Vladimir, 1:157, 250, 337; 4:2182, 2183 Maybach, Wilhelm, 3:1161 May Day, 1869 (Green), 4:1822 May Day celebrations, 2:857, 1025–1026; 5:2502 Mayer, Henri, 4:2023 Mayerling crisis (1889), 2:864; 4:2044 Mayhew, Henry, 2:573, 716; 4:2213 Mayhew’s Great Exhibition of 1851: The First Shilling Day, Going In (Cruikshank), 2:586 May Laws of 1873–1875 (Prussia), 3:1278, 1279, 1331; 4:1896 May Night (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:1999 Maynooth seminary (Ireland), 2:1000 Mayor of Casterbridge, The (Hardy), 2:1045 Mayr, Ernst, 1:23; 2:618 Mayr, Georg von, 2:571 Mayr, Giovanni, 3:1670 Mayreder, Karl, 3:1381 Mazarin, Jules, 1:469 Mazepa (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307 Mazlish, Brcue, 3:1514 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 1:58, 361, 362; 3:1200, 1479–1481, 1480; 4:1986, 2004; 5:2511 Cavour and, 1:391 Charles Albert and, 1:414 as Crispi influence, 2:581 Garibaldi and, 2:930, 931, 932, 933; 3:1197 liberalism and, 3:1343 Milanese uprising and, 3:1502 as Mozzoni influence, 3:1555, 1556 nationalism and, 3:1605 Paris Commune and, 3:1424 republicanism and, 4:1963 Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1197, 1480; 4:1719, 1796 secret societies and, 4:2130, 2131 Sicily and, 4:2175 Young Europe and, 3:1195 Young Italy and, 3:1194–1195, 1480; 4:1989, 2001–2002, 2131; 5:2513–2514 McAdams, John, 2:760 McCloskey, Deirdre, 3:1153 McCormick Harvesting Machine Company, 5:2503, 2505

2695

INDEX

McGregor, William, 2:831 McKeown, Thomas, 5:2341 McKinley, William, 1:57 Mc-Nab, Maurice, 1:335 McNair, Herbert, 1:112 McNeill, William H., 2:668 Meaning of Creativity, The (Berdyayev), 1:212 ‘‘Meaning of Love, The’’ (Soloviev), 4:2216 measles, 2:667; 3:1372 measurement, 3:1173 Kelvin and, 3:1249 metric system and, 3:132 meat preservation, 2:659; 3:1623 Mecca, 1:396, 436; 3:1420 mechanics, Hertz principles of, 2:1063 Mechanics Institutes and Schools of Design (Britain), 1:287 Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung, Die (Mach), 3:1409 Mechelen Conference (1863), 1:388 Meck, Nadezhda von, 5:2307 Mecklenburg, written constitution of, 2:959 mediate auscultation, 3:1298 Medici, Luigi de, 3:1193 medicine, 4:2109–2110, 2114 addiction treatment and, 2:687 antiseptic procedures and, 2:644 battlefields and, 3:1307–1308 Bernard and, 1:227–228 birth control and, 4:1831 body and, 1:251 bourgeois doctors and, 1:285–286 Charcot and, 1:407–411 cholera treatments and, 1:436–437, 438 degeneration diagnosis and, 2:638 doctors and, 1:285–286, 472 Doyle’s career in, 2:679–680, 681 Ehrlich and, 2:735–736 Freud and, 2:904; 4:1904 gendered barriers in, 2:945 Geneva Convention and, 2:953 germ theory and, 4:1743–1744 Hirschfeld and, 2:1069–1070 homsexuality and, 2:1084–1085 Jenner and, 3:1222–1224 Jung and, 3:123 Koch and, 3:1262–1264 Laennec and, 3:1297–1298 Larrey and, 3:1307–1308 Lister and, 3:1358–1359 Lumie`re inventions and, 3:1398 Marat and, 3:1442–1443

2696

mesmerism and, 3:1490–1491 nurse professionalization and, 3:1650 old age and, 3:1665 opiate use in, 2:686–687, 688 Pelletier and, 4:1761, 1762 Pinel and, 4:1790–1792 professionalization of, 4:1877, 1878, 1880 radium’s uses in, 2:595 Roentgen and, 4:2012 Semmelweiss and, 4:2134–2135 smallpox prevention and, 4:2197 syphilis and, 4:2301, 2302–2303 tuberculosis and, 5:2359–2361 Virchow and, 5:2425 women’s professional training in, 2:728, 803, 816, 945; 3:1542 x-ray use in, 3:1398 See also disease; hospitals; nurses; psychiatry; public health; vaccination Medick, Hans, 3:1147 Medico-Philosophical Treatise on Mental Alienation (Pinel), 4:1791 medievalism. See Middle Ages Medina, 3:1420 Me´ditations Poe´tique (Lamartine), 3:1303 Mediterranean, 3:1481–1482; 5:2354 balance of power in, 3:1613 Black Sea and, 1:243; 3:1482 Bosphorus and, 1:278 British control of, 3:1481, 1482, 1615 British tourism along, 1:288, 303 cholera pandemic and, 1:436 Crispi foreign policy and, 2:582, 583 Eastern Question and, 2:703, 705 Napoleon and, 3:1585, 1615 Suez Canal and, 2:794; 3:1337, 1482 trade and, 5:2336–2337, 2342 Mediterranean Agreements (1887), 2:526 Mediterranisme, 4:2232 mediums. See spiritualism Medjugorje shrine (BosniaHerzegovina), 4:1788 Medusa, art nouveau imagery of, 1:108 Meerveldt, Maximillian, 3:1321 Mehmet V, Ottoman sultan, 1:1; 3:1691 Mehmet Ali Pasha, viceroy of Egypt, 1:18; 2:731; 3:1420–1421, 1482 Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz treaty and, 3:1560, 1561

Navarino and, 2:1020; 3:1612, 1613 Ottoman power challenged by, 3:1686 Mehmet S˛u¨kru ¨ Pas˛a, 1:12 ´ tienne-Nicolas, 3:1673 Me´hul, E Meiji era (Japan), 3:1210–1212; 4:2064 Meikle, Andrew, 1:25; 2:757, 758 Meinecke, Friedrich, 4:1940 Mein Kampf (Hitler), 2:688; 3:1393 Meinong, Alexius, 1:298, 299 Meissonier, Ernest, 2:738; 3:1490 Meister, Wilhelm, 2:985 Meistersinger von Nu ¨ rnberg, Die (Wagner), 3:1571; 5:2431 Mekhitarist order (Armenian Catholic), 1:88 Mekong Delta, 3:1138, 1139, 1141, 1142 melancholy, 4:2028–2029, 2294 Melancholy (Munch), 3:1558, 1559 Me´langes (Bergson), 1:213 Melbourne (Australia), 1:134, 135 Melbourne, Lord (William Lamb), 1:303; 3:1646; 4:1758, 1759; 5:2412, 2461, 2462 Melbye, Fritz, 4:1792 Melchers, Gari, 4:1948 Melchor de Jovellanos, Gaspar, 4:2227 Me´lie`s, Georges, 1:441; 2:859; 3:1396, 1397, 1482–1484 Melilla, 3:1548 Me´line, Jules, 1:492; 2:857 Me´line tariff, 1:355, 492; 2:512, 857 Melingue, G. G., 3:1224 Mella, Ricardo, 1:59 Me´lomane, Le (film), 3:1483 Melzi d’Eril, Francesco, 4:2189 Memoire de Mme de Valmont (Gouges), 2:994 Memoiren einer Frau aus dem badisch-pfa¨lzischen Feldzuge (Anneke), 1:66 Me´moires (Berlioz), 1:225 Me´moires (Haussmann), 2:1050; 4:1731 Me´moires d’outre-tombe (Chateaubriand), 1:421 Me´moires pour serve a` l’histoire de mon temps (Guizot), 2:1030 Me´moires sur Napole´on (Stendhal), 4:2252 Me´moire sur la science de l’homme (Saint-Simon), 4:2080 Memoir on Heat (Laplace and Lavoisier), 4:2113–2114 Memoirs (Garibaldi), 2:930, 933 Memoirs (Symonds), 4:2296, 2297

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

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INDEX

Memoirs from the House of the Dead (Dostoyevsky), 2:678 Memoirs of an Egoist (Stendhal), 4:2253 Memoirs of a Revolutionary (Kropotkin), 3:1272 Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure (Cleland), 4:1833 Memoirs of Lola Montez (Montez), 4:1834 Memoirs of Mary Wollstonecraft (Godwin), 2:981 Memoirs of Napoleon (Stendhal), 4:2252 Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, The (Doyle), 2:680 Memoirs of the Author of the Rights of Women (Godwin), 5:2480 Memorandum Movement (Romania, 1892), 4:2019 Memorandum of the Powers (1831), 4:1718 Memorial of St. Helena (Napoleon memoir), 1:270; 3:1588–1589 Memories and Adventures (Doyle), 2:680 Memories of Childhood and Youth (Renan), 4:1953 memory, Cajal hypothesis on, 1:342 men. See gender; masculinity Me´nage, Le (Huysmans), 2:1104 Mencken, Wilhelmine Louise, 1:233 Mendel, Gregor, 3:1484–1487; 4:1749 de Vries and, 2:652, 653 heredity law and, 2:652, 769–770, 778 Mendeleyev, Dmitri, 1:426 Mendels, Franklin, 3:1147, 1148 ‘‘Mendel’s Law Concerning the Behavior of Progress of Varietal Hybrids’’ (Correns), 2:653 Mendelssohn, Felix, 1:197, 225; 2:979; 3:1565, 1568, 1570 as Dvorˇa´k influence, 2:701 Gewandhaus Orchestra and, 3:1568 Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia, 1:7, 8; 2:583 Mene´ndez Pelayo, Marcelino, 4:2227 Menger, Anton, 3:1315 Mennonites, 1:346; 3:111; 4:1803 Menou, Jacques-Franc¸os de, 2:731 Menschenkenntnis (A. Adler), 1:10 men’s clubs, 1:116; 3:1471 Mensheviks, 3:1487–1488; 4:2270; 5:2486 Bolshevik split with, 1:265, 266, 267, 315; 3:1328, 1329, 1460, 1487–1488; 4:1801

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Bund and, 1:315; 3:1487 Martov and, 3:1460–1461, 1487, 1488 nihilist writings and, 3:1641 Plekhanov and, 3:1488; 4:1801 Revolution of 1905 and, 4:1976, 1977 Zasulich and, 5:2518 Menshikov, Prince, 2:578 Menshikov Palace (St. Petersburg), 4:2075 mental chronometry, 5:2507 mental illness fin de sie`cle and, 2:816 French studies of, 4:1908 Freud and, 2:904, 909 Ge´ricault portraits of, 2:956, 956 involuntary sterlization and, 2:771 Krafft-Ebing and, 3:1270–1271 Pinel’s theory and treatment of, 4:1790, 1791–1792, 1959 See also psychiatry Menzel, Adolph von, 3:1488–1490 Me´phis (Tristan), 5:2357 Mer, Le (Debussy), 2:628 Mercadante, Saverio, 3:1671 mercantilism, 2:512; 3:1304 gold as basis of, 2:515; 4:1887 liberalism vs., 3:1341 Napoleon and, 2:554 Mercat del Born (Barcelona), 1:182 Mercat de Sant Antoni (Barcelona), 1:182 mercenaries, 1:97 Mercier, Louis-Se´bastien, 2:994; 4:1728 Mercure de France (journal), 3:1213 Mercury Attaching His Wings (Rude), 4:2043 Mercy-Argenteau, Florimond Claude, 3:1446 Merelli, Bartolomeo, 5:2406 Merezhkovsky, Dmitri, 1:212; 4:2182, 2183 Me´rime´e, Prosper, 5:2314, 2422 meritocracy, 2:1008 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 2:1101; 4:1710 Me´rode, Frederick Xavier de, 4:2035 Merrill, George, 1:372, 373 Merrill, Stuart, 4:2294 ‘‘Merry Men, The’’ (Stevenson), 4:2255 Mertrud, J.-C., 2:598, 599 Mesmer, Franz Anton, 3:1490–1491; 4:1908 mesmerism, 3:1490–1491; 4:1822

1 9 1 4

Messa di Requiem (Verdi), 5:2406 Messaline (Jarry), 3:1213–1214 ‘‘Messe de l’athe´e, La’’ (Balzac), 1:168 Messina, 3:1255; 4:2177 earthquake of 1908 in, 4:1949 Meszle´nyi, Tere´z, 3:1267 metallurgy, 4:2115 Belgium and, 1:201–202, 203; 3:1149 chemistry and, 1:425 Germany and, 2:960 Lyon and, 3:1405 Milan and, 3:1504 railroads and, 4:1935 Second Industrial Revolution and, 1:351, 352; 3:1157, 1158–1160 See also steel production metalwork, art nouveau, 1:107, 109 Metaphysical Society (Britain), 2:1103 Metchnikoff, E´lie, 2:736 meteorology, 2:1096, 1097 Methodenstreit, 4:2214 Methodism, 2:1002; 4:1891, 1892–1893, 1895, 1896, 1897 New Connexion group and, 4:2082 Methodist Missionary Society, 4:1895 Methodius, St., 4:1716 Methods of Ethics (Sidgwick), 5:2394 metric system, 3:132 Me´tro (Paris), 4:1732, 1733, 2271–2273; 5:2502, 2503 art nouveau entrance design, 1:109–110; 2:815, 1027, 1028; 4:1732 Metro-Land (London), 4:2273 Me´tropolitain (Paris subway). See Me´tro Metropolitan Board of Works (London), 3:1378–1379 Metropolitan Council of Public Works (Budapest), 1:310 Metropolitan Opera Company (New York), 3:1418 Metropolitan Police Force (London), 3:1375; 4:1814 Metropolitan Railway (London), 4:2271, 2273 Metropolitan Swimming Association (London), 4:2241, 2242 Metternich, Clemens von, 1:140, 142; 2:606; 3:1491–1495 background and early years of, 3:1491–1492 Carbonari and, 1:361 Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:369; 3:1494; 4:1971 Castlereagh and, 1:374; 3:1493, 1494

2697

INDEX

Congress of Troppau and, 2:531–532; 3:1494 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532, 533, 534, 565, 861, 1080–1081; 3:1493 conservatism and, 1:139; 2:540, 567 counterrevolution and, 2:566, 567, 959; 3:1494 Crown Prince’s Circle critics of, 2:876–877 declining influence of, 3:1494–1495 dilomacy of, 2:861; 3:1492–1494 dismissal of, 2:567, 808; 3:1236, 1495; 5:2418 Ferdinand I and, 2:807, 808 Francis I and, 2:861 German Confederation and, 2:959 gerontocracy and, 3:1164 Habsburg collapse and, 1:141 Holy Alliance and, 2:861, 959, 1081 Italy and, 3:1193, 1196 Kossuth and, 3:1267 military spending and, 2:866 Mu¨nchengra¨tz treaty and, 3:1560, 1561 on Pius IX, 4:1796 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1980, 1981, 1982 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1990 status quo and, 2:957, 959 Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260 Switzerland and, 4:2289–2290 Venice and, 5:2403 Vienna and, 5:2417, 2418 on voluntary associations, 1:117 Metternich, Pauline, 1:482 Metz, 1:51 Metz, Battle of (1870), 2:869–870 Metzinger, Jean, 1:156, 214; 2:590, 593 Meunier, Constantin, 1:307 Meurent, Victorine, 3:1432, 1433 Meuse River, 486 Mexico, 5:2336 Humboldt in, 2:1096 Napoleon III and, 1:271; 2:575, 854; 3:1592 papacy and, 4:1720 Spanish penal colony in, 2:779 world’s fairs and, 5:2500, 2505 Meyer, Adolf, 3:1238 Meyer, Henri, 2:582 Meyer, Michael, 3:1108 Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 3:1567, 1661, 1671, 1672, 1674; 5:2430

2698

Meyerhold, Vsevolod, 1:250; 3:1495–1496 Meyerhold Theater (Moscow), 3:1496 Meynert, Theodor, 1:341; 4:1904 Meysengug, Malwida von, 1:63 mezzandria (sharecropping), 3:1195; 4:2186 MFN. See most-favored-nation status Micah Clarke (Doyle), 2:681 ‘‘Michael’’ (Wordsworth), 5:2482 Michallon, Achille-Etna, 2:560 Michaud, 2:676–677 Michaux, Pierre, 5:2351 Michaux of Paris, 2:599, 600 Michel, Henry, 4:2081 Michel, Louise, 3:1496–1498, 1498; 4:1962 Michelangelo, 2:634, 640; 4:2008, 2015, 2296 Delacroix essay on, 2:641 Michelet, Jean, 1:70 Michelet, Jules, 2:723, 996; 3:1385, 1498–1500; 4:1897, 1962 on Mickiewicz, 3:1500–1501 Michelin, 5:2326, 2351 automobile tires and, 1:149 bicycle tires and, 2:551, 601 Michelin, E´douard, 1:148–149 Michetti, Niccolo`, 4:2076 Mickiewicz, Adam, 3:1500–1501; 4:1808, 1811, 1818 microbes. See bacteriology; germ theory of disease microorganisms, 4:1743–1744 microphotography, 3:1262 microscope, 2:735; 4:2113; 5:2359 microwaves, 3:1445 Middle Ages Michelet history of, 3:1499 as Morris influence, 3:1550 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863, 1865 as Pugin influence, 4:1917 Romanticism and, 4:2030 middle class. See bourgeoisie; lower middle class Middle East Chateaubriand travel writing on, 1:420, 421 imperialism and, 1:243 See also specific countries and place names Middle German Commercial Union, 5:2525 Middlemarch (G. Eliot), 2:744 Middlesex Wanderers (football team), 2:834 Middleton and Bailey (surveyors), 1:185

Midhat Pasa, 1:1; 3:1689 Midi rouge, 4:1964 Midlands (England), 3:1153 Midlothian campaigns (Disraeli), 2:978 Midsummer Night’s Dream, A (cartoon), 4:1722 Mighty Handful group, 4:1999 Mignet, Franc¸ois-Auguste-Marie, 5:2310 migration. See emigration; immigration and internal migration Miguel, king of Portugal, 4:1839 Miguel, Dom, 4:1983 Mikhailovsky, Nikolai, 3:1170; 4:2054 Milan, 3:1501–1505 bourgeoisie and, 1:283 Carbonari and, 1:360; 4:2130 child abandonment and, 5:2455 economic activity and, 3:1195, 1503 electric lighting and, 2:741 futurism and, 2:917, 918, 920 Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, 3:1503 insurrection in, 5:2377 as Kingdom of Italy capital, 4:2001 ‘‘moral capital’’ myth of, 3:1502 Naples contrasted with, 3:1581 Napoleonic influence in, 3:1501 population of, 3:1501 Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196, 1502; 4:1990, 2002 sister republics and, 4:2187 Venice and, 5:2403 Verdi and, 5:2406 as walled city, 3:1503 Milan, prince of Serbia, 3:1541 Milan Decree of 1807 (France), 2:553, 902; 3:1586; 5:2438 Milanese Labor Chamber, 3:1276 Milanese Socialist League, 5:2363 Milbanke, Anne Isabella, 1:332 Milhaud, Darius, 4:1944, 2087 Milita¨rische Gesellschaft (Prussia), 3:1222 militarism armies and, 1:95 Black Hand and, 1:242 colonialism and, 1:356 dueling code and, 2:696 Jaure`s’s opposition to, 3:1216, 1217–1218 jingoism and, 3:1235 Kipling and, 3:1257 laissez-faire opponents of, 2:707 Liebknecht’s antimilitarism and, 3:1356

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

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INDEX

Prussia and, 1:219, 237, 241 voluntary associations and, 1:117, 118 See also warfare Militarism and Anti-Militarism (Liebknecht), 3:1355 military. See armies military colonies, 4:2050 military schools, 1:96 military tactics, 1:99–101; 3:1505–1508 airplanes and, 1:29, 30–31 Austro-Prussian War and, 1:148 bayonet and, 1:95 Bethmann Hollweg and, 1:232 Boer War and, 1:99, 100, 257; 3:1259 Borodino and, 1:472 cavalry and, 1:95 Clausewitz and, 1:477–479; 2:1033 colonialism and, 1:99 Crimean War and, 2:577–578, 579–580 Danish-German War and, 2:607–609 firearms development and, 1:20 Franco-Austrian War and, 2:867 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:868–869, 870 French shock columns and, 3:1506 Jena and, 3:1221 Jomini and, 3:1236–1237 Kitchener and, 3:1258–1259 Kutuzov and, 3:1281 Leipzig and, 3:1319–1322 Moltke and, 3:1532 Mukden and, 3:1557 Napoleon and, 5:2443 Napoleonic successes and, 1:94, 132–133 Navarino and, 3:1612 Nelson and, 3:1614, 1616 railroads and, 4:1937 Russo-Japanese War and, 4:2066, 2067–2068 Schlieffen Plan and, 4:1937, 2098–2099 strategy vs., 3:1505 submarine warfare and, 1:232 technology and, 2:1034; 3:1507–1508 Trafalgar and, 5:2344–2345 Ulm and, 5:2374–2375 Wellington and, 5:2457 militia, 1:98 milk chocolate, 1:496 Mill, Harriet Taylor, 1:371; 2:804, 946; 3:1508–1509, 1513, 1514

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Mill, James, 1:211; 2:515, 717; 3:1510–1512; 5:2392, 2394 free trade and, 4:1887 liberalism and, 3:1343 son John Stuart Mill and, 3:1510, 1511, 1512, 1513 Mill, John Stuart, 2:515, 523; 3:1408, 1512–1515; 4:2214, 2233; 5:2445 Bentham’s influence on, 1:211; 3:1512, 1513 Carlyle’s manuscript loss and, 1:371 Comte as influence on, 4:1844 economic theory of, 2:717–718, 1006 education of, 3:1511, 1512 as Fabian influence, 2:787 father’s influence on, 3:1510, 1511, 1512, 1513 Humboldt (Wilhelm) and, 2:1097 Lewes and, 2:743 liberalism and, 3:1345 Mazzini friendship with, 3:1480 personal crisis of, 3:1513 positivism and, 4:1953 protectionist argument of, 4:1887–1888 relationship with Harriet Taylor of, 3:1508–1509, 1513, 1514 Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081 secularism viewed by, 4:2133 socialism and, 4:2207 Tocqueville and, 5:2317 utilitarianism and, 5:2392, 2394 women’s rights and, 2:804, 805, 946, 1008; 3:1555 on women’s suffrage, 4:2276, 2279 Millais, John Everett, 4:1707, 1863, 1864, 2046, 2047 Millardet, Pierre-Marie-Alexis, 3:1164 millennialism Berdyayev and, 1:212 Cabet and, 1:338 Millennium Exhibition of 1896 (Budapest), 1:310, 311 Miller, Henry, 4:1939 Miller, John, 2:537 Miller, Pavla, 3:1451–1452 Millerand, Alexandre, 2:858, 1026; 3:1216; 5:2432 Millet (Rolland), 4:2015 Millet, Jean-Franc¸ois, 2:562; 3:1126, 1515–1516, 1515; 4:1705, 1757 as Barbizon painter, 1:178, 179–180, 179 realism and, 4:1948

1 9 1 4

Van Gogh and, 5:2400, 2401 millet system, 1:273; 3:1516–1517, 1687; 4:2142 Millgate, Michael, 2:1045 Mill on the Floss, The (G. Eliot), 2:744 mills, silk-throwing, 2:790 Milner, Alfred, 4:2223 Milnes, Richard Monckton, 3:1636 Miltiades, 2:1018 Milton (Blake), 1:246 Milton, John, 1:246, 419, 420, 421; 5:2309 Coleridge lectures on, 1:497 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 Fu ¨ ssli paintings and, 4:1703 Macaulay essay on, 3:1408 Milyukov, Pavel, 3:1170, 1241, 1517–1520, 1552; 4:2055, 2270 Milyukova, Antonia, 5:2307 Milyutin, Dmitri, 2:1016, 1017; 4:2052, 2067 Milyutin, Nikolai, 4:2154 mind. See psychoanalysis; psychology Mind (journal), 4:1907 Mind at the End of Its Tether (Wells), 5:2459 mind-body dualism, 2:926; 4:1907 Miner, The (Scottish newspaper), 2:1043 Miners Federation of Great Britain, 3:1296 Minh-Mang, 3:1138–1140, 1145 mining. See coal mining; diamonds; gold Ministry of Public Health (France), 4:1913 Minoans, 3:1481 minorities, 1520–1526 Albania and, 1:32 Algeria and, 1:43, 46 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51 Armenia and, 1:87 armies and, 1:94 Australia and, 1:135 Austria-Hungary and, 1:137, 141–142, 144, 145; 2:862 Balkan conflict and, 1:2; 2:703–705 Baltic provinces and, 2:818–819, 820, 823 Belgium and, 1:202 Belgrade and, 1:206 Bismarck’s policies against, 1:239 Bohemian Lands and, 1:240, 261–263; 2:865; 4:1712 Budapest and, 1:310 Bulgaria and, 1:313 Bulgarian Atrocities and, 2:977

2699

INDEX

Canada and, 1:342, 343 Catholics as, 1:377, 383, 393; 4:1901 Central Asian hostilities and, 1:397 in cities, 1:447 citizenship and, 1:458–459 educational language and, 2:719, 724–726 ethnicity vs. race and, 3:1520 Finland and, 2:818–819, 820 German resettlement program and, 1:239 German unification and, 2:871 Hungary and, 1:144; 2:627; 3:1267, 1268–1269 Istanbul and, 3:1186 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1225–1227, 1228–1230 Kadets and, 3:1241 labor movements and, 3:1294 Macedonia and, 3:1691 migration and, 3:1109–1110, 1112, 1113, 1114 nationalist conflicts among, 3:1605 nationalist movements and, 3:1604 Netherlands and, 3:1618, 1619 Ottoman Empire and, 2:530, 1018; 3:1516–1517 pogroms against, 4:1801–1804 professional barriers for, 4:1881 Protestants as, 4:1890, 1891, 1895 Romanies as, 4:2021–2024, 2146 Russian treatment of, 1:39, 40, 89 Russian uprisings of, 3:1328–1329 urban diversity of, 1:447 Vilnius and, 3:1366 Volksgeist and, 4:1756 World War I treaties and, 2:705 Young Turks support by, 3:1690 Minsk, 1:264 Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (Scott), 4:2123 Minton, Herbert, 4:1918 Minute on Indian Education (Macaulay), 3:1407 Miquel, Johannes von, 2:967, 968 Mirabeau, comte de (Honore´-Gabriel Riquetti), 4:1833, 1869, 2006 Miramare (Trieste castle), 5:2355 Mirari Vos (1832), 1:381, 388; 4:1719 Mirbeau, Octave-Henri-Marie, 1:57; 2:633 Mirgorod (Gogol), 2:988 Mirilton (Paris cabaret), 1:335 Miroirs (Ravel), 4:1944 Mirzoev, M. I., 1:88

2700

miscegenation theories, 1:403 Misch, Georg, 2:661 Mise´rables, Les (Hugo), 2:1094; 4:1849, 1963 misogyny, 2:632, 675 Come´die-Franc¸aise and, 2:995 ‘‘feminine evil’’ fantasies and, 2:816 Missa solemnis (Beethoven), 1:197; 3:1570 Miss Cranston’s tearoom (Glasgow), 1:112 missions, 3:1527–1529; 4:2220; 5:2463 in Africa, 1:501; 2:782, 783 Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292, 293 Catholic, 1:384; 4:1798 in China, 1:433, 434; 3:1679, 1680 as civilizers, 1:463, 499, 500, 501; 2:508; 3:1527 exploration and, 2:783, 784 imperialism and, 3:1115, 1116, 1528–1529 in India, 3:1134; 4:2140 Japanese policy toward, 3:1209 Lyon and, 3:1405 in New Zealand, 3:1622 primitivism and, 4:1875 Protestant awakening and, 4:1895 Restoration France and, 4:1968, 1970 Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083 shift in aims of, 3:1528 in South Africa, 4:2220 in Vietnam, 3:1140, 1141 Miss Julie (Strindberg), 4:2268, 2269, 2286 ‘‘Miss Martineau’s Summary of Political Economy’’ (J. S. Mill), 2:717 Miss Nightingale in the Hospital at Scutari (Hind), 3:1637 Mitchell, B. R., 1:486 Mitchell, Joan, 3:1133 Mitelberg, Louis, 2:622 Mitscherlich, Eilhard, 1:425 Mittasch, Alwin, 3:1160 Mitteldeutsche Volkszeitung (Leipzig newspaper), 3:1681 Mitteleuropa, 2:960 List economic theory and, 3:1357 Mittelstand (class), 1:107, 473; 2:556 Mitterrand, Franc¸ois, 2:596; 4:2041 Mizrahi, 5:2521 Mlada (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:1999, 2000 Moabit (Berlin district), 1:219 Moberg, Vilhelm, 4:2285

Moch, Gaston, 4:1697 Modena, 1:392; 2:531, 533; 3:1191; 4:1970, 2131 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 3:1198, 1592 Moderados, 4:2229 moderantismo (Spain), 1:368 Moderate Party (Madrid), 3:1413–1414 modern dance, 1:154 Modern Education (Rank), 4:1939 Modern Ideas on the Constitution of Matter (Hertz), 2:1063 modernism, 3:1529–1531 architecture and, 1:183–184; 2:738, 936, 938 aristocracy and, 1:81–82 Arnold and, 1:102 art and, 1:156, 192, 219, 397, 398–399; 2:590–593; 3:1243–1246, 1260–1261, 1529, 1530–1531; 4:1701, 1702 artistic reaction against, 4:1705–1706 Baudelaire essay on esthetics of, 1:188; 3:1529; 4:1708 Beardsley and, 1:192 Bergson as influence on, 1:214 Blaue Reiter Almanack and, 3:1245 Brahms and, 1:296 Brentano and, 1:299 cabarets and, 1:336, 337 Carlist opposition to, 1:83 Catalania and, 1:183–184 Catholic rejection of, 1:213, 214, 382–383, 385 conservative opposition to, 2:540 Crystal Palace as symbol of, 2:590 cubism and, 1:156, 157, 214, 398; 2:590–593, 797, 918; 3:1530; 4:1875 as decadence, 2:631–632 degeneration and, 2:638 Diaghilev and, 2:655 Dickens and, 2:657 Eiffel Tower and, 2:736, 737, 738 fin de sie`cle and, 2:815 futurism and, 3:915–919, 1530–1531 Gissing and, 2:974–975 Hofmannstahl and, 2:1076–1077 impressionism and, 3:1128–1132, 1530, 1543; 4:1708 jadidism and, 3:1207 Japan and, 3:1210, 1211 Jews and, 3:1353

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246 Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355 literature and, 1:299; 3:1529 Loos and, 3:1381–1382 Mahler and, 3:1418–1419 Manet and, 3:1433–1434, 1530; 4:1707–1708 Nietzsche’s rejection of, 3:1633 painting and, 1:397, 398–399; 3:1529, 1530–1531; 4:1709–1711 papal opposition to, 3:1329; 4:1719, 1720, 1721, 1794, 1797 Picasso and, 4:1781–1784 poster art and, 4:1845–1846 primitivism and, 4:1875–1876 psychoanalysis and, 4:1905–1906 Russian Silver Age and, 4:2181, 2217 Salon des Refuse´s and, 3:1432, 1433, 1530 Schiele and, 4:2089–2091 Schinkel and, 4:2091, 2092–2093 Schnitzler and, 4:2101 Schoenberg and, 4:2102 Stravinsky and, 4:2262 Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring and, 2:655 Strindberg and, 4:2269 symbolism and, 3:1529 See also avant-garde; progress modernismo, 1:108, 112 Modern Painters (Ruskin), 4:1864, 2046 Modern Stage (Bucharest cabaret), 1:336 Modern Style. See art nouveau Modern Utopia, A (Wells), 4:2206; 5:2458 modularity (interchangeable parts), 3:1162 moeurs, 4:1959, 1961 Mohammed: His Life and Religious Teachings (Soloviev), 4:2216 Moheau, Jean-Baptiste, 5:2476 Moise` in Egitto (Rossini), 3:1670, 1671; 4:2038 Moivre, Abraham de, 4:2248 Moke, Camille, 1:25 Mokyr, Joel, 3:1152, 1153 Moldau River, 4:1855 Moldavia, 2:1019; 3:1420, 1689 Greece and, 4:1982 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1990 Romania and, 4:2016, 2019 Romanies and, 4:2021 Russia and, 4:2020

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Moldavian Orthodox Church, 4:2020 Mole´, Louis-Mathieu, 2:849 molecular physics, 3:1478 Molie`re (Jean-Baptiste Polquelin), 2:621; 4:1969 Molina i Casamajo, Francesc-Daniel, 1:181 Moll, Albert, 2:1085 Moltke, Helmuth von, 1:17, 96, 147, 148, 478; 3:1531–1532 Austro-Prussian War and, 2:964 Danish-German War and, 2:607, 608–609 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:868–869, 870 Istanbul plan of, 3:1187 military reform and, 4:1902 military technology and, 3:1506–1507, 1508 Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2099 Treitschke and, 5:2353 Moltke, Helmuth von (the Younger), World War I and, 2:969; 3:1508 Molucca Islands, 1:16 Mommsen, Theodor, 1:51, 317; 3:1532–1534 Mommsen, Wolfgang J., 4:1940 Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci), 4:1746 monarchism Action Franc¸aise and, 1:4–5 anticlericalism and, 1:68–69, 70 aristocratic elite and, 1:80, 86 Bonald and, 1:268–269; 2:566 Boulangists and, 1:279–281 Britain and, 1:86 British Parliament and, 2:1001 Bulgaria and, 1:312–313 Charles X and, 1:412 Chateaubriand and, 1:421–422 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532 conservatism and, 2:539, 958 constitutional, 1:456, 457 counterrevolution and, 2:566, 567, 568 country houses and, 3:1306 divine-right, 2:566; 3:1387; 4:1968, 1970–1971 Edward VII’s public monarchy and, 2:730 French endangerment of, 3:1385 French First Restoration and, 1:270 French overthrow of (1792), 2:887, 891; 3:1176, 1386, 1446; 4:1728 French restoration of. See Restoration French Third Republic and, 2:855

1 9 1 4

Girondins and, 2:973–974 Holy Alliance and, 1:38; 2:534, 565, 959 Italian Restoration and, 3:1193–1196 Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388–1389 Maurras and, 3:1476 nationalist movements and, 3:1604 Orle´anists and, 1:4 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 2:581 utilitarians’ distrust of, 3:1510 voluntary associations and, 1:119 Monastery of Saint Thomas (Bru¨nn), 3:1484 monasticism anticlericalism and, 1:68, 69, 180, 181 female orders, 1:383, 384 new orders, 1:384 in Russia, 4:2061 Moncey, Bon-Adrien-Jeannot, 2:837 ‘‘Mon Coeur mis a` nu’’ (Baudelaire), 1:188 Mondrian, Piet, 3:1243; 4:2294 Monet (Gordon and Forge), 3:1537 Monet, Claude, 1:177, 482; 3:1129, 1534–1537, 1536 Corot as influence on, 2:562 impressionism and, 3:1126–1127, 1128–1129, 1132, 1133, 1530, 1535–1537; 4:1708 Impressionist Exhibition and, 4:1955 Japanese art forms as influence on, 3:1210 Parisian scenes as subjects of, 4:1732, 1739 Pissarro and, 4:1792, 1793 Renoir and, 4:1954 Moneta, Ernesto Teodoro, 4:1697 monetary unions, 3:1537–1539 Germany and, 1:171, 487; 2:876 List’s advocacy of, 3:1357 See also Zollverein money lending. See banks and banking money market, 1:175–176 Mongols, 5:2369 Mon ˜ ino y Redondo, Jose´, 4:2227 monism (Haeckel concept), 2:1032, 1069–1070 Monistenbund, 2:1032 Moniteur (French official newspaper), 4:1869, 1870 monitorial schools, 2:720 Moniuszko, Stanislaw, 3:1673 Monk by the Sea (Friedrich), 2:911; 4:1703

2701

INDEX

Monnier, Henry, 2:586 Monod, Gabriel-Jean-Jacques, 2:1073, 1074 monogamy, 1:287 Monologen (Schleiermacher), 4:2097 Monophysites, 3:1687 monopoly, 4:1961 African trade and, 1:221, 222, 223, 303 Monroe Doctrine (1823), 3:1174 Mon Salon (Zola), 1:397 Monstre, Le (film), 3:1483 montage techniques, 2:593 Montagnards, 2:799, 800, 851, 973–974; 4:1960 Montagne Sainte-Victoire, La (Ce´zanne), 3:1132–1133 Montagu, Mary Worley, 3:1223 Montalembert, Charles de, 1:387 Mont Blanc, 3:1324–1325 ‘‘Mont Blanc’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 Mont des Arts (Brussels), 1:306 Montenegro, 3:1539–1542 Albania and, 1:32, 33 Balkan League and, 1:32 Balkan wars and, 1:34, 163, 164, 165, 166; 2:704–705; 3:1541, 1691; 4:2149 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273, 275–276; 3:1541 independence of, 2:530; 3:1173, 1541, 1689 nationalism and, 1:163, 166; 3:1540–1541 Ottoman Empire and, 1:2; 3:1541 population of, 3:1539 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2069, 2085 Serbia and, 1:242; 3:1539, 1541, 1546; 4:2148, 2149 soldiers, 3:1540 Montesquieu, baron de (Charles-Louis de Secondat), 1:376, 432; 2:522, 994; 4:2007, 2192, 2212; 5:2448 conservative rationale and, 2:537–538 mechanization concerns of, 3:1411 Montesquiou, Robert de, 2:1082 Montessori, Maria, 2:947; 3:1542–1543 Montez, Lola, 2:961; 3:1382, 1383; 4:1834 Montgolfier, Joseph-Michel and Jacques-E´tienne, 1:30 Montherlant, Henri-Marie-Joseph de, 1:184; 3:1475 Month in the Country, A (Turgenev), 5:2365

2702

Monthly Repository (Unitarian periodical), 3:1458, 1459, 1509 Monticelli, Adolphe, 5:2400 Montmartre (Parisian quarter), 2:590; 4:1709, 1735, 1737 Picasso and, 4:1782 as Toulouse-Lautrec subject, 4:1846 Montreal, 1:343 Montreuil, Madame de, 4:2073–2074 Montreuil, Rene´e-Pe´lagie Cordier de, 4:2073, 2074 Mont Sainte-Victoire, 1:398; 3:1530 Mont Sainte-Victoire, Seen from Bellevue (Ce´zanne), 4:1710 Monumenta Germaniae Historica, 2:1072; 3:1533; 4:2252 Moore, George Augustus (Irish novelist), 3:1109 Moore, George Edward (English philosopher), 3:1514; 4:2258 Moore, Hannah, 1:36 Moore, James, 2:600, 614 Moore, John, 4:1764, 2227 Moore, Thomas, 5:2403 Moorish ‘‘horseshoe’’ arch, 1:109 Moral Education League (Britain), 2:769 moral improvement associations, 1:115, 119, 120 morality Nietzsche on, 3:1631–1633, 1634, 1635 positivism and, 4:1844 Protestant political leadership and, 4:1896 Schopenhauers theory of, 4:2105 sexuality and, 4:2161 Soloviev’s (Vladimir) view of, 4:2216 Stephen on, 4:2254 Morand, Paul, 5:2503 Morant Bay uprising (1865), 1:365, 371 British writers debate on, 1:371 Moravia. See Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia Moravian Boys’ School, 2:834 Moravian Brethren, 4:2096 Moravian Compromise of 1905, 1:262 Moravian Duets (Dvorˇa´k), 2:701 Moravianism, 3:1527; 4:1895 Mordaunt case (1870), 2:730 More, Thomas, 1:26, 337; 2:520; 4:2200 More´as, Jean (pseud.), 2:633; 4:2294 Moreau, Gustave, 2:795–796; 3:1474; 4:1865, 2292 Moreau, Victor, 2:901

Moreau de Tours, Jacques-Joseph, 2:687 Morel, Be´ne´dict Augustin, 1:37; 2:636, 637 Morel, E. D., 1:205 Moret y Prendergast, Sigismundo, 4:2231 Morgan, C. Lloyd, 4:1908 Morgan, Lady Sydney, 3:1300 Morisot, Berthe, 3:1126, 1128, 1433, 1534, 1543–1545; 4:1955, 2156 portraits of daughter Julie by, 3:1544, 1544 Morisot, Edma, 3:1543–1544 Morley, John, 3:1513 Morley-Minto Reforms (1909), 3:1137 Morning Chronicle (London newspaper), 2:716 Morning Leader Group (Britain), 4:1871 ‘‘Morning Mood’’ (Grieg), 4:2287 Mornings on the Seine (Monet), 3:1536 Morning Star of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia The (newspaper), 2:925 Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911), 2:527, 663; 3:1545–1546, 1549 Agadir Crisis and, 1:49, 339; 3:1370, 1545–1546, 1549 Bethmann Hollweg and, 5:2312 Entente Cordiale and, 1:49; 2:795; 3:1545; 4:2098 Morocco, 1:18, 49, 339; 3:1546–1549 Delacroix visit to, 2:641 French influence over, 2:795; 3:1545–1546, 1549 Ottoman Empire and, 5:2361 population of, 3:1547 Spain and, 4:2231 Tangier marketplace, 1:19 tourism and, 5:2330 world’s fair displays and, 5:2497 See also Moroccan Crises Morozov, Savva, 1:287 Morozov family, 1:284 Morpeth, Lord (George Howard), 4:1913 morphine, 2:686, 688 morphological types, 2:1102 Morris, Philip, 5:2314 Morris, William, 3:1549–1551 aesthetic movement and, 5:2464 art nouveau and, 1:109 Arts and Crafts movement and, 1:152; 3:1550 chrysanthemum wallpaper design of, 3:1550

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Deroin and, 2:651 furniture and, 2:914, 915 Pater essay on, 4:1746 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864–1865 Ruskin and, 4:2047 socialism and, 1:59, 372; 3:1551; 4:1865, 2205 Yeats and, 5:2509 Morris & Company, 3:1550 Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Company, 3:1550; 4:1865 Morrison, Frances, 3:1288 Morrison, Jim, 2:873 mortality rates, 1:446, 451; 2:643 decline overall of, 2:644, 646, 762, 1086; 3:1164; 4:1753 Dublin decline of, 2:690 epidemics and, 2:667, 716 hospital infections and, 3:1358 London and, 3:1372, 1375 Madrid and, 3:1412 peasants and, 4:1751, 1753 penal exile and, 2:780 as population control, 4:1829 poverty and, 2:628 tuberculosis and, 2:644 See also infant and child mortality Mortara, Edgardo Levi, 4:1797 Mort de Socrate, La (Lamartine), 3:1303 Morte d’Arthur (Beardsley illustrations), 1:109, 192 ‘‘Morte d’Arthur’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309 Mosca, Gaspare, 3:1415 Moscow, 3:1551–1555, 1554; 4:2075–2076 advertising and, 2:550 art nouveau and, 1:114 avant-garde and, 157 bourgeoisie in, 1:284, 287 cabaret in, 1:336–337 child abandonment in, 5:2455 cicular layout of, 3:1552–1553 electric lighting and, 2:742 exhibitions in, 5:2498 Great Jew and Tartar Market, 3:1231 industrialization and, 1:40 Kremlin, 4:2079 Kremlin and Kamenny Bridge, 3:1553 maternity hospitals in, 5:2450 Napoleon’s occupation/retreat from, 1:38, 272, 273; 2:902, 1080; 3:1551, 1588 as national capital, 4:2079 population growth in, 1:446

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

population of, 3:1553 public health and, 1:376; 3:1554 Red Square, 4:2080 St. Basil’s Cathedral, 4:2062 telephone service in, 5:2308 theater in, 3:1495, 1496, 1551 Ukraine and, 5:2369 vegetable market, 5:2343 voluntary associations in, 1:117, 119 Moscow Art Theater, 1:287, 423; 3:1495, 1496, 1551 Moscow Pedagogical Institute, 3:1552 Moscow Philharmonic Society, 3:1495 Moscow University, 1:207; 2:1066; 3:1518, 1551, 1552; 5:2379 Mose` in Egitto (Rossini), 3:1670, 1671; 4:2038 Mo ¨ ser, Justus, 2:538 Moser, Kolomann, 1:112, 153 Moskva River, 3:1554 Most Christian Army of the Holy Faith, 3:1254 most-favored-nation status, 2:512, 516; 3:1210 British-Chinese treaty and, 3:1579, 1679 ‘‘Most Prevalent Form of Degradation in Erotic Life, The’’ (Freud), 3:1472 Mother (Gorky), 2:993 Mother Goose (Ravel), 4:1944 motherhood bourgeois ideal of, 3:1452, 1454 child custody rights and, 2:943, 9446–9447; 3:1595, 1646 child rearing and, 3:1454–1455 concept of voluntary, 2:805, 947 contraceptives and, 2:947 family size and, 4:1830 feminist socialization and, 4:1762 maternity hospitals and, 5:2450 maternity leave and, 5:2452 out-of-wedlock. See illegitimacy pensions and, 5:2452 Roussel’s views on, 4:2042 as welfare concern, 5:2451, 2452 as woman’s role, 1:431; 2:801, 942, 944 as women’s equality basis, 2:803 motion pictures. See cinema Motley Life (Kandinsky), 3:1244 Mottley, Marie, 5:2316 Motz, Friedrich von, 2:960 Moulay Abd al-Hafid, sultan of Morocco, 3:1549 Moulin, L., 3:1672

1 9 1 4

Moulin de la Galette, Le (Renoir), 4:1709 Moulin Rouge (Paris cabaret), 2:550; 5:2323, 2324 Moulin Rouge poster (ToulouseLautrec), 4:1846 Mountain (French National Assembly faction), 2:694; 3:1318 mountain climbing, 5:2327 ‘‘Mountain King’’ (Grieg), 4:2287 Mountain Wreath, The (Peter II), 3:1540, 1541 Moutardier du pape, Le (Jarry), 3:1214 Mouth of the Seine at Honfleur (Monet), 3:1535 movie halls, 2:560 Moynier, Gustave, 2:952; 4:1948, 1949 Mozambique, 1:14, 18, 19, 21; 2:509; 4:2223 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1:195, 198; 3:1419, 1566, 1568; 4:1944, 2092, 2102, 2262; 5:2417 opera and, 3:1673 Mozart and Salieri (Pushkin), 4:1919 Mozzoni, Anna Maria, 3:1555–1556 ‘‘Mrs Bathurst’’ (Kipling), 3:1257 Mrs. Warren’s Profession (Shaw), 4:2165 Mucha, Alphonse, 1:113; 4:1846, 1858 Much Wenlock (England), 3:1666–1667 Mude´jar architecture, 2:936 Mudie, George, 4:2201 Mueller, Otto, 1:154 Muenier, Jules-Alexis, 4:1948 Mueseler, Mathieu, 1:487 Muette de Portici, La (Auber), 3:1671, 1672, 1674 Mughul Empire, 2:706; 3:1133, 1135 Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2140 Muhammad Ali, 1:278 Muhammad Said Pasha, 3:1337 Muhammed Ahmed. See Mahdi, the Muhammed Tawfiq Pasha, 2:733 Muiron, Just, 2:838 Mukden, Battle of (1905), 3:1507, 1556–1558, 1628; 4:2055, 2065 Mulhouse (free city), 1:51 Mu ¨ ller, Frantz Heinrich, 2:647 Muller, Jerry, 2:537 Mu ¨ ller, Johannes, 2:1057; 4:1908; 5:2507 Mu ¨ ller, Max, 3:1239 Mu ¨ ller-Guttenbrunn, Adam, 3:1394–1395 multinational banks, 1:175

2703

INDEX

multiple sclerosis, 1:408 Mummery, A. F., 2:1075 Mun, Albert de, 1:389 Munch, Edvard, 2:816; 3:1558–1560, 1559; 4:1710, 2287 symbolism and, 4:2293–2294 Munch, Jacob, 3:1558 Munch, Peter Andreas, 3:1558 Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz, Treaty of (1833), 3:1560–1561; 4:1985; 5:2392 Munemitsu, Mutsu, 3:1211 Munich, 4:1990 architecture in, 2:590 art nouveau in, 2:815 cabaret in, 1:336 expressionist art and, 1:156 homosexual subculture in, 2:1083 Kandinsky in, 3:1244, 1245, 1246 Liebermann in, 3:1353 Mann in, 3:1435 public health reforms in, 4:1914 Revolution of 1830 and, 1:457 Revolution of 1848 and, 2:961 Secession style and, 1:112 Wagner as composer-in-residence in, 3:1383 Munich Artist’s Theater, 1:155 Munich Coinage Treaty (1837), 1:171 Munich Secession of 1893, 2:550 Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 (Britain), 2:1003; 5:2462 municipal government, 1:449–451 Britain and, 2:1003, 1009 Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:404, 405 Danish town councils and, 2:648 Dublin and, 2:691–693 Hamburg and, 2:1039, 1040, 1041 housing and, 3:1456 London and, 3:1378–1379 Lyon and, 3:1403 markets and, 3:1448 police forces and, 4:1814–1815 Prussia and, 2:958 Russian zemstvos and, 1:39; 2:1014, 1016 Municipal House (Prague), 1:113; 4:1858 Municipal Ordinance of 1808 (Prussia), 4:2251 municipal parks. See parks Munka´csy, Minha´ly, 3:1353 Munster, Friederike, 3:1649 Mu ¨ nter, Gabriele, 1:155; 3:1244, 1245 Munzverein, 3:1538 Murad Bey, 2:731; 5:2362

2704

Muradid dynasty, 5:2362 Murat, Joachim, 4:2001, 2188, 2225–2226 as king of Naples, 1:360; 2:533, 902; 3:1192, 1254, 1599 Leipzig battle and, 3:132, 1320 opera and, 3:1670 Papal State and, 4:1724 Muratori, Ludovico Antonio, 2:1072 Muraviev-Amursky, Nikolai, 5:2426 murder anti-Semitism and, 2:575–576 Caillaux’s (Henriette) acquittal of, 1:339 honor killings and, 2:571 London and, 3:1375 mafia and, 3:1417 memoirs about, 2:575 popular press and, 2:575, 576 See also terrorism Murger, Henri, 1:177; 3:1577; 4:1916; 5:2360 Murray, James, 3:1160 Murray, John, 3:1402; 5:2329 Murray Gilchrist, R., 2:633 Muscat, 1:16 Muscovy, 2:562; 3:1281; 5:2369 muscular Christianity, 2:832 Muse´e Berlioz (La Coˆte-St.-Andre´), 1:225 Muse´e d’Orsay (Paris), 2:941 Muse´e Marmottan (Paris), 3:1545 Muse´e Trocade´ro (Paris), 1:156 Museum for Ethnology (Berlin), 5:2425 Museum of Applied Arts (Budapest), 1:112 Museum of Art (Berlin). See Altes Museum Museum of Comparative Zoology (Cambridge, Massachusetts), 1:23 Museum of French Monuments, 2:621 Museum of Mankind (Paris), 4:1782 Museum of Modern Art (New York City), 1:156 Museum of the Bohemian Kingdom (Prague), 1:261 museums, 3:1561–1565; 4:1825 art, 1:287; 4:1825 in Berlin, 1:219; 4:2092, 2093; 5:2425 in Bohemian Lands, 1:261 cities and, 1:445 first public, 1:287; 4:1825 in London, 3:1375–1376, 1378 Napoleonic, 1:270 natural history, 1:228; 2:618; 3:1562–1563, 1564

public admission to, 1:287; 4:1825 in Serbia, 4:2148 tourism and, 5:2327 in Warsaw, 5:2442 Museu Picasso (Barcelona), 4:1781 Mushet, Robert Forester, 3:1158; 4:2115 Mushtara, 5:2362 music, 3:1565–1573 Amsterdam and, 1:54 atonality and, 3:1245, 1437, 1572; 4:2102–2103 ballet and, 1:154 Beethoven and, 1:195–199 Berlin and, 1:219 Berlioz and, 1:224–225 bourgeois associations and, 1:287–288 Brahms and, 1:294–296 cabarets and, 1:335–337 Chopin and, 1:438–440 concert halls, 1:216 Crystal Palace festivals, 2:589 Debussy and, 2:630–631; 3:1133 Dublin and, 2:693 Dvorˇa´k and, 2:700–701 Estonian brass band, 2:821 fin de sie`cle and, 2:815; 3:1572–1573 futurism and, 2:919–920 German nationalism and, 2:960–961 Glinka and, 2:979–980 Grieg and, 4:2287 impressionism and, 2:630–631; 3:1133 Liszt and, 3:1359–1361 Mahler and, 3:1418–1419 Mann and, 3:1435, 1436, 1437 Meyerhold’s theatrical use of, 3:1496 Mussorgsky and, 3:1575–1576 Offenbach and, 3:1660–1662 Paganini and, 4:1698–1700 popular/elite cultural blending and, 4:1825 racism and, 4:1927 Ravel and, 4:1944–1945 Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999–2000 Romanticism and, 3:1360, 1569–1570; 4:2026, 2027, 2029 Rossini and, 4:2038–2039, 2106, 2288 Russia and, 2:654 St. Petersburg and, 4:2077 Satie and, 4:2086–2087 Schoenberg and, 3:1245; 4:1944, 2101–2103; 5:2421

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Schopenhauer on, 4:2105 Schubert and, 4:2026, 2027, 2029, 2106–2107 Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2259–2261; 5:2420 Stravinsky and, 4:1944, 2077, 2261–2263 symbolism and, 4:2292, 2294 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2306–2307 Venice and, 5:2405 Verdi and, 4:2039; 5:2405–2407 Vienna and, 5:2418, 2419, 2420, 2421 Wagner and, 1:403; 4:2027; 5:2429–2431 See also opera Musical Voyages in Germany and Italy (Berlioz), 1:225 music criticism. See criticism, music music halls, 1:288; 3:1377, 1482 Musicians in the Orchestra (Degas), 3:1129–1130, 1130; 4:1709 Musiciens d’aujourd’hui (Rolland), 4:2015 Musiciens d’autrefois (Rolland), 4:2015 Music in the Tuileries Gardens (Manet), 3:1432 Musil, Robert, 1:299; 3:1242, 1573–1575; 4:2101; 5:2449 Musique, La (Matisse), 3:1474 Musket Wars (Maori), 3:1622 Muslim League, 3:1136 Muslim National Organization (Bosnia), 1:276 Muslims. See Islam Musset, Alfred de, 1:169, 229, 270; 2:1046; 4:2028, 2084 Mussolini, Benito, 1:62, 382; 2:583, 1026; 4:2037, 2299; 5:2364 D’Annunzio and, 2:610 futurism and, 2:921 Giolitti and, 2:972 Lateran Pact and, 3:1199 LeBon’s theory of crowds and, 3:1317 Milan and, 3:1504 as socialist, 3:1202, 1203 Mussorgsky, Modest, 2:654, 980; 3:1571, 1575–1576; 4:1919, 1944, 1957 opera and, 3:1673–1674 Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999 Mustafa IV, Ottoman sultan, 3:1420, 1686 ‘‘Must We Occupy Ourselves with an Examination of the Ideal of a Future System?’’ (Kropotkin), 3:1272

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

mutations, 2:653, 778; 3:1302 Mutationstheorie, Die (de Vries), 2:653 Mutiny of 1857 (India). See Sepoy Mutiny Mutsuhito, emperor of Japan, 1:435 Mutual Aid (Kropotkin), 3:1272 mutual aid societies, 3:1284, 1331–1332; 5:2454 mutualist anarchism, 4:1898–1899 Muybridge, Eadweard, 1:441; 4:1772 My Apprenticeship (Webb), 5:2444 Mycenae, excavation of, 4:1769 My Communist Credo (Cabet), 2:521 Myers, Frederic William Henry, 3:1238; 4:2238 My Lady Ludlow (Gaskell), 2:934 My Past and Thoughts (Herzen), 2:1064, 1066 My Secret Life (pornographic memoir), 4:1834 Myslbek, Josef Va´clav, 4:1858 Mysore, 2:706; 3:1134, 1134 Myste`re de la charite´ de Jeanne d’Arc (Pe´guy), 4:1760 Myste`re des saints innocents (Pe´guy), 4:1760 Myste`res de Paris, Les (Sue), 2:575 Mysteries of London, The (Reynolds), 2:575 Mystery of Edwin Drood, The (Dickens), 2:657 mysticism, 1:385, 400; 2:1080, 1093; 4:2029–2030, 2294 mystic socialism, 1:372 Myth of the Birth of the Hero, The (Rank), 4:1938 mythology German cultural nationalism and, 3:1523; 4:1756 Jung and, 3:1239 Nietzsche and, 3:1634, 1635 symbolism of, 4:2030 My Youth in Vienna (Schnitzler), 4:2100, 2101

n

N nabis, 4:2294 Nabokov, Vladimir (father of author), 3:1241 Nabucco (Verdi), 3:1672; 5:2406 ‘‘Nacertanije’’ (Serbian document), 4:2148 Nacht in Venedig, Eine (Strauss), 4:2261 Nachtlicht (Vienna cabaret), 1:336

1 9 1 4

Nadar, Fe´lix, 1:230; 2:939; 3:1577–1578; 4:1772, 1774, 1955 Daumier caricature of, 3:1578 Nadar, Paul, 3:1578 Nadar Elevating Photography to an Art (Daumier), 3:1578 Nagaravatta (Khmer newspaper), 3:1143 Nagasaki, 3:1209 Na¨gleli, Carl Wilhelm von, 3:1486 ‘‘Naissance du Me´thodisme en Angleterre, La’’ (E. Hale´vy), 4:1892 Nakaz (Catherine II), 1:376 Naked Maja, The (Goya), 2:997 Nalbandian, Mikayel, 1:88 ‘‘Name-Day Party’’ (Chekhov), 1:423 Namibia, 1:20; 2:506, 927; 4:1843 Nana (Zola), 4:1833 Nancy (France), 1:111 Nanking, Treaty of (1842), 3:1578–1580, 1679 Nansen, Fridtjof, 1:341 Nantes, 2:563–565 Nantes Congress of 1894, 4:2298 Naples, 1:445; 3:1580–1583; 4:2035 anarchism and, 3:1424 Austrian intervention in, 2:525, 531; 4:2001 Bourbon government and, 4:2130, 2175, 2188 Carbonari and, 1:360–361; 3:1193; 4:2130 cholera epidemic in, 1:450 Congress of Vienna and, 2:533 corruption and, 3:1582–1583 Croce and, 2:584 French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and, 2:899, 901; 3:1192, 1193, 1254, 1615 Garibaldi and, 1:392; 2:932; 4:2003 Holy Alliance intervention in, 2:565 mafia and, 3:1414–1417, 1583 men playing cappelletto, 3:1194 Metternich and, 3:1494 Napoleonic Kingdom of, 3:1192, 1581, 1597, 1599; 4:2001, 2188 opera and, 3:1670 overcrowding in, 3:1581 papacy and, 4:1719, 1725 as Parthenopean Republic, 3:1192, 1581, 1597; 4:2186–2189 peasant revolt in, 4:1755 population of, 1:446; 3:1254, 1580 railroads and, 3:1195 Revolution of 1820 and, 1:361; 2:565–566, 959; 3:1194, 1254–1255, 1494; 4:1980, 1981

2705

INDEX

Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196, 1255, 1581; 4:2002 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 2:581; 3:1581 Rome and, 4:2034 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 Royal Terror in (1799), 3:1254 Sicily and, 4:1980 Spanish Bourbons and, 3:1191 tenement houses, 2:1087 Via Santa Lucia, 3:1582 Victor Emmanuel II and, 5:2411 See also Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Napoleon I, emperor of the French, 1:457; 3:1343, 1583–1589; 4:2142; 5:2429 abdication of, 3:1588, 1599; 4:1765 Alexander I and, 1:37, 38 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51 anticlericalism and, 1:68; 2:957 aristocracy and, 1:80, 81 army organization and, 1:93, 95 artwork confiscations by, 1:349; 3:1572 Austerlitz victory of, 1:93, 132–133; 2:846, 875, 901, 957; 3:1586 Bank of France and, 1:170 Barre´s idealization of, 1:184 Beethoven and, 1:196 Berlin occupation by, 1:215 Bernadotte and, 1:226 Bonald and, 1:268, 269 Bonapartism and, 1:269–271 Borodino and, 1:272–273 Bosphorus as aim of, 1:278 British victories and, 2:1002 as Bronte¨ sisters’ hero, 1:300 Brussels ramparts destruction by, 1:305 bureaucracy and, 1:321, 322; 2:846 Catholicism and, 1:387; 2:846; 3:1598 censorship and, 4:1869, 1870 centralized state of, 1:270; 2:846; 3:1598, 1600 challenge to European order by, 2:524, 957 Champollion and, 1:406–407 Chateaubriand and, 1:420 coffee consumption and, 1:494 colonial policies of, 2:1036 Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–528, 527–529, 846; 3:1586, 1598; 4:1718, 2136–2137 Congress of Vienna and, 2:533–534

2706

conquest of Europe by, 2:901–902 Constant and, 2:545, 546 Consulate and, 2:845–846; 3:1585–1586 Continental System of, 1:272, 303; 2:553–554 coronation as emperor of, 2:84–476, 860; 3:1586, 1596 counterrevolution and, 2:563 coup and assumption of power by, 2:664, 900–901; 3:1591 Cruikshank caricatures of, 2:586 David paintings of, 2:624 Denmark and, 4:2287 Directory and, 2:664, 666, 895 education policies of, 1:322 Egyptian campaign of, 1:18, 43, 44, 406; 2:731, 895, 900; 3:1134, 1337, 1585 engineering and, 2:738 escape from Elba of. See Hundred Days exiles of, 1:270; 2:779, 846, 848, 903, 958, 1098, 1099; 3:1588; 4:1718; 5:2442 Ferdinand VII and, 2:808–809 Fouche´ and, 2:837 free trade and, 1:106 French Revolutionary Wars and, 2:893, 900 government takeover by, 2:895 Habsburgs and, 1:140; 2:533 Haiti and, 2:1036 Hardenberg and, 2:1042 hereditary titles and, 1:284 Hundred Days and, 1:270, 471; 2:533–534, 545, 837, 846–847, 858, 903, 1098–1099; 3:1387, 1493, 1588, 1599; 5:2306 imperialism and, 3:1114, 1134 See also Napoleonic Empire invasion of Russia by, 1:272; 2:553, 861, 902–903, 958, 1080; 3:1281–1282, 1308, 1319, 1492, 1551, 1588, 1599; 4:1766 Italy and, 1:349, 360, 390; 3:1192, 1254, 1501, 1584; 4:1786, 1807, 2001 Jena and, 3:1221–1222 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1227, 1229 Kos´ciuszko and, 3:1265 Lafayette and, 3:1300 Larrey and, 3:1308 legacy of, 1:269–271 Leipzig and, 3:1319–1322

looting of Italy by, 1:349 Louis XVIII and, 3:1387 Louis-Philippe and, 3:1388, 1389 marriage to Marie-Louise of, 2:861; 3:1492, 1587 memoir of, 1:270 Metternich and, 3:1491, 1492–1493 Milan and, 3:1501 military tactics and, 1:94; 3:1237, 1320, 1321–1322, 1506 military training of, 3:1584 Moscow’s destruction and, 3:1551 myth of, 3:1588–1589 nephew Napoleon III and, 3:1198 papacy and, 1:381, 420; 2:527–529, 846; 3:1192, 1584, 1586, 1587–1588; 4:1717, 1724, 2136 Paris and, 1:451; 4:1728, 1729 Paris’s reconstruction and, 4:1729–1731 Paul I of Russia and, 4:1748 penal exile policy of, 2:780 Peninsular War and, 4:1762–1767, 1838 pilgrimages and, 4:1788 Poland and, 4:1808, 1817 police system model of, 2:837; 4:1813–1814, 1815 Polish exiles and, 4:1807 power of, 3:1587 professional certification and, 4:1879 Prussia and, 4:1899, 1900, 2092 Rome and, 4:2033 Russia and, 4:2048, 2051, 2078, 2227; 5:2440 Sade and, 4:2074 same-sex act decriminalization and, 2:1083 secret society opposition to, 4:2129, 2130 Sieye`s and, 4:2180, 2181 Sismondi and, 4:2185 slavery and, 1:498; 2:897, 1036 Spanish intervention by, 1:366–367; 4:1763, 2225–2226, 2227 See also Peninsular War Stae¨l and, 4:2247 Stein’s dismissal and, 4:2251 Stendhal’s works on, 4:2252 suffrage and, 4:2278–2279 sugar-beet factory and, 2:659 Switzerland and, 4:2288 Talleyrand and, 5:2305–2306 Thorvaldsen sculpture of, 2:647 Toussaint Louverture and, 5:2333

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

trade policy and, 5:2334 See also Continental System Trafalgar defeat of, 2:846; 5:2344–2345 Trieste and, 5:2354 Ulm and, 5:2374–2375 United States and, 5:2439 vaccination technique accepted by, 4:2197 Venetian Republic and, 5:2402 Warsaw and, 5:2441 Waterloo as final defeat of, 1:270; 2:847, 903, 1002, 1099; 3:1387, 1388, 1588; 4:1968; 5:2442–2443, 2457 William IX and, 4:2039 See also Napoleonic Empire Napoleon II (son of Napoleon), 3:1587; 4:1729 Napoleon III (Louis-Napoleon), emperor of the French, 1:234; 3:1589–1593, 1591; 4:1743, 1902, 1913; 5:2325, 2422 Algerian colonization and, 1:44–56 assassination attempts on, 4:2003; 5:2410 Austro-Prussian War and, 2:867; 3:1269 Bagehot’s defense of, 1:160 beard popularization by, 1:191 Bernard as protege´ of, 1:228 Bonapartism and, 1:269, 270–271 bureaucracy and, 1:322 Cavour and, 1:391–392; 2:662; 3:1198 Cobden-Chevalier Treaty and, 1:491, 492 Comte and, 2:524 Concert of Europe and, 2:525 Concert of Europe break by, 2:662 conservatism and, 2:540, 541, 852, 853; 3:1591, 1593 counterrevolution and, 2:567 coup d’etat of, 2:577, 852; 3:1591, 1592; 4:1706, 1733 Cre´dit Mobilier and, 1:174 Crimean War and, 2:579, 580; 3:1626 Daumier caricatures and, 2:621, 622 defeat of, 1:271; 2:854, 928; 3:1593 Disraeli foreign policy compared with, 2:674 engineering projects and, 2:757 Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866; 3:1198

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Franco-Prussian War and, 1:271; 2:569, 853–854, 868, 870, 928, 964; 3:1593; 4:1734 Haussmannization of Paris and, 2:1047, 1049, 1050, 1088; 4:1729–1731, 1739 hereditary empire of. See Second Empire Herzen’s critique of, 2:1065 Hugo’s exile by, 2:1093, 1095 indochina and, 3:1140 Italian policy of, 1:362; 2:662, 962; 3:1318; 4:1797, 2003, 2004–2005, 2034; 5:2410 Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318 liberalization and, 3:1592–1593 Mexican incursion of, 1:271; 2:575, 854; 3:1592 Michelet’s dislike of, 3:1499 Milan and, 3:1501 militarism and, 1:94 monetary unions and, 3:1538 painting and, 4:1707 papacy and, 4:1725, 1795 Parisian resistance to, 4:1733 Parisian street plan and, 1:452 peasant support for, 4:1755 penal exile policy of, 2:780 Pius IX and, 4:1795, 1797 plebiscites for, 3:1591–1592, 1593 political Catholics and, 1:388 press curbs and, 4:1870 Proudhon’s critique of, 4:1899 railroad construction and, 4:1933 repression and, 2:651, 852 Revolutions of 1848 and, 3:1590, 1626; 4:1993, 1995 Salon des Refuse´s and, 3:1432 Second Republic’s election of, 2:851; 3:1590 secret societies and, 4:2131 Suez Canal and, 3:1338; 4:2274 suffrage and, 4:2278–2279 Thiers and, 5:2311 Tocqueville and, 5:2317 Venice and, 5:2404 William I and, 5:2467 wine and, 5:2476 world’s fairs and, 5:2496, 2497, 2505 See also Second Empire Napoleon Awakening to Immortality (Rude), 4:2044 Napoleon Crossing the Alps (David), 2:624

1 9 1 4

Napoleon Crossing the St.Bernard Pass (David), 2:624 Napoleonic Code (1804), 1:338; 2:957; 3:1254, 1314, 1586, 1593–1596 capitalism and, 1:351 divorce and, 2:897 feminist demonstration against, 1:128; 2:803 masculine scale of rights and, 3:1470 Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1597–1598, 1599, 1600; 4:1786 provisions of, 2:846; 3:1595–1596 women’s legal restraints under, 2:802, 846, 942–943 Napoleonic Concordat. See Concordat of 1801 Napoleonic Empire, 2:901–903; 3:1586–1587, 1590, 1596–1600 administrative institutions and, 3:1600 banking and, 1:170 Belgium and, 1:199; 3:1587 Carbonari and, 1:360; 3:1193 Caribbean and, 3:1115 Cavour family and, 1:390 censorship and, 4:1869 centralization of, 3:1599 components of, 3:1587 Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–529 Continental System and, 2:512, 553–554, 846 fall of, 2:902; 3:1588 as First Empire, 2:846–847 French national identity and, 3:1521 Great Empire (18051814) and, 3:1599–1600 Hamburg and, 2:1038 imperialism and, 3:1114, 1115 insurrections and, 4:1767 Italy and, 3:1192–1193, 1254 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1229 Krupp steel and, 3:1273 Leipzig battle marking end of, 3:1319, 1322 Milan and, 3:1501 Napoleonic Code and, 1:351; 3:1597–1598 nationalist resistance to, 3:1604 Netherlands and, 2:553; 3:1587, 1590, 1597, 1616–1617 papacy and, 4:1718 Papal State and, 4:1724 Peninsular Wars impact on, 4:1765–1766

2707

INDEX

Piedmont-Savoy and, 2:899–900, 902; 3:1192, 1193, 1584; 4:1786 Poland and, 4:1808 See also Grand Duchy of Warsaw police model for, 4:1813 poor relief and, 4:1848 prostitute control and, 4:1883 serf emancipation and, 4:1754 sister republics and, 4:2186–2190 standardization and, 3:1598 university system and, 5:2381 See also Second Empire Napoleonic Wars. See French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne (Ingres), 3:1165, 1166 Napp, Cyril, 3:1484, 1485 Naquet, Alfred, 4:1998 Naquet Law of 1884 (France), 2:812 Narbonne, Paris Commune and, 4:1736 Narbonne, Louis de, 4:2246, 2247 Narcisse (ballet), 2:654; 3:1642 narcotics. See drugs Nardinelli, Clark, 2:708 Narodna odbrana, 4:2148–2149 Narodnaya Volya. See People’s Will Narva´ez, Ramo´n Maria, 4:2229, 2230 Naryshkin family, 1:80 Naschauer, Julie, 2:1068 Nash, Beau (Richard Nash), 3:1323 Nash, John, 3:1375, 1600–1602 Nasmyth, James, 3:1430 Nassau (German warship), 3:1611 Nassau Prussian annexation of, 2:964 written constitution of, 1:457; 2:959 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 4:2276 Nast, Thomas, 4:1722, 1725 Natal, 1:19, 256; 3:1422 Natal Field Force, 3:1422 Natanson brothes (Thade´e, Alexandre, and Alfred), 3:1213 Nathan, Ernesto, 4:2037 Nathan, Giuseppe, 3:1556 Natio Hungarica, 3:1266 Nation (Irish newspaper), 3:1656 See also Young Ireland Nation (magazine), 4:2258 National, Le (French newspaper), 2:489; 4:1963; 5:2310 National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), 1:23 National Anti-Semitic League of France, 2:689 National Archives (France), 3:1499

2708

National Assembly (France), 1:68, 248, 268, 420; 2:897; 3:1338 African-descent delegate in, 2:508 citizenship and, 1:456, 458 Clemenceau and, 1:479 Committee of Public Safety and, 2:518–519 Estates-General and, 2:768, 842 Ferry and, 2:810–812 Freemasons and, 2:881 French Revolution and, 2:842, 843, 844, 886–890; 3:1385, 1386 Hugo and, 2:1095 human rights declaration and, 2:801 Jacobins and, 3:1205 Jaure`s and, 3:1215–1216, 1217 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1226 Lafayette and, 3:1299 Lamartine and, 3:1304 Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318 Louis-Napoleon and, 3:1591 move to Paris of, 4:1728 Parisan-provincial division in, 4:1734–1735 Paris site of, 4:1728 right-wing and, 2:539 Second Republic and, 2:851 Third Republic and, 2:855, 856; 4:1734–1735 See also Constituent Assembly; National Convention National Assembly (Germany), 2:923 National Assembly (Prussia), 1:324 National Association for Promoting the Political and Social Improvement of the People, 3:1391 National Association for the Care of the Feeble-Minded (Britain), 2:769, 770 National Bank of Greece, 1:170–171 national banks. See banks and banking; specific banks by name National Chamber of Commerce (Germany), 2:962 National Charter Association (Britain), 1:416, 417, 418; 3:1391 republicanism and, 4:1960, 1962 National Confederation of Labor (Spain), 1:62 National Convention (France) Committee on Salubrity of, 4:1909 Danton and, 2:610, 611, 612 David and, 2:624 federalist revolt and, 2:799–800 Fouche´ and, 2:387

Girondists and, 2:891, 973, 974 international law and, 3:1172 Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206 Louis XVI execution vote in, 3:1386, 1388 Marat and, 3:1443 Paine and, 4:1700, 1701 Reign of Terror and, 2:844, 892–893; 4:1951, 1952 republic proclaimed by, 2:891 Robespierre and, 4:2006–2007 Robespierre’s overthrow by, 2:893–894 National Council of French Women, 1:128 National Democratic Movement (Poland). See Endecja National Eisteddfod (Welsh festival), 5:2434 Nationaler Frauendienst (Germany), 1:189 National Federation of Women Workers, 3:1293 Nationalgalerie (Berlin), 3:1489 National Gallery (Dublin), 2:693 National Gallery of Art (London), 1:287; 2:598, 999; 3:1376, 1562; 4:1825, 1863 national geographic societies, 2:784 National Guard (Paris), 2:810, 891, 891; 3:1300, 1301, 1339, 1443 Paris Commune and, 4:1734–1736, 1737 National Health Insurance Act of 1911 (Britain), 5:2452 National History Museum (Dublin), 2:693 national identity. See nationalism National Insurance Act of 1911 (Britain), 1:356; 3:1349, 1369, 1370 national insurance programs, 5:2452–2456, 2473–2474 nationalism, 3:1602–1609; 4:2212 Abdul-Hamid II’s reign and, 1:2 Albania and, 1:32–34; 3:1690–1691 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51 anti-Semitism and, 1:74 aristocracy and, 1:470 Armenia and, 1:2, 87, 88–92 armies and, 1:93, 94, 97, 101 artisans and, 1:105 Austria and, 1:10–11, 145 Balkans and, 1:2, 163, 166; 2:663, 704, 705, 1018; 3:1420, 1685, 1690 bank foundings and, 1:170–171

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Bismarck and, 1:84, 237, 241, 291; 2:662 Boulangism and, 1:282–283 Bulgaria and, 1:2, 163, 166, 312, 313; 3:1686–1687, 1688 Burckhardt’s view of, 1:315 capitalism and, 1:355–356 Carducci and, 1:362–363 Catalonia and, 1:182, 183; 2:935 Catholicism and, 1:382, 389; 3:1656 Chopin’s music and, 1:440 citizenship and, 1:456–460 city ethnic groups and, 1:447 conservative expression of, 2:566; 3:1605 Croatia and, 1:144; 2:924–925 Czech movement and, 1:145, 260, 261–262; 3:1469; 4:1711 Eastern Question and, 2:703 educational language and, 2:719, 724–726 Egypt and, 2:734, 794 Estonia and Latvia and, 1:40; 2:820 ethnic minorities and, 3:1524–1526 fin-de-sie`cle right-wing movements and, 3:1476–1477 Finland and, 2:820 folklorists and, 4:1756 Francis Ferdinand and, 2:862 French anti-Semitism and, 2:689 French radical right and, 1:5; 2:685 Garibaldi and, 2:930–933 German vs. French concept of, 3:1523 Germany and, 1:84, 368–369, 402; 2:542, 607, 662, 814, 870–871, 923–924, 958, 960–961; 3:1523, 1635, 1675; 4:1992–1993, 2131; 5:2352–2353, 2472 See also German unification Greece and, 2:1018–1020; 4:1981 See also Greek War of Independence gymnastics and, 4:2241, 2243, 2245 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:140, 141, 142 historiography and, 2:1074 Hungary and, 1:143, 144–145; 2:865; 3:1265–1269; 4:1861, 1993, 2131 idealism of, 3:1604–1605 India and, 2:597; 3:1135–1137 Indochina and, 3:1144–1145 international congresses and, 3:1173 international law and, 3:1174 Ireland and, 3:1182–1188, 1185, 1604, 1656–1657; 4:1741–1742, 2131; 5:2464, 2509, 2510

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Italy and, 1:362–363, 388, 414; 2:930, 931–932; 3:1193–1196, 1606; 4:1992, 2001–2004, 2033–2034, 2131, 2247 Jelacˇic´ and, 3:1219–1220 Jewish cultural vs. political, 1:314; 2:930–933; 3:1526; 5:2518–2519 jingoism and, 3:1234–1235 Lafayette and, 3:1298, 1300 language and, 2:719; 3:1521, 1523, 1525, 1603, 1604 liberalism and, 3:1344–1345 Lithuania and, 3:1366, 1368 Masaryk and, 3:1469 masculinity and, 3:1473 migration and, 3:1109–1110, 1112, 1113, 1114 Milan and, 3:1501–1502 minorities and, 3:1520–1526 Montenegro and, 1:163, 165; 3:1540–1541 music and, 3:1571 Napoleon III and, 2:662 national identity and, 3:1521, 1521–1526, 1523, 1525, 1603 Netherlands and, 3:1619 opera and, 3:1673 origins of, 3:1602–1604 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1207, 1420, 1682–1691, 1690 pacifism and, 4:1698 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716–1717 patriotic holidays and, 4:1826 peasants and, 4:1755 Pius IX’s condemnation of, 4:1798 in Poland, 5:2441 Poland and. See Polish national movement Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861–1863 press and, 4:1872 Renan and, 4:1953 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988–1989, 1992–1994, 1995 Romania and, 4:1993, 1994, 2020 Romanticism and, 1:215; 4:2031 Russia and, 1:400; 4:1956, 2048, 2079, 2271; 5:2307 Russian music and, 2:979–980; 3:1571 Russian Official Nationality repression and, 3:1626 Russian rayonism and, 1:157 Schnitzler and, 4:2100–2101

1 9 1 4

secret societies and, 4:2131 self-determination and, 3:1172 Serbia and, 1:2, 163, 166, 207, 242–243; 2:704–705; 3:1247–1248, 1268; 4:1993, 1994, 2142–2143, 2147 sports competitions and, 4:2246 Stravinsky and, 4:2261 Struve and, 4:2271 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307 theories of, 3:1607–1608 tourism and, 5:2330 Trieste and, 5:2356–2357 Ukraine and, 5:2371–2372, 2373 universities and, 5:2388 Vienna and, 5:2417, 2420 Vietnam and, 3:1144–1145 Vilnius and, 3:1366 Wagner and, 3:1675 Wales and, 5:2434–2435, 2437 Yeats and, 5:2509 Young Turks and, 5:2516 See also Revolutions of 1820; Revolutions of 1830; Revolutions of 1848 Nationalist Party (Russia), 4:2257 National Italian Society, 1:391 National League (Poland), 2:752 National League for the Education of Retarded Children (Italy), 3:1542 National Liberal Foundation (Britain), 1:404 National Liberal Party (Germany), 1:238; 2:966; 3:1347, 1609; 5:2511 national libraries. See libraries National Library (Dublin), 2:693 National Library (Serbia), 4:2148 National Militia (Spain), 3:1413–1414 National Movement (Spain), 1:368 National Museum (Dublin), 2:693 National Museum (Finland), 1:113 National Museum (Prague), 4:1858 National Museum (Serbia), 4:2148 National Museum (Warsaw), 5:2442 National Museum of Natural History (Paris), 2:598, 599; 3:1301–1302 National Party (Croatia), 2:925 National Party (Czech), 4:1712; 5:2510–2511 National Portrait Gallery (London), 3:1376 National Provincial Bank of England, 1:175 National Public Schools Association, 1:490

2709

INDEX

National Review (British periodical), 1:160 National Socialist German Workers Party. See Nazism National Society for Women’s Suffrage (Britain), 1:332 National Swimming Society (Britain), 4:2240 National System of Political Economy, The (List), 2:516; 3:1357; 4:1888 National Temperance Federation (Britain), 1:36 National Temperance League (Britain), 4:1897 National Theater Company (Warsaw), 5:2442 National Union (Germany), 2:962 National Union of the Working Classes, 1:414; 3:1390 National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (Britain), 2:625, 797–799; 4:2279 National University of Ireland, 2:693 National Vaccine Establishment (Britain), 3:1224 National Woman Suffrage Association (U.S.), 1:67 National Women’s Service (Germany), 1:189 National Workers’ Union (Poland), 2:753 National Workshops (France), 2:850; 3:1287 Nations, Battle of the (1813). See Leipzig, Battle of Nations and Nationalism (Gellner), 3:1607 Native Americans, 2:575; 5:2439, 2440 natural frontiers doctrine, 4:2187 natural history, 2:598–599 Natural History Museum (London), 2:618 Natural History Museum (Paris), 1:228; 3:1562–1563 Natural History of the Animal Kingdom (G. Schubert), 4:1924 naturalism. See realism and naturalism natural law, 1:456; 2:953; 3:1173, 1174, 1175; 4:2212 natural philosophy, 4:2108 physics vs, 4:1778–1779 natural rights, 1:465 natural sciences. See science and technology Natural Science Society (Bru¨nn), 3:1486 natural selection, 2:613, 616, 617, 618, 631, 771, 776, 779; 3:1250;

2710

4:2071, 2234; 5:2437, 2438, 2458 ‘‘degeneration’’ and, 2:636 Lamarckian acquired characteristics vs., 3:1302 Malthusian theory and, 3:1426 mutation and, 2:653 social Darwinism and, 2:619 nature Enlightenment view of, 4:2158 environment and, 2:766 Goethe studies of, 2:986 painting from, 3:1126; 4:1708, 1864 parks and, 4:1738–1741 Romanticism and, 4:2026, 2029–2030 Nature (British journal), 5:2458 Nature morte aux livres (Matisse), 3:1474 Nature, The Utility of Religion (J. S. Mill), 3:1514 nature vs. nurture criminality theories and, 2:573–574; 3:1371 Galton view of, 2:927, 928 Naturgeschicte des Teirreichs (G. Schubert), 4:1924 naturopathy, 2:1069–1070 Naturphilosophie, 1:23; 2:615; 4:2088 Naumann, Friedrich, 1:189, 446 Nauru, 2:967 Nauvoo colony (Illinois), 1:338 naval rivalry (Anglo-German), 2:795, 1013; 3:1609–1612 Anglo-French naval agreement (1913) and, 3:1546 dreadnaught battleships and, 2:681–683, 968; 3:1610 German battle fleet and, 2:967, 968 Lloyd George measures and, 3:1370 Tirpitz and, 5:2312 William II and, 5:2469 naval warfare British-German buildup for, 2:681, 682 British victories against Napoleon and, 2:554, 846, 901, 1002; 3:1586 Crimean War and, 1:244; 2:577–578, 579, 580, 1007; 3:1626 dreadnaught battleships and, 2:681–683 Geneva Convention and, 2:953 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1020; 3:1612 Nelson and, 3:1614–1616

Russo-Japanese War and, 3:1558, 1628 Tirpitz and, 5:2312–2313 War of 1812 and, 5:2438, 2439, 2440 See also Trafalgar, Battle of Navarino, Battle of (1827), 2:1020; 3:1420, 1612–1613; 4:1982 Navarre, 1:83, 368 navigation, 3:1249, 1250 Marconi and, 3:1445 oceanic exploration and, 3:1653–1654 Navigation Acts (Britain), 3:1155; 4:1925 repeal of, 2:504 Naville, Franc¸ois, 4:1850 Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, 4:2138 Naya, Carlo, 2:946 Nazarenes, 4:1707 Nazism anti-Semitism and, 1:75, 76, 77 artisans and shopkeepers and, 1:106–107 Augspurg as exile from, 1:129–130 Center Party and, 2:966 Chamberlain (Houston) as precursor of, 1:403, 404 ‘‘degenerate art’’ label of, 2:649; 3:1246 Einstein as exile from, 2:740 eugenic genocide and, 2:928 Freud as exile from, 2:909 Grimm fairy tales and, 2:1023 Haeckel and, 2:1032 Hirschfeld as exile from, 2:1071 Kandinsky as exile from, 3:1246 Liebermann and, 3:1354–1355 Mann as critic and exile from, 3:1435–1436, 1437 as Nietzsche’s political heirs, 3:1629, 1635 ‘‘racial hygiene’’ policy of, 2:619, 639, 769, 771 Romanies as victims of, 4:2021, 2023, 2024 Rothschild vilification and, 4:2041 Treitschke and, 5:2353 Wagner and, 5:2431 NCA. See National Charter Association Ndebele, 4:2220 Neale, Edward Vansittart, 4:2208 Neapolitan Fisherboy (Rude), 4:2043 Neapolitan Republic, 4:2001 Necessarianism, 3:1458, 1459 Necessity of Atheism, The (Shelley), 4:2030, 2169

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Nechayev, Sergei, 1:162; 3:1613, 1613–1614; 4:2052; 5:2517 Necker, Jacques, 2:611, 767; 3:1385; 4:2246 Necker, Suzanne, 4:2246 Necker Hospital (Paris), 3:1298 Neerwinder, Battle of (1793), 2:899 Nefftzer, Auguste, 2:810 Neidgart, Olga Borisovna, 4:2256 Neithardt von Gneisenau, August, 2:958 Nekrasov, Nikolai, 2:678 Nelidov, A. I., 4:2085 Nelmes, Sarah, 3:1223 Nelson, Horatia (daughter), 3:1615 Nelson, Horatio, 3:1254, 1614–1616 Egyptian victory of, 2:731; 3:1585 Trafalgar and, 2:901, 1002; 3:1615; 5:2344–2345, 2438 William IV and, 5:2470 Nemirovich-Danchenko, Vladimir, 3:1495 Nenni, Pietro, 3:1202 neo-absolutism, 2:863–864 neoclassical economists, 2:707, 708, 709, 710, 711 neoclassicism art nouveau vs., 1:107 French Revolution and, 4:1701, 1702 Ingres and, 3:1165–1167 Romantic rejection of, 4:2030 in St. Petersburg, 4:2077, 2078 Stravinsky and, 4:2261, 2262 neoconservatives, 2:536 Neo-Darwinians, 2:618 ‘‘Neogothic and Neoclassic’’ (Lourie´), 4:2262 neo-Gothic style, 4:2030 neo-Guelph movement, 3:1195, 1480 neo-impressionism, 3:1530; 4:1794 Seurat and, 4:2155–2158, 2292 neo-Kantianism, 4:2270 neo-Malthusians, 4:1762, 1830 Neo-Orthodox Judaism, 3:1227 neopopulists, 4:2210 neoroyalists, 1:5 neo-Scholasticism, 4:1797 Neris River, 3:1367 Neruda, Jan, 4:1857 Nerval, Ge´rard de, 2:687; 3:1577 nervous system, 1:340–342 Nesselrode, Karl Robert, 3:1560–1561 Nest of the Gentry, A (Turgenev), 5:2365 Nestroy, Johann, 5:2418, 2419 Netherlands, 3:1616–1620 Africa and, 1:17–18, 19

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Agricultural Revolution and, 1:24; 3:1305 balance of power and, 1:374 banking and, 1:170, 173–174 Belgian revolt against, 2:662; 3:1617 Belgium and, 1:199, 200, 201, 202; 2:525, 566; 3:1335; 5:2306 Caribbean colonialism and, 1:363, 364 Catholicism and, 1:377, 383; 3:1618, 1619 Catholic political parties and, 1:388 Christian Democrats and, 4:2209 colonial wars and, 2:505 colonies and, 2:506; 3:1114, 1116, 1151, 1154; 4:2218 commercial policy and, 2:512 Congress of Vienna and, 2:533; 3:1193 De Vries and, 2:652–653 emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748 engineering projects and, 2:757 feminism and, 2:802 First International in, 2:825 football (soccer) and, 2:833, 834 Freemasons and, 2:877, 881 French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars and, 2:666, 899, 900; 3:1254, 1339 imperialism and, 3:1617–1618, 1619; 4:2218 independence of, 1:199; 3:1616 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2493 Japan and, 3:1209, 1210; 4:2064 Jewish emancipation in, 3:1227 labor movements in, 3:1289, 1290, 1291 liberalism and, 3:1342 as Liebermann setting, 3:1353, 1354 literacy in, 2:720; 4:1868 Louis-Philippe’s war with, 3:1388 migration and, 3:1110, 1111 Napoleonic Empire and, 2:553; 3:1587, 1590, 1597, 1616–1617; 4:2186, 2187–2189 See also Kingdom of Holland newspapers and, 4:1866, 1867, 1868, 1869 patriot revolt (1787–1788) in, 4:2188 population of, 3:1616 potato blight in, 2:1005 Protestant population of, 1:199; 3:1618, 1619; 4:1890 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1984

1 9 1 4

Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1990 Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098 seaside resorts in, 4:2125 Second International and, 4:2128 sister republics and, 4:2188–2189 slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19, 365, 458, 499; 2:506 slave trade and, 1:13 sodomy prosecution in, 2:1082, 1083 sports in, 4:2241 strikes in, 4:2265 suffrage in, 4:2278, 2279 tea drinking in, 1:495 temperance societies in, 4:1896 tobacco and, 5:2313 trade and, 1:53; 5:2336, 2338, 2339 universities in, 5:2379 urbanization of, 1:443 Van Gogh and, 5:2399–2401 welfare initiatives in, 5:2452, 2454, 2455 wine and, 5:2475 women university students in, 2:728 world’s fairs and, 5:2499–2500, 2503 See also Amsterdam Netherlands Missionary Society, 3:1527; 4:1895 Nether World, The (Gissing), 2:589, 975 Neue Bahnen (journal), 3:1681 Neue Freie Presse (Vienna newspaper), 2:685, 1068; 3:1219, 1381; 5:2420, 2520 Neue Gedichte (Heine), 2:1056 Neue Ghetto, Das (Herzl), 2:1068 Neue Ko¨lnische Zeitung (German newspaper), 1:66 Neue Ku¨nstlervereinigung (Munich), 1:155 Neue Preubische Zeitung (Prussian newspaper), 1:234 Neue Rundschau (Berlin journal), 3:1574 Neues von der Venus (Herzl), 2:1068 Neues Wiener Tagblatt (newspaper), 3:1394; 4:2045 Neue Zeit, Die (Marxist journal), 3:1248 Neue Zeitschrift fu ¨ r Musik (journal), 3:1570 Neufchaˆteau, Franc¸ois, 5:2493 Neuko ¨ llin (Berlin suburb), 1:217 neurasthenia, 2:816; 3:1472; 4:2294 Neurath, Otto, 3:1409

2711

INDEX

neurology, 4:1908 Cajal and, 1:340–342 Charcot and, 1:408–410 Freud and, 2:904–910; 4:1904 Pavlov and, 4:1749 ‘‘Neuron Doctrine, Theory and Facts, The’’ (Golgi), 1:342 neurosis, 2:905, 907; 4:1904, 1906 Neurotic Constitution, The (A. Adler), 1:9 Neuschwanstein (Louis II castle), 3:1383, 1384; 4:2030 neutrality Belgium and, 1:199, 205; 2:566–567, 662 Continental System and, 1:52 Hamburg and, 2:1038 international law and, 3:1174, 1175 Italy and, 3:1202–1203 Red Cross and, 3:1175 Switzerland and, 4:2289, 2291 United States and, 5:2438–2439 Neuzil, Valerie (‘‘Wally’’), 4:2089, 2090 Neva River, 4:2076, 2078 Neville-Rolfe, Sybil, 2:770 Nevsky Prospect (St. Petersburg), 4:2078 New Arabian Nights (Stevenson), 4:2255 New Artists’ Association of Munich, 3:1245 New Brunswick, 1:342 New Caledonia, 2:780–781; 3:1497 Newcastle, 1:485 Newcomb, Simon, 4:2114–2115 Newcomen, Thomas, 4:2108 Newcomen steam engine, 3:1152 New Connexion, 4:2082 New Current (Latvia), 2:822 New Departure (Parnell program), 3:1181; 4:1741 Newfoundland, 1:344 New France. See Quebec New German School (composition), 1:295 New Grub Street (Gissing), 2:975; 4:1871 New Guardhouse (Berlin), 4:2092 New Harmony community (Indiana), 3:1692–1693, 1693; 4:2200–2201; 5:2397 New He´loı¨se (Rousseau), 2:942 ‘‘New Journalism,’’ 4:1870–1871, 1872 New Justine, The (Sade), 4:2074 New Kingdom, The (Strindberg), 4:2268

2712

New Lanark, 2:1088; 3:1692; 5:2396–2397 New Liberals (Britain), 2:1075 socialism and, 4:2205, 2206–2207 New Machiavelli, The (Wells), 5:2445, 2458 Newman, John Henry, 1:385; 3:1620–1621; 4:1918 Dublin Catholic institutions and, 2:693; 3:1621 Leo XIII and, 3:1330 Manning and, 3:1440 New Market (Vienna), 5:2417 New Moral World, The (Owenite journal), 5:2396 New Mosque (Istanbul), 3:1189 ‘‘New Museum idea,’’ 3:1564 New Organization of the People, A (Lovett and Collins), 3:1391 New Orleans, Degas painting of, 2:634 New Path (journal), 4:1864 New Poems (Arnold), 1:102 New Poor Law of 1834 (Britain), 1:211; 4:1819, 1820, 1848–1849, 1853, 1854; 5:2322, 2450, 2454, 2462 Dickens critique of, 4:1820 New Principles of Political Economy (Sismondi), 4:2186 New Right (France), 1:281, 282; 2:539–540 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:4–6; 2:542 Dreyfus affair and, 2:685–686, 857, 858 Maurras and, 2:858; 3:1476 Third French Republic and, 2:857, 858, 859 News from Nowhere (Morris), 3:1551; 4:2205 New South Wales, 1:133, 134, 135 convict colony in, 2:505 exploration of, 2:781 New Zealand and, 1622 newspapers. See press and newspapers New Statesman (Fabian journal), 2:788; 5:2445 New Testament, 4:1770, 2182 New Times (Russian daily), 1:423 Newton, Isaac, 1:212; 2:740, 986; 3:1250, 1312; 4:1800, 1907, 2027 Mach critique of, 3:1408, 1409 Newtonian mechanics, 4:1779 New View of Society, A (Owen), 3:1692; 4:2200 New Woman, 1:485 challenge to gender roles by, 2:947, 948

fin de sie`cle and, 1:230 leisure and, 3:1325 psychoanalysis and, 4:1906 Spencer and, 4:2235 New York City, 1:443; 2:589 New York Herald (newspaper), 2:783 New York Philharmonic, 3:1418 New York Tribune (newspaper), 3:1466 New York World’s Fairs (1939, 1964), 2:589 New Zealand, 3:1621–1625; 5:2411, 2504 British settlement colonies in, 3:1115 colonial trade and, 2:505 immigrants in, 1:351; 2:504, 646 indigenous population and, 2:604 New Zealand (British battle cruiser), 3:1611 Ney, Michel, 2:903; 3:1321; 4:2044; 5:2442, 2443 Neyman, Jerzy, 4:2249 Nguni chiefdoms, 1:17 Nguyen Anh, 3:1137 Nian Rebellion (1853–1868), 1:434 Nibelungenlied, Das (German epic), 4:2095 Niboyet, Euge´nie, 2:650; 3:1288; 4:2279 Nice, 1:392; 2:534; 3:1198, 1592; 4:1785, 2000, 2125; 5:2328 day-trips to, 4:1824 tourist population of, 1:288 Nicholas I, emperor of Russia, 1:39, 493; 2:606, 819; 3:1625–1626; 4:2050–2051, 2052, 2094, 2152 Alexander II and, 1:38 anti-Semitism and, 3:1233 bureaucracy and, 1:323 counterrevolution and, 2:566, 1081; 3:1625, 1626 Crimean War and, 2:577, 579; 3:1626 cultural nationalism of, 1:400 Czartoryski and, 2:603–604 Decembrists and, 4:2050, 2236 Glinka opera dedicated to, 2:979–980 Greek revolution and, 4:1982 Hungarian nationalism and, 3:1268 Metternich and, 3:1494 Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz Treaty and, 3:1560 Poland and, 4:1808, 1817–1818 Pushkin and, 4:1919, 1920 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1984 Revolutions of 1848 and, 3:1626

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

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INDEX

St. Petersburg and, 4:2077, 2078 Turkestan colonization and, 1:397 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2391–2392 warfare and, 3:1625–1627 Nicholas II, emperor of Russia, 3:1626–1628, 1627; 4:2049, 2054, 2055 abdication of, 3:1626, 1660 Alexander III and, 1:40 Alexandra as wife of, 1:41, 42; 3:1627, 1627 alliance system and, 1:49 anti-Semitism and, 1:76, 77; 4:1803 Armenian policy of, 1:89 authoritarianism of, 2:862; 3:1627, 1628 caricature of, 4:2058 constitution and, 3:1293 Cossacks and, 2:563 Finland and, 2:821, 822 Hague conference and, 2:1034 imperialism and, 1:435 Moscow and, 3:1555 October Manifesto of, 3:1328, 1554, 1659 Octobrists and, 3:1659, 1660 Polish nationalists and, 4:1812 Revolution of 1905 and, 2:823; 3:1293, 1328, 1627–1628; 4:1975, 1978, 1979, 2055, 2057 Russian Orthodox Church and, 4:2063 St. Petersburg and, 4:2079 Siberia and, 4:2172 Stolypin and, 4:2256 Victoria’s family relationship with, 5:2415, 2415 Witte and, 4:1978, 2055; 5:2479 Nicholas I, king of Montenegro, 3:1540, 1541 Nicholas Nickleby (Dickens), 1:300; 2:656 Nicholas Nikolayevich, grand duke of Russia, 1:42, 90; 4:2068 Nichols, A. B., 1:302 Nicholson, William, 4:2114 Nicht-Ordinarien, 5:2383 nickelodeons, 2:551 nicotine, 5:2314 Niemann, Albert, 2:687 Nie´pce, Isidore, 2:606 Nie´pce, Joseph-Nice´phore, 1:440; 2:605, 606; 4:1770 Nies, Francis Xavier, 1:292 Nietzsche, Elisabeth, 1:64

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 3:1509, 1535, 1628–1636, 1630 as Adler (Alfred) influence, 1:9 as Adler (Victor) influence, 1:10 Andreas-Salome´ and, 1:63–64 as avant-garde influence, 1:154 as Berdyayev influence, 1:212 on Bizet vs. Wagner, 3:1675 as Burckhardt disciple, 1:320 as D’Annunzio influence, 2:609 degeneration and, 2:638, 816 fin de sie´cle pessimism of, 2:815 as futurist influence, 2:921 as Generation of 1898 influence, 2:950 Hellenism and, 3:1632; 4:1770 Ho¨lderlin as precursor of, 2:1079 as Jung influence, 3:1238 as Kafka influence, 3:1243 as Lasker-Schu¨ler influence, 3:1309 legacy of, 3:1635–1636 Leopardi appreciation by, 3:1334 as Mahler influence, 3:1418 as Mann influence, 3:1436 morality system of, 3:1631–1633 as Musil influence, 3:1574 nihilism and, 3:1641 Rank and, 4:1938 Russian symbolists and, 4:2181 Schelling and, 4:2089 Schopenhauer as influence on, 4:2104, 2106 secularism and, 4:2133 Stirner and, 5:2513 superman ideal of, 3:1629, 1633–1635, 1636 as symbolist influence, 3:1529 Wagner viewed by, 3:1635, 1675; 5:2431 Yeats and, 5:2510 Nieuwe Gids (Dutch review), 3:1619 Niftrik, J. G. van, 1:54 Nigeria, 1:223 British control of, 1:20, 21, 22 colonial government in, 2:508 exploration of, 2:782, 783 slave trade and, 1:13 Niger River, 1:14–15, 20, 220, 222; 2:782 internationalized navigation of, 3:1173 Nigger of the Narcissus, The (Conrad), 2:535 Nightingale, Florence, 3:1636–1638, 1637

1 9 1 4

Gaskell friendship with, 2:934 myth of, 2:579 nursing and, 1:278; 2:579; 3:1637–1638, 1649, 1650 Sevastopol and, 1:244 Strachey biography of, 4:2259 ‘‘Nightingale, The’’ (Coleridge), 1:496 ‘‘Nightingale Garden’’ (Blok), 1:250 Nightingale Training School for Nurses, 3:1638 Night in Venice, A (J. Strauss), 4:2261; 5:2405 Nightmare, The (Fu ¨ ssli), 4:1703 nihilists, 3:1638–1642, 1641; 5:2365 intelligentsia and, 3:1170 Nijinsky, Kyra, 3:1643 Nijinsky, Vaslav, 2:655; 3:1642, 1642–1644, 1643; 4:1876, 1945 Nijinsky, clown de Dieu (ballet), 3:1643 Nikisch, Arthur, 2:654; 3:1418 Nile, Battle of the (1798), 2:731 Nile Delta, 1:18 Nile River, 1:407 French-British spheres of influence and, 2:795 Kitchener expedition and, 3:1258, 1668 search for source of, 2:782, 783 Nin, Anaı¨s, 4:1939 1914 (Brooke), 4:1826 Ninety-Three (Hugo), 2:1095 Ningbo, 3:1679 Ninth Symphony (Beethoven), 1:196, 197; 3:1260, 1571; 5:2418 Ninth Symphony (From the New World) (Dvorˇa´k), 2:701 Ninth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419 nitrates, 3:1160, 1164; 4:2109 nitrogen fertilizers, 3:1160, 1164 Nitroglycerin AB, 3:1644 Nitti, Francesco, 2:972 nizam-i cedid, 3:1683 Nizan, Paul, 3:1169 Nizip, Battle of (1839), 3:1421 N. M. Rothschild & Sons, 4:2041 Noailles, Adrienne de, 3:1299 Noailles Dragoons, 3:1299 Nobel, Alfred, 3:1160, 1644–1645; 4:1697, 2286 Suttner and, 4:2281, 2282 Nobel, Emil, 3:1644 Nobel, Ludwig, 3:1644, 1645 Nobel Foundation, 3:1645 Nobel laureates, 1:54 first (1901), 3:1645 Nobel Peace Prize, 4:1697, 1698, 1950, 2065, 2100

2713

INDEX

Belgian winners of, 1:205 Briand and, 2:643 Buisson and, 2:812 Roosevelt and, 4:1837, 2065 Suttner and, 4:2282 Nobel prize for chemistry, 2:652, 653 Curie and, 2:596 Nobel prize for literature Benavente and, 2:951 Bergson and, 1:213 Carducci and, 1:362 Kipling and, 3:1257 Mann and, 3:1436 Mommsen and, 3:1533 Reymont and, 4:1756 Rolland and, 4:2016 Strindberg and, 4:2269 Nobel prize for medicine Cajal and, 1:342 Golgi and, 1:341, 342 Koch and, 3:1264 Pavlov and, 4:1748, 1908 Nobel prize for physics, 2:653; 4:2012, 2113 Curies and Becquerel and, 2:595 Einstein and, 2:740 Marconi and, 3:1445 Planck and, 4:1799 Roentgen and, 4:2012 nobility aristocracy vs., 1:78, 80 See also aristocracy ‘‘noble savage’’ concept. See primitivism Nocturnes (Satie), 4:2087 Nodier, Charles, 2:605 Noe, Amadee Charles Henri de, 3:1127 no-fault divorce, 4:1962 Nogi, Maresuke, 3:1557; 4:2065 Nolde, Emil, 1:154, 155 Nollet, Jean-Antoine, 3:1384 Nolte, Ernst, 2:685–686 noncommissioned officers, 1:97 Nonconformist, The (British radical newspaper), 4:2233 Nonconformists (British Protestants), 1:418; 2:558, 1002, 1006; 4:1896 Wales and, 1:1006; 5:2433, 2434 Nonell y Monturiol, Isidro, 4:1781 non expedit policy, 4:2024–2025 Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 (U.S), 5:2439 Nordau, Max, 2:632, 769; 5:2464–2465, 2520, 2521

2714

degeneration theory and, 2:638, 639, 816 Nordenholz, Anastasius, 2:770 Norderney, 4:2124 Nord railway company, 5:2349 Norfolk four-course rotation, 1:26 Norma (Bellini), 3:1671 Normandy, 1:288; 2:800 Norodom, king of Cambodia, 3:1141, 1142 Norte Station (Madrid), 3:1413 North, Douglass, 5:2334 North, Frederick (Lord North), 2:839 North Africa, 1:18–19 Anglo-French agreement on, 3:1118, 1549 Britain and, 3:1482 Delacroix and, 2:641 exploration of, 2:784 French imperialism in, 2:812; 3:1115, 1116, 1122, 1482, 1548, 1549 Italian imperialism in, 1:7–8; 2:527; 3:1116, 1200, 1202, 1546 Moroccan Crises and, 1:49; 2:527, 663, 795; 3:1545–1546 Ottoman losses in, 3:1420 slave trade and, 1:15 See also Algeria; Egypt; Morocco; Tunisia North America British-French clashes in, 3:1115 British losses in, 1:498; 2:1000 British penal colonies in, 2:779–780 British settlement colonies in, 2:505, 710; 3:1115 British settler population in, 1:343–344 colonial trade and, 3:1154 immigrants to, 3:1112–1113, 1114, 1119 Napoleonic Law in, 3:1596 women immigrants to, 3:1114 See also Canada; Mexico; United States North American College (Rome), 4:1797 Northampton (Turner), 5:2367 North and South (Gaskell), 2:934 Northanger Abbey (Austen), 1:130, 131 Northcliffe, Lord (Alfred Charles William Harmsworth), 1:30; 4:1871 Northern Ireland. See Ulster Northern Star (Chartist newspaper), 1:415, 416, 417, 418; 3:1286, 1658

Northern Union of Russian Workers, 3:1288 North German Confederation, 1:148; 2:965 Bismarck establishment of, 1:236; 2:964; 4:1902 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:868–870 monetary union and, 1:171 Polish territory and, 4:1809 sodomy law and, 2:1083 North of England Council for the Higher Education of Women, 1:331 North Pole, 2:783 North Sea, 2:553, 648 North Sea Channel, 1:53 North Sea system (migration), 3:1110 North Wales (Turner), 5:2367 Norton, Caroline, 3:1645–1646 Norton, George, 3:1645, 1646 Norway folk culture of in, 4:1756 Ibsen and, 3:1107–1109 Munch and, 3:1558–1560 peasant enfranchisement in, 4:1755 popular culture in, 4:1821 Protestant temperance society and, 4:1896 See also Sweden and Norway Norwegian Theatre (Bergen), 3:1107 ‘‘Nose, The’’ (Gogol), 2:988 Noske, Gustav, 3:1356 Nostromo (Conrad), 2:536 Notarbartolo, Emanuele, 3:1417 Notes d’un musicien en voyage (Offenbach), 3:1661 Notes from the Underground (Dostoyevsky), 2:590, 678 Notes on Nursing (Nightingale), 3:1638, 1649 Notre-Dame Cathedral (Paris), 2:737; 4:1730, 2030; 5:2422, 2423, 2424 Notre-Dame de Paris (Hugo), 2:1093 Notre-Dame-des Champs gallery (Paris), 2:590 Notre patrie (Pe´guy), 4:1760 Nottinghamshire Luddite rebellion, 3:1391, 1392, 1410 Noucentisme (Ors), 4:2232 Nouveau christianisme, Le (SaintSimon), 4:2081 Nouveau monde industriel et socie´taire, Le (Fourier), 4:2202 Nouveau Paris, Le (Mercier), 4:1728 Nouveau principes d’e´conomie politique (Sismondi), 4:2186 Nouvelles histoires extraordinaires (Baudelaire), 1:188

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Nouvelles me´ditations poe´tiques (Lamartine), 3:1303 Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg), 2:912, 1078; 3:1647–1648; 4:2095 Fichte as influence on, 2:814 Restoration and, 4:1968 Schelling and, 4:2088 secularization viewed by, 4:2133 Novara, Battle of (1849), 3:1196; 4:1786; 5:2409 Nova Scotia, 1:343 novels. See literature November Uprising of 1830–1831 (Poland), 2:604, 959, 1081; 3:1500, 1561, 1605, 1625; 4:1808, 1810 Russian suppression of, 4:1818 Novices of Sais, The (Novalis), 3:1647 Novikov, Nikolai, 1:376–377; 3:1170, 1552 Novine Dalmatinsko-HervatskoSlavonske (Croatian newspaper), 4:1861 Novi Pazar, 2:530, 705 Novoe Vremya (Russian daily), 4:1868 Novomirsky (Daniil Kirilovsky), 1:60 Novosiltsev, Nikolai, 1:38 Novy put (Russian journal), 1:212 Nozo, Michitsura, 3:1557 Nu bleu (Souvenir de Briska) (Matisse), 3:1474 nuclear family, 3:1451 nuclear physics, 4:2071 nuclear weapons, 2:740 nucleus, 1:427 Nu de dos (Matisse), 3:1474 nudes Degas paintings of, 2:634 Dore´ paintings of, 2:677 Gauguin paintings of, 2:940, 941 Ingres paintings of, 3:1166–1167 Manet paintings of, 3:1432, 1432, 1433 pornographic images of, 4:1835 Nudes in Landscape (Ce´zanne), 1:399 Nugent, Jane, 1:327 Nuits d’E´te´ (Berlioz), 1:225 Numantius, Numa (pseud.), 2:1085 nuns, as teachers, 2:721 Nuremberg, 1:260; 2:1053 nurses, 3:1648–1651 Crimean War and, 1:244, 278; 2:579 Nightingale and, 3:1637–1638, 1649, 1650 Red Cross and, 3:1650; 4:1948, 1949 secularization and, 1:411

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

women as, 2:945; 3:1637–1638, 1648–1650; 4:1881 Nussey, Ellen, 1:301 Nutcracker Suite, The (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307 nutrition. See diet and nutrition NUWC. See National Union of the Working Classes Nyamwezi (people), 1:16, 17 Nyasaland, 2:783 Nye, John Vincent, 2:512

n

O Oath of the Horatii (David), 2:623, 624; 4:1702 ‘‘Obelisk to the Fighters of Freedom’’ (Moscow), 4:2080 Oberdan, Guglielmo, 5:2356 Oberlin, Johann Friedrich, 4:1896 Obermann, Rodolfo, 4:2242 Obersteiner, Heinrich, 2:686 Oberto, conte di San Bonifacio (Verdi), 3:1672; 5:2406 Objective Psychology (Bekhterev), 4:1908 Oblat, L’ (Huysmans), 2:1104 Oblate of Saint Benedict, The (Huysmans), 2:1104 Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 1:384 Oblates of St. Charles, 3:1440 Oblomov (Goncharov), 2:989, 990 Obradovic´, Dositej, 4:2143 Obrenovic´, Alexander, 4:2146 Obrenovic´, Draga, 4:2146 Obrenovic´, Michael (Mihailo), 4:2144–2145 Obrenovic´, Milan, 4:2145, 2146, 2147 Obrenovic´, Milosˇ, 3:1247–1248, 1683; 4:2142, 2144, 2145, 2148 Obrenovic´ dynasty, 1:206, 242 obreros conscientes, 5:2488 O’Brien, James, 1:418 O’Brien, William, 4:1741 Obrist, Hermann, 1:112 Obruchev, Nikolai N., 4:2067–2068, 2069 obscenity. See pornography Observations on Parliamentary Reform (Ricardo), 2:715 Observations on the Effects of the Manufacturing System (Owen), 3:1692 ‘‘Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices’’ (Freud), 2:907

1 9 1 4

obstetrics, 2:644 O’Casey, Sean, 2:691 occult, 4:2294, 2295; 5:2509, 2510 See also spiritualism oceanic exploration, 3:1653–1654 Ochs, Peter, 4:2187, 2188 O’Connell, Daniel, 2:691, 1003; 3:1177, 1654–1657, 1655 O’Connor and, 3:1657 Peel and, 4:1758 Wellington and, 5:2321 William IV and, 5:2471 O’Connor, Arthur, 3:1657 O’Connor, Daniel, 1:388 O’Connor, Feargus, 2:1003; 3:1390, 1391, 1657–1658 Chartism and, 1:415, 416–417; 3:1657–1658; 4:2277 republicanism and, 4:1963 O’Connor, Roger, 3:1657 Octet for Strings (Mendelssohn), 3:1578 Octet for Wind Instruments (Stravinsky), 4:2262 October Diploma (1860), 2:627 October Edict of 1807 (Prussia), 3:1305; 4:2251 October Manifesto of 1905 (Russia), 3:1328, 1554, 1627, 1659; 4:1978, 1979, 2057, 2211 October Revolution of 1917 (Russia). See Revolution of 1917 Octobrists, 3:1658–1660; 4:2057, 2058 Kadets and, 3:1242, 1555, 1659 Stolypin and, 4:2257 odalise paintings (Matisse), 3:1474–1475 Odalisque au fauteuil turc, L’ (Matisse), 3:1474–1475 Odalisque with Slave (Ingres), 3:1166, 1167; 4:1706 Odd Women, The (Gissing), 2:975 Ode, Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood (Wordworth), 1:428 Ode´on Me´tro stop (Paris), 2:610 Ode´on theater (Paris), 1:229; 4:1727 Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington (Tennyson), 5:2309 Odes et Ballades (Hugo), 2:1092 Odessa, 1:243, 278 ‘‘Ode to Joy’’ (Schiller), 1:197 Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony and, 1:197; 3:1260 ‘‘Ode to Liberty’’ (Shelley), 4:2031, 2170 ‘‘Ode to the West Wind, The’’ (Shelley), 4:2170

2715

INDEX

Odi barbari (Carducci), 1:362 O’Donnell, Leopoldo, 4:2229, 2230 Odyssey (Homer), 3:1165, 1675 Oedipus at Colonus (Sophocles), 3:1663 Oedipus complex, 4:1770, 1904 Oedipus Tyrannus (Sophocles; Ho ¨ lderlin translation), 2:1078 Oeri, Jacob, 1:318 Oersted, Hans, 2:741; 4:2109 Oeuvre, L’ (Zola), 1:398 Oeuvres (Bergson), 1:213 Oeuvres (Gouges), 2:994 Offen, Karen, 2:801, 806 Offenbach, Jacques, 3:1414, 1660–1662, 1672 Manet and, 3:1432 Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260–2261; 5:2420 officer corps, 1:96, 97, 98, 99–100 Official Nationality (Russian concept), 3:1626; 4:2048 Of Population (Godwin), 2:981 Ogarev, Nikolai, 2:1064; 3:1613 Ohlin, Bertil Gotthard, 2:752; 5:2334 Ohm, Georg Simon, 3:1162 oil industry, 1:88; 3:1161 Oken, Lorenz, 2:615 Okin, S. M., 3:1514 Okinawa, 3:1211 Oku, Yasutaka, 3:1557 Olbrich, Joseph Maria, 1:112, 113, 152; 3:1260, 1381 old age, 1:408; 3:1662–1665 old-age insurance. See pensions Old Believers, 4:2062, 2257 Old Calabar, 1:15 Old Catholic Church, 4:1723, 1798 Old Church Slavonic, 4:1716 Old Closes and Streets of Glasgow (Annan), 4:2119 Old Confederation (Switzerland), 4:2288 Old Curiosity Shop, the (Dickens), 2:656 Old Czechs. See Young Czechs and Old Czechs Oldenburg, house of, 4:2287 Old Etonians (football team), 2:831 old-folks homes, 5:2455 Old Guitarist, The (Picasso), 4:1781 Old Hegelians, 3:1464 Old Poor Law. See Poor Law Old Regime and the Revolution, The (Tocqueville), 3:1342; 5:2316, 2317–2318 Old Serbia. See Serbia Oldsmobiles (cars), 1:149 Old Town Square (Prague), 4:1858 Old World and the New, The (political cartoon), 2:749

2716

‘‘Old-World Landowners’’ (Gogol), 2:988 O’Leary, John, 5:2509 Olga, princess of Russia, 3:1627 oligarchy, 1:457 Oliveira de Martins, Joaquim Pedro, 4:1840 Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches (Carlyle), 1:371 Oliver Twist (Dickens), 2:573, 575, 656 Cruikshank illustrations, 2:585 as New Poor Law critique, 4:1820, 1848 Olivier, Fernande, 4:1782, 1783–1784 Olivier, Sydney, 5:2444 Ollivier, E´mile, 2:853–854 Olmstead, Alan, 5:2337 Olmu¨tz, Battle of (1805), 1:132 Olmu¨tz, Punctuation of (1850), 2:962; 4:1902 Olson, Mancur, 2:516 Olsson, Ulf, 4:2269 Olympia (Manet), 2:940; 3:1432, 1433; 4:1707–1708, 1954 Olympic Games, 3:1665–1668, 1666 Athens and, 1:126; 3:1665, 1667, 1667 football (soccer) and, 2:834 Greece and, 4:2244 masculinity and, 3:1473 sites of, 4:2246; 5:2592 Oman, Charles, 4:1766 Oman, sultan of, 1:16 Omani Empire, 1:16 Omar Pasha, 1:244 Omdurman (1898), 2:734, 794; 3:1125, 1258, 1668–1669, 1669 ¨ mer Pasha Latas, 1:274; 3:1541 O omerta`, 4:2174 ‘‘On Agitation’’ (Martov and Kremer), 3:1460 Onatario, 1:345 On Crimes and Punishment (Beccaria), 3:1371; 5:2393 ‘‘On Diligence in Several Learned Languages’’ (Herder), 2:1061 On Dramatic Art and Literature (Schlegel), 4:2095 O’Neill, Eugene, 4:2269 On Germany (Stae¨l), 4:2247 On Heroes, Hero Worship, and the Heroic in History (Carlyle), 1:371 On Kulikovo Field (Blok), 1:250; 2:774 On Liberty (J. S. Mill), 2:1006; 3:1509, 1513; 5:2394 ‘‘On Narcissism’’ (Freud), 2:907–908 On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers (Schleiermacher), 4:2097

On the Basis of Morality (Schopenhauer), 4:2104 ‘‘On the Basis of our Belief in Divine Governance of the World’’ (Fichte), 2:813 On the Conception of Aphasias (Freud), 2:904 On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates (Kierkegaard), 3:1250 On the Conservation of Force (Helmholtz), 2:1057 On the Constitution of the Church and State (Coleridge), 1:497 On the Development of the Monistic Conception of History (Plekhanov), 4:1801 On the Eve (Turgenev), 5:2365 On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Schopenhauer), 4:2103 On the Freedom of the Will (Schopenhauer), 4:2104 ‘‘On the Fundamental Laws of the State’’ (Speransky), 4:2236 On the Genealogy of Morals (Nietzsche), 3:1631 On the Inequality of Human Races (Gobineau), 1:403 On the Limits of State Action (W. Humboldt), 2:1097 ‘‘On the Modern Element in Literature’’ (Arnold), 1:102 ‘‘On the Necessity and Possibility of New Principles in Philosophy’’ (Kireyevsky), 4:2195 On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 2:613, 614, 615, 616–618, 637, 776, 777, 1031, 1102; 3:1302, 1426, 1563; 4:1908, 2234, 2255 On the Penitentiary System in the United States and Its Application to France (Tocqueville and Bonninie`re), 5:2316 ‘‘On the Probable Futurity of the Working Classes ‘‘ (H. T. Mill), 3:1509 ‘‘On the Proper Sphere of Government’’ (Spencer), 4:2233 On the Sensation of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music (Helmholtz), 2:1057 ‘‘On the Spiritual in Art’’ (Kandinsky), 3:1244, 1245 On the Turf Bench (Repin), 4:1956 ‘‘On the Uses and Disadvantages of History for Life’’ (Nietzsche), 3:1635 Ontogenie (Jarry), 3:1213

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny (concept), 2:1031 On Translating Homer (Arnold), 1:103 On War (Clausewitz), 1:477, 478; 3:1506 Opel (automobile manufacturer), 5:2352 open science, 4:2110–2111 Open Window (Matisse(, 1:153 opera, 3:1566–1567, 1669–1678 avant-garde and, 1:157–158 Barcelona and, 1:181 Beethoven and, 1:196; 3:1670 bel canto and, 3:1671 Berlin and, 1:219; 3:1673 Berlioz and, 1:225 cities and, 1:445 ‘‘code Rossini’’ and, 3:1670, 1673 Debussy and, 2:631; 3:1675 Donizetti’s influence on, 3:1670–1671 Dvorˇa´k and, 2:701 Egypt and, 2:732 Eurasian set design and, 2:774 Freemasonry and, 2:881 Glinka and, 2:979–980; 3:1673 grand opera genre and, 3:1671–1672, 1674 Hofmannsthal libretti and, 2:1077 Jarry libretti and, 3:1214 Madrid and, 3:1414 Meyerhold stagings of, 3:1496 Milan’s La Scala and, 3:1502, 1504, 1672; 5:2406 Mussorgsky and, 3:1575–1576, 1673–1674 national operas and, 3:1673 Offenbach and, 3:1660–1662 ope´ra comique and, 3:1673 public houses for, 3:1565–1566, 1672, 1672 Puccini and, 4:1915–1917 Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999–2000 Rossini innovations and, 3:1572, 1670–1671; 4:2038–2039, 2106, 2288 Schoenberg and, 4:2103 Schubert and, 4:2106 Singspiel and, 3:1673 Smetana and, 4:1858 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307 types of, 3:1670, 1671, 1673 Verdi and, 3:1572, 1672–1673, 1676; 4:2039; 5:2405–2407 verismo and, 3:1671, 1677

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Wagner and, 1:191; 3:1360, 1382–1383, 1435, 1567, 1571, 1674–1675; 4:2027; 5:2429, 2430–2431 opera buffa, 3:1670 ope´ra comique, 3:1660–1661 Ope´ra-Comique (Paris), 3:1660, 1661, 1672, 1675 Opera dei Congressi (Italy), 1:389; 4:2025 Opera House (Budapest), 1:311 Oper am Ga¨nsemarkt (Hamburg), 3:1673 opera seria, 3:1670, 1673 opere semiserie, 3:1670 operetta, 5:2421 Offenbach and, 3:1660–1662 Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260, 2261; 5:2420 Operette (Leopardi), 3:1333 Ophelia (Millais), 4:1864 opiates. See drugs Opie, John, 5:2480 Opinion des femmes, L’ (feminist newspaper), 2:651 Opinion nationale, L’ (French journal), 4:1998 opium, 2:686–687 addiction to, 2:686–687 Beardsley and, 1:194 Berlioz and, 1:25 Chinese ban on, 1:433, 434; 3:1678, 1679 Coleridge addiction to, 1:496; 2:686 Picasso and, 4:1782 tea traded for, 1:495; 3:1678, 1679 Opium Wars, 1:292, 355, 434; 2:1008; 3:1209, 1678–1680; 4:2064 atrocities and, 3:1125 East India Company smuggling and, 2:687; 3:1678 Nanking Treaty and, 3:1578–1579, 1678 Palmerston and, 4:1713 Oppenheim, Lassa Francis Lawrence, 3:1175 optics, 3:1478; 4:1743, 1780 optimism, 1:461 Malthusian rebuttal of, 3:1425, 1426 utilitarianism and, 3:1510–1511 See also progress Orange, House of, 4:2188, 2189 Orange Free State, 1:17–18, 256, 257; 4:2220, 2221, 2223 See also Boer War Orange Order (Ireland), 3:1176, 1184

1 9 1 4

Orange Party (Netherlands), 3:1616 Orangists (Belgium), 1:200 oratorios, 3:1568 orchestral works, 1:225; 2:631; 3:1568 See also symphony orchestras, 3:1568 orchestration, 1:224 Order of Merit (Britain), 3:1638 Orders in Council (Britain), 5:2438, 2439 Orders in Council (Britain, 1807), 1:303 Ordinary Story, An (Goncharov), 2:989, 990 Orel, Viteˇzslav, 3:1486 Orenburg Cossacks, 2:562 Orfeo´ Catala` (Barcelona), 1:181 Organic Articles of 1802, 2:529 organic chemistry, 1:425–427; 3:1159–1160; 4:2109 Organic Chemistry in Its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology (Liebig), 3:1159–1160 organic intellectuals, 5:2484 Organic Statute of 1832 (Russia), 4:1808 Organisation du Travail, L’ (Blanc), 1:247; 4:2203 Orianda Castle (Yalta), 4:2094 Oriel College (Oxford), 1:102 Orientales, Les (Hugo), 2:1092 Oriental Institute, 5:2426 Orientalism British Egyptian policy and, 2:734 Chateaubriand and, 1:421 Delacroix and, 2:640 hashish and, 2:687 India and, 3:1407, 1511 as Matisse influence, 3:1474–1475 opium and, 2:687 Russia and, 2:772, 773, 774–775 Origenes du the´aˆtre lyrique moderne, Les (Rolland), 4:2014 original sin, 1:428 Original Stories from Real Life (Wollstonecraft), 5:2479 Origin of Species (Darwin). See On the Origin of Species Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, The (Engels), 2:756, 946; 3:1450; 4:2205 Orissa, 2:706 Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, 2:972 Orlando Furioso (Ariosto), 2:676 Orle´anists Action Franc¸aise vs., 1:4 Blanc critique of, 1:247 Blanqui critique of, 1:248

2717

INDEX

bureaucracy and, 1:321 Napoleon III and, 2:852, 853 Revolution of 1830 and, 2:566 Revolution of 1848 as end to, 2:567 Third Republic and, 2:855 See also Louis-Philippe Orle´ans, duc de. See Louis-Philippe; ´ galite´ Philippe E Orle´ans, Louise-Marie d’, 3:1335, 1336 Orle´ans, Louis-Philippe Albert d’ (1838–1894), 1:280, 407 Orle´ans, Philippe d’, 2:994; 4:2073 Orlov, A. F., 5:2391 Orlov, Grigory, 1:375 ‘‘Ornament and Crime’’ (Loos), 3:1381 O’Rourke, Kevin, 2:514; 3:1151; 5:2336, 2338–2339, 2340, 2342 orphanages, 1:431 Orphe´e aux enfers (Offenbach), 3:1660 Orphism, 1:156 orreries, 4:2112 Ors, Eugenio d’, 4:2232 Orsini, Felice, 4:2003; 5:2410 Ørsted, Hans Christian, 2:649; 4:1779, 1780 Ortega y Gasset, Ernst Cassirer, 1:320 Ortega y Gasset, Jose´, 4:2232 Orthodox Church Albania and, 1:32 Austria-Hungary and, 1:138 Balkans and, 3:1684–1685 Belgrade and, 1:206 Bosnia and, 1:273, 275 Bulgaria and, 1:313; 3:1685, 1687 Crimean War origins and, 1:244 Greece and, 2:1018, 1019, 1020, 1021; 3:1494, 1612 migration and, 3:1111 Montenegro and, 3:1541 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1482, 1685, 1687 Poland and, 4:1807 Serbia and, 3:1541 See also Greek Orthodox Church; Russian Orthodox Church Ortiz, Fernando, 1:363 Osborne, W. V., 3:1296 Osbourne, Fanny, 4:2255 Osbourne, Lloyd, 4:2255 Oscar II, king of Sweden and Norway, 4:2287 O’Shea, Kitty (Katharine), 3:1181–1182; 4:1741, 1742 O’Shea, William Henry, 4:1741, 1742 Oslo. See Christiana Osman Nuri Pasha, 4:2068 Osman Pasha Topal, 1:274–275

2718

Osman Pasvan-Oglu, 4:2142 osmotic pressure, 2:652 Ospovat, Dov, 2:617 Osservatore Romano (journal), 3:1331 Ostend, 4:2125 osteology, 2:986 Ostrau-Karwina coal mines, 1:260 Ostwald, Friedrich Wilhelm, 1:426; 2:595; 3:1409 Osuna, duke and duchess of, 2:997 Osvobozhdenie (Russian journal), 3:1518; 4:1976, 2055, 2270 Otechestvennye zapieskı´ (Russian journal), 1:208 Otello (Rossini), 3:1670, 1671; 4:2038 Otello (Verdi), 3:1676; 5:2406 Otto I, king of Greece, 1:125; 2:1020–1021; 5:2380 Otto, Louise, 1:66; 2:803, 804; 3:1680–1681 Otto, Nicolaus August, 3:1161 Ottolenghi, Salvatore, 4:1816 Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress, 5:2515, 2516 Ottoman Empire, 3:1681–1692 Abdul-Hamid II and, 1:1–2 Adrianople (Edirne) and, 1:12–13 Agadir Crisis and, 3:1546 Albanian nationalism and, 1:32–34; 3:1690–1691 Algeria and, 1:42–43 alliance system and, 1:146 Armenia and, 1:87, 89–92 Armenian genocide and, 1:2, 90, 92 Athens and, 1:125–126 Austrian-Russian treaty on, 3:1560–1561 Austrian war with, 3:1247; 4:2142 Balkan control by. See Eastern Question Balkan League and, 1:32; 3:1546 Balkans as core of, 3:1682 See also Balkan Wars Belgrade and, 1:206 as Berlin Conference participant, 1:221 Black Sea and, 1:243–244; 3:1683 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:2, 273–277; 2:703–704; 3:1687–1688 Bosphorus and, 1:278 British slave-trade ban, 1:308 Bulgaria and, 1:312, 313 Bulgarian Atrocities and, 2:977, 1009 Congress of Berlin and, 1:12; 2:529, 530–531, 705 constitutional movement in, 3:1188, 1688–1690; 5:2514–2515

Crimean War and, 1:243–244, 278; 2:577–580, 1007; 3:1686 disintegration of, 2:598; 3:1691 Disraeli policy and, 2:674 Eastern Crisis (1875–1878) and, 2:674, 703; 3:1687–1690 Eastern Question and, 1:278; 2:526, 527, 1009; 3:1681, 1682, 1687–1688; 4:2067; 5:2391 Egypt and, 1:18; 2:525, 731–733; 3:1420–1421, 1613, 1686 Ethiopia and, 1:8 European colonial encroachment on, 3:1174 Greco-Turkish War and, 1:2; 2:1021, 1022; 3:1685 Greece and, 1:170; 2:525, 566, 577, 640, 732, 1002, 1018–1022; 3:1194, 1612–1613, 1685; 4:1981; 5:2327 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137, 206; 3:1690 Istanbul and, 3:1186–1190 Italy and, 3:1202; 4:2299 jadidism and, 3:1207 Jaure`s’s view of, 3:1217 Jews and, 5:2519 Kossuth residence in, 3:1269 Mahmud II and, 3:1420–1421, 1685–1686 map of (1816–1878), 3:1688 Mediterranean and, 3:1481–1482 millet system and, 3:1516–1517, 1687 Montenegro and, 1:2; 3:1539, 1540, 1541 Morocco and, 3:1546 Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz convention on, 3:1560–1561 multiethnic languages and, 2:725 Navarino and, 3:1612–1613 North Africa and, 1:18–19 Orthodox Church and, 3:1685, 1687 penal exile and, 2:779 reforms and, 1:90, 274; 3:1187–1188, 1190, 1420, 1517, 1683, 1685–1686, 1688–1690 revolts against, 2:525; 3:1683 Romania and, 4:2016, 2017 Romanies and, 4:2021 Russia and, 5:2391–2392 See also Russo-Turkish War Russian expansionism and, 1:243, 278, 376; 2:662; 3:1494, 1560, 1561, 1625; 4:2086, 2164; 5:2391–2392

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Russian wars with. See RussoTurkish War San Stefano Treaty, 4:2068, 2069, 2085–2086 Selim III and, 3:1683 Serbia and, 1:242; 2:703; 3:1247, 1541; 4:2141–2146, 2148, 2149 Spain and, 5:2361 Suez Canal and, 4:2274–2275, 2276 Tanzimat reforms of, 1:90, 274; 3:1188, 1190, 1517, 1686 tobacco and, 5:2313 trade and, 5:2337 Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi and, 5:2391 Tunisia and, 5:2361–2362 universities and, 5:2380 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2391–2392 world’s fairs and, 5:2500 World War I and, 1:278; 2:705; 4:2276 Young Turks and, 1:92, 163, 164, 278; 3:1207, 1690–1691; 5:2514–2516 Zionists and, 5:2521 Ottoman Freedom Society, 5:2515 Ottomanism, 3:1690 Ottoman Society, 4:1949 Ottoman Union Committee, 5:2515 Otto of Wittelsbach. See Otto I Ouad Ras, Treaty of (1860), 3:1548–1549 Oudinot, Charles, 4:2034 Oudinot, Nicolas, 3:1320 Ourcq canal (Paris), 4:1729 Our Differences (Plekhanov), 4:1801 Our Lady of Czestochowa, 4:1790 Our Lady of Fatima (Portugal), 4:1788 Our Lady of Kazan Cathedral (St. Petersburg), 4:2077, 2078 Our Motion Is Carried! (lithograph), 4:1992 Our Mutual Friend (Dickens), 2:657 Oust-Eclair (French Catholic newspaper), 1:389 Outcast of the Islands, An (Conrad), 2:535 outdoor relief, 4:2119; 5:2454, 2462 Outlaw Period (Germany, 1878–1890), 1:194 Outline of Distinctive Character of the Wissenschaftslehre with Respect to the Theorectical Faculty (Fichte), 2:813 Outline of History, The (Wells), 5:2459

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Outline of Psychoanalysis, An (Freud), 2:909 Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy (Engels), 2:754 Outlines of a Critique of Previous Ethical Theory (Schleiermacher), 4:2097 Outlines of American Political Economy (List), 3:1357 outwork clothing manufacturing and, 4:2159–2160 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988, 1990, 1991 Silesian weaver uprising and, 4:1990 See also factories Overbeck, Johann Frederich, 1:317 ‘‘Overcoat, The’’ (Gogol), 2:988 Ovid, 2:873 Owen, Richard, 2:618, 1102 Owen, Robert, 1:337; 2:555, 803; 3:1692–1693 cooperative factory village of, 2:1088; 3:1390 socialism and, 4:2200–2201 Tristan and, 5:2357 utopian socialism and, 2:650; 3:1284, 1286, 1692–1693, 1693; 4:2081; 5:2395, 2396–2397 Owenites, 2:650; 3:1284; 4:2200–2201; 5:2396–2397 gender equality and, 3:1288 Oxford Book of English Verse (Yeats, ed.), 4:1746 Oxford Movement. See Tractarianism Oxford Street (London), 3:1378 Oxford University, 3:1377; 4:2240, 2241; 5:2379, 2385, 2387 Anglican Church and, 4:1895; 5:2384 Arnold and, 1:102 class and, 2:728; 3:1512 Curzon as chancellor of, 2:597 Gladstone and, 2:976 history teaching at, 2:1073, 1074 law education and, 2:726 liberalized admissions to, 2:1008 Lyell and, 3:1401 Methodism and, 4:1895 Morris and, 3:1550 Newman and, 3:1620 Pater and, 4:1745–1746 Peel and, 4:1757 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1707, 1865 Rhodes Scholarships and, 4:1997 Ruskin and, 4:2047

1 9 1 4

Wilde and, 5:2464 women students and, 2:945 Oxford University Museum, 4:2030, 2046 oxygen, 3:1312 Oyama, Iwao, 3:1557; 4:2065 Ozanam, Fre´de´ric, 1:383, 388

n

P Pacific islanders, 4:1874–1875 Pacific Ocean, 2:577; 3:1116, 1338 See also South Pacific pacifism, 4:1695–1698, 1696 Augspurg and, 1:129 feminism and, 1:129, 189 First International and, 2:825 Hague conferences and, 2:1034–1035 international law and, 3:1175 Jaure`s and, 3:1214, 1217–1219 Liebknecht and, 3:1356 Malatesta and, 3:1425 Martov and, 3:1461 Milyukov and, 3:1519 Rolland and, 4:2015 Shaw and, 4:2167 Suttner and, 4:2282 Tolstoy and, 5:2319, 2320 Pacifisme, Le (Faguet), 4:1697 Pacini, Giovanni, 3:1671 Packe, Michael St. John, 3:1514 Paddington railway station (London), 2:590 Paer, Ferdinando, 3:1670; 4:2038 Paganini, Achille, 4:1699 Paganini, Niccolo`, 3:1360, 1566; 4:1698–1700, 1699 Berlioz friendship with, 1:225 Romanticism and, 4:2031 Pagliacci, I (Leoncavallo), 3:1676 Pagon, Georgios, 4:2242 Pahlen, Konstantin von, 2:819 Pahlen, Peter von, 4:1748 Paine, Thomas, 1:244, 415, 489; 2:1000; 4:1700–1701 on Athenian democracy, 4:1770 sister republics and, 4:2187 virtue concept and, 4:1958 Wollstonecraft and, 5:2480 Painter of Modern Life, The (Baudelaire), 1:188; 3:1128, 1529, 1543; 4:1708

2719

INDEX

Painter’s Studio, The (Courbet), 4:1706–1707 painting, 4:1701–1711 abstract art and, 1:155, 398, 399; 3:1132, 1243–1246, 1261 abstract expressionism and, 3:1133 art historians and, 1:315 art nouveau and, 1:107, 152–153; 3:1530 avant-garde and, 1:153, 154–158; 4:1701, 1706–1711 Barbizon school and, 1:176–180; 3:1126 Beardsley’s influence on, 1:192 Berlin museum collections and, 1:219 Blake and, 1:246 body and, 1:252, 254 bourgeois collectors of, 1:287 Brussels and, 1:307 Ce´zanne and, 1:397–399 of children, 1:428, 429 Constable and, 2:543–544; 4:1704–1705 Corot and, 2:560–562 Courbet and, 2:568–569; 4:1946–1947, 1956, 2133; 5:2496 cubism and, 1:156; 2:590–593; 3:1530 Daguerre and, 2:605, 607 Daumier and, 2:621, 622, 623 David and, 2:623–625 Decadence and, 2:632–633, 940 Degas and, 2:633–636; 4:1708, 1709 degeneration and, 2:638 Delacroix and, 2:640–642 Denmark and, 2:647 Dore´ and, 2:676, 677–678 expressionism and, 1:220, 220; 4:2089, 2102, 2269; 5:2421 fauvism and, 1:153, 154; 2:795–797 ‘‘feminine evil’’ fantasies in, 2:816 fin de sie`cle and, 2:815 Friedrich and, 2:910–912 futurism and, 2:918–919, 919 Gauguin and, 2:939 Ge´ricault and, 2:955–956; 4:1705 Goya and, 2:996–999; 4:2225, 2226 idealism and, 4:1947, 2104 impressionism and, 3:1126–1133; 4:1708–1709, 1732 Ingres and, 3:1165–1167 Japanese art influences on, 2:991; 3:1210

2720

Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246; 4:2077 Klimt and, 3:1260–1262 of landscapes. See landscape painting Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355 Manet and, 3:1431–1434; 4:1707–1708 Matisse, 3:1473–1475 Menzel and, 3:1488–1490 Millet and, 3:1515–1516; 4:1757 modernism and, 1:397, 398–399; 3:1529, 1530–1531; 4:1709–1711 Monet and, 3:1534–1537 Morisot and, 3:1543–1545 Munch and, 3:1558–1560 museums and, 3:1562 naturalism, 4:1946 outdoor, 3:1126; 4:1708, 1864, 1948 Paris and, 4:1732 peasant subjects of, 4:1757 photography and, 4:1772, 1773 Picasso and, 4:1781–1784, 1875, 2232 Pissarro and, 4:1792–1794 plein-air, 4:1948 pointillism and, 3:1132, 1133, 1244, 1474; 4:1794, 2156; 5:2401 portraiture, 4:1710, 2028 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863–1864 primitivism and, 4:1874–1875, 1874 realism and, 4:1946–1947 Renoir and, 4:1708, 1709, 1954–1956 Repin and, 1956–1958 Rodin and, 4:2008–2011 Romanticism and, 2:640–642; 4:2027–2030 Rude and, 4:2031, 2043–2044 Ruskin and, 4:2046 Russian Silver Age of, 4:2181 St. Petersburg and, 4:2076, 2077 Schelling’s view of, 4:2031, 2088 Schiele and, 4:2089–2091; 5:2421 Schinkel and, 4:2091–2092 of seascapes, 4:2027, 2029 Secession movement and, 5:2421 Seurat and, 4:2155–2158, 2292 socialist realism and, 4:1958 Sweden and, 4:2286–2287 symbolism and, 2:939–941; 3:1261–1262; 4:2292, 2292–2295, 2293–2294 Tolstoy on, 5:2319 Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2323–2325

Turner and, 4:1703–1705, 2027, 2029, 2046; 5:2366–2368 Van Gogh and, 5:2399–2401 Venice and, 5:2403, 2404, 2405 Vienna and, 5:2420, 2421 Wanderers and, 4:1956–1957 World of Art group and, 4:2181 world’s fairs and, 5:2496, 2505 Paisley, 4:2119 Pakenham, Edward, 5:2441 Pakistan, 3:1134 Pakozd, Battle of (1848), 3:1220 Palace of Industry (Paris), 5:2496, 2499 Palace of Industry (Vienna), 5:2498 Palace of Justice (Brussels), 1:306 Palace of Justice (Rome), 4:2037 Palace of Westminster (London), 1:186 Palacio de Cristal (Madrid), 3:1413, 1413 Palacky´, Frantisˇek, 1:142, 261; 4:1711–1712, 1716, 1860; 5:2510, 2511 Frankfurt Parliament and, 4:1860 Prague monument to, 4:1858 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861, 1862 Palais Garnier (Paris), 3:1567 Palais Stoclet (Brussels), 1:112 Palau, 2:967 Palau de la Mu´sica Catalana (Barcelona), 1:112, 181 Pale of Settlement (Russia), 3:1230, 1232, 1366 Bund and, 1:314 paleontology, 2:599, 1102 Palermo, 3:1255; 4:2002, 2003, 2035, 2174–2178 mafia and, 3:1415–1417 revolts in, 3:1196, 1255 size of, 3:1254 street vendor, 3:1196 Palestine, 2:577; 5:2330 Jewish-Arab claims to, 2:598 Kitchener in, 3:1257 Napoleon invasion of, 2:900 Zionism and, 5:2518–2521 Palffy, Aloys, 5:2403 Palizzi, Filippo, 4:1757 Palizzolo, Raffaele, 3:1417 Palladino, Eusapia, 4:2239 Pallas Athene (Klimt), 1:112 Pall Mall (London), 1:185 Pall Mall Gazette, 1:332; 4:2253; 5:2464 Palm, Etta, 4:1962

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Palmer, Samuel, 1:246 Palmerston, Lord (Henry John Temple), 4:1712–1714 Cobden’s critique of, 1:491 Egyptian policy and, 2:732 government of, 2:1007–1008 Italian policy and, 2:977 Mu ¨ nchengra¨tz Treaty and, 3:1561 Opium Wars and, 2:1008 on Schleswig-Holstein, 2:607 Sepoy Mutiny and, 2:1008 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 5:2392 Victoria and, 5:2413 palm oil, 1:14–15, 21 Palmyre, Mme., 1:481 Palua Islands, 3:1279 Pamir mountains, 1:395 Pan-African conferences, 1:501 Panama Canal, 3:1173; 4:2080, 2274 Lesseps and, 3:1337, 1338 Panama Canal Company, 3:1338; 4:1872 pandemics. See cholera Pan-Germanism, 1:457 Pan-German League, 1:404; 2:967 Panhard et Levassor, 1:148; 5:2352 Pankhurst, Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia, 2:798, 805, 1044; 4:1714–1716, 1715, 2162, 2280 Pankhurst, Richard, 4:1714, 1715 panlogism, 4:2195 ‘‘Panmongolism’’ (Soloviev), 4:2216, 2217 Panopticon (Bentham prison blueprint), 1:211; 5:2393 Pan-Slav Congress (1848). See Prague Slav Congress Pan-Slavism, 4:1716–1717, 2067; 5:2460, 2478, 2520 Abdul-Hamid II and, 1:2 Bakunin and, 1:162 Balkan Wars and, 2:704 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 2:773 Ottoman Empires and, 3:1688 Slavophiles and, 4:2196 See also Prague Slav Congress Pan Tadeuz (Mickiewicz), 3:1500 Pantagruel (Rabelais), 3:1214 pantheism, 2:1032 Panthe´on (Paris), 2:596, 1095 Panthe´on Nadar, 3:1577 Panther (German gunboat), 3:1546, 1549 Paoli, Pasquale, 3:1583–1584 Paolo & Francesca (Dore´), 2:677 Papa, D., 3:1502 papacy, 1:380–381; 4:1717–1721

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Action Franc¸aise condemned by, 3:1477 anticlericalism and, 1:68 Carbonari banned by, 1:361 Chateaubriand and, 1:421 Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–529; 4:1718 conservatism and, 4:1718, 1719, 1720, 1721, 1724 first radio broadcast of, 3:1445 Francis Joseph and, 2:863 Freemasonry banned by, 2:881 Index of Prohibited Books and, 1:5, 214 Italian politics and, 2:972; 3:1199 as Kulturkampf target, 3:1277, 1278, 1279; 4:1720 Leo XIII and, 3:1329–1333 Maistre on, 3:1422 Napoleon and, 1:381, 420; 2:527–529, 846; 3:1192, 1584, 1586, 1587–1588, 1597, 1598; 4:1718 Pius IX and, 4:1794–1798 political Catholicism and, 1:389 Restoration and, 1:387; 4:1968 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 1:380, 382, 392, 393; 3:1195–1196, 1199, 1480, 1604; 4:1725 Roman Question and, 4:2024–2026 Rome and, 4:2033–2035, 2037 state alliances with, 1:380–381, 387 ultramontanism and, 1:381–384, 388; 4:1721, 1722 See also papal infallibility; Papal State; specific popes by name Papadiamantopoulos, Yannis. See More´as, Jean papal infallibility, 1:387, 388; 4:1721–1723 Acton’s opposition to, 1:6; 4:1722 Bismarck’s reaction to, 2:966 Brentano’s opposition to, 1:298 Do¨llinger’s opposition to, 4:1722 Francis Joseph and, 2:864 Kulturkampf as reaction to, 3:1277, 1278; 4:1723 Maistre’s defense of, 3:1422 Manning’s defense of, 3:1441 opponents of, 4:1722–1723 Pius IX and, 1:382; 4:1719, 1723, 1795, 1798 Protestant concerns about, 4:1895–1896 secularization and, 4:2134; 5:21

1 9 1 4

ultramontanism and, 1:382 Papal State, 2:539; 3:119; 4:1723–1726 Austria and, 4:2000, 2001 Carbonari and, 1:360, 361; 4:2131 France and, 4:2001 Garibaldi invasion of, 4:2004; 5:2411 Napoleonic Empire and, 2:895; 3:1192, 1597, 1599; 4:1718, 1724 Pius IX and, 4:1794, 1795, 1796, 1797, 1990 Restoration period and, 3:1195; 4:1718, 1724, 1970 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1718, 1724, 1985 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1994, 2002 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 1:382, 392; 3:1198, 1592, 1604; 4:1717, 1719 Roman Question, 4:2024–2026 Roman Republic and, 4:2188 Rome and, 4:2033–2034 See also papacy Papal University of the Sapienza, 4:2024 papermaking, 2:792 Pappe, H. O., 3:1514 Pappenheim, Bertha (‘‘Anna O.’’), 2:904, 905; 4:1904 Pappenheim, Marie, 4:2102 Parade (Satie), 4:2087 Parade, La (Seurat), 4:2157 Paradis artificiels, Les (Baudelaire translation), 1:188; 2:687 Paradise Gate (Ghiberti), 4:2008 Paradise Lost (Milton), 1:246 Chateaubriand translation of, 1:419, 420, 421 Dore´ illustrations of, 2:676 Fu ¨ ssli paintings and, 4:1703 Parasha (Turgenev), 5:2365 Parc de Montsouris (Paris), 4:1739 Parc des Buttes-Chaumont (Paris), 4:1739 Parc Monceau (Paris), 4:1732, 1739 Pardo Baza´n, Emilia, 2:952; 4:2229 Parent-Duchaˆtelet, Alexandre-JeanBaptiste, 4:1884, 2301 parents. See childhood and children; marriage and family; motherhood Parents pauvres, Les (Balzac), 1:169 Parerga and Paralipomena (Schopenhauer), 4:2104 Pareto, Vilfredo, 4:2215

2721

INDEX

Paria, Le (Vietnamese newspaper), 3:1144 Parieu, Esqioropi de, 3:1539 Bloody Week (1871) in, See also Paris Commune Paris, 4:1726–1733 absinthe and, 1:2–4 advertising and, 2:550 aerial photograph of, 4:1773 Algerian immigrants in, 1:45–46 amusement park, 4:1825 anti-Semitism and, 2:816, 1068 Arc de Triomphe, 2:737; 4:1729, 2043, 2044 as art center, 4:1701 artisans in, 1:103, 104 art nouveau in, 1:109–110; 2:815 Atget’s photographs of, 1:123–125, 124 avant-garde and, 1:153–154 Avenue de l’Opera, 2:1048, 1050 barricades in, 2:1047, 1048; 4:1731, 1735, 1736 Bastille site and, 4:1728, 1729 Bloody Week (1871) in, 3:1289; 4:1736 See also Paris Commune bohemian life in, 3:1577–1578 bourgeois culture and, 1:287, 445 bourgeois elite in, 1:472 bourgeoisie in, 1:283, 287, 445, 472; 4:1728, 1739 bridges in, 4:1729, 1730 cabarets in, 1:335 canals in, 5:2348 Catholicism in, 1:380 Ce´zanne in, 1:397, 398 child abandonment in, 5:2455 cholera epidemic in, 1:437, 438; 2:765; 4:1729 cholera riots in, 2:669 Chopins circle in, 1:439 church building in, 4:1826 consumerism in, 2:548 crime sensation and, 2:575 cubist group in, 2:590–591 Czartoryski as emigre´ in, 2:604 Daumier caricatures and, 2:621 Degas and, 2:633–636 demography and, 4:1727–1728 department stores in, 1:288–289, 445, 484; 2:548, 550 Dore´’s Dumas monument in, 2:677 Eiffel Tower, 2:736–738; 4:1731; 5:2500, 2501, 2503, 2505

2722

electric power in, 2:742 as fashion center, 1:481–483 Ferry as mayor of, 2:810 as financial center, 1:170, 174, 175, 176 fin de sie`cle mood of, 2:815 flaˆneur and, 2:825–827 football (soccer) in, 2:834 fortification of, 4:1734 foundling homes, 5:2453 Franco-Prussian War and, 4:1734–1735 See also subhead siege of French Revolution and, 2:842, 843–844, 886, 887, 890, 891; 4:1727–1729 French Revolution mob violence in, 2:799, 845; 4:1728 Goncourt descriptive Journal on, 2:991 growth of, 1:443 hashish smoking in, 2:687 hatters strike in, 3:1284 Haussmann-amassed debt of, 4:1731 Haussmann’s reconstruction of. See under Haussmann, Georges Euge`ne Heine in, 2:1055–1056 Herzl as correspondent in, 2:1068 homosexual subculture in, 2:1083 impressionist paintings of, 4:1732, 1739, 1792, 1793, 1794 insurrection of 1793 and, 2:974 insurrection of 1871 and. See Paris Commune international expositions in, 1:108, 110, 111, 113, 282, 351 Jewish quarter, 3:1228 July Days (1830), 4:1982, 1983 June Days (1848), 4:1993 Kandinsky in, 3:1246 Kropotkin in, 3:1272 Left Bank of, 4:1731 lesbian subculture in, 2:1084 Loos architectural projects in, 1382 Louis-Napoleon’s coup and, 3:1591 Manet and, 3:1431–1433 markets in, 2:1049; 3:1449 Menzel in, 3:1489–1490 Me´tro entrance design, 1:109–110; 2:815, 1027, 1028; 4:1732 migration and, 3:1111, 1113 monarchy and, 4:1726–1727 Monet’s paintings of, 3:1535 movie halls in, 2:560

museums in, 1:228; 3:1562–1563; 4:1825 music in, 3:1566, 1567 Napoleon I and, 4:1729 Napoleonic memorials in, 1:270 Napoleonic Wars and, 2:903 Napoleon’s return and, 2:1098 Notre-Dame Cathedral, 2:737; 4:1730, 2030; 5:2422, 2423, 2424 Offenbach in, 3:1660–1662 Olympic Games and, 3:1667; 4:2246; 5:2502 opera in, 3:1567, 1572, 1670, 1671–1672, 1673 parks in, 2:1049; 4:1731, 1738, 1739–1740 photography and, 4:1772 Picasso in, 4:1781, 1782–1784 Pissarro in, 4:1792–1793 police system in, 2:837; 4:1813, 1814, 1816, 1817 population of, 1:446; 2:1087; 4:1727, 1728, 1729, 1732, 1733 posters and, 4:1845 primitivism and, 4:1875–1876 prostitution in, 4:1884, 1885 Prussian takeover of, 2:869 public health and, 4:1729, 1731, 1732–1733, 1910 radical press in, 4:1870 railroads and, 4:1932, 1936 Reign of Terror and, 4:1728, 1951 restaurants in, 4:1964–1967 revolutionary tradition of, 4:1733 Revolution of 1830 and, 1:413; 4:1733 Revolution of 1848 and, 2:849; 4:1733, 1899, 1946, 1990, 1993, 1995 Rothschilds and, 4:2040, 2041 Russian e´migre´s in, 3:1518, 1519 Russian opera in, 2:654–655 September Massacres of 1792 and, 2:563, 799, 891, 973; 4:2006 sewer system of, 2:1049; 4:1731, 1774 siege of (1870–1871), 2:810, 855, 868, 870; 4:1734 slum demolition in, 2:1088; 4:1733 sports in, 4:2244 street plan of, 1:451–452; 2:1047–1049, 1047, 1050, 1087; 4:1728, 1729, 1729–1730, 1731–1732, 1739

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

subway in. See Me´tro syndicalism origins and, 4:2298 syphilis fears in, 4:2300 telephone service in, 5:2308 theater in, 1:229; 3:1109 universities and, 5:2381, 2386 See also University of Paris uprising of 1839 and, 4:1963 wine consumption in, 5:2475–2476 women medical students in, 2:728 worker housing in, 2:1089, 1090, 1091 working class and, 5:2485, 2486, 2486, 2487 world’s fairs in. See Exposition Universelle Paris, Congress of (1856), 2:525; 3:1592 Paris, Second Treaty of (1815), 1:52; 2:524; 5:2306 Paris, Treaty of (1763), 1:343 Paris, Treaty of (1814), 2:532 Paris, Treaty of (1856), 1:39, 244; 2:579; 3:1173; 4:2067, 2085 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1174 Paris Anthropological Society, 4:1761 Paris Commune (1871), 1:248, 279, 291; 3:1216; 4:1733–1738, 1964 anarchism and, 1:56, 162 anticlericalism and, 1:68, 381; 4:1736; 5:2488 artisans and, 1:104 barricades and, 2:1048 character of, 4:1736 Clemenceau and, 1:479 Courbet and, 2:569; 3:1128 executions and, 4:1735, 1736, 1737 feminist movement and, 4:1998 Ferry’s absence from, 2:810 First International and, 2:825; 3:1289 Goncourt’s description of, 2:991 Guesde and, 2:1025 Hugo and, 2:1095 impressionists linked with, 3:1127, 1128 as Malatesta influence, 3:1424 Marx and, 4:2204–2205; 5:2486 Mazzini’s condemnation of, 3:1481 Michel’s participation in, 3:1497 origins of, 4:1733–1736 overview of, 2:855 proclamation of, 4:1736 repression following, 2:856–857, 858 secret societies and, 4:2132

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

significance of, 4:1736–1737 survivors’ Jura Mountains community and, 3:1272 Thiers and, 5:2311 violent suppression of, 3:1289 working class and, 5:2485, 2486, 2491 Zola and, 5:2523 Paris Conservatoire, 2:630; 4:2086 Paris Declaration of 1856, 3:1173 Paris Evangelical Mission, 3:1527 Paris Expositions. See Exposition Universelle Paris Health Council, 4:1910 Paris in the Twentieth Century (Verne), 5:2409 ‘‘Paris Manuscripts’’ (Marx), 4:2203 Paris Medical Faculty, 4:1914 Paris Observatory, 4:1921 Paris Olympic Games (1900), 3:1667; 4:2246; 5:2502 Paris Ope´ra, 2:1049; 3:1672; 4:1708, 1732, 1770 completion/opening of, 4:1731 exterior, 3:1672 interior, 3:1572 Rossini operas for, 3:1671 Verdi operas for, 3:1673 Wagner and, 3:1675 Paris Peace Conference (1918), 2:610 Paris Salons. See Salon (Paris) Paris Universal Exposition. See Exposition Universelle Park, Frederick, 2:1084 Park, Mungo, 2:782 Parker, Barbara, 2:946 Parker, Hyde, 3:1615 Park Gu ¨ ell (Barcelona). See Gu ¨ ell Park Parkinson’s disease, 1:408 Park of Chaˆteau-Noir, The (Ce´zanne), 1:399 parks, 1:289; 4:1738–1741 London, 3:1373, 1375, 1378, 1600–1601; 4:1738, 1739 Paris, 2:1049; 4:1731, 1738, 1739–1740 Park Voyer d’Argenson (Van Gogh), 5:2401 Par la taille (Jarry), 3:1214 Parlement of Paris, 2:842 Parliament, British aristocrats and, 1:80, 86 Bagehot on, 1:161 bourgeoisie vs. elite representation in, 1:290 building design for, 1:185, 186; 4:1918, 2030

1 9 1 4

Catholic emancipation and, 1:373 Corn Law repeal and, 2:558 Corrupt Practices Act and, 2:1009 Disraeli and, 2:672–673, 674 Fox and, 2:839–840 Gladstone and, 1:2976–2978; 2:978 House of Lords’ diminished power and, 2:730 Indian government and, 3:1135 Irish Home Rule and, 3:1181, 1184 Irish representation in, 1:373; 2:999; 3:1177, 1184 Irish withdrawal from, 3:1185 Labour Party and, 3:1295–1297 liberalism and, 3:1345 Macaulay’s speeches in, 3:1407 monarchs’ relationship with, 2:1001 Peel and, 4:1758–1759 reform advocates and, 2:1002, 1004, 1008 See also Reform Act of 1832; Reform Act of 1867; Reform Act of 1884 religious test for, 2:1003 representation and, 2:1001, 1003 Wellington and, 2:1003, 1005; 4:1758 Parliament, Irish Castlereagh and, 1:373 independence war and, 3:1185 merger with British Parliament of, 2:999 Parnell’s policy and, 2:1009 Pitt and, 3:1177 Parliament, Scottish. See Parliament, British Parliament Act of 1911 (Britain), 3:1369 Parliament Building (Budapest), 1:310, 311 Parliament Building (London). See Houses of Parliament Parliament Building (Ottawa), 1:345 Parliament of Frankfurt. See Frankfurt Parliament Parma, 1:392; 2:531, 533; 3:1193; 4:1970, 1985, 2001, 2131 Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1193, 1599 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 3:1198, 1592 Spanish Bourbons and, 3:1191 Parnell, Anna, 4:1741 Parnell, Charles Stewart, 4:1741–1742; 5:2322 aims of, 2:1009–1010

2723

INDEX

divorce scandal and, 2:978, 1011; 3:1181–1182; 4:1742 Parnok, Sofia, 4:2183 Parr, Samuel, 2:981 Parricide, A (cartoon), 4:1870 Parsifal (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674, 1675; 5:2431 Parsons, Charles Algernon, 3:1161 Parthenon (Athens), 1:125; 3:1376, 1562 Parthenopean Republic (Naples), 3:1192, 1581, 1597; 4:2186–2189 Parthe River, 3:1320 Parti Ouvrier (France), 1:127; 2:1025; 4:2205 Parti Socialiste Unifie (France), 2:859 Partitions of Poland. See Poland, partitions of Partito Populare Italiano, 1:389 Partridge, Ralph, 4:2259 Party of Order (France), 1:271 Party of People’s Freedom (Russia). See Kadets Party of the People’s Will (Russia). See People’s Will Pascendi Dominici Gregis (encyclical, 1907), 4:1721 Pas d’acier (Prokofiev), 2:655 Paseo de Gracia (Barcelona), 1:181 Pashalik of Belgrade. See Serbia pashas, 5:2362 Pasˇic´, Nikola, 1:242, 243; 4:2145 Passage to India, A (Forster), 2:836 Passanante, Giovanni, 5:2377 Passant, Le (Coppe´e), 1:229 Passeig de Colom (Barcelona), 1:183 Passy, Fre´de´ric, 4:1695, 1697 Past and Present (Carlyle), 1:373; 4:2206 Pasternak, Boris, 4:2182, 2183 Pasteur, Louis, 2:659; 4:1742–1745, 1744, 2110, 2113 anthrax and, 4:1744–1745 as cultural hero, 2:738; 4:1882 disease decline and, 2:628, 644 fermentation and, 4:1743; 5:2477 germ theory and, 3:1358; 4:1743, 1744, 2135 Koch’s critique of, 3:1263 public health and, 4:1914 Pasteur Institutes, 1:438; 4:1745 pasteurization, 2:628, 645, 659; 3:1164; 4:1742, 1743; 5:2361, 2477 Pastor Aeternus (papal bull, 1870), 4:1895–1896 See also papal infallibility

2724

‘‘Pastoral’’ (Sixth) Symphony (Beethoven), 1:197 pastoral poetry, 4:1756 Pastrone, Giovanni, 1:443 Pastry Cooks’ revolt (1843), 1:181 pataphysics (absurdist idea), 3:1213 patent medicines, 2:686 patents, 4:2111 bicycle, 2:600 scientific discoveries, 2:595 Siemens and, 4:2179 wireless telegraphy, 3:1444 Patents and Designs Act of 1907 (Britain), 3:1369 Pater, Walter, 2:632; 4:1745–1747, 1770 paternalism industrial, 1:446; 2:793, 1087, 1088; 3:1275 private poor relief and, 4:1851, 1854 paternity suits, 4:1886 Pathe´, 3:1483 Pathe´, Charles and Emile, 2:551; 3:1397 Pathe´ Fre`res, 1:442 Pathetique (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307 pathological anatomy, 3:1297, 1298; 4:2135 Pathological Institute (Berlin), 5:2425 pathology, 5:2425 Patience (Gilbert and Sullivan), 5:2464 Patkanian, Raphael, 1:88 Patmore, Coventry, 2:943 patriarchy bourgeois family as, 1:287 Dohm feminist writings against, 2:675 fin de sie`cle challenges to, 2:816 French Revolutionary ideals and, 2:941; 3:1595 masculinity and, 3:1470 Napoleonic Code and, 3:1595 Russian autocratic system and, 2:1017 Patrie, La (Parisian newspaper), 4:1866 Patrimonium Petri, 4:1723, 1724, 1725, 1726 Patriotica (Struve), 4:2271 patriotism conservatism and, 2:540 jingoism and, 3:1234–1235 nationalism and, 4:1826 Patriot League (France), 1:282; 4:2243 Patriots (Netherlands), 3:1616 patrolman. See police and policing

Patten, Simon Nelson, 4:2235 Patterson, Julia (Jenny), 4:2166 Pauk, Fritz, 1:427 Paul, Jean (Jean Paul Friedrich Richter), 1:296; 2:873 Paul I, emperor of Russia, 1:375; 3:1265; 4:1747–1748, 2049 assassination of, 4:1748 Czartoryski and, 2:603 Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901 parentage of, 1:375; 4:1747, 1748 son Alexander I and, 1:37; 4:1748 Paul Sacher Foundation, 4:2263 Paulze, Marie Anne, 3:1312 paupers. See poverty Pausanias Description of Greece (Frazer), 2:872 ‘‘Pauvre Belgique!’’ (Baudelaire), 1:188 Pavane pour une infante de´funte (Ravel), 4:1944 Pavı´a y Lacy, Manuel, 4:2231 Pavillon d’Armide (ballet), 3:1642 Pavlov, Ivan, 4:1748–1749, 1908 Pavlova, Anna, 2:655; 3:1642; 4:1749–1751, 1750 pawnshops, 2:550, 571; 3:1582 Pax Britannica, 5:2321 Paxton, Joseph, 2:587, 589; 4:1738 Paxton, Robert, 5:2494 Payne-Townshend, Charlotte, 4:2166 Paysage aux arbre rouge (Vlaminck), 2:796 Paysans au XIXe sie`cke, Les (Bonneme`re), 4:1753 Peace—Burial at Sea (Turner), 4:1704 Peace Law of 1886 (Prussia), 3:1279 peace movements. See pacifism Peace of Paris. See Paris, Treaty of Peacock Skirt, The (Beardsley), 1:193 peanut oil, 1:15 peanuts, 1:20, 21 Pearse, Patrick, 3:1181, 1185; 5:2510 Pearson, Cyril, 1:159 Pearson, Karl, 2:770, 927; 3:1409; 4:2248, 2249 Peary, Robert, 2:783 peasant art, 1:112 Peasant Land Bank (Russia), 4:2257 peasant revolts, 1:376; 2:669; 4:1754–1755, 2067 Poland and, 4:1755 populist incitement of, 4:1831–1832 Russia and, 1:376; 2:669; 3:1328; 4:1755, 1831–1832 Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2173–2175 Sicily and, 3:1414, 1415 peasants, 1:475–476; 4:1751–1757

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1 7 8 9

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INDEX

Agricultural Revolution and, 1:26, 28 Alexandra and, 1:42 army enlistment and, 1:96 Baltic provinces and, 2:818, 819, 821, 822 Bohemian Lands and, 1:260 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:273–274, 275–276; 4:2067 Bulgaria and, 1:313; 4:2067 children and, 1:431 consumerism and, 2:549, 550 Denmark and, 2:647 education and, 1:431; 2:719, 726 food riots and, 4:1754–1755 French counterrevolutionary movement and, 2:563, 844 French protests and, 1:359; 2:858 French Revolution and, 2:842–843, 886, 886, 897; 4:1755 German Center Party and, 1:394 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:138, 139, 142, 145, 260 Herzen’s view of, 2:1065 Indochina and, 3:1143 Ireland and, 3:1178, 1179, 1181 Irish famine deaths of, 2:1005; 4:1751 Japan and, 3:1208 landholders and, 3:1305 Lithuanian culture and, 3:1366, 1367 marriage and family life and, 3:1455–1456 migration and, 3:1110; 4:1753, 1756 military conscription of, 1:94; 3:1506 as Millet painting subject, 3:1515–1516; 4:1757 Napoleon’s popularity with, 2:1098 national consciousness lack in, 3:1606 naturalist portrayal of, 4:1947 nobility and, 1:82–83 People’s Will and, 4:1767 pogroms by, 1:73 Poland and, 4:1809 popular culture and, 4:1821–1822 populists’ view of, 4:1831–1832 realist portrayal of, 4:1946–1947 Restoration and, 2:1098 Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:961; 4:1754, 1988, 1991 Romania and, 4:2017–2018 romanticized view of, 4:1756, 1757 Russian communes and, 4:2052, 2151, 2153, 2195, 2196, 2257; 5:2460 Russian emancipation of. See serfs, emancipation of

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TO

Russian Great Reforms and, 2:1014–1016 Russian military colonies and, 4:2050 Russian repression of, 1:376, 377 Russian Revolution of 1905 and, 3:1328; 4:1976, 1978, 2056; 5:2485 Scotland and, 4:2120 Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2138, 2140 Serbia and, 3:1247; 4:2141, 2144, 2147 sexuality and, 4:2161–2162 Sicilian Fasci and, 4:2173–2175, 2178 Sicily and, 3:1414, 1415; 4:2173–2175, 2176, 2178 Slavophile view of, 4:2195, 2196 socialism and, 4:2210 Sweden and, 4:2284 Switzerland and, 4:2288 Turgenev on, 5:2365, 2460 Turkish Armenia and, 1:88, 89–90 Ukraine and, 5:2369–2373, 2372 Vietnam and, 3:1137 zemstvo statistical findings on, 4:1832 See also feudalism; serfs, emancipation of Peasants into Frenchmen (Weber), 3:1522 Pease, Edward Reynolds, 2:787; 5:2444 peat house (Ireland), 4:1753 Peau de chagrin, La (Balzac), 1:168 Peccatrice, Una (Verga), 5:2407 Pecci, Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffael Luigi. See Leo XIII Pechstein, Max, 1:154 peddlers, Jewish, 3:1230, 1231 pedophilia, 3:1270 Pedro I, emperor of Brazil (Dom Pedro), 4:1839, 1840, 1985 Pedro V, king of Portugal, 4:1841 Peel, Robert, 4:1757–1760 Catholic emancipation and, 1:381; 4:1758 conservatism and, 2:540 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:540, 559, 672, 1004–1005; 4:1759 Disraeli and, 2:672 Gladstone and, 2:976, 977, 1004 Irish Potato Famine and, 2:1005; 4:1759 liberalism and, 3:1345 police system and, 4:1758, 1814 policies of, 2:1004–1005; 4:1757–1759 popularity of, 4:1759 as prime minister, 4:1758–1759

1 9 1 4

Scotland and, 2:1006 Tennyson and, 5:2309 Tories and, 5:2322, 2462 Victoria and, 5:2412, 2413 Wellington and, 5:2457 William IV and, 5:2471 Peer Gynt (Ibsen), 3:1107 Grieg’s score for, 4:2287 Pe´guy, Charles, 1:213; 3:1218; 4:1760–1761, 2015 Peintre de la vie moderne, Le (Baudelaire), 1:188; 3:1128, 1529, 1543 Peking Convention (1869), 3:1579 Pe´ladan, Jose´phin, 2:633; 4:2086, 2295 Pelican, The (Strindberg), 4:2269 Pe´lissier, Aimable-Jean-Jacques, 2:579 Pe´lissier, Olympe, 4:2038 Pelle´as et Me´lisande (Debussy), 2:631; 3:1675 Pelleas und Melisande (Schoenberg), 4:2102 Pelletier, Madeleine, 4:1761–1762, 2281 Pellico, Silvio, 2:930 Pellizza da Volpedo, Giuseppe, 4:1757 Pelloutier, Fernand, 1:59, 60; 4:2298 Pelloux, Luigi, 5:2377–2378 Peloponnesian War, 3:1612 penal colonies. See exile, penal penance, 1:378 Pencil of Nature, The (Talbot), 4:1771 penicillin, 4:2303 Penikese Island (Mass.), 1:23 Peninsular War, 1:180; 2:846, 891, 895, 899, 900, 901; 3:1339, 1587, 1599; 4:1762–1767, 1838, 1839, 2225, 2226–2228 background of, 4:1763–1764 Britain and, 2:1002; 4:1764–1766, 1839 Ferdinand VII and, 2:808–809; 4:1764 impact of, 4:1765–1767 Spanish ideological divide and, 1:366 tobacco smoking and, 5:2314 Penjdeh (1887), 2:1033 Pennsylvania Magazine, 4:1700 Penny Magazine, 4:1867, 1868 Pensieri (Leopardi), 3:1333 pensions, 1:320, 357; 2:648, 1012; 3:1663; 4:1915; 5:2452–2455, 2454, 2455 Bismarck and, 1:239, 291, 321, 356, 459; 2:540, 966; 3:1664; 4:1854, 1915; 5:2450, 2453

2725

INDEX

Britain and, 3:1369, 1370, 1664 for mothers, 5:2452 Siemens’s innovations and, 4:2179 for widows, 5:2455 See also old age insurance; pensions Pentarchy (Italy), 2:582 People, The (French journal), 3:1285 People, The (Michelet), 3:1499 People of Hemso¨, The (Strindberg), 4:2269 People’s Association for Catholic Germany, 1:383; 5:2474 People’s Budget of 1909 (Britain), 1:114; 2:597–598, 1012 Lloyd George and, 3:1369 People’s Charter. See Chartism People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs, 4:2165 People’s International League, 3:1605 People’s Socialists, 4:2211 People’s Vengeance, The, 3:1614 People’s Will, 3:1326, 1614; 4:1767–1769, 1800, 1832, 1975, 2052, 2210 Pepel (Bely), 1:209 Perceval, Spencer, 3:1391 Percher, Jean-Hippolyte, 2:695 Percier, Charles, 3:1602 Percy Bysshe Shelley (Severn), 4:2028 Pe`re Goriot, Le (Balzac), 1:168, 472 Peregrinations of a Pariah (Tristan), 5:2357 Pereire family, 4:2080 Pe`re Lachaise cemetery (Paris), 2:1050; 4:1736, 1737, 1794 perestroika, 4:2196 Perevodchik/Tercu ¨ man (Russian Muslim newspaper), 3:1207 Perfect Sublime Masters (secret society), 1:360 Pergamon, 1:219 Pe´richole, La (Offenbach), 3:1660 Pericles, 2:1018 Pe´rier, Casimir-Pierre, 1:284, 438 periodic table, 1:426, 427 Perkin, William Henry, 3:1159 Permanent Court of Arbitration, 2:952; 3:1174 Permanent Court of International Justice, 3:1174 Permoti Nos (encyclical, 1895), 3:1332 Pernerstorfer, Engelbert, 1:10 Pe´rouse, comte de, 2:782 Perovskaya, Sofya, 4:1832 Perrault, Claude, 4:1726 Perrin, Jean-Baptiste, 3:1409 Perry, Matthew Calbraith, 3:1209 Perry, Oliver Hazard, 5:2440

2726

Persia, 1:49; 5:2500 Armenians in, 1:87 Russia and, 4:2164 Russian–British competition in, 1:395 Russian war with, 3:1625 slave trade ban and, 1:308 Persian Gulf, 1:16 personal fallacy, 1:103 perspectivism, 3:1630, 1631, 1635 Persuasion (Austen), 1:130 Perth, 4:2117 Peru, 2:687, 939; 4:1795, 1949 perversion, Krafft-Ebing definition of, 3:1270, 1271 Pesaro festival, 3:1670 Pescadores, 1:424 Peschka, Anton, 4:2090 Pest as administrative center, 1:309–310 Revolution of 1848 and, 1:141 voluntary associations and, 1:117 See also Budapest Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, 3:1454–1455 Pe´tain, Philippe, 1:269, 271; 3:1477 Peter I (the Great), emperor of Russia, 1:208; 2:1014; 4:1918, 2048 army reform and, 3:1280–1281 beards and, 1:190 bureaucracy of, 1:322–323 Catherine II and, 1:374, 375 expansionism and, 1:278 Orthodox Church reform and, 4:2059, 2060; 5:2369 as Paul I’s model, 4:1747 penal exile and, 2:780–781 St. Petersburg and, 4:2048, 2075–2076 Slavophile view of, 4:2194, 2195 Table of Ranks and, 1:286, 323 Westernization and, 5:2365, 2460 Peter III, emperor of Russia, 1:375; 4:1747 Peter I, bishop of Montenegro, 3:1539, 1541 Peter II, bishop of Montenegro, 3:1540, 1541 Peter and Paul Fortress (Russia), 3:1272 Peter I, king of Serbia, 1:207 Peter Leopold, ruler of Tuscany, 3:1191 Peterloo massacre (1819), 3:1285 Peter Porcupine (pseud.). See Cobbett, William Peters, August, 3:1680, 1681

Peters, Carl, 5:2353 Petersburg (Bely), 1:209; 2:774; 4:2079 Pe´tion, Alexandre, 2:1037 Pe´tion de Villeneuve, Je´rome, 2:973, 974; 4:2006 Petipa, Marius, 2:655; 4:1750 Petit-Breton, Lucien, 2:602 petite bourgeoisie. See lower middle class Petite re´publique socialiste, La (journal), 3:1216, 1217 petitioning, 2:511 ‘‘Petition of a Girl’’ (Otto), 3:1680 Petit Journal (Parisian daily), 4:1868 Petit messe solennelle (Rossini), 4:2038 Petit Palais (Paris), 5:2502, 2505 Petit Parisien, Le (newspaper), 2:575, 859 Petrashevsky Circle, 2:678; 3:1626 Petrograd. See St. Petersburg Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies, 3:1519 petroleum. See oil industry Petroushka (Stravinsky), 2:654, 655 Petrovic´, Djordje. See Karadjordje Petrovic´ family, 3:1539, 1540 Petrunkevich, Ivan, 3:1241; 4:2055 Petrushka (Stravinsky), 2:654; 3:1642; 4:2262 pets, 2:766 Pettenkofer, Max Josef von, 4:1914 Petty, William. See Shelburne, earl of Petty-Fitzmaurice, Henry. See Lansdowne, Lord Peugeot (automobile manufacturer), 1:148; 5:2352 Pezza, Michele (Fra Diavolo), 2:571 Pfeffer, Wilhelm, 2:652 Pfennigmagazine (German newspaper), 4:1868 Pflanze, Otto, 2:964 Phalanx (Fourierist utopian community), 2:838 Phalanx (Kandinsky art group), 3:1244 phalanxes, 4:2202; 5:2397 Phanariot Greeks, 2:1018 Phan Boi Chau, 3:1143–1144 Phan Dinh Phung, 3:1141, 1144 Phan Thanh Gian, 3:1141 Pharmacists Pension Fund (Russia), 4:2256–2257 Phe`dre (Racine), 1:229 phe´nakistoscope, 1:441 phenomenology Brentano and, 1:299 Dilthey and, 2:660, 661 Goethe and, 2:986 Hegel and, 2:1052, 1053, 1054

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INDEX

Husserl and, 2:1099, 1100, 1101; 4:1907 Phenomenology of Spirit, The (Hegel), 2:1052, 1053, 1054 Pheraios, Rigas. See Velestinlis, Rigas Phidias, 3:1166 Philadelphia Academy, 3:1131 Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition (1876), 2:589; 3:1661; 5:2499 Philanthropist (periodical), 3:1510 philanthropy. See charity; welfare philhellenic movement, 3:1685; 4:1769–1770 Byron and, 1:333; 3:1604–1605; 4:1770 Greek War of Independence and, 3:1685 Olympic Games and, 3:1665, 1666, 1668 Pater and, 4:1746 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1982 Philike Hetairia, 4:1981–1982 Philiki Etairia, 2:1019 Philip III, king of Spain, 3:1414 Philip IV, king of Spain, 3:1414 Philipon, Charles, 2:621, 676; 3:1577 ´ galite´ (Louis-PhilippePhilippe E Joseph), 3:1387, 1388 Philippines, 2:949; 3:1414; 4:2231; 5:2313 Phillimore, George, 3:1175 Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful (Burke), 1:326 Philosophical Essay on Man, A (Marat), 3:1442 Philosophical Fragments (Kierkegaard), 3:1251 Philosophical Letters (Chaadayev), 1:399, 400; 2:772 Philosophical Principles of Integral Knowledge, The (Soloviev), 2:773 Philosophical Society, 4:2233 ‘‘Philosophical Truth and the Moral Truth of the Intelligentsia’’ (Berdyayev), 1:212 ‘‘Philosophical View of Reform, A’’ (P. B. Shelley), 4:2170 Philosophic Nosography (Pinel), 4:1791 philosophic radicalism. See utilitarianism Philosophic Radicals (Britain), 1512; 3:1513 Philosophie der neuen Musik (Adorno), 4:2262 Philosophie pe´nale, La (Tarde), 2:574 Philosophie zoologique (Lamarck), 3:1302

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TO

Philosophische Studien (journal), 4:1908; 5:2507 philosophy Bentham and, 1:210–211 Berdyayev and, 1:211–213 Berlin as center of, 1:215 Brentano and, 1:298–299 Coleridge and, 1:497 Comte and, 2:522–524 Croce and, 2:583–585 Dilthey and, 2:660–661 Durkheim and, 2:698 evolution theories and, 2:615–616, 618 Fichte and, 2:813–814; 3:1604 fin de sie`cle and, 2:815 Frege and, 2:883–884 Godwin and, 2:980–982 Goethe and, 2:982–987 Hegel and, 2:1051–1054; 3:1463–1464 Helmholtz and, 2:1058 Herder and, 2:1059–1062 Ho¨lderlin and, 2:1078, 1079 Husserl and, 2:1099–1101 Jaure`s and, 3:1214, 1215 Kierkegaard and, 3:1250–1254 libertine pornography and, 4:1833–1884 Mach and, 3:1409–1410 Marx and, 3:1463–1464 Maxwell and, 3:1477–1478 Mill (James), 3:1510–1512 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1512–1515 nationalism and, 3:1604–1605 Naturphilosophie and, 2:615 Nietzsche and, 3:1628–1636 Novalis and, 3:1647–1648 Ortega y Gasset and, 4:2232 Poland and, 4:1808, 1811 positivism and, 4:1843–1844 psychology and, 4:1907–1908 Romanticism and, 4:2030–2031 Schelling and, 4:2031, 2087–2089 Schopenhauer and, 4:2030, 2103–2106 Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2215–2217 Spencer and, 4:2233–2235 utilitarianism, 5:2392–2394 Young Hegelians and, 5:2512–2513 Philosophy in the Bedroom (Sade), 4:2074 Philosophy of Art (Schelling), 4:2088

1 9 1 4

Philosophy of Money, The (Simmel), 4:2184, 2215 Philosophy of Revelation (Schelling lecture series), 4:2088 Philosophy of Right, The (Hegel), 2:1053 Philosophy of the Practical (Croce), 2:584 Philosphie der Arithmetik: Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen (Husserl), 2:1100 Phipps, James, 3:1223 phlogiston theory, 1:424; 3:1312 Phoenicians, 3:1481 Phoenix Park murders (Ireland), 4:1741, 1742 phonograph, 3:1398 photoelectric effect, 2:740 photography, 4:1770–1774 amateur, 4:1773, 1774 Atget and, 1:123–125 color, 3:1397–1398, 1578; 4:1774 crime detection and, 2:576; 4:1816 Daguerre and, 2:605–607; 4:1770 impressionist painting and, 3:1128 Lumie`re brothers and, 3:1396–1398 montage and, 2:593 Nadar and, 3:1577, 1578; 4:1772 naturalism and, 4:1708 naturalists’ use of, 4:1948 newspapers and, 4:1773–1774, 1823, 1867 pornography and, 4:1834, 1835 spirit manifestations and, 4:2238 wartime uses of, 2:580 See also cinema photons, 2:740 Photorama, 3:1397 Phrenological Association, 4:1775 phrenology, 2:523, 925–926; 4:1774–1776, 1775, 1776, 1822 positivism and, 4:1844 phylloxera, 1:47; 4:1776–1778; 5:2337, 2477 phylogenetic tree (Haeckel concept), 2:1031 physical chemistry, 1:426, 427 physical fitness, 1:215 Physical Society (Germany), 2:1057 physics, 4:1778–1781 chemistry and, 1:424, 427 Einstein and, 2:739–740; 4:1780–1781 Helmholtz and, 2:1057–1058 Hertz and, 2:1062–1063; 4:1780 Kelvin and, 3:1249–1250; 4:1780 Laplace and, 4:1780

2727

INDEX

Mach and, 3:1408–1410 Marconi and, 3:1444–1445; 4:1780 Maxwell and, 3:1477–1478; 4:1780 natural philosophy vs., 4:1778–1779 oceanic exploration and, 3:1658 Planck and, 4:1798–1800 quantum mechanics and, 1:427; 4:1781 Roentgen and, 4:2012 Rutherford and, 4:2070–2071 Swedish contributions to, 4:2285 Physics and Politics (Bagehot), 1:161 Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (Berlin), 2:1057 physiocrats, 1:269; 2:515; 3:1304; 4:1887 Physiognomical System of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim, The (Spurzheim), 2:926 physiognomy, 2:926 physiology, 5:2507 Bernard and, 1:227–228 biochemistry and, 1:426 body and, 1:251 child development and, 1:428 Helmholtz and, 2:1057, 1058 Pavlov and, 4:1748–1749, 1908 psychology and, 4:1908 Physiology of Industry, The (Hobson and Mummery), 2:1075, 1076 Physiology of Taste (Brillat-Savarin), 4:1965 Piacenza, 3:1193 piano amateur players of, 3:1566 Beethoven and, 1:195, 196; 3:1577 chamber music and, 3:1568 Chopin and, 1:439–440; 3:1571 Debussy and, 2:631 home owners of, 3:1566 Liszt and, 3:1359–1360, 1566, 1571 Mussorgsky and, 3:1575 Piano Concerto in G (Ravel), 4:1944 Piano Trio in A Minor (Ravel), 4:1944 Piazza Cordusio (Milan), 3:1503 Picabia, Francis, 2:591 Pica Law of 1863 (Italy), 2:571 Picasso, Pablo, 3:1167; 4:1781–1784, 1783, 1865, 2232 absinthe depiction by, 1:3 Beardsley drawings and, 1:192 Blue Period of, 4:1781–1792 cabaret exhibitions of, 1:335 collage and, 2:591, 592; 4:1784 cubism and, 1:156; 2:590, 591, 592, 593; 3:1530; 4:1710, 1783–1784

2728

Daumier as influence on, 2:622 Diaghilev and, 2:655 Dore´ folio engravings and, 2:677 futurism and, 2:920 photography and, 4:1773 primitivism and, 4:1782, 1783, 1875, 1876 Rose Period and, 4:1782 Satie and, 4:2087 Seurat and, 4:2158 Picken, T., 2:588 Pickhanov, Georgy, 3:1487 pickpockets, 2:573, 575, 576; 3:1375 Pickwick Papers, The (Dickens), 2:656, 657 Picquart, Georges, 2:684, 685 pictorialism (photographic), 4:1772–1773 Picture of Dorian Gray, The (Wilde), 2:687; 4:2255; 5:2464–2465 Pictures at an Exhibition (Mussorgsky), 3:1575 Pictures from Italy (Dickens), 2:656; 5:2403 picturesque ideal, 3:1600–1601; 4:1738, 1756 Picturesque Views on the Southern Coast of England (Turner), 5:2367 Picture with a Circle (Kandinsky), 3:1244 piecework, 1:474 Piedmont-Savoy, 1:143, 244; 2:533, 534, 662, 962; 3:1267; 4:1784–1787, 1970, 1981 administration of unified Italy by, 3:1199 Austria and, 4:2001, 2002 Cavour and, 1:390, 390–393, 391; 2:662, 866; 3:1198; 4:1786 Charles Albert and, 1:413–414; 3:1195 Congress of Vienna and, 3:1193; 4:1785 Crimean War and, 2:1007; 3:1198; 4:1787 education in, 2:724 France and, 3:1198, 1592; 4:2001; 5:2306 Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866–867; 3:1592 liberalism and, 3:1346 Maistre and, 3:1421–1422 monetary system and, 3:1538 Napoleonic occupation of, 2:899–900, 902; 3:1192, 1193, 1584; 4:1786 Papal State and, 4:1726, 1797

Pius IX and, 4:1797 press freedom and, 4:1870 reform and, 3:1191, 1195, 1197 Restoration and, 4:1967, 1969 Revolution of 1820 and, 2:959; 3:1194, 1494 Revolution of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1993, 1994, 2002, 2003 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 3:1195, 1197–1199, 1255; 4:1785, 1787, 1902, 2000 Roman Question and, 4:2024 sister republics and, 4:2187 territorial ambitions of, 3:1191, 1193, 1198 Venice and, 5:2403, 2403–2404, 2404 Victor Emmanuel I and, 4:1969 Victor Emmanuel II and, 4:2004; 5:2409–2411 Pie`ge de Me´duse, Le (Satie), 4:2087 Pieroni Bortolotti, Franca, 3:1556 Pierre Joseph Proudhon and His Children in 1853 (Courbet), 4:1898 Pierrot Lunaire, (Schoenberg), 4:2103 Pieta (Kollwitz), 4:2092 Pietism, 3:1527; 4:1894–1895 Pignatelli family, 1:322 Pignier, Alexandre-Rene´, 1:296–297 Pigott, Richard, 4:1742 Pig War, 4:2147, 2148 Pilcher, Percy, 1:30 pilgrimages, 3:1324; 4:1787–1790, 1826 Catholic women and, 1:383 Germany and, 2:950 Muslims and, 1:396, 436 women’s travel and, 5:2329–2330 Pilipon, Charles, 3:1389 Pillars of Society (Ibsen), 3:1107 Pilo, Rosolino, 4:2034 Pilsen, 1:261, 263 Pilsudski, Jo´zef, 4:1811, 1812 Pimlico (London neighborhood), 3:1373 Pinard, Adolphe, 2:771 Pindar, 2:1078 Pineda, Mariana, 4:2229 Pinel, Philippe, 4:1790–1792, 1959 Pineles, Friedrich, 1:65 pin factory (A. Smith example), 2:712–713 Pinsker, Leo, 5:2520 Pioneers of Civilization: John Bull Bringing Peace and Civilization to the World (cover illustration), 1:463

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TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Piou, Jacques, 1:389 Pipes, Richard, 4:2270 pipe smoking, 5:2314 piracy. See privateering and piracy Piraeus, 1:125 Pirata, Il (Bellini), 3:1671 Pirelli rubber products, 3:1502, 1504 Pisarev, Dmitri, 3:1639–1640, 1641 Pisarevshchina. See nihilists Piscine, La (Matisse), 3:1475 Pisemsky, Alexei, 3:1641 Pissarro, Camille, 2:939; 3:1131; 4:1757, 1792–1794 Corot as influence on, 2:562 Degas’s friendship with, 2:634 impressionism and, 3:1126, 1127, 1128, 1130–1131, 1534; 4:1708, 1710 Impressionist Exhibition and, 4:1955 Parisian scenes and, 4:1732, 1792, 1793, 1794 Seurat and, 4:2156–2157 Pissarro, Lucien, 4:2156–2157 pitchblende, 2:594, 595 Pitt, William (the Elder) (Lord Chatham), 4:2277 Pitt, William (the Younger), 1:373; 2:510, 840, 1000–1004; 4:1896, 2277; 5:2321 accomplishments of, 2:1002 Fox’s views vs., 2:840, 1001 Godwin response to, 2:981 Irish union and, 2:1000–1001; 3:1176, 1177 Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901 Whigs and, 5:2460–2461 Wilberforce and, 5:2462 Pius VI, pope, 3:1192; 4:1717, 1718, 2033, 2134 Pius VII, pope, 1:68; 4:1717, 1718, 1724, 2001, 2033 Italian reform and, 3:1193; 4:1718 Napoleon I and, 1:381, 420; 2:527–529, 846; 3:1586, 1587–1588; 4:1718, 1724 Pius IX and, 4:1795, 1796 Pius IX, pope, 4:1717–1720, 1720, 1721, 1724–1725, 1794–1798, 1795, 1990 assessment of, 4:1797–1798 beatification of, 4:1798 conservatism of, 1:388; 3:1278; 4:1719–1720, 1795–1796, 1797, 1798 early life and career of, 4:1795–1796 First Vatican Council and, 4:1722, 1795

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Freemasonry ban and, 2:881 Immaculate Conception doctrine of, 1:385; 4:1788, 1795, 1797, 1798, 1891 Kulturkampf and, 3:1278, 1279, 1329; 4:1719, 1795, 1798 Leo XIII policies and, 3:1329, 1330–1331, 1332 long reign of, 4:1794, 1795 Manning and, 3:1440 Marian devotion of, 4:1797 Mickiewicz’s audience with, 3:1500 mistaken liberal label for, 1:388; 3:1196; 4:1719, 1725, 1796 papal infallibility and, 1:382; 4:1719, 1723, 1795, 1798 Papal State and, 4:1724–1725, 1726, 1794, 1795, 1796 on Protestantism, 4:1890 Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196, 1197, 1480; 4:1719, 1796 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 1:380, 388; 3:1196, 1199; 4:1719, 1795, 1797, 1798, 2002, 2003, 2004 Roman Question and, 4:1795, 1798, 2024 Rome and, 4:2034, 2035, 2037 secularization and, 4:2134 Syllabus of Errors of, 1:6, 381–382, 388; 3:1199; 4:1722, 1797–1798, 1890 Pius VIII, pope, 1:421; 4:1718, 1724 Pius X, pope, 1:5, 385; 2:688; 4:1720–1721 Giolitti and, 2:972 modernity condemned by, 4:1893 Roman Question and, 4:2025–2026 secularization and, 4:2134 Pius XII, pope, 4:1798 Pi y Margall, Francisco, 4:2230, 2231 Plac¸a Reial (Barcelona), 1:181 Plac¸a Sant Jaume (Barcelona), 1:180–181 Place, Francis, 2:511; 3:1286, 1390 Place de la Concorde (Paris), 3:1386; 4:1727 Place del Portal de la Pau (Barcelona), 1:182 Place Louis-le-Grand (Paris). See Place Vendoˆme Place Louis XV (Paris), 4:1727 Place Vendoˆme (Paris), 4:1726 plague, 1:43, 376; 3:1412; 4:1751 Plain Tales from the Hills (Kipling), 3:1256 Planchon, Jules-Emile, 4:1777, 1778

1 9 1 4

Planck, Erwin, 4:1800 Planck, Max, 2:740; 3:1409, 1535; 4:1798–1800 Planck’s constant, 4:1799 Plan des Artistes (map of Paris), 4:1728–1729 Plan of 1809 (Speransky reform program), 4:2236 Plan of Parliamentary Reform (Bentham), 5:2394 plants. See botany Plassey, Battle of (1757), 2:706 Plastic Dynamism: Horse and Houses (Boccioni), 2:919 plastics, 3:1160 Plateau, Joseph, 1:441 Plato, 1:326; 2:519–520; 4:2096, 2097, 2297; 5:2376 Plato and Platonism (Pater), 4:1746 Platonic Idea, 4:2105 Playfellow (Martineau), 3:1459 Playground of Europe, The (Stephen), 4:2253 Plaza Mayor (Madrid), 3:1414 Plea for the Citizenship of Women (Condorcet), 2:802 Plea for Women, A (Reid), 2:802 pleasure gardens (London), 3:1377–1378 pleasure parks, 4:1738 Plebe, La (socialist newspaper), 5:2363 Plehve, Vyacheslav, 3:1627; 4:1978, 2054–2055, 2210 plein-air painting. See painting, outdoor Pleisse Rivr, 3:1320, 1321 Plekhanov, Georgy, 3:1170; 4:1800–1801, 2054, 2127 Bolsheviks and, 1:264, 265, 267 as Lenin influence, 3:1326–1327 Mensheviks and, 3:1488; 4:1801 Pleyel (piano maker), 1:225 Plint, Thomas, 4:1864 Pliny, 4:2124 Plmouth, Lord, 2:589 PLM Railway Company, 4:1777 Plochl, Anna, 3:1236 Ploetz, Wilhelm, 2:769 Plombie`res, secret agreement of (1858), 1:392; 3:1198 Plowman (Pissarro), 4:1757 Plume, La (journal), 4:1845 plural voting, 4:2278 pneumatic boring machines, 1:487 pneumatic tires, 1:149; 2:601 Poale Zion, 5:2521 Pobedonostsev, Konstantin, 3:1627; 4:2063 pocket watch, 3:1323

2729

INDEX

Poclaert, Joseph, 1:306 Podmore, Frank, 2:787; 3:1693 Poe, Edgar Allan, 2:656; 4:1776, 2293 Baudelaire translations of, 1:187–188 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 opium use by, 2:686 Poems (Arnold), 1:102 Poems (Tennyson), 5:2309 Poems (Wordsworth), 5:2482 Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell (Bronte¨ family), 1:301 Poems in Prose (Turgenev), 4:2265 Poems in Two Volumes (Wordsworth), 5:2482 Poems of the Past and Present (Hardy), 2:1045 Poems on Various Subjects (Coleridge), 1:496–497 Poesia (Italian magazine), 2:917 poetry acmeism and, 4:2182 Armenia and, 1:88, 90 Arnold and, 1:102 ballads and, 4:2123 Baudelaire and, 1:186, 187; 3:1529 Bely and, 1:208–210 Blake and, 1:244–246 Blok and, 1:249–250 Byron and, 1:332, 333 cabarets and, 1:337 Carducci and, 1:362–363 Catalonia and, 1:182 on children, 1:428 Coleridge and, 1:496, 497; 2:543 D’Annunzio and, 2:609, 610 Decadence and, 2:631, 940 Finnish and Latvian epics and, 2:820 futurism and, 4:2182–2183 Goethe and, 2:985, 987 Hardy and, 2:1045, 1046 Heine and, 2:1055, 1056 Ho ¨ lderlin and, 2:1077–1079, 1078, 1079 Hugo and, 2:1092, 1093, 1095 Huysmans and, 2:1103–1104 Jarry and, 3:1213 Lake Poets an, 4:2029 Lamartine and, 3:1303 Lasker-Schu¨ler and, 3:1309–1310 Leopardi and, 3:1333–1334 Manzoni and, 3:1441 Mickiewicz and, 3:1500–1501; 4:1818 modernism and, 3:1529 Morris and, 3:1549, 1550–1551 Norton and, 3:1645

2730

Novalis and, 3:1647–1648 pastoralism and, 4:1756 Pe´guy and, 4:1760–1761 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864 Pushkin and, 4:1918–1920, 2075 Romanticism and, 2:543; 4:2027, 2029, 2030 Russia and, 1:337 Russian Silver Age and, 4:2181–2183 Russian symbolism and, 4:2181–2182 Schlegel and, 4:2095 Scott and, 4:2123 Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and, 4:2027, 2031, 2169–2170 Silver Age and, 2:774 Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2216 sonnet form and, 4:2095 Strindberg and, 4:2268 symbolism and, 2:940; 3:1529; 4:2292, 2294 Symonds and, 4:2296 Tennyson and, 5:2309–2310 Turgenev and, 5:2365 Wordsworth and, 2:543; 4:2027, 2029, 2030; 5:2481–2482 Yeats and, 5:2310, 2509–2510 Poetry (Mickiewicz), 3:1500 pogroms, 1:40, 72, 76; 3:1234; 4:1801–1804 Lueger’s threats of, 3:1395 migrants from, 3:1113 Russia and, 1:76; 3:1395; 4:1802–1804, 1803, 1978, 2055, 2057; 5:2520 Russian cities and, 1:449 victims of, 1:76; 4:1803 Poincare´, Henri, 1:214; 2:593, 857, 858, 859; 4:1804–1805 Poincare´, Raymond, 1:339; 3:1218, 1317; 4:1805–1806 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:5 cousin Henri and, 4:1804 Pointe de la He`ve at Low Tide (Monet), 3:1535 pointillism, 3:1132, 1133, 1244, 1474; 4:1794, 2156; 5:2401 Point of View for My Activity as an Author, The (Kierkegaard), 3:1253 Poires, Les (Pilipon engraving), 3:1389 Poiret, Paul, 1:483 Poisson, Sime´on-Denis, 4:1779, 1780 Polak, Milena, 3:1243 Poland, 2:562; 4:1806–1813 anti-Semitism and, 2:753 army service and, 1:98; 4:1809

Austria-Hungary and, 1:137, 140, 141, 142, 145; 4:1900, 1989 Bolsheviks and, 1:266 Bund in, 1:313, 315 cabarets in, 1:336 Catholicism in, 1:379, 380, 381, 383, 387, 388; 4:1809, 1811 Catholic nationalism and, 3:1657 cholera epidemic in, 1:436, 438 Chopin and, 1:438–439, 440; 4:1818 Congress Kingdom of, 1:38; 4:1808 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–533; 4:1808, 1817–1818 Conrad and, 2:535 Cossacks and, 2:562 Curie (Marie) and, 2:594; 4:1811 Czartoryski and, 2:602–604; 4:1807, 1808 dueling code in, 2:696 educational language and, 2:726 emigrant returns to, 2:749 emigrants from, 2:748 Endecja and, 2:752–753; 4:1811–1812, 1818 Germanization measures in, 1:239; 4:1812–1813, 1818 German unification and, 4:1809, 1812–1813, 1818, 1993 independence of (1918), 2:753; 4:1813, 1819 Jewish emigrants from, 3:1113 Jewish population of, 4:1808, 1809–1810, 1812, 1812 Kos´ciuszko and, 3:1264–1265; 4:1807 labor movements in, 5:2489 Lithuania and, 3:1365, 1366, 1368; 5:2369, 2370, 2441 Luxemburg and, 3:1398–1399, 1400; 4:1811 Marian shrine in, 4:1790 Mickiewicz and, 3:1500–1501; 4:1808, 1811 Napoleon and, 2:553, 603, 698, 902; 3:1322, 1493, 1588; 4:1807–1808 nationalism and. See Polish national movement nobility in, 1:78; 4:1806, 1808, 1809, 1810, 1811 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716 partitions of (1772, 1793, 1795), 1:137, 376, 377; 2:602–604, 661, 817, 957; 3:1603; 4:1806–1807, 1817, 1900

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

peasant uprising in, 4:1755 pogroms and, 4:1802, 1803 Prussia and, 1:239, 376; 2:957; 4:1806–1807, 1808–1809, 1900, 1937 railroads and, 4:1933 Revolution of 1830 and, 1:381; 2:604, 959, 1081; 3:1500, 1561, 1605, 1625; 4:1808, 1810, 1818, 1983–1986 Romanticism and, 4:1808 Russia and, 1:38, 39; 2:567; 4:1933, 1976, 1984, 1985, 2050; 5:2370, 2371, 2441–2442, 2511 Russian repression in, 1:42; 4:1810 Russian war against (1831), 2:669 Russification campaign in, 4:1810, 1818 serf conditions in, 4:1754 Slavophiles and, 4:2196 socialism and, 1:314; 2:753; 4:1811–1812, 1818 Soviet-German partition of, 1:315 Stolypin and, 4:2257 Ukraine and, 5:2369, 2370, 2371, 2373 universities in, 5:2380 Young Czechs and Old Czechs and, 5:2511 See also Grand Duchy of Warsaw; Warsaw Polaniec Manifesto, 3:1265 Polanyi, Karl, 2:707, 709, 710 polar exploration, 2:783–784 Polar Star, The (newspaper), 2:1066 Polgar, Alfred, 1:336 police and policing, 4:1813–1817 British model of, 4:1814–1815, 1817 city life and, 1:449 French model of, 2:837; 4:1813–1814, 1815 London and, 3:1375; 4:1814–1815, 1815 Peel and, 4:1758, 1814 Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786 political surveillance and, 4:1815 prostitute regulation and, 4:1815, 1884 sensational crime books by, 2:575 Spanish paramilitary, 1:368 Police Ordinance of 1782 (Russia), 1:376 Polignac, Auguste-Jules-ArmandMarie de, 1:43, 412, 421; 2:847; 3:1303; 4:1870, 1983; 5:2310

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Polish Foreign Legion, 3:1577 Polish Library (Paris), 2:604 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 4:1806–1807, 1808, 1812; 5:2369, 2370, 2371 See also Lithuania; Poland; Polish national movement Polish National Committee, 4:1993 Polish national movement, 2:933; 3:1603–1604, 1605; 4:1817–1819; 5:2441 Chopin and, 1:440; 4:1818 Czartoryski and, 2:604; 4:1807, 1808, 1810–1811 Endecja and, 2:752–753; 4:1811–1812, 1818 Great Emigration and, 2:748; 4:1808, 1818 independence (1918) and, 2:753; 4:1813, 1819 January Uprising (1863–1864) and, 1:162; 4:1809–1811, 1818, 1831 Kos´ciuszko and, 3:1264–1265; 4:1807 November Uprising (1830–1831) and, 4:1808, 1810 peasants and, 4:1755 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861, 1862 Polish Patriotic Society, 1:360 Polish Republican Society, 3:1265 Polish Uprising (1830). See November Uprising Polish Uprising (1864). See January Uprising Politecnico (Milan), 3:1502 political Catholicism. See Catholicism, political political clubs, 4:1991, 1992 political economy. See economics; economists, classical Political Economy Club (London), 3:1510 political funerals, 4:1963 political parties. See specific parties political police, 4:1815 political posters, 4:1846 Political Register (British weekly), 1:489 political Romanticism, 4:2031 political satire, 1:336 Daumier caricatures and, 2:621–622 Dohm’s feminist writings and, 2:675 political Zionism, 5:2520–2521 Politics, The (Aristotle), 2:520 Politics and the Press, c. 1780–1850 (Aspinall), 4:1872

1 9 1 4

‘‘Politics as a Vocation’’ (Weber), 5:2446 politique de la bre`che strategy, 4:1998 politique de l’assaut strategy, 4:1998 Politique des femmes (newspaper), 2:651 polkas, 4:2260 Pollard, Albert Frederick, 2:1073 Pollock, Jackson, 3:1133 pollution, 2:764–766, 765, 1009; 3:1148; 4:1212, 1911 London and, 3:1373 public health inspectors and, 4:1910 St. Petersburg and, 4:2079 Sicily and, 4:2176 See also public health; sanitation Polo, Marco, 4:2260 Polonceau, Antoine-Re´my, 4:1730 polonium, 2:595, 596 Polonsky, Yakov, 1:249 polygenism, 4:1924 Polynesia, 4:1875 polytechnic training, 1:260 polytheism, 2:545; 3:1632 Pomerania, 4:1900 Pomeranz, Kenneth, 2:710; 3:1150 Pomeroy-Colley, George, 3:1422, 1423 Pompignan, marquis de (Jean-Jacques Lefranc), 2:994 Poniatowski, Stanislaw. See Stanislaw II August Poniatowski Ponsonby, Sarah, 2:1083–1084 Pont de Charing Cross, Le (Derain), 2:796 Pont de Chatou, Le (Vlaminck), 2:796 Pont de Westminster (Derain), 2:796 Pont du Carrousel, 4:1730 Pont-Neuf au soleil, Le (Marquet), 2:796 Pont Royal (Paris), 4:1730 Poor and Money, The (Van Gogh), 5:2400 Poor and the Police on a London Street at Night (Dore´), 4:1815 Poor Folk (Dostoyevsky), 2:678 Poor Law (Britain), 1:211; 2:714, 1003; 4:1819–1820, 1848–1849, 1850, 1852–1853, 1854; 5:2322, 2450, 2454, 2455, 2462 bureaucracy and, 1:325 Chadwick and, 1:401–402 Chartism and, 1:415 child labor and, 1:351 classical economists and, 2:716 Dicken’s critique of, 4:1820 Lovett and, 3:1390

2731

INDEX

Malthusianism and, 2:715; 3:1425, 1426 Mill (J.S.) view of, 2:718 Scotland and, 4:2119; 5:2452 Speenhamland System and, 1:358, 359, 1425; 2:709; 4:1819 Swing riots and, 1:359 Poor Law Act of 1845 (Scotland), 4:2119 Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 (Britain). See New Poor Law of 1834 poor relief. See poverty; welfare Poovey, Mary, 5:2481 pop art, 2:593 Pope, Alexander, 4:2027, 2254 popes. See papacy; papal infallibility; names of specific popes Popkin, Jeremy, 4:1869 Poplars on the Epte (Monet), 3:1536 Poplawski, Jan Ludwik, 2:752 Popolo d’Italia, Il (Mussolini newspaper), 3:1504 Popova, Lyubov, 3:1496 Popp, Adelheid, 1:431; 3:1456 Populaire, Le (French weekly), 1:337, 338 popular and elite culture, 4:1820–1827 artisans and, 1:104 avant-garde and, 1:151–158 Berlin and, 1:215, 219–220; 3:1412 Bernhardt and, 1:229–230 blending of, 4:1824–1825 body and, 1:252–254 Bohemian Lands and, 1:261–262 Bonapartism and, 1:270 bourgeoisie and, 1:287–288 British aristocracy and, 1:86 Brussels and, 1:307 Catalanism and, 1:182 cinema and, 1:440–443; 4:1824 cities and, 1:445, 447–448, 455; 3:1412 consumerism and, 2:549–550, 551 cycling and, 2:599–602; 4:1824 death and, 2:628–629 diversity of, 4:1821–1822 Dore´ and, 2:277–278, 676 Dublin and, 2:693 fin de sie`cle and, 2:815–817 furniture and, 2:912–915 German nationalism and, 2:960–961 landowning elite and, 1:469 leisure and, 3:1322–1325; 4:1824 libraries and, 3:1350–1352

2732

London and, 3:1376–1378 Madrid and, 3:1414 mesmerism and, 3:1490–1491; 4:1822 Milan and, 3:1504 Moscow and, 3:1551–1552 museums and, 3:1561–1564 music and, 3:1565–1573 national thinking and, 3:1608 ‘‘New Journalism’’ and, 4:1870–1871 old age representations and, 3:1663–1664 opera and, 3:1669–1677 Paris and, 4:1727, 1732–1733 photography and, 4:1772 phrenology and, 4:1774–1776, 1822 piano and, 1:439; 3:1566 pleasure parks and, 4:1738 pornography and, 4:1833–1836 racism and, 4:1927 regionalism and, 4:1821 restaurants and, 4:1964–1967 St. Petersburg and, 3:1552; 4:2079 seaside resorts and, 4:2125 secularization and, 4:1893–1894 Serbia and, 5:2147–2148 spiritualism and, 3:491; 4:2237–2239, 14901 sports and, 4:1824, 2240–2241, 2244, 2245 tobacco use and, 5:2314 tourism and, 5:2325–2331 voluntary associations and, 1:115–122 wine and, 5:2475 See also folk culture Popular Front (Spain), 1:62 popular journalism, 4:1870–1871 popular sovereignty, 1:456, 457 Guizot’s denunciation of, 4:1971–1972 republicanism and, 4:1962 Popular Union. See Catholic Action population. See birthrate; demography; fertility rate; population, control of; specific cities and countries population, control of, 4:1827–1831 abortion and, 4:1762, 1827, 1829 abstinence and, 4:1827, 1829 contraceptives and, 2:645–646, 805, 947; 4:1827, 1829–1830, 1836 degeneracy theme and, 2:639 emigration and, 2:503, 960, 1005 eugenics and, 2:239, 769

fertility decline and, 4:1829–1831 Godwin on, 2:981 Malthusian theory and, 2:615, 616, 714–715, 777; 3:1425–1427; 4:1827 marital age and, 4:1827–1828 migration and, 2:646 mortality and, 4:1829 neo-Malthusians and, 4:1762 peasants and, 4:1753 Pelletier and, 4:1762 Philosophic Radicals and, 3:1512 population growth (1750–1850) and, 4:1827–1829 population growth in selected countries (1800–1913) and, 2:644 women’s changed role and, 2:947 populism Bonapartism and, 1:269, 271 French anti-Semitic socialists and, 1:184 German anti-Semitism and, 1:82; 2:542 See also Chartism populists (Russian intelligentsia), 4:1831–1833, 2052, 2053, 2132 anarchist theory and, 1:62 nihilists and, 3:1640–1641 People’s Will and, 4:1767–1768, 1800 Plekhanov’s view of, 4:1800, 1801 revolutionary right and, 2:542 as socialist revolutionaries, 4:2209–2210 Struve and, 4:2270 in Ukraine, 5:2371, 2373 Zasulich and, 5:2517 porcelain China and, 3:1151, 1152, 1678 Denmark and, 2:647 Rosenthal, 1:192 Wedgwood, 2:547; 3:1153 Porche du myste`re de la deuxie`me vertu (Pe´guy), 4:1760 pornography, 2:941; 3:1471; 4:1833–1837 bibliography of, 4:1836 origins of, 4:2029 Sade and, 4:2074 Schiele’s jailing related to, 4:2090 sex manuals seen as, 4:2163 porphyria, 5:2470 Porta, Giambattista della, 3:1580 Port Arthur (China), 1:292; 3:1212, 1507, 1628; 4:1837

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Port Arthur (Tasmania), 2:780 Porte. See Ottoman Empire Porte Dauphine Me´tro station (Paris), 2:1028 Porte de Saint Ouen (Paris), 4:1735 Porte Saint-Martin (theatrical troupe), 1:229 Portland, duke of (William Henry Cavendish Bentick), 2:839–840 Porto Novo (Dahomey), 1:15, 20 Portrait au Derain (Matisse), 3:1474 Portrait of a Roman (Rodin), 4:2008 Portrait of Gertrude Stein (Picasso), 4:1782 Portrait of Julie Manet (Morisot), 3:1544 Portrait of Kahnweiler (Picasso), 4:1784 Portrait of Louis-Auguste Ce´zanne, the Artist’s Father (Ce´zanne), 1:398 Portrait of Millicent, Duchess of Sutherland (Sargent), 1:85 Portrait of Pe`re Tanguy (Van Gogh), 5:2401 Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, A (Joyce), 1:378 Portraits in Miniature (Strachey), 4:2259 portraiture painting, 4:1710, 2028 photography, 4:1772 Portsmouth, Treaty of (1905), 3:1212, 1628; 4:1837–1838, 1977, 2065 Portugal, 4:1838–1843 African colonization and, 1:19, 20, 21, 49, 499; 2:509; 4:1840, 1841, 1843 Berlin Conference and, 1:221 Brazilian independence and, 4:1838 Britain and, 2:1002; 4:1764–1766, 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843 Catholic majority in, 1:377; 4:1842 child abandonment in, 5:2455 cholera epidemic in, 2:669 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532, 534 emigrant returns to, 2:749 emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748 Fontainebleau Treaty and, 4:2225 foundling homes/hospitals in, 5:2451 Generation of 1870 and, 4:1840 imperialism and, 3:1114, 1116, 1151; 4:1838–1839, 1840, 1841 Marian shrine in, 4:1788 maternity hospitals in, 5:2450

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

papacy and, 4:1721 Peninsular War and, 2:901, 902; 4:1762, 1764–1766, 1838, 1839, 2227 Protestant minority in, 4:1890 railroads and, 4:1933 Revolution of 1820 and, 4:1839 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1983, 1985, 1986 seaside resorts in, 4:2124 settlement colonies and, 2:503 slavery and, 4:2190 slave trade and, 1:13, 14 smallpox deaths in, 4:2198 sports in, 4:2243 suffrage in, 4:2279 telephone service in, 5:2308 tobacco and, 5:2313 trade and, 5:2338, 2339 welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452 wine and, 5:2475 world’s fairs and, 5:2503 Poscolo, Ugo, 3:1193–1194 Posen. See Pozna´n Poseuses, Les (Seurat), 4:2157 Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte, The (Martineau), 3:1459 positivism, 4:1843–1845, 2133, 2195, 2249 anarchosyndicalist rejection of, 1:61 anticlericalism and, 1:388 Bergson and revolt against, 1:214 Bernard and, 1:228, 408 Charcot and, 1:408 Comte and, 2:522, 523, 743; 3:1132; 4:1843–1844, 2133, 2202, 2213, 2214, 2238 criminology and, 2:638 as Croce target, 2:584–585 Endecja and, 2:753 French Radicals and, 4:1929 fundamental axiom of, 4:1843 Gall and, 2:926 impressionism and, 3:1132–1133 Lewes and, 2:743 Mach and, 3:1409 Maurras’s neoroyalism and, 1:5 Mill’s (John Stuart) view of, 3:1513 Milyukov and, 3:1518 Poland and, 4:1811 progress and, 2:815 Renan and, 4:1953–1954 Saint-Simon and, 4:2081 Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2216 spiritualism and, 4:2238

1 9 1 4

Warsaw and, 5:2442 on women’s inferiority, 2:802 Young Turks and, 5:2516 Positivist Society, 4:1844 Positivist Thought in France during the Second Empire (Charlton), 1:228 Poslednie novosti (Russian e´migre´ newspaper), 3:1518 Possessed, The (Dostoyevsky), 2:679 postal services, 1:473; 2:965; 3:1686; 4:1937 postcolonial theory, 3:1407, 1511 posters, 4:1845–1847 as advertising, 4:1823, 1845–1846, 1846, 1847 art nouveau, 1:109; 2:815; 4:1846 Beardsley and, 1:192 cabaret, 1:335 charity fundraiser, 4:1853 French absinthe drinking, 1:3 London Underground, 4:2273 reaction against, 4:1847 syphilis sanatoriums, 4:2302 Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2323, 2324, 2324 Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club, The (Dickens), 2:656, 657 Posthumous Poems (Shelley), 4:2170 postimpressionism, 1:152, 398–399; 3:1530, 1536; 4:1709–1711 Delacroix as influence on, 2:641 Pissarro and, 4:1792 Seurat and, 4:1709 See also cubism; expressionism postmodernism Gaudı´ and, 2:938 Kierkegaard and, 3:1253 Mahler and, 3:1419 Nietzsche and, 3:1630, 1635 Novalis and, 3:1648 postsymbolism, 1:214 Postulates of Political Economy (Bagehot), 1:161 Potato Eaters, The (Van Gogh), 5:2400 potatoes, 1:26; 2:762, 960 Belgian famine (1840), 1:201 blight (1845), 4:1989 blight fungicide, 3:1164 blight source, 4:1777 Irish dependence on, 3:1178 See also Irish Potato Famine Potemkin (Russian warship), 4:1976 Potemkin, Grigory, 1:376; 4:2079 potential energy, 3:1250 Potin, Fe´lix, 1:352 Potresov, Alexander, 1:265

2733

INDEX

Potsdam, 1:219 architecture in, 4:2094 armaments factory in, 2:790 Frederick William IV projects and, 2:876, 877 Schinkel and, 4:2094 Potsdamer Platz (Berlin), 1:217, 219 Pottecher, Maurice, 4:2015 Potter, Richard, 5:2443 pottery, 2:547, 548; 3:1153 See also porcelain Pottinger, Henry, 3:1578 Pouget, E´mile, 1:60–61; 4:2298 Pou Kmbo, 3:1141 Poulenc, Francis, 4:1944, 2087 Poulsen, Valdemar, 2:649 Pound, Ezra, 4:2182 Pounds, Norman J. G., 5:2349 Poupe´es e´lectriques (Marinetti), 2:917 Pourquoi-Pas? (ship), 1:411 Poussin, Nicolas, 2:641; 3:1165 Po Valley, 1:392; 3:1195 poverty, 4:1847–1855 and, 3:1179–1180 British attitude toward. See Poor Law; workhouses British economic theories on, 2:714–715, 716 British Swing riots and, 1:358–359 capitalism and, 2:718 Catholic charity and, 1:383 cholera and, 1:437, 438; 2:669 city dwellers and, 1:449, 453, 455 consumerism and, 2:547 crime linked with, 2:571, 572 death rates and, 2:628 degeneracy label and, 2:636 ‘‘deserving poor’’ label and, 5:2450–2451 as Dickens subject, 2:657 Dublin epidemics and, 2:690 education and, 2:719–720, 721, 722 eugenics theory of, 2:770 Fourier’s views on, 4:2201–2202 hospital care and, 3:1648, 1649 ignorance policy and, 2:719–720, 721 infant mortality and, 2:667 Irish Potato Famine’s effects and, 3:1179–1180 Leo XIII and, 3:1331 liberalism and, 3:1349 London and, 3:1375; 4:1850, 1853 Malthusian view of, 2:715; 3:1425–1426 material goods and, 2:547

2734

Milan and, 3:1504 old-age care and, 3:1664 Owen’s views on, 3:1692; 4:2200 Paris and, 4:1727, 1728 peasants and, 4:1752, 1753 population control and, 4:1830 Sicily and, 4:2176 social Darwinist view of, 2:619 typhus and, 2:668 ‘‘undeserving poor’’ label and, 4:1849 widened gap between wealthy elite and, 1:291 See also welfare Poverty of Philosophy, The (Marx), 3:1465 Powderly, Terrence Vincent, 3:1331 Powder Tower (Prague), 4:1858 Powell, Baden, 1:159 power looms. See weaving, mechanization of Pozna´n, 2:961; 4:1808, 1809, 1812, 1900, 1903 Pozzo, Vittorio, 2:833 Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes of this Country Contrasted with Real Christianity, A (Wilberforce), 5:2463 Practice in Christianity (Kierkegaard), 3:1251 Pradier (sculptor), 4:2043 Praeterita (Ruskin), 4:2047 Pragmatic Sanction (1713), 1:138 Prague, 4:1855–1861, 1857; 5:2510 anti-German, anti-Semitic protests in, 1:262–263; 4:1860–1861, 1862 art nouveau and, 1:113; 2:815; 4:1858 child abandonment in, 5:2455 as Czech national revival center, 1:261, 447; 4:1856–1861 department store, 5:2341 electric power plant in, 2:741 football (soccer) in, 2:834 industrialization and, 1:260, 261 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2493 Jewish community in, 3:1525; 4:1856, 1857, 1859 Kafka and, 3:1242, 1243 machine breaking in, 3:1411 national monuments in, 4:1858 population of, 4:1856 Prussian occupation of, 4:1860

Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1994 street vendor, 4:1859 universities and, 1:261; 2:728; 3:1469; 4:1858 voluntary associations and, 1:117 women’s associations and, 4:1992 Prague, Peace of (1866), 4:1902 Prague Gymnastics Association, 4:1856 Prague Slav Congress (1848), 1:141, 142; 3:1605; 4:1712, 1716–1717, 1748, 1860, 1861–1863 Manifesto of, 4:1862 Palacky´ and, 4:1712, 1861 Prairial martyrs, 4:1960 Prandtl, Ludwig, 4:2115 Pratella, Francesco Balilla, 2:919 Pratt, Hodgson, 4:1697 Pravda (Marxist journal), 3:1487 Prayer (Lasker-Schu ¨ ler), 3:1309 PRB. See Pre-Raphaelite Movement precˇani, 4:2142, 2144, 2145 Precipice, The (Goncharov), 2:989 Pre´cis de l’art de la guerre (Jomini), 3:1236 Pre´cy, comte de, 3:1403 Preece, William H., 3:1444 prefabrication, 2:1027 Preface of Cromwell, The (Hugo), 2:1092–1093 Preiswerk, He´le`ne, 3:1238 Prelude, The (Wordsworth), 1:497; 5:2482 Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (Pre´lude a` l’apre`s-midi d’un faune; Debussy), 2:631 Prendergast, Maurice Brazil, 5:2405 Preobrajenska, Olga, 3:1642 Preobrazhensky Guards, 3:1575 Pre-Raphaelite Movement, 4:1863–1865 Beardsley and, 1:191–192 Blake as influence on, 1:246 Decadence and, 2:633 Pater and, 4:1746 patrons of, 4:1864 Ruskin and, 4:1707, 1864, 1865, 2046 world’s fair (1855) and, 5:2496 Pre-Raphaelites, The (Tate 1984 exhibition), 4:1865 Pre-Raphaelitism and the PreRaphaelite Brotherhood (Hunt), 4:1865 Pre´-Saint-Gervais meeting (1913), 3:1218 Presbyterianism, 4:1890

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

as English Nonconformists, 2:1002 northern Ireland and, 2:1000; 3:1176 as Scottish established church, 2:1002, 1006 prescriptive knowledge, 4:2111, 2113, 2115 press and newspapers, 4:1866–1873 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:5; 2:685 advertising and, 4:1867–1868 Armenians and, 1:88, 89, 90 Austrian socialism and, 1:11 Berlin and, 1:216 Bolsheviks and, 1:265 Britain and, 1:302–303 caricatures and, 2:620–622; 4:1823 Carlsbad Decree curbs on, 1:368, 377; 4:1869 Catalan-language, 1:182 Catholic, 1:388, 389 Cobbett and, 1:489–490 corrupt practices and, 4:1872 crime sensation and, 2:575, 576, 576 Dickens and, 2:656, 657 Dreyfus affair and, 2:684, 685 Durand and, 2:696 French anti-Semitism and, 2:683, 684, 689 French feminism and, 1:127; 2:650–651, 696–697 French Second Empire revitalization of, 2:853 French socialism and, 1:247 German feminism and, 1:129, 189; 3:1680–1681 headline innovation and, 4:1867 Herzen and, 2:1065–1066 Herzl and, 2:1068 homosexual/lesbian stereotypes in, 2:1084 illustrations and, 4:1867 Kossuth and, 3:1266–1267 Lithuania and, 3:1366 Marx and, 3:1463, 1464, 1466 mass readership of, 4:1868–1869 Milan and, 3:1504 music criticism and, 3:1566, 1570 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1686 photography and, 4:1773–1774, 1823, 1867 politics and, 4:1872–1873 popular culture and, 4:1822–1823, 1870–1871, 1872 pornography and, 4:1835 prices of, 4:1867

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

professionalization of, 4:1871–1872 republican France and, 4:1963 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1989, 1991 Russian expansion of, 2:1016 Serbia and, 4:2148 sports coverage in, 4:2243 Sweden and, 4:2283 underseas cables and, 1:353 workers journals and, 3:1285 See also censorship; freedom of the press Pressburg, Treaty of (1805), 1:133; 2:901; 5:2402 Presse, La (Parisian newspaper), 1:187, 421; 2:696 Pressense´, Edmond Dehault de, 4:1895, 2136 Pressense´, Francis de, 4:1895, 2137 Press Law of 1819 (Germany), 1:369; 2:959 Press Law of 1881 (France), 4:1870; 5:2432 Prestupleniye i nakazaniye (Dostoyevsky), 2:678 Pre´tre, la femme, et la famille, Le (Michelet), 1:70 Preuves, Les (Jaure`s articles), 3:1216 Pre´vost, Abbe´, 4:1916 Prevost, George, 5:2440 Preyer, Wilhelm, 4:1909 Price, Richard, 5:2433, 2480 Pride and Prejudice (Austen), 1:130, 131 Priestley, Joseph, 1:210; 3:1312, 1458; 4:2111; 5:2393 Prieto, Garcı´a, 4:2232 Prim, Juan, 4:2230 Prima Exposizione d’arte Decorativa of 1902 (Turin), 1:108 primary schooling. See education primitivism, 4:1873–1876 avant-garde and, 1:15; 4:18746 Frazer and, 2:872–873 Gauguin and, 2:939–940, 941; 4:1710, 1757, 1874, 1875 Hellenism and, 4:1769 Picasso and, 4:1782, 1783, 1875 Stravinsky and, 4:2261, 2262 primogeniture, 1:287; 2:843, 897; 3:1306; 4:1747 Primo vere (DAnnuncio), 2:609 Prina, Giuseppe, 4:2190 Prince Igor (Borodin), 2:774; 4:1999 Prince philosophe, conte orientale, Le (Gouges), 2:995 Princess, The (Tennyson), 5:2309

1 9 1 4

Princeteau, Rene´, 5:2323 Princeton University, 2:645, 740; 3:1435 Princip, Gavrilo, 1:242; 2:862 Principes de politiques (Constant), 2:545 Principia (Newton), 3:1312 Principia Ethica (Moore), 4:2258 Principle of Mechanics (Hertz), 2:1063 Principles of Geology (Lyell), 2:615; 3:1402 Principles of Physiological Psychology (Wundt), 4:1908; 5:2507 Principles of Political Economy (J. S. Mill), 2:718, 1006; 3:1509, 1513, 1514 Principles of Political Economy (Malthus), 3:1426 Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (Ricardo), 2:515; 4:1887 Principles of Psychology (W. James), 4:1783 Principles of Psychology, The (Spencer), 4:2234–2235 Printemps (Paris department store), 2:548 printing, 5:2486, 2487–2488 newspapers and, 4:1866 photography and, 4:1773 printmaking, 1:154 Japanese woodblock, 1:109, 192 Munch and, 3:159, 1558, 1599 Prinzipien der physikalischen Optik, Die (Mach), 3:1409 Prisoner of Chillon, The (Byron), 1:333 Prisoner of the Caucasus, The (Pushkin), 4:1919 prisoners of war, 2:953; 4:1949 prisons, 2:573 Beccaria reforms and, 2:637 Bentham reforms and, 1:211 Kropotkin writing on, 3:1272 Lombroso theory of, 3:1371 typhus and, 2:668, 669 See also exile, penal privatdocenten, 5:2382, 2384, 2390 private clubs, 3:1471 privateering and piracy, 1:43, 308; 2:1008; 3:1612; 5:2362 Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner, The (Hogg), 4:2255 Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft, The (Gissing), 2:975 private sphere. See separate spheres Prix de Rome, 1:224; 2:630; 3:1167; 4:1944

2735

INDEX

Prix Goncourt, 2:991 prizefights. See boxing probability theory, 4:2248, 2249 Problem in Greek Ethics, A (Symonds), 4:2296 Problem in Modern Ethics, A (Symonds), 4:2296; 5:2376 ‘‘Problems of Heredity as a Subject for Horticultural Investigation’’ (Bateson), 2:653 Problems of Idealism (Russian symposium, 1902), 1:212 Proclamation of Moncalieri (1849), 5:2409 Procter, Henry, 5:2440 Prodana´ Neveˇsta (Smetana), 3:1673 productivity, 2:712–713 consumerism-trade relationship and, 3:1152 factories and, 2:788, 791 First Industrial Revolution and, 3:1147 Professional Swimming Association (Britain), 4:2242 professions, 4:1876–1882 aristocracy and, 1:83, 84 artisans and, 1:104–107 bourgeoisie and, 1:107, 283, 284–285, 472, 473; 4:1879, 1881 bureaucrats and, 1:321–322, 324 cities and, 1:445, 452 Daumier caricatures of, 2:621 education for, 2:726–727; 4:1876–1877 engineering as, 2:757–761 established churches and, 4:1895 gendering of, 2:945 hierarchies of, 1:291 historiography, 2:1073–1074 intellectuals and, 3:1168 intelligentsia and, 3:1171; 4:1879, 1880 journalism as, 4:1871–1872 nursing as, 3:1648, 1649–1651 psychoanalysis and, 4:1906 restricted entrances into, 4:1881 university training and, 5:2382–2383 women’s admittance to, 2:728, 816, 945; 4:1881 See also lawyers; medicine Professor, The (C. Bronte¨), 1:301 Professor Bernhardi (Schnitzler), 4:2100, 2101 Professor Theodor Billroth Lectures at the General Hospital, Vienna, 1880 (Seligmann), 4:1877 Progre`s Me´dical, Le (journal), 1:411

2736

progress conservative view of, 2:538, 540 Darwinian evolution as, 2:617, 815 fin de sie´cle and, 2:814–815 as imperialist rationale, 3:1120 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1225 liberal belief in, 2:631, 714 Malthusian polemic against, 3:1425 Mazzini and, 3:1479 Nietzsche’s repudiation of, 3:1629, 1633 Polish positivist belief in, 4:1811 Second Law of Thermodynamics vs., 2:631 women’s emancipation and, 2:803 See also modernism Progressive Association (Britain), 1:372 Progressive Bloc (Duma coalition), 3:1242, 1518, 1519 Progressive Liberal Party (Germany), 2:966, 967 Progressive People’s Party (Germany), 1:189 Prokofiev, Sergei, 1:154; 2:655; 3:1496; 4:2000 proletariat Marx’s use of word, 1:62; 3:1465; 4:1849 See also labor; labor movements; working class Promenades dans Rome (Stendhal), 4:2252 Promessi sposi, I (Manzoni), 3:1441–1442 ‘‘Prometheus Unbound’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 pronatalism, 2:771 ‘‘Proofs, The’’ (Jaure`s articles), 2:684 ‘‘Propaganda by the Deed’’ strategy, 4:1942, 1943 property crime child thieves and, 2:573 cities and, 2:572, 575 incidence of, 2:570, 571 pickpocketing and shoplifting as, 2:573, 575, 576; 3:1375 psychoanalytic theory and, 2:574 property rights anticlericalism and, 4:1717 bourgeoisie and, 1:470 citizenship based on, 1:458 civil society and, 1:465, 467 class and, 1:469 Engels on, 2:946 Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871

gender inequality and, 1:303; 2:942, 946 legal theory and, 3:1314 liberal belief in, 2:717, 718 married women’s denial of, 1:303; 2:801, 802, 804, 942, 946; 3:1595, 1645 Napoleonic Code and, 1:351 Paris Commune and, 4:1736 Proudhon’s view of, 3:1314; 4:1897–1898 suffrage based on, 2:797 women granted, 2:816, 946, 948, 1008 See also land Prophe`te, Le (Meyerbeer), 3:1671 proportional representation, 4:2279 propositional knowledge, 4:2111, 2113, 2115 propriety. See manners and formality Proshian, Perj, 1:88 Prosopographia Imperii Romani (Mommsen), 3:1533 prostitution, 4:1882–1887 abolishment advocates, 1:129; 4:1883–1884, 1886, 1896 anti-legalizing crusade and, 2:650 bourgeoisie men and, 1:251, 287 British punitive legislation and, 1:332; 2:802, 804; 4:1815, 1884, 1886, 1896, 2162, 2301–2302 cities and, 1:455; 2:816 contraceptives and, 4:1827 crime and, 2:572–573, 575 as Decadent subject, 2:632 fin de sie`cle tensions and, 2:816 French brothels, 4:1885, 2301 historiography of, 4:1886 London and, 3:1375 male homosexuals and, 2:1084 reform societies and, 1:119, 129; 3:1556; 4:1886, 1896 regulation of, 4:1815, 1883, 1884, 1885–1886 sexuality and, 4:2161, 2162 social profile of prostitute and, 4:1884–1886 syphilis transmission and, 4:2162, 2293, 2301–2303 in Vladivostok, 5:2427 protectionism, 1:354–355, 357; 2:512–517; 4:1887–1890 agricultural products and, 1:476; 2:512 arguments for, 4:1887–1888 Bismarck and, 1:239; 2:966 Britain and, 5:2334, 2339, 2343

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Corn Laws and, 2:557–559, 672 Disraeli argument for, 2:672, 1005 economic growth and, 2:513–514 European adoption of, 3:1348–1349 France and, 1:492; 2:857 free trade arguments vs., 515–516, 1887 geopolitical argument for, 2:515–516 Germany and, 1:239; 2:966, 967 Hamburg and, 2:1040 historical debates on, 2:514–515 imperialism and, 3:1120 List and, 3:1357; 4:1888 Naples and, 3:1255 Napoleon and, 2:553–554; 3:1599 See also Continental System Peel and, 4:1759 practice of, 4:1888–1889 revenues from, 4:1888 as trade policy, 5:2337, 2339, 2340, 2342 United States and, 5:2337, 2340 Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, The (Protestantische Ethik und der Geist der Kapitalismus, Die; Weber), 4:1892; 5:2446–2447 Protestantism, 4:1890–1897 Alsace and, 1:51 anticlericalism and, 1:67 anti-Corn Law campaign and, 2:558 Austria-Hungary and, 1:138, 263 awakenings and, 4:1894–1895, 1896, 2136 Berlin and, 1:216, 217 British Act of Union and, 3:1177 British Nonconformists and, 1:418; 2:558, 1002, 1006; 4:1896; 5:2433, 2434 Chartist culture and, 1:418 Christian Democratic parties and, 4:2209 Christian Socialism and, 4:2208 Czech nationalism and, 3:1469; 4:1711–1712 Darwinian evolution and, 2:618 Dublin and, 2:691, 692, 693 education and, 2:723 free churches and, 4:2136 as French minority, 4:1793, 1890, 1891, 1895, 1970, 2136–2137, 2279 French nationalist Right vs., 1:5 French Revolution and, 2:843, 846, 888

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

French school system and, 2:812 gender dimorphism and, 2:945 German unification and, 2:870–871 Gothic architecture and, 4:2046 Ireland and, 1:373; 2:1009, 1010; 3:1177 labor movements and, 3:1291 Macaulay and, 3:1407 as minority population, 4:1890–1891, 1890, 1891 missionary societies and, 3:1527–1529; 4:1895, 2220 Netherlands and, 1:199; 3:1618, 1619 nursing and, 3:1648–1649, 1650 prostitution and, 4:1884, 1886, 1896 Reformation tercentenary and, 2:959 Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083 Schleiermacher and, 4:2096–2098 Scotland and, 4:2118–2119 secularization and, 4:2134 Sweden and, 4:2283 Switzerland and, 4:2288, 2290 temperance movements and, 1:36; 4:1896 Ulster and, 3:1184 Wales and, 5:2433, 2434 Weber on, 4:1892; 5:2447 See also evangelicalism; Nonconformists; specific denominations Protestant League (Germany), 5:2474 Protestant League (Prussia), 1:70 Protestant Sisters of Charity, 3:1649 Protocols of the Elders of Zion (anti-Semitic tract), 4:1803 protoindustrialization, 3:1147–1149, 1152 Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 1:459; 4:1706, 1897–1899, 1898, 2131, 2203 anarchism and, 1:56, 57, 60, 62; 4:1897 Bakunin and, 1:162 Blanqui’s view of, 1:248 bureaucracy defined by, 1:320, 321, 325 First International and, 2:824 Kropotkin as successor to, 3:1272 Marx’s critique of, 3:1465 property rights and, 3:1314; 4:1897–1898 socialism and, 3:1287, 1288; 4:1898–1899 Proust, Marcel, 1:166, 169, 184; 2:989; 4:1906, 2047, 2084; 5:2423 Bergson and, 1:214

1 9 1 4

Dreyfus defense by, 3:1168 Paris and, 4:1732 Provence, comte de. See Louis XVIII Provincial Jubilee Exhibition (Prague), 4:1858–1859 Provincial Reform of 1775 (Russia), 1:376 Provisional Execution Order of 1819 (Germany), 1:369 Provisional Government (Russia, 1917), 3:1519 Provisional National Theater (Prague), 2:700 Prozess, Der (Kafka), 3:1242, 1243 Prudhomme, Sully, 2:738 Prussia, 4:1899–1904 anticlericalism and, 1:70 anti-Semitism in, 2:576 architecture in, 4:2091, 2092–2094 aristocracy/core elite in, 1:81, 83, 84, 85 army system of, 1:94, 96, 98, 99; 2:958, 962, 963, 964; 3:1222, 1274, 1531–1532, 1685; 4:1900, 1903 Austria and, 1:234, 237–238; 4:1899–1900, 1901, 2045; 5:2353, 2420, 2467, 2526 Austrian War with. See AustroPrussian War Berlin as capital of, 1:215–216, 219; 4:1901 Bismarck’s policies and, 1:233–241; 2:662 bourgeoisie in, 1:184, 290; 4:2251 bureaucracy in, 1:217, 323–324; 2:726; 3:1278; 4:1900 Carlsbad Decrees and, 1:361, 368–370; 3:1494 Catholic minority in, 1:381; 4:1901, 1972 Catholic political parties in, 1:388 censorship and, 1:215, 216; 4:1869; 5:2512 Center Party and, 1:394 child labor and, 1:429, 430; 2:793, 967 cholera epidemic unrest in, 2:669 Clausewitz and, 1:477–479 coal production and, 1:487 commercial policy of, 2:512 common coinage and, 1:171 Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527, 565 Congress of Troppau and, 2:531 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534, 565, 958; 4:1900, 1901

2737

INDEX

Congress System and, 1:374 conservatism and, 2:539, 540; 4:1901, 1903 See also Carlsbad Decrees constitutional movements and, 1:457 Crimean War as benefit to, 2:580 Danish War and, 2:607–609, 648 Denmark and, 4:1993–1994; 5:2353 drinking culture of, 1:34 education reform in, 1:431; 2:723–724, 728, 966; 3:1277, 1278; 4:1900, 1972 elected assemblies in, 1:290 elimination of (1947), 4:1899 engineering projects in, 2:758 established church in, 4:1895 factory iinspectors in, 2:793 female teachers in, 2:724 Fontane novels about, 2:829, 830 France and, 4:2004, 2092, 2225, 2251–2252; 5:2306, 2311, 2374–2375, 2442, 2467, 2526 Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871 Frederick William III and, 2:875–876 Frederick William IV and, 2:876–877 French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars and. See under French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars German Confederation and, 2:958, 962 German unification and, 2:871, 924, 962–967; 4:1899, 1901, 1902–1903, 1992–1993, 2242; 5:2352–2353, 2467 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1020 Hamburg and, 2:1038 Hardenberg and, 2:1041–1043 Hegel and, 2:1053–1054 Holy Alliance and, 2:531, 565, 1002, 1079–1081; 4:1970, 1971, 1973, 1985, 2228 homosexuality law in, 2:1083 Humboldt brothers and, 2:1095–1098 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2493 Italy and, 1:234–235; 5:2404 Jena battle defeat of, 2:1038; 3:1221–1222 Jewish emancipation in, 2:958, 1042; 3:1227; 4:1900 Jewish population of, 3:1227

2738

Koch and, 3:1263, 1264 Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1280, 1329; 4:1723 labor movements and, 3:1287 landed elite in, 3:1305 Leipzig battle and, 3:1319 liberalism and, 2:958, 960; 3:1346–1347; 5:2467 Liebermann and, 3:1353–1355 Lithuania and, 3:1365 Marx and, 3:1463–1464 Metternich and, 3:1493 military academy of, 1:96 military tactics and, 3:1506–1507, 1508 Moltke and, 3:1531–1532 multiethnic languages in, 2:724–725 Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1599 papal concordat with, 1:381 peasant enfranchisement in, 4:1755 pilgrimage and, 4:1789 Poland and, 4:1937 Polish partition and, 1:239, 376; 2:957; 4:1806–1807, 1808–1809, 1812–1813, 1817, 1900 poor relief and, 4:1849 professional certification in, 1:285 professional training in, 2:276 public health measures in, 4:1913–1914 Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374; 2:662 Ranke and, 4:1940 reforms in, 2:958, 960, 1042–1043; 3:1341; 4:1900, 1901–1902 religious toleration in, 4:1895 representation in, 1:290 repressive crackdown in (1820), 2:1053 Restoration and, 4:1967, 1972, 1973 Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:567, 877, 961; 4:1901, 1987, 1990, 1993–1994, 1995 Roentgen and, 4:2011–2012 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 Schleswig-Holstein annexation by, 1:147; 2:964; 4:1902 secularization in, 4:2133 serf emancipation and, 4:2.958, 1754 slave trade and, 1:13, 308 smallpox epidemic in, 4:2198 social insurance and, 4:1854 Stein (Heinrich) and, 4:2250–2252 suffrage in, 4:2278 territories of, 4:1900 Tirpitz and, 5:2312–2313

tobacco and, 5:2314 university entrance in, 2:728 utilitarianism and, 5:2393 vaccination requirement in, 4:2197 Warsaw and, 5:2441 Waterloo and, 5:2442–2443, 2457 William I and, 5:2467 William II and, 5:2312, 2382, 2415, 2467, 2468–2470 Windthorst and, 5:2472 women’s political suppression in, 2:804 women university students in, 2:728 Zollverein and, 3:1357; 4:1901; 5:2525, 2526 See also Franco-Prussian War; Germany Prussian Academy of Arts, 3:1354 Prussian Academy of Sciences, 5:2426 Prussian Central Press Agency, 2:828 Prussian Telegraph Administration, 4:2179 PSI. See Socialist Party (Italy) PSR. See Socialist Revolutionary Party Psyche’s Task (Frazer), 2:872 psychiatry degeneration and, 2:637, 638–639; 3:1472 Hirschfeld and, 2:1070 homosexual/lesbian personality theories of, 2:1085 Jung and, 3:1238 Krafft-Ebing and, 3:1270–1271 Pinel and, 4:1791–1792 See also psychoanalysis psychoanalysis, 4:1904–1907; 5:2421 Andreas-Salome´ and, 1:65 Beethoven study based on, 1:199 Brentanos influence on, 1:299 criminality theory and, 2:574 Freud and, 1:8–9; 2:638–639, 904, 905–909; 3:1240; 4:1904–1905, 1908 Freudian rules for, 2:907 Freud’s definition of, 4:1904 Jung and, 3:1238–1239, 1240 Rank and, 4:1938–1939 psychobiography, 1:199; 4:2259 Psychologie de l’e´ducation, La (LeBon), 3:1317 Psychologie des foules, La (LeBon), 2:816; 3:1317 Psychologie des peuples, La (LeBon), 3:1317 Psychologie du socialisme, La (LeBon), 3:1317

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

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INDEX

Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt (Brentano), 1:299 psychology, 4:1907–1909, 1961 Adler (Alfred) and, 1:8–10 behaviorism and, 4:1748–1749, 1908 Bergson dure´e theory and, 1:214 Brentano and, 1:298–299 child development and, 1:428 child rearing and, 3:1454 criminology and, 3:1371 experimental, 5:2506–2508 fin de sie`cle and, 2:816 Freud and, 4:1904 Gall and, 2:926 hysteria and, 1:410 Jung and, 1:8; 3:1238, 1239–1240 Mach and, 3:1408, 1409 Mill (James) and, 3:1511 Pavlov and, 4:1748–1749, 1908 Pelletier and, 4:1761, 1762 positivism and, 4:1844 Rank and, 4:1938–1939 sociology and, 4:2214 Spencer and, 4:2235 spiritualism and, 4:2238 Wundt and, 5:2506–2508 See also psychiatry Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (Brentano), 1:299 Psychology of Jingoism, The (Hobson), 3:1235 Psychopathia Sexualis (Krafft-Ebing), 2:636, 816; 3:1270, 1271; 4:2163 Psychopathology of Everyday Life, The (Freud), 2:906 psychophysics, 5:2507 Public Assistance Committees (Britain), 4:1820 public education. See education public hangings, 1:288 public health, 4:1909–1915 absinthe and, 1:3, 4 Berlin and, 1:217–218, 219 body and, 1:251 as British bureaucratic function, 1:324, 325 Brussels and, 1:306 burial grounds and, 2:628 Chadwick reforms and, 1:401–402 cholera and, 1:436, 437, 438; 2:628, 688, 765 death rates and, 2:628, 644–645 demographic change and, 2:667, 670–671

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

disease epidemics and, 2:667–668 Ehrlich ‘‘magic bullet’’ and, 2:735–736 French bourgeois doctors and, 1:285–286 hospital infections and, 3:1358 hospitals and, 3:1638, 1648–1649 Koch epidemiology and, 3:1263–1264 London and, 3:1372, 1373, 1378–1379, 1380, 1554; 4:1911–1912 Madrid and, 3:1412 Moscow and, 1:376; 3:1554 municipal government and, 1:450 nutrition and, 5:2340–2342 Paris and, 4:1729, 1731, 1732–1733, 1910 Pasteur and, 4:1742, 1745 pollution and, 2:765–766, 1009 prostitution and, 1:332; 2:804, 816; 4:1815, 1883, 1884, 1885–1886 protective intervention and, 2:667 sexuality and, 4:2161, 2162 slum housing and, 1:453, 454; 2:1091 smallpox prevention and, 4:2197–2198 syphilis and, 4:2300–2303 temperance movement and, 1:37 tuberculosis initiatives and, 1:450; 2:628; 5:2361 Virchow and, 5:2425 welfare initiatives and, 5:2450, 2451, 2452 See also vaccination Public Health Act of 1848 (Britain), 1:325, 402; 4:1738, 1912 Public Health Act of 1872 (Britain), 4:1912 Public Health Act of 1875 (Britain), 2:766; 4:1915 public libraries. See libraries public parks. See parks Public Safety Committee (France). See Committee of Public Safety public schools (England), 1:428; 2:726, 728 public sphere. See civil society pubs, 1:36 Puccini, Giacomo, 3:1677; 4:1915–1917; 5:2360 La Scala and, 3:1504 list of operas of, 4:1916 Puck of Pooks Hill (Kipling), 3:1257 Puerto Rico, 2:949

1 9 1 4

Pufendorf, Samuel von, 2:953 Pugachev, Yemelyan, 1:376; 4:1755 Pugachev rebellion, 4:2048 Pugin, Augustus-Charles (father), 4:1917 Pugin, Augustus Welby, 1:186; 4:1917–1918, 2030 Pugin and Rowlandson, 5:2335 Puig i Cadafalch, Josep, 1:184 Pujo, Maurice, 1:4 Pulcinella (Stravinsky), 4:2262 Pulszky, Romola de, 3:1643 Pumpurs, Andrejs, 2:820 Punch (British magazine), 2:587, 618 punctuated equilibrium, theory of, 2:618 punishment. See crime Puniya, 3:1134 Puniya, Chief Minister of Mysore (Hickey), 3:1134 Punjab, 2:706; 3:1134 Puppet Show, a (Blok), 1:250 puppet shows, 1:335 purgatory, 1:378 Puritani, I (Bellini), 3:1671 Puritanism, 1:308 Pusey, Edward Bouverie, 4:2046 Pushkin, Alexander, 1:208, 249; 4:1918–1920, 2165 Bely writings on, 1:210 Chaadayev friendship and, 1:400 as Dostoyevsky influence, 2:678, 679 Glinka and, 2:979, 980 Golden Age and, 4:2181, 2183 Mickiewicz friendship with, 3:1500 Moscow and, 3:1552 on Peter the Great, 4:2075 Pushkin, Vasily Lvovich (uncle), 4:1918 Puskas brothers, 5:2308 Putilov metalworks (St. Petersburg), 4:2079 Puttkamer, Johanna von, 1:233–234 Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, 1:192; 3:1431; 4:1865 Puy, Jean, 2:796 Puysegur, marquis de, 3:1491 Pygmalion (Shaw), 4:2166 Pyramids, Battle of the (1798), 2:731, 900 Pyrenees, 4:1765

n

Q Qadiriya, 2:784 Qianlong, emperor of China, 1:432, 433

2739

INDEX

Qing dynasty, 1:292, 293–294, 432–435; 3:1578–1579, 1678–1680 opium ban by, 3:1678, 1679 Quarterly Review (English journal), 2:537 Quadruple Alliance, 1:374; 2:662; 3:1173 Quadruple Alliance, Treaty of the (1815), 4:1970–1971 Quakers, 1:308; 2:1002, 1007; 4:1695, 1893, 2192 Quanta Cura (encyclical, 1864), 1:381–382; 4:1719, 1797–1798 quantum mechanics, 1:427; 4:1781 quantum theory, 2:739; 4:1799 Quarenghi, Giacomo, 4:2077 Quarterly Review, 3:1334, 1402 quartermaster unit, 1:96 Quartier Leopold (Brussels), 1:305, 396 Quatorze juillet, Le (Rolland), 4:2015 Quatre Bras, Battle of (1815), 2:903 Quatres E´vangiles, Les (Zola), 5:2524 Quatre Vents de l’esprit, Les (Hugo), 2:1095 Quatre-Vingt-Neuf (Hugo), 2:1095 Quatro Gats, El (Barcelona cafe´), 4:1781 Quebec, 1:343, 344, 345 French-Canadian culture of, 1:343, 344 Napoleonic Code in, 3:1596 Queen Elizabeth (British dreadnaught), 3:1611 Queen Isabel II Canal, 3:1413 ‘‘Queen Mab’’ (Shelley), 4:2169 Queen of Sheba (Gounod), 2:881 Queen of Spades, The (Tchaikovsky), 4:1919; 5:2307 Queensbury, marquess of. See Douglas, John Sholto Queen’s Day (Netherlands), 3:1619 Queensland, 1:134; 2:781 Queen’s Matrimonial Ladder, The (Cruikshank caricature), 2:586 Queens Park (football club), 2:833 Queen Victoria (Strachey), 4:2259 Queen Victoria, Prince Albert and the Prince of Wales at Windsor Park with Their Herd of Llamas (anonymous), 5:2413 Queer theory, 4:2259 Quelmane (Mozambique), 1:19 Quentin Durward (Scott), 4:2123 Quesnay, Franc¸ois, 3:1304 Qu’est-ce que la proprie´te´? (Proudhon), 4:1897–1898

2740

Quest-ce qu’une nation? (Renan), 4:1953 Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques, 4:1921–1922 criminality analysis and, 2:570 statistics and, 4:2248 Quevedo y Villegas, Francisco Go´mez de, 2:951 Quidde, Ludwig, 4:1697 Quinet, Edgar, 3:1500 quinine, 1:19; 2:782 Quintessence of Ibsenism, The (Shaw), 3:1109 Quintuple Alliance, 2:531; 3:1173 revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1979–1982 Quirinale (papal palace), 4:2024

n

R Rabelais, Franc¸ois, 1:169; 3:1214 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 rabies vaccine, 3:1263; 4:1744 race and racism, 4:1923–1928 Action Franc¸aise and, 2:542 anti-Semitism and, 1:71–77; 2:816; 3:1393 beard growth theory and, 1:190 Celticism and, 3:1178 Chamberlain (Houston) theories of, 1:402, 403, 404 as citizenship disqualification, 1:458–459 civilization concept and, 1:461; 2:507 class and, 5:2489 colonialism and, 1:499–500, 501; 2:508; 3:1120 criminality theory and, 2:572, 573, 574, 575; 3:1372 debates concerning, 4:1923–1924 degeneracy label and, 2:636, 638, 639, 683 ethnicity vs., 3:1520 eugenics and, 2:619, 637, 639, 769–770, 928; 4:1914 evolution and, 2:945 German political rhetoric and, 2:968 gymnastics and, 4:2241 Haiti and, 2:1037 humankind classification and, 4:1924–1926, 1928 as imperialist rationale, 3:1120 India and, 3:1135

minorities and, 3:1520 phrenology and, 4:1776 popular journalism and, 4:1870–1871 primitivism and, 4:1874, 1875, 1876 racist dissemination and, 4:1926–1928 Romanies and, 4:2021–2024 slavery and, 4:1924–1926, 1928, 2194 social Darwinism and, 2:619, 968 South Africa and, 1:500; 4:1997, 2219–2220, 2222, 2224; 5:2489 stereotypes and, 2:507 tourism and, 5:2330 Wagner and, 2:638 Weininger and, 5:2449 world’s fair displays and, 5:2503 See also slavery; social Darwinism Races of Men (Knox), 4:2023 Rachilde (pseud. of Marguerite Eymery Vallette), 2:633; 3:1213 Rachmaninov, Sergei, 2:654; 4:1699 ‘‘racial hygiene’’ concept, 2:619, 639, 769, 771 Racine, 1:229 Racine et Shakespeare (Stendhal), 4:2252 Raclawice, Battle of (1794), 3:1265 Radetsky, Fedor F., 4:2068 Radetzky, Joseph, 2:961; 3:1502; 4:1993, 1994; 5:2403, 2404 Jelacˇic´ and, 3:1219–1220 Radetzkymarsch (Strauss), 5:2419 radiation, 2:594–595 radiation sickness, 2:595 Radical and Radical-Socialist Party (France), 4:1929 radicalism, 4:1928–1930 anarchism and, 1:57–59, 161–162; 3:1424–1425, 1497–1498 as anti-aristocracy, 1:82–83 artisans and, 1:111, 459; 3:1390; 5:2486–2487 Blanc and, 1:247–248 Caillaux and, 1:339 Cobbett and, 1:489–490 direct democracy and, 1:458–459 Fabians and, 2:787 France and, 1:279; 4:1928–1930, 1964 French Revolution and, 2:844, 892, 973, 974; 3:1192 German student nationalists and, 1:369 intelligentsia and, 4:1879, 1881

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TO

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INDEX

Ireland and, 3:1180 Italy and, 3:1192 Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206 liberalism and, 3:1343, 1344 Lovett and, 3:1390–1391 Lyon and, 3:1405 Marx and, 3:1464 Marxism and, 1:264–265 Nechayev and, 3:1613–1614 nihilists and, 3:1638–1641 Paine and, 4:1700 Paris Commune and, 4:1735–1737 peace movements and, 2:1034 People’s Will and, 4:1767–1768 police surveillance of, 4:1815 populists and, 4:1831–1832 pornography and, 4:1834 revolutionary right and, 2:542 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1986 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988, 1995 Robespierre and, 2:610 Russia and, 4:1975–1978, 2053 Switzerland and, 4:1990, 2289, 2291 Westernizers and, 2:1064 women’s movements and, 1:127–128, 129; 2:805 See also socialism Radical Manifesto of 1885, 4:2136 Radical Party (Britain), 5:2444 Radical Party (France), 1:339, 480; 2:540, 642, 858, 859 Radical Party (Serbia), 4:2145–2146 Radical Republican Party (France), 2:698 radical right (France). See New Right Radical-Socialist Party (France), 1:279; 2:697, 698 radioactivity, 2:595; 4:2070–2071 radio speaker, 3:1398 radio waves, 3:1163, 1444, 1445; 4:1780 Radishchev, Alexander, 1:376; 2:1014–1015; 3:1170, 1551–1552 radium, 2:595, 596 Radium Institute (France), 2:596 Radium Institute (Warsaw), 2:596 Radonjic´ family, 3:1539, 1540 Radowitz, Joseph Maria von, 2:876, 877 Radziwill, Elise, 5:2467 Raeder, Linda, 3:1514 Raeff, Marc, 2:540 Raevsky Redoubt, 1:273 Raffalovich, Marc-Andre´, 2:1082

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Raffi, 1:88 Raft of the Medusa (Ge´ricault), 2:955–956; 4:1705 ‘‘ragged schools,’’ 2:722 Raglan, Lord, 2:577, 579 ragtime, 4:2087 Raiffeisen, Friedrich Wilhelm, 1:111; 2:960 Railroad, The (Manet), 3:1433 railroads, 4:1930–1938, 1935; 5:2349–2350 African colonization and, 1:18, 20, 21, 21 Amsterdam and, 1:53 army use of, 1:96; 2:580; 3:1506 Austria-Hungary and, 1:142, 144 bank financing of, 1:170, 174 Belgium and, 1:201, 305; 2:764; 3:1335 Belgrade and, 1:206 Berlin and, 1:217 Bohemian Lands and, 1:261 bridge design, 2:759, 760 Britain and, 1:303, 304 broad gauge and, 1:304 Brunel and and, 1:303, 304 Brussels and, 1:305, 306 capitalist bourgeosie and, 1:284 Central Asia and, 1:395, 396 cities and, 1:452 coal production and, 1:486 construction of, 4:1931–1934 crime and, 2:576 Denmark and, 2:647 Dublin and, 2:691 Egypt and, 2:732 engineers and, 2:757, 758, 760 environment and, 2:764 France and, 4:1932, 1933, 1934; 5:2349 German nationalization of, 2:965 Hamburg and, 2:1039 impact of, 4:1934–1937 as impressionist subject, 3:1128 India and, 3:1135 Industrial Revolution (second) and, 1:329–330; 3:1305 Istanbul and, 3:1188 Italy and, 1:390; 2:764; 3:1195, 1200 Japan and, 3:1210, 1212 leisure travel and, 1:288; 4:1824 List’s lobbying for, 3:1357 London and, 3:1372, 1373, 1374 Madrid and, 3:1413

1 9 1 4

Manchester and, 3:1428 migration and, 2:646 Milan and, 3:1502 militarization of, 2:580; 3:1506 Netherlands and, 1:201, 305; 3:1335, 1617; 4:1933, 1934, 1936, 1937 newspaper delivery by, 4:1866 New Zealand and, 3:1624 Paris and, 4:1729 passenger traffic (1913), 4:1937 pilgrimages and, 4:1789 Portugal and, 4:1840 Prussia and, 1:147; 2:876 refrigeration wagons and, 5:2340–2341 as revolution in travel time, 1:353 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1988 Rothschilds and, 4:1933, 2040 Russia and, 4:1933, 1936, 1937, 1975, 2064, 2172–2173; 5:2426, 2427, 2478, 2479, 2503 seaside resorts and, 4:2124, 2125 Serbia and, 4:2147 social benefits of, 4:1930, 1931 steam locomotive, 4:1932 steel and, 3:1158, 1159, 1274 suburbanization and, 2:1087 Sweden and, 4:2285 tourism and, 5:2328–2329, 2330 track length and use (1913), 4:1934 trade and, 5:2340–2342 Trieste and, 5:2355 vacations and, 3:1324 Vienna and, 4:1933; 5:2418 Wales and, 5:2434, 2437 warfare and, 2:580 wine and, 5:2476 worker typhus epidemics and, 2:670 workforce for, 1:473 Railroads and American Economic Growth (Fogel), 4:1930 Raimund, Ferdinand, 5:2418 Raj (India), 3:1135–1137 Rakes Progress, The (Stravinsky), 4:2262 Rakovski, Georgi, 3:1687 Raleigh Cycle Company, 2:602 Rama III, king of Siam, 3:1139 Rambler, The (periodical), 1:6 Rambles in Germany and Italy in 1840, 1842, and 1843 (Shelley), 4:2169 Ramdohr, Basilius von, 2:910–911 Ramey (sculptor), 4:2043 Rampolla del Tindaro, Mariano, 3:1331

2741

INDEX

Rance´, Armand-Jean, 1:421 Rancie`re, Jacques, 1:338 Rand, the, 4:2223 Ranger, Terence, 3:1607, 1666 Rangers (football club), 2:833 Rank, Otto, 4:1938–1939 Ranke, Leopold von, 4:1939–1941 Burckhardt as student of, 1:316, 317 history methodology and, 2:1072, 1073, 1074 Schelling and, 4:2088 secularization and, 4:2133 Rankine, William, 3:1160, 1249–1250 rape, 2:571 Raphael Delacroix essay on, 2:641 as Ingres influence, 3:1166; 4:1705 Matisse copy of, 3:1474 Rappard, Anthon van, 5:2400 Rappites, 3:1692 Rapport sur les principes de morale politique qui doivent guider la Convention nationale . . . (Robespierre), 4:2007 Rapport sur les progre`s et la marche de la physiologie ge´ne´rale en France (Bernard), 1:228 Rapsodie espagnole (Ravel), 4:1944 Rask, Rasmus, 2:1024 Raspail, Tissot, 1:247, 286 Rasputin, Grigory, 1:41–42; 3:1628 Rastrelli, Bartolomeo, 4:2077 Ratapoil (Daumier), 2:621 Rathbone, Eleanor, 4:2281 rationalism Renan and, 4:1953 Romantics and, 4:2026–2027 science and, 4:2115 Slavophile view of, 4:2195 sociology and, 4:2214 Weber on, 5:2447 Young Hegelians and, 5:2512 Rational Psychology (Wolff), 4:1907 ‘‘Rat Man’’ case (Freud), 2:906 Ratzel, Friedrich, 2:774 Ratzenhofer, Gustav, 4:2214 Rauch, Christian, 1:216 Ravachol (Franc¸ois Claudius Koenigstein-Ravachol), 1:57; 4:1941–1944, 1942, 1943 ‘‘Ravachole, La’’ (song), 4:1943 Ravel, Maurice, 1:154; 3:1575; 4:1944–1946, 1945, 2087 Raven, The (Poe; Dore´ illustrations), 2:676 Ravenna (Wilde), 5:2464 Rayevsky, Alexander, 4:1919 Rayevsky, Nikolai, 4:1919

2742

rayonism, 1:157 Rayons et les Ombres, Les (Hugo), 2:1093 ‘‘Reaction in Germany, The’’ (Bakunin), 1:162; 5:2460 reading. See literacy Realism (Courbet pavilion), 4:1707 realism and naturalism, 4:1946–1948 avant-garde and, 1:152 Balzac and, 2:830 Barbison painters and, 1:178–180 Bronte¨ (Charlotte) and, 1:301 Courbet and, 2:568–569; 3:1126, 1128; 4:1702, 1706–1707, 1708, 1946–1947, 1956 Danish painting and, 2:647 definition of, 4:1701–1702 Degas and, 2:634 Dickens and, 2:657, 658 Eliot (George) and, 2:744 Flaubert and, 2:827–828, 830 Fontane and, 2:829, 830 German literature and, 1:220 Gissing and, 2:974–975 Goncharov and, 2:989–990 Goncourt brothers and, 2:991 Huysmans and, 2:1104, 1105 impressionism and, 3:1126, 1128, 1133 Menzel and, 3:1489–1490 Millet and, 3:1515–1516 Netherlands and, 3:1619 painting and, 4:1701 photography and, 4:1708, 1772 Pius IX’s condemnation of, 4:1795 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864 Repin and, 1956–1958 Rodin and, 4:2008–2009 Shaw and, 4:2165 Stendhal and, 2:830; 4:1946, 2252, 2253 symbolism and, 4:2292 Verga and, 5:2407–2408 verismo and, 3:1671, 1677; 5:2407–2408 Zola and, 4:2292; 5:2522–2524 Realist Manifesto (Courbet), 4:1707 Realists (Czech political party), 3:1469 Real Madrid, 3:1414; 4:1824 realpolitik, definition of, 3:1198 reapers, mechanical, 1:25, 27 Rebecca riots (1839–1844), 5:2434 Rebellion of 1798 (Ireland), 3:1176–1177 Rebellion of 1837–1838 (Lower Canada), 1:345

Rech (Kadet newspaper), 3:1519 Recherche de l’absolu, La (Balzac), 1:168 Recherches sur les constitutions des peuples libres (Sismondi), 4:2185 Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles (Cuvier), 2:599 Recio, Marie, 1:225 Reclus, Jean-Jacques-E´lise´e, 1:56, 57–58 Recoletos y Castellana area (Madrid), 3:1413 Recollections (Tocqueville), 5:2317 recreation. See leisure Recuerdos de mi Vida (Cajal), 1:340 Recurrence Theorem (Poincare´), 4:1804 Red and the Black, The (ballet), 3:1475 Red and the Black, The (Stendhal), 4:2252–2253 Red Army, 4:1803, 1804 Red Crescent, 4:1949 Red Cross, 4:1948–1950, 1950 founding of, 2:867 Geneva Convention and, 2:953 neutrality of, 3:1175 nurses and, 3:1650 red dye (alizarin), 3:1157, 1159 Redfield, Robert, 4:1756 Red Guide (Michelin), 1:149 Red House (Morris home), 3:1550 Red Lanterns, 1:292 Redmond, John, 3:1182, 1183, 1184, 1185 ‘‘Red Notebook’’ (Darwin), 2:614 Redon, Odilon, 4:2293 Red Room, The (Strindberg), 4:2268, 2286 ‘‘Red Room, The’’ (Wells), 5:2458 Reds (Polish radicals), 4:1809 Red Sea, 1:18; 2:583, 794 Redshirts, 2:931–932; 3:1255; 5:2410 Red Shoes, The (film), 2:655 Red Square (Moscow), 4:2080 Red Studio, The (Matisse), 3:1530 ‘‘Red Vienna,’’ 1:9–10 Red Virgin, The: Memoirs of Louise Michel (Lowry and Gunter, ed.), 3:1497 Red Week, 3:1504; 4:2299 Re´e, Paul, 1:63–64 Re-establishment of a Cult, The: A Te deum at Notre-Dame de Paris, 18 April 1802 (Adam), 2:528 Reflections of a Nonpolitical Man (Mann), 3:1435, 1437 Reflections on History (Burckhardt), 1:320

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TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Reflections on the Revolution in France (Burke), 1:327–328; 2:538, 566; 4:1700; 5:2321, 2480 Godwin critique of, 2:980 Maistre’s agreement with, 3:1422 ‘‘Reflexes of the Brain’’ (Sechenov), 4:1749 Re´flexions politiques, Les (LouisNapoleon), 3:1590 Re´flexions sur la violence (Sorel), 4:2218 Reform Act of 1832 (Britain), 1:68, 211, 290, 414; 4:1985, 2002; 5:2394, 2412, 2461, 2471 Brougham and, 1:303 Chartist response to, 1:415, 418 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:558 French Revolution as influence on, 1:457 liberal implications of, 3:1345 Lovett and, 3:1390 Macaulay defense of, 3:1407 Mill (James) and, 3:1510 provisions of, 2:1003 Scotland and, 4:2118 suffrage expansion and, 4:2277, 2278, 2279 working class and, 3:1285; 5:2483 Reform Act of 1867 (Britain), 1:203; 2:1008; 5:2434 Carlyle debate on, 1:371 Disraeli and, 2:673 suffrage expansion and, 2:540; 3:1510; 4:2277, 2279 women’s suffrage and, 2:1008 Reform Act of 1884 (Britain), 2:1009; 3:1510; 4:2277 Reform Act of 1918 (Britain), 2:798 Reformation. See Protestantism Re´forme, La (French radical daily), 1:247; 2:849; 3:1318; 4:1963 Reformed Church. See Calvinism Reform Edict of 1807 (Prussia), 2:958 Reform Judaism, 3:1227, 1232 Reform Movement (Prussia), 2:1042–1043 reform societies. See associations, voluntary refrigeration, 2:659; 5:2340–2341 electric, 2:741 Rega Memorandum of 1807 (Hardenberg), 2:1042 Regent Circus (engraving), 3:1601 Regent’s Park (London), 3:1378, 1600–1601 Regent Street (London), 1:451; 3:1600, 1602

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Reger, Max, 2:654 regiment (military unit), 1:94 Re`gne animal, Le (Cuvier), 2:599 Re´gnier, Henri de, 4:2294 Regulating Act of 1773 (Britain), 2:794 Reichsbank, 1:171 Reichstadt, duc de. See Napoleon II Reichstadt Agreement (1876), 2:703 Reichstag Bebel and, 1:194 Berlin building for, 1:217 Berlin elections and, 1:219 Bernstein as member of, 1:231 Center Party seats in, 1:393; 3:1278–1279 enfeeblement of, 2:968 founding and powers of, 2:964 Liebknecht and, 3:1355 limited powers of, 1:459 representation in, 1:290 Reid, Marion Kirkland, 2:802 Reign of Terror, 1:81, 116, 328, 412; 2:892–893, 957, 1030; 4:1950–1952, 1950–1952, 1962, 2007, 2080 anticlericalism and, 1:68 Catholic suppression and, 1:387 central purpose of, 2:892 Committee of Public Safety and, 2:518–519; 4:1951, 1962 counterrevolutionary movements and, 2:563–565 Danton and, 2:610, 612, 893; 4:1952 fears about liberalism and, 3:1343 federalist revolt and, 2:799–800, 974; 3:1403 football played in prisons of, 2:831 Fox’s reaction to, 2:840 Girondists executed by, 2:974 Gouges as victim of, 2:996 Jacobins and, 3:1205–1206 Lavoisier’s guillotining and, 3:1313 Law of Suspects and, 4:1951–1952 Lyonnais victims of, 2:800, 894; 3:1403 Marat and, 3:1443 mass executions of, 2:628, 892, 893, 893, 894; 3:1192, 1403 memorires of, 2:896–897 overview of, 2:844, 892–894; 4:1950–1952 Paine imprisonment by, 4:1701 Paris and, 4:1728, 1951 press censorship and, 4:1869

1 9 1 4

Robespierre and, 4:1951, 1952, 2007 Saint-Simon and, 4:2080 September Massacres and, 2:799 show trials and, 4:1951, 1952 sister republics and, 4:2187 victims of, 2:518 Reik, Theodore, 4:2100 Reimer, Marie, 3:1533 reincarnation, 4:2238 Reinhard, Hans, 4:2188, 2189 Reinhardt, Max, 1:336 Reinhart Fuchs (J. Grimm), 2:1023 Reinsurance Treaty (1887), 1:48, 240; 2:526, 969 William II cancellation of, 2:967 Reisebilder (Heine), 2:1055 reism, Brentano philosophy of, 1:299 Reitern, Mikhail, 2:819, 1016 Relaˆche (Satie), 4:2087 relative motion, principle of, 4:1804–1805 relativism, positivism and, 4:1843 relativity theory, 2:739–740, 1063; 3:1409; 4:1780–1781, 1799, 1805 relief. See welfare relief etching, 1:244 Relief Law of 1880 (Prussia), 3:1279 religion Alexander I and, 2:1080 and, 3:1180 Berdyayev and, 1:212 Bonald and, 1:268–269 Carlyle and, 1:370 Carpenter and, 1:372 charities and, 4:1851 church attendance and, 4:1824, 1893, 1894 church-state separation and, 4:1929–1930, 2136–2137; 5:2432–2433 city life and, 1:448 Comte and, 4:1843–1844 Constant and, 2:545 evangelicalism and, 4:2082–2083, 2136; 5:2463 evolution and, 2:614, 615, 618, 631, 776, 777 Freud’s view of, 2:907, 908–909 gendered observance of, 2:945 German Confederation and, 2:960 Haeckel’s monism and, 2:1032 Hegel’s writings on, 2:1051–1052 Heine’s view of, 2:1056 Hirschfeld’s view of, 2:1069

2743

INDEX

humankind origins and, 4:1923–1924 Huxley’s agnosticism and, 2:1103 intellectuals and, 3:1168 Irish Potato Famine and, 3:1180 Jung and, 3:1239 Kulturkampf and, 3:1277–1280 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1514 missions and, 3:1527–1529 Netherlands and, 3:1618–1619 Nietzsche and, 3:132, 1629–1631 nursing and, 3:1648–1650 Paine critique of, 4:1701 Pater and, 4:1746 peace activists and, 4:1695 popular culture and, 4:1826–1827 refugee migrants and, 3:1111 Renan and, 4:1952–1954 Restoration and, 4:1968–1970 revivalism, 4:1968, 2079; 5:2434 Romanticism and, 4:2030–2031 Salvation Army and, 4:2082–2083 science vs., 2:614, 615, 776, 1103; 3:1401–1402; 4:2110–2111 Scotland and, 2:1002, 1006; 5:2118–2119 secularization and, 4:2132–2134 Sepoy Mutiny and, 4:2140 Soloviev’s (Vladimir) view of, 4:2216 spiritualism and, 4:2239 symbolists and, 4:2294 Weber’s theory of, 5:2447 Young Hegelians and, 5:2512, 2513 See also evangelism; specific religions Religion of China, The (Weber), 5:2447 Religion of Humanity, 2:523 Religion of India, The (Weber), 5:2447 religious orders French Revolution and, 2:843 nursing and, 3:1648, 1649 Prussian abolishment of, 3:1278 teaching and, 2:721 Religious Procession in Kursk Province (Repin), 4:1957 religious toleration Belgium and, 1:200, 383 Berlin and, 1:216 Berlin Conference guarantees of, 1:220 Catherine II and, 1:376 Central Asia and, 1:396 Constant on, 2:545 established churches vs., 4:1895 Francis Joseph and, 1:145

2744

Hungary and, 1:144 Joseph II and, 1:138, 259; 3:1229; 4:1856 Pius IX opposition to, 1:381–382 See also Catholic emancipation; Jewish emancipation Religous-Philosophical Society (St. Petersburg), 1:212 Rembrandt, 2:543; 3:1131, 1353, 1354 ‘‘Remembrances’’ (Clare), 1:359 Reminiscences of Carl Schurz, The (Schurz), 4:1987 Remizov, Alexei, 4:2183 Renaissance (theatrical troupe), 1:229 Renaissance art, 4:1863 Renaissance in Italy (Symonds), 4:2296 Renaissance Revival style, 1:185–186 Renaixenc¸a (Catanonian movement), 1:182 Renan, Ernest, 1:51, 74–75, 228; 2:873; 3:1207, 1500; 4:1952–1954, 2133, 2218; 5:2399 life of Jesus by, 2:688; 4:1892 on national identity, 3:1522 Renard, Jules, 4:1944 Renault (automobile manufacturer), 5:2352 Renault taxis, 1:151 Rene´ Mauperin (Goncourt brothers), 2:991 Renner, Karl, 1:11 Rennie, John, 2:758 Renoir, Jean, 4:1956 Renoir, Pierre-Auguste, 4:1954–1956, 1955 Degas friendship with, 2:634 impressionism and, 3:128, 1126, 1130, 1534; 4:1708, 1709 Morisot friendship with, 3:1544 Parisian scenes and, 4:1732 Pissarro and, 4:1793 Repin, Ilya, 3:1575; 4:1956–1958, 1957 Report of the Royal Commission on a Rural Constabulary (Britain), 2:572 Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population, The (Chadwick), 1:401–402; 3:1358 Report to the County of Lanark (Owen), 3:1692 Repre´sentant du Peuple, Le (Proudhon newspaper), 4:1899 Representation of the People Act. See Reform Act of 1867

Representation of the People Act of 1918 (Britain), 2:798 Repton, Humphrey (Humphry), 3:1453, 1600; 4:1738 Republic, The (Plato), 2:519–520 Re´publicain de Seine-et-Oise, Le (journal), 2:649 republicanism, 4:1958–1964 ancient and modern views of, 4:1958–1959 Austria and, 1:10, 11 Barbizon painters and, 1:178, 180 Boulanger and, 1:279–280, 281–283 Cabet and, 1:337 Carducci and, 1:362 Clemenceau and, 1:479–480 Comte and, 2:522 Constant and, 2:545–546 Deraismes and, 2:649–654 Directory and, 2:665 Ferry and, 2:810–812 France and, 1:457; 2:810, 957; 3:1389 French nationalist Right vs., 1:5 French Radicals and, 4:1928–1930 as French Revolution legacy, 2:891, 896; 4:1962–1964 Gambetta and, 2:928–929 German reaction to, 2:957 ideals of, 2:812, 958 Ireland and, 2:1000 Italy and, 3:1197; 4:1963, 1964 Jacobins and, 3:1205, 1206 Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318–1319 liberal ideals and, 3:1342–1345 Louis-Napoleon’s election and, 1:271 Mazzini and, 3:1479, 1480 Paine and, 4:1700–1701 Paris Commune and, 4:1736 Portugal and, 4:1841–1842, 1842 rights and, 4:1959–1960 secret societies and, 4:2129 Spain and, 4:1964, 2231, 2300 Third French Republic and, 2:856–857 Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432 women’s exclusions and, 2:721, 723; 4:1961–1962 Republican Party (U.S.), 2:962; 5:2439 Republicans (Spain), 4:2231, 2300 Re´publique franc¸aise, La (newspaper), 2:642, 929 Requiem (Verdi), 3:1572 Requiem Canticles (Stravinsky), 4:2263

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Requirement of Oxygen for the Organism, The (Ehrlich), 2:735 Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (Muratori), 2:1072 Rerum Novarum (encyclical, 1891), 1:382, 383, 389; 4:1720, 2209 Rescued by Rover (film), 1:441 rescue operas, 3:1670 ‘‘Resignation’’ (Arnold), 1:102 restaurants, 1:445; 4:1964–1967, 1965, 1966, 2035 Restaurant Ve´ry (Paris restaurant), 4:1966 Restoration, 1:68, 248, 270; 2:847–848; 4:1967, 1967–1974, 1968, 1968–1973; 5:2306 abandonment of, 4:1972–1973 artisan guilds and, 1:106 Boulanger affair and, 1:279–280 bourgeoisie and, 1:471 bureaucracy and, 1:321 Catholicism and, 1:387 Catholic missions and, 3:1528 Charles X and, 1:412; 2:847–848 Chateaubriand and, 1:420–423 Concert of Europe and, 2:525 Congress of Vienna on, 2:532 conservatism and, 2:539 conservative alternatives to, 4:1971–1972 Constant and, 2:545 constitutional limits and, 1:457 emigre´ compensation and, 2:847 Fouche´ and, 2:837 Freemasons and, 2:881 Guizot and, 2:1029 Ingres and, 3:1165 in international arena, 4:1970–1971 Laennec and, 3:1298 Lafayette and, 3:1300–1301 liberalism and, 3:1343 Louis-Philippe’s position during, 3:1388 Louis XVI burial and, 3:1386 Louis XVIII and, 2:846, 1098; 3:1387 Metternich and, 3:1493–1494 Napoleon’s Elba exile and, 2:1098 national identity and, 3:1522 papacy and, 3:1195; 4:1718, 1724 Paris under, 4:1729 republicanism and, 2:896 secret societies and, 1:360–361 student radicalism and, 1:369 Talleyrand and, 5:2306 theory and practice of, 4:1967–1970

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

women’s legal subjugation under, 2:802 See also Revolutions of 1830 Restoration, Italian, 3:1193–1196; 4:1969, 1970, 1971, 1973, 2001–2002 Restoration, Spanish, 1:59; 2:540, 949–951; 4:1967, 1969, 1970, 1970–1973, 1971, 1973, 2231–2232 Ferdinand VII and, 1:420; 2:998–999; 4:1969, 1970 Generation of 1898 and, 2:950, 951 Madrid and, 3:1413, 1414 Resurrection (Schiele), 4:2090 Resurrection (Tolstoy), 5:2319 retail trade anti-Semitism and, 2:552 cities and, 1:445, 446 class and, 1:472–473 clothing and, 1:48, 4834 conservatism and, 1:106 consumerism and, 2:547, 548–549; 3:1453 cooperatives and, 2:555–557 France and, 1:106 Jews and, 3:1231 London and, 3:1378 markets and, 3:1447–1449 white-collar women workers and, 1:352 working-class credit and, 2:550 See also department stores Rethel, Alfred, 2:629 reticular hypothesis, 1:341 Retiro Park (Madrid), 3:1413 Retribution (Blok), 1:250 Return of Sherlock Holmes, The (Doyle), 2:680 Return of the Native, The (Hardy), 2:1045 Reubell, Jean-Franc¸ois, 2:664 Reunion, 1:16 Reutern, Mikhail, 4:2067 Revelation, Book of, 4:2182 Re´vellie`re-Le´peaux , Louis-Marie de, 2:664 Revett, Nicholas, 4:1762 revivalism. See evangelicalism Re´voil, Pierre, 2:605 Re´volte´, La (newspaper), 3:1272; 4:1794 ‘‘Revolt of Islam, The’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 revolutionary right. See New Right Revolutionary Russia (Moscow newspaper), 4:2210

1 9 1 4

revolutionary socialists. See socialist revolutionaries revolutionary syndicalism, 4:2298, 2300 Revolutionary Tribunal (France), 2:612, 892; 4:1951–1952 Revolutionary War. See American Revolution Revolutionary Wars. See French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars Revolution Betrayed, The (Trotsky), 3:1172 Revolution of 1789. See French Revolution revolution of 1798 (Ireland), 2:1000 Revolution of 1804–1813 (Serbia), 3:1247 Revolution of 1854 (Spain), 1:368 Revolution of 1863 (Poland), 4:1809 Revolution of 1868 (Spain), 1:182, 368 Revolution of 1871. See Paris Commune Revolution of 1905 (Russia), 1:62, 81; 3:1293; 4:1697, 1974–1979, 1977, 2055–2056, 2079, 2182 aftermath of, 4:1978–1979 Armenians and, 1:89 avant-garde and, 1:157 ballet dancers and, 4:1750 Bely and, 1:209 Berdyayev and, 1:212 Bolsheviks and, 1:265–267; 3:1487 Bund and, 1:315 Endecja and, 2:753 escalated unrest and, 4:1976–1977, 2055–2057 failure of liberalism and, 3:1349 Finland and the Baltic Provinces and, 2:822–823 general strikes and, 4:1974, 1977–1978, 2055–2056 Gorky and, 2:993 Great Reforms and, 4:1975 intelligentsia and, 3:1171 Lenin and, 3:1328–1329 Luxemburg and, 3:1400, 1401 as Masaryk influence, 3:1469 Mensheviks and, 3:1487 Moscow and, 3:1553–1555 Nicholas and Alexandra and, 1:42; 3:1627–1628 October Manifesto and, 3:1328, 1554, 1627, 1659; 4:1978, 1979, 2057, 2211 Octobrists and, 3:1659, 1660

2745

INDEX

peasants and, 4:1976, 1978, 2056; 5:2485 Plekhanov and, 4:1801 pogroms and, 1:76, 76; 3:1395; 4:1803, 1803 Polish patriots and, 4:1812, 1818 Russian Orthodox Church and, 4:2063 Russo-Japanese War and, 3:1557, 1627, 1628 Stolypin and, 4:1978–1979, 2256 student movements and, 4:1975, 1976, 2055, 2056; 5:2390 Vladivostok and, 5:2427 Zasulich and, 5:2518 Revolution of 1908 (Young Turks), 3:1691 Revolution of 1916 (Turkestan), 1:397 Revolution of 1917 (Russia), 4:2079, 2183, 2211; 5:2518 Bely and, 1:209 Berdyayev and, 1:213 Bolshevik lead up to, 1:267 civil war and, 3:1242, 1518, 1519, 1660 Diaghilev as emigre´ from, 2:655 Eurasianism and, 2:771–772, 775 Guchkov and, 3:1660 Guesde’s view of, 2:1026 intelligentsia and, 3:1171–1172 Kuliscioff ’s support for, 3:1277 Lenin and, 2:522 Luxemburg critique of, 3:1401 Mensheviks and, 3:1488 Meyerhold and, 3:1495, 1496 Milyukov and, 3:1518, 1519–1520 Nicholas and Alexandra and, 1:42; 3:1626 Pankhursts and, 4:1714, 1715 Plekhanov and, 4:1801 political prisoners amnesty and, 3:1273 Russian Orthodox Church and, 4:2063 St. Petersburg and, 3:1555 Revolutions of 1820, 4:1979–1982, 1980 Carbonari and, 1:361; 4:1979, 2130; 5:2513 Carlism and, 1:366, 367 Concert of Europe and, 2:525, 662 conference diplomacy and, 2:662 Congress of Troppau and, 2:531–532; 3:1494 counterrevolutionaries and, 2:565–566, 959

2746

France and, 4:1980, 1981, 1982 Great Powers clashes of interest and, 2:662 Greece and, 4:1981–1982 Italy and, 2:662; 3:1195; 4:1980–1981 liberal-national movements and, 3:1344 as Metternich challenge, 3:1494 Naples and, 1:361; 2:565–566, 959; 3:1194, 1254–1255, 1494; 4:1980, 1981 Portugal and, 4:1839 Spain and, 1:361; 2:566, 959; 4:1979–1980, 1980, 1981 Revolutions of 1830, 1:291; 4:1982–1986 achievements and failures of, 4:1986 aftermath of, 4:1985–1986 anticlericalism and, 1:68, 381; 4:1718 armies and, 1:96 Barbizon painters and, 1:178 Belgium and, 1:200; 2:566, 662; 3:1335, 1561, 1617; 4:1983, 1984, 1985–1986 Blanc and, 1:248 Bonapartism and, 1:270 bourgeosie and, 1:284, 457–458, 471 bureaucracy and, 1:321 Cabet and, 1:337 Carbonari and, 1:361; 4:1979, 2130, 2131; 5:2513 Catholicism and, 1:387 Charles X and, 1:412, 413; 3:1387, 1388; 4:1984; 5:2512 cholera riots and, 2:669 Concert of Europe and, 2:525 conference diplomacy and, 2:662 consolidation of, 4:1984–1985 counterrevolution and, 2:566–567, 959, 1081; 3:1561 decline of, 4:1985 Delacroix paintings and, 2:640 development of, 4:1984 dynamics of, 4:1983 English Swing riots and, 1:358 France and, 1:270, 361, 457; 2:566, 848, 848; 3:1288; 4:1982–1986, 2081, 2277; 5:2306, 2310–2311, 2316, 2483 French Charbonnerie and, 1:361 Gagern and, 2:923 German demonstrations and, 1:370; 2:959

Haussmann and, 2:1046 Heine and, 2:1055–1056 Italy and, 3:1195; 4:1983–1986 journalists’ roles in, 4:1869, 1872 July Monarchy and, 1:269 Lafayette and, 3:1298, 1301 liberalism and, 1:457–458; 3:1344 Metternich and, 3:1494 Mickiewicz and, 3:1500 origins of, 4:1983 outbreak of, 4:1983–1984 papal reaction to, 4:1718–1719, 1724 Paris and, 1:413; 4:1728, 1733 Poland and, 1:381; 2:604, 959, 1081; 3:1500, 1561, 1605, 1625; 4:1808, 1810, 1818, 1983–1986 political impact of, 4:1986 preludes to, 4:1983 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 Saint-Simonism and, 4:2081 suffrage and, 4:2277 Talleyrand and, 5:2306 Thiers and, 5:2310–2311 Tocqueville and, 5:2316 working class and, 5:2483 Revolutions of 1848, 1:291; 2:567; 4:1987–1996, 1989, 1992 academic unemployment and, 4:1879 Annekes and, 1:66 anticlericalism and, 1:381; 4:1718, 1719 aristocracy and, 1:81 armies and, 1:96 artisans and, 1:104 Austria and, 1:141–143, 143, 262; 2:807, 808, 863; 4:1987, 1990, 1993–1995, 1994, 1995; 5:2418–2419, 2510 Austrian Jews and, 3:1525 Austrian students and, 5:2383 avant-garde and, 4:1706 Bakunin and, 1:162; 2:961 Barbizon painters and, 1:178 Berlin and, 1:215–216; 2:877, 961; 4:1901–1902, 1990, 1993 Bismarck and, 1:234 Blanc and, 1:247 Blanqui and, 1:248 bourgeoisie and, 1:471; 4:1989 Britain and, 1:417 Budapest and, 1:143, 310; 2:808; 4:1990, 1994 Burckhardt’s reaction to, 1:317, 318

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

bureaucrats and, 1:324 Cabet and, 1:338 Carlsbad Decrees repeal and, 1:370 cholera pandemic and, 2:669 citzens rights and, 1:459–460 classical economics and, 2:716 Comte and, 2:523 conference diplomacy and, 2:662 conflicts of, 4:1993–1995 counterrevolutionary measures and, 2:567; 3:1681 Courbet and, 2:568 Czech national revival and, 1:261; 4:1712, 1856 emigre´s and, 3:1112 Engels and, 2:755 failures and accomplishments of, 4:1995 feminism and, 2:803–804 Fourierism and, 5:2397 France and, 2:567, 849, 961, 968; 3:1248, 1389; 4:1933, 1948, 1963, 1964, 1987, 1990–1995; 5:2311, 2317, 2397 Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:870–872 Frederick William III and, 2:877 French feminists and, 2:658 French penal exile and, 2:780 Gagern and, 2:923, 924 German machine breaking and, 3:1412 Germany and, 2:567, 870, 923, 924, 961–962; 3:1412; 4:1987, 1990–1994, 1995 Guizot and, 2:1030 Haussmann and, 2:1047 Herzen’s view of, 2:1065 Hugo and, 2:1093 Hungary and. See Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Italy and, 2:961; 3:1196–1197, 1255, 1344; 4:1786, 1987, 1990–1995, 2002–2003 Jelacˇic´ and, 3:1219–1220 John of Austria and, 3:1236 journalists roles in, 4:1869 labor movements and, 3:1287 Ledru-Rollin and, 3:1318 Leopold I and, 3:1335–1336 liberal-national movements and, 3:1344 Louis I of Bavaria and, 4:1834 Louis-Napoleon and, 1:271; 3:1590, 1626; 4:1993, 1995 lower middle class and, 1:478

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Marx and, 3:1461, 1466 Mazzini and, 3:1197, 1480; 4:1719, 1796 Mediterranean and, 3:1482 Metternich and, 3:1495 Michelet and, 3:1499 Milan and, 3:1196, 1502; 4:1990, 2002 Millet and, 3:1515 Naples and, 3:1196, 1255, 1581; 4:2002 nationalism and, 1:142 nationalist conflicts and, 3:1605 origins of, 4:1988–1990 outbreak and spread of, 4:1990–1991 Paris and, 4:1728, 1733 Paris barricades and, 2:1047 peasants and, 4:1754, 1757 Pius IX and, 4:1719, 1796 Poland and, 4:1809, 1818 political Catholicism and, 1:388; 4:1995 potato blight and, 2:1005 Prague and, 4:1856, 1859–1860 Proudhon and, 4:1899 Prussia and, 2:567, 877, 961; 4:1901–1902, 1987, 1990, 1993–1994, 1995 Prussian lawyers and, 1:285 public health reforms and, 4:1913–1914 realism and, 4:1946 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 Russian repression and, 3:1626 Russian universities and, 5:2386 serf emancipation and, 4:1754 Sicily and, 2:581; 3:1196, 1255 Thiers and, 5:2311 Tocqueville and, 5:2317 urban poor and, 4:1848 Venice and, 5:2403–2404 Vienna and, 1:141, 142; 2:808, 961; 3:1220, 1236, 1267; 5:2418–2419 voluntary associations and, 1:117, 118 Wagner and, 5:2430 William I and, 5:2467 women socialists and, 3:1288 Revolutions of 1917 (Russia). See Revolution of 1917 Revue blanche (journal), 3:1213, 1214 Revue critique d’histoire et de litte´rature (journal), 2:1073

1 9 1 4

Revue de droit international et de le´gislation compare´e (journal), 3:1175 Revue de l’enseignement primaire et primaire supe´rieur (journal), 3:1215 Revue des Deux Mondes (journal), 2:687; 3:1334 Revue du Proge`s politique, social et litte´raire, La (journal), 1:247 Revue Historique (journal), 2:1073, 1074 Revue inde´pendante (journal), 4:2013 Revue Novelle (journal), 1:390 Revue sociale (socialist journal), 4:2013 Revue Wagne´rienne, La (journal), 1:403; 4:2294 Rewa, maharaja of, 3:1136 Rewards and Fairies (Kipling), 3:1257 Reyer, Ernest, 3:1675 Reymont, Wladyslaw, 3:1265; 4:1756 Reynard the Fox (J. Grimm), 2:1023 Reynaud, E´mile, 1:441; 3:1396, 1398 Reynier, Jean Louis-Ebenezer, 3:1321 Reynolds, G. W. M., 2:575 Rezanov, Nikolai, 4:2064 Rheims, archbishop of, 4:1719–1720 Rheingold, Das (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674 Rheinische Zeitung (newspaper), 2:754; 3:1464 Rhineland Prussia and, 4:1900, 1901, 1902 See also Confederation of the Rhine Rhineland capitalism, 1:330 Rhine River, 2:957, 958; 3:1320 Alsace and Lorraine and, 1:50, 51 alteration of, 2:762 canal system and, 2:757 French Revolutionary Wars and, 3:1596 international navigation of, 3:1173 Leipzig battle and, 3:1320, 1322 Rhode, Paul W., 5:2337 Rhodes, Cecil, 4:1996–1997 imperialist rationale of, 3:1121, 1122 South Africa and, 4:1996, 2222 Rhodesia, 1:500; 4:1997 Rhodes Scholarships, 4:1997 Rhoˆne River, 2:757 Rhur region, 3:1273–1274, 1294 Ribot, Alexandre-Fe´lix-Joseph, 3:1216 Ricardo, David, 2:515; 3:1426 classical economics and, 2:714, 716, 717 as Marx target, 3:1466

2747

INDEX

Mill (James) and, 3:1510, 1511, 1512 trade policy and, 4:1887; 5:2334, 2338, 2339, 23333 Ricasoli, Baron, 5:2476 rice, 4:2190, 2191; 5:2335 Richard, Fleury-Franc¸ois, 2:605 Richard, Henry, 5:2435 Richards, I. A., 1:497; 4:2259 Richards, William Trost, 4:1864 Richardson, Dorothy, 1:214 Richardson, John, 2:1088 Richepin, Jean, 2:1104 Richer, Le´on, 1:127; 2:649, 651, 804; 4:1998–1999 Richmond, George, 1:246 Richter. See Paul, Jean Richter, Eugene, 3:1347 Ricord, Philippe, 4:2301 Ricordi, Giulio, 3:1677; 4:1915 Riddle of the Universe, The (Haeckel), 2:1032 Riding Couple (Kandinsky), 3:1244 Rieger, Frantisˇek L., 5:2510, 2511 Riego y Nun ˜ ez, Rafael del, 4:2228, 2229 Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich von, 4:1755 Rienzi (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674; 5:2430 Riezler, Kurt, 2:957, 967 rifles, 1:95, 99 breechloader, 1:355; 3:1507 British mass-produced, 2:580 military tactics and, 3:1506 repeating, 1:20, 356 Rif Mountains, 3:1547 Riforma, La (newspaper), 2:581 Riga, 2:817, 819 population makeup of, 1:447; 2:818 Riga Latvian Association, 2:820, 821 Rigas Velestinlis (Rigas Pheraios), 2:1019 Rigault, Raoul, 1:68 Right Leg in the Boot at Last (cartoon), 5:2410 rights Britain and, 2:1001; 3:1345 British Catholics and, 3:1176 citizenship and, 1:456, 457, 458 civil society and, 1:466–467, 468 Committee of Public Safetys denial of, 2:518 Constants defense of, 2:545, 546 cultural minimun for, 1:498 French Revolution and, 2:801–802, 844, 887, 888, 941 Godwin on, 2:981 Gouges and, 2:995

2748

homosexuals and, 2:1069–1071, 1086 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1225–1227, 1228–1230 Kadets program and, 3:1241 Lafayette and, 3:1298, 1299–1300, 1301 liberal agenda of, 2:717, 812, 871, 958; 3:1341, 1345, 1464 masculinity and, 3:1470 monarch as source of, 2:566 natural law and, 1:456 Reign of Terror’s suspension of, 2:844, 892 serf emancipation and, 4:1754 women and. See feminism; women’s suffrage See also human rights; suffragism Rights of Man, The (Paine), 1:415; 2:1000; 4:1700, 2187 ‘‘Right to Work’’ campaign (1907–1908, Britain), 3:1296 right-wing movements. See conservatism; New Right; specific movements Rigny, de (French admiral), 3:1612 Rigoletto (Verdi), 3:1572, 1673; 5:2406 Rigsdag (Danish parliament), 2:648 Riklin, Franz, 3:1238 Riksdag (Swedish parliament), 1:226, 227 Riley, Jonathan, 3:1514 Rilke, Rainer Maria, 1:65; 2:1079; 3:1529–1530; 4:2089 Rimbaud, Arthur, 2:939; 4:2089, 2292 Decadence and, 2:632 symbolism and, 3:1529 ‘‘Rime of the Ancient Mariner, The’’ (Coleridge), 1:496, 497 Dore´ illustrations, 2:676 Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai, 2:774, 980; 3:1571; 4:1999–2000 Diaghilev and, 2:654; 4:2000 Stravinsky and, 4:2000, 2261 Ring des Nibelungen, Der (Wagner), 3:1436, 1571, 1635, 1674; 4:1999; 5:2431 Ring of the Niebelung (Wagner), 3:1436, 1571, 1635, 1674; 4:1999; 5:2431 Ringstrasse (Vienna), 5:2419, 2420 Riquetti, Honore´-Gabriel. See Mirabeau, comte de Risler, Euge´nie, 2:811 Risorgimento (Italian unification), 1:234, 362; 3:1193, 1195–1199,

1201; 4:2000–2004, 2034, 2185, 2247 Carbonari and, 1:360–363; 3:1193 Cavour and, 1:390, 391, 392–393; 3:1197–1198, 1481 Charles Alberts constitution and, 1:414; 3:1196, 1197 Crispi and, 2:581, 583 education and, 2:724 Expedition of the Thousand and, 2:581 Franco-Austrian War and, 2:866–867; 3:1198–1200, 1592 Freemasonry and, 2:881 Garibaldi and, 2:931–932; 3:1195, 1197–1198, 1255 German unification and, 4:1902 Giolitti and, 2:971–973 Gladstone and, 2:977 international law and, 3:1174 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and, 3:1254, 1255–1256 languages and, 2:729 liberalism and, 3:1343 Manzoni and, 3:1441 Marinetti and, 2:921 Mazzini and, 3:1194–1195, 1197, 1479–1481 monetary union and, 3:1537, 1538 Mozzoni and, 3:1555 Naples and, 2:581; 3:1581 Napoleonic groundwork for, 3:1193 papal opposition to, 1:380, 382, 388, 393; 3:1197, 1329, 1604; 4:1717, 1719, 1725, 1795, 1798 Papal State and, 4:1726 Piedmont-Savoy and, 3:1195, 1197–1199, 1255; 4:1785, 1787, 1902, 2000 press freedom and, 4:1870 problems following, 3:1199–1202 proclamation of Kingdom of Italy (1861) and, 1:392; 3:1197, 1198 Revolution of 1848 failure and, 2:567; 3:1197; 4:1992, 1995 Sicilian banditry and, 3:1415–1416 Sicily and, 4:2175, 2176–2177; 5:2411 Trieste and, 4:2004; 5:2356–2357 Venice and, 5:2404–2405 Verdi and, 3:1572, 1672, 1767; 5:2406–2407 Victor Emmanuel II and, 5:2410–2411 women’s political influence and, 2:803, 804

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

See also Kingdom of Italy Risorgimento, Il (journal), 1:390 Ristic´, Jovan, 4:2145 Rite of Spring, The (Stravinsky), 2:654, 774, 775; 3:1573, 1642, 1643; 4:2262 primitivism and, 4:1876 Ritter, Gerhard, 4:2099 Ritter Pa´sma´n (R. Strauss), 4:2261 Ritz, Ce´sar, 4:1967 Riunione Adriatica di Sicurta`, 5:2354 ´ ngel Saavedra), Rivas, duke de (A 3:1414 Rivera, Primo de, 2:949 rivers, 2:762, 764, 765, 766 waterway transport and, 5:2346–2350 Riviera, 5:2328 Rivie`re, Georges, 4:1955 Rivie`re, Henri, 1:335 Rixdorf (Berlin suburb), 1:217 Riza, Ahmed, 3:1690; 5:2515 Rizzotto, Giuseppe, 3:1415 Road Bridge at Argenteuil, The (Monet), 3:1535 road racing, 2:602 roads, 4:1936; 5:2346, 2348, 2349, 2350–2352 automobiles and, 1:149 engineers and, 2:757 Road to Calvary, The (Tolstoy), 4:2076, 2079 Road to Power, The (Kautsky), 3:1248 robbery. See property crime Robergh, Otto, 1:482 Robert, Hubert, 2:831 Robert-Koch-Institute (Berlin), 3:1263 Robert le diable (Meyerbeer), 3:1671 Roberts, Frederick Sleigh, 1:257; 3:1258, 1259 Roberts, H. F., 2:653 Roberts, Morley, 2:975 Roberts, Richard, 3:1430 Robespierre, Maximilien, 1:337; 2:888; 4:1869, 2005–2008, 2006 assassination attempt on, 4:1952 Committee of Public Safety and, 3:1206 Danton and, 2:610, 611, 612, 893 David and, 2:624 execution of, 2:518, 519, 565, 844–845, 894; 3:1206; 4:1952, 2007–2008 Fouche´ and, 2:836, 837, 894 Gouges’s dislike of, 2:996 as Jacobin, 3:1205; 4:1700

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Lamartine history of, 3:1304 as Napoleon’s protector, 3:1584 overthrow of, 2:893–894; 4:1701 Reign of Terror and, 2:844, 892; 4:1951, 1952, 2007 republicanism and, 4:1960 Sade and, 4:2074 September Massacres and, 2:973 sister republics and, 4:2187 Robin Hood, 4:1821 Robinson, James, 5:2334 Robinson, Michael, 4:2269 Robinson, Ronald, 1:498 Robinson Crusoe (Defoe), 3:1384 Robison, John, 4:1779 Rob Roy (Scott), 4:2123 Rob Roy overture (Berlioz), 1:225 Robson, John, 3:1514 Rocca, John, 4:2247 Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, 2:555–556 Roche, Daniel, 2:548 Rocher de Cancale (Paris restaurant), 4:1966 Rochlitz, Friedrich, 3:1566 Rocket (steam locomotive), 2:760; 4:1932 Rockingham, marquis of (Charles Watson Wentworth), 2:839; 5:2461 Roda, Roda, 1:336 Rodenbach, Albrecht, 4:2295 Rodin, Auguste, 3:1133, 1471; 4:2008–2011, 2010 Rilke’s ‘‘object poems’’ and, 3:1530 Rodrigues, Olinde, 1:151; 4:2081, 2202 Rodzianko, Mikhail, 3:1659 Roentgen, Wilhelm, 2:594; 4:2011–2013, 2070 Roerich, Nikolai, 2:655, 774, 775 Rogent i Amat, Elias, 1:182 Roger, Peter Mark, 1:440 Rogers, William Barton, 1:23 Roi Arthur, Le (Chausson), 3:1675 Roi Bombance, Le (Marinetti), 2:917 Roi d’Ys, Le (Lalo), 3:1675 Roi Lear, Le (Berlioz), 1:225 Roi samuse, Le (Hugo), 2:1093 Rokumeikan (Deer Cry Pavilion), 3:1210 Roland, Manon, 2:973; 4:1700 Roland, Pauline, 2:650, 651; 4:2013–2014, 2279; 5:2397 Roland de la Platie`re, Jean-Marie, 2:973; 4:1700 Rolfe, Frederick, 5:2405 Rolla, Alessandro, 4:1698

1 9 1 4

Rolland, Romain, 4:1760, 2014–2016 Roman antiquities, 3:1533 Roman Campagna, The (Corot), 2:561 Roman Carnival Overture (Berlioz), 1:225 Roman Catholic Church. See Catholicism; papacy Roman de l’e´nergie nationale, Le (Barre´s), 1:185 Romanes, George, 4:1908 Roman history, 3:1533 Romania, 4:2016–2021, 2018, 2019 alliance system and, 1:48 Balkan Wars and, 1:13, 165, 313; 4:2149 Bulgaria and, 1:313 Crimean War and, 2:577 Eastern Question and, 2:705 electric lighting and, 2:741, 742 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137; 4:2018–2020 independence of, 2:530, 706, 1018; 3:1173, 1689 Mehadia women’s traditional dress, 1:139 monetary system of, 3:1538 nationalism and, 4:1993, 1994, 2020 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1990, 1994 Romanies and, 4:2021 Russia and, 4:2016, 2017, 2020, 2067 Russo-Turkish War and, 4:2067, 2068 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2069, 2085 serf emancipation in, 4:1754, 2149 trade and, 5:2335 Triple Alliance and, 2:965 universities in, 5:2380–2381 Romanian National Party, 4:2019 Romanian Orthodox Church, 4:2018, 2019, 2020 Romanies (Gypsies), 2:572; 4:2021, 2021–2024, 2023 in Serbia, 4:2146 Roman law, 3:1533, 1593, 1595, 1596 Romanones, Conde de, 4:2231–2232 Romanov dynasty, 1:41, 42, 80; 4:2047, 2049, 2063 amnesty and, 2:993 Baltic nobility and, 2:817, 822 Bolshevik overthrow of, 1:264; 3:1273 See also specific rulers

2749

INDEX

Roman Question, 4:1719, 1722, 2024–2026 Leo XIII and, 3:1329, 1330, 1331 Pius IX and, 4:1795, 1798 Roman Republic, 3:1192, 1197, 1318, 1597; 4:1718, 2034, 2188 creation of, 4:2001 Mazzini and, 3:1480–1481 overturning of, 4:1796 proclamation of, 4:1724, 1725, 1796 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1995, 2002–2003 romans rustiques, 4:1756 Romanticism, 4:2026–2033 architecture and, 4:2026, 2030 Arnold on, 1:102 avant-garde and, 1:142 Barbizon painters and, 1:176, 178; 4:1702, 1705 Beethoven and, 1:198 Belinsky and, 1:207 Berlin and, 1:215 Berlioz and, 1:224, 225 Brahms and, 1:295, 296 Bronte¨ sisters and, 1:301–302 Byron and, 1:333 Carducci’s rejection of, 1:362 Catholics and, 1:385 Ce´zanne’s early period and, 1:397 Chateaubriand and, 1:421; 4:2028, 2030, 2031 childhood in context of, 1:428, 429 Chopin and, 1:440 civilizaton concept and, 1:461 Coleridge and, 1:496–497; 2:543; 4:2027, 2029, 2031 Comte and, 2:523 Constable and, 2:543–544; 4:1703, 1704–1705, 2029 Croce and, 2:584 death fascination of, 2:629 Decadence compared with, 2:632; 3:1476 definition of, 4:1701, 1702 Delacroix and, 2:640–642, 910; 4:1705, 2027, 2030 Disraeli and, 2:672, 674 Dore´ and, 2:676–678 emotion and, 4:2027–2029 Enlightenment vs., 4:2026–2027, 2028, 2029 Eurasianism and, 2:774 Fichte as influence on, 2:814 folklore and, 4:1756 Frederick William IV and, 2:876–877

2750

French, 4:2252 Friedrich and, 2:910–912; 4:1703, 2027, 2029–2030 German national culture and, 3:1523 Goethe and, 2:985; 4:2027, 2028, 2030 Hegel and, 4:2031 Heine and, 2:1055–1057 Italian nationalism and, 2:930; 3:1193–1194 Kierkegaard critique of, 3:1251–1252 Lamartine and, 3:1303 landscape design and, 4:1738, 1739, 1740, 1741 legal theory and, 3:1314 leisure activities and, 3:1325 liberalism and, 3:1344 Liszt and, 3:1360 Manzoni and, 3:1441–1442 medievalism and, 4:2030 melancholics and, 4:2294 Michelet and, 3:1499 Mickiewicz and, 3:1500–1501 Mill’s (John Stuart) contacts with, 3:1513 music and, 3:1360, 1569–1570; 4:2026, 2027, 2029 nationalism and, 3:1604–1605, 1673 nature idealization and, 2:766 nature mysticism and, 4:2029–2030 Novalis and, 3:1647–1648 opera and, 3:1671, 1673 Paganini and, 4:1699 painting and, 4:1701, 1702–1705 Poland and, 4:1808 political, 4:2031 primitivism and, 4:1874 Pushkin and, 4:1919–1920 realism and, 4:1946 Rossini and, 3:1572 rural life idealization and, 4:1756, 1757 Sand and, 4:2083, 2084 Schelling and, 4:2031, 2088 Schinkel and, 4:2091, 2094 Schlegel and, 4:2094, 2095 Schleiermacher and, 4:2030, 2097 Schubert and, 4:2026, 2027, 2029, 2106, 2107 Scott and, 4:2123 sea portrayals and, 4:2124 secularization in context of, 4:2133 Shelley (Mary) and, 4:2168

Shelley (Percy Bysshe) and, 4:2027, 2030, 2031, 2170 Slavophiles and, 4:2194, 2195 spirituality and, 4:2030–2031 Stae¨l and, 4:2247 Stendhal and, 4:1946, 2252 Switzerland, 4:2288 symbolism and, 4:2292 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307 Tennyson and, 5:2309 Turner and, 2:910; 4:1703–1704 Ukraine and, 5:2370 on women’s superior sensibility, 2:945–946 Wordsworth and, 2:543; 4:2027, 2029–2031; 5:2481–2482 Romantic Socialism, 4:2031 Romantische Schule, Die (Heine), 2:1056 Romanzero (Heine), 2:1056 Rome, 4:2033–2038, 2034, 2036 as artistic and literary center, 3:1191 as capital of Italy, 3:1199; 4:1798 Corot’s art studies in, 2:560–561 economy and society of, 4:2035 France and, 4:2003, 2004, 2033, 2034–2035 futurism and, 2:920 Garibaldi and, 2:931, 932; 4:2003, 2004, 2034–2035, 2037 homosexual subculture in, 2:1083 Ingres in, 3:1165 migration and, 3:1111 Milan contrasted with, 3:1502 papal loss of, 3:1199, 1329, 1330, 1331; 4:1719, 1726, 1797, 1798 See also Roman Question political change in, 4:2033–2035 pre–World War I status of, 4:2037 as republic, 3:1192, 1197 Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196, 1480–1481; 4:2002–2003 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 3:1198, 1676 St. Peter’s Square, 4:1720 sculpture and, 4:1702 urbanization of, 4:2035–2037 Victor Emmanuel II and, 4:2036, 2037; 5:2411 See also Papal State Rome and Jerusalem (Hess), 5:2519 Rome, Naples, et Florence (Stendhal), 4:2252 Romeo and Juliet (Berliot), 1:225 ‘‘Romeo and Juliet’’ (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Rome´o et Juliette (Gounod), 3:1672 Ro¨mische Elegien (Goethe), 2:985 Ro¨misches Staatsrecht (Mommsen), 3:1533 Ro¨misches Strafrecht (Mommsen), 3:1533 Romola (G. Eliot), 2:744 Romulus, Conqueror of Acron (Ingres), 3:1166 Rondine, La (Puccini), 4:1916 Ronen, Omry, 4:2181 Rood, Ogden, 4:2156 Room with a View, A (Forster), 2:835 Roon, Albrecht von, 1:235; 2:962, 963, 964; 4:1902 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 2:740; 3:1436; 5:2459 Roosevelt, Theodore, 3:1212, 1628; 5:2459 Kipling friendship with, 3:1256 Nobel Peace Prize and, 4:1837, 2065 Portsmouth Treaty and, 4:1837 Rops, Felicien, 4:2293 Rorty, Richard, 3:1634–1635 Rosa, Giovanni, 3:1503 Rosa, Vincenzo, 3:1444 Rosanvallon, Pierre, 4:2081–2082 Rose, The (Yeats), 5:2509 Rose and the Cross, The (Blok), 1:250 Rosebery, Lord (Archibald Philip Primrose), 5:2466 Rosellini, Ippolito, 1:407 Rosen, Charles, 1:198; 3:1360 Rosenberg, Alfred, 1:404 Rosenberg, Le´once, 2:593 Rosenblum, Nancy, 3:1514 Rosenkavalier, Der (R. Strauss and Hoffmannsthal), 2:1077; 3:1676 Rosenthal porcelain, 1:192 Rosetta Stone, 1:406, 407 Rosicrucians, 4:2086 Roslin, Alexander, 1:375 Rosmersholm (Ibsen), 3:1108 Ross, Herbert, 3:1643 Ross, Robert, 5:2440 Rossetti, Christina, 4:1864 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 4:1707, 1863–1864, 1865, 1865, 2046, 2047, 2292 Rossetti, William Michael, 4:1863, 1864, 1865 Rossi, Alessandro, 4:1851 Rossi, Pellegrino, 3:1196; 4:1725, 1796 Rossini, Gioachino, 3:1565, 1572, 1661; 4:2038–2039, 2106, 2288 operatic influence of, 3:1670–1671, 1673

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Paganini association with, 4:1698–1699 Ross Island, 2:784 Rostow, W. W., 4:1930 rotary press, 4:1866 Rothschild, Alphonse de, 1:280 Rothschild, Edmond de, 5:2520 Rothschild, James de, 4:2040 Rothschild, Lionel de, 2:733 Rothschild, Mayer Amschel, 4:2039 Rothschild, Nathan Mayer, 3:1374; 4:1997, 2039–2040 Rothschilds, 1:75; 2:833, 867; 3:1231; 4:2039–2041; 5:2418 Neapolitan debts and, 3:1195, 1255 railroad construction and, 4:1933, 2040 Rothschilds, Die (film), 4:2041 Rothwell, Richard, 4:2168 Rotterdam, 3:1616 Rouault, Georges, 1:153; 2:622, 796 Roubaix (France), 1:201 Roubille, Auguste, 5:2414 Rouchon, Jean-Alexis, 4:1845 Rouelle, Guillaume-Franc¸ois, 3:1311 Rouen, 3:1153, 1411; 4:1794 Rouen Cathedral, Monet paintings of, 3:1535–1536 Rouge et le Noir, Le (Stendhal), 4:2252–2253 Rouget de Lisle, Claude-Joseph, 2:518, 891; 4:1826 Rougon-Macquart, Les (Zola), 5:2522–2523 Round Dance (Schnitzler), 4:2100 Rousseau, Henri, 2:738; 3:1213; 4:1782 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 1:169, 327; 2:838, 994; 4:1968, 2212; 5:2318 gender ideology of, 2:942, 943, 945, 948 as Malthus influence, 3:1425 mechanization concerns of, 3:1411 Reign of Terror and, 4:1952 as Robespierre influence, 4:2006 Romanticism and, 4:2026, 2029 social contract theory and, 3:1272, 1603 Rousseau, The´odore, 1:178–179, 180; 2:562; 3:1126; 4:1705 Roussel, Nelly, 2:805; 4:2041–2043, 2162 Rouvier, Maurice, 1:279 Rouvroy, Claude-Henri de. See SaintSimon, Henri de Roux, E´mile, 4:1745 Rover, The (Conrad), 2:536

1 9 1 4

Rover bicycle, 2:601 rowing, 4:2241, 2243 Rowntree, B. Seebohm, 4:1853–1854, 2213 Royal Academy (Britain), 2:543, 544; 4:1703, 1863, 1864; 5:2366 Royal Academy (France), 2:544 abolition of (1793), 2:624 Royal Academy of Fine Arts (San Fernando), 2:997 Royal Albert Bridge (Britain), 4:1935 Royal and Catholic Army, 2:563 Royal Cake, The: or, The Western Empires Sharing China Between Them (lithograph), 1:435 Royal Central Gymnastic Institute (Stockholm), 4:2242 Royal Chapel of Saint Agatha (Barcelona), 1:181 Royal College of Chemistry (Britain), 3:1159 Royal College of Physicians (Britain), 2:746; 4:1879 Royal College of Surgeons (London), 3:1376 Royal Commission on the Poor Law (Britain), 5:2445 Royal Conservatory of Music (Brussels), 1:307 Royal Copenhagen china, 2:647 Royal Corps des Ponts Chausse´es, 2:757 Royal Cotton Exchange (Britain), 3:1428 Royal Court of Saxony, 5:2430 Royal Dublin Society, 2:693 Royal Empire Society (Britain), 3:1118 Royal Geographical Society (Britain), 2:598, 783, 784, 927; 5:2437 Royal Highness (Mann), 3:1436 Royal Holloway College (London), 3:1377 Royal Institute for Experimental Therapy (Frankfurt), 2:735 Royal Institute of Fine Arts (Manchester), 1:185 Royal Institution (London), 2:1102; 4:2111 Royal Irish Academy, 2:693 Royal Irish Constabulary, 4:1814 royalism. See monarchism Royal Italian Academy, 3:1445 Royal Jennerian Society, 3:1224 Royal Marriages Act of 1772 (Britain), 2:954 Royal Military Academy, Woolwich (Britain), 1:96; 3:1257 Royal Military School (Paris), 3:1584

2751

INDEX

Royal Navy (Britain), 1:98; 2:526, 782; 5:2312, 2470 Dreadnaught battleship and, 2:681–683 German rivaly with, 3:1609–1612 Trafalgar and, 5:2344–2345 vaccination and, 3:1224 War of 1812 and, 5:2438, 2439, 2440 Royal Opera House (London). See Covent Garden Royal Palace (Athens), 4:2094 Royal Palace (Madrid), 3:1412, 1414 Royal Red Cross, 3:1638 Royal Serbian Academy, 4:2148 Royal Serbian Academy of Sciences, 1:207 Royal Society of Arts (Britain), 5:2493, 2494 Royal Society of Chemistry (London), 3:1376 Royal Society of London, 1:303, 341; 2:1102; 3:1223, 1376, 1402, 1477 Royal Statistical Society (London), 3:1376 Royal Tapestry Factory (Madrid), 2:997 Royal Theater (Berlin), 4:2092 Royal Tobacco Factory (Spain), 5:2314 Royaume des Fe´es, Le (film), 3:1483 Royer, Cle´mence, 2:696 Royer-Collard, Pierre-Paul, 2:1029; 4:1971 Rozanov, Vasily, 4:2183 Rozhdestvenski, Zinovi, 4:2065 RSDLP. See Social Democratic Labor Party rubber, 1:21, 205 bicycle tires of, 2:551, 600, 601; 3:1336 Cambodian plantations and, 3:1143 Congo Free State and, 3:1336, 1337 contraceptives and, 4:1827 Crystal Palace exhibit of, 2:588 Goodyear process for, 2:588; 3:1160 Industrial Revolution (second) and, 1:351 Pirelli and, 3:1502, 1504 Rubens, Peter Paul, 1:317; 2:640 Rubinstein, Anton, 4:1957; 5:2306 Rubinstein brothers, 3:1575 Rude, Franc¸ois, 4:2031, 2043–2044 Rudin (Turgenev), 5:2365 Ru ¨ din, Ernst, 2:770 Rudolf, crown prince of Austria, 2:861, 864; 4:2044–2045

2752

Rue Brise-Miche, Paris, 1:124 Rue de Rivoli (Paris), 1:451; 4:1729 Rue Rambuteau (Paris), 4:1729 Rue Transnonain, 15 April 1834. A Murdered Family (Daumier), 2:850 Rue Transnonain massacre (1834), 5:2311 Ruffo, Fabrizio, 3:1254; 4:1755, 2187 rugby. See football (rugby) Rugby Football Association, 4:2242 Rugby Football Union, 2:830 Rugby League, 2:830 Rugby School (England), 1:102; 4:2240–2241 Ruge, Arnold, 5:2512 Ruhr region, 1:357, 445 coal mines and, 1:85, 486–487 Krupp steel industrial complex, 3:1273–1276, 1274 machine breaking and, 3:1411 Ruisdael, Jacob van, 2:543 Ruı´z Zorrilla, Manuel, 4:2230 Rules of the Sociological Method, The (Durkheim), 2:699 Rum, Sultanate of, 4:2022 Rumania. See Romania Rum millet, 3:1687 Rump, Godtfred, 2:647 Rumph, Stephen, 1:199 Runge, Philipp Otto, 1:428, 429; 2:910 runners, 4:2240 Ruppin, Arthur, 5:2521 rural life artististic idealization of, 4:1706, 1756–1757 banditry and, 2:571 Constable paintings and, 2:543; 4:1705 educational opportunity and, 2:723–725 folklore studies and, 4:1756 French national identity and, 3:1522 gender and, 2:943 home-based industrial workers and, 3:1148–1149 migration and, 3:1110; 4:1753 as Millet painting subject, 3:1515–1516 Russian predominance of, 2:1017 villages and, 1:476; 4:1752, 1753–1754, 1756 See also Agricultural Revolution; peasants; serfs, emancipation of rural radicalism, 1:83 Rural Times (Cobbett), 1:489

Rus, 5:2369, 2370 Rusalka (Dvorˇa´k), 2:701 Ruse, Michael, 2:618 Ruskin, John, 3:1408; 4:1746, 2045–2047, 2205; 5:2423 Carlyle as influence on, 1:371 on Cruikshank illustrations, 2:586 Crystal Palace vilified by, 2:590 Gaskell friendship with, 2:934 Gothic Revival and, 4:1917 Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371 as Morris influence, 3:1550 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1707, 1864, 1865 separate spheres ideology and, 2:943 spiritualism and, 4:2237 on Venice, 4:2046; 5:2403, 2405 Ruskin, John James (father), 4:2046 Ruslan and Lyudmila (Glinka), 2:979, 980 Ruslan and Lyudmila (Pushkin), 4:1919 Russell, Bertrand Frege and, 2:883 on intellectuals, 3:1168 Mill (John Stuart) as godfather of, 3:1513 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1805 Russell, Francis, duke of Bedford, 1:29 Russell, John (1792–1878), 1:102; 2:1002, 1005, 1007, 1008 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:559; 4:1759 Russell, John, 3:1513 Russell, John Scott, 1:305 Russia, 4:2047–2059, 2053, 2058, 2062 Adrianople and, 1:13 advertising agency in, 4:1868 agriculture and, 4:2151, 2257 Albania and, 1:32, 33 Alexander I and, 1:37–38 Alexander II and, 1:38–39, 89 Alexander III and, 1:40–41, 89 Alexandra and, 1:41–42 alliance system and, 1:47, 48–50; 2:1013 anarchism and in, 1:56, 60, 161–162 anti-Semitism and, 1:40, 72, 75, 76, 77; 2:689; 3:1233, 1234, 1627, 1628 architecture and, 4:2075–2079 aristocracy and, 1:78, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, 471; 4:1747 army system of, 1:94, 97; 2:1014, 1016–1017; 3:1280–1282 art nouveau and, 1:114

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Austerlitz and, 1:132–133; 3:1586 Austria and, 1:146; 2:526, 703–705, 1081; 4:1995, 2054, 2067, 2070; 5:2392 Austro-Prussian War and, 1:236 avant-garde and, 1:157–158 Bakunin and, 2:161–162 Balkan League and, 1:32 Balkan nationalism and, 1:163, 165, 166, 276; 2:663–664; 3:1690 Baltic provinces and. See Finland and the Baltic provinces beards worn in, 1:190 Belinsky and, 1:207–208 Bely and, 1:208–210; 4:2079 Berdyayev and, 1:211–213 Bismarck diplomacy and, 1:232, 240; 2:674, 965 Black Sea control and, 1:243–244, 278, 376; 3:1683 Blok and, 1:249–250 ‘‘Bloody Sunday’’ massacre in, 4:1976, 1977, 2055, 2078–2079 Borodino and, 1:272–273 Boshevism and. See Bolsheviks; Soviet Union Bosphorus and, 1:278; 2:577, 705; 3:1421 bourgeoisie in, 1:283, 284, 471; 4:2211 Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292 Bulgaria and, 1:312, 313; 2:703–704; 4:1717 Bund in, 313–315 bureaucracy in, 1:322–323, 324 cabarets in, 1:336–337 Catherine II (the Great) and, 1:374–377 censorship in, 1:400; 2:1014, 1016; 3:1552, 1613, 1626, 1627; 4:1747, 1869, 1870, 2052, 2055 Central Asia and, 1:395–397; 3:1116 Chaadayev and, 1:399–401 Chekhov and, 1:422–423 chemistry in, 1:426 child abandonment in, 5:2454–2455 China and, 1:434; 3:1679; 4:2172 cholera epidemic in, 1:436, 438, 450; 2:669 cinema in, 1:443; 4:1824 city government and, 1:449, 450 city violence and, 1:449 civilizing mission of, 1:462, 463, 464 civil war in, 3:1242, 1518, 1519, 1660

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

classical learning and, 1:286 communes in, 4:2052, 2151, 2153, 2195, 2196, 2257; 5:2460 communism and, 2:522 Concert of Europe and, 2:524–527, 565 Congress of Berlin and, 2:529, 530, 705 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534, 565, 603, 958 Congress System and, 1:374 constitutionalism and, 4:2049–2050, 2055, 2056–2057, 2079, 2270 Cossacks and, 2:562–563; 4:1977; 5:2369–2370 counterrevolutionary repression in, 3:1625, 1626, 1660; 4:1832 crime and, 4:2079, 2172 Crimean War and, 1:38–39, 94, 243–244; 2:577–580, 1007, 1014, 1015; 3:1626; 4:1975, 2048, 2051, 2149–2150, 2153, 2196; 5:2410 cultural Russification and, 1:40 Czartoryski and, 2:603–604 Dardanelles and, 2:577 Decadence and, 2:633 Decembrists and, 4:2050, 2236 Diaghilev and, 2:654–655; 4:2077 Dostoyevsky and, 2:678–679 drinking culture of, 1:34–35 dueling code of, 2:696 Eastern Question and, 1:278; 2:526, 703–705, 1009 education in, 1:39, 376; 2:720, 723, 727, 1016, 1017; 4:2051–2052 elected assemblies in, 1:290 electric power and, 2:742 emigration from, 2:746; 3:1114 Entente Cordiale and, 2:609 Ethiopia and, 1:8 Eurasianism and, 2:771–775 famine in, 4:1755, 2055, 2056 Finland and. See Finland and the Baltic provinces football (soccer) in, 2:834 France and, 4:2048, 2050–2051, 2054; 5:2306, 2374, 2417, 2440, 2442 Freemasons and, 2:877, 881; 3:1552 French alliance with (1894), 1:411; 2:526, 642, 643, 795 French Revolution and, 2:887; 4:2047–2048 Fundamental Laws of 1906 and, 4:1978, 2057, 2211, 2257

1 9 1 4

Germany and, 2:968; 4:2054, 2059, 2070, 2098–2099; 5:2478 Glinka and, 2:979–980; 3:1571, 1673 Gogol and, 2:988–989; 4:2076 Golden Age and, 4:2181, 2183 Goncharov and, 2:989–990 Gorky and, 2:992–993 Great Game and, 1:395 Great Reforms and, 1:39, 40, 88–89; 2:1014–1017; 4:1767 Greece and, 4:1982 Greek War of Independence and, 2:1020; 3:1494, 1612–1613, 1685, 1686 Hague conference and, 2:1034 Herzen and, 2:1064–1066 historiographical view of, 3:1518 Holy Alliance and, 2:531, 565, 1002, 1079–1081; 4:1970, 1971, 1973, 1985, 2228; 5:2392 Hungarian nationalism and, 3:1268–1269 imperial expansion of, 3:1116, 1120; 4:2051, 2172; 5:2370 industrialization in, 1:331; 4:2054, 2078–2080 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2493 infant mortality rate in, 4:1829 intelligentsia and, 1:207–208, 212; 3:1168, 1170–1172; 4:1975, 2050, 2052–2053, 2055 international law textbooks and, 3:1175 Japan and, 3:1209, 1210, 1212; 4:2063–2064, 2171 See also Russo-Japanese War Jewish emigrants from, 1:40; 3:1113 Jews in, 1:73, 314–315; 3:1227, 1229, 1230, 1231, 1232–1233; 4:1808, 1978, 2055, 2057, 2257; 5:2519, 2520 Kadets and, 3:1241–1242; 4:2057, 2270, 2271 Kandinsky and, 3:1243–1246; 4:2077 Kropotkin and, 3:1272–1273 Kutuzov and, 3:1280–1282 labor movements in, 3:1287, 1288; 4:1976, 1978, 2078–2079; 5:2485, 2486, 2489 landed elite in, 1:469; 3:1627 law codification in, 4:2236 Leipzig battle and, 3:1319 Lenin and, 3:1326–1329; 4:1974, 1976, 2049, 2054, 2077, 2079

2753

INDEX

lesbianism in, 2:1084 liberalism in, 4:2055 liberals failure in, 3:1349 literacy rate in, 1:431; 4:1868 Lithuania and, 3:1365, 1365–1368 marriage age in, 4:1828 Martov and, 3:1460–1461 Marxist party in, 3:1327 See also Social Democratic Labor Party Mediterranean and, 3:1481–1482 Mensheviks and, 4:1976, 1977, 2270; 5:2486, 2518 Metternich diplomacy and, 3:1492, 1493, 1494, 1495 Meyerhold and, 3:1495–1496 migration and, 2:646; 3:1110–1111, 1112 military colonies and, 4:2050 Milyukov and, 3:1517–1520 monetary system of, 3:1538 Montenegro and, 3:1539, 1541 Mu¨nchengra¨tz treaty and, 3:1560–1561 multiethnic languages in, 2:724–725 music and, 2:979–980; 3:1571 Muslim jadidism in, 3:1206–1208 Mussorgsky and, 3:1575–1576, 1673–1674 mutual aid societies in, 3:1284 Napoleon and, 4:2048, 2051, 2078, 2227; 5:2440 Napoleonic Wars and, 1:37–38, 93, 272–273, 477; 2:553, 846, 895, 900–901, 901, 902–903; 3:1281–1282, 1492, 1493, 1586, 1588, 1599; 4:1748, 1900 Napoleon’s invasion/retreat from, 1:272; 2:603, 846, 861, 902–903, 958, 1080; 3:1308, 1319, 1492, 1588, 1599; 4:1766 national identity and, 1:400; 4:2048 nationalism and, 1:400; 4:1956, 2048, 2079, 2271; 5:2307 Nechayev and, 3:1613–1614 newspapers and, 4:1867, 1868, 1869, 1870 Nicholas I and, 3:1625–1626 nihilism and, 3:1638–1641 Nijinsky and, 3:1642–1643 October Manifesto and, 4:1978, 1979, 2057, 2211 Octobrists and, 3:1658–1660; 4:2057, 2058, 2257 Official Nationality concept of, 3:1626; 4:2048

2754

opera and, 2:654; 3:1575–1576, 1673–1674, 1674 Ottoman Empire and, 4:2086, 2164; 5:2391–2392 See also Russo-Turkish War Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716, 1717 Paul I and, 4:1747–1748 Pavlov and, 4:1748–1749 Pavlova and, 4:1749–1751 peasant revolts and, 1:376; 2:669; 3:1328; 4:1755, 1831–1832 peasants in, 4:1752, 1753–1754, 1823, 1831–1832 penal exile and, 2:780–781 People’s Will and, 3:1326, 1614; 4:1767–1769, 1832 Plekhanov and, 4:1800–1801 poetry and, 1:249, 337 pogroms and, 1:76; 3:1395; 4:1802–1804, 1803, 1978, 2055, 2057; 5:2520 police system in, 4:1815 Polish insurrections and, 1:162; 3:1264–1265, 1624; 4:1809–1811 Polish territory of, 2:567, 957; 4:1806–1807, 1808–1811, 1812, 1817, 1933, 1976, 1984, 1985; 5:2370, 2371, 2441–2442, 2511 political parties in, 4:1975, 1976, 2057 populists and, 3:1640–1641; 4:1831–1832, 2052, 2053, 2132, 2209–2210, 2270; 5:2517 Portsmouth Treaty and, 4:1837–1838 post-1917 e´migre´s from, 3:1518, 1520 Potemkin mutiny and, 4:1976 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861, 1862 professions in, 4:1880 prostitution regulation in, 4:1884 Protestant minority in, 4:1890, 1891, 1891 Protestant missions to, 3:1527 psychological research tradition of, 4:1908 Pushkin and, 4:1918–1920, 2075, 2165, 2181 Quadruple Alliance and, 1:374; 2:662 radicals in, 4:1975–1978, 2053 railroads and, 4:1933, 1937, 1975, 2064, 2172–2173; 5:2426, 2427, 2478, 2479

Red Cross, 4:1950 religiophilosophical renaissance and, 4:2196 Repin and, 1956–1958 restaurants in, 4:1966 Restoration and, 4:1970, 1971, 1973 Revolutions of 1820 and, 4:1979–1980, 1981 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1984, 1985, 1986 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991 Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999–2000 Romania and, 4:2016, 2017, 2020, 2067 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 rule of law and, 4:2049, 2051 Russo-Turkish War and, 1:90–92 San Stefano Treaty, 4:2068, 2069–2070, 2085–2086 Schlieffen Plan and, 4:2098–2099 science and technology, 4:1749, 2076–2077 Second International and, 4:2127 secret societies in, 1:360, 361; 4:1991, 2050 secularization in, 4:2059, 2060, 2061 Serbia and, 1:206; 2:704–705; 4:2144, 2146 serf conditions in, 3:1305; 4:1754 serf emancipation in. See under serfs, emancipation of Shamil and, 4:2164–2165 Silver Age and, 4:2077, 2181–2183, 2217 slave trade and, 1:308 Slavophiles and, 1:400; 4:2048, 2194–2196; 5:2365, 2459 smallpox deaths in, 4:2198 Social Democrats and, 4:1976, 2209, 2270; 5:2518 socialism and, 4:2052, 2053, 2196; 5:2460 socialist revolutionaries and, 4:1976, 1978, 2049, 2209–2212; 5:2320, 2518 Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2215–2217 Speransky and, 4:2172, 2236–2237 statistical studies and, 4:2249, 2250 Stolypin and, 4:1978, 2058, 2256–2257, 2271; 5:2479 Stravinsky and, 3:1573; 4:2077, 2261–2263 strikes in, 3:1288, 1327, 1328, 1628; 4:1974, 1977–1978, 2055–2056, 2268; 5:2390

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Struve and, 4:2270–2271 suffrage and, 4:2279 Sweden and, 4:2283 Swedish war with, 2:817 symbolists in, 1:209, 214 syndicalism and, 1:62 Table of Ranks in, 1:286, 323 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2306–2307 telephone service in, 5:2308 terrorism in, 4:2052, 2053, 2210, 2211, 2256; 5:2517 Three Emperors League and, 2:703–704; 3:1690 tobacco and, 5:2313 Tolstoy and, 5:2318–2320, 2319 trade and, 5:2335, 2336, 2338, 2343, 2343 Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi, 5:2391–2392 Triple Intervention of 1895 and, 4:2064 Turgenev and, 5:2364–2366 Turkish Armenians and, 1:92 universities and, 4:1975, 1976, 2052; 5:2378, 2379, 2385–2386, 2389–2390 university admittance in, 2:728 urban development and, 1:452 voluntary associations in, 1:117, 118, 119 waterway transport in, 5:2348 welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452, 2454–2455 Westernizers in, 1:400; 2:1064; 4:2048–2049, 2195–2196; 5:2365, 2459–2460 White government of, 4:2271 wine and, 5:2475 Witte and, 5:2478–2479 women medical students in, 2:728 working class in, 5:2485, 2489 World of Art group in, 4:2181 world’s fairs and, 5:2502–2503 World War I and, 2:705; 4:2079 World War II and, 4:2079 Young Czechs and Old Czechs and, 5:2511 Zasulich and, 5:2517–2518 See also Moscow; Revolution of 1905; Revolution of 1917; RussoTurkish War; St. Petersburg; Siberia; Social Democratic Labor Party; Ukraine Russia and Europe (Danilevsky), 2:773 Russia and Europe (Masaryk), 3:1469

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Russia and Its Crisis (Milyukov), 3:1518 Russia and the Universal Church (Soloviev), 4:2216 ‘‘Russia before Peter the Great’’ (Belinsky), 5:2460 Russian Armenians, 1:87, 88–89 Russian Ballet, 1:154 Russian Easter Festival (RimskyKorsakov), 4:1999, 2000 Russian General Oil Corporation, 1:88 Russian Imperial Geographical Society, 3:1272 Russian Juvenile Band, 3:1567 Russian language, 1:40; 2:821; 3:1605 Russian Literary Society, 2:679 Russian Orthodox Church, 1:381; 2:772; 3:1626; 4:2059–2063; 5:2370 Alexandra and, 1:41 Baltic provinces and, 2:821 Dostoyevsky and, 2:678 Nicholas I Official Nationality policy and, 3:1626 Old Believers and, 4:2062, 2257 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1717 Peter the Great and, 4:2059, 2060; 5:2369 Poland and, 4:1807 Russia and, 4:2048 Slavophiles and, 4:2194–2195; 5:2459 Tolstoy and, 5:2319 Ukraine and, 5:2369, 2372 ‘‘Russian People and Socialism, The’’ (Herzen), 2:1065; 5:2460 Russian Revolution of 1905. See Revolution of 1905 Russian Revolutions of 1917. See Revolution of 1917 Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. See Social Democratic Labor Party Russian State Economy in the First Quarter of the Eighteenth Century and the Reforms of Peter the Great (Milyukov), 3:1518 Russie et l’e´glise universelle, La (Soloviev), 4:2216 Russkoe bogatstvo (Milyukov), 3:1518 Russkoe musulmantsvo (Gasprinski), 3:1207 Russkoe slovo (Moscow newspaper), 3:1639, 1640; 4:1868 Russo-Japanese War, 1:49; 3:1691; 4:1976, 2055, 2063–2066, 2064, 2066, 2098, 2127 army structure and, 1:95

1 9 1 4

background of, 1:434 Congress of Berlin and, 2:529–531 as fin de sie`cle event, 2:816 implications of Japanese victory in, 1:464 indemnity dispute and, 4:1837 Japanese alliances and, 3:1212 military technologies and, 1:99; 3:1507 Mukden battle and, 3:1507, 1556–1558, 1628; 4:2055, 2065 Plekhanov and, 4:1801 pogroms and, 1:76 Polish nationalists and, 4:1812 Portsmouth Treaty and, 3:1212, 1628; 4:1837–1838 Red Cross and, 4:1950 Revolution of 1905 and, 3:1627–1628 Russian protests and, 1:89; 3:1552, 1554 Russia’s defeat and, 1:146; 2:704, 774; 3:1328, 1473, 1557–1558, 1628, 1691 Siberia and, 4:2173 Vladivostok and, 5:2426, 2427 Witte and, 4:2065; 5:2479 Russolo, Luigi, 1:157; 2:918, 919, 920 Russo-Polish War (1792), 3:1264 Russo-Serbian Convention (1807), 1:206 Russo-Turkish War, 2:742; 3:1420, 1685; 4:2016, 2067–2070, 2069 Abdul-Hamid and, 1:2; 3:1689 Adrianople and, 1:12 Alexander II and, 1:39 Armenians and, 1:88, 90–92 Bismarck and, 2:526, 964 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:276 Bulgarian massacre as factor in, 1:312 Catherine II and, 1:376, 377 Eastern Question and, 2:703 Istanbul and, 3:1188 jingoism and, 3:1234 Montenegro and, 3:1541 Nicholas I and, 3:1625 Ottoman effects of, 3:1683 Red Cross and, 4:1949 Russian victories and, 2:703 Serbia and, 3:1541, 1683 See also San Stefano, Treaty of rustic life, 2:543 Ruth (Gaskell), 2:934 Ruthenians, 4:1809, 2020

2755

INDEX

Rutherford, Ernest, 1:427; 4:2070–2071 Ruy Blas (Hugo), 1:229; 2:1093 Ryan, Alan, 3:1514 Rydberg, Johannes, 4:2285 Rydberg, Viktor, 4:2286 Ryuˆkyuˆan kingdom, 3:1211

n

S Saar coal fields, 1:486 Saarinen, Eliel, 1:113; 5:2503 ´ ngel, 3:1414 Saavedra, A Sabahaddin Bey, 5:2515, 2516 Sabarte`s, Jaime, 4:1781 Sabine, Edward, 3:1658 sabotage, industrial, 3:1412; 4:1821 See also Luddism; machine breaking Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von, 3:1270 Sachs, Jeffrey D., 5:2340 Sacre, Le (David), 2:624 Sacre´-Coeur Basilica (Paris), 2:737; 3:1405; 4:1731, 1737, 1826 Sacred Books of the East (Mu ¨ ller), 3:1239 Sacred Heart, cult of, 1:385 Sacre du Printemps, Le (Stravinsky), 2:655, 774, 775; 3:1573, 1642, 1643; 4:2262 primitivism and, 4:1876 Sacrilege Law (France), 3:1387; 4:1969, 1970 Sade, Donatien-Alphonse-Franc¸ois de, marquis de Sade, 2:518; 3:1270; 4:1834, 1959, 2073–2075 Sade, house of, 4:2073 Sade, Jean-Baptiste, 4:2073 Sadiq Bey, Muhammad al-, 5:2363 Sadiqi college (Tunisia), 5:2363 sadism, 3:1270; 4:2073, 2162 Sadko, The Tsar’s Bride (RimskyKorsakov), 4:2000 Sadowa, Battle of (1866). See Ko ¨ niggra¨tz, Battle of Sadullah Bey, 4:2085 Sˇafaˇrı´k, Pavel, 4:1716–1717 safety bicycle, 2:601 safety lamps, 1:487 Safvet Pasha, 4:2085 Sagan, Carl, 2:1031 Sagasta, Pra´xedes, 4:2230, 2231 Saggi bibliografici di economia politica (Cossa, ed.), 4:1850 Saggio storico sulla rivoluzione napoletana (Cuocco), 3:1192

2756

Sagrada Familia (Barcelona), 1:112, 183–184; 2:935, 937–938, 938; 4:1826 Said, Edward, 1:131; 3:1169, 1185, 1511 Said, Muhammad, 4:2274, 2276 Said Pash, 2:732; 3:1337–1338 Saigon, 3:138, 1137, 1141, 1143 Sailors’ Orphans, The: or, The Young Ladies’ Subscription (Bigg), 4:1852 St. Andrews University, 2:1006; 3:1513 Saint Arnaud, Armand-Jacques, 2:577, 578 Saint Barthe´lemy colony, 3:1116 St. Basils Cathedral (Moscow), 4:2062 St. Chads Cathedral (Birmingham), 4:1918 Saint Christopher (Saint Kitts), 1:365 St. Cloud (Paris), 4:1729 Saint-Cloud, Cha`teau of, 3:1385 Saint-Cloud Decree (1810), 2:554 St. Denis Cathedral (Paris), 3:1386 Saint Domingue. See Haiti Sainte-Beuve, Charles-Augustin, 1:102; 3:1334 Sainte Lydwine de Schiedam (Huysmans), 2:1104 St. E´tienne, 4:1736 Saint Fargeau, Lepeletier de, 4:1960 St. George, Republic of, 4:2188 Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Peace of (1919), 1:309 St. Giles Church (Cheadle), 4:1918 St. Helena Island, 1:93, 270; 2:779, 847, 903, 1099; 3:1389, 1588; 4:1718, 1766 ´ tienne Geoffroy, 2:599 Saint-Hilaire, E St. Isaac Cathedral of (St. Petersburg), 4:2078 Saint-Jean-d’Acre (Syria), 3:1585 Saint Joan (Shaw), 4:2166, 2167 St. John, Ambrose, 3:1621 Saint John’s Night on Bare Mountain (Mussorgsky), 3:1575 Saint John the Baptist Preaching (Rodin), 4:2009 Saint-Jorioz, Carlo Bianco di, 5:2514 ‘‘Saint Julian Hospitator’’ (Flaubert), 2:828 Saint-Just, Louis-Antoine-Le´on de, 2:844–845; 4:1700, 1960, 2006, 2007 St. Leon (Godwin), 2:978 St. Louis Olympic Games (1904), 3:1667 St. Louis World’s Fair (1904), 1:113; 2:589, 653 St. Marie’s Church (Derby), 4:1918

Saint Mark, Republic of, 5:2402, 2403 St. Martin Canal (Paris), 4:1731 Saint Mary’s Chapel of the Rosary (Venice), 3:1475 St. Patrick’s Cathedral (Dublin), 2:693 St. Paul’s Cathedral (London), 3:1378 St. Petersburg, 4:2048, 2055, 2075–2080 advertising and, 2:550 Alexandra’s dislike of, 1:41, 42 Armenians in, 1:88 Bely and, 2:774 Bloody Sunday massacre (1905) and, 2:993; 3:1627; 4:1976, 1977, 2055, 2078–2079 bourgeoisie and, 1:284 bureaucracy and, 1:323 cabaret in, 1:337 Chekhov in, 1:422–423 child abandonment in, 5:2455 Czartoryski in, 2:603 Diaghilev and, 2:654, 655 electric lighting and, 2:742 factories and, 1:449 founding and development of, 4:2075–2077 general strike (1905) in, 2:823 industrialization and, 1:40 industrialization and revolution in, 4:2078–2080 infant abandonment and, 1:431 Lenin in, 3:1326–1327, 1328 maternity hospitals, 5:2450 migration and, 3:1111 Milyukov in, 3:1518 Moscow compared with, 3:1551, 1552, 1554, 1555 penal labor and, 2:781 pogroms and, 4:1803 population growth of, 1:446 railroads and, 4:1933 renaming of, 4:2079 revolutionaries in, 3:1613 street lighting and, 2:742 telephone service and, 5:2308 theater in, 3:1496 voluntary associations and, 1:117, 119 wine consumption in, 5:2475 working class and, 5:2485, 2489 St. Petersburg Conservatory, 4:1999 St. Petersburg Imperial Ballet School, 3:1642 St. Petersburg League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class, 1:266; 3:1326, 1460

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

St. Petersburg State University, 4:1976, 2075 St. Peter’s Square (Rome), 4:1720 St. Rollox chemical complex, 4:2117 saints canonization and, 1:385 shrines of, 4:1788–1789 Saint-Sae¨ns, Camille, 3:1572, 1675; 4:1750, 1751 Saint-Simon, Henri de, 1:151, 459, 491; 2:930; 4:2080–2082, 2200, 2212 as Comte influence, 2:522–523 feminism and, 2:803, 946 as Heine influence, 2:1056 as Herzen influence, 2:1064 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1513 Romanticism and, 4:2031 socialism and, 3:1286 utopian socialism and, 5:2395, 2396 Saint-Simonism, 2:650; 3:1337; 4:2081–2082, 2202–2203, 2204 on egoism, 5:2396 Roland and, 4:2013 secret societies and, 4:2131 Tristan and, 5:2357 utopian socialism and, 5:2396 St. Thomas’s Hospital (London), 2:1102; 3:1649 Saisons Russes, 4:1750 Sakhalin Island, 4:1837, 2064, 2065 S˛akir, Bahaeddin, 5:2515 salacious literature. See pornography Salammboˆ (Flaubert), 2:827, 828 Salandra, Antonio, 2:972; 3:1202–1203 Salburger grosse Welttheater, Das (Hofmannsthal), 2:1077 Saleilles, Raymond, 3:1315 Salic Law, 4:2229 Salieri, Antonio, 4:2106 Salis, Rodolphe, 1:335 Salisbury, Lord (Robert Cecil), 1:308, 404; 2:1009; 5:2322, 2414 program of, 2:1010–1011, 1013 Salisbury Cathedral, 4:1705 Salle River, 3:1319 Salmero´n y Alonso, Nicola´s, 4:2230, 2231 Salmon, Andre´, 2:590; 4:1782 Salo de Cent de Barcelona, 1:182 Salome´ (Wilde), 2:633; 3:1377; 5:2466 art nouveau imagery and, 1:108 Beardsley illustrations, 1:109, 192, 193 Salome´, Louise. See Andreas-Salome´, Lou

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Salon (Paris), 2:544; 4:1946 avante-garde and, 1:153, 155 Corot and, 2:561 Courbet and, 2:568, 569 Daguerre and, 2:605 Daumier and, 2:621 Degas and, 2:634 Delacroix and, 2:640 of 1830s, 1:178 Ge´ricault and, 2:955 impressionists excluded from, 3:1126, 1127–1128, 1535 Ingres and, 3:1165 Manet and, 3:1431, 1432, 1433 Monet and, 3:1535 rejections by, 3:1432 Renoir and, 4:1954, 1955 Rodin and, 4:2008, 2009 Rude and, 4:2043 salon cubists, 2:590–591, 592–593 Salon d’Art Ide´aliste, 4:2295 Salon d’Automne (Paris), 1:399; 3:1474 avant-garde and, 1:153, 155 cubism and, 2:590 fauvism and, 2:795 Salon des Inde´pendants (Paris), 2:590; 3:1474 Salon des Refuse´s (Paris), 3:1432, 1433, 1530; 4:1707 Salonika, 1:1, 32, 163; 2:704; 3:1482 Salon of the King (France), 2:640 salons aristocratic women and, 1:469 Berlin and, 1:215, 316; 2:675 Chopin’s performances in, 1:439, 440 Durand and, 2:696 Enlightenment and, 4:2029 Parisian republican, 2:649 Rossini and, 4:2038 Salons of the Rose + Cross, 4:2295 Sˇaloun, Ladislav, 4:1858 Salpeˆtrie`re Hospice (Paris), 4:1791, 1959 Saltykov, Sergei, 1:375; 4:1747 salvarsan, 2:736 Salvation Army, 1:36; 4:1886, 2082–2083 Salvemini, Gaetano, 3:1277 Salzburg, 2:958 Salzburg Festival, 2:1076, 1077 Samarin, Yuri, 4:2154, 2196 Samaritaine, Le (Paris department store), 2:548 Sambre River, 486

1 9 1 4

samedi soirs, 4:2038 same-sex desire. See homosexuality and lesbianism Sammlung architektonischer Entwu ¨ rfe (Schinkel), 4:2093 Samori Empire, 1:20 Samson et Delilah (Saint-Sae¨ns), 3:1675 ‘‘Samuel Johnson’’ (Macaulay), 3:1408 samurai (daimyo), 3:1208, 1209, 1210 San (Bushmen), 4:2219 sanatoriums, 5:2360–2361 Sand, George, 1:162, 168; 2:828; 3:1662, 1680; 4:1706, 1757, 2083–2085, 2084 Chopin relationship with, 1:439; 4:2029, 2084 feminism and, 2:802 Liszt and, 3:1360 Nadar and, 3:1578 as against women’s suffrage of, 2:651 on women’s superior sensibility, 2:945–946 Sand, Karl, 1:369; 2:959 Sandeau, Jules, 1:168 Sandhurst. See Royal Military Academy San Domingo, 1:14 Sandzˇak of Novi Pazar, 3:1541 San Fernando Academy (Madrid), 4:1781 Sangiorgi, Ermanno, 3:1416 San Giuliano, marquis di (Antonio Paterno` Castello), 3:1202, 1203 Sangnier, Marc, 1:389 San Ildefenso alliance (1796), 2:901 sanitation, 1:251, 253 Berlin and, 1:218, 219 Chadwick and, 1:401–402 cholera and, 1:437, 438, 450; 2:658, 668, 669, 765 clean water’s importance and, 2:658, 667, 670 death rates and, 2:628, 644 Hamburg and, 2:1040 London and, 3:1372, 1373, 1380; 4:1911 London sewer construction and, 2:758; 3:1379 Madrid and, 3:1412 municipal reforms and, 1:450, 451 Paris sewer system and, 2:1049; 4:1731, 1774 slum housing and, 1:453, 454; 2:670; 4:1912 water pollution and, 2:764; 4:1912, 1914

2757

INDEX

Sankey Declaration on the Rights of Man, 5:2459 San Martino, Battle of (1859), 4:2003 San Remo, 4:2125 sans-culottes, 1:111; 2:844, 887, 890, 892, 893, 894; 3:1403, 1506; 4:1960, 1962, 2007; 5:2486 San Sebastian, 4:2125, 2126 Sanskrit, 4:2022 San Stefano, Treaty of (1878), 1:276; 4:2068, 2069–2070, 2085–2086 Adrianople and, 1:12 Armenian Question and, 1:90–92 Bulgarian borders and, 1:312; 2:530–531; 3:1689; 4:2069, 2085, 2086 Congress of Berlin revision of, 2:529–530, 705 Eastern Question and, 2:703 Montenegrin borders and, 3:1541 Ottoman losses under, 2:703 provisions of, 3:1689 Russian power and, 1:39 Santa Creu Hospital (Barcelona), 1:112 Santafede. See Most Christian Army of the Holy Faith Santander, 4:2125 SantElia, Antonio, 1:157 Santo Domingo. See Haiti Sappho and Socrates, or, How Is the Love of Men and Women for Persons of Their Own Sex to Be Explained? (Hirschfeld), 2:1070 Sarabia, Ramo`n, 1:379 Saracco, Giuseppe, 5:2378 Sarajevo, 1:277 Francis Ferdinand assassination in, 1:232, 242, 277, 407; 2:705, 861, 862, 865; 3:1628 Janissary settlement in, 1:273 World War I and, 2:527 Saratoga, Battle of (1777), 3:1261 Sardinia-Piedmont. See PiedmontSavoy Sardou, Victorien, 4:1916 Sargent, John Singer, 1:289; 5:2405 Sarraut, Albert, 3:1144 Sarrien, Ferdinand, 2:858 Sarto, Giuseppe Melchiorre. See Pius X Sartor Resartus (Carlyle), 1:103, 370; 2:941 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 2:1101; 3:1167, 1169 Kierkegaard as influence on, 3:1253 Sasun district, 1:92 sati (widow burning), 3:1134 Satie, Erik, 815; 4:2086–2087

2758

satire. See political satire Satsuma family, 3:1210 Saturday Review (magazine), 4:2165, 2253 Saturn’s rings, 3:1478 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 2:593 Sauvage, Henri, 5:2503 savage. See primitivism Sava River, 1:205 Savigny, Karl von, 2:1023; 3:1314, 1594 Savoy. See Piedmont-Savoy Savoy, house of, 1:413; 2:533; 4:2000, 2002 Savoy, The (periodical), 1:192 Saxe, Maurice de, 4:2083 Saxe-Coburg, 1:200 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, 1:457 Saxons, 4:2018 Saxony, 2:803; 4:1987, 1995 agricultural research and, 3:1160 Congress of Berlin and, 2:533 cotton industry and, 2:554; 3:1149, 1153 List as U.S. consul in, 3:1357 Lutheran population of, 4:1892 Napoleon and, 2:957; 3:1320, 1322 Prussia and, 2:958; 4:1900, 1901 Revolution of 1848 and, 2:961 women’s press restrictions in, 3:1681 Saxony-Weimer, 1:369, 370 Say, Jean-Baptiste, 4:1961 Sayn-Wittgenstein, Carolyne von, 3:1360 Sazonov, S. D., 3:1628 Sbaheddin, Ottoman prince, 3:1690 Scale and Scope (Chandler), 2:711 ‘‘Scandal in Bohemia, A’’ (Doyle), 2:680 Scandinavia coastal shipping and, 4:1933; 5:2348 emigrants from, 2:646 established church in, 4:1895 literacy in, 4:1868 open-air museums in, 3:1564 Protestant population of, 4:1790, 1890, 1895 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987 secularization in, 4:2133 sports in, 4:2245 telephone service in, 5:2308 tuberculosis prevention in, 5:2361 universities in, 5:2379–2380 village community in, 4:1754 wine and, 5:2475 See also Denmark; Sweden and Norway

Scandinavian Monetary Union, 3:1537, 1538 Scapegoat, The (Hunt), 4:1864 Scarborough, 4:2124 Scarisbrick, Charles, 4:1918 Sce´nes de la Vie de Bohe`me (Mu¨rger), 3:1577; 4:1916 Scenes from Clerical Life (G. Eliot), 2:744 Scenes from the Massacres at Chios (Delacroix), 4:1705 Schaaffhausen, A., 1:174, 175 Schaaffhausenschen Bankverein, 1:175, 176 Schaffer, Joseph and Peter, 3:1674 Schall und Rauch (Berlin cabaret), 1:335–336 Schapiro, Leonard, 5:2460 Scharnhorst, Gerhard von, 2:958 Scharzenberg, Felix zu, 1:148; 2:962 Schaudinn, Fritz, 4:2303 Schauspielhaus (Berlin), 1:216; 4:2092 Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 4:2285 Sche´he´razade (ballet), 3:1642 Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov), 4:1999, 2000 Scheldt River, 3:1173 Schelling, Caroline Schlegel von, 3:1647; 4:2088 Schelling, Friedrich von, 1:497; 4:1703, 2031, 2087–2089, 2095, 2195 as Belinsky influence, 1:207 as Chaadayev influence, 1:400 Eurasianism and, 2:772, 774 evolution and, 2:615 Fichte as influence on, 2:814 Hegel and, 2:1051, 1078 Ho ¨ lderlin friendship with, 2:1078 Novalis friendship with, 3:1647 Scherzo fantastique (Stravinsky), 4:2261 Scheurer-Kestner, Auguste, 2:684, 811 Scheveningen, 4:2125 Schey, Friedrich, 5:2420 Schiele, Egon, 1:153, 254; 4:2089–2091, 2090; 5:2421 Schiff, Jacob, 4:1837 Schiller, Friedrich, 4:2288 Schiller, Friedrich von, 1:197, 370; 2:678 German cultural identity and, 3:1523 Goethe friendship with, 2:985, 987 Ho ¨ lderlin and, 2:1078 Humboldt (Wilhelm) friendship with, 2:1097

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von, 4:2088 Schlegel’s reviews of, 4:2095 Schubert and, 4:2106 secularization view, 4:2133 Schiller, Johann Wolfgang von, Ibsen as influence on, 3:1108 Schimmelpenninck, Rutger Jan, 4:2188, 2189 Schinderhannes. See Bu¨ckler, Johannes Schindler, Alma, 3:1418 Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, 1:215, 216, 317; 2:876; 4:1769, 2091–2094, 2093 Schinkel Pavilion (Berlin), 4:2092 schizophrenia, 3:1240 Schlegel, August Wilhelm von, 2:912, 985; 3:1647; 4:1703, 1769, 2094–2096, 2097 Schelling and, 4:2088 Schlegel, Caroline von. See Schelling, Caroline Schlegel von Schlegel, Friedrich von, 1:385; 2:814, 873, 985 brother August Wilhelm and, 4:2094, 2095, 2096 Novalis and, 3:1647 Schelling and, 4:2088 Schleiermacher and, 4:2097 Schleiden, Matthia Jakob, 1:340 Schleiermacher, Dorothea Mendelssohn-Veit, 3:1647 Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 2:660, 1054; 3:1647; 4:2030, 2095, 2096–2098; 5:2381 Schlesinger, Johann Jakob, 2:1052 Schleswig, 4:1993, 1994 Schleswig-Holstein, 1:146; 2:952; 4:1993, 1994 Bismarck policy and, 1:235–236, 238 Danish claims and, 2:648, 963 Danish-German War and, 2:607, 608; 4:1902 Frankfurt Parliament and, 2:871 Prussian annexation of, 2:964; 4:1902 Schlieffen, Alfred von, 2:968; 3:1508; 4:2098–2099 Schlieffen Plan, 1:232; 3:1507, 1508; 4:1937, 2098–2100 Schliemann, Heinrich, 1:219; 4:1769 Schloss, Das (Kafka), 3:1242, 1243 Schloss Babelsberg (Potsdam), 4:2094 Schlossbru¨cke (Berlin), 4:2092 Schloss Charlottenhof (Potsdam), 4:2094 Schloss Glienecke (Potsdam), 4:2094 Schloss Tegel estate, 4:2092

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Schlumbohm, Ju¨rgen, 3:1147 Schlu ¨ ter, Andreas, 4:2076, 2092 Schmahl, Jeanne, 4:2279 Schmidt, Auguste, 3:1681 Schmidt, Johannes, 2:774 Schmidt, Johann Kaspar. See Stirner, Max Schmidt, Wilhelm, 2:774 Schmidt-Rottluff, Karl, 3:1310 schnapps, 1:34 Schneider-Creusot, 5:2485, 2499, 2503 Schneider family, 1:471 Schnitzer, Eduard (Emin Pasha), 2:783 Schnitzler, Arthur, 3:1437; 4:2100–2101; 5:2421 Schoenberg, Arnold, 1:153, 198; 2:654; 4:2101–2103, 2263; 5:2421 atonality and, 3:1245, 1437, 1572 on Brahms, 1:295–296 as Kandinsky influence, 3:1245 Mahler and, 3:1418 Mann and, 3:1435, 1437 opera and, 3:1676 Ravel and, 4:1944 Stravinsky and, 4:2262 Schola Cantorum, 2:628; 4:2087 Schonberg, J., 4:2143 Scho ¨ nbrunn, Treaty of (1809), 1:133; 2:860–861; 3:1236, 1586; 5:2374 Scho ¨ neberg (Berlin suburb), 1:218 Scho¨ne Mu ¨ llerin, Die (Schubert), 4:2107 Scho ¨ nerer, Georg von, 1:10, 145, 263; 2:689, 1068; 3:1393, 1394 School for Orphan Girls (Bonvin), 4:1947 School for Scandal, The (Sheridan), 3:1108 School Law of 1842 (Sweden), 4:2285 ‘‘School of 1830’’ (Barbizon painters), 1:178 School of Fine Arts (Barcelona), 4:1781 schools. See education; literacy Schopenhauer, Arthur, 1:296; 4:2103–2106, 2105 cultural pessimism and, 2:631 as Generation of 1898 influence, 2:950 as Jung influence, 3:1238 as Mann influence, 3:1436 Rank and, 4:1938 Romanticism and, 4:2028–2029, 2030

1 9 1 4

on spiritualism, 4:2237 Schottengymnasium (Vienna), 1:10 Schou, Philip, 2:647 Schouw, Joachim Frederik, 2:649 Schreiber, Johann, 3:1484 Schreiner, Olive, 1:372 Schreyvogel, Joseph, 5:2418 Schricker, Ivo, 2:834 Schubert, Franz, 1:197; 3:1565, 1570; 4:2106–2107; 5:2418 as Dvorˇa´k influence, 2:701 Romanticism and, 4:2026, 2027, 2029, 2106, 2107 Schubert, Gotthilf Heinrich von, 4:1924 Schubertiades, 4:2106 Schulter, Johann Friedrich von, 4:1723 Schulze-Delitzsch, Hermann, 1:55, 111; 2:556 Schumann, Clara, 4:2029 Schumann, Robert, 1:209, 225; 3:1419, 1565, 1570; 4:2027, 2029, 2107 Brahms and, 1:295 Liszt and, 3:1571 music criticism by, 3:1566, 1570 Paganini as influence on, 4:1699 Schumpeter, Joseph, 3:1122 Schurz, Carl, 2:962; 4:1987 Schwanengesang (Schubert), 4:2107 Schwann, Theodor Ambrose Hubert, 1:340 Schwartz, Pedro, 3:1514 Schwarzenberg, Felix zu, 2:863 Schwarzenberg, Friedrich von, 4:1722 Schwarzenberg, Karl zu, 2:903; 3:1319, 1320, 1321 Schwarzenberg family, 1:469 Schweppes soft drinks, 2:588 Schwerin, written constitution of, 2:959 Schwierige, Der (Hofmannsthal), 2:1077 Science and Hypothesis (H. Poincare´), 4:1805 science and technology, 4:2107–2116 access to knowledge and, 4:2111–2113 African colonization and, 1:20; 3:1118 Agassiz and, 1:22–24 Agricultural Revolution and, 1:25–26, 27, 27, 28–29; 3:1164 airplanes and, 1:30–31 armaments and, 2:1034 armies and, 1:96, 99, 101, 217

2759

INDEX

automobiles and, 1:148–151 Berlin as leading center of, 1:215, 217 Bernard and, 1:227–228 body and, 1:251 Britain and, 1:350 Brougham and, 1:303 Cajal and, 1:340–342 cholera and, 1:438 cinema and, 1:440–443 coal mining and, 1:487–488 Cockerill inventions and, 1:492–493 Comte and, 2:523 Crystal Palace exhibits of, 2:588 Curies and, 2:594–596 Cuvier and, 2:598–599 Denmark and, 2:649 de Vries and, 2:652–653 Dreadnaught battleship and, 2:681–683, 968 economic growth and, 1:350; 4:2115–2116 Eiffel Tower and, 2:737–738 Einstein and, 2:739–740 electricity and, 2:741–742; 3:1161–1162 engineers and, 2:757–761 environment and, 2:766 First Industrial Revolution and, 2:709; 3:1152–1154 Goethe studies and, 2:986 Helmholtz and, 2:1057–1058 Hertz and, 2:1062–1063 Huxley and, 2:1101–1103 interplay between, 4:2108–2110 Kelvin and, 3:1249–1250 knowledge production and, 4:2110–2111 Laennec and, 3:1297–1298 Lavoisier and, 3:1311–1313 liberalism and, 3:1341 London and, 3:1376–1377 Luddite resistance to, 3:1391–1392 Lumie`re brothers and, 3:1396–1398, 1397 machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412 Manchester and, 3:1430 Marconi and, 3:1444–1445 Maxwell and, 3:1477–1478 Milan and, 3:1502 military tactics and, 1:99; 2:1034; 3:1506–1507 Nobel and, 3:1644–1645 ocean exploration and, 3:1653–1654 Pasteur and, 4:1742–1744

2760

Pavlov and, 4:1748–1749 photography and, 4:1770–1774 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1804–1805 positivism and, 4:1843–1844 progress and, 2:815 racism and, 4:1926, 1928 railroads and, 4:1934 Roentgen and, 4:2011–2012, 2070 Romantic view of, 4:2027 Russia and, 4:1749 St. Petersburg and, 4:2076–2077 Second Industrial Revolution and, 1:351, 355–356; 3:1156–1164 secularization and, 4:2133 Siemens and, 4:2179–2180 spiritualism and, 4:2238, 2239 statistical reasoning and, 4:1922 steel and, 3:1158–1159 subways and, 4:2271–2273 Sweden and, 4:2285–2286 technology-to-science feedback and, 4:2113–2115 telephones and, 5:2308 transatlantic crossing and, 1:353 Wells and, 5:2458–2459 world’s fairs and, 5:2493, 2496, 2497, 2499, 2500, 2503, 2505 See also biology; botany; chemistry; medicine; physics; zoology Science et l’hypothe`se, La (H. Poincare´), 4:1805 Science expe´rimentale, La (Bernard), 1:228 science fiction, 2:816; 5:2408, 2458 Science Museum (London), 3:1376 Science of Ethics, The (Stephen), 4:2254 Science of Logic (Hegel), 2:1053 Science of Mechanics, The (Mach), 3:1409 Science sociale movement, 5:2516 Scientific-Humanitarian Committee (Berlin), 2:1069, 1070, 1071, 1086; 4:2163 Scientific Marxism, 4:2218 scientific revolution, 4:1779 ‘‘Scientific Romances’’ (Wells), 5:2408 scientism, 4:1953, 2133 Scotch whisky, 5:2477 Scotland, 4:2116–2122; 5:2433 aristocracy in, 1:80 art nouveau and, 1:107, 112 Carlyle and, 1:370–371 church attendance in, 4:1893 civil marriages in, 4:1894

Corn Laws repeal campaign in, 2:558 demographic change in, 4:2120–2122 economic changes in, 4:2117 education in, 2:722; 4:2119–2120 emigrants from, 1:343, 346; 2:1005 engineers in, 2:758 factories in, 2:792 football (soccer) in, 2:831, 832, 833, 834 Frazer and, 2:872–873 Greek Revival architecture in, 4:1769 Hardie and, 2:1043–1044 Highland vs. Lowland society in, 4:2120, 2121 housing in, 2:1089, 1090, 1091 international exhibitions in, 5:2499 joint-stock banking in, 1:172 land agitation in, 4:1755 landed elite in, 3:1306; 4:2116, 2117, 2120 literacy in, 2:720; 4:1868 Lyell and, 3:1402 Maxwell and, 3:1477–1478 newspapers and, 4:1866, 1867, 1868, 1869 Owen factory village in, 2:1088 phrenology and, 4:1775 politics and, 4:2118 Poor Law and, 4:2119; 5:2452 potato blight in, 2:1005 Protestant population of, 4:1890, 1890, 1893 religious makeup of, 2:1002, 1006; 5:2118–2119 representation and, 2:1003 Scott and, 4:2121, 2122–2123 Smiles and, 4:2199–2200 social issues in, 4:2119, 2122 sports in, 4:2240, 2243, 2246 Stevenson and, 4:2254–2256 technology and, 3:1153 telephone service in, 5:2308 Union with England (1707), 2:999, 1006 universities in, 4:2119–2120; 5:2379, 2384, 2387 village community in, 4:1754 world’s fairs and, 5:2504, 2505, 2506 Scott, George, 4:2283 Scott, Robert F., 2:784 Scott, Walter, 2:930; 3:1441; 4:2030, 2121, 2122–2124, 2253 as Delacroix influence, 2:640

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

as Doyle influence, 2:681 football (soccer) and, 2:831 operatic texts based on, 3:1671 Scottish baronial style, 1:186 Scottish Enlightenment, 1:465; 4:2120, 2123 Mill (James) and, 3:1510 Scottish Football Association, 2:832 Scottish League, 2:831 Scottish Miners Federation, 2:1043 Scottish moralists, 4:2212 Scottish Office, 4:2118 Scouting for Boys (manual), 1:159–160 ‘‘Scramble for Africa.’’ See Berlin Conference Scream, The (Munch), 3:1558, 1559; 4:2287 Scriabin, Alexander, 1:440; 2:654 Scribe, Augustin Euge`ne, 3:1107 Scribners (publisher), 4:2255 sculpture, 4:1702 art nouveau and, 1:109, 152 Berlin museum collections and, 1:219 Canova and, 1:347–349 cubism and, 1:156; 2:591 Daumier and, 2:621 Denmark and, 2:647 Dore´ and, 2:677 futurism and, 2:919 German expressionism and, 1:154 Matisse and, 3:1475 museums and, 1:219; 3:1562 Picasso and, 4:1710 realism and, 4:1947 Renoir and, 4:1956 Rodin and, 4:2008–2011 Rude and, 4:2031, 2043–2044 St. Petersburg and, 4:2076 Scuola di Polizia Scientifica (Italy), 4:1816 Scutari Albania and, 1:32 Montenegro and, 1:166 Nightingale’s nurses at, 3:1637–1638, 1637, 1649 siege of (1912–1913), 1:34, 163, 164 Scythians, The (Blok), 1:250; 2:774; 4:2217 SDF. See Social Democratic Federation SDLP. See Social Democratic Labor Party SDP. See Social Democratic Party ‘‘Sea Dog’’ table, 2:913 Seagull, The (Chekhov), 1:423; 3:1495 Sea Lady, The (Wells), 5:2458

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

seamstresses, 4:2158 se´ances, 4:2237, 2238 Search Decree (1819, Germany), 2:959 seascapes, 4:2027, 2029 seaside resorts, 3:1324, 1325; 4:2124–2127; 5:2328 bourgeoisie and, 1:288; 4:2125; 5:2328 Mediterranean France and, 1:288, 303 ‘‘Season of Russian Opera’’ (Parisian program), 2:654–655 ‘‘Seasons of Russian Opera’’ (Diaghilev production), 2:774 Secession. See Vienna Secession Secession style, 1:108, 112, 152–153, 154; 3:1530 Se´chelles, Marie-Jean He´rault de, 4:1960 Sechenov, Ivan, 4:1749, 1908 Second Adventism, 4:1714 secondary schools. See education Secondat, Charles-Louis de. See Montesquieu, baron de Second Balkan War (1913), 1:12, 164–165, 166; 2:705; 3:1691; 4:2149 Bulgaria’s losses in, 1:313; 2:705 Montenegro and, 3:1541 Second Carlist War, 4:2231 Second Coalition. See War of the Second Coalition Second Congress of the Russian Socialist Democratic Labor Party (1903), 3:1328 Menshevik-Bolshevik split at, 3:1487 Second Empire (France), 1:44, 52, 234, 248; 2:852–854; 4:1928, 1962, 1998, 2131–2132, 2302; 5:2496, 2497 Bonapartism and, 1:269 bureaucracy and, 1:322 collapse of, 2:567, 853; 3:1592 Courbet’s opposition to, 2:569 critics of, 2:852 degeneracy theme and, 2:637 Deraismes and, 2:649 education and, 2:721 establishment of, 3:1592 fall of, 2:669, 870 fashion and, 1:482 feminist movement and, 4:1998 Ferry’s opposition to, 2:810 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:853–855, 867–870 French Radicals and, 4:1928

1 9 1 4

Gambetta as critic of, 2:853, 928, 929 Haussmann and, 2:1047–1050; 4:1729–1731 Lyon and, 3:1404 Lyon silk industry and, 3:1404 Offenbach and, 3:1660–1661 overview of, 2:852–854; 3:1592–1593 Paris under, 4:1729–1731, 1733–1734 peasant vote for, 4:1755 Pius IX and, 4:1725, 1726 press curbs and, 4:1870 prostitution and, 4:2302 republicanism and, 4:1962 revisionist view of, 3:1593 secret society opposition to, 4:2131–2132 support for, 2:852 world’s fairs and, 5:2496, 2497 See also Crimean War; FrancoPrussian War; Napoleon III Second Estate (France), 2:767, 841, 842, 886 Second Home Rule Bill of 1893 (Britain), 2:978, 1011 Second Industrial Revolution. See Industrial Revolution, Second Second International, 1:11, 205; 2:521–522; 4:2127–2129, 2267; 5:2502 anarchists expulsion from, 3:1294 Bolshevik/Menshevik split and, 3:1487 Engels and, 2:756 feminism and, 2:805 founding of, 3:1294 Guesde and, 2:1025–1026 Hardie and, 2:1044 Luxemburg and, 3:1398, 1399, 1400 pacifism and, 2:825; 4:1696, 1697 Plekhanov and, 4:1801 Social Democratic Party and, 3:1399; 4:2127, 2128, 2129 World War I and, 3:1473 Second Land Act of 1881 (Britain), 2:1010 Second Law of Thermodynamics, 2:631 Second Moroccan Crisis. See Agadir Crisis Second Navy Law of 1900 (Germany), 3:1610 Second of May, 1808, The (Goya), 2:999 Second Opium War, 3:1679–1680

2761

INDEX

Second Partition of Poland (1793), 4:1900 Second Reform Bill (Britain). See Reform Act of 1867 Second Republic (France), 1:44, 178–179, 421; 2:567; 4:1946, 2136; 5:2317 Courbet and, 2:568; 4:1706 Daumier caricatures and, 2:621 feminism and, 2:803 Hugo and, 2:1093 Lamartine and, 2:849; 3:1304 Louis-Napoleon and, 3:1590–1591; 4:1706 Millet’s paintings and, 3:1516 overthrow of, 2:852; 3:1591 overview of, 2:849–852 Proudhon and, 4:1899 suffragism and, 4:2277–2278, 2279 Second Republic (Spain), 1:368 Second Restoration. See Restoration Second Serbian Uprising, 4:2142, 2144 Second Sex, The (Beauvoir), 4:1762 Second String Quartet (Schoenberg), 4:2102 Second Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419 Second Viennese School, 4:2102 Secret Agent, The (Conrad), 2:536 ‘‘Secret Sharer, The’’ (Conrad), 2:535, 536 secret societies, 4:2129–2132 Apostles as, 4:2258 Black Hand as, 1:242 Blanqui and, 1:248 Carbonari as, 1:359–362; 4:2130–2131; 5:2513, 2514 communist groups as, 2:521, 522 decline of, 1:361 in France, 4:1995, 2129–2132 Freemasons as, 2:877–882 in Greece, 4:1981–1982 Italian nationalism and, 1:359–363; 3:1193, 1194–1195, 1254 in Italy, 4:2001–2002, 2129–2131; 5:2513–2514 masculinity and, 3:1471 Pius IX’s condemnation of, 4:1798 in Portugal, 4:1841 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1989, 1995 in Russia, 1:38; 3:1168; 4:1991, 2050 Second French Republic and, 2:851 Turkish nationalism and, 3:1690 Veri Italiani as, 5:2514

2762

Young Italy as, 4:2001–2002, 2131; 5:2513–2514 Section Franc¸aise d l’Internationale Ouvrie`re. See French Socialist Party secularization, 4:2132–2134 conservatives’ opposition to, 2:958 Directory and, 2:666 education and, 4:1891 Eiffel Tower and, 2:737 Ferry and, 2:810–812 French church-state separation and, 4:1929–1930, 2136–2137; 5:2432–2433 French intellectuals and, 3:1168 French law and, 3:1595 French Radicals and, 4:1929 French Revolution and, 2:844 French school system and, 2:721, 723, 810, 856, 858, 929; 4:1891 hospitals and, 1:411 Jews and, 3:1229, 1232 Kulturkampf and, 3:1278 main areas of, 4:2133 museums and, 3:1561, 1562 Napoleon and, 2:957; 3:1192, 1193 nursing and, 3:1649–1650 papal denunciation of, 3:1199 Pius IX’s war against, 4:1795, 1797 positivism and, 4:1843–1844 Protestants and, 4:1893–1894, 1896 Prussian school system and, 2:966; 3:1277 reaction to, 4:2134 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 3:1193 of rites of passage, 4:1894 Roman Question and, 4:2024 in Russia, 4:2059, 2060, 2061 in Serbia, 4:2141 spiritualism and, 4:2239 three phases of, 4:2133 urban church attendance and, 4:1824 See also separation of church and state secular religion, 2:523–524 Sedan, Battle of (1870), 2:569, 810, 854, 928, 964; 3:1507; 4:2004, 2035, 2242, 2243 French surrender at, 2:870, 1050; 4:1734 Kesselschlacht and, 3:1507 Napoleon III’s command at, 3:1593 Seddon, Richard John, 3:1623 seduction theory (Freud), 2:905 seed drill, 1:25; 2:757; 3:1305

Segesser, Philipp Anton von, 4:2291 Segu, 1:13 Se´guin, Philippe, 3:1593 seignorialism, 4:1988, 1990, 1995 Seine River, 4:1731 bridges over, 4:1729, 1730 Seitz, William C., 3:1537 Seize Mai crisis (1877), 2:649 Selected Passages from Correspondence with Friends (Gogol), 1:208; 2:988 selective breeding. See eugenics self-determination. See nationalism Self-Help (Smiles), 2:1006; 4:2199 self-made man, 1:284; 2:1006 Self-Portrait (David), 2:624 Self-Portrait as St. Sebastian (Schiele), 4:2090 Self-Portrait with Black Clay Vase and Spread Fingers (Schiele), 4:2090 Self-Portrait with Hand to Cheek (Schiele), 4:2089 Selfridge, Harry Gordon, 2:551 Selfridges (London department store), 2:551; 3:1378 Seligmann, Adelbert F., 4:1877 Selim III, Ottoman emperor, 3:1420, 1683, 1685 Selimiye (Crimean hospital barracks), 1:278 Seljuks, 4:2022 Sella, Quintino, 3:1200 Sellwood, Emily, 5:2309 Semaines Sociales (France), 1:389 Semana Tra´gica (Barcelona), 4:2231; 5:2488 semiotics, 2:593 Semiramide (Rossini), 3:1670; 4:2038 Semmel, Bernard, 3:1514 Semmelweiss, Ignac, 4:2134–2136 Semper, Gottfried, 1:317 Semper Opernhaus (Dresden), 3:1567 Semyonovsky mutiny (1820), 2:1081 Sen, Amartya, 3:1427 Senatory Measures: Lord Morpeth Throwing Pearls before Swine (cartoon), 4:1913 Seneca, 4:2124 Senegal French enclave in, 1:19, 20, 21; 2:509, 812 slave trade and, 1:13, 15 Senegal River, 2:780 Senestrey, Ignaz von, 4:1722 Senhouse, Roger, 4:2259 Senior, Nassau, 2:716 Senne River, 1:305, 306 Sensales, Giuseppe, 4:2174 sensational novels, 2:575

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Sense and Sensibility (Austen), 1:130–131 Sentimental Education (Flaubert) and, 2:827 separate spheres, 1:70, 418 bourgeoisie and, 1:472; 2:943 civil society and, 1:467, 468 family life and, 3:1451, 1452, 1471 ideology of, 2:943 labor movements and, 2:945 masculine elite and, 3:1470 separation of church and state anticlericalism and, 1:68–69 Belgium and, 1:204 British Nonconformists and, 2:1006 Concordat of 1801 and, 2:527–529 French Revolution and. See Civil Constitution of the Clergy Germany and, 2:966 Giolitti’s view of, 2:972 Kulturkampf and, 3:1277 liberals and, 2:958 O’Connell’s belief in, 3:1655 papal denunciation of, 1:381–382; 3:1199; 4:1798 papal infallibility doctrine and, 4:1896 political Catholicism and, 1:387–388; 4:1718–1719 Portugal and, 4:1842 Protestant advocates of, 4:1895 See also secularization separation of church and state (France, 1905), 2:540; 4:1895, 2136–2137 anticlericalism and, 1:69, 389 Catholic political parties and, 1:389 Dreyfus affair as factor in, 2:685 French Radicals and, 4:1929–1930 Jaure`s role in, 3:1217 overview of, 2:858–859 papacy and, 4:1721 Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432–2433 See also secularization Separation of Mother and Child, The (Norton), 3:1645 Sephardic Jews, 3:1226; 5:2519 Sepoy Mutiny, 1:499; 2:508, 706, 1008; 4:2137–2141 causes of, 4:2138–2140 consequences of, 4:2140 Disraeli’s response to, 1:501; 2:673 East India Company and, 2:706, 1008; 3:1135 racism and, 3:1120

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks (U.S.), 2:738 September Convention (1864), 4:1797 September Laws of 1835 (France), 2:621 September Massacres of 1792 (France), 2:563, 799, 891, 973; 4:2006 September program (1914), 3:1357 September Revolution of 1868 (Spain), 1:59 Septet (Stravinsky), 4:2263 septic infections, 3:1262 Serafim of Sarov, 4:2063 Seraing textile factory (Belgium), 1:493; 2:791 Serbia, 4:2141–2149 Albania and, 1:32, 33; 3:1691 alliance system and, 1:48, 49; 2:663; 3:1546 assassination of Francis Ferdinand and, 2:663–664, 705 Austria-Hungary and, 1:146, 166, 206, 207, 242, 243, 277; 2:663, 704–705, 862, 863, 865; 3:1247, 1546; 4:1994, 2146–2149 Balkan League and, 1:32 Balkan Wars and, 1:2, 13, 146, 163, 164–165, 166, 313; 2:704–705; 3:154, 1691 Belgrade and, 1:205–207 Black Hand and, 1:242–243, 277; 2:705; 4:2132 Bosnia-Herzegovina and, 1:166, 242–243, 273, 275–276, 277; 2:703, 705, 862; 4:2146, 2148 Bulgaria and, 1:313; 4:2149 Congress of Berlin and, 4:2144, 2145 Eastern Question and, 2:704–705 Greater Serbia plan and, 1:2; 4:2148 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137, 142; 2:862 hatred of Francis Ferdinand in, 2:862 independence of, 1:206; 2:530, 703, 1018; 3:1173, 1683, 1689 Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225 Karadjordje and, 3:1247–1248; 4:2142, 2144, 2145 monetary system of, 3:1538 Montenegro and, 1:242; 3:1539, 1541, 1546 nationalist movement in, 1:2, 163, 166, 207, 242–243; 2:705; 3:1247–1248, 1268; 4:1993, 1994, 2142–2143, 2147

1 9 1 4

Ottoman Empire and, 1:2, 39, 206; 3:1420, 16833 revolt of 1804 and, 1683–1684 revolution of 1904 and, 2141–2142 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1986 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1993, 1994 Russian support for, 2:705; 3:1519, 1628; 4:1717, 2067 San Stefano Treaty and, 4:2069, 2085 suffrage in, 4:2279 trade and, 4:2147; 5:2337 Serbian Learned Society, 1:207 Serbian National Organization (Bosnia), 1:276 Serbian National Theater, 4:2148 Serbian Orthodox Church, 1:206; 4:2142–2143 Serbian Revolution of 1904, 4:2141–2142 Serbian Royal Academy of Sciences, 4:2148 Serbo-Bulgarian War, 1:312 serfs, emancipation of, 4:1754, 2149–2155, 2154 Alexander I and, 1:38; 2:1014 Alexander II and, 1:39; 2:1015–1016 aristocracy and, 1:84; 2:1017 Austria-Hungary and, 1:142; 4:1987, 1995 Baltic provinces and, 2:819 Belinsky advocacy of, 1:208 civil society emergence and, 1:118 Denmark and, 2:647 dimensions of serfdom, 4:2150–2152 effects of, 1:84, 476; 2:1017; 3:1638; 4:1755–1756 French Revolution and, 3:1305; 4:1754, 2279 Hungary and, 4:1994 Jewish economic activity and, 3:1232 Poland and, 4:1809 provisions and consequences of, 4:2153–2155 Prussia and, 4:2251 Russia and, 1:38, 39; 2:1014, 1015–1016; 3:1341, 1552; 4:1754, 1975, 2049, 2051, 2149–2155, 2172–2173, 2196; 5:2365, 2371, 2460 serfdom foundational challenges, 4:2152–2153 Siberian migration and, 4:2172–2173

2763

INDEX

Slavophiles and, 4:2196 Ukraine and, 5:2371 utilitarianism and, 5:2393 Sergei Alexandrovich, grand duke of Russia, 4:1978, 2210 serialism, Stravinsky and, 4:2261, 2262–2263 Serrano y Domı´nguez, Francisco, 4:2230 Sertu¨rner, Friedrich, 2:686 Se´rusier, Paul, 4:2294 Sesame and Lilies (Ruskin), 2:943 Seton, Ernest Thompson, 1:159 Settlement Act of 1662 (Britain), 4:1819 Seurat, Georges, 2:738, 795, 796, 941; 3:1398; 4:2155–2158, 2292 impressionism and, 3:1132, 1133, 1530; 4:1709 as Pissarro influence, 4:1794 pointillism and, 3:1474 poster art and, 4:1845 Sevastopol, 1:243; 2:1007 siege of (18541land855), 1:244; 2:578, 579 Sevastopol Stories (Tolstoy), 5:2318 Seven Acts of Mercy, The (Caravaggio), 2:941 Seven Lamps of Architecture, The (Ruskin), 4:1917, 2046 Seventh Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419 Seven Weeks’ War (1866). See AustroPrussian War Seven Years’ War, 1:343, 375; 2:706, 841 Se´verine, 2:696, 697 Severini, Gino, 1:157, 214; 2:918 Severn, Joan, 4:2047 Severn, Joseph, 4:2028 Se´vigne´, Madame de, 2:994 sewers. See sanitation sewing machine, 1:483; 2:549; 4:2158–2160 Crystal Palace exhibit of, 2:588 electric, 2:741 Sex in Relation to Society (Ellis), 2:746 sex manuals, 4:2163 sex offenders, 3:1270 sexology. See sexuality Sexual Inversion (Ellis and Symonds), 2:745, 948; 4:2296 sexuality, 4:2161–2164 anticlericalism and, 1:70 aristocratic prerogatives and, 1:469 beard theory and, 1:190–191 birth control and, 4:1827–1830, 1831

2764

Bloomsbury Group and, 4:2258, 2259 body and, 1:251, 253, 254 bourgeois mores of, 1:287; 4:2161 colonialism and, 3:1472 contraceptives and, 2:805, 947 double standard and, 1:469; 2:797, 798, 804, 947; 3:1471 Ellis theories on, 2:745–746, 1085 Enlightenment view of, 4:2029 fin de sie`cle and, 2:816 Fourier’s views on, 4:2202 free love movement and, 2:803 Freudian theory and, 2:905, 906–907, 908; 4:1904, 1905, 2104, 2163, 2164 Hirschfeld theories on, 2:1069–1071 Krafft-Ebing theories on, 2:1085; 3:1270–1271 male impotence fears and, 3:1472 Malthusian view of, 3:1425 marriage and family and, 3:1453 married love and, 4:2163 masculine ideology of, 3:1471, 1472 medical construction of, 3:1270–1271 Mill (Harriet) and, 3:1509 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1509 ‘‘perversions’’ and, 4:2162–2163 pornography and, 4:1833–1836 primitivism and, 4:1875, 1876 Roland’s view of, 4:2013 Romantics’ view of, 4:2026 Roussel’s view of, 4:2041–2042, 2162 Sade and, 4:2073–2074 Sand’s portrayal of, 4:2083 Schnitzler’s portrayal of, 4:2100, 2101 Schopenhauer’s theory on, 4:2104–2105 Soloviev’s (Vladimir) view of, 4:2216–2217 Symond on, 4:2296, 2297 Weininger on, 5:2449 women’s equality and, 4:1762 women’s fashions and, 2:943, 944 working class and, 4:2161–2162 See also homosexuality and lesbianism; prostitution Sezession. See Secession style Sforza Cesarini family, 4:2035 Shadow-Line, The (Conrad), 2:536 shadow plays, 1:335 Shaftesbury, Lord (Anthony Ashley Cooper), 1:402, 429; 4:1912

Shahrastani, 3:1516 Shaka (African chief), 1:17 Shakespeare, William, 1:153, 229; 2:535; 3:1663; 4:1824–1825; 5:2319 Coleridge lectures on, 1:497 as Delacroix influence, 2:640 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 as Pushkin influence, 4:1919 Rossini operatic texts from, 3:1671 Schlegel’s translations of, 4:2094, 2095 Schubert’s works and, 4:2106 Strindberg and, 4:2269 Verdi operatic texts from, 3:1672 Wagner and, 5:2429 Shakhovskoi, Dmitri, 3:1241 Shamil, 4:2164–2165 Shandong Province, 1:292 Shanghai, 3:1679 Shanley, Mary Lyndon, 3:1514 Shape of Things to Come, The (Wells), 5:2459 sharpshooting societies, 4:1989 Shaw, George Bernard, 2:1012; 4:2165–2167; 5:2445 on Darwinian evolution, 2:618 Fabians and, 1:987; 4:2166, 2206; 5:2444, 2458 as Ibsen enthusiast, 3:1109 socialism and, 4:2206 Wilde and, 5:2465, 2466 Shcherbtov, Mikhail, 1:400 Shchukin, Sergei, 3:1474 Sheehy-Skeffington, Hanna, 4:2280–2281 sheep, 1:26, 134; 2:505 New Zealand farming of, 3:1623 sheet music, 3:1566 Sheffield, 2:763 factories and, 2:792 football (soccer) and, 2:831 industrial smoke, 2:765 Sheffield silver-plate, 3:1153 Shekhtel, Fyodor, 1:114 Shelburne, earl of (William Petty), 2:839 Shelley, Mary, 1:333; 2:945–946; 4:2168, 2168–2169; 5:2480 father, Godwin, and, 2:982 husband, Percy Shelley, and, 4:2168–2169, 2170 Romanticism and, 4:2029 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 1:333; 4:2028, 2169–2170 Hellenism and, 4:1769 on London, 3:1373

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

opium use by, 2:686 Romanticism and, 4:2027, 2030, 2031, 2170 wife, Mary Shelley, and, 4:2168–2169, 2170 Shelley, Percy Florence, 4:2169 Shelley, Timothy, 4:2169 shell shock, 1:410; 3:1507; 4:1906 Shenyang. See Mukden, Battle of Shepherd, Thomas Hosmer, 2:589 Sheptytsky, Andrii, 5:2373 Sheridan, Caroline. See Norton, Caroline Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 3:1108, 1645; 5:2465 Sherrington, Charles Scott, 1:341, 342 Sherwood, Mrs., 1:428 Shevchenko, Taras, 4:1717; 5:2370 Shiel, M. P., 2:633 Shiga, Kiyoshi, 2:736 Shigenobu, Okuma, 3:1211 Shimmer of the Sea (ship), 2:535 Shimonoseki, Treaty of (1895), 1:434; 4:2170–2171 Shingarev, Andrei, 3:1241 shipbuilding, 5:2350, 2351 dreadnaught battleships and, 2:681–683 Hamburg and, 2:1040 steel and, 3:1157, 1158, 1163 Shipov, Dmitri, 3:1659 shipping American Civil War and, 2:1008 Amsterdam and, 1:53 Black Sea and, 1:243 Britain and, 3:1155 dock workers and, 5:2485–2486 Dublin and, 2:691 East India Company and, 2:705–706 Greece and, 2:1018 Hamburg and, 2:1038–1039, 1040 Manchester and, 3:1431 of meat, 2:659 navigational instruments and, 3:1249, 1250 New Zealand and, 3:1623–1624 oceanic exploration and, 3:1653–1654 Scandinavia and, 4:1933; 5:2348 steel ships and, 3:1163 Suez Canal and, 3:1338, 1482 telegraph use in, 3:1445 Shipping Federation (Britain), 3:1291 Shirley (C. Bronte¨), 1:301; 2:802; 3:1392, 1410 Shishtov, Treaty of (1791), 1:206 shock tactics, 3:1506

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

shoe manufacture, 2:792; 4:2159 shooting (sport), 4:2243 shopkeepers. See retail trade shoplifting, 2:574, 576 shopping. See consumerism Short History of the World, A (Wells), 5:2459 Short Outline of a Croatian-Slavic Orthography (Gaj), 2:924 shortwave radio, 3:1445 Shostakovich, Dmitri, 3:1496; 4:2000 Shrapnel, Henry, 1:99 Shrek 2 (film), 2:678 Shrewsbury, 3:1148 Shrewsbury, earl of (John Talbot), 4:1918 shrines, 4:1788–1789 Shveja: The Mistress (Mussorgsky), 3:1576 Siam, 3:1137, 1138, 1139, 1140, 1141, 1142; 5:2500 Siamanto, 1:90 Sibelius, Jean, 3:1419 Siberia, 1:395; 4:2151, 2171–2173 agricultural reforms and, 4:2257 conquest and settlement of, 4:2172 Dostoyevsky sentence in, 2:678 Japan and, 4:2063–2064 Kropotkin’s exploration of, 3:1272 Lenin’s exile in, 3:1327 migration to, 2:746 Polish exiles in, 4:1810, 1818 Radishchev’s exile in, 3:1552 Russian exiles in, 2:781; 4:2050, 2054, 2172 Russian migrants to, 2:646 Speransky and, 4:2236 strike suppression in, 3:1628 Vladivostok, 4:2064; 5:2426–2427 See also Trans-Siberian Railroad Sicilian Fasci, 4:2173–2175, 2178 Sicily, 4:2175–2178, 2177 Austria and, 4:2001 banditry and, 2:571; 3:1199, 1414–1416; 4:1821 Carbonari and, 1:360 Crispi and, 2:581 emigration from, 3:1199 Garibaldi and, 3:1255, 1415; 4:2003, 2175, 2176 Italian unification and, 1:392; 2:931–932; 3:1198, 1199 literacy in, 2:724 mafia and, 3:1414–1417; 4:1821, 2173–2175, 2178 Naples and, 4:1980

1 9 1 4

as outside Napoleon’s empire, 3:1192 peasant unrest in, 4:2173–2175, 2178 Revolution of 1820 and, 1:361 Revolution of 1848 and, 2:581; 3:1196, 1255 Verga and, 5:2407 Victor Emmanuel II and, 5:2410–2411 violent crime and, 2:571 See also Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; Naples; Palermo Sick Child, The (Munch), 3:1558, 1559 Sickert, Walter Richard, 1:191 Sickness unto Death (Kierkegaard), 3:1251 Siddall, Elizabeth, 4:1864 side-chain theory, 2:735–736 Sidgwick, Henry, 4:2238; 5:2394 Sidi Mohammed, 3:1548 Sieg des Judentums u ¨ ber das Germanentum, Der (Marr), 1:71, 72 Sie`ge de Corinthe, Le (Rossini), 3:1671; 4:2038 Siege of Corinth, The (Byron), 1:332 Siegfried (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674 Siemann, Wolfram, 2:871 Siemens, Werner von, 1:217; 2:741; 4:2178–2180 Siemens & Halske, 4:2179, 2273 Siemens-Martin open-hearth process, 1:485; 3:1158; 4:2115 Sierra Leone, 1:13–14, 19 Sieste (Matisse), 2:796 Sieye`s, Emmanuel-Joseph, 1:456; 2:767, 768, 842; 4:2180–2181, 2246 Consulate and, 2:845–846 as Napoleon supporter, 2:895; 3:1585 Sigl, Robert, 2:802 Signac, Paul, 2:795; 3:1474, 1530; 4:1794, 2156–2157, 2158 Sign of Four, The (Doyle), 2:680 Sigurd (Reyer), 3:1675 Sikhs, 2:706; 4:2137, 2138 Silas Marner (G. Eliot), 2:744; 4:1756 Silesia. See Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia Silhouette, La (French journal), 2:621 silica, 1:425 silk manufacture, 2:790, 791 Chinese trade and, 3:1678, 1679 Lyon and, 3:1153, 1404, 1405 Pasteur disease study and, 4:1743 Silk Road, 1:395

2765

INDEX

Sillon (France), 1:389 ‘‘Silly Novels by Lady Novelists’’ (G. Eliot), 2:744 Silverado Squatters, The (Stevenson), 4:2255 Silver Age (Russia), 4:2181–2183 futurism and, 4:2182–2183 poets of, 2:774 St. Petersburg and, 4:2077 Soloviev (Vladimir) and, 4:2217 silver coinage standard, 1:171; 3:1537 Silver Dove, The (Bely), 2:774 silver nitrate, 1:340–341 Simarro Lacabra, Luı´s, 1:341 Simfoniya, 2-ya, dramticheskaya (Bely), 1:209 Simmel, Georg, 1:220; 4:2183–2185, 2215; 5:2446 Simon, John, 1:325; 3:1373 Simon, Jules, 2:812 Simon, The´odore, 2:927 Simon Boccanegra (Verdi), 5:2406 Simonis et Biolley, 1:492 ‘‘Simple Heart, A’’ (Flaubert), 2:827 Simplicissimus (German weekly), 3:1435 Simpson’s in the Strand (London restaurant), 4:1966 Simrock, Fritz, 2:701 Sinan Pasha, 5:2361 Sinclair, Isaak von, 2:1078 Sindh, 3:1134 Sindicato operato, Il (syndicalist newspaper), 4:2299 Singer, Isaac Bashevis, 1:447–448 Singer Company, 4:2160; 5:2499 Singer sewing machine, 2:588 factory in Scotland, 2:792 singlehood, 2:645, 947; 3:1451 motherhood and, 4:2042 women as missionaries and, 3:1528 Singspiel, 3:1673, 1674 Singulari Nos (encyclical, 1834), 1:388 Sinn Fe´in, 2:691; 3:1182, 1183–1184, 1185; 4:1964 Sin of Father Mouret, The (Zola), 1:70 Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), 1:293, 434, 435; 4:1837, 2064, 2170–2171 Sinope, Battle of (1853), 1:244; 2:577 sipahis, 4:2141, 2144 Sipiagin, Dmitri, 4:2054 Sir Nigel (Doyle), 2:681 Sisley, Alfred, 3:1126, 1128, 1534; 4:1954 Sismondi, Jean-Charles Leonard de, 4:2185–2186 sister republics, 2:666; 4:2186–2190

2766

Sisters of Saint Joseph de Cluny, 1:384 Sisters of the Good Shepherd, 4:1886 Si Votha, prince of Cambodia, 3:1141, 1142 Six-Day race (bicycle), 2:602 Six Little Piano Pieces, (Schoenberg), 4:2103 1649 Law Code (Russia), 4:2150 Sixth Symphony (Beethoven), 3:14191.197 Sixth Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419 Skandalkonzert of 1913, 4:2101 Sketches by Boz (Dickens), 2:656 Cruikshank illustrations, 2:585 skiing, 4:1821 Skinner, Quentin, 4:1958 Sklodowska, Marie. See Curie, Marie Skobelev, Mikhail D., 4:2068 Sˇkoda works (Pilsen), 1:260 Sˇkolska´, Matice, 1:262 Skorupski, John, 3:1514 Skoufas, Nikolas, 2:1019 Skovoroda, Grigory, 4:2216 skull study. See phrenology Skye, island of, 4:2121 skyscrapers, 2:590, 736, 738 Slade, Henry, 4:2238 ‘‘Slap in the Face of Public Taste, A’’ (futurist manifesto), 1:157; 4:2182 Slataper, Scipio, 5:2354 slaughterhouses, 2:766 Slav Congress. See Prague Slav Congress slave revolts, 1:364, 365, 498; 2:890, 1036 Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying: Typhoon Coming On (Turner), 5:2368 slavery, 4:2190–2194, 2191 Africa and, 1:13–14, 15, 16, 37; 2:509; 4:2193–2194, 2219 Agassiz’s view of, 1:23 Atlantic economy and, 4:2191–2192 Berlin Conference on, 1:229 Britain and, 4:2190, 2192, 2193; 5:2461, 2462–2463 British abolishment of, 1:18, 19, 211, 365; 2:1003 Brussels Declaration on, 1:308–309 capitalist industrialism and, 2:708 Caribbean and, 1:363, 364; 2:708–709, 890, 1036; 4:1925, 1927, 2190, 2191 citizenship and, 1:458 colonial abolishment of, 1:458, 498, 499

colonialism and, 1:498, 499; 2:506, 509, 509–510, 888, 1036; 4:1923, 1925, 2190–2191 consequences of, 4:2194 France and, 2:888, 1036; 4:1959, 2279 French abolishment of, 2:843, 897, 1036 galley slaves and, 2:779 international conventions against, 1:309; 3:1173 Napoleon’s reinstatement of, 1:498; 2:897, 1036 Ottoman captives and, 1:206 race and, 4:1924–1926, 1928, 2194 Romanies and, 4:2021 serfdom vs., 4:2151 Toussaint Louverture and, 4:2192; 5:2332 Tunisia and, 5:2362 Turners portrayal of, 5:2368 women’s status compared with, 2:804 See also antislavery movement; Atlantic slave trade; serfs, emancipation of Slavery Convention of 1926, 1:309 Slavic-Bulgarian History (Hildendarski), 1:312 Slavı´n monument, 4:1858 Slavonia, 1:242 Slavonic Dances (Dvorˇa´k), 2:701 Slavophiles, 4:2048, 2194–2197; 5:2365, 2459 basic tenets of, 4:2194–2196 Chaadayev’s influence on, 1:400; 2:772 Euroasianism and, 2:772 Gaj and, 2:924 Russian identity and, 2:772 sobornost concept of, 1:212; 4:2194, 2196 Westernizers vs., 2:1064, 1066 See also Pan-Slavism Sleeping Beauty, The (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307 Diaghilev staging of, 2:655 sleeping sickness, 3:1264 Slovakia, 1:118, 142; 4:1993 Slovenia, 4:2243–2244 Slowacki, Juliusz, 4:1808, 1818 slums, 1:453, 454, 454, 455; 2:1088; 4:2079 death rates in, 2:628 Gissing novels about, 2:974–975 London and, 3:1375

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Manchester and, 3:1430 Paris and, 2:1088; 4:1729, 1733 photographs of, 4:1772 public health problems in, 4:1912 reformers and, 2:1090–1092 St. Petersburg and, 4:2079 typhus outbreaks and, 2:670 Small, Albion, 4:2214 smallpox, 4:2122, 2197–2198, 2197–2199 Algeria and, 1:43 Australia and, 1:134 infant deaths from, 2:667 London and, 3:1372 peasant victims of, 4:1751 Scotland and, 4:2122 vaccination for, 2:628, 644; 3:1222, 1223–1224, 1224; 4:2197 vaccination opponents and, 4:2198 Smetana, Bedrˇich, 2:700, 701; 3:1673; 4:1858 Smil, Vaclav, 3:1160; 4:2115 Smiles, Samuel, 1:284; 2:1006; 3:1323; 4:2199–2200 Smit, Nicolaas, 3:1423 Smith, Adam, 1:465, 490; 2:515; 3:1152; 4:1973, 2120, 2203 classical economics and, 2:712–714, 715, 716, 717, 718; 5:2333, 2334, 2338 consumption and, 2:551 economic liberalism and, 3:1410 free trade and, 2:558, 707, 708, 716; 4:1887 List and, 3:1356, 1357 Malthusian economic theory vs., 3:1426 market optimism of, 2:709 as Marx target, 3:1466 as Philosophic Radicals influence, 3:1512 republicans and, 4:1961 Sismondi and, 4:2185, 2186 as slavery opponent, 4:2192 sociology and, 4:2212 on transports importance, 4:1931 Smith, Adolphe, 5:2490 Smith, Anthony D., 3:1607 Smith, Barbara. See Bodichon, Barbara Leigh Smith, Frank, 4:2083 Smith, Sydney, 1:302–303 Smith, William (geologists), 4:2113 Smith, William Robertson (scholar), 2:872 Smithson, Harriet, 1:225

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Smoke (Turgenev), 5:2365 smoking. See tobacco Smolensk, 1:272 Smolenskin, Perez, 5:2519, 2520 Smolny Institute (St. Petersburg), 4:2077 smuggling, 2:512 Smuts, Jan Christian, 1:258; 4:2224 Smyrna, 1:90 Snach von Wuthenow (Fontane), 2:829 Snellman, Johan Wilhelm, 2:820 Snow, John, 1:437; 4:2109, 2110 Snowden, Philip, 4:2208 Snow Maiden, The (Rimsky-Korsakov), 2:774; 4:1999, 2000 Snow Mask, The (Blok), 1:250 Snow Storm: Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps (Turner), 4:1704; 5:2367 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (film), 2:677 snuff, 5:2313–2314, 2315 Soames, Olave St. Clair, 1:160 soap, 1:15 sobornost (Slavophile concept), 1:212; 4:2194, 2196 soccer. See football sociability consumerism and, 2:547, 549 working class, 3:1439–1440 See also associations, voluntary Social Catholicism, 1:203, 387, 389 social class. See class and social relations social clubs. See associations, voluntary social constructionism, 2:1082 social contract, 3:1272, 1603 social Darwinism, 2:618–619, 777; 4:1811, 2213, 2303; 5:2330 anti-Semitism and, 1:76; 2:753 ‘‘degenerate’’ as term and, 2:636 eugenics and, 1:403; 2:619; 4:2249 German pre-World War I rhetoric and, 2:968 imperialism and, 3:1120 Spencer and, 3:1272; 4:2235 statistical studies and, 4:2249 working class and, 5:2489 Young Turks and, 5:2516 Social Democratic Federation (Britain), 1:59, 372; 2:787, 1011 Labour Party and, 3:1295 Social Democratic Labor Party (Russia), 4:2049, 2054, 2209, 2270; 5:2518 Bolshevik-Menshevik split and, 3:1328 Bolsheviks and, 1:264–265, 266, 267; 2:522; 3:1328; 4:1768

1 9 1 4

Bund and, 1:313–315 Gorky and, 2:992 Lenin and, 3:1327, 1328 Martov and, 3:1460–1461 Mensheviks and, 3:1487–1488 Plekhanov and, 4:1801 Social Democratic Labor Party (Sweden), 4:2284 Social Democratic Party (Austria), 1:11; 2:1090; 3:1395 Vienna and, 5:2420, 2421 Social Democratic Party (Czechoslovakia), 1:11 Social Democratic Party (Germany), 1:36, 61, 111; 2:967; 4:2205; 5:2469, 2473 artisans and, 1:104 Bebel and, 1:194, 195; 3:1289, 1311 Berlin subculture and, 1:219 Bernstein and, 1:230–231; 3:1328 Bismarck’s suppression of, 1:459; 2:966; 3:1279; 4:1903 bourgeois members of, 1:290 cooperatives and, 2:556 founders of, 1:194 homosexual emancipation and, 2:1070, 1071 Kautsky’s Erfurt program and, 3:1248 Liebknecht and, 3:1355–1356 Luxemburg and, 3:1399–1400 popular vote and, 2:967, 968 Second International and, 3:1399; 4:2127, 2128, 2129 women’s rights and, 3:1292–1293 working class and, 5:2484, 2485, 2487, 2490, 2492 Social Democratic Party (Latvia), 2:823 Social Democratic Party (Poland), 3:1399 Social Democratic Party (Romania), 4:2017 Social Democratic Workers Party (Russia), 4:1976 Social Democratische Arbeiderspartij (Netherlands), 3:1619 social insurance. See health insurance; pensions; welfare socialism, 4:2200–2207 Adler (Alfred) and, 1:9–10 Amsterdam and, 1:54–55 anarchism and, 1:58, 59 anarchosyndicalism and, 1:60, 61, 62 anti-Semitism and, 1:76, 184; 2:689 Armenians and, 1:89

2767

INDEX

artisans and, 1:111, 474 Austria and, 1:10–11 Bakunin-Marx rivalry and, 1:161, 162 Bebel and, 1:194–195 Belgium and, 1:199, 203, 204, 205, 307 Belinsky and, 1:208 Berdyayev and, 1:212 Berlin and, 1:219 Bernstein and, 1:230–231 Bismarck’s repression of, 1:36, 238–239; 2:966 Blanc and, 1:247–248 Britain and, 1:59, 86, 372, 373; 2:1011; 3:1295, 1297, 1692–1693; 4:2200–2201, 2205–2207; 5:2490 Bund and, 1:314–315; 3:1233 Carpenter and, 1:372 as Catholic political challenge, 1:381, 388, 389 Chartism differentiated from, 1:418 Christian Democracy and, 4:2209 cities and, 1:449 class and, 1:474–475, 476 classical economists vs., 2:716, 717–718 communism vs., 2:520, 521, 522 cooperatives and, 2:556 education of workers and, 2:724 elected representatives of, 1:290 Engels and, 2:754, 755, 756 Fabians and, 1:230, 372, 787–788 family conditions and, 3:1450 feminism and, 1:194–195; 2:805, 946; 3:1276, 1288, 1293; 4:1714 First International and, 2:824–825 Fourier and, 4:2031, 2200, 2201–2202 France and, 1:247–248; 2:824, 859; 4:1929, 1930, 2127, 2128, 2129, 2200, 2201–2203, 2205, 2265, 2298, 2299 French church-state separation and, 4:2137 French doctor-reformers and, 1:286 French feminism and, 1:127; 2:650–651; 4:1761 French Radicals and, 4:1929, 1930 gender ideas of, 2:946; 3:1293 Germany and, 1:194–195, 230–231; 3:1310–1311, 1399–1400; 4:2127, 2128, 2129, 2203, 2205; 5:2473, 2489, 2490–2491 Guesde and, 2:1025–1026 Hamburg and, 2:1040

2768

Herzen and, 2:1064–1066; 5:2460 imperialism and, 3:1119–1121 Italy and, 3:1201, 1202, 1203, 1276–1277, 1424; 4:2174; 5:2363–2364, 2377, 2491 Jaure`s and, 3:1214, 1215–1219 Jews and, 3:1232–1233 See also Bund Kautsky’s popularization of, 3:1248 Kuliscioff and, 3:1276–1277 labor movements and, 3:1286–1288, 1291, 1292, 1295 Lassalle and, 3:1310–1311 late-nineteenth-century development of, 4:2205 liberal agenda vs., 3:1349 Liebknecht and, 3:1355–1356 literary criticism and, 1:207 Luxemburg and, 3:1398–1401 Manchester and, 3:1430 Martov and, 1460–1461 Marx and, 3:1461, 1464, 1466–1468; 4:2200, 2201, 2203–2205, 2214 Mazzoni and, 3:1556 Milan and, 3:1504 Mill’s (John Stuart) view of, 2:718 Morris and, 1:59, 372; 3:1551; 4:1865 Netherlands and, 3:1619 Owen and, 4:2200–2201 pacifism and, 2:825; 3:1461; 4:1696, 1697 papal opposition to, 1:381; 4:1795, 1797, 1798 Paris and, 4:1732–1733 parliamentary election wins and, 3:1293 Pe´guy and, 4:1760, 1761 Poland and, 1:314; 2:753; 4:1811–1812, 1818 populist peasant-orientation and, 4:1831–1832 Proudhon and, 3:1287, 1288; 4:1897–1899 republican view of, 4:1962 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1988, 1995 Roland and, 4:2013–2014 Romanticism and, 4:2031 Ruskin and, 4:2047 Russia and, 4:2052, 2054, 2196; 5:2460 Saint-Simon and, 4:2031, 2080, 2081, 2082, 2200, 2202–2203

Shaw and, 4:2166 Smiles and, 4:2200 strikes and, 4:2265, 2267–2268 Sweden and, 4:2284 syndicalists and, 4:2298, 2299 temperance movement and, 1:36 Tristan and, 5:2357–2358, 2397 Turati and, 5:2363–2364 varieties of, 4:2205–2207 Webb and, 4:2206; 5:2443–2445 Westernizers and, 5:2459 women and, 5:2488 women’s suffrage and, 3:1293 working class and, 1:474; 3:1294 World War I and, 3:1203, 1461 See also First International; Marxism; Second International; Social Democratic Party; socialist revolutionaries Socialism, Christian, 4:2207–2209 anti-Semitism of, 1:73; 3:1395 Austria and, 1:11, 73; 3:1393, 1395 Catholicism and, 1:389 Germany and, 1:189 Vienna and, 5:2420, 2520 Socialism and Political Struggle (Plekhanov), 4:1801 Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (Engels), 2:756; 3:1462; 4:2205; 5:2395 Socialist International. See Second International Socialist League (Britain), 1:59, 372; 2:651; 3:1295; 4:2205 Socialist League (Milan), 3:1556 Socialist Party (Amsterdam), 1:54–55 Socialist Party (Britain), 3:1297 Socialist Party (France), 2:1025, 1026; 4:1929, 1930; 5:2491 French Socialist Party vs., 3:1217, 1292 Socialist Party (Italy), 1:62; 2:609, 972, 973; 3:1201, 1203, 1294, 1424; 4:2299; 5:2363, 2364 Kuliscioff and, 3:1276–1277 Lombroso and, 3:1371 Malatesta and, 3:1424 Mozzoni’s critique of, 3:1556 Socialist Party (Poland), 1:314; 4:1811, 1818 socialist realism, 1:207; 3:1496; 4:1958 socialist revolutionaries, 4:1976, 1978, 2049, 2209–2212; 5:2320, 2518 Socialist Revolutionary Party (Russia), 4:1768, 1976, 2209–2212

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Socialist Students Association (Vienna), 1:9 Socialist Workers Party (Spain), 4:2231 ‘‘Social Organism, The’’ (Spencer), 4:2234 Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe (Hroch), 3:1607 social psychology, 2:909 Social Reform or Revolution? (Luxemburg), 3:1399; 4:2205 Social Reform Party (Germany), 2:1040 social relations. See class and social relations Social Rights and Duties (Stephen), 4:2254 Social Science Association (Britain), 2:769 social security programs. See welfare Social Statics; or, The Conditions Essential to Human Happiness (Spencer), 4:2234 Social System, The (Gray), 4:2201 social welfare. See welfare Societa` Umanitaria (Milan), 3:1503 Socie´te´ Anonyme des E´tablissements John Cockerill, 1:493 Socie´te´ Biblique (Paris), 4:1895 Socie´te´ des Amis des Noirs, 2:888 Socie´te´ des Gens de Lettres, 3:1577 Socie´te´ des Missions Evange´lique (Paris), 4:1895 Socie´te´ Ge´ne´rale (Belgium), 1:173; 3:1335 Socie´te´ Ge´ne´rale (Netherlands), 1:493 Socie´te´ Ge´ne´rale de Cre´dit Mobilier, 1:170, 173, 174–175 Socie´te´ Ge´ne´rale pour Favoriser le De´veloppement du Commerce et de l’Industrie en France, 1:174, 176 Socie´te´ libre des Beaux-Arts (Brussels), 1:307 Socie´te´ Nationale pour Enterprises Industrielles et Commerciales, 1:174 Socie´te´ pour l’Ame´lioration du Sort de la Femme, 2:649; 4:1998 Socie´te´ Pratique des Ve´locipe`des, 2:600 Societies of the Friends of the Constitution. See Jacobins Society for National Education (Poland), 2:753 Society for Promoting Working Men’s Associations, 4:2208 Society for Psychical Research, 4:2238

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 1:303; 3:1509; 4:1868 Society for the Patriotic Museum of Bohemia, 4:1711 Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 3:1527 Society for the Promotion of the Gospel, 3:1527 Society for the Propagation of the Faith, 1:384 Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, 3:1551 Society for the Study and Cure of Inembriety (Britain), 2:769 Society for the Study of the Amur Region, 5:2426 Society in America (Martineau), 3:1459 Society of Charitable Economics (Paris), 4:1850 Society of Creative Musicians, 4:2102 Society of Friends (Odessa), 3:1685 Society of Missionaries of Africa (White Fathers), 3:1528, 1528 Society of Revolutionary Republican Women (France), 2:801–802 Society of St. Vincent de Paul, 1:203, 383; 4:2208 Society of the Cincinnati, 3:1264 Society of the Rights of Man (France), 3:1285 Society of the United Irishmen, 1:373; 2:1000; 3:1176–1177, 1657; 4:2187 Sociological Review (journal), 4:2215 sociology, 1:220; 4:1961, 2212–2215 Comte and, 2:523; 4:1844 consumerism and, 2:552; 4:2235 criminality theories and, 2:570, 572, 574; 3:1371 Durkheim and, 2:698–700; 4:1844 Ellis and, 2:745 family studies and, 3:1450–1451 fin de sie`cle and, 2:816 LeBon and, 3:1316–1317 positivism and, 4:1844 Simmel and, 4:2183–2184, 2215 Spencer and, 4:2213, 2233 Weber and, 4:2212, 2215; 5:2446–4748 Sociology (Simmel), 4:2184 Socrate (Satie), 4:2087 Socrates, 4:2218 Soddy, Frederick, 4:2070 sodomy law, 2:1082–1083, 1084 Soeurs Vatard, Les (Huysmans), 2:1104 Soffici, Ardengo, 2:918

1 9 1 4

Sofia, 2:741 soft drinks, 2:588 Sohlman, Ragnar, 3:1645 Soho (London neighborhood), 3:1373, 1375 ‘‘Sohrab and Rustum’’ (Arnold), 1:102 soil chemistry, 4:2109 Soire´es de Saint-Pe´tersbourg, Les (Maistre), 3:1422 Sokol (Prague association), 4:1856 Sokol movement, 4:2243–2244 Sokolov, Nikolai, 3:1639, 1640 Sokoto Caliphate, 1:20 Solages, marquis de, 3:1216 solar energy, 2:764 soldiering. See armies Soldiers Three (Kipling), 3:1256 Soldini, Abbe´, 3:1384 Solemn Communion (Triquet), 1:379 Solemn League and Covenant, 3:1184 Solferino, Battle of (1859), 1:392; 2:863, 952; 3:1592; 4:1948, 2003 Red Cross founding and, 2:867; 3:1650 Solidaridad Catalana, 4:2231 Solidaridad Obrera, 4:2300 solidarism, 4:1964 Solidarite´ des Femmes, La, 4:1761–1762 Sologub, Fyodor, 4:2182 Solomon, Maynard, 1:198, 199 Solomon, Simeon, 4:1865 Soloviev, Sergei, 3:1552; 4:2215; 5:2459, 2460 Soloviev, Vladimir, 1:212, 249; 2:773–774; 4:2215–2217 Russian symbolists and, 4:2181, 2182 Slavophiles and, 4:2196 Solovieva, Poliksena (Allegro), 4:2183 Solvay, Ernst, 3:1160 Somalia, 2:783 Something of Myself (Kipling), 3:1257 ‘‘Something on William Shakespeare upon the Occasion of Wilhelm Meister‘‘ (Schlegel), 4:2095 Somme, Battle of (1916), 3:1185 Somov, Konstantin, 4:2181 Sonata in B Minor (Liszt), 3:1360 Sonata Napoleone (Paganini), 4:1698 Sonatas (Valle-Incla´n), 2:950 Sonatine (Ravel), 4:1944 Song of the Nightingale (ballet), 3:1475 Songs of Experience (Blake), 1:244 Songs of Innocence (Blake), 1:244 Sonne, Jorgen, 2:647 sonnet form, 4:2095 Sonnets (Mickiewicz), 3:1500 Sonnets to Orpheus (Rilke), 1:65

2769

INDEX

Sonnino, Sidney, 3:1203; 5:2377 Sophia (Divine Wisdom) concept, 1:249; 4:2182, 2216 Sophie of Bavaria, 2:863 Sophocles, 2:1078; 3:1663; 4:1770 Sorbonne. See University of Paris Sorby, Henry Clifton, 4:2115 Sorel, Georges, 4:1760, 2217–2218, 2299 anarchosyndicalism and, 1:61, 62 Bergson critique of, 1:213, 214 futurism and, 2:921 Soroschinsky Fair (Mussorgsky), 3:1575 Sorrow (Van Gogh), 5:2400 Sorrows of Young Werther (Goethe), 2:983; 3:1436 Sotsialistichesky vestnik (Menshevik publication), 3:1761 Soubirous, Bernadette, 4:1788 Souham, 3:1321 ‘‘Soul of Man under Socialism, The’’ (Wilde), 2:633 Soult, Marshal, 2:1029 Source, The (Ingres), 3:1167 South Africa, 4:2218–2225, 2221, 2222, 2224 British settlement colony in, 3:1115 colonial trade and, 2:505; 3:1122 creation of, 1:20; 2:1011 European interests in, 1:17–18, 19 football (soccer) in, 2:834 immigrants in, 2:504 indigenous population of, 2:604; 3:1118 Kipling and, 3:1257 racial lines in, 1:500; 4:1997, 2219–2220, 2222, 2224; 5:2489 Rhodes and, 4:1996–1997, 2222 slavery and, 4:2219 Zulu and, 1:17, 18, 99; 2:1009; 3:1118; 4:2219, 2220, 2223 See also Boer War South African Republic (Transvaal), 1:18, 256–259; 3:1422; 4:1997, 2220, 2221, 2223 South African War. See Boer War South America. See Latin America; specific countries southern Africa, 1:17–18, 19, 220; 3:1118 Southern Insurgents, 5:2517 southern Netherlands. See Belgium Southern Question (Italy), 3:1199, 1256 Southern Rhodesia, 1:21 Southey, Robert, 1:333; 3:1426; 4:2029, 2169

2770

South Kensington Museum (London). See Victoria and Albert Museum South Manchurian Railway, 3:1212, 1557; 4:2064, 2065 South Pacific Gauguin paintings and, 4:1875 Protestant missionary societies in, 3:1527 South Pole, race to, 2:783, 784 South Slavs, 2:862, 865 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861–1863 South Tyrol, 4:2004 South Wales Miners Federation, 5:2436 Southwark (London), 3:1378 South West Africa. See Namibia Southwest Africa (Namibia), 2:506 Soutsos, Alexandre, 3:1666 Souvenir de Mortefontaine (Corot), 2:562 Souvenir des environs du lac de Nemi (Corot), 2:562 Souvenir de Solfe´rino, Un (Dunant), 2:952; 4:1948, 1949 Souvenir for May Day 1907, A (Crane), 4:2201 Souvenir of Castel Gandolfo (Corot), 2:561 Souvenirs (Tocqueville), 5:2317 Souvenirs d’e´gotisme (Stendhal), 4:2253 Souvenirs d’enfance et de jeunesse (Renan), 4:1953 Souvenirs intimes (Olivier), 4:1782 souversismo, 5:2491 Soviet Communist Party, 3:14906; 4:2212 Soviet of Workers’ Deputies, 4:1977 soviets, 4:1976, 1977 Soviet Union, 2:536 ballet style in, 2:655 Bely and, 1:207, 210 Bernstein on, 1:231 Bolshevik/Menshevik definitions and, 3:1488 communism and, 2:522 Glinka’s musical nationalism and, 2:980 Gorky’s image in, 2:993 Indochina and, 3:1144–1145 intelligentsia and, 3:1172 Kadets banned by, 3:1242 Kandinsky and, 3:1245–1246 Kropotkin’s funeral and, 3:1273 Meyerhold and, 3:1495, 1496 Pavlov and, 4:1749 Pelletier visit to, 4:1762

Poland and, 1:315 Repin and, 4:1958 St. Petersburg and, 4:2079 Silver Age end and, 4:2183 Slavophilism and, 4:2196 socialist revolutionaries and, 4:2209, 2211–2212; 5:2518 Third International and, 4:2128, 2129 view of Great Reforms in, 2:1014 Webb and, 5:2445 World War II, 4:2079 See also Russia Sovremennik (Russian journal), 1:208; 3:1639, 1640 Sower, The (Millet), 1:179; 4:1947 Soyer, Alexis, 4:1966 Sozialdemokrat, Der (underground newspaper), 1:230 Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands. See Social Democratic Party (Germany) Sozial reform oder Revolution? (Luxemburg), 3:1399 Spad, Lisa, 2:918 Spain, 4:2225–2233, 2228, 2230 anarchism and, 1:58–59; 3:1293; 4:2231; 5:2488 anticlericalism and, 1:68, 69, 366, 388; 5:2488–2489 architecture and, 4:2232 art nouveau and, 1:108, 112 banditry in, 2:571, 572 banking and, 1:174 as Berlin Conference participant, 1:221 Bourbons and, 4:1971, 2225, 2226, 2228–2229, 2231–2232 Cajal and, 1:340–342 Carbonari and, 4:2130 Caribbean and, 1:363–364, 365–366 Carlism and, 1:68, 83, 366–368; 2:539; 4:1763–1764, 2227, 2229–2231 Catholicism and, 1:377, 379; 4:1766; 5:2488–2489 Catholic nursing care in, 3:1648 censorship in, 4:1869 child abandonment in, 5:2455 chocolate consumption in, 1:496 civil wars in, 1:366, 367–368; 4:2300 coffee in, 1:494 colonial losses of, 2:949; 3:1116 colonies of, 1:363–366; 2:503; 4:1979, 2225, 2228, 2229, 2231

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Congress of Vienna and, 2:532–534, 534 conservatism and, 2:540 conservative-liberal system and, 2:540 constitutions of, 4:1996, 2227, 2228, 2229, 2232, 2278 dueling code in, 2:696; 3:1472 education in, 2:720, 723, 724–726 emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748 emigrants to settlement colonies from, 2:505 engineering projects in, 2:757 Ferdinand VII and, 1:420; 2:808–809; 4:1763–1764, 1767 football (soccer) and, 2:833 foundling homes/hospitals in, 5:2451 French intervention in, 2:525; 4:1764, 1981, 2225–2229 French Revolution and, 2:887 Generation of 1898 and, 2:949–952; 4:2232 Goya and, 2:996–999; 4:1703, 2225, 2226 Haiti and, 5:2332 Hohenzollerns and, 2:853, 868, 964 Holy Alliance intervention in, 2:566 ideological divide in, 1:366; 4:1763 imperialism and, 1:499; 2:949, 1035–1036; 3:1114–1115; 4:1979, 2225, 2228, 2229, 2231 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2493 Inquisition in, 4:1969, 2227 international exhibitions and, 5:2499 Italy and, 3:1191 Jewish conversions in, 1:74 Joseph Bonaparte as king of, 4:1764, 2226, 2227–2228 labor movements and, 3:1289, 1290, 1292; 4:2299–2300; 5:2485, 2488–2489 landed elite in, 3:1306 liberalism and, 1:366–367, 368; 3:1343, 1347; 4:2230 Low Countries and, 1:199 maternity hospitals in, 5:2450 monetary system of, 3:1538 Morocco and, 3:1548, 1549 Naples and, 3:1580 Napoleon and, 2:553, 846, 902; 3:1599; 4:1763 See also Peninsular War Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1587

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

nineteenth-century politics in, 4:2228–2232 nobility and, 3:1307 Ottoman Empire and, 5:2361 painting and, 4:1703 papacy and, 4:1719, 1720 penal exile and, 2:779 Picasso and, 4:1781–1784 police system in, 4:1814 popular culture and, 4:1821 Portugal and, 4:2225 Protestant minority in, 4:1890, 1891, 1891, 1895 Radicals in, 4:1928 railroads and, 4:1933 republicanism and, 4:1964, 2231, 2300 Restoration in. See Restoration, Spanish Revolutions of 1820 and, 1:361; 2:566, 959; 4:1979–1980, 1980, 1981 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1985, 1986 Rome and, 4:2034 Rothschilds and, 4:2040 seaside resorts in, 4:2124, 2125, 2126 Second International and, 4:2127 settlement colonies and, 2:503 slavery abolishment and, 2:506 slavery and, 4:2190 slave trade and, 1:13 smallpox deaths in, 4:2198 South American independence and, 2:525, 809 spiritualism in, 4:2238 sports in, 4:2243, 2244 strikes in, 3:1288; 4:2231, 2265, 2267 suffrage in, 4:2232, 2278 syndicalism and, 1:61, 62; 3:1292; 4:2266, 2267, 2298, 2299–2300 syphilis in, 4:2300 tea drinking in, 1:495 telephone service in, 5:2308 tobacco and, 5:2313, 2314 trade and, 5:2337 Trafalgar battle and, 4:2225; 5:2344–2345 universities in, 5:2379, 2389 waterway transport in, 5:2348 welfare initiatives in, 5:2451, 2452 wine and, 5:2475, 2477, 2478 working class and, 5:2485

1 9 1 4

See also Barcelona; Catalonia; Madrid Spanish-American War (1898), 1:181; 2:949; 3:1414; 4:2127, 2231 Spanish Civil War. See Civil War, Spanish Spanish Contrabandista (Ansdell), 2:572 Spanish Cycling Federation, 4:2244 Spanish Gypsy, The (G. Eliot), 2:745 Spanish Socialist Workers Party, 4:2231 Sparks, Tryphena, 2:1045 spas, 1:261, 288; 3:1323, 1324, 1325; 5:2327–2328 Spate, Virginia, 3:1537 SPD. See Social Democratic Party Special, The (periodical), 2:1086 Special Creation, doctrine of, 2:615 specialization, 2:515 special theory of relativity Einstein and, 2:739–740; 3:1409; 4:1780–1781 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1805 speciation, 3:1302 ‘‘Speckled Band, The’’ (Doyle), 2:680 Spectator, The (magazine), 4:2258 spectator sports. See sports Specter Watches Over Her (Gaugin), 2:939–940 Spectre de la rose, Le (ballet), 3:1642 spectroscopy, 1:426 speculative rationalism, 5:2512 speed of light, 2:740 Speenhamland Act of 1795 (Britain), 2:709 Speenhamland System (Britain), 1:358, 359; 2:709; 4:1819, 1848, 1850 Malthusian opposition to, 3:1425 Speke, John Hanning, 2:783 Spencer, Barbara, 2:515; 4:1887 Spencer, George, 4:2233 Spencer, Herbert, 3:1513; 4:2233–2236; 5:2445 evolution theory and, 2:615–616, 777; 4:2233–2235 influence of, 4:2235 Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371 as Polish positivist influence, 4:1811 psychology and, 4:1907 social Darwinism and, 3:1272; 4:2235 sociology and, 4:2213, 2233 as Suttner influence, 4:2282 Webb and, 5:2444 Spencer, Thomas, 4:2233 Spengler, Oswald, 2:774

2771

INDEX

Speransky, Mikhail, 1:38; 4:2049, 2172, 2236–2237 Speyer, Franziska, 2:735 Sphacteria island, 3:1612 Spiess, Adolf, 4:2242, 2245 Spinazzola, Vittorio, 3:1502 spinning machinery, 1:24, 492, 493; 2:791; 3:1152, 1153 riots against, 3:1410, 1411 Spinoza, Benedict (Baruch) de, 2:744, 983, 1032, 1051 Spiritism, 4:2238 Spirit of the Laws, The (Montesquieu), 2:537–538 ‘‘Spirit Sight’’ (Schopenhauer), 4:2237 spiritualism, 3:491, 1491; 4:2237–2239, 2238 art nouveau and, 1:109, 112 Doyle and, 2:681 Jung and, 3:1238 Kandinsky and, 3:1245 Owen and, 3:1693 Spleen de Paris, Le (Baudelaire), 1:187 Splendeurs et mise`res de courtisanes (Balzac), 1:169 Spoken into the Void (Loos), 3:1381 spontaneous generation, theory of, 3:1302; 4:1743, 2113 Spontini, Gaspare, 3:1671 sporting clubs, 4:2241, 2244 sports, 4:2239–2246 amateur, 4:2240–2241, 2242, 2245 cycling and, 2:599–600, 601, 602; 4:1824 football (soccer) and, 2:830–835; 3:1326 Gaelic, 3:1182 gymnastics and, 4:1989, 2239–2244, 2245 institutionalization of, 4:2242–2244 invention of modern, 4:2239–2242 leisure and, 3:1324, 1326; 4:1824 London attractions, 3:1378 masculinity and, 3:1473 New Woman and, 2:947 racism and, 4:1927 See also Olympic Games Sports et divertissements (Satie), 4:2087 Sportsmans Sketches, A (Turgenev), 5:2365, 2460 Spree River, 1:218 ‘‘springtime of the peoples,’’ 4:1991 Spurzheim, Johann Gaspar, 2:925–926; 4:1775 Sri Lanka, 5:2313, 2336 Stadio-Warthausen, Johann Philipp, 2:860

2772

stadiums, 4:2243 Stadtpark (Hamburg), 4:1740 Stae¨l, Germaine de, 1:227; 2:945; 4:2185, 2246–2248, 2247 Constant and, 2:545, 546 feminism and, 2:802 Heine rebuttal to, 2:1056 Lafayette and, 3:1300 as Leopardi influence, 3:1333 liberalism and, 3:1343 Schlegel and, 4:2095 Talleyrand and, 5:2305 Stae¨l von Holstein, Eric, 4:2246 Staffordshire, 3:1153 stagecoaches, 5:2346, 2347, 2349 Stages on Life’s Way (Kierkegaard), 3:1251, 1252 Stahl, Friedrich Julius, 4:2088 stained glass, 1:112, 113; 4:1865 Morris designs, 3:1550 Stalin, Joseph, 1:207; 2:655; 3:1208, 1462; 4:2128 Lenin and, 5:2459 Marx as influence on, 3:1461 Meyerhold’s execution by, 3:1495, 1496 Muslims and, 4:2165 Stalky & Co. (Kipling), 3:1256 Stambolov, Stefan, 1:312, 313 standardization, 3:1163, 1430 standard of living, 2:552; 3:1164, 1426 death rate and, 2:644 Stanford University, 2:770 Stanhope, John Rodham Spencer, 4:1865 Stanislavsky, Konstantin, 1:423; 3:1495–1496 Stanislavsky method, 3:1495–1496 Stanislaw II August Poniatowski, king of Poland, 2:602; 3:1265; 4:1806 reforms of, 4:1807 Stanley, Edward. See Derby, Lord Stanley, Henry Morton, 1:221, 222; 2:783–784 as Leopold II’s African agent, 2:783; 3:1136 masculine image of, 3:1472 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 1:67 ‘‘Stanzas Written in Dejection, near Naples’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 Star-Film, 3:1483 Starkov, V. V., 1:266 Starley, James and John K., 2:601; 3:1163 Star Wars (film), 2:678 Stasov, Vladimir, 2:654; 4:1957

State and Anarchy (Bakunin), 4:2205 State Bank of Russia, 2:1016 State Hermitage Museum (St. Petersburg). See Winter Palace stateless society. See anarchism Statesman’s Manual, The (Coleridge), 1:497 States of the Church. See Papal State State Tretyakovsky Galerie (Moscow), 3:1575 Stations of the Cross, 1:385 Statistical Society of London, 3:1426, 1638 statistics, 4:2248–2250 bell curve and, 2:652, 770; 4:1922 crime records and, 2:570; 4:1922 demographic data and, 2:643–646 de Vries and, 2:652 Durkheim suicide study and, 2:699 eugenics and, 2:770 Galton curve and, 2:652, 770 Galton’s coefficients of correlation and, 2:927 Malthus and, 3:1426 Maxwell’s use of, 3:1478 Quetelet and, 4:1921–1922 sociology and, 2:699 zemstvos investigatons and, 4:1832 Statue of Liberty (New York City), 2:736 Statute of Artificers (1563), 2:511 Stead, William Thomas, 1:332; 2:798; 4:1697, 2083 steam engine, 4:1931, 2108, 2111; 5:2348 coal-powered, 1:485, 493 Cockerill textile manufacture and, 1:493; 2:791 in Denmark, 2:647 as factory power, 2:791–792; 3:1152, 1153, 1157, 1410, 1427 First Industrial Revolution and, 2:709; 3:1152, 1153 locomotives, 4:1932 Madrid horsepower, 3:1413 thermodynamics and, 3:1161, 1250 turbine, 3:1161 steam hammer, 3:1430 steam press, 4:1866 steamships, 1:20, 278; 3:1163; 5:2350, 2354 as battleships, 2:681–682 Britain and, 1:303, 304–305 Brunel and, 1:303, 304–305 coal production and, 1:486 engineering and, 2:760

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

exploration and, 2:782 Hamburg fleet of, 2:1040 immigration and, 1:353; 2:646 leisure travel and, 4:1824 oceanic exploration and, 3:1658 as ocean liners, 3:1163 Opium Wars and, 1:355 Stechlin, Der (Fontane), 2:829 steel cutlery, 3:1153 steel production Bessemer process of, 3:1157, 1158 coke and, 1:485 factories and, 2:792 Germany and, 2:967; 3:1158, 1273–1276 Krupp family and, 3:1273–1276, 1275 machine breaking and, 3:1412 protectionism and, 1:354 Rhineland and, 1:330 as Second Industial Revolutions basis, 1:351; 2:709; 3:1157, 1158–1159 Sweden and, 4:2285 technology and, 1:485; 3:1152, 1158; 4:2115 See also iron Steffeck, Carl, 3:1353 Stein, Gertrude, 1:214, 299; 4:1782 cubists and, 2:593; 4:1783–1784 Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum, 1:323, 458; 4:2250–2252 Metternich and, 3:1493 Prussian reforms of, 2:958, 1042; 3:1305, 1341; 4:1900 Stein, Leo, 3:1474 Steinberg, Leo, 4:2011 Steinberg, Michael, 2:1077 Steinlen, Theophile-Alexandre, 1:335; 4:1845; 5:2486 Stekel, Wilhelm, 2:906; 4:1905 Stenbock, Eric, 2:633 Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle), 2:830; 3:1504; 4:1946, 2252–2253; 5:2403 Stephane Mallarme´ (Manet), 4:2293 Stephanie, princess of Belgium, 4:2045 Ste´phanois basin (France), 1:351 Stephen, Leslie, 4:2253–2254 Stephen, Vanessa, 4:2258 Stephen, Virginia. See Woolf, Virginia Stephens, Elizabeth, 4:2236 Stephens, Frederic George, 4:1863, 1865 Stephenson, George, 1:304; 2:758, 760; 4:1932 Stephenson, Robert, 1:304

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

‘‘Steppe, The’’ (Chekhov), 1:423 Sterba, Editha and Richard, 1:198–199 stereophotography, 4:1772 stereoscope, 3:1398 sterilization (germ-killing), 2:659; 3:1358 sterilization (reproductive), 2:619, 639, 769, 770–772, 778, 928 Sterling, John, 3:1513 Sternberg, Francis, 4:1711 Sternhell, Zeev, 2:542 stethoscope, 3:1298; 5:2359 Steuben, Charles de, 2:568 Stevens, Thomas, 2:601 Stevens, Wallace, 1:214 Stevenson, Frances, 3:1370 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 4:2253, 2254–2256 Stewart, Dugald, 4:1713 Stewart, Robert. See Castlereagh, Viscount Stieglitz, Alfred, 4:1772–1773 stigmata, 1:385 Stiller, Mauritz, 4:2287 Stillman, W. J., 4:1864 Stine (Fontane), 2:829 Stinnes, Mathias, 2:960 Stinnes family, 1:471 Stirner, Max (Johann Kaspar Schmidt), 4:2203; 5:2512, 2513 Stock Exchange in St. Petersburg, The (Beggrov), 4:2078 stock exchanges, 1:354 Amsterdam, 1:53 aristocracy and, 1:84, 85 Brussels, 1:356 communications revolution and, 1:353–354 crime and, 2:571 Hamburg, 2:1039 London, 3:1374 Milan, 3:1503 Stockholm, 4:2286 electric lighting and, 2:741 gymnastics and, 4:2242 international exhibitions and, 5:2499 Olympic Games and, 4:2246 riots in, 4:2284 telephone service in, 5:2308 Stocking, George, 1:461 Stocklet, Adolphe, 3:1261 Stockmar, Christian Friedrich von, 3:1335 Stockton & Darlington Railway, 1:486; 2: 764 Stoclet Frieze (Klimt), 3:1261 Stoecker, Adolf, 1:71, 72; 2:967

1 9 1 4

stoichiometry, 1:424–425 Stoke City Football Club, 1:120 Stoker, Bram, 4:1822, 2255; 5:2464 Stolberg-Wernigerode family, 1:469 ‘‘Stolen Bacillus, The’’ (Wells), 5:2458 Stolypin, Peter, 3:1628, 1659, 1660; 4:1978–1979, 2058, 2256–2258; 5:2479 assassination of, 3:1660; 4:2058 Struve and, 4:2271 Stolypin reaction, 1:89 Stomps, Theo J., 2:653 Stonebreakers, The (Courbet), 2:568, 569; 4:1706, 1946–1947, 1956 Stonecutter (Courbet), 4:1757 Stone Guest, The (Pushkin), 4:1919 Stones of Venice, The (Ruskin), 1:371; 3:1550; 4:2046 Stoney, George Johnstone, 4:2113 Stopes, Marie, 4:2163 Storia di una capinera (Verga), 5:2407 Storm, The (Ciot), 4:1710 Storm, Theodor, 3:1533 Storm Bell, The (feminist journal), 1:332 Storting (Norwegian parliament), 1:227 Story of Go¨sta Berling, The (Lagerlo¨f), 4:2287 Story of My Life (Sand), 4:2083, 2084 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 2:934 Strachey, Lytton, 2:835; 3:1638; 4:2258–2259 Strachey, Richard, 4:2258 Stracheyesque (term), 4:2259 Stradbroke, Lord, 1:72 Straits Convention of 1841, 1:244, 278 Strand Magazine, 2:680 Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (Stevenson), 4:2255 Strasbourg, 1:50, 52 strategy, tactics vs., 3:1505 Strauss, Anna, 4:2260 Strauss, David Friedrich, 1:51; 2:743–744, 754, 1054; 3:1464; 5:2512, 2513 Strauss, Eduard, 4:2259, 2260 Strauss, Johann (father), 4:2259–2260, 2261; 5:2418, 2419 Strauss, Johann (son), 3:1661; 4:2259–2261; 5:2405, 2420 Strauss, Josef, 4:2259, 2260, 2261 Strauss, Leo, 1:320 Strauss, Richard, 1:54; 3:1643, 1675–1676; 4:2102, 2260; 5:2470

2773

INDEX

as Berlin Philharmonic conductor, 1:219 Hoffmannsthal as libbretist for, 2:1077; 3:1675, 1676 opera and, 3:1675–1676 Stravinsky, Fyodor, 4:2261 Stravinsky, Igor, 1:154; 4:1944, 2000, 2077, 2261–2263 Diaghilev and, 2:654, 655; 4:1876 Rite of Spring premier and, 2:655, 774, 775; 3:1573; 4:1876 Strawberry Hill (Walpole estate), 4:2030 Straw Mannikin, The (Goya), 2:997 Stray Dog (St. Petersburg cafe´), 4:2182 Strayed Reveller, The (Arnold), 1:102 Street, Berlin (Kirchner), 1:220; 4:1711 streetcars, 1:207 street lighting, 1:207, 451 electric, 1:446; 2:741, 742; 3:1414 gas, 1:445–446; 2:548, 742 Streghe, Le (Paganini), 4:1698 Strepponi, Giuseppina, 5:2406 strikes, 4:2263–2268 anarchosyndicalism and, 1:59, 61, 62 Barcelona and, 1:183 Belgium and, 1:203 Berlin and, 1:219 Britain and, 2:1008, 1011; 3:1288, 1441; 4:2265, 2266 Chartist-led, 1:416–417; 4:2265 early protests, 4:2263–2265 European-wide (1868–1873), 3:1288 France and, 2:857; 3:1288; 4:1930, 2265–2267; 5:2484, 2485, 2488, 2491 German miners, 3:1289 Ireland and, 4:2267 Italy and, 3:1288; 4:2174, 2266, 2267–2268; 5:2485, 2488, 2491 Milan and, 3:1504 mutual aid societies and, 3:1284 Paris and, 4:1733 Prague and, 4:1861 Russia and, 3:1288, 1327, 1328, 1628; 4:1974, 1977–1978, 2055–2056, 2268; 5:2390 St. Petersburg and, 4:2079 Siberia and, 4:2173 Spain and, 3:1288; 4:2231, 2265, 2267 syndicalism and, 4:2263–2268, 2298–2300; 5:2485, 2491 See also general strikes

2774

Strindberg, August, 4:2268–2270, 2286–2287 Strindberg Feud, 4:2269 Strindbergs Infernokris (Brandell), 4:2269 String Quartet in D Major (Schoenberg), 4:2102 String Quartet in F (Ravel), 4:1944 string quartets amateurs and, 3:1568 Beethoven and, 1:197; 3:1568, 1570 Dvorˇa´k and, 2:701 String Quintet in C (Schubert), 4:2107 Stritt, Marie, 4:2280 Strossmayer, Joseph George, 4:1722 structuralism, 2:593 ‘‘Structure and Connexions of Nuerox, The’’ (Cajal), 1:342 ‘‘struggle for survival.’’ See natural selection Struve, Gustav von, 2:961, 962 Struve, Peter, 3:1171, 1241, 1518; 4:1832, 2270–2271 Stuart, James (author), 4:1762 Stuart, James (educator), 1:372 Stuck, Franz von, 1:155; 4:2293 Studies in the History of Russian Culture (Milyukov), 3:1518 Studies in the History of the Renaissance (Pater), 4:1746 Studies in the Psychology of Sex (Ellis and Symonds), 2:745, 746; 4:2296 Studies of a Biographer (Stephen), 4:2254 Studies of the Greek Poets: Second Series (Symonds), 4:2296 Studies on Hysteria (Freud and Breuer), 2:905; 4:1904 Studies Scientific and Social (Wallace), 5:2437 Studie u ¨ ber Minderwertigkeit von Organen (A. Adler), 1:9 Studio of the Moscow Art Theater, 3:1496 Study for Summer: The Gleaners (Millet). See Gleaners, The Study in Scarlet, A (Doyle), 2:680, 681 Study of Organ Inferiority (A. Adler), 1:9 ‘‘Study of Poetry, The’’ (Arnold), 1:103 Study of Sociology, The (Spencer), 4:2233 Stumm, Karl von, 2:960 Stumpf, Carl, 1:298; 2:1099–1100 S´tu´r, Ludovit, 4:1716 Sturdza, Roxandra, 2:1080 Sturge, Joseph, 1:416

Sturgeon, William, 3:1430 Stu¨rgkh, Karl, 1:11 Sturm, Der (avant-garde weekly), 1:155; 3:1309, 1381 Sturm Gallery (Berlin), 1:155 Sturm und Drang, 2:983, 985 Style Guimard, le, 2:1027, 1028 Styria, 3:1236 subconscious, 3:1238 Subjection of Women, The (J. S. Mill), 2:804, 946, 1008; 3:1509, 1514 Mozzoni Italian translation of, 3:1555 ‘‘Subjective Immortality’’ (Pater), 4:1746 Sublime Porte. See Ottoman Empire sublime, concept of the, 4:1702, 1703–1704, 1738 submarine warfare, 1:232; 3:1611; 5:2313 subscription banquets, 4:1963 suburbs Berlin and, 1:217, 218–219 bourgeois family life and, 3:1452–1453 Brussels and, 1:306 cemeteries in, 2:628 Dublin and, 2:690, 691 growth of, 1:444, 452 housing and, 2:1087–1088, 1090, 1092; 3:1453 London and, 2:1088; 3:1373, 1375 Parisian worker displacement to, 2:1049; 4:1732, 1733 railroads and, 4:1936 subways and, 4:2272–2273 working class and, 5:2484–2485 subways, 4:2271–2274; 5:2502, 2503 Berlin and, 1:217 Budapest and, 1:311 impact of, 4:2272–2273 origins of, 4:2271–2272 Paris and, 1:109–110; 2:815, 1027, 1028; 4:1732, 1733 Sucharda, Stanislav, 4:1858 Sudan, 1:18, 19; 2:782 Fashoda Affair and, 2:643, 663, 794–795; 3:1117–1118 Kitchener campaign in, 3:1258–1259 Mahdi and, 1:18–19; 2:734, 783 Mehmet Ali conquest of, 2:731–732 Omdurman and, 2:734, 794; 3:1125, 1668–1669, 1669 Su¨dbahn rail connection, 5:2355 Sue, Euge`ne, 1:70; 2:575; 4:1941 Suez (port), 1:18

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Suez Canal, 1:18, 53, 353, 390, 436; 2:733; 3:1482; 4:2274–2276, 2275; 5:2405 British imperialism and, 3:1122 Disraeli shares in, 2:733 Fashoda Affair and, 2:794–795 French engineers and, 2:760 Lesseps and, 3:1337–1338 Verdi opera and, 2:733; 3:1572 Suez Canal Company, 2:674, 794; 4:2274, 2275, 2276 Suez War, 4:2276 Suffrages des femmes (Paris), 1:127, 128 suffragism, 4:2276–2281, 2278; 5:2397 aristocracy and, 1:83 Australia and, 1:135 Austria and, 1:145; 2:865; 4:2281; 5:2421 Belgium and, 1:203, 204 bourgeoisie and, 1:290 Britain and, 1:203, 290; 2:798; 4:2276–2281, 2278, 2280; 5:2461, 2487 as British Chartist platform, 1:414–415, 418; 4:2277; 5:2487 British Corn Laws repeal campaign and, 2:558–559 British expansion of, 1:457; 2:540, 977, 1002, 1003, 1008, 1009 British riots for, 2:1003, 1004 Fawcett and, 2:797–799 France and, 1:203, 247, 271, 290; 4:1928–1929, 1961, 1964, 1998, 2181, 2276–2281; 5:2317 French Directory and, 2:665 French electorate restrictions and, 2:848, 851 French Second Empire and, 3:1592 general strikes for, 3:1293; 4:2268 Germany and, 1:203, 459; 2:964 Greece and, 2:1021 Hamburg and, 2:1040, 1041 Irish Catholics and, 3:1656 Italy and, 2:972; 3:1200, 1277 landownership as basis of, 3:1305 liberalism and, 3:1347 masculine distinctions and, 3:1470 Mill (James) on, 3:1510 municipal restrictions on, 1:449 Naples and, 3:1581 Netherlands and, 3:1616, 1617, 1619 New Zealand and, 3:1622–1623 peasants and, 4:1752, 1755

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Prague and, 4:1856, 1860 Prussia and, 1:290 Revolutions of 1848 and, 1:141 Russian first national elections and, 3:1241–1242 Sicily and, 4:2173–2174 Spain and, 4:2232, 2278 Sweden and Norway and, 3:1293; 4:2279, 2281, 2283 Switzerland and, 4:2279, 2291 Wales and, 5:2436 working class movement for, 1:459; 2:567 Suffragiste, La (periodical), 4:1762 Sufis, 2:784; 4:2164 sugar-beet farming, 1:260; 2:659, 762, 764, 960; 4:1753 sugar consumption coffee/tea drinking and, 1:494 increase in, 2:659, 710 trade and, 3:1151 sugar cultivation Caribbean, 1:363, 364, 365, 499; 2:709 Haiti and, 2:1036 slavery and, 4:1924–1925, 2190, 2191 Suggestions for Thought to Searchers After Religious Truth (Nightingale), 3:1637 suicide, 2:629, 632, 699, 816 Suicide (Durkheim), 2:699 Suicide as a Social Mass Phenomenon (Masaryk), 3:1469 Suleiman Pasha, 4:2068 sulfur mining, 4:2176 Sulle lagune (Verga), 5:2407 Sullivan, Arthur, 3:1661 sulphuric acid, 3:1160 Sumatra, 3:1617 Summer Nights (Berlioz), 1:225 Summer Palace (St. Petersburg), 4:2075 Sumner, William Graham, 2:619; 4:2213, 2235 sumptuary laws, 2:546, 548 sun, age of, 3:1250 Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, A (Seurat), 2:941; 3:1132; 4:1709, 2156–2157, 2157, 2158 Sunday clothes, 2:550 Sunday Observance societies, 1:288 Sundukian, Gabriel, 1:88 Sunflowers, The (Van Gogh), 5:2401 Sunni Muslims, 3:1547 Suor Angelica (Puccini), 4:1916

1 9 1 4

superman ideal (Nietzsche), 3:1629, 1633–1635, 1636 Supplementary Convention of 1956, 1:309 ‘‘Supplement to the Battle of the Mice and Frogs, A’’ (Leopardi), 3:1334 Supplex Libellus Valachorum (1791), 4:2018 supply and demand, laws of, 2:707, 715, 718 suprematism, 1:157–158 Supreme Being, cult of the, 4:2007 Supreme Council of India, 3:1407 Supreme Ruthenian Council, 4:1993 surgery anesthesia and, 3:491 antisepsis and, 2:644; 3:1358–1359; 4:1744 Larrey and, 3:1307–1308 Lister and, 3:1358–1359, 1359; 4:1744 professionalization of, 4:1877 Surma´le, Le (Jarry), 3:1214 surplus value, 4:2201, 2205 Surprise Attack, The (Vereschagin), 1:396 surrealism avant-garde and, 1:153 collage and, 2:593 Gaudı´ as influence on, 2:938 Jarry and, 3:1214 Kandinsky and, 3:1246 symbolism and, 4:2295 ‘‘survival of the fittest,’’ 4:2213 evolution and, 2:616, 618, 619, 777, 778 Malthusian theory and, 3:1426 Spencer and, 4:2234, 2235 Susanin, Ivan, 2:979 Sussex chairs, 2:915 Sutherland, duchess of, 1:85 Suttner, Arthur Gundaccar von, 4:2281 Suttner, Bertha von, 4:1697, 1698, 2281–2283 Schnitzler and, 4:2100–2101 Sutton, Robert, 1:338 Sutton and Torkington factory (Manchester), 3:1429 Suur-Merijoki Farm (Finland), 1:113 Suvorin, Alexei, 1:423 Suvorov, Alexander, 3:1281; 4:1748 Suzanne Sewing (Gauguin), 2:939 Sveˇtla´, Karolı´na, 4:1857 Svevo, Italo, 5:2356 Sviatopolk-Mirsky, Nikolai I., 4:2068 Svyatolpolk-Mirsky, Peter, 4:2055 Swahili (people), 1:16

2775

INDEX

Swain, Gladys, 4:1791 Swan Lake (Tchaikovsky), 4:1750; 5:2307 Swazi, 4:2221 sweatshop labor, 1:474, 483; 3:1470; 4:2159, 2160 Sweden and Norway, 4:2283–2288, 2284, 2286 aging population in, 3:1662 agricultural workers in, 1:24 banking in, 1:172 Bernadotte and, 1:226–227; 2:903 chemistry in, 1:424, 425 colonies and, 3:1114, 1116 commercial policy and, 2:514 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532, 534 drinking culture of, 1:34, 35 education in, 1:431; 2:720; 4:2285 emigrants from, 2:506, 747, 748 established church in, 4:1895 Finland and, 2:817, 819 football (soccer) and, 2:834 France and, 5:2374 French Revolution and, 2:887 industrial/manufacturing exhibitions and, 5:2493 labor movements in, 3:1289, 1290, 1291 Leipzig battle and, 3:1319 liberalism and, 4:2283–2284 monetary union and, 3:1538 Napoleonic Wars and, 2:901, 903 Nobel and, 3:1644–1645 nursing in, 3:1648 peaceful separation of, 3:1345; 4:1698 Protestant population of, 4:1890, 1890 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987 Russia and, 1:376, 377 St. Petersburg and, 4:2076 socialism and, 4:2284 socialist party strength in, 3:1293, 1294 sports in, 4:2241, 2242 strikes in, 4:2267–2268 Strindberg and, 4:2268–2269 suffrage in, 4:2279, 2281 Swedish-Russian War and, 2:817 telephone service in, 5:2308 temperance movements in, 1:35, 36, 37; 4:1896 trade and, 5:2336, 2338, 2340 universities amd, 5:2379–2380 welfare initiatives in, 5:2452

2776

women’s suffrage and, 4:2281 women university students in, 2:728 See also Norway; Stockholm Swedenborg, Emanuel, 1:246; 4:2268 as Jung influence, 3:1238 Swedish language, 2:819, 820 Swedish People at Work and Play (Strindberg), 4:2286 ‘‘Swept and Garnished’’ (Kipling), 3:1257 S´wie ˛tochowski, Aleksandr, 4:1811 Swift, Jonathan, 4:2254 Swift, Susie, 4:2083 swimming, 4:2240–2243, 2245; 5:2328 Swimming Association of Great Britain, 4:2242 Swinburne, Algernon Charles, 1:246; 2:940; 5:2310 Swinemu¨nde, 4:2125, 2126 Swing, The (Renoir), 4:1955 Swing riots (England), 1:357–359; 3:1411 Swiss Civil War, 1:317 Swiss Croix bleue, 4:1896 Switzerland, 4:2288–2291, 2289 Alsace-Lorraine and, 1:51 anarchists in, 1:57 Burckhardt and, 1:315–320 Catholicism in, 1:377; 4:2290, 2291 democratization in, 4:2290–2291 economic development in, 4:2290 First International in, 2:825 football (soccer) in, 2:833, 834 France and, 2:666; 4:2288 French Revolutionary Wars and, 2:894, 900 Geneva Convention and, 2:952–953 as Helvetic Republic, 4:2188, 2189, 2288 Jewish emancipation in, 3:1225 Jung and, 3:1238 labor movements and, 3:1291 Lenin’s exile in, 3:1329 literacy in, 2:720 Luxemburg in, 3:1399 Mann in, 3:1436 mesmerism in, 3:491 monetary union and, 3:1538 Napoleonic Empire and, 2:553; 3:1597 peasants in, 4:1755 political exiles in, 3:1113 professions in, 4:1880 Protestant population of, 4:1890, 1890

radicals in, 4:1990, 2289, 2291 Red Cross and, 4:1948, 1949 republicanism and, 4:1963 Revolutions of 1830 and, 4:1983–1986 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1990 Sismondi and, 4:2185–2186 sister republics and, 4:2188, 2189 sports in, 4:2241, 2242, 2244, 2245 suffrage in, 4:2279, 2291 telephone service in, 5:2308 trade and, 4:2290; 5:2336, 2338, 2339 universities in, 5:2379, 2388 welfare initiatives in, 4:1963; 5:2452 women’s medical training in, 2:945 women university students in, 2:728; 3:1399 Swoboda, Hermann, 5:2449 Sybil (Disraeli), 1:371; 2:672 Sydenham Crystal Palace, 2:588–589, 590; 4:1738 Sydney (Australia), 1:133, 134, 135 Syllabus of Errors (1864), 1:6, 381–382, 388; 3:1330 contents of, 3:1199; 4:1719, 1797–1798 First Vatican Council and, 4:1722 Kulturkampf as reaction to, 3:1277 on Protestantism, 4:1890 Sylphides, Les (ballet), 3:1642 Sylvester Patent of 1851 (Austria), 2:863 Sylvias Lovers (Gaskell), 2:934 symbolic mythology, 4:2030 symbolism, 4:2292–2296 art nouveau and, 1:109, 112 Beardsley designs and, 1:192 Bely and, 1:209, 214 Bergson and, 1:214 Blok and, 1:249 Debussy musical characteristics and, 2:631 Decadence and, 2:633; 4:2292–2294 Gauguin and, 2:939–941 irrationalism and, 4:2294–2295 Klimt and, 3:1261–1262 in literature and art, 2:940; 4:2292, 2293–2294 Mallarme´ and, 3:1529; 4:2292, 2293, 2294 modernism and, 3:1529 origins and context of, 4:2292 Picasso and, 4:1781 Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1863, 1865

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Russian, 2:774; 4:2181–2182 Schiele and, 4:2089 Seurat and, 4:2157 theater and, 3:1496 ‘‘Symbolisme, Le’’ (More´as), 4:2294 ‘‘Symbolism in Painting: Paul Gauguin’’ (Aurier), 2:939 Symbolist Movement in Literature, The (Symons), 2:633 Syme, James, 3:1358–1359 Symonds, John Addington, 2:745; 4:1747, 2296–2297; 5:2376, 2405 Symons, Arthur, 2:632, 633 symphonic poem, 3:1360, 1568 Symphonie fantastique (Berlioz), 1:224–225 Symphonie funebre et triomphale (Berlioz), 1:225 symphony, 3:1568 Beethoven and, 1:196, 197, 198; 3:1568, 1570 Bely on, 1:209 Berlioz and, 1:224–225 Brahms and, 1:295 Mahler and, 3:1418–1419, 1572 piano arrangements of, 3:1566 Romanticism and, 4:2027 synapse, 1:342 synchromists, 1:156 syndicalism, 1:56, 59, 60–62; 4:2297–2300 Amiens Charter and, 4:2298–2299, 2300 anarchosyndicalism and, 1:60 fascism and, 1:61, 62 France and, 4:2266, 2267, 2298–2299; 5:2485, 2491 Italy and, 4:2266, 2267, 2298, 2299 labor movements and, 3:1292, 1297 Milan and, 3:1504 Sorel and, 4:2218, 2299 Spain and, 1:61, 62; 3:1292; 4:2266, 2267, 2298, 2299–2300 strikes and, 4:2263–2268, 2298–2300; 5:2485, 2491 Sweden and, 4:2284 Wales and, 5:2436 syndicat. See anarchosyndicalism; syndicalism Synge, J. M., 5:2510 synthetic materials, 3:1160 synthetic Zionism, 5:2521 synthetism, 4:2294 syphilis, 1:251, 410; 4:2293, 2300–2303, 2302 Australia and, 1:134

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Charcot’s joints and, 1:408 Ehrlich’s treatment for, 2:736 fin de sie`cle and, 2:816 regulation of, 4:2162, 2302–2303 sexuality and, 4:2162 Syria British campaign in, 3:1613 Eyptian invasion of, 2:732; 3:1420–1421, 1613 Napoleon and, 2:731; 3:1585 Unkiar-Skelessi Treaty and, 1:278; 3:1560, 1561; 5:2391, 2392 systematicity (legal principle), 3:1315 Syste`me de politique positive (Comte), 2:524; 4:1843 System of Ethics (Fichte), 2:813 ‘‘System of Human Freedom’’ (Fichte), 2:813 System of Logic (J. S. Mill), 2:717; 3:1513, 1514; 4:1844; 5:2394 System of Nature (Linnaeaus), 4:2285 System of Positive Polity (Comte), 2:524 System of Synthetic Philosophy, A (Spencer), 4:2233, 2234 System of Transcendental Idealism (Schelling), 4:2088 Sze´chenyi, Istva´n, 1:117, 140; 3:1266, 1267 diary entry of, 3:1267 Szeklers, 4:2018 Szela, Jakub, 4:1755 Szelenyi, Ivan, 3:1172 Szeps, Moritz, 4:2045

n

T Taaffe, Eduard von, 2:864, 865; 4:2045; 5:2511 Tabarro, Il (Puccini), 4:1916 Tableau de Paris (Mercier), 4:1728 table d’hote, 4:1965 Table of Ranks (Russia), 1:286, 323 Tabouillot, Alfred von, 1:66 Tacitus, 3:1384 tactics. See military tactics Tactigers (Dutch literary movement), 3:1619 Taff Vale Railway Company, 3:1296 Tag- und Jahreschefte (Goethe), 2:987 Tahiti, 5:2501 French venture in, 2:812 Gauguin in, 2:939–940, 941; 3:1530; 4:1710, 1874 Tailhade, Laurent, 4:2294 tailors, 1:481; 2:792

1 9 1 4

Taine, Hippolyte-Adolphe, 2:689, 1074; 3:1132; 5:2522 Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), 1:434; 4:2171 Tait, Peter Guthrie, 3:1250, 1477 Taiwan, 1:434; 4:2171 Tajikistan, 1:395 Taj Mahal (India), 2:597 Takamori, Saigoˆ, 3:1210 Talbot, William Henry Fox, 4:1770, 1771, 1771 Tale of the Antichrist (Soloviev), 2:774 Tale of Tsar Saltan, The (RimskyKorsakov), 4:2000 Tale of Two Cities, A (Dickens), 1:371; 2:657; 3:1586 Tales from the Vienna Woods (J. Strauss), 4:2260 Tales of Belkin (Pushkin), 4:1919 Tales of Hoffmann, The (Offenbach), 3:1661 Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de, 4:1733; 5:2305–2306 Congress of Vienna and, 2:532, 533–534, 534, 565, 1081; 3:1493; 5:2306 Delacroix and, 2:640 divine-right monarchy and, 4:1971 as Napoleon supporter, 2:895 Tallinn, 2:818 Tamassia, Arrigo, 2:1082 Tametomo, Kuroki, 3:1557 Tamworth Manifesto of 1834, 5:2322 Tancred (Disraeli), 2:672 Tancredi (Rossini), 3:1670; 4:2038 Tangier, 3:1545, 1548, 1549 marketplace, 1:19 Tanjore, 2:706; 3:1134 Tannenberg, Battle of (1914), 3:1508 Tannha¨user (Wagner), 3:1360, 1675; 5:2430 Tanzania, 1:16 Tanzimat (Ottoman reforms), 1:90, 274; 3:1188, 1190, 1517, 1686 Taparelli, Massimo. See Azeglio Tapia, Luis Jose´ Sartorius, 4:2229 ‘‘Taras Bulba’’ (Gogol), 2:988 Tarde, Alfred de, 1:214 Tarde, Gabriel de, 2:552; 4:1909, 2214 criminality theory and, 2:573–574 Tariff Reform League (Britain), 1:405 tariffs. See protectionism Tarnovsky, Ippolit, 2:1084 Tarnovsky, Veniamin, 4:2303 Tarquıˆno de Quental, Antero, 4:1840 Ta´rrida del Armol, Fernando, 1:59 Tartuffe (Molie`re), 4:1969

2777

INDEX

Tashkent, 1:395 Tasmania, 1:134; 2:505, 780 Tassel House (first art nouveau building), 1:109 Tatar, Maria, 2:1023 Tatars, 2:562, 772–773; 3:1207, 1208 Tate Gallery (London), 4:1865 Tatiana, princess of Russia, 3:1627 Taurida Palace (St. Petersburg), 4:2077, 2079 Tausk, Viktor, 1:65 taverns, 2:547 Tawfik, viceroy of Egypt, 4:2275 taxation Britain and, 2:977, 1002, 1004, 1007, 1012; 3:1154, 1369, 1426; 4:1759, 1848, 1867 classical economics and, 2:718 France and, 2:840, 841, 842, 847, 884, 888, 896; 3:1885 Germany and, 2:968 Hobson economic theory on, 2:1075 Italy and, 3:1200 millet system and, 3:1517 Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1192, 1598; 4:1786 Prussia and, 2:1042 for schools, 2:720 Taylor, A. J. P., 2:962, 967, 1033 Taylor, Alan M., 2:515 Taylor, Alfred, 5:2466 Taylor, Barbara, 5:2481 Taylor, Edgar, 2:1023 Taylor, Harriet. See Mill, Harriet Taylor Taylor, Helen, 4:2279 Taylor, Isidore-Justin-Se´verin, 2:605; 3:1432 Taylor, J. Hudson, 3:1527–1528 Taylor, John, 3:1508, 1509, 1513 Taylor, Marshall (‘‘Major’’), 2:602 Taylor, Mary, 1:300–301 Taylor, Robert, 3:1600 Tay Son revolution (1771), 3:1137, 1138 Tchaikovsky, Peter, 2:654, 655, 980; 3:1565, 1571, 1575; 4:1919; 5:2306–2307 tea. See coffee, tea, chocolate teachers Jews as, 3:1229 professionalization of, 4:1878 Prussian certification of, 2:723 from religious orders, 2:721 women as, 2:721, 723, 724, 727–728, 945; 3:1680; 4:1881 tearooms, art nouveau, 1:112 Teatro alla Scala (Milan). See La Scala

2778

Teatro Costanzi (Rome), 3:1567 Teatro Real (Madrid), 3:1414 technical schools, 1:286, 473; 2:720, 727; 5:2382–2383, 2389 engineer training and, 2:759 Technische Hochschulen, 5:2382 technology. See science and technology Tecumseh, 5:2439, 2440 Te Deum (Berlioz), 1:225 teetotal (origination of term), 1:36 Teffi, Nadezhda, 4:2183 Tegne´r, Esaias, 4:2287 Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 1:214 Telefon Hirmondo, 5:2308 telegraph, 1:217; 2:576, 962; 4:2109, 2111 Crystal Palace exhibit of, 2:588 electricity and, 3:1161, 1477 Kelvin and, 3:1249 Marconi and, 3:1444–1445; 4:1780 railroads and, 4:1936–1937 Second Industrial Revolution and, 3:1163 in Serbia, 4:2147 Siemens and, 4:2179 in Sweden, 4:2285 transatlantic, 3:1249, 1444–1445, 1658; 4:1937 wartime use of, 2:580; 3:1506 Tel el Kebir, 2:734 Telemark, 4:1821 fin de sie`cle and, 2, 815 telephones, 3:1449; 5:2307–2309 Belgrade and, 1:207 football (soccer) reporting by, 2:831–832 Industrial Revolution (second) and, 3:1157 railroads and, 4:1937 Second Industrial Revolution and, 3:1163 Serbia and, 4:2147 Sweden and, 4:2285 telescope, 4:2113 Telescope, The (Russian journal), 1:399, 400 television, 4:1780 Telford, Thomas, 2:759 temperance. See alcohol and temperance Temperance Society (Britain), 1:36 temperature, Kelvin scale of, 3:1249 Temple, Henry (father), 4:1712 Temple, Henry John (son). See Palmerston, Lord Templo Explatorio de la Sagrada Familia, El. See Sagrada Familia

Temps, Le (Paris newspaper), 2:810 Temps viendra, Le (Rolland), 4:2015 Temptation of Saint Anthony, The (Flaubert), 2:827, 828 Ten, C. L, 3:1514 Ten Commandments, The (film), 2:677–678 tenements, 1:454; 2:1089, 1090 Berlin, 1:218, 219 Naples, 2:1087 Ten Hour Bill of 1847 (Britain), 1:417 tennis, 3:1324; 4:2239, 2243, 2244, 2245 Tennis Court Oath of 1789 (France), 2:768, 842 Tennyson, Alfred, 2:1046; 5:2309–2310 ‘‘Charge of the Light Brigade’’ of, 1:95, 244 on Darwinian evolution, 2:618 Dore´ illustrations for, 2:676 Morant Bay uprising and, 1:371 ‘‘Ten O’Clock’’ (Whistler), 4:2294 Tenon, Jacques, 4:1790 Tenskwatawa, 5:2439 Tenth of March, 1820, in Cadiz, The (engraving), 4:1980 ‘‘Tenth Symphony’’ (Schubert), 4:2107 Ten Years of Exile (Stae¨l), 4:2247 Teraoka, Masami, 1:192 Terek Cossacks, 2:562 Ter-Gukasov, A. A., 1:88 Ternan, Ellen, 2:657 Ternaux, Louis, 1:492 Terrace at Sainte-Adresse (Monet), 3:1128–1129, 1129, 1535 Terrasse, Claude, 3:1214 Terrenoire steel plant (France), 1:353 Territoire de Belfort, 1:51 Terront, Charles, 2:601 Terror, the. See Reign of Terror Terror in Russia, The (Kropotkin), 3:1272 terrorism Alexander II assassination and, 1:39 anarchism and, 1:57–58, 60, 171, 181; 3:1497 Black Hand and, 1:242–243 Irish Home Rule and, 4:1741 Kropotkin’s argument for, 3:1272–1273 Lenin and, 3:1326, 1327 Nechayev and, 3:1613–1614 People’s Will and, 3:1326; 4:1767–1768, 1832 in Russia, 4:2052, 2053, 2210, 2211, 2256; 5:2517

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

September 11, 2001, attacks and, 2:738 Serbian Black Hand and, 1:242–243; 2:705 Tesla, Nikola, 3:1161 Tess of the d’Urbervilles (Hardy), 2:1045; 4:2256 Test Acts of 1829 (Britain), 4:1895; 5:2457 Testem Benevolentiae (apostolic letter, 1899), 3:1332 Tettenborn, Friedrich Karl von, 2:1038 Tetzner, Theodor, 4:2023 Teutonic Mythology (J. Grimm), 2:1023 Teutonic race, 1:403 Texas, 1:338 Text-Book of Psychiatry (Krafft-Ebing), 3:1238 textiles Armenia and, 1:88 art nouveau and, 1:107, 108, 109, 112, 113, 152 Barcelona and, 1:180, 357 Belgium and, 1:200, 201, 203; 2:791 Berlin and, 1:217 Bohemian Lands and, 1:260 capitalist bourgeoisie and, 1:284, 287 Chartism and, 1:415, 416 child labor and, 1:430; 3:1150; 5:2486, 2487 clothing and, 1:481; 2:549 Continental System and, 2:554 cotton and, 4:2193 East India Company trade in, 2:705, 706 electric power and, 2:741 factories and, 2:788, 791, 792 factory housing and, 2:1087 French manufacture of, 3:1153 German manufacture of, 2:960 Industrial Revolution (first) and, 1:24, 351 labor movements and, 5:2486 labor reform and, 1:285 Luddism and, 3:1392 machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412; 4:2264 machinery and, 1:24, 492, 493; 3:1142, 1153, 1154, 1287 Moravia and, 1:141 Morris designs for, 3:1550; 4:1865 Prague and, 4:1856 Rothschilds and, 4:2039

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

sewing machine and, 4:2158–2160 strikes and, 4:2264; 5:2485 Sweden and, 4:2285 Switzerland and, 4:2290 technology and, 4:2108 women labor activists and, 3:1293 women workers and, 2:792; 3:1148; 5:2486, 2487 See also cotton; silk manufacture; wool Thackeray, Harriet (Minny), 4:2253, 2254 Thackeray, William Makepeace, 2:586; 4:2237 thagi (ritual murderers), 3:1134 Thailand. See Siam Thames, Battle of the (1813), 5:2440 Thames River cholera/pollution link and, 1:437 London and, 3:1372, 1375, 1378 pollution and, 1:450 tunnel project, 1:304 Thanks to the Dowry (Bouchot), 3:1454 Thatcher, Margaret, 2:976 Thaulow, Milly, 3:1558 theater Armenia and, 1:88 avant-garde and, 1:153, 157–158 Beardsley design influence on, 1:192 Benavente comedies and, 2:951 Berlin and, 1:219; 3:1109 Bernhardt and, 1:229–230 Blok and, 1:250 cabarets and, 1:335–337 Chekhov and, 1:423 cinema and, 3:1397 cities and, 1:445 D’Annunzio and, 2:609 Dublin and, 2:693 fin de sie`cle and, 2:815 Goethe and, 2:983, 984, 985 Gogol and, 2:988 Gorky and, 2:993 Gouges and, 2:994 Greek tragedy and, 2:1097; 4:1769, 1770 Herzl and, 2:1068 Hofmannsthal and, 2:1076–1077 Hugo and, 2:1092–1093 Ibsen and, 3:1107, 1108–1109; 4:2287 Jarry and, 3:1213, 1214 Lasker-Schu¨ler and, 3:1309 London and, 3:1377 Madrid and, 3:1414

1 9 1 4

Marinetti and, 2:917 Meyerhold and, 3:1495–1496 in mid-nineteenth century, 3:1107–1108 Moscow and, 3:1551 old age representation in, 3:1663 peasant plays and, 4:1756 popular culture and, 4:1821, 1824–1825 Rolland and, 4:2014–2015 Sade and, 4:2074 Schinkel and, 4:2092 Schlegel’s translations and, 4:2094, 2095 Schnitzler and, 4:2100 Serbia and, 4:2148 set design and, 1:192; 4:2092, 2294 Shaw and, 4:2165–2167 Strindberg and, 4:2268–2269, 2286 symbolist movement and, 4:2292, 2295 Turgenev and, 5:2365 Vienna and, 5:2418, 2419 Viennese anti-Semitism and, 3:1394–1395 Warsaw and, 5:2442 Wilde and, 5:2465, 2466 Yeats and, 5:2510 See also opera; operetta Theater del Liceu (Barcelona), 1:181 The´aˆtre d’Art (France), 4:2295 The´aˆtre de l’Oeuvre (Paris), 1:153; 3:1213 The´aˆtre des Champs-Elyse´es (Paris), 1:154; 3:1643 The´aˆtre du Gymnase (Menzel), 3:1490 The´aˆtre du Peuple, 4:2015 The´aˆtre du Peuple, Le (Rolland), 4:2015 The´aˆtre Italien (Paris), 3:1671–1672; 4:2038 The´aˆtre Libre (London), 3:1109 The´aˆtre Lyrique (Paris), 3:1672 Theatrophone, 5:2308 theft. See property crime theism, 4:1893 Theism, Being Three Essays on Religion (J. S. Mill), 3:1514 Theology of Feeling, 4:2030 The´orie des quatre mouvements (Fourier), 2:803, 838; 4:2202 The´orie du pouvoir politique et religieux (Bonald), 1:268 Theory of Moral Sentiments, The (Smith), 2:712 ‘‘Theory of Population, Deduced from the General Law of Animal Fertility, A’’ (Spencer), 4:2234

2779

INDEX

Theory of the Four Movements (Fourier), 2:803, 838; 4:2202 Theory of the Leisure Class (Veblen), 2:552 theosophy, 3:1245; 4:2295; 5:2509 Theravada Buddhism, 3:1137, 1138 The´re`se de Lisieux (‘‘Little Flower’’), 1:385; 4:2134 The´re`se Raquin (Zola), 5:2522 Theresian Quarter (Trieste), 5:2354 Thermidor, 4:1961 Thermidorian Reaction (1794), 2:837, 844–845 Thermidorians, 2:665, 894 thermodynamics, 1:426; 2:652; 3:1160–1161; 4:1780, 2108 Kelvin and, 3:1249–1250, 1478 Maxwell and, 3:1478 Planck and, 4:1799 as rebuke to progress, 2:631 two laws of, 3:1250, 1478 Theseus and the Minotaur (Canova), 1:347 Thessaly, 1:2; 2:530, 1022; 4:2085 ‘‘They’’ (Kipling), 3:1257 They Did Not Expect Him (Repin), 4:1957 Thierry, Augustin, 3:1441; 4:2080–2081 Thiers, Louis-Adolphe, 1:492; 2:540, 1030; 3:1664; 4:1932; 5:2310–2311 Bonapartism and, 1:270, 271 liberalism and, 3:1344 Louis-Philippe and, 3:1389 Paris Commune and, 4:1735–1736, 1737 press censorship and, 4:1870 Third French Republic and, 2:855, 928; 4:1734 Thieu-Tri, 3:1140 Thimonnier, Barthe´lemy, 4:2158, 2159 Things As They Are (Godwin). See Caleb Williams Thinker, The (Rodin), 3:1471; 4:2009 Third Class Carriage, The (Daumier), 2:621, 623 Third Coalition. See War of the Third Coalition Third Estate (France), 2:767–768, 841, 842, 886; 4:2180 Third Home Rule Bill of 1914 (Britain), 3:1184 Third International, 4:2128–2129; 5:2364 Third of May, The (Goya), 2:999

2780

Third Partition of Poland (1795), 4:1900 Third Reform Bill (Britain). See Reform Act of 1884 Third Reich. See Nazism Third Republic (France), 2:567–568; 4:1953, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1998, 2137, 2198, 2243, 2278; 5:2310–2311, 2432, 2491, 2498–2499, 2500 anticlericalism and, 1:69; 2:540; 3:1649–1650; 4:1795 anti-Semitism and, 2:689 Barre`s and, 1:184–185 Boulangism and, 1:184–185, 281, 282 Caillaux and, 1:338–340 Caribbean colonies and, 1:365 Catholic political activity and, 1:388, 389 Charcot and, 1:407, 410 church-state separation and, 2:529; 4:2137; 5:2432 conservatism and, 2:540–542; 4:1737 degeneracy theme and, 2:239 Deraismes and, 2:649 education and, 2:721, 723 Eiffel Tower and, 2:737 fall of (1940), 2:929 feminist movement and, 4:1998 Ferry and, 2:810–813 Franco-Prussian War and, 2:870; 3:1593 Freemasonry and, 2:881 Gambetta and, 2:928, 929 Hugo and, 2:195 intellectuals and, 3:1168–1169 labor movements, 5:2491 lawyers and, 4:1879 Leo XIII relations with, 3:1331 liberalism and, 3:1346 Michel’s critique of, 3:1497 national identity and, 3:1522 overview of, 2:854–859 Paris Commune and, 2:855; 4:1735–1737 Paris reconstruction resumption during, 4:1731–1732 Poincare´ (Raymond) and, 4:1805–1806 press curbs and, 4:1870 proclamation of, 2:810, 870, 928, 929; 4:1734 public health programs and, 4:1914–1915

Renan and, 4:1953 republicanism and, 4:1961, 1962, 1964 sports and, 4:2243 suffrage and, 4:2278 Thiers and, 5:2310–2311 vaccination requirements and, 4:2198 Waldeck-Rousseau and, 5:2432 world’s fairs and, 5:2498–2499, 2500 ‘‘third sex’’ theory, 5:2375–2376 Third Symphony (Beethoven), 1:197, 198 Third Symphony (Mahler), 3:1419 Thirty Days War (1897). See GrecoTurkish War Thirty-Nine Articles (Anglican), 3:1621 Thomas, Ambroise, 3:1675 Thomas, Cle´ment, 4:1735, 1737 Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist, 3:1158; 4:2113 Thomas, William, 3:1514 Thomas a` Kempis, 1:385 Thomas Aquinas, 1:214; 3:1332 Thomas-Gilchrist converter, 1:485 Thompson, Benjamin (Count Rumford), 4:2111 Thompson, William, 2:803; 3:1693; 4:2201 Thomson, Charles, 3:1142 Thomson, James, 3:1249 Thomson, John, 4:1772; 5:2490 Thomson, Joseph John, 1:427; 4:2070, 2071, 2113 Thomson, William. See Kelvin, Lord Thorbecke, Johan Rudolf, 3:1343, 1617 Thore´, The´ophile, 1:180 Thoreau, Henry David, 4:2029 thorium, 2:594, 595 Thornton, Marianne, 2:835 Thornton, Robert John, 1:246 Thorvaldsen, Bertel, 2:647; 4:1702 ‘‘Thoughts of a Modern Pole’’ (Dmowski), 4:1812 Thoughts on Man (Godwin), 2:982 Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (Burke), 1:327 Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (Wollstonecraft), 5:2479 ‘‘Thoughts on the Improvement of the Races of Our Cultivated Plants’’ (de Vries), 2:652 Thouret, Michel-Augustin, 4:1790 Thrace Bulgaria and, 1:312, 313

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

First Balkan War and, 1:163, 164 Russo-Turkish War and, 1:12 Second Balkan War and, 1:313 ‘‘Thrawn Janet’’ (Stevenson), 4:2255 3-D process, 3:1398 ‘‘three-body problem,’’ 4:1804 three-class suffrage, 4:2278 ‘‘Three Conversations on War, Progress, and the End of History’’ (Soloviev), 4:2217 Three Dancers in a Diagonal Line on the Stage (Degas), 2:635 Three Emperors League, 1:48, 146; 2:526, 705 disintegration of, 3:1690 San Stefano Treaty and, 2:703 Three Essays on Religion (J. S. Mill), 4:1844 Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (Freud), 2:906; 4:1905, 2163; 5:2376 Three Faces of Fascism (Nolte), 2:686 ‘‘Three Meetings’’ (Soloviev), 4:2216 Three Pieces for the Piano, The (Schoenberg), 4:2102 Three Sisters (Chekhov), 1:423; 3:1551 ‘‘Three Students, The’’ (Doyle), 2:680 Three Tales (Flaubert), 2:827, 828 threshing machines, 1:25; 2:757 riots against, 1:357, 358–359; 3:1411 Thule-Gesellschaft, 2:1032 Thurn und Taxis, Prince, 1:85 Thurnwald, Richard, 2:770 Thus Spoke Zarasthustra (Nietzsche), 3:1631, 1632, 1633–1634, 1635, 1636 Thyrza (Gissing), 2:975 Thyselius, Carl, 4:2284 Thyssen family, 1:471; 3:1159 Tianjin, 3:1678, 1679, 1680 Tianjin, Treaties of (1858), 3:1579, 1679–1680 Tibet, 1:49; 2:597 Ticino, 4:2288, 2291 tidal studies, 3:1658 Tieck, Friedrich, 1:216; 2:912 Tieck, Ludwig, 3:1647; 4:2095 Tietz family, 2:551 Tiflis, 1:88 Tilak, Bal Gangadar, 3:1136 Tillett, Ben, 3:1296 Till Eulenspiegel (R. Strauss), 3:1643 Tilsit, Treaties of (1807), 1:38, 226, 272; 2:553, 817, 846, 876, 1042; 3:1599; 4:2250 TIM (Louis Mitelberg), 2:622 Timar system (Ottoman), 3:1420

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

timber, 1:81; 2:505, 710 Timbuctoo (Tennyson), 5:2309 Timbuktu, 2:782 Time (Russian journal), 2:678 Time and Free Will (Bergson), 1:213 Time Machine, The (Wells), 5:2458 timepieces, 3:1323–1324; 4:2290 Times of London, 4:1823, 1864, 1866, 1867, 1871 Hardie obituary in, 2:1044 price of, 4:1867 Times Roman typeface, 4:1867 Timofejewena, Raissa, 1:9 Tintern Abbey (Wales), 4:2030 ‘‘Tintern Abbey’’ (Wordsworth), 4:2030; 5:2482 Tippecanoe, Battle of (1811), 5:2439 Tippu Tip (Hamed bin Muhammad), 1:16–17 Tipu Sultan, 3:1134 tires, 1:149; 2:551, 600, 601; 3:1336 Tiresias and Other Poems (Tennyson), 5:2310 Tirol, 2:958 Tirpitz, Alfred von, 1:232; 2:967, 968; 5:2312–2313, 2353 British naval rivalry and, 3:1609–1611 Tirpitz Plan, 5:2312 Tirtoff, Romain de. See Erte´ Tischbein, Johann Heinrich (the Elder), 2:984 Tisdall, Caroline, 1:156 Tisza, Istva´n, 2:864 Tisza, Ka´lma´n, 2:864 Titanic (ocean liner), 3:1163, 1445; 4:2083 ‘‘Tithonus’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309 Titian, 2:543; 3:1433 Tito, Ettore, 5:2405 Titov, Vladimir, 2:772 Tkachev, Peter, 2:1065; 3:1613; 4:2052, 2053 ‘‘To a Skylark’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 ‘‘To a Wealthy Man who Promised a Second Subscription to the Dublin Municipal Gallery if It Were Proved the People Wanted Pictures’’ (Yeats), 5:2510 tobacco, 5:2313–2316 Austrian tax on, 3:1502 Caribbean production of, 2:709 European consumption of, 2:710 Java and, 3:1617 slavery and, 4:2190–2193 trade and, 3:1151 women smokers and, 2:947 To¨chter-Institut (Milwaukee), 1:67

1 9 1 4

Tocqueville, Alexis de, 2:603; 3:1357; 4:2213; 5:2316–2318, 2448 on French peasantry, 4:1756 Guizot as influence on, 2:1030 in Manchester, 1:454 Mill (John Stuart) reviews of, 3:1513 Montesquieu as influence on, 2:537 O’Connell’s Irish Catholic movement and, 3:1657 revolutionary age and, 1:317; 3:1342 on voluntary associations, 1:115–116, 117, 119, 120 Tofani, Oswaldo, 2:695 Togo, Heihachiro, 3:1557–1558; 4:2064 Togoland, 1:20, 222; 2:967 Toilers of the Sea, The (Hugo), 2:1094 toilets, 1:219, 251, 253, 450, 453 Tokugawa family, 3:1208, 1209, 1210; 4:2064 Tokyo (Edo), 3:1208, 1210 Tolentino, Battle of (1815), 3:1254 toll roads, 5:2346 Tolpuddle Martyrs of 1834 (Britain), 5:2462 Tolstoy, Alexei, 4:2076, 2079 Tolstoy, Leo, 1:423; 3:1215; 4:2165, 2217; 5:2318–2320, 2319 Freemasonry and, 2:878, 881 Goncharov as influence on, 2:989 portrayal of Kutuzov by, 3:1282 Repin’s portrait of, 4:1957 Rolland’s biography of, 4:20 Ruskin and, 4:2047 Spencer and, 4:2235 Tchaikovsky and, 5:2307 Tombeau de Couperin, Le (Ravel), 4:1944 Tom Brown’s School Days (Hughes), 1:428 Tomlinson, Charles, 4:2114 Tomomi, Iwakura, 3:1210 Tomon, Thomas de, 4:2078 Tom Sawyer (Twain), 2:676 Tone, Theobald Wolfe, 3:1176 Tone, Wolfe, 4:2187 Tonio Kro¨ger (Mann), 3:1436, 1437 Tonkin, 3:143, 1141, 1142 To¨nnies, Ferdinand, 1:64; 2:698–699; 4:2212–2213, 2214, 2215 Tono-Bungay (Wells), 5:2458 Ton That Thuyet, regent of Vietnam, 3:1141 Tooke, Horne, 1:244 Too True to Be Good (Shaw), 4:2167 Topkapi Palace, 3:1190 topology, 4:1804

2781

INDEX

Torberg, Friedrich, 4:2101 Tories, 1:82, 86; 5:2320–2323, 2412, 2457, 2471 Burke and, 1:326 Castlereagh and, 1:373–374 Catholic emancipation and, 2:1003 Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:405 as Conservative party, 2:537, 540 Corn Laws and, 2:559, 672, 715, 1004–1005; 4:1759, 1889 Curzon and, 2:597–598 Disraeli and, 2:672–674, 1008–1009 imperialism and, 2:589 jingoism and, 3:1234–1235 Peel and, 2:540, 559, 672, 1004–1005; 4:1758–1759 Pitt and, 2:1001 Salisbury and, 2:1010–1011 split in, 2:672 trade policies and, 2:517; 4:1889 Ulster Unionists and, 3:1181, 1184 Torlonia family, 4:2035 Torno al casticismo, En (Unamuno), 2:951 To¨rnqvist, Egil, 4:2269 torpedo, 5:2312 Torquato Tasso (Goethe), 2:985 Torrens, Robert, 2:515; 4:1887 Torrents of Spring, The (Turgenev), 4:2265 Torrijos, Jose´ Marı´a, 4:2229 Tor under der Tod, Der (Hofmannsthal), 2:1077 Tosca (Puccini), 3:1677; 4:1916 Tosca, La (Sardou), 4:1916 Toscanini, Arturo, 3:1418, 1435 ˆ kubo, 3:1210 Toshimichi, O Totatita¨tsideal, 3:1533 Totemism and Exogamy (Frazer), 2:872 Toulon, 3:1482 siege of (1793), 2:900; 3:1584 Toulouse, 4:1736 Toulouse-Lautrec, Charles de, 5:2323 Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 1:335; 2:550, 815; 5:2323–2325, 2324, 2400 absinthe depictions by, 1:3 Daumier as influence on, 2:622 Picasso and, 4:1781 poster art and, 4:1845, 1846 Tour de France, 2:602; 4:1824, 2245 Tourettes symdrome, 1:408 Touring Club Ciclistico Italiano, 5:2331 Touring Club de France, 5:2330–2331 touring clubs, 5:2330

2782

tourism, 5:2325–2332, 2330 automobiles and, 1:149 British bourgeoisie and, 1:288 cycling and, 2:600, 602 Grand Tour and, 5:2326–2327, 2329 leisure and, 3:1324; 4:1824 Mediterranean towns and, 1:288, 303 photography and, 4:1772 Rome and, 4:2033, 2035 seaside resorts amd, 4:2124–2126; 5:2328 spas and, 5:2327–2328 Switzerland and, 4:2291 syphilis transmission and, 4:2303 vacations and, 3:1324–1325; 4:1824 Venice and, 5:2405 Tour of Flanders, 4:2245 Tour of Italy, 4:2245 Tourzel, marquise de, 3:1385 Toussaint Louverture, 1:364–365; 2:1036; 4:2192; 5:2332–2333, 2333 Tout, Thomas Frederick, 2:1073 Tovey, Donald Francis, 1:295 Towards Democracy (Carpenter), 1:372 Towards International Government (Hobson), 2:1076 Tower of London, 3:1375 towns. See cities and towns Trachenberg Plan (1813), 3:1319, 1320 track and field, 4:2245 Tractarianism (Oxford Movement), 2:1006; 4:1917, 2046 Manning and, 3:1440 Newman and, 3:1620–1621; 4:1918 tractors, 1:25; 3:1161 Tracts for the Times (Oxford Movement), 3:1440, 1620 Tracts on the Popery Laws (Burke), 1:327 trade and economic growth, 5:2333–2344, 2339, 2341, 2343 African colonialism and, 1:13–22, 43, 205, 220–222, 222, 499 Amsterdam and, 1:53–55 Balkan Orthodox merchants and, 3:1684–1685 Belgrade and, 1:206 Bismarck’s protectionism and, 1:239 Black Sea access and, 1:243, 278 Britain and, 3:1147, 1154–1155 British colonies and, 2:999; 3:1154–1155 British interests in China and, 3:1578–1579, 1678–1680

Canada and, 1:344 capitalist principles and, 1:350 Caribbean colonialism and, 1:364 China and, 3:1678–1680 Chinese restrictions and, 1:433, 434; 3:1678, 1679 cholera transmission and, 2:669 cities and, 1:445, 446, 452 Cobden-Chevalier Treaty and, 1:491–492 colonial, 2:505; 3:1151, 1154–1155 colonial restrictions and, 2:504–505 commercial policy and, 2:512–517 consumerism and, 2:546, 547, 551–552; 3:1151–1152 East India Company and, 2:705–706 flows of trade and, 5:2335–2336 Germany and, 2:967 globalization and, 3:1151–1152, 1155, 1537–1538; 5:2342, 2343 Hamburg and, 2:1038–1040 imperialism and, 3:1115, 1120, 1122, 1123, 1124 India’s imbalance and, 3:1135, 1136 internal trade effects and, 5:2340–2342 Japan and, 3:1209–1212 List theories on, 3:1356, 1357 London and, 3:1372, 1374 Manchester and, 3:1427, 1428–1429, 1430–1431 markets and, 3:1447–1449 Mediterranean and, 3:1482 monetary unions and, 3:1537–1538 Napoleon and, 1:106, 272, 303; 2:553–554, 846, 902; 3:1586–1587, 1599 New Zealand and, 3:1623–1624 oceanic exploration and, 3:1653–1654 policy factors and, 4:1888–1889 protectionism and, 1:354–355; 2:513–515; 4:1887–1889 road and waterway transport and, 5:2346–2350 Serbia, and, 4:2147; 5:2337 Suez Canal and, 3:1338 Sweden and, 4:2285 Switzerland and, 4:2290; 5:2336 tariffs and, 5:2337, 2340 trade policy and, 5:2338–2349 transportation/communication innovations and, 1:353–354 Trieste and, 5:2354–2355 Venice and, 5:2402, 2403, 2405

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Zollverein and, 5:2524–2526 See also free trade trade policy. See commercial policy Trades Union Congress (Britain), 2:1008, 1012; 3:1290, 1295, 1296; 4:2266 Trade Union Act of 1913 (Britain), 3:1296 trade unions. See labor movements; syndicalism Trafalgar, Battle of (1805), 2:554, 846; 3:1586; 4:2225; 5:2344–2345, 2344–2345, 2345, 2438 Nelson and, 2:901, 1002; 3:1615 Trafalgar Square (London), 1:59; 3:1375, 1376 Traffics and Discoveries (Kipling), 3:1257 Trafford Park (Manchester), 3:1431 Tragic Duel, A: The Death of Monsieur Harry Alis (Tofani), 2:695 Tragic Week (Barcelona, 1909), 1:181–182, 183 Trahison des clercs, La (Benda), 3:1169 Training in Christianity (Kierkegaard), 2:648 Traite´ de l’association domestique agricole (Fourier), 2:838; 4:2202 Traite´ des de´ge´ne´rescences physiques, intellectuelles, et morales de l’espe`ce humaine (Morel), 2:636, 637 Traite´ e´le´mentaire de chimie (Lavoisier), 1:424; 3:1312 Trakl, Georg, 3:1309, 1310 Ho ¨ lderlin as precursor of, 2:1079 Trampusch, Emilie, 4:2260 transatlantic cable, 3:1249, 1444–1445, 1653; 4:1937 transatlantic crossing immigrants and, 1:353 meat shipments, 2:659 steamships and, 1:304–305 transcendentalism, 1:497; 2:813; 4:2088 transcendental phenomenology, 1:299 Transformations and Symbols of the Libido (Jung), 3:1239 Transformations of Patriarchy in the West, 1500–1900 (Miller), 3:1451–1452 Translation and Harmony of the Four Gospels, A (Tolstoy), 5:2319 transmutation, 2:614, 615 transportation and communications, 5:2346–2352 Africa and, 1:20, 21 Agricultural Revolution and, 1:28

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

airplanes and, 1:29–31 Amsterdam and, 1:53–54 Belgium and, 1:201 Belgrade and, 1:206–207 Berlin and, 1:217 Britain and, 1:303–305 business firms and, 1:329–330 canals and, 5:2347–2348, 2350 capitalist markets and, 1:353–354 Central Asia and, 1:395, 407 cities and, 1:452 as colonialism facilitation, 1:499, 500 consumerism and, 2:548 crime and, 2:576 electricity and, 2:741–742 engineers and, 2:757–758 environment and, 2:763–764 exploration and, 2:782 food distribution and, 2:659 football (soccer) and, 2:831–832 as immigration facilitator, 2:646, 749 India and, 2:706; 3:135 Industrial Revolution (second) and, 1:351; 3:1163–1164 innovations in, 1:353 international organizations and, 1:352–353 leisure and, 3:1324, 1325–1326; 4:1824 London and, 3:1372, 1373, 1374 Marconi and, 3:1444–1445 Milan and, 3:1502, 1504 military tactics and, 3:1506 military uses of, 2:580 Netherlands and, 3:1617 newspapers and, 4:1866 New Zealand and, 3:1624 Portugal and, 4:1840 roadways and, 4:1936; 5:2346, 2348, 2349, 2350–2352 seaside resorts and, 4:2124, 2125 Serbia and, 4:2147 South Africa and, 4:2222 stagecoaches and, 5:2346, 2347, 2349 steam power and, 4:2108 Suez Canal and, 4:2274–2276, 2275; 5:2405 Sweden and, 4:2285 tourism and, 5:2328–2331 transatlantic, 1:304–305, 353; 2:659; 3:1249, 1444–1445, 1653–1654; 4:1937 waterways and, 5:2346–2350

1 9 1 4

See also automobile; railroads; shipping; steamboats; subways; telegraph; telephones Trans-Siberian Railroad, 3:1628; 4:1936, 2064, 2172–2173; 5:2426, 2427, 2478, 2503 Transvaal. See South African Republic Transvaal Committee, 3:1182 transvestism, 2:1084; 3:1270 coining of term, 2:1069 Transvestites, The (Hirschefeld), 2:1069 Transylvania, 1:137, 141; 4:2017, 2018, 2019 Trapani, 4:2177 Trauma of Birth, The (Rank), 4:1938 Traumdeutung, Die (Freud), 2:905, 906; 4:1905 Travail, Le (Zola), 5:2523 Travailleurs de la mer, Les (Hugo), 2:1094 travel. See explorers; tourism; travel writing travel guides, 5:2326, 2329 Travellers Club (London), 1:185 Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa (Barth), 2:782 Travels in America (Chateaubriand), 1:421 Travels in Icaria (Cabet), 2:521 Travels in North America (Lyell), 3:1402 Travels in the Interior of Africa (Park), 2:782 Travels in West Africa (M. Kingsley), 2:783 travel writing African exploration and, 2:782, 783 Chateaubriand and, 1:420–421 Galton and, 2:927 Humboldt (Alexander) and, 2:1096, 1097 Travemu¨nde, 4:2125 Traviata, La (Verdi), 3:1572, 1673; 5:2406 Treachery of the Blue Books (Wales; 1847), 5:2434 Treason of the Clerks, The (Benda), 3:1172 Treasure Island (Stevenson), 4:2255 treasury bill, 1:161 treaties. See international law: key word Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Maxwell), 3:1249, 1478 Treatise on Instrumentation and Modern Orchestration (Berlioz), 1:225

2783

INDEX

Treatise on Natural Philosophy (Kelvin and Tait), 3:1250 Treatise on the Origin of Language (Herder), 2:1060 Treffz, Jetty, 4:2261 Treitschke, Heinrich von, 1:71–72; 2:619, 959; 3:1533; 5:2352–2354, 2524 conservative nationalism and, 3:1605 Trendelenburg, Friedrich Adolf, 2:660 Trent, 3:1198, 1199 Trentham Park (Staffordshire), 1:186 Trentino, 2:902; 3:1203 Trento, 3:1203 Trepov, Fyodor, 4:1768; 5:2517 Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow), 1:287 Trevelyan, George Macaulay, 2:930 Treves, Claudio, 5:2364 Trezzini, Domenico, 4:2075, 2076 Trial, The (Kafka), 3:1242, 1243 trial by jury, 1:39; 3:1341 Trial of French Colonialism, The (Ho), 3:1144 ‘‘trial of the thirteen’’ (France), 2:810 triangle trade, 4:2191 Trianon Tariffs of 1810, 2:553 Triat (French gymnastics leader), 4:2241 Tribuna, La (Italian daily), 4:1868 Tribune des femmes (women’s newspaper), 4:2013 Tribune des peuples, La (journal), 3:1500 tricolor (French Revolutionary flag), 2:842, 855, 887; 3:1387 tricolor (Italian flag), 3:1192, 1196, 1606 tricycles, 2:601 Trier, pilgrimage to, 4:1788 Trieste, 1:145; 3:1482; 4:2004; 5:2354–2357, 2355, 2402, 2403 Austria and, 2:958; 3:1198 economic activity and, 3:1195 German nationalism and, 2:961 Italy and, 3:1199, 1203 John of Austria and, 3:1236 Trikoupis, Harilaos, 2:1021 Trinidad, 4:2225 Trinity Church (Berlin), 4:2097 Trinity College (Cambridge), 3:1477 Trinity College (Dublin), 2:693 Trinity College (Oxford), 3:1620 Triomphe de la Raison, Le (Rolland), 4:2015 Tripe, Linnaeus, 4:1772 Triple Alliance, 1:48, 239; 2:526, 965 Bulgaria and, 1:166 creation of, 3:1545

2784

Crispi’s foreign policy aims and, 2:583 Italy and, 3:1200, 1202–1203 Romania and, 2:965; 4:2017 Triple Entente, 1:49, 50; 2:704; 3:1203, 1277; 4:1801 Triple Intervention of 1895, 1:434; 4:2064 Tripoli, 3:1420 Tripolitania, 3:1546, 1691 Trip to the Moon (film), 1:441 Triquet, Jules Octave, 1:379 Tristan, Flora, 2:650, 939, 943; 3:1288; 5:2357–2359, 2358, 2397 Tristan und Isolde (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674, 1675, 1676; 5:2431 Trittico, Il (Puccini), 4:1916 ‘‘Triumph of Life, The’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 ‘‘Triumph of the Holy See and Church against the Assaults of Innovators’’ (799), 4:1719 Trocade´ro Palace (Paris), 5:2499, 2500, 2505 Troeltsch, Ernst, 4:2215; 5:2446 Trois Gymnope´dies (Satie), 4:2086 Trois morceaux en forme de poire (Satie), 4:2087 Trois Sarabandes (Satie), 4:2086 Trois urnes, Les (Gouges), 2:996 Trollope, Anthony and Rose, 4:2237 Tropical South Africa (Galton), 2:927 Troppau Conference (1820). See Congress of Troppau Troppau Protocol (1820), 2:531–532; 4:1971, 1981 Troppmann, Jean-Baptiste, 2:575 Trotsky, Leon, 1:267, 267; 3:1172, 1208; 4:2128, 2210 anti-Semitism and, 1:76 Bolshevik-Menshevik split and, 3:1487 on Guchkov, 3:1659 Revolution of 1905 and, 4:1974, 1976, 1977 ‘‘Trout’’ Quintet (Schubert), 4:2106 Trovatore, Il (Verdi), 3:1572, 1673; 5:2406 Troy, excavation of, 4:1769 Troyens, Les (Berlioz), 1:225 Troyer, John, 1:211 Troyon, Constant, 1:178 Trubetskoy, Nikolai, 2:775 Trudoviki, 4:2057 True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture (Pugin), 4:1917 Truth and Reality (Rank), 4:1939

Tsakalof, Athanasios, 2:1019 Tsarskoye Selo lyceum (St. Petersburg), 4:1918 Tschermak von Seysenegg, Erich, 2:653; 3:1486 Tschudi, Hugo von, 1:219 Tsushima, Battle of (1905), 3:1558, 1628 Tsvetayeva, Marina, 1:250; 4:2183 Tswana, 4:2220 tuberculosis, 2:667; 5:2359–2361 Berlin and, 1:218 Bohemian Lands and, 1:261 death rate from, 2:644 Dublin deaths from, 2:690 Koch’s tuberculin and, 3:1263; 5:2359, 2361 London and, 3:1372, 1554 modern concepts of, 5:2359–2360 Moscow and, 3:1554 Paris and, 4:1732–1733 peasant victims of, 4:1751 public health and, 1:450; 2:628; 5:2361 treatment of, 5:2360–2361 Tu¨bingen seminary, 2:1051, 1078; 4:2087–2088 TUC. See Trades Union Congress Tucker, Paul Hayes, 3:1537 Tu-Duc, king of Vietnam, 3:1140–1141 Tuileries, 2:732, 1047; 3:1385, 1446; 4:1727, 1728, 1729 French revolutionaries attack on, 3:1386 massacres (1792) at, 1:412; 2:844 Paris Commune burning of, 4:1736 Tukolor Empire, 1:20 Tull, Jethro, 1:25; 2:757 Tunis, 5:2497 Tunisia, 2:582, 812; 3:1116; 5:2361–2363 Turandot (Puccini), 4:1916–1917 Turati, Filippo, 2:971; 3:1276, 1277, 1504, 1556; 5:2363–2364 turbine engine, 2:682 Turco in Italia, Il (Rossini), 3:1670; 4:2038 Turgenev, Ivan, 1:208; 2:535, 828, 830; 5:2364–2366 Gissing compared with, 2:975 Goncharov as influence on, 2:989 intelligentsia and, 3:1168 nihilist portrayal by, 3:1639 peasant portrayal by, 2:1015 as Westernizer, 5:2365, 2459, 2460 Zola and, 5:2365, 2523

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Turgeneva, Asya, 1:209 Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques, 2:842; 3:1384; 4:1931 Turian, Bedros, 1:90 Turin, 4:1797, 2003, 2130 economic activity and, 3:1195 electric lighting and, 2:741 Naples contrasted with, 3:1581 as Piemont-Savoy capital, 4:1785, 1787 Turkestan, 1:395, 396–397 Turkic dialects, 1:395, 396 Turkic people, 3:1207, 1208 Turkish Armenians, 1:89–92 Turkish Bath, The (Ingres), 3:1167 Turkish Straits, 4:2085, 2086 Turkmenistan, 1:395 Turm, Der (Hofmannsthal), 2:1077 Turnen, 4:2241–2242, 2243 Turner, J. M. W., 2:763; 4:1703–1704, 1704, 1707, 2027, 2029, 2046; 5:2366–2368, 2367, 2403, 2404 Constable contrasted with, 2:543; 4:1704–1705 Friedrich’s importance compared with, 2:910 Turner, Richard, 1:36 turnips, 1:26 Turnovo Constitution of 1879 (Bulgaria), 1:312 turnpikes, 5:2346 Turn-Vereins, 1:457 Turpin, Dick, 4:1821 Turpitudes sociales (Pissarro), 4:1794 Turreau, Louis-Marie, 2:563 Tuscany, 1:392; 2:533, 536; 4:1970, 1994, 2000–2003 Austrian Habsburg rule of, 3:1191, 1193 Napoleonic Empire and, 3:1193, 1599 Revolution of 1848 and, 3:1196 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 3:1198, 1592 Tussaud, Madame, 1:288; 3:1561–1562 Twain, Mark, 1:219, 278; 2:676 Twardowski, Kazimierz, 1:298, 299 Twelve, The (Blok), 1:250 twelve-tone music, 3:1245, 1437, 1572; 4:2101, 2102–2103, 2103 XX, Les (artists’ association), 1:307 Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (Verne), 3:1116; 5:2408, 2497 Two-and-a-Half International, 4:2128 Two Foscari, The (Byron), 1:333

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Two Fundamental Principles of Ethics (Schopenhauer), 4:2104 Two Scenes of the Indian Mutiny in 1857 (Atkinson), 4:2139 Two Sicilies. See Kingdom of the Two Siciles Two Sources of Morality and Religion, The (Bergson), 1:213 Two-Thirds Law (France), 2:665 ‘‘Two Voices, The’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309 Tydfil, Merthyr, 3:1295 Tylor, Edward, 2:873 Tyninghame House (Haddington, Scotland), 2:1091 typhoid, 1:251, 450; 2:667 Berlin and, 1:218 sanitation and, 2:766; 4:1912 typhus, 2:667, 668; 4:1912, 1913 factors in spread of, 2:669–670 Tyrkova, Ariadna, 3:1241 Tyrol, 3:1235–1236 Tyrolena Revolt (1809), 3:1235–1236 Tyrsˇ, Miroslav (Friedrich Emanuel Tirsch), 4:1856, 2244 Tytherly (Queenswood), Hampshire, 4:2200–2201 Tzigane (Ravel), 4:1945

n

U Ubangi, 1:13, 15 ¨ berbretti (Berlin cabaret), 1:335 U ¨ ber das Geistige in der Kunst U (Kandinsky), 1:155 ‘‘Uber den Fleis in Mehreren Gelehrten Sprachen’’ (Herder), 2:1060 ¨ ber den nervo¨sen Charakter (A. U Adler), 1:9 ¨ ber die letzten Dinge (Weininger), U 5:2449 Uber die Neuere Deutsche Literature. Fragmente (Herder), 2:1061 ¨ bermensch (superman), 3:1629, U 1633–1635 Ubu enchaıˆne´ (Jarry), 1:153 Ubu roi (Jarry), 1:153, 154; 3:1213, 1214 Ubu sur la butte (Jarry), 1:153; 3:1214 Ucciali, Treaty of (1889), 1:7–8 Uganda, 1:21; 2:1068; 3:1528 Uganda Crisis of 1903, 5:2521 ‘‘Ugly Duckling, The’’ (Andersen), 2:648

1 9 1 4

UGT. See Unio´n General de Trabajadores Uhde, William, 2:590, 591 Ujedinjenje ili smrt (Union or Death), 4:2148–2149 Ujest, duke of. See HohenloheOhringen, Christian-Kraft von Ukraine, 4:2271; 5:2369–2373, 2372 Cossacks and, 2:562–563 Gogol and, 2:988 Habsburg Monarchy and, 1:137, 142 Kadets and, 3:1241 nationalism and, 1:447 Pan-Slavism and, 4:1716, 1717 pogroms in, 1:40; 4:1802, 1803 Prague Slav Congress and, 4:1861, 1862 railroads, 4:1933 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987 separatists movements in, 1:39 Stolypin and, 4:2257 trade and, 5:2340 See also Crimea Ukrainian Orthodox Church, 5:2370 ulema, 5:2515, 2516 Ulm, Battle of (1805), 1:132; 2:846, 901; 5:2374–2375 Ulrichs, Karl Heinrich, 2:1070, 1082, 1085–1086; 4:2297; 5:2375–2377 Ulster, 2:1009–1010 Belfast riots, 3:1183 Orange Order and, 3:1176–1177 Unionists and, 3:1181, 1184 Ulster Volunteer Force, 3:1184–1185 ultramontanism, 1:381–384, 388 Maistre and, 3:1421 Manning and, 3:1441 papal infallibility and, 4:1721, 1722 Pius IX and, 4:1795 Ultras (Spain), 4:2228, 2229 Ulyanov, Alexander, 3:1326; 4:1768, 2054 Ulyanov, Vladimir Ilyich. See Lenin, Vladimir Ulysses (Joyce), 2:691, 694; 4:1833; 5:2356 ‘‘Ulysses’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309, 2310 Umanita` Nuova (Italian anarchist newspaper), 3:1425 Umberto I, king of Italy, 1:362; 3:1441; 5:2377–2378 assassination of, 3:1201 Umbria, 3:1193; 4:1724 Unamuno y Jugo, Miguel de, 2:950–951; 4:2232

2785

INDEX

Unbestechliche, Der (Hofmannsthal), 2:1077 Unbound Prometheus, The (Landes), 2:709; 3:1153 Uncle Vanya (Chekhov), 1:423 Uncommercial Traveller, The (Dickens), 2:657 unconscious, 3:1239; 4:1905 underground. See subway Underground group, 4:2273 Understanding Human Nature (A. Adler), 1:10 Under the Greenwood Tree (Hardy), 2:1045 Under Western Eyes (Conrad), 2:536 Undine (Tchaikovsky), 5:2307 Une Baignade, Asnie`res (Seurat), 4:2155–2156 Unemployed of London: Inscription on the Gates, West Indies Docks (engraving), 2:1010 unemployment, 1:351; 2:101, 1011 British Poor Law and, 4:1819–1820 of professionals, 4:1879 welfare initiatives and, 5:2454 unemployment insurance, 1:356; 2:1012; 4:1915 UNESCO, 1:298 ‘‘Unfinished Symphony’’ (Schubert), 4:2107 Unger, Franz, 3:1485 Uniate Church, 4:2018, 2019; 5:2369, 2372, 2372–2373 Austria-Hungary and, 1:138, 145; 4:1809 Lithuania and, 4:1808 unification, Italian. See Risorgimento unified field theory, 2:740 uniformitarianism, 2:615 Union des Droites, 2:540 Union des Socie´te´s Francaise de Gymnastique, 1:118 Union Fraternelle du Commerce et de lIndustrie, 1:389 Unio´n General de Trabajadores, 4:2231, 2300 Union Ge´ne´rale (Lyon), 3:1405 Unionist Party (Croatia), 2:925 Unionists (Belgium), 1:200 Unionists (Britain), 1:405; 2:1010, 1011; 3:1181, 1184, 1348; 4:1742; 5:2322–2323 Union of Belgian Athletic Sports Societies, 4:2245 Union of Brest of 1596, 5:2369, 2372 Union of Cities (Russian organization), 3:1242

2786

Union of French Sporting and Athletic Societies, 4:2245 Union of Gymnastic Societies (France), 4:2243 Union of Liberation (Russia), 3:1627; 4:2055, 2270 Union of Parliaments, 4:2118 Union of Polish Youth, 2:753 Union of 17 October (Russia). See Octobrists Union of Socialist Workers, 1:109 Union of South Africa, 4:2224–2225 Union of Unions (Russia), 4:1976 Union or Death. See Black Hand Unitarians, 2:1002; 3:1407, 1458–1459, 1513; 4:1893 Unitary Socialist Party (Italy), 5:2364 United Committee for the Prevention of the Demoralization of the Native Races by the Liquor Traffic, 1:37 United Diet of 1847 (Prussia), 1:234; 2:877 United Irishmen. See Society of the United Irishmen United Kingdom. See Great Britain United Kingdom of the Netherlands, 1:199 United Nations, 1:309 Human Development Index, 5:2334 United Nations Charter, 5:2459 United Presbyterian Church, 4:2118 United Provinces of Italy, 4:1985 United Services College, 3:1256 United States advertising and, 4:1868 Agassiz and, 1:23–24; 2:618 airplane and, 1:30, 31 anarchism and, 1:57 Annekes in, 1:66–67 antislavery movement and, 4:2192–2193 Australian colonies compared with, 1:135 automobile industry in, 1:149; 5:2352 Barbizon painting and, 1:177 Berlin Conference delegation from, 1:221, 222 Britain’s colonial loss of, 1:498; 2:1000 British trade with, 3:1155 Cabet utopian colonies in, 1:338 Canada and, 1:346 capitalism and, 1:328 Catholic liberalism in, 3:1332 Chateaubriand in, 1:420, 421

chemistry and, 1:426, 427; 3:1160 Chinese treaty and, 3:1579, 1679 cholera and, 1:436 cinema and, 1:441; 3:1396 coal production and, 1:486 Coca-Cola and, 2:688 Constitution, 4:2290 consumerism in, 2:552 Continental System and, 2:553, 554 corporations in, 1:330, 355; 2:711 cotton and, 1:18, 329 Cuba and, 1:366 cycling and, 2:600, 601, 602 degeneration studies in, 2:638 department stores in, 2:551 Dickens tours of, 2:656, 657 Dore´ exhibition tour of, 2:677 drinking culture in, 1:32 Dvorˇa´k in, 2:701 economic growth rate of, 1:331 Einstein’s move to, 2:740 engineering projects in, 2:760 eugenics and, 2:619, 769, 770–771 evolution theory and, 2:618 feminism in, 2:804, 806 First International in, 2:825 football (soccer) in, 2:830, 834 Fourierism in, 2:838; 4:2202; 5:2397 Freudian analysis in, 2:909 Geneva Convention and, 2:952 German Forty-Eighters in, 2:962 German relations and, 2:968 Gorky’s travels in, 2:993 Greek Revival style in, 4:1769 Hague conference and, 2:1034 Haiti and, 2:1037 hashish use in, 2:687 immigrants to, 2:504–505, 506, 507, 646, 647, 747, 747, 750–752, 960; 3:1112, 1114; 4:2285, 2287 immigration policies of, 1:353; 2:750 imperialism and, 3:1116, 1120, 1124 impressionist school in, 3:1131–1132 Industrial Revolution in, 1:329 intellectuals and, 3:1168 international law and, 3:1174, 1175 Irish Fenians in, 2:1009 Irish immigrants in, 1:351; 2:1005 Italian immigrants in, 3:1199 Japan and, 4:2063, 2064, 2065, 2066 Japanese treaties with, 3:1209–1210, 1211

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Kipling in, 3:1256 Kos´ciuszko in, 3:1264, 1265 Kossuth’s reception in, 3:1269 Lafayette and, 3:1300, 1301 Leopold II’s Congo colony and, 3:1336 List in, 3:1357 Lithuanian immigrants in, 3:1367–1368 mafia and, 3:1417 Mahler in, 3:1418 Mann’s move to, 3:1434, 1435–1436 Martineau in, 3:1459 Masaryk and, 3:1469 monetary unions and, 3:1538 Monroe Doctrine and, 3:1174 musical scene in, 3:1566 Napoleon and, 5:2439 neoconservatives in, 2:536 Offenbach’s tour of, 3:1661 ‘‘old’’ vs. ‘‘new’’ immigrants to, 2:750 Olympic Games and, 3:1667, 1668 Owenite community in, 3:1692–1693, 1693 Paine and, 4:1700, 1701 Panama Canal and, 3:1338 Pavlova’s tours of, 4:1750 peasant immigrants in, 4:1756 photography and, 4:1770, 1772–1773 phrenology and, 4:1776 phylloxera origination in, 4:1777 Pre-Raphaelite influence in, 4:1864 psychoanalysis in, 4:1905 railroads and, 1:329, 353 Romanies and, 4:2023 Romanticism in, 4:2029 Russian Jewish immigrants in, 1:40; 4:1804 Russo-Japanese War mediation by, 3:1212; 4:2065 Second International and, 4:2127 September 11, 2001, terrorist attack on, 2:738 skyscrapers in, 2:736, 738 slavery abolishment and, 1:18, 19, 365, 458, 499; 2:506 slavery in, 4:1927, 2190–2194 slave trade and, 1:13, 308 Slovak immigrants in, 1:119 social insurance and, 1:356 sociology in, 4:2215 Spain and, 4:2231

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Spanish exports to, 1:180 spiritualism and, 4:2237 Talleyrand in, 5:2305 telephone service and, 5:2307–2308 temperance movement in, 1:37 tobacco and, 5:2313 Tocqueville on, 1:115–116; 5:2316–2317 trade and, 5:2335, 2336, 2337, 2340, 2342 voluntary associations in, 1:115–116, 119 wages in, 2:752, 752 War of 1812 and, 2:846; 5:2438–2441 women’s rights and, 1:67 worker immigrants to, 1:353 world’s fairs in, 2:589; 5:2493, 2495, 2496, 2499, 2500, 2502, 2503, 2504 World War II and, 1:232 See also American Revolution; Civil War, American Universal Congress for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Blind and Deaf-Mute (Paris, 1878), 5518 Universal Exposition (Paris). See Exposition Universalle universal male suffrage. See suffragism Universal Panama Interoceanic Canal Company, 3:1338 Universal Peace Congress, 4:1695, 1699, 2282 Universal Postal Union, 1:352 Universita` Commerciale Luigi Bocconi, 3:1502 Universite´ Libre de Bruxelles, 1:307 universities, 5:2378–2391, 2385 admissions to, 2:728 amateur sports and, 4:2240–2241, 2242 Amsterdam and, 1:54 British extension program and, 1:372 bureaucrats from, 1:322, 323–324; 2:726 chemistry chairs and, 1:425 class and, 2:728; 3:1512 Dublin and, 2:693 economics as discipline in, 3:1510 examinations and, 4:1877 first British nonsectarian, 1:303; 3:1512 first British physics laboratory and, 3:1250 French reforms and, 2:666

1 9 1 4

German government-supported, 1:355 German nationalism and, 2:960 German restraints and, 1:369; 2:969 German student liberal activists and, 2:959 German student nationalists and, 1:369 Greek students and, 2:1018 history as discipline of, 2:1072, 1073, 1074 Jewish students at, 3:1229 London and, 3:1377 physics studies in, 4:1778–1779 professional training in, 4:1876–1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881 Prussia and, 4:1972 Prussian influence on, 4:1900 reforms of, 5:2386–2390 Russia and, 4:1975, 1976, 2052; 5:2378, 2379, 2385–2386, 2389–2390 Russian Great Reforms and, 2:1016, 1017 Scotland and, 2:1006; 4:2119–2120; 5:2379, 2384, 2387 students from colonies at, 3:1524 Sweden and, 4:2285 types of, 5:2381–2386 women’s admittance to, 1:372; 2:625, 626, 728, 816, 945, 1016; 3:1377, 1399 Universities Mission (Nyasaland), 2:783 University College (Dublin), 2:693 University College (London), 3:1377; 4:1844 University Decree (Germany, 1819), 2:959 University Extension Program (Britain), 1:372 University Law of 1819 (Germany), 1:369 University of Aberdeen, 2:1006 University of Amsterdam, 2:652 University of Athens, 5:2380 University of Barcelona, 1:182, 341 University of Basel, 3:1238 Burckhardt and, 1:316, 317, 319, 320 University of Belgrade, 1:207; 4:2148 University of Berlin, 1:215; 5:2381 Burckhardt and, 1:316, 317 Einstein and, 2:740 Fichte as rector of, 2:814

2787

INDEX

Hegel professorship at, 2:1053 Hertz and, 2:1062 historiography and, 2:1072 Humboldt and, 2:958 Koch professorship at, 3:1263, 1264 Schlegel and, 4:2096 Schleiermacher and, 4:2096, 2097 Virchow and, 5:2426 Young Hegelians and, 5:2512 University of Bologna, 1:362 University of Bonn, 4:2095 Helmholtz and, 2:1057 Mann’s open letter to, 3:1435 University of Bordeaux, 2:698 University of Cambridge. See Cambridge University University of Christiana, 3:1560 University of Coimbra, 4:1840 University of Dorpat, 1:40 University of Edinburgh, 1:371; 2:1006; 4:1712–1713 Doyle and, 1:371; 2:679, 680 Maxwell and, 3:1477 Mill (James) and, 3:1510 University of Giessen, 1:425 University of Glasgow, 2:1006; 5:2387 Kelvin and, 3:1249, 1250 Lister and, 3:1358 University of Go¨ttingen, 1:497; 2:687 Grimm brothers and, 2:1023, 1024 Koch and, 3:1262 student activism at, 2:959 University of Graz, 3:1270 Mach and, 3:1408 University of Halle, 4:2096, 2097 University of Heidelberg, 2:1053 Helmholtz and, 2:1057 student activism and, 2:969 University of Jena, 1:369; 4:2088 Fichte professorship at, 2:813, 814, 1078 Haeckel professorship at, 2:1031, 1032 Marx and, 3:1464 Schelling and, 2:1051 University of Ko ¨ nigsberg, 2:1057 University of Leipzig, 2:735; 3:1468, 1532–1533; 4:1908; 5:2507 Goethe studies at, 2:982 University of Lille, 4:1742 University of London, 1:287; 3:1377; 5:2384–2385, 2387 as democratizing institution, 1:303; 3:1512 University of Moscow. See Moscow University

2788

University of Naples, 5:2379 University of Paris (Sorbonne), 1:214; 4:2215; 5:2381 Charcot and, 1:408 Curies and, 2:595–596 Durkheim and, 2:698 Guizot and, 2:1029, 1030 Michelet and, 3:1498–1499 Poincare´ (Henri) and, 4:1804 University of Prague, 1:261; 3:1408 University of Saragossa, 5:2389 University of Strasbourg, 3:1270; 4:1743 University of Toulouse, 3:1215 University of Toronto Press, 3:1514 University of Tu¨bingen, 3:1356 University of Turin, 3:1371 University of Valencia, 1:341 University of Vienna, 1:10 Brentano and, 1:298 Freud and, 1:410; 2:904 Klimt paintings for, 3:1260 Krafft-Ebing and, 3:1270 Mach and, 3:1408, 1409 Masaryk and, 3:1468, 1469 Mendel and, 3:1485 Mesmer and, 3:1490 University of Vilnius, 3:1500 University of Wales, 5:2435 University of Warsaw, 5:2380, 2442 University of Wu ¨ rzburg, 1:298 University of Yurev, 1:40 University of Zurich, 2:740 t, 3:1399 University Statute of 1863 (Russia), 2:1016 Unkiar-Skelessi, Treaty of (1833), 1:278; 3:1560, 1561; 5:2391–2392 Straits Convention (1841) abrogating, 1:278 Unknown Woman, An (Blok), 1:250 unmarried adults. See singlehood Unofficial Committee (Russia), 1:38 Unseating the Pope (cartoon), 4:1725 Unteraar Glacier, 1:22 Unter den Linden (Berlin), 2:742 Unto This Last (Ruskin), 4:2047 Unwiederbringlich (Fontane), 2:829 Uomo delinquente, L’ (Lombroso), 2:638; 3:1371; 4:2023 Upper Silesian coalfields, 1:351, 486–487 Uppsala University, 1:425 Urabi, Ahmad, 2:734 uranium, 2:594, 595 urbanization. See cities and towns

Urbi et Orbi (Bryusov), 1:249 Urmson, J. O., 3:1514 Urning, 5:2376 Urrah ibn Sharik, 3:1517 Uruguay, 2:834, 931; 5:2500 Ussher, James, 2:615 U.S. Steel, 1:330 Ussuri Cossacks, 2:562 usury, 3:1582 utilitarianism, 5:2392–2394 Bentham and, 1:210–211; 5:2392, 2393–2394 Carlyle critique of, 1:371 Chadwick and, 1:401 Cobbett critique of, 1:489 education and, 3:1511–1512 Mill (James) and, 3:1510, 1511 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1514 O’Connell and, 3:1654–1655 origins of, 5:2392–2393 Utilitarianism (J. S. Mill), 3:1513; 5:2394 Utopia (More), 1:26, 337; 2:520 utopian socialism, 4:2200; 5:2395–2398 Cabet and, 1:337–338 communism and, 2:520, 521, 522 features of, 5:2395–2396 feminism and, 2:803 Fourierists and, 1:247, 248, 459; 2:838–839; 4:2201–2202; 5:2396 Morris and, 3:1559 Owen and, 2:650; 3:1284, 1286, 1692–1693, 1693 populists and, 4:1831–1832 Saint-Simon and, 4:2081 secret societies and, 4:2131 women’s rights and, 5:2487 Utrecht, Peace of (1713), 1:308 Utrillo, Maurice, 1:335 Utrillo, Miquel, 1:335 Uvarov, Sergei, 4:2048 Uzbekistan, 1:395 Uze`s, duchesse d (Marie-Cle´mentine de Rochechouart-Mortemart), 1:280

n

V vacations, 3:1324–1325; 4:1824 vaccination immunology and, 2:735–736; 4:1743

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Jenner and, 3:1222, 1223–1224, 1224 opponents of, 4:2198 Pasteur and, 4:1742, 1744, 1745 rabies and, 3:1263; 4:1744 smallpox and, 2:628, 644; 3:1153, 1223; 4:2197, 2197–2198 tuberculosis and, 5:2361 vacuum cleaners, 2:741 vaginal sponge, 4:1827, 1829 Vaihinger, Hans, 1:9 Vaillant, Auguste, 1:57 ´ douard-Marie, 2:685; Vaillant, E 3:1217; 4:2298 Vaincus, Les (Rolland), 4:2015 Vaı¨sse (Lyonnais prefect), 3:1404 Valadier, Joseph, 4:2033 Val d’Aosta (Brett), 4:1864 Valdemars, Krisˇjanis, 2:820 valence, theories of, 1:427 Valenciennes, Pierre-Henri de, 2:561 Valenciennes basin, 486 Valentine Rescuing Sylvia from Proteus (Hunt), 4:1864 Vale´ry, Paul, 1:187, 214; 3:1213 Valle-Incla´n, Ramo´n Marı´a del, 2:950; 4:2232 Vallette, Alfred, 3:1213 Vallette, Marguerite Eymery (Rachilde), 2:632; 3:1213 Valley of Fear, The (Doyle), 2:680 Vallon, Annette, 5:2481 Valmy, Battle of (1792), 2:844, 891, 899; 3:1338; 4:1900 Valperga (Shelley), 4:2168–2169 Valses nobles et sentimentales (Ravel), 4:1944 Valtat, Louis, 2:796 Value, Price, and Profit (Marx), 3:1462 Van Beveren, Edmond, 1:203 Vanda (Dvorˇa´k), 2:701 Van der Kemp, Johannes, 3:1527 Vandervelde, Emile, 1:204 Van Diemens Land. See Tasmania Vanemuine Society (Tartu), 2:821 Vaneyev, A. A., 1:266 Van Gogh, Theo, 5:2400, 2401 Van Gogh, Vincent, 4:1709; 5:2399–2402, 2401 absinthe depictions by, 1:3 Dore´ folio engravings and, 2:677 as fauve influence, 2:795 Gauguin and, 2:939 as German expressionism influence, 1:154 Japanese art forms as influence on, 3:1210

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

as Matisse influence, 3:1474 postimpressionism and, 3:1536; 4:1709 symbolism and, 4:2294 Toulouse-Lautrec and, 5:2323, 2400 Van Gogh, Vincent (uncle), 5:2399 Van Houten chocolate, 1:496 Van Praet, Jules, 3:1335 van’t Hoff, Jacobus Hendricus, 1:426; 2:652, 653 ‘‘Va pensiero’’ (Verdi), 3:1672 Vaquette de Gribeauval, Jean-Baptiste, 3:1340 Varennes, royal family’s capture at, 3:1385, 1386, 1403, 1446, 1447 variation, analysis of, 4:1922 Varlet, Jean, 2:974 Varna, 1:278; 2:577 Varoujan, Daniel, 1:90 Vatican. See Catholicism; papacy; Papal State Vatican Archives, 3:1332 Vatican Council, First (1870), 1:382, 388; 2:966; 3:144, 1164, 1277; 4:2134 papal infallibility and, 4:1719, 1722–1723, 1795, 1798 Pius IX and, 4:1722, 1795, 1798 Vatican Council, Second (1962–1965), 4:1794 Vatican Decrees in Their Bearing on Civil Allegiance, The (Gladstone), 4:1896 Vattel, Emmerich von, 2:953; 3:1173, 1175 Vaugeois, Henri, 1:4 Vaughan, Diana, 2:881 Vaux, Clotilde de, 2:523 Vauxcelles, Louis, 1:156; 2:795 Vazem, Yakaterina, 4:1750 Veblen, Thorstein, 2:552; 4:2235 Vega, Garcilaso de la, 2:951 Veit, Dorothea, 4:2095 Veith, Gustav, 5:2419 Vekhi (Struve), 4:2271 Vekhi controversy, 3:1171 Vela´zquez, Diego Rodrı´guez de Silva, 2:999; 4:2225 Velde, Henry van de, 1:108, 109, 152, 485 Velestinlis, Rigas, 3:1685 Vellay, Julie, 4:1793 Ve´lo-Auto (journal), 2:602 ve´locipe`de, 2:599–600 Ve´locipe`de Illustre´, Le (trade journal), 2:600 velodromes, 2:601, 602

1 9 1 4

Vende´e uprising (1793), 2:563, 565, 844, 892, 893, 1095; 4:1755, 1951, 1960 Napoleon and, 3:1599 Vende´miaire, 2:563 Vendoˆme Column (Paris), 1:270; 2:569; 4:1729, 1736 venereal disease, 4:2161, 2162 male fear of, 3:1471, 1472 prostitutes and, 4:1883, 1884, 1885 rubber condoms as protection against, 4:1827 See also Contagious Diseases Acts of 1864, 1866, and 1869; syphilis Venetia, 1:392; 2:533, 866, 867, 962 Austria and, 2:864; 3:1198 Lombardy and, 3:1193 Metternich and, 3:1494 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 3:1198–1199 Venetian Accademia, 1:347 Venetian Republic, 4:2001, 2004; 5:2354, 2402 Venetsianov, Alexei, 2:1015 Venezia nische Epigramme (Goethe), 2:985 Venezuela, 5:2500 Venice, 4:2000, 2003; 5:2402–2405, 2404 Austria and, 3:1192, 1584, 1597; 4:1994–1995, 2004; 5:2355, 2356, 2402–2404 Italian unification with, 3:1199 Mediterranean and, 3:1481, 1482 Murano glass-thread spinning, 3:1202 Napoleon and, 1:133; 3:1192 opera house in, 3:1565–1566 as republic, 3:1191 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1990 Ruskin on, 4:2046; 5:2403, 2405 tobacco use in, 5:2314 Victor Emmanuel II and, 5:2411 Venice, 1840 (Turner), 5:2404 Venizelos, Eleuthe´rios, 3:1345 Venstre (Norway), 3:1345 Ventre le´gislatif, Le (Daumier), 2:621 Ventura, Gioacchino, 4:1718 Venus Italica (Canova), 1:348 Venus of Urbino (Titian), 3:1433 Veˆpres siciliennes, Les (Verdi), 3:1678; 5:2406 Vera Kommissarzhevskaya Theater, 1:250 Verband deutscher Arbeitervereine, 3:1311

2789

INDEX

Verdi, Giuseppe, 2:732; 3:1565; 4:2039; 5:2405–2407 Italian unification and, 3:1572, 1672, 1676 La Scala and, 3:1504 opera and, 3:1567, 1672–1673, 1676; 4:1915 Rossini and, 3:1572 on Strauss (Johann), 4:2260 Verdier, Daniel, 2:517; 4:1889 Verdun, fall of (1792), 2:891 Vereeniging, Peace of (1902), 1:258 Vereschagin, Vasili, 1:396 Ve´ret, De´sire´e, 5:2397 Verga, Giovanni, 4:1756; 5:2407–2408 Vergennes, Charles Gravier de, 3:1384 Vergniaud, Pierre-Victurnien, 2:973; 4:1952 Verguin, Emanuel, 3:1159 Verhaegen, Arthur, 4:2209 Verhaeren, E´mile, 4:2295 Veri Italiani, 5:2514 verismo, 3:1671, 1677; 5:2407–2408 Ve´rite´, La (Zola), 5:2524 Verkla¨rte Nacht (Schoenberg), 4:2102 Verlaine, Paul, 1:3; 2:939, 940; 4:1845, 2292 Vernadsky, Vladimir, 2:775 Verne, Jules, 1:29; 3:1161; 5:2408–2409, 2497 Vernet, Carle, 2:955 Verona Conference (1822), 1:308 Verro, Bernardino, 4:2174 Versailles, 1:270, 452; 2:964; 4:1726 Estates-General meeting at, 2:767–768; 3:1385 Louis XVI and, 3:185, 1384 Louis-Philippe museum at, 3:1389 National Assembly at (1871), 4:1735, 1736, 1737 royal court at, 4:1726 storming of, 2:843 women’s march on (1789), 4:1728 Versailles Conference (1919), 3:1144 Verses about the Beautiful Lady (Blok), 1:249 Verstraete, Theodoor, 4:1948 Versuch, die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erkla¨ren (Goethe), 2:986 ‘‘Versuche u¨ber Pflanzen-Hybriden’’ (Mendel), 3:1486 Verve (magazine), 3:1475 Verviers woolen industry, 1:492–493; 2:791 Vessil Pasha, 4:2068 Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (Chambers), 2:777

2790

Vestnik Evropy (journal), 3:1552 Vetsera, Mary, 4:2045 Veuillot, Louis, 1:388 Veuve Clicquot, 5:2476 Viaduc deEstaque, Le (Braque), 2:797 Viaggio a Reims, Il (Rossini), 3:1671; 4:2038 Viang Chan, 3:1142 Viardot-Garcia, Pauline, 5:2365 Via Santa Lucia (Naples), 3:1582 Vicalvarada, 4:2229 Vichy, 5:2327, 2328 Vichy regime, 3:1477; 4:2303 Vick, Brian, 2:871 Vico, Giambattista, 2:584, 1062; 3:1499; 4:2212 Victoire Marie Louise, duchess of Kent, 5:2411 Victor Amadeus II, duke of Savoy. See Victor Amadeus III Victor Amadeus III, king of Sardinia, 1:411–412; 4:1786 Victor Emmanuel I, king of SardiniaPiedmont, 1:413; 3:1193; 4:1786 Victor Emmanuel II, king of Italy, 4:2003; 5:2409–2411, 2410 Catholicism and, 1:380 Cavour and, 1:391, 392 Charles Albert and, 1:413, 414; 3:1197 France and, 5:2410, 2497 Garibaldi and, 2:932; 3:1197, 1198; 4:2004; 5:2410–2411 Giolitti and, 2:972 papacy and, 4:1725 Papal State invasion and, 4:2004 Piedmont-Savoy and, 4:1786 Risorgimento (Italian unification) and, 3:198, 1197, 1198 Rome and, 4:2036, 2037; 5:2411 son Umberto I and, 3:1201; 5:2377 Victor Emmanuel III, king of Italy, 3:1201 Victoria (Australia), 1:133, 134, 135 Victoria, empress consort of Germany, 2:873, 875 Victoria, princess of Great Britain, 5:2414, 2468 Victoria, queen of Great Britain, 1:135; 2:1006; 3:1638; 5:2411–2416, 2413, 2414, 2415, 2471 Albert as husband of, 3:1335; 5:2412–2414, 2413 background and childhood of, 5:2411–2412 death of, 2:1011 Diamond Jubilee of, 2:1012

Disraeli and, 2:673 early reign of, 5:2412 as Empress of India, 2:674; 3:1135 European royal relatives of, 1:200; 2:873; 3:1627 fin de sie`cle death of, 2:816 gender roles and, 2:946 gerontocracy and, 3:1664 Golden Jubilee of, 2:742 as ‘‘Grandmother of Europe,’’ 5:2414–2415 Great Exhibition of 1851 and, 2:587 Hanover and, 2:969 imperialism and, 1:435 leisure travel and, 1:288 Leopold I as uncle of, 3:1335 liberalism and, 3:1345 marriage of, 2:946; 3:1335 opium trade and, 3:1678 Palmerston and, 4:1713 Peel confrontation with, 4:1758–1759 Russian royal family and, 1:41 Scotland and, 4:2121 son Edward VII and, 2:729–730, 1011 taste for coca-seeped wine of, 2:688 Tennyson and, 5:2309 trade and, 5:2339 widowhood of, 5:2414 William II and, 5:2415, 2468 world’s fairs and, 5:2494, 2496 Victoria and Albert Museum (London), 2:588; 3:1376, 1562, 1563 Victoria Cross, 2:579; 5:2413 Victoria Euge´nie Julia Ena, queen of Spain, 4:2231 Victoria Mesmerises (cartoon), 5:2339 Victorian culture, 5:2411 beards and, 1:191 British aristocracy and, 1:86 Carlyle and, 1:371 Darwinian evolutions impact and, 2:614, 618 death and, 2:629 degeneration theories and, 2:636 family portrait, 2:1001 Gladstone and, 2:976–979 sexuality and, 4:2161, 2259 sports and, 4:2240 typhus epidemic and, 2:670 utilitarianism and, 1:211 voluntary associations and, 1:119

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Victoria of Hanover. See Victoria, queen of Great Britain Victoria Regia (water lily), 2:589 Victorine, Mme., 1:481 Victory (Conrad), 2:536 Victory over the Sun (futurist opera), 1:157–158 Vidocq, Franc¸ois-Euge`ne, 2:575 Vie, La (Picasso), 4:1782 Vie de Beethoven, La (Rolland), 4:2015 Vie de Henry Brulard (Stendhal), 4:2253 Vie de Je´sus, La (Renan), 2:688; 4:1892, 1953–1954; 5:2399 Vie de Napole´on (Stendhal), 4:2252 Vie de Rance´, La (Chateaubriand), 1:421 Vie de Rossini (Life of Rossini; Stendhal), 4:2252 Vie d’un simple, La (Guillaumin), 4:1756 Vie internationale, La (journal), 1:205 Viele´-Griffin, Francis, 4:2294 Vien, Joseph-Marie, 2:623 Vienamese Communist Party, 3:1144–1145 Vienna, 5:2416–2422, 2419 Adler (Alfred) and, 1:8–10 Adler (Victor) and, 1:10–11 advertising and, 2:550 anti-Semitism in, 1:73, 75, 77; 2:816, 1067; 3:1233, 1393–1395, 1418; 4:2045; 5:2420, 2421–2422 art nouveau and, 1:112, 152–153; 2:815; 3:1530 Beethoven in, 1:195–196, 197–198; 3:1568 Berlin as cultural rival to, 1:215 bourgeois culture and, 1:288 Brahms in, 1:295–296 Brentano and, 1:298 Budapest as dual capital with, 1:309 cabarets in, 1:336 child abandonment in, 5:2455 Christian Socialism in, 5:2420, 2520 consumerism in, 2:548 counterrevolution and, 2:567 electric lighting in, 2:741 as fin de sie´cle cultural center, 2:1067; 3:1418, 1419 fin de sie`cle mood of, 2:815 football (soccer) in, 2:834 Freud and, 2:904–909; 4:1904 Herzl in, 2:1967–1968 Hoffmannsthal and, 2:1076 housing in, 2:1090

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Jewish community in, 3:1525–1526 Jewish cultural role in, 3:1231, 1234 Jews in, 4:2102 Klimt and, 3:1260–1262 labor movements and, 3:1288 Loos and, 3:1381–1382 Lueger as mayor of, 3:1233, 1392–1395 Mach and, 3:1408, 1409 Mahler in, 3:1418, 1419 Mesmer and, 3:1490 migration and, 3:1111, 1113 modern painting and, 3:1530 music and, 3:1565, 1568 Napoleon in, 2:901, 902 New Market, 5:2417 Offenbach operetta productions in, 3:1661 opera and, 3:1673 Ottoman threat to, 3:1690 population growth of, 1:446; 2:1087 psychoanalysis and, 4:1905 public art museum in, 4:1825 railroads and, 4:1933; 5:2418 Revolution of 1848 and, 1:141, 142; 2:808, 961; 3:1220, 1236, 1267; 4:1990, 1994, 2002; 5:2418–2419 Rothschilds and, 4:2040, 2041 Rudolf (crown prince) and, 4:2045 Schiele and, 4:2089, 2091; 5:2421 Schnitzler and, 4:2100; 5:2421 Schubert and, 4:2106; 5:2418 socialism and, 1:9–10 Strauss (Johann) and, 4:2260–2261; 5:2420 subway in, 4:2272 telephone service in, 5:2308 Trieste and, 5:2355, 2356 university admittance in, 2:728 urban redevelopment and, 1:452; 2:1088 voluntary associations and, 1:117 world’s fair (1873) and, 2:589; 5:2498 See also University of Vienna Vienna, Congress. See Congress of Vienna Vienna, siege of (1683), 1:206 Vienna, Treaty of (1815), 3:1227 Vienna, Treaty of (1864), 2:648 Vienna 1900, 5:2421 Vienna Academy of Fine ARts, 1:152 Vienna Circle, 3:1409; 5:2421 Vienna Coinage Treaty (1857), 1:171

1 9 1 4

Vienna Congress. See Congress of Vienna Vienna Conservatory, 3:1418 Vienna Philharmonic, 3:1418 Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, 4:1938 Vienna Secession, 1:152–153; 3:1260–1261, 1381, 1530; 4:2295; 5:2421 Vienna Sezession Gallery. See Vienna Secession Vienna Workshops for Handicrafts, 1:112, 153 Vienna World’s Fair (1873), 2:589; 5:2498 Viennese Novellettes (Schnitzler), 4:2100 Viennese Waltz, 4:2261; 5:2418 Vie parisienne, La (Offenbach), 3:1660 Vier ernste Gesante (Brahms), 1:296 Vierhaus, Rudolf, 4:1940 Vies de Haydn, de Mozart et de Me´tastase (Stendhal), 4:2252 Vietnam. See Indochina View at Narni (Corot), 2:561 View from My Window, Eragny (Pissarro), 4:1794 View of Shrewsbury Across the Severn (watercolor), 3:1148 View of the Altes Museum, A (Laurens), 4:2093 View of the Elevated Mountain at the Champ de la Reunion for the Festival of the Supreme Being, 20 Prairial, Year 2 of the French Republic (8 June 1794), 2:896 View of the Kremlin and the Kamenny Bridge in Moscow (Alekseev), 3:1553 View on the Stour near Dedham (Constable), 2:544 Vignon, Mme., 1:481 Vigny, Alfred de, 2:1050; 3:1577; 4:2028 Vikelas, Dimitros, 3:1666, 1667 Vikova-Kuneticka, Bozena, 4:2281 Villafranca, Peace of (1859), 1:392; 4:2003 village community, 1:476; 4:1752, 1753–1754 idealization of, 4:1756 Village Near Beauvais, A (Corot), 2:562 Villain, Raoul, 3:1218, 1219 Villa Reale Chiatamone (Naples), 4:2092 Ville`le, Joseph, 2:847 Villeneuve, Pierre-Charles de, 3:1615; 5:2344–2345 Villerme´, Louis-Rene´, 1:247, 285–286, 438; 4:1910

2791

INDEX

Villette (C. Bronte¨), 1:301 Villi, Le (Puccini), 4:1915, 1916 Villiers, de, 2:745, 746 Villon, Jacques, 1:156 Vilnius, 3:1366, 1367, 1368 Vinaver, Maxim, 3:1241 Vincennes (Paris prison), 4:2074 Vindex: Social and Legal Studies in Man-Manly Love (Ulrichs), 2:1085–1086 Vindication of Natural Society (Burke), 1:326 Vindication of the Rights of Man, A (Wollstonecraft), 5:2480 Vindication of the Rights of Women (Wollstonecraft), 2:802, 945–946, 995, 1000; 5:2480 Vinet, Alexandre, 4:1895, 2136 vineyards. See wine Vinius, Andrei, 2:781 Vin Mariani (wine seeped in coca leaves), 2:687–688 Vinogradov, Pavel, 3:1518 Violin and Palette (Braque), 2:592, 592 violin virtuosity, 3:1566; 4:1698–1700 Viollet-le-Duc, Euge`ne, 4:1917, 2030; 5:2422–2424 as Gaudı´ influence, 2:935 Virchow, Rudolf, 2:1069; 3:1277; 4:1882, 1913–1914; 5:2425–2426 Virgil, 1:246 Virginibus Puerisque (Stevenson), 4:2255 Virgin Mary. See Marian devotion Virgin Soil (Turgenev), 5:2365 virtue, republicanism and, 4:1958–1959, 1960, 1961, 2007 Vision After the Sermon: Jacob Wrestling with the Angel (Gauguin), 2:939, 940 Vision of Judgment, The (Byron), 1:333 ‘‘Vision of Sin, The’’ (Tennyson), 5:2309 Visions of the Daughters of Albion (Blake), 1:244 Vistula Land, 4:1810, 1811 vitalism, 1:228; 2:660 ‘‘vital spirit’’ theory, 2:615 Vitoria, Battle of (1813), 4:2227–2228 Vivante, Angelo, 5:2356–2357 Vivian Grey (Disraeli), 2:672 Viviani, Rene´, 2:697, 859, 1084 Vlachs (Cincars), 4:2146 Vladivostok, 4:2064; 5:2426–2427 Vlaminck, Maurice de, 1:153; 2:796, 797; 4:1875

2792

vocational schools, 5:2381 vodka, 1:34, 35, 37 Vodou, 2:1036 Vogel, Julius, 3:1623 Voice from the Factories (Norton), 3:1646 Voices from Russia (anthology), 2:1066 Voix des femmes, La (feminist newspaper), 2:650; 3:1288 Voix inte´rieures, Les (Hugo), 2:1093 Vojvodina, 1:242 Vo¨lkerpsychologie, 5:2507 vo¨lkisch movement, 1:10 Volksgeist, 3:1523; 4:1756 Volkslieder (Herder), 2:1061 Volkspark movement (Germany), 4:1738, 1740–1741 Volksschules, 2:723 Volksverein fu ¨ r das Katholische Deutschland, 5:2474 Vollard, Ambroise, 2:591, 634; 3:1474 Volney, comte de (ConstantinFranc¸ois Chasseboeuf), 4:1909 Volta, Alessandro, 1:424–425; 4:1780, 2114 Voltaic Pile, 4:1780, 2114 Voltaire, 1:28, 103, 169, 327, 411, 432; 3:1323, 1339, 1489; 4:1968, 2030, 2047; 5:2393 Catholic response to, 1:385 on Holy Roman Empire, 2:957 as intellectual, 3:1167 on need for Paris’s urban renewal, 4:1727 on Prussia, 3:1506 voluntary associations. See associations, voluntary Vonckist revolt (1789), 4:2187 Von der Klassifikation der psychischen Pha¨nomene (Brentano), 1:299 Von Deutscher Art un Kunst (anthology), 2:1061 ‘‘Von deutscher Baukunst’’ (Goethe), 2:983 Von Erkennen und Empfinden der Menschlichen Seele (Herder), 2:1061 Von Ratibors family, 1:4699 Von Stephany brothers, 4:2242 Vooruit, 2:556 Voprosy zhizni (Russian journal), 1:212 Voraces, Les, 3:1404 Vor dem Sturm (Fontane), 2:829 Vorlesungen, u ¨ ber dramatische Kunst und Literatur (A. W. Schlegel), 4:1769 Voronikhin, Andrei, 4:2077

Vorontsov, Vasily, 4:2054 vorticism, 1:214 Vosges Mountains, 1:51 voting rights. See suffragism; women’s suffrage Vovelle, Michel, 2:629; 3:1584 Vow of Louis XIII, The (Ingres), 3:1165, 1166; 4:1705 Voyage dans la lune, Le (Offenbach), 3:1661 Voyage dans le Levant (Forbin), 2:605 Voyage en Ame´rique (Chateaubriand), 1:421 Voyage en Icarie (Cabet), 1:337; 4:2203; 5:2397 Voyage en Orient (Lamartine), 3:1303 Voyage musical au pays du passe´ (Rolland), 4:2015 Voyage musical en Allemagne et en Italie (Berlioz), 1:225 Voyage of the Beagle, The, 2:617 Voyages pittoresques et romantiques dans lancienne France (Nodier and Taylor), 2:605 Voyange dans la lune, La (film), 3:1483 voyeurism, 3:1270 Vremya (Russian journal), 2:678 Vrubel, Mikhail, 3:1551 ‘‘Vues cine´matographiques, Les’’ (Me´lie`s), 3:1483 Vuillard, E´douard, 1:153; 5:2323 vulcanization, 3:1160; 4:1827 Vulpius, Christiane, 2:985 Vysˇehrad (Czech national cemetery), 4:1858

n

W Wachau, 3:1321, 1322 ‘‘Wacht am Rhein, Die’’ (song), 2:960–961 Waddington, William Henry, 2:530, 811 Waffen nieder!, Die (Suttner), 4:1698, 2282 wages classical economics and, 2:714, 715, 717 of female teachers, 2:724 married women and, 2:802, 804, 942, 946 men’s vs. women’s, 2:805, 944, 945; 3:1470–1471 Moscow and, 3:1554 United States vs. European countries, 2:752, 752

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Wages, Price, and Profit (Marx), 3:1462 Wagner, Cosima, 1:403; 3:1360, 1361 Wagner, Eva, 1:404 Wagner, Friedrich, 5:2429 Wagner, Johanna, 5:2429 Wagner, Otto, 1:153 Wagner, Richard, 1:10, 11; 3:1565; 5:2429–2432, 2430 anti-Semitism and, 2:1067; 5:2429, 2430 artistic vision of, 3:1108 Baudelaire essay on, 1:188 Berlioz friendship with, 1:225 Brahms and, 1:295 as Chamberlain (Houston) influence, 1:403, 404 Chopin’s influence on, 1:440 degeneration and, 2:638, 816 as Dvorˇa´k influence, 2:701 German music and, 3:1571 Gesamtkunstwerk and, 1:108, 112 Liszt’s promotion of, 3:1360, 1361 Louis II’s patronage of, 3:1383 Mahler and, 3:1418–1419 Mann as devotee of, 3:1435, 1436 music dramas of, 3:1571 Nazism and, 5:2431 Nietzsche’s view of, 3:1635, 1675 Offenbach’s aesthetic vs., 3:1661 operas of, 1:191; 3:1360, 1382–1383, 1435, 1567, 1571, 1674–1675, 1676, 1677; 4:1915 operatic influence of, 3:1675 Renoir and, 4:1955 Revolutions of 1848 and, 2:961 Rimsky-Korsakov and, 4:1999 Romanticism and, 4:2027 Schopenhauer’s influence on, 4:2104 on Strauss (Johann), 4:2260 symbolists and, 4:2294 See also Bayreuth Festival Wagner, Siegfried, 3:1675 Wagram, Battle of (1809), 2:846, 902; 3:1586 Wahhabi, 3:1420 rebellion of 1811–1813, 2:732 Wahlverwandeschaften, Die (Goethe), 2:987 Wailly, Charles de, 4:1727 Waitangi, Treaty of (1840), 3:1622 Walachia, 4:2016, 2019, 2021 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1990, 1993 Walbrook, Anton, 2:655

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Waldeck-Rousseau, Rene´, 1:339; 2:685, 858, 1026; 3:1216; 5:2432–2433 Waldeck-Rousseau Law. See Law of Associationsn of 1884 Walden, Herwarth, 1:155; 3:1309 Walden Pond, 4:2029 Waldersee, Alfred von, 1:294 Waldeyer, Wilhelm, 1:341; 2:735 Waldstein, Johann von, 2:790 Wales, 5:2433–2437, 2435, 2436 Anglican disestablishment in, 2:1012–1013 banking in, 1:172 English crown and, 2:999 football (soccer) and, 2:832, 834 gender balance in, 5:2435–2436 housing and, 2:1089 industrialization and, 1:350 liberalism in, 5:2434–2435, 2436 Lloyd George and, 3:1368–1369 Methodists in, 2:1002 mining in, 5:2433, 2436, 2436 Nonconformists in, 2:1006; 5:2433, 2434 population of, 5:2433, 2434, 2435 representation and, 2:1003 urban population of, 2:1087 Walker, Elizabeth, 2:751 Walking Man, The (Rodin), 4:2009 Walks in Rome (Stendhal), 4:2252 Walku ¨ re, Die (Wagner), 3:1571, 1674 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 2:616; 4:2206; 5:2437–2438 Wallachia, 3:1420, 1689 Wallas, Graham, 5:2444 Wallon, Henri-Alexandre, 2:856 Wallonia, 1:199–200, 201, 202, 203, 204 Walpole, Robert, 4:2030 Walter, John, 4:1867 Walther, Otto, 5:2360 Walt Whitman: A Study (Symonds), 4:2296 Waltz (Ravel), 4:1944–1945 waltzes, 4:2260, 2261; 5:2418, 2420 Wanderer above a Sea of Fog (Friedrich), 2:911 ‘‘Wanderer’’ Fantasy (Schubert), 4:2106 Wanderers, 4:1956–1957 Wandering Jew, The (Sue), 1:70; 4:1941 Wanderings of Oisin, The (Yeats), 5:2509 ‘‘Wanders Nachtlieder’’ (Goethe), 2:984 Wanderungen durch die Mack Brandenburg (Fontane), 2:828–829

1 9 1 4

Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (Jung), 3:1239 Wanghia, Treaty of (1844), 3:1579 Wann-Chlore (Balzac), 1:167 Wannsee (Berlin suburb), 1:219 War and Peace (Tolstoy), 2:881; 3:1282; 5:2318, 2319, 2320 War between Serbia and Bulgaria, The: Serbian Artillery Crossing the Ploca Mountains (Schonberg), 4:2143 Ward, Mrs. Humphrey (Mary Augusta Ward), 4:1844 Ward, William, 4:1852 warfare antisepsis and, 4:1743 ‘‘cabinet wars’’ and, 2:1033 cholera epidemics and, 2:669 Congress of Vienna’s approach to, 2:661–662, 1033 diplomatic alternative to, 2:661–664 Geneva Convention and, 2:952–953; 3:1175 Hague conferences and, 2:1033–1035 imperialism and, 2:1033; 3:1118 imperialist defeats and, 3:1473 international law and, 3:1175 leve´e en masse and, 3:1338–1340 loser indemnity payment and, 4:1837 Marinetti’s political futurism and, 2:921 medical services and, 3:1307–1308, 1637–1638 Moltke’s theory of, 3:1532 protectionist trade and, 4:1888 Red Cross and, 4:1948–1949 social Darwinist view of, 2:619 twentieth-century transformation of, 2:1034 typhus epidemics and, 2:668, 669 See also armies; militarism; military tactics; pacifism; specific wars War Hawks (U.S.), 5:2439 War in History (military journal), 4:2099 War in Sight Crisis (1875), 1:239 War of 1805, 4:2051; 5:2374–2375 War of 1812, 2:553, 846; 5:2438–2441 War of 1859. See Franco-Austrian War War of Greek Independence. See Greek War of Independence War of the Dnepr Estuary, 1:243 War of the First Coalition (1792–1797), 2:860, 899–900 War of the Fourth Coalition (1813), 1:38; 2:903

2793

INDEX

War of the Second Coalition (1799–1801), 2:860, 895, 900–901; 5:2374 Paul I and, 4:1748 War of the Spanish Succssion, 3:1191 War of the Third Coalition (1805–1807), 1:37–38; 2:603, 860, 901–902; 3:1586–1587; 5:2374 War of the Two Brothers, 4:1839 War of the Worlds, The (Wells), 5:2459 ‘‘Warren Hastings’’ (Macaulay), 3:1408 Warsaw, 5:2441–2442 child abandonment in, 5:2455 Chopin in, 1:439 Kos´ciuszko uprising in, 3:1265 migration and, 3:111 railroads, 4:1933 rebuilding of, 4:1807 Russian occupation of, 4:1810 Russian restrictions in, 1:40 as Russian territory, 4:1808 See also Grand Duchy of Warsaw Warsaw positivists, 5:2442 Wars of German Unification. See German unification Wars of Liberation (1813–1815), 4:1900 Wars of Liberation from Napoleon monument (Berlin), 4:2092 Wartburg Castle, 2:959 Wartburg Festival (1817), 1:369 Washington, George, 1:420; 3:1299 Canova statue of, 1:347 Paine open letter on, 4:1701 Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland? (anthem), 4:1826 Wassermann Test, 4:2303 waste disposal. See sanitation Waste Land, The (T. S. Eliot), 2:657 watchmaking. See clocks and watches water elements comprising, 3:1312 filtration of, 4:2109–2110 London supply of, 3:1373 Paris supply of, 2:1049; 4:1731 power from, 2:790–799; 3:15021 See also drinking water water contamination. See pollution; sanitation Waterlilies (Monet), 3:1133 Waterloo (1815), 1:357, 407; 2:524, 565; 4:2039, 2124; 5:2367, 2442–2443, 2457 Clausewitz and, 1:477 Leipzig battle compared with, 3:1319

2794

Napoleon’s defeat at, 1:270; 2:847, 903, 1002, 1099; 3:1387, 1388, 1588; 4:1968; 5:2442–2443, 2457 Prussia and, 4:1900 Wellington and, 2:1002 Waterloo Cup Coursing Meeting, The (Ansdell), 1:72 waterway transport, 5:2346–2350 Watson, John B., 4:1908 Watt, James, 1:485; 2:758, 760; 3:1153; 4:2108, 2115 Watt & Boulton engines, 2:760 Wattignies, Battle of (1793), 2:900; 3:1506 Watt steam engine, 3:1152 Waverly (Scott), 4:2030, 2123 Waverly overture (Berlioz), 1:225 wave theory of light, 2:739; 4:1780 waxwork museums, 3:1561–1562, 1564 Way to the Open, The (Schnitzler), 4:2100, 2101 WCTU. See Womans Christian Temperance Union Wealth of Nations (Smith), 2:515, 712, 713, 717; 3:1410, 1426; 4:1887, 2186, 2203 weapons. See armament; rifless Weavers, The (Hauptmann), 3:1411 weaving art nouveau and, 1:107, 108, 112 machine breaking and, 3:1410, 1411 mechanization of, 1:24, 493; 2:791; 3:1153, 1154, 1405 Silesian rebellion (1844) and, 3:1287 steam-powered loom and, 3:1157 See also textiles Webb, Beatrice Potter, 1:134; 2:788; 4:2206; 5:2443–2446, 2445, 2458 Webb, Philip, 3:1550 Webb, Sidney, 2:787, 788; 4:2206; 5:2444, 2445, 2458 Weber, Alfred, 4:2215 Weber, Carl Maria von, 3:1570, 1673, 1674; 5:2429 Weber, Eugen, 1:101, 462; 3:1522 Weber, F. C., 4:2076 Weber, Frans, 1:298 Weber, Marianne Schnitger, 5:2446 Weber, Max, 1:220; 2:698; 3:1316; 4:1875; 5:2446–2448 capitalism defined by, 1:349; 5:2447 on German power-politics, 2:967 on intellectuals, 3:1169 Protestant-capitalism thesis of, 4:1892, 1893

Protestant ethic and, 4:1892; 5:2446–2447 sociology and, 4:2212, 2215; 5:2446–2447, 2448 Stephen and, 4:2254 Weber, Wilhelm, 2:1062 Webern, Anton von, 4:2102, 2263 Webster, James, 1:198 Wedding (Berlin district), 1:219 Wedding, The (Le´ger), 2:590 Wedekind, Franz, 1:65, 336; 2:633 Wedgwood, Josiah, 2:547, 548, 550; 3:1153; 4:2111, 2115 Wedgwood family, 2:547, 548, 613, 617 Wedgwood pottery, 2:547, 548; 3:1153 Wednesday Psychological Society (Vienna), 1:8; 2:906, 907 Weg ins Freie, Der (Schnitzler), 4:2100, 2101 Weg zur Macht, Der (Kautsky), 3:1248 Weib im Konflikt mit den socialen Verha¨ltnissen, Das (Anneke), 1:66 Weierstrass, Karl, 2:1099 weights and measures, 3:1173 Weihaiwei (China), 1:292 Weill, Georges, 4:2081 Weimar Republic, 1:189; 5:2446 Bernstein’s posts in, 1:231 Chamberlain (Houston) movement against, 1:404 Goethe and, 2:984, 985 homosexual rights movement and, 2:1071 Mann and, 3:1435 Prussia and, 4:1899 Weinberg, Wilhelm, 2:770 Weininger, Otto, 5:2448–2450 Weir of Hermiston (Stevenson), 4:2256 Weitling, Wilhelm, 4:2203 Weitsch, Friedrich Georg, 2:1096 Weizmann, Chaim, 5:2521 welfare, 1:291; 5:2450–2456 as British bureaucratic function, 1:324–325 British ‘‘New Liberalism’’ and, 2:1012 British Poor Law and, 1:211; 2:714, 1003; 4:1819–1820 bureaucracy and, 1:324–325 Catholic organizations and, 1:383, 387, 389, 438 Chadwick and, 1:401, 402 Chamberlain (Joseph) and, 1:405 child services and, 1:431

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

classical economists and, 2:715, 716, 717 Danish system of, 2:648 ‘‘deserving poor’’ and, 5:2450–2451 factory paternalism and, 2:793 family life and, 3:1456 free markets and, 2:709 Hobson’s economic theory and, 2:1075 industrialization and, 1:356; 2:709 Krupp steelworks and, 3:1275 Malthusian view of, 2:715; 3:1425–1426 municipal government and, 1:450 outdoor relief and, 4:2119; 5:2454, 2462 poverty and, 4:1847–1854 Protestant advocates of, 4:1896 public initiatives (1870–1914) and, 5:2451–2454 state-sponsored, 1:239, 291, 321, 356, 459; 2:540, 966, 2450, 2453; 3:1664, 1664–1665; 4:1851, 1854, 1915 Switzerland and, 4:1963; 5:2452 unemployment insurance and, 1:356; 2:1012; 4:1915 use of (1815–1914), 5:2454–2456 working class and, 5:2490, 2491 See also charity; health insurance; pensions welfare state, 5:2451, 2452 Wellesley, Arthur. See Wellington, duke of Wellesley, Richard Colley, 2:954; 3:1134 Wellington (New Zealand), 3:1624 Wellington, duchess of, 1:481 Wellington, duke of (Arthur Wellesley), 1:97; 2:577; 5:2457–2458 as Bronte¨ sisters hero, 1:300 Catholic emancipation and, 1:381; 5:2321, 2322, 2457 Cruikshank caricatures of, 2:586 on George IV, 2:955 as member of Parliament, 2:1003, 1005; 4:1758 Napoleonic Wars and, 2:902, 903, 1002; 4:1900 Peninsular War and, 4:1764, 1765, 1766, 1839, 2227–2228 Waterloo and, 5:2442–2443, 2457 world’s fair (1851) and, 5:2494 Wells, H. G., 3:1214; 4:1905; 5:2458–2459 air flight and, 1:30

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Fabians and, 2:787 socialism and, 4:2206 Verne and, 5:2408 Webb and, 5:2445 Welsh, Freddie, 5:2435 Welsh, Jane Baillie. See Carlyle, Jane Welsh Welsh Football Association, 2:832 Welsh language, 5:2435–2436 Welsh Rugby Union, 5:2435 Welt, Die (Zionist weekly), 2:1068 Weltpolitik, 2:967–998 Weltraetsel, Die (Haeckel), 2:1032 Weltschmerz, 4:2028 Wenceslas, Saint, 4:1858 Wenceslas Square (Prague), 4:1858, 1861 Wendel family, 1:471 Wenlock Games, 3:1667 Wentworth, Charles Watson. See Rockingham, marquis of Werefkin, Marianne von, 1:155; 3:1245 Werfel, Franz, 4:1859 Werner, Alfred, 1:426 Wernicke, Carl, 1:408 Werther (Massenet), 3:1675 Wesen des Christentums, Das (Feuerbach), 2:744, 754; 4:2133; 5:2512 Wesley, Charles, 2:1002 Wesley, John, 2:1001; 4:1895 Wesley, Richard, 5:2457 Wessele´nyi, Miklo´s, 3:1266 Wessex Poems and Other Verses (Hardy), 2:1045 West Africa British ‘‘Indirect Rule’’ in, 2:508 European interests in, 1:15–22; 3:1118 French imperialism in, 3:1115, 1116 Portuguese colonies in, 2:509 slave trade and, 1:12–14, 15 Westbrook, Harriet, 4:2169, 2170 West End (London), 1:85; 2:548, 551; 3:1373, 1375, 1378 Western Armenians. See Turkish Armenians Westernizers, 5:2459–2460 Bakunin and, 2:161–162, 1064 Belinsky and, 1:207–208; 2:1064 British in India as, 2:673 Chaadayev’s influence on, 1:400 colonizers as, 2:508, 509; 3:1115, 1120, 1124 concept of civilization and, 1:461–464

1 9 1 4

cultural differences and, 2:508 Goncharov as, 2:990 Greek university students and, 2:1018–1019 Herzen and, 2:1064, 1066 imperialism and, 3:1115, 1120, 1124 Istanbul and, 3:1186–1187 Japan and, 3:1209, 1210, 1211 liberalism linked with, 3:1342 missionaries as, 3:1527, 1528 Ottoman Empire and, 3:1420 Russia and, 1:400; 2:1064; 4:2048–2049, 2195–2196; 5:2365, 2459–2460 Slavophiles vs., 2:772, 1064, 1066; 4:2195–2196; 5:2459 Turgenev and, 5:2365, 2459, 2460 Vietnam and, 3:1144 Westinghouse electric company, 2:742 Westminster (London), 1:186; 3:1378 Westminster, cardinal-archbishop of, 3:1440–1441 Westminster, duke of, 1:85; 3:1373 Westminster Abbey Darwin buried in, 2:617 Dickens buried in, 2:657 Kelvin buried in, 3:1250 Kipling buried in, 3:1257 Livingstone buried in, 2:783 Lyell buried in, 3:1402 Westminster Review, 2:743, 744, 1102; 3:1513; 4:1746; 5:2394 Spencer and, 4:2234, 2235 Westo¨stlicher Diwan (Goethe), 2:987 Westphal, Karl, 2:1070, 1082 Westphalia. See Kingdom of Westphalia Westphalia, Peace of (1648), 2:532 West Prussia, 2:961 Wet, Christiaan Rudolf de, 1:257 wetland drainage, 2:762 wet nurses, 1:431; 4:1829 Weyrother, Franz von, 1:132 whaling, 2:766 Whampoa, Treaty of (1844), 3:1579 What I Believe (Tolstoy), 5:2319 What Is a Nation? (Renan), 1:51; 3:1522; 4:1953 What Is Art? (Tolstoy), 5:2319 What Is Property? (Proudhon), 1:56 What Is the Third Estate? (Sieye`s), 2:767, 842; 4:2180 What Is to Be Done? (Chernyshevsky), 3:1613, 1640; 4:1831, 2052 What Is to Be Done? (Lenin), 1:265; 2:522; 3:1171, 1328, 1460 What Should People Know about the Third Sex? (Hirschfeld), 2:1070

2795

INDEX

wheat. See grain Wheaton, Henry, 3:1175 Wheeler, Anna, 2:650, 803; 3:1288; 4:2201 When We Dead Awaken (Ibsen), 3:1107, 1109 Where Angels Fear to Tread (Forster), 2:835 Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (Gauguin), 1:152; 2:941 Whewell, William, 3:1477, 1654 Whigs, 1:416; 2:1004; 4:1984; 5:2321, 2367, 2385, 2412, 2457, 2460–2462 Brougham and, 1:302, 303 Corn Laws repeal and, 2:559, 1005; 4:1759 Fox and, 2:1001 liberalism and, 3:1343, 1347, 1348 newspapers and, 4:1872 parliamentary reform and, 2:1001 Pitt and, 2:101 Poor Law and, 4:1819–1820 trade policies and, 2:517 William IV and, 5:2461, 2471 See also Liberal Party Whirlpool, The (Gissing), 2:975 whiskey. See alcohol and temperance Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, 1:109, 191; 4:1874, 2294 Whitbread, Samuel, 5:2461 Whitbread brewery, 1:284 White Army (anti-Bolshevik), 3:1520; 4:1803 Whiteboys, 3:1657 Whitechapel (London), 3:1373, 1375, 1376 white-collar crime, 2:571 white-collar workers, 1:352, 355, 473; 4:1879 White Company, The (Doyle), 2:681 White Fathers (Society of Missionaries of Africa), 3:1528, 1528 Whitehall Mystery, The: Discovering the Mutilated Trunk (engraving), 2:576 Whitehead, Alfred North, 1:214 White Horse, The (Gauguin), 2:941 Whiteley, William, 3:1378 White Mountain, Battle of (1620), 1:259 Whites (Polish moderates), 4:1809 white slave trade, 4:1884 White Terror of 1815 (France), 2:565, 847 Whitman, Walt, 1:372; 4:2296, 2297 Wholesale Salvation (social reform programs), 4:2083

2796

whooping cough, 2:667 Whydah (African trading port), 1:14, 15 Why I Am a Communist (Cabet), 2:521 ‘‘Why We Paint Ourselves: A Futurist Manifesto’’ (Larionov and Zdanevich), 1:157 Wide Streets Commission (Dublin), 2:691 Widowers’ Houses (Shaw), 4:2165 widows, 1:287; 5:2452, 2455 Wiehl, Antonı´n, 4:1858 Wielopolski, Aleksandr, 4:1809 Wiener Werksta¨tte, 1:112, 153, 336; 3:1260, 1261 Wieniawski, Henri, 4:1700 Wiese, Leopold von, 4:2215 Wigram, Clive, 3:1136 Wilberforce, Samuel, 2:614, 1102; 4:1896 Wilberforce, William, 1:36; 2:510; 5:2462–2463 Wild Duck, The (Ibsen), 3:1108 Wilde, Jane, 5:2464 Wilde, Oscar, 2:951; 4:2182, 2255; 5:2464–2466, 2465 Beardsley’s illustrations and, 1:109, 192, 193 censorship and, 3:1377 cigarette smoking and, 5:2315 Decadence and, 2:632, 633 degeneration and, 2:639 fin de sie`cle and, 2:816 hashish reference by, 2:687 homosexuality of, 2:241, 633, 1070, 1084; 3:1184; 4:2258, 2297; 5:2465–2466 as Ibsen enthusiast, 3:1109 Pater and, 4:1746, 1747 Yeats and, 5:2509 Wilde, William, 5:2464 Wilhelm Braumu¨ller (publisher), 5:2449 Wilhelmina, queen of the Netherlands, 3:1619 Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship (Goethe), 2:985, 987; 4:2095 Carlyle translation, 1:370 Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre (Goethe), 2:985, 987; 4:2095 Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung (Goethe), 2:984 Wilhelmstrasse (Berlin), 1:217 Wilhelm Tell (Schiller), 4:2288 Wilhelm zu Wied, prince of Albania, 1:34 Wilkinson, James, 5:2440

will, the, 4:2103, 2104–2105 Willemfonds (Belgium), 1:202 Willette, Adolphe, 1:335 William I, emperor of Germany and king of Prussia, 1:234, 235; 3:1394, 1533; 5:2325, 2467–2468 alliance system and, 1:48 anarchist assassination attempts on, 2:966 Austro-Prussian War and, 1:147, 148 Bismarck and, 1:238–239, 240; 2:962–963, 963, 964 brother Frederick William IV and, 2:877 German unification and, 2:964; 3:1383; 4:1902 gerontocracy and, 3:1664 Krupp and, 3:1274 Menzel painting of, 3:1489 as regent, 2:962 son Frederick III and, 2:874, 966 William II, emperor of Germany and king of Prussia, 2:966–969, 1068; 5:2467, 2468–2470, 2469 accession to throne of, 1:240; 2:966 alliance system and, 1:48, 49; 2:663, 664 authoritarianism of, 2:862 Bismarck and, 5:2468, 2474 Bismarck’s dismissal by, 1:233, 240–241; 2:663, 967 on Boxer Rebellion, 1:292 British policies and, 2:1013 cabaret satire of, 1:336 Chamberlain’s (Houston) racial theories and, 1:403 conservatism of, 2:874, 967 Eulenburg affair and, 2:1071, 1084 father, Frederick III, and, 2:873, 874 Herzl and, 5:2521 Moroccan Crises and, 3:1545, 1549 musical taste of, 1:219 naval buildup and, 3:1609, 1610 popularity of, 3:1347 Prussia and, 4:1903 Rudolf (crown prince) and, 4:2045 Russia and, 3:1628 technical colleges and, 5:2382 Tirpitz and, 3:1610; 5:2312 Victoria and, 5:2415, 2468, 2471 World War I and, 1:232; 2:663, 664 World War II and, 1:232 William III, king of Great Britain, 3:1407

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

William IV, king of Great Britain, 5:2470–2471 reform and, 2:1003 Victoria as successor to, 5:2411–2412 Whigs and, 5:2461, 2471 William IX, prince of Hesse-Kassel, 4:2039 William I, king of the Netherlands, 1:173, 493; 3:1617; 4:1984, 1986 Belgian Revolution of 1830 and, 1:200; 3:1335, 1617 William II, king of the Netherlands, 3:1617 William V, prince of Orange, 3:1616, 1617 Williams, David, 5:2433 Williams, Eric, 2:708–709, 710 Williams, Tennessee, 4:2269 William Shakespeare (Hugo), 2:1094 Williamson, Alexander, 1:426 Williamson, Jeffrey, 2:514, 710; 3:1151; 5:2338–2339, 2340 Williamson, Mary, 2:770 William Tell (Rossini), 3:1661, 1671; 4:2038, 2288 William Tell (Schiller), 3:1523 Willich, Henriette von, 4:2097 Willis, Le (Puccini), 4:1915 Wills, William, 2:782 Will Therapy (Rank), 4:1939 Wilmersdorf (Berlin suburb), 1:218 Wilson, Daniel, 1:282 Wilson, E. O., 2:1031 Wilson, Edmund, 3:1257 Wilson, James, 1:160; 2:558 Wilson, Woodrow, 3:1144 Wiltshire, 3:1410 ‘‘Winckelmann’’ (Pater), 4:1746 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 1:347; 4:1746, 1769 Wind among the Reeds, The (Yeats), 5:2509 Windischgra¨tz, Alfred zu, 1:142; 2:808, 961; 4:1860; 5:2419 Windscheid, Bernhard, 3:1315 Windsor, house of, 4:2118 Windsor—Royal Lodge, 3:1602 Windthorst, Ludwig, 1:238; 5:2471–2475 Center Party leadership by, 1:388, 393; 2:966 Kulturkampf opposition by, 3:1279 wine, 5:2475–2478 Algeria and, 1:47 Catalonia and, 1:180, 182 coca mixed with, 2:687–688 distilled spirits vs.1.34 as drinking water alternative, 2:658

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

France and, 1:34, 35; 2:762; 4:1777 industrialization and, 2:549 pasteurization of, 4:1743 phylloxera and, 4:1776–1778 Winnower, The (Millet), 3:1515; 4:1757 Winnowers, The (Courbet), 1:25 Winter, Ernst, 2:576 Winter Games (Olympics), 3:1668 Winter Palace (St. Petersburg), 4:2075, 2077, 2078, 2079 Wir (literary group), 2:1067 Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company, 3:1444; 4:1780 Wisconsin Woman Suffrage Association, 1:67 ‘‘Wish House, The’’ (Kipling), 3:1257 Wissenschaftslehre (Fichte system), 2:813, 814 ‘‘Witch of Atlas, The’’ (Shelley), 4:2170 With the Flow (Huysmans), 2:1104 Witkowitz (Moravia-Silesia), 1:260 Witte, Sergei, 1:40–41; 3:1627, 1628; 4:1837, 1978, 2054, 2055, 2056, 2173, 2257; 5:2478–2479 Russo-Japanese War and, 4:2065; 5:2479 Wittelsbach dynasty, 3:1382–1383 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 2:873; 3:1253; 4:2104; 5:2449 Wittgenstein, Paul, 4:1945 Witt-Schlumberger, Marguerite de, 4:2279 Witty, Calvin, 2:600 Witwatersrand gold mines, 1:256–257 Wives and Daughters (Gaskell), 2:934 Woe from Wit (Griboyedov), 1:208 Wo¨hler, Friedrich, 2:687; 3:1160; 4:2109 Wolf, Eric, 4:1756 Wolf, Hugo, 3:1418, 1571 Wolf, Julius, 3:1538 Wolfenden Committee (Britain), 2:746 Wolfers, Philippe, 1:109 Wolff, Christian, 4:1907 Wolff, Kurt, 3:1243 Wo¨lfflin, Heinrich, 1:320 Wolffsohn, David, 5:2521 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 1:244; 4:1962; 5:2479–2481, 2480 daughter, Mary Shelley, and, 4:2168; 5:2480 feminism and, 2:802, 945, 995, 1000; 5:2481 Godwin’s memoir for, 2:981 Wolstoneholme, Elizabeth, 1:331–332

1 9 1 4

Wolzogen, Ernst Ludwig von, 1:335–336; 4:2102 Woman Combing Her Hair (Degas), 1:252 Woman Drinking Absinthe (Picasso), 1:3 Woman of No Importance, A (Wilde), 5:2465 Woman: Past, Present, and Future (Bebel), 1:194–195 Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, 1:37 woman suffrage. See women’s suffrage Woman’s Work and Womans Culture (Butler), 1:332 Woman’s World (magazine), 5:2464 Woman with the Hat (Matisse), 1:153 women as absinthe drinkers, 1:3 Anti-Corn Law League and, 2:558 aristocratic prerogatives of, 1:469 art nouveau and, 1:108 automobiles compared with, 1:149 bathing costumes of, 4:2124 in Belgian workforce, 1:201 Berlin salons and, 1:215 birth control and, 2:947; 4:1827, 1829, 2041, 2042, 2161–2162, 2163 body and, 1:251, 253, 255 Bosnian Muslim, 1:274, 276 bourgeois roles of, 1:287, 288–290, 445, 472; 2:549 Boxer Rebellion and, 1:292 British improvement societies and, 2:769 British Industrial Revolution and, 1:352, 371 Catholicism and, 1:379, 383, 384, 385, 387 child abandonment by, 5:2454–2455 civilizing missions of, 1:463 civil society and, 1:466, 467 clothing and, 1:481–484; 2:548, 943 as coal miners, 1:488 as consumers, 2:549 convicts in Brixton prison, 2:573 couture fashion and, 1:481–483 crime and, 2:573, 574 cycling and, 2:601 Decadent representations of, 2:632 as Degas subjects, 2:634 as domestic servants, 3:1374 in Dublin workforce, 2:691 education of, 1:286–287; 2:625, 626, 721, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 801, 929; 4:1891

2797

INDEX

emigration reasons for, 3:1114 eugenics societies and, 2:770, 771 exclusion from associations of, 1:116 exclusion from citizenship of, 1:458, 458–459 as explorers, 2:783 as factory workers, 1:350, 351, 352, 371, 401, 475; 2:789, 792, 945; 3:1148 as femme fatale, 4:2292–2293 fertility decline and, 2:645–646 food riots and, 5:2488 Freemasonry and, 2:881, 882, 882 French family law and, 3:1595; 4:1761 French Radicals and, 4:1929 French Revolution and, 2:888, 897 Gauguin paintings of, 2:939–940, 941 German political protest and, 2:959 Hardy’s portrayals of, 2:1046 idealization of, 1:287 impressionist painting and, 3:1128, 1131–1132, 1543–1545 Islamic customs and, 1:396–397 Jewish role of, 3:1230 Jewish schools for, 3:1229 labor movements and, 3:1288, 1292–1294, 1293 labor protectionist laws for, 1:285, 288; 2:944; 3:1276, 1556 as lawyers, 2:726 leisure activities of, 3:1325 lesbianism and, 2:1082–1088; 4:21636 libraries for, 3:1352 literacy and, 2:723, 724; 3:1363; 4:2119, 2148 literacy rates (by country, 1800–1914), 3:1363 London occupations of, 3:1374 as Lueger supporters, 3:1395 markets and, 3:1447–1448 maternity hospitals for, 5:2450 as mediums, 4:2237, 2238 as missionaries, 3:1528 as monarchs, 1:367 musical performance and, 3:1568 as nurses, 2:945; 3:1637–1638, 1648–1650; 4:1881 old-age pensions and, 3:1664, 1665 peace movements and, 2:1034; 4:1696, 1698 piano playing by, 1:439 pornography and, 4:1834 poster images of, 4:1846

2798

Pre-Raphaelites and, 4:1864, 1865, 1865 professional barriers for, 4:1881 as professionals, 2:728 propriety and, 3:1438–1439 prostitution and, 4:1882–1886, 2301 Protestantism and, 4:1891 psychology of, 4:1909 Red Cross service and, 3:1650 reform societies and, 1:119 reproductive rights and, 4:2041–2042 republicanism and, 4:1961–1962 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1991–1992, 1995 Romanticism and, 4:2029 Saint-Simonian view of, 4:2081 in science, 2:594–596 in Second Industrial Revolution workforce, 1:352 sewing and, 4:2158, 2159 sewing machine and, 4:2158–2160 sexuality and, 4:2161, 2164 sports and, 4:2241, 2245–2246 strikes and, 4:2266; 5:2488 as subjects of sexualized anticlerical writing, 1:70 supposed superior sensibility of, 2:945–946 as teachers, 2:721, 723, 724, 727–728, 945; 3:1680 as telephone operators, 5:2308 temperance movements and, 1:36, 37 as textile workers, 2:647 tobacco use by, 5:2314, 2315, 2315 tourism and, 5:2326–2331 universities and, 2:728, 945, 1016; 3:1377, 1399; 5:2385, 2387, 2388, 2390 utopian socialism and, 1:338; 4:1831 Vietnam and, 3:1138 voluntary associations and, 1:120 Weininger on, 5:2449 welfare initiatives and, 5:2450, 2451, 2454 as white-collar workers, 1:473 in workforce, 2:697, 943, 944–945, 947; 3:1470, 1471 in working class, 5:2487–2488, 2488 working class rights movement and, 1:459 writing as acceptable occupation for, 1:130

See also feminism; gender; women’s suffrage Women Carrying Jeanne Deroin in Triumph (illustration), 2:651 Women in the Garden (Monet), 1:482 Women of Algiers in Their Apartment (Delacroix), 2:640 Women’s March on Versailles (1789), 4:1728 women’s movement. See feminism women’s rights. See feminism Women’s Rights (France), 4:2279 Women’s Rights Convention (Seneca Falls, N.Y., 1848), 2:804 Women’s Social and Political Union (Britain), 2:798, 805, 1044; 4:1714, 2280 Women’s Solidarity, 4:1761–1762 women’s suffrage, 1:67, 290; 2:805–806, 947; 4:2276, 2278–2281, 2278, 2280 Australia and, 1:136 Britain and, 1:115, 332; 2:625, 626, 797–799, 805–806, 806, 947, 1008, 1044 British militant tactics for, 1:115; 2:805–806, 1012; 4:1714, 1715, 1761 Finland and, 2:823, 947 France and, 1:127–128; 2:650–651, 697; 4:1761, 1929, 1998, 2279 French women’s long-time denial of, 2:650 Germany and, 1:129, 189; 2:675 Greek denial of, 2:1021 Italy and, 3:1277, 1555–1556 labor movements and, 3:1292 Mill (Harriet Taylor) on, 3:1509 Mill (John Stuart) advocacy of, 2:1008 Netherlands and, 3:1616, 1619, 1620 New Zealand as first to grant, 3:1623 politique de l’assaut strategy for, 4:1998 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1992 socialist support for, 3:1293 Suttner and, 4:2282 United States and, 1:67 Wales and, 5:2436 Wollstonecraft on, 5:2480, 2481 Wonderful Adventures of Nils, The (Lagerlo¨f), 4:2287 Wonderful Visit, The (Wells), 5:2458 Wondrous Tale of Alroy, The (Disraeli), 2:672 wood. See timber

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1 9 1 4

INDEX

Wood, Roger, 3:1486 Woodcraft Indians (youth group), 1:159 woodcut prints, 1:246; 3:1489; 4:1823 Munch and, 3:159, 1558 Japan and, 1:109, 111, 192 Wood Demon, The (Chekhov), 1:423 Woodlanders, The (Hardy), 2:1045 Woodside, Alexander, 3:1137 Woodville, R. Caton, 4:1739 wool Australia and, 1:134, 135; 2:505 Belgian manufacture of, 1:201, 492–493; 2:791 British factories and, 2:791; 3:1149 French machine breaking and, 3:1411 machine breaking and, 4:2264 New Zealand export of, 3:1623 Woolf, Leonard, 4:2258; 5:2445 Woolf, Virginia, 1:299; 2:835, 989; 4:1905, 2253, 2258, 2259; 5:2445, 2459 Woolfall, David Burley, 2:834 Woolner, Thomas, 4:1863, 1864 Woolwich. See Royal Military Academy Wordsworth, Dorothy, 4:2029; 5:2481, 2482 Wordsworth, William, 1:102, 428; 2:1078; 3:1512; 5:2327, 2481–2483 as Coleridge influence, 1:496, 497 on Ladies of Llangollen, 2:1084 on Malthus’s heartlessness, 3:1426 Mill (John Stuart) and, 3:1513 Romanticism and, 2:543; 4:2027, 2029–2031; 5:2481–2482 workday/workweek, 1:285, 288, 401; 2:793 leisure and, 4:1824 Owen reforms and, 3:1692 Ten Hour Bill and, 1:417; 4:1824 workers. See labor; labor movement; working class Workers’ Accident Insurance Institute (Prague), 3:1242 Workers and Employers Luxembourg Commission, 1:247 workers’ associations Christian Socialism and, 4:2208–2209 Revolutions of 1848 and, 4:1987, 1991 Roland and, 4:2013 Workers’ Brotherhood (Germany), 3:1287 Workers in the Dawn (Gissing), 2:974–975

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

Workers Leaving the Lumie`re Factory (film), 1:441; 4:1824 Workers’ Opposition (Russia), 1:62 Workers’ Question and Christianity, The (Ketteler), 4:2208–2209 Workers’ Union (Tristan), 5:2358, 2397 workhouses, 1:351, 359, 415; 4:1848; 5:2450, 2454 Chadwick test and, 1:401 disease and, 3:1649 as Malthus proposal, 2:715 New Poor Law and, 4:1820, 1848 working class, 1:473–475; 5:2483–2493, 2486 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:5 Amsterdam socialists and, 1:55 anarchism and, 1:56, 58, 59 anti-Corn Laws movement and, 2:558, 559, 560 art nouveau housing for, 1:109 Bakunin’s vs. Marx’s tactics and, 1:162 Barcelona conditions and, 1:181, 183 baths and spas and, 5:2327, 2328 in Belgium, 1:201–202, 203 as Berlin subculture, 1:219, 220 Bohemian Lands impoverishment of, 1:261 British capitalism and, 2:1006–1007 British education reformists and, 1:303 British Labour Party and, 3:1297 British Methodists as, 2:1002 British suffrage expansion and, 2:1008, 1009 British unrest and, 2:1010, 1011 in Brussels, 1:305, 307 in Budapest, 1:310 Cabet and, 1:337–338 capitalism and, 1:352, 356; 2:716 Catholicism and, 1:382, 383, 387, 389, 394 Center Party (Germany) and, 1:394 Chartism and, 1:416–417, 418; 2:559, 1003; 3:1286, 1390, 1657–1658 child labor advocacy and, 2:708 children and, 1:431 cholera conspiracy theories and, 2:669 Christian Socialism and, 4:2208; 5:2488 city life and, 1:447–449, 450, 452, 453, 455 Combination Acts and, 2:510–511

1 9 1 4

communism and, 2:521, 522 components of, 1:473–475 consumerism and, 2:549–550, 555 cooperatives and, 1:247; 2:555–557 criminality and, 2:572 Crystal Palace at Sydenham and, 2:589 death rates of, 2:628 diet of, 2:658–659 disease and, 2:668, 670 diversity and change in, 5:2491–2492 Dublin and, 2:691 education and, 1:431; 2:723–726 factory paternalism and, 1:446; 2:793 factory towns and, 1:446 First Industrial Revolutions effects on, 1:350–351 First International and, 3:1289 French feminism and, 2:650–651 French Radicals and, 4:1929, 1930 French sans-culottes as, 1:111; 2:844, 887, 890, 893 furniture and, 2:912–913 gender ideology and, 2:943, 944; 3:1741; 5:2483–2484 in Hamburg, 2:1041 housing and, 2:1087–1089, 1090–1092 Leftists and Rightists, 5:2488–2489 leisure and, 1:288; 3:1323, 1324, 1325, 1326; 4:1824 Lenin and, 3:1327, 1328, 1329, 1401 Leo XIII’s concern for, 3:1331–1332; 4:1720 libraries and, 3:1352 in London, 3:1374, 1374 lower-middle-class alliance with, 1:472–473 Luddism and, 3:1391–1392 machine breaking and, 3:1410–1412 in Manchester, 3:1428, 1430 marriage and family and, 3:1455–1456 Marxism and, 3:1382, 1464 Mazzini and, 3:1481 Menshevik view of, 3:1488 Milan and, 3:1504 in Moscow, 3:1553–1554 museum visits by, 3:1563 naturalist portrayal of, 4:1947 newspapers and, 4:1866, 1867, 1868, 1870–1871, 1872

2799

INDEX

new womanhood and, 2:947 Owen reforms and, 3:1692 in Paris, 4:1727–1728, 1732–1733, 1733, 1734 Paris Commune and, 4:1736 parliamentarian demands of, 2:567 pensions and, 3:1664–1665 in Poland, 4:1811, 1812 police and, 4:1814, 1815, 1817 prostitution and, 4:1883, 1884, 1885, 1886 realist portrayal of, 4:1946–1947 rights movements and, 1:459 seaside resorts and, 4:2125, 2126 Second Industrial Revolution and, 1:352 Second International and, 3:1294 separate spheres ideology and, 2:943 sexuality and, 4:2161–2162 shopkeeping and, 1:472–473 Smiles’s view of, 4:2199–2200 sociability and, 3:1439–1440 socialism and, 1:474; 3:1294 solidarity and, 5:2484–2486 state-sponsored social insurance and, 1:356, 459 strikes and, 4:1930, 2266; 5:2484, 2485, 2488 in Switzerland, 4:2290–2291 syndicalism and, 1:56, 59, 61, 62 temperance movements and, 1:36 tobacco use by, 5:2314 tourism and, 5:2328, 2329 travel and, 4:1824 typhus epidemic and, 2:670 university students and, 5:2387 urban housing of, 2:1087; 4:1912 vaccination opposition and, 4:2198 in Vietnam, 3:1143 welfare initiatives for, 5:2451–2454, 2456 women in workforce from, 5:2487–2488, 2488, 2491 See also labor movements Working-Class International (France), 3:1292 Working Men’s Association, 4:2277 Works (Fichte), 2:814 workshops, factories vs., 2:788–789, 790 Works of Love (Kierkegaard), 3:1251, 1252 World as Will and Representation, The (Schopenhauer), 4:2029, 2103, 2104 World Court, 4:1697

2800

World League for Sexual Reform, 2:1071 World of Art, The (St. Petersburg journal), 2:654; 4:1957, 1958 World of Art group, 4:2181 World Prohibition Federation, 1:37 World’s Columbian Exposition (Chicago, 1893), 2:589; 4:2009; 5:2503 World Set Free, The (Wells), 5:2459 world’s fairs, 2:589; 5:2493–2506 art nouveau exhibitions, 1:108, 111, 113 Barcelona (1888), 1:182–183 Budapest (1896), 1:310, 311 colonial exhibits and, 2:815 electricity and, 2:742, 815 food pavilions in, 4:1967 impact of, 5:2504–2506 imperialism and, 4:1875 Krupp steel displays at, 3:1274 London, 5:2496, 2496, 2498 See also Great Exhibition of 1851 Milan and, 3:1502 Paris and. See Exposition Universelle primitive artifacts and, 4:1875 World’s Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, 1:37 World War I absinthe ban and, 1:4, 37 Action Franc¸aise and, 1:5 Adler (Victor) and, 1:11 African colonialism and, 1:22 aircraft and, 1:31 alcohol production and, 1:37 alliance system as factor in, 1:47–50, 146, 232; 2:527, 968–969 anarchosyndicalism and, 1:62 armies and, 1:93, 101 assassination of Francis Ferdinand and, 1:207, 242–243, 277; 2:663–664, 862, 865, 961; 3:1628; 4:2149 Australian troops and, 1:136 Austria-Hungary and, 1:146; 2:862, 863, 865, 968–969; 3:1203 automobile and, 1:151; 5:2352 Balkan Wars as prelude to, 1:163, 166; 2:663, 704–705 Belgian neutrality and, 1:199, 205 Bergson and, 1:214–215 Bernstein and, 1:231 Bethmann Hollweg’s view of, 1:232; 2:969 Bosphorus and, 1:278 Britain and, 2:1013

Bulgaria and, 1:313 Caillaux’s arrest and, 1:339 Canada and, 1:346–347 casualties of, 1:101 Chamberlain (Houston) propaganda and, 1:404 Charcot’s hysteria theories and, 1:410 China and, 1:435 Clemenceau and, 1:480 colonial troops and, 1:501 Concert of Europe’s obsolescence and, 2:527, 565 cubism and, 2:593 curbs on liberal ideals and, 3:1349–1350 Curie (Marie and Ire`ne) medical work in, 2:596 Curzon and, 2:598 Czech independence and, 1:263–264 D’Annunzio and, 2:609–610 declaration of, 2:664 degeneracy labels and, 2:639 Delcasse´ and, 2:643 Diaghilev and, 2:655 diplomatic breakdown and, 2:664 Dreadnaught and, 2:683 dueling cultures effect of, 2:696 Eastern Question and, 2:704–705 Egypt and, 2:734 Eurasianism and, 2:775 events leading to, 1:240, 278; 2:663–664, 861–862, 968–969; 3:1546 fin de sie`cle as era prior to, 2:817 Forster and, 2:836 Francis Joseph and, 2:862, 863, 865 French approach to, 2:859 French feminism and, 2:697 Freud and, 2:908 Geneva Convention and, 2:953 German ‘‘encirclement’’ fears and, 1:48, 49; 2:526, 527; 3:1545–1546, 1549 German Mitteleuropa aims and, 2:960 German naval weakness and, 3:1611 German political rhetoric and, 2:968–969 German weapons and, 1:99 German women’s movement and, 1:189 Guesde and, 2:1026 Hague Conventions and, 2:1035 historical views of, 2:1033 Hoffmannsthal and, 2:1076, 1077

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

India and, 1:501 Ireland and, 3:1185 Italian politics and, 2:921, 972 Italy and, 2:609–610; 3:1202–1203, 1277 Japan and, 1:434 Jaure`s and, 3:1214, 1218 Kadets and, 3:1242, 1519 Kandinsky and, 3:1245 Kipling and, 3:1257 Kitchener and, 3:1258 Kropotkin and, 3:1273 Kuliscioff and, 3:1277 Lasker-Schu¨ler and, 3:1309 Lenin and, 3:1329 List and, 3:1357 Lloyd George and, 3:1370 Mann and, 3:1435 masculine response to, 3:1473 mass deaths and, 2:628, 629 military tactics and, 1:100–101 military technology and, 3:1507, 1508 Milyukov and, 3:1519 modernism and, 3:1531 monarchs toppled by, 2:568 Montenegro and, 3:1541 nationalist rhetorics and, 3:1606 New Zealand troops in, 3:1624 nurses and, 3:1650 Ottoman Empire and, 1:92, 166 pacifists and, 3:146, 1425; 4:16981 patriotism and, 4:1826 Pe´guys death in, 4:1761 photography and, 4:1773–1774 Planck and, 4:1799 Plekhanov and, 4:1801 pogroms and, 4:1803 Poincare´ (Raymond) and, 4:1805, 1806 Poland and, 2:753; 4:1819 Portugal and, 4:1842–1843 Prague and, 4:1861 protectionist propaganda and, 2:515 psychoanalysis and, 4:1906 Red Cross and, 3:1650 Romania and, 4:2017 Rothschilds and, 4:2041 Russia and, 3:1519, 1628; 4:2079 Russian-French alliance and, 1:41 Russian royal family and, 1:42 Russian withdrawal from, 2:522 Schiele and, 4:2090–2091 Schlieffen Plan and, 3:1508; 4:2099

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

seaside resorts and, 4:2126 Second International and, 4:2128 Shaw’s opposition to, 4:2167 shell-shock cases and, 1:410; 3:1507; 4:1906 socialist revolutionaries and, 4:2211 Spain and, 4:2232 submarine warfare and, 3:1611 Suez Canal and, 4:2276 Switzerland and, 4:2291 syndicalism and, 4:2299 Tirpitz and, 5:2312–2313 Triple Alliance and, 3:1202–1203 Tunisia and, 5:2363 Turkestan and, 1:397 Vietnamese troops in, 3:1144 wine industry and, 5:2478 women’s suffrage activists and, 2:798, 806–807 women’s suffrage and, 4:1714 working class and, 5:2492 Zasulich and, 5:2518 World War II, 2:817 airplanes and, 1:31 Einstein and, 2:740 Geneva Conventions and, 2:953 Mann and, 3:1435, 1436 Maurras and, 3:1477 Planck and, 4:1800 Rothschilds and, 4:2041 Russia and, 4:2079 World Zionist Organization, 2:685 Worringer, Wilhellm, 1:155 Worshipful Society of Apothecaries (London), 3:1376 Worship of Bacchus, The (Cruikshank), 2:587 Worth, Charles Frederick, 1:481–483 Wounded Cuirassier (Ge´ricault), 2:955 Wounds of Armenia (Abovian), 1:88 wound treatment, 3:1358 Wozzeck (Berg), 3:1676 Wrangel, Ferdinand, 2:819 Wrangel, Friedrich von, 2:961 Wrangel, Peter, 4:2271 Wren, Christopher, 2:757 Wright, Frances (Fanny), 3:1288, 1300 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 1:192; 5:2422 Wright brothers (Orville and Wilbur), 1:29, 30, 31; 3:1163; 4:2114–2115 writing. See literacy; literature Writings on the Poor Laws (Bentham), 4:1847–1848

1 9 1 4

Wrongs of Women, The (Wollstonecraft), 5:2480 WSPU. See Women’s Social and Political Union Wuchale, Treaty of (1889). See Ucciali, Treaty of Wulz, Giuseppe, 5:2355 Wundt, Wilhelm, 2:1099; 3:1238; 4:1908, 1909; 5:2506–2508 on Schopenhauer, 4:2104 Wupper, Die (Lasker-Schu ¨ ler), 3:1309 Wu ¨ rttemberg, 1:236, 369 List as U.S. consul in, 3:1357 Napoleon and, 2:901, 957 Prussia and, 2:867, 964; 4:1901 written constitution of, 1:457; 2:959 Wuthering Heights (E. Bronte¨), 1:301, 302 Wyndham Act of 1903 (Britain), 2:1011; 3:1181

n

X Xanthos, Emmanuel, 2:1019 X Club, 4:2233 xenophobia, 1:433, 440; 2:685, 859 Xhosa, 4:2219, 2221 Xiamen, 3:1679 Xieng Khouang, 3:1142 x-rays, 2:594, 596; 3:1398; 4:1804, 2012, 2070

n

Y Yaik Cossacks, 2:562 Yalu, Battle of the (1904), 4:2065, 2171 yangwu yundong movement, 1:435 Yanina, Albania and, 1:32 Yearbook for Psychoanalytic and Psychopathological Investigations, 2:906 Yearbook for Sexual Intermediate Types (Hirschfeld, ed.), 2:1071, 1086 Yeats, William Butler, 1:246; 3:1183; 4:1742, 1746; 5:2310, 2509–2510 Yekaterinburg (Russia), 1:42 Yellow Book, The (avant-garde periodical), 1:192; 2:633 yellow journalism, 4:1872 ‘‘Yellow Peril,’’ 4:2172 Yellow Sound (Kandinsky), 3:1245

2801

INDEX

Yellow Submarine, The (Max graphics), 1:192 Yeni Camii (Istanbul), 3:1189 Yesenin, Sergei, 4:2183 Yevgeny Onegin (Pushkin), 1:208 Yiddish language, 1:314, 447; 3:1113, 1366, 1368, 1526 Ymagier, L’ (art journal), 3:1213 Yokohama, 3:1209, 1210 Yorck von Wartenburg, Paul, 2:660 York, 4:1853 Yorkshire, 1:445 Luddite rebellion in, 3:1392, 1410 wool industry in, 3:1149 worker housing in, 2:1089 Yorkshire Miners’ Associations, 3:1288 Yoruba, 1:15 Youmans, Edward L., 4:2233 Young, Arthur, 1:358 Young, Brigham, 1:338 Young, Robert, 2:617 Young, Thomas, 1:407 Young America, 5:2514 Young Czechs and Old Czechs, 4:1469, 1712, 1859, 1860; 5:2510–2511 Young England, 2:672 Young Estonia, 2:822 Young Europe, 3:1195, 1480; 4:2016, 2131 Young Finnish Party, 2:822 Young Germany, 2:754 Young Girl at Her Toilet (Corot), 4:1707 Young Girls at the Piano (Renoir), 4:1955–1956 Young Hegelians, 2:754; 3:1463, 1464; 4:2203; 5:2511–2513 Younghusband, Francis Edward, 2:597 Young Ireland, 3:1656; 5:2514 Young Italy, 1:361, 414; 5:2513–2514 Garibaldi and, 2:930 Mazzini and, 3:1194–1195, 1480; 4:1989, 2001–2002, 2131; 5:2513–2514 Young Ladies of the Village (Courbet), 2:568 Young Medardus (Schnitzler), 4:2100 Young Russia, 4:2052 Young Spartans Exercising (Degas), 2:634 Young To¨rless (Musil), 3:1574 Young Turks, 3:1682, 1689; 5:2514–2516 Abdul-Hamid II and, 1:1; 3:1690, 1691 Albania and, 1:32

2802

Armenian Question and, 1:92 Austria-Hungary and, 1:146 Balkans and, 2:704–705 Balkan Wars and, 1:163, 164 Bulgaria and, 1:313 Germany and, 1:278 Istanbul and, 3:1190 jadidism and, 3:1207 Jaure`s’s support for, 3:1217 revolution of 1908 and, 3:1691 Youth (Tolstoy), 5:2318 youth gangs, 2:575 Ypsilantis, Alexander, 2:1019; 4:1981–1982 Ysaye, Euge`ne-Auguste, 1:307 Yuan Ming Yuan (Beijing palace), 3:1680 Yugoslavia, 1:207; 2:610, 972 See also Serbia YWCA (Young Women’s Christian Association), 1:36

n

Z Zabaldone di pensieri (Leopardi), 3:1333 Zabern, 2:968 zadrugas, 4:2141, 2147 Zagreb, 2:924, 925; 3:1220 Zaionchkovsky, Peter A., 2:1014 Zaitsev, Varfolomei, 3:1639, 1640 Zambezi River, 2:783 Zamore et Mirza (Gouges), 2:994 Zamoskvoreche (Moscow neighborhood), 3:1553 Zamoyski, Andrzej, 4:1809 Zanardelli, Giuseppe, 2:971; 3:1201; 5:2363–2364 Zanzibar, 1:16, 17; 2:783; 4:2191 slave trade ban and, 1:308, 309 Zapiski iz myortogo doma (Dostoyevsky), 2:678 Zapiski iz podpolya (Dostoyevsky), 2:678 Zaporozhet, P. K., 1:266 Zaporozhian Cossacks, 5:2370 Zappas Games (Athens), 3:1666 Zaragoza, siege of, 4:1764 Zaragoza Medical Faculty, 1:341 Zarathustra (Nietzsche concept), 3:1629, 1632, 1633–1634 zarzuela, 3:1414 Zastoupil, Lynn, 3:1514 Zasulich, Vera, 1:264, 265; 4:1767–1768, 1832; 5:2517–2518

Zauberflo¨te, Die (Mozart), 3:1673, 1674; 4:2092; 5:2417 Zdanevich, Ilya, 1:157 Zealand, 2:647 Zeit Constantins des Grossen, Die (Burckhardt), 1:317 Zeitschrift fu ¨ r physikalische Chemie (journal), 1:426 Zelanti, 2:539 Zelmira (Rossini), 4:2038 Zemlinsky, Alexander von, 4:2101 Zemlinsky, Mathilde von, 4:2102 Zemlya Volya. See Land and Liberty Zemo of Citium, 1:55 Zemp, Joseph, 4:2291 Zemstvo Octobrists, 3:1660 zemstvos, 1:39; 2:1014, 1016, 1017; 3:1518; 4:1975, 2051, 2270 Octobrists and, 3:1658–1659 radical statisticians and, 4:1832 Zemtsov, Mikhail, 4:2076 Zeno’s Conscience (Svevo), 5:2356 Zentrum. See Center Party Zeppelins, 3:1163 Zetkin, Clara, 2:805, 946; 3:1293 Zhelyabov, Andrei, 4:1832 Zhukovsky, Vasily, 1:249; 2:979 Zigeuner, Die (Grellmann), 4:2022 Zigeunerbaron, Der (Strauss), 4:2261 Zigeuner-Buch (Dillmann), 4:2023 Zille, Heinrich, 1:219 Zimmerman, A. A., 2:601 Zionism, 3:1233, 1366; 5:2518–2522 anti-Semitism and, 1:76, 77 Austrian origin of, 3:1526 Bund’s aims contrasted with, 1:313, 314 Dreyfus affair as impetus for, 2:685 Herzl and, 1:76, 77; 2:1066, 1067, 1068–1069; 5:2518, 2520–2521 Jewish emancipation and, 3:1227 Nordau and, 2:638 Zipernowsky, Ka´roly, 2:741 Zipes, Jack, 2:1023 ziqiang yungdong movement, 1:435 Zoetrope, 1:441 Zoist, The (journal), 3:1491 Zola, E´mile, 2:830; 4:1730; 5:2522–2524, 2523, 2524 Ce´zanne friendship with, 1:397, 398, 399 Crystal Palace and, 2:590 Degas friendship with, 2:634 degeneration and, 2:638, 650, 816 on department stores, 1:289; 2:548 Dreyfus defense by, 1:480; 2:684, 685, 685, 858; 3:1168, 1216; 5:2523–2524

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

1 9 1 4

INDEX

Flaubert and, 2:827; 5:2523 Gissing compared with, 2:975 Goncourt brothers as influence on, 2:991 Huysmans and, 2:1104 on impressionist painting, 3:1132 as intellectual, 3:1167 on leisure activities, 3:1323, 1325 as Manet defender, 3:1433; 4:1708 naturalism and, 4:2292; 5:2522–2524 obscenity battle and, 4:1833 Pissarro and, 4:1793 publisher of works of, 4:1955 realism and, 2:991 as Sand critic, 4:2084 sexual anticlericalism and, 1:70 Suez Canal opening and, 4:2274 Turgenev and, 5:2365, 2523 Zo ¨ llner, Carl Friedrich, 4:2238 Zollverein, 1:171, 487; 2:505, 512; 5:2524–2526 conservatives and, 2:540

E U R O P E

1 7 8 9

TO

founding of, 2:960; 3:1538 Hamburg and, 2:1040 liberals and, 3:1346 List’s approval of, 3:1357 Prussian diplomacy for, 4:1901 Zoloto v lazuri (Bely), 1:209 Zongli Yamen (Chinese ministry), 1:435 zoology Agassiz comparative, 1:22–23 Cuvier taxonomy, 2:598–599; 3:1563 degeneration and, 2:238 Haeckel and, 2:1031–1032 Huxley and, 2:1101–1102 Lamarck and, 3:1301, 1302–1303 natural selection and, 2:617 Zoonomia (E. Darwin), 2:777 Zorn, Anders Leonard, 4:1948 Zoroaster, 3:1634 Zorrilla, Jose´, 2:951 Zouaves, 4:1726 Zuber, Terence, 4:2099 Zulian, Girolamo, 1:347

1 9 1 4

Zulu kingdom, 1:17, 18, 99; 4:2219, 2220, 2223 Britain and, 2:1009; 3:1118 military tactics and, 1:99 Zumalaca´rregui y de Imaz, Toma´s de, 4:2229 Zum ewigen Frieden (Kant), 2:953 Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland (Heine), 2:1056 Zurich Brentano in, 1:298–299 Burckhardt in, 1:317 female teachers in, 2:724 Jung in, 3:1238–1240 psychoanalysis and, 4:1905 women medical students in, 2:728 Zurich Psychoanalytic Association, 3:1240 Zwanzigste Jahrhundert, Das (journal), 3:1435 Zweig, Stefan, 3:1629 Zwo¨lfja¨hrige Jesus im Tempel, Der (Liebermann), 3:1353

2803